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THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES

Patron — His Excellency Rear-Admiral Peter Sinclair, AO, Governor of
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ISSN 0035-9173

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Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.125, pp.1-1l1l, 1992

ISSN 0035-9173/92/010001-11

$4,00/1

Some Mesozoic Igneous Rocks from Northeastern

w South Wales
and their Tectonic Setting Oey iis eee

E.A.K.MIDDLEMOST, J.A. DULHUNTY AND R.W. BECK

ABSTRACT. K-Ar ages, mineralogy and petrology of a group of volcanic and subvolcanic rocks from
northeastern New South Wales is reported. They range in age from Late Permian (250 +10 million
years, or Ma) to Early Cretaceous (108 +4 Ma) and comprise a basanite, a variety of basalts and two
nepheline normative microsyenites. To develop a model that can account for their origin and
evolution, the Permian and Mesozoic magmatic history of eastern Australia is evaluated. From the
Early Permian to the end of the Early Cretaceous the magmatic history of New South Wales was
frequently interlinked with the evolution of the linear tectonic feature that become the Sydney-
Gunnedah- Bowen Basin System. During the Late Cretaceous the magmatic and tectonic history of
New South Wales was dominated by the processes of rifting and drifting that led to sea-floor
spreading in the Tasman Basin.

For most of the Early Permian a magmatic focus was located beneath the proto- Sydney- Gunnedah-
Bowen Basin System. It produced an extensive belt of volcanoes that extruded a diverse range of
products. The next major magmatic epoch was active during the Late Permian and Early Triassic. It
produced extensive silicic magmatism in New England and northwards into Queensland. In the
Sydney and Gunnedah basins high-K basanitic, basaltic, trachybasaltic, shoshonitic and latitic
materials erupted. Throughout the Mid to Late Triassic large volumes of andesitic, dacitic and rhyolitic
rocks were extruded in southeastern Queensland. During the Early to Mid Jurassic more alkaline
magma was introduced into the Sydney- Gunnedah- Bowen Basin System and elsewhere in eastern
Australia. This magmatic epoch includes the eruption of the Garrawilla Volcanics in the Gunnedah
Basin, and a variety of alkaline diatremes and intrusives in the central and northwestern parts of the
Sydney Basin. Throughout the Jurassic and Cretaceous small volumes of basanitic/basaltic magma
erupted in the Sydney Basin. In the Early Cretaceous there was renewed calc-alkali activity along a
volcanic chain that extended from Bowen via Rockhampton and then on to the Lord Howe Rise. At
the beginning of the Late Cretaceous the rifting and separation of the Lord Howe Rise / New Zealand
plate from eastern Australia shifted the major magmatic focus to beneath the zone of active spreading.
Rifting triggered the eruption of the alkaline volcanic and plutonic rocks in the Mt Dromedary cluster
of ring complexes and led to changes in the pattern of sublithospheric convection. These processes
gave rise to the Eastern Highlands which became a new locus for widespread intraplate volcanism.

INTRODUCTION

In an earlier paper the authors (Dulhunty et al., 1987)
examined and discussed the age, geochemistry and petrology of
twelve Mesozoic igneous rocks from northeastern New South
Wales. The present paper augments this earlier study and uses
these data to evaluate Mesozoic magmatism in the state. Eastern
New South Wales contains many outcrops of Mesozoic igneous
rocks, however most are small, and the rocks themselves usually
lack petrographic characteristics that are distinctive enough to tie
them to a specific magmatic epoch. These observations are
readily substantiated if one examines the igneous rocks of the
Coonabarabran- Mullaley area. Their petrography is similar
(Wilshire and Standard, 1963, p. 123), yet they range in age
from Early Jurassic to Miocene (Bean, 1974; Dulhunty, 1967).
Two of the rocks examined in the present study (Samples K49 &
K51) show that the magmatic history of this area is even more
ravelled than previously recognised. Embleton et al. (1985, p.
62) have described sporadic igneous activity in New South
Wales from the Late Permian to the middle of the Miocene, with
activity maxima at 255-240 Ma, 200-170 Ma and 60-30 Ma.
These data indicate that both the upper (65 Ma) and lower (245
Ma) boundaries (Harland et al., 1990, p. 12) of the Mesozoic
occur in the middle of epochs of enhanced magmatic activity.
Many more radiometric age determinations are required if the
many, scattered, outcrops of Mesozoic igneous rocks are to be
identified and grouped into comagmatic suites. This need is

eloquently demonstrated in Henley's (1991, pp. 12-17) paper on
the lamprophyres of New England. He reveals that only two of
the many rocks he describes have been dated, and both of them
are Mesozoic in age. To assign the various post- Carboniferous
igneous rocks of eastern New South Wales to specific magmatic
epochs, and develop models that chronicle their origin and
evolution, one has not only to determine their age and
petrographic characteristics, one has also to consider their
petrogenesis in relation to a broader tectonic framework. At the
beginning of the Mesozoic Era Australia was enclosed within the
supercontinent of Pangaea, yet by the end of this era Australia
had drifted from (a) Greater India, (b) the Lord Howe Rise /
New Zealand and (c) Antarctica; and there was also active
sea-floor spreading in the Coral Sea.

METHODS

Field investigations were carried out by Dulhunty.
Petrological research and electron microprobe studies were
undertaken by Middlemost using the equipment of the Electron
Microscope Unit in the University of Sydney. Whole-rock major
element analyses were carried out for Beck in the XRF
laboratory in the Department of Applied Geology at the
University of New South Wales using a Siemens SRS300
sequential XRF with a rhodium end window tube. Sample
preparation and analysis followed the methods of Norrish and
Hutton (1969). Potassium- argon dating was performed by
Geochron Laboratories, Cambridge, U.S.A. Table 1 gives the

bo

E.A.K. MIDDLEMOST, J.A. DULHUNTY, and R.W. BECK

Table 1 : K-Ar analytical data and calculated rock ages

Spec. Wt.% Ave.% 40K, 40+ Ar,

No K K ppm ppm

K46 0.941 0.905 1.079 0.014750
0.875 0.147000
0.898

K47 0.387 0.418 0.499 0.003265
0.457 0.003358
0.411

K49 5.721 5.777 6.891 0.048470
5.832 0.049270

KS1 5.822 5.763 6.875 0.044130
5.704 0.045070

K52 1.275 1.340 1.598 0.025240
1.411 0.024630
1.333

K53 0.549 0.557 0.665 0.009793
0.565 0.102900

KS55 0.779 0.770 0.918 0.010350
0.760 0.010980

40* Ar/ Ave. 40* Ar, 40+ ar/40K Age in Ma
Tot.40Ar ppm

0.654 0.014730 0.013640 221+9
0.873

0.257 0.003312 0.006635 11145
0.457

0.850 0.048870 0.007091 118+4
0.845

0.835 0.044600 0.006487 10844
0.868

0.901 0.024940 0.015600 250410
0.816

0.657 0.010041 0.015110 243+10
0.630

0.526 0.010670 0.011620 190+8
0.807

Constants used: Me = 4.962 x10-!9/ year : (A+ A,,) =0.581 x 10-!9/ year : 4°K/K = 1.193 x

104g/g. 4°*Ar refers to radiogenic *°Ar.

potassium- argon analytical data and calculated rock ages;
whereas Tables 2 and 3 give the major element compositions and
CIPW norms of the rocks. Tables 4 to 6 show electron
microprobe analyses of the essential minerals.

PETROGRAPHY AND MINERALOGY

As there is only a limited amount of quantitative
geochemical mineralogical and petrographic data available on the
Mesozoic volcanic and subvolcanic rocks of northeastern New
South Wales, the aim of the following section is to help to rectify
this deficiency. According to the TAS chemical

14

o o a P<]

Na,O + K,0 wt'/

SiO, wt’.

classification of volcanic rocks the samples examined consist of
one basanite (K47) that contains 14.3 % normative olivine and
13.5 % normative nepheline; ‘an alkali basalt (K53) that contain
8.1 % normative nepheline and 20.1 % normative olivine; three
olivine tholeiitic basalts (K46, K52 & K55) that contain both
normative olivine and normative hypersthene; and two
microsyenites (K49 and K51) that contain small amounts of
normative nepheline, that is, 2.8 % and 4.0 %, respectively
(Figure 1).

SAMPLE K46is an olivine and hypersthene
normative basalt that was collected 9 km southeast of Gilgandra

Figure 1 A total alkali - silica diagram used to classify the rocks studied (after Le Maitre et al.

1989, p. 28)

MESOZOIC FROM NEW SOUTH WALES 3

|
r
|
|
|
|
|
|

Figure 2 All samples were collected within the cross-hatched area of New South Wales

on the Gilgandra- Mendooran road (Latitude 31.75° South,
Longitude 148.77° East; Gilgandra 1: 250 000 Sheet). This Late
Triassic (221 + 9 Ma: See Table 1) rock is medium grained
holocrystalline and all the essential phases are approximately the
same size. Essential minerals are plagioclase, which usually
occurs in elongate crystals (~50 vol.%), clinopyroxene, slightly
smaller in size and pink in colour (~25 vol.%), and olivine that
is usually euhedral but partly altered to goethite, haematite,
chlorite and antigorite (~15 vol.%). The accessory minerals
include opaque oxides (titanomagnetite and ilmenite) and/or
sulphides (~5 vol.%) and occasional small aggregate of irregular
shaped alkali feldspars (~S vol.%). The mean composition of the
olivine crystals is Fog7.9, and they ranged in composition from

F063,5 to Fo709.3. Generally the cores of the larger crystals are

enriched in magnesium. Table 4 shows that the mean MnO
composition of these olivines is 0.46%, their mean NiO content
is ~0.15%, whereas their mean Cr203 content is ~0.03%. The

pyroxene is diopside. It has a mean composition of En4g 3
Fs12.9 Wo46.g and a range of Enq; 6 Fs11.2 Wo047.2 to
En37.4 Fs15.7 Wo46,.9. The non-quadrilateral components have
the following mean abundances: TiO? = 4.65%, Al703 =

3.52%, NazO = 0.57% and Cr203 = 0.14%. The mean
composition of the plagioclase is Ans5g g Ab39 3 Ory] 9, and its
range is from labradorite Ang4 7 Ab33.7 Or, 6 to andesine
Anqg7.g Ab4g 9 Or3.3. These plagioclases have a mean Fe203
content of 0.64% and no BaO was detected.

SAMPLE K47 is a basanite that contains 14.3 %
normative olivine and 13.5 % normative nepheline. It is an Early
Cretaceous (111 + 5 Ma: See Table 1) rock that was collected
from Mullamuddy Creek near Queen's Pinch, 20 km south of
Mudgee (Latitude 32.72° South, Longitude 149.63° East; Dubbo
1: 250 000 Sheet). It has a porphyritic to vitrophyric texture as it
contains many large euhedral and/or zoned olivine phenocrysts
(~15 vol.%), with a few purplish-pink, zoned clinopyroxene
phenocrysts set in a groundmass of fine-grained clinopyroxene
(~25 vol.% cpx), plagioclase (~25 vol.%), opaque oxides (~8
vol.%) and irregular patches of fine-grained alkali feldspar and
brownish-pink glass (~27 vol.%). The mean composition of the
olivine crystals is Fog 1.7, and they ranged in composition from

Fo7g 1 to Fog3.2. Table 4 shows that the mean MnO

composition of these olivines is 0.27%, their mean NiO content
is ~0.24%, and their mean Cr703 content is ~0.05%. The

t E.A.K. MIDDLEMOST, J.A. DULHUNTY, and R.W. BECK

Table 2 Chemical Composition of Mesozoic Rocks of N.E. New South Wales

No K.46 K.46* K.47 K.47* K.49 K.49* K.51 K.51*
SiO? 46.82 48.73 41.48 45.37 56.89 59.19 55.66 58.95
TiO? | 72202 2.10 2.31 2.53 0.64 0.67 0.61 0.65
Alo03 14.68 15.28 12.73 13.92 17.55 18.26 17.41 18.44
Fe203—s:1.82 1.89 2.69 2.94 2.25 2.34 2.25 2.38
FeO 9.11 9.48 8.98 9.82 4.49 4.67 4.49 4.76
MnO _—0..16 0.17 0.22 0.24 0.18 0.19 0.18 0.19
MgO 8.55 8.90 7.32 8.01 0.53 0.55 0.45 0.48
CaO 8.21 8.54 9.17 10.03 2.34 2.43 2.39 2.53
NagO _—2.98 3.10 4.09 4.47 5.73 5.96 6.03 6.39
K20 127 1.32 1.58 1.73 5.28 5.49 4.72 5.00
P205__—sO..47 0.49 0.86 0.94 0.24 0.25 0.23 0.24
LOI (1.65) (5.65) (2.90) (3.23)

Total 96.09 — 100.00 91.43 100.00 96.12 100.00 94.42 100.00
No K.52 K.52* K.53 K.53* K.55 K.55* K.56 K.56*
SiO? 46.03 48.25 43.56 45.39 46.15 49.43 49.35 51.22
TiO2 2.18 2.29 257 2.68 2.01 2:15 1.43 1.48
Al03 «12.99 13.62 12.89 13.43 13.45 14.41 14.38 14.92
Fe203—s 1.83 1.92 2.16 2.25 1.82 1.95 1.81 1.88
FeO 9.17 9.61 10.82 11.28 9.11 9.76 9.02 9.36
MnO 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.17 0.18 0.16 0.17
MgO 10.08 10.57 9.09 9.47 9.52 10.20 7.93 8.23
CaO 8.33 8.73 9.39 9.79 7.79 8.34 9.06 9.40
NagO _—.2..49 2.61 3.60 3.75 2.39 2.56 21h 2.81
K20 1.50 1.57 1.01 1.05 0.91 0.97 0.31 0.32
P2005 0.64 0.67 0.69 0.72 0.04 0.04 0.19 0.20
LOI (1.76) (0.87) (3.65) (1.07)

Total 95.40 100.00 95.96 100.00 93.36 100.00 96.35 100.00

pyroxene is diopside. It has a mean composition of En37 7

Fs15,0 Wo47.g and a range of En3g.9 Fs13.9 Wo4g.1 to
En34_5 Fs16.7 Woag g. The non-quadrilateral components have
the following mean abundances: TiO2 = 3.24%, Al203 =
6.00%, Na2O = 0.88% and Cr203 = ~0.11%.

SAMPLE K49 is a nepheline normative
microsyenite, with a granular to trachytoid texture. It was
collected from the summit of Mullaley Mountain, 4 km south of
Mullaley Village (Latitude 31.13° South, Longitude 149.88° East;
Gilgandra 1: 250 000 Sheet). It is Early Cretaceous (118 + 4 Ma:
See Table 1) in age. Rocks from this general area have
previously been described by Bean (1974), Dulhunty (1967) and
Wilshire and Standard (1963). Most of the rock is composed of
aligned, elongate alkali feldspars (~85 vol.%). These feldspars
have a brown clouded appearance and some of the larger crystals
display perthitic intergrowths. The most abundant mafic phase is
a green, pleochroic clinopyroxene that has a 10°-30° extinction

angle (~7 vol.%). Opaque oxides (titanomagnetite ~5 vol.%)
and small, subhedral grains of nepheline (~3 vol.%) occur
between the essential minerals. All the nephelines are
mediopotassic and contain more than four Si ions per formula
unit. A few euhedral crystals of apatite were also discovered.
The pyroxenes are variable in composition and range from the
diopsides to hedenbergites. Their mean composition is En74 2

Fs2g_4 Wo47.4 and they range from En29 2 Fs24.7 Wo46,1 to
En19.5 Fs32.1 Wo4g 4. The non-quadrilateral components have
the following mean abundances: TiO? = 0.82%, Al7O3 =
2.22%, Na2O = 0.72% and Cr703 = ~0.01%.

SAMPLE KSl1 is another nepheline normative
microsyenite but it was collected from the base of Mullaley
Mountain (Same locality as Sample 49). It is Early Cretaceous
(108 +4 Ma: See Table 1) in age, with a granular to trachytoid

MESOZOIC FROM NEW SOUTH WALES

Table 3 CIPW Norms of Mesozoic Rocks of N.E. New South Wales

No K.46 K.47 K.49 K.51
Or 7.80 10.21 32.45 29.54
Ab 26.23 12.86 45.26 46.68
An 23,07 12.81 6.85 6.88
Ne 0.00 13.52 2:61 3.99
Di 12.43 25.05 3.10 3.56
Hy 3.08 0.00 0.00 0.00
Ol 18.70 14.28 4.29 4.11
Mt 2.74 4.26 3:39 3.45
Il 4.00 4.81 127, 123
Ap 115 2.20 0.58 0.56
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

K.52 K.53 K.55 K.56
9.28 6.21 3.75 1.89
22.08 16.71 21.66 23.80
20.80 16.71 24.96 27.16
0.00 8.14 0.00 0.00
14.65 2210 13.08 14.84
5.24 0.00 15:35 29.13
19:25 20.09 12.18 Lal?
2.78 3.26 2.83 213
4.35 5.09 4.09 2.82
ey 1.69 0.10 0.46
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

texture. The dominant phase is a medium grained alkali feldspar
(~76 vol.%). Most crystals have a stubby lath shape. They are
brownish-pink, slightly clouded perthites, that are probably after
sanidine. The second most abundant phase is a pleochroic green
to colourless clinopyroxene (~12 vol.%). A few of the larger
clinopyroxene crystals have pale cores and darker green rims.
Extinction is usually in the range 10° to 25°. Opaque oxides
(titanomagnetite ~5 vol.%) are relatively abundant and some have
square outlines in thin section. Analcime (~4 vol.%) occurs as a
clear colourless phase that is interstitial to the essential phases.
Small nepheline crystals were also found. The thin-section also
contains a few green patches that are composed of an aggregate
of small crystals of chlorite, amphibole and clays (~2 vol.%).
These patches were produced by the alteration of an unknown
ferromagnesian phase. Euhedral apatite (~1 vol.%) crystals were
also observed. The pyroxene is mainly hedenbergite. It has a
mean composition of En24 5 Fs2g. 9 Wo46,6 and ranges from

En26.4 Fs26.9 Wo46,7 to En22.2 Fs31.6 Wo46.2. The
non-quadrilateral components have the following mean
abundances: TiO = 0.57%, Al703 = 1.73%, Na2O = 0.74%

and no Cr203 was detected.

SAMPLE KS52 is an olivine and hypersthene
normative basalt with a porphyritic to intergranular texture. It
was collected from Couradda South, 19 km east of Edgeroi
Village on the Narrabri - Terry Hie Hie road (Latitude 30.04°
South, Longitude 149.97° East; Narrabri 1: 250 000 Sheet). This
rock is Late Permian (250 +10 Ma: See Table 1) in age. It
contains elongate plagioclase (~50 vol.%) laths arranged in a
network with clinopyroxenes (~23 vol.%) and other smaller
phases filling the triangular spaces between the feldspars. There
are a limited number of large olivine (~15 vol.%) phenocrysts.
Some of these phenocrysts are partly or completely altered to a
green aggregate composed of smectite and chlorite. The
clinopyroxene is pinkish-grey in colour with an extinction angle
of between 50° and 60°. Within the thin-section there are
interstitial orange patches (~6 vol.%) that appear to contain
zeolites, smectite and haematite. Opaque oxides (titanomagnetite
~6 vol.%) are moderately common. The mean composition of the
olivine crystals is Fog 3, and they ranged in composition from

Fo75.6 to Fogg 9. Table 4 shows that the mean MnO

composition of these olivines is 0.23%. Their mean NiO content
is 0.30%, whereas their mean Cr703 content is ~0.06%. The

Table 4 : Mean Compositions of the Olivines

No K. 46 K. 47 K. 52
SiO> 36.03 38.9 38.88
TiO? 0.04 ~0.01 0.00
AlO3 = ~0.05 ~0.14 0.00
FeO 28.70 17.38 16.63
MnO 0.46 0.27 0.23
MgO 34.12 43.46 43.90
CaO 0.42 0.36 0.00
C703 ~0..03 0.05 0.06
NiO ~0.15 0.24 0.29
BaO ~0.01 0.00 0.00
Fa 32.11 18.33 17.68
Fo 67.89 81.67 82.32

K. 53 K. 55 K.56
37.91 38.07 38.15
0.00 0.00 0.00
~0.08 ~0.08 ~0.10
19:28 21.09 | RSIS,
0.28 0.34 ~0.24
41.89 40.05 42.84
0.36 ~0.10 0.92
~0.04 0.05 0.05
0.17 0.23 O31
0.00 0.00 0.00
20.53 22.92 18.54
79.47 77.08 81.46

6 E.A.K. MIDDLEMOST, J.A. DULHUNTY, and R.W. BECK

Table 5 : Mean Compositions of the Pyroxenes

No K.46 K.47 K.49 K.51 K.52 K.53 K.55
S10 ©. 47.89 46.32 49.01 49.45 47.61 50.19 50.98
TiO2 4.65 3.24 0.84 0.57 3.04 2.20 0.81
AljO3 3:52 6.00 Z20 1.73 5.16 4.94 2.30
FeO 7.68 9.13 16.16 17.10 8.56 8.06 8.93
MnO 0.15 0.23 0.51 0.65 0.18 0.15 0.18
MgO 13.50 11:93 8.39 8.16 12.77 13.41 14.50
CaO 21.81 21.96 22.04 21.58 21.90 22.70 21.81
Na2O 0.57 0.88 0:73 0.74 0.78 O50, 50:39
Cr203 ~0..14 ~0.11 ~0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 ~0.06
NiO 0.06 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03
BaO ~0.03 0.19 ~0.05 0.00 0.00 ~0.05 0.00
Wo 46.81 47.84 47.36 46.62 47.27 47.65 44.56
En 40.32 aT AD 24.23 24.52 38.31 39.15 41.18
Fs 12.88 15.00 28.41 28.86 14.42 13.20 14.26

pyroxene is diopside. It has a mean composition of En38 6
Fs17,94 Woq3.g and ranges from Engo.1 Fs12.4 W047,5 to
En34.5 Fs16,9 Wo4g9,5. Non-quadrilateral components have the
following mean abundances: TiO? = 3.04%, Al2O03 = 5.16%,
Na 20 = 0.78% and no Cr203 was detected. The mean
composition of the plagioclases is An57.6 Ab4o,1 Or2.3, and
their range lies within the labradorite field from An59 g Ab3g 4
Or, g to Ans54.9 Ab4? 4 Or2.7. These plagioclases have a mean
Fe 03 content of 0.87% and a mean BaO abundance of ~0.11%.

A volcanic bomb of hypersthene and olivine
normative basaltic composition was collected from a tuff bed that
cropped out to the north of sample site K52. This rock (Sample
K56) has a vitrophyric texture. Olivine phenocrysts occur in
clusters (~10 vol.% ; with a mean composition of Fog 1/5 ) set in

a yellowish-brown glassy groundmass. Set in the glass are small
elongate laths of plagioclase (~48 vol.%) with small, pale,
purplish-pink, anhedral crystals of clinopyroxene (~34 vol.%).
In the field this rock was presumed to be of the same age as
sample K52; however, a radiometric age determination
established that it was of Late Oligocene age (30.5 + 2.5 Ma).

SAMPLE KS3 is an alkali basalt that contains 8.1 %
normative nepheline. It was
collected from Red Hill, 4 km west of Boggabri (Latitude 30.70°
South, Longitude 149.98° East; Narrabri 1: 250 000 Sheet). This
sample is Late Permian (243 + 10: See Table 1) Ma in age and
has a porphyritic texture, with large, often resorbed, olivine (~18
vol.%) crystals set in a fine-grained groundmass. The olivine
phenocrysts often occur in clusters giving the rock a
glomerophyric texture. Typically the groundmass is composed of
a reddish pink clinopyroxene (~25 vol.%) with an extinction
angle of between 50° and 60°, and plagioclase (~40 vol.%) that
occur as small laths. Opaque oxides (~7 vol.%), nepheline (~7
vol.%), aegirine augite (~3 vol.%) and zeolites also appear in the
groundmass. All the nephelines are mediopotassic with more
than four Si ions per formula unit. The mean composition of the
olivine crystals is Fo79,5, and they range from Fo77_2 to

Fog 1.2. Table 4 shows that the mean MnO composition of these

olivines is 0.28%, their mean NiO content is ~0.17%, and their
mean Cr203 content is ~0.04%. Most of the pyroxene is

diopside with a mean composition of En39 1 Fs13.2 Wo047.7,

but some small green, pleochroic crystals of aegirine augite occur
in the groundmass. The non-quadrilateral components have the
following mean abundances: TiO7 = 2.20%, Al703 = 4.94%,

NajO = ~0.50% and no Cr203 was detected.

SAMPLE _ KS5 is a hypersthene and olivine
normative basalt collected from Delwood Sheep Station, 24 km
west of Boggabri (Latitude 30.66° South, Longitude 149.84°
East; Narrabri 1: 250 000 Sheet). It is Early Jurassic (190 + 8
Ma: See Table 1) in age and probably part of the Garrawilla
Volcanics. The rock is porphyritic with large olivine crystals set
in a medium grained groundmass. Some of the olivine (~12
vol.%) phenocrysts are partly altered to a homogeneous-looking
green aggregate that contains a mixture of chlorite and smectite.
The groundmass is composed of elongate plagioclase (~53
vol.%) laths and a pink clinopyroxene (~25 vol.%) with an
extinction angle of between 50° and 60°. Opaque oxides
(titanomagnetites and ilmenites ~6 vol.%) also occur in the
groundmass. They are sometimes associated with red
fine-grained interstitial patches that appear to be aggregates of
haematite and smectite (~4 vol.%). The mean composition of the
olivine crystals is Fo77_1, and they ranged in composition from
Fo6g.6 to Fogg.9. Table 4 shows that the mean MnO
composition of these olivines is 0.34%, their mean NiO content
is 0.23%, and their mean Cr203 content is ~0.05%. The
pyroxene ranges in composition between augite and diopside.
Their mean composition is Eng, 2 Fs14.3 Wo44.5 with a range

from Enq43_2 Fs12_1 Wo44.7 to En3g_g Fs16.9 Wo45.2. The

non-quadrilateral components have the following mean
abundances: TiO7 = 0.81%, Al7O3 = 2.30%, NazO = ~0.40%

and Cr703 = ~0.06%. The mean composition of the plagioclase
is Ansg 3 Ab39.6 Or2.1, with a range from Ang; .7 Ab36.4
Or) 9 to An52 3 Abqs.1 Or2.6. They have a mean Fe2O03

MESOZOIC FROM NEW SOUTH WALES

=]

Table 6 : Mean Compositions of some Feldspars

No K.46 K.51 -K.52
SiO7 53.30 66.53 53.12
TiO? 0.04 0.00 0.00
AloO3 29.14 18.81 28.57
Fe203 0.65 0.25 0.87
CaO —: 12.09 02 tS i033
NagO 4.45 Sd al
Kx0 —0.34 8.64 0.40
BaO ~—— 0.00 0.18 0.11
Or 1.89 51.30 2.25
Ab 39.30 46.63 40.11
An 58.81 2.07 57.64

content of 0.78% and a mean BaO abundance of ~0.01%.

MESOZOIC MAGMATISM IN EASTERN AUSTRALIA

During most of the Early Permian a chain of active
volcanoes stretched for over 2 000 km from Sydney to Cairns
(BMR Palaeogeog. Group, 1990, pp. 48-50). The rocks that
issued from these volcanoes ranged in composition from basalt
to trachyte and rhyolite (Leitch & Skilbeck, 1991; Vickers,
1991). This magmatic epoch was probably related to the
inception of rifting in the proto- Sydney- Gunnedah- Bowen
Basin System (cf. Vickers, 1991). The various magmas that
evolved during this epoch were probably derived from the
blending of; (a) residual calc-alkali magma that developed in
response to subduction in the Carboniferous, (b) transitional
basaltic magma that segregated in the asthenosphere, and (c)
silicic magmas that evolved as the result of anatexis. The later
Gympie Terrane collision (BMR Palaeogeog. Group, 1990, pp.
51-52) produced extensive thrusting and shortening of the
lithosphere. In the south much of the displacement concentrated
along the Hunter- Mooki- Burunga- Leichhardt tectonic line. The
shortening and concomitant thickening of the lithosphere thrust a
linear body of rocks from the base of the lithosphere into the
hotter and less dense asthenosphere. At first the root, aided by
the downwelling convection currents responsible for
convergence, dragged itself and the overlying rocks downwards.
Mafic lower crustal rocks transported to depths greater than 50
km were transform into eclogites (Kay & Mahlburg-Kay, 1991).
Part of the root of dense rocks (e.g. harzburgite, lherzolite and
eclogite) is likely to detach from the lithosphere. Gradually, as
the geotherms at the base of the new lithosphere reverted to their
normal configuration, local partial melting occurred. When the
downwelling convection currents started to wane the
gravitational potential energy stored in the root forced it to rise.
This facilitated lithospheric extension, and reactivated and
expanded the system of graben and half graben that marked out
the Sydney- Gunnedah- Bowen Basin System. While the rift
system was being reactivated the detached slabs cast into the
asthenosphere were being heated, deformed and eroded.
Reaction between the foundered slabs and the asthenosphere is
likely to transfer incompatible elements from the slabs into the
fluid phase in the surrounding asthenosphere. Once segregated
from the solid phases this fluid is likely to

K.53 K.55 K.56
64.41 53.03 52.01
0.00 0.00 0.00
21.64 28.70 29:28
0.24 0.78 0.90
2.94 12.40 11.28
4.56 4.70 4.26
5.67 0.38 2:26
0.54 0.01 0.00
37.78 2:41 119%
45.76 39.63 35.88
16.46 58.26 a2.21

move upwards and assist in generating a singular K-rich
basanitic magma. Most of this magma would vein and
pervasively metasomatised the rocks at the base of the
litnosphere thus providing a ready source for producing high-K
magmas. This special magma is characteristic of the the
Mesozoic igneous rocks of the Sydney and Gunnedah basins.
Another geochemical characteristic of many Mesozoic rocks from
the northern Sydney and Gunnedah basins is that they plot in the
“within- plate" field on the Ti/100 - Zr - Y*3 tectonic
discriminant diagram as shown by Dulhunty et al. (1978, p. 80).

There was extensive magmatic activity in eastern
New South Wales and southeastern Queensland during the Late
Permian and Early Triassic. The granitic and granodioritic rocks
of the New England Batholith and its northern extensions were
emplaced between 253 and 222 Ma (Day et al., 1983, p. 117;
Shaw et al., 1991, p. 45; Shaw & Flood, 1981). This Greater
New England Batholith is bounded by the Demon and Peel fault
systems, and these fault zones contain a variety of tectonic
enclaves of mafic to ultramafic composition, including
serpentinites (Voisey, 1969, p.228; and Wilkinson, 1953, p.
305). It is postulated that during the latest Permian subduction
was oblique to the Lord Howe Rise / New Zealand margin of
Gondwana, and part of the convergent movement was taken up
by strike-slip movement. Such faulting produced local pull-apart
structures at the divergent bends in the transcurrent faults thus
facilitating the movement of large bodies of viscous, silicic
magma into the upper crust (Glazner, 1991). Whereas some of
this magma crystallised to form the various granitic and
granodioritic rocks of the Greater New England Batholith,
another large volume of magma breached the surface. The
resulting explosive voicanism spread large volumes of
pyroclastic materials over adjoining areas of New England and
into the Sydney- Gunnedah- Bowen Basin System. Tephra of
this type is preserved in the Late Permnian Singleton Supergroup.
Barnes et al. (1991, p. 3) have called these pyroclastic rocks the
Wandsworth Volcanic group and they are typically ash-flow
crystal tuffs that range in composition from basaltic andesite to
rhyolite. Most are dacites or rhyolites.

Many other magmatic rocks, with a variety of
"tectonic signatures", were erupted during the Late Permian and
Early Triassic. They include high-K basalts (Samples K52 &

8 E.A.K. MIDDLEMOST, J.A. DULHUNTY, and R.W. BECK

K53) in the Boggabri- Narrabri area; K-rich basanitic to latitic

magmas in the Hunter Valley section of the Sydney Basin
(Gamble, 1984, p. 180; Schon, 1978); and rocks of the
trachybasalt- shoshonite- latite association (i.e. the Gerringong
Magmatic Suite) in a volcanic belt that extends from east of
Sydney via Wollongong to Bawley Point (Carr, 1981; Carr,
1985; Facer & Carr, 1979, p. 76; Middlemost, 1976). During
the Late Triassic high-K basalts (Sample K46) were extruded in
the Gilgandra area of N.S.W. In northeaster Victoria the
Benambra monzonite- syenite complex (circa 211 Ma) was
intruded (Crohn, 1950; McDougall & Wellman, 1976, p.4). In
southeastern Queensland there was prolific calc-alkali magmatic
activity in the Mid and Late Triassic. Great thicknesses of
andesitic, dacitic and rhyolitic materials accumulated in the Esk
and Abercorn fault troughs (Day et al., 1983, p. 118). The Late
Permian and Triassic was thus a magmatic epoch during which
large volumes of silicic magma erupted in the general area of the
Greater New England Batholith, prolific calc-alkali magmatic
activity occurred in southeastern Queensland, and a variety of
K-rich (sensu Le Maitre et al., 1989, p. 29) magmas erupted in
the general area of the Sydney- Gunnedah- Bowen Basin
System. At present most of the rocks of the Gerringong
Magmatic Suite crop out on, or just off, the coast of New South
Wales. They appear to mark the edge of the Sydney Basin. As
the various basins and sub-basins of the Sydney- Gunnedah-
Bowen Basin System are likely to be separated by transfer faults,
it is postulated that the potassic parental magma of this suite was
possibly intruded into the area along a major fault zone of
unknown type that terminated the Sydney Basin on its eastern
side.

In the Early to Mid Jurassic the alkaline volcanics of
the Garrawilla rock association (Sample K55; Bean, 1974;
Dulhunty, 1965, 1967, 1986; Kenny, 1929; Dulhunty &
McDougal, 1966; Wilshire and Standard, 1963), the magmatic
rocks of the Bowral- Mittagong area (Gobert, 1976; McDougall
& Wellman, 1976; Middlemost, 1976; Stevens, 1957), the Mt
Dangar tephrite from west of Muswellbrook (Dulhunty et al.,
1987), and the microgranodiorites of the Lorne Basin
(McDougall & Wellman, 1976), were all erupted. Duggan et al.
(1989, p. 151) have also described rocks of the same age as the
Garrawilla Volcanics from a wide area that extends from
Mullaley southeast to Muswellbroek. It is difficult to asses the
original extent of these volcanic rocks because erosion has
removed all evidence of them to the east of Mullaley, and they
are covered by Jurassic rocks to the immediate south and west of
Mullaley. The rocks in the type area consist of lavas and tephra
of the alkali basalt - trachyte rock association. Many diatremes
from the central and northwestern parts of the Sydney Basin are
of Early Jurassic age (Helby & Morgan, 1979, p. 1) and their
juvenile ejecta shows that these volcanic vents developed during
the explosive emplacement of high-K basanitic to trachybasaltic
magmas (Crawford et al., 1980, p. 321; Wilshire, 1961).

During the Mid Jurassic (circa 175 Ma) vast
quantities of tholeiitic flood basalt and basaltic andesite erupted in
the Ferrar comagmatic region (Hergt et al., 1991, p.137). This
comagmatic region includes tholeiitic rocks from southwestern
Victoria, southern South Australia and Tasmania (Schmidt &
McDougall, 1977). While these tholeiitic lavas, dykes and sills
were being erupted, smaller volumes of hypersthene normative
basalts and nepheline normative trachybasalts were being
extruded near Coleraine in western Victoria (Hergt et al., 1991,
p.134). In the Sydney Basin the Ferrar magmatic epoch was a

time of widespread magmatic activity (Embleton et al., 1985:
McDougall & Wellman, 1976; Rickwood, 1985). This was
when the Prospect Layered Intrusion was emplaced in the centre
of the basin (Wilshire, 1967), and a variety of alkaline rocks,
particularly phonolites, were intruded in the in the Botobolar area
on its western rim (Day, 1961; Dulhunty, 1976; Langley, 1976).
In the Southern Highlands Fold Belts the Myall Road Syenite
and trachybasaltic dykes were emplaced (McDougall &
Wellman, 1976, p. 3), and in the Wellington area northwest of
Sydney the Mt Bodangora phonotephrite was extruded
(Dulhunty et al., 1987).

During the Permian, Triassic and Jurassic most of
New Zealand lay in a deep water, trench that collected large
amounts of material from adjacent calc-alkali volcanic chains on
the Lord Howe Rise / New Zealand margin of Gondwana. In the
Early Cretaceous this active volcanic arc appears to have moved
closer to the Australian craton resulting in renewed calc-alkali
magmatic activity in the coastal areas between Rockhampton and
Bowen in eastern Queensland ( Day et al., 1983; Evernden &
Richards, 1962; Webb & McDougall, 1968 ). During this epoch
rift valleys developed along the southern margin of what was
soon to be Australia. In Victoria phonolites erupted at Gallows
Hill northeast of Mansfield, and monchiquitic lamprophyres
were intruded in the Bendigo area (158 Ma and 149 Ma
respectively; McDougall & Wellman, 1976, p.4).
Simultaneously in the area that became Bass Strait three
east-west aligned intracratonic, fault bounded basins began to
form. They filled with sediments and mildly alkalic volcanic
materials (Duggan et al., 1989, p. 151; Etheridge et al., 1987 ).
On shore in Victoria the first group of "Older Volcanics" erupted
in the Poowong and Bacchus Marsh areas. The compositions of
these rocks ranged from basanite to hawaiite (Johnson et al.,
1989, p. 134).

In New South Wales southwest of Boggabri alkali
basalts and basanites were intruded between 148- 145 Ma
(Dulhunty et al., 1987, p. 85). These dates lie astride the
Jurassic- Cretaceous boundary. Later there was renewed alkali
magmatic activity in the Mullaley area with the intrusion of a
suite of nepheline normative microsyenites (Samples K49 &
K51). South of this area in the Mudgee district a basanitic plug
(Sample K47) was emplaced. In the middle of the Cretaceous
(circa 90-111 Ma) basaltic dykes were intruded in the Hunter
Valley. South in the Central Tilba area, the Mt Dromedary cluster
of ring complexes (circa 96 Ma) was emplaced both on shore and
on what is now the mid continental slope (Boesen & Joplin,
1972, p. 346; Brown, 1930; Jenkins, 1991, p.98). The rocks
that comprise these complexes belong to the shoshonite- latite-
trachyte rock association. They erupted during the initial rifting
stage immediately prior to spreading in the Tasman Basin.

In New Zealand the Rangitata Orogeny reached its
peak in the middle of the Cretaceous producing widespread
folding, regional metamorphism and magmatism. Circa 94 Ma
rhyolite samples have been obtained from near the southern end
of the Lord Howe Rise, and at the time of eruption this area was
attached to the northeast coast of Tasmania (McDougal & Van
der Lingen, 1974). Simultaneously silicic volcanoes were active
in the Whitsunday area of Queensland. It is thus likely that an
extensive calc- alkali volcanic chain stretched from the
Whitsunday area to the east of Tasmania. These magmatic events
all coincide with the birth of the Lord Howe / New Zealand plate.
During the Late Cretaceous (circa 74-70 Ma) a variety of alkali
basaltic rocks erupted along the eastern margin of Australia (Carr

MESOZOIC FROM NEW SOUTH WALES 3

& Facer, 1980; Duggan et al., 1989, p. 149). With the
separation of the Lord Howe Rise / New Zealand from eastern
Australia (circa 96 Ma: Veevers et al., 1991) isostasy required
the centres of gravity of the new lithospheric blocks to adjust to
the new structural setting. This adjustment was complex because
before drift a broad belt of lithosphere that formed the eastern
margin of the supercontinent had been coupled to an active
subduction system. Whilst active this subduction system had
pulled down the overlying lithosphere. This process is similar to
the one operating in parts of Indonesia at present. Sea-floor
spreading requires an active upwelling convection system. It is
postulated that the Eastern Highlands of Australia rose as the
new continental margin became decoupled from the old
subduction- driven convection system that pulled it down, and it
was briefly coupled to the new system of upwelling. During the
Cenozoic the Eastern Highlands became the locus of extensive
intraplate continental volcanism. Fission track analysis has
revealed that uplift along the continental margins of southeastern
Australia is of the order of 1.5 to 3 km (Dumitru et al., 1991, p.
141).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We gratefully acknowledge (1) the use of the electron
microprobe of the Electron Microscope Unit at the University of
Sydney; and thank Mr Hugh Simmons for his valuable
assistance, and (2) the helpful cooperation of the staff in the
XRF laboratory in the Department of Applied Geology at the
University of New South Wales. This paper was also improved
by the perspicacious comments of an anonymous reviewer.

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Basin, New South Wales, Journal of the Geological
Society of Australia, 26, pp. 73-79.

Gamble, J.A., 1984. Petrology and geochemistry of
differentiated teschenite intrusions from the Hunter
Valley, NSW, Australia, Contributions to
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Glazner, A.F., 1991. Plutonism, oblique subduction, and
continental growth: An example from the Mesozoic of
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Gobert, V., 1976. The construction material resources of the
Mittagong- Moss Vale Area, N.S.W. Geological
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Harland, W.B., Armstrong, R.L., Cox, A.V., Craig, L.E.,
Smith, A.G. & Smith, D.G., 1990. A GEOLOGICAL
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Cambridge, U.K.

Helby, R. & Morgan, R. 1979. Palynomorphs in Mesozoic
Volcanoes of the Sydney Basin, N.S.W. Geological
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Henley, H.F., 1991. Lamprophyres and gold in the New
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Hergt, J.M., Peate, D.W. & Hawkesworth, C.J., 1991. The

petrogenesis of Mesozoic Gondwana low-Ti flood
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Jenkins, C.J., 1991. Marine geology of the Tasman Ocean
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LOOKING AT THE PACIFIC FOR
GEOLOGICAL ANSWERS, The Edgeworth David
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Johnson, R.W., Knutson, J. and Taylor, S.R. (eds) 1989.
INTRAPLATE VOLCANISM IN EASTERN
AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND, Cambridge
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destruction of lower continental crust, Geologische
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rocks of New South Wales, N.S.W. Geological
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the Geological Society of Australia, 23, pp. 1-9.

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Acta, 33, pp. 431-453.

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MESOZOIC FROM NEW SOUTH WALES |

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY OF THE SYDNEY
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dolerites, Journal of the Geological Society of
Australia, 25, pp. 321-328.

Shaw, S.E., Conaghan, P.J. & Flood, R.H., 1991. Late
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Sydney Basin, Proceedings of the 25 th
Symposium, Department of Geology, University of
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Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of
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patterns of spreading, Australian Journal of Earth
Sciences, 38, pp. 373-389.

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Advances in the Study of the Sydney Basin,
Proceedings of the 25 th Symposium, Department
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E,A.K.MIDDLEMOST

Dept. of Geology §& Geophysics
University of Sydney

Sydney NSW 2006

Australia

J.A.DULHUNTY

Dept. of Geology §& Geophysics
University of Sydney

Sydney NSW 2006

Australia

Voisey, A.H., 1969. The New England Region, pp. 227-229,
in Packham, G.H. (ed.), The Geology of New South
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igneous rocks of eastern Queensland, Journal of the
Geological Society of Australia, 15, pp. 313-346.

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Serpentinites of Queensland, Geological Magazine,
90, pp. 305-321.

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South Wales, Journal of Geology, 69, pp. 473-484.

Wilshire, H.G., 1967. the Prospect alkaline diabase- picrite
intrusion NSW, Australia, Journal of Petrology, 8,
pp. 97-163.

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volcanism in the Mullaley district, New South Wales,
Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of
N.S.W., 96, pp. 123-128.

R.W.BECK

Groundwater Management §
Hydrogeology

University of New South Wales
P70. Box, 1
Kensington
Australia

NSW 2033

(Manuscript received 7-11-1991)

(Manuscript received in final form 25-3-1992)

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Journal and ‘Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.125, pp.13-17,1992,
ISSN 0035-9173/010015-05 $4.00/1

Health Hazards Associated with Extremely Low Frequency
Electromagnetic Fields from Power Lines and Home

Life on earth has
evolved in the presence of a
continuous flux of
electromagnetic waves. The
electromagnetic spectrum
consists of bands of
different wavelength and
frequency ranging from gamma
rays and X-rays, ultra
violet, visible light, infra-
red, microwaves to
radiowaves. Gamma rays have
an extremely short
wavelength (10°’* metre) and
very high frequency (107*
cycles per second or Hz)
whereas at the other end of
the spectrum the radio waves
have an extremely long
wavelength (>10*m) and low
frequency (<10tHZz) .

The most energetic
waves, gamma rays and X-
rays, are referred to as
ionising radiation because
of their ability to break
chemical bonds holding
together the atoms of
molecules. TIonising
radiation is dangerous to
Man by virtue of its
capacity to damage nuclear
DNA in cells. This results
in cell death or sometimes
in mutations in surviving
cells which can lead to
cancer in the individual or,
through mutations in the
germ cells, lead to
defective offspring. The
non-ionising portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum
includes the longer
wavelengths of infra-red,
Microwaves and radiowaves.
These wavelengths can
produce thermal effects and
be injurious to cells if
large amounts of energy are
delivered in short periods
of time.

In the extremely low
frequency (ELF) part of the
electromagnetic spectrum (0-
300Hz), the electromagnetic
waves are extremely weak and

Appliances

J.K. BROWN

are incapable of ionisation
or thermal heating.
Consequently, when the first
reports were presented in
the mass media purporting to
show that electromagnetic
fields (EMFs)- such as those
emitted by high voltage
power lines (HVPLs) and
electrical equipment - were
harmful they were viewed by
Many scientists as quite
incredible. No plausible
mechanism could be proposed
to account for the supposed
effects. However, it has
now been established that
biological effects can be
induced in cells by ELF
EMFs.

In Australia, electric
power is generated and
transmitted with an
alternating current at a
frequency of 50Hz. High
voltage (220,300 & 500kV) is
broken down, via substations
and transformers, to the
distribution lines (22,66, &
132kV) and then to low
voltage (240,415V) for
consumer use.

Both electric and
Magnetic fields are present
around wires carrying
electricity. The strength
of the electric and magnetic
fields depends on the
voltage in the case of
electric fields and the size
of the current (amps)
carried in the case of
magnetic fields. Both
decrease rapidly with
distance from the wire.
Electric field strengths are
measured in kilovolts per
metre (kV/m). Magnetic
fields are measured in units
of amps per metre (A/m) or
alternatively are expressed
in terms of the quantity
Magnetic flux density
measured in units of tesla
(T) which is proportionally
related to the magnetic

13

field strength. Magnetic
fields are of two types:
static where direct current
is flowing and time varying
where alternating current is
flowing, as in the case of
HVPs. Magnetic fields near
HVPLs fluctuate widely day
to day and with the season
as the power flow rises and
falls.

Natural sources of ELF
EMFs are galactic, solar and
terrestrial and include
sunspots, thunderstorms and
the earth's magnetic field.
Most electrical and
electronic equipment
produces two kinds of
emissions: electric and
Magnetic which are emitted
as electromagnetic energy
fields. Time-varying
Magnetic fields originating
from man-made sources - such
as HVPLs, home appliances
and other electrical
equipment - generally have
higher intensities than the
natural occurring fields,
particularly for the 50-60Hz
power frequency range.. ELF
EMF with the characteristics
of 50Hz frequency, AC
current and sinusoidal wave
form will subsequently be
referred to as power
frequency EMF.

Residents of a house
will generally be shielded
from about 90% of the
electric fields from an
overhead power line. On the
other hand, magnetic fields
are difficult to shield and
readily penetrate materials,
including the body. This is
the main reason for
believing that the
biological effects of EMFs
are largely or wholly due to
Magnetic field origin rather
than due to electric fields.

There are four sources
of EMFs in the home:
appliances, currents flowing
in the home (depending on
wiring and consumption),
Magnetic fields in loops due
to imbalance in current
flowing through plumbing and
underground paths and
proximity to overhead HVPLS
etc. The contribution from
HVPLs has been exaggerated
by the mass media; a more
important source in homes is

J.K. BROWN

domestic wiring. Background
Magnetic fields in homes are
highly variable (range 0.05-
1zT but are usually between
0.1-0.2 Tawith home
appliances showing magnetic
Fields of 0.03-304T at 30cm.
The highest readings are
from can openers, hair
dryers, stoves, drills,
saws, vacuum cleaners,
mixers, fluorescent desk
lamps and electric blankets.
Although magnetic field
intensity emitted buy such
appliances is often high,
usage is usually brief and
intermittent so that their
cumulative contribution to
EMF exposure is relatively
low.

Since 1983 it has been
accepted that the biological
effects of EMFS are
attributable to magnetic
rather than electric fields
but it is not certain
whether short periods of
high exposure, long periods
of lower exposure or even
"windows" of wavelengths at
particular frequencies in
the ELF range (0-300Hz) are
the most significant.

Within cells are
internal electric fields and
currents that play an
essential role in normal
cellular function. Both
electric and magnetic fields
can induce currents in the
body. In particular,
Magnetic ELF-induced
currents in tissue and the

electric fields thus created
have been shown to act in
the cells. The types of
currents and fields which
are induced in the body by
exposure to power frequency
EMFs are much less than
those which occur naturally
in the body. For example,
natural currents arising
from muscular or nerve
activity are in the region
of 10-100 milliamps per
square metre (mA/m? )
compared with the whole body
induced currents of about 3
mA/m* experienced while
standing in an electric
field of 10kV/m, the highest
that would normally be
encountered by a member of
the public. On this basis a
mechanism for the alleged

HEALTH HAZARDS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS 3)

health hazards of EMFs seems
inexplicable. However, it
has been claimed that
currents induced by ELF EMF
May produce, through
amplification of weak
electrochemical events in
the cell membrane, aberrant
internal signals which can
affect the nucleus of the
cell. This mechanism has
been proposed as a possible
means by which cancer
promotion might be induced
but there is little
evidence, as yet, to support
this hypothesis.

Numerous studies have
been undertaken of the
effects of EMFs from
molecular and cellular
investigations in the
laboratory, animal studies
to epidemiological and
laboratory studies in
humans. The principal
health hazards alleged to be
produced by chronic exposure
to low level power frequency
EMFs are cancer in children
and adults (leukemia, brain
and nervous system tumours)
and birth defects and
miscarriages derived from an
exposed mother or father.
Since 1979 several studies
have been published in the
scientific literature which
suggest that children living
in homes near overhead HVPLs
or other electric
transmission equipment or in
homes with elevated magnetic
fields have an increased
risk of cancer. Other
childhood investigations
have not demonstrated any
increased effect. Some
studies in adults have also
shown a positive
association, although less
convincingly. Of 23 studies
of occupationally exposed
groups, 19 have reported an
increase in some form of
cancer in workers in
electrical occupations or
electronics. Occupational
environments can expose
workers to magnetic field
strengths which are 100 to
1000 times higher than
household fields but in some
particular electrical
occupations it is not
certain whether higher than
average exposures to EMFS
are involved. In such
studies it is unclear

whether EMFS are the most
likely active agent in
cancer induction as many of
these workers are also
exposed to chemicals,
solvents, fluxes etc. which
are known or suspected to be
capable of causing cancer.
The chief criticism of most
studies of electrical
workers has been the lack of
precise measurements of the
actual levels of exposure.
In occupational studies job
Classification is generally
used as a surrogate for EMF
exposure but it is not
certain whether such work
involves higher than average
exposure to EMFs. FOr
example, in the case of
electronic assemblers an 810
times difference in exposure
was measured between
individual workers; welders
exposed to some of the
highest levels of magnetic
fields (100-200xuT) have only
a small risk of leukemia and
Magnetic field exposures are
sometimes very high for so-
called non-electrical jobs.

The most serious
defect, casting doubt on the
validity of the findings in
epidemiological studies, is
the lack of direct
measurement of electric and
Magnetic fields in the
actual subjects in the study
groups. Additionally, none
of even the better studies
have tried to assess
Magnetic field exposure from
all sources. In residential
studies magnetic field
exposure is invariably
estimated indirectly from
the wiring configuration in
individual homes, proximity
to HVPLs and other
electrical installations or
from records of current
loadings. Spot or 24 hour
measurement of magnetic
fields, undertaken in a few
studies but not in all
homes, are not thought to
necessarily reflect the
extent and intensity of
Past exposure as the levels
and duration of exposure are
quite unknown. No suitable
devices for continuous
monitoring of the electric
and magnetic fields in
individuals have been
available for use in past
studies but pocket-size

16

battery powered dosimeters
have recently been
developed. Other important
defects, minimising the
Significance of the results,
are that epidemiological
studies have been based on
previously exposed persons.
Information has been derived
from death certificates or
cancer registries, often
without personal interview
(retrospective type of
study). Of more value is
the prospective type of
study where both the so-
called exposed and non-
exposed groups are followed
repeatedly as they develop
disease and accumulate
exposure to magnetic fields.
Other major faults are the
small sample size of the
groups investigated limiting
the statistical power of the
study and the low number of
homes with high magnetic
field exposures.

Electric blankets have
the potential to be
responsible for the highest
and most prolonged exposure
to magnetic fields in the
home because of the
relatively high intensity of
emission, prolonged exposure
and intimate contact with
the body. EMF levels are
commonly up to 10 times the
exposure contributed by the
background magnetic field.
Most of the limited number
of studies, conducted in the
U.S., have failed to
establish an association
between electric blankets
and cancer but a direct
adverse effect on foetal
development and abortion
rates during pregnancy has
been suggested. If such an
effect does exist it is not
evident whether it is due to
EMF exposure or excessive
heat. In any case a
substantial exposure can
only be reached by very
heavy use of electric
blankets such as eight hours
per day, eight months a year
on the high setting.
Further, in Australia, EMF
exposure is less than in the
U.S. where a higher exposure
results from the routine use
of overblankets compared
with underblankets used
here. A recent
questionnaire conducted in

J.K. BROWN

Victoria indicated that
about 30% used the blanket
only to heat the bed before
retiring, 40% for partial
overnight use and the
remainder left the blanket
on all night but only..4.6%
on the highest setting.
Thus it seems unlikely that
the usage of electric
blankets in Australia
contributes significantly to
EMF exposure.

Since the late 1960s
there has been widespread
controversy and public alarm
over the alleged health
hazards of power frequency
EMFs. Unfortunately,
reports emanating from the
Mass media and pseudo-
scientific writers are
usually based on incomplete
scientific knowledge and
contradictory results of
existing studies. The
apparent lack of agreement
between scientists has also
contributed to public
misconceptions and panic
over powerlines.
Sensational newspaper
headlines have included
unfounded conclusions such
as "cot deaths being due to
strong electric fields in
homes" and that "up to 40%
of childhood cancers are due
to HVPLs and electrical home
appliances". In Australia,
rural and urban citizen
groups have been active in
protesting against the
introduction of new HVPLS
claiming the likelihood of
increased risk of cancer,
reduction in livestock
production and lower crop
yields. As a result there
have been two recent
government investigations.
In Victoria, the Advisory
Committee on Non-ionising
Radiation commissioned a
report from the University
of Melbourne. Report 242,
"Epidemiological Studies of
Cancer and Powerline
Frequency Electromagnetic
Fields A Meta-Analysis" by
I.Gordon et _al.,1990. In
N.S.W. the Department of
Minerals and Energy
commissioned a report
"Inquiry Into Community
Needs and High Voltage
Transmission Line
Development" by H.Gibbs,
1991. In the Victoria

HEALTH HAZARDS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS i

report an attempt was made
to improve the statistical
accuracy of the possible
association between the
induction of cancer and
exposure to EMFs in
residential (children and
adults) and occupational
studies by combining the
results of previous studies.
Due to the types of faults
previously described it was
only feasible to combine the
data from three childhood
studies out of the 11
studies published. Although
an elevated risk of
childhood cancer was found,
providing the magnetic
exposure exceeded 0.3u4T, one
of the conclusions of the
report was that the evidence
was not convincing. In the
N.S.W. inquiry Gibbs
concluded, after a survey of
the latest literature and
consultation with leading
experts in the world, that
an association between
exposure to EMF and cancer
was not proven.

The scientific evidence
of whether or not power
frequency EMFS poses a
cancer risk remains
unresolved. No conclusion
can be reached on the basis
of current data due to
serious deficiencies in all
the studies. However, there
is consensus opinion that
the present results indicate
the need for further
epidemiological studies of
highly exposed populations
with the use of personal
dosimeters and daily diary
records monitoring EMF
exposure over long periods,

The Electricity
Commission of New South
Wales actively supports
research into the effects of
EMFs. Two projects are
currently being supported.
The first involves the
effects of EMFs on the human
body and measurements in the
vicinity of electrical
equipment conducted by the
School of Safety Science at
the University of N.S.W.

The Commission is also
sponsoring the first stage
of a multinational
epidemiological study with a
total cost of $1.6 million.

REFERENCES

Delpizzo,V.,1989. Use of
electrical bed heating
in Melbourne and
implications for
possible ELF magnetic
field exposure.
Radiation Protection
Australia,7,67-69.

Poole,c.,and
Trichopoulos,D.,1991.
Extremely low-frequency
electric and magnetic
fields and cancer.
Cancer Causes and
Control,2,267-276.

Repacholi,M.H.,1990. Cancer
from exposure to
50/60Hz electric and
magnetic fields - a
major scientific
debate. Australasian
Physical and
Engineering Sciences in
Medicine ,13,4-17.

Wilson,B.W.,Stevens,R.G.,and
Andersoa,L.E.
(Eds. (1990) )
EXTREMELY LOW FREQUENCY
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS:
THE QUESTION OF CANCER.
Battelle Press,

Columbus, Richland,

referabl ears.
e willed U.S... 3S83pp.

Delivered by Dr.J.K.Brown (former Head of the Radiation
Biology Group at the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology
Organisation) before the Royal Society of New South Wales at
the General Monthly Meeting 1.5.91.

134 Gannons Road,
Caringbah, N.S.W.2229
Australia.

ih nn

La ect

anes

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.125, pp.19-21,1992 19

ISSN 0035-9173/92/010019-03 $4.00/1

Doctoral Thesis Abstract:

Alluvial Sapphire and Diamond Deposits of the

New England Gem Fields, New South Wales, Australia.

ROBERT R. COENRAADS

The Central Volcanic Province in northern New
South Wales, also known as the New England Gem Field
is one of Australias most important sapphire producing
areas. Large-scale mechanized mining and restoration
techniques are the most effective means of utilizing this
resource.

The Central Volcanic Province has been divided
into three prospective target regions. These comprise a
western region with potential for Tertiary deep-lead
alluvial diamond deposits, a central belt with Eocene-
Oligocene deep-lead sapphire deposits, and an eastern
division with Holocene alluvial sapphire deposits.

A detailed palaeotopographic reconstruction
technique had not been applied previously to the search
for economic deposits of diamond or sapphire in the
Central Volcanic Province. This method has proven to
be a valuable exploration tool for delineating
palaeochannels containing the above-mentioned deposits.

ORIGIN OF CORUNDUM ASSOCIATED WITH
VOLCANIC PROVINCES

Sapphire Inclusion studies

Uranium-lead isotope dating of two zircon
inclusions in sapphires from the Central Province, New
South Wales gave ages of 35.9 + 1.9 and 33.7 + 2.1
million years (Ma). These ages fall within the range of
basalt potassium-argon ages (19 to 38 Ma) and zircon
fission track ages (2 to 49 Ma) for the timing of
volcanism in the Central Province. These data, combined
with the observation that corundum is found associated
with many alkali basaltic provinces, indicate a genetic
link between the growth of large corundum crystals and
contemporaneous processes involved in alkali basaltic
magma generation.

The abundance of incompatible elements such as
U, Th, Zr, Nb and Ta in inclusion minerals, indicate that
the melting/crystallization process is not simple.
Corundum, and other minerals (such as zircon,
columbite, thorite, uranium pyrochlore, alkali feldspar
etc.) found as inclusions in corundum, could not have
crystallized from most basaltic compositions. A more
complex process must occur in which crystallization of
coarse aggregates takes place when high proportions of
incompatible elements and volatiles are present in early
melt fractions. These unusual crystallization products are
subsequently transported to the surface by voluminous

basaltic magmas. The extent to which this process
occurs, and the rate of transport to the surface,
presumably determine whether a particular basaltic
province carries sufficient corundum to be worked into
economic concentrations of sapphire.

Sapphire surface features

The majority of surface features observed on
rubies and sapphires of volcanic origin reflect their
trigonal crystal structure and are the result of layer
dissolution or etching that occurred while the crystals
were exposed to the hostile melt environment whilst en
route to the surface. Such features generated by
magmatic resorption include trigonal prismatic hillocks,
trigonal pyramids, inverted trigonal pyramids, flat
floored trigonal and hexagonal depressions, and “brick-
like" stacks of trigonal prisms. The style of features
observed on a given surface is dependent both on the
angle of the surface to the c-axis of the corundum crystal
and the degree of etching.

There is often little evidence of abrasion of the
corundum due to fluvial transport and the pitting and
etching on associated heavy minerals is commonly the
result of surface biodegradation. This, coupled with the
spatial variability in the character of the corundum, and
the differences in proportions of heavy minerals in
placer deposits, indicates minimal amount of fluvial
transport, and minimal degree of downstream reworking
and mixing. Such observations indicate that the
corundum is derived from local multiple sources.

DIVISION OF THE NEW ENGLAND GEM
FIELDS INTO THREE EXPLORATION
REGIONS

Key areas for diamond and sapphire exploration
may be defined within the New England Gem Fields
through an understanding of the geologic and
geomorphic processes that operated within the Tertiary
Central Volcanic Province.

At least two distinct periods of volcanic activity - —
one at 32-38 Ma and the other at 19-23 Ma - were
controlled by SSE/NNW trending fracture sets revealed
by landsat data. The locus of volcanism stepped
westwards with time from the Glen Innes-Ben Lomond-
Guyra area (the East Central Province) to the area west
of Inverell and Armidale (the West Central Province).

20 ROBERT R. COENRAADS

Drainage and pre-volcanic topography indicate a radial
pattern of drainage associated with East Central
Province uplift and volcanism (32 - 38 Ma). This was
modified by the later West Central Province volcanism
(19 - 23 Ma) which established its own radial pattern.
This geologic development of the Central Volcanic
Province has resulted in broad areas suitable for
sapphire and diamond exploration. The three prospective
target regions comprise a western region with a potential
for "palaeo-Gwydir type" alluvial diamond deposits, a
central belt with "Braemar type" deep-lead sapphire
deposits, and an eastern division with "Kings Plains-
Reddestone type" alluvial sapphire deposits.

1. Diamond-bearing deep-leads of the West
Central Volcanic Province

The Palaeo-Gwydir River system was buried by
19-23 Ma volcanism of the West Central Province.
Prospectivity for diamond-bearing deep-lead alluvium is
considered to be favorable in two major palaeodrainage
systems that extend northward from the present Gwydir
River in the vicinity of Copeton Dam. These are the
palaeo-Hobbs and palaeo-Gwydir systems. The
palaeotopographic reconstruction indicates at least 3
separate systems of diamond bearing alluvials and
therefore, local, multiple sources for the diamonds.

2. Braemar-type deep-lead deposits in the zone-
of-overlap

Exploration areas for deep-lead sapphire deposits,
such as those found at Braemar were defined via
mapping of palaeochannels in which the deposits are
situated. The potential sapphire-bearing palaeochannels
have been delineated within the zone in which the 19-23
million year old volcanics forming the West Central
Province overlap onto 32-38 million year old sapphire
bearing volcanics forming the East Central Province. In
this zone, the 19-23 Ma basaltic lavas flooded a number
of major palaeodrainage systems already containing 32-
38 Ma basalt flows and alluvial deposits reworked from
them.

The extent of these "deep-lead" deposits to the east
of Braemar, in palaeochannels that drained the sapphire-
bearing East Central Province, is related to the
easternmost incursions of the lavas of the West Central
Province.

3. Holocene alluvial sapphire deposits of the
East Central Volcanic Province

In the East Central Province the post-eruptive
fluvial history was vital in controlling the concentration
of economic sapphire deposits from lower grade source
rocks.

Two major sapphire deposits are situated in the
Kings Plains and Reddestone Creeks of the East Central
Province. There is a clear association between these
deposits which have developed since the filling of the
palaeovalleys with basalt, and the present drainage. The
sapphire-bearing placer deposits occur as "shoestring"
type accumulations occupying channels within broad,
flat, basalt-filled valleys. Higher grades generally
correspond to areas where channels are deepest, and
sapphire grades in excess of 500 grams per cubic metre
have been recorded. The heavy minerals have moved
vertically downwards, rather than downstream, and
become concentrated with time.

Palaeotopographic reconstruction highlights
potential abandonned channel deposits which may no
longer show any obvious association with the present day
drainage. Such sapphire deposits may occur along
abandoned palaeovalleys which continue below the points
of capture by the present drainage.

HEAVY MINERAL SUITES IN THE NEW
ENGLAND GEM FIELDS

Sapphire associates of the East Central Volcanic
Province

Heavy minerals associated with sapphire in the
alluvial gravels are pleonaste, ilmenite, chromium-
spinel, titanium-magnetite, magnetite, corundum, zircon
and minor chrysoberyl. Additional minerals found in
nearby in situ basaltic soils comprise olivine,
clinopyroxene, enstatite and amphibole, with zircon and
sapphire being extremely rare.

Mineral species present vary within and between
particular drainage catchments as well as visual
characteristics of the sapphires. This implies that sources
are ‘local’ to the placer deposits. The similarity in
composition of minerals from soil and placer sites
indicates that the sapphire-bearing placers have formed
through extensive reworking of the immediately
surrounding alkali basaltic and volcaniclastic rocks.
Concentration was largely through vertical movement,
with fine or light material being winnowed downstream
leaving behind a heavy gem-bearing residue, within low
gradient, low energy drainage systems.

Ilmenite-mantled rutile crystals of the Uralla
area

Ilmenite-mantled rutile crystals of enigmatic origin,
found in Late Tertiary conglomeratic arkoses and
Quaternary alluvium in the vicinity of Uralla, may have
formed as late-stage or cavity crystallizations from
fractionated felsic magmas before eruption. They are an
unlikely to be an indicator for diamond source rocks.

DOCTORAL THESIS ABSTRACT ZA

Pyrope-almandine garnets from Horse Gully

Deep red to purplish, gem quality pyrope-
almandine intermediate series garnets have been
recovered from sapphire-bearing river gravels at Horse
Gully. They are believed to be derived from a local,
probably mafic, source situated within the catchment
area of Horse Gully.

INVESTIGATION OF SAPPHIRE SOURCE
ROCKS AND POTENTIAL SOURCE
STRUCTURES IN THE CENTRAL VOLCANIC
PROVINCE

The basalts of the Central Province

Only four major catchments in the New England
Gem Fields contain rich sapphire deposits. These are the
Frazers, Kings Plains, Reddestone and Marowan
catchments and are the most likely targets for sapphire
source rocks.

Within the Central Province, variation diagrams
show no significant difference between the 32-38 Ma
sapphire-associated eastern basalts and the 19-23 Ma
sapphire-barren western alkali-basalts. The
compositional fields also overlap the Atherton, McBride
and Chudleigh provinces in north Queensland, known to
contain sapphire, as well as those of. the sapphire-barren
northeastern Australian volcanic provinces. These
Australian compositional fields also overlap the
corundum-bearing and corundum-barren fields for the
southeast Asian volcanic provinces. Therefore major and
minor element chemistry of basaltic rocks is not
considered to be a useful exploration tool for
discriminating sapphire-bearing from sapphire-barren
volcanic provinces, nor for recognizing potentially high-
grade areas within a sapphire-bearing province.

Robert R. Coenraads.
School of Earth Sciences,
Macquarie University,
New South Wales, 2109,

correspondence to:-

8 Trigalana Place
Frenchs Forest

New South Wales, 2086,
Australia.

The lagoons of the Central Province

Lagoons located in the basalts of the Central
Province were investigated to determine whether they
could be maars and therefore potential sources of
Sapphire-bearing volcaniclastic rocks. Based on drilling,
geophysical modelling and geological mapping, this was
found not to be the case and the lagoons are interpreted
to have formed within wind blown lunettes occupying
the wide, flat floors of basalt filled valleys. Bulk testing
at Kings Plains and Dunvegan lagoons indicates that
these features do not constitute economic targets.

REFERENCES
The following detail the material outlined in the above abstract:

Coenraads, R.R. (1989), Evaluation of the natural lagoons of
the Central Province, N.S.W. - are they sapphire producing
maars? Bulletin of the Australian Society of Exploration
Geophysicists, 20, 347-363.

Coenraads, R.R., Sutherland, F.L. and Kinny, P.D. (1990),
The Origin of Sapphires: U-Pb dating of zircon inclusions
sheds new light. Mineralogical Magazine , 54, 113-122.

Coenraads, R.R. (1990). Key areas for alluvial diamond and
sapphire exploration in the New England gem fields, New
South Wales, Australia. Economic Geology, 85, 1186-
1207:

Coenraads, R.R. (under review). Surface Features of Natural
Rubies and Sapphires associated with Volcanic Provinces.
Journal of Gemmology,

Pecover, S.R. & Coenraads, R.R., (1989). Tertiary volcanism,
alluvial processes, and the origin of sapphire deposits at
"Braemar" near Elsmore, northeastern New South Wales.
New South Wales Geological Survey - Quarterly Notes
TI p\-23,

(Manuscript received 20.3.1992)

ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL

for the Year Ended 31 March, 1992

PATRON

The Council wishes to express its
gratitude to his Excellency Rear Admiral
Peter Sinclair, AO, Governor of New South
Wales, for his continuing support as
Patron of the Society.

MEETINGS

Eight General Monthly Meetings and
the 124th Annual General Meeting were held
during the year. The average attendance
was 27 (range 16 to 44). Abstracts of all
addresses were published in the
Newsletter. The Annual General Meeting
and seven of the General Monthly Meetings
were held at the Australian Museum. A
summary of proceedings is set out ina
report attached. :

The 46th Clarke Memorial Lecture was
held on 23 October 1991 in the Hallstrom
Theatre, Australian Museum. Associate
Professor Barry Webby of the Department of
Geology and Geophysics at the University
of Sydney delivered the lecture before 25
members and visitors. The title of the
lecture was "Ordovician Island Arc
Biotas".

The Society was co-sponsor of a joint
meeting held on 11 February 1992, with the
Institution of Engineers (Australia)
Sydney Division, the Australian Nuclear
Association and the Australian Institute
of Energy. The meeting was addressed by
Dr. C.J.Hardy, formerly of the Australian
Atomic Energy Commission, who spoke on
"AUSTATOM - 34 years of the Australian
Atomic Energy Commission (1953-1987)".

An Annual Dinner was held on 18 March
1992, at the Royal Exchange of Sydney,
Gresham Street. The guests of honour were
His Excellency Rear Admiral Peter
Sinclair, AO, Governor of New South Wales,
and Mrs. Sinclair. The President,
Dr.E.C.Potter, welcomed the guests of
honour and introduced His Excellency who
delivered the Occasional Address. His
Excellency then presented the Society's
Awards for 1991. He presented the Cook
Medal to Professor Graeme Clark, the
Society's Medal to Associate Professor
Denis Winch (Vice-President), the Clarke
Medal to Dr.Shirley Jeffrey and the
Edgeworth David Medal to Dr. Mark Harvey.
Each recipient delivered a few words of

thanks to the Society. Dr.Dalwood Swaine,
a former President, then proposed a vote
of thanks to His Excellency. A total of
59 members and their guests attended.

Eleven meetings of the council were
held at the Society's Office, at North
Ryde. The average attendance was 15.

PUBLICATIONS

Volume 123 Parts 3 and 4, and Volume
124 Parts 1-4 of the "Journal and
Proceedings of the Society of New South
Wales" were published during the year.
They incorporated eight papers and the
Occasional Address by the Hon.Mr. Justice
Gleeson, AO, Lieutenant-Governor of New
South Wales at the Annual Dinner in March
1991, together with the Annual Report of
Council for 1990-1991. The Presidential
Address for 1991 was also included.
Council is again grateful to the voluntary
independant referees who assessed papers
offered for publication.

Ten issues of the Newsletter were
published during the year and Council
thanks the authors of short articles for
their contributions.

Several requests to reproduce
material from the "Journal and Proceedings
of the Royal Society of New South Wales"
were approved by Council.

MEMBERSHIP

The membership of the Society as at
31 March 1992 was:

Patron al
Honorary Members 13
Life Members 21
Ordinary Members 210
Absentee Members 17
Associate Members |
Retired Members 20
Spouse Members 12
Total 301

The following ten new Members were
elected and welcomed into the Society.

Melena Amanda VALIS
Stephen Damian LYONS
John Arthur ROSS
Caroline GROVER

Edmund James MINTY,Jnr.
Margaret Ann HANLON

Keith HANLON

Marguerita Tracanelli MILLIKAN
John Andrew SHAW

James Butler STONEY

With great regret, the Council
received news during the year of the
deaths of the following members:

Mr.Francis George Arnot MORT
Dr.Alan HARPER, AO

Awards

The following awards were made for
1991:

Cook Medal:
Professor Graeme Clark,
Director of the Institute of
Otolaryngology, Melbourne.

Clarke Medal (in Botany)
Dr.Shirley Jeffrey, Chief
Research Scientist,

CSIRO Division of Fisheries,
Hobart.

Edgeworth David Medal (research under
the age of 35 years):
Dr.Mark Harvey, Curator of
Arachnids at the Museum of
Western Australia..

Royal Society of New South Wales'
Medal:
Associate Professor Denis Winch,
School of Mathematics and
Statistics, University of
Sydney.

The Olle Prize and the Walter Burfitt
Prize was not awarded this year.

SUMMER SCHOOL

This year's Summer School on
"Communications" attracted some 41 senior
high school students from public and
private schools statewide. It was held
from 13 to 17 January 1992 at Macquarie
University. Sixteen voluntary speakers
from universities, government and industry
addressed the students. Half-day
excursions were held to the OTC Research
facility in Sydney and to the Pymble
Telephone Exchange.

The Honourable Ross Free, Minister
for Science and Technology, officially
opened the Summer School. This very
successful Summer School was organised by
Mrs.M.Krysko on behalf of the Society.

The Council wishes to extend its
thanks to Telecom Australia for its
generous sponsorship of the Summer School
and to Mrs.Krysko, Mrs.W.Swaine and
Mrs.M.Potter for their generous donations

ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL

of time and energy. Council also thanks
the speakers for giving generously of
their time. Telecom are also thanked for
allowing the Summer School students access
to OTC's research facility and to the
Pymble Telephone Exchange.

OFFICE

The Society continued during the year
to lease for its office and library a half
share of Convocation House, 134 Herring
Road, North Ryde, on the southeastern edge
of Macquarie University campus. The
Council is grateful to the University for
allowing it to continue leasing the
premises.

During 1991 the Society announced
with regret the retirement of Mrs Judy Day
as Assistant Secretary after 15 years'
service. The Council wishes to thank
Mrs.Day for her long and loyal service to
the Society.

Mrs.Margaret Evans accepted the
position of Assistant Secretary in
Mrs.Day's stead.

LIBRARY

Acquisitions by gift and exchange
continued as heretofore, the overseas and
most Australian material being lodged in
the Royal Society of New South Wales'
Collection in the Dixson Library,
University of New England. The remainder
of the Australian material was lodged in
the Society's office at North Ryde. The
Council thanks Mr. Karl Schmude,
University of New England, for his
continuing care and concern in ensuring
the smooth operation of the Royal Society
Collection and associated inter-library
photocopy loans.

An accession list for all material
lodged at the Society's office has been
programmed for each calendar half-year and
tabled at Council meetings.

Accommodation for the Society's
holdings remains limited. Nevertheless,
the large historical collection housed in
glass-fronted cabinets is in reasonably
good condition, however, several
monographs require some restoration.

A donation of bound Volumes 32-89 of
the "Journal and Proceedings of the Royal
Society of New South Wales", together with
Single unbound issues of Volumes 90-100,
was received from the Burfitt family.
These have been added to the store of back
issues of the Journal held at the
Society's office.

The Council thanks members of the
family of Mrs. Barbara MacNamara for this
gltt:

ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL 25

NEW ENGLAND BRANCH REPORT

The Branch held six very successful
meetings during the year, the 30th
anniversary of its existence:

Tuesday 23 April 1991:

Associate Professor G.A.Woolsey,
Department of Physics, University of
New England, spoke on "Keeping in touch in
the 1990's - the story of optical fibre
communications".

Tuesday 14 May 1991:

Professor S.K.Runcorn, FRS, of the
University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, U.K.
spoke on: "Continental drift and planetary
interiors".

Tuesday 11 June 1991:

Dr.B.C.McKelvey of the Department of
Geology and Geophysics, University of New
England, spoke on "New botanical evidence
of a recent climatic change in
Antarctica".

Wednesday 31 July 1991:

Professor B.A.Hills of the Department
of Physiology at the University of New
England spoke on "The digestive system and
why the stomach does not digest itself".

Wednesday 28 August 1991:

Professor R.J.Arculus of the
Department of Geology and Geophysics at
the University of New England spoke on
"TEsland Arcs".

Wednesday 18 September 1991:

Dr.Marte Kiley-Worthington of the
University of Sussex spoke on: "Animal
welfare: towards symbiosis in the 21st
century".

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS

APRIL 3 1991

(a) The 1016th General Monthly Meeting.
Location: The Peppermint Room, at the
Australian Museum, Sydney. The President,
Mr.G.W.K.Ford, was in the Chair and 37
members and visitors were present.

Stephen Damian Lyons, Milena Amanda
Valis, and John Arthur Ross were elected
to membership.

Dr.John Paul Wild was elected an
Honorary Member by Council at its meeting
on 28 November 1990. Dr.Wils is Chairman
of the VFT Joint Project and was formerly
Chairman of the CSIRO.

James Butler Stoney was elected an
Associate Member at the Council Meeting of
6 February 1992.

(b) The 123rd Annual General Meeting.
The Annual Report of Council for 1990/1991
and the Financial Report for 1990 were

adopted, and Messrs Wylie and Puttock were
re-elected as Auditors for 1991.

The following Awards for 1990 were
announced:

Clarke Medal(Zoology):

Barry Gillean Molyneux Jamieson

Society Medal:

Dr.Frederick Linstead Sutherland

Edgeworth David Medal:

Dr.Timothy Fridtjof Flannery

The Cook Medal, the Olle and Walter
Burfitt Prizes were not awarded this year.

The following Office-bearers and
Council were elected for 1991-1992:
President: Dr.E.C.Potter
Vice-Presidents: Mr.G.W.K.Ford

Mr.H.S.Hancock
Assoc.Prof.Denis E.Winch
Dr.F.L.Sutherland
Emer.Prof.R.L.Stanton
Honorary Secretaries:Dr.R.S.Bhathal
Mrs.M.Krysko v.Tryst
(Editorial)

Honorary Treasurer: Dr.A.A.Day

Honorary Librarian: Miss P.M.Callaghan

Members of Council: Mr.C.V.Alexander
Mr.J.R.Hardie
Pro£f.J:H. Loxton
Mr.E.D.O'Keeffe
Mee ted sone la la

Assoc.Prof.W.E.Smith
Dr.D.J.Swaine
The retiring President, Mr.G.W.Ford,
delivered his Presidential Address
entitled "Fire from Heaven, or, P5 (Proton
Power: Past, Present and Prospective)".
“A vote of thanks was proposed by
Dr.Edmund C.Potter.

MAY 1, 1991

1017th General Monthly Meeting.
Location: The Peppermint Room, the
Australian Museum, Sydney. The President,
Dr.E.C.Potter, was in the Chair, and 33
members and visitors were present.

Dr.Keith Brown, former Head of the
Radiation Biology Group at ANSTO gave an
address on "Health Hazards Associated with
Extremely Low Frequency Electromagnetic
Fields from Power Lines and Home
Appliances".

JUNE 5, 1991

1018th General Monthly Meeting.
Location: The Peppermint Room, at the
Australian Museum, Sydney. The President,
Dr.E.C.Potter, was in the Chair, and 16
members and visitors were present.

Edmund James Minty, jnr. was elected
to membership.

An address was given by Mr.Colin
Pitchfork, Head of Division of Chemical
and Food Technology, NSW TAFE Commission,
entitled " Learning from Coins".

26

ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL

JULY (37. E992

1019th General Monthly Meeting.
Location: The Peppermint Room, at the
Australian Museum, Sydney. The President,
Dr.E.C.Potter, was in the Chair, and 26
members and visitors were present.

Dr.T.F.Flannery, Head of the Mammal
Section, Division of Vertebrate Sciences,
at the Australian Museum, Sydney, gave an
address on "The Impact of Humans upon the
Biota of Australasia".

AUGUST 7, 1991

1020th General Monthly Meeting.
Location: The Peppermint Room, at the
Australian Museum, Sydney. The President,
Dr.E.C.Potter; was; in the Chair, and 27
members and visitors were present.

It was announced, with regret, the
death of Mr.Francis George Arnot Mort on

16th July 1991. Mr.Mort joined the Society

in 1934, and was elected Life Member on
29th September 1976.

The address, given by Mr. Sol
Lebovic, Managing Director of Newspoll

Research, was entitled " Opinion Polling -

Art or Science?".

SEPTEMBER 4, 1991

1021st General Monthly Meeting.
Location: The Peppermint Room, at the
Australian Museum, Sydney. The President,
Dr.E.C.Potter was in the Chair, and 22
members and visitors were present.

Dr.Alison Rodger of U.K. was elected
Spouse Member.

Dr.Helene A.Martin, who has been a

member since 1976, resigned from the
Society.

The address was given by Dr.David
Rees, of Division of Radiophysics, CSIRO,
on "Chaos in Brain Function".

OCTOBER 2, 1991

1022nd General Monthly Meeting.
Location: The Peppermint Room, at the
Australian Museum, Sydney. The President,
Dr.E.C.Potter, was in the Chair, and 18
members and visitors were present.

Dr.Margaret Ann Hanlon was elected
member of the Society.

The address was given by Dr.Michael
Dean of the State Pollution Control

Commission, and was entitled " Incinerator

Technology Overseas".

NOVEMBER 6,1991

1023rd General Monthly Meeting.
Location: University of Western Sydney
(Nepean). The President, Dr.E.C.Potter,
was in the Chair, and 44 members and
visitors were present.

Keith Harper, John Andrew Shaw, and
Marguerita Tracanelli Millikan, were
elected to membership.

The address was given by Dr.Graeme
White of the Department of Physics,
University of Western Sydney (Nepean), and
was entitled "Astronomy from the Ground
and from Space".

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AWARDS

COOK MEDAL FOR 1991

The James Cook Medal is awarded for "outstanding contributions to science and
human welfare in and for the Southern Continent". The Cook Medal for 1991 is
awarded to Professor Graeme Milboumme Clark, Foundation Professor of
Otolaryngology at the University of Melboume.

After graduating from the University of Sydney, he was a resident medical officer at
two Sydney hospitals and a registrar at two English hospitals. He then returned to
the University of Sydney where he completed two higher degrees, a Master of
Surgery and Doctor of Philosophy. Around this tume Professor Clark started
studying the ear and problems of deafness.

Fundamental research on brain cells led to behavioural studies on experimental
animals and eventually to considerations of the possibility of developing a device to
overcome deafness in humans. An umportant question had to be answered, namely
“could the inner ear be invaded surgically without damaging the very nerves that
would need to be electrically stumulated?" During the past 20 years Professor Clark
and his team have carried out painstaking studies involving multi-disciplinary
research in physiology, biology, surgery, engineering, speech science and related
fields. Eventually a complete receiver-stumulator unit was implanted in a patient and
a mini device was developed for use with children. The production of the multi-
electrode cochlear mmplant or bionic ear means that many hundreds of totally deaf
people are now able to hear.

Clearly Professor Clark has carned out fundamental research and difficult
developmental work of the highest order. He is the leader in his field and he and his
team are recognised world-wide for theur pioneering work. It is significant that this
work is the basis of an Australian industry for the production of aids for the deaf
which are exported to more than twenty countries.

4

In view of his outstanding research and many achievements, not the least being
nearly 400 publications, it is most fitting that Professor Graeme Clark joins the list of
illustrious Cook medallists.

CLARKE MEDAL FOR 1991

The Society's Clarke Memorial medal for 1991 is awarded to Dr
Shirley Winifred Jeffrey, Chief Research Scientist, CSIRO
Division of Fisheries, Marine Laboratories, Hobart.

Shirley Jeffrey developed her biological studies at the
University of Sydney in Australia. She graduated in
biochemistry and microbiology in 1952 and continued her
studies at that institution, gaining an M. Se in 1954 fora
thesis on the metabolism of oyster spermatozoa. From Sydney
she went to Kings College, University of London and was
awarded a PhD in 1958 for her work on the effects of
Salicylate on carbohydrate metabolism of isolated tissues.

Since then Dr Jeffrey has explored the breadth and depths of
marine botany. Her international renown was established in
her work on chlorophylls Cl and C2 andthe elucidation of
their structures. The consequences of her recent discoveries

31

32

ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL

of a new family of chlorophyll C haveenormous implications for
the classification of the algae and an understanding of the
evolutionary relationships between groups. She was not just
content to discover and characterise the pigments but also
rigorously explored the potential of a basic understanding of
pigments for both theoretical and applied science. Her early
work on pigments is now used in the standard equations used to
measure pigments in the oceans and hence to estimate ocean

productivity. Later work on more critical pigment analyses
allowed 1g(O} G accurate quantitative analysis of the
phytoplankton.

As head of the: ‘Algal. Physiology and Ecology ‘' «section of ‘the
CSIRO “Division of Fisheries, Dr Jeffrey and her team study
all aspects of marine micro-algae, physiology and
biochemistry, ecology, taxonomy, cell biology and
ultrastructure, and algal -/culture: Dr Jeffrey, recently
extended her interests to field hatcheries and nurseries with
axenic microalgae, for use as food for early -stages Jot
cultured animal species. She also initiated "a “serves of

"Microalgae for Mariculture" workshops. This proved a_ highly
successful move to orient research to the needs of industry
and establish a process of technology transfer. With her co-
workers, Dr Jeffrey has helped identify the causative
Organisms in paralytic shell fish poisoning and bitter taste
contamination due to toxic algae. The group is presently
tackling factors causing blooms of toxic species.

Dr Jeffrey has published extensively maintaining a prodigious
research output while undertaking major administrative roles
for her organisation. She has made many contributions to

education of marine science through her writings, editorial
work, workshops, UNESCO activities and provision of laboratory
materials. ‘In 1988, she was awarded the inaugural Jubilee
Award for Excellence in Marine Science by the Australian
Marine Sciences Association. In May 1991 she was elected a
Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science for outstanding
contributions to science and marine research. Dr Jeffrey is

an admirable choice to be the recipient of the: Clarke’ Medal
for 1991;

EDGEWORTH DAVID MEDAL FOR 1991

The Edgeworth David Medal, for distinguished contributions to Australian science by

a young scientist under the age of 35, is awarded to Dr Mark Stephen Harvey, BSc, PhD
Monash.

Mark Harvey is Curator of Arachnids at the Museum of Western Australia, a post
he has held since 1989. His appointment to the curatorship testifies to his international
standing and outstanding scientific achievements.

His work has centred on the systematic survey of pseudoscorpions of the Australasian
region. He has written a detailed catalogue of all species of pseudoscorpions which stands
as the definitive work on these species. Amongst his 44 research papers, he has described
new species of water mites and revised the description of micro-whip scorpions, revealing
25 species in 5 new genera for which he has proposed a novel naming system. His work on
arachnid biogeography shows close relationships between Australia, India, southern Africa
and Madagascar and indicates an ancient faunal assemblage in Australia. He has received
support from the prestigious Australian Biological Resources Study for studies of three
quite separate orders of arachnids.

Mark has a reputation as an excellent speaker, noted for the clarity and humour of
his presentations. He has been successful in communicating science to both expert and
general audiences and his book Worms to Wasps, written jointly with Alan Yen, brings the
numerous wonders of Australian invertebrates to lay readers. He is Editor of the journal

AWARDS

Australasian Arachnology and a member of the Editorial Boards of several other journals

in his field.

Mark Harvey’s contributions to taxonomy and the study of invertebrates and to the
application of science to environmental issues make him a very worthy recipient of the

Edgeworth David Medal.

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES MEDAL
FOR 1991

The Society’s Medal for contributions to the progress of the Society and to Science is
awarded to Associate Professor Denis Edwin Winch, MSc, PhD Syd, FRAS. Denis Winch
joined the Society in 1968 and was elected to the Council in 1984. He became President
in 1988 and has served as Vice-President since 1989.

Denis Winch has been Associate Professor in the Department of Applied Mathemat-
ics at the University of Sydney since 1973. He is known nationally and internationally
for his research on the Earth’s magnetic field and this was the subject of his Presidential
Address in 1989. Geomagnetism, the mathematical analysis of spherical harmonic func-
tions which underpins it, and the interpretation of magnetic variations and wobbles are the
themes which have driven his work throughout a long career at the University of Sydney.
He has for some years been a member of a Working Group of the International Associa-

tion of Geomagnetism and Aeronomy concerned with defining the slowly-varying part of

the Earth’s magnetic field through the analysis of data contributed by observing stations
around the world. In a recent joint project with Professor Keith Runcorn of the University
of Newcastle-upon-Tyne and others, he is using voltage measurements on undersea cables
to monitor variations in the magnetic field and to define the contributions from the solar
and lunar cycles and those generated within the Earth. He has observed that changes in

the variation of the Earth’s magnetic field can be linked to changes in the structure of

the upper atmosphere and to changes in global ocean circulation. His work is therefore
relevant to the understanding of ozone levels in the stratosphere and perhaps also to the
interpretation of the so-called Greenhouse Effect.

Denis is a most conscientious university teacher and a capable and patient administra-
tor. He was the First Acting Head of the School of Mathematics and Statistics at the time
of the historic merging of the separate Departments of Pure and Applied Mathematics
at the University of Sydney into a single School. He then served as Deputy Head of the
School throughout 1991, responsible for most of the administration and for setting the new
enterprise on its feet.

He has brought the same qualities to his work in the Royal Society of New South
Wales. He ran a very successful Summer School on Light in 1985 and played a major role
in the Summer School on Computing and Science in 1986. He has agreed to take on the
arduous duties of Honorary Treasurer for the Society in 1992.

Denis Winch’s contributions to the Society and to science through his work in math-
ematics and magnetism make him a very worthy recipient of the Society’s Medal.

33

34 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS

ARTHUR FREDERICK ALAN HARPER, AO, MSc,
F.inst< PP, “FAIP (Hon .;’)

I first met Mr.Harper back in 1947.
I was then a newly graduated physicist
responsible for temperature standards at
the Defence Research Laboratory,
Maribyrnong, Victoria. Mr.Harper had
agreed to accept me for a four-weeks
training period in his Heat Section at the
CSIRO National Standards Laboratory (NSL),
as it was then called. It was my
privilege to return to the NSL from mid-
1956 to late 1958 to assist with research
into the establishment of the
International Temperature Scale.
Mr.Harper not only taught me how to
undertake scientific research, he also
introduced me (as he did many others) to
the Royal Society of New South Wales where
I was admitted as a member while he was
its President during 1959/60.

I apologise for these references to
myself in this tribute to his memory. I
want to emphasise that I do not write
about Mr.Harper as a stranger but that I
owe him a substantial debt of gratitude,
and this in many more ways than for the
incidents cited above. I have known many
others in the same position as myself
because Alan Harper was essentially a
giver, someone whose inner resources could
enrich the personalities of those around
him.

Through hard thinking and hard
working he had amassed an impressive
wealth of high character traits and
intellectual competence. These were the
characteristics he brought to bear on
whatever he did. The Royal Society of New
South Wales, its members and its Council,
were fortunate recipients of these gifts

while Mr.Harper served on Council from
1955 to 1967 and continued to give his
valuable support while no longer an office
bearer. He was a highly deserving
recipient of the Medal of the Society and
was later elected a Life Member.

Mr.Harper's contributions to the
physical sciences and to society at large
are summarised on the attached list. The
length of this list is an eloquent
testimcny to the abilities, the generosity
and the public-spiritedness of the man.

He was a devoted and conscientious husband
and father, a competent colleague who
stood by his undertakings through "thick
and thin", and a thoughtul and considerate
boss to those who worked under his
direction.

Although he had his share of honours
and recognition - needless to add, a much
smaller share than due to his work on
behalf of all of us - fate imposed upon

him many heavy burdens which he bore with
uncomplaining fortitude.

No-one who looks at his manifold
achievements over some five decades and a
very wide field of activities - notably
his crowning achievements as Executive
Member of the Australian Metric Conversion
Board and Chairman of the National
Standards Commission - would not feel
pride and satisfaction to have been in
some ways associated with him or regret
not to have had the privilege of having
met him in person. While there will be a
Royal Society of New South Wales, its
members will treasure the memory of Arthur
Frederick Alan Harper.

Glc. L..

ARTHUR FREDERICK ALAN HARPER (1913-1991)
BIOGRAPHICAL SUMMARY
(relating to his scientific career)

1913 Born in Sydney

1924-8 Educated in England; First-class
Honours in Oxford Senior Examin-

ations 1928

1928 Returned to Australia and
completed secondary schooling at
Wolaroi College, Orange

1929 NSW Leaving Certificate

1930-4 BSc (Sydney University) with
First-class Honours & University
Medal (1934) in Physics

1933 Co-founder and President, Sydney
University Physical Society

1935 MSc (Sydney University) in
Physics for research on an

1936

1938

19:39

1939)=40

1941

1943

1943-5

1945-6

1945

v945=71

1948-70

1950

1950

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS

accurate determination of the
absolute velocity of beta
particles from Radium (B+C)

Appointed Physicist to Hospitals
in NSW by the Cancer Research
Committee of the University of
Sydney

President, Sydney University
Science Association

Member, Royal Society of NSW

Elected to Associateship of the
Institute of Physics (A.Inst.P)

Awarded Studentship in Physics
by the Council for Scientific
and Industrial Research (CSIR)
to be trained at the National
Physical Laboratory (NPL),
Teddington, in activities
related to the newly established
National Standards Laboratory of
CSIR

Training at NPL, Teddington

Appointed Assistant Research
Officer in the Physics Section,
National Standards Laboratory,
with responsibility for
establishing pyrometric
measurements for industry and,
later, Commonwealth standards of
measurement of temperature,
viscometry, humidity and thermal
conductivity

Inaugural NSW Branch Chairman,
CSIRO Officers Association
(CSIROOA)

Vice-President, CSIROOA
President, CSIROOA

Elected to Fellowship of the
Institute of Physics (F.Inst.P)

Leader, Heat Section of the
CSIRO Division of Physics

Chairman, NATA Registration
Advisory Committee for Heat and
Temperature Measurement

Reclassified to Principal
Research Officer, CSIRO

W.R.G. Kemp and A.F.A.Harper
first liquified helium in
Australia in June 1950 in a
liquifier constructed in the NSL
workshop

ieee

io S1=60

1954

T954=7.1

1954

1954

LIDS 62

Loa

1963

I963—6

L967 —=3

1967-8

13969—=70
1979

Lo7 tS

TOTS

1978-61

1979-80

Australian representative on
Technical Committee 48
(Volumetric Glassware and
Thermometry) of the
International Standards
Organisation (ISO)

Member and Convener,
Constitution Committee, CSIROOA

Harper (with R.G.Wylie and
M.H.Cass) developed hypothermia
equipment for heart surgery

Member, Consultative Committee
on Thermometry (CCT),
International Bureau of Weight
and Measures (BIPM)

Assistant Secretary, National
Standards Commission

Australian Representative,
International Institute of
Refrigeration

Honorary Secretary, Australian
Branch of the Institute of
Physics and the Physical Society

Reclassified Senior Principal
Research Officer

Elected to Honorary Life
Membership, CSIRO Officers
Association

Foundation Honorary Secretary,
Australian Institute of Physics
(AIP)

Vice President, AIP

Technical Consultant, Senate
Select Committee on Metrication

President, AIP
Member of the S.A.A.Council

Executive Member, Australian
Metric Conversion Board

Elected to Honorary Fellowship
of the Australian Institute of
Physics (Hon.FAIP)

Chairman, National Standards
Commission

Executive Board Member of the
S.A.A.Council

36 ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL

Speech by His Excellency Rear-Admiral Peter Sinclair, A.O.,
Governor of New South Wales,
at Annual Dinner and Presentation of Medals,
Royal Society of New South Wales, 18th March 1992

Dr.Edmund Potter - President Royal Society of NSW
Members of Council

Distinguished Guests

Members of the Royal Society

My wife and I are very pleased to be with
you tonight for this Annual Dinner of the Society.
I feel particularly honoured as Patron to have
been asked to present the Royal Society Awards to
worthy recipients, as I am aware of both the
historical and scientific significance of these
Awards,

Whilst I am very proud to be Patron of the
Royal Society of New South Wales, I cannot claim
to be a scientist, and I must confess that some
of the papers that I read in the Society's Journal
are a shade beyond my comprehension. However, I
do take some comfort from the fact that my back-
ground as a Naval Officer over four decades
gives me at least a tenuous link with sailors of
the past who were prominent in many fields of
science,

Captain Cook would have to be a classic
example, and it might not be stretching credibil-
ity too far to claim that the genesis of this
Society might be traced to the stimulus provided
by Cook, Banks and Solander during the epic visit
by "Endeavour" in 1770. Cook became a fellow of
the Royal Society, as did the much and unfairly
maligned Captain Bligh some years later, through
his contribution to extending the frontiers of
scientific discovery in his day.

Bligh also introduces my second personal
link with this Society in that he was also the
fourth Governor of New South Wales. Many of the
early Governors made significant contributions to
the advance of science in this country, but
perhaps none more so than the sixth Governor,
Sir Thomas Brisbane. He was an accomplished
astronomer who brought the then state of the
art equipment to establish an observatory at
Parramatta when he first arrived in Sydney in
1821. He subsequently catalogued some 7,385
Southern Hemisphere stars. Governors clearly
had more spare time in those days, or perhaps
it was the absence of television!

Governor Brisbane also encouraged the
formation in 1821 of the Philosophical Society of
Australasia, with a view to enquiring into the
various branchesof physical science of this vast
continent and its adjacent regions. This later
evolved into the Australian Philosophical Society
in 1850, the Philosophical Society of New South
Wales in 1855 and finally, due partly, I under-
stand, to problems with the word ''Philosophical",
to the founding of the Royal Society of New South
Wales in 1866.

The conflict between hilosophical and
scientific emphasis in the name of the Society
is interesting. I think it was Bertram Russell
who once said that "Science is what we know and
Philosophy is what we don't know",

That may be an over-simplification, and
sciencific endeavour is, after all, stimulated
by the unique human desire to explore and explain
the unknown. However, it does seem to me that
Philosophy and Science both fit well with the
Society's past (and present) activities and
achievements, and will continue to do so in the
future.

In its two centuries of modern history,
Australia can rightly claim to have made an
outstanding contribution to the advancement of
science; in almost every field of scientific
endeavour — medicine, chemistry, geology, botany,
agronomy, aviation, astronomy, to name but a few,
Australians have made their mark in history; this
in spite of limited resources and national
support, which falls well short of that enjoyed
by scientists overseas,

Our scientists are not just important -
they are critical to our future in this ever
competitive world, And yet, we do not seem to be
able to give them the public recognition and
status that their achievements deserve. Sports
stars, singers, T.V. announcers, and even solid-
hoofed, herbivorous quadrupeds, become national
household names, but I doubt whether too many
Australians could name one of the many Australian
scientists of world standing.

This is sad for many reasons, and it says
something about our level of maturity as a
nation and our inability to identify national
priorities or real substance. It 1s perhaps
partly the reason why science subjects are not as
popular as they should be in our secondary and
tertiary education systems; why too many gifted
Australians export their talents; and why Aust-
ralian industry, with few exceptions, seems
unable to properly capitalise on the extra-
ordinary achievements of our scientific community.

We must lift the level of national recogn-
ition for science generally and leave our
achievers in no doubt that they are genuine
Australian heroes of whom this nation is
immensely proud,

The Royal Society of New South Wales has a
fundamental role to play in this process of
recognition, Through the Summer School and other
such initiatives, you are able to stimulate the
curiosity and interest of the younger generations
in science. You provide opportunities for
publication of papers and debate on subjects of

ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL 37

relevance, and through your annual awards of
prizes and medals you recognise excellence in
scientific achievement.

You cannot overstate the value of this
contribution that the Royal Society is making
to the Australian community.

I know that you will maintain the proud
traditions begun so many years ago and in so
doin will help to ensure that future generations
will inherit an even better Australia, There
could be no more noble objective.

Summer School on “Communication”, January 13 - 17, 1991
Official Opening Address by the Honourable Ross Free,
Minister for Science and Technology,
and Minister Assisting the Prime Minister

I am pleased to be here to open the Royal
Society of New South Wales 1992 Summer
School.

The theme of this year's Summer School -

Communication - is one of particular
importance to a country as vast as
Australia. Te is an exciting and
challenging field which is rapidly
expanding and will offer many
opportunities. The idea of this Summer

School is to introduce young people to
some of the many achievements and
responsibilities of people working in this
important field.

The Summer School helps increase awareness
of the importance of science and
technology to Australia and society in
general. It also highlights to young
people some of the benefits of pursuing a
career in science or technology.These aims
are of great interest to me, and I would
like to take this opportunity to commend
the hard work of all those who have been
involved in making this Summer _ School
possible.

Initiatives such as this, which capture,
the imagination and stimulate an interest
in science and technology are vital in
promoting a positive future for Australia.

Over the last decade, the Government has
done much to strengthen the role of
science and technology in the life of the
nation.

Commonwealth support for science and
innovation has increased by 29 per cent in

real terms since 1982-83. In this year's
Budget, Commonwealth support rose _ from
$2.4 billion to around $2.6 billion, an
increase of 4.3%. Since then a further

$30 million has been committed.Much of
this support has been directed towards
research and development that can be

applied effectively tO improving our

national well-being.

We need to be able to generate income and
benefits from our scientific developments.
The communications field is one where
Australia has been able to capture the
benefits of research - the connection of
remote areas of the country by solar
telephones is a good example. The
Government also has a strong commitment to
raising awareness among young people of
the importance of science and technology.

For Australia to maintain its place among
the developed nations of the world, it
Must embrace a culture of which science
and technology are vital elements.In the
future, Lt “2s likely that many more
Australians will become involved in
technology-based employment. Expertise in

the various fields of $science and
technology - such as communication - can
give our industries 4a competitive edge.

An excellent example is Telecom, which is
now exporting its services.

Australian scientists, technologists’ and
engineers are among the best in the world.
Australian scientists have won the Nobel

38 ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL

Prize and an Australian, Professor Allen
Kerr, was one of the winners of the first
Australia Prize for outstanding
contributions to science.

The winner of the second Australia Prize
1s to be announced in Sydney on Thursday
week. The Prize this year will be given
for contributions to mining science and

there are many Australians among’ the
nominations. In another outstanding
achievement, a young Australian

astronomer, Matthew Bailes, was one of the
discoverers of the first planet found
outside our solar system.

Younger Australians are acknowledged for
their contributions to science and
technology through the BHP Awards. For
example, Gregory Fox, a 16 year old from
Sydney, recently won one of the - BHP
Science Awards for his study of the
effects of bushfires on germination of
Native plants.

Australians must value their scientists,
technologists and engineers more highly.
We make heroes of our sportsmen and women
but not of our scientists. There are big-
selling magazines devoted to our cricket
and football stars, but I've never seen a

Magazine that has pin-ups of our
scientists. Scientists, technologists and
engineers produce real wealth fOr
Australia - from disease free agricultural

products to computer software packages.
Trade in these goods and services creates
jobs and helps to build a stronger, better
future for Australia.

I am very pleased to see many young women
here today. It cannot be overstressed how
important it is that women as well as men
know about and understand the importance
of science and technology. Women can also
have a strong influence on the attitudes

of young people - as career scientists, as
parents and as teachers. All young people
should appreciate how science and
technology affects their lives. You
represent tomorrow's decision makers,
workers, teachers, journalists and
politicians. For the future of Australia,

we need more smart, innovative, thoughtful
citizens.

Young people are often uncertain about
their options when making career choices,
and often have mixed feelings towards
possible careers in science, engineering
and technology.

Yet a career in these areas does not mean
being shut up in a remote laboratory.
Science. 15-..a),..social “activity. Modern
scientists work as part of a team.

Communication between scientists, and with
users of research results, is increasingly
important. The general public are often a
forgotten audience fOr scientific
research.

The stereotype of the scientist as an
awkward old man dressed in a white coat
with a beard and thick horn-rimmed glasses
is a myth we must put to rest.

Today, that scientist is just as likely to
be a young man or woman and the white lab
coat might be replaced by a business suit,
a wet suit or a hard hat. Depending on
one's personal interests, a career” an
science can lead to jobs in many fields.
Many scientists work on important issues
which affect us all in one way or another.

Issues such as public health, the
environment, agriculbtwre and
manufacturing. Skills learnt as

ability to
based on
readily

scientists, such as the
research and draw conclusions
methodical observations, can be
applied to other areas of work.

You will discover scientists working in
fields as diverse as politics, statistics,
teaching and journalisn. Of course, these
skills can also be used effectively in
Managing our personal lives - in making
informed consumer choices, for example.

I hope that the young people who come to
this Summer School will consider careers
in science or technology - the
opportunities and challenges facing our
nation are continually expanding. The
scientists of tomorrow can and, I hope,
will make the difference. I am sure you
will all enjoy the coming week.

I have much pleasure in opening the Royal
Society of New South Wales 1992 Summer
Schoo].

ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL 39

Participants in the Summer School on "Communication" ,
January ~©992, at Macquarie University. Front row left:
Dr,. DoJ. Swaine, Member of Council of the Society;

front row right: Mrs.M.Krysko v. Tryst, Honorary Con-
vener of the Summer School,

2nd row from front on left: Mrs.M.Potter and in centre:
Mr, E.C.Potter, President of the Society.

Last row’back on left: Mr.G.W.K.Ford, Vice-President of
the Society.

From wlere to righe: Mr.b.C. Potter, President of the
Society, Mr.David Henry, National Manager Education,
Telecom Australia, the Honourable Ross Free, Minister
for Science and Technology, and Minister Assisting the
Prime Minister, and Mr.Gary Lane, Regional Chief Engi-
neer, Telecom Australia. Mr.D.Henry and Mr. G.Lane
represented the sponsor of the Summer School: Telecom
Australia.

one

ie
a
oii
3

Members of the Society, June 1992 4]

The year of election to membership and the number of papers contributed to the Society's Journal are

shown in brackets, thus: (1936: P6)

HONORARY MEMBERS

BIRCH, Emeritus Professor Arthur John, MSc,DPhil,
FAA, CMG, FRS, AC, 14 Weatherburn Place,
Bruce,,ACT, 2617 (1973: P8)

CAREY, Emeritus Professor Samuel Warren, AQ,
DSc Syd., Hon DSc. PNG, FNAI, FAA,
"Ellimatta', 24 Richardson Avenue,
Dynnyrne, Tasmania, 7000. (1938: P2)

CORNFORTH, Sir John Warcup, CBE, AC, FRS,
DPhil. Oxf., Nobel Prize, Royal Society
Research Professor, University of Sussex,
Sussex, BNI 9QJ, England. (1977: P6)

CRAIG, Professor David Parker, MSc. Syd.,
DSc... (Hon.)Syd., PhD, DSc. London,
FRS Chem., FRACI, FAA, FRS, (1985: P7)

FIRTH, Raymond William, Emeritus Professor
of Anthropology, DLitt., MA, PhD,
33 Southwood Avenue, London, N6, England.
(1974)

HILL, Dorothy, Emeritus Professor of Geology |
§& Mineralogy, CBE, PhD. Camb., DSc,
Hon LLD(Q), FRS, FGS, FAA, c/- Dept. of
Geology, University of Queensland,
St.Lucia, Qld. 4067. (1970: P7)

Mc CARTHY, Frederick David, Dip.Anthr., Hon DSc
ANU, FAHA, 10 Tycannah Road, Northbridge,
2063. (1974: Pl; Pres.1956)

NOSSAL, Sir Gustav Joseph Victor, Kt, CBE, PhD
FRCP, FAA, Director Walter § Eliza Hall
Institute, P.O. Royal Melbourne Hospital,
Melbourne, Vic. 3050. (1986)

OLIPHANT, Sir Marcus Elwin, AC, KBE, DSc, PhD,
FTS, FRS, FAA, 28 Carstenz Street, Griffith,
ACT, 2603. (1948)

PRICE, Sir Robert James, KBE, DSc Adeil., DPhil.
Oxf., FAA, 2 Ocean View Avenue, Red Hill
South, Vic. 3937. (1976)

ROBERTSON, Emeritus Professor Sir Rutherford Ness,
Kt, CMG, AC, PhD Camb., DSc, FRS, FAA,
P.O.Box 9, Binalong, N.S.W. 2584. (1985)

STANTON, Richard Limon, Emeritus Professor,

MSc, PhD Syd, FAA, HonFIMM, Department
of Geology, University of New England,
Armidale, N.S.W. 2351 (1949; P2)

WHITE, Sir Frederick William George, KBE, CBE,
DSc, PhD, FAA, FRS, 3/3 St.Ninians Road,
Brighton Vic. 3186. (1973)

WILD, John Paul, AC, CBE, ScD Camb., Hon DSc ANU,
FTS, FAA, FRS, Chairman, VFT, GPO Box 2188
Canberra, ACT, 2601. (1990)

ORDINARY MEMBERS

ADRIAN, Jeanette, BSc., 18 Oxford Falls Road,

Beacon Hill, N.S.W. 2106 (1970)

ALEXANDER, Charles Victor, "Loyola", 14 Orinoco
Street, Pymble, N.S.W. 2073 (1990)

ANDERSON, Geoffrey William, BSc, BE, P.O.Box 1210,
Lane Cove, N.S.W. 2066 (1948)

ARCHER, Professor Michael, BA Prin, PhD WA,
FRS London, FRZS NSW, School of Biological
Sczrence, University of N.S.W., P.0.Box 1,
Kensington, N.S.W. 2033 (1985)

ARDITTO, Peter Andrew, BSc, MSc, Dip.Ed,
BHP Petroleum, 35 Collins Street,
Melbourne, Vic. 3000 (1981)

BADHAM, Dr.Charles David, MB, BS, DR Syd, FRACR,
BSc NSW, ''New Lodge'', 96 Windsor Street,
Paddington, N.S.W. 2021 (1962)

BAGGS, Dr.David Warwick, B.Arch (Hons) NSWIT,
9 Featherwood Way, Castle Hill, NSW. (1992)

BAGGS, Sydney Allison, BArch, DipArch, MArch,
Land Des, PhD, 4 De Villiers Avenue,
Chatswood, N.S.W. 2067 (1989)

BAKER, Stanley Charles, Msc, PhD, FRIED,
4 Aldyth Street, New Lambton,
NSW 2305. (1934; P4)

BANFIELD, James Edmond, MSc, PhD Melb,
Department of Botany, University of England,
Armidale, N.S.W. 2351 (1963)

BANKS, Maxwell Robert, AM, BSc Syd, Dr (HC) Lille,
DSc Tas, 38 View Street, Sandy Bay, TAS. 7000
(1951)

BARKAS, John Pallister, BSc, P.O.Box 281, Pymble,
N.S.W. 2073 (1972)

BARNETT, Ian Lindsay, DipAgr Hawkesbury,
145 Kenthurst Road, Kenthurst, N.S.W. 2156
(1990)

BASDEN, Helena, BSc, Syd, DipEd Syd, MAppSci UTNSW,

3 Norfolk Avenue, Collaroy Beach, NSW 2097
(1970)

BASDEN, Kenneth Spencer, BSc UNSW, PhD UNSW, ARACI
MAusIMM, ASTC, CEng, FInstF, FAIE, MIEAust,
P.O.Box 148, Lawson, N.S.W. 2783 (1951: Pl)

BEADLE, Noel Charles William, Emeritus Professor,
DSc Syd, P.O.Box 259, Armidale, N.S.W. 2350
(1964; 1983)

BEAN, Judith M., PhD,c/- Mrs.L.Hathaway, Yarrandoo,
Mullaley, N.S.W. 2379 (1975; Pl)

BEATTIE, David Raymond Hamilton, BSc (Hons) Syd,
BE (ElecHons), MEngSc UNSW,
858 Henry Lawson Drive, Picnic Point, N.S.W.
2215. (1977)

42 MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY

BEAVIS, Francis Clifford, Emeritus Professor, MA
Camb, BSc Melb, LLB UNSW, FGS, PhD Melb,
1 Lowan Place, Cowra, N.s.W. 2794 (C1975. oP lr:
Pres. 1978)

BENNETT, John Makepeace, Emeritus Professor, AO,
BE, (CIV)., BE (Med & Elect), BSc oid;
PhD Camb, FACS, FBCS, FIEAust, FIMA,
P.O. Box 22,. Balcowlah, N.S.W. 2093. (1978)

BHATHAL, Ragbir, CertEd, BSc, PhD, FSAAS,
26 Lucinda Avenue, Georges Hall, N.S.W. 2198
(1982; P2, Pres.1984)

BILLS, Ross Maynard, MB,BS Syd, Shop 15B, Karaba
Centre, Queenbar Road, Queanbeyan, N.S.W.
2620), (1982).

BINNS, Raymond Albert, BSc Syd, PhD Camb,
G.S.L.Rs0., Division of Exploration
GeoScience, P.0.Box 136, North Ryde, N.S.W.
2113 (1964; P1)

BISHOP, Eldred George, 2/12 Muston Street, Mosman,
N.S.W. 2088 (1920)

BLACK, Davad St .Clair, MSc ..Sud., -PhD ‘Camb,
AMus A, FRACI, Professor of Organic
Chemistry and Head of Dept of Organ
nic Chem:stry, University of NSW,
P,O,Box 1, Kensington NSW 2033.
(i983 2 1)

BLACK, Peter Laurence, 342 Cummins Street,
Broken Hill, NSW 2880, (1975).

BLANKS, Fred Roy, AM, BSc,
19 Innes Road, Greenwich, N.S.W. 2065 (1948)

BLAXLAND, David George, MB, BS Syd, FRCPA,
"Coombe''", Adaminaby, N.S.W. 2030 (1977)

BLAYDEN, Ian Douglas, BSc (Hons), PhD Newc,
14 Allison Street, Roseville, N.S.W.
2069 (1966)

BRAKEL, Albert T., BSc, PhD,
c/- Bureau of Mineral Resources, P.O.Box 378,
Canberra,-A.C.1. 2601 (1968;~Pr)

BRANAGAN, David Francis, MSc, PhD, FGS,
83 Minimbah Road, Northbridge, N.S.W. 2063
(1967; P3)

BROPHY, Joseph John, BSc, PhD NSW, DipEd Monash
ARACI, c/- Department of Organic Chemistry,
University of New South Wales, P.0O.Box 1,
Kensington, N.S.W. 2033 (1983; PS)

BROWN, Desmond Joseph, MSc Syd, DIC, PhD, DSc Lond,
FRACI, 2 Hobbs Street, O'Connor, A.C.T. 2601
(1942)

BROWN, Henry Emanuel, MSc, 9 Watford Close, Epping,
NvS:.Wi. 2021 C1975)

BROWN, Kenneth John, ASTC, ARACI, 3 Karda Place,
Gymea, N.S.W. 2227 (1963)

BRYAN, John Hamilton, BSc (Hons), PhD, Managing
Director, Mc Elroy Bryan § Associates Pty,
Ltd., P.O.Box 34, Willoughby, N.S.W. 2068
(1968)

BUCKLEY, Lindsay Arthur, BSc (Hons) Syd, FAIM,
Order of the Rising Sun (Japan),
131 Laurel Avenue, Chelmer, Qld. 4075
(1974)

BURNS, Bruce Bertram, OBE, MDS, FICD,
3 Ocean Grove, Collaroy NSW 2097 (1961)

CALLAGHAN, Patricia Mary, BSc Syd, MSc Melb, ALAA,
814/22 Doris Street, North Sydney, N.S.W.
2060 (1984)

CALLENDER, John Hardy, BSc uNsw, MSc (Hons) Wollg,
11 Lisa Valley Close, Wahroonga, N.S.W, 2076
(1969)

CAMPBELL, Ian Gavin Stuart, BSc, 10/6 Warwilla
Avenue, Wahroonga, N.S.W. 2076 (1955)

CAMPBELL, Kenton Stewart Wall, MSc, PhD Qld, FAA,
Professor and Head of Department of Geology,
Australian National University, Canberra,
ASC oT 2600: (1975; +P)

CARRINGTON, Richard Hewitt Christopher, ThA,
3 Highlands Avenue, Gordon, N.S.W. 2072
(1983)

CAVILL, George William Kenneth,Emeritus Professor,
MSc Syd, PhD, DSc Liv, FAA, FRACI,
24 Ponsonby Parade, Seaforth, N.S.W. 2092
(1944; Pl)

CHAFFER, Edric Keith, 66 Victoria Avenue,
Chatswood, N.S.W. 2067 (1954; Pl; Pres.1975)

CHARMERS, Robert Oliver, c/- Australian Museun,
College Street, Sydney, N.S.W. 2000 (1935; Pl)

CHATFIELD:,. Samuel Peter, 11 Penrose Street,
Lane Cove, N.S.W. 2066 (1988)

CHRISP, Jeremy Storer, BSc (Hons), PhD Canterbury
NZ, 6B Barons Crescent, Boronia Park, N.S.W.
21 (1987)

CHURCHWARD, John Gordon, BSc Agr, PhD, 12 Glen S
Shian Lane, Mount Eliza, Vic. 3930 (1935; P2)

CLANCY, Brian Edward, MSc, PhD, 20 Booyong Avenue,
Lugarno:,2N.S.W. 2210 (1957; PH)

COENRAADS, Robert Raymond, BA (Hons) Macq, MSc
Brit.Columbia, PhD Macg, 8 Trigalana Place,
Frenchs Forest, N.S.W. 2086 (1991; P2)

COHEN, Samuel Bernard, MSc, BEc, ARACI,
Unit 1, "Torrington", 95 Darling Point Road,
Darling Point, N.S.W. 2027 (1940)

COLE, Edward Ritchie, MSc Syd, PhD uNSswWw, FRACI,
"Twickenham", 3/58 Vimiera Road, Eastwood,
N.S.W. 2122 (1940; P2)

MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY 43

COLE, Joyce Marie, BSc, 'Twickenham",
3/58 Vimiera Road, Eastwood, N.S.W. 2122
(1940; P1)

COLE, Trevor William, BE wa, PhD Camb, P.N.Russell
Professor of Electrical Engineering
University of Sydney, N.S.W. 2006 (1978;P1;
Pres .1982)

COLLETT, Gordon, BSc, DipEd, ARACI, 16 Day Road,
Cheltenham, N.S.W. 2119 (1940)

COLLINSON-SMITH, Phillis Ogilvie, P.0.Box 130A,
Armidale, N.S.W. 2350 (1986)

COOK, James Lindsay, BSc, MSc, PhD unsw,
17 Wallumatta Road, Caringbah, N.S.W. 2229
(1990;;P1)

CORTIS-JONES, Beverley, MSc, 19 Medway Drive,
Mount Keira, N.S.W. 2500 (1940)

COX, Charles Dixon, BSc, DipEd Qld, 51 Darley
Street, Forestville, N.S.W. 2087 (1964)

CREELMAN, Robert Auchterlonie, BA, MSc, PhD,
108 Midson Road, Epping, N.S.W. 2121
(1973)

CROOK, Keith Alan Waterhouse, MSc Syd, PhD NE,
BA ANU, Department of Geology, Australian
National University, Canberra, A.C.T. 2600
(1954; P9)

DAVIES, George Frederick, AMIET Lond, 57 Eastern
Avenue, Kingsford, N.S.W. 2032 (1952)

DAY, Alan Arthur, BSc Syd, PhD Camb, FRAS,
P.O.Box 176, Lindfield, N.S.W. 2070
(1952;P3; Pres.1965)

DRAKE, Lawrence Arthur, BA (Hons), BSc Melb,
MA, PhD CALIF, c/- Riverview College,
Observatory, Riverview, N.S.W. 2066
(1962; P3)

DREW, Colleen Ann, BSc (Hons), PhD Syd,
40 Moreshead Drive, South Hurstville,
N.S.W, 2221 (1987)

DULHUNTY, John Allan, DSc Syd, Department of
Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney,
NiS<W. 2006-(1937; P28; Pres.1947)

ELLISON, Dorothy Jean, MSc, Unit 313, Northhaven
Retirement Village, 1332 Pacific Highway,
Turramurra, N.S.W. 2074 (1949)

ENGEL, Brian Adolph, MSc WE, PhD, Department of
Geology, University of Newcastle, N.S.W.
2308 (1961; P1)

EVANS, Philip Richard,BA oxf, PhD Brist, FGS,
14A Mallory Avenue, West Pymble, N.S.W. 2073
(1968; P2)

FACER, Richard Andrew, BSc(Hons), PhD Syd,
MAusIMM, MGSAm, MAGU, 97 Spencer Road,
Killara, N.S.W. 2011 (1965; P3)

FAYLE, Rex Dennis Harris, DipPharm,
P,O.Box 261, Armidale, N.S.W. 2350 (1961)

FELTON, Elizabeth Ann, BSc Anu, FGAA,
8 Nardoo Crescent, O'Connor, A.C.T. 2601
(1977)

FENTON, Ronald Ralph, BSc (Hons) Macq, PhD Macq,
17 Clair Crescent, Padstow Heights, N.S.W.
22117 C1985)

FERGUSSON, Christopher Lloyd, BA (Hons) Macq,
PhD NE, Department of Geology, University
of Wollongong, P.O.Box 1144, Wollongong,
N.S.W. 2500 (1980; P3)

FEWELL, Matthew Peter, BSc (Hons), PhD ANU,
Department of Physics, University of New
England, Armidale, N.S.W. 2351 (1988)

FINLAY, Cecily June, BSc Syd, Unit 16, 1 Carlisle
Close, North Ryde, N.S.W. 2113 (1975)

FLETCHER, Harold Oswald, MSc, 12A Western Road,
Gastle Hill, N.S.W.e 2154 (1935)

FOLDVARY, Gabor Zoltan, BSc, MSc UNSwW,
267 Beauchamp Road, Matraville, N.S.W. 2036
(19653. PL)

FORD, George William Kinvig, MBE, MA Cantab,
133 Wattle Road, Jannali, N.S.W, 2226
(1974; P1;Pres.1990)

FRAZER, Geoffrey Leon, 2 Gilda Avenue, Wahroonga,
N.S.W. 2076 (1976)

FROST, Janet Patricia, BA, DipEd, 9 Panorama
Street, Kooringal, N.S.W. 2650 (1977)

GAGE, William Henry, P.O.Box 130, Avalon, N.S.W.
2170 (1982)

GANDEVIA, Simon Charles, BSc (Med), MB, BS, PhD,
MD UNSW, 24 Dudley Street, Coogee, N.S.W.
2034 (1985)

GASCOIGNE, Robert Mortimer, PhD, 5 Wahroonga
Avenue, Wahroonga, N.S.W. 2076 (1939; P4)

GIBBONS, George Studley, MSc Syd, PhD nsw, FAIG,
38 Durham Street, Stanmore, N.S.W. 2048
(1966; P2; Pres.1980)

GILLESPIE, Peter James, BSc, BE Syd,
8 Alexander Avenue, Mosman, N.S.W. 2088
(1977)

GILLESPIE, Thomas Rome, BSc Syd, 14 Joseph Street,
Lilyfield, N.S.W. 2040 (1986)

GLASSON, Kenneth Roderick, BEM, BSc Syd, MSc Syd,
76 Charles Avenue, Minnamurra, N.S.W, 2532
(1948; Pl)

GLEN, Richard Arthur, BSc (Hons) Syd, PhD Adel,
Department of Minerals & Energy, P.O.Box 536,
St. Leonards, N.S.W. 2065 (1983; P2)

to MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY

GOLDING, Henry George, MSc, PhD, 361 Burns Bay
Road, Lane Cove, N.S.W. 2066 (1953; P6)

GOULD, Rodney Edward, BSc, PhD Qld, P.O.Box 501,
Clayfield, Qld. 4011 (1973; P3)

GOW, Neil Neville, BSc (Hons) 678 Powell Court,
Burlington Court, Ontario, L7R 3E8 Canada,
(1966)

GRAHAM, Ian Terence, BAppSci (Hons) AppGeol UNSW,
17 Slattery Way, Kingsford, N.S.W. 2032
(1987)

GRANT, John N.Guerrato, DipEng, 5 Jayne Close,
Armidale, N.S.W. 2350 (1961)

GRAY, Noel Mackintosh, BSc, 1 Centenary Avenue,
Hunters “Hill N.S.W. 2110. (1952)

GRIFFITH, James Langford, BA, MSc, 9 Kanoona
Street, Caringbah, N.S.W.. 2229 (1952317;
Pres .1958)

GROSE, Kelvin Lloyd, BA, PhD Syd, P.O.Box 740,
Bowral, N.S.W. 2576 (1986)

GROVER, John Charles, OBE, BE (Hons), MSc Syd,
21 Cotentin Road, Belrose, N.S.W. 2085
(1990)

GUY, Brian Bertram, BSc Syd, PhD Syd, 8 Tivoli
Avenue, Rose Bay, N.S.W. 2029 (1968; P2)

HALL, Norman Frederick Blake, MSc Syd,
67 Wookarra Avenue, Elanora Heights, N.S.W.
2101 (1934)

HANCOCK, Harry Sheffield, MSc Syd, 16 Koora
Avenue, Wahroonga, N.S.W. 2076 (1955;Pres.
1989)

HANLON, Margaret Ann, BA (Hons) PhD,
21/43 Musgrave Street, Mosman, N.S.W. 2088
(1991)

HARDIE, John Robert, BSc, FGS, MACE,
20/351 Edgecliff Road, Edgecliff, N.S.W.
2027 (1979)

HARDWICK, Ronald Leslie, MEd, BSc, GradDip
Hydrogeology Qld, "Bonnie Doon" via
Leyburn, Qld. 4352 (1968)

HARDY, Clarence James, BSc (Hons), PhD, DSc,
CChem, FRIC, MAusIMM, 39 Neirbo Avenue,
Hurstville, N.S.W. 2220 (1976)

HARPER, Keith, Supervision Cert,
12/8-12 Giddings Avenue, Cronulla, N.S.W.
2230 (1991)

HAWKINS, David, 50 Beaumont Road, Killara,
NooaW.0 2071. C1975)

HAYDON, Sydney Charles, MA Oxf, PhD Wales,
FInstP, FAIP, 162 Galloway Street, Armidale,
N.oeW. 2350 (1965)

HELBY, Robin James, MSc, PhD, 356A Burns Bay Road,
Lane Cove, N.S.W, 2066 (1966; P3)

HENRY, Hugh Moore, BA Syd, BA Macq, 11 Fifth
Avenue, Cremorne, N.S.W. 2090 (1988; P2)

HILLS, Brian Andrew, MA Camb, DipChemEng Lond,
BSc, PhD, DSc Adel, ScD Camb, CEng, MIChemE,
ARIC, Professor, Department of Physiology,
University of New England, Armidale, N.S.W.
2351 (1986; P1)

HODGSON, Jack Dudley, MIE, 9 Philip Road,
Mona Vale, N.S.W. 2103 (1982)

HOSKING, Aubrey Darnell, BE, DIC, FGS, MIEAust,
"Guyangal", Bermagui, N.S.W, 2546 (1988)

HUMPHRIES, John William, BSc NZ, CPhys, MInstP
Lond, AIP 27 Eustace Parade, Killara,
N.S.W. 2071 (19595 Pl; Pres 31959)

HUNT, David Christopher,’ BSc (Hons) sud;
MSc, PhD Warwick, School of Mathem-
atics, University of New South Wales,
P.O.Box 1, Kensington, NeSiWi 2054
(1986)

JAMES, Veronica Jean, BA Qld, BSc Qld, PhD,
A/Professor, Department of Physics,
University of New South Wales,

P,O0.Box 1, Kensington, N.S.W. 2055) (1985)

JENKINS, Thomas Benjamin Huw, BSc, PhD wales,
FGS, 89 Eton Road, Lindfield, N.S.W. 2070
(1956)

JEZ, Joseph, ARAIA, ARIBA, 57 Young Street,
Sylvania Heights, N.S.W. 2224 (1974)

JONES, The Honourable Barry Owen, FM,
P.O.Locked Bag 14, Werribee, Vic. 3030
(1984; Pl)

KASTALSKY, Victor, BSc, PhD unSw, ASTC, MinstP,
MAIP, 51 Kilbride Street, Hurlstone Park,
N.S.W. 2193 (1979;P1)

KELVIN, Norbert Victor Peter, BE (Hons) UNSW,
MS Yale, MPhil Yale, PhD Yale,
25 Bayview Street, Lavender Bay, N.S.W. 2060
(1990)

KIDD, Susan Elizabeth, BA, DipEd, 16 Bowen Avenue,
Turramurra, N.S.W. 2074 (1984)

KIMPTON, Christopher David, BSc (Hons) Syd,
222 Midson Road, Epping, N.S.W. 2121 (1987)

KING, David Stephen, BSc (Hons), PhD, 21 Blue Gum
Drive, East Ryde, N.S.W. 2113 (1977; P12)

KING, Glenn Frederick, BSc (Hons), PhD Syd,
c/- Department of Biochemistry, University
of Sydney, N.S.W. 2006 (1986)

KOCH, Leo E, DPhil habil, 21 Treatts Road,
Lindfield, N.S.W. 2070 (1948)

MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY 45

KORSCH, Russell John, BSc (Hons), DipEd NE,
PhD NE, Bureau of Mineral Resources,
GoP.02 Box.378, Canberra, AzC.T. 2601
(1971; P10)

KRYSKO von TRYST, Maren, BSc, GradDip (MinTech)
UNSW, MAusIMM, 116 Midson Road, Epping,
N.S.W. 2121 (1959)

KRZYSZTON, Andrew John Michael, MB, BS Syd,
BSc (Med) Syd, "Jalna", 54 Farm Road,
Springwood, N.S.W. 2777 (1985)

LAMOND, David John, BSc Syd, BE Syd, 31 Green-
haven Drive, Pennant Hills, N.S.W. 2120
(1990)

LANDER, John, MB, BS, BSc (Med), PhD, FFA, RACS,
19 Dalton Road, St.Ives, N.S.W. 2075-
(1977)

LASSAK, Erich Vincent, MSc, PhD, ASTC, FRACI,
P.0.Box 27, Berowra Heights, N.S.W. 2082
(1964; P4)

LAU, Vincent Chi-Kin, address unknown.

LAU, Henry Po Kun, MB, BS, FRCPA, Box 5202 TMC,
Townsville, Qld. 4810 (1979)

LAWRANCE, Anthony Bohun, BSc (Hons) UWA, MBA UNSW,
4 Yarrawonga Close, Pymble, N.S.W. 2073
(1980)

LAWRENCE, Laurence James, DipCom Syd, PhD NSw,
DIC, DSc Syd, FAusIMM, 15 Japonica Road,
Epping, N.S.W. 2121 (1951; P4)

LEAVER, Gaynor Eluned, BSc Wales, DipEd, FGS
(Lond), 30 Ingalara Avenue, Wahroonga,
N.S.W. 2076 (1961)

LINDLEY, Ian David, BSc (Hons) UNSW, PhD UNSW,
P,O.Box 808, Rabaul, Papua New Guinea,
(1980; P2)

LIONS, Jean Elizabeth, BSc, 42/28 Curugal Road,
North Turramurra, N.S.W. 2074 (1940)

LOMB, Nicholas Ralph, BSc, PhD, Sydney Observ-
atory, P.O.Box K346, Haymarket, N.S.W.
2000 (1980; PS)

LOUGHNAN, Frederick Charles, BSc Syd, PhD,
DSc NSW, MAusIMM, 4 Pindari Avenue,
Castle Cove, N.S.W. 2069 (1979; P2)

LOWENTHAL, Gerhard C., BA Melb, BSc Melb,
DipPubAdmin Melb, MSc unNnsw, PhD UNSW,
FAIP, MInstP, 30/2-8 Gerard Street,
Cremorne, N.S.W. 2090 ((1989)

LOXTON, John Harold, MSc Melb, PhD Camb, Professor
School of Mathematics, Physics, Computing
and Electronics, Macquarie University, N.S.W.
2109 (1974; Pl; Pres.1985)

LYONS, Michael Thomas, DipTech (Sc) NSwrT, MChem

UNSW, 24 Woorak Crescent, Miranda, N.S.W,
22207 ( 1974.) P 1)

LYONS, Stephen Damian, BSc (Hons) Melb, PhD Syd,
c/- Department of Biochemistry,
University of Sydney, N.S.W. 2006 (1991)

MACLEOD, Roy Malcolm, AB Harv, PhD Camb,
FRHistS, Professor, Department of History,
University of Sydney, N.S.W. 2006 (1983)

McAULEY, William John Watson, P.0.Box 16,
Church Street, Brighton, Vic. 3186 (1975)

McGHEE, Moira Elizabeth, 28 Nielson Avenue,
Carlton, Neo. Wa 2218: -(1975)

McKERN, Howard Hamlet Gordon, MSc, ASTC, FRACI,
6 Victoria Street, Roseville, N.S.W. 2069
(1943;P12;Pres. 1963)

McMINN, Andrew, BSc (Hons), PhD, c/- Geological
Survey of New South Wales, Building Blla,
University of New South Wales, P.0.Box 1,
Kensington, N.S.W. 2033 (1981;P1)

McNAUGHTON, John Edwin, Reg. Surveyor, c/- P.0.Box
174, Newcastle, N.S.W. 2300 (1982)

McPHIE, Jocelyn, BA (Hons), DipEd Macq, PhD,
c/- Department of Geology, University of
Tasmania, G.P.0.Box 252C, Hobart, Tas. 7001
(1980)

MAJSTRENKO, Petro, MSc Copenhagen, 3 Park Road,
Bellevue, Armidale, N.S.W. 2351 (1966)

MALCOLM, Harvey Donald Robert, RFD, RD, MSc Syd,
PhD Macq, P.O.Box 77, Laurieton, N.S.W.
2443 (1974;P1)

MARTIN, Peter Marcus, BSc Agr (Hons)
MSc Agr,-PhD,; DipEd Syd, FLS (London)
PAIAS, 15 Merrivale Road, Pymble,
N.S.W. 2073. (1968)

MAWSON, Ruth, BA, PhD Macg, c/- School of Earth

Sciences, Macquarie University, N.S.W. 2109
(1974; Pl)

MILBURN, John Anthony, BSc Newcastle (UK);
PhD Aberdeen, FIBiol, Professor,
c/- Department of Botany, University of New
England, Armidale, N.S.W. 2351 (1986)

MILLIKAN, Marguerita Tracanelli, 210 Abercrombie
Street, Chippendale, N.S.W. 2000 (1991)

MINTY, Edward James jun., BSc, DipEd, MSc,
"Binderee", Huon, Vic. 3695 (1991)

MOLLOY, Peter David, BA Macg, PhD Syd,
30 Carlotta Avenue, Gordon, N.S.W. 2072
(1975)

MORY, Arthur John, BSc (Hons), PhD Syd, c/- Geol-
ogical Survey of Western Australia,
100 Plain Street, Perth, W.A. 6000 (1980;P1)

MOSKOS, Michael, BE(Mech) UNSW, 21 Baringa Road,
Northbridge, N.S.W.s 2063 (1975)

46 MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY

NAPPER, Donald Harold, MSc Syd, PhD Camb, FAA,
FRACI, Professor, c/- Department of Physical
Chemistry, University of Sydney, N.S.W. 2006
(1973;Pres. 1979)

NASHAR, Beryl, OBE, Emerit- Professor, BSc Syd,
PhD Tas, DipEd Syd, DSc Hon Newc, MAus IMM,
43 Princeton Avenue, Adamstown Heights,
N.S.W, 2289 (1946; P3)

NEEF, Gerrit, BSc, PhD Wellington, c/- School of
Geology, University of New South Wales,
P.0..Box: 1, Kensington, N.S.W. 2033'- (1989; P1)

NEUHAUS, John William George, MSc, 3 Turner
Avenue, Baulkham Hills, N.S.W. 2153 (1943;P1;
Pres, 1969)

NICHOL, Lawrence Walter, Emeritus Professor, BSc,
PhD,DSc Adel, FRACI, FAA, Vice-Chancellor,
Australian National University, 21 Balmain
Crescent, Acton, A.C.T. 2601 (1986)

O'KEEFFE, Edward Donald, BSc, DipEd Syd, MSc

Macq, 22/116 Herring Road, Eastwood, N.S.W.
2122 (1984)

OSBORNE, Robert Armstrong Lee, MSc, DipEd,

PhD Syd, 127 Wyndera Avenue, Harbord, N.S.W.
2096 (1984; P2)

O'SHEA, Timothy, MSc NZ, BVSc Syd, PhD Syd,
c/- Department of Physiology, University of
New England, Armidale, N.S.W. 2351 (1973)

OXENFORD, Reginald Augustus, BSc Syd, MPhil Camb,
358 Hotham Road, Portsea, Vic. 3944 (1950)

PARTRIDGE, Alan Douglas, BSc Syd, MSc UNSW,
P.O0,Box 696, Glebe, N.S.W. 2037 (1977)

PAWLOFF, Theodora, MD, DOM, MRANZCP, 88 Patrick
Street, Avalon Beach,NSW 2107 (1979)

PERRY, Hubert Roy, BSc, P.O.Box 547, Bowral,
N.S.W. 2576 (1948)

PICKETT, John William, MSc NE, DrPhilNat
Frankfurt/M, 112 Blues Point Road,
Mc Mahons Point, N.S.W. 2060 (1965; P3;
Pres. 1974)

POGSON, Ross Edward, DipTechSe NSWIT, BAppsc
(Hons) NSWIT, 178 Marcoo Avenue, Panania,
NES.Weu2213 (1979)

POLLARD, John Percival, MSc UNSW, DipAppChem
Swinburne, PhD UNSW, 89 Bunarba Road,
Gymea, N.S.W. 2227 (1963;P1;Pres. 1973)

PORRITT, Patricia May, 23 Rothwell Road,
Turramurra, N.S.W. 2074 (1987)

POSTEN-ANDERSON, MA Macq, MA Iowa, MALibr Towa,
PhD Iowa, 5 Wistaria Place, Baulkham Hills,
NoS.We 21551201990)

POTTER, Edmund Clarence, PhD Lond, FRSC, FRACI,
DIC, 1 Tracie Close, Kariong, N.S.W. 2250
(1988;P1;Pres. 1991)

POWER, Paul Anthony, BSc Syd, MSc UNSW, ARACI,
MRSC, CChem, AIArbA, 178 Newland Street,
Bondi Junction, N.S.W. 2022 (1960)

PROCTOR, Grace Forbes, 3/8 Muston Street,
Mosman, N.S.W. 2088

PROKHOVNIK, Simon Jacques, BA, BSc, MSc Melb,
c/- School of Mathematics, University of New
South Wales, P.O.Box 1, Kensington, N.S.W.
2033 (1956; P4)

PUTTOCK, Alan Maurice, FCA, Messrs. Wylie and
Puttock, 39-41 York Street, Sydney, N.S.W.
2000 (1975)

RAMM, Eric John, MSc, Dip Chem § Met PTC.,
CEng, ARACI, MAustIMM, MIM, FICeram,
FIMMA, 10 Immarna Avenue, Lilli Pilli,
N.S.W. 2229 (1959)

RATTIGAN, John Herbert, PhD, 20 Kildare
Grove, Killarney Heights, N.S.W. 2087
(1966; P2)

RICE, Thomas Denis, BSc, MSc Syd, 19/16-18 Devitt
Street, Narrabeen, N.S.W. 2101 (1964)

RICKARD, Kevin, MB, BS, FRACP, FRCPA, MRC Path,
FCAP, RFD, 117 Blackbutts Road, Frenchs
Forest, N.S.W. 2086 (1977)

RICKWOOD, Peter Cyril, BSc (Hons) Lond, PhD Cape
Town, ARIC, FGS, CChem, MRCS, School of
Applied Geology, University of New South
Wales, P.O.Box 1, Kensington, N.S.W. 2033
(1974)

RILEY, Steven James, BSc (Hons), PhD Syd,
MEngSe unsw, 45 Albert Drive, Killara,
N.S.W. 2071 (1969)

ROBBINS, Elizabeth Marie, MSc, 34 Bedford Road,
Woodford, N.S.W. 2778 (1939; P3)

ROBERTS, Herbert Gordon, BSc, c/= Box 529,
Manuka, N.S.W. 2603 (1957)

ROBERTS, John Roberts, BSc NE, PhD wA, Professor,
Department of Applied Geology, School of
Mines, University of New South Wales,
Kensington, N.S.W. 2033 (1961; P5)

ROBERTSON-CUNINGHAME, Robert Clarence, AO,
BScAg Syd, DPhil Oxon, "Gartmore'', Deepwater,
N.S.W. 2371 (1982)

ROBINSON, David Hugh, ASTC, 12 Robert Road,
Cherrybrook, N.S.W. 2126, (1951)

RODGER, Phillip Mark, PhD BSc (Hons) Syd,
Department of Chemistry, University of
Reading, Whiteknights, P.O.Box 224, Reading,
RG6 2AD, England. (1986)

ROGERSON, Richard John, BSc (Hons), PhD,
Department of Minerals and Energy, P.O.Box 778
Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea. (1979)

MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY 47

ROSS, John Arthur, BSc (Hons) Melb, BEc ANU,
PhD Qld, 461 Military Road, Largs Bay,
South Australia. 5016 (1991)

ROYLE, Harold George, MB, BS Syd, 31A Garibaldi
Street, Armidale, N.S.W. 2350 (1961)

RUNNEGAR, Bruce, DSc, PhD Qld, FAA, Professor,
Department of Earth and Space Sciences,
3806 Geology Building, University of
California, Los Angeles, CA 90024, U.S.A.
(1970)

RUSSELL, Terence George, BSc (Hons) Vic NZ, PhD
NE, G.P.O.Box 1623, Brisbane, Qld. 4001
(1978; P2)

SCOTT, Martin Edward, "The Schoolhouse", Gads
Hill Road, Liena, Tas. 7304 (1977)

SELBY, Esmond John, 31 Barana Parade, Roseville,
N.S.W. 2069 (1933)

SEOW, Kai Ting Francis Phang, PhD syd, Department
of Medicine, Clinical Science Building,
Repatriation General Hospital, Concord,
N.S.W. 2139 (1986)

SHARP, Kenneth Raeburn, BSc, 8 Karawatha
Circuit, Cooma NSW 2630 (1948)

SHAW, John Andrew, BSc, ARMIT, FIChemE, FAACI,
FAIM, FAIPet, 4 Kerrawah Avenue, St.Ives,
NgS.W...2075 -(1991)

SHAW, Stirling Edward, BSc WA, PhD NE, FGAA,
School of Earth Sciences, Macquarie University
N.S.W. 2109 (1966; P1)

SHERWIN, Lawrence, BSc (Hons) Syd, Geological
Survey of New South Wales, P.O.Box 53,
Orange, N.S.W. 2800 (1967)

SHEUMACK, David Donald, PhD, Lot 4 Floyds Road,
South Maroota, N.S.W. 2756 (1985)

SIMMONS, Bruce Leonard, DiplAppSci, BAppSc,
MAppSci, P.O.Box 130, Kurrajong, N.S.W. 2758
(1989)

SIMS, Kenneth Patrick, BSc, 25 Fitzpatrick Avenue,
Frenchs Forest, N.S.W. 2086 (1950; P20)

SINCLAIR, Thomas John, Sinclair Young Medical
Supplies, P.O.Box 1092, Crows Nest, N.S.W.
2065 (1986)

SMITH, Valerie, BSc (Hons), Resource Planning
Pty.Ltd., P.O.Box 388, East Maitland, N.S.W.
2320 (1978)

SMITH, William Eric, MSc Syd, PhD UNSW, BSc,
MSc Oxon, MInstP, MAIP, 24 Banks Avenue,
Turramurra, N.S.W. 2074 (1963)

STAER, Ronald Robert, FRAS, 33 Wallis Street,
Lawson, N.S.W. 2783 (1971)

STEELE, Campbell Maxwell, FIEAust, CentEIA Syd,
MAAS, MemAsME, MASA, 21/67 Macquoid Street,
Queanbeyan, N.S.W. 2620 (1986)

STEPHENS, Frederick Selwyn, BSc, PhD NSW, School
of Chemistry, Macquarie University, N.S.W.
2109 (1975)

STRUSZ, Desmond Leslie, PhD, BSc Syd, 97 Burnie
street, Lyons, A.C.T. 2606 (19513 P3)

STUBBS-RACE, Martin Laurence, BMaths W'gong,
42 Castle Hill Road, West Pennant Hills,
N.S.W. 2120 (1985)

STUNTZ, John, BSc, 103 Terry Road, Denistone,
N.S.W. 2114 (1951)

SUTERS, Ralph William, BSc NSW, MSc Newc,
49 Walang Avenue, Figtree, N.S.W. 2525 (1968)

SUTHERLAND, Frederick Linstead, BSc (Hons), MSc
Tas, PhD JCook, c/- The Australian Museum,
6-8 College Street, Sydney, N.S.W. 2000
(1977; P3; Pres.1987;Pres 1992)

SWAINE, Dalway John, MSc Melb, PhD Aberd, FRACI,
29 Trentino Road, Turramurra, NSW 2074 (1973;
PIs Pres.1976)

SWANSON, Thomas Baikie, CBE, MSc, P.0O.Box 364,
South Yarra; Vie..5141 ((1941)

SWINBOURNE, Ellice Simmons, BSc, PhD Nsw, ASTC,
FRACI, 30 Ellalong Road, Cremorne, N.S.W.
2090 (1948)

TALENT, John Alfred, BA, MSc, PhD Melb, School of
Earth Sciences, Macquarie University, N.S.W.
2109 (1973)

TAYLOR, Nathaniel Wesley, MSc Syd, PhD NE,
"Inverness", Clarks Road, MSF 2005,
Armidale, N.S.W. 2350 (1961)

THOMAS, Mervyn Charles, MB, BS, 57 Morris Street,
Summer Hill, N.S.W. 2130 (1978)

THOMPSON, Philip Wayne, BSc, MSc W'gong, 3
3 Sullivan Crescent, Wanniassa, A.C.T.
2903 (1971)

THOMSON, David John, BSc, 13 Minimbah Road,
Northbridge, NSW 2063 (1956)

THOMSON, Vivian Endel, BSc (Hons), DipEd, MTCP,’
GradDipAdmin, P.O.Box 186, North Ryde, N.S.W.
2113 (1960)

THWAITE, Eric Graham. BSc, 8 Allars Street,
West Ryde, N.S.W. 2114 (1962)

TICHAUER, Erwin R, Emeritus Professor, DSc,
DiplIng,Apt. 123, Kips Bay Plaza, 330 East
33rd Street, New York, NY 10016, USA (1960)

TINK, Andrew, MP, BA, LLB ANU, P.O.Box 19,
Eastwood, N.S.W. 2122 (1989)

48 MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY

TYRRELL, William Trevor, 328 Pacific Highway,
Crows Nest, N.S.W. 2065 ((1973)

VAGG, Robert Sylvester, BSc, MSc NSW, PhD Macq,
CChem, FRACI, School of Chemistry, Macquarie
University; N.S.W. 2109 .(1973;P2; Pres. 1983)

VAGG, William James, BSc, PhD, FRACI, MComm NSw,
9/15 Billyard Avenue, Elizabeth Bay, N.S.W.
2011 (1973)

VALIS, Milena Amanda, BSc, 35/44 Cumberland
Street, The Rocks, N.S.W. 2000 (1991)

VAN DER POORTEN, Alfred Jacobus, BSc, PhD, BA,MBA
NSW, Professor, School of MPCE, Macquarie
University, N.S.W. 2109 ;(1971; B22)

VEEVERS, John James, MSc Syd, PhD Lond, DIC,
Professor, School of Earth Sciences,
Macquarie University, N.S.W. 2109 (1953; P1)

VERNON, Ronald Holden, MSc NE, PhD Syd,
Professor, School of Earth Sciences,
Macquarie University, N.S.W. 2109 (1958; P2)

VOISEY, Alan Heywood, Emeritus Professor,
DSc Syd, 9 Milton Street, Carlingford,
NeSiWa Z2EPS (19 SSe P13 Pres. 1966)

WAKEFIELD, Denis, MD NSW, MB, BS NSW, FRCPA,
School of Pathology, University of New South
Wales, P.O.Box 1, Kensington, N.S.W. 2033
(1984)

WALSH, Sandra Anne, BA, 10/61 Shirley Road,
Wollstonecraft, N.S.W. 2065 (1986)

WARD, Colin Rex, PhD, BSc (Hons), Department of
Applied Geology, University of New South
Wales, Kensington, N.S.W. 2033 (1968)

WARD, Judith, BSc, 16 Mortimer Avenue, New Town,
Tas. 7008 (1948)

WARD, Norman James, 19/41 Milray Avenue,
Wollstonecraft, N.S.W. 2065 (1975)

WARDEN, Darrell Ewan, 40 Chester Avenue,
Baulkham Hills, N.S.W. 2153 (1982)

WARREN, Bruce Albert, MB, BS Syd, MA, DPhil Oxon,
FRCPath, 8 Arcadia Street, Coogee, N.S.W.
2034 (1974; P1;Pres.1981)

WASS, Robin Edgar, PhD Syd, BSc (Hons) Qld,
Department of Geology and Geophysics,
University of Sydney, N.S.W. 2006 (1965;P1)

WEBBY, Barry Deane, PhD, DSc Brist, MSc Well NZ,
FGS, Department of Geology and Geophysics,
University of Sydney, N.S.W. 2006 (1966; P1)

WELCH, John Alister, MSE, DipASTCMechEng, MIE
Aust, DipEd Tech, 8 Terrigal Avenue, Turra-
murra, N.S.W. 2074 (1980)

WESTHEIMER, Gerald, BSc Syd, PhD, FSTC, FRS,
Professor of Physiology, University of

California, 2575, Life Sciences Buidd@ene,
Berkeley, California, 94720 U.S.A. (1949)

WHITE, Graeme Lindsay- BSc ANU, MSc Syd, FRAS,
DipCM AustInstManagers, Department of
Physics, University of Western Sydney,
P,O.Box 10, Kingswood, N.S.W. 2747 (1990)

WHITTAKER, Vivian Kenneth Leslie, MB, BS Qld,
PhD ANU, 3/20 Musgrave Street, Mosman, N.S.W.
2088 (1980)

WILLIAMS, Lyall Richard, BSc, PhD Adel, School of
Chemistry, Macquarie University, N.S.W. 2109
(1990)

WILLIAMS, Peter Allan, BA (Hons), PhD Macq,
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49

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VOLUME 125

Contents

MEDDEEMOsS?T, E.AoK. |) DULHUNTY. 9

BECK, UR sw:

Parts 1 and 2

A. , >and

Some Mesozoic Igneous Rocks from
Northeastern New South Wales and
their Tectonic Setting.

BROWN, J.K.:

Health Hazards associated with
Extremely Low Frequency Electro-
magnetic Fields from Power Lines and

Home Appliances.

BSTRACT OF THESIS:

COENRAADS, Robert R.:
and Diamond Deposits of the New England

Alluvial Sapphire

Gem Fields, New South Wales, Australia.

RRATUM: Vol.124, p 85

ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL 1991-1992;

Report

Abstract of Proceedings
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ADDRESS BY HIS EXCELLENCY REAR-ADMIRAL

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ANNUAL DINNER 1992

SUMMER SCHOOL "COMMUNICATION"
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JANUARY 1992,

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DATE OF PUBLICATION,

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3

36

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eo..."
oe

+a

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Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.,125, pp.5)-77, 1992
ISSN 0035-9173/92/020051-27 $4.00/1 as :

Ordovician island biotas: New South Wales record and global implications

B.D.WEBBY

Clarke Memorial Lecture, delivered to the Royal Society of Né
at the Australian Museum

ABSTRACT

The Ordovician period of earth history from about 500 to 430 Ma was characterized by significant
phases of subduction-related volcanic activity and major evolutionary radiations of marine
invertebrate taxa. Two important associations of Ordovician volcanics and sediments are preserved
in fault-bounded remnants of the Lachlan Fold Belt in central New South Wales. The stratigraphy of
both remnants (Molong High and Parkes Platform) is similar, with an early-mid Ordovician phase
of volcanicity, then a quieter phase of island shelf-fringing to non-fringing bank-type shallow
carbonate deposition, part drowning to form deeper island slope and basin conditions, and then
resumption of volcanicity to the end of the Ordovician. A uniquely well-preserved record of low-
latitude, offshore island shelf to slope biofacies assemblages of Gisbornian-Eastonian (Caradoc-early
Ashgill) age has been documented. The terrigenous-fringing inner shelf includes three low-
diversity associations, specifically, two transgressional, the lingulide and Eodinobolus biofacies of
quiet water, intertidal aspect, and a third, the regressional, rhynchonellide biofacies, associated with
rough water, on a sandy to pebbly substrate. The mid shelf has an open, shoal-type coral (Tetradium
cribriforme) and stromatoporoid-dominated biofacies, and the outer shelf a richly diverse level-
bottom strophomenide biofacies associated with a muddy substrate below wave base. Also recorded
are shallow, quiet-water, terrigenous-free, "lagoonal" platform biofacies, and deeper, island slope
periplatform ooze and graptolite basin biofacies. The periplatform oozes occur in allochthonous
blocks, and exhibit a remarkably diverse siliceous sponge fauna.

The major Ordovician radiations have been attributed mainly to the global expansion of major
invertebrate taxa, especially elements of the "Paleozoic" fauna of Sepkoski. Using the North
American Platform as model, Sepkoski proposed that elements of the "Paleozoic" fauna, after
originating onshore, were displaced progressively offshore through time. Inspection of the New
South Wales onshore-offshore record of island biotas shows, on the contrary, the highest levels of
productivity of new higher taxa and community types in the mid-outer shelf and slope habitats, not
onshore. Moreover, there is no evidence of offshore displacement of stocks through the 10-15 Ma
history of the island complex. A strong bias in the global Ordovician fossil record exists because
continental platform biotas are much more widespread, accessible and well preserved than those of
island habitats. The latter are often destroyed by subduction or much altered by metamorphism.
Only by focussing on the few small remnants ("windows") of well preserved Ordovician island
biotas like the New South Wales occurrences, given how significant modern islands are in explaining
evolution and dispersal of organisms, can we expect to achieve a truly balanced global view of how
the Early Palaeozoic diversification of metazoan life, including the Ordovician radiations, may have
occurred.

INTRODUCTION successions, especially in the Sydney Basin, and his
observations on the distribution of coal and gold,
may be singled out as particularly meritorious

achievements.

Mr President, Ladies and Gentlemen, we meet this
evening to pay tribute to the memory of the late
Rev. W.B Clarke, whose pioneering contributions

on the geology of New South Wales during four Clarke made observations of extensive areas of

decades from the early 1840s laid foundations for
all future geological work in this state. His
stratigraphic ordering of the New South Wales

what he called "Palaeozoic formations of the older
class" (Clarke, 1860, p.197) during his tour of the
Southern Highlands on goldfields work during

B.D. WEBBY

14a0

CX

Ss
cee

KD
5?

Griffith @

wed Narooma

Quanz-nch greywacke-
shale association

Volcanic association
(with limestones on Parkes
Platform and Molong High)

100 km

Figure 1. Map showing the distribution of Ordovician rocks in central and southem New South Wales.
and the location of the four main volcanic areas in the Parkes Platform, the Molong High. the Sofala-
Rockley belt near Bathurst, and the Kiandra belt in the Snowy Mountains. Key to abbreviations: S,
Sofala; R, Rockley; K, Kiandra: and D, Delegate.

ORDOVICIAN ISLAND BIOTAS 53

1851-52, but though he was able to establish a
number of occurrences of Upper Silurian rocks, in
areas near Delegate (Quidong), Canberra
(Yarralumla), and Yass based on fossils he collected
and sent to Salter and Lonsdale in England for
identification (see Clarke, 1878, pp.12, 150-155),
no graptolites or other fossils of Lower Silurian
age were confirmed. There was little immediate
follow-up work on these older rocks in central and
southern New South Wales until the late 1890s and
early 1900s when first graptolite fossils were found
by Carne (1897; 1898) near the Victorian border.
This and further discoveries were soon documented
by Dun (1897; 1898) and Hall (1900; 1902),
confirming the presence of extensive areas of
Lower Silurian or, using the new terminology,
Ordovician, rocks. Lapworth's (1879)
stratigraphic subdivision Ordovician only became
widely adopted in the early 1900s.

The slow progress towards establishing the age and
distribution of New South Wales Ordovician rocks
prior to the turn of the century was in marked
contrast to what was happening in Victoria.
Discoveries of gold in the Ordovician rocks of
Victoria stimulated much exploration activity
throughout the second half of the nineteenth
century, and there were many finds of graptolites
after A.R.C. Selwyn's initial discovery in 1856
(McCoy, 1875, p.5; Keble & Benson, 1939).
Particularly important was the graptolite work of
Hall (1895; 1899) on the succession of assemblages,
which led to the establishment of an Ordovician
graptolite zonal scheme for mapping and
identifying the most auriferous parts of the
Victorian successions.

The comparable New South Wales Ordovician
graptolite zonal scheme was proposed more than a
half century later (Sherrard, 1954; 1962).
Similarly, most work on fossiliferous Ordovician
successions of New South Wales, especially the
limestones, only commenced in the 1950s and
1960s. The coral and stromatoporoid specimens
described earlier by Etheridge (1895; 1909) were
not initially recognized by him as Ordovician
forms.

Stevens (1952) first established the presence of
Ordovician limestones and shelly faunas in the
Cliefden Caves area of the Molong High. Packham
(1967) also recognized the limestones and faunas of
the Billabong Creek area of the Parkes Platform as
having an Ordovician age. A great deal of activity
has followed, especially in documenting the biotas.
Many new fossils have been described, and new
interpretations of the sedimentological, palaeo-
environmental and palaeotectonic relationships
proposed, especially for the limestone successions

of central New South Wales (Molong High and
Parkes Platform). Appendix 1| lists with authors and
dates all the taxonomic, palaeoecologic and
palaeobiogeographic work.

REGIONAL SETTING

Extensive areas of Ordovician sedimentary and
volcanic rocks occur in the Lachlan Fold Belt, and
they mainly represent the oldest exposed basement
rocks of the successions in central and southern
New South Wales (Fig. 1). Mostly these occupy
complexly folded and faulted, meridionally to
NNW-trending belts. Packham (1969) emphasized
the presence of two lithological associations - (i) a
widely distributed quartz-rich greywacke-slate-
chert association occurring in several distinct
meridional belts from the South Coast near
Narooma inland to Wagga Wagga, and (ii) an
association of volcanics and limestones, which 1s far
more restricted in distribution through the northem
part of the Central Highlands between Mandurama
and Wellington (within the Molong High), and near
Parkes and Forbes (within the Parkes Platform),
and other predominantly volcanic occurtrences of
the Sofala-Rockley belt near Bathurst, and in the
Kiandra belt of the Southern Highlands.

The association of volcanics and limestones
occupies an intermediate position between the
predominantly quartz-rich greywackes and slates of
the Monaro "Trough" (Scheibner, 1972), here
represented as the "Monaro succession" (Fig. 1),
with its several belts inland from the south coast at
Narooma to the Snowy Mountains, and the quartz-
rich Wagga Trough succession, usually referred to
as the Wagga Metamorphic Belt. This latter should
also include the low grade metamorphics of the
Girilambone Group and Ballast Beds, east of
Cobar, or at least those occurrences with confirmed
records of Ordovician microfossils (Stewart &
Glen, 1986; Iwata et al., 1992).

Most previous workers (Packham & Falvey, 1971;
Scheibner, 1972; Webby, 1976; Cas, 1983; Powell,
in Veevers, 1984) have interpreted the Ordovician
quartz-rich turbidite successions of the Wagga
Trough as having accumulated in a back-arc basin,
or marginal sea like the present Sea of Japan. The
deposits were subsequently uplifted, folded and
regionally metamorphosed in the latest Ordovician-
early Silurian Benambran Orogeny.

The Monaro Trough has been variously interpreted
as (i) a fore-arc basin (Scheibner, 1972; Webby,
1976; Crook, 1980; Cas, 1983), (i1) as partly fore-
arc basin (inland) and partly outer-arc slope along
the present coast (Powell, 1983; Powell, in

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Figure 2. Map illustrating the distribution of the
Early Ordovician volcanics (v) and the overlying
Late Ordovician sedimentary, mainly carbonate,
successions (in black) of the Molong High. Note the
three-fold subdivision of the high into east and
west-fringing carbonate belts, with a third, deeper
basinal shale belt farther to the east. Circled
numbers relate to the following areas: 1, Bowan
Park; 2, Regan’s Creek; 3, Licking Hole Creek; and
4-5, Cliefden Caves. CMF represents the present
trace of the Columbine Mountain Fault. (Based on
Webby & Percival, 1983, fig. 1B).

B.D. WEBBY

Veevers, 1984), and (iii) as including in part back-
arc deposits displaced by large strike-slip faults
from a more southerly extension of the Wagga
Trough (inland) and partly fore-arc zone along the
present coast (Packham, 1987).

In most of these plate tectonic reconstructions of
the Lachlan Fold Belt the intervening volcanic arc
with its Ordovician volcanic and sedimentary
record (that is, including the Molong High and the
Parkes Platform in central New South Wales) is
interpreted as occupying a position between back-
arc (Wagga Trough) and frontal arc basins (e.g..
Powell, in Veevers, 1984). The volcanic arc has
been interpreted as subduction related (Scheibner,
1989), and not necessarily part of an exotic
(allochthonous) terrane.

However, Wyborn (in Wyborn ef¢ al., 1991) has
argued that the shoshonitic volcanism does not
represent normal subduction-related island-arc
magmatism. He also claims that the volcanic
products are widely spread in a band 400 km
across, not in a narrow curvilinear belt as in typical
modern arc configurations. However the two
volcanic areas with significant associations of
shallow water carbonates, on the Molong High and
the Parkes Platform, are presently only 100 km
apart, and may have originated in closer proximity
if the intervening Cowra Trough is taken to have
formed by rifting in Early-Middle Silurian times
(Pickett, 1982; Powell, in Veevers, 1984:
Scheibner, 1989).

Suggestions that detachment and thrusting are
important features of the deformation history of the
Lachlan Fold Belt have led to the alternative
proposition that the volcanic arc is an exotic
terrane, an “allochthon thrust over the Ordovician
craton-derived turbidite wedge”, that 1s, over the
otherwise unbroken, monotonous, quartz-rich
Ordovician greywackes exposed elsewhere in the
fold belt (Fergusson & VandenBerg, 1990:
Fergusson, 1991; VandenBerg, 1991). These
authors have argued that the "Wagga" and
"Monaro" quartz-rich successions accumulated in
an oceanic setting marginal to the Delamerian
mountains of Gondwana. The “Monaro”
successions, according to Glen ef al., (1990),
comprise repetitions of thrusted Early Ordovician
quartz-rich turbidites and Late Ordovician
“starved” black graptolitic shales.

Parts of the volcanic arc like the Molong High and
Parkes Platform exhibit little stratigraphic and/or
structural evidence in support of an exotic origin.
Indeed there are remarkably orderly patterns of
lateral and vertical facies relationships within the
associated sedimentary successions (Webby, 1974:

ORDOVICIAN ISLAND BIOTAS 55

Webby & Packham, 1982; Webby & Percival,
1983). For example, it is possible to trace similar
occurrences of the fringing island shelf Tetradium
cribriforme biofacies between the Cliefden Caves
area and Molong (Fig. 2), that is, over 70 km along
Strike, and approximately parallel with the
meridional-trending shoreline (not north-westerly
as suggested by Cas et al., 1980, and Powell, in
Veevers, 1984).

In contrast there are more rapid east-west facies
changes across the Molong High (Fig. 3), between
an eastern Cliefden Caves Limestone Group and
equivalent successions, and a western Bowan Park
Limestone Group and its equivalents, reflecting a
consistent pattern of onshore to offshore
relationships. The subdivision of the Molong High
into eastern and western parts is based on the
differences in the local Ordovician sedimentary
successions (Fig. 2). The boundary more-or-less
coincides with the present expression of the
Columbine Mountain Fault (Stevens, 1950) and, as
outlined below, this major N-S trending fault may
have been in existence since Late Ordovician time.

In many areas of central New South Wales the
quartz-rich greywacke-shale and _ volcanic
associations seem to be isolated in separate fault-

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bounded blocks (or terranes). Erupting
volcanogenic products should have been dispersed
to neighbouring sedimentary basins, but presently
only one good example of gradational facies
relationships is known. More attention should be
given to the field relationships between the two
associations. WandenBerg's (1991) interpretation
of the volcanic arc as an "exotic terrane" may have
some credence, but his claim that "this exotic
terrane came from the north, and was emplaced
into its present position during the Silurian"
remains to be substantiated.

ISLAND PALAEOENVIRONMENTS,
BIOTAS, AND BIAS IN THE
ORDOVICIAN FOSSIL RECORD

A substantial pile of basic and intermediate
volcanics (Walli and Cargo volcanics and their
equivalents) was erupted in Early Ordovician times
to produce a partly emergent island (at least in part
the Molong High). This then became planated to
form the offshore sites for accumulation of Late
Ordovician carbonates. These shallow-water
carbonates developed first as terrigenous, fringing
island shelf deposits, and subsequently as the sea
transgressed entirely across the island, terrigenous-

a, = a
ongulli ————

MIDDLE-UPPER
ORDOVICIAN

HIGH

Figure 3. Diagram showing generalized Ordovician facies interrelationships across Molong High.
Note the horizontal scale is shown. Vertical scale is exaggerated; it represents time not thickness. The
Early-Mid Ordovician volcanics (shown by crosses) are succeeded by carbonates (brickwork symbol)
and siltstones (horizontal dashes), and these are mantled by Late Ordovician volcanics (depicted by
inverted v symbols). Lensoid limestone breccia deposit in the Malongulli Formation is also shown.

(based in part on Webby, 1976, text-fig.8).

56 B.D. WEBBY

free bank-type (or mantling) deposits across both
eastern, Cliefden Caves, and western, Bowan Park,
sides of the Molong High (Figs. 2-3).

On the eastern side of the Molong High a
depositional phase of basinal, deeper, spicule-rich
and graptolitic Malongulli Formation replaced the
Shallow water Cliefden Caves carbonates. Possibly
this comparatively sudden submergence event was
the result of early movements on the Columbine
Mountain Fault, with the debris flows in the
Malongulli Formation being triggered by the
successive displacements on this fault. The thick
accumulation of the succeeding Angullong Tuff
again resulted in the eastern side of the Molong
High becoming a positive feature, and the site for
shallow-water Silurian deposition. This contrasts
with the history of events on the western side of the
Molong High, which first remained a positive
feature, with shallow-water carbonates being
deposited contemporaneously with the slope-basinal
Malongulli Formation, and then subsided to become
a part of the Cowra Trough in Early-Middle
Silurian times.

The Parkes Platform (Krynen et al., 1990), like the
eastern side of the Molong High, has a similar Late
Ordovician shallow-water limestone succession
(Billabong Creek Limestone), overlain by deeper
water (slope to basinal) shales and siltstones
(Gunningbland Shale Member of the Goonumbla
Volcanics).

The Ordovician sedimentary succession in the
Molong High is exceptional in providing the most
complete and well preserved record of low-latitude,
offshore island shelf to slope deposits known. This
island shelf-slope succession is a unique "window"
on an otherwise globally very patchy and
incomplete record of Ordovician islands now
preserved in Palaeozoic fold belts. Most Ordovician
oceanic crust (with its associated volcanic islands
and island chains) has either been subducted, or
incorporated in suspect terranes of these fold belts,
and often the deposits are metamorphosed or
structurally deformed, retaining few details of
depositional history or records of associated biotas.
A few remnants like the exposures in the Molong
High remain in a good state of preservation, though
even they may now have relatively obscure
palaeogeographic relationships.

In marked contrast are the Ordovician deposits of
stable continental platform regions of the world,
which are relatively easily placed in continental
configurations of Gondwana or other lithospheric
blocks (Scotese & McKerrow, 1990). These now
have abundant and very widespread, well preserved
occurrences, and a fossil record which remains
substantially intact.

In consequence a very biased Ordovician fossil
record exists, with a great deal known from the
continental platforms, and comparatively little data
available from offshore island settings. This has
serious implications when it comes to achieving a
balanced global view of how the major Ordovician
radiations may have occurred. We know that the
greatest sustained diversification of life occurred
during the Ordovician Period, with the appearance
(and/or dramatic expansion) of many higher taxa -
the first vertebrates, the first plants, various
echinoderm groups (cystoids, crinoids etc.),
graptolites, articulate brachiopods, bryozoans,
ostracods, cephalopods, gastropods, bivalves, corals
and stromatoporoids. In all probability the island
shelf and slope habitats of the Molong High, and
those of a great many other Ordovician offshore
islands played a very important role in promoting
this diversification.

ISLAND BIOFACIES:
OFFSHORE PROFILE

ONSHORE-

The richly fossiliferous carbonate succession
(Cliefden Caves Limestone Group) and the
overlying graptolitic Malongulli Formation
preserved on the eastern side of the Molong High
provide a most complete record of onshore island
shelf to offshore slope biofacies (Webby &
Packham, 1982; Webby & Percival, 1983; Rigby &
Webby, 1988). The Cliefden Caves shelf carbonates
are about 460 m thick, and comprise: (1) fringing
deposits with a variable terrigenous content derived
from the exposed adjacent island, and (2)
terrigenous free, mainly lagoonal bank-type
platform deposits which accumulated after complete
submergence of the island. The overlying slope-
basinal Malongulli siltstones and shales are about
200 m thick. They contain significant slump-
derived limestone deposits with clasts of mixed
shelf and slope affinities.

Savage's (1990) conodont-based age determinations
for the lowest part of the Cliefden Caves Limestone
Group of about middle-late Caradoc (mid
Shermanian-mid Edenian) time seem to be slightly
in conflict with earlier indications by Barnes (in
Webby & Kruse, 1984) that the conodonts from the
lower part of the Cliefden Caves succession (Fossil
Hill section) had a Blackriveran-Rocklandian
aspect, that is, probable late early to earliest middle
Caradoc age. The overlying Malongulli Formation,
based on graptolite determinations of Moors
(1970), Percival (1976) and Jenkins (1978), spans
an interval from the late Eastonian (Ea3) to the
Bolindian (Bol), that is, from the late Caradoc to
early-mid Ashgill (or in North American
terminology, Edenian-Maysvillian, possibly to early
Richmondian). Probably altogether the Cliefden

ORDOVICIAN ISLAND BIOTAS 57

LITTLE BOONDEROO FOSSIL HILL —

a ae SHEARING SHED DUNHILL BLUFF a :
CREEK See alee
(TYPE SECTION) rau |z2
qw> |=o
3”Mw WwW
(4) lw = Sy
3) 6) 2 7 Be
Shee
nr

CRIBRIFIDRME

eo eS a i tt
ess | ee 6 ED

Te, == Pope} |= BIOFACIES

DUNHILL BLUFF Bk

HE
oy

dh

WYOMING LST.MBR.

MALONGULLI
ca ecald

GLEESONS LST.MBR.|/ALIMNA

—__ ————
ONSHORE OFFSHORE

WACKESTONE & = SILTSTONE & SHALE BRECCIA & SANDSTONE
LIME MUDSTONE (Caleareous when p O94) (Predominantly volcanogenic)
unweathered)

F
>, EODINOBOLUS ee Nar
Se are SAE ES F

ane EB PACKSTONE &
POT GRAINSTONE

v CORAL:
yyy | WALLI ANDESITE a
TETRADIUM CRIBRIFORME

Figure 4. Key stratigraphic sections illustrating biofacies interrelationships in the lower two-thirds of
the Fossil Hill Limestone, Licking Hole Creek and Cliefden Caves areas, eastern side of the Molong
High. For location of inset map, see Fig. 2. This illustration depicts onshore-offshore biofacies
patterns across the NE side of the fringing island shelf within two transgressive, and intervening
regressive, depositional cycles (modified after Webby & Percival 1983, fig.3).

Caves-Malongulli succession represents a (Fossil Hill Limestone) exhibits a number of

depositional period of about 10-15 Ma. repetitions of the main fringing shelf biofacies (Fig.
: 4). Four biofacies can be differentiated in the

The lowest part of the Cliefden Caves succession transgressional phases, and one biofacies in a

58 B.D. WEBBY

regressional phase, of island shelf deposition. All
five have some associated terrigenous influx from
the adjacent island. The transgressional series (Fig.
5A), from onshore to offshore, comprise: (1) the
relatively quiet bay-fill, low diversity lingulide
biofacies, (2) the "big-shell" Eodinobolus
biofacies with shell beds representing protected
intertidal to shallow subtidal environments (Webby
& Percival, 1983), (3) the coral-dominated
Tetradium cribriforme _ biofacies which
formed in shoals and bars of a well aerated,
moderately high-energy zone above wave base, and
(4) the high diversity strophomenide biofacies
characterizing a quiet, level-bottom habitat below
wave base.

Webby & Percival (1983) have summarized
previously the main features of the low diversity
shell-bed community dominated by large
Eodinobolus shells. These sometimes form in situ
banks, and have a few other associated elements
(the alga Hedstroemia, Tetradium variabile,
?grazing gastropods and ostracods), an association
rather like some modern nearshore oyster-bank
accumulations. The overall diversity of this
association is relatively low, usually from 4 to 8
but exceptionally up to 10 species being
represented.

The Tetradium cribriforme biofacies is commonly
composed of an asssociation of large domal colonies
of T. cribriforme up to 1 m across in skeletal lime
sands, but also at some levels is represented by
biostromal or small biohermal developments, like
the 1.5 m thick biostrome on Fossil Hill which
exhibits boulder-like colonies of T. cribriforme (up
to 90% by biovolume), with subordinate corals
(Nyctopora, Bajgolia, Hillophyllum), the stromato-
poroid Cystistroma, the bryozoan Batostoma and

the brachiopod Rhynchotrema. This biofacies has a
comparatively higher diversity, with more than 35
species.

The strophomenide biofacies characterizes the outer
shelf and is represented by a rich and varied fauna
and flora (in excess of 55 species) which lived
predominantly on lime muds of an open, quiet,
level-bottom habitat below wave base. The thinly
bedded sequences are dominated by occurrences of
articulate brachiopods (Sowerbyites, Wiradjuriella,
Rhynchotrema, Plectorthis, Anoptambonites,
Tylambonites), by trilobites (Pseudobasilicus?,
Eokosovopeltis, Pliomerina, harpids), by bryozoans
and by nautiloids (Webby & Packham, 1982;
Percival, 1991). Two sub-biofacies, one dominated
by small rugose and tabulate corals (especially
heliolitines) and the other by calcified lithistid
sponges and echinoderms (Astrocystites), can also
be recognized and probably represent slightly
different outer shelf habitats.

This onshore-offshore profile is similar to that
proposed by Ziegler et al. (1968) for Silurian shelf
communities, with a progressively higher species
diversity offshore, and a similar pattern of onshore
to offshore low-high-low energy zones, the high
energy zone representing the mid shelf barrier or
shoal.

The low diversity rhynchonellide biofacies is
the fifth association (Fig. 5B), and represents a
regressional phase which developed in response to a
high level of terrigenous influx, of coarse sands
blanketing the fringing island shelf. It is dominated
by occurrences of articulate brachiopod
Rhynchotrema.

A quiet water, terrigenous-free, low-diversity

Figure 5. A. Diagrammatic representation of the faunal profile through the main fringing island shelf
biofacies; composite based on two transgressional phases within the Fossil Hill Limestone. It shows the
lingulide and Eodinobolus biofacies based on sections at Fossil Hill through lower-middle parts of the
Gleesons Limestone Member, and theTetradium cribriforme biofacies based on the Kalimna Limestone
Member of the Fossil Hill Limestone. The strophomenide biofacies is based on the Dunhill Bluff
Limestone Member of the Fossil Hill Limestone, in a section at Dunhill Bluff. Note the volcanic island
and source of sediment (shown with inverted v symbols). Key to the cartoon representing the four
biofacies Al to D is as follows:"Lingula” is shown in vertical growth position of the bayfill sands of
biofacies Al; Eodinobolus is represented by vertical in situ, and horizontally disarticulated, shells of
biofacies B; large dome-like colonies of Tetradium cribriforme and other, smaller branching corals
are shown in biofacies C; and a variety of articulate brachiopods and other shelly faunas are depicted
in biofacies D. B. Diagrammatic representation of the faunal profile across the fringing island shelf
during a regressional phase, and development of the rhynchonellide biofacies in a section through the
middle part of the Wyoming Limestone Member, Fossil Hill Limestone at Fossil Hill. Note the cartoon
of the biofacies (A2) shows Rhynchotrema shells and bryozoans in the typical blanket sand and fine

gravel deposit.

ORDOVICIAN ISLAND BIOTAS 59

Farce. 15°.

A. FRINGING CARBONATES, ISLAND SHELF
(Mainly transgressional phases)

{rm

BAY RESTRICTED

my See FILL MARINE '

Ly ea) B55

5 SORA wae ade

aS NA AS =

Wi O a aa Ne A1 | 5

Or?

on= N (Lingulide | (Tetradi |
Eodinobol etradium

= a ORG: biofacies)‘Eodinobolus cribriforme (Strophomenide
biofacies)

A biofacies) biofacies)
ENERGY & ae HIGH ae

SUBSTRATE SAND. SAND
DIVERSITY MODERATE HIGH :
(NO. OF SPP.) C. oe + 36 +55

B. FRINGING CARBONATES, ISLAND SHELF
(Regressional phase) E

i

BLANKET SANDS
SEO ae ok.
Seba s Rye Abe “ye Nae
(Rhynchonellide biofacies) SOx,

INFLUX

”
=
O
Zz
TW
OS
= o£
oc
rt
fees

ENERGY & HIGH
SUBSTRATE SAND - FINE GRAVEL

DIVERSITY LOW
(NO. OF SPP.)| c.6 (ESP. RHYNCHOTREMA & BRYOZOANS)

60 B.D. WEBBY

"lagoonal" biofacies is also developed at levels
in the upper part of the Fossil Hill succession, a
prelude to complete subsidence of the island, and
development of the more continuous "lagoonal"
offshore bank-type deposition of the succeeding 290
m thick Belubula Limestone. These massively
bedded, poorly fossiliferous lime mudstones and
wackestones show only a few traces of burrowing
activity and rare shelly fragments, ossicles, corals
(Nyctopora and heliolitines) and possible
stromatoporoids. They probably formed in a
protected environment like that exhibited in the
shelf lagoon of the modern Great Bahamas Bank
(Purdy, 1963).

Two other terrigenous-free, low-diversity shelf
lagoon lime mudstone biofacies were developed,
both in the Daylesford Limestone of the Bowan
Park succession, western side of the Molong High
(Semeniuk, 1973). These associations may have
formed on the shelf platform on the lee side of a

local barrier rim dominated by large colonies of
Tetradium compactum. The first is characterized
by an association of Eodinobolus shell beds and the
cylindrical branching stromatoporoid Alleyno-
dictyon (Webby & Percival, 1983), and the other,
possibly occupied slightly deeper lagoonal waters.
This latter was dominated by the anoxic indicator
trace fossil Chondrites.

The subtidal level-bottom strophomenide biofacies
is again well represented in the uppermost part of
the Cliefden Caves succession (Vandon Limestone),
also in the stratigraphically equivalent Quondong
Limestone (middle of the Bowan Park Group) on
the western side of the Molong High, and in the
Billabong Creek Limestone of the Parkes Platform.
This clearly represents an important widespread
transgressive (?sea level) event.

The overlying contact between island shelf
carbonates of the Cliefden Caves Limestone Group

CARBONATES, ISLAND SHELF/SLOPE TRANSITION

E1 (Periplatform ooze biofacies)

E

cape

BASIN SL
Limestone breccias with

shoal & periplatform ooze
derived clasts

E2 (Graptolite basinal biofacies)

ENERGY &| HIGH (DEBRIS FLOWS) | LOW (PELAGIC DEPOSITS)

SUBSTRATE

DIVERSITY
NO.OF SPP.)

BRECCIA

Siliceous sponges (43),
radiolarians (9) - total 52 spp.

Graptolites (7), trilobites (5),
inarticulates (6),sponges (3),
nautiloid (1) - total 22 spp.

Figure 6. Diagrammatic representation of island slope to basin biofacies, based on sections in the lower
part of the Malongulli Formation at Coppermine Creek and Trilobite Hill, Cliefden Caves area (see
figure 2). Note the cartoon representing outer shelf to slope and basin environments, with (i) the
brick-work symbols depicting the carbonate shelf at the margin of the slope, (ii) thin-bedded, fine-
grained slope-basin sediment (depicted by the fine horizontal lines), and (iii) the associated lensoid
bodies containing irregular clasts of mixed shoal and slope derivation.

ORDOVICIAN ISLAND BIOTAS 61

"ALGAE"
RADIOLARIA
DEMOSPONGEA

HEXACTINELLIDA
STROMATOPOROIDEA
TABULATA

RUGOSA

BRYOZOA

INARTICULATA
ARTICULATA
NAUTILOIDEA
BIVALVIA
GASTROPODA
TRILOBITA
OSTRACODA
ECHINODERMATA
GRAPTOLITHINA
BIOFACIES
ENVIRONMENT

re
4
ty
ze
n
oc
WW
2
=

a

1-4 spp.

Figure 7. Plot summarizing the total diversity of species in the island shelf-slope-basin profile. Note
that the “Algae” also include the Cyanobacteria.
minor groups are not included in the plot, for example, the conodonts, conulariids, hyolithids,
sphinctozoans, discrete spicules (mainly of hexactinellid derivation) and trace fossils. Genera with
more than one species are indicated by the longer bars; with up to four individual species (spp.), see

key at bottom left corner of illustration.

and the island slope deposits of the overlying
graptolitic Malongulli Formation is a marked
unconformity surface. This sharp contact with
evidence of scouring at the contact (Webby &
Packham, 1982), has been interpreted as reflecting
an episode of submarine scouring during
subsidence, at or near the shelf-slope break. The
period of subsidence (or drowning) affected the
entire eastern part of the Molong High and is
attributed to early displacements along the line of
the Columbine Mountain Fault (Fig. 2). The slump
breccia deposits in the Malongulli Formation also
seem to reflect these tectonic movements.

The slump-derived breccia deposits in the
Malongulli succession, contain two types of
limestone clasts, some of island shelf, and others of
island slope, derivation. The slope-derived blocks
are distinctively laminated, tabular clasts
representing a periplatform ooze _ biofacies
(Fig. 6). These clasts were eroded from the floor of

A number of discrete-element, problematical or

the slope probably just below the shelf-slope break
(Rigby & Webby, 1988) as the debris flows
travelled basinward. The allochthonous limestone
blocks exhibit remarkably diverse sponge
associations including in a wide variety of
demosponges, hexactinellids and a _ few
sphinctozoans, along with well preserved
radiolarians. A total of 43 species of mainly
siliceous sponges and 9 radiolarian species have
been recorded (Webby & Blom, 1986; Rigby &
Webby, 1988), as well as varied conodont
assemblages currently being studied by J. Trotter.
There is a great variety of growth form among the
lithistid sponges, including domal, cylindrical and
stick-like anthaspidellids (Archaeosyphia,
Aulocopodium, Perriscocoelia and Dunhillia), and
sheet-like, branching and spherical hindiids
(Palmatohindia, Arborohindia, Hindia, Mamelo-
hindia and Fenestrospongia). A number of more
loosely aggregated hexactinellids (Tiddalickia,
Wongaspongia and Wareembaia) also occur, and a

62 B.D. WEBBY

wide range of distinctive, discrete sponge spicules,
many being of hexactinellid derivation (Webby &
Trotter, 1993).

The overlying deeper water Malongulli siltstones,
shales and spiculite deposits exhibit a different set
of associations comprising 6 species of brachiopods
(Percival, 1978; 1979a), 5 trilobite species (Webby,
1973; 1974), 7 graptolite species (Moors 1970), one
species of nautiloid (Glenister, 1952; Hewitt &
Stait, 1985), a bivalve, numerous disarticulated,
mainly hexactinellid, spicules and a few apparently
in situ siliceous sponges (AStylostroma, Gleesonia
and ?Hudsonospongia). These deposits include a
total of more than 22 species, presumably mainly
representing the graptolite basinal biofacies
(Fig. 6).

To summarize, this low-latitude island shelf to
slope profile exhibits the highest species diversities
in the outer shelf and slope environments, with
articulate brachiopods, corals, stromatoporoids and
bryozoans the dominant elements in the outer shelf,
and the siliceous sponges most important in the
slope (Fig. 7). The high concentration of spicules,
discrete sponges and radiolarians in the tabular
clasts of the Malongulli breccias suggests a
particularly favourable slope environment with
ready supply of nutrients allowing biogenic silica to
be produced in abundance, presumably as a result
of upwelling at the equatorial divergence (Rigby &
Webby, 1988).

The diversity of these Ordovician siliceous sponges
is remarkable in terms of the overall Palaeozoic
record. Moreover, probably only a small part of
the hexactinellid component of the faunas has so far
been described, given that they were mainly loosely
aggregated forms. Only 7 species were included in
the descriptions of Rigby & Webby (1988) which,
relative to the more rigidly-fused demosponges (35
species), is a small proportion of the total fauna.
Also, a large part of the isolated spicule material in
the residues left after dissolving the allochthonous
blocks is of hexactinellid origin. This high
Ordovician diversity is puzzling given that no other
comparable, similarly rich and abundant records of
siliceous sponges are known until Permian time
(Finks, 1960). The explanation is presently unclear
but may be related to one or more of the following
factors: (1) the biases mentioned earlier, namely,
that the slope habitat was often subducted, or the
record virtually lost in poorly preserved,
metamorphosed and/or structurally deformed
remnants of fold belts, (2) that submarine erosion
mainly destroyed the sponge-bearing upper slope
habitat, or (3) that the sponges only occurred in
abundance early in their history in slope habitats
associated with equatorial (and other nutrient-rich)

upwelling sites.

It may be concluded that among these Molong High
island biofacies assemblages only three represent
distinctly new community types, the Eodinobolus
shell beds of the inner shelf, the Tetradium
cribriforme coral banks of the outer shelf, and the
richly diverse siliceous sponge assemblages of the
island slope.

EVOLUTIONARY AND BIOGEOGRAPHIC
SIGNIFICANCE OF CERTAIN ISLAND
BIOTAS

In terms of the evolutionary and biogeographic
significance of the more important fossil groups,
the brachiopods, based on Percival's (1978;
1979a; 1979b; 1991; 1992) work, from the Molong
High and the Parkes Platform comprise 43 genera,
and altogether 31% of these are endemic forms
(Webby, 1985). At the species level almost all the
49 species have a restricted N.S.W distribution.
Most are benthonic forms, and the articulates
dominate in the outer shelf. In addition to the many
new genera first appearing on the island shelf, there
are a few new higher taxa, from superfamily to
subfamily level (e.g., the Superfamily
Trimerellacea, subfamily Rhynchotrematinae, and
the atrypid subfamilies Septatrypinae and
Spiriferininae). The inarticulates are relatively
more common in the adjoining basin (four out of a
total of seven genera) and at least one or two may
have had an epiplanktonic mode of life (Percival,
1978). The deeper water association has a lower
endemicity (1 in 7 genera).

Fifty per cent of the generic components of this
brachiopod fauna were capable of dispersing from
the New South Wales islands across the Wagga
marginal sea to the Tasmanian Shelf (a part of the
margin of Gondwana, or a_ separate
microcontinent); the other half was limited by this
barrier. Only one species of Sowerbyites is known
to occur in the N.S.W. islands as well as on the
Tasmanian Shelf. Notable among the forms which
did not migrate to Tasmania was the large, thick-
shelled trimerellid Eodinobolus. Longer range
zoogeographical links are chiefly with the North
American region and with Kazakhstan. Based on
first appearances, at least 15 genera came from
North America, and three apparently went in the
opposite direction; and 8 genera migrated from
Kazakhstan, with five seemingly going in the

opposite direction.

The richly diverse siliceous sponge assemblage not
only includes a great number of new genera (Rigby
& Webby, 1988), but these exhibit a remarkable

ORDOVICIAN ISLAND BIOTAS 63

range of growth forms, especially among the
anthaspidellid and hindiid demosponges. They
occupied a slope habitat and exhibit a very high
level of endemicity (84% of the 34 genera, and
93% of the 45 spp.). Higher level taxa, the families
Haplistioniidae and possibly the Dictyospongiidae,
may also have their origins in this island slope
setting. Only a few immigrants (a total of 6
lithistids) are recognized in the assemblages as
coming from North America or from Europe. One
of these genera (Hudsonospongia) also occurs in
Tasmania.

There are also a few calcareous sponges on the
island shelf (new sphinctozoan families
Cliefdenellidae and Angullongiidae), and a few
endemics (Angullongia, Belubulaia). The
cliefdenellids have close zoogeographic links with
Alaska (Cliefdenella) and California (Rigbeyetia) of
the Palaeo-Pacific rim and, judging from
occurrences of a related genus (Khalfinaea) in SW
Siberia, NW and N China, slightly less close
relationships with these regions (Webby & Lin,
1988).

The nautiloids have low diversity and abundance
(10 species, three of them new) mainly occurring in
the island shelf, and belonging to long-ranging
conservative genera of the orders Michelinoceratida
and the Tarphycerida. They were exclusively
nektonic forms (Stait et al., 1985). Only one of
these genera is endemic. There is also one genus
recorded from the adjoining basin; this is the
ellesmeroceratid (Bactroceras), which represents a
generic holdover from the Early Ordovician. None
of the highly endemic, nektobenthonic forms
described by Stait (1982; 1984a; 1984b) from the
Tasmanian Shelf were apparently capable of
crossing the deep water barrier of the Wagga
marginal sea.

The trilobites are a conservative and stable group
of mainly immigrant genera, and they are
recognized as occurring in three distinctively
‘different habitats. The first, characterized by the
presence of Pliomerina and Amphilichas, includes
a moderately diverse assemblage of 11 genera (20
species) on the island carbonate shelf. A possible
new undescibed harpid is the only possible endemic
genus. A slightly less diverse fauna occurs in the
adjoining basin with 7 genera (eleven species), and
includes the short-lived endemics Parkesolithus and
Malongullia (Webby et al., 1970, Webby 1971b;
1973; 1974). Only the genera Remopleurides,
Eokosovopeltis, Illaenus (Parillaenus)? and possibly
Encrinuraspis occupied both shelf and adjoining
basin habitats (and no species of these genera are
common to the two habitats). The subfamily
Scutellinae, with Eokosovopeltis as the earliest

known member, may have evolved in the island
shelf-basin setting. A third, local basinal facies,
possibly of deeper water aspect, exhibit Cambrian
holdover stocks (Triarthrus, blind Shumardia and
Geragnostus?).

The island shelf trilobite association has moderately
close zoogeographic links with the Tasmanian Shelf
in having common occurrences of Pliomerina,
Amphilichas, Remopleurides and Eokosovopeltis
but only one or two species (A. encyrtos and
possibly R. saenuros) are known to be the same.
Relationships are virtually as close with SE Asia
and Kazakhstan, within the Eokosovopeltis-
Pliomerina province of the world-wide equatorial
Remopleuridid realm.

Stromatoporoids are restricted to the offshore
island shelf and include representatives of two
orders, the labechiids which are mainly immigrants
from North America and Asia, and the
clathrodictyids which appear to be a new group
which first diversified on the central N.S.W. island
shelves (Webby, 1969; 1971a; 1979; 1980; Webby
& Morris, 1976). Links exist between
contemporaneous Late Ordovician N.S.W. island
shelf and the Tasmanian Shelf, but overall the
N.S.W. fauna has stronger Asian, and the
Tasmanian, more mixed North American-Asian,
connections.

Some labechiids exhibit species-level links with
Tasmania, North China and other localities in Asia,
for example, Rosenella woyuensis, Labechiella
variabilis and L. regularis, as well as generic level
relationships (Webby, 1991). But other labechiids
which occur in abundance in the Tasmanian fauna
and show strong North American faunal ties, such
as representatives of Stylostroma, Pachystylostroma
and the cylindrical forms Thamnobeatricea and
Aulacera, have no counterparts in New South
Wales.

The two main clathrodictyid genera Clathrodictyon
and Ecclimadictyon, also colonized the Tasmanian
Shelf but none of the species occurring in N.S.W. is
the same as those recorded from contemporaneous
to slightly younger levels on the Tasmanian Shelf
(Webby & Banks, 1976). Closer links with Asia are
again suggested by the common occurrences of E.
amzassensis in the N.S.W. island shelf and the
Chinese and SW Siberian Altai mountain regions
(Lin & Webby, 1989).

Corals are also restricted to the offshore island
shelf, and include mainly tabulate and rugose
immigrants (Nyctopora, Tetradium, Palaeophyllum
and Favistina) from Asia and North America. The
assemblages belong to the shallow, equatorial,

64 B.D. WEBBY

warm-water American-Siberian provincial realm
(Webby, 1992). So far all the rugosans and about
half the tabulate faunal component have been fully
documented; these comprise some 37 described
species. In more detail the New South Wales island
shelf fauna has closer Asian links than North
American, especially with the SW Siberian Altai
region, NW and N China, and Kazakhstan. Again
relationships with contemporaneous Tasmanian
assemblages suggest general biogeographical
similarity but there are rarely species-level
connections. Tetradium cribriforme which forms
abundant bank-like occurrences on the N.S.W.
island shelf does not seem to be represented in
Tasmania and, on the other hand, the distinctive
ramose 7. tasmaniense of the Tasmanian Shelf
(which has affinities to North American
Paleoalveolites) does not appear on the N.S.W.
island shelf.

Major diversification of new higher level taxa also
occurred, including first appearances of the
bajgoliids (family), the tubulose and cystose
heliolitines (superfamilies), the halysitines
(subfamily), the aulocystids (family) and the
tryplasmatids (family), again groups which
probably originated in the island shelf (Webby
1985; 1987; Webby & Kruse, 1984). The
heliolitines exhibit a remarkable diversification in
the island shelf, with the development of new
designs, first tubulose coenosclerenchyme derived
from bacular, producing the first members of the
Superfamily Helioliticae, and secondly the
appearance of cystose coenosclerenchyme in the
first representatives of the Superfamily Proporicae.
The coenosteoid halysitids (Subfamily Halysitinae)
(Webby & Semeniuk, 1969), and the first rugosan
with rhabdacanthine septa (the tryplasmatid
Rhabdelasma McLean & Webby, 1976) also made
their first appearances.

In summary, the brachiopods (especially the
articulates), sponges, stromatoporoids and corals,
Show evidence of remarkable evolutionary
productivity in the island shelf and slope. The
trilobites and nautiloids in contrast were more
conservative constituents of the faunas, but even
these were able to diversify somewhat on the island
shelf, to produce some new species and one or two
endemic genera. The trilobites were also
represented in adjoining basins, in shallower and
deeper, biofacies associations, the deeper having the
older (Cambrian) "holdover'stocks. The nautiloids
were also represented by an occurrence of a relict
Early Ordovician "holdover" in the adjoining basin.

GLOBAL SIGNIFICANCE OF ISLAND
BIOTAS

Islands and archipelagos have long been recognized
as having important roles in explaining patterns of
evolution and dispersal of present day marine and
terrestrial organisms (Darwin,1872; Wallace, 1895;
Darlington, 1957; Ekman, 1967; MacArthur &
Wilson, 1967). However, Ordovician islands and
island groups have had less focus of attention as
potential sites for evolution and disperal. Neuman
(1972; 1984) was the first to emphasize their
importance in providing: (1) a wider range of
shallow-water habitats, (2) pathways for migration,
(3) centres for evolution of new taxa, and (4)
Opportunities for the development of
biogeographically distinct island populations (the
Celtic brachiopod fauna) in the Iapetus Ocean (now
preserved as remnants in the Appalachian and
Caledonide orogens). He noted the volcanic islands
as occupying mid-high latitudes between the
adjacent low latitude shores of the North American
(Laurentian) continent and mid-high latitude shores
of the European (Armorican and Baltic) continental
blocks. Fortey (1984) has added that such islands
possibly acted as havens for organisms following
the retreat of the seas from the major continental
platform regions during worldwide regressional
phases of the Ordovician.

Global extent of island-forming volcanism

Subduction-related volcanicity is known to have
been widespread in Ordovician time, with remnants
preserved in most major Palaeozoic fold belts of
the world. Ross (1984) has already commented on
the wide global spread of these occurrences,

including areas of the Appalachians (Neuman,
1972; 1984), the Caledonides (Stillman, 1984;
1986; Bruton & Harper, 1985), large tracts of
Kazakhstan and the Northern Tien Shan (Nikitin et
al., 1986; 1991), with extensions to the east into
NW China, for example, in the Qilian Mountains
(Zhang, 1984). In addition there are the
developments within the Lachlan Fold Belt (Webby,
1976; Wybom, 1988; 1992; Wyborn et al., 1991,
and described herein), and occurrences in the
Andean regions of NW Argentina (Acenolaza &
Toselli, 1984; Acenolaza & Baldis, 1987).

The most extensive development of Ordovician
island-arc volcanism is preserved in Kazakhstan and
Northern Tien Shan with two major en echelon arc
systems up to 600 km apart (Nikitin et al., 1991).
As in the New South Wales succession, two major
periods of volcanic activity are exhibited, an early-
mid Ordovician phase, and a later Ordovician

ORDOVICIAN ISLAND BIOTAS 65

900

600

300

NUMBER OF FAMILIES

GEOLOGICAL TIME (Ma)

Figure 8. Diagram showing total diversity of Sepkoski's three great "evolutionary faunas" through
time (after Sepkoski & Miller, 1985, fig.1). Major Ordovician radiation of new families is shown
between vertical dashed lines. The fine stippled area includes an estimated contribution to diversity
from the poorly preserved faunas. Also note that about 100 families of Lower-Middle Cambrian
archaeocyaths are excluded by Sepkoski & Miller because they do not fit the "logistic pattern" (see

Sepkoski 1979, fig. 4).

phase, with a quieter intervening period about
Caradoc (Gisbornian-Eastonian) time. A system of
small, elongated islands with associated narrow
shelves formed within each arc. However, with the
general shallowing towards the end of the
Ordovician, some larger island areas emerged. The
narrow island shelves were colonized by distinctive
and diverse communities in the Middle Ordovician,
and the larger Late Ordovician islands developed
algal "reef" tracts with associated shelly and
coralline faunas along their borders.

In central New South Wales, as already noted, the
volcanic islands provided a wide range of onshore
to offshore, shelf-slope habitats in low latitudes,
and new community types became established in the
inner shelf (Eodinobolus shell beds), the outer shelf
(Tetradium cribriforme coral banks) and the upper

slope (diverse siliceous sponge faunas), along with
the evolutionary development of many new taxa
(some of them endemics), and the dispersal of many
other immigrant stocks.

Clearly a wide variety of patterns of Ordovician
island arcs and oceanic islands must have existed in
different latitudinal belts as in present day ocean
settings, and they must have been, given the levels
of evolutionary activity, fundamentally important
in promoting this evolutionary activity and
dispersal associated with the Ordovician radiations.

These radiations represent the greatest and most
sustained burst of evolutionary activity in the fossil
record (Fig. 8), with many of the present existing
major taxa appearing, including the corals,
stromatoporoids, bryozoans, various echinoderm

66 B.D. WEBBY

groups, articulate brachiopods, most cephalopod
groups, gastropods, graptolites and many other
invertebrates, as well as the first vertebrates and the
first primitive land plants. A tripling of the number
of families occurred, with addition of a further 280
new families (Sepkoski & Sheehan, 1983).

Sepkoski's Model of Onshore-Offshore
Faunal Change

Sepkoski (1981; 1991) has claimed that all
Phanerozoic marine taxa may be partitioned into
one or other of his three great (Cambrian",
"Paleozoic" and "Modern") evolutionary faunas
(Fig. 8; Table 1). Each of these evolutionary faunas
originated onshore, and displaced, successively
through time, the earlier one to more offshore
habitats. Both the "Paleozoic" and the "Modern"
originated in the Ordovician. The focus of these
surveys relies on patterns of onshore-offshore
displacement (or replacement) of benthonic
communities using the North American continental
platform as model (see also Sepkoski & Sheehan,
1983). The Ordovician radiations are thought by
Sepkoski & Sheehan (1983, p.706) to have been
"produced by the great expansion of the Paleozoic
fauna", though the mechanisms driving this faunal
change remain unclear.

In outline Sepkoski explains the distinction between
his "great" faunas as follows:-

(1) The "Cambrian" fauna includes such groups as
the trilobites, inarticulate brachiopods,
monoplacophorans and hyolithids. These were

initially dominant on the shelf but retreated to more
offshore positions as the "Paleozoic" evolutionary
fauna diversified onshore during the period of
major Ordovician radiation. The "Cambrian"
fauna was characterized by low diversity and a high
rate of taxonomic turnover (Sepkoski, 1991). The
major Early Cambrian sponge-like archaeocyaths,
which did not fit Sepkoski's (1979) family level
analysis and model of patterns of diversity were
excluded on the grounds that they were algae. Yet
archaeocyathan specialists continue to confirm this
group as non-spiculate calcified sponges (Debrenne
& Vacelet, 1984; Zhuravlev, 1989; Kruse, 1990;
Wood et al., 1992).

(2) The "Paleozoic" fauna, which expanded
dramatically during the Ordovician Period,
remained dominant in the mid to outer shelf until
the major extinction event at the end of the
Palaeozoic Era. It was dominated by articulate
brachiopods, bryozoans, crinoids, corals,
cephalopods and others. The exact timing of the
Ordovician diversification seems to have varied,

Table 1. Subdivisions of the three great
"evolutionary" faunas of Sepkoski (1981). The data
is based on figs.1-2 of Sepkoski & Sheehan (1983)

I."Cambrian Fauna":
Scyphozoa, Priapulida, Monoplacophora, Hyolitha,
Trilobita, Inarticulata, Eocrinoidea, Pogonophora

II. "Paleozoic Fauna"

Calcarea, Sclerospongia, Anthozoa, Rostroconchia,
Cephalopoda, Tentaculitoidea, Polychaeta,
Merostomata, Ostracoda, Stenolaemata, Articulata,
Crinoidea, Edrioblastoidea, Edriasteroidea,
Blastoidea, Parablastoidea, Rhombifera, Diplo-
porita, Paracrinoidea, Homoiostelea, Stylophora,
Stelleroidea, Cyclocystoidea, Ophiocistoidea,
Conodontophora, Graptolithina, Pterobranchia,
marine Agnatha, marine Placodermi

III. "Modern (Mesozoic-Cenozoic) Fauna"
Rhizopodea, Radiolaria, Ciliata, Hexactinellida,
Demospongia, Polyplacophora, Gastropoda,
Scaphopoda, Bivalvia, Gymnolaemata, marine
Malcostracea, Echinoidea, Holothuroidea,
Chondrichthyes, marine Osteichthyes, marine
Reptilia, marine Mammalia

with brachiopods and cephalopods expanding early,
then crinoids and bryozoans in the middle of the
period, and corals still later (Sepkoski & Sheehan
1983). Most of Sepkoski & Sheehan's (1983)
documentation comes from the North American
Platform where brachiopod-bryozoan-pelmatozoan
communities expanded across the shelf effecting
displacement of the Cambrian fauna to deeper off-
shelf and basinal environments. The "Paleozoic"
fauna has a moderate diversity and intermediate
rate of taxonomic turnover (Sepkoski, 1991).

(3) The "Modern" fauna first arose during the
Ordovician with such groups as the gastropods and
bivalves appearing in onshore environments.
Jablonski et al., (1983) have noted mollusc-
dominated communities as having developed in
some onshore shelf situations of the Late
Ordovician. However expansion was slow until the
end-of-Permian extinction when the "Modern"
fauna became dominant. Other members of the
"Modern" fauna apparently included demosponges,
bony fishes, crustaceans and echinoids (Sepkoski,

1984). The fauna had the highest level of diversity
attained in post Palaeozoic time and the lowest rates
of turnover.

The anomalous appearance of the "Modern" fauna

ORDOVICIAN ISLAND BIOTAS 67

in the offshore zone of the Devonian, having
apparently "skipped" the "Paleozoic" fauna
(Sepkoski, 1991, p.60) may merely represent
change from a benthonic to nektonic mode of life
for these particular molluscs. None of Sepkoski's
analyses clearly differentiates between benthonic
and other modes of life. Known nektonic forms
(nautiloids and fish) and planktonic forms
(radiolarians and graptolites) are included
seemingly indiscriminantly with the benthonic
community assemblages in the onshore-offshore
faunal analyses (Sepkoski & Sheehan, 1983).

The broad patterns of Sepkoski's surveys are based
on a summation of global data as well as reflecting
local-regional biofacies patterns, such as seen in the
Cambrian and Ordovician benthic community
record of the North American Platform (Sepkoski
& Sheehan, 1983). The analyses show the “great”
evolutionary faunas to have originated successively
in Cambrian to Ordovician nearshore
environments, so that by the Late Ordovician (Fig.
9), they were arranged with the "Cambrian" fauna
in deep water (slope and basin), the "Paleozoic"

OUTER SHELF

“ARCHAIC -
CAMBRIAN"

fauna on the mid to outer shelf, and the "Modern"
fauna restricted to the inner shelf (Sepkoski, 1984).

Does the New South Wales onshore-offshore
island faunal gradient support the Sepkoski
model?

The low latitude island shelf to slope and basin
setting of central New South Wales is only known
to have existed for a relatively short period of Late
Ordovician time (about 10 to 15 Ma), but might be
expected to show a similar onshore-offshore faunal
gradient to that found in comparable low-latitude
positions of the North American Platform and
margin. However the New South Wales onshore-
offshore island shelf to slope-basin gradient is
markedly different (Fig. 10).

(1) According to the Sepkoski & Sheehan (1983)
model, hexactinellids, demosponges and
radiolarians are a part of the "Modern" fauna and
therefore should have occupied the inner shelf
during the Late Ordovician. However, in central

INNER SHELF

“MODERN”
BIVALVES

“PALEOZOIC"

ORTHIDS &

PTYCHO -
PARIIDS &
INARTICULATES

(Graptolites,
Phacopids
& Orthids)

GASTROPODS

(Strophomenids, Pentamerids,

Bryozoans, Phacopids, Proetids,

Ptychopariids & Nautiloids)

Displacement of community types with time

Figure 9. Time environment diagram showing the distribution of the Sepkoski "evolutionary faunas"
based on the North American Platform for the Blackriveran-Maysvillian (Caradoc-earliest Ashgill)
stratigraphical interval (based on Sepkoski & Sheehan, 1983, fig.7).

B.D. WEBBY
OUTER SHELF

Calcified lithistids
Rare bivalves

SLOPE

INNER SHELF

Siliceous Biota:

a. Radiolarians

b. DEMOSPONGES |
(DOMINANT )

c. Hexactinellids

(No bivalves)

CORALS (Tetradium

banks, early heliolitines,
& rugosans, |

RareTetradium
& Nyctopora

STROMATOPOROIDS,
BRYOZOANS &
GASTROPODS (SUBDOMS)

ARTICULATE
BRACHIOPODS (DOM.)

<——— Phacopid trilobites

Ellesmereoceratid Micheloceratid & tarphycerid
nautiloid nautiloids

PTYCHOPARIID TRILOBITES (SUBDOM.)

INARTICULATE
eh ae

BRACHIOPODS
(SUBDOM.)
Figure 10. Time environment diagram illustrating the apparent relationship of the Sepkoski
"evolutionary faunas” in the New South Wales island shelf to slope and basin profile during the same
Blackriveran-Maysville stratigraphic interval (Caradoc-earliest Ashgill).

GRAPTOLITES

(SUBDOMINANT) | A few bryozoans

& gastropods

Strophomenids
(No orthids)

—*» Rhynchotrema only

EODINOBOLUS
SHELL BEDS

New South Wales, the siliceous hexactinellids and
demosponges mainly occupied the slope habitat, as
they continued to do from Cambrian times (Webby,
1984; Rigby, 1986). The sponges were probably
benthonic but the radiolarians had a very different,
probably planktonic, mode of life.

(2) Only a few bivalves have been found in the
island setting (and these are currently being studied
by J. Pojeta, Jr., U.S. Geological Survey,
Washington D.C.). They mainly form relatively
small and inconspicuous components of the middle-
outer shelf, and the adjoining basin, not the inner
. Shelf. This contrasts with bivalves on the North
American Platform (Sepkoski & Sheehan, 1983)
and on the Gondwana Platform, judging from the
occurrences of large Early-Middle Ordovician
bivalves (Pojeta & Gilbert-Tomlinson, 1977) in the
Amadeus Basin, which occupied onshore sites.

(3) Organisms of the deeper graptolite basin
biofacies have a mixed provenance, the graptolites a
planktonic, the inarticulate brachiopods either
epiplanktonic or benthonic (Percival, 1978), the
trilobites probably benthonic, and the nautiloid a
nektonic mode of life. In terms of the "great"
evolutionary faunas, the assemblage is also mixed,
with "archaic" Cambrian trilobites and inarticulate

brachiopods, associated with more recently evolved
"Paleozoic" graptolites and nautiloids, and a few
"Modern" bivalves. The picture is further
complicated by Sepkoski & Miller (1985)
transferring the nautiloids from the "Paleozoic" to
the "Modern" fauna. The particular nautiloid in the
Malongulli assemblage is the ellesmeroceratid
Bactroceras and, as already noted, this form
represents a generic holdover from the Early
Ordovician; it is not a "Modern" taxon. This again
points to the arbitrariness of the subdivision by
Sepkoski and co-workers of major taxonomic
groups into the great "evolutionary" faunas, and to
the inadequacies of their undertaking onshore-
offshore community analyses without first
discriminating the mode of life of the faunal
elements.

(4) In terms of the New South Wales trilobite
distribution, only about one in four genera are
represented in both the outer shelf and the slope-
basin settings, and no species occurs in common in
both habitats (see Webby et al., 1970; Webby,
1971b; 1973; 1974). Only one outer shelf species is
known to extend onshore. No individual island shelf
species invaded, or were displaced to, the deeper-
water environments of the island slope and basin.
Indeed, trilobite dispersal patterns seem mainly to

ORDOVICIAN ISLAND BIOTAS 69

be in the opposite direction to that proposed by
Sepkoski (1981; 1991). For example, in each
cooling (or mass extinction) event recorded on the
North American continental platform through the
Middle-Upper Cambrian interval, trilobite stocks
from the deeper slope environments invaded
onshore platform sites (Palmer, 1965; 1979; Stitt,
LOTT).

(5) Similarly there is no evidence of outward shift
of brachiopod associations across the island shelf.
The inner shelf has very low diversity associations
of imarticulates (Eodinobolus, "Lingula”) and
articulates (Rhynchotrema), in about equal
proportions. The outer shelf is dominated by
diverse articulate assemblages (part of the
"Paleozoic" fauna of Sepkoski, 1981; 1991). No
evidence exists of endemic taxa, or their possible
precursors, originating onshore, and then shifting
through time to more outer shelf positions, as
required by the Sepkoski model. The inarticulates,
however, are well represented in the slope/basin
setting, and seem appropriate to be a part of
Sepkoski's (1981; 1991) more "archaic" Cambrian
fauna.

Comparison between onshore-offshore
faunal profiles of Late Ordovician low-
latitude North American Platform and the
New South Wales island setting

The onshore-offshore patterns of faunal change
through an interval of the Late Ordovician (late
Blackriveran to Maysvillian time) on the North
American Platform (see Sepkoski & Sheehan, 1983,
figs. 4 & 6-7), are represented as exhibiting the
appearance of the "Modern" (mollusc-rich) fauna in
the inner shelf towards the end of this period
(though in other diagrams of Sepkoski & Miller,
1985, fig.6, and Sepkoski, 1991, fig.1, the
"Modern" fauna is shown appearing onshore much
earlier in the Ordovician). The "Paleozoic" fauna
with its brachiopod-rich assemblages occupied the
mid to outer shelf habitats (inner shelf as well in
the early part of the period, according to Sepkoski
& Sheehan, 1983), and the "Cambrian" fauna was
mainly limited to the slope (Fig. 9).

Patterns in the contemporaneous New South Wales
island inner shelf and slope habitats are markedly
different (Fig.10). First, there are no records of the
“Modern” fauna in the inner shelf; the elements are
dominantly representatives of the "Paleozoic"
fauna, and the only "new" community type is the
low diversity inarticulate-dominated Eodinobolus
shell beds, possibly derived from the "Cambrian"
fauna. The low-latitude inner shelf island fringing
habitats of central New South Wales, in contrast to

equivalent inner shelf areas of the North American
Platform, exhibit low diversities, a lack of
Significant evolutionary innovations, development
of few new community types and no evidence of
offshore displacement through time.

Secondly, though the outer island shelf shows
diverse biotas of articulate brachiopods, bryozoans,
corals and stromatoporoids, the development of the
Tetradium cribriforme banks seems to represent
the only particularly distinctive new community
type.

Thirdly, in the island slope to basin setting, as
previously stated, representatives of Sepkoski's
three evolutionary faunas occur in association, or in
near association, viz., the siliceous sponges and
radiolarians of his "Modern" fauna, together with
graptolites of the "Paleozoic" fauna, and trilobites
and inarticulates of the "Cambrian" fauna. The
siliceous sponges probably originated as benthonic
organisms on the slope, and the radiolarians were
part of the planktonic component of the ocean.
Neither of these groups can be interpreted as
having originated onshore, nor should they be
Classified as a part of Sepkoski's "Modern" fauna.

SUMMARY

(1) Sepkoski and co-workers have greatly
oversimplified the picture of how the evolutionary
radiations occurred during the Ordovician Period,
using a mainly North American-based benthonic
onshore-offshore model. In particular, they have
failed to discriminate between the differing modes
of life of Ordovician marine invertebrates and this
has led to some rather misleading conclusions when
applied globally.

(2) The existing global Ordovician fossil record is
markedly biased, because data from continental
platform deposits are relatively accessible and
completely preserved, whereas information about
deposits of oceanic and volcanic island-arc settings
is rarely well preserved. Consequently the few sites
with small fragmentary remnants of well preserved
deposits and biotas within Palaeozoic fold belts, like
those of the Molong High and the Parkes Platform,
are uniquely important. We need to place greater
emphasis on documenting these "windows" as a
basis for providing a more balanced overall view of
the nature of diversification of Early Palaeozoic
marine life. The importance of patterns of present
day islands has long been recognized as the basis
for explaining the evolution and dispersal of
organisms, following the pioneer nineteenth

70

century work on island biogeogeography by
Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace. More adequate
focus on the existing remnants of Ordovician
islands and their biotas may help elucidate aspects
of how the Ordovician radiation events took place.
Certainly they represented some of the most
important evolutionary innovations of new groups
of organisms in the history of life on earth.

(3) Sepkoski (1979) has claimed that the Palaeozoic
taxa were more specialized with narrower
ecological constraints than the more generalist,
broad feeding and habitat Cambrian taxa they
displaced. In terms of the Ordovician radiation
events, Sepkoski & Sheehan (1983) point to most of
the dramatic increase in diversity being associated
with the expansion of the "Paleozoic" fauna with, at
the community level, onshore origin followed by
displacement of older community types to offshore
sites, but the triggering mechanism for this
onshore-offshore expansion at the beginning of the
Ordovician is far from clear.

This may relate to the major physical changes
which occurred in the world in late Cambrian
through Ordovician time. These factors include: (1)
increased continental fragmentation (Valentine &
Moores, 1972), which provided a greater range of
potential sites for diversification of shallow-water
communities; (ii) subduction-related volcanicity
which resulted in a greatly increased number of
shallow, offshore island shelf-slope habitats within
the oceans; and (iii) an increased global latitudinal
_ gradient, accompanying the changes in the latest
Ordovician towards a period of continental
glaciation centred on North Africa (Beuf et al.,
1971), with a wider range of cool-water, nearshore
habitats so becoming available for colonization.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Earlier work on this project was supported by
Australian Research Council grants E73/15102,
E79/15763 and A38830446. While this paper is
dedicated to the memory of W.B. Clarke, I should
also like to acknowledge the support of a number of
colleagues who have worked with me on this and
other related cooperative projects since the mid
1960s. They include Ian Percival, Vic Semeniuk,
Gordon Packham, Evan Leitch, Zhen Yongyi,
Colin Stearn, Keith Rigby, Doug Morris, Peter
Kruse, Julie Trotter, Wang Qizheng, John Laurie,
Bob Nicoll, John Shergold, Ross McLean, Lin
Baoyu, Wilma Blom and Kingsley Mills.

I thank Dr Ian Percival (School of Earth Sciences,
Macquarie University) and Mrs M. Krysko (Editor,
Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of

B.D. WEBBY

New South Wales) for reviewing the camera-ready
version of this paper and offered many
constructively useful suggestions.

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Belt in central New South Wales, in GLOBAL
PERSPECTIVES ON ORDOVICIAN
GEOLOGY, pp. 495-497. B.D. Webby & J.R.
Laurie (Eds.) Balkema, Rotterdam.

Wyborn, D., Sherwin, L., Webby, B.D. Abell,
R.S. & Percival I.G., 1991. Ordovician basins,
volcanoes and shelves, southern and central New
South Wales. Guidebook for field excursion 3,
6th International Symposium on the Ordovician
System. Record, Bureau of Mineral Resources,
Geology & Geophysics, 1991/50, 1-55.

Zhang Zhijin, 1984. Lower Palaeozoic volcanism
in northern Qilianshan, NW China, in
MARGINAL BASIN GEOLOGY, pp. 285-
289.B.P. Kokelaar & M.F. Howells, (Eds.)
Geological Society of London & Blackwells,
Oxford,

Zhuravlev, A. Yu., 1989. Poriferan aspects of
archaeocyathean skeletal function. Memoir of
the Association of Australasian Palaeontologists,

8, 387-399.

Ziegler, A.M., Cocks, R.M. & Bambach, R.K..,
1968. The composition and structure of Lower
Silurian marine communities. Lethaia, 1, 1-27.

APPENDIX 1

List of authors and dates of Ordovician taxonomic,
palaeoecologic and palaeobiogeographic studies in
central New South Wales since the late 1950s

Algae (and/or Cyanobacteria) - Semeniuk &
Byrnes, 1971; Webby, 1982; Webby & Trotter,
1992

Radiolaria - Webby & Blom, 1986

Stromatoporoidea - Webby, 1969; 1971a; 1979;
Pickett, 1970; Webby & Morris, 1976

Sponges (Porifera) - Webby, 1969; Webby &
Morris, 1976; Webby & Rigby, 1985; Rigby &
Webby, 1988; Webby & Trotter, 1993

Corals (Tabulata) - Hill, 1957; Webby &
Semeniuk, 1969; 1971; Webby, 1977; Webby &
Kruse, 1984

Corals (Rugosa) - Webby, 1971c; 1972; 1988;
McLean & Webby, 1976

Bryozoa - Ross, 1961

Brachiopoda - Percival, 1978; 1979a; 1979b;
1991; 1992

Nautiloidea - Glenister, 1952; Stait, Webby &
Percival 1985; Hewitt & Stait, 1985

Trilobita - Campbell & Durham, 1970; Webby,
Moors & McLean 1970; Webby, 1971b; 1973;
1974

Ostracoda - Schallreuter, 1988; Schallreuter &
Siveter, 1988a; 1988b; 1988c

Echinodermata - Webby, 1968

Conodonta - Savage 1990

Graptolithina - Sherrard, 1962; Moors, 1970

Palaeoecology - Semeniuk, 1973; Webby &
Percival 1983; Webby, 1987

Palaeobiogeography - Webby, 1974; 1985;
1987; Lin & Webby, 1989

APPENDIX 2

Faunal lists for Late Ordovician island shelf to
island slope and basin biofacies, Cliefden Caves
area, eastern part of the Molong High

Al. Lingulide biofacies, based on lower part
of Gleesons Limestone Member, Fossil Hill.
Brachiopods: "Lingula”

Trilobites: Pliomerina (rare)
Ostracods and gastropods (rare)

16

B.D. WEBBY

A2. Rhynchonellide biofacies, based on the

C,

middle part of the Wyoming Limestone
Member, Fossil Hill.

Brachiopods: Rhynchotrema (dominant),
"Lingula", Eodinobolus (fragmentary and
sparse)

Bryozoans: Stictopora and two others (not
determined)

Minor constituents include algae, ostracods and a
possible coral (Nyctopora)

. Eodinobolus biofacies, based on middle part

of the Gleesons Limestone Member, Fossil Hill.
Brachiopod: Eodinobolus sp. nov.(dominant),
"Lingula” (rare)

Alga: Hedstroemia

Corals: Tetradium (2 spp.)

Bryozoans: Stictopora, Homotrypa

Ostracods: Trianguloschmidtella
(Rempesgrinella), Elliptocyprites, Velapezoides?
Gastropods: (common; not determined)

Tetradium cribriforme biofacies, based on
the Kalimna Limestone Member, Fossil Hill.

(1) Dominant elements in biostrome:

Corals: Tetradium cribriforme, Nyctopora,
Bajgolia (2 spp.), Hillophyllum

Stromatoporoid: Cystistroma

Cyanobacterium: Cliefdenia

(ii) Other less dominant representatives in

biofacies:

Corals: Billingsaria?, Bajgolia (+2 spp.),
Eofletcheria, Coccoseris, Pragnellia, Tetradium
(+1 sp.)

Stromatoporoids: Stratodictyon, Labechiella
Algae: Vermiporella, Girvanella, Solenopora
Bryozoans: Stictopora, Austraphylloporina,
Homotrypa, Batostoma, Prasopora

Brachiopods: Eodinobolus (rare), "Lingula”,
Quondongia, Protozyga,

Nautiloids: Cliefdenoceras, Troedssonella,
Gorbyoceras?

Trilobites: Eokosovopeltis, Pseudobasilicus?,
Remopleurides, Pliomerina

Other minor constituents include gastropods,
ostracods, bivalves and echinoderm ossicles

Strophomenide biofacies, based on the
Dunhill Bluff Limestone Member, Dunhill
Bluff.

Brachiopods: Sowerbyites, Wiradjuriella,
Rhynchotrema, Plectorthis, Anoptambonites,
Tylambonites, Webbyspira, Dinorthis,
Eodinobolus (rare), "Lingula"

Corals: Hillophyllum, Tetradium cribriforme,

Lichenaria, Nyctopora, Saffordophyllum,
Bajgolia (2 spp.), Eofletcheria, Coccoseris,
Acidolites

Stromatoporoids: Cystistroma, Labechiella,
Rosenella

Bryozoans: Stictopora, Homotrypa, Batostoma,
Monotrypella, Austraphylloporina, Fistulipora,
Hallopora, Dyscotrypa, Prasopora

Algae: Solenopora, Hedstroemia and others
Nautiloids: Troedssonella, Gorbyoceras?,
Trocholites, Paradiscoceras, Cliefdenoceras
Gastropods: Maclurites, Loxoplocus, and several
other forms

Bivalves: rare, and not yet determined

Trilobites: Pliomerina, Remopleurides,
Pseudobasilicus?, Eokosovopeltis, harpid
(indeterminate)

Ostracods: +5 genera (not determined)
Echinoderms: numerous ossicles

Conodonts: a rich assemblage but no specific list
of identications yet available.

(i) The coralline-dominated, “biohermal" sub-

biofacies is based on the roadside section west of
the Boonderoo shearing shed and contains, in
particular, the stromatoporoids Cystistroma,
Labechiella, Stratodictyon and Pseudo-
stylodictyon, the corals Hillophyllum, Tetradium
cribriforme T. cruciforme, Eofletcheria,
Bajgolia, Nyctopora, Coccoseris, other
heliolitids, the cyanobacterium Cliefdenia,
bryozoans, and the algae Solenopora and
Sphaerocodium.

(ii) The echinoderm-dominated sub-biofacies is

based on the Caves track section and differs
mainly from the type biofacies association in
exhibiting the edrioblastoid Astrocystites, much
fragmentary echinoderm debris and calcified
lithistid sponges.

(iii) A significantly more diverse articulate

brachiopod biota is represented in the
strophomenide biofacies of higher stratigraphic
levels, for example, in the Quondong Limestone
at Bowan Park, and in the Billabong Creek
Limestone, between Forbes and Bogan Gate
(Percival, 1991). The biofacies constitutents of
the Quondong Limestone at Bowan Park
comprise 19 articulates, including the genera
Australispira, Ptychopleurella, Molongcola,
Trigrammaria, Phaceloorthis, Eridorthis,
Christiania, Doleroides, Skenidioides, Dinorthis,
Protozyga, Bowanorthis, Tylambonites,
Hesperorthis and Zygospira.

ORDOVICIAN ISLAND BIOTAS fii

El. Periplatform ooze biofacies, based on

tabular clasts from the main debris flow in the
lower part of the Malongulli Formation, Copper
Mine Creek.

Demosponges: Haplistion, Warrigalia (2 spp.),
Taplowia, Lewinia (2 spp.), Boonderooia,
Cliefdenospongia, Archaeoscyphia, Aulocopium,
Perissocoelia, Hudsonospongia*, Patellispongia,
Psarodictyum, Amplaspongia (2 spp.),
Malongullospongia*, Pseudopalmatohindia,
Dunhillia (4 spp.), Yarrowigahia*, Gleesonia*,
Vandonia*, MHindia, Belubulaspongia,
Palmatohindia (3 spp.), Arborhindia (2 spp.),
Mamelohindia, Fenestrospongia, AStylostroma*
Hexactinellids: Tiddalickia*, Wongaspongia,
Walliospongia*, Liscombispongia, Wareembaia,
Kalimnospongia, root tuft

Sponge spicules of hexactinellid and other
problematical derivation: Silicunuculus,
Brachiospongia, Anomaloides and other new
form taxa (3 gen.)

Calcareans: Nibiconia*, Belubulaia*
Radiolarians: Entactinia (3 spp.), other
entactiniids (3 different types), Kalimnasphaera,
Auliela, rotasphaerids

Conodonts: (identifications courtesy of J.
Trotter) Bellodella, Bellodina (several spp.),
Besselodus, Dapsilodus, Istorinus?, Oistodus,
Oulodus, Ozarkodina, Panderodus (several spp.),
Paroistodus?, Periodon, Phragmodus,
Plectodina, Protopanderodus, Pseudobelodina
(several spp.), Pseudooneotodus, Scabbardella,
Spinodus?, Strachanognathus, Taoqupognathus,
Walliserodus, Zanclodus and other
indeterminate elements

[*Taxa from other Malongulli breccia deposits,
specifically the Sugarloaf Creek and Gleesons
Creek localities]

E2. Graptolite basinal biofacies, based on

basal Malongulli Formation, Trilobite Hill.
Graptolites: Leptograptus, Climacograptus,
Dicellograptus, Dicranograptus, Diplograptus,
Orthograptus, Glyptograptus

Hexactinellid sponges: numerous discrete
spicules and a few indeterminate, loosely
clustered skeletons

Trilobites: Remopleurides, Eokosovopeltis,
Parkesolithus, Malongullia (2 spp.),
Encrinuraspis

Brachiopods: (Inarticulates) Anomaloglossa,
Elliptoglossa, Paterula, Conotreta? ; (Articulates)
Durranella, Sericoidea

Nautiloids: Bactroceras

Other minor constituents of the biofacies include
bivalves, hyolithids, ostracods and conulariids

. "Lagoonal" biofacies, based on massive grey

lime mudstones and wackestones in the lower
part of the Transmission Limestone Member and
lower part of the Belubula Limestone, Dunhill
Bluff.

A sparse biota including:

Algae: a possible dasyclad but others not
determined

Stromatoporoids: possible Cystostroma

Corals: rare Tetradium and heliolitines
Trilobites: fragments only

Echinoderms: a few ossicles

Bryozoans: stictoporid (rare)

Gastropods: rare and indeterminate

Trace fossils: indeterminate burrowers; possible
Chondrites

B.D.Webby

Department of Geology & Geophysics
University of Sydney

N.S.W., 2006, Australia

(Manuscript received 13.10.1992)

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Journal-and Proceedings, Roval Society of New South Wales, Vol.125, pp.79-91,1992

ISSN 0035-9173/92/020079-13

$4.00/1

ON BEING INTERESTED IN THE EXTREME

E.C. POTTER
Presidential Address delivered before the Royal Society of New South Wales on Ist April,1992

ABSTRACT. A listing of things in order of some characteristic generates an extreme at each end. Each extreme merits a
superlative, such as highest or lowest, shortest or longest, and so on. More qualification and conditions must usually be applied
before extremes are defined adequately, so that the supply of extremes is seemingly endless. As time progresses, discovery and
attainment cause displacement of existing extremes by even more superlative ones. In this paper study and analysis are
presented of selected familiar extremes of number, of human fleetness and strength, and of topology. Thus, the highest number
expressible by three numerals is nine raised to the ninth power of nine, but this extreme is hugely surpassed if Roman numerals
are used. In the field of human endeavour, analysis of trends in successive extremes of drug-free running indicates that the first
woman to run a 4-minute mile will do so around the year 2025, about which time men will be attaining the ultimate extreme for
the same distance of close to 222 seconds. Curiously, the extreme of human efficiency for lifting a mass above the head is
exhibited by the male of the species weighing within about 2% of 60 kg. New extremes are continually being discovered. For
example, all conventional 6-sided dice are not the same, and the extreme of 16 different has recently been proved to occur by

79

chance in the ordinary market place.

INTRODUCTION

Everyone has some interest in extremes, that is those things
which, when ranked in order of some common characteristic,
appear at the head or the foot of the list. Some extremes never
change, like zero and infinity, while others are unlikely to change,
like the highest mountain or the deepest spot of the ocean; but a
good proportion of extremes (those we often call records) are
temporary and stand to be exceeded (or "broken" in the case of
records). The new superlatives, on displacing the incumbents
from their lofty (or lowly) perches, pad our newspapers and
magazines for our fleeting enjoyment or secret disdain.

Most extremes are far from dull and a few are favourites
for opening conversations (the weather, for instance, which is
exceptional among extremes for always being extreme, even
when it is average). There are curious and humorous extremes,
and others that are decided subjectively (Miss World or Mr
Universe). Others, again, must await recognition, such as the
highest proven prime number or the longest human life. Anyone
may successfully indulge in the pastime of inventing extremes,
but it is far from easy to bring to light extremes that have wide
appeal, enough to warrant inclusion in that ultimate resort of
extremists, the Guinness Book of Records.

A few examples in catechetic form illustrate the variety that
extremes offer, and the subtlety of conditions that sometimes

apply.

Q. What stable (i.e. non-radioactive) compounds of only two
different atoms have the extreme molecular masses?

A. — The substance lithium hydride, LiH, prepared from the
isotope 6Li has a molecular mass of 7.023; at the other
extreme lead telluride, PbTe, prepared from the isotopes
208Pb and 130Te has a molecular mass of 337.9.

Q. What is the longest Roman-numeral Anno Domini date so
far?

A. The year 1888 was expressed by thirteen letters:
MDCCCLXXXVIII, and this extreme will not be superseded
before another 895 years from now.

Q. At what age on average does a human being cease to be the
world's youngest person?

A. Since on average 264 human beings are born each minute, a
baby is no longer the world's youngest person on reaching
the age of approximately 174 second.

Q. What extremities of the biosphere can naturally support
human life?

A. The air is too tenuous to support prolonged human life
higher than about 5.5km above sea level, and is likewise
too hot in a convection-ventilated shaft or cave more than
about 2km below land at sea-level.

The author of this paper believes there is intellectual
enchantment to be found in the study and analysis of selected
alphas and omegas of the wor!d around us and, accordingly, will
examine some extremes of nurnber, of human fleetness and
strength, and of topology, aiming to estimate their future
directions.

EXTREMES OF NUMBER

The author has difficulty appreciating high numbers,
probably from a conviction that the amount of appreciation given
ought to be in direct proportion to the magnitude of the number
under consideration. For example, surely one's appreciation of
one thousand of anything should be intensified 1000 times in
order to do justice to a million of those same things. On the other
hand, the act of appreciation (whether demanding wonder,
humility, endorsement, or disapprovai) does not seem capable of
offering sufficient range and subdivision to make (say) the first

80

million numbers fairly ranked and differentiated from each other.
Making matters worse is the humdrum presentation to us of
monstrous numbers like the present population of the world
(over five thousand million) or the national debt of any of several
countries (for example, one hundred thousand million monetary
units). Such huge numbers lose their stature when given brief
vocal rendering as "billion" and "trillion" or are otherwise
disguised by exotic prefixes such as “giga" and "tera".

Daily confrontation with billions of this or that makes a
million of something se2m almost trivial. To regain a sense of
proportion, consider a typical pad of sheets of graph paper each
ruled in millimetre squares to cover a rectangle 27cm x 18cm.
Twenty-one sheets (commonly about half the pad) will present to
the eye slightly over one million squares, and thereby provide a
fitting perspective of that number. In contrast, if every person
now living were allotted a separate millimetre square, then this
would require a pile of 50-sheet pads about 15m high, and visual
assimilation would be too daunting to succeed. A new pad
would need to be added most weeks to keep pace with the
population growth, and a regular scanning of each new pad's
squares should give a sobering impression of incrernents of
millions at a time.

There is no highest number expressible in the figures
(otherwise numerals, digits, or ciphers) we habitually use,
although we do have a symbol for infinity, which is a number
greater than any that can be counted to. There is no satisfaction
in such an intangible extreme, but provided one applies
conditions, extremes of number exist and some of these are
fascinating in the extreme.

The Highest Number using just three Numerals

This century-old problem is solved using the familiar
superscript notation for powers of numbers. However, before
challenging the usual solution it is useful to clarify an ambiguity

in the notation, and this will be done for simplicity using numeral
3.

Without question 33 is "three cubed", which equals 27.
However, unless some convention is adopted the tower written
33° may mean "three cubed cubed” i.e. 273 = 39, which is less than
twenty thousand, or it may mean "the three-cubed power of
three", i.e. 327, which is nearly eight million. It seems the latter
choice is tacitly adopted when the original problem is answered
with the tower 99, that is nine raised to the ninth power of nine,
or approximately, nine raised to a power somewhat greater than
387 million. Fully written out this number has (near enough) 370
million digits, (the last of which is 9), so that if each digit were
made small enough to fit into a millimetre square, then 160 fifty-

‘sheet pads of graph paper would be required. A scribe writing
one digit per second and working 8-hour days (but taking normal
holidays) would spend an entire career on the assignment. The
tower notation using just three nines can comfortably be written
in one second and is obviously a most effective shorthand for this
notable extreme.

It is possible, however, to challenge the usual answer on
the grounds that Roman numerals are an accepted and familiar
alternative to Arabic ones for the expression of numbers. Roman
numerals (we may remind ourselves) are based largely on a
quinary system: I, V, X, L, C, D, M. The letter M is the largest
single Roman numeral and equals one thousand; so that the

E.C. POTTER

highest three-numeral number is MM, which is one thousand
raised to the thousandth power of one thousand. In our usual
decimal notation this is a number with one more than 3 x 102000
digits (not just 4 x 108 digits, as was approximately the case for
the answer based on the 3-high tower of nines). The universe we
know has neither dimensional magnitudes nor subdivision and
compression of matter to contemplate full scribal justice to the
3M-tower solution to the problem posed by the title of this

section, although you could describe it as "1 followed by 3 x
1093000 zeros."

The Prime Extreme

The only divisors of a prime number are unity and itself.
The lower extreme, the first prime, is 2 and it is the only even one.
The only prime that ends in 5 is five itself; after that the scene is
set and all the others must end in 1, 3, 7 or 9. If only because
there is no upper extreme prime, a record exists for the highest
known prime. In 1876 the record stood at 2127 _ 1, which is a 39-
digit number beginning with 1 and ending in 7. This record,
which stood little chance of being broken until electronic
calculators came into being, was displaced in 1951 by a number
with 41 digits. Since then the record has risen exponentially with
date and a few days before this address was first delivered to the
Society the record was again broken.

The highest known prime number is now 2756839_1, which
contains 227832 digits. This is still a minute number compared
with the 3-nines tower (obviously not prime) discussed above,
but assuming present rate of progress a prime exceeding this
tower will be known less than 50 years from now. This leaves
aside the problem of how the number would be written down
with visual brevity but total precision.

It is logical to ask whether the present highest known
prime is the number we know most precisely (assuming no-one
has bothered to print out the 3-nines tower completely). The
answer is "no".

The Extreme of Precision

The record for the most precise number is held by 1, the
first 1 011 196 691 decimal places of which have been known since
1989. In stating this, we exclude as spurious merely repetitive
examples such as 172 (when expressed by 0.50) and recurring
decimals like !/3 (0.3).

The case of m as an extreme is worth examining. Anyone
may take a rigid wheel, measure its diameter and then roll it one
complete revolution to find its circumference. With some care the
ratio of the larger to the smaller measurement (zm) can be obtained
to one part in three hundred, yielding m to 2 decimal places as
3.14. If, however, in order to fence a perfectly circular flat field
(or paddock) exactly 300m across, precisely 942 metres of fence
were obtained, there would be a gap of almost 48 cm unfenced.
Clearly a more precise value of m would have avoided the
problem, for which purpose existing mensuration techniques
would soon establish its value to 5 decimal places as 3.14159

Regarding this 5-decimal r it is certain that all six figures (a
rather lack-lustre cluster for something as all-pervading yet
immutable as m) have to be what they are and in that order.
Naturally the question arises (if only to seek a mnemonic for 1)
whether some pattern or code exists regulating the occurrence or

ON BEING INTERESTED IN THE EXTREME 81

succession of digits (in the first six only one is even). There is, for
example, the conveniently remembered fraction 355/113, which
calculates out to 3.14159 and encourages the enthusiast to see if its
next decimal place is right for 7. It is!

The typical so-called "scientific" hand calculator has a x
button that displays 3.141592654 but invisibly operates with the
more precise 36 in the 9th and 10th decimal places. Access to the
10th decimal place for m formally allows the equator (assumed
circular) to be found with a precision of about Imm, which seems
adequate. The calculator also shows that 355/113 fails to follow n
beyond the sixth decimal place, but its display fails to discredit
the somewhat less memorable 103993 /33102.

There are various series differing in convenience that may
be used to calculate m to any desired precision. If the first 30
decimal places are obtained in this way, zero alone of the ten
digits fails to appear, and suspicion arises that m eschews 0. If the
succession of digits is random (which is compatible with each one
being immutable), then three zeros are expected on average in
any sequence of 30 successive decimal places, and the odds for no
zeros are about 24 to 1 against. n's first zero turns up at the 32nd
decimal place, and the second not until the 50th place - still three
behind the norm. However, the suspicion dismisses itself, since
in the first 200 decimal places there are 19 zeros when 20 is the
expectation.

Perhaps, however, m won't abide 00 (the double zero), since
this pair does not turn up in the first 200 decimal places, two
being the expectation. Suffice it to say that any number of
increasingly elaborate propositions can be set up challenging the
randomness of digits in 7, so that there is no limit to the number
of digits required to test for veracity or otherwise as elaboration
mounts. For example, on average in every 1019 successive
decimal places of nm the rising sequence 0, 1,....9 is expected to
appear once. No reasonable statistician would test for
appreciable divergence from expectation until this had reached 10
preferably, so that a minimum of 10!! decimal places are needed
before we could harbour a fair suspicion that m has a real dearth
or excess of 0 to 9 sequences. So far only just over 10? decimal
places are available, and hence that particular question remains
unanswered for the time being.

The discovery and construction of mnemonics is an art
form in itself, and they have been devised for nm. The author
personally finds them difficult to remember and much prefers to
memorize the numbers themselves (the record for this is held by
a Japanese gentleman, who recited 40,000 decimal places from
memory in under 17 hours). If the first 11 integers for x will do,
the easiest mnemonic in English that the author has seen is: "May
I have a large container of coffee beans now please". Provided
one remembers where the decimal point is, this serves to check
the batteries of one's scientific hand calculator.

EXTREMES OF HUMAN LOCOMOTION

The fastest form of unaided human locomotion across a
firm level surface is the face-forward leaping from alternate feet
called "running". Faster locomotion may be possible if some
enthusiast perfects a style of running akin to the legs-and-arms
gallop used by some monkeys. Not only would such a crouching
gait make for a less-discontinuous application of the available
force to the ground but wind-resistance would be significantly
reduced. As it is, the only way that humans approach uniform

force-application coupled with the lowered wind-resistance that
crouching brings is with the aid of special footwear such as
(friction-prone) roller skates or the near-frictionless ice skates.
However, virtually continuous force-application with minimized
friction and wind-resistance is achievable using the bicycle, a
machine which, although itself powerless, allows the attainment
of the greatest velocity with which the human being can progress
solely by his own effort across level ground in the open air
(currently 71 km/h sustained for 200 metres).

Nowadays the majority of able-bodied human beings of
ordinary stature on reaching peak physical maturity can train
themselves to run 100 metres in no more than 14.9 seconds, this
being the pace which, if maintained for 1609.35 metres would
suffice to achieve the four-minute mile, a feat which eluded
human accomplishment until 1954. Even so, it is reasonable to
assert that all fit and athletic young men and most similar young
women would actually run a mile in four minutes provided they
closely followed a large bus travelling downhill at a steady 15
miles per hour. This claim stands to be proved only if a new
sport of motor-paced downhill running captures youthful
imagination, but nevertheless it brings out the influence of two
factors, namely gravity and wind-resistance, on the extremes of
running attainment. There are other factors, which include
distance run, starting skill, wind assistance, altitude, physical
stature and fitness, drugs and (clearly) the sex and age of the
athlete. It is instructive to examine and compare some of these
factors in detail.

MAN versus WOMAN

At any selected running distance the fastest man has
always outrun the fastest woman, although the records show that
today's fastest women are the equal of the corresponding fastest
men of around 70 years ago. While this belated ‘catch-up’ by
women is partly explained by their increased acceptance of
training and competition this century, the principal reason
(applicable to both sexes) is the continual general improvement in
physical build, anatomical balance, nutrition and health that the
human race has secured for itself by unprecedented medical and
sociological advancement. However, for men at least there is
evidence that the extreme limits of physical attainment are in
sight, which implies dismissal of the idea that one day genetic
alteration may produce humans capable of matching the speed of
nimbler bipeds like the ostrich or emu, or even of quadrupeds
such as the horse or deer. Other factors being equal, performance
depends on power to weight ratio, and this is why men's and
women's records must be segregated (for example a running man
has jumped to clear a horizontal bar 59 cm above his own head,
while the best by a woman is 32 cm).

The Extreme in Running

What is the fastest a man unaffected by drug enhancement
has run on level ground without a significant following wind and
at no advantageous altitude above sea level? It is tempting to
answer this question by reference to the current world record for
the 100m sprint which stands at 9.86 seconds, representing an
average speed of 10.14 m/s (36.51 km/h). This answer must be at
fault since the current world record for 4 different men relaying a
baton by hand a total distance of 400m (i.e. 4 x 100 metres relay) is
37.40 seconds, which means the men averaged 9.35 seconds for
100 metres, a speed of 10.70 m/s (38.50 km/h).

82

The apparent discrepancy arises because only the first
runner covered his 100m leg from stationary, and the other three
had flying starts (meaning that time taken accelerating was not
counted). If the "starting loss" were available for the first runner,
then an estimate of the fastest average time for the flying 100
metres would emerge and could more satisfactorily answer: the
original question.

Some estimate of this starting loss may be obtained by
assuming that the first runner ran his leg from stationary in a
world-class time of 10.00 seconds, leaving 37.40 - 10.00 = 27.40
seconds for the three flying 100m legs. This starting-loss estimate
is therefore 10.00 - (27.40/3) = 0.87 seconds, and an improved
answer to the question of the fastest runner is 9.86 - 0.87 = 8.99
seconds for a flying 100 metres (11.12 m/s).

The assumption inherent in this method is that each of the
three receivers of the baton did so at the full speed of his donor
runner. Such a full-speed baton-change requires receivers to
reach full speed (say 11 m/s) within the maximum 20 metres each
is allowed by the rules for a valid baton-change. On this basis if
the fastest man reaches full speed in precisely 20 metres from
stationary and incurs a starting loss of 0.87 seconds, then the
world record for the 60 metres sprint should be (8.99 x 0.6) + 0.87
= 6.26 seconds. In fact the record is 6.41 seconds, revealing an
inconsistency (0.15 second) that spells rejection of the assumption
that a sprinter can accelerate to full speed in 20 metres from
stationary.

A sounder approach is to compare the world records for
60m and 100m sprints, on the assumption (applicable for such
short sprints only) that the 60m record would have produced the
100 metre record if it had continued for the additional 40 metres.
It then appears that the final 40 metres of the 100 metre record
was run in an estimated 9.86 - 6.41 = 3.45 seconds (11.59 m/s).
Pro rata the flying 60 metres would be run in 3.45 x 1.5 = 5.17
seconds, and the starting loss is thus estimated to be 6.41 - 5.17 =
1.24 seconds.

The best answer possible at present to the question of the
fastest human being is that a male has sustained a speed of 11.59
m/s by running 40 metres in an estimated 3.45 seconds. Shorter
distances may have been run faster, but this is difficult to
quantify since the running gait is non-uniform in speed and body
attitude, and timing over a reasonable number of paces (say 20, or
c.40m) is required to compensate for such fluctuations.

The same question can be similarly addressed for the
fastest woman except that, as things stand, a difficult choice
seems unavoidable. When in the period 1987/88 a particular
male sprinter improved the 100m world record by the most
unlikely margin of 1%, enquiry showed that banned drugs were
responsible and his performances were deleted from the records
book. About the same time a female sprinter improved the
women's 100m world record by a quite extraordinary 2.5% and
the 200m record by an astonishing 1.7%. Nothing untoward was
proved, but comparable female performances have not yet
appeared and the particular female athlete never competed again.
Her officially-accepted 100m and 200m sprint records are not
consistent with the performance patterns (common to both men
and women) described later, and consequently the women's
world records of early 1988 have been used here.

E.C. POTTER

The result is that a female has sustained a speed of 10.55
m/s by running 40 metres in an estimated 3.79 seconds, some
10% slower than the fastest male. The estimated starting loss for
the female sprint is 1.28 seconds (cf. 1.24 for men). While the
0.04s difference may not be significant, the closeness of these
starting losses for men and women is reasonable since the
marginally lower acceleration of the women is compensated by
the fact that the women accelerate to a lower peak speed.

The Onset of Fatigue with Distance Run

The world-class runner who makes his maximum effort for
10 seconds and thus covers 200 metres is not exhausted, but can
continue at much the same speed to complete 100 metres in 20
seconds. Even then exhaustion is far away since the world record
for 400 metres is 43.29 seconds, which requires a definitely
sprinting final 200 metres. However, after 400 metres the
sprinter's energy is considerably depleted, and fatigue imposes a
fast-diminishing rate of energy release, leading to a lowered
finishing speed that is easily observed in 4 x 400m relay running.

Evidently, in the brief span that the 400 metre runner is
making maximum effort, the refuelling that can be done by
breathing in oxygen is minor, and indeed for distances up to
about 200 metres such refuelling is insignificant. Thus the
sprinter relies on stored energy and_ experiences little
replenishment, in contrast to the distance runner, who is
refuelling with oxygen for the duration of the run (3->30 minutes)
and by regulating pace strategically conserves energy for a final
exhausting burst for victory. After a race the sprinter soon
recovers breath and can run at full pace again well within half an
hour, whereas the distance runner experiences a more profound
and muscular fatigue, so that recovery times up to a day are
common depending on distance.

It is convenient to begin analysis of the fatigue effect by

considering distances up to 800 metres and, for this purpose and
because fatigue relates more fundamentally to time at maximum
effort rather than to distance, the various records are compared
using the average time in seconds taken to run a flying 100 metres
(t}Q9)- Thus in the case of the men's 400 metres, the world record
time (43.29 seconds) is reduced by 1.24 seconds (the starting loss)
and the result divided by four to give ty9g = 10.51 seconds. The
world records for 60m and 100m have been used to estimate the
starting loss itself and together they yield the value of tig for 40
metres and the corresponding running velocity 11.59 m/s. Since
800 metres is a middle distance and nota sprint, the starting loss
is taken pro rata on the average (flying) velocity ie.. 1.24 x
(7.93/11.59) = 0.85 seconds. This rule has been used for all longer
distances, although the starting loss is of little consequence
beyond about 2 km.

Figure 1 shows the relation of tyq9 to flying distance run, de
metres, and for both sexes a linear relation exists to some distance
beyond 400 metres. By 800 metres, however, the linear relation is
giving way to a lower dependence of tygg9 on distance. The
fatigue effect (evident as an increase of tjgg with distance) is
clearly greatest in the sprints, where maximum effort is exerted
throughout the race and opportunity for recuperation is
insignificant. As viewers of world-class 100m races perceive,
sprinters vary in their styles and finishing talents, but fatigue
must eventually intervene and can be detected about 60m after
reaching full speed some 40m from the start. The fatigue shows
to the extent that for men the second 100m of a world-class 200m

ON BEING INTERESTED IN THE EXTREME 83

16

S) =

SECONDS PER FLYING 100 METRES

6
0 05 1-0 HS)
FLYING DISTANCE RUN km
Fig, 1. The fatigue effect in current world-record running for flying distances, d¢, up to
1.61 km.
X---x women. Sprint equation (40-400m) tig = 9.19 + 0.00659d¢;
o---O men

is covered in close to the same time as the first 100m, which,
however, includes the starting loss (1.24s). For women sprinters
the fatigue effect is slightly greater than for men at the same
distance, and persists at the enhanced level seen in sprinting for
slightly longer than for men.

At 800 metres the strategy of middle-distance is prevailing
over the explosive expenditure of energy demanded in the
sprints. For middle distances, which extend to 2000 metres for
both men and women, the initial 100-150m are usually run fairly
explosively while fresh so as to establish a favourable position,
but after this the pace eases in order that each runner retains
strength to embark upon a final burst (up to 250m) finely judged
so that no more than the beginnings of serious exhaustion are
intruding when the "finishing tape" is reached.

To appreciate the contrast between sprinting and distance
running, a logarithmic distance scale is most useful (see Fig. 2). It

Sprint equation (40-400m) tig = 8.33 + 0.00605d¢

is then seen that the pronounced fatigue effect with increasing
sprint distance gives way at longer distances to a more moderate
approach to exhaustion evident as a straight line on the semi-
logarithmic plot. It is emphasized that no physical or theoretical
reasoning is offered for the log-linear relation, which, at various
slopes, persists even with races exceeding 1000 km in length and
10 days in duration.

At 2000 metres the limit of the middle distances is reached
and thereafter an even more energy-efficient regime of running
(also log-linear) characterises the so-called distance events, which
these days extend out to 42.195 km (the Marathon). Beyond this
distance additional problems of bodily deterioration are
encountered and few athletes can run ultra-long distances. The
best of these exceptional men and women can run non-stop for
up to about 24 hours (covering of the order of 250 km) ana their
performances also conform to a log-linear relation (not included
in Fig. 2).

E.C. POTTER

—_e — — PO ime)
S) = Ov co Oo rm

SECONDS PER FLYING 100 METRES

01 02 0-4 08 1

{S273

10 211 42-2 100

FLYING DISTANCE RUN km

Fig. 2. The fatigue effect in current world-record running for flying distances (log scale)
up to 100km.
x---x women. Middle-distance equation (800 < d¢ < 2000m)

t109 = 0.594 + 4.686logde

Distance equation
t109 = 7.43 + 2.70logds

o---O men

Distance equation

t109 = 6.085 + 2.55logd¢

it is tempting to speculate that specialists in the sprints, the
middle distances, and the distance events represent three distinct
types of individual each possessing a blend of athletic talents that
confer excellence in their class. Support for this idea arises
because some of the finest middle-distance runners have turned
to distance running when youthful speed appears to be waning,
but none ever seems to attain world-class again at the longer
distances. Furthermore, sprinters never gravitate to longer
distances, except for the decathletes among them, who must
compete over 1500m, the only non-explosive event of the ten. If

Middle-distance equation
t199 = 0.507 + 4.55logd¢

(2km < d¢ < 40km)

(800 < d¢ < 2000m)

(2km < d¢ < 40km)

the sprinters’ linear fatigue effect with distance (tyg9 = 8.33 +
0.00605d) is extrapolated to 1500m (see men's dotted line in Fig.
2) then an improbably slow time of 262 seconds is the result, this
being some 50 seconds (nearly 25%) longer than the present men's
1500m world record. However, examination of the performances
during the six most recent decathlon world records (by 5 different
athletes over the past 20 years) shows that their average time for
the 1500m segment of the competition has indeed been 262
seconds (range 253-275 seconds). Moreover, the 1500m time is
slower the faster the 100m time by the same athlete in the same

ON BEING INTERESTED IN THE EXTREME 85

competition. It appears, therefore, there is much to commend the
idea that sprinters and middle-distance runners come from
different moulds.

Can there, however, be a fair contest between these two
contrasting types of athlete? It is suggested that the nearest
approach to an affirmative answer is to introduce a men's race
over 700 metres, which is the extrapolated distance common to
both the sprinters’ and the middle-distance lines in Fig. 2. This
new 700m race (1500m minus the last two laps) would be
innovative in that gaps as much as 40 metres can be expected to
develop around the halfway stage, only to be closed dramatically
at race-end with an estimated world record near 89 seconds.

Do Running Extremes have Extremes?

At any one time at a selected distance run below about
2000m altitude the extreme for undrugged men or women is their
respective world record. All world records are broken at
irregular intervals so that the running extremes are time-
dependent, and the question arises whether each running
distance has its ultimate extreme record determined by the
furthest capabilities of the human body. The best approach to
answering this question is to examine the record history for a
distance that has attracted prolonged competition. Such a record
is the men's one mile (1609.344 metres) run from a stationary start
on a regulation outdoor track having close to four laps to the
mile, each lap consisting of two equal straights alternating with
two identical curves. Records for this distance date back to 1858,
since when the record has been broken 34 times and has been
improved overall by 14%. In the seven years since July 1985 the
record has stood at 226.32 seconds, but in the past it has remained
unbroken for up to 9 years, so there is no good reason to think the
present record is inviolate.

The question of the ultimate fastest mile has been
speculated upon since at least 1923 when the celebrated Paarvo
Nurmi, on lowering the record to just over 250 seconds, judged
that 244 seconds was probably the ultimate. Within 20 years that
“ultimate” was surpassed, and 11 years later still in 1954 the 240-
second barrier was breached. Roger Bannister, the first to beat
four minutes, speculated that the ultimate would be 230 seconds,
but even this was surpassed 21 years later. In the 17 years since
then speculation has lost popular appeal, but the record has been
bettered six times and attempts are still being made.

If the 29 mile-records of this century are plotted against
date, an irregular sawtooth downward gradation is the visual
result. Through this "noise" the profile of an early rapid
improvement of the record can be seen, after which for about 40
years up to 1970 the improvement is best described as erratically
linear with date. Since 1970 a slight tailing-off has been
discernible. To foretell credibly the future downward course of
the record directly from such noisy data is little better than guess-
work. There is, however, one possible prediction procedure
based on the fact that surges or peaks in the record-history have
shown an unmistakeable and plausible trend for the past 50
years.

The progress of the mile record is distinguished for the
outstanding contributions of a number of particularly-talented
athletes. Each of these has had a number of almost equally
talented followers, who have broken the record by minor margins
pending the appearance of the next especially-exceptional athlete.

These surges or peaks (8 so far) have appeared every 3-11 years
since 1923, but since 1942 their heights have been decreasing as
the record has become harder to beat. Projection of these heights
forward suggests that the ultimate mile will be run about the year
2025 and last about 222 seconds. Table 1 and Fig. 3 summarize
the situation and indicate inter alia that the existing record stands
to be reduced by 3 seconds in the coming 5 years. Fig. 3 shows
how the forward projection has been made, erring on the side of
greatest plausible achievement.

Nowadays, with the 4-minute mile a commonplace the
appeal of the men's mile has largely vanished. However, the
question should now arise: will a woman ever run a mile in less
than 4 minutes? The women's 1 mile record has stood since mid-
1989 at 255.61 seconds. However, as is argued in the next section,
this record is relatively poor compared with other middle-
distance records and should currently be 251 seconds, a time
close to the corresponding men's record in 1922 (70 years ago at
the time of writing). If comparisons are made of nine men's and
women's records for which reliable data exist, it appears that on
average the women's record equals the men's record of 71 years
ago (an average based on a range of 51-88 years). Assuming this
average will apply, the first women's 4-minute mile may be
expected 71 years after a man achieved the same goal in 1954, that
is in 2025 give or take ten years or so.

Running Records due for Improvement

Frequent world competition keeps world records
compatible with each other and with the continuing physical
advancement of the human body. When an exceptional athlete
appears on the world scene, the tendency is for him or her to
enter competition at the less common (but still internationally
recognized) distances and in this way records keep up-to-date
with the current ultimate of human running attainment.
Exceptions occur, and relatively poor records can be detected by
non-conformity with the lines drawn through men's and women's
records in Figures 1 and 2. Another method is to look for
departures from the current average ratio of men's to women's
records compared at the same distances. For example, the
male/female ratio of the times per flying 100 metres over most
distances from 40 metres to the marathon (over a thousand times
longer) is remarkably constant and averages 0.901 + 0.005 at the
present time. However, the ratio for the following four distances
is currently below average: 1000m (0.877), 1 mile (0.885), 2000m
(0.884), and 5000m (0.887). The present women's records for these
four distances are therefore the most-readily breakable and
should stand at the times shown in Table 2. The same test
justifies this paper's shelving of the present 100m and 200m
official world women's records.

A different speculation may be focussed on the marathon
(42.195 km), the current records for which lie slightly above the
two distance-runners' lines given in Fig. 2.. The two deviations
may be genuine in so far as the required physical endurance and
mental resolve of the human being just cannot be mustered, but
the author does not favour this explanation and has included the
marathon in the records ready to fall at any time now.

EXTREMES OF WEIGHTLIFTING
To many a good citizen the pursuit of competitive

weightlifting may seem a mindless indulgence for the
grotesquely muscle-bound male. In fact it is a safe and

E.C. POTTER

TABLE 1
PAST AND PROJECTED FUTURE PEAKS IN THE SUCCESSION OF MEN'S MILE WORLD RECORDS

Peak Initiating Athlete Initiating Associated Joint Improvement Record
Number — and Code in Fig. 3 Date Athletes By Athletes Reduced
seconds % To (s)

1 Nurmi; N 1923.6 Ladoumegue 3.4 1.35 249.2

2 Lovelock; L 1933.5 Cunningham 3.0 1.20 246.2
Wooderson
Hagg
Andersson

3 Andersson; A 1942.7 Hagg 4.9 1:99 241.3

4 Bannister; B 1954.4 Landy 4.1 1.70 207.2
Ibbotson

5 Elliott; E 1958.6 Snell 3.6 152 233.6
Jazy

6 Ryun;R 1966.5 Bayi 2.6 V1 231.0

7 Walker; W 1975.6 Coe 2.6 i102 228.4
Ovett

8 Coe; C 1981.7 Cram 2.08 0.91 226.32

BELOW THIS LINE, PEAKS AT INTERVALS OF 4, 8, 9 AND 6 YEARS (cf. PEAKS 4-8) ARE SELECTED TO
MAXIMIZE IMPROVEMENT OF THE RECORD AFTER 1993.

iS) U 1993 ? 1.6 O71 224.7

10 Vv 1997 é 1.4 0.62 223.3

11 xX 2005 2 0.9 0.39 22:2%58

12 Y 2014 ? 0.3 0.15 222.4

13 fh 2020 ? 0.1 0.05 222.0
TABLE 2

WORLD RUNNING RECORDS NOW DUE FOR IMPROVEMENT

World Record Present Record Record should Improvement
Description (sec.) and date set be (sec.) sec. %
Women's 1lkm 150.6; 1978 146.6 4.0 2.7
Women's 1 mile 255.61; 1989 251.2 4.4 1.7
Women's 2km 328.69; 1986 322.6 6.1 1.9
Women's 5km 877.33; 1986 863.6 13.7 1.6
Women's Marathon 8466; 1985 8363 103 1.2
(42.195km)

Men's Marathon 7610; 1988 7549 61 0.8

E.C. POTTER

% IMPROVEMENT OF MILE RECORD

1920 40 6

Fig. 3.

sophisticated sport where the present levels of attainment cwe
much to the scientific examination of body mechanics and
refinement of technique. Indeed skill and elegance have become
so much of the action and the spectacle that women weightlifters
have entered the arena and been internationally recognized since
1987.

There are various techniques to lift weights competitively,
but for some years the influence of the Olympic Games has been
dominant and the emphasis has moved to the techniques known
as "the snatch" and "the jerk". In both techniques the competitor's
object is to lift the greatest weight (i.e. mass) with both arms from
the floor above his or her head and to stand there stably at full
stretch for the second or two required to demonstrate a successful
lift. In each technique the lift takes place in successive
movements with pauses permitted to optimize balance, the disc
weights being attached dumbbell fashion to the ends of a strong
bar.

0
YEAR

87

80 2000 ‘20

Projection forward of past peak improvements in the men's world mile record. For
explanation of code letters see Table 1.

In the "snatch" the weight is lifted above the head at the
same time as the lifter sinks to the squat position, and the lift is
completed by rising to standing with the weight aloft at both
arms’ length. In the "jerk" the weight is lifted in a double
movement to standing with the weight close to the body and
underpinned by the arms nearly at shoulder height, and the lift is
completed by straightening the arms raising the weight to full
stretch above the head. In both techniques the starting and
finishing attitudes are the same, but because the snatch needs the
greater impulse to project the weight above the head in the initial
movement, the greater weight can always be lifted by the jerk
technique. Because both skill and strength contribute to the
weight that trained individuals can lift, winners in competition
are decided from the combined snatch and jerk lifts. Records for
combined lifts are not considered here.

Other factors being equal, greater weights can always be
lifted by heavier men (the same holds for women), so that

88 ON BEING INTERESTED IN THE EXTREME

240

120

50

7)
BODY WEIGHT kg

100

Fig. 4. Current men's world weightlifting records for the maximum weight in each of nine

international body-weight classes.

o---0 jerk technique ; @---@ snatch technique

competition and records are classified according to narrow non-
overlapping ranges of body-weight. Figure 4 shows the 1992
men's world records for jerk and snatch plotted at the maximum
body-weight applicable to each of the nine classes (the tenth and
heaviest class has no upper limit and is not plotted). Because the
exact weights of the record-holders are not known to the author,
the points are joined by straight lines and no smoothing is
attempted, even though this may be justified.

The straight linkage of points is no impediment to
observing the marked non-linearity of both sets of records, to the
progressive disadvantage of the heavier lifters. The extra weight
lifted in the jerk is reasonably constant (40 + 5 kg) over the
twofold range of body-weight covered by the nine classes. This is
not surprising, since the seeming advantage of additional
strength possessed by the heavier lifters is dissipated through the
classes by the heavier weights being handled.

Referring to Fig. 4, although a trained 52 kg man(well
under normal weight for most full-grown fit young men) has
lifted 155 kg above his head, his trained counterpart at double his
weight has similarly lifted (interpolating) 246 kg, which is well
short of twice 155 kg. This seems to indicate some insufficiency
for the heavier lifters, except that the same 52 kg man raised aloft
only 103 kg greater than his own weight, compared with 142 kg
for the 104 kg man. Apparently, different ways of comparing the
extreme lifts across the various body-weight classes yield
different conclusions, but one widely-accepted method of
comparison uses the ratio of weight lifted to body-weight. Thus
Fig. 4 transposes to Fig. 5, and it is now evident that a 52 kg man
has lifted in the jerk just less than 3 times his own weight,
whereas the 104 kg man has similarly achieved only 2l/ 3, times
his weight.

E.C. POTTER

nN -™! (ee)
Ro On S

LIFT TO BODY WEIGHT RATIO

ven
cS

50

ie

89

100

BODY WEIGHT kg

Fig. 5.

Current men's world weightlifting records as lift to body-weight ratio for the

maximum weight in each of nine international body-weight classes.

o-—-0 jerk technique; @---@ snatch technique

The most obvious feature of Fig. 5 is the sharp peak at 60
kg body-weight for both lifting techniques, a feature that has
persisted for at least the past 40 years. The peak inspires the
conclusion that the extreme of human efficiency in lifting a mass
aloft is to be found in the trained and fit man in his twenties with
a body-weight of precisely 60 kg. A lighter man is too puny, and
a heavier one is too ungainly to attain the (current) distinction of
lifting above his head 3.16 times his own weight. Like most of
today's weightlifting records this is probably not far from the
ultimate for the male body, since it is only in recent times that
monitoring has reduced the incidence of drugged lifters and it
takes a number of years for undrugged performances to equal the
earlier drugged ones.

It is as yet too early to analyse women's weightlifting
records since the scale of activity has been relatively small. It is
already evident, however, that the differences between
corresponding "snatch" and "jerk" records are constant with body-

weight (as they are with men). So far no maximum lifting
efficiency for women has emerged (cf. Fig. 5) and the best (2.16
times her own weight) has been exhibited in the lightest body-
weight class, 44 kg. At the same body-weight men are currently
lifting 1.5 - 1.7 times the best for women, and so far no woman of
any weight has lifted greater than the current record for the
lightest men's class.

THE SECRET EXTREME

During childhood most of us become familiar with the
humble but capricious die (or "dice", as is growing usage,
singular or plural). Whenever counters are used to define a path
over a playing space through a succession of positions along the
track (as with the century-old game of Ludo), the die is cast to
decide the permitted length of travel at the thrower's turn. From
ancient times the common die has been a cube with its sides
differentiated by one to six dots, each face presenting an
instantly-recognizable dot pattern.

90 ON BEING INTERESTED IN THE EXTREME

Fig. 6. The 16 different standard dice. The top row has the "six" aligned at right angles to
the "six" in the second row. The two upper rows have the "three" on the right of
the corresponding "two", and this is reversed in the two lower rows. The two left-
hand columns have corresponding "twos" and "threes" in V or in inverted-V

formation; the two right-hand columns have corresponding "twos" and "threes" in
parallel formation.

Formally, it makes no difference which face identifies any and 3 opposite 4. All dice manufacturers observe this ae :
particular score, and this suggests there are factorial five or 120 and it might be expected (ignoring incidental variations suc as
different dice. However, the time-honoured convention from at size, colour, corner facets, material, and so on) that all dice are the
least Roman times is to select dots for faces so that opposite (i.e. same. This is not so.

parallel) faces add up to seven. Thus 1 is opposite 6, 2 opposite 5,

ON BEING INTERESTED IN THE EXTREME ot

In 1974 it was suggested that dice can be left-handed or
right-handed. To appreciate this distinction a die is held so that
the faces scoring 1, 2 and 3 can be viewed simultaneously. It is
then evident that, without violating the "7-rule", the scores can be
inscribed to read in the ascending order 1, 2, 3 in either clockwise
or anticlockwise direction. The statement was published
(Laithwaite, 1980) that all dice present the anticlockwise (called
"left-handed") arrangement. Marketplace scrutiny soon shows
this is not so, demonstrating that the 7-rule is the only prevailing
one, and suggesting that just two different standard (i.e. 7-rule)
dice are possible. This surmise is also wrong, and there are in fact
16 different standard dice, which arise in the following way.

Inspection confirms that only the 1, 4 and 5 faces are each
unique. Thus, the 1 face has a single central dot, the 4 is a square
of dots with its two diagonals common with those of the face it
marks, and the 5 (a quincunx) is simply the 1 and the 4
superposed. In contrast, the 2 and 3 are on the diagonal but, since
every face has two diagonals, these scores offer four different
conformations when taken together (i.e. they can be parallel in
two ways, or they can trace out either a V or an inverted V). The
6 is the only face to have any dots (actually two of them) situated
off-centre at mid-points of paralle! edges, and it has two different
alignments (relative to the 2 or the 3) at right angles to each other.
So far this makes eight different conformations for the 2, 3 and 6,
but if these three faces are put simultaneously on view, either the
2 or the 3 can be on the left, so that the extreme for different

E. C. POTTER

1 Tracie Close
KARIONG, N.S.W. 2250

standard dice is sixteen (see Fig. 6). In this figure the four dice on
the top row have their "sixes" in the same alignment which,
however, is at right angles to that of the four "sixes" in the second
row. This contrast is duplicated in the bottom two rows, where,
however, all eight "threes" are on the left (rather than on the right
as they are in the upper rows).

Curiously, dice manufacturers as a class seem unaware of
these alignment distinctions and so, once they have individually
designed their dice according to the 7-rule, chance prevails and
the extreme of sixteen standard dice is potentially available to the
ordinary purchaser. So far, by dint of casual, unsolicited, and
wide-ranging search over many years, the author has purchased
15 of the 16 from commercial stock and has seen the 16th for sale
as part of an expensive gaming set.

For the author this has been the secret extreme, but with
this publication his secret is out and, succumbing to cynicism, he
imagines that it is merely a matter of time before sets of sixteen
fraternal dice will appear on the market in a range of materials
from common to precious for the extremophile who has
everything.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author acknowledges the value of numerous sources of

information, particularly annual editions of the Guinness Book of
Records and of Pears Cyclopaedia.

REFERENCE

Laithwaite, E., 1980. ENGINEER THROUGH THE LOOKING-
GLASS. Ist edn. British Broadcasting Corporation, London.

114 pp.

(Manuscript received S-11-1992)

92

ERRATA: Volol25° Parts wa cand! 2

(i) p 37 Summer School on 'Communication' ,
January, 13-17, 1991
should read:
Summer School on 'Communication' ,
January, 13-17, 1992.

(ii) Membership List pages 41-49
Lassak, Erich Vincent ..06.%6 5
Moses ee. (L904, 584)
should read:
Lassak,; Ervch’ Vincent “i203...
srenelanete ea (19645) PS)

Smith, William: Eric <... (1963)

should read:

Smith, .WilliamsEricyoc..) C19635,..P3.,
Pres.1970).

Buckley, Lindsay Arthur......
Chelmer, Qld. 4075 (1974)

should read:

Buckley, Lindsay Arthur ....
Chelmer, Qld. 4068 (1940).

Hild, DorOthy5 2 sweie ce (1970, P7)
should read:
Halll DOXOERY fieie'c eter ele oor (1938, PA

McCarthy,Frederick David,.....(1974,
P 1, Pres. 1956).

should read:

McCarthy, Frederick David, ...(1949,
P 1. Pres. 1956).

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.125, pp.93-94,1992

ISSN 0035-9173/92/020093-2 $4,00/1

Richard Owen, Thomas Mitchell and Australian Science
A Commemorative Symposium

DAVID BRANAGAN

On Saturday, 24th October, 1992 the well-known
expatriate art critic and author, Robert Hughes,
was addressing a distinguished audience at
Australia's Parliament House on the topic "What's
a museum for?"

At the same time a smaller, but possibly no less
distinguished group, of scientists and historians,
was meeting at Wombeyan Caves Reserve, a
delightful, but somewhat isolated mountain
retreat, several hours drive north from Canberra,
to discuss the work of several long-dead scientists
and their associates.

Although at first glance these events seem quite
removed from each other in the level of
significance (both politically and socially), in
relevance, and presumably in elegance, there
were some surprising relationships.

Although he was considering mainly art galleries
Hughes used the comprehensive term "museums"
in much of his discussion, lamenting the "age of
museum triumphalism" and the "advent of mass
cultural tourism". Hughes criticised the
“blandness of current curatorial policies’ He
believed that the future "belonged to small,
intimate storehouses [of culture]....not plagued
with great tides of inattentive visitors... such
places are not cathedrals but chapels. It belongs to
what is local, and used once to be derided as
‘provincial’. In them the pure function of the
museum can flourish again". (Sydney Morning
Herald, 26 October, 1992).

Hughes's lecture came at a time when the future
of the National Museum of Australia is once again
being reviewed, after a stop-start history of many
years. It comes when University museums are
being threatened with closure, and when directors
of many of our major storehouse of precious

archives of every type ( including libraries) are
desperate for staff and funding to preserve and
display priceless material.

Yet, ironically, it comes also at a time when there
is a renewed interest in things Australian by the
community at large, but who seem to be unaware
of the problems involved in the operation of these
chapels of art, science and technology.

Perhaps the saddest aspect of the present situation
is that many Australian museums seem to be
blindly following international trends and
reducing, or completely removing the research
sections of their organisations to the detriment of
the displays, which become in time mere items
for entertainment with little instruction.

What did the Owen-Mitchell Symposium have to
do with such matters?

In a sense the story starts in the Cathedral Cave at
Wellington in 1830 and ends with the Great
Cathedral of Science, the British Museum of
Natural History in London, completed in the
1880s.

The meeting considered a number of aspects of
the lives of Sir Richard Owen (1804-1892), Sir
Thomas Mitchell (1792- 1855) and related
nineteenth century figures in a series of papers
interspersed with lively discussion. Although the
happy coincidence of the centenary of Owen's
death and the bicentenary of Mitchell's birth was
the initial reason for the symposium, the major
link was the involvement by Mitchell in the
exploration of the Wellington Caves in the 1830s,
the bones of extinct giant organisms which were
discovered there and some of which were
subsequently taken to England by Mitchell and
studied by Owen.

93

94 DAVID BRANAGAN

Two papers by David Branagan and Julian
Holland outlined aspects of the careers of Owen
and Mitchell. The former paper concentrates on
the antipodean aspects of Owen's work, which has
been generally neglected by earlier workers,
while the latter, which is an abstract based on a
forthcoming large-scale appraisal of Mitchell's
work, considered some formative influences on
Mitchell.

A paper by Ann Player discusses a facet of the
work of J.E. Tenison Woods, an early student of
Australian Caves, who was involved in the
discovery of the large emu-like bird, named by
Owen Dromornis , and who did much to
popularise science in the Australian press.

Three papers were given at the Symposium on the
fossil material itself. Armstrong Osborne
considered the sediments which encase the
vertebrate fragments in Wellington and
Wombeyan Caves. Jeannette Hope discussed the
fossil fauna she had examined from _ the
Wombeyan Caves area, and the influence on her
work of earlier vertebrate palaeontologists
Robert Broom in the 19th century and Norman
Wakefield who had encouraged her work prior to
his relatively early death . [This paper is not
reproduced here, as Dr. Hope is overseas]. The
paper by Paul Willis, Susie Davies and
Armstrong Osborne documents the exciting find
of previously undescribed material from
Wellington, Wombeyan and Clairvaulx, near
Glen Innes, the result of what the authors called
the "pursuit of three presently unpopular
activities - looking backwards, curiosity-driven
research and the study of collections", and brings
the Russian scientist Maklouho-Maclay,
Edgeworth David, Robert Broom and more
recent researchers into the story. These papers
were followed up by visits to important sites both
on the surface and underground

Michael Shortland's paper broadens the story by
examining the influence of the study of caves on
geological thought from the 18th through much
of the 19th century, an influence which Dr.
Shortland suggests extends indeed much further,
and which has been little researched to date.

The Symposium ended with Nicolaas Rupke's
paper on Owen and the Victorian Museum
movement, showing his importance in the
development of museums, both as sites of popular
culture and as research organisations.

Taken in all, this symposium shows the value of
looking backwards occasionally, to appreciate
both the achievements and failures of the past,
and to apply the lessons for the future. What will
our museums of the twenty-first century be like?
In fact will there be any?

The anonymous author in the “Llustrated Sydney
News wrote (1892): "the odd thing about the
fossil bones is this - they reveal to us something
of the history of Australia, something of the
history of our own land as it is written on tables
of stone by historians without prejudice, by
fingers void of passion. The geological records of
a country are true, and the fossil remainders are
the dates of the history". However as perhaps the
paper above indicates those humans who have
attempted to interpret the story are not without
prejudice or passion, which is probably not a bad
thing. There would be little of interest in a
bloodless history of science!

This symposium was organised by the Earth
Sciences History Group of the Geological Society
of Australia Inc. The Group is grateful to the
Royal Society of New South Wales for assistance
in publishing the proceedings. Thanks are due to
the Wombeyan Caves Reserve Trust for making
facilities available for the meeting.

(Manuscript received 3-11-1992)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.125, pp.95-102,1992

ISSN 0035-9173/92/020095-8 $4.00/1

95

Richard Owen in the Antipodean Context
[ A review]

DAVID BRANAGAN

Abstract: Richard Owen (1804-92) played a central part in the development of
Australasian vertebrate palaeontology, although he never visited the antipodes.
His identification and description of many fossil (and recent) forms directly
influenced several generations of Australasian researchers, and continues, though
indirectly, to influence the present researchers, who must perforce return to his

work for comparison.

Richard Owen

Owen was born in Lancaster 20 July 1804, the
younger son of Richard (1754-1809) and
Catherine (neé Parrin) . He was apprenticed to a
surgeon and apothecary of that city in 1820, had
access to postmortems in the county jail, and
became interested in anatomy. He matriculated at
Edinburgh University in 1824, but left there the
following year to study with John Abernethy at St.
Bartholomew's Hospital, London, gaining
membership of the Royal College of Surgeons in
August, 1826.

In March 1827, Owen became Assistant to
William Clift (1775-1849) at the Royal College of
Surgeons. He was to remain at the College for the
next thirty years, marrying Clift's daughter,
Caroline, in 1835, following Owen as Conservator
on his retirement, and becoming the first
Hunterian Professor of Comparative Anatomy in
1836. His initial appointment at the College was to
complete the catalogues of the Physiological Series
of the collections made much earlier by John
Hunter (1728-1793). Later he became concerned
largely with osteology.

During Owen's early years at the College one of
the major influences on his work was the French
anatomist Georges Cuvier (1769-1832), who
visited the College in 1830 and invited the young
man to the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris
the following year. Owen learned from Cuvier the
interdependence of the separate organs within the
same animal body, (such as teeth adapted for
grazing vegetation requiring a digestive system
able to deal with bulky plant food), and was able
to use this knowledge brilliantly in later years to
reconstruct animals from few preserved parts,

including "the strangest of the old monsters which
it has pleased God to blot out of his Creation".

Following disagreements with the Governors of
the College, Owen moved to the British Museum
as Superintendent of the Natural History
Departments in 1856, remaining associated with
this institution until 1883. Apart from research his
major achievement here was establishing first the
idea of a Natural History Museum, and then the
reality of the building at South Kensington, despite
the opposition of the Director, Antonio Panizzi
(1797-1879), John Edward Gray (1800-1875),
Keeper of Zoology, and many eminent scientists,
including Charles Darwin (1809-1882) and
Thomas Huxley (1825-1895), some of whom felt
it should remain close to the printed sources of the
Museum's library.

Biographical details of Owen's life may be found
in Flower (1893), R.S. Owen (1894), Ingles and
Sawyer (1979), and Stearn (1981).

Owen and his Peers

Owen is probably best known among the general
public for his opposition to Darwin and Huxley at
the time of the publication of The Origin of
Species, but this is by no means a simple black
and white story (see Ommaney,1966;
Gunther,1975; Stearn,1981; Bowler,1984).

He also played an important role in popularising
palaeontology in Britain, in the period before the
Natural History Museum was built, specially with
his creation of the series of “those vast and
unpleasant animals that existed on our planet
before man had made his appearance. Specimens
of the Iguanadon, the Plesiosaurus, the Pterodactyl

96 DAVID BRANAGAN

and other mercifully extinct brutes....sported on
islands specially arranged for them" in the gardens
of the Crystal Palace which was rebuilt at
Sydenham in south east London in 1852-54. "A
dinner party of twenty-one people was held in the
body of one of these monsters, and from the skull
Professor Owen delivered a stirring address on
the labours of geologists" (Markham, 1935).

Among scientists, apart from his taxonomic work,
by which he erected a number of orders of fossil
reptiles, Owen is remembered for his interest in
functionalism and the concept of “archetypes”.

However Owen was a difficult character, Huxley
remarking “it is astonishing with what an intense
feeling of hatred Owen is regarded by the
majority of his contemporaries". Huxley himself
had been helped by Owen to obtain a position, and
although Owen was “amazingly civil” Huxley felt
he was "a queer fish, more odd in appearance than
ever and more bland in manner. He is so
frightfully polite that I never feel thoroughly at
home with him", while Gideon Mantell regretted
that "this highly gifted man can never act with
candour and liberality". [One aspect of the
controversy and bad feeling between Owen and
Mantell is discussed by Donovan and Crane
(1992). However Owen maintained life-long
friendships with Thomas Mitchell, and Samuel
Stutchbury among others.

Ironically it was the South American fossils that
Darwin brought back from the Beagle expedition
in 1836 that began Owen's work in palaeontology
(Darwin, 1837), as before that he had
concentrated essentially on the anatomy of living
animals, including the beautiful Nautilus. Much of
Owen's early research was published in the
proceedings of the Zoological Society of London,
which was established in 1831, and of which Owen
was a foundation member and longterm Council
member. From 1847 the Palaeontographical
Society was also the vehicle for many of Owen's
papers.

His first zoological paper was on the anatomy of
the Ourang-outang, but his paper a little later on
the anatomy of the nautilus attracted more
attention. [It is interesting that the fine portrait of
Owen, by Henry William Pickersgill (1782-1875),
was altered by painting over the bone of Dinornis
held by Owen with a nautilus.) This paper owed
its origin to a fine specimen collected by George
Bennett at Vanuatu, and donated by him to the
Royal College of Surgeons, but which was
appropriated by Owen with no acknowledgement

(Moyal 1975, Newland 1991). Bennett continued
his interest in this remarkable creature for the rest
of his life, but Owen moved on to other matters.

However it was Owen's bold diagnosis in 1839 of
a fragment of bone received from New Zealand
that really established his reputation. Owen
recognised it as part of a femur that belonged to
"a heavier and more sluggish species than the
ostrich" and "as far as my skill in interpreting an
osseous fragment may be credited, I am willing to
risk the reputation for it on the statement that
there has existed, if it does not now exist, in New
Zealand, a struthious bird, nearly, if not quite
equal in size to the Ostrich". This almost
outrageous statement was greeted with scepticism
by many scientists, and the Zoological Society of
London published the paper with considerable
misgivings. However Owen's idea was successfully
vindicated in 1843 when he received, through
William Buckland, a collection of bones from
Rev. William Williams, together with a letter
telling of a Maori legend of an extinct giant bird,
the moa. Williams at the time of writing was not
aware of Owen's previous prediction. On the basis
of the New Zealand collection Owen defined the
genus Dinornis, with five distinct species. [More
recent work has allowed the definition of six
genera and at least nineteen species of this
remarkable extinct genus].

This extraordinary piece of scientific forecasting
and essentially correct solution did much to
enhance the reputation of science as well as putting
Owen firmly in the public eye. However it must’
not be forgotten that Rev. William Colenso had
apparently heard of the Maori legend of a giant
bird in 1838. Colenso not long after obtained
material which he described in 1842 independently
as belonging to a gigantic struthious wingless bird,
the paper being published in the Tasmanian
Journal of Natural History. For a detailed
discussion of Owen and the Moa refer to Gruber
(1987).

Marsupials and monotremes

The unusual nature of the Australian fauna and
flora was of course recognized by the earliest
European visitors, who were intrigued first by the
unusual shapes and then by questions of
reproduction of the marsupials and the
monotremes. Both these groups were studied over
the years by Owen. The monotremes, observed by
Europeans during the 1890s _ were first described
scientifically, but briefly, by George Shaw (1751-
1813) (1792, 1799) and in more detail by J.F.

OWEN IN THE ANTIPODEAN CONTEXT

Blumenbach (1800) who named the platypus
Ornithorhynchus from a specimen provided by
Sir Joseph Banks. However detailed study began
with the work of Everard Home (1756-1832), at
the Royal College ‘of Surgeons. His brief
description of the head of the platypus (Home,
1800) was followed by a much more important
paper in 1802, which remained the basic
description of the anatomy of the platypus for
almost a quarter of a century ( Gruber, 1991),
despite later papers by Home ( 1803, 1818, 1819).
A great difficulty was the unavailability of suitable
specimens of either the platypus or the echidna.

As early as 1800 Home was requesting specimens
from George Caley, the collector for Sir Joseph
Banks, but he was never able to obtain suitable
material as specimens deteriorated during the long
journey to Europe. As late as 1825 Home was
trying to get specimens, writing instructions for
Samuel Stutchbury (1798-1859) on what to collect
and how to preserve the specimens (Branagan
1984, 1992a). An important link with Home about
this time was Henry Dumaresq (1792-1838),
private Secretary to Governor Sir Ralph Darling
(1775-1858), his brother-in-law. Dumaresq
invoked the help of Surgeon Patrick Hill, R.N. a
member of the early Philosophical Society of
Australasia (Branagan, 1972), and who was
actively seeking specimens, as was George Busby
(1798-1870) in the Bathurst area.

Darwin noted their presence when camping on
Coxs River near Wallerawang, in January 1836
and George Bennett (1804-1893) pursued the
problem avidly for much of his life, and got close
to the answer. However in 1874 the question of
the egg-laying character of the monotremes was
still unsolved and Henry Moseley and companions
on the Challenger expedition sought specimens
with only limited success in the Healesville area
east of Melbourne, but Willemoes von Suhm
obtained a live echidna later in the Sydney region
(Branagan, 1973). It was to be another ten years
before W.H. Caldwell's search in the Burnett
River area of Queensland finally solved the
question.

Home's attitude that most (perhaps even all)
questions concerning essential aspects of anatomy
could only been solved in the laboratory was
carried on by Owen, whom, it is stated (Gruber,
1991) never went on a field excursion in his life.
This attitude contrasts with the approach of
George Bennett, and even later of Henry Burrell
(1873-1945) (1927), who were fascinated by the

living creatures rather than the biological objects.
Caldwell's solution to the problem was largely the
result of following Bennett's "field laboratory"
approach (see Newland, 1991).

However Owen's taking over of Home's mantle in
relation to the monotremes seems to have
happened rather by accident. Owen had shown
little interest in the mounted specimen in Cuvier's
laboratory, when visiting there, but on returning
to London he began to study both the marsupials
and monotremes, studies which were to continue
for the next fifty years, and between 1832 and
1884 Owen published at least 14 papers on these
recent forms, eight of them appearing before
1838, when his interests turned to fossil forms.
Even in the case of the kangaroo Owen was
ungracious to Bennett and ignored the evidence of
others away from Europe in showing that the
young developed in the uterus.

However by the end of Owen's life, as Ride (1968)
points out, "the general structure of the mammal
fauna of Australia, its richness in marsupials, its
unique possession of monotremes, and the
restricted range of its eutherians has been known
for about a century. The speed and thoroughness
by which our early predecessors gained this
information is amply demonstrated by the fact that
in the last fifty years, there has been no discovery
of any new group of Australian mammals; the last
were the the family of the Marsupial Mole,
Notoryctidae, in 1889, and the fossil
Wynyardiidae in 1900". Ride also points out that
“although many of our species were known early,
they are known from surprisingly few specimens
and still fewer localities”.

Australian Fossils

Etheridge and Jack (1881) list thirty seven
publications by Owen specifically on Australian
geology, dating from 1840 to 1880, all save one
being on palaeontological subjects. The sole
exception is "On the physical configuration of
Australia, and its geological causes" (Owen,
1875). In many cases we see Owen coming back to
previously attacked problems, adding new
observations, describing newly obtained
specimens. Mahoney and Ride (1984) list fifty
four papers, having located some obscure, but
important, papers by Owen scattered in European
publications.

Owen's first publication on Australasian fossils, in
fact, appeared in 1838, concerning fossils from

97

98 DAVID BRANAGAN

Wellington, as an appendix to Mitchell's book
(Mitchell, 1838). There was soon a rapid
acceleration and papers appeared frequently until
1870, before a marked decline, as matters closer
to home took precedence, and other researchers
became more involved.

Fossils from Wellington Caves, collected by
George Ranken in 1830 were taken by Revd. J. D.
Lang to England and passed on to Professor
Jamieson in Edinburgh. These were examined by
William Clift and later by Joseph Pentland, both
associated with the Royal College of Surgeons but
Owen seems to have not studied these (Browne,
1983). Lang's interests in geology were
considerable (Lang, 1834, 1846) and have been
generally neglected, but he played no further part
in this story.

However when Mitchell visited England in 1838
he took to Owen further Wellington material, thus
beginning a long and fruitful co-operative
friendship (Foster, 1985). Aspects of Mitchell's
work are discussed in the following paper by
Julian Holland.

It was at Owen's urging, in 1867, that the New
South Wales Government in 1868 voted funds
($200) for detailed exploration and excavation of
the deposits at Wellington in 1869. Although Rev.
W.B. Clarke should have been personally involved
in this work, he declined, for reasons of health,
and the project was undertaken by Gerard Krefft
(1830-1881) of the Australian Museum, with
Alexander Thomson (1841-1871) the young
Professor of Geology at the University of Sydney
and Henry Barnes. They succeeded in obtaining
large quantities of new material which was
forwarded to Owen, together with photographs
(Moyal, 1975), but the expedition proved the end
of Thomson, who succumbed a few months later
to a pulmonary disease. Owen described this
material in a series of papers in the Philosophical
Transactions , which later was gathered to form
the basis of his Researches on Fossil Remains of
the Extinct Mammals of Australia (Owen, 1877).

Australasian Contacts

It is only possible to discuss a few antipodean
workers who supplied Owen with specimens and
ideas. The contacts between Owen and Dr. George
Bennett were the most extensive and possibly the
most important, but Owen was content to leave
many of Bennett's letters unanswered, but use his
material, as discussed by Newland (1991). In
Australia, apart from Mitchell and Bennett, they

include Frederick Bennett, George's brother,
Phillip Parker King, Joseph Beete Jukes, John
Gould and his son Charles, Ronald Campell Gunn,
Frederick McCoy and Ferdinand von Mueller,
Gerard Krefft and Edward P. Ramsay, William
Macarthur, George Macleay, Ludwig Leichhardt,
Rev. W.B. Clarke and Samuel Stutchbury. In New
Zealand Julius Haast, James Hector, Rev. Richard
Taylor (who earlier examined Wellington Caves)
and William Swainson can be noted ( Mander-
Jones, 1972) and Ferdinand von Hochstetter
discussed the dispersal problems of flightless birds
with him on a visit to London in 1860
(Hochstetter, 1959). Study of these relationships
could form the basis of much potential fruitful
research in future years.

Owen remained friendly with Samuel Stutchbury,
who preceded him at the Royal College of
Surgeons until the latter's death in 1859, but their
scientific contacts concerned mostly other than
Australasian matters. However it was through
Stutchbury that Ludwig Leichhardt met Owen,
and thus received a letter of introduction to
Mitchell, a link between the four that continued
into the fifties. This concerned material found on
the Darling Downs by a Mr. Isaacs, and obtained
by Leichhardt. Leichhardt sent some specimens to
Owen in July 1844, Owen reporting on the
material at the BAAS meeting in 1845. In his
letter with the specimens Leichhardt took issue
with Owen's placing of the "gigantic Pachyderm"
amongst the Dinotherium, suggesting that the
specimen he sent "will show you that it is an
animal with different incisors and really more
allied to the dentition of the kangaroo than to any
other animal". He added later in the letter
"pesides the bones of the gigantic animal, there are
lower jaws and different parts of the body of four
other kangaroos, many of them little different
from the living, and probably identic{al] with
those of Wellington Valley" (Leichhardt, 1844).

Stutchbury obtained similar material on the
Darling Downs ten years later, and initally
described it as new, being, at the time, unaware of
Leichhardt's previous study. It was characteristic
of him that he published an apology for this faux-
pas in a later report (Branagan, 1992b).

Monuments

Australasian monuments to Owen are in the form
of three mountains. The first named occurs in
Queensland, near the headwaters of the Marinoa
River, and was conferred by Mitchell on his third
journey (Mitchell, 1847). Mitchell named a

OWEN IN THE ANTIPODEAN CONTEXT 99

number of peaks in this area after prominent
European (mainly English) geologists. Similarly,
Charles Gould, son of John, placed Owen along
with Lyell, Darwin and Murchison on the map of
western Tasmania in 1862, Blainey (1960)
remarking on the relative smallness of Darwin's
peak, an indication of Gould's higher regard for
Owen!

Julius von Haast, like Mitchell and Gould, liberally
scattered geologists’ names throughout the South
Island of New Zealand, and Owen was not
forgotten, "three rugged serrated peak”, about
2000m high in west Nelson, being named for
Owen in 1860 but Haast's Mt. Darwin is about
3000m high!

Haast and Owen remained correspondents after
Haast sent his Nelson report (1861), together with
"some fossil remains of a Plesiosaurus from the
Middle Island" (Haast, 1948), the latter hoping "I
may still live to see the last of the Moas if the
species still lingers in the Mid Islands", and to
obtain a specimen of Notornis , until they finally
met in London in 1886.

At this time Haast was somewhat disappointed to
find that of six specimens of moa he had sent to
the British Museum about 1872, only one,
Dinornis maximus, had been put on display and
appeared on the books. Haast wrote to his son,
Heinrich "as Professor Owen is too old to get up a
row with him I am now trying to get up the
proofs that I have sent those skeletons ‘[and he
asked his son to check the exchange books in the
Museum in Christchurch (New Zealand)]. "It
appears that many instances of this kind have
happened in the British Museum under Owen's
management, and the only explanation is that he
had somewhere a big hole dug and buried all that
was inconvenient to him" (Haast, op. cit.).

Haast had been very involved in the excavation,
description and reconstruction of moa remains
{more than 1000 individuals] from Glenmark
from 1866, and was the first to summarize what
was known of the moa and its ecology, and its
extinction, reading controversial papers on the
subject in 1868 and 1871.

The pattern of Australasian Science

The Owen/Mitchell relation marked the beginning
of one long line of important Australasian
research. However it was part of a much longer
European/ Antipodean history which is in two

strands. The first is the recognition of the unusual
character of the present day Australasian fauna
and flora which led into the fossil story. The
second and related is the recognition of the out-of-
step nature of the northern and southern
hemisphere forms. These have been discussed by
Vallance (1975, 1978, 1981 and 1983) Moyal
(1975), Branagan (1972), Browne (1983) and
many others, and as the relations between Owen
and Australasian workers is further investigated
will be the studied in more detail by other
researchers.

In this context there has been much emphasis on
the idea of an all-powerful metropolitan science
with the antipodes and other lesser places on the
periphery (e.g. Macleod 1982, Stafford 1989).
Perhaps Simpson's Scientific Model (1942) for the
development of North American Science (Pre,
Proto, Pioneer and Classic), of which Australian
Science lacks the first phase is also worth
following up, as Vallance (1978) proposes. There
were also many scientists who virtually ignored
Europe in their work and in reporting it, and
whose work was likewise ignored in Europe, as
Guntau (1992) has recently pointed out. Naumann
in Japan is an excellent example, Joseph Milligan
in Tasmania probably falls in this category, and
even John Lhotsky too. In other words the
"periphery" of science had a life of its own, and
reliance on all-embracing models at this stage in
Our investigations of the history of Australian
science should be guarded against.

By the 1860s there were numerous people
prepared to describe the Australasian vertebrate
fauna. Among them were Frederick McCoy,
James Hector, and later Robert Etheridge Jnr.,
H.Y.L. Brown and C.W. De Vis (Etheridge and
Jack, 1882). Some of this story has been described
in Rich and Thompson (1982).

Interest in the megafauna continued through the
years, a find at Wagga Wagga, New South Wales
in 1892 causing Etheridge to hurry there in the
hope of finding good specimens, and the
Illustrated Sydney News devoted almost a page to
the find, including reproduction of several figures
taken directly from Owen's publications, and its
implications for science.

The influence of the work of Owen, stimulated by
Mitchell's fieldwork, on Australian Science has
been briefly outlined in this paper, and opens the
way for much further research. The other side of
the coin is the powerful influence that the
Australasian fossil megafauna had on the career of

100 DAVID BRANAGAN

Richard Owen. Rupke (this volume and in a
forthcoming work) makes a powerful case that the
study of this material was by no means an
altruistic aid for struggling colonies lacking
scientific expertise, but was the basis of Owen's
career as creator of the major museum of natural
history in the world, and that his energies were
directed largely to this end rather than to the
attainment of fame as an anatomist.

The anonymous author in the "Tllustrated Sydney
News wrote: "the odd thing about the fossil bones
is this - they reveal to us something of the history
of Australia, something of the history of our own
land as it is written on tables of stone by historians
without prejudice, by fingers void of passion. The
geological records of a country are true, and the
fossil remainders are the dates of the history”.
However as perhaps the paper above indicates
those humans who have attempted to interpret the
story are not without prejudice or passion, which
is probably not a bad thing. There would be little
of interest in a bloodless history of science!

References

The main source for Australasian researchers
seeking Owen/antipodean relationships is to be
found in the British Museum (Natural History)
Library: Owen papers, 27 volumes of letters,
mostly to Owen, letters from Australasian
correspondents or relating to Australasian topics
between 1836-1889. These are indicated, together
with many lesser repositories in the invaluable
source book by Mander-Jones (see below).

Blainey, G., 1954. The peaks of Lyell. Melbourne
University Press.

Blumenbach, J.F., 1800. Abbildungen
naturhistorisches gegenbande 5 (41), April 1800.

Bowler, P.J., 1984. Evolution: the history of an
idea. University of California Press, Stanford.

Branagan, D.F., 1972. Words, actions, people:
150 years of the Scientific Societies in Australia.
Journal and Proceedings Royal Society of New
South Wales 104: 123-141.

Branagan, D.F., 1973. The Challenger Expedition
and Australian Science. Proceedings Royal Society
of Edinburgh (B) 10 (1971/72): 85-95.

Branagan, D.F., 1984. Samuel Stutchbury and his
manuscripts in M.E. Hoare and L.G. Bell (eds.) Jn

Search of New Zealand's Scientific Heritage.
Royal Society of New Zealand bulletin 21: 7-15.

Branagan, D.F., 1992a. Samuel Stutchbury: a
natural history voyage to the Pacific, 1825-27 and
its consequences. Archives of Natural History
19(3).

Branagan, D.F., 1992b. Samuel Stutchbury and
the Australian Museum. Records of the Australian
Museum. Supplement 15: 99-110.

Browne, J., 1983. The Secular Ark. Studies in the
History of Biogeography. Yale University Press,
New Haven.

Burrell, H., 1927. The Platypus. , Angus and
Robertson, Sydney.

Darwin, C., 1837. -A sketch of the deposits
containing extinct mammals in the neighbourhood
of the Plata. Proceedings of the Geological Society
of London 2; 542-544.

Donovan, D.T. and Crane, M.D., 1992. The type
material of the Jurassic Cephalopod
Belemnotheutis. Palaeontology 35(2): 273-296.

Etheridge, R.Jun. and Jack, R.L., 1881. Catalogue
of works, papers, reports and maps on the
geology....of the Australian continent and
Tasmania. Edward Stanford, London.

Flower, W.H., 1893. Richard Owen, Biographical
entry, Dictionary of National Biography, 14.
Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Foster, W.C., 1985. Sir Thomas Livingston
Mitchell and his world 1792-1855. Sydney,
N.S.W. Institution of Surveyors.

Gruber, J.W., 1987. From myth to reality: the
case of the Moa. Archives of Natural History
14(3): 339-352.

Gruber, J. W., 1991. Does the platypus lay eggs?
The history of an event in science. Archives of
Natural History 18(1): 51-123.

Guntau, M., 1992. Transfer and exchange of
geological ideas in history. 29th International
Geological Congress, Kyoto. Abstracts, vol.3.
Session I-25-1.

Gunther, A.E.,1975. A century of zoology at the
British Museum through the lives of two Keepers
1815-1914, Dawsons, London.

OWEN IN THE ANTIPODEAN CONTEXT 101

Haast, H.F. von., 1948. The life and times of
Julius von Haast. H.F. von Haast. Wellington.

Hochstetter. F. von., 1959. (Translated and edited
by C.A. Fleming). Geology of New Zealand.
Government Printer, Wellington.

Home, E.,1803. Description of the anatomy of the
Ornithorhynchus Hystrix. Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society 93: 348-364.

Home, E.,1818. Additional facts respecting the
fossil remains of an animal, on the subject of
which two papers have been published in the
Philosophical Transactions, showing that the bones
of the sternum resemble those of the
Ornithorhynchus paradoxus. Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society 108: 24-32.

Home, E., 1819. On the Ova of the different tribes
of Opossum and Omnithorhynchus. Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society 109: 234-239.

Illustrated Sydney News, 1892. Date uncertain.

Ingles, J.M. and Sawyer, F.C. 1979 A catalogue of
the Richard Owen collection of Palaeontological
and Zoological drawings in the British Museum
(Natural History). Bulletin of the British Museum
(Natural History), Historical Series 6(5), 109-197.

Lang, J.D., 1834. An historical and Statistical
account of New South Wales...2vols. Cochrane
and M'Crone, London.

Lang, J.D., 1846. The mosaic accont of craetion
compared with the deductions of modern geology.
S.Goode, Melbourne.

Leichhardt, F. 1844. Letter to R. Owen, 10 July
1844. Leichhardt Letters, Mitchell Library,
Sydney.

Macleod, R., 1982. On visiting the 'moving
metropolis’; reflections on the architecture of
colonial science. Historical Records of Australian
Science 5: 1-15.

Mahoney, J.A. and Ride, W.D.L.,1984. Index to
the genera and species of fossil mammalia
described from Australia and New Guinea
between 1838 and 1968. Special Publications
Western Australia Museum 6.

Mander-Jones, P. 1972 Manuscripts in the British
Isles relating to Australia, New Zealand and the

Pacific. Australian National University Press,
Canberra.

Markham, V. R., 1935. Paxton and the Bachelor
Duke. Hodder and Stroughton, London.

Mitchell, T.L., 1838. Three expeditions into the
interior of eastern Australia, 2 vols. T. and W.
Boone, London.

Mitchell, T.L., 1847. Journal of an expedition into
the interior of tropical Australia, in search of a
route from Sydney to the Gulf of Carpentaria.
Brown, Green and Longmans, London.

Moyal, A.M., 1975. Scientists in nineteenth
century Australia: a documentary history. Sydney,
Cassell.

Newland, B., 1991. Dr. George Bennett and Sir
Richard Owen: a case study of the colonization of
early Australian Science in R.W. Home and S.G.
Kohlstedt (eds.) /nternational Science and National
Scientific Identity: 55-74.

Ommaney, F.D., 1966. The river bank. London,
Longmans.

Owen, R., 1860. Palaeontology. A.and C. Black,
Edinburgh.

Owen, R., 1875. On the physical configuration of
Australia, and its geological causes. Warburton's
Journey across the western interior of Australia.
London.

Owen, R., 1877 Researches on Fossil Remains of
the Extinct Mammals of Australia .

Owen, R.S.,1894. The Life of Richard Owen (2
vols.). John Murray, London.

Rich, P. and Thompson, E.M., 1982. Fossil
Vertebrate Record of Australasia. Monash Offset
Printing, Melbourne.

Ride, W.D.L.,1968. On the past, present, and
future of Australian Mammals. Australian Journal
of Science 31(1),:1-11.

Rupke, N., Richard Owen and the Victorian
Museum Movement. This volume.

Shaw, G., 1792. The Naturalist’s Miscellany 3..
July 1792.

102 DAVID BRANAGAN

Shaw, G., 1799. The Naturalist’s Miscellany 10.
June 1799.

Simpson, G.G., 1942. The beginnings of
vertebrate palaeontology in North America.
Proceedings American Philosophical Society
86(1): 130-188.

Stafford, R.A., 1989. Scientist of Empire.
Cambridge University Press.

Stearn, W.T.,1981. The Natural History Museum
at South Kensington. Heinemann, London.

Vallance. T.G.,1975. Presidential address: Origins
of Australian Geology. Proceedings Linnean
Society of New South Wales 100(1); 13-43.

Vallance. T.G.,1978. Pioneers and leaders - a
record of Australian Palaeontology in the
nineteenth century. Alcheringa 2: 243-250.

Vallance. T.G.,1981. The fuss about coal: troubled
relations between palaeobotany and geology in
D.J. and S.G.M. Carr (eds.) Plants and Man in
Australia. London.

Vallance. T.G.,1983. Lamarck, Cuvier, and
Australian geology. Histoire et Nature (Paris) 19-
20: 133-136..

David Branagan
Department of Geology and Geophysics,
University of Sydney

Thomas Mitchell about 1847. (Royal Geographical
Society of Queensland).

(Manuscript received 3-11-1992)

103

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.125, pp.103-106,1992

ISSN 0035-9173/92/020103-4 $4.00/1

Thomas Mitchell and the Origins of Australian
Vertebrate Palaeontology

JULIAN HOLLAND

The following is a summary of the Wombeyan symposium paper which
was drawn from a larger study - in preparation - of the early history of
palaeontological discoveries at Wellington Caves in central NSW.

Thomas Livingston Mitchell: Scotsman, soldier,
mapmaker, Surveyor-General, man of self-
importance and ambition, knight of the realm,
workaholic, dead at 63. Thomas Mitchell
discovered no significant palaeontological site, nor
was he a skilled comparative anatomist. Yet he
was a central figure in fostering scientific interest
in Australian vertebrate fossils in the 1830s and
1840s. It was Thomas Mitchell's fossil bones,
examined at Mitchell's request, that began Richard
Owen's life-long association with our fossil fauna.
It is fitting that we consider both these difficult
men in the bicentennial year of the birth of one
and the centennial year of the death of the other.

Fossil bones were discovered in a cave near
the convict settlement in Wellington Valley by
George Ranken in 1830. This was the first
significant discovery of fossil bones in the colony.
No one in Sydney received the news with more
excitement than Thomas Mitchell.

Bone caves became a prominent feature of
English geology in the 1820s with the work of the
Oxford geologist William Buckland. His
investigation of Kirkdale cave in Yorkshire led
him to explore other bone-bearing caves, and
publish his results in Reliquiae Diluvianae in 1823.
At that time there was a common view that a
series of catastrophic events had altered the face of
the earth in ancient times, the last of these being
identified with the biblical flood. The bones of
elephants and other ‘tropical’ animals had been
found in gravels and caves in northern Europe and
England, seeming to indicate that these animals
had been swept to their resting places from
tropical regions by the deluge. Buckland's book,
far from revealing ‘the relics of the deluge’,
indicated that communities of animals such as
elephant and hippopotamus had lived for
generations in England, and had fallen victim to
hyenas. Kirkdale Cave revealed the relics of the

hyenas' larder. The deluge had merely brought an
end to a period of life.

This interest in bone caves became
important to Thomas Mitchell when he was
appointed Deputy Surveyor-General for New
South Wales, with the promise of succession to
Surveyor-General Oxley, at the beginning of
1827. Mitchell sought geological advice before
travelling to Australia, and was elected a fellow of
the Geological Society of London. Others no
doubt shared Mitchell's expectation that his
succession to Oxley would give him the
opportunity to make geological observations on
exploratory journeys into the interior.

Mitchell investigated the recently discovered
Bungonia cave in December 1829 while laying out
the Great South Road, but found no bones. His
excitement at the Wellington discovery was
exacerbated by his frustrations at being detained in
Sydney by what he saw as an unreasonable
preoccupation with paperwork. When the news
reached Sydney towards the end of May 1830,
Mitchell was just about to set out to improve the
line of road to Bathurst. Having reached Bathurst
he proceeded to Wellington Valley, accompanied
by George Ranken.

The week or so Mitchell spent in the valley
he exhibited his characteristic energy and
endurance. He made a thorough investigation of
the limestone cave before moving to the red earth
cave where Ranken had found the fossil bones
some weeks earlier. This is now known as
Mitchell's Cave. He gathered bones, made
sketches, surveyed the caves, surveyed the valley
from the surrounding hills and altogether enjoyed
his freedom from the bureaucratic impositions of
the office in Sydney.

Mitchell wrote a report on the caves which
accompanied Ranken's specimens to Robert
Jameson, professor of natural history at

104 JULIAN HOLLAND

Edinburgh. Jameson published the report
together with an account of Ranken's discovery in
the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal early in
1831. Meanwhile Mitchell prepared a more
detailed report for the Geological Society in
London.

Ranken's specimens had been examined by
William Clift at the Royal College of Surgeons in
London and then by Georges Cuvier and J.B.
Pentland in Paris. Most of the bones were
recognised as belonging to various species of
marsupial. Some were larger than any known
species and were thought to belong to a dugong or
hippopotamus by Clift and a young elephant by
Cuvier. The idea of elephants in Australia in the
ancient past did not seem unreasonable in the pre-
Darwinian era; the bones of elephants and similar
animals, such as mastodons, were being found in
many parts of the world.

Following a change of governor Mitchell
had undertaken three official inland expeditions
through the mid 1830s. He then returned to
London for the first time in ten years to prepare
for publication .an account of his Three
Expeditions into the Interior of Eastern Australia.
This two-volume work, illustrated with his own
very competent sketches, contained a final chapter
giving an account of the Wellington caves and the
fossils found there. Mitchell had approached
Richard Owen to describe the fossils sent to the
Geological Society several years earlier. Owen,
Clift's assistant at the Royal College of Surgeons
with a rising reputation as a comparative
anatomist, described the specimens in a letter that
Mitchell incorporated into his book. Owen
determined that the large bones that had puzzled
earlier anatomists belonged to a giant marsupial he
named Diprotodon. Although Owen had already
developed an interest in Australia's living fauna,
this was the beginning of a major pre-occupation
with Australia's fossil species.

Mitchell's book contained several
illustrations of the caves, the fossil specimens he
had collected, and a plan and section of the two
caves at Wellington. Based in part on his own
survey work Mitchell also included a 'Geological
Sketch’ of Wellington Valley, the first published
geological map of any part of Australia.

Figure 1. Large cavern at Wellington Valley.
Drawn by T. L. Mitchell. (Mitchell, 1838,
plate 26).

In the 1840s rich palaeontological sites were
discovered in south-east Queensland. When
Mitchell could obtain specimens he sent these to
Owen or Buckland. Others had appeared on the
local scene with a serious interest in vertebrate
fossils: W.S. Macleay in Sydney, E.C. Hobson in
Melbourne, and the soon to vanish Ludwig
Leichhardt. A generation later, in the 1860s,
Gerard Krefft represented a strong local voice in
the investigation and interpretation of vertebrate
fossils, once again from Wellington Caves. But to
some extent all these men owed a debt to Thomas
Livingston Mitchell for preparing the way.

Julian Holland

The Macleay Museum,
University of Sydney

MITCHELL AND AUSTRALIAN PALAEONTOLOGY 105

Figure 2. Entrance to the largest cavern, Wellington Valley. Drawn by :

T. L. Mitchell (Mitchell, 1838, plate 25).

r ; 7

|

. Mouth of :

| Breccia .. r aes eo

A Cavern * Large Cavern . 8 | 7 ee tee ee es ee Oa OE 2 B
Vee pf neg A eee =~ Surg ~* ~ 3 i abigaa ala Aa ee ne!

Gectim ard Srowndplet . :
Mouth of
_ Large Cavern

WELLINGTON VALLEY ee

of two CAVERNS aێ

Prom Mateare k ax Sterne by Mapoe TL Mabahols fublsrad oy [BW Reena L-ndon

Figure 3. Vertical section (above) and Groundplot (below) of two
caverns at Wellington Valley, drawn by T. L. Mitchell (1838, plate 23).

106 JULIAN HOLLAND

Figure 4. Mitchell's drawings of
bone fossils identified and named
by Owen in May, 1838, as:-

1: Large procumbent incisor,
anterior extremity of right ramus,
lower jaw, wombat-like mammal,
named Diprotodon.

2: View of incisor from above.

3 - 5: Portions of the left side of
upper jaw, of new species of
Dasyurus, named Dasyurus
laniarius.

6, 7: Lower jaw of Dasyurus
laniarius. 6, left ramus with last
grinders; 7, right ramus, anterior
part.

From Mitchell, 1838, vol 2, plate
31 and pp. 362-363.

Drawn om fine by Mayor TL Matchslt

London Published by Tk W Beene.

REFERENCE. ie
Mitchell, T. L., 1838. Three expeditions into the interior of eastern Australia, wit

descriptions of the recently explored region of Australia Felix, and of the present
colony of New South Wales. London: T. & W. Boone. 2 vols, xxiv + 343 and x +
405 pp. (Second, revised edition, 1839).

(Manuscript received 3-11-1992)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Natess VOl¢125, pp.107=-110.,, 1992

ESSN U055-9175792/020107=4 $4,00/1

Julian Tenison Woods, Richard Owen and Ancient
Australia

ANN PLAYER

ABSTRACT. Father J. E. Tenison Woods played a small part in the history of
vertebrate palaeontology in Australia. In 1866 he recognised that fossil remains
discovered near Penola, South Australia, belonged to a large extinct bird related to
the emu. The material was described and named by Richard Owen with scant
acknowledgement of Woods. Woods played an important role in popularising
scientists’ discoveries and interpretations of vertebrate fossils.

In a letter from London on 23 February Sir
Richard Owen, the renowned British anatomist and
naturalist, addressed 'The Hon. Henry Parkes, etc.,
Colonial Secretary, New South Wales’ on the
desirability of the government funding a ‘careful
and systematic exploration of the Limestone Caves
of Wellington Valley, discovered by the colonial
surveyor [Thomas Mitchell] in or about 1832’. Such
an exploration, Owen argued, would be of great
benefit for the ‘Museum of Sydney’; it could yield
evidence pertaining to the antiquity and origin of
the aboriginal races of Australia; it would earn the
appreciation of the European scientific community
and would thus redound to the honour of ‘the
present constitutional Government’. Furthermore,
Owen offered to ‘devote time to the determination
and description of such specimens or duplicates’
from the caves, either sent to him for examination,
or sent for deposition in the British Museum.

The late Sir Thomas L.Mitchell had estimated that
the proposed exploration would, under the guidance
of a qualified naturalist, cost about two to three
hundred pounds in cash, a comparatively small
amount for the expected result. A month later
Parkes replied to Owen, thanking him for his
interest in Australian science and promising that a
sum of money would be placed on the estimates
(Australasian, 1867). From this action eventuated
the important excavations carried out by Gerard
Krefft (Australian Museum) and Alexander
Thomson ( University of Sydney) ( Branagan, this
volume). Owen, of course, was to benefit
considerably as a result of this expedition.

Julian Tenison Woods, priest and naturalist,
domiciled in Australia and almost contemporary
with Mitchell and Owen, highly approved of
Mitchell's proposed exploration. Unlike the

explorers Flinders, King and others who included
in their published works ‘worthless’ appendices on
geology, Mitchell had, Woods wrote'collected
fossils and........... their significance, and what
better he sent them to the best authorities’. This
course of action enabled Professor Owen to show
that the extinct ‘giants’ of the past, though different
from today's living species represented a similar
series of kangaroos, wombats and opossums, native
bears and marsupial tigers (Woods, 1882).

Years earlier, in 1857, Woods had proposed a
similar ‘colonial’ course of action as that taken by
Mitchell. In a letter to the editor of the South
Australian Register on the subject of fossil bones
recently found in the cliffs of the Murray River he
suggested that ‘some zealous individual’ who had
access to the material and who had the ‘cause of
science at heart’ might see ‘that drawings or
photographs of the bones [be] forwarded either to
Professor Owen or to the Illustrated London News
for elucidation. From remote Penola where he
worked as a Catholic priest, he also offered some
comments on the possible geological age of these
Murray River deposits and suggested that the
remains might be those of an ichthyosaurus (South
Australian Register, 1857b).

Woods also made his own contribution of material
to the overseas experts, sending invertebrate fossils
(polyzoa, foraminifera and corals) to prominent
British naturalists during the late 1850s and mid
1860s (Player, 1990, p.26).

However, in one significant instance in his early
endeavours in science he trusted his own
judgement. On 25 April 1866 he recovered two
tibias and two tarso-metatarsal bones from a well
being sunk at the edge of a swamp fourteen miles

107

108 ANN PLAYER

(22 kms) north-north-west of Penola. On
examination he declared them allied to the emu,’
from the size of the bones it was evidently a larger,
heavier, and more clumsy bird’, and he
provisionally named it Dromarius Australia
(Woods 1866, p.7 footnote). Another bone was
found in 1869 at Peak Downs ' near the track from
Clermont to Broadsound, at the head of Theresa
Creek'. Rev. W.B. Clarke and Gerard Krefft
examined this bone in Sydney and concluded that it
was a species of Dinornis or moa. A few years
later, after viewing this specimen Owen agreed
with Woods's diagnosis that the bird was of the emu
type, and named it Dromornis Australia (Woods,
1889a).

As Rich (1979, p.1) points out Woods did not
figure the specimen; neither did he provide a
diagnosis or description sufficiently detailed to
validate his name. Consequently it must be
considered a ‘nomen nudum’. Woods, however, did
not quite see the matter in that light. In his work
On the Natural History of New South Wales (1882,
p.27-28) he merely noted that his name preceded
Owen's, but in the series "Ancient Australia’ he
goes much further. In the first article he simply
repeated the story of his prior discovery (Woods,
1889b) but in a second article he stated that the
‘singular correspondence of this name [Dromornis
Australis] with mine [Dromaius{sic} Australis]
leads to the suggestion that Owen knew of the
previous discovery, but most probably he did not’
(Woods 1888a).

Woods on at least one other occasion employed this
same tactic of stating and then denying in order to
bring a matter before his readers as a possibility
(Player, 1990, p.100). Priority of discovery was an
important concern of Woods throughout his career
as a naturalist, and in this case of the flightless bird
he seems determined to make the point that he made
the discovery first, even if officially the credit was
given to Owen. Woods' friend Ralph Tate,
Professor of Natural Science at the University of
Adelaide noted that Woods had been the first to
recognise the affinity between the fossil bird and
the living emu, commenting ‘it redounds to his skill
as a comparative anatomist that the opinion he
expressed has been corroborated by the greatest
living anatomist’.

The ten-part series on ‘Ancient Australia’
contributed to the Brisbane Courier and eventually
discontinued, still incomplete, by Woods (Brisbane
Courier, 1889) was written under the disability of
failing health. As early as January 1888 he
admitted to having been invalided for almost a

year and as having almost lost the use of his hands
and feet. (Woods, 1888b) As time went on he was
reduced more and more to dictating his articles.

Finally in March 1889 work of any kind became an
impossibility and ‘even dictating very necessary
correspondence’ was almost beyond him (Woods,
1889b) In spite of the difficulties these articles on
‘Ancient Australia’ are vintage Woods. One of his
concerns had always been to make science
interesting and intelligible to the educated ‘lay’
person. As in his early work on Geological
Observations in South Australia so here he argued
for what he called the poetry and the romance of
the story of science. Originally, he claimed, the
discovery of the remains of extinct animals in
Australia excited much attention, even popularity,
but that interest soon died. Eminent osteologists
buried the fascinating finds in dreary technical
descriptions and thus stripped the story ‘to the very
skeleton of all but the driest of facts, much as if
Milton's "Paradise Lost" were redistributed in
dictionary form'(Woods, 1888c). Woods stressed
this same point in the ‘Geology of Armmheims (sic)
Land NA' (1889c) when he laments that the
discoveries of the geologist are now ‘enshrined in
Blue books and he speaks a language, intelligible
only to the accomplished expert.’

Has Woods in ‘Ancient Australia’ been able to avoid
these pitfalls? I think the evidence supports a
largely affirmative answer. Throughout the series
which focusses on the fossil deposits of Queensland
he has woven a systematic story which unfolds
logically and which on the whole sustains interest.
The example of Cuvier and his work on the fossils
of the Paris Basin introduced the reader to the ways
palaeontologists unlock the evidence of ancient life
held in the rocks (Woods, 1888c) and is followed
by a short description of Australian Geology
(Woods, 1888d).

As he dealt successively with fish, reptiles, birds,
monotremes and marsupials he managed to avoid
parochialism and set the unfolding story in a
context broadened by his own experience both in
Australia and in the Malay Peninsula and other
Eastern countries he visited in 1883-1886. His
wide reading added its enrichment too (Woods,
1888e). Such an approach was a consistent strength
in his more discursive writings. He knew the
literature and exploited it and his wide experience
effectively (McDonnell, 1989, pp. 124-125)

Whatever the breadth of his treatment in general, in
his explanation of the sudden extinction of the
ancient fauna in Queensland, however Woods

WOODS, OWEN AND ANCIENT AUSTRALIA 109

exhibited tunnel vision. In opposition to A.C.
Gregory he proposed volcanic eruptions as the
cause and supported his case from evidence of the
1883 Krakatoa devastation and the aftermath of the
1886 Taal eruption in the Philippines. His personal
experience of these events added much colour to his
position (Woods, 1888d). Quite obviously Woods
was influenced by his leaning toward a catastrophic
rather than an uniformitarian world view. He
picked hise ‘eruptions’ selectively to support his
position.

In the very first article of the series Woods, in the
context of defending earlier scientists who ‘did
their duty by their deposit of truth as they saw it’
announced that de Vis had found teeth of a peccary
in the Queensland drifts. This statement 'was
received with great hesitation’ by Woods’ scientific
friends (Woods, 1888c). As he only mentions this
find again in passing one must assume that he
intended to treat it in a later article which, because
of his health, did not eventuate.

His writings in this series add little that is new in
the vertebrate palaentology of his day. Though
based on the findings of others, as he clearly stated,
he had examined many of the fossils in the
museums at Sydney and Brisbane and had discussed
them with their learned curators (Woods, 1888a).
He consistently quotes the experts in the field,
including ‘de Vis of the Brisbane Museum' and
especially Professor Owen. What he did in these
articles was to produce for the layman an up-to-
date statement of where research was at the time.

Throughout the years of his active interest in
science Woods wrote close to 200 articles - some
short, others very long - on _ invertebrate
palaeontology, on stratigraphy, on molluscs,
polyzoa, botany, coal deposits and other subjects.
With the exception of a few general chapters in
Geological Observations in South Australia he
wrote almost nothing on vertebrate palaeontology
until the ‘Ancient Australia’ series. He certainly
had skill and ability in this area and one can only
regret that his contribution was so slight.

REFERENCES

Australasian, 1867. 21 Sept. issue.

Brisbane Courier, 1889. 29 March issue
McDonnell. K. L. 1989. ‘Father Julian Tenison

Woods and the Hawkesbury Sandstone,’ Journ. and
Proc, Roy Soc. N.S.W. vol.122, pp. 123-126.

Player, A.V. 1990 Julian Tenison Woods 1832-
1889: The Interaction of Science and Religion.
M.A. Thesis, Australian National University.

Rich. P.V. 1979. 'The Cromornithidae, an extinct
family of large ground birds endemic to Australia,
Bull. Bureau Min. Res. (Geology & Geophysics),
184, pp.1 -194.

South Australian Register, 1857a. 30 July issue.
South Australian Register, 1857b. 16 July issue.

Tate, R, 1878. Anniversary Address, Transactions
and Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of
Adelaide, South Australia, pp. 11-47.

Woods, J.E.T. 1882. On the Natural History of
New South Wales. Sydney. Thomas Richards,
Government Printer.

Woods, J.E.T., 1886. Report on the Geology and
Mineralogy of the South-Eastern District of the
Colony. Adelaide.

Woods J.E.T., 1889a. ‘Ancient Australia’ No.VII.
Brisbane Courier, 11 January issue.

Woods, J.E.T., 1889a. ‘Ancient Australia’ No.
VII. Brisbane Courier, 11 January issue.

Woods, J.E.T., 1888a. ‘Ancient Austraia' No. IV,
Brisbane Courier,m 22 December issue.

Woods, J.E.T., 1888b. Letter to W. Archer, 3 Jan.
Archer Papers, University of Melbourne Archives.

Woods. J.E.T., 1888b. Letter to W. Archer, 13
March: Archer Papers. University of Melbourne
Archives.

Woods. J.E.T., 1888c. ‘Ancient Australia’ No. 1,
Brisbane Courier, 3 December issue.

Woods, J.E.T. 1889c. The Geology of Amheims
Land N.A., South Australian Chronicle, 12 January
issue.

Woods, J.E.T., 1888d. ‘Ancient Australia No. 2,
Brisbane Courier, 6 December issue.

Woods, J.E.T., 1888e. ‘Ancient Australia’ No, 3,
Brisbane Courier, 15 December issue.

Sr. Ann Player,
St. Joseph’s Convent, North Goulbum,
New South Wales.

110 ANN PLAYER

IF THEY LIV ED ODA

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Enduring interest in the Australian megafauna. A
vivid impression of the giant marsupials whose
fossil remains were unearthed at Brigalow, Darling
Downs. The artist appears to have had some
difficulty conceiving the fauna. (Sunday Mail,
Brisbane, 28 July, 1929).

“Dinner in the /guanadon model, at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham."

(Manuscript received 3-11-1992)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.125, p,111,1992

ISSN 0055-9173/92/020111-1 $4,.00/1

111

Australian Red Earth and Bones

R.A.L. OSBORNE

Since 1830 naturalists and palaeontologists have
been collecting Pleistocene to Recent vertebrate
fossils from Australian red cave earth. Red earth,
with or without vertebrate fossils, is found in
almost every karst area in Australia, in caves
developed in both high purity Palaeozoic limestones
and in poorly cemented Tertiary calcarenites. It is
found in caves on the top of isolated hills and caves
in the bottom of valleys. Deposits are known to
reach thicknesses of over 12 m.

Various origins, some quite bizarre, have been
proposed for this material (Osborne,1991).The
most persistent has been the notion that it consists
of insoluble residues derived from solution of the
limestone. This is clearly impossible, given the high
purity of much of the limestone in which it occurs.
The red earth is most likely silt and clay
transported from central Australia by the wind
during arid phases of the Pleistocene that became
preserved in caves and other karst features

Few fossils older than Pleistocene have been found
in Australian caves and it has often been suggested
that deposits of cemented red earth and other bone
breccia found at or near the surface represent the
floors of caves whose roofs had been removed
either by collapse and / or erosion (Broom, 1896;
Thomson, 1870) . In the past this type of
explanation would have presented few geological
or geomorphic problems. Until the 1980s caves in
Australia were regarded by most as having
Pleistocene to Recent origins, reflecting the
European origin of karst geomorphology in
Australia.

Recent work (Osborne & Branagan, 1988; Osborne
in press ; Webb et. al. ,1991), however, suggests
that caves, like other landscapes in eastern
Australia, are far older, having their origins in
Early Tertiary or even Late Cretaceous times. This
rules out the possibility of cave roofs being
removed by post-Pleistocene erosion and of
Pleistocene breccias being older than adjacent caves
(Ride, 1960). It raises, however, the interesting and
Significant possibility of pre-Pleistocene fossils
being found in caves.

REFERENCES

Broom, R., 1896 Report on a bone breccia deposit
near the Wombeyan Caves, N.S.W.: with
descriptions of some new species of marsupials.
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W .21, 48-61.

Osborne, R.A.L., 1991. Red Earth and Bones: The
History of Cave Sediment Studies in New South
Wales, Australia. Journal of Earth Sciences
History. 10(1) 13-28

Osborne, R.A.L. (in press)- A new history of cave
development at Bungonia, N.S.W. to be published
in Australian Geographer .

Osborne, R.A.L. & Branagan, D.F. 1988 . Karst
Landscapes of New South Wales, Australia. Earth-
Science Reviews . 25 (1988), 467-480.

Ride, W.D.L. 1960. The Fossil Mammalian Fauna
of the Burramys parvis Breccia from the
Wombeyan Caves, New South Wales. J. Roy. Soc.
W.A., 43 (3)- ,74-80.

Thomson , A.M., 1870. (The geology of the
Wellington Caves) Votes and Proceedings of the
Legislative Assembly N.S.W., 1870-71, 4, 1182-
1184.

Webb, J.A., Finlayson, B.L., Fabel, D., & Ellaway,
M. 1991. The geomorphology of the Buchan Karst
- implications for the landscape history of the
Southeastern Highlands of Australia. Geological
Society of Australia, Special Publication. 10, 210-
234.

(‘lanuscript received 3-11-1992)

R.A.L. Osborne

School of Teaching and Curriculum Studies
Old Teachers’ College Building, A22
University of Sydney, N.S.W. 2006.

ane oe
rc : here. areas § i
hadty

113

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.125, pp.113-118,1992

ISSN 0035-9173/92/020113-6 $4.,00/1

Important vertebrate fossils from the palaeontological
collections of the Department of Geology and
Geophysics, University of Sydney.

PAUL M.A. WILLIS, SUSIE M. DAVIES and R.ARMSTRONG L. OSBORNE

ABSTRACT. A small collection of vertebrate fossils was uncovered during a recent
re-organisation of the palaeontological collections of the Department of Geology
and Geophysics, University of Sydney. Some of this material is of historical and
scientific interest. Fossils from Pleistocene deposits on Clairvaulx Station near Glen
Innes were collected by N. Miklouho-Maclay in 1880. A small collection of bones
from Wellington Caves may have been made by Edgeworth David in 1900. The
Wellington Caves fossils represent taxa of snake, varanid, turtle and bird,
previously unknown from that locality. Three small samples of a bone-cave breccia
are probably from the Broom Breccia, Wombeyan Caves, and may provide new
information on the lithology and petrology of this important site.

INTRODUCTION

In 1992 the palaeontological collections of the
Department of Geology and Geophysics, University
of Sydney, were relocated and partially catalogued.
During this work six drawers of vertebrate fossils
were revealed. This material was assembled by the
late Jack Mahoney while he was employed in the
department.

Most of the vertebrate material in the collections
consists of plaster casts and common fossils used
for teaching. However some of the fossils were
more exceptional, important specimens, but little
known. Material from an alluvial deposit in New
England, NSW, and from two cave deposits in
eastern New South Wales are discussed in this
paper. The specimens described, together with
some other material, have been transferred to the
Australian Museum. The abbreviation SUP
precedes specimen numbers in the Sydney
University Palaeontology collection.

ORIGIN OF THE MATERIAL

Three principal sources for the vertebrate material
in the University Geology Department fossil
collections have been identified. Most of the
material was collected specifically for the
University collections in the latter part of the
nineteenth century, and the early 1900s. However
some at least evidently was originally in the
collections of the Macleay Museum and was
transferred to the Department of Geology and

Geophysics in the late 1960s by Dr. Peter Stanbury
(B. Webby, per. comm.). A third possible source of
some vertebrate fossils was collecting by Jack
Mahoney, but no documented proof of this has yet
been located.

CLAIRVAULX MATERIAL

A small collection of Pleistocene bones (SUP10992,
SUP10998, SUP11964, SUP11965, SUP11991 and
SUP11992) was found among the fossils in the
University collection. This material was
distinguished by the handwritten labels that
accompanied them, all of which carried the
"crossed M's" monogram of Miklouho-Maclay.
Nicholaievich Miklouho-Maclay (1846-1888). was a
distinguished nineteenth-century Russian scientist,
whose interests included anthropology, zoology and
palaeontology. He visited Australia four times
between 1878 and 1881 during which he travelled
extensively and made significant scientific
collections. In late December 1880 he visited
‘Clairvaulx’ station about 7 kms northwest of Glen
Innes with the intention of collecting
palaeontological and zoological specimens. He
recorded collecting specimens of Diprotodon
australis, Nototherium mitchelli, Phascolomys
gigas, Macropus titan and other species (Miklouho-
Maclay 1881: 174). He left Clairvaulx in early
January 1881 (Webster 1984: 244).

Most labels with the Geology Department's
specimens identify the locality as 'Clairvaulx, New

114 P.M.A. WILLIS, S.M. DAVIES AND R.A.L. OSBORNE

South Wales’, but some refine it as ‘Walter's Creek,
Clairvaulx'. All labels also carried the date - 27
December 1880.

The Clairvaulx material was almost certainly
acquired by the Department of Geology as part of
the transfer of fossils from the Macleay Museum. A
subsequent search of the remaining vertebrate
collections of the Macleay Museum revealed a
substantial quantity of Clairvaulx material still in its
collection. Unfortunately many of the Macleay
Museum's records were destroyed during the First
World War, having been given up for pulp salvage
(MacIntosh, 1949: 167). Other incidents of the
deliberate destruction of Macleay Museum records
occurred as recently as the 1950s. Any manifest
listing exactly what was transferred from the
Macleay Museum to the Geology Department has
not been located.

The Clairvaulx material has not yet been studied in
any detail. However the following species can be

identified:Diprotodon optatum, Phascolonus sp.
cf.P. gigas, macropodine and sthenurine kangaroos.

This is a typical megafaunal association. There is an
absence of smaller elements and species but it is not
known if this is a taphonomic or collection bias.
The preservation and known locality information
Suggests that Clairvaulx is a fluvial or lacustrine
deposit.

Many Pleistocene localities similar to Clairvaulx
are known from eastern Australia. Clairvaulx
appears to be a prolific site. Miklouho-Maclay
claimed to have collected 160 fossil specimens from
the site (Miklouho-Maclay, 1881). All of the
collecting information available suggests that the
fossils were collected in a single day (27 December,
1880). However it seems more probable that these
specimens were actually gathered over the full
period of Miklouho-Maclay's stay at Clairvaulx,
something less than two weeks. Alternatively the
collection could have been supplemented by Mr.
Gunn, the owner of Clairvaulx, giving Miklouho-
Maclay specimens that he had picked up on the
property before Miklouho-Maclay arrived (in fact
one label does record that the specimen was
presented by Mr. Gunn). In any event, the
collection of more than thirty Diprotodon molars
still in the Macleay Museum, as well as numerous
other elements suggests a rich deposit.

The quality of the fossils from Clairvaulx is
particularly impressive. Typically, Pleistocene

vertebrate fossils from the Liverpool Plains and
similar deposits are crumbly, poorly mineralised
and easily destroyed. The- preservation of
Clairvaulx material is more reminiscent of fossils
from Bingara in northern New South Wales or the
Darling Downs in southern Queensland. These
fossils are solid, robust and heavily mineralised.

The probable abundance and robust preservation of
fossils from Clairvaulx suggests that this deposit
should be revisited and re-examined. Clairvaulx
could be particularly interesting if small fossils,
such as rodents, bandicoots and marsupial
carnivores, are present.

WELLINGTON CAVES

Among the vertebrate fossils of the University's
collection was a small box of bones evidently from
a cave deposit. The only identification was a single
small label (21mm x 17mm) with a blue border,
together with two small labels each bearing a four
digit number (1686 and 3607). Two of the labels
were loose in the box while the third (1686) was
still attached to the proximal end of a mammalian
ulna.

The label with the blue border has been partially
eaten by silverfish but still clearly reads "........ Ww
Cave, Wellington" written in black ink. It appears
that the original description was "New Cave,
Wellington". The handwriting does not resemble
that of any of the previous curators of the Macleay
Museum (W.S. Horning, pers. comm.) so it appears
unlikely that these Wellington Caves fossils were
part of the 1960s transfer. The style of the border
on the label is typical of the period from around
1900 to 1915. This suggests that the fossils were
entered directly into the Geology Department's
palaeontological collections in the earliest part of
this century. However, the blue border on the label
is quite distinctive, and no similar label remains on
any of the older specimens still in the Department
of Geology and Geophysics. Similar labels have
been found on some fossil specimens in the Macleay
Museum and on some aboriginal stone tools
transferred from Geology to the Macleay Museum.
Although equivocal, this indicates that the label
referred to above was affixed in the Geology
Department.

The University of Sydney Palaeontological
Collection in the Department of Geology and

Geophysics has a unique numbering system that was
initiated in 1920 and is still in use today. Within

VERTEBRATE FOSSILS - UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY 115

this system all vertebrate specimens have
registration numbers that end in digits from 950 to
999 (e.g. 13957 and 8996 are registration numbers
for vertebrate specimens, but 11608 is not). Neither

of the two numbers included with the Wellington
Caves material ends in digits between 950 and 999,

consequently the specimens are either from some
collection external to the Geology Department or
they are from departmental collections made prior
to 1920. There were numerous fossil collections in
the Department prior to 1920, however most of
these specimens have been renumbered .

But there is no record of any Wellington Caves
material being renumbered. Furthermore, in the
older catalogues that still exist, there is no record
of vertebrate fossils in the collections under the
numbers 1686 or 3607. This suggests that the
specimens were originally registered in a
(reasonably large) collection elsewhere and that
they have been subsequently incorporated into the
departmental collection.

Thus it appears that the most likely origin of the
Wellington Cave specimens currently in the
collection of the Department of Geology was from
another collection, but not from the Macleay
Museum. This conclusion is equivocal.

WHO COLLECTED THE WELLINGTON CAVES
MATERIAL?

Because of the poor records associated with the
specimens it 1s not known who collected the
material. However the following scenario is
proposed. The catalogue of the geological ( i.e.
non-fossil) collection of the Department of Geology
and Geophysics indicates that Professor Edgeworth
David collected an aboriginal stone tool (No. 2870)
and some limestone samples ( Nos. 137-143) from
"30 chains south of Wellington Caves" around

1900. This places David in the right area about the
time the vertebrate fossils were likely to have been
collected from the recently discovered "New Cave".

David had a strong interest in both palaeontology
and caves, as can be noted from his publications
(see Branagan, 1973, pp.135 et seq.), and although
he did not publish specifically on Wellington Caves,
he wrote a report for Government on Wombeyan
Caves (David, 1897). When in the Wellington
Caves area it is more than likely that he would have
collected some of the abundant and well-known
vertebrate fossils. He would have been particularly
interested in any newly-found deposits such as those
in New Cave (now Gaden Cave).

Such material collected by David would probably
have been deposited in either the Department of
Geology or the Macleay collections. This is a highly
circumstantial, but not illogical scenario. Other
than this there is no known simple mechanism by
which Wellington fossils would have found their
way into either of these collections.

Most of the fossils collected at this period at
Wellington were made by the Cave Warden J.
Sibbald, who sent his specimens to the Mining
Museum (Dawson, 1985), and it seems unlikely that
he would have sent any specimens to the University.
However there is no known record of Sibbald
collecting fossils from New (Gaden) Cave, most
collecting having been made there as late as 1954
by L.Marcus ( Dawson, op.cit.). These would have
been sent to the University of California.
Furthermore his collections were clearly much
later than the labels with the Sydney University
specimens suggest. A possible collector from the
University was W.R. Browne, at Wellington in June
1948, according to the Geological catalogue, but
again this is much too late; furthermore Browne's
interests were dominantly petrological.

A possible link in this story is W.S. Dun who was
Palaeontolagist to the New South Wales Geological
Survey and the Australian Museum, and who
lectured part-time at the University from 1897 to
1934. Dun was not averse to carry fossils (even
type specimens!) back and forth to the University
for his lectures (H.Fletcher, pers. comm.), and
although his major interests were in the
invertebrates the whole range of the fossil kingdom
was covered in his lectures. Perhaps some
specimens were thus inadvertently acquired by the
University.

LOCALITY INFORMATION

It is obvious that some mixing of the Wellington
Caves material has occurred. Judging from the
remaining sediment that adheres to these specimens,
at least three types of deposits are represented. The
two red earth sediment types are both typical of
cave deposits. One of these is a poorly

consolidated, powdery red earth similar to that of
Mitchell's cave, at Wellington. The second sediment
type is a partially consolidated red earth with a high
amount of clay and some unusually large inorganic
clasts. Such a sediment is not inconsistent with the
deposits in Mitchell's Cave, but could also be from
Gaden Cave. The third sediment type is a dusty
grey/brown sediment with calcite cement. This
dusty material ( to which the label "1686" is

116 P.M.A. WILLIS, S.M. DAVIES AND R.A.L. OSBORNE

attached) is unlike that currently seen in Wellington
Caves, but may be derived from the now-sealed
original entrance of Gaden Cave.

A map clearly identifying Gaden Cave, but which is
labelled New Cave, accompanied Trickett's (1901)
report on Wellington Caves. Although discovered
in 1900 foul air prevented full exploration of New
Cave until 1905 (Trickett 1901, 1902, 1904 and
1905) and it is uncertain if any fossil collecting
could have been made in this cave before 1905.
However fossils do occur in one section of this cave
and it is possible that all the specimen material in
the Geology Department's collection came from
this cave.

The problem is complicated by the fact that another
cave containing vertebrate fossils was discovered in
1901 (Trickett, 1902). This cave was named shortly
after, Gas Pipe Cave (Trickett, 1903), but for a
time it was also referred to simply as the "new
cave'and it is possible that the present University
specimens originated from it.

All told it seems likely that these fossils originated
from Wellington early this century and most likely
from Gaden Cave, although they may have come
from any of the fossil-bearing caves there. It is
even possible, though less likely, that the specimens
were Originally obtained from one or a number of
other Australian caves. Because of the poor records
and uncertainty as to the origin and history of these
specimens they are best provenanced as "Wellington
Caves (?Gaden Cave)".

The particular specimens in the palaeontological
collection of the Department of Geology and
Geophysics have not yet been studied in detail, but
the Pleistocene fauna of Wellington Caves has
received considerable attention (see Dawson, 1985
for a review). In the University collection the
following species have been identified: Thylaceo
carnifex, Thylacinus cynocephalus, Phascolomys
sp. cf. P. gigas ( including specimens only from the
first sediment type), Vombatus or Lasiorhinus,
Varanus sp., rodent and an unidentified turtle. A
large snake vertebra is currently being examined by
J.Scanlon, and a small collection of bird bones is
being studied by W. Bowles. The fauna suggests a
Pleistocene age, which is consistent with the age of
the better-known faunas from the other Wellington
Caves ( Dawson, 1985).

WOMBEYAN CAVES

Three small blocks (about 5cm across) of a well-
consolidated cave breccia were found in the

(SUP 13955). They were identified as having come
from Wombeyan Caves. There was no further
information either on the label or in the collection
catalogues. However Ride (1960) mentions that
Mahoney collected some samples of the Broom
Breccia, and these specimens may be some of that
material mentioned by Ride.

All three blocks had numerous bones of small
animals through them. The location given on the
associated label as Wombeyan Caves is the Broom
Breccia ( also known as the Burramys parvus
Breccia), although similar material was found in
the nearby Wombeyan Quarries (Hope, 1982).

The Broom Breccia was discovered by Robert
Broom (1866-1951), then a medical practioner in
Taralga, who excavated episodically at Wombeyan,
apparently when the custodian was away(!). The
fossil material was collected around 1894-95 and
quickly described ( Broom 1895a, 1895b, 1896).
After dissolving the matrix, Broom found a rich
assortment of bones representing a variety of small
animals. Of particular interest was a diprotodontoid
with grooved molars that Broom named Burramys
parvus ( Broom, 1895a). This animal was then
thought to have been extinct, but the first living
specimen was found in 1966.

The Broom Breccia was a small deposit that is
almost completely worked out. A few remnants
remain on the side of the small surface depression
above the xx Cave. Samples removed from the site
were usually dissolved in acetic acid to release their
vertebrate component. Ride (1960) described the
petrology of the breccia and commented that
Mahoney collected from the site. The samples in the
University collection are similar to those described
by Ride and resemble material seen on the site in
October 1992. The petrology of the source material
is currently being examined by Osborne.

Broom (1896) assessed the age of the breccia as
“later Tertiary", and Ride (op. cit.) concluded it
was Pleistocene. Wakefield (1972) refined this age
to approximately 10 000 years, based on a
comparison of the fauna with that of Pyramid
Caves in Victoria.

CONCLUSIONS

Very interesting vertebrate fossils have recently
been found within the palaeontological collection of
the University of Sydney. However, because of
poor recordkeeping in the past, compounded by
deliberate destruction of records, it is difficult to
determine many of the important collection details.

VERTEBRATE FOSSILS - UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY 117

Such poor record keeping has severely
compromised the scientific integrity and use of
these and other specimens. An attempt has been
made to determine the unknowns, but some of the
answers remain equivocal.

Miklouho-Maclay is the only known collector to
have visited the Clairvaulx site near Glen Innes, and
this locality appears to be of greater
palaeontological significance than previously
realised. The Wellington fossils appear to have
come from Gaden Cave, a site where previous
collections have been limited, and represent taxa
not previously recorded from Wellington. The
Wombeyan Caves material belongs to the Broom
Breccia, a deposit whose fauna is known in some
detail, but its lithology and petrology require
further study.

Despite the limitations of these specimens caused by
inadequate record keeping, they all provide
interesting subjects for further study, and contain
new information on the vertebrate palaeontological
faunas of New South Wales.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Associate Professor Webby for access to
the specimens, Drs. Woody Horning and Kingsley
Mills for access to museum and collection records
and Wombeyan Caves Trust for access to the
Broom Breccia site.

REFERENCES

Branagan, D.F (ed.)., 1973. Rocks, Fossils, Profs:
Geological Sciences in the University of Sydney,
1866-1973. Department of Geology and
Geophysics, University of Sydney.

Broom, R., 1895a. On a small fossil marsupial with
grooved premolars. Proceedings of the Linnean
Society of New South Wales, 10: 563-567.

Broom, R., 1895a. On a small fossil marsupial
allied to Petaurus. Proceedings of the Linnean
Society of New South Wales, 10: 568-570.

Broom, R., 1896.Report on a bone breccia deposit
near the Wombeyan Caves, N.S.W.: with
descriptions of some new species of marsupials.
Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South
Wales, 11: 48-61.

David, T.W.E., 1897. Report on the Wombeyan
Caves. Annual Report of the Department of Mines,
New South Wales for 1896: 149-151.

Dawson, L., 1985. Marsupial fossils from
Wellington Caves, New South Wales: the historic
and scientific significance of the collections in the
Australian Museum, Sydney. Records of the
Australian Museum 37 (2):°55-69.

Hope, J., 1982. Fossil vertebrates from Wombeyan
Caves, in H.J. Dyson, R.Ellis and J.M. James (eds.)
Wombeyan Caves. The Sydney Speleological
Society, Sydney.

MacIntosh, N.W.G., 1949. Crania in the Macleay
Museum. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of
New South Wales, 74: 161-191.

Miklouho-Maclay, N., 1881. A short resumé of
results of anthropological and anatomical
researches in Melanesia and Australia (March 1879-
January 1881). Proceedings of the Linnean Society
of New South Wales , 6: 171-175

Ride, W.D.L., 1960. The fossil mammalian fauna
of the Burramys parvus Breccia from Wombeyan
Caves, N.S.W. Journal of the Royal Society of
Western Australia 43: 74-80.

Trickett, O., 1901. Report on the Limestone Caves.
Annual Report of the Department of Mines, New
South Wales 1900: 196-200.

Trickett, O., 1902. Report on the Limestone Caves.
Annual Report of the Department of Mines, New
South Wales 1901: 129.

Trickett, O., 1903. Report on the Limestone Caves.
Annual Report of the Department of Mines, New
South Wales 1902: 196-200.

Trickett, O., 1904. Report on the Limestone Caves.
Annual Report of the Department of Mines, New
South Wales 1903: 135-138.

Trickett, O., 1905. Report on the Limestone Caves.
Annual Report of the Department of Mines, New
South Wales 1904: 148.

Wakefield, N.A., 1972. Palaeoecology of fossil
mammal assemblages from some Australian caves.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 85: 1-
26.

Webster, E.M., 1984. The Moon Man: a biography
of Nikolai Miklouho-Maclay. Melbourne University
Press.

118 P.M.A. WILLIS, S.M. DAVIES AND R.A.L. OSBORNE

Keren INNES

= NAMOI R.
e ARMIDALE

DUBBO

SYBWELLINGTON CAVES

Figure 2. Position of new cave,
BATHURST Wellington, (Trickett, 1901).
2 SYDNEY
100 km

OMBEY AN CAVES

* GOULBURN
Figure 1. Locality map of vertebrate fossil sites

Figure 3. Location of Broom Cave in
Wombeyan Caves Reserve.

BROOM CAVE
GUI

(Manuscript received 3-11-1992)

AUTHORS' ADDRESSES:

VICTORIA ARCH

Paul M. A. Willis and Susie M. Davies,
Macleay Museum, University of
Sydney, N.S.W., 2006.

R. Armstrong Osborne, Faculty of
Education, University of Sydney,
N.S.W., 2006.

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol,125,pp.119-132,1992

ISSN 0035-9173/92/020119-14 $4.00/1

Plumbing the Depths: on caves and the men of Geology

MICHAEL SHORTLAND

Abstract: While caves were important geologically at the beginning of the
nineteenth century, they also served as cultural artefacts with political
significance. Cave dwellers and industries were common at the time, and miners
were leaders in moves for political change. The Reverend William Buckland was
a central figure in the early study of caves, fossil bones and coprolites, and his
interests were related to the environment of underground workingmen rather
than to that of the "gentlemen geologists”. Mining geology is more significant in
the history of geology than has been accepted to date.

Fingal’s Cave

The thirteenth of August is an unrecognised
red-letter day for cave enthusiasts of all shades
and hues, for explorers, dwellers and historians
of caves, for speleologists and speleolators. It
was on this day in 1772 that Sir Joseph Banks,
on his way to Iceland, stopped on the small
island of Staffa, off the coast of Scotland, to
visit Fingal’s Cave. He was the first to
describe the cave in an illustrated account
which breathed life into Thomas Pennant’s
otherwise ponderous Tour of Scotland in 1774.
Banks’ short piece fired the imagination.

Banks was not, of course, the first to
venture into a cave; for centuries, people
across the world have explored them in search
of adventure, discovery, knowledge, inspiration
and refuge. To contextualise Banks’ report and
the subsequent development of cave
enthusiasm would require a thorough analysis
of themes which I shall only touch upon, but I
want to start with Fingal’s Cave in considering
the lure of caves, and the construction of
caves, in Britain during the Golden Age of
geology. I shall propose that the Romantics
played a key role in manufacturing a particular
image of the cave and did so for specific
ideological ends. The repercussions of this
process of manufacture form the substance of
roughly the second half of my paper, in the

course of which, via a brief examination of
mines and mining, and aspects of the cave
work of William Buckland, I shall suggest new
some new approaches to the history of

geology.

I begin by returning to Fingal’s Cave,
which assuredly was, and remains, quite
spectacular. The cave is approximately 40 feet
by 70 feet and 200 feet long, and is composed
of black and dark brown basalt columns
standing on a base of solid, unformed rock
[figure 1]. So much for the brute, measurable
facts, which do little to capture the experience

Figure 1.
Fingal’s Cave [from Pennant 1774].

119

120 MICHAEL SHORTLAND

of a visit. First there would be a journey by
sea in a small fisherman’s boat, across
notoriously choppy waters. On reaching the
cave, the boat would be tied up and visitors
taken on a scramble along a slippery pathway

(1774, p. 262). From the publication of Banks’
report (circulated in a variety of forms until
the mid-nineteenth century), Fingal’s Cave
drew a Stream of intrepid travellers, none more
ardent than the Romantics. The poetry and

to the end of the cave. prose of such figures as Walter Scott,

Wordsworth, Shelley, Byron and _ Keats
registered their inflamed imaginations. Felix
Mendelssohn, after a visit to Staffa in 1829,
was inspired to prepare the opening bars to the
overture of The Hebrides, one of the
landmarks of Romantic music. J.M.W. Turer,
after a visit in 1831 provided a vignette for
Scott’s Poetical Works (1834) [figure 3] which
depicts the cave entrance from the right side
looking out. Not for the first, nor the last time,
we find an apparently realistic, but actually
contrived, view: the sea actually prevents
access to the right side, and the sun was made
to set conveniently in line with the cave better
to illustrate Scott’s verses.

They were greeted here with a sight
which well repaid their efforts: hanging from
the roof of the cave were white, ochre and
sometimes crimson stalactites, and facing
visitors were enormous rows of columns set up
like the pipes of a gargantuan organ. On the
right day (Banks spent 12 hours in Fingal’s
Cave in perfect conditions), just enough light
passed through to cast eerie shadows on the
waters and walls of the cavern and, if the
waves lapped powerfully enough against the
columns, the visitor was regaled with tones
emerging from the pipes that sounded like

music from another time, another world [figure
2).

Figure 2.
The Isle of Staffa [from MacCulloch 1819].

Banks, a veteran traveller inured, one
might have imagined, to the spectacular and
exotic in mature, was perfectly delighted.
*Compared to this,’ he heatedly wrote,
proposing a comparison that would be widely

reproduced, ’what are the cathedrals or palaces
built by men! Mere models or playthings,
imitations as diminutive as his works will
always be when compared to those of nature’

Figure 3.
Fingal’s Cave, Staffa, by J.M.W. Turner [from
Walter Scott’s Poetical Works, 1834].

PLUMBING THE DEPTHS 121

Caves and Romanticism

Other, more accessible, regions of Britain
became in the wake of Banks’ report of
Fingal’s cave great attractions to cave hunters,
and caves assumed gradually more significance
in works of natural history. By far the most
popular cave region in Britain was the Peak
District, rich in caverns. During geology’s
golden age, no tour of Britain - certainly no
geological tour - was complete without taking
in the so-called Seven Wonders of the Peak.
These included St. Anne’s Well, the Ebbing
and Flowing Well, Poole’s Hole, Elden Hole,
and Peak Cavern.

To the historian is posed the obvious
question, ‘why caves at this particular
moment?’. Partly, one quickly answers because
of the rise of geology as a newly-fashionable
science during the same period. In Britain from
around 1790 to 1840, scientific societies
opened their doors to geology as never before,
newspapers and magazines carried reviews and
reports on the earth sciences, and thousands of
good folk set off across the country to scan,
pick, dig, draw, survey and hammer the land.
Almost everyone - scientists, novelists, artists,
poets, and musicians, and of course thousands
of people of humble birth and with no
profession - seemed attuned and ready to
respond conspicuously to the revealed wonders
of the earth. These were the golden years of
geology and of interest in geology, the
Subject’s "Elizabethan period’, one might say.
And so, one could suppose that caves formed
part of a more general enthusiasm.

The argument above makes ready sense
but accepts (or perhaps, assumes) too eagerly
that caves are a geological phenomenon. Of
course they are this (or, more accurately, they
became during the period I am discussing a
geological phenomenon), but they are much
else besides. They are, as I shall show, cultural
artefacts with powerful political resonance.
Indeed, my impression is that for all that has
been written about the links between geology
and Romanticism, the Romantics were not
drawn to caves for any actual or proto-

geological experience and, when they entered
caves, they were uninterested in their
geological aspects. When Wordsworth went to
Fingal’s Cave he did not concern himself with
the geological features of the site, with what
he later called the ’luckless rock’ and
prominent stone’ (Clark and Hughes 1890, I,
p. 247). He, like other Romantics, was no
more interested in the geological structure of
the caves he visited than in the architectural
Structure of the homes he entered.

Nevertheless, two aspects of caves - or,
perhaps I should say, of the Romantics’
constructed caves - seemed particularly
apposite to the Romantics’ aesthetics, and are
worth considering. Caves were secluded. And
caves were sublime. For these reasons, one
might readily suppose, caves were fascinating
and irresistable to the Romantics.

Sublimity was not a term newly-minted
by the Romantics but indubitably one of their
trademarks. It is a difficult and dense term,
partly because it appears to bear a mixed
ontological status - it is a feature of nature, of
one’s emotions of nature, and of one’s
experience of those emotions. Moreover, the
sublime excites impressions that are at once
powerful and contradictory. Typically, sublime
scenes prompt love and loathing, fear and
desire in muddled, distorting combinations
which were often perceived to be beyond
words. And nowhere, it seems, were such
sensations produced more readily than in
caves. They excited dread and delight, together
or in turns, with the result that the emotional
tone played double. Alone in the cave, the
mind seemed to enjoy a State, as it were, of
splendid oscillation.

Let me now turn to the notion of
seclusion. To the Romantics, the inaccessibility
of caves meant that they maintained a highly
attractive metaphorical as well as_ actual
distance from the civilised world, from which
Romantics sought escape. One of the contexts
of the development of geology was the rise of
travel. To the Romantics travel was
Synonymous with education, and since they

122 MICHAEL SHORTLAND

liked both to be prodigious, the Romantics
ventured to far-flung, neglected regions. Caves
presented an ideal destination: they offered
partially and momentarily that dream of natural
peace - the running to ground, so to speak - so
treasured by Romantics. More particularly, the
Cave presented a site in which the realm of
private feeling, under erosion from the power
of industrialisation and city public business,
could be nurtured.

Is there anything surprising in the
Romantics’ attraction to caves for the reasons |
have just outlined? I think so. Something
Surprising, even startling, since the caves
which they celebrated were not present in
nature but in their construction of nature.
Consider the ’secluded cave’ for a moment.
Very few caves were or remained for long
secluded. Turner’s painting Staffa: Fingal’s
Cave, exhibited in 1832, indistinct though it is,
Clearly features the "Maid of Morven’, a
steamer newly-established to run large
numbers of tourists to Staffa. Such tourists
would no more be rewarded by ’nature in the
raw’ than a visitor to a tourist cave, such as at
Wombyean or Wellington today - walkways,
ladders, railings, lights, explosions, mounted
artefacts ensured that the supposedly solitary
experience of a cave was widely shared and
carefully mediated.

The cave visit was in truth a piece of
theatre, carefully choreographed to present the
illusion of nature, strong and sublime. Sublime
by illusion perhaps, but by no stretch of the
imagination solitary. Far from escaping people
by travelling to Peak Cavern, for example,
visitors would be sure to meet them, fellow
travellers as well as inhabitants. For Peak
Cavern played host to several families who
lived in the shelter [figure 4], acted as guides
(visits without a guide were not permitted),
and worked in the cave itself in the
manufacture of twine (Westall 1830, p. 46).
Even the inhospitable terrain of Staffa played
host to several herdsmen and their families.
Wordsworth after his second visit to Fingal’s
Cave wrote with frustration in his poem Cave
of Staffa of how in the ’motley crowd/ Not

One of us has felt the far-famed sight.’

Figure 4.
Twine-makers in Peak Cavern [from Westall
1830].

The Political Underground

People lived and people worked underground
in almost incredible numbers during this
period, but the Romantics did not register the
fact: the underground remained to them a
lonely home to the hermit and recluse. Why
might this be so? The answer is, I suggest, to
be found in the political realm. Throughout the
period of geology’s ’Golden Age’ the
underground was widely associated with
mining and miners. Coal was at this time
Britain’s passport to prosperity and production
climbed majestically, from 6 million tonnes in
1770 to nearly 30 million by 1830 (Bodey
1976, p. 45; Kligender 1968, p. 94). Miners
and mining were visible and _ endlessly
described and analysed in_ surveys,
commissions, reviews and government
inquiries. The public perception was that mines
were the site of, and miners the agents of,
mighty and threatening political power. During
the eighteenth century, the class-conscious
miners had taken the lead in many political
agitations, and over the next decades they
inspired reverence or disgust throughout the
country for their radicalism (Ashton and Sykes
1929, pp. 115-33). Price and wage riots, mobs,

PLUMBING THE DEPTHS 123

demonstrations, and labour disputes maintained
the threat of revolution, and the provocations
came nowhere more sharply than from the
miners, those class-conscious heroes of Marx
and Engels (Engels 1975, pp. 530-47; Foster
1974, pp. 101-2). In Emile Zola’s Germinal
(1885), perhaps the only nineteenth-century
novel about miners, they figure as amorphous
and cruel masses, ruled by their own physics,
being produced and consumed by the
subterranean mines. They are also, in a
marvellously potent image, a force of nature,
cracking the earth asunder’, eroding the
foundations of the social order (Zola 1978, p.
499).

Such is the backdrop against which, I
suggest, we need to perceive the Romantics’
own vision of the underground. As is well
known, the Romantics, in recoil from the
events in France and the perceived threat to
the fabric of British society adopted
reactionary political postures. They ‘turned
bourgeois’, to use an apt phrase of Mario Praz
(1969, pp. 37-123), and in so doing they
turned to the land - a site highly charged with
radical and destabilising connotations - with
the intention of recovering it for Britain and
Britishness. Pre-eminent in the landscape they
constructed was the cave. Far from embodying
connotations of revolution and change, the
cave (symbol of the below-ground) came to
Signal all that was immoveable and
unchanging, peaceful and quiet.

The poem Fears in Solitude (1798), by
Coleridge, epitomises the reaction. Coleridge,
who had at first preached fervently in favour
of liberty and revolution, now fell back upon
the defensive (Willey 1980, p. 24). Not for
him, the earth resounding to the tremors of
revolution and the sounds of picks and
Shovels: his poem offers praise only to the
stability of the English countryside, with its
still lakes, silent hills, and ’dark and lovely
hiding-places’. Nature has become for him, as
for other Romantics, an emblem of peace and
solitude, not only a site for anti-
industrialisation nostalgia, but also a refuge
from political engagement. Nature, indeed,

serves to undergird the concept of nationhood:
it subsumes cultural and class differences -
land and history are bound together through
conflated images of caverns, cathedrals and
ruins (see Janowitz 1990 and Goldstein 1972).
One can see here, I think, the ideological
power of Fingal’s Cave, and the often-repeated
image of the Cave as a cathedral, lofty,
funereal and sombre: Keats, Scott, the
geologist John MacCulloch, even Sir John
Peel, take up the image of the cave as
cathedral (MacCulloch 1934, pp. 143, 153;
MacCulloch 1819, 2, p. 16). (Interestingly, as
Julian Holland has pointed out [in a private
communication] similar imagery was already
well in place in NSW by 1830. Thomas
Mitchell in his description of Wellington
Caves refers to ’the great gallery named the
chapel where there is also the altar - steps,
font, &c - wholly the work of encrustation’
(Mitchell 1830, 20 June 1830)).

In The Prelude (XI, 141-4), Wordsworth
enjoins us to reject dreams of Revolution
which he explicitly allies to the underground,
and in an effort to win nature for culture
identifies the landscape of Britain with the
culture of Britishness. In an image which
stands as a mirror reversal of Zola’s portrayal
of the mine as a natural force for change, the
cave serves here as a symbol of a natural force
that is restorative and preserving. That key text
of reaction, Burke’s Reflections on the French
Revolution (1790), embodies . just such a
symbolic load. Burke quotes from The Aeneid
the tale of how the winds. of destruction were
finally secured, by the edict of Neptune, in a
vast cavern. In this political topography the
cave stands solidly for what can entrap fierce
forces, for . something reparative and
unyielding. A poem such as Keat’s Endymion
(1818), takes up the image and connotes with
the cave and mine variously repose, solitude
and sleep, while, against a background of
troubles, Keats’ so-called "Cave of Quietude’
offers the soul lull and contentment (see IV,
651: IV, 860, 372-84; also Shelley’s

Epipsychidion (1821), 194).

124 MICHAEL SHORTLAND

Purity and Danger: William Buckland and
Caves

It-is time to return to the connection, of
Romanticism and geology. Were geologists
associated in fact or in the imagination with
images of the earth and below-ground which

we may link with the Romantics or rather with
more radical sources? I believe that the culture
of geology was formed within the wider
culture of mining and attitudes to mining, that
is, not within the context of Romanticism.
Moreover, I believe that once this is
appreciated, the deeply political and class-
based nature of Golden Age geology may be
properly appreciated. Clearly, in a paper of this
length, it is not possible to do more than hint
and how my arguments on these points would
be formulated. But I think that a start can be
made by considering William Buckland, a
pioneer bone-caver and key figure in the
development of English geology. I shall
proceed now by examining two caricatures
concerned with Buckland and his status as a
geologist. My _ reinterpretation of these
Caricatures reinforces and enhances my
comments about geology’s debt to the culture
of mining.

Figure 5.
The Hyaena’s Den at Kirkdale, by William
Conybeare [from Gordon 1894].

The first is William Conybeare’s The
Hyaena’s Den at Kirkdale (1822) [figure 5].
The eminent historian of geology, Martin
Rudwick, interprets this as suggesting that the
geologist has become a participant in the scene
he has reconstructed and that the entrance to
the cave is a kind of epistemic barrier
separating observable present from prehuman
past (1989, pp. 244-5). I suggest something
different, that what Buckland bears in his hand
is not the candle of geological enlightenment
(which would, after all, provide a
disappointingly feeble illumination), but
instead the torch that harks back to our
primitive ancestors. The cave conjurs up the
era of Neanderthal man, a habitual troglodyte
who shifting from one cave domicile to the

next - with trepidation, or, as the caricature has
it, hair-raising fear - used the scourge of fire to
clear his abode of potential foes. The
Caricature is certainly about the power which
geologists possessed to break down the barrier
of time, to evoke histories from fossil remains.
But it is also a depiction of the willingness of
cave geologists themselves to travel in place
and time, to forsake their cultivated
accoutrements in order coarsely to crawl and
scrape and fight against the elements.

This coarseness is a central feature of the
next image of Buckland, by Henry De la
Beche [figure 6] which, I propose, plays once

Figure 6.
William Buckland’s Coprolitic Vision, by
Henry De la Beche [from McCartney 1977].

PLUMBING THE DEPTHS 125

again on the contrast between the appearance
of Professor Buckland, dressed in academic
gown, weighed down with honours and titles,
and his activities as a caveman, activities
which exacerbated his reputation for vulgarity.
Readers of Buckland’s study of the organic
remains of caves in Britain, Reliquiae
Diluvianae (1823), would have been aware of
the contrast. At first impression, Buckland
seems a man possessed of more than an
ordinary sense of his own distinction and self-
worth. The book’s titlepage present ’The Rev.
William Buckland, B.D. F.R.S. F.L.S.’ and
then ranked below, the authority of the writer:

Member of the Geological Society
of London; of the Imperial
Societies of Mineralogy and
Natural History at Petersburg and
Moscow; and of the Natural
History Society at Halle; Honorary
Member of the American
Geological Society; Correspondent
of the Museum of Natural History
of France; Fellow of C.C.C. and
Professor of Mineralogy and
Geology in the University of
Oxford.

Doubtless, Buckland’s self-esteem had been
raised by the recent award to him of the Royal
Society’s Copley Medal for his preliminary
account of the Kirkdale cave. But, even by the
status-conscious standards of the day,
Buckland’s presentation of his academic
honours must have seemed excessive and open
to parody - even Charles Lyell announced his
magisterial Principles of Geology (1830-3)
with ’Charles Lyell, Esq., F.R.S.’ and then in
one line of small type, For. Sec. to the Geol.
Soc., Prof. of Geol. to King’s Coll., London’.

Buckland’s efforts to put his best
academic and gentlemanly foot forward find
expression in his book’s crucial and governing
distinction between the workmen’ and _ the
*gentlemen’ - two classes. The former are
amateur geologists, ramblers and miners: they
look but do not see, they blunder into caves
without sense of their worth, and quite often

destroy precious testimony. John Dunmore
Lang, in his 1830 report on the bone caves of
Wellington Valley, called them _’scientific
barbarians’ (1831, p. 365). Their only real
value is aS scout or strongman, and are best
deployed removing rubble, nettles, and debris.
The gentlemen, by contrast, are observers; it is
they who collect, catalogue, store and describe.
The question then arises, what or who is the
Rev. William Buckland?’ The cartoon poses
just that question. And it provides an answer
which draws us, as perhaps only cartoons are

able, to the unstated assumptions of the culture
of geology.

Figure 7.
Gentlemen and Workingmen Geologists below
Ground [from Buckland 1824].

If we examine the contents. of
Buckland’s book with care, we can discover
that having passed into the caves he explores,
he breaks more than what Rudwick refers to as
an ‘epistemic barrier’. He foresakes the ’look
and manner’ which made him in Oxford, ’a
thorough English gentleman’ and takes up with
the workmen (Gordon 1894, p. 36). De la
Beche’s cartoon has Buckland in - and yet not
in - the cavern, with the garb of the gentleman,
but before him the task of the miner-geologist.
Doubtless, there were cave explorers who went
about their business in top hat and coat, but as
figure 7 shows, such gentlemen-explorers did
not get far. Thomas Sopwith makes clear in
his 1833 account of cave and _ mine

126 | MICHAEL SHORTLAND

explorations in north England that gentlemen
had to get ‘dressed in the working habiliments
of the miners’, even if this presented to them a
"grotesque and novel appearance’ (1833, pp.
69, 135). One may perhaps conjecture that in
entering the cave, Buckland (and perhaps
others like him) were entering not the
Romantics’ world of rest and recuperation but
the world of miners and mining.

I do not think that I am here yanking
together geology and politics in an unseemly
way. Recent research has shown that in a rich
variety of ways, the fundamental activities of
surveying and mapping encode and display
relations of power (Driver and Rose 1992;
Stafford 1984; Matless 1988). Studies of
nineteenth-century geology have explored its
links with politics in satisfying detail, with
Morrell (1971) revealing the importance of
territoriality and Secord showing that ’for a
society increasingly conscious of class and an
elite troubled by dissent from the "lower"
orders’ the appeal of stratigraphy, a science
that spoke of position and place, was
unmistakable (1986, pp. 33-4). That geology
not only offered a vehicle for political uplift
but that strata, rocks, fossils and the manifold
activities of fieldwork were expressions or
embodiments of politics - such notions were
almost commonplace and exhibited in the fluid
interchange of political and geological idiom in
geological discourse. Geology seemed to have
served as an efficacious source of political
discourse, imagery and ideology.

Again, I ask ’who or what was
Buckland?’. Gentleman he proclaimed himself
at the start of his book, but Buckland’s
approach to work in the cave was anything but
gentlemanly. He was happy to get dirty,
delighted to crawl about on his hands and
knees, and never keener than when describing
the ’very rugged’ appearance of the mines and
caverns (1824, p. 8). It has been suggested
recently that Buckland launched modern cave
research by developing a new method of
excavation which ’stressed finesse, not force’,
but I find very contrary evidence in the
historical record (Williams 1990, p. 32).

According to at least one contemporary critic,
Buckland was an_ insensitive, blundering,
somewhat ham-fisted excavator who on
occasion destroyed valuable relics (Boylan
1967, p. 244). Besides any personal aptitude,
Buckland’s fieldwork was undertaken at speed:
the bone cave at Kirkdale occupied him, it
seems, for no more than a couple of weeks in
December 1821, while a week-long visit in the
following July with Sir Humphry Davy took in
Kirkdale Cave, Ryedale Windypit, and several
other fissures and caves - a tornado-like sweep
which startled even Lyell (Lyell 1881, I, p.
155). Buckland was able to produce results in
part because, as we shall see, he kept alive a
network of informants and so-called ’workers’.

There is, of course, more to De la
Beche’s caricature. It presents us with the
aperture of the cave, cracked and broken,
which opens onto a scene in which animals are
defecating with wild abandon. Behind them are
two evidently coprolitic columns, and around
(even beneath) Buckland lie recent faecal
deposits. Why the symbols of dirt? They draw
attention to an important ingredient - I mean
that literally - in Buckland’s geological work
and suggest, I believe, some important general
aspects of contemporary geology.

Buckland’s account of his travails in
Kirkdale cave is typical of his work
underground. Everywhere around he sees dirt:
around him and above him, thick casing of
stalactites and crusts, stalagmitic accumulations
which resemble ’cow’s pap’ (1824, p. 11),
decomposing bones and animal remains, and at
his feet, deep blanket of sediment and mud. He
conjectures that he is in a den of carnivores
occupied in earlier times by such as the hyena,
tiger, bear and wolf. This conjecture and its
development, indeed, form the core of his
study, and its proof, ’conclusive evidence’, as
Buckland has it, is provided by remains of the
animals’ excrement. Buckland stands on
several inches of what he calls, falling into
geojargon, ’an argillaceous and _ slightly
micaceous loam’ (1824, pp. 20, 10). The term
’argillaceous’ suggests clay, but also,

PLUMBING THE DEPTHS 127

regrettably, something less odorous and more
basic. The term was, in fact, a synonym used
amongst geologists for faeces, sometimes in
distinctly peculiar ways. Here is the Rev.
Adam Sedgwick writing to Sir John Herschel
in 1844 about Herschel’s taking up the
President’s chair at the forthcoming meeting of
the British Association (Clark and Hughes
1850.11, p. 72):

"Don’t think the chair of State
unworthy of you because I once sat
on it. The Young Society was then
only crawling on all fours, and
naturally clung to the earth. And, if
an argillaceous impress was left by
me on the bottom of the seat,
surely twelve years must have
dried it, and left time for roses and
other sweet-smelling things to
grow out of it. So you will have a
throne of blossoms sending the
sweetest odours to the sky.’

Crawling on all fours... bottom of the seat...
sweet-smelling things... this is the language of
early Victorian euphemism, and perhaps too,
the language of men that will be boys.
Somehow or other, talking about dirt, making
fun of the excrementory functions, revelling in
urinary and faecal puns - this would seem to
call for the services of the psychoanalyst as
much as the historian. Certainly, Buckland’s
devotion to excrement, his luxuriation in
faeces, brown, black, white or yellow, is at
once striking, and this manifestly forms the
theme of De la Beche’s sketch, its humour
deriving from the absurdity of a man of such
elevated stature being brought to his knees to
pick and lift, hold and cherish, describe and
even taste, then collect and hoard samples of
the faecal and bone remains of primitive
carnivores.

At an early stage in his romance with
coprolites, Buckland had dispatched samples to
William Wollaston for chemical analysis.
Wollaston was able to confirm that the album
graecum derived from hyenas. Overjoyed,
Buckland expostulated irrepressibly on the

dung at a Geological Society dinner in the
company of Oxford and Cambridge Professors
and other assembled gentlemen, ’with such a
Strange mixture of the humorous and _ the
serious,’ Lyell recounted, ’that we could none
of us discern how far he believed himself what
he said’ (Lyell 1881, I, p. 145). Wollaston
cautioned Buckland a few months later that,

though such matters may be
instructive and therefore to a
certain degree interesting, it may
be as well for you and me not to
have the reputation of too
frequently and too minutely
examining faecal products.

But far from declining, despite some
contemporary jibes about his relish’ for
*feculent matter’ (Kirkdaliensis 1822, p. 492),
Buckland’s interest in what he called
"excrementitious substances’ developed
through the 1820s - he was delighted to
publish a report from India on the hyena’s
habit of piling faeces up in what his
correspondent called ’a spot sacred to the
goddess of filth’ - and led in 1829 to the
presentation of a survey paper on coprolites
(Buckland 1827, p. 379; Buckland 1835;
Phillips 1857, p. 266). By this time, as
Buckland reported, coprolite collections were
being formed and geologists of the eminence
of Sir Charles Lyell and Sir Roderick Impey
Murchison were using them in their work. To
Buckland, coprolites offered in their grainy
rotundities a kind of microcosm of history,
witness to the progress of life on earth, and
evidence of ’the general law of Nature which
binds all to eat and be eaten in turn’ (Buckland
1835, p. 235). ’What rules the world?’,
Buckland made a habit of asking his classes at
Oxford, “The stomach, sir’, came his own
answer (Gordon 1894, p. 31). Nicolaas
Rupke’s comment is apt: ‘The study of
coprolites,’ he writes, ’turned into something
of a craze’ (1983, p. 142).

128 MICHAEL SHORTLAND

Crazy or not, Buckland’s enthusiasm for
caves or their buried treasures had little in
common with the manipulated delights
conjured by the Romantics. His own language
is blunt and coarse and his idiom hewn from
the rock. Mining and manual labour form his
world; figure 8, based on a sketch by
Buckland, is a scene of primitive mining
technology at work - picks and shovels, shaft
and plumbline. So I propose that one of the
reasons - possibly the main reason - for
targetting Buckland with such a number of
Caricatures and verse parodies and skits was
that he had, as_ gentleman _ geologist,
transgressed the boundary into baser practices
associated with working-class geology, indeed,
with mining (see on this Fitton 1823, p. 207).
In this context, an anecdote from Buckland’s
early ventures in the field conveys something
of what appeared to be distinctly odd about
gentlemen in pursuit of geology. During a tour
of Ireland in 1813, Buckland and Conybeare
sought refuge in a lone hut as night fell. They
arrived tired, hungry and covered in mud and
dirt, deposited their fossil bags on the floor,
and (as Buckland’s daughter has it) "demanded
refreshments’ of the elderly woman in
residence (Gordon 1894, pp. 13-4).

The old woman, much puzzled to
make out their real character, set
about her hospitable preparations.
By the time they were complete,
she had made up her mind. Placing
the eggs and bacon on the table,
She exclaimed: ’Well, I never!
fancy two real gentlemen picking
up stones! What won’t men do for
money?’

Other testimony recalls the kind of atmosphere

in which cave research - devoted and
committed cave research, rather than day-
tripping - was prosecuted. Here’s Lyell’s

account of the labours of the veteran
speleologist P.C. Schmerling; Lyell is looking
back in awe from the 1860s to work of the
1820s (Lyell 1863, pp. 68-9):

Figure 8.
Mining and Caving [from Buckland 1824].

Schmerling was [let down], day
after day, by a rope tied to a tree,
So as to Slide to the foot of the first
opening of the Engis cave... and,
after thus gaining access to the first
Subterranean gallery, to creep on
all fours through a _ contracted
passage leading to larger chambers,
there to superintend by torchlight,
week after week and year after
year, the workmen who were
breaking through the stalagmitic
crust as hard as marble, in order to
remove piece ‘by...piecem) the
underlying bone-breccia nearly as
hard; to stand for hours with one’s
feet in the mud, and with water
dripping from the roof on one’s
head, in order to mark the position
and guard against the loss of each
single bone of a skeleton... [W]e
need scarcely wonder... that a
passing traveller failed to stop[.]

Such testimony points to cavework, and more
generally geology, as workingman’s work.
And Buckland was more than able to equip
himself for the job: he could boast, like other

PLUMBING THE DEPTHS 129

rough-cast mine and cave researchers like
William Whewell and Hugh Miller, enormous,
even legendary, reserves of brute strength and
energy.

Working-Men’s Geology

In conclusion, I do believe that we have been
seduced away from the real roots of modern
geology by the poetic effusions of a few
gentlemen geologists by a few over-interpreted
hints of geology’s debts to Romanticism.
These gentlemen-geologists were important
and well-connected figures no doubt, and
rightfully occupy centre stage in histories of
geological power and patronage. But off-stage,
Or perhaps in a different theatre altogether,
other geologists were making discoveries and
undertaking research which although creditable
received little public credit. (Since I have been
speaking about Buckland, I should perhaps
mention how very little credit he gives - and
how much discredit - to those ’workmen’ [and
women] who in fact acted as guides, retrieved
Specimens, and responded to what were often
long lists of technical questions dispatched
from Buckland’s base at Oxford).

In some cases, no doubt, existing
relations of doff-the-cap deference ensured that
the abuse of such workmen proceeded without
much protest. But not always. It is, indeed, the
very visible protests of such men as Robert
Dick, James Parkinson, Robert Bakewell,
Gideon Mantell and Hugh Miller that have
alerted me to the existence of another
proletarian, masculine culture of geology.
Working-men geologists were often richly
colourful in their descriptions of those
geologists content to work from carriages, to
employ others to do their graft, or who made
flying field excursions. They were often
contemptuous (and sometimes, it is true,
envious) of metropolitan science, with its
clubbishness and coteries and were proud to be
associated with earthlore and the robust
etiquette of fieldwork and mining. For them -
indeed, even for several metropolitan
geologists - the discipline of geology was
undertaken by men, for men, and was about

the activities of men. It called on men to
become engaged in a kind of warfare: Charles
Kingsley, writing in 1855, in what appears to
us now as a remarkable chant of praise to
those men who would renounce effeminacy
and the reading of seductive French novels,
claims that geology is a science suited
especially to former soldiers (he clearly has in
mind Murchison and, perhaps, also De la
Beche), since it relies on just the kind of
attitudes fostered in the army (Kingsley 1890,
pp. 40-51).

Camaraderie, camping in the field,
mounting campaigns and strategies - all of this
was of the essence of early nineteenth-century
geology and war craft. So too were the now
well-charted controversies which pitched
Neptunists against Vulcanists, Uniformitarians
against Catastrophists, and other geologists
against one another in acidulous disputes.
Martin Rudwick’s (1985) comparison of the
factions in the ’Great Devonian Controversy’
to armies in battle is apposite and significant.

Geologists were men who got dirty, who
courted danger, who prided themselves on their
endurance in the field. They were strong, they
were rough, they were celebrated - and often
feared - as wild men. Geologists, writes
Hershel in a letter to Sedgwick with a mixture
of awe and trepidation, are “hard-working,
tough-fisted brawny fellows... who live on
three feeds of flints a day’ (Clark and Hughes
1850, Il, p. 73). There was something
regressive and primitive in such rough, touch
fieldworkers, Victorians grubbing around on
hands and knees collecting dirt, digging
amongst bones and decaying animal flesh. And
probably their threat resided in part in their
unconventional political and religious views.
Such were Buckland’s and other gentleman-
geologists’ workmen. They have received very
scant treatment in our histories of geology.

In this paper I have attempted not only
to explore the dynamics of cavelove and
cavelore during a formative period in modern
geology, but also to show how caves, no less

130 MICHAEL SHORTLAND

than other features of the landscape, were
manufactured in ideology as much as they
were constructed in nature. The power of
subterranean political imagery and associations
has been examined and I hope that this has not
only revealed a mew context for the
development of the earth sciences but will also
prompt further lines of research, for example,
into other geological cultures, into the
influence of mining and mines on_ the
development of geology, and even into the
gendered and scatalogical idiom of Golden
Age geology. There have recently appeared, or
are projected to appear, biographical studies of
Mary Anning, Robert Chambers, Hugh Miller
and Gideon Mantell. Perhaps these will help to
reconfigure early modern geology. I feel sure
that an understanding of caves, cavelove and
cavelore will also contribute to that job.

Acknowledgements

This paper was first presented (in a somewhat
modified form) at the first Annual Earth
Sciences History Group Symposium
(Geological Society of Australia), held at
Wombyean Caves, New South Wales, 23-25
October 1992. I take this opportunity to thank
all the participants at the meeting for their
Spirited response to my talk. Particular thanks
are due to fellow historians of geology Julian
Holland, David Oldroyd and Nicolaas Rupke.

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MICHAEL SHORTLAND
Unit for the History and Philosophy of Science,
University of Sydney, Sydney NSW 2006.

(Manuscript received 3-11-1992)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol si25, pp.135-136,1992 133

ISSN 0035-9173/92/020133-4 $4.00/1

Richard Owen and the Victorian Museum Movement

NICOLAAS RUPKE

Abstract: The threads of functionalism and transcendentalism in Richard Owen’s
work were not intertwined as suggested by most historians, but were kept
essentially separate by Owen. The dual nature of his work was the result of his
ambition to establish a separate, national museum of natural history , requiring
Oxbridge patronage, while at the same time co-operating with working scientists,
from Edinburgh-Continental backgrounds, at new metropolitan institutions.

A major challenge of Owen scholarship has been
to make sense of and unravel the intertwined
threads of two intellectual traditions in Owen's
work, namely functionalism and
transcendentalism. In the Darwinian Revolution,
Michael Ruse repeated Owen's self--assessment
(Figure 1) in stating that 'Owen produced a
synthesis between the ideas of two great French
biologists, George Cuvier and Etienne Geoffroy
St Hilaire [Geoffroy's ideas being similar to
Lorenz Oken's]' (Ruse, 1979). Dov Ospovat, in
his Development of Darwin's Theory, does not go
this far, but describes Owen as a judicious eclectic
who selected the best from both Cuvier and
Geoffroy and who demonstrated that
functionalism and transcendentalism are not
mutually exclusive (Ospovat, 1981) Others have
expressed a similar view, in particular Phil Sloan
who in a fine study of Owen's first course of
Hunterian Lectures shows how the different
Continental schools of thought entered the College
of Surgeons and became part of Owen's work.
Sloan argues that Owen does not predictably
follow the precepts of any one intellectual
tradition, but creatively interweaves both German
and French lines of research (Sloan, 1991)
Underlying these assessments is the assumption
that Owen's position was intellectually cohesive
and can be satisfactorily explained within the
context of the scientific discourse of the period.
By contrast, Adrian Desmond, in his Politics of
Evolution, reduces Owen's stance to a socio-
political purpose, arguing that the adoption of
transcendental morphology was part of a strategy
to defend the College of Surgeons against the
threat of radical reform (Desmond, 1989).

These interpretations of Owen's work are
enlightening of some of its aspects, but none gives

the requisite prominence to the enduring
epistemological duality of his oeuvre. The reality
behind the facade of Owen's self-presentation
showed no synthesis, but two largely segregated
bodies of work, one functionalist, the other
transcendentalist. Moreover, whenever the two
approaches came together, 'form' was used as the
primary context of explanation, and ‘function’
merely as an incidental one. To demonstrate the
inadequacy of the teleological method, Owen
habitually cited the development of the skull. In
the human foetus, the skull, by the time of birth,
consists of some twenty-eight separate pieces
which ultimately unite into an unyielding whole
along a series of rigid sutures. The functional
purpose of the loose, dissembled nature of the
foetal skull is that it facilitates childbirth by
allowing for a change of shape of the head. This
function, however, only applies in the case of
placental mammals; in various other vertebrates
no supple and adjustable cranium is required by
the process of childbirth, and yet their crania, too,
are composed of uncoalesced skull bones at the
time of birth, i.e., in the tiny, ‘prematurely’ born
kangaroo, and in the chick when it breaks through
its egg shell. To explain this, a more
comprehensive view than the functional one had to
be taken, namely that of the vertebrate theory of
the skull in which the skull is seen as a composite
of several vertebrae, just as the sacrum.

In a forthcoming scientific biography of Owen, I
argue that a satisfactory, overarching explanation
of the dual nature of Owen's work can be found in
the context of his institutional ambitions and in
particular in the agenda of his museum politics
(Rupke, in press). In onder properly to
understand Owen, we will have to look at him in
the context of his own career objectives. More

134 NICOLAAS RUPKE

than most of his colleagues, Owen was a museum
man. Nearly all of England's great museums, of
art as well as of natural history, were built during
Owen's life-time. Museums of natural history,
not university departments, were at this time the
principal centres for the cultivation of the earth
and life sciences. During the first half of his
career, Owen was employed as curator at the
Hunterian Museum (Figure 2); the second half of
his career he worked as superintendent of the
natural history departments at the British
Museum. At the time, the British Museum housed
the library, Near Eastern antiquities, the art
gallery, and the natural history collections - al! in
one. Owen's ultimate career objective was to
establish a separate, national collection of natural
history, worthy of ‘the greatest colonial power on
earth’. He summarised his museum ideals in a
long essay On the Extent and Aims of a National
Museum of Natural History. He finally succeeded
when in 1881, after decades of frustration,
London's Natural History Museum in South
Kensington opened its doors.

The people whose support was essential towards
the realisation of Owen's museum plans were the
museum trustees, both of the Hunterian and of the
British Museum. The two boards of trustees were
similarly constituted, and heavily dominated by
Oxford- and Cambridge-educated members of the
Established Church. It was the patronage of these
men on which Owen's institutional plans
depended. Owen's scientific research was
inseparable from his museum plans and must be
looked at in the light of the constraints explicitly
or implicitly imposed by his Oxbridge patrons.
They expected of him that he do their scientific
bidding and develop the functionalist epistemology
of natural theology. His paymasters advanced
Owen's cause in the expectation that he validate
the design argument in his studies of vertebrate
morphology. To oblige the patrons of his
museum plans meant, purely and simply,
scientifically to develop the Paleyan design
argument. Examples of such Oxbridge-inspired,
functionalist work range from Owen's Memoir on
the Pearly Nautilus to his Memoir on the
Megatherium, and include his sensational
reconstruction of the New Zealand dinornis.

Although Owen's cause was advanced by a circle
of Oxbridge friends, his own social background
and his own ultimate purposes were different
from those of his patrons. Owen was part of a
circle of metropolitan bio-medical scientists who
did not belong to the Oxbridge ruling elite, but

had been educated in Edinburgh or also on the
Continent. From there they brought with them a
different epistemology, namely the Idealism of
Romantic Naturphilosophie, in which not
functional adaptation but the transcendental logic
of form was the prime criterion by which reality -
especially organic reality - was explained. These
men were the working scientists at a number of
new, metropolitan institutions, such as the Royal
Institution, the Hunterian Museum, the British
Museum, the University of London, and also the
Museum of Practical Geology. Continental
transcendentalism provided Owen and his London
colleagues with a suitable philosophical
framework for a metropolitan, as opposed to
Oxbridge, intellectual culture. To adopt a
German epistemology symbolised an independence
from Oxbridge. _It was. as pari of this
metropolitan circle of colleagues that Owen

‘ perfected the transcendentalist approach, most

famously in his On the Archetype and Homologies
of the Vertebrate Skeleton. Thus I argue that it
was the duality of the socio-political conditions
under which Owen laboured that explains the two-
track nature of his scientific work.

REFERENCES

Desmond, Adrian, 1989. The politics of evolution,
morphology, medicine, and reform in radical
London. Chicago and London.

Ospovat, Dov, 1981. The development of Darwin's
theory, Natural History, Natural Theology and
Natural Selection, 1838-1859. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

Rupke, Nicolaas, in press. Richard Owen (1804-
1892). New Haven and London: Yale University
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Ruse, Michael, 1979. The Darwinian revolution,
Science red in tooth and claw. Chicago and
London: University of Chicago Press, p. 116.

Sloan, Phillip R., 1991. Richard Owen’s Hunterian
Lectures 2 May - 4 June, 1837. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press; London: Natural
History Museum. pp. 37-51.

NICOLAAS A. RUPKE
History of Ideas Program
Institute of Advanced Studies
Australian National University
Canberra, A.C.T. 2601

OWEN AND THE MUSEUM MOVEMENT

SY
~~ x SS

AMANO \

Figure 1. Richard Owen, flanked by George
Cuvier and Lorenz Oken, symbolising Owen's
claims to have produced a synthesis between
functionalism and transcendentalism in vertebrate
morphology. From: Richard Owen, The
Principal Forms of the Skeleton and the Teeth
(London, 1856), unnumbered figure on first page
of text.

135

136

NICOLAAS RUPKE

Figure 2. The exhibition hall of the Hunterian
Museum, showing the museum context in which
Owen carried out his scientific work. From:

London Interiors (London, 1841-44), opposite p.
129.

( Manuscript received 3-11-1992)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society “ot New South Wales, Voll125,. pp.137-138, 1992

ISSN 0035-9173/020137-2 $4.00/1

137

INDEX TO Volume 125

Abstract of Proceedings, 1991 - 92 25
Mbpstract of Thesis,
Coenraads, Robert R. 19

Address by His Excellency,
Governor of New South Wales -
Annual Dinner 1992 36

Annual Dinner, March 1992 25.550
Australian Science, Richard OWEN,

Thomas MITCHELL and

(A commemorative Symposium) 93
Australian Red Earth and Bones Lt
Awards

Citations SL
BECK,R.We.e MIDDLEMOST,E.A.K., DULHUNTY, J.A.

and.Some Mesozo ic Igneous Rocks from North-

eastern New South Wales and their Tectonic

Setting. 1
Biographical Memoirs 34
Biotas, Island 51

BRANAGAN, David
Richard Owen, THOMAS MITCHELL and
Australian Science. A Commemorative Symposium 26

BROWN, J.K.,
Health Hazard associated with Extremely Low-
Frequency Electromagnetic Fields from Power

Lines and Home Appliances JES
CLARK, G.M., COOK MEDAL 1991 Si
CLARKE MEDAL 1991 31
CLARKE MEMORIAL LECTURE 1991 oy
Contents Vol. 125, Parts 1 and 2, 3 and 4 141
COOK MEDAL 1991 Sil
Bouncil, Annual Report 1991 - 92 23
DAVIES, Susie M., R.ARMSTRONG L. OSBORNE.

WILLIS, Paul M.A.; Important vertebrate

fossils from the Palaentological collections

of the Department of Geology and Geophysics,

University of Sydney 1S

DULHUNTY, J.A. and BECK, R.W.. MIDDLEMOST,E.A.K.,
Some Mesozo ic Igneous Rocks from Northeastern
New South Wales and their Tectonic Setting

EDGEWORTH DAVID MEDAL 1991 3
ERRATA: Vol. 124, p.85 2
Wols 125< p.37, pp 41-49 ]

Extremes. Interpretation of 7
Financial Statement 27
FREE, Ross, The Hon., Minister for

Science and Technology oy
GEOLOGY

Mesozo ic Igneous Rocks and Tectonics

Sapphire and Diamond Deposits, New South Wales 19

A Commemorative Symposium 93

HARPER, A.F.A., Obituary
HARVEY, M.S., Edgeworth David Medal 1991 32

Health Hazards associated with Extremely Low-
Frequency Electromagnetic Fields from Power
Lines and Home Appliances 13

HOLLAND, Julian, Thomas MITCHELL and the
Origin of Australian Vertebrate Palaentology 103

INDEX US?
JEFFREY, S.W. CLARKE MEDAL 1991 ou
MEMBERSHIP LIST 41

Mesozo ic Igneous Rocks from Northeastern
New South Wales and their Tectonic Setting i

MIDDLEMOST, E.A.K., DULHUNTY, J.A. and BECK,R.W.
Some Mesozo ic Igneous Rocks from Northeastern
New South Wales and their Tectonic Setting 1

MITCHELL and Australian Science, Richard OWEN,
Thomas .( A Commemorative Symposium) =

MITCHELL and the Origin of Australian

Vertebrate Palaentology. Thomas LOS
NEW ENGLAND Branch Report 20
NEW SOUTH WALES

Northeastern New South Wales 1

Sapphire and Diamond Deposits of

New England 19
ORDOVICIAN SI
OSBORNE, R.A.L.. Australian Red Earth and Bones jig ig
OWEN In the Antipodean Contest, Richard 95

OSBORNE, R. Armstrong L.. WILLIS, Paul M.A.,
DAVIES, Susie M. Important vertebrate fossils
from the palaentological collections of the
Department of Geology and Geophysics, University

of Sydney ETS

OWEN, THOMAS MITCHELL and Australian Science.

Richard (A Commemorative Symposium) 93
OWEN and Ancient Australia, Julian Tenison

Woods, Richard 107
OWEN and the Victorian Museum Movement.

Richard ee)
Palaeontological Collections of important

vertebrate fossi ls P15
Paleontology, Thomas Mitchell and the Origin

of Australian Vertebrate 105
Physics

Health Hazards and Electromagnetic Fields 13
PLAYER, Ann, Julian Tenison Woods,

Richard Owen and Ancient Australia 107
POTTER, E.C.: On being interested imnetne

Extreme

(Presidential Address 1992) 79
Presidential Address, 1992 79
RUPKE, Nicolaas, Richard Owen and

the Victorian Museum Movement 15S

138 INDEX TO VOLUME 125

SINCLAIR, Peter, A.O., His Excellency

Governor of New South Wales 36
SHORTLAND, Michael, Plumbing the Depths:

on caves and the men of Geology ES
Society Medal 1991 33

Summer School "Communications" 1992
OPENING ADDRESS The Hon. Ross Free,

Minister for Science and Technology 57
SYMPOSIUM, Richard Owen, Thomas Mitchell
and Australian Science 3

Victorian Museum Movement.
Richard Owen and 133

WEBBY, B.D.: Ordovician island biotas:
New South Wales record and global
implications Syl

WILLIS, Paul M.A., DAVIES, Susie M..,
OSBORNE, R. Armstrong L., Important Ver-
tebrate fossi ls from the palaeontological
collections of the Department of Geology and
Geophysics, University of Sydney 113

WINCH, D.E. Society Medal 1991 33

WOODS, Richard Owen and Ancient Australia,
Julian Tenison 107

JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS

OFTHE

ROYAL SOCIETY
OF NEW SOUTH WALES

Volume 125 PARTS 1-4

Nos 36 3- 366

1992

ISSN 0035-9173

PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY
P.O. BOX 1525, MACQUARIE CENTRE, NSW 2113

ISSUED: Parts 1 and 2° June 1992
Parts 3 and 4 December 1992

ben!

”

Royal Society of New South Wales

OFFICERS FOR 1992 -—1993

Patron

HIS EXCELLENCY REAR-ADMIRAL PETER SINCLAIR
A.O., GOVERNOR OF NEW SOUTH WALES

President
F .L.SUTHER LAND

Vice-Presidents

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New England Representative: S.C.HAYDON

Contents
VOLUME 125 Parts 1 and 2

MIDDLEMOST ,E.A.K.,DULHUNTY,J.A., and BECK, RW.
Some Mesozoic Igneous Rocks from Northeastern New South
Wales and their Tectonic Setting.

BROWN,J.K.:
Health Hazards associated with Extremely Low Frequency
Electro-magnetic Fields from Power Lines and Home Appliances.

ABSTRACT OF THESIS:
COENRAADS, Robert R.: Alluvial Sapphire and Diamond Deposits
of the New England Gem Fields, New South Wales, Australia,

ERRATUM:
Vol.124, p 85

ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL 1991-1992:
Report
Abstract of Proceedings
Financial Statements
Awards
Biographical Memoirs

ADDRESS by HIS EXCELLENCY REAR-ADMIRAL PETER SINCLAIR, A.O., GOVERNOR
OF NEW SOUTH WALES at ANNUAL DINNER 1992

SUMMER SCHOOL ''COMMUNICATION'" January 1992, Opening Address by The
HONOURABLE ROSS FREE, Minister for Science and Technology

MEMBERSHIP LIST

Paris 3 and 4

WEBBY, B.D. %
Ordovician Island Biotas: New South Wales Record and Global
Implications. (Clarke Memorial Lecture 1991)

POTTER,E.C.:
On being interested in the Extreme, (Presidential Address 1992)

ERRATA:
Vol; 125; Parts lvand<2

BRANAGAN, David:
Richard Owen, Thomas Mitchell and Australian Science,

A Commemorative Symposium,

BRANAGAN, David:
Richard Owen in the Antipodean Context (A Review).

HOLLAND, Julian:
Thomas Mitchell and the Origins of Australian Vertebrate

Palaeontology.
PLAYER, Ann:
Julian Tenison Woods, Richard Owen and Ancient Australia,

OSBORNE,R.A.L.:
Australian Red Earth and Bones.

WILLIS,Paul M.A., DAVIES,Susie M, and R,Armstrong L.OSBORNE:
Important vertebrate Fossils from the Palaeontological Col-
lections of the Department of Geology and Geophysics,
University of Sydney.

SHORTLAND ,Michael:
Plumbing the Depths: on Caves and the Men of Geology.

RUPKE, Nicolaas:
Richard Owen and the Victorian Museum Movement.

INDEX to Volume 125

13

51

79

92

93

95

113

119

133
Low

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Contents

Volume 125, Parts 3 and 4

WEBBY,B.D.
Ordovician Island Biotas: New South Wales Record and
Global Implications, (Clarke Memorial Lecture 1991)

POTTER,E.C.
On being interested in the Extreme. (Presidential
Address 1992)

ERRATA: Vol. 125, Parts 1 and 2

BRANAGAN , David
Richard Owen, Thomas Mitchell and Australian Science,
A Commemorative Symposium,

BRANAGAN , David
Richard Owen in the Antipodean Context (A Review).

HOLLAND, Julian
Thomas Mitchell and the Origins of Australian Vertebrate
Palaeontology.

PLAYER, Ann
-Julian Tenison Woods, Richard Owen and Ancient Australia.

OSBORNE,R.A.L.
Australian Red Earth and Bones,

WILLIS, Paul M.A., DAVIES,Susie M. and R.Armstrong L.OSBORNE
Important vertebrate Fossils from the Palaeontological
Collections of the Department of Geology and Geophysics,
University of Sydney.

SHORTLAND , Michael
Plumbing the Depths: on Caves and the Men of Geology.

RUPKE,Nicolaas
Richard Owen and the Victorian Museum Movement.

INDEX to Volume 125

Date of Publication:
Vol.125 Parts 1 and 2: June 1992
Parts 3 and 4: December 1992.

ol

79
e2

oe)

95

119

133

JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS
OF THE

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ISSN 0035-9173

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Demise of the Dinosaurs and other Denizens II --
by Combined Catastrophic Causes?

F.L. SUTHERLAND

ABSTRACT. Since Charles Darwin’s view of geology, the earth sciences have greatly
increased in scope and comprehension of processes shaping the evolution of the earth. This
is illustrated by the extensive debate concerning extinction of biota at the Cretaceous/Tertiary
(K/T) boundary, including the departure of dinosaurs.

Pendulums of opinion on causes of K/T extinctions have oscillated as new geochemical,
mineralogical, palaeontological, meteoritical, climatological and geothermal data became
available for synthesis and interpretation. Abrupt changes at the K/T boundary promoted
concepts of catastrophic extinctions. A meteoritic impact school won early acceptance and
_a ‘volcanic outburst’ school developed by 1985. A third catastrophic school, combining both
impact and volcanism gained ground in 1988, some workers invoking impact-triggered
volcanism and others coincidental but independent impact and volcanic events.

Evidence for major impact and volcanism at K/T time is strengthened by location of impact
craters, tektite deposits, diamonds, extraterrestrial amino acids and extensive hotspot
volcanism. Craters in the northern hemisphere and more extensive hotspot volcanism in the
southern hemisphere may explain geochemical differences in K/T sections. Impact directly
triggering volcanism is unlikely. Iridium output from over 35 hotspots can account for lower
level Ir over 500,000 years, but the sharp Ir peak could fit an impact source.

This paper proposes that combined impact and volcanism best explains K/T boundary events.
Such a coincidence of major extraterrestrial and terrestrial catastrophic events is not
improbable over geological time, but is not essential for global extinctions, judging from the
Permo-Tniassic Siberian volcanism.

The dinosaurs succumbed to complex K/T events, but exact reasons for their demise remain
uncertain. Selenium increase in their egg shells towards the K/T boundary correlates with
increasing pathology of egg protein, shell fragility and reproductive loss. Dinosaurs
disappeared, while other terrestrial vertebrates survived. The dinosaurs do not rest in peace
but haunt the human realm in fantasy literature.

INTRODUCTION

"Geology is a capital science to begin, as it requires
nothing but a little reading, thinking and hammering" -
Charles Darwin, 1835.

This quote is especially appropriate to begin this
Presidential Address, both for its historical context and
for the perspective it gives to the advancement of
geology. In 1835, Darwin was nominally a geologist
in his scientific activities and his famous publications

on the evolution of biological species were still on the
horizon (Darwin, 1839). His quoted view of geology
preceded his visit to Australia, where in early 1836 he
sailed from Sydney and made some _ pertinent
observations on the geology around Hobart Town
(Banks, 1971). This view was expressed sometime
after the embryonic foundation of the Royal Society of
New South Wales as the Philosophical Society of
Australasia in 1821 and thirty-one years before the
Society received its Royal Charter and took its present
name (Browne and Browne, 1961). Richard Owen had

2 F.L. SUTHERLAND

not yet proposed the name dinosaur or "terrible lizard"
for this group of extinct reptiles which was established
in 1842 (Torrens, 1992).

The extinction of the dinosaurs and many other life
forms between the end of the Cretaceous and
beginning of the Tertiary Periods (K/T boundary) has
fascinated both scientists and lay people over many
years. A surprising number of children can name the
dinosaur species that vanished from the fossil record.
Since 1980, a major scientific debate on the K/T and
other extinction events in the evolutionary record has
embroiled many scientists and scientific disciplines in
seeking answers to the causes of such events. The
voluminous earlier literature on proposed causes for
dinosaur extinctions is summarised by Glen (1990).
The views of two strong groups in the debate, one
supporting a meteoritic impact and the other a volcanic
cause are presented by Alvarez and Asaro (1990) and
Courtillot (1990).

This debate, in its earlier flowering, was the topic of
my Presidential Address to the Royal Society of New
South Wales in 1988 (Sutherland, 1989). I did not
expect to be in this position to present a sequel five
years later. However, so sustained has been the
controversy that only now the dust generated by the
impact versus volcanic argument, literally, is settling
out. In my 1989 survey, I concluded that:

"AS an antipodean analyst, I would place my
geological guess on a combined catastrophe i.e., a
coincidence of both impact and volcanic cycles
coming together, but not necessarily the first directly
causing the other".

This address picks up the debate from that point and
discusses its validity in the vigorous climate of
subsequent research.

DEMISE OF THE DINOSAURS - CLEAR CUT
OR STRUNG OUT?

The extinction arguments fall into two general
Categories: normal and catastrophic causes. The first
considers that normal geological processes, such as
global sea-level falls, major upwellings of waters of
differing properties, or climatic changes, sometimes
aided by other contributing factors such as volcanism,
are capable of producing widespread extinctions
(Hallam, 1988; Wilde et al., 1990). The second
invokes abnormal events to provide drastic changes in
conditions and accounts for observed anomalies. These

may be extraterrestrial in origin, such as a major
meteoritic impact (Alvarez, 1990) or some other
astronomical phenomenon, including large meteoric
storms (Yang, 1990). Alternatively these may be
extraordinary terrestrial phenomena which occur
infrequently, such as gigantic volcanic outbursts (Rice,
1990a; Rampino and Calderia, 1993). In considering
such arguments it is crucial to know the real nature of
the extinction event - its full extent, whether global or
local and its precise timing, whether abrupt, gradual or
stepped in time (Upchurch, 1989; Archibald, 1993).

The dinosaur record

Did dinosaurs all die out together, or become extinct
in gradual stages? Intensive collecting within sections
in the western American interior now shows that
dinosaur remains continue unabated to within 60cm
below the K/T boundary (Kerr, 1991). Furthermore,
dinosaur teeth and bones found in the overlying
Tertiary sedimentary beds are now shown to be re-
deposited Cretaceous remains (Geodigest, 1991). An
abrupt demise for dinosaurs therefore is favoured in
the well studied North American region. In another
section with ambiguous ages at Ocean Point, North
Slope of Alaska, dinosaur bones are recovered from
sedimentary beds interbedded with layers of volcanic
debris from explosive eruptions (Conrad et al., 1992).
Earlier dating ranged from late Cretaceous to Early
Tertiary in time. New precise dating of volcanic shards
in the volcanic beds gives ages between 68-71 million
years (Ma). This consigns the dinosaur remains to the
Cretaceous, as the K/T boundary is currently dated
around 66Ma (see later). The apparent premature
demise of these Alaskan dinosaurs, however, may only
represent a local extinction due to activity of nearby
volcanoes.

An important misconception in evaluating the dinosaur
record within the overall K/T extinction event is
stressed by Archibald (1993). In this view, the
complete extinction of north American dinosaurs only
represent some 18% of the then existing vertebrate
species and around 50-75% of these vertebrate species
survived the K/T extinction. The loss of some 75% of
species usually quoted at this boundary (764+5%;
Jablonski, 1991) is mostly based on the marine record
and is an inferred value derived from the loss of
observed K/T genera (47%). The marine % loss may
also be over estimated, as recent work has found up to
22 ammonite species at a metre below the K/T
boundary, where previously they were only reported to
10 metres below the boundary (Ward, 1990; Kerr,

DEMISE OF THE DINOSAURS II 3

1991). Some species of planktonic foraminifera also
appear to survive for 200,000 years (200Ka) beyond

the K/T boundary (Jenkins, 1992).

The dinosaur species in the Late Cretaceous were not
world-wide inhabitants and their actual distributions
are still poorly documented (Hecht, 1992). Claims for
staggered extinctions in different regions (Jaeger et al.,
1989; Hansen, 1990, 1991) may still be valid. The
Alaskan dinosaur-beds also demonstrate that some
species were hardy enough to live under near-polar
conditions 2Ma before the K/T extinctions. Thus, the
K/T extinctions, which include the dinosaur record,
represent a complex and irregular event.

Dinosaur eggs

Recent studies of their eggs give further insight into
the demise of dinosaurs. Dinosaur eggs have a distinct
pattern of growth fibres which differs from those in
eggs of other reptiles and birds (Geodigest, 1992).
Their shells may have smooth or ornamented surfaces
depending on whether the species nested within
shallow sandy sites or buried its eggs in piles of
decaying vegetation. The effects of volcanic-induced
CO, increase on dinosaur hatchings in French and
Indian K/T sections are considered by Lockley (1990),
who suggested hatchings would be inhibited by
elevated CO, levels.

The hatching of dinosaurs from eggs (Fig.1) appears
to become less successful in beds closer towards the
K/T boundary, based on studies from southern France
and China (Hansen, 1990, 1991; Zhoa et al., 1992).
This failure seems to correlate with increasing
concentrations of the element selenium (Se) both in
the shell and in the host sediments, particularly as Se
fed to hens is known to reduce hatchings (Hansen,
1990). Abnormalities found within the structure of
amino acids in dinosaur shells close to the K/T
boundary led to pathological formation of eggshells
(Zhoa et al., 1992). Thus, the dinosaurs may have
suffered from ingestion of trace elements that
interfered with the reproductive process. (Fig.2.)

Hansen (1990) considered this ingestion of toxic
elements was due to airborne dust that settled on
leaves from volcanic eruptions. However, some plants
can strongly concentrate Se from soils, particularly
where Se is oxidised to water soluble selenates in
alkaline soils (Oldfield et al., 1974). It is worth noting
that the western American interior presently carries the
main distribution of selenium accumulator plants in

Fig.1. Baby dinosaur hatching from egg. Photograph
of an approximately life-size model. Windstone
Editions, North Hollywood, California, USA.
Photographed by R.E. Pogson.

America where Se exceeds 50 parts per million (ppm).
Thus relatively lower levels of Se deposits in soils
could produce Se approaching toxic levels in such
plants. Further worth noting, when considering
extinction of marine-dwelling dinosaurs and other
marine groups, is the typical enrichment factor for Se
in marine plants at 8,900 times that of sea water
(Table 1.2, in Trudinger and Swaine, 1979).

The supporting plant story

As many dinosaurs were plant eaters and they in turn
supported the diet of some camivorous dinosaurs,
extinctions in plant communities at K/T time need
examination. High resolution studies of the leaf-fossil
record in western American interior sections,
combining both’ palynology and _ megaflora
examination, show a 30% palynoflora extinction and
a nearly 80% megaflora tum-over across the boundary,
with smaller turn-overs 17 and 25m below the
boundary (Johnson et al., 1989). Aquatic leaves from
one boundary layer had preserved a structural damage
which can be reproduced by freezing experiments in
living aquatic leaves (Wolfe, 1991). The reproductive
Stage reached in the deformed fossil plants at their
time of death suggests freezing took place early in
June (i.e. the northern hemisphere mid-summer). This
leads to the concept of an abnormal climatic cooling,
which Wolfe termed an ‘impact winter’.

The terrestrial flora extinctions have to be viewed

- F.L. SUTHERLAND

within a global wild-fire, proposed on widely
distributed soot (carbon black) of resinous origin at the
K/T boundary (Wolbach et al. 1990a, b). The
conflagration was attributed to woods ignited by
thermal radiation during ballistic re-entry of ejecta
after a meteoritic impact (Melosh et al., 1990). Plant
recovery following such an impact-induced fire could
be severely inhibited due to effects of nickel toxicity
on young seedlings (Davenport et al., 1990). The large
accumulation of dead organic matter at the boundary
may have altered ground water conditions, reducing
the oxidation state of minerals within the underlying
sediments (Lowrie et al., 1990).

Fig.2. Fragmented fossil dinosaur egg. Cretaceous age
from Chateau-neuf-Le Rouge, Aix-en-Provence, Sth.
France. (Australian Museum Palaeontology Collection,
Reg.No. F68709). Photographed by R.A.L. Osborne.

PENDULUMS OF K/T OPINIONS
The impact pendulum (1980-1985)

The meteorite impact opinion swung into prominence
after a large meteorite impact was proposed to explain
abnormally high values of siderophile elements (iron,
nickel and cobalt; including Platinum Group Elements
(PGE) such as iridium and osmium) in K/T boundary
sections (Alvarez et al., 1980). This impact was linked
with K/T extinctions and the proposal generated
widespread research on and considerable support for
such an interpretation. It also stimulated many
theoretical models exploring effects of such an impact
on climates (e.g. O’Keefe and Ahrens, 1989). This

view, termed the Alvarez et al. School here for

convenience, and some of its supporting arguments are
listed in Fig.3. More detailed discussion on these
arguments are given in Sutherland (1989) and Tredoux
et al. (1989).

Despite the dating of the Manson crater to K/T time
and its interpretation as an impact site (Kunk et al.,
1989; Hartung et al., 1990), a weakness for the impact
story remained in the lack of an impact site large
enough to produce the proclaimed global effects. Most
K/T boundaries showed trace element patterns
Suggesting a continental contribution. However, some
Suggested an ocean floor contribution and a few lacked
the PGE and other siderophile element enrichments
even though preserving other K/T features (Tredoux et
al., 1989).

The volcanic pendulum (1985-1988)

The detection of Ir in volcanic outgassings at Hawaii
and ocean ridge systems and difficulties in matching
some PGE and_ other _ siderophile element
concentrations to meteoritic ratios (e.g. Ir/Ni)
dampened the swing of the impact pendulum and
encouraged a swing towards volcanic views.

The volcanic case for K/T boundary effects outlined
by Officer and Drake (1985) is termed the Officer et
al. School (Fig.4). Some of the supporting arguments
(e.g. K/T age of the Deccan flood basalts, volcanic
shocked quartz, staggered Ir anomalies and
extinctions) are listed. However, note that arguments
on behalf of an impact continued to advance e.g.
proposals of tidal wave (tsunami) deposits, matching
of PGE and other siderophile element ratios with
meteoritic values, identification of high pressure
minerals and dating of impact craters near the K/T
boundary (Sutherland, 1989).

The combined pendulum (1988-1989)

To overcome the problem of a missing major K/T
impact site, some authors proposed that the Deccan
flood basalts masked the site, which was_ later
dismembered by seafloor spreading (Alt et al., 1988;
Chatterjee, 1989). An analogy was made to lunar
maria. The Alt et al. model (Fig.5) and earlier
suggestions for impact-triggered flood volcanism (e.g.
Rampino, 1987), encounter problems in paucity of
evidence for impact under the Deccan basalts (Kerr,
1989) and in initiation of this volcanism prior to the
K/T boundary (Courtillot, 1990) and rifting events
(Hooper, 1990). An_ alternative combined

DEMISE OF THE DINOSAURS II

impact/volcanism model proposed co-incidental rather
than consequential events (Sutherland, 1989).

Such a dual view is supported by geochemical studies
of K/T sections (Tredoux et al., 1989). PGE patterns
differ between hemispheres and are difficult to explain
by a single geological event, such as an impact alone.

METEORITIC
IMPACT

VoLcANic
OUTBURST

Alvarez et al School

lr anomaly at K/T time -

- global distribution

- co-incidence with
Dinosaur demise
and widespread
marine extinctions

~ Irin Hawaiian aerosols
Non-chondritic.ir/Ni

Shocked quartz
Global wildfire

Chondritic
ir/Pt, Au

Fig.3. The meteoritic impact pendulum for explaining
K/T events, which dominated the extinction arguments
from 1980 to 1985.

The European boundary clays show flatter PGE
patterns more typical of “chondritic” meteoritic
pattems than the New Zealand ones where more
“basaltic” patterns were preserved.

Continued K/T research (1989-1993)

The three schools of thought for explaining K/T
boundary features (impact, volcanism and combined
impact/volcanism) provide a triangular framework for
considering newer research results (Fig.6). Some of the
claims and counterclaims for impact or volcanic
interpretations are listed for discussion.

METEORITIC
IMPACT

Alvarez et al School

K/T tsunami deposits

VOECANIC
OUTBURST

Officer et al School

_ K/T age for Deccan flood

basalts
Chondritic Ir/Ni, Cr

Muitiple ir anomalies
Cosmic Ir/Rh

Volcanic shocked qtz
K/T age for Manson crater

and Kara crater(?) ir discharge from

ocean ridges
K/T stishovite
Gradual dinosaur
and marine exits

Silicic and mafic
volcanism at
KT time

Fig.4.. The volcanic "outburst" pendulum, which
swung the emphasis away from impact arguments for
K/T events from 1985 to 1988.

REVIEW OF LATER K/T RESEARCH

Since 1989, research has revealed further distinct
changes at the K/T boundary although some results
were equivocal in terms of impact or volcanic
interpretations.

The precise age of the K/T boundary is important in
correlating events around this time. The best estimates
place the boundary in geomagnetic interval Chron
29R, within a depositional time of 40Ka and at an age
around 66.2Ma (Groot et al., 1989; Herbert and
D’Hondt, 1990; Claire et al., 1991; Swisher et al..
1992a; Hansen et al., 1992).

A bulk value for the Ir content of the Denmark K/T
boundary clay is given as 32+2 ng/g (Gwozdz et al.,
1992).

Evidence favouring catastrophic K/T changes

Abrupt shifts in geochemistry in the K/T depositional
record suggest that catastrophic changes in
environmental conditions contributed to observed
turnovers in the boundary biomass. These changes are
variously interpreted within impact (Alvarez and

Asaro, 1990; Swinburne, 1993) and_ volcanic
(Courtillot, 1990; Officer, 1993) scenarios. They
include:

(a) strong enrichments in both non-meteoritic
elements (Sb, As, Zn) and meteoritic elements
(Ir, Ni, Cr, Fe, Co). These are related to impact
(Gilmour and Anders, 1989), terrestrial causes
(Vannucci et al., 1990), or both (Tredoux et al.,
1989).

(b) enrichments in Ir, Ni and other chalcophile
elements within the K/T layer. This was
interpreted as external additions precipitated
under changing geochemical conditions (Graup

or
METEORITIC
IMPACT

Meteoritic impact Terrestrial as
at Deccan ee plateaiay
Seychelles site ot one tracks) —

Sutherland ‘Sch

Meteoritic impact
-site(s) uncertain

Fig.5. The combined impact/volcanic pendulum which
was proposed to explain major K/T features in 1988.

F.L. SUTHERLAND

and Spettle, 1992). A constancy in certain
element ratios (e.g. Ni/Co) suggests an extended
availability of the external component.

(c) change in strontium isotope ratios (*’Sr/*Sr).
This was interpreted as a rapid increase (28x10
°) related to enhanced weathering from impact-
induced acid rain (Martin and Macdougall,
1991). Alternatively, the change was related to
a 10% increase in the continental Sr flux, 1.5-
2.3Ma before K/T time (Nelson et al., 1991). A
better Sr isotope record across this boundary is
needed to resolve these two interpretations
(Palmer, 1991; Miiller and Hsii, 1992).

(d) complex shifts in carbon isotope ratios °°C*C)
mark the planktonic marine record at the
boundary (Hsii and McKenzie, 1990). These
include smaller, short term (10° yrs) and larger,
longer term (10° yrs) shifts towards negative
ratios, which were attributed to planktonic death
(Strangelove Ocean) and _ later bacterial
blooming (Respiring Ocean). Such shifts could
reflect either impact or volcanic effects, but in
a favoured impact scenario were termed Impact
Winter and Silent Spring respectively (Hsii et
al., 1992). Short term "double shifts" in C
isotopes characterise K/T sections containing
both inorganic carbon (negative shift in °C)
and carbon from organic debris (positive shift in
§13C) in estuarine K/T sections in China (Yan
and Ye, 1992).

(e) sharp enrichments in nitrogen at some K/T
layers which show variable enrichments in '°N
over '“N (Gardner et al., 1992). This N anomaly
was related to presence of an aliphatic amide
compound, produced through ‘acid rain’
reaction with organic matter, rendered lifeless
by a presumed meteorite strike.

(f) a temporary drastic increase in **S/?S in whole
rock sulphide content in the eastern Hokkaido
boundary in Japan (Kajiwara and Kaiho, 1992).
This is interpreted as creation of an anaerobic,
anoxic oceanic sedimentary environment for 70,000
years following a catastrophic event.

Evidence favouring impact
Mineralogical evidence for high pressure-high

temperature K/T phases related to extraterrestrial
impact includes:

DEMISE OF THE DINOSAURS II

(a) stishovite, in New Mexico, USA (McHone et
al., 1989).

(b) micro-diamonds, in Alberta, Canada (Carlise
and Braman, 1991). C and N isotope ratios in
these diamonds do not correspond to original
meteoritic diamond, but suggest formation from
an impact or associated plasma (Gilmour et al.,
1992).

(c) shocked-mineral grains found in both K/T
boundary sites and proposed impact craters
(Bohor, 1990; Sharpton et al., 1990, 1992).
Quartz dominates and cathodoluminescence
studies of over 1,000 shocked quartz grains
from five western American interior sites
showed no_ significant contribution from
volcanic quartz (Owen et al., 1990). Other
shocked minerals include zircon (Bohor et al.,
1990). U-Pb isotope dating of Colorado zircon
indicated a re-set K/T age (65.5+3Ma) and
original source rocks as old as 550 Ma (Bohor

METEORITIC
IMPACT

Alvarez et al School

K/T extra - terrestrial
amino - acids

K/T a for Haiti
‘tektites’

K/T Ni-rich spinels

K/T age for Manson,

impact crater and /

Yucatan impact
structure?

Single Ir spike

K/T diamonds

Tsunami deposits/;
* |

Short K/T event

Fig.6. The three main pendulums of opinions on K/T
events in 1993.

—]

et al., 1992).

(d) Ni-rich spinels, related in surface features and
composition to ablated impact materials (Robin
et al., 1991, 1992). High temperature magnesio-
wiistite inclusions in a spinel (magnesioferrite)
may also belong to such origins (Kyte et al.,
1991).

Organic evidence for an extraterrestrial event is
observed in amino acids detected both above and
below, but not directly in the K/T boundary (Zhoa and
Bada, 1989). These amino acids do not exhibit
terrestrial configurations and were related to an influx
of comet dust, with those at the boundary being
destroyed by impact heating (Zahnle and Grinspoon,
1990).

Re-examination of the geochemical profiles across the
Italian section confirm the presence of one sharp Ir
anomaly (Alvarez et al., 1990; Rocchia et al., 1990).
This favours a sudden event such as an impact, in
contrast to multiple Ir enrichments, which would tend
to favour volcanic sources. The Ir peak, however,
stands on a broader base of above background Ir
suggesting an additional, more protracted Ir supply
(Rocchia et al., 1990; Courtillot, 1990). A microbial
origin for the peak (Dyer et al., 1992) is unlikely,
based on detailed examination of the Ir itself and of
microspherules within the boundary clays (Kong and
Chai, 1992). The latter proposed a _ mixed
extraterrestrial and volcanic process but with
volcanism being triggered by impact. Ir/Os ratios
(1.02+0.55) within the anomaly are claimed to
approach solar system values (Liu et al., 1992) and
'87Qs/'Os values (1.16) to approach chondritic values
(Meisel et al., 1992).

Potential impact craters and proposed tektite (glassy
spherule) impact deposits with ages close to K/T
boundary age (64-66 Ma) are now known at Manson
Crater (Kunk et al., 1989; Anderson, R.R. et al.,

1992). Chicxulub Crater (Hildebrande and Bovton.
1990; Pope et al., 1991; Swisher et al., 1992b;

Sharpton et al., 1992) and Beloc, Haiti spherule
deposits (Izett et al., 1991).

Evidence favouring volcanism

The main volcanic case is based on correlation of
rapid, extensive basaltic volcanism over the Deccan
hotspot (Richards et al., 1989; Courtillot, 1990;
Vandamme et al. 1991; Bhattacharje, 1992). An
association with K/T iridium can be made, as Ir is

8 F.L. SUTHERLAND

detected in sublimates at Reunion Island volcano, the
postulated present site of the Deccan hotspot (Toutain
and Myer, 1989).

Further features cited as support for K/T volcanism
include:

(a) smectite-rich ‘volcanic’ clay compositions in
K/T boundary layers, with some layers 8m
above the boundary (Elliot et al., 1989;
Vannucci et al, 1990). PGE patterns in the New
Zealand K/T section show a more ‘basaltic’ than
‘chondritic’ signature (Tredoux et al., 1989).
Detailed geochemistry on the Denmark
boundary involving vanadium studies shows that
the smectites were formed prior to and not after
the K/T event (Premovic et al., 1993).

(b) multiple iridium anomalies, found in some K/T
sections, e.g. Bavarian Alps, where Ir spikes
occupy different lithologies and are atypical of
other K/T boundaries (Graup and Spettle, 1989).

(c) Ir enrichment in recent bands of volcanic dust
found in Antarctic blue ice (Koeberl, 1989).

(d) Os isotope ratios in Ir-bearing aerosols erupted
from hotspot volcanoes (Hawaii), which lie
within Os isotope ranges found in some iron
and chondritic meteorites (Krahenbiihl et al.,
1992).

(e) multiple shocked mineral and_ elemental
enrichments in K/T sections, e.g. Walvis Ridge,
where a strong secondary peak is recorded at
1.9m (corresponding to 10°yrs in deposition)
prior to the K/T boundary peak (Huffman et al.,
1990).

THE IMPACT SCENARIO (Fig.7)

Two K/T impact sites are proposed on age dating
within the North American-Caribbean region at the
Manson and Chicxulub Craters (Anderson, R.R. et al.,
1992; Sharpton et al., 1992; Swinbume, 1993),
although they were disputed as impact structures
(Officer and Carter, 1991; Lyons and Officer, 1992).
The relationships of these craters to K/T impact
deposits is rather confused in the literature. Shocked
quartz grains reach their largest size in North
American sections and although shocked quartz is
found in Manson crater country rocks (Hartung et al.,
1990), the grains in sedimentary K/T beds increase in

size south and show no Manson influence (Bohor and
Betterton, 1991). In his impact model (Bohor, 1992)
identified a melt ejecta layer, with a silicic signature,
below a widespread ‘fireball’ layer carrying a
‘basaltic’ signature and most of the Ir anomaly, Ni-rich
spinels and shocked minerals. In contrast, Shoemaker
and Izett (1992) identified two impact layers and
proposed earlier Chicxulub (?) and later Manson (?)
sources, separated by a period of plant growth. Wolfe
(1991) studied palaeobotanical changes in relation to
Ir and shocked minerals across a North American K/T
section. He suggested an earlier impact in a distant
quartz-poor terrain and a second closer impact in
quartz-rich terrain, with the botanical evidence
suggesting 10-16 weeks between impacts and no
evidence for the claimed global wild-fires.

Glassy spherule deposits considered to represent
fallout of fused country rocks from the Chicxulub
impact have been closely studied at Beloc, Haiti (Izett
et al., 1991; Sigurdsson et al., 1992). Although this
impact source and timing in relation to spherule
deposits was disputed (Lyons and Officer, 1992;
Jéhanno et al., 1992), water contents in the glasses
resemble those of impact rather than volcanic glasses
(Koeberl, 1992). The composition of the Haiti glasses
were duplicated in melting experiments which used a
mixture of gypsum (hydrated calcium sulphate) and
andesite volcanic rock as a mixture representing the
continental crust and sulphate-rich evaporite beds
found at Chicxulub (Sigurdsson et al., 1992). Chemical
links between the Haiti glasses and some glassy melt
rocks in the Chicxulub crater were also proposed
(Kring and Boyton, 1992). This led to the concept of
a severe cooling of the climate and acid rain fallout
due to sulphate aerosols injected into the atmosphere
after the impact, which contributed to K/T extinctions.
However, oxygen isotope studies of the Haitian glasses
indicated a mixed impact source of carbonate and
silicate rocks and excluded derivation from mixtures of
sulfate-rich evaporite and silicate rocks (Blum and
Chamberlain, 1992). Other isotopic signatures for the
Haiti glasses (U-Th-Pb, Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd) suggest
source rocks younger than 400Ma and derived from
continental regions younger than 1080Ma (Premo and
Izett, 1992).

Other deposits attributed to a large impact in the
Mexico Gulf-Caribbean region include tsunami ‘tidal
wave’ deposits and their second generation ‘rewash’
effects (Florentin et al., 1991; Swinburne, 1993). Some
of the Texan deposits, however, may be misinterpreted
and not related in time to K/T boundary events

DEMISE OF THE DINOSAURS II 9

Fig.7.

Global distribution of claimed K/T impact
features at 65Ma, including iridium anomaly sites
(small circles), dated craters (large circles with cross),
tektite deposits (tear drops), shocked-quartz sites
(small dots for grains up to 1mm, large dots for grains
up to 5mm) and high-pressure mineral sites, including

(Montgomery et al., 1992) and proposed coarse impact
deposits in Cuba are actually weathered, coarse
underwater slide deposits (megaturbidities) (Iturralde-
Vinent, 1992).

THE VOLCANIC SCENARIO (Fig.8)

This scenario emphasises major volcanic outbursts at
K/T time as being capable of producing features such
as enrichments in PGE (Ir anomaly) and other, non-
meteoritic, elements. Shocked minerals are explained
by high pressures developed by explosive: detonation
in confined magma chambers at depth which can yield
pressures of over 50k bars (Rice, 1990b). Climatic
effects arise from discharge of major dust, CO, and
aerosols into the atmosphere as observed in recorded
eruptions, but past eruptions a magnitude larger in size
are required to produce major global effects
(Sigurdsson, 1990). Erupted aerosols produce different
cooling effects between northern and southern
hemispheres (Handler, 1989) and also affect the ozone

stishovite (rectangle) and diamond (diamond). Based
on a diagram by Alvarez and Asaro (1990), showing
continental crust (stipple) and oceanic crust (clear
areas, marked with mid-cean ridges and their off-
setting fractures).

layer (Arnold et al., 1990). Calculations by Lockley
(1990) suggest that Deccan basalt eruptions produced
a 10-25% increase in rate of mantle-derived volcanic
CO, output. Since this event, however, atmospheric
carbon dioxide levels have largely dwindled from early
in Palaeocene time (Berner, 1990).

Eruptive events of sufficient size to produce the K/T
boundary features require strong thermal plumes
termed starting plumes to rise from the core-mantle
boundary and then flatten below the lithosphere to
mushroom into extended plume heads (Richards et al.,
1989; Javoy and Courtillot, 1990; Campbell and
Griffiths, 1990; Griffiths and Campbell, 1990). These
plume heads entrain large parts of the upper mantle
and even of the lower crust to form broad regions of
melting and volcanism up to 2,000km across and in
this way can ermpt lavas of mixed source
characteristics. As these starting plumes originate from
mantle regions they can provide lavas enriched in
PGE, but a critical aspect is whether concentrations of

10 F.L. SUTHERLAND

these elements, such as Ir, are enough to meet K/T
anomaly levels. Studies of Ir discharging during
eruptions in Hawaii show that only 1-12% of the Ir
content in the erupting lavas escapes in fumes,
whereas over 80% of Ir escape is needed to account
for K/T levels based on typical Deccan basalt Ir values

(Finnegan et al., 1990). This Ir shortfall, however, may

be reduced by several provisos including:

(a) more primitive basalts, more enriched in PGE
levels, accompanied the initial starting plume
phase of Deccan volcanism;

(b) large volumes of basalts have been eroded from
the Deccan sequence since its eruption;

(c) other starting plumes and_ hotspots
significant contributions at K/T time.

made

Proviso (a)

The Deccan sequence includes highly magnesian
picritic basalts (14-22wt% MgO), which show
distinctly different trace element patterns to typical
Deccan basalts and are considered to form by
higher temperature melting within the plume
(Campbell and Griffiths, 1992). A representative
picrite with MgO 15wt% contains 650ppm Ni and
1500ppm Cr (Krishnarnurthy and Cox, 1977) and
the Cr/Ni ratio (2.3) is closer to Cr/Ni ratios in the
Spanish Cravaca K/T layer, rather than the
chondritic ratios of meteorites (Vannucci et al.,
1990). The Deccan picrites, however, are not
abundant.

Proviso (b)

The Deccan sequence was initially much more
extensive as 65Ma basalt flows and intrusives are
present within rifts in eastern India (Mishra et al.,
1989) and up to 5.5km of the basalt section may
have eroded due to flexural rebound (Watts and
Cox, 1989). As the present Deccan section is over
2km thick, this gives a maximum factor of 3 to 4
times the assumed Ir content from remaining
Deccan basalts. This 1s probably an overestimate as
most of the picritic basalts of likely higher Ir
content appear near the base of the sequence. Thus,
the Deccan basalts are unlikely to provide more
than 25% of K/T boundary Ir levels at besi,
assuming an average Hawaiian Ir escape from lava
of 6-7%. The actual proportion was probably
significantly less as the Deccan sequence
presumably thinned away from the axial hotspot
trace (Campbell and Griffiths, 1990).

Proviso (c)

The foregoing suggest that considerable

Fig.8. Global distribution of K/T hotspots (open
circles), hotlines (lettered lines) and starting plumes
(lettered large circles), using a southern-hemisphere
centred projection (Weijermars, 1989). The hotspots
distribution is shown in relation to dated K/T craters
(circles with star). D Deccan plume, C Coral Sea
plume, C/L Cameroon Line. Present continental
regions (stippled areas) and the K/T ocean-ridge and
fault systems (lines) are shown for reference. An
Antarctica, Au Australia, As Asia, I India, Af Africa,
SA South America, NA North America, Eu Europe,
Ar, Artica. Colombian emeralds? (hexagon).

DEMISE OF THE DINOSAURS II 11

contributions from other potential starting plumes
and active hotspots are required to make up I</T Ir
levels. The possibilities are examined separately
within each hemisphere, to consider the claim for
a greater basaltic component in southern K/T
sections (Tredoux et al., 1989).

Southern hemisphere K/T activity

Besides the Deccan plume, other extended regions of
volcanism were initiated around K/T time. The
Cameroon volcanic line became active and may reflect
melting of lithosphere modified much earlier by the St.
Helena hotspot (Halliday et al., 1990). However, the
initial eruptive centres were sparsely spaced and high
resolution seismic tomography suggests that the
volcanic line may mark a lithospheric crack over
widespread hot upper mantle rather than a confined
deep mantle plume source (Anderson, D.L. et al.,
1992). There is however some argument as to the true
depth of mantle thermal features which are derived
from the seismic tomographic expressions, and these
modifications may indicate greater depths for the
hotter regions (Su et al., 1992).

The Coral Sea-North Tasman Sea rift system off
northeast Australia opened suddenly across a region of
1500-2000km and initiated oceanic spreading between
64-55Ma (Veevers and Li, 1991). The event was
proposed as a major hotspot site for creating the
volcanic chains which progress southwards in time
along the east Australian-Tasman margin (Sutherland,
1983). This connection was not clear on absolute
motion calculations for Australia’s Cainozoic
movement (Duncan and McDougall, 1989), but these
calculated tracks do not match observed trends and
ages in volcanic chains older than 35Ma (Sutherland,
1991; Sutherland et al., 1991; Jenkins et al., 1992).
The proposed Coral Sea plume (Fig.9) approaches
diameters of starting plumes (Campbell and Griffiths,
1990). The present hotspot position near Tasmania lies
over hot mantle extending down over 410km
(Anderson, D.L. et al., 1992). The continental margins
within the proposed plume area contain numerous late
Cretaceous/early Tertiary volcanic and intrusive fields
(Dickens and Malone, 1973), some of which are dated
around K/T time (65+1Ma; Scheibner et al., 1991;
Robertson and Sutherland, 1992; Robertson, 1993).
The Coral Sea structure is partly dismembered by later
tectonic events (Scheibner et al., 1991), and parts may
lie in the Philippine basin after migration from the
Coral Sea region and subsequent rotation in the last
60Ma (Hickey-Vargas, 1991). The extent of volcanism

ree

/ Coral/ ae ty |}
/ Ss} :
/Sea ae
+—..._4
/ starting/

Tasman
t ———

Fig.9. Proposed Coral Sea-North Tasman starting
plume (65Ma) containing areas of 64-55Ma sea floor
spreading (stippled zones with mid-ocean ridge and
fault systems), bounded by limit of activity (thick,
dashed curve) and mayor fault (thick line). Associated
64+1Ma volcanic activity (solid triangles). Later
hotspot trails are shown by zones enclosing migratory
volcanoes (asterisks), with age-progression marked by
age lines in Ma. The present hotspot line (OMa) is
marked by seismic zones (stars) and volcanic gas
discharges (large asterisks).

associated with Coral Sea-North Tasman structure will
need further evaluation.

Many present hotspots were active at K/T time, some
being in vigorous discharge e.g. Walvis Ridge

12 F.L. SUTHERLAND

(Huffman et al., 1990; O’Connor and le Roex, 1992).
The Austral-Society, Sala y Gomez and Easter Island
hotspots occupied a region of long-standing thermal
and geochemical anomaly (Staudigel et al., 1991), but
these were typically weak plumes (Woodhead, 1992).
The Louisville hotspot chain dates back to 65Ma
(Lonsdale, 1988) but its position against an active
subduction zone is equivocal and may mark a pre-
existing rather than a starting plume. The Indian and
Southern Oceans contain many plume traces extending
beyond K/T time e.g. Kerguelen-Indian plume trace
(Davies et al., 1989) and Tasman-Antarctic plume
traces (Sutherland, 1989, 1991). All told, over 22
hotspots, hotlines and starting plumes contributed
mantle-derived eruptives from the southern K/T zone.

Northern hemisphere K/T activity

Two main hotspots include the Emperor chain in the
Pacific (Clague and Dalrymple, 1987) and possibly the
North Atlantic-Greenland plume (Hill, 1991), now the
Hawaiian and Iceland hotspots respectively. The
Emperor activity at Suiko Seamount formed a large
complex of coalesced volcanoes at 27°N, some 7°
north of the present Hawaiian hotspot, but represented
an extant rather than a starting plume. Recent studies
have identified high magnesian basalts (15-
17 wt%MgO) amongst Hawaiian lavas (Clague et al.,
1991; Chen, 1993). Such primary melts have potential
for increased delivery of PGE, above the Ir and Os
levels of aerosols erupted from more typical Hawaiian
basalt activity (Krahenbiihl et al., 1992). The Hawaiian
plume also shows surges in its past production
(Davies, 1992), so that past PGE discharge may also
exceed the present Hawaiian flux.

The Greenland plume is equated with major North
Atlantic doming and uplift at 65£5Ma prior to rifting
and extensive volcanism after 63Ma (White and
McKenzie, 1989; Hill, 1991; Lewis et al., 1992). A
proposed starting plume generated melts over an area
2,500km in diameter and passed southwards where
58Ma syenite of hotspot character is intruded near
Kaerven (Holm and Praegel, 1988) and massive
volcanism and spreading took place 200kms further
south (White, 1993). The K/T plume position may be
marked by intense alkali dolerite dyke injection and
bimodal basaltic and alkaline volcanism (64+3Ma) in
northern Greenland (Kap Washington Volcanics)
(Brown et al., 1987). Later West Greenland-Baffin
Island basalts include very primitive magnesian lavas
(up to 22wt% MgO) formed by melting of mantle
incorporated within the plume head (Robillard et al.,

130

Canada

HOT SPOT (7) VOLCANISM
130-65Ma

Atlantic

Fig.10. Evolution of the Greenland hotspot through
Cretaceous-Early Tertiary time. Cretaceous volcanism
(light stipple) and 65Ma hotspot position (small solid
circle). Early Tertiary volcanic episodes (stronger
stippled areas) and their hotspot positions (large solid
circles) with ages marked in Ma. Hotspot tracks
(arrows) and ocean-ridges and rifts (thick lines).

1992; Holm et al., 1993). Interpretation of the
Greenland plume as a starting plume (Hill, 1991)
would increase potential for PGE delivery and mantle
degassing at K/T time. However, Canadian Arctic
Archipelago basaltic and felsic activity extended from
150 to 70Ma and may mark the passage of a mantle
plume along Alpha Ridge within the Canada Basin
(Embry and Osadetz, 1988). In this interpretation, the
Greenland activity was not a starting plume but an
already long-lived plume (Fig.10). The later burst in
plume activity either marks an upsurge in plume flux
or a thermal build up as the plume passed under the

DEMISE OF THE DINOSAURS II | 13

thick continental crust of Greenland. In _ this
reconstruction, volcanic contributions to the K/T
boundary were probably insubstantial.

In summary, northern hemisphere K/T hotspot
volcanism includes at least 12 centres, with Suiko and
Greenland being prominent, but none were starting
plumes. The activity provides little more than half the
southern hemisphere activity. The Ir donation to the
K/T boundary would be even less.

DISCUSSION

Australian science has made little direct contribution
to the K/T boundary debate. This stems largely from
the paucity of well preserved K/T sections. Finds of
late Cretaceous dinosaurs and related groups are
almost non-existent apart from rare pterosaur
fragments (Long, 1990). Mid-Cretaceous dinosaur
remains, however, show that some of Australia’s
dinosaurs include species hardened to living in near-
polar environments (Rich and Rich, 1989; Rich and
Rich, 1991; Anderson, 1993). Shocked quartz is
recorded in K/T sediments in the northern Tasman Sea
Basin east of Australia (Alvarez and Asaro, 1990). but
within the continental regions the K/T boundary is less
clear, as major seismic unconformities often appear at
the top of Cretaceous sections, e.g. Bass, Gippsland
and Otway Basins (Baillie and contributors, 1989).
Impact craters in Australia, include some Cretaceous
features, e.g. Gosses Bluff, but none are dated near the
K/T boundary (Grieve, 1991). The late Precambrian
Lake Acraman_ structure in South Australia,
nevertheless, is important in demonstrating that
anomalously high cosmogenic siderophile elements
(including PGE elements such as Ir) are associated
with the impact ejecta horizon (Gostin et al., 1989).

The lack of close involvement of Australian workers
on the K/T boundary event may assist in a more
objective view of the complex scientific claims. This
was brought home during the Meteoritical Society
Meeting in Perth, Western Australia when the present
author proposed both impact and volcanism had
contributed to K/T extinctions (Sutherland, 1990). The
overseas chairman and speakers in the K/T session
were expectedly of the meteorite impact persuasion. In
a tightly timed programme for the meeting, the impact
school enthusiasts over-ran their presentations.
Unfortunately it was felt there was lack of balance
between the two schools of opinion.

Ir peak
3000 parts per trillion

meteorite impact?

no dinosaurs dinosaurs

volcanism?
{ |

volcanism?

300 parts Bea sen
per trillion ven A ae eee 2 os

Fig.11. Proposed distribution of volcanic and impact-
derived iridium in the K/T boundary anomaly.

Balancing the K/T iridium budget

Assuming that both impact and volcanism contribute
Ir to the K/T layers, the most likely distribution for Ir
in a northern hemisphere anomaly profile (Italy) is for
impact Ir to form the sharp peak and volcanic Ir to
compose the lower level wings observed by Rocchia
et al., (1990). The wings extend several metres each
side of the K/T peak, exceed a time interval of
500,000 years and make up some 20% of the total K/T
boundary Ir flux. Such a percentage can be compared
with volcanic to impact Ir, although Ir distribution

14 F.L. SUTHERLAND

across the boundary is very complex on a fine scale
(Alvarez et al., 1990).

Previous considerations assigned significantly under
25% of K/T boundary Ir to potential output from
Deccan volcanism. No other starting plumes of
comparable dimensions appear in the K/T hotspot
inventory, so that Ir contributions from the Coral Sea,
Cameroon and 30 or so lesser hotspots probably all
together would not exceed the Deccan flux. Thus,
volcanic Ir probably remains well under 50% of the
K/T Ir deposition. If further weighting is made for
nearly two thirds of the hotspot activity being in the
southern hemisphere, then a 20% volcanic Ir
component in a European K/T Ir budget seems a
reasonable first estimate (Fig.11).

Other K/T contributors?

Of the two main impact craters correlated with K/T
time, the Chicxulub impact would give the
overwhelming proportion of Ir compared to the
Manson impact. Additional impacts also may
contribute as some craters smaller than the Manson
crater are dated around 65Ma in Russia (Kamousk and
Gusev craters) (Grieve, 1991). A few K/T sections
also hint at an oceanic impact in the Caribbean-
Colombia Basin area, although continental mineral
grains dominate the K/T sedimentary boundaries (Fig.
7) and signatures (Sharpton et al., 1990).

Fig.12. Colombian emerald with calcite in matrix.
Australian Museum Specimen, D 3149.
Photographed by Gregory Millen.

Colombian emeralds (Fig.12) seem far removed from
the K/T boundary story, but dating of this green gem
variety of the mineral beryl now gives these gemstones
a formational age (6145Ma) within an error range of
K/T time (strontium-rubidium isotope dating; Vidal et
al., 1992). The emeralds are mined from Cretaceous
shales and limestones and form in calcite-rich veins
(Ringsrud, 1986). These veins emanated from layers of
strongly heated ‘ash’ and were originally injected
under pressure as hot briny solutions invaded the
strongly folded and fractured rocks following their
deformation (Ottaway and Kenny, 1989). Most
geologists attribute this emerald mineralisation to a
relatively young hydrothermal event (last 5-10Ma)
which was associated with the later development of
the Andean foldbelt. However, the near-Cretaceous
emerald age, in conjunction with original vein fluid
temperatures of up to 600°C and an origin of the
emerald constituents (beryllium, chromium and water)
from marine beds originally at depths of over 5000
metres, requires further explanations than are provided
by the hydrothermal postulates (Bosshart, 1991). The
possibility of a nearby impact or of volcanism
contributing to the special thermal and_ source
conditions for the unique Colombian emerald deposits
may be worth investigation.

The general scene

The distribution of known K/T impacts and hotspot
volcanoes shows a bias towards northern impacts and
southern volcanism (Fig.8). The particular projection
used here centres on the southern hemisphere
(Weijermars, 1989) and is ideal for showing the
volcanic hotspot distribution. Both impact and
volcanism will reinforce radiation screening by dust
clouds and aerosols to give consequent cooling. Both
events can also generate acid rains. Additions to
atmospheric CO, will produce subsequent ‘greenhouse’
conditions capable of creating reproductive stress in
organisms. The exact global response depends on the
lithological or oceanic make up of the impact sites and
on the volatiles discharged by volcanoes (O’Keefe and
Ahrens, 1989; Sigurdsson, 1990; Arnold et al., 1990;
Lockley, 1990; Rice, 1990a; Luhr, 1991; Sigurdsson et
al., 1992; Brasseur and Granier, 1992). Global climatic
effects also depend on distribution of land and oceanic
masses (Handler, 1989). However, a similar uneven
land/ocean disposition existed at K/T time
(Weijermars, 1989). Thus, in a dual catastrophic
scenario, many complex factors will affect K/T
boundary features and could produce geochemical
variations such as those noted by Tredoux et al.
(1989).

DEMISE OF THE DINOSAURS II 15

The combined impact and volcanic effects would
interact most directly with terrestrial and shallow water
organisms, rather than with more sheltered benthic
biota. This is generally reflected in the K/T extinction
pattern which contrasts with a large benthic extinction
caused by deep-sea warming in the early Tertiary
which hardly affected the shallow water ecosystems
(Kennett and Stott, 1991). Some workers would
consider coincidence of major impact and large scale
plume volcanism improbable and to represent an
‘overkill’ proposal for the K/T extinctions. However,
Hsii (1989) stresses that in the immensity of geological
time the improbable is inevitable in relation to
catastrophic extinctions. Dual meteoritic impact and
plume volcanism, however, is not necessarily essential
to produce major extinctions. Present evidence
suggests that the largest recorded extinction at the
Permian/Tnassic boundary was correlated with a larger
plume event than for the Deccan basalts, i.e. the more
explosive and voluminous Siberian basalts (Renne and
Basu, 1991; Sharma et al., 1991; Campbell et al.,
1992).

Concluding notes

Some studies claim that links exist between global
extinctions, tectonic changes and planetesimal impacts
(Rampino and Calderia, 1993). Thus, detailed debates
on K/T boundary events are important for assessing
future probabilities for both extraterrestrial and

terrestrial catastrophes within the human and
evolutionary framework. Earth-approaching asteroids

are under surveillance (Skwatch Telescope) and to this
end a near-miss is already recorded (Scotti et al.,
1991). Methods to counter the threat of Earth-crossing
asteroids by deflection and fragmentation are under
examination (Ahrens and Harris, 1992). The main K/T
crater-producing impactor was unlikely to be a comet
or carbonaceous asteroid based on the arguments of
Chyba et al. (1993) for the 1908 Tunguska explosion.
However, the presence of extraterrestrial amino acids
at the K/T boundary may suggest an abnormally large
carbonaceous asteroid was involved.

The demise of the dinosaurs may not only mark a
complex catastrophic event but their initial
evolutionary expansion may also spring from an earlier
combined impact/volcanic event in the late Triassic
(Dietz, 1986; Lucas, 1990). The dinosaurs, now
vanished 65Ma ago, live on in the popular mind with
dinosaurs featuring on the cover of two issues of Time
magazine (May 6th 1985 and April 26th 1993) and in
books which bring them back into the human realm
(Crichton, 1991; Gumey, 1992).

Since the time of Charles Darwin’s quote on geology,
which began this address, there have been wholesale
advances in knowledge and technology in the earth
sciences and their related fields. In the K/T
controversy, these advances have been focused on the
events which brought down the dinosaurs. It seems
appropriate to amend Darwin’s view into present day
context as follows:

"Geology is a complex science, as it requires a world
of study, much reading and _ multi-disciplinary
interaction and the engagement of highly sophisticated
equipment in its ultimate pursuit”.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Comments and assistance with literature on this
diverse topic came from many sources, including A.A.
Day, D.J. Swaine, M. Krysko v Tryst and G.W.K.
Ford from the Royal Society of New South Wales,
Sydney; A. Ritchie, R.E. Pogson, G. Webb and H.
Butler, The Australian Museum, Sydney; A. Bevan,
Western Australia Museum, Perth; I.H. Campbell,
Research School of Earth Sciences, Australian
National University, Canberra; A. Milner, British
Museum of Natural History, London; C. Apps,
Rijksmuseum van Geologie en Mineralogie, Leiden; C.
Koeberl, Institute of Geochemistry, University of
Vienna; T. Ottaway, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.

The Australian Museum provided some support for
presentation of this topic at the 53rd Meteonttical
Society Meeting at Perth, Western Australia, in 1990
and the 29th International Geological Congress at
Kyoto, Japan, in 1992. S. Folwell, G. Ferguson and T.
Tmski, Australian Museum helped with preparation of
the script and figures.

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Presidential Address delivered before The Royal
Society of New South Wales on 7th April, 1993.

Division of Earth and Environmental Sciences
The Australian Museum

6-8 College Street

SYDNEY. N.S.W. 2000

AUSTRALIA

(Manuscript received 26-5-1993)

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Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales,
Wolk, 126, pps27=-36, 1993 ISSN 0035-9173/93/010027-10 $4.00/1

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Trace Elements in Some Swiss Coals

Th. HUGI, J.J. FARDY, N.C. MORGAN and D.J. SWAINE

ABSTRACT

Twenty four samples of Swiss coals and coaly material (lignite, brown, anthracitic) ranging in
age from Carboniferous to Quaternary have been analysed for their trace-element contents. The
values obtained for the Swiss coals are compared with those for coals from Australia and the
U.S.A. In general, there is good agreement between all these values and those for most world
coals, although some of the Swiss coals have higher concentrations of molybdenum, selenium,
thallium, uranium and vanadium.

Key words: Swiss coal, trace elements.

INTRODUCTION

Apart from a study of rare earth elements (Fardy et al, 1987), there are no reported investigations of trace
elements in Swiss coals. In view of the need to extend knowledge of trace elements in coals from unusual
deposits, samples of coal and coaly material from several parts of Switzerland were analysed for trace
elements by atomic emission spectrography, atomic absorption spectroscopy and neutron activation
analysis. The samples have been taken from coal deposits of different ages (Quaternary, Tertiary, Mesozoic,
Carboniferous). The samples were lignitic, brown or anthracitic and most are from coal mines in production
during 1939 to 1945 (Bureau fiir Bergbau, 1947). The type of coal was assessed on the basis of available
chemical information for coal from the same areas (Kiindig and de Quervain, 1953). Some information
about the samples is given in Table 1 and the locations are shown in Figure 1.

METHODS OF ANALYSIS

Atomic emission spectrographic analysis was carried out on sub-samples that had been ashed at 450°C,
except for samples 20, 21, 22 and 23 which required ashing at 820°C. Two techniques were used, namely, a
total burn method that covers a wide range of elements, and a selective volatilisation method, which is
especially sensitive for volatile elements. The total burn method is similar to that used for Australian coals
(Clark and Swaine, 1962; Brown and Swaine, 1964) in which the coal ash is mixed with pure graphite
powder and tamped into a graphite electrode. Arcing is carried out using a carbon cathode in a 10 amp DC
arc for 2 min 30 sec to 2 min 50 sec, i.e., until the burn is complete. Spectra are taken on Kodak Spectrum
Analysis Plate No. 1 and are compared visually against standard spectra in a Judd-Lewis Comparator. The
selective volatilisation method is based on that of Tennant (1967), which uses coal ash mixed with a buffer
mixture (Al,03 + CaCO3 + K5CO3) and tamped into a graphite electrode. Arcing is carried out using a
carbon cathode in a 14.5 amp DC arc for 40 sec.

Th. HUGI, J.J. FARDY, N.C. MORGAN AND D.J. SWAINE

_ Figure 1. Map showing locations of coal samples.

TRACE ELEMENTS IN SWISS COALS 99

TABLE 1
LOCALITY, ASH YIELD, AGE AND RANK OF COAL SAMPLES

Sample No. Locality % Ash Yield Age Rank
l Gondiswil-Zell (BE) 58.2 L
2 Uznach (SG) 19.9 Quaternary L
3 Blapbach (BE) 6.1 B
4 Echeltschwil (SG) 11.5 B
5 Flonzel (VD) 8.8 B
6 Gottshalden (ZH) 34.0 B
7 Kandergrund-Horn (BE) 24.1 B
8 Niederhorn (BE) 23:4 Tertiary B
9 Oron (VD) 4.8 B

10 Riedhof (ZH) i222 B
11 Rufi (SG) 40.1 B
12 Schlafegg (BE) 65.4 B
13 Sonnenberg (LU) 8.4 B
14 Arogno (TI) 18.6 B
15 Boltigen (BE) 6.9 B
16 Diemtigen (BE) 24.0 Mesozoic B
17 Erlenbach (BE) 62.3 B
18 Oberwil (BE) 84.1 B
19 Vouvry (VS) 28.6 B
20 Chandoline (VS) 39.1 A
21 Dorénaz (VS) 16.2 Palaeozoic A
22 Ferden (VS) 19.1 (Carboniferous) A
23 Grone (VS) 90.8 A
24 Weiach (ZH), Nagra-Drilling 9.0 A

Note: L = lignite, B = brown coal, A = anthracite '

Two methods of atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) were used, namely flame AAS and graphite-furnace
AAS, the latter being necessary for some trace elements present in very low concentrations. The AAS
instrument used for this work is a Perkin-Elmer 4000 atomic absorption spectrophotometer with an auto
sampler and a graphite furnace facility (HGA-500).

For the determination of cadmium, copper, iron, lead, manganese and zinc, a sub-sample of coal was ashed
at 500°C and the ash treated sequentially with hydrofluoric, nitric and perchloric acids in a PTFE crucible or
with aqua regia and hydrofluoric acid in a closed polypropylene bottle, which was heated on a boiling-water
bath for 2h. Fluoride was complexed with boric acid and the resulting solution was used for the
determinations by AAS or graphite-furnace AAS. The method is based on ASTM (1978). Previous

30 Th. HUGI, J.J. FARDY, N.C. MORGAN AND D.J. SWAINE

experience with cadmium had shown that the AAS-graphite furnace method is viable to 0.01 ppm Cd in coal
(Godbeer and Swaine, 1979).

For the determination of arsenic and antimony 1 g of coal was ashed in a platinum crucible with magnesium
nitrate (ashing aid) and nickel nitrate (volatilisation suppressant) for about 14h. The ash was treated with a
mixture of nitric and hydrofluoric acids and finally with nitric acid alone to give 50 ml of approximately 5%
HNOz3 in the final solution in which arsenic and antimony were determined. This method is based on
Haynes (1978) and Riley (1982, 1984).

Details of the methods used for neutron activation analysis are given in Carr and Fardy (1984). The sample
of coal (20-80 mg for short irradiations and 100-200 mg for long irradiations) was weighed into a cleaned
(nitric acid, demineralised water, A.R. ethanol, air-dried) polyethylene vial. Two irradiations were carried
Out, namely a short-period one using the X-176® tube and a long-eriod one using the X-6® tube of HIFAR
which is a 10-MW DIDO® type reactor system Situated at the Lucas Heights Research Laboratory. The
thermal neutron fluxes were 5 x 10!9 and 5 x 10!2 ncm™s" respectively. After the irradiations of the
samples, the radionuclides formed from the trace elements were measured by Ge(Li) gamma-ray
spectrometry. The concentrations of the trace elements were determined by suitable computing procedures.

Methods of analysis for trace elements in coals have been reviewed by Swaine (1985, 1990).

TABLE 2
TRACE ELEMENTS IN QUATERNARY SWISS COALS (ppm in dry coal)

1 2 1 2
Ag 0.06 0.04 Ni 40 15
As 4.3 25 P 500 500
Au <0.002 Pb 9.8 23
B 60 25 Sb 12 0.3
Ba 327 142 Sc 7.9 25
Be 2 0.6 Se 0.93
Br 12 23 Sn 3 l
Cd 0.23 0.072 Sr 138 94
Cl <74 125 Ta 0.59 0.22
Co 7.6 17 Th 8.0 Ne
Cr 75 1a Ti 2580 520
Cs 3.7 1.6 Tl <2 <0.6
Cu 23 8 U 5.2 1.6
Ga 12 2.9 V 62 16
Ge ] 0.2 W 1.3 <2
Hf 25). 0.82 x. 30 10
Ir <0.003 <0.001 Zn 84 10
Mn 276 144 Zr 100 30

TRACE ELEMENTS IN SWISS COALS 31

COMPARISONS OF TRACE-ELEMENT CONTENTS OF THE SWISS COALS WITH THOSE
FOR MOST COALS FROM AUSTRALIA AND THE U.S.A.

Results for trace-element contents for the Swiss coals are given in Tables 2-5 and the relevant data for
Australian and U.S.A. coals are given in Table 6. All values for the Quaternary coals are within the ranges
for the U.S.A. coals, although arsenic in sample 2 is higher than usually found in Australian coals. Some of
the Tertiary samples had relatively high contents of some trace-elements, for example, arsenic in samples 3
and 4, chromium in samples 6 and 10, germanium in sample 9, molybdenum in samples 4, 6, 9, 10, 11 and
13, selenium in samples 4 and 10, strontium in samples 5, 6, 7 and 12, uranium in samples 3, 6, 10 and 13
and vanadium in samples 6 and 10. It should be noted that samples 10 and 12 have high ash yields and are
not directly comparable with the coals (<40 per cent ash yield). Of the Mesozoic coals, sample 14 is
relatively high in arsenic, cadmium, molybdenum, thallium, uranium and vanadium. There are some values
for samples 17 and 18 that exceed those found for Australian and U.S.A. coals, but these samples have high
ash yields and cannot be compared directly with other coals where the ash yields are less than about 40 per
cent. Sample 24 of the Carboniferous coals is relatively high in bromine, chlorine, vanadium and tungsten.
Apart from the exceptions listed above, the Swiss coals have trace-element contents, that fall mostly within
the ranges for Australian and U.S.A. coals (Table 6). In general, Australian coals with a mean value of
about 2 ppm As are lower in arsenic than coals from most other areas (Swaine, 1983).

MODE OF OCCURRENCE OF TRACE ELEMENTS IN COAL

In general, trace elements occur in coals associated with the organic matter and with the mineral matter
(Swaine, 1967), sometimes as specific minerals and also as minor replacement cations in minerals. For
example, manganese occurs as a replacement for iron in siderite and for calcium in calcite (Swaine, 1986).
Several trace elements occur as sulfides, for example, copper, molybdenum, nickel, lead, zinc or associated
with sulfides, commonly pyrite, for example, arsenic, cobalt, mercury, selenium (Swaine, 1984). Cadmium
has been found in sphalerite where it is partially replacing zinc (Gluskoter and Lindahl, 1973). Other
examples of occurrences of discrete minerals are given by Finkelman (1981) and Swaine (1990).

CONCLUDING REMARKS

For most trace elements the ranges of values found for the Swiss coals are within the usual ranges of values
for coals from Australia and the U.S.A., and the ranges for ‘most coals’ proposed by Swaine (1990).

Some samples of brown coal had high contents of molybdenum, selenium, thallium, uranium and vanadium.
The high uranium contents of brown-coal samples 3, 6, 13 and 14, namely 37-176, with a mean of 98 ppm
U, are much higher than those of the other Swiss coals. The contents of uranium in these coals are high
enough for those coals to be unsuitable for combustion. The high bromine and chlorine in sample 24
(anthracitic coal) are unusual and were probably derived from waters entering the swamp during the early
stages of coalification or introduced from overlying brackish sediments (Miiller et al, 1984, plate I).

Of the elements that occur in the Swiss coals in concentrations above those commonly found elsewhere,
molybdenum, selenium and thallium are probably mainly present as a sulfide or associated with a sulfide,
normally pyrite. Pyrite and other fine-grained sulfide minerals are quite common in Swiss coals. Vanadium
is probably organically bound (Swaine, 1983). The occurrences of uranium has been reviewed by
Finkelman (1981) and Bouska (1981). In most coals, especially those of low rank, uranium is probably
mainly associated with organic matter. It may also be enriched in irregularly disseminated fine grains, as

Th. HUGI, J.J. FARDY, N.C. MORGAN AND D.J. SWAINE

TABLE 3
TRACE ELEMENTS IN TERTIARY SWISS COALS (ppm in dry coal)

4 3, 6 i! 8 9 10 11 12

0.02 <0.01 0.07 0.03 0.02 <0.005 0.1 0.04 <0.07
39 4.0 6.2 4.0 2.0 37 15 9.5 5.8
0.003 0.001 0.005 0.001 0.004 0.002
70 90 90 20 50 150 90 100 40
342 63 612 205 619 114 525 211 134
l <0.2 Z 2 l 0.8 4 1.5 <2
0.81 1.4 1.5 0.5 1.3 4.3 12 0.48 1.1
0.065 0.015 0.11 0.57 0.02 0.028 0.34 0.048 0.079
57 <40 <25 12 24 <62 <36 <31
2.9 LS 5.9 a 0.19 L.3 21 2.9 0.67
62 3.8 89 15 18 7.2 125 Zi 6.1
0.69 0.11 3.6 0.26 i 0.15 6.4 22 0.61

10 4 15 R) 0.5 6 58 31 4
22 0.2 7.8 1.0 1.6 0.8 16 9.6 <0.4
6 4 2 0.6 20 40 9 0.8 0.7

0.15 0.10 1.1 0.30 2.0 0.055 4.4 0.43 0.24
0.007 0.002 0.042 <0.001 <0.002 0.004 0.062 0.005 <0.001
38 a1 79 57 3 45 153 97 3

50 9 70 10 6 30 50 70 8

10 10 30 15 3 15 70 40 <2
100 40 1000 70 300 400
3 0.1 3.4 1 2 0.5 12 4.3 1

6.2 0.07 1.9 1.0 0.3 0.08 1s 1.0 1.4
0.77 0.24 5.8 0.80 L3 0.26 1] 2.6 0.52
15 0.93 7.8 5.9 6.3 0.85 WP 5.1 ZZ
0.2 0.09 3 0.5 0.7 0.1 5 1.5 0.7
408 740 683 1454 237 468 613 240 2158
<0.09 0.37 0.060 0.34 <0.022 0.95 0.13 0.074
0.63 0.21 Sf 0.92 3.6 0.22 12 ap | 0.66
80 60 2000 900 1060 40 2350 2000 150
3 <0.3 <1 <0.8 2 <0.2 2 2 <2
3.3 4.5 139 7.9 4.9 9.2 118 17 Py
50 3.6 106 45 32 3.6 145 80 15
Sel 5 4.5 <3 0.7 4.2 2.0 <4 <0.7
7 <2 20 10 ii 1 20 8 <7
38 20 43 19 5.1 14 159 42 16

<15 <9 50 25 150 <5 150 40 26

13

0.05
"see
0.003
70

TRACE ELEMENTS IN SWISS COALS

33

TABLE 4
TRACE ELEMENTS IN MESOZOIC SWISS COALS (ppm in dry coal)

14 | bs) 16 17 18 19 14 15 16 17 18 19
Ag 06 <0.01. 0.1 0.1 <02 <0.03 Ni 40 Z 30 50 150 i
As 42 0.5 3.0 4.2 16 1.3 P 3000 100 100
Au 0.007 <0.001 0.002 Pb 7.0 £0.4 7.9 11 17 2
B 40 15 60 500 700 60 Sb 05.7) <0.2° 1.1 10 06 0.12
Ba 173 60 149 313 143 241 Sc 33 3.0 8.2 ie) 17 ya |
Be 4 5 1 3 a 2 Se Sy) 0.76 2.6 3.8
Br <8 <2 1.1 <11 <7 1.0 Sn 1 0.6 0.8 4 3 l
Cd 2.4 <0.005 0.27 0.51 0.50 0.037 Sr 117 414 <79 = 418 223
Cl <2) 66 <24 <45 <42 81 Fae 0:22. (043° -022 @.97° ‘<1 12
Co 4.0 0.27 3.0 6.5 53 1.4 Tn 2.3 069 4.1 10 12 au.
Cr 20 571 23 82 78 14 Ti 1000 450 690 4015 4360 5450
Cs 5.1 <0.08 1.2 9.8 17 = 0.44 Tl 15 <02 0.7 <2 <3 —<0.9
Cu -—s«10 2 18 30 22 4 U 176 2.2 8.0 4.4 2.3 3.6
Ga 6.2 37 6.3 23 18 2.6 V 330 030s 4.7 96 121 136 22
Ge 10 9 0.7 3 7 15 W <1 1.0 <2 <6 1.8 2.0
Hf 0.89 0.39 0.66 2.3 3.3 333 Y je) 15 30 30 30 30
Ir 0.056 <0.001 <0.002 <0.005 <0.007 <0.003 Zn 80 9.6 47 91 li2 29
Mn 15 7 62 57 87 14 Zr 40 15 30 100 100 250
Mo 200 0.9 20 15 4 0.9

TABLE 5
TRACE ELEMENTS IN CARBONIFEROUS SWISS COALS (ppm in dry coal)

20 Zl pip 23 24 20 21 22 23 24
Ag 0.08 0.1 0.6 <0.1 0.1 Ni 25 ie) 25 50 25
As_ 5.4 12 17 21 0.7 P 200 150 80 800 300
Au 0.005 0.011 0.003 Pb ty 8.6 51 15 36
B 20°, 5 10 60 20 Sb 22 4.4 2.1 2.6 4.8
Ba 272 42 108 1009 153 Sc 4.3 0.70 0.88 24 8.7
Be 2 0.5 0.4 5 8 Se 1.1 1.4 4.0 0.65
Br 2.0 3.8 3:2 <67 145 Sn Z 0.3 l q 2
Cd 0.17. 0.022 0.040 0.051 0.24 Sr <51 <26
Chis 82 149 108 4809 Ta 0.45 0.036 <0.09 1.8 0.22
Co 6.4 3.4 16 18 9.9 Th my 0.52 0.51 21 5.7
Cr. 10 4.1 4.7 90 32 Ti 830 250 120 4820 600
Cs 4.6 22 re 10 49 Tl <2 0.8 0.8 <3 0.5
Cu, 12 11 66 23 26 U 1.9 <0.26 0.34 5.8 4.6
Ga 9.0 27 2.0 37 9.5 V 35 8.9 11 138 155
Ge 0.4 0.3 0.4 Z 7 W 1.8 2.6 3.6 <10 3]
Hf 1.1 0.20 0.11 3.8 0.25 Y 10 8 10 70 25
Ir <0.002 <0.001 <0.002 <0.006 <0.002 Zn 35 Z0 25 104 65
Mn_ 137 11 234 1270 9 Zr 40 15 <20 150 9
Mo 6 15 15 0.9 10

34

Th. HUGI, J.J. FARDY, N.C. MORGAN AND D.J. SWAINE

TABLE 6

RANGES FOR MOST VALUES OF TRACE ELEMENTS (ppm in dry coal)

Switzerland
anthracitic brown and
lignitic
<0.01-0.1 <0.01-0.07
0.5-12 3.7-42
<0.001-0.011 0.001-0.007
5-50 20-100
42-272 63-342
0.4-5 <0.2-4
0.5-3.8 0.34-6.9
<0.005-0.27 0.015-0.11
<25-149 <13-57
0.27-6.4 1.0-5.9
4.1-23 3.3-27
<0.08-4.9 0.11-3.6
0.5-26 4-15
1.0-6.3 0.2-6.2
0.3-15 0.2-10
0.11-3.3 0.055-1.1
<0.003 <0.001-0.056
3-234 15-97
0.9-15 2-70
2-30 2-40
80-200 30-1000
0.2-36 0.1-4.3
<0.2-2.2 0.07-1.9
0.70-4.3 0.24-0.88
0.65-6.3 0.85-7.8
0.3-2 0.1-1.5
<26-414 94-468
0.036-0.45 <0.022-0.37
0.51-5.7 0.21-2.7
120-1060 15-1000
<0.2-2 <0.2-3
<0.26-8.0 1.6-41
4.7-96 3.6-106
0.7-3.6 <1-4.5
7-30 1-15
2.5-47 10-43
9-40 <5-50

(1,2,3,4)

<0.2-0.6
0.2-10
0.001-0.01
4-200
<40-400
<0.4-5
0.06-0.6
0.06-0.15
<100-400
<0.6-20
<1.5-20
-2
6-30
1.5-7
1-20
0.9-4.5

4-600
0.3-4
2-50

20-2000
2-40
<0.1-1.3
<0.3-10
0.25-1.6
<1-7
<20-400

<0.2-6
500-1600
<0.1-1
0.4-3.8
10-60
-5
2-10
13-46
15-300

Australia

(5)

<2-<4
0.3-5
<0.002-0.008

27-350
4-10
70-800
2.6-8

3.5-10
<0.2-2

U.S.A.
(6)

<0.01-0.17
1-70

1-130
11-190
0.7-5.6

0.02-1.2
240-1700
1.5-25
3.7-47
0.2-3.5
5-47
1.6-12
<0.3-13
0.2-2.2

2.2-110
0.3-10
3.6-75
2-300
1.5-44
0.2-4.1
1.3-9.7
0.8-12

<0.3-1.8
17-250

<3-9
190-3200
<0.3-2.2
<0.2-7.1
4.1-77

2.2-18
2.4-170
3-61

References: (1) Clark and Swaine (1962); (2) Swaine (1980); (3) Swaine (1985); (4) Swaine, unpublished;

(5) Cahill and Mills (1983); (6) Zubovic et al (1980).

TRACE ELEMENTS IN SWISS COALS 35

may occur in the coal from Blapbach (sample 3). Prospecting for uranium has been carried out in the
Blapbach coal area (URAN AG, 1959). The origin of these high contents of molybdenum, uranium,
vanadium and some other elements is probably due to inputs from nearby areas with relatively high
concentrations of these elements (e.g. from granitic and gneissic pebbles of the surrounding Nagelfluh-
formation, a part of the Swiss Plateau).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The coal samples have been kindly provided by the Museum of Natural Sciences (Bern), the Swiss
Geotechnical Commission (Zurich) and the Mineralogical Institute, University of Ber.

REFERENCES

ASTM, 1978. Standard test method for trace elements in coal and coke ash by atomic absorption.
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Bouska, V., 1981. GEOCHEMISTRY OF COAL. Elsevier, Amsterdam. 284 pp..

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Bureau fiir Bergbau des Eidgendssische Kriegs-Industrie- und Arbeitsamtes, 1947. Der schweizerische
Bergbau wahrend des zweiten Weltkrieges, 251.

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Carr, P.F. and Fardy, J.J., 1984. REE geochemistry of late Permian shoshonitic lavas from the Sydney
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Clark, M.C. and Swaine, D.J., 1962. Trace elements in coal. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial
Research Organization, Division of Coal Research, Technical Communication No. 45, 109 pp.

Fardy, J.J., Htigi, T. and Swaine, D.J., 1987. Trace elements in Swiss coals. 5th Australian Conference on
Nuclear Techniques of Analysis, Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering, Lucas
Heights, 166-168.

Finkelman, R.B., 1981. Modes of occurrence of trace elements in coal. United States Geological Survey,
Open-file Report No. OFR-81-99, 301 pp.

Gluskoter, H.J. and Lindahl, P.C., 1973. Cadmium. Mode of occurrence in Illinois coals. Science, 181,
264-266.

Godbeer, W.C. and Swaine, D.J., 1979. Cadmium in coal and fly ash. Trace Substances in Environmental
Health, XIII, 254-261.

Haynes, B.W., 1978. Electrothermal atomic absorption determination of arsenic and antimony in
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Kiindig, E. and De Quervain, F., 1953. Fundstelle mineralischer Rohstoffe in der Schweiz (2. Ausgabe).
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Miiller, W.H., Huber, M., Isler, A. and Kleboth, P., 1984. Geologische Karte der zentralen Nordschweiz | :
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36 Th. HUGI, J.J. FARDY, N.C. MORGAN AND D.J. SWAINE

Genossenschaft fiir die Lagerung radioaktiver Abfalle (NAGRA) und der Schweizerischen
Geologischen Kommission.

Riley, K.W., 1982. Spectral interference by aluminium in the determination of arsenic using the graphite
furnace : choice of resonance lines. Atomic Spectroscopy, 3, 120-121.

Riley, K.W., 1984. Significant reactions of aluminium, magnesium and fluoride during the graphite furnace
atomic-absorption spectrophotomertric determination of arsenic in coal. Analyst, 109, 181-182.

Swaine, D.J., 1984. Inorganic constituents in Australian coals. Mitteilungen der Naturforschenden
Gesellschaft in Bern, NF, 24, 49-61.

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CONTROLS FOR COAL MINING, pp. 264-274. J.C. Hannan (Ed.) Australian Coal Association
Earth Resources Foundation, Sydney.

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ELEMENTS IN SOLVING PETROGENETIC PROBLEMS & CONTROVERSIES, pp. 521-532.
S.S. Augustithis (Ed.). Theophrastus Publications, Athens.

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AND EPIGENESIS IN THE FORMATION OF MINERAL DEPOSITS, pp. 120-129. A.
Wauschkuhn, C. Kluth and R.A. Zimmermann (Eds.). Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

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Analytical Chemistry, 15 (4), 315-346.

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Swaine, D.J., 1990. Trace Elements in Coal. Butterworths, London, 294 pp.

Tennant, W.C., 1967. General spectrographic technique for the determination of volatile trace elements in
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Zubovic, P., Bragg, L.J., Rega, N.H., Lemaster, M.E., Rose, H.J., Golightly, D.W. and Puskas, J., 1980.
Chemical analysis of 659 coal samples from the eastern United States. United States Geological
Survey, Open-file Report No. 80-2003, 513 pp.

Th. Hiigi J.J. Fardy N.C. Morgan
Former Head, Dept of Geochemistry ANSTO D.J. Swaine
Mineralogical Institute Lucas Heights CSIRO, Division of
University of Bem NSW 2234 Coal and Energy
Balzerstr. 1 Technology
CH3012 Bern PO Box 136
Switzerland North Ryde

NSW 2113

(Manuscript received 25-9-1992)

(Manuscript received in final form 18-3-1993)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 126, pp.37-61, 1993

ISSN 0035-9173/93/010037-25 34.00/1

37

UNDERGROUND SPACE: THE GEOSPATIAL PLANNING OPTION FOR

21ST CENTURY

SYDNEY

PART ONE: HISTORICAL OVERVIEW AND RATIONALE FOR THE USE OF GEOSPACE

Sydney A. Baggs

ABSTRACT. In the city of Sydney, Australia, urban surface space is becoming congested, and
residual open space overshadowed by high-rise development. The use of the subsurface domain is
presented as an alternative planning option that is not only energy efficient in resources utilisation
but also land-use efficient in its recycling of industrial land for residential, commercial and
recreational purposes. A brief history of the use of geospace is presented, the principles of the
ground-heat physics involved are explained and a geopolitan planning concept for the development
of urban and suburban Sydney in the next century is outlined.

INTRODUCTION

A recent demographic survey of population growth-
rate in Australia reported that there was an overall
concentration along Australia's eastern coast between
Noosa, Queensland, and Batemans Bay in New South
Wales. SE Asia, the Eastern Block and
Mediterranean countries are generating additional
immigrants. While the whole world watches sea-
levels rise, it will morally expect neighbouring
countries possibly to accept entire populations from
inundated islands. These unforeseen causal events
produce the effect of steepening the projected
Australian population growth-curve for the next
century.

Constrained by the scarps of the Great Divide
and retreating sea coasts, the eastern seaboard of
New South Wales has only a limited amount of land
surface available for development. Options must be
found to optimise land space without jeopardising an
appropriate balance between development and the
natural environment.

Under pressures such as these, together with
rising surface land costs, the use of subsurface
space—geospace—is an alternative strategy that
should be considered by all planning departments up
to government level, if a megalopolis type of
development with its deteriorating standards of living
and escalation of land costs is to be prevented.

The City of Sydney in 50 Years Time

In 1990, the then Lord Mayor of Sydney, Jeremy
Bingham, predicted the expansion of pedestrian

precincts and walks, the undergrounding of the
Circular Quay railway and the Cahill Expressway, as
well as the restoration of George Street as a
promenade with 19th-century dignity. Central
railway station would be moved to Everleigh, while
the Central railway and Broadway precincts would
become the ‘intellectual hub' of the city. The Town
Hall, Sydney Square and Queen Victoria Building
would remain, and the theatre area in George Street
would be upgraded. Opposite Sydney Square, a new
city square would be developed on the old
Woolworth site (as part of the new
transit/commercial tunnel to be constructed under the
city, linking Darling Harbour to William Street).
Underground pedestrian ways would link Town Hall
to Martin Place, Wynyard Railway station would be
linked to an underground bus-rail interchange and a
mall system (Figure 1). (Such proposals as the latter,
some of which are underway, utilise the zone of
shallow geospace discussed below.) Yet geospatial
planning presents a much more important potential
Strategy for development than is represented in its
present piecemeal use in the City of Sydney.

In the Sydney Morning Herald of May 29,
1993 Geraldine O'Brien reported the city planner
John McInerney as saying that the new, recently
gazetted planning policy will control ‘the way
buildings affect people on the street and their
environment, rather than judging them by floor
space ratios which didn't contribute to the quality of
street life’. Environmental principles and urban
design will be more important than floor space ratios
which have been set at 12.5:1 maximum compared
with the previous 1971 maximum of 15:1 (gross
floor area to site area). Urban design and heritage

38 S.A. BAGGS

*

“ARCHITECTS TNERICE DAUBNEY GROUP

Bel POL A a a me as

e y

“zi; Wa

ee &
ALE
AALS IGA PT
SP APAMEE

Figure 1:
Kern Corporation Ltd redevelopment proposal for the Wynyard precinct. (Courtesy: The Kern Corporation Ltd)

conservation controls will override floor space ratio
limits and particular attention will be given to
parklands and civic gardens.

In the future, transport would probably
comprise private vehicles when so-called ‘smart’ cars
are introduced that would permit drivers to be
computer-guided to avoid traffic congestion.
Bingham's 1990 prediction seems to be still correct.
He said that cars would be unnecessary in the city as
rapid transit systems would bring people into the city
from peripheral underground parking stations. In the
city, non-polluting buses and taxis would be battery-
operated, and most deliveries would be made
underground through connecting building basements.

At least 3 more airports would be needed in
present tourist trends were to be extrapolated for the
next 50 years. Vertical-take-off-landing (VTOL)
aircraft will be used to avoid airports. Helipads will
be atop many buildings. The under-harbour tunnel
from North Sydney to the Eastern suburbs is
underway, and a proposal has been made for an
underground rail link between the airport and the
Central Business District (CBD).

The high densities accompanying such
development will be serviced by the present
unpleasant patchwork growth of freeways and fly-
overs until traffic congests to such an extent that
some form of public-transport ‘retrofit’ will be
needed on a grand scale.

However, the problem of the heat-island effect
created by masses of heat absorbing walls and roofs
and heat-reflecting window walls will continue to
compound (Geiger, 1966).

Is There an Alternative?

There is an alternative scenario to the above. It is one
that emphasises the use of underground space—
geospace—buildings within the earth, geotecture
(from geo: (Gk) ‘Earth’ and tekton: (Gk) ‘builder’).

Why endure this traditional city growth
pattern? Why not leave the present ground surface
development to finish its life-cycle, preserving
historically significant structures and recycling the
land surface to recreation and parkland? Why not
develop a roof-garden city? With geospatial
planning the city would be more economical and

UNDERGROUND SPACE: 21ST CENTURY SYDNEY 39

efficient while serving the city dweller with nature
contact and open space at surface level as well as
well-lit offices grouped around sunlit atria and sited
beneath a continuous roof-garden parkland.

Although the legal problems of geospace are
more daunting than the technological problems, they
are not insoluble. Apart from the present use of
shallow geospace, the first 100-200m below the
ground represent such a vast unused resource that, in
the words of Dr Ray Sterling (Director of the
American Underground Space Association), ‘we must
learn how to develop...[geospace] wisely, effectively
and safely’ (Sterling and Circo, 1984). This suggests
hybrid development of a roof-garden city with its
services in conduits or corridors beneath it
maintaining floor-space ratios and controlling
upward growth.

Figure 2 shows such a compromise between
geospace and traditional ground surface
development. It represents an economical
compromise which avoids deep geospace
development and can be used for underground
conditions where groundwater problems prevail. It
will be accepted here as a reasonable model for
investigating a totally different approach to the
development of the city of Sydney through the next
century with modifications in height and with the
insertion of sunlit atria into the centre of block
developments.

But first, consider how people have used the
subsurface for cities and towns in the past.

HISTORICAL EXAMPLES OF GEOSPATIAL
CITY AND TOWN DEVELOPMENTS

Underground Villages, Cities and Towns,
Past and Present

In the Paleolithic, humanity first utilised caves for
shelter from danger and the cold climate. In the
Mesolithic, pit dwellings were constructed to replace
caves as the interglacial climate permitted a wider
ranging nomadic life. It was not until major
settlements had developed along the trade routes that
those towns and cities threatened by invasion and/or
located in climatically extreme regions began to
utilise geospatial development.

There are innumerable examples of historical
geotecture such as cave and ‘dugout’ dwellings
throughout the world, some of which are still in use.
These are located in Australia, China, Tunisia, South
Italy, Crete, Palestine, Syria, Spain, France, United
Kingdom, North America, Bulgaria and Turkey.

There are cave temples and monasteries in Turkey,
Egypt, Jordan, Georgia, India, Sri Lanka, China and
Thailand. However, those human settlements that
housed ancient populations (which can be categorised
as large villages, towns or even cities) follow.

Turkey.
Probably during the Hittite invasion around
2000 BC (Kostof, 1972) or perhaps earlier, the

excavation of single and multiple dwellings into the
soft tuffaceous stone of the central Anatolian Plateau

of Turkey began (Figure 3). Their inhabitants were
referred to by Herodotus as ‘troglodytes’ (Rawlinson,
1952). Nation after nation of inhabitants subsequently
gradually developed these Proto Hittite habitations
into elaborate subterranean cities of which some one
hundred are presently known to exist (Demir, n/d).
These developed not only under the impetus of a
need for safety and protection from invasions by
Romans and Arabs, but also to escape searing
summers and freezing winters, Several of these
cities are grouped around Derinkuyu and Kamakli,
the former being the oldest (between 17-20th century
BC).

Although little is known about these cities, it
appears that they are between 8 and 10 storeys deep,
with only the first 55m explored so far (Figures 4,
5). Between Derinkuyu and Kamakli there is a 9km-
long underground, tunnel-street connection. It is
suspected that many other underground sites exist
that were built by Arab slaves during Byzantine
times. Elaborately planned and autonomous,
Derinkuyu has ventilation shafts 75-80m deep, the
first 2 storeys contains storehouses, kitchens, many
chambers for living, sleeping and dining, wine
cellars and water stores, stables and toilets. Below the
second storey, third and fourth floors contain
armouries, churches and schools. Many wells occupy
the lowest floor and other tunnels link nearby cities.
Altogether, present estimates indicate that 18-20
storeys once existed covering 4km2 and housing
twenty thousand families (Demir, n/d). Other
underground towns in Cappadocia that are famous
include Goreme, a tourist attraction. It is recognised
as one of the major centres of Byzantine mural
painting and one of the most concentrated areas of
Eastern monasticism. Although now unoccupied, its
original inhabitants were always comfortable in a
rock temperature that approximated 20°C in a
climate of arid summer heat and freezing winters.

France.

Naors-la-Souterraine. One of the many
souterraine towns and villages in Europe, the
historical underground city of Naors is located 15km
north of Amiens in the Region of Picardy, Somme

40 S.A. BAGGS

Rinna e's
Br TaN Te Of toed

Figure 2a:
The Semi-underground concept described by Professor Yoshiaki Yoshimi (Davidson, 1988). Diagrammatic section showing 10 storeys

above ground and 5 storeys below linked by underground passages

vey ee es

. ghee,

Figure 2b:
Japanese geopolitan development proposal. A group of sAildiaps with 10 storeys above ground-level, and 5 storeys below. The
buildings are so designed as to almost balance building weight with buoyancy by assuming that the underground water-level is relatively
close to the surface. Pedestrian footbridges are constructed in the spaces between the buildings. Spaces between buildings can be used
as light wells, atria, passageways or for non-polluting transit vehicles (Davidson, 1988). (Courtesy: Shimizu Corporation)

Prefecture (Figure 6). Opened to tourists in 1949,

these spacious caves with 20-30m of soil and rock
overburden were occupied and extended during
Roman times and throughout the Middle Ages. The
complex is the most complete and extensive of the
refuges currently known in France. Hand excavated
to an average depth of 33m measuring 3000m in
length, it comprises 30 galleries the height of which
ranges between 1.6-3m.

United Kingdom.

England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales all have
geotectural habitations, villages and even towns in
their prehistory and history. From the fogues
(underground fortified dwellings) of the Cornish tin
miners to the Mesolithic settlement of Skara Brae in
the Orkneys, ancient cultures as well as those of
history (and the present), their occupants used the
cosy warmth of dwellings cut into rock or fitted into
the earth to escape Atlantic winters.

UNDERGROUND SPACE: 21ST CENTURY SYDNEY 41

Figure 3:
Map of Turkey showing the province of Cappadocia. (City of
Derinkuyu marked with arrow)

Figure 4:
The underground city of Derinkuyu. Blocked entrances shown
with an arrow and 'b’; access is shown with a double arrow.
Vent shafts are marked with a 'V'

The City of Nottingham is constructed on an
extensive network of cave dwellings which were
extend as time went by and are mostly accessed
through the basements of modern buildings.
However, some cottages are still extant as in the
house in the Rope Walk (Figure 7). The village of
Sneinton near Nottingham was completely rock-cut
(Figure 8).

North America.

North American Indian cliff dwellings were
often extensive towns exstructured as well as
constructed into the cliff faces of canyons in Arizona,
Colorado and adjoining States. Both pit dwellings
(kivas) and cliff-dwellings (Figure 9), are cool in
scorching summers and warm in the freezing winters
of these arid regions. There are also innumerable
examples of clusters of northern Indian habitations
(mandams) later copied by the midwest settlers in

Figure 5:
The underground town of Goreme, Cappadocia, Turkey

Figure 6:
The underground city of Naours, France
At the intersection of tunnels that served as streets, are spaces
that functioned as meeting halls. The most impressive of these is
the area known as the Rotunda with a ceiling height of
approximately 30m.

their mostly isolated, earth-integrated prairie houses
with the earth taken up the walls and over the sod
roofs.

China.

The development of urban geospace also
occurred in China over the centuries. This type of
dwelling (exstructured in soft loess rock) has existed
for 6000 years. Estimated in 1981 as housing some
40 million people, it is generally classified in China
as pit and hillside types (these have been used in
communal groups) (Figures 10, 11). China has built
one hundred experimental earth-covered homes but
has experienced difficulty in persuading peasants to
move out of their comfortable ancient dwellings.

42

S.A. BAGGS

Figure 7:
The United Kingdom is sprinkled with examples of historical
geotecture. Cave villages, towns and separate houses are often
hidden beneath new structures. Some are still visible as in the
Gordon Caves House in the Rope Walk, The Park, Nottingham
(this was the condition in 1928). The complete decorative facade
is cut from solid sandstone (as in Chinese ‘dragon caves' or the

temples of Petra, Jordan)

Southern Europe, the Mediterranean

and Baltic regions.

In Sicily, geotecture towns abound, e.g.,
Siculiano, Caltabelotta, Rafadalle, Bronte, Maletto
(Kostof, 1972). In Spain, the Baza-Guadix area
contains some twelve thousand geotecture dwellings
(Figure 12). Armenia and Georgia both have
extensive medieval rock monastery settlements
mentioned by Zenophon (Pitt, 1986), while
Herodotus writes of the troglodytes of Ethiopia
(Rawlinson, 1952).

From the Past into the Present

Japan.

In Japan more than 70 huge shopping
complexes honeycomb the earth beneath the largest
cities. Osaka, Japan's second largest city has several
such facilities. These well-lit, climate-controlled
'roads' (in some cases over 1.5km in length with the
noisy streets 13m above) are called chicagai. They
are only shut down between | a.m. to 5 a.m. for
cleaning, and sewage is pumped to the surface for

disposal (Cross, 1989). Further vast shopping
complexes and transport interchanges are planned by
the Umeda Underground Development Association in
conjunction with the Osaka City administration. The
stimuli for geospatial development have been
demographic pressures, the high cost of urban land
and increased safety from seismic disturbances
(Baggs, 1981a).

Australia.

Australia has its opal mining ‘dugout’
townships of Coober Pedy, South Australia, and
White Cliffs, New South Wales (Baggs, 1981la,
1981b), with their roots in a past that began with
Cornish copper miners who brought the ‘dugout’
dwelling to Australia in Burra, SA (Baggs, J. 1985).

Modern Geotecture

Modern geotecture ranges from single earth-covered
dwellings, to underground shopping centres and
industrial complexes. It is found in many countries,
e.g., in Russian cities, 35 per cent of all building
costs are for underground structures. In Montreal,

UNDERGROUND SPACE: 21ST CENTURY SYDNEY

43

Figure 8:
Sneinton Hermitage, one portion of a geotecture village near the
City of Nottingham. (The whole city is founded on a vast
network of cave systems used since the Paleolithic)

Figure 9:
In the United States of America, this cliff-dwelling complex, the
so-called Montezuma's Castle, is one of the best preserved of its
type. Pueblo towns and villages were located in arid, dry
valleys. This 5-storey castle is still 90 per cent intact

44 S.A. BAGGS

Canada, harsh winters make underground shopping
logical, in Los Angeles, cool shopping is possible in a
vast complex beneath the Arco building. There is a
shopping centre linked to the subway development in
Seoul, South Korea, in France, the Metro
development of Paris (especially Les Halles) is world
famous, as are the UNESCO ‘écessed-atria buildings
(Rudofsky), 1977) and the new exténsions to the
Louvre with its glassed-skylight atrium. Extensive
underground developments exist in Sweden,
Scandinavia, Norway that include sports centres,
swimming pools, hospitals, theatres and bulk storage
facilities for liquids, gases and solids, etc.

With its heritage rooted in prehistory and
history, present-day geotecture was given new life
with the need to find an alternative architecture to
save energy during the worldwide oil crisis. The
Cuban situation also engendered much anxiety that
boosted the building of many thousands of earth-
covered residences and at least one school in Abo,
New Mexico. Several schools in California were
earth-integrated to conserve space and for earthquake
protection. The need to conserve surface space in
cities and towns as well as on university campuses in
the USA and England was also pressing.

Development of modern geotecture in
Australia was stimulated by the requirements of both
conservation of energy and the desire to preserve the
natural beauty of a site. It was introduced to
Australians as the outcome of an international
conference in 1983 (Baggs, 1983a), and has
experienced a steady growth curve since that time.
Today, earth-covered houses, churches, a
kindergarten, a school and an aboriginal art museum
have been constructed in NSW. Many of these
buildings have won awards ranging from the HIA
‘Most Innovative’ to the prestigious RAIA Blackett
Award for country architecture, (e.g., the dwelling
illustrated in Figure 22 won a National Energy
Award because it had used no energy for heating or
cooling since 1982 and the home in Figure 23 was
awarded ‘Most Innovative’ in the Housing Industry
Awards). In Sydney, many city developments
incorporate significant proportions of geotecture in
basements and pedestrian networks.

Cities of the Future

Japan leads the world in imaginative and extensive
schemes for the future. A 'Geofrontier Project’ has
just been launched involving a budget of
approximately A$150 million to excavate a geospatial
cavity 50m diameter x 30m high with a floor 80m
below ground level (Cross, 1989). As soft soil

Figure 10:
The small town of Quinghuabian Yan'an, Shaanxi Province,
China

excavation is more difficult than the well tried hard
rock techniques, the Ministry of International Trade
and Industry is still looking for a site. Meanwhile, a
deep transit-rail system is being investigated 100m
below surface and the project will include magnetic
levitation trains, finally leading to whole cities
underground.

Taisei Corporation, a large building company,
has published concepts for what they have called
Alice City Network to contain offices, shopping
malls and hotels. Shimizu Corporation also has an
imaginative project called Urban Geo-Grid (Figures
13, 14). As the prototype for such developments, it
presents an excellent model upon which to base
future developments.

The Urban-Geo-Grid is planned on the basis
that grid points are located underground on a grid
network. (Figure 15). Geotecture Grid Stations are
established at each major grid node (Figure 25).
Each controls a group of Grid Points, and new
traffic systems or communication networks connect
them (Davidson, 1988).

There is abundant natural sunlight to the
interior of each Grid Point, and above-ground
development can coexist in conjunction with this
system. The development is planned for the Boso
Peninsula through the water front and undersea of
Tokyo Bay (Figure 27).

In the CIS (formerly the USSR), the writer has
been involved with the Kirghistan Academy of
Sciences on education for the development of
concepts to extend to the city. This is considered

UNDERGROUND SPACE

Figure 11:
Hillside town development in China
(a) Plans and sectional perspective
(b) Hillside (elevational) dwelling known as a ‘dragon cave'
(Kakiuchi and Noguchi, 1985).

: 21ST CENTURY SYDNEY 45

necessary because of the conflicting demands of the
housing needs of an increasing population and a
shortage of arable land. Also, there is a need to
construct shelters for sheep because of the severe
climate.

THE. RATIONALE FOR,
UTILISATION OF GEOSPACE

AND THE

What are the benefits involved in the utilisation of
geospace? This question opens up an array of
additional issues, for example, what does
‘underground space’ mean in definitive terms? (See
Appendix I.) What levels of geospace are worth
considering and for what reasons? This leads to a
consideration of how does the principles of ground
heat physics determine what zones of geospace may
be utilised for human occupation in terms of the
economical allocation of resources. What advantages
and disadvantages are associated with its use? What
of the psychological aspects of the use of geospace?
Where has it already been used in local and overseas
urban areas? How can some of the principles of
geospatial planning be applied in the future in terms
of the existing infrastructure of a city's built areas,
open spaces, transit corridors and utility networks?
Finally, the question how could the principles be
applied to the geospatial development of Sydney and
its suburbs is asked? Each of these question will now
be discussed.

It is not suggested here that people live
underground without windows or access to nature
contact, although it will be proposed that it is quite
possible for them to work in correctly designed
geospace. The contention is that the thermal and
acoustic benefits of underground-space use are
applicable to residential complexes that are integrated
into hills, commercial and industrial complexes into
the sides of atria (if the ground-water table does not
conflict) or into the sides of artificial hills if the
water table is high (Figure 17).

The Ground Heat Physics
Geotecture

Rationale for

To what depths is geospace economically habitable
and how does ground-heat transfer determine the
zones involved?

Although underground space covers all space
within the upper mantle of the earth that can be
utilised by humankind, for present purposes, it will
be defined in terms of 3 broad zones, 1.e., the upper,
the transitional (intermediate or near steady-state)
and the geothermal zones. These will be discussed in

46 S.A. BAGGS

Figure 12:
An earth-covered dwelling in the Spanish underground town of
Guadix

Figure 13: Figure 14: :
Future Japanese geopolitan development: Alice City Network. Alice City network proposal, aerial view and section through a
Cross section through a major mall system (Courtesy: Taisei node

Corporation, Tokyo)

<< 7a Figure 15:

Future Japanese geopolitan development: Urban Geo-Grid
(Courtesy Shimizu Corporation, Tokyo)

UNDERGROUND SPACE: 21ST CENTURY SYDNEY 47

the contexts of the Australian continent and the soil
and rock strata not subjected to the mechanics of
frost penetration or water table heat-mass transfer.

The following discussion on heat transfer in
Australian soils aims to establish the case for the
utilisation of geospace on the grounds of energy
efficiency.

The upper zone.

The upper zone is presently occupied by the
basements of buildings, shallow space terratecture,
underground utilities and transit tunnels. It can be
defined in general terms as the zone containing those
ground strata that are subjected to ground heat
transfer as the result of periodic temperature
fluctuations. These effects are produced by climatic
and environmental factors at the Earth's surface
which generate or control heat transference into and
out of the earth. This will now be explained in broad
detail.

During the hours of sunshine the temperature
of the ground surface rises, until the rate of heating
by the sun is equal to the rate of heat lost from the
ground to the environment. Heat is lost or gained by
the ground by conduction, and then through the air
by longwave radiation. By mid-afternoon, when the
day cools and ground temperatures begin to fall, heat
flow is reversed, and heat begins to flow to the
surface from below. Heat loss by terrestrial-
longwave radiation continues throughout the night
and is at a maximum on cloudless nights. Just after
sunrise, the terrestrial radiation heat loss equals the
heat gain from the sun during the previous day,
together with additional contributions from the air
above and the geothermal zone below.

These thermal transaction patterns are repeated
in the cycle of the seasons and are modified by a
multitude of environmental factors. They include the
innumerable daily and hourly air-temperature
fluctuations and air turbulences which result in
continuous minor heat exchanges at the interface of
ground surface and atmosphere. The accumulative
effect of these heat exchanges can be seen as broad
seasonal pulses of incoming and outgoing heat
energy.

The long-term result of these processes and the
thermal characteristics of the ground is that, given
sufficient depth of soil, the overall heat gain from
summer is slowed in its passage through the earth to
the extent that a building below ground can
theoretically receive this heat as an early winter

source of heating. This effect is a function of both
depth below ground surface and soil thermal
diffusivity, the latter being a function of the thermal
conductivity, density and specific heat of soil.
Conversely, the cooling effects of winter are also
delayed, potentially cooling the building in early
summer. At levels around 5m depth, the ground
temperature hardly responds to seasonal fluctuations.
At this level, the much modified 'swing' (equal to
twice the amplitude) in the annual ground-
temperature curve tends to transfer its relatively
stable temperatures to the underground building.

This means that the ground around the
building becomes a heat source in winter and a heat
sink in summer (when the flow of heat from the
interior of the building to the soil keeps the interior
temperatures down). Provided all major interior
sources of heat are exhausted directly to the
atmosphere or recycled, correctly designed
geotecture should require much less introduced
energy for heating and cooling and should be warm
in winter and cool in summer. The potential for the
near steady-state ground condition to be used thus
depends upon the average ground temperature in the
intermediate or transitional zone.

The depth of this interface between the upper
and the transition zones is best understood by
considering the graphical distribution of temperature
in strata of differing average thermal diffusivities
over time. Figure 18 shows how strata of low
average thermal diffusivity damp amplitude in the
ground temperature wave over a period of one year
compared with how amplitude is damped when high
average soil thermal diffusivity values prevail.

From Figure 18 it may be seen for all practical
purposes, that the average annual ground
temperature wave is damped in amplitude to zero at a
depth varying from 8-20m (30m or so in rock of
very high thermal diffusivity). This damping effect is
defined in terms of the mathematical expression
Age"Xl where Ag is the amplitude of the annual air
temperature wave at ground surface for a given site
and x is the depth below ground surface and:

1/,
r = ( ».e \ (1)
| 365a )

where q is the average thermal diffusivity value of
the soil. Alpha (a) is an ‘apparent’ value (West,
1952) (its fluctuations are discussed in detail in
Baggs, 1981a, 1983). In general terms,

48 S.A. BAGGS

La
R (on {A
4 i me WEE ents :
A “te =, ma i FSi PH py tN 5
/ Sa ee he
Aan coe 5c i me hg go a iy zs
A Ces | ery, rae Bs
aS a iu =. ‘ +. —
>< = gg a = —— s HE == = | {| bis
<6 vat — y eit ee:
¢ \ SS se ————
= a —— \!
i bes == == =>
\ at | OT ae) Sei
, 1 ~} ~\ = ae es a et
pang a perro eee ==
wo PUN fox mia et Me ae ——
4 2 x ZEST Gaboh es
Neale ; (ORGS dh 4 = SPA kate Fr
Dr Ty : ale ite Ge sees =s=8
A ara . =.= pis
A 4 =F
sae as=

Figure 16:
Proposal for the extension of the city of Bishkek, Kirghistan (formerly Frunze, Kirghizia) into the adjoining mountains to free the valley
land for agricultural use. (Architects: ECA Space Design Pty Ltd)

Figure 17:
Artificial hills containing residential complexes in an urban development proposal. (Architects: ECA Space Design Pty Ltd)

nat tested in rock) for all geographical locations on the
av. ground thermal conductivity Australian landmass was:
average @ =
(2)

; 12
av. bulk density x av. specific heat T (xt) = (TmtAT)+1.07Age70-00316x(1/0) cos { 2/n[t-tp-0.1834x(1/a.)!/2) }

From a network of ground temperature

where:
measurements to 2m depth throughout Australia, an
equation was developed that predicted ground Tea) = ground temperature (°C) at a given depth x (cm)
temperature at any depth on any day of the year, and below ground surface on calendar day (t), (the
the predictions were site tested. A form of the ‘seconds’ units cancel out)
equation that performed satisfactorily for all soils Tm = average annual air temperature (°C)

within the Great Soils Groups classifications (but not 47m = local site variable for ground temperature

UNDERGROUND SPACE: 21ST CENTURY SYDNEY

(determined by geographically locating the site on
Figure 20, and reading the value from the
isotherm passing nearest to the site), (K)

TmtATm = average annual ground temperature, (°C)

Ag = amplitude of annual air temperature wave,
established from average yearly maximum and
minimum recorded daily, (K)

a = average annual soil thermal diffusivity (through
the complete soil profile to depth x) for
undisturbed ground, (10-2cm-2sec"!)

to = phase of air temperature wave, (day)

In Figure 19, Eqn 2 may be seen best-fitted to
the data with the sinusoidal curve having an
amplitude of Asz. The curve with amplitude As, is a
best fit to annual ground temperature data for an
inner Sydney suburban area at 0.1m. As was seen
from Figure 18, amplitude damping occurs with
depth below ground. In typical soils at depths below
10m or so, amplitude approaches zero for all
practical purposes, until the geothermal gradient
begins begins to have an effect.

From the above explanation on heat flux
within the ground, it may be seen that the aim of
designing geotecture in this zone is to locate it at such
a depth to take advantage of the phase shift in the
annual ground temperature wave, as well as its
damped amplitude. Both phase shift and amplitude
damping are a function of the depth below ground
surface. If the structure is located at a depth
sufficient to achieve a phase shift of 3-5 months when
summer heat reaches the building in winter and vice
versa, and the soil heat loss of winter provides a heat
sink in summer. Hence, the principal reasons for
designing within the upper zone are that: (a) land
surface is liberated for alternative uses; and (b)
introduced energy to cool/heat is minimised (if not
eliminated altogether).

The transitional or intermediate zone.

This zone lies between the 20m deep upper
zone and the zone of geothermal gradient. It varies
greatly in depth, and for present purposes is taken as
30m. Hence, it lies between the 20m and 50m levels.
This zone of transition where the seasonal and
diurnal heat fluctuations from ground surface merge
with the geothermal flow from within the earth
(Gass, et al., 1972) is virtually in a steady-state
condition (although some temperature oscillation
penetrates to 30m depth in highly conductive rock).
It has been found that the earth temperature of this
transition zone is equal to the average annual climatic
air temperature for any site plus or minus a variable
(ATm in Egn 1), the distribution of which has been
mapped for the Australian continental landmass
(Figure 20) (Baggs, et al., 1990). ATm was found

TEMPERATURE (°C)

DEPTH BELOW GROUND SURFACE (m)

49

ANNUAL RANGE OF MEAN GROUND TEMPERATURE CURVE
AMPLITUDE OF MEAN
TEMPERATURE (°C) ' GROUND TEMPERATURE CURVE
Oo 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 24 26 2 WW 32 MB BW 42 44
= =

AMPLITUDE
DAMPING
ENVELOPE

AMPLITUDE
DAMPING
ENVELOPE
FOR HIGH

0
1

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

VALUE

OF SOIL
THERMAL
DIFFUSIVITY

12 OF SOIL
THERMAL
DIFFUSIVITY

Figure 18:
Amplitude damping envelopes of the annual ground temperature
wave as heat transfer moves into the earth for ground of low
(full line) and high (broken line) average thermal diffusivity
values (Sydney region)

CLIMATIC
MAXIMUM

| by
PHASE-LAG
BEST FIT OF GROUND TEMPERATURE
EQUATION CURVE TO DATA

MEASURED ON SITE

DAILY TEMPERATURE
RECORD 200cm BELOW

GROUND SURFACE |
”,
‘A\
i

AVERAGE ANNUAL
ANNUAL
TEMPERATURE

GROUND
wie

] AL
94 # |

AVERAGE
AIR TEMPERATURE &

176°C
ANNUAL

DAILY TEMPERATURE
RECORD 10cm BELOW
GROUND SURFACE

Figure 19:
Annual ground temperature curve for depth of 1m (which tracks
average annual air temperature) on a daily basis (amplitude As1)

and at 2m depth (amplitude As), Sydney region (Baggs, 1983)

30 S.A. BAGGS

to vary from -1K to +5K, but local topography,
climate, groundcover, albedo and density of shade
cover can alter these values.

The geothermal zone.

Below 30m or so, the geothermal gradient
takes over and averages about 2°C per 110m (Journal
of Royal Society of NSW, 1899). Although this was a
lower geothermal gradient than was to be expected in
the sedimentaries of the Botany Basin (private
communication Dr R. Facer, December, 1989), it
was accepted for present purposes. These data were
published in 1899 (Figure 21), and further enquiries
from experts for up-to-date information about the
Sydney geothermal gradient were unproductive at the
time of writing.

(APPRONMAATE ZONE OF 18 - I C
RANGE 1 AVERAGE GROUND TEMPERATURE

ULI ht,
(APPROIUMATE) 2008 WHERE
AVERAGE GROUBD TEMPERATURE < 16 C
URELUBED Taeesenna)
“ NORTHERN TERRITORY
} ; ee ”

Figure 20:

The 'ATm' map of the main landmass of Australia showing the
geographical distribution of the temperature differential between
average annual air temperature and average ground temperature
for any site (Baggs, 1981b, Baggs, et al., 1990).

For the city of Sydney, the average annual ground temperature
was found experimentally to be 18.1 deg.C (with
AT m=+0.5K). This is adopted as a reasonable working
temperature for the intermediate zone.

Three zones combined.

The full range of zones 0-30m (upper zone),
30-200m (transitional zone) plus xg (geothermal
zone) where Xg is a temperature at which interior
heat loads within a geospatial cavity will not be
transferred to the surrounding strata. For human
occupation, and for all practical purposes, Xg
conservatively should not exceed, say, 21°C (27°C is

o”
26 &
25
24
23
22
21
20
2
a
= 19
WwW
=
18
200 300 400 500

: DEPTH (m) be:

Figure 21:
Ground temperature versus depth below ground surface.
Geothermal gradient for the Sydney region with graphical best
fit to data extrapolated to the upper zone (Journal of Royal
Society of NSW, 1899). (For the Birthday Shaft, Sydney
Harbour Colliery, Balmain)

Figure 22:
Energy-efficient, prize-winning, Hunter Valley earth-covered
house. (Award: National Energy Management Award).
(Architects: ECA Space Design Pty Ltd)

the upper limit of comfort for the human body
although 29°C can be acceptable with air movement).
(This is discussed in detail in Appendix S in Baggs,
1981a.) The temperature differential of 6-8K allows
for a positive heat sink effect to ensure that interior
heat loadings are always conducted away from
inhabited geospace into the infinite thermal heat sink
of the Earth's mass.

UNDERGROUND SPACE

Depths to which Sydney Geotecture could
Extend

With approximately 2°C ground temperature
increase for every 100m of depth,and following a
best-fit to the data in Figure 21, this means that at a
level of 200m, the useful lower level of the combined
zones would be reached for occupation by human
beings without the introduction of excess energy to
counteract the heat source effect of an enclosing rock
that is higher in temperature than is desirable for
removal of interior heat loadings. However, certain
types of geospace-use would be quite appropriate
down to the 450m level at which rock temperature
would be approximately 26°C.

Hence, from an energy-efficient viewpoint, for
Sydney, geotecture would be a viable planning
alternative at depths to approximately 200m for
human occupation and 450m for bulk storage of
appropriate gases, liquids and solids.

THE ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES OF GEOSPACE

Before the potential of the use of geotecture in the
future can be addressed, it is reasonable to consider
its pros and cons as well as how and why it has
already been used in the 20th century.

Advantages

Economies from increased’ thermal
energy-efficiency.

In the above explanation of the heat physics of
geospace, it was seen that geotecture utilises the
surrounding earth as a heat sink and source. This is
ideal for the use of heat exchange systems and energy
consumption is significantly reduced in comparison
with above-ground buildings exposed to ambient

climatic extremes.

Economies from potential adaptation of
mass-production techniques to
geotecture.

The fact that the actual building structure is
below a landscaped environment means that previous
visual monotony of the repetitive forms of mass-
produced structures for housing and industry can be
concealed. As a result, the developed environment
can be one of infinite variety with natural landscapes
completely different from the hard landscapes of
today's urban fabric.

: 21ST CENTURY SYDNEY ol

Economies from reduced maintenance

costs.

In terratecture, the elimination of gutters and
downpipes and a large proportion of exterior wall
finishes reduces first costs and maintenance costs.
However, the predominant factor in the degradation
of the exterior surfaces of a traditional building is
the exposure of surface materials to the damaging
effects of solar ultraviolet radiation. Obviously, this
cannot occur when the external finish (that is, the
waterproof membrane) is covered by soil beneath a
low-maintenance roof garden. Only the small
proportion of the exterior exposed to the sun is
subjected to UV breakdown or to other airborne
pollutants that produce chemical degradation of
materials. Consequently, there is a resultant savings
in maintenance, time, energy and money.

Where open space is limited.

Geospatial development is an ideal planning
option where population density has already
produced a skyscraper city with fly-over freeways
that alienate one precinct of a city from another
either by creating barriers to community access, or
at least as visual barriers that lower a city's aesthetic
quality and amenity.

Examples are the urban and suburban areas of
crowded cities, or regional growth areas with
geographical limits to their spread, such as Sydney.
Sandwiched between the Blue Mountains and the sea,
this city is rapidly becoming an ungainly city. In the
next century, it could extend between Newcastle and
Wollongong, and west to Penrith. Compared to other
continents in the world, Australia has the least area
of coastal plain in relation to its total landmass,
hence, other Pacific coastal cities will probably also
tend towards the megalopolis model already present
on the US eastern seaboard.

Land is often in short supply on university
campuses. Many of these already have underground
buildings constructed for reasons that vary from a
lack of open space to the need to preserve the visual
aesthetic of historical buildings. The Radcliffe
Science Library at Oxford University, England, has
been built underground to preserve the visual quality
of the campus and the historical value of nearby
buildings. At Harvard University, the Nathan Marsh
Pusey Library was constructed underground to
conserve campus open space and allow a clear view
of the historical architecture enclosing that space.
Similarly, campus space was conserved by
undergrounding both the Admissions and Bookstore
building and the Civil and Mineral Engineering

52 S.A. BAGGS

building (the home of the Underground Space
Center) at the University of Minnesota in
Minneapolis. The prize-winning design for the
library of the University of Illinois, Urbana-
Champaign, Illinois, was built underground around a
central courtyard. The architect's brief required that
the -building should not cast a shadow on the oldest
historical agricultural experimental plot still in use.

Where space is scarce in city areas, land is
expensive. In Japan, it costs 40 per cent less to buy
‘land area’ underground compared to above ground.
One chicagai contains two hundred and twenty-five
shops which are visited by as many as eight hundred
thousand people on busy days. The Place
Bonaventure and Villa Marie in the Canadian city of
Montreal are typical geospace commercial
developments that are integrated with transport
networks of the same type as the Metro of Paris with,
for example, Les Halles and the Louvre. On a
smaller scale, the subway of Sydney has recently
been extended to service the eastern suburbs and
other extensions are planned. The geotecture section
of the Very Fast Train (VFT) is already in the
planning stages.

Where large or ugly structures are best

concealed.

Consider the advantages if large ugly
structures were ‘undergrounded'’ and covered by
parks or playing fields. Garaging facilities could be
located almost anywhere underground. In Sydney the
Domain park is located over a parking station as Is
the Sydney University oval, and similar situations
with parks over parking stations exist in many cities
throughout the world. In addition, what if the visual
impact of huge storage tanks could be removed from
our landscape? The storage of water, petroleum
products, molasses and other liquids has been
successfully placed underground in_ several
Scandinavian countries. Warehouses and cold stores
have been sited deep underground in mined-out
limestone caverns in Kansas City, Missouri. These
are more economical to run than their above-ground
counterparts and also leave surface land available for
other purposes.

Ugly buildings and structures are given
prominence in the landscape and visual impact is a
very new concept to urban development. It can now
be quantified as part of in the environmental impact
assessment and evaluation process and should be an
integral part of that process (Baggs, 1985).

Noise attenuation: where a noise- or
vibration-free environment is
necessary.

Siting industry in geospace solves the problem
of locating machine beds free of vibration for high-
precision manufacturing processes. For example, the
Brunson Instrument Company of Kansas City
Underground, Kansas City, Missouri, had problems
with traffic vibrations in an above-ground building
which were solved when it moved into a remodelled
limestone cavern.

Ambient noise levels from adjoining airports
or expressways adversely affect above-ground
buildings. These noise-attenuation problems are
solved by the strategy of undergrounding. For
example, Lake Worth Junior High School at Fort
Worth, Texas, was constructed subgrade and
windowless because it adjoined Carswell airforce
base. The near-constant noise emitted from jet take-
off and landing has to be experienced to be believed.
When interviewed, the children in this school seemed
unaware that they were underground but commented:
‘we like it here, it's much quieter than in the above-
ground parts of the school’. In Australia, an earth-
covered private, primary-school building has been
built in a western Sydney suburb so that nearby
residents cannot hear the children.

Where unacceptable noise levels are emitted
from within a building, as in the case of noisy
manufacturing processes, the excessive noise
generated can be damped to improve the amenity of
adjoining land. For example, some machine shops in
Sweden service their defence equipment
underground. If noise level requirements vary within
the same building, underground there would be
successful noise attenuation. However, it must be
remembered that solid-borne impact noise, travels
easily over long distances underground and requires
vibration damping at source to counteract its effect.

Where safety and security are required
and the forces of nature produce
difficult and dangerous living
conditions.

With geotecture, the likelihood of damage
from natural threats such as storms, bushfire and
grassfire, cyclones and high winds (with their
attendant damage from flying debris), lightning
strike and earthquake is reduced to a large extent.
With shutters, terratecture also provides increased
security against burglary and vandalism. Protection
from the impact of falling objects, or from vehicles
out of control when located near an airport, road or
highway, is also inherent in the concept.

UNDERGROUND SPACE: 21ST CENTURY SYDNEY a3

Geotecture is ideal where climatic factors
impose excessive demands on air-conditioning and
refrigeration in hot-arid zone locations such as in the
opal-mining township of Coober Pedy, South
Australia, or in regions of extreme cold as in
Minnesota, Minneapolis. Where climatic factors
restrict year-long sporting activities, underground
facilities such as the public swimming pool at Gjovik,
and the sports centre at Odda, both in Norway, are
well patronised.

Where cyclones, tornadoes, or hot desiccating
winds, blown sand and glare occur: as in Plainview,
Texas, where the Hamman home (called Atomitat,
for ‘atomic habitat’), designed by J. Swayze in 1962,
has been unaffected by destructive tornadoes. The
totally underground house is built in a dust-storm
belt, and the owner has stated that the only dust that
enters the house is brought in on the feet.
Schoolrooms have also been constructed as cyclone
shelters throughout the United States.

In earthquake zones, good earth-covered
construction (and not actually located upon an active
fault) would suffer little or no damage in
earthquakes. In earthquakes, most loss of life is
caused when buildings collapse. As terratecture
would move with the earth, the twisting and
whipping effect would be minimised, although the
structure must be designed to counteract these
effects, for example, service pipelines need flexible
connections where they enter a building.

An excellent example of this is given in the
energy-award winning house shown in Figure 22
which survived the Christmas 1989 earthquake (5.5
on the Richter Scale) without a crack, the epicentre
of which was only 8km away.

A significant point is made by Yorihiko Ohsaki
(the Vice-president of the Shimizu Corporation and
Ohsaki Research Institute, retired professor of
engineering at Tokyo University) when he states: 'the
acceleration of the surface wave which do most
damage to buildings is reduced to about one fifth
when the wave reaches 20 metres under the ground.
In actual earthquake damage...basements have much
less damage’ (Davidson, 1988).

Where unusually stringent, safety and security
requirements are imposed on the building structure
and fabric, geotecture (particularly if windowless)
offers a successful solution and a greater degree of
security than is possible in above-ground
construction. The use of thermal shutters also
improves security.

For the storage of explosives, many countries
including Australia, Sweden, Scotland, Switzerland,
Canada and the United States have storage areas in
geospace. For the manufacture and storage of toxic
and dangerous materials, such as those of nuclear
reactors, it is claimed facilities could be located
safely at the 150m level.

Civil defence and communications centres such
as the Regional Defense Civil Preparedness Agency,
in Maynard, Massachusetts, have been sited
underground as one of a network of such centres
throughout the United States. The Canadian Forces
Air Defense Command, part of the North American
Air Defense Command known as 'NORAD*, is also
subsurface. NORAD's centre is also underground
beneath Cheyenne Mountain in Colorado. Safe City,
an underground complex with warehouses, archives
and offices inside an abandoned cement mine, also
has luxury units for wealthy tenants dug 46m deep
into Iron Mountain in the upper Hudson River
valley. Elsewhere in the United States, many big
businesses have provided shelters to house their
executives in the event of a disaster. For fire-brigade
headquarters, dual land use is possible. The Forest
Park Fire Alarm Headquarters, St Louis, Missouri,
has a baseball field on its roof.

For bulk storage, near Kansas City, Missouri,
there are the largest drygoods and duty-free storage
areas in the world, housed in disused limestone mines
covering 4.2km2, extending some 19km on 2 levels.
Because security from burglary is almost perfect in
these areas, insurance rates are far less expensive
than for their above-ground counterparts.

For military defence, at Sweden's Musko
Island, underground aircraft hangars have been
constructed, as have docks for warships and
submarines. Water and petroleum-products storage 1s
also underground to prevent deliberate contamination
by sabotage or destruction in the event of a war.
Hospitals also have been excavated underground.

Geotecture is used for air raid shelters in many
countries. In Norway, sports centres and swimming
pool facilities double as wartime or national-disaster
shelters as in Odda. In Sweden, every town of more
than five thousand inhabitants provides disaster
shelters for the entire town population. Houses in
Switzerland have shelters, in addition to the disaster
shelters provided in cities for inhabitants.

For schools and laboratories, security 1s
generally required today. There are many earth-
covered school and university buildings in the United

54 S.A. BAGGS

States. In one US school where vandalism was a
problem, an earth-sheltered (bermed) building was
constructed. However, this left the roof accessible
and particularly vulnerable to attack by vandals, and
earth-covering has been incorporated in some
subsequent schools to protect the roof area. A
particular problem was encountered by the
previously mentioned Lake Worth Junior High
School, at Forth Worth, Texas, adjoining Carswell
airforce base. One of the reasons given for its
construction underground was to avoid the likelihood
of injury to pupils ‘from things falling from the sky’
(apart from the need to escape from the excessive
noise levels from aircraft). For industrial
laboratories, espionage is always a threat, and earth
covering has been undertaken to avert certain aspects
of this crime by forced entry.

For record storage underground buildings
provide a safe environment. For example, the Little
Cottonwood Church vaults of the Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-Day Saints, in Utah, have been
constructed inside a mountain for permanent storage
of vital records. The risk of fire in such
circumstances is minimal, and temperature control is
more easily achieved than in an above-ground
structure.

In Norway, an earth-covered prison provides
secure conditions within a forest.

Where control of air moisture or
temperature is required.

If specific air moisture content or specific
temperatures are required ffor_ storage,
manufacturing, or laboratory conditions, these are
easier to achieve in geotecture than above ground.
For example, the previously mentioned vaults of the
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints in Utah
require low-maintenance, controlled-temperature
conditions for the storage of microfilm. Museums,
art galleries and theatres around the world have been
built underground, or been earth-covered, to provide
controlled conditions and to minimise the use of air-
conditioning, for example, the Gateway Centre in St
Louis, Missouri, with its museum and 2 theatres, and
architect Phillip Johnson's art gallery in Connecticut.
The vast underground complex at Kansas City,
Missouri, which houses both subzero and coolroom
facilities (the largest in the world) permits constant
conditions of low temperature to be economically
maintained. The same complex at Kansas City
requires controlled dry-air conditions for the largest
drygoods and duty-free areas in the world. The
California Institute of Technology has _ its
environmental quality laboratory below ground;

quality control of stored products is improved below
ground (for example, petroleum products, and
substances such as gas, wine and molasses in
Scandinavia and France).

Where areas should be

preserved.

Where areas of natural beauty or historical
significance should not be ecologically and visually
impacted by buildings or structures, geotecture
should be used. The residence in Figure 23 backs
onto a 480ha nature reserve and a low silhouette was
needed to maintain the view of the bushland.

of beauty

It is suggested that if earth-covered buildings
were used in national parks, not only visual quality
but also the comfort conditions for the users of such
buildings would be considerably improved. If an
area is of particular historical significance, imagine
the difference that could be achieved if public toilets,
information buildings, kiosks and rangers’ cottages
were all earth-covered and landscaped with native
vegetation to blend in with the surroundings. Despite
the different type of land use (as in the case of water,
petroleum, oil and molasses storage in excavated
rock caverns), forests have been retained at the
ground surface in some installations in Norway.
Similarly, where low-density residential areas would
need to incorporate large structures such as schools
or churches, the landscape integration of these
building with their sites would result in minimal
visual impact.

Where certain aspects of public health

are involved.

In domestic geotecture incorporating specific
ventilation-design strategies, it is possible to expel
dust before it enters the building Baggs, 1981a). Also
as most of the pathways (except for clothing and soft
furnishings) by which dust enters a building are
eliminated by the watertight envelope of such a
structure, obvious benefits accrue from the reduction
of interior maintenance and dust-related illnesses, for
example, asthma. For the same reasons, rats, mice,
spiders and crawling insects would find it difficult to
enter.

However, this whole question is very open.
People prefer sunshine and views but these
preferences are relative as Carmody and Sterling
(1987) determined when office personnel tended to
choose a larger office in geospace (at the University
of Minnesota) over the possession of a small one with
a window. Other reasons that could explain why a
vast salt-mine in Poland is successfully used as a
hospital and recuperative centre arise from recent
research observations, namely:

UNDERGROUND SPACE: 21ST CENTURY SYDNEY

Ol
ON

bie. ee

ARG ba tee KF

Figure 23:
Prize-winning, suburban, earth-covered house designed for a steeply sloping site to blend with other houses in the streetscape,
integrated with the earth, with a garden roof that minimises visual impact upon the bushiand reserve beyond, this building exemplifies
how terratecture can be adapted to any location to reduce environmental impact. (Awards: HIA ‘Most Innovative Design’, National

Energy Management Award 'Most Energy Efficient over $125 000). (Architects: ECA Space Design Pty Ltd)

(a) that the geomagnetic field has a frequency that
peaks at approximately 10Hz, and the human brain
operates in the relaxed alpha mode, a frequency
having the same average. Induction could be
operating to reduce stress and hence, assist healing;
(b) that a higher proportion of negative gaseous air
ions to positive air ions has been found to exist in
geospatial sites measured by the writer (Baggs,
1981la). This condition has been shown to reduce
seretonin levels and with them the associated
restlessness, anxiety, irritability, depression,
headaches, nausea and eye troubles associated with
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) as well as with
the ‘sick building syndrome’ (Baggs, 1981a).

Geotecture development also has another
advantage over above-ground buildings in that
human stress from external noises can be avoided
altogether, and internal temperatures can be
considerably modified.

Where environmental impact must be

minimised.

Although the short-term environmental impact
of terratecture can be greater than its traditional
counterpart (measures can be taken before and
during construction to minimise this), the long-term
impact on the physical environment (as well as on
visual quality) is far less than for an above-ground
building. This is significant in areas of natural beauty
or historical importance, or in the regeneration of
areas despoiled by mining operations, industry,
freeways, etc. Even in low-density residential areas
where large buildings such as schools and churches
are part of the social fabric, terratecture can reduce
visual impact. Such buildings also help to restore
some of the natural groundwater seepage patterns,
reducing sheet runoff during storms and thereby
decreasing both the load on stormwater drainage

channels and the resultant environmental damage
caused by erosion.

In all geotecture, careful consideration must be
given to the environmental impact upon ground
water ecosystems arising from such developments.
Tunnelling lithotecture produces minimal
environmental impact compared to other forms of
geotecture.

Where difficult
standard solutions.
If a site is steeply sloping, or is not facing
towards the sun, terratecture can usually provide a
solution and render a project viable that under other
circumstances would have been abandoned.

sites require non-

Disadvantages

Adverse psychological factors.

It appears that there are some people who
unreasonably reject the concept of geotecture,
without knowing anything about it. However, such
attitudes exist in only a very small percentage of the
community. They are probably subjective responses
to past experiences. This question of psychological
acceptance is discussed later.

Transmission of solid-borne sound.

Low-frequency solid-borne (as opposed to
airborne) sound can present a potential problem,
although it is possible to damp such noise with
vibration damping materials, or to design room sizes
that do not coincide with the intrusive vibrations (to
avoid standing-wave formation).

Difficulty in making future additions.
Specific allowances should be made for
additions to geospace during the planning and

56 S.A. BAGGS

construction stages, as unplanned alterations or
additions are more difficult than for above-ground
buildings.

Costs versus benefits.

Small- to medium-scale terratecture. It is not
automatic that construction costs of every earth-
covered project will be higher than those of an
above-ground equivalent. Even those increases that
occur (of necessity) can often be offset by reductions
in other areas, for example, by the elimination of
guttering and false ceilings. Areas where cost
increases may occur are: builders unfamiliar with the
concept, who increase tenders to compensate for
their inexperience; professional fees not ordinarily
associated with traditional dwellings; initial extra
landscaping of the roof garden; increased difficulty
involved in making later additions; additional (but
optional) expense in earth covering garages and
Carports; the necessity to be more selective in the
choice of a site (some of the criteria for site selection
relate equally to any passive-solar building) which
may be reflected in increased costs; and difficulties
associated with collection of rainwater.

Geopolitan geotecture developments.
The question of cost versus benefits in such
developments is a serious one. Obviously, extensive
tunnelling (lithotecture) has a cost/benefit case that
must be made for each project. Professor Gunter
Girnau (1982) president of the International
Tunnelling Association makes the following point:
the assessment of costs versus benefits is very
popular today, but attention has to be drawn to the
fact that are a lot of problems in this field which
are still unresolved. It is very difficult to assign a
money value to everything. Some of the most
important benefits of underground railways are
hard to quantify. What, for example, is the
economic equivalent of the growing prosperity of
a city, of less polluted air, lower traffic noise
levels and lower accident rates.

On balance, from the above, it can be seen that the
advantages of geotecture far outweigh the
disadvantages.

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE USE
OF GEOSPACE

Before considering its use in the future of public
acceptance, some thought must be given to the
question asked when geospace is proposed as a design
solution, that is, whether people would willingly use
it. Such a question involves several aspects of the

problem. Firstly, would people be willing to Jive in
geotecture? Here it is made clear that windows are an
essential part of the design of geotecture for
dwellings and offices (Figure 24).

A psychological survey was carried out
amongst a sample of the population of the small opal-
mining township of Coober Pedy in South Australia.
The sample comprised an equal number of
respondents who live above- and below ground who
had knowledge of the underground lifestyle. It was
found that approximately 75 per cent would live in
moder geotecture.

Windowless Space

The question of whether people would be willing to
use space without windows for working (not living)
is another matter. In general, it is common to find
that people involved in working or shopping within
well lit and well ventilated subsurface space have to
be reminded that they are, say 10m below ground.
Most people are not conscious of any difference in
windowless above- or below-ground space.

Although the proposals described later are
based on the use of recessed atria and solar and
skylight access to inner city residential zones, there
are some cases such as factories and shopping centres
that could be developed using central skylit atria with
a high proportion of windowless space.

The question of whether people are willing and
happy to work in underground windowless space had
not been directly and effectively researched in the
1970s. However in 1984 a paper published under the
title: ‘Psychological reactions to working
underground: a study of attitudes, beliefs and
evaluations’ filled the gap. The results from surveys
conducted on a large (312) employee sample in 21
different environments within Kansas City (who
worked in windowless space in mined-out limestone
mines converted to offices, warehousing and
industrial facilities) indicated a positive overall
evaluation of working underground (Hughey and
Tye, 1984).

The underground space was also rated as safe
and efficient, and results were neutral with respect to
the overall ratings of work areas, lighting and
ventilation. The results also suggest that ‘people who
work underground may make a trade-off between the
advantages and disadvantages of the setting... The type
of lighting may be a particularly crucial issue. It is
most desirable to replicate the spectral composition
of daylight as closely as possible’ (Hughey and Tye,
1984).

UNDERGROUND SPACE: 21ST CENTURY SYDNEY

or
oe |

Figure 24:
Interior of Williamson Hall Admissions Building, Minnesota
University, Minneapolis, USA, looking out onto sunlit
landscaped atrium

In the 1940s and 1950s, workers in an
underground factory in Sweden were assessed. 'The
study concluded that no major psychological
problems occurred if the proper interior climate was
maintained...Adequate ventilation is essential to
remove excess heat and the build-up of indoor
pollutants...Windowless laboratory and
manufacturing environments provoke less criticism
than windowless office buildings' (Carmody and
Sterling, 1987). Consequently, in the design of the
system described later, office space is housed in well
lit atria (Figure 25). Entrances need to be spacious
and also well lit, and the transition vertically should
be gradual. Glass partitions, high ceilings,

overlooking galleries and multi-level spaces, large
central spaces linking the surface to deep space and
optical or electronic devices to provide information
about ground surface activities and the weather are Figure 25:

all design strategies to be incorporated. A beamed The Grid Station in the Geo-Grid controlling a grid group
daylight system and full-spectrum artificial light are

58 S.A. BAGGS

advisable as are the use of warm, bright colours,
artwork and well lit interior vegetation (Carmody
and Sterling, 1987).

Should employers wish to relocate industry or
commerce in geospace, it is suggested that
photographic displays or audio-visuals of actual
developments in other countries could be shown to
potential employees. Those who for good reasons of
their own, were not willing to work underground,
could be identified by screening procedures during
the employment interview. Methods for defining and
assessing the factors involved need to be developed
(Baggs, 1981b).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This paper is a revised version of one that first
appeared in the Proceedings of the Institution of
Engineers Australia Tunnelling Conference, Sydney
11-13, September, 1990. Thanks are given for
permission to reprint. The writer is also grateful for
assistance received from the following people and
organisations: Professor T. Yamanouchi, Faculty of
Engineering Kyushu Sangyo University, Mr T.
Sueoka of the Taisei Corporation Research Center,
Mr A. Shindo, Deputy General Manager of Shimizu
Corporation Planning Division, Mr M. Mendez of
the State Rail Authority of NSW, Mr L. Cahill of the
City Engineers Department of the Sydney City
Council, Mr R. Burgess of the Kern Corporation Ltd
and Mr Harry Hunter, Quantity Surveyor, for his
help in preparing the cost information on the
conduit.

REFERENCES

Baggs, S.A. 1981a. Australian underground housing
for the arid region; user-attitudes, remote
prediction of periodic ground temperature, and
the role of certain landscape factors in soil
temperature modification. Unpublished thesis for
the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 2 vols.
Kensington: UNSW. (Available on microfiche
from main library).

Baggs, S.A. 1981b. Underground housing: new
lifestyles in an Australian settlement. Journal
Social Political and Economic Studies. 6:2. 177-
205.

Baggs, S.A. (Ed.). 1983. Australian Proceedings.
First International Conference on Energy
Efficient Buildings with Earth Shelter Protection,
Sydney. 1-6th August. Kensington: Unisearch
Ltd, UNSW.

Baggs, S.A. 1985. A Method of Environmental
Impact Assessment and Evaluation: Using
Commensurate Units. Chatswood: Ecasystems.

Baggs, S.A., Joan, C., and D.W. 1990. Australian
Earth-covered Building. Kensington: NSW
University Press. (2nd ed.).

Baggs, Joan, C. 1985. Lithotecture in Australia. In
(Sydney A. Baggs, Ed.). Geotecture and
Environment. Lectures to the Kirghiz SSR
Academy of Sciences, USSR. Chatswood:
Ecasystems. B.7-B.16. (in print in USSR).

Carmody, J.,and Sterling, R. 1987. Design strategies
to alleviate negative psychological and
physiological effects in underground space.
Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology.
12:1, 59-67:

Cross, M. 1989. Japan invests millions in life
underground. New Scientist. 29 April. 13.

Davidson, F. (Ed.). 1988. Into the Earth. Shimizu
Bulletin. 56. March.

Demir, O. n/d. Cradle of History: Cappadocia,
Derinkuyu. Yeralti Sehr, Derinkuyu, Nevsehir.

Gass, I., Smith, P., Wilson, R. (Eds). 1972.
Understanding the Earth. Sussex: Artemis Press.

Geiger, R. 1966. The Climate Near the Ground.
(rev. ed.). London: Applied Science.

Girmnau, G. 1982. Costs and benefits of underground
railway construction. Underground Space.
May/June.

Hughey, J., and Tye, R. 1984. Psychological
reactions to working underground: a study of
attitudes, beliefs and evaluations. Underground
Space. 8:5, 381-386.

Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New
South_Wales. 1899. North Sydney: RS of NSW.

Kostof, S. 1972. Caves of God: The Monastic
Environment of Byzantine Cappadocia.
Massachusetts: MIT.

Pitt, Allison. 1986. The lithotecture monastery of
Vardzia, Georgia, USSR. Geotecture. 3:2. 50-52.

Rawlinson, G. (trans.). 1952. The History of
Herodotus Book IV. Melpomene. Great Books of

UNDERGROUND SPACE: 21ST CENTURY SYDNEY 59

the Western World. Chicago: Encyclopaedia
Bnitannica, Inc.

Rudofsky, B. 1977. The Prodigious Builders. NY:
Harcourt Brace.

Sterling, E.E., and Circo, C.J. 1984. Legal principles

and practical problems in the two-tier

_ development of underground space. Underground
Space. 8:5/6, 304-319.

West, E. 1952. A study of the annual soil
temperature wave. Australian Journal of Science
Research. 5, 303.

APPENDIX I

A CLASSIFICATION OF UNDERGROUND
SPACE

Although there were many types of underground
spaces that could be considered generically related,
an integrated system of classification was needed with
which to order those relationships (Figure 26). (This
is given in detail in Baggs, 1981la.) Geotecture,
lithotecture and terratecture used here are derived
from: geo: (Gk) the Earth, litho: (Gk) ‘stone’, terra:
(L) ‘earth’, tekton: (Gk) ‘builder’.

'Geospace' has been adopted in the sense that it
includes all space that is earth and/or rock covered
and located beneath the natural or surficially altered
final interface of the earth with the atmosphere, at
both shallow and deep levels.

‘Geotecture' has a specific sense as the design
and creation of subterranean accommodation.

When ‘underground’ is used, ,ground' refers
to the finished ground surface whether it is
predominantly occupied by landscaping or pavement,
or whether it is natural or otherwise, i.e., surficial.
In all cases, the ground (or grade) is considered as
the interface between the earth/rock enclosing an
underground space and the atmosphere. Although the
simple unambiguous term 'earth-covered' is
preferred to underground architecture, both are
used.

Terratecture Types Al-A4

Referring to Figure 26, types Al-A4 have their
floors located at ground level, or above the ground at
the lowest entrance portal or door. As these Type A
buildings are earth-coupled at upper ground level

and not recessed into the earth where temperatures
are relatively stabilised, they are potentially less
energy-efficient than Type B. It is used where the
excavation should be kept to a minimum because of
rock, or where a watertable exists near the ground
surface. When compared to buildings sited with their
floors below ground surface, A types take longer to
‘settle in’ as moderators of the atmosphere's seasonal

air temperature cycle. Should extra rooms be needed
later, they are more easily extended than Type B
buildings.

Al chamber. This type of building has an earth-
covered roof and berms (earth-embankments or
mounds) around all its sides with no windows.

A2 atrium. In Roman times, urban dwellings in
particular, gained privacy by having their open space
located centrally in relation to the house as a
courtyard (atrium) surround by rooms.
Consequently, the atrium-type of earth-covered
building has the spatial characteristics of an atrium
house (combined with those of the Al chamber type).

A3 elevational. This is similar to a chamber-type
earth-covered building except that it has one wall
exposed. This wall has windows probably to a view
(and preferably to the sun for passive-solar purposes
for which this type is ideal). Side walls may have
small areas of windows with earth-berms up to sill
level.

A4 penetrational. This type of building has
windows to more than one elevation of the building.
Of all the types of terratecture, this is the least
energy-efficient unless special provisions such as
double glazing to doors and windows, or insulated
shutters are used to conserve thermal energy.

Terratecture Types B1-4

All these types have their floor levels below the
ground surface level at the lowest entrance portal or
door of the building. Hence, cool air will ‘pool’ at
floor level to a height equal to the height of the steps
necessary for access from floor level up to the door
threshold.

Bl basement chamber. This term is used to
describe a building completely enclosed by the earth,
except for the entrance and exit. It is the type used
for cyclone or tornado shelters. If correctly
designed, it is suitable for nuclear blast and fallout
shelters. In an extreme case, the occupants are
completely cut off from the surface environment and
hence from both natural and human elements. This is

60 S.A. BAGGS

. GEOTECTURE
(OR UNDERGROUND ARCHITECTURE)

Structures built using mining/building
technologies & sited in geospace,
whether shallow or at depth

TERRATECTURE

Buildings with earth roof-cover & earth
enclosing the building envelope :
constructed with cut-and-cover technique

A ABOVE B BELOW
(OR LEVEL) (SUBGRADE)
1 2 3 4

1 2

w

4
4
<
2
2
=
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oc
a
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2
Ww
a

ELEVATIONAL
BASEMENT
RECESSED
COURT
PENETRATIONAL

a
Ww
co
=
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als
oO

EXPOSED
RECESSED

=
=
joa
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LITHOTECTURE

Mined spaces enclosed by fully
selt supporting consolidated or
unconsolidated rock throughout

ee Ea Gee ee le Sea
Floor surface at lowest portal(s)
relative to outside ground level.
fascseaal)

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(OR LEVER: < BELOW

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AND ‘SACK’.
RECESSED/AIR
SHAFT & SACK

Figure 26:

Classification of underground space

the type of dwelling occupied by many Coober Pedy,
SA, and White Cliffs, NSW, residents where the
climate is severe. It is often used in combination with
tunnelled lithotecture.

B2 recessed court. In an atrium building
(described as a recessed court to distinguish it from
Type A2), one can stand in the atrium and not be
conscious that the building is below ground level.
This type optimises the earth-coupling of the building
with maximum perimeter wall area and minimises
thermal losses to the atmosphere through minimal
door and wall openings to the atrium. In very
cold/hot climates, the atrium can be covered while
still permitting the entry of light into the rooms off
the courtyard.

B3 wall exposed. This type is totally buried
beneath earth from the front of the roof to its back
edge. The front is usually the longest edge of the
roof. The rear wall is earth-coupled, and often the
side walls are also fully earth-coupled. The
elevational building with, for example, an elongated
rectangular plan, can balance good earth-coupling of
three walls, floor and roof with an exposed front
wall that is perhaps earth-bermed. This provides all

front rooms with a view and approaches the
appearance of a conventional building.

B4 recessed penetrational. This type of building,
constructed in an excavation, has windows and/or
doors to the back and front elevations. It could be
considered as having minimal earth coupling. Hence,
it represents only a slight potential thermal
improvement upon the A4 penetrational type.

Lithotecture

Shown on the right-hand side of Figure 26 are the
various types of lithotecture found at such sites as
Coober Pedy, White Cliffs and Burra in Australia
where they are referred to as ‘dugouts’. In China
they are called ‘dragon caves’ and in France,
souterraines. Types C and D have been arranged to
have a design correlation with Types A and B. This
type of building is ideal for use in areas where self-
supporting rock is structurally sound and where a
completely neutral aesthetic may preserve the
appearance of a scarp or cliff face. Terratecture sited
on the brink of a cliff, or in the talus below the cliff,
would be more visually obtrusive than either of the
former alternatives.

UNDERGROUND SPACE: 21ST CENTURY SYDNEY

The descriptions in Boxes 1-4 of each category
shown on Figure 25 also apply to the air-drainage
characteristics of underground spaces, i.e., whether
night-cooled air is able to drain viscously into the
interior space through entrance portal(s), or via
ductwork of some description, to provide fresh
cooled air either directly into the interior, or
indirectly into thermal mass storage to be utilised in
the maintenance of comfort conditions during the
heat of the day. Conversely, this configuration also
creates a design problem to avoid the accumulation
of chilled air in winter. This physical property of
cold air retention has been called the cold air ‘sack’
effect when applied to caves, and the term has been
adopted here (Geiger, 1966).

GEOSPACE IN THE FUTURE

Having established that the use of geospace is a valid
planning option for the future, the question cf how it
can be applied in the City of Sydney will be
addressed in the next issue of this journal.

Dr S A Baggs

The PEOPL Group

PO Box 1814 CHHATSWOOD NSW 2067
AUSTRALIA

(Manuscript received 10-4-1993)

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Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.126, pp.63-72,1993 63
ISSN 0035-9173/93/010063-10 $4.,00/1

Tesselated Pavements in the Sydney Region,
New South Wales.

D.F. BRANAGAN and H.C.CAIRNS

Abstract.

Twenty five tesselated sandstone pavements, among them

perhaps the best examples of the phenomenon anywhere in the world, have
been observed on the Hornsby, Blue Mountains and Woronora Plateaux in
the Sydney region. We infer that they formed by weathering and erosion
processes on an old landsurface, which is now being slowly dissected. While
expansion/contraction is the likely cause of formation of the tesselation, the
climatic factors involved are not clear. The reason for the lateral limitation
of individual pavements and the regional extent of the phenomenon is not
yet understood and requires further fieldwork.

Introduction

In an earlier paper, one of us (Branagan, 1968)
described an interesting tesselated pavement
on the West Head Road, Ku-ring-gai National
Park. This is now referred to as the Elvina
Track site. At the time the formation of the
tesselation was suggested as being possibly
the result of metamorphism, caused by a
nearby dyke, although thin sections of the
sandstone showed little evidence’ of
recryStallisation.

A brief abstract (Branagan, 1973) indicated
the presence of several other sites in the
Sydney region, but without much elaboration.
A longer paper (Branagan, 1983) considered
the formation of such pavements in more
detail, and the development of tesselation on
vertical faces and inclined surfaces , drawing
on examples from a number of sites within
different rock types, both in Australia and
Overseas. That paper and the earlier abstract
concluded that the formation of the
tesselations was the result of
weathering/climatic factors, and _ that
metamorphism was not a cause.

However neither publication documented the
many fine sites in the Sydney region which
have become known to us in the past few
years. The present paper discusses in more
detail the distribution of the tesselated
pavements that have been observed to date in
the Sydney region. These are perhaps the best
examples of the phenomenon anywhere in the

world, and it is surprising that they have
attracted so little attention from geologists and
geomorphologists. It is certain that the table of
25 sites (Table 1) is not complete, and further
fieldwork and_ photointerpretation should
reveal other sites.

One problem that exists is the demarcation of
the pavements, and even the decision as to
whether tesselation can rightly be said to be
present (see Branagan, 1983). In general the
boundaries of the patterned ground are
gradational. As discussed in the earlier papers
the tesselation is not penetrative, but extends
perhaps 20cm below the surface. Occasionally
penetrative joints may mark the edge of an
area of tessellation, and the orientation of
major jointing may partly control the
development of elongation of the polygons.

The tesselated pavements occur on each of the
three plateaux, Hornsby, Woronora and Blue
Mountains, (Fig.1) mainly on surfaces of
Hawkesbury Sandstone, and will be discussed
in this order.

Hornsby Plateau

On this plateau 17 sites have been presently
recorded (Table 1, Fig.2).

The largest is the Elvina Track site. This is
more extensive than was indicated in
Branagan (1968), although it might be possibly
regarded as four separate, but closely
adjoining surfaces (Fig.3). Taken in all, the

64 BRANAGAN and CAIRNS

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pelt MOUNT TORAH wot = fae
Burrajong —

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fn
J
alt

ae
) NEWPORT

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dN

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atgrifall }

Fig.1. Regional map showing distribution of sites on the Hornsby, Woronora and
Blue Mountains Plateaux. (See Table 1 for details of the locations of sites).

fp -/ KU-RING-GAI
NATIONAL PARK

“{ WEST HEAD ROAD
Tesceloted Povement

A8.C DK. lecelities mentioned in test
A erect mapped m detei!

survey line

Branagan, 1992).

Fig. 3. Elvina site map (from Cairns and

TESSELATED PAVEMENTS

Bnsbane

Walters,
Staples @

Fig. 2. Map of Hornsby Plateau sites.

Muogamarra

US 8

fer Heights

Basin the ®
x7 eee

GURINGAI

fi

*Hormsby

4. Aerial view of Elvina site. Note the pits
on many polygons. These are discussed in

a separate paper (Branagan and Cairns,
this volume).

66

Elvina Track site has an areal extent of about
6500m2. It consists of a main pavement
(previously described, Branagan, op. cit.) and
several others that extend southeasterly
around a rocky knob. The southeasterly edge
is marked by a cliffline, the southwestern by a
small cliff which is cut by the West Head Road,
while the northern edge is covered either by
vegetation, soil, sand, or rock rubble, or else
dies out and becomes an_ untesselated
sandstone surface.

As indicated in Branagan (op. cit.) the Elvina
Track site consists of a variety of polygonal
shapes and sizes of tesselations, ranging from
elongated rectangles about 6m long by Im
across to almost circular features of about lm
diameter. The large elongated polygons, while
relatively uncommon on most pavements, are
a feature of the main pavement (Fig.4), the
norm of the others being perhaps five or six-
sided polygons, varying from .5 to 1.5m in
width. Some Aboriginal carvings occur on this
site, mostly around the edges. These have
been described or mentioned by McCarthy
(1954), McDonald (1987), Stanbury and Clegg
(1990), Cairns and Branagan (1992), Branagan
and Cairns (this volume).

On the plateau surface north from the Elvina
Track site tesselation first recorded by Sim
(1965) occurs adjacent to the Basin Track. This
site is less extensive (about 330m2) and is
known particularly for its Aboriginal carvings.
The polygons are relatively large, usually
more than Im in diameter. A little further to
the north, adjacent to (and just west of) the
West Head Road is an area (500m2) (referred
to hereafter as the Echidna site) where more
carvings (of an echidna, and an extensive set
of footprints [mundoes]) occur. Sim (1966)
Says this area is tesselated, but it is better
called “incipient” tesselation. A_ series of
elongate cracks has formed on an _ undulating
exposed surface, but there are few complete
polygons (Fig.5).

At the northern end of Muogamarra National
Park a quite extensive patch of tesselation
(1200m2) occurs in a rather coarse-grained
sandstone. Here the polygons are large,
averaging about 2m across. The polygons often
have slightly raised rims, and the lower
central areas are somewhat weathered and
multi-coloured. Aboriginal carvings occur on
this surface.

BRANAGAN and CAIRNS

On the plateau east of Muogamarra, and east
of the Pacific Highway and railway, are two
sites of interest. A small but perfectly formed
zone of tesselation (100m2) occurs on a sloping
surface, facing northerly within the closed
valley known as Campbells Crater. The
sandstone here is quite fine-grained, the
polygons average only .5m in width and the
rock surface is quite smooth. A few small
patches of poorly-developed tesselation occur
on the nearby plateau, some 40m higher in
elevation than that in the crater.

Overlooking the Hawkesbury Road Bridge and
some 4km north of Campbells Crater is a small
zone of tesselation (500m2) on a moderately
coarse-grained sandstone close to the cliff
edge. This surface faces north and unlike the
Other sites mentioned above slopes quite
steeply (Fig.6). It is at an elevation of 185m,
some 8m below the highest nearby point on
the plateau.

Towards the western side of the Hornsby
Plateau, mear Maroota, adjacent to the
Wisemans Ferry road (Fig.2) is a small zone of
tesselation (200m2), containing
equidimensional polygons averaging between
sm and Im width on a generally smooth
surface, part of which is flaking off, perhaps
the result of bushfires. The pavement is close
to an important Aboriginal site (Stanbury and
Clegg, op. cit.,96), but does not itself have any
observable carvings.

A site adjacent to Oxford Falls contains a
variety of polygon shapes over an area of
about 4000m2on eight surfaces separated by
vegetation. This has been the site of a study of
lichen/sandstone relationships by Coates
(1986). At this site there is good evidence that
the formation of the tesselations is closely
related to the present topographic surface.

Several small patches of moderately
developed tesselation occur in the vicinity of
North Head, and further south a small patch
occurs at Balls Head. Branagan (1973) also
mentions several small patches on the sloping
sides of small cliffs at Northbridge and Clifton
Gardens.

North of the Hawkesbury River are five sites
of considerable interest. Four of these occur on
the plateau surface between Pearl Beach and
Patonga, while the other is further north, just

TESSELATED PAVEMENTS 67

east of Staples Lookout on the Woy Woy Road.
What we have called Pearl Beach East and
West sites are separated by the _ present
Patonga road, and they appear to have always
been discrete localities, even if closely
adjacent. The eastern site is remarkably
similar to the Elvina Track site in some
respects (Branagan and Cairns, this volume),
although the polygons are, on average, slightly
larger, and there are few elongate polygons. It
is not as extensive as the Elvina site, being
about 1000m2-

The western Pearl Beach site (400m2) is
generally smoother than the eastern, the
polygons are slightly smaller and the surface
slopes slightly towards the north.

Just off the Warrah track is a very smooth
surface sloping gently north, on which there
are well-developed, slightly domed = small
polygons (300m2). Adjacent areas of smooth
rock of similar composition have’ no
tesselation, and there is no obvious reason for
the variation. This site is partly covered by
vegetation (mainly lichen), and is poorly
drained, the surface often being covered by
Shallow pools of water.

.Skm to the south, and immediately adjacent
to the Patonga Road, at a site known as “Crazy
Rock” is a quite large zone (1000m2) of
tesselation. This slopes slightly towards the
southwest and has been’ considerably
weathered and eroded. There are a _ few
Aboriginal carvings on this surface.

The Staples site is some distance below the
general plateau surface. This pavement
consists of quite large polygons, some more
than one metre across, and covers an area of
approximately 300m2- The sandstone here is
very coarse and the rock is both cross-bedded
and stained by liesegang banding. There are
some pits within the polygons. This surface is
just below two separate surfaces, at
successively higher levels, neither of which is
tesselated, but the highest surface is covered
by carvings (Sim, 1966 and Stanbury and
Clegg, op. cit.).

Woronora Plateau

Only two tesselated pavements have been
seen on this plateau to date. The first of these
(through the courtesy of W.Frazer) occurs east

of Heathcote, and on the west side of the Port
Hacking River, not far below the plateau high
point. This is a small pavement (150m2), with
well-formed polygons (.75m diameter) and a
fairly smooth surface, slightly case-hardened.
The surface is marked by a series of
“mundoes" placed within the polygons. A less-
well-developed surface occurs some
kilometres to the south west, adjacent to the
road into Woronora Dam. No “mundoes” are
apparent on this surface.

Blue Mountains Plateau

Only four pavements have been studied on
this extensive plateau, and several others have
been briefly noted, but there are _ possibly
many others yet to be examined.

A small surface (250m2) is exposed in
Ticehurst Park, Faulconbridge, a well-known
Aboriginal site (Stanbury and Clegg, op.
cit.,109). Here the tesselation occurs on a
smooth surface in relatively fine-grained
sandstone, close to the edge of a small cliff.

A well-exposed, but small, pavement (30m2)
occurs close to Mt. Hay (Fig.7). Here the
polygons are quite deeply indented in fairly
coarse sandstone, and are enclosed by a
curved iron-rich natural wall. This feature is
somewhat isolated from _ other’ sandstone
surfaces. The iron enrichment is a
characteristic of many layers within the
sandstones in this area, which may _ be
Narrabeen Group rather than Hawkesbury
Sandstone (Osborne and Branagan, 1992). It is
topographically the highest pavement yet
examined. However a surface is supposed to
occur north of Mt Wilson (T. Garbellini, pers.
comm.), which has not yet been examined, but
which is probably higher.

Two very interesting surfaces occur near
Linden in the "lower" Blue Mountains. One of
these contains small (less than .5m diameter)
polygons, some almost circular, others
rectangular (Fig.8), and many are slightly
domed. This surface shows evidence of erosion
(or possible human clearing) and covers an
area of about 300m2. A second surface, (with a
slope of about 10° northerly), occurs several
kilometres to the north. It consists of coarser
grained sandstone over an area of 1000m2,
and has a case-hardened greyish surface with
patches of lichen cover. Neither of the Linden

68

surfaces has any Aboriginal carvings on it.
Small pavements have been recorded at North

Springwood (Branagan, 1985), and _ at
Kurrajong Heights. Tesselated pavements occur
near Yerranderie. They will not be
discussed in this paper, although they may
eventually prove significant in elucidating the
history of formation of the pavements.

Discussion

There are various questions which arise:
what controls the size and shape of the
polygons?

what controls the lateral extent of each
surface?

why are the surfaces so variable in
weathering?

what controls the overall distribution of the
tesselations ?

when did the polygons form, are they
presently forming, being destroyed or both?

What significance and use did they have for
the Aborigines?
Of these questions the last is discussed in a
separate paper (Branagan and Cairns, 1993,
this volume).

The size and shape of the polygons seems
dependent to a large extent on the grainsize,
texture and coherence of the rock. There is
probably a critical thickness of the stratum
which determines whether tesselation forms
and groundwater probably plays a significant
role. A minor factor is possibly the size of the
exposed surface, its orientation relative to sun,
wind and rain (runoff, retention). The study
by Coates (op. cit.) suggests that the activity of
algae does not play an important part.

The nature and orientation of the rock surface,
in association with the type and duration of
ground cover (vegetative, slope wash, rock
rubble), and groundwater probably play major
roles in determining the extent of tesselation.

Certainly tesselation is best developed in
relatively fine-grained, uniform sandstone. At
the Oxford Falls site the tesselation can be
seen dying out beneath a low shelf of cross-
bedded sandstone, which forms the topmost
unit on the hillside, and which shows only
Slight signs of developing quite irregular
polygons during casehardening. The tesselated
pavement curves over the edge of the cliff
before dying out, but less markedly than at

BRANAGAN and CAIRNS

the Brooklyn Heights site.

Netoff (1971), in a study of polygonal jointing
in sandstone in Colorado, U.S.A., attributed
their formation to shrinkage and stated that
tesselation formed only in_ fine-grained
sandstones which contained _ significant
amounts of montmorillonite in the clay matrix.
However neither of these conditions apply in
the Sydney region, where the Hawkesbury
Sandstone varies from fine to very coarse-
grained, and montmorillonite is absent
(Standard, 1969), although expandable,
degraded illite is present.

The overall distribution is clearly a function of
the presence of quartz sandstone, which is
dominant on the three plateaux north, south
and west of Sydney. However in many
locations where there are good exposures of
sandstone, and conditions seem ideal for their
formation, tesselation is absent. It is possible
that these surfaces may have been previously
tesselated and that the polygons have been
removed by weathering and then erosion.
Nevertheless this seems unlikely, as in places
where tesselation of this type is _ being
removed by slabbing off, incipient cracking
following the basic polygon pattern seems to
form on the newly exposed rock beneath. It is
possible that tesselation cracks extend below
the exfoliation surface before slabbing actually
occurs, but this has not been observed in the
present study.

The opinion. stated in several tourist
brochures, and repeated by Stanbury and
Clegg (op. cit., 48), that “the fissures were
formed as the sediments dried and hardened
into sandstone millions of years ago” cannot be
accepted. This idea seems to have been
inherited from McCarthy (1954) who gives
“geological opinion” but no source for his
Statement, and it has also been accepted
without question by McDonald (op. cit.). Such
fossil mudcracking certainly occurs in rocks in
the Sydney region, but it is confined to
mudrocks, such as shale, and the shapes are
different. Mudcracks also often are filled with
introduced material (blown or washed in).
Such cracking might form the basis of the
tesselations in that the pattern could be
“repeated” in overlying sediment which
covered a mudcracked surface, however such
weathering would not produce the elongated
type of polygons which occur in some places.

TESSELATED PAVEMENTS 69

Fig. 5. Echidna site, showing “incipient”
tesselation.

Fig. 6. Brooklyn Heights site, showing
tesselation on a sloping surface, close to a
cliff edge.

Fig. 7. Mt. Hay site, a limited area of
tesselation enclosed in an “iron” wall,

formed by secondary deposition of iron
solutions.

aFig. 8. Linden site, showing a variety of

mshapes on a fresh surface.

70 BRANAGAN and CAIRNS

Evidence points clearly to a _ relationship
between an_ erosional surface and_ the
phenomenon, rather than between an exposed
depositional surface and_ tesselation. In
particular the tesselation which occurs on
sloping surfaces at the edge of cliffs cannot
have formed during sedimentation, so it is
likely that none has formed at that time.

As suggested by Branagan (1973) the areas of
patterning in the Sydney region seem to be
within undulations or on the shoulders of
broad valleys, close to, but rarely at the
highest elevation on the plateaux. This may
mean a certain amount of 'shelter' of the sites
from the effects of the weather, and possibly
indicates a genetic relation between the
tesselation and the formation of the broad
valleys developed in the plateaux prior to the
incision of the present deep valleys. These
were cut by streams during the lowering of
sea level in early Pleistocene times. The
Brooklyn Heights and Oxford Falls sites are on
the edge of such incised valleys, while the
Campbell’s Crater and Staples sites do not
quite fit the suggested model.

It seems unlikely that climatic conditions were
severe enough during cold epochs of the
Pleistocene to cause shrinkage through freeze-
thaw. Although it was postulated in an earlier
paper by Branagan (1973) and was rejected
by Mitchell (1975) for the Muogamarra site,
some such factor may still have played a
Significant part, perhaps during an_ earlier
epoch in the Tertiary.

The variation in the degree of weathering and
apparent freshness of the surfaces suggests
that there may have been different periods of
formation of the tesselation, but this may be
the result of reactivation of the process as
surfaces have progressively suffered spalling,
either by fire or by the work of lichen,
although Coates (op. cit.) does not believe this
last-named process was significant.

No direct correlation can be made between the
formation of tesselations on rock surfaces and
the formation of patterned ground (Washburn,
1956), including stone polygons (Jennings,
1960), which occur essentially in permafrost
regions (both episodic and permanent).
Nevertheless some general relations may be
significant, such as the restricted depth of
material involved, the significance of large

diurnal and seasonal temperature variation,
and possibly even long-term periglacial
conditions involved in these soil
developments.

Van Dijk et al (1968) in an interesting paper
on groundsurface correlations in south-eastern
Australia noted that the recognition of older
groundsurfaces depended on complex
pedological developments. Although their
studies were initially concerned with alluvial
valley fills and colluvial hillslope mantles, they
suggested correlations with lateritic and other
“fixed” surfaces, and listed a sequence of five
major surfaces, extending well back into the
Tertiary.

In a personal communication Van Dijk (1969)
suggested the possibility that the formation of
the rock surface tesselations in the Sydney
region might be related ‘to one of our oldest
groundsurfaces, the “Kremnos”’. This surface
was equated by Van Dijk et al. (op.cit.) with
the St. Marys (west of Sydney) laterite profile
of Hallsworth and Costin (1953), which would
Suggest formation in a somewhat humid
environment, possibly in the Miocene.

Although the evidence is slight, we conclude
that the tesselations are relatively oid, no
younger than the earliest incision of the
plateaux which produced the deep inner
valleys. Their location in relatively sheltered
positions may indicate formation in the broad
upper valleys formed when drainage of the
plateaux was by laterally eroding streams
rather than downcutting. However complete
recording of the location and nature of the
sites 1s necessary to determine the topographic
range over which they are found, and other
data relevant to elucidating their mode and
age of formation. Field studies to this end are
continuing.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful for the co-operation offered
by officers of the National Parks and Wildlife
Service of New South Wales. Generous
assistance with fieldwork was given by Alison
Cole, and J.F. Hammond of Hammond, Smeallie
and Co. carried out careful surveying of part of
the Elvina_ site. Drs K. Kosaka (Nihon
University), R.A.L Osborne (University of
Sydney) and H. Pedram (University of Sydney)
assisted at the Blue Mountains sites. Discussion

TESSELATED PAVEMENTS 7a!

with members of Australian Rock Art
Association at Elvina and other Ku-ring-gai
sites was greatly appreciated. We also
acknowledge the positive criticisms made by
an unnamed reviewer, which have clarified
the presentation.

References

Branagan, D.F., 1968. A _ tesselated platform,
Ku-ring-gai Chase, N.S.W., Journal and
Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales
101:109-33.

Branagan, D.F., 1973. A skin problem on cold
shoulders? Eighth Symposium Advances in the
study of the Sydney Basin, Department of
Geology, University of Newcastle:14-15.

Branagan, D.F., 1983. Tesselated pavements in
R.W. Young and G.C. Nanson (editors) Aspects
of Australian sandstone landscapes, University
of Wollongong: 11-20.

Branagan, D.F., 1985. The Blue Mountains - a
personal perspective in P.J. Stanbury and L.
Bushell (editors) The Blue Mountains. Macleay
Museum, University of Sydney: 1-14.

Branagan, D.F. and Cairns, H.C., 1993. Marks on
sandstone surfaces-Sydney region, Australia.
Cultural origins and meanings? Journal and
Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales
(this volume).

Cairns, H.C. and Branagan, D.F., 1992. Artificial
patterns on rock surfaces in the Sydney
region, New South Wales: evidence for
Aboriginal time charts and sky maps? in J.
McDonald, and I1.P. Haskovec (editors) State of
the Art: Regional rock art studies in Australia
and Melanesia. Occasional AURA Publication
No.6, Melbourne: 25-31.

Coates, L., 1986. Micro-organisms and stone: a
study of their interaction, with particular
emphasis on Lichens and sandstone in the
Sydney region. M.Sc. Thesis (unpublished),
Macquarie University.

Hallsworth. E.G and Costin. A.B., 1953. Studies
in Pedogenesis in New South Wales. IV, The

Ironstone Soils. Journal of Soil Science, 4:24-
46.

Jennings, J. N. 1960. On an_ unusual
occur[r]jence of stone polygons in the French
Alps. Biuletyn Peryglacjalny, 7, 59-64, 169-
173, 271-274.

McCarthy, F.D., 1954. Records of the rock
engravings of the Sydney-Hawkesbury
district. Mankind 5:17-21. PIC,Figs7A-F.

McDonald, J., 1987. Sydney Basin Aboriginal
Heritage Study. Unpublished Report to NSW
National Parks and Wildlife Service.

Mitchell, P.B., 1975. The Muogamarra
Diatremes: an integrated study of the physical
environment. B.A. Hons. Thesis (unpublished),
Macquarie University.

Netoff, D.I., 1971. Polygonal jointing in
sandstone near Boulder, Colorado. Journal
Rocky Mountains Association of Geologists
8(1):17-24.

Osborne, R.A. L. and Branagan, D. F., 1992.
Sydney Pseudokarst? Advances in the Study
of the Sydney Basin, Department of Geology,
University of Newcastle Twenty Sixth
Symposium: 95-102.

Sim, I.M., 1965. Records of the rock engravings
of the Sydney-Hawkesbury District, Mankind
6: 275-281, & sheets 1&2.

Sim, I.M., 1966. Records of the Rock
Engravings of the Sydney-Hawkesbury
District, Mankind 6: 353-4, & sheet2.

Stanbury, P. and Clegg, J., 1990. A field guide
to Aboriginal rock engravings with special
reference to those around Sydney, Sydney
University Press.

Standard, J.C., 1969. Hawkesbury Sandstone in
G.H. Packham (editor) The Geology of New
South Wales. Journal of Geological Society of
Australia, 16(1):412.

Van Dijk, D.C, Riddler, A.M.H. and Rowe, R.K.,
1968. Criteria and problems in groundsurface
correlations with reference to a_ regional
correlation in south-eastern Australia.
Transactions 9th International Congress Soil
Science 4:131-8.

2

BRANAGAN and CAIRNS

Washburn, A.L., 1956. Classification of D.F. Branagan, H.C.Cairns
patterned ground and review of suggested Department of Geology 23 Wallaroy Rd.,
origins. Bulletin Geological Society of America, & Geophysics, Double Bay,

67. University of Sydney, N.S.W., 2028.

N.S.W., 2006

TABLE 1 - TESSELATED PAVEMENTS EXAMINED
with Grid References (NSW1:25 000 Series)

HORNSBY PLATEAU, SOUTH OF HAWKESBURY RIVER

Elvina Track, Ku-ring-gai NP-Mona Vale 9130-I-S 388758
Basin Track, Ku-ring-gai NP-Broken Bay 9130-I-N 405814
Echidna Site, Ku-ring-gai NP-Broken Bay 9130-I-N 406824
Muogamarra, Muogamarra NP -Cowan 9130-IV-N 322864
Campbells Crater,-Cowan 9130-IV-N 323825

Brooklyn Heights, Brooklyn-Cowan 9130-IV-N 327855
Oxford Falls-Hornsby 9130-IV-S 370662

Great North Rd - Maroota-9131-III-S 150939

Minor occurrences-Balls Head, North Head, Northbridge, Clifton

Gardens

HORNSBY PLATEAU, NORTH OF HAWKESBURY RIVER

Pearl Beach Ridge East-Broken Bay 9130-I-N 407876

Pearl Beach Ridge West-Broken Bay 9130-I-N 406878

Warrah Track (Pearl Beach Ridge)-Broken Bay 9130-I-N 404872
Patonga Ridge (Crazy Rock)-Broken Bay 9130-I-N 400870
Staples, Somersby-Woy Woy Road-Gosford 9131-II-S 409959

WORONORA PLATEAU

Royal National Park-Port Hacking 9129-I-N 194247
Woronora Dam Road-Appin 9029-I-S 115213

BLUE MOUNTAINS PLATEAU

Faulconbridge - Springwood 9030-I1V-S693670
Linden -Katoomba 8930-I-S 678673

Linden Ridge -Springwood 9030-IV-S 693716
Mt. Hay -Katoomba 8930-I-S 590755

minor occurrences-North Springwood 774718, Kurrajong Heights

(Manuscript received 8-4-1993)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 126, pp.73-86, 1993 Fe
ISSN 0035-9173/93/010073-14 $4.00/1

Stratigraphic and Coal Seam Correlations
of the Illawarra Coal Measures in the Ulan and Bylong Areas,
Western Coalfield, Sydney Basin, New South Wales

E.K. Yoo

ABSTRACT. Stratigraphic and coal-—seam correlations of the Illawarra Coal
Measures between Ulan and Bylong, in the western half of the northern sector of
the Sydney Basin, have been established on the basis lithofacies studies and
downhole geophysical-log profiles. Eastward thickening of the stratigraphic
units of the Illawarra Coal Measures occurs across hingelines at Ulan, Wollar
and Bylong. The lower-section of the "Ulan seam" is a correlative with the
Lidsdale Coal; the upper section of the "Ulan seam" is contemporaneous with the
Long Swamp Formation and the overlying Irondale Coal. New units, the Cockabutta
Creek Sandstone Member and the Bungaba Coal Member, are named in the Glen Davis
Formation, and the geographic extent of the Cockabutta Creek Sandstone Member is
shown. The Bungaba Coal Member of the Glen Davis Formation and the Moolarben
Coal Member of the State Mine Creek Formation converge towards the western
margin of the basin, and form a single coal interval west of the Ulan hingeline.

INTRODUCTION

The stratigraphy of the Illawarra
Coal Measures of the Western Coalfield,
documented in the Lithgow area by
Bembrick (1983)(Table 1), has been
widely and successfully applied in the
southern part of the Western Coalfield
(Standing Committee on Coalfield Geology
of New South Wales 1986). However, the
present study in the Ulan, Wollar and
Bylong areas, in the northern part of
the Western Coalfield (Figure 1)
indicates that there are significant
stratigraphic differences between the
two areas, causing difficulties with
stratigraphic and coal-seam correlations
‘between them.

The aim of this paper is to
establish the stratigraphic and coal-
seam correlations between Ulan and
Bylong, located in the western half of
the northern sector of the Sydney Basin,
on the basis of lithofacies and
geophysical downhole profiles. A similar
study concerning the correlative coal
measures in the adjoining eastern half
of the Sydney Basin is in preparation.

REGIONAL GEOLOGICAL SETTING

The Illawarra Coal Measures
overlie, unconformably and
nonconformably respectively, the
basement rocks of the Ordovician Lue
Beds and the Carboniferous Gulgong
Granite near the western margin of the
basin, and conformably overlie rocks of
the Shoalhaven Group immediately to the

east of the margin. The coal measures
are overlain by the Triassic Narrabeen
Group, which is overlain in turn by the
Jurassic Purlawaugh Formation and
Pilliga Sandstone in the northern part
of the area. West of Ulan, the coal
measures are absent, resulting ina
nonconformable contact between the
Gulgong Granite and the Narrabeen Group
(Offenberg et al. 1971, Yoo in prep.).

Mesozoic phonolite intrusions are
common in the area south of Wollar and
Bylong. Tertiary basalt and dolerite
also occur as flow-remnants on
topographic highs and valley slopes, and
as plugs and sills intruded within
sporadic diatremes or within the coal
measures.

STRUCTURE

The Illawarra Coal Measures dip
gently to the east-northeast at an
average of 1° from the western margin of
the basin to Wollar township. East of
Wollar the dip increases to an average
of 2'/2°, a figure that is sustained to
the eastern boundary of the study area.
The thickness of the coal measures also
Significantly increases eastwards across
three meridional hingelines located at
Ulan, Wollar and Bylong (Figure 2),
herein called respectively the Ulan,
Wollar and Bylong hingelines. The coal
measures are approximately 50 m thick
near the western margin of the basin,
but thicken by 30 m (from 50 m to 80 m),
40 m (from 80 m to 120 m) and 35 m (from
120 m to 155 m) respectively across the

74

Wallerawang (Farmers Creek Formation

E.K. YOO

Table 1

Illawarra Coal Measures —- Western Coalfield

(Bembrick 1983)

(Katoomba Coal Member

Subgroup ( (Woodford Coal Member
( (Burragorang Claystone
( Member
( (Middle River Coal Member
(Gap Sandstone
Charbon (State Mine Creek Formation (Moolarben Coal Member
Subgroup (Angus Place Sandstone
(Baal Bone Formation
(Glen Davis Formation
(Newnes Formation (Ivanhoe Sandstone
Member
(Irondale Coal
(Long Swamp Formation (Bunnyong Sandstone
Member
Cullen (Lidsdale Coal
Bullen (Blackmans Flat Conglomerate
Subgroup (Lithgow Coal
(Marrangaroo Conglomerate
Nile (Gundangaroo Formation
Subgroup (Coorongooba Creek Sandstone

(Mt. Marsden Claystone

three abovementioned hingelines. The
thickness of the unit reaches 200 m east
of Bylong (Figure 2).

Ulan hingeline

The most westerly thickness
increase occurs east of drillhole UCLM
C295, close to the western limit of the
Denman Formation and the Watts Sandstone
(Figure 2). From this hingeline to the
western margin, the basal plies of the
Lidsdale Coal (Plies E, F and G) are
absent (Johnstone & Bekker 1983, Hughes
1991). Also in this drillhole, the
Bungaba Coal Member (new name) in the
Glen Davis Formation (Figure 2)
converges with the Moolarben Coal Member
of the State Mine Creek Formation; and
the State Mine Creek Formation converges
with the Farmers Creek Formation.

Between the Ulan hingeline and the
Wollar hingeline, the Lidsdale Coal (the
lower section of the "Ulan seam") and
the upper section of the "Ulan seam"
(equivalent to the total thickness of
the Long Swamp Formation) maintain
generally a uniform thickness. This same
area also marks the western limit of the
Gap Sandstone, which thickens abruptly
towards the east (figure 2), and thick,
fine to medium, lithic sandstone bodies
are present in the State Mine Creek
Formation.

Wollar hingeline

The Wollar hingeline is a prominent

structural feature (Figure 2) located
east of drillhole ERC Ulan DDH 24. At
this point, the upper section of the
"Ulan seam" begins to split, and the
beds become widely separated east of
this particular hingeline. The Denman
Formation and the Watts Sandstone
increase substantially in thickness
across this hingeline, and the Farmers
Creek Formation also thickens. This
hingeline trends northwest-—southeast
through Wollar, Barigan and Growee (Yoo
in prep.).

Bylong hingeline

The easternmost hingeline is
located east of drillhole AB Bylong DDH
22, where the Lithgow Coal begins to
thicken eastwards. The Long Swamp
Formation, Denman Formation, Watts
Sandstone and Farmers Creek Formation
also continue to increase substantially
in thickness east of this feature. The
State Mine Creek Formation becomes
thinner, and the Cockabutta Creek
Sandstone Member (new name) of the Glen
Davis Formation wedges out west of the
Bylong hingeline (Figure 2).

STRATIGRAPHY OF THE ILLAWARRA COAL
MEASURES

Most units of the Illawarra Coal
Measures thin towards the western margin
of the basin, exceptions being the
Cockabutta Creek Sandstone Member within
the Glen Davis Formation, and the State
Mine Creek Formation (Figure 2). The

ILLAWARRA COAL MEASURES IN THE ULAN-BYLONG AREA

REFERENCE “7 MS
Na 4: DM Narragamba 4 ;
Bu 1: DM Bungaba 1
UC 296: Ulan Coal Mine Ltd C295
ERC 2: Energy Recycling Ulan 2

EW 4: Elecom Wollar 4
‘AB 22: Austen & Butta Bylong 22

| Re | Narrabeen Group
: Illawarra Coal Measures

Ps Shoalhaven Group

ce: 2¢] Basement rocks

Figure 1. Location map and borehole cross-section line.

Nile Subgroup of the Illawarra Coal
Measures and the Shoalhaven Group remain
undifferentiated throughout the area due
to lack of sufficient information.

Figure 2 has been compiled from
lithological and graphic logs and
geophysical downhole (density and gamma)
logs of 14 selected boreholes. Thirteen
formations and four members have been
identified within the coal measures;
where individual units are correlated
with those of the southern part of. the
Western Coalfield (Bembrick 1983) or
with those of the Hunter Coalfield (cf.
Beckett 1988), the existing
stratigraphic terms for equivalent units
in these areas are retained.

Marrangaroo Conglomerate

The Marrangaroo Conglomerate and
the lithologically similar Blackmans
Flat Conglomerate (see below) consist of
quartzose, poorly consolidated, coarse
to pebble-bearing sandstone. In the
Bylong area, the Marrangaroo
Conglomerate is quartz-—lithic. Its
thickness ranges from 1.5 m on the
eastern side of the area to 4 m in the

Wollar and Wilpinjong areas to the west.
Towards the western margin of the basin,
the unit tends to thicken and contains
more abundant and larger clasts. The
basal part is commonly stained yellow,
apparently caused by ground-water
movements from the underlying marine
Shoalhaven Group.

Lithgow Coal

The Lithgow Coal is developed at
the top of a fining—upward sequence
formed by the Marrangaroo Conglomerate,
and is uniformly dull with minor stone-
bands. Agnew and Bayly (1989) indicate
that it is correlated with the Coggan
Coal, a unit in the Bylong area
informally named by McElroy Bryan &
Associates (1983, 1985). The Lithgow
Coal is up to 5 m thick east of Bylong,
but thins abruptly west of the Bylong
hingeline (Figure 2). It is represented
by a thin carbonaceous claystone band in
the Wollar area, and ranges from 0.2m
to 0.8 m thick in the Ulan area.

Blackmans Flat Conglomerate

The Blackmans Flat Conglomerate is

15

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76

ILLAWARRA COAL MEASURES IN THE ULAN-BYLONG AREA

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o
a

Figure 3. "Ulan seam" at the Ulan Coal Mine opencut overlain by the Newnes
Formation. The uppermost ply is correlated with the Irondale Coal.
A tuffaceous claystone band (the C-marker) is seen in the middle
of the seam. Plies E, F and G (cf. text) are not developed at this

locality.

a coarse, often pebble-—bearing,
quartzose sandstone, developed
throughout the entire study area (Figure
2). It is one of the key units within
the Illawarra Coal Measures in the
Western Coalfield, ranging from 2 m to 5
m in thickness. The unit immediately
overlies the Lithgow Coal with a sharp
contact and fines upwards. The basal
part is very porous.

Lidsdale Coal

The "Ulan seam", informally named
in the Ulan area, has been variously
correlated with: 1) the Lithgow and
Bayswater Coals (Holmes 1975); 2) the
Irondale seam and the Newnes Formation
in the Ulan-Wollar area (McMinn 1985);
and 3) the upper Lidsdale seam (Agnew &
Bayly 1989). Shiels and Kirby (1977)
also suggested that a thin coal seam
beneath the Ulan seam is correlated with
the Lithgow Coal. This disparity of
Opinion has arisen mainly as a result of
the paucity of subsurface geological and
geophysical information that was
available in earlier years to permit
correlation of the stratigraphy in the
Ulan area with that of the surrounding
coalfields.

The "Ulan seam" splits east of
Wollar (Shiels & Kirby 1977, Barto &
Delaney 1989, Agnew & Bayly 1989).
However, no attempt has ever been made
to correlate the split plies of the seam
with the documented Western Coalfield
stratigraphy.

McMinn (1985, p. 304-305) suggested
that the "Ulan seam'' in the Ulan—Wollar

area is slightly younger than the
Irondale Coal of the Lithgow and
Rylstone areas on the basis of the
palynological evidence that
Microreticulatisporites bitriangularis
and Dulhuntyispora parvithola first
appear simultaneously beneath the Ulan
seam. McMinn (1985) further suggested
that local erosion of the lower part of
the Illawarra Coal Measures in the Ulan
area allowed the development of an
abnormally thick peat accumulation that
subsequently gave rise to the "Ulan
seam".

Outside the Ulan—Wollar area,
McMinn’ (1965, -p. 1305) found that 77.
bitriangularis first appears immediately
above the "Ulan seam" and D. parvithola
first appears either within the Nile
Subgroup or at the base of the coal
measures. M. bitriangularis also appears
immediately above the Irondale Coal at

the base of the Newnes Formation and D.
parvithola appears within the thin, non-
marine, Gundangaroo Formation of the
Nile Subgroup in the Lithgow-Rylstone
area.

The results of the present study
provide no evidence that significant
erosion of the lower part of the coal
measures took place in the Ulan-—Wollar
area. The "Ulan seam" continues in an
easterly direction towards Bylong,
overlying the characteristic quartzose
Blackmans Flat Conglomerate. It is an
enigma why M. bitriangularis and D.
Parvithola first appear simultaneously
beneath the Ulan Seam in the Ulan-—Wollar
area.

78 E.K.YOO

The ''Ulan seam" has been divided
into seven plies for coal quality
purposes (Plies A to G in descending
order) by previous workers (Johnstone &
Bekker 1983, Barto & Delaney 1989). The
seam can be grouped into two sections
(upper and lower), separated by a 0.3 m
thick tuffaceous claystone (Ply C-
marker) occurring in the middle of the
seam (Figure 3). The upper section
contains Plies A, B and C-upper, and the
lower section contains Plies C-lower, D,
E, F and G.

Agnew and Bayly (1989) proposed
that the 'Ulan seam" could be correlated
with the upper Lidsdale Coal on the
basis of a thin correlatable tuffaceous
claystone which has an extraordinarily
high gamma response. This claystone band
occurs between the upper and lower seams
of the Lidsdale Coal in the Rylstone
area, and comprises Ply F of the "Ulan
seam" at Ulan and Bylong (see Agnew &
Bayly 1989, fig. 4).

In the present study, however, it
has been found that only the lower
section of the ''Ulan seam" can be
correlated with the Lidsdale Coal. The
Lidsdale Coal ranges in thickness from 5
m to 8 m in most of the study area
(Figures 2, 4). It thins to 2 m at the
western margin of the basin, but
thickens to a 13 m interval in the
Bylong area including a medium-grained
sandstone and claystone band occurring
above the coal seam. The Lidsdale Coal
contains the best-quality coal plies in
the study area.

Long Swamp Formation

The Long Swamp Formation is defined
as having its basal boundary at the top
of the Lidsdale Coal (Bembrick 1983) and
its upper boundary at the base of the
Irondale Coal. The formation consists of
claystone, mudstone, siltstone, tuff
bands, sandstone and thin discontinuous
coals. The claystone and siltstone are
commonly bioturbated. West of the Wollar
hingeline, the formation is represented
by a thin tuffaceous claystone band
(‘Ulan seam" C-marker) and an overlying
coal seam (the upper section of the
"Ulan seam'') (Figure 2).

The upper section of the "Ulan
seam" includes Plies A, B and C-upper.
The A, B and C-upper plies, totalling up
to 7 m thick between Ulan and
Wilpinjong, split eastwards into thin
multiple, discontinuous coal bands. At
Bylong this interval is 20 m thick. The
C-marker ply maintains a consistent
thickness of 0.3 m from Ulan to
Wilpinjong, then thickens eastwards at
the Wollar hingeline to split the upper
section of the "Ulan seam" further from

the Lidsdale Coal (Figure 2). The
interval equivalent to the C-marker at
Bylong is approximately 25 m thick, and
consists of siltstone, lithic sandstone
and minor carbonaceous claystone.
Density and gamma logs show the seam
split throughout the study area (Figure
a"

East of the Wollar hingeline, the
Long Swamp Formation contains thick,
fining-—upward channel sandstone lenses
with green and red volcanic pebbles and
granules. A similar sandstone occurs in
the west Rylstone area (Bayly pers.
comm. 1990). These lenses are considered
to have been derived from the New
England area during uplift of that
Particular block.

Irondale Coal

As mentioned above, the upper
section of the "Ulan seam" is split east
of the Wollar hingeline and interfingers
there with bioturbated claystone and
siltstone of the Long Swamp Formation
(Figures 2, 4). The uppermost ply of
this section (Ply A top) can readily be
traced from Ulan to the Wollar
hingeline, where eastward splitting
occurs. East of the Wollar hingeline, it
is possible to correlate the various
split plies between boreholes with the
assistance of downhole geophysical log
data (Figure 4).

Re-examination of borehole graphics
and downhole geophysical logs for the
area from Lithgow through Rylstone to
Bylong indicates that the uppermost ply
of the upper section of the ''Ulan seam"
at Bylong is correlated with the
Irondale Coal of the Lithgow-Rylstone
area (Bayly and Yoo in prep.). This
confirms the palynological evidence of
McMinn (1985) that the top of the "Ulan
seam" outside the Ulan-—Wollar area can
be correlated with the top of the
Irondale Coal. The Irondale Coal reaches
a maximum thickness of 1.5 m east of the
Wollar hingeline.

Newnes Formation

The Newnes Formation in the study
area, consists generally of fine to
medium—grained, lithic sandstone and
interbedded siltstone and claystone west
of the Wollar hingeline, and an upward—
fining coarse lithic sandstone east of
the Wollar hingeline.

The formation conformably overlies
the Irondale Coal; its upper limit is
marked by the base of a thin coal/
carbonaceous claystone band which is
expressed by low density log values
(Figure 4). The formation ranges in
thickness from 8 m to 13 m west of the
Wollar hingeline but thins to 4m at

ILLAWARRA COAL MEASURES IN THE ULAN-BYLONG AREA

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80 E.K.YOO

drillhole AB Bylong DDH 4. The sandstone
within the formation typically has low
gamma log values east of drillhole ERC
Ulan 2. This characteristic profile
disappears west of ERC Ulan 2, as the
lithology of the formation and the lower
part of the overlying Glen Davis
Formation both become similarly fine to
medium—grained lithic sandstone.

Glen Davis Formation

The Glen Davis Formation consists
of carbonaceous claystone, claystone,
siltstone and sandstone. East of the
Wollar hingeline, the claystone and
siltsone are commonly bioturbated. The
unit is overlain by the Denman Formation
east of the Ulan hingeline and by the
Moolarben Coal Member west of the Ulan
hingeline (Figures 2, 4). It contains
two thin, uneconomic coal seams, the
upper of which is referred to as the
Bungaba Coal Member in this paper. The
formation ranges in thickness from 17 m
to 26 m throughout the study area.

Gulgong

REFERENCE

Cockabutta Creek Ss Mb,
Glen Davis Formation
Narrabeen Group
Illawarra Coal Measures

Shoalhaven Group -
Basement rocks
Borehole (thickness in metres)

A thick quartzose sandstone
comprises the upper part of the
Glen Davis Formation west of the Bylong
hingeline. This sandstone is herein
named the Cockabutta Creek Sandstone
Member, and is interpreted as having
been derived from the Gulgong Granite in
the immediate west.

Cockabutta Creek Sandstone Member
(new name)

The Cockabutta Creek Sandstone
Member consists of light grey, quartzose
to lithic-quartzose, very coarse-grained
sandstone. It fines upward and is poorly
cemented towards the base. The thickness
ranges. from 2.5 m to 9.8 m, and is 9270
at the type section.

The type section is taken from JDP
Ulan DDH 18, between the depths of
103.83 m and 111.63 m.-This drvtihore 2s
located 8 km east of Ulan township
(Wollar 1:25,000; 8833-2-N, ISG Co-
ordinates 377403.7 E, 14274195. 72h)

Figure 5. Geographic extent of the Cockabutta Creek Sandstone Member of the

Glen Davis Formation.

ILLAWARRA COAL MEASURES IN THE ULAN-BYLONG AREA

The sandstone member forms an oval—
shaped lobe of approximately 1000km*“ in
the Ulan-Wollar area, bounded by
Merotherie in the west, Uarbry in the
north, Wollar in the east and south, and
Ulan in the southwest (Figure 5). It is
exposed on the bank of Cockabutta Creek
(Narragamba 1:25,000; 8833-4-S, AMG Grid
Reference 498 332) and in the Ulan Mine
opencut. It is also well’ exposed in the
Goulburn River diversion channel at the
Ulan Mine (Conaghan pers. comm. March
1993).

The Cockabutta Creek Sandstone
Member is remarkably similar to the
Blackmans Flat Conglomerate in that it”
consists predominantly of quartz,
cemented with minor kaolinitic white
clay. It has a very porous texture. The
member consists of very coarse sandstone
with a distinct sharp base, and fines
upward. It is considered to have been
derived from the adjoining Gulgong
Granite in the west, and is strikingly
different in lithology from any other
part of the formation. The Cockabutta
Creek Sandstone Member is overlain by
the Bungaba Coal Member developed at the
top of the Glen Davis Formation (Figures
2, 26)'%

Bungaba Coal Member (new Name)

The Bungaba Coal Member is the
topmost unit in the Glen Davis
Formation. It consists of coal and
carbonaceous/tuffaceous claystone.
Although this member is thin and
variably banded, density-log profiles
show it to be continuously developed
throughout the study area (Figure 2). At
the type section (DM Narragamba DDH 4),
it is 3.47 m thick (between 46.97 m and
50.44 m). The drillhole is located 22 km
north-northeast of Gulgong (Narragamba
1:25,000; 8833-4-S, ISG Co-ordinates
358210 E, 1438170 N). The member
overlies the Cockabutta Creek Sandstone
Member and is overlain by a 0.7 m-thick
kaolinitic claystone west of the Ulan
hingeline and by the Denman Formation
east of the Ulan hingeline. West of the
Ulan hingeline, this coal member (the
lower coal seam in the upper part of the
highwall in Figure 6) is coalesced with
the Moolarben Coal Member (the middle
and the upper coal seams in the highwall
in Figure 6) of the State Mine Creek
Formation. These coals form a banded
coal seam up to 13.6 m thick northwest
of Ulan (Bayly 1993). Eastward splitting
of the Bungaba Coal Member away from the
Moolarben Coal Member with which it is
coalesced in the western margin area is
illustrated in Figures 2 and 7.

Denman Formation

Synonymy: Baal Bone Formation (Bembrick
1983, p. 110; Standing Committee on

81

Coalfield Geology of New South Wales
1986; pe 156).

The Baal Bone Formation of Bembrick
(1983) in the Western Coalfield, the
Denman Formation of Britten (1972) in
the Hunter Coalfield, and the Dempsey

‘Formation-of David (1907) in the

Newcastle Coalfield represent the record
of a short-lived, widespread marine

incursion in those areas of the Sydney

Basin (Bembrick 1983). Recent studies
within the Western Coalfield (Bembrick
1983, Moloney et al. 1983, Crapp 1985,
McElroy Bryan & Associates 1983) and
further eastwards, between Bylong and
Denman (Holmes 1975, Yoo in prep.)
indicate that the genetically-related
interval comprising the Denman Formation
and the overlying Watts Sandstone has a
distinctive and readily recognisable
lithofacies in the Illawarra Coal
Measures and the Singleton Coal
Measures. The interval grades vertically
from dark grey claystone through
laminated claystone and fine sandstone
with common bioturbation, into fine-
grained lithic sandstone of possible
delta-front environment. Therefore, the
term Baal Bone Formation is here
regarded as a synonym of the Denman
Formation of Britten (1972). The Denman
Formation (Standing Committee on
Coalfield Geology of New South Wales
1974) has priority over the Baal Bone
Formation (Standing Committee on
Coalfield Geology of New South Wales
1986), and is proposed to be used in
both the Hunter and Western Coalfields.
Although the Dempsey Formation has been
known to be equivalent to the Denman
Formation, the correlation between the
two units has not been well established
due to discontinuity of the two units
over the Lochinvar Anticline and
scarcity of drillhole data south of the
Lochinvar Anticline. Until further data
are available, the term Denman Formation
remains valid (Beckett pers. comm.).

The Denman Formation thickens
gradually in an easterly direction, from
20 m at Bylong (in AB Bylong DDH 8) to
50 m at Denman (in DM Doyles Creek DDH
13). The western limit of the marine
incursion that formed this section
occurs in the study area approximately
at the Ulan-Turill-Cassilis road (Figure
1). Its northwestern limit is located
approximately at Coolah (Yoo et al.
1983).

Watts Sandstone

Synonymy: Angus Place Sandstone
(Bembrick 1983, p. 110; Standing
Committee on Coalfield Geology of New
South Wales 1986, p. 156).

For similar reasons to those

E.K.YOO

Figure 6. Opencut-mine highwall at the Ulan Coal Mine showing the basal part
of the Illawarra Coal Measures documented in this paper and
coalesced coal-seam interval at the top of the Glen Davis
Formation and the base of the State Mine Creek Formation. The
highwall is 50 m high and the exposed succession is as follows:
"Ulan seam" (in floor of pit and at base of distant endwall) (us);

lithic sandstones of the Newnes Formation and the Glen Davis
Formation (light-coloured interval)(ng); Cockabutta Creek
Sandstone Member (grey-coloured interval)(kb); Bungaba Coal Member
of the Glen Davis Formation (bg); kaolinitic claystone band,
representing the base of the State Mine Creek Formation; Moolarben
Coal Member of the State Mine Creek Formation (ml); and overlying
clastic sediments of the State Mine Creek Formation (sm). The Gap

Sandstone and the Farmers Creek Formation are not present here.

applied to the Denman Formation, the
Angus Place Sandstone of Bembrick (1983)
is regarded herein as a synonym of the
Watts Sandstone of Britten (1972). The
Watts Sandstone (Standing Committee on
Coalfield Geology of New South Wales
1974) has priority over the Angus Place
Sandstone (Standing Committee on
Coalfield Geology of New South Wales
1986, p. 156), hence, the term Watts
Sandstone is used in the present paper.

The Watts Sandstone is 15 m in
thickness east of Bylong (in AB Bylong
DDH 8) and 28 m at Denman (in DM Doyles
Creek DDH 15). It is overlain by the
Moolarben Coal Member of the State Mine
Creek Formation.

State Mine Creek Formation

The State Mine Creek Formation
overlies the Watts Sandstone and is
overlain by the Gap Sandstone. It
generally contains three coal units,
claystone, sandstone and tuff interbeds.

The basal seam is the Moolarben Coal
Member (Bembrick 1983), and the topmost
seam has been informally called the
"Lennox seam'' (borelogs of JDP Ulan DDH
1 & 2, by Kirby 1975) and» the: "Goulbuen
seam'' (Hughes 1991). North of the Ulan
Coal Mine opencut, this seam and the
Middle River Coal Member of the Farmers
Creek Formation form one seam
approximately 10 m in thickness (Hughes
1991) (Figure 7). The thickness of the
formation varies from 20 m to 33 m.

Moolarben Coal Member

The Moolarben Coal Member was
defined by Bembrick (1983) as a coal
seam developed at the base of the State
Mine Creek Formation. The "Goulburn
seam'' in the Bylong area is correlatable
with the Moolarben Coal Member (McElroy
Bryan & Associates 1983, McElroy and
Rose 1990). The Moolarben Coal Member
overlies the Watts Sandstone east of the
Ulan hingeline, and coalesces with the
Bungaba Coal Member where the Watts

83

ILLAWARRA COAL MEASURES IN THE ULAN-BYLONG AREA

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Sandstone and the Denman Formation have
wedged out (Figure 2). The lower limit
of the Moolarben Coal Member near the
western margin is the top of the
kaolinitic claystone band (0.7 m thick
in DM Narragamba DDH 4) that occurs
towards the middle of the coalesced
coal-seam interval. This kaolinitic
claystone band can be correlated with
the Denman Formation and Watts Sandstone
to the east (Figure 2).

The member consists of coal anda
number of thin claystone bands. The
coals split in an easterly direction as
the interbedded claystone bands thicken,
and the upper sections of the coal
member thin out east of UCML C234
(Figure 2). The member varies in
thickness from 1m to 4.2 m.

The ''Lennox seam" (in borelogs of
JDP Ulan DDH 1 & 2, Kirby 1975) is the
topmost seam of the State Mine Creek
Formation, developed locally in the Ulan
area. It consists of carbonaceous
claystone and thin coal seam. The
maximum thickness is 2.23 m at JDP Ulan
DDH 1, and it thins out east of UCML
C234. The term "Goulburn seam" was used
for this interval north of the Ulan Mine
opencut (Hughes 1991).

Gap Sandstone

The Gap Sandstone is a persistent
off-white to light grey upward-fining,
lithic, coarse to very coarse sandstone,
commonly with pebbles at the base, and
is readily identifiable over most of the
study area. It is considered to be a
sheet-sand, deposited in a fluvial
environment. The Gap Sandstone is
generally 4 m to 5 m thick over most of
the area, increasing to 10 m in some
places. The sandstone thins out towards
the western margin of the basin (Figure
2y)ks

Farmers Creek Formation

The Farmers Creek Formation, the
uppermost unit of the Illawarra Coal
Measures in the Western Coalfield,
consists of coal, carbonaceous
claystone, tuff, siltstone, claystone
and minor lithic sandstone. The
formation thins towards the west, being
30° m thick at Bylong,. 10 m thiickvat
Wollar and represented by 3 m of coal
and tuffaceous claystone at Ulan.

Density-log profiles from the
various boreholes indicate that the
Farmers Creek Formation thickens
eastwards due to the progressive
addition of units at the top. The
coal/carbonaceous claystone unit at Ulan

and the lower part of the Farmers Creek
Formation at Bylong appear to correlate
with the Middle River Coal Member.

Middle River Coal Member

The Middle River Coal Member is the
basal coal seam of the Farmers Creek
Formation (Bembrick 1983). The interval
was named the "Goulburn seam" in the
Ulan area (borelogs of JDP Ulan DDH 1 &
2, by Kirby 1975). It consist mainly et
carbonaceous and tuffaceous claystones
and thin coal. The member is
approximately 3 m in the western margin
area, but thickens to 10 m at Bylong.

CONCLUSIONS

Eastward thickening of the
stratigraphic units of the Illawarra
Coal Measures occurs across hingelines
at Ulan, Wollar and Bylong. The
Marrangaroo and Blackmans Flat
Conglomerates maintain their thicknesses
and lithologies throughout the study
area. The Lithgow Coal, which is poorly
developed at Ulan and Wollar, thickens
east of the Bylong hingeline. Only the
lower section of the "Ulan seam" is a
correlative with the Lidsdale Coal; this
interval maintains its thickness
throughout the study area. The upper
section of the "Ulan seam" maintains its
thickness eastwards to the Wollar
hingeline, then thickens abruptly to
become the Long Swamp Formation. The
uppermost ply of the upper section of
the "Ulan seam" can be correlated with
the Irondale Coal. The Newnes and Glen
Davis Formations occur throughout the
study area and maintain generally
uniform thicknesses. The quartzose
Cockabutta Creek Sandstone Member
comprises the upper part of the Glen
Davis Formation west of the Bylong
hingeline. It appears to have been
derived from the Gulgong Granite in the
immediate west. The Baal Bone Formation
and the Angus Place Sandstone are
correlatives of the Denman Formation and
the Watts Sandstone respectively. Both
units wedge out west of the Ulan
hingeline where the equivalent interval
is represented by a thin kaolinitic
claystone band. The Bungaba Coal Member
of the Glen Davis Formation and the
Moolarben Coal Member of the State Mine
Creek Formation coalesce west of the
Ulan hingeline. The ''Lennox seam" at the
top of the State Mine Creek Formation
and the Farmers Creek Formation coalesce
west of the Ulan hingeline, where the
intervening Gap Sandstone wedges out.

ILLAWARRA COAL MEASURES IN THE ULAN-BYLONG AREA 89

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are expressed to Mr W.
Hughes of Ulan Coal Mines Ltd for
supplying graphics and geophysical logs
of four boreholes used in this study and
the two photographs published herein; Mr
K. Bayly of the N.S.W. Department of
Mineral Resources for his continuous co-
operation; Ms N. Clark of the same
Department for the preparation of the
borehole data; Mr W. Hughes and Mr F.
Morris of Coalex Pty Ltd for advice and
comments; the Electricity Commission of
N.S.W. (now Pacific Power) and Mr A.
Butta for permitting inspection of
borecore; and Dr P. Conaghan of
Macquarie University and Mr M. Armstrong
of the N.S.W. Department of Mineral
Resources for reviews of the manuscript.
This paper is published with the
permission of the Director-General,
N.S.W. Department of Mineral Resources.

REFERENCES

Agnew, D. & Bayly, K. 1989. A
geophysical correlation of the
lower Illawarra Coal Measures
between Ulan and other areas
in the Western Coalfield of N.S.W.
Advances in the study of the Sydney
Basin Proceedings of the 23rd
Symposium, 149-155.

Barto, C. & Delaney, S.D. 1989. Wollar
Authorisation No. 322 geology and
coal resources. Electricity Commi-
ssion of New South Wales (unpubl.).

Bayly, K.W. 1993. West Ulan coal
exploration report, Authorisation
286 & 430. New South Wales
Department of Mineral Resources —
Coal Geology Report 1993-001
(unpubl. ).

Bayly, K.W. and Yoo, E.K. in prep.
Review of coal seam correlations of
the Illawarra Coal Measures in the
Western Coalfield.

Beckett, J. 1988. The Hunter Coalfield:
Notes to accompany the 1:100,000
Hunter Coalfield Geological Map.
New South Wales Department of
Mineral Resources - Report GS
1988/0511; CGB 1988-008 (unpubl.).

Bembrick, C.S. 1983. Stratigraphy and
sedimentation of the Late Permian
Illawarra Coal Measures in the
Western Coalfield, Sydney Basin,
New South Wales. Journal and
Proceedings, Royal Society of New
South Wales 176, 105-117.

Britten, R.A. 1972. A review of the
stratigraphy of the Singleton
Coal Measures and its significance

to coal geology and mining in the
Hunter Valley region of New South
Wales. Proceeding of the Annual
Conference of Australasian
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
Newcastle 11-22.

Crapp, C.E. 1985. A report on the
geology of the coal resources
of Authorisation 104, 142 Lithgow-

Newnes area. The Electricity
Commission of New South Wales -
Report No. DE 239 (unpubl.).

Holmes, G.G. 1975. Goulburn Valley coal
drilling operations by the New
South Wales Department of Mines
during 1973 and 1974. Geological
Survey of New South Wales — Report
GS 1975/001 (unpubl.).

Hughes, W. 1991. Exploration summary
report for period ended 16th April
1991. Ulan Coal Mines Ltd
Authorisation 309 & 428 (unpubl.).

Johnstone, M.A. & Bekker, C. 1983. Final
geological report on Ulan Coal
Mines Ltd Authorisation 58 & 202
(unpubl.).

McElroy Bryan & Assoc, 1983. Bylong
Project Stage 1 Exploration
Report. Prepared for Austen & Butta
Ltd, Report 1/30/3 (unpubl.).

McElroy Bryan & Assoc, 1985.
Authorisation 342 South Bylong,
Stage 1 Exploration Report.
Prepared for Austen Butta Ltd,
Report 1/30/4 (unpubl.).

McElroy, C.T. and Rose, G. 1990.
Historical review of coal
geology in New South Wales, in K.R.
Glasson & J.H. Rattigan (editors)
GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE DISCOVERY
OF SOME IMPORTANT MINERAL DEPOSITS
IN AUSTRALIA. The Australasian
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
— Monograph Series No. 17.

McMinn, A. 1985. Palynostratigraphy of
the Middle Permian coal sequences
of the Sydney Basin. Australian
Journal of Earth Sciences 32(3),
301-309.

Moloney, J., Bradley. G. and West, P.
1983. The geology and coal
resources of the Rylstone area
Authorisation No. 230 an interim
report. New South Wales Department
of Mineral Resources — Coal Geology
Report 1983-006 (unpubl. ).

Offenberg, A.C., Rose, D.M. and Packham,
G.H. 1971. Dubbo 1:250,000
Geological Sheet SI/55-4, 1st edn.
Geological Survey of New South

86 E.K. YOO

Wales, Sydney.

Shiels; Oo. &Kizby;:Bucs. 1977:
Geological report on the Joint
Drilling Program — Ulan area. Joint
Coal Board-— Report LR 77/1
(unpubl.).

Standing Committee on Coalfield Geology
of New South Wales, 1974. Strat-—
igraphy of the Singleton
Supergroup. New South Wales
Geological Survey —- Records 16(1),
67-105.

Standing Committee on Coalfield Geology
of New South Wales, 1974.
Stratigraphy of the Tomago Coal
Measures. New South Wales
Geological Survey -— Records 76(1),
30-34.

Standing Committee on Coalfield Geology
of New South Wales, 1986.
Stratigraphic Subdivision of the
Illawarra Coal Measures in the
Western Coalfield. New South Wales
Geological Survey -— Records 22(1),
145-158.

New South Wales Department of Mineral

Resources

PO Box 536

St Leonards, N.S.W. 2065
Australia

Yoo,

YOo,,

Yoo,

E.K. 1991. Geology and coal
resources of the northern sector

of the Western Coalfield. New South
Wales Department of Mineral
Kesources — Coal Geology Report
7991-003 (unpubl.).

E.K. in prep. Geological map of the
Western Coalfield, northern sector,
1:100 000. New South Wales
Department of Mineral Resosurces.

E.K., West, P. & Bradley, G. 1983.-
Geology and coal resources of the
Coolah-Binnaway-—Mendooran area
(Goulburn River-—Binnaway Drilling
Programme — Authorisation 286). New
South Wales Department of Mineral
Resources — Coal Geology Report
7983-022 (unpubl.).

Communicator: Dr. John William Picket

(Manuscript received 29-4-1993)

$4.00/1

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.126, Pp. 87, 1993
ISSN 0035-9173/93/010087-1 Z

Doctoral Thesis Abstract: 19F NMR of Erythrocytes: ‘Split Peak' Phenomenon, Membrane

Potential and Membrane Transport

Fluorinated solutes such as difluorophosphatc (DFP),
monofluorophosphatc (MFP), hexafluorophosphate (HFP),
and uifluoroacctate (TFA) all showed well-resolved !9F NMR
resonances when thcy were added to crythrocytc suspensions.
The broader resonanccs from intracellular solutes were shiftcd
to high frequency with respect to their cxtraccllular

counterparts.

The !9F NMR chemical shifts of the above-mentioned
compounds werc shifted to high frequency in the presence of
protcins. An incrcasc in tempcraturc also Icd to a shift of the
19F NMR resonances to high frequency. Results from this
work support the hypothesis that the disruption of hydrogen
bonding betwcen the fluorinc atom and solvent watcr atoms,
by hydrated hacmoglobin, is the principal physical basis for
the ‘split pcak' phenomcnon scen with crythrocytc

Suspensions.

The well-resolved 19F NMR resonances of DFP enabled
its ansmembranc mass-distribution to be determined directly
from an crythrocyte suspension. At transmembrane
clectrochemical equilibrium, the distribution of DFP was
governed by the membranc Donnan potcnuial. The membranc
potential mcasurcd using DFP was indcpcndcnt of the
concentration of the probe molcculc, and the hacmatocnit of the

Suspensions within a large range.

A novel adaption of a !9F NMR magnetisation-transfcr
technique was derived to measure the rapid membranc
transport of DFP. The transport was shown to be mcdiatcd
exclusively by band-3. The transport was tcmpcraturc
dependent; the ‘break-point’ temperature of the cquilibrium
cfflux was ~31°C. Under similar conditions, the ratios of the
influx rates for solutcs at a concentration of 20 mM were DFP

: hypophosphite : F- : Cl- were 1.0: 1.5 : 33.0: 68.1.

Arron S. L. Xu

The membranc-transport of TFA in human crythrocytcs
was significantly slower than DFP. By differentiating the
inhibition brought about by a numbcr of compounds,
including suilbenc disulfonatcs, a-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamatc,
p-chloromercuriphenylsulfonic acid, and N-cthylmalcimide,
band-3 was found to be the predominant transporter of TFA
uptake into human crythrocytcs. A small fraction of the uptake
was mcdiated by the monocarboxylatc transporter. Under
physiological conditions, uansport via simple diffusion via the

lipid of thc membrancs was ncgligible.

The 19F NMR spectrum showed well-separated quartets
arising from beryllofluorides BcF2, BcF3- and BcF42-. This
phenomenon facilitated the study of the multiple cquilibra
associated with the complcxcs in a solution. In crythrocytc
suspensions, the !9F NMR spccira showed resonances from
the intracellular populations of the complexcs shiftcd to higher
frequencics relative to their extraccllular counterparts. The
erythrocyte membranc-transport of the complexes was
complctcly inhibited by stilbene disulfonates; the results
Suggcsicd that band-3 was the exclusive transporter for BcF3"
and BcF42-, and intracellular BcF2 arose as the result of the re-
distribution of the various intraccllular complexes via the

multiple equilibra.

The 9Bc NMR resonances of the complexes were, a
quintet, a quartct and a triplet for BcF42°, BcF3- and BcF2,
respectively, and thcy overlapped cxtensivcly. 9Bc NMR
resonances of intra- and cxtraccllular solutcs were not
resolved. 9Bc NMR dccoupling simplificd the 19F NMR
spectrum. The !19F NMR magnctisation transfer among
various complexes in cithcr cis or trans compartments
indicated interconversion among the different specics in the cis
compartment, and the transmcembranc cxchange occurred
within sub-minutc ume scalc.

An abstract from the thesis submitted to the University of

87

Department of Biochemistry Sydney for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, December

The University of Sydney
Sydney NSW 2006 ae
Australia
(Manuscript received 13-5-1993)

88

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 126, p.88, 1993
ISSN 0035-9173/93/010088-01 $4.00/1

DOCTORAL THESIS ABSTRACT

ATLANTIS:
A TOOL FOR LANGUAGE DEFINITION
AND INTERPRETER SYNTHESIS

Michael John Oudshoorn, B.Sc.(Hons.)

Programming language semantics are usually defined informally in some form of tech-
nical natural language, or in a very mathematical manner with techniques such as
the Vienna Definition Method (VDM) or denotational semantics. One difficulty which
arises from serious attempts to define language semantics is that the resulting definition
is generally suitable for a single limited kind of reader. For example, the more formal
kind of definition may suit a compiler writer or a language designer, but will be less
convenient for other potential classes of reader, such as programmers. The latter
frequently make use of some completely separate description (e.g., an introductory
text book on the language); not surprisingly, inconsistencies between these separate
descriptions and the language definition are commonplace.

This thesis develops a technique for the definition of programming language se-
mantics which is suitable for a wide range of potential readers. This technique
employs an operational semantic model which is based on the algebraic specification
of abstract data types; the semantic model manipulates multi-layer descriptions of
language semantics and supports multiple passes in these descriptions.

The semantic technique described in this thesis lends itself to the semi-automatic
generation of an interpreter from the language definition, a fact which acts as an
incentive to language designers to produce a formal definition of any new program-
ming language, since the prototype implementation allows experimentation with new
language features and their semantics. The system which generates an interpretive
implementation from a language definition is called ATLANTIS, A Tool for LANguage

definiTion and Interpreter Synthesis, and is also described in this thesis.
August 1992

A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

IN THE DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE

South Australia 5005
Australia

(Manuscript received 1-5-1993)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.126, p.89,1993

ISSN 0035-9173/93/010089-01 $4.00/1

Doctoral Thesis Abstract: Some aspects of the
pathogenicity and immunity of bovine leukemia virus infection
in cattle and sheep.

MAGTOUF H. GATEI

A series of research studies on bovine leukemia
virus (BLV) infection was designed to investigate viral
infectivity, Oncogenicity and immunological responses in
cattle (natural host) and sheep (experimental model). The
research also concentrated on the possibility of developing
an efficient vaccine against this retroviral infection.

Specific monoclonal antibodies were used to
identify lymphocytes bearing surface immunoglobulin, T
helper (BoT4), T cytotoxic (BoT8) cells and total T cell
phenotypes over a four months observation period. The
results showed that the numbers of B cells in BLV infected
cattle with persistent lymphocytosis (PL) were significantly
(P<0.01) higher than those of BLV+PL- and BLV free
cows. The percentages of bovine major histocompatibility
determinants, BoT4 and BoT8 T cells, were significantly
reduced (P<0.01) in BLV+PL+ cows.

Serum concentrations of immunoglobulins IgG1,
IgG2 and IgM over the same observation period were also
Studies. There was a significant decrease (P<0.0001) in
the level of IgM in the sera of BLV+PL+ cattle compared
to that in BLV+PL- and healthy cattle. There were no
significant differences in IgGl and IgG2 concentrations
between the three cattle groups.

Intravenous inoculation of sheep was used to test
the infectivity of blood and nasal and saliva secretions
from BLV+PL+, BLV+PL- and BLV free cows. It was
found that 200 to 20,000 lymphocytes from BLV+PL+
donors induced infection in recipient sheep within 3 - 8
weeks post infection (P.I.). The inoculation of blood from
BLV+PL- donors did not induce seroconversion in
recipient sheep over 24 weeks of the observation period.
Inoculation of saliva and nasal secretions from all BLV
infected donors failed to bring about BLV transmission. A
Significant but transient increase (P<0.05) in the
peripheral blood lymphocytes was observed in recipient

Twelve sheep were injected with
phytohaemagglutinin cultured peripheral blood
mononuclear cells from a naturally infected BLV+PL+
donor cow and their responses compared to 7 control
Sheep. The massive appearance of lymphoid cells in the
blood of infected sheep indicated tumour development as
confirmed histologically by peripheral lymph node (LN)
biopsy performed at the time of lymphocyte proliferations.
Nine out of 12 sheep (75%) died due to lymphosarcoma
over a 10 - 22 months period. Gross tumours were
usually found in the heart and mesenteric LNs of all
leukemic sheep. Occasionally, the tumours were also

detected in the abomasum, urinary tract and uterus. The
liver, spleen, kidney and lung showed no solid tumours but
were infiltrated with malignant lymphoblastic cells whether
or not they showed gross involvement. A _ significant
transient elevation of circulating lymphocytes in these
sheep was also observed at 2 weeks after infection.

Synthetic overlapping peptides covering the entire
sequence of the BLV gp51 antigen (Ag) were tested on
peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from BLV
infected and healthy cattle and sheep to determine the
immunodominant T cell epitopes. The results provide
evidence that residues corresponding to the sequences 61 -
70 and 131 - 140 amino acids of the
gp51 Ag constitute the immunogenic sites of T4 (CD4) and
T8 (CD8) epitopes respectively. The incorporation of
these sites may be useful in the development of an efficient
vaccine against BLV infection.

Vaccination of recipient sheep with vaccinia virus
vectors expressing BLV envelope (env) gene (gp51 and
gp30) or gp51 alone was carried out. The recipient sheep
were subsequently challenged with 4 x 10* PBMCs from a
BLV+PL+ donor cow. Vaccination with recombinants of
BLV env gene induced high levels of T4 proliferation
following booster vaccine inoculation. At two weeks after
challenge, these sheep developed a slight increase in the
gp51 antibody titres. These titres gradually decreased to
constant and low levels at 8 months following challenge
and remained so over the 16 month observation period.
The cytotoxic T cell responses were measured at 16
months after challenge. High levels of cytotoxic activity
were observed in sheep vaccinated with BLV env gene. At
8 weeks after challenge, these sheep were negative for
BLV as detected by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
and remained so throughout the observation period. Sheep
vaccinated with gp51 only and BLV infected sheep
(controls) showed titres which gradually rose after an
initial delay to a high level which was maintained over 16
months following challenge. These sheep were positive
for BLV as detected by PCR continuously after infection.
Results obtained here indicated the high immunogenicity of
the BLV env gene and its capability to induce an
immunological memory response in sheep.

Department of Farm Animal Medicine
and Production,

The University of Queensland
Brisbane Qld 4072

Australia

(Manuscript received 8-6-1993)

89

90 Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales,” Vol.’ 126), p.90-91, 1993

ISS" 0035-9173/93/010090-02 $4.00/1

DOCTORAL THESIS ABSTRACT:

PROVENANCE, DIAGENESIS AND

RESERVOIR CHARACTERISTICS OF SANDSTONES OF THE GREAT
AUSTRALIAN BASIN SUCCESSION IN NSW.

Fuxiang He

The Middle Jurassic and lower Creta-
ceous sandstones of the Great Australian
Basin (GAB) in NSW (i.e., Eromanga and
Surat Basins) comprise two petrofacies: a
fluvial quartzose petrofacies anda
lacustrine to marginal-/shallow- marine
volcanolithic petrofacies. Detrital
minerlogy, chemical composition of detri-
tal feldspars (AnAbOr%), detrital mode
(QFL%) and regional petrofacies distribu-
tion of these sandstones indicate the
existence of two major provenances: for
the quartzose sandstones, a dominantly
cratonic provenance consisting of pluton-
ic/metamorphic basement rocks and/or
older sedimentary successions flanking
the GAB on the west and south; and for
the volcanolithic petrofacies which are
rich in andesitic VRFs, a mainly contem-
porary volcanic orogen located along the
northeastern continental margin of Aus-
tralia. A regionally developed strati-
graphic alternation of these two petrofa-
cies defines a recurrent petrologic cycle
that manifests contemporary episodic
tectonic activity of the volcanic orogen
- craton couplet. The Early Cretaceous
Marine transgression in GAB also extended
into the Lower Cretaceous Murray Infraba-
sin (MIB), but the lithic sandstones of
MIB are rich in metamorphic rock-frag-
ments reflecting local provenances dif-
ferent from those that sourced the GAB
proper.

Diagenetic processes in the sand-
stones include physical compaction, clay
infiltration (in some quartzose sand-
stones), dissolution/alteration of labile
grains (e.g., VRFs, feldspars and mica)
and cementation. In the volcanolithic
sandstones, the diagenetic minerals com-
prise smectite, zeolite, kaolinite, car-
bonate and minor chlorite and illite; in
the quartzose sandstones, the suite
consists of kaolinite and quartz plus
some carbonate and minor smectite and
chlorite. Dissolution and cementation
(and the occurrence of secondary porosi-
ty) in the volcanolithic sandstones are
believed to be related to the acidic
pore-fluids partly derived from diagene-
sis of the intercalated organic-rich
mudrocks. The chemical diagenesis (and
the development of secondary porosity) in
the quartzose sandstones, which consti-
tute some of the main aquifers in the
Great Artesian System, results from the
interaction between the meteoric pore-
fluid and sandstone constituents.

In the lithic sandstones, core poros-
ity ranges from 24.0% to 40.0% (with mean
35.0%), permeability from 1.8 to 4805.2
(md) (with mean 125.0 md); in the quart-
zose sandstones, these values are 16.3%
to 34.2% (with mean 29.0%) and 1.3 -
18400.0 (md) (with mean 676.1 md) respec-
tively. Results of petrography, SEM and
mercury intrusion porosimetry show that
the volcanolithic sandstones contain
Mainly microporosity, and the quartzose
sandstones contain mainly primary and
secondary intergranular porosity. The
distribution patterns of porosity and
permeability in the lithic and quartzose
sandstones have good correlations with
their respective depositional environ-
ments.

Parameters influencing sandstone
porosity and permeability were examined
using stepwise multiple regression.
Porosity of the lithic sandstones (Q <
50.0 whole-rock%) is closely related to
sediment age, content of detrital quartz
(Q) and pore-fillings and burial depth
(the multiple correlation coefficient r =
0.81); for the quartzose sandstones (Q >
50.0%), the parameters are burial depth,
formation temperature and pore-fillings
(xc = 0.78); porosity of very quartzose
sandstones (Q > 75.0%) is correlated
closely with sediment age and grain-size
(xr = 0.85). Permeability of the lithic
sandstones is related to pore-fillings,
burial depth, detrital quartz and pore-
fluid chemistry (r = 0.66); for the
quartzose sandstones, the parameters are
grain-size, burial depth, formation
temperature and sediment age (r = 0.75).

Factor analysis reveals the relation-
ship among the petrological and petro-
physical variables, and the relationships
between these variables and the geologi-
cal processes of source-rock weathering,
sediment transportation and deposition,
and diagenesis. Four factors have been
establised: Factor I is defined by grain-
size, sorting, and pore-fluid chemistry;
Factor II, defined by porosity and perme-
ability and the content of matrix and
detrital quartz; Factor III is defined by
formation temperature, burial depth and
sediment age; Factor IV is defined by the
content of cements.

Based on the existing geological and
geochemical evidence, there exists no
petroleum source within the Eromanga

FUXIANG HE

Basin succession in NSW. In South Austra-
lia and Queensland, some of the Eromanga
Basin hydrocarbon was likely generated in
the Middle Jurassic Birkhead Formation
and the Upper Jurassic - Lower Cretaceous
Murta Member/Mooga Formation; but much of
the Eromanga Basin hydrocarbon is likely
to have been derived from the underlying
Cooper Basin source rocks.

School of Earth Sciences
Macquarie University
N.S.W., 2109 Australia

Present address:

Department of Applied Geology
University of Technology, Sydney
Broadway, N.S.W, 2007 Australia

(manuscript received 22-6-1993)

: " i)
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i wet
(- 8)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.126, pp.93-110,1993

ISSN 0035-9173/93/010093-18 $4.00/1

93

Annual Report of Council

FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31 MARCH 1993

PATRON

The Council wishes to express its
gratitude to his Excellency Rear Admiral
Peter Sinclair, AO, Governor of New South
Wales, for his continuing support as Patron of
the Society.

MEETINGS

Eight General Monthly Meetings and
the 124th Annual General Meeting were held
during the year. The average attendance was
24 (range 15 to 36). The Annual General
Meeting and seven of the General Monthly
Meetings were held at the Australian
Museum. A summary of proceedings is set
out in a report attached.

A Special Joint Meeting with ANZAAS
was held on 17 August 1992 in the Hallstrom
Theatre, Australian Museum. Dr. Ditta
Bartels, Director of European Affairs at the
University of New South Wales, spoke on “
Getting more out of Australian Science -
Lessons from Europe”.

The Biennial Liversidge Research
Lecture of the Society was held on 14 October
1992 in the School of Chemistry, University
of Sydney. Professor Sever Sternhell of that
University delivered a lecture on “Studies in
Bonding and Non-bonding”.

The Poggendorf Memorial Lecture was
held on 8 December 1992 in conjunction with
the Agricultural Retired Officers Association

at the City of Sydney R.S.L. Club. Mr E.J.
Corbin, General Manager, Sludge
Applications Programs, New South Wales
Department of Agriculture, spoke on “in
search of the golden crop, an argosy of crop
adaptation”.

The Society was co-sponsor of a joint
meeting held on 16 February 1993, with the
Institution of Engineers (Australia) Sydney
Division, the Australian Nuclear Association
and the Australian Institute of Energy. The

meeting was addressed by Mr Stephen Jones,
Super Computer Manager at A.N.S.T.O., who
spoke on “The Use of Supercomputers in
Industry”.

An Annual Dinner was held on 13
March 1993, at the Holme and Sutherland
Rooms, University of Sydney Union. The
guest of honour was Professor S.K. Runcorn,
FRS. The President, Dr F.L. Sutherland,
welcomed the guest of honour and invited
him to deliver the Occasional Address.
Professor Runcorn then presented the
Society's Awards for 1992, (except for the
Clarke Medal). He presented the Society’s
Medal to Mr Kim Ford ( a vice President),
the Edgeworth David Medal jointly to Dr
Keith Nugent and Dr Peter Goadsby and the
Walter Burfitt Prize to Professor George
Paxinos and Professor Istvan Tork
(deceased). Each recipient delivered a few
words of thanks to the Society. Associate
Professor Denis Winch then proposed a vote
of thanks to Professor Runcom. A total of 46
members and their guests attended.

Eleven meetings of Council were held at
the Society’s Office,134 Herring Road, North
Ryde. The average attendance was fifteen.

PUBLICATIONS

Volume 125, parts 1 & 2 and Volume
125, parts 3 & 4 of the Journal and
Proceedings were published during the year.
They incorporated twelve papers, and the
Occasional Address by His Excellency, Rear-
Admiral Peter Sinclair, the Patron, at the
Annual Dinner and Presentation of Medals in
March 1992, together with the Annual
Report of Council for 1990-91, Biographical
Memoirs and the Official Opening Address at
the Summer School on “Communication”
held in January 1991 by the Hon. R Free,
Minister for Science and Technology. The
Presidential Address for 1992 was also
included. Council is again grateful to the
voluntary referees who assessed papers
offered for publication

94 ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL

Ten issues of the Newsletter were
published during the year, and Council
thanks the authors of short articles for their
contribution.

Several requests to reproduce material
from the Journal and Proceedings were
approved by Council.

MEMBERSHIP
The membership of the Society as at
31st March, 1993, was:

Patron 1
Honorary members 14
Life Members 21
Ordinary members 199
Absentee members 16
Associate member 5)
Retired Members 23
Spouse Members 12
Total 290

The following new members were
elected and welcomed into the Society.

David Warwick BAGGS
Robert John COENRAADS

One Associate Member was elected and
welcomed into the Society.

Bronson STEELE

Council elected the following Life
Members to the Society during the year:

Dr Maxwell BANKS
Mr H.E. BROWN

The award of Honorary Membership
was bestowed on Professor S.K. Runcom FRS
of the University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
U.K. in February 1993.

With great regret, the Council received
news during the year of the deaths of the
following members:

Dr Henry George GOLDING
Dr Stanley Charles BAKER

AWARDS

The following awards were made for
1992:

Clarke Medal (in Geology):
Professor Alfred Edward
Ringwood, Research School of
Earth Sciences, Australian
National University

Edgeworth David Medal (research

under the age of 35 years)

Awarded jointly:
Dr Keith Alexander Nugent,
School of Physics, University of
Melbourne.
Dr Peter James Goadsby,
Department of Neurology,
University of New South
Wales.

Royal Society of New South Wales
Medal:
Mr William George Kinvig
(‘Kim’) Ford, Past President and
present Councillor of the Society.

The Walter Burfitt Prize (Awarded
Jointly):
Professor George Paxinos,
School of Psychology, University of
New South Wales.
Professor Istvan Joseph Tork
(deceased),
School of Anatomy, University of
New South Wales.

The Cook Medal and the Olle Prize
were not awarded this year.

OFFICE

The Society continued during the year
to lease for its office and library half a share of
Convocation House, 134 Herring Road, North
Ryde, on the southeastern edge of Macquarie
University campus. The Council is grateful to
the university for allowing it to continue
leasing the premises.

Mrs Margaret Evans, who had been the
Society's Assistant Secretary for the previous

ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL 95

20 months, submitted her resignation at the
beginning of 1993. Council wishes to thank
Mrs Evans for her valuable contribution to
the Society, Ms Francis Bluhdom has
accepted the position of Assistant Secretary on
a temporary basis.

The office expanded its service to
members with the installation of an
answering machine.

LIBRARY

Acquisitions by gift and exchange
continued as heretofore, the overseas and
most Australian material being lodged in the
Royal Society of New South Wales’ Collection
in the Dixson Library, University of New
England. The remainder of the Australian
material was lodged in the Society's office at
North Ryde. The Council thanks Mr Karl
_ Schnude, Librarian, University of New
England, for his continuing care and concern
in ensuring the smooth operation of the Royal
Society Collection and associated inter-library
photocopy loans.

An accession list for all material lodged
at the Society’s office during 1992/93 has been
prepared.

Accommodation for the Society’s
holdings remains limited. Nevertheless, most
of the large historical collection housed in
glass-fronted cabinets is in reasonably good
condition. Some investigation has been
undertaken of the most appropriate course of
action required to restore some of the more
valuable monographs.

NEW ENGLAND BRANCH REPORT

The following successful meetings were
held by the Branch during this year:

Tuesday 21 July 1992:

Dr E.C. Potter, Vice-President of the
Society spoke “On being interested in the
Extreme”.

Friday 9 October 1992:
Professor Hawkins, Vice-Chancellor,
University of New England addressed a

special meeting for students on “The Future
of Science at the University of New
England ”.

Tuesday 20 October 1992:

Associate Professor Peter Flood,
Department of Geology and Geophysics,
University of New England spoke on
“Australia and the Ocean Drilling
Programme.”

Thursday 30 October 1992:

Professor Fredrick Chong, formerly
Professor of Mathematics, University of
Auckland, Foundation Professor of
Mathematics at Macquarie University and
Emeritus Professor of Mathematics at
Macquarie University spoke on “ A case
study of CAT scans and PET scans to
illustrate the beauty and power of
Mathematics”.

SUMMER SCHOOL

This year's Summer School "Science in
Medicine", held from 18th to 22nd January 1993 at
Macquarie University, was again a great success.
One hundred and thirty nine senior high school
students from 22 State Schools and 39 private schools
state wide attended the week long activities.

Nineteen highly qualified speakers from
academic institutions and from governmental and
private organisations addressed the students. Two
half day excursions to industrial institutions were
undertaken. The Summer School was organised by
Mrs M. Krysko v. Tryst (Convenor) on the Society's
behalf.

Visits were made to the Royal Prince Alfred
Hospital and to Telectronics (Tachycardia
Operations). The Summer School was opened by the
Honourable R.A. Phillips, N.S.W. Minister for Health
in the presence of the Society's President and the
Vice-Chancellor of Macquarie University who
welcomed the students to the University campus.

Council wishes to thank the Honourable Mrs
Virginia Chadwick, N.S.W. Minister for Education
and Youth Affairs for supporting the Summer School,
and to Mr A. Tink, MP and Member for Council of
Macquarie University.

Council also expresses sincere thanks to the
speakers and organisers of visits whose addresses
and demonstrations helped to make the Summer
School such an outstanding success. Council's
appreciation is also extended to Mrs Krysko v. Tryst
and to the various Councillors who assisted the
Convener and chaired sessions.

96 ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL

Special thanks go to Prof. Anthony Basten of
University of Sydney for so generously advising the
organisers on programming the Summer School; to
Mrs W. Swaine who so expertly helped during the
excursions and by executing the Summer School
students' certificates; to Dr and Mrs Lin Sutherland
for the hospitality extended to country students of
the Summer School; and, to Mrs J. Lowenthal, Mrs
M. Potter and Miss N.G.E. Sutherland for their
assistance during the week.

Telecom Australia is thanked for sponsoring
the booklet of Abstracts of the various addresses
delivered during the Summer School 1993.

An analysis of participating students and high
schools was prepared.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS
April 1, 1992

(a) The 1024th General Monthly Meeting
was held in the Hallstrom Theatre at the
Australian Museum, Sydney. The President,
Dr E.C. Potter, was in the Chair and 27
members and visitors were present.

Robert John Coneraads and David
Warwick Baggs were elected to membership.

(b) The 125th Annual General Meeting.
The Annual Report of Council for 1991/92
and the Financial Report for 1991 were
adopted, and Messers Wylie and Puttock
were elected Auditors for 1992.

The following Awards for 1991 were
announced:

Cook Medal:
Professor Graeme Milbourne
Clark
Clarke Medal (in Botany ):
Dr Shirley Winifred Jeffery
Edgeworth David Medal:
Dr Mark Stephen Harvey
Royal Society of New South Wales
Medal:
Associate Professor Denis Edwin
Winch
The Archibald D. Olle Prize and The
Walter Burfitt Prize were not awarded in
1991.

The Following Office-Bearers and

Council were elected for 1992-1992:-

President:
Vice-Presidents:

Dr F.L. Sutherland
Dr A.A. Day

Mr G.W.K. Ford

Mr H.S. Hancock
Professor J.H. Loxton
Dr E.C. Potter
Honorary Secretaries:

Mr J.R. Hardie

Mrs M. Krysko v.
Tryst (editorial)

Honorary Treasurer: Assoc Professor D.E.
Winch

Honorary Librarian: Miss P. M. Callaghan

Members of Council: Mr C.V. Alexander
Dr R.S. Bhatal
Dr D.F. Branagan
Dr G. Gibbons
Dr G.C. Lowenthal
Mr E.D. O’Keefe
Assoc Professor W.E.
Smith
Dr D.J. Swaine

New England Representative:
Professor S.C.
Haydon

The retiring President, Dr E.C. Potter,
delivered his presidential address entitled
“On being interested in the extreme”. A vote
of thanks was proposed by Dr D Swaine.

May 6, 1992

The 1025th General Monthly Meeting
was held in the Hallstrom Theatre at the
Australian Museum, Sydney. The President,
Dr F.L. Sutherland, was in the Chair and 36
members and visitors were present.

Mr Gregory Mortimer presented an
address on “The Risk of Cold Injury”.

June 3, 1992

The 1026th General Monthly Meeting
was held in the Hallstrom Theatre at the
Australian Museum, Sydney. The President,
Dr F.L. Sutherland, was in the Chair and 20
members and visitors were present.

Mr Barry Pearce, Senior Curator of
Australian Art at the Art Gallery of New

ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL 97

South Wales presented an address on “Art
and Science”.

Professor M.R. Bennett, Professor of
Physiology and Director of the Neurobiology
Research Centre, University of Sydney spoke

July 1, 1992 on “The Brain, the Centre for Research in the

The 1027th General Monthly Meeting 21st Century”.
was held in the Hallstrom Theatre at the
Australian Museum, Sydney. The President,
Dr F.L. Sutherland, was in the Chair and 15 October 7, 1992

members and visitors were present.

Dr Trevor A. Johnston, Research
Fellow, Department of Linguistics,
University of Sydney gave an address on “A
General Introduction to Australian Deaf Sign
Language (AUSLAN) and its Relationship to

The 1030th General Monthly Meeting
was held in the Hallstrom Theatre at the
Australian Museum, Sydney. The President,
Dr F.L. Sutherland, was in the Chair and 18
members and visitors were present.

Dr R. A. L. Osbarne of the School of

English”. Teaching and Curriculum Studies,
University of Sydney gave an address entitled
August 5, 1992 “New Light on Old Caves”.

The 1028th General Monthly Meeting
was held in the Hallstrom Theatre at the
Australian Museum, Sydney. The Acting
President, Dr E.C. Potter, was in the Chair
and 23 members and visitors were present.

Dr Don Boland addressed the meeting
on “The Judgment of Paris- A discourse on
the Relationship between Philosophic and

November 4, 1992

The 1031st General Monthly Meeting
was held at the University of Western Sydney
(Nepean), Kingswood. The President, Dr F.L.
Sutherland, was in the Chair and 16
members and visitors were present.

Scientific Truth”.

September 2, 1992
The 1029th General Monthly Meeting
was held in the Hallstrom Theatre at the

The address was given by Associate
Professor David Bailey, Head of the
Department of Physics in the Faculty of
Science and Technology, University of
Western Sydney who spoke on “Physics:

Australian Museum, Sydney. The Acting Teaching, Learning, Thinking”.

President, Dr F.L. E.C. Potter, was in the
Chair and 27 members and visitors were
present.

ERRATA: Vol. 125 Parts 3 and 4

(i) p 82 E.C.Potter 'On being Interested in the Extreme’:
right hand column, 11th line from top:
",.. and thus covers 200 metres'' should read

",.. and thus covers 100 metres",

right hand column, 12th line from top:
"the same speed to complete 100 metres..''should
read:

",. the same speed to complete 200 metres..''.

(11) p 84 E.C.Potter 'On being Interested in the Extreme’:
Caption for Fig.2:
O--o men Middle-distance equation
" 0.507" should read " — 0,507 "

(iii) p 90 E.C.Potter 'On being Interested in the Extreme!:
Fig. 6 The 16 different stanrd dice,

SO

Bottom right-hand die should show the 'twos' on the
opposite diagonal of the face thus:

98

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CMM RE

Summer School 1992:

ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL

Participants in the Summer School on "Science in Medicine",
January 1992, held at Macquarie University.

Top photo: front row right- Mrs.M.Krysko v, Tryst, Convener
of the Summer School. 3.row right- Miss P.M.Callaghan, Hon.
Librarian. 4.row right- Dr. D.J.Swaine, Member of Council.
Last row to left of centre- A/Prof. W.E.Smith, Member of
Council.

Lower photo: front row right- Mrs. M.Krysko v. Tryst, Con-
vener of Summer School. 2.row left- A/Prof. D.E.Winch, Hon.
Treasurer; right (with sunglasses) Dr. F.L.Sutherland, Pre-
Sident of the Society.

99

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AWARDS 105

CLARKE MEDAL FOR 1992

Professor Alfred Edward Ringwood,
universally known as "Ted", is truly one of
Australia's great home-grown scientists and has been
a Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science since
1966. After completing a B.Sc., M.Sc., and Ph.D.
at the University of Melbourne between 1950 and
1956, he launched into a career of geochemical
studies that won him his world-wide acclaim. Much
of his pioneering and distinguished research on the
fundamental chemical structure of the Earth and its
companion Moon has been based at the Australian
National University in Canberra. He has been
Professor of Geochemistry there since 1967.

The Award of the Clarke Medal for 1992 in the
field of geology to Professor Ringwood is particularly
fitting. Early in the recognition of his scientific
achievements, the Royal Society of New South Wales
showed considerable foresight in nominating him for
the Clarke Memorial Lecture in 1970. His topic was:
"The Origin of the Mocn", and he has been
instrumental in reviving the hypothesis that the Moon
was created from the Earth's mantle after segregation
of the core. -

Professor Ringwood's published research
includes over 300 papers. His first 25 papers
between 1956 and 1962 were all solo works, a
remarkable testament to his individual approach to a
variety of geochemical studies. Two books
summarise the core of his work: "Composition and
Petrology of the Earth's Mantle" 1975; and, "Origin
of the Earth and Moon" 1979.

Most of his research, some 110 papers,
considers the origin and geochemical evolution of the
Earth, its core, the Moon, planets and meteorites.
His prediction in 1977 that oxygen is the principal
light element in the earth's core was tested by
experiment he devised and developed in the next ten
years. These showed that iron and iron oxide
became miscible under core conditions. Several
papers iliustrate his collaborative research on moon
rocks gathered by the Apollo Missions. One
particularly intriguing title in his works is: "Water

in the Solar System", which was published in 1977 in
an Australian Academy of Science Symposium on
Water, Planets Plants and People.

Another 100 papers discuss the transformations
of minerals into new structures under high pressures
and temperatures and their role in understanding the
constitution of the Earth. He used pressure-
sensitive synthetic analogues of natural minerals to
study rearrangements which could occur in the deep
Earth. Many of the predicted structures have been
confirmed and explored as new technology allows
greater temperature and pressure control in
experiments. Some 40 papers tackle the composition
of the Earth's mantle in its dynamic relationship with
molten bodies rising to the surface. This work,
particularly in coHaboration with D.H. Green,
introduced the concept of pyrolite as a fertile mantle
source rock for generating the common basalt and
andesite lavas erupted by many of Earth's volcanoes,
past and present.

The research group built up by Professor
Ringwood at Australia's National University has
greatly helped to place Australia in the forefront of
Earth science research both in the academic and
applied research fields. He and associated colleagues
have applied for 11 Australian and overseas patents.
An example is SYNROCK, a synthetic rock used to
trap high-level radioactive wastes. Professor
Ringwood's abilities as a research leader are reflected
through many of his students reaching research
careers almost as illustrious as his.

Professor Ringwood has received nearly 50
impressive appointments, elections, Distinguished
Lecture nominations and awards over his career.
Recent awards include the Geochemical Society 1991
Goldschmidt Award and the Accademia Nazionale Dei
Lincei 1991 Premio Internazionale per la Geologia,
Paleontologia, Mineralogia e Applicazioni Award. Itis
with great pleasure that The Royal Society of New
South Wales presents Professor Ringwood with the
Clarke Medal in recognition of his long standing
geological achievements.

EDGEWORTH DAVID MEDAL FOR 1992

The Edgeworth David Medal, for distinguished
contributions to Australian science by a young
scientists under the age of 35, is shared by Dr Peter
James Goadsby and Dr Keith Alexander Nugent.

Peter James Goadsby

Dr Goadsby obtained the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy from the University of New South Wales in
1985, followed by the degree of Doctor of Medicine in
1990. He currently holds a Wellcome Senior
Research Fellowship in the Department of Neurology
at the Prince Henry Hospital and a_ Senior
Lectureship at the University of New South Wales.

Australian Neuroscience Society.

For his contributions to neurophysiology and to
the understanding of migraine, Dr Goadsby is a
worthy recipient of the Edgeworth David Medal.

Keith Alexander Nugent

Dr Nugent was awarded his Ph.D. from the

Australian National University in 1984 and took up a
position in the School of Physics at the University of
Melbourne in 1985. He has won rapid promotion there
and is now one of the youngest Readers in the
University .

106 | ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL

Dr Goadsby has published prolifically, with
over 70 papers in physiology and neurology. His
studies have improved understanding of the
mechanisms responsible for migraine, by clarifying
many aspects of the neural control of the cerebral
circulation. Over the last ten years, he has
pursued a series of linked experiments to unravel the
influence of brain stem nuclei on the cerebral
circulation, the feedback mechanisms causing
circulatory changes, the areas of the brain stem
concerned with the perception of pain and some of
the transmitter agents involved in these processes.
For example, experiments just completed show that
nitric oxide is the coupling substance between blood
flow and metabolism during spreading depression.
This observation has implications for a range of
cerebral disorders from stroke to migraine. In a
collaboration with Dr Andrew Grundlach, he has
shown that one of the most effective anti-migraine
agents can pass the blood-brain barrier, leading to a
complete revaluation of previous thinking on the
question of central mechanisms in migraine. He has
also determined the group of cells most likely to be
the mediators of migraine pain, pointing the way to
further understanding of the disorder.

Dr Goadsby received the prestigious Harold G.
Wolff Award of the American Association for the
Study of Headache in 1983 and again in 1991 and has
given numerous invited lectures abroad. In 1992,
he was awarded the A.W. Campbell Award from the

Dr Nugent's early research led to a new
approach from imaging x-ray and neutron emission
and the first ever images of the dense fusing region of
plasma. Further development of this work with
collaborators in the United States won the prestigious
RD100 award for one of the most significant technical
advances of 1988. With Dr S. Wilkins and Dr H.N.
Chapman, he has worked on a new approach to x-ray
focussing, based on the principles underlying the eye
of the lobster. Groups in England and the United
States are developing this technique for use in a
satellite based x-ray telescope. Dr Nugent has
developed a new and simple description of partially
coherent diffraction, with significant applications to
the measurement of x-ray laser sources, the apparent
rapid fluctuation of quasars and wavefield
reconstruction. He has also proposed a new approach
to x-ray holography. This work opens up prospects
for significant advances in microscopy and_ sets
fundamental limits on the experimental arrangements
necessary to ensure reliable results.

Dr Nugent was awarded the Pawsey Medal of the
Australian Academy of Science in 1989. He has given
invited lectures in Australia, Japan and the United
States and has published over 40 papers in
internationally recognised journals.

Dr Nugent's contributions to the science of
optics make him a worthy recipient of the Edgeworth
David Medal.

WALTER BURFITT PRIZE FOR 1992

Instituted in 1929 following a benefaction to the
Society from the estate of the late Dr Walter Burfitt,
the Walter Burfitt Prize is awarded not more
frequently than every three years for progress in
science in the preceding six years in Australia or
New Zealand. The prize for 1992 is a sum of $1000
and has been awarded jointly to two collaborating
scientists at the University of New South Wales,
Professor George Paxinos and the late Professor
Istvan Tork for their work in neuroanatomy. Their
submission for the prize consisted of 4 books and 46
articles describing the morphology and organisation
of the rat and human nervous systems. It will be
appreciated that the rat brain is frequently taken as
a model of the mammalian brain and_ that
investigations of neuroactive substances are more
readily pursued with the experimental animal than
with man.

George Paxinos received his basic education in
his native Greece, and in 1962 moved to the United
States of America where in 1968 he graduated in
psychology from the University of California at
Berkeley. His Masters and Ph.D. degrees were
awarded from McGill University, Montreal, Canada
for his work on the hypothalamus as a controller of
behaviour in the rat. In 1973 he took up a
lectureship in Psychology at the University of New

rat brain development from birth to maturity and a
publication that has become the most frequently cited
in neuroscience. George Paxinos can be justly proud
also of his community interests. He was founder and
secretary of the Migrant Rights Committee, an
organisation that assisted around 15000 persons of
many nationalities to become Australian citizens.

Istvan Tork graduated in medicine in Budapest,
Hungary in 1963 at the age of 24, having already
published nine papers describing anatomical and
histochemical studies on a variety of vertebrates. In
1969 he and his wife, Emoke moved to the University
of Zambia in Lusaka where, two years later, he became
Professor and Head of the Department of Anatomy. A
renewed opportunity to pursue his theories through
research came in 1976 when he joined the School of
Anatomy at the University of New South Wales,
eventually to become the School's Head in 1988, with
the distinction of a Personal Chair in 1991. He became
a major figure in Australian neuroscience, being
especially admired for his use of morphometric tools,
including the electron microscope and the computer,
as exemplified by his unravelling of the
catecholaminergic centres of the brain stem and the
serotonergic pathways in the cerebral cortex. His
collaboration with George Paxinos sealed for both of
them the Walter Burfitt Prize.

AWARDS

South Wales where he is now Professor in the School

of Psychology. Although George Paxinos and Istvan
Tork had their separate careers to pursue, the
University gradually brought them into collaboration
after Istvan Tork joined the School of Anatomy in
1976. So secure did their collaboration eventually
become that they jointly authored curing the past six
years the seminal work entitled: "The Rat Brain in
_ Stereotaxic Coordinates", a precise and novel atlas of

107

When the judges for the 1992 Burfitt Prize
reached their decision, they were communally unaware
that Professor Istvan Tork had a few months earlier
died of complications resulting from a brain tumour.
Dr Emoke Tork has graciously consented to receive in
person her late husband's portion of the Walter
Burfitt Prize for 1992.

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES MEDAL FOR 1992

This Medal for notable contributions to science
and to the advancement of the Society is awarded to
Mr George William Kinvig Ford, known to us as Kim.

Mr Ford graduated from Cambridge University,
EA with honours in 1941, followed by MA in 1945.
After service in the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve
as a specialist in avionics, including service in
Australia, he was awarded an MBE. He had a long
and varied career in nuclear science in the United
Kingdom, starting at Harwell, where he investigated
heat transfer from fuel slugs, the development of gas
lubricated bearings for an isotopes plant compressor,
the possibility of using gaseous uranium hexafluoride
as a reactor fuel and the performance of membranes
for uranium enrichment plants. His next work was
at Dounreay Experimental Reactor Establishment
where he was Research Manager of the Experimental
Nuclear Criticality Laboratory. Then in 1959, he
transferred to the Atomic Energy Establishment at
Winfrith where he was a Senior Principal Research
Scientist. His work included planning reactor
physics facilities, especially the development of
original proposals for the "Nestor" research reactor.
After becoming Deputy Head of Energy Development

he had responsibility for heat transfer and boiling
dryout research.

In 1965, Mr Ford joined the Australian Atomic
Energy Commission Research Establishment at Lucas

Heights, where he was Chief of the Engineering
Research Division, later the Nuclear Technology
Division. The work of his Division included the

study of nuclear power reactor systems and heat
transfer problems relating to the Hifar reactor, as
well aS a wide range of other relevant matters.
During this period, he was carrying out high level
scientific administration in a changing environment.

Since his retirement in 1985, Mr Ford has been
very active in scientific societies, including the Royal
Society of New South Wales which he joined in 1974.
He was President in 1990-1991 and is currently an
active member of the Council. Mr Ford is interested
in bringing science to the populace, one way being his
weekly radio program. Kim Ford has contributed
much to the Royal Society as a dedicated member of
the Council and this together with notable
contributions to science makes him a most worthy
recipient of the Society's Medal.

108 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS

STANLEY CHARLES BAKER 1910-1992

Stanley Baker died on 30th September 1992
after a life of considerable achievement in science and
technology. Eorn i0th December 1910 at East
Maitland, the son of Charles Baker and Amy (née
Dyason) he became a scientist almost by accident,
attending Sydney University on matriculating from
Berrima District High School in 1927, because there
were no vacancies in the long-established family
brickworks in those depression years.

His interests at the time were geology and
chemistry, because of their likely practical use at the
brickworks, which the family had established, first
at East Maitland, then at Bowral and Parkes, and he
had won the Carslaw Medal for his Leaving Certificate
chemistry result, but he was soon lured into physics,
a subject which hac not been taught at his schoo).
There were no jobs avallable on graduation, so Baker
continued to an M.Sc. and a Diploma of Education,

supporting himself by tutoring and part-time
teaching of physics, maths and science at the
University, Sydney Technical College and Glebe

Technical School.

His Master's thesis: "Spectroscopic Estimation
of Isotope Abundance in Australian Mercury" was
awarded with First Class Honours in 1934.
Spectroscopy was tc remain his chief scientific love.

After several years teaching science at high
schools (Drummoyne, Petersham and Mudadee) Baker
was appointed Teacher of Physics at Sydney
Technical College in 1936. The following year he
moved to Newcastle Technical College as Head
Teacher of Physics. He remained at Newcastle for 38
years through the various permutations of University
College, N.S.W. University of Technology and
University of New South Wales to the autcnomy of the
University of Newcastle, where he was Head of the
Physics Department for ten years, becoming
Associate Professor in 1973. Initially this meant

refusing seniority moves to positions in Sydney, and
later rejecting offers from American universities and
company research bodies. He retired in 1975, but
continued research untu his last years.

Baker was an enthusiastic teacher, who priced
himself on never taking sick leave or missing a
lecture. But he confessed to being late fcr one
laboratory session thanks to ptomaine poisoning on a
camping expedition, and the Suez Crisis delayed his
return home from sabbatical leave in 1955.

Baker's teaching was not restricted to the
tertiary field. He was an examiner for the Leaving
Certificate from 1926 until the introduction of the
Wyndham Scheme in the 1960s, marking the honours
and pass papers for all students in the Hunter
Region, organising refresher courses for high school
teachers, and publishing: "Intermediate Physics for
Students of Technology", which was widely used in
high schools. He also lectured to W.E.A. for some
years on atomic energy and astronomy.

During the 1930s and 1940s, Baker was
associated with many bright students holding trainee
positions 1r various Newcastle based industries. He
gained much satisfaction in working with these yound
men, whose work in practical physics was excellent
and who had drive and enthusiasm. Some of them
co-operated with Baker in applied research and went
on to very influential positions in industry and
academia, five students becoming Professors. In
1957, Baker was awarded the Ph.D. degree by the
University of New South Wales for his thesis:
"Excitation Processes. in Spectroscopy", bringing
together much of the theoretical material he had
accumulated through his practical experimentation.

Baker's expertise was called on by many firms
to solve a diverse range of problems concerned with:
thermal conductivity of fire brocks, spectroscopic
estimation of various elements (particularly boron) in
steels, analysis of rock and mineral samples, glass
and raw materials, a magnetic sorting bridge, and a
the design of research laboratories. During World
War II he established (with M. Howarth) an optical
werkshop producing optical flats and slip gauges,
prior to the setting up of the National Standards
laboratory. He was also involved with the ELMA
lampworks in the maintenance of automatic assembly
machines and the production of glass. These
activities even involved salvaging glass from portholes
of a wreck, and the use of local beach sands.

In 1938, Baker and Howarth demonstrated that
the silicon and manganese content of steels could be
estimated accurately and quickly by spectroscopic
means. Although rejected at the time the method
proved important for munitions' manufacture in the
United States of America during the war and was later
adopted by the Australian steel industry.

Baker recalled reporting when conscription was
introduced in 1939. He was recognised by a colonel
whe said: "You held rank in the Sydney University
Regiment and have a higher degree in Physics --
we'll have you a colonel in no time.” This was,
however, followed by a letter instructing him, as a
physicist, to remain at the College until further
notice, which never came. Baker's practical contact
with the armed forces henceforth consisted cf many

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS 109

lectures on camouflage, visual illusions and eye
deflects, and infra-red photography. He was
particularly involved with W.J. Dakin in designing
new camouflage for the American forces, who arrived
in Australia with quite ineffective patterns and
materials.

The bulk of Baker's research was embodied in
the many reports he wrote for local industries, so his
publication record was not extensive, some 20 papers
in all. His first three published papers appeared in
the Society's journal, the wide gap between the first
(in 1934) and the second two (1946 and 1948) being
caused by his concentration on industrial research,
much of it confidential or linked to the war effort.

A series of papers in Australian and overseas
journals between 1948 and 1955 established his
reputation more widely, and a Fulbright Scholarship
took him to M.I.T. in 1955, where he worked with
G.R. Harrison and F. Bitter. In 1963, he was
Visiting Professor at Rensellar Polytechnic, Troy
N.Y. State helping to re-establish optics and
spectroscopy in the Department of Physics and
Astronomy, returning there again in 1970 to lecture
on plasma spectroscopy and to work on polarised
light. He also worked with K.L. Andrew at Purdue
University on atomic spectra in 1963, and at Argonne
National Laboratory.

In 1970, he spent almost a year with
W.R.S. Garton at Imperial College, London (and
again in 1974) working on the spectra of highly
ionised atoms of astrophysical interest.

After retirement Baker devoted considerable
attention to radioastronomy, spending time at both
Parkes and Siding Springs in co-operative research.

Baker joined this Society in 1934, nominated by
O.U. Vonwiller (who was an external examiner 21
years later for his Ph.D. thesis) and G.H. Briggs,
another distinguished scientist. He was elected a
Life Member in 1971. His fourth Society paper was
published in 1961. He was a Fellow of the Australian
Institute of Physics, American Institute of Physics
(Optical Society of America). He was also a
long-term member of ANZAAS and the Astronomical
Society of Australia. At Newcastle College and
University he was an active member, and sometime
officer of the Staff Association.

Baker's work epitomises the strength of much
Australian science and technology research prior to,
during and immediately following the war. I= was
essentially practical, it relied not on funding but on
imagination, skilful innovation and adaptability, and
sheer hard work, although he acknowledged the
financial and practical assistance given by industry,
and the importance of the interaction between the
trade schools and higher education, an interaction
that has often been sadly iacking in Australia science
and technology. His satisfaction was in the work
itself. He was content to remain in a regional base
contributing to the local community and thus to the
wider world, rather than seeking noisy acclaim.

Dee. Si

HENRY GEORGE GOLDING

Henry George Golding or "Bob" as he was
known tc his friends, passed away at his Lane Cove
home on 28th December 1992 after a protracted
illness. Born in England in 1911 he obtained a
B.Sc. with honours from the University of London in
1931 majoring in geology, after spending several
years as a mining geologist in Rhodesia, migrated to
Australia just prior to the outbreak of World War II.
During the war years he was employed in an
important reserve occupation with National Oil Pty
Ltd, a part government owned company engaged in
the mining and extraction of petroleum from torbanite
oiul-shales in the Newnes, Glen Davis and Baerami
Creek areas of New South Wales. But with the
winding down of these operations in the post war era
he took up an appointment at the Museum of Applied
Arts and Sciences in Sydney where he developed
particular interests in conchology and building
stones. This apparently heightened his desire to
return to academia and in 1952 he transferred to the
newly established N.S.W. University of Technology,
later to become the University of New South Wales.
Here he continued his study of building stones and a
thesis covering some of the New South Wales
occurrences earned him the M.Sc. in 1956. Part of
his thesis pertaining to the Hawkesbury Sandstone
was published in the Society's Journal and
Proceedings and was judged the outstanding paper for
1959. During the 1950s he also developed an interest
in heavy materials, particularly leucoxene, and the
several papers containing his findings attracted world
wide attention.

In the 1960s his research took a different tack
as he became progressively involved with the
ultramafic rocks, or more specifically the origin and
characteristics of chromites. This arose through a
chance investigation of a nickel prospect at
Thuddungra in New South Wales, and subsequently he
was presented with an opportunity to examine the
cores from a drilling program in the Coolac ultramafic
belt by the Broken Hill Pty Ltd. In 1966 he was
awarded the Ph.D. by the University of New South
Wales for a thesis dealing with the constitution and

110 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS

genesis of chrome ores in the Coolac ultramafic belt
and, ably assisted by post graduate students notably
Dr P. Brown, Dr B.J. Franklin, Dr G. Pooley and Dr
A. Ray, he continued this work until his retirement in
1974.

Bob was an excellent researcher with a
penchant for detail and coupled with a subtle yet keen
sense of humour, was also a popular lecturer, sparing
nothing to get the message across. His only dislike
appeared to be "new fangle gadgets" and indeed, he
never did manage to master the overhead projector
leaving such compiexities to his long-suffering
assistant.

Bob is survived by his wife Mary and his son
Maxwell to whom we extend our condolences.
1 aleren bie
JEN GU fan ue
SELECTED PUBLICATIONS OF DR H.G. GOLDING

Leucoxenic grains in dune sand at North Stradbroke
Island, Queensland, 1955. Journal of the Royal
Society of N.S.W., 29, 219-231

The mineralogy of the commercial dyke clays in the
Sydney district, N.S.W., 1957. Journal cf the Royal
Society of N.S.W., 91, 85-91, with F.C. Loughnan

Variation in physical constitution of quarried
sandstones from Gosford and Sydney, N.S.W., 1959.
Journal of the Royal Society of N.S.W., 93, 47-60
Leucoxenic terminology and genesis, 1961. Economic
Geology 56, 1138-1149

The Coolac-Goobarragandra ultramafic belt, N.S.W.,
1969. Journal of the Royal Society of N.S.W., Special
Publication 3, 321-329

Altered chrome ores from the Coolac serpentine belt,
1968. American Mineralogist 53, 162-183, with
P. Bayliss

Variation in gross chemical composition and related
physical properties in podiform chromite in the Coolac
district, N.S.W., Australia, 1971. Economic Geology
66, 1017-1027, with K.R. Johnson

Relict textures of chromitites from N.S.W., 1975.
Journal of the Geological Society of Australia 22,
397-412

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Contents

VOLUME 126, PARTS =f and) Z

SUTHERLAND, F.L.
Demise of the Dinosaurs and other Denizens II - by Combined
Catastrophic Causes? (Presidential Address 1993) 1

HUGI, Th., FARDY, N.C., MORGAN, N.C., and SWAINE, D.J.
Trace Elements in Some Swiss Coals 27

BAGGS, Sydney A,
Underground Space: The Geospatial Planning Option for
21st Century Sydney, Part One: Historical Overview and
Rationale for the Use of Geospace 37

BRANAGAN, D.F., and Cairns, H.C.
Tesselated Pavements in the Sydney Region, New South Wales 63

MOO CESK.
Stratigraphic and Coal Seam Correlations of the Illawarra Coal
Measures in the Ulan and Bylong Areas, Western Coalfield,
Sydney Basin, New South Wales 73

ABSTRACTS OF THESES: 19
XU, Arron S. bi: F NMR of Erythrocytes: "Split Peak"
Phenomenon, Membrane Potential and Membrane

Transport 87
OUDSHOORN, Michael John: Atlantis: A Tool for Language
Definition and Interpreter Synthesis 88

GATEI, Magtouf H.: Some Aspects of the Pathogenicity and
Immunity of Bovine Leukemia virus Infection

in Cattle and Sheep 89
HE, Fuxiang: Provenance, Diagenesis and Reservoir Character=
istics of Sandstones of the Great Australian
Basin Succession in NSW, Australia 90
COUNCIL REPORT, 1992-1993 33
Report BS
Abstracts of Proceedings 96
Errata: Vol.k25 Parts 3 and 4 7
Summer School (Photo) 1992 98
Financial Statement 99
Awards 105

Biographical Memoirs 108

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Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 126, pp.111-124, 1993 lll

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A Consideration of Humphrey’s “Cerebral

Sentient Loop”

Explanation of Consciousness

from “A History of the Mind”
by Nicholas Humphrey

MAX BENNETT

The evolution of the nervous system may
have started a thousand millions years ago with the
sponges or just six hundred and fifty million years
ago with polyps like jelly-fish and corals. Sponges
are extremely simple multicellular organisms
(Figure 1A). A section through a sponge, when
stained with silver, shows some cells that connect
one side of the body wall of the animal to the other
(Figure 1B); it has been claimed that these may be
primitive nerve cells. With the evolution of the
Colenterates, such as hydra, jelly-fish and corals,
the identification of nerve cells and muscles is
unequivocal: jelly fish have two layers of cells with
a jelly-like substance seperating the two, giving the
animal some rigidity (Figure 2A). Nerve nets for
the control of swimming, tentacle position and
feeding are composed of either bipolar or
multipolar neurones (Figure 2B). These nerve nets
come together in integrating centres, where a
mixture of both neurone types may be found
(Figures 2C and 2D); these centres are known as
ganglia.

A very large increase in the complexity of the
nervous system occurs with the appearance of the
flatworms (Figure 3). In this case the ganglia are
fewer in number and concentrated at one end of the
animal, which may be distinguished as the head for
primitive eyes and mouth are found there (Figure3)
This is the first sign of the head ganglia which are
eventually destined to evolve in their most complex
form into the brain of Homo Sapiens (Figure 4),
which receives sensory information from nerve
receptors in different areas of the skin called
dermatomes ( numbered in Figure 4) as well as
from the distance receptors such as the eyes, ears
and nose.

Nicholas Humphrey, until recently Director of the
Unit of Animal Behaviour at Cambridge
University, has written a book called " A History of
the Mind". Humphrey argues that in the most
primitive animals, such as jelly fish,the nerve nets
convey information from the body wall concerning
sensory phenomenon such as touch towards the
ganglia which then issue an outgoing signal for the
muscles of the body wall to respond, for example
with a contraction giving a wriggle (Figure SA).
Humphrey goes on to suggest that with further
evolution of the nervous system the outgoing signal
to the muscles of the body wall in response to an
incoming sensory signal became modified so as to
actually alter the incoming signal as well as to
contract the muscles (Figure 5B); this collateral
effect, of the outgoing motor nerves altering the
signal arriving along the sensory nerves, may even
be present in the early evolved nervous system of
flatworms. Indeed an even further degree of
collateralization can occur in which the motor
collateral can give rise to sensory experiences
independent of any incoming sensory signals
(Figure 5C). Another form of collateralization
involves the outgoing motor signal in response to a
sensory input modifying the incoming sensory
signal, without actually contracting muscles at all
(Figure 5D); these collaterals can be used to sustain
the sensory experience well after the actual event
that gave rise to the initial sensation has passed.
This ability to maintain a sensation at will by using
the collateralization effect is called ‘sustaining the
sentient loop’. The final evolution of this process,
according to Humphrey, probably only occurs in
the higher mammals. It involves the motor output
that has been modified to only change an incoming
sensory signal now genérating and sustaining

Me MAX BENNETT

sensory signals itself within the brain in the absence
of any sensory input (Figure 5E). The nervous

system is in this way able to voluntarily generate
sensations and maintain them at will. It is this
ability to use the sentient loop that is the highest
form of consciousness.

In order to make these ideas of Humphreys clear it
is necessary to look in detail at the functioning of
the human nervous system. First of all what are
collateral effects and can they operate in such a way
as to modify sensory signals? One of the simplest
motor acts that engages the brain and the spinal
cord is shown in Figure 6: here a sensory stimulus,
such as that arising from sensory spindle receptors
in muscle cells concerned with indicating the length
and velocity of shortening of the muscle, is relayed
through the sensory neurones just outside the spinal
cord to the nerve cells just inside the cord within an
area called the substantia gelatinosa; these signals
are then sent to the main relay station for sensory
activity propagating between the spinal cord and
the brain, in the group of neurones called the
nucleus gracilis and nucleus cuneatus; from there
the signals are sent to the thalamus in the brain,
which is the receiving area for nearly all the
sensory input to the overlying mantle of the brain
or cortex; finally the thalamus projects the
information to that part of the cortex which is
called the somatosensory area, concerned with the
analysis of information derived from sensory
receptors in the limbs. The kind of information in
the signals processed by the somatosensory cortex
may require that the muscles that gave rise to the
sensory input in the first place be contracted. In
this case neurones in the part of the cortex
concerned with contracting muscles, namely the
“motor cortex, project a signal to the appropriate
motoneurones in the spinal cord connected to these
muscles. These are of two different kinds, namely
alpha motoneurones that are attached to cells in the
muscle in question that produce the force; the other
kind are the gamma motoneurones that are
connected with cells that contract in the sensory
receptor apparatus itself; contraction of these cells
changes the characteristics of the sensory receptors
so that they rapidly send signals to the sensory

neurones outside the spinal cord and from there to
the alpha motoneurones, leading to the contraction
of the bulk of the muscle cells; they also send
signals to the somatosensory cortex via the
thalamus along the pathway already described. Two
kinds of information are then sent via the sensory
neurones to the brain: one of these relates to the
signal arising from the sensory receptors in the
muscle concerned with the position, tension and
movement of the muscle, known collectively as
kinesthesia; the other relates to the signal arising
from the receptors as a consequence of their being
contracted by the gamma motoneurones. This latter
signal is gated out before it reaches consciousness
by a collateral signal from the motor pathway as
shown in Figure 6; the sensory signal concerned
with the state of kinesthesia of the muscle is not
gated out, but is allowed to reach consciousness.
The level in the brain or spinal cord at which this
gating procedure is carried out is not known; it is
shown to occur at the level of the thalamus in
Figure 6 simply for the sake of definiteness.
Humphrey is therefore correct in his assertion that
modification of sensory signals can occur before
they reach consciousness as a consequence of a
collateral effect from the motor pathway.

Corollary discharges from the motor pathway can
also be used to generate a sensation independent of
any incoming sensory signals. They can generate
sensations of muscular force or heaviness although
they cannot generate sensations of movement.
Figure 7A shows how the sensation of the heaviness
of an object held in the hand is generated by a
collateral effect. The pathway from the motor
cortex to the alpha motoneurones is shown to give
off a collateral branch at the level of the basal
ganglia; this, it is hypothesized, can generate a
sensation in the cortex of the degree of heaviness of
the object by firing impulses in proportion to those
that are being propagated down the motor pathway.
It follows that when a muscle is weakened by
fatigue, such as when holding a heavy suitcase, a
greater number of impulses are required by the
non-fatigued component of the muscle in order for
the muscle to continue lifting the suitcase; the
collateral then receives a greater number of

EXPLANATION of CONSCIOUSNESS 113

impulses and so a greater sensation of heaviness is
experienced. An experimental example of this is
given in Figure 7B: here a comparison is made
between the extent to which a subject perceives the
heaviness of a suitcase held continually in one hand
by comparing it with a known weight held in the
other for a short period of time. The graphs show
that in this matching experiment the known weight
chosen to be equivalent to the suitcase gradually
increases over time, indicating the increased
sensation of heaviness. This sensation is due to the
collateral effect.

Humphrey is correct then in his suggestion that
collateral effects can modify both the kinds of
sensations that enter consciousness as well as
generate sensations that did not arise from the
workings of our sensory receptors. Figure 7
summarizes the situation. Humphrey speculates that
early during evolution nerve pathways were layed
down that allowed an animal to respond to say a
noxious stimulus to the skin by 'wriggleing ' away;
in higher vertebrates this simplest pathway might
consist of the primary sensory neurones just outside
the spinal cord that receive information concerning
noxious stimulation projecting to upper
motoneurones in the reticular formation which then
project down to the lower motoneurones and from
there to the muscles which are to be contracted to
produce "wriggleing" (Figure 8A). At a later stage
of evolution mechanisms were put in place that
allowed the nervous system to ‘gate’ out sensory
information, using projections from the brain to
the sensory gate-way to the cortex , the thalamus,
as shown in Figures 8B and 8C. We have already
seen how information gathered by primary sensory
neurones concerned with muscle receptors can be
gated out before it reaches the somatosensory
cortex by means of a collateral feedback from the
motor cortex at the level of the thalamus (Figure
8B). Such a feedback could occur via the well
known pathway from motor cortex to basal ganglia
and from there to the reticular nucleus that lies just
outside the thalamus; this then projects to the
somatosensory cortex (Figure 8B). Sensory
information that is gathered oy the retina is also
‘gated’ as it passes through the thalamus on the way

to the visual cortex, as shown in Figure 8C. The
primary visual pathway is from the retina to the
thalamus and from there to the visual cortex;
neurones exist in the cortex that project back to the
thalamus where they can gate the incoming visual
information (Figure 8C). There is then evidence
for both the modulation of signals arising from the
primary sensory neurones as well as from the
visual sensory neurones at the level of the thalamus.
In this way the brain can determine the sensory
information which reaches it.

The question arises as to whether or not the
modulatory effect of collaterals on the sensory
information passing through the thalamus simply
involves just a gating operation, that is the removal
of information. We have already seen that this is
not the case as a collateral effect generates the
experience of heaviness when holding a suitcase,
independent of any incoming sensory impulses
(Figure 7). Humphrey suggests that collaterals may
also sustain impulse traffic in sensory nerves after
the sensory perception has passed. The effect of this
would be to experience sensations without there be
any continuing effect on sensory receptors,
although these receptors would have been involved
in the initiation of the experience in the first place.
This brings up a question concerning the time over
which consciousness of a sensation occurs. The
tricky nature of the experience of time in
consciousness as compared with objective time,
measured by a clock for instance, is well illustrated
by the ‘cutaneous rabbit’ perceptual illusion (Figure
8). In this illusion a series of taps to the wrist is
followed by taps to the upper forearm and then to
the shoulder, as shown in Figure 9A. Surprisingly
this is experienced as a series of taps that are
equally spread out along the whole length of the
arm, rather than confined to just three positions on
the arm, as if an animal (a ‘rabbit') had run up the
arm. Even more surprising is the result of just
giving the series of taps to the wrist in the absence
of any taps to the forearm or the shoulder (Figure
9B): in this case the taps are all experienced as
confined to the wrist without any of them
appearing to be spread out along the arm. Why
then in the first experiment did the brain interpret

114 MAX BENNETT

the taps at the wrist as experienced spread out along
the arm whereas in the second case they remain
confined at the wrist? With reference to Figure 8, a
plausible explanation why the first five taps in A
were experienced as distributed along the arm
whereas the five taps in B were confined to the
wrist is that the taps are not perceived simultaneous
with the events. In a certain window of time (1 to 2
seconds) the brain determines the most likely space-
time story relating to the taps: in A the preliminary
story that all five taps occur at the wrist is wiped
out by the later arriving taps so that the final story
that enters consciousness is that the taps are spread
out equally in a space-time sequence; in B the
preliminary story that all five taps occur at the
wrist is not wiped out by any later events and so
this enters consciousness. The brain then uses the
time available before behavour is acted out to
arrive at the most reasonable story based on
sensations (the taps) and past experience to arrive at
an interpretation. This window in time could be
delineated by the earliest time at which sensations
enter the brain and the lateset time at which the
experiences might be used to modify behavour.

The actual time at which occurrences are first
registered in the brain might not then be the same
as the times allocated to them by consciousness.
Another example of this is illustrated in Figure
10A, which shows the distribution of dermatomes
for skin sensations as in Figure 4. The nerves
leading from the dermatomes over the buttocks to
the brain clearly involve a much ionger pathway
than do the nerves from the dermatomes over the
neck to the brain. It might be naively expected then
that if one was to be touched simultaneously on the
buttocks and the neck, according to objective
timing, then the experience of being touched on the
neck would enter consciousness before that of being
touched on the buttocks. But this is not the case, as
it depends on the context in which this touching
occurs as to whether one has the conscious
experience of being touched in one place or the
other within a certain window of time The
hypothetical graph in Figure 10B illustrates that the
time of experiencing being touched on various
parts of the body (or on different dermatomes)

need not coincide with the objective time of the
sequence of touchings. The brain creates the most
likely story, using the information that it receives
from sensory receptors, the context in which this is
gathered, and past experience, before allocating
times to particular events. Humphrey suggests that
collaterals not only gate incoming sensory activity,
for example at the level of the thalamus, but they
can also sustain that activity after the sensory
receptors are no longer stimulated. This would then
give rise to a sensation that is extended in time
within consciousness. It gives rise to an important
idea in Humphreys’ scheme, namely that of the
‘sustained sentient loop’, in which the issuing of an
outgoing command over a collateral can give rise
to a sensation that is extended over time in
consciousness by the sustained activity of the
collateral.

The brain can possess neurones which are active
and which are not directly involved in either
sensation or the issuing of a motor command. By
monitoring the rate of local blood flow in different
regions of the brain with non-invasive techniques,
Roland has been able to determine the areas of
neuronal excitability. Active neurons require more
oxygen than others and so require a greater blood
flow; monitoring this then gives a measure of the
areas of high neuronal activity. Figure 11 shows
how this technique has been used to determine the
distribution of active neurones involved in the
intention to perform a motor act. Active neurones
are found in the motor cortex if a finger is flexed
against a spring as expected; in addition active
neurones are found in the somatosensory cortex
which is of course receiving kinesthetic
information from the muscles being contracted
(Figure 11A). However, if a more complex motor
act is executed, such as turning a key in a lock, then
another set of active neurones is brought into
action, in the area of the brain called the
supplementary motor cortex (Figure 11B); this
area is always active when complex motor activity
is taking place. If now the turning of a key in a
lock is simply rehearsed mentally, with no motor
command being executed, then the supplementary
motor cortex possesses active neurones as before

EXPLANATION of CONSCIOUSNESS 115

but the motor cortex and the somatosensory cortex
do not (Figure 11C). This is then an example of the
motor system operating in the absence of any
motor output at all.

The central idea in Humphreys’ scheme is that
collaterals, perhaps originally associated with the
motor system during evolution, may give rise to a
sustained sentient loop without there being any
motor act performed. We have seen that the motor
system itself, in the case of the supplementary
motor cortex, may give rise to activities that do not
result in a motor action. The issuing of commands
that set up a sentient loop amounts to the
experiencing of sensations over time; this is a
process that has become modified from the original
collateral effects which simply acted on incoming
sensory information. Humphreys’ ideas concerning
the evolution of the ‘sustained sentient loop’ are
summarized in Figure 12. At first there was a
simple nerve pathway consisting of a sensory input,
which might be related to a noxious stimulus to the
skin, resulting in a motor output involving
withdrawal from the site of the stimulus. In
Humphreys’ terminology this amounts to a '
wriggle of rejection’. It is shown in Figure 12A as
involving the brain but it would be better
represented in vertebrates by a reflex sensory
nerve pathway that passes directly from the skin to
motoneurones in the spinal cord and from there to
the appropriate muscles, as in Figure 6. The next
stage in the evolution of the sentient loop involves
modification of the incoming sensory signal by a
collateral from the outgoing motor signal, as in
Figure 12B; examples of this occur in the gating
out of components of the signals to do with the
action of muscle receptors involved in gamma
motoneurone activity by motor collaterals,
discussed in relation to Figure 6. With the further
evolution of collateralization the motor command
could modify and sustain over time the information
coming into the brain along a sensory pathway so
as to sustain a sensory experience, as shown in
Figure 12C; the projection from the motor cortex
to the reticular nucleus of the thalamus provides
just such as pathway for modifying and sustaining
the sensory input arriving from primary afferent

fibres, as discussed in relation to Figure 8B. Finally
the stage is reached during evolution when
collaterals, originally associated with motor
commands, are now used to generate sensations
independent of any sensory input to the brain, as in
Figure 12.

D; the cerebral sentient loop is now independent of
the environment. The experience of a sensation
involves a positive act of issuing an appropriate
outgoing signal from the brain. According to
Humphrey sensing is not a passive act but involves
participating in the act of 'sentition' or the issuing
of a command, originally associated during
evolution with the motor system only. Since these
commands can be issued without any trigger from
the environment it is possible to have a rich ‘stream
of consconsiousness' that is generated from within
the brain itself.

Does Humphreys’ thesis stand up to critical
attention? I have tried to flesh out the ideas in his
book by reference to what we know about
collateral effects and feedback pathways that
modify incoming sensory signals bringing us
information about our environment. The idea of
‘sentition’ whereby the nervous system issues a
command that results in a sensory experience and
therefore consciousness is a novel one. According
to this idea consciousness first appears during
evolution with the species that uses motor
collaterals to generate or modify sensory inputs to
the brain. It is possible that this occurred as early
as the evolution of the flat worms if it can be
shown that they are able to modify the sensory
input to their central head ganglia by means of
motor collaterals. Any animal that can issue
commands for altering or generating sensory
activity, and can by this means make a sensory
response, possesses consciousness. The idea does
have the great attraction of providing some basis
for continuity in the emergence of consciousness
rather than just positing it as the special preserve of
Homo Sapiens or even of just the mammals. For
me its deficiency is that it does not provide a
framework that is sufficiently specific to suggest a
research plan that allows testing the central

ms MAX BENNETT

hypothesis of the sustained sentient loop as the basis
for consciousness. Although consciousness can only
be examined by introspection, the non-invasive
techniques for examining the neurophysiological
concomitants of mental functioning, such as
Positron Emission Tomography, may help to
Clarify the issues. It will be interesting to see if
those areas of the brain involved, for example, in
‘forms of cognition that do not involve language,
are also active in other mammals than the primates
under suitable conditions. The role of
collateralization in the evolution of such areas
might then be an interesting subject for study.

Some further reading.

N.Humphrey (1992) "A History of the Mind"
Chatto& Windus.

G.Edelman (1992) "Bright Air, Brilliant Fire"
Penguin Press.

D.C.Dennett (1991) "Consciousness Explained"
Penguin Press.

J.Searle (1992) "The Rediscovery of the Mind"
M.I.T. Press.

C.Blakemore and S.Greenfield (1987) "
Mindwaves" Blackwells.

Scientific American (1992) "Mind and Brain"
September Issue.

R.Gregory (1988) "The Oxford Companion to the
Mind" Oxford.

Ciba Foundation (1993) " Experimental and
Theoretical Studies of Consciousness" Wiley.

N. Humphrey
Ciba Foundation

Max Bennett
Neurobiology Laboratory
University of Sydney
N.S.W. 2006, Australia

EXPLANATION of CONSCIOUSNESS 117

A Figure 1. The Proifera or sponges are very simple
multicellular parasites. They do not possess a
nervous system and it is controversial as to whether
they have any neurones. In A is shown the simple
motor reactions of the fresh water sponge
Ephydrata, with the mouth chimney changing its’
form as water is drawn into the body through small
pores and passed out through the mouth. In B is
shown some of the cell types that stain with silver
in the sponge Sycon Raphanus; the outer surface is
5 connected to the inner surface by two cells with
long and thin processes that may be nerve cells; the
cells on the inner surface are collar cells ( called
choanocytes).

PORSOCV TE

BSE = PORE FOR WATER ENTRANLE

MESENCHYME

EPIDERMIS

NERVE CELLS

AMOEBOCY TE

HOUDLW BODY

HooTted

TENTACLES

6

CIARACOLAR ..

Figure 2. The Colenterates or polyps like hydra, “vs--= Ve _
jelly-fish, sea-anemones and corals have a sack-like Pr are ee

body with tentacles as shown in A. In B are shown Te ean
the two different kinds of neurone networks
present in Aurells Aurata: one is composed of
neurones that possess two axons (bipolar neurones )
and these are promenent in relation t» the radial
and circular muscles that are exposed in this
drawing; the other is composed of neurones with
more than two processes (multipolar neurones) and
these are shown in relaticn to the gastric cavity.
Both bipolar and multipolar neurones from each

herve net are apposed to each other in collections S
on neurones called ganglia, as siiown in C; here the

input to the bipolar cells associated with the muscle

is transferred to the multipolar neurones associated

vith the gastric cavity. This collection of neurones

into a ganglion for the purposes of neural
integration occurs for the first time in the
Coelenterates. Fig 2

RADIAL MUSCLE

AS 15

ne MAX BENNETT

al i (| Apes
De Nias
Scgummllenaice
POL Uhh
PEA LTE

[=|
5
.

CA

a
Was
Nee

Fig 5

Figure 3. The grouping of large numbers of
neurones into an integrating centre or ganglion,
which is not symmetrically placed in the animal,
first occurs in the Platyhelminthes or flatworms.
Shown here is the dorsal nerve plexus of Notoplana
Atomata( Polycladida ) converging on the head
ganglion. The labels refer to the ‘gpl’ (genital
nerve plexus), ‘hdn' (posterior dorsal nerve) and
‘tau’ (tentacle eyes).

A

|

[Head gop

| — Colla fere/

c ensory To tor Sensors P]p for

G 4 touch)

la

(emtraction )

j

Collakra/ Colla rtra/
"fp tor Sensory
£
Fig 5 oe b//arera/

Fig 4

Figure 4. The grouping of neurones into a head
ganglion that provides an integrating centre for the
nervous system reaches its' most complex level of
evolution in the brain of Homo Sapiens. Shown are
the individual areas of skin, each subserving a
different set of neurones, that bring information to
the brain concerning such sensations as touch,
pressure, temperature and pain. The individual
areas are labelled C2 to C5 (cervical spinal cord
levels 1 to 5), Tl to T12 (thoracic spinal cord
levels 1 to 12), L1 to LS (lumbar spinal cord levels
1 to 5) and S1 to S4 (sacral spinal cord levels 1 to
4). Nerves enter the spinal cord at each of these
levels C2 to S4.

Figure 5. Evolution of the ‘sentient’ loop according
to Humphrey. A: during evolution a most elemental
form of nervous system consists of sensory
neurones bringing in information, concerning for
example touch and pressure, to an integrating
centre consisting of a large number of
interconnected neurones constituting a head
ganglion; this then issues motor command to
contract an appropriate muscle given the type of
sensory information received by the head ganglion.
B: the next level of sophistication was reached with
the appearance of collateral nerve branches
emanating from the outgoing motor nerves and
ending in relation to the incoming sensory nerves;
in this way the motor command was able for the
first time to modify the sensory input to the head

EXPLANATION of CONSCIOUSNESS 119

ganglion (see Figure 6 for an example of this
process). C: these collaterals then became modified
in two important ways, one of which is shown here;
on issuing a motor commend the collateral is able
to induce a sensory experience independent of any
input to the head ganglion along the sensory nerves
themselves (see Figure 7 for an example of this
process). D: the other important way in which the
collaterals became modified is that they could be
used to modify incoming sensory signals
independently of any motor signals at ali (see
Figures 8B and 11 for examples of this process). E:
the final level of sophistication involves the
appearance during evolution of the ‘sentient loop’,
in which the collateral acts on its own without any
motor command being issued or sensory
information about the environment being received;
the head ganglion or brain can in this way generate
its Own sensory experiences, and it is this process
that constitutes consciousness ( for an example of
the brain generating activity in a voluntary way,
without motor or sensory activity, see Figure 11).

Core be Hey

Spina] cord

Fig 6.

Figure 6. The corollary discharge. Diagrammatic
representation of the brain and spinal cord showing
the possible levels of corollary discharge by which
motor output from the cortex acts on incoming
kinesthetic signals arising from the sensory
neurones. Corollary discharges are obtained from
motor commands and they can influence perception
either by modifying incoming sensory signals (in
this case at the level of the thalamus) or by acting
independently of the incoming sensory signals.
Kinesthesia is the sensation by which body weight,
position, muscle tension and movement are
perceived. Corollary discharges can alter the way
in which such kinesthetic signals arising from
sensory endings in muscles are interpreted. Such
sensory endings in muscle spindles may send signals
relating to the length and velocity of movement of
a particular set of muscles; these spindles will also
send signals arising from their being activated by a
certain class of motoneurones in the spinal cord
called gamma motoneurones. The signals due to the
gamma activation of the spindles are removed by a
corollary discharge, which at the same time allows
the signals from the spindles due to the length and
velocity changes to be perceived. In the example
shown gamma motoneurones are activated from the
motor cortex giving rise to spindle receptor
discharges; these discharges together with the
additional discharges due to the contraction of the
muscles are received by the sensory neurones and
transmitted through the group of neurones
constituting the gracilis and cuneatus to the
thalamus and thence to the somatosensory cortex;
here they give rise to the sense of movement of the
muscles. However the initial motor discharge of
impulses gates out the sensory discharge relating to
gamma motoneurones exciting the spindle
receptors; this gating may occur at the many

ey MAX BENNETT

lonbe haw

Spina/ (ord

alpha
0 forneuront

Fig 7

regions of interaction between motor and sensory
pathways in the brain and are shown here as
occurring in the thalamus for definiteness only.

Figure 7. The corollary discharge. This figure
gives a diagrammatic representation of the brain
and spinal cord illustrating a possible output from
the motor cortex responsible for the perception of
heaviness of a held object. For definiteness this
corollary discharge is shown at the level of the
basal ganglia. Such discharges can give rise to the
sensation of muscular effort as occurs when lifting
and supporting an object. In the example shown
neurones in the motor cortex (called Betz cells) that
project to the motoneurones in the spinal cord are
illustrated; Betz cells may be activated to contract
muscles involved in lifting the limbs or an object
such as a suitcase; when they do this a corollary
discharge is sent (at the level of the basal ganglia?)
which gives rise to the perception of heaviness of
the limb or suitcase, and this is simply related to
the extent of the motor discharge that occurs.
Subjects that experience a stroke may have to send
a larger than normal discharge down the remaining
functional Betz cells to achieve the aim of lifting
their arms and so experience them as as an
enormous burden.

The graph shows the results of an experiment in
which the subject has to support a 9 lb. weight with
one arm ( the experimental arm) while being asked
at intervals to choose what they thought were equal
weights to be supported in the same way by the
other arm (the control arm). When the
experimental arm was allowed to rest between the
trials the subject choose weights with the control
arm close to the 9lb weight held by the
experimental arm (see ‘rest curve’). If however the
experimental arm had to support the 9 lb weight
continuously, then the subject choose weights with
the control arm that were successively greater (see
‘fatigued ' curve) than the 9 lb weight indicating
the increased sense of heaviness. This arises from
the increase in corollary discharge with time as
muscles have to receive a greater discharge to
support the weight continuously. The perception of
heaviness does not arise from sensory signals in the
muscle being relayed back to the brain. This graph
is due to experimental work of McCloskey, Ebeling
and Goodwin carried out in 1974.

A
“rebellion

Joins (ore

EXPLANATION of CONSCIOUSNESS

Nindbrarr

UASore
ai ae

Fig8

A

TAPS DEUVERED
IN SEQUENCE

TAPS
IN

t

4

Own Aig _ lo
es (
ee
=,

b
Z a

Goalie BRS)
aT
=

| a
1L2.3.4.5 Fe
, \
i
Fig 9.

6

DELIVERED
SEQUENCE

t

Fie rays Sei

tf
ole ea

ki hieuler forma bon

Tes Oa

x Ss

Sensory
Neurm

TAPS DELIVERE|
IN SE QvENCE

ABW

121

Figure 8. Diagrammatic representation of the brain
and spinal cord showing different kinds of
interactions between sensory pathways and motor
pathways.

A, illustrates the simplest pathway involving the
brain in a motor pathway. Primary sensory
neurons relay information concerning kinesthesia,
temperature and touch via the spinothalamic tract
to the reticular formation of the hindbrain. Here a
reflex act is initiated by exciting motorneurons to
contract muscle in relation to the sensory stimulus.
B, illustrates how kinesthetic gating, referred to in
relation to Figure 6, may occur. The motor cortex
activates neurons in the basal ganglia which in turn
inhibit neurons in the reticular nucleus of the
thalamus which normally inhibit neurones in the
thalamus that are responsible for conducting the
kinesthetic discharge to the somatosensory cortex.
Primary motor cortex can then modulate the
sensory information that can enter perception
through this pathway.

C, illustrates how visual information passes from
the retina to the thalamus and from there to the
visual cortex. This cortex itself contains neurones
that project back to the thalamus; these neurones in
the cortex can gate the information allowed to pass
through the thalamus to the cortex. Both B and C
show how the brain itself can modulate the
perceptions of the world which it might allow to
reach consciousness.

Figure 9. The sense of time in the brain as
illustrated by the ‘cutaneous rabbit’ perceptual
illusion. Shown are diagrams of arms in which the

122

MAX BENNETT

following experiments were carried out to illustrate
the subjective nature of the space-time extent of
experience.

A: taps were delivered in the sequence shown (1 to
10 on the left) on the arm at one-tenth of a second
apart so that the final tap was given at 1.8 seconds;
the first five taps occur at the wrist , the next two
on the forearm near the elbow and the last three at
the shoulder region (the subject was not allowed to
observe these procedures). Surprisingly the subject
experienced the second tap as displaced from the
wrist and the rest of the taps at equal distances
along the length of the arm (at | tol0 on the right).
It is in this sense that the brain interprets the taps as
if an animal (rabbit?) had run up the arm.

B: five taps were then delivered in the sequence as
shown, namely only on the wrist (on the left 1 to 5)
and these were experienced as all occurring at the
wrist (on the right 1 to 5). The original
experiments were performed by Geldard and
Sherrick in 1972.

Figure 10. The complexity of the sense of time in
the brain is again illustrated by considering the
experiences relating to someone touching you
simultaneously on the neck (at sensory skin or
dermotome level C4 in A) and on the buttocks (at
sensory dermatome level S3 in A). The nerves
bringing information to the brain from C4 and S3
are clearly very different in length; as they have
about the same rate for conducting impulses it
would be expected that information concerning
touch at S3 would enter consciousness at a later
time than that from touching at C4. However, the
actual time at which the occurrences are first
registered in the brain is only part of the
information that is used to allocate times to them
entering consciousness; assumptions regarding the
circumstances of this touching will also be used to
allocate times. The brain then creates a story before
it allocates the time to particular events; it does not
simply take the actual time of arrival in the brain
of impulses as if there were simply some finishing
line in the brain which monitored the time at which
the line was crossed by impulses.

The graph in B illustrates this process by showing a
line of ‘events’ 1 to 5 that are the experimental
time for the objectively timed events of being
touched on different sensory dermatomes in the
spatio-temporal sequence S3 to C2 shown. The
series of touches at one fifth of a second intervals
from S3 to C2 in the order shown may be

A Caples piaser fires
against Qa spring

& Conapp hex Series
of firser P1Vaqen Ft

CG Fen ta/ thearsa/
oy Q Complex SCg
of finsee movemrny(

Fig Mt

EXPLANATION of CONSCIOUSNESS 123

Si Yapttmen Yarg

otor Mrea 4

S appltmen larg
Not rea

Crea

Sulcus

experienced as the temporal series 1 to 5, that is as
a spatially continuous stroking from the buttocks to
the head, depending on the story created by the
brain, given the circumstances.

Figure 11. Diagrams showing the regions of high
neuronal activity in the brain associated with simple
and complex motor (muscular) tasks and with the
rehearsal of motor tasks without any muscular
activity.

A shows the region of high excitability in the brain
that occurs when the subject is asked to simply flex
a single finger against a spring. One area of
excitability is confined to the motor cortex that
drives the motoneurones of the spinal cord
necessary for contracting the muscles responsible
for finger flexion; the other area of excitability is
the somatosensory cortex that receives the sensory
stimuli from sensory receptors in the flexing
muscle and in the joints that are moved in the
finger.

B shows the region of high excitability in the brain
that occurs when the subject is asked to perform a
more complex motor act, this time involving the
placing of a key in a lock and turning it. In this
case a new area of excitability is found in the brain
in addition to the motor-cortex and somatosensory
cortex. This new area is the supplementary motor
cortex in the midline of the brain as shown.
Supplementary motor cortex carries out the
selection of suitable neurones in motor cortex to
perform the finger movement sequence involved in
the more complex motor task.

C shows the region of high excitability in the brain
that occurs when the subject is asked to carry out a
mental rehearsal of the complex motor act in B
(with the key) only. In this case the supplementary
motor area is excited but not the motor or
somatosensory cortex. Note that in this case the
subject issues commands associated with the
complex motor act but does not allow them to be
carried out.

These results were obtained by Roland who by
monitoring the rate of local blood flow in different
regions of the brain with non-invasive techniques,
was able to determine the areas of excitability.
Active neurones require more oxygen than others
and so require a greater blood flow; monitoring
this then gives a measure of the areas of high
neuronal activity.

124

MAX BENNETT

Evolution of Ne Senvites t lrop
Sa per imposed on the priate ke Sra

A Sensory vipat resalh in
Q »0hr Commend our puy.

&. Corollarg Ghichare € from
olor caqmand 70 Sehorg input

G Py br Command ack
Onl. Through corrol fit Oschars€
Yo modulate Sensorg pnpat

D) Phy hor Command GS
Pre Cerebral Senter 4% /oop
61 Rout Seniorg pay

Fia /2

Figure 12. Evolution of the sentient loop and
therefore consciousness as envisioned by Humphrey

and superimposed on the primate brain. According

to Humphrey to feel a sensation in consciousness is
to issue a command or outgoing signal; sensation is
then the making of the sensory response.

A, shows simple incoming sensory pathways to
somatosensory cortex and an associated outgoing
motor act initiated by the motor cortex in response
to the sensory signal. This may be likened to the
‘wriggle of acceptance or rejection’ that Humphrey
traces back to simple animals like sponges; the
wriggle is the motor response to the motor
command that is issued in response to the sensory
input.

B, the next level of sophistication was the evolution
of the corollary discharge, by which the motor
command in response to the sensory signal is used
to modify that signal. We have seen how corollary
discharges may modify the information about
kinesthetic experience.

C, Humphrey's suggests that the corollory
discharge associated with a motor command in the
context of a particular sensory experience may
become modified so that the motor command is not
executed and the corollory discharge is then used to
sustain in subjective time the sensory experience.
This gives the ‘after glow' of a sensory stimulus,
that is the experience is maintained in subjective
time even though it has passed in objective time.

D, finally, the motor command can be given
without any sensory input from the environment,
creating a ‘cerebral sensory loop’. To feel a
particular sensation is to engage in an appropriate
form of sentition (the activity of sensing) and so

issue an appropriate outgoing signal from the
brain.’ It is this process which is consciousness.

(Manuscript received 16.9.93)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.126, pp.125-133, 1993 125

ISSN 0035~-9173/93/020125-09 $4.00/1

Marks on sandstone surfaces - Sydney Region,

Australia: Cultural

origins

and meanings?

DAVID BRANAGAN AND HUGH CAIRNS

Abstract: Seven tesselated pavement sites on the Hornsby Plateau, north of
Sydney, contain a variety of patterns of small pits, which appear to be of

human origin.

The patterns of dots resemble, and possibly represent star patterns which
have some relation to Aboriginal culture. There may also be subtle spatial
relations between marked tesselated surfaces and figurative sites.

There are sightlines between most of the sites, which may prove to have been
culturally significant, as the sites are within a region occupied by a single

tribal group.

Introduction

In a separate paper (Branagan and Cairns,
1993) the location and formation of twenty-
five extensive naturally-occurring tesselated
sandstone pavements in the Sydney region
were discussed. It was noted in that paper
that some of the tesselated pavements were
the sites of a variety of Aboriginal carvings,
which have been. discussed by various
authors, among them Campbell (1899),
McCarthy (1954, 1956), Sim, (1965, 1966),
McDonald, (1987), Stanbury and Clegg, (1990).

In this paper we concentrate on seven of the
pavements which occur on the Hornsby
Plateau, north of Sydney. These pavements
are notable for the occurrence, within the
tesselations, of numerous small pits (often
referred to in archaeological circles as cups),
and which appear to be of human origin, or
(in some cases) were natural pits that have
been enhanced by humans. These seven
pavements stand in marked contrast to the
other eighteen sites which do not have cups or
pits within the tesselations.

Cups or just holes?

The problem as to whether the alleged cups
might just be holes caused by weathering and
erosion has been considered in earlier papers
(Cairns & Branagan, 1988, 1992, Branagan &

Cairns, 1992). but is discussed here in a
Slightly different context. In the Sydney
region there are numerous’ Aboriginal
engravings of humans, animals and ancestral
beings. Reproductions of these engravings
show clearly that researchers accept,
apparently without question, the human
origin of engraved cups and lines (e.g. eyes
and belts) within, or in close relation to the
figures. This is clearly shown in Fig.1. Lines of
cups forming tracks are likewise accepted, as
in Fig. 2. These are shown, without question as
to their origin, in various publications (e.g.
Stanbury and Clegg, 1990).

However, in many cases, similar markings,
whether or not related to carved figures, are
often ignored or are inadequately recorded, as
can be seen by comparison of detailed
observation of some sites and the published
records thereof. For instance in a diagram
illustrating carvings at Devil’s Rock, Maroota,
(Stanbury and Clegg. op. cit.,98) do not show
the continuation of a line of cups beyond the
mythical figure (Figs. 2 and 3). Perhaps it is a
case of seeing only what one is looking for. In
general, it appears that researchers have been
interested in the figurative marks and have
not regarded the exercise of plotting cups as
productive or important.

It is obvious that some pits (such as _ those
formed by water droplets from an overhang)

126

BRANAGAN and CAIRNS

Fig.1 In this human or ancestral
figure (Patonga “Crazy Rock” site)
we see two cups forming eyes,
another within the body and
several outside. The two eye
“cups” would be immediately
accepted as of human origin or use,
that at the crotch probably

so, while the several outer dots
would be largely disregarded.

Fig.2 At the bottom of the photo
two pits are part of a long track

at Devil's Rock, Maroota,
continuing towards the ancestral
being, which is illustrated in Fig. 3.

MARKS ON SANDSTONE

may be of natural origin, and to distinguish
these from those of human origin is not easy
in many cases. In Cairns and Branagan (1992)
we discussed this matter in some detail: it
suffices here to mention that we considered
various types of weathering and erosion, by
both water, wind and sand abrasion, the flow
paths of storm water (which are essentially
along the sides of the tesselations and not
across the polygons). We concluded that lifting

of thin sandstone sheets was the more usual
mode of erosion on the sandstone surfaces.
The work of Coates (1986) also suggests that
the action of fungi is not very significant in
the weathering of rock surfaces in the Sydney
region, and certainly does not cause pitting of
the type described here.

In our view it is particularly relevant that
only certain pavements, in a_ relatively
constrained area, contain the cups. These
selective occurrences make it difficult to
accept that the cups could be of purely
natural origin. This question has_ been
addressed in much more detail in Cairns and
Branagan (1992).

Hornsby Plateau sites

We make the above points because of the
arguments brought against us in_ our
discussions on the Elvina site, Ku-ring-gai
National Park. Some visitors to the Elvina site
were sceptical of the human origin of the cups,
maintaining that they were the product of
natural weathering and _ erosion’ (see
MacDonald, 1992,(p.3), Bednarik, 1990,
Branagan, 1991). However they were happy to
accept that some grooves, (Fig 4 ) noted by
McDonald (1987) and independently by
ourselves, previously unrecorded, were
human in origin (see also Stanbury and Clegg,
op. cit).

The geology of this site was outlined by
Branagan (1968), and the occurrence of cups,
their nature and possible meaning’ were
discussed by Cairns and Branagan (1988,
1992). Further details of the site are given in
Branagan and Cairns (1993).

Our attention (see Branagan and Cairns, 1992)
was directed to cups occurring upon several
naturally tesselated pavements such as_ the
Elvina site, the fractures forming frames for a
variety of patterns of cups (Figs 5 & 6), but
there are possibly also sites where cup

patterns occur independent of tesselation on
the Hornsby Plateau. These are_ being
examined during present fieldwork, but are
not discussed in this paper.

It seems particularly relevant to us that in
addition to Elvina, the Basin Track site, the
“Echidna” site nearby, Muogamarra, Brooklyn
Heights, Patonga Ridge, Pearl Beach Ridge East,
and a little further north, just below Staples
Lookout, Woy Woy all contain cups (Table 1
and Fig 7). The “quality” of the occurrences
varies, being largely a function of the nature
of the tesselations, coarseness of the
sandstone, and the degree of weathering of
the surfaces. In addition the presence or
placing of Aboriginal carvings on_ the
pavements may distract attention from the
cup patterns.

On these terms the “Echidna” site, with its
“incipient” tesselation (Branagan & Cairns,
1993), and its abundance of tracks and
carvings is not particularly informative, and
the cups there seem to be part of a relatively
simple “track”. The Basin Track site, with its
fine carvings occurring within and across
tesselations (a relatively uncommon feature)
draws the eye naturally to the carvings rather
than to the cups. At Muogamarra, the coarse
grain of the rock, and apparent surface
weathering, together with some _ carvings
(themselves rather weathered) lessen the
impact of the cups. Similarly at Brooklyn
Heights, weathering on a sloping surface, and
some probable naturally-formed holes again
lessen the impact. The Staples Lookout site is
on the lowest of three adjacent rock surfaces,
and there are few marked polygons. Here the
rock is quite coarse, cross-bedded and marked
by liesegang iron staining. On the intermediate
level are some curious rock mounds which
may be of human origin (possibly Aboriginal),
while on the uppermost surface there are
many Aboriginal carvings (Fig. 8).

The site we call Pearl Beach Ridge East (east of
the Patonga Road) on the other’ hand is

remarkably like the Elvina site, although it
seems to lack figurative carvings.(Figs 9,10).
This site, in particular, reinforces our
perception of the cultural origin of many dots
and lines previously disregarded by other
researchers. They show well-formed cups
spaced in patterns within polygons. We

believe they can only be of human origin, and

127

128

Cannot conceive them as being meaningless
doodles.

In addition to the long rows of cups which
occur within some elongate tesselations we
have recognised at the several sites some 102
varieties of cup (dot) patterns. Sixty two of
these patterns are shown in Fig. 11. We have
not attempted to indicate any size variation in
the cups, because our observations suggest
there is little significance in the variation of
cup diameters and cup depths. The regularity
of spacing, and the straightness of many lines
are worthy of note. They indicate that
measurements of some kind (angles and
distances, rather than mere counts) were
being made and recorded with considerable
care. Many of the patterns appear at more
than one site. In essence the patterns can
probably be reduced to twenty three basic
types, but this depends to some extent on the
degree of accuracy assigned to the spacing and
orientation of the cups.

What is the Meaning of the marks?

We believe Aboriginal use of natural
geological «features, “as. ywell “as ) ‘their
enhancement and creation of new _ marks,
particularly cups (or pits) may well be
Significant, and deserves close attention. As
we have previously suggested (Cairns and
Branagan, 1988, 1992) the patterns of dots
resemble, and probably) represent star
patterns which have some _ relation to
Aboriginal culture (Cairns 1991, Cairns and
Branagan 1992). In _ particular there are
repetitions of patterns that can be read as the
Southern Cross (C4, Fig. 11), Taurus (H2, Fig.
11), Corvus (C2;. Figs: ll), The Pleiades, Onion;
Canis Major, Argo, Sagittarius and others, all
essentially summer constellations, can also be
argued for. Observations of the night sky
made on site reinforce this opinion. These and
other patterns will be discussed in more detail
in later papers. As we have pointed out
(Cairns and Branagan, 1992). Aboriginal
knowledge of the night sky was considerable -
some 40 constellations are specifically named
in Aboriginal lore. Such interest is, of course,
not unexpected. The relation between the
night sky and two major aspects of Aboriginal
life (seasonal time, and distance to food
sources) is obvious (see Cairns 1991, 1993,
and in forthcoming papers).

BRANAGAN and CAIRNS

In an interesting paper MacPherson (1882) on
the Astronomy of the Australian Aborigines
suggested there is good evidence that the
Aborigines of the Victorian Mallee, “where no
rivers flow and no hills rise” recorded “three
triads of stars” as important in their study of
the sky, although he believed that they were
essentially concerned with straight line
arrangements, rather than groups in squares,
triangles and other patterns, such as we are
postulating. MacPherson also refers to an
earlier paper by W.E. Stanbridge (1857) who
notes that Aborigines regarded the moon
cycle as being of thirty days, an indication
that observation and numeracy was quite a
natural feature of their life.

There may indeed be subtle spatial relations
between marked tesselated surfaces and
figurative or ceremonial sites: some are close,
but probably distinct, as at Staples. Apart
from the Basin Track. site, ,whene,, athe
figurative carvings overlap the _ tesselations,
elsewhere, there seems- a .tendeney),-for
figurative markings to be placed around the
edges of tesselated pavements Perhaps this
indicates a chronological sequence, the cup
markings preceding the figures, but there is
little clear evidence on this point.

There is an interesting complex of sightlines
between the major sites on the Hornsby
Plateau (Fig. 7), which may prove relevant.
Muogamarra is visible from Brooklyn Heights,
and from the Patonga and Pearl Beach sites (a
distance of more than 9kms). From Patonga
Road the “Echidna” site can be seen, but
probably not the Basin Track site. There is a
sightline from Elvina Track to the Basin Track
site, but the Echidna site is probably just
obscured. It is thus possible that the various
sites could have been a_ contemporary
network of recording stations, and _ lends
support to the idea of systematic observations
being made.

Furthermore the marked sites all seem to fall
within the area apparently belonging to the
Ku-Ring-Gai People, while tesselated
pavements in other nearby tribal areas are
unmarked. Officer (1988, 1992), although
dealing specifically with figurative art, has
commented on the distinct stylistic changes
that occur within the Sydney region, and
discusses the implications. The spatially
restricted nature of the patterned tesselated

MARKS ON SANDSTONE 129

DEVILS ROCK MAROOTA

Fig.3 Portion of a figure from Stanbury and
Clegg (1990) showing the Devil's Rock track
at Maroota. The original figure has been
amended showing that the line of cups
continues through and beyond the figure,
and then splits into two, one line ending

at a round circular hollow, the other
continuing towards a waterhole.

Fig.4 Grooves and dots at
Elvina Track site. The grooves
occur in several sets of 15.

Fig.5 An overview of the Elvina
Track site, looking southerly,
showing the variety of tesselation.
The patterns of dots can be clearly
discerned.

130 BRANAGAN and CAIRNS

Pearl Beach East
Muogamarra Patonga @

Ms: % \A Broken Bay

feos ae

“Echidna”
. Track i
AN Be

CR ie ae

f|

* Hormsby

Fig.7 Location of tesselated pavement sites containing engraved pits. Study of
the pit patterns (Fig.11) has, to date, concentrated on Elvina Track and
Patonga East sites, where certain patterns are duplicated. Some of the
simpler patterns certainly occur on other sites.

MARKS ON SANDSTONE 131

Fig 6 Ground view of part of the Elvina

Track site showing pit patterns. Several
shields can be discerned. Modern graffiti
also occur.

surface with carvings

surface with

Tesselated surface rock mounds amare

with some pits

North
Horizontal distance approximately 500m

Total vertical distance from lowest to highest surface

50m

Staples, Somersby-Woy Woy Road

Fig.8 Conceptual sketch showing the
possible relation between upper carving
site and marked tesselated surface near
Staples Lookout, west of Woy Woy.

Fig.9 Patonga East site showing part of the extensive platform.

Fig.10 Detail of the Patonga East site showing several patterns.

132 | BRANAGAN and CAIRNS

surfaces may be an important “variation
within the culturally defined boundaries of
communication” (Officer, 1992, 6).

There is clearly much more work to do to
prove, or at least improve the likelihood, of
our hypothesis that these markings represent
star patterns. We are undertaking more
detailed recording of the patterns, including
their spacings and orientations, and an initial
project of professional surveying has begun at
the Elvina Track site. Whether one would
expect accuracy of this nature by the ancient
observers is conjectural, but we believe that
the quality, spacing and general orientation of
the cup patterns, and the ideas behind them
which caused them to be executed betoken
intelligence of a considerable magnitude.

Acknowledgements

We would like to express our thanks to David
Lambert, Alan Henderson, Pat Holland and
Steve King of New South Wales National Parks
and Wildlife Service for advice about sites of
interest, and logistical help, particularly the
use of a helicopter. The critical appraisal of
our ideas by Jo McDonald, John Clegg and Bill
Jobling among others has also been most
helpful. We also acknowledge the positive
criticism of a reviewer who helped to clarify
our ideas and to improve the presentation of
the paper.

References

Bednarik, R. 1990. Annual AURA Meeting
1989. AURA Newsletter 7(1): 2-3.

Branagan, D.F., 1968. A_ tesselated platform,
Ku-ring-gai Chase, N.S.W., Journal and
Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales
101:109-33.

Branagan, D.F., 1991. Requests (Letter to
Editor), AURA Newsletter 8(1): 2.

Branagan, D.F. and Cairns, H.C., 1992. Marks on
sandstone near Sydney: artificial or natural?.
Second Aura Congress Abstracts. Occasional
AURA Publication 7:34.

Branagan, D.F. and. .Caims, ~ i Gai 3.
Tesselated pavements in the Sydney region.
Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society
of New South Wales 126 (1&2): 63-72.

Cairns, H.C., 1991. Is ancient sky-mapping
expressed in prehistoric artistic “cultural
material? in S.A. Pager, B.K. Swartz,Jnr and
A.R. Willcox (editors) Rock Art-The Way
Ahead. SARARA 1991 Conference Proceedings.
Occasional Publication 1, South African Rock
Art Research Association.

Cairns, H.C., 1993. Aboriginal sky-mapping?
Possible astronomical interpretation’ of
Australian Aboriginal ethnographic and
archaeological material. in C. Ruggles (ed.).
Archaeoastronomy in the 1990s. Group D
publications, Loughborough.

TABLE 1 - TESSELATED PAVEMENTS WITH CUPS
with Grid References (NSW1:25 000 Series)

HORNSBY PLATEAU, SOUTH OF HAWKESBURY RIVER

Elvina Track, Ku-ring-gai NP-Mona Vale 9130-I-S 388758
Basin Track, Ku-ring-gai NP-Broken Bay 9130-I-N 405814
Muogamarra, Muogamarra NP -Cowan 9130-IV-N 322864
Brooklyn Heights, Brooklyn-Cowan 9130-IV-N 327855

HORNSBY PLATEAU, NORTH OF HAWKESBURY RIVER

Pearl Beach Ridge East-Broken Bay 9130-I-N 407876
Patonga Ridge (Crazy Rock)-Broken Bay 9130-I-N 400870
Staples, Somersby-Woy Woy Road-Gosford 9131-II-S 409959

MARKS ON SANDSTONE 133

Cairns, H.C. and Branagan, D.F., 1988. Star
patterns on Sydney rocks. First Aura Congress
Abstracts. Occasional AURA Publication 2:35 .

Cairns, H.C. and Branagan, D.F., 1992. Artificial
patterns on rock surfaces in the Sydney
region, New South Wales: evidence for
Aboriginal time charts and sky maps? in J.
McDonald, and I.P. Haskovec (editors) State of
the Art: Regional rock art studies in Australia
and Melanesia. Occasional AURA Publication
No.6, Melbourne: 25-31.

Campbell, W.D., 1899. Aboriginal carvings of
Port Jackson and Botany Bay. Department of
Mines and Agriculture, Sydney Ethnological
Series No. I..

Coates, L., 1986. Micro-organisms and stone: a
study of their interaction, with particular
emphasis on Lichens and sandstone in _ the
Sydney region. M.Sc. Thesis (unpublished),
Macquarie University, Sydney.

McCarthy, F.D., 1954. Records of the rock
engravings of the Sydney-Hawkesbury
district. Mankind 5:17-21. Plate C, Figs7A-F.

McCarthy, F. D., 1956. Rock engravings of the
Sydney-Hawkesbury district. Part 2: some
important ritual groups in the County of
Cumberland. Records of the Australian
Museum 24: 203-16, Plates 23-6, Figures 1-7.

McDonald, J., 1987. Sydney Basin Aboriginal
Heritage Study. Unpublished Reort to NSW
National Parks and Wildlife Service, Sydney.

McDonald, J., 1992. Introduction in J.
McDonald, and I.P. Haskovec (editors) State of
the Art: Regional rock art studies in Australia
and Melanesia. Occasional AURA Publication
No.6, Melbourne.

Macpherson, P., 1882. Astronomy of the
AusStralian Aborigines. Journal and
Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South
Wales (1881) 15, 71-80.

Officer, K.L.C., 1988. The edge of the
sandstone: what makes style change? First
Aura Congress Abstracts. Occasional AURA
Publication 2:13.

(Manuscript received 1.8.93)

Officer, K.L.C., 1992. The edge of the
sandstone: style boundaries and islands in
south-eastern New South Wales, in J.
McDonald, and I.P. Haskovec (editors) State of
the Art: Regional rock art studies in Australia
and Melanesia. Occasional AURA Publication
No.6, Melbourne: 6-14.

Sim, I.M., 1965. Records of the Rock
Engravings of the Sydney-Hawkesbury
District, Mankind 6: 275-281, & sheets 1&2.

Sim, I.M., 1966. Records of the Rock
Engravings of the Sydney-Hawkesbury
District, Mankind 6: 353-4, & sheet2.

Stanbridge, W.E., 1857. Astronomy of the
Australian Aborigines. Transactions of the
Philosophical Institute of Victoria: 71-80.

Stanbury, P. and Clegg, J. 1990. A field guide
to Aboriginal rock engravings with special
reference to those around Sydney. Sydney
University Press, Sydney.

D.F. Branagan, H.C. Cairns,
Department of Geology 23 Wallaroy Rd.,
& Geophysics, Double Bay,
University of Sydney, N.S.W., 2028.

N.S.W., 2006

@
zm eet eo

oe eee

Fig.11 Variety of cup patterns recognised at

the several sites (preliminary assessment).
| Simpler forms are repeated at some Sites.

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Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales,

Buols 120; pp. 155-1435,. 1993 ISSN 0035-9173/93/020135-9 $4.00/1 135

BONDING AND NON-BONDING,

S. STERNHELL

ABSTRACT. Over the last 10 year our group hs carried out two parallel
experimental investigations in physical-organic chemistry. The first one dealt
with the development of a new experimental parameter fro the determination
of the [I-bond order of the carbon-carbon double bond and the utilisation of
this new parameter in the determination of the ground-state electronic

structures of some unsaturated systems.

The second investigation dealt with the limitations of a previously proposed
(Bott, Field and Sternhell, 1980) semiquantitative treatment for predicting the
severity (energy penalty) of repulsive non-bonded interactions from purely

structural parameters.

THE TI-BOND ORDER OF CARBON-CARBON DOUBLE BONDS

The notions of the I-bond
order, or the mobile bond order, or
indeed the o-z description of the
carbon-carbon double bond, are purely
theoretical concepts although

elementary text-books give them an air

of experimental reality. An
examination of the correlation of
experimental variables, such as the
carbon-carbon bond lengths (Pauling,
1980), vicinal interproton spin-spin
coupling constants (Bartle, Jones and
Matthews, 1969), and other NMR
parameters (Marshall, 1983;
Kalinowski, Berger and Braun, 1984;
Joseph-Nathan, Garcia-Martinez and

Morales-Rios, 1990) shows that they
are, at best, semiquantitative whichever
calculated set of I-bond orders is
chosen for the comparison.

We have developed (Barfield,
Fallick, Hata, Sternhell and
Westerman, 1983; Barfield, Collins,
Gready, Sternhell and Tansey, 1989) a
new NMR parameter, namely the 4-
bond orthobenzylic interproton
coupling constant involving a methyl
group (henceforth referred to as *Jo,)
which shows excellent correlation with
either the pauling bond-order (Fig. 1)
or the square of the SCF/MO bond-

136 S. STERNHELL

order as required by theory (Barfield,
Fallick, Hata, Sternhell and
Westerman, 1983; Barfield, Collins,
Gready, Sternhell and Tansey, 1989).
Moreover, the parameter *J,, proved
insensitive to other structural features
such as ring-size and the presence of
polar substituents or heteroatoms
(Collins, Hatton, Sternhell and Tansey,
1987) within aromatic systems.

It now became possible to
investigate by a purely experimental
method the IJ-bond order in
unsaturated systems of interest and
hence to gain an insight into the
ground-state distribution of TI-
electrons in them. We were thus able
to demonstrate the following effects:

(1) According to our method,
the Mills-Nixon Effect (ground-state
bond fixation in tetralins, indanes etc.)
does not exist (Collins, Gready,
Sternhell and Tansey, 1990).

(11) Our parameter shows very
good correlation with SCF/MO bond-
orders in a large variety of
heteroaromatic systems (Gready,
Hatton and Sternhell, 1992).

(111) The presence of pairs of
+R/-R substituents on a benzene ring in
either the para or the ortho
configuration causes significant
ground-state bond-fixation (Collins,
Hatton and Sternhell, 1992). The same
effect can be observed in suitably
substituted heteroaromatic systems

(Collins, Hatton and Sternhell, 1992)
and leads to a novel and completely
independent method for the
determination of Taft's o® substituent
parameters (Hatton and Sternhell,
1993):

(iv) The electron distribution
in free-base porphyrins (Crossley,
Harding and Sternhell, 1992)
corresponds to an [18]-annulene with
the bond order between the B-B
pyrrolic protons within the annulenic
system approximately as high as the
a—B bond in napthalene. The B-2
pyrrolic bonds outside the annulenic
systems are essentially isolated double
bonds.

(v) The ground-state [T-
electron distribution in azulene and
biphenylene are as intuitively expected,
1.e., azulene shows evidence of
electron-transfer from the seven-
membered ring towards the five-
membered ring and biphenylene
exhibits a radialene-like distribution
(Collins, Sternhell and Tansey, 1990).
More unexpectedly, the bond-orders in
1,6-methano-[10]annulene are in
accord with intuition (i.e., the IT-
electron density in the a—B and the B—
B bonds is the same), but nor in accord
with structural data (Collins, Sternhell
and Tansey, 1990).

(vi) In a moderately distorted
benzene (Hambley, Sternhell and
Tansey, 1990) and phenanthrene

BONDING and NON-BONDING 137

(Sternhell and Tansey, 1990), as well
as in a number of severely distorted
paracyclophanes (Gready, Hambley,
Kakiuchi, Kobiro, Sternhell, Tansey
and Tobe, 1990) the [I-bond orders
appear to be normal, 1.e.,
rehybridization occurs to maintain p-p
overlap in spite of the distortions
imposed on the o-skeleton.

(vil) Finally, our method gave
independent confirmation (Craw,
Hush, Sternhell and Tansey, 1992) of
the phenomenon of long-range
perturbation of electron distribution in
benzene rings by apparently isolated
double bonds elsewhere in the
molecule.

We consider the results
summarised under (v1) to be the most
interesting outcome of these
investigations and they have led us to
the wider question of the shape of the
potential energy curve associated with
the decoupling of the []-bond in
ethylene during a pure rotational
distortion of the o-framework. We are
at present engaged in the synthesis of
appropriate molecules and the study of
the rotational barriers in them.

NON-BONDED INTERACTIONS

Repulsive steric interactions
("steric hindrance") are simple
conceptually ("two into one will not
go"), but notoriously difficult to
investigate in a quantitative manner.
Some years ago (Bott, Field and
Sternhell, 1980) we proposed a simple
measure of severity of steric

interactions which we named "apparent
overlap". This amounts to measuring
the overlap between van der Waals’
surfaces involved in repulsive
interactions as if the surfaces actually
passed through each other, which is
clearly not the case and hence the
origin of the qualifying term
“apparent”. It transpired that for a
variety of systems (Bott, Field and
Sternhell, 1980) not only was the
relationship between the height of the
rotational barrier ("energy penalty")
and apparent overlap linear, but the
proportionality constants fell within a
narrow range for different systems.
Our original work (Bott, Field and
Sternhell, 1980) was based mainly on
biaryls but we have extended it to
imides (Newsom, 1984), 9,10-
dihydrophenanthrenes (Cosmo and
Sternhell, 1987) and meso-
tetraarylporphyrins (Crossley, Forster,
Harding and Sternhell, 1987). We
have also extended this study to the
relationship between static deformation
(Cosmo, Hambley and Sternhell, 1987)
and apparent overlap and found
surprisingly good correlations.

However, not unexpectedly
there proved to be no correlation
between apparent overlaps and the
equilibrium internuclear distances of
the repulsively interacting nuclei
emphasising the artificiality of the
concept of "apparent overlap". An
unexpected, indeed highly
counterintuitive result, was that in a
number of cases (Cosmo, Hambley and
Sternhell, 1987) the same pairs of
nuclei (in particular halogens) proved

138

(Hz)

0

0.1

S. STERNHELL

Fig. 4 A plot of “Jog against the Pauling bond order (7

14

10

J ey 16

0.2 03 04 OS 06 0.7 08 09 1.0 11

n(PAULING)

1.2

1.3

1.4

1 Propane

2 Toluene

3 2-MethylInaphthalcne

4 2,6-Dimethylanthracene

5 2,7-Dimethylanthracene

6 3,6-Dimethyl phenanthrene
7 2,7-Dimethylphenanthrene
8 1,2-Dimethylphenanthrene
9 9-Methylphenanthrene

10 2-Methyloiphenylene

11 3-Methylchrysene

12 6-Methylchrysenc

13. 1-Methylpyrene

14 2-Methylpyrene

15 4-Methylpyrene

16 6-Methylbenzanthracene
17 6Methylbenz(3.4}phenanthrene
18 1-Mcthylcycloalkenes

19 Propyne

MES 1G) Vet Oh iBy 9) (220

Pauling).

139

BONDING and NON-BONDING

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140 S. STERNHELL

to be closer (crystallographic results)
for cases (1,8-disubstituted
naphthalenes) where the o-framework
would predict them to be further than
in other cases (4,5-
disubstitutedphenanthrenes). This
anomaly could have two explanations
(Cosmo, Hambley and Sternhell,
1987), viz., that either the angle of
approach was critical for the
distortibility of the van der Waals'
surfaces or that the partitioning
(Allinger, 1976) of the repulsive
energy between the distortion of the
van der Waals’ surfaces and skeletal
distortion caused the "stiffer"
naphthalene nucleus to squeeze the
halogens in the 1,8-juxtaposition more
than the apparently "closer" halogens
in the 4,5-juxtaposition of
phenanthrenes.

The synthesis of a number of
compounds designed to discriminate
between these two hypotheses was
undertaken and crystallographic data
for a total of 11 new highly crowded
compounds were obtained. From these
results (Hambley and Sternhell, 1992)
it was possible to conclude that it was
the second of the rival hypotheses that
as correct. As an interesting by-
product of this investigation, we have
collected our own and literature data
for the closest intramolecular distances
between pairs of atoms, viz., -H, -F, -
OMe, -Cl, -SMe, -Br and -I ever
reported. While it will never be
possible to claim that any such set of

data are "the most crowded possible
cases", two remarkable correlations can
be drawn from our data.

(i) The apparently maximum
compressions possible appear to be
remarkably similar for the above
atoms, ranging between 0.45 and 0.72
Angstrom, suggesting that these
elements have similar compressible
outer layers.

(11) A plot of the "record"
minimum distances from our
crystallographic data (Hambley and
Sternhell, 1992) (Fig.2) against the van
der Waals’ radii of the atoms involved
is a Straight line.

These phenomena are being
further investigated by the design,
synthesis and crystallographic studies
of further crowded compounds.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to acknowledge the
fruitful collaboration with my
colleagues Drs M.J. Crossley, L.D.
Field, T.W. Hambley and M.M.
Harding and Prof. N.S. Hush, as well
as of the numerous Postgraduate and
Honours students listed in the
publications. Both phases of this
research were supported by the
Australian Research Council.

BONDING and NON-BONDING 141

REFERENCES

Allinger, N.L., 1976. Adv. Phys. Ore.
Chem., 13, 1.

Barfield, M., Collins, M.J., Gready,
J.E., Sternhell, S. and Tansey,
C.W., 1989. The bond-order
dependence of orthobenzylic
coupling constants involving a
methyl group “Jy. 4. J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 111, 4285-4290.

Barfield, M., Fallick, C., Hata, K..,
Sternhell, S. and Westerman, P.,
1983. Conformational bond-
order and substituent
dependencies of orthobenzylic
coupling. J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
105, 2178-2186.

(a) Bartle, K.D., Jones, D.W. and
Matthews, R.S., 1969. J. Mol.
Struct., 4, 445.

(b) Bartle, K.D., Jones, D.W. and
Matthews, R.S., 1969. Rev. Pure
Appl. Chem., 19, 191.

Bott, G., Field, L.D. and Sternhell,
S., 1980. Steric effects. A study
of rationally designed systems.
J. Am. Chem. Soc., 102, 5618-
5626,

Collins, M.J., Gready, J.E., Sternhell,
S. and Tansey, C.W., 1990. An
NMR investigation of the Mills-
Nixon effect. Aust. J. Chem., 43,
1547-1557.

Collins, M.J., Hatton, P.M.. Sternhell,

S. and Tansey, C.W., 1987.
Substituent and ring-size
dependence of the 4J,,. ,, coupling
constant. Magn. Reson. Chem.,
25, 824-828.

Collins, M.J., Hatton, P.M. and

Sternhell, S., 1992. An N.M.R.
investigation of ground state
polarisation of some substituted
aromatic systems. Aust. J.
Chem., 45, 1119.

Collins, M.J., Sternhell, S. and Tansey,
C.W., 1990. NMR studies of
bond order in azulene,
biphenylene and 1,6-
methano[1Q0]Jannulene. Aust. J.
Chem., 43, 1541-1546.

Cosmo, R., Hambley, T.W. and
Sternhell, S., 1987. Skeletal
deformation in 4,5-disubstituted
9,10-dihydrophenanthrenes and
4,5-disubstituted phenanthrenes.
J. Org. Chem., 52, 3119-3123.

Cosmo, R., Hambley,T.W. and
Sternhell, S., 1987. Anomalous
internuclear distances in 1,8-
substituted naphthalenes and 4,5-
substituted phenanthrenes.
Tetrahedron Letters, 28, 6239-
6240.

Cosmo, R. and Sternhell, S., 1987.
Steric Effects. Inversion of 9,10-
dihydro-4,5-disubstituted

142

phenanthrenes. Aust. J. Chem.,
40, 35-47.

Craw, J.S., Hush, N.S., Sternhell, S.
and Tansey, C.W., 1992. The
Relationship between partial
bond fixation induced by
through-bond and/or through-
space perturbations in non-planar
benzene derivatives and 'H spin-
spin coupling constants. J. Phys.
Chem., 96, 5753.

Crossley, M.J., Forster, A.J., Harding,
M.M. and Sternhell, S., 1987.
Steric Effects on
atropoisomerism in
tetraarylporphyrins. J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 109, 341-348.

Crossley, M.J., Harding, M.M. and
Stembell, S.,:1992. Use of NMR
spectroscopy to determine bond
orders between B— and B’-
pyrrolic positions of porphyrins:
structural differences between
free-base and metalloporphyrins.
J. Am. Chem. Soc., 114, 3266.

Gready, J.E., Hambley, T.W..,
Kakiuchi, K., Kobiro, K.,
Sternhell, S., Tansey, C.W. and
Tobe, Y., 1990. NMR studies of
bond order in distorted aromatic
systems. J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
112, 7537-7540.

Gready, J.E., Hatton, P.M. and

Sternhell, S., 1992. NMR studies

of bond-order in heteroaromatic

S. STERNHELL

systems. J. Heterocyclic Chem.,
ie ihe):

Hambley, T.W. and Sternhell, S.,
(unpublished data from these
laboratories, 1992).

Hambley, T.W., Sternhell, S. and
Tansey, C.W., 1990. The
Synthesis and Structure of 3,4-di-
tert-butylbenzoic acid. Aust. J.
Chem., 43, 807-814.

Hatton, P. and Sternhell, S., 1993. An
NMR Investigation of
Polarisation of Pyridine by +R
Substituents and a Proposed New
Method tor Determination of the
Substituent Resonance Parameter
(O,). Aust. J. Chem., 46, 149.

Joseph-Nathan, P., Garcia-Martinez, C.
and Morales-Rios, M.S., 1990.
Magn. Reson. Chem., 28, 311.

Kalinowski, H.O., Berger, S. and
Braun, S., 1984. 3C N.M.R.
Spectroscopy. John Wiley and
Sons, Chichester.

Marshall, J.L., 1983. Carbon-Carbon
and Carbon-Proton N.M.R.
Couplings: Applications to
Organic Stereochemistry and
Conformational Analysis. Vol 2,
Verlag Chemie International,
Deerfield Beach, Florida, U.S.A.

BONDING and NON-BONDING

Newsom, I.A., 1984. PhD Thesis,
Sydney University.

Pauling, L., 1980. Acta crystallogr.,
B36, 1898.

Sternhell, S. and Tansey, C.W., 1990.
NMR studies of bond order in
sterically distorted
phenanthrenes. Aust. J. Chem.,
43,1577-1580.

Department of Organic Chemistry
University of Sydney

SYDNEY 2006

AUSTRALIA

la versidge- Research Lecture, delivered before
the Royal Society of New South Wales 14 Oct. 1992.

(Manuscript received 24 - 8 - 1993)

143

144 Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 126, p 144, 1993
ISSN 0035-9173/93/020144-1 $4.00/1

Liversidge Research Lecture 1992, Royal Society of New South Wales:

left to right (clockwise): Dr. F.L.Sutherland (President 1992/93),
Prof. Sev. Sternhell (Liversidge Lecturer 1992), Prof.) Noel Hush
(School of Chemistry, University of Sydney), Prof. Bob Gilbert
(School of Chemistry, University of Sydney), Dr. Peter Lay (Secretary
of the Chemical Society), Dr. Tony Masters (President of the Chemical
Society), Prof. Hans Freeman ( Liversidge Lecturer 1978).

(photo taken during dinner after the Liversidge Research Lecture and
presented to the Society by the Chemical Society)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 126, pp.145-164, 1993

ISSN 0035-9173/93/020145-20 $4.00/1

145

UNDERGROUND SPACE: THE GEOSPATIAL PLANNING OPTION

FOR 21ST CENTURY

SYDNEY

PART TWO (Part One appeared in the last issue)

GEOSPACE IN THE FUTURE, A CASE STUDY:

21ST CENTURY SYDNEY
Sydney

GEOSPATIAL PLANNING

In the previous issue of this journal, it was
established that the advantages of using geotecture as
a valid planning option for the future far outweighed
the disadvantages. In this issue, the question of how
the principle could be applied to the future planning
of Sydney will be addressed. Such a proposal aims at
halting the spread of the ubiquitous skyscraper and
challenges the whole principle of vertical city
development with its concomitant problems of
environmental deterioration and loss of human
amenity.

In 1988, it was found that certain types of
heart disease and depression are associated with
living in high-rise building (9 or more storeys) and
in proximity to the main electrical supply cable
(Perry and Pearl, 1988, Brooker, 1989). Dr Cyril
Smith (Smith and Best, 1989) explained how an
electric field folds around an object placed within it
and so magnifies its values up to one hundred times
the unperturbed field. What must the tower
structures of our cities be producing in the way of
distortions to the geomagnetic field? (There are also
concentrations in alternating current fields with their
associated potential to affect health because of
increases in extremely low frequency,
electromagnetic, non-ionising radiation.) Why have
tower buildings at all? These questions lead into the
next issue to be raised, that of whether vast towers
erected in total ignorance of their potential for
creating pathogenic zones around and within them,
should be accepted as the only way to proceed in
future city development. Such buildings have 40-50
year life-cycles, at the termination of which whole
city blocks could be redeveloped.

Consider the alternative, a horizontal city, one
of geospatial development serviced by underground
transit and utility corridors, a city that replaces
concrete and metal roofs with an interlinked network

A. Baggs

of roof-gardens and parks over the whole of the
Central Business District. Major streets would be
retained and minor streets amalgamated with
adjoining sites as a ‘trade-off for overall
development control and to boost floor space ratios.
This, added to the development of deeper levels of
geospace would allow the 1992 planning policy ratios
to be retained for viability.

Geospatial Transit Corridors

When the London underground railway was first
opened over one hundred years ago, a prototype
became fossilised. Over the intervening years, every
subway, metro and underground rail network has
been modelled upon it. The train tunnel preceded the
motor car. ‘Piggyback truck' (or wagon) services
were eStablished in the Alps 60 years ago. The
Channel Tunnel will use this system when it 1s
completed.

Consider these facts (some of which were
presented by Professor Frank Davidson (1988), Head
of School of Engineering, MIT): 1. the piggyback
wagon (or the palleted automated transit, PAT), is
very energy and economy efficient; and 2. the
personal vehicle in some form or other appeals to the
Australians and probably will be with us throughout
the 21st century. So why is our city traffic not
underground using a combination of the skills of
highway and railway engineers. So-called ‘smart’
cars and trucks would move onto pallets that slot into
guideways, combinations of the high-load traffic
capability of the railway with the individuality of the
personal vehicle. All this beneath the landscape and
waterways, freeing the surface from highways and
retuming it to people and nature. Multiple lanes even
become unnecessary as transit times decrease and
throughput is increased by factors of 7 to 10.

Imagine the transport of commodities using
larger versions of the pneumatic underground tubes

146

SYDNEY A. BAGGS

Figure 2 (from Part One) (This figure appeared in Part One and is reproduced here for convenience.)

The Semi-underground concept described by Professor Yoshiaki Yoshimi (Davidson, 1988). Diagrammatic section showing 10 storeys
above ground and 5 storeys below linked by underground passages

that were in use in Paris and Vienna years ago to
deliver and collect mail. Electropneumatics to convey
goods could not only link cities but continents.

THE FUTURE OF GEOSPATIAL
DEVELOPMENT

It has been suggested that a hybrid geopolitan design
(Figure 2) could be ideal for the development of the
city of Sydney, transforming it into a garden city in
the true sense of the term.

TERRATECTURE

Buildings with earth roof-cover & earth
enclosing the building envelope
constructed with cut-and-cover technique

BELOW
(SUBGRADE)

A

ABOVE
(OR LEVEL)

1 3 1) 4 3
| od
a; < <
2 2
<x fe) (o)
S E E ra
ig fe) a zcyyo ofS «
ao = iS a Wolioa wince
a = a = = ar NPIDE
= = > Ww oepfuchiHofjww
< oc if Z2 nxtePoDdsioafjo2z
= E =) Ww qrpsyuotiscxijud
oO < w a oOftac offsutica
= oe

_GEOTECTURE
(OR UNDERGROUND ARCHITECTURE)

Structures built using mining/building
technologies & sited in geospace,
whether shallow or at depth

An amalgam of 2 concepts would be very
interesting; firstly, the hybrid form of the Japanese
Urban Geo-Grid of the Shimizu Construction Coy
Ltd (Davidson, 1988) and secondly, the Subterranean
Urban System of Gunar Birketts (1974, 1984). It
was thought that the potential for applying geopolitan
planning to an existing city could best be
demonstrated by undertaking a case study at the
conceptual level. It is not intended as a ‘solution’, it
is merely a stimulus to discussion.

LITHOTECTURE

Mined spaces enclosed by fully
seit supporting consolidated or
unconsolidated rock throughout

oe o>: == a EE eas
Floor surface at lowest portal(s)
relative to outside ground level.

ee GE oe a) ee Ge ee)

D BELOW

ABOVE*
(OR LEVEL)

C

3 4 1 2 3 4
id a a v
< < w a?
Ww w e.-1 t= &
ee o,_Jioviss
og cpyltoyta
red (i Mesa) fa Chic ste aiie
oe) Ww 77) oO oe) 7 ez)
o re) = i rs) ar
2 24 ve = a z2 wu
< ~ wwite < < woyfocd
aa Zefa xrij—x xr PJZedfgo 2] yur
re) nHnassfoutiacn S) nagyoatyycn
= eq eq

Figure 26:

Classification of underground space

UNDERGROUND SPACE: 21ST CENTURY SYDNEY 147

Figure 27:
Undersea Grid Station, a branch from a sea tunnel with leisure
facilities at sea surface level

The Urban Geo-Grid

In the case cited in Figure 2, many buildings of a
limited number of storeys are raised to the same
height to form a podium. Roof gardens are bridge-
connected. Basement space contains libraries,
museums, conference facilities and _ the
infrastructures described previously. The Shimizu
Corporation propose a grid development. At each
node, a base facility is constructed below such
surface facilities as schools and parks. This
‘gridpoint' or grid network (Figure 15) contains
those facilities needed in the local community such as
convenience stores, exhibition halls, local libraries or
public baths.

Grid Stations are control bases comprising a
vast atrium surrounded by offices, hotels, shopping
centres with a city park at ground surface (Figure
26). A variation on this is the underwater Grid
Station linked by underwater tunnels. Leisure
facilities are located at sea surface over the Grid
Stations (Figure 27).

The Subterranean Urban System

The Urban-Geo-Grid could be utilised to incorporate
the type of transit corridors discussed previously,
and the principles can be developed along the lines
proposed by Gunar Birketts (1974) and applied as a
plan for the future development of the Sydney urban
region. However, it is first necessary to explain
briefly the concept of the Subterranean Urban
System.

New planning policies would need to facilitate
the integration of the following:

1. the division of three-dimensional space into public
and private domains;

2. a transportation system with rapid transit
underground fed by moderate speed surface-systems
and walking-speed people-movers;

3. an underground goods-handling system for
commerce and energy generation industry that
connects air, road, sea and rail terminals (with a
highly automated component);

4. an underground waste removal system that
integrates with all collection points for garbage,
sewage and industrial waste, transporting it at high
velocity to separation, treatment and reconstitution
plants;

5. the zoning of automated and semi-automated
industrial processes along the transport conduits for
goods and waste removal;

6. the location of all parking and storage facilities in
geospace;

7. a fully accessible maintenance and modification
system to all of the above;

8. a review of open-space ratios in the light of
current knowledge on the necessity of vegetation to
modify city heat-island effects and modify
atmospheric pollution and a reallocation of a network
of open-space zones in the web of public space
released by the undergrounding of all the above;

9. the allocation of recreational space (both passive
and active) and architectural forms in the landscape
that will mark the entrances to commercial, public
and industrial facilities (giving them a sense of
place).

The underground conduit.

Such a far-reaching proposal for a new city, or
the replanning of an existing one such as Sydney,
relies upon the practical implementation of a
connecting conduit, the spine upon which an array of
geospatial functions are disposed.

Birketts (1974) has addressed the design of
such an element and suggests that it be between '200
feet and 1000 feet wide’. This application to
Australian conditions would have a conduit 40m wide
that could widen to 200m or so depending on the
local geology and geography. Located either at
ground surface, partially or fully subsurface, Figure
28 indicates how such a flexible form of conduit
could be integrated into the landscape.

Air and water pollution could be significantly
reduced by capturing waste products and processing
them within the conduit system. Waste heat could be
collected at source and recycled to boost private
heating systems, or ‘captured’ and transported for
public use. A total energy system becomes possible

148 SYDNEY A. BAGGS

a

meee

GOLF COURSE

n

CLUB HOUSE

eo

LIGHT COURT

.

MEDIUM TO HIGH DENSITY RESIDENTIAL
OEVELOPMENT WITH ROOF-TOP PARKS

4, ot OS CARER
* ATR Fe PER DUCTS : HOUSE
wi POWER SUPPLY, WATER.
STEAM, GAS AND
COMMUNICATIONS

SYSTEM FOR GARBAGE

CONDUIT CONTAINS CENTRALISED
COOLING AND HEATING SYSTEM

° 10 20 30 40 50m
——E——EEe

Figure 28:
A main conduit (shown crossed) constructed (by the cut-construct-cover method) with backfill modelled to produce landforms flanking
the open-space corridor some of which contain terratecture residential development, schools, libraries, recreational and public service
facilities.

reclaiming heat and waste recycling them, receiving
the power, utilising it, processing the finished
products and transporting them, as well as
contaminating waste, all within the conduit system.
The complete railway system, relocated underground
in such conduits could not only serve for public
transit but also to eliminate the immense surface
space wastage represented in the marshalling yards of
the Sydney system.

Conduit construction.

Built essentially as an above-ground structure,
it is backfilled (terratecture). Residual excavated
material can be left to be landscaped as hills and
mounds to receive earth-covered surficial
developments of either high-, medium- or low-
density housing, schools and community service-
facilities that are set within parkscapes. The potential
for reshaping the landscape is limitless.

Where the conduit must pass through an
established built area, only its core need be
constructed until the life cycles of the above-ground
development have expired. This core contains the
utilities and transport systems and would be tunnelled
through rock, or say, ‘stack-drift' lined through soil
(Parkes and Robinson, 1983), or constructed in an
immersed tube system, floated, sunk and assembled
on the harbour or river bed (Kelley, 1986) as in the
Geo-Grid system. Orderly expansion and the relief
of congested urban and suburban space are of great
benefit in the redevelopment of an area such as inner
Sydney.

Surficial development.

Covered with backfill and topsoil, the conduit
roof is landscaped around exit/entrance lobbies, and
vertical cores communicating with geospace occupied
by workers, naturally illuminated by skylit atria and

light courts. High-density residential areas, public
service facilities and schools can be built along the

linear conduit park (as illustrated in Figures 17 and
29).

Local roads flanking the linear park and
accessing a PAT transport system at regular
intervals, also allow emergency access along the
parkway. With high-speed public transport stations at
3km intervals located in the conduit core, moving
footways connect the high-speed transit terminals and
deliver people to their destinations along the
conduits.

The surface transit network covers the whole
city with all parts of the urban and suburban space
being no more than 0.5km from the nearest station.
Although personal vehicles can use local roads, a
medium-sized commuter bus collects passengers at
these stations. At the rapid transit station, the bus
driver engages the bus into a computer-controlled
PAT system which works in a concentric system as
well as in the conduits. Public transport would be
favoured by the use of speed controllers on all
personal vehicles.

Because all neighbourhoods are encircled by
Open-space zones, no one would live more than
0.5km from public open space, although with
medium-density terratecture, this open space would
blend visually with private open space in the form of
continuous street commons comprised of garden
roofs (Figure 29).

These green zones would amalgamate into the
larger areas of linear park along conduits. These
could contain botanical and zoological gardens,
sports field complexes, universities, schools, etc., and
would be accessed by commercial and industrial

UNDERGROUND SPACE: 21ST CENTURY SYDNEY 149

Figure 29:
Public open space in the form of a local common with small parks as roof gardens to medium-density development and with footways,
bikeways and equestrian tracks incorporated

JACKSON

ROYAL,

Lower Sy oaraen

Figure 30:
Map of Central Sydney

150 SYDNEY A. BAGGS

works from the geospace below. This green space
network would function to provide natural, not piped
drainage, keeping the ground water table charged
and stable.

Could such a concept be applied to the Sydney
inner urban area? Imagine such suburbs as
Alexandria and Botany cleared of warehouse,
industrial plants, petrol stations, railways, roads and

Le ‘ XN Aq Se
see (- : C

Figure 31:
The Sydney urban and suburban area showing the general
principle of conduit corridors (as linear parks) carrying
transport, utility and waste collection systems. [Inset: Birketts
(1974) theoretical model from which this system was derived]

parking areas, transformed by having its land surface
rehabilitated as parkland and its canal system
restored as river and river bank. New housing could
be introduced using geotecture with sunlit residences,
views over Botany Bay and garden roofs with day-
care centres, kindergartens, etc., similarly integrated
into park landscapes. To investigate this possibility,
the Sydney CBD was chosen as the central cell of the
pattern (Figure 30) and one corridor was
investigated out to the Botany Bay foreshore.

THE STUDY AREA: SYDNEY BUSINESS
DISTRICT AND PORTION OF THE
SOUTHERN CONDUIT (TO ROCKDALE)

The layout in Figure 30 develops 6 major nodes to
begin the network of conduits running into the
suburban areas beyond. Some conduits run
underwater, the remainder are underground. All
carry rail and expressway routes for private traffic
as well as utilities, etc., and as soon as industrial
zones are encountered, factories can be located
underground (see right-hand side of Figure 31).

As the network enters the inner suburban
areas, the first node of the network is approximately
2km out and is a stop in the radial public high-speed
transit system. Conduits then radiate out (to follow
existing main roads or railway reservations where
possible), returning the land surface of these
corridors to landscaped linear parks and residential
development. Utility distribution and collection lines
in these conduits reach out into the surrounding
communities.

Communities can be redeveloped as existing
suburbs are modifed to adapt to form 2km diameter
community areas that are surrounded by vegetated
belts and by utilities carried in smaller cut-construct-
cover conduits (where geology permits) following a
generally concentric every-widening pattern which
extends into the spaces between the main radial
conduits, connecting them at every 2km node as
shown diagrammatically in the inset of Figure 31.

Even along the heaviest industrial corridor, the
accommodation of all industrial space built

7 aoe
ve

sad oe

a eaneonnset®

a i
gismeeeeeone® oF %
dl, f

Figure 32:
The Study Area of the first section of the Southern Corridor
(City to Rockdale). (Industrial areas shown in dotted pattern.)

UNDERGROUND SPACE: 21ST CENTURY SYDNEY 151

Balls heed 4 bint)

OY 3p
t. ” \38
hae

a: 5

ie

AARRICKVILQE /)

i

a Ss.

/ sexe DEEN
JS,
1-1 B
hs io
/
wy
AM =
é ONG
3%
>
rv)
c poe
Lrg "
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i ae =
a

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. = Ke [fF eae, hist
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ee hs
MILLE.
WP \ASOUTHS, - ~
ben/ I Ao tg)

aes
5

Figure 33:
Diagrammatic indication of the Birkett system applied to the study area, i.e., a portion of the Southern Corridor showing the
subterranean transit and goods-handling system. (The Corridor is shown as a broken line.) This would be the route of the conduit
flanked by geotecture industrial and commercial buildings and also a linear landscaped park and open space for recreational and
residential use. Thirteen communities (2km circles) are shown. Four are high-density nodes along the corridor and together they
comprise an urban area serviced by systems in the conduit and its concentric-ring branches.

152 SYDNEY A. BAGGS

Figure 34: :
New land-use pattern of the Study Area of the Southern Conduit (broken heavy black line) and Corridor (thinner black lines flanking the
conduit). Half-tone area shows previous industrial land now available for residential and commercial use once industry is relocated in
Corridor geospace. .

UNDERGROUND SPACE: 21ST CENTURY SYDNEY 153

é \
sf IA .
ALEXANDRIA
\

AL

\ NY

OTA

?
BANKSIA

ROCKDA

Figure 35:
New neighbourhoods, roads reused where possible. Traffic follows a series of adjoining one-way loops (making a combined two-way
system) which connect to 3 intermediate transit stations subsurface

154 SYDNEY A. BAGGS

iq WORTH WESTERN
SUBURBS CONDUIT

mca ert)

\ TRAPFIC. TUNNELS
\ OPERA HOURE

z ~
Gl ' \\ OF

Cue ck $ ‘i \ Me Ata
“77 WESTERN SUBURBS \ NN Ne ay
CONDUIT

\ " va
AY
ds | et 1 | aes
‘, f »* | | it i J
WY - 2 fe | a a ai}
Re : WE =e yee :
] iL amas hs LEGEND CITY OF SYDNEY, AUSTRALIA
| 7y| [ 3 ra a oe Beg }} 1 Landscaped terraces, gardens. parks (electric minibus transit at each level)
CS a ee Ts 2 Existing and future geospace (as at approx 1992) — tunnels, subways, underground bus/
aN = I =I! - rail interchange, shopping centres. EXISTING TRAIN S&EX EXISTING VEHICLE aa
. } ? Sy L = alfa H 3 IVINITIN Suggested future conduits (with links to 2)-terratecture, lithotecture or hydratecture.
LY NRX fit tf Son — 4 SNe aonsle city block site. Root park atop 4-6 storey podium (linked from block to
! 8:1 floor we J ff eae) Ul ; H | Ai prokent fine indicates city street carried in tunnel through building
| ' oe hy Af Atl nid pee a oo} m
Vi applies in SE Fl SS Ait Hh > a) ‘- | “———Terraced storeys set back for solar access tae
MR Tay if Iie Gas joof top perk walks Ee ee _ ee
“/Z_jf eel & ° 100 200 300 400
eS CONCEPTUAL PLAN
een pa z
WE A a ee Slit I; ints POTENTIAL GARDEN CITY OF THE MID 21st CENTURY
SOUT HRC ATE ae Ne Selah ie ae BASED UPON THE PUBLIC OWNERSHIP AND LEASING OF ALL SUBSURFACE SPACE

Figure 36:
Conceptual plan of amalgamated city blocks and sites with street-tunnels (for electric commuter transit) running north-south leaving
east-west streets for sunlight penetration. (Site ratios take advantage of north-south street areas bridged by such a scheme)

UNDERGROUND SPACE: 21ST CENTURY SYDNEY 155

subsurface would liberate sufficient surface land to
accommodate dozens of new _ residential
neighbourhoods. Goods movements occur along the
subsurface network to arrive at transit and freight
terminals in the community centres. From these,
surface transport distributes within the
neighbourhood.

All utilities in the conduit section are taken
from existing sources and carried to industry and
residential consumers. All wastes, solid, liquid and
gaseous are processed within the conduit at nodes that
contain incinerators, purification and
decontamination plants as well as recycling,
collection and separation facilities. Waste generated
in each community is processed at a neighbourhood
plant and is not returned in the conduit system.

At neighbourhood level, surface transportation
would be based upon personal vehicles and public
transport. Both would be best equipped with speed-
control devices and would follow as many existing
streets as possible. A one-way parkway road divides
neighbourhoods as a loop system that runs parallel to
the adjoining parkway loop running in the opposite
direction (Figure 35). In some cases, corner lots need
to be resumed to improve parkway turning radii.

It is useful to compare the land-use patterns
that incorporates all new systems (Figure 34) with
the existing pattern of development (Figure 32). If
we assume that all factories in industrial zones, or
within the neighbourhoods served by the South
conduit, are, say, 3 storeys deep (they are not but
this is a worst-case scenario for comparison
purposes) the total industrial area shown in Figure
32 could be replaced by three-storey equivalent
geospace within the conduit. All land in the corridor
of the conduit, plus all land liberated by the
relocation of the industrial zone into subsurface
space, could be utilised for residential development.
Earth-covered housing would be preferred for this
conduit zone in that the whole zone lies within the
noise ‘footprint’ of Sydney airport, and as discussed
previously, noise attenuation is a major characteristic
of this type of building.

If this development were to be based on
medium-density housing at, say, 30 dwellings per
hectare, the industrial zones together would yield
some twenty-five thousand dwellings. In the conduits
open space, assuming 30 dwellings per hectare of
earth-covered housing (as in Figures 18 and 29),
nineteen thousand dwellings would give a total to be
achieved of forty-four thousand in this study area (a
relatively minor proportion of the total suburban
area of Sydney).

Figure 36 is presented as an idea of how the
Shimizu Corporation's scheme (Figure 2) could be
modified and applied to provide an economical
method of implementing geotecture. While the
development of the central cell of the network is
presented as a concept only in Figures 36 and 37, it is
meant to point the way towards the development of a
totally different alternative aesthetic to the present
fashion for using high-rise buildings as status
symbols.

The tower form of the present-day office
building, is energy profligate in its design when
compared with geotecture. Rogue reflections are
created and the city heat-island effect is aggravated
when mirrored glass walls are used for interior
energy efficiency in individual buildings. High-rise
development could eventually be phased out to make
way for a city with a 4-6 storey-high podium
(averaging 5 storeys) over which a city park network
would be relocated at rooftop level. At the interfaces
of the podium parkland with existing street level
parks, terraced transitional gardens, ramps and stairs
would lead gently from one level to the other. The
terracing would embrace conserved historical
buildings and vertical access would occur within a
multi-storey conservatory containing lifts, escalators,
vegetation and boutiques, etc. Each city block would
contain at least 2 access structures of this type.

All this could be achieved using the 10:1
floorspace ratio which renders each new
amalgamated site economically viable by utilising
subsurface space up to the 10:1 limit. Figure 36 is
not a solution in itself. It is intended to point the way
to a future when all subsurface space will be publicly
owned and leased, and when a unified citv aesthetic
will make most central urban surface space accessible
and available for the recreation and enjoyment of all.

Tunnelling and Satellite Centres of Growth

Beyond the Sydney suburbs, main conduits could
extend into the countryside to service satellite growth
centres such as Wollongong and Gosford. Only the
conduit element would be needed where it passed
through scenic zones, e.g., the foot of the Illawarra
Escarpment, isolated tourist centres could be
connected to a node where terratecture (cut-cover-
construct) techniques are uneconomical. For example
where rock is encountered, tunnelling would be used.

Figure 38 suggests how tunnelling would apply
using current technology in an area of scenic beauty.
The geology of the Sydney Basin is ideal for
lithotecture, 6.2km of railway tunnels already exist

156 SYDNEY A. BAGGS

joccasional historic .
|building conservation foot garden : us

e rm > " ,4 2 ee
: WN oe aiaad Bil vie iO Sic on Ne rt SEP
"4 ae Eee A ete ti en SS~*«iR eee
oa ' 3 ea a ae

. SHOPPING ARCADE = ae

Rainforest court gully

Figure 37:
Section through city block amalgamation podium. As demolition occurs, north/south streets are rationalised to take local traffic only,
and east/west streets are retained for solar access to north face of podium and bridged. A low-rise roof park (4-6 storeys) is formed
averaging 5 storeys over a major of the city following the pattern of Figure 1. Utilities are rationalised into main and ring conduits

freeing space beneath existing roads.

and many are proposed for the future (Braybroooke,
1985).

The use of long tunnels for a Very Fast Train
(VFT) inter-city transit system is contentious. The
cost of air-pressure modifying strategies may not
warrant resiting the tracks to pass through scenery of
high visual quality. The complete conduit may need
to be sited in the hinterland with nodes servicing
developments such as that shown in Figure 38.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Such an approach to the future design of Sydney has
heuristic qualities which could be explored as
follows:

1. the establishment of a database, an inventory of all
geospace in use in the city of Sydney including the
extent and relative levels of all existing basements, a
determination of geothermal gradient variations and
a geological investigation with respect to excavation
and tunnelling at depths to 450m;

2. the assessment of the projected sizes of utility
conduits into the middle of the next century;

3. alternative energy systems that could be linked
into State and city-grid reticulation networks;

4. the present and future needs of Sydney and the
Sydney Region with respect to transport, including
VFT, PAT and non-polluting vehicles as well as the

extrapolation of VFT and expressway conduits into
the Sydney region;

5. the present and future needs of Sydney with
respect to energy use, future demands on utilities to
the mid-21st century and the potential for in-conduit
treatment of wastes including recycling waste heat
and the floor-space ratios and _ relevant
recommendations of the Central Sydney Strategy,
1988;

6. the potential demands on resources, utilities and
transport that could arise because of satellite
development around Sydney and its suburbs;

7. the overall long-term planning of amalgamated
blocks and roof parks in the inner city;

8. the geoplanning of conduits within the inner city
incorporating existing geospace;

9. the geopolitan planning of the Sydney urban and
metropolitan areas;

10.the establishment of an interdisciplinary
committee to begin the attempt of coordinating all
authorities and their records of existing geospace-
use. (Members should be chosen with proven records
of environmental involvement and understanding.)

Finally, from the legal viewpoint, there are
major obstacles to overcome. For example, Professor
Toshio Ojima has stated: ‘since the land is held by
small-scale landowners, cities are now dying’
(Davidson, 1988). Geopolitan planning requires a

UNDERGROUND SPACE: 21ST CENTURY SYDNEY 157

WIND DRIVEN

TURBINE

ROCK BORED ACCOMMODATION
WITH. FLOORS INSERTED

EXPRESSWAY
Efe “ at
TO res a

x

eect
oi as
pik

CUT AND COVER

INTERCITY
OR TUNNELLED Lan

WASTE DISPOSAL
UTILITIES

RESTAURANT yi HOTEL NN SKYDOME

PERSONAL
AND TREATMENT VEHICLE PARKING

h

RAINFOREST GULLY f

oA sre

Calf ‘
hs Bice oe
ee

iE SS Shs ES
speahesss

~ WATERFALL.
te

HOTEL LOBBY

Figure 38:

Conduit in scenic terrain. Rock bored geospace. Tourist node, a hotel at the beginning of the Illawarra Escarpment. (Minimised

environmental impact utilising alternative energy systems)

completely different outlook to land ownership
which may be best implemented by declaring all
subsurface land public land, then leasing it. The legal
problems of defining boundaries, access, tenancy
rights and, for example, legally describing the extent
and shape of rock pillars, represent a totally new
area of legal enquiry, which will flow into the
legislative and political arenas as well (Sterling and
Circo, 1984, Nelson and Rochenstein, 1985).

CONCLUSION

It is clear that this proposal points the way to
possibilities rather than dictating procedures to
follow. The social structure that accompanies such
changes should be given separate consideration
although the removal of existing railway and
highway barriers to communication between flanking
neighbourhoods would’ generate obvious
improvements in communication and reduction in
alienation that is presently typified by the fly-over
expressway tangle that looms above Darling
Harbour.

However, the ideas presented here generated
from the groundwork laid by Birketts (1974, 1984)
exemplify how geotecture, either as terratecture by

the cut-construct-cover method, or as lithotecture by
tunnelling technologies (or by a combination of both)
can completely transform a major urban and
suburban area liberating communities from the
barriers that elevated transit systems and freeway
represent and visually transforming cities from ‘the
problems of its city skyline and box-like architecture’
(Barnett, 1989) whilst reinforcing the 100-150m
Stratum of city block development identified as
indigenous to Sydney by the Central City Strategy,
1988.

Geotecture could transform Sydney if the will
were there and the appropriate interdisciplinary
planning body of experts (comprising planners,
geologists, architects, civil, structural, mining,
tunnelling and mineral engineers, sociologists,
psychologists and real-estate consultants) assembled
as soon as possible. Probably a decade of forward
planning would be needed to precede what would be
the first major and significant evolutionary change in
the development of Sydney since its foundation in
1788.

If this groundwork were to be undertaken, the
21st century could see a metamorphosis in Sydney.
Professor Barnett (1989), a leading urban design

158 SYDNEY A. BAGGS

expert, described it 'as one of the top modern cities
of the world’ in an interview (during which he also
condemned the Darling Harbour overpass).

With whole industrial zones relocated into
corridors of subsurface space built around sunlit
atria with services and utilities integrated within
conduits in the corridors, one 7km portion of
corridor can relocate all the existing industry in its
zone and ‘recycle’ the surface land for landscaped
recreation and medium-density residential land use
for forty-four thousand dwellings. As high-rise
towers with the city central area reach the
termination of their life cycles, whole blocks could
be amalgamated and a 4-6 storey podium city
developed with parks and gardens.

There is a spirit of change in the air.
Environmentalists are gaining political power and
becoming the new generation of engineers, planners,
economists, entrepreneurs, scientists, architects,
landscape architects and bureaucrats who will
cooperate rather than compete in civic and individual
design and planning. If one is middle-aged there is a
fair chance the construction and demolition of a city
building has been witnessed as it reached the end of
its useful life. With the recycling life of a typical city
building being 25-50 years, before the middle of the
next century, the City of Sydney could become a
garden city, with rooftop parks linked by grassed
bridges from one amalgamated city block to the next.
With waste heat recycled and compact energy-saving
buildings and all wastes treated in situ and the residue
recycled or pumped out through underground
conduits to the western plains for agriculture, the
city would be almost benign in its environmental
impact.

With non-polluting personal vehicles that
utilise very fast pallet-aided transport and ‘smart’
guidance and return-to-base controlled vehicles,
suburbs can share in the stimulus of city life without
overburdening metropolitan transit corridors.

With ‘high-rise’ a bad memory and
commercial house identity being a measure of garden
design and appropriate ‘arrival’ lobby design only, a
unified building stratum (which still uses the
prescribed floor-space ratios for commercial
viability) would unify the whole city.

With VFT links through underground conduits
and tunnels in built-up areas, interstate and intrastate
aeroplane travel could become a secondary option.
PAT transport could simplify the distribution and
collection of containerised goods in other corridors

within the geospace conduit.

Current proposals do not face the serious issue
of the lack of an overall concept for the city of
Sydney that would integrate both buildings and open
space. By attempting to unify the city with
landscaping schemes that only deal with the spaces
left over between buildings that presently funnel
wind and overshadow streets, building volumes
continue to dominate the city aesthetic. Why not
question the validity of the assumption that buildings
must be expressed in their current form?

Why not create a roof-garden city where the
pedestrian needs dominate? Sufficiently elevated not
to overshadow existing parks and streets below, this
podium need be no higher than our historic
buildings; however, it would be high enough to
achieve the full 10:1 (plus) floorspace ratio
prescribed by the planning strategy to be
implemented in 1990. By city block amalgamation
and the utilisation of a major proportion of geospace
in total building volume, a new aesthetic for cities of
the future becomes possible.

Whether partially above and partially below
natural ground, or completely underground, the
geopolis (replacing the megalopolis concept that
threatens some major developed countries) creates a
new gestalten for city development almost anywhere
in the world. ;

As world population soars, such a third
millenium city in which nature and humanity blend
and cooperate rather than conflict, presents a
practical means of modifying the ecological,
sociological and visual impacts of city growth upon
the planet.

In the words of Victor Hugo (1802-1885): ‘all the
armies of the world are not as powerful as an idea
whose time has come’.

APPENDIX II
Note: APPENDIX I appeared in Part One

EXPLANATORY SKETCHES AND COST
ESTIMATES

In the process of developing a concept for the
geopolitan plan of Sydney, it was necessary to
photograph and survey the ‘edges' of the proposal,
i.e., where the suggested raised redevelopment of the
city business district interfaces with existing streets

UNDERGROUND SPACE: 21ST CENTURY SYDNEY

159

CONTINUOUS GARDEN PODIUM (FOUR TO SIX FLOORS HIGH ABOVE STREET LEVEL) OVER MOST OF CENTRAL CITY AREA

SUSSEX KENT CLARENCE YORK GEORGE
STREET STREET STREET STREET ft STREET
court COURT OPEN
(CONTROLLED (CONTROLLED (CONTROLLED
ENVIRONMENT) ENVIRONMENT) ENVIRONMENT) ‘i

N
COCKLE !
BAY
(DARLING py seegessney >
HARBOUR) rt - ‘- Oe ot cpels a ralces. ls
' . + - tate —*, aa ; >: '
' = 13 ea
Ave ee ae = Dank waren agers
t =

1. Pyrmont Bridge

2. Moving footway

3. Tunnelled VFT link (beneath harbour)
4. Expressway link beneath harbour

5. Conduit entering City

6. North-west gate to podium park (and VFT and expressway)

7. Commercial offices
8. Residential flats to most outward facing podium edges
9. Expressway link to Park Street tunnel project

10. Expressway

and parks that surround it (Figure 39). Such edges
present critical design problems connected with
making transitions from one level to another and
with integrating existing ground level spaces that
must be retained, for example, Wynyard Park
(Figures 40, 41, 42).

Bounded on the north by Circular Quay
development, on the east by Hyde Park, the Domain
and the Botanical Gardens, on the south by the
Central Railway precinct and on the west by Darling
Harbour, it was not difficult to imagine a slightly
raised city with its upper garden podium at the 4th-
or 5th-storey level. Various avilions for the
entrances to commercial premise , below would have
sculptural architecture suitable to the garden setting.

The podium would be stepped back gradually
with only a few storeys around the edges of the
Development precinct so that surrounding existing
parks and streets blend with the podium. National
Heritage buildings would be integrated into the
steppings of the podium with appropriate landscaping
and with architectural lines carried through through
the redevelopment theme (Figure 43).

As an example of how a major public space at
present street level could be developed George
Street, between Town Hall and Circular Quay, could
become a ‘river valley’ between plateaux (Figure
44). This could be achieved by constructing a
shallow canal-mall to replace the existing road and
footpaths. Charged with filtered harbour water at
Town Hall (and following the bank of the old Tank

PITT CASTLERAEGH IZABETH
STREET STREET STREET
Cc
F
(CONTROLLED PEOPLES,
EN

ENVIRONMENT) = 8 — ENVIRONM MOVER)

Figure 39:

East/west section through City Commercial Centre, showing raised garden podium as continuous city park

11. VFT cross-linked to local traffic

12. Street level

13. Queen Victoria Building

14. Moving footway or floatway

15. Floatway canal (pedestrian transport in gondola)

16. Rail tunnels

17. Rainforest court (controlled environment)

18. Hyde Park

19. Darling Harbour/Eastern suburbs tunnel project
(under Park Street)

Stream) the water would gravitate slowly to a
shallow lock at Circular Quay. With all electrically-
driven traffic being underground only light
amphibious vehicles would have access via ramps
from the sub-surface road systems which also service
tunnel access to commercial premises, electric-
vehicle parking, hotels and other city facilities.

EXISTING CITY AESTHETIC

Looking very similar to almost all other western
cities the tower structures of Sydney are seldom
beautiful, mostly bland, sometimes ugly and
aggressive. Such architecture is not a valid holistic
solution appropriate to a city of the next century.

It is suggested that as these towers reach the
end of their life cycles, they be demolished and not
rebuilt. By substituting a geopolitan proposal of the
type described here, undergrounding all major
facilities (using terratecture as well as lithotecture)
and redeveloping the surface for residential use
around the edges of the podium, preserving major
existing street patterns and utilising the geospace
beneath streets, it could become unique in the world,
an authentic ‘garden city’.

TRANSPORT OF INDIVIDUALS
GROUND AND ROOF LEVELS

AT

Either non-polluting vehicles, e.g., electricity or
hydrogen, could be used. However, because
mechanical footways have been proposed, it 1s
suggested here that an equivalent 'people-mover'

160 SYDNEY A. BAGGS

ot
>
==

~—?

Ee ee a Pes
SION IE
SERRE.

b~ VV §

iN 28:
Ss Je ete

Circular Quay edge to the Garden Podium of the City, a bustling colourful gateway with full area of all existing highrise in subsurface

space

1. Underground commercial geospace with broad sunlit atria; 2.Entrance to underground transit station
3. Terraces rise to 4-5 storeys, N-S streets become landscaped finger parks and malls ne
4. Conservatoria covering atria, moving footways and floatways; 5. Pedestrian moving-footway bridges linking roof terrace parks and

gardens
would be a canal system, that is, a ‘floatway’.
Floatways

The concept of floatways as people-movers in this
proposal is based on the idea that the energy needed
to propel the float-vehicles in their canals would be
obtained from the water flow produced by using sea
water pump-raised to the highest level of the
floatway and allowed to gravitate to sea level. The
hydrostatic head created is used to drive turbines
that, in turn, create the necessary energy to return
the water to its highest level.

Energy dissipation due to frictional loss in the
turbines, in channel flow, changes of channel
direction and surface texture, turbulence around float
vehicles and other such losses would need to be
introduced into the closed system from an outside
source.

Where street slope (and hence canal tilt)
induces higher water velocity than can safely be used
by buffered float vehicles, a type of speed-control
would be needed that is dependent on feedback on
fluid velocity.

COSTS
Cost Estimate on Conduit

A preliminary estimate prepared by Quantity
Surveyors (QS) on the conduit indicates a probable
cost range of A$64 million to A$96 million. The
reason for this wide range of cost arises from
possible differences in geological strata through
which the conduit would pass. Quoting from the QS
preliminary report: ‘it is possible that the excavation
could generate an income of the order of A$20.2
million per km on the one hand and an additional
cost of A$10.1 million due to planking, strutting
and/or dewatering on the other’.

At an average unit cost of say A$604 million
per km, the study area conduit would cost
approximately A$576 million, that is, near the cost
of, for example, the 49-storey Gateway building at
Circular Quay. (SMH 30.1.90, p.26).

The costs of the purchase of industrial land and
the relocation of industry in the conduit corridor
would need to be negotiated with individual
corporations, and there would be a significant return
on the cost of land when resold for residential use.

UNDERGROUND SPACE: 21ST CENTURY SYDNEY

i

—
ts

Figure 41:
Redesign of the City of Sydney, a lateral, landscape and geopolitan concept

1. Interface of podium eastern edge with Hyde Park; 2.Elizabeth Street Mall with floatway punt 'people-movers'

eth
A aoe ee”
OL Ee ea Lae if pa
4s
hee sb, ee Sle? AYP.
‘a 7 ey . a “¢ ote
We fa fats
ey
Bolg ee

20)

ee iS ID

Figure 42:
A major circulation node in Pitt Street Mall

161

162 SYDNEY A. BAGGS

penetra he
Temata” Mes ere
oie eine pe pH AT,

e Se ee ern

cai iy
aa

> : poorg: va , Die } 1 ry n iW, , oe . : ;
ope f +) 4 : bt xf fh eae i ny ee Re <i baie a i ia at cel al OOS
anned city for the next century

Figure 43: Concept redesign for the City of Sydney, Australia, a geopolitan pl

UNDERGROUND SPACE: 21ST CENTURY SYDNEY 163

we

a)
[#

A
Ww,

By
<j
Pris

iy

i

Figure 44:
George Street, between the Town Hall and Circular Quay, could become a shallow canal-mall with cross-over bridges and underpasses.
The network of minor (Figure 42) and major canals provide a free public transport mode as well as the ambience of a new Venice.

REFERENCES

Anderson, I. 1989. Japan goes for a place in
Australia's wide-open spaces. New Scientist. 18
Nov. 10.

Baggs, S.A. 1981a. Australian underground housing
for the arid region; user-attitudes, remote
prediction of periodic ground temperature, and
the role of certain landscape factors in soil
temperature modification. Unpublished thesis for
the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 2 vols.
Kensington: UNSW. (Available on microfiche
from main library).

Baggs, S.A. 1981b. Underground housing: new
lifestyles in an Australian settlement. Journal
Social Political and Economic Studies. 6:2. 177-
205.

Baggs, S.A. 1983. A design aid for assessing the
Suitability of soils at potential earth-covered
building sites (on the basis of soil texture,
moisture content, thermal diffusivity and phase
lag interval). In L. Boyer (Ed.). 1983.
International Proceedings. Energy Efficient

Buildings with Earth Shelter Protection, Sydney.
1-6th August. Oklahoma: OK State U. IX.323-
329;

Barnett, J. 1989. Magnificent city—shame about the
skyline. Sydney Morning Herald. 22 Nov.

Birketts, G. 1974. Subterranean Urban Systems.
Michigan: Institute of Science and Technology,
University of Michigan.

Birketts, G. 1984. Hamessing the nineteenth century:
subterranean urban systems. Underground Space.
8:1. 44-51.

Braybrooke, J.C. 1985. Tunnelling in the Sydney
Region. In P.J. Pells, (Ed.). Engineering
Geology of the Sydney Region. Rotterdam:
A.A.Balkema Publishing for the Australian
Geology Mechanics Society.

Brooker, C. 1989. The Earth's magnetic field and its
effect on the animal nervous system. 6th revision
unpublished. Paper first published in Srinivasan,
T. 1988. Energy Medicine around the World.
Phoenix: Gabriel Press.

164 SYDNEY A. BAGGS

Kakiuchi, Y., and Noguchi, M. 1985. An
introduction to hillside type settlements.
Proceedings. International Symposium on Earth
Architecture. November. Beijing: The
Architectural Society of China. 38-40.

Kelley, M. 1986. Subaqueous crossings by the
immersed tube method. Tunnelling and
Underground Space Technology. 1:3/4, 297-302.

Nelson, Susan, and Rochenstein, W. 1985.
Legislating underground space use: Minnesota's
Mined Space Development Act. Underground
Space. 9:5/6, 289-292.

Parkes, H., and Robinson, R. 1983. The world's
largest diameter soil tunnel. Underground Space.
17, 175-181.

Perry, F., and Pearl, L. 1988. Health effects of ELF
fields and illness in multistorey blocks. Public
Health. 102, 11-18.

Smith, C., and Best, S. 1989. Electromagnetic Man.
London: J.M.Dent and Sons Ltd.

Dr S A Baggs

The PEOPL Group

PO Box 1814 CHATSWOOD NSW 2067
AUSTRALIA

(Manuscript Received 29.9.93)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.126, pp.165-166, 1993 165
ISSN 0035-9173/93/020165-2 $4.00/1

Mallardite from Broken Hill, New South Wales

L.J. LAWRENCE, C.M. STOCKSIEK and P.A. WILLIAMS

ABSTRACT. Mallardite, MnSOQ4.7H2O, has been observed as an alteration

product of alabandite, MnS, from the Broken Hill, N.S.W. deposit.

This

represents the first reported Australian occurence of the rare mineral mallardite.

In 1967 the Australian Museum, Sydney, obtained several
specimens of alabandite, MnS, from the No. 18 Level of the Zinc
Corporation Mine Broken Hill (Lawrence, 1968; Ramdohr, 1971).
Some of these - massive material associated with minor sphalerite
and galena - were thinly coated with a dull greyish-white to
pinkish-white efflorescence. Laboratory studies have shown this
to be the manganese sulphate heptahydrate mallardite,
MnSO4.7H20, a mineral not previously recorded from Broken
Hill.

Alabandite was found in shear zones in both the Zinc
Corporation and the New Broken Hill Consolidated Mines. There
were two modes of occurrence of alabandite: as massive raaterial
within narrow veins cutting through lead-zinc ore and as
arborescent groups in cavities along the shear planes. The latter
type was coated with a thin veneer of hausmannite, Mn304. The
mineralogical setting suggests that the alabandite formed from
secondary hydrothermal fluids derived during retrograde
metamorphism (Lawrence, 1968).

Broken Hill mallardite has been found only on the
massive alabandite and not on the arborescent material. The
veneer of hausmannite apparently inhibits the oxidation of the
manganese sulphide. Mallardite was suspected since the
efflorescence was confined to the alabandite and did not appear
on the juxtaposed galena-sphalerite. The mallardite forms a thin,
microcrystalline layer of a dull greyish-white to pinkish-white
colour. X-ray powder diffraction analysis (Table 1) establishes the
identity of mallardite unequivocally.

An SEM photograph of the mallardite (Figure 1) shows a
larger prismatic crystal elongated along the c axis and with a
prominent clinopinacoid 010, a steeply sloping hemiorthodome
101, a face of the form hOl and possible prism faces 110 weakly
developed. The B angle (Palache et al., 1951) of 104°51' suggests
that the basal pinacoid 001 is not steeply sloping and may be
represented in the photograph by the small terminal face at the
apex of the largest crystal.

Mallardite is a comparatively rare member of the
melanterite group of monoclinic heptahydrates which includes
melanterite, FeSO4.7H20, boothite, CuSO4.7H20,__bieberite
CoSO4.7H20 and mallardite MnSQ4.7H20. End-member
compositions are given here but extensive solid solution is known
to occur between these isomorphous (space group P21/c) species
(Palache et al., 1951; Williams, 1990). However, a spectrographic
analysis (ISI 100A SEM fitted with a PGT X-ray detector using
Moran Scientific software) revealed only Mn and S with no
evidence at all for the presence of any other metal ion. Thus the
mallardite here is very close to the ideal, end-member
composition. This appears to be in accord with the fact that the
sulphate is confined exclusively to alabandite surfaces. It is
recorded from only a few other localities, viz, the Lucky Boy
Mine, Butterfield Canyon, Salt Lake County, Utah, the Banyard

area, Grant County, New Mexico, and in the Jokoku Mine,
Hokkaido, Japan.

Broken Hill mallardite, as with most secondary sulphate
occurrences, particularly the heptahydrates, appears to be a post-
mine mineral. The comparative rarity of this phase is probably
due to the fact that most manganese minerals occur as oxides,
hydroxides or silicates and lack an available source of sulphate
ion (from sulphides) to generate mallardite on oxidation.

Fig. 1. SEM photograph of mallardite from Broken Hill, N.S.W.
(X2500, ISI 100A instrument).

REFERENCES

Lawrence, L.J., 1968. The minerals of the Broken Hill District, in
BROKEN HILL MINES - 1968, pp 103-136. M.
Radmanovich and J.T. Woodcock (Eds.). Austral. Inst.
Min. and Met., Melbourne.

Palache, C., Berman, H. and Frondel, C., 1951. DANA'S SYSTEM
OF MINERALOGY, Vol. 1, 7th edn. John Wiley and Sons,
New York, pp 499-508.

Ramdohr, P., 1971. Alabandite from Broken Hill, New South
Wales, Australia, Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie,
Monatshefte, pp 179-182.

Williams, P.A., 1990. OXIDE ZONE GEOCHEMISTRY. Ellis
Horwood, Chischester, pp 142-146.

166 L. J. LAWRENCE, C. M. STOCKSIEK and P. A. WILLIAMS

TABLE 1

X-RAY POWDER DATA FOR MALLARDITE@
Mallardite, PDFb Mallardite, Broken Hill
d/A I d/A Ic
5.85 8
5.49 70 5.50 s
4.92 100 4.90 sss
4.88 55 4.89 s
4.57 13 5.59 w
4.04 25 4.02 m
3.79 40 3.77 s
3.74 10
3.26 35 3.27 s
3.21 12 3.21 f
3.13 30 3.11 s
3.07 12 3.09 w
3.02 9 3.00 f
2.805 13 2.808 w
2.758 40 2.759 s
2.732 9
2.660 17 2.663 m
2.626 19 2.621 m
2.490 14 2.489 m
2.451 13 2.450 m
2.400 19 2.400 w
2.196 5
2.096 4
2.056 12 2.051 w
2.025 8 2.023 f
2.017 14 2.015 w
1.975 17 1.975 w
1.890 9

a Debye-Scherrer camera, 360 mm circumference, CuKg radiation.

bASTM Powder file No. 33-905. Intensities; s = strong,
m = medium, w = weak, f = faint.

LJ. Lawrence

15 Japonica Road
EPPING, N.S.W. 2121
Australia

C.M. Stocksiek and P.A. Williams
Department of Chemistry

University of Western Sydney Nepean
PO Box 10

KINGSWOOD, N.S.W. 2747

Australia

(Manuscript received 12 - 8 - 1993)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 126, pp.167-190, 1993 167

ISSN 0035-9173/93/020167-24 $4.00/1

Understanding the Brain in the 21st Century

by

Max R. Bennett

with illustrations

by

Gillian Bennett

In 1944, during the second world war,
Erwin Schrodinger working in Dublin
published a book which had an enormous
influence on the history of biological
science in the second half. of the
twentieth century {figure aie oe
Schrodinger, together with Heisenberg,

had created in 1925 the theory of quantum
mechanics which was the most revolutionary

concept in the history of the physical
sciences. Towards the end of the thirties
Schrodinger turned his mind EG the
question of what are cur physical
Origins. He therefore started to
consider the structure of genes and the

extent to which our development occurs as
a consequence of the unfolding of the
information in genes. It was not known
what the genetic material was made of at
the time that Schrodinger wrote his book
tWwhat)is Life". The guess at that stage
was that it was made of protein and it was
cnly shortly after the appearance of
Schrodinger's book that it was discovered
by an elderly gentleman working in the
Rockefeller Institute in New York, Oswald

Avery, that the genetic material was made
of deoxyribonucleic acid {DNA). What
Schrodinger's little book did was_ to
bridge the revolution in physics’ that

occurred in the first part of the century
to the new revolution that was to dominate
the second part of the century, namely
molecular biology. Schrodinger
conjectured in his book that there must be
a codé in the genes which is read out by
tne 7eell: as a.set of instructions that
guice its' differentiation so as to give
rise to the structure of the human embryo
ana therefore to our further development.

In this way Schrodinger developed the
concept of a genetic code, one of the
most fruacew ideas in biology.
Furthermor he speculated that the

structure of the genetic code should be
susceptible to physical analysis by means
of such new techniques as

crystallography. Crystallography had
been developed as a science in the United
Kingdom by the Braggs, father and son;
they were from Adelaide and had won the
Noble Prize together in 1915.

After the second World War some of the
brightest physicists decided not to_ go
into Theoretical. Physics but instead to
try their hand at Biology. The end of the

heroic period in Physics, which had been
dominated by quantum mechanics, occurred
about 1948 when Richard Feynman working at
Cornell developed the theory which is
referred to as Quantum Electrodynamics;
this provides a description of how light

interacts with matter. It is somewhat
fortuitous that only a year after Richard
Feynman had developed his theory,

bringing quantum mechanics to its highest
point of development, that a physicist
named Frances Crick began working in the
laboratory of the Braggs in Cambridge in
1949 (figure 2). Schrodinger's book had a
Major influence in Crick making this move.
Together with a young and somewhat
eccentric American called James Watson he
applied the concepts of crystallography
to the task of unravelling the detailed
structure of DNA itself in 1951. In this
way he furthered the research programme in
the laboratory of the Braggs laid down by
Schrodinger some five years earlier. TS
some extent the famous paper by Watson and
Crick, published in Nature in 1953,
completed the research aims of
Schrodinger's book by indicating that the
structure of the DNA molecule held within
it the clues to its own replication. The
last forty years of science have been
Gominated by molecular biology which has
as part GE its foundations these
observations by Watson and Crick made in
the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge run
by Sir Lawrence Bragg from Adelaide.

in 1938S Crick,

like Schrodinger before

168 MAX BENNETT

him, published a book that is likely to
have far reaching effects on the future of
research as young scientists see it.
Crick suggests in "What Mad Pursuit" that
the great challenge for science in the
next century is not to be found in quantum
mechanics, nor in molecular biology, but
in the understanding of what it is that
develops in the brain of human embryos
that gives rise to consciousness (figure
Se

What is this phenomenon of consciousness?
In order to tackle consciousness we have
to look at the human brain, at its
Structure and f£unctvon. There is general
agreement that the best path to follow in
our quest to understand consciousness is
offered by the problem of visual
perception. This is because man like
other primates receives most of his
sensory information via the visual system
and our consciousness is closely linked
with visual perception. This is because
man like other primates receives most of
his sensory information via the visual
system and our consciousness is closely
linked with visual perception. Figure 4
delineates the principal pathways in the
higher levels of neocortical function
concerned with the identity of objects and
their movement in space. The identity of
objects and their coiour is taken up by a

set Of retinal ganglion cells and
conveyed via the structure called the
thalamus, which acts as an interface
between the external world and the
neocortex, to the visual cortex at the
back of the head. From ) there it) as

projected down into the temporal lobe and
it is here, as is explained in more detail

below, that the identification of
something as sophisticated as your
mother's face is actually carried out.
The other main projecting pathway is
concerned with determining where = an
object is Located in visual space. This
is to a large extent dependent on
information concerning the motion of
objects in space. Such information is
conveyed from the retina through the

thalamus up to the visual
thes occipital’ jiebe

cortex within
and into the parietal

cortex. These two pathways going either
to the temporal lobe or to the parietal
cortex give us the holistic experience of

seeing an object which moves.

To what level of sophistication can the
temporal lobe identify an object? Tn
order to determine that Gross and others

have put electrodes into the temporal lobe
of primates other than man and determined
whether there are neurones which fire
maximally when the primate is viewing a
specific object. Figure 5 illustrates the
main-results” of this kind of experiment.
It turns out that there are in the monkey
temporal lobes neurones which respond
specifically to the presentation of -human

faces; indeed these neurones discharge
specifically when the faces are presented
in profile or face on. The firing rate
of neurones is given in the upper part of
each panel in the figure as the primate
looks at the images given n the lower part
of each panel. You can see in this set of
images that when the primate is looking
Girectly at the image of another primate
face on we get maximal firing but when the
image of the head gradually turns around
so that it only appears in profile then
the firing occurs at a much lower rate.
Now you cannot fool this neurone into
firing at a high rate by presenting an
image consisting of bits and pieces of a
head. If the picture of a brush (ofthe
kind used to clean the toilet is
presented then the rate of firing of the
neurone is much less than that when the
image cana another primate face ‘on’ is
presented (figure 5). Also if we present
an image consisting of the juxtaposition
of different elements of the face in a
bizarre geometry again the firing rate is
not nearly as high as it is when we put
those elements together to make up a
proper primate face (figure idler
Furthermore, it can. be shown that if we

take away different elements of the
primates face such as the mouth or the
eyes then the firing “rate (wilt Gren
(Eigune i 5).. Finaliy this... neurone») can

distinguish the face of a monkey from the
human face (figure 5). $6 there are very
specific neurones here in the temporal
lobe which are specific in the sense that
they ~will® fire vigorously only when a
particular kind’ of) ‘object; in this case
a particular face, is presented.

The problem though that we now face is
that we might have in temporal tlcbe
neurones for identifying faces but the

experience of whether this face is moving
across our visual field is! ‘notrtin Ythe
temporal lobe but in parietal cortex. AS
I indicated in figure 4 the problem now is
how do we have an holistic experience in
our consciousness when the face is moving
past us. We have obtained very recently
some insight concerning this problem from
the work primarily ef #WoLt Singer
working at a Max Planck Institute for
Brain Research in Frankfurt: Singer and
his colleagues have shown that neurones
firing in one part of the brain,
concerned for example with the movement of
an object such as in parietal cortex, and
neurones firing in a different) pane mE: fhe
brain, such as in temporal cortex
concerned with the fact that the thing
that is moving is a face, are both firing
at a rate modulated at a frequency of
abcut40"=2to 5S0HZ: Furthermore they fire
in phase together not asynchronously

There is ‘then ~a’*banding

(f£igurer 76).
together of the firing pattern of those
neurones which are activated by the same

visual object even though the neurones are

UNDERSTANDING THE BRAIN 169.

located in different parts of the cortex.
This discovery iS causing a Lot. of
excitement in neurophysiology because it
is only those neurones which are firing in
phase with this 40 to 50Hz frequency that
are giving us the experience of attending
to a different part of our visual field.
The rest of the visual scene projects
from our retina onto the visual cortex at
the back of our skulls. The neurones in
cur brains subserving those parts of the
image on our cortices that is not being
attended to are not firing with a
meoduiation of 40 to 50HZ and air not
firing in phase.

To some extent it can be claimed that this

is all very interesting but that’ the
problem has merely been pushed back one
step. You consciousness of phenomena

around you might be associated with sets
of particular neurones in your brain
firing in phase at 40 to 50Hz but how is
it that neurones firing off in this
pattern give rise to you attending or
experiencing a particular facet of your
visual world? Only a particular facet of
your visual world is entering
consciousness. What is there particular
about the neurones firing at 40 to 50Hz
and in phase which allows you to
experience at the conscious level those
events which are coded for by these
particular neurones? A senior colleague
of mine recently commented that this is as
far as neurophysiology is going to take
us. All that science will illuminate in
relationship to your consciousness of the
world around you may be that sets of
neurones subserving certain specific
kands of functions fire in a certain’ way.
The question of what it is that links
consciousness to these sets of neurones is
not one which science can answer. TE
there is any interference with normal
brain function at all, for example through
diseas? or injury to the inferior temporal
lobe, or through inappropriate
development, then we are not capable of
consciousness in those areas of experience
normally subserved by the injured
neurones.

There is another exiting component to the
claim that neuroscience is going to

dominate research in the 2ist Century. LE
is that a deeper knowledge of the nervous
System will lead to the alleviation of
neurological diseases whether this occurs
through Gevelopmental malfunction,
through injury, or through for example
the invasion of our brains by a particular
virus aS probably occurs in multiple
sclerosis. The inferior temporal lobe
which we are emphasising in this essay is
involved in the identification of an

object. A vascular stroke results in the
aestruction of certain parts of our
brains. Hypertension leads to a breakdown
of the vasculature most commonly alse)

certain areas of our brain. One area in
which hypertension most commonly leads to
stroke is in the temporal lobe where, as .
we have seen, information is gathered
about the identification of objects and
our consciousness of them. Figure 7 shows
a self portrait of a painter that suffered

a stroke. The stroke occurred in the
parietal cortex concerned with the
location of an object in space. However

the parietal cortex is not only concerned
with location and movement but it also
subserves the process of attention. There
is a mechanism in the parietal cortex
which determines which sets of neurones
will fire off in phase at 40 to 50Hz
throughout the rest of the cortex. The
stroke had the effect of blocking the
attentional mechanisms in the inferior
temporal lobe on one side of the brain so
that the painter was not able to recognize
one side of his face when he looked in the
MLEEOE . This did not occur because there
had been a direct injury to the temporal
lobe. Rather it occurred because the
attentional mechanism in the parietal
cortex on one side of the brain could not
determine that the temporal lobe on that
side should contain neurones that fired in
phase at 40 to 50Hz. As a consequence
when he was asked to paint a portrait of
himself the painter ignored that side of
his body which was no longer attended to

because of the stoke. He then only
painted one side of his body (figure 7).
But over a period of about 12 months
succesSive self portraits gradually
reconstituted the entire image until
finally, after a year, he was able to
attend to the entire aspect of his face

{figure 7), although recovery is not

complete even then.

I emphasise the fact that the reason our
painter was unable to see, as it were, one
Side of his face and body when he did a
self portrait a few weeks after the stroke
was not due to any injury whatever to the
visual pathway. What had been injured was
the mechanism in parietal cortex which
determine the setting up of 40 to 50Hz in
phase firing of neurones which’ then
allows consciousness to be expressed. An
easy experiment could be carried out to
show you that he could see the other side
of his body. All that had to be done was
to block off that side of the painter's
visual field which allowed him to see the
side of his body which he could normally
paint. When that occurs he wills tart
painting the Side of his body and face
that he normally doesn't attend to at all.

In other words it is the attentional
mechanism that has been injured. In fact
when some experience a lesion of thas

kind they don't want to know about the
Side of their body to which they re not
attending. When you carry out this
experiment with some people who have had a
stroke affecting the parietal cortex they

170 MAX BENNETT

get emotionally upset when they are forced
to attend to that part of their body that
they don't normally recognize as being
there. In fact they regard that part of
their body as foreign. It is as if they
had a Siamese twin attached to them which
they did not want to know about.

Strokes which affect the temporal cortex
subserving the actual mechanisms by which
you recognize yourself and others is
usually accompanied by different kinds of
psychological disturbances. Injuries to
temporal cortex give rise to epileptic
seizures (figure 8). This is because
temporal cortex is very closely associated
with the hippocampus which is the area of
your brain concerned with laying down
memory. For example injury to temporal
cortex may lead to hallucinations that can
involve you seeing people or objects that
aren't present in the room (figure 8).
This is due to epileptic discharges in the
neurones of the temporal cortex which,
for example, are normally activated by the
image of your mother's face but start to
fire despite the fact that your mother is
not passing through the room at all. So
hallucinations are associated with
injuries to temporal cortex and of course
hallucinations are also associated with

schizophrenia (figure 8). In this case
subjective phenomena apparently occur in
the room that are more real to a person
than sets of phenomena which are really
Occurring in the room. Other forms of
temporal lobe epileptic activity occurring
as a consequence of stroke in the temporal
lobe area are seizures which give rise to
the sudden enlargement of the face of
someone that you are looking at (figure
8). You may be looking at your mother in
the room and then suddenly her face will

start to increase in size, become
distorted, . and fil]. up the. entire«-room
(£aqgure:\. 6). So there are . not.- just
perceptions of events occurring in the

room. ,which ar “not .occurring
real events in the room may trigger
hallucinogenic kinds of phenomena in the
way I have just indicated, that is they
will distort phenomena in the room as
well.

at all but

To what extent will we be able in the 21st
Century, to, bring ~some. kind, of alleviation
of the symptoms resulting from stroke and
to dissases of different kinds which
afflict the inferior temporal lebe: This
really requires us to focus on a number
of different technologies and approaches
te understanding the diseases of the brain
which have been initiated in the last few
yeers. These are concerned with being
able to introduce neuronal tissue into the
brain that can replace neuronal tissue
which has been diseased or destroyed.
When this is achieved it is then encessary
to get these new neurones tha have been
introduced into the brain to form

functional connections with the rest of

the brain. These must be Of an
appropriate kind to reconstitute the
normal CLFCULEFY of the brain. In

addition there are now known to be growth
factors, referred to as neurotrophic
growth factors, which are required in
normal health. These provide nutrients
for the neurones in your brain and may be
introduced exogenously into the brain from

outside. They can allow for the survival
of neurones which would otherwise
degenerate and they can also allow for
neurones which have been injured or

neurones which have been introduced into

the brain to form appropriate synaptic
connections.

Rita Levi-Montalcini was able to show
something extraordinary in a series of
experiments, some of them conducted

during hiding from the Nazis in
during the last world war. She was able
to obtain growth factors that allowed
neurones which would otherwise degenerate
to survive. Levi-Montalcini won the Nobel
prize a few years ago for her discoveries
of neurotrophic factors. This work was
begun as she hid from the Nazis in a house
an, eTUnEn: Montalcini had a microtome in
an attic room which was used for cutting
thin sections through the fixed embryos of
birds. This, together with a microscope,
enabled her to make fundamental
Giscoveries concerning the development of
neurones belonging to that part of your
nervous system concerned with the control

Italy

of your internal organs, such as your
heart. Montalcini showed that in this
part of your nervous system, called the
autonomic nervous system, neurones die
normally during development so that you
have more neurones very early in your

life than when you are an adult. She went
on to show that neurones could be rescued
from death if they were provided with
growth factors which can be supplied by
the targets with which these neurones
normally make junctional connections. Ten
years ago my colleague Bogdan Dreher and I
set out to see if what Levi-Montalcini had
discovered for the peripheral nervous

system, namely that autonomic neurones
could be induced to survive if provided
with the material from their normal

targets such as cardiac muscle or smooth
muscle, might also apply for neurones in
the central nervous’ system. We first
showed that retinal ganglion cell neurones
that connect the retina to the rest of the
brain, and are shown in figure 9,
normally die during development.
Furthermore these retinal ganglion cells
could be induced to survive when provided
with a nutrient neurotrophic molecule from
their targets in the brain. Those parts
of the brain are called the superior
colliculus and the lateral geniculate
nucleus. The neurones survived and
sprouted nerve processes profusely in a

UNDERSTANDING THE BRAIN 1

tissue culture plate if provided with the
neurotrophic factor, just as Montalcini
had described FOr autonomic neurones
(figure 10). The difference was that in
this case the retinal neurones were
supplied with a factor from the brain and
not from muscle. This was probably the

first indication that neurotrophic growth
factors exist in the brain not just in the
peripheral nervous system and these growth
factors can allow for the survival and
profuse axon spouting of a central neurone
such as a retinal ganglion neurone.

The question then arises as to whether
neurones lying deeper in the brain such
as those belonging to the temporal lobe
and to the hippocampus also have growth
factors which wiil allow for their
survival. The neurotrophic factor which
keeps retinal ganglion cells alive is not
the growth factor that Levi-Montalcini
discovered in smooth and cardiac muscle
that keeps autonomic neurones alive. The
question then is to what extent can we
reconstitute an injured temporal lobe or
hippocampus by adding in a neurotrophic
factor. The hippocampus, a relatively
old and primitive type of cortex, abuts
onto the temporal lobe (see figure 11).
Despite its relative
hippocampus is crucially involved in the
formation of memories. If a transverse
section is cut through this region of the
brain many different classes of neurones
can be identified (see figures 12 and
13.) ise Some of these are the first neurones
to degenerates anywhere in your brain if
You have Alzheimer's Disease,
particularly those neurones which project
into the hippocampus from the part of
brain calied the septum. Surprisingly,
these septal neurones are kept alive by
Levi-Montalcini's growth factor, £1 rst
found to keep autonomic neurones alive in
the peripheral nervous system. Solif a
neurotrophic factor is discovered that
saves a certain class of neurones in the
periphery it méey well work on a class of
neurones in the brain.

As already mentioned, rather than
introducing growth factors into the brain
in the hope of saving a certain class of
neurones that are degenerating because of
a neurological disease, it is possible to
introduce embryonic neurones of the

same
class that have been destroyed by the
disease (figure 14). These can be

obtained from a set of neurones that have
been genetically manipulated to be of a
Similar kind EO those that have
degenerated. If you introduce these
neurones into the brain (see figure 14),
they reconstitute the normal circuitry,
making the correct functional connections.

In this way they restore the normal
function, or at lease almost the normal
function, of that part of the brain which

had degenerated.

Simplicity, the ©

There are now standara
introducing neurones

techniques for
into the brains of

animals. Neurones are taken from an
early embryonic rat brain, for example
from that part of the brain that
degenerates in Alzheimer's Disease.
Further purification of these then occurs
using various cell sorting techniques.
Finally just the specific class of
neurones required are placed in a tube
from where they are sucked up into a

pipette (see figure 14). This pipette is
then used to inject the neurones into just
that part of the brain which has
degenerated or been injured (figure 14).

How do we test out if we have
reconstituted normal function after say a
transplant into the hippocampus of a set
of neurones to replace those that have
degenerated? Figure ts) shows one
procedure that is used to determine this.
It is called the alternating T-maze test.
A rat is put at the end of one arm of the
T-maze and is allowed to run to’ the other
end where a choice is made of either
turning lett or right. In the first trial
food is placed on the right arm and the
rat is forced to turn right because a
trapdoor prevents it from turning left.
On the second trial there is no trapdoor
to force the rat to turn a particular way
so tha it may now turn either left or
right. However a nasty trick is carried
out before this second trial. Before the
rat is allowed to run the second trial
food is placed on the left arm of the
maze, opposite its original position.
After this trial the rat is taken out of
the maze and allowed to rest for a while
before another alternating trial is
attempted. Altogether this is repeated
about six times a day. It doesn't take
very long before the rat appears to
figure out what iS going on. re. turns
right on the first trial and gets the
food; on the second trial, when you put
the food on the opposite arm, the rat
immediately turns left and doesn't make
the mistake of turning right. The graph
in figure 15 shows the rate at which the
rat learns to make the correct choice on

the second trial, namely to turn left.
In a sham trial the neocortex is exposed
without any experimentation, and then
closed; over a period of about one and a
half weeks the rat learns on 100% of
occasions to always turn left to get the
food on the second trial. If however
there has been an injury to the septum,
then the rat turns left on the second
occasion at random frequency (namely on
50% of the occasions). It hasn't learnt
at adi: it cannot lay down the memory
that it should turn left always on the
second trial. But if we do a transplant
OF healthy septal neurones from an
embryonic rat into the hippocampus of this
injured adult rat or of a rat whose septal
neurones have degenerated because it has a

172 MAX BENNETT

form of senile dementia, then, cit. oniy
takes a matter of about two months before
we find that the rats can learn at the 90%
Level toxttrn. left (figure 125)% The rats
that received the transplant have learnt

to nearly always turn left on the
alternate t-maze performance because
normal hippocampal functioning has been

reconstituted by this septal transplant.

You might well ask how is it that the rat
can tell where it is in the T-maze because
the maze is symmetrical; how can the rat
tell its left. from its’ right despite the
fact, ‘that<« it. “has*onoc;-visual. clues. to
orientate itself. Well the trick here is
that the t-maze is set in a room which has

lots. of -amteresting objects) an it ‘and
these allow the rat to work out exactly
where it is. These interesting objects
may include curtains, clocks, and

pictures of female rats as shown in figure
16, This allows the rat to determine,
when 1 .is witting: at. thes start. position
n the T-maze, the geometry of the
situation around it. The hippocampus
calculates the spatial layout of the room
from this information, allowing the rat

to determine what is its left and its
right. These spatial clues are very
necessary for it to be always able to
distinguish left from raghit ari the

alternating T-maze performance.
In the above experiment an attempt was
made to mimic the effects of senile
dementia or stroke that lead to
Gegeneration of the septal neurones
innervating the hippocampus by introducing
a lesion into the hippocampus. However
it is now possible to distinguish aged
rats: that suffer from a form of senile

dementia from those’ that=/do not; the
former ‘have. >a) natural’ “loss sof) septal
neurones as a consequence of the
dementia. The method used to distinguish

rats with senile dementia from those that
do not suffer from this complaint involves
placing rats in a water tank of the kind
shown in figure: 16. Rats don't like being
forced to swim around in a tank any more
than we do so a little stand is placed
about an inch under the water, which is
opaque so that the rat cannot see _ the
stand; as the rat swims around its feet
sometimes bump into this little stand and
not being. stupid dat .sits:-on -the» stand,

rests, and looks around the room. We can
trace the movements of the rat in the
water before it finds the stand using a

TY camera elevated above the trough which
is shown in figure 16. In this way the
actual locus of movement of the rat in the
water before it sits on the stand can be

followed, as shown in figures 16 and 17.
The rat knows it's position in the water
because it can see the interesting
objects in the room, such as the clock

etc, so that it can form a spatial map of
the room in TGS hippocampus as was

described above in relation to the T-maze.
When the rat forms this map it has the
coordinates of the stand with respect to
the spatial layout of the objects in the
room.

If we take a young rat about 6 months old
and put it into the water for a few
minutes, then the locus of its movements
on this -first ‘trial on. the ‘fics dayeare
given» in the first row. and "column. ,of
figure 17: in this particular terra the
rats legs didn't hit the stand beneath the

water so the rat just swam around for a
couple of minutes. But a few trials
later, namely the fifth. ttrital seénepenas
first day (see figure 17), the rat has

learnt in the intermediate trials the
position of the stand and so it swims
immediately ES ate and sits down.
Presumably this rat has formed a spatial
memory of the position of the stand as a
consequence of the normal functioning of
its septo-hippocampal circuits. Of course
by the fourth trial on the fifth “aay the
rat has no trouble) at; ala, no matter
where it enters the water, it immediately
locates where the stand is (see figure
Ls). On the fifth trial of “the £veenweay
a nasty trick is carried out: the stand
is removed and the rat is entering the

water tank at a random position swims
around frantically trying “ste, fine] ecne
stand; the locus of its movements are
then centred on the position where the

stand was, as shown in figure 17. We can
use this technique to pick out those rats
which are suffering senile dementia from
those that are not. In the second row of

figure 16 the results are shown for a
three and a half year old rat, about the
equivalent of a human at eighty: TESTES

apparent that even by the fifth trial on
the fourth day, after the rat had bumped
into the stand many times during the
preceding days, it could still not locate

the stand using spatial clues. This was
an aged impaired rat, that * is: Sif had
senile dementia. All.old rats do not ger

seniie dementia any more than all old
humans ado: in the, fourth row ct fiqure.a7
the results are shown for another three
and a half year old rat: by the fifth
trial on the first day it had evidently
formed a good spatial map of the
whereabouts of the stand. On succeeding
days it did as well as the young rat whose
performance is shown in the first row.

Using this water tank technique, invented
by Morris, we are able to sort out rats
suffering from senile dementia from those
that are not suffering from senile
dementia. This is we can separate out
those whose septo-hippocampal circuit is
functioning from those in which these
circuits are in bad shape. If we take an
aged rat suffering from senile dementia
now and “operate on (it in: >-thevewayare
previously described, that is introducing

UNDERSTANDING THE BRAIN 173

embryonic septal neurones into its
hippocampus, then after a month r so has
elapsed to allow the implanted neurones to
make connections, the water tank test
shows that the rat has recovered its
ability to lay down spatial memories (see
the last row in figure 17). This approach
clearly demonstrates that transplants of
neurones from embryonic material which
allows the reconstitution of damaged or
degenerating neuronal circuits involved in
the formation of spatial memory.

In conclusion then I have been proposing
that we are confronted in the 21st Century
with what I regard as the third great area
of mystery concerning natural knowledge.
The first involved the discovery o£
quantum mechanics in 1926 by Schrodinger
and Heisenberg. The second was to some
extent begun by Schrodinger himself with
his little book "What is Life", which
attracted physicists of high quality into
DLOLOGY . One of these was Francis Crick
who after co-discovering the structure of
DNA in 1952 went on to delineate the
concept of the genetic code in specific
ways which Schrodinger had only dreamed of
in has little book:. This helped lay the
foundations of molecular biology that has
come to dominate a good deal of science in

the latter part of the 20th century,
illuminating our understanding of
embryology in particular. The + third

challenge for us now is the human brain.

There are two questions that I have laid
stress on which will dominate science in
the Zz2ist century. One of these is what
are the actual workings of the brain that

give rise to consciousness and how does
this develop (figure 18). We have seen
that consciousness involved in visual

phenomena requires the correct functioning
of parietal cortex and inferior temporal
lobe. The second question that we have
considered is whether our increased
knowledge of the workings of the brain,
particularly in relation to the search for
the neuronal concomitants Cr
consciousness, will provide us with
insights into means of ameliorating
various neuronal diseases. In particular
those diseases which arise as a
consequence of vascular stroke and as a
consequence of schizophrenia, diseases
which produce hallucinations and which
completely distort our consciousness of
reality. This essay has stressed one
possible approach to the problem. MThis is
through the introduction into the
appropriate parts GE the degenerating
brain of neurotrophic factors that allow
for the survival of specific classes of
neurones. Alternatively a transplant of
appropriate viable neurones may be made to
replace degenerating ones. The next
century offers us the possibility of
understanding our own brains.

Acknowledgments

I am extremely grateful to my colleague,
Di. Bogdan Dreher, ror his cribical
reading of the manuscript and his many
helpful suggestions.

Further Reading

Crick ay © 4% (1988) "What Mad Pursuit."
Weidenfeld and Nicolson. London.

Judson, H.F. (1979) "The Eighth Day of
Creation". Simon and Schuster. New York.

Moore, W. (1989) "Schrodinger". Cambridge
University Press. Cambridge.

Schrodinger, E. (1944) "What is Life?"
Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
Figure 1.

Erwin Schrodinger (1887-1961), the co-

founder with Werner Heisenberg of quantum
mechanics, and the author of the small
book "What is life" in 1944. Schrodinger
was in his thirties when he formulated one

of the, most revolutionary theories of
matter in the history of physics. Many,
such as the English mathematician Roger

Penrose, believe that quantum mechanics
holds the answer to the question of what
is consciousness, an issue which
Schrodinger wrote on extensively himself,
especially in his small book "Mind and
Matter". The theory of quantum mechanics
was brought to a high degree of
development by the American physicist
Richard Feynman in 1952, with his ideas on
how light and matter interact. inh his
late fifties Schrodinger, inspired by the
youthful theoretical physicist who had
come over to biclogy, Max Delbruck,
penned "What is life". This speculated on
the basis of hereditary and included the
revolutionary ideas that the chromosome
contained a "genetic code" laid out along
its length which constitutes an imprint of
the information needed to be read for the
formation and functioning of the species.
Schrodinger aisc suggested that the code
could be understood at the atomic level
providing the chromosomal material can be

crystallized as an aperiodic crystal,
capable of being subjected to the
techniques of X-ray crystallography.
These prescient suggestions were to bring
some brilliant young physicists INO
biology, such as Crick and Randall.

nA MAX R. BENNETT

Fig!

UNDERSTANDING THE BRAIN

Fig 2
Figure 2.
Francis Crick (born in 1916) was a young
physicist who came into biology shortly
after the publication of Schrodinger's
book "What is life" in 1944. He became
the leading intellectual force in

interpreting the crystallographic data on
the chromosomal Material,

Dioxyribonucleic acid (DNA), that lead to
its known atomic structure ama 1952;
secondly he designed experiments that

solved the genetic ccde by which DNA gives
rise to specific proteins. These ideas
helped lay the foundations of Molecular
Biology, the dominant area of science in
the second half of the twentieth century.
In this way Crick brought to fruition the

175

research plan of Schrodinger. Crick now
works in Brain Research and in his recent
autobiography (1988) "What Mad Pursuit"
speculates on how we are going tO
understand the origins of consciousness.
Crick suggests that the clues to
understanding this phenomena, so dear to
us all, are to be found in the attentional
mechanisms of the brain by which we
concentrate our sensory and motor systems

on some element of our environment, to
the exclusion (of all else in the
environment. He also believes that as the

memory of some thing attended to lasts for

only about 60 seconds or so, then the
molecular and atomic mechanisms involved
should have only this time scale of

change.

176

MAX BENNETT

ff)
ULae

Wore, —
MOL ra,
ae

Ly

¥S

Figure 3.

A human embryo at 5 weeks after conception (ilmm iong). The hands and
legs are already formed but there is only a hint of the digits. The
body is clearly connected to an umbilical cord. The brain is developing
above the eyes (to their left). The spinal cord is also clearly
delineated. The adult brain has some 100,000,090,000 neurons, many of
which have about 10,600 connections (or synapses) on them from other
neurons. This results in some 100 million ‘million. synapses, inwithe
brain. As these synapses are capable of modifying their properties
according to experience there is a truly wondrous range of possibilities
in the wiring of the brain.

UNDERSTANDING THE BRAIN

PosTeniaR
PRRIETAL CORTEX

STRIATE
CcConTex

rS GENICULATE
, Boby

WN FERIon
TEMPORAL Colt TEx

Fig

Figure 4.

The main pathways in the brain concerned with the visual identification
cf objects and their location and movement in space. A coloured
triangular form is observed moving in the visual field. The information
about colour and form of an object on the one hand and about the
movement of the cbject on the other are coded for separately within the
retina of the eye. This coded information is then sent in parallel
pathways along separate sets of axons, first to a part of the brain
called the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus and from there to the
primary visual (striate) cortex in the occipital lobe at the back of the

head. Here the coded information undergoes a transformation into the
elements that recognisably belong to the object in the medial temporal
area (MT) just in front of the striate visual cortex; at this site
neurones fire in relation to seeing each cf these elements. The other
parallel line of coded information is sent to the posterior parietal
cortex, also in front of the striate cortex, where neurons fire in
relation to the movement of the object. The final pathway for the

identification of an object is in the inferior temporal cortex, where
reconstruction of the complete object and its colour is carried out.
Here specific neurones fire when the object is viewed.

177

178

MAX R. BENNETT

Figure 5.

A neurone that fires action potentials at a maximum rate when a4
particular face is observed. These face neurones are found in the
inferior temporal lobe. Note that for this primate temporal lobe
neurone, recorded from an awake monkey, the maximum firing of impulses
(given by the black vertical bars) occurs for the frontal view of the
face of another primate, as shown by the top row of different face
orientations. The bottom row shows that masking out the eyes or
substituting a human face for a monkey face results in reduced
responses. Very low rates cf action potential firing were recorded from
this meurone when a scrambled face was presented or a hand or a brush.

179

UNDERSTANDING THE BRAIN

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UNDERSTANDING THE BRAIN

Common seizure patterns

Clinical type Localization

1 Somatic motor:

Jacksonian (local motor) Prerolandic gyrus
Masticatory Amygdaloid nuclei
Simple contraversive Frontal
2 Somatic and special sensory (auras):
Somatosensory Postrolandic
Visual Occipital or temporal
Auditory Temporal
Vertiginous Temporal
Olfactory Mesial’ temporal
Gustatory Insula
3 Visceral: Autonomic Insuloorbital-frontal
cortex
4 Complex partial seizures:
Formed hallucinations Temporal
Illusions Temporal
Dyscognitive experiences (déja vu, Temporal
dreamy states, depersonalization)
Affective states (fear, depression, Temporal
or elation)
Automatism (ictal and postictal) Temporal and frontal
5 Absence “Recticulocortical”
Bilateral epileptic myoclonus “Reticulocortical”

SOURCE: Modified from Penfield and Jasper, Epilepsy and Func-
tional Anatomy of the Human Brain, Boston: Little Brown, 1954. Fi'e &

Figure 8

Localization of focal epileptic seizures in the brain. The common form
ofr epileptic fit, as the table shows, occurs as a focal seizure
originating in a localized region of the temporal lobe, often referred
to as the iimbic system. These seizures involving the temporal lobe,
are accompanied by visual, auditory and olfactory (smell)
hallucinations. They also involve their vivid recall of memories
because the limbic system includes the hippocampus, required for the
laying down of new memories. The temporal lobe itself includes neurones
for the identification cof objects, such as faces, as shown in figures
4 and 5. Thus the most common human epileptic condition is not tha of
generalized seizures, which start out in the entire neocortex of grey
matter as in "petit mal" or "grand mal" epilepsy, as commonly thought,
but as focal seizures in the limbic system.

182 MAX BENNETT

Figure 9

The neurones shown are found in the retina and are called retinal
ganglion cells. They connect the retina in the eye to the visual
centres of the brain. Many of these neurones degenerate during normal
development as the retina is making appropriate connections with the
visual centres cof bErain. Present evidence suggest that this naturally
occurring cell death occurs as a result of the neurones failing to
obtain a growth factor necessary for their survival. This growth factor
is synthesized in the visual centres cf the brain where the terminals of
retinal ganglion cells obtain the factor and transport it along their
axons back to the ganglion cell bodies in the retina. There it is
utilized to maintain the integrity cf the neurone.

UNDERSTANDING THE BRAIN

Figure 10.

Neuronal growth factors for the survival of neurones were first
discovered in the peripheral nervous system that controls such organs as

blood vessels; these are called sympathetic neurones. Rita Levi-
Montaicini and Cohen purified this sympathetic nerve growth factor
(NGF) down to a single type of molecule. This figure shows a clump of

sympathetic neurone cell bodies in a culture dish in the absence of NGF
(upper figure) compared with a clump in the presence of NGF (lower
figure). Note that hundreds of axon processes emerge from the clump of

neurones in the presence of NGF indicating that these neurones are alive
and growing.

183

MAX R. BENNETT

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Figure 11

The limbic or "border" system of the brain comprises primarily the
inferior temporal lobe, hippocampus and amygdala. The hippocampus and
amygdala lie on the medial surface of the brain rather than on its
lateral aspect. Not only is the system most frequently involved in

epileptic fits but it is also one of “the first parts of the brainy to
degenerate in Alzheimer's disease.

Figure 12

A section through the hippocampus, isolated from the rest of the brain.
The diagram also shows the layout of the principal neurononal types
(indicated as spheres with branching trees of processes called
dendrites) together with their interconnections (indicated by the long
thin processes, called axons, with arrows attached). The specific
input; bringing information about all sensations from the cortex (such
as sight, sound or smell), come from the axons arising in entorhinal
cortex which synapse on the dendritic processes of granule cell neurones
in the so called fascia dentata. These neurones themselves relay this
transformed information to the pyramidal neurones in the CA3 region via
their axons that form synapses on the CA3 neurones. These neurones are

known to code for memories; they connect with each other through
processes called recurrent collaterals (only two cf which are shown).
It is the excitability of these neurones, in part conferred upon them

by these recurrent collaterals, that makes this region of the brain the
most likely to trigger an epileptic seizure.

The CA3 neurones in turn project to the CAl pyramidal neurones on which
they synapse. These neurones also code for memories and their axons
project to the region called the subiculum in the old paleocortex and
from there to the neocortex. Thus the trisynaptic pathway is from
entorhinal cortex to fascia dentata to CA3 pyramids to CAl1 pyramids back
to the cortex. There is another, less specific input (on the left)
necessary for the normal functioning of the hippocampus and that comes
from the subcortical structure called the septum. These axons synapse
on all neurones in the hippocampus. They are the first neurones to
degenerate in the brain of people suffering from Alzheimer's disease.

This leads to the loss of memory formation that characterized this
disease.

UNDERSTANDING THE BRAIN 185

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SEPTAL CHOLINERGIC
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Figure 13.

The functional circuit between different types of neurones, shown in
figure eu the synaptic connections within this circuit have the very
special property of remembering over very long periods of time if they
have been subjected to impulse traffic. "A" shows a transverse section
through the hippocampus, like that shown in figure 12, except that
stimulating electrodes have been placed on the nerves from the
entorhinal cortex (called the perforant pathway axons) and a recording

electrode in the dendritic layer of the granule cells, where the

186

MAX R. BENNETT

perforant pathway axons synapse. "B" shows an enlargement of the boxed
area in "A", with sample electrical recordings of the compound
population spike occurring because many granule cells fire in synchrony
due to stimulating the perforant path axons; the population excitatory
postsynaptic potential (epsp) is recorded from the synaptic regions
between the perforant path axons and the granule cells on stimulation
and gives a measure of the efficacy of synaptic transmission. "C" shows
the results of stimulating the perforant pathway at a frequency of 15Hz
for 10 seconds at the four times indicated in the graph of the relative
amplitude of the population epsp against time; if the perforant nerves
are stimulated every few minutes with a single impulse before, during
and after the 15Hz stimulating periods then the amplitude of the
population epsp at each 6 minute period is shown to grow over 3 hours
until it settles down to a size 300% that of the control (in which no
stimulation occurred at 15Hz)-: two examples of this long-term
potentiation of the population epsp are shown one before and one after
the I5HzZ conditioning “period. This enhanced efficacy of transmission
through the synapses of over 300% is shown to last for 3 hours after the
1SHZ stimulation but may continue for days or months. The mechanisms
responsible for this potentiation are required to retain a memory.

Fig I

Figure 14.

Procedure fom transplanting embryonic septal neurones from the
hippocampal region cf a foetus to the hippocampus of a mature animal

with a degenerating septum. The septal region (black area) is first
removed from the foetal brain and placed in a culture dish with enzymes
that locsen the tissue into separate neurones. The partly separated

neurones are then placed in a test tube and the isolation process taken
further by rapidly shaking the neurones up and down in a pipette in the
test tube. The completely dissociated neurones are next taken up into a
syrings. The syringe needle is then located with great accuracy 1n the
appropriate part of the hippocampus and the dissociated septal neurones
injected into this area of the brain.

Figure 15.

Use of the forced alternation T-maze tc show that following degeneration
of septal neurones transplanted embryonic septal neurones can
reconstitute the memory system of the hippocampus. The rat is put az
the starting position in the T-maze. In the first trial the door on the
right, door 1, is: open; the door on the» left, door 2) dis chosed and wigca
is placed at ''a'; the rat runs-and is forced to ‘turn tothe right! where
the door is open (it can neither seenor smell the food at the atarting

FORCED ALTERNATION THMAZE PERFORMANCE

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UNDERSTANDING THE BRAIN

position). In the second trial the door 1 is open and now the doow 2 is
also open and the food placed at 'b'. A correct response is regarded as
one in which the rat turns: left on trial 2. The triall- trial 2
sessions are repeated 6 times per day. The room in which the T-maze is
placed contains many items, such as curtains, clocks and computers which
despite the rats poor visual acuity appear to allow the rat to orientate
itself on the T-maze.

The graph shows the percentage of correct responses performed by the rat
on the T-maze alternation task over time. Following lesion or
degeneration of the septal region of the hippocampus there is a 50%
chance that the rat will turn left on the second trial, so nothing has
been remembered and the choice is random. Following a sham operation,
in which only a harmless pladebo substance is injected into the
hippocampus, the rat learns to make 100% left-hand turns on the second
trial within 3 weeks of testing so that at this time its' memory for the
T-maze performance is perfect.

Following transplantation of embryonic septal neurones into a rat with a
lesioned septum the rat learns to perform at the 90% correct level of
performance within about 10 weeks after the operation.

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187

WEEK OF TESTING

Fig 1S

188

MAX R. BENNETT

Fig 16

Figure 16.

The Morris water tank used to determine the spatial memory of rats.

The water tank is placed in about the middle of the room. It contains
opaque water and a stand (shown in the cut-away of the tank wall) which
is about one inch beneath the surface of the water; this is sufficiently
deep for the rat not to see it when swimming in the tank so that it only
becomes aware of the stand if its' feet come in contact with it.
Surrounding the tank are objects on the wall, such as curtains, clocks
and potplants (and a large picture of other rats) which allow the
swimming rat to determine its' orientation; the spatial location of the
rat in the water tank is laid down as a spatial memory in the
hippocampus and this allows a healthy rat to determine the position of
the unseen stand with respect to the objects in the room, once its' feet
have come in contact with the stand. A television camera is placed
above the water tank which allows the operator at the television -
computer terminal shown to monitor the locus of the swimming pathway of
the rat once it has been placed in the tank at an arbitrary position.

Figure 17.

The locus of the swimming pathway of rats (determined by the methods
given in the legend to figure 15) after they have been placed in the
Morris water tank. The view is looking down on the tank, and shows the
position of the stand beneath the opaque water in the tank. Each row
shows the results for series of trials which determined if a rat found
the stand (and then sat on it) during a 5 minute period; there were five
trials on each of five successive days and the results are shown for the
first trial on the first day (1.1), the £ifth trial on, the fics day
(5.1); the £ifth trial on the fourth. day (5.4) and the fifth trialp on
ene ELeth. day (5. 5). In the first row a young control rat (about 6
months old) was placed at a random site in the tank at 1.1 and left to
Swim; it will be noted that at 1.1 the rats feet did not accidently make
contact with the stand; by 5.1 this had happened and the spatial memory
system of the hirpocampus had located the position of the unseen stand
with respect to the objects in the room enabling the rat to swim
Girectly to the stand and sit on it, as shown; this also occurred at
5.4; at 5.5 the stand was removed and the rat swam repeatedly over the
site where the site had been, seeking a rest. In the second row an Aged
Impaired rat (about 3 years old) is shown to be unable to lay down a

Fig 7

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UNDERSTANDING THE BRAIN

Spatial memory of the position of the stand, even though its' feet
accidently come in contact with it several times over the 25 trials. In
the third row an Aged Unimpaired rat (again about 3 years old) is shown
to be able to lay down a spatial memory as well as the Young Control
hatevand performs in ’a ‘like manner. The final row shows an Aged
Impaired rat that had a transplant of embryonic néeurcnes from the septum
in its' hippocampus; the locus of the swimming pathway of the rat in
each case shows that it has formed a spatial memory of the stand as
quickly as the Young Control.

Ss

Figure 18.

A human embryo at 5 weeks (15 mm long).
The hands are clearly visible with the
just clearly delineated fingers. The
heart, with liver below, can be seen
between the hands; the diaphragm separates
the heart and liver. Most striking, are
the two halves of the cerebrum which can
be seen through the transparent skin of
the forehead above the developing eyes.

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190

Neurobiology Research Centre
Physiology Department

The University of Sydney
Sydney NSW 2006

Australia

MAX R. BENNETT

(Manuscript received 3 - 12 - 1992)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol, 126, pp.191-198, 1993 191

ISSN 0035-9173/93/020191-08 $4.00/1

The San Calixto Observatory in La Paz, Bolivia.
Eighty Years of Operation.
Director Dr. Lawrence A. Drake S.J.

ROBERT R. COENRAADS

ABSTRACT. The San Calixto Observatory has played an important role in understanding the earth's interior,
seismicity, seismic risk and the meteorology of La Paz since its foundation on the 15 of May, 1913. Since this
time it has had only two directors; Pierre M. Descotes S.J., 52 years and Ramon Cabré S.J., 29 years.
Lawrence A. Drake S.J. became the Observatory's third director in 1993.

In 1993, San Calixto became one of the first observatories to install a high-gain, broadband station and
joined the Global Telemetered Seismic Network (GTSN). Digital data of this type available on a global scale,
together with modern computing facilities, are a significant step forward for the field of seismology.

The Jesuit-run observatory offers a high quality international and national scientific service and is
dedicated to the progress and development of humanity. It is a testimony to the compatibility between

science and faith.

INTRODUCTION

The San Calixto Observatory takes its name from the
Bishop Calixto Clavijo (1814-1886), who founded the
Sacred Hearts and established the Society of Jesus in La
Paz. It is run by Jesuit Fathers with the express aim of
assisting Bolivia's advance in the field of science,
specifically seismic activity and risk. The present
Observatory (Figs 1 & 2) is located at Number 944
Indaburo Street, La Paz, in a colonial building given to
the Jesuits by the descendants of Marshall Andrés de
Santa Cruz.

The Observatory is responsible for the recording,
interpretation and storage of the data from eight seismic
stations which listen to the natural and man-made noises
of our planet twenty four hours a day. Each daily record
may show 15 to 20 earth movements. These records,
together with those from more than a thousand other
stations around the world permit the accurate location of
such natural movements or man-made explosions. The
Observatory projects its image through the publication of
its raw data and research work, the preparation of a
yearly Bulletin, and by keeping the press informed about
aspects of its work which may interest the public

HISTORY

In Manchester, July 18-21, 1911, the Second General
Assembly of the Seismological Association passed a
resolution recommending that the Jesuits install a seismic
Station at La Paz, Bolivia (Fig. 3) to fill the gap in the
central part of South America, (Fig. 4).

In 1911 Brothers E. Tortosa and J. Lizarralde chose
the crypt of the church of San Calixto College for the
first seismic station. Using anything available - an old
clock pendulum to make marks on a smoked paper
recording drum driven by the mechanism of an old alarm
clock - they constructed the first test seismograph.

In 1912 Father Pierre M. Descotes arrived in La Paz
and, under his direction, the first simple seismographs
comprising masses of up to several tons were built by
Brother Lizarralde. The San Calixto Observatory was
officially founded on May 1S 1913 which marked the
commencement of the Bulletins of Seismic Data which
have continued to be published to date without
interruption. Gutenburg and Richter (1949) in their
famous book, "Seismicity of the Earth", wrote, "La Paz at
once became, and still remains, the most important single
seismological station of the world. This is a consequence
of its isolated location, the sensitive instruments and the
great care with which records were interpreted and the
reports issued under the direction of Father Descotes."

In 1930 a three component system of Galitzin - Wilip
seismometers was installed in the crypt of the church of
San Calixto College.

In 1962 the World Wide Standard Seismograph
Network (WWSSN) station commenced operation in
Segiiencoma, La Paz under the control of the
Observatory. Designated as LPB, it formed one of a
network of 115 standard 3-component long period and
3-component short period stations around the world.
(Figs 4 & 5.)

192 ROBERT R. COENRAADS

Figure 1. Dr. Laurence A. Drake S.J., at the San Calixto Observatory in La Paz,

Bolivia.

In 1965 the San Calixto Observatory assumed
responsibility for the seismic station at Pefias (designated
PNS, Fig. 5).

In 1972 seismometers were placed in a specially
constructed tunnel in the Huayna Potosi granodiorite at
an altitude of 4,400 metres in the Andes, 40 kilometres
north of La Paz. The instruments are now of the ASRO
(adapted seismic research observatory) type and the
station is designated ZOBO (Fig. 5). Microelectronics led
to the introduction of telemetered ASRO stations from
which the data could be sent by radio to the Observatory
in La Paz. A station south of La Paz at Chanca (CNCB,
Fig. 5) was set up with the assistance of the U.S.
Geological Survey. Three stations in the Zongo Valley
(Zongo A, B & C, Fig. 5) and one at Cerro Gloria de
Tiahuanacu (GLORIA, Fig. 5) were set up with the
assistance of the University of Paris. In 1988 another
station was installed at San Ignacio de Velasco in Santa
Cruz (SIV, Fig. 5).

For the most part, the seismometers are located in

sites so quiet that the ground vibrations may be amplified
to 500,000 times, or a million times in the case of ZOBO.

ORGANISATION OF THE SAN CALIXTO
OBSERVATORY

In Bolivia, the Superior of the Province is presently
Luis Palomera S.J. who is responsible for all the Jesuit
institutions. The Director of the Observatory is Dr.
Lawrence Drake S.J., who replaced Dr. Ramon Cabré S.J.
in 1993. The Director of the Observatory is in charge of
general administration, scientific investigations, funding
and public relations. Below the Director, a number of
research associates and postgraduate students work on
projects concerning regional seismicity, seismic risk
analysis, the interior of the earth and meteorology.
Approximately 10 auxiliary staff attend to the operation
of the seismic stations, interpretation of seismograms,
meteorological observations, the library, secretarial duties,
accounts and vehicles.

SAN CALIXTO OBSERVATORY 193

Figure 2. Spanish colonial style interior courtyard of the San Calixto Observatory at
No. 944 Indaburo Street, La Paz. The building was originally the residence of
Marshall Andrés de Vera Cruz.

Figure 3. La Paz, situated in a valley in the Bolivian high plain at an altitude of
3,600 metres above sea level, is the highest capital city in the world.

194 ROBERT R. COENRAADS

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Figure 4. La Paz shown as one of the stations in the Global Seismic Network. The
dots represent the original World Wide Standardized Seismographic Network and
those circled are the new telemetered GTSN stations.

The San Calixto Observatory is organized in sections: Segaline Nieto and Cabré (1988) in "El clima de La Paz"
and extend back to 1907.
a) Seismology
c) Astronomy
This section is the most important and the main fields
of investigation are;

- seismic activity and the catalogue of seismic events in

This section maintains a telescope, donated by Spain
in the sixties, which is used to instruct individuals or

Bolivia

- structure of the crust and mantle below Bolivia

- tectonic activity and evolution of the Andes

- seismic risk analysis, mitigation, of seismic danger and
preparation for natural disaster

- preparation of seismic risk maps for South America.

The official time for the country is maintained by the
Observatory.

b) Meteorology

This section operates a station at the Observatory in
the centre of the city recording temperature, relative
humidity, precipitation, wind speed and direction and
barometric pressure. These data have been published by

groups, such as college students, on various aspects of
astronomy.

The Observatory works with the National
Commission of Geophysics and in collaboration with the
National Academy of Sciences, the Science and
Technology Department of the Ministry for Planning and
Coordination and Civil Defence. The Observatory also
works in collaboration with numerous external bodies;
the Regional Centre for Seismology for South America,
U.S. Geological Survey, the University of Paris, the
Institute for Seismic Warning in Argentina, the U.S. Air
Force Office of Scientific Research (AFOSR)
Geophysical Laboratory and the International
Seismological Centre of England.

SAN CALIXTO OBSERVATORY 195

SOUTH AMERICA

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La Paz
LPB

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Cerro Gloria de Tiahuanacu

(52km)
(39km)

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Chanca

Figure 5. Seismic stations in Bolivia under the control of the San Calixto
Observatory. The new telemetered station situated in Huayna Potosi is designated
LPAZ.

196 ROBERT R. COENRAADS

Figure 6. Dr. Laurence A. Drake S.J., present director of the San Calixto
Observatory, (left) and Dr. Ramon Cabré S.J., retiring director, (right).

HUMANITARIAN ACTIVITIES

Apart from their scientific research and teaching the
Jesuits of San Calixto Observatory and the associated
College are involved in numerous community activities
of a humanitarian nature. A few of these include;

- delivering daily Mass to the people in the various
Parishes around the city

- striving for the betterment of primary school education
and its ease of access by the people

- lobbying for the continuation of the provisions of
resources for scientific and technological research in
the country

- organization of incentive/education programs for the
out of work, for example, small business management

- organization of neighbourhood groups to work with
local government to provide essential services, such as
water, electricity and sewerage

- lobbying for the beneficiation of primary export
products and the development of export technologies
in the field of new materials, microelectronics,
biotechnology, commun-ications, etc.

- political commentary in local newspapers.

It is only through these means that an elevation in
the standard of living and economic development can be
achieved in Bolivia.

SAN CALIXTO OBSERVATORY RESEARCH
PROJECTS

1) Global Telemetered Seismic Network (GTSN)

In 1989 work commenced on establishing a new
global telemetered station on the peak of Zongo,
designated LPAZ (Fig. 5). Bolivia is one of the first
countries to operate on this network (Fig. 4). Broadband
seismometers have been placed in drill holes 100 metres
deep in the Huayna Potosi granodiorite and the
information will be recorded using IRIS-2, 24 bit
seismographs with a magnification of 2 million times. This
station commenced operation in August 1993. A broad
band of frequencies will be telemetered to the Data
Collection Centre at Albuquerque, New Mexico and
recorded magnetically on high density digital cartridges.
The ready availability of digital data represents a great
leap forward for the field of seismology. Using computers
it will be possible to obtain all the periods of interest and
analyse the frequency spectrum of the Earth's
movements, permitting a series of new investigations in
attenuation, dispersion, etc. In this way San Calixto
Observatory will continue to be a leader in seismology
(Cabré, 1992).

SAN CALIXTO OBSERVATORY 197

Figure 7. Huayna Potosi. This glaciated granodiorite mountain contains seismometers of
the station ZOBO in a specially constructed tunnel at an altitude of 4,400 metres. The new
global telemetered station LPAZ is also located on this mountain. Such quiet sites allow
seismic signals to be amplified up to a million times.

2) International Seismological Observation Period (ISOP)

The quality and amount of seismological information
available has so greatly improved since the 1960s that
today the data from the thousand-plus stations around
the world are under-used in many cases. Information
such as singular or multiple reflections from various
layers within the earth, changes in wave velocity
dependent on rock type, wave scattering, etc. is little
used. As the work required to collect all the information
would be enormous, ISOP proposes that, for the period
1994 - 1997, all researchers select a few set events - an
average of one per day. These events will be studied in
detail to gain maximum knowledge of the interior of the
earth (Cabré, 1992).

3) International Decade for the Reduction of National
Disasters

In the last 20 years, natural disasters have cost the
lives of 3 million people, affected the lives of at least 800
million and have cost more than $US 23,000 million
(Ayala, 1992). The General Assembly of the United
Nations has declared 1990-99 as the international decade
for the reduction of natural disasters. The technical-
scientific committee is working through national
committees, including the San Calixto Observatory, in the
following areas:

a) Risk picture - identification of the types of threat
and evaluation of their distribution, estimation of
their periodicity and effects; Comparison of these
data with population density maps and preparation
of risk maps.

b) National and local plans- preparation of construction
codes, preventative plans to minimise impact of
disasters and emergency evacuation plans.

c) Alarm Systems - development of regional and local
warning- and if possible, prediction systems capable
of detecting threats with sufficient time to initiate
action (Ayala, 1992).

DR. LAWRENCE A. DRAKE S.J.

Dr. Lawrence A. Drake S.J. (Fig. 1), director of the
San Calixto Obsevatory, replaces, Dr. Ramon Cabré S.J.
(Fig. 6), who retired in 1993 at the age of 71 after having
served at the Observatory for 34 years and as a director
for 29 years.

Dr. L.A. Drake S.J. brings with him much experience
having been associated with Riverview Observatory in
Sydney (Fig. 4) for 40 years, serving as a director for 27
years, and with 20 years research and teaching in
geophysics and geology at Macquarie University in
Sydney.

198 ROBERT R. COENRAADS

As director of the San Calixto Observatory, Dr. L.A.
Drake S.J. proposes to continue to investigate the effects
of the complexity of the South American tectonic
structure on earthquake data. The specific proposals are
as follows:

1) Time - distance curves for P-waves (which give the
velocity structure within the earth) recorded at La
Paz for earthquakes in the region of Venezuela and
for earthquakes of intermediate depth in the region
of Colombia look like "shotgun patterns". These
need further investigation.

2) To apply particle motion analysis, Fourjer analysis
and attribute analysis to the P-, and subsequent
wavetrains, of earthquakes and explosions recorded
in Bolivia.

3) To use a local crustal and upper mantle model to
locate earthquakes in the region of Bolivia and to
try to allow for at least one dipping layer.

4) To model, using the finite element method, the
propagation of Rayleigh and Love waves (including
Rg and Lg) across the dipping sections of the Nazca
plate beneath Bolivia.

5) To use the new Global Telemetered Seismic Network
station and the French high-gain digital seis-
mometers to continue the tomographic work on the
crustal and upper mantle structure of northern
Bolivia.

6) To apply the waveform correlation method for
identifying quarry and mine explosions.

7) To continue the study of focal mechanism, depth,
magnitude and seismic moment of earthquakes 20 -
100 km ENE of Cochabamba, and extend it to other
regions.

Robert R. Coenraads.
Observatorio San Calixto
Casilla 12656

La Paz, Bolivia.

correspondence to:-

8 Trigalana Place
Frenchs Forest

New South Wales, 2086,
Australia.

8) To revise the magnitudes of larger earthquakes in
southern Bolivia, as they appear to have been
overestimated.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Father Ramon Cabré, Father
Mateo Garau S.J. and all the Jesuit community for the
hospitality shown towards me during my stay at the San
Calixto Observatory. I would also like to thank Father
Lawrence A. Drake and Dr. David F. Branagan for
reviewing this manuscript.

REFERENCES

Ayala, R. (1992). Mitigacid6n de desastres naturales.
Boletin Observatorio San Calixto, 2, 13.

Cabré, R. (1991). 75 Afios en la vanguardia de la
sismologia. Boletin Observatorio San Calixto, 1, 2-3.

Cabré, R. (1992). Futura estaci6n sismica de banda
ancha. Boletin Observatorio San Calixto, 2, 1-2.

Cabré, R. (1992). Participacién futura en el programa
ISOP. Boletin Observatorio San Calixto, 2, 1-2.

Drake, L.A. (1993). Seismic wave propagation in South
America - Proposal for Research, 24p. (Unpubl.).

Gutenburg, B. & Richter, C.F. (1949). SEISMICITY OF
THE EARTH AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA.
Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.

Segaline Nieto, H. & Cabré, R. (1988). EL CLIMA DE
LA PAZ. DATOS DEL OBSERVATORIO SAN
CALIXTO. Industrias Offset Color S.R.L., La Paz.

Valencia, E. (1988). El Observatorio San Calixto. Tesina
de Grado, Lincoln Institute, La Paz, Bolivia.
(Unpubl.).

(Manuscript Received 5-8-1993)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 126, pp.199-200, 1993

ISSN 0035-9173/93/020199-02 $4.00/1

199

Doctoral Thesis Abstract:
Porphyrin-Based Building Blocks

Steven J. Langford

The work described in this thesis is aimed at the design
and synthesis of a range of porphyrin-based molecular
building blocks that can be assembled into extended
systems or "m-ways". The synthetic strategy involves the
condensation of two building blocks: a porphyrin bis-(a-
dione) system and a bis-(@-diamine) system; the extended
"t-way" being generated through the aromatic nature of
the porphyrin macrocycle and their bridging units. The
porphyrin-based building blocks fall into three categories;
those leading to extensions (i) in a linear sense, (i)
through a right angle or (iii) through metal coordination.
In each instance, the porphyrins are extended laterally
through the regiospecific functionalisation of the

porphyrin periphery.

The regiofunctionalisation of the porphyrin periphery
is controlled by regiospecific bromination which directs
the subsequent nitrations to the desired positions. The
tetrabromination of tetraarylporphyrins occurs
specifically at A2.3 and A!2,13 through a bond fixed
chlorin inter-mediate. The subsequent dinitration at the
7,17- and 7,18-positions illustrate that the bromo groups
act as efficient blocking groups. Similarly the
bromination of 2,3-dioxo-5,10,15,20-tetrakis(3,5-di-tert-
butylphenyl)porphyrin occurs regiospecifically on A!2,13
causing the nitration to be directed onto adjacent pyrrolic
rings. The nitro-porphyrins are the precursors to the
desired a-diketones. This approach has been successfully
used to furnish linear and two-dimensional porphyrin
assemblies (1-3).

Investigations into the use of phenanthroline-appended
porphyrins in the fields pertaining to molecular magnets
and molecular electronics have been initiated. These
porphyrins have been functionalised in such a way as to
complement the aforementioned studies. As a model for
extended systems, the zinc(II) and copper(I) bis-porphyrin
complexes were synthesised. These compounds show the
usefulness of 1,10-phenanthroline as a bidentate ligand and
are the first examples of systems in which two porphyrin
structures are entirely non-covalently linked to each other.

Functionalisation of the outer periphery with respect to
the direct replacement of the bromo groups and a new
approach to porphyrin 2,3-diones via 2-hydroxy-
porphyrins is discussed. Studies were initiated in which
the need for 1,2,4,5-benzenetetramine has been eliminated.
Alkyl extensions to TPP derivatives, to enhance solubility,
have also been studied.

The molecular structure of 2,3,12,13-tetrabromo-
5,10,15,20-tetrakis(3,5-di-tert-butylphenyl)porphyrin and
its nickel(II) chelate have been unequivocally assigned by
X-ray diffraction data. The use of X-ray and 1H NMR
techniques show that the free-base macrocycle is bond
fixed into an 18 atom 18 m-electron aromatic delocalised
pathway with the isolated double bonds, A7:8 and A17,18,
The observed ruf configuration in the monoclinic
crystalline form of the Ni(II) porphyrin is a consequence
of the very small Ni-Nay distance (1.88 A) and is by far
the smallest yet seen in a nickel(II) porphyrin molecule.

July 1993.

200 STEVEN J. LANGFORD

A Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy in the Department of Organic Chemistry, The
University of Sydney, Sydney, N.S.W., 2006. Australia.

(manuscript received 31 - 8 - 1995)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.126, pp.201-202, 1993

ISSN 0035-9173/93/020201-02 $4.00/1

201

MASTER OF SCIENCE THESIS ABSTRACT:

CRATERFORM ORIGIN DERIVED BY QUANTITATIVE

GEOMORPHOLOG Y

MARK A. BISHOP

Spacecraft exploration of the solar system has supplied
quantitative geomorphology with a plethora of enigmatic
landscapes from which to further understand both geologic
and geomorphic processes. For example, the relative dating of
planetary surfaces using impact crater size-frequency
distributions, has identified the exotic diversity of impact
morphologies present on both silicate and ice rich planetary

crusts.

Impact craters ~2-20 kilometres in rim crest diameter have
provided the most meaningful chronological information
(Greeley et al., 1987), although it is assumed that only impact
craters are sampled, and that crater genesis can be readily
determined. However, Pike (1980) has demonstrated that
multivariate analysis using morphometric parameters could not
differentiate the origin of craters less than 5 kilometres in
diameter. This posed an immediate problem with crater size-
frequency distributions, as nearly all simple impact craters fall

below this dimension for Earth, Moon, Mars and Mercury.

Nonetheless, planimetric circularity is a single morphometric
element that has previously given limited success -in
differentiating the origins of impact and volcanic craterforms.
Various techniques at determining an index of circularity have
been demonstrated by Ronca and Salisbury (1966), Murray
and Guest (1970) and Pike (1974). However in these

instances, the identification of crater genesis was not absolute.

Although several mensurative methods are possible, in this

study, the technique termed circumscribing-inscribing circles

(C2), has proven the most accurate and reliable technique with
which to measure a crater's planimetry. The definition of
circularity using (C2), is a measurement of the ratio of the area
of an inscribed circle (fitted to the crater rim crest) to the area
of a circumscribed circle (Pike, 1974). For example, a circle
has an index of circularity equal to 1.00, while with decreasing

circularity the index approaches zero.

Following the derivation of circularity, parametric statistical
procedures have shown that the point of segregation between
the two crater types, lies at a circularity value of ().68. It was
revealed that impacts are represented by values greater than
0.68 while craters of endogenic origin fall below the ().68
index. For the 124 craterforms measured, the accuracy for
segregating maar and impact morphologies was approximately
86 percent. Although this technique of analysis is relatively
simple, it is superior when compared with analyses that use a

multivariate approach on craters of simple morphologic class.

As this procedure was found to be effective at determining a
terrestrial craterform's mode of origin, the application of
Pike’s method to the lunar Alphonsus dark halo craters was
also undertaken. Previous geologic investigations have
indicated these features to be of a pyroclastic nature resembling
maar-like volcanoes (Head and Wilson, 1979). Quantitative
analysis of these structures’ circularity, gives further support
to this hypothesis. Although there 1s little debate about the
prevalent impact origin of the moon's "pocked" landscape, it is
evident that the origin of extra-terrestrial landforms can be

accurately derived from morphometric analysis.

202

The identification of crater origin is an important aspect for
both stratigraphic interpretation and the relative dating of
planetary surfaces. The study of crater morphometry and
morphology will be of immediate use in the interpretation of
the Magellan radar imagery of Venus. By the application of
standard quantitative geomorphological practices, a fuller
understanding of both terrestrial and extra-terrestrial

landscapes is achieved.

References:

Greeley R., P.R. Christensen and J.F. McHone (1987) Radar
characteristics of small craters. Implications for Venus. Earth,

Moon & Planets. 37, 89-111.

Head J.W. and L. Wilson (1979) Alphonsus Dark Halo
Craters. Proceedings of the Lunar and Planetary Science

Conference. 10, 2861-2879.

Murray J.B. and J.E. Guest (1970) Circularities of craters and
related structures on Earth and Moon. Modern Geology. 1,

149-159.

Pike R.J. (1974) Craters on Earth, Moon and Mars.
Multivariate classification and mode of origin. Earth and

Planetary Science Letters. 22, 245-255.

Pike R.J. (1980) Geometric interpretations of lunar craters.

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper. 1046-C, pp 77.

MARK A. BISHOP

Ronca L.B. and J.W. Salisbury (1966) Lunar history as
suggested by the circularity index of lunar craters. /carus, 5,

130-138.

(Geography) School of Human and Environmental Sciences,
University of South Australia, Magill, 5072

Australia

(Manuscript received 19 - 8 - 1993)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 126, pp.203-204, 1993 203

ISSN 0035-9173/93/020203-02 $4 00/1

Ph.D. Thesis Abstract: The Role of
Thrombosis in Ischaemic Necrosis of Bone
(INB) and Primary Osteo~arthritis (OA)

P. A. CHERAS

This thesis describes the evolution of a
study that commenced as a comparison of
idiopathic ischaemic necrosis of bone (INB)
and primary osteo-arthritis of the hip (OA).
These two conditions were initially regarded
as being quite distinct. However the results of
the studies presented in this thesis have led to
the conclusion that INB and OA are
qualitatively very similar and differences are
probably only quantitative. The two
conditions represent parts of a spectrum.

The initial hypothesis was;

"that both non-traumatic ischaemic

necrosis of bone (INB) and _ primary

osteo-arthritis (OA) of the hip are
caused by intra-osseous small vessel
thrombosis".

A histological investigation of femoral
heads removed at total hip replacement
arthroplasty was commenced. The test groups
comprised patients who had been diagnosed
as having either idiopathic INB (16 femoral
heads) or OA (11 femoral heads). The control
group comprised patients who died without
evidence of either INB or OA (7 femoral
heads). The primary aim of the histological
study was to seek evidence of microvascular
thrombosis in femoral head bone.

Both test groups showed evidence of
intra-osseous thrombosis (recent and
established), with Haematoxylin and Eosin
(H&E) and Martius Scarlet Blue stains.
Thrombi were found throughout the femoral
heads, particularly in small venous vessels.
Furthermore, intravascular lipid deposition
was demonstrated in both groups with Oil
Red O stain, confirming the appearance of
lipid in H&E stained sections. These findings
were not observed in the control group.

A novel double’ radio-isotope
technique was developed using I labelled
human fibrinogen and “™Tc labelled red blood
cells. This indicated that femoral head bone

from both INB and OA patients contained
high concentrations of fibrin and/or
fibrinogen compared with control levels.

In both these studies the only differences
detected between the two test groups were in
the severity or degree of change.

These studies were then followed by
further experiments designed to test a second
hypothesis which was;

"that OA of the hip is associated with

systemic coagulopathy".

A study of the coagulation profiles of
patients with OA was then undertaken to see
whether the local changes that had been
demonstrated in the femoral heads could be
linked with systemic evidence of
hypercoagulability.

The results show that in 33 persons with
primary OA of the hip compared with 38 age,
weight and sex matched controls, there is
blood hypercoagulability, increased fibrin
formation and_ decreased fibrinolytic
competence. Statistics were performed using
Student's two tailed t-test for unpaired
samples. Significance was defined as p < 0.05.
In OA _ patients there were significantly
increased levels of factor VIIIc, platelet
response to ADP, euglobulin clot lysis time, D
dimer, plasminogen activator inhibitor type I,
polymorphonuclear leukocyte elastase,
cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and triglyceride
versus levels in controls. Platelet aggregation
threshold was significantly lower in OA
patients.

These studies support a primary role for
coagulation abnormalities (modulated by
lipids) in the pathogenesis of OA. Osteo-
arthritis and ischaemic necrosis of the hip
may both result from _ obstruction of
susceptible microvasculature. The difference
between the two diseases may only be the
degree of the coagulation defects and time-
span over which they occur. Haematological

“s P. A. CHERAS

tests may be useful for future laboratory
diagnosis of primary OA.

P. A. Cheras

The University of Queensland
Department of Surgery
Greenslopes Repatriation Hospital
GREENSLOPES QLD 4120
Australia

(Manuscript received 7 - 9°- 1993)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 126, p.205, 1993 205

ISSN 035-9173/93/020205-01 $4.00/1

Doctoral Thesis Abstract: Reconciling the

Roles of Status and Behaviour in Group

Influence: Towards a Status-Confirmation

Model

PHILIP B. MOHR

This thesis addresses the task of reconciling
two discrete bodies of evidence relating to the
emergence of influence hierarchies in small groups.
Reviews are presented of research (1) documenting
the phenomenon of status generalisation, and (2)
identifying individual differences in nonverbal
behavioural style as the basis of group
differentiation. It is argued that previous attempts
to integrate the two fields are flawed on two counts:
the failure to differentiate empirically between the
effects of nonverbal signals and those of differential
task performance, and the corresponding tendency
to depict such behavioural signals as a sufficient
determinant of group structure. Findings obtained
with behaviour separated from performance
support the view that effects previously attributed
to behavioural stimuli derived, instead, from

differential task performance.

A Status-confirmation model of the
interactive effects of status and behaviour is
proposed and evaluated. The primary assumption -
that behavioural confidence and the initiation of
activity represent claims to situational status - was
endorsed by undergraduate subjects’ accounts of the
likely behaviour of a group member who seeks to
attain group leadership. That established, the status-
confirmation model proposes behavioural status-

claims to be subject to confirmation or denial on

the basis of the external status or competence of the
claimant. Results of a field study, using
extraversion as an index of a status-claiming
behavioural style, support this argument;
extraversion differentiated observer-rated influence
of group members ranked high on either diffuse or
specific status, but not those ranked uniformly high
or low on both. The latter case, in particular, is
inconsistent with the view that behavioural
confidence plays an independent causal role,
comparable to that of external status, in hierarchy

formation.

Evidence, also noted, of the ability of
external status to influence the perception of
behaviour, permits reconciliation of the status-
confirmation model with the research base of status
characteristics theory. Indications that the effects of
behaviour on hierarchy formation are due to the
pre-emption of leadership rather than the
communication of confidence are considered, and
the implications for the direction and methodology

of future research discussed.

Dept. of Psychology,
University of Adelaide,
S.A., 5000, Australia.

(Manuscript received 3 - 8 - 1993)

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Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 126, pp.207-208, 1993

ISSN 0035-9173/020207-2 $4.00/1

INDEX TO VOLUME 126

Abstract of Proceedings, 1992 - 93

Abstract of Theses,
Bishop, Mark A.
Cheras, P.A.

Gatei, Magtouf H.

He, Fuxiang

Langford, Steven

Mohr, Phil

Oudshoorn Michael John
Xu, Arron S.L.

Annual Dinner, March 1993

Astronomy
San Calixto Observatory La Paz, Bolivia

Awards (citations)

BAGGS, Sydney A.
Underground Space: The Geospatial Planning
Option for 21st Century Sydney. Part One:
Historical Overview and Rationale for the
Use of Geospace

BAGGS, Sydney A.W
Underground Space: The Geospatial Planning
Option for 21st Century Sydney. Part Two:
Geospace in the Future, a Case Study:
21st Century Sydney

BENNETT, Max R.
A Consideration of Humphrey's "Cerebral
Sentient Loop" Explanation of Consciousness
from "A History of the Mind"

BENNETT, Max R.
Understanding the Brain in the 21st Century

BIOCHEMISTRY
FNMR of Erythocytes

Biographical Memoirs
BAKER, S.C.
GOLDING, H.G.

Bonding and Non-Bonding

BRANAGAN, D.F., and CAIRNS, H.C.
Marks on Sandstone Surfaces - Sydney
Region, Australia: Cultural Origins and
Meanings?

BRANAGAN, D.R., and CAIRNS, H.C.
Tesselated Pavements in the Sydney Region,
New South Wales

CAIRNS, H.C. BRANAGAN, D.F. and
Marks on Sandstone Surfaces - Sydney
Region, Australia: Cultural Origins
and Meanings?

CAIRNS, H.C. BRANAGAN, D.F. and
Tesselated Pavements in the Sydney Region,
New South Wales

93

201
203
89
90
199
205
88
87
93

191

105

57

145

111

167

87

108

155

125

63

125

63

CHEMISTRY
Physical Organic Chemistry (Bonding)

CLARKE MEDAL 1993

COAL
Seam Correlations of the Illawarra Coal
Measures in the Ulan and Bylong Areas,
Western Coalfield, Sydney Basin, New
South Wales. Stratigraphic and

COALS
Trace Elements in Some Swiss

COENRAADS, Robert R.j
The San Calixto Observatory in La Paz,
Bolivia, Eighty Years of Operation.
Director Dr. Lawrence A. Drake S.J.

COMPUTER SCIENCE
Atlantis: A Tool for Language Definition

Council, Annual Report 1992 - 93

Culture
Aboriginal

Dinosaurs
Dinosaurs and other Denizens II - by
combined Catastrophic Causes? Demise
of the Sutherland, F.L.

DRAKE, Dr; L.AcS.d., Director,
The San Calixto Observatory, La Paz,
Bolivia

EDGEWORTH DAVID MEDAL 1993

ERRATA: Vol. 125 Parts 3 and 4

FARDY, N.C., MORGAN, N.C. and SWAINE, D.J.
HUGI, Th.,
Trace Elements in Some Swiss Coals

Financial Statement

GATEI, Magtouf H.,
Some Aspects of the Pathogenicity and

Immunity of Bovine Leukemia Virus Infection

in Cattle and Sheep

GEOLOGY
Mallardite, Broken Hill NSW
Marks on Sandstone Surfaces

Reservoir Characteristics of Sandstone
in New South Wales

Stratigraphical and Coal Seam Correlations
Tesselated Pavements
Trace Elements in Some Swiss Coals

Western Coalfields, SYDNEY BASIN, NSW

207

135

105

73

Zi

191

105

ah

99

89

165
125

90
13
63
Pa
(eS

208

GEOSPACE,
Part One 37
Part Two 145

HE, Fuxiang,
Provenance, Diagenesis and Reservoir
Characteristics of Sandstone of the Great
Australian Basin Succession in NSW,
Australia 90

History of the Mind MW

HUGI, Th., FARDY, N.C., MORGAN, N.C. and SWAINE,
begs

Trace Elements in Some Swiss Coals Dif:
HUMPHREY'S

"Cerebral Sentinent Loop" 111
INDEX 207

LAWRENCE L.J., STOCKSIEK, C.M. and WILLIAMS, P.A.

Mallardite from Broken Hill, NSW 165
LIVERSIDGE RESEARCH LECTURE, 1992 135
MALLARDITE

from Broken Hill, NSW 165
MEDICINE
A History of the Mind 111

Understanding the Brain in the 2lst Century 167

MORGAN, N.C., and SWAINE, D.J. HUGI, Th.,
FARDY, N.C.

Trace Elements in Some Swiss Coals 27
NEW ENGLAND Branch Report 95
NEW SOUTH WALES

Geospatial Planning Option, Sydney 37

Sandstones of the Great Australian Basin 90

Stratigraphic and Coal Seam Correlations Ue:

Tesselated Pavements 63

OUDSHOORN, Michael John
Atlantis: A Tool for Language Definition
and Interpreter Synthesis. (Thesis Abstract) 88

PALAEONTOLOGY
Demise of Dinosaurs 1
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 1993 1

The Royal Society of New South Wales Medal
for 1992 107

STERNHELL, S.,
Bonding and Non-Bonding 135
(Liversidge Research Lecture 1992)

SUMMER SCHOOL (Photo) 1992 98

SUTHERLAND, F.L.,
Demise of the Dinosaurs and Denizens II
by Combined Catastrophic Causes?
(Presidential Address 1993) 1

INDEX TO VOLUME 126

SWAINE, D.J., HUGI, Th., FARDY N.C., MORGAN,
N.C., and

Trace Elements in Some Swiss Coals
Understanding the Brain in the 21st Century

Urban Design
Underground Space: The Geospatial Planning
Option for 2lst Century Sydney. Part One:
Historical Overview and Rationale for the
Use of Geospace

Part Two:- Geospace in the Future, a Case
Study: 2lst Century Sydney

Vetinary Science
Bovine Leukemia Virus Infection

Walter Burfitt Prize for 1992

AU, Arron. Sebe,
19 :
F NMR of Erythrocytes: "Split Peak"
Phenomenon, Membrane Potential and
Membrane Transport. (Thesis Abstract)

YOO, E.Ks;
Stratigraphic and Coal Seam Correlations
of the Illawarra Coal Measures in the Ulan
and Bylong Areas, Western Coalfields,
Sydney Basin, New South Wales

27

167

37

145

89

106

87

7S

JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY
OF NEW SOUTH WALES

VOLUME 126 Parts 3 and 4

(Nos. 369 - 370)

1993

ISSN 0035-9173

PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY
P.O. BOX 1525, MACQUARIE CENTRE, NSW 2113

Issued December, 1993.

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES

OFFICERS" FOR 1993-1994

Patron

HIS EXCELLENCY REAR-ADMIRAL PETER SINCLAIR
A.O., GOVERNOR OF NEW SOUTH WALES

President

DR. R.A.L. OSBORNE

Vice-Presidents

DR. A.A. DAY DR. F.L. SUTHERLAND
PROF, JH. LOXTON DR. DoJ. SWAINE
DR. E.C.: POFTER

Honorary Secretaries

MR. G.W.K. FORD MRS. M. KRYSKO VON TRYST
(General) (Editorial)

Honorary Treasurer Honorary Librarian

A/PROF, D.E. WINCH Miss P.M, Callaghan

Members of Council

MR, C.V. ALEXANDER DR. G.C. LOWENTHAL
DR. R.S. BHATHAL MK ).E..D. O°KEEFRE
DR. D.F. BRANAGAN A/PROF, W.E. SMITH
MR. J.R. HARDIE

New England Representative: PROF. S.C. HAYDON

Contents

VOLUME 126

PARTS 1 and 2

SUTHERLAND, F.L.
Demise of the Dinosaurs and other Denizens II - by Combined
Catastrophic Causes? (Presidential Address 1993)

HUGI, Th., FARDY, N.C., MORGAN N.C., and SWAINE, D.J.
Trace Elements in Some Swiss Coals

BAGGS, Sydney A.
Underground Space: The Geospatial Planning Option for
2lst Century Sydney, Part One: Historical Overview and
Rationale for the Use of Geospace

BRANAGAN, D.F., and CAIRNS, H.C.
Tesselated Pavements in the Sydney Region, New South Wales

YOO, 2K.
Stratigraphic and Coal Seam Correlations of the Illawarra
Coal Measures in the Ulan and Bylong Areas, Western
Coalfield, Sydney Basin, New South Wales

ABSTRACTS OF THESES: 19
XU, Arron S.L.: F NMR of Erythrocytes: "Split Peak"
Phenomenon, Membrane Potential and
Membrane Transport

OUDSHOORN, Michael John: Atlantis: A Tool for Language
Definition and Interpreter Synthesis

GATEI, Magtouf H.: Some Aspects of the Pathogenicity and
Immunity of Bovine Leukemia Virus Infection
in Cattle and Sheep

HE, Fuxiang: Provenance, Diagenesis and Reservoir
Characteristics of Sandstones of the
Great Australian Basin Succession in NSW,
Australia

COUNCIL REPORT, 1992-1993
Report
Abstracts of Proceedings
Errata? Vol,i25 Parts 3 and 4
Summer School (Photo) 1992
Financial Statement
Awards
Biographical Memoirs

Parts 3 and 4

BENNETT, Max R.

A Consideration of Humphrey's "Cerebal Sentinent Loop"
Explanation of Consciousness from "A History of the Mind"
by Nicholas Humphrey

BRANAGAN, David and CAIRNS, Hugh
Marks on Sandstone Surfaces - Sydney Region, Australia:
Cultural Origins and Meanings?

27

37

63

73

87

88

89

90

93
93
96
oF.
98
29
105
108

Pt

125

Contents

STERNHELL, S.
Bonding and Non-Bonding
(Liversidge Research Lecture 1992)

Liversidge Research Lecture 1992 (photo)

BAGGS, Sydney A.
Underground Space: The Geospatial Planning Option for
Zist Century Sydney. Part’ Two:=-Geospace an the Future;
a Case Study: 21st Century Sydney

LAWRENCE, L.J., STOCKSIEK, C.M, and WILLIAMS, P.A.
Mallardite from Broken Hill

BENNETT, Max R.
Understanding the Brain in the 2lst Century

COENRAADS, Robert R.j
The San Calixto Observatory in La Paz, Bolivia, Eighty
Years of Operation. Director Dr. Lawrence A. Drake S.J.

ABSTRACTS OF THESES:
LANGFORD, Steven J.: Porphyrin-Based Building Blocks

BISHOP, Mark A.: Craterform Origin Derived by
Quantitative Geomorphology

CHERAS uP Ass The Role of Thrombosis in Ischaemic
Necrosis of Bone (INB) and
Primary Osteo-arthritis (OA)

MOHR, Philip B.: Roles of Status and Behaviour in
Group Influence: Towards a Status -
Confirmation Model

INDEX to Volume 126
Date of Publication:

Vol. 126 Parts 1 and 2: June 1993
Parts 3 and 4: December 1993

135

144

145

165

167

phe

199

201

203

205

207

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Contents

VOLUME 126 Parts 3 and 4

BENNETT, Max R.

A Consideration of Humphrey's "Cerebal Sentinent Loop"
Explanation of Consciousness from "A History of the Mind"

by Nicholas Humphrey

1a

BRANAGAN, David and CAIRNS, Hugh
Marks on Sandstone Surfaces = Sydney Region, Australia:
Cultural Origins and Meanings? 125

STERNHELL, S.

Bonding and Non-Bonding

(Liversidge Research

BAGGS, Sydney A,

Lecture 1992) 135

Underground Space: The Geospatial Planning Option for
2lst Century Sydney Part Two:- Geospace in the Future,
a Case Study: 21st Century Sydney 145

LAWRENCE, L.J., STOCKSIEK,

C.M. and WILLIAMS, P.A.

Mallardite from Broken Hill 165

Liversidge Research Lecture 1992 (photo)

BENNETT, Max Re

144

Understanding the Brain in the 2lst Century 167

COENRAADS, Robert R,

The San Calixto Observatory in La Paz, Bolivia, Eighty

Years of Operation,
ABSTRACTS OF THESES:
LANGFORD, Steven J,:

BISHOP, Mark A.:

CHERAS, P.A.:

MOHR, Philip B.:

INDEX to Volume 126

Date of Publication:
Vol, 126 Parts 1 and
Parts 3 and

Director Dr, Lawrence A, Drake S,J, 191

Porphyrin=Based Building Blocks 199

Craterform Origin Derived by Quantitative
Geomorphology 201

The Role of Thrombosis in Ischaemic
Necrosis of Bone (INB) and
Primary Osteoearthritis (0A) 203

Roles of Status and Behaviour in

Group Influence: Towards a Statuse

Confirmation Model 205
207

2: June 1993
4: December 1993

JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS

OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY
OF NEW SOUTH WALES

Volume 127 —siParts 1 and 2

Nos 371 -— 372

1994

ISSN 0035-9173

PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY
P.O. BOX 1525, MACQUARIE CENTRE, NSW 2113

ISSUED: June, 1994

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES

OFFICE BEARERS FOR 1993-1994

Patron - His Excellency Rear Admiral Peter Sinclair. A.C., Governor of
New South Wales.

President - Mr. John R. Hardie BSc FGS, MACE,

Vice-Presidents - Dr. R.A.L. Osborne, Dip Ed Syd Teach Coll, MSc Syd, PhD Syd
Prof. J.H. Loxton MSc Melb, PhD Camb
Dr. E.C, Pottér PhD Lond, FRSC; FRACT
Dr. D.J. Swaine MSc Melb, PhD Aberd, FRACI
Dr. F.L. Sutherland, Bsc Tasm. PhD James Cook

Hon. Secretaries - Mr. G.W.K. Ford, MBE, MA Camb. FIE Aust
Mrs Krysko von Tryst, BSc, Grad Dip Min Tech. MAusIMM

Hon. Treasurer - A/Prof, D.E. Winch, MSc PhD Syd. FRAS
Hon, Librarian - Miss P.M, Callaghan, BSc Syd, MSc Macq. ALAA
Councillors - Dr. R,S. Bhathal,CertEd, BSc, PhD, FSAAS
Dr. D.F. Branagan, MSc,PhD, FGS
Dr. R.R. Coenraads,B.A./Hons.) Macq, MSc Uni. British Columbia
Dr. R.A. Creelman, BA Macq, MSc Macq, PhD Macq, FAusIMM
Dr. A.A. Day, BSc Syd, PhD Camb, FGS, FAusIMM
Dr. G.C, Lowenthal, Dip Publ Admin Melb, BA Melb, MSc, PhD NSW

Visiting Prof. W.E. Smith, MSc Syd, MSc Oxf, PhD NSW, MInstP,MAIP
New England Rep: Professor S.C. Haydon MA Oxf. PnD Wales, FInst,P, FAIP
Address: - Royal Society of New South Wales

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Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 127, pp.01-22,1994
ISSN 0035-9173/94/010001-22 $4.00/1

Caves, Cement, Bats and Tourists:
Karst science and limestone resource

management in Australia.

R. A. L. Osborne

Abstract: There is a long history of acrimonious disputes in eastern
Australia between the conservation of caves and limestone (karst)
landscapes and the extraction of limestone for industry. These
disputes have often set legal precedents that have had important
consequences in other areas of conservation. The disputes can be best
understood as competition over a limited resource between users who
hold conflicting world- views and value systems.

= Can these disputes, which have cost millions of dollars, be
avoided in the future?

Is it possible to achieve effective conservation and management

of our karst resources and maintain an economically viable
limestone industry?

What should we do to rehabilitate abandoned limestone
quarries?

How do we avoid the environmental and engineering problems
that can arise when urbanisation and infrastructure extends
over limestone?

z How do we prevent recreational and tourist use of caves from
causing irreparable damage?

These issues can only be resolved in the long term by political
decisions, but such decisions will need to be informed by sound
scientific advice.

Karst studies which could provide this advice are both fragmented
and poorly developed in Australia. It is imperative for both economic
and environmental reasons to expand and promote quality scientific
research into Australia’s karst and caves.

INTRODUCTION

Until late January this year I had very
firm thoughts about the topic on which I
would address you tonight, in fact, I had
written a large portion of the text for an
address “On the origin of limestone chambers”
and was in the process of preparing
illustrations. Events in the last week of
January, however, resulted in a complete
change of tack, so that I am now presenting
an address about a highly politicised issue
concerning the relationship between science,
industry, government and the environment,
rather than speculation about the origin of
natural phenomena which I have always
found somewhat puzzling.

On the 27th and 28th of January 1994
I attended a government enquiry in Adelaide
into Sellicks Hill Quarry Cave as an expert
witness for the Australian Speleological
Federation Inc. This enquiry examined the
most recent example of a land use conflict
between cave conservation and limestone
mining in Australia and illustrated in a
microcosm a number of issues which have
concerned me for some time, principally, how
to balance the resource needs of Australia for
limestone with the conservation and proper
management of caves and other aspects of
the karst environment developed in and on
limestones.

FINDING AN OVERVIEW

Disputes between limestone miners
and conservationists have often been
understood as being about the relative
values of resources and activities, such as are
caves more valuable than miners’ jobs, or is

cement more valuable than bats?

R. A. L OSBORNE

In this discussion I have taken a
different approach which seeks to understand
karst management disputes, not only between
limestone miners and conservationists but
also between caving groups and karst
managers, in terms of three key issues :-

i competition for a limited resource
‘i conflicting goals and values
- resource security.

Competition for a Limited Resource

One of the most important factors
underlying disputes about limestone resource
management in eastern Australia is that the
disputes involve competition for a limited
resource. This factor forms an essential part
not only of disputes between conservationists
and miners, but also of disputes between
members of other competing user groups
such as caving clubs.

three
fundamental reasons why this is so, firstly

There are absolutely
limestone, caves and karst landscapes are, in
human terms at least, limited and non-
renewable resources, secondly the purest and
therefore most economically valuable
limestone forms the most extensive and most
highly decorated caves and the most
spectacular limestone karst landscapes, and
thirdly limestone deposits close to major cities
and transport routes are the most economical
to exploit for mining, tourism and recreation.
Thus all users and potential users of
limestone and limestone landscapes are
competing for the same limited, non-
renewable, resource; high purity limestone in
close proximity to transport and population
centres.

LIMESTONE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT :

It is competition for a limited resource
that leads the the perennial issue among
recreational cavers of which persons or
groups should be allowed access to caves.
Some cavers have argued that in order to
protect the resource, people (usually , but not
always, members of other groups) should be
discouraged from taking up the activity.
Recreational access to caves on public land in
Australia has in many instances been
controlled by permit systems operated on a
“merit” basis (Hamilton-Smith, 1990). Asa
result member societies of the Australian
Speleological Federation have secured, and
jealously guarded, exclusive access to many
caves. Conflict has resulted since the
Australian Speleological Federation does not
represent the majority of people involved in
caving.

Secrecy has also been used by cavers to
in an attempt to protect caves from vandalism
and from damage by persons “lacking in
merit”. One example of this approach is the
suggestion by Webb (1990) that the names
and location of caves should be removed for
topographic maps available to the public.

Conflicting Goals and Values
Competition for a limited resource
would not be difficult to resolve if there was
general agreement among the protagonists as
to the goals and values on which the
management of karst resources should be
based. Disputes over karst resources involve
competition over which group’s values should
form the basis of management. Although the
public is most aware of disputes between
limestone miners and conservationists, karst
management has been plagued by disputes
between; government agencies involved in

resource conservation (e.g. national parks

services) and those involved resource
exploitation (e.g. mines departments)
(Kiernan, 1993), the Australian Speleological
Federation and other cavers, recreational
users of caves and tourist users of caves, cave
managers wishing to restrict access for
conservation reasons and various groups
wishing to gain access.

Each of these groups considers the
limestone and its karst features to be
important on the basis of different value
systems. While miners and show cave
operators both have a financial interest in
the limestone, recreational cavers could claim
to have a right to enjoy public assets, and
that this should not be a privilege extended to
certain groups on the basis of assumed
“merit”. Conservationists and some managers
on the other hand hold that the integrity of
the resource is the prime value.

Limestone and karst landscapes are
thus competed for by those who seem them
primarily as a financial resource to be
exploited, those who see them as a
recreational resource to enjoy, those who claim
to have a scientific interest in them, and those
who wish to preserve them in a state
relatively unaffected by humans.

Resource Security (Tenure Issues)

The third issue common to all disputes
concerning the use and management of
limestone and karst landscapes is that of
resource security. Resource security is
generally discussed in terms of access to
resources by primary industries and so we are
used to hearing resource security raised as an
issue by the forestry and mining industries.
Resource security, however, is an important
issue in all areas of karst management and it

4 R. A. L OSBORNE

QUEENSLAND

1
SOUTH AUSTRALIA mice
'

NEW SOUTH WALES

TASMANIA

: Q

Figure 1:- Eastern Australia:- A, Mt. Etna;
B, Texas Caves; C, Yessabah;
D, Jenolan Caves; E, Colong Caves;
F, Bungonia; G, Cave Island; H,Ida
Bay; 1, Preciputous Blutt: J, Gor-
don-Franklin Karst.

has been the desire for secure access to
resources or for security for resources from
access by other users that has lain at the
heart of many environmental disputes
concerning limestone.

Limestone miners would expect that
once they obtained a mining lease they would
be able to pursue their mining plan without
disruption or interference. In a number of the
disputes I will discuss later, for example Mt.
Etna and Ida Bay, this has not been the case.

Similarly conservationists would
expect that once a karst area was dedicated
as a “Reserve for the Preservation of Caves”,
activities which damage or destroy caves

would not occur. Caves reserves in New South
Wales, however, are not exempt from mining
title, with mining occurring in the reserves at
Wellington and Wombeyan Caves. This issue
was central to the Colong dispute of the
1960s. The desire for resource security was
also a central factor in the decision by
conservationists to take legal action in the
case of Yessabah Caves, New South Wales.
The current situation in most parts of
Australia is that resource security for

purposes other than mining, only exists in the
case of limestone areas in National Parks

where in some states it is clear that mining is
prohibited.

Resource security also plays a role in
tensions between recreational cavers and
management authorities, with cavers wishing
to maintain traditional access to caves and
some cavers feeling that they have a degree
of ownership over caves which they have
discovered or initially explored. Management
authorities, however, feel that their duty to
protect the caves from damage, and their
undoubted legal responsibilities outweigh any
traditional use rights or rights that come from

discovery and exploration.

ENVIRONMENTAL DISPUTES OVER
LIMESTONE MINING

There is a long history of landuse
disputes in eastern Australia over use of
limestone for extractive purposes and the
conservation of karst caves and their fauna.
The history of these disputes has parallelled
the growth of conservation movement in
Australia and the outcomes of these disputes
have had repercussions for environmental
practice and law in areas far broader that
cave conservation.

LIMESTONE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 5

WESTERN WORKINGS

CADASTRAL BOUNDARY
suv MINED LAND

-—---- CAVE OUTLINE

50m

MT ETNA

NATIONAL PARK

Figure 2:- Mt.Etna, Queensland:- A, Resurrection Cave; B, Bat Cleft;

C, Elephant Hole; D, Speaking Tube.
Mt. Etna, Queensland

By far the longest-running and most
acrimonious dispute in Australia has centred
on Mt. Etna, a conical limestone hill, 25 km
north of Rockhampton in Central Queensland
(Fig. 1, A). Leases were issued over parts of
Mt. Etna in 1962 and mining commenced on
its eastern face in 1966.

In April 1967 the mine intersected a
blind cave which became known to the cavers
as Resurrection Cave and the miners as
Quarryman’s Cave (Fig. 2, A). An agreement
was reached, and has been honoured, that
this cave would be preserved in future mining
activities. Other restrictions, such as not
mining within 66 feet (20 m) of a cave
entrance were placed on the operation, but
were lifted in 1988 when the company
surrendered 13 ha of the central part of Mt.

Etna from it leases which became a reserve
and later National Park to protect Bat Cleft
(Fig. 2, B). Mining operations moved to the
western side Mt. Etna in 1970 and operations
on the eastern face ceased in 1975. Mining
on the western side of the mountain
destroyed Crystal Palace Cave in 1982.

Mining at Mt. Etna has been strongly
opposed by conservation groups since its

inception and a variety of actions have been
taken stop the mine’s operation including

several legal actions, listing of the caves on
the Register of the National Estate, filling
drill holes with cement, obtaining support
from the International Union for the
Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources and numerous media campaigns.
A number of publications including Sprent
(1970),
during the course of the dispute.

and Anon (i988) were produced

6 R. A. L OSBORNE

In 1989 a major legal and protest
campaign was launched to protect Elephant
Hole (Fig. 2, C) and Speaking Tube (Fig 2, D)
Caves from being destroyed by the western
' workings. This involved highly publicised sit-
ins in caves adjacent to the quarry, police
action against protesters and appeals to
international conservation bodies.

Legal action to protect the caves on the
basis that either they were the “nest” for
ghost bats or that mining would harm the
bats themselves was undertaken by the
Central Queensland Speleological Society.
The Society first had to show that it had
standing in the matter. This led to an appeal
to the High Court of Australia. On May 26,
1989, after proceedings had been remitted to
the Supreme Court of Queensland, Mr.
Justice De Jersey ordered the plaintiffs to
deposit $ 45,000 with the court as security
against the defendant’s costs; this could not
be raised and the action lapsed.

The dispute left behind a highly
divided community and had a siginficant
social impact, aS many cavers and mine
workers are neighbours in the small village of
The Caves. In spite of this, current events at
Mt. Etna suggest that new approaches to
dealing with environmental disputes over
limestone mining may be developing. Under
new ownership Central Queensland Cement
Ltd. has now included members of the
Speleological Society on its committee to
advise on the rehabilitation of the eastern
mine workings and I have undertaken
consulting work for the Compary to ensure
that rehabilitation work does not damage
Resurrection Cave.

a
/ /
c / ui
4 / *
° / ¢
%
bs / N
iz) ih
*s, i f S
~ /
/ d /
/ Hy / 1 km
1 ff / _—__—__—_1
iy
Mi ie Mh Vili Bae 3 RESERVE BOUNDARY
/ tie c /
/ —
(P hi HG LIMESTONE OUTCROP
+ MINING LEASE
Figure 3:- Colong Caves, New South Wales after

Middleton (1969):- A, Church Creek
Cave; B, Billys Creek Caves; <a;
Colong Caves.

Colong, New South Wales

In January 1967 (Middleton, 1969)
the New
announced that it would grant a mining lease
at Church Creek (Fig. 1, E) within the area of
the then proposed Kanangra-Boyd National

South Wales Government

Park and within land reserved in 1899 for
“the Preservation of Caves” (Fig. 3). This
action resulted in the so-called Colong

dispute and led to the formation of the Colong
Committee, now Colong Foundation for

Wilderness, which continues to be an active
lobby group. One practice that developed
during this dispute was to name caves after
politicians, a practice used with some

LIMESTONE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 7

controversy in the Franklin Dam dispute (see
below). In the end the limestone was not
mined, the mining leases were cancelled and
the land incorporated in Kanangra-Boyd
National Park.

Bungonia, New South Wales

In 1970 applications for mining leases
were made at South Marulan (Fig. 1, F),
north of Bungonia Canyon, near the site of
the present South Marulan Limestone
Quarry (Middleton, 1972) (Fig. 4). Objections
to the leases were made by the Colong
Committee and Mr. W.J. Counsell. At a
hearing of the Mining Wardens Court in 1971
the objectors and their expert advisors were
able to present evidence, making this the the
first time that environmental groups had
access to mining tribunals and first time that
scientific experts (one of whom is a current
Council Member of this Society) were used by
environmental groups to develop alternative

mining plans.

The Colong and Bungonia disputes
made members of the caving fraternity in
New South Wales aware of the need to
document karst areas which they wished to
preserve and resulted in the production of
Sydney Speleological Society Occasional
Paper No 4 (Ellis et .al. 1972) which for the
first time presented an overview of a karst
area in New South Wales, including cave
maps, in a bound volume available for public
sale. Concern about conservation and mining
issues at Timor Caves, near Scone resulted in
a similar publication (James et. al. 1976).

Precipitous Bluff, Tasmania
Precipitous Bluff rises 1200m above

sea level, just 2 km from the sea, on the

SOUTH MARULAN

; MARULAN

\ LIMESTONE’

7 STATE RECREATION AREA \
N
NX
\ é | Q
\ BUNGONIA/CAVES
\ ff ve)

\\
=
BS = MINED LAND
- VA
1

WE = — RECREATION AREA
i[*
Qo \ \
\ == — | TROAD
: INE
i , es DOL

ni

— CLIFF

Figure 4:- Bungonia Caves and South Marulan
Limestone Mine, New South Wales: -
A, Bungonia Canyon; B, Bundonia
Lookdown; C, Adams Lookout.

remote southern coast of Tasmania (Fig. 1, I).
The Bluff consists of a cliff-lined edifice of
Jurassic dolerite overlying the Ordovician
Gordon Limestone (Fig. 5).

In December 1971 application was
lodged for a Prospectors Licence over the
limestone at Precipitous Bluff (Wessing,
1979). The National Parks and Wildlife
Service and a number of conservation groups
objected to the application which was heard in
the Devonport Mining Wardens Court in
December 1972. The applicant claimed that
the conservation groups lacked standing in
the case while the National Parks and

Wildlife Service was prevented from
appearing by the newly elected (Labor) state

government. The Mining Warden, however,
decided to hear the conservationists case. The
applicant appealed to the Tasmanian

R. A. LL OSBORNE

Supreme Court which held in June 1973 that
the conservationists did not have a legal
interest in the area and ordered that their
objections be struck out. An appeal by the
-conservationists in 1975 was unsuccessful
and Tasmania Supreme Court’s judgment was
upheld.

Despite the legal decisions of the 1970s
Precipitous Bluff was never mined and is now
part of the Southwest Tasmania World

Heritage Area.
i
ith
A
HARA
HH
cA
bildattatt
A
7),
i HH nat | ag or
| ‘ itn I A iil Wi
iy Ne (vamisnine FALLS
Pal Hy a:
a v Pvivivve
dH in is pa
a
HY
INH AHHHHI
Datstattatadgtlat
. et
[i
5 HH
2 \ tt Hl

PRECIPITOUS BLUFF

a

| RHR N

v JURASSIC DOLERITE

ORDOVICIAN GORDON
LIMESTONE GROUP

SOUTHERN OCEAN

Figure 5:- Precipitous Bluff, Tasmania after
Eberhard et. al. (1992).

Yessabah, New South Wales

A relatively small mine for agricultural
lime operated in the Recreation Reserve at
Yessabah Caves, near Kempsey, New South
Wales (Fig. 1, C) between 1923 and 1991.
The mine is directly adjacent to an area of
intensely karstified limestone covered by
significant dry rainforest and containing an
important bat roosting cave, (Fig. 6). In
1980s the mining lease lapsed and in 1986 a
new lease was granted which covered most of
the karst area. This lease was later
withdrawn and a period of complex
negotiations and lobbying followed during

MINING LEASE 31/1/1986
—~~— CONTOUR, interval 20 m
+ MINED LAND

nd YESSABAH BAT CAVE

re CAVE ENTRANCE

100 m
Figure 6:- Yessabah, New South Wales
which various proposals were made which

would have restricted the area available for

mining.

LIMESTONE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 9

In 1990 Mr. K.G. Vaughan-Taylor
began legal action to to require the miners,
David Mitchell-Melcann Ltd., to prepare an
environmental impact statement and obtain
planning permission. As the legal action
proceeded in 1991 the likelihood that mining
might do harm and that the mining was
likely to significantly affect the environment
was conceded by the mining company and the
Minister and the case concentrated on two
legal issues (Larkin, 1992):-

Was the mining company entitled to
expand the mine laterally and double
output without planning approval and
therefore an environmental impact
statement ?

Was the Minister entitled to grant a
mining lease without there being

an environmental impact statement for
him to consider ?

In June 1991 the Land and
Environment Court ruled that mining at
Yessabah could continue without an
environmental impact statement, but only at
a rate of 18,000 tonnes per annum, far short
of the Company's mining plan. The case went
to appeal and on Friday November 15, 1991
three judges in the New South Wales Court of
Appeal ruled that an environmental impact
statement was required before the Minister
could lawfully grant a new mining lease and
that existing use rights only applied to land
“actually and physically used” for mining in
the past. An injunction was issued preventing
further mining until the mining company and
the Minister had complied with their legal
obligations. This ruling has resulted in the
abandonment of mining at Yessabah.

Exit Cave and the Lune River (Bender’s)
Quarry, Tasmania

Exit Cave near Ida Bay, Tasmania
(Fig. 1, H) is the largest cave developed in
lower Palaeozoic limestone in Australia and
is thought to consist of some 40 km of cave
passages. Exit Cave lies just within the
South West Tasmania World Heritage Area.
Limestone mining at Lune River Quarry,
directly north of Exit Cave (Fig. 7, A),
became highly controversial in 1990 when
water tracing experiments indicated that
there was a direct hydrological connection
between Exit Cave and the mine (Fig. 7, B).
Detailed investigations in November 1991
(Kiernan, 1993) confirmed the connection. A
complex series of protests, political actions
and state/federa! interactions resulted in the
mine being closed in October 1992.
Rehabilitation of the mine site is now largely

complete.

Sellicks Hill, South Australia

At Sellicks Hill Quarry, 50 km south of
Adelaide (Fig. 1, K), dolomite is extracted
largely for use as high quality aggregate. In
September 1991 the mine intersected a large
cavity. On the invitation of the operators,
Southern Quarries Pty Ltd., members of the
Cave Exploration Group of South Australia
explored, mapped, and made a video of the
cave. The cavers signed a legal document
agreeing to keep information concerning the
cave secret.

On the tenth of December 1993 the
largest chamber of the cave was blasted,
using a blast pattern based in part on
information obtained from the cavers’ map.

10 R. A. L OSBORNE

MYSTERY
CREEK
CAVE

z=

LITTLE GRUN
CAVE

EXIT CAVE

500 m
a)

MINED LAND
-~- WORLD HERITAGE AREA

RAILWAY

— CAVE SILHOUETTE

Figure 7:-Ida Bay, Tasmania after Kiernan (1993) :-
A, Lune River (Bender's) Quarry; B,
Hydrologic connection confirmed by
water tracing; C, Old Lune River Quarry.

Following the blast the cavers made
information about the cave and its unusual
aragonite speleothems public, resulting in
considerable media and political interest. In
January 1994 a closed government enquiry
was held into the likely condition of the cave
before and after the blast.

Currently the Australian Speleological
Federation Inc. is taking legal action in an
attempt to protect the cave and a member of
the Cave Exploration Group of South
Australia has been threatened with legal
action for libel by the mining company.

PREVENTING AND SOLVING
DISPUTES OVER LIMESTONE MINING

Given the number and severity of the
disputes that have arisen between limestone
miners and conservationists over the last 25
or so years, and the potential for disputes to
arise in the future, there is clearly a need to
devise policies and practices that will produce

a balance between the need to extract
carbonate rocks and the preservation of karst
environments.

Preventing Disputes

The factors outlined before indicate
that karst resource management will always
involve conflicts of interest, however it is not
inevitable that these conflicts will become
acrimonious and the focus of intense media,
political and legal activity. Two measures that
will assist in developing less emotional and
costly disputes are simply to ensure that
proper data is available and to open lines of

communication between the _ different
interested parties.

Ensuring Proper Data is Available

Resource information for the limestone
industry has been traditionally provided by
state geological surveys and departments of
mines. This work has been collated into major
volumes such as Connah (1958) for
Queensland, Carne & Jones (1919) and
Lishmund et. al. (1986), for New South Wales
and Hughes (1957) for Tasmania.

Given the times at which most of these
works were produced one it would not be
surprising if they contained little information
about karst features or the environmental
values of the deposits they describe. The two
editions of Limestone Deposits of New South
Wales, however show and unexpected and
quite worrying trend. Carne and Jones
contains much detail about the caves
developed in the State, no doubt influenced
by the participation of Oliver Trickett in the

project.

The comments about karst features

LIMESTONE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 11

and environmental issues in Lishmund e¢ al.
are somewhat surprising for a work published
in 1986. There is no reference whatsoever to
any scientific literature on Australian karst.
This is gravely concerning given that one of
the founders of modern karst geomorphology,
J.N. Jennings (1916-1984), lived and worked
in Canberra from 1952 until his death,
published on the karst of New South Wales in
local and international journals, and
produced an introductory text (Jennings,
1971) which cited many examples from New
South Wales. Also a refereed Australian
scientific journal, Helictite, devoted to cave
science, and containing numerous papers on
the limestone deposits described by Lishmund
et al., has been published regularly since
1962.

Although there have been a number of
officers in state mines departments who have
extensive knowledge of karst issues ( e.g. G.R.
Wallis, see Wallis, 1976) there have been few
occasions where this expertise has been
brought to bear on cases involving conflict
over mining and karst conservation (one
outstanding exception being Wallis’ work at
Wombeyan, Wallis, 1965).

Standard works and journals on
karst are rare or absent among the volumes
in mines department libraries and papers in
general scientific journals concerning karst
are often not referenced in departmental data
collations about limestone deposits.
and mines
department staff are thus not necessarily

Limestone miners
alerted to environmental issues concerning
potential limestone mining localities.
Expanding the information base available to
miners and mines administrators is an

essential first step in defusing potential
disputes between miners and conservationists
over karst. No mines department library
should be without a copy of the Australian
Karst Index (Matthews, 1985), a subscription
to Helictite
Karst Geomorphology (Jennings, 1985) and

and as a minimum a copy of

works on the environmental management of
karst such as The Management of Soluble
Rock Landscapes (Kiernan, 1988).

Opening Dialogue

Frequently mining company decision
makers and leading conservationists only see
each other in the media or on the steps of the
courthouse, neither setting being very
conducive to constructive dialogue. It
would seem to be very beneficial if a forum
could be developed at which issues of
limestone resource management could be
discussed in a non-confrontational manner.
Such a forum should involve representatives
of the Australian Mining Industry Council (or
state Chambers of Mines) and the Australian
Speleological Federation Inc., and could

possibly be expanded to _ include
representatives of government agencies
concerned with mining and nature

conservation.

Initial steps in this direction appear to
be underway in New South Wales where
dialogue between the Australian Speleological
Federation and the Chamber of Mines is
imminent. This is an important positive step
in improving the management of our

limestone resources.

The Environmental Assessment
Process

Environmental planning laws in some

12 R. A. L OSBORNE

Australian states require that an
environmental impact statement is prepared
for all major developments. Where such
requirements exist, limestone mining is
‘usually of such a_ scale as to require the
preparation of an E.I.S. One of the problems
with this process is that environmental,
conservation and heritage legislation in most
states is designed to protect flora, fauna,
Aboriginal and European cultural heritage
items and lacks specific references to non-
living (abiotic) heritage such as geological
sites and karst. At present there is no
guarantee that karst will be properly
addressed (except as an environment for bats
or other vertebrates or as a substratum for
particular floras) in the environmental
assessment process.

Environmental studies prior to
limestone mining should include extensive
investigation of the hydrogeology of the karst,
of the surface karst landscapes and, in
particular, should focus on the presence or
otherwise of any inter-linked systems of
cavities. A major part of such studies should
consider the likely effects of any mining
activity on the environmental and heritage
significance of any cavity system and its
contents.

Environmental plans and regulations

apply to
environments can have unexpected bad

designed to non-karstic

consequences when applied to limestone
areas. This has been highlighted in the case

of Sellicks Hill, South Australia where ©

regulations designed to reduce the visual
impact of mines on the Adelaide Hills
resulted in the mine being sited in a valley
between two limestone hills, a locality where

the was a greater than average chance of the
mine intersecting cavities.

Is is essential that karst and other
non-living natural heritage items gain the
status afforded to flora, fauna, Aboriginal
and built cultural heritage items by being
given specific reference in environmental
planning legislation and procedures, and that
planning regulations are assessed to ensure
that they do not cause unintended damage to
karst environments.

Monitoring of Mining

Standard procedures for’ the
environmental monitoring of open cut mines
may not be appropriate in the case of
limestone mines operating in or adjacent to
cavernous limestone. The complexity and
conduit nature of karst aquifers mean that
there are special risks of pollution and
hydrological disruption that do not exist when
mines operate in rocks that are either

insoluble or granular aquifers.

Officials charged with responsibility for
inspecting and monitoring mines in limestone
should be provided with special training in
the karst process and in the environmental
management and monitoring of soluble rock

landscapes.

The Problem of Chance
Intersections

Even with the most exhaustive pre-
mining studies, mines in limestone are likely
to intersect cavities whose presence was
unexpected. Presently operating mines for
which prior studies were not carried out are
very likely to intersect cavities. Intersection of

LIMESTONE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 13

unexpected cavities by mines is one of the
most difficult issues in limestone resource
management.

Hearsay evidence, and material
observed in mine waste dumps, would suggest
that operating limestone mines frequently
intersect cavities containing vertebrate fossils
and speleothem, and on occasions major
hydrological conduits. There have been few
occasions where scientists have been
permitted to study vertebrate fossil deposits
exposed in mines (one case being at
Wombeyan Caves, Hope, 1982 ) or where
miners have attempted to preserve fossils by
storing fossil bearing muds in separate
stockpiles (as D. Kime has done at Mt. Etna).

It would appear that the, entirely
understandable, reaction of many mine
operators is to quickly fill, remove or
otherwise destroy cavities intersected by
mining so as not to run the risk of significant
and costly interruption to mining. This
reaction undoubtably results in the loss of
significant information of scientific value and
may also result in the loss of heritage items of
great value to the community.

A fair and workable approach to the
problem of chance intersections would involve
a process of compulsory reporting, rapid
appraisal, high quality and quickly
undertaken scientific study, documentation
and where appropriate salvage and, in cases
where features are of extremely high value,
restriction of mining in exchange for

appropriate and fair compensation.

Solving Disputes
Legal Solutions

Mt. Etna in Queensland and Yessabah

in New South Wales are two examples where
legal processes have been used as a means of
resolving disputes between conservationists
and miners. In each case the outcome was
different, Mt. Etna favouring the miners and
Yessabah favouring the conservationists,
however, on reflection, both cases illustrate
the problems inherent in using the law to
settle environmental disputes.

Firstly such legal actions are extremely
costly as illustrated by the order for security
for costs in the Mt. Etna case; $45,000 was to
be set aside to cover the defendant’s costs up
to and including the first day of the trial. The
cost of legal action can not only make legal
action inaccessible but can also prove
economically disastrous to the losing side

legal procedures tend to
than
environmental or resource management
In the Mt. Etna

environmental evidence was never heard

Secondly,

explore legal issues rather

issues. case the
because the case did not proceed to trial,
while in the Yessabah case the matter was
decided on legal grounds and so the
environmental evidence was never subjected
to the scrutiny of cross examination. Thus
neither case resolved the truth or otherwise of
the environmental, economic and resource
management assertions being made by the
disputing parties.

A third major limitation of legal
processes is pointed out by Larkin (1992).
Environmental law is more concerned with
how decisions are made, rather than with the
outcome of the decision making process. The
role of the courts in general is to ensure that
proper and informed decisions are made by

14 R. A.L. OSBORNE

those entrusted by law with the responsibility
of decision making, e.g. ministers and
executive government, not to make decisions
in their place. Thus if a court rules that a
decision has been made incorrectly, it is
possible to start the process again in a correct
manner, resulting in exactly the outcome
that the legal action was intended to halt.

Legal solutions lack certainty for other
reasons. Most environmental law gives great
discretionary powers to ministers, and
parliaments can enact legislation to overrule
court decisions, thus winning the court battle
does not, necessarily result in the victor’s
cause prevailing. It is probably true to say
that the success of Vaughan-Taylor’s court
action in preventing expansion of mining at
-Yessabah was due more to the volatile nature
of the New South Wales Parliament, where
independent members held the balance of
power, than to any inherent advantages of
seeking a legal solution.

Political Solutions

Many more limestone resource disputes
have been resolved by political means than
by any other. Political solutions have three
advantages over legal solutions; firstly they
are nowhere near as expensive as legal
solutions, secondly they are more likely to
result in the losing party gaining some form
of compensation or trade off as a result of
whatever decision is reached, and thirdly

political decisions frequently result in
resolutions that provide a high degree of

security of tenure for the particular land use
favoured by the decision.

Historically these advantages have
worked to the benefit of both miners and

conservationists. Colong Caves became part of
a national park, the South Marulan quarry
opposite Bungonia Caves is highly unlikely to
be closed prior to the end of its planned
working life, Precipitous Bluff is in a World
Heritage area and the former operators of the
Lune River Quarry have received a
compensation package.

Negotiated Solutions

There are no examples of disputes over
limestone mining which have been resolved
principally by negotiation. In both the Mt.
Etna and Yessabah cases there were attempts
at negotiation, but these were in a climate of
litigation where success was unlikely. It is
difficult to see how a negotiated solution could
take place outside a framework of litigation
unless there were active government
involvement, as conservationists have little to
offer miners in return for concessions except
for good publicity and support for
environmentally friendly projects.

Involvement of conservationists
through the public decision making process in

environmental planning and, as is the
current case at Mt. Etna, in decisions about
mine rehabilitation do, however, offer an
opportunity through which negotiated
solutions might be possible. Furthermore
should dialogue open between miners and
conservationists there is hope that in the
future disputes about the merits of mining or
conserving limestone resources may be settled
through negotiation ra:her then through
legal or political confrontation.

LIMESTONE MINE REHABILITATION
The rehabilitation of limestone mines is

becoming a significant issue in eastern

LIMESTONE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 15

Australia. A number of large mines have
ceased, or will soon cease, production, some
for economic reasons and some for
such
rehabilitation should be carried out is a new
issue for Australia and one in which the

international literature is of fairly recent

environmental reasons. How

origin.
Doing nothing

From studies I have carried out over
the last twelve months it has become clear
that doing nothing is not a good management
approach for abandoned limestone mines.

Abandoned
rehabilitation has occurred are frequently

mines where _ no
overrun by exotics such as Blackberry,
Lantana, Briar Rose and Tree of Heaven.
Vine and cane type exotics such as blackberry
and lantana appear to have a great
advantage in these areas as they are able to
spread from small isolated soil pockets over
large areas of bare rock. Where this has not
occurred eg. Old Lune River Quarry,
Tasmania (Fig. 7, C) and Pilkinton's Quarry
at Mt. Etna, Queensland only sparse
revegetation by native pioneer species has
occurred.

Natural vegetation on karst areas
largely depends on talus containing fines,
sediment-filled cavities and open joints for
its support . Some species (e.g. figs and
kurrajongs) are able to send roots great
distances down open joints in order to obtain
water. In abandoned mines many of these
niches for vegetation have been destroyed.
Mining generally removes the outer zone of
rock where joints are open and small solution

cavities which trap soil are common.

Machinery working on benches tends to
compact sediment in exposed cavities

making it unsuitable for vegetation.

In most mines where there has
been revegetation by native species a
particular pattern, shown in Figure 8 can be
observed:-

a. A zone of bare rock and
compacted gravel occurs between
the base of talus cones and the
disturbed edge of benches. In this
zone water often ponds and
mosses, sedges and reeds may
grow. If ponding does not occur
and /or there are no voids or
clay masses in the rock, the
bench zone will remain as bare
rock for decades after the
cessation of mining.

b. Plant growth on talus slopes is
controlled by the presence of
non-limestone fines (usually silt
and clay derived from cave
sediment bodies intersected by the
mine). Vegetation will grow on
talus slopes containing fines, but
not on those composed of pure
limestone rubble.

c. Joint-penetrating species such as
kurrajongs and figs are very
slow to revegetate abandoned

mine areas.
Revegetation

If abandoned limestone mines are
unlikely to satisfactorily revegetate of their
own accord then it is necessary to actively
revegetate them. Because limestone mine

16

R. A. LL OSBORNE

|
a
Ye js
» \
ee
Figure 8:- Revegetation zones on limestone mines

showing an idealised profile across
a single bench limestone mine.

A partly disturbed zone at edge of
quarry.

B Rubble zone at.edge of bench with
brambles such as lantana and black-
berry.

C Bare zone on bench surface, poorly
vegetated with reeds and sedges,

D Talus cone, supports small trees
and grass where fines are present.

E Undisturbed karst landscape with
cacliphile trees such as figs and
kurrajongs.

benches are an inhospitable environment for
most plants it is essential that seed-bed
material containing fines is applied to them.
Care must be taken that this material is
sterile and it is preferable to use clay waste
from the mine itself, rather than to import
fines.

There has
expressed about the likely impact of fines laid

been some concern
on quarry benches on the underlying karst
system and, clearly, action must be taken to
ensure that the fines are retained and do not
wash into the underground drainage system.
Planting in drill holes also has considerable
potential, particularly if the holes intersect
joints. From my observations of abandoned
mines it is unlikely that revegetation will be

successful unless fines capable of holding
moisture are provided.

Finding Alternate Landuses

Abandoned limestone mines have been
put to a number of uses some of which are
good alternatives to revegetation while
others are quite unsuitable. Many small
abandoned limestone mines have been used
as tips for domestic and commercial waste.
This is a very bad practice as effluent from
the waste can directly enter the karst
groundwater system, causing intractable
pollution problems.

One very aesthetic use of an
abandoned mine is found at Taree, New
South Wales where the Chatham Quarry, (see
Carne & Jones, 1919 Plate facing page 274)
which has filled with water, now forms an
ornamental lake in a retirement housing
complex. Western’s Quarry at Wingham New
South Wales (Carne & Jones, 1919, p 273) is
now the site for a Sports Complex which
includes a velodrome and go cart track. One
less environmentally-friendly alternate use is
found at the large abandoned limestone mine
at Brogans Creek, New South Wales which is
used as a film set for scenes involving
flammable liquid fires.

Secondary (Restoration) Blasting

One of the most controversial issues in
limestone mine rehabilitation involves
techniques developed in the United Kingdom
called “secondary” or “restoration” blasting.
These techniques, pioneered by John Gunn

and his associates (Gagen & Gunn, 1988,
Gunn & Bailey, 1991), use explosives to

reshape limestone mines’ either after

LIMESTONE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 17

extractive working has ceased, or at a final
stage of the mining process. The objective of
these techniques is to produce a post-mining
landscape that resembles natural karst
features, rather the leaving the mine
landscape of faces and benches intact.

“Restoration” blasting is particularly
suited to the U.K. where broad limestone
valleys lined by cliffs with talus slopes at their
base are common features of karst
landscapes. This type of landform is rare or
absent in eastern Australia restricting the

applicability of “restoration” blasting.

These techniques were proposed at
Lune River Quarry in Tasmania but rejected
due to opposition by some conservation
groups to the use of explosives. I have
suggested that these techniques could be of
benefit at Mt. Etna and would go some way to
restore the original volcano-like profile of the
mountain’s eastern face, however there is no
indication as yet as to whether these
techniques will be used or not.

Earthworks (non-explosive) and
Revegetation

Recent restoration work at the Lune
River Quarry in Tasmania has seen the

development of techniques to prevent mud
from entering stream sinks in the mine floor.
These techniques are an important advance
in limestone mine rehabilitation and are a
great credit to those involved.

INFRASTRUCTURE AND KARST
Dams
Karst landscapes with their complex
underground drainage systems pose
significant problems for dam construction.

Dam construction can also result in the
inundation of karst areas and cave systems.
The best documented cases of karst being
inundated in eastern Australia are Cave
Flat in New South Wales, now forming Cave
Island in Burrinjuck Dam (Fig. 1, G), and
Texas (Viator Hill) Caves in Queensland (Fig.
1, B) now inundated by the Glenlyon Dam.
Both Cave Flat (see Osborne, 1991) and
Texas Caves (Grimes, 1978) are recognised
vertebrate fossil localities.

Caves of the Gordon-Franklin River
system in Tasmania ( Middleton, 1979) (Fig.
1, J) were threatened with inundation by
proposed hydroelectric dams on the Franklin
and Lower Gordon Rivers. The presence of

Pleistocene archaeological material in these
caves played a major role in the dispute which

was finally resolved as a result of the 1983
federal election when the newly elected Labor
Commonwealth Government used foreign
affairs power to prevent construction of the
dams and protect the South West Tasmania
World Heritage Area.

Roads
Road failure is a common problem in

karst areas. Of particular concern is sinkhole
failure where withdrawal of fines from filled
dolines can cause rapid and catastrophic
failure. Kiernan (1988) describes a number of
such events at Mole Creek in Tasmania, while
the most significant recent event in New
South Wales involved the failure of the
Mountains Highway

Snowy near

Yarrangobilly Caves in 1986.

Many of these problems can be avoided
if appropriate geotechnical surveys are
carried out prior to road construction and if
drainage is designed to prevent inflow of

18 R. A. LL OSBORNE

water into sediment-filled cavities.

Forestry

Forestry can have a severe impact on
karst regions in that it can cause significant
amounts of erosion, lead to ground
instability, alter infiltration rates and change
soil and groundwater chemistry. The impact of
forestry operations on karst has been a
particular issue in Tasmania with significant
forestry operations being undertaken in the
Mole Creek and Florentine Valley karst areas.
Tasmania is unique in having two karst
specialists, K. Kiernan and R. Eberhard,

employed by its Forestry Commission.

In New South Wales there has been
particular concern about the effects of pine
plantation forestry in the catchment of the
Jenolan River upstream of Jenolan Caves
(Fig. 1, D). Detailed studies of the effects of
pine forests on limestone caves are being
undertaken by K. Kiernan in Tasmania and
by A. Spate in New South Wales.

High Tension Lines

High tension lines and their associated
access roads can have a significant impact
on karst landscapes. During the construction
phase erosion increases and surface karst
landforms may be destroyed by heavy
vehicles. The Mt. Piper to Marulan 5,000 KV
line was deviated near Wombeyan Caves in
New South Wales to minimise impact on the
karst. An example of the unsightly effects of
power lines on karst can be found at
Rosebrook, near Cooma in southern New

South Wales where poles are set into a karst
field.

URBANISATION AND KARST

There had been little urbanisation of
karst in eastern Australia until quite recently.
Karst areas in South and Western Australia
have been urbanised for a considerable period
of time, the most significant examples being
Mt. Gambier in South Australia and the
dune limestone areas surrounding Perth in
Western Australia.

This situation is now beginning to
change. Both small holdings and suburban
blocks are currently expanding over limestone
areas near Taree in New South Wales and at
The Caves, near Rockhampton in
Queensland. This has significant implications
for resource sterilisation, environmental
impact and engineering. Planning controls
are urgently needed in these areas to protect
viable limestone resources from sterilisation,
home owners from foundation failure and the
environment from pollution and the possible

loss of significant features.

TOURISM, RECREATION AND KARST

Tourists and recreational cavers; like
miners, engineers, foresters and householders
are users of karst who have a significant
environmental impact. Although their use of
karst is in conflict with that of limestone
miners, and despite the significant
contribution made by cavers to conservation,
recreational and tourist users have a
significant impact on the karst environment.

Show Caves

The ongoing impact of tourists using
developed show caves is to a large extent
controlled due to the massive modification of

LIMESTONE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 19

show caves undertaken during their
development. This “hardens” the environment
reducing future breakages, wear and
entrainment of mud. Despite this tourists
visiting show caves have an impact by
introducing lint and altering the composition
of the cave atmosphere. Tourists introduce
garbage, spores and foreign microorganisms
and the lighting systems in the caves allow
the growth of algae and moss (so called
lampenflora ) and heat the cave atmosphere.

Cleaning of show caves to remove lint
and introduced dirt, now mainly carried out
by high pressure washing, erodes the surface
of speleothems and has the potential to
destabilise mud substrata on which the
speleothems have been deposited. An
important issue in the management of show
caves is thus how to determine the carrying
capacity of the cave. Studies to explore this
issue are currently underway at Jenolan
Caves.

“wild” Caves

Recreational cavers who use “wild”
caves to which have few if any changes have
been made, have a significant impact on the
caves they use. These impacts include;
accidental breakage of speleothems, wear of
limestone surfaces, entrainment of mud and
in the worst cases deposition of litter and
outright vandalism. An excellent review of
these issues is provided by Spate and
Hamilton-Smith (1991) who begin by stating
that:-

“We have long held that caves, their
contents and values are more at threat
from cavers and their activities than
they are from the activities of quarry
operators and other users, or abusers of

karst areas.”

[ Spate & Hamilton-Smith, 1991, p 20]

Clearly the impact of recreational
cavers can, and has been, reduced by

education, training, developing a
conservation ethic, installing track markers
and restricting access to caves or parts of
caves considered to be particularly fragile.
The desire to explore is, however, in the
nature of people going caving and this means
that cavers impacts, unlike those of tourists

are not easily restricted to a single pathway.

If recreational used of “wild” caves is to
continue then agreement needs to be reached
among all users as to an overarching system
of values or ethics, appropriate training
standards for leaders and how access and use
of a limited resource might best be managed.
It is becoming clear that if this does not occur
managers may exercise their duty to protect
the caves in their care in ways that will
severely restrict recreational caving activities.

INCREASING SCIENTIFIC
UNDERSTANDING OF AUSTRALIAN
KARST

Central to any improvement in the way
we manage, conserve and exploit the
limestone and karst resources of Australia is
an improvement in our understanding of all
fields of science as they relate to karst. Karst
research in Australia is currently fragmented
and underfunded, in fact the largest single
recent grant to any individual researcher
related to caves has been for a study of the
history
research also has a major image problem,

of cave science in Australia. Karst

being seen by science administrators as not
being relevant or as being somehow sullied by

0 R. A. LL OSBORNE

its association with caving as a recreational
activity.

Nevertheless workers and graduate

students in academic, scientific and
government agencies in Australia, frequently
working in isolation, are undertaking high
quality research into the biology, chemistry,

geology and geomorphology of karst.

What is needed is an institutional focus
for karst studies where a multidisciplinary
research group above critical mass can be
established, where a library of publications,
maps and a data bases can be assembled and
where graduate students can work knowing
they will have access to appropriate
supervision and facilities. The institution
could take the form of a centre or key centre
at a university or it could be a research
institute attached to a museum at a major
tourist venue such as Jenolan Caves. Karst
research needs much more support from
government, the show cave industry, research
funding bodies and from the mining industry.

We can manage our limestone
resources better and it is possible to both
extract limestone as a mineral commodity, use
caves for tourism and recreation and conserve
significant karst landscapes and their
ecosystems for posterity. To achieve this we
require better basic data, workable decision
making processes and a willingness on the
part of all involved to communicate and take

responsibility.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to take this opportunity
thank all those who have accompanied me on
field work in caves over the last 23 years and

who sat cold and damp in the dark while I
made observations, took photos and collected
samples. In particular I would like to
acknowledge the support and assistance of;
my late father, E.G. Osborne, who initiated
and encouraged my interest in caves; my
friends in the Scout Association who first took
me caving; my family, Penney and Michael;
numerous members of the Australian
Speleological Federation and David
Branagan, Ed Frankel, Julia James and
Barry Webby for their academic interest.

The National Parks and Wildlife
Services of N.S.W., Queensland and
Tasmania, the Jenolan Caves Reserve Trust,
Department of Conservation and Land
Management, N.S.W., Wellington Council,
numerous land holders (in particular
Boonderoo Pty Ltd.) and Central Queensland
Cement Pty Ltd. have allowed access to their
caves and many of their staff have assisted

me over the years.

Many people from all sides, and
involved in all aspects, of limestone resource
management, have contributed in some way
or other to the ideas presented tonight,
although they are unlikely to agree with all
or any of what I have said and may not wish
to be acknowledged here. I am able to
mention some of the conservationists and
managers whose ideas have been helpful in
particular; M. Comino, E. Holland, P. W.
Larkin, A. P Spate and K. Vaughan-Taylor.

Patrick Larkin and Andy Spate read
the draft of the written paper and made
many useful comments. Research into
limestone mine restoration has been assisted
by funding from the University of Sydney
Research Grants Scheme.

LIMESTONE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 21

REFERENCES

Anon, 1988. Mount Etna Action Book: Time
is Running Out. The Mt. Etna
Committee, Rockhampton. 24p.

Carne, J.E. and Jones, L.J. 1919. The
Limestone Deposits of New South
Wales. Mineral Resources of New South
Wales. 25, 344-345.

Connah, T.H., 1958. Summary report
limestone resources of Queensland.
Geological Survey of Queensland
Publication No 292.

Eberhard, R., Eberhard, S., and Wong, V.,
1992. Karst geomorphology and
biospeleology at Vanishing Falls, south-
west Tasmania. Helictite. 30 (2), 25-32.

Ellis, R., Hawkins, L., James, J., Middleton,
G., Nurse, B., and Wellings, G., 1972.
eds. Bungonia Caves. Sydney
Speleological Society Occasional Paper .
4,

Gagen, P. & Gunn, J., 1988. A
geomorphological approach to limestone
quarry restoration in M.J. Hooke, Ed.
Geomorphology in Environmental
Planning, John Wiley & Sons: 121-
142.

Grimes, K.G., 1978. The geology and
geomorphology of the Texas Caves,
southeastern Queensland. Memoirs of
the Queensland Museum. 19(1): 17-59.

Gunn, J & Bailey, D., 1991. Limestone
quarrying and limestone quarry
reclamation in Britain. Proceedings of

the International Conference on

Environmental Changes in Karst
Areas- I.G.U.-U.I.S. Italy 1991 : 69-76.

Hamilton-Smith, E., 1990. Permits as a visitor
control method. Cave Management in
Australia V, Proceedings of the Fifth
Australasian Conference on Cave
Tourism and Management, Lakes
Entrance, Victoria, April 1983: 31-35.

Hamilton-Smith, E. and Champion, R., 1975.
Mt. Etna and the Caves : A plan for
action. University of Queensland
Speleological Society, St Lucia. 147p.

Hope, J., 1982. Fossil vertebrates of
Wombeyan Caves. Sydney
Speleological Society Occasional Paper.
8 :155-164.

Hughes, T.D. 1957. Limestones in Tasmania.
Tasmania Department of Mines,

Geological Survey, Mineral Resources
No 10. 291p

Kiernan, K., 1988., The Management of
Soluble Rock Landscapes, An
Australian Perspective. Speleological
Research Council, Sydney. 61p.

Kiernan, K., 1993., The Exit Cave Quarry:
Tracing waterflows and resource policy
evaluation. Helictite. 31(2): 27-42.

Larkin, P.W. 1993 Some aspects of the
interactions between environmental law
and karst in Australia. Paper presented
at the Australian Speleological
Conference, January 1992.

Lishmund, S.R., Dawood, A.D., & Langley,
W.V., 1986. The limestone deposits of
New South Wales. Geological Survey of

yap

New South Wales, Mineral Resources.
25, Second Edition.

Matthews, P.G., 1985. Australian Karst
Index 1985. Australian Speleological
Federation. Melbourne.

Middleton, G.J. 1969. A case for the
conservation of the Colong Caves
Reserve, New South Wales, Australia.
Studies in Speleology. 2 (1): 1-11.

Middleton, G.J. 1972. Conservation and
mining of the Bungonia Limestone Belt.
Sydney Speleological Society
Occasional Paper. 4 : 179-198.

Middleton, G.J. 1979. Wilderness Caves of the
Gordon-Franklin River System. Centre
for Environmental Studies, University
of Tasmania. Occasional Paper. 11 .
78p.

Osborne, R.A.L.1991. Red Earth and Bones:
The History of Cave Sediment Studies
in New South Wales, Australia.
Journal of Earth Sciences History. 10
(1):13-28.

R.A.L. Osborne

Centre for Mathematics and Science Teacher

Education,
University of Sydney,
N.S.W. , 2006, Australia.

R. A. LL OSBORNE

Spate, A.P. & Hamilton-Smith, E. 1991.
Caver’s Impacts- Some theoretical and
applied considerations. Proceedings of
the Ninth Australasian Cave and
Karst Management Association
Conference, Margaret River, Western
Australia, September 1991: 20-30.

Sprent, J.K. ed. 1970. Mount Etna Caves: A
Collection of papers covering several
aspects of the Mt. Etna and Limestone
Ridge caves area of Central
Queensland. University of Queensland

Speleological Society, St Lucia.

Wallis, G.R. 1965. Inspection of Glass Cave,
Wombeyan Caves. N.S.W. Geological
Survey Report GS 1965/028, 2p unpbl.

Wallis, G.R. 1976. The Science of Speleology.
N.S.W. Geological Survey
Unpublished Report . 7p.

Webb, R., 1990. The placement of cave names
on public maps.Cave Management in
Australia V, Proceedings of the Fifth
Australasian Conference on Cave
Tourism and Management, Lakes
Entrance, Victoria, April 1983. 59-64.

Presidential Address delivered before The
Royal Society of New South Wales on 6th April,
1994,

(Manuscript received 23-5-1994)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.127, pp23-30, 1994 oa
ISSN 0035-9173/94/010023-8 $4,00/1

FROM buzzatii TO BUFFALOES - EXCURSIONS INTO GENETIC VARIATION

J.S.F. BARKER

ABSTRACT. Genetic variation is the stuff of evolution and the basic material of the plant and animal breeder. It also is
ubiquitous and the amount of genetic variation is enormous. This variation is most obvious as differences among species - at least
10 million currently present on this planet. Yet there are also vast amounts of genetic variation within each species, some of which
at least is obvious to us when we note that we recognise individuals of our own species as different. In fact, apart from identical
twins, each individual is genetically unique.

In the last 20 years, the primary questions in evolutionary and population genetics have been - Why is there so much genetic
variation? or What forces are operating to maintain it? At the same time, the question of interest in applied quantitative genetics
(i.e. plant and animal breeding) has been - How can we best use genetic variation? More recently, attention has been directed also
to - How can we conserve genetic variation? Two schools of thought have predominated in discussion of the maintenance of
genetic variation. One, the neutralists, claimed that the observed variation is essentially unselected mutations that have no or only
very slightly deleterious effects on the organism and are effectively irrelevant to evolution. The selectionists, on the other hand,
argued that the observed variation is actively maintained by forces of balancing natural selection. As is usual in scientific
controversies, the truth is somewhere in between - some variation being neutral, some maintained by selection, so that case by case
analysis is necessary. Our contribution to this has been to use Drosophila buzzatii, a small fly that breeds in rotting cactus. This
species was specifically chosen because its known breeding site allows the possibility of joint consideration of its genetics and
ecology, and hence identification of selective forces. Genetic variation has been quantified by analysis of genes coding for
enzymes, and results indicating selection effects are presented.

At the other end of the spectrum are the questions relating to the use and conservation of genetic variation in domestic plants and
animals. On the global level, there are probably in excess of 3500 breeds and strains of domestic animals. Many breeds have
disappeared in the last 30-40 years, and many more are under threat. Particularly in the developing countries, little is known about
these breeds, and specifically about genetic differences among them. Using methodology derived from evolutionary genetics,
genetic differences among the swamp buffalo populations of south east Asia have been investigated. Large differences were found,
but most importantly, this work has laid the foundations for a major global program to determine the genetic differences among all
breeds and strains in each of the domestic livestock species. This information is vital for the planning of breeding programs for
genetic improvement, and of conservation programs to ensure that potentially valuable genetic variation remains available to meet
future human needs.

INTRODUCTION

Genetic variation is recognized by everyone, even though
this is usually unconscious, and simply taken as part of common
knowledge. Thus, for example, cattle and sheep are recognized as
different, as are humans and chimpanzees. Each person, depending
on experience and education, will recognize many other such
different groups of living organisms, with each group identified by
some name. But having recognized the existence of such
differences, the questions that need to be asked are: why are they
different, and what is the basis of these differences that we accept so
readily?

First - why are they different? Because it's all in the genes; they are
genetically different.

Second - what is the basis of these diferences? Because each such
group represents a separate evolutionary lineage; they are
the current products of separate evolutionary pathways.

So it is evolution that results in the genetic differences among these
groups that we define as distinct species. Evolution means genetic
change, so genetic variation also is the essence of ongoing evolution

within each species. Also genetic variation is the basic material of
the animal and plant breeder - we use it to mould our domestic
species to our needs.

Walter Poggendorf was one of Australia's eminent plant
breeders, and I am honoured by having been asked to present the
Poggendorff Memorial Lecture for 1993. He would undoubtedly
have been fascinated by what is now known about genetic variation.
Yet without the benefit of this knowledge and modern plant breeding
technology, he used genetic variation to produce outstanding
varieties of rice, grapes, rockmelons, peaches and apricots. Clearly
Walter Poggendorff used genetic variation in these species to the
benefit of Australian farmers and horticulturists.

MAGNITUDE OF GENETIC VARIATION

Animal and plant breeders such as Poggendorff use genetic
variation in our domesticated species to produce improved, i. e.
more productive and more efficient breeds, strains and varieties.
But just how much genetic variation is there in the organisms on this
planet. To answer, we need to think at two levels - between species
and within species. The enormity of the answer is apparent firstly
just in the number of species. About 2 million species of plants and

24 J.S.F. BARKER

animals have been formally described and named, but estimates of
the total number of species now living on this earth range from 10
million to 100 million. Of the named species, about 57% are insects
and, of these, nearly half are beetles. There is a story (Gould, 1993)
that the distinguished British biologist, J.B.S. Haldane, who was
one of the fathers of population and evolutionary genetics, once
found himself in the company of a group of theologians. On being
asked what one could conclude as to the nature of the Creator from
a study of his creation, Haldane is said to have answered "An
inordinate fondness for beetles."

The total of some 10 million or more species currently
existing on this planet inspires a sense of wonder, but there is also
enormous genetic variation within species. Some of this is
immediately obvious if one just looks at people passing by on a
crowded street. Similarly, some is obvious if one looks closely at
other species (for example, dogs and cats). In other cases, genetic
differences may not be so immediately apparent to us, but of course
individuals within those species often can and do distinguish one
another. Yet in a real sense, these visible genetic differences among
individuals within a species are quite trivial.

The changes in the average level of some character in a
population that can be made by artificial selection (as practised in
plant and animal breeding) demonstrate the point that there are large
amounts of hidden genetic variation - large amounts even for a
single character. This is well illustrated by the results of two classic
selection experiments, one for oil content in maize seeds, the other
for bristle number in Drosophila melanogaster. The Illinois corn-
oil content experiment is the longest running selection experiment
that has ever been done. Started in 1896, response to selection
continues after 90 generations (Dudley and Lambert, 1992). The
selection involves two separate lines - one for increased, and one for
decreased oil content, and the results (Figure 1) show the enormous
changes that have resulted from selection. Selection for low oil
content has brought the mean of this line almost to the possible limit
of zero, while selection for high oil content continues to result in
further increase.

In the Drosophila bristle number experiment, Yoo (1980)
selected for increased number in six replicate lines that derived from
the same initial population (Figure 2). Again all lines showed large
changes in the mean bristle number, although responses to selection
were slowing down in the later generations. However, the crucial
point here is to note the range of variation in bristle number in the
initial unselected population. Among some thousands of flies in that
unselected population, the largest number of bristles recorded was
15. Yet in that population, genetic variation was present (but not
expressed) that allowed selection to increase the mean bristle
number to around 40 in each of the selection lines.

Finally, the potential magnitude of genetic variation can be
quantified in a different way, in this case, not the variation for some
single character, but the total variation in our own species. Humans
have about 100,000 different genes, and it is estimated that the
average person carries two different forms of a gene (or alleles) at
about 10% of these, i. e. is heterozygous for on average 10,000
genes. When gametes (eggs and sperm) are produced, only one of
each of these alleles is included in each gamete. That is, for each
heterozygous gene, half the gametes will contain one form of the
gene, and half the other. With 10,000 such heterozygous genes, the
number of genetically different gametes that an individual could
produce is:

20

18
16

High oil
14

10

Percent oil

Low oil

Generation

Fig.l. Responses to selection for increased and decreased oil
content in maize seeds.

210,000 or approximately 103000.

Now this is obviously a very big number, but it is edifying to see
just how big by way of comparison. This has been done by Bodmer
and Cavalli-Sforza (1976, p. 232), who estimated that the total
number of sperm ever produced by all human males who have ever
lived is only 1023-24,

Thus each individual, apart from identical twins, is
genetically unique.

WHY IS THERE SO MUCH GENETIC VARIATION?

The real quantification of these vast amounts of genetic
variation within species was obtained only in the late 1960's, and
since then the questions that have plagued evolutionary geneticists
are - Why is there so much genetic variation? or What forces are
operating to maintain it? and What is its relevance to adaptive
evolution? At the same time, plant and animal breeders have been
concerned to know how best to use the genetic variation, while
recently becoming concerned to ensure that potentially useful
genetic variation is not lost.

My research in recent years has in one way or another been
driven by these questions, and the phrase in the title of the lecture
‘excursions into genetic variation’ was a very conscious choice. The
Oxford Dictionary defines an excursion as a journey, a ramble or a
pleasure trip - and the last two are particularly appropriate
descriptions of at least my experience of scientific research.

Numbers

Bristle

Abdominal

FROM buzzatii TO BUFFALOES

te) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Generations

Fig.2._ Responses to selection for abdominal bristle number in six
large replicate populations of Drosophila melanogaster. The dotted
line indicates the maximum value of the character observed in the
unselected population at generation zero (adapted from Yoo, 1980).

80

25

In evolutionary genetics, two schools of thought have
dominated discussion of the maintenance of genetic variation for the
past 20 years (Lewontin, 1974; Clarke, 1979). One, the so-called
neutralists, claim that the observed variation is essentially
unselected mutations that have no or only very slightly deleterious
effects on the organism, and are therefore effectively irrelevant to
evolution. The variation is neutral, in so far as natural selection is
concerned (Kimura, 1968; King and Jukes, 1969). The other school,
the selectionists, argue that the observed variation is actively
maintained by forces of balancing natural selection (Nevo, 1988).

This controversy continues, but as is common in such

scientific controversies, the truth is somewhere in between - with
some variation being neutral, and some maintained by selection. But

how much of each - what proportion of the variation is neutral, and
what proportion is maintained by selection? No general theory can
answer this; we need a case by case analysis, from which general
conclusions might be drawn.

GENETIC VARIATION IN Drosophila buzzatii

Which brings me to the first of the two species to be
discussed - a small fly, Drosophila buzzatii. This species is
specialised to utilize the habitat of rotting prickly pears, and it was
chosen as a model organism for our studies in evolutionary genetics
because its known breeding site allows the possibility of joint
consideration of its genetics and ecology, and hence the possibilty of
identification of selection forces. Here I can present only some
glimpses of the results of this work, work that has many facets and
has involved an international collaborative team effort, with
contributions from colleagues at institutions in the U.S., Brazil and
Denmark, as well as other Australian Universities.

Drosophila buzzatii colonized Australia from South
America, and its host plants, the Opuntia cacti or prickly pears, also
colonized from the Americas. The history of the Opuntia

colonization, spread, control and present distribution is well
documented, and is well-known as a classic example of biological
control of a pest plant (Dodd, 1940; Mann, 1970).

Nine species of cactus became major pests in Australia, one
of these being brought to Australia from Argentina by the first
European settlers in 1788. The introduction of other species into
Australia is not known, but probably all were introduced as
botanical curiosities within the first 100 years of European
settlement. The species that became the major pest prickly pear,
Opuntia stricta, was from the 1840s, commonly used as hedges
around homesteads. Thus the pear spread from many foci, and in
the absence of natural enemies, was out of control by 1870. By
1920, 27,000,000 hectares were affected, about half this area being
covered by pear so dense that the land was useless. At that time, the
pear was estimated to be spreading at the rate of 450,000 hectares
per year. In 1920, the biological control program commenced. In
May, 1925, 3000 Cactoblastis cactorum eggs were introduced from
Argentina. The potential of this insect as a control agent was soon
apparent and by 1940, complete control had been achieved.

Today, both host plant and parasite continue to exist at
equilibrium. Thus the present Opuntia distribution is essentially
within the limits of the original infestation, but occurring as an
island distribution with island size ranging from just a few plants to
a few hundred hectares. In southern N.S.W., Victoria and South
Australia, outside the limits of the original infestation, some patches
of pest pear also remain, but most islands comprise from one to
about 30 plants of the cultivated species, O. ficus-indica.

The distribution of D. buzzatii then is that of an island
distribution with considerable variation in island size and D.
buzzatii population size, variation in inter-island distance, a number
of peripheral isolate populations, variation among islands in ecology
(both Opuntia species and other flora), with the whole distribution
extending over a wide geographical area and climatic range.

26 J.S.F. BARKER

>

5

2

ve

®

is

@

oO
Times 94 5 10 20 25

See ee EOE EE—OEEEOEEeEeEE—E—eeeeeee
Days e) 100 200 300 400 500
Dates Jan. Apr.1 Oct.1 Jan1 Apr.1
78 79

Fig.3. Changes in frequency of alleles at three enzyme loci during
perturbation over times 4-18, and following cessation of
perturbation. The dotted line through times 1-4 is the pre-
perturbation weighted average allele frequency. Times refer to the
sequential number given to each collection and/or release (adapted

from Barker and East, 1980).

The rots in which the flies live, particularly those in the
common pest pear (O. stricta) are mainly the result of Cactoblastis
attack. Adult flies enter the rotting cladode through holes made by
the Cactoblastis larvae, and the Drosophila go through one or more
complete life cycles within the rot.

The genetic variation that is being studied is part of the
normally hidden variation - in this case variation in genes that
control the production of particular enzymes. Using biochemical
methods, it is relatively simple to determine the genetic makeup of
individual flies for these genes.

Initial studies measured the genetic variation for 36 enzyme
genes at many different localities throughout the species
distribution. Results from this study of spatial genetic variation
were interpreted as indicating some form of balancing selection -

based on significant differences in allele frequency among
populations, apparent genetic isolation of small peripheral
populations with similar levels of variation to central populations,
and the occurrence of a number of low frequency alleles at
consistent frequency throughout the species distribution. Significant
associations of the genetic composition of flies from different
localities with climatic factors (Mulley, James and Barker, 1979),
and analyses of the spatial patterns of genetic variation (Sokal,
Oden and Barker, 1987) provided further indirect evidence that
natural selection is affecting gene frequencies.

Direct evidence for selection
More direct evidence that selection is influencing gene

frequencies within populations was obtained from perturbation
experiments in natural populations. If genetic variation at some

TABLE 1

FROM buzzatii TO BUFFALOES

Proportions of each yeast species within seasons and within types of rot

Yeast species

SEASON 1 2 3 4
Summer 0.27 0.45 0.14 0.04
Autumn 0.31 0.23 0) 0.11
Winter 0.33 0.28 0.02 0.05
Spring 0.26 0.18 O27 0.03
TYPE OF ROT

Young cladode 0.27 0.15 O27 0.02
Old cladode 0.35 0.30 0.07 0.07
Basal cladode 0.18 0.29 0.04 0.14
Basal Rot 0.27 0.28 0.02 0.08

5 6 fl 8 9 10

0 0 0.06 0.02 0 0.02
OAS 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.09 0.01
0.04 0.05 0.04 0.05 0 0.14
0 0.10 0.04 0.09 0.03 0.01
0.04 0.07 0.02 0.08 0.05 0.01
0.05 0.05 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.02
0.18 0.07 0 0 0.11 0
0.09 0.02 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.09

il

locus is being actively maintained by natural selection, the action of
this selection should be detectable following artificial change in gene
frequencies produced either by adding certain genotypes to the
population, or by removing them from it.

In one large field experiment (Barker and East, 1980), gene
frequencies at three enzyme loci were perturbed simultaneously, by
continuous release over about 250 days from a laboratory
population that had been made homozygous for an allele of each of
these genes that was at low frequency in the natural population, viz.
Est-2c and Hexb (denoted as Pyrb in Barker and East, 1980), and
for the intermediate frequency allele Adh-Ic.

The population we chose to perturb inhabits an isolated
stand of O. stricta comprising about 40 large plants in an area
about 50m x 20m. The surrounding area is cultivated or open
grazing land, and the nearest O. stricta is some 3km away. Four
estimates of gene frequencies in this population (Times 1-4) were
made over eight weeks before perturbation commenced (Figure 3).
Allele frequencies at all three loci were increased significantly
during the perturbation phase, and all decreased to the original
levels after release ceased. If this decrease were due entirely to
migration, estimated migration rates would be the same for all three
loci. However, there was significant heterogeneity among these
migration rates, and further, the rates of migration necessary to
account for the changes in gene frequency were extraordinarily high
at around 90%. Thus the changes in gene frequency must be
ascribed to natural selection, and there must have been differential
selection among the three loci.

All of this evidence provides strong presumptive support for
the hypothesis that selection is indeed influencing enzyme gene
frequencies at some loci. However, it does not prove that the
selection is acting directly on the enzyme loci themselves. For this to
be achieved, the nature of the selection must be understood.

Habitat variability and selection

As noted previously, the flies are apparently specific to the
cactus rot habitat. Thus adults feed on the rot surface, taking up
microorganisms, compounds derived from the breakdown of plant
tissue and microorganism metabolites. They lay their eggs in the rot,
and the larvae develop there, potentially feeding on the same range
of microorganisms and compounds as the adults. A major stimulus
to flies seeking a suitable feeding or breeding site is presumably
olfactory, and volatiles produced by microorganisms most likely

provide the cue (Fogleman, 1982; Fogleman and Abril, 1990). As
yeasts are considered to be an essential component in the diet of
Drosophila, we have concentrated on the yeast species present in
cactus rots.

While it might be imagined that all cactus rots are the same,
in fact they are very heterogeneous. There is a marked diversity of
yeast species among rots, both within and among localities, among
rots at different times within a locality, and even at different times
within the same rot. For example, Table 1 gives the seasonal and
rot type diversity for the 10 most common yeast species isolated
from 278 rots collected over a 15 month period at one locality
(Barker et al., 1983). The most common species (yeast 1) is
prevalent throughout the year and in all rot types, but others show
substantial variation, e. g. yeast 3 common in spring and summer
only, yeast 5 in autumn only, yeast 3 in young cladodes, and yeasts
4 and 5 in basal cladodes.

But how do the flies react to this diversity in yeast species -
can they differentiate among them, and in what way do they do so?
Indeed they do differentiate and they show strong preferences to
feed and lay their eggs on some yeasts, and largely avoid others
(Vacek et al., 1985). However, while in itself this is an interesting
observation on fly behaviour, it would not be very exciting if all
flies ranked their preferences for these yeasts in the same order.

Suppose, however, that genetically different females prefer
to lay their eggs on different yeasts, and that their larval progeny
then grow and survive best on the yeast chosen by their mothers. In
this situation, genetic variation will be maintained (Hedrick, 1990),
and recent experiments, both in the laboratory and in the field, have
shown that there is such genotype-specific habitat selection (Barker,
1992; Barker, Starmer and Fogleman, 1994).

In other species, environmental heterogeneity and _ this
selection of different habitats by different genotypes also may well
be a major mechanism for maintaining genetic variation.

Now I recognize that this sort of research may seem a long
way from practical plant and animal breeding. However, we need to
think not only of maximizing current improvement in productivity of
our domestic species, but also to consider future utilization and
manipulation of genetic variability. A better understanding of forces
that maintain genetic variability in natural populations should direct
our thinking to maintaining or conserving variability that may be
useful in the future.

28 J.S.F. BARKER

GENETIC VARIATION IN SWAMP BUFFALO

On this note, I want now to turn to another species, one that
is somewhat larger than D. buzzatii, viz. the swamp buffalo of
southeast Asia. Now the question might well be asked - "Why
swamp buffalo?", but let me come to that through a little excursion
into some background.

The aim of animal breeding is to improve productivity,
product quality and the efficiency of production by either or both of
selection within breeds (or strains) or utilization of differences
among breeds (or strains) through crossbreeding, grading-up to a
superior breed by repeated backcrossing, or formation of a synthetic
population. Thus future improvement of livestock to meet human
needs is dependent on genetic variation - both the variation within
breeds, and the variation between breeds, strains and populations.
Genetic variation is the basic material of the animal breeder - we
use it to mould our animal populations to our needs, and loss of
variation will restrict the options available to meet unpredictable
future requirements. While loss of variation within breeds or
populations is continually countered by the introduction of new
variation through mutation, albeit very slowly, the genetic variation
present as differences among breeds, strains or populations cannot
be readily regenerated. Each breed or strain is the product of the
random processes of genetic drift (due to finite population size) and
mutation, as well as separate adaptation and evolution, often over
many centuries, with differing selection pressures imposed by
climate, endemic parasites and diseases, available nutrition and
criteria imposed by man. Each breed thus comprises a unique set of
genes.

There are estimated to be in excess of 3500 breeds and
strains of domestic animals in the world today (Loftus and Scherf,
1993). In recent years, there has been increasing concern about loss
of genetic diversity through various breeds and strains becoming
extinct. In the developed world, where animal production has been
and is primarily driven by economic considerations, those breeds
that are already extinct, or are presently rare and endangered,
presumably have been tested by current market forces, and found
wanting. Elsewhere, breeds are under threat because of
indiscriminate or even planned crossbreeding, because of political
instability, or because of national decisions to eliminate some
breeds.

However, many of the existing indigenous strains and
populations of the developing world are likely to carry valuable
genes - genes controlling specific physiological, behavioural and
parasite or disease resistance traits. Thus the genotypes of some of
these strains could well be crucial to future sustainable animal
production systems, at least in the stressful environments where they
have evolved by natural selection, and undoubtedly many will
contribute also to developed country production systems. There is
then a need to ensure that unique indigenous strains are not lost.
Nevertheless, we have to accept that not all breeds could or should
be conserved until we can determine what useful genes or genotypes
they contain.

So we have a dilemma - there are too many breeds for them
all to be evaluated, but we do not want to lose any because they may
be of much greater value in the future. I suggested some years ago
(Barker, 1980, 1985) that the solution was to use the methodology
of evolutionary genetics to determine the genetic relationships
among breeds. Suppose there are just two breeds that are in danger

of extinction. If they were found to be very closely related
genetically, the decision could be made to let one go, but to preserve
the other. On the other hand, if they were genetically distantly
related, every effort should be made to conserve both.

Which brings me back to the swamp buffalo, which we
chose to demonstrate the utility of this approach. There was a
further reason for choosing this species. All the swamp buffalo of
southeast Asia appear very similar, and are not distinguished as
different breeds, even though they exist in many largely separate
populations. Breeding programs for buffalo improvement are being
developed in a number of countries, so that it would be useful to
know if these are being based on genetically different populations.

As for the D. buzzatii work, genetic variation within
populations and genetic relationships among them have been
measured using genes controlling enzymes - in this case, some 65
different genes.

This study is still in progress, but the results to date are
summarized in Figure 4. The scale of genetic distance quantifies the
genetic differences among the 12 swamp buffalo and five river
buffalo populations. As expected, the difference between these two
types of buffalo is greater than the differences among populations
within each of them. However, the important result is that there are
large genetic differences among some populations: differences that
are larger than those among some of the well-recognized livestock
breeds of the Western world. That is, there are significant genetic
differences that need to be taken into account in developing breeding
programs, and in conserving genetic variability in this species.

This approach is now being taken as the foundation for a
major global program that FAO is working to initiate - a program to
determine the genetic relationships among all breeds and strains of
each of the domestic livestock species. The information from this
will be vital for the planning of breeding programs for genetic
improvement, and the planning of conservation programs to ensure
that potentially valuable genetic variation remains available to meet
future human needs.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The research on Drosophila buzzatii has been supported
primarily by the Australian Research Council, with support for
meetings and collaborative work from the US/Australia Cooperative
Science Program and the National Science Foundation (USA), while
the swamp buffalo studies were supported by the Australia Centre
for International Agricultural Research. I am enormously indebted
to the many colleagues who have made such vital contributions to
these studies, who have taught me so much, and with whom it has
been a pleasure to work.

FROM buzzattz TO BUFFALOES 29

GENETIC DISTANCE

- 06 .04 -02 .00

BOGOR, INDONESIA
- MEDAN, INDONESIA
SULAWESI, INDONESIA

CHENG MAI, THAILAND

SURIN, THAILAND

HAADYAI, THAILAND
TRENGGANU, MALAYSIA
KAM PAENG SAENG, THAILAND

SARAWAK, MALAYSIA

PHILIPPINES

AUSTRALIA

SABAH, MALAYSIA

SOUTH SRI LANKA

KANDY, SRI LANKA

NORTH-CENTRAL SRI LANKA
- MURRAH, SRI LANKA

MURRAH, MALAYSIA

- 06 -04 .02 . 00

Fig.4. Diagram of genetic differences (measured as genetic distance) among 12 swamp

buffalo and five river buffalo populations.

REFERENCES

Barker, J.S.F., 1980. Animal genetic resources in Asia and Oceania
- the perspective. /n Proceedings of the SABRAO
Workshop on Animal Genetic Resources in Asia and
Oceania, pp. 13-19. Tropical Agriculture Research Center,
Tsukuba, Japan.

Barker, J.S.F., 1985. Identifying the breeds to be evaluated.
ACIAR Proceedings Series, 5, 161-166.

Barker, J.S.F., 1992. Genetic variation in cactophilic Drosophila
for oviposition on natural yeast substrates. Evolution, 46,
1070-1083.

Barker, J.S.F. and East, P.D., 1980. Evidence for selection
following perturbation of allozyme frequencies in a natural
population of Drosophila. Nature, 284, 166-168.

Barker, J.S.F., Starmer, W.T. and Fogleman, J.C., 1994.
Genotype-specific habitat selection for oviposition sites in
the cactophilic species Drosophila buzzatii. Heredity (in
press)

Barker, J.S.F., Toll, G.L., East, P.D., Miranda, M. and Phaff, H.J.,
1983. Heterogeneity of the yeast flora in the breeding sites
of cactophilic Drosophila. Canadian Journal of
Microbiology, 29, 6-14.

Bodmer, W. F. and Cavalli-Sforza, L.L., 1976. GENETICS,
EVOLUTION AND MAN. W. H. Freeman and Co., San
Francisco.

Clarke, B.C., 1979. The evolution of genetic diversity. Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London, Series B, 205, 453-474.

Dodd, A.P., 1940. THE BIOLOGICAL CAMPAIGN AGAINST
PRICKLY-PEAR. A.H. Tucker, Government Printer,
Brisbane.

Dudley, J.W. and Lambert, R.J., 1992. Ninety generations of
selection for oil and protein in maize. Maydica, 37, 1-7.

Fogleman, J.C., 1982. The role of volatiles in the ecology of
cactophilic Drosophila. In ECOLOGICAL GENETICS
AND EVOLUTION. THE CACTUS-YEAST-
DROSOPHILA MODEL SYSTEM, pp. 191-206, Barker,
J.S.F. and Starmer, W.T. (Eds). Academic Press Australia,
Sydney.

Fogleman, J.C. and Abril, J.R., 1990. Ecological and evolutionary
importance of host plant chemistry. In ECOLOGICAL
AND EVOLUTIONARY GENETICS OF DROSOPHILA,
pp. 121-143, Barker, J.S.F., Starmer, W.T. and MacIntyre,
R.J. (Eds). Plenum Press, New York.

Gould, S.J., 1993. A special fondness for beetles. Natural History,
102(1), 4-12.

30 J S.F. BARKER

Hedrick, P.W., 1990. Theoretical analysis of habitat selection and
the maintenance of genetic variation. In ECOLOGICAL
AND EVOLUTIONARY GENETICS OF DROSOPHILA,
pp. 209-227, Barker, J.S.F., Starmer, W.T. and MacIntyre,
R.J. (Eds). Plenum Press, New York.

Kimura, M., 1968. Evolutionary rate at the molecular level.
Nature, 217, 624-626.

King, J. L. and Jukes, T.H., 1969. Non-Darwinian evolution.
Science, 164, 788-798.

Lewontin, R.C., 1974. THE GENETIC BASIS OF
EVOLUTIONARY CHANGE. Columbia University Press,
New York.

Loftus, R. and Scherf, B., 1993. WORLD WATCH LIST FOR
DOMESTIC ANIMAL DIVERSITY. Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome,
Italy.

Mann, J., 1970. CACTI NATURALISED IN AUSTRALIA AND
THEIR CONTROL. S.G. Reid, Government Printer,
Brisbane.

3. Walter Poggendorff Memorial Lecture for 1993
delivered before the Royal Society of New South Wales
(New England Branch) on 18th August, 1993.

Department of Animal Science
University of New England
Armidale, N.S.W. 2351
AUSTRALIA

Mulley, J.C., James, J.W. and Barker, J.S.F., 1979. Allozyme
genotype-environment relationships in natural populations
of Drosophila buzzatii. Biochemical Genetics, 17, 10S-
126.

Nevo, E., 1988. Genetic diversity in nature. Patterns and theory.
Evolutionary Biology, 23, 217-246.

Sokal, R.R., Oden, N.L. and Barker, J.S.F. 1987. Spatial structure
in Drosophila buzzatii populations: simple and directional
spatial autocorrelation. American Naturalist, 129, 122-142.

Vacek, D.C., East, P.D., Barker, J.S.F. and Soliman, M.H., 1985.
Feeding and oviposition preferences of Drosophila buzzatii
for microbial species isolated from its natural environment.
Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 24, 175-187.

Yoo, B.H., 1980. Long-term selection for a quantitative character
in large replicate populations of Drosphila melanogaster 1.
Response to selection. Genetical Research, 35, 1-17.

(Manuscript received 24 - 2 - 1994)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.127, pp.31-32, 1994

ISSN 0035-9173/94/010031-2 $4.00/1

31

AN OCCURRENCE OF KROHNKITE AT BROKEN HILL, NSW

L.J. Lawrence, C.M. Stocksiek and P.A. Williams

ABSTRACT. The rare, copper-bearing sulphate kréhnkite, NazCu(SO4)2.2H20, is reported
from Broken Hill, NSW. It was found as a thin, sky blue crust coating a specimen of

gypsum, CaSO4.2H20, on garnet sandstone.

krohnkite in Australia.

Kroéhnkite, NazCu(SO4)).2H20, is a rare secondary mineral
described originally from the Chuquicamata mines in
Antofagasta Province, Chile (Domeyko, 1876). It was
subsequently found in other parts of the Atacama Desert
copper mining region at El Cobre de Mejillones, at
Incahuassi, at Collahurasi and in the Salvador mine, Quetena
(Palache et al., 1951). In these localities it is commonly
associated with antlerite, Cu3S04(OH)4, leightonite,
K2Ca2Cu(SO4)4.2H20, atacamite, Cu2Cl(OH)3, chalcanthite,
CuS0O4.5H20, and natrochalcite, NaCu2(SO4)2(OH).H20.
KrGhnkite in these localities is a product of the oxidation of
primary copper ores in arid conditions.

Kroéhnkite is also recorded as a sublimate in the volcanic
areas of Iceland (Torssander, 1988) where it is associated
with thenardite, Na2SOq, and aphthitalite, (K,Na)3Na(SO4).
It also occurs as a sublimate at Mount Etna, Sicily, associated
with thenardite, aphthitalite and mercallite, KHSO4 (Le
Guern and Bernard, 1982). A further mode of occurrence for
krohnkite is in the oxidized zone of the iron ore deposit at
Capo Calamita on the island of Elba, Italy (Del’Anna and
Quagliarella, 1969). As with the other occurrences it is
associated with natrochalcite.

The Broken Hill kréhnkite specimen consists of a crust up to
1 mm thick of a bright sky blue colour discontinuously
coating a mass of colourless to white gypsum crystals, 5 to 8
mm long, which in turn invest a 6 cm slab of garnet
sandstone. The outer surface of the kréhnkite is somewhat
botryoidal with a minutely crystalline surface. Kroéhnkite
from Chile usually exhibits a fibrous habit normal to the
walls of the fracture within which it has grown; no such habit
was observed in the Broken Hill specimen.

The exact location from which the single specimen came
remains unknown. However, it is possibly from the No. 2
level of the old Block 14 workings (eventually part of the
South Mine leases). Plimer (pers. comm., in Worner and
Mitchell, 1982) reported the occurrence of chalcanthite,
CuS04.5H20, as an efflorescence associated with gypsum in
the backs of the No. 2 level in this section of the workings.
Both chalcanthite and kréhnkite form under desiccating
conditions at comparatively low pH. Otherwise, basic double
salts of copper crystallise from aqueous solution (Williams,
1989).

This is the first recorded occurrence of

Kroéhnkite is monoclinic, space group P2)/c , and is paler in
colour than chalcanthite (sky blue compared to light royal
blue). Its identity was confirmed by powder X-ray
diffraction methods using a Rigaku DMAX IB powder
diffractometer employing CuKa radiation. Diffraction data
for the specimen, calibrated against elemental Si, are given in
Table 1 together with those from the literature (ASTM File
25-826). Wet chemical analysis (with H20O by
thermogravimetric analysis) gave CuO, 24.0; Na2O, 18.5;
SO3, 47.1; H2O, 10.6%; calculated composition of
Na2Cu(SO4)2.2H20 is CuO, 23.56; Na2O, 18.36; SO3, 47.41;
H20, 10.67%. Thermogravimetric analysis (Stanton
Redcroft TG750A balance, heating rate 5°C min-!, air
stream) showed that the first water of crystallization is lost at
170°C (mid-point of weight loss) and the second at 210°C.
Evolution of SO3 was observed at 900°C to leave a residue of
CuO + Na2SOq4.

Although primary copper sulphides are not particularly
abundant in the No. 2 and No. 3 lead lenses, veins and
disseminations of chalcopyrite were not uncommon in lenses
of garnet sandstone throughout the Broken Hill mines
(Plimer, 1984). Oxidation of such a suite under acidic
conditions in saline solution followed by desiccation would
provide an ideal environment for the formation of kréhnkite
(Williams, 1989). However, despite these observations, it is
obvious that such conditions rarely obtain in that kréhnkite is
such a very rare mineral. This find represents its first
Australian occurrence.

REFERENCES

Dell’Anna, L., and Quagliarella, F., 1969. Cupriferous
sulphates from Capo Calamita (Elba Island), Periodico de
Mineralogia, 38, 349-365.

Domeyko, I., 1876. FIFTH APPENDIX TO ELEMENTOS
DE MINERALOGIA 1860, Santiago, Chile.

Le Guern, F., and Bernard, A., 1982. Study of the
condensation mechanism of magmatic gases at Mount Etna,
Italy, Bulletin of Vulcanology, 45, 161-166.

32

L.J. LAWRENCE, C.M. STOCKSIEK and P.A. WILLIAMS

TABLE 1
POWDER X-RAY DIFFRACTION DATA
(A AND INTENSITY RATIOS) FOR KROHNKITE

dobs ja debs jb

6.32 100 6.342 100
5.50 10 5.502 28
5.04 20 5.038 30
4.31 10 4.317 23
4.15 30 4.164 31

3.71 40 3712 37
3.35 30 3.343 28
3.28 75 3.280 57
3.20 30 3.193 21
3.16 30 3.162 33
3.10 35 3.099 eH |
2.928 65 . 2.934 39
2.763 45 2.765 30
2.742 15 2.744 24
2.718 30 ZANT 18
2.657 15 2.659 24
2.614 15 2.615 M7
2.584 10 2.584 14
Z:301 5 2200) 15

2.298 10 2.298 17
2.292 10

2.254 5 2.249 6

@ ASTM File 25-826. > Kréhnkite, Broken Hill.

Palache, C., Berman, H. and Frondel, C., 1951. DANA’S
SYSTEM OF MINERALOGY, Vol. 1, 7th edn, John Wiley
and Sons, New York, pp. 444-446.

Plimer, I.R., 1984. The mineralogical history of the Broken
Hill Lode, NSW, Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 31,
379-403.

L.J. Lawrence,

15 Japonica Road,
Epping,

N.S.W. 2121,
AUSTRALIA

C.M. Stocksiek and P.A. Williams,
Faculty of Science and Technology,
University of Western Sydney, Nepean,
P.O. Box 10,

Kingswood,

N.S.W. 2747,

AUSTRALIA

dons ja dhs jb
D215 15 2.218 16
2.155 15 2.157 12
2.137 5

2.117 10 Zale 3
2.109 10

2.076 5 2.079 2
2.062 5

2.008 10 2.010 13
2.007 5

1.9689 5 1.973 12
1.9285 5) 1.930 Jt |
18552 5 1.853 13
1.8529 5

1.8179 5 1.818 11
1.7912 5

1.7778 5 1.778 13
1.7650 5
1.7620 5
1.7590 5 1.758 11a
1.7570 2

1.7260 5

1.7080 5 1.709 9

Torssander, P., 1988. Sulfur isotope ratios of Icelandic lava
encrustations and volcanic gases, Journal of Volcanological
and Geothermal Research, 35, 227-235.

Williams, P.A., 1989. OXIDE ZONE GEOCHEMISTRY,
Ellis Horwood, Chichester.

Worner, H.K. and Mitchell, R.W., Eds., 1982. THE
MINERALS OF BROKEN HILL, Australian Mining and
Smelting Ltd., Melbourne, p. 105.

(Manuscript received 14-12-1993)

(Manuscript received in final form 1-3-1994)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.127, pp.33-37, 1994 33

ISSN 0035-9173/94/010033-05 $4.00/1

Strength of Cement Stabilised Pressed Earth Bricks

with Low Cement Contents

K.A. HEATHCOTE and R. PIPER

ABSTRACT:

This paper examines the relationship between strength and cement

content in pressed stabilised earth bricks for cement contents varying between 0

and 3.5 %.

It shows that adequate strength can be obtained from some soils at

cement contents significantly lower than is the present practice (5 - 10 %). It also
examines the hypothesis that there is a minimum cement content below which the
strength of the brick is determined by the soil parameters only and is unaffected

by the presence of cement.

INTRODUCTION

The use of soil as a building material dates
back to = antiquity. Mud _ bricks are
mentioned in the Bible and are still used
widely today. Unstabilised earth bricks
generally require protective eaves. ,
protective coatings or regular maintenance
for long-term survival and are therefore not
generally suitable for modern building
construction (Fitzmaurice, 1958).
Fitzmaurice was the first person to point
out that the population today are more
demanding of their building materials and
that stabilisation of soils(normally with
asphalt or cement) is necessary to maintain
their integrity when exposed to moisture.
Cement as a Stabilising agent is widespread
in pressed earth’ brick construction.
Stabilised pressed earth bricks are made
from soil mixed with a stabiliser and
pressed in a steel mould. The amount of
cement used depends on the soil type but is
generally in-the range of 5 - 10 %.. The
eiieci Ol. SUCH ‘Cement Contents on the
compressive strength of the bricks has been
studied, Dy..a variety -of researchers (PCA,
1956: Mitchell, 1976;’ Heathcote, 1991). In
general it can be said that the durability
and compressive’ strength of _ bricks
Stabilised ‘with .5 =. 10° % cement'-1s
proportional to the amount of cement
added.

ihe cost of cement is a considerable part of
the total “cost, of producing ‘cement
stabilised earth bricks particularly in low
income areas. Greater utilisation of this
material will be achieved if there is some

means of establishing the minimum cement
content required to stabilise various soils.
Mehra(1953) in his extensive work in India
used 2.5 % cement and achieved a high
degree of stability.

This paper is an attempt to investigate
whether there is a minimum cement content
below which the cement content has no
appreciable effect on the strength of the
soil mass.

EFFECT OF CEMENT ON STRENGTH
OF SOIL MASS

Considerable work has been done _ on
establishing a relationship between cement
content and strength of stabilised earth
bricks for cement contents Over (2.5.47
(PCA, 1956: Mitchell, 19/6; Heathcote, 1991),
In general the results indicate a reasonably
linear relationship between cement content
and strength with higher strength increases
being achieved with granular soils.

Hertzog (1964) proposed that soil cement
obtains its strength when branches of
cemetitious material (emanating from
hydrating cement grains) reach out into the
soil mass and link with each other. He
postulated that if the soil contained enough
cement to reduce grain spacing then the
connections between grains becomes the
primary load carrying component. His
experiments led to the conclusion that at
cement contents greater than 2.5 % the
soil-cement matrix became non-plastic.
Heathcote (1991) found that the effect of
cement content varied depending on the
density of the compacted soil between

34

0.37*C for ,atdensity, of, 17/00. ke/jm*s and
1.1*C for a density of 2000¢k¢s/m“3.~ Elis
tests were carried out with a granular soil.
Mitchell (1976) analysed a variety of data
and found that the unconfined compressive
strength in MPa varied between 0.3*C and
1 0*@ where € is the cement content-in %.
The lower value was for fine-grained soils
and the upper value for granular soils.

The strength of unstabilised adobe bricks
results from the cohesive bond developed
by the clay matrix. Nelson(Unknown)
reports an increase in adobe brick strength
with increasing clay content of the soil. It
is reasonable to assume then that soils have
an inherent bond strength due to their clay
content and that the strength afforded by

these bonds results in a minimum
compressive strength at zero cement
content. This strength will be low for
R
AS SIEVE S (mm) vo)
co)

100

90

80

N
oO

Q
oO

PERCENTAGE PASSING
ui
ro)

uJ
[@)

sandy soils and higher for clayey soils ,
where the type of minerals present is also
of significance.

Mitchell(1976,p373) reports on the work of
researchers who found that the addition of
small quantities of cement leads to an
increase in the friction angle of the
material but not its cohesion whilst larger
cement contents increase the soils cohesion
as well. He also reports(p374) research
that indicates that compressive strength in
some soils is relatively unaffected by the
friction angle but is directly proportional to
the cohesion ‘of the ‘soil.

Based on the above work the senior author
came to the conclusion that there must be a
minimum cement content below which the
cement volume was insufficient to develop
any linkages between particles. Below this
cement content the strength of the material

oo al

PLM TIM TTT
a
ee

SAND FRACTION | GRAVEL FRACTION

i

S cane, es COARSE| FINE |MEDIUM|COARSE| FINE | MEDIUM [COARSE

20
10
SILT FRACTION
0.002 0.006] 0.02 0.06
0.001 0.01 0.1

0.2

6 20

10

0.6 Z
1.0

PARTICLE SIZE (mm)

Figure 1 - Particle Size Distribution of Soil Used

is postulated to be inherent in the material.
ihe ) theory’ ise slightly ‘complicated in
clayey soils where part of the cement is
initially used to break down the clay bonds
and therefore research was initially aimed
at granular soils.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Experiments were carried out by one of the
authors at the University of Technology
CPiper, 1993) to determine if «there was a
minimum cement content below which the
Strength of a stabilised soil mix was
independent of the cement content.

For the experiments 75/ 60 mm by 60mm
sample “blocks were pressed in a _ steel
mourd under a pressure of 7 MPa. The soil
used was a sandy soil with 9 % gravel, 73
% sand, 12 % silt and 6 % clay... The
particle size distribution of the soil is
shown in Figure 1,

39

The cement content was varied between 0
and 3.5 % in increments of 0.25 % with 5
samples made for each cement content.
The sample blocks were air-cured for 28
days and then oven-dried. The blocks were
oven dried as previous research
(Heathcote,1993) had shown that
compressive strength is very sensitive to
moisture content for low moisture contents
and therefore it was desirous to ensure a

uniform moisture content. The sample
blocks were then tested in_ uni-axial
compression and _ the _ failure _ stresses

modified by a factor of 0.7 to take into
account the aspect ratio of the samples.
The ‘characteristic uncontined compressive
SITeSS Ol €ach Cement content was defined
as the 95 % value based on a normalised
distribution i.e. equal to the mean failure
Stress of the tive Samples minus 1.6) times
the standard deviation.

Results of the tests appear below in Table
1

CEMENT AV DENSITY MEAN STRESS S.D. CHARACTERISTIC

% (kg/m 3)
0.00 1666
Or25 1705
030 yes
O75 1764
1.00 1740
25 1745
150 1739
eee L736
2.00 ese)
OS 1764
2,30 ais
2.15 1793
3.00 1776
3.25 1784
5y50) 1789

Table 1 - Test Results

CONCLUSIONS

The results of the
Figure 2 below.

LeSES

are graphed

in

(MPa) (MPa) STRESS (MPa)
0.288 0.101 0.12
0.295 0.072 0.18
‘eel 0.069 0.18
0.322 0.048 0.24
0.497 0.114 0.31
0.689 0.071 O57
0.794 0.043 0.72
1.007 0.106 0.83
15252 0.157 0.99
1.455 0.147 eal
1.642 0.163 1.37
1.683 0.156 leas
DAZ? 0.31 1.61
2.028 0142 1.81
2.097 0.15 1.85

The results show that significant strength
can be achieved at relatively low cement

contents.

Although tow in comparison to

36

materials such as fired clay sample blocks
and concrete the strength achieved at 2.5 %
cement is adequate for most single storey

buildings given that the walls of earth
buildings are generally around 300 mm
thick.

Figure 1 indicates’ a ‘transition’ from!) %a

position where the strength is relatively
independent of. cement ‘content to” that
where the strength is directly proportional
to the ‘cenient content: That transition
occurs at a cement content of around 0.75
%. A line of best fit has’ been drawn

2.00
1.80
1.60
1.40
Compressive 1.20

Strength 1.00

(MPa) 0.80 +
0.60 +
0.40 |
0.20 +
0.00 {=

through the data: and’ this indicates ahe
effect of cément content to be 0.6.-47@itas
cement contents: over 0:75 % (C ='Cemens
%).

The evidence as presented gives strome
Support to the authors proposition,viz., that
there is a limiting cement content below
which strength is independent of cement
content. However further work will need to
be carried out with soils of (warying
composition, in particular of varying clay
content , before a generalisation® canbe
made.

Best Fit Line

A5Xr 8A BREA BHB
Foe re rT NNNN YO EY EY
Cement Content (%)

Figure 2 - Graph of Strength versus Cement Content

REFERENCES

Gilkey,H.J., 1961. Water-Cement Ratio
Versus Strength - Another Look, Journal of
the American Concrete Institute, April,pp
V2Z87-134.2.

Fitzmaurice,R., 1958. Manual on Stabilised
Earth Construction for Housing, Technical
Assistance Program, United Nations,New
ork:

Heathcote,K.A., OO Compressive
Strength of Cement Stabilised Compressed
Earth Sample Blocks, Building Research
and Information,19, No 2, pp101-106.

Heathcote,K.A., 1993: Relationship
between Moisture Content and Strength of
Soilcrete Blocks, Building Research and
Information, 21, No.2, ppl03-108:

Herzog,A., 1964. The Structure of Clay=
Cement, Proceedings of a Colloquium on
Mechanics of Soil Stabilisation held at
Syndal, Victoria,Australia,6th -8th
April Papersen

Mehra,S.H., 1953. Soil “Stabilisations im
Tropical Areas for Mass Construction of
Permanent Cheap Housing, Proceedings of
the Third International Conference on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering,
Switzerland, 1,p272.

Matchell,J.K.,.. 1976. The’ Properties ‘of
Cement-Stabilised Sols; Residential
Workshop on Materials and Methods for
Low Cost Road, Rail and _ Recreation
Works, Leura, Australia, September 6-10.

Nelson,L.H., Sun-Dried Mudbrick 1. The
Material, Source Unknown, quoted in
Building Materials Evaluation Handbook
by Forest Wilson, Van Nostrand.

Kevan Heathcote
University of Technology Sydney

Faculty of Design Architecture &
Building

P.O. Box 123

Broadway N.S.W. 2007

Australia

Richard Piper
University of Technology Sydney

Faculty of Design Architecture &
Building

P.O. Box 123

Broadway N.S.W. 2007

Australia

37

Piper,R., 1993. Strength of Stabilised Soil
Sample blocks at Low Cement Contents,
Thesis for Bachelor of Building Degree,
UTS, Sydney (Unpublished).

Portland Cement Association, 1956. Soil-
Cement Laboratory Handbook, EB 052.

(Manuscript received 31-3-1994)

(Manuscript received in final form 25-5-1994)

' ,
7 \ val = ‘
(alec onl

Rae

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.127, pp.39-45, 1994 39
ISSN 0035-9173/94/010039-07 $4.00/1

BRECCIA FILLED DIATREME IN PERMIAN ILLAWARRA COAL MEASURES and TRIASSIC
STRATA, KANDOS, NEW SOUTH WALES.

ANDREW DOVE AND GRAHAM LEE
(Communicated by P.C. Rickwood)

ABSTRACT: A previously unknown diatreme has been mapped at the ground surface and in
underground colliery workings at Kandos in the western Sydney Basin, New South Wales.

The diatreme intrudes the Lithgow Coal of the Permian Illawarra Coal Measures and penetrates
through the overlying Early Triassic Narrabeen Group sandstone strata to crop out at the surface,
where it is almost circular (330 x 260m). In the colliery, 260m below the surface, it is a much smaller
elliptical shaped body (200 x 60m). Large fragments of rock rafted from overlying strata occur within
the diatreme and are exposed in the colliery workings. Along the diatreme margins flow banding
indicates multiple injections of magma, while sulphide mineralisation is also developed. Coal at the
contact is relatively unaltered, but at the ground surface the sandstones surrounding the diatreme have

been metamorphosed to quartzite.

The diatreme is thought to have been emplaced by a phreatomagmatic reaction, arising from
interaction of magma with the ground water contained in the pe alaatee Conglomerate or the Berry

Formation, underlying the Lithgow Coal. These units were probab

table at the time the diatreme was injected.

oe locations are indicated by Australian Ma

opographic Maps 8832-1-S Ilford, 8832-1-N
are given subsequently.)

INTRODUCTION

The cement manufacturing town of Kandos is
located on the western edge of the Sydney Basin,
about 87km north of Lithgow. Coal for cement
manufacture has been mined from the Lithgow
Seam since 1917, commencing at the Kandos No. |
Colliery and then mining was moved to the north
when the No. 2 Colliery was opened. Igneous
intrusions were encountered (Hamilton, 1968 p84-
89) during the operation of both of these collieries.

The Kandos No. 3 Colliery [Olinda 193 613] which
is located about 2km north-east of Kandos (see
Figure 1) was opened in the early 1960's in the
Permian Lithgow Coal beneath Triassic Narrabeen
Group sandstones and small areas of Tertiary
basalt, which een tomn an outlier, known as
Cumber Melon Mountain.

In 1988 planning was undertaken to secure the long
term future of the colliery by transporting pa baylly:
preci wor to the surface on a conveyor belt
1aulage system. Options available for locating the
required new headings were restricted by old
abandoned workings. Two (2) exploratory drill
holes were drilled by the authors on behalf of the
colliery, to provide information on the nature and
quality of the coal resources in the south-eastern
art of the colliery holding. The first hole (DDH 1)
[Kandos 192 602], was drilled on top of Cumber

elon Mountain (Figure 1) and a_ previously
unknown igneous intrusion was encountered at
relatively shallow depth, with the result that much
of the material recovered was either igneous, or
highly faulted and altered sedimentary rock. The
Lithgow Coal was intersected, however the coal

y about 300m below the water

Grid references that relate to the CMA 1: 25,000
andos, and 8932-3-N Olinda. Only the sheet names

was broken by large sections of igneous material,
had cindering, and contained sulphide bands and
carbonate inclusions.

The second hole (DDH 2) [Kandos 193 605] was
drilled 314 metres north of DDH 1, on a proposed
alternative route for the new conveyor belt
headings, but none of the problems associated with
the initial hole were encountered and three (3)
metres of Lithgow Coal was intersected.

GEOLOGIC SETTING
Permo-Triassic Stratigraphy

Figure 2 details the stratigraphy of the Western
Coalfield as ppOHed by Bembrick (1983) and
Goldbery (1969), but modified to show only
Heo nisable units and measured thicknesses at
andos.

In the Kandos district the Illawarra Coal Measures
are about 130m thick and the section above the
Lithgow Coal has been observed in a number of
colliery drill holes. Beneath the Lithgow Coal there
is less information available as the strata are
observed only in occasional outcrops. The coal
measure uence is dominated by non marine,
dark grey claystone, mudstone and siltstone with
some lithic sandstone units, and relatively thin
conglomerate units at the base. Coal occurs
principally near the top and bottom of the coal
measure sequence.

The Blackmans Flat Conglomerate and Lidsdale
Coal which occur as distinct formations along the

40 Andrew Dove and Graham Lee

To Fylstone

219000mE Subcrop of “ aaa
Lithgow Coal ~ isos
fiscal a)

Subcrop of
Lithgow Coal

AREAS SUBJECT
TO MINING

59000mN

ae

Figure 1.

INTRUSIONS /
DIATREMES

DYKES

Plan of Cumber Melon Mountain showing known intrusions and extent of colliery workings in the

Lithgow Coal in 1990.

margin of the Sydney Basin in parts of the Western
Coalfield are not recognisable, so the Long Swamp
Formation includes correlatives of both of these
units.

The Lithgow Coal typically occurs as five coal plies
separated by thin claystone bands which range up
to 100mm in thickness. The top claystone band is
the thickest and has the highest ash content, and
hence the coal above it is generally not removed
during mining.

The Lithgow Coal is about 3.3m thick in the
Kandos No. 3 Colliery, with the bottom part
ep proa a aey 2.5m) being the working section
which yields a coal product with ash between 18%
and 24%

The Narrabeen Group. sandstones are of a
distinctively different lithology to the underlyin
coal measures and comprise quartz sandstone with
some pebble layers and only minor pale grey to
white claystone units.

Intrusives

The first record of an igneous intrusion at Cumber
Melon Mountain was made by Carne (1903, p155)

and (1908, p100) from data gathered prior to the

commencement of ee in the area.
Subsequently, Bradley et al (1984, abstract and p9)
noted that in the area east of Rylstone there are
about 80 confirmed occurrences of igneous rocks
and they recognised three (3) categories:

"(i) Diatremes, ....

(11) Basalt caps/plugs, in which basalt and/or
dolerite feeder vents intrude pre-existing
diatremes ....

(ii) Basalt flows, ....

Sills and dykes can be associated with all three
categories listed above."

Mitchell eee p74), defines diatremes as "Cone-
shaped, downward-tapering, inclined or vertical
structural units, composed wholly, or partly, of
angular or rounded clasts of cognate or xenolithic
origin, with or without matrix."

In the Kandos district diatremes usually have a
negative topographical expression, while caps plugs
ad flows are always a positive feature. The
diatremes pony outcrop, but have rich soils that
support tall trees and lush grass; rocks around the
margin are often iron-enriched/silicified and
brecciated.

Breccia Filled Diatreme, Kandos, N.S.W.

Metres ASL
1000m

A

Quartzite

V

‘eo ne Long Swamp Formation

4 Lithgow Coal
Marrangaroo Conglomerate

Nile Sub Group

4

Unit Thickness
at Kandos (m)

Figure 2.

yA a PN gt ee ee ee ee Oe ER eS
Farmers Creek Formation

f Gap Sandstone
U State Mine Formation

Angus Place Sandstone

41

TERTIARY

Quartzite

Burralow Formation
NARRABEEN
GROUP

TRIASSIC

Grose Sandstone

Caley Formation

eee eee Saran Lone eee eee

ILLAWARRA
COAL MEASURES

Baal Bone Formation
Glen Davis Formation
Newnes Formation

le Coal

PERMIAN

SHOALHAVEN
GROUP

North-west to south-east cross section through the Kandos No. 3 diatreme, including major stratigraphic

units.

Regarding intrusions encountered as a result of coal
pane beneath Cumber Melon Mountain, Bradley
et al (1984, p25-27) record:

e two (@) basalt/dolerite plugs, with dimensions
300 x 200m and (beneath Coomber Trig) 200 x
a with a 60-80m wide rim of cindered
coal.

e two (2) breccia filled diatremes, with
dimensions 100 x 60m and 80 x 60m.

e a dyke 1.6km long, and between 2m and 20m
wide, which extends into a breccia dyke
adjacent to diatremes and links with the plugs
and diatremes.

Embleton et al (1985, p61) have dated basalt from
Cumber Melon Mountain as Eocene in age (43.6
+0.5 Ma by the K/Ar method), but O'Reilly (1989,
p129) stated that the Kandos basalts have both
Tertiary ages (ranging from 50 to 45 Ma), as well
as Jurassic ages (190 to 170 Ma).

THE KANDOS No. 3 DIATREME

Figure 1 shows the extent of the Kandos No. 3

Colliery workings in 1990, approximately 2 years
after commencement of the investigation. The’ new
headings were in place and the first workings
completed so as to expose the diatreme at the
ye Seam floor level, 257.8m below the collar
of DDH 2.

The first drillhole ede 1) in 1988 was located on
the southern end of the diatreme, near where it joins
the dyke system and it penetrated the narrow
contact zone at the level of the Lithgow Coal.

At the surface, the diatreme is a roughly circular
shaped depression with maximum dimensions of
330m _northeast-southwest and 260m_northwest-
southeast. The ground slopes evenly from the north
to the south ith a total fall of 28m and the soil is a
dark greyish brown and is usually well covered
with grass and scattered trees. Surrounding the
diatreme are Narrabeen Group sandstones, which,
except in the north and south-west, have been
contact metamorphosed to form an erosion resistant
rim of quartzite around part of the circumference,
as shown in Figure 3. This rim is up to 5m mipher
than the erodedidiatieme and is approximately 25m
wide at its greatest development in the south-east,
though generally it is much narrower.

42 Andrew Dove and Graham Lee

The quartzite rim varies from an_ indurated
sandstone with all sedimentary features and grain
boundaries still apparent through various degrees of
metamorphism to a highly altered, jointed quartzite
with obscured grain boundaries and quartz vein
development, Figure 3. Quartz veins are usually
only 1 or 2mm wide forming a stockwork, but iron
oxide enriched veins can be up to 300min wide,
often standing vertically and parallel to the margin
of the diatreme; although smaller veins and
stockworks mostly occur.

Columnar or "prismatised" sandstone has also been
reported from elsewhere on Cumber Melon
mountain - Bradley et al (1984, p29).

Surface mapping around the diatreme has not
revealed any evidence of the dyke system that is

exposed in the colliery workings below. Whether
this is due to preferential weathering and erosion of
the dyke material or non-intrusion at this level is
not known.

Figure 1 shows the mapped boundary of the
diatreme and dykes at the level of the Lithgow Coal
where the diatreme is much smaller than at the
surface. The shape has changed to an ellipse with
major and minor axes (200 x 60m) and there is a
dyke extending out from each end of the long axis.
Effectively the diatreme is a bulge in a dyke
structure. A parallel dyke also occurs on the south-
eastern side, with an average separation of 15m
from the main diatreme.

Structural disturbance of the Lithgow Coal is

minimal, being just an increase in the frequency of .
small faults as the diatreme is approached and these Figure 4. Diatreme contact at the southern end

near where it narrows to a dyke, at the location
close to DDH 1.

Magma injection features are apparent,
occuring as veins and veinlets along
bedding and joint planes, as well as
some apparently blind dykes.
Disturbance to the coal is apparent by

the bedding displacement in the lower
centre of the figure.

The intrusion at this point dips away
from the observer towards the south.
Blocks of diatreme material which have
fallen from the roof of the workings are
on the floor in the foreground.

have little impact upon mining.

RSE "eg
od RRR ae i, Cetin ROE Sue See
Ee cae Gene sie Fae

Figure 3. | Close up of the quartzite from the surface rim of the
diatreme showing development of quartz veins.

Breccia Filled Diatreme, Kandos, N.S.W.

Magma ccuCU features, (Figure 4) are veins and
veinlets along bedding planes joint planes (and
cleats in coal) and less often, apparently randomly,
as blind "dykes" into what appears as solid rock.

From the surface and underground exposures it is
possible to obtain some definite control on the
shape of the diatreme and Figure 2 shows this as a
cross section. Also shown is the surface
topographic expression of the quartzite in the
contact zone.

Carne (1908, p100) described the igneous rock at
Cumber Melon Mountain as olivine-basalt, but
Bradley et al (1984, p26) ina cross section showed
both basalts and dolerites. Underground at Kandos
No. 3 Colliery the igneous rock 1s now weathered
and largely altered, with brown and white clay
minerals present. A relict texture which could be
consistent with dolerite is apparent in some
i pele of both the diatreme and the adjoinin
dyke, and clay particles which could be derive
from weathering of feldspars or filling of amygdules
are aligned parallel to the margin, suggesting flow
banding possibly due to multiple intrusions or
pulsating phases of a single intrusive event.

Alteration of the Coal

Cindering and alteration of the coal is restricted to a
narrow zone, usually less than Im wide, and is
mostly indicated by coking of the bright coal
laminae in the otherwise dull coal. Only within a
few tens of centimetres of the intrusion is there any
apparent alteration of the dull coal.

43

Towards the intrusion ash levels in the coal
increase slightly, by about 2 or 3%, for the full
working section including bands, and the amount of
visible an eae minerals on cleats also increases.
None of the coal produced shows any significant
change in other properties from those normally
expected.

Xenoliths

For the most part the xenolith and_ breccia
fragments are surrounded by a matrix of lava but
the relative proportions vary _ significantly
throughout the observed exposures of the diatreme.
Breccia is only observed within 0.3m of the walls,
and may have a subordinate amount of associated
larger xenolith material. The largest xenolith
blocks occur in zones which are free of breccia.

Only very narrow zones of finely brecciated
fragments occurring oe the margin of_ the
diatreme are not supported by a lava matrix. They
contain clasts of coal measure lithologies, together
with fragments of volcanic rock which are similar
to the lithologies exposed in the adjacent wornes
and diatreme areas. In a few zones a sulphide
mineral (marcasite?) is abundant together with
volcanic breccia but little, or no, brecciated coal
measure lithologies.

Exposures of the southern end of the diatreme, in
the vicinity of Figure 4 (near DDH | on Figure 1)
contain little xenolith or breccia material; instead
these areas are dominantly composed of lava.

Figure 5.

Diatreme at the north-eastern end showing vetical face and sloping roof containing large xenolith of
country rock rafted from the strata above the Lithgow Coal. The western contact between the coal and
the intrusion is apparent on the right hand side of the figure, showing flow banding near the margin of
the intrusion. Rounded and milled surfaces are showing on some xenolith blocks particularly near the

centre of the figure.

Material fallen from the roof is in the foreground.

44 Andrew Dove and Graham Lee

The xenoliths are of two types:

(i) coal measure derived rocks Aes to be
derived from above the level of the Lithgow
Coal. They constitute more than 90% of the
xenoliths.

‘(i1) ~~ exotic rock types, of which granite and acid
volcanics are the most frequently observed
and were presumably derived from beneath
the coal measures.

Coal measure derived xenoliths (Figure 5), which
range in size up to blocks with at least one
dimension exceeding 2m in length, often have

rounded and polished surfaces, and in places are
slickensided. The largest block exposed in the
workings is estimated to have a mass in the order of
20 tonnes. The most abundant xenolith type is dark
grey claystone and laminite typical of te Long

wamp_ Formation, which occurs immediately
above the Lithgow Coal, but similar lithologies are
also present in parts of the Newnes and Baal Bone
Formations higher in the coal measure sequence.
Other xenolith compositions include fine grained,
well bedded sandstone and laminite lithologies
which are randomly orientated (Figure 5).

DISCUSSION

Mitchell (1986, p81) considered that diatreme root
zones Cie ae as enlargements of dykes and
Lorenz (1985, p467 & 1986, p270) gave instances
of dykes being precursors, and inferred that the
magma in the dyke fissure encountered ground
water within the zone of structural weakness, and
hence the phreatomagmatic eruption was localized.

Thus a series of diatremes may occur along the line
of a dyke, as is the case at Kandos (Figure 1).

Other features of the No. 3 diatreme that are
consistent with the Lorenz model include:

e Conical shape (Figure 2).

e The blocks of country rock at seam level appear
to have been mostly derived from higher
stratigraphic horizons.

¢ There is little or no visible thermal metamorphic
effect on intruded blocks, even though many of
them are highly carbonaceous Bae and dark
grey claystones, mudstones and siltstones.

e The rounded and milled surfaces on many of the
blocks of country rock are consistent with the
blocks being tumbled in an_ explosive
environment.

e There are at least two possible aquifers which
may have provided the water required to drive a
phreatomagmatic eruption:

1) the Marrangaroo Conglomerate

11) parts of the Berry Formation.

Both the Marrangaroo Conglomerate and Berry
Formation are well developed along the Western

margin of the Sydney Basin, and Dove (1986, p83)
recognised the Marrangaroo Conglomerate aha, the
top of the Berry Formation as aquifers in areas near
Baal Bone 48km south of the Kandos site. Based
on the thickness of the stratigraphic interval from
the base of the Tertiary basalt to the top of the
Marrangaroo Conglomerate on Cumber Melon
Mountain, it is estimated that when the No. 3
diatreme was emplaced, the Marrangaroo
Conglomerate was buried beneath approximately
315m of overlying Permo-Triassic sediments.

The underlying Berry Formation would therefore
have been covered by at least 325m of sediment.
Both of these aquifer units occur in or near the zone
of eruption initiation, which Lorenz (1985, p466)
suggests should be in the order of 200-300m below
the water table.

Modern day basalt capped plateau areas in the
Kandos region, such as Cumber Melon Mountain,
can reasonably be assumed to have been Tertiary
valleys or plains at the time the Tertiary basalts
were extruded. It is therefore fair to assume that
the water table at the time of eruption was at about
the level onto which much of the extruded basalt
flowed at Kandos. That is, that the water table was
close to the base of the Tertiary basalt beds. The
distance between the base of the basalt and the
Marrangaroo Conglomerate at the base of the
Lithgow Coal would have provided an appropriate
cover thickness and water table depth to initiate a
phreatomagmatic eruption.

The Kandos igneous system is evidently related to a
deep NE-S fracture zone which 1s_ partl:
occupied by dykes. At the level of mining the NE-
SW dykes are offset sinistrally at the Kandos No. 2
Colliery the segments are linked by a connecting
dyke. The Sw dyke ee has two diatremes,
one near its SW end at Kandos No. | Colliery and
the other at the end of the ‘horn’ that extends
beyond the connector to the NE segment in the
Kandos No. 2 Colliery, (Figure 1). The large
diatreme at the southern end of the dyke system 1s
linked by a curved dyke extending to the east and
joining into another large intrusion which is beneath
Coomber Trig. The NE segment has one diatreme
at its SW end and another roughly midway along its
proven length.

At the time of dyke injection, the stress field at the
Kandos No. 2 Collen area was rotated clockwise
relative to locations towards the ends of the dyke
system and this produced the sinistral offset, yet the
yke remains relatively straight. However, near
both the Kandos No. | and Kandos No. 3 Colliery
diatremes there are dykes with apparent
ronounced curves; that are atypical of dykes. At
both locations there are subsidiary dykes that for
art of their known length follow the regional NE-
Sw trend but curve so as to link with the diatreme.

At the Kandos No. | Colliery the dykes are radial
to the diatreme but at the Kandos No. 3 Colliery the
dyke follows a path that is almost a full quadrant of
the circumference of a circle (Figure 1). Both
radial and ring features occur around 'sub-elliptical’
intrusions so it seems probable that these dykes,
and that at Kandos No. 3 Copley in particular,
have occupied a pre-existing fracture system

Breccia Filled Diatreme, Kandos, N.S.W. 45

generated by intrusion of the diatremes. Hence, it
is suggested that at least two intrusion episodes
occurred - first the main NE-SW dykes and
associated diatremes and later a second phase of
dykes. At this stage neither composition and age
differences are known.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This paper is published with the consent of Mr B.
George, Kandos Works Manager, Australian
Cement Ltd. The assistance of the staff from
Kandos No. 3 _ Colliery, at the time of
investigations, particularly Mr L. Ireland, Mr D.
Carey, and Mr N. Wallis, is _ gratefully
acknowledged.

Before publication the paper was read_ and
commented upon by Messrs Steve Lishmund and
Geoff Oakes from the N.S.W. Geological Survey,
Associate Professor Colin Ward and Doctor Peter
Rickwood from the University of N.S.W., all of
whom offered a number of constructive comments.

REFERENCES

Bembrick, C.S., 1983. The Stratigraphy and
sedimentation of the Late Permian
Illawarra Coal Measures in the Western
Coalfield, Sydney Basin, New South
Wales. Journal and Proceedings, Royal
Ray of New South Wales, [16, 105-

Bradley, G., Yoo, E.K., and West, P., 1984.
Geological Mapping of Mesozoic to
Tertiary Diatremes and Illawarra Coal
Measures East of Rylstone. New South
Wales Department of Mineral Resources,
Coal Geology Branch Report No.
GS1984/203.

Carne, J.E., 1903. The Kerosene Shale Deposits of
New south Wales. Memoirs of the
Geological Survey of New South Wales,
Geology 4.

Carne, J.E., 1908. Geology and Mineral Resources
of the Western Coalfield. Memoirs of the
Geological Survey of New South Wales,
Geology 6.

Andrew Dove

13 Yeramba Crescent
Terrigal

NS 2260
Australia

Graham Lee

22 Grove Avenue,
Penshurst

NSW 2222
Australia

Dove, A.G., 1986. Geology of the Ben Bullen -
Portland District, Western Sydney Basin.
BSc. Ce, Thesis, University of New
South Wales. (Unpubl.).

Embleton, B.J., Schmidt, P.W., Hamilton, L.H.,
Riley, G.H. 1985. Dating Volcanism in
The Sydney Basin: Evidence From K-Ar
Ages and Palaeomagnetism. Symposium,
Volcanism in Eastern Australia, Sydn
1982, 59-72. FL. Sutherland, B.J.
Franklin, and A.E. Waltho (Eds.).
Geological Society of Australia, New
South Wales Division, Publication No. 1.

Goldbery, R., 1979. Geology of the Western Blue
Mountains. Geological Survey of New
South Wales, Bulletin No. 20.

Hamilton, L., 1968. Interaction of Coal and
Magma M.Sc. Thesis, University of New
South Wales. (Unpubl.).

Hamilton, L., 1979. Intrusive Breccias in NSW
Coal Seams. Abstracts 13th Symposium
on Advances in the Study of the Sydney
Basin, Newcastle 1979, 18-19.

Lorenz, V., 1985. Maars and Diatremes of
Phreatomagmatic Origin: A_ Review.
Transactions of the Geological Society of
South Africa, 58, 459-470.

Lorenz, V., 1986. On the Growth of Maars and
Diatremes and its Relevance to the
Formation of Tuff Rings. Bulletin of
Volcanology, 48, 265-274.

Mitchell, R.H., 1986. KIMBERLITES:
MINERALOGY, GEOCHEMISTRY and
PETROLOGY. Plenum Publishing
Corporation, New York.

O'Reilly, S.Y., 1989. Eastern Australian Volcanic
Geology; Central and Southern New
South Wales; Southern Highlands,
Grabben Gullen, Abercrombie, and
Kandos, in RAPLATE
VOLCANISM IN EASTERN
AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND,
pp. 129-130. R.W. Johnson (Ed.).
ambridge University Press, Cambridge.

(Manuscript received 14-4-1994)
(Manuscript received in final form 7-6-1994)

1 a

(edna?

owe

INTRODUCTION

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol, 127, 47-59, 1994
ISSN 0035-9173/94/010047-13

$4.00/1

Lachlan and New England: Fold Belts of Contrasting
Magmatic and Tectonic Development

B.W. CHAPPELL

ABSTRACT. New South Wales contains significant parts of two fold belts, Lachlan and New England, which provide
contrasting examples of tectonic development. The Lachlan belt is of distinctive and unusual character, with little
evidence for its development according to processes of subduction and plate tectonics. The massive ca 400 Ma
magmatic event in the Lachlan involved the vertical redistribution of older crust with little production of new crust.
Granites of this age were apparently continuous from northern Victoria Land to at least Cape York Peninsular, a
distance of 3600 km, in what is termed the Lachlan-Cape York Granite Belt. In contrast to the Lachlan belt, New
England shows excellent evidence for modern-style tectonic development, including the some of the sedimentary,
metamorphic, plutonic and volcanic rocks found in younger fold belts. In contrast to the Lachlan, the evolution of New
England during the late Palaeozoic involved substantial production of new crust, consistent with the primitive isotopic
compositions, and the uplift of the belt. Granites provide a useful tool in studying the crust because they compositionally
image their source rocks in the deep crust. Application of this principle has shown that large areas of the Lachlan belt are
underlain by a thick layer of sedimentary rocks that are less evolved, i.e. more feldspar-rich, than the exposed Ordovician
sediments. To overcome the problems associated with the deposition of the deep water marine Ordovician sediments on
older sedimentary crust, it is proposed that the older basement may have been thinned by crustal extension, which could
have lead to deposition of the Ordovician sediments on a depressed basement, and an enhanced heat flow that resulted in
massive amounts of melting. I-type granites of the Lachlan are dominantly granodioritic and unlike those of a Cordilleran
belt. In contrast, the Clarence River Supersuite of the New England Batholith is distinctly Cordilleran in character.
Among the other rather diverse granites of New England, the Moonbi Supersuite may represent an analogue of the
potassic rocks of the Sierra Nevada Batholith. The Clarence River type probably represents the partial melting of a
basaltic underplate, while the Moonbi source rocks were distinctly shoshonitic and in some cases enriched to very high
levels in elements such as Sr, Ba, Pb and Th. The isotopic composition of all of the New England granites, including the
S-types, is relatively primitive, consistent with the development of the belt as new crust during the late Palaeozoic. While
the igneous rocks of the Lachlan belt can be used to argue strongly against its development by the accretion of new
crust, those of New England have features that point strongly the other way. A comparison of the granites in the two
belts thus confirms the distinctive character of the Lachlan. It is suggested that some of the significant structural features
of the Lachlan belt may be related to events in New England. The strong late-Devonian (Tabberaberan) deformation in
parts of the Lachlan was coeval with activity in the Baldwin Arc and may have resulted from the collision of a major part
of the evolving New England Orogen with the cratonic Lachlan belt. Likewise, the later Carboniferous (Kanimblan)
deformation may have been related to the Andean volcanic chain that later developed in western New England.

TWO CONTRASTING FOLD BELTS

This paper is presented in honour of the Rev. W.B. Clarke,

47

Significant segments of two major and contrasting fold

who was the first person to record many of the geological features
of the area south of Berridale where with Allan White, I started
my own studies of the Lachlan Fold Belt in 1963. In his reports
on gold in southern New South Wales written for the New South
Wales government, Clarke (1860) mentioned the presence of
granites intruding the slates in what we now call the Berridale
Batholith. That batholith was the starting point for our studies of
granites that have since extended throughout the Lachlan belt.
These granites have many distinctive features that distinguish
them from the younger granites of the New England Fold Belt to
the north-east, just as other features of the two fold belts show
some distinct differences. The contrasting features of the granites
have important implications for the tectonic evolution of these two
fold belts, which will be considered here.

belts, Lachlan and New England, comprise the basement of the
eastern part of the state of New South Wales. This is a
particularly opportune time to review the evolution of these two
belts, with the publication within the last few years of two
important volumes of research papers. The volume edited by
Ferguson and Glen (1992) contains the proceedings of the LFB91
symposium on the Tectonics of the Lachlan Fold Belt. Flood and
Aichison (1993) have subsequently compiled a volume of papers
submitted to the NEO93 symposium on the New England Fold
Belt.

Studies of the granites of these two belts have inevitably
lead to considerations both of the tectonic settings of the granites,
and what they tell us about broader aspects of the evolution of the
Earth's crust. Granites are a valuable tool in studying the crust of

48

the Earth. This is because as magmas they come mostly from the
deeper parts of the crust and carry information with them about
the composition of those deeper zones. They can provide a depth
dimension to our studies that would otherwise be much less
detailed. We can also compare these granites with those in
younger belts whose evolution is better understood. Granites do
not of course provide the complete picture of the evolution of the
crust in any area, but they are a significant element in developing
that picture. It is the contribution provided by their study that will
be examined here.

GRANITES AND THEIR SOURCE ROCKS

Granites that have come from the deep crust to higher
levels carry compositional information about their source rocks:
they "image" the deep crust (Chappell, 1979). There is a great
deal of empirical evidence that they do this. For example, the
subdivision of granites in both the Lachlan and New England fold
belts into I- and S-types is based on the observation that the latter
group have chemical characteristics such as low Na and generally
low Fe3*/Fe2* that they have inherited from sedimentary rocks.
The provincial character of some elements or groups of elements
can only be the result of the inheritance of source characteristics,
e.g. the high Ba and low Fe3+/Fe2+ of all granites in the region
north of Melbourne (Melbourne Basement Terrane), the low K
and very low Rb of the Clarence River Supersuite and the very
high Ba, Sr, Pb and Th of some units of the Moonbi Supersuite.
The striking transverse patterns for some elements in the Bega
Batholith must be the result of similar patterns in the source rocks
since they correlate so strongly with isotopic patterns (Chappell er
al., 1990). It is this correlation between source and granite
compositions that results in granite suites, where each suite can be
correlated with a source rock of distinct composition.

A correlation between the composition of a granite and its
source rock can result either from a granite melt carrying
unmelted refractory material from the source, the restite model
(Chappell e¢ al., 1987), or by melting proceeding to a higher
temperature so that the more refractory components are
incorporated in the melt (Chappell and Stephens, 1988). The
relative importance of these two mechanisms is controversial (e.g.
Wall et al., 1987) but in the present context the mechanism is
perhaps less important than the empirical observation that
imaging does occur, discussed in the previous paragraph. A
similar correlation between granite and source rock compositions
would also result from magma mixing, with each granite

Figure 1. Sketch map showing the Palaeozoic Fold Belts of
eastern Australia. The Delamarian Fold Belt extends further
west of the map area and the granites within it are
Ordovician in age. Granites intruding both the Lachlan and
Thomson Fold Belts and the Proterozoic rocks of North
Queensland and Tasmania are Silurian to Carboniferous in
age and are assigned to the Lachlan-Cape York Granite
Belt. Granites intruding the New England and Hodgkinson
belts are of Carboniferous to Cretaceous age. The New
England Batholith occurs within the southern segment of
the New England Fold Belt, mainly in New South Wales.
The Permian-Triassic Sydney-Bowen Basin separates the
New England Fold Belt from the Lachlan and Thomson
Fold Belts and is itself partly covered by the eastern
extension of the Great Artesian Basin.

B.W. CHAPPELL

|
144° B 150° E
CAPE YORK Fold Belts

Hodgkinson

Variscan-
New England \ ae

IDRIS
Thomson
Lachlan Caledonian-age
Delamerian

Precambrian Blocks

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—--—-— State boundaries

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LACHLAN and NEW ENGLAND MAGMATIC DEVELOPMENT

composition reflecting a composition between those two source
components. However, such mixing on a large scale to produce
the compositional ranges seen in granite suites is untenable, at
least in these two fold belts, because of the correlation in
abundances of elements at both the mafic and felsic ends of
groups of suites.

LACHLAN FOLD BELT

The Lachlan Fold Belt (LFB) of southeastern Australia
evolved during the early and mid-Palaeozoic at the active margin
of the Australian continent (Figure 1). The belt was located at the
eastern edge of the older continent and the early Palaeozoic
Delamarian Fold Belt. It probably included components now
located in western New Zealand (Cooper and Tulloch, 1992;
Gibson, 1992). It is now separated from the younger New
England Fold Belt or New England Orogen (NEO) by the
sedimentary rocks of the Sydney Basin. The belt is 750 km wide
and it has been claimed (e.g. Coney, 1992) that if shortening of

the sedimentary sequences is allowed for this width could have
been as much as 2000 km before deformation. VandenBerg and

Stewart (1992) have suggested that this width could be due to
doubling up of the belt by large-scale strike slip faulting.

There are two dominant components to the LFB. First are
the rather monotonous sequence of deep water deposits of
Ordovician age. Second are the more than 800 distinct bodies of
granite that together comprise 20% of the total area, for which the
Ordovician sediments form the matrix. Granites comprise 36% of
the area of the eastern one-third of the belt and related volcanic
rocks are also particularly abundant (15%) in that eastern part
(see map of Chappell ef a/., 1991). Other components of the belt
include an area of mafic shoshonitic volcanic rocks in the
northern part (Wyborn, 1992) and a strip of high temperature-low
pressure regional metamorphic rocks near the centre, the Wagga
Metamorphic Belt, known as the Omeo Metamorphic Complex
where it is best developed in Victoria (Morand, 1990).

The LFB is an anomalous orogen (Fergusson and Glen,
1992), at least by the standards of young fold belts. It is wide and
is also part of a zone of magmatic activity at least 3600 km long,
discussed below. It lacks extensive high grade metamorphic rocks
and thrust belts, and structures while sometimes complex are
generally upright. Melange and high-pressure low temperature
metamorphic rocks are absent. The same _lithotectonic
assemblages and general structural style and level are found
across the entire orogen, so that juxtaposed tectonostratigraphic
terranes are not seen (Coney, 1992). However the granites of the
belt do have distinct provincial characteristics which have been
taken by Chappell ef a/. (1988) to imply the present of "basement
terranes" at depth. During the Silurian and Devonian, this belt had
an exceptionally high heat flow. Granites and related volcanic
rocks are extraordinarily abundant and S-type granites are
slightly more abundant than I-types, with a minor component of
A-type granites (~0.7%). The I-type granites and associated
volcanic rocks never have compositions similar to those of
modern arc rocks, and very rarely to the tonalites of the
Cordilleran magmatic belts, so that there is no petrological
evidence for subduction. Most of the S-type granites have
compositions inappropriate for a derivation from the surrounding
Ordovician sedimentary rocks. This has lead to the proposal that
those Ordovician flysch rocks were deposited on continental crust
(White et al., 1976) which, if true, is the most unusual feature of
the belt. Finally, the abundance in places of volcanic rocks and
the lack of high pressure metamorphic rocks point to the belt
never having undergone significant uplift.

49

Despite these distinctive features, numerous attempts have
been made to fit the LFB into tectonic models developed for
younger belts, with, for example, growth having occurred through
the lateral accretion of islands arcs (e.g. Crook, 1980; Collins and
Vernon, 1992), or through the assembling of tectonostratigraphic
terranes (e.g. Fergusson ef al., 1986; Leitch and Scheibner,
1987). The geological development of the LFB has been a
controversial subject during the last twenty years as efforts have
been made to fit this rather unusual belt into a framework
provided by plate tectonics, despite its unusual characteristics. As
Coney (1992) has put it, "a number of scenarios have been
proposed down the years ranging through almost every plate
tectonic setting imaginable to sentiments that the belt has nothing
to do with plate tectonics".

Ages of Lachlan granites

Reliable radiometric ages on granites of the LFB are
sparse. Most are in the 440 to 390 Ma interval with some plutons
to 360 Ma in the central part of the belt north of Melbourne
(e.g. Williams ef al., 1975; Compston and Chappell, 1979;
Richards and Singleton, 1981; Williams, pers. comm.). The
granites of western Tasmania are distinctly younger, with a total
range from 380 to 330 Ma reported in the summary of Williams
et al. (1989). 2800 km2 of plutonic rocks of Carboniferous age,
ranging from 340 to 312 Ma and peaking at 325-320 Ma (Shaw
and Flood, 1993), are present in the most easterly part of the belt,
north and south of Bathurst. The compilation of granite ages of
Powell (1984) suggests that there was a regular eastward
migration of the pre-Carboniferous granite magmatism in the
eastern half of the belt. This suggestion has been taken up
recently by Collins and Vernon (1992) in their tectonic model and
more recently by Collins (1994). However, SHRIMP ion probe
data (IS. Williams, pers. comm.) show that the Cooma
Granodiorite in the eastern part of the belt is significantly older
than was previously thought, with an age close to the oldest
reported age in the LFB from 200 km further west, while the
Kameruka Granodiorite near the eastern edge of the Bega
Batholith, has an age ~420 Ma (Williams, 1992), comparable
with that of the I-type granites of the Berridale Batholith, 150 km
to the west. The only area of systematically younger ion probe
ages among the pre-Carboniferous granites is at the eastern edge
of the Bega Batholith and within the Moruya Batholith, close to
the eastern edge of the belt (1.S. Williams, pers. comm.).

A Lachlan-Cape York Granite Belt

The most southerly occurrence of granite in the LFB is in
southeastern Tasmania (Figure 1). Before the opening of the
Southern Ocean these rocks were continuous with the Admiralty
Intrusives of northern Victoria Land. The latter rocks are
restricted to the northernmost part of the Trans-Antarctic
Mountains so that granites of this age appear to have a natural
southern limit. The northern limits of the LFB are imposed by
cover rocks of the Eromanga Basin but the belt is likely to have a
very considerable extension beneath that basin, as indicated by
four radiometric ages ranging from 426 to 405 Ma on basement
rocks (Murray, 1986; Figure | this paper) and the lithology of
those rocks in about 45 wells that penetrated basement. Murray
(1986) reports that the basement is remarkably similar over a
large area and includes metamorphosed greywacke and mudstone.
Further north, rocks of Lower Palaeozoic age appear from
beneath cover rocks in the Thomson Fold Belt, although these are
in part, probably older than the Ordovician rocks of the LFB.

50 B.W. CHAPPELL

K-Ar dating suggests that the rocks of the Anakie Metamorphic
Group were deformed and metamorphosed at around 510 Ma,
corresponding to ages in the Delamarian Fold Belt (Withnall e¢
al., 1994). These metamorphic rocks could be equivalent to at
least part of the unexposed basement rocks of the LFB. They are
intruded by the mainly I-type Retreat Batholith for which ages
ranging from 385 to 366 Ma have been reported by Withnall e¢
al. (1994). Further north, granites of Silurian-Devonian age occur
in the Cape York Plutonic Belt that extends from the Charters
Towers district to the northern end of the Coen Inlier (Bain et al.,
1994), intrusive into both Palaeozoic rocks and Proterozoic rocks
in the Georgetown and Coen Inliers. A major deformation and
intrusion event occurred in the Georgetown Inlier at about
430 Ma (Bain ef al., 1994). Knutson ef al. (1994) report an
average age of 407 Ma for the extensively developed Silurian to
Devonian age granites of the Cape York Peninsula Batholith.

It is apparent that prior to the opening of the Southern
Ocean, granites which formed at a time close to 400 Ma occurred
between northern Victoria Land, and at least Cape York, a
distance of 3600 km. It is here proposed to call this major belt of
magmatic activity at the edge of the Gondwana continent, the
Lachlan-Cape York Granite Belt. There is a close similarity
between the ages of this belt and those of the Caledonian belt of
northwestern Europe and the Appalachian Fold Belt of north-
eastern North America.

APPLICATION OF GRANITE STUDIES TO THE
LACHLAN FOLD BELT

In an early application of granites to studying the deeper
parts of the crust, White ef al. (1976) defined an I-S line marking
the eastern limit of exposures of S-type granites in the LFB. They
stated that this line marks the eastern limit of thick crystalline
crust, possibly of Precambrian age. Within the Berridale
Batholith, where the line was first recognised, the line separates
I-type granites in the east from mainly S-type granites to the west.
Chappell et a/. (1988) later extended this line from Bass Strait to
the northern limit of LFB exposures at the southem edge of the
Eromanga Basin.

Some implications of studies of S-type granites

The occurrence of the strongly peraluminous and hence
distinctly S-type granites of the Bullenbalong Supersuite west of
the I-S line implies the presence of thick metasedimentary crust.
Those granites can not have been derived by partial melting of the
exposed Ordovician sediments. This can be seen from the plot of
CaO against total SiO, for 151 Ordovician sedimentary rocks and
68 samples of the Bullenbalong Suite in Figure 2. It is clear from
that diagram that the sedimentary rocks do not contain sufficient
Ca for them to have been the source material for those granites,
and that either more Ca-rich sedimentary rocks were involved, or
an additional Ca-rich component was present in the source. A
similar situation exists for the other elements, Na and Sr, lost
when feldspars are weathered to clay minerals. There are also
significant differences between the isotopic compositions of these
granites and those of the sedimentary rocks, with the granites
having significantly less evolved Sr and Nd isotopic compositions
(McCulloch and Chappell, 1982). These data have been
interpreted in terms of deriving the Bullenbalong Suite from
source material less mature than the Ordovician rocks (White and
Chappell, 1988), and forming the basement to those rocks. This is
consistent with these S-type rocks (the batholithic S-type granites
of White and Chappell, 1988) occurring as intrusive masses in a

% CaO

Figure 2. Plot of CaO against SiO, for 151 Ordovician
sedimentary rocks from the Lachlan Fold Belt (filled
squares) and 68 granites of the Bullenbalong Suite (open
circles).

contact aureole environment, and with geobarometry (Wyborn ef
al., 1981) indicating that the S-type volcanic magmas were
generated at depths ~15-18 km. Since this interpretation of the
data is critical to understanding the tectonic evolution of the LFB,
it is necessary to examine an alternative model that has been
proposed.

Gray (1984) argued that the variations in initial 87Sr/86Sr
values in the Lachlan granites result from mixing of basaltic
material and granitic melt derived from the melting of the
Ordovician sedimentary rocks. Gray (1990) states that "the
basaltic component is possibly intrusive into the source as dykes
or their metamorphosed equivalents, but more likely intrusive into
the granitic magma and dispersed into it by the mechanical
breakdown of mafic xenoliths". However, metaluminous enclaves
that could have been derived from such basaltic material are
extremely rare in the mafic S-type granites of the LFB (Wyborn
et al., 1991; Chappell et al., 1994a; c.f. Vernon, 1983; Wall et
al., 1987). This is a strong argument against the basalt mixing
model. While such a mixing model might account for the isotopic
systematics of the granites, it does not accord with some of their
chemical features. Mixing of basalt with material derived from
the Ordovician sedimentary rocks would increase the Ca, Na and
Sr abundances as required, although not necessarily by the
appropriate amounts. The amount of any mantle component in the
mafic S-type granites is limited by their strongly peraluminous
nature. Within individual suites of the Bullenbalong Supersuite,
the degree of Al saturation (or of per cent. normative corundum)
increases with Fe content as the rocks become more mafic
(Figure 3). This is not consistent with the presence of a larger
basaltic component in the more mafic rocks. Gray (1990) argued,
however, that the trend of decreasing Al saturation as the rocks
become more felsic was due to fractionation of a previously
mixed composition, rather than a decreasing basalt component
within the suite. Fractionation of Al-rich minerals such as biotite
and cordierite that are present in the more mafic rocks would have
that effect, but would imply a strongly peraluminous starting
composition. The mafic and most peraluminous rocks are not
cumulates enriched in Al-rich minerals; they are magmatic (a
fluid mix of melt plus solid) compositions, shown by the complete
equivalence in composition between S-type plutonic and volcanic

LACHLAN and NEW ENGLAND MAGMATIC DEVELOPMENT 51

% normative C

% total FeO

Figure 3. Plot of normative corundum versus total FeO for
granites of the Bullenbalong Suite.

suites in the Kosciusko Province west of the I-S line (Wyborn ef
al., 1981; Wyborn and Chappell, 1986; Chappell et al., 1987).
The implication is that mixing to produce the source rock must
have been between a peraluminous S-type melt containing more
normative corundum than is typically observed in the mafic rocks
of the Bullenbalong Suite (~4%) and a metaluminous mafic
composition. The Cooma Granodiorite composition nominated by
Gray (1984) as his crustal melt end member contains 5.8%
normative corundum (sample CCl). This is an appropriate
amount of corundum, but difficulties remain. Such a composition
(72% SiO, and 0.95% Na,O; also 1.49% CaO) would be
extremely refractory in terms of completely melting, and there is a
general consensus that the strongly peraluminous Cooma
composition is not that of a melt. To make things even more
difficult, it is now commonly accepted that the Cooma granite
was not derived from typical Ordovician sedimentary rocks (an
average of 151 analyses contains 0.27% CaO and 0.90% Na,0),
but either from relatively feldspar-rich Ordovician material, or
from unexposed older rocks of that character (Steele et al., 1991).
Any melt derived from the Ordovician sedimentary rocks, as
postulated by Gray (1984), would have been derived from an even
more refractory source than was the Cooma Granodiorite! The
granite end-member of Gray (1984) is therefore not easily
produced, and certainly not in the volumes required, also there is
no direct evidence for the basalt end-member. Hence, the
argument for a less mature sedimentary source which partly
melted to give granite melts containing ~1% normative corundum
plus a mafic and strongly peraluminous restite fraction, to
account for the composition of the Bullenbalong Suite and other
similar S-type granites, seems unequivocal. A detailed discussion
of the petrogenesis of the more mafic S-type granites of the LFB
is being prepared by Chappell et al. (1994b).

A mantle component is not required by the composition of
these rocks, there is no evidence for such material, and if it is
present it must be in small amounts. Therefore the view is taken
that the S-type granites were effectively derived exclusively from
sedimentary material within the crust (Chappell and White,
1992). Since this material was different in composition from the
exposed Ordovician strata, there is the important implication that
there is a thick metasedimentary substrate to those rocks, at least
in areas in which S-type granites are present. This is the view
originally expressed by White ef al. (1976) which has become
more generally excepted, in spite of the implied difficulties with

tectonic models (e.g. Crawford, 1983; Crawford et al., 1984;
Fergusson ef al., 1986; Glen et al., 1992; Glen, 1992). Those
authors propose either that the metasedimentary substrate was
underthrust beneath the belt following the deposition of the
Ordovician sediments on oceanic crust, or that the Ordovician
sediments and their oceanic substrate were thrust over
metasedimentary rocks. Gibson (1992) has suggested that the
metamorphosed Lower Palaeozoic rocks of Fiordland, New
Zealand, may give some indication of what lies at depth beneath
the LFB.

The problems raised by the acceptance of a thick
metasedimentary substrate to the LFB will be examined at after
the I-type granites of the belt have been considered.

The significance of the I-type granites

Strong arguments can also be made for a crustal origin for
the I-type granites of the LFB. Following Chappell (1984) they
include the fact that many of these granites, including some mafic
ones bearing a substantial restite component, involved melting at
‘minimum’ temperatures in equilibrium with quartz and two
feldspars, so that the depth of feldspar stability was not exceeded.
Second, most of the rocks are potassic, in contrast to the calcic
granites of some young fold belts which might contain a
component of mantle or subducted oceanic crust origin. Third, all
oxygen isotope compositions are significantly higher than mantle
values and, finally, most Sr and Nd isotopic compositions are
more evolved than mantle values.

All I-type granites are derived ultimately from the Earth's
mantle, either by fractional crystallisation of a melt, or by
fractional melting of previously solidified mantle-derived material.
Either process of fractionation would occur within the crust and
undoubtedly both do occur. However, in the LFB the second is
favoured in the general case because first, the amount of
unfractionated mantle-derived material (gabbro) is very small,
comprising less than 0.1% of the total area of the plutonic rocks,
and second, the granites are often isotopically distinct from
mantle materials, and there is evidence that this is due to aging of
mantle-derived materials rather than mixing with isotopically
evolved older crust (Compston and Chappell, 1979; Chappell and
McCulloch, 1990). Under this scenario, the I-type granites of the
LFB are of indirect mantle origin (Chappell and White, 1992).

The more mafic I-type granites of the LFB range from very
rare quartz diorite through tonalite and dominant granodiorite to
monzogranite. Mafic cumulate rocks are uncommon and appear
be restricted to the Boggy Plain Supersuite (Wyborn et al., 1987).
Associated gabbro masses occur but are rare. The more felsic
I-type granites are granodiorite and monzogranite. For many
suites, the most felsic rocks are thought to be close to primary
melt compositions and extended crystal fractionation from such
melts was uncommon. These rocks are dominantly granodioritic
in contrast to the mainly tonalitic rocks typical of many parts of
the Cordillera, such as the Peninsular Ranges Batholith (PRB).
This difference is shown clearly in Figure 4 which also makes the
important point that while there is overlap in compositions
between the two areas, their modal compositions are quite
distinct. KyO is much more abundant in the Lachlan rocks
(average 3.46% vs 1.95%), Na,O is a little lower (3.15% vs
3.62%). The PRB granites are distinctly more calcic (average
5.10% CaO) than the Lachlan (3.16%)(PRB averages from Silver
and Chappell, 1988). In only one case, in the most mafic rocks of
the Moruya Suite, do the granites match the composition of
Cordilleran tonalites at all closely and in that case they are
associated with dominant felsic rocks. Chappell and Stephens

52 B.W. CHAPPELL

% Na2O

% Na2O

% K2O

Figure 4. Plot of Na,O against K,O for I-type granites and
related gabbros of (A) the Lachlan Fold Belt (1156 samples)
and (B) the Peninsular Ranges Batholith (323 samples).

(1988) have attributed those mafic compositions to
remagmatisation of older rocks of Cordilleran tonalite
compositions, so that the rocks are probably representative of an
earlier tectonic regime.

The differences in composition between the Lachlan
granites and those of the PRB, a typical Cordilleran tonalite
province, implies a different character for the source rocks in both
areas. This has been used as an argument (Chappell and
Stephens, 1988) for the Lachlan I-type granites not having any
close relationship with subduction. It also implies that the source
rocks for the Lachlan granites were more evolved (e.g. higher K
and lower Ca) than those of the Cordillera. Chappell and
Stephens (1988) suggested that the Lachlan rocks might represent
a further stage in the evolution of continental crust by partial
melting, with Cordilleran tonalite compositions being generally a
suitable material for generation of the Lachlan granites by partial
melting.

A significant feature of the Lachlan I-type granites is that
apart from the Carboniferous granites on the eastern side of the
belt, and the distinctive Boggy Plain Supersuite, they contain
relatively high Y and low Sr contents. This is illustrated in Figure
5. None of the pre-Carboniferous I-type granites have strongly
depleted heavy REE patterns, which implies that they could not
have been derived from a diopside-normative garnet-bearing
source (Ellis, 1987); the significance of this observation is
discussed below. In contrast, the Carboniferous granites contain
very low Y and high to very high Sr abundances, consistent with a
garnet-bearing and perhaps a feldspar-deficient source for those

ppm Y

ppm Sr

% SiO?

Figure 5. Plot of Y and Sr against SiO, for 106
Carboniferous granites (filled squares) and 807 other I-type
granites of the Lachlan Fold Belt (open circles). Rocks of
the Boggy Plain Supersuite are excluded as well as granites
containing more than 270 ppm Rb, taken as evidence of
feldspar fractionation. Three other samples with lower Rb
but which appear to have undergone such fractionation are
also excluded. Fractionated samples are excluded where
possible because Y levels rise and Sr falls in abundance in
such rocks. Because rising Y contents are a very sensitive
measure of fractionation in I-type granites, some increase in
that element is seen at the more Si-rich compositions.

rocks. The Carboniferous granites resemble some granites of the
Moonbi Supersuite of the NEB in this regard.

A notable feature of the I-type granites of the LFB is that
for those zircons that have been dated using the SHRIMP ion
probe, there is a component of inherited zircon (Williams ef al.,
1988; Williams, 1992). This is consistent with the conclusion that
these rocks were generally derived from old sources, a conclusion
that follows from from the isotopic and chemical compositions of
those rocks.

HEAT SOURCE FOR THE LACHLAN GRANITES

We have seen that granites and related volcanic rocks are
very abundant in the LFB. Such an occurrence required a major
heat source which, at least in the eastern third of the belt, was
probably sufficient to partly melt most the lower half of the crust.
Where voluminous igneous complexes formed, that is the major
batholiths such as Kosciusko and Wagga, the crust was
sufficiently fertile in terms of felsic granite components, and the

LACHLAN and NEW ENGLAND MAGMATIC DEVELOPMENT

amount of heat sufficiently great for the amount of melt to exceed
that required for movement of large volumes of granite magma
into the upper crust, and to the surface. The source of this
massive amount of heat has been a central problem in
understanding the formation of the Lachlan granites, which will
be addressed here. Also, the possibility will be explored that a
successful solution is also related to the other principal problem in
the LFB, that of the deposition of the widespread Ordovician
flysch sequence on continental-type crust, as required by the data
for the S-type granites. Any model involving the deposition of the
Ordovician sedimentary rocks on thick older sedimentary
substrate immediately raises the problem of how such buoyant
material could remain below sea level over the extended period of
deposition of those sediments. The suggestion of an underthrust
sedimentary substrate in the LFB which has been favoured by
many persons is an interesting suggestion that would overcome
this problem.

Crawford (1983) and Crawford et al. (1984) suggested that
following the late Ordovician, the Cambrian greenstones of the
LFB and associated crust were underthrust by a sialic continental
block for several hundred kilometres; such a model would allow
for the deposition of the Ordovician strata on oceanic crust while
also providing a suitable compositional source for the S-type
granites. Gray ef al. (1991) argued from the analysis of upper
crustal seismic reflection profiling in central Victoria that the
Ordovician sequence of the LFB is allochthonous with respect to
the lower crust, with westward underthrusting of the lower crust
occurring from the Silurian to Middle Devonian. Fergusson and
Coney (1992) state that the late Proterozoic lower crust of the
LFB may have been underthrust from the east. In a kinematic
reverse of the Crawford model (Glen, 1992), Glen et al. (1992)
have proposed that part of the south-eastern LFB, their
Melbourne-Mathinna terrane, became detached from its oceanic
lithosphere in the late Silurian and moved north as a crustal flake
over Precambrian crust which provided the source for granites.

Two major problems arise with these models. First,
thickening of the crust by inserting in some way a slab of colder
material beneath the Ordovician sediments and an oceanic
substrate would have lead to a significant decrease in the
geothermal gradient, at a time when magmatic activity was
building to a climax and metamorphism was occurring within the
Ordovician rocks at Cooma and in the Wagga Metamorphic Belt.
Also it requires that the underthrust material be very rapidly
brought to magmatic temperatures since that layer was the source
of the voluminous batholithic S-type granites and related volcanic
rocks. Wyborn et al. (1981) obtained a value of 800 °C at 500-
600 MPa for the source region of the S-type Hawkins Volcanics
of the Canberra region, which are part of the Bullenbalong
Supersuite. That temperature, within what would have been the
lower plate, and an average geothermal gradient ~50 °C/km to
that depth, would have had to be reached with ~30 Ma of its
insertion beneath the Ordovician sediments. The assemblages in
the S-type volcanic rocks, involving hypersthene, garnet,
cordierite, and biotite, with sillimanite and hercynite as less
common accessories, implies that much of the lower crust of the
LFB underwent granulite facies metamorphism at depths of 15-20
km during the Silurian (Sandiford and Powell, 1986). Morand
(1990) showed that in the Omeo Metamorphic Complex, peak
temperatures ~700°C were developed at about 350 MPa,
implying a gradient of 65 °C/km in the Ordovician rocks of that
area. The significance of such high gradients has been appreciated
most clearly by Wyborn (1992) who also pointed out that
relatively high Y contents of the I-type granites of this belt,
discussed above, are consistent with a derivation at depths of less

53

than 30 km, below the stability limit of garnet in gabbro at about
1 GPa, again implying a significant geothermal gradient.

The second problem arising from thickening of the crust is
that it would have also resulted in uplift, the effects of which are
not seen.

Since thickening of the crust in the manner that has been
proposed would have produced both a colder and uplifted crust,
precisely the opposite to the effects that are observed, the view is
taken here that thinning of the crust or the lithosphere, in some
way, occurred in the LFB. If the crust or lithosphere were thinned
at ~500 Ma, then this less buoyant crust could have sunk below
sea level and provided a basement for deposition of the
Ordovician flysch sediments shed from the Delamarian Fold Belt,
which process commenced at about that time. Sedimentation was
completed before the end of the Ordovician at ~445 Ma and by
430 Ma the Ordovician strata were being intruded by major
S-type batholiths derived from the underlying pre-Ordovician
basement.

The mechanism of crust or lithosphere thinning is
uncertain. Wyborn (1988, 1992) has suggested a model involving
the foundering of dense subcontinental lithosphere with
subsidence of the overlying continental crust to allow the
deposition of the Ordovician sediments on depressed continental
crust. Rising hot asthenosphere took the place of the foundering
lithosphere and this lead to the crust being conductively heated.
Collins (1994) has also proposed a delamination model
commencing in the latest Ordovician under the Wagga Meta-
morphic Belt, with the detachment being related the presumed
eastward progression of ages in the eastern half of the belt
proposed by Powell (1984). We have previously seen that, based
on ion probe ages, there is probably no such progression, which is
a serious weakness of this model; also, because of the lateness of
the delamination event, it does not account for the deposition of
the Ordovician sediments in the same way as the earlier
suggestion of Wyborn (1988). Ellis (1992) has argued that
gravitational instability of the lower crust is unlikely and such a
mechanism therefore needs further examination.

A second mechanism for heating the Lachlan crust to
produce the intense magmatism, that of crustal extension, has not
been generally considered in the past for several reasons (but see
Sandiford and Powell, 1986). First, the structures of the belt are
related to compression rather than extension, e.g. Morand (1990)
points out that an extensional environment for the Omeo
Metamorphic Complex seems incompatible with the formation of
tight upright folds during metamorphism, so that extension was
not operating near the end of the Ordovician. Second, the amount
of mantle-derived magmatism throughout the period from
Ordovician to Devonian was very limited, except in the north-
eastern part of the LFB where there is a significant Ordovician
shoshonite province. Third, at least in the eastern half, the crust of
the LFB must have remained thick, since it was the source of the
voluminous S-type granites from depths ~15-18 km in some cases
(Wyborn ef al., 1981), and of the I-type granites from greater
depths. These problems are generally removed if extension
occurred before deposition of most of the Ordovician turbidites,
since any structures and magmatic activity related to it would
have been hidden and the deposition of the Ordovician strata
would have significantly re-thickened the crust. There is no direct
evidence to favour this hypothesis, but it should be seriously
considered because it could account for the Ordovician to
Devonian development of the LFB, and in particular its most
problematical elements, the Ordovician sediments deposited on
continental basement, and the voluminous granites and related
volcanic rocks.

54 B.W. CHAPPELL

Hill et al. (1992) noted that the granites of the LFB are
difficult to interpret in plate tectonic terms. They suggested that
reworking above a plume deserves consideration as a potentially
important process so that the Lachlan is a "candidate for a plume
head province". It is not a strong candidate. Wyborn (1992) in
considering such a model, pointed out that while the observed
cycle from mafic rocks to granites and orogenesis through a
period ~100 Ma observed in the northern part of the LFB would
closely fit a plume model, the early mafic igneous rocks are
shoshonitic rather than the voluminous tholeiitic changing to
alkali basalts that characteristically are associated with a plume.
Two more general arguments can be made against a plume model
for the LFB. First, it would be an extraordinary coincidence if a
plume were to appear at that time just east of the slightly older
Delamarian Fold Belt, near the edge of the growing continent,
given that plumes rise from the core-mantle boundary and have no
relation to earlier tectonic events. Second, the crustal heating
outlined by the Lachlan-Cape York Granite Belt extended for a
distance of at least 3600 km and while the dimensions of the LFB
in southeastern Australia would be appropriate for a plume, the
elevated temperatures there were only part of a significantly
longer belt of high temperatures.

Hence while there is probably a strong genetic connection
between the two most remarkable features of the LFB, the
deposition of extensive and monotonous Ordovician flysch on a
continental substrate, and the later production of the voluminous
granites and volcanic rocks during the Silurian and Devonian,
linked by thinning of the crust, the mechanism by which that
occurred remains obscure at this time.

NEW ENGLAND FOLD BELT

The NEO forms the most easterly, and youngest, part of
the Australian continent, extending from just north of Newcastle
to the vicinity of Bowen in central Queensland, a distance of
1500 km (Figure 1). It is flanked on its western side by the
sedimentary rocks of the Sydney-Bowen Basin, which separates
this belt from the LFB and its northerly extensions. Granites
occur throughout the length of the NEO and they have been
studied most intensively in the southern part, in the New England
Batholith (NEB) that is located mainly in New South Wales. This
discussion is concerned with that southern segment of the belt
although all of its parts have similar stratotectonic and structural
histories and are correctly placed in the same orogen (Murray et
al., 1987).

The NEO contains a much greater diversity of sedimentary
and volcanic rocks than the LFB. Despite a very much greater
complexity than the LFB, at least as far as surface exposures are
concerned, there is a greater consensus about its general nature
and evolution. This is largely because it has features that
resemble those of presently or more recently active continental
margins and it therefore conforms in a more obvious way to
models constructed from the analysis of those younger tectonic
regimes. This conformity with younger belts has meant, as Flood
and Aitchison (1993) pointed out in their introductory article to
the NEO93 volume, that the interpretation of the evolution of the
NEO has been strongly influenced by conceptual models in vogue
at the time. The present understanding of the belt, that it is an
assemblage of diverse tectonostratigraphic terranes, seems to be
soundly based. These terranes are intruded by very large granite
batholiths, which while adding to the complexity of the belt,
provide the opportunity to indirectly examine its deeper parts.

Granites of the NEB are exposed over an area of

15,000 km2 in the centre of the southern part of the NEO, with an

appreciable area being covered by younger basalt flows. Shaw
and Flood (1981) recognised five distinct plutonic suites among
these granites, here termed supersuites to accord with usage in the
LFB. The oldest group, the Hillgrove Supersuite has recently
provided a zircon ion probe age of 303 + 3 Ma (Kent, 1993). The
Copeton Supersuite (previously the Bundarra Plutonic Suite;
Flood and Shaw, 1975) has given a Rb-Sr total-rock age of 287 +
10 Ma (Hensel et a/., 1985). Both of these early units are S-type
and comprise ~30% of the outcrop area of the batholith. Most of
the younger I-type granites are assigned to the Moonbi, Uralla
and Clarence River Supersuites. K-Ar ages, mostly unpublished,
for these units generally range from 260 to 240 Ma.
Carboniferous-Permian granites in the Urannah Batholith at the
northern end of the fold belt south of Bowen have ages in the
range 306 Ma (SHRIMP zircon age; Allen ef al., 1994) to 276-
265 Ma (K-Ar age; Webb and McDougall, 1968). Cretaceous
granites are also present in that area (Webb and McDougall,
1968), with data including a preliminary SHRIMP age of 131 Ma
(Allen et al., 1994).

In addition to the plutonic rocks of the NEB, two important
subduction-related volcanic arcs were located in the southern
NEO, an important difference between that belt and the LFB. The
Baldwin Arc was late Devonian in age (~365 Ma) and while it is
now covered by rocks of the Sydney Bowen Basin, it was the
source of the very distinctive sequence of volcanic greywackes
comprising the Baldwin Formation in the western NEO. That
detritus is andesitic in composition with ten analysed rocks having
SiO, levels between 55.0 and 60.7% on a volatile-free basis
(Chappell, 1968). At a higher level in the stratified rock
sequences of the western NEO, Late Carboniferous ignimbrite
sheets that erupted from the Currabubula Arc extend north-south
for approximately 300 km in what McPhie (1987) argues is an
analogue of the modern Andes. This younger arc is inferred to
have been only just to the west of the exposed volcanic rocks but
it is also covered by the Sydney-Bowen Basin. Rocks of the
Currabubula Arc are more felsic than the Baldwin Arc, ranging
from andesite to rhyolite in a generally high-K series.

APPLICATION OF GRANITE STUDIES TO THE NEW
ENGLAND FOLD BELT

Evidence of a crustal origin for the granites of the NEO is
less certain than for the LFB. The two New England S-type
supersuites, Hillgrove and Copeton, have distinct but less
pronounced S-type features than their Lachlan counterparts. For
all of the New England I-type suites, the isotopic compositions
are much closer to mantle values (Hensel et a/., 1985). The I-type
Clarence River Supersuite has distinctly more primitive chemical
features than any other group of granites in south-eastern
Australia, which makes it the most likely candidate for mantle
derivation. Never the less, the view is taken here that the New
England granites are the products of partial melting of the crust,
but of a less evolved nature than that which produced the granites
of the LFB. One interesting feature of the NEB is that there
appear to be no A-type granites; certainly all of those very
fractionated granites with high abundances of some of the
elements that characterise that third type, appear to be I-type. The
absense of A-type granites and their presence in the LFB may
mean that their production requires the presence of a thick
continental basement.

S-type granites in New England

It should first be noted that S-type granites do occur in the

LACHLAN and NEW ENGLAND MAGMATIC DEVELOPMENT 655

NEB, so that a feature of the LFB that is sometimes regarded as
anomalous is shared by its younger neighbour. Second, S-types
are in a relative sense less abundant in New England, comprising
approximately one-third of the area, but are still a significant
granite type. Third, unlike the Lachlan where they are widely
distributed within five of the nine Basement Terranes (Chappell er
al., 1988) and are often associated closely with subordinate
amounts of I-type granite, they occur in two belts in the NEB,
flanking major areas of I-type granites. Fourth, they are never as
chemically evolved as they frequently are in the Wagga, Bassian
and Taswegia provinces in the LFB; enrichments in trace
elements as a result of crystal fractionation are infrequent and
never strong and there is no mineralisation apart from a minor
alluvial tinfield at Watsons Creek associated with granites of the
Copeton Supersuite.

Flood and Shaw (1975) recognised the significant
occurrence (3400 km) of rather felsic and uniform S-type
corundum-normative granites in the western NEB. Flood and
Shaw (1977) showed that these granites, here referred to as the
Copeton Supersuite, with 87§1/86Sr ~0.706 were isotopically
more primitive than the S-type granites of the LFB. The Hillgrove
Supersuite (1650 km2), east of the central axis of the NEB, has
similar a isotopic composition (Shaw and Flood, 1981), is more
variable in chemical composition, does not contain cordierite and
sometimes contains Al-poor amphibole, and probably includes
some deformed I-type granites. Also, the plutons are also more
dispersed. Shaw and Flood (1981) conclude that these two
supersuites were derived by the partial melting of young
volcanogenic metasedimentary rocks, with differences in detail
between the compositions for the two supersuites. Hensel ef al.
(1985) showed that the Sr and Nd isotopic compositions of the
NEB S-type granites correspond closely with those of associated
sedimentary rocks. This contrasts with the situation in the LFB.
For the smaller, more dispersed and compositionally variable
plutons of the Hillgrove Supersuite, an origin by partial melting
of the associated rocks, but at greater depth, seems reasonable.
The Copeton Supersuite, occurring in a major belt along the
western edge of the NEB is more problematical, since large
volumes of source rock would have been needed beneath that belt.
Perhaps a relationship with material shed from the slightly older
Currabubula Arc of western New England might be inferred.

I-type granites in New England

The I-type granites of the New England are chemically very
diverse. The extremes are the low-K high-Ca tonalites in the
Clarence River Supersuite and the strongly potassic monzo-
granites of the Moonbi Supersuite. Even in an unfractionated
state, the latter rocks often show extraordinarily high abundances
of some trace elements, again in contrast with the Clarence River
Supersuite, and the Moonbi Supersuite also includes many
fractionated rocks. While there is a wide chemical compositional
range to the New England I-type granites, a distinctive feature is
that they are all relatively primitive isotopically, again in contrast
to the LFB where the isotopic compositions are quite disparate.
These differences between the two belts imply that the
compositions of the source rocks for the New England granites
were relatively diverse and all young, compared with the a
variably aged but chemically more restricted source rocks of the
Lachlan granites.

Most of the I-type granites are assigned to one of three
supersuites, Clarence River, Uralla, and Moonbi. The Uralla
Supersuite is less well understood than the other two, requires
more work to fully understand its details, and is generally

intermediate in compositional character between the other two
supersuites; it will not be considered further here.

The Clarence River Supersuite

The Clarence River Supersuite occurs over an area ~900
km2 on the eastern side of the NEB. It has been studied recently
by Bryant (1992) and Bryant and Arculus (1993) and the
following notes are from those sources and from Bryant (pers.
comm.). The granites of this supersuite are the most mafic in the

% Naz2O

0 2 4 6
% KxO Lo

Figure 6. Plot of Na,O against K,O for I-type granites and
related gabbros of the New England Batholith. Circles are
Clarence River Supersuite (136 samples), triangles are
Uralla Supersuite (67 samples) and squares are Moonbi
Supersuite (191 samples).

NEB and are very diverse, ranging from gabbros through to
monzogranites. However, in contrast to the other two I-type
supersuites, monzogranites are relatively minor. This is a low-K
suite, in contrast to the Moonbi Supersuite (Figure 6) and the
I-type granites of the LFB (Figure 4A). The Clarence River rocks
have very low abundances of P, Rb, Nb, Pb, Th and U. They are
very similar in these respect to the PRB, particularly to the rocks
of the western part of that batholith (Silver and Chappell, 1988).
The Clarence River granites show mote diversity than the rocks
of the western PRB but the chemical similarities are very striking.
These comparisons can be extended to initial 8’Sr/8°Sr isotopic
compositions which are very primitive in both cases, ~ 0.704 for
the Clarence River Supersuite and generally less than 0.705 for
granites of the western PRB (Silver and Chappell, 1988). It is
these similarities that are the most significant feature of this
supersuite because it establishes a clear connection between these
rocks of the NEB and the most thoroughly documented example
of Cordilleran tonalites formed at an active continental margin
and places the Clarence River Supersuite and the NEB in a
comparable tectonic environment. Silver and Chappell (1988)
have argued that the tonalites of the western PRB were derived
from the melting of relatively young basaltic lithosphere. Bryant
and Arculus (1993) have proposed a similar origin for the
granites of the Clarence River Supersuite.

The Moonbi Supersuite

The Moonbi Supersuite occurs in the axial parts of the
NEB, at the northern and southern ends. Granites of this

96 B.W. CHAPPELL

ppm Y

Figure 7. Plot of Y and Sr against SiO, for I-type granites
and related gabbros of the New England Batholith. Circles
are Clarence River Supersuite, triangles are Uralla
Supersuite and squares are Moonbi Supersuite. Fractionated
samples are excluded where possible for the reasons given
in the caption of Figure 5.

supersuite are dominantly monzogranite with some quartz
monzogranite and abundant leucogranite. The rocks are K-rich
and often have distinctive trace element contents with very high
concentrations of Sr, Ba, Pb and Th (Chappell, 1978), with the
abundance of these elements being very suite-dependant. There
are compositional similarities with the Carboniferous I-type
granites in the eastern part of the LFB, notably in the high Sr and
low Y contents (Figures 5 and 7). As with the Clarence River
Supersuite, the Moonbi rocks are distinct from all the pre-
Carboniferous I-type granites of the LFB. Also, the Moonbi
Supersuite rocks underwent extended feldspar fractionation much
more commonly than did the I-type granites of the LFB.

The Moonbi Supersuite, despite its very potassic character
and the unusually high abundances of many trace elements not
generally associated with the granites of active continental
margins, can be accommodated within a Cordilleran model for the
NEO. While tonalites are the plutonic rocks that come to mind in
association with the Cordillera, K-rich types do occur. The
compositional criteria of Pitcher (1982) placed tonalites in a
"Cordilleran" type, distinct from his more potassic "Caledonian"
granites. However, K-rich granites are found in the Cordillera,
perhaps most notably in the Sierra Nevada Batholith of California
(e.g. Bateman and Chappell, 1979), just as rare Cordilleran
tonalite compositions may be found in Caledonian belts (Chappell
and Stephens, 1988). With this in mind, Chappell and Stephens

(1988) suggested that Pitcher's subdivision into I-(Cordilleran)
and _ I-(Caledonian) be modified to JI-(tonalitic) and
I-(granodioritic). This preserves the important general distinction
made by Pitcher (1982) but recognises that tonalitic rocks are
found in Caledonian-type fold belts, and the reverse. It is here
suggested that the Moonbi Supersuite is analogous to the
granodioritic (or monzogranitic) rocks found in Sierra Nevada
Batholith of the Cordilleran belt. That comparison is not as
precise as between the Clarence River Supersuite and the
Cordilleran tonalites, but that would not be expected. More
potassic granites occurring in Cordilleran-style belts form from
older crust that was magmatised during that Cordilleran heating
event. In the Sierra Nevada, isotopic compositions (e.g. Kistler
and Peterman, 1973) show that the source material was
significantly older than the magmatic age. While a tighter
constraint is placed on the age of the source rocks of the Moonbi
Supersuite by the data of Hensel ef al. (1985) (87Sr/86Sr ~0.705
for the Moonbi Suite), an older late Palaeozoic source rock for the
Moonbi rocks is consistent with those isotopic data. The high Ba
and Sr abundances in some rocks of this supersuite suggest a
source-rock of shoshonitic character (Chappell, 1978). At the
same time, the high Sr and low Y contents (Figure 7) suggest a
feldspar-free garnet-bearing source similar to that which has been
proposed for the Carboniferous granites of the eastern LFB.

RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE TWO BELTS

This paper has contrasted many features of the Lachlan
and New England belts. Is there any evidence that in fact the two
belts interacted in any way? The western part of the NEO
(Gamilaroi Terrane) accreted to the LFB in the late Devonian,
shown by the occurrence of LFB-derived clasts in the Keepit
Conglomerate (Flood and Aitchison, 1992). Did the two belts
interact before or after that time?

Shaw and Flood (1993) have suggested that the late
Carboniferous vulcanism at the western side of the NEB and the
plutonism of similar age on the eastern side of the LFB might be
related to a single subduction event. Chappell ef al. (1988) noted
that those Carboniferous granites of the LFB have similarities
with the Moonbi Supersuite. It is possible that the development of
those granites are more closely related to the NEO than to the rest
of the LFB and that in that area we are seeing effects of the
younger belt superimposed on the LFB.

The LFB is older and its history overlapped the earlier
major events in the NEO. Glen and Scheibner (1993) have listed
eight geological features of the New England region that are pre-
late Devonian that they refer to as "Lachlan rocks". They assigned
any Silurian to mid-Devonian accretionary prisms that developed
along the eastern margin of Gondwanaland to the LFB and argued
that these may have been incorporated in the NEO when it
developed fully in the Late Devonian and Carboniferous. The
view taken here is that any older rocks that accreted into the NEO
are intrinsically part of that belt. The very nature of accretion is
to incorporate, among other things, a diverse assemblage of
fragments of oceanic and continental crust that formed before the
event. In any case, the tectonic style of the LFB is not one of
accretion, unless one considers the formation of the NEO as the
final stage in the evolution of the LFB!

What effects did the accreting NEO have on the LFB? The
development of the Baldwin arc and the accretion of New England
to the edge of the LFB in the late Devonian (Flood and Aitchison,
1992) is at least approximately coeval with the episode of
deformation in the LFB long known as the Tabberaberan
Orogeny. Likewise, the late Carboniferous Kanimblan

LACHLAN and NEW ENGLAND MAGMATIC DEVELOPMENT

defermation of the LFB could have been related to the
development of the Andean volcanic arc in western New England
at that time. In the context of a fold belt that had passed through
its most intense magmatic phases and for which accretionary
tectonics is an unlikely mechanism of development, such
externally imposed tectonism is a likely scenario. This still leaves
the precise nature of earlier deformations in the belt to be defined,
with the point being made here that they took place at a time when
the intensity of magmatic activity was very high. The contribution
that magmatic activity made to the development of the early
structural history of the LFB still has to be assessed. Perhaps the
Lachlan Fold Belt would be better called the Lachlan Magmatic
Belt!

CONCLUSIONS

The overall differences in style between the Lachlan and
New England belts are also shown by their granites. In the
Lachlan, the production of the granites involved vertical
redistribution of old crust, both igneous and sedimentary. In
contrast, the evolution of New England during the late Palaeozoic
involved substantial production of new crust, consistent with the
more primitive isotopic compositions and the uplift of the belt.
The igneous rocks of the Lachlan belt can be used to argue
strongly against its development by the accretion of new crust.
Those of New England have features that point the other way. A
comparison of the granites in the two belts confirms their
contrasting character and shows that the use of modern tectonic
analogues is worthwhile in New England but unlikely to be
fruitful in the Lachlan Fold Belt.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Continuing support from the Australian Research Council
for studies of granites at the active Australian Palaeozoic
continental margin is acknowledged. Ten years of support from
the Australian Mining Industry through AMIRA has contributed
significantly to assembly of an eastern Australia granite database.
Colleen Bryant and Penny King are thanked for their efforts in
assembling chemical data and preparing projection slides and
figures. This paper was prepared while the author was a visitor at
the Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences, California
Institute of Technology; that division and particularly Professor
Lee Silver are thanked for their hospitality and assistance.

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Hayward, M.A., Rees, I.D., Fergusson, C.J., Green, T.J. and
Carr, P.F., 1994. Geology of the southern part of the Anakie
Inlier, in NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN GEOLOGY AND
METALLOGENY: NORTHERN TASMAN OROGENIC
ZONE, pp. 111-6. R.A. Henderson and B.K. Davis (Eds)
James Cook University of North Queensland, Townsville.

Wyborn, D., 1988. Ordovician magmatism, gold mineralization,
and an integrated tectonic model for the Ordovician and
Silurian history of the Lachlan Fold Belt in NSW. Bureau of
Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics Research
Newsletter, 8, 13-14.

Wyborm, D., 1992. The tectonic significance of Ordovician
magmatism in the eastern Lachlan Fold Belt.
Tectonophysics, 214, 177-92.

Wybom, D. & Chappell, B.W. 1986. The _ petrogenetic
significance of chemically related plutonic and volcanic rock
units. Geological Magazine, 123, 619-28.

Wyborn, D., Chappell, B.W. and Johnston, R.M., 1981. Three
S-type volcanic suites from the Lachlan Fold Belt, southeast
Australia. Journal of Geophysical Research, 86, 10335-48.

Wyborn, D., Turner, B.S. and Chappell, B.W., 1987. The Boggy
Plain Supersuite: a distinctive belt of I-type igneous rocks of
potential economic significance in the Lachlan Fold Belt.
Australian Journal of Earth Science, 34, 21-43.

Wybom, D., White, A.J.R. and Chappell, B.W., 1991.
ENCLAVES IN THE S-TYPE COWRA
GRANODIORITE. Hutton Symposium Excursion Guide.
Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics,
Canberra, Record 1991/24.

Department of Geology
Australian National University
Canberra ACT 0200

h

Ag Clarke Memorial Lecture delivered before the
Royal Society of New South Wales on 20'” of
October, 1993.

(Manuscript received 10-6-1994)

af

fae ee

i

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, 61

Vol. 127, pol, 1994

ISSN 0035-9173/94/010061-1

$4,.00/1

Doctoral Thesis Abstract: Reproductive Ecology of Five Species of
Australian Alpine Ranunculus.

CATHERINE M. PICKERING

Current hypotheses in reproductive
ecology were investigated using the Australian
alpine perennial herbs Ranunculus muelleri, R.
dissectifolius, R. graniticola, R. millanii, and
R. niphophilus. Based on the results from these
experiments, reproductive strategies are proposed
that may also apply to other perennial herbs.

Direct limitation of seed set by pollen
and resources was investigated by the
experimental manipulation of pollen and
resources in the field. Seed set was not limited
by pollen in R. graniticola; was limited only at
one time during the flowering season in R.
millanii; was slightly limited by the amount of
pollen transferred by pollinators in R. muelleri
and R. niphophilus; and was significantly
limited by pollen in R. dissectifolius. The
addition of nutrients to plants had no effect on
seed set in any of the species. Removal of all
but a single flower from plants increased seed
set on the remaining flower only in R.
dissectifolius. Removal of half the leaves from a
plant had no effect on total seed set in R.
muelleri, R. dissectifolius, R. graniticola and R.
niphophilus.

Seed production is directly proportional
to plant size, as measured by leaf number, in R.
muelleri, R. dissectifolius, R. graniticola and R.
niphophilus, with bigger plants producing more
seed by producing more flowers. Plant size
affected the flowering pattern of all five
Ranunculus species, with plant size being
correlated with the number of flowers produced
which, in turn, was correlated with the duration
of flowering of the plant and, in some species,
the amount of synchrony with conspecifics.
These correlations applied both within and
among species.

Based on ovule estimates of plant gender,
Ranunculus plants were phenotypically as well
as morphologically hermaphrodite. However,

seed estimates indicate that populations of R.
muelleri, R. dissectifolius and R. millanii had
irregularly bimodal distributions of gender with
non-seeding and functionally bisexual plants;
population of R. niphophilus had amodal
distributions of gender with plants exhibiting a
range of genders from nearly non-seeding to very
female; and populations of R. graniticola were
unimodal with plants being functionally as well
as phenotypically hermaphrodite. Plant size was
correlated with several aspects of gender in R.
muelleri, R. dissectifolius, R. graniticola and R.
niphophilus.

Flowering of Ranunculus species is
restricted by snow cover early in the season, and
appears to be restricted by drought later in the
season, but the date of flowering did not affect
the amount of seed produced by a plant nor seed
set per flower. When the overlap in flowering
among species was quantified using the novel
measure, interspecific synchrony, only moderate
levels of synchrony were found for most
combinations of species, indicating that there
was some temporal displacement of flowering
among the five species. Moderate to high levels
of seed set for interspecific crosses, compared
with intraspecific crosses, were obtained for all
combinations of crosses among the five species
in the field. These high levels of interspecific
compatibility indicate that the alpine
Ranunculus species are likely to experience
selection for temporal divergence of flowering
which would reduce the loss of reproductive
resources associated with the production of
hybrid seed.

School of Life Science
Australian National University
A.C.T. 0200

AUSTRALIA

(Manuscript received 7-6-1994)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales VO oll. pee. 11094

ISSN 0035-9173/94/010062-01 $4.00/1

DocTorAL IHEs1s ABsTRAcT: A Stupy oF ConDUCTING PoLYRROLE FILMS IN THE MICROWAVE REGION,

AKIF KAYNAK

This thesis is a comprehensive characterisation of conducting
polypyrrole films in the microwave frequency region.
Microwave investigations presented in this thesis can be
grouped under three interrelated sections, namely, 1)
transmission, reflection, absorption behaviour, 11) shielding
effectiveness studies and 111) microwave dielectric properties.
Reflection, transmission and absorption behaviour of
polypyrrole films with de conductivities ranging from 0.00]
S/cm to 50 S/cm are presented. Results show that the
electrical conductivity of the doped polypyrrole films have a
significant effect on transmission, reflection and absorption of
microwaves. Samples with low conductivity (low dopant
concentration) exhibited high transmission whereas highly
conducting films were reflective. Significant absorption of
microwave radiation was only observed for samples of
intermediate conductivity. Transmission and reflection

_ experiments on polypyrrole films were simulated by using finite
element methods. Solutions obtained by theoretical methods
were in excellent agreement with the experimental results,
confirming the dependability of the measurement methods used.
The agreement between experiment and theory for 50 micron
films provided confidence to extend the theoretical methods to
include the effect of sample thickness on microwave reflection,
transmission and absorption properties of films with a wide
range of conductivities. Having access to such data including
the effect of dopant concentration, conductivity and sample
thickness on microwave transmission, reflection and absorption,
would be extremely valuable for the design of microwave
devices and fundamental understanding of material properties.

The wide range of modulation of conductivity and dielectric
properties of semiconducting and conducting polymers allows
variation of reflectivity and absorption of electromagnetic
waves not available with conventional materials. Therefore a
study on the shielding effectiveness of conducting polypyrrole
assumes particular importance. A method of measuring plane-
wave shielding effectiveness (SE) is presented. Shielding
effectiveness as a function of conductivity and frequency (300
MHz-2 GHz) were studied. Shielding effectiveness of PPy films
was found to increase with the increase in conductivity. SE
measurements carried out on PPy samples aged in room
temperature for a period of about 2 years revealed that
shielding effectiveness degraded by 10 to 15 dB over the test
frequency band. However highly doped films retained relatively
high levels of shielding. A shielding effectiveness of above 40
dB was obtained with highly doped (0.1 M p-TS) conducting
polypyrrole film over the frequency range 300 MHz to 2 GHz,
making it attractive for consideration in shielding applications.

Microwave dielectric properties of the electrochemically
synthesised polypyrrole with a wide range of doping levels are
presented. Methods for determining the complex permittivity in
the microwave regime are discussed. The variation of the
complex permittivity as a function of polymer dopant
concentration at room temperature using cavity perturbation
methods at frequencies of 2.45 GHz and 10 GHz are presented.
Measurements indicate that the real (e') and imaginary (€")
parts of the dielectric constant increase in magnitude with
increasing polymer doping level. Both c' and €" were small for
lightly doped samples, but increased at higher dopant
concentrations. Complex dielectric constant measurements
were also performed on semi conducting polypyrrole films for
the temperature range 90K-400K. The real part ¢' of the
complex dielectric constant increased slightly with increase of
temperature whereas the imaginary part €" increased
significantly with temperature. Results were verified by using
theoretical methods

This thesis was awarded by the University of Technology,

Sydney during the spring convocation for 199-:.

Akif Kaynak
Yesilyurt sokak 19/15
Cankaya, Ankara, Turkey

(Manuscript received 10-5-1994)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.127, p.63, 1994

ISSN 0035-9173/94/010063-01 $4.00/1

63

Masters Thesis Abstract: Representation
Issues in Genetic Algorithm Function
Optimization

Rohan A. Baxter

This work examines representation issues in the opti-
mization of real parameter numerical functions using ge-
netic algorithms. The optimization of these functions has
applications in many areas. The genetic algorithm (GA)
is a search technique that evaluates populations of candi-
date solutions using an objective function. It selects the
better candidates for reproduction and so generates new
candidate solutions for testing. The standard genetic algo-
rithm and its relationship to other optimization methods
is described. The method of representation of candidate

The relative performance of binary and real number
coding representations is investigated. This is an area of
some controversy as practitioners use real number coding
because it works. However existing genetic algorithm the-
ory suggests binary coding should do better. Contrary to
some claims, binary codings are found to generally out-
perform real codings on the high dimensional multi-modal
test functions when similar selection and reproduction op-
erators are used. The experimental methodology employed
and the significance of the results are discussed.

solutions affects the optimization performance of genetic
algorithms.

The desirable properties for experimental test function
suites are discussed. De Jong’s test suite has been widely
used in previous work. These functions are shown to be
hill-climbing easy. It is shown that simple hill-climbing
algorithms are faster and more accurate than genetic al- Monash University
gorithms on this test suite. Genetic algorithms are bet- Clayton,Victoria 3168
ter suited to optimizing hill-climbing hard functions. A eae
new test suite is introduced and its suitability assessed. It
is proposed that the new suite is a more test-bed for ge-
netic algorithm optimization performance, its functions are
multi-modal and hill-climbing hard.

Department of Computer Science

Genetic algorithms are then shown to efficiently opti-
mize hill-climbing hard functions. The effects of differ-
ent integer coding functions on the performance of the
genetic algorithm optimization are investigated. The re-
flected Gray code is found to perform better than the other
Gray codes analyzed on the old test suite. However the Bi-
nary code is found to do better on the new test suite. The
balanced Gray code is implemented and its performance
assessed. Three relevant code characteristics are identified
as promoting genetic algorithm performance. An acyclic,
near-Gray code is then presented with these characteris-
tics. This insight into code characteristics suggests a new
interpretation for some previous results by Caruana and

Caldwell.

(Manuscript received 17-5-1994)

64

ISSN 0035-9173/94/010064-1 $4.00/1

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.127, p. 64, 1994

Doctoral Thesis Abstract: The diamond path: a study of individuation
in the works of John Keats

MAUREEN B. ROBERTS

Romanticism as a particular phase in the
evolution of Western consciousness is characterised
by a creative reconnection to the collective
unconscious as a key aspect of introverted thinking.
Individuation as self-realisation involves, as does the
Romantic imagination, the struggle to unify
recreatively through the balance and synthesis of
opposites. After a brief discussion of these ideas, this
thesis examines the development of Keats’ poetry in
terms of a basic pattern of transformation in which
an initially unified state of consciousness is divided,
then re-collected as a "higher" unity through a
process of maturation.

Two important uniting symbols - the diamond orb
in Endymion and the square edged stone at the end
of The Fall of Hyperion - form the two ends of a
‘thread of development along which Keats’ poetry is
self-creative through its healing of the "dis-ease" of
inner division to reform the unified self. This quest
for unity is examined through several paradigms of
individuation, all of which are harmonious with the
basic principles of Romanticism and Jungian
thought. These are, in order, the Neoplatonic quest
for the One as Truth and Beauty, the alchemical
synthesis of opposites to form the Philosophers’
Stone, the Gnostic paradox of the "fortunate fall" into
self-division, and the creative tension between the
unified Apollonian self and the Dionysian self-
divided sufferer who is in principle synonymous
with Milton’s Satan. Keats accordingly inverts the
significance of the Miltonic Christian Fall by ascribing
a positive potential to the Dionysian transitional
state of paradox. Within this perspective Keats’
philosophy of "Soul-making" expresses the Gnostic
Striving of the divine "spark" as the latent
individuality of the self to ascend through the
ambivalent space of individuation to conscious
realisation.

Through the progressive integration of all these
principles, Keats is seen to be an intuitively Gnostic
and primarily introverted thinker whose quest for
redeeming self-knowledge reflects his own maxim:
"That which is creative must create itself."

Department of English Language and Literature
The University of Adelaide

Adelaide SA 5001

AUSTRALIA

(Manuscript received 26-4-1994)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.127, p.65, 1994 65

ISSN 0035-9173/94/010065-01 $4.00/1

Barotropic depth-averaged and three-dimensional tidal programs
for shallow seas.

DocTORAL THESIS ABSTRACT
PETER J. BILLS

This thesis reports the development and test-
ing of three programs for computing tides in
shallow seas and their particular application to
Spencer Gulf, South Australia.

The first program solves the three-dimension-
al barotropic non-linear long-wave equations
discretised using finite differences. The o-
transformation is used in the vertical with non-
uniform depth-level spacing. The overall differ-
ence scheme is three-level in time and of leap-
frog type for the computation of tidal elevations,
and two-level in time for velocity calculations.
It uses explicit differencing in the horizontal di-
rection and implicit differencing in the vertical.
The second program solves the depth-averaged
analogue of these equations. The third program
is an adaptation of the depth-averaged program
to include the modelling of the covering and un-
covering of tidal flats.

All three programs are designed to handle
general boundary configurations while using
only four distinct element types. Appropriate
forms of the discretised equations for a particu-
lar element configuration are automatically se-
lected using the element type numbers in alge-
braic switches.

The coding and accuracy of the differencing
used is checked by comparing predicted results
with analytical solutions for idealized basins.
Wave propagation analyses of the difference for-
mulations for linearized forms of the equations
are also carried out.

Depth-averaged and three-dimensional mod-
els of Spencer Gulf are developed with the open
boundary at the entrance to the Gulf. Height-
specified and combined radiation/height-spe-
cified open boundary conditions are compared
in the case of the depth-averaged model. Three
formulations for bottom stress (depth-averaged
model) and two forms for vertical eddy viscos-
ity coefficient (three-dimensional model) are ex-
amined. The role of the horizontal eddy vis-
cosity terms in introducing artificial friction is

discussed. Both models are driven simultane-
ously by the four major tidal constituents Oy,
K,, My and Sg. Comparisons of results using
linear and non-linear equations are made in the
depth-averaged case. Results clarify and ex-
tend the work from earlier numerical models of
Spencer Gulf and predict new features of tidal
flow near Wallaroo.

A modification of the method for incorporat-
ing the wetting and drying of tidal flats due
to Flather and Heaps (1975) is presented and
applied in a depth-averaged fine-grid model of
Northern Spencer Gulf. It gives stable pre-
dictions over a 32 day simulation. Stability
and accuracy are enhanced if a de Cheézy co-
efficient of quadratic friction is used. This sug-
gests that a locally depth-dependent coefficient
of quadratic friction is more suited to very shal-
low tidal modelling than a constant coefficient.
An appraisal of the built-in filtering behaviour
of some common finite difference formulations
and their role in suppressing grid-scale oscilla-
tions is presented.

The Northern Spencer Gulf tidal flat model
numerically confirms the observation of a resid-
ual eddy south of Lowly Point. A complemen-
tary eddy is predicted to the north of Lowly
Point. The model predicts that Ward Spit, a
large sand bar to the east of Port Bonython, is
uncovered only at low springs. This prediction
is supported by annotation on an old map of
the region. A mechanism for the creation and
maintenance of Ward Spit is suggested based on
a plot of residual vectors for depth-averaged ve-
locity.

Reference: .
Flather, R. A. and Heaps, N. S. (1975), Tidal

computations for Morecambe Bay, Geo-
physical Journal. Royal Astronomical So-
ciety, 42, pp. 489-517.

Peter J. Bills, (Manuscript received 13-1-94)

Department of Applied Mathematics,
The University of Adelaide,
South Australia 5005

66

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.127, p. 66, 1994
ISSN 0035-9173/94/010066-01 $4.00/1

Doctoral Thesis Abstract: Tannin Toxicity Studies in Mice and Sheep

JIN ZHU

Toxicities of tannic acid (TA), oak and yellow-
wood (YW) tannins were studied in mice and sheep
following oral or intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration.
Oral dosing of mice with tannin extract from oak leaf
or acorn produced severe periacinar liver necrosis
without kidney damage when the tannin content was
high - a relationship previously reported with YW.
Oak leaves (Quercus robur and Q. acutissima) with
a tannin content of 3.03 to 8.79% TA equivalent
(TAE) did not produce toxicity when given to sheep
by gavage daily for 4-18 days. However, Q. robur
leaf with a tannin content of 13.92%TAE produced
severe liver necrosis without renal injury inone sheep
after 2 days dosing. These preliminary studies
suggest that oak leaf in Australia is generally non-
toxic unless the tannin content is high; and that the
oak tannin is hepatotoxic rather than nephrotoxic.

Punicalagin, a hydrolysable tannin isolated from
YW leaf, produced periacinar coagulative liver
necrosis in mice but not kidney necrosis when given
orally ori.p.. The oral dose (>0.50 g/kg bw) required
to produce toxicity was at least 20 times greater than
the i.p. dose. The i.p. toxicity of punicalagin in sheep
was similar to that in mice and, prior to necrosis,
steatosis in the liver was a consistent finding but this
was not found in sheep given YW leaf. Serial liver
biopsies in sheep given Y W leaf orally showed that
the liver necrosis was initially midzonal before
becoming periacinar. Terminalin, another tannin
isolated from YW leaf produced renal tubular
necrosis similar to that described in cattle following
naturally occurring YW poisoning and liver necrosis
similar to that produced by punicalagin in mice and
sheep.

Liver necrosis was not observed histologically
or detected biochemically in sheep dosed orally with
TA, but transmission electron microscopy showed
focal hepatocellular necrosis, steatosis and acicular
crystal cleft formation. There were significant
increases in blood methaemoglobin concentration
(P<0.05) and decreases in blood pH (P<0.01) and
oxyhaemoglobin concentration (P<0.05) by 32 h after
dosing. When TA was given i.p. in sheep, liver
necrosis similar to that seen in punicalagin

intoxication was produced, together with metabolic
acidosis and compensatory respiratory alkalosis, but
not methaemoglobinaemia. Sheep given TA intra-
abomasally developed liver, kidney and abomasal
necrosis. Thus while TA is hepatotoxic when given
parenterally to sheep, when given orally it does not
produce renal or significant hepatic injury, but rather
causes metabolic acidosis and methaemoglobinaemia.

In sheep intoxicated ip. with punicalagin,
terminalin or TA, or orally with YW leaf, or intra-
abomasally with TA, plasma liver enzymes and
bilirubin levels significantly (P<0.05) increased,
while plasma glucose and total protein concentrations
significantly (P<0.05) decreased. The decrease in
plasma protein was considered to be due to tannin
precipitation.

When TA was dosed intra-abomasally in sheep,
TA and its metabolites (gallic acid, 4~-O-methy] gallic
acid and ellagic acid) were found in the plasma.
With oral dosing, gallic acid and pyrogallol were
found in the plasma. Gallic acid gradually decreased
in both urine and ruminal fluid, while pyrogallol
increased and resulted in methaemoglobinaemia.

TA produced periacinar liver necrosis in mice
dosed orally. Gallic acid, ellagic acid and pyrogallol
did not produce hepatic or renal lesions, although
pyrogallol caused death due to methaemo-
globinaemia. Thus TA, rather than its metabolites,
is responsible for liver necrosis in animals. When
given orally to ruminants, TA is metabolised to
pyrogallol, which in turn produces methaemo-
globinaemia.

In conclusion, this study showed that two
tannins, punicalagin and terminalin, are the toxic
principles in Y W leaf; tannin metabolites, gallic acid,
pyrogallol and ellagic acid, are not hepatotoxic or
nephrotoxic; and TA, when given orally, produces
liver necrosis in monogastric animals and methaemo-
globinaemia in ruminants.

School of Veterinary Science
The University of Queensland
Queensland 4072
AUSTRALIA

(Manuscript received 23-12-1993)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.,127, pp.67-68, 1994 67

ISSN 0035-9173/94/010067-02 $4.00/1

Doctoral Thesis Abstract: Multi-Frequency MF/lower HF ocean
radar studies of wind—wave transients.

MURRAY L. PARKINSON

A Medium-Frequency (MF: 0.3-3 MHz)/lower
High-Frequency (HF: 3-30 MHz) phased—antenna
array on Bribie Island, Queensland, Australia,
consists of a 1-km line of 10 transmitter
antennae aligned east-west, and orthoganol to a
1-km line of 10 receiver antennae. The array is
normally phased to produce a near-vertical radar
beam, but for these studies it was converted to
operate as a surface-wave radar used for
coherent ocean-backscatter studies. This was
accomplished by changing impedance—matching
circuits at the base of transmitter antennae,
thereby converting them from crossed-horizontal
dipoles to top-loaded vertical dipoles which emit
maximum radiation in the horizontal plane.

A new body of MACRO-11 machine control
software was developed to direct the crossing of
transmitter and receiver beams in the horizontal
direction and steerable in azimuth. A computer
model describing the effective radiation pattern
formed by the array was also developed, and it
was used to calculate the radiation pattern across
an entire celestial hemisphere of any chosen
radius.

Transmitting at frequencies 1.98, 3.84, and
5.80 MHz, the Bribie Island radar is sensitive to
first order to sea waves of length 75.7, 39.0, and
25.8 m respectively (radio waves coherently
backscatter form sea waves of half the radio
wavelength). Similar experiments to those
reported here have usually been performed at the
upper HF to very—high-frequency (VHF: 30-300
MHz) range. The experiments reported here were
thus partly novel because of the use of lower
frequencies with a large steerable array achieving
a high angular resolution.

Complex time series of sea echoes recorded at
frequency 3.84 MHz showed random modulations in
amplitude and phase which were adequately
explained by beats between Doppler-shifted
echoes from the different portions of the radar

footprints encompassing turbulent surface-
current flows. An alternative explanation was the
direct observation of random modulations in the
sea—wave Fourier components.

Hundreds of sea-echo Doppler spectra
recorded during four field studies were analysed
to show the limited coherence of sea waves.
Generally, sea waves were less coherent than a
continuous tone, with coherence deteriorating for
shorter waves, and possibly during shoaling.
Because of the noise—like quality of the waves, it
was shown that incoherent spectral averaging is
the optimum procedure for revealing spectral
information otherwise buried in noise.

Shallow water depths may have had another
important effect on the observed sea—echo
spectra. It was suggested that the first-order sea
echoes were broadened because the phase speeds
of gravity waves (and thus the Doppler shifts they
produce) were modified by the bathymetry of
radar footprints. Allowing for contributions by
familiar broadening mechanisms, it was further
suggested that the proportion of the footprints
corresponding to various water depths may be
inferred from the remaining Doppler broadening. A
best-case error analysis showed that a MF
surface-wave radar transmitting at frequency 0.5
MHz should remotely sense the bathymetry of the
sea down to water depths of 145 m with >15%
accuracy.

A new technique for deducing the time
constant for evolution of the wind—wave peak in
scalar sea spectra down the frequency range was
developed — it involved a comparison between the
observed growth rates of Bragg-peak amplitude
(first-order sea echoes) and theoretical growth
rates implied by established scalar sea spectrum
models. A time constant of 13 + 0.4 h was
estimated for U,, =? m s-!, an area of sea ~19
km, and an integration time of 0.48 h, but the
time constant values were controlled by the

68 MURRAY L. PARKINSON

temporal resolution of the measurement process.

Because the radar—derived time constant was
in good agreement with the accepted buoy-
. derived value, it was suggested that no dilemma is
presented by the fact that VHF radars are known
to track the observed sea—truth changes in wind
direction to within minutes (as opposed to hours).
This is because the short sea waves to which VHF
radio waves are sensitive probably veer rapidly in
azimuth (in the order of 0.1° s-!), and in general
the time scale for veering of directional sea
spectra may depend upon the degree of wave
spreading, as well as wave frequency.

The directional factor of sea spectra is an
important oceanographic quantity which is
infrequently measured by a limited number of
techniques. | showed how the large phased-
antenna array might be used to measure
directional factors by inverting the observed first—
order sea echoes measured simultaneously at
many azimuths (and a number of ranges and
frequencies) through rapid control of beam
direction. This new measurement technique was
made possible by the advanced digital beam-
steering and signal—processing capabilities of the
Bribie Island radar. Preliminary observations
demonstrated that, in principle, this new
technique can be used to measure the directional
factor automatically, including dominant sea
direction and angular spread with high resolution
(+ 2°) in near real time, especially if the radar is
relocated to a more favourable geographic site.

Other cursory studies presented here included
the range sensitivity of the Bribie Island radar, an
explanation of mysterious ‘ground’ echoes, and the
results of initial searches for skywave—propagated
sea echoes. It is advocated that the Bribie Island
radar may operate in the sky-wave mode to
remotely sense, for example, sea-direction
vortices associated with tropical cyclones off the
coast of North Queensland. However, care will be
required to ensure that ionospheric echoes are
not confused with genuine sea echoes.

In summary, the work described in this thesis
is clearly original, but it can only be considered a
pilot study on the use of the Bribie Island radar

for sea-scatter studies. This is because it is also
apparent from the work presented within that HF
measurements in complex oceanographic
environments are not straight forward. Many
follow-through experiments with the deployment
of z7 situ probes collocated with radar footprints
will be necessary to obtain more convincing
results confirming (or refuting) the present
interpretations. Thus, this work contributes to
scientific knowledge in the sense of posing new
ideas and questions, rather than providing
definitive answers.

Department of Physics,

The University of Queensland
Brisbane Qld 4072

Australia

(Manuscript received 8-2-1994)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 127, p.69, 1994 69

ISSN 0035-9173/94/010069-01

$4.00/1

Doctoral Thesis Abstract: ‘It's so strange when you stay sick': The
challenge of chronic fatigue syndrome

Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS)
remains poorly understood,
despite the recent definition of
the syndrome by the United
States Centers for Disease Control
(Holmes et al, 1988), and the
growing biomedical and public
interest in it. This thesis explores
the nature of the condition, its
explanations, effects and
management. It also highlights
important concerns for people
who have chronic conditions
which medical science has yet to
understand or recognise, and
discusses doctors' dilemmas
about appropriate care for such
conditions.

The research relies principally on
information gathered from
interviews over a two year period
with fifty people who have been
given a diagnosis of CFS. The
related issue of appropriate care is
examined from the perspective of
people with CFS, but is
complemented by the views of
twenty doctors.

Drawing on the experiences of
people with CFS, I present an
account of the illness, beginning
with a detailed description of the
symptoms over time and their
effects on people's lives. This
natural history of the condition
also reflects people's concerns
about their problem. It shows
how the erratic and sometimes
peculiar symptoms brought
feelings of uncertainty and
estrangement, feelings that

Roslyn Woodward

became increasingly pronounced
as their health deteriorated.

The account then broadens from
a description of the illness and its
pervasive effects to encompass
the impact of social and medical
responses on people as they
sought help and advice about
their condition. Although
viruses were triggers in people's
initial deterioration into poor
health, the development appears
to have been influenced by the
medical uncertainties about the
condition. The decline into
poorer health was moderated
when people had understanding
and a meaningful framework for
interpreting the problems. Over
time, two related contrasts
emerged. There was a contrast
between the long term health and
sense of well being of those
people whose doctors had been
consistently respectful, and the
majority of participants who
received responses that. they felt
disregarded their symptoms.
Secondly, there was a contrast
between people's deteriorating
health prior to diagnosis, and
their health afterwards. As the
majority of doctors in the study
expressed reservations about the
value of providing people with a
diagnosis for this condition, these
findings about the changes
associated with diagnosis have
important implications for the
management and care of this and
other conditions which create
uncertainty.

(Manuscript received 11-1-1994)

The study also suggests that
individuals who have developed
this illness have characteristics in
common. They have been active,
productive and conscientious
people. Their style of coping with
illness has been one of active
denial and defiance, characterised
by an early and often enduring
determination to ignore
symptoms and overcome
difficulties. In combination with
demanding life circumstances,
this style of coping with illness
and with medical doubt seems to
be implicated in the onset and the
development of the condition.
Many individuals began to
question this coping style only
after they had a diagnosis. The
changes that occurred in people's
health over time seemed to be
related to their ability to
relinquish this coping style. On
the basis of this finding, I argue
that management of CFS rests on
early identification of the
problem and change in the
individual's style of coping.

National Centre for Epidemiology and
Population Health

Australian National University
Canberra

Australia 2601

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ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL

FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31 MARCH 1994

PATRON

The Council wishes to express its gratitude
to his Excellency Rear Admiral Peter
Sinclair, AC, Governor of New South Wales,
for his continuing support as Patron of the
Society.

MEETINGS

Eight General Monthly Meetings and the

125th Annual General Meeting were held
during the year, The Annual General Meeting
and seven of the General Monthly Meetings
were held at the Australian Museum,

A summary of Proceedings is set out below.

Special meetings & events in 1993/94:

August 19th 1993 (at New England Branch
Armidale)

The 3rd Poggendorf Memorial Lecture was
delivered by Professor Stuart Barker
Professor in Animal Science and Head of
Department, University of New England.

It was entitled: "From buzzatiito Buffaloes:
Excursions into Genetic Variation",

October 20th 1993: (at Australian Museum
Sydney)

The 47th Clarke Memorial Lecture was
delivered by Professor B.W. Chappell,
Department of Geology Australian National
University, Canberra ACT, on: "Lachlan and
New England: Fold Belts of Contrasting
Magmatic and Tectonic Development",

February 15th 1994 (at IEAust Auditorium)

The Society was co-sponsor of a joint meeting
with: the Australian Institute of Energy,
Sydney; the Australian Nuclear Association and
Nuclear Engineering Panel, Institution of
Engineers, Australia, Sydney Division,

The Meeting was held at the IEAust Auditorium
at Milsons Point. Ms Jan Murray, General
Manager, External Relations, North Broken
Hill, spoke on: "The Future of Uranium and
Nuclear Energy",

March 22nd 1994

The Society's Annual Dinner was held at the
Holme §& Sutherland Rooms, University of
Sydney Union Building, The Guests of
Honour were His Excellency Rear Admiral
Peter Sinclair, AC, Governor of New South
Wales, and Mrs Sinclair. ‘Ihe President
Dr R.A.L. Osborne, welcomed the guests of
Honour, and introduced His Excellency who
delivered the Occasional Address. His
Excellency then presented the Society's
Awards for 1993:

Clarke Medal in Zoology: Professor John
Gordon Clifford Grigg (accepted on behalf

of the award winner by Dr Ron Strahan because
of Professor Grigg's absence overseas in
Borneo).

Edgeworth David Medal (research under 35 years
of age): Dr. John Howard Skerritt.

Royal Society of New South Wales Medal:
Dr Harold George Royle, Armidale NSW.

Each recipient presented a brief speech by
way of appreciation of the Award.

A Vote of Thanks was made to His Excellency
by Dr Dalwood Swaine, Vice-President,

(46 Members and guests attended)

Eleven meetings of the Council were held at
the Society's office, 134 Herring Road, North
Ryde, The average attendance was 15,

PUBLICATIONS

Volume 126, parts 1, 2, 3 & 4 of the Journal
and Proceedings were published during the year,
They incorporated ten papers including the
Liversidge Research Lecture for 1992 and the
Presidential Address for 1993, Eight abstracts
of post graduate theses were also published

in this volume apart from the Annual Report

of Council for 1993-94, Council again wishes
to thank the voluntary referees who assessed
papers offered for publication,

Ten issues of the Bulletin were published
during the year, and Council thanks the
‘authors of short articles for their
contribution,

Council granted permission to reproduce
material from the Journal and Proceedings
in several instances,

AWARDS

The following awards were made for 1993:-

Clarke Medal (in Zoology):-

Professor Gordon C. GRIGG,
Head of Department of Zoology, The University
of Queensland,

Edgeworth David Medal (research worker under
35 years of age):-

Dr. J.H. SKERRITT, C.S.1.R.0. Division
of Plant Industry, Canberra ACT.

Royal Society of New South Wales Medal:-
Dr, Harold George ROYLE, Armidale NSW

The Walter Burfitt Prize, the Archibold
D. Olle Prize and the Cook Medal were not
awarded this year,

1Z

MEMBERSHIP

On the 3lst March, 1994, the membership of the
Society consisted of the Patron, 15 Honorary
Members, 256 Members, and 20 Associate Members,
a total of 292, representing an increase of 2
over the total on 31 March, 1993.

The Council wishes again to express its
gratitude to our Patron, His Excellency
Rear-Admiral Peter Sinclair, AC, Governor of

_ New South Wales, for the practical interest he
has taken in the Society.

During the year the following were elected to
Membership:
Maxwell Richard BENNETT
Phillip Alexander CHERAS
Maxwell John CROSSLEY
Lucy Helen GILLESPIE
Francis Harold HIBBERD
Michael Ray LAKE
Colin Robert NORTHCOTT
Daniel John O'CONNOR
Jill ROWLING
Arron Si Lao XU

With great regret, the Council received news
during the year of the deaths of the following
members:

Richard Hewitt Christopher CARRINGTON
George Frederick DAVIES

Peter James GILLESPIE

Petro MAJSTRENKO

OFF IGE

The Society continued during the year to lease
for its office and library a half share of
Convocation House, 134 Herring Road, North
Ryde, on the southeastern edge of the
Macquarie University Campus. The Council

is grateful to the University for allowing

it to continue leasing the premises.

SUMMER SCHOOL

The Summer School for 1994 on "Cities of the
Future'' was conducted once again at Macquarie
University from 17-21 January 1994. Twenty
students were enrolled from 10 private
schools and 1 state school within the State
of New South Wales, Eighteen voluntary
speakers from private, government and academic
institutions addressed the students during
the week-long activities. Two half-day
excursions were carried out: one to a
Government Institution and one to a private
enterprise establishment. These excursions
play a vital part in the programming for

the Summer School as they provide industrial
insight for the students, The Summer School
was organised by Mrs. M. Krysko on the
Society's behalf.

Visits were made to the Air-monitoring Station
at Lidcombe and to the Clinical Waste
Australia Pty Ltd establishment at Silverwater.
Council thanks both establishments for their
generous co-operation.

ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL

Council of the Society also wishes to thank
the speakers and organizers of the visits,
whose well presented addresses and demonstra-
tions contributed to the success of the School.
Council's appreciation is extended to Mrs,
Krysko and to the various Councillors who
assissted Mrs, Krysko and chaired meetings,

The Official Opening was undertaken by Mr.
Andrew Tink MP and Member of the Council

of Macquarie University in the presence of the
President of the Society, Dr. R.A.L. Osborne
and Professor D.M. Schreuder, Deputy Vice-
Cnahcellor (Academic) who represented Em,
Professor Di Yerbury, Vice-Chancellor of
Macquarie University.

LIBRARY REPORT FOR 1993/1994

Acquisitions by gift and exchange continued
as heretofore, the overseas and some
Australian material being lodged in the
Royal Society of New South Wales' Collection
in the Dixson Library, University of New
England, Other Australian material was
lodged in the Society's Office at North
Ryde, The Council thanks Mr. Karl Schmude,
University Librarian, University of New
England for his continuing care and concern
in ensuring the smooth operation of the
Royal Society Collection and associated
inter-library photocopy loans.

An accession list of journal/literature
received in the Head Office Library at North
Ryde during 1993/1994 has been prepared.

NEW ENGLAND BRANCH REPORT

The Branch held three main meetings during
1993: -

Thursday, 22nd July 1993:- Associate
Professor G.A. Woolsey of the Department

of Physics, University of New England spoke
on "Optical Fibres Keep us in Touch",

The speaker provided the following notes:-

"Four years after Alexander Graham Bell
invented the telephone in 1876, he invented

the photophone - a device which allowed sound
to be transmitted through the air on a beam of
sunlight, Until he died in 1922, Bell insisted
that the photophone was his greatest invention,
although it never progressed beyond being a
SClentific curiosity.

One hundred years on, signal transmission using
light is rapidly taking over the world's
communications systems, and this has come about
as a result of two scientific discoveries -

the laser and-the optical,ifibre. | The talk agit
describe the principles of optical fibre
communication, and will include details of the
nature of the glass fibres that make up the
optical cables now criss-crossing Australia and
linking us with other countries.

As invariably happens with the advent of a new
technology developed for a specific purpose,
innovative scientists and engineers seek out

ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL 73

additional applications, Optical fibres are
now being used in medicine, to explore the
inner recesses of the body; in industry, as
sensors for measurement and control, and in
aviation, where optical fibre gyroscopes
provide precision direction control. Some of
these applications will be described.

The lecture was illustrated with practical
demonstrations, 76 members and visitors
attended.

Wednesday 18th August, 1993:- It was
Council's suggestion to hold the 3rd
Poggendorff Memorial Lecture at the New
England Branch of the Society.

Professor J.S.F. Barker, FTS delivered

the memorial lecture before 76 members

and visitors at the Department of Physics
University of New England, The text of the
lecture is included in this volume (Vol

127 1/2, 1994).

Thursday 7th October 1993:- Mr. F.K.
Rickwood addressed members and visitors on
the subject of "0il in New Guinea", His
talk covered the formation of oil within
sedimentary rocks, its accumulation in rock
formations and how this affects the
exploitation of oil resources. The lecture
was based on outstanding first-hand
knowledge of the history of oil exploration
in Papua and New Guinea. An assessment of
the likely hydrocarbon reserves of Papua-New
Guinea and their role in future world markets
were discussed. The lecture was illustrated
with colour slides of New Guinea,

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS
7th April 1993

(a) The 1032nd General Monthly Meeting.
Location: Hallstrom Theatre, the
Australian Museum, Sydney, The President
Dr F.L. Sutherland, was in the Chair and
27 members and visitors were present,

(b) The 126th Annual General Meeting. Same
location. The President, Dr. F.L. Sutherland
was in the Chair, and 27 members. and visitors
were present. The Annual Report of Council for
1992/93 and the Financial Report for 1992 were
adopted; and Messrs Wylie § Puttock were re-
elected Auditors for 1993,

The following Awards for 1992 were announced:
Clarke Medal:
Professor Alfred Edward Ringwood
Walter Burfitt Prize (joint award):
Professor George Paxinos
Professor Istvan Joseph Tork
Edgeworth David Medal (joint award):
Dr Keith Alexander Nugent
Dr Peter James Goadsby
Society's Medal
Mr George William Kinvig Ford

The Archibald D. Olle Prize and the Cook Medal
were not awarded for 1992,

These Awards had been presented by His
Excellency Rear Admiral Peter Sinclair, Ac,
on the occasion of the Annual Dinner on
March 10th 1993,

The following Office-bearers and Council Members
were elected for 1993/94:

President: Dr R.A.L. Osborne
Vice-Presidents: Dr F.L. Sutherland
Dr A.A. Day

Professor J.H. Loxton

Dr B.C. Potter

Dr D.J. Swaine
Honorary Treasurer: Assoc/Prof D.E. Winch
Honorary Librarian: Miss P.M, Callaghan
Honorary Secretaries: Mrs M. Krysko v. Tryst

Mr G.W.K. Ford
Members of Council: Mr C.V. Alexander

Dr R.S. Bhatal

Dr D.F. Branagan

Mr J.R. Hardie

Dr G.C. Lowenthal

Mr E.D. O'Keefe

Assoc/Prof W.E. Smith

New England Representative:

Professor S.C. Haydon

The retiring President, Dr F.L. Sutherland,

who had chaired both the Meetings to this point,
yielded the Chair to the incoming President,

Dr R.A.L. Osborne, and then delivered his
Presidential Address: "Demise of the Dinosaurs
and Other Denizens", A vote of thanks was
proposed,

May Sth 1993

The 1033rd General Monthly Meeting was

held in the Australian Museum Sydney.

The President, Dr. R.A.L. Osborne was in the
Chair and 40 members and visitors attended.
Mr F.R. Blanks AM presented an address on:-
"A Centenary Tribute to Sir Eugene Coossens",
A vote of thanks was proposed by Dr. G.C.

‘Lowenthal,

June 2nd 1993

The 1034th General Monthly Meeting was held
at the Australian Museum, Sydney. The
President Dr. R.A.L. Osborne was in the
Chair and 23 members and visitors attended.
The President welcomed Prof. Paul Adams who
represented ANZAAS (NSW) at this joint
meeting, the first of four joint meetings
on the theme:'The impact of humans on the
physical environment, particularly the
Sydney region". Dr. R. Mullette, of the
Scientific Division of the AWT (formerly
the Sydney Water Board) spoke on:

"The Aquatic Environment", A/Professor
Paul Adams proposed a vote of thanks.

July 7th 1993

The 1035th General Monthly Meeting was held

at the Australian Museum, Sydney. The Past
President, Dr. F.L. Sutherland,was in the
Chair and 20 members and visitors were present.
The speaker Dr Graham M, Johnson,of the Centre
for Pollution Assessment and Control, CSIRO

74

Division of Coal and Energy Technology, was
introduced by Prof. Paul Adams (ANZAAS) and
addressed the meeting on "Air Quality". This
was the second topic of the series of Joint
Meetings with ANZAAS (N.S.W.). Dr.
Sutherland proposed a vote of thanks.

August 4th 1993

The 1036th General Monthly Meeting was

held at the Australian Museum, The
President, Dr. R.A.L. Osborne was in the
Chair and 16 members and visitors attended.
Dr. P.B. Mitchell, of the School of Earth
Sciences, Macquarie University gave the third
address of the series of Joint Meetings with
ANZAAS (N.S.W.): "Soils and Soil Landscapes".
Prof, Paul Adams proposed a vote of thanks.

September lst 1993

The 1037th General Monthly Meeting was held at
the Australian Museum, The President Dr.
R.A.L. Osborne was in the Chair and 16 members
and visitors were present. Mr. Peter Hamilton,
Manager, Metropolotan and Regional Management
Branch, NSW State Department. of Planning, gave
the fourth address of the Joint Series: -
"Planning for the Sydney Region". Professor
Paul Adams proposed a vote of thanks.

Participants in the Summer School on
held at Macquarie University.

ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL

October 6th 1993

The 1038th General Monthly Meeting was held at
the Australian Museum. The President, Dr.
R.A.L. Osborne was in the Chair and 16

members and visitors were present.

Dr. Sydney A. Baggs, Architect, the PEOPL Group
Sydney, addressed the meeting on "An Overview
of the Human Use of Underground Space (Geospace)
from the Paleolithic to Recent Times",

Dr, F.L, Sutherland proposed the vote of thanks.

November 3rd 1993

The 1039th General Monthly Meeting was held
at the University of Western Sydney, Nepean
Kingswood Campus, The President, Dr. R.A.L.
Osborne was in the Chair and 25 members and
visitors attended,

Prof, P.A. Williams, Foundation Professor of
Chemistry, University of Western Sydney, Nepean
delivered an address on:- "The Ignoble
Geochemistry of Platinum",

Dr. Sutherland proposed a vote of thanks.

ORDA A,
Syerrr ?

"Cities of the Future", 17-21 January 1994,

First from Left:- Dr. R.A.L. Osborne, President of the Society.
Second last from right:- Dr. F.L. Sutherland, Vice-President of the Society.
Last on right:- Mrs M, Krysko v. Tryst, Hon. Secretary of the Society and

Convener of the Summer School,

79

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80

AWARDS

CLARKE MEDAL FOR 1993

Professor Gordon C. Grigg has made an
outstanding contribution to the study of
Australian Zoology and to the conservation
of a diverse range of organisms at an
international level.

After completing a BSc with First Class Honours
in Zoology at the University of Queensland

in his home town of Brisbane in 1965, Professor
Grigg travelled to the US where he gained his
PhD at the University of Oregon in 1968,

He returned to Australia in 1968 taking up a
Queen Elizabeth II Post-doctoral Fellowship

at the University of Sydney. He was

awarded a DSc by the University of Sydney in
1987 and remained at Sydney University until
1988 firstly as a lecturer, then as a Senior
Lecturer, He was appointed Associate

Professor in Biology in 1982. Professor

Grigg is currently Professor of Zoology and
Head of the Department of Zoology at the
University of Queensland,

The award of the Clark Medal for 1993 to
Professor Grigg is particularly fitting as,
unlike many natural scientists in the late
twentieth century, Professor Grigg's

research interests emulate those of the Reverend
William Branwhite Clarke by covering both a

wide range of organisms including fish, frogs,
reptiles and mammals, and a variety of aspects

of their biology ranging from physiology to
ecology.

Professor Grigg's published research includes
over 100 papers and some 20 popular articles.
He is the author of over twenty reports to
state governments and the Commonwealth on
matters relating to wildlife management.

Professor Grigg's primary research interests
are in whole animal vertebrate biolody and
consider the interface between physiology and
ecology with particular emphasis on the
physiological adaptions of animals to their
environments, The animals he has studied
have included, among others; Queensland
lungfish, teleost fishes, sharks, crocodiles,
echidnas, camels and kangaroos. His work

is marked by an integration of physiological
researches with studies of animals in the
wild, These have involved the development
of novel techniques for animal tracking

and have often formed the basis for practical
policies for faunal conservation.

Since his involvement in a kangaroo tracking
project in 1975, Professor Grigg has gained
public attention by his promotion of the

use of Kangaroo harvesting as a tool for

the sustainable management of Australia's
rangelands,

Professor Grigg is an outstanding
Australian zoologist who has made
significant contributions to our under-
standing of the Australian fish, reptile
and mammal fauna, There can be few
zoologists in the world who, like
Professor Grigg, are members of inter-
national specialist groups dealing with
the conservation of such diverse animals
as amphibians, reptiles and mammals, It
is with great pleasure that the Royal
Society of New South Wales presents
Professor Grigg with the Clarke Medal

in recognition of this outstanding and
wide ranging zoological achievements.

EDGEWORTH DAVID MEDAL FOR 1993

The Edgeworth David Medal, for
distinguished contributions to
Australian science by a young
scientist under the age of 35, is
awarded to John Howard Skerritt, BSc
(Hons), PhD, Sydney.

John Skerritt is a Principal Research
Scientist at the CSIRO Division of
Plant Industry. He joined the Sydney
laboratory of the Division in 1983 and
moved to Canberra in 1993 where he now
heads the subprogram in grain protein
manipulation.

He already has an outstanding scientific
career. In recent years, the major
accent of his work has been on the use
of specific antibodies to probe the
structure and function of cereal and
grain proteins and to adapt the
specificity and speed of antibody
reactions to increase the efficiency
of test systems for grain quality.

He has adapted technologies from medical
diagnostics for the benefit of the

Australian agricultural and food industries,
permitting more efficient on-the-spot quality
control, Several of his test systems have
been commercialised and marketed overseas.
These include a simple test for the gluten
content of processed foods and a systematic
test for the analysis of pesticides. He

has used antibodies specific for wheat-grain
proteims to identify the amino acid sequences
relevant to dough strength and to certain
diseases and to examine the genetic
relationships between cereals. In several
instances, his innovations have been applied
back in the medical field.

John Skerritt is, a prolafic researcher jand an
demand as an invited speaker at International
conferences, His work has been supported by
grants from industry and Government schemes
and he has a number of patents. He has

been very effective in collaboration and

AWARDS

has built up a small active team in his
Division.
John Skerrit's contributions to agricultural

science and genetics make him a very worthy
recipient of the Edgeworth David Medal.

81

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES MEDAL

FOR 1993

Harold George Royale, recipient of the Society's
Medai, was born in 1917, attended the King's
School, Parramatta (the school to which the

Rev. W.B, Clarke had been appointed Headmaster
in 1839), and went up to Sydney University as

a medical student in 1936, He graduated M.B.,
B.S. at the end of 1941 and joined the Australian
imperial Force in 1942 as Captain in the
Australian Army Medical Corps. He saw action
with the 2/5th Field Ambulance at Milne Bay and
with the 2/10 Infantry Battalion, in the Ramu
Valley and at Shaggy Ridge.

Upon discharge in 1946 he took up general
practice in Armidale, quickly finding the city's
medical facilities tc be limited to what was
little more than a cottage hospital, Among its
many limitations, the hospital had no facilities
for blood transfusion or intravenous anaesthetics
and, most importantly, no pathology department.
So, at the age of 29, the. young Harold Royle
marshalled some glass ware he had managed to
acquire from his last Army hospital, and his
student microscope, and proceeded to establish
proper pathology facilities at the Armidale

and New England District Hospital, In 1987,

in recognition of his role as founder of the
Pathology Department, Honorary Consulting
Pathologist, Honorary Physician, as President of
the the Medical Board and many other services
over a period of some 42 years, the Hospital
named its then newly completed medical library
the Harold Royle Library in his honour,

Throughout his career - unfortunately
terminated by sudden illness in 1988 -
Dr Royle has poured enormous energy and well-

informed enthusiasm into the improvement

of medical practice, the extension and
application of medical science and the proper
documentation of the Australian medical history.
He is a Fellow of the Royal Australian College
of General Practitioners and was a member of
the Education and Examination Committee of that
body. He has been a member of various
committees involved with drug abuse and
education, was medical officer to the University
of New England from 1948 to 1962, and was
appointed to its Scientific Ethics Committee

in 1978, He is one of the foremost authorities
on the health of the First Fleet and early
colony of New South Wales: his paper on

"The health of Sydney in the 1820's" was
published in the Australian Medical Journal of
1973, and that on "Some aspects of health on
the First Fleet" (jointly with R. Simpson)

in the same journal in 1984, In addition to
this, and to a monumental contribution to

the health, welfare, and intellectual life

of the New England community, Harold Royle

has been a member of the Royal Society of

New South Wales for over thirty years,

and Chairman of, contributer to, and

constant loyal supporter of its New England
Branch.

There could be no more worthy recipient of
the Society's Medal than Dr. Harold George
Royle.

82 ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR

George Frederick Davies, 1910 - 1993

George Davies, who died on 11th June 1993,

joined the Royal Society of New South
Wales in 1952. He regularly attended
monthiy meetings of the Society until

quite recently.

Mr. Davies was born in 1910. He became an
Apprentice Fitter and Turner with the
Colonial Sugar Refining Co. Ltd. in 1926.
After attending Sydney Technical College

Trade Classes, he studied by
correspondence and became an Associate
Member of the Institute of Engineering

Technology, London.

In his career with CSR, he was promoted to
Engineer, Supervising Design Engineer, and
in 1969 Senior Project Engineer. He
retired in 1972. He was highly respected
and liked by all who worked with him. As
a member of the Royal Society of New South
Wales, he showed a strong interest in, and
enthusiasm for scientific and technical
research and development. He was a keen
reader of information on many subjects and
retained a great store of knowledge, which
he would share happily with friends and
associates.

In his private life, George was a lover of
sport and the outdoors. He played cricket

with the Moore Park Cricket Association
(of which he was a life member), where he
received many awards, particularly for his
bowling prowess. It was while he played
with this club, that- he metwhis ~fweure
wife, Elsie.

In winter he played Rugby Union, with
Western Suburbs, and later the Parramatta
District R.U. Club as a winger, joined by
his younger brother John at five-eight.
George remained a member of the club
throughout his retirement, and with great
pleasure and excitement accepted an
invitation to be Guest Speaker at the
Club's 50th Anniversary Dinner.

As a member of the Australian Jockey Club,

the National Parks and Wildlife
Foundation, the Sydney Cricket and
Sportsground Trust ete: he was’ often

invited to speak on occasions and this he
did with amazing ease.

George was a keen fisherman and lover of
nature. When time allowed, he would
travel long distances in search of the
tranquility that would signify the "right-
spot" for ‘catching the’ ‘elusaver trowt:
From these trips he often returned with
stones or rocks of unusual characteristics
which would eventually be placed in his
garden. George tended his garden in his
meticulous way, keeping a diary of the
passage of every seedling through to its
coming of age as a fully grown shrub or
plant in glorious bloom, which he would
even photograph so that he and others
would enjoy their beauty again at some
later time.

George was a man of integrity and
compassion. He regularly supported
organisations such as the Sydney Eye
Hospital, the Children's Hospital, the
Cancer Foundation, the Royal Blind
Association and the Prince of Wales
Hospital. He was never too busy to assist
those who sought his direction in any
number of matters. He knew the value of
friendship. Having no children of his own
he "adopted" those around him as his
"family", and they adopted him.

George Davies was a good man, with a fine
mind, who could have found a career in any
of many scientific pursuits.

George and his younger brother and sister
were a close-knit family who grew up with
his leadership.

These Personal Notes were contributed by
Mr. Davies niece, M/s. Pamela M. Poole.

ReMi

ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR

Richard (Dick) Carrington, Th.A.

Vale Richard Hewitt Carrington, He was born
in 1919 at New Farm, Queensland, and
educated at Cranbrook School, Sydney, He was
considered a slow learner, although both his
parents were well respected teachers, His
problems seemed to climax during his service
as a medical orderly in the army during the
Second World War, and he was invalided out,
At the same time, he developed a leg ulcer
that stayed with him the rest of his life
and caused him to limp. From then on, his
life was dominated by his burning desire to
become a scholar - which he virtually
considered his birthright~and by his
struggle against the mental condition that
made him depressed and lethargic.

It 1s testimony to his perseverence that he
was still attending university courses in

his sixties and seventies and by then had
made great progress towards his goal of
scholastic respectability, His main
interests were theology, the natural sciences
and bibliography. He was a supporter of a
number of charities and a member of several
societies. He was admirably supported by his
neighbours and community at Gordon, as well as
by the staff at the Lady Davidson Hospital,
especially during his many bouts of illness.
He died in Lady Davidson on March 25th 1993,

He was a member of the Royal Society of
New South Wales since August 1983,

Gaks

83

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“S

NOTICE TO AUTHORS

A “Style Guide” to authors 1s available from the
Honorary Secretary, Royal Society of New South
Wales, PO Box 1525, Macquarie Centre, NSW
2113, and intending authors must read the guide
before preparing their manuscript for review. The
more important requirements are summarised be-
low.

GENERAL

Manuscripts should be addressed to the Hon-
orary Secretary (address given above).

Manuscripts submitted by a non-member must
be communicated by a member of the Society.

Each manuscript will be scrutinised by the
Publications Committee before being sent to an
independent referee who will advise the Council of
the Society on the acceptability of the paper. In
the event of rejection, manuscripts may be sent to
two other referees.

Papers, other than those specially invited by
Council, will only be considered if the content
is substantially new material which has not been
published previously, has not been submitted con-
currently elsewhere, nor is likely to be published
substantially in the same form elsewhere. Well-
known work and experimental procedure should
be referred to only briefly, and extensive reviews
and historical surveys should, as a rule, be avoided.
Letters to the Editor and short notes may also be
submitted for publication.

Original papers or illustrations published in the
Journal and Proceedings of the Society may be re-
produced only with the permission of the author
and of the Council of the Society; the usual ac-
knowledgements must be made.

PRESENTATION OF INITIAL MANUSCRIPT
FOR REVIEW

Typescripts should be submitted on bond A4
paper. A second copy of both text and illustrations
is required for office use. Manuscripts, including
the abstract, captions for illustrations and tables,
acknowledgements and references should be typed
in double spacing on one side of the paper only.

Manuscripts should be arranged in the follow-
ing order: title; names(s) of author(s); abstract;
introduction; main text; conclusions and/or sum-
mary; acknowledgements; appendices; references;
names of Institution/Organisation where work car-
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of contents should also accompany the paper for
the guidance of the Editor.

Spelling follows “The Concise Oxford Dictio-
nary”.

The Systeme International d’Unites (SI) is to
be used, with the abbreviations and symbols set
out in Australian Standard AS1000.

All stratigraphic names must conform with
the International Stratigraphic Guide and must

first be cleared with the Central Register of Aus-
tralian Stratigraphic Names, Bureau of Mineral
Resources, Geology and Geophysics, Canberra,

ACT 2601, Australia.

Abstract. A brief but fully informative abstract
must be provided.

Tables should be adjusted for size to fit the final
publication. Units of measurement should always
be indicated in the headings of the columns or rows
to which they apply. Tables should be numbered
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Illustrations. When submitting a paper for re-
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Note: There is a reduction of 33% from the
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CONTENTS

VOLUME 127, Parts 1 and 2

OSBORNE, R.A.L.
Caves, Cement, Bats and Tourists: Karst Science and Limestone Resource
Management in Australia. (Presidential Address 1994)

BARKER, J.S.F.
From Buzzatti to Buffaloes - Excursions into Genetic Variation
(3rd Walter Poggendorff Memorial Lecture, 1993).

LAWRENCE, L.J., STOCKSIEK, C.M. and WILLIAMS, P.A.
An Occurrence of Krdhnkite at Broken Hill, N.S.W.

HEATHCOTE, K.A; ‘and: PIPER R.
Strength of Cement Stabilised Pressed Earth Bricks with Low Cement
Contents

DOVE, Andrew and LEE, Graham
Breccia Filled Diatreme in Permian Illawarra Coal Measures and Triassic
Strata, Kandos, New South Wales

CHAPPELL, .BoW..
Lachlan and New England: Fold Belts of Contrasting Magmatic and
Tectonic Development (47th Clarke Memorial Lecture, 1993).

ABSTRACTS OF THESES: -
PICKERING, Catherine M.: Reproductive Ecology of Five Species of
Australian Alpine Ranunculus.

KAYNAK, Akif: A Study of Conducting Polyrrole Films in the
Microwave Region

BAXTER, Rohan A,: Representation Issues in Genetic Algorithm
Function Optimization

ROBERTS, Maureen B.: The Diamond Path: A Study of Individuation
in the Works of John Keats.

BILLS, Peter J.% Barotropic Depth-Averaged and Three-
Dimensional Tidal Programs For Shallow Seas

ZHU Jims Tannin Toxicity Studies in Mice and Sheep

PARKINSON, Murray L. Multi-Frequency MF/Lower HF Ocean Radar

Studies of Wind-Wave Trasients

WOODWARD, Roslyn ‘It's so Strange when you stay Sick': The
Challenge of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome

COUNCIL REPORT, 1993-1994
Report
Abstract of Proceedings
Summer School Photo
Financial Statement
Awards
Biographic Memoirs

Date of Publication:
June 1994

ZS

31

33

39

47

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

69

71
73
74
75
80
82

JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS
OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY
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Volume 127, Parts 3 and 4.
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1994
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BIBLIOGRAPHY

of

‘THE REVEREND W.B. CLARKE (1798-1878)

"Father of Australian Geology"

M.K. Organ

Abstract: Throughout his lifetime, the Rev. W.B. Clarke was a prolific writer of letters
and articles for publication on a variety of topics, including geology, meteorology,
astronomy, natural history, zoology, theology, literature, Australian exploration, politics,
and various miscellany. Previous bibliographies such as Etheridge and Jack (1881) have
listed approximately 150 works by Clarke, and upon such information analyses of his
role in the history of Australian science have been made. Such lists mostly excluded his
substantial collection of published writings which appeared in local newspapers and
overseas journals. The present bibliography redresses these omissions, listing some 837
works, of which 545 are by Clarke. This revelation of the quantity, and variety, of his
published work highlights the significant part he played in the promotion of science in

colonial New South Wales.

Introduction

W.B. Clarke is widely recognised as the "Father of
Australian Geology", a title given him early this
century by a younger generation of earth scientists.
However he was also a prolific author of non-
geological material, a commentator and
correspondent on a variety of topics ranging from
science and natural history through to politics and
the arts, not to forget his role in the formation of
the Royal Society of New South Wales in 1867.

The numerous publications referred to within
this bibliography, along with the large volume of
correspondence located in the Mitchell Library and
miscellaneous archival collections, are testament to
Clarke’s coverage of a variety of disciplines. A
knowledge of the breadth of his output leaves one
with the belief that to simply proclaim him "the
Father of Australian Geology" is to fail to do
justice to his lifeswork. This bibliography is just
one part of the process of making W.B. Clarke’s
large body of research and writing known to a
wider audience. Its publication may perhaps lead
to a reassessment not only of his science, but also
of his role in raising the level of awareness of
such issues amongst the general reading public in
Australia during the nineteenth century.
Publication of sections of his voluminous
correspondence will also add to this valuable
resource.

Biographical

William Branwhite Clarke was born on 2 June
1798 at East Bergholt, Suffolk, England, and died
in Sydney on 16 June 1878, at the onset of his
eightieth year. The son of William Clarke and his
wife Sarah (nee Branthwaite), he was educated at
the East Bergholt school where his father was

headmaster, before entering Jesus College,
Cambridge in 1817 and subsequently attained a
B.A. in 1821 and M.A. in 1824. During this
period he was a student of, and much influenced
by, the noted geologist Professor Adam Sedgwick.
In 1823 Clarke was ordained a minister in the
Church of England, and following the completion
of his studies in 1824 took up religious and
teaching duties at various parishes and schools, all
the while continuing to pursue his interests in the
arts and natural sciences. He was at this stage of
his life a veracious reader and busy with the pen.
According to his own testimony, his began to
publish in 1816, and between 1819-22 his poetic
effusions were numerous. The first geologically
related article of which Clarke is the known author
appeared during 1828.

By 1830 the Rev. Clarke was acting
headmaster of the Bergholt Free Grammar School,
however he resigned early in 1831 as the grind of
teaching was not to his liking. During the late
twenties and early thirties he travelled widely

86 M.K. ORGAN

throughout the British Isles and Europe on
geological excursions. After a disastrous love
affair during 1830-1 which saw him parted from
his true love and almost resulted in litigation,
William subsequently married Maria Moreton (nee
Stather) on 13 January 1832. The couple were
eventually to raise two children - Mary and
Morduant. Another died during infancy.

In 1833 Clarke was installed as first
incumbent at the church of Saint Mary Longfleet,
Poole, Dorsetshire, with the family taking up
residence in the nearby ‘Stanley Green.’ They
remained there until departing for Australia in
January 1839, the decision to emigrate largely due
to ill health (rheumantic fever) and financial
reasons on the part of William, though he was also
interested in the unexplored geology and
geography of the fifth continent and saw the
opportunity to achieve much in the area of original
research. Their ship the Roxburgh Castle arrived
in Sydney on 27 May 1839, and despite a
languishing illness during the latter stages of the
voyage, William almost immediately took up
ministerial duties, such were the needs of the
Colony. His vocation and sense of duty to the
Church remained a priority for the remainder of
his working life.

From July 1839 to December 1840 W.B.
Clarke was headmaster of the King’s School,
Parramatta, however due to continuing ill health,
small financial remuneration, and the stress of
work he decided to resign at the end of 1840 and
return to his ministry. Over the next four years he
was responsible for the young parishes of Castle
Hill and Dural, covering a large area to the north
and west of Sydney. Between 1844-6 he also
served at Campbelltown, though during this period
he was somewhat of a roving parson, able to
travel widely throughout the settled districts of
New South Wales by swapping ministries for short
periods. This enabled him to _ increase his
knowledge of the local geography and build up a
collection of geological specimens.

W.B. Clarke was eventually appointed rector
at the new St Thomas’s Church, North Sydney (St
Leonards), in 1846 and remained there until his
retirement in 1871. The family continued to live at
St Leonards up to the time of William’s death in
1878. During those final years he spent a rather
tranquil period surrounded by a large family and
free to complete some of his scientific researches,
along with supporting the newly formed Royal
Society of New South Wales where his

deteriorating health allowed.

William’s domestic situation was not always
so stable. Early in 1842 the family returned to
England without him - Maria was homesick and
the children needed a comprehensive education,
something which William believed the Colony
could not adequately provide. The family did not
return to Australia until December 1856, and only
then after Clarke had suffered a mild stroke and
his parishioners were moved to raise the necessary
funds to pay for their passage from England.
Throughout the sixteen years of separation he was
forced to support his wife and children with
money sent from the Colony. This proved to be an
almost unbearable strain on his always meagre
income as a parish priest; an income which was
only supplemented by payments for journalistic
endeavours. The decade of the 1840s was also one
of economic depression in the Colony, thus
aggravating the situation. It was not until the late
1850s and early 1860s that Clarke was financially
reimbursed for some of his geological work in the
Australian goldfields on behalf of the government.

Following a busy life as a full-time minister,
part-time scientist, journalist, and parent, W.B.
Clarke died on 16 June 1878 at his St Leonards
residence ‘Branthwaite’, shortly after completing
the manuscript for the fourth edition of his
REMARKS ON THE SEDIMENTARY
FORMATIONS OF NEW SOUTH WALES
(1878). Clarke’s valuable mineral and fossil
collection, plus some personal papers and a
comprehensive scientific library, were
subsequently purchased by the New South Wales
Government for £7000 to form part of a national
collection. Unfortunately they were all destroyed
in the Sydney Garden Palace fire of 22 September
1882, whilst in storage awaiting cataloguing. Only
the relatively small archive of private papers once
held by the family - and now in the Mitchell
Library, Sydney - along with various items of
correspondence in_ libraries and _ archives
throughout the world, plus Clarke’s large store of
published material, survive as a record of his
many years endeavour in the field of Australian
science. The bulk of his original geological field
books, maps, notes and manuscripts were
destroyed in the 1882 fire, setting the course of
New South Wales and Australian geology back a
number of years - though thankfully during his

latter years Clarke had correspondended with
young geologists such as C.T. Wilkinson and

Richard Daintree and passed on to them much of

BIBLIOGRAPHY of REV. W.B. CLARKE 87

the geological knowledge he had acquired since
coming to Australia in 1839. He had also
published regularly during his lifetime, and the
numerous publications referred to in_ this
bibliography are testament to his on-going
endeavours and wide-ranging influence.

From the earliest days of his arrival in the
Colony, W.B. Clarke had pursued a_ special
interest in local geology and _ meteorology,
pursuing detailed investigations where time
allowed right up to the time of his death in 1878.
For a period of almost 40 years he carried on a
lively correspondence regarding the geology,
palaeontology, meteorology, and geography of
Australia with friends and fellow scientists both
locally and in Great Britain, Europe and America.
He was a focus for scientific studies in the
Colony, especially during the period 1840-60.
Numerous articles by him were published in both
local and overseas journals, and he was a regular
writer for Sydney newspapers such as the Sydney
Morning Herald and The Empire. Clarke was
responsible for leading articles and letters to the
editor on scientific issues and subjects such as
Australian exploration and _ education.
Unfortunately, as was common for the time, the
majority of this material was unsigned, possibly to
protect him from public rebuke and litigation in
the case of lead stories, or perhaps it was merely
standard journalistic practice in a time when by-
lines rarely appeared. None of these newpaper
effusions are cited in Robert Etheridge Junior and
R. Logan Jack’s 1881 bibliography of Australian
geology, perhaps the most comprehensive so far
published outlining Clarke’s scientific publications.

The Bibliography

"Considering the great number of separate
papers which issued from Mr Clarke’s
busy brain and pen, it is somewhat
remarkable that he did not, except to a
limited extent, seek to collect and
condense his vast stores of information
into convenient volumes for scientific
libraries. It is probable that want of means
in addition to want of leisure was the
chief cause of this apparent neglect, but
whatever the cause the fact is to be
regretted, for the difficulty of referring to
papers scattered over many periodicals and
many years is such that practically they
drop into oblivion, and it is difficult now

to form a just conception of Mr Clarke’s
enormous’ labours." (John Smith,
Anniversary Address, Royal Society of
New South Wales, 28 May 1879)

Due to strained finances, ever-present ministerial
duties, and the demands of maintaining a
voluminous correspondence (which he obviously
viewed as a priority), W.B. Clarke was never able
to publish the results of his work as freely as he
would have liked, and only ever publically issued
two substantial scientific monographs whilst in
Australia, namely RESEARCHES IN THE
SOUTHERN GOLDFIELDS (1860), and
REMARKS ON THE SEDIMENTARY
FORMATIONS OF NEW SOUTH WALES
(1867-78), both of which saw limited circulation.
Despite these constraints, Clarke was a prolific
author, and the bulk of his Australian writings can
be found in the now-obscure scientific journals,
parliamentary papers, and contemporary
newspapers cited within this bibliography.

As the following listing reveals, W.B. Clarke
played an important role in the intellectual
development of the Colony between 1839-78, via
his work with local newspapers and journals,
whether it be in publishing his own material,
stimulating public debate, or bringing to attention
items of scientific interest from local and overseas
sources. This role has remained largely unknown
due to the difficulties of identifying and gaining
access to his many published works. The extend of
Clarke’s ever active pen has therefore never been
fully revealed, mainly due to the ephemeral nature
of newspapers, the destruction by fire of his
lifetime collection, and the difficulties of
transcribing his handwriting. It is hoped this
current work may partially remedy such neglect,
and, by revealing some of the true extent of his
work, reinforce his status as "Father of Australian
Geology" and "nestor of Australian philosophers"
(Warung, 1895).

For those unfamiliar with the life and work of
W.B. Clarke, and requiring more detailed
biographical information, reference should be
made to the works of James Jervis (1944) and
Elena Grainger (1982) listed below. See also
Section 5 of the Bibliography for references to the
numerous biographical pieces written since his
death in 1878, discussing various aspects of his
life and work.

A dictionary definition of ‘bibliography’ is "a
list of books and writings dealing with a particular

88 M.K. ORGAN

subject, or written by a particular author". The
following bibliography therefore follows this broad
definition and lists published works both by and
about the Reverend W.B. Clarke. For the period
covering Clarke’s lifetime, it is arranged
chronologically according to publication date - or
date of writing, whichever is earliest - and
includes references to all published material
located by the compiler. The internal
choronological arrangement of the first four
sections was adopted to both simplify the on-going
process of locating material and mirror the manner
in which W.B. Clarke worked.

The bibliography was initially based on a
listing of 150 works by Clarke which was
contained in the Sydney Mail of 7 July 1872 (said
list having obviously been supplied by him),
together with the 103 entries under ‘W.B. Clarke’
in Etheridge & Jack’s 1881 bibliography of
Australian geology. These two listings have since
been greatly expanded to include the 837
references contained in the current work, of which
some 545 are by Clarke. A few of the items
mentioned in the 1872 Sydney Mail list have not
as yet been located, whilst a number of major
articles and books by Clarke’s contemporaries -
including J.D. Dana, F. McCoy and J.B. Jukes -
which discuss his scientific findings or use original
research material provided by him are also
included, as are later biographical works and
contemporary commentaries.

The bibliography includes references to
poems, literary reviews and criticisms; scientific
articles and reports on topics such as geology,
mineralogy, meteorology, and other natural
sciences; letters to editors of newspapers;
published religious treatises, hymns, reprints of
sermons, and letters to parishoners. Clarke’s
numerous journalistic endeavours for literary
publications in England (especially prior to 1839)
and local newspapers such as the Sydney Morning
Herald, Sydney Gazette, and The Australian (all
between 1839-1878), have also been included
where known.

The bibliography is presented in five sections
according to publication date and subject: 1 Great
Britain and Europe (1819-1839); 2 Australia
(1839-1851); 3 Researches in the Australian
Goldfields (1851-1853); 4 Australia (1852-1878);
5 Biographical and Related Works (1878-1994).

Section 1 includes material from the period
prior to Clarke’s arrival in New South Wales in
May 1839. It begins with an epic poem published

in 1819 whilst he was still a student at Cambridge,
though poems written earlier are to be found in his
later compilations. The section ends with an article
on volcanic ashes based upon observations made
near the Cape Verde Islands whilst on board the
Roxburgh Castle en route to Australia. This latter
piece Clarke had posted to England during a
stopover at Cape Town in March and was further
worked upon in Australia. The 21 year period
from 1819 to 1839 saw his interests and researches
move from an early concentration on literature,
religious studies, poetry and _ natural history,
through to specialising in the relatively new
sciences of meteorology and geology during the
late 1830s. Many of Clarke’s pieces for the
Magazine of Natural History and newspapers
during this time are short communications and
commentaries only, containing a couple of
paragraphs; others are substantial articles issued in
parts.

Section 2 covers the first phase of Clarke’s
life in New South Wales, up to the time of the
announcement of the discovery of gold in May
1851. After arriving in Sydney on 27 May 1839
he almost immediately began working and writing,
producing material on a variety of Australian
subjects, all the while carrying out his religious
duties. Due to physical isolation from traditional
avenues of publication in England, such as the
Magazine of Natural History and Journal of the
Geological Society of London, Clarke was forced
to make use of local newspapers to air his views
and publish the results of various scientific
investigations, whilst continuing to use the normal
British and overseas scientific journals from afar,
where practicable. Being so prolific, the time
delay between England and _ Australia .in
transmitting correspondence (3-6 months, one
way), would have been especially frustrating.

From 1839 to 1851 W.B. Clarke produced a
vast amount of work, on a wide variety of
subjects. Following the return of his wife and
young family to England early in 1842, he was
free to devote more time to his research and
writing, though he still had to bear the weight of
supporting them financially. An easy means of
supplementing his income was as a_ writer,
reviewer, and scientific contributions editor for the
local newspapers. The editor of the Sydney
Morning Herald quickly realised his talents,
placing him on a retainer during the forties and
fifties.

BIBLIOGRAPHY of REV. W.B. CLARKE 89

Section 3 deals with the results of Clarke’s
geological surveys in the Australian goldfields
between 1851-3. On his first official expeditions,
from September 1851 through to October 1853
(with a break between June and October 1852), he
was involved in a geological survey of the
goldfields for the New South Wales Government.
Samuel Stutchbury and Edward Hargraves also
carried out surveys during this period. Between
September 1851 and June 1852 Clarke
investigated the Southern Districts of New South
Wales, travelling south from Marulan to the
Snowy Mountains and east to the coast near Bega,
while submitting 19 reports delineating the
geology and mineralogy of those localities. From
November 1852 to October 1853 he surveyed the
Northern Districts as far as southern Queensland
and submitted 10 detailed reports. These reports
were despatched to the Colonial Secretary Edward
Deas Thomson, who passed them on to Philip
Parker King for editing. They were then presented
to the Legislative Council and published in the
Votes and Proceedings of that body under the title
‘Papers Relative to the Geological Survey of New
South Wales’ (1851-53). They also appeared
shortly thereafter in Sydney newspapers such as
the Sydney Morning Herald and The Empire,
usually under the heading ‘Geological Surveys of
New South Wales’ or ‘Council Papers -
Geological Surveys.’ This would occur anywhere
from 1-6 months after being written and/or
published. They were eagerly awaited and widely
read by prospectors of the time, of which there
were many.

The Legislative Council goldfield reports and
associated correspondence were also printed in
London between 1853-54, by order of the House
of Commons and within the Parliamentary Blue
Books. They were therein titled ‘Further Papers
Relative to the recent Discovery of Gold in
Australia.” During the 1970s this material was
made available via reissue in facsimile form, as
part's of athe (wvolumes- -of BRITISH
PARLIAMENTARY PAPERS (Irish University
Press, 1974-78). Clarke’s Australian goldfields
reports, along with those by Stutchbury and
Hargraves, are to be found in volumes 16 and 20
of the ‘Colonies - Australia’ volumes.

The original manuscript reports are located
within the Colonial Secretary Correspondence
series, Archives Office of New South Wales,
Sydney. They can be found in various sub-series’
such as ‘Gold Discoveries 1851-52’ (2/8292),

‘Goldfields Papers 1852’ (4/3180), ‘Northern
Goldfields, Liverpool Plains 1852-53? (4/713.1),
etc. Some of Clarke’s original goldfields notes are
to be found within the Fisher Library, Sydney
University collection. In 1860 Clarke’s southern
districts reports were compiled and edited within
his RESEARCHES IN THE SOUTHERN
GOLDFIELDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES, along
with additional material.

Section 4 covers the years 1852-78 and is
similar in scope to section 2, containing references
to published papers plus newspaper items. During
this period Clarke began to use The Empire along
with the Sydney Morning Herald, and after 1866
the journal of the Royal Society of New South
Wales provided him with a regular avenue for
publication.

Section 5 (1878-1994) deals with the period
since Clarke’s death. It contains a few posthumous
works, plus contemporary obituary notices,
biographies, and general or specific assessments of
aspects of his work.

Extant manuscript material pertaining to
Clarke and held by the Mitchell Library and other
public and private institutions is not described in
this work. Reference should be made to the
Mitchell Library’s comprehensive ‘Guide to the
Clarke Family Papers’ (ML MSS139/1).

Attribution

Within this bibliography W.B. Clarke is the
known or attributed author of all material listed,
unless otherwise indicated. Where a newspaper
article is unsigned (as was common), attribution to
Clarke is based on a number of factors, including:
references contained in the Sydney Mail list of
1872, wherein Clarke identified those he had
written; references within other published or
manuscript articles; inclusion in Clarke’s personal
newscuttings files within the Mitchell Library
‘Clarke Family Papers’ collection (though this
criteria is somewhat suspect at times, as these files
obviously include a number of newscuttings on
items of interest to Clarke, but by other authors);
the editor’s opinion, based upon internal factors
such as Clarke’s writing style, which was
scientific, precise, and _ forthright, usually
containing numerous references to overseas books
and journals, and appropriate quotations; and
finally, the opinions of recent workers in the field,
such as E.M. Webster (with regards to Clarke’s
association with the explorer Ludwig Leichhardt)
and David Williams (on meteorology).

90 M.K. ORGAN

Difficulties in attribution arise due to a
number of factors, including the fact that Clarke
often made reference to himself - in the third
person - within articles which he had obviously
written. Also, almost all his lead newspaper
articles are unsigned, and throughout his lifetime
he used abbreviations or pseudonyms such as
‘Latimer’, ‘Plutus’, a circle with a cross in it, or
‘C’ upon letters to editors and reviews. W.B.
Clarke tried very hard to disguise his journalist
identity during the 1840s and 1850s, only rarely
coming out into the open via letters to the editor.
Furthermore, where an unsigned article which is
believed to come from his pen appears as a lead in
the Sydney Morning Herald or The Australian, a
number of possibilities exist: Clarke is the sole
author; Clarke was the author of a substantial
section of the article, whilst the relevant editor -
such as Charles Kemp at the Herald - also made a
contribution; or, Clarke is not the author.

These doubts over various attributions may be
resolved with further research and transcription of
his correspondence, however said articles are
included in this bibliography where there is the
strong possibility that Clarke was the author.
Material included in curly brackets, thus: {......... \
throughout the bibliography is purely biographical.

List of Abbreviations

Aust The Australian, Sydney

JGS Quarterly Journal of the Geological
Society of London

JRS Journal of the Royal Society of
London

JRSNSW = Journal and Proceedings of the Royal
Society of New South Wales, Sydney

MNH The Annals and Magazine of Natural
History, London

ML Mitchell Library, Sydney

PGS Proceedings of the Geological Society
of London

PLSNSW Proceedings of the Linnean Society of
New South Wales, Sydney

SG Sydney Gazette

SMH Sydney Herald & Sydney Morning
Herald

TGS Transactions of the Geological Society
of London

TRSNSW_ Transactions of the Royal Society of
New South Wales (1867-74)

TPRSNSW Transactions and Proceedings of the
Royal Society of New South Wales
(1875)

TPRSV Transactions and Proceedings of the
Royal Society of Victoria, Melbourne
V&PLC New South Wales Legislative Council

Votes & Proceedings
V&PLA New’ South Wales _ Legislative
Assembly Votes & Proceedings

Section 1
Great Britain and Europe 1819 - 1839
1819
1 POMPEII. R. Deck, Ipswich, 1819, 28p. A
Poem written for the Chancellor’s gold
medal competition at Cambridge. Author’s
inscribed copy at ML MSS139/9.
1820

2 A SMUGGLER’S SONG. (Poem), n.p.,
1820.

3 The London Magazine, London, 1820-8.
Clarke wrote verses for this publication
during the early 1820s.

1821

4. CARMEN EXEQUALE.
1821, 28pp.

(Poem), n.p.,

1822

5 THE RIVER DERWENT, PART THE
FIRST; AND OTHER POEMS. Longman,
Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown, London,
1822, xv, 111. ML MSS139/118/31.
Reviews of this collection of poems are to
be found in the Literary Register, 27 July
1822; The London Literary Gazette, 27 July
1822; Leeds Intelligence, 5 August 1822;
and the Bristol Journal, 17 and 24 August
1822.

1823

6 Address Written for the Anniversary Meeting
of the Suffolk Pitt Club, on Thursday August
the’ 21st ‘1823. N.p., 18232 Signed WB.
Clarke.’

10

1]

12

13

14

15

BIBLIOGRAPHY of REV. W.B. CLARKE 91

1824

Cambridge Quarterly Review and
Academical Register, Cambridge, 7, March-
July 1824. W.B. Clarke was the co-founder
and co-editor of this journal, along with Dr.
Dale, the Reverend William Trollope, and
Mr. Torriano.

1828

Geological Hammer. MNH, 1829, II, 247.
The original article is signed and dated
‘W.B. Clarke. East Bergholt, Suffolk, Nov.
24. 1828.’ Includes a drawing of the
hammer.

RECOLLECTIONS OF A _ VISIT TO
MOUNT BLANC. (Poem), n.p., 1828.

The Christian Remembrancer; or _ the
Churchman’s biblical, ecclesiastical, and
literary miscellany, London, 1819-40. W.B.
Clarke submitted various articles to this
religious journal between 1828-38.

MITRE HYMN BOOK. N.p., 1828. W.B.
Clarke was co-compiler and wrote a number
of hymns for this publication.

New Monthly Journal, London, W.B. Clarke
submitted various articles to this literary
journal between 1828-38.

The Literary Gazette, London. W.B. Clarke
submitted various articles to this literary
journal between 1828-42.

1829

LAYS OF LEISURE: A COLLECTION OF
ORIGINAL AND TRANSLATED POEMS.
Smith, Elder & Co., Cornhill, London,
1829, xii, 251. Copies at ML SC547,
MSS119/118/19.

Conia parosa. MNH, 1830, JJ, 152. Signed
and dated ‘W.B. Clarke. East Bergholt,
Suffolk, September 3. 1829.’

A very unusual Appearance in the Sky.
MNH, 1830, III, 199-200. Signed and dated
“WB. Clarke!East Bergholt, Oct. 5. 1829.’

18

19

20

Zl

22

Z3

24

2

26

Based on observations taken on 10 July
1829 in the eastern sky at sunset, along the
road between Quatre Bras and Namur, in
Belgium.

1830

Aetites or Eagle-stone. MNH, 1831, IV, 190-
1. Signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke, East
Bergholt, Suffolk, September 7. 1830.’

Snakes taking the Water. MNH, 1831, JV,
82. Signed and dated ‘W.J. Clarke, East
Bergholt, Suffolk, Sept. 13. 1830.’

Zoology: Hares taking the Water. MNH,
1831, IV, 143-4. Signed and dated ‘W.B.
Clarke, East Bergholt, Suffolk, Sept. 16.
1830.’

Anecdotes of a tame Hawk. MNH, London,
1831, JV, 19-20. Signed and dated ‘W.B.
Clarke, East Bergholt, Suffolk, September
212 1830.7

Partridges and Moorhens (Notes from a
Journal - 1826). MNH, London, 1831, JV,
91. Signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke. East
Bergholt, Suffolk, Sept. 30. 1830.’

Lord’s Island, Derwent Water. MNH,
London, 1831, JV, 92. Signed and dated
‘W.B. Clarke, East Bergholt, Suffolk,
October 1. 1830.’

1831

Common Sea-Gull. MNH, London, 1833,
VI, 147-8. Signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke,
East Bergholt, Suffolk, March 5. 1831.’

Hares taking the Water. MNH, London,
1832, V, 100-1. Signed and dated ‘W.B.
Clarke, Brussels, May 13. 1831.’

Hares taking the Water. MNH, London,
1832, V, 101. Signed and dated ‘W.B.C.
Brussels, Oct. 15. 1831.’

1832

The very fragile Texture of the Limestone
which forms the secondary Marble from the

92

Dg

28

29

30

ad

BY)

34

35

36

M.K. ORGAN

Meuse. MNH, 1833, VI, 76-8. Signed and
dated ‘W.B. Clarke, Parkstone, Dorset, Sept.
6. 18322’

Geology - The Red Sandstone along the
Meuse is merely the Rubbish cast up from
the Limestone. MNH, 1833, VI, 368. Signed
and dated ‘W.B. Clarke, Parkstone, near
Poole, Sept. 8. 1832.’

A Notice of the Effects of Wind on Trees
growing on the Coast near Poole,
Dorsetshire. MNH, 1833, VI, 547-50. Signed
‘Rev. W.B. Clarke, Parkstone, near Poole,
Dorsetshire, September 13. 1832.’

Posthumous Hares. MNH, 1833, VI, 365.
Signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke, Parkstone,
near Poole, Sept. 28. 1832.’

Fungus on the Bill of a Hedge Sparrow
(Accentor modularis, Cuvier). MNH, 1833,
VI, 153-4. Signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke,
Parkstone, near Poole, Dorsetshire, Dec. 21.
1832.’

Singular Subsidence in the Chalk. MNH,
1833, VI, 180-2. Signed and dated ‘W.B.
Clarke, Parkstone, near Poole, Dec 22.
1832.’

1833

THE DUTY ~AND™~ INTEREST > “OE
EDUCATING THE CHILDREN OF THE
POOR. INV THE PRINCIPLES. OF THE
NATIONAL RELIGION. J.G. & F.
Rivington, London, 1833, 28pp. Copy of a
sermon delivered.

Chalk in Belgium. MNH, 1833, VI, 460.
Article signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke,
Parkstone, Jan 9. 1833.’

Is Pitchstone found in Scotland? MNH,
1833, VI, 191-2. Comments, signed and
dated ‘W.B.C., Feb. 2, 1833.’

Locality for a Kingfisher. MNH, 1833, VI,
150. Signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke,
Parkstone, Feb. 4. 1833.’

Meteorology - Mildness of the Present

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

Season, at Parkstone, near Poole,
Dorsetshire. MNH, 1833, VI, 157-8. Article
signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke, Parkstone,
Dorset, Feb. 5. 1833.’

Geology - The Lava of Neidermennig,
employed for Millstones by the Romans,
found in Fragments in England. MNH,
1833, VI, 460-2, Article signed and dated
“W.B. Clarke, Parkstone, May 21. 1833.’

Remarks on some Statements respecting the
Inland Seas of Southern Europe. MNH,
1833, VI, 477-80. Article signed and dated
‘W.B. Clarke, Parkstone, May 23. 1833.’

An Ore which acquires a white Incrustation.
MNH, 1833, VI, 480. Signed and dated
‘W.B.C. Parkstone, May 31. 1833.’

On Certain recent Meteoric Phenomena,
Vicissitudes in the Seasons, and prevalent
Disorders, contemporaneous, and_ in
supposed connection, with Volcanic
Emanations. (Part 1). MNH, 1833, VI, 289-
308. Signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke.
Parkstone, May 11. 1833’, with a postscript
‘W.B.C. Parkstone, June 17. 1833.’ This
was Clarke’s first substantial paper for the
Magazine of Natural History, and was
issued in 7 parts plus supplement during
1833-5.

Birds’ Nests in Singular Places. MNH, 1833,
VI, 523-4. Signed ‘W.B. Clarke, Parkstone.’

A Snow Bunting’s nest in the Skull of an
Esquimaux. MNH, 1833, VI, 524. Signed
and dated ‘W.B. Clarke. Parkstone, July.
1333.0

Review of Le Comte de Bylandt: RESUME
PRELIMINAIRE DE L’OUVRAGE SUR
LA THEORIE DES VOLCANOS. pp.50.
Naples 1833. MNH, 1834, VII, 83-8. Signed
“WBC «

Gooseberry-eating Dogs. MNH, 1834, VII,
137-9. Article signed and dated ‘W.B.
Clarke. Stanley Green Cottage, near Poole,
July 2. 1833.’

A few Words on Cats. MNH, 1834, VII,

46

47

48

49

50

5]

52

53

BIBLIOGRAPHY of REV. W.B. CLARKE 93

139-41. Article signed and dated ‘W.B.
Clarke. Parkstone, near Poole, Dec. 18.
1832’, with a postscript “‘W.B.C. August
1833.’

A Ferrugenous Duck or Ruddy Goose.
MNH, 1834, VII, 151. Signed ‘W.B.C.’

The Fern Owl, its Time of Migration. MNH,
1834, VII, 156. Article signed and dated
‘Stanley Green Cottage, near Poole, 24
August. 1833.’

One of the Habitats of the Fern Owl, or
Night Jar. MNH, 1834, VII, 156. Article
dated ‘12 September, 1833.’

Hymn to be Sung at the Consecration of
Longfleet Church on Wednesday, 25th
September 1833, Lankester Printer, Poole,
Ip. Signed ‘W.B.C.’

1834

Remarks on some Barnacles of the Species
Lipas anatifera found floating off St
Adhelm’s Head, on the Coast of Dorset, on
February 7, 1834. MNH, 1835, VIII, 55-9.
Article dated ‘Stanley Green, Poole, Feb.
10. 1834.’

On certain recent Meteoric Phenomena,
Vicissitudes in the Seasons, prevalent
Disorders, &c., contemporaneous, and in
supposed connection, with Volcanic
Emanations. No.2. MNH, 1834, VI, 193-
202. Article signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke.
Stanley Green, near Poole, Dorset, March 4.
1834.’

Ruskin, J.R. and Clarke, W.B., 1834.
Enquiries on the Causes of the Colour of the
Water of the Rhine; by J.R. [John Ruskin]:
with Remarks, in Contribution to an
Answer; by the Rev. W.B. Clarke, A.M.
F.G.S. MNH, VII, 438-42. Remarks signed
and dated ‘W.B. Clarke. Stanley Green,
April 3. 1834.’

THE HISTORY AND PRACTICE OF
PSALMODY: BEING THE SUBSTANCE
OF TWO SERMONS DELIVERED AT
LONGPLEET;’ ON 13'*APRIL'1834. H.

54

2)

56

a7

58

59

60

Wix, London, 1835, 26pp.

A Notice of Exotic Localities of the
Glowworm. A Question on the Kind of a
certain Exotic Species of Luminous Insect.
MNH, 1836, IX, 487. Article signed and
dated ‘W.B. Clarke. Stanley Green, May 10.
1834.’

On certain recent Meteoric Phenomena,
Vicissitudes in the Seasons, prevalent
Disorders, &c., contemporaneous, and in
supposed connection, with Volcanic
Emanations. No.3. MNH, 1834, VII, 289-
309. Signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke.
Stanley Green, May 16. 1834.’

Causes of the Colour of the Water of the
Rhone and Rhine. MNH, 1834, VII, 442-3.
Signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke. Stanley
Green, Aug. 8. 1834.’

On the Meteors seen in America on the
Night of Nov. 13. 1833. By the Rev. W.B.
Clarke, A.M. F.G.S. (A Supplement to Mr.
Clarke’s Essay, No.3., in p.289-308., On
certain recent Meteoric Phenomena,
Vicissitudes in the Seasons, prevalent
Disorders, &c., contemporaneous, and in
supposed connection, with Volcanic
Emanations). MNH, 1834, VII, 385-90.
Dated ‘Stanley Green, August 9. 1834.’

On certain recent Meteoric Phenomena,
Vicissitudes in the Seasons, prevalent
Disorders, &c., contemporaneous, and in
supposed connection, with Volcanic
Emanations. No.4. MNH, 1834, VII, 609-30.
Article dated ‘Clifton, Oct. 13. 1834.’

Ruskin, J.R. and Clarke, W.B., 1834. Facts
and Considerations on the Strata of Mont
Blanc; and on some Instances of Twisted
Strata observable in Switzerland; by J.R.
[John Ruskin]: with Remarks thereon, by the
Rev. W.B. Clarke. A.M., F.G.S., &c. MNH,
VII, 645-54. Contains numerous geological
drawings.

A Postscript to Mr Clarke’s Communication,
ending in p.630 - The appearing of Meteors
in November. in different Years (p.386,
387). An Instance for 1834. MNH, 1834,
VII, 654-5. Signed *W.B. Clarke.’

94

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

M.K. ORGAN

On certain recent Meteoric Phenomena,
Vicissitudes in the Seasons, prevalent
Disorders, &c., contemporaneous, and in
supposed connection, with Volcanic
Emanations. No.5. MNH, 1835, VIII, 1-28.
Article dated ‘Stanley Green, Nov. 1834.’

Migration of the Cuckoo. MNH, 1835, VIII,
301. Article signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke.

Stanley Green, near Poole, Dorsetshire, Dec.
6. 1834.’

Remarks on the Deposition of Salt in the
Mediterranean Sea. MNH, 1835, VIII, 225-6.
Article dated ‘Stanley Green, near Poole,
Dorsetshire, Dec. 15. 1834.’

On certain recent Meteoric Phenomena,
Vicissitudes in the Seasons, prevalent
Disorders, &c., contemporaneous, and in
supposed connection, with Volcanic
Emanations. No.6. MNH, 1835, VIII, 129-
61. Article dated ‘Stanley Green, near
Poole, Dec. 31. 1834.’

Impromtu, on being told that the Privy
Councillors of P... have refused to allow the
Magistrates to hold their Sittings in the
Council Room, Poole. N.p., [1834],
Pamphlet.

1835

Instances of the Effects of Forest Vegetation
on Climate. MNH, 1835, VIII, 475-82.
Article dated ‘Stanley Green, May 14.
1835.’ Refer also Journal of the Royal
Society of New South Wales (1876) for an
updated and expanded version of this paper.

Nitizen Aus dem Gebiete der Nature und
Heilkunde. Notizen, 1835, XLVI, 161-8. A
German edition of Clarke’s paper of 14 May
on ‘Instances of the Effects of Forest
Vegetation on Climate.’

The Pied Wagtail is the Foster-parent of the
Cuckoo, perhaps more frequently than in
any other Species of Bird. MNH, 1835, VIU,
381-2. Signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke.
Stanley Green, near Poole, Dorsetshire, June
1327118353

69

70

fig

72

i

74

On certain recent Meteoric Phenomena,
Vicissitudes in the Seasons, prevalent
Disorders, &c., contemporaneous, and in
supposed connection, with Volcanic
Emanations. No.7. MNH, 1835, VIII, 417-
53. Includes comments from various writers.
Dated ‘Stanley Green, June 18. 1835.’ with
a PS dated ‘July 10. 1835.’

Notices of Facts in Application to the
Question of the Occurrence of an
extraordinary Display of the Meteors every
Year, on about Nov. 13; and on Displays of
Aurora on Nov. 17, 18-19, 1835. MNH,
1836, LX, 29-30. Article dated ‘Stanley
Green, Nov.19. 1835’, with an addition
dated ‘Stanley Green, Dorsetshire, Nov.28.
1835.”

On Earthquakes at Phillipi. N.p., 1835.
Referred to in the Sydney Mail 13 July 1872
list, though article not located.

1836

THE REVIEWER REVIEWED; OR,
OBSERVATIONS ON A_ DISCOURSE
ENTITLED ‘CAUTION NECESSARY IN
THE APPLICATION OF SCRIPTURE
LANGUAGE,’ IN WHICH IS SHOWN
THAT DUDLEY IS NO ‘ABUSER OF
SCRIPTURE PHRASEOLOGY,’ PAUL NO
‘SOCINIAN,’ AND ROWNTREE NO
CRITIC. BY A MEMBER OF ‘THE
CHURCH ESTABLISHED BY LAW.’ J.
Sydenham, Poole, 1836, 12p. The
‘Reviewer’ referred to was Mark Rowntree,
a Unitarian minister.

Rowntree, Mark, 1836. REPLY TO A
CHURCHMAN [W.B. CLARKE] ON HIS
‘OBSERVATIONS,’ ENTITLED ‘THE
REVIEWER REVIEWED,” ETC. Poole.

PAUL® “SHEWN .4/On-BE.. NO
‘UNITARIAN’; BUT UNITARIANISM
PROVED TO BE ANTISCRIPTURAL IN
ITS ORIGIN, DOCTRINES, AND
TENDENCY: BEING AN ANSWER TO
MR ROWNTREE’S ‘REPLY’ TO THE
‘REVIEWER ; REVIEWED4 (RGR & FE.
Rivington, London, 1836, 93p. Copy of a
sermon delivered by W.B. Clarke.

dD

76

77

78

fis,

80

81

82

83

BIBLIOGRAPHY of REV. W.B. CLARKE 95

THE ‘APOSTLE JOHN’ SHEWN TO BE
NO ‘UNITARIAN’; BEING A FURTHER
REFUTATION OF MR ROWNTREE, IN
ANSWER TO HIS ‘LETTERS.’ J.
Sydenham, Poole, 1836, 20p. Copy of a
sermon delivered.

A PLAIN EPISTLE, TO THE AUTHOR
OF ‘ANIMADVERSIONS’: IN WHICH
HIS BLUNDERS ARE RECTIFIED, AND
HIS SCOLDINGS REPROVED. J.
Sydenham, Poole, 1836, 11p.

Additional Remarks on Lepas anatifera.
MNH, 1836, LX, 638-40. Article dated
‘Stanley Green, Oct.22. 1836.’ Refer also
article of 10 February 1834.

Note on a Cruise off Cherbourg - Sept.
1836. MNH, 1836, LX, 641-2. Article signed
and dated ‘W.B. Clarke, Stanley Green,
Oct.24. 1836.’

On two springs on the north side of Hale’s
Bay, Poole Harbour. Journal of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science,
London, 1836, 94.

Geology in Reference to Natural Theology.
N.p., 1836. Article referred to in Clarke’s
1872 list of publications. Not located.

1837

Statement of Facts, in reply to a Letter
addressed by "John Sydneham, Jun., to the
Rev. W.B. Clarke, A.M., Minister of St
Mary’s, Longfleet, Lankester Printer, High
St, Poole, lp. Signed and dated ‘W.B.
Clarke, February 15th, 1837.’

On the Geological Structure and Phenomena
of Suffolk, and its physical relations with
Norfolk and Essex. PGS, 1838, I(50), 528-
34; TGS, 1840, V, 359-84. Read by Clarke
on 18 January and 8 March 1837.

Notice of a singular electrical Phenomena
on the Night of Feb. 18. 1837. [Read at the
Meteorological Society, March 14. 1837.]
MNH, 1837, New Series, J, 220-1. Article
dated ‘Stanley Green, near Poole, Feb. 21.
1837.’

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

oN

92

93

Examples of Natural Phenomena observed
in 1833, and registered. MNH, 1837, New
Series, J, 229-34. Article dated ‘Stanley
Green, April 11. 1837.’

Signs of Spring, 1837. MNH, 1837, New
Series, J, 279. Article signed and dated
“W.B. Clarke. Stanley Green, April 19.
1837.’

Illustrations of the Geology of the South-
east of Dorsetshire. No.1. The vertical and
curved Chalk Strata of Ballard Head, near
Sandwich. MNH, 1837, New Series, J, 414-
21. Includes geological drawings and
sections.

On the Geological Structure and Phenomena
of the Northern Part of the Cotantin, and
particularly of the immediate Vicinity of
Cherbourg [1837]. PGS, 1838, II(48), 454-
5. Read on 21 April 1837.

Illustrations of the Geology of the South-
east of Dorsetshire. MNH, 1837, New
Series, J, 461-9. Article dated ‘Stanley
Green, near Poole, April 26. 1837.’ Includes
geological drawings and sections.

Meteorological Errors in Vol.VIII. p446.
MNH, 1837, New Series, J, 556-7. Article
signed and dated ‘W,B. Clarke. Stanley
Green, August 1. 1837.’

Notes of Observations made on the Night of
Nov. 12, 1837. (Read at the Meteorological
Society). MNH, 1837, New Series, J, 633-5.
Article dated ‘Stanley Green, Nov. 15.
1837.

Illustrations of the Geology of the South
East of Dorsetshire. No.II. On the Strata
between Durlstone Head and Old Harry
Rocks. MNH, 1838, New Series, //, 79-88.
Includes geological drawings and sections.

Illustrations of the Geology of the South
East of Dorsetshire. MNH, 1838, New
Series, JJ, 128-36. Article dated ‘Stanley
Green, 5th Dec. 1837.’ Includes geological
drawings and sections.

On the Phenomena exhibited by the Plastic

96

94

95

96

97

98

ey)

100

101

M.K. ORGAN

Clay Formation in the vicinity of Poole,
Dorsetshire. Journal of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science,
London, 1837, 93-4.

On the Red Water of Edom. N.p., 1837.
Article referred to in 1872 list of
publications. Not located

1838

THE SIGN OF THE TIMES; AND THE
CLAIMS OF THE CHURCH OF
ENGLAND TO SUPPORT FROM _ ITS
MEMBERS; CONSIDERED IN TWO
SERMONS ON BEHALF OF THE
NATIONAL SOCIETY. J.G. & OF.
Rivington, London, 1838, 62pp. Copy of
two sermons delivered.

The Peat Bogs and Submarine Forests of
Bournemouth, Hampshire, and in_ the
neighbourhood of Poole, Dorsetshire. PGS,
1838, 11(54), 599-601.

Note on the Crag Beds of Suffolk and
Essex. MNH, 1838, New Series, J/, 162-3.
Article signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke.
Stanley Green, near Poole, Feb. 8th. 1838.’
Includes editorial comment.

Letter from the Rev. W.B. Clarke, in
reference to the alleged occurrence of the
bone of terrestrial Mammalia in the red and
corralline Crag of Suffolk. MNH, 1838,
New Series, JJ, 224-5. Letter signed and
dated ‘W.B. Clarke. Stanley Green, March
Ist. 1838.’

Letter from The Rev. W.B. Clarke, on the
Non-Identity of Suffolk Diluvium and Crag.
MNH, 1838, New Series, J/, 285. Letter
signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke. Stanley
Green, April 10th. 1838.’

On the State of Geological Knowledge. N.p.,
October 1838. Text of a lecture delivered to
the Literary and Scientific Institute,
Blanford. Article referred to in 1872 list of
publications. Not located. }

1839
Illustrations of the Geology of the South

102

103

104

105

East of Dorsetshire. No.III. Studland. MNH,
1839, New Series, //J, 390-401. Includes a
map, plus geological drawings and sections.

Illustrations of the Geology of the South
East of Dorsetshire. MNH, 1839, New
Series, JI, 432-8. Includes geological
drawings and sections.

Illustrations of the Geology of the South
East of Dorsetshire. MNH, 1839, New
Series, JIJ, 483-9. Includes _ geological
drawings and sections. Signed ‘Presteigne,
Radnorshire.’

Notices of the gales of November 29, and
Christmas Day 1836, and of November 29,
1837. Transactions of the Meteorological
Society, London, 1839, J, 91-2.

A notice of showers of ashes which fell on
board the Roxburgh, at sea off the Cape de
Verd islands, February 1839 [Abstract].
PGS, 1842, III(65), 145-6. Read to the
Society on 6 November 1839.

Section 2

Australia 1839 - 1851

106

107

108

109

1839

King’s School, Parramatta: Prospectus,
Tegg & Co., Sydney, 1839, 4p. Contains
testimonials to the Reverend W.B. Clarke
upon his appointment as Headmaster around
July 1839, plus a selected list of his English
publications., especially those relating to
matters of religious education.

Popish Oaths. SG, 10 August 1839. Letter to
the editor, signed and dated ‘Latimer. 8th
August 1839.’

Anon. Parramatta Anniversary Meeting. SG,
20 August 1839. Report on the meeting of
the Parramatta District Committee of the
Society for Promotion of Christian
Knowledge, at which W.B. Clarke was
present.

Dr. Ullathorne and Dr. Murray. SG, 29

110

111

P12

113

114

115

116

BIBLIOGRAPHY of REV. W.B. CLARKE 97

August 1839. Letter to the editor, signed
‘Latimer. August 22, 1839.’

1840

A SERMON PREACHED IN’ THE
CHURCH OF ST. JAMES, AT SYDNEY;
ON THURSDAY, 24TH JUNE, 1840, AT
THE ANNIVERSARY OF THE
DIOCESAN COMMITTEE OF THE
SOCIETIES FOR THE PROPOGATION
OF THE GOSPEL IN FOREIGN PARTS,
AND FOR PROMOTING CHRISTIAN
KNOWLEDGE. Sydney, 1840, 20p.

Australia. Literary Gazette, London, 20
February 1841, 119-22. Copy of a letter
from Clarke to Sir Roderick Murchison.
Includes a criticism of P.E. de Strzelecki
and his claimed discovery of Gippsland.
Letter dated ‘Parramatta, New South Wales,
14th August, 1840.’

A Christmas Offering. Sydney, December
1840. Copy of a sermon delivered to W.B.
Clarke’s Dural parishioners, pleading for
funds to build a church.

1841

Anon. Parramatta - The Church. SG, 2
February 1841. Editorial calling for the
building of a church at north Parramatta and
the installation of the Rev. W.B. Clarke as
its incumbent.

Earthquake. SMH, 9 February 1841. Letter
to the editor, signed and dated ‘W.B.
Clarke. Parramatta, 2nd Feb., 1841.’ See
also under 1868 for a summary account of
earthquake activity in Australia.

Parramatta - The Church. SG, 9 February
1841. Letter to the editor, signed and dated
‘G.B. Clarke. Parramatta, 4th Feb. 1841.’
Reply to the editorial of 2 February. See
also editorial comment on page 2 of this
issue.

Anon. The Rev. W.B. Clarke A.M. SG, 9
February 1841. Editorial comment,
welcoming Clarke’s contribution to the
Sydney Gazette.

117 On the Geological Phenomena in_ the
Vicinity of Cape Town, Southern Africa.
Athenaeum, London, October 1841
[Abstract]; PGS, 1842, JI, 418-23;
Philosophical Magazine and Journal of
Science, Supplementary Number, January
1842; Polytechnic Journal, 1842 [Abstract];
SMH, 25 June 1842. Read at the Geological
Society of London on 21 April 1841. Clarke
had visited Cape Town briefly in March -
April 1839 whilst en route to New South
Wales.

118 THE LOGIC OF THE TIMES. Sydney,
1841. A compilation of sermons delivered
by the Rev. W.B. Clarke - reviewed in the
SMH June 1841, & SG, 14 June 1841.

119-20 The Sabbath Bill. SMH, 22 & 24 June
1841. Lead articles, unsigned.

121 The Sabbath Observance Report. SMH, 21
August 1841. Lead article, unsigned.

122 Australian Mining Company. SMH, 24
September 1841. Letter to the editor, signed
and dated ‘Carbonarius, Barangara,
September 17.’ Discusses conformability of
coal seams located at depth at Concord, near
Parramatta.

123-4 Review - The Tasmanian Journal of Natural
Science, Agriculture, Statistics, &c. SMH, 7
October & 16 November, 1841.

125 Anon. Colonial Education. SMH, October -
November 1841. Series of letters to the
editor discussing aspects of colonial
education and the merits of a university
degree. Signed ‘Parsus Australis’ (15
October, 25 October, 3 November),
‘Philomath’ (29 October), ‘Oxford Bachelor
(1. November), and ‘Benedict’ (18
November). Clarke is possibly one of the
correspondents, namely ‘Parsus Australis’,
though this remains unclear.

126 The Legitimate Objects and Benefits of
Natural History and Science - The Rev.
W.B. Clarke’s Lecture at the New Grammar
School. SMH, 23 October 1841.

127. Tornado at Parramatta. SMH, 24 December

98

128

129

130

M.K. ORGAN

1841. Letter to the editor, signed ‘W.B.
Clarke. Parramatta, December 21, 1841.’
See also ML MSS139/99 for original data.

Anon. Report of the Church of England
Clerical Book Society 1841; together with
the opening Address (by W.G. Broughton).
Sydney, 1841. Clarke was one of the
founders of this society and possibly the
editor of this report.

1842

On the Occurrence of Atmospheric deposits
of Dust and Ashes, with remarks on the
Drift Pumice of the Coasts of New Holland.
Tasmanian Journal of Natural Science,
Hobart, 1842, /(V), 321-41.

On falls of dust or sand on_ vessels
traversing the Atlantic. Edinburgh New
Philosophical Journal, XXXII, 1842, 134-6.

Tornado of December 21, 1841. SMH, 10
January 1842. Letter to the editor, signed
‘W.B. Clarke, Parramatta, Jan. 6, 1842.’

132-51 Meteorology as applicable to Australia,

152

153

Nos. 1-20. SMH, 15 January - 17 June
1842. These articles were all published
anonymously, and though unsigned, they are
referred to in the 1872 list of Clarke’s
publications and in his 1864 lecture
‘Remarks on Australian Storms.’ They
usually appeared as leads: 1 (15 January), 2
(22 January), 3 (7 February), 4 (12
February), 5 (1 March), 6 (7 March), 7 (11
March), 8 (7 April), 9 (14 April), 10 (16
April), 11 (22 April), 12 (26 April), 13 G0
April), 14 (6 May), 15 (16 May), 16 (24
May), 17 (3 June), 18 (13 June), 19 (15
June), 20 (17 June).

Anon. The Wonders’ at _ Parramatta.
Australasian Chronicle, 18 January 1842.
Letter to the editor, signed ‘An Observer’,
criticising Clarke’s first SMH Meteorology
article.

The Rev. Mr Clarke’s reply to "Observer".
Australasian Chronicle, 22 January 1842.
Letter to the editor, signed and dated *W.B.
Clarke Parramatta, 20th January, 1842.’

154 Murchison, R.I., 1842. Presidential Address.
PGS, III, 645. Delivered on 18 February
1842. Briefly refers to Clarke’s geological
investigations in Australia. See also SMH 6
April 1843 where Clarke makes reference to
it.

155-9, 161-5 Notitiae Australasianae. A series of
review articles published anonymously by
W.B. Clarke appeared under this general
heading within the Sydney Morning Herald
between June and September 1842. They are
described individually below.

155 Review of articles from the Annals and
Magazine of Natural History, Nos. 50 & 51.
Including 1. Notice of a new genus of
mammalia, Antechinus Stuartii, by J. Stuart;
and 2. Sponges. SMH, 14 June 1842.

156 Review of the Tasmanian Journal of
Natural Science, Vol.1, No.III. Including 3.
On Irrigation in Tasmania, by Captain A.F.
Cotton. SMH, 24 June 1842.

157 Review of the Tasmanian Journal of
Natural Science, Vol.1, No.II. Including 4.
Varieties of Australasian Coal, by P.E. de
Strezelecki. SMH, 27 June 1842.

158-9 Review of MONOGRAPH OF THE
MACROPODIAE, OR FAMILY OF
KANGAROOS, by John Gould. SMH, 4 &
16 July 1842. In 2 parts. Includes a plea for
the donation of specimens to the Australian
Museum, and consideration of possible
future extinction of certain species.

160 Survey of New South Wales. SMH, 23
August 1842. Lead article, unsigned. Being
a defence of T.L. Mitchell’s surveying work
in the Colony, following on recent criticisms
by Governor Gipps. Also includes a copy of
Mitchell’s 91833" articles “Om ~ the
Trigonometrical Survey of New South
Wales’. See also Phillip Parker King’s letter
to the newspaper of 27 August 1842.

161-5 Review of the JOURNALS OF TWO
EXPEDITIONS OF DISCOVERY IN
NORTH-WEST AND WESTERN
AUSTRALIA, by George Grey. SMH. In 5
parts: 1 (29 August); 2 (31 August 1842); 3

BIBLIOGRAPHY of REV. W.B. CLARKE 99

(15 September); 4 - Origin of the
Aborigines (20 September); 5 (23
September).

166-7 Supply of Water. SMH, 26 July & 5 August

168

169

170

171

1842. Lead articles, unsigned. Refer ML
MSS139/99. The second article includes
meteorological data from Bulli, compiled by
Captain R.M. Westmacott - refer ML
MSS 139/94.

Post Office. SMH, 29 August 1842. Lead
article, unsigned.

On a Fossil Pine Forest at Kurrur-Kurran, in
the inlet of Awaaba [Lake Macquarie], East
Coast of Australia. PGS, 1843, JV(D, 161-4
[Abstract]; The Sydney Weekly Register,
1845, V(107), 68-9; Annual Report of the
Department of Mines of N.S.W. for the Year
1884, Sydney, 1885, 156-9 plus map and
figures. Original article signed and dated
‘W.B. Clarke. Parramatta, 29th August
1842.’

Mr a’Beckett’s Lecture. Temperature of
Boiling Water. SMH, 12 September 1842.
Letter to the editor, signed ‘C. September 2,
1842.’ See also a’Beckett’s reply of the
16th.

Temperature of Boiling Water. SMH, 23 &
24 September 1842. Two letters to the
editor,signed ‘C. September 17, 1842’ and
°C. September 23, 1842.’

172-8 Fossil Bones, Nos. I-VI. SMH, 8 October

179

1842 - 2 January 1843. Unsigned, though
referred to in the 1872 list of publications.
Published as follows: I (8 October); II (19
October); III (26 October); IV (11
November); V (19 November); VI (9
December); Addenda (2 January 1843).

Meteorology - Spring Equinox 1842. SMH,
13 October 1842. Signed ‘W.B.C.’

180-1 The Ancient and Present Condition of the

River Drainage of New South Wales. SMH,
12 December 1842 & 3 January 1843. Lead
articles, unsigned.

1843

182

183

184

185

186

IS)

188

189

190

Comets. SMH, 9 March 1843. Unsigned. A
summary history of comets. See also 19
October 1858 for an updated version, and
SMH 24 March 1843 for a paper on
‘Ancient Theories of Comets’ by Robin
Goodfellow.

Notes of Observations on the Great Comet
of March. Proceedings of the Royal
Astronomical Society, London, 1843.

Progress of Scientific Enquiry in
Australasia. SMH, 6 April 1843. First
reference to the discovery of trilobites in
New South Wales. See also 29 May 1846
below.

Church Book Society - W.B. Clarke’s First
Lecture on Geology. SMH, 7 April 1843.
Delivered at St James’ Grammar School on
Tuesday 4th. Clarke delivered the remaining
lectures on ‘The Physical Constitution of the
Earth’ on 23 August, 5 September, and 20
September.

Anon. New Church on the North Shore.
SMH, 15 June 1843. Report on Clarke’s
appointment as pastor of the new church to
be built at St Leonards, and the laying of
the foundation stone.

Cumberland Election Debate. SMH, 13 July
1843. Letter to the editor, signed ‘W.B.
Clarke.’

Meteorology. Temperature at Parramatta,
from 17th to 21st November 1843. SMH, 27
November 1843. Letter to the editor, signed
and dated ‘W.B.C. Parramatta, Nov. 22,
1843.’

Meteorology. Temperature at Parramatta,
from 17th to 21st November. SMH, 30
November 1843. Letter to the editor, signed
and dated ‘W.B.C. Parramatta, Nov. 27,
1843.’

Meteorology. Mean Mensual Temperatures
indicated by external Barometer, Macquarie-
street, Parramatta, from Ist December 1842,
to 30th November 1843, both inclusive.
SMH, 4 December 1843. Signed and dated
‘W.B.C. Parramatta, 1st December.’

100 M.K. ORGAN

191 Anon. Museum Curatorship. SMH, 28
December 1843. Report on a petition from
W.B. Clarke presented to the Legislative
Council by Dr Nicholson.

1844

{Clarke wrote lead articles solely for The
Australian during this year, breaking his ties with
the Sydney Morning Herald, though he returned in
1845 as co-editor of contributions}

192 Australian Museum. SMH, 4 January 1844.
Letter to the editor detailing recent
acquisitions. Signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke.
Parramatta, January 1.’

193 Notes on the gyratory storms of Sunday,
January 14, 1844, as observed at Dooral.
Aust, 23 January 1844. Signed ‘W.B.C.
Parramatta, 15th January 1844.’

194 The Late Storm. Aust, 25 January 1844.
Signed and dated ‘W.B.C. January 22,
1844.’ See also similarly titled letter to the
editor of 30 January 1844, signed ‘G.N.’
which is critical of Clarke.

195 Australian Museum. SMH, 26 January 1844.
Signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke, Parramatta,
January 15, 1844.’

196 High-ways and By-ways. Aust, 15 February
1844. Unsigned.

197 Anon. Report on Rev. Clarke’s fall from a
horse. SMH, 1 March 1844. Clarke
sustained serious head injuries as a result of
this incident.

198 H.M. Ship Fly. Aust, 26 March 1844.
Unsigned.

199-201 Roads. Aust. Unsigned. In three parts, as
follows: 1 (28 March); 2 (9 April); 3 (26
April 1844).

202 Free Traders and Malthusian Philosophers.
Aust, 2 April 1844.

203 The Tractarians and their Sydney
Advocates. Aust, 4 April 1844. Unsigned.

204 Dr. Pusey and his Sydney Reviewers. Aust,
5 April 1844. Unsigned.

205-7 United States Exploring Expedition. Aust,
18, 20 & 24 April 1844. Unsigned. A
review of the work of Captain Wilkes’
expedition of 1838-42, members of which
party Clarke had met at Sydney during
1839-40. These articles are rather critical of
the exploration and scientific work of the
Expedition and the motives of its instigators.

208-11 English Notions of Australia. Aust, 4, 7,
10 & 15 May 1844. Review of Rev. W.
Pridden’s AUSTRALIA, ITS HISTORY
AND PRESENT CONDITION. Unsigned.
In four parts.

212-14 Colonial Emigration. Aust, 25, 27 & 28
May 1844. Unsigned. In three parts.

215 Miurchison, R.I., 1844. Presidential Address.
Transactions of the Royal Geographical
Society, London, XIV, xcix-c. Read on 27
May. Includes a comparison of the geology
of Russia and Australia, and comments on
information supplied by P.E. de Strzelecki.
This address was to form the basis for
Murchison’s later claim as _ scientific
discoverer of gold in Australia, a claim
which Clarke refuted. Refer Stafford (1988).

216 Police Protection. Aust, 3 June 1844.
Unsigned.

217 The "Chronicle" and the Aborigines. Aust,
13 June 1844. Unsigned.

218 Anon. Testimony in Respect for Mr Justice
Burton. SMH, 21 June 1844. Includes a
report on Clarke’s speech.

219-20 Popular Education in New South Wales.
Aust, 4 & 11 July 1844. Unsigned, in two
parts.

221-2 Exploration of New Holland. Aust, 9 & 17
July 1844. Unsigned, in two parts.

223 Progress of Internal Discovery’ =\- Dx
Leichhardt’s Expedition to Port Essington.
Aust, 25 July 1844.

BIBLIOGRAPHY of REV. W.B. CLARKE OT:

224 Mr Macarthur’s Treatise on The Culture of
the Vine, and the Manufacture of Wine.
Aust, 18 July 1844. Unsigned. Review of
LETTERS ON THE CULTURE OF THE
VINE, by Maro [William Macarthur].

225 The Botanic Garden. Aust, 31 July 1844.
Unsigned.

226 The Roads of the Colony. Aust, 1 August
1844.

227-8 The Injurious Effects of Hail on the Vine.
Aust, 6 & 13 August 1844. Unsigned. In
two parts.

229 Progress of Internal Discovery. Aust, 14
August 1844.

230 Paragreles, or Hail Guards. Aust, 23 August
1844. Unsigned - referred to in the 1872 list
of publications.

231-2 Anon. Education on the Principles of the
Church of England. SMH, 4 & 10
September 1844. Report on public meetings
held on 2nd & 9th. Includes a summary of
Clarke’s speech at the latter meeting.

233 Anon. Report on Clarke’s attendance at
meeting of the Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge. SMH, 7 September
1844.

234 Ross, Rev. R., 1844. [Untitled]. SMH, 11
September 1844. Letter to the editor in reply
to Clarke’s personal comments regarding the
Rev. Ross made at the education meeting
referred to in the SMH of 10 September.

235 [Untitled]. Letter in reply to Dr. Ross. SMH,
12 September 1844. Signed and dated ‘W.B.
Clarke. Parramatta, September 11.’

236 Anon. St Leonard’s Church, North Shore.
Aust, 2, 3, 10 & c.20 December 1844.
Signed ‘Lycidas.’ These letter raise
questions as to why the Reverend Clarke
had not taken up residence at the new St
Thomas’s Church, St Leonards. They may
include replies by Clarke, though all are
anonymous.

1845

237 On Dykes of Marble and Quartz in
connection with Plutonic Rock in Argyle
County, New South Wales. JGS, 1845, J,
342-4; Edinburgh New Philosophical
Journal, 1846, XL, 201-4; Tasmanian
Journal of Natural Science, Hobart, 1849,
TT(1), 51-4.

238 Anon. Report on the presence of Clarke at
the laying of the foundation stone for a
church at Balmain. SMH, 2 January 1845.

239 The Late Meteor and Present Comet. SMH,
9 January 1845. Letter to the editor, signed
and dated ‘W.B.C. 3rd January 1845.’

240 Meteorology - Notes on the condition of the
year 1844. SMH, 24 January 1845. Signed
‘W.B.C.’

241 The Late Meteor. SMH, 4 February 1845.
Letter to the editor, signed ‘W.B.C.
Muswellbrook, January 24’, with PS ‘27th
January.’

242 The Pentonville Exiles. SMH, 25 April
1845. Signed and dated ‘W.B.C.,
Parramatta, April 22.’

243 Mesmerism in Australia. SMH, 16 July
1845. Lead article, unsigned.

244-6 Lightning Conductors. SMH, 10, 17 & 20
November 1845 Lead articles, in three
parts, unsigned. Referred to in the 1872 list
of publications and in a 4 March 1859
article on ‘Death by Lightning.’

247 Departure of the Exploring Expedition.
SMH, 18 November 1845. Unsigned. Refers
to Edmund Kennedy and T.L. Mitchell.

248 Thunder Storms of November 20, 1845.
SMH, 11 December 1845. Letter to the
editor, signed and dated ‘W.B.C. Paramatta,
November 28.’

249 Lightning Conductors. SMH, 18 December
1845. Letter to the editor, signed and dated
‘W.B.C. December 16.’ Reply to a letter on

102

250

251

252-4 Review

255

250

Zoi,

M.K. ORGAN

‘L.E.T.’ [Rev. Lancelot

the 15th from
Threlkeld].

1846

Murchison, R.I., 1846. A brief review of the
classification of the sedimentary rocks of
Cornwall. Transactions of the Royal
Geological Society of Cornwall, VI, 317-26.
Includes a comparison of the geology of
Russia and Australia with regards to the
possible existence of gold. This article
would play an important part in the later
debate over who was the true scientific
discoverer of gold in Australia - Clarke or
Murchison.

Jukes, J.B., 1846. A few remarks on the
nomenclature and classification of rock
formations in new countries. Tasmanian
Journal of Natural Science, II(6), 1-12.
Written following discussions with the
Reverend W.B. Clarke during 1844-5.

of Count Strzelecki’s THE
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF NEW
SOUTH WALES, London, 1845. SMH.
Unsigned. This book was the first major
work on the geology of New South Wales
and Tasmania, and Clarke reviewed it
warmly. In three parts, as follows: 1 (16
March); 2 (27 March); 3 (3 April 1846).

Hot Gale of 11th April, 1846. SMH, 1 May
1846. Signed ‘W.B.C. Campbelltown, April
14’, with a postscript ‘W.B.C. April 29.’
See also comment by Lower Murrumbidgee
correspondent on 27 May.

Meteorology. Mean temperature of the
periods from Ist October to 30th April
inclusive, in three consecutive years, from
1843 to 1846, deducted from daily
observations made at Macquarie-street,
Paramatta, at 8.30AM, 2.30PM, sunset.
SMH, 5 May 1846. Signed and dated
‘W.B.C. Paramatta, May 1, 1846.’

Piesse, Louis, 1846. Flooding of the Inland
Rivers of NSW. SMH, 8 May. Letter to the
editor, written in reply to Clarke’s ‘Hot
Gale’ paper of 1 May.

258

259

260

261

262

263

264

205

266

Hot Gale. SMH, 29 May 1846. Letter to the
editor, signed ‘W.B.C. May 27, 1846.’
Replying to the Lower Murrumbidgee
correspondent of 27 May.

On the Occurrence of Trilobites in the
Protozoic Rocks of New South Wales.
Tasmanian Journal of Natural Science,
October 1849, J/I(1), 1-12. Article signed
and dated ‘Parramatta, 29th May 1846.’
Clarke had _ discovered trilobites at
Burragood, on the Paterson River, on 2
December 1842 and mentioned the find in
the SMH of 6 April 1843. See also 16 June
1847 for a variant of this article.

Meteorology - Notes on the conditions of
the month of May, 1845 and 1846, from
observations made at Macquarie-street,
Parramatta, with some general remarks
illustrative of the climate during the winter
months. SMH, 9 June 1846. Signed “W.B.C.
Paramatta, June 5.’

On the conditions of June and July, 1846;

and of the present season in general. SMH,
27 August 1846. Signed and dated “W.B.C.
Paramatta, August 20.’

The Coburg Peninsula. SMH, 15 September
1846. Lead article, unsigned. Review of the
explorations of G. Windsor Earl.

Parramatta Water Grievance. SMH,
Supplement, 3 October 1846. Letter to the
editor, signed ‘W.B. Clarke. Paramatta,

September 25.’

Report - Parramatta Water Committee. N.p.,
1846. Referred to in Clarke’s 1872 list of
publications. Not located.

Tropical Australia and its Prospects - The
Growth of Cotton. SMH, 28 September
1846. Lead article, unsigned. Review of the
explorations of G. Windsor Earl.

Review of REMARKS ON’ THE
PROBABLE ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY
OF THE ABORIGINAL NATIVES OF
NEW SOUTH WALES ...... by a Colonial
Magistrate [William Hull]. SMH, 3 October
1846. Unsigned.

267

268

269

270

2rhd

292

273

274

215

276

pe |

278

279

BIBLIOGRAPHY of REV. W.B. CLARKE 103

Captain Stokes’s Discoveries. SMH, 13
October 1846. Lead article, unsigned.
Review of the explorations and surveys of
Captain Stokes and the HMS Beagle.

River Albert. SMH, 19 October 1846. Lead
article, unsigned. Continuation of a review
of the discoveries of Captain Stokes.

Victoria River. SMH, 27 October 1846.
Lead article, unsigned. Continuation of a
review of the discoveries of Captain Stokes.

On the Geology of the Island of Lafu, one
of the Loyalty Group, east of New
Caledonia, in the Southern Pacific. JGS,
1847, III, 61-4. Article presented to the
Society on 4 November 1846.

Fitz Roy River. SMH, 12 November 1846.
Lead article, unsigned. Continuation of a
review of the discoveries of Captain Stokes.

Adelaide River and North-west Coast. SMH,
17 November 1846. Lead article, unsigned.
Review of the discoveries of Captain Stokes.

Meteorology. State of the Atmosphere at
Parramatta, from 10th to 14th (3.53 PM),
inclusive November, 1846. SMH, 17
November 1846. Signed ‘W.B.C.’

Captain Stokes’s Discoveries. SMH, 25
November 1846. Lead article, unsigned.

Captain Stokes’s Survey of the Eastern
Entrance to Bass’s Strait. SMH, 1 December
1846. Lead article, unsigned.

Sir Thomas Mitchell’s Despatches. SMH, 9
December 1846. Lead article, unsigned.

Captain Stokes’s Survey of the Western
Entrance to Bass’s Strait. SMH, 10
December 1846. Lead article, unsigned.

The Recent Discoveries. SMH, 21 December
1846. Lead article, unsigned. Review of the
discoveries of Mitchell, Stokes, Sturt, and
Leichhardt.

Account of a Thunderstorm. Walker’s
Electrical Magazine, II, 1846, 326-31.

280

281

282

283

284

285

286

287

1847

Fossiliferous limestone of the Burdekin and
a coral Cyathophyllum Leichhardti, in L.
Leichhardt, JOURNAL OF AN
OVERLAND EXPEDITION IN
AUSTRALIA, FROM MORETON BAY TO
PORT ESSINGTON ... DURING 1844-45.
London, 1847, 212-3.

The Practical Value of the Recent
Discoveries. SMH, 1 January 1847. Lead
article, unsigned. Review of the discoveries
of Mitchell and other explorers.

A.D.M., 1847. [Untitled]. The Atlas, 16 &
30 January. Letter to the editor, critical of
Clarke’s anonymous writings for the Herald
on Australian exploration.

Hodgson’s Journey in Search of Leichhardt.
SMH, 18 January 1847. Lead § article,
unsigned. Preliminary critical review of C.P.
Hodgson’s REMINISCENCES OF
AUSTRALIA. (See also 23 January 1847
below).

Anon. A.D.M. SMH, 21 January & 4
February 1847. Comments, possibly by the
editor of the Herald, on the criticisms
expressed in The Atlas of 16 January 1847.
See also The Australian of 30 January 1847
which suggests that T.L. Mitchell was
‘A.D.M.’

Review of REMINISCENCES OF
AUSTRALIA, WITH HINTS ON THE
SQUATTERS LIFE by C.P. Hodgson.
SMH, 23 January 1847. Unsigned.

The Australian and the Surveyor General.
SMH, 4 February 1847. Article pointing out
reasons why T.L. Mitchell could not be
‘A.D.M.’

Jukes, J.B., 1847. Notes on the Palaeozoic
Formations of New South Wales and Van
Dieman’s Land. JGS, ///, 240-9. Presented

to the Society on 24 February 1847.
Partially based on_ discussions and
excursions with Clarke. Also published

under the title: On the Palaeozoic Rocks of

104

288

289

290

291-2

293

294

295

296

207

M.K. ORGAN

the neighbourhood of Sydney. Tasmanian
Journal of Natural Science, Hobart, J//,
1849, 376-87. Clarke considered the article
as much his as Jukes’, and was somewhat
miffed that he was not cited as a co-author.

Meteorology. Conditions of the year 1845 in
the Northern Hemisphere, compared with
the nearly corresponding period in Australia.
SMH, 2 March 1847. Lead article, signed
“W.B.C2

The Intellectual Barrenness of New South
Wales. SMH, 12 March 1847. Lead article,
unsigned.

On Climates Suitable for the Production of
Wine. SMH, 2 April 1847. Lead article,
unsigned.

Law of Storms. SMH, 6 & 17 May 1847.
Lead articles, unsigned.

On the Genera and Distribution of Plants in
the Carboniferous System of New South
Wales. JGS, 1848, JV, 60-3. Presented to
the Geological Society of London on 16
June 1847.

On the Occurrence of Trilobites in New
South Wales, with remarks on the probable
age of the formation in which they occur.
JGS, 1848, JV, 63-6. Presented to the
Geological Society of London on 16 June
1847. See also under 29 May 1846.

Meteorology. On the fall of rain in the Lake
Districts of Cumberland and Westmoreland
in 1845; with remarks in reference to the
falls in New South Wales. SMH, 16 June
1847.. Srened and dated): “W.B.Ciwst
Leonard’s, June 11.’

Review of SAVAGE LIFE AND SCENES
IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND
by George French Angas. SMH, 9 July
1847. Unsigned.

Gun Cotton. SMH,
article, unsigned.

12 duly” 1847 bead

298

299

300

301

302

303

304

Meteorology. On the great Barometrical
Depression of June and July, 1847. SMH, 30
July 1847. Signed and dated ‘W.B.C. St
Leonard’s, July 26.’

Review of RECOLLECTIONS AND
HISTORICAL NOTICES OF CAMBRIDGE
by J.K. Walpole. SMH, 24 August 1847.
Unsigned.

McCoy, Frederick, 1847. The Fossil Botany
and Zoology of the Rocks associated with
the Coal of Australia. MNH, Series 1, XX,
145-57, 226-36, 298-319; Tasmanian
Journal of Natural Science, 1849, IH, 429-
43; Proceedings of the Royal Society of Van
Dieman’s Land, January 1851, J(IID), 303-
34. Identifies and lists Australian fossils
collected by the Rev. W.B. Clarke, and sent
to Professor Sedgwick in England during
November 1844. Sections republished by
Clarke in the Sydney Morning Herald
between December 1848-March 1849.

Various. Report from the Select Committee
on the Coal Inquiry, with Appendix and
Minutes of Evidence. 16 September 1847.
V&PLC, Sydney, 1847, ZI, 50, 335-95.
Clarke’s evidence and correspondence is
located at 339-41, 347-53.

Geology - Comparison of Russia and
Australia. SMH, 28 September, 1847;
Tasmanian Journal of Natural Science,
1849, JI, 365-70.

Fossil Bones - Remarks on Fossil remains of
Gigantic Marsupials from King’s Creek,
Darling Downs, brought to Sydney by a Mr
Turner. SMH, 30 November 1847. Lead
article, unsigned. Article also published in
the following: Appendix to W.B. Clarke’s
Northern Districts Report X. Papers Relative
to Geological Surveys, New South Wales.
V&PLC, Sydney, 21 December 1853, 11-13;
Further Papers Relative to the Recent
Discovery of Gold in Australia. Parliamen-
tary Blue Book, London, December 1854,
38-9.

Macleay, W.S., 1847. Fossil Bones. SMH, 4
December. Letter to the editor, in reply to
Clarke’s of 30 November.

305

306

307

308

309

310-15 Are the Interior

316

BIBLIOGRAPHY of REV. W.B. CLARKE 1095

Dana, J.D., 1847. A Description of Fossil
Shells of the Collections of the Exploring
Expedition under the Command of Charles
Wilkes, U.S.N., obtained in Australia.
Silliman’s American Journal of Science, 2nd
series, JV, 151... Includes reference to
material collected with Clark. during 1839-
40.

1848

Mr Kennedy’s Expedition. SMH, 22 & 26
January 1848. Unsigned, small notes.

Mitchell’s Victoria. SMH, 25 January 1848.
Lead article, unsigned. Review of T.L.
Mitchell’s 1846-7 exploration of the
Victoria River.

Mr Woore’s Report on the Proposed
Railway in New South Wales. SMH, 26
January 1848. Unsigned.

THE CLAIMS AND SUPREMACY OF
THE SCRIPTURES AS THE RULE OF
FAITH AND PRACTICE, APPLIED TO
THE DOCTRINES OF THE CHURCH OF
ROME; A SERMON PREACHED IN ST.
THOMAS’S CHURCH, WILLOUGHBY,
ON SUNDAY, 27TH FEBRUARY, 1848,
WITH ILLUSTRATIVE NOTES. W. & F.
Ford, Coleman & Piddington, Sydney, 1848,
60p.

Waters of Australia
Navigable? SMH, 15 March - 18 May 1848.
Lead articles, unsigned. In six parts, with
follow-up article on 23 November 1850: I
(15 March); IJ (16 March); HI (7 April)
Basin of the Darling; 4 (24 April) Basin of
the Murray; V (16 May) River Murray
(Sturt’s Voyage); VI (18 May) River
Murray and Lake Alexandria.

Remarks on the Identity of the Epoch of the
Coal Beds and Palaeozoic Rocks of New
South Wales. MNH, 1848, 2nd Series, //,
206-10. Signed and dated ‘St Leonards
Parsonage, North Shore, Sydney, April 7th,
1848.’ This article was Clarke’s reply to
McCoy’s description of the fossils he had
despatched to England in 1844.

317

318

519

320

321-2

323

324

Mr Kennedy’s Expedition. SMH, 26 April
1848. Lead article, unsigned.

The Observatory. SMH, 30 May 1848. Lead
article, unsigned.

The Australian Botanic and Horticultural
Society. SMH, 20 & 27 June 1848.
Unsigned. Report on the formation of this
Society, of which Clarke was a member of
the Committee.

On the Extraction of Silver from Lead by
the Blowpipe. SMH, Tuesday, 11 July 1848.
Lead article, unsigned. Referred to in 1872
listing.

Review of JOURNAL OF AN
EXPEDITION INTO THE INTERIOR OF
TROPICAL AUSTRALIA, IN SEARCH OF
A ROUTE FROM SYDNEY TO THE
GULF OF CARPENTARIA by TLL.
Mitchell. SMH, 5 and 8 August 1848.
Unsigned.

Review of MAGNETISM AND
METEOROLOGY - OBSERVATIONS
MADE AT THE MAGNETICAL AND
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORY
AT ST. HELENS, by Colonel Sabine. SMH,
1 November 1848. Signed ‘C.’ Copy at ML
MSS139/100 is signed ‘W.B.C.’

The Carboniferous Formation of New South
Wales. SMH, 14 November 1848;
Tasmanian Journal of Natural Science,
1849, IIT, 459-65. Signed ‘W.B.C.’

325-6 Fossil Botany of New South Wales. SMH, 2

& 5 December 1848. Review of F. McCoy’s
1847 analysis of Clarke’s Australian fossils.
Unsigned. In two parts.

327-34 Fossil Zoology of New South Wales.

335

SMH. In eight parts, as follows: I (21
December 1848); II (4 January 1849); 3 (10
January 1849); 4 (30 January 1849); 5 (12
February 1849); 6 (3 March 1849); 7 (10
March 1849); 8 (16 March 1849) ‘W.B.C.
St. Leonard’s, February 28th, 1849.’

Dana, J.D., 1848. Fossils of the Exploring

106

336

337

338

339

M.K. ORGAN

Expedition under the Command of Charles
Wilkes, U.S.N., a Fossil Fish from
Australia. Silliman’s American Journal of
Science, 2nd series, V, 433...; MNH, 1848,
II, 150-1. Includes references to fossils
collected with Clarke during 1839-40.

1849

Dana, J.D., 1849. Geological Observations
on New South Wales, in UNITED STATES
EXPLORING EXPEDITION .... UNDER
THE COMMAND OF CHARLES
WILKES, U.S.N. VOL. X., GEOLOGY. C.
Sherman, Philadelphia, 449-537; plus
Appendix 1 - Description of Fossils, ‘Fossils
of New South Wales’, 681-720 & plates 1-
20. Dana had carried out geological
investigations and discussions with W.B.
Clarke during his visit to New South Wales
in 1839-1840, the results of which are
contained in this publication, along with
descriptions of fossils collected during that
time.

Gold Hunting. SMH, 16 February 1849.
Letter to the editor on the supposed gold
discovery in Victoria. Signed ‘Plutus.
February 14.’

The Fate of Kennedy’s Expedition. SMH, 6
March 1849. Lead article, unsigned.

The Late Mr Kennedy. SMH, 7 March 1849.
Lead article, unsigned.

340-2 The Dead Sea. SMH, 6, 16 & 24 April

343

1849. Letters to the editor, signed and dated
“W.B.C. St. Leonards.’ In three parts.
Written in reply to letters from Arthur T.
Holdroyd, published on 3, 9 and 23 April.

Metalliferous Deposits of the Malay
Peninsula. SMH, 12 May 1849. Lead,
unsigned.

344-6 Mining. SMH, 29 May - 16 August 1849.

Lead articles, unsigned. In three parts as
follows: 29 May 1849 Mining; 3 July 1849
Mining; 12 July 1849 Mining.

347 Mineral Veins. SMH, 19 July 1849.

348

349

350-2 Review

553

354

Beh)

356

357

358

359

On the Probable Occurrence of Tin in New
South Wales. SMH, 16 August 1849.

P.P. [Untitled]. SMH, 12 June 1849. Letter
extracted from the Maitland Mercury,
possibly written by P.P. King, asking for
Clarke’s comments on Sir R.I. Murchison’s
speech of 27 May 1844 to the Royal
Geographical Society wherein he intimated
that gold would be found in Australia.

of. NARRATIVE OF AN
EXPEDITION INTO. CENTRAL
AUSTRALIA by Charles Sturt. SMH, 4, 9
& 23 June 1849. Unsigned. In three parts.

Aneroid Barometer. SMH, 28 July 1849.
Signed and dated ‘W.B.C. St. Leonard’s,
23rd July, 1849.’

Anon. Geological Surveys. SMH, 28 August
1849. Report on a discussion in the
Legislative Council referring to Clarke.

Anon. Legislative Council - Geological
Researches of the Rev. Mr. Clarke. SMH, 29
August 1849.

Mount Keera Coal Seam. SMH, 29 August
1849. Letter to the editor, signed and dated
‘W.B. Clarke. St Leonard’s, August 28.’

Alley, George Underwood, 1849. Illawarra.
SMH, 6 September. Letter to the editor in
reply to Clarke’s letter of 29 August.

Mount Keera Coal Seam. SMH, 7
September 1849. Letter to the editor, signed
and dated ‘W.B.C. September 5.’

of NARRATIVE OF AN
UNDERTAKEN UNDER
THE DIRECTION OF THE LATE MR
ASSISTANT “SURV EYORGVE: Br:
KENNEDY, FOR THE EXPLORATION
OF THE COUNTRY BETWEEN
ROCKINGHAM BAY AND CAPE YORK,
by William Carron. SMH, 10 September
1849.

Review
EXPEDITION,

360-2 California. SMH. Unsigned. In three parts,

as follows: 1 (22 October 1849); 2 (27

363

BIBLIOGRAPHY of REV. W.B. CLARKE 107

October 1849); 3 (6 November 1849).
Extracts from J.D. Dana’s journal notes of
1841 describing the geology and geography
of the area between Fort Vancouver and San
Francisco. Originally published in_ the
American Journal of Science. Extracted and
edited by Clarke.

Anon. A Military Geologist. Bell’s Life in
Sydney & Sporting Reviewer, 1 December
1849. Humourous piece making reference to
Clarke.

364-5 Gold Mining. SMH, 19 & 21 December

366

367

368

369

1849. Unsigned. In two parts.

Anon. The Supply of Water. SMH, 20
December 1849. Lead article suggesting a
committee be formed to deal with the
problem of Sydney’s water supply.
Composed of Clarke, Colonel Baddeley,
Edmund Blackett, and Francis Clarke.

A.A. [Artesian Wells]. SMH, 20-25
December 1849. A series of letters to the
editor, to which Clarke wrote replies during
January-February 1850: Artesian Wells (20
December); Artesian Well at Grenette (21
December); Artesian Well at Grenette (24
December); On the Best Means of Obtaining
a Supply of Water for Sydney 25 December
1849. ‘A.A.’ or ‘An Amateur’ was Colonel
Baddeley of Dawes Point Battery. See
Clarke’s RESEARCHES IN THE
SOUTHERN GOLDFIELDS (1860, 300).
He was a mineralogist and friend of
Clarke’s who published a number of rock
analyses in the Sydney Morning Herald
during 1849-50.

1850

California. SMH, 12 January 1850. Lead

article, unsigned. Comparison of the
geography of the United States with
Australia.

The Philosophical Society. SMH, 24 January
1850. Lead article, unsigned.

370-2 Supply of Water. SMH. Leading articles on

the problems of the supply of water for

373

374

375

Sydney. Unsigned. Three parts known, as
follows: 1 (30 January 1850); 2 (18
February 1850); 3 (4 March 1850).

Artesian Wells. SMH, 7 February 1850.
Letter to the editor, signed and dated
‘W.B.C. St. Leonards, February 2.’ See also
replies by ‘W.T.G.’ of 12 February, and
*X.Y.Z.’ of 16 February, which are critical
of Clarke.

Artesian Wells. SMH, 14 February 1850.
Letter to the editor, signed and dated
*W.B.C. February 13.’

Artesian Wells. SMH, 18 February 1850.
Letter to the editor, signed ‘W.B.C.’ See
also letter to the editor by ‘A.A.’ of 12
March which refers to Clarke.

376-80 Artesian Wells. Nos. I-V. SMH, 23 March

381

382

383

384

385

- 14 May 1850. Letters to the editor, signed
‘W.B.C.’ and dated as indicated below. In
five parts as follows: I (23 March); II (27
March); 3 (11 April); IV (11 May); V (14
May).

Murchison, R.I., 1850. Siberia and
California. Quarterly Review, London, 87,
396. Makes reference to Clarke.

Anon. Australian Gold. The Spectator,
London, April 1850. Republished in
September 1851. Includes extract of a letter
from W.B. Clarke. Refer 1861 Select
Committee, Appendix A, for a copy.

Review of AUSTRALIAN GEOGRAPHY,
WITH THE SHORES OF THE PACIFIC
AND THOSE OF THE INDIAN OCEAN.
DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS
IN NEW SOUTH WALES by Sir T.L.
Mitchell. SMH, 24 May 1850. Unsigned.

Attack by Hoodlums. SMH, 25 May 1850.
Letter to the editor re the attack on the Rev.
W.B. Clarke and a fellow priest by some
hoodlums in Sydney.

Where is Dr. Leichhardt? SMH, 6 August
1850. Lead article, unsigned.

108

386

387

388

389

390

BO2

393

394

395

M.K. ORGAN

Review of Papers and Proceedings of the
Royal Society of Van Dieman’s Land. SMH,
31 August 1850. Unsigned. Second notice.

Letter from W.B. Clarke to Robert Brown.
Quarterly Review, London, September 1850.

Anon. Report on meeting of Australian
Philosophical Society. SMH, 5 September
1850. Includes comments by Clarke on Red
Cedar, the Moa (an extinct New Zealand
bird), and a paper on fossil bird bones of
New Zealand.

Kennedy and Leichhardt. SMH, 1 October
1850. Letter to the editor, signed and dated
*W.B.C. St. Leonard’s, September 30.’

The Freak’s Hurricane. SMH, 12 October
1850. Letter to the editor, signed and dated
"W.B.C. St Leonards, October 11, 1850.’
Investigation of a hurricane observed by the
brig Freak in a new portion of the
hurricane area about Hong Kong, with
remarks by W.B. Clarke. Refer to hand
written original at ML MSS139/100.

Geological Surveys, Great Britain and
Ireland. SMH, 4 November 1850. Unsigned.
Critical of the selection of Samuel
Stutchbury as geological surveyor for New
South Wales.

Geological Surveys, England and Wales.
SMH, 16 November 1850. Unsigned. See
also a similarly titled article (?extracted
from a London paper) in the SMH of 28
July 1851 which discusses some of the
background to this issue.

A.A. Mineralogy. SMH, 16 November 1850.
Letter to the editor outlining the results of
analyses of samples sent to Colonel
Baddeley by W.B. Clarke and Alexander
Berry.

A.A. Geological Surveys. SMH, 20
November 1850. Letter to the editor, signed
eA, and» praising” Clarke’’as* “the
Australian [William] Smith.’

Navigation of the SMH, 23
November 1850.

Murray.

396

397

398

399)

400

401

402

403

Progress of Settlement - Leichhardt’s
Expedition. SMH, 7 December 1850.
Unsigned.

Jukes, J.B., 1850. A SKETCH OF THE
PHYSICAL. STRUCTURE. “OF
AUSTRALIA, SO FAR AS IT IS AT

PRESENT KNOWN. T. & W. Boone,
London. Written following Jukes’ own
observations in Australia and lengthy

discussions with the Reverend W.B. Clarke.
Many of the comments on Australian
geology are a reiteration of Clarke’s ideas.

Review of A SKETCH OF THE
PHYSICAL STRUCTURE, OF
AUSTRALIA, “SO4FAR #AS JGaS AT.
PRESENT KNOWN by J.B. Jukes. SMH,
21 December 1850. Unsigned.

Meteorology. Thunder storm of Saturday
21st, and Sunday, 22nd December, 1850.
SMH, 28 December 1850. Signed and dated
‘W.B.C. St Leonard’s, December 26.’

Dana, J.D., 1850. On the Degradation of
Rocks of New South Wales, and Formation
of Valleys. American Journal of Science,
2nd _ series, LX, 289... Article refers to
discussions Dana had with Clarke on this
topic whilst exploring Kangaroo Valley,
Illawarra, during 1839.

1851

Ethnology. SMH, 14 January 1851. Being a
review of the 1850 London edition of
Charles Pickering’s THE RACES OF MAN
& THEIR>--GEOGRAR TEC AL
DISTRIBUTION, initially issued as volume
IX of the records of the United States
Exploring Expedition of 1838-42. Unsigned.

Leichhardt. SMH, 18 January 1851. Lead
article, unsigned.

Cyatsphyllum leichhardti, neue versteinerte
Koralle aus. Australien” aiyorreps
Tageberichte uber die Fortschritte der
Naturund Heilkunde, February 1851, 262,
97-8. See also under 1847 for reference to
this fossil coral.

BIBLIOGRAPHY of REV. W.B. CLARKE 109

404 Ordeal by Fire - Spheroidal Condition of
Bodies. SMH, 1 February 1851. Unsigned.

405 Science v. Superstition. Spheroidal State of
Bodies. SMH, 8 February 1851. Unsigned.

406 Observations made at Paramatta during the
Eclipse of the Sun, on Saturday, 1st
February, 1851. SMH, 15 February 1851.
Signed “‘W.B.C. St Leonard’s, February 12’;
Astronomical Society Monthly Notice,
London, XJ, 1850-51, 223-5.

407 Observatory. SMH, 20 February 1851. Lead
article, unsigned.

408 Survey of the Aborigines of New South
Wales. N.p., April 1851. Circular to all
Anglican clergy of New South Wales
requesting information on the Aboriginal
residents of various parishes. Signed by
Clarke. ML MSS139/25.

Section 3

Researches in the Australian Goldfields. 1851 -
1853

On 12 February 1851 Edward Hammond
Hargraves ‘discovered’ a workable goldfield at
Summer Hill Creek, near Bathurst. It was
publically announced in the Sydney Morning
Herald on 3 May, upon which point Clarke
immediately put pen to paper regarding the
geology of gold and claims re its discovery in
Australia.

409 The Gold Discovery. SMH, 5 May 1851.
Unsigned letter to the editor, dated ‘May 3.’

410 Gold. SMH, 15 May 1851. Lead article re
the discovery of gold in Australia.
Unsigned.

411 Gold Discovery. SMH, 18 May 1851. Letter
to the editor, signed and dated ‘A Friend to
Strzelecki. May 17.’ Possibly by Clarke, or
a Mr Walker. Refer RESEARCHES IN
THE SOUTHERN GOLDFIELDS (1860,
289).

412 On Australian Gold. SMH, 20 May 1851;
Correspondence relating to the Recent
Discovery of Gold in Australia,
Parliamentary Blue Book, 3 February 1852,
5-8.

413. Anon. Gold. Goulburn Herald, 20 May
1851. Mentions W.B. Clarke’s 1842-7
predictions of gold in the area of Goulburn.

414 Australian Board of Missions - Report.
SMH, 21 May 1851. Includes a report by
Clarke, who was Secretary.

415 Gold. SMH, 25 May 1851. Signed and dated
‘W.B. Clarke, St. Leonard’s Parsonage, May
24.’ Comparison of the geology of Australia
with other gold areas, such as California and
the Ural Mountains.

416 The Discovery of Gold in Australia.
Evening Mail, London, 1851. Signed and
dated ‘W.B. Clarke, St. Leonard’s
Parsonage, May 24.’

417 PLAIN STATEMENTS AND PRACTICAL
HINTS: RESPECTING THE DISCOVERY
AND WORKINGS OF GOLD IN
AUSTRALIA. Sands and Kenny, Sydney,
24 June 1851, 32p.

418 Metalliferous Quartz and its Commercial
Value. SMH, 5S July 1851 (republished 8
July). Letter to the editor, signed and dated
"WB. Clarke, July 3.

419 Gold Working - Associated Minerals, &c.
SMH, 24 July 1851. Signed and dated ‘W.B.
Clarke, St. Leonard’s July 22.’

420 Hale, Thomas. Metalifferous Quartz and the
Proper Use of Quicksilver. SMH, 24 July
1851. Letter to the editor, with an attached
note by Clarke (?).

421 Anon. The Australian Gold-bed. The
Spectator, London, 6 September 1851.
Includes extract of a letter from W.B.
Clarke which had been published in April
1850.

422 Anon. On the probable influence of the

110

423

M.K. ORGAN

recent discoveries of Gold Mines, in various
parts of the world, on the relative value of
Gold and Silver. J/lustrated Australian
Magazine, Melbourne, October 1851, J/I/,
211. Includes an editorial note on Clarke.

Anon. The Distribution of Gold Throughout
the World. The Times, London, 17
November 1851. Makes reference to Clarke.
Republished in SMH, 5 March 1852.

The following is a listing of the various goldfield
reports initially published by the Reverend W.B.
Clarke between 1851-53. There are 19 Southern
Districts reports and 10 (plus an appendix) for the
Northern Districts of New South Wales.

On the Southern Districts

424

425

426

427

428

(1) Bungonia, 20 September 1851. V&PLC,
1852, 54-6; SMH, 21 February § 1852;
Parliamentary Blue Book, London, 1853,
16, 22-4.

(I) Mount Elrington, 10 October 1851.
Report;:on the ,Geology -of the
Neighbourhood of the Shoalhaven River and
Araluen. -(Repors «iy yand: 2)! sV&PLc,
Sydney, 1852, 81-8; SMH, 21 February
1852; Parliamentary Blue Book, 1853, 16,
24-7.

(II) Jineroo, 21 October 1851. Report on
the Geology of the Gourock Range, the
Carwang Country, and the Southern
Division of the County of Murray. (Report
3). V&PLC, 1852, 88-93; SMH, 21 February
1852; Parliamentary Blue Book, 1853, 16,
27-32.

(IV) Camp at Bulonamang, 10 November
1851. On an Examination of the Country
between Jineroo and Bullanamang, plus
minor reports. (Report 4). V&PLC, 1852,
23-5;° SM wo] February 1852.
Parliamentary Blue Book, 1853, 10 32:

(V) Bulonamang, 15 November 1851. On
the Chemical Analysis of Quartz from the
Merriwa and Lake George Ranges. (Report
5). SMH, 21 February 1852; Parliamentary
Blue Book, 1853, 16. 33.

429

430

431

432

433

434

435

436

(VI) Cooma, 17 November 1851. On the
Geology of the right bank of the Upper
Murrumbidgee. (Report 6). SMH, 21
February 1852; Parliamentary Blue Book,
18533 /6,/33.

(VII) Jindebain, County Wallace, 24
December 1851. On the Gold Localities
S.W. of Cooma, and the Geology of the
Counties of Beresford and Wallace. (Report
7). V&PLC, . 1852, dadessaenSiVe,
Supplement, 16 June 1852; Parliamentary
Blue Book, 1853, 16, 33-7.

(VHI) Cooma, 3 January 1852. On the
occurrence of Gold on Bobundara Creek,
&c. (Report 8). V&PLC, 1852, 2, 5-6; SMH,
16 June 1852; Parliamentary Blue Book,
1853, 16, ‘37-8. See-also, 15 Yamuary’ 1852
below for a letter on ‘Gold in Granite’
written from Coocoocmanulla and
subsequently published in the Sydney
Morning Herald, though not included in the
later published reports.

(IX) Camp at Buckalong, 29 January 1852.
On Gold Localities at the Source of the
Umaralla and other Rivers.’ (Report 9).
V&PLC, 1852, 3, 6-10; SMH, 19 June 1852;
Parliamentary Blue Book, 1853, 16, 38-41.

(X) Brogalong Creek, 6 February 1852. On
the Metalliferous Rocks of Merinoo. (Report
10). V&PLC, 1852, 4, 10-11; SMH, 19 June
1852; Parliamentary Blue Book, 1853, 16,
41-2, 65-6.

(XI) Maharatta Creek, 26 February 1852.
(Report 11). V&PLC, 6, 12-19; SME 26
June 1852; Parliamentary Blue Book, 1853,
16, 66-71.

(XII) Eden, Twofold Bay, 6 March 1852.
On the Geology of the south-east parts of
the County of Wellesly, with remarks on
Maneroo’ generally, &c. (Reports 12).
V&EPLC,«6;, 12-193 ‘SMA; i 2eoC sumer Als 32
Parliamentary Blue Book, 1853, 16, 66-71.

(XHI) Boroungoma, Bendoc River, 22
March 1852. On the Auriferous Character of
the Country along the Bendoc and Deleget

437

438

439

440

441

442

BIBLIOGRAPHY of REV. W.B. CLARKE it

Rivers. (Report 13). V&PLC, 1852, 7, 20-5;
SMH, 26 June 1852; Parliamentary Blue
Book, 1853, 16, 72-6.

(XIV) Pambula, 10 March 1852. On the
occurrence of Gold in the County of
Dampier, New South Wales. (Report 14).
V&PLC, 1852, 8, 26; SMH, 6 July 1852;
Parliamentary Blue Book, 1853, 16, 76.

(XV) Jejedzic, 3 May 1852. On_ the
occurrence of Gold in Granite and Quartz
on both Flanks of the Alps, between Tumut
and the Snowy Rivers. (Report 15).
Ve&PUC, 1852, 11, 33; SMA, 6, July 1852;
Parliamentary Blue Book, 1853, 16, 77.

(XVI) Yarralumla, 20 May 1852. On the
existence of Gold along the Rivers and
Creeks flowing from the Muniong Range,
ece)(Report 16)> V&PLC, 1852.) J, 1-3;
SMH, 31 July 1852; Parliamentary Blue
Book, London, 1853, /6, 81-3.

(XVII) Winderreedeen, | June 1852. On the
Metalliferous Prospects of the Country of
Murray, and on the vicinity of Lake George.
(Report 17), Ve&ePLC, 1852; 2, 3-6; SMH; 31
July 1852; Parliamentary Blue Book, 1853,
16, 83-6.

(XVIITD) Marulan, 3 June 1852. On the
existence of Gold at Shelley’s Flat. (Report
18). V&PLC, 1852, 3, 7; SMH, 31 July
1852; Parliamentary Blue Book, 1853, 16,
86-7.

(XIX) St Leonard’s, 28 August 1852. On
the Geological Formation of the Country
between the Maneroo Highlands and the Sea
Coast of the County of Auckland. (Report
19 - Supplement to Report 12.) Including a
map of the ‘General Appearance of the
Country along the Upper part of the
Maharatta Creek to illustrate the Rev. W.B.
Clarke’s Twelfth Geological Report and
Supplement thereto.’ Parliamentary Blue
Book, 1853, 16, 7-18.

On the Northern Districts

443

(I) Camp on Cann’s Plains, Peel River, 6

444

445

446

447

448

449

450

November 1852. On _ the Geological
Structure of the Country between Marulan
and the Peel River. (Report 1 - Northern
Districts). Parliamentary Blue Book, 1853,
16, 26-30; SMH, Supplement, 8 December
1852.

(I) Camp, near the Assistant Gold
Commissioner’s Tents, Peel River, 15
November 1852. On_ the Geological

Character and probable extent of the
"Hanging Rock Diggings", &c. (Report 2).
Parliamentary Blue Book, 1853, 16, 30-4;
SMH, Supplement, 20 December 1852.
Includes a sketch ‘Quartz veins in quartzite,
on the range S.E. of Duncan’s Creek.’

(II) Camp at Tamworth, 24 November
1852. On the dispersion of Gold in
Australia. (Report 3). Parliamentary Blue
Book, 1853, 16, 35-9.

([V) Crown Land’s Office, Liverpool Plains,
30 November 1852. On the occurrence of
Alluvial Lead Ore. (Report 4).
Parliamentary Blue Book, 1853, 16, 39-40;
SMH, Supplement, 20 January 1853.

(V) Camp near Tamworth, 7 December
1852. On the General Prospects and
Physical Conditions of the "Hanging Rock"
and Peel River Gold Fields. (Report 5).
Parliamentary Blue Book, 1853, 16, 40-2;
SMH, 22 January 1853.

(VI) Camp at Walcha, 28 December 1852.
On the Geological Structure and Auriferous
Condition of the Country along the Upper
waters of the Namoi and Apsley Rivers.
(Report 6). Parliamentary Blue Book, 1853,
18, 24-9; SMH, 21 May 1853.

(VII) Armidale, 14 February 1853. On the
Geological Structure and Auriferous
Condition of the Country between the Heads
of the Macleay and Gwydir Rivers. (Report
7). Parliamentary Blue Book, 1854, 18, 30-
4].

(VIII) Tarahmbwoan, Ranger’s Valley,
Severn River. 7 May 1853. On_ the
Geological Structure of the Western Slopes

112 M.K. ORGAN

of the Highlands of New England, &c.
(Report 8). Parliamentary Blue Book, 1854,
18, 42-55.

451 (IX) Coolambaurra, County of Stanley, 24
June 1853. On the Geology of the Clarence
River District, &c. (Report IX). V&PLC,
1853, 13; Parliamentary Blue _ Book,
December 1854, 20, 3-13.

452-3 (X) St Leonard’s, 14 October 1853. On the
Geology of the Basin of the Condamine

River. (Report 10). With maps and
appendices: , V&PLC.. 1853, ny 1-1;
Parliamentary Blue Book, December 1854,
20, 29-38.

Remarks on the Bones brought to Sydney
by Mr Turner, and published in the SMH,
30 November 1847. (Appendix to Report
X). V&PLC, 1853, 11-13; Parliamentary
Blue Book, December 1854, 20, 38-9.
Includes a geological map titled ‘Sketch of
the Country between Moreton bay and the
River Condamine.’

Section 4
Australia 1852 - 1878

During the years 1852-3 Clarke was_ heavily
involved in his official researches into the
Southern and Northern Goldfields of New South
Wales, reference to which is contained in the
previous section.

1852

454 Kennedy, Edmund, 1852. Extracts from the
Journal of an Exploring Expedition to
Central Australia, by Edmund Kennedy,
(W.B. Clarke, editor). Journal of the Royal
Geographical Society, London, XXII,
Appendix.

455 J.G.. Tamworth Gold Field. SMH, 27
January 1852. Letter to the editor, praising
Clarke’s preliminary’ geological

investigations in the Maitland area during
1845.

A456. Anon: BhewRev. «WiBl@lankeetSiE 29

457

458

459

460

461

462

January 1852. Lead article, giving an
account of Clarke’s researches in _ the
southern goldfields, based on letters to a
Sydney friend (possibly P.P. King).

Anon. The Australian Ophir. SMH, 3
February 1852. Extracted from the London
Examiner. Critical of Clarke, and praising
Murchison for his scientific discovery of
gold in Australia.

On the Discovery of Gold in Australia
[Abstract]. JGS, 1852, VIII, 131-4; Mining
Journal, London, 1852, XXII, 81. Read to
the Geological Society of London on 4
February 1852.

Murchison, R.I., 1852. On the Anticipation
of the Discovery of Gold in Australia; with
a General View of the Conditions under
which that Metal is Distributed [Abstract].
JGS, VIII, 134-6. Read to the Geological
Society of London on 4 February 1852.
This paper is a reply to Clarke’s SMH
article of 20 May 1851, and contains a
reference to Clarke and his claim as
discoverer of gold in Australia.

Anon. Mems About Gold. SMA, 14
February 1852. Report that Clarke had
despatched a sample of Mitta Mitta gold to
Mr Hale of George Street, Sydney, for
analysis.

P.P. King (editor). Geological Survey of the
Colony of New South Wales - Journals of
the Rev. W.B. Clarke on the Southern
Goldfields. SMH, 21 February 1852. One of
a series of reports edited by King on the
geological surveys being undertaken in the
New South Wales goldfields by Clarke, T.L.
Mitchell, Samuel Stutchbury, Edward
Hargraves, J.R. Hardy and others. Previous
reports had appeared on 7 and 14 February.

Gold in Granite. SMH, 24 February 1852.
Letter to the editor, signed and dated ‘W.B.
Clarke, Camp at Coocoocmanulla. Jan. 15th,
1852.’ Reproduced in RESEARCHES IN
THE SOUTHERN GOLDFIELDS (1860,
46-8).

463

464

465

466

467

468

469

470

47]

BIBLIOGRAPHY of REV. W.B. CLARKE

Sir R.I. Murchison and the Australian Gold
Fields. SMH, Tuesday, 24 February 1852.
Letter to the editor, signed and dated ‘W.B.
Clarke, Buckalong, February 18.’ Reply to
an editorial from the London Examiner,
published in the SMH of 3 December 1852.

Geological Report. SMH, 6 March 1852.
Errata to Clarke’s geological reports of
1851, published by the Legislative Council.

Albury and Mitta Mitta Gold Fields. SMH, 3
June 1852. Copy of a letter to a resident of
Albury. Signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke.
Gungarlin River, Snowy Plain, 13th May,
1852.

Zoological Garden. SMH, 24 June 1852.
Letter to the editor, signed and dated ‘W.B.
Clarke. St Leonard’s, June 23.’ See also
W.S. Macleay’s letter of same date.

Sir R.J. Murchison and the Geology of
Australia. SMH, 26 June 1852. Letter to the
editor, signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke. St.
Leonard’s, June 24’, and enclosing a letter
by Murchison dated 10 February 1852.

Anon. The Proposed Zoological Garden.
SMH, 26 June 1852. Letter to the editor,
signed “The Reporter.’ Refers to the Rev.
Clarke.

Zoological Society of London. SMH, 28
June 1852. Letter to the editor, signed and
dated ‘W.B. Clarke. St. Leonard’s, June 25,
1852’, enclosing a copy of a letter from Sir
Stamford Raffles dated 11 May 1826.

Anon. History of the Gold Discovery and
the Present Condition and Production of the
Mines. The Empire, 31 August 1852.
Discusses the role W.B. Clarke and Edward
Hargraves played in the discovery of gold in
Australia.

Various, 1852. Select Committee on the
Management of the Gold Fields. V&PLC,
Sydney, 22-28. W.B. Clarke appeared
before the Committee on 24 September
1852 and 19 August 1853. He submitted a
number of letters as evidence for his claim

472

473

1853

474

475

476

477

478

479

113

as scientific discoverer of gold in New
South Wales, and these were reproduced as
an appendix. Sections of his submission
were also published in the following:
Further Papers Relative to the Discovery of
Gold in Australia. Parliamentary Blue Book,
London, 1854, 20, 24-26; Discovery of Gold
in Australia, Government Printer, Sydney,
1854, 4p; Claims of the Reverend W.B.
Clarke, Government Printer, Sydney, 1861,
41-4,

Anon. Sir Roderick Murchison and the Rev.
Mr. Clarke. Australian and New Zealand
Gazette, 30 October 1852; ?English
newspaper, | March 1853.

Anon. The Australian El Dorado. Dorset
Country Chronicle, Dorset, 1852. Article on
W.B. Clarke and his Australian goldfields
investigations.

Murchison, R.I., 1853. Presidential Address.
Journal of the Royal Geographical Society,
London, XXIII, 70. Delivered on 23 May
1853. Discusses Clarke’s role in the
discovery of Silurian fossils in Australia.

James Pye, 1853. Parramatta Water Works.
SMH, 9 July. Advertisement which includes
a copy of an 1846 letter by W.B. Clarke.

Anon. Mr Hargraves. SMH, 18 July 1853.
Lead article, unsigned.

Australian Board of Mission. SMH, 18 & 30
July 1853. Advertisement for subscriptions.
W.B. Clarke signed the notice as Secretary.

Anon. Church of England College. SMH, 1
August 1853. Report on meeting of the
Sydney University Church of England
College committee, of which W.B. Clarke
was a member.

Various, 1853. Report of the Board
appointed for the Sinking of an Artesian
Well at Darlinghurst Goal. [Ordered to be
printed by the Legislative Council, 23 June
1853]. V&PLC, 1, 729-33. Clarke was
chairman of the Board which had been

114

480

481

482

483

484

485

486

487

488

M.K. ORGAN

constituted around March 1850, He was
engaged in survey work on the goldfields
when the final report was prepared.

Review of ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE
GOLD-BEARING ROCKS OF THE
WORLD AND THE GOLD FIELDS OF
VICTORIA by Evan Hopkins, Melbourne,
1853. SMH, 30 November 1853.

Anon. Gold in New Zealand. Illustrated
London News, 3 December 1853, 465.
Contains references to Clarke’s involvement
in the discovery of gold in New Zealand.

Anon. Report on meeting of Australian
Board of Missions. SMH, 9 December 1853.
Unsigned. W.B. Clarke was Secretary.
Includes comments by Clarke on_ the
Aborigines.

Dr. Leichhardt’s Mother. SMH, 17
December 1853. Letter to the editor, signed
and dated ‘W.B. Clarke. St. Leonard’s,
December 13.’

Anon. Tasmania. SMH, 20 December 1853.
Report on Clarke’s studies of Tasmanian

geology.

Letter from W.B. Clarke to the Honorable
The Colonial Secretary, on the subject of
Correspondence between Sir R.I. Murchison
and the Colonial Minister, relative to
anticipations .of the Discovery of Gold in
Australia, in New South Wales Discovery of
Gold (Sir R. Murchison’s Claim), V&PLC,
Sydney, 1854, 1-3; Parliamentary Blue
Book, London, 1854, 20, 21-3. Letter signed
and dated ‘St Leonard’s, 21 December
1853.’

Gold in Van Dieman’s Land. SMA, 21
December 1853. Letter to the editor.

Review of Anniversary Address to the Royal
Geographical Society by Sir R.I. Murchison.
SMH, 24 December 1853. Makes reference
to Clarke.

Anon. Note on the Discovery of Gold in
Australia. Quarterly Review, London, XCIV,
December 1853 - March 1854, 606.

1854

489

490

491

492

493

494

495

496

Murchison, R.I., 1854. SILURIA. THE
HISTORY OF THE OLDEST KNOWN
ROCKS CONTAINING ORGANIC
REMAINS, WITH A BRIEF SKETCH OF
THE DISTRIBUTION OF GOLD OVER
THE EARTH. London, 1st edition. Contains
references to the work of W.B. Clarke and
his discovery of Silurian fossils in New
South Wales.

Tin Ore. SMH, 15 January 1854. Letter to
the editor, signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke.
St. Leonard’s, 13th January, 1854.’

Anon. The Scientific and Practical
Discovery of Gold [in Australia]. The Times,
London, 16 January 1854. Republished in
SMH, 18 April 1854.

Is there to be no further search for
Leichhardt?’ SMH, 17 January 1854. Lead
article, signed ‘A.’

Review of Papers and Proceedings of the
Royal Society of Van Dieman’s Land. SMH,
25 January 1854. Second notice.

Report of the Select Committee of the
Legislative Council on Claims for the
Discovery ‘of Gold. in, Victoria,
Parliamentary Papers of Victoria,
Government Printer, Melbourne, 3(2), 10
March 1854. Contains a copy of a letter
submitted by W.B. Clarke. The Committee
eventually voted £1000 to Clarke for his
role in the Victorian gold discoveries.

Omeo Diggings. SMH, 26 April 1854.
Signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke. 19 April
1854. Reproduced.in J Clarke s
RESEARCHES IN THE SOUTHERN
GOLDFIELDS (1860, 136-8).

Calvert, John 1854. SMH, 29 May & 6 June
1854. Lead articles, unsigned. Critical
review of Calvert’s book GOLD ROCKS
OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND,
AND A GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE
GOLD REGIONS OF THE WORLD,
WITH A TREATISE ON THE GEOLOGY
OF GOLD (London, 1854).

BIBLIOGRAPHY of REV. W.B. CLARKE

497 To the Members of the Church of England

498

499

500

501

502

503

of Gordon. Letter to parishoners, signed and
dated ‘W.B. Clarke, St Leonard’s, Ist
October 1854.’ Privately printed pamphlet,

3p;

Anon. Further Papers relative to the
Discovery of Gold in Australia. British
Parliamentary Papers, London, July 1855,
21, 17-21. Correspondence from various
authors - including W.B. Clarke - re his
involvement in the discovery of gold in
New South Wales. Includes two letters from
Clarke to the New South Wales Colonial
Secretary dated St Leonard’s, 1 & 19
October 1854.

Anon. Select Committee on Clergy Stipends.
SMH, 27 October 1854. Editorial, including
comments by Clarke.

The Elevation of the Australian Continents.
SMH, 18 November 1854. See also 13
December 1854.

Catalogue of Geological Specimens
illustrating the Succession of the Rock
Formations in New South Wales, in
CATALOGUE OF THE NATURAL AND
INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS OF NEW
SOUTH WALES. Government Printer,
Sydney, 1854, 41-51. Signed ‘W.B.C., 4th
December 1854.’ This was the first
comprehensive catalogue of New South
Wales geological specimens to be published.
The introductory comments, without the
attached list, were published in the SMH, 12
December 1854. See also SMH 30
November & 1 December regarding Samuel
Stutchbury’s involvement, following on
questions in the Legislative Council by
George Macleay on 7 September.

The Gold Fields of New South Wales, in
CATALOGUE OF THE NATURAL AND
INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS OF NEW

SOUTH WALES. Government Printer,
Sydney, 1854, 60-2.
Clarke, W.B. and Johnston, W., 1854.

Catalogue of the Drift deposits dug through
in sinking for Gold on the Turon River, in

504

505

115

CATALOGUE OF THE NATURAL AND
INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS OF NEW
SOUTH WALES. Government Printer,
Sydney, 62-3.

On the Coal Fields of New South Wales, in
CATALOGUE OF THE NATURAL AND
INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS OF NEW
SOUTH WALES. Government Printer,
Sydney, 1854, 68-70.

Scientific: The Recent Elevation of the Land
at the Cape of Good Hope. SMH, 13
December 1854. Refer 18 November 1854.

506-8 The Gold Fields of the Russian Empire.

509

1855

510

Sed

DZ

ys,

514

SMH. Unsigned, in three parts. Possibly by
W.S. Jevons. I (23 December 1854), II (6
January 1855), HI (14 February 1855) - The
Auriferous Deposits of Siberia and _ the
North Flank of Altai.

Gold in the territory of Madras. Referred to
in Clarke’s 1872 list of publications.

Sedgwick, Adam, 1855. Introduction, in
SYNOPSIS. “OF THE BRIGIS EH
PALAEOZOIC ROCKS AND FOSSILS IN
THE GEOLOGICAL MUSEUM OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE.
Cambridge, xciil. Pays tribute to Clarke.

Catalogue of a Collection containing several
hundred specimens illustrative of the
Mineralogy and Geology of New South
Wales, in BRITISH CATALOGUE OF THE
EXPOSITION UNIVERSALLE, PARIS.
London, 1855, 99-103.

On the Gold Fields of New South Wales, in
BRITISH CATALOGUE OF THE
EXPOSITION UNIVERSALLE, PARIS.
London, 1855, 103-5.

On the Coal Fields of New South Wales, in
BRITISH. “CATALOGUE- “OF “JHE
EXPOSITION UNIVERSALLE, PARIS.
London, 1855, 105-8.

Alma and Sebastopol. SMH 10° January

116

S15

516

ily

518

ay he

520

522

523

M.K. ORGAN

1855. Letter to the editor, signed and dated
‘W.B.C. St. Leonards, Sth January 1855.’

Calvert, John. On the Supply of Gold from
Australia, and from English Rocks. SMH, 20
January 1855. Copy of a paper read to the
British Association and extracted from the
Mining Journal of 7 October 1854. Critical
of W.B. Clarke’s views.

Sebastopol - Being a review of THE
BALTIC, THE BLACK SEA, AND THE
CRIMEA: COMPRISING TRAVELS _ IN
RUSSIA, A VOYAGE DOWN THE
VOLGA TO ASTRACHAN, AND A TOUR
THROUGH CRIM TARTARY by Charles
Henry Scott. SMH, 25 January 1855.

Review, of , THE (cHESTORY OF
TRANSMUTED ».. ROCKS;.« ‘OR “BIBLE
GEOLOGY by E.W. Rudder. SMH, 5

February 1855.

Davidson, Simpson. The Origin of Alluvial
Gold. The Empire, 8 February 1855. Letter
to the editor. Critical of the gold theories of
Clarke and Murchison.

Review of SCENERY, SCIENCE AND
ART, BEING EXTRACTS FROM THE
NOTEBOOK OF A, GEOLOGIST. AND
MINING ENGINEER by D.T. Ansted.
SMH, 22 February 1855.

On the Occurrence of Obsidian Bombs in
the Auriferous Alluvia of New South Wales
[Abridged]. JGS, 1855, X7, 403-4. Read on
7 March 1855.

On the Occurrence of Fossil Bones in the
Auriferous Alluvia of Australia. JGS, 1855,
XT, 405-8. Read on 7 March 1855.

Notes on the Geology of New South Wales
(Permian,: , Devonian,«*"and— Silurian)
[Abstract]. \JGS, 1855; 0X09 408. , Extracts
from a letter to Sir Roderick Murchison.
Read on 7 March 1855.

The Earthquake in New Zealand, of 23
January, W855. 0S, 12) March 21855.
Signed and dated ‘W.B.C. March 7, 1855.’

524

Sydney Buildings. SMH, 10 April 1855.
Letter to the editor, signed and dated ‘W.C.
Sydney, 7th April, 1855.’ Possibly by
Clarke.

525-6 The Old World and the New. SMH, 20 &

527-30 Gold

533-4 Tasmanian Contributions to

533

536

27 April 1855. Discussion of a lecture given
by M. Marcel de Serres, Professor of
Mineralogy and Geology at Montpellier.
Lead articles, unsigned.

in’ India. “SMHy 23> May = 19
September ‘1855. Letters” to “the — editor
containing extracts of reports on aspect of
Indian geology, incorporating material from
individuals such as Lieutenant Aytoun. I (23
May); II (23 August); III (10 September) -
Lt Aytoun’s Geological Report on the
Belgaum Collectorate, Parr FV el 9
September) - Lt Aytoun’s Geological Report
on the Belgaum Collectorate. Part II.

Review of Further Papers relative to the
Discovery of Gold in Australia, presented to
both Houses of Parliament, by command of
Her Majesty, December 1854, London 1855.
SMH 25 June 1855. Includes geological
reports by Clarke.

Davidson, Simpson, 1855. The Discovery of
Alluvial Gold. The Empire, 17 September.
Letter to the editor, critical of Clarke.

the Paris
Exhibition. (SMH, 8 “& 15" October 1855.
Review of the accompanying catalogue.

Funeral of Sir Thomas Mitchell. SMH, 10
October 1855. Includes detailed obituary
notice.

Review of Meteorology - Notice of an
accurate and easily applied Method of
Ascertaining the Direction of the Wind by
observing the reflected Image of Clouds, by
Thomas Stevenson, FRSE, CE, as originally
published in Anderson’s Journal. SMH, 2
November 1855. Signed “Wise

Gold on the Hunter. SMA, 12 November
1855: Stoned ~&, dated." Want@ eect
Leonard’s, November 7, 1855.’

538

539

1856

540

541

BIBLIOGRAPHY of REV

Anon. Gold _ Discoveries. Nottingham
Guardian, 6 December 1855. Letter re W.B.
Clarke’s involvement in Australian gold
discoveries.

Select Committee on the City
Commissioners. SMH, 20 December 1855.
Letter to the editor, signed & dated “W.B.
Clarke, St Leonard’s, December 19.’

The Dead which are Blessed: a sermon
preached in the church of St Thomas,
Willoughby, N.S.W. on Sunday, 2nd March,
1856, the day after the funeral of the late
Rear-Admiral Phillip Parker King, M.C.
Joseph Cook & Co., Church Press, Sydney,
1856. Copy at ML MSS119/118/5.

Davidson, Simpson, 1856. William Howitt
on Gold. The Empire, 3 April. Letter to the
editor. Discusses Clarke’s gold theories and
discoveries.

{Easter Sunday - Clarke suffers a mild stroke and
his parishioners send him to his sister in Green

Ponds,

Tasmania for rest. Whilst there he

undertakes a survey of the Fingal goldfield}

542-7 Tasmanian Goldfield Reports. Clarke wrote

542

543

544

4 reports for the Fingal Gold Committee
(19 June and 11 November 1856), and 2 for
the Tasmanian Gold Committee in 1859.

Report of the Fingal Gold Committee.
Colonial Times & Tasmania, 23 May 1856;
Hobart Town Gazette, 23 June 1856; SMH,
24 June 1856; Daily News, 24 June 1856;
Hobart Town Gazette, 12 August 1856,
pl15; Colonial Times & Tasmania, 13
August 1856. See also under 15 May 1859.

Report on the Gold Field at Fingal,
Tasmania (No.1). Hobart Town Government
Gazette, June 1856; Parliamentary Blue
Book, London, 1857, 22, 82-4. Dated
‘Green Ponds, 19 June 1856.’

Report on the Analysis of two specimens of
Auriferous Quartz, from Fingal, Tasmania
(No.2). Hobart Town Government Gazette,

545

546

547

548

549

530

1857

. W.B. CLARKE

Le

August 1856; Parliamentary Blue Book,
London, 1857, 22, 87-9. Dated ‘Parsonage,
St Leonard’s, New South Wales, July 28
1856.’

Report on the Analysis of Auriferous Quartz
specimens from Frenchman’s’ Gap,
Macquarie Harbour, Tullochgorum House,
and Black Boy Flats, Tasmania (No.3).
Hobart Town Government Gazette, October
1856; Parliamentary Blue Book, London,
1857, 22, 95-7. Dated ‘St Leonard’s, New
South Wales, September 27, 1856.’

Further report on the Analysis of Auriferous
Quartz, from the neighbourhood of Fingal
and Swanport, Tasmania (No.4). Hobart
Town Government Gazette, November 1856;
Parliamentary Blue Book, London, 1857,
22, 99-101. Dated ‘St Leonard’s, New
South Wales, November 11, 1856.’

Table of the Product of rocks from Port
Davey and Clerk’s Reef. Parliamentary Blue
Book, London, 1857, 22, 102. Dated ‘St
Leonard’s, New South Wales, November 12,
1856.’

Davidson, Simpson, 1856. The Granite Gold
of New England. ?SMH, August. Signed and
dated ‘Simpson Davidson, Sydney, 13th
August 1956.’ Article critical of Clarke’s
gold theories.

The Discovery of Gold in Australia. SMH, 3
September 1856. Unsigned. Extracts from
Clarke’s northern goldfields reports of 1853.

Additional Notice of the occurrence of
Volcanic Bombs in Australasia [Abstract].
JGS, 1857, XIII, 188; Philosophical
Magazine, London, 1857, X//I, 147. Read to
the Geological Society on 17 December
1856.

Observations made at St. Leonards during
the Solar Eclipse. March 26, 1857. SMH, 9

April 1857: Transactions of the Royal
Astronomical Society. London, 1857. Article
signed and dated *“W.B.C. 29th March

Loa fe:

118

Sey

553

554

See)

1858

556

$57

558

ayo

560

561

M.K. ORGAN

Dr. Leichhardt. SMH, 18 June 1857. Signed
ay oi

Observations made at St. Leonards, North
Sydney, during the Eclipse of the Sun, 18
September, 1857. By Rev. W.B. Clarke,
M.A., &c. SMH, 25 September 1857.

Influence of the Monsoons on the climate of
Sydney. SMH, 27 October 1857. Letter to
the editor, signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke,
St Leonard’s, 22nd October.’

Viscomte d’Archaic, 1857. PROGRES DE
LA GEOLOGIE. Paris, Appendice, VII,
689-92. Discusses the problem of the age of
the New South Wales coal beds, mentioning
Clarke’s views.

Notes on Some _ Geological Specimens
collected by Charles Grant Robertson, Esq.,
of Duntroon, near Queenbeyan, N.S.Wales.
Sydney Magazine of Science and Art, 1858,
I, 135-6.

Anon. Indian Mutiny Relief Fund. SMH, 13
April 1858. Report on meeting held at St
Leonard’s, at which Clarke was elected
chairman of the committee.

Anon. Tribute to W.B. Clarke. SMH, 20
May 1858. Contains a tribute to W.B.
Clarke’s Australian geological work, plus an
itinerary of his European, British, and other
geological tours between 1817-39, prior to
his arrival in New South Wales. Reprinted
SMH 10 June 1858.

The Goldfields of Tasmania. SWH, 20 May
1858. Copy of correspondence between
W.B. Clarke and William Henty, Colonial
Secretary of Tasmania, offering Clarke a
position as official Government Geologist.
Reprinted SMH 10 June 1858.

Davidson, Simpson, 1858. Gold mining on
the Rocky River. SMH, 7 June. Makes
reference to Clarke.

Gold in Granite. SMH, 15 June 1858. Letter
to the editor, signed ‘W.B. Clarke.’ See also

562

the SMH article ‘Science and the Arts’ of 7
June which refers to English geologist Sir
Henry Sorby, and to which Clarke makes
reference.

Sublimation of Gold. SMH, July 1858.
Signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke. 22nd July
1858.’ Reproduced in RESEARCHES IN
THE SOUTHERN GOLDFIELDS (1860,
58-60).

563-7 Leichhardt and the Desert. SMH, 30 July -

568

569

570

Si 1

S72

53

574

SS

576

20 October 1858. Five letters to the editor,
signed ‘W.B. Clarke, St Leonard’s’ and
dated. Published as follows: 1 (30 July); 2

(5S August); 3 (24 August); 4 (10
September); 5 (20 October).
Review of REMARKS ON THE

MAINTENANCE OF MACADAMISED
ROAD by Sir John Burgoyne. SAH, 3
August 1858. Unsigned. Part 1.

Letter to the Brethren. St Thomas’s Church,
St Leonards, 27 August 1858.

Anon. Report on the Rev. W.B. Clarke’s
articles on the fate of Dr. Leichhardt. SMH,
10 September 1858.

Sermon, delivered on 27 August 1858.
Sydney, 1858. Privately printed pamphlet.

On the Ores of Mercury. Sydney Magazine
of Science and Art, 1859, I, 157-61, 170-3.
Read before the Philosophical Society on 8
September 1858.

Gregory’s Expedition. SMH, 20 September
1858. Letter to the editor, signed and dated
“W.B. Clarke. St Leonard’s, 18th September
1858.’

The Comet. SMH, 19 Q@ctober "FiSse.
Unsigned. Historic article.

The Six Comets of 1858. SMH, 29 October
1858. Letter to the editor, signed and dated
“W.B. Clarke. St. Leonard’s, October 26.’

Jevons, W.S., 1858. Canoona Diggings in a
Scientific Aspect. SMH, 29 October. Letter
to the editor, referring to Clarke.

S77

578

519

1859

580

581

582

583

584

585

1860

586

BIBLIOGRAPHY of REV. W.B. CLARKE

Canoona Diggings. SMH, 30 October 1858.
Letter to the editor, signed and dated ‘W.B.
Clarke. 29th October 1858.’ Comments by
Clarke on a letter by William Stanley
Jevons which appeared in the SMH the
previous day.

Anon. Notes on Victorian Geology by the
Rev. W.B. Clarke. Melbourne Argus, 15
November 1858.

On the Search for Leichhardt and _ the
Australian Desert. Proceedings of the Royal
Geographical Society, London, III, 1858-9,
87-89.

Lettre a M. le Viscomte d’Archiac, sur la
Geologie de la Nouvelle-Galles du Sud.
Bulletin de la Geol. Soc. de France, Paris,
1859. Letter from Clarke re Australian

geology.

Death by Lightning. SMH, 4 March 1859.
Letter to the editor, signed and dated *‘W.B.
Clarke. 3rd March, 1859.’

De Zigno, Baron A., 1859. Some
observations on the flora of the Oolite. JGS,
XVI, 4 May, 110-5. Refers to Clarke.

Report (No.5) to the Government and Gold
Committee, Tasmania. Hobart Town
Government Gazette, 17 May 1859, 745-6.
Includes a letter from Clarke to Hon. T.D.
Chapman regarding W.A. Tully’s report.

Report (No.6) to the Government and Gold
Committee, Tasmania. Hobart Town
Government Gazette, 18 June 1859.

Murchison, R.I., 1859. SILURIA. London,
3rd edition, 1859. Contains references to the
work of W.B. Clarke.

Leichhardt, L., and Clarke, W.B., 1860.
Journal of Dr Leichhardt’s expedition from
the Darling Downs to the Maranoa during
August-September 1846, edited by Rev.

587

588

589

590

592

593

S94

i19

W.B. Clarke, M.A., &c., in WAUGH’S-
AUSTRALIAN ALMANAC & COUNTRY
DIRECTORY FOR THE YEAR 1860,
Sydney, 54-66.

Clarke, Morduant Shipley, 1860. Letter to
the editor from Clarke’s son. ?SMH. Signed
and dated *3 March 1860.’

Anon. Rev. W.B. Clarke’s Opinion of the
Auriferous Character of the Country in the
Neighbourhood of the Snowy River. The
Empire, 13 March 1860. A discussion based

on Clarke’s 1851-52 reports from _ the
southern goldfields.
Clarke, Morduant Shipley, 1860. THE

CLAIMS OF REV. W.B. CLARKE, M.A.,
F.G.S. Reading & Wellbank, Sydney, 32p.
Published by Clarke’s son Mordaunt,
without his father’s knowledge.

Anon. Review of THE CLAIMS OF REV.
W.B. CLARKE. SMH, 27 March 1860.

D.J., 1860. Lightning Conductors. SMH, 10
April. Article, making reference to Clarke’s
earlier studies on this subject.

A Communication from the Reverend W.B.
Clarke, of Sydney, to His Excellency Sir
Henry Barkly, K.C.B., &c., &c., President
of the Royal Society of Victoria, on
Professor McCoy’s "New _ Toeniopteris"
from the Coal-bearing Rocks of the Cape
Patterson District in particular, and on the
Evidence bearing on the Question of the
Age of Australian Coal-beds in general.
TPRSV, 1860, V, 89-95. Read on 25 June
1860. Signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke. St.
Leonard’s, Ist June, 1860.’

McCoy, Frederick, 1860. A Commentary on
"A Communication made by the Rev. W.B.
Clarke to His Excellency Sir Henry Barkly,
K.C.B., &c., &c., President of the Royal
Society of Victoria, on Professor McCoy’s
new Toeniopteris, &., &c." TPRSV, V, 96-
107. Read on 25 June 1860.

RESEARCHES IN THE SOUTHERN
GOLDFIELDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

120

595

596

597

598

M.K. ORGAN

Reading & Wellbank, Sydney, 1860, vii,
305. This book is a compilation of Clarke’s
southern goldfield reports of 1851-2, plus
new material on weather and _ geology.
Introduction dated ‘Parsonage, St Leonards,
28th August, 1860.’ Contents: I Introductory
- The Southern Gold Fields; If Shoalhaven
and Araluen Gold Fields - Reports I - II];
HI Yalwal and Clyde Districts; IV Gold in
Granite; V Geology of the Country between
the Shoalhaven and Murrumbidgee - Reports
IV - VI; VI Geological structure and
Auriferous character of the Counties of
Cowley, Beccleuch, Selwyn, Wynyard, and
Goulburn; VII Auriferous Localities in S.W.
of Maneero, and along the Alps to Omeo -
Report VH; VIII Gold Localities between
Bobundara and the Alps - Reports VIII - XI;
IX Reports XII - XIII; X Report XIV; XI
Reports XV - XVI; XII Climate and
Vegetation of the Alps; XIII Reports XVII -

XVIII; XIV Carboniferous formation
bordering the Gold Fields; XV Quartz
Mining; Appendices - A _ Méetalliferous

Quartz and its commercial value; B Gold
Working - Associated Minerals, &c., Gems,
Metals, and other Minerals associated with
gold alluvia,s C New South Wales a
Diamond Country; D Detection of Spurious
Gold; E Assays of Gold; F Separation of
Gold from Mundic Quartz; G Notes on the
Altitudes of gold-bearing rocks; H Fossils of
the Southern District; I Synopsis of facts
and services connected with the discovery of
gold.

RESEARCHES IN. THE» ‘SOUTHERN
GOLDFIELDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.
2nd edition, Reading & Wellbank, Sydney,
1860, vii, 305. Appears identical to the Ist
edition apart from the title page and
addendum.

Anon. Scientific Gold Seeking. The Empire,
1 & 6 September, 1860. Review of Clarke’s

RESEARCHES IN THE SOUTHERN
GOLDFIELDS.
Anon. Rev. W.B.. Clarke’s Goldfield

Research. Yass Courier, Wednesday, 5
September 1860. Lead article.

Clarke, Mordaunt Shipley, 1860. Letter to

599

600

601

603

604

605

606

607

1861

608

the editor, SMH, ?September.

Smyth, R. Brough, 1860. Review of

RESEARCHES IN THE SOUTHERN
GOLDFIELDS. Melbourne Herald,
September.

Hux, John A., 1860. The Gold Fields of
New South Wales. SMH, 10 September.
Letter to the editor. Includes a copy of a
letter from W.B. Clarke.

Capt. Denham and the HMS Herald. The
Empire, 11 September 1860. Review article.

Anon. Review of W.B._ Clarke’s
RESEARCHES IN THE SOUTHERN
GOLDFIELDS. SMH, 20 October 1860.

Review of Capt. Perry’s Anti-collision Dial.
The Empire, 26 September 1860.

Review of THE DISCOVERY AND
GEOGNOSY OF GOLD DEPOSITS IN
AUSTRALIA; WITH COMPARISONS
AND ACCOUNTS OF THE GOLD
REGIONS IN CALIFORNIA, RUSSIA,
INDIA, BRAZIL, &C., by Simpson
Davidson, London, 1860. SMH, 29 October
1860.

Remarks on _ Professor McCoy’s
Commentary on a new Toeniopteris, &c.
TPRSV, 1860, V, 209-14. Read on 10
December 1860.

McCoy, Frederick, 1860. Note on the Rev.
Mr. ‘Clarke’s “Remarks,” &¢. > TRRSV <5 VY;
215-7. Read on 10 December 1860.

Clarke, W.B., Ward, R.T., and Guise, J.W.
Rules and Regulations of the Willoughby
Church of England Parochial Association in
connection with the Church Society, J. Cook
é& Co., Sydney, [n.d.], 3p.

Sur la Formation Carbonifere de |’ Australie.
Bulletin de la Geol. Societie de France,
Paris, 1861, Series 2, XVIII, 669-73.

609

610

611

GiZ

613

614

615

616

617

618

BIBLIOGRAPHY of REV. W.B. CLARKE 121

[Hargraves, Edward Hammond, and
Patterson, John], 1861. Australian Gold
Fields. The Empire, 28 January. Critical of
Clarke’s claims to the discovery of gold in
Australia.

Hargraves Against the World. The Empire, 4
February 1861. Letter to the editor, signed
‘W.B. Clarke, 28th January. Reply to
Hargraves’ article of 28 January.

Anon. Notice of Select Committee into the
Claims of Rev. W.B. Clarke. SMH, 12
March 1861.

Anon. Public Services of Rev. W.B. Clarke.
SMH, 13 March 1861. Report on Legislative
Assembly discussion of the 12th.

Select Committee. SMH, 15 March 1861.
Letter to the editor re the W.B. Clarke
Select Committee. Signed ‘W.B. Clarke, St
Leonard’s, 13th March.

On the Relative Position of certain Plants in
the Coal-bearing Beds of Australia. JGS,
1861, XVI, 354-64; The Geologist, London,
1861, JV, 209; Philosophical Magazine,
London, 1861, 4th Series, XX7, 537. Read to
the Geological Society on 20 March 1861.

‘A Northern Digger’ [W.J. French], 1862.
Geologists and Gold Diggers. SMH, 11
April 1861. Letter to the editor re the Clarke
Select Committee. See also 5 September.

Various, 1861. Claims of the Rev. W.B.
Clarke: Progress Report from the Select
Committee on the Claims of Reverend W.B.
Clarke, together with the Proceedings of the
Committee, Minutes of Evidence, and
Appendix. 3 May 1861. V&PLA, Sydney, 2,
SOp.

Murchison, R.I., 1861. Presidential Address.
Journal of the Royal Geographical Society,
London, XXXI, September. Makes reference
to Clarke.
Murchison, R.I., 1861. Observations on
Australia. Address to the Geological
Section. British Association for the
Advancement of Science, 5 September.

619

620

621

622

623

624

O25

626

627

McCoy, Frederick, [1861]. Note on the
Ancient and Recent Natural History of
Victoria. MNH, 3rd series, 1862, LX, 137-
50. Article dated 30 September 1861.

Various, 1861. Report from the Select
Committee on the Services of the Rev. W.B.
Clarke; together with the Proceedings of the
Committee. 18 October 1861. V&PLA,
Sydney, 2, 5p.

The Coal Fields of New South Wales, in
CATALOGUE OF NATURAL AND
INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS, NEW SOUTH
WALES INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION.
Government Printer, Sydney, 1861, 81-6.
Signed ‘W.B.C., St Leonard’s, 19th October
1861.

The Gold Fields of New South Wales, in
CATALOGUE OF NATURAL AND
INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS, NEW SOUTH
WALES INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION.
Government Printer, Sydney, 1861, 89-93.

Mesozoic Fossils, in CATALOGUE OF

NATURAL AND INDUSTRIAL
PRODUCTS, NEW SOUTH WALES
INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION.

Government Printer, Sydney, 1861, 87.

The Coal-field of New South Wales.
Colliery Guardian, London, IJ, 150, 197,
276.

Lachlan and Peak Range Gold Fields. SMH,
21 November 1861. Letter to the editor,
signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke. St
Leonard’s, 11th November.’

Geology of Australasia: On some recent
Geological discoveries in Australasia and the
correlation of the Australian formations with
those of Europe. SMH, 2 December 1861.
Text of ~a lecture» delivered «to ihe
Philosophical Society of New South Wales
on 20 November 1861. Signed ‘W.B.
Clarke.’

RECENT GEOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES
IN AUSTRALIA. J. Cook, Sydney, 1861,
second edition, with notes and addenda,
34p, appendix 26p. Based on the paper

122

628

629

630

631

1862

632

633

634

635

M.K. ORGAN

presented to the Philosophical Society of
New South Wales on 20 November 1861.
Signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke, 9 December
1861.’

Australian Exploration. Memorandum on the
recent journeys of exploration across the
continent of Australia. Sydney Mail, 21
December 1861. Signed and dated ‘W.B.
Clarke. St Leonard’s, 9th December, 1861.’

On the Coal Seams at Stony Creek (junction
of Singleton and Wollombi roads), West
Maitland District, New South Wales.
TPRSV, 1865, VI, 27-31, plates 1-2. Read
23 December 1861.

On the Carboniferous and other Geological
Relations of the Maranoa District in
Queensland in Reference to a Discovery of
Zoological Fossils in Wollombilla Creek and
Stoney Creek, West Maitland. TPRSV, 1865,
VI, 32-42. Read 30 December 1861.

McCoy, Frederick, [1861]. Remarks on a
Series of Fossils collected at Wollumbilla,
and transmitted by Rev. W.B. Clarke, of
Sydney. TPRSV, 1865, VI, 42-6. Read to the
Society on 30 December 1861.

On the Gold Fields and Mineral Products of
New South Wales, in LONDON
INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION
CATALOGUE | OF» NATURAL AND
INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS OF NEW
SOUTH WALES. London, 1862, 43-4.

On the Occurrence of Mesozoic and
Permian Faunae in Eastern Australia. JGS,
XVIL[, 244-7; Philosophical Magazine,
London, 1862, 4th Series, XX//J, 558; The
Geologist, London, 1862, V, 184.

On the Age of the New South Wales Coal-
fields. MNH, 1862, X, 81-6; The Empire, 21
October 1862. Signed and dated ‘W.B.
Clarke. St. Leonard’s, New South Wales,
April'26, T8622

Mr Buchanan. Report of £5000 to be placed

636

637

638

639

640

641

642

643

644

1863

645

on Estimates for reimbursement of Rev.
W.B. Clarke. SMH, 4 June 1862. Report on
matters raised in the Legislative Assembly
on 3 June.

Review - READING LESSONS:
ADVANCED SERIES, edited by Edward
Hughes. 4 volumes. SMH, 4 November
1862.

Anon. Testimonial to W.B. Clarke’s
involvement in Australian geological
discoveries. SMH, 6 November 1862. Report
on debate in Parliament over Clarke’s
claims.

Anon. Rewards for Public Services in New
South Wales. The Empire, 22 November
1862. Editorial defending the Parliamentary
Select Committee payment to W.B. Clarke
for his gold discoveries.

‘Historicus’ (William Bland), 1862. Rewards
for Public Services. The Empire, 8
December. Private advertisement / article
critical of the £5000 awarded to Clarke by
Select Committee.

French, W.J., 1862. Geologists and Gold
Diggers. SMH, 8 December. Letter to the
editor. See also 5 September 1885.

Christianity. The Empire, 15 December
1862. Letter to the editor, signed and dated

‘Orthodox. St Leonard’s, North Shore,
December 1.’
Clarke - Bland Correspondence. The

Empire, 18 December 1862. Letter to the

editor, reproducing a series of letters
between Clarke and W. Bland.
To* W. ‘Bland, ~ Esq."" The Erapire), 430

December 1862. Letter to the editor, signed
‘W.B. Clarke, 29th December 1862.’

Victorian Generosity. SMH. Letter to the
editor, signed ‘W.B. Clarke, St Leonard’s,
29th December 1862.’

Storms. ? SMH, June 1863. Letter to the
editor, dated 11 June 1863.

646

647

648

649

1864

650

651

652

BIBLIOGRAPHY of REV. W.B. CLARKE

Daintree, Richard, 1863. Geological Notes,
with Plan and Section, by Richard Daintree,
Field Geologist, Victoria. The Yeoman and
Australian Acclimatiser, Melbourne, 100, 29
August, 753-5. Comments on the dispute
over the age of the New South Wales coal-
beds, agreeing with Clarke’s determinations,
against those of McCoy.

Daintree, Richard, 1863. Age of the New
South Wales Coal-Beds. SMH, 7 September.
Reprint of Richard Daintree’s Yeoman
article of 29 August 1863, with an editorial
forward (by Clarke?) strongly defensive of
his reputation and critical of Professor
McCoy.

Egerton, Sir P. de M. Grey. On some

Ichtyolites from New’ South Wales,
forwarded by the Rev. W.B. Clarke. JGS,
1864, /2(1), 1-5, plate I. Read at the

meeting of the Geological Society on 4
November 1863. This article is a description
of 4 fossil fish specimens which Clarke had
sent to Egerton for identification and dating.
Egerton named one of the fish Myriolepis
Clarkei, in his honour.

Philosophical Society. SMH, 12 & 19
November 1863. Reports on the meeting of
11 November. Includes brief comments
from Clarke on prehistoric stone implements
from England, and religious beliefs of
Australian Aborigines.

Notes by the Rev. W.B. Clarke upon
Western Australian Specimens. Perth
Gazette, 18 March 1864; SMH, 23rd June,
1864. Notes on Western Australian gold
specimens. Signed ‘W.B. Clarke, February
14th, 1864.’

Sermon preached in St. Thomas’s Church,
Willoughby, in aid of Funds for the Relief of
Sufferers by Floods in the Agricultural
Districts of the Colony, on Sunday Morning,
July 14th 1864. Sydney, 1864, 16p.

Remarks on Australian Storms. Transactions
of the Philosophical Society of New South

653

1865

654

655

656

657

658

659

660

123

Wales, 1862-65, Sydney, 1866. Read at the
meeting of the Society on 7 September
1864, being a review of a lecture ‘On
Australian Storms’ by John Tebbutt Jnr. See
also SMH 8 September 1864 for a report of
the meeting.

Crawford, J.C. and Clarke, W.B., 1864.
New Zealand - Geological Report. SMH, 11
& 12 October. Report by the Government
Geologist of Wellington, New Zealand.
Includes a catalogue and analyses by W.B.
Clarke of some New Zealand rocks.

Clarke, W.B. and Mackenzie, J., 1865.
Sections placed in their Relative Positions
showing the Strata and Seams of Coal at
present observed at & near Newcastle in

New South Wales. J. Mack, Sydney, 6p.

Anon. The Coal Fields of New South
Wales. Mining Journal, London, 1865,
XXXII, 749. Remarks on sections prepared
by the Rev. W.B. Clarke and J. McKenzie.

Obituary of W.S. McLeay. SMH, 30 January
1865. Unsigned.

Alleged Gold-field at the Head of the
Nepean River, New South Wales. SMH, 4
March 1865; The Geological Magazine,
London, 1865, //, 330-4.

To the Ladies of the Morning and Evening
Congregations Subscribers for the
Presentation of a Gown to the Rev. W.B.
Clarke, M.A. Poem. St Thomas’s Church, St
Leonards, 23 March 1865.

Prayer for Rain. St Thomas’s Church, St
Leonards, | April 1865.

On the Transmutation of Rocks in Australia,
with Photographic Illustratrations of
Examples from the Neighbourhood of
Sydney. SMH, 24, 25 & 26 May 1865. Read
to the Philosophical Society on 10 May
1865. Also reviewed in SMH on 11 May
1865. See 11 April 1866 below for an
updated and expanded version.

124

661

662

663

664

665

1866

666

667

668

669

M.K. ORGAN

Kerosene Oil. SMH, 5 May 1865. Letter to
the editor, signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke.
St Leonards, 3rd May.’

Review - POEMS by John Le Gay Brereton.
SMH, 2 June 1865S.

Memorandum on the So-Called "Tertiary
River" near Clermont. The Peak Downs
Telegraph & Queensland Mining Record, 2
September 1865.

Anon. Report on the meeting of the
Philosophical Society. SMH, 7 September
1865.

On Merimbula Lignite. 1865. Referred to in

Clarke’s 1872 list of publications. Not
located.

Catalogue of Specimens from the
Wianamatta. and Hawkesbury Rocks,

overlying the Productive Upper Coal
Measures of New South Wales. Sydney,
1866.

Barton, G.B, 1866. LITERATURE IN NEW

SOUTH WALES. Government Printer,
Sydney, 163-6. Reviews Clarke’s
RESEARCHES IN THE SOUTHERN

GOLDFIELDS (1860).

Leichhardt, L., and Clarke, W.B., 1866.
Notes on the Geology of Parts of New South
Wales and Queensland [by Ludwig
Leichhardt], made in 1842-43. Published in
Germany in 1847. Translated by G.H.F.
Ulrich, Esq. (of the Geological Survey of
Victoria), and edited by Rev. W.B. Clarke,
WAG, EGS. “Part 4055p. dc. Patt 2,, 2ap-
Sydney, 1866; WAUGH’S AUSTRALIAN
ALMANAC & COUNTRY DIRECTORY
FOR THE YEAR 1867. Sydney, 1867, 29-
55.

Notes on the Geology of Western Australia
- Description of Mr Hunt’s Specimens, East
of York, Western Australia. Perth Gazette, 2
April 1866; SMH, 1. ‘June .1866; The
Geological Magazine, London, 1866, ///,

670

671

672

673

674

675

676

677

678

679

503-6, 551-7.
March 1866.’

Signed ‘W.B. Clarke, 21st

On the Transmutation of Rocks in Australia
[1865]. Transactions of the Philosophical
Society of New South Wales, 1862-65,
Sydney, 1866, 267-308. Initially read to the
Society on 10 May 1865, though the
published article bears a postscript signed
and dated ‘W.B.C. St Leonards, 11th April
1866.’

On the Occurrence and Geological Position
of Ojil-bearing Deposits in New South
Wales. JGS, 1866, XXII, 439-48;
Philosophical Magazine, 1866, XXXI, 481-2;
SMH, 30 January 1867. Read .to_ the
Geological Society of London on 11 April
1866.

Hall, Edward Smith, 1866. [Untitled]. SMH,
8 June. Letter to the editor re geological
matters, to which Clarke wrote a reply.

Division of Auriferous and Non-Auriferous
Quartz Reefs. SMH, 9 June 1866. Letter to
the editor, signed ‘W.B. Clarke, 8th June’
and commenting on E.S. Hall’s letter.

Anon. Rev. W.B. Clarke on the Auriferous
and Non-auriferous Quartz Reefs of
Australia. The Geological Magazine,
London, 1866, ///(30), 561-2.

Krefft, G, 1866. Professor McCoy and the
Rev. W.B. Clarke. SMH, 20 July.

McCoy, Frederick, 1866. The Thylaoleo and
Moa. SMH, 14 August. Reply to G. Krefft’s
letter of 20 July. See also Krefft’s reply of
15 August.

Gold Drifts. SMH, 16 August 1866. Letter
to the editor, signed “W.B)) (Clarke: St
Leonards, 14th August 1866.’

Meteors. SMH, 8 November 1866. Lead
article, unsigned.

On Marine’ Fossiliferous Secondary
Formations in Australia. Philosophical
Magazine, 1866, XXXII, 544; JGS, 1867,

1867

680

681

682

683

684

685

686

BIBLIOGRAPHY of REV. W.B. CLARKE

XXVIII, 7-12. Read at the Geological
Society of London on 21 November 1866.

Remarks on the Sedimentary Formations of
New South Wales. Illustrated with
references to other Provinces of Australia.
(Ist edition), in CATALOGUE OF THE
NATURAL AND INDUSTRIAL
PRODUCTS OF NEW SOUTH WALES,
FORWARDED TO THE PARIS
UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION OF 1867, BY
THE NEW SOUTH WALES EXHIBITION
COMMISSIONERS. Government Printer,
Sydney, 1867, 65-80; OFFICIAL RECORD
OF THE INTERCOLONIAL EXHIBITION
OF AUSTRALASIA. Melbourne, 1867;
American Journal of Science and Art, 1868,
2nd series, XLV, 334-53.

Inaugural Address to the Royal Society of
New South Wales, delivered at the Ist
meeting, 9th July, 1867, by W.B. Clarke.
TRSNSW, 1868, J, 1-27. Includes a history
of the Society.

Anon. Royal Society of New South Wales.
SMH, Wednesday, 10 July 1867. Report on
the formation of the Royal Society of New
South Wales and inaugural address given by
the Rev. W.B. Clarke.

On the Auriferous and other Metalliferous
Districts of Northern Queensland. TRSNSW,
1868, J, 42-57; Journal of Royal
Geographical Society, London, 1868, X//,
138-44. Read to the Royal Society of NSW
on 4 September 1867.

‘Prospector’, 1867. The Lachlan Gold-Field.
The Empire, 27 September.

The Gold Fields in and near the Lachlan
District. The Empire, | October 1867. Letter
to the editor, signed and dated ‘W.B.
Clarke. St Leonards, 28th September.’ Reply
to a letter from ‘Prospector of 27
September 1867.

Moths. SMH, October 1867. Letter to the
editor, signed and dated ‘W.B. Clarke. St
Leonards, 10 October, 1867.’ Reprinted in
H.C. Russell (1877, 28).

687

1868

688

689

690

691

1869

692

693

694

695

696

697

129

Note on the Geology of the Mary River,
Queensland. TRSNSW, 1868, J, 76-8. Read
to the Royal Society of NSW on 6
November 1867.

Thanksgiving Hymn for the
Edinburgh. Sydney, 28 April
Privately printed pamphlet.

Duke of
1868, 4p.

The Shock of Earthquake. SMH, 22 June
1868. Letter to the editor, unsigned.

On the Causes and Phenomena _ of
Earthquakes, especially in relation to shocks
felt in Australia. SWH, 3 September 1868;
TRSNSW, 1869, II, 51-6. A lecture delivered
to the Royal Society of New South Wales
on 2 September 1868. Neither article
includes the catalogue of Australian
earthquakes 1787-1868 presented with the
talk.

Insects on snow, observed in Australia.
Zoologist, 1868, III, 1139-40.

Anniversary Address. TRSNSW, 1870, JU, 1-
22. Delivered on 12 May 1869. Reported
SMH, 13 May 1869.

Dinornis, an Australian genus. The
Geological Magazine, London, 1869, VI,
383-4. Signed ‘W.B. Clarke, F.G.S., 19th
May 1869.’

Discovery of Dinornis Bone. SMH, 20 May
1869. Letter to the editor, signed ‘W.B.
Clarke, St Leonards, 19th May 1869.’

Diamonds at Cudgegong River. Armidale
Express, 24 July 1869.

Hymn. Willoughby, 25 August 1869.

Anon. Laying of the Foundation Stone of
Christ’s Church, North Shore. The Empire.
26 August 1869. Includes text of sermon
and hymn by Clarke.

126

698

699

1870

700

701

A902

703

704

705

M.K. ORGAN

Winthe, S.H., 1869. The Cave Bones from
Glenorchy. The Hobart Mercury. Letter to
the editor, signed ‘S.H. Winthe, Hobart
Town, Sept. 3, 1869.’ Refers to Clarke.

Anon. St. Thomas’s Church, Willoughby,
North Shore. ?7he Empire or SMH. Signed
and dated ‘Friday, 24 December 1869.’

The Dinornis and Saurian Remains in
Australia. American Journal of Science,
1870, 2nd Series, XLIX, 273.

Wollongongite. SMH, 25 March 1870.
Signed ‘W.B. Clarke, St Leonards, 22nd
March.’ Discussion of an Australian oil
shale from Hartley erroneously named
“Wollongongite’ by Professor Silliman of
America, plus reminiscences by Clarke of
his excursions with J.D. Dana at Illawarra in
1840.

Moore, C., 1870. On Australian Mesozoic
Geology and Palaeontology. JGS, 2 May,
26, 226-61. Compiled with assistance from
fossil collections and notes supplied by
W.B. Clarke. An _ abbreviated version
entitled ‘The Mesozoic Geology and
Palaeontology of Western Australia and
Queensland’ was published in the SMH on 4
& 5 August 1870.

Snow in New South Wales. Letter to H.C.
Russell, dated ‘St Leonards, May 11, 1870.’
Printed in H.C. Russell (1877, 22-3).

Anniversary Address. TRSNSW, 1871, IV, 1-
48. Delivered 25 May 1870. Published
version signed and dated ‘W.B.C. St.
Leonard’s 28th Feb. 1871.’ Includes the
following sections: Vice-President’s Report;
Discovery of Diamonds in New South
Wales - Opinions as to their origin;
Diamonds in Brazil; Diamonds in India;
Diamonds in Russia; Diamonds in Borneo
and Africa; Coal in India; Fossils in Lord
Howe’s Island; Supply of Water. Floods.
Climate; Postscript.

Anon. Report on meeting of the Royal

706

707

708

709

1871

710

711

7i2

713

714

Society of New South Wales. SMH, 4
August 1870.

Royal Society - Discussion on the Water
Supply. SMH, 5 August 1870. Letter to the
editor, signed ‘W.B. Clarke, 4th August.’

Queensland Fossils. SMH, 5 August 1870.

Anon. Report on meeting of the Royal
Society of New South Wales. SMH, 5
November 1870.

Report on Lithgow Valley coal seams. 1870.
Not located - referred’ to im’ 1872\ Mist; of
publications.

The Coal Measures
Wollongongite. Mining Journal,
1870, Xia 178:

of Australia -
London,

Remarks on the Sedimentary Formations of
New South Wales. Illustrated with
references to other Provinces of Australia.
(2nd edition), in INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS
OF NEW SOUTH WALES: BEING A
REPORT OF THE INTERCOLONIAL
EXHIBITION OF . 1870, .AT SYDNEY,
TOGETHER WITH A VARIETY OF
PAPERS ILLUSTRATIVE, “OFR.4 Ee
INDUSTRIAL, . RESOURCES = OF. Thr
COLONY. Government Printer, Sydney,
1871, 505-31. Signed, “St dLeonards, ‘31st
December 1870.’

On the Progress of Gold Discovery in

Australasia, «from 1860 ' “Zor is7ie
INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS OF NEW
SOUTH WALES. Government Printer,

Sydney, 1871, 23p.

Anon. Address and Testimonial to the Rev.
W.B. Clarke. SMH, 12 January 1871. Report
on the retirement of Rev. Clarke from the
Rectorship of St Thomas’, St Leonard’s,
held since 1846.

Discovery of Diamonds in New South
Wales - Opinions as to their origins.
Chemical News, 1871, XXIV, 16-18, 40-42,
64-6, 78-80.

1872

715

716

TA}

718

1873

(ie,

720

721

BIBLIOGRAPHY of REV. W.B. CLARKE

Anniversary Address. TRSNSW, 1873, VI, 1-
66. Delivered 22 May 1872. Includes the
following sections: Vice-President’s Report;
Expedition to New Guinea; Diamond Field
of Bahia; African Diamond Fields; Gold
Fields’ Tin and Copper; Copper;
Explorations in Queensland; Opals;
Conclusion; Appendices - A. Discovery
of Diamonds in New South Wales -
Opinions as to their origins; B. Weights and
measures; C. Extracts from Reports and
Evidence by Rev. W.B. Clarke, in reference
to the discovery of Tin in New South
Wales.

Anon. Rev. W.B. Clarke on Mineral
Products. Town & Country Journal, Sydney,
25 May 1872. Report on the meeting of the
Royal Society of New South Wales, 22 May
1872.

Anon. Tin Ore. SMH, 9 July 1872.

Anon. Rev. W.B. Clarke. The Sydney Mail,
Saturday, 13 July 1872. Biography and list
of ‘Miscellaneous Published Notices and
Memoirs’ issued by Clarke, plus an
engraved portrait.

Report of visit to Murrurundi district. Town
and Country Journal, Sydney, 12 April
1873.

Anniversary Address. TRSNSW, 1874, VII,
1-51. Delivered 25 June and 6 August 1873.
Includes the following sections: Vice-
President’s Report; Discovery of Australia;
Recent Explorations in Northern Australia
and Queensland; Queensland Mesozoic
Fossils; Coal; Metalliferous Areas; Cinnabar;
Conclusions. Appendices - A. Notice of
Glossopteris from Brisbane _ shale; B.
Expenses of Geological Surveys.

Anon. Report on the Anniversary Address
delivered by the Rev. W.B. Clarke to the
Royal Society of New South Wales on 25
June, 1873. SMH, 26 June, 1873.

q2z

1874

125

724

123

726

W221

728

1875

722

730

731

t27

Wilkinson, C.T. and Clarke, W.B., 1873.
Report on the Inverell Tin-Bearing Country:
Enclosing the report (No.VIII) of 7 May
1853 by the Rev. W.B. Clarke, on the
geology of the New England district.
Government Printer, Sydney, 12p.

Santa Cruz (Notes on_ the
Commodore Goodenough).
Office, Sydney, 1874, 10p.

death of
Churchman’s

Report on the Tumut and Adelong Mining
District. Mines and Mineral Statistics of
New South Wales for 1874, Government
Printer, Sydney, 14-15.

The New Guinea explorations of Dr. Meyer.
SMH, 21 February 1874. Unsigned.

Chinese Coal Fields. SWH, 20 March 1874.
Unsigned.

Review - GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF
VICTORIA, REPORT OF PROGRESS [NO
1]. SMH, 15 May 1874.

Anon. Tribute to W.B. Clarke upon
retirement as Trustee of the Australian
Museum. SMH, 31 October, 1874.

Anniversary Address. TPRSNSW, 1876, LX,
1-56. Delivered 12 May 1875. Signed and
dated ‘W.B.C. 10/5/75.’ Includes the
following sections: Vice-President’s Report;
Scientific Researches on Board H.M.S.
Challenger; Lifu Island; Geology of New
Caledonia; Plants; Tin.

Review - GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF
VICTORIA, REPORT OF PROGRESS [NO
2]. SMH, 22 May 1875.

Remarks on the Sedimentary Formations of
New South Wales. Illustrated with
references to other Provinces of Australia.
(3rd edition), in NEW SOUTH WALES
INTERCOLONIAL AND PHILADELPHIA
INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. MINES

128

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733

1876

734

735

736

737

1877

738

739

M.K. ORGAN

AND MINERAL STATISTICS OF NEW
SOUTH WALES, AND NOTES ON THE
GEOLOGICAL COLLECTION OF THE
DEPARTMENT OF MINES. Government
Printer, Sydney, 1875, 149-206. Signed
‘W.B. Clarke, Branthwaite, North Shore,
30th June, 1875.’

Notes on Deep Sea Soundings. Supplement
to the Anniversary Address of 12th May.
TPRSNSW, 1876, IX, 57-72. Read on 1
December 1875.

Wilkinson, C.T., 1875 Geological
Surveyor’s Report. Annual Report.
Department of Mines, Sydney, 115-23.

De ‘Konick, LG.,. 1876-7., RECHERCHES
SUR LES. FOSSILES PALEOZOIQUES
DE LA NOUVELLE-GALLE DU SUD.
Memoires de la Societe Royale des Sciences
de Leige, 2nd. series, //, Hayez, Bruxelles.
Comprises descriptions of fossils which
Clarke had sent to England during the early
1860s, de Koninck working on them from
1864 to 1877.

Anniversary Address. JRSNSW, 1877, X, 1-
34. Delivered 17 May 1876.

On the Deep Oceanic
Moreton Bay. JRSNSW,
Read on 20 July 1876.

Depression off
1877, X, 75-82.

Effects of Forest Vegetation on Climate.
IRSNSWee AST 7, UX, 1792235; IRS. 1878.
Read at the Royal Society of New South
Wales on 1 November 1876, with follow-up
discussion on 6 December 1876.

Anon. Presentation of the Murchison Medal
to Rev. W.B. Clarke. SMH, 4 May 1877.
Report of the awarding of the Murchison
Medal by the Royal Society of London.

On Dromornis Australis (Owen), a New
Fossil Bird of Australia. JRSNSW, 1878, XZ,
41-9. Read on 6 June 1877.

740

741

742

1878

743

Anon. Report on the consecration of the
new St Thomas’ Church, St Leonards,
containing the speech made by the former
incumbent, the Rev. W.B. Clarke. Sydney
Mail, 30 June, 1877.

Notice of a New Fossil Extinct Species of
Kangaroo, Sthenurus minor (Owen).
JRSNSW, 1878, XI, 209-12. Read on 5
December 1877.

Russell, H.C., 1877. CLIMATE OF NEW
SOUTH WALES. DESCRIPTIVE;
HISTORICAL & TABULAR. Charles
Potter, Acting Government Printer, Sydney.
Refers to Clarke (3, 22-27) regarding
climate, snow and moths.

REMARKS ON THE SEDIMENTARY
FORMATIONS OF NEW SOUTH WALES
- ILLUSTRATED BY REFERENCES TO
OTHER PROVINCES OF AUSTRALASIA.
(4th edition). Government Printer, Sydney,
1878, 165p, maps and sections. Introductory
Notice signed and dated ‘Branthwaite, North
Shore, 2 June 1878.’

{The Reverend W.B. Clarke died on the morning
of Sunday, 16 June 1878}

Section 5

Biographical & Related Works 1878-1994

744

745

746

747

748

Andrews, E.C., 1942. The Heroic Period of
Geological Work in Australia. JRSNSW, 76,
96-128.

Anon 1878. The Late Rev. W.B. Clarke.
SMH, 17 June; Illawarra Mercury, 21 June.
Obituary notice.

Anon 1878. [Rev. W.B. Clarke]. SMH, 18
June. Obituary notice.

Anon 1878. Funeral of the Rev. W.B.

Clarke. SMH, 19 June.

Anon 1878. Obituary - The Rev. W.B.
Clarke. SMH, 20 June.

749

750

Th

752

753

754

755

756

ToT

758

7a9

760

BIBLIOGRAPHY of REV. W.B. CLARKE

Anon 1878. [Rev. W.B. Clarke]. Town and
Country Journal, 6 July.

Anon 1878. [Rev. W.B. Clarke].
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
Tasmania, 8, 11-12. Obituary notice.

Anon 1878. Two Australian Geologists: The
Rev. W.B. Clarke, M.A., and Richard
Daintree, C.M.G. Nature, London, XVIII,
389. Obituary notices.

Anon 1879. [Rev. W.B. Clarke].
Proceedings of the Royal Society, London,
28, i-iv. Obituary notice.

Anon 1889. Mining Registrar’s Report.
Government Printer, Melbourne, March, 6.
Refers to Clarke’s discovery of gold at the
Croajingolong goldfield in 1851-2.

Anon 1896. Gold Mining in N.S. Wales -
The Discovery of Gold. The Australian Star,
8 February.

Anon 1916. Historical Notes. Australian
Museum Records, Sydney, August.

Anon 1931. A CENTURY OF
JOURNALISM: THE SYDNEY MORNING
HERALD AND ITS RECORD OF
AUSTRALIAN LIFE 1831-1931. John
Fairfax and Sons, Sydney, 1931, 805p.

Bladen, F.M., 1911. Historical Notes. Public
Library of New South Wales, Sydney, 24.
Includes a portrait of Clarke.

Branagan, D.F., 1972. Words, Action,
People: 150 years of the Scientific Societies
in Australia. JRSNSW, 104, 123-41.

Branagan, D.F., 1978. Samuel Stutchbury
and Reverend W.B. Clarke - Not Quite
Equal and Opposite, in 100 YEARS OF
AST RAL LAN S41 NOE TE 1c
EXPLORATIONS, pp 89-98. P. Stanbury
(Fd.) Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Sydney.

Branagan, D.F., 1992. Samuel Stutchbury
and the Australian Museum. Records of the
Australian Museum, Supplement 15, 99-110.

761

7162

763

764

765

766

167

768

129

British Parliament, 1974-78. BRITISH
PARLIAMENTARY PAPERS. _ Irish
University Press, Shennon, Ireland. Refer to
volumes 16 & 20, Colonies - Australia, for
a reissue of the collection of ‘Further Papers
Relative to the Recent Discovery of Gold in
Australia (1851-56),’ which contain Clarke’s
goldfield reports of the 1850s.

Brown, Ida, 1946. An outline of the history
of palaeontology in Australia. PLSNSW, 71,
V-XVIll.

Carne, J.E., 1911. THE TIN-MINING
INDUSTRY AND THE DISTRIBUTION
OF TIN ORE IN NEW SOUTH WALES
New South Wales Department of Mines,
Mineral Resources No.14, Sydney, 7-15.
Discusses Clarke’s role in the discovery of
tin in Australia.

Clarke, W.B. and Wilkinson, C.S., 1880.
Geological Sketch Map of New South Wales,
compiled from the original map of the late
Revd. W.B. Clarke, MA., F.R.S., F.GS.,
etc. by CS. Wilkinson, LS, F.GS.,
Government Geologist, Department of Mines
- New South Wales. Lithographed and
Printed at the Surveyor General’s Office,
Sydney, N.S.W. Scale: 32 miles to an inch.
Also published in the Catalogue of the
Sydney International Exhibition,
Government Printer, Sydney, 1880.

Clarke, W.B. and Wilkinson, C.S., 1882.
Geological Sketch Map of New South Wales,
compiled from the original map of the late
Revd. W.B. Clarke, M.A., F.R.S., F.GS.,
etc. by CS. Wilkinson, LS, F.GS.,
Government Geologist. Government Printer,
Sydney. Scale: 28 miles to an inch.

Chalmers, R.O., 1955. Clarke Memorial
Lecture - Some Aspects of New South
Wales Gemstones. JPRSNSW, 89, 90-108.

Collison-Black, R.D., 1972. PAPERS AND
CORRESPODENCE OF WILLIAM
STANLEY JEVONS. Volumes 1 & 2,
Macmillan, London.

Darragh, T.A., 1977. The First Geological
Maps of the Continent of Australia. Journal

130

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770

(AD)!

Viz

(ae

774

T75

M.K. ORGAN

of the Geological Society of Australia,
24(5), 279-305.

De Konick, L.G., 1898. DESCRIPTIONS
OF THE PALAEOZOIC FOSSILS OF
NEW SOUTH WALES. Memoirs of the
Geological Survey of New South Wales -
Palaeontological Series, No.6. Government
Printer, Sydney, xiv, 298, 24 plates. English
translation by Professor T.W.E. David, Mrs
David, and W.S. Dunn of De Konick’s
original 1876-77 French edition.

Eklin, A.P., 1968. The Challenge to
Sciences, 1866; The Challenge of Sciences,
1966, in A CENTURY OF SCIENTIFIC
PROGRESS. Royal Society of New South
Wales, Sydney, 9-32.

Etheridge, R. Jnr, 1878. [Rev. W.B.
Clarke]. Geological Magazine, London,
IIT(V), 79-82.

Etheridge, R. Jnr., and Jack, Robert Logan,
1881. W.B. Clarke, in CATALOGUE OF

WORKS, PAPERS, REPORTS, AND
MAPS3i2.0N ) THE. iGEOLOGY,
PALAEONTOLOGY, MINERALOGY,

MINING AND METALLURGY, ETC., OF
THE AUSTRALIAN CONTINENT AND
TASMANIA. Edward Stanford, London, 25-
34.

Feistmantel, Ottokar, 1878-9. Palaeozoische
und Mesozoischie Flora des Ostlichen
Australians. Palaeontographica, Supp. Bd.
Ill; Lieferune. IH, Heft 2, 35:4; Theodor
Fischer, Cassel. Descriptions of fossil which
W.B. Clarke had sent to Feistmantel, of the
Geological Survey of India, in 1876.

Feistmantel, Ottokar, 1889. Geological and
Palaeontological Relations of the Coal and
Plant-bearing Beds of Palaeozoic and
Mesozoic Age in Eastern Australia and
Tasmania. [Abridged]. JRSNSW, 23, 103-18.

Feistmantel, Ottokar, 1890. GEOLOGICAL
AND: PALAEONT OLOGTEAL
RELATIONS OF THE COAL AND
PLANT-BEARING BEDS OF
PALAEOZOIC AND MESOZOIC AGE IN
EASTERN AQUOS? RAL PA “AND

776

Tae

778

gk}

780

781

782

783

784

TASMANIA. Memoirs of the Geological
Survey of New South Wales -
Palaeontological Series, No.3, Government
Printer, Sydney.

Fisher, Gerald, 1973. Rev. W.B. Clarke and
the Geological Professorship, 1853: An
Extract from the University Registrar’s
Earliest Records. Record, The University of
Sydney Archives, 1(2), August, 8-11.

French, W.J., 1885. Geology and Gold
Mining in New South Wales. Australian
Town and Country Journal, 5 September.
Testimonial to the Rev. W.B. Clarke’s
southern goldfields reports.

French, W.J., 1885. Uralla Times. Letter to
the editor in defence of his promotion of
Clarke’s goldfields researches of the 1850s.

Fleet, J., 1939. Pioneers of British Geology
- The Works of W.B. Clarke. JRSNSW, 74,
41-66.

Fleet, J., 1970. THE HISTORY OF GOLD
DISCOVERY IN. VICTORIA. Hawthorn
Press, Melbourne, 495p.

Grainger, Elena, "ho s2ewe dE
REMARKABLE REVEREND CLARKE -
THE LIFE AND TIMES OF ‘THE FATHER
OF AUSTRALIAN GEOLOGY. Oxford
University Press, Melbourne, 292p.

Hatter, A., 1885. Reports of Rev. W.B.
Clarke. Town and Country Journal, Sydney,
3*October.

Hill, Dorothy, 1937. Type Specimens of
Palaeozoic Corals from New South Wales in
W.B. Clarke’s First Collection, and in the
Strzelecki Collection. Geological Magazine,
LXXIV(4), April, 145-53. From _ the
Woodwardian & Sedgwick Museums,
Cambridge. See also F. McCoy (1847) for a
description of this collection, and T.J.
Wright (1994).

Jervis, James, 1926. Historical notes on the
lives of George Caley, James Dunlop and
the Revs. W.B. Clarke and William Woolls.

785

786

Tod

788

789

790

791

JOD

793

BIBLIOGRAPHY of REV. W.B. CLARKE 131

Parramatta District Historical
Journal and Porceedings, 3, 39-48.

Society,

Jervis, James, 1944. Rev. W.B. Clarke,
M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. "The Father
of Australian Geology". Journal and
Proceedings of the Royal Australian
Historical Society, Sydney, XXX, 345-458.

Jervis, James, 1948. W.B. Clarke, in A
CENTURY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH
IN NEW SOUTH WALES, pp 206-9. E.C.
Rowlands (Ed.) Angus & _ Robertson,
Sydney.

Johns, R.K., (Ed.), 1976. HISTORY AND
ROLE OF GOVERNMENT GEOLOGICAL
SURVEYS IN AUSTRALIA. Government
Printer, South Australian, 112p.

Johnstone, S.M., 1932. Headmasterships of
the Rev. W.B. Clarke ... 1839-40, in THE
HISTORY OF THE KING’S SCHOOL,
PARRAMATTA. The Council of the King’s
School, Parramatta / The King’s School Old
Boys’ Union, Parramatta, John Sands Ltd.,
Sydney, 84-93.

La Nauze, J.A., 1949. Jevons in Sydney, in
POLITICAL ECONOMY IN AUSTRALIA,
pp 26-44. Melbourne University Press,
Melbourne. Refers to William Stanley
Jevons’ acquaintance with Clarke between
1854-9.

Macleod, L.R., 1903. NORTHERN
SUBURBS OF TODAY, n.p. Includes a
portrait of Clarke.

Maiden, J.H., 1919. A Contribution to a
History of the Royal Society of New South
Wales. JRSNSW, 54, 215-361. Contains
numerous references to W.B. Clarke’s
contributions to that society and _ its
antecedents.

Martin, Stephen, 1993. A NEW LAND:
EUROPEAN PERCEPTIONS OF
AUSTRALIA 1788-1850, Allen & Unwin,
State Library of New South Wales, St
Leonard’s, 1993, 167p.

McAfee, Robert J., 1978. Meteorology in

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795

796

JoF

799

800

801

802

New South Wales: its beginnings, 1788-
1850. Weatherfront, Sydney, 3-10. Summary
of a talk delivered to the Meteorological
Society of NSW on 12 April 1978.

McCarthy, G., (Ed.), 1991. A GUIDE TO
THE ARCHIVES OF AUSTRALIAN
SCIENCE. Thorpe, Melbourne.

Moyal, Ann, 1976. SCIENTISTS IN
NINETEENTH CENTURY AUSTRALIA;
A DOCUMENTARY HISTORY. Cassell
Australia, Sydney, 280p.

Moyal, Ann, 1986. A BRIGHT AND
SAVAGE LAND -_ SCIENTISTS IN
COLONIAL AUSTRALIA. Collins, Sydney,
192p. A comprehensive study of science and
scientists in colonial Australia, with
numerous references to Clarke.

Moyal, Ann, 1993.
SAVAGE LAND - SCIENTISTS IN
COLONIAL AUSTRALIA. 2nd _ edition,
Penguin Books, Australia, 240p.

A BRIGHT AND

Moyal, Ann, 1994. "With pen and hammer."
The correspondence of Rev. W.B. Clarke, in
USEFUL AND CURIOUS GEOLOGICAL
ENQUIRIES BEYOND THE WORLD.
PACIFIC - ASIA HISTORICAL THEMES,
1I9TH INTERNATIONAL INHIGEO
SYMPOSIUM. SYDNEY, AUSTRALIA, 4-
8 JULY 1994, pp 172-80. D.F. Branagan
and G.H. McNally (Eds.) Star Printery,
Sydney.

Mozley, Ann, 1965. The Foundations of the
Geological Survey of New South Wales.
JRSNSW, 98, 91-100.

Mozley, Ann, 1965. Richard Daintree: First
Government Geologist of Queensland.
Queensland Heritage, May 1965, /(2), 11-
16.

Mozley, Ann, 1966. A GUIDE TO THE
MANUSCRIPT RECORDS OF
AUSTRALIAN SCIENCE. ANU Press,
Canberra, 1966.

Mozley, Ann. 1967. Evolution and the
Climate of Opinion in Australia, 1840-76.

132

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807

808

809

810

811

812

M.K. ORGAN

Victorian Studies Quarterly Journal, Indiana
University, June, X(4), 411-30. Discusses
Clarke’s role in the exposition of Darwin’s
theory of evolution in Australia during the
1860s.

Mozley, Ann, 1969. W.B. Clarke, in
AUSTRALIAN DICTIONARY OF
BIOGRAPHY. Melbourne University Press,
Melbourne.

Mozley, Ann, 1971. William Branwhite
Clarke, in DICTIONARY OF SCIENTIFIC
BIOGRAPHY. Charles Schribner, New
York, JI.

Mozley (Moyal), Ann, 1975. Sir Richard
Owen and His Influence on Australian
Zoological and & Palaeontological Science.
Records of the Australian Academy of
Science, 3(2), November 41-56.

Newland, E., 1983. Sir Roderick Murchison
and Australia: a case study of British
influence on Australian geological science.
M.A. thesis, UNSW, Kensington. (Unpubl.).

Nichols, G.R., 1902-18. THE CHURCH OF
ENGLAND IN AUSTRALIA. Sydney, 189.
Includes a portrait of Clarke.

Organ, M.K., 1992. W.B. Clarke as
Scientific Journalist. Historical Records of
Australian Science, 9(1), 1-16.

Royal Society of London, 1970.
CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC PAPERS
(1800-1900). Johnson Reprint Corporation,
New York. Originially issued 1867-77.

Russell, H.C., 1888. Astronomical and
Meteorological Workers in New _ South
Wales, 1788 to 1860. Proceedings of the
Australian Association for the Advancement
of Science, Sydney, /, 45-94. Discusses
W.B. Clarke’s work, amongst others, in the
field of Australian meteorology.

Selkirk, H., 1923. HISTORY OF THE
PARISH OF: (S TieVJOoREN aT EE
EVANGELIST. Gordon, 5-6.

Silver, Lynette Ramsay, 1986. A FOOL’S

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820

821

GOLD? - WILLIAM TIPPLE SMITH’S
CHALLENGE TO THE HARGRAVES
MYTH. The Jacaranda Press, Milton, 170p.
An account of the discovery of gold in New
South Wales in 1851 and events leading up
to it.

Skeats, E.W., 1933. Some Founders of
Australian Geology. David Lecture No 1,
Australian National Research Council,
Sydney.

Smith, John, 1879. Anniversary Address.
JRSNSW, XIII, 4-23. Obituary notice.

Sorby, H.C., 1879. [Reéev.- W.B.. Clarke}.
JGS, XXXV, 44-6. Obituary notice.

Stafford, Robert A., 1988. The long arm of
London: Sir Roderick Murchison and
imperial science “in’* “Australia = in
AUSTRALIAN SCIENCE IN THE
MAKING, pp 69-101. R.W. Home (Ed.)
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Stafford, Robert A., 1991. MURCHISON -
SCIENTIST OF EMPIRE. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge.

Tate, R., 1893. Testimonial to W.B. Clarke.
South Australian Register, 27 September.
Part of the inaugural address delivered at the

Science Congress, Adelaide, on 26
September.
Tate, R., 1894. Inaugural Address -

Centenary of Geological Progress. Report of
the Australasian Association for the
Advancement of Science, Adelaide, 5, 1-69.

Tenison-Woods, J.,
Sandstone. SMH, 11 May. Report on
Tension-Wood’s_ lecture to the Royal
Society of New South Wales which makes
numerous references to Clarke’s work in
delineating this geological formation.

1882. Hawkesbury

Tenison-Woods, J., 1883. Wianamatta
Shales. SMH, 7 July. Report on Tension-
Wood’s lecture to the Royal Society of New
South Wales which makes numerous
references to Clarke’s work in delineating
this geological formation.

822

823

824

825

826

827

828

829

830

831

BIBLIOGRAPHY of REV. W.B. CLARKE 133

Vallance, T.G., 1969. Notes on the Rev.
W.B. Clarke’s REMARKS ON’ THE
SEDIMENTARY FORMATIONS OF NEW
SOUTH WALES. PLSNSW, 93, 488.

Vallance, T.G., 1974. Rev. W.B. Clarke and
the Geological Professorship, 1853. Record,
The University of Sydney Archives, 2(1),
May 3-4.

Vallance, T.G., 1975. Presidential address.
Origins of Australian Geology. PLSNSW,
100(1), 29, 32-34, 36-37.

Vallance, T.G., 1981. The Fuss about Coal,
in PLANTS AND MAN IN AUSTRALIA,
pp 136-76. DJ. & S.G.M. Carr (Eds.)
Academic Press, Sydney.

Vallance, T.G., 1984. William Branwhite
Clarke (1798-1878), in DICTIONARY OF
AUSTRALIAN ARTISTS. WORKING
PAPER I: PAINTERS, PHOTOGRAPHERS
AND ENGRAVERS 1770-1870, A-H, pp
152-3. Joan Kerr (Ed.) Power Institute of
Fine Arts, University of Sydney.

Vallance, T.G., 1984. Review of THE
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July, 374-5.

Vallance, T.G., 1988. Geology, in
AUSTRALIANS - A GUIDE TO
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V. Crittenden (Eds.) Fairfax, Syme &
Weldon, Sydney.

Vallance, T.G., 1992. William Branwhite
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AUSTRALIAN ARTIS TS.
PHOTOGRAPHERS AND ENGRAVERS
TO 1870. Joan Kerr (Ed.) Oxford University
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Vallance, T.G., and Branagan, D.F., 1968.
New South Wales Geology - Its Origin and
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PROGRESS, Royal Society of New South
Wales, Sydney, 265-79.

1895. The
ERS. the

Rev. W.B.
Nestor of

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M.A.,

Warung,
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832

833

834

835

836

537

Australian philosophers. The Cosmos

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Watson, J.H., 1906-22. NORTH SYDNEY.
N.p., 21.

Webster, E.M., 1980. WIRLWINDS_ IN
THE PLAIN: LUDWIG LEICHHARDT -
FRIENDS, FOES AND _ HISTORY.
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Describes the prominant role played by the
Rev. W.B. Clarke in promoting — the
explorations of Leichhardt during the 1840s,
and the conflict with T.L. Mitchell.

Wharton, J.C., 1911. JUBILEE HISTORY
OF PARRAMATTA. Parramatta.

Williams, David, 1990. Meteorology. A
series of articles, printed in the Sydney
Morning Herald during 1842, by W.B.
Clarke. n.p. June. (Unpubl.). Copy of
Clarke’s Meterology articles and _ letters
published between January - June 1842.

Woolls, William, 1879. Memoir of the Rev.
W.B. Clarke, in LECTURES ON THE
VEGETABLE KINGDOM, WITH
SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE FLORA
OF AUSTRALIA. Parramatta, 227p.

Wright., A.J., 1994. Notes on the 1849 and
1855 W.B. Clarke Collections in the
Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge, in USEFUL
AND: CURIOUS. GEOLOGICAL
ENQUIRIES BEYOND THE WORLD.
PACIFIC - ASIA HISTORICAL THEMES.
19TH INTERNATIONAL INHIGEO
SYMPOSIUM. SYDNEY, AUSTRALIA, 4-
8 JULY 1994, pp 181-91. D.F. Branagan
and G.H. McNally (Eds.) Star Printery,
Sydney.

Acknowledgments

In the compilation of this bibliography a number
of people have been of assistance to the author.
Initial thanks must go to the late Professor T.G.
Vallance of the Geology Department, Sydney
University, who commented on the first draft in
1987 and subsequently suggested many additions

134 M.K. ORGAN

and corrections. Though no great fan of the Rev.
Clarke, Prof. Vallance was nonetheless gracious in
offering comments. Secondly, to David Williams
of the Sydney Meteorological Bureau, who during
1990 supplied numerous references in relation to
Clarke’s various meteorological writings,
identifying some 30 papers of which I was
previously unaware, and corroborating a number I
had _ tentatively included. Thirdly, to Ann
(Mozley) Moyal, a longtime student of Clarke and
transcriber of a_ large section of his
correspondence, who provided additional
references during the process of preparing this
material for publication. Thanks are also due to
the staff of the Mitchell Library, Sydney, the
Wollongong City Library, and the University of
Wollongong Library, for their many instances of
assistance in obtaining copies of Clarke’s
numerous publications and providing access to his
extant papers; and Mrs Krysko von Tryst of the
Royal Society of NSW for assistance in preparing
the manuscript for publication.

Michael Organ
26 Popes Road
Woonona 2517
Australia

(Manuscript received 7.7.94)

(Manuscript received in final form 6.10.94)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, 135

Vol. 127, ppl35-146, 1994
ISSN 0035-9173/020135 - 12

$4.00/1

Brittle deformation of the Bathurst Batholith: A coeval behaviour with

megakinking in the Lachlan Fold Belt, southeastern Australia.

Kazuo KOSAKA
(communicated by D.F. Branagan)

Abstract: The Bathurst Batholith is a post-kinematic granitic body in the
northeastern Lachlan Fold Belt, west of Sydney. A survey of weathered granites in
limited outcrops leads to the conclusion that the Bathurst Batholith has been
penetratively deformed in a brittle manner. Typical deformation structures are
subparallel joint/fault sets and fault gouges, which trend dominantly NNW to NE.
Conjugate faults and feather fractures indicate north-south shortening. These brittle
deformation structures can be interpreted as related to post-kinematic deformation
during late Palaeozoic time, possibly including megakinking, in the Lachlan Fold

Belt.

Key words: structural geology, granite, joint, fault, megakink.

INTRODUCTION

The Bathurst Batholith is a “subsequent bathylith”
(Browne, 1931), or a post-kinematic granitic body
(Valiance, 1969), which is located in the
northeastern Lachlan Fold Belt (Fig.1). The
batholith is made up of several types of granitoid,
collectively termed the “Bathurst Granite”, all of
which are massive and non-foliated (Vallance,
1969). Because of their massive textures, extensive
weathering and limited outcrops, deformation
structures have not been studied in detail since the
petrological investigation by Mackay (1964). This
paper describes the brittle deformation structures
such as joints and faults formed penetratively in the
Bathurst Batholith and discusses their significance
to north-south shortening, related to late
Palaeozoic megakinking in the Lachlan Fold Belt.

One outcrop of the Davies Creek granite (Fig.1),
just south of the Bathurst Batholith, is also
discussed here because of its important fractures.
The Davies Creek granite is considered to have
intruded into the Rockley district in the “?Early
Carboniferous” (Fowler, 1989: Fowler & Lennox,
1992) or in the Devonian (Shaw et al., 1982).

GEOLOGIC SETTING
The Bathurst Batholith, about 100 kilometres long

in the WNW-ESE direction, intruded discordantly
across the generally N-S trending, folded

Ordovician to Late Devonian strata (Brunker and
Rose, 1969), after the Kanimblan Orogeny
(Stevens, 1974) (Fig.1). Its K-Ar ages were reported
as 300 and 308 Ma (biotite: Evernden and Richards,
1962) or 301+6Ma to 318+17Ma (biotite or whole
rock: Facer, 1978). Its Rb-Sr ages are from 340 to
312 Ma (Shaw & Flood, 1993), indicating late
Early/early Late Carboniferous age of intrusion.
The Bathurst Batholith is composed of coarse-
grained (biotite-) granite with orthoclase
megacrysts or coarse-grained biotite granite and
hornblende-biotite granodiorite without
megacrysts. The Granite contains quartz veins,
microgranite dykes, and also contains mafic
enclaves (Branagan, 1972).

The Bathurst Batholith and the enclosing country
rocks are nonconformably overlain by the
Shoalhaven Group which forms the basal part of the
western Sydney Basin. The Shoalhaven Group
resting on the Bathurst Batholith is uppermost
Early Permian (upper Artinskian or Kungurian)
(Branagan et al., 1976: Briggs, 1991).

The Bathurst Batholith is situated along a zone of
east-southeasterly trending lineaments through
Orange (Fig.1) which constitutes the northern edge
of the 50 kilometres-wide Lachlan River lineament
(Scheibner & Stevens, 1974). The latter is
interpreted as a large megakink band with 25
kilometres dextral offset of the Late Devonian
strata (Powell et al., 1985).

rt mu

“fy yy

a

[V]Tertiary basalts
[.”.] Upper Carboniferous

to Triassic beds
of Sydney Basin

pss EY! te

ad
“ol? ~ !

L-AMegakink
(Powell et al.,
J Jenolan Megakink

# (GRANGE eae en

HT} Ae Wat Ol
se attain aes Bathurst Batholith] -7

peed, EJsilurian to Carboniferous batholiths (syn- or pre-tectonic)

KOSAKA

L.F.B. ~|* Sydney Basin

> -
| Dy cq

Si

W __ Wiarborough Megakink (Wy:Wyangala. B:Barry. Wo:Wologorong. D:Davies Creek.)

Fig.1. Index map and geologic outline of the Bathurst Batholith. L.F.B.=Lachlan Fold Belt (Compiled mainly from
1:3,000,000 Geological Map of New South Wales, Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Dept. Mines).

Number of outcrops
30—

ORIENTATION OF MEASUREMENT FACE

10km

(eee)

ya LITHGOW

Jenolan caves } (2km)

Fig.2. Locality of granite outcrops. Most of the observed 185 outcrops are of weathered granites. The lower left
histogram shows the frequency of measurement face orientations of 185 outcrops.

The Bathurst Batholith generally forms a low-relief
surface and is topographically lower than the
surrounding annulus of regionally-metamorphosed
sedimentary rocks. It displays similar granite
landforms to those elsewhere in the Lachlan Fold

Belt (Branagan, 1972). Outcrops of Bathurst
Batholith are limited and are extensively weathered.
One hundred and eighty-five outcrops have been
examined along roads, railway cuttings and creeks
(Fig.2). Measurement faces of outcrops are

BRITTLE DEFORMATION OF THE BATHURST BATHOLITH 137

variously oriented and thus there is no noticeable
“cut effect” (Ramsay and Huber, 1987), which
might bias orientations of observations of
particular joint/fault planes (Fig.2, lower left).

BRITTLE DEFORMATION STRUCTURES
Representative deformation structures

Sets of high-angle subparallel joints/faults, most
of which dip subvertically, are formed penetratively
in the batholith (Fig.3a). They extend from the
bottom to top of outcrops. Spacing varies from
centimetres to metres (Fig.4a), and orientations
range within about 20° for each set (Fig.4b). The
Bathurst Batholith can be tentatively divided into
western and eastern areas based on the general
trends of these joints/faults (Fig.5). The boundary
is close to the junction of two separate granite
phases identified by Stevens (1973). The main
trends are NNW to NNE with subordinate E trend in
the western area, while N to NE trends occur in the
eastern area (Fig.5, upper right).

Displacements along these joints/faults are
recognizable even in massive granite by displaced
markers, such as coarse-grained granitic textures,
orthcclase megacrysts, enclaves, veins/dykes, or
joints/faults. When joints/faults are used as
markers, at least three joints/faults should be
systematically displaced, or other evidence of
displacement should be recognized (Fig.3b).
Striated surfaces in granite are also evidence of
faults along which displacement has occurred,
though striations are obscure in many places due to
weathering. About 40% of the measured 365
joints/faults show striations, most of which plunge
0° to 30°S on northerly-trending subvertical
fracture surfaces (Grid Reference(G.R.)290867,
Fig.4c). Striations have been used only to note
directions of displacement as it is difficult in the
weathered Bathurst Granite to deduce with
confidence the sense of displacement from
Striations alone. Zones of fault breccia and gouge
are easily recognizable in outcrops. They are
centimetres to a metre in width and lack primary
cohesion. They are made up of breccias and
decomposed mineral grains of granite.

Each set of joints/faults shows evidence of
displacement, mainly slickensides and
subordinately displaced markers and fault
breccias/gouges (e.g. , Fig.4c). Thirty-six percent
of the measured 134 sets of joints/faults show
evidence of displacement.

Intense brittle deformation zones are formed in
places where sets of closely spaced subparallel
joints/faults of varying orientations intersect with
each other. Granite is fractured to form slabs and
blocks of various sizes (Fig.6a). Displaced
markers, striated surfaces and gouges indicate that
many slabs and blocks moved relative to one
another. When veins/dykes are used as
displacement markers, relative movements between
slabs and blocks can be clearly established
(Fig.6b). Layered structures such as subparallel
fractures or veins/dykes show drag folding (Fig.3c).
Densely spaced fractures may also be folded directly
adjacent to the minor gouge zones, particularly
where they bifurcate or terminate (Fig.6c). Gouge
zones with sliced and displaced megacrysts are
formed in some places (Fig.6d). They are generally
bounded on both sides by planar fracture surfaces.
Subparallel fractures are spaced less than a
centimetre apart, and serve as evidence of
displacement by millimetres or more, as shown by
displacement markers.

Feather fractures associated with fault gouges are
another type of intense brittle deformation. Feather
fractures are striated and folded along gouge zones
(Fig.6e). Gouge zones are composed of dense
subparallel slip surfaces, irregularly oriented
fractures, and scaly clays.

Low-angle subparallel faults occur locally in the
batholith (Fig.7: G.R.319957, 687811, 374843).
They have reverse components of displacement,
with centimetres to tens of centimetres magnitude,
as shown by displaced markers (Fig.3d). Striations
and displaced markers show oblique-slip
movements on the faults. Closely-spaced fractures
are developed parallel to faults in zones a few
metres wide adjacent to main faults, indicating a
brittle deformation.

The Bathurst Granite was capable of being folded,
in an analogue way to that reported by Davies and
Pollard (1986), as it has planar structures such as
subparallel fractures and veins/dykes in many
places. Drag folds associated with faults provide
evidence of the nature of the displacement along
fractures. Slabs of subparallel-jointed granites are
displaced across fault surfaces to produce open kink
folds at some localities (Fig.7: G.R.302025,
246844, 687813: Fig.3e), though no kink bands
have been observed.

KOSAKA

138

Deformation structures as indicators of
palaeostress axes directions

Two sets of conjugate faults have been recognized
in the eastern area of the batholith (Fig.7:
G.R.437639 and 279876: Fig.3f), based on
opposite sense of displacements and cross-cutting
relations. Displacements along each fault vary from
one centimetre to 25 centimetres. They show 03
(minimum principal stress) axes gently plunging E
or W, and o1 (maximum principal stress) axes
gently plunging N or S. The half shear angles are
about 25° and about 20° (Fig.8a, b).

Two feather fractures have been recognized in the
western area and in the Davies Creek Granite (Fig.7:
G.R.269042, 432794: Fig.6e). Rotational axes of
the drag folding and disposition of principal stress
axes are inferred stereographically (Fig.8c, d). Both
sets of feather fractures show 63 axes gently
plunging E to ESE, and 61 axes moderately
plunging SSW. The half shear angles are 15°, 23°,
and 25° to 30°.

The direction and sense of displacement can be
determined for seven high-angle faults in the
westem and eastern areas (Fig.7: G.R.307069,
319957, and 617863) using a combination of
striations on slickensides and displaced markers.
The principal stress directions are computed
stereographically (Ramsay & Huber, 1987, p.607):

Flg.3. (Opposite Page)

Firstly, o2(intermediate principal stress) lies on
the fault plane oriented at 90° to the striations.
Secondly, 61 is situated in a plane (great circle with
pole 62) at half shear angles. Lastly, 63 is
constructed by finding a point on the great circle
with pole 62 at an angle of 90° - x° (x=half-shear-
angle) from the slip direction on the opposite side
of the fault. As the half shear angle is about 15°
(minimum) to 30° (maximum), 63 axes plunge
gently or moderately easterly and 61 axes plunge
gently or moderately northerly or southerly
(Fig.8e). Graphical determination of principal
stress directions for slickensides populations using
“M-planes” (Aleksandrowski, 1985) shows gently
plunging o1 and 63 axes and subvertically or
steeply-plunging 02 axis, though the directions of
o1 and 63 axes are not determined.

DISCUSSION

Deformation Bathurst

Batholith

styles of the

Deformation structures in the Bathurst Batholith are
composed of joints and faults, all of which were
formed by fracturing or brittle deformation. Folds
of layered structures also show brittle hehaviour.
Fractures without gouges appear like joints and are
not recognizable as faults unless there are displaced
markers, striations, or drag folds. However, most
fractures in the Bathurst Batholith are probably
faults and not joints. No ductile deformation
structures are developed in the Bathurst Batholith,

Photographs of representative outcrops. The length of the hammer in photographs is 26 centimetres.
Localities are indicated by grid references (G.R.'s) of 1:100,000 National Topographic Map Series; Blayney
8730, Orange 8731, Oberon 8830, Bathurst 8831, and Katoomba 8930.

(a) Subvertical subparallel jointsfaults (arrows) (G.R.329817, 9 kilometres south of Lithgow).

(b) Ten subparalle! fractures (a to j) displaced by a fault. The left-separation is about tens centimetres

(G.R.307874, 5 kilometres southwest of Lithgow).

(c) Drag folding of quartz veins (G.R.617863: See Fig.7 for locality). (Outcrop sketch in Fig.6b).

(d) A minor thrust (G.R.319957: See Fig.7 for locality). Millimetres-spaced subparallel fractures are formed
densely in the foot wall. Note the displaced orthoclase). (Outcrop sketch in Fig.6a).

(e) Kink fold of a fractured granite (G.R.687813: See Fig.7 for locality).

(f) Conjugate minor faults displacing a quartz vein (G.R.279876: See Fig.7 for locality. Wulff net in Fig.8b).

BRITTLE DEFORMATION OF THE BATHURST BATHOLITH il

orthoclase
; : . 8 te]

140 KOSAKA

except for some drag folds of brittle-ductile
transitional behaviour. Even biotite grains, the
most plastic mineral in the Bathurst Granite, show
no signs of plastic deformation. This phenomenon
is in contrast to nearby Silurian/Devonian
syntectonic or pre-tectonic meridional granitoids,
such as the Wyangala Batholith (Morand, 1988:
Paterson et al., 1990), the Barry Granite (Lennox et
al., 1991), and the Wologorong Batholith (Shaw et
al., 1982) (Fig.1), in which some biotite grains are
warped and kinked even in non-foliated I-type
granitoids (Vernon and Flood, 1988). The Bathurst
Batholith is considered to have attained high level
in the crust and a part of the Batholith apparently
crystallized under quite shallow cover (Vallance,
1969). The half shear angles of about 15° to 30°
suggest that the conjugate faults and feather
fractures were formed under limited overburden.
Therefore, the batholith is considered to have been
deformed under low confining pressure/temperature
which enables only brittle deformation.

TN. MN.

*General Max: 40%
attitude Total 52pts.

365 fractures Total 142 striated surfaces.

Fig.4. An example of a set of subvertical subparallel
eae (G.R. 290867, 6 kms southwest of
gow).

(a) Plan view of joints/faults along the route. Spacing
between joints/faults ranges from several centimetres
to 0.2 metre.

(b) Contoured pole density diagram of the joints/faults
(equal area projection: lower hemisphere). The
general attitude indicates the average strike and dip
measured by “sighting-method” (Davis, 1984).

(c) Frequency of striation plunge. Most striations
plunge shallowly southward.

Stress and strain

All the deformation structures used as indicators of
palaeostress axes directions show northerly
oriented G1 axes and easterly oriented 63 axes. It is
probable that other penetrative fractures were also
formed, at least in part, under a stress system with
north-trending 61 axis and east-trending 63 axis.

The NNW- and NE- trending subparallel fractures are
also likely to have been formed under the influence
of north-south trending 61 axis (Fig.8a to d), and
possibly contributed to north-south shortening. In
intense brittle deformation zones in the Bathurst
Batholith, a stress analysis is impossible because
of anisotropy due to fracturing and the later
complex strain history affecting the Sydney Basin
(Branagan, 1985: Lohe and McLennan, 1991).

Deformation history

The present surface of the Bathurst Batholith is
considered to have been near the earth’s surface
without substantial overburden since early
Cainozoic for the following reasons: (1) Tertiary
basaltic lava flows lie nonconformably on the
Bathurst Granite to the southwest of Bathurst and
also lie unconformably on the country rocks just to
the northeast, west and south of the Bathurst
Batholith (Fig.1). (2) The Middle Shoalhaven
Plain, 150 to 200 kilometres south of Bathurst, is a
dissected peneplain of Ordovician strata, partly
covered with Late Eocene basaltic lava flows and
Early to Middle Eocene alluvial sediments. It is
considered likely to date back to the Mesozoic
(Ruxton & Taylor, 1982). (3) Near the Middle
Shoalhaven Plain at Sassafras, a Middle Eocene
basaltic lava flow overlies a plateau capping and its
adjacent valleys, indicating that the early Tertiary
landscape has been preserved (Young & McDougall,
1985). Pre-Cainozoic periods are the only possible
times when the present surface of Bathurst
Batholith was subject to certain overburden. These
periods are considered to be: (1) before the
uppermost part of the Bathurst Batholith was eroded
preceding the formation of a nonconformity, i.e.,
Late Carboniferous or early Early Permian, and
(2) during the time when a possible western
continuation of Permian/Triassic strata of the
Sydney Basin nonconformably lay on the Bathurst
Batholith, i.e., Late Permian to early Cainozoic.
Possibility (2) is of minor significance because the
western continuation of the Sydney Basin onto the
Bathurst Granite is estimated to have been much
less than 1,500 metres; the sum of “about 500
metres” (=the present thickness of strata at the

BRITTLE DEFORMATION OF THE BATHURST BATHOLITH 141

western edge of Sydney Basin) and “a thickness for the Permian and Mesozoic strata on the
much less than 1,000 metres” (=thickness of the Ordovician to Devonian strata and a Carboniferous
eroded strata in the Sydney Basin; Branagan, granite around Capertee, about 50 kilometres
1983). The thickness of sedimentary cover is northeast of Bathurst (Branagan, 1972). Thus, case
estimated to have been about 300 metres maximum (1) is much more probable.

Western area Eastern area Whole area
aN (Total 62pts.) N (Total 79pts.) N (Total 14%pts.)

BATHURST

ahh

Orientation of subvertical
subparallel joints/faults

ii |g Ouen data
"11H Inferred general trend

Fig.5. Distribution of subvertical subparallel joints/aults in the Bathurst Batholith. Upper right: Contoured pole density
diagrams of sets of jointsfaults. Each point represents the general attitude of each set.

ye 307069

(Fie amg er 302025

pistes. OE are
aba o ¢ LITHGOW

Blan
(Fig. sy

fee

High-angle fault Outcrop number
w-angle fault

Feather fracture | ~& Direction of

Kink fold |-g compression

Fig.7. Locality and type of representative deformation structures of the Bathurst Granite. Faults, feather fractures, and
kink folds are represented by schematical drawings. (Six numbers: grid references).

142 KOSAKA

Ne

Yt
at

we ay ee et QS,
- tp i, j y: BS Mer ie
ho in aie eee
so SY Vong ED GRTN A aE FZ Fe ‘
END AN SSE er cr Sree a 30
"| it PIQSC ~ (ue _— ” == WW) sf x oy) = | | Me ore VoL: We

150m

Dyke, vein

Joint, fault

Fault gouge
fractur:

gouge ~)/ Quartz vein

at "

wit K

Sliced &
displaced

orthoclase

Feather fractures
/ Slickensides
ean gouge

Scaly gouge

ere TET a eke i ia tie! ea le ae
SSS

: Se ee —— Irregular dense
ca.10cm Fault gouge zone: N40°E, 69°NW ractures

Fig.6. Sketches of intensely deformed granites. :

(a) Intense brittle deformation zone made up of dense fractures of various orientations (G.R.319957: See Fig.7 for
locality).

(b) Folded and displaced granite (G.R.617863: See Fig.7 for locality). Drag folding of quartz veins is well exposed on the
subvertical southern wall of the railway cutting. Displaced quartz veins are well exposed on the subvertical northern wall
of the railway cutting, which is shown on the plan view in the lower left of this figure.

(c) Millimetres-spaced fractures. Note displacements of quartz veins along fractures and rotation of fractures
(G.R.277876, 8 kilometres west-southwest of Lithgow). Enlargement: Minor fold of densely fractured granite associated
with minor fault.

(d) Sliced and displaced megacrysts of orthoclase in a gouge zone (G.R.228817, 25 kilometres southwest of Bathurst).
(e) Feather fracture, associated with a gouge zone (Plan view) (G.R.269042: See Fig.7 for locality. Wulff net in Fig.8c).

Fig.8. (Opposite Page)

Disposition of principal stress axes. (a, b, d, e: Wulff net, lower hemisphere. c: Schmidt net, lower hemisphere).
(a), (b) Deduced from conjugate faults. .

(c), (d) Deduced from feather fractures.

(e) Deduced from single faults.

BRITTLE DEFORMATION OF THE BATHURST BATHOLITH

w (COnjugate faults ,

Left-lateral

~
=<

[269042] | £8 Feather jonts [432794]
Legend
Principal stress axes

* Maximum
«& Intermediate
Xe Minimum

[ ] Locality

144 KOSAKA

Intrusion of the Bathurst Batholith is considered to
have taken place at the time of deformation
involving east-west shortening (Hobbs and
Hopwood, 1969). This is one of the possible times
for the east-west shortening responsible for low-
angle thrust faults at G.R.319957 and 374843
(Fig.7), though other possibilities still remain.

As shown in some sketches (Fig.6), large strains
are attained in a brittle manner in several areas.
Such brittle deformation of the Bathurst Batholith
is possibly related genetically to post-Late
Devonian activity of the Lachlan River
lineaments(Scheibner & Stevens, 1974) or is also
possibly related to the early Tertiary activity of
Lapstone Structural Complex at the eastern
extension of the Lachlan River lineament in the
Sydney Basin (Branagan and Pedram, 1990).

Comparison with other areas

A north-south compression is inferred from
megakinks on the South Coast of New South Wales
(Powell, 1983: Powell et al., 1985), where the
inferred disposition of stress axes are N-S-trending
for o1, vertical for 62, and E-W for 63. This stress
system is considered to have been responsible for
the last deformation of Palaeozoic rocks on the
South Coast and possibly postdating the Early
Carboniferous folding event (350+Ma) (Powell,
1983) and to have antedated the oldest sediments of
the Sydney Basin. Because of coincidence of stress
axes dispositions and timing of deformation, the
north-south compression inferred from brittle
deformation structures in the Bathurst Batholith
could have possibly occurred in relation to the
north-south compression responsible for the
formation of these megakinks.

A north-south shortening was detected in the Cann
Valley Granitoids in Victoria, well south of the
Bathurst Batholith, where fractures similar to those
reported here are described in brittle shear zones,
which “developed 310°-0° dextral brittle shear
zones associated with some 020°-050° sinistral
zones”, and which “could be contemporaneous with
the north to south compression documented in New
South Wales by Powell (1984)” (Begg et al., 1987).
The north-south shortening characterized by this
investigation is therefore not just a local feature
within the Bathurst Batholith, but could possibly
be part of a wider regional pattern in the Lachlan
Fold Belt during Late Carboniferous or early Early
Permian. The northwest to southeast shortening,
which predates the north to south shortening, is
detected in the Early to Middle Devonian Cann

Valley Granitoids by Begg et al. (1987), while an
east-west shortening possibly occurred in the
Bathurst Batholith.

CONCLUSION

The Bathurst Batholith has been fractured densely
and locally deformed intensely in a brittle manner.
The most penetrative features in the batholith are
subvertically-dipping subparallel fractures, many
of which, through displaced markers and striations,
show movements along them. Fault gouges and
folds of layered structures in granites are also
representative of brittle deformations. Evidence of
north-south shortening is preserved and is
probably related to the deformation, possibly
including megakinking in the Lachlan Fold Belt,
during the Late Carboniferous or early Early
Permian.

Acknowledgements

The author is much indebted to Dr. D. F. Branagan
of the University of Sydney for invaluable help. Dr.
K. J. Mills, also of the University of Sydney,
taught me much of the regional geology of the
region. Dr.T.Masuda of the University of Shizuoka
read the manuscript and suggested improvements.
The study was aided by a grant from the Nihon
University (No.949).

References

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National Science Curriculum Material
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Branagan, D.F., 1985. An overview of the geology
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BRITTLE DEFORMATION OF THE BATHURST BATHOLITH 145

J. N. Pells (Ed.) Balkema, Rotterdam.

Branagan, D.F., Herbert, C. and Langford-Smith,
T., 1976. AN OUTLINE OF THE GEOLOGY
AND GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE SYDNEY
BASIN. Science Press for the Department of
Geology and Geophysics, the University of
Sydney, Sydney. 60pp.

Branagan, D.F. and Pedram, H., 1990. The
Lapstone Structural Complex, New South
Wales. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences,
37, 23-36.

Briggs, D.J.C., 1991. Correlation charts for the
Permian of the Sydney-Bowen Basin and
New England Orogen. 25th Symposium on
Advances in the study of the Sydney Basin,
Department of Geology, the University of
Newcastle, New South Wales 1991, 30-37.

Browne, W.R., 1931. Notes on bathyliths and
some of their implications. Journal and
Proceedings of the Royal Society of New
South Wales, 65, 112-144.

Brunker, R.L. and Rose, G., 1969. Sydney Basin,
Geological map, scale 1:500,000. New
South Wales Geological Survey, Sydney,
Aaustralia.

Davies, R.S. and Pollard, D.D., 1986. Relations
between left-lateral strike-slip faults and
right-lateral monoclinal kink bands in
granodiorite, Mt. Abbot Quadrangle, Sierra
Nevada, California. Pure and Applied
Geophysics, 124, 177-201.

Davis, G.H., 1984. STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY OF
ROCKS AND REGIONS. John Wiley &
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Evernden, J.F. and Richards, J.R., 1962.
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Journal of the Geological Society of
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Facer, R.A., 1978. New and recalculated radiometric
data supporting a Carboniferous age for the
emplacement of the Bathurst Batholith, New
South Wales. Journal of the Geological
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Fowler, T.J., 1989. Superposed folding in the
Rockley district, Lachlan Fold Belt, New
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Sciences, 36, 451-468.

Fowler, T.J. and Lennox, P.G. 1992. Low-pressure
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Lennox, P.G., Hawley, S.P. and Fowler, T.J., 1991.
Intraorogenic Barry Granite-two granites in
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SOUTH COAST AND ADJACENT VICTORIA
WITH EMPHASIS ON THE PRE-PERMIAN
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Powell, C.McA., 1984. Terminal fold-belt
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Carboniferous megakinks in the Tasman

146 KOSAKA

fold belt to coeval thrusts in cratonic
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Powell, C.McA., Cole, J.P. and Cudahy, T.J.,
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TECHNIQUES OF MODERN STRUCTURAL
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(Manuscript received 8.12.93)

(Manuscript received in final form 8.9.94)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 127, pp 147-152,1994 147

ISSN 0035-9173/020147- 06 $4.00/1

Fogs, Fossil Fuels and the Fall from Grace
of St Mary's Purgatory Stone

Kenneth W. Riley

ABSTRACT. St Mary's Cathedral is used to illustrate the general deterioration of the stonework of
Sydney's 19th century buildings. This deterioration 1s associated with the presence of sulfate salts,
in which the sulfur has a range of isotopic compositions similar to that of the sulfur in the Permian
coals, which were used extensively in the city. This past use meant that levels of particulate matter
and sulfur dioxide in the city's atmosphere were higher than at present and over the decades, the
sulfur dioxide has reacted with the external surfaces of the sandstone buildings and contributed to
the decay. The past elevated levels of atmospheric pollutants from fossil fuels combustion appear
also to have had some effect on the formation of fogs. In recent times, with the decrease in these
pollutants, there has been a corresponding decrease in the occurrence of fogs in Sydney.

Introduction

St Mary's Cathedral can be used to illustrate the
deterioration of the stone in many (if not all) of
Sydney's sandstone buildings, erected in the latter
half of the 19th century. The rebuilding of St Mary's
commenced in 1865, after the original was destroyed
by fire. Ironically, it was constructed with
Hawkesbury sandstone from the Purgatory and Hell
Hole sections of the Pyrmont quarry (Herman, 1956),
although some of the stone may well have come from
Paradise (Wallace, 1971).

Pyrmont sandstone was used in many of Sydney's
buildings, and casual observation reveals that the
pattern of stone decay on the Cathedral is typical of
that seen on other buildings from the period.

Fall from Grace of the Purgatory Stone

The decay seen on the Purgatory and other Pyrmont
stone of St Mary's Cathedral is often on the underside
of external comices, sills and archways and 1s
associated with the deposition of salts. Rising damp
at lower levels of buildings is often a cause of this
deposition, but this does not produce the
deterioration seen at higher levels. An example of
this decay can be seen in the photographs (Figs. 1
and 2) of an archway on the eastern side of the
cathedral. The photographs illustrate how the
sandstone exfoliates, particularly on the undersides of

*

Fig. 1. Archway, eastern side of St Mary's Cathedral

148

overhanging stonework. Areas which are fully
exposed to rain are often in very good condition; for
example, the exposed carving of St Mary's face is
unblemished, whereas the protected underside of
surrounding stonework is badly decayed. Salt
deposits are readily seen on the left-hand side of the
archway. The salts, deposited in the pores of
sandstone cause disruption to its structure when they
crystallize (Winkler and Singer, 1972) or change in
hydration (Winkler and Wilhelm, 1970). The
increase in the volume of salt crystals within the
pores weakens the cementing matrix and this results
in the loss of sand grains or in extreme cases, pieces
of stone.

Riley (1994) has reported the analyses of salts taken
from St Mary's and from six other sandstone
buildings in Sydney. The salts present in the stone
were mainly sulfates of calcium and magnesium with
minor amounts of sodium chloride and low levels of
nitrate. Efflorescences present on the Australian

Museum, Customs House and the Cathedral (Fig. 1)
were composed of the hydrated magnesium sulfates,
epsomite and hexahydnte.

Fig. 2. Close up of efflorescence and damage

KENNETH W. RILEY

There are a number of possible sources of the sulfate
in the deposits. These include the wet and dry
deposition of marine sulfate, particulate sulfates (e.g.
gypsum dusts from building activity) and sulfates and
sulfur dioxide produced by the combustion of fossil
fuels. It is also possible that the sulfates have formed
from the oxidation of pymnte in the stone. However,
this is unlikely as pyrite in the Hawkesbury sandstone
is rare, Occurring in areas where there are thick
organic rich layers (Standard, 1961).

Variations in the isotopic composition of the sulfur in
the sulfates can be used to indicate the source of the
sulfur (Thode, 1991). Such variations are expressed
as 6345S, the fractional differences in the isotopic
ratios 34S/32S of samples relative to a standard (the
Canyon Diablo troilite). Riley (1994) also reported
that these values for the sulfur in the sulfates on
Sydney's sandstone buildings ranged from +2.1 to
+8.1%o (Table 1). This range differs markedly from
present-day marine sulfate which has a value of
+21%o, and also differs from that of the sulfur in
gypsum which has values ranging from +10 to +35%o
(Pilot, 1991), but is close to the values for the sulfur
in the low-sulfur Permian coals of eastern Australia;
the sulfur in these coals have values from -1.1 to
+5.5%o0 (Hunt and Smith, 1985). Smith (1992) has
calculated that the sulfur emitted to the atmosphere
as sulfur dioxide from coal combustion in New South
Wales would have an average isotopic value of +4%o.
A similar figure, +2%o was calculated from the
limited data available, for the sulfur released by the
combustion of petroleum products. Overall, the sulfur
emitted to the atmosphere in Sydney asa consequ-

Table 1 Isotopic Composition of Sulfates
on Sydney's Sandstone Buildings

Buildings 5345 %o of sulfates

Australian Museum +2 shoe a

Challis House +61, B81
Chief Secretary's

Building + 3).9 cross
Customs House +216

St Mary's Cathedral + 7,0
Town Hall 3,9 6-4
Great Hall, University

of Sydney 15,0

FOGS, FOSSIL FUELS and SANDSTONE 149

ence of the utilization of fossil fuels was estimated to
have an average isotopic value of +3.6%o. This value
was calculated from the tonnages of fuel used in the
state, for the year, 1981-2. A similar value would
apply to Sydney, although there would of course, be
some variation with the amounts and ongins of coal
and oil used in the city over the years. The middle of
the range for the sulfur in the sulfates on the city's
sandstone buildings is +5%o.

Some fractionation of the sulfur isotopes does occur
during the combustion of fossil fuels and subsequent
deposition of the sulfates on the sandstones,
particularly during the oxidation of emitted sulfur
dioxide to sulfates. Buzek and Sramek (1985) in a
study of the deterioration of Prague's monuments
reported that sulfate crusts have values approximately
2%o greater than the present sulfur dioxide in that
city's atmosphere. If the mechanisms involved in the
formation and deposition of sulfates on Sydney's
buildings are similar, then it is evident that the
average isotopic value of the sulfur in the source
would be less than +5%o, in the order of +3%o. There
is little doubt that the sulfates are primarily derived
from fossil fuel utilisation.

It has been a matter of some debate as to whether
anthropogenic emissions of sulfur dioxide are a
significant factor in the decay of Sydney sandstone
buildings (Gibbons, pers. comm.). Certainly, in the
northern hemisphere, where fuels containing high
levels of sulfur have been or are utilized, there is
significant stone degradation and this is directly
attributable to attack by sulfur dioxide or sulfuric
acid. It is apparent from the isotope measurements
that to some extent, similar degradation has occurred
in Sydney. Australia's indigenous fuels, both coal
and crude oil are low in sulfur and presently,
Sydney's atmosphere is low in sulfur dioxide;
monitoring ceased in the centre of Sydney in 1987,
when levels of total acid gases were well below
WHO guidelines (SPCC, 1987). Unfortunately, there
is no very early data on air pollution levels in
Sydney, but as air pollution trends (Ferrari and
Johnson, 1982) show a decline in dust deposition
rates and concentrations of acid gases (primarily
sulfur dioxide), it is reasonable to assume that levels
of the traditional pollutants, smoke, dust and sulfur
dioxide must have been higher than they are presently
and it is appropriate to discuss briefly the historic
sources of such pollution.

Historic Use of Fossil Fuels in Sydney

The compilation by Fraser (1983) has been used in
assigning many of the relevant dates in the following
brief summary of fossil fuels use in Sydney.

Coal was being used by 1797, only nine years after
colonization by the British. Initially, its use was for
domestic purposes. Industrial use accelerated,
following the importation of the first steam engine to
the colony in 1813. The historian, Bertie (1933) has
described Watt's steam engine as the invention,
"which caused the greatest change in the lives of the
people of the world".

Interestingly, a somewhat jaundiced view of Watt's
invention is taken by Elton (1989) in his novel,
"Stark", in which the character, Sly Moorcock states
"Ever since the first industrial revolution when James
Watt boiled a kettle and invented acid rain, or
whatever the hell happened, the natural, life-forming
parameters of our world have been like an hour glass,
getting thinner and thinner." Some poetic licence has
been taken by Elton, although coal combustion does
release sulfur dioxide and coal became increasingly
important in Sydney, as industrialisation developed.

This was evident to Darwin who, when visiting
Sydney in 1836 wrote:

"therefore so far as I can see, Australia must
ultimately depend upon being the centre of commerce
for the southern hemisphere, and perhaps on her
future manufactories. Possessing coal, she always
has the moving power at hand" (Darwin, 1839).

In the early 1830s, coal-fired steamers were replacing
sailing vessels. By 1842, coal was being used to
produce town gas. In 1855, the colony's first railway
opened and coal-fired steam trains were run from the
city. Within the city, steam trams ran from 1879 till
1900 when electrification commenced, following the
completion of the city's first major public power
station at White Bay. This was followed by the
Pyrmont station, which commenced operation in
1904 to provide electricity to replace the gas lighting.
Subsequently, all of Sydney's coal-fired power
stations were located within a few kilometres of the
city's centre and the last of the city's power stations,
did not cease operation until 1984. Industrial activity
was considerable within a few kilometres of the
centre of Sydney. Paintings and photographs of early

150 KENNETH W. RILEY

Sydney often depict the city as one, in which there is
a multitude of chimneys. The depiction by Hill in
1888 is of a city, which is "bright and clean, despite a
prodigious number of smoke stacks" (Fitzgerald
1992). Photographs taken in the 1940s and 50s of
areas such as Darling Harbour and Pyrmont
graphically illustrate the industries and atmospheric
pollution close to the centre of Sydney (Moore,
1993). (Fiz-3):

For many years coal was the major fuel source used
in the city, but obviously oil became more important
as the use of motor vehicles increased from the
1920s. Although Australia's indigenous oil is very
low in the sulfur, almost all of the oil used in the
country was imported until 1970, when production
from Bass Strait commenced. Significant amounts of
sulfur dioxide would have been released as a
consequence of using imported oil. The elevated
levels of sulfur dioxide in Sydney in the early 1970s
were attributed to the use of imported oil (Ferrari and
Johnson, 1982).

The Occurrence of Fogs in Sydney

An increase in industrialisation in cities and the
resulting air pollution, particularly smoke and
particulates is often associated with an increase in the
occurrence of fogs. London provides an extreme
example of a once very polluted city, which was also
very foggy. The monograph by Brimblecombe
(1987) contains a fascinating chapter on the
occurrence of fogs in London, where a decrease in
pollution has resulted in a marked decrease in the
incidence of fogs (see also Brimblecombe, 1982). A
recent study by Eggleston et al. (1992) on trends in
air pollution in England also links the decline in
atmospheric pollution to the decrease in fogs. In one
of the cities studied, Lincoln where levels of smoke
and sulfur dioxide have decreased significantly since
the 1960s, so has the incidence of fogs.
Coincidentally, the 900 year old Lincoln Cathedral
which was one of the cathedrals that influenced the
design of St Mary's, (O'Farrell, 1971) is also
suffering damage, attributed to acid precipitation
from past industrial activity in that city and from
nearby power Stations.

The scale of pollution in early London was, of course
much greater than that of Sydney. However, the
changing incidence of fogs in Sydney is worthy of

comment. Data from 1955 onwards is readily
available from the Bureau of Meteorology. The fog
days per annum for the years 1955 to 1993 have been
plotted in Fig. 4. There is a general decrease in the
occurrences of fogs since the mid 70s. The average
for the period of time is 8.7 fog days per annum. In
the first two decades, there were 12 years with a
greater than average number of fog days, whereas in
the latter two decades, there were only 3 years in
which this had occurred.

It is apparent that, in the past twenty years in Sydney,
the incidence of fogs has decreased, as have the
levels of the pollutants, dust and sulfur dioxide. In
Sydney, fogs are commonly radiation fogs, forming
when condensation occurs in the still air, as the
ground cools of a night (Bureau of Meteorology,
L991). If particulate matter or aerosols of
hygroscopic salts, such as sulfates are present at high
concentrations in the atmosphere, these fogs form
more readily. It is doubtful whether in the absence of
early pollution data, records of fog occurrences
would provide an adequate indication of changing
pollution levels in the city, although earlier records
may confirm the existence of an overall trend.

i
‘

ww ¥
Pos

Fig. 3. Moore's photograph - Pyrmont c. 1948

FOGS, FOSSIL FUELS and SANDSTONE

151

Year

il ull Ih

1985 1993

Fig. 4. Fog days in years 1955 - 1993

Conclusion

The deterioration of the stonework of St Mary's
Cathedral exemplifies that of many historic sandstone
buildings in Sydney. The deterioration is often
associated with the deposition of sulfates, in which
the sulfur has similar isotopic composition to that
present in the eastern Australian coals, widely
utilized within the city until quite recent times. It is
apparent that the decay of the sandstone has been, in
part, caused by its reaction with sulfur dioxide and
sulfur acid produced from the combustion of coal and
to some extent, oil and petroleum in the city.

The past utilization of coal also appears to have had
some effect on the occurrence of fogs in Sydney. In
recent times, these have decreased in frequency as
the levels of particulate matter and sulfur dioxide
have decreased in the atmosphere.

Acknowledgements

This work was completed as part of postgraduate
studies in the School of Chemistry, Macquarie
University and discussions with my supervisors, B.D.
Batts and J.W. Smith are gratefully acknowledged.

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CSIRO Division of Fossil Fuels, Leura, N.S.W.

152 KENNETH W. RILEY

Fitzgerald, S., 1992. SYDNEY 1842.- 1992. Hale &
Iremonger Pty Ltd, Sydney. p 123.

Fraser, B. (Ed), 1983. THE MACQUARIE BOOK
OF EVENTS. Macquarie Library Pty Ltd,
McMahons Point, N.S.W.

Gibbons, G.S., New South Wales Department of
Mineral Resources. pers. comm.

Herman, M., 1956) ‘THE -ARCHITECTURE: OF
VICTORIAN SYDNEY. Angus & Robertson,
Sydney. p 27.

Hunt, J.W. and Smith, J.W., 1985. 34S/32S Ratios of
low-sulfur Permian Australian coals in relation to
depositional environments. Chemical Geology
(Isotope Geoscience Section), 58, 137-144.

Moore, D., 1993. SYDNEY HARBOUR. Chapter &
Verse, McMahons Point, N.S.W. p 35.

O'Farrell, P.(Ed.), 1971. ST MARY'S
CATHEDRAL, SYDNEY, 1821 - 1971. Devonshire
Press, Surry Hills, N.S.W. pp 76 & 201.

Pilots, 1991. Sulfur and oxygen isotope
composition of marine evaporite and barite strata, in:
SCOPE, 48, STABLE ISOTOPES: NATURAL
AND ANTHROPOGENIC SULPHUR IN THE
ENVIRONMENT. Krouse, N.R. and Grinenko, V.A.
(Eds). John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester, U.K. p68.

Rileye, KW .5 1994. Chemical and _ Isotopic
Composition of Sulfate-rich Deposits on Historic
Sandstone Buildings of Sydney, Australia.
Atmospheric Environment, submitted.

CSIRO Division of Coal and Energy Technology
P.O. Box 136, North Ryde, NSW 2113
Australia

Smith, J.W., 1991. Contributions of anthropogenic
sulphur to the atmosphere in Australia, in: SCOPE
48, STABLE ISOTOPES: NATURAL AND
ANTHROPOGENIC SULPHUR»... IN tn WHE
ENVIRONMENT. Krouse, N.R. and Gnnenko, V.A.
(Eds). John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester, U.K. pp
385-391.

SPCC, 1987, State Pollution Control Commission,
Air Quality Measurements in New South Wales,
Annual Review.

Standard J.C., 1961. A new study of the
Hawkesbury sandstone: Preliminary findings.
Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New
South Wales, 95, 145-146.

Thode H.G., 1991 .Sulphur Isotopes in Nature and the
Environment: An Overview, in: SCOPE 48, STABLE
ISOTOPES: NATURAL AND ANTHROPOGENIC
SULPHUR IN THE ENVIRONMENT, Krouse,
N.R. and Grinenko, V.A. (Eds). John Wiley & Sons
Ltd, Chichester, U.K. pp 1-26.

Wallace, I., 1971. Studies on the Natural Building
Stones of New South Wales. PhD Thesis, Dept of
Industrial Arts, University of New South Wales. p

75. (Unpubl.).

Winkler, E.M. and Singer, P.C., 1972, Crystallization
pressure of salts in stone and concrete. Geological
Society of America Bulletin, 83, 3509-3514.

Winkler, E.M. and Wilhelm, E.J., 1970, Salt-burst by
hydration pressures in architectural stone in urban
atmosphere. ibid, 81, 567-572.

(Manuscript received 3-5-1994)
(Manuscript received in final form 26-9-1994)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.127, pp. 153-154,1994 153

ISSN 0035-9173/020153- 02 $4.00/1

ANNUAL DINNER ADDRESS and PRESENTATION of MEDALS,
ROYAL SOCIETY of NEW SOUTH WALES, TUESDAY 22nd MARCH 1994

His Excellency Rear Admiral Peter Sinclair, A.C., Governor of
New South Wales

* Dr Armstrong Osborne - President
Royal Society of NSW and Mrs
Osborne

= Dr Swaine

* Distinguished Guests

“ Members of Royal Society of NSW

Shirley and I are again delighted to be
with Members of the Royal Society of New
South Wales and their guests for this
important occasion in the Society's
Annual Calendar. a especially look
forward to presenting shortly the
Society's Awards to worthy recipients,
in the knowledge that they will join a
long list of distinguished Australians
who have been so recognised over past
decades.

The Royal Society of New South Wales can
claim to be one of the oldest
institutions in Australia. The Society
traces its origins to the year 1821,
incidentally, the same year that the
Galvanometer and Electromagnet were
invented, when, as a Philosophical
Society, it boasted the membership of an
eminent predecessor of mine, Governor
Sir Thomas Brisbane, who, prior to his
arrival in the colony, had been the
President of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh.

Governor Brisbane was not as is’ often
claimed, Australia's first Astronomer -
Captain Cook or Second Lieutenant
William Dawes of the First Fleet would
probably be accorded that honour. But
Governor Brisbane surely played a major
role in establishing the forerunner’ to
this Society = The Philosophical
Society.

In those days, New South Wales stretched
right across to the present Western
Australian Border, and from Cape York to
Wilson's Promentary, making its area
two-thirds of Australia, instead of its
present one-tenth. In terms of
population, however, New South Wales now
has over six million inhabitants or
nearly one hundred times its population
in-L@2l.

Whilst the Society may not be as old as
the First Bank (now Westpac) founded in
USi7e 2t is Older than the Sydney
Morning Herald first published in 1831.

This is a fair comparison as both the
“Herald' and the Society are in the
business of publishing, with the
Society's ‘Journal and Proceedings'

bringing new ideas in science to many
thousands of readers world wide.

An easy way to gain an appreciation of
the Society's history is to take an
opportunity tonight to examine the
Society's leather-bound Visitor's Book,
where the signatures of many significant
scientists both past and present can be
found.

Among those whose autograph appears is
Australia's aviation pioneer Lawrence
Hargrave who, exactly 100 years ago on
the 12th November this year, achieved
Australia's first flight using a machine
heavier than air at Stanwell Park Beach,
just south of Sydney. On that occasion
he was assisted by one James Swaine,
Grandfather of one of the Society's
current Vice-Presidents.

In spite of building 36 experimental
aircraft engines (of which most were
powered by compressed air or _ steam -
only three by petrol internal
combustion) , Hargrave was unable to
construct an engine light and powerful
enough to lift both itself and himself.

However, it was Hargrave who first
introduced the essential principle of a
successful aircraft wing, namely that a
curved surface produces more lift than a
flat one. Much of Hargrave's work was
published in the ‘Journal and
Proceedings' of the Society and many of
his plans, models and machines,
including a design for a jet engine, are
still stored in Sydney.

Hargrave andthe other signatories in
the weighty leather-bound tome represent
the History of the Society, one of a
Generalist Scientific Society from which
many more specialised groups, such as

the Geological Society of Australia and
the Institution of Engineers, have

sprung over the years - but what of its
future?
Science is becoming ever more

Specialised to the point where some are
saying that "Scientists are finding out
more and more about less and less, and
that soon they will know everything
about nothing".

A Society whose membership includes
Physicists, Chemists, Engineers,
Mathematicians, Medical Researchers,
Geologists, Arthitects, Educators and
even a Politician might therefore be
seen today as somewhat unusual, and

1o4 His Excellency Rear-Admiral Peter Sinclair, AC, Governor of New South Wales

perhaps even a bit old fashioned.

But if we look at the areas’ where
science impacts on Society today, we
find that solutions rarely come from the
application of a single scientific
discipline, but from the work of
multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary

teams, which increasingly include
specialists in Law and the Social
Sciences.

James Barrie no doubt had his tongue in
cheek when he wrote that “The only man
with anything to say is the man of
Science, and he can't say it!'

But the Royal Society of New South Wales
does provide a forum where scientists
can indeed say it - where scientists
from arrange of fields can meet, and
whose Journal and Proceedings provides
an avenue for publication of research
which does not easily fit into the
narrow scope of more specialised
publications.

The Society's Monthly Meetings, for
example the recent series on the ‘Sydney
Environment', and its extremely
important Summer Schools for Secondary
Students, make science accessible and
emphasise linkages between Science and
Society and between the various
disciplines of science themselves.

It is in bringing scientists together
and in presenting a view of science as a
whole to responsible members of our
community, that the Royal Society of New
South Wales has a significant role for
the present and the future. in “that i
wish you well.

Thank you for your hospitality - and I
now look forward to presenting on your
behalf, the Society's Awards for 1993.

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.127, pp.155-156, i994

ISSN 0035-9173/020155 - 02 $4.00/1

Chiral Discrimination Processes in Some Metal Chelate Systems of
Biological Interest: Doctoral Thesis Abstract (Macquarie University)

Janice Rae Aldrich-Wright

This thesis reports on the design,
synthesis and optical resolution of a set
of chiral metal complexes which are
intended to be of value for probing the
comformational structures of DNA via
intercalation. Optimisation of the
molecular size of the parent diimine
ligand was achieved by synthesis of
several phen-based bidentate ligands,
including the novel compound dpgq,
(dipyrido[6,7-d:2'3'-f]quinoxaline) and
these bidentates then were incorporated
into [M(diimine)3]"* complexes. The
effectiveness of the use of tetradentates
as a means of overall shape control was
investigated by synthesis of related
[M(tetradendate)(diimine)]"*complexes.

R=H =dppz
R=CH 3 =dppzMe>

The crystal structure of one of these
complexes, cis-B-[(Ru(picenBz2)(o-
pda)|(PF¢)2, was determined at room
temperature. Crystal data:
C34H3gN6F12P2Ru is triclinic, space
group P 1 (No.2), with a =10.129 b =
10.338, c = 19.587 A, a = 104.42, B =
93.36, y =92.00° and Z= 2. The structure
was refined by block matrix least-
squares methods to R = 0.075 for 3057
non-zero diffractometer data. Both PF¢
groups were subject to disordering with
respect to their fluorine atom positions,
and these have been interpreted in terms
of partial occupancies. The X-ray
structure, including observed torsion
angles and consequent calculated
coupling constants, is consistent with the
NMR analysis.

Classical and chromatographic means
of optical resolution of the complex
products were investigated, with the aim
of developing not only a method which
would separate enantiomers but which
also could act as a preliminary screening
technique for structural probes of DNA.
Resolutions using antimonyl(+)tartrate
were successful for [M(diimine)3]"*
species when the diimine is phen or dpq.
Racemic mixtures of
[Ru(bipyMe>)2(phen)]2+ and
[M(diimine)3]"* were eluted on
Sephadex with enantiomeric enrichment

159

156

Figure |

JANICE R. ALDRICH-WRIGHT

A computer generated stereoview of a-[Ru(picenBz2)(dpq)]2*+complex,

with dpq occupying the intercalation site of six base-pair DNA model.

of the leading and trailing fractions. The
diastereomers of [Ru(diimine),(aa)]?*
complexes, where the diimine is bipy or
phen and aa is trp, N-Methyl-S-trp, G,
asp, were resolved using pbondapak
HPLC columns, eluted with an ion
pairing reagent.

Chiral stationary phases were
developed for HPLC applications
although only one of these columns
showed selectivity for the chiral metal
complexes. A covalently-bound DNA
stationary phase was developed and used
to optically resolve [Ru(dpq)3]**and
[Ru(phen)3]2*, and confirmed _ that
effective aromatic overlap does influence
column _ retention _ times. Other
immobilised-DNA _ stationary phases
were examined, such as DNA-

University of Western Sydney, Macarthur
Faculty of Business and Technology
Department of Chemistry

P.O. Box 555, Campbelltown, N.S.W. 2560

Australia

hydroxylapatite, cellulose-DNA column
and DNA-paper. The DNA-paper proved
to be an easy way of simultaneously
comparing a number of metal
complexes, and the Ry data correlated
well with the aromatic area available for
intercalation.

Computer modelling has been used
extensively for the preparation of the
illustrations throughout the thesis and, by
adapting crystallographic data of
analogous metal complexes, as a design
aid in investigating the effects of
structural variations on complementary
fit and likely efficiency of DNA binding
for the probe molecules developed (Fig

1).

(Manuscript received 13-10-1994)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.127, pe 157, 1994

ISSN 0035-9173/020157 - 01 $4.00/1

157

MSc Thesis Abstract:- Movement Behaviour and
Structure of Groups of juvenile MULLET,
Mugil cephalus (Linnaeus).

Stuart Fitzsimmons.

‘.vement behaviour and group structure of
juvenile mullet, Mugil cephalus (Linnaeus),

and obligate schooling species, was investigated
for known focal individuals within small group
sizes (blocks of two, three and four fish).

Plots of swimming patterns indicated two main

types of movement behaviour - (a) inactive groups
that covered short distances and executed few turns,
and (b) active groups that covered larger distances
and executed many turns. Mean swimming speeds (body
-~lengths/sec) and mean turning frequencies (turns/
sec)both declined significantly with increasing
group size, with significant differences between
blocks of similar sized groups being attributed to
individual variation. However, within blocks the
movement behaviour of individuals was generally
highly coordinated. As the size of the group
increased, behavioural convergence mediated by the
monitoring of companions rapidly masked individual
variation and led to the characteristic uniformity
of such associations,

In conjunction with mean swimming speeds, separ-
ation angles (degrees) were used to categorize
groups into congregations (<0.2 BIJ./sec, non-
polarized > 20°), shoals (>0.2 BL/sec, non-polar-
ized 5200), and schools (>0.2 BL/sec, polarized
<20°). Separation angles determined the level

of polarization between individuals within groups,
with polarization angles ranging from 0° farallel
orientation) to 90° (non-parallel orientation).
Polarized groups of mullet were estimated to have
separation angles of <209 and non-polarized
groups 20°, Although these cut-off limits were
arbitrary, groups within each category generally
displayed movement behaviours quantitatively
different from one another.

Polarization of individuals' headings and
synchrony of their movements were generally
dependent upon mean swimming speeds, with
schooling behaviour generally exhibited more
often by faster moving groups. As mean
swimming speed decreased, groups tended to
exhibit more shoaling and congregating behaviour.
Focal pairs of fish within faster moving groups
(>0.5 BL/sec) had significantly correlated
swimming speeds and headings at lag of 0 - 1
seconds. As swimming speed decreased, lag time
between correlated movements increased. In the
slowest moving groups (<0.2 BL/sec), speed and
heading of focal fish were not significantly
correlated for lags between -5 to +5 seconds.

Distances between focal pairs (body lengths),
and positional bearing (degrees) only signif-
icantly effected co-ordination of swimming
speeds or headings in a small number of groups.
This could be attributed to the fact that

group structure did not vary significantly

between blocks of similar size or for each
group size. Mean interfish distance of the
focal pairs varied from 0.49 to 2.1 body
lengths (BL), regulated around a mean ofs1 BL.
The response fish in most instances swam at a
mean position diagonally behind the focal fish,
either to the left or right hand side.

A significant leader/follower relationship was
observed in most groups, with the focal fish dominat ~
ing the leadership for the duration of analysis. The
duration of leadership did not significantly vary
between groups of similar size or for each group size
The duration of leadership of a single individual
decreased significantly as mean swimming speeds, mean
turning frequencies and separation angles increased,
with group structure having no significant effect on
duration of leadership.

Movement behaviour of group structure was analysed
for four-fish groups within three treatments of
varying physical attributes. In the tank with a
structure present (clump of artificial weed), the
focal pairs of individuals had mean swimming speeds
Significantly faster than those in the control tank
and smaller tank, However, mean swimming speeds were
not significantly different between groups within the
smaller tank and the control tank. Groups within the
smaller tank performed significantly more turns than
control and structured tank groups, but mean distance
travelled between turns was significantly lower, The
separation angle of the focal pairs did not vary
Significantly between treatments or between blocks.
In most blocks, mean separation angle of the focal
pairs were lower compared to those of the overall
group, which was attributed to the fish three and
four having headings dissimilar to the focal fish.

As for control groups, interfish distances and posit-
ional bearings did not significantly differ between
treatments,

In summary, obligate schooling species, such as
mullet, can exhibit consistent individual
differences in behaviour which is considered to
be the principal underlying source of variation
between blocked pairs. Movement behaviour of
individuals can be significantly influenced by
the addition of only a single extra individual
when group size is small. In nature, as small
groups merge into larger associations,
behavioural convergence becomes more broadly-
based and the influence of particular individ-
uals is less obvious. However, factors such

as separation angle and group structure,
interfish distance and positional bearing,

were relatively fixed. Neither individual
variation or group size had any significant
effect on these parameters.

The University of Queensland,
Department of Zoology,
Brisbane, Q4072.

Australia. (Manuscript received 28.6.94)

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.127, p.158, 1994 158
ISSN 0035-9173/020158- 01 $4.00/1

DOCTORAL THESIS ABSTRACT : PERINATAL HYPOXIC-ISCHAEMIC ENCEPHALOPATHY :
PATHOGENESIS and PHARMACOLOGICAL INTERVENTION,

William Kian Meng Tan

Perinatal hypoxic-ischaemic encephalop- without compromising arterial blood
athy is associated with an _ increased pressure or metabolic status.
risk of neurological deficits. Certain
aspects of the pathogenesis of damage Three 10-minute episodes of reversible
are still unclear. To address some of cerebral ischaemia, repeated at 1 hour
the hypotheses relating to the interval, can markedly sensitise the
mechanisms of damage and = recovery, fetal brain to neuronal loss. The same
chronically instrumented near-term fetal dose of GMl given immediately after the
sheep were subjected to _ transient first insult counteracts this
hypoxia-ischaemia; this procedure sensitisation and protects against
induces an encephalopathy showing subsequent insults through stabilisation
characteristics similar to that seen in of membrane function. These results
some asphyxiated term infants. demonstrate the potential of GMl as a
Electrocorticographic (ECoG) activity strategy to protect the CNS of
was quantified with real-time spectral distressed fetuses at risk of hypoxic-
analysis. On-line cortical impedance ischaemic injuries.
was used to estimate changes in
extracellular space that occur
concomitantly with cytotoxic oedema and
reflect cell membrane function. Research Centre for Developmental
Histological outcome was assessed V2 Medicine
hours after ischaemia. University of Auckland

Private Bag 92019
It is not Known whether postasphyxial Auckland
seizures either extend damage or are an New Zealand

expression of existing damage. MK-801,

an NMDA receptor antagonist and potent

anticonvulsant (0.3 mg/kg), suppressed

the epileptiform activity, delayed the

onset of secondary oedema and_ reduced

neuronal damage. These results suggest

that NMDA mediated epileptiform activity

that develops after a global _ hypoxic-

ischaemic insult worsens neuronal (Manuscript received 21-6-1994)
outcome in the immature brain.

Hypoxia-ischaemia is associated with an
increase in cerebral lactate levels and
a decrease in tissue pH. LE. 1S. OL
clear whether lactic acidosis worsens
neuronal injury in the developing brain
or is protective. Acutely induced
lactic acidosis (fetal arterial lactate
concentrations: 11.2 +.1.0 mmol/i; ;
pH:7.04 + 0.06) superimposed ona 10-
minute cerebral ischaemia delayed
recovery of ECoG and accentuated
hippocampal damage.

Treatment strategies against hypoxic-
ischaemic injury in the perinatal period
are limited. The effectiveness of GMl,
a glycosphingolipid which is an
endogenous component of plasma membrane,
was evaluated. GM1 (30 mg/kg), started
2 hours before a severe insult, improved
recovery of acute cortical oedema and
ECoG activity and reduced neuronal loss

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 127, p 159, 1994 199

ISSN 0035-9173/020159- 01 $4.00/1

MASTERS THESIS ABSTRACT

Intake of organochlorines from the breastmilk of Victorian women.

PATRICIA M. QUINSEY

Organochlorines have been distrib-
uted throughout the environment.
Many organochlorines are pesticides and
some are industrial pollutants. Due to
their high lipophilicity, toxicity in partic-
ular animal species and ability to bioac-
cumulate in animals, the use of these
chemicals has been restricted. Mobil-
isation of fat tissue by weight loss or
breastfeeding allows stored organo-
chlorines to re-enter the blood stream.
Excretion of organochlorines in breast-
milk is a significant way for women to
reduce their body burden. Unfor-
tunately, in the process breastmilk can
transfer organochlorines from mother to
child.

The purpose of this project was to es-
timate infants' daily intake of organo-
chlorines from breastmilk and to trace
the elimination patterns of these com-
pounds from the mothers.

Each infant was test-weighed over
twenty-four hours to provide an accurate
milk intake. The entire content from
one breast was collected at the midmorn-
ing feed. Three collections occurred for
each mother at intervals of a month.
The lipophilic material was extracted
from the milk and the organochlorines
were separated by gel permeation chro-
matography. The organochlorine extract
was analysed by selected ion monitoring
on a gas chromatograph-mass spectro-
meter (GC-MS).

The lipid content of milk varies dra-
matically and this factor influences the
concentration of organochlorines in
breastmilk. The determination of the
levels of organochlorines present on a
milk-fat basis accounts for changes in
lipid composition. The amount of milk
an infant drinks daily varies from
mother to mother. To determine reliable
intakes of organochlorines it is essential

to measure the amount of milk con-
sumed by each infant.

Residues of p,p’-DDE, p,p’-DDT, dield-
rin, aldrin, a, B, y, 5S HCH, HCB, oxy-
chlordane, trans-nonachlor, heptachlor
epoxide and PCBs were detected. There
was widespread contamination of breast-
milk with p,p’-DDT and its metabolite
p,p'-DDE, HCB, PCBs, oxychlordane and
HCHs, with p,p’-DDT and HCB being
found in nearly all samples. A number
of infants received daily intakes of
p,p'-DDT, heptachlor epoxide, total
chlordane, dieldrin and PCBs above the
acceptable daily intakes (ADIs). Gen-
erally, the levels of organochlorines
detected in the breastmilk represents no
danger to the infant.

The main human source of organo-
chlorines is probabiy foodstuffs. There
was no significant difference between the
concentrations of organochlorines found
in breastmilk from the two regions
studied. The use of termiticides in
houses was not associated with the level
of organochlorines found in breastmilk.
Over the period of lactation a general
downward trend in concentration of
organochlorines was observed, with
levels of p,p'-DDE decreasing signif-
icantly. The concentrations of p,p’-DDT
and dieldrin in human milk have de-
creased in Victoria, whilst levels of HCB
and PCBs have increased. The byprod-
ucts of some chlorinated industrial pro-
cesses and the disposal of PCB-containing
products are possibly increasing the envi-
ronmental burden of these organochlo-
rines.

Patricia M. Quinsey

Key Centre for Applied and Nutritional
Toxicology,

RMIT,

Victoria 3001

ra

Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.127, ppl61-167, 1994 161
$4.00/1

ISSN 0035-9173/020161- 97

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS

JOHN ALLAN DULHUNTY - 1911-1994

John Dulhunty died in Queanbeyan on 7 April,
1994, in his eighty fourth year. A descendant of a
family that pioneered inland New South Wales in the
1820s, and proud of his long Australian heritage,
John was a legend in the Department of Geology and
Geophysics at the University of Sydney, where he
continued to work and enjoy life with his many
University colleagues until his enforced move south
in 1993. Son of John J. Dulhunty of Merriwa, John
was born on 1 Apmil, 1911.

He was sent by his father to Cranbrook School in
Sydney, but preferred the country life and soon
returned to the family property on the Cudgegong
River. However he had gained something from his
chemistry teacher, devising and building a still to
provide fuel for running equipment in a shearing
shed, using oil shale which he found cropping out in
the river bank. Some years later he returned to
Sydney, had some private tuition and matriculated to
the University of Sydney where he graduated in
1938 with a Bachelor of Science degree with First
Class Honours in Economic Geology. John's first
paper, written while still an undergraduate, was, not
surprisingly, on oil shale.

He was awarded the Deas Thompson Scholarship for
Mineralogy in 1938, held a Linnean Macleay
Fellowship from 1940 to 1944, and a Senior
Commonwealth Research Fellowship from 1945 to
1949. His research culminated in the completion of
his Doctor of Science thesis on the Classification and
Origin of New South Wales torbanites in 1946.

In the period between 1934 and 1968 he produced
more than thirty papers on the fossil fuels. His
experimental work on the formation of coal, and the

various metamorphic processes which caused
changes in rank of coal,were carried out in the
Department of Geology, in equipment designed and
built by himself and colleagues with whatever
material came to hand. The classic papers were
published particularly in the early years of World
War II, in Australian journals (particularly the
Royal and Linnean Societies of New South Wales),
so did not reach the wider international readership
till some years later. However John's expertise was
certainly appreciated by the Australian authorities,
and during the war he was involved in considerable
practical, as well as fundamental, research, including
the production of methane gas from the Balmain
Colliery shaft, and distillation of oil from various oil
shale deposits. Immediately following the cessation
of hostilities in Europe John was sent as a member of
a British delegation to Germany to examine its coal
research facilities. About this time he also became
involved in a related, but neglected field of research,
palynogy, in which he published several important
basic Australian papers (including one with his wife
Roma {née Johnson}, who he had married on 17
May, 1941). This work was later taken up by his
research students.

His love for the landscape is illustrated by the many
papers he wrote on "physiography". These
concentrated, at first, on the region where he grew
up, the northwestern edge of the Sydney Basin, and
include his Clarke Memorial Lecture to the Society
in 1964, where he dealt with the Permian glaciation
that played such an important part in shaping that
landscape. In the 1960s John saw the opportunity to
refine some of his physiographic and stratigraphic
work by becoming involved in dating the enigmatic
igneous rocks on the northwestern edge of the
Sydney Basin. This successful work saw him sort out
out a number of long-term problems, in
collaboration with other scholars, his most recent
paper on this topic appearing in July 1992.

In 1951 he was appointed to a Senior Lectureship in
Geology in the University of Sydney, and in 1957
promoted to Reader. He was Acting Head of the
Department of Geology and Geophysics on three
occasions, during 1955, 1961 (when the Department
moved to the present Edgeworth David Building)
and again in 1967.

After his official retirement in 1973, John undertook
a most ambitious programme of research. With his
wife Roma he carried out a series of arduous
expeditions to Lake Eyre (which they had first
visited in 1950), to document thc major sequence of
wet-dry cycles of sedimentological and
geomorphological change in the lake. This resulted
in a number of important research papers to

162 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS

scientific journals, especially those of the Royal
Societies of South Australia and New South Wales.
Many of John's fine colour photos also adorned the
three books written by Roma about their adventures
in the Lake Eyre region. Characteristically, when
major publishers weren't interested and their
original publisher had ceased operation John and
Roma published the final volume themselves in 1986.

John had a long, faithful and active association with
the local scientific bodies, publishing most of his
work in the Royal and Linnean Societies of New
South Wales, and then in the Geological Society of
Australia's journals. He was President of the Royal
Society in 1947, and acted as councillor and advisor
on publications at various times. He received the
Society's medal for service to Science in 1970. In
1976 the Society published the proceedings of a 75th
celebratory Conference held in the Department of
Geology and Geophysics. The Edgeworth David
Society symposium in 1992, appropriately on
Australian Landscapes and economic implications,
also recorded the appreciation of his colleagues for
his scientific work. John was President of the
Geological Society in 1964-65, after a stint as
Chairman of the New South Wales Division. In all
these activities he worked assiduously for the benefit
of the science he loved and for the members of these
Societies.

In the late 1960s John had a long bout of sickness,
which he fought off with characteristic toughness,
continuing to teach and research under difficult
conditions. In recent years the onset of emphysima
made the climbing of hills difficult, and the regretful
abandonment of fieldwork. This coincided with the
sudden decline in the health of his wife, Roma and,
sadly, her death late in 1990.

Of a total of eighty six papers and articles, more
than thirty appeared in Society publications.

Generations of students benefited from contact with
John Dulhunty. His unfailing courtesy (students were
addressed from their first lecture as "ladies and
gentlemen"), his stimulating and entertaining
lectures, his wise counsel and administrative
expertise gained him affection, respect and
admiration.

John was not without his eccentricities, and I suspect
he played up to expectations at times. A great love
was a 1930s Rolls Royce that he nursed with great
care. But as a colleague recently remarked, it was
the only Rolls that he had ever seen the owner
touching up with pot and paint brush. However, with
John's practical skills you would probably never
notice!

Publications of J.A. Dulhunty

Dulhunty, J.A., 1934. Oil shale. Sydney University
Science Journal, 13(2), 31-33.

o--------2----------- , 1937. Volcanic activity. Sydney
University Science Journal, 16(2), 14-18.

o 2-2 2---------------- , 1937. Stratigraphy and
physiography of the Goulburn River district, New
South Wales. Journal and Proceedings of the Royal
Society of New South Wales, 71, 297-317.

n2------------------- , 1937. Notes on the stratigraphy
and physiography of the Talbragar Fish Bed area.
Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of
New South Wales, 71, 350-356.

a2 ------------------- , 1938. The torbanites of New
South Wales. Part I. The essential consituents and
relations to the physical properties. Journal and
Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South
Wales, 72, 179-198.

w-------------------- , 1939. Mesozoic stratigraphy of
the Merriwa-Murrurundi district and South East
Liverpool Plains. Journal and Proceedings of the
Royal Society of New South Wales, 73, 29-40.

o--22---------------- , 1940. Mesozoic stratigraphy of
the Gulgong-Coolah district. Journal and
Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South
Wales, 73, 150. |

--------------------- , 1940. Structural geology of the
Mudgee-Gunnedah region. Journal and Proceedings
of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 74, 88-
98.

--------------------- , 1941. Notes on the measurement
of some physical and optical properties of New
South Wales torbanites. Proceedings of the Linnean
Society of New South Wales, 66, 169-177.

Notes on the Kamilaroi
stratigraphy of the Western Coalfield of New South
Wales. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New
South Wales, 66, 257-267.

The physical effects of
heat on the torbanites of New South Wales.
Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South
Wales, 66, 335-348.

won n----------------- , 1941. Torbanite and oil.
Australian Journal of Science, 4, 47-49.

ooo eee ------------ , 1942. Stratigraphical
arrangement and occurrence of torbanite deposits in
Upper Kamilaroi Coal Measures of New South
Wales. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New
South Wales, 67, 123-141.

te , 1942. Notes on solvent extraction

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS 163

of torbanite. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of
New South Wales, 67, 238-248.

--------------------- , 1942. Action of solvents on
torbanite. Journal and Proceedings of the Royal
Society of New South Wales, 76, 268-274.

wnnnnn--------------- , 1943. Preliminary notes on
solution-cracking treatment of torbanite. Journal and
Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South
Wales, 77, 24-32.

wano----------------- , 1943. Classification of

torbanites and relations to associated carbonaceous
sediments in New South Wales. Proceedings of the
Linnean Society of New South Wales, 68, 187-206.

Origin of New South
Wales torbanites. Proceedings of the Linnean Society
of New South Wales, 69, 26-48.

--------------------- , 1944. (with W.R. Browne &
W.H. Maze). Notes on the geology, physiography
and glaciology of the Kosciusko area. Proceedings of
the Linnean Society of New South Wales , 69, 238-
252,

wn ene-n-------------- , 1945. Glacial lakes in the
Kosciusko region. Journal and Proceedings of the
Royal Society of New South Wales, 79, 143-152.

2-------------------- , 1945. Principal microspore
types in the Permian coals of New South Wales.
Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South
Wales, 70, 147-157.

22-2222 --2----------- , 1946. Co-operative coal
research. Australian Journal of Science, 8, 118-119.

--------------------- , 1946. Recent advances in coal
research. Part 1. New methods and results.
Australian Journal of Science, 8, 146-149.

, 1946. Physical changes
accompanying drying of some Australian lignites.
Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of
New South Wales, 80, 22-27.

w-------------------- , 1946. Distribution of
microspore types in New South Wales Permian
Coalfields. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of
New South Wales, 71, 239-251.

--------------------- , 1946. Sub-surface peat
temperatures at Mt Kosciusko, New South Wales.
Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South
Wales, 71, 292-295.

e-------------------- , 1947. Recent advances in coal
research. Part II. The metamorphic evolution of
coal. Australian Journal of Science, 9, 133-137.

--------------------- , 1947. Determination of
maximum inherent moisture in coal by controlled

vaporisation of adherent moisture. Journal and
Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South
Wales, 81, 60-68.

w-------------------- , 1948. Some new horizons in
coal utilization and research. Journal and
Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South
Wales, 82, 1-15.

Siaiaiataiatataiatataietataieateatatate , 1948. Some effects of
compression on the physical properties of low rank
coal. Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society
of New South Wales, 82, 265-271.

o2------------------- , 1948. Relations of rank to
inherent moisture of vitrain and permanent moisture
reduction on drying. Journal and Proceedings of the
Royal Society of New South Wales, 82, 286-293.

--------------------- , 1949. Nature and occurrence of
peat at Hazelbrook, New South Wales. Journal and
Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South
Wales, 83, 228-231.

--------------------- , 1949. Trends in coal research.
Australian Journal of Science, 12(3), 98-100.

--------------------- , 1949. (with Roma Dulhunty).
Notes on microspore types in Tasmanian Permian
coals. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New
South Wales, 74, 132-139.

--------------------- , 1950. (with N. Hinder and R.
Penrose). Rank variation in the Central Eastern
Coalfields of New South Wales. Journal and
Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South
Wales, 84, 99-106.

a 222-222 22---------- , 1951. Occurrence and origin of
Australian torbanites, in OIL SHALE AND COAL,
Vol. 2, pp. 155-161, Institute of Petroleum, London.

--------------------- , 1951. (with R. Penrose). Some
relations between density and rank of coal. Fuel, 30,
109-113.

a2 222 ---------------- , 1952. Physiography, in THE
GEOLOGY OF NEW SOUTH WALES - AN
OUTLINE. ANZAAS Section C. Handbook, Sydney.

--------------------- , 1952. Permian Coal Seams, in
THE GEOLOGY OF NEW SOUTH WALES - AN
OUTLINE. ANZAAS Section C. Handbook, Sydney.

--------------------- , 1952. BLACK TREASURE.
Cologravure Publication, Melbourne.

--------------------- , 1952. (with B.L. Harrison). A
laboratory method for measuring some combustion
properties of solid fuels. Fuel, 31, 220-225.

--------------------- , 1953. (with B.L. Harrison).
Some relations of rank and rate of heating to
carbonisation properties of coal. Fuel., 32, 441-450.

164 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS

o-------------------- , 1954. High pressure equipment
for experimental research on coal metamorphism.
Australian Journal of Science, 16, 236- 238.

-~-------------------- , 1954. Geological factors in the
metamorphic development of coal. Fuel., 33, 145-
152,

Some aspects of rank
variation and utilization of coal. Proceedings of the
Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
176, 50-69.

How coal seams were
formed. Science Survey, The Coal Miner, Newcastle,
13.

on 2222 --------------- , 1959. An hypothesis for the
fundamental mechanism of instantaneous outbursts of
gas and coal during the mining of certain coal seams,
Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of
New South Wales, 92, 148-150.

--------------------- , 1960. Experiments in physical
metamorphism of brown coals. Fuel, 39, 155-162.

ao--------22--------- , 1961. Some aspects of overseas
geological research and teaching. Journal and
Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South
Wales , 95, 121.

on22----------------- , 1962. (with G.H. Packham) .
Notes on Permian sediments in the Mudgee district,
New South Wales. Journal and Proceedings of the
Royal Society of New South Wales , 95, 161-166.

--------------------- , 1964. Clarke Memorial Lecture.
Our Permian heritage in Central Eastern New South
Wales. Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society
of New South Wales , 95, 145-155,

--------------------- , 1965. Mesozoic age of the
Garrawilla Lavas in the Coonabarabran-Gunnedah
district. Journal and Proceedings of the Royal
Society of New South Wales , 98, 105-109.

--------------------- , 1966. (with I. MacDougall).
Potassium-argon dating of basalts in_ the
Coonabarabran-Gunnedah district. Australian
Journal of Science, 28, 393-394.

ana 22---------------- , 1966. (with D.K. Tompkins).
The origin of Coal, in University of Sydney Mining
Engineering Symposium, Paper No.1, p 1.

--------------------- , 1967. Mesozoic alkaline
volcanism and Garrawilla Lavas near Mullaley, New
South Wales. Australian Journal of Science, 14, 133-
138.

aa-n---- 22-2 22------- , 1968. Mesozoic geology of the
Gunnedah-Narrabri district. Journal and Proceedings

of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 101, 105-
108.

2-------------------- , 1968. Power - from muscles to
atoms, in A CENTURY OF SCIENTIFIC
PROGRESS, PP.101-130. Centenary volume, Royal
Society of New South Wales, Sydney.

--------------------- , 1968. Mesozoic stratigraphy of
the Narrabri-Couradla district. Journal and
Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South
Wales, 101, 1-4.

wo-nn nn n------------- , 1969. (with J. Eadie). Geology
of the Talbragar Fossil Fish Bed area. Journal and
Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South
Wales, 101, 178-182.

w+ ------------------- , 1969. Upper Goulburn valley,
in THE GEOLOGY OF NEW SOUTH WALES,
pp.387-388. G.H. Packham (ed.). Geological Society
of Australia, Sydney.

--------------------- , 1969. (with C.T. McElroy).
North west margin and Goulburn valley, in THE
GEOLOGY OF NEW SOUTH WALES, p.400. G.H.
Packham (ed.). Geological Society of Australia,
Sydney.

--------------------- , 1971. Potassium-argon basalt
dates and their significance in the Ilford-Mudgee-
Gulgong region. Journal and Proceedings of the
Royal Society of New South Wales, 104, 39-44.

wnnnn---------------- , 1972. Potassium-argon dating
and occurrence of Tertiary and Mesozoic basalts in
the Binnaway district. Journal and Proceedings of
the Royal Society of New South Wales, 105, 71-76.

wa nnnnn------- 2-2 ---- , 1973. Origin of ferruginous
outcrops in Jurassic sediments of New South Wales.
Search, 4, 116-118.

w-------------------- , 1973. Mesozoic stratigraphy in
Central Western New South Wales. Journal of the
Geological Society of Australia, 20, 319-328.

Potassium-argon basalt
ages and their significance in the Macquarie valley,
New South Wales.Journal and Proceedings of the
Royal Society of New South Wales , 106, 104-110.

--------------------- , 1974. Salt crust distribution and
lake bed conditions in southern areas of Lake Eyre
North. Transactions of the Royal Society of South
Australia, 98, 125-133.

noon 22-----2-------- , 1975. Shoreline shingle terraces
and prehistoric fillings of Lake Eyre. Transactions
of the Royal Society of South Australia, 99, 183-188.

--------------------- , 1976. Potassium-argon areas of
igneous rocks in the Wollar-Rylstone region, New
South Wales. Journal and Proceedings of the Royal

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS 165

Society of New South Wales, 109, 35-39.

2o------------------- , 1976. The waters and fish of the
Lake Eyre Basin, Part 1, Royal Society of New
South Wales Newsletter, 13.

o-------------------- , 1977. Salt crust solution during
fillings of Lake Eyre. Transactions of the Royal
Society of South Australia, 101, 147-151.

o2------------------- , 1977. Lake Eyre. New South
Wales Newsletter Newsletter, 15.

The terminal role and
evolution of Lake Eyre in Australia, in DESERTIC
TERMINAL LAKES. D.C. Greer (Ed _ ).
Proceedings of Conference of Utah Water Research
Laboratory, Logan, Utah.

eo-------------------- , 1977. A bottom profile across
Lake Eyre North, South Australia. Journal and
Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South
Wales, 110, 95-98.

Salt transfers between
North and South Lake Eyre. Transactions of the
Royal Society of South Australia, 102, 107-112.

a-n-nn---------------- , 1978. Return to aridity. Royal
Society of New South Wales Newsletter , 28.

~-------------------- , 1978. Escape from aridity.
Royal Society of New South Wales Newsletter , 33.

Quaternary sedimentary
environments in the Lake Eyre region, South
Australia. Geological Society of Australia, Abstracts
3. Fifth Aust. Geol. Conv., Perth.

--------------------- , 1982. Holocene sedimentary
environments in Lake Eyre, South Australia. Journal
of the Geological Society of Australia, 29, 437-442.

a-----n-------------- , 1983. Lunettes of Lake Eyre
North, South Australia. Transactions of the Royal
Society of South Australia, 107, 219-222.

wn------------------- , 1983. Lake Eyre geology, in
MARREE AND THE TRACKS BEYOND IN
‘BLACK AND WHITE. L. Litchfield. Mundowdna,
Marree.

o-------------------- , 1983. Lake Dieri and its
Pleistocene environment of sedimentation, South
Australia. Journal and Proceedings of the Royal
Society of New South Wales , 116, 11-15.

a-------------------- , 1984. (with T.F. Flannery &
J.A. Mahoney). Fossil marsupial remains at the
Southeastern corner of Lake Eyre North, South
Australia. Transactions of the Royal Society of South
Australia, 108, 119-122.

~-------------------- , 1985. Levels, salt crusts and
lake bed instability and some significant features of

the 1974 filling of Lake Eyre. in LAKE EYRE
REPORT - THE GREAT FLOODING OF 1974-79.
Royal Geographical Society of Australia, South
Australia Branch.

--------------------- , 1986. Introduction, and modern
Lake Eyre, in LAKE EYRE BASIN Field Guide.
Geological Society of Australia, Australian
Sedimentology Group.

--------------------- , 1988. Holocene sediments of
Lake Eyre playa. in LAKE EYRE BASIN. R.T.
Wells and R.A. Callen (Eds). Australian
Sedimentology Group, Field Guide Series.
Geological Society of Australia.

wnnnn---------------- , 1992. (with E.A.K. Middlemost
& R.W. Beck) Some Mesozoic Igneous Rocks from
Northeastern New South Wales and their Tectonic
Setting. Journal and Proceedings of the Royal
Society of New South Wales, 125, 1-11.

DeEaBs

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Kenneth John Brown, 1925 - 1994

Ken Brown passed away on the
1994, Ken was born at Campsie on the 9th
of January 1925 and received his secondary
education at Sydney Technical High School.
He went on to tertiary education at Sydney
Technical College, where, on 31st December
1947, he was awarded Associateship of the
College having completed the Diploma
Course in Industrial Chemistry and
Chemical Engineering. The following year,
on the 29th of November 1948, he _ was
admitted as an Associate of the Royal
Australian Chemical Institute. Ten years
later, on the 3lst of December 1958, he
was awarded the Certificate of the

3th “July

166 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS

Management Certificate Course at the
Sydney Technical College. In 1955 Ken had
been appointed a Research Chemist with the
firm of Johnson & Johnson, with which
company he remained for the next 26 years,
becoming Supervisor of the Cotton
Department.

A few years before this appointment he was
Married to Dorothy Anthon from Moss’ Vale.
Both Dorothy and Ken had a great interest
in craftsmanship relating to jewellery:
Dorothy developed, amongst Many other
accomplishments, a great skill as a
goldsmith and silversmith, whilst, as a
complement to this, Ken became very well
versed in the science & practice of

gemmology. In November 1966 he passed the
examination in the Theory and Practice of
Gemmology and was awarded the Diploma of

the Gemmological Association of Australia.
Just three years later, on the POth
November 1969, he was awarded the Diploma

of the Gemmological Association of Great
Britain, whose examination he had taken in
the previous June.

Ken had many other interests, including
cricket and atheletics in his younger
days, later becoming an amateur specialist
and enthusiast on Peugot cars. He and
Dorothy travelled extensively both in

Australia and overseas, an activity which
included the expert appreciation and
collection of gemstones’ and jewellery.
Ken and Dorothy resided in Gymea, NSW.
Ken joined the Royal Society of New South
Wales in 1963.

G.W.K.F.

Robert Mortimer Gascoigne, 1918 - 1994

Dr. Robert Mortimer Gascoigne died in
April "994. He was born. on the 16th
March, 1918 and spent his early years in
Wyong, New South Wales. He joined the
Royal Society of New South Wales as a
student member in 1939 and became a Life
Member in 1978. He published four papers
in the Journal and Proceedings. After
graduating BSc and MSc in organic
chemistry at the University of Sydney, Bob
Gascoigne volunteered for war service and
was sent to New Guinea. His early
research was on anti-malarial drugs, a
subject which was related to his stay in
New Guinea. Later he was awarded an ICI
Fellowship to do research at the
University of Liverpool where he gained a
PhD. He returned to a lectureship at the
Sydney Technical College and later moved
to Kensington as a member of the staff of

the Chemistry Department at the University
of New South Wales. His main research was
on natural products related to Australian

plants, including detailed studies of
tetracyclic triterpenses. Although his
scientific work was highly regarded, Bob
had special interests in the history and
philosophy of science and he transferred
to that department, where he remained
until his retirement in 1977 as a_ Senior

Lecturer.

Bob Gascoigne was
scientists, albeit

one of a special band of
few in number, who have

worked successfully in the
interdisciplinary field of science and
philosophy. Amongst his most prestigious

publications, the recently published "The
History of the Creation" is surely his
magnum opus. In this book he’ shows that
our contemporary knowledge of the history
of the universe and of life is highly-
consistent with a _ theologically-informed
historical conception of the fundamental
Judeo-Christian doctrine of creation. He
said. that..this book "deals with, or
touches upon-some might say, dabbles in-
almost every main branch of natural
science as well as anthropology,
psychology, philosophy and theology, not
to mention some excursions into the
history of science". Surely there is a
need for a book concerning modern
scientific knowledge about evolution in
the context of a historical understanding
of the fundamental Judeo-Christian
doctrine of creation.

In keeping with his

Gascoigne stated that
attempt will stimulate or provoke others
to.'.do’ better”. Bob was a_ strong family
man and his widow, two sons, three
daughters and eight grandchildren will
miss him greatly. He achieved many of the

usual humility, Bob
"I hope that this

aims of the Royal Society of New South
Wales by marrying various branches of
science with history and philosophy. He
was a thinker with a strong sense of

integrity and wisdom. Vale Bob Gascoigne,

scholar and scientist.
Books published by Dr. R.M. Gascoigne:
Catalogue of Scientists and

Books from the Earliest Times
19th Century. 1984,

Historical
Scientific
to the Close of the
1174 pp.

Scientific
Survey of

A Historical Catalogue of
Periodicals 1665-1900 with a
their Development. 1985, 205 pp.
of the History of Science
1987, 585 pp.

A Chronology
1450 to 1900.

The History of the Creation. 1993, 326

PPp-
Ded Joe

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS

Phyllis Margaret Rountree

On the 27th July last Australia lost one of
its great bacteriologists, Dr. Phyllis
Margaret Rountree, who died at the age of
83. She was born at Hamilton, Victoria,
and had a highly successful career in
science at Melbourne University, leading

to the degree of DSc. She joined the Waite
Research Institute in Adelaide, originally
intending to follow agricultural science,
but soon was attracted to the Walter and
Eliza Hall Institute in Melbourne and from
there went to the School of Hygiene in
London, having developed an interest in
bacteriology. There she achieved a Diploma
in Bacteriology. After war service in
England and Australia she was attracted in
1994 to a research position at the Royal
Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, where she
quickly established her international
reputation by primary research on staphy-
lococcal bacteriophages. The University of
Sydney conferred on her an honorary Doctor-
ate of Science for this work. She retired
in 1971 and continued to live in Paddington,
Sydney. She joined this Society in 1945,
and served on the Council in 1957-58, later

declining an offer of nomination as president.

Beverly Cortis-Jones

Beverly Cortis-Jones, MSc (Syd), of Mt. Keira
Wollongong, passed away on 12 June, 1994.

He became a member of the Society in 1940.

A research chemist, he worked with a London
Hospital group in the late 1940s on hormone
studies, and joining the Colonial Sugar
Refining Company in Sydney, became deeply
involved in sugar-cane technology. He
achieved patents for a type of salicylic
acid (1952, jointly with a late eminent
member of the Society, Dr Richard Bosworth),
purification of cane-sugar syrups (1966) and
retardation of colour development in raw
sugar (1970). He was 81 years of age.

Simon James Prokhovnik

Simon James Prokhovnik, BA, MSc(Melb), of
Birchgrove, Sydney, passed away on 20 June
1994, A member of the Society since 1956,
he contributed four papers to the Journal
and Proceedings. His special field was
relativity, and for many years he was on

the academic staff of the School of
Mathematics at the University of New South
Wales. His deeply thoughtful and engagingly
quiet manner will be missed by many friends.

167

Sir Frederick White

With great regret we record the passing of Sir
Frederick White, KBE, FAA, FRS. He was

elected an Honorary Member of the Society in

1973 and during his residency in Canberra

took an active interest in the Society's

affairs. Born in New Zealand, he quickly

showed strong aptitude for physics and

graduated MSc from Victoria University College,
Wellington and PhD from Cambridge University,
England. He lectured in physics at King's
College, London from 1931 to 1936 (publishing

a standard work of the time on Electromagnetic
Waves), and returned to New Zealand as

professor of physics at Canterbury University
College, Christchurch from 1937 to 1942.

During 1941 he also acted as chairman of the
Radiophysics Advisory Board and was seconded

to the Australian Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research. He crossed the Tasman

Sea permanently in 1942 to take up the position
of chief of the Division of Radiophysics of the
CSIR, holding this post during the remainder of
the Second World War in a time of intensive work
on radar and allied projects. From 1949 to 1957
he was Chief Executive Officer, from 1957 to 1959
he was Deputy Chairman, and from 1959 to 1970 he
was Chairman of the CSIRO. This last period was
one of tremendous growth in the Organisation

when it established its international scientific
status. He was created a Knight Commander of the
British Empire in 1962, was elected FRS in 1966
and FAA in 1960, as well as receiving many other
honours, In recent years he retired from Canberra
to Brighton, Victoria. Sir Frederick died on
17 August, 1944 aged 89 years.

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Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.127, pp 169-170, 1994

ISSN 0035-9173/020169- 02 $4.00/1

INDEX TO VOLUME 127

Abstract of Proceedings, 1994, 73

Abstracts of Theses
ALDRICH=WRIGHT, J.R., 155
BAXTER, Rohan A,., 63
BILLS... Peter J... 65
TAN, William Kian Meng, 158
FITZSIMMONS, Stuart, 157
KAYNAK, Akif, 62
PARKINSON, Murray L., 67
PICKERING, Catherine M., 61
QUINSEY, -P.M., 159
ROBERTS, Maureen B., 64
WOODWARD, Roslyn, 69
ZHU, Jin., 66

Annual Dinner 22nd March 1994
Address by Patron of the Royal
Society of NSW His Excellency
Rear-Admiral Peter Sinclair A.C,
Governor of New South Wales, 153

Awards, citations, 80

Barker, J.S.F., From Buzzatti to Buffaloes
Excursions into Genetic Variation,
3rd Walter Poggendorff Memorial
Lecture, 1995; 25

Bibliography of the Reverend W.B. Clarke
(1798 + 1878) "Father of the
Australian Geology", Michael K, Organ, 85

Biographical Memoirs, 82

Biotechnology
Genetic Variation, 23

Breccia Filled Diatreme in Permian Illawarra
Coal Measures and Triassic Strata,
Kandos, New South Wales, Dove, Andrew
and Lee, Graham, 39

Brittle Deformation of the Bathurst
Batholith: A coeval behaviour with
megakinking in the Lachlan Fold Belt,
southeastern Australia, Kazuo Kasaka, 135

Brown, Kenneth John, Obituary, 165

Building
Cement Stabilised Earth Bricks, 33

Carrington, Richard, Obituary, 83

Caves, Cement, Bats and Tourists: Karst
Science and Limestone Resource
Management in Australia, R.A.L.
Osborne ,Presidential Address 1994, 1

Cement stabilised pressed Earth Bricks
with low cement contents. Strength
of, K.A. Heathcote and R. Piper, 33

Chappell, B.W., Lachlan and New England:e-
Fold Belts of Contrasting Magmatic
and Tectonic Development. 47th
Clarke Memorial Lecture, 1993, 47

Clarke Medal 1993, 80
Clarke Memorial Lecture, 1993, 47

Clarke, W.B. (1798 - 1878). Bibliography
of the Reverand, Michael K. Organ, 85

Contents Vol. 127 1/2 and 3/4,

Council Report 1993 - 1994, 71
Curtis-Jones, Beverly, Obituary, 167
Davies, George Frederick, Obituary, 82

Dove, Andrew and Lee, Graham, Breccia
Filled Diatreme in Permian Illawarra
Coal Measures and Triassic Strata,
Kandos, N.S.W., 39

Dulhunty, John Allan, Obituary, 161
Edgeworth David Medal 1993, 80
Financial Statement 1993, 75

Fogs, Fossil Fuels and the Fall from Grace
of St. Mary's Purgatory Stone,
Kenneth W. Riley, 147

From Buzzattii to Buffaloes = Excursion
into Genetic Variation, J.S.F. Barker,
3rd Walter Poggendorff Memorial
hecture, 199525

Gascoigne, Robert Mortimer, Obituary, 166

Geology
Bibliography of the Rev. W.B. Clarke, 85
Brittle Deformation, Bathurst
Batholith, 135
Degeneration of Sandstone stone work, 147
Diatreme, Kandos NSW, 39
Krdéhnkite, Broken Hill NSW, 31
Lachlan and New England, Magmatic
Development, 47
Limestone, 1

Governor of New South Wales, and Patron
of the Society, His Excellency
Rear-Admiral Peter Sinclair, AC
Address, Annual Dinner March 1994, 153

169

170

Grigg, Gordon C,, Clarke Medal 1993, 80

Heathcote, K.A. and Piper, R.,
Strength of Cement Stabilised
Pressed Earth Bricks with low
Cement Contents, 33

Kosaka, Kazuo, Brittle Deformation
of the Bathurst Batholith:-
A coeval behaviour with megakinking
in the Lachlan Fold Belt, southeastern
Australia, 135

Lachlan and New England:- Fold Belts of
Contrasting Magmatic and Tectonic
Development. 47th Clarke Memorial
Lecture, 1993, 47

Lawrence, L.J. Stocksick, C.M, and
Williams, P.A., An Occurrance of
Krohnkite at Broken Hill, NSW, 31

Lee, Graham, Dove, Andrew and,
Breccia Filled Diatreme in Permian
Illawarra Coal Measures and Triassic
Strata, Kandos, NSW, 39

New South Wales
Brittle Deformation, Bathurst
Batholith, 135
Degeneration of Sandstone
Stonework, 147
Diatreme, Kandos NSW, 39
Krohnkite, Broken Hill, NSW, 31

Lachlan and New England, Magmatic
Development, 47
Limestone, 1

Organ, Michael K., Bibliography of the
Reverend W.B,. Clarke (1798 - 1878).
"Father of Australian Geology 85

Osborne, R.A.L., Caves, Cement, Bats and
Tourists:- Karst Science and
Limestone Resource Management in
Australia, Presidential Address
1994, 1

Piper, R.. Heathcote, K.A. and, Strength
of Cement Stabilised Pressed Earth
Bricks with Low Cement Contents, 33

Poggendorff Memorial Lecture 1993, 23

Presidential Address 1994, 1

Prokownik, Simon James Obituary, 167

Riley, Kenneth W., Fogs, Fossil Fuels

and the Fall from Grace of St,
Mary's Purgatory Stone, 147

INDEX TO VOLUME 127

Rowntree, Phyllis Margaret, Obituary, 167

Royale, Harold George, The Royal
Society of New South Wales Medal
1993, 81

Royal Society of New South Wales Medal,
1993, 81

Skerritt, John Howard, Edgeworth David
Medal, 1993, 80

Stocksiek, C.M. and Williams, P.A..
Lawrence, L.J., An Occurrance of
Krohnkite at Broken Hill, N.S.W., 31

Strength of Cement Stabilised Pressed
Earth Bricks with Low Cement
Contents, Heathcote, K.A. and Piper,
Reg 55

Williams, P.A.. Lawrence, L.J.,
Stocksiek, C.M. and, An Occurrence
of Kronkite at Broken Hill, N.S.W., 31

White, Sir Frederick, Obituary, 167

Vika iY

.
B

JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

OF NEW SOUTH WALES

VOLUME 127, Parts3 and 4
Parts 1 and 2

1994

ISSN 0035-9173

PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY
P.O. BOX 1525, MACQUARIE CENTRE, NSW 2113
ISSUED: June, 1994
ISSUED DECEMBER, 1994

Royal Society of New South Wales
OFFICERS FOR 1994-1995

Patron

HIS EXCELLENCY REAR-ADMIRAL PETER SINCLAIR,
A.C., GOVERNOR OF NEW SOUTH WALES

President

JOHN R. HARDIE

Vice-Presidents

E:C. POTTER D.J. SWAINE
R.A.L. OSBORNE F.L. SUTHERLAND
J.H. LOXTON

Honorary Secretaries

G.W.K. FORD M. KRYSKO von TRYST
(General) (Editorial)

Honorary Treasurer Honorary Librarian
D.E. WINCH P.M. CALLAGHAN

Members of Council

AAJDAY W.E. SMITH
R.S. BHATHAL, R. CREELMAN,
G.C. LOWENTHAL D.F. BRANAGAN

R.R. COENRAADS,

Branch Representatives

New England '$.C. HAYDON
Southern Highlands K.L.GROSE

CONTENTS

VOLUME 127,

Parts 1 and 2

OSBORNE, R.A.L.
Caves, Cement, Bats and Tourists: Karst Science and Limestone
Resource Management in Australia. (Presidential Address 1994)

BARKER, J.S.F.
From Buzzatti to Buffaloes - Excursions into Genetic Variation
(3rd Walter Poggendorff Memorial Lecture, 1993).

LAWRENCE, L.J.,STOCKSIEK, C.M. and WILLIAMS, P.A.
An Occurrence of Krohnkite at Broken Hill, N.S.W.

HEATHCOTE, K.A. and PIPER R.
Strength of Cement Stabilised Pressed Earth Bricks with Low
Cement Contents

DOVE, Andrew and LEE, Graham
Breccia Filled Diatreme in Permian Illawarra Coal Measures
and Triassic Strate, Kandos, New South Wales

CHAPPELL, B.W.,
Lachlan and New England: Fold Belts of Contrasting Magmatic
and tectonic Development (47th Clarke Memorial Lecture, 1993).

ABSTRACTS OF THESES: -
PICKERING, Catherine M.: Reproductive Ecology of Five Species of
Australian Alpine Ranunculus.

KAYNAK, Akif: A Study of Conducting Polyrrole Films
in the Microwave Region

BAXTER, Rohan A.: Representation Issues in Genetic
Algorithm Function Optimization

ROBERTS, Maureen B.: The Diamond Path: A Study of
Individuation in the Works of John Keats.

BILLS; Peter J. : Barotropic Depth-Averaged and Three-
Dimensional Tidal Programs For Shallow
Seas

ZHU, Jin: Tannin Toxicity Studies in Mice and
Sheep

PARKINSON, Murray L. Multi-Frequency MF/Lower HF Ocean Radar
Studies of Wind-Wave Trasients

WOODWARD, Roslyn "It's so Strange when you stay Sick':
The Challenge of Chronic Fatigue
Syndrome

COUNCIL REPORT, 1993-1994
Report
Abstract of Proceedings
Summer School Photo
Financial Statement
Awards
Biographic Memoirs

Date of Publication:
June 1994

23

31

33

39

47

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

69

71
7
74
1s
§9
82

Parts 3 and 4

ORGAN, M.K.
Bibliography of the Reverend W.B. Clarke
(1798 - 1878) "Father of Australian
Geology"

KOSAKA, Kazuo
Brittle Deformation of the Bathurst
Batholith: A coeval behaviour with
megakinking in the Lachlan Fold Belt,
Southeastern Australia

RILEY, Kenneth W.
Fogs, Fossil Fuels and the Fall from
Grace of St. Mary's Purgatory Stone

ADDRESS by HIS EXCELLENCY REAR-ADMIRAL PETER
SINCLAIR, A.C.,
Governor of New South Wales, Annual
Dinner 1994

ABSTRACTS OF THESES:-

ALDRICH-WRIGHT, J.R.: Chiral Discrimin-
ation Processes
in some Metal
Chelate Systems
of Biological
Interest

FITZSIMMONS, Stuart: Movement Behaviour
and Structure of
Groups of juvenile
Mullet, Mugil
cephalus (Linnaeus)

TAN, William Kian Meng: Perinatal Hypoxic-
Ischaemic
Encephalopathy:
Pathogenesis and
Pharmacological
Intervention

QUINSEY, P.M.: Intake of Organ-
ochlorines from the
breast milk of
Victorian Women

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
INDEX to VOLUME 127
DATE of PUBLICATION:

Vol. 127 Parts 3-4:
December 1994

85

135

147

153

155

157

158

159

161

169

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CONTENTS

VOLUME 127, ‘Parts 3 and 4.

ORGAN, M.K.
Bibliography of the Reverend W.B. Clarke
(1798-1878) "Father of Australian Geology" 85

KOSAKA, Kazuo
Brittle Deformation of the Bathurst Batholith:

A coeval behaviour with megakinking in the
Lachlan Fold Belt, Southeastern Australia 135

RILEY, Kenneth W.
Fogs, Fossil Fuels and the Fall from Grace

of St. Mary's Purgatory Stone 147

ADDRESS by HIS EXCELLENCY REAR-ADMIRAL PETER SINCLAIR, AC, 15
Governor of New South Wales, Annual Dinner 1994 :

ABSTRACTS OF THESES: -
ALDRICH-WRIGHT, J.R.: Chiral Discrimination Processes
in some Metal Chelate Systems 155
of Biological Interest

FITZSIMMONS, Stuart: Movement Behaviour and Structure
of Groups of juvenile Mullet,
Mugil cephalus (Linnaeus) 157
TAN, William Kian Meng: Perinatal Hypoxic-Ischaemic
Encephalopathy: Pathogenesis
and Pharmacological Intervention 158
QUINSEY, P.M.: Intake of Organochlorines from
the breast milk of Victorian 159
Women
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS 161
169

INDEX to VOLUME 127

DATE of PUBLICATION:
Vol. 127 Parts 3-4: December 1994

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