TvV-

— Vv

Xos

n. | - \?Mi8S7 £ »■ *

oo _ oo ± co t; co

S S3 I d Vd 0 11 LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOIlflillSNI NVIN0SH1IWS S3ldV
w 5 '■* ^ . z * oo z co

< S ZtSTiriX 3* a*. «-r

Z

° x

OO \. ^%Jik 00

X ^ XT# O

J “INSTITUTION WN0I1D 1SNI_NVIN0SH1IWSWS3 iyvyanZLIBRARI ES^SMITHSONIAN^INSTITl
w . z \ 00 . — . 2 oo -

« sx - ^ ^ w w

ce \ -I APmW^iS ' •

e

5 5 5 X:^^/ “r ' x 5 ^%s

z -I z ‘ _l 2 — _J z

5 saidvaan libraries Smithsonian institution NouniiiSNi nvinoshiums sbihv

n 2 •“ z n 5-

m r; vyff'/ m

_ co — co ” — CO

'I INSTITUTION NOIlflillSNI NVIN0SH1IIAIS S3ldVd9n LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTIT

** 00 Z _ CO Z CO —

co ‘ Z CO Z CO * Z to

5 saidvaan libraries Smithsonian institution NouniiiSNi nvinoshiiws saidv

OO 2 co 2 oo — oo

1x1 co 1x1 . co m ^

c^7 m

J^INSTITUTION NOIlflillSNI _JNVINOSHlll/MS2S 3 I dVdail^LIBRARI ES^SMITHSONIAN^INSTITI

Z r- , Z r- z r*

; saidVdan libraries Smithsonian institution noiiiuiisni nvinoshiiws S3ia\?

w Z » CO

^ o

jy'j' c/) I - £

ffio/ i •,% '®w CJ 'wj'' 1 W
1/ t Z /• t \i;WV7 —

2 CO Z CO Z

INSTITUTION NOIlflillSNI _ NVIN0SH1IIAIS S3ldVdan LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITl

OO _ rr \ CO — CO

c

O yv^o^X 5 VlVAsq^X o _ XJiA^iiX o X^vS^X “ ' o

Z -J z „! Z _J z

saidvaan libraries Smithsonian institution NouniiiSNi nvinoshiiws ssiav

2 _ 1 . g n 2 r- ... z

m

'iw —

fy '■

m ' 2 \^v-ASn^x m ^ m X^OSl^X

i R I E S SMITHSONIAn'iNSTITUTION00 NOlinillSNI _ NVINOSHIIIAIS S3IBVBanLIBRARI ES SI

O _ O

^ R I E S SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI^NVINOSHlIJAIS SBiavaail LIBRARIES S

1I1SN I NVINOSHIIIAIS SHIHVaail L
2: co z

< 2 , <

4'~ — i _/ X# * 2

1 A# 0

m <8*d£?

(/) \ tz w —

B RAR I ES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOIlfUllSNI N

.... CO 2 , CO 2

< s <

CO

\RIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOIlfUllSNI NVINOSHIIIAIS SBIHVaail LIBRARIES S

CO 2 <0 — . CO z c°

ll! fr Zivcso/Ov. lu x<Tisv/iT\ jKN' lu zTTcvTTx , LU

1IJLSNI NVINOSHIIIAIS SBIHVdan LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOIlfUllSNI N
“ 2 <2 2 ”

o xSvnr^x ~ z"TcnwX o jJsetr, _ Z'oaTJx 0 y

m '' vcj.* m x^yos'^ x; m

co ' — co £ co

\RIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOIlfUllSNI NVINOSHIIIAIS S3IMVH9n LI
co ^ z co 2 co 2

^ I K% . I I S Jfe

hcasv^a m
co

B RAR I ES S
co

2

CO

o
2 ,

> 5: ' ' W1 > ' S X^vosv^ > '' 5

2 CO •*“' 2 CO 2 CO

1I1SNI NVINOSHIIIAIS SBIBVaaH LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOIlfUllSNI _ f>
co — CO “ co

CO

CO

c

O W Z 5 ^

2 x _l 2 _

\ R I E S SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOIlfUllSNI NVINOSHIIIAIS SBIHVaail LIBRARIES _S
2

SO^X O

,

506- C 7

JOURNAL

OF THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

15th May 1972 No. 131

THE MAMMALS OF THE NORTHERN SLOPES OF MT. KENYA

By

M. J. Coe* and J. B. Foster**

(Department of Zoology, University College, Nairobi)

INTRODUCTION

Following the construction of the Wilson (Timau) track in 1965, members of the
Department of Zoology, University College, Nairobi, planned a short field expedition
to study this relatively unexplored region of Mount Kenya. The party was on the
mountain from March 17 to 27 1966. A base camp was established at 12500 ft (3800 m)
in the Kazita West Valley, and field investigations were carried out along the whole
length of the track from 1 1000 ft (3350 m) to its termination at 13800 ft (4200 m).

Each member of the expedition carried out his own programme of research as follows :
Drs. M. J. Coe (leader): microclimates, birds and small mammals; J. B. Foster: small
mammals; R. Harmsen: insects; J. B. Sale: hyrax; Miss J. Angwin: birds; Miss I.
Jabbal: insects; and Mr. A. Hanid: vegetation. Mr. Kisoi joined the expedition as a
general field assistant, and Drs. A. D. Q. Agnew and H. F. Rowell each spent a few
days with the party working on vegetation and grasshoppers respectively.

It is intended that all aspects of this expedition will be published in this Journal;
the present paper deals with mammalian aspects of the investigations.

Previous Mammal studies on Mount Kenya

In 1885, Count Samuel Teleki led an expedition through the western forests of
Mount Kenya to become the first European to see and describe the general features of
the alpine zone. They climbed the eastern wall of the Teleki Valley to an altitude of
about 15000 ft (4570 m). In Von Hohnel’s account of the expedition he reported the
presence of a “marmot like” mammal living in large numbers among the rocks. This is
the first written reference to the Mount Kenya hyrax ( Procavia johnstoni mackinderi
Thomas).

J. W. Gregory, the British geologist, visited the mountain in 1893 and published
(1921) the first evidence that the area had been heavily glaciated down to an altitude of
about 9500 ft (2900 m). He also recognised the strong northern boreal affinities of the
alpine flora.

The first ascent of the peaks was made by Sir Halford Mackinder, in 1899, who
brought back to Europe with him many skins of mammals and birds. Thomas described
the Mount Kenya hyrax in Mackinder’s honour in 1900.

It was not until 1909 — ’1912 that Mearns and Loring made extensive collections
above Meru, while over the same period Loring obtained specimens from the south-

P resent address

* Animal Ecology Research Group, Botanic Garden , High Street , Oxford, U.K.
** Provincial Museum, Victoria, B.C., Canada.

HEb

Page 2

western aspect. It was from their collections that we owe our most complete knowledge
of the mountain’s mammal fauna (Roosevelt 1910, Hollister 1919-1924).

Moreau (1944) compiled the first list of Mount Kenya vertebrates and this remains
the only attempt to delimit the altitude ranges and ecology of the birds and mammals
of the area.

During the study of the ecology of the alpine zone of Mount Kenya Coe (1967)
carried out preliminary observations on habitat separation of mammals and birds in the
alpine zone.

THE AFRO-ALPINE HABITAT

Mount Kenya rises from semi-arid lowlands to an altitude of 17055 ft (5198 m)
above sea level and, in so doing, exhibits a marked zonation of climate and vegetation.
The ecology of the vegetation of Mount Kenya has been described in detail by Hedberg
(1964) and Coe (1964, 1967).

It is a characteristic feature of Mount Kenya’s montane forest that it is almost
entirely absent on the northern slopes (Hedberg op. cit.). Until a track was constructed
on this side of the mountain in 1965, very little was known of its biology.

The primary factor influencing habitats at high altitude in equatorial regions is the
diurnal temperature regime. With increase in altitude, not only does the temperature
fall about 3°F for every 1000 ft (300 m) but the range between day and night temperatures
also increases. The almost complete lack of annual seasonal phenomena is substituted
by an alternation of high day temperatures and low night temperatures. This factor
has influenced the vegetation, which has developed insulating mechanisms by which
it can avoid these extremes. The manner in which these mechanisms have been exploited
by the fauna has been discussed by Coe (1969).

The climate of the northern slopes of Mount Kenya appears to be both drier and milder
than other aspects of the mountain. The increase in mean temperature at equivalent
altitude appears to be 2-3 °C.

Temperatures recorded between 12500 ft (3800 m) and 14000 ft (4260 m) in the
Kazita Valley in 1966 were as follows:

A.

Stream side, 12500 ft ( 3800 m), Kazita Valley. Under Euryops bush.

Mean temperature

6.8°C

Mean maximum

I4-4°C

Mean minimum

— o.6°C

Mean daily range

i5.5°C

B.

Ridge top above stream
bush.

course, Kazita Valley, 12530 ft ( 3818 m). Under Ericaceous

Mean temperature

7.8°C

Mean maximum

I7-7°C

Mean minimum

i-7°C

Mean daily range

I9-5°C

C.

Ridge overlooking Kazita Valley, 14000 ft ( 4260 m ). Shaded by Senecio kenio-
dendron R. E. Fr. & Th. Fr. Jr.

Mean temperature

4.8°C

Mean maximum

9-8°C

Mean minimum

I.2°C

Mean daily range

n.7°C

Isohyet diagrams plotted from data collected by the Hydrology Department of the
Kenya Government show that rainfall on the northern slopes seldom if ever exceeds
40 in (1010 mm) per annum, compared with figures of 90-150 in (2285 — 3810 mm)
that have been recorded on the SE quadrant. Intermediate figures are recorded for the
western aspect (Coe 1967).

The vegetation zones of Mount Kenya may be delimited as follows :

Page 3

MONTANE FOREST

This zone varies in depth on different aspects of the mountain with a virtually
complete gap in the north, except for small isolated patches in va'ley bottoms between
9000-9500 ft (2750-2900 m) and consists of stunted specimens of Juniperus and Podocarpus.
Small groves of Hagenia occur in depressions up to 10000 ft (3050 m). The presence of
Faurea up to 20 ft (6 m) in height at between 9500 and 10000 ft (2900 — 3050 m) is
an unusual and characteristic feature of this side of the mountain. The only other situation
on the East African mountains where Coe is familiar with similar stands of this Proteaceous
tree is on the plateau of the Cherangani range in Western Kenya.

MOORLAND (ERICACEOUS) ZONE

The density and species comprising this zone vary considerably on different aspects
of the mountain. Erica, Phillippia and Cliffortia make up the main Ericaceous components
and occur on all quarters. Dense stands of Protea are only found on the damper but well
drained parts of the mountain from NE to S, and appear to be entirely absent from the
west. Other woody species occurring in the zone are Adenocarpus, Anthospermum ,
Anemesia, and Euryops.

Its altitude limits lie between 10750 and 11750 ft (3270-3580 m) and in sheltered
valleys may reach an altitude of 13500 ft (4100 m).

On the northern slopes, this vegetation is intermingled with stands of Hagenia and
Faurea at 9000 ft (2750 m) and may be distinguished as a distinct association as high as
12500 ft (3800 m).

ALPINE ZONE

This zone is characterised by extensive areas of Festuca tussock grassland in which
are interspersed stands of Lobelia and Senecio. The area has been divided into an upper
and lower alpine zone but this division since it is based largely on the distribution of
Senecio keniodendron and S. brassica R.E.Fr. and Th. Fr. Jr. is of little help when
considering the mammal fauna, as their altitude limits are very variable. The alpine
zone can be considered to extend from the upper edge of the ericaceous zone (11500-
12000 ft) (3500 m-3650 m) to the lower edge of the Nival zone at the foot of the peaks
(15000 ft) (4570 m).

The vegetation of this zone on the mountain’s northern face is best considered
by reference to individual plant associations occurring on varying degrees of exposure,
slope and soil type. These may be classified as follows :

(a) Rocky ridge tops: Usua'ly much eroded and subject to considerable frost action.
Up to 13000 ft (3960 m) low scattered ericaceous shrubs occur interspersed with tussocks
of Deschampsia flexuosa (L.) Trin. The ground flora is poor due to frost heaving of the
soil and the percentage of bare ground increase with altitude till at 14000 ft (4260 m)
there is less than 50 % ground cover.

(b) Valley sides: In this situation drainage is good and surface water available

virtually throughout the year. Large solifluction terraces develop on steep ground,
particularly where there is a shallow rocky substratum. The main floral components
are large areas of Festuca tussock mixed with stands of Senecio keniodendron and Lobelia
telekii Schweinf. A rich ground flora exists between the tussock bases and may include
Alchemilla, Bartsia, Blaeria, Szvertia, Anagallis, Geranium and Helichrysum. A small
composite Erigeron alpinus L. is very common in this situation on the northern slopes
between 11500 and 13000 ft (3500-3960 m). It does not occur on other aspects of Mount
Kenya and this is the first record of its occurrence in East Africa. This species is known
from the Ethiopean highlands and montane regions of central and southern Europe
(Coe and Agnew. Unpublished field observations).

(c) Waterlogged situations: Most valley bottoms contain areas of impeded drainage,
as do shallow glacial scour depressions in valley heads and on broad ridges. These areas

Page 4

of boggy ground contain a very characteristic vegetational association that is a very import-
ant feature of the alpine zone. The flora consists of dense stands of the sedge, Carex
monostachya A. Rich, with scattered and conspicuous stands of Senecio brassica and
Lobelia keniensis R.E.Fr. and Th.Fr. Jr. The most common constituent of the ground,
flora is Alchemilla, and a rich Bryophyte flora.

NIVAL ZONE

Limited to areas in which recent signs of glacial activity can be observed (Coe 1967).
Its lower limit lies at 15000 ft. (4550 m).

The physiography of the northern slopes of Mount Kenya differs markedly from
other aspects. The peaks on this side of the mountain show far less evidence of glaciation
than the SW. and E. and, in consequence, there are fewer moraine deposits and the valleys
are less deeply eroded. As a secondary factor, many of these valleys have been partially
infilled by lavas and ashes from the secondary volcanic cone Ithanguni in the NE. This
activity has accentuated the very gentle undulating landscape of this side of the mountain.

METHODS

(a) Trapping

Three types of trap were used to catch small mammals: break-back rat traps,
Sherman live traps (measuring 3"x3"xi2) (7.6 x7.6 x30.5 cm) and bucket traps
measuring 6" (15 cm) diameter at the top, (12.5 cm) at the bottom and 12" (30.5 cm)
high). The bucket trap was sunk in the ground so that the top was flush with the ground,
and a few centimetres of water added to prevent the captives from jumping out. All
traps except the buckets were baited with a mixture of peanut butter, rolled oats and
sardines.

Cage-type traps were used to catch larger mammals such as Hyrax and Zorilla.

(b) Pellets

Pellets were collected from beneath rocky bluffs near base camp below a probable
roost of Augur Buzzard ( Buteo rufofuscus augur Ruppell) and west of Hook Tarn below
the roost of a Mackinder’s Owl ( Bubo capensis mackinderi Sharpe). Their contents have
since been analysed.

(c) Ear-tagging experiments

Attempts were made by Coe to ear- tag Otomys orestes Thomas and to follow their
movements within their home range. The experiment was carried out between March
20th and 27th, 1967. An area 50 metres square was selected close to base camp. The
ground bordered a stream in the foot of the valley and was covered by Festuca tussocks,
Alchemilla argyrophylla Oliv. scrub and bare rock. Fifteen Sherman traps were baited
with peanut butter and rolled oats and set along apparently-used Otomys runs within the
area. The trapping quadrant was delimited by wooden pegs placed five metres apart
and numbered 1-10 along one margin and A-J along the other. In this way, it was possible
to record the position of traps and captures on a sketch map.

Animals trapped were tagged in their right ears with “Michel” surgical skin clips
measuring 3 mmx 18 mm before closure. Each rat was removed from the trap and the
clip attached by means of artery forceps, close to the base of the pinna, without occluding
the meatus. Animals were released immediately after tagging and the trap reset at the
same spot.

RESULTS

(a) Trapping

Captures from all the types of trap used are shown in Table 1. The bucket traps
proved about eight times more effective than rat traps, one mammal being caught every
3.4 trap nights in the buckets while the recovery rate from break-back rat traps was

Page 5

only one animal every 26.7 trap/nights. This may be explained in part by the fact that the
buckets are able to catch any size of small mammal, whereas the rat traps can only generally
catch the larger species. The bucket traps could also catch more than one creature in a
single night and insectivores seemed to be attracted to them. On the other hand, the data
available suggests that Lophuromys actively avoided the bucket traps. Clearly, both types
of trap must be used if one is to sample the whole spectrum of small rodents and insecti-
vores.

TABLE 1

TRAPPING RESULTS

J Otomys
1

Lophuromys

Rhabdomys

Graphiurus

Dendromus

Crocidura

Surdisorex

Total

% Trap
Success

Bucket
Traps
166 Trap
Nights

19

0

O

8

5

12

5

49

29%

Rat
Traps
748 Trap
Nights

19

6

2

1

(Tail

only)

0

0

0

28

4%

Total

38

6

2

9

5

12

5

77

8%

On the night of 26th March, 20 bucket traps were se: in two lines through an
extensive area of Carex motiostachya bog situated on slightly sloping ground at 13000
ft (3960 m) between the Kazita West Valley and the Liki Valley.

Areas of Carex monostachya and scattered stands of Senecio brassica and Lobelia
keniensis foim an important feeding area for rodents. In the situation under consideration,
it is clear that the rodents live on raised, well-drained ground above the bog and use it
only as a feeding area at night. On all sides, large numbers of tracks lead from patches
of Senecio keniodendron “forest” to the bog margins. In spite of extensive searching during
the day, there was very little evidence to suggest that many of these rodents were resident.
The only possible exception to this statement is that of the dormouse, Graphiurus
( Claviglis ) murinus Desmarest, which occupies dense stands of Senecio brassica.

Trap series “A”

10 “buckets” were set at 2 metre intervals across part of the bog which had an even
cover of Carex tussocks in which were dispersed large stands of Senecio brassica and
Lobelia keniensis. Areas of black humic soil occurred between the tussocks. Due to heavy
rain, the traps were not visited until the morning of the 28th March, but since all the traps
were filled with rainwater on the night of 26th, it is assumed that all 13 animals caught
were trapped on the first night.

The following species were caught:

Otomys 3

Lophuromys 3

Graphiurus 1

Surdisore x 1

Crocidura allex alpina 2
Heller 2

Page 6

Crocidura f. fumosa
Thomas 3

13

The single specimen of Graphiurus was caught adjacent to a dense stand of Senecio
brassica and the Crocidura between a large clump of Carex tussocks. The other specimens
were caught in buckets set along used Otomys runs.

Trap series “ B ”

10 “bucket” traps were set in a very wet area of bog that was covered by dense
stands of Carex monostachya and Senecio brassica. Intervening ground was virtually
waterlogged. As with series A, all the traps were filled to the brim with rainwater on tire
night of 26th March. Seven animals were trapped.

Otomys 4

Lophuromys I

Graphiurus 2

7

No shrews were trapped in this series, while both specimens of Graphiurus were
trapped adjacent to a dense stand of Senecio.

In all, 40 trap nights were conducted and 20 animals recovered — a 50 per cent
trap success. Since, however, it seems likely that most of these animals were caught in
the traps on the first night, the real figure of success is probably nearer 100 per cent.

During trapping in this bog at 13000 ft (3960 m), the area was sampled to determine
the percentage utilisation of the ground surface by small mammal tracks. The method
used was similar to that used by Agnew (1966) for game animals in the Tsavo park,
except that here there was only one track category. The bog was surrounded by well-
drained ground from which a large number of runs radiated to the bog below. Once
they entered the bog, although the whole area was criss-crossed with runs there was no
suggestion that many creatures had permanent burrows within the bog. Innumerable
shelters were found in tussocks and at the bases of Giant Senecio and Lobelia.

Many tussocks within the bog were chewed almost to the base, but those around the
edge were virtually untouched. Both alpine duiker and steinbuck were seen in the bog.

Rodent tracks for the most part ran close to tussock bases or around dense areas of
vegetation, and were in few cases found crossing areas of bare ground. Samples were
taken through a number of different vegetation types and the number of tracks counted
along the transect. The average width of these tracks was 9 cm and, in most cases,
appeared — from the presence of dung on the surface — to have been made by Otomys ,
after which other rodents and shrews used them. One might consider this rodent to
be the primary track pioneer in the alpine grassland. Maximum surface utilisation was
recorded in an area of dense Carex tussocks (16.6 %) while the lowest was found in dense
Alchemilla scrub (2.6 %). The average utilisation across the bog was 6.3 %. T able 2
shows the results of five transects across the bog.

Page 7

Table 2

Vegetation

transect length

No. of tracks

% utilisation

Senecio, Lobelia,
Alchemilla

25m

12

4-3

Senecio, Lobelia,
Alchemilla, Festuca

6m

2

3.0

Car ex, Alchemilla,
Lobelia

18m

25

16.6

Senecio, Alchemilla,
Lobelia

25 m

7

2.6

Senecio, Lobelia,
Alchemilla, Festuca

25m

19

5-i

Total

99m

65

6.3

(average track width = 9cm)

(b) Pellets (Table 3)

A total of 34 pellets was collected from an Augur Buzzard ( Buteo rufofuscus augur )
roost on a small cliff about one mile north-west of base camp. They contained the remains
of 47 Otomys orestes, 4 Tachyoryctes rex Heller and 22 Carabid beetles ( Carabomorphus
catenatus Basil).

365 pellets were collected below a long cliff to the west of Hook Tarn and, since a
Mackinder’s Owl nest was found above this point on the cliff, it is assumed that the pellets
were produced by this bird. The pellets were found to contain parts of 369 Otomys
orestes , 12 Tachyoryctes rex Heller, 1 Lophuromys flavopunctatus Thomas, 1 Rhabdomys
pumilio Thomas, 8 Surdisorex polulus Hollister, 6 Crocidura spp, 2 Procavia johnstoni
mackinderi Thomas, 1 Microchiropteran, and 12 Carabid beetles ( Carabomorphus
catenatus ).

Both birds of prey caught Tachyoryctes, indicating that rats are probably active
close to the surface both by day and by night. The comparatively large numbers of die
mole shrew Surdisorex caught by the owl and in bucket traps is interesting as this species
is generally considered to be subterranean and quite rare. The closeness, however, of
the two sets of data suggests that the larger collection may have contained pellets of
both bird species.

Table 3

Contents of Augur Buzzard and Mackinder' s Owl pellets from the Kazita Valley
(Carabid beedes not included)

Prey Species

Augur Buzzard (34)

Mackinder's Owl (365)

Otomys

47 (92%)

369 (92.5%)

Lophuromys

O

1

Rhabdomys

0

I

Tachyoryctes

4 (8%)

12 (3%)

Procavia

0

2

Crocidura

O

6 (1.5%)

Surdisorex

O

8 (2%)

Page 8

(c) Movement of Otomys orestes

Only three Otomys were tagged in the study area during this period and all were
recovered at other points in the grid. Specimen 2 was marked on 20th March and re-
covered subsequently on 26th and 27th March. The distance between the points of
recapture was about 70 metres. Specimen 3 was marked on 22nd March and was killed
in a break-back trap, 22 metres outside the study area on 24th March.

Results indicate that Otomys must range over distances of at least 100 metres from
their more permanent shelters. The method of tagging with surgical skin clips would
seem to be suitable for rodents such as Otomys which have large pinnae.

ANNOTATED LIST OF SPECIES

This list only includes those species actually seen or trapped by us on the northern
slopes of the mountain and does not include those species known or thought to occur above
the forest. For details of other species, reference should be made to Moreau (1944).

In compiling this list, we have followed Swynnerton and Hayman (1951) and Eller-
man, Morrison-Scott and Hayman (1953). Until the Smithsonian Identification Manual
of African Mammals has dealt with the shrews, the names of all Crocidura spp. must
remain tentative. Child (1965) has pointed out the difficulties in dealing with these small
mammals on Mt. Kilimanjaro.

ORDER INSECTIVORA
Family Soricidae

Crocidura allex alpina Heller Pygmy Shrew

Occurs throughout the alpine zone up to 13500 ft (4100 m). Trapped on the northern slopes
in tussock grassland in bucket traps set along Otomys tracks.

C. fumosa fumosa Thomas Dusky Shrew

Not common in the alpine zone, but a single specimen apparently belonging to this species
was trapped at 12500 ft, (3800 m) in Carex-Lobelia keniensis bog. It is much commoner in collections
from lower altitudes and a series from the intermediate level is badly needed. From a frequency
point of view, it does not appear to be particularly important in the ecology of the alpine zone.

C. turba zaodon Osgood.

The presence of this shrew in the alpine zone needs confirmation. It has been recorded in the
Aberdares at an altitude of 11000 ft (3350 m) (Moreau 1944). Some of our specimens, slighdy more
robust than C. allex alpina, may be referable to this form.

Surdisorex polulus Hollister. Mole Shrew

This small creature is, in many ways, the most interesting mammal on Mount Kenya. S.
polulus is endemic on Mount Kenya with only one other species in the genus being known from the
Aberdares to the west (S. norae). It has previously been recorded from altitudes of from 9000-
12100 ft (2750-3680 m) (Moreau op. cit.). The present collections now raise its limits to at least
13000 ft (3960 m). Williams (1968) states that the mole shrew produces shallow burrows in areas
where moss is abundant. All our collections were made on damp ground close to dense stands of
Senecio brassica, sedge, and grass tussocks. Its forefeet, although fairly robust with long claws,
do not give the impression that this is a truly fossorial animal. When more is known of its habits,
we believe that it will be found to be a shallow-burrowing animal in humus and litter. Tipulid
larvae and earthworms were found in the stomach of a Mount Kenya specimen, suggesting that its
food habits are very close to the Golden Mole of the Ruwenzori range, Elgon. Recently Duncan
and Wrangham (1969 pers. comm.) carried out a more-detailed study of the Golden Mole and the
Mole Shrew.

ORDER RODENTIA
Super Family Muroidea
Family Gliridae

Graphiurus ( Claviglis ) murinus raptor Dollman Dormouse

There is still a divergence of opinion over which sub-species occurs on Mount Kenya. Allen
and Loveridge (1933) suggested that G. murinus should be considered as a sub-species of G.
soleatus Thomas Wroughton, the Ruwenzori or western form. Since however G. murinus is
recorded on Kilimanjaro (Child 1965) it seems probable that we are dealing with a western and
an eastern form that may be separated at a specific or subspecific level.

Page 9

This animal has not previously been recorded above the moorland, but specimens were found,
on this occasion, to be common on the northern slopes of the mountain up to 13500 ft (4x00 m).
In almost all cases, the animals were trapped in association with dense stands of Senecio brassica
in which we suspect it lives, or shelters.

Family Muridae
Sub-family Murinae

Rhabdomys pumilio diminutus Thomas Four Striped Grass Mouse

R. pumilio is widely distributed in Africa and the sub-species diminutus is recorded from the
Aberdares, Mount Kenya and Kilimanjaro. The highest specimen on the northern slopes was taken
to 12500 ft (3800 m). Compared with other alpine rodents, this animal is not common.

Lophuromys flavopunctatus Thomas Harsh-furred mouse

Widespread, having been recorded from the East African lowlands and up to an altitude of
1 1000 ft (3350 m) on the Shira Plateau of Kilimanjaro (Swynnerton and Hayman 1951) and 13500
ft (4100 m) on Mount Kenya. In alpine habitats, this rodent is common and its success may be due
in large part to its coexistence with the herbivorous and abundant Otomys. Hanney (1964) reported
that L. flavopunctatus in Nyasaland fed largely on insects and other animal material, grain and other
vegetable material only being found in 3% and 5% respectively of the stomach examined.

Sub-family Dendromurinae

Dendromus insignis percivali Heller Striped Tree Mouse

Largely occupying Otomys runs in alpine grassland from 7500-14200 ft (2290-4330 m)
(Moreau 1944). On all aspects of Mount Kenya, this small rodent can be caught throughout the
alpine zone. There is no indication that it is a particularly arboreal creature in these situations,
although animals caught close to stands of Senecio kenioaendron may indicate that they occupy the
leaf frills of the Giant Groundsels. Collected on the northern slopes at 11000 and 13500 ft (3350-
4100 m).

Sub-family Otomyinae

Otomys orestes orestes Thomas Groove-toothed Rat

Otomys tropicalis tropicalis Thomas Groove-toothed Rat

Both these species have been recorded throughout the lower levels of the moorland zone
of Mount Kenya and, in these situations, it is difficult to separate them on an altitudinal or ecological
basis. Our collections from the northern slopes are all Otomys orestes and one wonders if, since
these species are very alike, earlier collections have in some cases been misidentified. They occur
in large numbers in tussock grassland and, in some situations (especially damp areas around the
lakes and tarns), the ground is honeycombed with their shallow burrows. Occasionally, areas
are found that appear to have supported large numbers of animals but which seem to have dis-
appeared. Whether or not these observations should suggest that these animals are subject to large
population fluctuations is unknown at the present time. Certainly, with predation at such a low
level and food present at a fairly constant level some form of regulation exerted within the population
itself would seem to be a necessity (Coe 1967).

Throughout the grassland, these animals make very distinct runs which are used extensively
by other species of rodent and insectivore. Although primarily burrowers, they construct small
shelters (of a temporary nature) in tussocks, Lobelia and Senecio rosettes. Their more permanent
holes are constructed at the foot of tussocks and at the bases of soil banks and ash deposits.

Otomys has been recorded from the forest to the foot of the peaks at 15000 ft (4570 m). Hollister
(1919) records specimens of O. orestes collected at 10700 ft (3260 m), 13500 ft (4100 m) and
13700 ft (4175 m) on the western slopes and O. tropicalis from 7500-13700 ft (2280-4x75 m).
Moreau (1944) recorded the range of O. orestes up to 15000 ft (4570 m), which was confirmed by
Coe (1967).

Subfamily Tachyorycinae

Tachyoryctes rex Heller. Mt. Kenya Mole Rat.

Limited to areas where the soil is light and suitable for excavation. Mounds found up to an
altitude of 13500 feet (41000 m) on the northern slopes but, on other quarters, never seen above
12500 ft (3800 m). Mounds found in the forest are assumed to be of the same species, but — as
so few specimens have been caught in these situations — it is difficult to be certain. It is possible
that T. spalacinus Thomas recorded from the Njombeni range may also occur on the NE slopes
of the mountain, or be conspecific. Meester (1968 pers. comm.) informs me that the Smithsonian
Identification Manual for African Mammals will favour a single species for all the East African
forms (i.e. T. splendens Riippell).

Valley bottoms with thick black humic alpine soils are often covered with symmetrical mounds
which, when viewed from valley walls, appear dark green. These mounds are up to six metres in

Page 10

mound d i am. 4m

latrine

Page 11

diameter. Small groups of these structures have been described as tumuli, or earthworks, by local
people. On close examination, it was found that the dark green colour was due to almost pure
stands of Alchemilla argyrophylla that had colonised these raised patches of well-drained soil.
The soil was very fine and virtually stoneless.

Excavations of several of these mounds showed that they were the result of long occupation
and excavation by Tachyoryctes rex. Most of the mounds have been secondarily occupied by Otomys,
which have burrows around the outer edges particularly where the sides of the mound have collapsed
to produce a low vertical surface.

Close to the centre of the mound, at a depth of 45 cm, a large chamber was located, which
contained, on one side, a nest constructed of grass stems, while the main nest of the cavity was used
as a repository for dung, urine and chewed vegetable matter. The heat produced by this fermenting
mass was considerable and measured I2°C, in contrast to the usual soil temperature at 12500
ft (3800 m) of 5-7°C. Large numbers of dipterous larvae occupied this mass and a number of
emerging adults were caught, but are as yet unidentified.

Three other chambers of similar construction were excavated and it seems likely that the
secondary function of these dung piles may be to maintain a relatively high temperature for the
nests (Fig. 1).

The burrow system was followed to a depth of one metre and side tunnels were followed for
distances of up to 12 metres from the main mound. Although activity could be seen at the entrance
to a number of the excavated burrows, we were unable to catch a single specimen.

ORDER CARNIVORA
Subfamily Mustelidae

Ictonyx striatus albescens Heller Zorilla

Recorded from arid lowland to montane forest habitats, but to date only a single specimen
has been recorded in the alpine zone. This animal was trapped by J. B. Sale at 13800 ft (4200 m)
at the head of the Wilson Track on this expedition. A large number of Otomys burrows and shelters
had been excavated by a long-clawed predator at this altitude and we suspect that the animal
trapped was responsible. No further specimens were caught, nor were there any signs of their
droppings. Since this animal is fairly conspicuous at night and readily enters live traps baited with
meat, the capture of a single specimen seems to indicate that the Zorilla is not an important predator
at high altitude.

Family Felidae

Fells lybica Forster (Sub. sp. ?) Wild Cat

Moreau (1944) does not record the Wild Cat as a constituent of the alpine mammal fauna.
We observed several animals at night on the northern slopes, between 11000 and 12500 ft (3350-
3800 m). A single animal was seen, on several nights, close to our camp in the Kazita Valley. Small
heaps of dung, found at the foot of lava cliffs, we ascribe to this species. The rather badly-broken
remains contained fragments of Otomys skulls. It has not been observed (MJC) on other quarters
of the mountain and we must assume that it is another example of a mammal taking advantage of
the northern forest gap to gain access to the alpine grasslands.

Fells pardus L. Leopard

Present in all valleys on Mount Kenya, footprints have been seen (MJC) at 15500 ft (4700 m)
in the Teleki Valley and at 14000 ft (4260 m) in the Kazita Valley in 1966. This mammal must be
the important predator of duiker and steinbuck on the mountain. Hyrax remains have been found
on several occasions in the lairs.

ORDER HYRACOIDEA

Procavia johnstoni mackinderi Thomas Mt. Kenya Hyrax

Endemic to the alpine zone of Mount Kenya and restricted in altitude to levels between 11000
ft (3350 m) and the foot of the peaks. Animals on the northern slopes are found somethat lower
than on other quarters. This restriction is in large part due to glacial activity, which was more active
at altitudes in excess of 11000 ft (3350 m) in creating glacial debris that the hyrax could occupy.
They also occur in boulder debris at the foot of lava cliffs. Their altitudinal limitation in this way
effectively separates them from the Tree Hyrax ( Dendrohyrax arboreus crawshayi Newman)
which occupies an arboreal niche in the montane forest (Coe 1962).

The Rock Hyrax is not as common on the northern slopes as it is elsewhere on the mountain.
In large part, this may be explained by the more undulating landscape of this quarter and by the
comparative rarity of large cliffs and moraine deposits.

This hyrax feeds on a wide variety of herbs surrounding its burrows; but on the northern
slopes, J. B. Sale (Pers. comm.) found that they were taking far more Giant Lobelia and Senecio
than elsewhere on the mountain. Where colonies are close to valley bottoms, long straight tracks
pass through the tussock grassland to water at which they drink, or where they graze on the lush
swampy vegetation (Coe 1962, 1967; Sale 1965a).

Page 12

Like all rock hyrax, they are social animals and the alarm calls of sentinel males can be heard
at a considerable distance.

Although Procavia is a largely diurnal mammal, on moonlight nights on Mount Kenya they call
throughout the night (Coe op. cit; Sale 1965b).

ORDER PERISSODACTYLA

Equus burchelli Gray Common Zebra

One or two herds of these animals appear to be resident on tire northern slopes. Zebra dung
is commonly seen at altitudes up to 14000 ft (4260 m). One herd was seen (in February 1966)
on a col at the head of the Kazita Valley, at an altitude of about 14500 ft. (4400 m). The same herd
was later seen at 10500 ft (3200 m) in the moorland zone, suggesting a wide-ranging habitat.

ORDER ARTIODACTYLA

Sylvicapra grimmia altivallis Heller Common Duiker

The highland sub-species of Common Duiker is present in all valleys on Mount Kenya,
where it mainly occupies Senecio keniodendron/Alchemilla argyrophylla scrub along the valley walls.
Although common on most aspects of the mountain this animal appears to be largely replaced by
the steinbuck (see below) on the northern slopes. Where extensive boggy areas support stands
of Senecio brassica/Carex monostachya, resting animals are often flushed at night. Since these areas
are often forest hollows, their presence in these situations at night is surprising.

Raphicerus campestris Thunberg Steinbuck

Common in open grassland on the northern slopes from 8000 -14000 ft (2440-4260 m). Not
recorded elsewhere on the mountain except for a dead specimen found on the shores of Teleki
Tarn in January 1958 (MJC). It seems reasonable to suppose that the large number of animals
seen on this quarter of the mountain are a resident population that, like the Zebra, gained access
through the northern forest gap.

The Zoogeographical Affinities of the Mount Kenya mammal fauna

Any conclusions regarding the zoogeography of the afro-alpine mammal fauna
must be in large part dependant on the state of the taxonomy of the group under considera-
tion. There are, however, a number of forms that appear to be sufficiently distinct to
allow comment.

Hedberg (1961) has examined endemism in the afro-alpine flora and has found
that, apart from a number of important vicarous taxa that appear to have arisen on the
African mountains, by far the largest part of the flora has been derived from a wide
variety of sources in Southern Africa, Himalaya, the Mediterranean and Europe. The
mammal fauna does not exhibit such a wide radius of origin, but shows relationships
with South Africa, Ethiopia and West Africa, as well as a reasonably high proportion
of endemic East African forms.

Considering the rigours of the climate, it is of interest to note the large number of
insectivores occurring in these regions. The alpine zone of Mount Kenya alone claims
three species of Crocidura, one species of Suncus and one species of Surdisorex.

Of the three species of Crocidura , C. alex alpina appears to be endemic to Mount
Kenya, the type C. a. alex Osgood having been recorded at Naivasha in the Rift Valley.
If Aberdare and the Kinangop are the highland connections between the populations,
it seems likely that intermediates may be found when collecting is more complete.
C.fumosa fumosa occurs up to 1300 ft (3960 m) and is synonymous with C. alchemillae
Heller of the Aberaares. Other species are known from Kilimanjaro and Ruwenzori.
With this distribution, there seems to be little reason why it should not also be found on
the intermediate ranges of Elgon and Cherangani.

C. turba zaodon is a wide-ranging form occurring in the Kenya highlands, from
Nairobi to the base of the alpine zone of Mount Kenya.

The small Suncus infinitesimus Heller has been collected from Rumuruti, northwest
of the mountain and into the ericaceous moorland of Mount Kenya. The genus has a
wide range, from South Africa through Tanzania to Ethiopia. It does not yet appear
to have been recorded from the more westerly land masses.

Undoubtedly the most interesting of the Mount Kenya insectivores is the mole
shrew Surdisorex polulus. This short, squat mammal has every appearance of the European

Page 13

mole and its elongated digging claws on its front feet suggest that it may occupy a similar
niche. The genus is endemic to Mount Kenya and the Aberdares, latter range carrying
a distinct species 5. norae Thomas. It is surprising to find an endemic mammal genus
so apparently restricted in its range and it seems possible that it may be recorded elsewhere
when collecting is more complete. It is indeed so local that it is possible that Surdisorex
on the eastern mountains is filling the niche occupied by the Golden mole Chlorotalpa
on Elgon and Ruwenzori.

The only genera of rodents that are ecologically important in the alpine zone and
therefore of zoogeographical interest on Mount Kenya are Otomys, Tachyoryctes, Dendro-
mus, Lophuromys, Graphiurus ( Claviglis ), Rhabdomys.

Otomys appeals to be one of the commonest rodents on the East African mountains
and is distributed from South Africa to the Ethiopian highlands, while a single species
O. burtoni Thomas is found on Mount Cameroon. East Africa seems to have been the
speciation centre for this genus with 12 species and innumerable subspecies, some of
doubtful status. O. j. jacksoni Thomas of Elgon is closely related to O.j. malkensis Flick
of Ethiopia, which suggests an interesting zoogeographical link. The alpine zone of Mount
Kenya is occupied by O.t. tropicalis and O.o. orestes , but the present state of our know-
ledge makes it difficult to decide whether both species occur together, are divided on
an altitudinal basis, or are conspecific. The most widely-spread of the East African
montane species is O. tropicalis , with subspecies having been attributed to Mt. Kenya,
Njombeni, Nyiru, Elgon and Virunga. The association of the first four localities may
suggest the route by which species have emigrated from the Ethiopian highlands, having
progressed either east of Lake Rudolf via Mts. Nyiru and Kulal, or west of Rudolf
via the intermediate peaks, such as Moroto and the Imatongs in the Sudan.

Dendromus shows a fairly continuous distribution from South West Africa to
Ethiopia and the Congo. Numerous species have been described, many of which appear to
be isolated in highland regions throughout its range. D. insignis percivali is known from the
Mathews range, in the arid Northern Province of Kenya, and from Mount Kenya.
Further collecting may well show that the two forms are distinct. Should this not be
so, then one might suspect that many of the other apparently-isolated subspecies in
this genus are, in fact, synonymous. This species is widespread throughout East Africa,
the Congo to Ethiopia.

Tachyoryctes is a specialised burrowing rodent which, like so many other strictly
fossorial creatures, is limited by the distribution of soils of suitable texture for excavation.
There appears to have been considerable speciation within the genus in Afroalpine
habitats. Mount Kenya has the large T. rex and the nearby Aberdares, T. andax Thomas.
Other species are known from Kil imanjaro (T. daemon Thomas), Elgon (T. ruddi Thomas)
and Muhuvura (T. ruandae Lonn. & Gyld.). T. spalacinus has been described from an
altitude of 5400 ft (1640 m) in Meru District on the NE. slope of Mt. Kenya. It will
be interesting in the future to see if T. rex and T. spalacinus are separated altitudinally
on the northern slopes of the mountain. Tachyoryctes is a largely East African genus,
being recorded from Somalia, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and the Eastern
Congo.

The genus Lophuromys is common on all the East African mountains and, in addition,
is very widespread from Sierra Leone through Ghana to the Cameroons, the Congo,
East and Central Africa and Ethiopia. The fact that this harsh-furred rat has adopted
a largely insectivorous diet may account for its success and wide range. L. flavopunctatus
occurs on Kilimanjaro, Mt. Kenya, the Aberdares, Elgon, the Mathews range and the
Ethiopian highlands, once again suggesting another possible affinity with the latter.
The Ruwenzori and Kigezi mountains have their own species L. woosnami Thomas.
Ellerman (1941) suggests that L. flavopunctatus falls into a group with L. sikapusi Tem-
minck, a lowland rain forest form with a range from the west coast to Kenya, while
L. woosnami forms a separate group with L. prittei Thomas of south west Kigezi, Uganda.
Missonne (1968) has reduced the number of species in this genus to five, the two most
common being L. sikapusi , the western lowland form, and L. flavopunctatus , the eastern

Page 14

highland form. The other three species recognised are all rare or uncommon endemic
species from highland areas of the south-eastern Congo. One suspects that, since
Ruwenzori and the other western mountains are surrounded by rain forest, it is very
likely that the western montane species have been derived from the lowland form.

The Four- Striped Grass Mouse Rkabdomys is essentially a lowland animal, with
a range through eastern Africa, from the Cape to Kenya, and only one valid species.
Rhabdomys pumilio diminutus of Mount Kenya has a wide range, from Naivasha to the
top of the Aberdares, at least 12500 ft (3800 m) on Mount Kenya, and the moorland of
Kilimanjaro.

The dormouse Graphiurus ( Claviglis ) is widely distributed over the whole of Africa
south of the Sahara. From this point of view, it is difficult to postulate zoogeographical
relationships. We can state, however, that subspecies of G. murinus have been described
from the Cape to Kenya, and that those recorded from Kenya are montane and known
from the Mathews range, Taita, Mt. Kenya and Elgon. G. soleatus occuts on Ruwenzori,
with an apparent gap between this population and another on the Ukinga mountains,
on the northern end of Lake Nyasa.

The last group of mammals woithy of consideration from a zoogeographical point
of view is the Hyracoidea. Although the genus Procavia and subgenera Heterohyrax
and Dendrohyrax are distinct, all three forms have entered and occupied a montane,
rocky habitat in East Africa. On Mount Kenya, Procavia johnstoni mackinderi has occupied
a rocky habitat in the alpine zone over 12000 ft (3650 m), having probably gained access
through the northern forest gap (Coe 1962). On Mount Elgon, Procavia habessinica
daemon Thomas and Heterohyrax syriacus kempi Thomas have both occupied the alpine
zone with similar success.

The most interesting case is that of Ruwenzori, where a continuous foiest zone
has prevented colonisation of the alpine boulder habitat by Procavia or Heterohyrax.
Instead it has been occupied by a tree hyrax which has progressed from the montane
forest proper through the dense Erica forest to altitudes well in excess of 13000 ft (3950 m).
This hyrax is Dendrohyrax arboreus ruwenzori Neumann. Though most tree hyrax in
East Africa are quite small, this animal is as large as the Mount Kenya Procavia and
bears very long, extremely dense fui — a typical adaptation to this inclement environment.

In summarising, we may say that the montane mammal fauna of East Africa bears
elements that have apparently been derived from West Africa, South Africa and the
Ethiopian Highlands. The latter connection is of particular interest, for Moreau (1963),
studying the montane avifauna, and Carcasson (1964), considering the zoogeography
of African butterflies, are unanimous in finding little suggestion of a montane connection
between the Highlands of Ethiopia and East Africa.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We should like to thank all members of the expedition who assisted the mammal
studies on the mountain, and the Ford Foundation, which, through a grant for ecological
research made to the Department of Zoology, University College, Nairobi, Kenya,
made our work possible. Professor D. S. Kettle was helpful and encouraging in planning
our field work.

Perez Olindo, Director of the Kenya National Parks, and Bill Woodley, Warden of
Kenya’s Mountain National Parks, both assisted us in many ways.

Finally, we would like to thank our field assistants — particularly our Mkamba cook
“Willy”, who, with chaiacteristic good cheer, fed us under very trying conditions.

SUMMARY

1. This paper presents the results of mammalian investigations conducted on the
northern slopes of Mount Kenya in March 1966.

2. Previous mammal studies on Mount Kenya are briefly outlined.

Page 15

3. The climate, physiography and vegetational associations of the northern slopes
are described. In particular it is pointed out that the climate of this aspect of the mountain
appears to be both milder and drier than elsewhere and, in consequence, its vegetation
shows marked differences.

4. Mammals were trapped using “break-back” and “live” traps, of varying size, and
“buckets”. Pellets of Augur Buzzard and the Mackinder’s Owl were collected. Preli-
minary experiments were carried out by ear-tagging Otomys rats with numbered surgical
skin clips.

5. The results of trapping small mammals show that there is an unusual concentration
of small mammals in Car ex monostachya bog. “Buckets” were far more effective in
trapping insectivores than were other traps.

6. Examination of pellets attributed to Augur Buzzard and Mackinder’s Owl indicate
that two of the small mammals are active both during the day and at night.

7. Otomys rats were shown to travel distances of up to 50 metres from their place of
first capture.

8. All small mammals trapped or observed on the northern slopes are enumerated,
together with brief notes on their altitudinal distribution.

9. The zoogeographical affinities of the alpine small mammal fauna are discussed. It
appears that these creatures have been derived from the Western African, South African
and Ethiopian regions, with a small but significant endemic element.

REFERENCES

Agnew, A. D. Q. 1966. The utilisation of game trails as a possible measure of habitat utilisation
by larger mammals. E. Afr. Wildl.J., 4: 38-46.

Allen, G. M. and Loveridge, A. 1933. Reports of the scientific results of an expedition to the south
western highlands of Tanganyika Territory 2. Mammals Bull. Mus. comp. Zool. Harv., 75 '■
47-140.

Carcasson, R. H., 1964. A preliminary survey of the zoogeography of African butterflies. E. Afr.
Wildl. J., 2: 122-157.

Child, G. S., 1965. Some notes on the mammals of Kilimanjaro. Tanganyika Notes 64: 77-89.
Coe, M. J., 1962. Notes on the habits of the Mount Kenya Hyrax ( Procavia johnstoni mackinderi
Thomas). Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. 138: 639-644.

Coe, M. J., 1964. Contributions to the Ecology of the Alpine Zone of Mount Kenya. Ph.D. thesis.,
University of London.

Coe, M. J., 1967. The Ecology of the Alpine Zone of Mount Kenya. Junk, Hague.

Coe, M. J., 1969. Microclimate and animal life on the equatorial mountains. Zoologica Africana 4:
101-128.

Ellerman, J. R., 1941. The Families and Genera of Living Rodents. Brit. Mus. (Nat. hist.). London.
Ellerman, J. R., Morrison-Scott, T. C. S., and Hayman, R. W., (1953). Southern African Mammals,
1758-1951; a reclassification. Brit. Mus. (Nat. hist.). London.

Fries, R. E. and Fries, M. C. E., 1948. Phytogeographical researches on Mount Kenya and Mt.

Aberdare, British East Africa. K. svenska Vetensk. Akad. Handl. ill, 25. Stockholm.

Hanney, P., 1964. The harsh-furred rat in Nyasaland. J. Mammal, 45: 345-358.

Hedberg, O., 1957. Afro-alpine vascular plants. Symb. hot. upsal. 15: 1-411.

Hedberg, O., 1961. The phytogeographical position of the Afro-alpine flora. Recent advances in
botany: 9 14-9 19. Toronto.

Hedberg, O., 1964. Features of afro-alpine plant ecology. Acta Phvtogeogr. Suec. Uppsala.
Hollister, N., 1919. East African Mammals in the United States National Museum. Pt. 11. Rodentia,
Lagomorpha, and Tubulidentata. Bull. U.S. Natn. Mus. 99.

Lonnberg, E., Mammals collected by the Swedish Zoological Expedition.

Kungl. Sv. Vet. Akad. Handl. 48, 5.

Meester, J., 1968. Pers. Comm.

Missonne, X., 1968 Preliminary Identification Manual for African Mammals, (ed. J. Meester).

19, Rodentia Smithsonian Institution, Washington.

Moreau, 1944. Mount Kenya. A contribution to the biology and bibliography. J. E. Afr. nat. Hist.
Soc. 18: 61-92.

Moreau, R. E., 1963. Vicissitudes of the African biomes in the late Pleistocene. Proc. Zool. Soc.
Lond. 141: 395-421.

Roosevelt, T., 1910. African Game Trails, London. (Appendices A-D by Loring and Heller),
p. 483-500.

Page 16

Sale, J. B., 1965b. Aspects of the behaviour and ecology of rock hyraces (Genera Procavia and
Heterohyrax)., Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. University of London.

Sale, J. B., 1965a. The feeding behaviour of rock hyraces (Genera., Procavia and Heterohyrax)
in Kenya E. Afr. Wildl.J. 3: 1-18.

Swynnerton, G. H. and Hayman, R. W., 1950. A checklist of the land mammals of the Tanganyika
Territory and the Zanzibar Protectorate. J. E. Afr. nat. Hist. Soc. 20, (90): 274-392.

Williams, J. G., 1967. A Field Guide to the National Parks of East Africa, p. 169. Collins, London.

APPENDIX

Numerical data of specimens trapped

Symbols on tables

No.

= Number

Alt.

= Altitude

S

= Sex

TL

- Total length

T

Tail length

HF

= Hind foot

E

Ear (where given)

Wt.

Weight

ZW

Zygomatic width (where given)

CBL

Condylabasal length

SW

= Squamosal width (where given)

Surdisorex polulus Hollister

No.

Alt.

5 TL

T

HF

Wt.

CBL

72

12900 ft. (3920 m)

9 133

50

15

10

24.9

29

12500 ft (3800 m)

9 125

32

15

25

25.0

30

12500 ft (3800 m)

$ 120

37

15

20

24.6

34

12500 ft (3800) m

2 120

35

15

20

23.8

4i

12500 ft (3800 m)

(? 122

21

17

25

24.9

Crocidura futnosa futnosa Thomas

73

12900 ft (3920 m)

130

30

15

21.3

Crocidura turba zaodon Osgood

5i

13500 ft (4100 m)

$ 106

45

12

17.0

46

12500 ft (4100 m)

2 100

42

12

17.0

42

12500 ft (3800 m)

<j no

40

13

17.0

45

12500 ft (3800 m)

c? no

45

12

17.7

74

12900 ft (3920 m)

<? 107

44

n

17.2

24

12500 ft (3800 m)

<5 104

45

10

17.6

23

12500 ft (3800 m)

<? 100

42

10

17.4

Crocidura allex alpina Heller

75

12900 ft (3920 m)

9 98

38

n

16.4

3

12500 ft (3800 m)

9 96

45

6

17.4

27

12500 ft (3800 m)

9 96

44

12

17. 1

25

12500 ft (3800 m)

6 98

45

n

17.6

17

12500 ft (3800 m)

<J 92

44

12

17.4

Dendromus insignis percivali Heller

No.

Alt.

S

TL

T

HF

E

Wt.

ZW

43

13500
(4100 m)

9

171

94

23

14

10

n.7

53

13500 ft
(4100 m)

<?

180

86

19

15

20

12. 1

53

1 1000 ft
(3350 m)

180

95

20

15

15

44

13500 ft
(4100 m)

<S

174

94

20

15

15

12.0

12500 ft

Rhabdomys pumilio diminutus Thomas

37

c?

185

90

25

15

35

13-5

(3800 m)

Graphiurus

murinus

raptor Dollman

9

12500 ft
(3800 m)

9

160

60

10

20

15.0

52

13500 ft
(4100 m)

9

160

75

16

25

14.8

78

12900 ft
(3920 m)

9

152

65

16

20

14.4

27

13500 ft
(4100 m)

9

140

70

14

14.3

76

12900 ft
(3920 m)

«J

170

75

17

25

15.6

77

12900 ft
(3920 m)

c?

169

70

19

25

16.3

26

12500 ft

<?

160

68

15

25

14.6

Page 17

S W

13. 1
12.3

13.2

12.6

12.7

10.3

7-9

7-9

7-7

7.8

8.1

7-9

7.8

7-4

7-9

7-7

7-9

7.8

CBL

12.3

22.4

22.4

25.2

24.6

24.8
23.2
24.1

25.4

25.9

24.4

Page 18

(3800 m)

35

12500 ft

160

60

15

35

14.9

24.4

5

(3800 m)
12500 ft

«J

i55

60

xo

30

16.0

25.2

19

(3800 m)
12500 ft

c?

150

55

17

25

15. 1

25.2

No.

(3800 m)
Alt.

5

Otomys orestes orestes Thomas
TL T HF

E

Wt.

ZW

CBL

84

12900 ft

?

245

80

30

20

140

18.7

35.0

22

(3920 m)
12500 ft

9

221

65

29

20

120

19-3

34.8

38

(3800 m)
12500 ft

9

212

62

29

20

75

20.0

39

(3800 m)
12500 ft

9

201

7i

26

22

95

18.9

34.0

58

(3800 m)
12500 ft

9

185

20*

30

22

120

20.0

37-8

68

(3800 m)
12900 ft

S

275

97

30

25

205

20.8

40.4

12

(3920 m)
12500 ft

<?

271

80

33

23

155

20.8

40.0

86

(3800 m)
12900 ft

c?

261

84

32

25

160

19.3

37-7

69

(3920 m)
12900 ft

c?

245

94

26

25

150

20.3

37-3

33

(3920 m)
12500 ft

<?

210

61

27

21

no

19-5

36.7

79

(3800 m)
12900 ft

9

Lophoromys flavopunctatus Thomas
176 60 20

40

14.8

27.5

7

(3920 m)
12500 ft

9

172

55

24

55

14.8

28.8

59

(3800 m)
12500 ft

9

165

58

20

55

15.6

28.7

63

62

(3800 m)
12500 ft
(3800 m)
12500 ft

9

9

161

162

57

48

22

23

60

55

15-7

29.4

57

(3800 m)
12500 ft

cJ

172

60

23

50

15.2

28.5

69

(3800 m)
12500 ft

<J

171

60

21

60

14-3

27.8

81

(3800 m)
12500 ft

163

65

20

55

15.0

29.3

14

(3800 m)
12500 ft

<?

152

36

23

60

15.0

29.3

65

(3800 m)
12500 ft

6

150

55

20

35

13.8

25.2

6

(3800 m)
12500 ft

6

146

37

23

55

15-3

29.4

80

(3800 m)
12900 ft

—

166

60

20

40

14.4

27.3

(3920 m)

END

Received 21 December 1970

Published by The East Africa Natural History Society, Box 44486, Nairobi, Kenya and
printed by Kenya Litho Ltd., Box 40775, Nairobi.

sr i. b /

JOURNAL

OF THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

10(h JUNE 1972 No. 132

BIRDS OF THE ARUSHA NATIONAL PARK, TANZANIA

By

J. S. Beesley

Arusha National Park, P.O. Box 3134, Arusha
INTRODUCTION

The main reason for this paper is to set down what is now known of the present status
of the birds of the Arusha National Park, so that comparisons may be made by other or-
nithologists in the future. The area being a National Park, it is hoped that the main
habitat changes in the future will be those of natural succession, and therefore the only
avifaunal changes will be the result of these and not of the rapid destruction or alteration
of environment which is occurring over much of Africa. However, some of the cultivation,
overgrazing and destruction of woodland going on beyond the borders of the Park may
influence the status of birds in the Park, and some mention is made of the birds and
environment of these areas. The data in this paper have been accumulated over a period
of nine years, but mainly during the past three while I have been working in the Park.
I have also been given many notes by L.D.E.F. Vesey-FitzGerald, the Tanzania National
Parks’ Scientific Officer who has lived in the Park for five years, and some records are
based on skins in the Park museum. Identifications of the skins of more difficult species
have been made by C. W. Benson, of the Department of Zoology, Cambridge.

TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE

The Arusha National Park is situated on the eastern side of Mt. Meru in north-
eastern Tanzania, at 3°i5'S, 37°oo'E. Mt. Kilimanjaro rises some 40 km to the east.
The country is generally rugged resulting from past volcanic activity, and ascends from
1400 m in the Momela Lakes and Ngongongare section (see map) to almost 4565 m at the
summit of Mt. Meru. It contains a diversity of habitat, ranging from alkaline and
fresh-water lakes, through bush, grassland and swamp, to forest, heath and precipitous
bare cliffs.

The climate varies with the altitude and the area is within the regime of two rainy
seasons, the “short rains” of November and December, and the “long rains” of mid-
March to late May, although rainfall is recorded for every month. Considerable cloud-
cover from April to September keeps the area green through much of the dry season.
Rainfall varies from year to year and place to place. In lower, drier areas it ranges between
600 mm and 1300 mm and in Meru Crater at 2590 m between 1400 mm and 2400 mm.
Temperature records have not been kept, but generally the Park is temperate compared
with the rather arid surroundings of Masailand. The hottest season is in January and
February with temperatures rarely exceeding 27°C. In the cold season, June to August,
temperatures at midday do not drop much below i5°C. Strong winds blow from January
to March and July to October. On the higher parts of Mt. Meru of course, temperatures
are lower, frost occurring at night in Meru Crater during the cold season.

eta/Kf/ro'V L.Tulusn

Page 2

miles

Page 3

HABITATS AND VEGETATION

No detailed description of the vegetation of the area has yet been published, but
L.D.E.F. Vesey-FitzGerald has allowed me to study his manuscript (in preparation).
The habitats are listed below in some detail with notes on possible future trends.

Permanent Water

Strongly alkaline lakes : Big Momela, Rishateni, Tulusia and Lekandiro.

These deep lakes are rich in algae, other plankton and at times Chironomid larvae,
but no fish and few frogs. The waters are very clouded, and are rarely visited by Great
Crested Grebes Podiceps cristatus, Reed Cormorants Phalacrocorax africanus , White
Pelicans and Herons, Ardeidae, which feed mainly on frogs ( Xenopus spp.) in clearer
waters. Ducks, Anatidae and Little Grebe Podiceps ruficollis are numerous in their seasons
except in some years when the waters turn yellow and smell strongly of sulphur, probably
the result of the death and decay of the blue-green algae.

Less alkaline lakes: Small Momela , Kusare and Elkekhotoito.

All three lakes have no fish, but plenty of frogs at times, and are much frequented
by those birds noted as rare in the strongly alkaline lakes. Small Momela is deep, the
two others are shallow. Kusare occasionally supports a heavy growth of water-weed, at
which time ducks and geese congregate, and Jacanas Actophilornis africanus breed.

Fresh lakes: Longil.

Lake Longil supports a floating sudd of Papyrus and a population of introduced fish.
Very few aquatic birds are seen there, for which I can find no satisfactory reason except
that the water is strongly coloured.

Streams: The Ngarenanyuki, Jekukumia, Nasula, Maji-ya-Chai and numerous smaller ones.

They are swift-running, their waters are variously fresh, alkaline or salt, and contain
little aquatic growth and no fish, except in the Maji-ya-Chai.

Temporary Water

Rainwater pools, the larger being Seneto Pools and Kiwanja-ya-Mateo. These are
mostly in the forest and what had been forest. During dry years they are edaphic grass
glades, but after good rains fill up and acquire a cover of water-lilies and weed, and a
fringing growth of sedges. They are then much frequented by water-fowl, especially
Little Grebe, White-backed Duck Thalassornis leuconotus, Red-bill Duck Anas eryth.ro-
rhyncha , Egyptian Goose Alopochen aegyptiacus. Spurwing Goose Plectropterus gatnbensis.
Black Crake Limnocorax flavirostra , African Moorhen Gallinula chloropus, Red-knobbed
Coot Fulica cristata and Jacana. A limited amount of breeding takes place. As the waters
recede, Buffalo Syncerus cajfer (Sparmann), Bush Pig Potamochoerus porcus daemonis
Major and Bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus (Pallas) eat the water-lilies and many of the
birds depart.

Swamps

Fresh swamps containing tall plants such as papyrus, Miscanthidium violaceum (K.
Schum) Robyns and Cyperus immensus C. B. Cl. Alkaline swamps or lake margins of
the shorter Cyperus laevigatus L.

Page 4

Lake Shores

With the fall of water-levels, a margin of mud is exposed, providing the main habitat
of Palaearctic waders.

Grassland

Derived tussock grass on the laharic monticules of the Momela area of which the
main components are Cymbopogon afronardus Stapf and Sporobolus greenwayi Napper,
and the short-grass lawns which have been kept open by buffalo grazing.

Derived grassland on the lower slopes of Mt. Meru, a mosaic of tussocky Eleusine
jaegeri Pilg. and short-cropped Exotheca abyssinica (A. Rich.) Anderss. and Cynodon
dactylon (L.) Pers.

Short alkaline grass swards of Sporobolus spicatus (Vahl) Kunth bordering the soda
lakes, often with bare patches of alkaline soil.

Secondary Vegetation

“Sage-bush”: This is a term we have given to the mixture of Leucas grandis Vatke,
Ocimum suave Willd., Lantana viburnoides (Forsk.) Valh., Lippia javanica (Burm.f.)
Spreng, Hoslundia opposita Vahl, Vernonia lasiopus O. Hoffm. and other shrubs which
have replaced the destroyed forest, thicket and woodland below 1680 m. It is an important
habitat covering a large area. In the drier areas (Momela) it is short, combined with
tussock-grass on the hillocks and is scattered with Acacia sieberiana D.C., A. xantho-
phloea Benth., Croton macrostachyus Hochst. ex Del. and other trees which sometimes
form copses on steeper hillsides. In the wetter parts about Seneto and Ngongongare it
is taller, thicker, with some regeneration of forest trees, clumps of secondary trees and
forest remnants.

Dodonea scrub: This covers an area of boulder beds spread by the Ngarenanyuki
river at the base of Mt. Meru, which once supported a woodland of cedar Juniperus procera
Hochst. ex End]., but was reduced by fire and felling to a thin woodland/scrub of Dodonea
viscosa (L) Jacq. and scattered relict cedars.

Woodland

This term applies to the groves of mature Yellow-bark Acacias Acacia xanthophloea
which grow in moist hollows, on the perimeter of some lakes and along the lower part
of the Ngarenanyuki. The most extensive stand is found round the shores of Lake Elkek-
hotoito where it is mixed with regenerating forest trees.

Regenerating A. xanthophloea scrub.

An important habitat composed of young Yellow-bark Acacia trees up to 5 m tall,
growing round lake-shores.

Forest

Dry evergreen forest existing from 1500 m to 1700 m, characterised by Diospyros
abyssinica (Hiern) F. White Olea welwitschii (Knobl.) Gilg & Schellenb., O. hochstetteri
Baker, (loliondo) and O. africana. In places it is fairly open, but there are thickets and
tangle of undergrowth and regeneration.

Sub-montane or mountain evergreen mist forest, occurring from 1700-1800 m
on Ngurdoto crater rim and up to 2100 m, on Mt. Meru. On Ngurdoto
characteristic trees are Cassipourea malosana (Baker) Alston, Tabernaemontanum and
Casearia on Meru, Olea hochstetteri is dominant. There is heavy undergrowth in much of
this type of forest, and the trees are festooned with epiphytes.

Page 5

Montane Forest: From 2x00 m to 2600 m is a forest of tall Jnniperus and Podocarpus
gracilior Pilger, generally with an open, grazed floor, but in parts with an understorey
of broad-leaved evergreen trees. Above this type of forest, on the steep slopes of the rim,
mainly on the northern arm of the caldera wall are relict Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J. F.
Gmel. trees and a growth of tall Crotalaria agatiflora Schweinf. shrubs.

Forest edge

A complex of trees, shrubs and bracken bordering the forest from 1680-2260 m.
Heath Zone

Represented mainly in, above, and just below Meru Crater. The co-dominant shrubs
are Erica arborea L. Stoebe kilimandscharica O. Hoffrn. which form thickets 3-4 m high,
traversed by grassy lanes and glades, with emergent trees including Agauria salicifolia
(Comm, ex Lam.) Hook.f. and Jnniperus.

Special Sites

Cliffs, Waterfalls, Buildings, Large Mammals.

HABITAT AND AVIFAUNAL CHANGES IN THE PARK

The main areas of habitat change in the Park will be in the “sage-bush”, parts of which
will become pasture through the influence of grazing pressure by buffalo thus attracting
additions to the presently few grassland species of birds, and the wetter areas will resolve
through secondary and forest-tree regeneration back to woodland and forest. It’s doubtful
however that all the “sage-bush” will disappear. The Dodonea viscosa scrub, with fire-
protection, will eventually give place to cedar woodland with an understorey of other
regenerating forest trees. The increase of buildings at the Park headquarters will provide
a niche for more Barn Owls Tyto alba , Swifts Apodidae, African Pied Wagtails Motacilla
aguimp. Swallows Hirundinidae, Redwing Starlings Onyochognathus morio , and Scarlet-
chested Sunbirds Chalcomitra senegalensis. The Grey-headed Sparrow Passer griseus
which nests beyond the Park border may also be attracted. The continued tranquility
in the Park and decrease of it outside, may encourage the more mobile birds such as
predators and water-fowl to breed in increasing numbers in the Park, and perhaps ad-
ditional species will take residence.

Slight changes in the avifauna have been observed in recent years, some of which
may not be permanent. The first is the apparent loss of the Palm Swift Cypsiurus parvus
which used to frequent the mature Phoenix reclinata palms, now mostly destroyed by
elephants except in the ravines. In 1969, a pair of Crested Francolin Francolinus sephaena
with young were found; these are birds normally of the thorn-bush beyond our borders.
The Rattling Cisticola Cisticola chiniana at one time a visitor is now also a resident,
and with the increase of grassland the Rufous-naped Lark Mirafra africana and Pangani
Longclaw Macronyx aurantiigula have increased in numbers. The older Park buildings
became the nesting sites of Wire-tailed Swallows Hirundo smithii in 1968 followed by
Mosque Swallows Hirundo senegalensis which took over some of their nests a few months
later. In 1970 a Wire-tailed Swallow’s nest which had been taken over by a Mosque
Swallow was commandeered by a pair of White-rumped Swifts Apus caffer, also a new
breeding species to the Park (Beesley 1971a). Squabbles were frequent. The African
Pied Wagtail and Scarlet-chested Sunbird also began nesting on buildings in 1968. The
Blue-capped Cordon-blue Uraeginthus cynocephalus and Purple Grenadier Granatina
ianthinogaster were not recorded before 1969, but during that year many were seen,
some stayed for three months, and the latter species may have bred. Nine months after

Page 6

clearing an area of bush, some ioo hectares in extent, which became much frequented
by herds of buffalo and other game, a pair of Crowned Lapwings Stephanibyx coronatus
took up residence and nested in September 1970. Previously this bird had been a rare
visitor from the short grass grazing land just beyond the Park borders.

BREEDING

Of the 1 91 resident birds, 12 visitors that sometimes breed and 6 breeding migrants,
only 133 species have been seen nesting, and in some species only one nest has been
found so far. With these few records it is difficult to give a clear picture of the breeding
seasons; some tentative observations may be made however. The smaller birds, which
feed either themselves or their young on insects appear to lay their eggs from one to
three weeks before the beginning of each of the two rainy seasons, usually in February
and October, thus rearing the young during the first part of the rains. Very little
breeding takes place in the cold season of June, July and August. However, after the failure
of the short rains in 1970 and the drying up of the Park throughout the beginning of
1971 until mid-March when the long rains started, there was a great amount of breeding
during the long rains in April and May, and in the cold month of June. Predators, such
as have been found breeding, the plovers Charadriidae, game-birds Phasianidae and
the nightjars Caprimulgidae nest in the dry seasons, although some of the Helmeted
Guinea-fowls Numida mitrata and Augur Buzzards Buteo rufofuscus lay during the long
rains.

It is apparent that many of the species have two breeding seasons, and some breed
either several times or throughout the year. This, and the prolonged nesting period of
some recorded species is probably the result of predation, disturbance and the variable,
temperate climate with its lack of a long dry season. Predation is heavy, and I have seen
many robbed nests, the work of genets Genetta sp., snakes and baboons Papio sp. The
passage and feeding of elephants Loxodonta destroys nests in bushes and small trees,
but I have never seen a ground nest trampled by game. Without being able to study
individual recognisable birds throughout the year, it would be impossible to state the
number of broods that are successful.

SURROUNDINGS OF THE ARUSHA NATIONAL PARK

Where the Park borders the forests of Mt. Meru and Ngurdoto Crater, the country
beyond is a continuation of this forest, changing only in type with descending altitude.
Much of the old forest has been and is still being cleared. Towards Usa River at 1130 m
and Lake Duluti at 1300 m the original forest and woodland is confined to small relict
patches and gallery forest along the streams. Most of the birds inhabiting these areas are
found in the Park, but there are a few exceptions, namely the Bat-eating Buzzard Macha-
erhamphus alcinus Westerman, Northern Brownbul Phyllastrephus strepitans (Reichenow),
Zanzibar Sombre Greenbul Andropadus importunus (Vieillot), Ashy Flycatcher Alseonax
cinereus (Cassin) and Peter’s Twinspot Hypargos niveoguttatus (Peters), (Beesley 1967).
These species probably have altitudinal limits. It should be noted also that the Little
Greenbul Eurillas virens, Drongo Dicrurus adsimilis and Red-headed Weaver Anaplectes
melanotis which breed commonly in these lower areas are only occasional visitors to the
Park.

To the north and east of the Park, the laharic monticules and dells clothed in sage-
bush merge into a mixture of even drier sage-bush, tussock-grass, cultivation and grazing
land. Just outside the Park, although many of the bush-grassland birds are the same,
there is a rather sudden change, the colonisers from the woodland and forest-edge such as
the Yellow Fly-catcher Warbler Chloropeta natalensis, Stonechat Saxicola torquata.
Singing Cisticola Cisticola cantans and Tropical Boubou Lamanus aethiopicus are absent,
but the species typical of dry open country and cultivation are more common. The most
striking difference in birds is found in an arc beginning only five kilometres to the north

Page 7

of the boundary, a country composed mainly of Acacia tortilis (Forsk.) Hayne wooded
grassland, alkaline short-grass plains along the Ngarenanyuki river and Acacia mellifera
(Vahl) Benth.-Commiphora africana (A. Rich.) Engl, bush interspersed with other edaphic
short-grass plains which stretches northwards to, and beyond, the Kenya border. Here,
between five and fifteen kilometres from our boundary, 58 species not yet recorded in the
Park are found breeding, and a further 30 which are but rare visitors to the Park. The
former birds are listed below.

Ostrich Struthio camelus Linn.

Lanner Falcon Falco biarmicus Temminck
White-eyed Kestrel Falco rupicoloides A. Smith
Pigmy Falcon Poliohierax semitorquatus (A. Smith)

Pale Chanting Goshawk Melierax poliopterus Cabanis
Yellow-necked Spurfowl Pternistis leucoscepus (Gray)

Kori Bustard Ardeotis kori (Burchell)

White-bellied Bustard Eupodotis senegalensis canicollis (Reichw.)
Crested Bustard Lophotis ruficrista (Smith)

Two-banded Courser Hemerodromus africanus (Temm.)

Pratincole Glareola pratincola (Linn,)

Chestnut-bellied Sandgrouse Pterocles exustus Temminck & Langier
White-bellied Go-away Bird Corythaixoides leucogaster (Ruppell)
Yellow-collared Love-bird Agapornis personata Reichenow
Grey Hornbill Tockus nasutus (Linn.)

Von der Decken’s Hornbill Tockus deckeni (Cabanis)

Abyssinian Scimitar-bill Rhinopomastus minor (Ruppell)

Long-tailed Nightjar Scotornis climacurus Vieillot
White-headed Mousebird Colius leucocephalus Reichenow
Black-throated Barbet Tricholaema melanocephalum (Cretz.)
Red-and-Yellow Barbet Trachyphonus erythrocephalus Cabanis
D’ Arnaud’s Barbet Trachyphonus darnaudii (Prevost & Des Mrs)
Singing Bush-Lark Mirafra cantillans Hawker
Fawn-coloured Lark Mirafra africanoides. A. Smith
Pink-breasted Lark Mirafra poecilosterna (Reichw.)

Short-tailed Lark Pseudalaemon fremantlii (Phillips)

Little Tawny Pipit Anthus caffer Sundevall
Banded Tit-Flycatcher Parisoma boehmi Reichw.

Pale Flycatcher Bradornis pallidus (Muller)

Grey Flycatcher Bradornis microrhvnchus Reichw.

South African Black Flycatcher Melaenornis pammelaina (Stanley)
Spotted Morning Warbler Cichladusa guttata (Heuglin)

Grey Wren Warbler Calamonastes simplex (Cabanis)

Yellow-bellied Eremomela Eremomela icteropygialis (Lafresnaye)

Tiny Cisticola Cisticola nana Fischer & Reichenow
Asy Cisticola Cisticola cinereola Salvadori
Teita Fiscal Shrike Lanius dorsalis Cabanis
Long-tailed Fiscal Shrike Lanius cabanisi Hartert
Slate-coloured Boubou Laniarius funebris (Hartlaub)

Rosy-patched Shrike Rhodophoneus cruentus (Flemprich & Ehrenberg)
Fischer’s Starling Spreo fischeri (Reichenow)

Superb Starling Spreo superbus (Ruppell)

Violet-backed Sunbird Anthreptes longuemarei (Lesson)

Red-billed Buffalo-Weaver Bubalornis niger Smith
White-headed Buffalo Weaver Dinemellia dinemelli (Ruppell)
Stripe-breasted Sparrow-Weaver Plocepasser mahali Smith
Grey-headed Social Weaver Pseudonigrita arnaudi (Bonaparte)
Yellow-spotted Petronia Petronia xanthosterna (Bonaparte)
Speckle-fronted Weaver Sporopipes frontalis (Daudin)

Vitelline Masked Weaver Ploceus vitellinus (Lichtenstein)
Black-necked Weaver H yphanturgus nigricollis (Vieillot)

Cut-throat Amadina fasciata (Gmelin)

Green-winged Pytilia Pytilia melba (L.)

Indigo-bird Nypochera sp.

Steel-blue Whydah Vidua hypocherina Verreaux
Fischer’s Whydah Vidua fischeri (Reichenow)

White-bellied Canary Serinus dorsostriatus (Reichenow)

Kenya Grosbeak Canary Serinus buchanani Hart

Page 8

STATUS OF THE SPECIES

Four hundred and eleven species of birds have so far been recorded. In the systematic
list they follow the order and enumeration employed in “Birds of Eastern and North-
Eastern Africa” by Mackworth-Praed and Grant, second edition. Their status is classified
in the following manner.

Residents: at present 191 species are thus described. They are birds which are present
throughout the year, and some of these species have their numbers augmented by visitors.
Ducks and Geese are not included in this category, with the exception of the Black Duck
and possibly African Pochard, Spurwing-Goose and Egyptian Goose, as it is not known
whether the few that do breed are not merely visitors.

Palaearctic migrants: 62 species are recorded, most of which are transients. Waders
form the largest biomass of the migrants, and many of these stay throughout the northern
winter months.

Breeding Visitors: six species migrate to the Park for breeding purposes only.

Visitors: In this category there are 153 species, all of which are African (Ethiopian)
species with the sole exception of the Madagascar Squacco Heron Ardeola idae. Those
described as regular visitors come every year at more or less defined times, or appear
almost every month.

SYSTEMATIC LIST

2. PODICEPS CRI STATUS L. Great Crested Grebe.

A regular, but usually transient visitor, occurring on the less alkaline lakes from July to December.
Up to 12 birds recorded at once.

3. PROCTOPUS CASPICUS (Hablizl). Black-necked Grebe.

Two seen on Great Momela lake in October 1968. This has been found breeding at Eluanata dam,
64 km east of the Park.

4. PODICEPS RUFICOLLIS (Pallas). Little Grebe.

A small number of residents are augmented by many visitors, up to 7,000 having been recorded.
Numbers of immigrants vary from year to year, and are normally highest during the dry season.
Habitat. Any still water.

Breeding. Probably whenever conditions are suitable. Nests with eggs found on the following
dates; 18.12.68, 21.5.69, 9.8.69, 10.4.70, 5.5.70, 4.5.71, 30.5.71.

Small young seen as follows; 19.8.68, 20.9.68, 2.2.69, 3I-5-7L Up to five eggs are laid.

25. PHALACROCORAX CARBO L. Cormorant.

A rare visitor to less alkaline lakes.

27. PHALACROCORAX AFRICANUS (Gmelin). Long-tailed Cormorant.

A regular visitor, numbering up to 70. Found throughout the year, but mainly from November
to May.

Habitat. Less alkaline lakes and rainwater pools, where it feeds on frogs. For some reason it is
rarely found on Lake Longil, although there are plenty of fish.

28. ANHINGA RUFA (Lacepede & Daudin). African Darter.

A couple seen on Small Momela lake in October 1968. The rarity of this species and the Cormorant
is strange as food is available. Possibly they resent cloudy water.

31. PELECANUS ONOCROTALUS L. White Pelican.

A fairly regular visitor to the less alkaline lakes in any month. Flocks of up to 60 birds recorded.

32. PELECANUS RUFESCENS Gmelin. Pink-backed Pelican.

Recorded in October, 1965, December, 1970, and March to the end of April, 1971.

33. ARDEA CINEREA L. Grey Heron.

A regular visitor in small numbers during every month to water’s edge or swamp.

34. ARDEA MELANOCEPHALA Vigors & Children. Black-headed Heron.

As previous species, but more numerous during rains.

36. PYRRHERODIA PURPUREA^ L.) Purple Heron.

A rare visitor to the water’s edge.

Page 9

37. CASMERODIUS ALBUS (L.) Great White Egret.

A regular visitor, less common than the Grey Heron. Seen all months, but rarely June and July.
Frequents rainwater pools, less alkaline lake edges and swamps.

38. MELANOPHOYX INTERMEDIUS (Wagler). Yellow-billed Egret.

As other Ardeidae but more numerous.

40. EGRETTA GARZETTA (L.) Little Egret.

A rare visitor, recorded in June and December to swampy edges of rainwater pools.

42. BUBULCUS IBIS (L). Buff-backed Heron.

A regular visitor to buffalo herds in Ngurdoto Crater, where the buffalo stay in open grassland and
swamp during the day. The bird is sporadic elsewhere, as in other areas the buffalo lie up during
the day in cover.

43. ARDEOLA RALLOIDES (Scopoli). Squacco Heron.

A regular visitor in small numbers from early June to early November, odd birds being seen in
February and March. Some of these birds may be the Madagascar Squacco Heron, but without
obtaining several specimens, the status of the latter species is uncertain. Prefers rainwater pools
with sedges and water-lilies.

44. ARDEOLA IDAE (Hartlaub). Madagascar Squacco Heron.

The only definite records are birds seen in breeding plumage, one October 2, 1968 and one October
21, 1969. (Beesley 1971a).

45. BUTORIDES STRIATUS (L.) Green-backed Heron.

A rare visitor, recorded in January, April, October and December, to lake shores overhung by
bushes. Regular, however, to the Maji-ya-Chai where there are fish.

48. NYCTICORAX NYCTICORAX (L.) Night Heron.

Probably both a Palaearctic and African migrant, as it occurs in any month. The highest numbers
(up to 20) occur from March to June and August to November. Many birds are juveniles.

50. IXOBRYCHUS MINUTUS (L.) Little Bittern.

One only seen, on 12.6.67, probably the African race.

51. ARDEIRALLUS STURMII (Wagler). Dwarf Bittern.

Rare visitor, singletons recorded in February, March, October and November to rainwater pools.
53. SCOPUS UMBRETTA (Gmelin). Hammerkop.

A resident, frequenting forest pools, swamps and streams, and Ngurdoto Crater. Lays eggs in
April or May.

55. CICONIA CICONIA (L.) White Stork.

A Palaearctic migrant, visiting grassland and lake shores rarely; between October and May.

56. CICONIA NIGRA (L.) Black Stork.

A Palaearctic migrant, a single bird being seen each year since 1965 between October and March,
frequenting temporary pools in forest and grassland (Beesley 1971a).

57. DISSOURA EPI SCOPUS (Boddaert). Woolly-necked Stork.

A rare visitor, either solitary or in pairs from September to February and in June in the grassland
and swamp edge of Ngurdoto Crater, and rarely, other swamps.

59. ANASTOMUS LAMELLIGERUS Temminck. Open-bill.

Once recorded. Undated.

60. EPHIPPI ORHYNCPIU S SENEGALENSIS (Shaw). Saddle-bill Stork.

A resident, frequenting swamps, rainwater pools and flooded grassland. One nest was found widi
an egg in early May 1970 and the same nest again contained an egg in April 1971.

61. LEPTOPTILOS CRUMENIFERUS (Lesson). Marabou.

A rare visitor, associating with vultures on carcasses.

62. IBIS IBIS (L.) Yellow-billed Stork.

A regular visitor in small numbers during all months to the margins of less alkaline lakes and rain-
water pools.

63. THRESKIORNIS AETHIOPICUS (Latham). Sacred Ibis.

A regular visitor, occasionally up to 500 birds, occurring all months at the edge of any less alkaline
lakes and swamps.

65. HAGEDASHIA HAGEDASH (Latham). Hadada Ibis.

Resident, also a regular visitor, pairs or parties to any wet place. A nest found on Jamara-Maji-ya-
Chai river in the Ngongongare section in November contained one egg.

Page 10

68. PLEGADIS FALCINELLUS (L). Glossy Ibis.

One record only. Undated.

70. PLATALEA ALBA Scopoli. African Spoonbill.

A regular visitor in any month to forest pools and less alkaline lakes in woodland (Kusare, Elkek-
hotoito.)

71. PHOENICOPTERUS RUBER (L.) Greater Flamingo.

Frequent visitor but irregular, sometimes in several hundreds, occurring any month but less fre-
quently from May to September. They feed in the shallow edges of strongly alkaline lakes.

72. PHOENICONAIAS MINOR (Geoffrey) Lesser Flamingo.

As previous species, not quite so frequent, numbers vary from a score to a thousand. Preferred
habitat is Lake Tulusia where they feed while swimming in deep water. If conditions are suitable,
they may stay for five or six months.

73. OXYURA MACCOA (Eyton). Maccoa Duck.

A regular visitor, mainly during the dry season, and sometimes up to a thousand birds are present.
Found only on strongly alkaline lakes.

74. THALASSORN1S LEUCONOTUS (Eyton). White-backed Duck.

A regular visitor, and possibly a resident, numbering from a few to eighty birds. Most frequent
when the rainwater pools are full and water-lilies are abundant. Eggs found from August to January.
Notes. Frequently utters a low crooning note, not mentioned by Mackworth-Praed & Grant.

76. AYTHYA FERINA (L.). European Pochard.

One female recorded on forest pond from January 1, 1971 to February 12, 1971 (Beesley 1971b).
A very rare visitor to East Africa, not yet recorded from Kenya.

77. AYTHYA ERYTHROPHTHALMA (Weid). African Pochard.

A regular visitor, mainly during the dry seasons when up to 1500 birds present. Recorded breeding
once only, very small young being seen in July.

Flabitat: prefers strongly alkaline lakes, but in some years uses other waters, including rainwater
pools. Spends much time resting on shore.

78. AYTHYA FULIGULA (L.). Tufted Duck.

A rare Palaearctic migrant to lakes.

80. SPATULA CLYPEATA (L.). European Shoveler.

Palaearctic migrant, 20 to 50 birds visiting less alkaline lakes, October to February.

83. ANAS UNDULATA Dubois. Yellow-billed Duck.

A rare visitor, to any water, transient and usually in pairs in July and November.

84. ANAS SPARSA (Eyton). Black Duck.

A few pairs are resident on the streams on Mt. Meru up to 2600 m, and descend to rainwater pools
at times. Six very small young were found with the parents at 2500 m on 17.7.68.

86. ANAS PENELOPE (L.). Wigeon.

Palaearctic migrant, irregular in small numbers, to less alkaline lakes.

88. ANAS QUERQUEDULA (L.). Garganey.

Palaearctic migrant, a few occurring from January to May, but usually on return migration.
Frequents rainwater pools and the wood-bordered less alkaline lakes.

89. ANAS CAPENSIS (Gmelin). Cape Wigeon.

A regular visitor, and possibly resident, up to 500 birds being present during the dry season.
A few pairs breed on islands, nests found on 20.3.69 and 13.10.68. Six very small young seen on
1.10.67. Flightless birds seen in July. Habitat: strongly alkaline lakes.

90. ANAS PUNCTATA (Burchell). Hottentot Teal.

An irregular but frequent visitor in small numbers to rainwater pools and lake margins.

91. ANAS ERYTHRORHYNCHA (Gmelin). Red-bill.

A regular visitor, possibly resident in small numbers. It is most numerous during the dry season,
up to 300 being recorded, and frequents any still water. Nest found 7.4.69, and very small young
seen on 2.2.69 and 7.9.68.

92. ANAS ACUTA (L.). Pintail.

A Palaearctic migrant, up to 200 birds, found on any still water.

94. DENDROCYGNA VIDUATA L. White-faced Tree-Duck.

Irregular but not infrequent visitor to less alkaline waters with plenty of aquatic weed.

Page 11

95. DENDROCYGNA BICOLOR (Vieillot). Fulvous Tree-Duck.

A vagrant, not seen since 1967.

98. SARKIDIORNIS MELANOTOS (Pennant). Knob-billed Goose.

Irregular visitor in pairs or small parties to rainwater pools from October to February and in June/
July.

99. ALOPOCHEN AEGYPTIACUS (L.). Egyptian Goose.

Possibly resident, but a regular visitor, up to 300 occurring when fruiting grasses and weed are
abundant on less alkaline waters. Also frequents strongly alkaline lakes. Breeds probably from April
to October, nests recorded as follows: — 13.10.68, 7.4.69, and very small goslings seen in 21.9.68,
13.10.68, 10.6.69 and 10.7.69.

100. PLECTROPTERUS GAMBENSIS (L.) Spur-winged Goose.

A previous species, but less numerous, and does not frequent strongly alkaline water. Breeds from
April to July, found nesting on 26.6.69, 10.4.70 and 17.6.70. Very small goslings seen on 1.5.69,
2.6.69 and 20.7.69, and 10.6.71.

103. SAGITTARIUS SERPENTARIUS (Miller). Secretary Bird.

A rare visitor to open grassland.

106. GYPS RUPPELLII (Brehm). Ruppell’s Griffon Vulture.

One or two occasionally accompany the other Vultures to a carcass.

107. PSEUDOGYPS AFRICANUS (Salvadori). White-backed Vulture.

Visitor. Occasionally seen passing over on patrol, but up to 200 will congregate at a carcass.

108. TORGOS TRACHELIOTUS (Forster). Lappet-faced Vulture.

A rare visitor to carcasses.

109. TRIGONOCEPS OCCIPITALIS (Burchell). White-headed Vulture.

As previous species.

no. NEOPHRON PERCNOPTERUS (L.) Egyptian Vulture.

One pair resident, probably nesting on cliffs of Ngurdoto Crater, but feeding mainly outside the
Park.

in. NECROSYRTES MONACHUS (Temminck) Hooded Vulture.

A rare visitor to carcasses.

112. FALCO PEREGRINUS Tunstall. Peregrine.

Two pairs resident. Frequents any open country up to 3000 m. Seen feeding downy young in
September.

1 15. FALCO SUBBUTEO L. Hobby.

Palaearctic migrant, mainly singletons hunting in open country and over lakes.

1 16. FALCO CUVIERI Smith. African Hobby.

An uncommon visitor to the forest edge and uplands grassland, rarely woodland and lakes.

120. FALCO AMURENSIS Radde. Eastern Red-footed Falcon.

One seen feeding on flying ants with Hobbies on 24th November, 1970.

126. FALCO NA UMANNI Fleischer. Lesser Kestrel.

Palaearctic migrant, infrequent and transient, the main route being through the Sanya plains to the
east where large congregations can be seen in April. After a fire in the Park in March 1971, many
came in, and stayed on for several days.

130. AVICEDA CUCULOIDES Swainson. Cuckoo Falcon.

A few pairs resident in woodland and forest-edge. A juvenile seen in June.

132. MILVUS MIGRANS (Boddaert). Black Kite.

Singletons pass through regularly in October and November, rarely December and January." They
are yellow-billed birds, outliers of the big flocks that pass through Arusha and Moshi. In March
1971 however, bush fires attracted many, two of which were seen to be black-billed.

133. ELANUS CAERULEUS (Desfontaines). Black-shouldered Kite.

A rare visitor in June and November.

138. AQUILA NIPALENSIS Hodgson. Steppe Eagle.

A Palaearctic migrant seen regularly, often in small parties, in any country except forest.

139. AQUILA RAPAX (Temminck). Tawny Eagle.

A regular visitor, sometimes breeding. Eggs laid in early June 1969. Frequents open country.

Page 12

142. AQUILA WAHLBERG1 Sundevall. Wahlberg’s Eagle.

A couple were seen on passage at the forest edge below 1700 m in early October 1970 and a single-
ton in woodland in late October 1970.

143. HIERAAETUS SPILOG ASTER (Bonaparte). African Hawk Eagle.

A rare visitor to woodland and forest edge to 2500 m from April to July.

145- HIERAAETUS PENNATUS (Gmelin). Booted Eagle.

Palaearctic migrant, once recorded on 19.3.70.

146. POLEMAETU S BELLICOSUS (Daudin). Martial Eagle.

Rare visitor from Acacia steppe.

147. STEPHANOAETUS CORONATUS (L.) Crowned Hawk-Eagle.

Resident, three or four pairs, in woodland and forest up to 2400 m.

149. LOPHOAETUS OCCIPITALIS (Daudin). Long-crested Hawk-Eagle.

Irregular but frequent visitor to forest edge and woodland, rarely open country, up to 2,000 m.

153. CIRCAETUS CINEREUS Vieillot. Brown Harrier-Eagle.

A regular visitor, single birds being seen from September to April. A juvenile seen in February
and March. Frequents wooded grassland along the lower stretch of the Ngarenanyuki river and
sage-bush around the Momela lakes.

154. CIRCAETUS PECTORALIS Smith. Black-chested Harrier-Eagle.

A vagrant from grass plains to the north.

158. BUTASTUR RUFIPENNIS (Sundevall). Grasshopper Buzzard.

A rare transient from December to March, not occurring every year.

159. TERATHOPIUS ECAUDATUS (Daudin). Bateleur.

One pair resident, seen building a nest in April, 1969, and brooding eggs in another nest in April,
1971.

160. CUNCUMA VOCIFER (Daudin). Fish Eagle.

One pair resident. Eggs laid in July 1967, June 1969, May 1970 and April 1971, at the Lake Elkek-
hotoito eyrie, but feeds mainly on Lake Silversea, just outside the Park and at Lake Longil.

161. GYPOHIERAX ANGOLENSIS (Gmelin). Palm-nut Vulture.

One undated record only. A vagrant probably from the Moshi-Taveta district.

162. GYPAETUS BARBATUS (L.) Lammergeyer.

Probably resident, possibly breeds in Meru caldera, but feeds mainly outside the Park. Frequently
seen on Mt. Meru over heath-zone and upland grassland.

163. BUTEO VULPINUS (Gloger). Steppe Buzzard.

Palaearctic migrant in small numbers, passing at foot of Mt. Meru in October and January.

165. BUTEO OREOPHILUS Hartert & Neumann. Mountain Buzzard.

Several pairs are resident, inhabiting the forests. A nest containing two well-feathered young found
on 12th December 1968.

167. BUTEO RUFOFUSCUS (Forster). Augur Buzzard.

Common resident, and with exception of closed forest ubiquitous to 2,700 m. Nests with eggs found
on the following dates; 29.11.67, 10.3.69, 23.3.69, 15.4.69, 2.9.69, 5.4.70, 20.5.70, 6.7.70, 20.4.71,
23.4.71, 15. 5.71, 13.6.71 and 14.6.71. Main diet in mole-rats Tachyorhyctes.

170. ACCIPITER MINULLUS (Daudin). Little Sparrow-Hawk.

An uncommon resident in woodland and forest edge.

173. ACCIPITER RUFIVENTRIS Smith. Rufous Sparrow-Hawk.

Scarce resident of forest and woodland, occasionally seen in the open.

177. ACCIPITER TACHIRO (Daudin). African Goshawk.

A not uncommon resident of forest and woodland up to forest limit.

178. MICRON I SUS GABAR (Daudin). Gabar Goshawk.

One record only, undated.

183. CIRCUS MACROURUS (Gmelin). Pale Harrier.

Rare Palaearctic migrant seen in December and April in open country around Momela lakes.
Quite frequent in the great grass plains beyond the Park borders.

Page 13

184-. CIRCUS AERUGINOSUS RANIVORUS (Daud.). African Marsh Harrier.

An irregular but frequent visitor in any month to swamps, grasslands and lake-shores. Breeds at
Sanya Juu outside the Park.

185. POLY BORO IDES TYPUS Smith. Harrier-Hawk.

Uncommon resident of woodland, and forest edge. A young bird was seen being mobbed by
Hammerkops in October.

186. PANDION HALIAETUS (L.) Osprey.

A rare transient, seen only in June, October and December 1968, and February-March 1969.

195- FRANCOLINUS SEPHAENA (Smith). Crested Francolin.

Status uncertain. Normally a bird of the dry bush beyond the Park, a pair were seen with half-grown
poults in the sage-bush in late May.

198. FRANCOLINUS SHELLEYI O. Grant. Shelley’s Francolin.

A visitor to the sage-bush from the drier farmland and tree-scattered grassland to the north of the
Park, and probably resident in the lower part of the Ngongongare section.

203. FRANCOLINUS HILDEBRANDTI Cabanis. Hildebrandt’s Francolin.

A common resident in sage-bush, woodland and lower heath-zone. Nests found on 13.10.68 and
19.8.69.

204. FRANCOLINUS SQUAMATUS (Cassin). Scaly Francolin.

Common resident in forest, forest edge, sage-bush, and heath zone, up to 2700 m. Often overlaps
with F. hildebrandti. Nests found on 26.12.68 and 10.10.69 and very small young seen on 23.11.67,

6.10.68, 30.9.69 and 22.2.69.

212. COTURNIX DELEGORGUEI Delegorgue. Harlequin Quail.

Regular transient visitor, singletons being seen in November, December and February, and April
to June in grassland. In Masailand it breeds in grassland or fields of crops and weeds from March
to July.

215. NUMIDA MITRATA Pallas. Helmeted Guinea-Fowl.

A resident of the sage-bush, emerging to feed and drink in the open in the evening. Nests found on

18.3.69, 5.12.69 and 25.2.70. Small young seen in January to May.

222. R ALL US CAERULESCENS (Gmelin). Kaffir Rail.

One record only, undated.

225. LIMNOCORAX FLAVIROSTRA (Swainson). Black Crake.

Resident and visitor. Prefers less alkaline water with plenty of cover. Is commoner and breeds
when water plants are abundant on rainwater pools. Nests found on 13.7.69, and very small young
on 2.2.69, 7-4-69.

237. PORPHYRIO ALBA (White). Purple Gallinule.

A rare visitor to long-grass swamps, recorded once in September and once in January.

239. GALLINULA CHLOROPUS (L.) African Moorhen.

Status as Black Crake, but less common. Very small young found on 17.4.69 and 21.5.69.

240. GALLINULA ANGULATA Sundevall. Lesser Moorhen.

A rare visitor to swampy pools, yet breeds only 4 km from the Park. In May-June 1971, three pairs
and two juveniles were seen.

242. FULICA CRIST AT A Gmelin. Red-Knobbed Coot.

Regular visitor and probably resident on Seneto Pools. Habitat similar to other Rallidae, but also
frequents alkaline lakes. Two pairs building nests on 25.6.71.

245. BALEARICA REGULORUM (Bennet). South African Crowned Crane.

One pair resident, up to 15 visitors. Feeds in open ground and breeds on a floating Cy perns lavevi-
gatus swamp. Nests found as follows: Mid-March 68, 3 eggs. 11.4.69, 2 young in nest. 16.4.70,
2 young in nest. 10.4.7 1, 2 eggs.

258. LISSOTIS MELANOGASTER (Ruppell). Black-bellied Bustard.

Probably a resident in grassland of Ngongongare section, and a rare transient to the Momela area
in September and December.

262. BURHINUS CAPENSIS (Lichtenstein). Spotted Thicknee.

A pair or two resident, occasional visitors. Inhabits and breeds in alkaline grassland. Nests found:
2 eggs on 24.9.68, 2 eggs on 7.4.69 and 2 eggs on 28.2.70.

Page 14

264. ACTOPHILORNIS AFRICANUS (Gmelin). African Jacana.

A resident, augmented by visitors in wet years. Habitat is well-vegetated fresh swamps and rain-
water pools, where it has been found breeding as follows. 3 eggs on 13.7.69, 4 eggs on 12.4.70 and
3 eggs on 12.5.71. Very young birds seen on 23.10.68, 16.12.68 and 25.7.69.

265. MICROPARRA CAPENSIS (Smith). Lesser Jacana.

One record only, October 1968.

266. CHARADRIUS HIATICULA (L). Ringed Plover.

A palaearctic migrant whose numbers as with all non-resident waders, varies with the amount of
lake-shore mud exposed.

271. CHARADRIUS PECUARIUS Temminck. Kittlitz’s Sand-Plover.

Resident, augmented by visitors which probably breed. Inhabits alkaline flats around lakes. Nests
found as follows: 18.9.68 (2 nests), 23.10.68 (2 nests), 2.2.69, 12.2.69, 20.3.69, 26.6.69, 1.7.70,
8-9-70, 7. 11.70 and 27.2.71, mostly with 2 eggs.

272. CHARADRIUS TRICOLLARIS Vieillot. Three-banded Plover.

A resident visitor, frequenting muddy lake shores or stream banks, where nests have been found
from July to September and again in February. The display call is a churring rattle uttered
while the bird fluffs out its white pectoral feathers.

274. CHARADRIUS MONGOLUS Pallas. Mongolian Sand-Plover.

Palaearctic migrant, one record only, in November 1966.

281. STEPHANIBYX CORONATUS (Boddaert). Crowned Lapwing.

A rare visitor which is common right up to the Park boundary on overgrazed grassland. However
nine months after clearing an area of bush which became much frequented by a herd of buffalo
and other game, a pair of these birds laid eggs and brought off young in September 1970.

282. STEPHANIBYX LUGUBRIS (Lesson). Senegal Plover.

A regular visitor in parties to the Ngongongare sector from January to April, inhabiting bush
scattered grassland.

283. STEPHANIBYX MELANOPTERUS (Cretz.). Black-winged Plover.

A rare visitor, but common on well-grazed alkaline grassland two or three kilometres from the Park
boundary, near Ngarenanyuki.

287. HOPLOPTERUS ARMATUS (Burchell). Blacksmith Plover.

A resident, several pairs inhabiting the alkaline grassland and Cyperus laevigatus swamp. Eggs laid
from May to July. Two pairs reared young on a rock out in Great Momela Lake. Nests found as
follows. Two on 24.6.68 with 3 and 2 eggs. 28.7.68, 2 eggs. 26.6.69, 3 eggs. 13.7.69, 3 eggs. 4.6.70,
2 eggs. 1.7.70, 2 eggs. 12. 5.71, 2 eggs.

295. RECURVIROSTRA AVOSETTA L. Avocet.

Palaearctic and African migrant, occurring all months, but peak numbers in March-April, August-
November. Inhabits alkaline lake shores.

296. HIMANTOPUS HIMANTOPUS (L.). Black-winged Stilt.

As previous species but more numerous, peak numbers February-April, October-November.
Habitat as Avocet, but also deeper mud and water.

297. ROSTRATULA BENGHALENSIS (L.) Painted Snipe.

Irregular visitor, pairs and singletons haunting wet Cyperus laevigatus swamp and muddy rain-pools
in May, July, August, September and January.

298. CAPELLA GALLINAGO (L.) Common Snipe.

A scarce Palaearctic migrant to wet Cyperus laevigatus swamp in December and January.

303. CALIDRIS TESTACEA (Pallas). Curlew Sandpiper.

Palaearctic migrant, small numbers passing in November and April-May. Habitat: lake shores.

305. CALIDRIS MINUTA (Leisler) Little Stint.

Palaearctic migrant, common on lake-shores from September to May.

309. PHILOMACHUS PUGNAX (L.). Ruff.

As previous species, but also frequents Cyperus laevigatus swamp, rainwater pools and sometimes
flooded grassland.

311. XENUS CINEREUS (Guldenstadt). Terek Sandpiper.

Palaearctic migrant, only one record in October.

312. TRINGA HYPOLEUCOS L. Common Sandpiper.

Common Palaearctic migrant to any water, still or running.

Page 15

313. TRINGA OCHROPUS L. Green Sandpiper.

Palaearctic migrant, not uncommon. More frequent in woodland pools and mountain streams than
previous species.

314. TRINGA GLAREOLA L. Wood Sandpiper.

As previous species, but not on mountain streams.

317. TRINGA STAGNATILIS (Bechstein). Marsh Sandpiper.

Palaearctic migrant, small numbers occurring on lake-shores.

318. TRINGA NEBULARIA (Gunnerus). Greenshank.

As previous species.

319. LIMOSA LIMOSA (L.). Black-tailed Godwit.

Palaearctic migrant, one record only.

329. RHINOPTILUS CHALCOPTERUS (Temminck). Violet-tipped Courser.

Three seen on passage in Ngongongare sector on 8.4.71.

342. LARUS CIRROCEPHALUS Vieillot. Grey-headed Gull.

Vagrant to lakes.

361. CHLIDONIAS LEUCOPTERA (Temminck). White-winged Black Tern.

Uncommon Palaearctic migrant to lakes.

364. RYNCHOPS FLAVIROSTRIS Vieillot. Skimmer.

One resting on shore of Big Momela lake 1st May 1971.

365. TURNIX SYLVATICUS (Desfontaine). Button Quail.

A rare visitor in April, transient only. Breeds in weedy fallows and grassland near Arusha and
Sanya plains in April and May.

370. EREMIALECTOR DECORATUS (Cabanis) Black-faced Sandgrouse.

Four flew over Momela section on 2.1. 71.

379. COLUMBA GUINEA L. Speckled Pigeon.

A rare transient visitor from nearby open country.

380. COLUMBA ARQUATRIX Temminck & Knip. Olive Pigeon.

A common resident inhabiting forest to almost 3000 m and descending in flocks to lower
woods and secondary trees, especially Croton macrostachyus and Olea species in February-March
and October-November. Breeds in forest and its fringes, a nest with 2 eggs found on 20.10.68 at
2500 m, and other with 1 egg on 8.6.71 at 1700 m.

383. TURTUROENA DELEGORGUEI (Delegorgue). Bronze-naped Pigeon.

A not uncommon resident in forest below 2000 m and seldom seen outside closed forest or woodland.
Calls mainly in May-June.

385. STRF.PTOPELIA LUGENS (Ruppell). Pink-breasted Dove.

A resident of mountain forest and heathland to 3000 m, flocking to lower levels in June to October.
Feeds on ground and in canopy of forest, also in open country. A nest containing two eggs found
on 17.6.71.

386. STREPTOPELIA SEMITORQUATA (Ruppell). Red-eyed Dove.

Abundant resident of woodland, forest-edge and clearings up to 1800 m. Breeds in low trees and
bushes invariably laying 2 eggs. Nests found on the following dates: 28.9.67, 10.1.69, 18.3.69,
10.11.69, 10.10.70, 26.10.70, 11.5.71, 17. 5. 71, 20.5.71, 21. 5.71, 3.6.71 and 4.6.71.

388. STREPTOPELIA CAP1COLA (Sundevall). Ring-necked Dove.

At one time a regular visitor, but now also a resident near the northern border, inhabiting the
drier tree-scattered sage-bush. Abundant outside the Park in Acacia tortilis wooded grassland.

392. STIGMATOPELIA SENEGALENSIS (L.). Laughing Dove.

A regular visitor, and possibly a resident on the northern border. Habitat as the previous species.

393. OENA CAPENSIS (L.). Namaqua Dove.

A rare transient in December, coming down to roads and grassland.

394. TYMPANISTRIA TYMPANISTRIA (Temminck & Knip). Tambourine Dove.
Common resident of forest with heavy undergrowth below 1800 m, breeding in April, (one record).

397. TURTUR CHALCOSPILOS (Wagler). Emerald-spotted Wood-Dove.

A few pairs resident in shrubby growth under woodland.

Page 16

398. APLOPELIA LARVA TA (Temminck & Knip). Lemon Dove.

A resident occupying the floor and occasionally the canopy of closed woodland and forest below
1800 m.

401. TRERON AUSTRALIS (L.). GreenPigeon.

Resident and visitor, numerous at times to fruiting trees in forest and woodland. Found up to 2100
m. A nest with 2 eggs found on 23.2.71.

404. CUCULUS CANORUS L. European Cuckoo.

A Palaearctic migrant passing in October and November (six were seen in one day at the end of
November) and returning throughout April. Frequents adult and regenerating Acacia xanthophloea
woodland.

406. CUCULUS SOLITARIUS Stephens. Red-chested Cuckoo.

Resident in forest up to 2000 m, woodland and bush with scattered trees and thickets. Calls and
probably breeds during the rains.

407. CUCULUS AFER Lichtenstein. Black Cuckoo.

A breeding visitor in small numbers, occurring in woodland and forest edge of scattered trees up
to 1700 m from November to April, and rarely May. Begins calling in February.

414. CLAMATOR LEV AILLANTII (Swainson). Levaillant’s Cuckoo.

Rare visitor in March to bush in Acacia woodland.

415- CL AM A TOR JACOB INUS (Boddaert). Black and White Cuckoo.

A regular visitor in small numbers in November and end of January to middle of April. Inhabits
young Acacia xanthophloea groves and bush under mature woodland.

416. CHRYSOCOCCYX CUPREUS (Shaw). Emerald Cuckoo.

A resident of woodland and forest up to 2100 m occasionally to 2600 m. Calls during the rains.

417. CHRYSOCOCCYX CAPRIUS (Boddaert). Didric Cuckoo.

A visitor to bush and woodland from December to May, not common, calling during the rains.

418. CHRYSOCOCCYX KLAAS (Stephens). Klaas’s Cuckoo.

A visitor to forest edge and clearings up to 1830 m from October to May. Also overlaps with previous
species in woodland and tree-scattered sage-bush. Calls during the rains.

423. CENTROPUS SUPERCILIOSUS Hemprich & Ehrenberg. White-browed Coucal.
Not uncommon resident in all types of country except forest up to 1800 m. Nests in bush or grass
tussocks, laying eggs in March and November.

424. CEUTHMOCHARES AEREUS (Vieillot). Yellow-Bill,

Resident, difficult to see, in tangles of creepers in forest up to 1800 m. Calls in December.

432. TAURACO HARTLAUBI (Fischer & Reichenow). Hartlaub’s Turaco.

Common resident of forest canopy and mid-storey, found up to 3000 m, rare in more open country.
Breeds from August to October, nests found on 17.10.68 and 16.8.69.

444. POICEPHALUS GULIELMI (Jardine). Red-headed Parrot.

A resident, also visitor from other parts of Mt. Meru. Flocks inhabit the forest up to 2800 m
usually among Podocarpus trees, and descend in June, July and August to lower areas to feed on the
fruit of Loliondo ( Olea spp.).

454. AGAPORNIS FISCHERI Reichenow. Fischer’s Lovebird.

A regular visitor to Acacia xanthophloea groves, numerous outside the Park in Acacia woodland
and cultivations. A nest was found in a hole in a dead tree, lined with green grass, on 29.5.71, and
in a similar situation on 16.6.71, both on the border of the Park.

457- CORACIAS GARRULUS (L.). Roller.

Uncommon, transient Palaearctic migrant, in October-December and March-April to woodland
edge.

460. CORACIAS CAUDATA (L.). Lilac-breasted Roller.

Uncommon visitor, usually in pairs in March and October. Common outside the Park in Acacia
tortilis wooded grassland.

463. EURYSTOMUS GLAUCURUS (Muller). Broad-billed Roller.

Breeding visitor from August to February. Nests found on 29.9.69, 18.10.69, 9-9-70, 12. 11.70
and 22.12.70. Transients are seen from February to April. Habitat: forest edge and woodland,
usually at 1500 m, but sometimes up to 2500 m.

465. CERYLE RUDIS (Linnaeus). Pied Kingfisher.

A rare visitor to lakes, any month.

Page 17

466. MEGACERYLE MAXIMA (Pallas) Giant Kingfisher.

Vagrant to streams, except on Maji-ya-Chai, where it is regular visitor.

470. CORYTHORNIS CRIST AT A (Pallas). Malachite Kingfisher.

Uncommon visitor to fresher lakes and swamps.

471. ISPIDINA PICTA (Boddaert). Pigmy Kingfisher.

Scarce resident in woodland about Lake Elkekhotoito, occasional to forest edge, but not uncommon
along Jamara-Maji-ya-Chai streams.

476. HALCYON ALBIVENTRIS (Scopoli). Brown-hooded Kingfisher.

Resident in woodland, forest-edge, often near water, up to 1800 m. Usually breeds in roadside
banks, nests found on 25.4.69, 21.3.70, 28.10.70 and seen excavating two nests in May 1971.

477- HALCYON LEUCOCEPHALA (Muller). Grey-headed Kingfisher.

Rare transient, once seen in November, and once in June.

479- HALCYON CHELICUTI (Stanley). Striped Kingfisher.

A resident in sage-bush and grassland adjacent to woodland, or with plentiful scattered trees. Nest
of young found on 24.3.71. Feeding fledgling in November 1967.

481. MEROPS API ASTER L. Bee-Eater.

Palaearctic migrant, usually on passage and frequenting sage-bush and acacia woodland.

482. MEROPS SUPERCILIOSUS PERSICUS Pallas. Blue-cheeked Bee-Eater.
Infrequent Palaearctic transient, to sage-bush and woodland in late November and early December.

486. AEROPS ALBICOLLIS (Vieillot). White-throated Bee-Eater.

A passage of several flocks noted in the Momela section from April 25-30th 1971. All were flying
north.

488. MELITTOPHAGUS PUSILLUS (Muller). Little Bee-Eater.

A resident with considerable movements. Inhabits sage-bush, grassland, woodland and forest edge
below 1700 m. Breeds from June to October, probably other months. Nests found on 20.10.68,
21.6.69, 2.8.69 and 20.10.70.

489. MELITTOPHAGUS OREOBATES Sharpe. Cinnamon-chested Bee-Eater.

A resident, also with some movement, inhabiting forest tracks, clearings and edges wherever there
are banks for breeding holes, usually above 1500 m. Breeds from October to February.

493- MELITTOPHAGUS BULLOCKOIDES ( Smith). White-fronted Bee-Eater.

Resident with much post-breeding dispersal. Found anywhere except in forest, but not above
1700 m. Breeds colonially mainly along banks of Ngarenanyuki river in June to July and from Octo-
ber to December.

501. BYCANISTES BREVIS Friedmann. Silvery-cheeked Hornbill.

Resident or common visitor in all months. Frequent in parties in forest up to 2600 m. Pairs observed
in September and October.

509. TOCKUS ALBOTERMINATUS (Buttikorfer). Crowned Hornbill.

Resident in woodland and forest below 1700 m. Seen feeding nestlings on 10.10.70.

518. UPUPA AFRICAN A Bechstein. South African Hoopoe.

Irregular visitor, uncommon, recorded in February, June, July, September and November.
Frequents tree-scattered grassland and sage-bush.

519- PHOENICULUS PURPUREUS (Miller). Green Wood-Hoopoe.

Resident, also dry season visitor, found in Acacia woodland and scattered-tree bushland. Nests
found on 28.9.70, 5.10.70 and 21.3.71.

526. RHINOPOMASTUS CYANOMELAS (Vieillot). Scimitar-Bill.

As previous species but less frequent. Is also occasionally found in Ngurdoto Crater rim forest
which is strange as it is a common bird of the dry acacia woodland north of the Park. Nests found
on 5.12.69 and 7.3.70.

528. TYTO ALBA (Scopoli). Barn Owl.

A few pairs resident. Strictly nocturnal and has only been seen in daylight when disturbed from
roosting quarters in an old Hammerkop’s nest or thickets on islands in Small Momela lake. In
Arusha town breeds in August and September.

529. TYTO CAPENSIS (Smith). Grass Owl.

Vagrant to Cyperus laevigatus swamp.

Page 18

532. ASIO CAPENSIS (Smith). African Marsh Owl.

Rare visitor to grassland and Cyperus laevigatus swamp. Common in Masai plains beyond the Park.

533. CICCABA WOODFORDII (Smith). African Wood Owl.

A not uncommon resident of woodland and forest up to 2600 m.

543. BUBO AFRICANUS (Temminck). Spotted Eagle Owl.

Scarce resident of woodland, and bush, up to 16S0 m.

544. BUBO LACTEUS (Temminck). Verreaux’s Eagle Owl.

As previous species, but also found in forest edge.

548. CAPRIMULGUS FRAENATUS Saivadori. Dusky Nightjar.

Common resident of grassland, thin sage-bush and Dodonea scrub below 1680 m. Five nests found,
one in each of following months, February, March, September, October, November. All contained
two eggs.

556- CAPRIMULGUS INORNATUS Heuglin. Plain Nightjar.

Visitor. Recorded in February-March, in grassland and thin sage-bush.

558. CAPRIMULGUS POLIOCEPHALUS Ruppell. Abyssinian Nightjar.

Common resident of sage-bush, Dodonea scrub, grassland, forest edge and heathzone from 1530 m
up to 2700 m. Breeds in October and November, four nests found, all with two eggs.

566. COLIUS STRIATUS Gmelin. Speckled Mousebird.

Common resident in sage-bush, woodland and forest edge, occasionally up to 2600 m. Nests found
as follows: — 16. 11.68, 26.2.69, 26.4.70, 12.9.70, 15.9.70 28.9.70, 7.11.70, 23.4.71, 28.4.71,
6.5.71 and 31.5. 71.

568. COLIUS MACROURU S (L.). Blue-naped Mousebird.

irregular visitor to the sage-bush, coming from the dry bush north of the Park.

570 APALODERMA NARINA (Stephens). Narina’s Trogon.

A common resident of forest below 1680 m. Probably breeds in January and February. Sometimes
assembles in loose congregations of up to ten birds if prey is locally abundant.

571. HETEROTROGON VITTATUM ( Shelley). Bar-tailed Trogon.

A resident of forest from 1600 m to 2600 m overlapping with the previous species at lower altitudes.

576. LYB1US LEUCOCEPHALUS (Dephillipi). White-headed Barbet.

A regular visitor or possibly scarce resident, occurring all months to feed on fruit, mainly Ficus
species. Seen mainly along the lower Ngarenanyuki river where fig-trees are more common.

580. LYBIUS MELANOPTERUS ( Peters). Brown-breasted Barbet.

A resident and possible visitor frequenting woodland and forest edge to 1680 m. Breeds in January
and June. (Beesley 1971a).

584. TRICHOLAEMA LACRYMOSUM Cabanis. Spotted-flanked Barbet.

A common resident in woodland and tree-scattered sage-bush. Breeding, nests with eggs or young
found as follows: 3.11.68, 10. 11.68, 19.2.69, early February 1969, 19.3.69, 5.10.70, 26.5.71 and
8.6.71.

585. TRICHOLAEMA DIADEMATA { Heuglin). Red-fronted Barbet.

A vagrant from Masailand.

588. BUCCANODON LEUCOTIS (Sundevall). White-eared Barbet.

A common resident of forest and occasionally woodland usually below 1830 m but sometimes up to
2600 m. Nests found on 21.12.68, February 69, 16.10.70 and 9. 11.70.

592. VIRID1BUCCO LEU CO MY ST AX (Sharpe). Moustached Green Tinker-bird.

Not uncommon resident of forest canopy, sometimes woodland, usually up to 2000 m rarely to
2500 m. Calls during the rains. Uncharacteristically, it has been noted hawking for flies.

594. POGONIULUS PUSILLUS (Dumont). Red-fronted Tinker-bird.

A resident in woodland, especially regenerating Turrea and other small-fruited trees in woodland
below 1830 m. Calls in October.

605. INDICATOR INDICATOR ( Sparmann). Black-throated Honey-Guide.

An uncommon visitor to woodland.

606. INDICATOR MACULATUS Lesson. Scaly-throated Honey-Guide.

An uncommon resident in forest, woodland and tree scattered bush.

Page 19

608. INDICATOR MINOR Stephens. Lesser Honey-Guide.

As previous species, probably laying in nests of the Spotted-flanked Barbet.

613. PRODOTISCUS IN SIGN IS (Cassin). Cassin’s Honey-Bird.

Possibly only a visitor, to woodland and forest below 1500 m recorded in March and April.

619. CAMPETHERA NUBICA (Boddaert). Nubian Woodpecker.

A resident of woodland and forest edge to 1680 m. Nests found on 19.9.68, 28.9.70 and 21. 3. 71.

622. CAMPETHERA ABINGONI (Smith). Golden-tailed Woodpecker.

A scarce resident of woodland and forest up to 2000 m.

623. DENDROPICOS FUSCESCENS (Vieillot). Cardinal Woodpecker.

Common resident of woodland and tree-scattered sage-bush, rarely forest edge and clearings below
1680 m.

629. THRIPIAS NAMAQUUS (Lichtenstein). Bearded Woodpecker.

Not uncommon resident, habitat as previous species. Found breeding on 10.6.69 and late July 69.

630. MESOPICOS GOERTAE (Muller). Grey Woodpecker.

As previous species, but breeding in September and October, nests found on 16.10.68 and 28. 9.70

631. MESOPICOS GRISEOCEPHALUS (Boddaert). Olive Woodpecker.

A scarce or rarely seen resident of forest above 1800 m.

637. APUS NIANSAE (Reichenow). Nyanza or Brown Swift.

A breeding visitor from February to June. Breeds in cliffs from March to May (Beesley 1971a).

639. APUS MYOPTILUS (Salvadori). Scarce Swift.

A regular visitor which may breed in Ngurdoto Crater. Noted mainly from February to June, also
in November.

640. APUS MELBA (L.) Alpine Swift.

Probably a resident, often seen at any time of the year in Meru and Ngurdoto Craters, occasionally
over the lakes. Seen feeding at 3660 m on Mt. Meru.

641. APUS AEQUATORIALIS (Muller). Mottled Swift.

Probably a resident in Meru Crater, also seen occasionally in Ngurdoto Crater.

643. APUS AFFINIS (Gray). Little Swift.

A regular visitor, mainly from November through to July, usually seen in the evening. Nests at
lower altitudes beyond the Park.

644. APUS CAFFER (Lichtenstein). White-rumped Swift.

A breeding visitor of recent date, occurring from November to June, probably other months too.
Bred in May. See section on avifaunal changes, also Beesley 1971a.

645. APUS HORUS (Heuglin). Horus Swift.

A breeding visitor or resident. From 1967 to 1969 it was noted breeding in March-June, the birds
appearing in January and leaving in August. In 1970 however, they bred at the same time, and then
again in November-December. Breeding takes place in the banks of the Ngarenanyuki river. When
the Swifts are not occupying the nesting sites, they are used by White-fronted Bee-Eaters. In
the latter part of 1970, when the Swifts were using one site, the Bee-Eaters excavated a fresh site.

646. CYPSIURUS PARVU S (Lichtenstein). Palm Swift.

A few pairs were resident until 1966 when most of the full-grown Phoenix palms along the streams
and swamps at the foot of Mt. Meru were destroyed by elephants.

Note. A species of dark Swift inhabits Meru Crater, apparently throughout the year. A specimen
for identification has not yet been secured.

650 SMITHORNIS CAPENSIS (Smith). African Broad-bill.

A resident of sub-montane forest below 1680 m. Calls in evening from December to February
and August to October.

655. MIRAFRA ALBICAUDA Reichenow. Northern White-tailed Bush-Lark.

One seen in June 1969 in grassland.

659. MIRAFRA AFRICAN A A. Smith Rufous-naped Lark.

Common resident of grassland and thin sage-bush. Numbers have increased since some of the sage-
bush has been cleared. One nest found, on 31.5.70, containing two eggs.

660. MIRAFRA R UFOCINNAMOMEA (Salvadori). Flapper Lark.

One or two pairs are resident in tree-scattered, bushy grassland in the southern end of Ngongongare
section at 1370 m, the lowest area of the Park.

Page 20

666. PINAROCORYS NIGRICANS (Sundevall) Dusky Bush-Lark.

One obtained in October 1962.

679. EREMOPTERIX LEUCOTIS (Stanley). Chestnut-backed Sparrow-Lark.

One seen in May 1969 in Ngongongare section.

682. EREMOPTERIX LEUCOPAREIA (Fischer & Reichenow). Fischer’s Sparrow-Lark.
Rare transient in May and November, touching down on roads or grassland. Common in dry areas
beyond the Park.

685. CALANDRELLA RUFESCENS Vieillot. Rufous Short-toed Lark.

Recorded once in July. Breeds in grass plains just beyond Park boundary.

686. CALANDRELLA CINEREA (Gmelin). Red-capped Lark.

Rare visitor to alkaline grassland. A common bird in overgrazed or short-grass country 2 km beyond
the Park’s northern border.

691. MOTACILLA AGUIMP Dumont. African Pied Wagtail.

Resident and visitor. Inhabits the clusters of dwellings and the lakes, found breeding as follows:
Early January 1969, 11.4.69 and 8.10.70.

692. MOTACILLA CLARA Sharpe. Mountain Wagtail.

A resident on streams, also frequenting wet tracks in the forest during rains.

694. MOTACILLA CINEREA Tunstall. Grey Wagtail.

Palaearctic migrant, a few occur on mountain streams from late October to January, occasionally
consorting with previous species.

695. BUDYTES FLAWS (Linnaeus). Blue-headed Wagtail.

Palaearctic migrant, irregular to short grass around lakes mainly on return passage. Common with
herds of cattle outside the Park.

697. BUDYTES LUTEUS (Gmelin). Yellow Wagtail.

As previous species but scarce.

703. ANTHUS SIMILIS Jerdon. Long-billed Pipit.

A common resident and visitor in grassland with bushes and trees, also light Dodonea bush. Appear
to be associated with rocks, often flying to almost perpendicular faces to clamber about or cling to
them. Occurs up to 2580 m. Nests found on 18.4.70 and 14.10.70.

706. ANTHUS NOV AESEELANDIAE Gmelin. Richard’s Pipit.

Regular visitor to short alkaline grassland and nearby roads in the dry season.

708. ANTHUS TRIVIALIS (L.). Tree Pipit.

Palaearctic migrant, transient in November-December and February-March. Usually singletons
but occasionally flocks of fifty or more on return passage, found in woodland, tree-scattered open
country, forest edge up to 2000 m.

713. ANTHUS CERVINUS (Pallas). Red-throated Pipit.

Palaearctic migrant, uncommon, to muddy alkaline grassland and edge of Cyperus swamp in
November and December.

715. TMETOTHYLACUS TENELLUS (Cabanis). Golden Pipit.

Vagrant, once recorded mid-March. Occurs in dry bush south and east of the Park. Migrants noted
around Arusha in December, January and February.

720. MACRONYX AURANTIIGULA Reichenow. Pangani Long-claw.

Resident in bush scattered grassland up to 1800 m. Seen feeding young at nest on 16.7.67, 22.3.69.
xo.10.69 and 31. 5.71.

729. TURDOIDES HYPOLEUCA (Cabanis). Northern Pied Babbler.

Vagrant, one record only, undated specimen.

740. PSEUDOALCIPPE ABYSSINICUS (Ruppell). Abyssinian Hill-Babbler.

Resident in sub-montane forest with undergrowth up to 1800 m. On the Arusha side of Mt. Meru
however, it is found up to 2300 m.

741-42. PYCNONOTUS TRICOLOR. Yellow-vented Bulbul.

Very common resident in any habitat except closed forest. Found up to 2500 m, but usually below
2200 m. At times forms flocks up to 20 in sage-bush, and can be seen in congregations of over 100
in fruiting forest trees. Breeds from January to June and September to November. Nests found as
follows: 13.9.68, 15. 10.68, 23.10.68, early January 1969, 7.3.70, 27.9.70, 30.9.70, 16.10.70, 23.2.71
6.5.71 (Five) 8.5.71, 9.5.71 12. 5.71, 13.5.71, (Two) 21. 5.71 and 7.6.71.

Page 21

758. PHYLLASTREPHUS FISCHERI (Reichenow). Fischer’s Greenbul.

Not uncommon resident of forest with undergrowth up to 1800 m, but goes considerably higher
on the Arusha side of Mt. Meru.

759. PHYLLASTREPHUS CERVINIVENTRIS (Shelley). Grey-olive Greenbul.

Visitor to stream-side thickets at southern and lowest end of the Park in the Ngongongare section
at 1370 m. Commoner outside the Park at lower altitudes.

766. ARIZELOCICHLA NIGRICEPS (Shelley). Mountain Greenbul.

Common resident of forest from 1520 m to 2800 m. Breeds in August, September and November,
nests being found on 18.9.68 and 9.11.69.

767. ARIZELOCICHLA MILANJENSIS (Shelley). Stripe-cheeked Greenbul.

Common resident of sub-montane forest, seldom found above 1850 m. Uses similar habitat to
previous species but generally at lower altitudes. Seen carrying nesting material on 3.6.71.

775. EURILLAS VIRENS (Cassin). Little Greenbul.

Scarce visitor from July to September from lower areas beyond the Park. Inhabits forest with
undergrowth below 1680 m.

778. MUSCICAPA STRIATA (Pallas). Spotted Flycatcher.

Common Palaearctic migrant preferring the low, regenerating Acacia xanthophloea along lake
shores, also inhabits mature woodlands.

781. ALSEONAX ADUSTUS (Boie). Dusky Flycatcher.

Common resident of forest to 2700 m. Many descend during the cold season (June-Septeber)
to the Acacia woodland and scrub around lake shores. Breeds in January to March and October,
November and December. Nests found on 30.1.65, 23.11.67, 17. 11.68, 15.3.69, x2.12.69 and
17.10.70.

788. PARI SOMA PLUMBEUM (Hartlaub). Grey Tit-Flycatcher.

A visitor to canopy of Acacia xanthophloea trees around lake Elkekhotoito.

796. DIOPTRORNIS FISCHERI Reichenow. White-eyed Slaty Flycatcher.

A common resident of forest edge, glades and woodland, usually up to 2700 m, often descending
in cold months to lower altitudes. Breeds from February to May and September to November.
Nests found in March 64, March 67, 18.9.68, 17. 11.68, 12.10.69, 14.10.70, 10. 5.71, fledglings on

14.4.69.

805. CHLOROPETA NATALENS1S Smith. Yellow Flycatcher.

A fairly common resident in sage-bush, regenerating acacia scrub and forest edge below 1830 m.
Nests found as follows, 4 on 5.5.71 and one on 29.5.71. It also breeds, probably in December and
January.

806. CHLOROPETA SIMILIS Richmond. Mountain Yellow Flycatcher.

A resident, but seldom seen, in undergrowth of forest and its edges, from 1830 m upwards. Display
seen in early December.

815. BATIS CAPENSIS (L.) Puff-back Flycatcher.

A resident of lower storeys of sub-montane forest up to 1700 m, occasionally seen up to 2000 m.

817. BATIS MOLITOR (Hahn & Kiister). Chin-Spot Puff-back Flycatcher.

Common resident of trees and tall bush, but not in forest, up to 1700 m. Nests found on 16. 11.68,

26.2.69, 18.10.70 and 22.10.70.

823. PLATY STEIRA PELTATA Sundevall. Black-throated Wattle-eye.

A scarce resident in sub-montane forest, usually riverine, below 1830 m. Common in gallery forest
south of the Park. Seen feeding fledglings in August and November.

828. TROCHOCERCUS CYANOMELAS (Vieillot). Crested Flycatcher.

An uncommon resident in forest with undergrowth below 1700 m. Frequents lower storeys.

832. TCHITREA VIRIDIS ( Muller). Paradise Flycatcher.

A common resident of forest and edges, woodland and riverine strips below 2000 m. Breeds from
October to April. Nests found in December 1968, and on 26.2.69, 20.4.70, 18.10.70 and 22.x0.70.

841. TURDUS OLIVACEUS (L.). Olive Thrush.

A common resident of forest and tall heath from 1500 m to limit of tree growth. Sometimes seen in
parties up to ten feeding on fruit. Nests found on 7.4.69 and 10. 11.70. Fledglings on 2.10.69.

844. GEOKICHLA GURNEYI (Hartlaub). Orange Ground Thrush.

A seldom seen resident of forest, so far unrecorded above 2000 m. On the southern side of Mt.
Meru it has been seen in bamboos at 2400 m.

Page 22

850. MONTICOLA SAXATILIS (L.) Rock Thrush.

A Palaearctic migrant, usually seen in November and March in Acacia woodland.

854. OENANTHE OENANTHE (L.). Wheatear.

A scarce transient from the Palaearctic, occurring in grassland in October-November and March.

865. OENANTHE LUGUBRIS (Riippell). Abyssinian Black Wheatear.

One seen in April 1969. It is common in eroded grassland and dry torrent courses in drier areas
around Mt. Meru.

868. OENANTHE PILE AT A (Gmelin). Capped Wheatear.

A rare transient in May and September, being common in short grassland plains beyond the Park.

882. SAXICOLA TORQUATA (L.) Stonechat.

A common resident, occurring from 1400 m to over 3000 m. Usually inhabits bushy areas, with or
without grassland and trees, also long-grass swamp, Dodonea woodland and the heath-zone. Breeds
from September to March, nest being found on 5.9.69, 8.12.69, 22.10.70, 4.12.70. 10.1.71 and 11.3.71.

883. SAXICOLA RUBETRA (L.) Whinchat.

One record only, January 1966.

885. COSSYPHA SEMIRUFA (Riippell). Riippell’s Robin Chat.

A common resident of forest and damp, well-grown sage-bush and thicket up to 1800 m. Nests
found in March and April. It is a wonderful mimic, imitating Crowned Hawk-Eagle, Green Sand-
piper, Red-chested, Didric, and especially Emerald Cuckoos, Bulbul, Black-heaed Oriole, and human
whistles.

893. COSSYPHA CAFFRA (L.) Robin Chat.

A not uncommon resident of forest-edge shrubbery, glades and heath zone from 1700-3500 m.

910. ERYTHROPYGIA ZAMBESIANA Sharpe. Red-backed Scrub-Robin.

A resident of sage-bush and regenerating Acacia scrub in dryer areas.

915. POGONOCICHLA STELLAT A (Vieillot). White-starred Bush-Robin.

Common resident of forest undergrowth up to 2500 m, breeding from November through to June,
Nest found on 8.12.69. and 20.4.70, newly fledged young on 8.11.69 and >n mid-June 1970.

920. IRANIA GUTTURALIS (Guerin.) White-throated Robin.

24.3.71, one female; 26.3.71; one male, in acacia scrub and sage-bush.

922. LU SC IN I A LU SC IN I A (L.) Sprosser.

Rare Palaearctic migrant to secondary vegetation and thickets, in November and December.

924. SYLVIA COMMUNIS Latham. Whitethroat.

A Palaearctic migrant, mainly transient in November, but occasionally seen from October to
December. Inhabits bush.

925. SYLVIA BORIN (Boddaert). Garden Warbler.

Rare Palaearctic migrant frequenting thick bush.

926. SYLVIA ATRICAPILLA (L.) Blackcap.

Palaearctic migrant, sometimes abundant. Inhabits thickets and dense shrubbery in woodland and
forest edge. Occasionally found in heathland up to 2450 m.

936. HIPPOLAIS OLIVETORUM (Strickland.) Olive-tree Warbler.

Rare Palaearctic migrant seen in trees on return migration in mid-March.

938. HIPPOLAIS PALLIDA (Hemprich & Ehrenberg). Olivaceous Warbler.

Occasional Palaearctic migrant, seen in woodland canopy from October to March.

940. LOCU STELLA FLUVIATILIS (Wolf). River Warbler.

Palaearctic migrant. One found dead in early April. (Beesley 1971a).

947. ACROCEPHALUS SCHOENOBAENUS (L.). Sedge Warbler.

Rare Palaearctic migrant seen in lakeside vegetation on return passage in mid-March.

948. BRADYPTERUS BABOECALA (Vieillot). Little Rush Warbler.

Resident in tail-grass swamps. Singing and courtship noted in November and December.

952. SATHROCERCUS CINNAMOMEUS (Riippell). Cinnamon Bracken Warbler.
Common resident of shrubbery and undergrowth of forest, glades and edges, also heath zone,
from 1500 to 2900 m.

Page 23

953. SATHROCERCUS MARIAE (Madarasz). Evergreen Forest Warbler.

As previous species, but lives more inside the forest.

955. CALAMOCICHLA RUFESCENS. (Sharpe & Bouvier) Rufous Swamp Warbler.
This bird was previously named C. gracilirostris, Greater Swamp Warbler. For nomenclature see
Mackworth-Praed & Grant (i960 2nd ed.). Birds of Eastern and North Eastern Africa, Vol. II p.
519.

A resident and visitor to long grass swamp. Ngurdoto Crater swamp is a reservoir of this species,
which in years of good rainfall spreads to other areas.

959. PHYLLOSCOPUS TROCHILUS (L.) Willow Warbler.

A numerous Palaearctic migrant, the main streams of migration passing in late October and late
March to mid-April. Sings well in October, March and April. Found in woodland, tall bush and
forest edge, sometimes up to 2600 m on passage.

964. SEICERCUS UMBROVIRENS (Riippell). Brown Woodland Warbler.

Common resident of forest at all altitudes. Found breeding once in December.

969. SCHOENICOLA BREVIROSTRIS (Sundevall). Fan-tailed Warbler.

Sporadic visitor to tussock grassland and short sage-bush. Not uncommon outside the Park along
the northern base of Mt. Meru. Probably resident in the lower Ngongongare sector.

970. APALIS THORACICA (Shaw & Nodder). Bar-throated Apalis.

A scarce resident of the lower storeys of forest edge and glades from 1700-2000 m.

975. APALIS MELANOCEPHALA (Fischer & Reichenow). Black-headed Apalis.
Uncommon resident of lower storeys of forest with undergrowth below 1800 m.

979. APALIS FLAVIDA (Fischer & Reichenow). Black-breasted Apalis.

A common resident of Acacia and other woodland, and tall sage bush. Consorts with Batis molitor,
Sylvietta whytii and Phyllolais pulchella in roving parties. Nests found as follows :-
23.9.70, 28.9.80, (2 nests) 1. 5.71, 4.5.71, 5.5.71 (2 nests), 16.5.71 and 26.5.71. All had 2 eggs.

995. PHYLLOLAIS PULCHELLA (Cretzschmar). Buff-bellied Warbler.

A resident of Acacia xanthophloea woodland only, but inhabits Acacia tortilis outside the Park.
Nest-building seen in early November.

997. SYLVIETTA WHYTII Shelley. Red-faced Crombec.

A resident of sage-bush with trees and woodland, found breeding on 28.10.69. 13.10.70, 19.10.70.
4. 11. 70 and 17.12.70.

ion. CAMAROPTERA BREVICAUDATA (Cretzschmar). Grey-backed Camaroptera.
A resident of undergrowth and low bush in woodland and forest-edge up to 1800 m. Found breeding
on 14.4.69. 8.5.70 and 12.6.71.

1016. CISTICOLA JUNCIDIS (Rafinesque). Zitting Cisticola.

A dry season visitor to grassland, occasionally during the rains. Common in grass plains beyond
the Park.

1018. CISTICOLA ARIDULA Witherby. Desert Cisticola.

As previous species, but also frequents thin sage-bush.

1024. CISTICOLA CHINIANA (A. Smith). Rattling Cisticola.

A resident and visitor, frequenting sage-bush and regenerating Acacia scrub up to 4 m tall. A recently
established resident, it is common in the dry bush beyond the Park, and is a dry season visitor.
Found breeding on 25.3.70 and 9.4.70.

1026. CISTICOLA WOOSNAMI O. Grant. Trilling Cisticola.

Common resident in woodland, bush with scattered trees, and forest edge up to 1700 m. Nests
found on 2.4.70, 4.4.70 and 3.5.71.

1030. CISTICOLA HUNTERI Shelley. Hunter’s Cisticola.

A resident of shrubby grassland and heath on Mt. Meru from 1830 to 3700 m.

1031. CISTICOLA CANTANS (Heuglin). Singing Cisticola.

Common resident mainly of sage-bush also inhabits forest edge and secondary growth up to 1650 m.
Does not occupy such dry country as C. chiniana. Nests found on 10.3.69, 1 1.2.70, 3.3.70, 10.7.70,
8.5.71 (two), 22.5.71, 25.5.71 and 26.5.71 (two).

1032. CISTICOLA ERYTHROPS Hartlaub. Red-faced Cisticola.

Uncommon resident of bush and long grass around fresher swamps and streams in the Seneto and
Ngongongare sections. Breeds in November and December, one nest found on 16. 11.68.

Page 24

1033. CISTICOLA GALACTOTES (Temminck). Winding Cisticola.

Common resident of grassland, sage-bush, and well-grown Cyperus laevigatus swamps, never far
from water. Breeds in May-July and November-January. Nests found on i8.ii.68, 26.12.68, May
1969, 8.7.69, and 7.5.70.

1035. CISTICOLA ROBUSTA (Riippell). Stout Cisticola.

A very local resident in the Park, found only in derived grassland (mainly Eleusine jaegeri) on the
lower slopes of Mt. Meru at 1600-2100 m.

1036. CISTICOLA NATALENSIS (Smith). Croaking Cisticola.

A resident and visitor, inhabiting sage-bush. Outside the Park it occurs commonly in the sage-bush
to the north and on the northern slopes of Mt. Meru.

1037. CISTICOLA BRACHYPTERA Sharpe. Siffling Cisticola.

Common resident in tree-scattered grassland and sage-bush, feeding mainly on the ground. Breeds
in February and March. Nests found on 1.2.69 and 21.3.70.

1045. PRINIA SUBFLAVA (Gmelin). Tawny-flanked Prinia.

A common resident of the sage-bush and busy woodland, which has been found nesting on 20.11.68,
14.2.70, 14.4.70, 28.4.71, 2.5.71,4.5.71, 6.5.71, 15.5-71, I7-5-7C 20.5.71 and 26.5.71. Mostly with
3 or 4 eggs.

1051. MELOCICHLA MENTALIS (Fraser). Moustache Warbler.

An abundant resident of the sage-bush, found breeding so far on 24.9.68. 28.9.69, 23.4.71 and
I7-5-7I-

1054. HIRUNDO RUSTIC A L. European Swallow.

A Palaearctic migrant, numerous on passage in October-November, some remaining until April.
Found mainly over the lakes and environs, especially feeding on Chironomids as they emerge in
great columns during the late afternoon. They are joined by other Hirundines and Swifts.

1061. HIRUNDO SMITHII Leach. Wire-tailed Swallow.

Several pairs are resident, having increased in numbers in the last few years with the increase in
buildings. Found breeding from February to October, and probably breeds throughout the year.
One pair raised four broods in one year. Nests with eggs found on 19.8.68, 10.10.68, 5.2.69,
10.5.69, 3.9.69, 25.5.70, 1. 10. 70, 10.10.70, 20.5.71, and 28.6.71.

1062. HIRUNDO D AURIC A L. Red-rumped Swallow.

An occasional visitor, usually seen over the lakes. So far recorded in February and March, and June
to September.

1063. HIRUNDO SENEGALENSIS L. Mosque Swallow.

An increasing resident, breeding in buildings, often taking over the nest of H. smithii. Eggs laid
probably any month, but recorded in April, May, June and December. The young roost with the
parents in the nest for two months after fledging.

1065. HIRUNDO ABYSSINICA Guerin. Striped Swallow.

A resident, nesting under the Maji-ya-Chai bridge in the Ngongongare section. In 1968 a spate
swept the nests away and those birds have not yet returned. It is also a visitor, appearing over the
lakes in flocks in May to August and November and December. Recently found breeding in Jan-
uary on cliffs along the Maji-ya-Chai.

1068. RIPARIA RIPARIA (L.) European Sand Martin.

A rare Palaearctic transient in October and March, seen over lakes.

1069. RIPARIA PALUDICOLA (Vieillot). African Sand Martin.

A resident and visitor, the latter occurring from July to October and January to March. Residents
breed from March to July. The habitat is around lakes and the Ngarenanyuki river.

1070. RIPARIA C1NCTA (Boddaert). Banded Martin.

An irregular visitor, small parties occurring in grassland and sage-bush from the end of February
to early April and from May to June.

1073. PTYONOPROGNE FULIGULA (Lichtenstein). African Rock Martin.

A resident, inhabiting the environs of cliffs and buildings, where they breed probably any month
but so far recorded during February to May and in October.

1074. DELICHON URBICA (L.) House Martin.

An infrequent Palaearctic migrant, seen in October to December and March to April, usually over
lakes.

1075. PSALIDOPROCNE HOLOMELAENA (Sundevall). Black Roughwing Swallow.
A common resident in forest edges, glades and roads up to 2700 m, but feeds a great deal over the
lakes at 1460 m especially when clouds are low. Found breeding during every month.

Page 25

1081. CAMPEPHAGA SULPHURATA (Lichtenstein). Black Cuckoo-Shrike.

A not uncommon resident in woodland and forest edge also secondary growth such as Croton and
Dodonea. Courtship observed from September to November and March to April. A nest of young
found on 10.5.71.

1084. CAMPEPHAGA QUISCALINA Finsch. Purple-throated Cuckoo-Shrike.

A male and female believed to be of this species observed in forest at 1650 m, but the record needs
to be substantiated by a specimen.

1085. CORACINA PECTORALIS (Jardine & Selby). White-breasted Cuckoo-Shrike.
One record only in November 1969, a female seen in Acacia woodland.

1088. DICRURUS ADSIMILIS (Bechstein). Drongo.

An infrequent visitor seen in March, June, September and December in woodland. A common
bird in coffee-plantations and Acacia woodland outside the Park.

1090. PRIONOPS PLUMATA (Shaw). Straight-crested Helmet-Shrike.

A visitor from June to September, frequenting the canopy of submontane forest and Dodonea
woodland.

1095. SIGMODUS RETZII (Wahlberg). Retz’s Red-billed Shrike.

A resident in submontane forest to 1680 m. Found in nomadic flocks which are constantly on the
move through the canopy.

1098. NILAUS AFER (Latham). Northern Brubru Shrike.

A scarce resident of Acacia woodland, found breeding once in September. A common bird in Acacia
ortilis woodland north of the Park.

1103. LANIUS MINOR Gmelin. Lesser Grey Shrike.

A rare Palaearctic migrant to bushy areas in March and April.

1104. LANIUS COLLARIS L. Fiscal Shrike.

A common resident of sage-bush, bush-scattered grassland and regenerating Acacia xanthophloea
stands. Normally it is found below 1680 m but one was seen in the heath zone on Mt. Meru at
2580 m in July 1969, so the bird is presumably a wanderer. Probably breeds throughout the year.
Nests found on 24.9.68, 23.10.68, 8.1.69, 26.2.69. 13.10.70, 1. 12.70, 26.3.71, 20.4.71 and 12.6.71.

1 1 12. LANIUS COLLURIO L. Red-backed Shrike.

A Palaearctic migrant to the regenerating Acacia xanthophloea fringing the lakeshores, a few being
seen from late October to late April.

1 1 14. LANIUS CRISTATUS L. Red-tailed Shrike.

Status and habitat as previous species.

1125. LANIARIUS AETHIOPICUS (Gmelin). Tropical Boubou.

A common resident of woodland, forest-edge and secondary growth, also has established itself in
the sage-bush and heath-zone. Breeds from December to May. Nests found on 26.2.69, 10. 1.70
and 10.5. 71.

1128. DRYOSCOPUS CUBLA (Shaw). Black-backed Puff-back Shrike.

A common resident in sub-montane forest, woodland, and occasionally bushes, not found above
2000 m.

1133. TCHAGRA SENEGAL A (L.). Black-headed Bush-Shrike.

A scarce resident, a few pairs being found in a variety of habitats, in which the more numerous
Tchagra australis is found i.e. Acacia and Dodonea woodland, sage-bush, both in damp and dry
situations. One nest found in dry sage- bush in December, another in Dodonea woodland in June,
both contained two eggs.

1134. TCHAGRA AUSTRALIS (Smith). Brown-headed Bush-Shrike.

As previous species but more abundant. Found breeding on 21.12.68, 14.1.69, 19. 5. 71 and 13.6.71.

1x38. CHLOROPHONEUS SULFUREOPECTUS (Lesson). Sulphur-breasted Bush-
Shrike.

Resident, mainly in canopy of Acacia or other woodland, also in well-grown Dodonea woodland.
Sings from September to December.

1140. CHLOROPHONEUS NIGRIFRONS (Reichenow). Black-fronted Bush-Shrike.
A resident of sub-montane forest up to 1830 m.

1159. PARUS FRINGILLINUS Fischer & Reichenow. Red-throated Tit.

A resident augmented by visitors in the dry season. Inhabits canopy of Acacia xanthophloea groves.
Constantly on the move.

Page 26

1164. ORIOLUS ORIOLUS (L.) Golden Oriole.

A Palaearctic migrant, not seen every year. In 1969 parties of mixed sexes with juveniles numbering
up to twelve passed through from early October to late November. A few birds were seen on return
passage in March. They fed in the canopy of Croton macrostachyus trees on berries and caterpillars.
A few O. larvatus were seen with them.

1165. ORIOLUS AURATUS Vieillot. African Golden Oriole.

One male obtained at Ngurdoto Gate in light forest in June 1970.

1167. ORIOLUS LARVATUS Lichtenstein. Black-headed Oriole.

Common resident of woodland and forest up to 1700 m. Found breeding on 4.11.68 and 5.6.71.

1172. CORVUS ALB US Muller. Pied Crow.

A rare visitor, which is common in and around Arusha township.

1175- CORVUS ALBICOLLIS (Latham). White-necked Raven.

A few pairs are resident, mainly around Ngurdoto Crater and Mt. Meru. Attracted to picnic parties
and camp-sites, and becoming tame.

1182. CREATOPHORA CINEREA (Menschen). Wattled Starling.

A vagrant in April and May from the dryer country north of Ngarenanyuki village.

1184. CINNYRICINCLUS LEUCOGASTER (Boddaert). Violet-backed Starling.

An irregular visitor in varying numbers, sometimes many hundreds. Has been seen in all months,
but mainly visits the fruiting Loliondo ( Olea spp.) trees in July to late September, and the Croton
trees in October and November.

1185. PHOLIA SHARPEI (Jackson). Sharpe’s Starling.

A resident and also a visitor in large flocks. Haunts the canopy of fruiting trees, especially Loliondo
in June and July, when the birds are accompanied by juveniles.

1186. PHOLIA FEMORALIS (Richmond). Abbott’s Starling.

Only two records so far, one bird in Meru forest at 2500 m in October, and several with a party
of P. sharpei in Ngurdoto forest on 30.5.71.

120X. ONYCHOGNATHUS WALLERI (Shelley). Waller’s Chestnut-wing Starling.
A resident of the canopy of forest trees, especially Podocarpus and Juniperus on Mt. Meru from
1680 to 2740 m. On Ngurdoto Crater inhabits Olea and Cassipourea down to 1450 m. A nest found
fairly high in a forest tree on Mt. Meru at 2300 m on 15.10.70.

1203. ONYCHOGNATHUS MORIO (L.) Redwing Starling.

A resident about buildings, cliffs and waterfalls. Congregates into large flocks from May to July.
Recorded nesting in February-March and October-December. Noted hammering snails on stones,
or concrete in the manner of the Song Thrush Tardus philomelos L.

1210. STILBOSPAR KENRICKI (Shelley). Kenrick’s Starling.

A resident and visitor. Found in the canopy of fruiting forest trees from 1370-1830 m, occasionally
to 2100 m. Found breeding on 18.9.68, 25.xo.68, 3.4.69, 17.9.69 and two nests on 21. 5.71. When in
feeding flocks, often congregates with Violet-backed and Sharpe’s Starlings.

1217. BUPHAGUS AFRICANUS (L.) Yellow-billed Oxpecker.

A resident, always with large mammals. Found up to 2600 m.

1218. BUPHAGUS ERYTHRORHYNCHUS (Stanley). Red-billed Oxpecker.

Status as previous species, but more abundant. Have been seen feeding or roosting on a Giraffe
three hours after dark. (Beesley 1971a). Breeds mainly from October to December, also February
and March. Nests found on 3. 11.70, 5.1 1.70, 6.2.71 and 9.3.71.

1220. ZOSTEROPS SENEGALENSIS Bonaparte. Yellow White-eye.

A rare visitor to Acacia woodland in June-September, and has been seen associating withZ. eurycri-
cotus. A common bird of dry bush/woodland in Masailand.

1222. ZOSTEROPS EURYCRICOTU S Fischer & Reichenow. Broad-ringed White-eye.
An abundant resident, mainly of forest and closed woodland at all levels up to 3000 m. Also occurs
in the heath-zone and scattered Hagenia trees, and rarely in Acacia woodland and scrub around
the lakes. Found breeding on 12.12.69 and 30.5.71.

1227. NECTARINIA FAMOSA (L.) Malachite Sunbird.

Probably only a visitor. It is a very mobile species, following the flowering of trees and shrubs.
From May to mid-September it is found in the sage-bush, but numbers vary greatly. Occasionally
found in heath-zone up to 3000 m.

Page 27

1229. NECTARINIA TACAZZE (Stanley). Tacazze Sunbird.

A resident, not uncommon, of forest edge, glades and heath-zone, from 2100 m to the higher limits
of shrubby growth. Breeds at 2100 to 3000 m from December to February, which are the warmest
months on Mt. Meru. Nests found on 5.2.67, 23.12.69, 27.12.70 and 11.2.71.

1230. NECTARINIA KILIMENS1S Shelley. Bronze Sunbird.

A resident and visitor. The visitors, as of the previous species, follow the flowers, but after poor
rains when flowering is sparse, few birds appear. Inhabits sage-bush, woodland, scattered trees,
and was once seen in heath-zone in December. Prone to attack its reflection in windows, and a
male nesting near the writer’s house entered the bedroom window every morning to sing at its
image in the mirror. Found breeding on 18. it. 68, 27.4.69, 10.10.70, 16.3.71 and 12.6.71.

1233. NECTARINIA PULCHELLA (L.) Beautiful Sunbird.

A visitor to the Ngongongare section in the late dry season. Comes from the drier acacia steppe.

1235. DREPANORHYNCHUS REICHENOWI Fischer. Golden-winged Sunbird.
Status uncertain, another nomadic species of sporadic appearance at all levels, congregating to
the flowers of Crotalaria agatifolia on Mt. Meru. Rarely seen in the sage-bush at 1460 m. Commoner
on the southern side of Mt. Meru, and in October it appears in parties with N. kilimensis and N.
famosa in the flowering Jacaranda trees in Arusha town.

1251. CINNYRIS VENUSTUS (Shaw & Nodder). Variable Sunbird.

An abundant resident having local migrations, it inhabits sage-bush and secondary woodland.
Breeds from May to August when sage-bush components are in flower. Nests found on 29.6.69,
28.7.68 and 8.5.70

1254. CINNYRIS MEDIOCRIS Shelley. Eastern Double-collared Sunbird.

Common resident of forest-edge and heath-zone on Mt. Meru from 1800 m upwards. Found
breeding on 26.10.68, 20.9.69 and 3.11.69.

1261. CHALCOMITRA AMETHYSTINA (Shaw). Amethyst Sunbird.

A resident, apparently more common in some years than others, inhabiting forest-edge and wood-
land below 1800 m, also visiting the sage-bush when in flower. Nests found as follows: 12.4.70,
10.10.70, 22.10.70 and 4.11.70.

1263. CHALCOMITRA SENEGALENSIS (L.) Scarlet-chested Sunbird.

A resident, but locally migratory, of light woodland, also visiting the sage-bush. Recorded breed-
ing every month except the colder season of July-August. Will hang the nest from the ends of
roof spars, electric-light bulbs or tips of branches. Nests found on 13.9.68, 12.10.68, 6. 11.68, 8.1.69,
6.2.69, 4-3-70, 27.5.70, 12.10.70, 14.12.70, 12.4.71 and 23.5.71.

1269. CYANOMITRA OLIVACEA (Smith). Olive Sunbird.

A resident of forest mainly its edges and clearings and dense woodland, usually below 2100 m.
Found breeding on 15.2.69 and 4.3.70.

1271. ANTHREPTES COLLARIS (Viellot). Collared Sunbird.

A resident of similar habitat to previous species, found breeding on 15.3.69, 31.3.69, 9.1.70, 30.4.71
and 17.5.71 N.P.

1300. PASSER GRISEUS (Vieillot). Grey-headed Sparrow.

An uncommon visitor, straying in from Momela Game Lodge and clusters of dwellings in shambas
outside the Park boundary where it breeds.

1306. SORELLA EMINIBEY Hartlaub. Chestnut Sparrow.

Recorded once, in breeding plumage, on 1.5.70.

1314. PLOCEUS SPEKEI (Heuglin). Speke’s Weaver.

A resident and/or visitor that has been recorded in every month, but is often absent. Haunts the
trees about the old Park H.Q. near Lake Kusare. Recorded breeding in March - April.

1319. PLOCEUS INTERMEDIUS Ruppell. Masked Weaver.

A sporadic visitor, usually in the dry season to the regenerating Acacia trees lining the lake-shores,
but not every year. In March and April 1969, a few bred in trees on the islands in Great Momela
Lake and at the old H.Q., and in May 1971 a colony built on an island in the lake.

1326. PLOCEUS JACKSONI Shelley. Golden-backed Weaver.

A visitor to the bush around Momela lakes from August to October.

1327. PLOCEUS RUBIGINOSUS Ruppell. Chestnut Weaver.

As previous species. These birds are common in farmlands beyond the Park.

Page 28

1 333- PLOCEUS CASTANEICEPS (Sharpe). Taveta Golden Weaver.

A resident and visitor, frequenting swamps and bush in damp situations. Breeds in swamps when-
ever conditions suitable, especially where reed-mace Typha is abundant. Egg-laying noted in
November-December and March-May.

1337. HYPHANTURGUS OCULARIS (A. Smith). Spectacled Weaver.

A resident, mainly of lakeside trees and bushes, and nearby thicket and woodland, also forest edge,
strips and clearings up to 2000 m. Noted breeding in September-November and April-May. Some
nests appear to be built for roosting purposes.

1348. OTHYPHANTES REICHENOWI (Fischer). Reichenow’s Weaver.

A resident of secondary woodland and tree-scattered sage-bush, occasionally forest-edge, rarely
seen above 1800 m. Seen building nests in any month. One pair will build up to seven nests, occupy-
ing but one. Only one record of eggs so far, one egg on 14.6.71.

1358. AMBLYOSPIZA ALBIFRONS (Vigors). Grosbeak Weaver.

A breeding visitor to long-grass swamps, dispersing after breeding to surrounding forest edges.
Nests found in April and May.

1359. ANAPLECTES MELANOTIS (Lafresnaye). Red-headed Weaver.

An uncommon visitor to most of the Park, but possibly resident in the Ngongongare section. In-
habits forest edge and woodland at low altitudes.

1360. QUELEA QUELEA (L.) Red-billed Quelea.

Rare visitor to grassland and sage-bush in May-June and November. Just drops in for a day as
there is little suitable feed.

1362. QUELEA CARDIN ALIS (Hartlaub). Cardinal Quelea.

A vagrant, only once recorded.

1367. EUPLECTES CAPENSIS (L.). Yellow Bishop.

A resident of sage-bush and tussock grassland, breeding in the rains of April and May. It has been
noted that breeding plumage begins to be assumed in October, and in some birds is retained until
June or even August. Nests found on 7.4.69 and 10. 5.71.

1376. COLIUSPASSER LATICAUDA (Lichtenstein). Red-naped Widow-Bird.

A resident of sage-bush and tussock grassland, from 1500-2000 m. Breeds in March-May, breeding
plumage being attained in October-December. Nests found on 5.3.69 and 8.5.71.

1379. SPERMESTES CUCULLATUS Swainson. Bronze Mannikin. A mobile resident
and probably a visitor. Inhabits sage-bush, rough grassland, swamp-edges and scrubby woodland.
Probably breeds in any month, but eggs recorded in January, February, June, December.

1381. SPERMESTES NIGRICEPS Cassin. Rufous-backed Mannikin.

A resident, constantly on the move, in woodland, tail-grass swamps in forest, forest-edge and
clearings up to 2000 m. Found breeding from February to June. Nests as follows: 26.2.69,
14. 3.71, 8.5.71 and 7.6.71.

1383. EODICE MALABARICA (L.) Silver-bill.

An uncommon visitor to the sage-bush in the Ngongongare section.

1384. ODONTOSPIZA CANICEPS (Reichenow). Grey-headed Silver-bill.

A transient through the sage-bush and secondary scrub, mainly along streams, during the dry
season.

1386. NIGRITA CANICAPILLA (Strickland). Grey-headed Negro-Finch.

A resident of forest, found breeding from September to November.

1398. CRYPTOSPIZA REICHENOWI (Hartlaub). Red faced Crimson-wing.

1399. CRYPTOSPIZA SALVADORII (Reichenow). Abyssinian Crimson-wing.

These two species are treated together, and although none has yet been obtained, I believe their
identification is correct. They inhabit the forest and forest edge on Mt. Meru up to 2500 m, no
difference so far noted in their habitat.

1403. ORTYGOSPIZA ATR1COLLIS (Vieillot). Quail-Finch.

An uncommon visitor to grassland and open lake-shores, coming from the grass plains north of
the Park.

1407. MANDINGOA NITIDULA (Hartlaub). Green-backed Twinspot.

A resident of forest with heavy undergrowth at the base of Mt. Meru (1500-1670 m). Difficult to
see, but comes to bathing places on streams at mid-day.

Page 29

1411. LAGONOSTICTA RUBRICATA (Lichtenstein). African Fire-Finch.

A resident and visitor, being more evident in November-December and March-June, the short
and long rains. Inhabits bush, from sage-bush at 1400 m to heath-zone at 2500 m. A nest with one
egg found on 17.6.71.

1413. LAGONOSTICTA SENEGALA (L.) Red-billed Fire-Finch.

A scarce resident and visitor, a passage noted in May-June. Frequents sage-bush and secondary
woodland with grassland. A common bird in cultivations outside the Park.

1417. COCCOPYGIA MELANOTIS (Temminck). Yellow-bellied Waxbill.

A resident of grassland, heath, forest edges and clearings from 1700-2500 m. A nest found on 24.5.71
at 1500 m, a lower altitude than I have ever seen the bird before, and another on 24.6.71.

1418. ESTRILDA ASTRILD (L.) Waxbill.

A resident augmented by visitors in March-May and November-December. Found in secondary
bush, grassland and swamp, it is a mobile bird, roaming the country for grass-seeds and is especially
fond of well-grown Cyperus laevigatus seeds. Breeds from February to June. Nests found on 6.2.69,
15.3.69, 9.4.69 (two), 14.6.69, 24.4.71, 27.4.71 (two), 10.5.71, 15. 5. 71, 10.6.71, 14.6.71, and 24.6.71.

1420. ESTRILDA RHODOPYGA (Sundevall). Crimson-rumped Waxbill.

A dry season visitor, to sage-bush and lake side vegetation.

1421. ESTRILDA SUBFLAVA (Vieillot). Zebra Waxbill.

A rare visitor to lake side grasslands, noted only in April and May.

1427. ESTRILDA ERYTHRONOTOS (Vieillot). Black-cheeked Waxbill.

An infrequent visitor in June-July and November-December to rocky sage-bush. A bird of the
drier, rocky thorn-scrub to the north.

1431. URAEGINTHUS BENGALUS (L.). Red-cheeked Cordon-Bleu.

A resident of sage-bush in the lower Ngongongare sector.

1432. URAEGINTHUS CY ANOCEPHALU S (Richmond). Blue-capped Cordon-Bleu.
A visitor noted only in recent times. Recorded first in January 1969, it was then seen frequently
in May, July, August and November, then not again in 1970. Usually seen in the sage-bush, a pair
were however seen in a glade of Eleusine jaegeri grassland at 1980 m on Mt. Meru in May. Normally
this is a bird of the dry bush of Masailand.

1433. GRANATIN A IANTHINOGASTER (Reichenow). Purple Grenadier.

As the previous species, only recorded recently in the Park, on May 20th, 1969. Since then it was
seen every month until January 1970 after which none was seen again. Like the previous species,
it is a bird of dry bush country, but here it inhabited the sage-bush, except for one pair which was
seen in the heath-zone in Meru Crater at 2600 m in July.

1441. VIDUA MACROURA (Pallas). Pin-tailed Wydah.

A resident of the sage-bush on the borders of the Park in January - June. Courtship noted in March.
It is a common bird in cultivations outside the Park.

1448. SERINUS MOZAMBICUS (Muller). Yellow-fronted Canary.

A visitor to the sage-bush from cultivated country. Possibly resident in the lower Ngongongare
sector.

1454. SERINUS FLAVIVERTEX (Blanford). Yellow-crowned Canary.

A resident of the forest canopy and moorland up to the limit of plant growth on Mt. Meru (c. 3700
m), but descending during the colder months of April to August to the sage-bush. In 1971 several
pairs occupied about half sq. km of Dodonea-Juniperus woodland at 1600 m where they bred, nests
being found on 4th, 13th, 14th and 16th June.

1459. SERINUS ATROGULARIS (A. Smith). Yellow-rumped Seed-Eater.

A rare visitor to sage-bush from the dry Masai steppe.

1461. SERINUS STRIOLATUS (Riippell). Streaky Seed-Eater.

A common resident in bush, woodland, forest edge and heath-zone to limit of plant growth. Many
birds descend to the flowering sage-bush in May-July. Nests have been found on 29.6.68, 18.4.69,
17.5.71 and 29.4.71.

1462. SERINUS BURTONI (Gray). Thick-billed Seed-Eater.

A resident of forest, forest-edge and lower heath-zone between 1800 and 2500 m.

1463. LINURGUS OLIVACEUS (Fraser). Oriole Finch.

A scarce or easily overlooked resident of forest canopy, usually above 1900 m. It has been noted
eating Sedum leaves.

Page 30

1464. CARDUELIS CITRINELLOIDES (Ruppell). African Citril.

A common mobile resident of sage-bush and secondary growth, woodland and forest-edge up to
1800 m, breeding in November- January and April-June. Nests found as follows:- 30.4.67, 29.6.68,
14.12.68, 4.1.69, 1.6.70, 8.6.70, 23.11.70, 4.12.70, 29.4.71, 3.5.71, 16.5.71, 26.5.71, and 24.6.71.

1469. EMBERIZA FLAVIVENTRIS (Stephen). Golden-breasted Bunting.

A rare visitor, noted in January and May in tree-scattered bush. A male was singing in July 1971.

1476. FRINGILLARIA TAHAPISI A. Smith. Cinnamon-breasted Rock Bunting.

An uncommon visitor noted in January, October and December in rocky bushland.

REFERENCES

Beesley, J. S. 1967. The Birds of Lake Duluti. Tanzania Notes and Records No. 67. 23-30.
Beesley, J. S. 1971a. Some notes from the Arusha National Park. Bull. Br. Orn. Club. 91: 8-9.
Beesley, J. S. 1971b. A record of the Pochard Aythya ferina from the Arusha National Park.
EANHS Bull. March 1971:39.

Mackworth-Praed, C. W. and Grant, C. H. B., 1957. Birds of Eastern and North-Eastern Africa.
Longmans.

Received 13 July 1971

Published by The East Africa Natural History Society, Box 44486, Nairobi, Kenya and
printed by Kenya Litho Ltd., Box 40775, Nairobi.

£7

JOURNAL

OF THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

15th JULY 1972 No. 133

ADDITIONS TO THE MYCOFLORA OF SOUTH-WESTERN UGANDA

By

D. L. Ebbels

Ukiriguru, P. O. Box 1433, Mwanza, Tanzania
INTRODUCTION

The mycoflora of Uganda has probably received more attention than that of other
territories in tropical Africa, largely due to the work of C. G. Hansford, Mycologist and
then Senior Plant Pathologist to the Uganda Government from 1926 to 1945. The first
list of Uganda fungi appears to have been by Miss A. L. Smith (1895) recording material
collected by Scott Elliot in the Ruwenzori. The lists of Maitland & Wakefield (1917)
and Wakefield (1920) are more comprehensive and the former contains some ecological
notes. Hansford published two host lists of Uganda parasitic fungi, each in several parts.
The first list (Hansford, 1937a, 1937b, 1937c, I937d, 1938a) was usefully annotated;
the revised list (Hansford, 1943a, 1943b, 1943c) was of nomenclature only. Hansford
also initiated the publication of a series of taxonomic papers on Uganda fungi. Two
papers on the Meliolinae (Hansford, 1937c, 1938b) were succeeded by one on other
Ascomycetes (Hansford, 1941) and others dealing with the Fungi Imperfecti (Hansford,
1943d), the smuts (Ainsworth, 1941), and the rusts (Wakefield & Hansford, 1949). New
records and revisions occupied three further papers (Hansford, 1943c, 1944, 1945).
Hansford specialized in the dark-coloured foliicolous Ascomycetes, especially the Melio-
laceae. There are records and descriptions of new species and varieties of these and other
groups from Uganda in papers dealing with fungi from a wider geographical area (Hans-
ford, 1946, 1947a, 1947b, 1949, 1955a, 1955b, 1957, 1958). More recent collections of
rust fungi from Uganda are reported by Henderson (1970).

This communication records 19 species of fungi collected (rather spasmodically)
during a few days spent in the Ankole, Kigezi, and Toro districts of western Uganda in
June 1970. This appears to be the first published Uganda record for 13 of these species,
of which 2 are previously undescribed. Four appear to be new host records for Uganda,
and 3 records extend the previously reported geographical distribution within Uganda.
It is obvious that, although the Uredinales and Meliolineae may now be rather well
known, many fungi, both saprophytic and parasitic, still await discovery in Uganda.

Accession numbers with the prefix DLE refer to the author’s personal herbarium;
that with the prefix S refers to a specimen in the Ukiriguru Plant Pathology Herbarium.
Where IMI accession numbers are given, material has been deposited at the Common-
wealth Mycological Institute, Kew. Records believed to be new for Uganda, for the host
species in Uganda, or for the locality are marked respectively with an asterisk (*) against
the fungus, host, or district name. The classification in the list below follows that out-
lined in the Plant Pathologist’s Pocketbook (C.M.I., 1968, pp 5 — 6).

Page 2

SYSTEMIC LIST

MYXOMYCOTINA

Myxomycetes

Arcyria denudata (L.) Wettst.*

On old papyrus thatch; 1900m, Kabale, Kigezi, 6. vi. 1970. DLE 128, 133, 134, 137, 138;
IMI 151245, 151251, 151254, 151255-

Arcyria cirterea (Bull.) Pers.*

On old papyrus thatch; 1900 m, Kabale, Kigezi. 6. vi. 1970. DLE 129, 136; IMI 151246,151253.
Arcyria incarnata Pers.*

On old papyrus thatch; 1900 m, Kabale, Kigezi, 6. vi. 1970. DLE 139; IMI 151256.
Comatricha laxa Rost.*

On old papyrus thatch; 1900 m, Kabale, Kigezi, 6. vi. 1970. DLE 130, 131, 132; IMI 151247,
151248, 151249.

ASCOMYCOTINA

Sphaeriales

Phyllachora bonariensis Speg.*

On Setaria homonyma (Steud.) Chiov. GRAMINEAE. 1900 m, Bwama Is., Lake Bunyoni,
Kigezi, 6. vi. 1970. DLE 154; IMI 155321.

Erysiphales

Oidium stage of an Erysiphaceous fungus.

On fruits of an Umbellifer, possibly Lefebvria sp.* (not matched in the East African Herba-
rium). 1800 m. Lake Mulehe, Kigezi, 7. vi. 1970. DLE 156.

BASIDIOMYCOTINA

Ustilaginales

Entyloma dahliae Syd.

On Dahlia variabilis (Willd.) Desf. COMPOSITAE. 1900 m, Kabale, Kigezi*, 6. vi. 1970.
S 69; 155337-
S 69; IMI 1555337-

Uredinales

Puccinia andropogonis Schw.*

On Amphicarpa africana (Hook, f.) Harms. PAPILIONACEAE. Aecidial stage. 1800 m, Lake
Mulehe, Kigezi, 7. vi. 1970. DLE 155; IMI 155322.

Puccinia dietelii Sacc.*

On Chloris pilosa Schumach. & Thonn. GRAMINEAE. 950 m, Katwe, Toro, 11. vi. 1970.
DLE 159; IMI 155325.

Puccinia guizotiae Cumm.*

On Guizotia scabra (Vis.) Chiov. COMPOSITAE. 1800 m, Lake Mulehe, Kigezi, 7. vi. 1970.
DLE 147; IMI 155314.

Puccinia nakanishikii Diet.

On Cymbopogon afronardus Stapf* GRAMINEAE. 1300 m, nr. Kagera River, Nsongezi.

Page 3

Ankole* 5. vi. 1970. DLE 158; IMI 155324.

Puccinia ocimi Doidge

On Ocimum suave Willd. LABI AT AE. Aecidial stage. 1800 m, Lake Mulehe, Kigezi*, 7. vi. 1970.
DLE 152; IMI 155319.

Uromyces polygoni-avicularis (Pers.) Karst.

On Polygonum setosulum A. Rich.* POLYGONACEAE. 1900 m, Kisoro, Kigezi, 7. vi. 1970.
DLE 146; IMI 155313.

Aecidium glycines P. Henn.*

On Glycine javanica L. PAPILIONACEAE. Parasitized by Cladosporium sp. 1800 m, Lake
Mulehe, Kigezi, 7. vi. 1970. DLE 161; IMI 155327.

Aecidium matapense Cumm.*

On Dichrocephala integrifolia (L.) O. Ktze COMPOSITAE. 1900 m, Kabale, Kigezi, 5 vi. 1970.
DLE 148; IMI 155315. Exobasidiales

Kordyana celebensis Gaum.*

On Commelina benghalensis L. COMMELINACEAE.

Forming white patches on the leaves. 1900 m, Bwama Is., Lake Bunyoni, Kigezi, 6. vi. 1970. DLE
151; IMI 155318.

DEUTEROMYCOTINA

Hyphomycetes

Cercospora kigeziensis D. L. Ebbels & F. C. Deighton* sp. nov.

Maculae amphigenae, ellipticae, atro-fuscae, usque 14x6 mm, centro interdum
pallidiore; caespituli numerosi amphigeni, crebri, in epiphyllo dispersiores ; stromata
olivaceo-brunnea, usque 135x50pm; conidiophora dense fasciculata, pallide olivacea,
recta vel sinuosa, simplicia, o — 2 septata, usque 80 pm longa et 4 . 5 pm lata, cicatrices
conidiales inconspicuae, non incrassatae ; conidia subcylindrica, levia, plerumque leniter
curvata, apicem versus leniter attenuata, pallide olivacea, apice obtusa, hilo truncato non
incras sato 2.5-3 .0 I101 diam., 3-12 septata, non constricta, 40-80 x 3 . 4-4 . 8 pm (Fig. 1).

Hab. in foliis Polygalae ruwenzoriensis Chod. POLYGALACEAE. Lake Mutanda,
Kigezi Dist., Uganda Alt. 1,850 m, 7. vi. 1970. DLE 150; IMI 155317 typus.

Spots on both corresponding surfaces of the leaves, elliptical, dark brown, up to
14x6 mm, sometimes with paler centres; caespituli numerous on both leaf surfaces,
crowded, more scattered on the adaxial surface; stromata olive-brown, up to 135 x 50 pm;
conidiophores densely fasciculate, pale olive-brown, straight or sinuous, simple, 0-2
septate, up to 80 pm long and 4.5 pm wide, conidial scars inconspicuous, unthickened;
conidia subcylindric, smooth, usually slightly curved, slightly attenuate towards the
apex, pale olive, obtuse at the apex, with a truncate unthickened hilum 2. 5-3.0 pm
diam., 3-12 septate, not constricted, 40-80x3.4-4.8 pm (Fig. 1).

On leaves of Polygala ruwenzoriensis Chod. POLYGALACEAE. Lake Mutanda,
Kigezi Dist., Uganda. Alt. 1,850 m, 7. vi. 1970. DLE 150; IMI 155317 type.

Among the numerous species which have been described in the very large genus
Cercospora are several hundred showing characters (including the unthickened conidial
scars) more or less similar to those of C. kigeziensis which, although not a true Cercospora ,
is best placed in that genus pending its thorough taxonomic revision.

In genera such as Cercospora it is customary to distinguish species according to their
hosts. Although this leads to an undesirable multiplicity of names for morphologically
very similar fungi, it is the most convenient system to use until the various host ranges
are more fully investigated; a task which will take many years. Eventually it is possible
that the creation of formae speciales to distinguish morphologically similar forms with
differing host ranges might provide an acceptable solution to this problem in the classi-
fication of the Cercospora complex, as it has done in the classification of Fusarium oxy-
sporum Schlecht. emend. Snyder & Hansen.

Page 4

1 0 mm

Fig. r. Cercospora kigeziensis. A, spots on leaf of Polygala ruwenzoriensis; B, caespituli with stro-
mata and conidiophores; C, caespitulum showing conidiophores with conidia attached; D, conidia.

Page 5

Fusarium sp.

On Pennisetum trachyphyllum Pilg. * GRAMINEAE. Associated with a leaf blotch.
1900 m, Bwama Is., Lake Bunyoni, Kigezi, 6. vi. 1970. DLE 165; IMI 1 5533 1 .
Ramularia-Iike fungus* undescribed.

On Pavonia urens Cav. var. tomentosa (Ulbr.) Brenan MALVACEAE. Leaf spot.
1, 800m, Lake Mulehe, Kigezi, 7. vi. 1970. DLE 153; IMI 155320.

The spots are circular, up to 5 mm diameter, with a very dark purplish-brown margin.
The hyaline conidia and conidiophores impart a whitish centre to sporulating spots.
Mr. F. C. Deighton (C. M. I.) comments: ‘A Ramularia-Iike fungus, undescribed. Same
as IMI 68741 from Kenya on the same host, but in better condition. . . . The conidial
scars are not as conspicuous as in the type of Ramidariopsisd It appears that further
studies on other collections of this fungus and its near relatives are required before its
true taxonomic position can be firmly ascertained. For this reason it is merely reported
in this communication and is not scientifically described.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Mr. J. B. Gillett and the staff of the East African Herbarium, Nairobi, for
help in identification of the host plants, and the staff of the Commonwealth Mycological
Institute, Kew, for help in identification of the fungi. In particular I am most grateful
to Mr. F. C. Deighton of the Commonwealth Mycological Institute for valuable help
and advice in the preparation of this paper.

SUMMARY

The literature on Ugandan fungi is briefly reviewed. Nineteen species of fungi col-
lected in 1970 in the Ankole, Kigezi and Toro districts are listed. Thirteen species
are believed to be new records for Uganda, including 2 previously undescribed species.
Cercospora kigeziensis Ebbels & Deighton sp. nov. is described.

Page 6

REFERENCES

Ainsworth, G. C. (1941). Contributions towards the fungus flora of Uganda. IV. The Ustilaginales
of Uganda. Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond., 1940-41, 92-97.

Hansford, C. G. (1937a). Annotated host list of Uganda parasitic fungi and plant diseases — Part

I. E. Afr. agric. J. 2, 419-424.

Hansford, C. G. (1937b). Annotated host list of Uganda parasitic fungi and plant diseases — Part

II. E. Afr. agric. J. 2, 498-504.

Hansford, C. G. (1937c). Annotated host list of Uganda parasitic fungi and plant diseases-Part III.
E. Afr. agric. J. 3, 79-84-

Hansford, C. G. (i937d). Annotated host list of Uganda parasitic fungi and plant diseases-Part IV.
E. Afr. agric. J. 3, 235-240.

Hansford, C. G. (i937e). Contributions towards the fungus flora of Uganda. I. The Meliolineae of
Uganda. J. Linn. Soc. ( Bot .) 51, 265-284.

Hansford, C. G. (1938a). Annotated host list of Uganda parasitic fungi and plant diseases-Part V.
E. Afr. agric. J. 3, 319-324.

Hansford, C. G. (1938b). Contributions towards the fungus flora of Uganda. II. Meliolineae.
Supplement. J. Linn. Soc. (Bot.) 51, 537-545.

Hansford, C. G. (1941). Contributions towards the fungus flora of Uganda. III. Some Uganda
Ascomycetes. Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond., 1940-41, 4-52.

Hansford, C. G. (1943a). Host list of the parasitic fungi of Uganda. Part I. E. Afr. agric. J., 8,
248-252.

Hansford, C. G. (1943b). Host list of the parasitic fungi of Uganda. Part II. E. Afr. agric. J., 9,
50-55-

Hansford, C. G. (1943c). Host list of the parasitic fungi of Uganda. Part III. E. Afr. agric. J., 9,
102-106.

Hansford, C. G. (1943d). Contributions towards the fungus flora of Uganda, V. Fungi Imperfecti.
Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond., 1942-43, 34-67.

Hansford, C. G. (1943c). Contributions towards the fungus flora of Uganda. IV. New records.
Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond., 1942-43, 102-124.

Hansford, C. G. (1944). Contributions towards the fungus flora of Uganda. VII. New records
and revisions. Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond., 1943-44, 20-41.

Hansford, C. G. (1945). Contributions towards the fungus flora of Uganda, VIII. New records.
Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond., 1944-45, 138-212.

Hansford, C. G. (1946). The follicolous Ascomycetes, their parasites and associated fungi. Mycol.

Pap. No. 15. Kew: Commonwealth Mycological Institute.

Hansford, C. G. (1947a). New or interesting tropical fungi. I. Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond., 158, 28-50.
Hansford, C. G. (1947b). New tropical fungi. II. Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond., 159, 20-42.

Hansford, C. G. (1949). Tropical fungi. III. New species and revisions. Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond.,
160, 116-153.

Hansford, C. G. (1955a). Tropical fungi. IV. New species and revisions. Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond.,
165, 166-177.

Hansford, C. G. (1955b). Tropical fungi. V. New species and revisions. Sydowia, 9, 1-88.
Hansford, C. G. (1957). Tropical fungi. IV. New species and revisions. Sydowia 10, 41-100.
Hansford, C. G. (1958). Tropical fungi. VIII. Sydowia, 11, 44-68.

Henderson, D. M. (1970). Rust fungi from East Africa. Notes R. bot. Gdn Edinb., 30, 395-407.
Maitland, T. D. & Wakefield, E. M. (1917). Notes on Uganda fungi. I. The fungus-flora of the
forests. Kew. Bull., 1917, 1-19.

Smith, A. L. (1895). In J. Bot. (Lond.), 33, 340.

Wakefield, E. M. (1920). Fungi exotici: XXV. Notes on Uganda fungi. II. Microfungi. Kew Bui.,
1920, 289-300.

Wakefield, Elsie M. & Hansford, C. G. (1949). Contributions towards the fungus flora of Uganda.
IX. The Uredinales of Uganda. Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond., 1948-49, 162-198.

(Received 23rd September 1971)

Published by The East Africa Natural History Society, Box 44486, Nairobi, Kenya and
printed by Kenya Litho Ltd., Box 40775, Nairobi.

JOURNAL

OF THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

10th August 1972

No. 134

THE OCCURRENCE OF THE SHRIMP METAPONTONIA FUNGIACOLA
BRUCE (CRUSTACEA, DECAFODA, PONT ONIINAE) IN KENYAN
WATERS.

By

A. J. BRUCE.*

East African Marine Fisheries Research Organization.

The monospecific pontoniinid genus Metapontonia was first described on the basis
of a single damaged specimen, probably male, obtained from washings of a coral of the
genus Fungia spp., collected in the Comoro Islands during the course of the Inter-
national Indian Ocean Expedition in 1964 (Bruce, 1967). There have been no subsequent
reports of the occurrence of this highly specialized coral commensal.

This report records the presence of further specimens in shallow water on the reefs
of southern Kenya and also indicates that the species is not restricted to corals of the
family Fungiidae in its associations.

Specimens have been deposited in the collections of the National Museum, Nairobi,
and the Rijksmuseum Van Natuurlyke Historie, Leiden.

METAPONTONIA FUNGIACOLA Bruce.

Metapontonia fungiacola Bruce, 1967, Zool. Verb., Leiden, 87: 23-32, figs. 10-12.
Material examined:

1 ovig. $2 S Stn. 138, 1650, Jadini, Kenya, 40 21.5 'S., 390 34.5 'E, Coll. A.J.B.,

3 November, 1971.

Description: The present specimens agree closely with the original description. The
female is distinctly larger and more robust than the males.

All three specimens possess both second pereiopods, which are small, robust, similar
and distinctly unequal in size.

The male first and second pleopods were missing from the holotype specimen and
have not been described. The endopod of the first pleopod is about 2.5 times longer
than broad, with the greatest width situated at half the length. The medial border is
feebly concave and bears two coarsely setulose setae proximally and two short curved
spines at one third of its length. The distal margin is rounded. The lateral border is
gently convex with six finely plumose setae along the distal two-thirds of the margin.
The endopod of the second pleopod bears a slender appendix interna, with four terminal
concinni, which distinctly exceeds the appendix masculina. The body of the appendix
masculina is short and stout, about twice as long as broad, with three terminal setae.

Present address: E.A.M.F.R.O., P.O. Box 81651, Mombasa, Kenya.

Page 2

Two setae are stout, long and straight 0.20 and 0.14 mm in length. The longer seta
are finely setulose. The third seta is short and curved, about 0.06 mm in length and
devoid of setules.

Measurements:- (mm) $ $

Total carapace length 2.10 1.70 1.60

Post-orbital carapace length 1.55 1.15 1.15

Major second pereiopod chela 1.40 1.05 1.40

Minor second pereiopod chela 1.05 0.75 0.90

Number of ova 1 1 — —

Greater diameter of ova 0.56 — —

Fig. 1. — Metapontonia fungiacola Bruce. A) male first pleopod. B) male second pleopod.

C) endopod of male first pleopod. D) appendix interna and appendix masculina of

male second pleopod.

Page 3

Plate i — Metapontonia fungiacola Bruce. Ovigerous female, dorsal view.

Plate 2 — Metapontonia fungiacola Bruce.

Ovigerous female in situ and host Hydnophora
microconos Lam.

Page 4

Colouration:- The general appearance of the female was yellow-green, the males being
more highly transparent. In more detail, the female is generally feebly speckled with
pale yellowish chromatopheres, which are only feebly visible. It shows a patch of small
white chromatopheres in each post-orbital region with a larger transverse patch of white
across the gastric region. The rostrum is colourless and the branchiostegite is sparsely
speckled with small white dots. The abdomen shows a transverse dorsal band of white
across the first segment, extending laterally to the posterior angle of the branchiostegite.
The pleura are generally finely speckled with white, with three larger patches of white
on the second and third pleura laterally, which also extend across the ventral aspect of
the abdomen. The sixth abdominal segment and caudal fan are almost completely trans-
parent, except for a few yellow-green dots ventrally on the terminal abdominal segment.
The antennal peduncles and scaphocerite are heavily speckled with yellow-white. The
pereiopods are colourless except for the ischium and proximal two-thirds of the merus
of the ambulatory pereiopods. The clearly visible ovary is olive green and the undeveloped
ovary are of a similar colour.

Behaviour:- The shrimps show few signs of activity in daylight. They take up position
between the raised projections of the host, with the body held close to the base of the
depression and the third to fifth pereiopods held upwards beside the carapace, with the
dactyls holding on to the more elevated parts of the corallites. The abdomen was noted
to be frequently held in an elevated position, away from the substrate and with the
caudal fan flexed.

Habitat:- The specimens were obtained from the seaward side of a fringing lagoon,
in water about 2m in depth, with a temperature of 28.5°C.

Host:- Hydnophora microconos Lam. (Faviidae)

Distribution: Previously known only from Pamanzi reef, Mayotte Island, Comoro
Archipelago.

DISCUSSION

The holotype of Metapontonia fungiocola was found in the washings from a number of
specimens of Fungia which included several species. The occurrence of the present
specimens in association with Hydnophora microconos shows that it is not restricted in
its association to corals of the family Fungiidae but can also be associated with
the Faviidae. In general commensal pontoniinid shrimps associated with corals show
considerable specificity in their associations and are usually restricted to family or generic
categories.

The holotype specimen was damaged and lacked the anterior pleopods. Its sex and
maturity could not be adequately determined. The Jadini specimens show that the speci-
mens are normally mature at a very small size and indeed, Metapontonia fungiacola appears
to be one of the smallest pontoniinid shrimps. The ova are of typical size for a pontoniinid
shrimp but, correlated with the small size of the female, only a very small number are
carried.

Metapontonia fungiacola may well be widespread in its distribution as its small size
would result in its being easily overlooked. Mortensen (1923) has reported the presence
of a small shrimp in association with Fungia corals in the Kei Islands, which could possibly
belong to the present species.

Page 5

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am most grateful to Professor J. W. Wells for the identification of the coral host.

RESUME

Nous reportons ici la presence de Metapontonia fungiacola Bruce, a Jadini, pres de la
frontiere sud du Kenya. Cette crevette pontoniinide n’est connue que par son occurrence
originale dans Pile Mayotte qui fait parti de l’archipel des Comores. Le motif de couleurs,
et la premiere et la deuxieme pleopode du male, sont decrits pour la premiere fois.
Les specimens de Jadini, ont ete trouves dans la lagon marginal, en association avec une
corail faviide, Hydnophora microconos Lam. qui constituent un nouveau genre d’hote.

LITERATURE CITED

bruce, A. j. 1967. Notes on some Indo-Pacific Pontoniinae III-IX. Descriptions of some new
genera and species from the western Indian Ocean and the South China Sea. Zool. Verh .,
Leiden, No. 87: 1-73, figs. 1-29.

mortensen, T. 1923. The Danish Expedition to the Kei Islands. Vidensk. Meddr dansk naturh.
Foren., 76: 23-99, pis. 3-

(Received 19th December 1971)

Published by The East Africa Natural History Society, Box 44486, Nairobi Kenya and
printed by Kenya Litho Ltd., Box 40775, Nairobi.

6? . /

JOURNAL

OF THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

10th October 1972 No. 135

SEASONAL AND REGIONAL ABUNDANCE OF FLEAS ON HARES

IN KENYA

By

John E. C. Flux

Ecology Division , Department of Scientific and Industrial Research , Lower Hutt, New

Zealand

INTRODUCTION

Two species of hares occur in Kenya: Lepus capensis L., which lives on open grassland
over most of the country, and Lepus crawshayi de Winton (=L. whytei Thomas) which
inhabits scrubbier country to the south and west. During a study of the reproduction of
L. capensis (Flux 1969 and in prep.) the opportunity was taken to study their external
parasites. Apart from fleas, the hares carried many ticks (to be reported separately), a
few lice, and two hippoboscid flies.

METHODS

From August 1967 to July 1968 monthly samples of ten hares [L. capensis ) were
shot on each of three areas: (i) at 19 km south of Magadi township (2°5'S, 36°i4'E),
(ii) near Olorgesailie Prehistoric Site (i°34'S, 36°28'E), and (iii) at Akira Ranch (o°57'S,
36°26'E). These lie at 600, 1200 and 1800 m altitude respectively on the floor of the
Great Rift Valley running north to south across Kenya, about 60 km west of Nairobi.
Mean annual temperatures decreased from 29°C at Magadi to i8°C at Akira, while mean
annual rainfall increased from 410 to 772 mm. Temperatures vary little throughout the
year and the main variable is rainfall, which comes in two roughly defined wet seasons:
the “short rains” from October to December, and the “long rains” from March to May.

The vegetation at Magadi and Olorgesailie is dry grassland with mixed scrub and a
few scattered trees, and at Akira mainly Themeda grassland with whistling thorn scrub
(. Acacia drepanolobiwn Harms ex Sjostedt). Magadi and Olorgesailie are owned by the
Masai and tend to be rather overgrazed by cattle, sheep and goats; Akira is a European-
owned ranch carrying cattle, goats and wild ungulates, especially Grant’s and Thomson’s
gazelles ( Gazella granti Brooke, G. thomsonii Gunther). Other wild game and several
species of carnivores are common on all three areas.

Hares were shot with a . 22 calibre rifle by spotlighting from a Land-Rover at night,
wrapped in newspaper to absorb blood, and sealed individually in polythene bags in the
field. No other mammals or birds were collected or transported in the vehicle, so the
possibility of accidental transfer of fleas from one host to another was virtuaUy eliminated.

Next morning the hares were searched for external parasites in the laboratory and as
each animal was handled for at least 20 minutes while I skinned it, probably most fleas
were collected. Fleas were preserved in 70 per cent alcohol and later identified by Mr.
F.G.A.M. Smit, British Museum (Natural History), Tring. The few seen to escape
are recorded as “unsexed” in the tables.

In addition to the regular collections of L. capensis , nine L. crawshayi were examined
from Mt. Margaret, just east of Akira Ranch; 12 from near Kilgoris, West Kenya (i°io'S,
34°5o'E); two from the plains near Nairobi; five from 2200 m altitude on the Ngong
Hills; and two from 2700 m on Mt. Kenya.

Page 2

RESULTS

Species and sex ratios of fleas

From 152 of 365 L. capensis examined, 639 fleas were collected: 560 Ctenocephalides
felis strongylus (Jordan), 78 Echidnopliaga gallinacea (Westwood), and one Xenopsylla
nubica (Rothschild). Of 30 L. crawshayi examined, 24 had a total of 139 C. /. strongylus
and one E. gallinacea. The cat flea, C. /. strongylus, occurs throughout eastern and central
Africa as the common flea on hares, cats, dogs, goats, sheep, and a wide range of wild
carnivores. It is by far the commonest flea on man in this area, almost completely replacing
Pulex irritans L. (Hopkins 1947). The sticktight flea, E. gallinacea, is a cosmopolitan
species which, like the cat flea, is found on a variety of hosts from poultry to large
carnivores. It occurred only on the face and whiskers of the hares. Xenopsylla nubica
is a rodent flea found especially on gerbils [Patera spp.) in East Africa: the one male found,
on a juvenile male L. capensis at Olorgesailie, was clearly a straggler.

The sex ratio of cat fleas from L. capensis was 123 3 3:242 $ $ at Akira, 65 3 3‘
hi $ $ at Olorgesailie, and 2 3 3-3 9 $ at Magadi; and from L. crawshayi from several
areas in Kenya, 34 3 3'-™4 $ 9- Sex ratios on male (117 3 3 :24s $ $>) and female
(107 3 (j':2i4 $ $) hares were similar. The average numbers of fleas carried by 201 male
(1.81) and 188 female (1.71) hares were also similar, but juvenile hares (i.e. those less
than about 8 months old) had fewer fleas than had adults (Table 1). The overall sex ratio
of cat fleas on hares, 224 3 0:460 $ $ or approximately 1:2, seems normal. Hopkins &
Rothschild (1953) catalogue 20 3 3:40 $ $ for Kenya collections, and 219 3 3'-419 9 9
for the whole Ethiopian region; de Meillon et al. (1961) record 208 3 3-49lf 9 in South
Africa; and Harmsen & Jabbal (1969) found 19 3 3:64 9 9 in Kenya. All these were
from a variety of hosts.

The sex ratio of sticktight fleas on hares (22 3 3:56 9 9) seems unusual because
of the large number of male fleas found, although Hopkins’ (1947) remark, that “Females
enormously outnumber males in collections, the proportion of males in an extensive
series of surveys in Kenya never exceeding 10 per cent in any locality, and usually being
much below that figure . . .”, appears exaggerated. Thus Hopkins & Rothschild (1953)
catalogue 3 3 3’25 9 9 for Kenya, but 64 3 3:324 9 9 for the Ethiopian region; and
de Meillon et al. (1961) give 361 3 c?:i6i8 9 9 for South Africa. In fleas emerging
from a variety of hosts’ nests or lairs, however, de Meillon et al. found both sexes almost
equally common (270 3 0:310 $ $), and hares may pick up fleas from such places rather
than from other hosts.

Number of fleas per hare

The frequency distributions of fleas per hare at Akira and Olorgesailie differed
(Fig. 1). In both places roughly similar proportions of hares had cat fleas — 75 of 125
(60%) and 64 of 1 19 (54%) respectively — but the total of fleas at Akira (370) was double
that at Olorgesailie (185) because a few hares had many fleas each at Akira. At Olorgesailie
more hares than expected had three and four fleas. These patterns could be explained by
concentration of fleas at stock camps and higher densities of fleas at Akira than at Olorge-
sailie. A separate analysis of hares shot within 3 km of stock camps at Olorgesailie supports
this suggestion for they had more than twice as many fleas as did those shot farther away :

Number of fleas

012345678 14 Mean

No. of hares

Near stock camps :5 5284 1102 2.7

Away from stock: 50 19 4 9 2 o 3 1 0 1 1.1

At Akira, hares with many fleas tended to have more female fleas than expected by
chance, and fewer hares than expected had fleas with the average sex ratio (Table 2), as

Page 3

73

a

&

*4

n

<

h

73

c

CO

^ C/D

§•

^ £

gg

%.B

«

.» «

C o

e3

&o^,

r* 03
*3 Ui
txo O
<3 >
-SI 4>

f 6

?3 O

■z c
£ o

<3

"S3

o

as

*0

*o

*o

3

73

<

ro

*o

&

X

<

3

73

<

*o

c

X!

g x

H o
CO c/5

On */■> «/~iCO M O O O O

ON 00 00 ‘/^VO (N O O O

rODMONHOOO

.5 x

Sx'

CO CO
1) 1)
u u

CO CO

XX
6 6
zz

sJ T3 ^

X J*£ X-& J£
t< v a o X o co

& "3 6 2 Es 73 6

« E£ § R E£

CO O O O CO O O

xzzzxzz

X

o

73

c

73

&J

00

u

J3

O

o

z

Page 4

o r3

4h

T3

a, **!

U

1) (Si
CU

X o
w §
S3
.2 5

4—*

3

-O £

IS

T3 *-»
G oj
03 e
^ 6

<n O

x-g
*-■ c
_c f3

•s ^
*3

T3 «
»J XI

fa °

nj t_,

O. Q.
£ <u
O £

(J C3

U £3
:G u

ft ^

<U o

W) 0

U* c/5

o o

W 2
. jz
hJ u

on m

w S
0 <n

[V c*_

o 0

►J o

o z

o OJ

h M

,wa
ns , y

Q S g

H2

N M M N

ffl Is N

m rj- o\ m mvo n

O o o W N vihN'O H M o o O
M M

+ + I ++ I ++ +

++ + +4- + I I I I + + + +

o hn ts^io h r^oo m o

O o O m n r^oo h-r^tN O O n

C4 h< ^

Tfr^vo N co V-ITJ-M

<

H

c ^
5 t>

(Si w

X t->

O CS

cx
n ‘-1

« £

2 x
12 ”

3 S

C3 3

S3 o
2 <j

Ctf «s

•« «

§ fi

u CJ

cn H

Stc

«Q

C3 S

o-S

K -S

U n 00

Z a

2 § *

< 2 o

K o *-.

2 o

< 2 2

«n ts

m rt *-<

2 73
g

X <t>
<u u

(A *-*
<4-. 4>

O J3
ciH
o .

*£ Of

3 04-

jQ ej

"C ,

* *0

G O

srs

3 ca

O' *-<

2 x

Tr

rH C/5

n ; '♦5

Jd O

c* __

£3
<2 a »
6 u~
Z.S £

■s3 —
e~

« 3
w> O-

(U 0>

i|

0 2

u, E

gS^
o 8 E
Z

Note: The Olorgesailie half of this table is reversed so that the “Difference” columns can be compared more easily.

AKIRA RANCH

Page 5

o o o o

to cm —

S3yVH 30 *ON

o

m

o

NO. OF CAT FLEAS PER HARE

•Frequency distributions of fleas per hare at Akira Ranch and Olorgesailie.

OLORGESAILIE

Page 6

0 o (lulu) nvjNiva o

S 9 Vo 8

1 1 1 1 1 i r

O

O

O

1 1

3idVM U3d SV313 H3ewnN NV3W

1967 1968

Fig. 2 — Seasonal abundance of fleas (C. /. strottgylus — continuous line: E. gallinacea — dashed line)
on hares at Akira Ranch and Olorgesailie compared with rainfall (stippled).

Page 7

indicated by departures from the random binomial distribution calculated for a sex
ratio of i $ $. Olorgesailie hares, on the other hand, had fleas with random sex
ratios. This is rather surprising as it indicates that the fleas attached to hosts regardless
of the sex of other fleas present; that is, there was no tendency for a male flea to leave a
host if it did not find a mate or for male and female fleas to behave in different ways.
A possible explanation is that fleas were within their breeding range at Akira but not at
Olorgesailie.

Regional and seasonal abundance of fleas

Although there seemed to be as many big game animals, carnivores and domestic
animals at Magadi as at Olorgesailie, and far more hares, only five fleas (all C.f. strongylus )
were collected at Magadi: two males from juvenile male hares, and three females from
an adult male, an adult female and a juvenile female hare. Since 121 hares were examined
at Magadi, this area is clearly unsuitable for fleas, probably because mean maximum
temperatures average 35°C and humidity is low, averaging 35-56 per cent compared with
50-80 per cent at Nairobi (Thompson & Sansom 1967). Temperatures and humidity at
Akira were similar to those at Nairobi and conditions at Olorgesailie were intermediate
between those at Nairobi and Magadi.

Abundance of cat and sticktight fleas at Akira was correlated with the seasonal rainfall
(Fig. 2) as it is for many insects in Kenya. The pattern at Olorgesailie was exactly reversed,
with cat fleas most abundant in the dry seasons. Possibly the fleas breed successfully only
at high altitudes, as at Akira, and the pattern at Olorgesailie reflects the seasonal migra-
tions of the Masai and their stock. The Olorgesailie area is grazed from March to June
and during October and November (Hickman & Dickens i960); and during the dry
seasons, when many Masai and their cattle, sheep, goats and donkeys are absent, the
fleas may find that hares are the only hosts available. Some wild ungulates in the Rift
Valley also migrate, which would add to this effect.

DISCUSSION

Whether hares are true hosts of fleas or merely accidental carriers is debatable.
Hopkins (1947) states: “The common flea of hares in East Africa is also the common
flea of cats, dogs, goats, sheep, and a wide range of Carnivora: it occurs on many of these
hosts, including cats, goats and hares, in such numbers as to put it beyond doubt that
these are not accidental occurrences”; and the Rothschild collection contains male
C.f. strongylus from Uganda and Tanganyika “belonging to a form in which the number
of sub-apical spiniform plantar bristles . . . varies from 2 to 6 — this form apparently occurs
exclusively on wild Carnivora and hares” (Hopkins & Rothschild 1953: 155). On the
other hand, fleas might be unable to complete their life cycle using hares alone, because
hares sit by day in open “forms” in grass or under bushes, and have no lairs. The “forms”
may be used continuously for a few weeks but are kept so clean and dry that larval fleas
could find little food.

Harmsen & Jabbal (i960) emphasise the danger of considering any animal carrying a
flea, the host of that particular flea. They illustrate this by mentioning that the highly
host-specific Delopsylla crassipes Jordan, normally restricted to the springhaas, Pedetes
surdaster Thomas, “was, however, also found on the hare, Lepus capensis, but only on
those hares which live within the confined area of a springhaas colony”. As this statement
was based on one flea from one hare, it is worth recording that I found no D. crassipes
on five hares shot within a springhaas colony, reinforcing their view that this flea is only
a straggler on hares.

The occurrence of equal numbers of fleas on male and female hares is perhaps
unexceptional, although significantly more fleas have often been recorded on male
mammals (Ashby & Crawley 1967, Cotton & Watts 1967, Gabbutt 1951, Haas 1965),
possibly associated with their larger home ranges (Mohr & Stumpf 1962). On the other
hand, 44 per cent more adult males than adult females of L. capensis carried ticks, and

Page 8

females carried almost three times as many plant propagules in their fur as males did
(Agnew & Flux 1970). These differences could be explained by postulating that female
hares inhabit scrubby vegetation where burs are more plentiful; that ticks prefer male
hares (ticks are attracted by hormone levels in the host’s blood — Ali & Sweatman 1966,
Rechav 1970) or the more open habitat that male hares may occupy; and that fleas are
picked up at random on both types of terrain. With a total of 38 species of ticks, fleas
and burs involved, so many other explanations are possible that further discussion is
unprofitable until more is known of the habits of both the hares and their parasites.

SUMMARY

Of 365 hares ( Lepus capensis ) collected in monthly samples of 30 for a year from the
Great Rift Valley, 152 carried totals of 190 3 and 356 $ Ctenocephalid.es felis strongylus,
22 3 and 56 $ Echidnophaga gallinacea , and 1 3 Xenopsylla nubica. Scrub hares (L.
crawshayi ) had more fleas: 24 of 30 examined from various parts of Kenya carried 34 3
and 104 $ C. /. strongylus , and 1 $ E. gallinacea. Abundance of C. f. strongylus on L.
capensis varied between areas up to 3 . 0 fleas per hare, and seasonally up to 6 . 0 fleas per
hare, with peak numbers of fleas in the wet seasons in one area and in the dry seasons in
another.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am very grateful for Mr. F.G.A.M. Smit for identifying all the fleas; to the
Manager of Akira Ranch and the Masai for allowing the collection of hares on their
property; to Professor D. S. Kettle for providing facilities and to Mr. B. M. Fitzgerald,
Dr. J. A. Gibb and Dr. M. R. Rudge for helpful comments on earlier drafts. The work
was carried out while I held a New Zealand National Research Fellowship at the Zoology
Department, University College, Nairobi.

REFERENCES

Agnew, A. D. Q. & Flux, J. E. C. 1970. Plant dispersal by hares ( Lepus capensis L.) in Kenya.
Ecology 5i:735-737-

Ali, S. R. & Sweatman, G. K. 1966. Effect of age, sex and hormone treatment of the mouse on the
level of infestation by Rhipicephalus sanguineus larvae. J. Parasit. 52:407-412.

Ashby, K. R. & Crawley, M. C. 1967. Studies on the vertebrates of Castle Eden Dene. Proc. Univ.
Newscastle upon Tyne phil. Soc. 1:148-161.

Cotton, M. J. & Watts, C. H. S. 1967. The ecology of the tick Ixodes trianguliceps Birula (Arachnida;
Acarina; Ixodoidea). Parasitology 57:525-531.

deMEiLLON, B., Davis, D. H. S. & Hardy, F., 1961. Plague in Southern Africa. Vol. 1. The
Siphonaptera (excluding Ischnopsyllidae). Govt. Printer, Pretoria. 280 pp.

Flux, J. E. C. 1969. Current work on the reproduction of the African hare, Lepus capensis L.
J. Reprod. Fert. Supplement 6:225-227.

Gabbutt, P. D. 1951. The distribution of some small mammals and their associated fleas from
central Labrador. Ecology 42:518-525.

Haas, G. E. 1965. Comparative suitability of the four murine rodents of Hawaii as hosts for Xenopsylla
vexabilis and X. cheopis (Siphonaptera). J. Med. Ent. 2:75-83.

Harmsen, R. & Jabbal, I. 1969. Distribution and host-specificity of a number of fleas collected in
south and central Kenya. J. E. Africa nat. Hist. Soc. 27 (2) (July I968):i57-i6i.

Hickman, G. M. & Dickens, W. H. G. i960. The lands and peoples of East Africa. Longmans,
Green and Co., London. 232 pp.

Hopkins, G. H. E. 1947. Annotated and illustrated keys to the known fleas of East Africa. Uganda
J. 11:133-190.

Hopkins, G. H. E. & Rothschild, M. 1953. An illustrated catalogue of the Rothschild collection
of fleas (Siphonaptera) in the British Museum (Natural History). Cambridge Univ. Press,
London, Vol. 1. 361 pp.

Mohr, C. O. & Stumpf, W. A. 1962. Relation of ectoparasite load to host size and home area in
small mammals and birds. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Nat. Res. Conf. 27:174-183.

Rechav, Y. 1970. Effect of age and sex of gerbils on the attraction of immature Hyalomma excavation
Koch, 1844 (Ixodoidea: Ixodidae). J. Parasit. 56:611-614.

Thompson, B. W. & Sansom, H. W. 1967. Climate, pp. 20-38 In Morgan, W. T. W. (Ed.) Nairobi:
city and region. Oxford Univ. Press, London. 154 pp.

(Received 12th July, 1971)

Published by The East Africa Natural History Society, Box 44486 Nairobi, Kenya and
printed by Kenya Litho Ltd., Box 40775, Nairobi.

JOURNAL

OF THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

25th SEPTEMBER 1972 No. 136

EAST AFRICAN BIRD RINGING REPORT 1970-1971

By

G. C. Backhurst
P.O. Box 29003, Kabete, Kenya

INTRODUCTION

This report covers the period 1st July 1970 to 30th June 1971. The total number of
birds ringed was 175 13 (see Table 1), an increase of 3000 over the previous year’s total
(Backhurst 1971); however, 10630 Palearctic migrants of 61 species are included in this
figure compared with only 6084 ringed during the previous year.

The full list of birds ringed is given in Table 1 where Palearctic migrants are printed
in bold type; birds which are Ethiopian as well as Palearctic are printed in ordinary type.
The nomenclature used follows the lists of C.M.N. White (references given in Backhurst
1970) and as these lists are regarded as the standard for the Ethiopian Region, authors’
names have been omitted. One map is included in this report showing the year’s recoveries
outside East Africa. Previous recoveries were shown on two maps in last year’s report
(Backhurst 1971).

SOME NOTES ON RINGING IN EAST AFRICA

Twenty-one ringers were operating in the three East African countries of Kenya,
Uganda and Tanzania during the 1970-71 ringing year. Most ringers were in Kenya
while very few were in the other two countries; a list of ringers is given on page 13.

This year’s 19 Palearctic recoveries are most encouraging and should inspire those
who specialize in Palearctic migrants to ring more of them. Some interesting recoveries
may be mentioned: the female Ruff Philomachus pugnax No. B.4166 was ringed on 10th
May 1970 at Lake Nakuru, Kenya when it weighed I37g, some 49 per cent above the
mean winter weight (Pearson et a,l. 1970); however, in 1971 it was recovered near Nadym
in the Soviet Union (over 65°N., and 72°E.) on 15th April, i.e. three weeks earlier than
10th May when, the year before, it had still been south of the equator. The European
Swallow Hirundo rustica No. J. 37100 was the first East African-ringed bird to be controlled
in the U.S.S.R., by Dr E. I. Gavrilov at the Chokpak Pass in Eastern Kazakhstan; in
addition, J. F. Reynolds controlled one of Dr Gavrilov’s Swallows in Iringa. The Swallow
continued to give the high recovery rate mentioned in last year’s report (Backhurst 1971).

Pride of place for startling recoveries must go to the three non-hirundine Passerines
(other than wagtails) which were recovered in the Middle East: the Kabete Reed Warbler
Acrocephalus scirpaceus to Saudi Arabia, the Ng’iya Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla to Iran
and the Mbale Redstart Phoenicurus phoenicurus to Iraq. The Redstart recovery was made

Page 2

exactly one month after it had been retrapped at the ringing site. Some ringing totals of
individual species are also worthy of note: 900 Little Stints Calidris minuta (but still no
recoveries), 818 Ruff, 188 Marsh Sandpipers Tringa stagnatilis, 622 Striped Swallows
Hirundo abyssinica , 2770 European Swallows, 1029 Willow Warblers Phylloscopus
trocliilus, 202 Red-chested Sunbirds Nectarinia erythroceria and 355 Dark-capped
Bulbuls Pycnonotus barbatus. Twelve Palearctic species were ringed for the first time
during the year, these were (with number ringed in parentheses) : Pallid Harrier Circus
macrounis (1), Spotted Crake Porzana porzana (x). Common Tern Sterna hirundo (1),
Red-necked Phalarope Phalaropus lobatus (2), Black-tailed God wit Limosa limosa (1),
Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus (1), European Cuckoo Cuculus canorus (1), European Scops
Owl Otus scops (1), European Nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus (x). Pied Flycatcher
Ficedula hypoleuca (2), Chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita (1), and White-throated Robin
Irania gutturalis (3). The addition of these twelve birds has raised the number of Palearctics
ringed since i960, when the scheme started, to 79 although only 61 species were ringed
in the year under review. As a final numerical exercise it is interesting to abstract those
species whose grand totals top 1000; there are just ten: Little Stint, Ruff, Striped Swallow,
European Swallow, African Sand Martin Riparia paludicola, European Sand Martin
R. riparia. Yellow Wagtail Motacilla /lava. Willow Warbler, Yellow-backed Weaver
Ploceus melanocephalus and Dark-capped Bulbul.

More ringers are still needed in East Africa especially if they are experienced and,
in this context, visiting ringers from overseas are especially welcome but they are reminded
that the East African Scheme uses its own rings and, as the stocks held are not particularly
large by European standards, those intending to visit East Africa for ringing should contact
the writer as soon as their plans are finalized so that more rings can be ordered if necessary.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Ringers gratefully acknowledge the co-operation of the City Engineer, Nairobi for
allowing them to operate at Kariobangi Sewage Works; the Director of the Kenya
National Parks for permission to ring at Lake Nakuru and in Tsavo National Parks;
the Director of Veterinary Services, Kenya for permission to ring on certain land at
Kabete. The Society is also grateful to the Administrative Director of the National
Museum, Nairobi for allowing the Museum’s address to appear on the rings.

I should like to thank the East Africa Natural History Society for the grant they made
towards the cost of sending me to the XV International Ornithological Congress in The
Hague in September 1970.

Page 3

Table I

BIRDS RINGED BY THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY RINGING

ORGANIZATION

Palearctic Migrants in Bold Type

Podiceps ruficollis Little Grebe
Ardeola ibis Cattle Egret ....
A. ralloides Squacco Heron
Ixobrychus minutus Little Bittern
Nycticorax nycticorax Night Heron .
Phoenicopterus minor Lesser Flamingo
Platalea alba African Spoonbill
Threskiornis aethiopica Sacred Ibis
Alopochen aegyptiaca Egyptian Goose
Anas capensis Cape Wigeon
A. erythrorhynchos Red-billed Duck
A. hot tent ota Hottentot Teal
A. querquedula Garganey
A. undulata Yellow-billed Duck
Netta erythrophthalma African Pochard
Dendrocygna bicolor Fulvous Tree-Duck
Accipiter badins Shikra ....
A. minullus Little Sparrow Hawk
A. tachiro African Goshawk
Circus macrourus Pallid Harrier .
Lophaetus occipitalis Long-crested Eagle
Milvus migrans ssp. Kite ....
M. migrans migrans Black Kite
Falco biarmicus Lanner ....
F. cuvieri African Hobby
F. subbuteo Hobby ....
Polihierax semitorquatus Pigmy Falcon
Commix coturnix Quail ....
C. delegorguei Harlequin Quail .

Francolinus coqai Coqui Francolin
F. sephaena Crested Francolin
Fulica cristata Red-knobbed or Crested Coot
Gallinula chloropus Moorhen
Limnocorax flavirostra Black Crake .
Porphyrio porphyrio Purple Gallinule
Porzana porzana Spotted Crake
Sarothrura elegans Buff-spotted Crake
5. pulchra White-spotted Crake
Charadrius asiaticus Caspian Plover
C. dubius Little Ringed Plover
C. hiaticula Ringed Plover
C. leschenaultii Great Sand Plover
C. marginatus White-fronted Sand Plover .
C. mongolus Mongolian Sand Plover
C. pallidus Chestnut-banded Sand Plover .
C. pecuarius Kittlitz’s Sand Plover
C. tricollaris Three-banded Plover
Vanellus armatus Blacksmith Plover .

V. coronatus Crowned Lapwing
V. spinosus Spurwing Plover
Dromas ardeola Crab Plover
Cursorius chalcopterus Violet-tipped Courser
Glareola pratincola Pratincole
Actophilornis africana Jacana
Larus cirrocephalus Grey-headed Gull
Sterna dougallii Roseate Tern .

S. hirundo Common Tern
S. leucoptera White-winged Black Tern
S. nilotica Gull-billed Tern .

5. repressa White-cheeked Tern
Phalaropus lobatus Red-necked Phalarope

1970/71 Grand
Total
o x

o 1

0 1

1 2

o 1

o 12

o 73

o 7

0 I

67 235

II 54

1 121

4 11

1 37

o 4

o 1

° 3

o 1

0 I

1 I

0 I

1 I

O 2

2 4

0 I

1 4

o 1

0 I

2 II

1 I

I I

O 16

0 I

1 I

0 2

1 I

I I

3 3

o 1

o 19

18 104

0 9

1 1

1 6

o 100

25 217

17 55

30 174

2 4

2 16

o 2

O I

O I

0 I

1 5

28 28

1 1

105 211

1 7

3 3

2 2

Page 4

Palearctic Migrants in Bold Type

Himantopus himantopus Black-winged Stilt
Recurvirostra avosetta Avocet .....

Rhynchops flavirostris African Skimmer

Rostratula benghalensis Painted Snipe

Arenaria interpres Turnstone ....

Calidris alba Sanderling .....

C. ferruginea Curlew Sandpiper ....

C. minuta Little Stint ......

C. subminuta Long-toed Stint ....

C. temminckii Temminck’s Stint ....

Gallinago gallinago Snipe .....

G. media Great Snipe ......

G. nigripennis African Snipe .....

G. stenura Pintail Snipe .....
Limosa limosa Black-tailed Godwit

Numenius phaeopus Whimbrel ....

Philotnachus pugnax Ruff .....

Tringa erythropus Spotted Redshank

T. glareola Wood Sandpiper .....

T. hypoleucos Common Sandpiper

T. nebularia Greenshank .....

T. ochropus Green Sandpiper ....

T. stagnatilis Marsh Sandpiper ....

T. terek Terek Sandpiper .....

Oena capensis Namaqua Dove .....

Stveptopelia capicola Ring-necked Dove

«S. decipiens Mourning Dove .....

5. lugens Pink-breasted Dove .....

5. semitorquata Red-eyed Dove ....

•S', senegalensis Laughing Dove .....

Timur abyssinicas Black-billed Blue-spotted Wood Dove
T. afer Blue-spotted Wood Dove ....

T. chalcospilos Emerald-spotted Wood Dove
T. tympanistria Tambourine Dove ....

Centropus superciliosus White-browed Coucal
Ceuthmochares aereus Yellow-bill ....

Chrysococcyx caprius Didric Cuckoo ....

C. cupreus Emerald Cuckoo .....

C. klaas Klaas’ Cuckoo ......

Clamator jacobinus Black and White Cuckoo
C. levaillantii Levaillant’s Cuckoo ....

Cuculus canorus Cuckoo .....

C. clamosus Black Cuckoo .....

C. solitarius Red-chested Cuckoo ....

Tauraco hartlaubi Hartlaub’s Turaco

Ciccaba woodfordii African Wood Owl

Glaucidium tephronotum Red-chested Owlet

Otus scops Scops Owl .....

Tyro alba Barn Owl ......

Caprimulgus europaeus Nightjar ....

C. fossil Gabon Nightjar .....

C.fraenatus Dusky Nightjar .....

C. inornatus Plain Nightjar .....

C. pectoralis Fiery-necked Nightjar ....

C. poliocephalus Abyssinian Nightjar ....

Macrodipteryx longipennis Standard-wing Nightjar
Apus affinis Little Swift ......

A. caffer White-rumped Swift ....

Colius macrourus Blue-naped Mousebird

C. striatus Speckled Mousebird ....

Alcedo cristata Malachite Kingfisher ....

Ceryle rudis Pied Kingfisher .....

Ceyx picta Pigmy Kingfisher .....

Halcyon albiventris Brown-hooded Kingfisher

H. chelicuti Striped Kingfisher ....
H. leucocephala Grey-headed Kingfisher

H. malimbica Blue-breasted Kingfisher

1970/71 Grand
Total
45 7i

0 6

1 1

3 19

o 1

o 1

107 266

900 3309

O I

2 12

19 71

41 44

2 33

0 I

1 I

1 I

818 2683

0 I

80 505

40 170

2 9

23 38

l88 568

2 6

2 5

31 59

3 20

1 1

2 8

53 65

1 2

33 82

11 34

16 42

6 10

1 1

20 35

2 3

16 24

2 2

1 1

1 1

1 1

2 2

0 2

1 3

0 1

1 1

0 I

1 I

2 9

0 I

1 I

1 I

2 3

O I

o 162

o 4

32 80

25 180

o 68

106 140

126 251

3 4

2 9

12 21

9 9

Page 5

Palearctic Migrants in Bold Type 1970/71

H. senegalensis Northern Woodland Kingfisher ...... 9

H. senegaloides Mangrove Kingfisher ....... 1

Tockus erythrorhynchus Red-billed Hornbill ...... o

Coracias caudata Lilac-chested Roller ....... o

C. garrulus Roller .......... x

Merops albicollis White-throated Bee-Eater ...... 19

M. apiaster Bee-Eater .......... o

M. bullockoides White-fronted Bee-Eater ....... o

M. oreobates Cinnamon-chested Bee-Eater ...... 3

M. pusillus Little Bee-Eater ......... 1

M. superciliosus persicus Blue-cheeked Bee-Eater ..... o

M. variegatus Blue-breasted Bee-Eater ....... 1 1

Phoeniculus cyanomelas Scimitar-Bill ........ 4

P. minor Abyssinian Scimitar-Bill ........ 5

Upupa epops africana African Hoopoe ....... 3

U. epops epops Hoopoe ......... o

Buccanodon duchaillui Yellow-spotted Barbet ...... 2

B. leucotis White-eared Barbet ......... 1

B. olivaceum Green Barbet ......... o

Gymnobncco bonapartei Grey-throated Barbet ...... o

Lybius bidentatus Double-toothed Barbet ....... 6

L. guifsobalito Black-billed Barbet ........ 2

L. lacrymosus Spotted-flanked Barbet ....... 27

L. leucocephalus White-headed Barbet ....... 1

L. leucomelas Red-fronted Barbet ........ 16

L. melanocephalus Brown-throated Barbet ....... o

L. torquatus Black-collared Barbet ........ 2

Pogoniulus bilineatus Golden-rumped Tinker-Bird ..... 15

P. chrysoconus Yellow-fronted Tinker-Bird ...... 7

P. leucomystax Moustached Green Tinker-Bird ...... o

P. pusillus Red-fronted Tinker-Bird ....... 1

Trachyphonus darnaudii d’Arnaud’s Barbet ...... 8

T. erythrocephalus Red and Yellow Barbet ....... o

T. purpuratus Yellow-billed Barbet ........ o

Indicator conirostris Thick-billed Honey-Guide ..... 1

I. exilis Least Honey-Guide ......... 1

I. indicator Black-throated Honey-Guide ....... 1

I. minor Lesser Honey-Guide ......... 7

I. variegatus Scaly-throated Honey-Guide ....... x

Prodotiscus regulus Wahlberg’s Honey-Guide ...... 1

Campethera cailliautii Little Spotted Woodpecker ..... 3

C. caroli Brown-eared Woodpecker ........ 2

C. nivosa Buff- spotted Woodpecker ........ 2

C. nubica Nubian Woodpecker ........ 2

Dendropicos fuscescens Cardinal Woodpecker ...... 6

D. poecilolaemus Uganda Spotted Woodpecker ...... o

Jynx torquilla Wryneck ......... 1

Mesopicos goertae Grey Woodpecker ........ 4

Calandrella cinerea Red-capped Lark ....... o

Eremopterix leucopareia Fischer’s Sparrow Lark ..... o

Mirafra africana Rufous-naped Lark ....... o

M. rufocinnamomea Flappet Lark ........ 8

Campephaga phoenicea Black Cuckoo-shrike ...... 9

C. quiscalina Purple-throated Cuckoo-Shrike ...... 3

Dicrurus adsimilis Drongo ......... 2

D. ludwigii Square-tailed Drongo ........ o

Emberiza flaviventris Golden-breasted Bunting ...... 6

E. tahapisi Cinnamon-breasted Rock Bunting ...... 3

Amandava subflava Zebra Waxbill ........ 29

Clytospiza monteiri Brown Twinspot ....... 3

Cryptospiza jacksoni Dusky Crimson-wing ....... o

C. salvadorii Abyssinian Crimson-wing ....... 19

C. shelleyi Shelley’s Crimson-wing ........ o

Estrilda astrild Waxbill .......... 43

E. atricapilla Black-headed Waxbill ........ o

E. bengala Red-cheeked Cordon-bleau ....... 40

Grand

Total

19

1

1

1

2
32

1

6

3

10

3

14

7

7

3

1

2

1
6

2

18

7
71
10
28

1

2
31
36

1

4
23

I

6

1

1

13
30

3

1

4

2

5

14
16

r

2
12

1
x

4

15

19

3

8
x

xr

5
30

25

2

57

1

169

x

119

Page 6

Palearctic Migrants in Bold Type

E. cyanocephala Blue-headed Cordon-bleau
E. erythronotos Black-cheeked Waxbill
E. ianthinogaster Purple Grenadier
E. melanotis Yellow-bellied Waxbill .

E. nonnula Black-crowned Waxbill
E. paludicola Fawn-breasted Waxbill
E. rhodopyga Crimson-rumped Waxbill
E. troglodytes Black-rumped Waxbill
Hypargos nitidulus Green-backed Twin-spot
H. niveoguttatus Peters’ Twin-spot .

Lagonosticta rhodopyreia Jameson’s Firefinch
L. rubricata African Firefinch ....

L. rufopicta Bar-breasted Firefinch .

L. senegala Red-billed Firefinch
Lonchura bicolor Rufous-backed Mannikin
L. cucullatus Bronze Mannikin
L. griseicapilla Grey-headed Silverbill
Nigrita canicapilla Grey-headed Negro Finch
Ortygospiza atricollis Quail Finch
Pirenestes ostrinus Black-billed Seed-cracker
Pytelia melba Green-winged Pytilia
Spermophaga ruficapilla Red-headed Blue-bill
Vidua chalybeata Purple Indigo-Bird
V. hypocherirta Steel-blue Whydah .

V. macroura Pin-tailed Whydah
Serinus atrogularis Yellow-rumped Seed-eater
S. burtoni Thick-billed Seed-eater
S. canicollis Yellow-crowned Canary
S. citrinelloides African Citril ....

S. dorsostriatus White-bellied Canary

S', gularis .......

S. koliensis Papyrus Canary ....

S', mozambicus Yellow-fronted Canary
S. striolatus Streaky Seed-eater
S. sulphuratus Brimstone Canary
Delichon urbica House Martin
Hirundo abyssinica Striped Swallow .

H. angolensis Angola Swallow ....

H. daurica Red-rumped Swallow
H. fuligula African Rock Martin
H. griseopyga Grey-rumped Swallow
H. rustica Swallow .....

H. semirufa Rufous-chested Swallow

H. senegalensis Mosque Swallow

H. smithii Wire-tailed Swallow

Psalidoprocne albiceps White-headed Rough-wing

P. pristoptera Black Rough-wing

Riparia cincta Banded Martin ....

R. paludicola African Sand Martin

R. riparia Sand Martin ....

Dryoscopus cubla Black-backed Puff-back Shrike
D. gambensis Puff-back Shrike
Eurocephalus anguitimens White-crowned Shrike .
Laniarius barbarus Black-headed Gonolek .

L. ferrugineus Tropical Boubou

L. funebris Slate-coloured Boubou

L. luehderi Liihder’s Bush Shrike

L. mufumbiri Papyrus Gonolek

Lanius collaris Fiscal .....

L. collurio sspp. Red-backed and Red-tailed Shrikes
L. excubitorius Grey-backed Fiscal
L. mackinnoni Mackinnon’s Shrike
L. minor Lesser Grey Shrike ....

L. senator Woodchat Shrike ....
Malaconotus blanchoti Grey-headed Bush Shrike

M. dohertyi Doherty’s Bush Shrike

M. sulfureopectus Sulphur-breasted Bush Shrike

1970/71

Grand

Total

0

10

7

17

16

36

4

18

14

17

1

32

12

37

0

i

3

3

2

3

6

6

19

26

3

29

115

3i4

8

20

60

272

0

3

5

14

0

2

1

1

35

75

13

42

15

24

0

1

13

60

0

88

4

15

0

18

15

38

20

80

0

21

9

46

24

121

50

137

62

101

9

27

622

1066

42

155

142

444

10

17

0

4

2770

6029

3

9

0

2

40

160

28

70

3

35

16

478

299

1353

99

1133

9

12

3

12

0

I

21

65

4

25

22

26

1

II

0

I

16

56

46

152

2

II

I

I

O

2

O

I

I

I

O

2

4

13

Page 7

Palearctic Migrants in Bold Type

Nilaus afer Northen Brubru .....
Prionops plumata Curly-crested Helmet-Shrike .

Tchagra australis Brown-headed Bush Shrike

T. jamesi Three-streaked Bush Shrike

T. minuta Black-cap Bush Shrike ....

T. senegala Black-headed Bush Shrike
Anthus cervinus Red-throated Pipit

A. leucophrys Plain-backed Pipit ....

A. novaeseelandiae Richard’s Pipit ....

A. trivialis Tree Pipit ......

Macronyx croceus Yellow-throated Longclaw
Motacilla alba alba White Wagtail

M. alba vidua African Pied Wagtail ....
M. capensis Cape Wagtail .....

M. cinerea Grey Wagtail .....

M. clara Mountain Wagtail .....

M. Hava Yellow Wagtail .....

Batis capensis Puff-back Flycatcher ....

B. minor Black-headed Puff-back Flycatcher

B. molitor Chin-spot Puff-back Flycatcher

B. soror Mozambique Puff-back Flycatcher
Bradornis microrhynchus Grey Flycatcher .

B. pallidus Pale Flycatcher .....

Empidornis semipartitus Silver Bird ....

Ficedula hypoleuca Pied Flycatcher
Hyliota flavigaster Yellow-bellied Flycatcher
Melaenornis chocolatina White-eyed Slaty Flycatcher .
M. edolioides Black Flycatcher ....

Muscicapa adusta Dusky Flycatcher ....

M. aquatica Swamp Flycatcher ....

M. caerulescens Ashy Flycatcher ....

M. griseigularis Grey-throated Flycatcher .

M. striata Spotted Flycatcher ....

Myioparus plumbeus Grey Tit-Flycatcher .

Platysteira blissetti Jameson’s Wattle-Eye

P. castanea Chestnut Wattle-Eye ....

P. cyanea Wattle-Eye ......

P. peltata Black-throated Wattle-Eye

Terpsiphone rufiventer Black-headed Paradise Flycatcher

T. viridis Paradise Flycatcher ....

Trochocercus albonotatus White-tailed Crested Flycatcher
T. longicauda Blue Flycatcher .....

T. nigromitratus
Acrocephalus arundinaceus
A. arundinaceus zarudnyi
A. arundinaceus griseldis Basra Reed Warbler
A. boeticatus African Reed Warbler ....

A. gracilirostris Lesser Swamp Warbler

A. palustris Marsh Warbler .....

A. rufescens Greater Swamp Warbler
A. schoenobaenus Sedge Warbler ....

A. scirpaceus Reed Warbler .....

Apalis cinerea Grey Apalis .....

A. flavida Black-breasted Apalis ....

A. pulchella Buff-bellied Warbler ....

A. pulchra Black-collared Apalis ....

Bathmocercus cerviniventris Black-faced Rufous Warbler
Bradypterus baboecala Little Rush Warbler

B. barratti Evergreen Forest Warbler

B. cinnamomeus Cinnamon Bracken Warbler

B. graueri carpalis White-winged Warbler
Camaroptera brachyura Grey-backed Camaroptera

C. chloronota Olive-green Camaroptera

C. simplex Grey Wren-Warbler ....

Chloropeta natalensis Yellow Flycatcher-Warbler

C. similis Mountain Yellow Flycatcher- Warbler .
Cisticola brachyptera Siffling Cisticola

arundinaceus

}

Great Reed Warbler

I97°/71 Grand
Total
i 5

o 3

6 44

x 2

4 27

7 30

o 23

3 16

53 88

24 144

8 21

o 5

26 169

o 3

O 2

0 3

3463 24132

1 3

12 30

6 16

3 3

18 23

o 2

o 2

2 2

0 I

4 3i

14 35

4 12

1 12

1 4

3 3

17 44

o 3

2 30

3 13

41 7i

0 12

1 2

23 62

1 9

8 13

o 20

34 66

0 4

2 7

13 31

16 50

5 26

152 443

237 656

1 2

14 20

4 n

5 17

7 42

1 2

o 3

o 17

o 5

1 19 269

2 37

9 12

16 20

o 15

O I

Page 8

Palearctic Migrants in Bold Type

C. brunnescens Pectoral-patch Cisticola
C. cantans Singing Cisticola ....

C. carruthersi Carruthers’ Cisticola .

C. chiniana Rattling Cisticola ....

C. erythrops Red-faced Cisticola

C. galactotes Winding Cisticola

C. hunteri Hunter’s Cisticola ....

C. juncidis Zitting Cisticola ....

C. lateralis Whistling Cisticola ....

C. natalensis Croaking Cisticola

C. robusta Stout Cisticola ....

C. woosnami Trilling Cisticola ....
Eminia lepida Grey-capped Warbler
Eremomela icteropygialis Yellow-bellied Eremomela
Hippolais icterina Icterine Warbler
H. languida Upcher’s Warbler
H. olivetorum Olive-tree Warbler .

H. pallida Olivaceous Warbler

Hylia prasina Green Hylia ....

Locustella fluviatilis River Warbler

Phylloscopus budongoensis Uganda Woodland Warbler

P. collybita Chiff-chaff ....

P. trochilus Willow Warbler ....

P. umbrovirens Brown Woodland Warbler
Prinia bairdii Banded Prinia ....

P. leucopogon White-chinned Prinia .

P. subflava Tawny-flanked Prinia
Schoenicola platyura Fan-tailed Warbler
Sphenoeacus mentalis Moustache Warbler
Sylvia atricapilla Blackcap ....

S. borin Garden Warbler ....

S. communis Whitethroat ....

S. nisoria Barred Warbler ....

Sylvietta brachyura Crombec ....

Y. leucophrys White-browed Crombec

S', whytii Red-faced Crombec ....
Alcippe abyssinica Abyssinian Hill Babbler
Trichastoma albipecta Scaly-breasted Illadopsis .

T. fulvescens Brown Illadopsis

T. poliothorax Grey-chested Illadopsis
T. pyrrkoptera Mountain Illadopsis .

T. rufipennis Pale-breasted Illadopsis
Turdoides hypoleucos Northern Pied Babbler
T. jardinei Arrow-marked Babbler
T. melanops Black-lored Babbler
T. plebejus Brown Babbler ....

T. rubiginosus Rufous Chatterer

Alethe poliocephala Brown-chested Alethe .

A. poliophrys Red-throated Alethe
Cercomela sordida Hill Chat ....
Cercoti ichas hartlaubi Brown-backed Scrub-Robin
C. leucophrys Red-backed Scrub-Robin
C. quadrivirgata Eastern Bearded Scrub-Robin
Cichladusa guttata Spotted Morning Warbler
Cossypha archeri Archer’s Robin Chat
C. caffra Robin Chat .....

C. cyanocampter Blue-shouldered Robin Chat

C. heuglini White-browed Robin Chat

C. natalensis Red-capped Robin Chat

C. niveicapilla Snowy-headed Robin Chat

C. polioptera Grey-winged Robin Chat

C. semirufa Ruppell’s Robin Chat

Irania gutturalis White-throated Robin .

Luscinia luscinia Sprosser ....

L. megarhynchos Nightingale
Monticola rufocinerea Little Rock Thrush .

M. saxatilis Rock Thrush ....

1970/71 Grand
Total

2 3

18 24

o 15

28 35

41 60

154 241

9 23

8 9

o 3

3 26

8 34

6 10

34 99

2 6

o 3

5 7

o 1

25 50

13 18

2 7

0 2

1 1

1029 1648

x 31

1 16

13 36

56 no

0 I

6 7

17 150

145 893

74 108

16 25

5 18

1 5

19 37

4 27

2 26

9 19

3 3

0 5

6 27

2 2

4 11

1 7

5 44

13 14

26 76

o 1

o 7

o 6

42 81

2 7

3 3

o 1

12 46

2 14

44 151

6 43

9 33

2 9

3 8

3 3

24 39

7 14

o 2

10 24

Page 9

Palearctic Migrants in Bold Type

Myrmecocichla nigra Sooty Chat
Neocossyphus poensis White-tailed Ant Thrush
Oenanthe isabellina Isabeline Wheatear
O. oenanthe Wheatear ....

O. pileata Capped Wheatear
O. pleschanka Pied Wheatear
Phoenicurus phoenicurus Redstart
Pogonocichla stellata White-starred Bush Robin
Saxicola rubetra Whinchat .

Saxicola torquata Stonechat
Sheppardia aequatorialis Equatorial Akalat
Stizorhina fraseri Rufous Flycatcher .

Tnrdus abyssinicus Olive Thrush
T. pelios African Thrush
T. piaggiae Abyssinian Ground Thrush
Anthreptes collaris Collared Sunbird
A. longuemarei Uganda Violet-backed Sunbird
A. orientalis Violet-backed Sunbird .

A. rectirostris Green Sunbird .

Nectarinia alinae Blue-headed Sunbird
N. amethystina Amethyst Sunbird
N. bifasciata Little Purple Banded Sunbird
N. bouvieri Orange-tufted Sunbird
N. chloropygia Olive-bellied Sunbird
N. cuprea Copper Sunbird
N. erythroceria Red-chested Sunbird
N. famosa Malachite Sunbird .

N. kilimensis Bronze Sunbird .

N. mariquensis Mariqua Sunbird
N. mediocris Eastern Double-collared Sunbird
N. olivacea Olive Sunbird
N. preussi Northern Double-collared Sunbird
N. pulcheUa Beautiful Sunbird
N. regia Regal Sunbird ....

N. reichenowi Golden-winged Sunbird
N. senegalensis Scarlet-chested Sunbird
N. tacazze Tacazze Sunbird
N. venusta Variable Sunbird

N. verticalis Green-headed Sunbird .

Oriohts brachyrhynchus Western Black-headed Oriole

O. larvatus Black-headed Oriole

O. oriolus Golden Oriole
Parus albiventris White-bellied Tit

P. fringillinus Red-faced Tit
Remiz caroli African Penduline Tit .

Passer eminibey Chestnut Sparrow
P. grisens Grey-headed Sparrow
P. iagoensis Rufous Sparrow
Petronia xanthocollis Yellow-spotted Petronia
Plocepasser donaldsoni Donaldson-Smith’s Sparrow-We
P. mahali Stripe-breasted Sparrow-Weaver
Sporopipes frontalis Speckle-fronted Weaver
Amblyospiza albifrons Grosbeak Weaver
Anomalospiza imberbis Parasitic Weaver
Euplectes afra Yellow-crowned Bishop
E. albonotatus White-winged Widow Bird
E. ardens Red-collared Widow Bird .

E. axillaris Fan-tailed Widow Bird .

E. capensis Yellow Bishop
E. gierowii Black Bishop
E. hordeaceus Black-winged Red Bishop
E. jacksoni Jackson’s Widow Bird
E. macrourns Yellow-mantled Widow Bird
E. orix Red Bishop

Malimbns rubriceps Red-headed Weaver
M. rubricollis Red-headed Malimbe .

1970/71

Grand

Total

9

10

5

8

1

6

13

37

0

1

3

5

9

48

6

58

7

67

9

14

17

59

7

7

1

109

M

38

1

6

8

33

0

4

0

4

1

1

0

7

0

1

16

53

1

1

7

12

40

139

202

393

0

1

28

93

14

119

4i

80

44

105

3

32

15

103

0

2

5

8

43

131

0

38

42

75

13

55

2

2

0

2

5

9

2

9

6

6

1

1

8

20

58

166

1

6

1

11

0

5

4

24

6

8

1

8

81

9i

1

1

33

129

5

56

99

321

0

1

3

28

3

41

0

3

0

18

6

17

1

2

2

2

Page 10

Palearctic Migrants in Bold Type

Ploceus alienus Strange Weaver .....
P. aurantius Orange Weaver .....

P. baglafecht Baglafecht Weaver ....

P. bicolor Dark-backed Weaver ....

P. bojeri Golden Palm Weaver .....

P. castanops Northern Brown-throated Weaver
P. cucullatus Black-headed Weaver ....

P. intermedius Masked Weaver ....

P. jacksoni Golden-backed Weaver ....

P. luteolus Little Weaver .....

P. melanocephalus Yellow-backed Weaver .

P. melanogaster Black-billed Weaver ....

P. nigerrimus Vieillot’s Black Weaver

P. nigricollis Black-necked Weaver ....

P. ocularis Spectacled Weaver .....

P. pelzelni Slender-billed Weaver ....

P. rubiginosus Chestnut Weaver ....

P. spekei Speke’s Weaver .....

P. subaureus Golden Weaver .....

P. superciliosus Compact Weaver ....

P. velatus Vitelline Masked Weaver ....

P. weynsi Weyns’ Weaver .....

P. x anthops Holub’s Golden Weaver

Quelea cardinalis Cardinal Quelea ....

Q. erythrops Red-headed Quelea ....

Q. quelea Red-billed Quelea .....
Andropadus ansorgei Ansorge’s Greenbul .

A. curvirostris Cameroon Sombre Greenbul
A. gracilirostris Slender-billed Greenbul
A. importunus Zanzibar Sombre Greenbul .

A. latirostris Yellow-whiskered Greenbul

A. milanjensis Stripe-cheeked Greenbul

A. montanus Shelley’s Greenbul ....

A. tephrolaemus Olive-breasted Mountain Greenbul
A. virens Little Greenbul .....

Bleda syndactyla Bristle-bill .....

Chlorocichla flavicollis Yellow-throated Leaflove

C. flaviventris Yellow-bellied Greenbul

Nicator chloris Nicator ......

Phyllastrephus albigularis White-throated Greenbul
P. baumanni Toro Olive Greenbul ....

P. debilis Smaller Yellow-streaked Greenbul
P. fischeri Fischer’s Greenbul .....

P. strepitans Northern Brownbul ....

P. terrestris Brownbul ......

Pycnonotus barbatus Dark-capped or Yellow-vented Bulbul
Buphagus erythrorhynchus Red-billed Oxpecker
Cinnyricinclus leucogaster Violet-backed Starling .
Creatophora cinerea Wattled Starling

Lamprotornis caudatus Riippell’s Long-tailed Glossy Starlin
L. chalybaeus Blue-eared Glossy Starling .

L. chloropterus Lesser Blue-eared Glossy Starling
L. corruscus Black-breasted Glossy Starling
Spreo hildebrandti Hildebrandt’s Starling .

Spreo superbus Superb Starling ....
Zoster ops abyssinica Yellow White-eye
Z. senegalensis jacksoni Green White-eye
Z. senegalensis kikuyuensis Kikuyu White-eye
Z. senegalensis kulalensis Kulal White-eye .

3/71

Grand

Total

0

2

8

8

46

233

3

4

0

1

3

85

175

510

155

326

47

362

9

28

266

1209

1

11

53

62

3i

39

69

187

57

340

22

25

27

121

2

2

0

13

0

5

17

17

8

35

41

1 19

12

85

132

330

3

3

11

30

1

1

6

18

77

475

0

2

2

11

1

77

67

102

6

21

14

46

1

8

3

3

24

24

0

8

0

3

10

70

4

11

0

7

355

1617

0

2

I

37

10

39

5

13

2

6

0

2

4

4

16

17

2

21

4i

64

0

92

18

65

0

4

Total Birds Ringed .

Total Species Ringed

Total Palearctic Birds Ringed .

Total Palearctic Species Ringed

17437 68256

386 520

10630 44139

61 79

Page 11

Table 2

RECOVERIES AND CONTROLS OF BIRDS RINGED IN EAST AFRICA

Key to symbols and terms

— where this is in italics the ring has been returned,
f.g. — full grown, age uncertain;
ad. — adult;

pull. — young, not able to fly freely;
juv. — juvenile, able to fly freely.

$ — male ;

9 — female.

+ — shot or killed by man ;

X — found dead or dying;

xA — found long dead;

/ ?/ — manner of recovery unknown;

v — caught or trapped alive and released with ring (control);

() — caught or trapped alive and not released, or released with ring

removed.

— given in the order: day, month, year. If the date is unknown, the
date of the reporting letter is given in parentheses.

— only given for recoveries within East Africa.

— given in the form, years: months: days, thus 1:2:9 signifies 1 year
2 months and 9 days after ringing.

Anas erythrorhynchos Red-billed Duck

Z. 0252

ad.

+

22. 3.71
4- 4-7i

Arusha National Park, Tanzania 3°i3'S., 36^4 'E. JSSB.

Salt Pans, Dutch Corner, Sanya Juu, Tanzania 3°09'S., 37°oi 'E.,
c. 15km NE, 0:0:14. Miss J. Goodman.

Z. 0258

ad.

22. 3.71

ringing and recovery details as above.

Z. 0259

ad.

+

22. 3.71
24. 5.71

Arusha National Park, Tanzania. JSSB.

Ngaserai Controlled Area, Tanzania, just outside the Park boundary,
0:2:3. R.E. Redhead.

Anas hottentota Hottentot Teal

D. 0918

ad.

+

23.11.68
30. 9.71

Lake Nakuru, Kenya o°2o'S., 36°o6'E. GCB.

Ol Bolossat, Kenya o° 09 'S., 36°26'E., 45km NE, 2:10:8. Mr.
Baxendale.

D.0945

f-g.

+

2. 2.69
13. 2.71

Lake Nakuru, Kenya. GCB.

Ol Bolossat, Kenya, 45km NE, 2:0:11. J. R. Northern.

Anas undulata

Yellow-billed Duck

D. 1191

f.g-

+

7. 2.71
28. 3.71

Kaptagat, Kenya o°26'N., 35°29'E. CFM.
Kaptagat, 0:1:21. M. P. B. G. Wilson.

Philomachus pugnax Ruff

B. 2920

f-g-9

v

1. 1.69
24 1.71

Naivasha, Kenya o°43'S., 36°25'E. GCB.

Lake Nakuru, Kenya, 58km NW, 2:0:23. DJP.

C.1760

ad.cj

+

4- 4.69
5. 6.71

Naivasha, Kenya. GCB.

near Dudinka, Krasnoyarskii Territory, U.S.S.R. 69°24'N.,
8o°I7'E., 2:2:1. (Ringing Centre, Moscow)

B.4166

ad.?

+

10. 5.70
15. 4.71

Lake Nakuru, Kenya. GCB.

near Nadym, Tyumen Region, U.S.S.R. 65°37'N., 72°48'E.,
0:11:5. (Ringing centre, Moscow)

B.7853

f-g-9

V

16. 1. 71
27. 4.71

Lake Nakuru, Kenya. PLB.

Lake Hannington, Kenya o°i5'N., 36°o6'E., c.65km N, 0:3:11.

T. J. Barnley.

v 16.10.71 Lake Nakuru, Kenya, 0:5:19. DJP.

Ring number :
Age :

Sex

Manner of
recovery

Date of

recovery :

Distance (km) :
Elapsed time :

Page 12

B.7162 istW.$ 22. 2.71 Lake Nakuru, Kenya. DJP.

+ 20. 5.71 near Surgut, Tyumen Region, U.S.S.R. 6iT8'N., 73°22'E.,

0:2:22. (Ringing Centre, Moscow)

Tringa glareola Wood Sandpiper

B. 1980 f.g. 21.10.68 Lake Nakuru, Kenya. GCB.

caught? 11. 7.71 near Turinskaya Sloboda, U.S.S.R. 57°38'N., 64°27'E., 2:8:20.
(Ringing Centre, Moscow)

Colius striatus Speckled Mousebird

A. 12606 ad. 8. 5.71 Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 6°48'S., 39°I7'E. WGH.

+ 19. 8.71 Dar es Salaam, 0:3:11. This bird was killed by a child using a

catapult; on dissection by WGH it was found to contain three
half-formed eggs.

Hirundo abyssinica Striped Swallow

J.37822

ad.

X

12. 7.7O
2. 4.7I

Kariobangi, Nairobi, Kenya iTs'S., 36 53'E. GCB.
Mbagathi, Nairobi i°23'S., 36°46'E., 20km SW. 0:8:20.
S. Kanyingi.

J.37880

juv.

“v”

19. 7.7O
7- 5-7i

Kariobangi, Nairobi, Kenya. GCB.

Muthaiga, Nairobi i°i5'S., 36^0 'E., 4.5 km NW. 0:9:18.

This bird was temporarily stunned by a golf ball. R. C. Soper.

Hirundo rustica Swallow

J- 19385

juv.

?x

12.12.68
13. 9.70

Lake Nakuru, Kenya. PLB & JFH.

near Gul’kevichi, Krasnodarskii Territory, U.S.S.R. 45°2i'N.,
40°40'E., 1:9:1. (Ringing Centre, Moscow)

3.26543

juv.

X

11. 2.69
(13-8.71)

Muko, Uganda o°28'S., 30^44 'E., HR & W.

Petrijevci, near Osijek, Yugoslavia c. 45°33/N., i8°42'E., 2:6:0.
L. Lukic.

J- 32781

ad.$

V

19.12.69
3- 4-7i

Lake Nakuru, Kenya. JFH.

Athi River, Kenya i°26'S., 36°59'E., 160km SE, 1:3:14. GCB.

J. 26912

1st W.

?x

26.12.69
18. 5.70

Mweya, Queen Elizabeth Park, Uganda oTi'S., 29^54 'E. MPLF.
near Nakhichevan’, Azerbaidzhan S.S.R., U.S.S.R. 39°I4'N.,
45°25'E., 0:4:12. (Ringing Centre, Moscow)

3.39531

ad.$

?x

11. 1.70
27. 7.71

Ruhengere, Uganda o°26'S., 30Q45'E. HR & W.

near Oktyabr’skii, Volgograd Region, U.S.S.R. 47°58'N., 43^40 'E.,

1:6:16. (Ringing Centre, Moscow)

J-39538

juv.

/?/

11. 1.70
22. 7.71

Ruhengere, Uganda. HR & W

near Maikop, Krasnodarskii Territory, U.S.S.R. 44°35'N.,

40° 08 'E., 1:6: 1 1. (Ringing Centre, Moscow)

(It is interesting to note that Swallow No. J39539, also ringed at Ruhengere on 11.1.70, was con-
trolled in Czechoslovakia on 19.5.70, see Backhurst 1971.)

J. 37100

juv.

V

20.1.70
30. 4.71

Athi River, Kenya. GCB.

Chokpak Pass, Eastern Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R. 42°3i'N.,
70° 38 'E., 1:3:10. E. I. Gavrilov. Moskwa K-028405 added.

J. 37200

juv.

V

29. 1.70
6. 1.71

Lake Nakuru, Kenya. GCB.

Kariobangi, Nairobi, Kenya, 135 km SE, 0:11:7. DJP.

3.2186

ad.c?

/?/

21. 11.70
15. 5-7i

Ruhengere, Uganda. HR & W.

near Kurganinsk, Krasnodarskii Territory, U.S.S.R. 44^54 'N.,
40° 34 'E., 0:5:24. (Ringing Centre, Moscow)

3.39755

juv. 29.12.70

X {car ) (29.3.71)

Muko, Uganda. HR & W.

25 km E of Mbarara, Uganda, c. 8 km ESE, c. 0:3:0. B. N. Musoke.

J. 51708

f-g-

X

27. 3.71
14. 5-7i

Kibebe Farm, Iringa, Tanzania 7’46'S., 35°42'E. JFR.

near Dzhuma, Samarkand Region, Uzbek S.S.R., U.S.S.R.,

39°42'N., 66°40'E., 0:1:19. (Ringing Centre, Moscow)

Page 13

Motacilla Hava

Yellow Wagtail

J.3256

f-g-¥

/?/

17. 11. 66
(24.11.71)

Kaazi, near Kampala, Uganda o°i2'N., 32°37'E. DJP.

Kibengo Village, Bombo, Uganda c. o°36'N., 32°33'E., c. 40 kmN,
c. 5:0:0. K. Omudeke.

J.5586

f-g-

v(ad. $)

11.2.67

20.10.71

Thika, Kenya i°03'S., 37°05°E. DJMC.
Kariobangi, Nairobi, 35 km SW. 4:8:9. DJP.

J.11615

ad.c?

( flava )

X

16. 1.68
15. 7-71

Kabete, Kenya (at roost) i°i6'S., 36°43'E. EDS.

near Kurganinsk, Chuvash A.S.S.R., U.S.S.R., 55°52'N.,
470 27 'E., 3:5:29. (Ringing Centre, Moscow)

J. 21789

f-g-?

X

1. 11.68
0. 6.71

Kariobangi, Nairobi, Kenya. GCB.

near Dergachi, Saratov Region, U.S.S.R. 5i°i3'N., 49°05'E.,
c. 2:7:0. (Ringing Centre, Moscow)

3. 22717

f-g-c?

{flava)

+

20. 2.69
5- 9-7i

Kabete, Kenya (at roost). EDS.

Arsanjan, 82 km ENE of Shiraz, Fars Province, Iran 29^0 'N.,
53°i8'E., 2:6:15. A. Khademolhossein.

3. 13725

f.g. 17. 1.69

X early 7.70

Kabete, Kenya (at roost). GCB.

near Russkii Aktash, Tatar A.S.S.R., U.S.S.R. 55°02'N., 52°o8'E.,
c. 1:5:17. (Ringing Centre, Moscow)

X.1448

istW.<J

{flava)

X

9.2.71
29. 1.72

Kabete, Kenya (at roost). GCB.

Karen, Kenya i°i8'S., 36°4i'E., 8km S, 0:11:20. C. S. Moore.

Acrocephalus scirpaceus

Reed Warbler

J-34951

ad.

/?/

15. 1.70
7. 9-7i

Kabete, Kenya. GCB.

Az Zilifi (=Zulfi), Saudi Arabia 26°I5'N., 44°50'E., 1:7:22.
S. Sakran.

Sylvia atricapilla Blackcap

J. 19219 f.g.(cj) 20.11.68 Ng’iya, Central Nyanza, Kenya o°03'N., 34°23'E. PLB & JFH.

X or + II. 4.71 near Bidkarz, Fars Province, Iran 29'55'N., 5i°oo'E., 2:4:21.

Two reporting letters were received concerning this bird, one
claimed that it had been found dead, the other that it had been
killed by a stone. F. Reeb; D. A. Scott.

Phoenicurus phoenicurus

J. 49030 ad. S 6. 3.71

v 22. 3.71

+ 22. 4.71

Redstart

Kachonga, Mbale, Uganda o°58'N., 34^03 'E. JR.

Kachonga, 0:0:16. JR.

A1 Haditha, Iraq 34^09 'E., 42°22'E. 0:1:0. Ismail Abdul Hamud
Al-Hadithi.

Passer griseus Grey-headed Sparrow

A. 10515 ad. 12. 9.70 Kibuli, Uganda c. o°I9'N., 32°35'E. RF.

+ 20. 7.71 Kibuli, 0:10:8. Shot by catapult, bird eaten. (O. Tikodri).

KEY TO INITIALS

IN LIST OF

RECOVERIES

GCB

G. C. & D. E. G. Backhurst

WGH
HR & W

W. G. Harvey

G. N. Harrington, M. Reid & E. R.

JSSB

J. S. S. Beesley

Waterhouse

PLB

P.L. & H. A. Britton

CFM

C. F. Mann

DJMC

D. J. M. CafFyn

DJP

D. J. Pearson

MPLF

M. P. L. Fodgen

JFR

J. F. Reynolds

RF

R. Frankum

JR

J. Rolf

JFH

J. F. & L. M. Harper

EDS

E. D. Steel

OTHER RINGERS IN EAST AFRICA
Denise Angwin W. P. Langridge

Lise Campbell N. O. Okia

A. D. Forbes-Watson Nina Pettitt
J. Goddard M. StJ. & G. Sugg

Notes. — The above lists do not total 21 as mentioned on page 1 ; this is because CafFyn, Reid
and Steel, although mentioned in the list of recoveries, have left East Africa and were not therefore
ringers in 1970-71; further, husband and wife teams are counted as one ringer.

MAP i : — Showing recoveries of East African-ringed birds reported during 1970-71 to the Palearctic

Region.

Page 14

Page 15

Table 3

PALEARCTIC BIRDS RETRAPPED AT ORIGINAL RINGING SITES DURING 1970-71
WHICH WERE RINGED IN PREVIOUS SEASONS

Charadrius hiaticula Ringed Plover .......... 1

Calidris ferruginea Curlew Sandpiper .......... 1

Calidris minuta Little Stint ........... 23

Philomachus pugnax Ruff ............ 24

Tringaglareola Wood Sandpiper .......... 1

Tringa stagnatilis Marsh Sandpiper .......... 2

Hirundo rustica Swallow ............ 7

Motatillaflava Yellow Wagtail .......... 156

Phylloscopus trochilus Willow Warbler .......... 1

Oenanthe oenanthe Wheatear ........... 1

Notes on Table 3

1. The extent to which Palearctic migrants recur in their winter quarters ( Ortstreue ) has been
demonstrated only comparatively recently (see, for example, Moreau 1969 and in press, De Roo &
Deheegher 1969, and Pearson 1972). The above table merely serves to show that the phenomenon
occurs between Eurasia and East Africa; no quantitative conclusions should be drawn from the
data given, and, for this reason, no ringing totals are given in the table. This statement may need
some explanation: if Jackson (1938) had ringed his bread and cake-eating Yellow Wagtail in April
1915 at Entebbe he would have achieved a 100 per cent return to winter quarters in October of
that year when the bird came back. If, on the other hand he had managed to ring a single Swallow
or Sand Martin caught while feeding in a flock near Lake Victoria it would have been exceedingly
unlikely that the ringed bird would have been detected or found in a subsequent year, although
it is quite possible that the individual Swallow or Sand Martin had returned to the same area.
Thus the correct interpretation of Ortstreue data cannot be assessed without (a) full knowledge of
the ringing picture at a given locality and (b) full knowledge of the trapping effort expended at that
locality in subsequent seasons. It follows (giving an extreme example) that if 1000 migrants are
ringed at a locality one season from, say, December to March none will be retrapped the following
season if no trapping is done there, giving a “nil” return to winter quarters. It is likely however
that if trapping is resumed the next season (i.e. two years after the 1000 birds were ringed) a number
of first-season birds will be caught and this number will depend, apart from mortality and any
non-Ortstreue element, upon the trapping effort expended in the third season and upon the ease
with which the particular birds can be caught. Any computation of percentages of returning birds
must take into account the number of birds handled in the season in question, and this will include
also “same-season” retraps.

From circumstantial evidence it seems likely that most species of which individuals have been
retrapped in later seasons are normally true to their winter quarters but, from the figures in Table 3
and from personal knowledge as well, it is not yet possible to compare the extent of this fidelity
between species; a final example will serve to illustrate the point: the single Willow Warbler listed
in Table 3 was trapped in Napier Grass Pennisetutn purpureum Schumach. at Kabete at the end of
December 1968. In the 1968-69 season only three Willow Warblers were caught at this site. The
following season (1969-70) less effort was devoted to the area and no Willow Warblers were caught;
however, in the 1970-71 season, despite a rather limited amount of netting effort (but nevertheless
more than in 1969-70) four Willow Warblers were caught including a 1968-69 bird. It is considered
likely that the small number of this species present in the Napier Grass at the times of netting were
winter residents and that the single retrap in 1970-71 suggests that Willow Warblers, albeit on a
very small sample, are true to winter quarters. The reasons that only one Willow Warbler has ever
been retrapped in a subsequent season at the place of ringing are, in the writer’s view, that either
most are trapped on passage (i.e. not in their winter quarters), or that the majority of wintering
birds ringed have been ringed in areas where less trapping effort has been expended in later seasons.
Detailed papers on Ortstreue are in the course of preparation.

2. The table does not give a complete summary of birds retrapped in subsequent seasons : one
ringer is known to have data on such birds but he is unwilling to part with them.

Page 16

Table 4

RECOVERIES IN EAST AFRICA OF BIRDS RINGED ABROAD

The signs and symbols are the same as those used in Table 2.

Sarkidiornis melanota Knob-billed Goose

Pretoria

546-12359 ad. <3 15. 5.66. Mlezu, 150 km ENE of Bulawayo, Rhodesia I9°09 'S., 29°54'E.

H. F. Meyer.

+ 30.11.70 Mwalukwa Dam, Shinyanga. Tanzania c. 3'33'S., 33°54'E.

4:6:15. (J. Jonathan)

Buteo buteo Buzzard

Helsinki

D.33 080 pull. 14. 7.70 Palsina, Kuorevesi, Hame, Finland 6i°57'N., 24°53'E.

H. Mikkola & S. Pynnonen.

X before Musoma, Tanzania i°3i'S., 33°48'E. L. Melamari.

20.11.70

Larus fuscus Lesser Black-backed Gull

Helsinki

H. 67 557 pull. 23. 6.66 Velusmaa, Rymattyla, Turku-Pori, Finland 6o°23'N.,

220 oo'E. K. Hedenstrom.

() autumn 68 Homa Bay, Kenya oo°3i'S., 34°30'E. The bird was found
alive in a fishing net, its fate is unknown.

Helsinki

H.97 843 pull. 24. 6.68 Tjusgrund, Kustavi, Turku-Pori, Finland 6o°37'N., 2i°07'E.

J. Virtanen.

X (3.1.69) “Lake Victoria”, Uganda. Y. Tamal.

Helsinki

H. 104 617 pull. 26.6.69 Trollo, Pargas, Abo-Bjornerborg, Finland 60 °o8'N., 22°i5'E,

K. Hedenstrom.

“caught” 30. 9.69 Teso, Kumi, Uganda, i°40'N., 33°30'E., 0:3:4. W. Banage.

Hirundo rustica Swallow

Moskwa

K.0001B4 age ? 24.4.70 near Chokpak, Dzhambul, Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R. 42°3i'N.,

70°38'E.

v 5-2-71 Kibebe Farm, Iringa, Tanzania 7°46'S., 35'42'E., 0:9:11.

Moscow ring replaced by Nairobi J. 50653. JFR.

REFERENCES

Backhurst, G. C. 1970. Bird ringing report 1968-1969. J1 E. Africa nat. Hist. Soc. 28 (1 19) : 16-26

1971- East African bird ringing report 1969-1970. J1 E. Africa nat. Hist. Soc.

28 (123): 1-14.

De Roo, A. and Deheegher, J. 1969. Ecology of the Great Reed-Warbler, Acrocephalus arundinaceus
(L.), wintering in the Southern Congo Savanna. Gerfaut 59: 260-275.

Jackson, F. J. 1938. The Birds of Kenya Colony and the Uganda Protectorate, vol. 2. London:
Gurney and Jackson.

Moreau, R. E. 1969. The recurrence in winter quarters ( Ortstreue ) of trans-Saharan migrants.
Bird Study 16: 108- no.

in press. Palaearctic-African Bird Migration Systems.

Pearson, D. J. 1972. The wintering and migration of Palaearctic Passerines at Kampala, Southern
Uganda. Ibis 114: 43-60.

Pearson, D. J., Phillips, J. H. and Backhurst, G. C. 1970. Weights of some Palaearctic waders
wintering in Kenya. Ibis 112:199-208.

(Received 8th. June, 1972;

’w/ c

JOURNAL

OF THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

10th October 1972

No. 137

PRELIMINARY CHECKLIST OF LAGOONAL FISHES OF DIANI, KENYA

By

K. R. Bock

E.A.A.F.R.O., P.O. Box 30148 , Nairobi

The area surveyed lies at the northern end of Diani Beach and is intersected,
approximately, by 39°35'E longitude and 4°i7'S latitude. It forms a rectangle about
1000x500 m, the longer sides being bounded by the shoreline and the outer edge of
the reef platform exposed at low-water levels. The lagoon or reef flat is 500 m wide.
The southern portion of the shoreline is of fine coral sand, the northern consists of old
eroded coral rock subject to seasonal sand movement, which may engulf many of the
rocky pools.

Within this area is a great variety of littoral, lagoonal and reef platform habitats ;
these, diagrammatically illustrated in fig.i, may be summarised briefly as follows:

Littoral

Lagoonal

(1) sandy shore

(2) rocky shore with associated pools

(3) sandy bottom

(4) Cymodocea and other marine grass meadows

(5) rocky outcrops, often with more or less extensive coral growths;
coral heads

(6) old inner reefs, usually exposed at low tide, surrounded by rock
debris

(7) channels, draining into reef channels at low tides

(8) rocky debris, inshore of reef platform

Reef platform (9)
(10)

pools, of varying size

reef channels connecting the lagoon to the sea, known locally as
rnilango.

Recordings were made at low tides between November 1970 and February 1971,
and again in December 1971, and the list therefore relates more specifically to species
present during the north-east monsoon period. About one third of the species listed were
caught in small handnets and kept in an aquarium for two or three days while identification
was made; they were subsequently returned to their specific habitats. For the remainder,
identification was by underwater observation only, and this occasionally presented
obvious problems in identity. A question mark in the text indicates where identity of
genus or species is open to question.

The Diani lagoon is typical of the shallow type, as opposed to the appreciably
deeper lagoon type such as occurs in the Watamu Marine National Park. Consequently,
there is an absence of coral gardens, and nowhere is there an abundance of coral growths.

Page 2

REEF CHANNELS

Page 3

This is significantly reflected by the extreme paucity of species of parrot fish
(Callyodontidae) and by the relatively low species density of butterfly fish
(Chaetodontidae). In contrast, species of the families Pomacentridae, Labridae and
Apogonidae are abundant, which indicates favourable habitats for these.

The checklist can only be described as preliminary: observations were confined to
low tides occurring during daylight hours, and no attempt was made to poison pools or
lagoonal areas in order to make a complete species census. It is therefore certain that many
more species, particularly of such families as the Labridae, Muraenidae, Scorpaenidae,
Gobiidae, Salariidae, Blennidae and Eleotridae, will be added. In spite of this, the
137 species catalogued from an area approximately 0.5 square kilometer is indicative of
the extremely rich fauna inhabiting the shallow lagoons of the Kenya reef.

In the checklist, the numbers entered subsequent to the species refer to the numbers
given to the serially described habitats in which the species was most often observed.
Special habitats not referred to above, such as the occurrence of Amphiprion ephippium
in the sea anemone Stoichactys, are referred to individually in the list. Similarly, the
letters give an indication of whether the species occurred commonly in moderately high
population densities (C); fairly commonly, but generally less abundantly (P); or was
encountered infrequently (R).

The author citations for species were taken from Smith & Smith (1963).

CHIROCENTRIDAE

Chirocentrus dorab (Forsk) lagoonal (P)

CLUPEIDAE

Sardinella melanura (Cuv), lagoonal, seasonal, in vast shoals

PLOTOSIDAE

Plotosus arab Blkr, (9, P, juveniles in shoals)

SYNODIDAE

Synodus variagatus Lac, (3, C)

HEMIRAMPHIDAE

Hemiramphus ? far Forsk, surface waters of lagoon (P)

TYLOSURIDAE

Tylosurus crocodilus Les, surface waters of lagoon (C)

HOLOCENTRIDAE

Holocentrus diadema Lac, (5, 9, C)

H. sammara Forsk (5, 9, C)

Myripristis pralinus C+V, (5, 9, C)

SOLEIDAE

Pardachirus marmoratus (Lac) (3, P)

SYNGNATHIDAE

Corythoichthys fasciatus (Gray) (3, 4, 5, C)

AULOSTOMIDAE

Aulostomus valentini Blkr, (5, R)

FISTULARIDAE

Fistularia petimba (Lac) (4, R)

SOLENOSTOMIDAE

Solenostomus ? cyanopterus Bleck, (4, R)

CIRRHITIDAE

Cirrhitichthys aprinus (C+V), (8, R)

Paracirrhites forsteri (Bl-Schn), (8, R)

TERAPONIDAE

Terapon jarbua (Forsk) (2, C)

DULEIDAE

Dules taeniurus C+V, (2, P)

SERRANIDAE

Epinephelus macrospilus (Blkr), (10, R)

E. merra (Bloch), (8, R)

Grammistes sexlineatus (Thunb), (5, 6, 8, 9, C)

Page 4

APOGONIDAE

Apogon nigripes Plfr (4, C)

A. semiornatus Peters (4, R)

Apogonichthyoid.es nigripinnis C+V (4, 6, P)

Cheilodipterus artus Smith (4, 5, 6, C)

Ostorhinchus angustatus Smith (4, 5, 6, C)

O. cyanosoma (Blkr) (4, 5, 6, C, often among sea urchin spines)

O. fleurieu Lac (5, P)

O. savayensis (Gnthr.) (2, 5, 6, C)

Paramia quinqnelineata (C+V) (4, 6, C, often among sea urchin spines)
Pristiapogon frenatus (C+V) (4, 5, C)

CARANGIDAE

Gnathanodon speciosus (Forsk). lagoon generally, juveniles only, R
MULLIDAE

Pseudupeneus macronema (Lac) (3, 6, C)

PLATACIDAE

Platax pinnatus (Linn) (2, P, juveniles only)

MONODACTYLIDAE

Monodactylus argenteus Linn (5, P)

POMACANTHIDAE

Centropyge multispinis (Plfr) (5, C)

Pomacanthodes chrysurus (C+V) (5, 6, R, juveniles only)

P. imperator (Bloch) (5, 6, R, juveniles only)

P. striatus (Rupp) (2, 5, 6, R, juveniles only)

Pomacanthops semicirculatus (C+V) (5, 6, R, juveniles only)

Pygoplites diacanthus (Boddaert) (5, one record only)

CHAETODONTIDAE

Chaetodon auriga Forsk (3, 4, 5, 6, 7, C)

C. guttatissimus Benn (5, one record only)

C. leucopleura Plfr (7, R)

C. lunula (Lac) (juveniles 2, 5, adults 9, 10, C)

Heniochus acuminatus C+V (5, R)

ACANTHURIDAE

Acanthurus leucosternon (Benn) (9, 10, C)

A. lineatus Linn (10, C)

A. triostegus (Linn) (7, 8, 9, 10, C)

A. xanthopterus C+V (5, 10, P)

Zebrasoma flavescens (Benn) (9, 10, R)

Z. veliferutn (Bloch) (5, P)

ZANCLIDAE

Zanclus cornutus (Linn) (5, 9, 10, P)

LEIOGNATHIDAE

Leiognathus equula (Forsk) (lagoonal, seasonal, dense shoals)
KYPHOSIDAE

Kyphosus vaigiensis (Q & G) (5, R)

PEMPHERIDAE

Pempheris oualensis C+V (5, 9, C, in shoals)

LUTIANIDAE

Lutianus fulviflamma (Forsk) (2, 4, 6, 8, C)

L. joihni (Bloch) (4, 5, C)

L. kasmira (Forsk) (4, 5, 6, P)

Macolor niger (Forsk) (5, juveniles only, R)

GATERINIDAE

Gaterin flavomaculatus (Ehren) (3, 4, 7, C)

G. orientalis (Bloch) (3, 4, 7, P)

G. playfairi (Pell) (3, 4, 7, R)

POMACENTRIDAE

Abudefduf annulatus (Peters) (6, 8, C)

A. cingulum (Klunz) (6, 8, C)

A. lachrymatus (Q + G) (5, P)

A. saxatilis (Linn) (2, 8, 9, C)

A. septemfasciatus (C+V) (2, 8, 9, C)

A. sexfasciatus (Lac) (2, 8, 9, C)

A. sparoides (C+V) (2, 9, C)

A. xanthozonus (Blkr) (6,'+, C)

Page 5

Amphiprion ephippium (Bloch) (in sea anemones, C)

Chromis dimidiatus (Klunz) (5, 9, P)

C. nigrurus Smith (5, 9, R)

Dascyllus aruanus (Linn) (5, C)

D. trimaculatus (Rupp) (juveniles in sea anemones, adults 5, C)
Pomacentrus pavo (Bloch) (5, C)

P. pulcherrimus Smith (5, 9, 10, C)

P. taeniurus Blkr (5, R)

P. tripunctatus (C+V) (9, 10, C)

LABRIDAE

Anampses meleagrides C+V (10, P)

Cheilinus trilobatus Lac (juveniles, 4, R)

Cheilio inermis (Forsk) (three colour forms, 4, C)

Coris africana Smith (4, 9, 10, P)

C. angulata Lac (4, 9, 10, P)

C. caudimacula Q + G (4, 9, 10, C)

C.formosa Benn (4, 9, 10, P)

Gomphosus caeruleus Lac (10, R)

G. varius Lac (5, 9, 10, C)

Halichoeres centriquadrus (Lac) (5, 9, C)

H. kawarin Blkr (5, 9, C)

Labroides dimidiatus C+V (5, 8, 9, 10, C)

Novacidichthys taeniourus (Lac) (3, 4, R)

Stethojulis axillaris (Q + G) (5, 9, C)

Thalassoma hebraicum (Lac) (5, 9, C)

T. lunare (Linn) (5, 9, C)

CALLYODONTIDAE

Xanothon margaritus (Cartier) (3, 5, R)

MUGILIDAE

? Valamugil seheli (Forsk) (juveniles only, 2, R)
SPHYRAENIDAE

Sphyraena Pjello C+V (juveniles only, 2, R)

SIGANIDAE

Siganus oramin (Bl-Schn) (10, P)

GOBIIDAE

Acentrogobius reichei (Blkr) (2, C)

Gobiodon rivulatus (Rupp) (in coral only, C)

BLENNIDAE

Meiacanthus mossambicus Smith (5, P)

Omobranchus mekranensis (Rgn) (2, P)

Runula rhinorhyncos (Blkr) (5, 9, C)

SALARIIDAE

Exallias brevis (Kner) (9, R)

Istiblennius andamanensis (Day) (2, C)

I. bellus impudens Smith (2, C)

I. edentulus (Bl-Schn) (2, C)

SCORPAENIDAE

Pterois volitans (Linn) (5, 9, C)

Pteropterus antennata (Bloch) (5, 9, C)

P. radiata (C+V) (5, 9, P)

? Scorpaenodes spp. (5, 9, C)

PLATYCEPHALIDAE

Platycephalus ? grandidieri (Sauv) (3, R)

OPHICHTHIDAE

Myrichthys colubrinus (Bodd) (3, 4, 8, C)

M. macidosus (C+V) (3, 4, 8, R)

MURAENIDAE

Echidna nebulosa (Ahl) (5, 6, 8, 10, C)

E. zebra (Shaw) (6, 8, R)

Lycodontis spp. (5, 6, 8, 10, C)

Siderea spp. (5, 6, 8, 10, C)

MONACANTHIDAE

Amanses fronticinctus (Gnthr) (6, 8, R)

Paraluteres prionurus Blkr (6, 8, R)

Page 6

BALISTIDAE

Rhinecanthus aculeatus (Linn.) (5, 6, 8, C)
R. rectangulus (Schn) (5, 6, 8, R)
OSTRACIIDAE

Lactoria cornuta (Linn) (5, 6, 8, 9, P)

L. fornasini (Bianconi) (5, 6, 8, 9, R)
Osiracion lemiginosum (Bloch) (5, R)

O. tuberculatus (Linn) (5, P)
DIODONTIDAE

Diodon hystrix Linn (4, 6, 9, C)
TETRAODONTIDAE

Arothron sp. (4, one record only)
CANTHIGASTERIDAE

Canthigaster bennetti (Blkr) (5, 6, 8, 9, (C)
C. janthinopterus (Blkr) (5, 6, 8, 9, R)

C. margaritatus (Rupp) (5, 6, 8, 9, P)

C. valentini (Blkr) (5, 6, 8, 9, C)
ANTENNARIIDAE

Antennarius ? chironectes Lac (5, 6, 8, P)
A. ? oligospilos Blkr (5, 6, 8, R)

Histrio histrio (Linn) (5, 6, 8, R)

REFERENCES

Smith, J. L. B. and Smith, M. M., (1963). The fishes of Seychelles. Published by the Department
of Ichthyology, Rhodes University.

(Received 14th March, 1972)

Published by The East Africa Natural History Society, Box 44486, Nairobi Kenya and
printed by Kenya Litho Ltd., Box 40775, Nairobi.

$ a & . * /

JOURNAL

OF THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

15th December 1972

No. 138

OBSERVATIONS ON MACKINDER’S EAGLE OWL

BUBO CAPENSIS MACKINDERI SHARPE

ON A KENYA FARM

By

P.H.B. Sessions

Lengetia Farm , P.O. Mau Narok, Kenya
INTRODUCTION

This paper amplifies the previous notes on this bird (Sessions 1966) and is primarily
based on field observations made in the Mau Narok district of Kenya over the last eight
years. It also aims to be a corollary to the paper on the distribution and systematics of
Bubo capensis Smith by Benson & Irwin (1967), providing additional information on
habits, and discussion of various points that arise.

There appears to be no published work entirely on the habits of B. capensis , let
alone on the race mackinderi, and details given in all the standard works of reference are
scanty. To quote from McLachlan & Liversidge (1970) on the Cape Eagle Owl B.c. cap-
ensis Smith: “remarkably little has been recorded about its habits. Data are urgently
required.” These notes are taken from a large number of short observations made on this
farm and environs to within a radius of 15 km. A description of the situation and topo-
graphy of this area was given in Sessions (1966).

DISTRIBUTION

General

Benson & Irwin (1967) show Mackinder’s Owl to occur sparsely on high ground
over the 3000 km separating B.c. dillonii Des Murs & Prevost in the north from the
nominate race at the Cape, the heaviest concentration being across the Kenya Highlands
from Mt. Kenya to Mt. Elgon. Thirty years ago it was confirmed only on Mt. Kenya
itself (Jackson 1938); Priest (1933) made no mention of the owl in his work on the birds
of Southern Rhodesia, nor did Belcher (1930) record it from Malawi. Mackinder’s Owl
has now been collected from both these territories and may eventually be found to be
quite common in suitable localities.

It has been suggested by Benson & Irwin (1967), also Moreau (1966) that the popu-
lations of this owl are likely to be isolated and static, but this may not be strictly the case.
So far the bird has not been found breeding below 2500 m, and although breeding birds
tend to be resident throughout the year, there are a number of records from as low as
1800 m, generally in the vicinity of a higher land mass.

One would expect the immatures of such large birds of prey, which have dense local
breeding populations, to incur fairly wide distributional movements, and that young birds

Page 2

would make individual flights from their own area to an adjacent one. Bent (1961) implies
that the Great Horned Owl or American Eagle Owl B. virginianus (Gmelin), whose habits
appear similar to those of B. capensis, wanders up to 30 km within a year of being banded
as nestlings. Birds could travel in stages between the two most distant breeding areas in
Kenya, Mt. Kenya and Mt. Elgon (c. 500 km) without descending below an altitude of
1800 m. This might account for non-breeding records by Brown (pers. comm.) who
saw one bird at Nyeri, of another seen at Limuru, and by Forbes-Watson who told me
that he picked one up on the main road at the foot of the Kijabe escarpment. All were
at altitudes of about 1800 m and within 30 km of known breeding areas. Further south
similar climatic conditions occur at lower elevations, and Benson & Irwin (1967) quote
records at Dedza (1550 m) and Bambata Hill (1472 m).

Mackinder’s Owl may occur in large numbers on the moorlands of Mt. Kenya up to
the base of the main peaks at 4270 m and down to 2440 m on the north-eastern slope
where there is open land. On the other sides of the mountain the forest extends much
lower and the owl does not occur again in numbers until the Aberdare range, where
Williams (1966) reports it as common. I have seen it on the eastern slopes above Ngobit
at 2440 m. Its range is interrupted again to the west by the Rift Valley, and the owl is
then found on the plateau of the Mau. Here it occurs regularly through Mau Narok to
Turi 2440 m, Molo 2600 m and Timboroa 2750 m, west to Lumbwa at 2450 m, thence
to Mt. Elgon itself to the northwest. It may be expected on the Cherangani range.

It will be seen that in Kenya the owl’s distribution covers most of the larger land
masses which exceed 2400 m and occurs at lower altitudes only in the vicinity of those
masses. Where it does occur, it may be very common for such a large owl.

Mau Narok

The district of Mau Narok comprises an area of forest and mixed farming land of
about 12000 ha, and has been described elsewhere (Sessions 1966). Lengetia Farm
is situated at the western end, and it is this area which includes four farms totalling 2000
ha that has been most closely observed. Here ten nest sites have been found, and as most
of these are used each year, it would seem that there are ten pairs of resident Mackinder’s
Owls.

Over the remainder of the district, owls have been seen and reported regularly, some
of them for many years. Illuminated by car headlights, these birds are seen mainly on
telephone poles and occasionally their flight lines to the hunting perches are seen. Assum-
ing the owls breed near water, it is possible to deduce their approximate breeding area,
although the nests have not been seen, and there are definitely at least ten pairs of owls
here. As most of the observations have been made from the road, it is possible that the
total number may be two or three times as many.

Considering the western area again with its ten confirmed nest sites, there is an
average territory of 200 ha per breeding pair. The land is cut by streams running from
north to south, and these valleys are from 1-2 km apart. The nest sites, which are always
besides the water, are separated by distances of 1-2 km. Taking an average territory
where the streams are 2 km apart and the nest sites separated by 1 km, the area would be
2 sq. km or 200 ha. There is no reason to suppose that the area which has been more closely
studied is different to the remainder, except perhaps that it is rather better watered.
One may therefore infer that Mackinder’s Owl has a similar population density over the
whole district.

Birds from most of these territories have been observed regularly over the last
18 years and it seems that the population has remained remarkably static. A steady
increase in the number of resident birds would not be apparent however, without very
careful observation of all breeding sites. I had known of one pair breeding regularly on a
11 km section of stream. One year I found two pairs nesting on this section, and the
following year there were three pairs, but it will take further study to find out if this
increase is temporary or permanent, and if similar increases are occurring on other

Page 3

sections of streams. The pairs that have been observed in the permanent territories
have nested regularly in the same vicinity and continue to use the same hunting area
and vantage posts year after year.

To the south-west of Mau Narok lies thick forest and Mackinder’s Owl is probably
unusual here. To the north and south are open plains with patches of forest and local
tribesmen confirm that the owl is common in this area. To the east is the Rift Valley
escarpment, covered in forest and scrub; above this line is the lower limit of Mackinder’s
Owl’s range. Below the forest, on the Rift Valley plain, the Spotted Eagle Owl B.
africanus (Temxninck) is a resident species, and there appears to be no overlap.

The distribution and density of Mackinder’s Owl in the Mau Narok farming area
seems to have remained constant before and after the land was developed. It may be
supposed that the population in the undeveloped land to the north and south would be
of the same order. Thus on the 80000 ha comprising this part of the Mau plateau as
far as Molo and Turi there may be 300 breeding pairs or more. The only other bird
of prey which occurs here in numbers of this order is the Augur Buzzard Buteo rufofuscus
(Forster) and their population would be about the same.

HABITAT

It has been shown that the habitat of the owl comprises a fairly extensive piece of
grassland together with a section of valley down which water flows, at least temporarily.
Light timber is favoured as well as some rocky places, but either or both may be dis-
pensed with; if the latter case, small bushes or heather are required for nesting sites
and roosting.

I have not found the bird in deep forest, about 45 m being their maximum penetra-
tion; one pair actually nests in a thick patch of heavy timber on the bank of a stream,
but it is a narrow spur, and the owls fly clear of the trees with a few quick wing-beats.
The owl will make full use of exotic trees such as pines, cypress, gums and watdes
for daytime roosts and hunting perches at night (cf Benson & Irwin (1967), p. 4, re
B. africanus).

Altitude seems to be a major criterion for the lowest limit of their breeding range,
and from personal observation this would seem to be about 2440 m near the equator.
Of the two roads that run down to the Rift Valley from Mau Narok, one runs east, the
other north; both pass through thick forest on the escarpment. Above this forest I have
seen B. capensis , and below it, from 2100 m, only B. africanus.

Regardless of the terrain which the various local populations of mackinderi inhabit,
there is one common factor, and that is the presence of water, near which the owl makes
the centre of its territory and the base of its breeding site. I have found no exception to
this pattern.

OTHER SPECIES OF STRIGIFORMES

An important aspect concerning any owl is its toleration of other species of night
predators. These have more specialised requirements than diurnal ones or the number
of their species would be greater; hence there must be a lower interspecific tolerance.
Brown (1970) says that the Mountain (Mackinder’s) Eagle Owl has the field to itself,
and this is largely true. Besides some 20 pairs of tnackinderi on Mau Narok there are only
three pairs of Verreaux’s Eagle Owls B. lacteus (Temminck) a pair of Wood Owls Ciccaba
woodfordii (Smith) and a single Barn Owl Tyto alba (Scopoli). The first two seem rather
more restricted to the forest so that mackinderi faces competition mainly from itself.
The same applies on Mt. Kenya and probably in other montane areas, but one cannot
say if this numerical superiority is due to the aggressiveness of B. capensis to other owls,
such as is shown by the European Eagle Owl B. bubo (Linn.) (Bannerman 1955) or to
the lack of adaptability in them. B. africanus might be expected to occur, but it is more
insectivorous, prefers a lower altitude, and would probably be repulsed by mackinderi.

Page 4

However, the three pairs of Verreaux’s Owls that inhabit Mau Narok latterly have
appeared to nearly overlap the hunting territories of Mackinder’s Owls. Both myself
and another local farmer, T. Hamilton-Fletcher, have seen them making nightly
forays onto the open ploughed land, although no open conflict has been seen to occur.
However, the Verreaux’s Owl spends the daytime deep in the forest, which is also
where it nests, so there is no question of rivalry over breeding sites. Also, Brown (1965)
states that this owl has a very catholic diet, which may mean a different hunting routine.
For all that. Brown shows that the life habits of this owl are very similar to those of
Mackinder’s, and as the former appear to be comparative newcomers to this area, there
may be an eventual trial of strength when the numbers of both species reach saturation.

DESCRIPTION

Adequate descriptions are found in works of reference to B. capensis mackinderi,
but it seems reasonable to add some points of field identification, as this bird has been
continually mistaken, generally with B. africanus, and sometimes with B. lacteus. These
are essentially greyer birds, with finer barring below.

From above, Mackinder’s Owl looks medium to dark brown, with a distinctly
tawny band across the neck, and blackish and grey markings on mantle and wings;
as it flies away it may show a white patch on wings or tail. Underneath the bird appears
paler, with a band of dark blotches on a tawny background across the chest, a conspicuous
white throat patch and a pale grey or white belly lightly blotched to the vent with brown-
ish markings. The “socks” are creamy white or grey. The underparts are variable, some
very tawny, others much paler. The male is nearly always paler than the female and when
together with the female, can be seen to be smaller; it also has the habit of flying off
first when disturbed. These details agree with those of Forbes-Watson (Benson &
Irwin 1967 p. 10).

Distinguishing features of this owl are its eartufts. They are larger and more con-
spicuous than in other species, being always visible and are generally held horizontally;
vertically only when excited. The eyes are a brilliant fiery orange, distinct from B.
africanus with its yellowish or brownish eyes, and B. lacteus which has black eyes, the
lids only being orange. The voice, which most often indicates the presence of an owl,
is distinctive, and is described in detail later. Verreaux’s Owl has a much deeper note,
more of a grunt (Brown 1966), while the Spotted Eagle-Owl has a softer call, though
rather similar.

HABITS

Typical of many eagle owls, Mackinder’s Owl is not entirely nocturnal and is often
seen hunting before sunset and again in the early morning; sometimes one may see
it sunning itself by day on an exposed rock or branch.

The usual routine is, at sundown, the owl gives a preparatory hoot from its daytime
roost, sometimes giving a few answering calls to its mate. It then flies up the valley in
short stages, pausing en route on suitable posts, until it finally reaches its hunting ground
on the ridge top. Here it will utilise a favourite perch such as a tall tree or telephone
pole, or even a chimney top, from which to spot its prey, which may be eaten on the
ground or on the perch. After a couple of hours’ hunting, the birds return to the roost
site in the valley, where they appear to spend a considerable part of the night settled
on the ground near the water. The purpose of this habit is not clear, but it may be in
order to catch frogs and crabs. Before dawn they are back hunting again on top of the
ridge, returning to roost as the sun comes up.

The hunting area of each pair is apparently from the nest/roost base up to the centre
of the ridge on either side of the valley, where it meets the owl from the next territory.
B. virginianus is believed not to battle with its own kind, but forms its boundaries by

Page 5

vocal display (Ardrey i960), and it is probable that B. capensis mackinderi does the
same. Sometimes a prolonged hooting goes on through the night, and this may have
a territorial function; normally they only hoot continuously when they have newly
fledged young.

The roosting sites of breeding birds are generally within a short distance of the nest
area, whether it is in a tree, rock or grassy bank, and the female at least seldom moves
far from here. While the pair remain together, they may be found in the same place
year after year. Immature and single birds are found elsewhere, on this farm usually
in a clump of trees some way from the stream bed. When roosting by day the pair often
share the same tree, the larger female sitting upright and close to the trunk, the male
perched a little out along the branch. As one approaches the male will slip away first,
dropping down to just above the water for a hundred yards, then swooping up to another
tree to perch in full view and stare at the intruder. The female sits much closer, and one
can sometimes walk right under her before she will fly; their tree perch is about 3 to 5 m
above ground and not in dense foliage. Where trees are not available, they will use a
small cave or rocky overhang in the same way, and failing even this facility, they will
crouch under some low bush or tuft of grass. When disturbed from the nest, the female
will fly a few yards to alight on the ground and stare until one departs.

FOOD

One of the requirements of Mackinder’s Owl appears to be a superabundance of
food, and where this occurs, it usually means that the food is of one kind. For instance
on Mau Narok and the rest of the Mau range, it is the mole-rat Tachyoryctes splendens
(Riippell) that provides most of its diet, while at the head of the Teleki Valley on Mt.
Kenya I found nearly every owl pellet to contain the bones of the rock hyrax Procavia
johnstoni mackinderi Thomas. At Bale, Brown (pers. comm.) found the Ethiopian race,
B. capensis dillonii, was feeding mainly on mole-rats, although one nest contained large
numbers of skulls of a frugiverous bat.

Again, B. virginianus shows a similarity. Errington (1940) in his studies on the prey
of this owl reported that remains of Leporidae were represented in 3315 pellets and
stomachs, out of 4838 examined. The main member of the family, the cotton-tail
rabbit, made up to 80 per cent by volume of the owl’s diet. Brodie & Maser (1967)
showed that in six collections of owl pellets from one area, Microtus formed 77 per cent
to 91 per cent of the food items, although in another area the meadow mouse and beetles
were taken equally. Errington (1932) summed up: “From the examination of 1900
pellets I feel justified in saying that choice plays a minimal role in the horned owl’s
hunting routine. The horned owl goes out with the intention of getting something to
eat, to take what it encounters first and is able to get.”

So although the total species of prey listed indicates that B. capensis enjoys a wide
range of diet, it is also apparent that each owl tends to adapt itself to preying on one
particular animal and then maintaining an almost exclusive diet. At the high altitudes
frequented by dillonii and mackinderi the number of species of small mammals is low,
although populations of individual species may be high and also constant. An idea of
the mole-rat numbers on this farm may be deduced from the 600 that were trapped
from a 12 ha grass ley in one month, and 220 out of the 800 ha on this farm contain this
density of mole-rats.

Brown (1970) believed that no class of avian predator would have anything better
than a local effect on controlling the numbers of their prey, and this would certainly
include Mackinder’s Owl. There are 5 or 6 pairs on the farm, and probably an average
of 15 individuals throughout the year each requiring about one mole-rat per night.
The annual supply of mole-rats needed by these owls is therefore in the region of 5500
to be drawn from a population of many times this figure, and which is constantly re-
producing itself. On the other hand although this predation does not have any diminishing

Page 6

effect, the absence of this owl might allow the mole-rat to reach plague proportions.
This rodent is about 20 cm long and an adult might weigh up to 250 g. From the number
of skulls I have found in their casts I reckon the owl kills up to three in one night, for
they may of course only eat the head.

At the top of the Teleki Valley on Mt Kenya, hyrax are very numerous, the piles of
rocky moraine appearing to come alive with these animals at times. Coe (1967) estimated
a population of 80 hyrax to 20 ha, but this seems a conservative estimate for the more
favourable areas where the runs are worn bare and smooth like a footpath, and the smell
of their faeces hangs everywhere. Close to one of the colonies there was a thin forest of
tree groundsel Senecio keniodendron R. E. Fr. & Th. Fr. Jr., where in June 1969 I found
large numbers of Mackinder’s Owl roosts. About 25 per cent of the trees had been used
at one time or another and under each of these trees were a collection of pellets all contain-
ing hyrax bones. Pellet sizes compared with those found on Mau Narok, i.e. up to 100
mmX35 mm. The hyrax weighs up to 3.5 kg and the smaller ones should provide an
easy prey. The weaker Augur Buzzard was observed to take them readily (Coe 1967).
When eating hyrax the owl leaves the head. Many skulls were found lying bleached
beside the pellets. B. virginianus was also found to dispense with the skull of a young
beaver, presumably an animal of similar size, in the same way. (Brodie & Maser, 1967 :
p. 12). The Otornys rat is similar in size to the mole-rat, and is also abundant in places
on the mountain.

Other items of food include the smaller rats and mice as well as larger mammals
such as the African Hare, Lepus capensis L. On the four occasions that I know of it being
taken, three of them at least occurred while the owl was breeding. Once the owl was
seen by A. Forbes- Watson (pers. comm.) to make its kill by the headlights of his car;
another time the attack was made in mid-morning and a third time the bird killed at
dawn, bringing the hare straight to the nest where I found it still warm and limp at
9.00 a.m. The fourth hare I found on a slab of open rock-face near the river and c.
100 m from the nest; it looked as if the animal had been killed elsewhere and the bird
was too exhausted to carry it further for the hare was broken up piecemeal and carried
to the nest over the next four days. The hare is nowhere very common, suffers from
many predators, and cannot form a large part of the owls’ food supply, but it would
appear a useful addition when more food is required quickly to feed growing nestlings.

Birds arc also an unusual part of the diet; a Black-winged Plover, Stephanibyx
melanopterus (Cretzschmar), was seen killed and carried off to some pine trees in the middle
of the day and two nests were found containing feathers of the Montane Francolin,
Francolinus psilolaemus Grey. I have also recorded kills of the Pink-breasted Dove,
Streptopelia lugeiis (Riippell) and Hammerkop, Scopus umbretta (Gmelin). L. H. Brown
(pers. comm.) found a leg bone of a domestic fowl in the roost of mackinderi on the escarp-
ment at Kijabe.

Evidence of inseas in the casts are not frequent, although I have found the wing
cases of a large beetle. The most frequent remains other than those of small rodents found
in pellets on Mau Narok are those of a fresh-water crab, which is common in the mountain
streams here. In about a quarter of the pellets examined crab shells have been found.
Sometimes a whole carapace of up to 25 mm across, or a claw of up to 30 mm long.
Other crab shells are found alone, where the friable parts of the pellets have been washed
away by rain. The crabs are also brought to nestlings. On one occasion a pile of shell
was found on a “feeding block” about 5 m from the nest; the crabs had not been eaten
whole as they would have been by an adult, but the meat had been picked out and the
shell discarded. It is worth noting that there are no records in Witherby (1946) or
Bannerman (1955) of Bubo eating crabs, but B. virginianus is known commonly to take
crayfish; see Bent (1961 p. 309), Errington et al (1940: p. 807), Marti (1969: P- 166),
Brodie & Maser (1967: p. 11), but not to any great extent, and according to Marti {op.
cit .) these are rather small crustaceans, of the genera Reithrodontomys and Perognathus
weighing only between 5 and 12 grams. Curiously, the Great Horned Owl does not
assimilate them as easily as Mackinder’s Owl does the crab, for often the skeleton of

Page 7

the crayfish is found separately to the pellet. Only in the case of juvenile owls have I
found the crabs to have had the flesh pecked out of the shell.

Otters are common on the streams which the owls haunt and frequently leave crab
shell as remains of their meal. However, the remains are easily distinguished from those
eaten by the owl, as they occur as neat piles of finely ground shell generally on a rocky
track used by the otter. The owl pellets contain whole claws, shells and other parts of the
crab, and even when the rain has washed the friable parts of the pellet away, the crab
shell still lies in the outline of the original cast.

B. bubo is known to take large numbers of frogs (Bannerman 1955) and it is more
than likely that Mackinder’s Owl does the same, for frogs and tadpoles are exceedingly
common all along the streams where the owls spend long hours, but their remains are
not easily visible in a cast (Errington, 1940: p. 764).

Marti {op. cit .) has shown that the mean prey weight for the American Horned Owl
is 220 grams, and Errington et al {op. cit.) have shown that the average meal for that bird
is six large mice or half a large rat, but what is not shown by any researcher is the number
of meals taken in 24 hours by a bird, cr the number of pellets brought up. Examples from
captive birds do not necessarily prove what happens in the wild.

It was stated earlier that the owl eats from one to three mole-rats per night, judging
from teeth and skulls found in the pellet, but it has been shown that eagle-owls eat the
head of rodents first, and it may be that not all the prey were consumed entirely. Conver-
sely, if the owl has ejected more than one pellet, it may have eaten more than three moles.
It appears that the owl does a twice-nightly hunt for rodent prey, at dusk and dawn
presumably successfully, and also spends some of the intervening hours looking for
frogs and crabs by the river bank. This is rather in contradiction to that of Errington
et al {op. cit.: p. 810) who consider that B. virginianus takes the first convenient prey
that comes its way. I consider that B. capensis is more methodical, and although an oppor-
tunist on occasions, would hunt a particular area for a specific prey.

VOICE

Two common sounds made by the adult owl are a resonant hoot and a short bark;
both sexes make either sound, although the female has a deeper hoot. Before the evening
hunt commences, the bird makes a single long “hoooooo”, (cf. Meinertzhagen (1954)
on the call of the Egyptian Owl B. ascaphalus Savigny.) While hunting it makes a double
note, either short-long or long-short, ie.. “hu-hoooooo” or “hoooooo-hu”, or less often
a triple note, “hu-hoooooo-hu”. If the bird has a “song” (q.v. Whitherby (1938) for
B. bubo) it is a quick, high-pitched triple hoot, rapidly repeated; I heard this once from
a displaying bird (see Display).

The alarm call is a sharp “wak wak” like the bark of a jackal comparable to the
“kvek kvek” call for B. bubo (Whitherby 1938), and the “whok whok” of Verreaux’s
Owl (Brown 1965). When danger diminishes the adult may call a softer “werp werp”
to reassure mate or young, and this too is the call heard at night when the young are
being trained to hunt. Hoots and barks are often mixed at random, especially when the
birds are startled or upset. Sometimes one of the pair will hoot, while the other barks,
or again an individual may make both sounds. Other occasional sounds are a mewing
noise by the female under extreme excitement, and a soft croak by the male, which is
probably a warning note. The nestlings’ hunger call is a whining “kleeeee kleeeee”
and when alarmed they hiss. By the time the young is nearly fledged it develops a churring
noise which finally becomes a loud snarl, “scrrrreeeeerk”, often uttered in daytime,
and usefully indicating where the young birds are hiding after leaving their nest. In
common with other eagle owls, both young and adults click and snap their bills when
under provocation.

Page 8

DISPLAY

None of the daylight aerial displays described for B. bubo (Bannerman 1955. p. 173)
have been observed, and indeed one would not expect them from a pair of birds which
are resident, share the same hunting territory, roosts throughout the year and where
climate and food supply scarcely vary. It is probable that some arboreal form of pre-
nuptial display takes place at dusk or by night. I have seen it occur once by day, apparently
triggered off by fright. The pair had been roosting in a low cedar tree and when disturbed
flew off to settle close together on a branch of another nearby cedar. Both birds then
made a series of rapid triple hoots “cu-coooo-cuk”, the female sitting bolt upright,
the male bowing with each hoot and facing the female. A few days later I found this
female sitting on eggs. This display is similar to that of B. bubo described by Witherby
(1938). The only record I have of coition is that observed by Mr. and Mrs. Philip of
Mau Narok, who saw a pair mating on the road near their house in July 1971 ; the time
was shortly after dark and the birds were quite unperturbed by the car headlights.

The Mackinder’s Owl is generally by no means as fierce as it looks; normally I
can approach and examine a nest containing egg or young while the parent birds quietly
watch me from a tree or rock close by. In fact they are easily the tamest and most
confiding of the large birds I know. One pair varied slightly by flying from tree to tree
around the nest, peering and craning their necks whilst they hooted and barked; doubtless
a sort of distraction display. The only exception occurred when I was looking for a nest
on another farm, whose location I could only roughly guess. A person had reported a
variety of frightening noises from an unseen bird and had been unwilling to investigate :
I suspected a pair of breeding Mackinder’s Owls. On approaching the site, I disturbed
an owl in a tree which flew off a short distance. As I searched for the nest it returned
to the first tree and, drooping its wings, barked at me. As I got nearer to the young
(without knowing) the bird got more and more frantic, flying from tree to ground to
post, all the time trailing its wings, apreading its tail and dilating its startling orange
eyes. Judging from its size and colouring, the bird was a female. She kept up a continual
clacking of her bill, hissing, barking and growling, occasionally making deep throaty
hoots, puffing out her white throat feathers as she did so. In between these sounds she
made thin mewing noises. Eventually I crossed the stream to look back, and saw her
two owlets safe on a rocky ledge over the stream, protected by an overhang of the bank
on which I had been standing. The bird then became even more furious, and, alighting
in the thick tussock grass, she advanced on me, trailing her extended wings, bill and
eyes open wide. It was quite the most remarkable display I have seen by any bird, and
I would class it as one of intimidation rather than distraction; one can imagine why the
young are comparatively safe from small predators even if their ground nests are so
exposed.

Errington (1932) found “in general the parents displayed the most toward their

young about the time the latter were ready to leave their nest The old birds would

fly off and leave downy owlets without apparent reluctance.” This observation on

B. virginianus coincides with those I have made on B. capensis. Tyler & Saetveit (1969)
made the same conclusions.

The male bird seems the more retiring of the pair, slipping away quickly at the
approach of danger, and generally maintaining a greater distance than his mate. His prime
role seems that of watchdog, signalling the alarm to his mate sitting on the nest.

BREEDING

(a) Dates. Mackinder’s Owl breeds on Mau Narok from July to March, the peak
laying dates being from September to December. Working back from known incubation
and fledging periods, the laying dates for 26 nests in this district are as follows :

Page 9

July August September October November December January February March

124 4 6 5 121

There are no indications that the local owls breed outside these months, although the
later dates tend to be for pairs inhabiting the more open land in the centre of the plateau.
A number of pairs have shown a tendency to breed at 10 to 11 months’ interval, which
may mean eventually that there will be breeding records for all the months of the year.
The only breeding date given in Praed & Grant (1952) was for January on Mt. Kenya.

(b) Nesting. Nuptial display has already been described, but normally the first
indication that breeding is about to commence is that the pair roost closer together during
the day, often side by side, usually in a tree or on the ground very close to the prospective
nest site. This behaviour compares with that of B. virginianus, (Errington et al op. at. : p.
765). Finally the female flies down to lay and brood. No actual nest is made, but care is
taken that the site is suitable and has remained undisturbed over a long period. If the owls
notice that their chosen spot is too frequented they will mark down another place. 24 of
the 26 nests so far found have been at ground-level although there are adequate sites in
trees all over the farm, including trees with old bird of prey nests said to be favoured by
the other races e.g. Priest (1948): “in disused nest of Buzzard or Eagle”, Praed & Grant
(1952): “in the disused nests of Crows and other large birds”. The nests are merely a
shallow scrape or hollow formed by the brooding bird’s body, and contain no down or
grass lining. The siting of the nest seems almost haphazard at times, but there is usually
some protection at the back of the sitting bird, even if it is only a small bush. Often it is
at the base of a large cedar xxtejuniperus procera or slab of rock, but, wherever it is, there
are two common factors; the nest is nearly always at ground level and it is always within
a stone’s throw of water. The latter point seems inexplicable; however it is a great help
when trying to locate a nest. Two nests were actually found over the water on the top of
leaning tree stumps, others right on the grassy bank of the stream, quite exposed. The
following table describes the situation of 25 nests found within 8 km of the farm:

1 In fork of tree, 15 m above ground.

6 On or against a bare rock face.

6 At the base of a large cedar tree.

6 In grass, with or without light bush protection.

2 On top of large tree stumps, placed on a bank and level with ground.

4 Under logs.

These nests belonged to eight different pairs, and only two nests were used consecutively,
in one case twice, the other for three years. Otherwise the nests would be within 10-50 m
of the previous year’s, generally the lesser distance.

The one occasion when I found the owl nesting in a tree was of particular interest,
since it was the exception to prove the rule. The pair involved had nested regularly at the
base of a large cedar for at least three years, and as I had known them to frequent that tree
for at least fifteen years they may have used the nest site for much longer. In order to
obtain confirmation of incubation, brooding by sexes, egg size etc., I made fortnightly
inspections of the nest site from about one month prior to the expected laying date, which
was usually at 1 1 month intervals. It was with some surprise that I found the nest in a
deep fork of the same tree, some 15m above the ground, with two white-downed nestlings
in it. I have no doubt that the owls had been worried by my visits, but had no intention of
forsaking their well-loved tree, and compromised by nesting above my head. A week later
the two young owlets were somehow transferred into the old nest at the base of the tree.
This action convinced me that Mackinder’s Owl is basically a groundnester by preference.
It was notable also, that the bird did not choose one of many available old buzzard or
eagle nests or a hole in a tree, but used a crotch formed by a large branch which was
similar to a ground nest; no material was used to embellish the nest.

Page 10

For comparative behaviour in the Great Horned Owl, Errington (1932) has shown that
very small owlets can safely reach the ground from great heights long before they can fly; in
America this would occur when the actual stick nest collapses and the chick has no option.
He goes on to say that the grounded chick makes its way to the base of the nearest tree
where it continues to be cared for by the adults: “it may make scant difference in the end
whether the young spend their full time in the nest or not.” However in the case quoted
above, one of the owlets disappeared soon after it reached ground, whereas it might have
survived in its original nest. Errington also pointed out that the Great Horned Owl is a
very poor nest builder, seldom even refurbishing old hawk nests it takes over, so that
collapse of the nest is not infrequent. With the knowledge we have of B. capensis mac-
kinderi, it might be that all Bubo were originally ground nesters and only some species and
races have recently taken to nesting in trees, B. virginianus and B. bubo still retaining both
habits.

Referring again to transfer of nest-site, this occurred again about the same time
with another pair which had nested regularly in a stream bank within about a 20 m radius
over 10 years. Again I made regular checks for about two months in this area, only to
find it sitting on eggs on a ledge in a vertical cliff-face over a large pool, xoo m away. The
two young were transferred in stages, possibly even carried, back to their old nesting
area, whilst still in their downy plumage.

In spite of the exposed nature of the nest sites, the sitting bird seems remarkably
secure and only two instances of desertion have been noticed, when I found the broken
shells of two eggs, probably trampled on by a flock of sheep which were grazing by the
river bank. The parent birds in one case, the male being recognised by a white tail feather,
continued to occupy the nest tree for two months afterwards, then finally bred some
distance away ten months later. Repeat laying seems unlikely and the birds keep to a
laying interval of ten to twelve months.

The brooding bird relies on its camouflage for protection whilst the mate keeps
guard from a nearby tree or promontory to give warning of approaching danger. When
the bird on the nest hears the single warning hoot it freezes and closes the lids over its
brilliant orange eyes and only when one is a few feet away will it fly off to a nearby branch
or rock. The camouflage is very effective. Numerous people have failed to discern a
sitting bird at close quarters and in full view until it is pointed out. As the young grow,
so the nest enlarges into a muddy cake of excrement and pellets of bone and fur, trampled
around for several square feet. The nest becomes more conspicuous and danger then
increases from predators until the young can fly.

(c) Eggs. Of five nests examined with eggs, three had clutches of three eggs, and
the others of two. All the nests found with young had two or three chicks, except those
with large young, where sometimes there was only one survivor out of what was probably
a larger brood. It would seem that 2-3 would be the rule, the larger figures being more
common. Of 10 eggs measured, the largest was 59 mmxq6 mm and the smallest 46
mmX45 mm; giving an average of 57.5 minx 45.4 mm. The South African race B.c.
capensis , the only one for which egg measurements ate available, has an average of 51.5 mm
X 43 mm according to Priest (1948), and rather smaller according to Roberts (1940). The
average for B. b. bubo is 59.8 mm X 49.7 mm.

The eggs appear to be laid on successive days, brooding commencing with the laying
of the first egg; incubation takes about 36 days. One pair under observation before nesting
roosted together for some weeks in the nest tree. On 26th October, only one bird was in
the tree and the mate was found sittting on the nest, which was empty. Two days later
there were two eggs. When the nest was visited on 1st December there were two chicks,
lax and immobile, with naked patches on the back. Neither could have been more than
one to two days old. At another nest, two newly hatched young and one egg were found.
When the nest was visited the next day the third egg had hatched. Incidentally, the third
egg was much smaller than average. The chick was weakly and died after a fortnight.

The male and female may be recognised as such when together. But it is not always
possible to get a sufficiently good view of the sitting bird to identify its sex with certainty.

Page 11

However, on all occasions when good views were obtained, the female was invariably
the brooder of the eggs. Conclusions are limited by the fact that the sitting bird cannot be
identified by night, but I am sure the male relieves her to hunt during this time, as Masai
shepherds tell me that they see her leave the nest about an hour before dawn. Once I
have put the male off the nest in the early morning when the chicks were very small. At
the actual time of hatching, when one would not expect the female to leave, I found on
two occasions a pile of freshly killed mole rats lying right besides her, no doubt brought
by an assiduous mate.

(d) Chicks. For the first three or four weeks the chicks are brooded continuously.
Thereafter the female broods less and less but sits in a tree or bush only a few yards away,
alert for danger. The male stations himself in another tree to watch in the opposite direc-
tion. Only once have 1 found an owl asleep by day and that was a non-breeding bird.
When worried they utter a warning hoot or bark, and the young crouch and freeze at
the back of the nest, huddling up together. If the young are molested, they puff up their
downy feathers until they look twice their natural size and quite formidable. As a last
resort they lie on their backs and strike out with the bill and claw, hissing hard. At six to
seven weeks from hatching the young move around the nest site, exploring and perhaps
avoiding the hot sun or the muddy nest if it has been raining much.

At two months the owlets may take up a position on a low branch or rock which
might be a feeding block as well. Here they spend much of the day preparatory to their
first flight. This may depend on how secure and undisturbed they are: some have not
flown during ten weeks. Other nests I have found deserted at seven weeks. Twice I have
probably instigated their first flight by alarming them suddenly when the juveniles flut-
tered off, only to flop into the long grass after a dozen wing beats. At this stage they must
be very vulnerable. These intervals compare with Tyler & Saetveit (1969) on the Great
Horned Owl, viz. 6-7 weeks to leave the nest and flying short distances in 9-10 weeks.

The chicks are hatched almost naked with a little white down which soon covers
them all over. After a week the down turns to a dirty grey colour, which gets darker and
browner until their first feathers appear. At six weeks they are a grey — brown colour with
dark brown barring on the upper parts, and a week later they show developed feathers
on wings and tail, with tufts of down scattered all over; the young would be about half
the size of an adult at this stage. The eye of the nestling is a bright chrome yellow with a
large vivid blue pupil, altogether as striking a feature as that of the adult’s eye. The bill
and claws are dark horn; the ear tufts are always apparent, even in the downy stage.

(e) Fledging Generally by the time the young leave the nest there are only one or
two survivors. Only once did I see three fly. Assuming the average clutch size is 2.5, and
an average of 1.5. leave the nest, the survival of fledlings is 60 per cent of eggs laid. Of
those that die during this period, there is little to indicate what causes the casualties,
which occur evenly throughout. Possibly the very young ones are devoured by their
parents or nest mates if they die or become weakly. The larger ones are probably taken by
ground predators which are very numerous. But the biggest factor noticed so far has
been the human one. I have known of five large nestlings being killed by superstitious
Africans and three taken captive by farmers as pets.

As soon as the young leave the nest the adults take them into light bush or small
trees for cover and for a week or two there is not much sign of their presence. However
as soon as the juveniles are flying strongly they are taken further afield at night and given
their first hunting lessons. It is at this time that they are most noisy and no-one can then
fail to be aware of their presence in the neighbourhood. As soon as it is dark the whole
family flies up from the valley to their hunting ground, specially favouring the rows of
pine trees characteristic of this farming land. Here they are probably taught to catch the
smaller prey such as rats and mice which occur here, rather than the mole-rats and larger
mammals which they will later hunt on the open land. Their arrival is announced by
much hooting and barking from all directions, and this goes on for two or three hours
until all are replete.

Page 12

As the young become less dependent on their parents, they take less care over con-
cealment and two months after leaving the nest they may be found basking in the midday
sun on an exposed branch of a bare tree. There is no indication as to where they disperse
but single owls are found roosting in trees away from the valleys at all seasons, which
I suspect are the immature birds of the year. Some of those found way out of their normal
habitat may be immatures. Probably there is a high mortality among fledged birds, as
with all birds of prey and the majority of this normally sedentary species may not travel
far, but act as local replacements. The parent birds themselves are less in evidence for
a couple of months before they finally recommence their breeding cycle.

At four months the immature owl looks similar to the adult except the ear tufts are
smaller. The crown is grey and fluffy with dark stripes and there are long lax feathers over
the head. The underparts are rather more barred, and the chest is dark brown rather than
tawny. L.H. Brown, (pers. comm.) suggests that eagle owls probably mature very
quickly compared to diurnal birds of prey of similar size.

A nestling was found on 2.1.72 which had fallen from the tree nest and it was
decided to rear it by hand.

Habits. During the 5^ months it spent around the house the owlet was always left at
liberty. Until it could fly to the roof it spent the hours of darkness in the house, to protect it
from night predators, otherwise there were no restrictions on its movements.

Errington (1932), referring to the Great Horned Owl, said that only recently-hatched
owlets came to recognise their human attendants as they would their parents, and Bent
(1961) inferred that these owls were only tame if allowed full liberty for those kept in
cages grew sullen and ugly tempered. Both these statements on handreared eagle owls
were borne out by our experience. The owlet made a responsive and intelligent pet that
always took a keen interest in all around it. Although quite content to perch on one’s arm
or shoulder it never liked being handled. It was quite unafraid of the house-dogs which
were rough with it, never minding being knocked over or pushed about, but a strange
dog would immediately produce a fierce reaction. I only saw it run or fly from danger
once and that was from an attack by an Augur Buzzard before it could fly, when it ran
across the lawn to shelter actually tripping over as it tried to keep an eye on the hawk.
Much later it was attacked repeatedly by a large female Peregrine (probably F.p.pere-
grinus Tunstall) as it perched on a high roof, but it responded by spreading its wings in a
great bow in front of its body and fluffing up its feathers, and the falcon eventually sheared
off. From a month old it kept an eye on all birds of prey including Marabou Storks Lepto-
ptilos crumeniferus (Lesson) that flew overhead and was very quick to spot them even
when they were nearly out of human vision. But it was only perturbed by the Augur
Buzzard which attacked it several times and would probably have killed it but for our
intervention.

Bright sunlight was tolerated comfortably and it had no hesitation in looking directly
into the sun to watch a hawk, the pupil of its eye contracting to a pinhead in an instant.
Heat had a greater effect, and it quickly moved into the shade when it became hot, es-
pecially when it was very young. If it found the heat uncomfortable at nearly 3000 metres,
one could see why the species is unlikely to be found breeding near the Equator at a much
lower altitude. Cold and wet did not worry it, except when it was caught in its first heavy
storm, and came to be let in to dry in front of the fire. Otherwise it enjoyed showers and
would run on to the middle of the lawn with its wings inverted to wet itself thoroughly.
It never drank, although once it jumped on to the bird bath and experimentally paddled
and dipped its bill into the water.

A point of interest was the lack of routine in the owlet’s life which may have some
survival value in the wild. Both before and after it could fly the bird explored a little
further and in a different direction each day and would carefully select new day and night
perches. By the time it was nearly full grown and had covered its environs its habits
became more predictable.

Although the owlet was never able to deal with the live mice or mole-rats that were
offered to it, it regularly practised making attacking jumps. Before it was a month old.

Page 13

the bird would make a series of swift runs across the carpet finishing with a two-footed
jump and clenching its claws, sometimes on nothing, at other times on a moth or a bit of
paper. As it grew it would do the same action in the garden, running half a dozen steps,
then leaping; this appeared to be the way it would eventually catch mole-rats, its staple
diet. The owlet was very excited by my wife, as substitute parent, gardening on her
knees and turning earth over; the owlet would go at her with a lot of noise just as it would
when hungry and about to be fed. It appeared that there was an instinct for catching
mole-rats and for begging from its parent when hunting these rodents, although in other
parts of its range the mole-rat might not be included in the diet of Mackinders’ Owl at all.

The chick was very weak when found, but after three days was able to stand up and
take a few steps ; after seven days it explored the room, began to preen itself and would
voluntarily open its bill for food, instead of being force-fed. After 2 weeks it could
clamber up steps, using its wings to help, and by a month it could flutter enough with
its little wings to get onto the sofa. It indulged in a lot of wing-flapping exercises each
morning, holding tight onto its sheepskin rug as it got stronger, but it was not until 2
months after arrival, i.e. at about 10 weeks old, that it could fly on to the house roof for
the first time, and after that its powers of flight developed rapidly.

As the owlet grew to full size, the garden was visited nightly by a number of Mac-
kinder’s Owls from various directions. It did not appear as if the owlet took much notice,
although at 5 months it may have been following them on their hunts. Almost certainly
some of these owls were the tree-nesting family from whence it came, and at just six
months old the owlet flew off with them one night, not to return again. Two days later it
was seen not far from its original nest, perched conspicuously in a cedar tree and calling
continuously.

Food. The chick was fed almost entirely on mole-rats from the beginning and after the
first week its appetite slowly increased from one to two a day. Without viscera, head and
feet this meant about 100 g to 180 g of meat, but even this had to be cut up into small
pieces, as it never learnt to tear up its food. As the owlet grew it was offered live prey, but
did not seem to associate it with food, and made no attempt to attack. Errington (1932)
said that even at 7 months a hand-reared owl was incapable of catching its own food.

For the first few days the chick was fed at 2 to 3 hour intervals, or even less, then on
4 or 5 feeds until it could fly, when it was only fed as and when it came to the feeding
block. By the time it was 3 months it fed mainly in the morning and evening. It quickly
reached satiety, and would not eat more than 100 g even when full grown. Warm, fresh
meat was preferred to stale, and anything “high” was refused, although it was never
hungry enough to try.

When found, the chick weighed 500 g and then increased its weight by an average of
30 g per day, so it was presumed that it was 10 to 14 days old then. Three weeks after
arrival it weighed 1120 g and when 3 months it was 1400 g, but by then appeared almost
full grown and flying well. At this stage it was difficult to weigh accurately, and recordings
discontinued.

Pellets were cast up from the third day onwards, usually in the morning. The first
weighed 23 g, and a few days later another measured 70 mmx 32 mm, but they were
generally smaller than this. They might be brought up anywhere, for one day the owlet
flew to my arm, and after two or three wide gapes it put its claw to its bill as if to pull
something away and then produced a pellet (52 mm x 32 mm) which it held at the tip of
its bill a moment and then let drop.

Plumage. The down of the baby chick was a finely barred light grey, and the back,
thighs and under-wing were still bare at two weeks old. The irides were chrome yellow
and the pupils blue, becoming quite dark at two months. The significant changes are
given here, dated from the hatching date, assuming it was two weeks when found.

3 weeks : wings acquire more clearly defined bars and flight feathers start to shoot.

4 weeks: white area around gape very apparent and operculum now visible.

Page 14

5 weeks: first four tail feathers break sheaths and first signs of downy “ear-tufts”
seen.

6 weeks:

8 weeks:
ii weeks:

14 weeks:

has 20 fine grey bars on underparts and the well-grown flight feathers are
brown with pale tawny spots.

losing down fast, tail and wings growing rapidly.

most of down moulted except on thighs and “ear-tufts”, and dark brown
feathers appearing on chest.

downy “ear-tufts” now moulted, but the feathered ones did not appear until
a month later, and still growing at six months.

At six months old it was difficult to distinguish the bird from an adult and it was
disappointing that the bird unexpectedly flew off before final measurements were taken to
discover if it was male or female; at that time the measurements were in the overlap betwe-
en a large male and a small female. At three months the wing was 375 mm and the tail 240
mm; three weeks later the wing was 400 mm and it weighed 1400 g, and it may well have
gone on growing. Benson & Irwin (1967) show a maximum of 402 mm for male wings and
a minimum of 406 mm for females, and the weight of a male as 31b 1 oz (1387 g). The tail
length is significant as Benson & Irwin (op. cit.) showed four males to have an average
tail length of 209 mm. Two factors may be relevant: the bird was probably a female with a
longer tail anyway, and posssibly juvenile birds have much longer tails than adults as in
many birds of prey such as the Augur Buzzard. Hence the tail length would be a conve-
nient method of determining if a specimen was immature as there is very little otherwise in
which it differs from an adult.

During the time that the owlet was reared, a watch was kept on the nestling left in
the tree nest, and it was noted that all plumage changes and growth rate occurred in the
two young birds at the same times. They even learnt to fly simultaneously.

Voice. At two weeks old the chick only made soft cheeping noises, especially when
hungry or being covered. A week later it gave its first squawk, and this was its main cry
until it left. This call is difficult to describe but might be written as “shreer”, and was
generally rather short and sharp. The call was used to indicate everything from hunger to
annoyance and excitement, or even nothing at all, being purely reflex. Sometimes it
called all day long, even when asleep or preening.

When five weeks old it gave its first triple hoot, but this was seldom heard until it
was nearly six months old, when it began to answer the many owls calling round the
house. It was also able to give the alarm bark, “wak wak”, at an early age when upset by
the appearance of a strange dog, but again this was seldom used. Bill snapping was a
regular sign of annoyance, although sometimes it would clack softly just to call attention
to itself as it glided round the garden at dusk just above one’s head.

DISCUSSION

From the foregoing notes, taken with those of Benson & Irwin (1967), a significant-
number of questions for discussion would appear to arise.

(a) There have been lacunae in the observations of a number of large birds of prey in
Kenya, but none so obvious or inexplicable as for Mackinder’s Owl. During the last ten
years, the author has recorded the presence of some 300 species of birds on this 800 ha
farm and nearby surroundings. All of these birds except the very rare stragglers have
been listed correctly for locality either by Jackson (1938) and/or Praed & Grant (1952)
with the sole exception of Mackinder’s Owl; yet it has been shown that there are probably
several hundred in the locality. Prior to Benson & Irwin’s summary (1967), the only
genuine locality given by both Praed & Grant, and Jackson was Mt. Kenya. More recently
Williams (1967) adds Mt. Elgon and the Aberdare range. The most recent survey by
Benson & Irwin (1967) adds Timboroa, Lumbwa and Turi, all lying to the north of the

Page 15

Mau plateau. Betts (1966) in a survey of the breeding birds of S.W. Kenya, which
included the actual Mau Narok area itself, omitted Mackinder’s Owl.

The omission does not apply to Kenya only. Roberts (1940), did not mention even
the existence of another race of B. capensis although his work described the distribution
of races of all other birds. Belcher (1930) did not include it in his Birds of Nyasaland,
although it is now known probably to occur regularly throughout the highlands of that
country (Benson 1953 : 42). Priest (1933) in his Birds of Southern Rhodesia did not include
it either, yet here again it has been accepted as having a fairly widespread distribution
(Benson & Irwin 1967). It is worth considering whether the reasons for its oversight in
the past were due to (i) a more restricted range, or (ii) confusion with the smaller
African Eagle Owl B. africanus whose range is contiguous, even if it does not overlap,
or (iii) merely having evaded observation. The latter seems unlikely, as the bird is well
known to farmers and the surrounding African population. From the description of its
habits and voice it will have been seen that the bird almost forces its presence on one’s
attention. It is also doubtful if the owl has radically extended its range, especially in view
of the experience in this area, where the land has been converted from its primaeval state
into a fully developed farm in the last eighteen years and the population and territories
of Mackinder’s Owl appear virtually to have remained unchanged.

Concerning the confusion with B. africanus, there can be no doubt that this has
occurred for it has actually happened with museum specimens vide Benson & Irwin (1967)
for four mis-identifications. It was even thought that the type specimen of B.c. dillonii
had been mistaken for the Spotted Eagle Owl, but Benson & Irwin (1969) confirmed that
it was indeed B. capmsis. If there can be confusion over skin specimens, there can be little
doubt that all the more mistakes must have occurred in the field.

The conclusion may be reached that a combination of all these circumstances have
invalidated a true assessment of the distribution and status of Mackinder’s Owl. Even so,
there Ungers an element of mystery as to how the bird should have been first found and
described so thoroughly some seventy years ago from one of the least visited and fre-
quented areas of the country, the alpine zone of Mt. Kenya, and yet remained overlooked
in the populated regions of the East and Central African farming lands.

(b) Why is there so Uttle information on the habits, breeding, etc., of such a large
and numerous bird?

Praed & Grant (1952) give no description of the eggs of either dillonii or mackinderi ,
and the only nest described was that found in a cave on Mt. Kenya by the late Myles
North. They quote that dillonii is reported to use old tree nests, but this seems unlikely
and probably it was B. lacteus that was referred to. Nevertheless, the nests are not difficult
to find, especially when there are young in them and it is odd that they have not been
found more often in the past. It may have been that some of the early information of the
habits of birds in this country was obtained with the assistance of African collectors and
hunters (see Jackson, Archer etc.) whose superstitions concerning owls may have made
them rather more reticent about this bird.

(c) Why has this owl such an affinity for water?

Of the nineteen nests inspected around this farm, all were found to be situated within
a short distance of water, the maximum distance being 50 m away but the majority much
closer. Of a similar number of pairs breeding locally whose nests have not been found,
observations of their lines of flight to hunting posts show them to be probably nesting
very close to water in each case. It is difficult to tell if this is just a regional habit as there is
little information from other areas and about other races of B. capensis, but one dillonii
“was shot on a rocky ledge overhanging a stream” (Benson & Irwin). From notes on
breeding given above, it could be assumed that this bird might have had its nesting site
somewhere in the vicinity of this water. To speculate on the answer to this feature of
breeding involves some conjecture. It is fair to assume that an owl which has a definite
preference for living in a cooler climate would choose to rear its young in a place which
has the least hours of direct sunlight and the coolest night temperatures and it is in the
valleys that these conditions will be found. As nearly every valley in the montane regions

Page 16

in which mackinderi occurs has running water for at least part of the year, it may be co-
incidental that the owl nests near water. But generally there is more support for the
theory that this bird must have water for breeding, although the reasons for this will
only be found by further study in the field.

(d) Is it significant that the owl has a partiality for crabs ?

Fresh water crabs occur commonly all down the highland streams where there is a
rocky bed. Where a pair of owls have a territory on this section, one might find 20 per cent
of their pellets to contain crab shells. It might be thought that these represent otter faeces;
these also occur commonly and eat many crabs, but these are crushed into small fragments,
unlike the owl pellets where the carapace and claws are often intact. On one particular
occasion I saw an owl about 1 km from the river at 2.00 a.m., — a few hours later there
were pellets containing crab remains below the post on which it had been sitting. The
noteworthy point in this connection is that there is no other record of a large owl in-
cluding crabs in its diet, but whether this is an essential part of its diet remains to be seen.
If it is, then it would have a direct bearing on the owl’s distribution and choice of breeding
ground. Frogs and toads are extremely numerous in these streams and further observa-
tion may show that they too form a part of the bird’s food. Along the rocky banks may
be found many large white faecal splashes made by the owls showing where they must
spend many hours during the night when not hunting. It may be, although unlikely,
that they just prefer to sit here to devour and digest their prey and rest; or perhaps it is
in order to listen for, and catch the crabs (and possibly frogs) which they relish.

(e) What are the ecological requirements posed by Benson & Irwin ?

These authors infer that there is a lack of a clear understanding of the precise ecolo-
gical requirements of B. capensis. Some deductions may be drawn from this paper, at least
as far as the Mau plateau and mackinderi are concerned. Some wider conclusions may be
considered as well.

First there is a misconception, stated mainly in works of reference on European birds,
that altitude per se is a significant factor in bird life. The two direct effects of higher
altitude are less oxygen and lowering of temperatures. Unlike mammals, birds do not
appear to be affected by shortage of oxygen, for it is commonly known that they fly and
live at altitudes which would leave most mammals prostrate. In equatorial altitudes,
temperatures remain temperate up to 3000 m or more, and are unlikely to have a direct
effect on most birds. The main effect is the indirect one of the change in the plant and
insect life which changes their food and environment. Those birds that are not dependent
on plants or insects for food, such as the larger birds of prey, are found in Kenya from
sea level to 3000 m or more. Some owls, notably Woodford’s Owl, Ciccaba woodfordii,
occur over the same range, and some species of Bubo also have a wide altitudinal range,
but in tropical regions this does not include B. capensis , which has not yet been found to
breed below 2400 m. However, the further from the equator that B. capensis occurs, the
lower the altitudes at which it is found, until at more than 30°S at the Cape it is found at
sea level. If the mean day and night temperatures for B. capensis are studied, they might be
found to be isothermal to a narrow limit. The possible reason for this will be discussed
under (f).

In the section on Food it was noted that the tastes of Mackinder’s Owl are not catholic,
nor indeed has it always a wide variety of food available: but its food requirements are
high. To rear three chicks from an exposed ground nest in the shortest possible time and
in the presence of a large number of predators, suitable food must be permanently avail-
able in large and accessible quantities. (Predators on this farm include leopard, hyena,
serval and genet cats, civet, jackal, most of the larger birds of prey, as well as superstitious,
malicious and inquisitive humans.)

Moreau (1966) regarded B. capensis as a component of the Afroalpine moorland
community in E. Africa and Ethiopia, but this does not appear to be totally valid, as the
bird has not been found in many of the alpine zones, and yet is common in other areas
which are not alpine. Clearly, altitude is not the only factor involved.

Broadly then, the requirements for Mackinder’s Owl are as follows :

Page 17

(i) A super-abundance of suitable prey in a restricted area.

(ii) The presence of water.

(iii) A relatively cool climate.

(iv) Generally the presence of trees, rocks or large boulders, which may provide
roosting and nesting sites, as well as look-out perches for hunting: i.e. any
broken country that is not a bare steppe or thick forest.

These inferences concerning the ecological requirements are based primarily on the
Mau Narok observations, but in June 1969 I visited the Teleki Valley of Mt. Kenya with
my son, Lt. M.P.N. Sessions R.N. taking particular note of the haunts of Mackinder’s
Owls we found there. The following week my son went up the north side of Mt. Kilima-
njaro through the forest, past the moorland and scree to the peak, with the special intention
of finding signs of Mackinder’s Owl, and to take note of suitable localities. Although he is
well acquainted with the call note of the owl, he heard no sound of it on the mountain,
nor any traces of its casts. The food supply appeared small with none of the teeming
colonies of hyrax or the innumerable rodent runs that are found on Mt. Kenya. Further-
more, above the forest line water was scarce and tree and rock cover limited. Thus few of
the requisite conditions were met with, and this might apply to other montane areas of
East Africa where the owl is inexplicably missing.

A further ecological factor may be taken in conjuction with that of the Augur Buzzard
B. rufofuscus. This factor has been studied by Bent (op. cit. p. 296) and Tyler & Saetveit
(op. cit. p. 78) in regard to the Great Horned Owl and the Red-tailed Hawk, B.jamaicensis,
the North American counterparts. Tyler & Saetveit showed that the two species co-
existed in the area, described as “river bottom, forest and hilly fields”, i.e., typical Mac-
kinder’s Owl country, with roughly the same size of territories; owls nested i->- km apart,
buzzards 2 km apart, although owl and buzzard would nest as close as 300 m from each
other. On Lengetia Farm one may find owl and buzzard nests within a few hundred
metres, but seldom find two owls’ or buzzards’ nests within 1000 m. The interspecific
relevance seems fairly remarkable considering they are using an almost identical food
supply. Often I have seen an Augur Buzzard leave a particular telephone pole which it
has been using as a hunting perch right until dusk, to be replaced on the very same pole
within a few minutes by a Mackinder’s Owl.

(f) What have been the effects of agricultural and human population changes on the
status of this owl ?

When the writer first arrived on this farm, it was in a complete virgin state, the land
being covered in rough grass, heather and light bush and occupied by herds of zebra and
eland where now there are cattle, sheep and crops. Although detailed notes have been
made only over the last ten years, the localities of several pairs of owls can be remembered
for 18 years and there seems to have been very little change since then the owl appears
to have more than held its own. Possibly the increase in human interference (the popula-
tion has increased from nil to 150), has been offset by the reduction in the number of
larger predators, particularly leopard, hyena and jackal. In 1956, at the base of an old olive
tree in some open bush land, a pair of owls bred regularly. The bush was cleared and the
land ploughed for crops and later a plantation of gum trees established. In 1969, an owl
laid three eggs in the middle of this small plantation; so it would appear that even if the
owl is disturbed, it will eventually re-establish itself in its old territory. From rather more
superficial observations, this pattern would appear to hold good for the rest of Mau Narok
district.

(g) Are there grounds for considering B. capensis mackinderi as a race of B. bubo ? ?

Two owls, the Barn Owl, Tyro alba, and the Long-eared Owl, Asio otus (L.), both

have Palaearctic and Ethiopian races; the former, with its wide ecological tolerance has
spread throughout the continent, whilst the latter has a distribution in Africa similar to
B. capensis, but even narrower. There seems to be sufficient evidence to consider the case
of B. capensis being conspecific with B. bubo in the same way. Certainly if B. b. ascalaphus
Savigny and B.b. desertorum Erl anger come under the nominate species, both birds of very

Page 18

different habitat, size and plumage, it would seem consistent to include B. capensis as well.
The illustrations by George Lodge of mackinderi in Meinertzhagen (1959) and of B. bubo
in Bannerman (1955) show their similarity. In Nicoll’s Birds of Egypt (1930) Meinertzha-
gen refers to B.b. mackinderi from Mt. Kenya, and adds that the B.b. dillonii-B.b. capensis
group can also be treated as forms of Bubo bubo. In addition. Dr. Bannerman, at the end of
his essay on the Eagle Owl, says. . . “the truth is that all the eagle owls are very closely
related and an equally good case can be made out for allying some of the African species
with Bubo bubo , though I think it is a mistake to do so.” (Bannerman 1955).

The distribution records of Bubo capensis shown on map 1 in Benson & Irwin’s
paper shows a typical flight line of an east Palaearctic migrant following the Rift Valley
down to the Cape. If the Cape Eagle Owl had established itself in very early times, one
would expect an east-west picture covering other African montane habitats. It might be
inferred that the bird had only recently become a resident breeder at the end of the last
cold phase when less clement conditions prevented it spreading. It has been shown in this
paper that the owl is well capable of holding its own under normal conditions, and one
would have expected it to have spread at least to the Ruwenzori range.

A table is set out below to show differences and similarities between B.b. bubo and B.c. mac-
kinderi. Abbreviations of references are: (B) for Bannerman (1955), and (W) for Witherby el al.
(1941). (P & G) for Praed & Grant (1952) and (Will) for Williams (1967). Unmarked details are
taken from this paper.

B. bubo

Size

Female wing measurement in mm.

Bubo capensis mackinderi

(B.b. bubo )

max

495

av.

458

(B.b. ascalaphus)

max

430

max. 428

av.

387

av. 402

(B.b. desertorum)

max.

372

av.

349

Colour

Above : Mottled blackish and tawny (W)

Blackish brown, mottled tawny (P & G)

Black and reddish brown (B)

Below Fine, wavy bars, boldly streaked
on breast (W)

“Ear-tufts” Homed
Eyes Deep orange (B)

Voice Hoo-oh (B. p. 174)

00 - 00 - 00 (W)

(ascalaphus)

u - huuu (Meinertzhagen)

Kveck kveck (B. & W)
mewing (B)

(nestlings) cleeee - clee - clee (B)

Display Song duet, one bird bowing to other

(B)

Nest Ground, on hillside, cliff etc.

hollow scratched out of ground (B)
(ditto W. plus sometimes old bird
of prey nests).

Eggs White, av. size 59.8 mm x 49.7 mm

(W) Clutch size 2 -3 (W)
Incubation 35 days, brooding by female
Fledging 6-7 weeks (B)

First flight 8 weeks (B)

Food 75 per cent small rodents plus birds,

fish and beetles (B)

Pellets Size 126 x 41 mm
93 x 31 mm (B)

Habitat . . . cliffs, ravines and rocky
ground in wooded and open
country (W)

River gorges (B)

Mottled orange-buff, dark brown and white
(Will)

Blackish and white blobs and bars, breast to
belly (P & G)

Homed

Fiery-orange (Will)

Hooo - hu
uh - hooo

wak wak
mewing

kleeeeee - kleeeee
Ditto

Ground, on riverbank slope etc.

White, av. 57.5 mm X 45.4 mm.

Clutch size 2-3

36 days, brooding by female.

6- 7 weeks

7- 10 weeks

mainly mole-rats, hyrax, plus birds crabs
and beetles
95 x 30 mm
98 x 40 mm
See text.

high altitude .... in habits rocky cliffs and
escarpments, and hunts in more open
country. (Will).

Page 19

Distribution Very common where conditions
suitable as in Spain and Norway
(over 1,000 killed annually for
many years). (B)

Habits Sedentary (B & W).

Younger birds wander (B)

Largely nocturnal (B)

Does not mind full daylight (W)

See also Bannerman pp. 172 - 179 Vo. 4.

There may be morphological or anatomical discrepancies unknown to the writer which invali-
date these comparative similarities, but otherwise the two species seem to be so remarkably alike as
to warrant a review of their systematics.

See text

See text

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to thank Mr. Leslie Brown and Mr. A. D. Forbes-Watson for reading through
the first draft of this paper and offering many constructive suggestions. Mr. Forbes-
Watson, Dr. Greenway and Mrs. Jean Hayes then re-read the paper in an amended form
and greatly assisted with further corrections and comments, and I owe much to their
patient help. I am also most grateful to Mr. C. W. Benson who spared me his valuable
time when I visited him at the Bird Section of the Department of Zoology at Cambridge
University, showing me the collection of skins of B. capensis and reading through the
paper with helpful comments ; it was a distinct advantage to discuss the paper in Arnoldia
with the co-author in person. Mr. J. G. Strauch Jnr. sent me a number of papers relating
to the American Eagle Owl which were a great help in compiling certain sections of this
and I am grateful to him for his trouble.

To Elizabeth Nicoll I record once again my appreciation of her typing. Finally I wish
to thank my fellow-farmers of Mau Narok, who with their wives and children reported
their observations on Mackinder’s Owl over the years; and especially my wife, Vanda,
who reared the owlet with such care and also contributed a great deal of information.

REFERENCES

Ardrey, R. (i960). The territorial imperative. New York: Bell & Co.

Bannerman, D. A. (1955). The birds of the British Isles. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd.

Belcher, C. F. (1930). The birds of Nyasaland. London: The Technical Press Ltd.

Benson, C. W. & Irwin, Stuart, M. P. (1967). The distribution and systematics of Bubo capensis
Smith (Aves), Amoldia (Rhodesia), 3 (19).

Benson, C. W. (1969). The type specimen of Bubo capensis dillonii Des Murs & Prevost. Bull. Brit.
Orn. Cl. 1: 89.

Bent, A. C. (1961). Life histories of North American birds of prey, (Part Two). New York: Dover
Publications Ltd.

Betts, F. N. (1966). Resident breeding birds of S.W. Kenya. Ibis , 108, No. 4.

Brodie, E. D. & Maser, C. (1967). Analysis of Great Homed Owl pellets. Murrelet 48.

Brown, L. H. (1965). Observations on Vereaux’s Eagle Owl, Bubo lacteus, (Temminck) in Kenya.

Jl. E. A. nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. 25, No. 2.

(1970). African birds of prey. London: Colllins.

Coe, M. J., (1967). The ecology of the alpine zone of Mount Kenya. The Hague: Junk.

Errington, Paul R., (1932). Studies of the behaviour of the Great Horned Owl. Wilson Bull. XLFV.

Hammerstrom, F. & Hammerstrom, F. N. (Jnr) (1940). The Great Horned Owl and its

prey in north-central United States. Iowa: Ames.

Jackson, F. J. (ed. W. L. Sclater), (1938). Birds of Kenya Colony and the Uganda Protectorate.
London: Gurney & Jackson.

Mclachlan, G. R. & Liversidge, R. (1970). Robert’s birds of South Africa. Cape Town: John
Volker Bird Book Fund.

Mackworth-praed, C. W. & Grant, C. H. B. (1952). Birds of Eastern and North-Eastern Africa,
London: Longmans Green & Co.

Page 20

Marti, C. D. (1969). Some comparisons of the feeding ecology of four owls in north-central Colorado.
The South-Western Naturalist. 14. (2).

Meinertzhagen, R. (ed) (1930). Nicoll’s birds of Egypt. London: Hugh Rees Ltd.
Meinertzhagen, R. (1954) Birds of Arabia. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd.

Meinertzhagen, R. (1959) Pirates and predators. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd.

Moreau, R. E. (1966). The bird faunas of Africa and its islands. London: Academic Press.

Priest, C. D. (1934). The birds of Southern Rhodesia. London: William Clowes & Sons Ltd.
Priest, C. D. (1948). Eggs of birds breeding in Southern Africa. Glasgow: The University Press.
Roberts, Austin, (1940). The birds of South Africa. London: H. F. & G. Witherby Ltd.

Sessions, P. H. B. (1966). Notes on the Birds of Lengetia Farm, Mau Narok. Jl. E. A. nat. Hist.
Soc. 26,

Tyler, H. & Saetveit, P. (1969). The ecology of the Great Homed Owl and the Red-tailed Hawk.
South Dakota Bird Notes 21.

Williams, J. G. (1967). A field guide to the National Parks of East Africa. London: Collins.
Witherby, H. F. et. al. (1943). The handbook of British birds. London: Witherby.

Received 27th June, 1972.

Published by The East Africa Natural History Society , Box 44486, Nairobi , Kenya and
printed by Kenya Litho Ltd., Box 40775, Nairobi.

JOURNAL

OF THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

January 1973 No. 139

VIDUA FISCHERI (REICHENOW) PARASITIC ON GRANATIN A IAN-
THINOGASTER (REICHENOW)

By JUh

G. R. Cunningham-van Someren
P.O. 24947 , Karen , Nairobi.

A nest of Granatina ianthinog aster was found on n April 1970 in a low thorny
bush, in long grass by the roadside, at mile 30 from Nairobi, Kenya, on the road to
Ololkisaili : a generally dry area of grass and acacia thorn. A male bird was seen entering
The thorny bush carrying a guineafowl feather and emerging later without it. The nest
contained five eggs which were not examined. On 18 April 1970 the nest contained small
chicks and on 25 April 1970 nestlings, which were examined, one of these had a brown
rump and tail and the other four had purple rumps. Field notes were made of plumage
and gape patterns. On returning later the same afternoon the area around the nest had
been trampled by cattle and the bush almost flattened. A search revealed a rather mangled
nest but fortunately the five nestlings appeared unhurt and they were taken in the hope
that they could be hand-reared. It was suspected that the odd nestling was Vidua fischeri
and, as the bird was raised to three months old, identification was confirmed.

The nestlings were taken to Nairobi in the nest and on closer examination, the nest
and nestlings were found to be swarming with mites. There was no nest hygiene and
the entrance and base were badly fouled. The nest was originally lying horizontally and
almost on the ground. It was roughly a lemon-shaped mass with a longish entrance
spout, constructed mostly of fine grass and lined with feathers. Evidently when first
found the male was bringing feathers to the nest after the eggs had been laid (see Friedman
i960).

Neunzig (1929, not seen) but quoted by Payne (1970) described the mouth markings
of V. fischeri “as generally similar to the mouth markings of the presumptive host,
Granatina ianthinogaster, with the exception of the greater extent of a U-shaped black
mark on the lower mandible and the presence of two small spots on the posterior portion
of the palate in the host”. Friedmann (i960) reproduces Neunzig’s figure. However,
this description and the figure is incorrect for G. ianthinogaster and fits more closely
G. granatina (Linn.) and as Friedmann remarks “his description requires verification”.
It seems from my living specimens that Neunzig did not have definite examples of either
species or specimens in good enough condition to describe and figure these markings.

The following is a description of the mouth markings of living nestlings and two
month old fledglings of V. fischeri and G. ianthinogaster on which notes have been made
at regular intervals. (See drawing). In G. ianthinogaster the beak is black, larger and heavier
than that of V. fischeri. Inside on the upper palate there are three jet black spots in
triangle formation on a greyish salmon-pink background with more intense orange-pink
between the spots forming a clear H-pattern. The pink colour fades with age. The
maso-pharyngeal cavity in G. ianthinogaster is edged by a series of inward and backward

Page 2

projecting spines. In V.fischeri the pattern is similar but the three spots are paler, greyer
and not quite the same shape. The lower palate in both species is an intense deep, blue-
black: the tongue is long and narrow, black, with white edges and the white distal lobes
are finely serrated at the edges: the gape tubercles of both species are identical, the upper
brilliant electric-blue and the lower smaller, and irridescent white. At three months
there was very little change in colour or pattern except that markings were duller and
the gape tubercles much reduced.

The colour pattern of the nestlings and fledglings stages show a very close similarity.
When rescued three G. ianthinogaster and the V. fischeri still had tufts of down on the
head. There was a size discrepancy amongst the nestlings. One G. ianthinogaster was
very much smaller than the other three; the V. fischeri was the largest. The heads of
all were uniformly coloured a warm chestnut brown, contrasting with the back, wings
and breast which were duller. The main difference between the species was in the tail
and rump colour. V. fischeri, has in addition, a pale almost white belly and undertail
coverts, whereas these areas are only slightly paler than the breast in G. ianthinogaster.
Another obvious difference was that the feet and legs of G. ianthinogaster are bluish-grey
(lighter than slate) slender and with longer toes than those of V. fischeri, the legs of which
are brownish-grey and stout. The eyes of both species are very dark brown, almost black.
At three months there was little difference in eye colour. At three months, when confirma-
tion of the identification of the V. fischeri was fully established, the belly and undertail
coverts were in strong contrast to the breast and the rest of the plumage, being almost
white. The edges of the beak of V. fischeri were turning pinkish-red while in Granatina
the beak was still black.

Page 3

Feeding the youngsters at first presented a problem but de-winged termites dipped
in a proprietary vitamin-mineral compound5", were readily taken on the second day.
On the third day the youngsters were calling, a plaintive, repeated “sip-sip”: that of
V. fischeri being deeper and harsher. They would react to an imitation by begging for
food which was always taken with the head lowered, twisted to one side, looking upwards
and clearly exhibiting the mouth markings. V. fischeri would also lower and flutter
one or both wings. The slowest to learn to take food was V. fischeri. However at twenty
days it commenced to pick up grain but would still take proffered food and at twenty-
five days it became independent, taking only grain.

Obvious territorial behaviour was noted with the adult birds at Ololkisaili. A male
V. fischeri takes over a territory and drives off any intruding Vidua spp. At one location
this was very noticeable, as it included a water hole which was visited by many species.
From time to time, other V. fischeri and V. macroura (Pallas) visited the water hole,
these were always attacked and driven off. Each male appears to have two or three females
in attendance and the male chivvies these. Courtship display was seen on several occasions
and at very close range. The male perches beside or opposite the female, bounces up
and down, at the same time rapidly flaps or claps its wings, which are not fully expanded.
Just how the sound of clapping was produced was not established. The male would also
carry out this clapping while hovering almost stationary in the air in front of the female.
Flight is somewhat undulating usually only over short distances when the male would
alight on the extreme top of some bush or tree.

Singing has been heard and is difficult to describe but may be defined as a series
of rather watery flute-like notes reminiscent of the song of V. macroura. Payne, (1970)
(Pers. comm.) remarks “the overall tone is quite similar in the two species and without
a tape-record to compare the songs directly it would be difficult to appreciate the dif-
ference”.

Payne (pers. comm.), since this paper was originally drafted, has drawn attention to
a paper by Nicolai (1969) “Beobachtungen an Paradieswitwen ( Steganura paradisea L.
Steganura obtusa Chapin) und der Strohwitwc (Tetranura fischeri Reichenow) in Ostafrika”
J. Orn. Lpz. no (4) pp. 421-447 (1969).

Payne (op. cit.) notes that Nicolai does not describe or figure the lower half of the mouth
of V. fischeri. Nicolai reports on his work in Northern Tanzania and his findings of
definate evidence of specific parasitism are now confirmed for the first time from Kenya.

In view of recent proposed changes in nomenclature with which the writer is not in
agreement, the genus Granatina is preferred and maintained and not Estrilda of White
(1963) or Uraeginthus of Hall and Moreau (1969) while Vidua is maintained instead
of Tetranura , as used by Nicolai (1969).

♦Proprietary product ==“COMPLAN”., Glaxo Laboratories Ltd.

Page 4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

To Dr R. B. Payne, for reading the original typescript and for making valuable comments and
providing references, many thanks. My thanks are expressed to the Chief Game Warden, Kenya,
who issued Permit No 469, to enable work on parasitic species of birds to be undertaken in Kenya.

REFERENCES

Friedmann, H. (i960) “The Parasitic Weaverbirds” U. S. National Museum Bull. 223
Hall, B.P. and Moreau, R. E. 1970 “An Atlas of Speciation in African Passerine Birds”. British
Museum, London.

Neunzig, R. (1929). “Zum Brutparasitismus de Videnen”_7. Orn. Lpz. 77: 1-21.

Payne, R. B. (1970) “The Mouth Markings of juvenal Vidua regia and Uraeginthus granatinus” .
Bull. Br. Orn. Club. 90: 16-08.

White, C. N. M. (1963) Revised Checklist of African Flycatchers, Weavers and Waxbills Govern-
ment Printer, Lusaka.

(Received 8th March 1971.)

Published by The East Africa Natural History Society , Box 44486, Nairobi Kenya and
printed by Kenya Litho Ltd., Box 40775, Nairobi.

^5 oo>. '

JOURNAL

OF THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

12th April 1973

No. 140

THE LESS COMMON PALAEARCTIC MIGRANT BIRDS OF KENYA AND

TANZANIA

By

G. C. Backhurst,

Box 29003, Kabete, Kenya

P. L. Britton,

c/o Ministry of Education

Box 30040, Nairobi, Kenya

C. F. Mann,

Box 337, Kapsabet, Kenya.

INTRODUCTION

The three East African countries of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania are justly famous
for their rich avifauna which includes approximately 150 species which visit the area
from the Palaearctic Region as well as a large and varied Ethiopian element. The ornitho-
logical literature pertaining to the area is surprisingly sparse; the present paper is an
attempt to clarify the distributional knowledge of the less common Palaearctic migrants.

The most widely used reference work covering the three countries is that of Mack-
worth-Praed & Grant (1957, i960) although this book deals with several extra-limital
territories as well as East Africa proper. A serious limitation of Mackworth-Praed &
Grant is that very few definitive records are given. The most useful reference dealing
with Kenya and Uganda is Jackson (1938); Jackson’s distributional notes are based
upon recorded specimens which, although not usually dated precisely, can frequently
be located in the earlier literature or in museums. Tanganyika (mainland Tanzania)
and Zanzibar were excluded from Jackson’s work although Moreau produced a most
excellent account of all the migrants to Tanzania at about the same time (Moreau 1937).
Definitive records for the three countries were brought up to date therefore, to just
before the Second World War. Since that time the birds of East Africa have been poorly
documented, in marked contrast to those of Zambia which have received detailed attention
by several workers, especially by C. W. Benson.

The two field guides by Williams (1967, 1969) contain many interesting distributional
data which are not given by earlier authors. He gives no definitive records in these books
(they would be out of place in field guides) but some have been supplied to us
subsequently (Williams in litt.). Some too are to be found in the literature which appeared
after Mackworth-Praed & Grant (op. cit.) was compiled.

Page 2

PLAN AND SCOPE

We are unable to give a precise definition of a “less common Palaearctic migrant”
as our choice has been made on the basis of personal experience, mainly in Kenya.
For example, although a bird may be called “regular to East Africa” in the standard works
we have obtained few, sometimes no, personal records during the last eight years; such
a species will be included. Some species included may be regular or even common in
areas which we have seldom or never visited, in particular Lake Rudolf, Marsabit and
01 Bolossat, all in Kenya. Identification difficulties are probably less important nowadays
because mist-nets are used widely, and are especially useful for species with skulking
habits.

Originally we had intended to cover all three East African countries, although our
personal experience of Tanzania is slight, and only C. F. M. has any substantial knowledge
of Uganda. As Mann (1971b) has already published his more interesting Uganda records
and D. J. Pearson (pers. comm.) is preparing a paper on Palaearctic migrants to Uganda,
data from that country are mentioned only when they are especially significant. Despite
our lack of personal experience of Tanzania, and the inevitable Kenya bias, we have
attempted as much as possible to give equal weight to the two countries in this paper.
Tanzania lies directly to the south of Kenya, so that Palaearctic birds recorded in Tanzania
will, in most (but not all) cases, have passed through or over Kenya. That part of Kenya
in the northern hemisphere is comparatively neglected ornithological ly, whereas most of
Uganda lies north of the equator, so that extralimital species stand more chance of
being noticed in LTganda. Nevertheless, only three Palaearctic species Porzana parva
(Scopoli), Larus ichthyaetus Pallas and Apus pallidus (Shelley), have been recorded in
Uganda but not from Kenya or Tanzania (White, Jackson 1938, Mann 1971b, Pearson
1971)-

Each entry in the systematic list is usually arranged as follows: a brief statement
giving the distribution according to Vaurie (1959, 1965) and White (i960, 1961a, b,
1962, 1963, 1965) followed by a more detailed appraisal of the species’ status with
definitive records known to us. (To save constant repetition, dates of publication are
not given for references to Vaurie and White (op. cit .) in the text.) In addition to searching
the literature we have examined material in the National Museum, Nairobi and the
British Museum (Natural History), excepting the raptors in the latter collection which
were not available to G.C.B. in the summer of 1971. We also asked for unpublished
records from ornithologists by advertising in the East Africa Natural History Society
Newsletter (later renamed Bulletin) and we are grateful to those people who responded
(see Acknowledgements section). It is well known that many collections of Kenya birds
have been made in the last decade or so which have not always been written up. We
have not attempted to contact the various institutions in which these collections are
housed but it is our hope that any especially interesting specimens of Palaearctic birds
in this category will be published by others in the future, even though these may alter
some of our conclusions. When no definitive record is available to substantiate a published
account of the occurrence of a species, the name is put in square brackets. It may be
that the relevant specimen is housed somewhere, but until the details are published, or
further records become available, these species cannot be admitted, in our opinion,
to the avifauna of Kenya or Tanzania. Likewise a few sight records with insufficient
documentation. Nomenclature follows White whereas order follows Backhurst &
Backhurst (1970). Names of the seasons are used in the north temperate sense as we are
dealing with birds which breed in that area. Records are usually listed in the order
autumn-winter-spring.

No “official” up-to-date list of East African birds exists. Future list compilers will,
we hope make use of this paper as a basis for evaluating the less common Palaearctic
species. It should be noted that the records quoted by us belong to several different
categories, namely: specimens which can still be examined; specimens which can no

Page 3

longer be traced; photographs of birds in the field or in the hand; fully documented
sight records (including birds handled for ringing but not photographed); sight records
without full details. In our search of the literature, and in the replies received to our
requests for records, we have come across a number which are a mere statement that
the bird was seen. In most cases these records have been listed here. It is appreciated
however that many readers will find them unacceptable but, in the circumstances, we feel
that we have no alternative but to publish them. We would like to make some recommend-
ations for the future publication of unusual records: observers are urged to publish
their observations as soon as possible, giving full details of plumage, calls (if any), date
and place; comparisons with other species present should also be given. The East Africa
Natural History Society Bulletin is a suitable place for reporting most records although
the Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club may be considered more appropriate
for ‘first’ records or for when photographs are to be included. We would deplore the
publication of unusual records with no descriptive details, but often with the phrase
appended ‘the observer is familiar with the species in Europe’; such records cannot be
assessed at a later date without giving offence to the observer. This criticism is true of
some records supplied to us in litt; sometimes we have been able to obtain additional
information from the observer but in other cases this has not been possible.

In our view, the idea that a national list should be based only on collected specimens
is wrong, but we feel that some form of evidence, preferably photographic, should
always be supplied.

Birds recorded after the 1970-1971 wintering ‘season’ are excluded, so that this
paper includes no records after 30 June 1971.

SYSTEMATIC LIST

HYDROBATES LEUCORHOA (Vieillot) Leach’s Petrel

Vaurie and White both mention its occurrence off the coast of West Africa but that there are
no records from the eastern seaboard. White states that Red Sea records require confirmation.

There is only one record from our area, a bird found dead at Tiwi River mouth, south Kenya
coast, on 8 February 1969 (Parsons 1969). Very few species of pelagic birds have been recorded
from the East African coast and it is likely that this species is nothing more than a very rare vagrant.
It would seem probable that hitherto unrecorded pelagics will be found in the future. The other
Palaearctic Hydrobates, H. pelagicus (Linn.) may well occur extralimitally in East African waters
as suggested by Mackworth Praed & Grant (1957). Pakenham (1939) has pointed out that despite
the claims of earlier authors, there is no good record from Tanzanian seas.

[BOTAURUS STELLARIS STELLARIS (Linn.) Bittern

This race is not recognised by Vaurie although White admits it; both authors state that
Palaearctic birds winter to the northern tropics, rarely to the Congo Basin.

We have no records from Kenya or Tanzania but the sight record by Schwarz (1948) from
Laropi, West Nile Province, Uganda on 24 April 1948 may be mentioned; the bird was recorded
as a “Common European Bittern ( Botaurus s. stellaris )” with no details except that it was seen
in reeds. We know of no way of distinguishing the Palaearctic form from that of southern Africa
( capensis Schlegel) in the field although, according to White, capensis occurs no further north than
south-western Tanzania. We consider Schwarz’s record unsatisfactory because a) he has made
no attempt to explain his reasons for calling it the nominate form, and b) he gives no details of the
bird whatsoever. There seems no reason, however, why this species should not occur occasionally
in northern East Africa, especially as Urban & Brown (1971) record it as a rare visitor throughout
Ethiopia. It may be mentioned that the closely related American Bittern B. lentiginosus Montagu
has wandered to western Europe on a number of occasions so that vagrancy may be a regular trait
in the genus. Vesey-FitzGerald & Beesley (i960) record the species as a Palaearctic migrant to the
Rukwa, south-western Tanzania, but add that it possibly breeds, having heard booming in February
and March. Clearly this refers to capensis. Thus the European Bittern has not been recorded from
Kenya or Tanzania.]

IXOBRYCHUS MINUTUS MINUTUS (Linn.) Little Bittern

Recorded by Vaurie and White as wintering in tropical Africa, especially in the east, south
to eastern Cape Province.

Page 4

Jackson (1938) was able to give only one record of one obtained (others seen) at Witu, Kenya
coast on 12 May. Van Someren (1932) stated that “the typical race occurs as a migrant” but gave
no details. There are five specimens in the National Museum:

25 December 1970, Nairobi February 1946, $ Lake Magadi

28 December 1959, juv. <J Nairobi February 1953, $ Dodoma, Tanzania

9 January 1963, $ Nairobi

In addition, one was ringed (P.L.B.) on 21 November 1969 at Ukwala, Central Nyanza,
Kenya, weight 9ig, wing 150 mm.

The dates of the above birds suggest that it is a winter visitor rather than a passage migrant in
our area. Probably the European Little Bittern is often overlooked due to confusion with the local
race payesii (Hartlaub) and because of the difficulty in seeing birds in dense marshland vegetation.

CICONIA NIGRA (Linn.) Black Stork

Vaurie states that the species winters south to I5°S. whereas White is more cautious, giving
the wintering range of the Palaearctic birds as south to Uganda. The Black Stork breeds south
of our area in Malawi, Zambia and South Africa where it is apparently resident.

Benson et al. (1970) have shown that it is a regular migrant to Kenya in very small numbers
between November and early April. This statement is based on nine sight records supplied by the
late M. E. W. North, and our more extensive data confirm this view. We have details of 41 sightings
between 1 September and 6 April of which all but two are from Nairobi and east of Nairobi. Most
are from Nairobi National Park and Tsavo East National Park. J. G. Williams informs us (in litt.)
that the mounted display specimen in the National Museum was collected by R. Glen at Kibwezi.
Jackson (1938) was able to cite only two recorded localities in Kenya, both west of Nairobi and
both on the authority of van Someren, implying that he (Jackson) had never seen the bird himself.
This lack of records of such a conspicuous bird suggests that the Black Stork is more common
now than it was in the early part of the century. Apart from van Someren’s (1922) “large flock”,
the largest party is of twelve birds seen by Mrs. Lise Campbell in Nairobi National Park on 29
November 1970.

Sight records from Tanzania are: six at Rukwa in January (Vesey-Fitzgerald & Beesley i960)
and one annually in the Arusha National Park from 1965, to at least 1969, between October and
March (Beesley 1971a). The only earlier references to this species from Tanzania are by Moreau.
In the first (Moreau 1937), he makes a most uncharacteristic statement that it is “a winter visitor
and passage migrant in much smaller numbers than the White Stork” with no details of specimens
obtained or dates of sightings. Later (Moreau 1941), when listing ringed Ciconia spp. recovered
in Tanzania, he mentions one which, according to the description given him, might have been
C. nigra. We have been unable to locate details of this ringing recovery.

The Black Stork is thus a regular winter visitor to central and south-east Kenya in very small
numbers; in Tanzania it occurs regularly, but in even smaller numbers.

PL AT ALE A LEUCORODIA LEUCORODIA Linn. European Spoonbill

Vaurie and White give the species’ distribution as south to Uganda and Kenya with no indica-
tion as to its abundance.

Van Someren (1922) listed one specimen, a male taken on 15 February 1918 at Lake Naivasha,
but then went on to say that “large numbers winter on the larger lakes”, a statement which is quite
unacceptable in view of subsequent knowledge. Jackson (1938) considered it (geographically)
probable that the bird was an example of the small Red Sea race archeri Neumann. White does
not admit archeri as a valid race although the bill measurements he gives (147-189 mm for archeri
and 183-223 mm for leucorodia ) indicate that most specimens could be separated. All records to
date are from inland, and since we consider it rather unlikely that Red Sea birds would wander to
inland East Africa (as far west as near Lake Albert in Uganda, Keith 1968), we prefer to regard
these birds as Palaearctic.

The specimen recorded by Loveridge (1923) from Kilosa, Tanzania was later rejected by
Friedmann & Loveridge (1937) as having been incorrectly identified. In addition there are four
modern sight records:

April 1956, several, Ferguson’s Gulf, Lake Rudolf (J. G. Williams in litt.)

28 August 1964, 1, Lake Naivasha (A.D. Forbes-Watson in litt.)

29 August 1967, 1, Lake Nakuru (A.D. Forbes-Watson in litt.)

23 March 1969, 1, Central Island, Lake Rudolf (D.A. Turner in litt.)

The European Spoonbill is clearly no more than a very rare vagrant to Kenya. Confusion
with the local P. alba Scopoli is, however, possible.

[/1AM S ANGUSTIROSTRIS Menetries Marbled Teal

This species is included as it is mentioned by Lynn-Alien (1951). He says that “two were
supposed to have been shot in the Kisumu area in 1941” and “In 1932, we shot an unrecognised
duck on a swamp at Uplands, outside Nairobi, which might possibly have been of this variety”.
It has not been recorded in Ethiopia (Urban & Brown 1971) but Vaurie records it as occasional
to Lake Chad. We cannot admit this species to the Kenya list on the present evidence.]

Page 5

ANAS CRECCA CRECCA Linn. Teal

Vaurie and White record this species south to northern Tanzania with no indication as to
its abundance.

Jackson (1938), on the authority of van Someren, records it from Lakes Elmenteita, Naivasha
and Nakuru, and from Solai. Van Someren (1932) gives the first East African record as 1 January
1919 from Lake Naivasha, and then from April 1923 “every winter”, presumably until about 1931.
G. R. Cunningham-van Someren ( in litt.) states that he has shot Teal several times on Lake Naivasha
and at Ol Bolossat between December and February from 1935 to 1955. In addition, Lynn-Alien
(1942) obtained two on 22-26 December 1941 at Ferguson’s Gulf, Lake Rudolf. Moreau (1937)
gives van Someren’s (1931) Tanzania records as being from Lakes Natron, Manyara and Eyasi.

The National Museum contains five specimens, all collected between January and March;
four are from Naivasha and Rumuruti, the fifth, an adult male date 27 January 1961, is from
Itumba, Tanzania. We know of only five sight records from Kenya, between November and March,
and one from Tanzania, namely three birds at the Ngorongoro Crater Lake on 14 February 1967.
(D. A. Turner in litt.).

The Teal is thus a scarce but perhaps regular migrant to Kenya with an odd bird straggling
to Tanzania.

ANAS PENELOPE Linn. Wigeon

Vaurie gives its winter range as south to about the equator while White records it to northern
Tanzania.

The distribution of the Wigeon in Kenya and Tanzania is very similar to that of the Teal
except that the present species appears to be slightly more numerous. There are five specimens
from Kenya in the National Museum taken between 10 December and 24 February at Naivasha
(three), Njoro and Taveta. We have five personal sight records (all G.C.B.), four from the Kenya
Meat Commission pools at Athi River between 6 February and 11 April, and another record of
c. 20 on 25 January 1970 in the north-eastern corner of Lake Nakuru. A. J. Deane (in litt.) saw
and photographed one at the end of November 1970, also at Lake Nakuru.

The party of 25 between 2 February and 7 March 1943, 40 km south-west of Mt. Meru,
Tanzania in Fuggles-Couchman & Elliott (1946) is larger than any recorded in Kenya. The only
other Tanzania records are those of J. S. S. Beesley (in litt.) from Arusha National Park, where
he has observed them regularly during the winter on a small dam between January 1965 and 12
April 1971; the largest party was 15 birds on 12 February 1966. Moreau (1937) omits the Wigeon
from his list of migrants to Tanzania and Grote (1930) gives the Sudan and Ethiopia as its southern
limit, however it is clearly a regular visitor to northern Tanzania.

ANAS PLATYRHYNCHOS Linn. Mallard

Vaurie records the species south to Ethiopia and White adds that records from further south
than northern Sudan are doubtful.

Some doubt must surround the status of the Mallard in East Africa. Sharpe (1930b) recorded
the species from Marsabit but merely wrote “I think I am the first to record it from Marsabit in
Kenya Colony” that is, he omitted to give any details of his record(s) at all. Van Someren, in his
1930 paper dealing with ducks makes the following statement: “Sharpe writes ‘I shot a male on
Marsabit Lake in February 1928. Both males and females at the end of January and in February
1929. One male in full plumage; young males and females, shot on different occasions and
observed at other times’ ”. Van Someren also mentions that the species has been shot by Sharpe
on Koronli Water WNW of Marsabit and goes on to say that Sharpe, being unaware that the
Mallard was previously unrecorded in Kenya, did not retain any skins. Later, van Someren
(1932) appeared sceptical, saying that “the record should be substantiated by a specimen”.
Grote (1931) quoted Sharpe’s record without comment. Lynn-Alien (1951) mentions a drake
(from a pair) shot on Lake Naivasha by Major Allan North on 26 December 1938 “destined
for the Coryndon Museum in Nairobi, but unfortunately miscarried”.

A number of Mallard have been introduced on private waters in Kenya (Lynn-Alien 1951 and
personal observations) and J. G. Williams (in litt.) tells us that the late Raymond Hook released
some at Nanyuki.

The Mallard occurs rarely throughout Ethiopia above 1500 m (Urban & Brown 1971) so
it may be expected again in the north of Kenya. There are no records from Tanzania. The inclusion
of the Mallard in the avifauna of Kenya thus rests on the specimens obtained by Sharpe and North,
none of which is extant; the species should be watched for especially in the north of Kenya.

ANAS STREPERA STREPERA Linn. Gadwall

Recorded by Vaurie and White as south to Kenya. The Gadwall was not included by Jackson
(1938) and it appears that the first Kenya specimen was obtained at Soy in December 1937 (van
Someren 1943) followed by another in January 1938 from south Kavirondo (van Someren op. cit.).
Copley (1942) records a female shot on 19 February 1940 at Kisumu and this specimen is still in
the National Museum. Leakey (1943b) mentions three Gadwall specimens received by the National

Page 6

Museum between December 1942 and January 1943 and one, a female, 9 January 1943 Lake
Nakuru, still in the Museum, is probably one of these. In the extreme north of Kenya at Todanyang
one was obtained from a party of four on 10 January 1942 (Lynn-Alien 1942). We have no personal
sight records from Kenya but G. R. Cunningham-van Someren tells us (in litt.) of one which was
present on a dam at Karen from December i960 until January 1961. The sole record from Tanzania
is of three seen (C.F.M.) on 18 December 1964 on Ngorongoro Crater Lake.

The above records show that the Gadwall is an extremely scarce bird in Kenya and Tanzania,
however, it should be remembered that the bird may appear rather drab and inconspicuous in
the field so that it may be more common than the records suggest.

AYTHYA FERINA (Linn.) Pochard

Vaurie and White give the winter range as south to the Sudan and Ethiopia. We have only
one record of this species, a male seen and photographed between 2 January and 8 February 1971
on a dam in Arusha National Park, Tanzania (Beesley 1971b). There are no Kenya records but
M.P.L. Fogden informs us (in litt.) that he has recent records for the Queen Elizabeth Park, Uganda.

The Pochard is thus a very rare visitor to our area, at present unrecorded in Kenya.

AYTHYA FULIGULA (Linn.) Tufted Duck

Recorded by Vaurie as occasionally to northern Tanzania and by White as a vagrant to northern
Malawi.

Although Vaurie and White make no mention of the numbers involved our findings are other-
wise in agreement with theirs: the first record is of one obtained on 21 November 1913 at the
Yala River Swamp (van Someren 1922). By 1932 van Someren had six specimens from Lakes
Naivasha, Elmenteita and Nakuru, and mentioned that A. Turner had noted them as regular on
the Kinangop dams (van Someren 1932). Although we have no personal sight records of this
conspicuous bird from Kenya, we can supply five by other observers: Marsabit Lake between
November and March (FI. B. Sharpe in van Someren 1930)5 Lake Nakuru, n December 1970
(A. J. Deane in litt.)-, Ol Donyo Sabuk, 5 January 1967 (MS in E.A.N.H.S. file); Lake Naivasha,
1 March 1970 (G. R. Cunningham-van Someren in litt.)-, Lake Naivasha, 19 March 1950 (Guggis-
burg 1950). Further, Cunningham-van Someren tells us (in litt.) that he has seen Tufted Duck
in odd years on Lake Naivasha and Ol Bolossat between 1934 and 1965.

The only records from Tanzania are sightings from the north of the country: Ngorongoro
Crater, 7 March (Fuggles-Couchman & Elliott 1946); Arusha National Park (J. S. S. Beesley
in litt.) from 24 April to 1 June 1969 (male), 18-24 January 1970 (male), and from 19 December
1970 to 2 March 1971 (3 males, 2 females).

The Tufted Duck can be no more than a very scarce winter visitor to our area.

AYTHYA NYROCA (Giildenstadt) White-eyed Pochard or Ferruginous Duck

Both Vaurie and White record the species as migrating south to Kenya but with no indication
of its frequency or abundance.

Jackson (1938) gave no records from Kenya although van Someren (1930) had recorded two
(presumably obtained), both in January 1920 from Lakes Naivasha and Nakuru; later van Someren
records two more, a female in February 1925 and one (no sex given) in January 1930, both from
Lake Naivasha. The only recent specimen is of one shot on 8 February 1970 at Endebess (R. C. Boy
in litt.) and we know of only one sight record, on the rather early date of 6 September 1958 at
Ol Joro Orok (Bednall 1959). We have no personal records of this species and know of none from
Tanzania.

The White-eyed Pochard is a very rare vagrant to Kenya although it may be overlooked to
some extent.

T ADORN A FERRUGINEA (Pallas) Ruddy Shelduck

Vaurie gives the winter range in Africa as south to the northern Sudan and White adds that
it is a vagrant to Eritrea. Mackworth-Praed & Grant (1957) mention Kenya as the southerly
limit of the non-breeding range and this is repeated by Bauer & Glutz von Blotzheim (1968).

The only record from our area is of one seen north of Ferguson’s Gulf, Lake Rudolf in the
late 1950s (J. G. Williams pers. comm.).

ACCIPITER BREVIPES (Severtzov) Levant Sparrow Hawk

White gives but two records for the whole of the Ethiopian Region, one from south Sudan
and another from Busenga in Tanzania. Although collected by C. F. M. Swynnerton on 1 December
1921 the Tanzania specimen was not included by Moreau (1937) as it was not correctly identified
until examined by Morrison (1955). There is only one other record from the Ethiopian Region
(Gangala na Bodio, Uele, Zaire, 30 41 'N., 29°o8'E., Wattel (1966)) so that, on present evidence,
the Levant Sparrow Hawk can be regarded as an exceptionally rare visitor to the Ethiopian Region ;
it appears that its winter quarters are unknown (Vaurie).

ACCIPITER NISUS NISUS (Linn.) European Sparrow Hawk

While Vaurie gives its winter range as south to the Sudan and Ethiopia, White mentions
that it occurs sparingly to Kenya and northern Tanzania.

Page 7

On the records available to us the European Sparrow Hawk is clearly a rare bird in our area
although it must be mentioned that Accipiter species are notoriously difficult to sec, let alone
identify. Jackson (1938) gives one record from the Lower Molo River on 2 February 19x1 and
there is an immature male in the National Museum, collected on 4 December 1928 on the Kinangop,
2440m a.s.l. which was reported by Leakey (1943a). Owre & Paulson (1968) collected a female
near Loiengalani, Lake Rudolf; the authors omit to mention the date of collection but state that
the specimen was assigned to the nominate race by Vaurie. The remaining Kenya records are
sightings by L. H. Brown (in litt.) of three together on 21/22 January 1952 at Ishiara and of one
on 23 January 1953 at Ruiru. The sole record for Tanzania is the female collected in November
between Mts. Meru and Kilimanjaro quoted by Grote (1930).

Eagles of the genus Aquila: The following three species, together with the Steppe Eagle Aquila
rapax orientalis Cabanis, form a notoriously difficult group of birds to identify in the field. Thus, with
the comparative lack of collecting in our area in modern times, we can add few definitive records. As
Mann (1971b) has pointed out, the Steppe Eagle is a common visitor to Kenya, so that the bulk of
Palaearctic Aquila seen are probably this species. We are unable to evaluate the true status of these
species in East Africa; in our opinion some specimens are required. A number of observers in Europe
are attacking the problems of bird of prey identification with great thoroughness (see, for example.
Flight identification of European raptors, Parts 1 and 2 by S. Christensen, B.P. Nielsen, R. F.
Porter & I. Willis Br. Birds 64: 247-266 and 435-455); in future, when the effects of their studies
become known, more acceptable sight records may be reported. It is distasteful to most people
to collect birds of prey, especially now that many species are declining in numbers, so that any
birds found dead should be taken for specimens or, if this is not possible, photographs and/or
notes should be made so that the bird is not wasted.

AQUILA CLANG A Pallas Greater Spotted Eagle

Vaurie and White record it south to Eritrea; an old record from Natal is doubted by White.
Urban & Brown (1971) describe it as “frequent to common” in the western highlands of Ethiopia,
but add the remark “numbers and status rather obscure because of confusion with A. rapax/'

Owre & Paulson (1968) collected an immature female at El Molo Bay, Lake Rudolf on 19
October 1958, the identification was confirmed by Stresemann and Vaurie. A. D. Forbes- Watson
(pers. comm.) tells us of a bird which he saw at Ngulia in Tsavo West National Park on 3 Dec-
ember 1969. He showed his description to L. H. Brown who agreed that the bird was A. clanga.
A. J. Deane (in litt.) has seen and photographed this species on three occasions at Lake Nakuru
(20 November 1970, 5 and 7 December 1970). Finally, Bednall (1959) claimed a “possible” on
10 November 1958 in Nairobi National Park; J. G. Williams is quoted as agreeing that it was
probably this species. The Greater Spotted Eagle is unrecorded from Tanzania.

AQUILA HELIACA HELIACA Savigny Imperial Eagle

Both Vaurie and White record the nominate eastern race of the Imperial Eagle south to the
Sudan. Urban 81 Brown (1971) describe it as uncommon in the western highlands of Ethiopia,
but add the remark “no recent records; status rather obscure”.

There are two Kenya sight records. The first was seen by G. H. H. Brown on the Yalta Plains
in February or March 1962 (Brown 1963). The author omitted to mention exactly where or when he
saw the bird but his brother, L. H. Brown, has supplied us (pers. comm.) with the information given
above. A second bird was seen by A. D. Forbes-Watson on 4 December 1969 at Ngulia where he
had seen a Greater Spotted Eagle A. clanga only the day before. As with this earlier bird, the
description was shown to L. H. Brown who agreed with the identification (A. D. Forbes-Watson
pers. comm.).

AQUILA POMARINA Brelun Lesser Spotted Eagle

Vaurie and White record this species as a non-breeding migrant to our area and south to
Rhodesia and South West Africa. White remarks that it is evidently overlooked here as it is common
in Rhodesia.

The Lesser Spotted Eagle is uncommon in the northern Sudan (Cave & Macdonald 1955)
but it has never certainly been recorded from Ethiopia (Urban & Brown 1971), so that it probably
passes mainly west of our area. There is still, as far as we know, no record from Uganda or Zaire;
Jackson (1938) gave only one from Kenya, the bird collected by Mackworth-Praed (1917) in the
Ithanga Hills north of Nairobi on 29 September. Lynes (1934) collected a female on 14 March
1932 at Iringa and saw 30, 150 and 100 passing north on 12th, 13th and 14th of that month. A
bird ringed in Estonia was killed in Geita District, Tanzania in March 1955 (Jogi 1957). There
is no specimen in the National Museum, and the only recent record is that of Bowles (1967) of
thousands of eagles near Sultan Hamud, Kenya on 11 November 1966 which L. H. Brown thought
might have been this species.

The route taken by this species to its winter quarters remains, to some extent, a mystery.
Brown & Amadon (1970) note that most enter Africa at Suez to spend the winter in savannas
south of the equator. Their map 66 shows the main wintering area as eastern Africa between
about 5°S. and 20°S. Certainly it is regular in some numbers in Rhodesia and Zambia (White,

Page 8

Benson et al. 1971) but is hardly known in our area; from the wintering range given by Brown
& Amadon (op. at.) there should be records from southern Tanzania more recent than those of
Lynes ( op.dt .) in 1932, but this lack of modern records may simply reflect the absence of bird watchers
there at the right time of year. The most obvious gap in our understanding of this species’ move-
ments is the route taken between the southern tropics and the northern Sudan. It no doubt passes
regularly over our area, as discussed in Brown (1970), coming to ground only exceptionally. Properly
identified birds are so few that we are unable to discern any clear pattern or route.

BUTEO RUFINUS RUFINUS (Cretzschmar) Long-legged Buzzard

Vaurie and White record this species south to northern Sudan, and occasionally to northern
Somalia and Zambia (Kasama). Benson (1948) first reported the Kasama bird, a male collected
by E. L. Button on 21 November 1938. Button presented the bird to the British Museum but
Benson (in litt.) informs us that it disappeared soon afterwards, and that it has still (1971) to be
located. Benson (in litt.) considers his earlier identification entirely correct. Although not included
for Ethiopia by White, Smith (1957) had recorded it earlier from the extreme north (Eritrea), and
Urban & Brown (1971) mention sight records and a specimen from elsewhere in Ethiopia; they
record it as uncommon throughout the country. There are only two records from our area: Owre
& Paulson (1968) collected a male near Loiengalani in northern Kenya on 6 November 1958,
and L. H. Brown (in litt.) informs us that he saw one on 23 November 1966 at Block’s Farm,
near Longonot. The Long-legged Buzzard may be regular in small numbers in the north of our
area. At io°S., the Kasama record is some 1700 km south of any other record; it can be no more
than a very rare vagrant south of northern Kenya, and, as yet, is unrecorded from Tanzania.

CIRCAETUS GALLICUS (Gmelin) Short-toed Harrier Eagle

White states that it has occurred once on Mt. Elgon but he omits to say in which country
the bird was found (the Kenya — Uganda border bisects the mountain). The only record definitely
from our area is the female collected near Loiengalani in northern Kenya on 27 October 1958
(Owre & Paulson 1968), so the species may well be regular in small numbers in the extreme
north of Kenya. Urban & Brown (1971) record this species throughout Ethiopia from October
to March but add (by using a question mark) that the status is uncertain.

HIERAAETUS PENNATUS (Gmelin) Booted Eagle

Although this species migrates as far south as Cape Province (Vaurie and White) it is never-
theless a rarely observed bird and is, therefore, included in this paper.

Broekhuysen (1971) was able to give only three sightings for South Africa for the seventeen
years 1950-1966, but all in 1961. It is known from Malawi and there are four sight records from
Zambia (Benson et al. 1971). A full list of Kenya records is given indicating the colour phase of
the bird, where known. W. Leuthold supplied his records in litt., mainly from Tsavo East National
Park.

28 July 1970, 1 seen Lessos, C.F.M.

7 March 1971, 1 light seen 8 km north of
Eldoret, P.L.B., C.F.M.

12 March 1971, 1 light seen Tsavo Gate,
W. Leuthold

17 April 1926, c? Mt. Elgon, Granvik (1934)
24 April 1971, 1 dark seen Shimba Hills, C.F.M

18 November 1963, $ dark Rongai, National
Museum

February, Ol Donyo Sabuk, Grote (1930)

16 February 1971, 1 light seen Manyani,

W. Leuthold

Further records will show whether 1971 was an exceptionally good year for Booted Eagles
and whether the pattern of occurrence, with most records in the south-east and most in spring,
is merely coincidence. The only Tanzanian records are of one collected at Amani on 26 January
1930 (Sclater & Moreau 1932) and one seen by J. S. S. Beesley (in litt.) at Tarangire in October
1966.

PERN IS APIVORUS (Linn.) Honey Buzzard

Vaurie and White give its winter range as south to Angola, the Transvaal and Natal.
Moreau (1937) comments that the Honey Buzzard is not uncommon and that it occurs at
Amani, Tanzania each year in February and March, and J. G. Williams (in litt.) states that it passes
through Kilifi, Kenya coast in small numbers every spring, normally in late March and early
April. In contrast to these views L. H. Brown (in litt.) has seen this bird only once in Africa (and
that in 1971 after over 30 years residence) while we have but two personal sightings (see below).
Jackson (1938) also found the bird scarce with no records from Kenya and only one from Uganda,
although van Someren (1922) had recorded it earlier from the Yala River and Nairobi. We are
aware of only fifteen definitive Kenya records :

29 October 1970, 1 seen Kapsabet, C.F.M.

31 October 1947, 1 seen near Elmenteita, Leakey (1947)

2 February 1954, <3 near Nairobi, National Museum
7 March 1966, $ Lower Kabete, Nairobi, National Museum
14 March 1964, $ Langata, Nairobi, National Museum

Page 9

28 March 1971, 1 seen Lower Kabete, J. S. Karmali and S. Keith (in litt.)

April 1938, Kabete, Leakey (1943)

1 April 1963, $ Nairobi, National Museum

4 April 1971, 1 seen Karen, Nairobi, L. H. Brown (in litt.)

11 April 1959, 1 seen Mtito Andei, J. G. Williams in Bednall (1959)

25 April 1970, 1 seen Thika, C.F.M.

4 June 1932, $ Ruaraka, Voous (1948)

10 June 1963, immature Ruiru, National Museum

19 June 1930, $ Nairobi, Voous (1948)

2 July 1944, 1 seen Indarugu River, Blom-Bjorner (1945)

28 August 1954, <J Kiambu, National Museum

We have details of five records from Tanzania:

8 November 1921, c? Ulugu, Ushora, Friedmann & Loveridge (1937)

29 December 1939, 1 seen Mwanza, Meiklejohn (1940)

23 February 1918, $ Morogoro, Friedmann & Loveridge (1937)

24 February 1934, $ Amani, National Museum

1 April 1918, $ Morogoro, Friedman (1922)

Moreau (1937) did not give any precise records although he collected the Amani bird; as
mentioned above, he stated that it was not uncommon there each year in February and March.

The Honey Buzzard appears to be a scarce migrant, mainly on spring passage, with an unusual
number of summer records.

FALCO AMURENSIS Radde Eastern Red-footed Falcon

Considerable confusion surrounds the status of this species in the literature: Vaurie and
White give its winter range (our italics) as Kenya and the Congo (Katanga) south to Cape Province
in the east and northern South-West Africa in the west. The Eastern Red-footed Falcon is an east
Siberian breeding bird extending as far west as Lake Baikal (io4°-iio°E.), yet it winters exclusively
in Africa (Vaurie). South of our area in Malawi, Zambia, Rhodesia and South Africa it is a common
winter visitor and passage migrant, e.g. Benson (1951) recorded thousands going to roost in Malawi
and Benson et al. (1971) mention 10000 or more together around Salisbury, Rhodesia. From the
above records and from the paucity of records from our area (see below) and from the complete
lack of records from the Sudan, Ethiopia and ex-British Somaliland (Cave & Macdonald 1955,
Brown & Amadon 1970, Archer & Godman 1937) it seems clear that this gregarious species
does not migrate overland from Siberia to Central and Southern Africa; moreover, the statement
in Brown & Amadon (op. cit.) that it “possibly crosses the Indian Ocean from north-west India
to about Cape Guardafui” must also be erroneous. Brown (1970) modifies his earlier ideas (with
Amadon) by saying that “One must assume that they cross the Indian Ocean from North-East
to South-West, arriving on the African coast at some part south of the Equator, when the rains
are about to start or have started”. From the evidence presented below we would agree with this
statement except to add that the majority must enter Africa south of Tanzania, i.e. at more than
io°S., although in spring some F. amurensis are noted on passage in southern Tanzania. All our
records except those from southern Tanzania must surely refer to stragglers.

We have been able to locate only six dated autumn records from the whole of our area (lending
weight to the theory that the arriving flocks enter Africa south of io°S.):

19 November 1961, 1 c.ioo km from Arusha, northern Tanzania, National Museum

23 November 1966, seen Block’s Farm, Longonot, L. H. Brown (in litt.)

24 November 1966, several <$<$ seen, as above; no observed, L. H. Brown (in litt.)

25 November 1937, Pemba Island, Tanzania, Pakenham (1939)

25 and 26 November 1965, $ seen Lelan Downs, Cherangani Hills, L. H. Brown (in litt.)

2 December 1947, Karema, Lake Tanganyika, National Museum

In addition, Sessions (1967) considers it an uncommon passage migrant at Mau Narok (o°3o'S.)
in November and December.

We have rather more spring records:

24 February, specimen Mtito Andei, Jackson (1938)

26 March 1933, Manda, Lake Malawi, Tanzania, Sassi & Zimmer (1941)

27 March 1930, <J Koroli, near Marsabit, Oberholser (1945)

30 March, seen Amani, Tanzania, Moreau (1937)

March and April, frequently seen Rukwa, Tanzania, Vesey-Fitzgerald & Beesley (i960)

5 April, specimen Kikuyu Forest, Jackson (1938)

5 April 1971, c. 10 (at least 2 $$) seen hunting flying termites after heavy rain, near Voi (in
Tsavo East National Park) W. Leuthold (in litt.)

7 April 1971, 2 $6 seen Kandere, Tsavo East National Park, C. Smeenk (in litt.)

24 April 1959, <$ collected Kilifi, J. G. Williams in Bednall (1959b)

6 and 14 May 1968, $ seen Lower Kabete, Miss D. Angwin (in litt.)

Van Someren (1932) records it from Kikuyu and Loita without giving dates and Sessions
(1967) calls it an uncommon passage migrant at Mau Narok in April. It is significant that Reynolds
(1969) failed to record it in seven years residence at Tabora.

Page 10

FALCO CHERRUG CHERRUG Gray Saker

White records the Saker south to Kenya but Vaurie gives only northern Sudan and Ethiopia.
There is no mention of it in van Someren (1922), Grote (1930), Moreau (1937) or Jackson (1938);
Mackworth-Praed & Grant (1957) give Kenya as the southern limit and Williams (1969) gives it as
an uncommon winter visitor to north-eastern Africa without specifying the countries in which
it has occurred.

The first East African record is of one obtained by M. G. K. Collins in Nairobi on 29 November
1948 (Williams 1948) and now in the National Museum. We know of a few Kenya sight records:
1 seen on 23 November 1966 at Lake Nakuru, A. D. Forbes-Watson & D. A. Turner in litt.;
up to five together seen at Kabamet from 7 November 1969 to the end of the month (C.F.M.);
1 seen at Kabamet on 19 March 1970 and 27 April 1970 (C.F.M.).

Mann’s records from Kabarnet in the Kenya Rift are especially interesting and suggest that
it may have been overlooked elsewhere. He was resident there off and on for the whole of the
1969-70 wintering season so that their apparent absence from December to mid March may be real.
All the records to date are in November, March and April, indicating a passage. In any event it
can be no more than a very scarce visitor to Kenya, and it is still unrecorded from Tanzania.

FALCO CONCOLOR Temminck Sooty Falcon

We do not quote Vaurie and White for this species as Moreau (1969) has written an excellent
review of its status, both as a breeding bird in north Africa and Arabia, and as a winterer in Mada-
gascar and the eastern littoral of Africa from Kenya to Natal. He rejects Meinertzhagen’s (1930)

record of regular breeding in the Old Fort at Mombasa as “now generally disbelieved but

may all be based on wintering birds”. His supporting evidence for stating that it winters in Kenya
is the three specimens in the National Museum from Nairobi, Naivasha and Sabaki River, an
undated specimen in Jackson (1938), and information supplied by L. H. Brown and I.S.C. Parker.
Parker collected the Sabaki River bird on 20 November and considers it “a regular passage migrant
in some numbers” through eastern Kenya. Brown has records from the lower Athi River and Lake
Nakuru. In addition, D. A. Turner ( in litt.) saw it near Suswa on 23 February 1969, and there is
an immature female in the National Museum collected in the Lali Hills on 20 November i960
not considered by Moreau. The only Tanzania records given by Moreau are Dar es Salaam (24
March 1894) and Ukerewe Island, Lake Victoria (undated). In his recent review, Moreau has
ignored his own sight records from Tanzania between 26 October and 3 March which were doubted
by Sclater (in Sclater & Moreau 1932); it may be that Moreau accepted Sclater’s judgement as
it is uncharacteristic of him to ignore such a relevant reference.

FALCO ELEONORAE Gene Eleonora’s Falcon

This species breeds in the eastern Mediterranean and migrates through the Red Sea to winter
in Madagascar and Reunion (Vaurie and White). Vaurie states that it winters in Somalia although
White describes it as only a non-breeding migrant. More precisely, these authors refer to ex-
British Somaliland which is the part of modern Somalia north of about 8°N.; likewise, Ethiopian
records are from Eritrea in the north-east (Urban & Brown 1971).

There are no specimens of this falcon from our area but several recent sight records are given
in full as a basis for considering any future records. There are no records in the literature for
Kenya or Tanzania up to and including Mackworth-Praed & Grant (1957).

1. “Recorded in recent years as a passage migrant in the Ruaha National Park Tanzania”
(Williams 1967).

2. “John Savidge, warden at Ruaha N. P. informs me this species is an annual visitor during
December” (D. A. Turner in litt.).

3. “A ‘certain’ bird, perched at close quarters, seen near Manyara turn-off, south of Arusha
(Tanzania), January 1971. Larger than a Hobby [Falco subbuteo Linn.] and bill and feet
massive. Perched on small dead tree — long tail.” (J. G. Williams in litt.).

4. At noon on 2 May 1971 at Naivasha, after heavy rain, G.C.B. observed three falcons which
may have been Eleonora’s, feeding at about 30-ioom altitude on flying insects, probably
termites. The most noticeable field character was their extremely graceful sweeping flight
recalling large swifts (e.g. Apus melba (Linn.)). The only hovering performed was when they
ate an insect which was held in the claws, as soon as this was done the majestic sweeping flight
was resumed. The birds appeared like large Hobbies (not present for comparison) but with
proportionately longer tails. The upperparts were slate-grey, underparts streaked, but with
no rufous on ‘thighs’ or under the tail. There was no terminal bar on the tail and no
‘moustache’ was seen. The feet were yellow.

5. “At about 10.30I1 on 3 May 1971 a dark falcon, about Hobby size and shape but with pro-
portionately longer tail, was seen flying steadily north along the western shore of Lake Nakuru.
The underparts were rather dark, streaked black, and a ‘moustache’ was visible on the grey
or whitish face. Cap and upperparts dark blackish.” (D. J. Pearson in litt.). The observer
feels that this may have been eleonorae.

The bulk of the population of this falcon must pass to the east of our area on their way to
and from their known wintering grounds in Madagascar but a few may pass along the Rift Valley
in Kenya and Tanzania.

Page 11

FALCO PELEGRINOIDES PELEGRINOIDES Temminck Barbary Falcon

White treats pelegrinoides as a full species whereas most authors (e.g. Brown & Amadon 1970)
treat it as a form of Falco peregrinus Tunstall, from which it cannot be certainly distinguished in
the field. According to Brown & Amadon (op. cit.) it breeds in Nubia and North Africa as far
west as southern Morocco, thus it does not certainly breed in the Ethiopian Region. Clapham
(1964) believed that the birds which he saw breeding on the Dahlac Islands in the southern Red
Sea were pelegrinoides, but for no reason except geography. He may well have been influenced by
Mackworth-Praed & Grant (1957) wherein the map for this form indicates that it breeds to south
of the Red Sea; these authors add, however, that “It has not yet been discovered nesting in our
area”. White records it to northern Sudan, northern Somalia and northern Ethiopia, “probably
as a non-breeding migrant from the Palearctic but may breed”. We include it in this review since
there is still no concrete evidence that it breeds outside the Palaearctic Region. Owre & Paulson
(1968) collected a female from two birds seen near Loiengalani in northern Kenya on 4 November
1958; the identification was confirmed by Vaurie. This is the only record from our area and may
well remain so for a long time in view of the impossibility of recognising it adequately in the field.

FALCO VESPERTINUS Linn. Red-footed Falcon

Vaurie gives the winter range as from the equator south to Cape Province. White is more
explicit, stating that it occurs south to Cape Province but “apparently not known from Eastern
Africa from Ethiopia to Malawi”. It is interesting that it should apparently by-pass eastern Africa
on its way south when, although breeding as far west as Hungary, most of the population breeds
to the north or north-east of our area. Glareola nordmanni Fischer takes a similar westerly route
(see below).

To our west and south there is only one record from Uganda, at Moroto (Mann 1971b);
no record in Zaire east of 28°E. (Chapin 1932); no record in Rhodesia east of 30°E. (Smithers
et al. 1957); apart from the Nyika Plateau sight records, which also constitute the only Malawi
records, it is unknown from Zambia east of Lusaka (Benson et al. 1971).

The sole record for Kenya is the male seen by D. A. Turner (in litt.) perched, and later flying
at Elmenteita on 12 October 1968. In Tanzania, Vesey-Fitzgerald & Beesley (i960) consider it
“rare” at Rukwa in the south-west, however, J. S. S. Beesley has told us (in litt.) that his only
record for Rukwa (and for Tanzania) was of one female seen in mid April 1955 near Milepa Village.

Thus there are but two sight records of the western Red-footed Falcon from the whole of
our area. The statement in Glutz von Blotzheim et al. (1971) that vespertinus is the dominant
Red-footed Falcon from Kenya to South West Africa is, therefore, inaccurate.

COTURNIX COTURNIX COTURNIX (Linn.) European Quail

Vaurie gives its range as south to about the equator whereas White says that some also reach
Natal and Cape Province. In a recent review, Benson & Irwin (1966) have rejected these southern
African records so that they agree with Vaurie that it occurs south to about the equator.

Jackson (1938) records it from Kisumu, Athi, Loita, Ngong Road (Nairobi) and Mbuyuni
near Taveta in Kenya. Benson & Irwin (op. cit.) mention specimens from Entebbe (Uganda)
and Kisumu, both more or less on the equator, as the most southerly records. It is likely that
Jackson’s birds were correctly raced so that it probably wanders occasionally south of the equator
to about 3°S. There is also the possibility that the migratory habits of the European Quail have
changed since Jackson’s day. Mrs. B. P. Hall (in litt.) tells us that most of Jackson’s specimens are
in the United States so that they would not have been included in Benson & Irwin’s review
(except for the Kisumu bird). It has not been recorded in Tanzania.

The identification of this Palaearctic race of the Quail is impossible in the field because of
confusion with C. c. africana Temminck & Schlegel; we are aware of no modern records. As far
as we know there is no Quail shooting nowadays in East Africa; Quail catching continues in Nyanza,
western Kenya, but all birds caught are (in P.L.B.’s experience) Harlequin Quail C. delegorguei
Delegorgue, and the catching season is from about June to September. There are no specimens
of the European Quail from our area in either the National or British Museums.

CREX CREX (Linn.) Corncrake

The Corncrake may not be a ‘less common’ visitor to our area but we include it because it is
so rarely observed, indeed the only observations (as distinct from specimens) we can trace are
those of Beesley and Reynolds (see below). Vaurie and White give its winter range as south to
eastern Cape Province.

Van Someren (1922) had specimens from Nairobi, Kisumu, Kiambu and Simba in December
and April, and Jackson (1938) mentions a late bird obtained by Hinde in Nairobi on 2 June. For
Tanzania, Moreau (1937) makes the broad statement that the Corncrake is “apparently known
only from around the Great Lakes”, but he gives no details of specimens or observations. We
have listed all the Kenya specimens known to us (as mentioned above, we know of no sightings
from Kenya), which show that the majority, if not all, occur at migration times, indicating that
the Corncrake is not a winter visitor.

7 October i960, <$ Nairobi, National Museum
15 November 1948, Nairobi, Nattrass (1948)

Page 12

1 6 November 1948, c? Kabete, National Museum

20 November 1962, $ Nairobi, National Museum

15 March 1940, 3 Emali Hills, National Museum

22 March 1957, c? Thika, National Museum

29 March 1940, <$ Garabani (= Emali), National Museum

April 1950, $ Nairobi, National Museum

15 April 1919, <J Nairobi, Friedmann & Loveridge (1937)

16 April 1956, <J Lumbwa, National Museum

18 April 1952, $ Limuru, National Museum

23 April 1948, (j Nairobi, National Museum

26 April 1967, one much decomposed, Kabete, G.C.B.

27 April 1956, $ East Aberdares at 2700 m a.s.l.. National Museum

29 April 1957, ? Nairobi, National Museum

early May 1916, “collected” Nairobi, Loveridge (1922)

2 June, “obtained” Nairobi, Jackson (1938)

There are two specimens (male and female) from Sanya, Tanzania in the British Museum
collected by H. F. I. Elliott on 22 April 1946. Reynolds (1969) records it from the Ugalla River
Game Reserve without details but he informs us ( in litt.) that “Corncrakes seemed rather common

judging from the number flushed by the car driving through high grass”; this was in mid

February. Reynolds has also told us that he has a few records of single birds seen from Iringa in
March and early April. J. S. S. Beesley (in litt.) noted the species from 1 February until mid April
in the Rukwa with up to four being seen in one day. He has also given us a record of
one seen on 8 April near Lake Manyara.

We have been unable to throw much light on the question of the abundance or otherwise of
the Corncrake in Kenya and Tanzania; it is a very secretive bird which is observed rarely, except
when breeding. It is probably a regular migrant, occurring most frequently in spring. The high
percentage of specimens from Nairobi and the Highlands of Kenya suggests that it favours the
grass country of that area, but it may simply reflect the distribution of people interested enough
to report a bird which has perished on migration.

[FULICA ATRA Linn. European Coot

We are grateful to C. W. Benson and R. J. Dowsett for drawing our attention to a note by
Dathe & Faust (1965) where they claim to have seen this species in Tanzania; the following
is a translation from the German: “During a safari .... to East Africa we saw, on 18 February
1965, independently of one another .... several hundred F. atra on the lake in the floor of Ngoro-
ngoro Crater. In spite of our special efforts we saw no F. cristata. Our wives witnessed our observa-
tions. Only when we looked at the literature and went through our notes at home did we see in
Mackworth-Praed 81 Grant (1957) that F. atra only occurs in winter .... to the area of Khar-
toum.” We are unable to accept this record: the knobs on the head of F. cristata Gmelin are rarely
noticeable except at very close range. We think that the plate of F. cristata in the European Field
Guide (Peterson et al. 1966) would suggest to observers from Europe that the projections on the
head would be visible (if only in silhouette) at great range; in Africa this is not so: the coots which
occur in thousands on, for example. Lake Naivasha look, en masse, just like the F. atra of Europe
and, in any case, not all individuals have knobs on the head.

Urban & Brown (1971) consider it “frequent to locally common” in the Rift Valley and
western highlands of Ethiopia, thus extending its known winter range considerably south of that
given by White (northern Sudan and Senegal), however J. S. Ash tells us (in litt.) that “There
must be an element of doubt about the Ethiopian Coots until I collect a specimen.” The European
Coot is a long distance migrant in parts of its range so that it may be proved to occur
in the future in East Africa but, at present, we prefer to omit it from the avifauna of our area.]

PORZANA PORZANA (Linn.) Spotted Crake

The Spotted Crake is, like the Corncrake Crex crex, a highly secretive migrant recorded by
Vaurie and White south to Lesotho.

Van Someren (1922) listed two adults, from Nairobi (April) and Londiani. We have seen the
Londiani bird, a male, still in the National Museum and collected on 22 February 1913. Jackson
(1938) mentions specimens from the Uasin Gishu Plateau and Kitui but gives no dates. A further
specimen was obtained at Lake Elmenteita in November or December 1951 (Ridley & Percy
1953) and, more recently, one was trapped and ringed by D. J. Pearson at Athi River on 21 February
1971. The only Tanzanian records are from Kilosa on 14 April (Friedmann & Loveridge 1937)
and Zanzibar (Grote 1930). Moreau (1937) summed up the situation by saying “almost certainly
a passage migrant in some numbers and probably a winter visitor also”, however the only specimen
known to him from Tanganyika was the Kilosa bird mentioned above. The only East African
specimen in the British Museum is an unsexed bird collected by Swynnerton on 22 April 1922
in Tanganyika (no locality). In contrast to the paucity of records from our area, Benson (1953)
gives 28 specimens from Malawi, eleven of these in the British Museum were collected in February
by Benson himself. It is recorded from six localities in Zambia (Benson et al. 1971). Chapin (1939)
had no Zaire records but in his fourth volume (Chapin 1954) he mentions four specimens collected
in that country by others.

It is not possible to evaluate the abundance of the Spotted Crake in Africa since it is so secretive
and since it is likely to occur in swampy areas difficult of access. From the few records available
it is likely that some winter in our area while others pass on further south.

BURHINUS OEDICNEMUS Linn. Stone Curlew

According to Vaurie and White, both nominate oedicnemus and saharae Reichenow occur as
migrants south to Kenya ; saharae has a partly African distribution in the breeding season, however
it does not breed in the Ethiopian Region. The two races cannot be certainly distinguished in the
field and, as sight records are likely to provide most future records, we have treated the species
binomially.

Meinertzhagen (1922) obtained one at Kisumu on 15 January 1917 while van Someren (1921)
collected two males at Meuressi, Turkana in January 1918, and in 1922 described it as a regular
(but not common) winter visitor to East Africa, mentioning records from Kiambu and Lake
Elmenteita in October and January, the latter possibly Meinertzhagen’s bird. Stoneham (1930)
noted the arrival of migrants at Rumuruti on 25 October and 20 December 1925 and 12 October
1928. Jackson (1938) recorded it from Elmenteita (van Someren), South Uaso Nyiru, Kerio River
and Kisumu. The only modern records known to us are c. 10 at Eliye Point, Lake Rudolf on 29
March 1970 (C.F.M.) and of one seen at Lake Nakuru on 14 November 1970 (A. J. Deane in litt.).

There are thus rather few data available to assess its status but it is probably regular as a winter
visitor to north-west Kenya. It has never been recorded in Tanzania or further south, and never
certainly in Kenya south or east of Kiambu; the South Uaso Nyiro River flows south to Lake
Natron on the Tanzania border at 2°S. but enters suitable country for this species at about i°S.
Although readily distinguished from the three Ethiopian Burhinus which occur in Kenya it is
probably often passed off as one of these.

[CHARADRIUS ALEXANDRINES ALEXANDRINES Linn. Kentish Plover

A great deal of confusion surrounds the published winter range of this species. Vaurie records
it south to tropical Africa and Angola, whereas White gives the southern limit as Avakubi in
Zaire; neither writer specifically mentions Kenya or Tanzania although Vaurie’s statement could
include our area. According to Mackworth-Praed & Grant (1957) the Kentish Plover occurs
throughout Africa in the non-breeding season but in a later paragraph the range in eastern Africa
is given as “as far south as Tanganyika”. Later they add that the bird is a rare visitor
to the larger lakes of eastern African as well as to the coast. Williams (1969) describes it as a very
uncommon non-breeding visitor to the East African coast.

Loveridge (1922) records this species from Dar es Salaam on 13 January 1919 but with no
comment ; we know of no other author who cites a precise date for this species, all make woolly
statements not supported by published facts. Since Loveridge (op. cit.) made no comment at all
about his Dar bird and since no one has ever published a definitive record of the Kentish Plover
for East Africa (or even quoted Loveridge’s record) we prefer to exclude the species from the
avifauna of Kenya and Tanzania.]

CHARADRIES DEBIES CE RON ICES (Gmelin) Little Ringed Plover

White records this bird south to the equator and central Tanzania and our records support
this view.

The Little Ringed Plover is a scarce, somewhat unobtrusive wader in Kenya and Tanzania
mainly to inland areas ; it calls less often than the Ringed Plover C. hiaticula Linn, in our experience
and thus some may escape notice. Jackson (1938) gave no Kenya records although van Someren
(1922) had recorded it from Kisumu and south-west Lake Rudolf. Later, van Someren (1933)
claimed that the bird was common on Lake Rudolf and that it also congregated in numbers on the
sea coast from Lamu to Kismayu (Kismayu is now in Somalia). Moreau (1937) lends support to
this view describing it as “widespread .... inland as well as on the coast”. Mackworth-Praed &
Grant (1957) indicate that it is mainly a freshwater bird but that it is “common on the Great Lakes
and Lake Rudolf”. Finally Williams (1969) gives it as an uncommon winter visitor to inland waters
and with this view we would concur. We have never found the Little Ringed Plover to be common
although it must be admitted that none of us knows Lake Rudolf well.

There are only two specimens in the National Museum although nineteen have been ringed
in Kenya (at Naivasha and Nakuru). Available Kenya records fall between 3 October and 31 March
There are two dated records for Tanzania, five on Masanji Island, Lake Victoria, 9 February 1940
(Meiklejohn 1940) and of between three and five watched on salt pans near Dar es Salaam from
15 December 1970 to 25 January 1971 (W. G. Harvey in litt.).

PLEVIALIS DOMINICES FELVES (Gmelin) Eastern Golden Plover

White and Mackworth-Praed & Grant (1957) both mention its occurrence in Tanzania as
a vagrant, and there is a male in the British Museum collected by Swynnerton on 20 October 1922
at Ndundu, Rufiji, Tanzania — no doubt the basis for these statments. No specimens exist for
Kenya but there are sight records of one at the end of 1961 “immediately south of Mombasa”
(Lee 1962) and one from late December 1969 to early January 1970 at Malindi (C.F.M. ).

Page 14

This species is known to be a great wanderer and has occurred in Somalia (Archer & Godman
1937) and South Africa (McLachlan & Liversidge 1957) as well as in many other places throughout
the world far from its normal wintering area in the Pacific. It is quite likely therefore to occur from
time to time on our coasts.

[V ANELLUS LEUCURUS (Lichtenstein) White-tailed Plover

Vaurie and White record this southern Palaearctic species south to the northern Sudan; it is
unrecorded from Ethiopia (Urban & Brown 1971).

We include the White-tailed Plover here in square brackets since Lee (1962) recorded having
seen a possible example on the shore south of Mombasa on 27 December 1961. In his note he
mentions having heard of another possible Kenya record at Lake Rudolf but we have no knowledge
of this ourselves.]

GLAREOLA NORDMANN1 Fischer Black-winged Pratincole

Vaurie makes the misleading statement that the Black-winged Pratincole winters from Somalia
to Cape Province whereas White states that records are lacking from East Africa between Kenya,
Katanga and the Zambezi. The majority of these birds migrate from eastern Europe and Asia
to their wintering area in southern Africa via Zaire (Chapin 1939). South of Zaire in Zambia it
is only known from the extreme west where it may be regular in large numbers in autumn (Benson
et al. 1970) so that the bulk of the population crosses central Africa far to the west in Angola.
This western route by-passes our area completely (cf. Falco vespertinus above) and Jackson (1938)
had no records for Kenya or Uganda. Seth-Smith’s specimens and sight records from Gondokoro,
northern Uganda (in van Someren 1922) are from a place which is now in the Sudan. The only
record from our area is of a bird picked up dead on the road near Lessos, western Kenya on 12
October 1969 (Mann 1971a).

HAEMATOPUS OSTRALEGUS OSTRALEGUS Linn. Oystercatcher

Both Vaurie and White include the coasts of Kenya and Tanzania within the winter range of
this species.

The Oystercatcher may well be less common now than formerly and we certainly cannot
agree that it is “common on the coast of Kenya” (van Someren 1932) since we know of hardly
any modem records. Meinertzhagen (1922), although saying it was not common anywhere, had
seen it at Mombasa between November and May and at Tanga (November) and Mafia Island
(March) in Tanzania; also Loveridge (1922) often saw it at Dar es Salaam during 1918.
Smart (1949) saw two at Kiunga on 12 August 1949, Fogden (1963) saw up to two near Kiunga
between 4 August and 17 September 1961, and D. A. Turner (in litt.) saw one at Bamburi on
7 September 1962. The next record for the Kenya coast is of one seen flying south on 13 April
1971 c. 8km off Watamu (L. H. Brown in litt.). R. Lowis saw one on 19 July 1966 at Lake Rudolf
and R. Gregory saw another at Eliye springs. Lake Rudolf in February 1970 (both records per
D. A. Turner in litt.).

Zanzibar and Pemba are (or at least were) favourite localities for the Oystercatcher in East
Africa as both Vaughan (1930) and Pakenham (1936, 1939) record parties of up to twenty birds,
including several in July. The only other record for Tanzania (apart from those of Meinertzhagen
and Loveridge mentioned above) is of one seen on 4 May 1969 at Dar es Salaam (J. F. Reynolds
in litt.).

It is difficult to draw firm conclusions from the above data except that most sightings are on
very early dates (July to September) and that the Zanzibar and Pemba flocks presumably arrived
via Kenya. It is reasonable to assume that they follow (or followed) the Kenya coast some distance
off-shore so that they are generally overlooked. The islands about Kiunga near the Somali border
may well be a favourite feeding area but none was seen by P.L.B. and L. H. Brown on short visits
in late August 1970 and late August — early September 1971 (the latter visit with G. S. Keith.).

LARUS ARGENT ATU S Pontoppidan Herring Gull

Neither White nor Vaurie record the Herring Gull as far south as Kenya. The only records
from our area are given by Elliott (1964). In his note Elliott gives the impression that he saw Herring
Gulls at Mombasa, Tanga, Dar es Salaam and Zanzibar, however he has told us (in litt.) that this
impression was not intended : he only saw L. argentatus in Dar es Salaam harbour mouth between
December and February 1958/59 and/or 1959/60; unfortunately Sir Hugh’s field notes covering
this period were all destroyed by fire.

There are no records of the Herring Gull from Kenya and only one record from Uganda,
two seen between 6 August and 29 November 1950 by Eggeling (Anon. 1950). As we have pointed
out elsewhere in this paper, there is very little bird watching done on the East African coast and
it is quite likely that the Herring Gull and other rarely recorded birds are more frequent than the
sparse records would lead one to believe.

LARUS BRUNN1CEPHALUS Jerdon Brown-headed Gull

This central Asian species, which winters south to Ceylon, is not recorded from East Africa
by Vaurie, White or any other author of a standard work.

Page 15

The sole record from our area is of two seen and photographed on 21 February 1969 in Ngoro-
ngoro Crater, Tanzania (van der Lee 1971). The six colour transparencies taken of the birds were
examined by K. H. Voous who “concluded that these birds most definitely are specimens of Larus
brunnicephalus Jerdon, Brown-headed Gull, a new species for this part of East-Africa.”

LARUS GENEI Breme Slender-billed Gull

The sole record for our area is the sighting by Watson (1971) of a single bird on 28 March
1971 at Lake Manyara, northern Tanzania.

Vaurie and White record the species as south to Eritrea and Urban & Brown (1971) give
one inland record for Ethiopia at Lake Basaaka, 8° 53' N.

LARUS RIDIBUNDUS Linn. Black-headed Gull

Since Vaurie, White and Mackworth-Praed & Grant (1957) do not include the Black-headed
Gull from our area, the following sight records from Kenya extend the species’ range considerably
south of the Ethiopian lakes mentioned by White :

11-12 August 1967, 11 September 1967, 17 September 1967, adult in full plumage seen at
Lake Nakuru (L. H. Brown, D. J. Pearson and D. A. Turner, all in litt.)

9-18 December 1950, 1 seen Malindi, (Smart 1952).

late December 1969 — early January 1970, three seen together Malindi (C. F. M.)

March 1949, 1 seen Malindi (Smart 1952).

14 March 1970, 1 seen and photographed Lake Nakuru (Deane 1971b).

April 1956, adult in full plumage seen Ferguson’s Gulf, Lake Rudolf (J. G. Williams in litt.)

The Black-headed Gull is thus an irregular winter visitor to the Rift Valley lakes and the
coast and should be looked for in the future. It has yet to be recorded in Tanzania.

[STERNA ALBIFRONS AL1FRONS Pallas Little Tern

Vaurie gives the winter range as from “the Mediterranean south to Cape Province and from
the Persian Gulf to western India”, this could be taken to exclude the eastern seaboard of Africa.
McLachlan & Liversidge (1957) only record it to Port Elizabeth (330 58 'S.) on the east coast.
Mackworth-Praed & Grant (1957) state that it occurs throughout eastern Africa in the non-
breeding season and also, in their southern Handbook (1962), that it occurs throughout southern
Africa as well. Williams (1967) records the species from “coastal and inland waters” but does not
say whether the nominate race is included in this statement.

We know of no records from our area and therefore concur with the implication of Vaurie’s
statement that it is absent from the eastern seaboard of Africa; this is also implied by White.]

STERNA HIRUNDO HIRUNDO Linn. Common Tern

Vaurie and White give the range of this species as the coasts of Africa south to the Cape of
Good Hope White adds that it is a vagrant inland although Mackworth-Praed & Grant (1957)
make no mention of this.

The Common Tern is a bird which is probably overlooked on the East African coast, and indeed
could be confused with local species, including the Roseate Tern S. dougallii Montague. Pakenham
(1936) records collecting two males from a flock of 200 terns on 23 July near Nungwi, Zanzibar
and there is one labelled ‘female’ collected by him from the same locality on the same day in the
British Museum. Jackson (1938) obtained the species and recorded it as “not uncommon” at
Kanamai in September 1902. There are two modern sightings on the Kenya coast and one ringing
recovery to Tanzania: two on 13 August and three on 22 August 1961 at Kiunga (Fogden 1963);
three or four on 4 December i960 at Kikambala (D. A. Turner, MS in EANHS file); a Common
Tern ringed as a pullus in eastern Austria was found dead at Maziwi, Tanga on 21 April 1970
(Backhurst 1971b).

The sole inland record we can trace is of an immature trapped and ringed at Lake Nakuru
on 26 September 1970 by G.C.B., P.L.B. and M.StJ. Sugg. Detailed photographs taken of this
bird were shown to Miss Mary LeCroy of the American Museum of Natural History who kindly
confirmed the identification. It is of interest that earlier on the same day a flock of c. 30 medium-sized
terns with strongly forked tails was seen in the catching area. Unfortunately these could not be
studied but it seems likely that they were Common Terns. The only other species which occur
commonly at Lake Nakuru are the Gull-billed S', nilotica Gmelin and the White-winged Black
Tern S. leucoptera Temminck.

The Common Tern may well be a regular visitor to the coasts of East Africa but the scarcity
of observers there and the difficulty of field identification probably accounts for the small number
of records. It can be no more than a rare vagrant inland.

STERNA NIGRA NIGRA Linn. Black Tern

The only documented record of a specimen of this species from our area is of a female obtained
by Meinertzhagen on 30 April 1916 at Kisumu (Jackson 1938). Jackson [op. cit.). White, Vaurie and
Mackworth-Praed & Grant (1957) all mention its occurrence in Tanzania, but while Jackson (op.
cit.) cautiously writes “is stated to occur in Tanganyika” the other authors record it definitely
from this country. We have no records at all of the Black Tern for Kenya and Tanzania although

Page 16

vast flocks of the similar 5. leucoptera Temminck occur, especially on inland waters. It should be
remembered that few observers would attempt to ‘pick out’ a Black Tern when confronted with a
wheeling flock of several hundred White-winged Black Terns. Over 200 ‘black’ Terns have
been ringed in Kenya and all have been leucoptera.

The admission of the Black Tern therefore rests solely on Meinertzhagen’s Kisumu specimen
yet it seems quite feasible that the species may be recorded in future since its breeding range
overlaps that of leucoptera.

PHALAROPUS FULICARIUS (Linn.) Grey Phalarope

Neither Vaurie nor White record the Grey Phalarope from our area and its inclusion here
rests on the following three published sight records, all from Kenya: two at Lake Nakuru on 15
February 1959 (Lee 1959); one at Lake Elmenteita on 17 February 1953 (Ridley 1953); and one at
Lake Nakuru on 28 March 1959 (Lee 1959).

It is quite possible that examples of this oceanic species will be recorded in the fututre since
it is often blown off course by gales.

PHALAROPUS LOBATUS (Linn.) Red-necked Phalarope

Vaurie, White and Mackworth-Praed & Grant (1957) have no records of the Red-necked
Phalarope from our area.

The first East African record appears to be the bird seen and photographed in October 1959
at Lake Nakuru by E. S. Skinner. The photographs were submitted to J. G. Williams who wrote
(in litt. to E. S. Skinner) “There can be no doubt that the bird photographed is indeed a Red-necked
Phalarope and your photographs constitute the first confirmed record”. Save for one at Diani
Beach on 25 December 1966 (D. J. Pearson pers. comm.) all subsequent Kenya records are also
from Lake Nakuru. One was seen on 10 January 1967 by D. J. Pearson (pers. comm.). Several were
seen in early October 1970 of which two were eventually ringed and photographed on 11 October
(G.C.B., C.F.M., A.D. Forbes-Watson); initially there were two on 3 October, increasing to three
the next day, five on 10 October and six on n October. More recently, C. Smeenk (in litt.) saw
three on 20 March 1971 and five the next day. In addition, another phalarope seen and photo-
graphed by G.C.B. at Lake Nakuru on 5 April 1970 is considered by most people who have seen
the photographs to have been lobatus. Having seen and handled the October birds the observer is
confident of the identification but I. J. Ferguson-Lees and two other unidentified British ornitho-
logists considered that it was actually fulicarius (Ferguson-Lees in litt.).

The sole Tanzanian record is of one seen and photographed at Kazima Dam near Iringa
on 10 October 1962 (Reynolds 1965).

As with the Grey Phalarope, the present species can be expected in East Africa from time
to time.

CAL1DRIS ALPINA ssp. (Linn.) Dunlin

A great deal of confusion surrounds the records of this species in East Africa. Reichenow
(1894) writing on Tar zania, stated that it was a winter visitor to the coast but gave no precise details,
nor does he record it from our area in his later work (Reichenow 1900-03). Vaurie implies that it is
regular as far south as the equator and occasional to Zanzibar; White calls it casual to Kenya,
Uganda and Zanzibar, while Mackworth-Praed & Grant (1957) state that it occurs inland and
on the coast “usually in small flocks”. The basis for these statements may well be the writings of
Sperling, van Someren and Meinertzhagen : Sperling (1868) merely said that the Dunlin occurs
at Zanzibar, van Someren (1918) wrote that “a few come here [Kenya] between November and
January and remain till March”. Later, (1922), he wrote “has been recorded from the coast and
inland waters, but I have seen no specimens”. Meinertzhagen (1950) recorded “one or two small
parties of Dunlin” at Lake Magadi on 19 — 22 March 1949. However, J. G. Williams, who was with
Meinertzhagen at Magadi tells us (in litt.) that he “disagreed with him [Meinertzhagen] at the time.
But the error in identification is understandable when one considers that R. M. had just arrived
from U. K. and was seeing birds in brighter light than in England, making everything appear large.
The birds we saw were Little Stints C. minuta (Leisler)”. Earlier, Sclater (1924) gave the range as
“to Zanzibar” but Jackson (1938) said “there are no examples in the British Museum from so far
south (as Zanzibar), nor are there any definite records in the literature except that of Captain
Sperling”. Guggisberg (1950) gave a record of one seen on 8 January 1950 at Nairobi Dam but
presented no comment whatsoever, which is strange in view of the birds’ rarity. Vaughan (1932)
had no personal records from Zanzibar. In mainland Tanzania, J. S. S. Beesley (in litt.) saw a
“possible” Dunlin on 10 January 1963 at Kisaki Dam, near Kondoa Irangi. However, as he does
not feel certain of the identification, and as this is the only dated Tanzanian record, we cannot
admit the Dunlin to the avifauna of Tanzania; Beesley fully agrees with this.

The only satisfactory Kenya record is of several seen, some in breeding plumage, on 28 March
1970 at Ferguson’s Gulf, Lake Rudolf (C.F.M.). There are no specimens from East Africa either
in the National Museum or the British Museum and Archer & Godman (1937) had only one
Somalia specimen, from Berbera at more than io°N, which is, incidentally, in the British Museum.
Being such a rarity on the African coast even as far north as northern Somalia, it can be no more
than a vagrant to the coast of East Africa; but in view of the above record from Lake Rudolf, and

Page 17

the fact that it occurs throughout Ethiopia according to Urban & Brown (1971), it may be expected
to be observed in the future in northern Kenya.

With the exception of a sight record near Cape Town mentioned by Mackworth-Praed &
Grant (1963) and another which was photographed at Swakopmund in January 1965 (S.A.O.S.
List Committee 1969), the Dunlin is not recorded in Africa south of Lake Rudolf in the east and
The Gambia in the west (White), but R. Stjernstedt has told us ( in litt.) of one he saw at Mpulungu,
Zambia (8° 46 'S.) on 30 September 1970. A sighting of between 15 and 29 Dunlin at a dam near
Johannesburg from 4 January to 29 March 1970 is therefore quite remarkable and worthy of
discussion. The authors (Schmitt & Hunter 1971) make no comment except that Schmitt was
“not at first aware that the Dunlin did not normally come as far south as the Transvaal”. The
editor makes no comment either, perhaps because the Dunlin is admitted to the avifauna of South
Africa, although Dowsett & Irwin (1970) question the validity of this. The fact that Mackworth-
Praed & Grant (1957) record it south to Mozambique also gives the impression that it might
well occur a little further south in eastern South Africa. We have ignored this reference to Moz-
ambique especially as the authors themselves make no mention of it in their later work (1963). It is
not our place to either accept or reject this record as it is from well south of our area;
but it is useful to point out how exceptional the record is, being inland, so far south, and involving
a large number of individuals.

CALIDRIS CANUTUS CANUTUS (Linn.) Knot

The Knot is another species whose status in East Africa remains vague save for two recent
sight records (see below).

Van Someren (1918) writing on Kenya mentions that “one specimen has been shot by A.
Blayney Percival in December”; later in 1922, he wrote “recorded from Zanzibar. I have not
collected specimens”. Jackson (1938) refers to van Someren’s mention of this species but adds
“it seems very doubtful if it occurs on the eastern side of Africa at all”. However, Vaurie gives
the range as south to about Zanzibar and White is vague: “Possibly only a vagrant to East Africa
(Uganda, Kenya, Zanzibar)”. Mackworth-Praed & Grant (1957) appreciate that the Knot is
rare in Africa but also mention that it has visited Uganda and Zanzibar but they do not give details.
We have been unable to trace any specimens of this species. One seen on 16 — 17 September 1961
at Kiunga with Curlew Sandpipers C. ferruginea (Pontoppidan) by Fogden (1963) and three seen
on 17 November 1970 on salt pans at Dar es Salaam by Harvey (1971) are the only dated occurrences
which we can find.

The Knot can be no more than a very rare vagrant to the East African coast since it is not
recorded from Arabia or northern Somalia (Meinertzhagen 1954, Archer & Godman 1937).
A British ringing recovery communicated by R. E. Scott {in litt.) provides evidence that Knot
reach the east coast of Africa at least occasionally, possibly via the Cape. The bird concerned
was ringed in Kent, England on 30 August 1969 and was recovered at Lourenco Marques,
Mozambique on 10 October 1970 (not in the same wintering ‘season’). Although regular on the
west coast of South Africa (McLachlan & Liversidge 1957) it is rare east of the Cape of Good
Hope, and, as far as we are aware, the Lourenco Marques bird is the first record for Mozambique.
Clancey (1965) provides the first record for Natal, this being the most northerly record previously
available for the Indian Ocean coast of southern Africa. Thus the two sight records in this paper
provide the only evidence of its occurrence in eastern Africa between the Mediterranean and
southern Mozambique. A specimen from either Kenya or Tanzania would be most desirable.

CALIDRIS MELANOTOS (Vieillot) Pectoral Sandpiper

The Pectoral Sandpiper, although mainly a Nearctic species, does breed in the eastern Palaearctic
(Vaurie) and is therefore included in this review. The sole record for East Africa is the adult male
obtained at Lake Naivasha on 11 May 1952 (Williams 1952). Williams noted that the bird was
extremely fat and considered this especially remarkable; it seems less remarkable to us: the first
half of May is a time of considerable wader passage at Naivasha and many species reach their
highest fat levels during this period (G.C.B. personal observation).

The Pectoral Sandpiper is the most numerous of the rare waders to occur in Britain and most
of those seen are in autumn (Sharrock 1971). In the ten years 1958-1967 Sharrock found only one
record for the four months December-March whereas he gave 45 records for September. This
pattern of occurrence, which resembles that of a normal (British) autumn passage migrant (e.g.
Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola Linn.), indicates that the majority of the birds must pass on
south, some of them no doubt to Africa. Sharrock {op. cit.) speculates that some of the Pectoral
Sandpipers seen in Britain may have come across Asia and Europe from the eastern Palaearctic
since this species is more common on the east coast of Britain than are other Nearctic waders.
The Ruff Philomachus pugnax (Linn.) and Curlew Sandpiper both visit Britain and East Africa
from areas to the east of the most westerly Pectoral Sandpiper breeding area so that it is conceivable
that some individuals of this species might accompany parties of Ruff and/or Curlew Sandpipers.
Recently Ginn & Brooke (1971) have reviewed the occurrence of the species in Africa and add
a spring specimen from Botswana on 25 April 1971.

Page IS

CALIDRIS SUBMINUTA (Middendorff) Long-toed Stint

There are two records of this species, both from Kenya. The first was one obtained at Naivasha
on 27 April 1969 (Backhurst & Britton 1969) and the second was ringed at Lake Nakuru on 9 May
1970 (G.C.B.). Both were in breeding plumage and heavy, weighing 27.7 and 32. 5g respectively,
which compares favourably with the weights of the somewhat larger Little Stints C. minuta (Leisler)
caught at the same time.

The Long-toed Stint winters much nearer to East Africa (in Ceylon) than does the Pectoral
Sandpiper. The two individuals recorded from Kenya were clearly migrating north, in good
condition, with allied species which breed in similar areas of the Palaearctic (Vaurie). The Red-
necked Stint C. ruficollis (Pallas) can be expected in the future as there are two specimens from
Natal, South Africa (Clancey 1964).

No Long-toed Stints were caught in the spring of 1971 although large numbers of Little
Stints were handled in this period. However, from the two records already mentioned, plus one
from Ethiopia (Broberg 1967) and one from South Africa (Spronk 1969, but see Dowsett &
Irwin 1970), it seems likely that this species will be recorded from time to time in the future.
Although very similar to the Nearctic C. minutilla (Vieillot) which has been recorded in South
Africa (Tree 1968, but see Clancey 1969), it is distinctive in breeding plumage. Nevertheless, we
would be reluctant to identify it in the field, although handled but not collected birds are quite
acceptable provided that adequate notes and/or photographs are taken.

CALIDRIS TEMMINCKII (Leisler) Temminck’s Stint

Vaurie and White record this species south to Kivu, Zaire (i.e. c. 2°S.) but with no indication
as to its abundance. Jackson (1938) gives no Kenya records but Mackworth-Praed & Grant
(1957) give a good account of its occurrence “. . . . especially to inland waters. Not so common
in Africa as the Little Stint and is usually in pairs or small parties, not in flocks.” We would agree
with this view except that, in our experience, it is usually seen singly.

The first Kenya record was of one obtained in September 1936 at Lake Naivasha (Stoneham
1944). Thereafter we have many sight records (including birds ringed) from several localities in
Kenya from Ferguson’s Gulf in the north (J. Gerhart in litt.) to Amboseli in the south (D. A. Turner
in litt.). The earliest record we have is of two seen on 31 August 1958 at Ol Joro Orok (Bednall
1959) and the latest is of three seen on 6 May 1971 at Naivasha (G.C.B.). The largest number
recorded together is three: on 7 February and 6 May at Naivasha (G.C.B.).

There are only two records from Tanzania: one on 15 November 1938 at Bukoba (H.F.I.
Elliott in litt.), and one there on 26 January 1940 (Meikljohn 1940). Moreau (1937) did not mention
this species and J. S. S. Beesley {in litt.) has never seen it in Tanzania.

Temminck’s Stint is a regular but sparse visitor to Kenya. In our experience it favours small
inland marshy areas where it usually feeds quietly and escapes notice until one is almost on top
of it, when it flies away, often giving its characteristic trilling call.

G ALLIN AGO MEDIA (Latham) Great Snipe

Some mystery surrounds the present status of this bird in Kenya and Tanzania. There is
no doubt that it migrates to the south of our area (e.g. Benson et al. 1971, McLachlan & Liversidge
1957) but we feel that it cannot be as common now as earlier writers (e.g. van Someren 1922,
Granvik 1923, Jackson 1938) indicated. In view of this impression we have gained it is interesting
that McLachlan & Liversidge {op. cit.) writing on South Africa state that the “Present status
indicates that the bird is not as common as it used to be”.

There are a number of skins in the British Museum from both countries including Zanzibar,
and Pakenham (1945) records it from Pemba. The earlier writers found that the Great Snipe was
a very late migrant in spring: van Someren {op. cit.) stated that they leave the Kisumu area on
28 May but in 1917 he recorded them as late as 15 June. In three years residence near Kisumu,
P.L.B. has only one record, on 21 November 1969, but C.F.M. finds that it passes through Kapsabet
between mid October and mid November and then again during the second and third weeks of
May; the largest number recorded seen together is ten.

In eight years residence near Nairobi, G.C.B. has never recorded it at all, yet he has ringed
many G. gallinago (Linn.) and G. nigripennis Bonaparte, mainly at Naivasha. These observations
indicate that it may well be more numerous as a passage migrant in the west of our area, except
that Jackson {op. cit.) said that it is “undoubtedly more common in Kenya than in Uganda”. It was
certainly common in the past in localities well-worked by G.C.B. (Jackson specifically mentions
both Nairobi and the Rift Valley) who makes a special effort to catch migrating waders in May.
Snipe-shooters at places such as Ol Bolossat should look out for this species in May so that we
may know more clearly its present status in our area.

(We should like to note here that the Great Snipe has been included as an afterthought;
the account above does not include records from local ornithologists since we did not ask for
records of this species.)

Page 19

GALLINAGO MINIMA (Briinnich) Jack Snipe

Vaurie and White both record this species as extending south to Tanzania with one female
from Zambia (Mwinilunga in the north-west at n° 44 'S., White 1948) which is in the British
Museum. There are no skins in the British Museum from Kenya or Tanzania and only one (25
December 1931, Tulazu (=Tulasha) River, Kinangop) from Kenya in the National Museum.
Meinertzhagen (1922) shot two in Nairobi on 15 November 1915 and saw one earlier in the month
at Naivasha. Van Someren (1922) and Jackson (1938) record it from the Sio River (border of Kenya
and Uganda), Nyeri, Nairobi, Naivasha and Nakuru. D. A. Turner (in litt.) saw one on 26 January
1970 at Naivasha and J. G. Williams (in litt.) writes that it is “most frequent at Semini’s Dam,
South Kinangop”. We have no personal records, although C.F.M. saw one near Tororo, Uganda
on 9 October 1967, i.e. near the Kenya border.

We can find only two records for Tanzania: one was shot on 19 February on the Mbalagetti
River (Moreau 1935) and another was collected by N. Williams on 29 December 1957 at Tabora
(MS in EANHS fde). Cave & Macdonald (1955) record it as fairly common in the Sudan, and
Urban & Brown (1971) call it uncommon to rare in Ethiopia. More records of this species can
be expected, especially in northern marshy areas of Kenya.

GALLINAGO STENURA (Bonaparte) Pintail Snipe

There is only one record for Kenya, a bird photographed and ringed on 1 January 1969 at
Naivasha (Backhurst 1969), and only one other for the African mainland (Juba River, Somalia,
van Someren 1929). There is a male from Socotra Island in the British Museum collected by
Ggilvie-Grant and Forbes on 18 January 1899. It is therefore of interest that G. R. Cunningham-
van Someren (in litt.) writes as follows: “Alas my game-book was damaged by fire but there have
been a few other records of the snipe [G. stenura\ in Kenya however almost certainly never published.
I have a feeling that there may be a specimen of the Pintail [Snipe] in the [National] Museum shot
by Dr. Mclnnes around just pre-1939 — may be you have checked this [there is no such specimen
in the National Museum now — authors ]. The Pintail [Snipe] was also shot in Ethiopia, the swamps
of Adda, 1940 by military parties”. In view of these remarks the species should be expected in
the future. However, it should be remembered that it is not recorded for the Sudan, Ethiopia,
ex-British Somaliland or Arabia (Cave & Macdonald 1955, Urban & Brown 1971, Archer &
Godman 1937, Meinertzhagen 1954).

LIMICOLA FALCINELLUS FALCINELLUS (Pontoppidan) Broad-billed Sandpiper

The Broad-billed Sandpiper is not recorded from our area or Uganda by Vaurie or White.
There is a 1964 specimen from western Uganda in the National Museum and also a more recent
one from the same area (M. P. L. Fogden in litt.). There are no Kenya records but one was seen
at Kazima Dam near Tabora, Tanzania by Reynolds (1965) on 5 November 1961. It is likely that
this species will be recorded from Kenya in the future. As Nisbet (1961) points out, the main
wintering area of the Broad-billed Sandpiper is unknown but may lie somewhere in eastern Africa.
It may be noted in passing that a L. falcinellus is recorded from Swakopmund, South West
Africa (S.A.O.S. List Committee 1969).

LIMNODROMAS SEMIPALMATUS (Blyth) Asiatic Dowitcher

White does not include this species and Vaurie gives no records for the Ethiopian Region.
The sole record of which we are aware is the bird seen at Lake Nakuru, Kenya by Smart &
Forbes-Watson (1971) on 20-21 November 1966.

LIMOSA LAPPONICA LAPPONICA (Linn.) Bar-tailed Godwit

Vaurie and White suggest that this species occurs in our area, and both White and Mackworth-
Praed & Grant (1957) mention the bird at the coast. Jackson (1938) gave no records at all but
van Someren (1932) had recorded it from Kismayu, Somalia, 200 km from the Kenya border.

The first Kenya record is claimed by V. D. van Someren (1958) in November (no year) at
Kikambala. We are aware of only the following subsequent records:

23 July 1956, 1 seen Namuraputh, north end of Lake Rudolf, J. R. M. Tennent
(MS in EANHS file)

27 August 1970, 1 seen Kiunga, P. L. B. and L. H. Brown
15 September 1961, 1 seen Kiunga, Fogden (1963)

16-18 September 1961, 3 seen Kiunga, Fogden (1963)

5-6 October 1968, 1 seen Mida, G.C.B.

November 1969, 1 photographed Lake Nakuru, A. J. Deane (in litt.)

10-11 December 1970, 2 seen Mida, Goddard (1971)

17 December 1949, $ Mida, National Museum

There are two records from Tanzania, both at Dar es Salaam : five on 18 October 1945 (Morrison
1946) and an immature male obtained in September 1955, now in the National Museum.

The Bar-tailed Godwit is probably regular in small numbers on the coast, indeed, according
to Williams (1967) a few usually winter in Mida Creek. It is significant that we can trace only two
inland records (compare the next species) and that there is no record after December.

Page 20

L1MOSA LIMOSA LIMOSA (Linn.) Black-tailed Godwit

Vaurie records this species as south to northern Tanzania and White mentions that it occurs
more often on fresh waters than on the coast and that it is a vagrant south to Cape Province. Jackson
(1938) had no records.

From the data at our disposal the Black-tailed Godwit appears to be a regular visitor in very
small numbers, almost always to inland localities; the only coastal records are of one at Kiunga
on 16-17 September 1961 (Fogden 1963) and one to four near Dar es Salaam between October
and December 1970 (W. G. Harvey in litt.). Inland in Kenya we have records from Aruba and
Kandeni (Tsavo East National Park), Lakes Elmenteita, Naivasha and Nakuru, Athi River, Mwea
and Suguta Naibor. At the last mentioned locality, 15-20 were seen on 14 September 1958 (Bednall
I959a) which constitutes both the earliest date and the largest party. The latest passage bird was
seen on 3 April 1959 at Lake Elmenteita (J. G. Williams in Bednall 1959b) but P.L.B. saw a sum-
mering bird in non-breeding dress at Lake Nakuru on 27 June 1969.

From Tanzania there are three records in addition to the Dar es Salaam birds mentioned
above: 7 October 1962, Kazima Dam, near Tabora (Reynolds 1965); 6 January 1965, Wembere,
near Tabora (Reynolds op. cit.); 2 March 1946, Lake Manyara (Fuggles-Couchman & Elliott 1946).

[SCOLOPAX RUSTICOLA Linn. Woodcock

This species is included as it is mentioned by Lynn-Allen (1951). Major Allan North assured
Lynn-Alien “most positively” that he encountered one on Marsabit Mountain during the Second
World War, probably in October. To Lynn-Allen “it is barely conceivable that an experienced
shot could be mistaken over such a well-known species”. He then adds that “the Marsabit forests,
thick, cool and well-watered, are just such places where one would expect to find woodcock —
possibly a strayed juvenile on its southerly migration”. We agree with Lynn-Allen that the Woodcock
is unmistakable, especially to an experienced shot, so that despite the lack of records from Ethiopia
(Urban & Brown 1971) we think it possible that the Woodcock might occur in northern Kenya
eventually. According to Vaurie the Woodcock is sedentary and migratory but although he gives
its winter range as south in Asia to Ceylon and Malaya, he does not record it from the Ethiopian
Region at all.]

TRINGA ERYTHROPUS (Pallas) Spotted Redshank

The Spotted Redshank is not recorded from Kenya, Tanzania or Uganda by Vaurie, White,
Jackson (1938) or Mackworth-Praed & Grant (1957); it is not recorded from former British
Somaliland (Archer & Godman 1937), while in the Sudan Cave & Macdonald (1955) do not
record it further south than 9°N. Urban & Brown (1971) include it for Ethiopia as “uncommon
to frequent” but give no precise localities.

It seems certain that the abundance of the Spotted Redshank on passage and in winter has
changed considerably over the last thirty years. In the British Isles, Witherby et al. (1943) described
it as an uncommon passage migrant in autumn, scarce in spring and exceptional in winter, whereas
today it is by no means uncommon even in spring (personal observations). In Kenya, the bird
(a male) was first obtained on 8 February 1953 at Semini’s Dam, South Kinangop (Williams 1953)
while a second male was taken on 15 March 1958 at Ferguson’s Gulf, Lake Rudolf; both specimens
are in the National Museum. We now have details of thirty sightings of this species in Kenya:
the earliest date is 6 September 1959 at Lake Naivasha (Lee, MS in EANHS file). There are no
other September records, none for October, and only one in late November (Deane 1971a). There
are records for December to May with most falling in February and March. The latest is a bird in
breeding plumage at Ahero, Western Kenya on 8 May 1971 (Simpson 1971). The maximum
number recorded together is ten (Deane op. cit.) while there are also two records of c. 10. Most
are from Lake Naivasha, Lake Nakuru and Tsavo East National Park. One has been ringed at
Naivasha in January 1970 (G.C.B.).

The Spotted Redshank is less frequent in Tanzania where Moreau (1937) did not note it
at all, but Meiklejohn (1940) had two sight records near Bukoba in December 1939 and January
1940. J. S. S. Beesley (in litt.) considers it a regular visitor between December and February to
Arusha Chini; M. Probyn has three sight records from the Arusha area (MS in EANHS file);
and W. Leuthold (in litt.) saw two on the late date of 22 May 1970 in Ngorongoro Crater. It is
listed for Ngorongoro by Pickerling (1966) and also for Lake Manyara (Anon., no date. The Lake
Manyara National Park, Checklist of Birds, Tanganyika National Parks).

We would describe die Spotted Redshank as a regular winter visitor, more common in February
and March, to freshwaters in Kenya and northern Tanzania.

TRINGA TOT ANUS (Linn.) Redshank

White records both nominate totanus and eurhinus (Oberholser) from our area while Vaurie
believes that examples from East Africa are nominate birds or intermediates. As we have relied
heavily on sight records we have treated this species binomially.

Mackworth-Praed & Grant (1957) have given a quite false impression of its status in our
area describing it as “a very common palearctic winter visitor to the Red Sea coast and East Africa,
occurring as far south as Beira and Durban”. Jackson (1938) gave no definitive records although

Page 21

he thought that he heard one near Lamu. Williams (1955) said that “unless the evidence of collected
specimens proves to the contrary the status of T. t. eurhinus in eastern Africa should be amended
to rare palearctic visitor”. We have located only a few Kenya records:

22 July 1961, 1 seen Kiungamini, Fogden (1963)

10 August 1968, 1 seen Lake Nakuru, G.C.B.

15 August 1949, 3 seen Shekani, Smart (1949)

23 August 1961, 1 seen Kiunga, Fogden (1963)

15 September 1968, 1 seen Lake Naivasha, G.C.B.

18 September 1968, 1 seen Lake Nakuru, G.C.B.

5 October 1968, 1 seen Mida, G.C.B.

28-29 October, 1 seen Narok, F. N. Betts in MS
27 November 1955, <? Lake Magadi, National Museum

11 December 1970, 19 seen Mida, Goddard (1971)

end 1961, seen “immediately south of Mombasa”, Lee (1962)

30 January 1971, 1 seen Lake Kanyaboli, P.L.B. & C.F.M.

25 February 1971, a different bird seen Lake Kanyaboli, P.L.B.

We have the following records from Tanzania:

10 October 1959, 1 seen Kazima Dam near Tabora, Reynolds (1965)

7 November 1964, 1 seen Wembere near Tabora, Reynolds (1965)

13 December 1970, 2 seen Dar es Salaam (salt pans), W. G. Harvey (in litt.)

31 December 1939, Chabula Swamp, S. E. Lake Victoria, H. F. I. Elliott (in litt.)

The Redshank is clearly a rare but regular visitor to our area, both inland and on the coast,
especially from August to December.

STERCORARIUS LONGICAUDUS Vieillot Long-tailed Skua

Neither Vaurie nor White record this species from the Ethiopian Region.

One seen and photographed in flight by A. D. Forbes-Watson on 25-26 August 1961 at
Ferguson’s Gulf, Lake Rudolf constitutes the first Kenya record. The photographs, which leave no
doubt as to the bird’s identity, are lodged in the National Museum. There is only one other African
record, of a bird obtained on 28 August 1969 at Kolokope, Togo (De Roo & van Damme 1970).

STERCORARIUS PARASITICUS (Linn.) Arctic Skua

The Arctic Skua is recorded by Vaurie and White from no nearer East Africa than Zululand.
The only record we have is the sighting of a light phase bird on 9 April 1966 at Casuarina Point,
Malindi (Backhurst 1971a). This species may occur more frequently than this single record would
suggest. However, at present there is very little bird-watching done off our coasts.

CUCULUS POLIOCEPHALUS POLIOCEPHALUS Latham Lesser Cuckoo

Vaurie and White record the nominate eastern Palaearctic subspecies for coastal eastern
Africa from Kenya to Natal, west to Katanga, eastern Zambia and Rhodesia (White). The Malagasy
form rochii Flartlaub, which also visits our area is indistinguishable in the field, and many specimens
cannot be certainly assigned racially. According to Mackworth-Praed & Grant (1957) rochii
occurs mostly from April to August, so that the dates of the two forms hardly overlap; Chapin
(1939) states that the African records fall between June and September. Grant & Mackworth-
Praed (1936-37) mention nestlings and young specimens from east — central Madagascar in March
and April, and conclude “breeding Madagascar October to April, visits Africa May to September”.
Thus most dated birds may be assigned racially with reasonable certainty. Unfortunately, the
period of possible overlap in April is a critical time when Palaearctic Cuculus canorus Linn, pass
through the east of our area in some numbers (authors in prep.).

Jackson (1938) recorded only rochii in Kenya and Uganda, both Kenya birds from the coast
(Rabai and Lamu). The Rabai specimen was collected on 21 April by van Someren (1932) who
does not in fact assign it to rochii with any certainty, although he suggests that it is probably rochii
(the only form given for the Ethiopian Region by Sclater (1924)). The Lamu bird was first reported
by Sclater (op. cit.), but he gives no date. He implies that the specimen is in the British Museum
so that it is odd that Grant & Mackworth-Praed (op. cit.), who presumably used this material,
restricted rochii to Madagascar until they were informed by Chapin of Zaire and Uganda specimens.
The Lamu bird is best left as racially indeterminate, in which case we know of no Kenya record
of rochii. Moreau (1966) and White record it for Kenya but this may simply refer to the Lamu
bird. Since rochii reaches Uganda and eastern Zaire it presumably passes through parts of Tanzania
regularly. Nevertheless the only Tanzania record of which we are aware is from the north-east,
a male collected near Amani on 26 November (Sclater & Moreau 1932, 1933). In western Kenya,
near Eldoret, C.F.M. saw a Lesser Cuckoo on 4 May 1971 which may well have been rochii (on date),
and it is reasonable to assume that rochii reaches Kenya in the extreme west.

In north-eastern Tanzania, Moreau & Moreau (1937) saw large numbers of Palaearctic
poliocephalus associated with C. canorus in a “great migration” at the end of March 1934. They
noted a similar movement between 31 March and 12 April the next year, so that there is probably

Page 22

a regular passage through north-eastern Tanzania at this time. Specimens of both species were
very fat. The few other Tanzania records are 30 November, 4 December, 13 January and 21 January
(Moreau 1944, Meiklejohn 1940, Friedmann & Stager 1964).

The only definite nominate birds from Kenya are two males from the coast at Sokoke Forest:
28 March 1951 in the National Museum and 18 April 1970 in the British Museum (another bird
collected for the British Museum at Sokoke on 11 April 1970 is preserved in spirit and is not raced).
This locality is close to Watamu where Brown (1971b) saw a total of perhaps fifty Lesser Cuckoos
crossing Mida Creek to the south in a purposeful manner in April 1971 (mainly 9-12 April with a
few to 19 April at least). In view of the direction in which they were moving he concluded that they
were most likely rochii. This is not a reasonable supposition as neither form should be moving
in this direction in April. Madagascar is well south of Kenya and any rochii in Kenya at this time
would be moving north-west just as any poliocephalus would be moving north-east. At the time of
Brown’s observations P.L.B. and C.F.M. saw several birds of this species in Sokoke Forest along
with large numbers of Palaearctic canorus.

In view of the impossibility of racing birds except on measurements, and then only males
we still have a great deal to learn about the status of both forms in our area. There
is a regular passage of the Palaearctic form through north-eastern Tanzania in spring which extends
to some extent to coastal Kenya. It coincides with the movement of large numbers of Palaearctic
Cuculus canorus. The absence of any records in Africa north of Kenya suggests that this species
makes a direct flight across the Indian Ocean from our area to Asia, probably India (the breeding
area is north and north-east of the Himalayas in India and China). Its migration is thus somewhat
similar to that of Falco amurensis (see above) except that the crossing is probably a little shorter.
From the comparative lack of birds in autumn one might think that a more southerly route is
used at that season, but it should be noted that funnelling in diurnal migrants is only apparent-
before a sea crossing, not after, and the more scattered individuals in autumn could well go unnoticed.

ASIO FLAMMEUS FLAMMEUS (Pontoppidan) Short-eared Owl

The European Short-eared Owl is not recorded from our area by Vaurie, White, Jackson
(1938) or Mackworth-Praed & Grant (1957).

The first record, from Kenya, is the female collected on 27 January 1927 at Makuiwa, Mt.
Elgon (Granvik 1934). Brown (1971a) saw a Short-eared Owl flying in over the sea at Mida Creek
on 5 January 1971 and earlier, Moreau (1938) had observed two Short-eared Owls come aboard
a ship travelling south from the Red Sea; one of these birds left on 12 November 1936 at 2°S.,
i.e. off the Kenya coast north of Lamu. The species is not recorded from Tanzania.

OTUS SCOPS SCOPS (Linn.) European Scops Owl

Vaurie, White and Mackworth-Praed & Grant (1957) record the nominate race of the Scops
Owl as a non-breeding migrant as far south as Kenya, but these authors do not define its abundance.
Williams (1969) mentions that it is a winter visitor to East Africa.

Van Someren (1932) collected specimens at Kiambu and Nairobi in January, February and
March, and Jackson (1938) mentions two Kenya specimens, both of which are in the British
Museum. The following is a list of all dated records (including those cited by Jackson (op. cit.),
marked with an asterisk) :

22 November 1920, $ Kiambu, British Museum

6 December i960, $ Nairobi, National Museum

7 February 1900, a Msara, British Museum*

5 March 1971, 1 ringed Athi River, D. J. Pearson (in litt.)

15 March 1944, 3 Muthaiga, Nairobi, National Museum

16 March 1897, 3 Eldama Ravine, British Museum*

We have been able to trace no records from Tanzania. The status of the European Scops
Owl in our area must remain a mystery; it may be an uncommon but regular visitor. The subspecies
cannot be determined in the field and it is unlikely that the European bird would betray its presence
in Africa by calling.

OTUS SCOPS TURANICUS (Loudon)

This pale race of the Scops Owl has been collected once in our area, at Bura on the Tana
River on 5 March 1963 (Friedmann & Keith 1968). As with the nominate race, it is impossible
to draw any conclusions on the true status of the species in East Africa since Scops Owls are so
rarely seen or caught.

JYNX TORQUILLA Linn. Wryneck

The Wryneck is not recorded by Vaurie, White, Jackson (.1938) or Mackworth-Praed &
Grant (1957) from our area although all these authors record the species from Uganda.

There is no Tanzanian record and only one from Kenya, the bird first seen on 19 February
1969 and ringed on 22 February at Ng’iya, western Kenya (Britton and Harper 1969). Two races
(torquilla and tschusii Kleinschmidt) are recorded from Uganda but no subspecific differentiation
was attempted for the Kenya bird. It is likely that the Wryneck occurs from time to time in northern
Kenya. Urban & Brown (1971) record it from Ethiopia and D. J. Pearson informs us (in litt.)
that one has been ringed recently in eastern Uganda.

Page 23

EMBERIZA HORTULANA Linn. Ortolan Bunting

White, Jackson (1938) and Mackworth-Praed & Grant (i960) all record this species from
northern Kenya and, as far as we can ascertain, the only record is the bird mentioned by Jackson
{op. cit.) and now in the British Museum ; a young unsexed bird collected by Kemp on 1 5 October
1910 at Baringo. The Ortolan should be found in northern Kenya since it is “locally frequent
to common” in Ethiopia (Urban & Brown 1971).

LANIUS NUBICUS Lichtenstein Masked or Nubian Shrike

The only record from our area is the immature bird collected on 9 November 1969 at Lake
Kanyaboli, western Kenya (Britton 1970b). As Britton {op. cit.) pointed out, Mackworth-Praed
& Grant (i960). White and Archer & Godman (1961) all mention its occurrence near Lake
Rudolf without specifying the country. In the British Museum collection a box of L. nubicus has
“Lake Rudolf” written on the label but a thorough search through all the skins of this species in
the collection failed to unearth the Lake Rudolf bird (G.C.B., July 1971). With only three records
from south of io°N. (Britton op. cit.) the Masked Shrike can be no more than a vagrant to our area.

LANIUS SENATOR NILOTICUS (Bonaparte) Woodchat Shrike

Jackson (1938) had no records of this species from Kenya but Vaurie, White and Mackworth-
Praed & Grant (i960) all record it from western Kenya. There are no specimens from our area
in the National or British Museums. Meinertzhagen (1921) collected a pair on 10 January in the
Maragoli Hills, western Kenya and the other records of the species are those of P.L.B. at Lake
Kanyaboli, also in western Kenya, virtually on the equator:

adults seen on 8 November 1969, 9 November 1969 (ringed), 22 November 1969, 29 November
1969 (two seen), 31 January 1970, and 20 March 1970; an immature was seen on 11 November
1969. Britton (1970b) mentioned an exceptional influx of Palaearctic migrants at Lake Kanya-
boli in November 1969 of which most of these Woodchat Shrikes, and the previous species,
were a part.

ANTHUS CAMPESTRIS (Linn.) Tawny Pipit

Vaurie and White give the winter range as south to the equator; Vaurie recognises two races
(White does not) but none of our records can be assigned subspecifically.

Van Someren (1922) had two males from Tsavo (Kenya) on 26 March 1918 and these were
the only specimens known to Jackson (1938). There are no examples in the National or British
Museums from our area. We have four sight records, all from Kenya:

22 July 1956, seen Lokitaung, north end of Lake Rudolf, Tennent (MS in EANHS file)

11 October 1959, seen Sukari, near Nairobi, Lee (MS in EANHS file)

20 October 1968, 1 seen Lake Nakuru, P. L. B. and J. F. Harper
26 March 1967, 1 seen Lake Kisima, near Maralal, G.C.B.

The Tawny Pipit may well be more regular in northern Kenya than these few records suggest,

FICEDULA ALBICOLLIS (Temminck) Collared Flycatcher

Two races of the Collared Flycatcher are recognised, namely nominate albicollis and semitor-
quata Hofmeyer; Vaurie and White record both from Tanzania but neither author mentions Kenya.
Mackworth-Praed & Grant (i960) recognise no races of the Collared Flycatcher but treat semitor-
quata as a race of F. hypoleuca (Pallas), the Pied Flycatcher.

Urban & Brown (1971) do not record this species from Ethiopia, and Williams (1967, 1969)
does not record it from Kenya or Tanzania; Mackworth-Praed & Grant {op. cit.) record semitor-
quata from Tanzania and say that albicollis should occur in that country. Lynes (1934) found
semitorquata a fairly common winter visitor to Iringa, and two of his birds are in the British Museum :
a male, 10 January 1932 from near Njombe and another male, 22 January 1932 from Iringa; in
the National Museum there is an unsexed bird from Kibondo (Tanzania) collected on 24 February
1961. Reynolds (1969) records it from Tabora on 11 February 1965 and he has further records
{in litt.) of semitorquata from Iringa on 9 February (male) and 17 February (female) 1968.

This species is a sparse migrant to Zambia (Benson et al. 1971), Malawi (Benson 1953),
Rhodesia (Smithers et al. 1957) and Zaire (Chapin 1953); so that, as Chapin {op. cit.) suggests,
the population which winters in southern Tanzania and further south passes to the west of Kenya
through Uganda and Zaire. As it is far commoner in the east than in the west of Zambia with
virtually no records west of 3i°E. (Britton 1970a), and as the most easterly recorded locality in
Tanzania is Iringa at about 36°E„ its wintering area is thus very limited.

The Collared Flycatcher is still not recorded from Kenya where it may well occur eventually
in the extreme west. In Tanzania it is probably regular and locally numerous in the west and south-
west.

FICEDULA HYPOLEUCA HYPOLEUCA (Pallas) Pied Flycatcher

Vaurie and White say that the Pied Flycatcher winters in savannas north of the equator,
while Jackson (1938) and Mackworth-Praed & Grant (i960) do not include it.

Page 24

Two specimens from Kakamega Forest in extreme western Kenya represent the only definite
records from our area: one collected by A. D. Forbes-Watson for the Smithsonian Institution is
to be reported on eventually by Ripley and Bond (see Appendix), the other (unsexed) was collected
by J. F. Harper on 24 December 1970 and is in the National Museum. In addition, Granvik (1934)
collected a female hypoleuca on the north-eastern slopes of Mt. Elgon on 5 November 1926; this
locality may be just inside Uganda. In view of Moreau’s (1966) opinion that Ficedula flycatchers
will eventually be found wintering in the canopy of (west) African forest, this species may well be
more common in Kakamega Forest than these wo records suggest. It is worth noting that P.L.B.
and C.F.M. glimpsed a bird which could only have been a Ficedula in this forest on 31 January
1971. There are recent records from west of our area in Uganda (M.P.L. Fogden; R. Frankum;
E. R. Waterhouse; all in litt.).

ACROCEPHALUS ARUNDINACEUS GRISELDIS (Hartlaub) Basra Reed Warbler

Two large races of A. arundinaceus , arundinaceus Linn, and zarudnyi Hartert are not uncommon
in parts of our area and are omitted from this review. The present race, griseldis, is much smaller
than the others, which are called Great Reed Warbler in English.

Vaurie and White give the Ethiopian distribution of griseldis as Eritrea to Kenya, once to
Malawi; Mackworth-Praed & Grant (i960) (who, incidentally, treat the bird as a distinct species)
add eastern Tanzania to the range. Williamson (1968), who had access to only ten specimens,
gives the winter range as “E. Africa”. The sole Malawi bird mentioned above was collected on 22
March at Fort Johnson (Benson 1953).

All records known to us are listed below (Tanzanian birds marked with an asterisk); since
the bird is so little known we have appended wing-lengths of ringed birds as well as all available
weights :

*no date, the type, Nguru, Kilosa District, Hartlaub (1891)

December, N. Uaso Nyiro, 2, van Someren (1932)

December, Nyambe Crater, Mt. Kenya, N. van Someren quoted by Jackson (1938)

4 December 1969, Ngulia, Tsavo, 3 collected by A. D. Forbes-Watson, now in the National
Museum; weights: unsexed, 15.8 and i6g, male 17. 5g
23 December 1969, Naivasha, 1 ringed (G.C.B.), wing 83 mm, weight i6.5g
22 January 1967, Naivasha, 1 ringed, J. B. Smart, wing 75 mm (worn)

26 January 1966, Kilifi, ? collected by A. D. Forbes-Watson for Smithsonian Institution,

weight i6.6g

27 January 1966, Kilifi, 2 collected as above, weights S 19. 3g, $ 19. 6g

*12 February 1921, Kilosa, $ collected, wing 80.5 mm, Friedmann & Loveridge (1937)
*24 March 1934, near Tanga, collected, Moreau & Moreau (1937)

The Basra Reed Warbler is probably a regular but uncommon winter visitor to the eastern
part of our area. It has a very restricted breeding range according to Vaurie so that the total number
of individuals must be small.

[ACROCEPHALUS PALUDICOLA Vieillot Aquatic Warbler

The Aquatic Warbler’s winter quarters are unknown (Moreau 1961). It is not included by
White but Vaurie suggests that it probably migrates to tropical Africa. Williamson (1968) is more
definite stating that it “winters in tropical Africa”.

A. G. T. Carter (in litt.) reports seeing a bird which he is sure was this species at Lake Naivasha
on 7 January 1968. In view of the difficulty of identifying this species in the field and since no
specimens are known from anywhere in the Ethiopian Region, we think it desirable that one be
obtained or handled and photographed before admitting it to the avifauna of the Region.]

HIPPOLAIS ICTERINA (Vieillot) Icterine Warbler

Vaurie and White record the Icterine Warbler as wintering from Kenya south to northern
Cape Province and southern Mozambique. Jackson (1938) gave a single record from Kenya, a
male (now in the British Museum) collected on 23 March 1900 at Suguro in western Kenya. We have
been able to trace only eight further records from our area (those from Tanzania are marked with
an asterisk) :

3 October 1959, seen Ngong Hills, H. Lee (MS in EANHS file)

^October, collected Rukwa Valley, Vesey-Fitzgerald & Beesley (i960)

*6 December 1922, $ collected Mwanza, Friedmann & Loveridge (1937)

*17 February 1962, $ collected Changana, Wembere, British Museum. The collector

(B. W. H. Stronach) labelled the bird “Willow Warbler”; “//. polyglotta” had been added by
another hand, but the wing is 77 mm and the bird is icterina.

*25 February 1922, $ collected Samumba, Singida, Friedmann & Loveridge (1937)

26 March 1967, 1 watched for at least half an hour, Maralal, J. B. Smart and G.C.B.

30 March 1940, Garabani Hill (= Emali), National Museum
13 April 1970, 5 seen Crescent Island, Lake Naivasha, C.F.M.

In addition, J. G. Williams tells us (in litt.) that it “occurs not infrequently at Lake Naivasha
in spring”.

Page 25

The Icterine Warbler is more common in Central Africa than in our area. Pitman (1934)
recorded it commonly at Kabwe (Broken Hill), Zambia from late November to January while
Chapin (1953) states that it arrives near the equator (in Zaire) in September and leaves towards
the end of April. Chapin (op. cit.) also observes that it has been noticed more often in southern
Zaire than in the north.

We cannot explain the dearth of records from our area but think it unlikely that this compara-
tively conspicuous warbler could have been overlooked, especially by those operating with mist
nets. It probably passes mainly west of our area on its way to and from winter quarters. With
most records from February to April it may well use a more easterly route on return passage when
it should be looked for especially.

HIPPOLAIS LANGUID A (Hemprich & Ehrenberg) Upcher’s Warbler

Recorded by Vaurie, White and Mackworth-Praed & Grant (i960) as wintering in Kenya
and Tanzania but not further south. Van Someren (1922) had collected forty specimens from
Kenya (Kisumu, Simba, Tsavo and Taveta), and Meinertzhagen (1922) records it from Lake
Rudolf in March and the Taita Hills in December; he also mentions that Reichenow had specimens
from Latema, near Taveta and from the Pare Mountains, north-eastern Tanzania. Jackson (1938)
adds Doinyo Erok, Athi River, Wajir, northern Uaso Nyiro and Marsabit to the recorded localities.
Williams (1967, 1969) omits Upcher’s Warbler, probably because the species is difficult to identify
in the field. Moreau (1937) mentions a record of one near Moshi (no details), and in the National
Museum there is a female collected by Moreau on 13 April 1944 at Amani; we know of no toher
records from Tanzania.

We have never encountered this species in any numbers although our personal knowledge
of northern Kenya where Upcher’s Warbler may be more common is very slight. This species is
unlikely to be identified by casual bird-watchers since it is a rather drab bird and is, in any case,
omitted by Williams (op. cit.) and Peterson et al. (1966). We know of few modem records from
Kenya and none from Tanzania although Namanga (see below) is on the border:

5 December 1969, 1 collected Ngulia, A. D. Forbes- Watson, in National Museum
late December 1966, 3 seen Tsavo, D. J. Pearson (in litt.)

15 January 1966, 2 ringed Namanga, J. B. Smart

25 January 1954, <$ Liboi, National Museum

13 February 1971, 1 ringed Lake Nakuru, D. J. Pearson (in litt.)

mid March — early April 1971, 1 seen Nairobi, A. D. Forbes-Watson et al. (in litt.)

20 March 1971, 1 ringed Athi River, D. J. Pearson (in litt.)

24 March 1947, ? Horr Valley, National Museum
1 April 1971, 1 ringed Athi River, G.C.B.

It is probable that Upcher’s Warbler will be recorded more frequently in the north and east
of Kenya but it cannot be common at Athi River or Nakuru where large numbers of Palaearctic
warblers have been ringed.

HIPPOLAIS OLIVETORUM (Strickland) Olive-tree Warbler

Vaurie, White and Mackworth-Praed & Grant (i960) record this very large Hippolais from
our area and south to the Transvaal. The total world population of this species must be rather
small since it breeds only in the Balkans and parts of Asia Minor (Vaurie); moreover it is a drab
bird unlikely to be noticed by casual bird-watchers in our area.

Jackson (1938) was able to quote only van Someren’s (1922, 1932) records from Simba, Sagala,
Chanler’s Falls and Turkwell. Moreau (1937) did not include this species in his list of migrants to
Tanzania and Vesey-FitzGerald & Beesley (i960) gave no records from the Rukwa. However,
Beesley informs us (in litt.) that he obtained one there in December 1953 as well as seeing it at
other times between October and January; he saw one in an Arusha garden on 4 October 1966
and another in Arusha National Park in March 1967. It should be mentioned that Meiklejohn
(1940) saw a “probable” Olive-tree Warbler near Mwanza on 18 January 1940. There are no
specimens in the National or British Museums and we know of no other Tanzania records. Like
H. languida, this species may well be more common and regular in northern Kenya than the follow-
ing records indicate:

21 November 1969, 1 ringed Ukwala, western Kenya, P.L.B.

late December 1970, widespread (seen) Lodungokwe, Barsalinga and Seya Valley, Samburu
District, C.F.M.

9 January 1967, 1 seen Amboseli, D. J. Pearson (in litt.)

21 February 1971, 1 seen Ngulia, G.C.B.

5 March, 13 March — 2 April 1961, Kitui: collected on first date; strong passage of this
and/or H. pallida Hemprich and Ehrenberg on other dates, Tennent (1962 and MS in
EANHS file)

25 April 1968, 1 found dead at Muguga (2300 m); another a few days later. These birds

were found early in the morning by buildings which had been lit at night. W. G. Dyson
(in litt.).

Page 26

\HIPPOLAlS POLYGLOTTA Vieillot Melodious Warbler

White mentions one record from Bukoba, and Vaurie is clearly referring to this same bird

when he writes “accidental Lake Victoria”. The Bukoba Melodius Warbler belongs to

Sassi (1916) in which his total entry for this species, which normally winters in West Africa, is
“ $ Bukoba XI. 1909”. Grote (1930) and Moreau (1937) doubt this record and Chapin (1953)
clearly puts little faith in it. In view of the lack of any supporting evidence, such as wing-length,
we suggest that this record be rejected until the specimen can be located and re-examined.
Williamson (1968) gives West Africa as the wintering area of this species but, under the heading
“Moult” mentions “one from Uganda, 26. X”. In the British Museum there is a bird collected
by Capt. Pitman on 26 October at Nyhaabande, Kigezi, S. W. Uganda. The collector’s label.
No. 1406, has “Hippolais ?polyglotta, a few hunting insects in flowering Black Wattle”. This
bird is H. icterina : one wing is short by c. 10 mm, presumably shot; the other measures 70.5 mm widi
the first (i.e. outermost) primary 1.5mm longer than the primary coverts (G.C.B., confirmed
by P. R. Colston).]

LOCU STELLA FLUVIATILIS (Wolf) River Warbler

Vaurie records the River Warbler as migrating to eastern Africa south to the Zambezi, and
occasionally to the Transvaal. White repeats this statement. Jackson (1938) was able to cite only
three recorded localities, namely Nairobi, Kikuyu and Taveta. Williams (1967, 1969) does not
mention this species while Mackworth-Praed & Grant (i960) say that it has been noticed as a
rare Palaearctic winter visitor to Kenya.

From our modern records there is strong evidence to suggest that the River Warbler is,
in fact, a passage migrant, at least to Kenya and probably also to northern Tanzania. Van Someren
(1922) records it from Taveta and Nairobi giving no dates; two of Meinertzhagen’s Taveta birds in
the British Museum are dated December and these were given by Meinertzhagen (1922). There
is a specimen in the National Museum from Naivasha in November.

A. D. Forbes-Watson (pers. comm.) drew our attention to a small passage of these birds,
together with other Palaearctic warblers, in December 1969 at Ngulia; he collected a female
weighing 20.0g on 2 December, a male weighing 15. 5g the next day, and another male weighing
19.8 g on 5 December. Later the same month, G.C.B. ringed five more individuals at the same
locality on 11-13 December, with weights I5g, 17. 5g, i8g, i8g and i8g. The same locality was visited
in December 1970 when G.C.B. ringed two, one on 13th and one on 14th, with weights 16. 2g and
16. 3g. Two of us investigated the Ngulia area in spring 1971 (late February and mid April) but
very few migrants were present and, needless to say, no L. fluviatilis were seen or caught. The two
spring records refer to specimens collected in late April: 21 April 1966 at Embakasi, Nairobi
which is in the Paris Museum (kindly communicated by R. J. Dowsett) and 25 April 1968 at Arusha
National Park (Beesley 1971a). The Embakasi record is interesting since, from March to early
May 1971 many hundreds of Palaearctic warblers (and other passerines) were caught at Athi River,
a locality very near Embakasi; yet no River Warblers came to hand.

The River Warbler is indeed an elusive bird; at Ngulia neither Forbes-Watson nor G.C.B.
ever observed one except in, or just flying into a mist net. Most authors suggest that the bird’s
habitat is in swamps, which is surely suggested by the trivial and English names, but in G.C.B. ’s
experience at Ngulia the birds were in dry bush; the type locality in eastern Austria is woodland
by the edge of the Danube.

PHYLLOSCOPUS COLLYBITA ABIETINUS (Nilsson) Chiffchaff

Vaurie gives the normal southern limit as 8°N. in eastern Africa (i.e. 400 km north of the
Kenya border) but mentions that it has beer, collected once on Mt. Kenya (virtually on the equator).
White mentions that it is found occasionally as far south as Mt. Kilimanjaro (3°S.), but Mackworth-
Praed & Grant (i960) do not record it for East Africa. The sole record in Jackson (1938) is Kemp’s
bird from Rumuruti on 28 October 1910, which, according to Ticehurst (1938) is in fact P. trochilus
Linn.

Meinertzhagen (1937) collected an example of the race abietinus in the bamboo zone of Mt.
Kenya (3300m) on 10 February 1936, which was racially determined by Ticehurst, and it is likely
that all East African birds belong to this form; Ticehurst (op. cit.) also mentions one from Tsavo
in April 1918 racially determined by van Someren. The only other specimens we have traced are
the three females from Tanzania in Moreau & Sclater (1935): January and March, Ngare Nairobi
(1600m); 26 February, Bismark Hut, Kilimanjaro (2750m). All but one of our other records refer to
singing birds in Kenya:

January 1964, heard (probable) Mau Narok, c. 2900 m, Sessions (1967)

20 January 1971, at least 3 heard Mt. Kenya, c. 3100m, Oliver et al. (1971)

February 1966, 1 seen and tape recorded at Mau Narok; tape recording confirmed by M. E. W.

North. Sessions (1967)

9 February 1941, heard many times Mt. Elgon, c. 3100m, Benson (1945)

21 March 1971, 1 ringed (recaptured next day) Lake Kanyaboli, c. 1170m wing 58 mm,

weight 6.7g, G.C.B. and P.L.B.

It is clear from the above records that the Chiffchaff’s ‘normal’ African habitat is highland
forest. The Lake Kanyaboli, Tsavo (probably less than 1000 m) and Ngare Nairobi birds are from

Page 27

lower altitudes, but the Tsavo bird was probably on migration as, certainly, was the bird at Lake
Kanyaboli. Phylloscopus warblers are only at all common at Lake Kanyaboli (regularly visited by
P.L.B.) when there are ‘falls’ of migrants, mainly in November. This bird was netted with nine
Willow Warblers P. trochilus on such an occasion, in acacia close to the lake shore. It may be relevant
to mention that only 8okm south of this locality there are the forested Gwasi Hills, hardly explored
ornithologically, rising to over 2250 m, thus providing a suitable wintering habitat. Britton &
Sugg (in press) failed to record it on Mt. Elgon between 24 December 1969 and 7 January 1970
but it is easily overlooked when not in song. Sharpe (1930a), who recorded it on Marsabit Mountain
throughout the winter, said that they do not sing until after Christmas. At more than 2°N., the
forest on Marsabit is an especially likely place for the Chiffchaff to winter regularly, as are other
isolated areas of montane forest in northern Kenya. In the Chyulu Hills in southern Kenya van
Someren (1939) noted both Chiffchafs and Willow Warblers frequently between 19 and 30 April
in small forest patches. No Chiffchaffs were trapped at Athi River during spring 1971 although
about 800 Willow Warblers were ringed there.

Thus the Chiffchaff is probably a regular winter visitor in small numbers to highland forest in
Kenya and northern Tanzania. It should be looked for on Mts. Kenya, Kilimanjaro and Elgon, and
in forest on Marsabit, Kulal, the Matthews Range and Nyiru in northern Kenya. (See Appendix.)

PHYLLOSCOPUS SIBILATRIX (Bechstein) Wood Warbler

Vaurie and White record the Wood Warbler south to the equator but do not mention any
countries specifically; Ticehurst (1938) is more explicit, saying “N. Uganda and N. E. Kenya,
barely south of the equator”. Mackworth-Praed & Grant (i960) record it from Uganda and
Kenya but give no precise details except that it is not usually common.

We have been unable to trace any satisfactory specimens at all from our area although there
are two in the British Museum from Uganda, and Pitman (1931) noted “quite a number” (and
collected one, now in the British Museum) on Nkose Island in mid December 1923; Nkose
Island is at o° 44 'S., 320 20 'E., 200 km west of the Kenya border. Friedmann & Williams (1969)
mention a male collected in forest close to the Tanzanian border in south-western Uganda on 13
February. We know of two Kenya sight records and two from Tanzania one of which is from over
6°S.: 8 September 1958 near Kibweza, Lake Tanganyika (Ulfstrand & Lamprey i960);
3 October 1962, Mau Narok (Sessions 1967); Meiklejohn (1950) merely notes it in January from
Mwanza but gives no precise details; 10 April 1971, Karen (J. G. Williams in litt.).

We admit the Wood Warbler to the avifauna of both Kenya and Tanzania, but with some
reluctance for the latter country. Meiklejohn’s (op. cit.) record is presented without any supporting
evidence whatsoever and we do not consider that it should be included, especially as it was then
the first record for Tanzania. The Kibweza sighting is also open to criticism: the locality is over
650 km south of the equator and the date (8 September) is very early for a Palaearctic passerine,
other than a Swallow Hirundo rustica Linn., to be so far south. It should be noted that the observer
(Ulfstrand) claims to be extremely familiar with the species in Sweden (see Ulfstrand &
Lamprey op. cit.).

The Wood Warbler must surely occur more frequently in Kenya and north-western Tanzania
than the above records suggest, however we should mention that many Willow Warblers P. trochilus
Linn, are very white below so that pure sight records, as distinct from birds handled for ringing,
should be supported by full field notes. (See Appendix.)

[SYLVIA CANTILLANS ALBISTRIATA (Brehm) Subalpine Warbler

White records the Subalpine Warbler from northern Tanzania, and Mackworth-Praed &
Grant (i960) call it a rare and local winter visitor to coastal Tanzania. Vaurie does not mention
the species south of Somalia. The reference to its occurrence in Tanzania seems to have been
originated by Hartert (1910) and repeated by Sclater (1930) and Grote (1930). Hartert (op. cit.)
gave no specific record for East Africa, neither did Reichenow (1900-03). Since we know of no
records of this species from East Africa, or even Ethiopia (Urban & Brown 1971), we follow
Moreau (1937) in rejecting this species. The Subalpine Warbler should be deleted from Backhurst
& Backhurst (1970) and Forbes-Watson (1971).]

[SYLVIA HORTENS IS CRASSIROSTRIS (Cretzchmar) Orphean Warbler

Both White and Mackworth-Praed & Grant (i960) record this race of the Orphean Warbler
from Kenya; but Vaurie, and all other authors consulted, including Sclater (1930), make no mention
of this species from our area. It does, however, occur in Ethiopia (Vaurie, Urban & Brown 1971).
This species should be removed from the Kenya list and therefore deleted from Backhurst &
Backhurst (1970) and Forbes-Watson (1971).]

CERCOTRICHAS GALACTOTES (Temminck) Rufous Bush Chat (Rufous Warbler)

Two races, syriacus Hemprich & Ehrenberg and familiaris Menetries, occur in our area,
at least in Kenya. Vaurie records both races to Kenya, and White and Mackworth-Praed &
Grant (i960) extend the range to north-eastern Tanzania.

Page 28

The Rufous Bush Chat is recorded fairly often in die early literature (see below) but rarely
nowadays: for example, none has ever been caught during ringing operations. Van Someren (1932)
had twenty-six specimens of syriacus from south-eastern and northern Kenya collected between
October and March, as well as an unspecified number of familiaris from unspecified localities
between January and April, with one in June; the familiaris were determined by Hartert. Jackson
(1938) had five recorded localities for syriacus in eastern Kenya and three for familiaris in the
north and east. In the National Museum there are but two specimens from Kenya and none from
Tanzania: 12 November, immature male, Emali; 15 April 1943, male Balambala, Garissa. There
are also the following recent sight records from Tsavo East National Park: 3 January 1970 (C.S.M.);
26-27 March 1967, four seen Aruba (A. D. Forbes-Watson in litt.); 7 April 1971, Lugard’s Falls
(P.L.B.). Moreau (1937) was able to quote only two records from Tanzania, both in the north-east
and both syriacus : a male at Mao on 19 November 1931 (Sclater & Moreau 1933), and at Masinde
(Sclater 1930); however Moreau (1937) added that it was “probably not uncommon in the thorn
bush inland towards Kilimanjaro”.

The Rufous Bush Chat may be more common in the north and east of our area than the few
modem records suggest; these areas, which are comparatively neglected nowadays, provided most
of the earlier records. As Moreau (1937) has pointed out, this species could be confused in the
field with local species of Cercotrichas. For example, it was only after some effort that the above
mentioned Lugard’s Falls bird was seen sufficiently well to be identified.

IRANIA GUTTURALIS (Guerin) White-throated Robin

Vaurie, White and Mackworth-Praed & Grant (i960) record this species from Kenya south
to central Tanzania. Jackson (1938) recorded it as uncommon and gave six eastern Kenya localities,
while Moreau (1937) could only quote Loveridge’s male and female specimens from Dodoma
on 22 December 1918 for the whole of Tanzania (Friedmann & Loveridge 1937).

We can add the following unpublished records:

December 1969, 1 seen Ngulia, A. D. Forbes-Watson (pers. comm.)

13 December 1970, 1 ringed Ngulia, G.C.B.

23 February 1941, Naberera, Tanzania, H.F.I. Elliott (in litt.)

14 March 1971, $ ringed, Athi River, G.C.B.

26 March 1971, $ ringed, Athi River, recaptured next day, G.C.B.

April 1971, one present in a Nairobi garden, D. A. Turner (pers. comm.)
spring 1066, immature male trapped, Athi River, Smart (1967)

Irania, although a strikingly coloured bird is, nevertheless, rarely seen; at Ngulia in December
1970 and at Athi River in 1971 G.C.B. saw none in the field. It is likely that more records of
Irania will come to light in the future from eastern Kenya.

PHOENICURUS PHOENICURUS PHOENICURUS (Linn.) Redstart

Vaurie and White record the Redstart south to northern Kenya while Mackworth-Praed &
Grant (i960) extend the range to north-western Tanzania, adding that it is only casual in Kenya
and that very few records are known from Tanzania. Van Someren (1932) had only one specimen
from present-day Kenya (Turkwell). Jackson (1938) also quoted only one, a male at Weiwei River
(Turkana) on 9 January 1913. There is also a (presumed) sight record from Eldama Ravine on
11 October 1928 (Anon. 1930). The sole record from Tanzania is one at Bukoba in December
(Reichenow 1903). We can add the following modem records from Kenya:

12 October 1969, $ ringed Ng’iya, P.L.B.

1 December 1968, 2 immature $ $ ringed Ng’iya, P.L.B. and J. F. Harper
8-13 December 1955, 1 seen Nairobi garden, H. Williams (MS in EANHS file)

28 January 1971, $ seen Sawagongo, Yala, P.L.B.

7 February 1971, 1 seen Kaptagat, C.F.M.

19 and 22 February 1969, one $ of 1 December 1968 was recaptured at Ng’iya on these two
days, P.L.B.

24 March 1967, 1 seen Lake Kisima, J. B. Smart (pers. comm.)

The Redstart is probably a regular winter visitor in small numbers to the north-west of our
area, south to about the equator. It can be no more than a mere straggler as far south and east
as Nairobi. The single record from Tanzania is in the extreme north-west of the country, on the
western shore of Lake Victoria at i° 39 'S.

Page 29

APPENDIX

Through the courtesy of Dr George E. Watson we have been sent by airmail copies
of the paper “Systematic notes on a collection of birds from Kenya” by S. D. Ripley
& G. M. Bond ( Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology Number in: 1-21) published
in November 1971. They report some interesting Palaearctic birds details of which are
given below.

1. Additional species to be added to the Systematic List

CALANDRELLA CINEREA LONGIPENNIS (Eversmann) Short-toed Lark.

Vaurie does not record this race of Short-toed Lark for Africa, whereas White, who treats
it as a race of C. brachydactyla (Leisler), gives the winter range as south to Eritrea and ex-British
Somaliland. We have overlooked an early record of this bird mentioned in Jackson (1938): one
was collected on 14 November 1899 at Athi River by Lord Delamere. We are most grateful to
A. D. Forbes-Watson for drawing our attention to this record.

The second East African record is given by Ripley & Bond: one collected on 19 December
1964 at Ukundu (=Ukunda) airstrip, 40 17 'S., 390 34 'E. by A. D. Forbes-Watson. The species
is not recorded from Tanzania.

2. Additional records

FICEDULA HYPOLEUCA HYPOLEUCA (Pallas) Pied Flycatcher

The bird referred to on page 24 was a young male collected in the Kakamega Forest on
8 December 1965 by A. D. Forbes-Watson.

PHYLLOSCOPUS COLLYBITA ABIETINUS (Nilsson) Chiffchaff

A female obtained by A. D. Forbes-Watson in Kakamega Forest in March or December 1965 :
the exact date is not given by Ripley & Bond.

PHYLLOSCOPUS SIBILATRIX (Bechstein) Wood Warbler

A male obtained by A. D. Forbes-Watson in Kakamega Forest mentioned by Ripley &
Bond is the first Kenya specimen known to us. Unfortunately Ripley & Bond give no precise
date — they deal with seven Phylloscopus skins which were collected in March and December 1965
in Kakamega. It should be noted that Ripley & Bond state that the Chiffchaff and Wood Warbler
“are difficult to observe and are represented by only a few specimens from Kenya.”; this implies
that there are other specimens of the Wood Warbler in the United States, which are, as far as we
know, undocumented.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The writing of this paper would not have been possible without the help of a number
of ornithologists who have supplied us with their unpublished observations; we are
very grateful to the following for their help: Miss D. Angwin, Dr. J. S. Ash, J. S. S.
Beesley, R. C. Boy, L. H. Brown, Mrs. L. Campbell, A. G. T. Carter, G. R. Cunningham-
van Someren, A. J. Deane, Dr W. G. Dyson, Sir Hugh Elliot, Dr M. P. L. Fogden,
A. D. Forbes-Watson, R. Frankum, J. Gerhart, W. G. Harvey, J. S. Karmali, G. S.
Keith, Dr W. Leuthold, I. C. S. Parker, Dr D. J. Pearson, J. F. Reynolds, J. B. Smart,
C. Smeenk, R. Stjernstedt, D. A. Turner, E. R. Waterhouse and J. G. Williams. We
should also like to thank C. W. Benson, R. J. Dowsett, A. D. Forbes-Watson, Mrs. B. P.
Hall and R. E. Scott for help with references and for advice.

Page 30

GAZETTEER

K = KENYA T = MAINLAND TANZANIA U= UGANDA Z = ZANZIBAR

Lat.° ' Long. ° '

AHERO

ALBERT, LAKE
AMANI

AMBOSELI, LAKE

ARUBA

ARUSHA

ARUSHA CHINI

ARUSHA NATIONAL PARK

ATHI RIVER

ATHI RIVER (K.M.C. POOLS)
BALAMBALA (GARISSA)

BAMBURI (=BUMBURI)

BARINGO

BARSALINGA

BISMARK HUT

BUFFALO WALLOWS

BUICOBA

BURA

BUSENGA (=BUSENGE)

CENTRAL ISLAND
CHABULA SWAMP
CHANGANA (WEMBERE)

CHYULU HILLS
CRESCENT ISLAND
DAR ES SALAAM
DIANI BEACH
DODOMA
ELDAMA RAVINE
ELDORET
ELGON, MOUNT
ELIYE POINT/SPRINGS
ELMENTEITA, LAKE
EL MOLO BAY
EMALI

EMALI HILLS
EMBAKASI
ENDEBESS
EYASI, LAKE
FERGUSON’S GULF
GEITA

GWASI HILLS
HORR VALLEY

INDANUGU RIVER (=NDARUGU R.)

IRINGA

IRIMA

ISHIARA

ITHANGA HILLS
ITUMBA
KABARNET
KABETE

KAKAMEGA FOREST

KAN AM A I

KANDERE

KANYABOLI, LAKE

KAPSABET

ICAPTAGAT

KAREMA

KAREN

KASAMA

KAVIRONDO

KAZIMA DAM (TABORA)

KENYA, MOUNT

K

o.n S.

34-55 E.

U

1.40 N.

31.00 E.

T

5.06 S.

38.38 E.

IC

2.37 S.

37.08 E.

K

3.21 S.

38.49 E.

T

3.22 S.

36.41 E.

T

3.35 S.

37.20 E.

T

3.13 s.

36.34 E.

K

1.27 s.

36.59 E.

K

1.27 s.

36.59 E.

IC

0.05 s.

39.07 E.

IC

3.59 s.

39.44 E.

IC

0.38 N.

36.05 E.

K

0.55 N.

37.06 E.

T

3. II s.

37.32 E.

IC

c.3.14 s.

38.30 E.

T

1.20 S.

31.49 E.

K

1.06 S.

39.57 E.

T

2.18 S.

32.16 E.

IC

3.30 N.

36.03 E.

T

unlocated: SE Lake Victoria.

T

4.30 s.

34.00 E.

K

2.35 S.

37-50 E.

IC

0.46 S.

36.24 E.

T

6.48 S.

39.17 E.

IC

4.18 s.

39-35 E.

T

6. 11 S.

35.45 E.

K

0.03 N.

35.43 E.

K

0.31 N.

35 -17 E.

IC

1.08 N.

34-33 E.

IC

3.20 N.

35-57 E.

K

0.27 S.

36.15 E.

IC

2.51 N.

36.42 E.

IC

2.05 S.

37.28 E.

IC

2.03 S.

37.22 E.

K

1. 21 S.

36.54 E.

K

1.04 N.

34-59 E.

T

3.40 S.

35.05 E.

K

3.31 N.

35-55 E.

T

0.35 S.

32.56 E.

K

0.37 S.

34.09 E.

IC

2.10 N.

36.55 E.

IC

1.07 S.

37.10 E.

T

7.46 s.

35.42 E.

IC

3.17 S.

38.32 E.

K

0.27 s.

37-47 E.

K

1. 01 s.

37.24 E.

T

6.30 s.

33-45 E.

K

0.30 N.

35.45 E.

K

1. 16 s.

36.43 E.

K

0.16 N.

34.53 E.

K

3.55 S.

39.47 E.

IC

3.22 s.

38.40 E.

IC

0.03 N.

34.10 E.

K

0.12 N.

35.06 E.

K

0.28 N.

35.29 E.

T

6.49 S.

30.26 E.

IC

1.20 S.

36.42 E.

ZAMBIA

10. 10 s.

31. 11 E.

K

0.15 s.

34-35 E.

T

c.5.01 s.

32.48 E.

K

0. 10 s.

37.20 E.

Page 31

KERIO RIVER

K

2.59 N.

36.07 E.

KIAMBU

K

1 . 10 S.

36.50 E.

KIBONDO

T

3-33 S.

30.30 E.

ICIBWEZA (LAKE TANGANYIKA)

T

6.27 S.

29.57 E.

KIBWEZI

K

2.26 s.

37-53 E.

KIICAMBALA

K

3-53 S.

39.47 E.

KIKUYU

K

1 . 15 S.

36.40 E.

KIKUYU FOREST

K

0.55 S.

36.40 E.

KILIFI

K

3- 38 S.

39-51 E.

KILIMANJARO, MOUNT

T

3.04 S.

37.22 E.

KILOSA

T

6.50 s.

36.59 E.

KINANGOP (PLATEAU)

K

0.42 s.

36.34 E.

KISAKI DAM (Nr. KONDOA IRANGI)

T

4-35 S.

35-53 E.

KISIMA, LAKE

K

0.56 N.

36.47 E.

KISMAYU

SOMALIA

0.25 S.

42.31 E.

KISUMU

IC

0.06 S.

34.45 E.

ICITUI

K

1.22 S.

38.01 E.

KIUNGA

K

1.45 S.

41.29 E.

KOROLI

K

2.43 N.

37.17 E.

ICORONLI WATER

IC

2.43 N.

37.42 E.

LAMU

K

2.17 S.

40.52 E.

LANET

K

0.18 S.

36.08 E.

LANGATA

K

1.20 S.

36.43 E.

LAROPI

U

3.34 N.

31.49 E.

LATEMA

IC/T

3.24 S.

37-37 E.

LELAN DOWNS

IC

1 . 17 N.

35-27 E.

LESSOS

K

0.13 N.

35.18 E.

LIBOI

K

0.25 N.

40.55 E.

LIMURU

K

1.06 S.

36.39 E.

LODUNGOKWE

K

0.54 N.

37.00 E.

LOIENGALANI

IC

2.46 N.

36.43 E.

LOITA

K

x.40 S.

35-50 E.

LOKITAUNG

K

4.16 N.

35-45 E.

LONDIANI

K

0.10 S.

35.36 E.

LONGONOT, MOUNT

K

0.55 S.

36.27 E.

LOWER KABETE

K

1. 14 S.

36.43 E.

LUGARD’S FALLS

K

3.03 s.

38.42 E,

LUMBWA

K

0.12 S.

35.28 E.

MAFIA ISLAND

T

7.50 S.

39.50 E.

MAGADI, LAKE

IC

1.52 s.

36.17 E.

MAKUIWA, UNLOCATED, ON Mt. ELGON K

0.08 N.

34-33 E.

MALINDI

K

3.17 S.

40.07 E.

MANDA (LAKE MALAWI)

T

10.30 s.

34-37 E.

MANYANI

K

3.05 s.

38.30 E.

MANYARA, LAKE

T

3-35 S.

35.50 E.

MARAGOLI HILLS

IC

0.00

34.40 E.

MARALAL

K

1.06 N.

36.42 E.

MASANJE ISLAND

T

i-55 S-

33.25 E.

MARSABIT

IC

2.17 N.

37-57 E.

MASINDE

T

3.39 S.

37.26 E.

MAU NAROK

K

0.41 S.

35.57 E.

MAUNGU

K

3-33 S.

38.45 E.

MBALAGETTI RIVER

T

2.12 S.

33-49 E.

MBUYUNI

K

3.24 S.

37.52 E.

MERU, MOUNT

T

3.14 S.

36.45 E.

MEURESSI ( = MURUETH I )

K

2.56 N.

35.26 E.

MIDA

IC

3.22 S.

39.58 E.

MILEPA (RUKWA)

T

8.04 s.

31.56 E.

MOMBASA

K

4.03 s.

39.40 E.

MOROGORO

T

6.49 s.

37.40 E.

MOLO RIVER, LOWER

K

0.15 N.

36.06 E.

MOSHI

T

3.21 S.

37.20 E.

MSARA

K

3.25 S.

39-34 E.

MTITO ANDEI

K

2.41 S.

38.10 E.

MUGUGA

IC

1. 11 s.

36.37 E.

MUTHAIGA

IC

i . 15 s.

36.49 E.

MWANZA

T

2.31 s.

32.54 E.

MWEA

K

1.42 s.

37.30 E.

Page 32

NABERERA

NAIROBI

NAIROBI DAM

NAIROBI NATIONAL PARK

NAIVASHA, LAKE

NAKURU, LAKE

NAMANGA

NAMURAPUTH

NANYUKI

NATRON, LAKE

NDUNDU (RUFIJI)

NGARE NAIROBI
NG’IYA

NGONG HILLS

NGORONGORO, CRATER

NGULIA

NGURU

NJOMBE

NJORO

NORTH UASO NYIRO
NUNGWI

NYAMBE CRATER, ON Mt. KENYA

OLDUVAI

OL BOLOSSAT

OL DONYO SABUK=OL DOINYO SAPUK

OL JORO OROK

PEMBA ISLAND

RABAI

RONGAI

RUAHA NATIONAL PARK

RUARAKA

RUDOLF, LAKE

RUIRU

RUKWA

RUMURUTI

SABAKI RIVER

SAMUMBA (SINGIDA)

SANYA

SAWAGONGO

SEMINI’S DAM (S. KINANGOP)

SEYA VALLEY
SHEKANI ( = SHAKANI)

SHIMBA HILLS
SIMBA
SIO RIVER
SOBO

SOKOKE FOREST
SOLAI

SOUTH UASO NYIRU
SOY

SUGURO

SUGUTA NAIBOR
SUKARI

SULTAN HAMUD

SUSWA

TABORA

TANGA

TARANGIRI

TAVETA

THIKA

TIWI RIVER

TODANYANG

TSAVO

TSAVO GATE

TULAZU RIVER (=TULASHA R.)

UASIN GISHU

UGALLA RIVER GAME RESERVE
UKEREWE ISLAND

T

4.12 S.

36.56 E.

K

1. 17 S.

36.49 E.

K

1 . 19 s.

36.48 E.

K

1.22 S.

36.50 E.

K

0.46 s.

36.21 E.

K

0.22 S.

36.05 E.

K

2.33 s.

36.47 E.

IC

4.34 N.

35-57 E.

K

0.01 N.

37.04 E.

T

2.25 S.

36.00 E.

T

8.14 S.

39.11 E.

T

3-03 S.

37.01 E.

K

0.03 N.

34.23 E.

K

1.24 S.

36.38 E.

T

3.10 S.

35-35 E.

K

3.00 s.

38.13 E.

T

6.38 s.

37.32 E.

T

9.20 s.

34.46 E.

K

0.20 S.

35.56 E.

K

0.28 N.

39-55 E.

Z

5-43 S.

39. 18 E.

K

0. 10 S.

37.20 E.

T

2.58 s.

35.22 E.

K

0.09 s.

36.26 E.

K

1.08 s.

37.15 E.

K

0.04 s.

36.22 E.

5.10 s.

39.48 E.

K

3.56 s.

39-34 E.

K

0.10 S.

35.51 E.

T

8.58 S.

35.25 E.

K

1 . 14 s.

36.53 E.

K

3.30 N.

36.00 E.

K

X.09 S.

36.58 E.

T

8.00 S.

32.25 E.

K

0. 16 N.

36.32 E.

K

3.09 S.

40.08 E.

T

4.49 S.

34.45 E.

T

3-35 S.

37.05 E.

K

0.05 N.

34.27 E.

K

c.0.43 S.

36.39 E.

IC

1.08 N.

37.04 E.

IC

1.47 S.

41.29 E.

IC

4.13 s.

39.25 E.

K

2.10 S.

37.36 E.

K

0.14 N.

34.01 E.

IC

3.04 S.

38.54 E.

IC

3.31 S.

39.49 E.

K

0.03 N.

36.09 E

IC

2.04 S.

36.07 E

K

0.41 N.

35.11 E.

IC

Western Kenya, unlocate

K

c.0.40 N.

36.37 E.

K

1. 15 S.

37.06 E.

IC

2.02 S.

37.22 E.

K

1.09 S.

36.21 E.

T

5.02 S.

32.50 E.

T

5.04 S.

39.06 E.

T

4.00 S.

36.00 E.

K

3.25 s.

37.42 E.

IC

1.03 s.

37.05 E.

K

4.14 s.

39.36 E.

IC

4.32 N.

35.56 E.

K

2.59 s.

38.31 E

IC

2.59 s.

38.31 E.

K

0.30 s.

36.24 E.

K

0.30 N.

35.20 E.

T

5.50 S.

31.50 E.

T

2.03 s.

33.00 E.

Page 33

UKWALA

ULUGU (USHORA)

UPLANDS

VOI

WAJIR

WATAMU

WEMBERE (Nr. LOLANGURU)
WITU

YALA RIVER
YALA RIVER SWAMP
YATTA PLAINS
ZANZIBAR

K

0.12

N.

34.11

E.

T

4.41

S.

34-15

E.

IC

I.03

S.

36.39

E.

IC

3.23

S.

38.34

E.

K

i-45

N.

40.04

E.

K

3.21

S.

40.01

E.

T

4.30

s.

34.00

E.

K

2.23

s.

40.26

E.

K

0.04

N.

34-09

E.

K

0.03

N.

34.05

E.

K

2.00

S.

38.00

E.

Z

6.10

S.

39.20

E.

Page 34

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anon, no date. The Lake Manyara National Park checklist of birds. Tanganyika National Parks.
Anon, 1930. Arrival dates of Palaearctic migrants in Africa. Bateleur 2 : 33-35.

Anon, 1950. Uganda Game and Fisheries Department Report.

Archer, G. & Godman, E. M. 1937. The Birds of British Somaliland and the Gulf of Aden.
Vol. 2, London: Gurney and Jackson.

1961. The birds of British Somaliland and the Gulf of Aden. Vol. 4, Edinburgh:

Oliver and Boyd.

Backhurst, G. C. 1969a. A record of Gallinago stenura from Kenya. Bull. Br. Orn. Club 89 : 95-96.

1969b. Report on bird ringing 1967-1968. Jl E. Africa nat. Hist. Soc. 27 : 217-225.

1971a. A sight record of a new bird for Kenya. EANHS Bull. 1971 : 40.

1971b. East African bird ringing report. Jl E. Africa nat. Hist. Soc. 28 : 1-14.

Backhurst, G. C. & Backhurst, D. E. G. 1970. A preliminary check list of East African birds.
[Kabete, Nairobi] : duplicated.

Backhurst, G. C. & Britton, P. L. 1969. A record of Calidris subminuta from Kenya. Bull. Br.
Orn. Club 89 : 12 1.

Bauer, K. M. & Glutz von Blotzheim, U. N. 1968. Handbuch der Vogel Mitteleuropas.

Vol. 2, Frankfurt am Main: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft.

Bednall, D. K. 1959a. Migrant records August/September 1958. Jl E. Africa nat. Hist. Soc.
23 : 145-

1959b. Migrant records — January to May 1959 .Jl E. Africa nat. Hist. Soc. 23 : 177.

Beesley, J. S. S. 1971a. Some notes from the Arusha National Park. Bull. Br. Orn. Club 91 : 8-9.

1971b. A record of the Pochard Aythya ferina from the Arusha National Park.

EANHS Bull. 1971 : 39-

Benson, C. W. 1945. Observations from Kenya Colony, Uganda and Tanganyika Territory.
Ibis 87 : 90-95.

1948. The Long-legged Buzzard in Northern Rhodesia. Bull. Br. Orn. Club 68 : 147.

I95I- A roosting site of the Eastern Red-footed Falcon Falco amurensis. Ibis 93:

467-468.

1953- A Cheklist of the Birds of Nyasaland. Blantyre and Lusaka: Nyasaland Society.

Benson, C. W., Brooke, R. K., Dowsett, R. J., & Irwin, M. P. S. 1970. Notes on the birds of
Zambia. Arnoldia ( Rhodesia ) 4 (40) : 1-59.

1971. The Birds of Zambia. London: Collins.

Benson, C. W. & Irwin, M. P. S. 1966. The Common Quail Coturnix coturnix in the Ethiopian
and Malagasy Regions. Arnoldia ( Rhodesia ) 2 (13): 1-14.

Benson, C. W. & White, C. M. N. 1957. Checklist of the Birds of Northern Rhodesia. Lusaka:
The Government Printer.

Blom-Bjorner, S. 1945. Pernis apivorus.Jl E. Africa nat. Hist. Soc. 18 : 159.

Bowles, R. V. 1967. Lesser Spotted Eagle on migration. Jl E. Africa nat. Hist. Soc. 26 : 87.
Britton, P. L. 1970a. Birds of the Balovale District of Zambia. Ostrich 41 : 145-190.

1970b. Two new shrikes for Kenya. Bull. Br. Orn. Club 90 : 133-134.

Britton, P. L. & Harper, J. F. 1969. Some new distributional records for Kenya. Bull. Br.
Orn. Club 89 : 162-165.

Britton, P. L. & Sugg, M. StJ. in press. Birds recorded on the Kimilili Track, Mount Elgon,
Kenya.

Broberg, L. 1967. A Long-toed Stint Calidris subminuta in Ethiopia. Ibis 109 : 440.
Broekhuysen, G. J. 1971. Third report on bird migration in southern Africa [1st part]. Ostrich
42 : 41-64.

Brown, G. H. H. 1963. A first record of the Imperial Eagle, Aquila heliaca, Savigny, in Kenya.

Jl E. Africa nat. Hist. Soc. 24 : 71.

Brown, L. H. 1970. African Birds of Prey. London: Collins.

1971a. A record of the Short-eared Owl Asio fiammeus (Pontoppidan) from Kenya.

EANHS Bull. 1971 : 77-

1971b. Cuculus poliocephalus at Watamu. EANHS Bull. 1971 : 117.

Brown, L. & Amadon, D. 1970. Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of the World. 2 Vols, Feltham:
Hamlyn for Country Life Books.

Cave, F. O. & Macdonald, J. D. 1955. Birds of the Sudan. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.
Chapin, J. P. 1932, 1939, 1953 and 1954. The Birds of the Belgian Congo. Bull. Am. Mus. nat. Hist.
65, 75, 75A, 75B.

Clancey, P. A. 1964. The first records of the Rufous-necked Stint Calidris ruficollis from the
Ethiopian Region. Ibis 106 : 254-255.

1965. The Knot Calidris canutus (Linnaeus) in Natal. Ostrich 36 : 143-144.

1969. A catalogue of birds in the South African Sub Region. Supplement 1. Durban

Mus. Novit. 8 : 275-324.

Clapham, C. S. 1964. The birds of the Dahlac archipelago. Ibis 106 : 376-388.

Dathe, H. & Faust, R. 1965. Fulica atra im Ngorongoro-Krater (Tansania). J. Orn ., Lpz. 106:459.
Deane, A. J. 1971a. Letter to the Editor [Tringa erythropus record]. EANHS Bull. 1971 : 118-119.

Page 35

1971b. Letter to the Editor [Lartis ridibundus record]. EANHS Bull. 1971 : 119.

De Roo, A. & van Damme, B. 1970. A first record of the Long-tailed Skua, Stercorarius longicaudus
Vieillot, from the Ethiopian Region (Aves: Stercorariidae). Revue Zool. Bot. afr. 82 : 157-162.
Dowsett, R. J. & Irwin, M. P. S. 1970. The documentation and acceptance of rarity records —
some cautionary remarks. Ostrich 41 : 223.

Elliott, H. 1964. Note appended to Cruickshank, E. & A. R. I. : Feeding behaviour of Milvus
migrans tenebrosus in East African coastal waters. Ibis 106 : 253-254.

Fogden, M. P. L. 1963. Early autumn migrants in coastal Kenya. Ibis 105 : 112 - 113.
Forbes-Watson, A. D. 1971. Skeleton Checklist of East African Birds. Duplicated.

Friedmann, H. & Keith, S. 1968. First specimen of Otus scops turancius (Loudon) from Africa.
Bull. Br. Orn. Club 88 : 112.

Friedmann, H. & Loveridge, A. 1937. Notes on the ornithology of tropical East Africa. Bull.
Mus. comp. Zool. Harv. 81 : 1-413.

Friedmann, H. & Stager, K. E. 1964. Results of the 1964 Cheney Tanganyikan Expedition.
Ornithology. Contr. Sci. 84.

Friedmann, H. & Williams, J. G. 1969. The birds of the Sango Bay forests, Buddu County,
Masaka District, Uganda. Contr. Sci. 162.

Fuggles-Couchman, N. R. 1953. The ornithology of Mt. Hanang, in northern-central Tanganyika
Territory. Ibis 95 : 468-482.

Fuggles-couchman, N. R. & Elliott, H. F. I. 1946. Some records and field-notes from North-
Eastern Tanganyika Territory. Ibis 88 : 327-347.

Ginn, P. J. G. & Brooke, R. K. 1971. The American Pectoral Sandpiper in Africa. Bull. Br.
Orn. Club 91 : 125-126.

Glutz von Blotzheim. U. N., Bauer, K. M., & Bezzel, E. 1971. Handbuch der Vogel Mitteleuropas.

Vol. 4. Frankfurt am Main: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft.

Goddard, M. 1971. A weeks birding at Malindi. EANHS Bull. 1971 : 20-21.

Grant, C. H. B. & Mackworth-Praed, C. W. 1936. On the movements of the lesser cuckoo
during the non-breeding season A. Bull. Br. Orn. Club 56 : 131-133.

1937- On the movements of the lesser cuckoo during the non-breeding season B.

Bull. Br. Orn. Club 57 : 77-78.

Granvik, H. 1923. Contributions to the knowledge of the East African ornithology. Birds collected
by the Swedish Mount Elgon Expedition 1920. J. Orn., Lpz. 71 (Sonderheft) : 1-280.

1934- The ornithology of north-western Kenya Colony with special regard to the

Suk and Turkana Districts. Revue Zool. Bot. afr. 25 : 1-190.

Grote, H. 1930. Wanderungen und Winterquartiere der palaarktischen Zugvogel in Afrika.
Mitt. zool. Mus. Berl. 16 : 1-116.

I93I- Weitere Mitteilungen fiber palaearktische Zugvogel in Afrika. Mitt. zool.

Mus. Berl. 17 : 406-414.

Guggisburg, C. A. W. 1950. Records of migrating birds. Nature E. Afr. 2 (3) : 6-8.

H. C. = Hugh Copley 1942. Note on a Gadwall collected at Kisumu. Jl E. Africa nat. Hist. Soc.
16 : 223.

Hartert, E. 1910. Die Vogel der palaarktische Fauna. Berlin: R. Friedlander & Sohn.
Hartlaub, G. 1891. Ornithologie der ostlichaquatorialen Lander und der ostlichen Kfistengebeite
Afrikas. Abh. naturw. Ver. Bremen 12 : 1-46.

Harvey, W. G. 1971. A Tanzanian record of Knot Calidris canutus. EANHS Bull. 1971 : 75.
Jackson, F. J. 1938. The Birds of Kenya Colony and the Uganda Protectorate. 3 vols, London:
Gurney and Jackson.

Jogi, A. 1957. Lindude rongastamine Eesti NSV-s aastail 1938-1955. Loodusuurijate selts Eesti
NSV teaduste akadeernia juures abiks loodusevaatlejale. 33 : 1-83.

Keith, S. 1968. Notes on birds of East Africa including additions to the avifauna. Am. Mus. Novit.
2321 : 1-15.

Leakey, L. S. B. 1943a. Notes on the Falconidae in the Coryndon Memorial Museum. Jl E. Africa
nat. Hist. Soc. 17 : 103-122.

1943b. Note on Gadwall. Jl E. Africa nat. Hist. Soc. 17 : 127.

1947. in Bird Notes — Migration Records. Nature E. Africa 4 : 5.

Lee, H. J. 1959. Grey Phalarope at Lake Nakuru. Jl E. Africa nat. Hist. Soc. 23 : 175.

1962. Unusual birds at the coast. Jl E. Africa nat. Hist. Soc. 24 : 66.

Loveridge, A. 1922. Notes on East African Birds (chiefly nesting habits and stomach contents)
collected 1915-19. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. for 1922 : 837-862.

1923. Notes on East African Birds (chiefly nesting habits and endo-parasites) collected

1920-1923. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. for 1923 : 899-920.

Lynes, H. 1934. Contribution to the ornithology of southern Tanganyika Territory. J. Orn., Lpz. 82
(Sonderheft).

Lynn-Allen, B. G. 1942. A few notes on birds in the northern Lake Rudolf area. Jl E. Africa
nat. Hist. Soc. 16 : 220-222.

1951- Shot-gun and Sunlight. London: Batchworth Press.

Mackworth-Praed, C. W. 1917. A collection of birds from two districts of British East Africa.
Ibis 10 (5) : 362-421.

Page 36

Mackworth-Praed, C. W. & Grant, C. H. B. 1957. African Handbook of Birds, Series I,
vol. 1. Birds of Eastern and North Eastern Africa. Second Edition. London: Longmans,
Green & Co.

i960. African Handbook of Birds, Series I, vol. 2. Birds of Eastern and North

Eastern Africa. Second Edition. London: Longmans, Green & Co.

— 1962. African Handbook of Birds. Series II, Vol. 1. Birds of the Southern Third

of Africa. London: Longmans, Green & Co.

Mann, C. F. 1971a. The first record of the Black-winged Pratincole for Kenya. EANHS Bull.
1971 : 76-77-

1971b. Distributional notes on some Uganda birds. Bull. Br. Orn. Club 91 : m-113.

McLachlan, G. R. & Liversidge, R. 1957. Roberts Birds of South Africa. Cape Town: Trustees
of the S. A. Bird Book Fund.

Meiklejohn, M. F. M. 1940. Notes on migratory birds from the southern shores of Lake Victoria
etc. December 22, 1939, to February 28, 1940. Ostrich 11 : 33-40.

Meinertzhagen, R. 1921. Notes on some birds from the Near East and from Tropical East Africa.
Ibis 11 (3) : 621-671.

1922. Notes on some birds from the Near East and from Tropical East Africa. Ibis

11 (4) : 1-74.

1930. Nicoll’s birds of Egypt. London: Hugh Rees.

1937- Some notes on the birds of Kenya Colony with especial reference to Mount

Kenya. Ibis 14 (1) : 748.

1950- A visit to Magadi, in Kenya, in March 1949. Ibis 92 : 148-149.

1954. Birds of Arabia. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.

Moreau, R. E. 1935. Common and Jack Snipe and Garganey in Tanganyika. Ibis 13 (5) : 667.

1937- Migrant birds in Tanganyika Territory. Tanganyika Notes Rec. 4 : 17-50.

1938. Bird-migration over the north-western part of the Indian Ocean, the Red

Sea, and the Mediterranean. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. A 108 (1) : 1-26.

1941- Ringed European storks in East Africa. Ibis 14 (5) : 616-617.

1944- Some weights of African and of wintering Palaearctic birds. Ibis 86 : 16-29.

1961. Problems of Mediterranean-Saharan migration. Ibis 103a : 373-427; 580-623.

i960. The Bird Faunas of Africa and its Islands. London: Academic Press.

1969. The Sooty Falcon Falco concolor Temminck. Bull. Br. Orn. Club 89 : 62:67.

Moreau, R. E. & Moreau, W. M. 1937. Biological and other notes on some East African birds.
Ibis 13 (1) : 152-173; 321-345.

Moreau, R. E. & Sclater, W. L. 1935. A contribution to the ornithology of Kilimanjaro and
Mt. Meru. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. Pt. 4 : 843-891.

Morrison, A. F. 1946. Tanganyika record of Bar-tailed Godwit, Limosa lapponica lapponica
(Linnaeus). Jl E. Africa nat. Hist. Soc. 19 : 71.

1955- Occurrence of the Levant Sparrow-Hawk in Tanganyika. Bull. Br. Orn.

Club 75 : 6.

Nattrass, R. M. 1948. Records of migratory birds. Nature E. Afr. 8 : 4.

Nisbet, I. C. T. 1961. Studies of less familiar birds 113. Broad-billed Sandpiper. Br. Birds 54 :
320-323.

Oberholser, H. C. 1945. Birds of the White-Fuller Expedition to Kenya, East Africa. Scient.
Pubis. Cleveland Mus. nat. Hist. 4 (3) : 43-122.

Oliver, P. J., Davenport, D. L., Gibbs, A., & Wheeler, C. E. 1971. Chiffchaffs in Kenya. EANHS
Bull. 1971 : 78.

Owre, O. T. & Paulson, D. R. 1968. Records of Falconiformes from the Lake Rudolf area,
Kenya. Bull. Br. Orn. Club 88 : 151-152.

Pakenham, R. H. W. 1936. Field-notes on the birds of Zanzibar and Pemba. Ibis 13 (6) : 249-272.

1939- Field notes on the birds of Zanzibar and Pemba. Ibis 14 (3) : 522-554.

1945- Field notes of the birds of Zanzibar and Pemba Islands. Ibis 87 : 216-223.

Parsons, B. T. 1969. A record of Oceandroma leucorhoa from Kenya. Bull. Br. Orn. Club 89:120-121.

Pearson, D. J. 1971. The occurrence of a Great Black-headed Gull Larus ichthyaetus in Uganda.
Bull. Br. Orn. Club 91 : 171-172.

Peterson, R., Mountfort, G., & Hollom, P. A. D. 1966. A Field Guide to the Birds of Britain
and Europe. Revised and enlarged edition, London: Collins.

Pickerling, R. 1966. Ngorongoro’s bird-life. Ngorongoro Conservation Unit.

Pitman, C. R. S. 1931. Notes on the birds of Nkose Is., Victoria Nyanza. Bateleur 3 : 29-30.

1934- Report on a faunal survey of Northern Rhodesia. Livingstone: Government

Printer.

Reichenow, A. 1894. Die Vogel Deutsch-Afrikas. Berlin: Geographische Verlagshandlung Dietrich
Reimer.

1900-1903. Die Vogel Afrikas. 3 vols. Neudamm: J. Neumann.

Reynolds, J. F. 1965. On the occurrence of palaearctic waders in Western Tanzania. E. Afr. Wildl.

J. 3 : 130-131. . „ ^ ^

1969. Notes on birds observed in the vicinity of Tabora, Tanzania with special

reference to breeding data. Jl E. Africa nat. Hist Soc. 27 : 1 17-139.

Page 37

Ridley, M. W. 1953. Grey Phalarope in Kenya. Jl E. Africa nat. Hist. Soc. 22 : 17.

Ridley, M. W. & Percy, Lord R. C. 1953. Notes on the birds of Lake Elmenteita, Kenya Colony.
Proc. Univ. Durham phil. Soc. 12 (8) : 103-118.

Sassi, M. 1916. Beitrag zur Omis Zentralafrikas (II). Antiln naturh. Mus. Wien 30 : 239-306.
Sassi, M. & Zimmer, F. 1941. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Vogelwelt des Songea - Distriktes mit
besonderer Beriicksichtigung des Matengo-Hochlandes (D.O.A.). Annin naturh. Mus. Wien
51 : 236-346.

Schmitt, M. B. & Hunter, H. C. 1971. Dunlin in the southern Transvaal. Ostrich 42 : 145.
Schwarz, E. 1948. Birds — records and observations. Nature E. Afr. 6 : 2.

Sclater, W. L. 1924-1930. Systema Avium Aethiopicarum. 2 vols, London: Taylor and Francis.
Sclater, W. L. & Moreau, R. E. 1932. Taxonomic and field-notes on some birds of North-
East Tanganyika Territory. Ibis 13 (2) : 487-522; 656-683.

1933- Taxonomic and field notes on some birds of north-eastern Tanganyika

Territory Part III. Ibis 13 (3) : 1-33.

Sessions, P. H. B. 1967. Notes on the birds of Lengetia Farm, Mau Narok. Jl E. Africa nat. Hist.
Soc. 26 : 18-48.

Sharpe, R. B. 1930a. The birds of Marsabit Mountain, Kenya Colony. Part I. Bateleur 2 : 44-47.

1930b. The birds of Marsabit Mountain, Kenya Colony. Bateleur 2 : 106.

Sharrock, J. T. R. 1971. Scarce migrants in Britain and Ireland. Br. Birds 64 : 93-113.

Simpson, V. R. 1971. An interesting morning spent at Ahero. EANHS Bull. 1971 : 127-128.
Smart, J. B. 1949. Records of migratory birds. Nature E. Afr. 2 : 5.

1952. A brief note on some birds seen around Malindi 9-18/12/50. Jl E. Africa

nat. Hist. Soc. 20 : 459-461.

1967. Bird ringing for 1961-1966. Jl E. Africa nat. Hist. Soc. 26 : 47-51.

Smart, J. B. & Forbes-Watson, A. 1971. Occurrence of the Asiatic Dowitcher in Kenya. EANHS
Bull. 1971 : 74-75.

Smithers, R. H. N., Irwin, M. P. S., & Paterson, M. L. 1957. A Checklist of the Birds of Southern
Rhodesia. Rhodesian Ornithological Society.

South African Ornithological Society List Committee 1969. Check list of the Birds of South
Africa. [Cape Town].

Sperling, R. M. 1868. Ornithological notes from the Ethiopian Region. Ibis for 1868:282-295.
Spronk, W. 1969. Long-toed Stint Calidris subminuta at Benoni. Ostrich 40 : 62-63.

Stoneham, H. F. 1930. Arrival dates of Palaearctic migrants. Bateleur 2:1.

1944- First Kenya record of Temminck’s Stint. Jl E. Africa nat. Hist. Soc. 17 : 396.

Tennent, J. R. M. 1962. Notes on the migration and dispersal of birds at Kitui. Jl E. Africa nat.
Soc. 24 : 41-42.

Ticehurst, C. B. 1938. A Systematic Review of the Genus Phylloscopus. London: Trustees of
the British Museum.

Tree, A. J. 1968. Least Sandpiper Calidris minutilla in Bathurst District, Eastern Cape. Ostrich
39 : 200-201.

Ulfstrand, S. & Lamprey, H. i960. On the birds of the Kungwe-Mahari area in western
Tanganyika Territory. Jl E. Africa nat. Hist. Soc. 23 : 229.

Urban, E. K. & Brown, L. H. 1971. A Checklist of the Birds of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa: Haile
Sellassie I University Press.

Van Der Lee, H. F. 1971. Brown-headed Gull, Larus brunnicephalus a new species for Tanzania.
Ardea 59 : 60-61.

Van Someren, V. G. L. 1918. Migration of birds. Jl E. Africa Uganda nat. Hist. Soc. 6 : 218-240.

1921. On a collection of birds from Turkanaland. Jl E. Africa Uganda nat. Hist.

Soc. 16 : 3-38.

1922. Notes on the birds of East Africa. Novit. zool. 29 : 1-246.

1929. Notes on the birds of Jubaland and the Northern Frontier, Kenya. Jl E.

Africa Uganda nat. Hist. Soc. 9 : 25-70.

1930. The birds of Kenya and Uganda. Part VIII. Jl E. Africa Uganda nat. Hist.

Soc. 10 : 34-65.

1931. Catalogue of the European and Asiatic migrants to Kenya and Uganda with

brief outline of the subject of migration of birds. Jl E. Africa Uganda nat. Hist Soc. Special
Supplement 4 : 1-40.

1932. Birds of Kenya and Uganda, being addenda and corrigenda to my previous

paper in Nov. Zool. 29, 1922. Novit. zool. 37: 252-380.

1933- Birds of Kenya and Uganda. Part XII. Jl E. Africa Uganda nat. Hist. Soc.

(49-50) : 179-191-

1939- Reports on the Coryndon Museum Expedition to the Chyulu Hills. Part 2.

The birds of the Chyulu Hills. Jl E. Africa Uganda nat. Hist. Soc. 14 : 15-129.

1943- Migratory ducks in Kenya Colony. Ibis 85 : 345.

Van Someren, V. D. 1958. A Bird Watcher in Kenya. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.

Vaughan, J. H. 1930. The birds of Zanzibar and Pemba. Ibis 12 (6) : 1-48.

1932. Additional short notes on the birds of Zanzibar and Pemba. Ibis 13 (2) : 352.

Page 38

Vaurie, C. 1959. The birds of the Palearctic Fauna, a Systematic Reference. Order Passeriformes.
London: Witherby.

1965. The Birds of the Palearctic Fauna, a Systematic Reference. Non Passeriformes.

London: Witherby.

Vesey-FitzGerald, D. & Beesley, J. S.S. i960. An annoted list of the birds of the Rukwa Valley.

Tanganyika Notes Rec. (54) : 91-110.

Voous, K. H. 1948. Notes on some Kenya birds. Ibis 90 : 472.

Watson, G. E. 1971. Slender-billed Gull Larus genei at Lake Manyara, Tanzania. Bull. Br. Orn.
Club 91 : 167.

Wattel, J. 1966. A specimen of Accipiter brevipes from Congo. Revue Zool. Bot. afr. 74 : 273-274.
White, C. M. N. 1948. Additions to the ornithology of the Kaonde Lunda Province, Northern
Rhodesia. Ibis 90 : 328.

i960. A check list of the Ethiopian Muscicapidae (Sylviinae) Part I. Occ. Pap.

natn. Mus. Sth. Rhod. 3 (24B) : 399-430.

1961. A Revised Check List of African Broadbills etc. . . Lusaka: Government

Printer.

1962a. A check list of the Ethiopian Muscicapidae (Sylviinae) Parts II and III.

Occ. Pap. natn. Mus. Sth. Rhod. 3 (26B) : 653-738.

1962b. A Revised Check list of African Shrikes etc . . . Lusaka: Government Printer.

1963. A Revised Check List of African Flycatchers etc. . . Lusaka: Government

Printer.

1965. A Revised Check List of African Non-Passerine birds. Lusaka: Government

Printer.

Williams, J. G. 1948. Bird notes. Saker Falcon ( Falco cherrug cherrug) in Kenya Colony. Nature
E. Afr. 8 : 1-2.

1952. American Pectoral Sandpiper in Kenya Colony. Ibis 94 : 538.

1953- Spotted Redshank in Kenya. Jl E. Africa nat. Hist. Soc. 22 : 17.

1955- Tringa totanus totanus in Northern Rhodesia. Bull. Br. Orn. Club 75 : 79.

1967. A Field Guide to the National Parks of East Africa. London: Collins.

1969. A Field Guide to the Birds of East and Central Africa. 4th impression. London :

Collins.

Williamson, K. 1968. Identification for Ringers, 1, the Genera Cettia, Locustella, Acrocephalus
and Hippolais. 3rd edition. British Trust for Ornithology.

Witherby, H. F., Jourdain, F. C. R., Ticehurst, N. F., & Tucker, B. W. 1943 The Handbook of
British Birds. Vol. 4, revised edition. London: Witherby.

Published by The East Africa Natural History Society, Box 44486, Nairobi, Kenya and
printed by Kenya Litho Ltd., Box 40775, Cardiff Road, Nairobi.

JOURNAL

OF THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

15th OCTOBER, 1973

No. 141

THE BIRDS OF BUDONGO FOREST,

BUNYORO PROVINCE, UGANDA

By

Herbert Friedmann

350 South Fuller Ave. Apt. 12H, Los Angeles, California 90036, U.S.A.

and

John G. Williams
P.O. Box 40729, Nairobi, Kenya

From 1966 to 1970, under sponsorship of National Science Foundation grants GB
5107 and GB 7787, the Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History made surveys
of the fauna of the little known and dwindling isolated forests of western Uganda. The
present report, dealing with the birds of the Budongo, completes the reports of the
avifauna.

In Budongo, two surveys were made under the supervision of the junior author, who
himself accompanied the first one. These trips lasted from 14th June to 8th July 1966,
and from 12th April to 4th June 1970. On the first survey the collectors were John G.
Williams and Andrew Williams; on the second trip A. Williams, Ivan Bampton and
Anthony Ziegler were involved. The first trip unfortunately came at a time of some
political unrest which precluded the bringing of firearms into Uganda, and collecting was,
therefore, limited to the use of mist nets. A second, longer trip in 1970 completed the
results of the 1966 survey.

The total bird collections, all in the Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History,
comprise 933 specimens, which, together with 356 received from the Knudsen-Machris
1963 Expedition a few years earlier, has given us for study some 1289 specimens of 181
species. In addition, the Western Foundation of Vertebrate Zoology has made available
nearly 100 Budongo bird specimens, which include four species not otherwise known from
that area. We are glad to acknowledge our gratitude to the Western Foundation for this
generous cooperation. The present report adds 32 species to the published Budongo
avifauna, but only 128, or a little more that half of the total of 226 kinds of birds listed
are actually true forest species, and some of them are more in the fringes than in the
depths of the evergreen woodlands. The Budongo Forest has no endemic species or
subspecies of birds peculiar to itself.

The Budongo Forest, in western Bunyoro province, Uganda, covers an area between
the northeastern portion of Lake Albert, to the west, and Masindi, to the east. It extends
from i° 40 'N. to i° 53 'N., 310 25'E.,to 3i°4i 'E., and lies at an altitude of 900 to 1400 m.
In an ecological study of the forest, Eggeling (1947) concluded that it differed from all the
other west Ugandan forests in having a high percentage of mixed forest, not dominated

Page 2

by any one kind of tree. This he considered indicates that the Budongo is biologically a
younger forest than are those of Bugoma, Kalinzu, Kibale (Mpanga), Malabigambo
and Bwamba. Eggeling did not estimate the relative difference in age of the Budongo
from that of these other forests. The birds inhabiting these several areas give little inform-
ation that might be suggestive in this consideration as no species or even subspecies is
known to be restricted to any one of them.

The data of primary interest in the report are those devoted to the forest dwelling
birds of Budongo. While we have included in this paper information on other species of
birds obtained by our collectors just outside, or on the edge of, or in the clearings within,
the forest, each of these are explicitly stated to be birds of the more open areas. Hall &
Moreau (1970) have indications of actual records from, or close to, Budongo for three
passerine forest species not included in the present paper. It is probable that these are
from the Budongo Forest, but because we lack precise data on them we list them here
rather than in their proper systematic sequence in the body of this paper: Phyllastrephus
hypochloris (Jackson) Toro Olive Greenbul, Ploceus weynsi (Dubois) Weyns’ Weaver
and Malimbus erythrogaster Reichenow Red-bellied Malimbe.

The literature on the birds of the Budongo is small enough to enable us to combine
the earlier reports with our present extensive collections. Some of the first collectors to
visit the forest, such as Christy, Fox, Neave, Pitman and Seth-Smith, published little,
but many of their notes and specimens have been included in Jackson (1938) and in
Chapin (1932 to 1954). However, the earlier and greater source of data on Budongo birds
is van Someren’s 1922 paper, where, unfortunately, the discussion is reduced to the mere
listing of Budongo as a locality of specimen records for the species involved. The work

Page 3

accomplished by van Someren and Jackson provided the chief published information
about the avifauna of Budongo until 1963. In that year, the Knudsen-Machris Expedition
spent a short time in the forest and added 60 species to the 13 1 recorded by their pre-
decessors. This showed how incomplete the earlier published data were, especially since
more than half of the additions were true forest birds. Since then Keith (1968) added
sight records of three more species to the known avifauna of the Budongo, either his
own or those of R. W. Smart. The present paper adds specimen records of 32 more, a
total of 226 species. Of these, however, only 128 are denizens of the true forest. In com-
paring the present Budongo catalogue with the earlier data of van Someren and Jackson,
it should be said that this increase is due to the use of mist nets as a supplemental collect-
ing technique. Not only has their use enabled collectors to add many species to the local
list, but it also has revealed the status of others previously considered rare because they
are secretive, skulking, and difficult to obtain by the older methods alone. Additional
Budongo records may lie unpublished in some museums, especially those of London,
Nairobi, New York and Chicago. We have not had the opportunity to search for such in
the course of our own present study.

To avoid repetition, we have deleted the year 1922 in all van Someren references to
that paper (not his 1932 one); also the year 1938 for all Jackson references, save in the
case of a few gamebirds where it is necessary to distinguish this book from his 1926 one.
Also we have abbreviated the Knudsen-Machris 1963 Expedition to K. M. Expedition,
and have deleted author and year from references to the senior author’s paper on its
results.

For her generous volunteer services in tabulating all the specimens with their data
for the senior author’s use while writing this report, and later for her careful and accurate
typing of the manuscript, we are much indebted to Mrs. Reese H. Taylor.

In the following annotated catalogue the names of species that are new records for
the Budongo area are followed by an asterisk. Those that we consider to be true forest
dwellers are given the symbol F.

Podiceps ruficollis capensis Salvadori Little Grebe *

One adult male with slightly enlarged testes was taken on 16th May; stomach contents insect
remains. This is not a forest bird and was one of several found on a dam at the edge of the forest.

Butorides striatus atricapillus (Afzelius) Green-backed Heron *

One adult male with enlarged gonads was taken on 18th April; stomach contents fish and beetle
remains. This little heron does not occur in the forest but only along the marginal tree-bordered
streams. It was collected at the dam mentioned under the^preceding species.

Polyboroides radiatus typus Smith Harrier-Hawk *F

Represented by an adult female, in non-breeding state, taken on 25th May.

Accipiter badius sphenurus (Ruppell) Shikra

Not met with by our collectors, but noted by Jackson whose specimen must have been taken
outside the true forest.

Kaupifalc® monogrammicus (Temminck) Lizard Buzzard *F.

This occurs more at the periphery than in the depths of the woodlands. One adult female, with
a slightly swollen ovary, taken on 28th May had grasshoppers in its stomach.

Hieraaetus dubius (Smith) Ayres’ Hawk Eagle F.

As we noted in an earlier paper (1968:12) the junior author made an “unmistakable” sight
record of this species on 14th June 1966.

Francolinus lathami schubotzi Reichenow Forest Francolin F.

This small francolin is reported by van Someren (31), Jackson (1926:54, 1938:259) and White
(1965:68).

Francolinus nahani Dubois Nahan’s Francolin F.

This is another rarely encountered species; an adult female with much enlarged ovary was
taken on 16th April, stomach contents seeds and insect fragments. The K.M. Expedition (15)
obtained a female in breeding condition in April.

Francolinus squamatus schuetti Cabanis Scaly Francolin F.

Collected by the K.M. Expedition (16).

Page 4

Guttera edouardi sethsmithi Neumann Crested Guinea Fowl F.

Fairly common; in May our collectors obtained two adults, stomach contents vegetable remains
and grit.

Sarothrura pulchra centralis Neumann White-spotted Crake *F.

Quite common ; our collectors obtained six specimens, 30th May to 6th July. A female was in
full breeding condition on 31st May, others had small or only somewhat enlarged gonads; stomach
contents insect fragments and grit.

Porphyrio alien! Thomson Allen’s Gallinule*

Not a forest dweller; a male was taken on 6th July 1970 between Budongo Forest and Masindi.

Gallinula angulata Sundevall Lesser Moorhen *

One adult was captured in a mist net stretched across a small dam at the edge of the forest, June
1966, but escaped while being removed from the net.

Columba unicincta Cassin Afep Pigeon *F.

An adult female in breeding state was collected on 7th May, adding this large pigeon to the
known avifauna. Its stomach was full of small green fruits.

Streptopelia semitorquata (Riippell) Red-eyed Dove

Common in the Budongo area, but not in the depths of the forest. Our collectors did not meet
with it; Budongo records were mentioned by van Someren (37), Jackson (1926:145, and 1938:457),
and the K. M. Expedition (17).

Turtur tympanistria (Temminck) Tambourine Dove F.

Very common; ten specimens were taken in late April, May and June, all with enlarged gonads;
a female collected 16th June was marked as “breeding”. All the specimens had seeds and commi-
nuted vegetable matter as well as grit in their stomachs.

Turtur afer (Linnaeus) Blue-spotted Wood Dove *

Less numerous than the preceding species; our collectors obtained a female with an enlarged
ovary in the open woods west of the true forest on 19th May; stomach contents hard seeds and grit.

Aplopelia larvata jacksomi (Sharpe) Western Lemon Dove F.

Recorded by Jackson (1926:176, and 1938:473) and Chapin (1939:166), probably on the basis of
Jackson’s reports.

Trerou australis gibberifrons (Madarasz) Green Pigeon F,

Known from two examples taken by the K. M. Expedition (17). Our collectors found it to be
not uncommon, but obtained no specimens.

Psittacus erithacus erithacus Linnaeus Grey Parrot F.

Represented by an adult female, taken 20th May, ovary slightly enlarged; stomach contents
pieces of hard brown fruit seeds and yellow fruit pulp. Noted by van Someren (46) and Jackson
(532). Our collectors saw flocks of these birds flying high above the forest on several occassions.

Agapornis pullaria ugandae Neumann Red-headed Lovebird

Reported only by Jackson (540).

Tauraco schuetti emini (Reichenow) Black-billed Turaco F.

Known only on the basis of van Someren’s record (49). It was noted a few times by our men as

well.

Tauraco leucolophus (Heuglin) White-crested Turaco

Reported by van Someren (49), by Jackson (520) and the K. M. Expedition (17). Our 1966 and
1970 field workers did not collect it, but noted it not uncommonly outside the true forest.

Corythaeola cristata cristata (Vieillot) Great Blue Turaco F.

Collected by the K. M. Expedition (17). Our collectors saw it on a few occasions.

Clamator levaillantii (Swainson) Levaillant’s Cuckoo

Not a forest species, but one example was collected on the edge of the forest on 30th April by the
K.M. Expedition.

Cuculus solitarius solitarius Stephens Red-chested Cuckoo

Represented by one adult male, testes slightly enlarged, taken 16th May; stomach contents
insects, including one hairy and one hairless caterpillar. The K.M. Expedition (18) also collected
this cuckoo.

Cuculus clamosus gabonensis Lafresnaye Gabon Cuckoo F.

This forest cuckoo is known only from reports by van Someren (52) and Jackson (488),
apparently of specimens in the mabirae plumage phase.

Page 5

Cercococcyx mechowi Cabanis Dusky Long-tailed Cuckoo F.

Collected by the K. M. Expedition (i 8) and by our field party who obtained a breeding female
with a not fully developed egg in the oviduct on 19th May; stomach contents ants, spiders, and
large hairy caterpillars. It was fairly numerous but very elusive.

Chrysococcyx klaas (Stephens) Klaas’ Cuckoo

Known only on the basis of one specimen taken by the K.M. Expedition (19).

Chrysococcyx cupreus cupreus (Shaw) Emerald Cuckoo F.

Our field party collected one adult of each sex, 25th April and 26th May; gonads slightly en-
larged; stomach contents insect fragments, including termites, a dragonfly and hairy caterpillars.
The K. M. Expedition also found it.

Ceuthmochares aereus aereus (Vieillot) Yellow-bill

First reported by the K.M. Expedition (19); our collectors obtained one female in non-breeding
state, 22nd May; stomach contents insect fragments.

Centropus monachus fischeri Reichenow Blue-headed Coucal

Known from the immediate vicinity of the forest from a single specimen taken by the K.M.
Expedition (19).

Otus scops senegalensis (Swainson) African Scops Owl

Reported only by van Someren (45) ; it is not a true forest bird.

Bubo africanus cimerascems Guerin Spotted Eagle Owl

Only known from one specimen taken by the K.M. Expedition (19) at the escarpment immedia-
tely west of the Budongo Forest. Not a real forest dweller, it does occasionally occur on the outer
fringes of the wooded areas.

Bubo lacteus (Temminck) Verreaux’s Eagle Owl F.

Found only by the K.M. Expedition (19).

Ciccaba woodfordii nuchalis (Sharpe) African Wood Owl F.

First recorded by van Someren (45), this owl was met with by our collectors on 7th May 1970,
when an adult of each sex was obtained, both in non-breeding state; stomach contents large green
grasshoppers and beetles.

Caprimulgus inornatus Heuglin Plain Nightjar *

A bird of fairly arid thorn scrub country which does not occur in the forest. In the collection
of the Western Foundation of Vertebrate Zoology are four specimens collected by R. Glen in Jan-
uary 1966, all labelled from the Budongo Forest, but they must have been taken outside it. The
specimens all had small gonads; stomach contents insect remains.

Macrodipteryx vexillarius (Gould) Pennant-wing Nightjar *

Like the preceding species, it does not occur in the true forest. Our 1970 collectors obtained
three specimens, 2nd-6th July collected on roads through the forest.

Apus caffer streubelii (Hartlaub) White-rumped Swift

Recorded only by the K.M. Expedition (22).

Chaetura sabini Gray Sabine’s Spinetail

Known on the basis of sight records only; Keith (1968:7-8) saw the species on a number of
occasions in October 1963, and was informed by Robert W. Smart that he saw this swift regularly
on numerous visits to Budongo, as also did the junior author.

Chaetura ussheri sharpei Neumann Mottled-throated Spinetail *

Our 1970 collectors obtained two adults on 17th and 30th May; stomach contents insect frag-
ments. This swift occurs both in forested and savanna country.

Chaetura cassimi Sclater Cassin’s Spinetail

Reported only by Keith (1968 :8) who observed it several times in October 1963, often in mixed
flocks with C. sabini. Williams collected an adult female in near breeding state; 19th June 1968,
specimen donated to the Los Angeles Museum collection.

Colius striatus kiwuensis Reichenow Speckled Mousebird

Occurs only at the forest edge, and was first obtained there by the K.M. Expedition (22). Our
collectors took one male with swollen testes, 12th May; stomach contents green vegetable pulp.

Apaloderma narina brachyurum Chapin Narina’s Trogon F.

Common in the Forest where specimens were obtained by van Someren’s collectors (72) and
by the K.M. Expedition. We have a series of specimens taken in April, May and June, all in non-
breeding state; stomach contents various insect fragments including grasshoppers, stick insects
and even a hairy caterpillar.

Page 6

Ceryle maxima (Pallas) Giant Kingfisher *

Not a forest bird; our example, a male with enlarged testes, 29th June, was collected outside
the forest, near the Sonso River; stomach contents remains of fresh water crabs. The species was
seen several times at a dam on the edge of the forest.

Alcedo quadribrachys guentheri Sharpe Shining-blue Kingfisher *F

Collected only by our field parties in 1966 and 1970. We have eight specimens, 18th April to
7th July; two of these taken 23rd June and 7th July were breeding at the time, the others had small
gonads; stomach contents fish scales and remains.

Ceyx picta picta (Boddaert) Pigmy Kingfisher

Very common, our 1966 and 1970 collectors took 16 examples; the K.M. Expedition collected
three others. Neither van Someren nor Jackson met with this kingfisher, but it is not likely that it
has only recently become numerous in the area. One of our birds, taken 18th April, had large gonads;
the others had small ones; stomach contents insect fragments. On 18th April A. Williams collected
a set of hard-set eggs.

Ceyx lecontei (Cassin) Dwarf Kingfisher F.

Another common kingfisher; reported by van Someren (79), by Eggeling (1936:243); by
Jackson (566); by the K.M. Expedition (23), and by both our 1966 and 1970 collectors. We have 19
examples, one of which, a female, taken on 27th April was in breeding state; stomach contents in
all cases consisted of crickets (mainly) and other insect fragments. Like the preceding species, this
is predominantly a bird of clearings in the forest.

Halcyon senegalensis (Linnaeus) Northern Woodland Kingfisher *F.

Met with only by our 1966 and 1970 field parties, and six specimens were collected, 25th April
to 8th July, all in non-breeding state; stomach contents insect fragments and, in one case, two
unidentified small bones.

Halcyon malimbica malimbica (Shaw) Blue-breasted Kingfisher F.

A common bird reported by Jackson (571), the K.M. Expedition (23) and by both our 1966 and
1970 collecting parties. A dozen specimens, some with small, and some with large, gonads, were
taken in April, May and June; stomach contents remains of insects and one millipede.

Halcyon badia Verreaux Chocolate-backed Kingfisher F.

Common and recorded by all who have published on the birds of the area. We have ten examples
taken in April, May and July, mostly in non-breeding state, but one collected 29th April had enlarged
gonads; stomach contents various insect fragments.

Halcyon chelicuti chelicuti (Stanley) Striped Kingfisher

Not a bird of the true forest, but two were collected, on the forest edge in April by the K.M.
Expedition (23).

Halcyon leucocephala leucocephala (Muller) Grey-headed Kingfisher *

In the collection of the Western Foundation of Vertebrate Zoology is one specimen of this
kingfisher taken by Robert Glen on 8th January 1966. No one else seems to have found it, it is not a
forest bird.

Merops albicollis Vieillot White- throated Bee-eater

Reported by van Someren (81), Jackson 585) and the K.M. Expedition. The species is not a
forest dweller, but comes to its outer fringes.

Merops variegatus loringi (Mearns) Blue-breasted Bee-eater

Known to occur on the fringes of the Forest where it has been reported by van Someren (80)
and Jackson (590).

Eurystomus gularis neglectus Neumann Blue-throated Roller F.

First collected by the K.M. Expedition (24). Our collectors procured an adult male with small
gonads on 13th May 1970; stomach contents insects, including a large flat beetle.

Bycanistes fistulator duboisi Sclater White-tailed Hornbill F.

This hornbill was reported by Keith (1968 :g) on the basis of sight records by Robert W. Smart;
Bwamba Forest is the only other Uganda locality for it.

Bycanistes cylindricus albotibialis Cabanis & Reichenow White-thighed Hornbill F.

The K.M. Expedition (25) collected an adult female.

Bycanistes subcylindricus subquadratus Cabanis Black-and-White Casqued Hornbill F.

Collected only by the K.M. Expedition (25). Our collectors in 197° did not obtain this species,
but saw it many times.

Lybius bidentatus aequatorialis (Sharpe) _ Double-toothed Barbet F.

Reported by van Someren (55), Jackson (700) and the K.M. Expedition (25).

Page 7

Lybius hirsutus ansorgii (Shelley) Hairy-breasted Barbet F.

Listed by Jackson (702) and our 1970 collecting team procured a breeding female on 28th May;
stomach contents fruit.

Buccanodon duchaillui duchaillui (Cassin) Yellow-spotted Barbet *F.

Not previously reported in print from the Budongo area, this barbet was collected there by
Robert Glen, 10th to 16th January 1966, and 12th September 1963; these three males and a female,
all in non-breeding state, are in the collection of the Western Foundation of Vertebrate Zoology.

Pogoniulus scolopaceus aloysii (Salvadori) Speckled Tinker-Bird F.

Fairly common ; in 1970 our collectors obtained 3 examples, 9th to 14th May, all in non-breeding
state ; stomach contents insect fragments in one case, fruit remains in another. The species has been
reported by Jackson (721) and the K.M. Expedition (26).

Pogoniulus bilineatus mfumbiri (Ogilvie-Grant) Lemon-rumped Tinker-Bird F.

Recorded by Jackson (717), and the K.M. Expedition (26).

Pogoniulus subsulphureus flavimentum (Verreaux) Yellow-throated Tinker-Bird F.

Reported by van Someren (59) and Jackson (721), and found to be fairly numerous by the K.M.
Expedition (26). Our collectors also met with it and obtained a series of specimens, mostly in non-
breeding state, but two males had enlarged testes, 1 8th May; stomach contents fruit seeds and pulp,

Trachyphonus purpuratus elgonensis Sharpe Yellow-billed Barbet F.

Found to be common by our collectors who procured 7 specimens, 25th April to 28th May;
all with slight gonadal enlargements ; stomach contents largely fruit pulp but in one instance a large
brown nut. The species has been reported by the K.M. Expedition (26).

Indicator variegatus Lesson Scaly-throated Honey-Guide

Recorded by van Someren (53) and Jackson (734).

Indicator conirostris conirostris (Cassin) Thick-billed Honey-Guide F.

Known on the basis of one specimen taken by the K.M. Expedition (27).

Campethera nufoica nubica (Boddaert) Nubian Woodpecker

Reported by Jackson (744), probably from open bush country outside the true forest.

Campethera caroli (Malherbe) Brown-eared Woodpecker F.

Very common; we have 12 specimens taken in April, May and June, all in non-breeding state;
stomach contents insect fragments, chiefly black ants. This species was also reported from the
Budongo by earlier expeditions.

Campethera nivosa herberti (Alexander) Buff-spotted Woodpecker F.

A common bird having been taken by all earlier collectors. We have 10 specimens, taken in
April, May and June, in non-breeding state; stomach contents chiefly black ants.

Dendropicos fuscescens lepidus (Cabanis & Heine) Cardinal Woodpecker

Reported by van Someren (67) and Jackson (750), but probably found just outside the true forest.

Dendropicos poecilolaemus Reichenow Uganda Spotted Woodpecker

Another woodpecker of the open woodlands, not of the dense forest, this species was reported
by van Someren (67) and Jackson (751).

Mesopicos xantholophus (Hargitt) Yellow-crested Woodpecker F.

Recorded by the K.M. Expedition (27-28). In May 1970, our collectors obtained 7 specimens,
all in non-breeding state; stomach contents insect fragments, including ants, beetles and several
sizeable grubs.

Pitta angolensis longipennis Reichenow African Pitta F.

Reported by van Someren (1932:286), Jackson (772) and Chapin (1953:26).

Pitta reichenowi Madarasz Green-breasted Pitta F.

Collected by the K.M. Expedition (28). Earlier it had been observed there by Pitman (Chapin,
1953:3°), who found nests there in May 1943 and 1944. It may be mentioned here that an unfortu-
nate lapse by Hall & Moreau (1970:409) has transposed the K.M. record of Pitta reichenowi to
Pseudocalytopmena graueri Rothschild. The latter species has never been found in Budongo,
and, since it is a highland bird, it is not to be expected there.

Smithornis rufolateralis hudongoensis van Someren Red-sided Broadbill F.

Recorded by all earlier authors, but not met with by our collectors.

Riparia riparia riparia (Linnaeus) Sand Martin

Known only on the basis of two specimens obtained, not in the forest itself, but on the
“Budongo Escarpment”, by the K.M. Expedition (42).

Page 8

Hirundo abyssinica unitatis Sclater & Praed Striped Swallow

Not a forest bird, the few specimens obtained in “Budongo Forest” by the K.M. Expedition
(42) and by our 1970 collectors must have been taken just outside the forest, or in a clearing within
it. In 1970 a male in non-breeding state was collected on 18th April; stomach contents small insect
fragments.

Psalidoprocne albiceps albiceps Sclater White-headed Rough-wing *

Common on the forest edges where our collectors procured 8 specimens in July 1966 and May
1970, some with large and some with small gonads; stomach contents insect fragments.

Motacilla alba vidua Dumont African Pied Wagtail

Listed by van Someren (182) and by Jackson (802) ; not a forest bird, and must have been taken
just outside it.

Trichastoma albipectus barakae (Jackson) Scaly-breasted Illadopsis F.

Common, our collectors obtained a good series in April and May, some with large and some
with small gonads, a juvenile on 10th May, and an immature but fully grown one on 7th July;
stomach contents insect fragments. Also recorded by van Someren (245), Jackson (843) and the K.M.
Expedition (29).

Trichastoma rufipennis rufipennis Sharpe Pale-breasted Illadopsis F.

Common; reported by van Someren (245), the K.M.. Expedition (29) and by our collectors in
1966 and 1970. A series taken in April and May includes birds with small gonads and others with
large ones ; stomach contents insect fragments.

Trichastoma fulvescens ugandae (van Someren) Brown Illadopsis F.

Very common; we have 16 specimens taken in April, May and June, some with small, others
with large gonads; stomach contents insect fragments, especially beetles; a female taken on nth
May was a juvenile bird. Recorded by earlier expeditions.

Turdoides plebejus cinereus (Heuglin) Brown Babbler

Not a forest bird, this babbler figures in the avifauna on the basis of an example collected on the
edge of the forest by the K.M. Expedition (29) and an earlier record by van Someren (234).

Turdoides melanops sharpei (Reichenow) Black-lored Babbler

Not a forest bird, but was reported, undoubtedly from just outside the forest, by van Someren
(234), Jackson (836) and Chapin (1953:235).

Pycnonotus barbatus tricolor (Hartlaub) Dark-capped Bulbul

Reported by van Someren (189) and Jackson (851); our collectors obtained two males, 4th and
5th May 1970, at the forest edge; both with enlarged testes; stomach contents insect fragments with
none of the fruits usually found in the diet of this species.

Pycnonotus virens holochlorus (van Someren) Little Greenbul F.

Very common; reported by all earlier collectors. A long series of specimens was taken in April,
May and July; some in breeding condition (16th June to 3rd July), while the April and May examp-
les showed variations from small to large gonads ; stomach contents remains of fruit and insects.

Pycnonotus gracilis ugandae (van Someren) Little Grey Greenbul F.

Known on the strength of specimens reported by van Someren (188), Jackson (876) and the
K.M. Expedition (30).

Pycnonotus curvirostris curvirostris (Cassin) Cameroon Sombre Greenbul F.

This abundant greenbul is represented in our 1966 and 1970 collections by many specimens
taken in April, May and July; two females were in breeding condition, 19th April and 3rd May;
the rest had small or enlarged gonads; stomach contents fruit pulp, small fruits, caterpillars, ant
pupae, and other insect fragments. All earlier collectors also recorded this greenbul.

Pycnonotus latirostris eugenius (Reichenow) Yellow-whiskered Greenbul F.

Very common; found by all earlier collectors; our 1966 and 1970 collectors obtained 11 speci-
mens in late April, May and early July; some with small and some with enlarged gonads; stomach
contents fruit pulp and seeds, one orange coloured berry and some insect fragments.

Pycnonotus gracilirostris congensis (Reichenow) Slender-billed Greenbul F.

Fairly common; our collectors obtained 3 males in May 1970, all showing testicular enlargement;
stomach contents small fruits, some of wild figs. Noted earlier by van Someren (188), Jackson
(875) and the K.M. Expedition (30).

Baeopogon indicator indicator (V erreaux) Honeyguide Greenbul F.

Relatively uncommon; recorded by van Someren (186) and not again until our collectors pro-
cured a single specimen on 22nd May 1970; testes slightly enlarged; stomach empty. A specimen
collected by Robert Glen, and originally thought to be B. damans (Sjostedt) (Report of the National

Page 9

Museum, Nairobi, July 1965 to June 1966:18) is actually B. indicator with no dark markings on the
outer tail-feathers.

Ixonotus guttatus bugoma Rand Spotted Greenbul F.

Found to be common by our 1970 field party. It has been noted by Jackson (861). We have 7
specimens, taken 5th to 29th May, all in non-breeding state; stomach contents insect fragments,
small black fruits, and parts of larger green fruits.

Chlorocichla flavicollis paliidigula (Sharpe) Yellow-throated Leaf love F.

This bird appears to be less numerous than other greenbuls. Our collectors obtained one male
on 15th June 1966, and one of each sex on 27th April and 5th May 1970, all in non-breeding state;
stomach contents berries and small figs. Reported by van Someren (184 and 1932:342) and Jackson

(858).

Phyllastrephus albigularis albigularis (Sharpe) White-throated Greenbul F.

Abundant and recorded by all previous workers. We have a long series of specimens taken in
1966 and 1970, in April, May and June, none of them in breeding state although a few showed some
gonadal enlargement; stomach contents beetle and other insect remains.

Phyllastrephus icterinus tricolor (Cassin) Icterine Greenbul F.

Not uncommon, recorded by van Someren (186), Jackson (865) and Rand (1960:271). Our
collectors procured 7 specimens in April, May and July, none in breeding condition, although one
male, 18th April, showed considerable testicular enlargement; stomach contents ants and other
insect fragments.

Phyllastrephus xavieri xavieri (Oustalet) Xavier’s Greenbul F.

This species, so very similar to the preceding one, may be slightly more abundant than it in the
Budongo. Our collectors obtained a larger number of xavieri than of icterinus. The species had been
reported by Chapin (1944 :544, 1953 : 167), Rand (1960:271) and Friedmann (1966 131, 1968 :i 10-1 12).
At the time of van Someren’s work, it was not possible to distinguish this greenbul from
icterinus, as their differences, chiefly in size, were not understood prior to Chapin’s 1944 study.
Their degree of sympatry in the forests of Uganda was futher clarified by Friedmann (1968 :i 10-1 12).

Our series of xo examples taken between 29th April and 14th June, contained one breeding
male (14th June) and one juvenile specimen (10th May), while the others were all birds with small
or slightly enlarged gonads; stomach contents insect fragments.

Bleda syndactyla woosnami Ogilvie-Grant Bristle-bill F.

Common; our collectors procured 15 specimens in April, May and June, some with small,
others with enlarged gonads; one female taken 25th June was in full breeding condition; stomachs
contained the remains of beetles and other insects. Reported by van Someren (183), Jackson (857)
and the K.M. Expedition (32).

Nicator chloris chloris (Valenciennes) Nicator F.

Common and noted by all previous writers except Jackson. Our collectors obtained 11 speci-
mens between 26th April and 27th June. Two females, 28th April and 24th June, were marked as
breeding; one, taken 14th May, was a juvenile; all the others were adults with gonads of varying
degrees of enlargement; stomach contents fragments of various inseas including grasshoppers and
egg cases; the juvenile’s stomach contained fruit pulp.

Criniger calurus emini (Chapin) Red-tailed Greenbul F.

Very common; our collectors obtained 16 specimens between 22nd April and 5th July. All
earlier Budongo records reported by van Someren (183), Jackson (856) and Friedmann (1966:32)
were published as C. ndussumensis (Reich.). Hall & Moreau (1970:69, map 79), record only C.
calurus emini east of Lake Albert. The two species are amazingly similar, differing only in the breadth
of the bill.

Our series contains individuals with small, others with enlarged, gonads in about equal numbers;
one female taken on 26th June was marked as “breeding”; an unsexed bird taken on 27th April was
a juvenile; stomach contents entirely insect fragments including, in one instance, two ant pupae.

Campephaga phoenicea flava (Latham) Black Cuckoo-Shrike

Reported solely by van Someren (106). It is not a bird of true forest, and must have been collect-
ed just outside it.

Muscicapa gambagae (Alexander) Gambaga Flycatcher

Chapin (1953:641) lists this non-forest species from Budongo; nobody else seems to have
reported it.

Muscicapa cassini Heine Cassin’s Grey Flycatcher *F.

Known only on the basis of a single male collected on 3rd July 1966 by our field party. It had the
testes somewhat enlarged; stomach contents inseas, including mayflies. The only other Uganda
locality is the Kibale Forest.

Page 10

Muscicapa sethsmithi (van Someren) Yellow-footed Flycatcher F.

Reported by all earlier expeditions; our collectors took six specimens in 1970 (30th April to
9th May), some with gonadal enlargement; others in non-breeding state; stomach contents insect
fragments.

Muscicapa caerulescens brevicauda Ogilvie-Grant Ashy Flycatcher *

Our collectors procured four specimens in May 1970, the only ones yet reported. They include
individuals with large and others with small gonads; stomach contents caterpillars, other insects,
and, in one case, a single fruit seed.

Muscicapa griseigularis (Jackson) Grey-throated Flycatcher F.

Common, all collectors have obtained examples. We have 12 specimens with varying degrees of
gonadal enlargement, and one juvenile; stomach contents insect fragments, including a small beetle.

Muscicapa comitata (Cassin) Dusky Blue Flycatcher F.

Known only on the basis of van Someren’s report (96)

Muscicapa infuscata (Cassin) Sooty Flycatcher F.

Fairly common; the K.M. Expedition (33) met with it, and our collectors obtained 5 specimens
in April, and May, some with enlarged and some with small gonads; stomach contents insect frag-
ments.

Myioparus plumbeus plumbeus (Hartlaub) Grey Tit Flycatcher

Relatively uncommon along the edges of the Budongo Forest; it does not occur within the
forest. Van Someren (206) and Jackson (907) reported it from the area; one specimen was taken
by the K.M. Expedition (32)

Ficedula albicollis semitorquata (Homeyer) White-collared Flycatcher

Chapin (1953:647) reported a specimen taken in the Forest on 22nd February 1907 by L.M.
Seth-Smith. This is the only record known to us.

Fraseria ocreata ocreata (Strickland) Forest Flycatcher F.

Obtained by both our collecting teams, as well as by the earlier expeditions. We have 4 speci-
mens, all in non-breeding state, May and July; stomach contents beetles and other insect fragments.

Melaenornis edolioides lugubris (Muller) Black Flycatcher

Recorded by van Someren (93) and the K.M. Expedition (33).

Hyliota flavigaster flavigaster Swainson Yellow-bellied Flycatcher. F.

Known from Budongo on the authority of Jackson (905).

Megabyas flammulata flatximulata Verreaux Shrike Flycatcher F.

Our collectors obtained one specimen in non-breeding state, 14th May 1970; stomach contents
insect fragments. It has also been noted by the K.M. Expedition (33).

Batis minor nyanzae Neumann Black-headed Puffback Flycatcher

Recorded by van Someren (100) ; it is not a bird of the true forest but of more open bush country
surrounding it.

Platysteira cyanea nyansae Neumann Wattle-Eye

Less numerous than its congeners, castanea and blissetti. Our collectors obtained a single
example in June 1966, and two in May 1970; also recorded by van Someren (102). Our specimens
were in non-breeding state; stomach contents insect fragments. This is a bird of the edges of the
forest.

Platysteira peltata mentalis Bocage Black-throated Wattle-Eye.

This species must be even less common than cyanea.

The only records known to us are two specimens taken in May 1963 by the K.M. Expedition
(34). Like the preceding species this is a forest edge bird.

Platysteira castanea castanea Fraser Chestnut Wattle-Eye F.

Very common and recorded by all earlier collectors. We have 16 specimens, April to July, some
with enlarged gonads, some with small ones ; stomach contents insect fragments.

Platysteira blissetti jasnesoni (Sharpe) Jameson’s Wattle-Eye F.

Very common and recorded by all previous collectors. We took 14 examples in April, May and
July, some with large and some with small gonads; stomach contents insect fragments and butterfly
eggs.

Erythrocercus mccalli congicus Ogilvie-Grant Chestnut-cap Flycatcher F.

Common, and reported by all earlier authors. Our collectors obtained 7 examples in May 1970,
one with enlarged and others with small gonads; stomach contents insect fragments including, in
one case, a caterpillar.

Page 11

Trochocercus longicauda teresitus (Antinori) Blue Flycatcher

Recorded by van Someren (102) and the K.M. Expedition (34). Our collectors did not meet
with it. It is a bird of the clearings inside the forest and of the forest edges.

Trochocercus nigromitratus (Reichenow) Dusky Crested Flycatcher F.

Common and all previous writers have reported it. We have 16 examples taken from April to
July, mostly with small gonads, but one, taken on 26th June was in breeding condition; stomach
contents insect fragments.

Terpsiphone rufiventer someremi Chapin Black-headed Paradise Flycatcher F.

Very common, all previous authors have reported it, and our collectors obtained 17 examples in
1966 and 1970, April to June, most with enlarged gonads; stomach contents insect fragments.

Terpsiphone viridis ferreti (Guerin) Paradise Flycatcher F.

Reported from Budongo only by van Someren (104, 105) and Jackson (943).

Alethe diademata woosnami Ogilvie-Grant Fire-crest Alethe F.

In 1966 and 1970 our collectors found this thrush to be abundant and collected 25 specimens
April to July, many in breeding state, others with small gonads. The K.M. Expedition (36) was
the first to add this species to the known Budongo fauna. Our specimens had eaten ants, beetles
and other insect fragments as well as small frogs (in at least two cases).

Alethe poliocephala carruthersi Ogilvie-Grant Brown-chested Alethe F.

Another abundant thrush and our collectors obtained 16 examples. The species was reported by
Jackson (994) and by the K.M. Expedition (36). Our series contains birds with small and enlarged
gonads, taken in April, May and June; stomach contents ants, beetles and other insect fragments, and
very small snails.

Erithacus erythrothorax xamthogaster (Sharpe) Forest Robin F.

Abundant; our field teams obtained 18 examples and many others were released. Reported by
Jackson (1088) and the K.M. Expedition (36). Most of our specimens, April to June, had enlarged
gonads ; stomach contents ants, small beetles and other insect fragments.

Cossypha natalensis intensa Mearns Red-capped Robin Chat F.

Fist collected by the K.M. Expedition (36). In May 1970 our collectors obtained two birds with
much enlarged gonads; stomach contents insect remains.

Cossypha cyanocampter bartteloti Shelley Blue-shouldered Robin Chat F

Common; noted by van Someren (239), Jackson (986), the K.M. Expedition (36), and by our
collectors. None of our few specimens, collected in April, May and June, was in breeding condition;
stomach contents insect fragments.

Cossypha niveicapilla melaraonota (Cabanis) Snowy-headed Robin Chat F.

More numerous than the preceding species, this robin chat is represented in our collection by
eight specimens, April to June, some with large and some with small gonads; stomach contents
insect fragments. Reported by van Someren (240).

Neocossyphus rufus gabunensis Neumann Red-tailed Ant-Thrush F.

First reported by Chapin (1953:564); a single specimen was collected by the K.M. Expedition
(37). Our collectors obtained 10 examples in April, May and June, some with small and others with
enlarged gonads ; stomach contents ants and other insect fragments and a small millipede.

Neocossyphus poemsis praepectoralis Jackson White-tailed Ant-Thrush *F.

First recorded by our collectors who procured 6 specimens, 22nd April to 27th June, all but
one with some gonadal enlargement; stomach contents ants and other insect remains.

Stizorhina fraseri vulpina Reichenow Rufous Flycatcher F.

Common; the first record was by the K.M. Expedition (37). Our teams procured 15 specimens,
17th April to 8th July, including one juvenile, some adults with enlarged gonads and some with
small; stomach contents fragments of beetles and other insects.

Turdus olivaceus centralis Reichenow Olive Thrush F.

Reported by van Someren (238), Jackson (949) and the K.M. Expedition (38). On 19th June
1966, our collectors obtained a single breeding female.

Turdus primcei bates! (Sharpe) Grey Ground-Thrush F.

First reported by the K.M. Expedition (37). At that time this was only the second record of this
species from Uganda, the earlier one being from Bugoma. In 1966 our collectors obtained two non-
breeding specimens, on 24th June and 5th July respectively; stomach contents snails, beetles and
other insect fragments.

Sphenoeacus mentalis mentalis (Fraser)

Only recorded by the K.M. Expedition (41).

Moustache Warbler

Page 12

Phylloscopus budongoensis (Seth-Smith) Uganda Woodland Warbler F.

Originally described on the basis of two specimens taken in the Budongo Forest in February
and May 1907, by L.M. Seth-Smith. Van Someren (97), Jackson (1037) and Chapin (1953 J474)
list the forest as a locality for it. Our collectors obtained a single male in non-breeding state, on
8th May 1970; stomach contents insect fragments.

Cisticola erythrops sylvia Reichenow Red-faced Cisticola

Reported by van Someren (218) and Jackson (1109). On 28th May 1970, our collectors obtained
one male, testes enlarged ; stomach contents insect fragments. This species lives in the open country
outside the forest.

Cisticola woosnami woosnami Ogilvie-Grant Trilling Cisticola

Listed by van Someren (217) and Jackson (1103).

Cisticola lateralis antinorii (Heuglin) Whistling Cisticola *

The only record known to us from the Budongo area, not from the forest itself, is a male,
testes much enlarged, taken by our collectors on 19th April 1970; stomach contents small beetles
and fragments of a grasshopper.

Prinia leucopogon reichenowi (Hartlaub) White-chinned Prinia F.

Reported by all workers; our collectors procured a breeding female on 24th June 1966, and
another non-breeding female on 18th May 1970.

Apalis nigriceps collar is van Someren Black-capped Apalis F.

Fairly common; our collectors obtained 9 specimens in May 1970, some with enlarged gonads
and some with small ones ; stomach contents insect fragments. The species has been reported only
by the K.M. Expedition (39).

Apalis jacksoni jacksoni Sharpe Black-throated Apalis F.

Less numerous than the preceding species. Our collectors obtained one example on 22nd May
1970, a female with a small ovary; stomach contents insect fragments. The K.M. Expedition (39)
procured two immature specimens.

Apalis rufogularis nigrescens (Jackson) Black-backed Apalis F.

Common; it is recorded by most of the earlier authors and our collectors obtained n specimens,
7th-28th May 1970; some with enlarged gonads, others with small ones; stomach contents black
beetles, lepidopteran eggs and insect fragments.

Eminia lepida Hartlaub Grey-capped Warbler F.

Only recorded by van Someren (228).

Camaroptera superciliaris (Fraser) Yellow-browed Camaroptera F.

Fairly common, our collectors obtained 4 specimens, 19th April to 22nd May 1970; all in
non-breeding state; stomach contents insect fragments. Recorded by van Someren (227) and
Jackson (1087).

Camaroptera chloronota toroemsis (Jackson) Olive-green Camaroptera F.

Abundant; reported by all previous authors, our collectors obtained 18 specimens in April,
May and June. One female, taken 14th June 1966 was a breeding bird; some of the other examples
had large, others small, gonads ; stomach contents various insect fragments, including small black
beetles and lepidopteran eggs.

Camaroptera brachyura brevicaudata (Cretzschmar) Grey-backed Camaroptera F.

Common; recorded by van Someren (228), the K.M. Expedition (40), and by our collectors
in 1970, who procured 8 specimens in April and May, two with enlarged, the rest with small,
gonads; stomach contents small insect fragments.

Eremomela badiceps badiceps (Fraser) Brown-crowned Eremomela F.

Recorded by the K.M. Expedition (40). In 1970 our collectors obtained two specimens, 10th
and 1 2th May, a male with large testes, and a female with a small ovary; stomach contents insect
fragments.

Sylvietta virens baraka Sharpe Green Crombec F.

Fairly common; six specimens were taken, 20th April to 5th May, all in non-breeding state;
stomach contents insect fragments. This species was reported by the K.M. Expedition (40).

Macrosphenus concolor (Hartlaub) Grey Longbill F.

This species has only been noted by Jackson (847). Chapin (1953: 244) mentioned Budongo,
(possibly the same record), along with Bugoma and Mabira Forests, as the Uganda localities
comprising the eastern limits of the bird’s range.

Page 13

Macrosphenus fiavicans hypochoedriacus (Reichenow) Yellow Longbill F.

Most of the earlier expeditions mentioned this species; our collectors obtained 6 specimens
in April and May, some with considerable gonadal swelling; stomach contents insect fragments.

Hylia prasima prasisia (Cassin) Green Hylia F.

Reported by van Someren (229) ; found by our collectors to be very common and they obtained
19 examples in April, May and June; stomach contents insect fragments.

Dicrurus adsimilis coracinus Verreaux Velvet-mantled Drongo

Included on the basis of records by van Someren (125) and Jackson (1171).

Prionops plumata concinnata Sundevall Curly-crested Helmet Shrike

Not a forest bird, it was collected at the edge of the Budongo by the K.M. Expedition (43).

Tchagra minuta mimita (Hartlaub) Blackcap Bush Shrike

Our collectors obtained one male of this non-forest species, testes not enlarged, 13th May
1970. Previously the species had been taken in the area only by the K.M. Expedition (43).

Tchagra australis emini (Reichenow) Brown-headed Bush Shrike

Reported by van Someren (no); not a forest bird, it must have been taken in the surrounding
bush country.

Laniarius ferrugineus major (Hartlaub) Tropical Boubou Shrike

Recorded by van Someren (117) from the Budongo area, not from the true forest.

Lanius mackinnoni Sharpe Mackinnon’s Shrike *

We have one specimen, a female with a large ovary, taken 14th May 1970, at the forest edge;
stomach contents grasshoppers. This shrike is a bird of the forest edge and of more open country.

Lanius collaris smithii (Fraser) Fiscal Shrike

Recorded by van Someren (122); it must have been from the open country immediately
outside the forest.

Parus leucomelas guineensis Shelley Black Tit

Recorded by the K.M. Expedition (44); it is a bird of parklands, not of the forest.

Parus funereus funereus (J. & E. Verreaux) Dusky Tit F.

Recorded by the K.M. Expedition (44) and by our collectors, who took two males, 9th and
16th May 1970, both with enlarged testes; stomach contents insect remains.

Oriolus hrachyrhynchus laetior Sharpe Western Black-headed Oriole F.

Common; our collectors obtained 7 specimens in May 1970; some with large gonads and
others with small ones; stomach contents beetles, caterpillars and other insect fragments, and,
in one case, some fruit ( ?) pulp. Recorded by van Someren (127) and the K.M. Expedition (45).

Oriolus larvatus rolleti Salvadori Black-headed Oriole

A bird of the forest edge and of tree-dotted open country, it was reported by van Someren
(127) and the K.M. Expedition (45).

Onychognathus fulgidus hartlaubii Gray Chestnut-wing Starling *F.

Our collectors obtained one example of each sex, 19th and 21st May 1970; the male with
small testes, the female with the ovary enlarged; stomach contents fruit of the Temera tree and
one large grub.

Lamprotornis purpureiceps (J. & E. Verreaux) Purple-headed Glossy Starling F.

Common; recorded by all the collectors reported in the literature. Our field team obtained
three specimens nth to 22nd May 1970, two with large, one with small, gonads: stomach contents
fruit and fruit seeds.

Lamprotornis purpureus amethystinus (Heuglin) Purple Glossy Starling *

This species inhabits the open grasslands outside the forest. One example, labelled as “Budongo
Forest”, now in the collection of the Western Foundation of Vertebrate Zoology, is the only local
record known to us.

Lamprotornis chalcurus emini (Neumann) Bronze-tailed Starling

First reported by the K. M. Expedition (45); on 30th May 1970, our collectors took a non-
breeding male; stomach contents insects. This bird lives in the bushy grasslands near the
forest.

Lamprotornis splendidus splendidus (Vieillot) Splendid Glossy Starling F.

Reported by all collectors. In May 1970, our collectors obtained four specimens, three males
with enlarged testes and one female with a small ovary; stomach contents fruit remains, one hard
kernel, one small insect.

Page 14

Lamprotornis purpuropterus purpuropterus Ruppel Riippell’s Longtailed Glossy Starling
Listed by van Someren (131). It is a bird of open wooded country, not of the true forest.

Cinnyricmclus leucogaster leucogaster (Boddaert) Violet-backed Starling

Reported by the K.M. Expedition (46). It is a bird of the open tree and bush country, not of
the forest.

Zosterops senegalensis stuhlmanni Reichenow Green White-eye

Recorded by van Someren (192), and a single example, in non-breeding state, was obtained
by our collectors on 14th May 1970; stomach contents vegetable matter. This species does not
penetrate into the forest, but occurs at the edges and in the tree-dotted parklands outside it.

Anthreptes fraseri axillaris (Reichenow) Grey-headed Sunbird F.

Common; it has been reported by all earlier authors. We have six specimens in non-breeding
state, taken in April and May 1970; stomach contents ant pupae and other insect fragments.

Anthreptes longuemarei haussarum Neumann Uganda Violet-backed Sunbird

Reported by van Someren (201), probably from outside the forest as it is not a sylvan species.
The junior author has found it to be not uncommon in the wooded savannas west of the
forest.

Anthreptes rectirostris tephrolaema (Jardine & Fraser) Green Sunbird F.

Our collectors obtained a non-breeding female on 22nd May 1970; stomach contents small
berries.

Anthreptes collaris garguensis Meams Collared Sunbird F.

Common, chiefly in the secondary growth and around the clearings. It was reported by most
of the earlier authors. In April and May 1970, our collectors obtained five examples, one of which
had enlarged gonads; stomach contents ant pupae and other insect fragments and a single fruit
seed.

Nectarinia seimundi traylori Wolters Little Green Sunbird F.

Chapin (1954:205) was the first author to list this sunbird. The K.M. Expedition (48) collected
it there and in 1970 our collectors took four examples, 16th April to 28th May, all in non-breeding
condition; stomach contents insect fragments.

Nectarinia olivacea ragazzii (Salvadori) Olive Sunbird F.

Very common: we have 24 specimens, April, May, June and July, a few with gonadal enlarge-
ment, but the majority with little or no seasonal swelling; stomach contents small black beetles,
insect larvae and other insect fragments. Recorded by van Someren (200) and the K.M. Expedition
(47)-

Nectarinia verticalis viridisplendens (Reichenow) Green-headed Sunbird F.

Common; our collectors obtained five specimens in May 1970, one with enlarged, the others
with small gonads; stomach contents insect fragments. Reported by van Someren (200) and the
K.M. Expedition (47).

Nectarinia cyanolaema octaviae (Amadon) Blue-throated Brown Sunbird F.

First recorded by the K.M. Expedition. Our collectors obtained a non-breeding female on
2 1 st May 1970.

Nectarinia rubescens rubescens (Vieillot) Green-throated Sunbird F.

Collected by the K. M. Expedition (47) ; and two were procured by our collectors in May 1970;
both in non-breeding state.

Nectarinia senegalensis lamperti (Reichenow) Scarlet-chested Sunbird

Collected by van Someren (199) and the K.M. Expedition (47). In May 1970, our collectors
obtained two specimens, both with small gonads; stomach contents insect remains, including
one caterpillar. This is a bird of the tree-dotted grasslands.

Nectarinia venusta igneivemtris (Reichenow) Variable Sunbird

Recorded by van Someren (198), this sunbird does not penetrate far into the forest, but
frequents the more open country immediately outside it.

Nectarinia chloropygia orphogaster (Reichenow) Olive-bellied Sunbird F.

One of the most abundant sunbirds in the forest where it was found by earlier expeditions
as well as by our collectors, who obtained 17 specimens, April, May and June 1966 and 1970.
All our examples had little or no gonadal enlargement; stomach contents small insect
fragments.

Page 15

Nectarinia cuprea cuprea (Shaw) Copper Sunbird

Not a bird of the deep forest, but of the open country surrounding it and open glades within
it. Reported by van Someren (197), and found there again in May 1970 when our collectors took
6 examples, all with small gonads; stomach contents insect fragments.

Nectarinia superba buvuma (van Someren) Superb Sunbird

Fairly common; represented in our collection by 7 specimens, May 1970 and June 1966;
one female was breeding on 5th May; stomach contents insect fragments, spiders, and some
substance that was tentatively identified as nectar by the collector. This sunbird is much attracted
to banana flowers in cultivated areas at the forest edge.

Nectarinia kilimensis kilimensis Shelley Bronze Sunbird

Primarily a bird of the highlands, but van Someren (192) recorded it from Budongo.

Passer griseus griseus (Vieillot) Grey-headed Sparrow

Found in open clearings inside or adjacent to the Forest by the K.M. Expedition (49).

Amblyospiza albifrons melanota (Heuglin) Grosbeak Weaver

Not a forest bird, it inhabits the tall grass in the clearings around the dense woodlands. Recorded
by van Someren (144) and the K.M. Expedition (49). Our collectors procured four specimens
there in April and May 1970, one with enlarged the others with small, gonads; stomach contents
insect fragments and small fruits.

Ploceus baglafecht emini (Hartlaub) Emin’s Weaver F.

Two non-breeding females were collected on 10th and nth May 1970; stomach contents
insect fragments. This weaver was collected by the K.M. Expedition (49) and van Someren (138).

Ploceus ocularis crocatus (Hartlaub) Spectacled Weaver

Does not occur in the true forest, but in the tree-dotted parklands surrounding it. Our collectors
obtained two adults; a breeding female, 15th June, and a single non-breeding male, 28th May
1970; stomach contents insect fragments. This weaver was reported by van Someren (139).

Ploceus nigricollis nigricollis (Vieillot) Black-necked Weaver F.

Reported by van Someren (139) and the K.M. Expedition (49). In April and May 1970, our
collectors obtained three specimens, two with small, one with enlarged, gonads; stomach contents
insect fragments.

Ploceus xanthops (Hartlaub) Holub’s Golden Weaver

Recorded only by van Someren (141). This weaver is a bird of the high grass and bush country
outside the forest.

Ploceus cucullatus bohndorffi Reichenow Black-headed Weaver

Known only on the basis of van Someren’s record (141).

Ploceus nigerrimus nigerrimus Vieillot Vieillot’s Black Weaver F.

Very common; recorded by van Someren (143), the K. M. Expedition (50) and our collectors
in 1966 and 1970. We have ix specimens, mostly with enlarged gonads, but some with small ones,
all taken in late April and early May; stomach contents seeds and insect fragments.

Ploceus melanocephalus lischeri Reichenow Yellow-backed Weaver F.

Common; our collectors obtained 11 specimens, 4th- 14th May 1970; some with small and
others with enlarged gonads; stomach contents insect fragments, seeds and grit. This species
had previously been found by the K.M. Expedition (50).

Ploceus tricolor interscapularis Reichenow Yellow-mantled Weaver F.

Van Someren (144) alone reports this weaver.

Ploceus superciliosus (Shelley) Compact Weaver

A bird of the moist grasslands, it does not enter the forest. Our collectors procured a non-
breeding male on 28th May; stomach contents insect fragments. The species had been collected
by van Someren (144) and the K.M. Expedition (50).

Malimbus rubricollis rubricollis (Swainson) Red-headed Malimbe F.

Common; we have 5 specimens taken in May 1970, some with and some without gonadal
enlargement; stomach contents insect fragments and grit. This weaver has been reported by all
previous writers.

Malimbus malimbicus malimbicus (Daudin) Crested Malimbe F.

Abundant and all previous authors reported it. Our collectors procured 14 examples in June
and July 1966, and April and May 1970; some with large gonads, and others with small ones;
stomach contents ant pupae, other insect fragments, fruit and seeds, but chiefly insect material.
On 1 8th April, Williams found a nest and eggs of this species.

Page 16

Quelea erythrops (Hartlaub) Red-headed Quelea *

A bird of the open bush country outside the forest, where five examples were secured 4th
to 6th May 1970; some with small and some with large gonads; stomach contents white seeds
and grit.

Euplectes gierowii ansorgei (Hartert) Black Bishop

A species of the grass and bush country outside the forest ; first reported by the K.M. Expedition
(51); a male with somewhat enlarged testes was collected by our field team on 19th June 1966;
stomach contents seeds and some green vegetable matter.

Euplectes ardens concolor (Cassin) Red-collared Widow Bird

In the area around Budongo Forest two races of this widow bird meet, concolor, which has
no red, and typical ardens, which has a well marked red collar. Examples of both were collected
by the K.M. Expedition (51). On 28th May, 1970, our collectors took a single further example,
of concolor, a male with enlarged testes; stomach contents small seeds.

Vidua macroura (Pallas) Pin-tailed Whydah

Found outside the Budongo Forest by the K.M. Expedition (52) and by our collectors on
13th and 14th May 1970, when two females, including one in full breeding state were taken; stomach
contents seed fragments and grit.

Parmoptila woodhousei jamesoni (Shelley) Red-fronted Ant-pecker * F.

First recorded by our team who collected a male in non-breeding state on 9th May 1970;
stomach contents fine insect fragments. The species is known from several other west Ugandan
forests — the Bwamba, Kibale, Kalinzu, and Impenetrable. Our single male differs from 7 others
from the other forests in having the forehead cinnamon rufous instead of dragon’s blood
red (Ridgway colour terms). Additional Budongo material would be interesting to examine.

Nigrita fusconota fusconota Fraser White-breasted Negro Finch F.

Found only by the K.M. Expedition (52).

Nigrita canicapilla schistacea Sharpe Grey-headed Negro Finch F.

Common; our collectors procured 8 specimens in May 1970, some with, and others without,
gonadal enlargement; stomach contents small seeds, and, in one case, some ant pupae. This species
was recorded by van Someren (157) and the K.M. Expedition (51). Traylor (1968:310) calls the
Uganda population of this species sparsimguttala, but we have not been able to recognise that form
as distinct.

Mandingoa nitidula schlegeli (Sharpe) Green-backed Twin-spot F.

Encountered by our collectors both in June and July 1966, and in April and May 1970, and
11 specimens were preserved. One of these, a female, taken 30th April, was breeding; another, 3rd
May was a juvenile; the rest of the series included birds with and without gonadal swellings;
stomach contents seeds and grit. The species was found by the K.M. Expedition (52).

Pyrenestes ostrinus ostrinus (Vieillot) Lesser Seed-cracker * F.

Very common, where it seems to have eluded earlier collectors. Our field teams met with it in
June-July 1966, and again in April-May 1970, and trapped great numbers in their mist nets. Most
of these were then released, but a series of 36 specimens were saved because of the great variation in
the bill size. Even with this fine series, and with much comparative material from other Ugandan
forests, we find it impossible to divide the birds into meaningful taxa. Such a division necessitates
proof that birds mate only with others of similar bill size, which is not yet known. Two of our
examples, taken 23rd June and 4th July were marked as breeding; others showed great variation
in gonadal size, from small to large, on the same dates; stomach contents seeds, crushed berries
and grit.

Spermophaga ruficapilla ruficapilla (Shelley) Red-headed Bluebill F.

Abundant, recorded by all earlier collectors as well as by our 1966 and 1970 teams. We have
31 specimens, which represent but a fraction of all those caught in the mist nets. Of these, some
taken in May, June and July were marked as breeding, while others taken in the same months had
small resting gonads; stomach contents mostly seeds, some insect fragments in a few cases, and grit.

Clytospiza monteiri (Hartlaub) Brown Twin-spot * F.

First recorded by our collectors in June 1966, and again in May 1970. We have 11 specimens,
with varying degrees of gonadal swelling; stomach contents small seeds and grit.

Lagonosticta senegala ruberrima Reichenow Red-billed Fire-Finch

Recorded from Budongo Forest edge only by the K.M. Expedition (52)

Lagonosticta rubricata ugandae Salvadori African Fire-Finch

Recorded by van Someren (158) and Jackson (1507). It is not a forest bird, but a denizen of the
bush country outside it. Its presence is a little suprising as the species is found usually at higher
elevations.

Page 17

Estrilda paludicola roseicrissa Reicheaow Fawn-breasted Waxbill *

This waxbill is found in the open bush country, and was encountered there by our collectors
on 4th July 1966, and again on 20th May 1970, on each of which days a single male was obtained;
one of these an adult, with enlarged testes, 20th May; stomach contents small seeds.

Estrilda astrild adesma Reichenow Waxbill *

Another open country species, this waxbill is represented by one male, testes small, taken
13th May 1970.

Estrilda nonnula nonmila Hartlaub Black-crowned Waxbill F.

A common bird and our collectors preserved 11 examples out of a great number caught in
their mist nets, 19th April to 27th May 1970; some had small, others, enlarged gonads; stomach
contents small seeds and grit.

Lonchura cucullata cucullata (Swainson) Bronze Mannikin

First recorded by the K.M. Expedition (51), and again by our collectors on 7th July 1966,
when they took two specimens, including one in full breeding condition; stomach contents small
seeds. Our collectors reported tie species common in the open glades of the forest.

Lonchura bicolor poensis (Fraser) Black and White Mannikin

Encountered in the more open areas by our collectors in May 1970, when they preserved four
specimens out of a larger number taken in their mist nets ; all in non-breeding state ; stomach contents
small seeds. The K.M. Expedition (51) also found this species.

Serinus frontalis frontalis Reichenow African Citril *

Occurs in grasslands and it must have been in some such place outside the Budongo Forest
that our collectors procured two males, 19th and 27th May 1970, both with testes enlarged ; stomach
contents small seeds and grit.

Serinus mozambicus barbatus (Heuglin) Yellow-fronted Canary *

The status of this canary in the Budongo area is similar to that of S. frontalis. We have two
specimens, taken 6th and 27th May 1970, one with enlarged testes; stomach contents small seeds
and grit.

Serinus sulphuratus shelleyi Neumann Brimstone Canary

Recorded by van Someren (171); the K.M. Expedition (53) found it at the edge of the forest;
our collectors procured a single male with enlarged gonads on 6th May 1970; stomach contents
seeds.

Emberiza cabanisi cabanisi (Reichenow) Cabanis’ Bunting

Listed by van Someren (173) and Jackson (1554), this bunting must have been found outside
the true forest. Williams noted it, infrequently, in the savanna woodlands west of the Forest.

Emberiza forbesi forbesi Hartlaub Brown-rumped Bunting

The only record is from the Budongo Escarpment, not the forest itself (K.M. Expedition
(153)-

Page 18

LITERATURE CITED

Chapin, J. P. 1932-1954. The Birds of the Belgian Congo. Bull. Amer. Mus. nat. Hist., pt. I.
i932> 75: i-756; pt. II, 1939, 75: 1-632; pt. Ill, 1953, 75A: 1-821; pt. IV, 1954, 756:1-846.

1944- Phyllastrephus icterinus (Bonaparte) and its larger counterpart. Ibis, 86:543-545,

Eggeling, W. J. 1936. Bird notes from the Northern Province, Uganda Journ., 3:242-243.

1947- Observations on the ecology of the Budongo rain forest, Uganda. Journ.

Ecology, 34:20-87.

Friedmann, H. 1966. A contribution to the ornithology of Uganda. Bull. Los Angeles Co. Mus. Nat.
Hist., Science 3:1-55.

1968. Range and variation of the icterine bulbul in Uganda. Bull. British Ornith.

Club, 88:110-112.

Friedmann, H. & J. G. Williams. 1968. Notable records of rare or little-known birds from
western Uganda. Rev. Zool. Bot. Africaine , 77:11-36.

1970. The birds of the Kalinzu Forest, southwestern Ankole, Uganda. Los Angeles

Co. Mus. Contr. Sci., 195:1-27.

Hall, B. P. & Moreau, R. E. 1970. An atlas of speciation in African passerine birids. British Mus.
(Nat. Hist.) 1-423.

Keith, Stuart. 1968. Notes on birds of East Africa, including additions to the avfauna. American
Museum Novitates no. 2321. June 19, 1968: 1-15.

Jackson, F. J. 1926. Notes on the game birds of Kenya and Uganda. London, Williams & Norgate,
Ltd. 1-258.

, completed by Sclater, W. L. 1938. The birds of Kenya Colony and the Uganda

Protectorate, 3 vols., London, Gurney & Jackson: 1-1592.

Moreau, R. E. 1966. The bird faunas of Africa and its islands. New York, Academic Press: 1-424.

Museum Trustees of Kenya. 1967. Report of the National Museum, Nairobi, July, 1965 to June,
1966: 1-18.

Rand, A. L. 1969. African Pycnonotidae, in Mayr and Greenway, eds.. Check-list of birds of the
World, 9: 221-300.

Ridgway, Robert. 1912. Color standards and color nomenclature. Washington, D.C.

Traylor, M. A. 1968. Estrildidae (African), in Peters, Check List of birds of the world, 14:306-397.

van Someren, V. G. L. 1922. Notes on the birds of East Africa. Novitates Zoologicae, 29:1-246.

1932. Birds of Kenya and Uganda, being addenda and corrigenda to my previous

paper in “Novitates Zoologicae” 1922. Novitates Zoologicae, 37:252-380.

Vaurie, C. 1953. A generic revision of flycatchers of the tribe Muscicapini. Bull. American Museum
Nat. Hist., 100:457-538.

White, C. M. N. 1962. Revised check list of African shrikes, orioles, drongos, starlings, crows,
waxwings, cuckoo-shrikes, bulbuls, accentors, thrushes, and babblers. Lusaka, Govt. Printer:
1-176.

Received 11th Atigust, 1971

Published by The East Africa Natural History Society, Box 44486, Nairobi, Kenya and
printed by Kenya Litho Ltd., Box 40775, Changamwe Road, Nairobi.

JOURNAL

OF THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

15th October 1973

No. 142

VEGETATION OF RUSINGA ISLAND

By

Peter Andrews

National Museum
P.O. Box 40658, Nairobi, Kenya

Rusinga Island is an island in Lake Victoria. It is situated in the South Nyanza
district of Kenya. It is only just divided from the mainland by a narrow channel about
loom across, but this has been sufficient to produce noticeable differences between
it and the mainland in vegetation. The island is well populated, the people living for the
most part on the flats along the lake shore and on the lower slopes of the hills. There is
some evidence that it has been inhabited for a considerable period of time, with far
reaching effects on the vegetation. The main interest in examining its present vegetation
is to try and deduce from this what the natural, i.e. primary, vegetation succession was
before disturbance by man.

TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

Rusinga Island consists of a number of hills, the tallest of which, Lugongo Hill,
is approximately 300 m above lake level. The lake itself is 1134m above sea level.
The hills are composed of volcanic sediments and agglomerates dating from the Early
Miocene. Radiometric dates give a range of ages of deposition from over 20 to 16 million
years B.P. (Van Couvering & Miller, 1969). These deposits are part of a large volcano,
which is centred at Rangwa Hill on the mainland and from which also came the agglo-
meratic hills of Gwasi and Gembe and the deposits on the Uyoma peninsula of Central
Nyanza (see Fig. 1). The highly alkaline nature of these deposits was very beneficial to
fossil preservation during the time of deposition, and must have had a profound effect
on local vegetation. At present the only immediately obvious effect of this alkalinity is
on the central plug of the volcano itself: Rangwa Hill.

In the Early Miocene, before uplift and rifting of the East African plateau had
proceeded very far, the area covered by Lake Victoria at present was a westerly tilted
plain with rivers flowing towards the Atlantic. The date of first formation of the lake is
not known, but is thought to be 40,000-50,000 years B.P. There are several lake terraces
known around the lake. These represent former levels of the lake, but only the 15 m
terrace can be seen on Rusinga Island. The terraces were probably formed as a result of
irregularities in the rate of downcutting of the Nile, but changes in climate may also
have been important. For instance, increased rain and lower temperatures since i960
have resulted in a 3 m rise in lake level over a period of only two years (Kendall 1969).

CLIMATE

The climate around Lake Victoria is strongly influenced by the lake. A permanent
low pressure zone produces heavy rain over the lake and along its shores, particularly

Page 2

Fig. i Locality map showing positions of Rusinga Island and the other places referred to in the
text. The broken line shows the extent of the Miocene Volcanic deposits centered around

Rangwa Hill.

in the north and west since the predominant winds are from the south and east (Kendal
1969). The rainfall along the Kenya shore of the lake varies from 800 to 1300 mm,
increasing north eastwards up the Kavirondo Gulf, and is fairly well spread throughout
the year. At Kisumu, the month with the least amount of rain (January) still has an
average of 7 days rain (figures published by the East African Meteorological Department).
The amount of rain apparently decreases further from the lake if there is no significant
rise in altitude, but where altitude does increase there is an increase in rainfall.

Trapnell & Griffiths (i960) have discussed the relation of rainfall and altitude
with reference to ecology. They conclude that the low-lying areas around the lake are
at the end of an altitudinal and ecological sequence extending from moist montane
forest to what they call intermediate semi-evergreen thicket around the lake. This
sequence can be seen within the limits of local influence of the lake up the slopes of the
Gwasi Hills, which rise from the lake shore to a height of over 2000 m, and have montane
evergreen forest at the top. This forest is dominated by Catha edulis Forsk., which is
the dominant species also in the Chyulu Hills (Faden, pers. comm.), but from local
accounts the forest was once much richer and more extensive, and at one time provided
large timber for local canoe manufacture.

Page 3

HISTORY OF VEGETATION CHANGES

There is a little information on prehistorical vegetation in the Lake Victoria region.
On Rusinga Island itself an 18 million year old Miocene flora was described by Chesters
(I957) on basis of fossil seeds and endocarps. She described 17 families with 21 genera,
from which 12 species, which have closely allied living counterparts, are either climbers
(5), large forest trees (3), or smaller forest trees (4). The most characteristic families
are Annonaceae, Apocynaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Menispermaceae, Rhamnaceae and
Ulmaceae. In addition to these, in the Miocene deposits of the neighbouring island of
Mfwanganu there is an abundance of Entcmdrophragma sp. The single species of the
Apocynaceae, Leakeyia vesiculosa Chesters, had endocarps with air floats, indicating
fruit dispersal by water. The abundance of trees and climbers in the flora, and the
affinities of the species, was taken to indicate evergreen forest conditions in the Miocene,
perhaps gallery forest bordering water (Chesters 1957).

Since the Miocene major geological events have drastically altered the landscape
in the Kavirondo area (Baker & Wohlenberg 1971). During the Pleistocene there were
changes in climate that must have radically altered ecological conditions (Moreau 1952,
Carcasson 1964). Of all this time nothing can be said, but an attempt can be made to
assess the human impact in historical times.

The earliest evidence of human occupation of Rusinga Island is the presence of
stone tools of the Sangoan culture on the lake terrace mentioned above. In the same
deposit are abundant bovid remains which suggests that at the time of deposition of the
terrace the vegetation consisted of a fairly open type of woodland, perhaps similar to the
present day. From this time (very approximately 30,000-50,000 years B.P.) until only
1000 years B.P. there is another gap, after which there is evidence of iron age occupation
in parts of Nyanza, although not for Rusinga Island (Leakey et al 1948). These people,
having the use of iron and fire, probably had considerable impact on their environment.
Within the last few hundred years the shoreline of South Nyanza was settled first by
Bantu people and subsequently by Luo (Ogot 1967). The historical traditions of the
Bantu are poorly preserved as they were assimilated by the Luo invaders, and the present
day inhabitants of Rusinga Island all speak Dholuo and follow Luo customs.

What effect the early stone age cultures had on the environment it is difficult to
say, but it seems likely that those based on a hunting economy had little effect. In his
detailed record of changes in vegetation during the last 15,000 years, Kendall (1969,
p. 162) found a great increase in grass pollen on the north shore of Lake Victoria about
2000 years ago. He interprets this as being due to the arrival of agricultural — though
still stone age — man. Fire was probably their principal weapon against the forest, for
stone tools make laborious work of cutting down a tree. Whether Rusinga Island was
inhabited at this time is not known, but the probable occupation of the island for
at least the last 100 years by iron age cultures before the arrival of the Luos cannot have
been without effect on the vegetation.

PRESENT VEGETATION

There are a number of plant communities to be recognized on Rusinga Island.
These depend partly on soil and physiographic factors but also in places on cultural
factors, and the two may produce a similar end result. Thus the usual lake shore vegetation
consists of scattered trees up to 15m tall of Balanites aegyptiaca. Acacia seyal, and
Euphorbia candelabrum (see Table 1 for authorities); but in the “gumbas”, which are
sacred places in the Luo culture and where people are prohibited from burning, there is
an almost luxuriant woodland of figs ( Ficus capensis ), Albizia coriaria, and large trees
of the species mentioned above. In the lower regions of river valleys, where gullying is
not too active, exactly the same association occurs, although never as thick nor as high
and not usually with the same luxuriance of ground vegetation because of grazing.
Higher up the hillsides the plant associations are rather different, due mainly to shallow

Page 4

soils and steep slopes. The characteristic species are Acacia seyal, Sapium ellipticum ,
Commiphora sp., and Rhus natalensis. Heights are lower than the lake shore trees, ranging
from 4-12 m. Areas of land that are lying fallow at present but which were evidently
cultivated or cleared up to a few years ago have a dense scrubby association of Acacia ,
Tamarindus, and Euphorbia. Conspicuous for its absence on Rusinga Island is any
member of the family Combretaceae.

LAKE SHORE COMMUNITIES

The lake shore is extensively cultivated now and offers some of the flattest and
most fertile land on the island. In places where it is cut by river courses or where there
is a “gumba” the tree growth becomes very dense, but usually there are just scattered
trees of the following species: Acacia brevispica, A. seyal , Albizia coriaria, A. zygia.
Balanites aegyptiaca , Canthium schimperanum , Cordia ovalis, Euphorbia candelabrum ,
E. tirucalli, Ficus capensis, F. sycomorus, Haplocaelum foliolosum, Maytenus senegalensis ,
Pseudospondias microcarpa, Scutia myrtina, Stereospermum kunthianum and Tamarindus
indica. Common grasses are Hyparrhenia rufa, Sporobolus agrostoides and Themeda
triandra.

The same species occur more thickly in the less disturbed areas along the lake
shore, and it appears both from their distribution and from local report that neither
fire nor wildlife grazing has had any appreciable effect on the area. It has simply been
a matter of clearing the natural vegetation by the local inhabitants. However, there
appears to be no part of this community that has not been cleared at some time in the
not too distant past. Even the “gumbas”, which in any case are only 1-2 ha in extent,
were probably cleared some time prior to the Luo settlement over 100 years ago. Many
of the large isolated trees along the lake shore show signs of having grown in closed
forest conditions, i.e. they have a straight bole without any branches for 3-6 m and
a fairly constricted crown.

A variation of the lake shore community is that of Acacia drepanolobium on black
cotton soil. This is uncommon on the island, drainage on the whole being good. It occurs
over large parts of Lambwe Valley, the floor of which is exceedingly flat, but in the
better drained parts of the valley floor the species comprising the tree thickets have
some differences from Rusinga Island, although Acacia seyal is dominant in many places.
Similar species associations to the Rusinga lake shore are seen in the dry valleys running
into Lambwe valley from the Gwasi Hills, and the Kaniamwia Escarpment.

One further variation that must be mentioned is the swampland along the lake
shore. This occurs patchily along the shore and is nowhere extensive. It is dominated
by Cyperus papyrus L.

HILLSIDE COMMUNITIES

The vegetation on the hillsides is surprisingly independent of either degree of slope
or geological horizon. The Pleistocene terrace has the same vegetation association as the
higher Miocene volcanics of Lugongo Hill, but the vegetation of the latter is strikingly
different from that of Gembe Hill on the neighbouring mainland, even though they are
part of the same geological horizon. The explanation of this would seem to be that
Gembe Hill is regularly burnt over as an aid to hunting and to improve grazing, so that
trees are scattered on the exposed slopes and consist largely of Combretum, Acacia
and Commiphora species. In a few sheltered gullies on the west slopes of Gembe Hill
the vegetation is much thicker and more like that of Rusinga Island. On Rangwa Hill
and on the other two carbonatite hills in South Nyanza, Ruri Hills and Homa Mountain,
the dominant tree species is Terminalia brownii Fres. associated with Combretum molle
G. Don. The latter is widespread in South Nyanza, but the former occurs only on these
three hills in the whole of the western part of this district.

Page 5

Typical species represented on the slopes of Rusinga Island are as follows : Acacia
brevispica, A. hockii, A. seyal , Annona senegalensis, Carissa edulis. Commiphora sp..
Euphorbia spp., Ficus spp., Grewia mollis, Kigelia africana, Larmea stuhlmannii, Maytenus
senegalensis, Pseudospondias microcarpa, Rhus natalensis, Sapium ellipticum , Stereospermum
kunthianum, Ximenia americana and Ziziphus mucronata. In addition, Markhamia
platycalyx is present in several places, but according to the local people it has been intro-
duced artificially there.

There are great variations in the density of tree species on the hillsides of Rusinga
Island. The north and west slopes of Lugongo Hill appear to have deeper soil and to have
been cultivated more in the past, and here the tree cover is more sparse; whereas in places
on the south and east slopes, where the soil is very thin, dense thickets are common,
interspersed with grass glades where the soil is almost non-existent. Gullying occurs
all round the slopes of the hills on the island, cutting down deeply into the Miocene
sediments, and while some of these are now overgrown with trees others are completely
barren, especially those in areas of intensive agricultural activity at present.

DISCUSSION

The vegetation type present in an area today is not usually a reliable indication of
what would be there in the absence of human interference. Glover (1968) considers that
“fire, shifting cultivation and grazing are the major factors responsible for the formation
and maintenance of savanna country”. Nonhuman factors may be concentration of
elephant or hippopotamus populations and naturally occurring fire. Savanna communities
are therefore deflected sub-climax associations dependent on these factors for their
maintenance and the implication is that in the absence of these factors they would
revert in whole or in part to woodland communities. Similarly, Pratt, Greenway &
Gwynne (1966) state unequivocally that “most East African vegetation types are the
product of human activity”. They go on to suggest a system of classifying vegetation
types based on the density and height of tree or bush canopy cover, and their system
is used in this paper.

The existence of large expanses of open grassland in East Africa at the present
time has led to the belief that it is a natural climax. The same is true of the even larger
expanses of so-called savanna. The classification of Pratt, Greenway & Gwynne
(1966) accepts this implicitly, merely changing the vague term savanna to more precise
terms such as wooded grassland etc. In his analysis of tropical African grasslands,
Michelmore (1939) came to the conclusion that grassland is very limited under natural
conditions and that:

(1) grass is favoured by strong seasonality of rainfall.

(2) within the equatorial zone, which as a whole does not have a long dry season,
grass is limited to areas where either the soil is extremely thin, e.g. glades
within an area of evergreen forest, or the soil is waterlogged for part of the
year, e.g. flood plains, valley bottoms, and on black cotton soils.

There are two exceptions to this generalization: montane grassland that develops
above the tree line, and desert grasslands where absolute rainfall is extremely limited.
Apart from these, however, grassland as a natural climax is rare in equatorial Africa,
and where it is present as a result of human activity it is in general less luxuriant than
further nordi and south away from the equator (Michelmore 1939).

The present vegetation on Rusinga Island varies from grassland to woodland.
It has been shown to have been inhabited by people for a considerable period of time,
and the most important factors that would appear to have modified the vegetation are
probably shifting cultivation and grazing. Goats, sheep and cows are grazed all over the
island. There are permanent farms on the lower slopes of the hills and along the lake
shore, but shifting cultivation is still practised on the upper slopes, cultivated land
there only retaining the soil for a few seasons. Deep gullies at present stabilized with
tree thickets are evidence of former clearing of land now under woodland vegetation.

Page 6

In addition to these human factors, hippos exert a local influence along the lake shore.

It can be concluded that the vegetation of Rusinga Island has been much disturbed
by human settlement, both past and present; and in this it is no exception to the general
conclusion mentioned earlier that human interference has greatly altered tropical
African vegetation communities. An attempt will now be made to say what the vegetation
type of Rusinga Island would be if it were undisturbed.

To begin with there is the guide afforded by the protected “gumba” communities
on Rusinga Island itself. These are composed of the same species found elsewhere on
the island, but the trees are much taller, the canopy is much denser (in places being
closed), and the ground vegetation is much thicker. They are present at random points
along the shore, being the places where the incoming Luos happened to come to land,
and as such they can be taken to be typical of what the lake shore vegetation would be
were it undisturbed by man. It should be classified on this basis as woodland.

On the higher slopes of Rusinga Island there is no such guide to the natural vegeta-
tion. There are, however, areas where the vegetation is less disturbed and where probably
it has not been cleared for the last 30 years at least. Here, dense thickets of trees (over
6 m high) are interspersed with glass grades on thin soil and isolated groups of trees.
This can probably be taken to indicate that thickets form a part of the natural vegetation
of the island, the rest consisting of either bushland or woodland. This agrees with the
broad classification of the area as “intermediate semi-evergreen thicket” (Trapnell &
Griffiths i960).

These two lines of evidence are supported by some other considerations. The
rainfall over the area is relatively high, 800-1000 mm, and is distributed throughout the
year, there being no well defined dry season. This is quite a high rainfall for this altitude,
and should be sufficient to support dense stands of trees. Another consideration is the
comparison of the Rusinga area with the detailed vegetation survey of Uganda (Langdale-
Brown, Osmaston & Wilson 1964). From this the vegetation of Rusinga Island com-
pares closely with the “undifferentiated moist semideciduous thicket” (Gi in their
classification) which occurs along the Uganda shore of Lake Victoria up to the border of
Kenya, and which passes into “moist Combretum savanna” (K) and “ Combretum -
Hyparrhenia savanna” according to their classification. Both the latter types are said to
be fire climax, and having a mean annual rainfall of 800-1500 mm, would probably
succeed to semi-deciduous thicket; this in turn is suggested as a successional stage leading
to a forest climax (Langdale-Brown, Osmaston & Wilson 1964, pp. 53, 57 and 60).
The similarity of this sequence with that of the area around Rusinga Island is striking;
firstly the correspondence in species and tree density at the shore; and secondly the
similarity of inland vegetation types between Lambwe Valley and the area around
Bunwale.

It is concluded, therefore, that the natural vegetation of Rusinga Island, free from
the influence of man, would consist of two zones of woodland: along the lake a moist
form of semideciduous woodland with closed canopy in places and grass glades due to
either hippo grazing or to waterlogged soil; and on the slopes of the hills a (semi) deci-
duous woodland with thickets, with grass glades where the soil is thin. The typical
tree species would probably be Albizia spp., Acacia spp., Sapium ellipticum , Grewia
mollis and Lannea stuhlmannii.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Most of the plant identifications were done while I was working with the Kenya
Forest Department in 1965. Later observations were made during a palaeontological
expedition in 1971 financed jointly by the Royal Society and the Boise Fund. This
paper forms part of a program of research supported by the Wenner-Gren Foundation
for Anthropological Research. I am very grateful to R. B. Faden for critically reading
and commenting on the text of this paper.

Page 7

Table i

VEGETATION LIST FOR RUSINGA ISLAND
Family Name and Authority Dholuo Name

Gramineae

Sporobolus agrostoides Chiov.

Abinywe

Hyparrhenia rufa (Nees) Stapf.

Ogare

Themeda triandra Forsk.

Akwar

Anacardiaceae

Lannea stuhlmanii (Engl.) Engl.

Kuogo

Pseudospondias microcarpa (A. Rich.) Engl.

Ochol

Rhus natalensis Krauss

Sangla

Annonaceae

Annona senegalensis Pers.

Obolo

Apocynaceae

Carissa edulis (Forsk.) Vahl

Ochuoga

Balanitaceae

Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del.

Odho

Bignoniaceae

Markhamia platycalyx (Bak.) Sprague

Siala

Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth.

Yago

Stereospermum kunthianum Cham.

Pololok

Boraginaceae

Cordia ovalis DC.

Oseno

Burseraceae

Commiphora sp.

Arupien

Caesalpiniaceae

Tamarindus indica L.

Chwa

Capparidaceae

Maerua angolensis DC.

Amoyo

Celastraceae

Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell

Achuodo

Compositae

Vernonia amygdalina Del.

Melosia

Euphorbiaceae

Bridelia micrantha (Hochst.) Baill.

Athuno

Croton dichogamus Pax

Ang’we

Sapium ellipticum (Krauss) Pax

Ochak

Neoboutonia melleri (Muell. Arg.) Prain

Opok

Euphorbia candelabrum Kotschy

Bondo

E. tirucalii L.

Ojuok

Mimosaceae

Albizia coriaria Oliv.

Ober

A. zygia (DC.) Macbr.

Oturbam

Acacia seyal Del.

Ale

A. Senegal (L.) Willd.

Kiluor

A. sieberana DC.

—

A. brevispica Harms

Osiri

A. drepanolobium Sjoestedt

Dunga

A. hockii De Wild.

Arumbe

Moraceae

Ficus capensis Thunb.

Ngou

F. sycomorus L.

Bongo

Myrtaceae

Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC.

—

Olacaceae

Ximenia americana L.

Olemo

Papilionaceae

Erythrina abyssinica DC.

Orembe

Rhamnaceae

Scutia myrtina (Burn, f.) Kurz

Migodha

Zizyphus mucronata Willd.

Lango

Rubiaceae

Canthium schimperanum A. Rich.

Kango

Sapindaceae

Haplocoelum foliolosum (Hiem) Bullock

Ahundwi

Simaroubaceae

Harrisonia abssinica Oliv.

Pedo

Tiliaceae

Grewia mollis A. Juss.

Aroyo

REFERENCES

Baker, B. H. & Wohlenberg, J., 1971, Structure and Evolution of the Kenya Rift Valley, Nature
229: 538-541.

Carcasson, R. H., 1964, A Preliminary Survey of the Zoogeography of African Butterflies, E.
Afr. Wildl. J 2: 126-157.

Chesters, K. I. M., 1957, The Miocene Flora of Rusinga Island, Palaeontographica 101: 30-71.
East Africa Meteorological Department, Climatological Statistics for East Africa Part 1, Kenya
and Seychelles, 1971.

Faden, R. B., Personal Communication, November 1971.

Glover, P. E., 1968, The role of fire and other influences on the savannah habitat, E. Afr. Wildl. J

6: 131-137-

Kendall, R. L., 1969, An Ecological History of the Lake Victoria Basin, Ecol. Monog. 39: 121-
176.

Langdale-Brown, I., Osmaston, H. A. & Wilson, J. G., 1964, The Vegetation of Uganda, and
its Bearing on Land Use, Government of Uganda, Entebbe, 159 p.

Leakey, M. D. & Owen, W. E., 1945, A Contribution to the Study of the Tumbian Culture
in East Africa, Coryndon Mus. Occ. Pap. No. 1.

Page 8

Leakey, M. D., Owen, W. E., & Leakey, L. S. B., 1948, Dimple Based Pottery from Central
Kavirondo, Coryndon Mus. Occ. Pap. No. 2.

Michelmore, A. P. G., 1939, Observations on Tropical African Grasslands, J Ecol. 27: 282-312.

Moreau, R. E., 1952, Africa since the Mesozoic, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 121: 869-913.

Ogot, B. A., 1967, History of the Southern Luo, East Africa Publishing House, Nairobi.

Pratt, D. J., Greenway, P. J. & Gwynne, M. D., 1966, East Africa Range Classification, J
appl. Ecol. 3: 369-382.

Trapnell, C. G. & Griffiths, J. F., i960, The Rainfall-Altitude Relation and its Ecological
Significance in Kenya, E. A. Agric. J 25: 207-213.

Van Couvering, J. A. & Miller, J. A., 1969, Miocene Stratigraphy and Age Determinations,
Rusinga Island, Kenya, Nature 221: 628-632.

Verdcourt, B., 1967, The Miocene non-marine Mollusca of Rusinga Island, Palaeontographica
121: 1-37.

Received 12th January, 1972

Published by The East Africa Natural History Society, Box 44486, Nairobi, Kenya and
printed by Kenya Litho Ltd., Box 40775, Changamwe Road, Nairobi.

JOURNAL

OF THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

10th November 1973

No. 143

BIRDS RECORDED ON THE KIMILILI TRACK, MT. ELGON, KENYA

By

P. L. Britton

P.O. Box 90163, Mombasa, Kenya
and

M. St. j. Sugg

c/o ‘ Bnshbury’’ , Blackboys, nr. Ukfield, Sussex, England

Mt. Elgon is a gently-sloping, comparatively isolated mountain straddling the
Kenya/Uganda border at i°N, 34°3o'E, with a peak at 4300 m. Its avifauna is well-
known (see especially Granvik 1923, 1934). The Kimilili track is motorable to above
3500 m, traversing one of the widest parts of the mountain. This southern slope is
comparable in extent with the northern slope in Uganda, but the eastern and western
slopes are far steeper. In climbing from 2400 to 3500 m one covers about 25 km.

The authors and their wives conducted a census, and selectively collected birds
at five main localities along the track from 24th December 1969 to 7th January 1970.
We were accompanied by Loriu Lokiru of the National Museum, Nairobi, and grateful
acknowledgment is made to the Museum both for his services as a skinner and for the
provision of a vehicle and petrol. We are also grateful to the Forester, Kimilili Forest
Station for his considerable help. In July 1971 the Brittons and C. F. Mann visited
this area again, camping for one night at a sixth locality. At the time of the first visit
habitats above about 2300 m were quite intact, but a logging camp has since been
established at about 2600 m and the forest above this level is being rapidly destroyed.

Dale (1940) describes the vegetation of the mountain in general terms but the
impression given is rather misleading. For example, on this part of the mountain at
least, there is a mosaic of bamboo and forest from about 2450 to 2900 m rather than
large areas occupied by bamboo alone. And the percentage of forest does not lessen with
increased altitude within the bamboo zone. In fact our camps between 2600 and 2800 m
were dominated by forest rather than bamboo.

An attempt has been made to show the approximate altitudinal range for each
species by using the numerals 1-6 in the systematic list, where a particular numeral
means that it was recorded at that locality, defined as follows :

1. 2400 m (7800 ft) in forest (especially Neoboutonia tnacrocalyx Pax trees) with
virtually impenetrable undergrowth; below the bamboo line (the contour below
which bamboo does not occur); 6 days, January.

2. 2500 m (8100 ft) in bamboo, forest edge ( Neoboutonia again abundant) and
natural glades; 1^ days, December.

3. Between 2600 and 2700 m (altitude less accurately known than for other locali-
ties as no altimeter available) in Podocarpus forest and bamboo; 1 day, July.

4. 2800 m (9100 ft) in habitat like 3 ; 4 days, December.

5. 3200 m (10500 ft) in giant heather along a stream (lower moorland or heath
zone); days, December.

Page 2

6. 3400m (moo ft) in moorland with giant heather along streams; 3 days.

According to Moreau (1966) afroalpine moorland occurs from 3500 to 4100 m
upwards on different mountains. Moorland species (i.e. away from streams)
at this locality may be included in the afroalpine moorland avifauna.

Additional random observations elsewhere along the track are included. The list
should not be considered as complete. It is not intended to be a “checklist” of Mt.
Elgon birds.

DISCUSSION

A comparison of the number of species at different localities shows a clear impov-
erishment with increased altitude: 2400m, 58; 2500m, 41; 2600-2700 m, 40; 2800m,
36; 3200 m, 14; 3400 m, 15; 4300 m, 7. The most apparent reductions are between
2400 and 2500 m (the bamboo line) and between 2800 and 3200 m (the tree line).
Only 26 of the 58 species recorded at 2400 m were also recorded at 2500 m. Were we
able to spend a little longer at this second locality we would very probably have recorded
a few more species, but we doubt that more than about half of the 58 species occur at
2500 m. There is also considerable variation in the species composition within the
bamboo zone even though the total is fairly constant. For example, only 23 of the 41
species recorded at 2500 m were recorded at 2600 m whereas 26 of these 41 species
were recorded below the bamboo line at 2400 m. The variation in forest types inter-
mingling with the bamboo probably accounts for much of this, as at 2500 m the dominant
tree is probably Neoboutonia sp. whereas at 2800 m it is Podocarpus sp. To an ornitho-
logist the only common factor in these two habitats is the bamboo.

BREEDING SEASONS AND MOULT

A total of 362 birds were ringed between 25th December and 6th January, virtually
all at 2400, 2500 or 2800 m. Primary moult scores were noted in the 350 passerines
and the 10 Turtur tympanistria using the methods of Evans (1966). If there are nine long
primaries, as in most passerines, these scores range from 0 (primary moult not yet started)
to 45 (primary moult completed). Discussion is confined to those 29 species where three
or more individuals were ringed (see the Systematic List). Of 342 birds, only those
detailed below exhibited primary moult, a total of 53 birds of 10 species. So little active
moult, together with the breeding data in the Systematic List, suggests that many species
were either breeding, soon to breed, or recently finished; and more than half of our 96
specimens had enlarged gonads. According to the map in Griffiths (1958), Mt. Elgon
has an April-September only rainfall regime, but our data indicate a much later breeding
season for most species. Birds breeding during this wettest period would very likely be
moulting primaries in December and January. All ringed birds were caught in mist
nets within about 3 m of the ground so that any conclusions based solely on moult
data may refer only to species occupying the forest undergrowth, bamboo or heather.
Canopy and mid-stratum dwellers may be thought to breed earlier (in the rains) but the
high incidence of gonad activity in these species suggests that they may reasonably be
included with the netted birds. It may be concluded, then, that the modal period for
egg-laying on the southern slopes of Elgon is from about November to January.

It is noteworthy that Betts (1966) considered September-December the modal
egg-laying period on the Mau ridge, south east of Elgon at about 2500-3000 m. This area
experiences an April-November rainfall regime, heaviest in July and August. Judging
from Bett’s systematic list, September is far less important than the later months,
especially November and December, so that the modal egg-laying period in the two
areas may be more or less the same.

It is likely that the months of heaviest rainfall are too wet in both these highland
forests so that they are not favoured for breeding by most species. Cold and mist may

Page 3

well be important controlling factors; and such areas are probably seldom so lacking in
moisture that the onset of the main rains has the profound effect on breeding so apparent
at lower altitudes.

Andropadus tephrolaemus : 18 scores ranged from 3-14, mean 7*4j one score of 43.

Chloropeta similis: score of 33.

Phylloscopus trochilus: scores of 5, 17, 22; palaearctic migrant.

Cisticola humeri: score of 43 (male).

Nectarinia preussi: scores of 2, 5, 8, 10, 10, 19, 20; one of these was a case of interrupted moult
(two renewed primaries giving a score of 10).

N. tacazze: Of six females, three were in moult with scores of 42, 3 and 4. Thirteen of the fifteen
males were in moult. An immature male had a score of only 3 but otherwise the smallest score
was 20, with nine out of twelve adult male scores between 20 and 33 (mean 26.0). The remaining
three had scores of 40, 44 and 45. Thus, most males were about half-way through their primary
moult whereas females were either not moulting at all, just starting, or just finishing. We
are unable to interpret this considerable difference in moulting schedules between the sexes.
Zosterops senegalensis : scores of 33, 44, 45.

Serinus striolatus: score of 13.

S. burtoni: score of 6.

Ploceus baglafecht: immature, score of 34; no moult in four adults.

ALTITUDINAL MOVEMENT

In December 1969, three Nectarinia sunbirds, preussi , tacazze and reichenowi ,
were exceedingly common at 2800 m, and they were also noted lower down (see Systematic
List). Our camp in July was in habitat identical to that at 2800 m yet we saw preussi
only twice, tacazze only once, and reichenowi not at all. There was certainly a dearth of
flowering trees and plants in July and these sunbirds had clearly moved elsewhere.
P.L.B.’s data on reichenowi from Central Nyanza, at much lower altitude less than 150
km away, strongly suggest that this species at least has a regular altitudinal movement
after breeding.

According to White (1963), Nectarinia reichenowi does not occur below 5000 ft
(c. 1550 m) but most Central Nyanza records are at 1170 m or 1300 m with one at 1500 m
and one at 1550 m. It has been recorded on eleven dates (up to four together) between
13th May and 3rd September 1969 and 20th March and 27th May 1970. The only collected
bird was a female at Ng’iya on 13th May with no gonad activity. The stage of primary
moult was noted in all five ringed birds: no moult on nth and 22nd May (both females);
scores of 1 on 25th May (female), 44 on 19th July (male), and 42 on 3rd September
(male). A moult schedule from about May to September is completely out of phase with
other Nyanza sunbirds, as is the non-breeding female in May. Virtually all moult in
Nyanza-breeding Nectarinia spp. is from July to November with modal egg-laying months
probably March to June (Britton in prep.). The moult of reichenowi in Central Nyanza
is entirely consistent with the Elgon breeding schedule suggested above, and it should
be noted that no Elgon bird was in moult in December. But, as it is also consistent with
the breeding schedule of Mau birds, for which Betts (1966) gives nests in November,
December and January, it is not certain in which highland forest they breed. Central
Nyanza is probably too low for preussi and tacazze even as non-breeding visitors.
CISTICOLA HUNTERI AND CISTICOLA CHUBBI
Following the suggestion of A.D. Forbes-Watson we made a special effort to investi-
gate the exact ranges of these two species, so that they form some 20 per cent of the whole
collection. Their virtual allopatry is well shown by Hall & Moreau (1970), and Mt.
Elgon occupies a special place as the only area where they both occur. On Elgon, hunteri
occupies higher altitudes than chubbi but there is confusion as to the precise area of
contact, if any. Most authors (Hall & Moreau op. cit., Jackson 1938, Lynes 1930, White
1962a) say that hunteri occurs down to 9000 ft whereas Granvik (1923) recorded it only
above 1 1000 ft. Although stating that it occurs above 9000 ft, Jackson (op. cit.) says
that it occurs only in the alpine zone above the forest. White (op. cit.) has departed from
other authors in treating the two forms as conspecific under the name hunteri. The
evidence presented below shows that White’s arrangement is untenable.

Page 4

Table i

CISTICOLA HUNTERI (H) AND C. CHUBBI (C) COLLECTED ALONG THE
KIMILILI TRACK, MT. ELGON, KENYA.

Males Females

Wing

Weight

Wing

Weight

Altitude (in)

No.

(mm)

(g)

(mm)

(g)

Habitat

3400

Hz

62

169

Alpine moorland.

Hsa

68

15.9

2800

H36

60

15.0

Glade in Podocarpus forest.

H37

65

16.8

H39

59

142

H40

63

16.5

H46

63

160

2550

H93

62

160

Large Glade by rocks in

C92b

62

180

mixed bamboo and Podo-

carpus forest.

2500

H83a

60

14.0

Glade in bamboo/thick scrub.

C84

59

12.5

C85

59

13-5

C90

62

160

C9I

63

17-0

2450

C88

60

15.2

Glade in bamboo/thick scrub.

C89

62

19.3

2400

C86

65

17-0

Scrub by road.

C87

58

15.0

C95

66

16.5

2400

C7r

66

17-5

Along stream in forest.

a H5 and H83 are probably wrongly sexed; their measurements are ignored in the discussion.

b C92 was badly shot and could not be sexed ; it is put with the males because of its measurements
and is included in the discussion

Table I lists all twenty specimens and shows clearly that there is an area of slight
overlap between about 2500 and 2550 m (8iooft-830oft) in the bamboo zone. Our
specimens 92 and 93 were collected within 100 m of one another at 2550 m. The critical
specimens are the chubbi from 2550 m (no. 92) and the hunteri from 2500 m (no. 83).
No. 92 could not be sexed but no. 83 (a male) exhibited gonad activity (testes 4x2, 2.5 x 1.5
mm) as did most of the other specimens from all altitudes. In view of this, as well as the
widespread song, it is unlikely that the overlap was the result of off-season wandering.

No intergradation is apparent in any of the specimens, neither has it been suggested
before, and the two forms are very distinct in plumage as well as song. We were unable
to tape either song on Elgon but have since taped chubbi at Kakamega and hunteri on
Mt. Kenya. When the song of chubbi was played to singing hunteri on Mt. Kenya it
caused no response. It would be interesting to show these songs on a sonogram although
there is no disputing that they sound very different.

It is apparent from Table 1 that chubbi is a larger bird than hunteri. In males, chubbi
wings average 64.0 compared with 63.0 in hunteri, and weights average 17.6 in chubbi
compared with 16.4 in hunteri. The difference in weight is significant (r-test, P< 0.05)
although the difference in wing-length is not. Sexual dimorphism in size is very marked
in chubbi with males larger (mean wing-length 64.0 against 59.6, mean weight 17.6
against 14.4, both significant, /-test, Pco.oi). There are rather few female hunteri
but less sexual dimorphism is apparent here, so that the difference between female
chubbi and female hunteri is trivial. At the time of collecting or ringing, chubbi shows a
markedly stronger and paler tarsus than hunteri. Were hunteri and chubbi conspecific
one would expect hunteri to be larger as it occupies higher altitudes.

In view of the above, the classification proposed by White (1962a) is unacceptable.
Cisticola hunteri and Cisticola chubbi should be retained as different species within a
superspecies, an arrangement also proposed by Hall & Moreau (1970).

Page 5

SYSTEMATIC LIST

With the exception of Cisticola hunteri and C. chubbi, order and nomenclature
follow White (i960, 1961, 1962a, 1962b, 1963, 1965). Collected species are marked with
an asterisk. Species considered under the heading BREEDING SEASONS AND
MOULT are marked ‘M’, the figure in parenthesis indicating the sample size.

Circus' macrourus / pygargus, “Ring-tail” Harrier: 6, 26th December.

Buteo rufofuscus, Augur Buzzard: 1-6, also summit (4300m).

*B. oreophilus, Mountain Buzzard: 3, 5.

Lophaetus occipitalis, Long-crested Eagle: 3 and 2300m.

Stephanoaetus coronatus, Crowned Hawk Eagle : 2 and 2300 m.

Milvus migrans parasitus. Yellow-billed Kite: 2100 m.

Falco biarmicus, Lanner: 5.

F. tinnunculus, Abyssinian Kestrel: 6 and summit (4300 m).

*Francolinus psilolaemus. Montane Red-wing : 6 and up to 3900 m.

*F. squamatus. Scaly Francolin: 1, 2, 4, shelled oviduct eggs, December and January.

Sarothrura sp., Pygmy Rail: 5, a pair, probably 5. affinis at this altitude (Keith et al. 1970). No
Sarothrura has been recorded from Mt. Elgon.

Columba guinea. Speckled Pigeon: pair on summit (4300 m).

*C. arquatrix, Olive Pigeon: 1-4.

*C. delegorguei, Bronze-naped Pigeon : 1.

* Streptopelia lugens, Pink-breasted Dove: 5.

Turtur tympanistria. Tambourine Dove: 1, 2. M (10).

Poicephalus gulielmi. Red-headed Parrot : 3, 4.

*Tauraco hartlaubi, Hartlaub’s Turaco: 1-4.

Chrysococcyx klaas, Klaas’ Cuckoo: 1.

Ciccaba woodfordi, African Wood Owl: heard 3.

*Caprimulgus poliocephalus, Abyssinian Nightjar: 4, incubating fresh egg, c/1, 31st December.

Apus aequatorialis. Mottled Swift : 2000 m.

Colius striatus, Speckled Mousebird: 2300 m.

Phoeniculus purpureus, Red-billed Wood- Hoopoe : 4.

P. bollei, White-headed Wood-Hoopoe: 1, 3.

P. cyanomelas, Scimitar-Bill: 1.

Tockus alboterminatus. Crowned Hornbill: 3.

Bycanistes subcylindricus, Black-and-White Casqued Hornbill: 1-4.

Gymnobucco bonarpartei, Grey- throated Barbet: 1.

Pogoniulus bilineatus, Golden-rumped Tinker-Barbet: 1, 3.

Trachyphonus purpuratus, Yellow-billed Barbet: 1, 4.

Indicator indicator, Greater Honeyguide: heard 3.

Indicator {minor). Lesser Honeyguide: glimpsed 1.

*Dendropicos fuscescens, Cardinal Woodpecker: 1, 3.

*Thripias namaquus, Bearded Woodpecker: 1.

Mirafra sp., Lark: one on summit. This should be looked for in the future. Like the Anthus and
Macronyx (see below) any Mirafra would be an addition to the afroalpine fauna of East Africa
(see Moreau 1966).

*Hirundo daurica, Red-rumped Swallow: 2 and 2300 m.

*Psalidoprocne pristoptera. Black Roughwing : 2-5.

* Anthus novaeseelandiae , Richard’s Pipit: 6 and on football field near 5. Like the next species, not

included in the afroalpine fauna of East Africa by Moreau (1966); yet collected at 11000 ft
(1 cf . our locality 6 at moo ft) by Loven (in Granvik 1923).

* Macronyx sharpei , Sharpe’s Longclaw: Two females collected at 6 weighed 28 and 29 g, wing-

lengths 85 and 86 mm. Not previously recorded from Mt. Elgon although known from geo-
graphically near localities at lower altitude; in particular Jackson’s (1938) Malawa River speci-
men which is the plot apparently on Mt. Elgon in Hall & Moreau (1970) (Hall in litt.). Both
Jackson {op. cit .) and White (1961) record it only from 7000 to 8000 ft so that our specimens
from 3400 m (moo ft) are unexpected. We have compared them with a rather variable
series of 25 specimens from the Kinangop Plateau in the National Museum from which they
do not obviously differ. Seven of the Kinangop birds are females. Their wing-lengths range
from 81 to 87, mean 84.0 mm., marginally shorter than our two birds. Not included in the
afroalpine fauna of East Africa by Moreau (1966). If found on Uganda Elgon it would represent
an addition to the avifauna of that country.

Laniarius luehderi, Luhder’s Bush Shrike: 1. M (4).

L. ferrugineus. Tropical Boubou: 1, 2.

Lanius collaris. Fiscal : 2500 m.

*Oriolus larvatus percivali: Black-winged Oriole: 1.

Poeoptera stuhlmanni, Stuhlmann’s Starling: 3 (C. F. Mann).

Page 6

*Onycognathus walleri. Waller’s Chestnut-winged Starling: i.

*Cinnyricinclus sharpei, Sharpe’s Starling : 3, 4.

Corvus albicollis, White-necked Raven : 3, 6, and to 4x00 m.

Coracina caesia, Grey Cuckoo-Shrike: 1-3.

Campephaga sp., Cuckoo-Shrike: 1.

Pycnonotus barbatus. Yellow-vented Bulbul : 1-4. M (6).

*Andropadus gracilirostris, Slender-billed Greenbul: 1.

*A. latirostris, Yellow-whiskered Greenbul: common 1, 2; once 3. M (34).

*A. tephrolaemus, Olive-breasted Mountain Greenbul: 2-4. M (37).

*Phyllastrephus fischeri, Fischer’s Greenbul: 1, 2. M (3).

*Saxicola torquata, Stonechat: 5 and 2300 m.

*Cercomela sordida, Hill Chat: 6 and up to 4200 m. M (6).

Myrmecocichla aethiops, Ant-eater Chat: 2100 m.

* Alethe poliocephala, Brown-chested Alethe: 1, 2. M (7).

*Pogonocichla stellata, White-starred Bush-Robin: 1-4. M (11).

*Cossypha caffra, Robin-Chat: 2-4, 6, only common at 4. M (9).

*Turdus abyssinicus, Olive Thrush: 3, 4, 6, common at 4. M (8).

* T. piaggiae, Abyssinian Ground Thrush : 4.

*Alcippe abyssinica , Abyssinian Hill Babbler: 1-3. M (8).

*Trichastoma pyrrhoptera, Mountain Illadopsis: x.

* Bradypterus cinnamomeus, Cinnamon Bracken Warbler: 1-4. M (6).

*Chloropeta similis. Mountain Yellow Flycatcher: 1-4. M (8).

* Sylvia atricapilla, Blackcap: 1, 2, 4, common. M (33).

* Phylloscopus trochilus, Willow Warbler: 1, 2. M (3).

*P. umbrovirens, Brown Woodland Warbler: x, 3, 4, 6.

*Cisticola hunteri and *C. chubbi: 1-6, see page 4-5. M (7).

Prinia leucopogon, White-chinned Prinia : 1.

* Apalis pulchra, Black-collared Apalis: x. M (4).

A. jacksoni, Black-throated Apalis: 1.

*A. rufogularis, Black-backed Apalis: x. White (1962a) records it up to about 6000 ft (c. 1850 m).

An unsexed young bird was collected at 2400 m (7800 ft) where others were seen.

*A. porphyrolaema, Chestnut-throated Apalis: 1.

A. cinerea, Grey Apalis: 3 (C. F. Mann).

Eminia lepida, Grey-capped Warbler: 1.

* Bathmocercus cerviniventris, Black-faced Rufous Warbler: 1.

*Sylvietta leucophrys, White-browed Crombec: x, 2.

* Muscicapa adusta, Dusky Flycatcher : 1-5.

Melaenornis chocolatina, White-eyed Slaty Flycatcher: x-4. M (5).

Baris molitor. Chin-spot Batis : 1, 2.

Platysteira cyanea/peltata, Wattle-eye: 2.

Trochocercus longicauda, Blue Flycatcher: 1.

Terpsiphone viridis, Paradise Flycatcher: x, 2.

Pams albiventris. White-bellied Tit: x.

Anthreptes collaris, Collared Sunbird: 2, 4.

Nectarinia verticalis, Green-headed Sunbird: 1.

N. venusta. Variable Sunbird: 2, 4.

N. mediocris. Eastern Double-collared Sunbird: seen and heard singing 3 (C. F. Mann).

*N. preussi, Northern Double-collared Sunbird: 1-4. M (10)

*N. tacazze, Tacazze Sunbird: 2-5. M (21).

*N. famosa, Malachite Sunbird: 6, males building nests, late December.

N. reichenowi , Golden-winged Sunbird: 2, 4. M (9).

*Zosterops senegalensis, Green White-eye: x-6. M (37).

*Serinus canicollis, Yellow-crowned Canary: 4-6, and up to 4300 m. M (6).

*S. citrinelloides, African Citril : x, 4.

'*S. striolatus, Streaky Seed-eater: 1-6, and up to 4300 m. Two broods being fed by parents out of
the nest on 24th and 25th December were probably from eggs laid in late November. M (29).
*S. burtoni , Thick-billed Seed-eater: x, 3, 4. M (3).

Ploceus baglafecht, Reichenow’s Weaver: 3, 4. M (5).

*P. melanogaster, Black-billed Weaver: is 4. M (4).

P. insignis. Chestnut-capped Weaver: x.

Euplectes capensis, Yellow Bishop: 2100, 2200 m.

Passer griseus, Grey-headed Sparrow: 2100 m (forest station).

*Cryptospiza salvadorii , Abyssinian Crimson-wing : 2-4. Three incompletely grown juveniles netted
on 31st December were probably from eggs laid in early December. M (9).

Estrilda melanotis, Yellow-bellied Waxbill: 2.

E. atricapilla, Black-headed Waxbill: 2-4.

Page 7

SUMMARY

Birds are listed from six main localities between 2400 and 3400 m along the Kimilili
track, Mt. Elgon, Kenya. Impoverishment with increased altitude is marked, especially
when pure forest gives way to a mosaic of bamboo and forest, and again when this
mosaic gives way to moorland and giant heather.

Evidence from moult, breeding records and gonad activity suggests that the modal
egg-laying period on the southern slopes of Elgon is from about November to January,
after the main rains. An off-season, altitudinal movement of sunbirds is likely. Dates
of occurrence of Nectarinia reichenowi in Central Nyanza, Kenya correlate with its absence
from Elgon.

Cisticola hunteri and C. chubbi should be considered specifically distinct members
of a superspecies.

REFERENCES

Betts, F. N. (1966). Notes on some resident breeding birds of southwest Kenya. Ibis 108; 513-530.
Dale, I. R. (1940). The forest types of Mount Elgon. Jl. E. Africa nat. Hist. Soc. 66/671 74-82.
Evans, P. R. (1966). Autumn movements, moult and measurements of the Lesser Redpoll Car-
duelis flammea cabaret. Ibis 108; 183-216.

Granvik, H. (4923). Contributions to the knowledge of East African ornithology. Birds collected
by the Swedish Mount Elgon Expedition, 1920. J. Orn. 71: 1-280.

Grantoc, H. (.1934). The ornithology of northwestern Kenya Colony. Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 252
1-190.

Griffiths, J. F. (1958). Climatic zones of East Africa. E. Afr. agric.J., (1958): 179-185.

Hall, B. P. & Moreau, R. E. (1970). An Atlas of Speciation in African Passerine Birds. London,
Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.).

Jackson, F. J. (1938). The birds of Kenya Colony and the Uganda Protectorate. London, Gurney &
Jackson.

Keith, S., Benson, C. W. & Irwin, M. P. S. (1970). The genus Sarothrura (Aves, Rallidae).

Bull. Am. Mus. nat. Hist. 143: (1).

Lynes, H. (1930). Review of the genus Cisticola. Ibis (12) 6, Suppl.

Moreau, R. E. (1966). The bird faunas of Africa and its islands. London, Academic Press.

White, C. M. N. (i960). A checklist of the Ethiopian Muscicapidae (Sylviinae) Part 1. Occ. Pap.
natn. Mus. Sth. Rhod. 3: 24B: 399-430.

White, C. M. N. (1961). A revised checklist of African broadbills, pittas . . . etc. Lusaka, Govt.
Printer.

White, C. M. N. (1962a). A checklist of the Ethiopian Muscicapidae (Sylviinae) Parts 11 & 111.

Occ. Pap. natn. Mus. Sth. Rhod. 3: 26B: 653-738.

White, C. M. N. (1962b). A revised checklist of African shrikes , orioles . . . etc. Lusaka, Govt. Printer.
White, C. M. N. (1963). A revised checklist of African flycatchers , tits . . . etc. Lusaka Govt.
Printer.

White. C. M. N. (1965). A revised checklist of African non-passerine birds. Lusaka Govt. Printer.

Received September, 1971

Printed by Kenya Litho Ltd., P.O. Box 40775, Changamwe Road, Nairobi.

JOURNAL

OF THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

12th NOVEMBER, 1973

No. 144

EAST AFRICAN BIRD RINGING REPORT 1971-1972

By

G. C. Backhurst
P.O. Box 29003 , Kabete, Kenya

The total number of birds ringed in the twelve months under review (1st July 1971
to 30th June 1972) was 15679, 1758 fewer than in the previous year, however, the number
of Palaearctic migrants ringed was up by nearly 400 to 11014. A disappointing aspect
of this year’s report is the small number of overseas recoveries; no explanation can be
given for this and it is hoped that next year the figures will improve.

Only fifteen ringers were operating in the three East African countries of Kenya,
Tanzania and Uganda during the year, a drop of six from the previous year’s total;
it should be mentioned that most of the birds were ringed by only four ringers.

In the list of birds ringed (Table 1) nomenclature follows the lists of C.M.N. White
(references given in the 1968-1969 ringing report, this Journal 28(119): 16-26).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Ringers gratefully acknowledge the co-operation of the City Engineer, Nairobi for
allowing them to operate at Kariobangi Sewage Works; the Director of the Kenya
National Parks for permission to ring at Lake Nakuru and in Tsavo National Parks;
the Director of Veterinary Services, Kenya for permission to ring on certain land at
Kabete. The Society is also grateful to the Administrative Director of the National
Museum, Nairobi for allowing the Museum’s address to appear on the rings.

Page 2

Table i

BIRDS RINGED BY THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY RINGING

ORGANIZATION

Palaearctic Migrants in Bold Type
PODICIPEDIDAE

Podiceps ruficollis Little Grebe .....
ARDEIDAE

Ardeola ibis Cattle Egret ......

A. ralloides Squacco Heron .....

Ixobrychus minutus minutus European Little Bittern

I. minutus payesii African Little Bittern

Nycticorax nycticorax Night Heron ....

PHOENICOPTERIDAE
Phoenicopterus minor Lesser Flamingo

THRESKIORNITHIDAE

Bostrychia hagadash Hadada Ibis ....
Platalea alba African Spoonbill ....
Plegadis falcinellus Glossy Ibis .....
Threskiornis aethiopica Sacred Ibis ....

ANATIDAE

Alopochen aegyptiaca Egyptian Goose

Anas capensis Cape Wigeon .....

A. erythrorhynchos Red-billed Duck

A. hot tent ota Hottentot Teal ....

A. querquedula Garganey .....

A. undulata Yellow-billed Duck ....

Netta erythrophthalma African Pochard

Dendrocygna bicolor Fulvous Tree-Duck .

ACCIPITRIDAE

Accipiter badius Shikra ......

A. minullus Little Sparrow Hawk ....

A. tachiro African Goshawk .....

Circus macrourus Pallid Harrier ....

Lophaetus occipitalis Long-crested Eagle
Melierax poliopterus Pale Chanting Goshawk
Milvus migrans migrans Back Kite
Milvus migrans ssp Kite ....

FALCONIDAE

Falco biarmicus Lanner ......

F. cuvieri African Hobby .....

F. subbuteo European Hobby. ....

Polihierax semitorquatus Pigmy Falcon

PHASIANIDAE

Coturnix coturnix africana Quail ....

C. delegorguei Harlequin Quail .....
Francolinus coqui Coqui Francolin ....

F. sephaena Crested Francolin .....

RALLIDAE

Fulica cristata Red-knobbed or Crested Coot
Gallinula chloropus Moorhen .....
Limnocorax flavirostra Black Crake ....
Porphyrio porphyrio Purple Gallinule ....
Porzana porzana Spotted Crake ....
Sarothura elegans Buff-spotted Crake
5. pulchra White-spotted Crake ....

Grand
1971-72 Total

o 1

1 2
o 1
O I
O I
O I

I 13

I X

o 73

4 4

o 7

0 1

76 369

22 76

7 128

5 16

1 38

6 10

o 1

° 3

1 2

o 1

o I

0 I

31 31

1 3

1 2

o 4

o 1

o 4

o 1

0 I

5 16

1 2

o 1

o 16

O I

O I

O 2

O I

0 I

1 4

Page 3

Palaearctic Migrants in Bold Type
CHARADRIIDAE

Charadrius asiaticus Caspian Plover
C. dubius Little Ringed Plover
C. hiaticula Ringed Plover
C. leschenaultii Great Sand Plover
C. marginatus White-fronted Sand Plover .
C. mongolus Mongolian Sand Plover
C. pallidus Chestnut-banded Sand Plover .
C. pecuarius Kittlitz’s Sand Plover
C. tricollaris Three-banded Plover
VaneUus armatus Blacksmith Plover .

V. coronatus Crowned Lapwing
V. melanopterus Black-winged Plover .

V. spinosus Spurwing Plover

DROMADIDAE
Dromas ardeola Crab Plover

GLAREOLIDAE

Cursorius chalcopterus Violet-tipped Courser
Glareola pratincola Pratincole .

JACANIDAE

Actophilornis africana Jacana
LARIDAE

Larus cirrocephalus Grey-headed Gull
Sterna anaethetus Bridled Tern
S.dougallii Roseate Tern
S. hirundo Common Tern
S. leucoptera White-winged Black Tern

S. nilotica Gull-billed Tern .

5. repressed White-cheeked Tern

PHALAROPIDAE

Phalaropus lobatus Red-necked Phalarope

RECURVIROSTRIDAE

Himantopus himantopus Black-winged Stilt

Recurvirostra avosetta Avocet .

RHYNCHOPIDAE
Rhynchops flavirostris Skimmer

ROSTRATULIDAE

Rostratula benghalensis Painted Snipe

SCOLOPACIDAE

Arenaria interpres Turnstone

Calidris alba Sanderling

C. ferruginea Curlew Sandpiper

C. minuta Little Stint ....

C. subminuta Long-toed Stint

C. temminckii Temminck’s Stint .

Gallinago gallinago Snipe

G. media Great Snipe ....

G. nigripennis African Snipe

G. stenura Pintail Snipe

Limosa limosa Black-tailed Godwit

Numenius phaeopus Whimbrel

Philomachus pugnax Ruff

Tringa erythropus Spotted Redshank

T. glareola Wood Sandpiper .

T. hypoleucos Common Sandpiper
T. nebularia Greenshank
T. ochropus Green Sandpiper

1970/71 Grand

Total

o 1

o 19

33 137

o 9

o 1

5 11

o 100

33 250

6 61

39 215

o 4

9 9

2 18

o 2

O I

2 3

6 7

0 5

1 1

o 28

0 I

35 246

1 8

5 8

1 3

60 131

29 48

1 2

5 24

o 1

o 1

72 338

1016 4325

O I

10 22

28 99

0 44

1 34

0 X

1 2

X 2

1140 3823

O X

223 728

26 196

3 12

13 51

Page 4

Palaearctic Migrants in Bold Type 1970/71 Grand

Total

T. stagnatilis Marsh Sandpiper ........ 337 895

T. terek Terek Sandpiper ......... 1 7

COLUMBIDAE

Columba guinea Speckled Pigeon ........ 1 1

Oena capensis Namaqua Dove ......... 6 11

Streptopelia capicola Ring-necked Dove ....... 7 66

5. decipiens Mourning Dove ......... 14 31

S', lugens Pink-breasted Dove ......... o 1

S. semitorquata Red-eyed Dove ........ o 8

S. senegalensis Laughing Dove ........ 12 77

Turtur abyssinicus Black-billed Blue-spotted Wood Dove .... o 2

T. afer Blue-spotted Wood Dove ........ 11 93

T. chalcospilos Emerald-spotted Wood Dove ...... 2 36

T. tympanistria Tambourine Dove ........ 21 63

CUCULIDAE

Centropus monachus Blue-headed Coucal ....... 1 1

C. superciliosus White -browed Coucal ....... 2 12

Ceuthmochares aereus Yellow-bill ........ 2 3

Chrysococcyx caprius Didric Cuckoo ........ 23 58

C. cupreus Emerald Cuckoo ......... 3 6

C. klaas Klaas’ Cuckoo .......... 9 33

Clamator jacobinus Black and White Cuckoo ...... 1 3

C. levaillantii Levaillant’s Cuckoo ........ o 1

Cuculus camorus (Palaearctic race) European Cuckoo .... 4 5

C. canorus gularis African Cuckoo ........ 1 1

C. clatnosus Black Cuckoo ......... o 1

C. solitarius Red-chested Cuckoo ........ o 2

MUSOPHAGIDAE

Tauraco hartlaubi Hartlaub’s Turaco ....... o 2

STRIGIDAE

Ciccaba woodfordii African Wood Owl ....... o 3

Glaucidium capense Barred Owlet ........ 1 1

G. tephronotum Red-chested Owlet ....... o 1

Otus scops scops European Scops Owl ....... o 1

TYTONIDAE

Tyto alba Barn Owl ......... o 1

CAPRIMULGIDAE

Caprimulgus donaldsoni Donaldson-Smith’s Nightjar ..... 2 2

C. europaeus European Nightjar ........ 1 2

C. fossii Gabon Nightjar ......... 2 11

C.fraenatus Dusky Nightjar ......... o 1

C. inornatus Plain Nightjar ......... 1 2

C. pect oralis Fiery-necked Nightjar ........ o 1

C. poliocephalm Abyssinian Nightjar ........ o 3

Macrodipteryx longipennis Standard-wing Nightjar ..... o 1

APODIDAE

Apus affinis Little Swift . ......... o 162

A. caffer White-rumped Swift ........ o 4

COLIIDAE

C. macrourus Blue-naped Mousebird ....... 25 105

C. striatus Speckled Mousebird ........ 28 208

ALCEDINIDAE

Alcedo cristata Malachite Kingfisher ........ o 68

Ceryle rudis Pied Kingfisher ......... 306 446

Ceyx picta Pigmy Kingfisher ......... 73 324

Page 5

Palaearctic Migrants in Bold Type

1970/71

Halcyon albiventris Brown-hooded Kingfisher
H. chelicuti Striped Kingfisher ....

H. leucocephala Grey-headed Kingfisher
H. malimbica Blue-breasted Kingfisher
H. senegalensis Northern Woodland Kingfisher .

H. senegaloides Mangrove Kingfisher

BUCEROTIDAE

Tockus erythrorhynchus Red-billed Hornbill

T. jacksoni Jackson’s Hombil) ....

CORACIIDAE

Coracias caudata Lilac-chested Roller
C. garrulus European Roller

MEROPIDAE

Merops albicollis White-throated Bee-eater
M. apiaster European Bee-eater
M. bullockoides White-fronted Bee-eater
M. muelleri Blue-headed Bee-eater .

M. oreobates Cinnamon-chested Bee-eater
M. pusillus Little Bee-eater ....

M. superciliosus persicus Blue-cheeked Bee-eater
M. variegatus Blue-breasted Bee-eater

PHOENICULIDAE

Phoeniculus cyanomelas Scimitar-Bill .

P. minor Abyssinian Scimitar-Bill
P. purpureus Green Wood-Hoopoe .

UPUPIDAE

Upupa epops africana Africana Hoopoe

U. epops epops European Hoopoe .

CAPITONIDAE

Buccanodon duchaillui Yellow-spotted Barbet
B. leucotis White-eared Barbet
B. olivaceum Green Barbet ....
Gymnobucco bonapartei Grey-throated Barbet
Lybius bidentatus Double-toothed Barbet .

L. guifsobalito Black-billed Barbet
L. hirsutus Hairy-breasted Barbet
L. lacrymosus Spotted-flanked Barbet
L. leucocephalus White-headed Barbet
L. leucomelas Red-fronted Barbet
L. melanocephalus Brown-throated Barbet .

L. torquatus Black-collared Barbet

Pogoniulus bilineatus Golden-rumped Tinker-Bird

P. chrysoconus Yellow-fronted Tinker-Bird.

P. leucomystax Moustached Green Tinker-Bird .

P. pusillus Red-fronted Tinker-Bird
Trachyphonus darnaudii d’Arnaud’s Barbet
T. erythrocephalus Red and Yellow Barbet .

T. purpuratus Yellow-billed Barbet .

INDICATORIDAE

Indicator conirostris Thick-billed Honey-Guide

I. exilis Least Honey-Guide

I. indicator Black-throated Honey-Guide .

I. minor Lesser Honey-Guide
I. variegatus Scaly-throated Honey-Guide .
Prodotiscus regulus Wahlberg’s Honey-Guide

PICIDAE

Campethera abingoni Golden-Tailed Woodpecker

o

0

1
7

2
o

0

1

o

2

l6

O

0

1

o

o

5

9

4

o

2

2

o

o

o

o

0
3

3

1

9

1

10

4

0
21

9

1

0
15

1
o

2

1
4
7

2
2

1

Grand

Total

4

9

22

16

21

1

I

I

1

4

48

1

6

1

3

IO

8

23

It

7

2

5

1

2

1
6

2
21

10

1
80

11
38

5

2
52
45

2

4

38

2

6

3

2
17
37

5

3

1

Page 6

Palaearctic Migrants in Bold Type

G. cailliauth Little Spotted Woodpecker

C. caroli Brown-eared Woodpecker .

C. nivosa Buff-spotted Woodpecker .

C. nubica Nubian Woodpecker
Dendropicos fuscescens Cardinal Woodpecker

D. poecilolaemus Uganda Spotted Woodpecker .
Jynx torquilla Wryneck .

ALAUDIDAE

Calandrella cinerea Red-capped Lark
Eremopterix leucopareia Fischer’s Sparrow Lark .
Galerida cristata Crested Lark .

Mirafra africana Rufous-naped Lark .

M. rufocinnamomea Flappet Lark

CAMPEPHAGIDAE

Campephaga phoenicea Black Cuckoo-Shrike

C. quiscalina Purple-throated Cuckoo-Shrike

CORVIDAE
Corvus albus Pied Crow

DICRURIDAE

Dicrurus adsimilis Drongo ....

D. ludwigii Square-tailed Drongo

EMBERIZIDAE

Emberiza flaviventris Golden-breasted Bunting .

E. tahapisi Cinnamon-breasted Rock Bunting

ESTRILIDAE

Amandava subflava Zebra Waxbill
Clytospiza monteiri Brown Twinspot
Cryptospiza jacksoni Dusky Crimson-wing .

C. reichenowi Red-faced Crimson-wing
C. salvadorii Abyssinian Crimson-wing
C. shelleyi Shelley’s Crimson-wing
Estrilda astrild Waxbill .....

E. atricapilla Black-headed Waxbill .

E. bengala Red-cheeked Cordon-bleu
E. cyanocephala Blue-headed Cordon-bleu
E. erythronotos Black-cheeked Waxbill
E. ianthinogaster Purple Grenadier .

E. melanotis Yellow-bellied Waxbill .

E. nonnula Black-crowned Waxbill
E. paludicola Fawn-breasted Waxbill
E. rhodopyga Crimson-rumped Waxbill
E. troglodytes Black-rumped Waxbill
Hvpargos nitidulus Green -backed Twin-spot

H. niveoguttatus Peters’ Twin-spot .
Lagonosticta rhodpyreia Jameson’s Firefinch
L. rubricata Africane Firefinch

L. rufopicta Bar-breasted Firefinch
L. senegala Red-billed Firefinch
Lonchura bicolor Rufous-backed Mannikin
L. cucullata Bronze Mannikin ....
L. griseicapilla Grey-headed Silverbill
L. malabrica Silverbill .....
Nigrita canicapilla Grey-headed Negro Finch
Ortygospiza atricollis Quail Finch
Pirenestes ostrinus Black-billed Seed-cracker
Pytelia tnelba Green-winged Pytilia
Spermophaga raficapilla Red-headed Blue-bill
Vidua chalybeata Purple Indigobird .

V. hypocherina Steel-blue Whydah .

V. macroura Pin-tailed Whydah

1970/71

Grand

Total

0

4

0

2

0

5

7

21

4

20

1

2

1

3

2

3

O

1

I

X

4

8

0

15

7

26

3

6

1

X

5

13

0

1

2

13

5

10

1

31

4

29

0

2

X

1

10

67

0

1

26

195

I

2

45

x64

0

10

3

19

17

54

1

19

3

20

18

50

3

40

1

2

5

8

0

3

2

8

5

3i

6

35

62

275

12

32

37

309

0

3

1

1

10

24

0

2

4

5

17

92

6

48

2

26

0

1

10

70

Page 7

Palaearctic Migrants in Bold Type

EURYLAIMIDAE

Smithornis capensis African Broadbill

FRINGILLIDAE

Linurgus olivaceus Oriole Finch
Serinus atrogularis Yellow-rumped Seed-eater
S. burtoni Thick-billed Seed-eater
S. canicollis Yellow-crowned Canary
S. citrinelloides African Citril .

S. dorsostriatus White-bellied Canary
5. gularis ......

S. koliensis Papyrus Canary
5. mozambicus Yellow-fronted Canary

S. striolatus Streaky Seed-eater
5. sulphuratus Brimstone Canary

HIRUNDINIDAE

Delichon urbica House Martin

Hirundo abyssinica Striped Swallow .

H. angolensis Angola Swallow .

H. daurica Red-rumped Swallow

H. fuligula African Rock Martin

H. griseopyga Grey-rumped Swallow

H. rustica European Swallow

H. semirufa Rufous-chested Swallow

H. senegalensis Mosque Swallow

H. smithii Wire-tailed Swallow

Psalidoprocne albiceps White-headed Rough-wing

P. pristoptera Black Rough-wing

Riparia cincta Banded Martin .

R. paludicola African Sand Martin
R. riparia European Sand Martin .

LANIIDAE

Dryoscopus cubla Black -backed Puff-back Shrike
D. gambensis Puff-back Shrike
Eurocephalus anguitimens White-crowned Shrike
Laniarius barbarus Black-headed Gonolek .

L. ferrugineus Tropical Boubou
L. funebris Slate-coloured Boubou
L. luehderi Luhder’s Bush Shrike
L. mufumbiri Papyrus Gonolek
Lanins cabanisi Long-tailed Fiscal
L. collaris Fiscal .....

L. collurio Red-backed and Red-tailed Shrikes
L. excubitorius Grey-backed Fiscal
L. mackinnoni Mackinnon’s Shrike
L. minor Lesser Grey Shrike .

L. senator Woodchat Shrike .

Malaconotus blanchoti Grey-headed Bush Shrike

M. dohertyi Doherty’s Bush Shrike

M. sulfureopectus Sulphur-breasted Bush Shrike
Nilaus afer Northern Brubru . .

Prionops plumata Curly-crested Helmet-Shrike
P. scopifrons Chestnut-fronted Shrike
Tchagra australis Brown-headed Bush Shrike

T. jamesi Three-streaked Bush Shrike
T. minuta Black-cap Bush Shrike

T. senegala Black-headed Bush Shrike

MOTACILLIDAE

Anthus cervinus Red-throated Pipit

A. leucophrys Plain-backed Pipit

A. novaeseelandiae Richard’s Pipit

A. sokokensis Sokoke Pipit

A. trivialis Tree Pipit ....

1970/71 Grand
Total

I

1

I

1

23

hi

6

21

0

18

35

72

25

105

0

21

9

55

31

152

47

184

14

115

6

33

3

1109

14

169

11

455

1

18

2

6

685

6724

0

9

0

2

11

171

56

126

7

42

8

486

220

1573

225

1358

5

17

3

15

6

7

12

77

11

36

3

29

1

12

4

5

1

1

17

73

3i

183

0

11

0

1

2

4

0

1

0

1

0

2

0

13

0

5

0

3

7

7

8

52

0

2

4

31

3

33

1

24

21

37

8

96

1

1

9

153

Page 8

Palaearctic Migrants in Bold Type

1970/71

Grand

Total

Macronyx aurantiigula Pangani Longclaw .

I

1

M. croceus Yellow-throated Longclaw

8

29

Motacilla alba alba White Wagtail

0

5

M. alba vidua African Pied Wagtail .

19

188

M. capensis Cape Wagtail ....

O

3

M. cinerea Grey Wagtail ....

O

2

M. clara Mountain Wagtail ....

1

4

M. Hava Yellow Wagtail ....

4631

28764

Tmetothylacus tenellus Golden Pipit .

2

2

MUSCICAPIDAE— MUSCICAPINAE
Batis capensis Puff-back Flycatcher .

6

9

B. minor Black-headed Puff-back Flycatcher

9

39

B. molitor Chin-spot Puff-back Flycatcher

4

20

B. soror Mozambique Puff-back Flycatcher

2

5

Bradornis microrhynchus Grey Flycatcher .

5

28

B. pallidus Pale Flycatcher ....

I

3

Empidornis semipartitus Silver Bird .

0

2

Erythrocercus holochlorus Little Yellow Flycatcher

4

4

Ficedulae hypoleuca Pied Flycatcher

0

2

Hyliota flavigaster Yellow-bellied Flycatcher

0

I

Melaenornis chocolatina White-eyed Slaty Flycatcher

24

55

M. edolioides Black Flycatcher

7

42

Muscicapa adusta Dusky Flycatcher .

5

17

M. aquatica Swamp Flycatcher

7

19

M. caerulescens Ashy Flycatcher

0

4

M. griseigularis Grey-throated Flycatcher .

3

6

M. striata Spotted Flycatcher

11

55

Myioparus plumbeus Grey Tit-Flycatcher .

0

3

Platysteira blissetti Jameson’s Wattle-Eye

4

34

P. cattanea Chestnut Wattle-Eye

I

14

P. cyanea Wattle-Eye .....

5

75

P. peltata Black-throated Wattle-Eye

I

13

Terpsiphone rufiventer Black-headed Paradise Flycatcher

2

4

T. viridis Paradise Flycatcher

14

76

Trochocercus albonotatus White-tailed Crested Flycatcher

2

11

T. cyanomelas Crested Flycatcher

3

3

T. longicauda Blue Flycatcher ....

4

17

T. nigromitratus ......

1

21

MUSCICAPIDAE— SYLVIINAE

Acrocephalus arundinaceus arundinaceus Q Reed Warbler\

A. arundinaceus zarudnyi J

59

122

A. arundinaceus griseldis Basra Reed Warbler

4

8

A. boeticatus African Reed Warbler .

7

14

A. gracilirostris Lesser Swamp Warbler

24

55

A. palustris Marsh Warbler ....

169

219

A. rufescens Greater Swamp Warbler

21

47

A. schoenobaenus Sedge Warbler .

902

1345

A. scirpaceus Reed Warbler ....

192

848

Apalis cinerea Grey Apalis ....

3

5

A. flavida Black-Breasted Apalis

8

28

A. jacksoni Black-throated Apalis

2

2

A. pulchella Buff-bellied Warbler

4

15

A. pulchra Black-collared Apalis

3

20

Bathmocercus cerviniventris Black-faced Rufous Warbler

2

44

Bradypterus baboecala Little Rush Warbler

8

10

B. barratti Evergreen Forest Warbler

O

3

B. cinnamomeus Cinnamon Bracken Warbler

4

21

B. graueri carpalis White-winged Warbler

1.3

18

Camaroptera brachyura Grey-backed Camaroptera

88

357

C. chloronota Olive-green Camaroptera

5

42

G. simplex Grey Wren-Warbler

5

17

Chloropeta gracilirostris Yellow Swamp Warbler

3

3

C. natalensis Yellow Warbler ....

11

3i

C. similis Mountain Yellow Warbler

11

26

Page 9

Palaearctic Migrants in Bold Type

Cisticola brachyptera Siffling Cisticola
C. brunnescens Pectoral-patch Cisticola
C. cantans Singing Cisticola ....

C. carruthersi Carruthers’ Cisticola .

C. chiniana Rattling Cisticola ....

C. cinereola Ashy Cisticola ....

C. erythrops Red-faced Cisticola
C. fulvicapilla Tabora Cisticola.

C. galactotes Winding Cisticola

C. hunteri Hunters’ Cisticola ....

C. juncidis Zitting Cisticola ....

C. lateralis Whistling Cisticola ....

C. natalensis Croaking Cisticola

C. robusta Stout Cisticola ....

C. woosnami Trilling Cisticola ....
Eminia lepida Grey-capped Warbler
Eremomela icteropygialis Yellow-bellied Eremomela
Hippolais icterina Icterine Warbler
H. languida Upcher’s Warbler
H. olivetorum Olive-tree Warbler .

H. pallida Olivaceous Warbler

Hylia prasina Green Hylia ....

Locustella fiuviatiiis River Warbler

Phylloscopus budongoensis Uganda Woodland Warbler

P. collybita Chiff-chaff

P. troehilus Willow Warbler

P. umbrovirens Brown Woodland Warbler

Prinia bairdii Banded Prir.ia ....

P. leucopogon White-chinned Prinia .

P. subflava Tawny-flanked Prinia
Schoenicola platyura Fan-tailed Warbler
Sphenoeacus mentalis Moustache Warbler
Sylvia atricapilla Blackcap ....

S. borin Garden Warbler ....

S. communis Whitethroat ....

S. nisoria Barred Warbler ....

Sylvietta brachyura Crombec ....

.S', lencophrys White-browed Crombec

S', virens Green Crombec ....

S. whytii Red-faced Crombec ....

MUSCICAPIDAE— TIMALIINAE

Alcippe abyssinicus Abyssinian Hill Babbler
Trichastoma aibipecta Scaly-breasted Illadopsis .

T. fulvescens Brown Illadopsis

T. poliothorax Grey-chested Illadopsis
T. pyrrhoptera Mountain Illadopsis .

T. rufpennis Pale-breasted Illadopsis
Turdoides hypoleucos Northern Pied Babbler
T. fardinei Arrow-marked Babbler
T. melanops Black-lored Babbler
T. plebejus Brown Babbler ....

T. rubiginosns Rufous Chatterer

MUSCICAPIDAE— TURDINAE
Alethe diademata Fire-crest Alethe
A. poliocephala Brown-chested Alethe
A. poliophrys Red-throated Alethe
Cercomela scotocerca Brown-tailed Rock Chat
C. sordida Hill Chat .....
Cercotrichas galactotes Rufous Bush Chat
C. hartlaubi Brown-backed Scrub-Robin .

C. leucophrys Red-backed Scrub-Robin
C. quadrivirgata Eastern Bearded Scrub-Robin
Cichladnsa guttata Spotted Morning Warbler
Cossypha archeri Archer’s Robin Chat

1970/71 Grand

Total
1 2

0 3

12 36

20 35

33 68

1 1

8 68

1 1

65 306

20 43

o 9

° 3

3 29

3 37

o 10

24 123

0 6

1 4

3 10

3 4

17 67

9 27

22 29

o 2

2 3

577 2225

x 32

6 22

5 4i

20 130

0 1

1 8

39 189

142 1035

128 236

23 48

9 27

0 5

1 1

13 50

10 37

3 29

8 27

o 3

° 5

6 33

o 2

0 II

1 8

4 48

2 16

3 3

6 82

o 1

3 3

o 7

19 19

o 6

16 97

5 12

5 8

o 1

Page 10

Palaearctic Migrants in Bold Type

C. caffra Robin Chat ......

C. cyanocampter Blue-shouldered Robin Chat

C. heuglini White-browed Robin Chat

C. natalensis Red-capped Robin Chat

C. niveicapilla Snowy-headed Robin Chat

C. polioptera Grey-winged Robin Chat

C. semirufa Riippel’s Robin Chat ....

Irania gutturalis White-throated Robin .

Luscinia luscinia Sprosser .....

L. megarhynchos Nightingale ....
Monticola rufocinerea Little Rock Thrush .

M. saxatilis Rock Thrush .....
Myrmecocichla aethiops Arteater Chat

M. nigra Sooty Chat ......

Neocossyphus poensis White-tailed Ant Thrush
Oenanthe isabellina Isabelline Wheatear

O. oenanthe European Wheatear ....

O. pileata Capped Wheatear .....

O. pleschanka Pied Wheatear .....

Phoemicurus phoenicurus Redstart
Pogonocichla stellata White-starred Bush Robin .
Saxicola rubetra Whin chat .....

•S', torquata Stonechat ......

Sheppardia aequatorialis Equatorial Akalat .

Stizorhina fraseri ......

Turdus abyssinicus Mountain Thrush

T. fischeri Spotted Ground Thrush

T. pelios African Thrush .....

T. piaggiae Abyssinian Ground Thrush

NECTARINIIDAE

Anthreptes collaris Collared Sunbird

A. longuemarei Uganda Violet-backed Sunbird .

A orient alis Violet-backed Sunbird . . . .

A. rectirostris Green Sunbird .....
Nectarinia alinae Blue-headed Sunbird

N. amethystina Amerthyst Sunbird ....

N. bifasciatus Little Purple Banded Sunbird

N. bouvieri Orange-tufted Sunbird ....

N. chloropygia Olive-bellied Sunbird

N. cuprea Copper Sunbird .....

N. erythroceria Red-chested Sunbird

N. fatnosa Malachite Sunbird .....

N. kilimensis Bronze Sunbird .....

N. mariquensis Mariqua Sunbird ....

N. mediocris Eastern Double-collared Sunbird .

N. olivacea Olive Sunbird .....

N. preussi Northern Double-collared Sunbird
N. pulchella Beautiful Sunbird ....

N. regia Regal Sunbird ......

N. reichenowi Golden-winged Sunbird

N. senegalensis Scarlet-chested Sunbird

N. tacazze Tacazze Sunbird .....

N. venusta Variable Sunbird .....

N. verticalis Green-headed Sunbird ....

ORIOLIDAE

Oriolus brachyrhynchus Western Black-headed Oriole .

O. larvatus Black-headed Oriole ....

O. oriolus Golden Oriole

PARIDAE

Parus albiventris White-bellied Tit ....

P. fringillinus Red-faced Tit .....
Remiz caroli African Penduline Tit ....

1970/71

Grand

Total

24

67

3

17

21

172

11

54

4

37

0

9

1

9

11

14

104

M3

7

21

0

2

1

25

1

1

3

13

1

9

0

8

5

42

0

1

2

7

3

5i

15

73

10

77

4

18

9

68

2

9

14

123

3

3

9

47

0

6

8

4i

0

4

3

7

0

1

0

7

2

3

6

59

0

1

3

15

13

152

9

402

32

33

77

170

23

142

26

106

30

135

2

34

23

126

1

3

113

121

62

193

0

38

53

128

32

87

0

2

3

5

3

12

2

11

0

6

0

1

Page 11

1970/71

PITTIDAE

Pitta angolensis African Pitta ......... 2

PLOCEIDAE

Bulbalornis albirostris Red-billed Buffalo Weaver ..... 1

Passer eminibey Chestnut Sparrow ........ 1

P. griseus Grey-headed Sparrow ........ 21

P. iagoensis Rufous Sparrow ......... 9

Petronia xanthocollis Yellow-spotted Petronia ...... 1

Plocepasser donaldsoni Donaldson-Smith’s Sparrow Weaver .... o

P. tnahali Stripe-breasted Sparrow Weaver ...... 5

Sporopipes frontalis Speckle-fronted Weaver ...... o

Amblyospiza albifrons Grosbeak Weaver ....... 4

Anomalospiza imberbis Parasitic Weaver ....... o

Euplectes afra Yellow-crowned Bishop ....... o

E. albonotatus White-winged Widow Bird ...... o

E. ardens Red-collared Widow Bird ........ o

E. axillaris Fan-tailed Widow Bird ........ 33

E. capensis Yellow Bishop ......... 1

E. gierowii Black Bishop ......... 7

E. hordeaceus Black-winged Red Bishop ....... 1

E. jacksoni Jackson’s Widow Bird ........ o

E. macrourus Yellow-mantled Widow Bird ...... 1

E. orix Red Bishop .......... 1

Malimbus rubriceps Red-headed Weaver ....... o

M. rubricollis Red-headed Malimbe ........ o

Ploceus aliemts Strange Weaver ........ 2

P. aurantius Orange Weaver ......... 9

P. baglafecht Baglafecht Weaver ........ 39

P. bicolor Dark-backed Weaver. ........ o

P. bojeri Golden Palm Weaver ......... 1

P. castanops Northern Brown-throated Weaver ..... 108

P. cucullatus Black-headed Weaver ........ 59

P. golandi Clarke’s Weaver ......... 10

P. intermedins Masked Weaver ........ 28

P. jacksoni Golden-backed Weaver ........ 71

P. luteolus Little Weaver .......... 15

P. melanocephalus Yelow-backed Weaver ....... 106

P. melanogaster Black-billed Weaver ........ 5

P. nigerrimus Vieillot’s Black Weaver ....... 36

P. nigricollis Black-necked Weaver ........ 34

P. ocularis Spectacled Weaver ......... 27

P. pelzelni Slender-billed Weaver ........ 47

P. rubiginosus Chestnut Weaver ........ 1

P. spekei Speke’s Weaver ......... 2

P. subaureus Golden Weaver ......... o

P. superciliosus Compact Weaver ........ o

P. velatus Vitelline Masked Weaver ........ 8

P. weynsi Weyn’s Weaver . ........ 7

P. xanthops Holub’s Golden Weaver ....... II

Quelea cardinalis Cardinal Quelea ........ 3

Q. erythrops Red-headed Quelea ........ o

Q. quelea Red-billed Quelea ......... 26

PYCNONOTIDAE

Andropadus ansorgei Ansorge’s Greenbul ....... o

A. curvirostris Cameroon Sombre Greenbul ...... 6

A. gracilirostris Slender-billed Greenbul ....... o

A. importunus Zanzibar Sombre Greenbul ....... 16

A. latirostris Yellow- whiskered Greenbul ...... 95

A. milanjensis Stripe-cheeked Greenbul ....... o

A. montanus Shelley’s Greenbul ........ 4

A. tephrolaemus Olive-breasted Mountain Greenbul ..... 2

A. virens Little Greenbul ......... 79

Bleda syndactyla Bristle-bill ......... 11

Chlorocichla flavicollis Yellow-throated Leaf love . ..... 13

Grand

Total

2

1

21

187

15
12

5

29

8

12
9i

1

129

56

354

2
36

42

3

19

18

2

2

4
17

272

4

2

193

569

xo

354

433

43
1315

16
98

73

214

387

26

121
2

13
13
24
46

122
85

356

3

36

1

34

570

2
15
79

181

32

59

Page 12

C . flaviventris Yellow-bellied Greenbul .....

Criniger calurus Red-tailed Greenbul .....

Nicator chloris Nicator ........

Phyllastrephus albigularis White-throated Greenbul

P. baumanni Toro Olive Greenbul ......

P. debilis Smaller Yellow-streaked Greenbul ....

P. fischeri Fischer’s Greenbul .......

P. strepitans Northern Brownbul ......

P. terrestris Brownbul ........

Pycnonotus barbatus Dark-capped or Yellow- vented Bulbul .

STURNIDAE

Buphagus erythrorhynchus Red-billed Oxpecker

Cinnyricinclus leucogaster Violet-backed Starling

Creatophora cinerea Wattled Starling .....

Lamprotornis caudatus Riippell’s Long-tailed Glossy Starling

L. chalybaeus Blue-eared Glossy Starling .....

L. chloropterus Lesser Blue-eared Glossy Starling

L. corruscus Black-breasted Glossy Starling ....

Spreo hildebrandti Hildebrandt’s Starling .....

S. superbus Superb Starling .......

ZOSTEROPIDAE

Zoster ops abyssinica Yellow White-eye .....
Z. senegalensis jacksoni Green White-eye .....
Z. senegalensis kikuyuensis Kikuyu White-eye ....
Z. senegalensis kulalensis Kulal White-eye .....

Total Birds Ringed .

Total Species Ringed

Total Palaearctic Birds Ringed

Total Palaearctic Species Ringed

1970/71

Grand

Total

II

19

3

3

4

7

11

35

1

9

4

7

25

95

3

14

0

7

169

1786

0

2

0

37

3

42

1

14

5

11

0

2

3

7

1

18

1

22

5

69

0

92

53

118

0

4

15679

83935

397

554

11014

55154

60

82

Page 13

Table 2

RECOVERIES AND CONTROLS OF BIRDS RINGED IN EAST AFRICA

Key to symbols and terms

Ring number :

— where this is in italics the ring has been returned.

Age :

f-g-

— full grown, age uncertain;

ad.

— adult;

iW

— bird in its first winter;

pull.

— young, not able to fly freely ;

— juvenile, able to fly freely.

juv.

Sex :

a

— male

Manner of

9

— female.

recovery :

+

— shot or killed by man ;

X

— found dead or dying;

xA

— found long dead;

/?/

— manner of recovery unknown;

v

— caught or trapped alive and released with ring (control);

Date of

0

— caught or trapped alive and not released, or released with ring
removed.

recovery :

— given in the order: day, month, year. If the date is unknown, the
date of the reporting letter is given in parentheses.

Distance (km) :

— only given for recoveries within East Africa.

Elapsed time :

e

— given in the form, years: months: days, thus 1:2:9 signifies that the
bird was recovered 1 year 2 months 9 days after ringing.

Anas erythrorhynchos

Red-billed Duck

D.0537 juv.tJ

23. 6.64

Ngorongoro Crater, Tanzania 3°io/S., 35°35'E. JG.

+

7. 6.72

near Karatu Mission, Tanzania 3°20'S., 35°40'E., c. 20 km SE,
7:11 :i4- J. Gibb.

Anas hottentota

Hottentot Teal

D.0933 f.g.

24.11.68

Lake Nakuru, Kenya o°20'S., 36°o6'E. GCB.

+

15. 1.72

Ol Donyo Ndorobo, near Makame, Tanzania c. 4°38'S, 36°44'E,
c. 490 km SSE, 3:1:21. F.Miller.

D0939 f.g.

1. 2.69

Lake Nakuru, Kenya. GCB

+

26.11.72

Ol Bolossat, Kenya o°09'S., 36°26'E., 45 km NE, 3:9:25.
A. Sheppard.

H0018 ad.

8 2.70

Naivasha, Kenya o°43'S., 36°25'E. GCB.

+

13. 8.72

Mwea, Kenya o°43'S., 37°22'E., 105 km E, 2:5:5. (Bird contained
eggs when shot.) H. Stirling.

Calidris ferruginea Curlew Sandpiper

A. 5652 ad.

3- 5-69

Lake Nakuru, Kenya o°20'S., 36°o6'E. EDS.

V

15.10.72

Lake Magadi, Kenya 2°oo'S., 36°io'E., 185 km S, 3:5:12. (Reringed
A. 19026.) GCB.

AM 13 f.g.

20.10.69

Lake Nakuru, Kenya. PLB.

V

1. 10.72

Lake Magadi, Kenya, 2:11:11. (Reringed A.15793.) GCB.

A.10371 f.g.

26. 9.70

Lake Nakuru, Kenya. MStJS.

V

10. 9.72

Lake Magadi, Kenya, 1:11:14. GCB.

Philomachus pugnax Ruff

B.2511 ad. 9

8. 2.69

Lake Nakuru, Kenya o°2o'S., 36°o6'E. GCB,

+

19. 5.72

near Vilyuisk, Vilyuisk District, Yakut S.S.R., U.S.S.R. 63°45'N.,
i2i°37'E., 3:3:11. (Ringing Centre, Moscow.)

Tringa glareola

Wood Sandpiper

B.4537 ad.

7.11.69

Athi River, Kenya i°26'S. 36°59'E. EDS.

+

18. 5.72

near Koslan, Udorsk Region, Komi A.S.S.R., U.S.S.R. 63°28'N.,

48°58'E., 2:6:11. (Ringing Centre, Moscow.)

Page 14

Hirundo abyssinica Striped Swallow

J-4I739

juv.

V

30. 8.70
19. 4.71

Kariobangi, Nairobi, Kenya i°i5'S., 36°53'E. GCB.

Karen, Nairobi, Kenya i°20'S., 36°42'E., 20 km SW, 0:7:19.
J.H. Gaylor.

Hirundo

daurica Red-rumped Swallow

J.18873

ad.

V

17.10.68
15. 5-72

Kariobangi, Nairobi, Kenya i°i5'S., 36°53'E. GCB.

Firestone factory, Nairobi i°2i'S., 36°52'E., 8 km SSW, 3:6:28.
(Caught at nest, paired with J. 39430.) F. Shire.

J- 39430

juv.

V

26. 7.70
15. 5.72

Kariobangi, Nairobi. GCB.
Firestone factory (as above). 1 :9:i9.

Hirundo rustica European Swallow

J.42237

iW

X

10. 1.70
(7. 6.72)

Kibebe Farm, Iringa, Tanzania (at roost) 7°46'S., 35°42'E. JFR.
Niirnberg, Germany 49°27'N., ii°05'E., c. 1:4:27. W. M.
Fischer.

X.1026

ad.

0

25.10.70
28. 8.72

Kariobangi, Nairobi, Kenya i°i5'S., 36°53'E. GCB.

near Nizhnegorskii, Crimean Region, U.S.S.R. 45°27'N., 34°48'E.,

1:10:3. (Ringing Centre, Moscow.)

J.50691

iW

X

5. 2.71
14. 6.72

Kibebe Farm, Iringa, Tanzania (at roost). JFR.

near Tamishi, Ochamchire District, Georgian S.S.R., U.S.S.R.

42°38/N., 4I°2i'E., 1:4:11. (Ringing Centre, Moscow.)

J-4I583

f.g.

+

9.10.71
3°- 3-72

Lake Nakuru, Kenya o°2o'S., 36°o6'E. MStJS.

Halabja, Sulaymaniyah, Iraq 35°ii'N., 45°59'E., 0:5:21.
A. Qaradaghi.

J.71111

iW

v

23. 1.72
4- 5-72

Kariobangi, Nairobi, Kenya. DJP.

near Zatsarevo, Narimanovskii District, Astrakhan’ Region,

U.S.S.R. 46°23'N., 48°03'Eo 0:3:11. (Ringing Centre, Moscow.)

Motacilla flava Yellow Wagtail

J. 14018 f.g.? 19. 1.69 Kariobangi, Nairobi, Kenya i°i5'S., 36^53 'E. GCB.

x 23.10.72 Katieno Sub-location, Maseno, Kenya o°04'S., 34°3o'E„

290 km NW, 3:9:4. T. Obadha.

Acrocephalus schoenobaenus Sedge Warbler

J. 67274 f.g. 16. 4.72 Lake Nakuru, Kenya o°2o'S., 36°o6'E. GCB.

X 11. 8.72 near Novouzensk, Saratov Region, U.S.S.R. 50°30'N., 48°io'E.,

0:3:25. (Ringing Centre, Moscow.)

Nectarinia reichenowi Golden-winged Sunbird

J. 67921 f.g.<J 10.5.72 Kariobangi, Nairobi, Kenya i°i5 'S., 36c>53 'E. GCB.

X (29.8.72) South Kinangop, Kenya o°43'S., 36°4o'E., 65 km NNW,
cat c. 0:3:19. P. Poli.

Kariobangi is 1600 m above sea level, South Kinangop is at 2530 m.

KEY TO INITIALS IN LIST OF RECOVERIES

GCB

G. C. & D. E. G. Backhurst

PLB

P. L. & H. A. Britton

JG

the late J. Goddard

DJP

D. J. Pearson

JFR

J. F. Reynolds

EDS

E. D. Steel

MStJS

M. StJ. & G. Sugg

OTHER RINGERS IN EAST AFRICA

Lise Campbell; D. Carthy; F. B. Gill; M. Goddard; J. F. & L. H. Harper; W. G. Harvey; C. F.
Mann; N. O. Okia; Nina Pettitt; J. Rolf.

Notes. — The above lists do not total 15 as mentioned on page 1 ; this is because J. Goddard and Dr
E. D. Steel were not ringing in 1971-72 and further, husband and wife teams are counted as one
ringer on page 1.

Page 15

Table 3

PALAEARCTIC BIRDS RETRAPPED AT ORIGINAL RINGING SITES DURING
1971-72 WHICH WERE RINGED IN PREVIOUS SEASONS

Calidris ferruginea Curlew Sandpiper ......... 2

C. minuta Little Stint ............ 40

Philomachus pugnax Ruff ........... 56

T ring a glareola Wood Sandpiper .......... 1

T. ochropus Green Sandpiper ........... 2

T. stagnatilis Marsh Sandpiper ......... 10

Hirundo rustica European Swallow ......... 1

Acrocephalus arundinaceus Great Reed Warbler ....... 1

A. schoenobaenus Sedge Warbler ......... 1

A. scirpaceus Reed Warbler .......... 1

Phylloscopus trochilus Willow Warbler ......... 1

Luscinia megarhynchos Nightingale .......... 1

Motacilla flava Yellow Wagtail .......... 182

Table 4

RECOVERIES IN EAST AFRICA OF BIRDS RINGED ABROAD

The signs and symbols are the same as those used in Table 2.

Ciconia ciconia White Stork

Radolfzell

B 60009 pull. 2. 6.70 Korinos, Greece 40°i9'N., 22°35 'E.

/?/ (13. 1.72) Kenya? The ring was handed into the National Museum Nairobi

by C. Mitchell; it has been impossible to obtain any details from
Mr Mitchell.

Larus fuscus Lesser Black-backed Gull

Helsinki

H. 101655 pull. 22- 6.69 Prosten, Kristinestad, Vasa, Finland 62°i8'N., 2i°2o'E.

P-A. Johansson.

X 2.12.72 near Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 6°5i'S., 39°i8'E., 3:5:10.

(sick) G.D. Diva.

Acrocephalus palustris Marsh Warbler

Praha

M586437 ad. 3. 5.70 Velky pond, Nakri, Ceske Budejovice District, Czechoslovakia

49°07/N., I4°2o'E. Zd. Pletka.

v 24.11.71 Kariobangi, Nairobi, Kenya i°i5'S., 36°53'E., 1:6:21. (Ring

returned, reringed Nairobi J. 55879.) D. J. Pearson.

(Received 12th April 1973)

Printed by Kenya Litho Ltd., P.O. Box 40775, Changamwe Road, Nairobi.

JOURNAL

OF THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

10th FEBRUARY, 1974

No. 145

A NEW POPULATION OF CARPET VIPERS ECH1S CARINATUS
FROM NORTHERN KENYA

By

R. C Brewes* & J. M. Sacherbr

Department of Herpetology , California Acaderny of Sciences, San Francisco,

California 94118.

In July 1971, during a herpetological survey of northern Kenya for the National
Museums of Kenya and the California Academy of Sciences, R.C.D. collected a series of
red Carpet Vipers, Echis carinatus (Schneider), from Wajir, Northeastern Province,
Kenya. Additional field work has led us to believe that the population is isolated.
Comparison with specimens from Turkana District, Lake Baringo and Moille Hill,
Kenya, and with data on E. c. pyramidum (Geoffroy) from Egypt revealed differences
which appear to be of sufficient significance to justify the description of a new taxon:

Echis carinatus aliaborri ssp. nov.

HOLOTYPE: CAS 130648, adult male, collected by R. C. Drewes, 15 July 1971, in a
limestone area approximately 8 km north of Wajir, Wajir District, Kenya. We take
pleasure in naming this taxon for Ali Ismael Haji Yussuf of Wajir.

PARATYPES (9 dcJ, 11 $$) CAS 130643-130652 collected at the type locality, 5 and 15
July 1971, by R. C. Drewes, Nicholas Boyd, John Miskell and Ali Ismael Haji Yussuf;
CAS 130653-130658, taken between 9 and 14 July 1971, by Ali Ismael Haji Yussuf;
and CAS 130662, 131677-13x680 in Wajir town, vicinity of Catholic Mission, 24 June
and 22-23 July I97I> by Stephen Spawls.

The holotype and 12 paratypes are to remain at the California Academy of Sciences;
8 paratypes will be sent to the National Museum, Nairobi.

DIAGNOSIS: A medium-small Carpet Viper, differing from other populations in vivid
darkred colouration and possession of enlarged supraoculars on both sides.

DESCRIPTION OF HOLOTYPE:

Measurements (in mm). Head length 24; snout 5.5; diameter of eye 4; body
length (snout to vent) 373; total length 419.

Scale Counts. Mid-body scale rows 30; ventrals 166; subcaudals 36; anal plate
entire; 10 upper labials; 12 lower labials; scales around eye 15-14; enlarged supraoculars.

Colour in Life. Dorsal ground colour deep laterite red; eyes orange-red; ventral
surface ivory with one or two small red spots per scute. (Based on colour slide of CAS
130644, holotype not photographed. Colour matched with plate 5, “Brick-dust red”,
IIL, A Dictionary of Color, A. Maerz & M. R. Paul, McGraw-Hill, 1930.)

Colour in preservative (75% ethyl alcohol). Dorsal ground colour brownish-
red ; ventrum as in vivo.

’Department of Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90024.

Page 2

Fig. i. Holotype of Echis carinatus aliaborri , CAS 130648. Photo: Richard B. Hansen.

Pattern. The head is mottled dorsally with two vague median light markings.
The anterior mark begins between the posterior limits of the eyes ; the posterior mark is
directly behind it but unconnected. A reddish brown blotch extends vertically from
beneath the eye to the lower jaw; another reddish brown blotch extends diagonally from
the posterior base of the eye to the eighth, ninth and tenth lower labials. An oblong dark
blotch lies at the symphysis of the jaws. A mid-dorsal longitudinal dark zone, one to
two scale rows in width, runs the length of the body. Within the zone, from the nape to
above the vent, is a series of 31 irregular ivory spots. Dark reddish brown saddles connect
ateral ivory spots to the mid-dorsal spots and outline both. Beneath each lateral ivory

Fig. 2. Close view of head of holotype Echis carinatus aliaborri showing enlarged supraoculars.
Photo: Richard B. Hansen. :

Page 3

spot is a corresponding dark reddish spot of equal or slightly larger size. Two longitudinal
rows of small staggered reddish brown spots run the length of the body at the level of
the first and second scale rows.

Variation. The ground colour of CAS 130650, 130651 130653 and 130657 appears
slightly darker and browner than that of the holotype. The same is true of CAS 131677,
131678 and 131680 which were not collected and preserved by R.C.D, Pattern on the
head varies considerably but is usually made up of two light elements : an anterior “Y”,
“X” or and a posterior oblong “T” or cross. The arms of the latter, if distinct,
may be elongate and curved caudally although one or the other may be absent or very
indistinct. The dorsal pattern varies little except in intensity of colour and number of
complete narrow saddles between the nape and beginning of the tail (28-35). Several
individuals have incomplete saddles which extend up one side of the body only. Eleven
of the paratypes have immaculate venters. Measurements and counts are listed in Table I.

Table i

Data on Echis carinatus aliaborri

Total

length (mm)

Mid body
scale rows

Ventrals

Sub caudals

Scales
around eye

Interocular
scale rows

CAS 130646

438

29

163

37

15-15

8

130648

419

30

166

36

15-14

8

130650

364

29

163

37

14-13

8

130655

438

30

162

32

14-15

8

130656

468

30

165

38

15-15 ,

7

130658

417

27

162

35

15-16

9

131677

497

30

176

36

15-14

8

131678

507

30

164

35

15-15

7

131679

512

30

166

37

15-14

9

131680

394

29

165

32

16-15

8

9?

130643

410

30

173

33

16-15

9

130644,

467

30

182

30

15-14

8

130645

361

3i

174

33

13-14

9

130647

45i

30

174

34

14-13

9

130649

427

3i

178

33

16-16

9

130651

286

30

175

30

14-14

8

130652

469

3i

175

32

15-15

9

130653

498

29

181

32

15-15

8

130654

402

29

178

34

13-13

9

130657

378

3i

178

35

15-15

9

130662

514

30

172

3i

15-15

7

HABITAT

The area north of Wajir from which the holotype and most of the paratypes were
taken is characterized by low bushes (cf. Acacia turnbulliana Brenan), scattered trees
and low outcrops of weathered grey limestone. All specimens collected in this area were
found under large limestone rocks against which (after capture) they were quite conspicu-
ous. Of the specimens from Wajir town, CAS 130662 and CAS 131678 were taken under
piles of thornbush, CAS 131677 under a dried cowhide, CAS 131679 and CAS 131680
on open sand and in a rock pile respectively.

FOOD

Seven of the vipers from the locality north of Wajir had scorpion remains in their
stomachs, and another contained a tail of the scincid Riopa. One of the Wajir town speci-
mens contained the remains of a lacertid, probably Latastia; another contained a partially
digested Riopa. We are informed by the collector, Stephen Spawls, that CAS 131680
regurgitated a blind snake (Typhlopidae), similar to Typhlops cuneirostris (Peters), a

Page 4

(6) Lodwar, Turkana Dist. — 03°07'N., 35°36'E; (7) vicinity of Eliye Springs, Turkana Dist;
(8) Eliye Springs, Turkana Dist. — 03°I5'N., 35°57'E; (9) Kakuma, Turkana Dist. — 03°43'N.,
34°42'E; (10) Lokitaung, Turkana Dist. — 04°i6'N., 35°45'E; (11) Lokomarinyang, Ilemi Triangle,
Sudan — 05°O2 'N., 35°37'E.

Page 5

Somali form hitherto unknown from Kenya. Although the Typhlops was not retained,
he caught another at Wajir (CAS 131687) which is at hand, along with six collected by
R. C. D. in Mandera, Kenya (CAS 130301-1 30304, 131681-131682), all identified as
T. Cuneirostris (Peters).

DISCUSSION

The various populations of Echis in Kenya are poorly known and collections are
scarce. Stemmier & Sochurek (1969) described E. carinatus leakeyi from Baringo and
Moille Hill (see map), comparing their specimens with E. c. pyramidum from Egypt only,
and suggesting that the range of leakeyi is limited to northern Kenya.

During the summer of 1971 R.C.D. collected extensively in northern Kenya,
including Turkana District, that portion of Kenya west of Lake Rudolf and north of
the type locality of leakeyi, an area particularly interesting as it is geographically between
the leakeyi type locality and Egypt (except for four specimens, we lack material from the
Sudan). Therefore, the 62 specimens from Turkana were examined in order to determine
whether they were leakeyi, pyramidum or an intermediate, and thus how they are related
to aliaborri. Data on the Turkana specimens is summarized in Table 2 with specimens
of less than 200 mm total length excluded. Comparison of pyramidum , leakeyi and
aliaborri is summarized in Table 3. All data on pyramidum were taken from Stemmier
& Sochurek (op. cit.).

It was found that the populations of Echis are virtually the same from Lokomari-
nyang, Sudan, south to Lake Baringo, Kenya (an approximate distance of 400 km),
which would suggest that this form is a fairly recent entrant into Kenya from the north-
west, via the Ilemi Corridor (Drewes 1972). In addition, because there is considerable
overlapping of characters, it is possible that leakeyi may be an extension of pyramidum,
at the terminus of a cline which extends from Egypt through the Sudan to Kenya,
However, it is impossible to speculate further in this regard without material from the
Sudan. Thus, until further studies are made we refer the Turkana material to leakeyi.

The fact that aliaborri is isolated (R.C.D. failed to find Echis at Buna, Ramu,
Mandera, El Wak, Garba Tula and intervening territory) and is obviously diverging
leads us to the conclusion that this population is old and the remnant of a larger group
which may have reached Kenya from the northeast, via Somalia,

Although we lack concrete evidence at the moment, we feel that Stemmier & Sochu-
rek erred in including the Moille specimens in the type series in the original leakeyi
description. While it is impossible to separate the Moille counts and measurements from
their description, they cite variations in colour and other parameters which we attribute
mostly to the Moille population. Since all the Echis we have examined from Turkana
District (due north of Lake Baringo, the type locality of leakeyi ) to the Sudan border are
similar, it seems likely that the Moille Hill population is the errant element. We have
only three adult specimens (plus one juvenile) from Laisamis (approximately 16 km
north of Moille); all are much fighter in colour than any of our material from Turkana,
tending towards light yellowish-brown, and differing slightly in counts and measurements.
Since Moille, Laisamis and Wajir are east of the Rift Valley, and Turkana District is
to the west of it, we suggest the possibility that the Moille/Laisamis group is another
remnant of a much earlier Somali expansion like aliaborri, and that studies of the group
will show that it also is significantly different from leakeyi.

Table 2

Page 6

ci

!»*■>

G

CL>

G

*T3

G

vi

G

CQ

XI

G

c/3

O

4h

uq

x

G

03

*55

&3

<4-1

O

G

O

co

°G

03

Q<

S

o

U

. c/y

X 55

<y 03

£?g

G 1
w 2
n Oh
vO 3

cf'* rr

03 K

G ^

3 8

0

1 <L>
J-i •— «

<D cd
£ u
G ««

<L»

>»

<u

CO

03

XI

G

03

U

JD

G

CO

03

ts

G

<u

>

>> eo

'S £
2 0
JD H

<L>

r-

I

bO

I?

U T)

a 3

o w

o

H-)

4

on

4

Of

Of

VO

on

m

I

05

on

I l

05 O

O- vo

^ 'GT ^

M ” I

05

I

05

*0

*0

Of

Of

I

I

Ov

05

Ov

ON

I

On

VO

m On 00

»h ON *h

on 05 rn

I I l

un ^ 00

I

f-

05

*0

*0

Of

Of

Tf / — N

o' >S
6 q
o o

00

<y> 05 h

1

rf

vo

I

On

05

on

I

vo

05

I

05

O

£

G

c«

£.s

m t— 1
QJ Cu
.C/3

*0

>*0

I I w
m ^ On
0- NO vo

un 05
►h On
m oj

oi oi _

7 7 S

>0 o o

05 05 05

Of *0 tv-) *0

Of *0 *qT1 *0

c ‘?i “

^ R ~

I

M

I

o-

vo

Of

Of

a bO^N

§.S^

g 7; «’o

3&i©s

Page 7

Table 3

Comparison of three Echis carinatus subspecies.

E. c. aliaborri

Mid-body scale rows 27-29.8-31

E. c. leakeyi
25-29.i-3i(SS)*
25-28.4-31
i55-i68-i8o(SS)
159-170.6-181

27- 30.5-34.5(SS)

28- 33.7-44

11- i4.9-i8(SS)

12- 15. 3-19
9-10.6-13
7-8.4-11

64.3

E. c. pyramidum
26-29.9-32

164-175-182

28-33.3-40

14-16.9-19

Ventral s

162-171.0-182

Subcaudals

30-33.9-38

13-14-5-16

Scales around eye

Upper labials
Interocular scale rows

10-10.4-12
7-8. 3-9

10-11.5-13

7-9.0-10

29.5

% enlarged supra-oculars 100

*SS = Stemmier & Sochurek specimens, impossible to collate with ours,

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

George E. Lindsay and Richard E. Leakey, Directors of the California Academy of
Sciences and the National Museums of Kenya respectively, have generously given
financial support to the senior author’s Kenya field studies. We also wish to thank Alan
E. Leviton, of the former institution, for reading the manuscript and making valuable
suggestions and A. Duff-MacKay and A. Forbes-Watson, of the latter, for advice and
assistance in past years, especially concerning field work.

Drewes, R. C., 1972. Report on a Collection of Reptiles and Amphibians from the Ilemi Triangle,
Southwestern [= southeastern] Sudan. Occ. Pap. Calif. Acad. Sci., 100: 1-14.

Stemmier, O. & Sochurek, E., 1969. Die Sandrasselotter von Kenya: Echis carinatus leakeyi subsp.
nov. Aqua Terra , (Solothum, Switzerland) : 89-94.

LITERATURE CITED

C Received 17th July, 1972 )

Published by The East Africa Natural History Society, Box 44486, Nairobi , Kenya and
Printed by Kenya Litho Ltd., Box 40775, Changamwe Road, Nairobi.

JOURNAL

OF THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

10th November 1974 No. 146

EAST AFRICAN BIRD RINGING REPORT 1972-73, 1973-74

By

G. C. Backhurst

P.O. Box 29003, Kabete, Nairobi, Kenya

This report covers two ringing years, 1st July 1972 to 30th June 1974; n0 report
was prepared for the 1972-73 year because the number of recoveries awaiting publication
at that time was very small.

A number of changes have been incorporated in the present report and deserve
some explanation. Only Palaearctic species are given in Table 1: in previous years
Table 1 was becoming rather long and was beginning to resemble a check-list of East
African birds; in the interests of economy, Ethiopian Region species are now omitted.
A summary of Ethiopian species ringed is given in Table 2. Table 4 is new and it is
hoped will prove useful. It summarises all recoveries received by 18th September 1974
and, for each species, the total number ringed and recovered is given. An examination
of the figures in this table will show the almost incredible good fortune East African
ringers have had with recoveries to Eurasia, bearing in mind the comparatively small
numbers ringed here. The table, and Table 1, will also show that some species, although
ringed in fair numbers, have yet to provide a recovery: why should the 1079 Reed
Warblers Acrocephalus scirpaceus have resulted in two recoveries while the 2224 of the
similar Marsh Warbler A. palustris have given none ? This example is the more surprising
since a proportion of the Marsh Warblers must come from Europe where the chances of
recovery are greater than in Asia, whereas the East African Reed Warblers are almost
certainly all Asian in origin. (The European population of the Marsh Warbler winters
in eastern Africa and a Czechoslovakian-ringed Marsh Warbler was controlled in Nairobi
in 1971.)

Perhaps the most surprising fact to emerge from Table 4 is that only one East
African-ringed bird has ever been recovered in Africa outside Kenya, Tanzania and
Uganda — and that, a Little Stint Calidris miniita , was controlled by a Belgian ringer in
Zaire. Low human population density in Africa and minute numbers of ringers operating
in this vast continent are clearly the main reasons for the lack of recoveries. Also, bird
killing is not practised widely in sub-Saharan Africa, in contrast to the situation in the
Mediterranean area.

The stress given to recoveries, especially distant ones, is often frowned upon
nowadays as “non-scientific”; ringing in order to get recoveries is considered by some
as a kind of lowly form of sport lacking sound scientific purpose. It must be pointed out
to such critics that an enormous amount has still to be learned about the movements of
birds — only by marking them individually and getting recoveries can the precise details
of these movements become known. To placate the still unconvinced critic I might add
that virtually no “ringing-and-flinging” is done in East Africa; many data are collected

Page 2

when birds are handled for ringing: weights, other physical measurements, moult,
ectoparasites and blood films are collected, further, these data are used by East African
ringers in papers in the ornithological and parasitological literature.

The bald list of Palaearctic birds retrapped at the ringing site in later seasons has
been dropped from this report. A detailed paper on recurrence ( Ortstreue ) in winter
quarters is in preparation: this paper will correlate the number of birds ringed and
retrapped in subsequent seasons at individual ringing sites.

Very few ringers were operating in East Africa in the two years under review.
Most of the waders were ringed by the Backhursts, Duffus’ and D. J. Pearson; almost
all the hirundines by the Harpers; most of the Palaearctic shrikes, warblers and thrushes
by the Backhursts and D. J. Pearson and almost all the Yellow Wagtails Motacilla flava
by the Backhursts, Duffus’ and D. J. Pearson. The Brittons, D. Carthy (1972-73 only).
Harpers, A. B. C. Killango (1974 only) and C. F. Mann ringed the bulk of the Ethiopian
species while F. B. Gill and his associates ringed most of the sunbirds.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Ringers gratefully acknowledge the co-operation of the City Engineer, Nairobi for
allowing them to operate at Kariobangi Sewage Works; the Director of the Kenya
National Parks, Mr. P. M. Olindo, and to Mr. J. M. Mburugu and Mr. E. C. Goss for
permission to ring at Lake Nakuru and in Tsavo National Park (West); the Director
of Veterinary Services, Kenya, Dr. I. E. Muriithi for permission to ring on certain
land at Kabete; to Mr. B. W. Gachihi and Mr. J. N. Hopcraft for allowing ringing on
their land at Athi River. The Society is also grateful to the Administrative Director of
the National Museums of Kenya, Mr. R. E. F. Leakey, for allowing the Museum’s
address to appear on the rings.

Table i

PALAEARCTIC BIRDS RINGED BY

THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY RINGING ORGANISATION

Species

Ixobrychus minutus Little Bittern .

Anas acuta Pintail ....

A. clypeata Shoveller

A. querquedula Garganey

Circus macrourits Pallid Harrier

Milvus migrans Black Kite

Falco cherrug Saker ....

F. subbuteo Hobby ....

Porzana porzana Spotted Crake
Charadrius asiaticus Caspian Plover

C. dubius Little Ringed Plover
C. hiaticula Ringed Plover
C. leschenaultii Greater Sand Plover
C. mongolus Mongolian Sand Plover
Sterna hirundo Common Tern
S. leucoptera White-winged Black Tern
S. nilotica Gull-billed Tern .

Phalaropus lobatus Red-necked Phalarope
Arenaria interpres Turnstone
Calidris alba Sanderling
C. ferruginea Curlew Sandpiper
C. minuta Little Stint ....
C. subminuta Long-toed Stint
C. temminckii Temminck’s Stint
Gallinago gallinago Snipe

G. media Great Snipe ...

G. stenura Pintail Snipe

1972/73 1973/74

Grand

total

0

0

2

I

0

1

0

1

1

4

2

22

0

0

r

1

0

3

0

1

1

0

1

5

2

0

3

0

0

1

1

3

23

18

10

165

0

1

10

0

0

IX

0

0

1

2

2

250

1

0

9

1

0

4

0

2

3

7

2

10

375

222

935

2 141

2 009

8485

0

1

2

4

9

35

25

23

147

0

0

44

0

0

1

Page 3

Limosa lapponica Bar-tailed Godwit ....

L. limosa Black-tailed Godwit .....

Numenius phaeopus Whimbrel .....

Philomachus pugriax Ruff .....

Tringa erythropus Spotted Redshank ....

T. glareola Wood Sandpiper .....

T. hypoleucos Common Sandpiper ....

T. nebularia Greenshank ......

T. ochropus Green Sandpiper .....

T. stagnatilis Marsh Sandpiper .....

T. lerek Terek Sandpiper ......

Cuculus canorus European Cuckoo .....

Otus scops European Scops Owl .....

Caprimulgus europaeus European Nightjar

Coracias garrulus European Roller .....
Merops apiaster European Bee-eater ....

M. superciliosus persicus Blue-cheeked Bee-eater

Upupa epops European Hoopoe .....

Jynx torquilla Wryneck ......

Delichon urbica House Martin .....

Hirundo rustica European Swallow ....

Riparia riparia European Sand Martin

Lanins colluriolisabellinus Red-backed and Red-tailed Shrikes

L. collurio Red-backed Shrike .....

L. isabellinus Red-tailed Shrike .....

L. minor Lesser Grey Shrike .....

L. senator Woodchat Strike ......

Anthus cervinus Red-throated Pipit ....

A. trivialis Tree Pipit .......

Motacilla alba White Wagtail .....

M. cinerea Grey Wagtail ......

M.flava Yellow Wagtail ......

Ficedula hypoleuca Pied Flycatcher ....

Muscicapa striata Spotted Flycatcher ....

Acrocephalus arundinaceus Great Reed Warbler

A. griseldis Basra Reed Warbler .....

A. palustris Marsh Warbler ......

A. schoenobaenus Sedge Warbler .....

A. scirpaceus Reed Warbler ......

Hippolais icterina Ictcrine Warbler ....

H. languida Upcher’s Warbler .....

H. olivetorum Olive-tree Warbler .....

H. pallida Olivaceous Warbler .....

Locustella fluviatilis River Warbler ....

Phylloscopus collybita Chiffchaff .....

P. trochilus Willow Warbler .....

Sylvia atricapilla Blackcap ......

5. borin Garden Warbler ......

S. communis Whitethroat ......

S. nisoria Barred Warbler ......

Cercotrichas galactotes Rufous Bush Chat

Irania gutturalis White-throated Robin ....

Luscinia luscinia Sprosser ......

L. megarhynchos Nightingale .....

Monticola saxatilis European Rock Thrush

Oenanthe isabellina Isabelline Wheatear ....

O. oenanthe Wheatear .......

O. pleschanka Pied Wheatear .....

Phoenicurus phoenicurus Redstart .....

Saxicola rubetra Whinchat ......

Oriolus oriolus Golden Oriole .....

Total .........

Number of species .......

1972/73 1973/74 Grand

total

1

0

1

0

0

2

0

0

2

383

205

4411

0

0

1

78

87

893

22

4

222

53

33

98

1

1

53

156

66

1 118

1

2

10

0

0

5

0

1

2

0

0

2

0

0

4

0

0

1

0

0

8

0

0

1

0

0

3

0

r5

48

227

2514

9465

19

265

1 642

57

—

240

[1961-73]

—

28

28

—

64

64

0

0

5

0

0

1

9

2

35

29

6

188

0

0

5

0

0

2

1887

2 800

33 451

0

0

2

8

9

72

24

12

158

36

23

67

1 121

883

2 224

279

6l

1 685

118

113

1079

0

O

4

16

32

58

13

15

32

25

18

no

172

158

359

0

O

3

407

I98

2 830

83

43

315

155

79

1 269

665

650

1551

39

61

148

23

14

56

54

58

126

403

262

808

8

24

53

2

2

29

2

1

9

4

0

46

0

0

7

0

0

5i

1

0

78

2

0

14

9 243

11 132

75 707

53

52

87

Page 4

Table 2

ETHIOPIAN BIRDS RINGED BY

THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY RINGING ORGANIZATION

Non-passerines .

Number of non-passerine species
Passerines ....

Number of passerine species
Total Ethiopian birds ringed
Number of Ethiopian species
Total Ethiopian and Palaearctic birds ringed
Number of Ethiopian and Palaearctic species

1972/73

1973/74

Grand

total

984

658

5 895

81

62

170

3 695

2323

28437

247

198

37i

4679

2 981

34 332

328

260

54i

13 922

14 113

no 039

381

312

628

Table 3

RECOVERIES AND CONTROLS OF BIRDS RINGED IN EAST AFRICA
Key to symbols and terms

where this is in italics the ring has been returned,
full grown, age uncertain;
adult ;

bird in its first winter ;
young, not able to fly freely;
juvenile, able to fly freely,
male
female.

shot or killed by man;
found dead or dying;
found long dead ;
manner of recovery unknown;

caught or trapped alive and released with ring (control) ;
caught or trapped alive and not released, or released with ring
removed.

given in the order: day, month, year. If the date is unknown, the
date of the reporting letter is given in parentheses,
the Great Circle distance between the ringing and recovery sites,
i.e. the shortest distance between these two points,
given in the form, years: months: days, thus 1:2:9 signifies that
the bird was recovered 1 year 2 months and 9 days after ringing.

Scopus umbretta Hammerkop

H 0883

f.g.

21.10.72

Ahero, Kenya o°ii'S., 34°55'E. WEG.

X

1. u.72

Kisumu, Kenya o°o6'S, 34°45'E., 21 km, 0:0:10. Mahesh Raicha.

Threskiornis aethiopica

Sacred Ibis

D 1825

juv.

3.7.73

Kolal, c. 16 km E. of Kisumu, Kenya o°05'S., 34°52'E. WEG.

+

0.12.73

Bunyala Location, Busia District, Kenya o°04'N., 34°02'E.,
94 km, c. 0:4:27. Kosmos H. Oywolo.

Anas capensis

Cape Wigeon

D 1043

ad.

24.12.68

Lake Nakuru, Kenya 0°20'S., 36°o6'E. PLB & JFH.

V

27.10.73

Lake Hannington, Kenya o°I5'N., 36°o6'E., 65 km, 4:10:3.
WPHD & DJP.

Anas erythrorhynchus Red-billed Duck

Z 0270 ad. 26.11. 71 Arusha National Park, Tanzania 3°i3'S., 36°54'E. JSSB.

+ (18.6.73) Sanya Juu, Tanzania 3°09'S., 37°oi'E., 15 km, c. 1 :7:22. L. Kapis.

Ring number :

—

Age :

f-g-

—

ad.

—

iW

—

pull.

—

juv.

—

Sex :

&

—

$

—

Manner of :

+

—

recovery

X

—

xA

—

/?/

—

V

—

0

—

Date of recovery

—

Distance (km) :

—

Elapsed time :

—

Himantopus himantopus Black-winged Stilt

H 1470 f.g. 5.1.72 Lake Nakuru, Kenya o°2o'S., 36°o6'E. DJP & JGR.

v 27.10.73 Lake Hannington, Kenya oTs'N., 36°o6'E., 65 km, 1:9:22.

WPHD & DJP.

Calidris ferruginea Curlew Sandpiper

A 10858 f.g. 1.5.71 Lake Nakuru, Kenya o°20'S., 36°o6'E. DJP.

+ 21.5.74 Uruk, 37 km NE of Samawa, Iraq 3I°i8'N., 45°40'E., 3660 km,

3:0:20. (Dr A. D. Niazi.)

Page 5

Calidris minuta

Little Stint

J 69424

f-g-

V

13-4-72

12-5-73

Ferguson’s Gulf, Lake Rudolf, Kenya 3°3i'N., 35°55'E. PLB.
Lake Magadi, Kenya 2°oo'S., 36°io'E., 610 km, 1:0:19. DJP.

K 0042

f-g-

V

14.1.73

3-3-73

Lake Naivasha, Kenya o°43'S., 36°25'E. WPHD.
Lake Magadi, Kenya, 145 km 0:1:19. WPHD.

K 0536

f.g.

V

5-5-73

5-H-73

Lake Magadi, Kenya. WPHD & DJP.

Baie de Mwiga, Parc National des Virunga, Zaire 041S.,
29°23'E., 770 km, 0:6:0. J. P. d’Huart. (Ring replaced with
Mus Brux IOV 26299)

K 2611

f-g-

20.5.73

Lake Magadi, Kenya. DJP.

V

27.10.73

Lake Hannington, Kenya o°i5'N., 36°io'E., 250 km, 0:5:7.
WPHD & DJP.

K 1402

iW

V

26.11.73
4-5-74 "

Lake Naivasha, Kenya. WPHD & DJP.

Lake Nakuru, Kenya, o°20'S., 36°o6'E., 55 km, 0:5:8. JFH.

Philomachus pugnax

B 5649 ad. $ 12.4.69

+ 16.2.73

RufT

Lake Nakuru, Kenya o°2o'S., 36°o6'E. EDS.

near Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India c. 29°N., 77°40'E, 5490 km,

3:10:4. S.M. Atiq.

B 5837

f-g- $

V

8.11.69

9.2.74

Lake Nakuru, Kenya. GCB.

Lake Hannington, Kenya o°I5'N., 36°o6'E., 65 km, 4:3:1.
WPHD & DJP.

C i486

ad. 3

V

26.9.70

25.2.73

Lake Nakuru, Kenya. GCB.

Lake Naivasha, Kenya o°43'S., 36°25'E., 55 km, 2:4:29. GCB.

C2329

iW s

V

6.11.71

25.2.73

Lake Nakuru, Kenya. GCB.

Lake Naivasha, Kenya, 55 km, 1 :3:i9- GCB.

B 12836

ad. ^

V

20.8.72

8.12.73

Lake Nakuru, Kenya. DJP.

Lake Naivasha, Kenya, 55 km, 1:3:18. WPHD & DJP.

Tringa stagnatilis Marsh Sandpiper

B 1 1757 f.g. 6.10.73 Lake Magadi, Kenya 2°oo'S., 36°io'E. WPHD & DJP.

v 26.11.73 Lake Naivasha, Kenya o°43'S., 36°io'E., 145 km, 0:1:20.

WPHD & DJP.

Caprimulgus poliocephalus
A 12026 f.g. 30.1.70
v 17.11.73

Abyssinian Nightjar
Kabete, Kenya i°i6'S., 36°43'E. GCB.

Kangemi, Kenya i°i6'S., 36°45'E., 4 km, 2:9:17. J. M. Muiatha.

Coiius striatus

B 14671 ad.

+

Speckled Mousebird

8.4.73 Naro Moru, Kenya o°io'S., 37°oi'E. FKV.

(28.3.74) as above, c. 0:11:20. P. Kaskela.

Ceyx picta Pygmy Kingfisher

J 45242 f.g. 28.2.74 Zika Forest, Entebbe, Uganda o°07'N., 32°28'E. ABCK.

X 6.3.74 St. Mary’s College, Kisubi, Uganda, 2 km, 0:0:6. M. K. Paulus.

Halcyon senegalensis Northern Woodland Kingfisher

B 1658 ad. 27. xo.68 Buligi, Murchison Falls National Park, Uganda 2°i6'N., 3i°23'E.

RW & AZ.

v 7.6.73 Paraa Lodge, Kabalega (= Murchison Falls) National Park,

Uganda 2°i8'N., 3i°35'E., 23 km, 4:7:10. A. Baddokwaya.

Hirundo abyssinica Striped Swallow

J 37749 f.g. 12.7.70 Kariobangi, Nairobi, Kenya I°I5'S., 36°53'E. GCB.

v 20.5.73 Muthaiga, Nairobi, Kenya I°i5/S., 36°50'E., 5 km, 2:10:8. G.

Lowe.

Hirundo angolensis Uganda Swallow

J 44740 f.g. 29. 11. 71 Zika, Entebbe, Uganda o°07'N., 32°28'E. NOO.

0 27.11.72 St. Mary’s College, Kisubi, Uganda, 2 km, 0:11:28. S. C.

Kiggundu.

Page 6

Hirundo rustica

J 47677 iW

/?/

European Swallow

9.3.71 Kibebe Farm, Iringa, Tanzania 7°46'S., 35°42'E. JFR.

5.9.73 near Akbulak, Orenburg Region, U.S.S.R. 5i°oo'N., 55°3i'E.,

6800 km, 2:5:26. (Ringing Centre, Moscow.)

J 47749

iW

0

10.3.71

17.6.73

Kibebe Farm, Iringa, Tanzania. JFR.

near Derbent, Dagestan A.S.S.R., U.S.S.R. 42°03'N., 48T8'E.,
5680 km, 2:3:7. (Ringing Centre, Moscow.).

J 42304

f-g-

V

18.3.71 Athi River, Kenya i°26'S., 36°59'E. DJP.

summer 1973 near Yangi-YuP, Tashkent Region, Uzbek S.S.R., U.S.S.R.

4iTo'N., 68°58'E., 5730 km, 2 yr +. (Ringing Centre, Moscow.)

J 45764

f-g-

V

21.3.71

7.10.73

Athi River, Kenya. DJP

Chokpak Pass, SE Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R. 42°3i'N., 70°38'E.,
5930 km, 2:6:16. Dr E. Gavrilov. ( Moskwa K-234.214 added.)

J 56173

iW

/?/

20.12.71

17-9-73

Lake Nakuru, Kenya o°20'S., 36°o6'E. JFH.

Mumias, Kenya o°20'N., 34°29'E., 195 km, 1:8:27. D. Opwora.

J 87058

ad. <J

V

16.3.74

31-3-74

Lake Nakuru, Kenya. JFH.

Lanet, near Nakuru, Kenya, o°i8'S., 36°o8'E., 5 km, 0:0:15.
D. Stoles.

J 87376

ad. 2

/?/

17-3-74
3rd week
4-74

Lake Nakuru, Kenya. JFH.

Makareen, near Mansuriya, Iraq 34°04'N., 44°52'E., 3930 km,
4-5 weeks. (Dr A. D. Niazi.).

Lanius minor

B 3589 ad.

+

Lesser Grey Shrike

14.4.69 Maranda, Siaya District, Kenya 0°05'S., 34°I3'E. JFH.

29.8.73 South end of Khios, Greece 38°i3'N., 25°59'E., 4340 km,

4:4:15. A. Synodinos.

Motacilla flava lutea

JI7255

f-g- 9

2.10.68

V

22.9.70

J 71729

iW 3

28.3.72

/?/

(x. 12.73)

X 5578

ad. cj

25.10.72

+ (1-5-73)

Acrocephalus scirpaceus
J 67404 f.g. 21.4.72
2-5-73

Eastern Yellow Watgail

Eastleigh, Nairobi, Kenya i°i6'S., 36°5i'E. GCB & MF.
near Dzhalilabad, Azerbaijan S.S.R., U.S.S.R. 39°i5'N-,
48°38'E., 4660 km, 1:11:20. (Ringing Centre, Moscow.)

Kariobangi, Nairobi, Kenya i°i5'S., 36°53'E. DJP.

Najran Town, near Dhahran, Saudi Arabia c. I7°40'N.,
44°2o'E., 2250 km, c. 1:8:0. A.M.F. al Yami.

Kariobangi, Nairobi, Kenya. DJP.

Kaha Thakif, Taif, Saudi Arabia 2i°i5'N., 40°2i'E., 2530 km,
c. 6 months. G. Attia.

Reed Warbler

Kariobangi, Nairobi, Kenya I°i5/S., 36°53'E. GCB.
Astrakhan’ Reserve, Astrakhan Region, U.S.S.R. 45°5o'N.,
47°5o'E., 5340 km, 1:0:11. (Ringing Centre, Moscow.)

Phylloscopus trochilus Willow Warbler

J 62974 f-g- 4-4-74 Kariobangi, Nairobi, Kenya iTs'S., 36°53'E. GCB.

26.5.74 Herajarvi, Tuupovaara, (Kuopio), Finland 62°34'N., 30°4i'E.,
7110 km, 0:1:22. Ida Tarvainen.

Sylvia nisoria Barred Warbler

A 19053 f.g. 28.11.72 Ngulia Safari Lodge, Tsavo National Park West, Kenya 3°oo'S.,

38°i3'E. GCB.

+ 19-9-73 Al-Meznab (=A1-Midhnab), near Unayzah, Saudi Arabia

25°55'N., 44°i5'E., 3280 km, 0:9:21. M. Abood and R. S.
Shamsan.

Ploceus baglafecht reichenowi. Reichenow’s Weaver
A 14355 ad. S 1-4-73 Kapsabet, Kenya o°I2'N., 35°o6'E. CFM.

+ c. 20.5.73 presumed Kapsabet, Kenya, c. 0:1:20. The brother of Hosea
Rotich.

Ploceus melanocephalus Yellow-backed Weaver

A 9739 ad. 10.10.71 Yimbo, Nyanza, Kenya 0°02'S., 34°o6'E. JFH.
X(car) 23.6.73 Yimbo, Kenya, 1:8:13. P. W. Okeyo.

Page 7

Ploceus ocularis Spectacled Weaver

A 5256 ad. § 19.9.68 Masindi, Uganda i°4i'N., 3i°43'E. FJT.

+ 17.3.74 Masindi, Uganda, 5:5:28. (Game Department.)

Pycnonotus barbatus Dark-capped Bulbul

A 13758 ad. n.4.71 Arusha National Park, Tanzania, c. 3°i3'S., 36°54'E. JSSB.

X 0.10.72 Momela Lodge, Arusha National Park, c. 1:5:20. (the late

L. D. E. F. Vesey-FitzGerald.)

KEY TO INITIALS IN THE LIST OF RECOVERIES

GCB G.C. & D.E.G. Backhurst

JSSB *J. S. S. Beesley

PLB P. L. & H. A. Britton

WPHD W. P. H. & B. Duffus
MF *M. Ford

WEG *fW. E. Grainger, Medical Research Council

JFH J. F. & L. M. Harper

ABCK A. B. C. Killango, E. A. Virus Research Institute

CFM C. F. Mann

NOO *N. O. Okia, E. A. Virus Research Institute

DJP D. J. Pearson

JFR J. F. Reynolds

JGR *J. G. Rolfe

EDS *E. D. Steel

FJT *F. J. Thompson

FKV *F. K. Vollmers

RW *R. Wheater

AZ * A . Zeigler

OTHER RINGERS IN EAST AFRICA

D. J. M. Caffyn ; M. Carswell; *D. Carthy (1972-73 only); fM. Goddard; *W. G. Harvey (1972-73
only); *G. Rathbun (1972-73 only); *M. StJ. and G. Sugg (1972-73 only).

’"Indicates that these ringers have left the Ringing Organization.

■(No schedules have been received from these ringers.

Table 4

SUMMARY OF ALL RECOVERIES OF EAST AFRICAN-RINGED BIRDS

The 1 10 039 birds ringed in East Africa to 30th June, 1974 have yielded 167 recoveries and
controls made up by 72 to foreign countries and 95 within Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda; this
number does not include those birds recovered or controlled at the ringing site. Where a recovery is
given below as “local”, without any distance, it means that when the recovery was notified the
finder gave the same locality name as the ringing site; it has been impossible to ascertain exactly
how much movement has been involved in these recoveries. The table also omits controls of Yellow
Wagtails Motacilla flava between roosting and feeding sites and between different roosts in the
Nairobi area. Each species entry is treated in the following manner: number ringed to 30th June,
1974; total number recovered; total number of local (i.e. within East Africa) recoveries with
distance(s) moved; totals recovered in each foreign country with minimum and maximum Great
Circle distances between ringing and recovery sites.

Scopus umbretta Hammerkop 43:1. 1 local, 21 km.

Threskiornis aethiopica Sacred Ibis 7:1. 1 local, 94 km.

Anas capensis Cape Wigeon 437:1. 1 local, 65 km.

Anas erythrorhynchos Red-billed Duck 80:5. 5 local, 15, 15, 15, 19, 20 km.

Anas hottentota Hottentot Teal 182:7. 7 local, 42, 42, 42, 42, 105, 285, 480 km.

Anas undulata Yellow-billed Duck 38:1. 1 local, — .

Fulica cristata Red-knobbed Coot 16:2. 2 local, 290, 390 km.

Charadrius dubius Little Ringed Plover 23:1. 1 U.S.S.R., 4840 km.

Charadrius hiaticula Ringed Plover 165:1. r local, 950 km.

Charadrius pecuarius Kittlitz’s Plover 287:1. 1 local, 20 km.

Charadrius tricollaris Three-banded Plover 70:1. 1 local, 55 km.

Himantopus himantopus Black-winged Stilt 190:1. 1 local, 65 km.

Calidris ferruginea Curlew Sandpiper 935:4. 3 local, 185, 185, 185 km; 1 Iraq, 3660 km.
Calidris ntinuta Little Stint 8485:7. 6 local, 55, 55, 55, 145, 250, 610 km; 1 Zaire, 770 km.
Philomachus pugnax Ruff 4411:16.7 local, 55, 55, 55, 55, 65, 65, no km; 8 U.S.S.R.,
7 540-10060 km; 1 India, 5490 km.

Page 8

Tringa glareola Wood Sandpiper 893:3. 3 U.S.S.R., 6910-7380 km.

Tringa hypoleucos Common Sandpiper 222:1. 1 U.S.S.R., 6550 km.

Tringa stagnatilis Marsh Sandpiper 1 118:1. 1 local, 145 km.

Caprimulgus poliocephalus Abyssinian Nightjar 3:1. 1 local, 4 km.

Colins striatus Speckled Mousebird 272:1. 1 local, — .

Ceryle rudis Pied Kingfisher 500:1. 1 local, — .

Ceyx picta Pygmy Kingfisher 339:1. 1 local, 2 km.

Halcyon senegalensis Northern Woodland Kingfisher 21:1. 1 local, 23 km.

Delichon urbica House Martin 48:1. 1 U.S.S.R., 5 130 km.

Hirundo abyssinica Striped Swallow 1 141 19. 9 local, — , — , — , 5, 6, 7, 7, 20, 22 km.

Hirundo angolensis Uganda Swallow 171:1. 1 local, — .

Hirundo daurica Red-rumped Swallow 463 :3. 3 local, 8, 8, 240 km.

Hirundo rustica European Swallow 9465:39. 10 local, — , 5, 13, 27, 46, 90, 135, 160, 195, 365 km;
x Germany, 6790 km; 1 Czechoslovakia, 5 670 km; 1 Yugoslavia, 5 250 km; 1 Bulgaria,
4900 km; 1 Turkey, 4 560 km; 1 Lebanon, 3 800 km; 3 Iraq, 3 870-4080 km; 20 U.S.S.R.,
4 660-6 800 km.

Hirundo smithii Wire-tailed Swallow 182:3. 3 local, — , 10, 80 km.

Riparia paludicola African Sand Martin 1 792:3. 3 local, — , — , — .

Riparia riparia European Sand Martin 1 642:1. 1 U.S.S.R., 6 130 km.

Lanius minor Lesser Grey Shrike 5:1. 1 Greece, 4340 km.

Anthus novaeseelandiae Richard's Pipit 108 :x. 1 local, 3 km.

Motacilla alba vidua African Pied Wagtail 228:3. 3 local, — , 8, 26 km.

Motacilla flava Yellow Wagtail 33451:25. 8 local, 5,8, 30, 30, 30, 45, 215, 300 km; 2 Saudi
Arabia, 2260-2 530 km; 1 Qatar, 3 390 km; 1 Iran, 3 880 km; 13 U.S.S.R., 4660-7 740 km.
Acrocephalus schoenobaenus Sedge Warbler 1685:1. 1 U.S.S.R., 5760 km.

Acrocephalus scirpaceus Reed Warbler 1 079:2. 1 Saudi Arabia, 3 180 km; 1 U.S.S.R., 5 340 km.
Phylloscopus trochilus Willow Warbler 2830:1. 1 Finland, 7 no km.

Sylvia atricapilla Blackcap 315:1. 1 Iran, 3760 km.

Sylvia nisoria Barred Warbler 148:1. 1 Saudi Arabia, 3280 km.

Phoenicurus plioenicurus Redstart 51:1. 1 Iraq, 3790 km.

Nectarinia reichenowi Golden-winged Sunbird 353:1. 1 local, 65 km.

Nectarinia verticalis Green-headed Sunbird 111:1. 1 local, — .

Passer griseus Grey-headed Sparrow 225:3. 3 local, — , 4, 4 km.

Ploceus baglafecht Reichenow’s Weaver 351:1. 1 local, — .

Ploceus melanocephalus Yellow-backed Weaver 1 332:1. 1 local, — .

Ploceus nigricollis Black-necked Weaver 77:1. 1 local, — .

Ploceus ocularis Spectacled Weaver 231:1. 1 local, — .

Pycnonotus barbatus Dark-capped Bulbul 1912:1. 1 local, — .

Table 5

RECOVERIES IN EAST AFRICA OF BIRDS RINGED ABROAD
The signs and symbols are the same as those used in Table 3.

Peleeanus onocrotalus White Pelican

London pull. 4.5.73 Lake Shala, Ethiopia 7°27'N., 38°28'E.

Z 33 . . . vv 8.8.73 Nderit River, Lake Nakuru, Kenya 0°20'S., 36°05'E.,

905 km, 0:3:4. (A sight record of a bird wearing a visual
marker.)

Ciconia ciconia White Stork
Radolfzell pull. 7.6.69
BB 13 971

+ Nov. 1972

Paris

A 2748 pull. 4.6.72
v 16.1.73

0 10.2.73

Petrinon, Kaditsa, Greece 39°30'N., 22°09'E. H. Heckenroth
and R. Helms.

15 km W of Arusha, Tanzania 3°2i'S., 36°40'E., 4990 km,
c. 3:6:0. (P. J. Terry and GCB.)

Draa ben Khedda, Algeria 34°43'N., 3T4E., G. Fiedler.
Mununga Farm, Mau Narok, Kenya o°36'S., 36°00'E.,
5170 km, 0:7:12. S. Mutua.

Lengetia Farm, Mau Narok, 0:8:6. P. H. B. Sessions.
(In both cases the bird was captured from behind a tractor
where it had been covered by soil; Mr. Sessions removed
the ring before releasing the bird.)

Helgoland pull.
E4301

X

18.6.72 Brackede, LLineburg, Niedersachsen, Germany 53°2i'N.,
io°43'E. H. Bieling.

16/17.11.72 Ngofila, Shinyanga, Tanzania 3°55'S., 33°45'E., 6 820 km
0:4:29. (J. Jonathan.)

Page 9

Helgoland
E 5355

pull.

29.6.72

Grapel, Stade, Niedersachsen, Germany 53°34'N., 9T i'E.
G. Dahm.

X ?

28.10.72

Molo, Kenya 0°I5'S., 35°44'E., 6460 km, 0:3:29. J. M.
Serem.

Calidris minuta

Little Stint

Pretoria
A 93916

ad.

20.2.73

Lake Kariba, Rhodesia i7°oo'S., 28’00'E.
T. Choate & R. Harwin.

V

6.10.73

Lake Magadi, Kenya 2°oo'S., 36°io'E., 1890 km, 0:7:16.
WPHD & DJP.

Philomachus pugnax Ruff

Pretoria

643-05856

ad. (J

7-9-72

Barberspan, Delareyville, Transvaal, South Africa 26°33'S.,
25°36'E. Barberspan Trans. Prov. Admin.

V

24.4.73

Butiaba, Uganda i°49'N., 3i°i9'E., 3210 km, 0:7:17,
released 3 days later. J. Kid-Kisembo.

Ceryle rudis

Pied Kingfisher

London

f-g-

21.7.70

Gambela, Ethiopia 8°I5/N., 34°35'E.

CN 35308

X

0.9.71 or

Lake Kyoga, Uganda i°38'N., 32°48'E., 760 km. S. A. P.

(fishnet) 0.11.71

Okwir-Opio.

Hirundo rustica

European Swallow

Pretoria

A-40598

f-g-

2.2.69

Skinnerspruit, Pretoria, Transvaal, South Africa 25°44'S.,
28°io'E. H. P. Mendelsohn.

2.10.72

Busia, Kenya o°28'N., 34°05'E., 2980 km, 3:8:0. M.
Omenda.

Moskwa

pull.

30.6.72

60 km E of Frunze, Kirghiz S.S.R., U.S.S.R. 42°53'N.,

K-075.021

75°2o'E. (Ringing Centre, Moscow.)

/?/

end 7.73

25 km E of Busia, Kenya o°28/N., 34°20'E., 6230 km.

c. i year. (K. Holt and GCB.)

(. Received 18th September 1974)

■

■

-

JOURNAL

OF THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

f ” 1J -m-. ty ^

10th December 1974 No. 147

v

ABBREVIATED LARVAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE ALPHEID SHRIMP

RACILIUS COMPRESSUS PAULSON
By

A. J. Bruce

East African Marine Fisheries Research Organization, Zanzibar 1

The unusual alpheid shrimp Racilius compressus was first described by Paulson
in 1875, from specimens from the Red Sea. There were no subsequent reports of the
species outside the Red Sea until its rediscovery in Mozambique by Barnard (1955).
It has since been reported from Madagascar, East Africa, Thailand, Singapore and
Queensland, Australia. It is of widespread occurrence on western Indian Ocean reefs
where the normal host coral Galaxea fasciculatis L. occurs. No other species have been
referred to the genus Racilius Paulson. R. compressus is note-worthy for its extremely
strongly bilaterally compressed body and its association with an oculunid coral, a host
not adopted by any other commensal species of the Alpheidae.

Specimens of Racilius compressus collected from the coral reefs around Zanzibar
Harbour were noted to carry relatively few but large ova, and a female with ova at
an advanced stage of development was maintained in sea water until the ova hatched.
The first stage was found to hatch with well developed first and second pereiopods
and with rudimentary pleopods on all abdominal segments, in a more advanced stage
than is typical for the majority of alpheid shrimps. Abbreviated development of larvae
has been reported so far in two genera of the Alpheidae, only, Alpheus Fabricius and
Synalpheus Bate, and is an uncommon phenomenon in coral reef Caridea.

DESCRIPTION OF FIRST LARVAL STAGE

The carapace is smooth and without spines. The rostral process is well developed,
slender and strongly curved ventrally. The orbital margin is evenly rounded and the
antero-lateral angle of the carapace is acute. There are two large oil globules present
in the gastric region and a large mass of yolk immediately posteriorly.

The abdomen consists of five distinct subequal segments with the sixth segment
fused with the telson. There are no spinous processes on these segments. Small pleural
laminae are present on the first five segments, also lacking in any spines. The sixth
abdominal segment and telson are equal to three times the length of the fifth segment.
The telson is approximately as broad as long and 1.8 times broader posteriorly than
anteriorly. The posterior margin consists of two rounded lobes separated by a shallow
median notch. Each side of the posterior border bears well developed setae. The sub-
median seventh spines are the shortest and the third and fourth, subequal, are the
longest. Except for the first, which is setose only on its inner aspect, the posterior marginal
setae are densely plumose along their medial and lateral edges. Each seta arises from a
distinct marginal tubercle, separated by a deep notch from the adjacent tubercle, and
the posterior border of the telson also bears numerous minute setae.

1. Present address: 26 St. Peters Grove, Canterbury, England.

Page 2

The antennule consists of three segments, of which the first two are robust, the
first being half the length of the second. The dorso-medial end of the second segment
is lobular and bears a stoutly based, densely plumose seta. The distal segment is more
slender than the proximal segments, tapering distally, and equal to about one third
of the length of the second segment. It bears distally two filamentous aesthetascs and
two short setae.

The antenna has the protopodite indistinctly subdivided into coxopodite and
basipodite, both stout unarmed segments, the basipodite about twice the length of the
coxodie. The endopodite consists of a short basal segment and a distal segment, about
3.5 times as long, tapering distally and ending in a small spinous process. The exopod
is slightly longer than the endopod and without trace of segmentation. The lateral border

R.c.

A.J.B.

Fig. 1 Racilius cmnpressus Paulson : First larval stage (A) Lateral view. (B) anterior carapace, lateral
view. (C) anterior carapace and eyes, dorsal view.

Page 3

bears two short plumose setae and is without spines. The anteromedial border bears
nine long, densely plumose segmented setae.

The mandible has the corpus well developed but both molar and incisor portions
are feebly developed, with a few small teeth on the molar portion only, and without
a lacinia mobilis.

The maxillula is also poorly developed. The upper and lower laciniae consist of
two rounded lobes, the former with a small acute process. The palp is present, rounded,
and with a slender terminal seta.

The maxilla has a small elongated unsegmented endopod with a short stout plumose
seta distally and with numerous very fine setae along the distal and medial border. The
basis has a broad rounded distal endite and a smaller narrower proximal endite. Both
endites are without setae. The coxal segment has a feebly bilobed medial border. The
distal endite is slender with a short simple seta distally and the proximal endite
is represented by a low angular non-setose lobe. The scaphognathite is well developed,
broader anteriorly than posteriorly and with ten short, broad, densely plumose setae
along the lateral margin.

The first maxilliped bears a short unsegmented endopod. The distal end of the
endopod tapers to a point bearing a short robust simple seta. Two short and one longer
subterminal setae are also present. The exopod is well developed and is provided distally
with four long, densely plumose segmented setae. The basal and coxal segments are
distinct, broad, and unarmed along their medial borders, except for a minute simple
seta proximally on the basis.

Page 4

The second maxilliped bears a well developed endopod consisting of four distinct
segments. The segments are robust and subcylindrical except for the distal segment,
which is tapering and shows indication of division into a small distal dactylar segment
and a larger proximal propodal segment. The tip of the dactylar portion bears a stout
curved simple seta, with a smaller preterminal seta dorsally. The propodal portion bears
a small distoventral seta and a still smaller proximal seta. The carpal segment is the
largest segment, about 1.6 times longer than wide, with a strong simple disto- ventral
seta. The meral and ischial segments are unarmed, the former being about twice the
length of the latter. The exopod is well developed with four long segmented densely
plumose setae distally, and with a small simple preterminal seta. The basis and coxa
are similar to the first maxilliped.

The third maxilliped has an elongated slender endopod with five distinct sub-
cylindrical segments. The carpal segment is the largest and most robust, and the propod
and dactylus taper gradually distally, the latter terminating in a hooked simple seta.
The endopod, basis and coxa are similar to those of the first maxilliped, the endopod
bearing six plumose setae distally.

The first pereiopods are well developed with the chelae readily distinguishable.
The endopod consists of five distinct segments. The dactylus is relatively slender and
equal to the length of the palm. The chela exceeds the combined length of carpus, merus
and ischium. A short non-setose exopod, subequal to the length of the chela, is also
present. The separation between basis and coxa cannot be discerned.

Fig. 3 Racilius compressus Paulson: First larval stage. (A) mandible. (B) maxillula. (C) maxilla.

Page 5

The second pereiopod is similarly developed to the first but shorter and much more
slender. The chela is distinct and is equal to about 0.9 of the carpus length. A non-
setose endopod is also present and an indication of the separation of the basis and the
coxa is also apparent.

Rudiments of the third and fourth pereiopods are clearly visible but are beneath
the cuticle and are not free. The fifth pereiopod is well developed and free, and extends
forwards along the ventral surface of the body between the second pereiopods. The
endopod consists of five distinct, unarmed segments and the separation into basal and
coxal segments in feebly indicated. There is no exopod.

Pleopods are present on the first five abdominal segments. The peduncles and
rami are distinct. All except the first, are biramous and the rami are non-setose.

There are no free uropods but the uropod rudiments are clearly visible beneath the
cuticle of the telson.

Measurement: Carapace length, 0.9 mm

Total body length, 3.5 mm

Colouration: Cornea white. Body transparent, with fairly uniformly distributed small
yellow-white chromatophores all over, except for the ventral aspect of the abdomen and

Page 6

the distal halves of the exopods of the maxillipeds. On the abdomen the chromatophores
tend to be concentrated into a median dorsal and ventro-lateral longitudinal bands.
A few minute red chromatophores were also present around the anterior dorsal region
of the carapace, around the base of the rostrum, at the distal median ends of the larger
segments of the antennule and antenna, and around the posterior and lateral margins
of the telson.

Behaviour: When first hatched the larvae swim actively, head down with the ventral
surface of the body uppermost and with the abdomen slightly flexed. Movement is
generally by means of the exopods of the maxillipeds, except for sudden backwards
escape movements produced by the contraction of the abdominal flexer musculature.

The ovum of Racilius compressus

When first laid the ovum is about 1.2 mm, and a typical female willjcarry about
fifteen. When fully developed the ovum measures about 1.4 mm in length.

Fig. 5 Racilius compressus Paulson: First larval stage. (A) first pereiopod. (B) second pereiopod.
(C) fifth pereiopod. (D) third pleopod.

DISCUSSION

Dobkin has proposed the term “pseudo-larvae” for larvae that hatch out into
advanced non-planktonic stages. The first larval stage of Racilius compressus is not a
pseudo-larva, as has been found in Synalpheus brooksi Coutiere (Dobkin, 1965). The
larva of Racilius compressus is a typical representative of the family Alpheidae, as described
by Gurney (1939), particularly in reference to the presence of a well developed fifth
pereiopod proceeding that of the third and fourth. It shows a closer resemblance to the
stage I larva described by Gurney (1949), for Synalpheus goodei Coutiere than to 5.
brooksi. In some features the larva of R. compressus appears more advanced than that of
5. goodei , while in others it appears in a relatively earlier state of development. The
differences may now be outlined, although the full details of the Stage I larval morphology
of 5. goodei have not been given, preventing a complete comparison.

Page 7

In the Racilius compressus first larva the scaphognathite is provided with ten short
densely plumose setae distributed along the entire lateral border, whereas in S. goodei
the scaphognathite is devoid of setae on its posterior extension, and bears only three on
its anterior portion. The first pleopod in the R. compressus larva is clearly subdivided
into peduncle and ramus, and the second to fifth pleopods are distinctly biramous.
In S. goodei the pleopods are less well developed. They do not show any indication of
peduncle and rami, and do not become biramous until the third larval stage is reached.
The fifth pereiopod is distinctly segmented. No segmentation is indicated in Gurney’s
figure for S. goodei.

In the Synalpheus goodei first larva the antennule has two distal flagellar segments
and the development of the three pedunclar segments is also clearly indicated in Gurney’s
figure. The third and fourth pereiopods are apparently free and bear rudimentary non-
setose exopods, which are lacking in the R. compressus larvae, in which these limbs are
not free.

The poorly developed state of the mandible, maxillula and maxilla, when compared
to these appendages in early larval stages of alpheid species lacking abbreviated develop-
ment (Gurney, 1938), indicates that they are probably non-functional. As the thorax
of the first larval stage contains two large fat globules and a large mass of yolk, the larva
could utilize this nutritional source until after a subsequent moult. The first, second and
fifth pereiopods and pleopods, although free are also clearly non-functional and the larva
relies upon the exopods of the three pairs of maxillipeds for propulsion during its plank-
tonic phase, which is probably only of short duration.

In a recent review, Dobkin (1969) has summarized the available information
concerning abbreviated larval development in the Caridea. Two genera of the Alpheidae,
Alpheus Fabricius and Synalpheus Bate, are known to have shortened larval histories.
Both these genera contain large numbers of species but apparently only one of the former
and seven of the latter are so far known to have abbreviated larval development, the vast
majority of species having a normal type of caridean larval history. The single species
of Alpheus , A. heterochaeles Say, is apparently free-living, but the species of Synalpheus
are commensals, many of which are to be found living in association with sponges. Like
the species of Synalpheus, Racilius compressus is also a commensal, but found living in
association with the oculinid coral Galaxea fascicularis (L.). Despite the apparent advant-
ages of shortened larval life histories in commensal shrimps, which might reduce the
chances of larvae being unable to locate their appropriate hosts, through being swept
into unsuitable habitats by the prevailing water currents, its occurrence, in commensal
shrimps and in tropical marine shallow water shrimps generally, is distinctly rare.
In fresh water and deep water Caridea it is comparatively common. The faunas of tropical
coral reefs are dominated by the Alpheidae and Pontoniinae, a very large proportion
of which are known to live in association with other marine invertebrates but in which
abbreviated larval development is known so far in only a very few species. Only a single
instance is known in the Pontoniinae. Pontonia minuta Baker, the host of which is un-
known, has been found to have shortened larval development (Bruce, 1972) and would
appear to hatch, at a stage approximately equivalent to that of Racilius compressus larvae.
It is also noteworthy that three other species of pontoniid shrimp that are to be found
with Racilius compressus in association with Galaxea fascicularis, Platycaris latirostris
Holthuis, Ischnopontonia lophos Bruce and Anapontonia denticauda Bruce, all produce
relatively large numbers of small ova that hatch into a normal stage I pontoniinid larva.
Undoubtedly more examples of abbreviated larval development in coral reef Caridea
will be discovered but amongst the Caridea that are found in tropical coral reefs, it is
distinctly rare.

Page 8

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am grateful to Dr S. Dobkin for helpful comments upon the draft of this report.

RESUME

Le premiere stage larvaire de la crevette alpheide Racilius compressus Paulson a
ete ecolos d’oeufs obtenus d’une femelle recoltee a Zanzibar. Les oeufs sont grands,
et ils n’eclosent qu’a un stage avance, avec trois paires de pereiopodes et cinq paires
de pleopodes bien developes mais non-fonctionels. La larve ressemble de pres celle de
Synalpheus goodei, a laquelle elle est comparee. La rarete de development larval abrege
chez les Carides des recifs de corail tropicaux est notee.

LITERATURE CITED

Barnard, K. H. 1958. Rediscovery of Genus Racilius Paulson (Crustacea, Decapoda, Alpheidae).
Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., (12) 10 (1x8): 752.

Bruce, A. J. 1972. Notes of some Indo-Pacific Pontaniinae. XVIII. A re-description of Pontonia
minuta Baker, 1907, and the Abbreviated Development in the Pontoniidae. Crustaceana.

Dobkin, S. 1965. The first post embryonic stage of Synalpheus brooksi Coutiere. Bull. mar. Sci.,
15: 450-462, figs. 1-5.

.... 1969. Abbreviated larval development in caridean shrimps and its significance in the artificial
culture, of these animals. FAO Fish. Rep., (57) 3: 935-946.

Gurney, R. 1938. The larvae of the decapod Crustacea. Palaemonidae and Alpheidae. Great Barrier
Reef Exped. Rep., 5(1): 1-60, figs. 1-265.

. . . . 1939. Larvae of Decapod Crustacea. The Ray Society 125: 1-306, figs. 1-122.

. . . . 1949. The larval stages of the snapping shrimp Synalpheus goodei Coutiere. Proc. zool. Soc.
Lond., 1 19: 293-295, figs. 1-9.

Paulson, O. 1875. Investigations on the Crustacea of the Red Sea with notes on the Crustacea
of adjacent Seas. Part I. Podophthalmata and Edriophalmata (Cumacea). pp. i-xiv., 1-144,
pis. 1-21.

(Received 13th June 1972)

Published by The East Africa Natural History Society, Box 44486, Nairobi, Kenya and
printed by Kenya Litho Ltd., Box 40775, Changamwe Road, Nairobi.

JOURNAL

OF THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

7th May, 1975

No. 148

PRELIMINARY CHECKLIST OF THE FISHES OF THE SOUTH BANK.

KILIFI CREEK, KENYA

By

K. R. BOCK

EAAFRO, P.O. Box 30148 , Nairobi.

The area surveyed lies at the eastern (Indian Ocean) end of Kilifi Creek; only
species occurring on the southern bank were recorded. Observations were made between
the Mnarani Club jetty and Ras Kitoka (fig. i) and were confined to the area between
high water mark and a depth of approximately 3 metres down the steeply sloping shelf
which marks the edge of the Kilifi Creek channel (30 metres depth). The width of this
shallow strip varies from 2 to 10 metres.

Within the area are 6 distinct ecological habitats :

(1) Around fish traps, where the closely-set stakes and rocks afford good protective
cover for many species.

(2) Shallow areas of the creek between high water mark and the deep water channel
with a sandy bottom, in places supporting sparse stands of Cymodocea and other
marine grasses.

(3) Shallow areas with a rocky bed, in places with rocky debris or supporting small
formations of corals, mainly Porites, Acropora or Favia.

(4) A zone at the mouth of the creek, parallel to the shore line, characterised by massive
heads of Porites up to 3 metres diameter which support colonies of Acropora ,
gorgonians and algae ( Sargassum ). The deep water channel is to the immediate
seaward side of this zone.

(5) Dense Cymodocea meadows to the leeward side of the Porites zone, in depths of
water varying from a few centimetres to approximately 2 metres at low water.

(6) Rocky, shore-line pools on old, raised eroded coral platform. These habitats are
indicated diagrammatically in fig. 2. In addition, there are areas between the Porites
heads with a profusion of giant sea anemones ( Radianthus ) which form specialised
habitats for species of Amphiprion.

The most marked feature of the waters of the creek banks is the amount of fine sediment
and particulate matter which forms a thick covering over much of the bed and coats
corals and other static animals and objects. It is easily stirred into suspension and,
although always present, is more noticeable during the south-east monsoon; the waters
are often very clear on incoming tides in the north-east monsoon. Non

Low spring tide level

Fig. 3 Diagrammatic cross-section of transect at C in Ftg, 2
Vertical scale exaggerated.

Page 3

species living and breeding in the creek must be tolerant of fine sediments. Although
this factor obviously plays a part in determining the coral species present (principally
Porites, a genus noted for its capacity to withstand sediment), the number of species
of fish more normally associated with clear lagoon or reef waters is surprising.

Recordings were made during August, 1971, July/August, 1972, December, 1972
and April, 1973. With few exceptions, identification was by underwater observation only,
and this occasionally presented obvious problems in identity.

While the checklist can only be described as preliminary, several differences in
species distribution and densities are apparent between lagoons of the shallow type such
as Diani (Bock, 1972) and the Kenya creeks. The most noticeable of these is the number
of different species and comparatively high frequency of occurrence of the Tetraodontidae.
The quiet, turbid waters of the creek seem particularly favourable to the genus Arothron..
This seems to contrast with the Balistidae, at least one species of which ( Rhinacanthus
aculeatus ) is common in the shallow lagoons : it is either very rare or absent in the creek
habitats.

The genus Coris is well-represented in the shallow lagoons, juveniles and adults
of at least four species being common. A single record of C. fonnosa was made in Kilifi
Creek.

Abudefduf dicki is common among the Pontes heads at Kilifi, but was never observed
at Diani, suggesting perhaps a discontinuous distribution of this species of the Pomacen-
tridae. While there is no apparent reason why this species should not occur at Diani, the
probable absence of species such as A. xanthozonus and a general lack of members of the
Serranidae, Gobiidae, Blennidae and Salariidae is attributable simply to the lack of
favourable habitats in the creek.

The closely-set stakes of the fish traps form an ideal habitat for Siderea grisea:
the population density of this moray eel is high and groups of them (often as many as 5 or
6) are common around the traps. Over one-third of the total of 121 species were observed
among the stakes, an indication of the vital role any form of protective cover plays in an
area lacking extensive coral formations.

Most species occurred commonly in that they were observed on all or nearly all
occasions, and on each successive visit to the area. Only those encountered either
abundantly or frequently are noted in the list.

This paper is the second in a series of preliminary checklists which will compare
differences in habitats and associated fish fauna of the shallow lagoons (Bock, 1972),
deep water lagoons, creeks and mangrove forests of the Kenya coast.

In the checklist, the numbers entered after the species refer to the numbers given to
the habitats (fig. 2) in which the species were observed.

The abbreviated author citations for species were taken from Smith & Smith (1963).

clupeidae (Sardines)

Sardinella melanura (C & V) surface waters of creek, in shoals
plotosidae (Barbel Eels)

Plotosus arab Blkr 2, 3, 5, juveniles only, in compact shoals

Synodidae (Lizardfish)

Synodus variegatus (Lac) 2

HEMiRAMPHiDAE (Halfbeaks)

Hemiramphus sp surface waters of creek, in shoals

Hyphoramphus dussumieri (C & V) surface waters of creek, in shoals

Page 4

BELONiDAE (Garfish)

Tylosurus crocodilus (Le Sueur) surface waters of creek, in small shoals, and at 4
BOTHIDAE (Flatfish)

Pardachirus marmoratus (Lac) 2, uncommon

stn gnathidae (Pipefish and Seahorses)

Corythoichthys fasciatus (Gray) 1, 3
Doryramphus melanopleura (Blkr) 1, uncommon
Hippocampus sp. uncommon

fistulariidae (Flutemouths)

Fistularia petimba (Lac) 1, 3

CENTRISCIDAE (Razorfish)

Aeoliscus strigatus Gnthr 1, 3

C1RRHITIDAE (Hawkfish)

Cirrhitichthys oxycephalus (Blkr) x
Paracirrhites forsteri (Bl-Schn) 4, on coral

teraponidae (Thornheads or Jarbuas)

Terapon jarbua (Forsk) 6

SERRANIDAE (Rock Cod)

Grammistes sexlineatus (Thunb) 1
Epinephelus tauvina (Forsk) x, 3

APOGONIDAE

Apogonichthyoides nigripinnis (C & V) 1
Cheilodipterus artus Smith 1
Ostorhinchus fleurieu Lac 1, 4
Ostorhinchus savayensis (Gnthr) 1, 3
Paramia quinquelineata (C & V) 1

CARANGIDAE (Kole kole)

Caranx malabaricus (Bl-Schn) creek waters, in shoals
Chorinemus tolooparah (Rupp) creek waters, in shoals
Selar crumenophthalmus (Bloch) creek waters, in shoals

mullidae (Red Mullets)

Pseudupeneus macronema (Lac) 2, juveniles only
Upeneus tragula (Richdsn) 2

platacidae (Batfish)

Platax pinnatus (Linn) 1, 2, 3

pomacanthidae (Angelfish)

Centropyge multispinis (Plfr) 4
Pomacanthodes striatus (Rupp) 3, 4
Pomacanthops semicirculatus (C & V) 4

CHAEtodoniidae (Butterflyfish)

Chaetodon auriga Forsk 1, 3, 4
Chaetodon falcula Bloch 4
Chaetodon lineolatus C & V 4
Chaetodon lunula (Lac) 1, 3
Chaetodon trifasciatus Mungo Park 4
Chaetodon unimaculatus Bloch 4
Chaetodon zanzibarensis Plfr 4, uncommon
Heniochus acuminatus (Linn) 1, 3

acanthuridae (Surgeon or Lance fish)

Acanthurus leucosternon (Benn) 4
Acanthurus lineatus Linn 4
Acanthurus triostegus (Linn) 6
Acathurus sp. 1
Zebrasoma ftavescens (Benn) 4
Zebrasoma veliferwn (Bloch) 4

zanclidae (Moorish Idols)

Zanclus cornutus (Linn) 4

GERRIDAE

Gerres oyena (Forsk) 2, 3

kyphosidae (Rudderfish)

Kyphosus vaigiensis (Q & G) 2, 3

pempheridae (Sweepers)

Pempheris oualensis (C & V) 1, in shoals

lutjanidae (Snappers)

Lutjanus johni (Bloch) 1, 2, 3
Lutjanus kasmira (Forsk) 1, 2, 3

Lutjanus sebae (C & V) 2, juveniles among sea urchin spines, uncommon
caesiodidae

Caesio caerulaureus Lac 1, 4, in small shoals
GATERINIDAE

Gaterin flavomaculatus (Ehren) 4
Gaterin gaterinus (Forsk) 4
Gaterin playfairi (Pell) 2, 4
Gaterin punctatissimus (Plfr) 4

LETHRINIDAE (Barefaces)

Lethrinus harak (Forsk) 2

pomacentridae (Coral or Damsel fish)

Abudefduf biocellatus (Q & G) 6
Abudefduf dicki (Linn) 4
Abudefduf lachrymatus (Q & G) 4
Abudefduf saxatilis (Linn) 1, 4
Abudefduf septemf asciatus (C & V) 1, 4, 6
Abudefduf sexfasciatus (Lac) 1
Abudefduf sparoides (C & V) 1,4
Amphiprion akallopisos Blkr 4
Amphiprion ephippium (Bloch) 3, 4

Chromis caeruleus (C & V) 4, juveniles in small shoals, always near coral

Chromis dimidiatus (Klunz) 4

Chromis nigrurus Smith 1, 4

Dascyllus aruanus (Linn) 3, 4

Dascyllus reticulatus (Richdsn) 4

Dascyllus trimaculatus (Rupp) 3, 4, juveniles among Sarcophyton, 2
Pomacentrus pulcherrimus Smith 3, 4
Pomacentrus sulfureus Klunz 4
Pomacentrus taeniurus Blkr 1, 4

labridae (Wrasses or Rainbowfish)

Anampses caerulopunctatus Rupp 4

Cheilinus trilobatus Lac 4

Coris formosa Benn 4, adult, one record only

Gomphosus varius Lac 4

Halichoeres marginatus Rupp 4

Labroides bicolor Fwlr 4

Labroides dimidiatus (C & V) 1, 3, 4, 6

Lepidoplois sp 4

Thalassoma amblycephalus Blkr 4
Thalassoma lunar e (Linn) 1, 3

scaridae (Parrotfish)

Scarus apridentatus (Smith) 3, 4
Scarus frenatus Lac 4
Xanothon venosus (C & V) 4

scomberomoridae (Kingfish)

Scomberomorus guttatus (Bl-Schn)

Page 6

mugilidae (Grey Mullet)

Mugil buchanani Blkr 2, 3 deeper water

sphyraenidae (Barracuda)

Sphyraena barracuda (Walb) 1, 2, 4, 5, juveniles only, in small shoals

siganidae (Rabbitfish)

Sigatius oramin (Bl-Schn) 5

ELEOTRIDAE

Ptereleotris tricolor Smith 4, one record only
ECHENEIDAE

Echeneis naucrates (Linn) one record only ; attached to green turtle

blennidae (Blennies)

Meiacanthus mossambicus Smith 1
Runula rhinorhynchos (Blkr) 4

scorpaenidae (Scorpionfish)

Dendrochirus zebrae (C & V) 1,3
Pterois volitans (Linn) 1, 3
Pteropterus antennata (Bloch) 1, 3
Scorpaenodes Pguamensis (Q & G) 1, 3

synancejidae (Stonefish)

Synaceichthys verrucosus (Bl-Schn) 3

cephalacanthidae (Flying Gurnards)

Dactyloptena orientalis (C & V) 2

muraenidae (Moray Eels)

Ly codon tis undulatus (Lac) i, 3
Siderea grisea (Lac) 1, 3, abundant

MONACANTHIDAE (Filefish)

Amanses sp 2

Oxy monacanthus longirostris 4
aluteridae

Osbeckia scripta (Osbeck) 2, uncommon

OSTRACIIDAE (Boxfish, Cowfish)

Lactoria cornuta (Linn) 2, 3
Ostracion tuberculatus (Linn) 1, 2

diodontidae (Porcupinefish)

Diodon hystrix Linn I, 2, 3
TETRAODONTIDAE (Puffers)

Arothron aerostaticus (Jenyns) 2, uncommon
Arothron hispidus (Lac) 2, 3
Arothron immaculatus (Bl-Schn) 2, 3, 4
Arothron nigropunctatus (Bl-Schn) 2, 3
Arothron stellatus (Bl-Schn) 2, 3, 4

CANTHIGASTERIDAE (Sharpnosed Puffers)

Canthigaster bennettii (Blkr) 1, 3
Canthigaster janthinopterus (Blkr) 1, 3
Canthigaster valentini (Blkr) 1, 3

ANTENNARIIDAE

Antennarius sp 1, uncommon
DASYATIDAE (Stingrays)

Dasyatis sp 2

REFERENCES

Smith, J. L. B. & Smith, M. M. (1969). The fishes of Seychelles, 2nd Edition. Published by the
Department of Ichthyology, Rhodes University.

Bock, K. R. (1972). Preliminary checklist of lagoonal fishes of Diani, Kenya .Journal E.A. Nat. Hist.
Soc. and Nat. Mus , No. 137.

(. Received 3rd January , 1974)

Published by The East Africa Natural History Society, Box 44486, Nairobi , Kenya and
printed by Kenya Litho Ltd., Box 40775, Changamwe Road, Nairobi.

JOURNAL

OF THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

12th May 1975

No. 149

A GUIDE TO THE
SNAKES OF THE TANZANIA
AND KENYA BORDERLANDS

By

Desmond Foster Vesey-FitzGerald
Scientific Officer, Tanzania National Parks *

This book is published posthumously. An obituary for the author appeared in the East Africa
Natural History Society Bulletin for June 1974.

A GUIDE TO THE SNAKES OF THE TANZANIA AND KENYA
BORDER-LANDS

INTRODUCTION

This paper sets out to give an account of the common snakes of East Africa. Hope-
fully, it will stimulate an interest in these remarkable reptiles which should be respected,
but not feared, and certainly not destroyed on sight without compassion, or comprehension
of their extraordinary way of life.

It is nearly 50 years since our Society published the first list of East African Snakes,
Loveridge (1924). At that time, 54 genera containing 138 species were recorded from
the four territories, Uganda, Kenya, Tanganyika and Zanzibar. The latest East African
checklist records 55 genera and 125 full species, Loveridge (1957).

As the distribution and geographical variation of the different species becomes better
understood, it is expected that the number of species in each genus will be further reduced,
although new subspecies may be discovered.

I have selected, for my present account, the kinds of snakes likely to be seen in the
more populated parts of the Kenya and Tanzania upland areas, including the most
popular National Parks near the border of the two countries. These are, in effect, the
common snakes of East Africa.

This selection excludes a number of western genera which occur towards the
Uganda and Lake Tanganyika borderlands. These are: Boiga, Bothrophthalmus ,
Boulengerina, Dipsadoboa , Dromophis , Gastropyxis, Grayia, Hapsidophyrs, Hormonotus,
Lycodonomorphus, Miodon and Pseudohaje.

Also omitted are dry-country and coastal genera, such as Chamaetortus, Coluber ,
Echis, Eryx and the Sea-snake Pelamis. The snake faunas of Tsavo and Serengeti National
Parks are therefore not fully treated in this account. Several little-known (mainly
burrowing) snakes have also been left out, as they have not been collected, as far as
I know, in our area. These are: Amblyodipsas, Calamelaps, Chilorhinophis, Geodipsas ,
Micrelaps and Rhinocalamus.

This leaves 32 genera and some 41 species, which have been found, or are likely to
be found in the general vicinity of Nairobi and Arusha. The area treated lies above
the approximate 1000 m altitude and has a rainfall probability of between 600-1300
mm. The natural vegetation was mainly forest, now forest remnants with extensive
cultivation. Marginally, there are deciduous woodlands where the characteristic trees
include Acacia, Combretum and Commiphora. These have been extensively degraded by
over-burning and, in part, by over-grazing. Secondary grasslands now cover extensive
areas and edaphic grassland exists in the drainage lines.

It is rather difficult to decide which are the common snakes that one should get to
know. Even for a resident of these countries, finding a snake is usually quite an excitement.
Visitors are likely to finish their tour without seeing one at all. This is not because snakes
are few; it is because they are extremely secretive creatures which are easily overlooked.

Several species are, in fact, widespread and have a habit of turning up unexpectedly
in the garden, or even indoors. It is impossible to believe that these can really be so
rare and yet survive over such a wide area and in such unexpected places. They must
be about all the time. It is nice, therefore, to know them when you meet them, so as
to be able to respect the dangerous ones and spare those that are harmless.

Also, one has a very good chance of learning something new. In this connection,
I would like to stress that any smallish, burrowing snake is sure to be of interest. It is
among this group that discoveries are likely to be made. Any found should be collected
and sent to the Museum for identification.

Page 2

HOW TO EXAMINE A SNAKE

It is perhaps hardly necessary to say that no one should take risks with an unknown
snake. This usually means that the specimen has to be killed before it can be examined
in detail. A smart rap with a stick, or a shot in the middle of the back is usually the most
effective method of doing this.

Small snakes can be very quickly killed by putting a feather smeared with nicotine
from a pipe into their mouths. Most specimens brought in have usually had their heads
badly bashed and, as this makes identification very difficult, it is a method of destruction
which must be discouraged among would-be collectors. One can usually tell when a
snake is properly dead by lying it on its back. If there is any life left in it, it will roll
over onto its front again. In South Africa, we are told, there is a snake — the Rinkhals —
which shams death by performing this trick !

The most important things to examine on a snake are, of course, the fangs. These
will be obvious in a big viper, or cobra, and, needless to say, the observer should be
careful not to prick his finger with the fangs of a freshly-killed snake. With small snakes,
however, it will be difficult to differentiate between fangs and ordinary teeth. Indeed,
a needle and a magnifying glass are necessary in order to see any teeth at all in the mouth
of a very small snake. For this reason, it is not always convenient to rely on the presence
or absence, and the position of the fangs, in identification. Nevertheless, as snakes are
classified on the character of their teeth, it is necessary to know something about them.

Leaving, for the moment, the blind-snakes, worm-snakes, the python and the
toothless egg-eater, the remaining snakes are divided into four groups.

Group one contains the harmless snakes which have no poison fangs, but have
many needle-like, backwardly directed teeth in their mouth. These teeth are usually all
more or less the same length.

The second group contains the back-fanged snakes, which are poisonous. Most
of these species are too small to harm a human being; but others, the bigger ones, are
dangerous, though the chances of their inflicting a bite are rather remote. The fangs
of these snakes must be sought in the upper jaw, just behind the eyes. They can be
recognised as somewhat longer and stronger teeth among the others. Feeling around with
a pin will usually show them up. It must be emphasised, however, that the fangs —
especially of small snakes — are quite easily overlooked. Some back-fanged snakes will
be found which have large teeth in front of the eyes as well as behind. The forward
teeth, however, are not the poison fangs, and such an arrangement of uneven length
teeth is quite a good spot for recognising the various sand-snakes.

The third group covers the front-fanged snakes, the dangerous mambas and cobras.
The fixed, peg-like fangs in front of the upper jaw are usually quite easily seen although
they may be partly hidden in a sort of fleshy gum which, however, can be pushed down
with a needle.

In the last group, the vipers, fangs are long and moveable, set near the front of
the upper jaw. They are usually quite easy to see, and will be found lying back against
the roof of the mouth; they can be moved up and down with a pin.

If the examination of the teeth yields a positive result, one is well on the way to
identifying the snake. If no fangs can be seen with certainty, other characteristics about
the snake must be looked for, and noted.

The first thing anybody asks about a snake is what is its length. Measure the snake,
straightened out, but not unduly stretched, from the snout to the tip of the tail.

If one turns a snake over onto its back, it will usually be seen that there is a series
of traverse scales along the underside of the body, from the neck backwards. If, however,
the scales of the belly are like the scales of the back, it is a good spot for recognising the
blind-snakes and worm-snakes. In all the other snakes, the traverse scales continue to-
wards the tail until they reach a D-shaped scale which is like a flap. Note whether this
special scale is divided or entire. Underneath and behind this anal scale, the opening of

Page 3

the vent will be seen. This is the end of the body, and the rest of the snake is tail. Make
a note of the separate lengths of the body and tail. In the text the length of a full-grown
adult specimen is given in millimetres ; then, in brackets, the length of the body and tail
separately.

The ventral scales — those along the belly — should be counted, because their number
helps in identification. The number will not be exactly the same in all specimens, but
the range is meaningful. The counts given in the description of each species are those
found on specimens which have been examined.

The scales under the tail will be seen to be paired. If they are not paired, by any
chance, but are single (like the scales under the belly), make a note of the fact. This
characteristic is important in the identification of some rather unusual species of snakes.
Count the subcaudal scales, especially noting if the tip of the tail appears to be damaged.

Next, count the number of scales round the middle of the body. The number is
an important characteristic for identification. Some people may find scale-counting
tedious; but it is worth learning how to do it. Select an undamaged portion about the
middle of the body, and, starting from the edge of one of the belly scales, count the rows
of scales up the side and over the back to the edge of the belly scale on the opposite side
see fig. 7. Note the number of scales.

Next, look at the head. Consider its shape, and the form of the neck. Memorising
these details will be useful in recognising the same kind of snake next time. Note if the
pupil of the eye is round or oval. Round-eyed snakes are usually diurnal and oval-eyed
snakes nocturnal. If the pupil is horizontally elongated, it is the mark of the Vine-
snake, which in any case is easily recognised, see fig. 19.

The details of the scales on the head are also important. The names of the different
scales (and those which should be examined and counted for purposes of identification)
are illustrated and referred to in the key and the descriptions of the species.

Naturally, the observer will take note of the colour-pattern of the snake. In many
cases, this will enable the species to be recognised at once, but at other times it can be
most misleading. There are many kinds of snakes which vary very much in colour and
pattern; so that extreme forms can hardly be recognised as belonging to the same species.
Then again, there are several quite different snakes which closely resemble each other
in markings. Lastly, there are several small blackish snakes, both harmless and piosonous,
which all look very alike.

A difficulty arises over young individuals of some species, because they may have a
colour pattern very different from that of the adults. Indeed, several kinds have a very
distinct pattern when young, whereas adults of the same kind may be unornamented.
When applicable, distinct juvenile patterns are noted in the text.

Newly-born, or recently-hatched, snakes can be recognised by the umbilical scar.
This will be found along a few of the ventral scales, a short distance up the belly from the
vent. The scar looks like a tiny slit made by a razor blade. If it is present, it is a sure
sign that the snake is very young.

To “sex” a snake is easy. Lie the specimen on its back and put your thumbs one
on each side of the vent, one placed at the base of the body, the other at the root of
the tail. Now apply slight rolling pressure. At the same time, press the thumbs gently
towards one another so as to extrude the vent. If the snake is a male, two fleshy, horn-
like objects will pop out, at each side of the vent. In the case of a female, the circular
orifice of the vent is all that is seen. In the case of large snakes it is usually easier to
detect the male organs by probing with a blunt needle backwards at the base of the
tail, on either side of the vent. The two cavities from which the horns can be made
to protrude are easily found in this way. Tails of male snakes are usually longer than
those of females, see figs. 2a and 2b.

Page 4

THE KEY

x. Snakes in which head and tail ends are, on casual inspection, indistinguishable; mouth very
small; eyes not evident; tail very short and stumpy. Sometimes small worm-like creatures; scales
small, close set and of similar type all round body, photos i and ii.

Typhlopidae and Leptotyphlopidae
Snakes of normal appearance; head, eyes, mouth and tail apparent; body scales of three types,
those on back and sides arranged rather like tiles on a roof, along the belly they form traverse
scutes, under the tail they are usually paired, figs. 8, 9, ia and ib

2. Scales on top of head small, similar to, and merging into the neck and body scales, fig. 10.

Viperidae (part)

Scales on top of head shield-like, quite distinct from the scales on the back of the body.

3. Head shields small and situated on front part of head only; belly scales do not extend across

the full width of the underside. Boidae (Python)

Head shields large, covering top of head, fig : 8 ; belly scales extend more or less across full
width of body beneath, fig ia, b and c.

4. Enlarged fangs present in front of upper jaw, either fixed and peglike, fig 17, or curved and lying
back, fig 11.

No obvious fangs in front of upper jaw.

5. Fangs fixed, peg-like. Elapidae

Fangs curved and lying back (seek out with pin). Viperidae

6. Long fang in upper jaw situated behind the eye (seek out with pin), fig 18 (In small snakes this
back fang may be difficult to see, but the enlarged gum enclosing the fang is usually obvious.)

Colubridae (back fanged)

No obvious enlarged fangs either in front of or behind the eye, ordinary teeth present or not
evident. Colubridae (harmless)

Typhlopidae and Leptotyphlopidae. Blind-snakes & Worm-snakes.

The snakes in this section are easy to recognise, and cannot be confused with any
other snakes. However, separating the two families and sorting out the species is work
for an expert. The layman therefore may not wish to proceed further with this section.

1. Scale rows (all round mid body) more than 18; tail scarcely longer than it is broad at the base.

Typhlopidae (Blind Snakes)

Scale rows (all round mid body) less than 14 ; tail three times as long as it is broad at base.

Leptotyphlopidae (Worm Snakes)

Boidae. Python.

There should be no difficulty in recognising the python, which is the only snake
in this section.

Tail short but ending in thin extremity; large snake, when full grown up to 7 m.
(possibly more), photo iv. Python, Python ,

Colubridae. (most of the common snakes).

There is sure to be some difficulty in identifying all the different snakes belonging
to this family, unless the presence or absence of fangs behind the eye has been decided
with certainty. However, consider the supporting characters in each couplet carefully
and be prepared to assume you have overlooked the fang if the other characters match
up to the specimen being a back-fanged species. Couplets 1-12 of the following key
distinguish the harmless Colubridae, and 13-20 the back-fanged species.

1. Subcaudals paired, fig. ia and ib. 2

Subcaudals single, fig. ic, (very small snakes). Centipede-eater, Aparallactus

2. Long fang (grooved tooth transmitting venom) in upper jaw situated behind the eye. Seek out

with a pin. The needle-fine fang is often hidden in a soft swelling of the gum, and may be very
difficult to find. . 13.

No poison fang in upper jaw. A row of backwardly directed, needle-like, ordinary teeth may
or may not be obvious. 3

3. Small to medium size Green snakes (dark bluish-grey when preserved in formalin).

Green bush-snakes, Philothamnus

(Note: — Green phase of Dispholidus would key out here if the back-fang has been overlooked).
Snakes which are other colours and patterns.

4

Page 5

Male Organ or Hemipenis extruded

Page 6

4. Body scales noticably keeled. 5

Body scales NOT keeled. 6

5. Scale rows 21-27; scales heavily keeled and close together; skin not showing between scales.

Only has minute teeth, so that jaws appear to be toothless. Body cylindrical fig. 5.

Egg-eating Snake, Dasypeltis

Scale rows 19 (scales keeled and overlapping) Black Tree Snake, Thrasops

(Note : — black phase of Dispholidus would key out here if conspicuous back fang is overlooked.)

Scale rows 15; scales heavily keeled but loosely held together; skin showing between scales.
Teeth normal size. Body triangular in section. File Snake, Mehelya

6. Scale rows 17 or less. 7

Scale rows 18 or more. 9

7. Scale rows 17; head flattened, eye small, tail short; small blackish snake.

Wolf Snake, Lycophidion

Scale rows 15. 8

8. Pupil vertically elliptic rostral shovel shaped with sharp edge, inter-nasal single, fig. 15.

Small snake, up to 30 cm. Shovel-snouted Snake, Prosymna

Pupil round, rostral rounded, inter-nasals two, fig. 14. Small snake up to 30 cm, with body
laterally compressed and head narrower than body. Slug-eating Snake, Duberria

9. Mid-body scale-rows 23-33. 10

Mid-body scale-rows 19-21. 12

10. Anal entire fig. lb; pupil vertical. House Snake, Boaedon

Anal divided, fig. ia; pupil round. 11

11. Ocular scales present encircle the eye so the labials are not in contact with the eye, rostral

shield beak-like. Grey Beaked-snake, Scaphiophis

No sub-oculars, so fourth labial scale touches the eye. Mole Snake, Pseudaspis

12. Mid-body scale rows 21, anal divided, fig. ia. Semiornate Snake, Meizodon

Mid-body scale rows 19, (or 17 in sub-species ulugurensis ), anal divided, fig. ia.

Olive Marsh-Snake, Natriciteres
Mid-body scale rows 19, anal entire, fig. ib. Black Tree Snake, Thrasops

(Note: Crotaphopeltis would key out here if the small back-fang is overlooked).

13. Scales keeled, narrow, and obliquely inclined, in 19 rows. (Tree snakes). 14

Scales smooth. 15

14. Pupil round, eye large, head short, fig. 20. Boomslang, Dispholidus

Pupil horizontal, eye with dark band through it, head elongated, fig. 19.

Twig Snake, Thelotortiis

15. Dentition distinctive in that there are one or more long teeth between shorter teeth in the

upper jaw. Therefore a long tooth in front of the eye resembles the true fang which is actually
situated behind the eye, fig. 18. Sand-snakes, Psammophis

Dentition not as above; teeth, invisible, form an even series from the front of the upper jaw
backwards to the fang behind the eye. (Specimens which are too small for the teeth to be seen
properly will present a difficulty but should be included here). 16

16. Snakes which are sombrely coloured throughout, except that under-parts may be lighter

and head darker than general colour. 17

Snakes having a marked pattern; body striped, marbled, barred, spotted or banded with
different colours. 20

17. Scale rows 17. 18

Scale rows 19 or 21. 19

18. Rostral shield (snout) beak-like (stone coloured snakes, the body scales margined with amber

brown; white, tinged with yellow below), fig. 6. Beaked-snakes, Rhampiophis

No beak. (Stone coloured and banded above, pure white below and with a row of pink spots
along the side of the body). White-bellied Grass-snake, Psammophylax

ig. Head broad, distinct from neck ; eye fairly large with vertical pupil, figs. 8 and 9 ; scale rows 19
(The back-fang of this species is difficult to find.) White-lipped Snake, Crotaphopeltis

Head small and not distinct from neck; eye minute with round pupil. Scale rows 19 or 21.

Purple-glossed Snake, Camelaps

20. Small snake (up to about 40 cm) with a very characteristic dark brown mark on the head, which
becomes zfg-zag on the neck and breaks up into long-shaped spots along the top of the forward
half of the body, photos, xii. Body marbled and dappled above and below, tail tending to be yellowish;
tongue orange, pupil round; scale rows 17; the fangs are too small to be seen easily.

Bark-snake, Hemirhagerris

A medium sized snake (up to 90 cm). Colour pinkish-red, with evenly spaced black blotches
down the back, starting with a dark band right across the neck, photo, vii. Head distinctly wider
than the neck; whitish below; scale rows 19. Tiger-snake, Telescopus

Page 7

Fig. 3 Philothamnus irregularis

Fig. 4 P. hoplogaster

Fig. 5 Dasypeltis scabra

Fig. 6 Rhamphiophis acutus
^ Fig. 7 scale row count 27

14

mid row

Page 8

Elapidae. Front-fanged snakes. Cobras and Mambas

The snakes in this section are all venomous and dangerous. Their fangs are situated
in front of the mouth and are usually easy to see; many of the species are large and easy
to identify. However, there always remains the possibility that a juvenile specimen may
be obtained in which the characters are not easy to make out though the individual
may already be quite dangerous. Juvenile mambas for instance might be mistaken for
the harmless green snakes of the genus Philothamnus.

1. Tail short, sub-caudals less than 30 scale rows 13. Garter Snake, Elapsoidea

Tail longer, sub-caudals more than 40; scale rows 19 or more. 2

2. Head rather long, straight sided, but narrowing towards snout; subcaudals more than 90.

Long snakes, growing to nearly 3 m, and very slender. 3

Head short, sides curved; snout broader than long; subcaudals less than 90. 4

3. Inside mouth bluish-black; mid-body scale rows 21-25 (usually 25); ventrals more than 240.

Colour slate, olive, brown or green. Common Mamba, Dendroaspis polylepis

Inside mouth bluish-white; mid-body scale rows 17-21 (usually 19); ventrals less than 240.
Colour green. Green Mamba, D. angusticeps

4. Subocular scales present, fig. 16, therefore upper labials not contacting eye.

Egyptian Cobra, Naja haje

Subocular scales absent, fig. 17, therefore upper labials contacting eye. Underside of neck jet-
black or irregularly marked pinkish, in either case distinctly coloured from underside of body.

Spitting Cobra, N. nigricollis

Viperidae. Vipers or Adders.

The three groups of vipers are so different in general appearance from each other
that the layman may find it difficult to believe that they all belong to the same family
of snakes. However, they all have long, curved fangs, lying back in the front of the upper
jaw, fig. 11. Once these are seen, and it is easy to find them and lift them up with a
needle, it is easy to understand that all the vipers belong to one family. The true vipers
of the genera Bins and Athens are fairly easy to recognise for those who are familiar
with the appearance of the European adder. They all have the typical spade-shaped
head which is covered with small scales instead of shields, as is more usual with most
other snakes. The Night-adders on the other hand have shields on the head like other
snakes, which they also resemble more in general configuration. The Burrowing-vipers,
which are modified for a subterranean life, depart most of all from the usual conception
of viper, because their heads are not only covered with shields, but the head is also
actually much narrower than the neck and body. All species of vipers are venomous
and dangerous.

1. Head spade-shaped, wider than neck, and covered with small scales, fig. 10 2

Head not wider than neck, and covered with shield-like plates, fig. 12 3

2. Colour usually greenish ; small rather slender snakes (up to 70 cm), found in trees.

Tree Viper, Athens

Colour brownish or yellowish, distinctly pattened with dark markings ; massive snakes, even
young ones are heavily built; found on the ground. Puff Adder, Bids

3. Shiny blackish burrowing snakes, recognised by head being indistinct from neck and conspic-

ously narrower than body. Burrowing Viper, Atractaspis

Snakes of normal appearance, usually patterned, but in any case a distinct pattern becomes

visible when skin in stretched. Night Adder, Causus

Family Typhlopidae Blind Snakes.

The genus Typhlops is sufficiently different from all other Snakes to make recognition
easy. The head and tail ends look alike. The eye-spots, fig 13, are hidden under a scale;
the tail is short and stumpy. The body is cylindrical and the same width throughout,
except in very big specimens which are fatter towards the tail end. The scales are close
set and shiny and of the same type all round, see photo. I.

Page 9

3-4-

Rostral

Nostril
Loreal
Preocular
Supraocular
Postoculars, 2

Internasals, paired
Prefrontals, paired
Frontal
Temporals, 2
Post temporal
Parietals, paired

Fig. 8 Upper side of head, showing scales.

Preocular Post oculars, 2 Temporals 2 Post temporal

Upper labials, 8
5 contact eye

Lower labials, 11

Neck

Side view of head, showing .scales.

Fig. 9 White-lipped Snake Crotaphope/tis hotamboeia

Page 10

The colour pattern is very variable and shows through the semi-transparent scales.
Commonly these snakes are dark greyish variegated with ivory-white on the back and
sides, and yellowish-white beneath. Another pattern comprises parallel rows of silvery-
grey spots margined with black, and off-white underparts, photo. II.

All species are subterranean and they are adapted to this way of life. The rostral
shield, see fig. 13, is hard and sharp, resembling a toe-nail, and is used for burrowing.

Typhlops feed on insects, termites providing their main diet. They are often found
under rotten logs or in compost heaps; occasionally during the rains they come above
ground. They become very fat and aestivate during the dry season.

All species lay eggs. Big fat females (700 mm.) of T. schlegellii have been found at
the beginning of the dry season, with 40-80 eggs ready for laying. The eggs measured
15 X 10 mm.

Two species commonly occur in our area, and they can be recognised as follows:

Scale rows (all round body) over 30. Variable Blind-Snake, T. schlegelii mucrosa Peters.

Scale rows (all round body) under 25. Spotted Blind-Snake, P. punctatus (Leach).

The variable Blind — Snake is common and widespread. A common length is 250
(248+3) mm, but large ones measure 700 (695 + 5) mm and these are very massive.

The Spotted Blind-Snake occurs in forested areas, or areas that were formerly
forested. On the average this species is smaller, 200 (196+4) -330 (322+8) mm; the
scales are larger but in fewer rows and the snout is less sharp. Both species, however,
have the same variable colour pattern.

There are several other species of Typhlops in East Africa which need study. Also
certain legless burrowing lizards ( Amphisbaena and Geocalamus ) and amphibians
(Caecilidiidae) might be mistaken for Typhlops. All these burrowing creatures should
be collected and sent to the Museum for identification.

Leptotyphlopidae. Worm Snakes.

Leptotyphlops resemble tiny, slender Typhlops , it is likely many people would not
recognise them as snakes at all.

The commonest species is L. conjuncta (Jan), Jan’s Worm Snake. A large specimen
collected in Arusha National Park (1500 m alt.) measured 253 (241 + 12) mm, the mid-
body diameter of 3.5 mm going 72 times into the total length. Colour uniform dark-
slate; other specimens occasionally dark brownish.

Habits, habitat and food in general similar to Typhlops.

Boidae. Pythons.

Python sebae (Gmelin) Python.

The python is widespread and quite common. It is the largest African snake and
the photograph clearly illustrates its appearance so further description is unnecessary.

The African python may reach a live length of 6 m, but anything over 4 m is big.
Young ones on hatching are between 60-70 cm.

Pythons kill by constriction. Juveniles feed on rats, large adults on any warm blooded
animal up to the size of small antelopes. They are rather sedentary creatures and tend
to frequent moist places where their prey is easy to obtain. They climb trees easily and
spend days coiled up in the branches. This habit often saves them from bush fires.
Arusha and Tarangire National Parks are particularly good places to see pythons.

The female lays a cluster of eggs, between 30-50 at a time. She selects a suitable
place for laying and coils round her clutch till the eggs hatch. After that, maternal
instincts end.

Pythons are not dangerous, not venomous and should be protected. Many African
cults venerate these fine snakes; trade in python skins should be severely discouraged.

Page 11

Puff Adder Bitis arietans

Fig, 10

Upper side of head showing wide head distinct from neck,
and keeled scales similar to those of neck and body.

Side view of head, showing Song curved fangs erected in
front of mouth.

Page 12

Colubridae.

Sub-family Colubrinae Harmless Snakes.

Boaedon fuliginosus (Boie) House Snake.

The commonest East African snake. It is not big, the largest collected being 1080
(942+138) mm, just over 3-J feet. It is undistinguished in appearance, being blackish-
grey back and sides, and mother-of-pearl white below. In some districts this species
is brown, and occasionally individuals of other colours or patterns occur. The best
diagnostic characters are the high (27-35) number of mid body scale rows, and a dis-
tinctive light line extending from behind the eye. Other recognition details include
a verticle pupil and entire anal; the tail is rather short about one seventh of the length of
body in females and one sixth in males. Juveniles are not differently coloured from the
adults; hatchlings about 200 mm long.

Nocturnal and retiring; oviparous, some 10 eggs being laid usually during the
rains. Food: rodents and frogs which are killed by constriction.

Common in Arusha National Park.

Duberria lutrix (Gunth.) Slug-eating Snake.

This is definitely an upland species occurring from 1500 to 2700 m alt. It is a small
snake (one collected at Mbeya measuring 410 (360+50) mm was exceptionally large)
and most individuals are under 300 mm.

The species is widespread but its distribution is discontinuous and some different
subspecies have been described. For general recognition, the slug-eater, is best described
as a plain blackish or brownish unpatterned little snake with whiteish underparts. The
head is small but the eye prominent, fig 14; the body is rather compressed with only
15 scale rows, and the tail ends in a sharp point.

Slug-eating Snakes can be found under stones or logs and in tussock grasses, they
are rarely seen out in the open. Young are born alive. The food consists of slugs and
sometimes snails.

Common in Arusha National Park.

Lycophidion capense (Smith) Wolf Snake.

Common and widespread. This is a small species measuring 480 (430+50) mm;
dark grey or brownish in colour with a whitish chin and silvery-edged ventral scales.
Other diagnostic characters include the rather short tail, one tenth of body length in
females and slightly longer in males; flat head with no distinct neck, small eye, elliptic
pupil and entire anal scale. Individuals may have silvery dots at the tip of each body
scale which sometimes form an obscure mid-dorsal zig-zag pattern, photo vi.

Nocturnal, retiring and oviparous. Food: lizards, usually skinks, often quite big
ones which the snake overcomes by constriction, sometimes after quite a struggle.
Common in Arusha National Park.

Mehelya capensis (Smith) File Snake.

Although widespread this large, 1400 (1245 + 155) mm, and very distinctive snake
is seldom seen. The basic colour pattern may be greyish, brownish or blackish, with a
mid dorsal ivory-white ridge; under parts whiteish. The body is triangular in cross
section and the scales are keeled, hence the name file-snake. The anal scale is entire.

Nocturnal, secretive, very docile and lays a few rather large eggs. Food: other
snakes, often poisonous ones, less frequently amphibians and small mammals.

Trasops jacksoni Gunther. Black Tree-snake.

This is a western forest-frequenting species, but a population occurs in the central
Kenya highlands which has been recognised as a distinct sub-species named T. j. schmidti
Loveridge.

i Variable Blind Snake, Typhlops schlegelii

i

ii Spotted Blind Snake, Typhlops punctatus

iv Python, Pythcm sebae

vi Wolf Snakej Lycophidion capense

vii Tiger-snake, Telescopus semianulaius

viii Egg-eating
Snake,
Dasypeltis
scabra

ix Boomslang,
Dispholidus
typus

x White-lipped Snake, Crotaphopeltis hotamboeia

xi Cobra, Bouhngerina annulata
xii Bark-snake, Hemirhagerrhis nototasnia

xiv Northern Stripe-bellied Sand-snake,. Psammophis subtaeniatus

xv Rhombic Night-adder, Causas rhombeatus

xvi Burrowing-viper, Atractaspis bibroni

Page 13

Black Tree-snakes are large, specimens up to 2 metres, over 6 ft, being on record.
The most extraordinary thing about the harmless Black Tree-snakes is that in life they
can hardly be distinguished from the black phase of the poisonous Boomslang.

The writer has only seen Thrasops in the Nairobi Snake Park, so nothing about the
habits of this beautiful snake can be added here.

Meizodon semiornata Peters Semiornate Smooth-snake.

A medium sized snake, adults 68o (530+150) mm; juveniles measure 230 (180 + 50)
mm. Not often seen in the area treated probably because it is commoner in wet places
at lower elevations.

Diagnostic characters include a rather long tail, which may be up to 25 per cent
of total length. The eye has a circular pupil, the neck is distinct and the anal scale is
divided. There are 21 scale rows which should be carefully counted. The general colour
of adults is blackish. Being a rather sombre snake, it is therefore rather difficult to dis-
tinguish it from others of similar hue. Points to note are that the chin is white, and there
are usually some dark vertical bars along the side of the neck and fore part of the body.
The lips are whiteish and the upper labials margined with white. The ventral scales
are narrowly bordered with silver along the posterior edge. Juveniles tend to be more
distinctly patterned than adults.

Smooth-snakes inhabit grassy valleys near water. They are about at night and
during overcast rainy days. Their main food comprises frogs.

Natriciteres olivacea Peters Olive Marsh-snake.

A widespread and fairly common species inhabiting damp places. A rather small
snake, 472 (347+125) mm. Recently hatched juveniles may occasionally be found
clustered in a cavity, length of smallest found was 159 (87+72) mm.

Although variable and not striking in appearance the colour pattern is often quite
distinctive. The body is dark grey or brownish grey with an oily sheen, often with a
dark mid-dorsal band; ventral scales yellowish in the middle with greyish margins.
Lips and chin yellowish or white, labial scales margined with black. Other spot characters
include, round pupil, divided anal and rather long tail, which, however, is often damaged.
Marsh-snakes may be seen during the daytime in damp places. Food frogs and small

fish.

Common in Arusha National Park.

Philothamnus (Synonym Chlorophis ) Green Bush-snakes.

This genus includes small to medium length, harmless, green, round eyed diurnal
arboreal snakes with 15 mid-body scale rows. There are several species, Loveridge
(1951) three of which are likely to occur in the area treated. These can be distinguished
as follows.

ia. Ventral and subcaudal scales sharply angular at the sides; fore part of the body and neck
with blackish spotting and barring; usually more than 130 pairs of subcaudals. P. semivariegatus.

ib. Ventral and subcaudal scales normally rounded at the sides; plain green; usually less than

130 pairs of subcaudals. 2

2a. Two upper labials contact eye, fig., 4. P. hoplogaster.

2b. Three upper labials contact eye, fig. 3. P. irregularis.

P. semivariegatus (Smith) Spotted Bush-snake.

A common and widespread species. The body is slender and the tail long, a big
one measured 980 (680+300) mm. The scales are green but some of them on the front
part of the body are edged with black and torquoise. This causes a barred and spotted
effect. The underparts are yellowish-green. The eye is large and clear, and the neck
slender and distinct, the ventrals and subcaudals are flattish and sharp edged which
facilitates rapid movement among twigs of bushes.

Page 14

Although active by day, these green snakes are hard to spot among the foliage.
Food mainly lizards.

P. hoplogaster (Gunther) (Syn: Chlorophis neglectus (Peters)) Southeastern Green-Snake.

A common species with a southern distribution. Occurs in Arusha National Park.
Smaller than the last, a good size being 590 (431 + 159) mm. The whole body is unadorned
pea-green colour, becoming yellowish-green below. The scales overlap, and the hidden
edge is turquoise blue. Also the actual skin under the scales is black. But these colour
variations only show if the skin is considerably distended, photo, v.

This species frequents bushes particularly in the vicinity of water. Feeds mainly
on frogs.

P. irregularis (Leach) Western Green-snake.

A common species with a western distribution. Very similar to the last but slightly
longer, 820 (520+300) mm.

The habitat and habits are also similar.

Prosymna ambigua (Pfeffer) Shovel-snouted Snake.

A small blueish or brownish grey, flat headed snake with a rather short tail. Wide-
spread but easily overlooked or confused with other small black species. Normal adults
average 300 mm and juveniles 118 mm. A male measuring 453 (393+60) mm was
exceptionally large for the species.

The snout is sharply produced like a shovel. The prefrontal and antinasal scales
(those on top of the head between eyes and snout) are undivided, see fig. 15 (in other snakes
these scales are paired). Mid body scale rows vary from 15-17; anal entire.

Prosymna is a burrowing snake, occuring in soil and under logs, stones, etc. It
comes above ground at night. Probably feeds on small invertebrates.

Common in Arusha National Park.

Pseudaspis cana (L.) Mole-snake.

This species is widespread but seldom seen although it is large, 1200 (1055+145)
mm, harmless and useful.

Distinctive characters of adults are the obese, rather flabby, very smooth and shiny
body, with usually 27 scale rows (sometimes 25 or 29), narrow head, small eye, prominent
snout and short tail. Note that the anal scale is divided and that the fourth upper labial
contacts eye. The colour pattern is often pale grey with a brownish tinge and black tips
to the scales. But this species is very variable and in some localities mole-snakes are
blacker and elsewhere browner.

Juveniles, 330 (288+42) mm, have a very distinct colour pattern. The ground colour
is stone, brownish, even reddish. From the middle of the back, alternating blackish
bars extend down the flanks. These bars are interrupted by two white spots and end in
white spotted lower flanks. The ventrals are rather narrow, not extending right across
the underside. The whole of the underparts from chin to vent are off-white variegated
with irregular black blotches and bars. Underside of tail white. Top of head unmarked,
upper labials white divided by dark bars.

Mole-snakes are common in highland areas, but live underground and are very
secretive. Food rodents.

Scaphiophis albopunctatus Peters Grey Beaked-snake.

The Grey Beaked-snake seems to have a more western and lowland distribution
than the area treated. But being very distinctive the species is included in the hope that
it will be recognised in a new area.

This is a medium sized snake, 860 (730+130) mm. The rostral shield is projecting
like a hawk’s bill. The general colour is grey above and white below; juveniles are lighter

Page 15

fang

rostral

Fig. 12 Atractaspis bibroni

Fig. 13 Typhlops schlegelif

rostral

Fig. 14 Duberria lutrix

Fig. 15 Prosymna ambigua

Page 16

coloured with a scattering of tiny milky coloured spots. The number of mid-body scale
rows is rather variable, females may have a higher count than males. The tail is rather
long, 25 per cent of total length; neck indistinct; pupil round and the eye completely
encircled with ocular scales; the mouth closes with valve-like precision, the lower jaw
fitting into a groove in the upper; the anal is paired, photo, iii.

Nothing seems to be known about the habits of this snake, except that it burrows.
Its food is unknown, except that sand is often found in the stomach which suggests some
soil inhabiting creatures like worms or termites.

Sub-family Dasypeltinae.

Dasypeltis scabra (L.) Egg-eating Snake.

This widespread and common species is in many ways the most interesting of all
East African snakes. Their peculiarities are all concerned with the habit of eating fresh
eggs, photo, viii.

It is not a large species. One collected measuring 980 (865+115) mm was exception-
ally big. Typically the ground colour is greyish or greyish-brown with a very distinct
pattern. There is a backwardly directed V-motif on the top of the head and a mid-dorsal
series of dark rhomboid saddle-patches all the way down the back, and a series of dark
blotches along each flank. The scales are keeled.

In this livery the egg-eater closely resembles the venomous Rhombic Night-adder,
indeed the pattern is evidently a case of mimicry, and the display of false colours is
intensified by aggressive behaviour. The snake, when alarmed, writhes from side to
side, rasping its keeled scales on the ground, and striking furiously at its aggressor;
the inside of the wide open mouth is deep blue.

But this display is all bluff, egg-eaters have no functional teeth at all. The fascinating
performance of egg swallowing is easy to observe in a captive individual. First the egg
is inspected for freshness and then pushed up against a support to get a purchase. The
egg is then seized, and in a series of gulps the jaws slide over the shell and the elastic
skin of the neck expands prodigiously to envelope the egg. The palate acts like a suction
pad to prevent the egg slipping. After the egg has been engulfed, the shell is forced against
a series of knobs which project downwardly from the vertebrae of the neck. The forward
‘teeth’ are sharp and split the shell; the rearward ones are knobly and serve to crush and
roll the shell. The liquid contents of the egg then flows into the stomach. Finally the
empty shell is regurgitated, neatly folded over like a pea pod.

It is certainly quite remarkable how big an egg this small headed snake can swallow.
Even small birds eggs seem large for juvenile egg-eaters which measure about 250
(215+35) mm- One would imagine a newly hatched snake starts life with a problem.
First to find an egg, next to find one small and fresh enough to swallow. In fact hatchling
egg-eaters can easily swallow weaver bird size eggs measuring 22.5 x 15.5 mm.

Dasypeltis is active and nocturnal, both arboreal and terrestrial in its search for
nests and eggs. The species is common in the Arusha National Park.

Sub-family Boiginae
Aparallactus Centipede-eaters.

There are six species in this genus in the E. African check- list. Only one, A. capensis
Smith is treated here, because not only is it common and widespread woodland species
in Tanzania, but it is also the species occurring in our area. But it must be mentioned
that A. jacksonii (Gunther) is recorded from the Kenya and Tanzania borderlands
around the base of Kilimanjaro. The writer has no knowledge of this latter species, so
the following notes all apply to A. capensis.

The Centipede-eaters are tiny, slender snakes, 285 (240+45) mm being average.
Specimens of up to 380 mm, or 15 inches, are on record but they must be unusual.

Page 17

Fig. 16 Naja haje

Fig. 17 Naja nigricollis

tooth row uneven fang behind eye

Fig. 18 Psammophis sibilans

Page 18

tongue extended

orange with black tip Twig Snake Thelotornis kirtland/i

Fig. 19

fang behind eye

Fig. 20

Boomslang Dispholidus typus

Page 19

Although so small, Aparallactus is back-fanged and poisonous, though it could
not open its mouth wide enough to harm a person even as much as a bee. They are
distinctly marked. The back is warm brown and the under side white tinged with yellow.
The head and first few scale rows of the body, are very dark brown; the lips (except
just under the eye where they are dark brown) and a few scale rows on the side of the
neck, are white. The most distinctive character of all to note is that the subcaudal scales
are single and not paired like most other snakes, see fig. ic. Mid body scale rows 15.

Centipede-eaters are secretive little snakes that hide away in crevices, under logs
and in tussocks and termitaria. Very little is known about their habits. They lay eggs.
They probably eat termites as well as centipedes. They need somebody to study them.

A. capensis occurs in Arusha National Park.

Crotaphopeltis h. hotamboeia (Laurenti) White-lipped Snake.

This species shares the distinction with the House snake (Boaedon) in being the
commonest snake in East Africa and they are rather alike. It is quite easy, however,
to tell the two species apart by the mid body scale row count, 19 for the White-lipped,
29— 33 for the House Snake. An exceptionally big White-lipped measured 735 (675+60)
mm. Typically this species is an undistinguished blackish-grey, the top of the head is
darker; the underparts, and the lips, are off-white. Other recognition characters are
the wide head, vertical pupil, distinct neck and rather short tail, see figs. 8 and 9. Juveniles
often have a minute milky spot on some scales which may form an obscure pattern
on the back and sides, photo, x.

This snake is nocturnal, terrestrial and retiring. It is aggressive when first en-
countered and large ones, being back-fanged, should be treated with respect. About
a dozen eggs are laid in compost heaps and such like places. Food usually frogs.

Common in Arusha National Park.

Dispholidus typus (Smith) Boomslang.

Common and widespread but, although a tree inhabiting snake, this is not a forest
frequenting species. For this reason it is certainly not common in formerly forested areas
such as the Nairobi and Arusha districts. It can, however, be expected to turn up in
gardens and such like places. The true home of Boomslangs appears to be the vast
deciduous woodlands that cover so much of East Africa. This is a rather big snake, a
length of 1465 (1085+380) mm, or somewhere around 5 ft, is quite usual, photo, ix.

Boomslangs are beautifully and brightly coloured, but the pattern is so variable
that they can be easily confused with other species. A common form is black, with each
scale ornamented with yellow, greenish-yellow or blueish-yellow spots, the head shields
in particular being variously margined with the same colours. The underparts are
essentially the same colour as the spots, each scale more or less margined with black.

But self coloured individuals, usually males, are common. Pure green ones could
be mistaken for the green bush-snakes ( Philothamnus ), or mambas ( Dendroaspis ); black
ones for the Black Tree-snake ( Thrasops ). There is sometimes a tendency for the pattern
to have a longitudinal striped arrangement in which case confusion arises with the
Sand-snakes ( Psammophis ). Rather rarely the pattern is variegated, and the snake then
closely resembles the Twig-snake ( Thelotornis ).

But if one is not confused by the colour pattern, the Boomslang is an easy snake
to recognise. The eye is large with a round pupil, and is set rather far forward in a short
head. The body is rather compressed from side to side and the scales are overlapping
and set at an oblique angle, and each is distinctly keeled; there are 19 mid body rows.
The anal is paired and the tail rather long, rather over of total length in males and just
under in females, see fig. 20.

These beautiful snakes are diurnal, arboreal and inclined to display by inflating the
neck when alarmed. Their venom is virulent but being back-fanged and not particularly

Page 20

aggressive there is really no danger unless the snake is handled. Their favourite food is
chameleons, but young birds, eggs and a variety of other creatures may be taken. Boom-
slangs are often mobbed by birds.

Hemirhagerrhis n. nototaenia (Gunther) Bark-snake.

This nice little snake attains a length of 335 (250+85) mm or slightly more. It
is a woodland species and not found in formerly forested areas.

The colour pattern is distinctive and seemingly constant. The whole snake is marbled
a pinkish-brown colour, both above and below. The top of the head is speckled with
brown, becoming dark brown on the nape and this colour is continued as a blotchy zig-
zag line down the back, eventually breaking up into a series of blotches and spots. The
dark area of the neck is flanked with orange and the end of the tail is yellow. The tongue
is orange at the base. In general appearance, therefore, the Bark-snake is rather like a
tiny Twig-snake, but the circular pupil of the former removes any doubt even if confusion
between the two species was possible, photo, xii

Bark-snakes spend their time secreted under bark, often with their head sticking
out. From this position they seize small lizards upon which they prey.

Psammophis Sand-snakes.

The classification of the snakes in this genus has given trouble to experts, see Love-
ridge (1940) and Broadley (1966). Without going into details of racial distinctions, we
have to consider 4 species as possibly occurring in our area. The following key, partly
adapted from the literature, may be helpful in identifying them.

1. Mid-body scale rows 15 P. biseriatus.

Mid-body scale rows 17. 2

2. Three black stripes along the body; underparts greyish heavily speckled with black.

P. punctulatus.

Back and sides longitudinally zoned different shades of brown, brownish-grey or olive; under-
parts white, or tinged with yellow, and with a continuous black pencil line all the way down the
outer one-eighth of each ventral and subcaudal scale. P. subtaeniatus

Body not banded; below whitish or tinged yellow, sometimes spotted but not distinctly so, no
pencil line. P. sibilans

Psammophis s. sibilans (L.) Hissing Sand-snake.

Common and widespread in the woodlands wherever there is convenient shelter,
but not occurring in rain forest. This is a large species, 1815 (1345+470) mm, or 5^ ft,
being a good sized specimen; it is also rather massively built, see photo, xiii.

The general colour is olive-brown, olive-green, brownish stone-colour or biege
above, occasionally lighter on the flanks. The underparts are whitish or yellowish and
usually lightly peppered with grey. The chin is white and usually spotted. The lips
are light coloured and marked with irregular shaped, golden centred, dark edged spots.
The mid dorsal scales along the body are usually distinctively coloured, being light
at the base and dark at the tip. juveniles tend to be longitudinally banded, but not
adults.

This is an active diurnal snake frequently encountered ranging across country in
search of prey which consists of frogs, lizards and rats. At other times it will remain
motionless in the grass with head held aloft surveying the scene with watchful eyes.
All the sand-snakes are back fanged and so big ones should be treated with respect.

P. subtaeniatus sudanensis Werner Northern Stripe-bellied Sand-snake.

Common and widely distributed in the woodlands throughout Tanzania and Kenya
up to about 1200 m altitude. This is a rather smaller snake than the last, a good size
being 1312 (880+432) mm; it is also more lightly built, photo, xiv.

The colouration is brownish above, the individual scales being dark edged or divided
into two shades of grey or olive, which causes a longitudinal banded effect. The under

Page 21

side is normally china-white with the central parts of the belly and tail tinged yellow,
the two shades being divided by a continuous black pencil line each side. This line is
diagnostic for this species in our area. The lips and chin are white, with or without
spots.

This is an alert diurnal species, moving with great agility. Large individuals need
to be treated with respect.

P. punctulatus trivirgatus Peters Southern Speckled Sand-snake.

This handsome species inhabits drier and lower country than our area, but probably
occurs commonly in Masailand between the Kenya highlands and the Meru and Kili-
manjaro massives.

It should be readily recognised by its distinctly, black and yellow, banded back
and heavily spotted belly. This species is said to reach a good size, an East African record,
quoted by Pitman (1938), being 1660 (1080+580) mm.

P. biseriatus Peters. Eastern Link-marked Sand-snake.

This species is included here because Loveridge (1940) lists it from Arusha and
Kilimanjaro mountain. But the general distribution of the species is surely drier and
lower country than the area we treat.

As the writer has not seen this species no further details can be given, see Pitman
(1938).

Psammophylax tritaeniatus (Gunther) White-bellied or Striped Grass-snake.

Some confusion has arisen over the East African races of this snake, mainly because
of variations in the colour pattern. An unstriped, white bellied subspecies occurring on
the Tanzanian-Zambia borderlands was named after the writer P. t. fitzgeraldi by
Broadley (i960). However, intermediate populations are widespread and so this form
no longer has subspecific rank.

Another race having grey under parts, and therefore not qualifying to be called
white-bellied, is sympatric with the nominate race and does not integrade. Broadley
(1971), therefore considers this to be a good species. This one does not occur in our
area.

The race within range of the Kenya-Tanzania borderlands, P.t. multisquamis
Loveridge, is banded and white bellied, and is distinguished by a larger number of ventral
scales, see Pitman (1938) who treats this subspecies under the old generic name of
Trimerorhinus.

The White-bellied Grass-snake is a delightful and docile, diurnal snake. It is small
to medium sized, a measurement of 625 (488 + 137) mm being large for the species.
In the typical form the body is longitudinally banded darker and lighter greyish or
brownish. The lower flanks are white with a row of red spots ; the under parts are white.

Common, where occurring, amongst ground vegetation in woodlands. Active by
day, but retiring; prey frogs, lizards and mice.

Rhamphiophis Beaked-snakes .

The writer has no records of Beaked-snakes in the area treated. Three species are
listed from Kenya and Tanzania, namely R. acutus (Gunther), Southern Striped Beaked-
snake, R. rubropunctatus (Fischer), Red-spotted Beaked-snake and R. oxyrhynchus
(Reinhardt), Western Brown Beaked-snake. They are all inhabitants of low, sandy,
woodland areas, rather than of the formerly forested uplands.

In general they are medium sized snakes growing to 1 metre (rather over 3 ft)
in length. R. oxyrhynchus is brownish with a distinct dark line through the eye. R. acutus
is banded. R. rubropunctatus is said to be spotted with red, which is the characteristic
livery of juveniles of the other species. All are back-fanged but docile and not dangerous.

Page 22

The diagnostic characteristic of all species is the beak-like rostral which is hollowed
out below. The only other snake that has this character is Scaphiophis which has already
been treated. Apart from colour-pattern differences, it should be noted that in Rham-
phiophis i or 2 upper labials contact the eye which is not separated from them by sub-
ocular scales like in Scaphiophis. The beak seems to be used for digging into loose sandy
soil.

Telescopus semiannulatus (A. Smith) Tiger-snake.

This distinctive species is widespread in East Africa, but occurs mainly at lower
elevations than the area treated. It is medium sized. A large individual collected in the
Rukwa valley measured 930 (800+130) mm, photo VII.

The body is reddish-pink with a broad black blotch across the neck, and then a
series of black blotches all down the back, about 30 on the body and 10 on the tail.
The underparts are mother-of-pearl white tinged with pink. The head is broad, the
neck distinct, the eye prominent and with a vertical pupil.

The Tiger-snake is nocturnal and rather vicious. Large ones should be treated with
respect as they have a poison fang behind the eye in the upper jaw. They are terrestrial
but good climbers and feed on small creatures varying from lizards, small birds to mice.
One I collected had suffocated itself by trying to swallow a bat.

Thelotornis kirtlandi (Hallowell) Twig-snake or Vine-snake.

A common and widespread woodland species. Like the Boomslang, it is not common
in formerly forested areas so may not be encountered around Nairobi; it has not been
recorded from Arusha National Park. The Twig-snake is extremely slender but quite
long, a good size being 1425 (880+545) mm, or around 4 \ ft.

This species is very distinctive but practically impossible to see in the wild due to
its cryptic colouration and habit of ‘freezing’. The slender body and tail, the latter about
35 per cent of the body length, are intricately marbled all round with greyish and brown-
ish, and speckled and spotted with pinkish and cream. The slender head is ornamented
with dark and light colours which form a Y-shaped design on top. The whole effect
completely harmonises with the twigs and branch among which Twig-snakes live.
Furthermore the narrowly horizontal pupil is the antithesis of a bull’s-eye for attracting
attention, see fig. 1 9. The tongue, however, is conspicuous and gaudy, orange and black,
and the snake has the habit of extending it to distract the attention of its prey from its
own stealthy approach.

When detected these lovely snakes can put up quite a display by inflating the neck
and exposing a striking pattern of colours. They have fangs behind the eye and their
venom is dangerous. Food largely chameleons.

Elapidae

Elapsoidea sundevallii (A. Smith) Garter-snake.

The Garter-snake is a primitive burrowing cobra which is secretive in habits and
rarely seen.

Adults are usually slate grey with a number of lighter coloured transverse pairs
of bands across the body which become more apparent when the snake inflates itself.
The underside is mother-of-pearl white from chin to tail. The body has a smooth
‘oily’ appearance. Juveniles are said to be conspicuously banded black or reddish-
brown and white.

This is a small species, a length of 483 (445+38) mm, about 18", being a good size.

Garter-snakes are front-fanged and venomous ; but, being of a placid temperament,
are not dangerous to human beings. They are nocturnal and likely only to be found by
turning over rocks or logs. This species is oviparous; but very little seems to have been
recorded about the life history or feeding habits.

Page 23

Dendroaspis angusticeps (Smith) Green Mamba.

The mamba has the reputation of being the most dangerous snake in Africa, an
indictment, however, that most people apply to any snake that they see. Moreover the
Green Mamba is less aggressive than the so-called Black Mamba ( D . polylepis Gunther)
for which I have no record in our area.

The two East African mambas are extremely similar in appearance and so records
as to which occurs where are often confused. They may be easily distinguished from
each other, however, by the characters given in the key.

The Green Mamba is a very slender snake for its length. A good sized individual
measures i860 (1430+430) mm. The head tapers from the massive jowls to the blunt
snout; it is flat topped and straight sided, with the supraocular bent sharply to form a
a ridge over the eye. The body is green above and paler below, with no pattern; the
pupil is circular and the iris dull old-gold colour.

This is an arboreal snake inhabiting forest. It is quite common and widespread
and occurs in the Arusha National Park. They feed on birds, eggs and chameleons.

Naja haje (L.) Egyptian Cobra.

This is the common cobra of north Africa and the Sudan and although widespread
in East Africa it tends to be found mainly in the drier country. Its distribution is, there-
fore, rather marginal to the area treated.

It is a typical cobra. It is a big snake, specimens up to 2 m, 6 ft, occur. The body
colour varies from light to dark brown with yellowish underparts. Sometimes there
is a dark band on the neck. The presence of subocular scales, dividing the eye from the
upper labials is the diognostic character for recognising this species of cobra, fig. 16.
Cobras rear up and expand the neck to form a flattened hood when in a threatening mood.
Photo, xi, shows a water cobra ( Boulengerina ) in display.

This species is seemingly the asp of legend and its venom is dangerous, but the snake
is not aggressive.

Naja nigricollis Reinhardt Spitting Cobra.

This is the commonest cobra in the drier parts of the area treated. It is a large,
massively-built black snake and a large specimen can measure 2145 (1777+368) mm,
just over 7 feet. Spitting cobras are diurnal and in the habit of frequenting farmsteads
and chicken runs where they often have a favourite hole in which to live. This snake is
therefore seen quite frequently.

It is a fearless creature, rearing up when disturbed, flattening its hood and exposing
the shiny, black, ventral scales under the neck. These are usually irregularly-blotched,
with dull reddish or whitish markings. The snake faces its antagonist and spits freely,
ejecting a fine spray of venom from its grooved fangs by contracting the muscles around
the poison glands. The jets are invariably directed at the eyes with forceful suddenness
and, as they have a range of between 2-3 metres (according to the size of the snake),
it is as well not to tease Spitting Cobras. I often think juveniles, 348 (288+60) mm,
even more dangerous. They look innocent — like any other little blackish snake — and yet
they can spit with accurate aim, without even rearing up or visibly opening the mouth.
The element of surprise in their attack is perfect. Nevertheless, one of these plucky
snakes, threatening an aggressor many times its own bulk, is one of the most rewarding
sights of the African bush, I think.

Spitting cobras occur commonly at Tarangire and Lake Manyara, but I have not
found one in the Arusha National Park.

Viperidae.

Athens Tree or Bush- vipers.

These beautiful greenish, or variegated coloured, small arboreal vipers present a

Page 24

bit of a mystery. They are typical tropical African snakes, frequenting forests and swamps.
Consequently they tend to occur at the higher elevations where forest predominates,
and because relict patches of forest and swamps are discontinuous, so is the distribution
of Tree-vipers.

Being cryptically coloured, they are extremely difficulty to see, and so are not well
represented in collections. But where occurring they are usually common and, once the
collector has got his eye in, not difficult to find. The general conclusion must be therefore,
that Athens are very local but widespread in suitable places in East Africa.

As a result of the discontinuous distribution of the genus, several species and sub-
species have been described. But due to the usual lack of adequate specimens in museums,
the validity of the different forms is sometimes in question. Our interest naturally centres
on the new species, A. desaixi, described by Ashe (1968) from Kenya.

In general, Tree-vipers are small, the Kenya species is big for the genus with a
possible length of 640 mm; a specimen attributed to A. nitschei from the southern
Tanzania borderlands measured 340 (288+52).

The scales are prominently keeled, the head wide like other vipers and the short
tail is prehensile. The colour is usually dark green with dark or yellowish tipped scales
forming a pattern, the underparts often being yellowish. De Saix’s Bush-viper is seem-
ingly darker coloured than the usual run of Athens.

Tree-vipers are recorded to feed on small mammals and frogs. Though venomous,
they have not got a bad reputation; the writer has not heard of anybody being bitten
by one. No species of Athens have yet been found in the forests on the volcanic mountains
of northern Tanzania. But anyone who finds a new locality for these snakes should report
it to the Society as a matter of great interest.

Vipera hindii Boul. Montane-viper.

This is an endemic Kenyan snake occurring only on the Aberdares. The writer has
no acquaintance with this species, and comparatively little seems to have been found
out about it since it was first discovered in 1910.

Recently taxonomists have merged the genus Vipera in Athens; so Montane-vipers
now join the Tree-vipers, in a group that needs more study.

Atractaspis bibroni A. Smith Burrowing-viper.

The Burrowing-viper is an enigma. It is a smallish snake, 535 (506+29) mm,
or a little over 18 inches, being a good size. It is plain shiny black, or very dark brown,
above and below. The head is not distinct from the neck and not as wide as the body;
the snout is rather prominent. The top of the head is covered with normal shields.
They look, therefore, more like any other small blackish snake, particularly other
burrowing kinds, than a viper, see photo, xvi.

Practically every herpetologist, especially beginners, has been taken in. Actually
when one is initiated, one realises that the one good viperine character is painfully
obvious, and that is the fangs. These are extremely long and project backwards from the
corner of the mouth. Therefore the snake can give ones finger an injection without even
opening its mouth. The result is nasty and there are reports of fatalities, Corkill (1935).

Recognition characters, apart from the fangs, include the long slender body and
very short tail, about -+ of the total length; some or all of the subcaudal scales may be
single, refer to figs. 12 and 10. The scales are smooth, varying from 19-23 rows at mid-
body. Variations in details of scale counts have lead to several species and subspecies
being described.

Burrowing-vipers live underground, under stones, etc., and so may be encountered
gardening. They feed on burrowing lizards, other burrowing snakes and nestling mice
in holes, and such like subterranean prey. They move above ground at night, and some-
times become numbed with cold so they lie on the surface till warmed up again by the sun.

Page 25

Burrowing-vipers lay eggs, so should not be called vipers at all (viper refers to being
viviparous — that is, giving birth to living young). Common in Arusha National Park.

Bins arietans (Merrem) Puff Adder.

The Puff Adder has the distinction of being the commonest, most widespread and
most familar large snake in E. Africa. In consequence of its abundance and almost
domestic habits it has the most lethal (or, at least, extremely unpleasant) bites to its
debit; and the most noxious rodents swallowed to its credit.

The Puff Adder is easy to recognise. An average large individual measures 1000
(940+60) mm; just over 3 ft. The build is massive, with a wide, spade-shaped head
covered with small keeled scales, fig. 10, and a short tail. The colour pattern is variegated
yellowish and darker brown. The dorsal pattern consists of a series of V-shaped marks
of darker and lighter brown; there is a light yellowish line running between the eyes.
The underparts are yellowish- white blotched with blackish. Juveniles are a small replica
of adults, but the general tone is pinky-brown with dark amber-brown markings. This
juvenile tone may be retained until the individual is nearly half grown.

Puff Adders are mainly nocturnal and terrestrial, but may be found anywhere
at any time coiled up under partial cover. The body pattern harmonises so well with
ground litter, that there is a real danger of treading on this snake unawares. They are
sluggish, moving slowly forward by working the ventral scales. But they can strike with
lightning speed. The poison causes disintegration of the blood vessels and extensive
haemorrhage. This is a dangerous snake.

Puff Adders are viviparous, that is to say produce living young. A brood may comprise
over three dozen, each juvenile being about 180 mm long, and fully equipped with venom
ready for its first bite. Young snakes feed on frogs, later graduating to rats.

Occurs at 1500 m altitude in the Arusha National Park.

Bids worthingtoni Parker Kenya Horned- vipers.

This species was described from Naivasha in 1932. I have not seen one, so have not
been able to include this species in the key.

This is a small species, adults measure about 300 mm and the young, which number
up to 12 at a birth, about 140 mm. In general appearance, these snakes resemble small
Puff Adders with a horn above each eye. Their venom is virulent. It is reported that
white mice bitten by Horned-vipers die quicker than those bitten by Puff Adders.

Up-to-date information on the habits and status of this endemic Kenyan snake is
needed.

Cansus rhombeatus (Licht.) Rhombic Night-adder.

There are four species of night-adders on the East African check-list; but the
Rhombic is the commonest in the area treated, photo, xv.

Like the Burrowing-viper, this is not a typical Viperine snake. The top of the head
has shields like the Colubrinae ; there is no distinct neck and the head is actually narrower
than the obese body. They lay eggs, instead of giving birth to living young, like the
true vipers.

Night-adders are medium sized, a big one being 710 (630 + 80) mm, or nearly 3 ft.
The large hinged fang in front of the mouth is easy to locate. The colour pattern when
present is distinctive, but plain coloured individuals are not uncommon. The ground
colour varies from olive-brown, brownish-grey, pale-grey to almost black. There is
often a distinct V-mark, opened backwards, on top of the head. All the way down the
back, there is a series of dark, white-edged, rhomboid markings; the under parts are
ivory-coloured, with or without darker streaks.

The pattern is made up from the dark edges to the body scales which are overlapping.
So if the dark edge is covered by the light edge of an adjacent scale, the snake appears

Page 26

to be plain coloured. But these snakes blow themselves out when threatening and this
expands the scales apart, even exposing the underlying black skin. This produces a
rather startling effect. Patterned snakes become even more strikingly marked, and a
hidden pattern appears on plain coloured individuals. Juveniles vary as much as adults
in colour pattern.

Other points to note are that the dorsal scales are feebly keeled, the mid body scale
row count varies from 15-19 and the tail is rather short.

Night-adders are nocturnal and terrestrial snakes frequenting wet places, or any-
where else during the rains, where they can find toads to eat. They lie up in any convenient
shelter during the day or in dry weather.

Common in the Arusha National Park.

REFERENCES AND SOME RECENT LITERATURE, ANNOTATED

Ashe, J. (1968) A new Bush-viper J. E. Afr. Nat. Hist. Soc. 27, 1 : (116).

Broadley, D. G. (1959). The Herpetology of S. Rhodesia Pt. x. Snakes. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoo
120, 1. Description, breeding, food, habits, distribution, bibliography and key.

Broadley, D. G. (i960). Serpentes, Colubridae: Psammophylax tritaeniatus fitzgeraldi N. Subsp.
Occ. Papers Nat. Mus. S. R. No. 24 B.

Broadley, D. G. (1966). A review of the African Stripe-bellied Sand-snakes of the genus Psam-
mophis. Arnoldia 2, 36.

Broadley, D. G. (1967). The venomous Snakes of Central and South Africa. In Venomous Animals
and their Venoms. Academic Press, New York. Brief account of habits and hazards; check-
list includes Kenya and Tanzania records.

Broadley, D. C. (1971). A review of Chamaetortus aulicus Gunther, with description of a new
subspecies from Malawi (Serpentes: Colubridae). Arnoldia 11,5. Includes distribution of this
species in Tanzania and Kenya.

Broadley, D. C. (1971) The Reptiles and Amphibians of Zambia. Puku 6. Checklist, keys,
distribution and ecological data.

Corkill, N. I. (1935) Notes on Sudan Snakes. Sudan Goot. Mus. (Natural History) Publication
No. 3. The author being a medical doctor gives authoritative accounts of snake bite and treat-
ment.

FitzSimons, V. F. M. (1962) Snakes of Southern Africa. Purnell, Cape Town.

Laurent, R. F. (1964). A revision of the punctatus group of Africa Typhlops (Reptilia: Serpentes).
Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoo. 130, 6.

Loveridge, A. (1924). Check List of the Reptilia recorded from the British Territories in East
Africa. J. E. S. & U. Nat. Hist. Soc. Special Supplement No. 3.

Loveridge, A. (1951). Synopsis of the African Green Snakes ( Philothamnus including Chlorophis )
with the description of a new form. Bull. Institut royal des Sciences naturelles de Belgique, 27, 37.
Key to E. A. species, but see Loveridge (1958) for fuller treatment.

Loveridge, A. (1940). Revision of the African Snakes of the genera Dromophis and Psammophis
Bui. Mus. Comp. Zoo 87, 1.

Loveridge, A. (1951). On reptiles and amphibians from Tanganyika Territory collected by C. J. P.
Ionides. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoo. xo6, 4. Includes field observations by Ionides.

Loveridge, A. (1953). Zoological results of a fifth Expedition to E. Africa. Ill Reptiles from Nyasa-
land and Tete Bull Mus. Comp. Zoo. xio, 3. Useful key applicable to snakes of Southern
Tanzania.

Loveridge, A. (1957). Check List of the Reptiles and Amphibians of East Africa (Uganda, Kenya,
Tanganyika, Zanzibar) Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoo. 1x7, 2.

Loveridge, A. (1958). Revision of five African snake genera. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoo. 119, 1.
Lycodonomorphus, Natriciteres, Philothamnus, Prosymna and Chilorhinophis treated.

Pitman, C. R. S. (1938) A Guide to the Snakes of Uganda. Uganda Soc., Kampala.

Vesey-FitzGerald, D. F. (1958). The Snakes of Northern Rhodesia and the Tanganyika border-
lands. Proc. & Trans. Rhod. Sc. Assoc. 46, pp. 17-102. Key, recognition, habits and
distribution.

Cover Design from an incised Kamba calabash
in National Museum! Institute of African
Studies collection — UN 1971. 1160

Published by the East Africa Natural History Society, Box 44486, Nairobi, Kenya and
printed by Kenya Litho Ltd., Box 40775, Nairobi.

JOURNAL

OF THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

7th May, 1975

No. 150

NOTES ON THE VEGETATION OF THE CHERANGANI HILLS,

N. W. KENYA

By

D. J. Mabberley

Botany School, University of Oxford.

INTRODUCTION

The Cherangani Hills lie in N. W. Kenya, flanked by the Trans-Nzoia and Mt.
Elgon to the west, and to the east by the Eastern Rift Valley, of which they form the
Marakwet escarpment above the Kerio Valley (Fig. i). They are composed of meta-
morphic rocks with conspicuous quartzite ridges and occasionally marble veins, unlike
the other Kenyan Highlands which are relatively recent volcanics. The Cheranganis
reach to little under 12,000' (c. 3,600 m) at Chemnirot in the north-east, but it is because
of their relatively low altitude when compared with these others that Hedberg (1951)
omitted them from his studies on the vegetation belts of the East African mountains.
Although considerable collections of herbarium material have been made (see Hedberg,
1957), there are few published accounts of the vegetation of the Hills. In their paper
on the Giant Groundsels, Cotton and Blakelock (1937) described the swampy areas of
the north-east from I. R. Dale’s notes; Jeannel (1950) outlined the associations of the
secondary grasslands of the south-east, but, apparently unaware of Cotton and Blake-
lock’s work, stated that there were no Giant Groundsels in the Hills. Unwin-Heathcote
and Carson (1951) described the vegetation of the south-western area through which
the ‘Cherangani Highway’ was built. A description of a swamp in this area is provided
by van Zinderren Bakker (1964). In the light of the poor documentation of the area,
an expedition from Oxford visited the Hills for three months in the summer of 1969
with a view to surveying them with regard to their possible conservation. This had been
mooted in Kenya by biologists and local farmers, for the Cheranganis comprise one
of the few Kenyan haunts of the Bongo antelope ( Boocereus eycereus Ogilby) and are
the only location for certain plants, notably the Giant Groundsels Senecio johnstonii Oliv.
ssp. cheranganiensis (Cotton & Blakelock) Mabberley and 5. johnstonii Oliv. ssp. dalei,
(Cotton & Blakelock) Mabberley, although endemism in the Cheranganis is not as
spectacular as on the higher mountain masses of East Africa.

PHYSIOGNOMY

To the west, the higher peaks of the Sondang and Marakwet Hills are flanked by
the Kiptaberr-Kapkanyar shelf at c. 7,500 ' (2,300 m), which receives a good deal more
rain than the eastern escarpment, due to prevalent winds from Lake Victoria. Above
9,500' (c. 3,000 m) frost was experienced most nights (July- Sept ember), and hail

Page 2

Fig. i. The Cherangani Hills.

Page 3

frequently fell on forested land as low as 7,500 ' (2,300 m). The eastern slopes of the Hills
are heavily populated, despite their great steepness; the western slopes are more gentle
and compose the area for which a National Park had been suggested. The vegetation of
the western slopes from the Kiptaberr-Kapkanyar shelf to the highest peaks was therefore
studied and a short tour of the eastern regions made later for comparison. Three forest
‘types’ were studied in detail by means of 200 m line transects, and floristic studies of
all vegetation ‘types’ made. Each of the transects resulted in the production of a profile
which straddled a stream, and the three are therefore somewhat comparable as ‘montane
riverine forests’.

There is considerable concern over the increased grazing pressure leading to
exploitation of areas further up the valleys, forest-clearing and extensive erosion with
detrimental effects on the Uasin-Gishu Plateau to the south-west, for part of which
the Cheranganis act as a watershed. Consequently, the expedition included a geo-
morphologist besides biologists, to estimate the effects of land use by the local people,
the Pokot to the west, and the Marakwet to the east.

VEGETATION DESCRIPTION

An outline of the floristics of the Hills can help to build up a picture of the vegetation
of the region which may thus be compared with the studies of Hedberg.

Forest I — Kiptaberr-Kapkanyar

Lying on a plateau above the Trans-Nzoia region of cultivation and Acacia savannah
types at 7,500-8,000 ' (2,300-2,500 m), this forest was studied by means of a line transect,
the elements of which are described below.

(a) Clearings ( shambas )

A few scattered Acacia abyssinica Benth. trees dominate a scrubby grassland
characterised by Rhamnus sp., Echinops amplexicaulis Oliv. and coarse grasses mixed with a
large number of herbaceous dicotyledons :viz. Geranium sp., Lobelia holstii Engl ,,Lightfootia
cartilaginea Scott, Alchemilla volkensii Harms, Hypericum peplidifolium A. Rich., Olden-
landia monanthos Hiern, Berkheya spekeana Oliv., Trifolium cheranganiense Gillett,
etc. and monocotyledons characteristically Commelinaceae. Conspicuous plants in shorter
cattle-grazed areas are the succulent Kalanchoe densiflora Rolfe and Crassula alba Forsk.,
the cormous Romulea campanuloides Harms, Oxalis obliquifolia Steud., and O. corniculata
L., various Labiate shrubs, the dwarf Cassia usambarensis Taub. and the remarkable
rosetted ‘Resurrection Plant’ Craterostigma pumilum Hochst., and on eroded quartzite
outcrops, Aeolanrhus repens Oliv. and Solenostemon latifolius (Hochst.) J. K. Morton.
In the north, near Kapenguria, extensive pine plantations have been established on such
outcrops.

(b) Grassland-forest ecotone

The forest is edged with Acacia abyssinica, Hypericum revolutum Vahl, Rapanea rhodo-
dendroides (Gilg) Mez, Faurea saligna Harv., Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J. F. Gmel.,
and occasionally Cussonia spp. and other sclerophyll shrubs, e.g. Rhamnus sp. and there
is a remarkable number of species forming a tangled mat of vegetation suspended from
these, viz. Clematis simensis Fres., Rubus sp., Ipomoea tenuirostis Choisy, Impatiens
papilionacea Warb., Bidens kilimandscharica (O. Hoffm.) Sherff, B. elgonensis (Sherff)
Agnew, the parasitic Tapinanthus woodfordioides (Schweinf.) Balle, Dolichos sericeus
E. Mey., Viola abyssinica Oliv., Caucaulis incognita Norman, Sparmannia ricinocarpa
(Eckl. & Zeyh.) Kze., Thunbergia alata Sims, etc.

(c) Forest interior

(i) Dry areas. Unlike the forests to the south-west and east of the ‘Cherangani
Highway’, the forests of the north-west are dominated not by Podocarpus milanjianus Rendle
alone but this species is accompanied by Dombeya goetzenii K. Schum. and Syzygium

Page 4

guineense (Willd.) DC. and other tall evergreen species. The undergrowth is predominantly
acanthaceous — the prickly Acanthus eminens C.B.C1. reaches 5 m as does Mimulopsis
sp., overtopped by the euphorbiaceous Macaranga kilimandscharica Pax and Neoboutonia
macrocalyx Pax. Beneath this layer, more acanthaceous species including Justicia spp.
and the amaranthaceous Achyranthes aspera L. are found with many plants in genera
familiar to ‘temperate’ botanists — Sanicula data D. Don, Cardamine africana L.,
Thalictrum rhynchocarpum A. Rich., besides Impatiens papilionacea. The grasses pre-
dominate in more open areas especially near paths and the most important are Panicum
calvum Stapf and Oplismenus compositus (L.) Beauv.

(ii) Streamside and ‘wet’ areas. These are dominated by the tree fern Cyathea
rnanniana Hook.f. Important herbs are the giant sedge Cyperus dereilema Steud.,
Desmodium repandum (Vahl) DC. Adiantum sp., Plantago palmatum Hook, f., Impatiens
spp., and many epiphytic ferns — Asplenium spp., Pleopeltis excavata (Bory) Moore,
Loxogramme lanceolata (Sw.) Presl, being most common. The filmy fern Trichomanes
melanotrichum Schlecht. covers the fallen timber and the whole epiphytic flora is rich
including the large lichen Lobaria natalensis Ras., many bryophytes, Peperomia spp.
and orchids — mainly Aerangis and Tridactyle spp.

To the west of the Cherangani Highway the forest is dominated by Podocarpus
milanjianus ; Cyathea rnanniana Hook. f. and the pachycaul Lobelia giberroa Hemsl.
are conspicuous. This forest is extremely moist and whilst working there, we suffered
torrential rain each afternoon with tiresome regularity. Parts of this forest near streams
are impenetrable except by following stream-beds.

To the east of the Cherangani Highway, the Chepinat Valley holds a forest of similar
nature, but it is dominated mainly by Podocarpus milanjianus. A tongue of this forest,
grazed through and in a depauperate state reaches over 8,500' (2,700 m) at Kaibibich.
Conspicuous features of this forest which is very dense in parts, include the very tall
Podocarpus and Euphorbia obovalifolia A. Rich, in the interior and an abundance of the
monocotyledonous tree Dracaena afromontana Mildbr. Very common here is the giant
Lobelia giberroa, its stalk often grazed, the leaves left in a neat pile, indicating the presence
of Bongo, (R. W. Wrangham, in litt.).

Thickets of bamboo are sometimes seen in the Kapkanyar and Chepinat, also
along roadsides and in clearings of the more disturbed forest around 9,000' (2,800 m).
The distribution of bamboo is a vexing problem, for, like Kilimanjaro (Hedberg 1951),
the Hills have no distinct bamboo zone at the present time, comparable with that on
e.g. Mount Kenya. Near Kiptaberr (‘Lion Rock’, ‘Pope’s Nose’), an isolated hill rising
from the forest, a wide belt of bamboo encircles much of the base (7,500') (2,300 m)
but it is found in its most vigorous state at 11,000' (3,300 m) in mixed forest, reaching
12 m with stems 15 cm in diameter.

Above the Kapkanyar and Chepinat, the Hills are much cultivated and the forest
rather scrappy — relict Podocarpus stands are found and further south-east, Juniperus
procera Endl., especially on the road to Sondang. However, the conspicuous tree is
Hagenia abyssinica. This forms small stands and copses, sometimes with Hypericum
spp., Gnidia spp., and Olea spp. throughout the sheep-grazing area near Kipsait, extending
to Kaptalamwe and Kamyatatyang and the hilltops of the Sondang and Marakwet
ridges, where moorland takes over. The other feature of this intermediate zone is the
presence of Senecio johnstonii ssp. cheranganiensis swamps. Here, the higher montane
species of Kniphofia, Lycopodium and orchids, e.g. Habenaria spp. are common (a pheno-
menon also observed in Madagascar by Humbert & Cours Darne, 1965). However,
other spectacular orchids of the terrestrial genera Disa, Satyrium, and Habenaria colour
the swamps.

Some ecological change appears to have taken place in these swamps for no regener-
ation of the Giant Groundsels is occurring. No seedlings could be found, and this was
in complete contrast with their abundance at higher altitudes. It must be noted that the

Page 5

Senecio is a forest plant at higher altitudes and the seedlings grow in dense shade there
(Mabberley, 1971a); but even at that altitude, it is subject to fire damage (Mabberley,
1973)-

The open grazed country straddles the watersheds of the Rivers Morun and Moiben.
It is notable that small groups of regenerating jfuniperus are to be found around old trees,
(Fig. 2), suggesting a reduction in the former grazing pressure. With increasing altitude,
jfuniperus procera is more abundant. As one ascends the Sondang Hills, a heath vegetation
appears, alternating with swamps. This lower heath appears to be secondary and suffers
burning and grazing though aged Hagenia trees are often seen. Such observations on
vegetation belt depression have been made by Humbert (1965) in Madagascar. The
flora is very colourful and there is a good deal of parallel evolution to the ericoid habit —
Erica and Philippia spp. (Ericaceae), Struthiola (Thymelaeaceae), Euryops and Stoebe
(Compositae), Anthospermum (Rubiaceae), Selago (Selaginaceae), Hebenstretia (Scro-
phulariaceae), Cliffortia and Alchemilla (Rosaceae). Familiar colourful ‘garden genera’
include Gladiolus, Delphinium, Arabis, Helichrysum, Anemone, Clematis and Kniphofia.
The swamps contain Senecio johnstonii ssp. cheranganiensis and the pachycaul Lobelia
aberdarica, but at higher altitudes on the Sondang Hills, S. johnstonii spp. cheranganiensis
is confined to the swamp margins and ‘forests’, the swamp itself being occupied by the
cabbage-like 5. johnstonii ssp. dalei (c.f. Cotton & Blakelock, 1937). This was seen only
in three swamps on the Sondang Hills and three on the Marakwet (Mabberley, 1971a).
The tussocks of Eestuca sp. Car ex sp., and Deschampsia sp. make passage to the centre
of these swamps possible. In contrast with Mount Kenya, the dwarf Senecio first appears
at altitudes greater than that where the tree-like 5. cheranganiensis does (c.f. S. brassica
R. E. & Th. Fr. and S. keniodendron R. E. & Th. Fr. on Mount Kenya). The valleys
contain some relic forest characterised by Rapanea rhododendroides and Afrocrania
volkensii (Harms) Hutch., grazed but containing S. johnstonii ssp. cheranganiensis surround-
ed by the higher heaths.

The road to the Kameligon area passes through the lower type of heath vegetation
before reaching magnificent stands of Juniper us procera in the Arror Valley.

Forest II — Arror Valley

The transect lay in a valley between high ericoid vegetation as described below
(Kameligon) but the undergrowth is rich in Lycopodium clavatum L. The forest (Fig. 3)
is composed of tall jfuniperus procera with occasional specimens of Hagenia abyssinica.
The undergrowth is not thick but one common shrub, Myrsine africana L. may reach
150 cms. The field layer is dominated by Streblochaete longiarista (A. Rich.) Pilg. and
Sanicula elata but Parochetus communis D. Don., Impatiens spp.. Lobelia sp. nov. and
Viola eminii (Engl.) R. E. Fr. are common, and near the stream, Cyperus spp. and
Plectranthus shrubs etc. are found.

Above this region, on the Kameligon plateau, the ericoid vegetation reappears but
is intedigitated with Senecio johnstonii ssp. dalei swamps and Rapanea-Hagenia-Senecio-
Maytenus forest.

Forest III — Kameligon

This valley of mixed forest had good stands of regenerating S. johnstonii ssp.
cheranganiensis with Cliffortia nitidula (Engl.) R. E. & Th. Fr. at the streamside whilst
the valley continued beyond, much grazed and recently burnt but with regenerating
Hagenia, following Stoebe-Erica edged with a zone of Cliffortia. The transect included
the following:

(a) Forest

This is of low woodland atmosphere and dominated by Maytenus undata
(Thunb.) Blakelock, Rapanea rhododendroides and Afrocrania volkensii at the top

Page 6

of the valley wall. Passing down the valley, Hagenia abyssinica becomes of more
importance, but as it becomes wetter, a mixture of Senecio johnstonii ssp. cheranganiensis
and Cliffortia nitidnla, with little undergrowth, (Fig. 4) predominates. At the streamside
and in swamps nearby. Lobelia aberdarica and Festuca sp. are common, growing with
Helichrysum spp. and Disa stairsii Krzl.

The field layer of this forest is lower than in Forest I and is composed of small
shrubs and grasses with an occasional specimen of Lobelia giberroa. Cyperus spp. abound
in moist areas, and the familiar montane forest genera Impatiens (/. rubromaculata),
Sanicula elata, Viola eminii, Alchemilla rothii Oliv., Lobelia sp. nov., and Luzula johnstonii
are found. The shrubs include Vernonia and Plectranthus spp. and Sparmannia ricino-
carpa. At pathsides, Stellaria sennii, Cerastium spp., Galium hamatum A. Rich., and the
most common grass Streblochaete longiarista, Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm., and
Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn are particularly abundant.

(b) Burnt-over area

The dead trunks of 5. johnstonii ssp. cheranganiensis and the burnt stems of
Cliffortia nitidula stand over a low vegetation of shrubs and herbs. In wet areas, there
are stands of Rumex bequaertii De Wild, with Ranunculus spp. and occasionally
Carduus nyassanus (S. Moore) R. E. Fr., Gladiolus watsonioides Bak., Kniphofia sp. and
Lobelia aberdarica in moister areas. The common shrub is the composite Euryops
brownei S. Moore, but other ericoid plants are common — Hebenstretia dentata L.
and Selago thomsonii Rolfe. The everlastings, Helichrysum kilimanjari Oliv. and H.
meyeri-johannis Engl, and Plectranthus spp. and the occasional tussock of Anthoxanthum
nivale K. Schum. with mats of Arabis alpina L. complete the upright vegetation. However,
the ground is coated with a solid mat of vegetation, predominantly the yellow-flowered
Guizotia reptans Hutch, but also Cotula abyssinica A. Rich, and Anthemis tigreensis
A. Rich.

(c) The swamp

This area is dominated by tussocks of Car ex sp. and Festuca sp. and the cabbage-like
Senecio johnstonii ssp. dalei, but Alchemilla spp. Phyllanthus boehmii Pax and Helichrysum
spp. are very common. Lobelia aberdarica and Lycopodium saururus Lam. are conspicuous
features. The large stemless composite Haplocarpha rueppellii (Sch. Bip.) Beauv. is
common on higher ground. Colourful species include Erica whyteana Britten ssp.
princeana (Engl.) Hedb., Hesperantha petitiana (A. Rich.) Bak. var. volkensii (Harms)
Foster and Anemone thomsonii Oliv.

(d) Moorland areas

Both in the Arror Valley and near Ivameligon these are secondary with relict
Hagenia etc., as is the grassland in the floor of the former. Typically, paths of short grass
meander between raised ground (in the Arror Valley, ancient frost hummocks), clothed
in taller vegetation. Cliffortia nitidula predominates; Erica arborea L., Philippia sp.,
Euryops brownei, Anthospermum usambarense K. Schum., Stoebe kilimandscharica

O. Hoffm., Selago thomsonii and Hebenstretia dentata make up the ericoid vegetation which
is undergrown with a bewildering number of Alchemilla spp., the shrubby species
being A. argyrophylla Oliv. and Artemisia afra Willd. The ground is often covered
with the rosettes of Haplocarpha and Guizotia. In temporary shallow ponds, the
attractive Lobelia minutula Engl, and Anagallis serpens DC. ssp. meyeri-johannis (Engl.)

P. Taylor form a tight carpet studded with the large tussocks of Festuca sp. The
common grass in this area is Deschampsia sp. Conspicuous plants of the hummocks are
Kniphofia snowdenii C. H. Wright, Scabiosa columbaria L. which is not a calciphile
as it is in Britain, Delphinium macrocentrum Oliv., Swertia kilimandscharica Engl, and
in the Arror Valley Gladiolus natalensis (Eckl.) Reinw. ex Lodd. Between hummocks
in the latter, the small Swertias, S. usambarensis Engl., 5. lugardae Bullock, and S.
crassiuscula Gilg, and the rosetted Haplosciadium abyssinicum Hochst. (Umbelliferae)
are found in the turf.

Fig. 2 Regeneration of Juniperus procera near Kaptalamwe, 2750 m, 2 Jan 1971.

Fig. 3. Jumperus-Hagenia-Senecio forest in the Arror Valley, 3050 m, 4 Jan 1971

Fig. 5. Vegetation stripes near Chemnirot, 3450 m, Aug 1969.

Fig. 4. Senecio-Cliffortia woodland. Embobut Valley, 3150 m, Aug 1969.

Fig. 6. Lobelia elgonensis ( Mabberley & McCall 186) at Chemnirot, Aug 1969.

Fig. 7. Forest-edge with emergent Euphorbia obovalifolia, Marakwet Escarpment c., 2300 m;
Aug 1969.

Fig. 9. Cutting for the Chesogon Road in bamboo forest, near Kameligon, 3000 m, Aug 1969.

Page 7

Above 1 1,000 ' (3,300 m.) the heath is more open and corresponds with the ericaceous
zone of Mt. Kenya (Hedberg 1951). Erica arborea is common and Adenocarpus matinii
(Hook, f.) Hook. f. and Protea kilimandscharica Engl, at their best. The heath, alternating
with low composites etc., picks out the ancient periglacial stripes on the hillsides (Fig. 5).
Of the swamps at this altitude, one in the whole range contained a population of a giant
Lobelia in the Deckenii series. Of species so far known each is endemic to one mountain
as a rule (Hedberg 1969). Thus this population is of distinct interest, and occurs in a
remote region near Chemnirot. It has been identified as L. elgonensis R. E. & Th. Fr.
jr. and Chemnirot is its only known location away from Mt. Elgon 65 miles (100 km)
to the west. (Fig. 6).

To the east of the Hills, the escarpment1 rises dramatically from the Kerio Valley
in the Rift, and the road follows secondary Acacia scrub to 8,000', (2440 m) passing into
mixed Euphorbia forest with Juniperus procera and further south Podocarpus gracilior Pilg.-
Euphorbia with massive Olea welwitschii (Knobl.) Gilg & Schellenb. in the Kipkunurr
Forest (Fig. 7). Eventually a parkland vegetation formed by clearing and grazing
characteristically with relict Hagenia etc. is reached. Open sheep country reappears
before one descends to the corn clad Uasin Gishu Plateau.

VEGETATION BELTS

Thus, compared with e.g. Mt. Kenya, the altitudinal ‘zonation’ is present but
much obscured. Taking the highest altitude reached by each ‘association’ we have the
series Acacia savannah- Podocarpus-Juniperus-Hagenia-Hypericum-Ericaceous belt (Fig.
8). Thus, as Coe (1967) points out, the Cheranganis are too low for alpine Grassland,
the grasslands present manifesting the effects of man and his herbivores. Factors in
obscuring the ‘zonation’ may be one or some of the following:

(i) The varied topography of the Hills. There is no main peak but a series of ridges
and valleys, which on Mt. Kenya introduce local vegetation belt interdigitation ;

(ii) The period of cultivation and grazing seems to cover at least a century and
many of the communities are secondary, some of which are certainly fire-induced;

(iii) The rocks are metamorphic and not igneous like those of the other Kenyan
highlands.

Each of these may be of importance, but without a study of several years involving
work on succession, none can be ascribed as the most important.

CONSERVATION

Botanically speaking, it is almost too late to conserve much of the vegetation of the
Cheranganis. However, the more or less ‘undisturbed’ areas are still of interest and beauty;
they may be conveniently divided into two areas :

(a) Kiptaber-Kapkanyar forest

If this forest with its wealth of tree-ferns and orchids were destroyed, not only
would a fine stretch of Podocarpus forest of botanical interest be lost, but the water-
supply to the west may be endangered through the loss of its catchment area forests,
a fact which has made the headlines of the national press (Parry, 1970). The valley of
the Kabolet river is of particular importance in having a very high rainfall (in excess of
100" (2,540 mm) p.a.) compared with the surrounding forest, and its floral composition
reflects this. Ground which has already been cleared, notably near Kiptaberr peak,
bears a wide range of terrestrial orchids for which the area is noted.

Tirst described after Teleki’s Lake Rudolf Expedition passed in July, 1888 (von Hohnel.
1894:268)

Page 8

w

St

7~

O

z

h

o

Z

r-

(b) The high altitude moorlands and peaks

This area is bounded by the peaks Kalelaikelat, Chepkotet, Chesugo Peak, 76S2
and Kalelaikelat. This covers the best Juniperus forests in the Arror Valley, an impen-
etrable bamboo belt to the north-east (Fig. 9) and the curious high altitude mixed
Hagenia-Maytenus forest, giving way to the ericaceous belt above. The best stands of the
Giant Groundsels and Lobelias are included.

These two areas have much to commend them. A road north-south through the centre
of the Kiptaberr-Kapkanyar was almost completed by the British administration and
could be re-opened fairly easily. Similarly, a road from Labot to Chesegon through the
peaks area is under Forest Dept, construction. Access is thus not a great problem. The
first area contains the remaining nuclei of game (Wrangham et al , 1971), which once
unmolested, might refill the forest. Secondly, the River Kabolet holds good fishing and
has convenient camp-sites etc.

The second contains that forest where there is the remnant of the elephant herd,
which until 1955 was found throughout the area. It also includes the highest peaks —
Kameligon and Chemnirot, with splendid views over the dry country to the north-
west and north, and to Lake Baringo in the east. In this area are the peculiar periglacial
hummock and stripe vegetation formations near Chemnirot, and there is evidence at
Kalelaikelat of ancient occupation by the Sirikwa people, the alleged burial mounds of
whom occur on the nearby peak, Kaisungor.

As the Kiptaberr-Kapkanyar is composed of National Forest and thus should not
be populated, it would be reasonable to suggest the status of National Park for it, whereas
the other area is more problematical in being composed of lands of varying status.
Perhaps ‘Nature Reserve’, as was suggested for the Cherangani Forests in 1958 (Verd-
court, 1968), would be more suitable.

Page 9

APPENDIX

(i) Plants listed as afroalpine by Hedberg in Afroalpine Vascular Plants (1957) but not recorded
by him from the Cheranganis. The numbers in parentheses refer to the collecting numbers, 1-316
of Mabberley & McCall, and Nos. 317-600 of Mabberley only:

Lycopodium saururus Lam. (185), Lycopodiaceae
Poa schimperana A. Rich. (508), Gramineae
Calamagrostis hedbergii Meld. (501)

Agrostis gracilifolia C. E. Hubb. (499)

Luzula johnstonii Buchenau (193), juncaceae
Kniphofia rogersii E.A. Bruce (170), Liliaceae
Romulea fischeri Pax, Iridaceae

Hesperantha petitiana (A. Rich.) Bak. var. volkensii (Harms) Foster (286)
Dierama pendulum (L. f.) Bak. (163)

Gladiolus watsonioides Bak. (223)

Stellaria sennii Chiov. (203) Caryophyllaceae
Delphinium macrocentrum Oliv. (235), Ranunculaceae
Anemone thomsonii Oliv. (233)

Ranunculus volkensii Engl.

R. oreophytus Delile

Thlaspi alliaceum L. (258), Cruciferae
Arabis alpina L. (21 1)

Sedum ruwenzoriense E. G. Bak. (230, 304), Crassulaceae

S. meyeri-johannis Engl. (484)

Alchemilla ellenbeckii Engl. (281), Rosaceae
A. argyrophylla Oliv. (282)

Geranium arabicum Forst. (196) — ‘G. simense’ in Hedberg, 1957, Geraniaceae

Oxalis corniculata L. (44), Oxalidaceae

Euphorbia wellbyi N. E. Br. (254), Euphorbiaceae

Callitriche stagnalis Scop. (568), Callitrichaceae

Hypericum keniense Schweinf., Hypericaceae

Id. kiboense Oliv. (582)

Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm. (200), Umbelliferae
Haplosciadium abyssinicum Hochst.

Pimpinella kilimandscharica Engl. (590)

Peucedanum kerstenii Engl.

Sebaea brachyphylla Griseb. (587) Gentianaceae
Swertia lugardiae Bullock (262)

Lithospermum afromontanum H. Weim. (253), Boraginaceae
Celsia brevipedicellata Engl. (243), Scrophulariaceae
Limosella africana Gluck (570)

Hebenstretia dentata L. (252)

Sibthorpia europaea L. (575)

Bartsia longiflora Benth. (299)

Galium ossirwaense K. Krause (502), Rubiaceae

G. glaciate K. Krause (518)

Dipsacus pinnatifidus A. Rich. (260), Dipsacaceae
Scabiosa columbaria L. (250)

W ' ahlenbergia pusilla A. Rich. (500), Campanulaceae
IV. arabidifolia (Engl.) Brehm. (310)

Lobelia elgonensis R. E. & Th. Fr. j. (186),

Monopsis stellarioides (Presl) Urb. var. schimperana (Urb.) Wimmer
Helichrysum kilimanjari Oliv. (218), Compositae

H. nandense S. Moore (244)

II. meyeri-johannis Engl.

H. guilelmii Engl. (571)

Bidens elgonensis (Sherff) Agnew (6) — ‘Coreopsis elgonensis’ in Hedberg, 1957
Anthemis tigreensis A. Rich. (214)

Cotula abyssinica A. Rich. (216)

Artemisia afra Willd. (241)

Cineraria grandiflora Vatke (196)

Senecio schweinfurthii O. Hoffm. (256)

Euryops elgonensis Mattf.

Haplocarpha rueppellii (Sch. Bip.) Beauv.

Carduus keniensis R. E. Fr. (212)

Page 10

(ii) Records of phytogeographical interest, etc.

Calamagrostis hedbergii Meld. (501), Gramineae — previously known only from a single plant
on Mt. Kenya, (Hedberg, 1957).

Calanthe volkensii Rolfe (49, 486), Orchidaceae — first Cherangani records.

Holothrix elgonensis Summerh (224) — first non-Elgon record.

Lobelia elgonensis R. E. & Th. Fr. jr. (186), — first non-Elgon record.

Lobelia sp. nov. (236) — dominant carpeting herb in Hagenia-Maytenus forest.

Further details of the distribution, ecology and cultivation of these ‘afroalpines’ are
to be found in Mabberley, 1971c & 1972.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to acknowledge the help of Frances Jeppesen (nee McCall), to whom
much of the fieldwork is attributable; Mr. J. B. Gillett of the East African Herbarium,
Nairobi; Mr. & Mrs. T. J. Barnley, Mr. & Mrs. R. Fulton and Mrs. E. M. Tweedie
of Kitale; the Director and staff of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, particularly the
Keeper, Mr. J. P. M. Brenan; Mr. F. White and Dr. B. T. Styles of the Forest Herbarium,
Oxford, and all those who supported the Expedition.

Page 11

REFERENCES

Coe, M. J. (1967). The ecology of the alpine zone of Mount Kenya. Monogr. Biol. 17:1-136.
Cotton, A. D. & Blakelock, R. A. (1937). The arborescent Senecios of the Cherangani Range
with supplementary notes on the Mt. Elgon species. Bull. Misc. Inf.Kew 1937: 361-371.
Hedberg, O. (1951). Vegetation belts of the East African mountains.

Svensk bot. Tidsker. 45: 140-202.

(1957). Afroalpine vascular plants. A taxonomic revision. Symb. bot. Upsal. 15 (1).

(1969. Evolution and speciation in a tropical high mountain flora.

Biol.J. Linn. Soc. 1: 135-148.

Von Hohnel, L. (1894). Discovery of Lakes Rudolf and Stephanie. Trans, by N. Bell.

Vol. II. Longmans, London.

Humbert, H. & Cours Darne, G. (1965). Notice de la Carte de la Vegetation de Madagascar.
Travaux de la Section Scientifique et Technique de VInstitut Franqais de Pondichery. Hors
serie no. 6.

Jeannel, R. (1950). Hautes Montagnes d’Afrique. Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist. Nat. Suppl. 1. Paris.
Mabberley, D. J. (1971a). The Dendrosenecios of the Cherangani Hills. Kew Bull. 26:33-36.

(1971b). Botanical Aspects. In P. J. Taylor et al.} Oxford University Expedition to the
Cherangani Hills, Kenya, 1969. Bull. Oxf. Univ. Expl. Club 18: 55-86.

(1971c). Afro-alpines of the Cherangani Mts. Q. Bull. Alp. Gard. Soc. 39:227-235.

(1972). More Afroalpines.Q- Bull. Alp. Gard. Soc. 40:142-155.

(1973)- Evolution in the Giant Groundsels. Kero Bull. 28:61-96.

Parry, M. (1970). Cheranganis’ water supply in danger. East African Standard: 24th. Dec. 1970.
Unwin-heathcote, M. A. & Carson, J. B. (1951). The Cherangani Road in Kenya. Geog.J. 117:
349-351-

Verdcourt, B. (1968). Regional synthesis, (East Africa). Pp. 186-192, in I. & O. Hedberg (eds.).
Conservation of vegetation in Africa, south of the Sahara. Acta Phytog. Suec. 54.

Wrangham, R. W. et al. (1971). Oxford Bongo Expedition 1968. Bull. Oxf. Univ. Expl. Club
17:138-150.

van Zinderren Bakker, E. M. (1964). A pollen diagram from Equatorial Africa, Cherangani,
Kenya. Geol. Mijnb. 43:123-8.

[Received March 1971 )

Published by The East Africa Natural History Society, Box 44486, Nairobi, Kenya and
printed by Kenya Lit ho Ltd., Box 40775, Changamwe Road, Nairobi.

C <e c- /

JOURNAL

OF THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

12th May, 1975 No. 151

ECOLOGY OF THE LOWER TANA RIVER FLOOD PLAIN (KENYA)

By

Peter Andrews

British Museum, Natural History, Cromwell Rd., London SAV.7, Great Britain

C. P. Groves

Australian National Univ., Dept, of Prehistory and Anthropology S.G.S.,

Box 4, P.O., Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia

J. F. M. Horne1

National Museums of Kenya, P.O. Box 40658, Nairobi, Kenya
INTRODUCTION

The Tana River is the longest river in Kenya. From its sources on Mt. Kenya
and the Aberdares to its present mouth at Kipini on the Indian Ocean is a straight dis-
tance of 480 km and 800 km following the major directional curves. But a measurement
along the numerous meanders of the lower course would yield a length at least double
this (see Fig. 1).

In its upper course the Tana flows north, but soon turns south by south-east, which
is its direction until it reaches the sea. The limit of the Upper Tana is taken as the Hargazo
Falls, which are situated at about the point where the river turns south. It is this part
of the river which receives all the tributaries, the last to enter the river being the Mac-
Kenzie, which joins it 58 km above the Falls. Only during high flood years does water
from other rivers, such as the Tiva, enter the Tana. Thus the river gains no new water
in its middle and lower courses, but loses water continuously through evaporation.

In its lower reaches the Tana flows through a broad flood plain. The entire area is
covered by recent alluvial sediments brought down and deposited during the annual
floods of the river. The flood plain is primarily grass-covered but there are numerous
patches of forest and woodland that are apparently edaphic in origin, depending either
on the flooding or on the high water table in the flood plain or both.

The forests of the Lower Tana River are the home of two endemic subspecies of
primate: the Tana River Red Colobus ( Colobus badius rufomitratus ) and the Tana River
Mangabey ( Cercocebus galeritus galeritus). These are both listed in the Red Data Book
as endangered. Almost nothing has been recorded of their distribution, status, ecology,
and behaviour. The primary purpose of this investigation was to study their distribution

1. Private address: Box 24622, Nairobi, Kenya.

Page 2

Fig. i. The Lower Tana River, showing the northern forests of the 1972 expedition. Heavy dotted
lines are roads; smaller dotted lines are tracks.

Page 3

and status with reference to the ecology and fauna of the region. The closest relatives of
both monkeys are to be found in the Central African forests, posing striking zoogeogra-
phical problems. The ecological survey was therefore undertaken from a problem
orientation, as well as a purely descriptive one.

This survey took place in July and August 1972. The feasibility of such a survey
was investigated by preliminary visits in 1971 and 1972. We saw colobus in one forest
in August 1971, and both colobus and mangabeys in three different forests in February
1972. T. T. Struhsaker visited the area in November 1971, finding mangabeys and
colobus in one forest and mangabeys in another. The present survey owes a lot to his
encouragement. These initial investigations confirmed that the animals could be found
if searched for and that the area was not totally uninhabitable by a scientific team.

METHODS

The authors set up a camp on the Tana River, near Hewani (approximately 02°i5'S,
40°io'E). The camp was near a large forest, hereafter called the “Home Forest”, along
a former river course (see Fig. 2). Almost daily visits were made into this and the nearby
Hewani forests, mostly in the early morning and towards evening. Several day-long
visits were made to localities upriver. Members of the expedition also made three longer
safaris (see Fig. 1):

1. on the right bank as far up as Garissa, crossing the river and going down the
left bank as far as Bura;

2. on the right bank to Mnazini and Baomo;

3. and on the right bank downriver to Ngao.

Data on birds and large mammals, including colobus and mangabey, were collected
primarily from observations of C. P. Groves. Mistnets were also set up within the Home
Forest, and birds caught in them were identified by J. F. M. Horne and measured,
then released (a few, however, were collected). Small mammals were trapped by P.
Andrews and J. Kinyanjui, mostly in live-traps (wooden live-traps measuring 7 x 8 x 15
cm were used, supplemented on occasion by break-back traps of three different sizes),
and either collected or released. Trapping was done for two months in July- August
in the Home Forest, Hewani IV and Mnazini I (see Fig. 2). A number of soil pits were
dug, under the direction of P. Andrews, and soil samples from them were analysed by
the National Agricultural Laboratories, Nairobi. The vegetation was recorded by
P. Andrews, and we had the benefit of the five day visit from J. B. Gillett and S. Kibua
of the East African Herbarium. The small mammals collected were identified with the
help of I. S. Aggundey, and the birds with the help of A. Forbes- Watson, both of the
National Museums of Kenya.

We had the assistance of J. Kinyanjui of the National Museum throughout our
two month encampment, and from time to time of visitors who stayed for periods
of a week to nearly a month.

THE ENVIRONMENT

The Tana River

The lowest part of the Tana River (the delta region below Ngao) is some 30-40
metres wide; further up, it averages 60 m and may reach 100 m in a few places. The
river’s depth in the dry season is only a few centimetres except for a narrow deep channel.
Unlike many rivers, its breadth does not noticeably lessen in the dry season, but the
river always occupies its whole bed which is dotted with sandbanks. The bed is raised
and kept in place by a natural levee which is breached in places by natural floodwater
channels. The height of the banks above the dry season water level is only 1 metre or
so in the delta region, but up to 3 m in the Wema area (see Fig. 1).

Page 4

Fig. 2. The southern forests of the 1972 expedition, between Hewani and Mitole. The floodplain
is shown in white and is bordered on both sides by bushland (hatched). Old river channels are
shown by dashed lines.

Page 5

The water speed averages 3-4 knots (5500-7400 m/hr), but in the narrowest part,
below Wema, reaches 5 knots (9260 m/hr) (Denhardt and Denhardt, 1883). It should
be noted that the river has found a new course below Wema since the Denhardts’ day,
but is still at its narrowest and swifted in this area. Upriver the flow is 2000 cu. sec.,
but since the lower river receives no tributaries its flow is halved by the time it reaches
the sea (Prins, 1952).

In most years the river rises and overflows its banks, the floods remaining high for
several weeks. These floods correspond to the rainy season inland, which fills up the
upper course of the river, and are not significantly affected by the locay rains. In 1972,
the year of our expedition, the river did not flood during the March-May rains but it
did flood during the November-December rains. Water was then thigh-deep in Mnazini
I, and the river was 8 km wide at Garsen. Twenty-three centimetres of mud, clay and
sand were deposited throughout the forest (Katherine Homewood, pers. comm.).

Normal flooding covers the land several kilometres across, often breaking through
the banks especially at the stronger bends, and forming broad discharge channels.
Some of these follow lines of old river courses; others empty into permanent lakes,
such as Lake Bilisa near Garsen and Lake Shakababo near Ngao (see Fig. 1). The floods
inundate the gallery forests below Wenje, and kill most of the undergrowth; for this
reason the understorey of nearly all the forests consists of saplings only, with little leaf
litter and ground cover. The major exceptions to this are the Wenje forest itself and
parts of the home forest near Hewani (see Figs. 2 and 3).

The Tana today flows into the sea at Kipini (see Fig. 1); this is not its natural
mouth, but the mouth of a small creek, the Ozi. The Tana’s own mouth was some
32 km down the coast, but in the 1860’s the Sultan of Witu had a canal cut from Belazoni,
on the Tana, to join with the Ozi, thus making the Tana itself navigable from Kipini.
In 1895 the District Officer at Kipini had the canal widened as a famine relief project;
shortly after this an unusually heavy flood carved a very wide channel and the Tana
henceforth entered the sea via the Belazoni Canal and the Ozi. The original mouth at
Mto Tana ceased to function except during floods when the whole area below Ngao
takes on a delta appearance (Williams, 1962; Denhardt and Denhardt, 1884).

Higher up the river, between Garsen and Hola, the Tana has probably been restricted
to the present flood plain for some time. There are a number of ox-bow lakes along the
course; one such, at Garsen, was probably cut off in the 1961 floods (see Fig. 2). The
flood plain is, however, dotted with old channels. Apart from the Ozi, there are four
major old courses : one to the west of the present river, and three to the east (see Fig. 2).

The western channel is dry for most of the year except over a 5 km stretch on its
southern part. This permanent water is known as Lake Giritu, although the people of
Maziwa (the only village along it) are aware that it was at one time the Tana River.
There are two forest patches along the “Lake”, one of them large (see Fig. 2). On the
eastern side of the river, a channel can be made out from Vumbwe as far south as Lango
La Simba. A fragmented series of channels go south and east from Lango La Simba
to join the Ozi at Kau (see Figs. 1 and 2). West of this channel is one which leaves the
Tana just south of Hewani and runs a tortuous course south, beside and occasionally
in and out of the expedition’s Home Forest. The villagers of Hewani refer to it merely as
“Dsanakai” (old river), but it was formerly called Ntumba ya Mudando (Mikael Samson,
quoted in Darroch, 1943). South of the Malindi-Lamu road, this channel appears to
merge into the third of the eastern channels, which leaves the Tana near Gadeni, and
rejoins it somewhat above Ngao (see Figs. 1 and 2).

The question arises: how long has the Tana flowed in its present bed ? On the avail-
able evidence it was in its present course in the 1870’s (Samson, quoted in Darroch, 1943).
Prior to that it would appear that the river flowed down the Ntumba ya Mudando
channel beside the Home Forest some 150 years ago, and had done so for several hundred
years. Earlier still, the Tana flowed past Lango La Simba into the Ozi at Kau. The

Page 6

Giritu course presumably antedates even this, for there is no mention of it in Pokomo
traditions.

Climate

The climate in general is hot and dry. The heat is mitigated during the middle
six months of the year by the south-east monsoon which blows regularly almost every day.
There are no permanent weather stations in the flood plain area, and the only sources of
information are the readings taken by the Denhardts (Denhardt and Denhardt, 1884)
and the stations at Malindi to the south, Lamu to the north, and Hola (Galole) inland.
The Denharts recorded an air temperature for the area of i8-28°C, rising only 3-5°C
in the “hot season”, and falling by io-i5°C at night. These figures are somewhat lower
than the very consistent recordings of the three weather stations, which range from
23-3o°C at the coast and 22-340 at Hola; but given that the inland temperatures are
more variable than the coastal, as well as slightly higher, there need be no major dis-
crepancy.

Rainfall is concentrated in one main rainy season, in May and June. There is a
minor rainy season at the end of the year, but this is not a constant feature near the
coast. Rainfall is highest at the coast and drops off rapidly inland. The total rainfall
at Hola is less than half that of the two coastal stations. The study area on the Tana
River would, therefore, have rainfall less than that on the coast but more than that at
Hola, approximately between 50 and 100 cm; but even the highest figures would not
be sufficient to support the evergreen forest found there in the absence of other factors.

One of these factors, on which there are no quantitative data, might be the heavy
dewfall. We found that at Bura the dewfall was negligible, but farther downstream,
for instance at Baomo, Mnazini and Hewani, it was extremely heavy. Whether this is a
correlate of the depth of the water table or of proximity with the sea is not known, but
certainly some of the moisture might be expected to be retained in a forest by conden-
sation and dripping from the leaves. As a regularly nightly feature, this could add con-
siderably to the available water. Possibly linked with it is the degree of cloud cover which
is less at the coast than inland.

Wind speeds at the coast are remarkably constant. At Malindi they range 4 to 6
knots in the morning, and from 5 to 7 knots in the afternoon. At Lamu they are higher
and more variable, ranging up to 17 knots in the evening. These high wind speeds,
combined with the lack of cloud cover allowing many hours of sunlight, would seem to
make for high evaporation rates, far exceeding the rainfall. Under these circumstances
it is hard to see how there could be any coastal forests at all unless they depend on
ground water. This is undoubtedly the case with the Tana River forests, which are to
be found only in the river flood plain.

Soil

The soils on the Tana River flood plain are in general heavy black clays (“black
cotton soils”). When wet they swell up and quickly become impervious to water, so that
they are poorly drained and become waterlogged. When dry they develop deep cracks.
Even when the soil is apparently very dry, much water is retained in the capillary pores
against the draw from the plant roots, so that the plants experience drought even when
plenty of soil moisture remains. These clay soils are alkaline, with a pH of around 8,
and show signs of salt accumulation with high sodium concentrations (2 to 3 per cent).
Carbon and nitrogen proportions are low, particularly the latter, which by agricultural
standards is greatly deficient. The vegetation is typically grassland or bushland.

In places the soil is noticeably more sandy and lighter in colour. The surface of
the ground does not become cracked as it does with the black clays, and the soil is better
drained. All of the six villages with which we were familiar in the Hewani area are built
on this type of soil probably because of its better drainage. The soil is less saline than the

Page 7

clays, although the sodium proportion is still high and the pH is only a little less. Nitrogen
is abundant at the surface of the soil but deficient lower down. Rather surprisingly the
carbon content of this soil apparently increases with depth to below 20 cm, but it is
not known how far down this extends. The vegetation on this soil is bushed grassland,
but it is probable that formerly it was some type of forest or woodland.

The soil in some woodland areas is a mixture of the two above types, with black
clays near the surface and lighter coloured sands below 30-40 cm. There is some sodium
accumulation; nitrogen and carbon percentages are low.

In forest habitats the soils are relatively more sandy, and are richer in nutrients
and organic matter. There is a thin leaf litter and below it is a humus layer only 4-5 cm
in thickness. These have low pH levels just over 7, low sodium percentages, relatively
high potassium and calcium percentages, and high nitrogen and carbon levels. Below
about 10 cm the organic content of the soil drops abruptly to less than one eighth of the
value in the humus layer. Calcium and potassium levels drop by a half, but the sodium
level increases by a factor of three to near toxic level. The soil stays like this to a depth
of about 40 cm, and below this the sodium level starts to rise still further, reaching a
value of 4 per cent at depth of 70 cm. At this depth the soil becomes darker in colour
and has a higher clay content. It weathers like the black clay grassland soils, and mineralo-
gically they are similar. It seems likely that the forest owes its existence, at least in part,
to die sandy nature of the soil, by which drainage is improved, leaching promoted,
and the accumulation of sodium salts to toxic levels prevented.

In view of the vegetation zonation of the Home Forest, a relative height profile
was surveyed across the widest part of the forest, and soil pits were dug at various points
along it so as to sample the soil under the different tree associations. It was found that
there was an increase in elevation of 5.9 m over a distance of 460 m from the eastern edge
of the forest to the highest point in the profile, which was 50 m from the western edge
of the forest and 160 m from the old river channel bordering the forest to the west
(see Fig. 3). It is possible that the forest is situated where it is because of the slight
increase, raising it above the flood level when the Tana floods; but it is also possible
that the increase has been brought about by the forest itself by deposition of organic
matter.

The soil pits show a soil zonation that parallels that of the vegetation . To the east
of the forest in the grasslands, the soil has a high clay content and has the appearance
of a black cotton soil; the same is true of the soils in the bushland belt between the forest
and grassland. Beyond the fringing bushland is a belt of Mimusops woodland which has
black soils with high clay content in the top 30-40 cm of the profile, but below that the
soil is much lighter in colour and has a high proportion of sand. In the main forest
areas the soils vary from light brown to dark brown and have a high sand content. This
sequence, although only tested along one line, suggests another explanation for the
formation of forest in this area, namely that the increasing sandiness of the soil would
be correlated with more luxuriant tree growth. In fact the nearby presence of the old
river channel is indicative of both increased sandiness of the soil and improved local
drainage (J. B. Gillett, pers. comm.) The profile measured across the forest shows the
correlation between these factors (see Fig. 3).

Page 8

I

Fig. 3. Structure of the Home Forest: east-west profile showing; A. soil profile expressed in terms
of percentage of sandiness of the soil, B. height profile of the surace of the ground, and C. vegetation
profile.

Table i

Species lists of plants found along the Tana River

Grassland Bothriochloa glabra (Roxb.) A. Camus

Echinochloa haploclada (Stapf) Stapf
Setaria splendida Stapf
Panicum maximum Jacq.

Sporobolus confinis (Steud.) Chiov.

Digitaria adscendens (H.B.K.) Henr.

Bushland and bushed grassland

Shrubs Thespesia danis Oliv.

Lamprothamnus zanquebaricus Hiern
Carissa edulis (Forsk.) Vahl
Allophylus sp.

Acacia zanzibarica (S. Moore) Taub.

Terminalia sp.

Rhus natalensis Krauss
Trees Acacia stuhlmannii Taub.

Acacia robusta Burch. =A. clavigera E. Mey.

Tamarindus indica L.

Terminalia spinosa Engl.

Palms Borassus aethiopum Mart.

Hyphaene coriacea Gaertn.

Woodland type A

Trees Acacia robusta subsp. usambarensis Burch.

Mimusops fruticosa A. DC.

Diospyros mespiliformis A. DC.

Ficus sycomorus L.

Garzinia livingstonei T. Anders.

Page 9

Sorindeia madagascariensis DC.

Cola clavata Mast.

Shrubs Rinorea ilicifolia (Oliv.) O. Ktze.

Woodland type B

Trees Cynometra 2 species

Garcinia livingstonei T. Anders.

Diospyros abyssinica (Hiern) F. White
Mitnusops fruticosa A. DC.

Strychnos sp.

Haplocoelum foliolosum (Hiern) Bullock
Lannea stuhlmartnii (Engl.) Engl.

Shrubs Diospyros natalensis (Harv.) Brenan

Thespesia danis Oliv.

Eugenia sp.

Maytenus sp.

Bridelia micrantha (Hochst.) Baill.

Lowland evergreen forest — natural forest

Trees Sorindeia madagascariensis DC.

Celtis wightii Planch.

Diospyros mespiliformis A. DC.

Diospyros abyssinica (Hiern) F. White
Cordia goetzei Guerke
Pachystela brevipes (Bak.) Engl.

Gyrocarpus americanus Jacq. subsp. americanus
Garcinia livingstonei T. Anders.

Cola clavata Mast.

Oxystigma msoo Harms
Sterculia appendiculata K. Sch.

Ficus sp.

Shrubs Polysphaeria parvifolia Hiern

Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv.

Rinorea ilicifolia (Oliv.) O. Ktze.

Diospyros natalensis (Harv.) Brenan
Rubiaceae

Lianes Pterolobium stellatum (Forsk.) Brenan

Paullinia pinnata L.

Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv.

Palms Borassus aethiopum Mart.

Hyphaene coriacea Gaertn.

Phoenix reclinata Jacq.

Lowland evergreen forest — cultivation forest

Mangifera indica L.

Ficus sycomorus L.

Trichilia roka (Forsk.) Chiov.

Bridelia micrantha (Hochst.) Baill.

Diospyros natalensis (Harv.) Brenan
Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv.

Polysphaeria parvifolia Hiern.

Phoenix reclinata Jacq.

Alangium salviifolium (L. f.) Wangerin subsp. salviifolium

Vegetation

Most of the flood plain is covered with grass. There are, however, extensive areas
of bushland, rather less woodland, and a few patches of forest. These types will each
be described in turn.

Grassland

On parts of the flood plain grassland may be a naturally occurring edaphic vegetation
type. Seasonal flooding and poorly drained soils are important factors, and where they

Page 10

occur it is unlikely that grassland has replaced any other vegetation type. On the other
hand it can be seen that ecological disturbance, especially the annual burning carried
out by the Orma pastoralists, causes grass to encroach on woodland and bushland, and
much of the flood plain may at one time have been covered by bushland.

There were at least three types of grassland recognised on the Tana flood plain.
The most widespread type on the heavy black clays is dominated by Echinochloa haplo-
clada, which occurs together with Setaria splendida, Bothriochloa glabra and several
other less common species. These are species widely spread in tropical Africa in areas
liable to flooding. This grassland type was divided into sharply delineated regions;
in some regions the grass was still green at the height of the dry season, and in other
regions it was brown and dried up, even though the same species were present in both.
Presumably the difference was due to variations in groundwater level or soil distribution.

In places where the surface soils were noticeably more sandy, the grass species
were found to be quite different. Two divisions of this type were recognised, dominated
respectively by Digitaria adscendens and Sporobolus confinis. It is likely that flooding is
less severe in such areas, as neither of these species grow in very wet places.

The third type of grassland is the tall grass community bordering many patches of
forest. Only one species is common here, Panicum maximum , and it grows very tall,
over 2 m in places. This grass was also still green in the dry season, and when the short
grass areas were being burnt near the Home Forest the Panicum grassland acted as a
buffer preventing the spreading of fire into the forest.

In places, but not further inland than the latitude of Kulesa, the grassland was
dotted with palms, especially Hyphaene coriacea (doum palm) and Borassus aethiopum
(borassus palm). In places, both these grew within the forest; and towards the coast
they formed forest-like associations by themselves (as around Ngao and Kipini).

Wooded grassland

From about Hola to Wenje is a distinctive habitat, with good growth of grass
(even in July) and the trees Dobera loranthifolia and Albizia anthelmintica spaced through
it. It is interspersed with bushland and abruptly distinguished from it. There was a
noticeable increase here in plains game, especially Peters’ gazelle Gazella grand petersi
Gunther.

Bushland

Thick evergreen bushland occurs on the flood plain in two kinds of situations, and
with different species composition. The most common one has the same species as,
and often grades into, bushed grassland (see Table i), the difference being one of density.
The trees and shrubs of bushland form a low and impenetrable canopy, and there is
little or no herbaceous vegetation. Those of the bushed grassland are more scattered or
are in clumps, and there is an extensive ground cover of grass. There are a number of
larger trees of Acacia robusta and Tamarindus indica in the bushland, and they are
protected from fire there, but there is no place where these trees become dense enough
for a definite bushland-woodland succession to be established. It is probable that the
bushland is a naturally occurring flood plain type and that climatic or edaphic changes
would be necessary for it to convert to woodland or forest. Grass fires are encroaching
on the bushland, converting it to bushed grassland and eventually to pure grassland.

The other kind of bushland is a forest-derived association, following the destruction
of forest by cultivation. The species present are the same as those found in the shrub
layer of the forest community (see Table i). Two variations occur, one in which the
dominant element is Phoenix reclinata, and the other in which members of the family
Rubiaceae dominate, together with Rinorea species and Harrisonia abyssinica.

Away from the flood plain, bordering it on either side along the lower course of
the Tana and almost reaching the river itself higher up (above Mnazini), grows Acacia/

Page 11

Commiphora bushland. The distribution of this type of bushland extends far into the arid
country on either side. Where it is intersected by flood plains it supports growths of
stunted Suaeda monoica and Salvador a persica. Towards the river the S. persica becomes
thick and in parts dense, and there are also fairly dense stands of the euphorb Spirostachys
africana.

Deciduous woodland

Two distinct associations of woodland are present. In physical structure they are
similar, having single open canopies and a sparse shrub layer, but the species compositions
are distinctive. The most common association (Type A) is characterised by Acacia
robusta subsp. usambarensis, and Mimusops fruticosa. The former is particularly common
and forms nearly pure stands in places. In this it resembles the more common Kenya
woodland species A. xanthophloea, but the canopy in the latter is thicker and there is
usually a denser shrub and herb layer. In the other, more localised form of woodland
(Type B) there is no Acacia and only occasional Mimusops; it is characterised by an
abundance of Cynometra species and Garcinia livingstonei (see Table i).

Lowland evergreen forest

In the flood plain region, there are very few areas where true forest can be said to
occur. Where it does, it is fragmented rather than continuous. In the flood plain forests
there is a fairly continuous main tree canopy in which Sorindeia madagascariensis and
Diospyros species are the most common trees. There is also a continuous lower canopy
consisting largely of Cola clavata and Garcinia livingstonei. In places there is an emergent
canopy, but the trees are widely scattered and completely absent in places. The most
notable of the emergents, all of which are extremely large, are Sterculia appendiculata ,
Oxy stigma msoo, and an unidentified Ficus species (see Table i).

The most representative flood plain forest in terms of number of species is the
Home Forest near our camp site at Hewani which has nearly all the species listed in
Table i. There are two variations in species composition. One of these is the forest at
Maziwa (on the old course of the river, to the west of the present Tana). This is almost
entirely dominated by Garcinia livingstonei , both middle and lower canopies, and there
is a discontinuous emergent canopy of Sterculia, Ficus, and Celt is wightii; the shrub
layer is almost non-existent and what there is of it is composed mostly of Rinorea ilicifolia.
The other variation is Mnazini III, on the east side of the river. This also is dominated
by a single species, in this case Pachystela brevipes, which together with Sorindeia and
Gyrocarpus americana make up the single main canopy. The lower canopy and shrub
layers are similar to those of the Home Forest.

The presence of an appreciable shrub layer seems to be linked with the degree of
flooding experienced by the forest concerned. In a forest subjected to regular annual
flooding the shrub layer, except for the taller saplings, is drowned, and visibility in such
forests tends to be good, of the order of 20 metres or more. Such forests on the other
hand have a thin even carpet of leaf litter. Forests not undergoing annual floods have
much more undergrowth, severely restricting visibility as well as movement. The Home
Forest is more diverse than most others in that parts of it are raised slightly and so not
usually flooded, whereas other portions which do flood are clear of undergrowth.

Elephants, too, have a very evident effect on the structure of the forests. Wema II
is in part almost totally opened up, with plenty of evidence of constant visitation by
elephants.

Evidence that the flood plain forests were at one time more extensive is provided
by areas of forest regrowth. This forest that is regenerating after clearing for agriculture
is referred to here as cultivation forest, and it is dominated by mangoes and figs with
Trichilia roka forming the lower storey. The shrubs are the same as those found in
natural forest. It seems very likely that when cultivation of a former forest area is finished.

Page 12

there is a succession back to semi-natural forest through the bushland and cultivation
forest stages. The situation is complicated by the mango; this is an introduced tree,
and its prevalence in the cultivation forest is probably the result of its being planted
when the area was inhabited. Its absence from any of the natural forests seen probably
indicates that these forests were already in existence when the mango was introduced to
the Kenya coast.

Floral affinities

Many of the trees in the Tana River forests and woodland are those typical generally
of riverine and groundwater vegetation in Kenya and Tanzania. A number of these
appear to be almost unique to the region and have doubtful affinities with other parts of
Africa, notably Oxystigma msoo and Populus ilicifolia. The latter occurs in the thin forest-
like strip on the very edge of the river in the middle course (Bura to above Garissa),
but is not a constituent of forests or woodlands on the flood plain, growing singly or in
small groups near the river’s edge. It occurs only along permanent rivers in the eastern
watershed of Kenya: the Tana, Athi and Ewaso Ngiro rivers; and its closest relative
today is P. euphratica Oliv., a riverine species of the Euphrates (J. B. Gillett, pers.
comm.). Oxystigma is a genus with predominantly Central and West African species,
but O. msoo is known from only three localities in eastern Kenya and Tanzania (Brenan,
1967, p. 134). The two common species in the Tana River woodlands both have a mainly
eastern distribution. Acacia robusta is widely distributed in East Africa, but Mimusops
fruticosa is restricted to the east coast (Brenan, 1959; p. 118; Hemsley, 1968, p. 53).
Others of the riverine species, on the contrary, have a pan-African or even wider distri-
bution, and these also do not indicate any specific affinities of the flora: examples are
Celtis wightii (Africa to Australia, Polhill, 1966, p. 9), Gyrocarpus americanus (Kubitzky,
1969, p. 182) and Alangium salvifolium (East Coast of Africa, and Asia, Verdcourt, 1958,
p. 2). A few of the Tana forests species occur also in West Africa, but none of the common
West African species are present in the Tana forests, although some occur in other
East Coast forests. Garcinia living stonei , Diospyros mespiliformis, and P achy stela brevipes
are all riverine species in the Uganda and East Zaire forests present also in the Tana
River forests, but they are all widely distributed and not necessarily confined to lowland
forests (Hemsley, 1968). More common forest species such as Sorindeia madagascariensis,
Cola clavata , Cordia goetzei and Sterculia appendiculata are entirely eastern in distribution.

The total number of tree species present in the Tana forests is very small. Of the
three examples of flood plain forests given earlier, the Home Forest is largely dominated
by Sorindeia madagascariensis, the Maziwa forest by Garcinia livingstonei, and Mnazini
III by P achy stela brevipes. Such single species dominance and the small overall number
of tree species indicates that the Tana River forests are extremely impoverished. When
the distributions of the individual tree species outlined in the preceding paragraph
are considered as well, it would appear that the impoverishment has most affected the
West African species, species that are common in other eastern coastal forests. We may
conclude that either the West African forms were present at one time but have since died
out, or else that they never reached the Tana. This latter possibility implies that the
eastern coastal forests were populated by floral dispersal via a southern route, and indeed
such a route still exists in fragmented form (Kingdon, 1971). In any case, it can be said
that the Tana River forests as they exist today are less like their West African counter-
parts than most other coastal forests, a conclusion not completely consistent with the
faunal evidence (see later sections).

The human population

Three main tribal groups live along the middle and lower Tana: Pokomo, Orma
and Somali. Two small tribes, the Boni and Sanye, formerly hunter-gatherers, are said
to five in the vicinity but they were not encountered by us. The Pokomo, a Bantu-

Page 13

speaking tribe, are the riverine people par excellence. They live by cultivation of rice,
maize, bananas and a few other crops, and possess goats, chickens and dogs. The Orma,
a branch of the Galla, live intermingled among the southern Pokomo subtribes. The
Orma do not cultivate but own large herds of cattle, white and long-horned. They are
less nomadic than formerly. The Somali often move into the riverain zone from the
desert area, especially on the north bank of the river. Many are still nomadic; others
are settled in the villages of other tribes, such as in the Orma village of Gadeni.

We have attempted to assess the likely conservation prospects of the area by investi-
gating trends in human population levels. The presence of numerous cultivation forests
along the river demonstrates that forest areas have been partially destroyed for cultivation
in times past, and indicates that this might occur again. At Wenje maize plantations are
already encroaching deep into the forest, while both at Maziwa and at Mnazini they
have expanded almost up to the forest edge. Although the local irrigation schemes now
being undertaken at Hewani and Wema will doubtless result in increased agricultural
yield per hectare, in the long run crop increases must inevitably depend on expansion
of cultivated area with its consequent removal of natural wildlife habitat.

The census data for the Tana River region were examined in the Kenya National
Archives, by courtesy of the Ministry of Natural Resources. Three sets of figures are
available: 1948, 1959 and 1962; but, with few exceptions, the figures for 1959 are higher
than those for 1962, a situation which might be attributed to social disruption after the
1961-2 floods. Since most of the 1962 figures were double-checked and serious inconsis-
tencies were found only for Gwano location, it is these rather than the 1959 figures
which will be accepted here. By taking the 1948 figures as a comparison (there is no means
of checking these, so they have to be taken at face value) the parameters given in Table 2
are arrived at.

Table 2

Population estimates of the Wapokomo of the Tana flood plain region

Location

Total population

Annual

Percentage of

1948

1962

increase

children

census

census

per cent

1948

1962

Kinakomba

1.754

2,644

3-0

44.2

59-3

Gwano

469

698

2.9

46.5

(5i-4)

Ndera

1,613

2,075

1.8

42.8

40.3

Salama

1,656

2,497

3.0

42.3

43.6

4 locations

5.492

7,914

2-7

43-4

49-2

3 lower locations

3.738

5,270

2.6

43.2

44.2

It will be seen that, whatever the degree of accuracy involved, the population has
undoubtedly increased. The annual rate of increase on the figures given was 2.7 per cent
p.a. over 14 years for four locations covering much of the lower flood plain, an increase
which compares closely with the current increase rate of 3 per cent p.a. for Kenya’s
Coast Province, and is also consistent with the percentage of “children” (under 14s ?)
in the 1948 sample, forming 43.2 per cent of the total. If the figures are to be trusted,
the lower dependency load has increased since 1948, and the rate of natural increase
should be accelerating. The implications of this for conservation are grave. This is
especially ironic in view of the tolerance of the Pokomo themselves towards wild animals,
and the appreciation of them which some of them express.

Forests of the study area

The forests and woodlands of the Lower Tana are enumerated in Table 3. The
forest types have already been described, but the distribution of the types is of interest.

Page 14

All of the patches of cultivation forest are along the edge of the present course of the
river. There are some areas away from the river where forest has evidently been cleared
in the last ioo years and cultivation practised, for instance between Hewani and Wema,
but forest is not regenerating in these areas. The inference is that forest only regenerates
near the river; away from the river a forest environment may be self-perpetuating
but if it is cleared by man it is unable to regenerate.

Table 3

Forests and woodlands of the Lower Tana flood plain

Presence of :

Name of forest/woodland Area (ha)

Type

Mangabey

Colobus

Lango La Simba I

1

Cynometra woodland

formerly

X

II

2

33 33

III

2

35 33

Home Forest

50

Lowland evergreen forest with

X

XX

single-dominant and woodland

zones

Home II

5

Cynometra woodland

Hewani I

1

Cultivation forest

X

X

II

1

33 33

X

X

III

1

,, ,, (still cultivated)

IV

1

33 33

X

X

V

2

33 33

X

X

Wema I

—

Cynometra woodland

II

—

33 33

III

2

Cultivation forest

X

X

Matoloni

1

33 33

X

Sailon

—

Lowland evergreen forest

(v. damaged)

Mitole

5

Cultivation forest

X

X

Ngumu I

2

Acacia woodland

X

X

Berlin

5?

33 33

X

Maziwa I

40

Lowland evergreen forest

( Garcinia )

XX

II

1 ?

33 33

X

Mnazini I

30

Lowland evergreen forest with

Acacia woodland zones

XX

XX

II

15

Cultivation forest

X

X

III

50?

Lowland evergreen forest

( Pachystela )

X

X

Baomo

—

Acacia woodland

X

X

Kimbu

150 ?

Lowland evergreen forest

( Sorindeia )

XX

X

Wenje

30

33 _ 33

with cultivation forest patches

X

Notes. The list is based on visits and brief surveys to the forests concerned in each case, with the
exception of Maziwa II which is included on the basis of statements by local informants.

Under ‘Presence of colobus and mangabey’, x indicates that the species still occurs there, xx
indicates that it is to be found in comparatively large numbers.

The following forests/woodlands have not been seen, and are not listed: Ngumu II, Munyuni,
Bubesa, Kinyado, Nguvini, Kipende, Makere ya Gwano. Judging from map outlines, the total
area of these would be of the order of 185 ha. Both colobus and mangabey are reputed to occur in
most of them.

Two forest areas that are surviving away from the present course of the river are
the Home and Maziwa I Forests. The former is on an old river course that was cut off at
least 150 years ago; and the latter is on Lake Girita, an even more ancient part of the
river course that still has permanent water in the form of a lake. Both these forests
show signs of decline. At Maziwa the main forest canopy is regular but it is composed
almost exclusively of one species, Garcinia livingstonei. There are a few emergent trees
remaining, but no prospective emergents were seen in the lower canopies. Parts of the

Page 15

Home Forest have reached this stage. It is probable that deficiencies in the environment
(most importantly lack of water and correlated rise in alkalinity in the soil) are initially
translated into decreasing variety of forest species and finally, under extreme conditions,
result in complete destruction of the forest.

There was no evidence seen for the new formation of forest patches, but this lack
is probably the result of fire. Much of the flood plain is regularly burnt every year, and
this destroys the bushland which would be successional to woodland and forest. Some of
the woodland areas along the river are almost certainly a late part of such a succession
leading to forest; a good example of this is seen in the Mnazini II Forest which is partly
Acacia woodland, partly Acacia mixed with forest trees, and partly closed forest. It can
reasonably be inferred that were it not for fire new patches of forest would be in the
process of formation along the present river banks.

It would appear from this evidence that the forests of the flood plains are in a state
of flux. Away from the river they are dying off, but along the present channel they are
regenerating or would be in the process of being formed were it not for the regular
burning. Viewed from the perspective of hundreds of years, the pattern emerges of a
river continually changing its course, with forest patches that emerge and die off in
comparatively short periods of time as the river alters its course. Such a changing environ-
ment would put great pressure on the fauna living in it.

DISTRIBUTION OF FAUNA

A total of 47 species of mammal and 230 species of bird were seen in the course of
the field season. Many of the contacts were casual sightings, and no attempt could be
made to assess the degree of importance in the flood plain ecology.

Table 4

Birds of the Lower Tana River

Sequence and taxonomy follow Forbes- Watson (1971). Subspecific names are omitted except
when identification was certain. Assignation to a particular habitat of aerial birds such as swallows
and swifts is arbitrary. Species marked with an asterisk are widespread in East and Equatorial African
forests. Species marked with a double asterisk are usually restricted to Central African lowland
forest, n = netted.

Habitats 1 = Acacia/Commiphora scrub

2 = DoberaJAlbizia parkland

3 = River banks

4 = Riverine forest

5 = Perennial grassland savanna

Struthio camelus

+

Pelecanus rufescens

+

Anhinga rufa

+

Ardeola ralloides

+

A. ibis

+

+

Egretta intermedia

+

E. alba

+

E. garzetta

+

Ardea melanocephala

+

A. goliath

+

Scopus umbretta

+

+

Ciconia episcopus

Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis

+

Ibis ibis

+

Leptoptilus crumeniferus

+

Threskiornis aethiopicus

+

Bostrychia hagedash

+

+ +

Alopochen aegyptiaca

+

Sarkidiornis melanota

+

Dendrocygna viduata

+

Gvps rueppellii

+

G. fricanus

+

+ +

Page 16

Neophron monachus
Gypohierax angolensis
Circaetus pectoralis
C. cinereus
**C. fasciolatus
Teraihopius ecaudatus
*Accipiter tachiro
Melierax poliopterus
M. gabar

Kaupifalco monogrammicus
Lophaetus occipitalis

* Stephanoaetus coronatus
Hieraaetus dubius
*Aquila wahlbergi
Haliaaetus vocifer
Elanus caeruleus

* Macheiramphus alcinus
Falco cuvieri
F. chicquera
Sagittarius serpentarius
Francolinus sephaena
F. afer
F. leucoscepus

* Gutter a pucker ani
Acryllium vulturinum
Otis kori

Eupodotis ruficrista
E. senegalensis
Actophilornis africana
Vanellus spinosus
V. tectus
V. lugubris
Charadrius pecuarius
Burhinus capensis

B. vermiculatus
Pterocles decoratus
P. lichtensteinii
Streptopelia decipiens
S. semitorquata

S. capicola

S. senegalensis
Oena capensis

* Turtur tympanistria

T. chalcospilos
*Treron australis
Poicephalus rufiventris
Tauraco fischeri
Corythaixoides leucogaster
Pachycoccyx audeberti
Centropus grillii

C. superciliosus
Otus scops

Glaucidium perlatum
*Ciccaba woodfordii
*Caprimulgus pectoralis
C. donaldsoni
C. clarus

Apus aequatorialis
Cypsiurus parvus
Telacanthura ussheri
Colius striatus
C. leucocephalus
C. macrourus

* Apaloderma narina
Ceryle rudis
Alcedo cristata
*Ceyx picta

1 2

+

+

+

+ +

+ +

+ +

+

3 45

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+ +

+

+

+

+ +
+

+ +
+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+ +

+ +

+

+

+

+ +

+

+

+

+

n

n

++ + ++ ++++ +++++ + ++++ +++ +++

Page 17

Halcyon senegaloides
H. chelicuti
*H. albiventris
H. leucocephala
Merops albicollis
M. pusillus
M. revoilii
M. s. superciliosus
Coracias caudata lorti
*Eurystomus glaucurus
Upupa epops africana
*Phoeniculus purpureus
*P. granti
P. minor
P. cyanomelas
Tockus nasutus
T. erythrorhynchus
T. deckeni
T. flavirostris
*T. alboterminatus
*Bycanistes bucinator
*Lybius melanopterus
*L. torquatus

L. melanocephalus
Pogoniulus pusillus
Trachyphonus darnaudii
T. erythrocephalus

* Indicator variegatus
*1. indicator
*/. minor

*Campethera nubica
*C. abingoni
*C. cailliautii
Dendropicos fuscescens
Thripias namaquus
Mirafra rufocinnamomea

M. poecilosterna
Eremopteryx leucopareia
Hirundo smithii

H. senegalensis
H. abyssinicus
Motacilla aguimp
Anthus novaeseelandiae
A. melindae
Tmetothy lacus tenellus
Macronyx croceus
M. aurantiigula
*Campephaga flava
Pycnonotus barbatus
Andropadus importunus
Chlorocichla flaviventris
Phyllastrephus strepitans
P. terrestris
*P. fischeri

Eurocephalus rueppellii
Prionops plumata
P. retzii
*Nilaus afer
Dryoscopus pringlii
*D. cubla
Tchagra senegala
Rhodophoneus cruentus
Laniarius ferrugineus
Malaconotus sulfureopectiu
M. blanchoti
Lanius cabanisi
L. dorsalis

i

2

+

3

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+ +

+ +

+

+

+ +

+ +

+ +

+

4 5

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

n

n

+

+

+

+

+

+ n

+

+

+

+

+

+

■+*

+

+

n

+

+

+

n

+

”1”

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+ +

Page 18

I

2 3

4

5

Cercotrichas leucophrys

+

*C. quadrivirgata

+

** Sheppardia gunningi

4

*Cossypha natalensis

4

*C. heuglini

4

**Neocossyphus rufus

4

Cichladusa guttata

+

C. arquata

4

Turdoides squamulatus

4

T. rubiginosus

+

4

* Bradypterus baboecala

4

Cisticola chiniana

4

C. galactotes

4

C. brachyptera

4

Prinia subflava

4

Apalis flavida

4- +

*A. melanocephala

4

Camaroptera brevicaudata

+

4

4

C. simplex

+

Sylvietta brachyura

+

* Muscicapa caerulescens

4

Melaenornis pammelaina

+

Bradornis microrhynchus

+ +

Bads minor

+

*Platysteira peltata

4

**Erythrocercus holochlorus

4

*Trochocercus cyanomelas

4

*Terpsiphotie viridis

4

*Nectarinia olivacea

4

N. amethystina

+

4

N. hunteri

+

+

N. mariquensis

+

4

N. veroxii

4

N. nectarinioides

+

+

N. senegalensis

+

4

**Anthreptes reichenowi

4

A. orientalis

+

*A. collaris

4

*Zosterops sp.

4

Serinus mozambicus

4

S. atrogularis

4

Pytelia melba

+

Estrilda astrild

+

4

Uraeginthus bengalus

4

Lagonosticta rhodopareia

4

Lonchura bicolor

4

L. cucullata

4

Ploceus subaureus

4

P. bojeri

4

P. castaneiceps

4

P. cucullatus

4

*P. bicolor

4

*P. ocularis

4

P. rubiginosus

+

P. velatus

+

Quelea quelea

+

4

Etiplectes ardens

E. axillaris

4

Bubalornis niger

+

Dinemellia dinemelli

+

Passer gongonensis

+

Petronia pyrgita

+

Vidua macroura

4

*Lamprotornis corruscus

4

L. purpuropterus

+

4

*Cinnyricinclus leucogaster

4

Spreo fischeri

+

Page 19

123 45

S. superbus

+

Cosmopsarus regtus

+

+

Creatophora cinerea

+

Buphagus erythrorhynchus
*Oriolus larvatus

+

+

+

*Dicrurus ludwigii
D. adsimilis

+

+

+

Birds

The list of birds in Table 4 is based on both observation and mist-netting. The 230
species detected would doubtless be considerably enlarged by studies continued through-
out the year. In Table 4 the recorded observations are divided up into five habitat types.
Many of the species observed were recorded from only one habitat type because of the
differences between these habitats.

In the forest it appeared that lack of undergrowth had a marked effect on the abu-
ndance of bird species. No tinker-birds ( Pogoniulus spp.) were seen or heard by J.F.M.H.
or by A. Forbes-Watson, although they were evident in the Sokoke Forest, near Malindi
in the same period. Only four undergrowth species were netted in the Flome Forest
(Bradypterus, Phyllastrephus, and two Cossypha spp.), although protracted study would
doubtless reveal more. This forest was however remarkable for abundance of the drongo
Dicrurus ludwigii and the thrush Neocossyphus rufus. The forest at Wenje was visited on
one day only and yet was found to have a richer avifauna than forests near base camp.
There were many mixed species foraging flocks there, such as were seldom observed
in the Home Forest. Stands of tall Ficus spp. and considerably more undergrowth could
account for this.

In the flood plain grasslands, the palm clusters form a distinctive habitat for birds.
A belt of Hypliaena coriacea and Borassus aethiopum at the south end of the Home Forest
(a locality known as Mitapani, “the place of the palm-trees”) held nesting vultures
Gyps africanus and falcons Falco chicquera.

A few of the bird records are range extensions. Bradypterus baboecala subsp. was
netted in the Home Forest on 16 and 17 July. It is the first record for the region, and the
habitat is unusual for the species. One was collected and the skin is in the National
Museum, Nairobi. A male and female of the sunbird Anthreptes reichenowi were observed
in the Home Forest on 27 August. This represents a range extension of about 160 km
northward from the Sokoke Forest, its nearest previously known habitat. Two specimens
of the small insectivorus kingfisher Ceyxpicta were netted in the Home Forest on 15 and
17 July, and, having the blue ear-covert spot, were assigned to the southern African
race natalensis rather than the northern tropical C.p. picta. White (1965) gives the southern
limit of picta as the Kenya/Tanzania border and the northern limit of natalensis as
central Tanzania, but more recently Ripley and Bond (1971) recorded the latter in the
Sokoke Forest.

Primates

Five species of monkey and two of prosimian were recorded in the Tana River
forests and woodlands. In some forests all seven were recorded, but usually one or two
appeared to be absent or were not seen.

Colobus badius rufomitratus Peters Tana River Red Colobus

Red colobus are found mainly near the river from Hewani north to Kipende.
Away from the present river course they occur only in the Home Forest, where there
is a large healthy population, and at Lango La Simba where in February 1972 one of
us encountered a considerable group.

The types of forest inhabited by red colobus may be differentiated into large,
containing more than one troop, and small, containing most probably a single troop

Page 20

only. Two factors appeared crucial in determining the presence or absence of colobus
in a given forest. The first of these was variety of food species. In the marginal forests
to the east of the river (Home II, Lango La Simba II and III, Vumbwe group) the variety
of tree species is much reduced; indeed, some of them are virtually pure stands of
Garcinia livingstonei, and colobus were never seen in these forests. Colobus are also
apparently absent from Wema I which is dominated in part by Cynometra which elsewhere
is eaten by colobus; the main reason for their absence here, and also from Wema II seems
to be the dry scrubby nature of the forest which stands, according to J. B. Gillett, on
soda-logged soil.

The second factor, which seems to exclude colobus from forests that might have
been suitable for them in terms of food, was canopy structure. During certain periods
of the day colobus would be found sitting in open, thinly foliaged emergent crowns.
Apart from pure sunning, it may be that such rest periods are essential for the animals’
digestive processes (Hollihn, 1971). In any case, forests with a closed, continuous canopy
and few open emergents — such as the Maziwa forests, Sailon and Wenje — lacked colobus.

Red colobus are easy to observe, their presence being simple to detect (either they
sit in the very tops of the trees and watch the observer, or they jump away with a charac-
teristic crashing sound), and one is liable to gain an initial false impression of their
abundance. In point of fact it seems likely that mangabeys, though much harder to
detect, are at least as numerous as the colobus. Where we were able to obtain fairly
accurate estimates or even actual counts of colobus numbers, it appeared that their
population density was greater in the small isolated forests than in the larger forests.
We can hypothesize that in the small forests food supply would be the only limiting
factor, whereas in larger forests the presence of several troops, with the consequent
restriction on the use of space, would represent an additional control. Average densities
were, for large forests, 2.8 individuals per hectare, and for small forests, 5.75 per hectare.
It should be noted, however, that the large forests are by no means homogeneous, and
it may be that the lower density is the direct result of this, since only parts of the forest
will be habitable. In contrast to this the more homogeneous small forest patches are more
completely utilized by the colobus (C. Marsh, pers. comm.). We have therefore divided
up the forests known or suspected to be inhabited by colobus, into two groups according
to their size (Table 3). The small forests for which we have extrapolated densities and
numbers account between them for only 58 colobus — a small fraction of the total. On the
other hand, the Mnazini group of forests, for which we have reliable estimates, and the
rest of the northern group, consisting of 430 ha, we estimate carry about 1210 colobus,
nearly two-thirds of the total, which is probably about i860.

Cercocebus galeritus galeritus Peters Tana River Mangabey

In view of the supposed greater rarity of the mangabey, and the fact that it is awarded
a red sheet in the Red Data Book, the colobus taking a white sheet only, we were surprised
to find that its distribution is wider than that of the colobus. Mangabeys occur in a
number of forests not inhabited by colobus. Apart from a number of small forests along
the lower part of the animals’ distribution along the river, the main such forests are
Maziwa and Wenje. Both of these are large, closed-canopy forests ; the tall open emergents
favoured by red colobus are uncommon, and there are few open areas. The internal
structure of the two is, however, different: Maziwa has little tangled undergrowth, but
plentiful leaf-litter and numerous saplings, so that visibility within the forest is good,
about 20 to 30 yards; Wenje is full of tangled undergrowth, implying much secondary
regeneration uninhibited by floods. At Maziwa it was found that mangabeys emerge
from the forest proper, making their way through the bush to feed on an unidentified
seed-pod by the lake. Elsewhere they appear to keep strictly within the forest itself.

It is far harder to obtain an accurate estimate of the numbers of mangabeys than of
colobus. Our observations at Mnazini lead us to think that about 90 individuals inhabit

Page 21

the Mnazini I Forest — about the same number as of colobus. For the Home Forest
we suggest a lower density; their distribution there is more localised, indeed we had been
entering the forest daily for three weeks before we became aware of their presence.
At least two troops live in the northern end of the forest, and it seems likely that at least 50
animals inhabit the whole forest. The other forest for which our own observations suggest
a plausible figure is Hewani IV ; here there is a single small troop consisting of at least
five animals. For Wenje we accept the estimate of 90 animals given us by J-P. Simeon,
a thoroughly reliable observer. The vocalisations heard there lead us to accept a density
of this order. Similar considerations lead us to accept the figure suggested by K. J.
Heribai for Maziwa of 160 animals, although this may perhaps be a little too high.

The density of mangabeys in these forests is between 2 and 4 animals per hectare.
Based on these densities, and an estimated 733 ha of forest-woodland where mangabeys
are known to occur, a maximum population estimate is arrived at of between 1466 and
2932 animals. Current work by Katherine Homewood (pers. comm.) suggests that the
lower figure is more likely.

Cercopithecus mitis Wolf subsp. ( albogularis group) Sykes monkey

This monkey was noted in troops of 6 to 12 in forests as far upriver as Bura, and away
from the river in forests between Lango La Simba and Witu, in Witu Forest, inland
from Lamu, and along the forests between Bodhei and Milimani ; as well as in the bush
areas surrounding the forests. Within the forests they were seen mainly in the trees,
but at Bura and whenever they ventured into the bush zone (as at Lango La Simba)
they were seen on the ground. The alarm call, a harsh “chak”, was heard many times in
a forest when the monkeys themselves were not seen.

Cercopithecus aethiops (L.) subsp. (pygerythrus group) Velvet monkey

This was the only monkey not observed in the forest itself, nor did vervets appear
to venture far onto the grasslands. The typical habitat was woodland or thick bush.
They also lived in or near cultivated areas wherever trees, including mangoes, were
available for hasty retreat. Although different races have been described north and south
of the Tana River, vervets seen at Maziwa (on the right bank) were not noticeably different
from those commonly observed in the bush zone at the south end of the Home Forest
(on the left bank), and these in turn were little if any different in colour from a juvenile
male purchased at Vitengeni (on the western edge of the Sokoke Forest), near Malindi,
and which lived as a pet and nuisance around our camp during the expedition’s stay on
the Tana.

Papio hamadryas (L.) subsp. ( cynocephalus group) Baboon

Baboons were abundant along the Tana itself, and for as far as one went in either
direction. They could be seen in a variety of habitats, but chiefly in the vicinity of forest
or heavy bush. Troops varied in size from about 30 to at least 100, the latter size being
apparently usual in the desert borderlands inland from Lamu. As everywhere, they are
fearless crop-raiders.

The baboons of the Tana region and environs are very different from those seen
in 1971 in the Usambara Mountains, near the coast of N.E. Tanzania. Though both
have the lanky build and relative manelessness of the “yellow” group of subspecies,
the Tana baboons are rather less lanky, and darker, browner than the Usambara baboons
which are really yellow. Even in adult males, the naked skin on the lateral parts of the
rump is pinkish, not blue-black as in other East African baboons, both yellow and olive.
This pink colour seemed to vary with locality, being seen on the up-river baboons
(near Garissa), and lower down on the left bank, but not in those of the bush country
between Garsen and Malindi.

Page 22

Galago zanzibaricus Matschie Zanzibar bushbaby

Kingdon (1971) has suggested that this is a full species, distinct from G. senegalensis,
and that supposed specimens of G. demidovii from the eastern coastal forests are the
juveniles of same species. This appears plausible to us, in that we were able to observe
quite closely a bushbaby in the Mnazini I Forest that had legs not very different in
colour from the body, and so differed strongly from the typical G. senegalensis seen in
the bush country.

Small mammals

Traps were set for a total of 1234 trap-nights in flood plain habitats. The total
number of specimens caught was 83, giving 6.6 per cent success. Of the specimens
caught, 37 were kept and measured. Seven species are represented, six murids and a
shrew.

Table 5

Summary of trapping yield

Home

Grass-

Munazini II

Hewani IV

Hewani

Forest

land

Woodland

lake-side

Village

Total

Acomys subspinosus wilsoni

30

8

38

Tliamnomys dolichurus

8

—

—

—

8

Paraxerus ochraceus

3

—

3

Praomys natalensis

9

3

6

2

20

Arvicanthis niloticus

—

1

2

3

Rattus rattus

—

—

9

9

Crocidura sp.

—

2

2

Totals

4i

12

11

6

13

83

No. of trap nights

111

220 87

Table 6

150

1234

Trapping in

the Home Forest

Habitat

Trap

nights

A.s. wilsoni

T. dolichurus

P. ochraceus

Closed forest

226

9

3

Small tree forest

79

3

2

2

Bush forest

265

13

2

I

Grass clearing

50

2

—

—

Mimusops woodland

64

1

—

—

Fringing bushland

28

2

1

—

More than im off the ground

65

(1)

(1)

—

Totals

777

30

8

3

Most of the trapping was done in forest conditions, specifically in the Home Forest
(see Tables 5 and 6). Acomys subspinosus wilsoni and Thamnonys dolichurus were the two
common rodents occupying all types of forest and apparently extending into the bordering
woodland and bushland. Neither of these are specifically forest rodents, and the absence
of the forest rodents is in keeping with the impoverishment of the flora. Both are wide-
ranging forms in Africa and presumably they have been able to occupy forest habitats
in the absence of more strictly forest-adapted competitors. As a result of this the rodent
fauna has no specific zoogeographic affinities with any particular region.

Grassland trapping totalling 220 trap-nights was divided between the eastern edge
of the Home Forest (64 trap-nights) and the grass surrounding the camp site (156 trap-
nights). There was no apparent difference between the two localities. The common
rodent was Praomys ( Mastomys ) natalensis. A single Crocidura sp. was caught in a live
trap, and one other specimen was found on the side of the grass track leading to the
forest.

Page 23

Woodland trapping was confined to the woodland zones of the Home Forest (64 trap-
nights) and of Mnazini I (87 trap-nights). The two rodent species caught represent the
two common species of forest and grassland, A. s. wilsoni and P. natalensis respectively.
In this sense the woodland environment is intermediate between forest and grassland.

Finally, some trapping was done in a patch of cultivation forest bordering a small
oxbow lake (Hewani IV). 150 trap-nights were put in, and only P. natalensis recorded.
It seems likely that formerly in this area there had been forest, which was cleared at
least 50 years ago according to local recollection. The small mammal fauna would have
been wiped out and the area occupied by the grassland species P. natalensis. The common
village rodent, Rattus rattus, was not found.

In addition to the trapping for small mammals, six wire-mesh cage-type carnivore
traps were set out for a total of 248 trap- nights: 168 in the forest, 30 in grassland, and
50 at the edge of the rice irrigation scheme. Altogether 10 animals were caught and
released: four Atilax paludinosus, two Ichneumia albicauda, and four Genetta tigrina.
In spite of the disparity of trapping times, all of these, except for one genet caught in
the forest and two mongooses (one of each species) caught in the rice-field, were taken
in grassland.

Crocidura sp. White-toothed shrew

A single shrew of this genus was caught in one of our traps ; it did not prove possible
to identify it. It is apparently a grassland dweller in the Tana River region. Allen and
Lawrence (1936) record three species of Crocidura from the lower Tana region.

Paraxerus ochraceus aruscensis (Pagenstecher) Huet’s bush squirrel

Three specimens of this bush squirrel were caught, all in the Home Forest and all
on the trunks of fallen trees. Additionally one of us observed two of this species on a
fallen tree-trunk in a different part of the same forest, and a third in the undergrowth
behind (some i-| metres off the ground). This species has an eastern distribution, and
is widespread in eastern and central Kenya, Tanzania, and Equatorial Province of Sudan
(Amtmann, 1966).

Paraxerus palliatus tanae (Neumann) Red bush squirrel

This was reported by informants to occur at Mnazini, and was probably the one
we saw on one occasion at Wenje. This species also has an eastern distribution ranging
from Somalia to South Africa.

Thamnomys ( Grammomys ) dolichurus (Smuts) Tree rat

This species was found only in forest conditions on the Tana. In one case it was
caught more than 1 metre off the ground, but the other trappings were all on the ground.
It is widely distributed in tropical Africa and generally lives in thickets and bushes along
forest margins (Misonne, 1968). Living in these situations, the destruction or absence
of any rodent forest fauna would enable it to move into the forest and colonise the forest
niches left vacant. It seems likely that this has been the case on the Tana River. The
species has been recorded from lowland evergreen forest in Uganda (Delaney, 1971).
It has been claimed that it is replaced by T. rutilans in the forest, but this has not happened
in that particular Uganda forest, as they both occurred there together.

Arvicanthis niloticus (Desmarest) Grass mouse

Two positively identified specimens were caught in Hewani Village. One other
tentatively assigned to this species was caught in grassland on the edge of the ox-bow

Page 24

lake at Hewani IV. The skin and measurements of this specimen show similarities with
Pelomys, but the skull was lost and the specimen cannot be definitely assigned. A.
niloticiis is widely distributed in East Africa in grasslands. It is less common in West
Africa, but occurs in Uganda and northeast Zaire (Misonne, 1968).

Rattus rattus (L.) House rat

This is now the dominant commensal rat in East Africa, having largely replaced
Praomys ( Mastomys ) in this role. It was found only in the village houses on the Tana,
and in general it is always found associated with man (Misonne, 1968).

Praomys ( Mastomys ) natalensis (A. Smith) Multimammate rat

This species reputedly lives in all sorts of environments in East Africa, but at the
Tana River it was not found in forest. It was most common in grassland, but it also
occupied woodland (where there is a grass ground covering) and lake edges (where there is
also luxuriant grass growth). Interestingly enough, it is the commonest species in the
Kafue River flood plain in Zambia (Sheppe and Osborne, 1971). In this area also it
was found that this species lived only in grassland areas of the flood plain. The species
is widely distributed in Africa south of the Sahara (Misonne, 1968).

Acomys subspinosus wilsoni (Thomas) Spiny mouse

This is by far the commonest species in the Tana River forests and woodlands;
it apparently does not live in grassland or bush. In general the spiny mouse is considered
an inhabitant of arid environments, and in Uganda is recorded only from dry savanna to
semi-desert (Delany and Neal, 1966). Along the Kenya coast it has been recorded from
the evergreen bushland south of Mombasa by Koch and in Gedi Forest by G. Rathbun
(pers. comm. 1972) so that its habitat preference seems here to be quite different. One of
the Tana River specimens was caught more than 1 metre off the ground, so that it may
have some arboreal tendencies in the Tana River forests. The species is distributed
throughout eastern and southern Africa, and the subspecies wilsoni is restricted to eastern
Kenya (Setzer, 1968).

Lemniscomys griselda maculosus (Osgood) Striped mouse

This species was collected by Loveridge (Allen and Lawrence, 1936) at Wema
and Ngatana, but was not recorded by us. Loveridge comments that it seems to be an
uncommon species.

Some species of rodent are notable for their absence in the Tana River area. It is
surprising that there was no Thryonomys in the area, but the same was found for the
Kafue River flood plain (Scheppe and Osborne, 1971), and these authors speculated
that it was unable to adapt to changing river levels; this would be equally true of the
Tana. The absence of Pedetes, Tachyoryctes and other burrowers is more easily explained,
again by reference to the Kafue situation, as due to the heavy clay nature of most of the
soil, and its waterlogging after rain, to say nothing of the catastrophic effect of flooding
on an underground animal. It was also expected to find the golden rumped elephant
shrew Rhynchocyon chrysopyus living in the Tana forests. None were found, however, and
it seems likely that the cause of their absence can be attributed to the poverty of leaf litter
as a result of flooding.

Carnivores

Large carnivores are rare in the Tana River area because of hunting. Some evidence
was seen or heard of the presence of lions Panthera leo (L.), leopards Panthera pardus (L).

Page 25

and hyaenas Crocuta crocuta Erxleben, but none were actually sighted. Three species of
viverried were trapped, and two others were seen, and in addition single individuals were
seen of bat-eared fox Otocyon megalotis (Desmares), golden jackal Canis aureus L., and
serval Leptailurus serval (Schreber) (see Table 7). Most of these hunt in the flood plain
habitats, but only the marsh mongoose Ichneumia albicauda (G. Cuvier) and large spotted
genet Genetta tigrina (Schreber) are found there consistently.

Ungulates

Sixteen species of ungulate were seen in the vicinity of the Tana River. Some, like
the hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius L., are found only in permanent water on
the flood plain, e.g. Lake Giritu. Another species, the red duiker Cephalophus natalensis
(A. Smith), was seen only in the flood plain forests and is probably dependent on them for
survival in this area. Other species use the flood plain habitats extensively, but their
range also goes into the surrounding bushland, for example the topi Damaliscus lunatus
topi Blaire, water buck Kobus ellipsiprymnus (Ogilby), elephant Loxodonta africana
(Blumenbach) and buffalo Syncerus caffer caffer (Blyth). Finally there are several species
that are common in the surrounding bushland but which were seldom seen in flood
plain, for example oryx Oryx gazella beisa (Ruppell), gerenuk Litocranius walleri
(Brooke), and zebra Equus burchelli boehmi.

Table 7

Casual sighting of mammals in the Tana River region

Habitat

Presence on
Flood Plain

Galago senegalensis braccatus Elliot

forest

X

Hystrix sp.

bushland

X

Manis sp.

edge of forest

X

Canis aureus L.

bushland

Otocyon megalotis (Desmorest)

bushland

Genetta tigrina (Schreber)

forest

X

Viverra civetta (Schreber)

bushland

Ichneumia albicauda (G. Cuvier)

bushland

X

Atilax paludinosus (G. Cuvier)

river/grassland

X

Crocuta crocuta Erxleben

bush/grassland

X

Leptailurus serval (Schreber)

bushland

X

Panthera pardus (L.)

woodland

X

Panthera leo (L.)

bushland

Orycteropus after (Pallas)

bushland

Loxodonta africana (Blumenbach)

forest/bushland

X

Equus burchelli boehmi

bushland

Diceros bicornis (L.)

bushland

Potamochoerus porcus (L.)

forest

X

Phacochoerus aethipicus (Pallas)

bushland

Hippopotamus amphibius L.

river/lake

X

Giraffa Camelopardalis reticulata de Winton

bushland

Syncerus caffer caffer (Spanman)

all types

X

fragelaphus imberbis (Blyth)

bushland

Cephalophus natalensis A. Smith

forest

X

Kobus ellipsiprymnus (Ogilby)

bush/forest

X

Oryx gazella beisa (Ruppell)

bushland

Damaliscus lunatus topi Blaire

grassland

X

Madoqua kirki (Gunther)

bushland

Litocranius walleri (Brooke)

bushland

Gazella granti petersi Gunther

bushland

X

DISCUSSION

The most interesting problems associated with the Lower Tana River flood plain
are zoogeographical ones. These will be discussed with reference to the geographical
distribution of the flora and fauna and with particular reference to the Tana River

Page 26

Red Colobus and Mangabey, the two primate subspecies endemic to the region. Some
aspects of the ecology of the flood plain will then be discussed to see if they throw any
light on the zoogeography.

Zoogeographical considerations

It has been seen that the flora consists mainly of endemic eastern forms and several
with an East African to Asian distribution. There are a few species with general African
distribution, but none that have strong West or Central African affinities. There are
several genera that have many West African species and one East African species, notably
Oxystigma, whose East African species is restricted to the northern end of the coastal
forest zone. Finally, there is one species, Populus ilicifolia, with northern affinities, its
nearest related species living on the Euphrates.

The faunal evidence is partly consistent with this picture. There is a preponderance
of eastern coastal forms, but one or two elements are suggestive of other influences.

The fish of the Tana River are eastern forms and lack characteristic nilotic elements.
This would seem to rule out any direct river connection between the Tana and the Nile
system, including Lake Rudolf (Whitehead, 1959).

The avifauna has a strong endemic element as far as the East African avifauna is
concerned. Such open country birds as the grass warbler Cisticola restricta (Traylor,
1967), the weavers Euplectes diadematus, Ploceus bojeri and P. castaneiceps, and the
pipit Anthus melindae have ranges either centred essentially on the Tana or north and
south of it on the maritime strip. The starling Lamprotornis corruscus occurs in the area
in forest and dense woodland. All of these birds have small and circumscribed ranges.
Many populations isolated in riverine and coastal forests in the region have even more
restricted distributions, such as the weaver Ploceus golandi and the owl Otus ireniae
(Sokoke Forest), the sunbird Anthreptes pallidigaster, the pipit Anthus sokokensis, and
several populations differentiated at the subspecific level.

These isolates clearly show an affinity of the Tana and other northern coastal
forests with the Central African lowland forest. The thrush Neocossyphus rufus is an
example of a relic population of the Tana (where it is found commonly) and coastal
forests, separated from the “parent” population in the Central African (Zaire) forest
block by about 1000 km. The akalat (robin) Sheppardia gunningi sokokensis , endemic to
the Sokoke and Tana forests, is closely allied to two other highly circumscribed races
in northern Malawi and the Beira area — a remarkable example of disjunct distribution.
Two other birds with disjunct ranges that have been recorded from the lower Tana
(although not during the present survey) are the sunbird Anthreptes neglectus and the
warbler Apalis chariessa (Keith, 1968). Populations of some other species are endemic
to the Lower Tana forests alone, e.g. the owls Otus scops nivosus and Bubo africanus
tanae (Keith and Twomey, 1968).

In the avifaunal list (see Table 4), species marked with an asterisk inhabit forests
of several floristic designations and are more or less widespread wherever suitable cover
occurs in East and Equatorial Africa. Species marked with a double asterisk are geogra-
phically restricted, and their occurrence on the Tana indicates first a distant affinity
with the Central African lowland forest and secondly a close affinity with the nearest
forest outlier, the Sokoke. Lying 130 km to the south, and separated by savanna woodland
and steppe, the Sokoke has been isolated for much longer than the Tana forests, as
evidenced by its greater endemicity (Ripley and Bond, 1971).

The mammal fauna also is dominated by forms with eastern relationships. Cercopi-
thecus mitis and Acomys subspinosus are species widespread in East and South Africa,
but the subspecies groups represented on the Tana are of East African coastal affinities.
Some species, notably Galago zanzibaricus and Paraxerus palliatus, are found only in
the forest areas along the east coast, through extending as far south as Mozambique or
Natal. A few species, notably Paraxerus ochraceus , do not extend so far south and instead

Page 27

occupy a northeastern range (Kenya, Tanzania, into Sudan). There is only one endemic,
Damaliscus hunteri , and that is not found on the flood plain itself. In contrast to these,
the colobus, mangabey and duiker races of the Tana show direct links with Central
Africa. In view of the importance of this relationship for zoogeographic studies, each
will be described separately.

Cercocebus galeritus is known from Zaire, and extends to the west across the Congo-
Ubangui system to Rio Muni. Eastwards, it has not been recorded from Uganda nor
from Tanzania, so that there is a gap of over 1,000 km between the Tana population and
its closest relatives. The Tana race, C. g. galeritus, is externally not strikingly different
from that found on the north bank of the Congo River, C.g. agilis, being somewhat paler
in colour with longer hairs on the brows. No other mangabeys inhabit any of the eastern
coastal forests and even those of Uganda, C. albigena, belong to a species not closely
related to C. galeritus.

Cephalophus nataleusis is widespread in East and Central Africa from Natal in the
south to Somalia (Juba River) in the northeast, and to the Congo and Ubangui Rivers
in the northwest. Within this range there are two well-marked subspecies-groups,
differing in size, colouration and other features. The harveyi group, with its characteristic
dark face-blaze and dark legs, is found from the southern highlands of Tanzania, north
and northwest. The exact subspecies found on the Tana remains to be determined, but
is certainly of the East and Central Africa groups, not the selfcoloured natalensis group
of the more southerly forests.

The Colobus badius case is perhaps the most interesting of all. The eastern races of
this species extend from the Zaire forests down the forests bordering the lakes of the
western Rift in Uganda and Tanzania, and have three isolated populations further
east: the Uzungwa range (Iringa district) in Tanzania; on Zanzibar; and on the Tana.
The apparent interrelationships of these three forms, and their relationship with C.b.
tephrosceles of the Rift Valley lakes, are well brought out by Kingdon (1971): the Uzungwa
race C.b. gordonorurn closely resembles tephrosceles but is blacker above, with a tendency
for the lumbar region to be red-tinged and for the shanks to be grey- white; the Zanzibar
race, rufomitratus, is paler, lacks any red on the body, and is essentially a “washed-out”
version of tephrosceles. The tendency, in addition, for the northerly (Ugandan) populations
of tephrosceles to be paler than the southerly (Tanzanian) ones, reinforces the conclusion
that the Tana and Zanzibar/Uzungwa types of red colobus are related not to each other
but to the geographically nearest tephrosceles populations.

Combining the data from plants, birds and mammals, then, we end up with a
picture of the geographical relationships of the Tana as follows:

1. a large pan- African element; or at least, taxa so widespread in Africa as to
be of no use in assessing affinities.

2. an equally large element specific to the eastern coastal forests. This implies
that these forests, as a whole, have been isolated long enough from the cen-
tral African forests to have developed a characteristic facies; and suggests
as well that the coastal forests were at one time more continuous.

3. a small component, in plants only, with extra-African affinities.

4. an endemic component, mostly birds, and not entirely forestliving.

5. a small but intriguing element of Central African affinities; not necessarily con-
fined to the Tana forests, but not extending very far south along the coast.

This has interesting consequences for the study of past climates and vegetation
patterns in Kenya. The likelihood of a northern forest dispersal route between Central
Africa and the eastern coastal region must be considered, in addition to the agreed
southern dispersal route which still exists, though patchily, via the southern highlands
of Tanzania, the Zambia-Zaire border area, and northern Anglola. Among the primates
for example, Cercopithecus mitis is evidently a southern-route form, which has pushed
as far north along the coast as the Webi-Shebeli system in Somalia; Colobus angolensis,
another southern-route species, has reached Kilifi Creek (specimens in the British

Page 28

Museum from Takaungu) but no further; Colobus badius may have followed another route
and has apparently been replaced along most of the southern route by C. angolensis;
and Cercocebus galeritus has no intermediate populations at all such as would be expected
still to remain if it followed the southern route.

It should be emphasised at this point that the “northern route” is so far a working
hypothesis only; essentially it is a model proposed to explain the distributions of two
species of primate. The alternative — on the basis of the southern route only — would be
to suppose that Cercocebus galeritus was formerly distributed throughout the north-
eastward band of forests running from Lake Tanganika via Lake Rukwa, the Uzungwas,
Ulungurus, Ngurus, Usambaras etc., but has since become extinct for reasons unknown
throughout this wide area. Similarly, red colobus of the bicolor tephrosceles-rufomitratus
type would have inhabited this area but were subsequently replaced by conspecifics of
the tricolor kirkii-gor donor urn type. It must be borne in mind that still too little is known
of the ecology of either mangabey or red colobus to rule out such a possibility; it is
conceivable, for example, that Cercocebus galeritus is adapted to forests subject to periodic
flooding, and that rivers (such as the Pangani) along the southern dispersal group did
at one time regularly flood. It is also possible that different subspecies of red colobus
occupy slightly different niches, so might replace one another as the habitat changed.

Ecology of the flood plain

The Tana River flood plain, with its high water table and frequent flooding, is
by far the most productive habitat along the north Kenya coast. The ground-water
forests of Witu to the north are similar in structure to the Tana forests, but there is a
much greater West African element in the flora, and the fauna is less diverse. The Sokoke
Forest to the south is richer both floristically and faunistically, and seems to be the centre
of endemicity, especially for bird species, for the Kenya coast. In neither of these forests
to north and south of the Tana River does the red colobus and mangabey live, and this
is hard to explain in view of the greater affinity of these forests with the West African
ones than with the Tana River forests.

The composition of the fauna in the grassland areas of the Tana River flood plain
has many similarities with that of the Kafue River (Sheppe and Osborne, 1971). The use
by large mammal species of the flood plain habitats is limited to those species that live
in the region anyway, but the exclusion of certain groups of animals from the flood
plain follows the same pattern and can be attributed to the same reason as for the Kafue
flood plain (Sheppe and Osborne 1971). Browsing ungulates are in general excluded
not only from the grasslands but also from the forests because of the lack of undergrowth;
burrowing species that are characteristic of sandier soils are excluded, as are forest-living
elephant shrews that build nests of leaf litter; ants and termites are relatively uncommon,
and except for one pangolin Manis sp. no ant-eating species were seen nor any evidence
for their presence.

The forests and woodlands along the Tana River are dominated by the monkeys,
of which five species frequently occur in one forest. These are either completely arboreal
or at least capable of becoming so, and as a result they are comparatively unaffected by
flooding of the forest. The small carnivores seen are also either partly arboreal (e.g. genets)
or partly amphibious (e.g. marsh mongoose). The most common forest-living rodent,
Acomys subspinosus, is not generally considered a forest rodent, but it was found once
some distance off the ground, as was the forest rodent Thamnomys dolichurus. Praomys
( Mastomys ) natalensis is the most common grassland rodent, as it was on the Kafue
River flood plain (Sheppe and Osborne, 1971), but it was also found on occasion in
woodland areas, where it probably takes refuge during the flooding. Most of the forest
fauna, therefore, is at least potentially arboreal, and there are none of the ground-
restricted animals, such as Rhynchocyon, Petrodromus, Lepus or Crycetomys, found
elsewhere along the Kenya coast. One exception to this is the red duiker, but presumably
this moves out into the surrounding bush when the forests are flooded.

Page 29

It would appear that these exceptional conditions in the Tana River forests must be
related to the survival there of the Central African species of red colobus and mangabey,
but the nature of the relationship is still obscure. No other coastal forest has as rich a
higher primate fauna as the Tana River: the Witu and Sokoke forests have three species
only (including the baboon); the former Kilifi forest and the Jadini forests to the south
have four species, increased by one by the black and white colobus ( Colobus angolensis);
and the former lowland forest of the east Usambaras in Tanzania, incomparably richer
in every other respect than the Tana forests, had only four species of higher primate.
The contrast is puzzling of the rich primate fauna in the Tana River forests, with two
Central African species, to the fauna and flora, which indicate lack of Central African
influence and are very impoverished even for the Kenya coastal forests, themselves
relatively impoverished. The one feature by which the Tana forests differ from those
of the other coastal forests is their transient nature. It was suggested in the description
of the environment that the forest patches on now defunct channels of the river are
slowly drying and that new patches would be in process of formation were it not for fire.
This environmental state of continual change is suggested by Katherine Homewood
(pers. comm. 1973) to be that to which the mangabeys particularly are best adapted
and is the reason for their survival at the Tana River.

Table 8

Full names of plant species when not given elsewhere

Dobera loranthijolia (Warb.) Harms
Albizi anthelmintica Brough.

Suaeda monoica J. F. Gmel.

Salvadora persica L.

Spinostachys africana Sond.

Acacia xanthophloea Benth.

Sterculia appendiculata K. Sch.

Gyrocarpus americanus Jacq.

Page 30

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank a great many people who eased the path of this study, providing infor-
mation, practical assistance, or help in other ways. We are especially grateful to Mr. I. S. Aggundey,
Alec Forbes-Watson and Alex Duff-MacKay in Nairobi; Dr. Hilary Fry, Dr. Tom Struhsaker and
others who provided help from outside Kenya.

We would like to express our thanks to numerous Pokomo villagers along the Tana who helped
in various ways, especially as guides: Seti Anania, Idris Bakiri, Komora Bashora, Marin Shedrach,
Wilson Omara. Members of our team received kind hospitality from the staff of Garissa Boys’
Town and the Methodist Mission at Ngao. The staff of Salims Nasir’s store, Garsen, were invariably
kind and helpful, and the Saaku Trading Company, Garsen, kindly and unexpectedly supplied us
with free charcoal. Father P. O’Toole, of Wema, was very hospitable and a good friend to us
throughout.

The visitors to our camp all played their part, in advice, information or practical help, in keeping
the expedition going: Dea Andrews, Peter and Hazel Britton, David Browning, Glenn Controy,
Alec and Anna Forbes-Watson, Jan Gillett, Lyn Groves, Katherine Homewood, Samuel Kibua.
John Kinyanjui was the expedition’s technical assistant through the courtesy of Margaret Leakey;
John Charomele of Malindi was the steward; we acknowledge the part played by both of them.

Throughout the study we had the continuing interest and encouragement of the late Dr. L. S. B.
Leakey. The text of this paper was read by Katherine Homewood and Clive Marsh who are continuing
the work on the Tana River, the former concentrating on the mangabey and the latter on the colobus.
We are grateful to them for several useful suggestions drawn from their more lengthy and intensive
field work in the area.

Finally, we are especially grateful to the National Geographic Society of America, who financed
the whole expedition; and especially to Dr. Leonard Carmichael, its chairman.

SUMMARY

The results are presented here of a two month ecological survey of the Lower Tana River,
Kenya. The annual floods of the Tana River support a unique assemblage of flora and fauna on the
lower flood plain which differs gready from the rest of the coastal area, where the climate is generally
hot and dry. Both pastoralists and agriculturalists inhabit the flood plain and to a certain extent
depend on the floods for their living. Edaphic forests and woodlands are scattered along the lower
flood plain; these were investigated in some detail as to their plant, bird, and mammal life, and the
zoogeography of the region was considered with reference to the two endemic subspecies of monkey —
Tana River Mangabey and Tana River Red Colobus — that live there. The ecology of the forests
was found to be gready impoverished, both floristically and faunistically, and this is taken to be
sufficient cause for the strongly local element in both flora and fauna, and for the lack of West African
species. Faunal routes between the east coast and West Africa are briefly discussed, and it is concluded
that the distribution of the two endemic monkeys is not consistent with the evidence of the southern
route through Tanzania.

REFERENCES

ALLEN, G. M. and LAWRENCE, B. (1936) Scientific results of an Expedition to rain forest
regions in Eastern Africa (with field notes by Arthur Loveridge). Bull. Mus. comp. Zool.
Harvard, 79, no. 3.

AMTMANN, E. (1966) Prelim. Ident. Man. for African Mammals. 3; Rodentia: Sciuridae. Smith-
sonian Institution, Washington.

ANSELL, W. F. H. (1968) Prelim. Ident. Manual for African Mammals 8; Artiodactyla. Smithsonian
Institution, Washington.

BRENAN, J. P. M. (1959) Flora of Tropical East Africa: Leguminosae, subfamily Mimosoideae. 1-173.

BRENAN, J. P. M. (1967) Flora of Tropical East Africa: Leguminosae, subfamily Caesalpinioideae.
1-230.

DARROCH, R. G. (1943) Some notes on the early history of the tribes living on the lower Tana,
collected by Mikael Samson and others. J. East Afr. Uganda N. H. Soc. 17; 244-254.

DELANEY, M. J. (1971) The biology of small rodents in Mayanja Forest, Uganda. J. Zool. Lond.,
165; 85-129.

DELANEY, M. J. and NEAL, B. R. (1966) A review of the Muridae (Order Rodentia) of Uganda
Bull. Brit. Mus. N.H. Zool. 13; 295-355.

DENHARDT, C. and DENHARDT, G. (1884) Bemerkungen zur Originalkarte des unteren
Tana-Gebietes. Z. Ges. Erdkunde, Berlin 19; 122-160, 194-217.

DORST, J. and DANDELOT, P. (1970) A Field Guide to the Larger Mammals of Africa. Collins,
London.

FORBES-WATSON, A. D. (1971) Skeleton Checklist of East African Birds. National Museum,
Nairobi.

HEMSLEY, J. H. (1968) Flora of Tropical East Africa: Sapotaceae. 1-78.

Page 31

HOBLEY, C. W. (1920) The Tana River. Geogrl.J. 56; 297-305.

HOLLIHN, K-U. (1971) Das Verhalten von Guerezas ( Colobus guereza und Colobus polycomus),
Nasenaffen ( Nasalis larvatus) und Kleideraffen ( Pygathrix nemaeus ) bei der Nahrungsaufnahme
und ihre Haltung. Z. f. Saugetierkun.de 36; 65-95.

KEITH, S. (1968) Notes on the Birds of East Africa, including additions to the avifauna. Amer.
Mus. Novit. 2321; 1-15.

KEITH, S. and TWOMEY, A. (1968) New distributional records of some East African Birds.
Ibis no; 537-548.

KINGDON, J. (1971) East African Mammals 1. Academic Press, London.

KUBITZKY, K. (1969) Monographic der Hernandiaceen. Bot.Jb. 89; 182.

MISONNE, X. (1968) Prelim. Ident. Man. for African Mammals 19; Rodentia. Smithsonian Institu-
tion, Washington.

NISHIDA, T. (1972) A note on the Ecology of the Red Colobus Monkeys ( Colobus badius tephrosceles )
living in the Mahali Mountains. Primates 13; 57-64.

PETERS, W. (1879) Ueber die von Hm. Dr. G. A. Fischer auf einer im J. 1878 in Ostafrika, von
Mombas bis in das Pokomo-Land und das siidliche Galla-Land, unternommenen Reise
eingesammelten Saugethiere Monatsber.K. Preuss. Aka. Wiss. Berlin, Phys.-Math.Kl. 1879:
829-832.

POLHILL, R. M. (1966) Flora of Tropical East Africa: Ulmaceae. 1-14.

PRINS, A. H. J. (1952) East Central Africa, III: The coastal tribes of the North-Eastern Bantu
(Pokomo, Nyika, Teita). Ethnogr. Survey Africa (Int. Afr. Inst.), 1-138.

RAVENSTEIN, E. G. (1890) Mr. J. R. W. Piggott’s Journey to the Upper Tana, 1889. Proc. R.
Geogr. Soc. 12; 129-136.

RIPLEY, S. D. and BOND, G. M. (1971) Systematic notes on a collection of birds from Kenya.
Smithson. Inst. Contrib. Zool. 3; 1-2 1.

SAMPSON, H. C. (1933) The Tana River Region of Kenya Colony. J. Roy. Soc. Arts. 84; 92-1 11.
SETZER, H. W. (1968) Prelim. Ident. Man. for African Mammals 21; Rodentia, Murinae: Genus
Acomys. Smithsonian Institution, Washington.

SHEPPE, W. and OSBORNE, T. (1971) Patterns of use of a flood plain by Zambian mammals.

Ecol. Monogr. 41; 179-205.

SIMON, N. (1966) Red Data Book, IUCN, Morges.

STEWART, D. R. M. and STEWART, J. (1963) The Distribution of some large Mammals in
Kenya. J. East Afr. N. H. Soc. and Coryndon Mus. 24; no. 3, 1-52.

TRAYLOR, M. A. (1967) A new species of Cisticola. Bull. Brit. Orn. Cl. 87; 45-48.
VERDCOURT, B. (1958) Flora of Tropical East Africa: Alangiaceae. 1-7.

VERHEYEN, W. N. (1962) Contribution a la Craniologie comparee des Primates: les Genre
Colobus Illiger 1811 et Cercopithecus Linne 1758. Ann. Mus. Roy. Afr. Cent. Tervuren, 8°, Sci.
Zool. 105; 1-255.

WHITE, C. M. N. (1965) A Revised Checklist of Africa Non-Passerine Birds. Govt. Printer, Lusaka.
WHITEHEAD, P. J. P. (1959) Notes on a collection of fishes from the Tana River, below Garissa,
Kenya. J. East Afr. N.H. Soc. 27; 167-171.

WILLIAMS, L. A. J. (1962) Geology of the Hadu-Fundi Isa Area, Geol. Surv. of Kenya, Rept.
no. 52.

{Received 1 November 1974)

s

Published by The East Africa Natural History Society, Box 44486, Nairobi, Kenya and
printed by Kenya Litho Ltd., Box 40775, Changamwe Road, Nairobi.

JOURNAL

OF THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

15th August, 1975

No. 152

THE AFRO-ALPINE GREY DUIKER OF KILIMANJARO

By

D. G. King,

Fish & Wildlife Branch, 1600 3rd Ave., Prince George, B.C. Canada V2L 3G6

ABSTRACT

Between September 1967 and September 1969, the Grey Duiker, Sylvicapra
grimmia Linn, was studied in the Afro-alpine zone of Mount Kilimanjaro. Three speci-
mens were collected which are described and compared to Grey Duikers living in other
East Africa alpine areas and on nearby lowlands. Data on habitat relationships, density,
and distribution are presented along with observations on reproduction, behaviour,
and feeding habits.

Older records suggested that at least 4 species of small antelope lived on upper
Kilimanjaro but evidence collected in this study indicates that only the Grey Duiker
is present. This duiker may represent an undescribed race of Sylvicapra grimmia for
the following reasons: a) geographical isolation, b) ears more squarely tipped than
neighbouring races, c) very short tail compared to other races, and d) very short nasal
bone compared to other races. However, additional specimens are needed before a final
conclusion is made.

The duiker on upper Kilimanjaro is most abundant between 3,300 and 3,800 m
in areas that are relatively level, open, and well disected by drainage lines. A density
of not less than 1.80 per km2 occurred in a good habitat while an estimated 0.5 per km2
or less occurred in a poor habitat. Succulent shrubs and herbs such as Alchemilla and
Ranunculus spp. appear to be the most important foods. Evidence suggested breeding
occurs throughout the year and that juvenile mortality was probably very high.

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this paper is to describe the Grey Duiker Sylvicapra grimmia Linn,
found on upper Kilimanjaro; to compare it to those found in other East African Afro-
alpine areas ; and to give details of its biology, behaviour, abundance, and distribution.
Within East Africa, the fauna and flora of Kilimanjaro is perhaps as well known as that of
any other area due to intense interest in the mountain by geographers, explorers, botanists,
ornithologists, museum collectors, and others from the earliest days of European
entry into the area. It is, therefore, surprising that the presence of the Grey Duiker
on upper Kilimanjaro was not realized until 1948 (Swynnerton 1949). Moreover, it is
surprising that a specimen was not collected and made known to science until now.

The Grey Duiker has been known to science for more than two centuries but it
was not until the early years of the 20th century that its presence in Kenya and Tanzania
was recognized. The first review of the races in northern Tanzania and Kenya was prob-
ably provided by Roosevelt and Heller (1914). They recognized deserti Heller, altivallis
Heller, hindei Wroughton, and nyansae Neumann. A fifth race, lobeliarum Lonnberg was
described by Lonnberg (1919). Haltenorth (1963) lumped hindei with nyansae which
Ansell (1968) followed in the recent review of African mammals by the Smithsonian

Page 2

Institute. Briefly, the races can be divided into those that live in the sub-alpine and
alpine zones — lobeliarum and altivallis — and the remainder which live in the bushlands of
lower elevations. Ny ansae ( hindei ) is the lowland race found near Mount Kilimanjaro and
probably occurs to the north, west and south (Roosevelt and Heller 1914; Haltenorth
1963). The mountain races are characterized by very long shaggy hair and shorter ears
while those from the lowlands have fine short hair and relatively long ears. The Grey
Duiker of Kilimanjaro clearly belongs to the former group.

The specimens and observations of the Grey Duiker of Kilimanjaro used in this
paper were collected between September 1967 and September 1969 when I was on the
staff at the College of African Wildlife Management at Mweka, Tanzania. Approximately
20 trips were made to the moorlands above the forest with all slopes of the mountain
being visited at least once. Grey Duiker were seen regularly and three specimens were
collected. The first was taken November 8, 1968, by F. Poppleton and the other two by
the author on July 4, 1969. All came from the west shoulder of Kilimanjaro, the Shira
Plateau, at approximately 3,600 m. One was a male and two were pregnant females.
An animal upon collection was weighed, measured, and then skinned. The skin was
removed with feet and head attached and later tanned at the Wildlife College. The
stomach contents, the skull and, in the case of the females, the reproductive tract were
removed for later processing. Also included are observations provided by the staff and
students of the Wildlife College from visits to upper Kilimanjaro in 1970, 1971, and
1972; and the results of a census carried out in February 1970, on the Shira Plateau.

In order to carry out meaningful comparisons with the sub-species nyansae on the
plains around Kilimanjaro, a female was collected at Namanga, 70 km northwest
of the mountain, and to compare the Kilimanjaro Grey Duiker with the subspecies
altivallis, the Director of Kenya National Parks, P. Olindo, kindly permitted a female to
be collected from the moorlands in the Aberdare National Park. This was done by
P. Duncan under the direction of the park warden, W. Woodley. To supplement these
specimens, I examined the large collection of Grey Duiker skins and skulls in the National
Museums of Kenya which included a specimen of the race lobeliarum from Mount Elgon.
Wroughton (1910) and Heller (1912) were consulted, respectively, for type descriptions
of hindei and altivallis, and Hollister (1924) for additional sub-species body and skull
measurements. Lydekker (1914) also provided useful information.

HISTORICAL NOTES

Small antelope were seen by a large number of visitors to the moorlands of Kili-
manjaro (Johnston 1886: 355, Meyer 1890: 118 and 158, Gillman 1923, Guest and Leedal
1954: 45, Miller 1934, Child 1965: 87, Swynnerton 1949: 11, and others). Usually the
small antelope were identified as being Klipspringer ( Oreotragus oreotragus Zimmerman)
or Mountain Reedbuck ( Redunca fulvorufula Afzelius).

Most of the early reports of Klipspringer and Mountain Reedbuck are based on
sight records and, except for Swynnerton’s (1949), are readily dismissed. Swynnerton,
however, noted both Mountain Reedbuck and Grey Duikers in his 1949 paper. Swynner-
ton was a very competent observer but an examination of his personal diary of the trip
(in the library of the Wildlife College), indicates his conclusion that Mountain Reedbuck
existed high on Kilimanjaro was based on an indefinite sighting by one of his companions
and on one indefinite set of spoor. Swynnerton (1949) also included Bushbuck Tragelaphus
scriptus Pallas and Harvey’s Duiker Cephalophus harveyi Thomas in his list of animals for
Shira Plateau but his diary shows that he saw no sign of either above 2,700 m., the forest
edge. Both of these species, however, do occasionally go above the treeline. (Child 1965,
pers. obs.).

In researching old records I was able to find only one record of a duiker having
been shot at a high elevation on Kilimanjaro. This was by Sir Harry Johnston in 1884
(Johnston 1886) and is of considerable historical interest. Johnston kept neither skin

Page 3

nor skull of his animal but did make a drawing of its head which appears on page 355
of his book. The drawing is unmistakenly that of a Grey Duiker. However, on the basis
of this drawing, O. Thomas identified the animal as likely a race of the long snouted
Duiker ( Neotragus kirkii), the animal now known as Kirk’s Dikdik Rhynochotragus
kirkii Gunther. The dikdik had first been recorded only four years earlier in Somaliland.
Moreau (1944), on the basis on Johnston’s report, included dikdik in his list of mammals
for Kilimanjaro, however, it was dropped by Child (1965). It is most unfortunate that
Johnston did not retain the skin or skull for this would have been the first record of
the species north of Mozambique. Moreover, had the animal been correctly identified,
the misidentifications and uncertainty regarding the ‘small antelope’ of the moorlands
of Kilimanjaro would not have persisted to the present day. As a result of the intensive
field work on upper Kilimanjaro during 1967-69, additional observations from 1970-
72, and examination of old records, I am now convinced that the only small antelope
residing at high elevation on Kilimanjaro is the Grey Duiker.

THE KILIMANJARO GREY DUIKER
General appearance and colouration

The most striking feature of the Grey Duiker from upper Kilimanjaro is the heavy
course shaggy hair (Plate 1). This feature is shared with altivallis and with lobeliaium
and contrasts sharply v/ith the fine short hair of the lowland races. The hair of the back
of the specimens from the three mountains averages about 30 mm length with the
guard hairs being 45-50 mm. This is nearly twice the hair length of the nyansae specimen
from Namanga and others examined. The belly hair is similarly lengthened and is woolly
and dirty white rather than straight and white.

Plate I

The ears of the Grey Duiker from Kilimanjaro are relatively short with the tip
‘squared off’ (Plate 1). This feature was also noticed by Johnston (1886) and appears

Page 4

in his drawing. The ear of my Aberdare specimen is blunted, but not to the extent of the
Kilimanjaro animals, and that of the Elgon specimen is pointed. Finally, the mountain
duikers appear heavier and stockier in relation to body length than the animals from the
lowlands. This is discussed more fully in the next section.

There is considerable variation in the colouration of the three specimens from
Kilimanjaro. The first female collected is dark grizzly grey above and heavily vermiculate
whereas the second female is much more russet and with little speckling. The male is
between the two females in general colour. Variation in colour was also observed in the
field. The specimens of both ny ansae and altivallis are similar to the Kilimanjaro animals
while the skin of lobeliarum is more of a tawny russet with almost no speckling. However,
the skin of lobeliarum may not be typical as Lonnberg in Lydekker (1926) describes the
type specimen as being ‘greyish buff with a grizzled effect being evident on the back.

The nasal-coronal blaze and the blazes down tire forelegs also show considerable
variation in extent, from virtually none on the first female collected to full blazes on the
second female. The feet and blazes of all three Kilimanjaro Grey Duikers are very dark
brown or shiny black. The Aberdare animal is similar in these respects but lobeliarum
and hindei have blazes and feet that are a chocolate brown.

Body measurements

The external body measurements of the Grey Duikers found on Kilimanjaro are
basically the same as those of its cousins found on the nearby lowlands and on the Aberdare
Mountains. Table 1 compares the measurements of the individuals from the Shira Plateau
with those of the Aberdare and Namanga specimens, and with additional measurements
of nyansae (hindei) and altivallis taken from Hollister (1924). The only measurement
which shows consistent variation between races is tail length. The Kilimanjaro specimens
have relatively short tails compared to all others.

Table i

Body measurements of 3 Grey Duikers ( Sylvicapra grimmia) from Shira, nyansae from
Namanga, and altivallis from the Aberdares ; and of additional specimens of altivallis
and nyansae from Hollister 1924. a = from Hollister

Subspecies

1-

2-

3-

nyansae

nyansae a

altivallis

altivallis a

Locality

Shira

Shira

Shira Namanga

— Aberdares

—

Altitude (m)

3,500

3,600

3)53°

1,300

—

3,050

—

Date Coll. 8

-11-68

4-7-69

4-7-69

31-7-69

—

2-9-69

—

Time Coll.

1650

0900

1450

0300

—

day

—

Collector Poppleton

King

King

King

—

Duncan

—

Sex

female

male

female

female

i male

female

2 male

Age

adult

adult

adult

adult

4 female
adults

adult

2 female
adults

Weight (gm)

1363

1360

1455

1273

—

1382

—

Foetus wt. (gm)

9

—

143

6

—

23

—

Rumen wt. (gm)

50

50

200

200

—

170

—

H. & B length
(mm)

880

810

820

875

905(800-970)

880

890(820-940)

Shoulder ht.

560

560

540

550

—

560

—

(mm)

Hindfoot It.
(mm)

260

265

260

264

269(253-287)

280

269(265-270)

Heart girth
(mm)

520

540

490

490

475

Crown rump
(mm)

650

650

710

—

710

Tail length
(mm)

95

95

96

125

122(100-153)

125

105(100-1x0)

Ear length (mm)

no

96

97

102

110(97-130)

100

105(100-109)

Ear width (mm)

55

52

52

53

—

55

—

Page 5

The body measurements were examined to see if the duikers from higher elevations
were, in fact, stockier and heavier than their lowland cousins as they appeared (Table i).
The weight per unit body length is greater in the high elevation specimens but the data
are inconclusive as three were females in varying stages of pregnancy. Heart girth relative
to head plus body length is largely independent of reproduction condition. This ratio
(Table i) is clearly greatest in the Kilimanjaro individuals at about 0.60 for the two
females and 0.67 for the male as opposed to 0.55 for nyansae and altivallis. Although
the differences are not great, these combined with the heavy coat does give credibility
to the general impression of a stockier and heavier animal at high elevations on Kili-
manjaro.

There were no differences in the size or shape of the hoofs of the different races.
Those of lobeliarum, nyansae, and individuals from Kilimanjaro are, however, much
more worn than those of the specimen from the Aberdares. Undoubtedly, this is a result
of the different substrates the animals walk on.

Skull measurements

Skull measurements of two of the specimens collected on Kilimanjaro (the skull of
the female collected by Poppleton was inadvertently lost) were compared with the
skull measurements of nyansae and altivallis (Table 2). As with the body measurements,
those of the Kilimanjaro skulls generally do not vary from those of other races. However,
a difference appears to exist in the nasal bones. The nasal bones of the Kilimanjaro speci-
mens are shorter in relation to width (0.61) than those of almost all other Grey Duiker
skulls examined. Five altivallis (4 from Hollister 1924) averaged 0.53 (0.51-0.56), six
nyansae (5 from Hollister 1924) averaged 0.54 (0.51-0.57), and six deserti and roosevelti
(Hollister 1924) averaged 0.51 (0.46-0.55). I also examined the width/length ratio of the
nasals of 25 skulls in the National Museums of Kenya. They came from various lowland
locations. Four of the 25 had ratios greater than 0.57. Three of the four had a nasal
wider than average (32 vs 29 mm) but with normal lengths. Only one, an adult male
(KNM No. 301) had the greatly shortened nasal of the two Kilimanjaro specimens.
The actual difference between the skulls from Kilimanjaro and all others with the one
exception is in the length of ‘free’ nasal, that is, the nasal extending beyond the
nasal-premaxillary notch. The ‘free’ nasal is approximately 5 mm shorter on the
Kilimanjaro skulls.

Table 2

Skull measurements (mm) of 2 Grey Duikers from Kilimanjaro, nyansae from Namanga,
and altivallis from the Aberdares, and of additional specimens of nyansae and altivallis
from Hollister 1924. a= from Hollister

Subspecies

Shira 2

Shira 3

nyansae

nyansae a

altivallis

altivallis a

Sex

Greatest length

male

female

female

2 male

3 female

female

2 male
2 female

of skull
Condylo-basal

165

163

161

167(158-174)

160

164(157-168)

length

I5I-5

153-5

151

155(148-162)

157

154(145-159)

Palatal length
Greatest breadth

81

79

82

79(75-86)

85

79(72-82)

of skull

76

79

75

—

77

—

Zygomatic breadth

75

75

70

74(72-76)

73

76(74-77)

Mandible length
Maxillary tooth

129

124

131

125(118-133)

134

125(120-130)

row length
Mandibular tooth

48

44-5

44

48(45-50)

50

48(45-50.5)

row length

52.5

49-5

46

53(49-55)

50

51(48-56)

Nasal breadth

31

29

30

29(28-31)

28

28.5(27-31)

Nasal length
Ratio of the width
to length of the

49

49

54

56(53-63)

52

54(50-58)

nasal

0.63

0.59

0.55

0.52 (av.)

o-54

o-53(av.)

Page 6

Only males possess horns. The horns of the adult male from Kilimanjaro lay
at an angle of 170 degrees to the face. The lengths of the horns along the front curve
were 117 (left) and 114 mm. An old skull found by Swynnerton (1949) had horns
approximately 5I inches (145 mm) long. Other individuals seen in the field appeared to
have horns longer than those which Swynnerton found.

Evolution

Lydekker (1926: 150) suggests that altivallis has arisen from hindei (nyansae).
In reviewing the similarities in colouration and other characteristics that the Grey
Duiker of Kilimanjaro shares with nyansae and altivallis , it would appear that it, too,
has probably evolved from nyansae. However, as Kilimanjaro is separated from the
range of altivallis by nearly 400 km, which includes bands of dense forest and open
grasslands, altivallis and the Kilimanjaro Bush Duiker likely arose independently. This
independent evolution is supported by the apparently consistent differences between
altivallis and the Kilimanjaro animals in length of the nasal and the tail and in the shape
of the ear. Based on these differences, the Grey Duiker from upper Kilimanjaro may
represent an undescribed race, but more specimens are necessary to confirm this
hypothesis.

BIOLOGY

Habitat and distribution

The Grey Duiker of Kilimanjaro is resident from the treeline at 2,900 m (2,600
on West Kilimanjaro) up to 4,600 m. Remains have been found as high as 5,500 m
(Meyer 1890). It is not, however, equally distributed within these altitudes or
on adjacent slopes. There are very few animals in the thick heath zone (Erica, Philippia,
Adenocarpus, Hypericum spp.) from the treeline to 3,300 m. In this zone individuals
are rarely seen and signs such as spoor and dung are uncommon. Above 4,100 m the
duiker is also uncommon and it is only in favourable areas like the southwest slopes of
Kibo and Mawenzi that it regularly occurs over 4,300 m. Thus the preferred altitude
range is 3,300 m to 4,100 m. Even within these limits there are areas like the dry
north slope of Kibo where the duiker is scarce.

Undoubtedly, the most favourable area on Kilimanjaro for the Grey Duiker
is the Shira Plateau. This plateau of some 55 km2 between 3,300 and 3,800 m
on the west slope of Kilimanjaro abounds in duiker and it is not unusual to see
several in a day. The Shira is a relatively level plain dominated by an open heath, ever-
lasting (Helichrysum spp.), and grass (Deschampsia, Koeleria spp.) community except
for a large boggy moorland dominated by sedges and tussock grasses. In this open moor-
land, and in the many damp drainages that dissect the plateau, succulent herbs and shrubs
(Alchemilla, Ranunculus, etc.) are common. Salt (1954) provides a more complete des-
cription of the area. Elsewhere on Kilimanjaro, the duiker is most frequently seen in the
wide valleys such as those of the Kikafu and Umbwe Rivers. Individuals and signs are
rare on the drier ridges and moraines between valleys and on dry open slopes.

Numbers

The Kilimanjaro Bush Duiker appears to be a solitary animil as it is rarely found in
pairs. Of nearly 75 records only four times were two individuals seen together. It may
be that both males and females occupy territories as I have several records where an
animal was seen at the same locality on two or more occasions over a period of months.
The animals were unmarked but consistent patterns of behaviour strongly suggest
they were the same.

On the Shira Plateau I saw an average of three (1-8) animals per day (ir days).
Similar numbers were also seen by other observers in the same area. To get a measure of

Page 7

density on the plateau, a census was carried out by students and staff of the Wildlife
College on February 16, 1970. A modified King Census was used (Hemingway in prep.)
and gave an adult population density of 1.80 per km2. Interestingly, a similar census
done by the Wildlife College in Pseudolachnostylia woodland (a Miombo type) at
Kingapira in the Selous Game Reserve, September 15, 1969, gave a density of 2.04 per
km2. Both must be considered minimum densities. The closeness of these results in
apparently optimum habitats without exploitation suggests that behaviour may be
limiting numbers.

Over the remainder of Kilimanjaro, the density is almost certainly lower,
probably less than one per 2 km2, as there are the large tracts of poor habitat.
Nonetheless, even at the lowest density, the Grey Duiker is still the most numerous
large animal on the upper slopes of Kilimanjaro. The only other resident ungulate, the
eland, is unlikely to exceed 50 individuals on the whole mountain (unpublished data).
In a personal communication (September 2, 1969) W. Woodley and P. Duncan report
seeing four individuals feeding regularly in an area of about 0.75 km2 in the Aberdares.

Reproduction and recruitment

The Grey Duiker of Kilimanjaro appears to breed throughout the year as the
females collected in both November and July were pregnant. The July foetus was
near term as it had a crown-rump length of 33 cm and weighed 3.15 lbs. (1.43 kg),
which is close to the 3.2 lbs. (1.45 kg) and 30 cm reported by Wilson and Clarke
(1962) for new born. The foetus of the second female from Kilimanjaro and those of
the Namanga and Aberdare females were in earlier stages of development.

In all the trips I made to upper Kilimanjaro not once did I see a young duiker
either alone or with its mother. Apparently the females keep their young well hidden
until well grown. It is also possible that there is a high death rate which tends to reduce
the number of visible young. High juvenile mortality could account for the high preg-
nancy rate (4/4) of the females in this study and the 51 percent (48/94) reported by Wilson
and Clarke (1962). On Kilimanjaro there are several predators including the Serval
( Felis serval Schreber), the Leopard ( Panthera pardus Linn.), the Lammergeyer
( Gypaetus barbatus Linn.), and Wild Dog ( Lycaon pictus Temm.) (Child 1965, Lamprey
1965).

Habits

Most duikers are seen in the early morning or late afternoon. It is unusual to see
an animal before it sees you and the majority are only antelope bounding out of sight.
They tend to flush at long distances in relatively open habitat. The average distance was
1 51 m in the census taken in 1970. Once flushed, the duiker rarely stops until out of
sight even if it is three to four hundred meters away across an open moor. These behavi our
patterns are likely the reason the animal was incorrectly identified by so many people,
and why it was not collected more frequently.

Through the day most animals rest in shrubby areas rather than in the open.
However, I have five records of duikers being 100 m or more from bushy cover of
any kind at midday. In three cases the animal was lying down while in the other two they
were moving and feeding. Roosevelt and Heller (1914) say that altivallis in the Aberdares
leaves the heath bush only at night to feed on areas of open moor but their conclusion
was likely the result of insufficient observations. Animals surprised out in the open dashed
for cover although not necessarily the nearest.

When feeding, an individual moves without definite direction and stops here and
there to take some item. About every 30 seconds the head is suddenly raised probably to
look for danger. Yet, one afternoon I was able to stalk within 50 m of a male on open moor
by moving only when the animal’s head was down. It struck me that a similar approach
by a predator could have been successful.

Page 8

Food

The rumen of the first female collected was the only one that contained plants
that were not digested beyond recognition. Her rumen contained the leaves and shoots
of Ranunculus oreophytus Del., R. volkensii Engl, and Alchemilla johnstonii Oliv. The
rumen contents of the Aberdare female were also highly digested, however, Roosevelt and
Heller (1914) note that the chief food of an animal Roosevelt collected in the Aberdares
was Alchemilla argynophylla Oliv. These very limited data suggest that the Grey Duiker
of the mountains prefer the more succulent vegetation to be found in damp areas.
The presence or absence of preferred food is probably one of the more important factors
affecting the distribution of the Grey Duiker, and perhaps density. It has been
pointed out that on Kilimanjaro the duiker is most plentiful on the Shira Plateau and in
the broad wet valleys while it is very uncommon on dry slopes and ridges.

The rumen of the Namanga female was filled with the fruits of Solanum sp. This
fruit was probably the most succulent item of food available in July in that area.

SUMMARY

a) Present evidence indicates that the only small antelope of upper Kilimanjaro
is the Grey Duiker. This study found no evidence to suggest that either Klipspringer
or Mountain Reedbuck occur at high elevations as has been reported in earlier papers
(Child 1965, Swynnerton 1949).

b) The Grey Duiker of upper Kilimanjaro may represent a previously undescribed
mountain race of Sylvicapra grimmia for the following reasons :

1) geographical isolation from other mountain races,

2) ears more squarely tipped than altivallis,

3) a short tail compared to neighbouring races, and

4) a nasal bone that is shorter in relation to width than in other races.

c) The Kilimanjaro Grey Duiker is most abundant between 3,300 and 3,800 m
in areas of relatively open and level terrain dissected with drainage lines.

d) The duiker appear territorial and occur at a density of about 1.80 per km2
in good habitat.

e) Breeding occurs throughout the year. There appears to be a high juvenile
mortality rate.

f) The chief food appears to be succulent herbs and shrubs with Ranunculus
and Alchemilla spp. being particularly important.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This paper resulted from data collected while I was a Canadian University Service
Overseas volunteer stationed at the College of African Wildlife Management at Mweka,
Tanzania. I am particularly grateful to the College which provided the time, equipment,
and technical assistants needed to carry out the study. I wish also to thank the many
students who carried out the census and staff, particularly P. Hemingway, G. S. Child,
F. Poppleton, and V. C. Gilbert, who assisted in the field, analyzed data, or criticized
earlier drafts of this manuscript. In addition, I wish to acknowledge the assistance and
co-operation of the staff of the National Museums of Kenya, and P. M. Olindo and W.
Woodley of Kenya National Parks.

Page 9

LITERATURE CITED

Ansell, W. F. H. (1968). Artiodactyla (excluding the genus Gazella ). A Preliminary Manual for
African Animals. Edited by J. Meester No. 8 Smithsonian Institution.

Child, G. S. (1965). Some Notes on Mammals of Kilimanjaro. Tanganyika Notes Rec. No. 64:
77-89.

Gillman, C. (1923). An Ascent of Kilimanjaro. GeogrlJ. No. 61 : 1-27.

Guest, N. J. and G. P. Leedal (1954). Notes on the fauna of Kilimanjaro. Tanganyika Notes Rec.
No. 36: 43-49.

Haltenorth, T. (1963). Klassifikation de Saugetiere: Artiodactyla 1(18): 1-167 Walter de Gruyter
and Co. Berlin.

Heller, E. (1912). New genera and races of African ungulates. Smithson, misc. Coll. 60,
No. 8: 1-16.

Hemingway, P. (in prep.). A line transect estimator for the case of obstruction to vision.

Hollister, N. (1924). East African Mammals in the U.S. Nat. Mus. Primates, Artiodactyla, Per-
rissodactyla, Proboscidae, and Hydracoidae. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. No. 99 Part 3: 82-86.

Johnston, H. H. (1886). The Kilimanjaro Expedition, London.

Lamprey, H. F. (1965). Birds of the forest and alpine zones of Kilimanjaro. Tanganyika Notes Rec.
No. 64: 69-75.

Lonnberg, E. (1919). Revue zool. afri. 7s 181-3.

Lydekker, R. (.1914). Cat. of the ungulate mammals in the Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist. Vol. 2 : Artiodactyla
107-121.

(1926). (ed) The Game Animals of Africa. Rowland Ward Ltd. London.

Meyer, H. (1890). Ost-Afrikanische Gletscherfahrten. Leipzig.

Miller, (1934). Report of a Trip up Kilimanjaro. Ann. Rep. Tang. Game Dept. 1933.

Moreau, R. E. (1944). Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya: Some comparisons with Special reference
to the mammals and birds: and with a note on Mount Meru. Tanganyika Notes Rec. No. 18:
28-59.

Roosevelt, T. and E. Heller (1914). Life-Histories of African Game Animals. (2 vols). New York.

Salt, G. (1954). A contribution to the Ecology of Upper Kilimanjaro. J. Ecol. 42: 375-423.

Swynnerton, G. H. (1949). Report of a safari to explore the Shira Plateau, West Kilimanjaro,
East Africa. Ann. Rep. Game Dept., 1948: 9-1 1.

Wilson, V. J. and J. F. Clarke (1962). Observations on the Common Duiker, Sylvicapra grimmia
Linn., based on material collected from a Tsetse Control Game Elimination Scheme. Proc.
Zool. Soc. London 138: 487-497.

Wroughton, R. C. (1910). Two new duikers related to Cephalophus abysinicus S. Thomas and
new Dendromus from Mount Elgon. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., Ser. 8, Vol. 5 : 273-276.

(Received 1st April 1974)

Published by The East Africa Natural History Society, Box 44486, Nairobi, Kenya and
printed by Kenya Litho Ltd., Box 40775, Changamwe Road, Nairobi

SOL ,6 7

JOURNAL

OF THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

20 th September, 1975 No. 153

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE BIOLOGY OF THE PIED CROW

CORVUS ALBUS MULLER IN UGANDA
By

J. J. Gwahaba

Dept, of Zoology, Maker ere University, Kampala, Uganda

INTRODUCTION

The Pied Crow is the most widely distributed corvid in Uganda. It occurs in virtually
all parts of the country, but especially in association with human settlements. The
population of these birds in Kampala has been estimated to be between 6oo and 8oo
birds (Pomeroy, in prep.), the density being particularly high in the central part of the
city.

In comparison with some other corvids, there is little information available in
literature on the biology of the Pied Crow. It is widespread in Africa south of the Sahara
except where there is desert or tropical forest (Mackworth-Praed and Grant, 1963).
Pied Crows have received the attention of research workers mainly because of their
feeding habits. Among the types of food that they are reported to eat are agricultural
crops like maize, and young domestic fowls and eggs (Priest, 1936). On occasions. Pied
Crows attack lambs and peck them to death, pulling their eyes out (Hey, 1966), a habit
reported about other corvids in Britain and Australia (Holyoak, 1968; Rowley, 1969).
In addition. Priest (1936) suggested that they eat insects off cattle and wild animals.
The period of egg-laying seems to vary from place to place, being in January in Uganda,
western Kenya and the Sudan, and in November in eastern Kenya (Mackworth-Praed
and Grant, 1963). Nests are usually constructed in the branches of lofty trees (Clancey,
1964; Mackworth-Praed and Grant, 1963) but some nests have been found near the
ground (Priest, 1936) and others on telephone poles — a rather unusual site (Clancey, 1964).

This study of the crow populations in and around Kampala was made between
July and October 1970. The main areas of study were at Wandegeya, the refuse tips
at Kololo and Mengo-Natete, and Makerere.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

(a) Population counts

Crow counts were made twice a week at the roost at Wandegeya and once a week
at the rubbish dumps. The counts were made using a pair of binoculars and a hand tally
counter.

APR 7 1976

Page 2

The roost at Wandegeya is a small Eucalyptus stand of trees planted mainly along
roads, occupying about io ha. Apart from a large number of crows inhabiting it at night,
the roost is used by about 30 Hooded Vultures Necrosyrtes monachus about 15 Hadada
Ibises Hagedashia hagedash, a few Black-and-white Casqued Hornbills Bycanistes
subcylindricus and a number of bats (Microchiroptera).

In the evening the crows fly to areas surrounding the roost from where they fly
singly, in twos or small flocks to the roost. Counting at the roost was timed to start when
the number of crows in the neighbouring area was observed to be low, i.e. between 18.45
and 18.55 hrs and usually took about 15 minutes. A path covering the whole roost was
devised from which most of the trees occupied by the crows could be observed.

At each tree, I stood directly below the canopy and counted the birds rapidly
clockwise round the canopy. Eucalyptus trees lend themselves to this kind of counting
since they have thinly distributed lanceolate leaves so that birds sitting on branches are
distinct when viewed against the sky.

At the refuse tips the weekly count was made once between 09.00 and 10.00 hrs
local time, and on a few occasions several times a day.

(1 b ) Behavioural studies

Whenever counts were made at the roost and at the rubbish dumps, notes were
made about behaviour. In addition, the behaviour of four crows in cages was studied,
though not quantitatively. The four birds were caught in a trap similar to the one
suggested by Hollom (1950). The crows were later ringed, their white chest and collar
dyed pink, and released for observations in the field.

(c) Examination and dissection

Twenty-six crows were shot between July and October 1970 near the roost at
Wandegeya and two others were shot at the Kololo rubbish dump. Since a large propor-
tion of the population in Kampala may be roosting at Wandegeya, the crows that were
obtained from there are likely to be representative of the population around the city.
One bird, which probably had been hit by a stone, was obtained from Lugala (west of
Kampala). When the birds were received, they were put into a plastic bag and sealed
to avoid loss of ectoparasites. The weight of the birds as well as the lengths of
the body, wings, wing span, tarsi and tail were recorded. Ectoparasites from the birds
were collected and fixed in 70% ethanol. If the birds were not to be dissected
immediately, they were stored in a deep-freeze.

On dissection, the major organs — the alimentary tract, trachea, lungs, and liver — and
the abdominal and synovial fluid cavities were examined — and any endoparasites found
in them were fixed in 70% ethanol. Thin and thick smears of blood from the heart
were made on slides and examined for microfilariae and other blood parasites.

Food from the gizzard was put into a petri-dish and washed several times until all
digested and crushed floating material was removed. The remaining food was identified
as far as possible under a binocular microscope, and the types of food constituting the
highest percentage were recorded as the bulk. The types of food occurring in small
quantities were also recorded in detail.

The reproductive condition of the birds was assessed from the size of the gonads
which were weighed. As there could be a correlation between the reproductive condition
of a bird and moulting, the flight feathers of the birds were examined for any signs of
moult. A scale, devised by Ashmole (1962) and also used by Ingolfsson (1970), was
used to classify these feathers according to their age.

Page 3

RESULTS

(a) Measurements

The major problem in making studies on the Pied Crow in the field (especially on
behaviour) is that there is no difference in the plumage of the sexes. Therefore, measure-
ments were made with the object of determining whether there was a size difference
between the sexes. The measurements indicated that males are larger than females
(Fig. i (a)) but the difference is too slight to assist identification in the field.

Some of the measurements made are regarded as not being reliable because they
are affected by other factors as well as the accuracy of measuring. The wing length is
dependent upon the moult stage of the bird. If the distal primaries are young, or old
and torn at the ends, the wing length will be shorter than when they are just mature.
The total length of the bird and the wing span depend on how hard the wings and the
neck respectively are stretched, and it is difficult to standardize the stretch. However,
the bill, tail and tarsal lengths, and the weight are regarded as being more reliable than
the first three measurements (the tail feathers do not break much at the tips).

If the more reliable of the measurements are pooled, they may be of some use on
trapped birds. The pooling has been done by expressing each measurement as a per-
centage of twice the mean of all the birds that were examined. The mean of these percent-
ages for a single bird is referred to as the size statistic of the bird. This statistic separates
the sexes better than any single measurement (Fig. i(b)), although not completely.
Crows with a size statistic larger than 50 per cent are likely to be males, while the majority
of crows with a size statistic smaller than this are females. The three males that had a
size statistic smaller than 50 per cent had testes weighing 0.0 ig, o.02g, and o.03g each,
which is at the lower range of weight of testes of males (o.oi-o.ig) that were not in
reproductive condition. For the only fledgling that was caught (it had difficulty in flying
and perching), apparently only the vasa deferentia had developed. The fledgling had a
size statistic of 48%, which is not different from those of the three small males
in Fig. i(b). It is probable that these small males were sub-adults.

( b ) Food

There seems to be a wide variety of types of food eaten by crows (Table 1), which
includes plant and animal food and carrion. Some of the material occurring in small
quantities, like laterite stones, may be eaten unintentionally in the process of eating other
types of food. However, crows have been observed tearing up and eating butter wrappings.
Small quantities have been found in their gizzards.

Of the bulk food found in the gizzard, the type that occurred most frequently was
groundnuts. Most of these groundnuts were raw but in a few cases they had been roasted.
The period of survey was the time when groundnuts were harvested and sold at trading
centres. It is likely that the crows obtained them either from the farms around Kampala
or from trading centres. The roasted groundnuts may have been obtained from dustbins
or from refuse tips.

(c) Breeding and moulting

When observations were started in July 1970, there was much twig-carrying activity.
This continued to be intense until October. After this period, twig-carrying crows were
seen infrequently. The observations were discontinued in January 1971, and there is
therefore no information about the intensity of this activity between then and June.

This twig-carrying activity is an indication that the crows are building nests or
repairing used ones in preparation for breeding. However, only six nests (four at
Makerere, one at Wandegeya and one near the Mengo-Natete refuse tip) were observed

Page 4

FIGURES

i a. The differences in size and weight between male and female Pied Crows: (i) weight, (ii) total
length, (iii) wing span, (iv) wing length (v) bill length, (vi) tarsal length and (vii) tail length.
lb. A combination of the more reliable measurements — bill, tarsal and tail lengths (Fig. i a v, vi
and vii. Also see text).

Page 5

to be in use. All these nests were high up on lofty Eucalyptus trees, constructed in a
fork of branches or among many small delicate branches, which made them inaccessible.
One of the nests at Makerere disintegrated (apparently after use) and on the ground were
many Eucalyptus twigs, small bits of cloth and feathers probably used in lining the nest.
The rest of the nests, when viewed through binoculars, also seemed to be composed
of Eucalyptus twigs.

Crows have ten primary and ten secondary remiges (the last 3 or 4 are usually
referred to as ‘tertials’), and twelve rectrices. Crows examined at the same time were
found to be at widely different stages of shedding their flight feathers. Since moulting
usually follows breeding, the wide difference in the moult stages of crows at any one
time may be a reflection of more or less continuous breeding throughout the year.

Table i

Gizzard Contents

Type of Food

Total no. % of crows % of crows having

of crows with food food

As Bulk In small
quantities

Vegetable Food

Groundnuts
Potatoes (cooked) .

Wild dates
Cassava (cooked) .

Maize meal (posho)

Maize grains
Cabbages
Grass blades
Flowers (stamens)

Rice (cooked)

Wild berries

Tomatoes

Grams

Unidentifiable Vegetable matter

Animal Food — Prey animals

Egg shell fragments
Green caterpillars
Young birds

Ants .....
Termites ....
Dipteran Larvae
Beetles ....

Animal Carrion

Fish carrion
Meat, small bones.

Unidentifiable Animal matter

Dead Organic or Inorganic Material

Small stones (Laterite) .

Small stones (Limestone)

Butter wrappings
Thin white paper
Pieces of wood

6

21

21

0

3

10

10

0

4

14

10

3

2

7

7

0

3

xo

7

3

3

10

3

7

1

3

3

0

7

24

3

21

2

7

0

7

1

3

0

3

1

3

0

3

1

3

0

3

1

3

3

0

3

10

7

3

8

20

18

10

6

21

14

7

4

14

3

10

7

24

3

21

2

7

3

3

1

3

3

0

1

3

0

3

4

14

0

14

6

21

7

14

3

10

3

7

3

10

0

10

4

14

0

14

I

3

0

3

1

3

0

3

1

3

0

3

Page 6

On the wing, moulting starts from two points — at the base of the wing and at the
carpal joint. The moult of the primary remiges starts at the carpal joint and proceeds
outwards to the end of the wing. Moulting of the secondary remiges starts at both ends
of the secondary remex tract. Therefore, this tract has two moult waves: the proximal
one which starts at the base of the wing and proceeds outwards, and the distal one
which starts at the carpal joint and proceeds inwards. The two waves converge and meet
at the 5th and 6th secondary remiges. The moult of rectrices starts at the centre of the
rectrix tract and proceeds outwards. The moulting seems to be synchronous in both
wings and on both sides of the tail.

As to the sequence of events during a complete moult of the flight feathers in a crow,
it seems that the primary remex moult starts first and ends last, during which period the
secondary remiges and rectrices are shed as is true of many passerines. The growth rate
of the 9th and 10th primaries, v/hich was measured from captured birds in cages, is
about 12 cm per month (Fig. 2). Therefore, it seems that a single long remex (about 16-
17 cm from the calamus) takes about 40 days to mature. This figure should be regarded
with caution since the growth rate of remiges of birds in the wild could be different from
that of cage birds. Nevertheless, from this growth rate and from the size-gradation of
growing remiges and rectrices of the birds examined, the period taken for the crows
to moult has been estimated.

The moult of primary remiges, which takes the longest time, is completed in about
100 days (just over 3 months) while that of the secondary remiges and the rectrices
takes about 50 days (nearly 2 months). This period is short compared with its relative,
the Raven, which is 140- 150 days (Snow, 1970).

The only crow examined which was in reproductive condition (a male with large
testes each weighing ca. ig) had mature, slightly old flight feathers. In addition, birds
examined in August and September 1970 gave a relatively higher moult score than those
examined in July and October 1970 (Fig. 3). This suggests that there were relatively
more birds with mature flight feathers in these months than in the months before or
after it. Since this was the period of marked twig-carrying and nestbuilding activities
this indicates that crows may shed flight feathers before or after breeding. In the Raven,
wing moult begins at about the same time as the hatching of young (Snow, 1970).

( d ) Behaviour

(i) Pair bond and degree of social behaviour

Pied Crows are more often seen singly or in pairs than in flocks, which suggests
that there is a formation of a pair bond. Sexual display and courtship have been observed
between birds of a pair indicating that the pair are a male and a female. During courtship,
the male raises the coverts of the chest, neck and head, and elevates its head while facing
the female. It then takes a few steps, lowers its head with a fully stretched neck and, with
the bill pointing straight at the female, it bends down into a half-crouching position, with
the wings lowered, and makes a low but loud “coow, coow” call. Afterwards, the male
rises from the half-crouching position, takes a few steps backwards and repeats the same
sequence of acts. This performance may be repeated a number of times before the male
jumps onto the female to effect copulation, which may be successful if the female does
not jump away from its position.

Further, a form of sexual display has been observed at feeding grounds. One of
the birds (probably male) stands beside the other (probably female) with its legs wide
apart, the head elevated and the coverts of the chest, neck and head feathers raised. It
then lowers the head and points the bill directly down between its legs, after which it
rapidly tosses the head into the air. This performance is repeated several times rapidly
and can be likened to the bird pecking at something between its legs and tossing it into
the air. Afterwards, the displaying bird moves closer to the other bird and steps on its
leg. On several occasions, the other bird has been observed jumping away a number
of times to free its legs. This display was not followed by an attempt by the ‘male’ to
mount the ‘female’.

Page 7

Pied Crows may form flocks which can be as large as forty birds. This occurs
especially when they are feeding or soaring, or when returning to the roost. Sometimes,
the crows form a large irregular circle while soaring in the evening, displaying what
Wynne-Edwards (1962) refers to as “crow’s weddings or parliaments”. This tendency
to social behaviour is also displayed when one of the crows is in trouble; other crows
then attempt to come to its aid. Whenever the trap was set and crows were caught, a
large number of others gathered around the trap. If I approached, the group of crows
outside would start jumping up and down calling excitedly to those crows in the trap.

The growth of flight feathers of captive Pied Crows (length in millimetres)

First bird : (a) left 9th primary remex,

(b) right 10th „ „

(c) left 10th „ „

Second bird: ( d ) left 9th „ ,,

(e) right 9th „ „

55

Page 8

3. The means of moult scores of Pied Crows that were examined. Standard deviations are also
included where several birds were obtained at the same time.

Eventually, the crows flew away to a distance of about ten metres from where they
watched the proceedings. Meanwhile, the birds in the trap were restless, but they did
not call even when caught and removed from the trap. When the crows were placed in
cages, other crows sometimes gathered around the cages. At times when the ones in
the cages were being handled (i.e. being measured, dyed or ringed) those outside would
start calling loudly while flying round and round the cages. This sometimes made the
captive birds more aggressive, so that they called, clawed and bit viciously.

(ii) Daily pattern of activities

As morning approaches, the crows start calling from the roost. Calling starts at
about 05.00 hrs, but it is not until 06.00 hrs that they start flying about in the roost.
Some start flying away singly, in pairs or in threes, or occasionally in small flocks to
neighbouring trees and buildings, or to distant places. About half an hour after the birds
start flying, they leave the high buildings and trees, and alight on the ground to start
feeding.

Feeding is intensive for the first three to four hours. At each of the rubbish dumps at
Kololo and Natete, there can be as many as 30 crows feeding on the refuse. As the sun
gets hot, the crows leave exposed feeding grounds and continue feeding in shady
areas around homesteads, under trees in compounds, in hedges, plantations and so on.
Some rest in trees, making strange sounds, or perform aerial acrobatics or just soar
higher and higher in the sky. On cloudy days they stay longer on exposed feeding grounds.

Feeding becomes intensive again in the afternoon and early evening. Around 18.00

Page 9

hrs, the crows start flying to trees and buildings around the roost, such as Mulago
Hospital (about km from the roost) where the number of crows may exceed a hundred.
From here they start flying to the roost singly, in pairs or threes, or sometimes in small
flocks. Some crows in the roost may fly back to Mulago, so that there is a constant
interchange of birds flying to and from the roost. But gradually the numbers around
Mulago diminish and by about 19.05 hrs all the crows have left the area for the roost.
Counts at the roost showed that there are between 450 and 500 crows inhabiting it at
night.

On some evenings, the crows may be restless. They fly from one tree to another
causing crows already on it to fly into the air, fly round and come back to the same or
another tree, ‘cawing’ excitedly causing more and more crows to fly into the air, until
the flock is large. Sometimes crows on the whole roost get up in this way ; they fly in one
direction and as they go, groups break off and wheel back to the roost. This causes
intense activity and unrest in the roost, with crows coming back and trying to settle
down, but being caused to fly away again by other returning crows. This intense activity
dies down gradually as it gets dark, and by 19.30 hrs the crows have settled down for the
night, although an odd pair can be seen now and then, flying from one part of the roost
to another

This calling and flocking together of crows in the roost is similar to what Wynne-
Edwards (1962) refers to as epideictic displays, which he suggests are associated with
population control measures employed by the species. He is of the opinion that the
display enables the crows in the roost to assess the size of the population and thereby
get adjusted to a breeding level which will not cause over-crowding.

(iii) Voice

The method used to describe sounds made by crows will be that referred to by
Hold (1970) as the subjective syllabic method, which, according to him, is still valid
in spite of the many developments in the technique for refining bird-song analysis.

The crows make the well-known “caaw”, described by Williams (1963) and many
others as a harsh guttural call, and described by Clancey (1964) as a simple “kwaak”.
The “caaw” is varied according to the situation:

(a) When crows are at, or near, the nest and a person approaches they make a
long rising “caaw” which sounds like a complaining note.

( b ) When the crows seem to be excited or frightened, the “caaw” is short, repeated
many times and more or less just “ca-ca-ca-ca”.

(c) When a crow is calling its mate, it makes a straight-forward long “caaw, caaw,
caaw”, repeated usually twice or three times.

( d ) When feeding or looking for food, the crow may make “caaws” of various kinds.

(<?) When crows are fighting, they make the sharp “ci-i-i-i” of falling pitch.

In addition, crows make the sound “coow” as has been mentioned above. This
sound is probably made by males alone during courtship. Earlier, Priest (1936) noted
that this sound is made only during the breeding period or at the peak of breeding. Here,
two males have been observed making it during courtship.

On several occasions a distant crow has been heard making the sound “do, cio”,
the significance of which has not been discovered.

There are two other distinct sounds whose significance is not known. One of them
is the guggling noise “cororororo — carararara” which crows make during the day when
they are sitting in the canopy of trees. It could be a sound of satisfaction. However,
crows have been seen making this sound when feeding or looking for food. An unsettled
juvenile was seen making many variations to the “caaw” call, and at the same time
attempting to make the “corororo-cararara” which resulted in queer noises. Another

Page 10

sound is the “ce-ce-ce” pause, “ce-ce-ce-ce” pause etc. As the crow makes this noise it
half spreads its wings.

Chamberlain, et al. (1968) examined the syringeal anatomy of the Common Crow,
Corvus brachyrhynchos, and found that it has seven muscles, sufficient to give the crows
considerable ability to vary their sound. A casual inspection of the syringeal anatomy
of the Pied Crow indicates a similarity with that of the Common Crow.

(iv) Relations with man and other animals

In their daily foraging activity, crows come into close proximity with human beings.
They are seen feeding in markets near fish stands, butcheries and dustins; the people do
not seem to molest or to pay particular attention to them. This may be due to people
being accustomed to seeing these birds foraging, and the birds becoming conditioned
to this apparent harmlessness of man.

On the two occasions that crows were caught in the trap, the crows that gathered
around the trap did not attack me when I approached, although they put up a tumult of
calls. But the crows in the cages, although they did not attack me, showed some form
of threat display, especially after they had been handled. This display was in the form of
momentarily raising the feathers of the chest, neck and head. One instance was when
two crows were on one perch and one of them displayed in this way. To see how the two
birds would behave when faced with a threat from me, I made an attempt to drive them
off the perch. I waved my hands in the air which made the bird that had not displayed
fly off the perch, but not the one that had displayed. I moved closer to within arm’s
reach of the perch and extended a twig to push the bird off the perch, but the crow
simply bit the twig viciously and did not move. This suggests that the display is some
form of threat behaviour.

The crows behaved in a variety of ways towards other animals. Whenever a dog
passed the cages, crows in the cages would ‘caw’ and jump up and down. Near refuse
tips, crows have been observed to fly round and round a dog, calling and sometimes
diving at it. Aggressive behaviour of crows towards dogs may be a result of the competi-
tion for food that occurs at the feeding ground, where dogs sometimes chase birds
off food. This apparent competition also occurs between birds of different species, i.e.
crows. Marabous, kites and vultures. Marabous often drive crows off food by clattering
their bills. But kites and crows frequently chase each other for food. Crows and vultures
rarely chase each other, probably because vultures do not persist in chasing crows when
the latter have got food.

Furthermore, crows perform a type of behaviour, the pulling of tails, the significance
of which is yet unknown. One sunny afternoon when a group of Marabous were kneeling
and resting after feeding, a crow stealthily walked up behind one of them and pulled its
tail until the stork stood up. The crow then trotted to the next stork and repeated the
tail-pulling act. The crow performed this act to all the storks in the group, after which
it trotted off to feed at the rubbish tip. Crows pull the tails of vultures too and neither
species chases the crows after this tail-pulling act. The crows have not been observed
pulling the tails of lutes which, however, are on the wing most of the time. On one
occasion, a crow was observed attempting to pull a cat’s tail! (Pomeroy, pers. comm.).

(1 e ) Parasites (Fig. 4)

Ectoparasites that were found on crows included listerophorid mites, lice (Mallo-
phaga) pupiparan flies and a tick (Table 2). The mites were found lodged in between
barbs of the remiges, near the rachis, while the tick was found on the chin. One crow
which lacked a lower jaw was highly infested with lice. This high infestation is likely to
be a result of the crow being unable to remove the lice by preening. This condition is
characteristic of many birds with bill abnormalities (Pomeroy, 1962).

The only endoparasites found in crows were tapeworms (in the small instestine)

Page 11

Parasites of Pied Crows, (a): (i) female Pupiparan fly, (ii) abdomen of male with aedeagus
extended, (iii) aedeagus withdrawn, (iv) wing of fly. (b) Listerophorid mites (i) female, (ii)
male.

Page 12

( c ) Mallophaga. (d) nematodes from body cavity (i) whole worm, (ii) hind end. (e)
Filaroid worms from synovial cavity of tarsometatarsus : (i) female, (ii) male (with insets of
hind end). (/) scolex of tapeworms.

Page 13

and nematodes (in the abdominal cavity., and in the synovial fluid cavity of the tibiotarsal
joint). The tapeworms are long, measuring about 40 cm. The birds that had nematodes
in the synovial fluid cavity, had microfilariae in the blood too, which suggests that
these are filaroid nematodes. Their presence in the synovial cavity, was sometimes
associated with broken connective tissue which possibly came from the ligamentous
aponeurosis.

Table 2

Degree of infestation of crows by parasites

Parasite

No. of
infested birds

% of infested
birds

Degree of
infestation
(No. /bird)

Tt. j. nematodes

9

35

2-51

B.C. nematodes

2

6

i-5

Tapeworms

II

38

i-9

Mites

27

93

Many

Lice

26

90

Usually

many

Pupiparan flies

8

28

1-3

Ticks

1

3

1

Total No. of Crows was 29.
Tt. j. = tibiotarsal joint

B.C. = body cavity

DISCUSSION

Although Pied Crows are found in most areas in Uganda, large numbers are found
mainly in towns. This is largely a result of the urban areas having plenty of refuse and
animal carrion which the birds feed upon. In Kampala, the number of Pied Crows
that feed at rubbish tips is only a small proportion (about i/40th) of the population of
crows in the city (Pomeroy, in prep.). The rest are to be found foraging in the densely
populated areas of the city. From here, they remove discarded bits and pieces of food,
animal carrion and vegetable matter, which would otherwise cause a health hazard to
the urban population.

Another beneficial aspect of crows to man is in their catholic feeding habit. Among
the many types of food they eat are caterpillars (lepidopteran larvae) some of which
could be pests on some agricultural crops, and larvae of dipterans (flies) which could be
vectors of human diseases. Therefore, the crows have adapted to living in urban areas
not only to their own benefit but also to that of the ever-increasing urban human
population.

SUMMARY

The Pied Crow population in and around Kampala was studied and data have been
presented on the following aspects: size of crows, food, breeding, moulting, parasites,
and behaviour — pair bonding, social behaviour, daily pattern of activities, voice and
relations with man and other animals.

Page 14

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Prof. W. B. Banage, Dept, of Zoology, Makerere University Kampala, for
his constant advice and for supervision of this study. Dr. W. R. Woolf (then Director of Tsetse
Control Division, Ministry of Animal Industry, Game and Fisheries) rendered a lot of help in
obtaining birds for dissection, for which I am thankful.

REFERENCES

Ashmole, N. P. (1962). The Black Noddy, Anous termirostris, on Ascension Island. Part I. General
biology. Ibis 103: 235-273.

Chamberlain, D. R., Gross, W. B. Cornwell, G. W. and Mosby, H. S. (1968). Syringeal anatomy
in the Common Crow, Auk 85: 244-252.

Clancey, P. A. (1964). The birds of Natal and Zululand. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh.

Hey, D. (1966). Wildlife heritage of South Africa. Oxford University Press, Cape Town. pp.
147-148.

Hold, T. (1970). The notation of bird song: a review and a recommendation. Ibis 112: 151-172.
Hollom, P. A. D. (1950). Trapping methods for bird ringers. Field Guide 1. British Trust for Orni-
thology, Tring, Herts.

Holyoak, D. (1968). A comparative study of the food of some British Corvidae. Bird Study 15:
I47-I53-

Ingolfsson, A. (1970). The moult of remiges and rectrices in the Great Black-backed Gulls,
Larus marinus, and Glacous Gulls, L. hyperboreus. Ibis 112: 83-92.

Mackworth-Praed, C. W. M. and Grant C. H. B. (1963). African handbook of birds. Vol. 2.
Longmans Green & Co., London.

Pomeroy, D. E. (1962). Birds with abnormal bills. British Birds 55: 49-71.

Priest, C. D. (1936). The birds of Southern Rhodesia. W. Clowes, London, pp. 118-122.

Rowley, I. (1969). An evaluation of predation by crows on young lambs. CSIRO Wildl. Res. 14:
r53-i79.

Snow, D. W. (1970). A guide to moult in British birds. Field Guide No. 11. British Trust for Orni-
thology, Tring, Herts.

Williams, J. G. (1963). A field guide to the birds of East and Central Africa. Collins, London, p. 230.
Wynne-Edwards, V. C. (1962). Animal dispersion in relation to social behaviour. Oliver & Boyd,
Edinburgh. P. 283.

(. Received 10 March 1974 )

Published by The East Africa Natural History Society, Box 44486, Nairobi, Kenya and
printed by Kenya Litho Ltd., Box 40 775 , Changamzo e Road, Nairobi.

OF THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

20th November, 1975 No. 154

THE VASCULAR PLANTS OF MERU NATIONAL PARK, KENYA
Part i. A preliminary survey of the vegetation

By

J. G. Ament

Rua Barao do Bananal 965, Vila Pompeia, Sao Paulo 05024, Capital. Brasil

This study was made at the request of Mr Peter Jenkins, Warden of Meru National
Park, and has been fully supported by Dr. Perez Olindo, Director of Kenya National
Parks. Mr Peter Ordway provided the funds for the major part of the field work. The
African Wildlife Leadership Foundation financed a second period of field work and the
publication.

My thanks are also due to Dr. P. J. Greenway and Mr J. B. Gillett of the East African
Herbarium for their help and encouragement throughout; Mr Gillett has put in a great
deal of work on the checklist and visited the camp in Meru National Park for a short
period. Miss Kabuye, Botanist-in-Charge of the East African Herbarium, made available
drying paper for the specimens and the invaluable services of Mr Frank Magogo, who
helped me with most of the collecting and was an excellent field assistant. All the identifi-
cations were carried out at the East African Herbarium and I am most grateful to the
members of staff involved.

I am also indebted to Mr Edward Potter who did a useful pre-preliminary survey
of the park vegetation, and to Mr R. Welch who introduced me to this type of work.
I have tried to be influenced as much as possible by Dr. P. J. Greenway’s work; I have
based my vegetation types on his A classification of E.A. Rangeland with an appendix on
terminology (D. J. Pratt, P. J. Greenway and M. D. Gwynne — 1966).

Drs. P. Cooper and P. Larkin of the National Agricultural Research Station at
Kitale were kind enough to arrange for a pasture value analysis of my grass samples,
done by Mr A. W. Bristow. I am publishing their results and comments, but unfortu-
nately have not been able to follow this work up with observations of pasture utilization
by game animals etc. I hope the results may prove of interest to future workers in the
area.

The soil pH readings were taken with a soil pH kit made available by the Coffee
Research Station, Ruiru.

Page 2

LOCATION AND CLIMATE

Meru National Park lies on the Equator between o°2o' north and o°io' south,
38°o' and 38°25' east of Greenwich. The park is roughly triangular (see map i).

The Nyambeni hills, some io miles (15.5 km) north-west of the park, rise to 8,000 ft.
(2500 m) above sea level (A.S.L.). Along the west boundary of the park the land rises
to slightly over 2800 ft. (850 m) A.S.L. and from this point there is a steadily descending
gradient across the park from north-west to south-east.

The south-eastern corner, where the Tana River forms the park boundary for about
10 miles (15.5 km), is about 1,000 ft. (300 m) A.S.L. This is the driest and hottest
area in the park; the annual rainfall figures follow the altitude gradient across the park
and the temperature gradient is inversely proportional to it.

The rainfall at park HQ for the 12 years 1963-1974 is shown in table 1. Note-
worthy is the great variability, the maximum annual rainfall being more than four

Table 1

Annual rainfall at Meru Park HQ

Year

Inches

mm

Year

Inches

mm

1963

33-9

860

1968

52.6

1337

1964

19.6

497

1969

28.9

734

1965

14.1

357

1970

16.2

411

1966

26.1

663

1971

21.4

543

1967

53.6

1362

Average

29.7

754

Addendum

The rainfall at Park HQ for 1972-4 has been as follows

Year

Inches

mm

1972

21.2

538

1973

11. 3

287

1974

21 . 1

536

1963-1974

28.5m

724

Page 3

times as great as the minimum. The average, 724 mm, is probably higher than the true
average for a much longer period. The distribution of rain over the year is shown by
figure 1, showing that the ‘short rains’ in November are much more intense than the
‘long rains’ in March-May. The longest recorded drought is 4.5 months.

>10

Fig. 1 Rain fall, in inches
o=Dry Month, o rainfall.

2=Less than 2 (5cms) rainfall.
io=More than 10 (25cms) rainfall.

The park is well watered by rivers rising in the Nyambenis and flowing across it in
a'south-easterly direction to join the Tana River (see map 2). Most of those north of the
Kiolu River carry water throughout the dry season; the Kiolu and its tributaries dry
out, the Ura and Tana rivers providing the only permanent water in the southern section
of the park.

Map 2

Page 4

During the drier months the game collects in the swamps in the northern part of
the park, moving to the riverine thicket should the swamps dry out. Shortly after the
first rain many of the animals move into the southern section.

In recent years the grasslands have been burnt from time to time. The policy has
been to bum early, to prevent hotter more extensive fires later in the dry season. This
has probably helped preserve the ‘lightly wooded grasslands’ in the northern part of the
park.

GEOLOGY

Geologically, Meru National Park can be conveniently divided into two sections
(see map 3). The northern part of the park is formed of Pleistocene — Recent lava, which
flowed from volcanos which formed the Nyambeni ridge. In the southern part of the
park the Precambrian rock of the basement system is exposed.

The lava from the Nyambeni volcanic activity flowed along the pre-existing river
valleys, blocking the watercourses. This caused the rivers to flow along the parallel
edges of the tongue-shaped lava flows, tributaries uniting round the tongue points.
This formation can be seen near the north-west boundary of the park, where the Kindani
and Rojewero rivers unite.

The lava is chiefly olivine basalt. In the north-west part of the park lava strewn
ridges of powdery grey to grey-brown soil slope gently upwards — towards the Nyambenis.
In the river valleys are swamps of varying width and the soil is grey to black.

East of the 38°io' meridian the land flattens somewhat and grey volcanic alluvial
soils mark the site of Pleistocene lake beds. The swamps bordering the watercourses
are wider and between them are flat areas of powdery grey alkaline soil and low lava
strewn ridges.

There is an area of fossiliferous limestone on the banks of the Rojewero River, as
it approaches confluence with the Murera (see map 3). This has been formed in the bed
of a lake formed when the river was dammed by a lava flow; it post-dates the Nyambeni
lava flows. The freshwater Gastropod fossils which have been examined give no indica-
tion of the age of the beds, as the forms present were extant over too long a period
(Miocene to Recent).

North-east of the Murera River, which forms most of the eastern boundary of the
park, red sandy soil covers the basement rocks. A strip of this soil lies inside the park
along the south-west bank of the river north of its confluence with the Rojewero.

The southern edge of the Pleistocene lava flows is approximately marked by the
courses of the Kiolu and Rojewero rivers. South of these rivers the metamorphic rocks
of the basement system are exposed. The area is dissected by incised stream courses
and the meandering course of the more mature Kiolu River.

Across the south-west boundary of the park Pleistocene lava flows form ridges
between the rivers, and cover the biotite gneiss of the basement system. There is a small
area of volcanic alluvial soil stretching from the Ura gate to a point some 10 km due north,
2nd a small lacustrine deposit of fossiliferous limestone near the west boundary (see
map 3).

At Ntoe Ndogo the biotite gneiss is exposed and the red soil derived from it covers
the area eastwards to the 38T2' meridian. It is interrupted by several north-south
running strips of quartz-felspar hornblende gneiss and from this harder rock are formed
the rocky inselbergs which are characteristic of the southern part of the park.

Page 5

East of the 38° 12' meridian the horneblende migmatite, rather harder than the
biotite gneiss, gives a red, shallow, sandy soil.

Map 3

VEGETATION

The vegetation can be divided into three main types, the boundaries of which
correspond closely with the geological divisions (see maps 3 and 4).

The section south of the division followed by the west part of the Kiolu River
and the east part of the Rojewero River carries Acacia/ Commiphora bushland wherever
the basement rock is exposed. Along the western boundary, and for some distance
east into the park north of the Kiolu — Rojewero division, the well drained ridges of
slightly acid volcanic soil carry Combretum wooded grassland. The north and north-east
parts of the park are rather open Acacia lightly wooded grassland on alkaline volcanic
alluvial soil. In this section there are extensive swamps along the rivers, with a distinct
plant community.

Other communities deserving special mention are the riverine thicket, the vegetation
of the rocky inselbergs which are a feature of the park, and the patch of ground water
forest on a branch of the Rojewero river near the west boundary of the park.

Acacia wooded grassland

This covers the eastern part of the Nyambeni lava flows and the volcanic alluvial
soils along the north-eastern boundary of the park. Acacia tortilis and Acacia Senegal
are abundant on the low boulder strewn ridges, giving way to Hyphaene coriacea in the
low swampy areas beside the rivers.

Page 6

North of the Murera River, near the eastern boundary, the soil is generally red
sandy loam, pH 6. 3-6. 9. Coppicing Acacia Senegal and Acacia mellifera grow to c. 3 m
with Balanites aegyptiaca and a few Commiphora africana and C. campestris. The grass
cover is poor.

Towards the north-west boundary and in the swampy valleys Hyphaene coriacea
is dominant. Acacia Senegal and Acacia tortilis form tall trees near the rivers, Phoenix
reclinata forms the main part of the riverine thicket. The soil is grey to black and strongly
alkaline. Chloris gayana is the dominant grass with Echinochloa haploclada forming pure
stands in damper places. Towards the boundary are many tall clumps of Hyparrhenia
flipendula and Cymbopogon excavatus. Sporobolus spicatus forms pure stands where the
soil is exceptionally alkaline; Sorghum versicolor dominates along the north bank of the
Murera River.

South of the Murera river the country is more open. The valleys of the Mukutano
and Mutundu carry some Hyphaene coriacea and there are areas where Acacia seyal
var. fistula is dominant; Ficus sp., Terminalia brownii, Lonchocarpus eriocalyx and
Tamarindus indica occur as scattered trees. The grass Chloris gayana is dominant, with
patches of Echinochloa haploclada.

The better drained grasslands towards the eastern boundary north of the Rojewero
river are lightly wooded with Acacia Senegal and Acacia tortilis, and some nearly pure
stands of Terminalia spinosa ; Balanites aegyptiaca is common. The grasses Sorghum
versicolor and Chrysopogon plumulosus alternate with patches of Sehima nervosum. Aristida
adscensionis is common where the ground has been disturbed.

Seen from the air, ‘fingers’ of denser bush seem to be reaching into the lightly
wooded grassland of the park, from the Reserve on the east bank of the Murera River.
These ‘fingers’ of bush consist largely of coppicing Acacia Senegal and A. mellifera,
Albizia anthelmintica and a low bush undercover of Grewia villosa , Bauhinia taitensis
and Combretum aculeatum. A strip of red soil rims along the west bank of the Murera
river and here the grass cover is poor.

Towards Kenmere and the confluence of the Rojewero and Murera rivers Commi-
phora africana, C. campestris and C. rostrata appear, with Boswellia hildebrandtii. On
the limestone area beside the Rojewero River (see map 3) is mixed bush, with Terminalia
orbicularis, coppicing Acacia Senegal, A. mellifera and Delonix elata. No grass is clearly
dominant in this area; Chrysopogon plumulosus and Sorghum versicolor are most common,
but many other species occur in scattered clumps.

The Rojewero plains are open grassland with a few stunted Acacia sp. and some
small Balanites aegyptiaca. Pure stands of Acacia seyal var. fistula occur in the stream
beds, which are dry for most of the year. There are several outcrops of basement rock
on these plains, each marked by one or more well grown Melia volkensii and often some
Sansevieria sp. The course of the Rojewero River is marked by a strip of rather dense
bush containing species more typical of the southern part of the park. A strip of this
denser bush also follows the Mukutano River from Park Headquarters, where there
are tall Acacia tortilis. Acacia elatior, Delonix elata and Melia volkensii, to its confluence
with the Rojewero.

Chrysopogon plumulosus and sehima nervosum are the most common grasses on the
Rojewero plains, with clumps of ubiquitous species such as Cenchrus ciliaris and Chloris
virgata.

Combretum wooded grassland

Combretum apiculatum is dominant throughout the Combretum wooded grassland
area (see map 4). The soil is generally brown to brownish grey, powdery, with pH
54-5.7 at the surface, 5. 8-6.2 ten inches deep. There are many scattered lava boulders.

Combretum molle and C. collinum are both common but neither is abundant. C.
collinum is represented by the subspecies binderanum and suluense, the latter being the

Page 7

more common near the western boundary. Ziziphus sp. and Harrisonia abyssinica occur
in scattered clumps and Lawsonia inermis is common near the rivers. Commiphora africana
occurs as isolated small trees near the north-western boundary, more abundantly south
of the Kiolu River where the Combretum wooded grassland and the Acacia/ Commiphora
bushland meet. Other common trees in this part of the park are Lonchocarpus bussei,
Kigelia africana, Lannea stuhlmannii, Heeria reticulata. Acacia nilotica; Ficus sycomorus
occurs near the west boundary and another Ficus which was not identified.

Sehima nervosum is the dominant grass throughout most of the Combretum wooded
grassland, and there are scattered patches of Chrysopogon plumulosus and Aristida adsceni-
onis, the latter particularly where the land has been recently disturbed.

In the Combretum wooded grassland south of the Kiolu River (see map 4) Sehima
nervosum occurs, but is not clearly dominant. Sorghum versicolor, Chrysopogon plumulosus
and Aristida adscensionis alternate with weedy patches; many of the ubiquitous grasses
such as Rottboellia exaltata, Cenchrus ciliaris and Themeda triandra occur in scattered
clumps. There are some swampy patches where Acacia seyal var. fistula and Acacia
drepanolobium occur, and the grass Chloris gay ana dominates.

Along the river valleys near the western boundary the soil is grey to black and
alkaline. Here the Combretum apiculatum disappears and Hyphaene coriacea is dominant,
though never very dense. Piliostigma thonningii is common at the edges of these swamps.
Chloris gayana is generally the dominant grass and during the rains petaloid monocoty-
ledons are abundant.

The dominant Combretum apiculatum is strikingly taller and more abundant near
the western boundary, where the annual rainfall is highest. The Mughwango plains
(see map 2) are the most easterly area of Combretum wooded grassland, and here the trees
are small and widely spaced.

Map 4

Page 8

Acacia/Commiphora husMand

South of the Kiolu/Rojewero boundary the vegetation is more uniform than in
the northern section. The western boundary of this Acacia/Commiphora bushland lies
just inside the western boundary of the park (see map 4). Combretum wooded grassland
continues where lava covers the basement rock, but in the river valleys the basement
rock is exposed and here species typical of the Acacia/Commiphora bushland community
appear in the ecotone.

The trees and shrubs are taller and there is better grass cover near the western
boundary. This is due to the higher annual rainfall and possibly in part to the deeper
sandy soil derived from the biotite gneiss of the basement rock. East of the 38°i2' meridian
the rather harder horneblende migmatite weathers to a shallower sandy soil. The soil
is red to orange throughout most of the area, pH generally 6. 3-6. 9.

Near the western boundary of the Acacia/Commiphora bushland Acacia mellifera,
A. nilotica and the scrambling A. brevispica and A. ataxacantha are common. Further
south-east coppicing A. Senegal and A. reficiens dominate. Commiphora africana is most
frequent near the western boundary and Commiphora boiviniana is common, sometimes
growing in a scandent liane-like form. Further east C. campestris appears and replaces
C. africana as the commonest Commiphora. In many places there is a dense low bush
understorey of Bauhinia taitensis, Grewia villosa, Combretum aculeatum and other species.
In this rather dense bush the open spaces are bare of vegetation for most of the year;
during the rains various annual grasses and dicotyledons appear.

All the southern section, and particularly the south-eastern part, is much dissected
by watercourses. In the hollows where the soil is more alkaline, the Commiphoras dis-
appear, leaving the Acacias dominant.

Sterculia africana, Terminalia prunoides and Delonix elata occur as occasional trees
throughout the Acacia/Commiphora bushland. Towards the eastern boundary Terminalia
orbicularis is common. Near the western boundary Terminalia kilimandscharica, T.
brownii, Albizia harveyi and A. amara occur.

The riverine community

The riverine community varies somewhat across the park with the rainfall gradient.
The palms Raphia farinifera and Phoenix reclinata are most abundant near the western
boundary. Ficus sycomorus and Newtonia hildebrandtii are common throughout the park,
though less so in the most northerly triangle. Acacia elatior is a feature of the permanent
rivers and A. robusta of the less permanent ones.

The Tana River has its own community; the most striking member is Populus
ilicifolia, the Tana River poplar, and there are some very large Ficus sp. which have not
been collected in flower. Further from the water there is a strip of bush dominated by
Salvadora persica, with much coppicing Acacia reficiens and Maerua denhardtiorum ;
this separates the tall riverine trees from the surrounding Acacia/Commiphora bushland.

Inselbergs

North of the Kiolu-Rojewero division the lava overlay is deep and the basement
rock seldom projects far above it. Mughwango and Leopard Rock are the most striking
projections.

On the rocky summit of Mughwango Xerophyta spekei is dominant and species such
as Loudetia arundinacea, Bulbostylis sp. (A & M 273) and Mariscus sp. ( =Napper 1617)
grow in and around the pools, which last only throughout the rains. On the steep rocky
sides Euphorbia nyikae and E. candelabrum are abundant; lower on the slopes Albizia
tanganyicensis ssp. adamsoniorum and Sterculia africana are common, with shrubs typical
of the Acacia/Commiphora bushland community.

Page 9

The low outcrops on the Rojewero plains are usually marked by Melia volkensii.

Between the rivers Kindani and Rojewero near the west boundary of the park is
a patch of very dense bush, known as ‘Rhino Alley’, surrounded by Combretum wooded
grassland. This is a rather large outcrop of basement rock, and species typical of the
Acacia/Commiphora bushland are common, though their relative abundance is atypical
due to the much higher rainfall in this part of the park.

Groundwater forest

In the same area, on the banks of one of the branches of the Rojewero, is a small
area of tall groundwater forest. Trees such as Blighia unijugata, Cordia africana and
Diospyros mespiliformis grow to c. ioo ft. (30 m), and lianes such as Hippocratea sp. are
common. The forest floor is deep leaf litter. This small area of forest seems to have an
associated bird, insect and arachnid community distinct from the rest of the park and
further study of it would be rewarding.

Swamps

Hyphaene coriacea dominates the swamps, and is particularly abundant in the
most northerly triangle, in the swamps of the Bisanadi and Murera rivers. Piliostigma
thonningi is common at the margin of swamps in the Combretum wooded grassland area
(see map 4).

The grass Chloris gayana is generally dominant, and Echinochloa haploclada is
abundant. Where there is shade Panicum maximum , P. coloratum and Eragrostis superba
form tall clumps. Sedges such as Fuirena pubescens, Pycreus unioloides and Fimbristylis
sp. (A & M 12) grow thickly around the standing water, with Cyperus undulatus, C.
alternifolius and C. laevigatus in the water.

PASTURE VALUE ANALYSIS

The seven species of grass listed in table 2 were collected in bulk, dried, and sent
to the laboratories of the National Agricultural Research Station at- Kitale. These species
were chosen because each seemed sufficiently abundant to provide an appreciable
pasture.

Table 2

I

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Sample

%N

% P

%K

%D

y

/o

N.D.F

/o

A.D.F.

/o

A.D.L.

/o

N.D.

ash

%

Crude

protein

Aristida adscensionis

0.89

0.17

0.55

41.0

79.81

50-55

6.23

2.32

5.56

Chloris gayana

0.73

0.30

1.08

42.4

75-57

52.18

7.00

2.25

4.56

Eragrostis superba

1. 15

0.23

0.75

37.0

81.40

52.08

8.48

1.76

7.19

Sehima nervosum

0.68

0.12

0.55

39.0

75.62

54.78

5.90

4.84

4.25

Heteropogon
con tort us

0.61

0.09

0.47

37.8

77-47

49.02

6.08

2. 11

3.81

Sorghum versicolor

0.66

0.24

0.82

38.8

72.63

47-95

5-78

3.58

4-13

Chrysopogon

plumulosus

0.89

0.20

0.42

37.8

7-49

49-77

7-31

3.30

5.56

Page 10

Chloris gayana, considered the most useful pasture grass for domestic stock of

those analysed, is dominant over most of the swamps where the game congregates during

the dry season.

Notes from Dr. P. Larkin and Mr A. W. Bristow (private communications) referring

to table 2 :

( a ) Column 4, per cent D, the per cent in vitro digestibility, an estimate of the nutritive
value to ruminants.

( b ) Column 5, per cent N.D.F., per cent neutral detergent fibre, on estimate of the cell
wall content.

(c) Column 6, per cent A.D.F., per cent acid detergent fibre, cellulose + lignin + cutin
+ silica.

(d) Column 7, per cent A.D.L., per cent acid detergent lignin, lignin + cutin.

( e ) Column 8, per cent N.D. ash, ash soluble in neutral detergent, silica.

(/) The difference between neutral detergent fibre and acid detergent fibre is an estimate
of the hemicellulose, although this difference does include some protein attached
to cell walls.

A. W. Bristow.

( g ) Column 9, crude protein values obtained by multiplying the per cent N figures
by 6.25.

(h) The ‘D’ value is something developed at Hurley as a quality estimation. Strictly
it is “percentage Digestible Organic Matter in the Dry matter of the feed” —
D.O.M.D. Our figures here indicate that with good pasture management, with
cutting intervals of four weeks, it is possible to maintain a Chloris ( gayana ) sward
at 60D for the majority of the wet season. A D value of 63 is considered the aim
in U.K. for good productivity, and about 50D is reckoned to be maintenance level
for European stock; but that is for consumed, not available forage and there is
obviously likely to be considerable selection. This is what all the fistulation work
is about.

Dr. Peter Larkin.

Page 11

Part 2. Checklist of the vascular plants recorded
By

J. G. Ament and J. B. Gillett1

This list records probably no more than 80-90 per cent of the species of vascular
plants which actually occur in the park. The area was till recently very inaccessible.
So far as is known Mrs Joy Adamson and her brother-in-law Mr Terence Adamson
in 1955 or thereabouts, were the first people to collect plants in the area which, largely
through the efforts of Mrs Adamson and her husband, subsequently became the park.
All collections except those of Mrs Ament and Mr F. C. Magogo have been made
sporadically on brief visits to the park.

The sequence and numbering of families is that of the late J. Hutchinson F.R.S.
in his Families of Flowering Plants ed. 1 (1926 and 1934). This is the sequence used in
The Flora of West Tropical Africa , The Flowering Plants of the Sudan and in the East
African Herbarium.

An asterisk (*) before a name indicates that the species is of especial interest because
it seems to be new, is rare in Kenya, or here reaches the limit of its range. For instance
Albizia tanganyicensis was unknown in Kenya before 1965 and is represented in this
country by the recently described subspecies adamsoniorum which has been found
only once outside Meru National Park. Kirkia tenuifolia seems here to reach the southern
limit of its range.

The letters F.T.E.A. followed by a year after the name of a family indicate that it
has been described in the Flora of Tropical East Africa, published in that year. It will be
appreciated that names in these families are usually more reliable than those in families
which have not yet been revised for this flora.

The letters and figures at the right of each entry indicate (except for sight records)
one or more specimens preserved in the East African Herbarium by reference to which
the name can be checked. The letters except for the abbreviations s.n. ( sine numero —
without a number) and s.r. (sight record) indicate the names of collectors, as follows:

A

J. G. Ament

A & M

==

J. G. Ament and F. C. Magogo

EP

=

E. Potter, specimens not preserved

F

=

F. R. Fosberg

G

==

J. B. Gillett

G&A

J. B. Gillett and J. G. Ament

HS

=

S. Heriz-Smith

JA

=

Joy Adamson

M & F

=

0. M. Mwangangi and F. R. Fosberg

O

=

R. M. Osborn

PA

=

P. G. Archer

R

—

S. A. Robertson

SM

=

Simon Mathenge

TA

=

Terence Adamson

V

=

B. Verdcourt

The following abbreviations are used in the second

seems useful in describing the habitat of each species. Where the line is not crowded
the words are written in full.

A/C.B. = Acacia/ Commiphora bushland
A.W.G. = Acacia wooded grassland
C.W.G. = Combretum wooded grassland
G.W.F. = Ground water forest

1. E. A. Herbarium, E. A. A. F. R. O., Box 45166, Nairobi, Kenya.

Page 12

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Our thanks are due to Dr. B. N. Majisu, Director, E.A.A.F.R.O., for permission to
publish and to Miss C. H. S. Kabuye, Botanist-in-Charge, E.A. Herbarium for naming
the Cyperaceae and Gramineae.

PTERIDOPHYTA

Actiniopteris radiata (Sw.) Link R 2121

Small herb in rock crevices in A/C.B., occasional
Pellaea spp. are to be expected in the west of the park

DICOTYLEDONS : ARCHICHLAMYDEAE

11. Lauraceae

Cassytha filiformis L. A & M 283

Climbing parasitic herb in Acacia wooded grassland ; uncommon

24. Aristolochiaceae

* Aristolochia petersiana Kl. JA 592

Twiner by river, poisonous, uncommon

34. Turneraceae F.T.E.A. (1954)

Streptopetalum hildebrandtii Urb. G 18884; A & M 237

Herb, 20 cm, scattered throughout Combretum W.G.

36. Capparaceae (Capparidaceae) F.T.E.A

Boscia angustifolia A. Rich. var. angustifolia

Tree, 8 m, riverine and throughout A/C. bushland, common
B. coriacea Pax

Shrub, Acacia/Commiphora Bushland, common

B. mossambicensis Kl.

Shrub, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common
Cleome brachycarpa DC.

Herb, 0.5 m, A.W.G.-A/C.B. ecotone, occasional

C. hirta (Kl.) Oliv.

Herb to 1.5 m, Combretum W. G. and Acacia W. G., common
C. monophylla L.

Annual herb to 0.5 m., common in regenerating clearings
Gynandropsis gynandra (L.) Briq.

Herb, 1 m, common weed of cleared ground
Maerua angolensis DC.

Small tree in Combretum W.G., occasional
*M. denhardtiorum Gilg

Shrub to 1.5 m, common near Tana River
M. edulis (Gilg & Ben.) De Wolf

Softly woody shrub 2 m, Tana R. bank, locally frequent
M. kirkii (Oliv.) F. White

Shrub, 2 m, riverine thicket in A/C. bushland, common
M. subcordata (Gilg) De Wolf

Scrambling shrub, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, uncommon
39. Cruciferae (Brassicaceae)

Farsetia stenoptera Hochst. JA 593

Herb, 20 cm, near Rojewero R., occasional

40. Violaceae

Hybanthus dangueyanus H. Perr.

Shrub, 1 m, shaded slopes of inselberg, occasional
H. enneaspermus (L.) F. V. Muell.

Herb to 0.5 m, near rivers in Acacia/Commiphora bushland

42. Polygalaceae

Polygala kilimanjarica Chod. A & M 101, 296

Herb, 1.5 m, C.W.G. and on river banks along N.W. boundary of park, occasional
P. liniflora Chod. A & M 246, 274

Herb, 30 cm, C.W.G. and on rocky ridges, occasional

A & M 278
A & M 261

(1964)

A &

M

113

A &

M

28

A &

M

413

A &

M

95

A &

M

123

A &

M

125

EP

A &

M

417

G 169S6

M & F 653; A & M 389
SM 106; A & M 146

Page 13

P. sp. near liniflora SM 93

Herb, 40 cm, A.W.G. in N.E. of Park, occasional
P. sp. G 18885

Herb, 25 cm, C.W.G. in S.W. of Park, occasional

45. Crassulaceae

Kalanchoe lanceolata (Forsk.) Pers. A & M 247

Succulent, outcrops of basement rock in A/C.B.-C.W.G. ecotone, occasional

54. Aizoaceae F.T.E.A. (1961)
Gisekia pharnaceoides L. var. pharnaceoides

Low, spreading herb, C.W.G., common near west boundary
Glinus lotoides L.

Low spreading herb, A.W.G., common at swamp margins
Mollugo nudicaulis Lam.

Herb, 20 cm, C.W.G. , common near west boundary

A & M 295
A & M 9
A & M 133, 297

56. Portulacaceae

Portulaca foliosa Ker Gawl.

Succulent, 20 cm, rocky places in A/C bushland, common
P. oleracea L.

Prostrate fleshy herb on black cotton soil in C.W.G., occasional
Talinum portulacifolium (Forsk.) Schweinf.

Fleshy herb 1 m tall on sand in A/C bushland, occasional

A & M 264
R 2109
R 2110

57. Polygonaceae F.T.E.A. (1958)

Oxygonum sinuatum (Meisn.) Dammer A & M 128

Herb, 0.5 m, C.W.G., common weed of cleared ground
O. stuhlmannii Dammer A & M 150

Herb, 20 cm., rocky outcrops, uncommon

*0. sp. new? G 17003, 18925

Herb, 30 m, open spots in A/C.B., S.E. corner of Park, locally frequent

63. Amaranthaceae

Aerva persica (Burm.f.) Merr. SM 8; A 539

Herb, 1 m, Acacia W.G. & A/C bushland, common

Amaranthus graecizans L. R2117

Weed near buildings, frequent

Celosia schweinfurthiana Schinz A 53 1

Herb, 1 m, Acacia / Commiphora bushland, common

Cyathula orthacantha (Asch.) Schinz A & M 401

Herb, 1.5 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common near water

Digera muricata (L.) Mast. G 20130; A 484

Herb, 1.5 m, common on disturbed land

Psilotrichum elliotii Bak. A & M 156, 178

Shrub, 1.5m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common

Sericocomopsis pallida (S. Moore) Schinz SM 53

Sofdy woody shrub, 0.5-1. 5 m, in A.W.G. & A/C.B. at eastern edge of park, occasional

66. Zygophyllaceae

Tribulus cistoides L. A & M 192

Herb, 25 cm, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common

67. Geraniaceae F.T.E.A. (1971)

Monsonia senegalensis Guill. & Perr. G 20125

Herb, 20 cm, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, occasional

72. Lythraceae

Ammannia baccifera L. G 20149

Annual herb, 15 cm, by rainwater pool in rocky river bed, occasional

Lawsonia inermis L. A & M 29, 61

Shrub, 4 m, A.W.G. and C.W.G., common

83. Nyctaginaceae

Boerhavia coccinea Mill. A & M 294

Herb, 25 cm, Combretum wooded grassland, common

B. erect a L. G 20 140

Herb, 1 m, beneath Acacia near river, locally common

Page 14

Commicarpus plumbagineus (Cav.) Standi.

Herb in Acacia wooded grassland, occasional
C. stellatus (Wight) Berhaut

Straggling herb in A/C bushland, occasional

93. Flacourtiaceae

Oncoba spinosa Forsk.

Scrambling shrub, riverine, common

101. Passifloraceae

Basananthe hanningtoniana (Mast.) De Wilde
Climbing herb, riverine, uncommon

103. Cucurbitaceae F.T.E.A. (1967)

Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt

Climbing herb, riverine, occasional
Cucumis hirsutus Sond.

Herb, 0.5 m, Combretum wooded grassland, common
Kedrostis foetidissima (Jacq.) Cogn.

Climbing herb, near river, occasional
K. gijef (J. F. Gmel.) C. Jeffr.

Climbing herb, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, uncommon
Zehneria scabra (L.f.) Sond.

Climbing herb, near stream, occasional

Ochna, ? O. ovata F. Hoffm.
Shrub, 2-3 m, occasional

1 14. Ochnaceae

SM 23
R 2111

A & M 73

G 17016; A 475

G 20136
A & M 293
SM 162

SM 65; A & M 342
SM 35

A 536

A & M 51, 70; A 542
A & M 60, 81
A & M 309
A & M 16, 79
A & M 235
A & M 59
A & M 80, 89

121. Combretaceae F.T.E.A. (1973)

Combretum aculeatum Vent.

Scrambling shrub, ubiquitous, common
C. apiculatum Sond.

Tree, 7 m, dominant throughout Combretum wooded grasaland
C. collinum Fres. ssp. binderanum (Kotschy) Okafor

Tree, 10 m, Combretum wooded grassland, common
C. collinum Fres. ssp. suluense (Engl. & Diels) Okafor

Tree, 10m, Combretum wooded grassland, common
C. hereroense Schinz var. parvifolium (Engl.) Wickens
Shrub, 3 m, ubiquitous
C. molle G. Don

Tree, 10 m, scattered throughout Combretum wooded grassland
C. mossambicense (Kl.) Engl.

Scandent shrub, Combretum W. G., common near west boundary
Terminalia brownii Fres. A & M 19, 48

Tree, 10 m, Combretum W. G. and Acacia/Commiphora B., common
T. kilimandscharica Engl. A & M 162

Tree, 20 m, Combretum wooded grassland, uncommon
T. orbicularis Engl. & Diels A & M 291

Sprawling shrub or small trees, A/C.B., occasional
T. prunioides Laws. A&M319

Tree, 15 m, ubiquitous

T. spinosa Engl. A & M 152

Tree, 15 m, Acacia W. G. and Combretum W. G., common
SM 58 and A 541 may represent a pubescent juvenile state or something new.

122. Rhizophoraceae F.T.E.A. (1956)

*Cassipourea sp. aff. C. celastroides Alston & C. euryoides Alston A & M 279
Tree, 7 m, rocky inselbergs, uncommon

126. Guttiferae (Clusiaceae)

Garcinia livingstonei T. And. A 560

Tree, 10 m, riverine, ubiquitous

128. Tiliaceae

Cor chorus olitorius L. G 20122; A 472

Herb, x m, common at margins of swamps

Page 15

C. tridens L.

Small herb, 20 cm, C.W.G., S.W. corner of park, occasional
C. trilocularis L.

Herb, 50 cm, common in damp places
Grezvia bicolor Juss.

Shrub, 2 m, common in riverine thicket & A/C. Bushland
G. lilacina K. Sch.

Shrub, 2 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common
G. tembensis Fres. var. kakothamnos Burret

Shrub, 2 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common
G. tenax (Forsk.) Fiori

Shrub, 2 m. Acacia wooded grassland & A/C.B., common
G. villosa Willd.

Shrub, 1.5 m, Combretum W.G. and A/C. bushland, common
Triumfetta flavescens A. Rich.

Woody herb, 1-1.5 m, A. W.G. & C.W.G., locally abundant
* T. sp. aff. heterocarpa Sprague & Hutch.

G 18883

G 18886; A & M315
A & M 346
A & M 214
A & M 144, 164
A & M 334
A & M 176, 312
A & M 172; M & F 618

Woody herb, x m, A/C. bushland in S.E. of park, locally common

G 18913; SM 25

130. Sterculiaceae

Hermannia exappendiculata (Mast.) K. Sch. A & M 361

Herb, 25 cm, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, uncommon
H. kirkii Mast. G 16989

Herb, 1 m, banks of Tana R. in S.E. of park, occasional
Melhania ovata (Cav.) Spreng. G 20145; R 2113

Herb, 25 cm, C.W.G. & A/C.B. common
M. velutina Forsk. A & M 97

Herb, 30 cm, Combretum wooded grassland, occasional
Sterculia africana (Lour.) Fiori A & M 148, 179

Tree, 10 m, A/C.B. and basement rock outcrops in C.W.G., frequent
5. stenocarpa H. Winkl. EP

Small tree, Acacia/Commiphora bushland

Waltheria indica L. A & M 15 x

Herb, 1 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common

131. Bombacaceae

Adansonia digitata L. A & M 281

Tree, with greatly swollen bole, 20 m, widespread, occasional

132. Malvaceae

Abutilon fruticosum Guill. & Perr.

Herb, 0.5 m, Combretum wooded grassland near rivers, common
A. sp.

Herb, 1 m, Combretum wooded grassland near rivers, common
*Gossypium somalense (Guerke) J. B. Hutch.

Herb, 1.5 m, A.W.G.-A/C.B. ecotone, occasional
Hibiscus calyphyllus Cav.

Herb, 1.5 m., riverine, common
H. cannabinus L.

Herb, 1.5 m, riverine, common
H. sp. perhaps H. meeusei Exell

Herb, 1.5 m, common at swamp margins
H. micranthus L.f.

Herb, 25 cm, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common
H. panduriformis Burm.f.

Herb, 1 m, swamps, uncommon
H. vitifolius L. s. lat.

Herb, 1-1.5 m, Combretum wooded grassland, occasional
H. sp.

Herb, 0.5 m, Combretum wooded grassland near water, common
H. sp.

Herb, 1 m, riverine in west of park, occasional
Pavonia arabica Boiss.

Herb, 1 m. Acacia wooded grassland, common
P. patens (Andr.) Chiov.

Herb, 0.5 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common
P. zeylonica Cav.

Herb, 0.5 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common

SM 109, 129; A & M 314
A & M 135

JA in EA13542; M & F 620
A & M 313
A & M 41
A 471

A & M 143, 268
A& M 6
R 1805
A & M 393
G & A 20160/A
A 548
A & M 189
A & M 187

Page 16

P. sp. = G 16464

Herb, 0.5 m, A/C. bushland — A.W.G. ecotone, uncommon

A & M 4x2

Si da ovata Forsk.

Herb, 30 cm, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, frequent

G 20144

133. Malpighiaceae F.T.E.A. 1968

Triaspis niedenzuiana Engl.

Shrub, 1 m. Acacia wooded grassland, uncommon

A & M 335

135. Erythroxylaceae

Erythroxylum fischeri Engl.

Shrub, 2 m, in groundwater forest on Rojewero River, local

TA 10; A & M 212

136. Euphorbiaceae

Acalypha ciliata Forsk.

G 20135

Herb, 20 cm, beneath Acacia by river in A/C.B., locally common
A. fruticosa Forsk. var .fruticosa A & M 114

Shrub, riverine, common in A/C.B. — C.W.G. ecotone
A. indica L.

M & F 632, 660

Annual herb near rivers in A/C. Bushland, frequent
A. racemosa Baill.

A & M 306

Herb, 75 cm, riverine in Combretum W.G., common
*Argomuellera macrophylla Pax A & M 170

Shrub, 3 m, groundwater forest on Rojewero River, local
Bridelia taitensis Pax & Vatke

A & M 21, A 511

Spreading shrub, 2-3 m, common near western park boundary
Cephalocroton cordofanus Hochst.

Shrublet in Acacia wooded grassland, occasional

F & M 49936

Dalechampia scandens L. var. cordofana Muell. Arg. A & M 133, 304

Twining herb, 25 cm, Combretum wooded grassland, riverine, occasional
Euphorbia candelabrum Kotschy A 566

Succulent tree, 10 m, common on basement rock
E. cuneata Vahl

M & F 641; G 16990

Shrub, 2-3 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, locally frequent
E. hypericifolia L.

A & M 106

Herb, 25 cm, riverine, uncommon
E. inaequilatera Sond.

G 18890

Herb, 40 cm, Combretum W. G. in S.W. of park, occasional
E. jatrophoides Pax

Shnib, 2 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common

G 18911; A & M 382, 385

E. nyikae Pax var. kibweziensis (N.E. Br.) — G 16993

Succulent tree, 7 m, rocky slopes in A/C.B. in S.E. of park, occasional
E. polyantha Pax A & M 277

Shrub, 1.5 m, rocky inselbergs, common
E. pseudograntii Pax

Shrub or tree, 5 m, rocky inselbergs in A/C.B., common

A & M 138

E. rivae Pax

A & M 245

Herb, 25 cm, Combretum W. G., common near water
E. robecchii Pax

EP

Tree, 10-15 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, occasional
E. tirucalli L.

R 2106

Shrub to 5 m, south-west of park, probably introduced
*Jatropha fissispina Pax

G 18902

Herb, 2 m, rocky in A/C.B. in S.E. of Park, occasional
J. spicata Pax

Herb, 2 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, occasional

G 18903; A & M 35

*J. oblanceolata A.R. Smith

Shrub, 1.3 m, near Leopard Rock, occasional

SM 51 (type)

Meineckia phyllanthoides Baill. L. ssp. somalensis (Pax) Webster
Woody herb near Tana River, uncommon

SM 127

* Monadenium sp.

Stem succulent, 40 cm, A/C.B. in S.E. of park, uncommon

G 16994

Phyllanthus maderaspatensis L.

Herb, 1 m, swampy grassland near N. W. boundary, common

A 496

P. sepialis Muell. Arg.

Shrub, 1 m, Combretum W.G., common near rivers

A & M 63, 88

Ricinus communis L.

Shrub, 2 m, Combretum W.G., common near rivers

A 502

page 17

Securinega virosa (Willd.) Pax & K. Hoffm. A & M 131, 254

Shrub, 2 m, Combretum wooded grassland, common
Synadenium glaucescens Pax A & M 26

Somewhat succulent shrub, 4 m, near Rojewero R., occasional
Tragia insuavis Prain or related sp. A & M 244

Bushy herb, 1 m, Combretum wooded grassland, occasional

146. Caesalpiniaceae (Leguminosae : Caesalpimioideae) F.T.E.A. (1967)

Bauhinia taitensis Taub. G 18922; A & M 85, 140

Shrub, 1 m, Combretum W.G. and Acacia/Commiphora B., common

B. tomentosa L. A & M 228

Shrub, 2 m, Combretum W. G. and Acacia/Commiphora B., common
Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) Alston A & M 12 1

Softly woody shrub, 1 m, Combretum W. G., common near W. boundary

C. volkensii Harms A & M 392

Shrub, 2 m, Combretum W. G., occasional near water.

Cassia absus L. G 17020

Annual herb, 40 cm, C.W.G. in west of park, frequent
C. fallacina Chiov. A & M 320

Herb, 20-60 cm, Combretum wooded grassland & A.W.G., common
C. fioribunda Cav. A & M 104

Herb, 1 m, riverine near w. boundary, common
C. longiracemosa Vatke SM 186

Bush 1-2 m tall, A.W.G., occasional

C. mimosoides L. A & M 130, 299

Herb, 0.5 m, riverine, widespread

Delonix data (L.) Gamble A & M 229

Tree, 15 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common
Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Milne-Redh. A & M 77, 399

Bush or small tree, 2 m, C.W.G., common at swamp margins
Tamarindus indica L. A & M 24

Tree, 20 m, Combretum W.G. & A/C. bushland, riverine
*Tylosema humifusa (Pic. Ser. & Rot. Mich.) Brenan forma G 1701 1

Spreading herb from massive rootstock, A.W.G. & C.W.G., frequent

147. Mimosaceae (Leguminosae : Mimosoideae) F.T.E.A. (1959)

Acacia ataxacantha DC. A & M 119, 155

Scandent shrub, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common
A. brevispica Harms A & M 420

Subscandent shrub, 4 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common
A. bussei Sjoest. EP

Small tree, 5 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, occasional
A. drepanolobium Sjoest. s.r.

Small bushy tree, swamps patches in C.W.G. , S. of Kiolu R., occasional
A. elatior Brenan ssp. elatior A & M 23, 287; A 517

Tree, 20 m, banks of permanent rivers, common
A. hockii De Wild. F & M 49925

Small tree or large shrub c. 4 m, A.W.G. in north of park, occasional
A. horrida (L.f.) Willd. ssp. benadirensis (Chiov.) Hillc. & Brenan SM 116
Spreading shrub 1.5 m, tall in Acacia/Commiphora bushland, uncommon
A. mellifera (Vahl) Benth. A & M 62, 175, 286

Shrub or tree, 10 m, ubiquitous, common

A. nilotica (L.) Del. ssp. subalata (Vatke) Brenan A & M 45, 369, 424

Tree, 10 m, often umbrella shaped, C.W.G., common near W. boundary
A. reficiens Wawra ssp. miser a (Vatke) Brenan A & M 418

Spreading shrub, 2 m, Acacia/Commiphora B., common near Tana R.

A. robusta Burch, ssp. usambarensis (Taub.) Brenan

Tree, 20 m, riverine, especially near W. boundary of park
A. Senegal (L.) Willd. var Senegal

Shrub or tree, 10 m, ubiquitous, common
A. seyal Del. vox. fistula (Schweinf.) Oliv.

Shrubby tree, 3 m, common on alkaline swampy soil
A. stuhlmannii Taub.

Low spreading bush 1-2 m tall in east of park, occasional
A. tortilis (Forsk.) Hayne ssp. spirocarpa (A. Rich.) Brenan

Umbrella-shaped tree 5-8 m tall near water courses in dry areas frequent
A. xanthophloea Benth. SM 60, A 501

Tree, 20 m, flat-crowned, riverine near W. boundary

A & M ixo; A 510
A & M 10, 198, 285
A & M 339
EP

SM 47, 102, 167

Page 18

A. zanzibarica (S. Moore) Taub. var. microphylla Brenan
Shrubby tree, 3 m, A/C. B. -A. W.G. ecotone, occasional

A 564

Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boiv. ssp. amara

Tree, 10 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, occasional

A 559

A. anthelmintica Brongn.

Shrub or tree, 6 m, ubiquitous, common

A & M 120

A. harveyi Fourn.

Tree, 20 m, A/C.B.-C.W.G. ecotone, occasional

A & M 371 ; A 525

*A. tanganyicensis Bak.f. ssp. adamsoniorum Brenan

TA 13; F 49954; A&M 157

Tree, io m, lower slopes of inselbergs and rocky places in A.C.B., occasional

Entada leptostachya Harms

Much branched liane, A/C.B.-C.W.G. ecotone, occasional

A & M 370

Newtonia hildebrandtii (Vatke) Torre
Tree, 15 m, riverine, ubiquitous

A & M 25; A 509, 527

148. Papilionaceae (Leguminosae : Papilionoideae ; Fabaceae) F.T.E.A. (1971)

Abrus schimperi Bak. ssp. africanus (Vatke) Verde. A & M 166; G & A 20155

Shrub, 2 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common
Aeschynomene schimperi A. Rich.

A & M 105, 284

Herb, 1 m, riverine, common

Alysicarpus glumaceus (Vahl) DC. var. hispidicarpus (Fiori) Leon.

G. 18881

Herb, 40 cm, Combretum W.G. in S.W. of park, locally common

*Baphia keniensis Brummitt

G & A 20x73

Shrub, 3 m, groundwater forest in W. of park, uncommon
Clitoria ternatea L.

A & M 75

Climbing herb, riverine, common
Craibia brevicaudata (Vatke) Dunn ssp. brevicaudata
Tree, 5 m, A/C.B. near rivers, occasional

A & M 345

Crotalaria balbi Chiov.

A 487

Herb, 0.5 m, Combretum wooded grassland, occasional
C. emarginella Vatke

G 18887, 20142; A480

Herb, 0.5 m, Combretum wooded grassland, common
C. goodiiformis Vatke

A & M 208, 319

Herb, 1 m, Combretum wooded grassland, common
C. laburnifolia L. ssp. laburnifolia

A & M 354

Herb, 0.5 m, basement rock outcrops in C.W.G., uncommon
*C. oocarpa Bak. ssp. microcarpa Milne-Redh.

Herb, 20 cm, A.W.G. near Leopard Rock, occasional

M & F 623

C. petitiana (A. Rich.) Walp.

A & M 96

Herb, 0.5 m, common at margin of swamps
C. uguenensis Taub. or related sp.

Herb, 25 cm, C.W.G. & A/C.B., locally frequent

G 18893, 18926

C. verdcourtii Polh.

G 18931 ; A & M 406

Herb, x m, Combretum wooded grassland, common
Dalbergia melanoxylon Guill. & Perr.

EP

Small tree, to 5 m, occasional

Glycine wightii (W. & A.) Verde, var. longicauda (Schweinf.) Verde.

A & M 102

Climbing herb, Combretum W.G., common near water
Indigofera arrecta A. Rich.

G. 16983

Herb, 1 m. Acacia wooded grassland, frequent
1. brachynema Gillett

Annual herb, 20 cm, Combretum W.G. in west of park

G 18891, 20x58

1. colutea (Burm. f.) Merr.

Herb, 25 cm, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common

A & M 199; G 20133

I. costata Guill. & Perr. ssp .goniodes (Bak.) Gillett

Herb, 20 cm. Acacia W.G. in N.W. of park, occasional

G 20175

I. hochstetteri Bak. G 18880

Annual herb, 25 cm, Combretum W.G. in S.W. of park, occasional
I. schimperi Jaub. & Spach var. baukeana (Vatke) Gillett A & M 298

Herb, 1 m, Combretum wooded grassland, common
I. schimperi Jaub. & Spach var. schimperi

Herb, Combretum W.G., common at swamp margins

A & M 303

7. volkensii Taub.

G 18878; A & M 185

Herb, 25 cm, C.W.G. and A/C.B., common
7. vicioides Jaub. & Spach var. vicioides

Herb, 20 cm, A.W.G. near Leopard Rock, occasional

M & F 627

Lonchocarpus bussei Harms

Tree, 10 m, Combretum wooded grassland, common

A & M 49

Page 19

L. eriocalyx Harms

Tree, 12 m. Acacia wooded grassland, occasional
Neorautanenia mitis (A. Rich.) Verde.

Herb, 1.5 m, Combretum wooded grassland, common
Ormocarpum keniense Gillett

Shrub, 2 m, A/C. bushland, occasional pure stands
Rhynchosia minima (L.) D.C. var. nuda (D.C.) O. Ktze.

Twining herb, 0.5 m, Combretum W.G. in W. of park, occasional
*R. sp. ‘C’ of F.T.E.A.

Climbing herb, occasional at swamp margins
Sesbania quadrata Gillett

Herb, 1 m, Combretum W.G., common near temporary water
5. sesban (L.) Merr.

Softly woody shrub at edge of stream, occasional
Stylosanthes fruticosa (Retz.) Alst.

Herb, 30 cm, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, frequent
Tephrosia noctiflora Bak.

Herb, 1.5 m, Combretum wooded grassland, occasional
T. polyphylla (Chiov.) Gillett

Herb, 50 cm, A. W.G. and A/C.B., locally common in E. of park
T. reptans Bak. forma

Herb, 1 m, Combretum W.G., common on disturbed land
T. subtriflora Bak.

Herb, 30 m, Combretum wooded grassland, occasional
T. uniflora Pers.

Herb, 25 cm, C.W.G. and A/C.B., common on disturbed land
T. villosa (L.) Pers. ssp. ebrenbergiana (Schweinf.) Brum.

Herb, 0.5 m, C.W.G. — A/C.B. ecotone & A/C.B., common
Vatovaea pseudolablab (Harms) Gillett

Woody twining herb, 0.5 m, C.W.G. — A/C.B. ecotone, frequent
Vigna membranacea A. Rich. ssp. caesia (Chiov.) Verde.

Climber, Acacia / Commiphora bushland, common
V. vexillata (L.) A. Rich.

Climber, Combretum W.G., common near water
*Zornia glochidiata DC. G 20 134

Herb, 20 cm, shallow soil on rocky outcrops in A/C.B., locally common

A & M 33
A & M 249
A & M 191
G 18892
A& M 2

A & M 171, A 565
R s.r.

G s.r.

G 17021, 18891; A& M 266
G 16980, 20124
A 486
G 17012

G 16995; A & M 167, 302
G 17022
A & M 372
G 18930; A 569
V 3748; A 497

156. Salicaceae

*Populus ilicifolia (Engl.) Rouleau

Tree, 20 m, common on bank of Tana River

167. Moraceae

Chlorophora excelsa (Welw.) Benth. & Hook. f.

Tree, 30 m, swamp forest on W. edge of park, occasional
Ficus sycomorus L.

Tree, 15 m, riverine, ubiquitous
F. sp.

Tree, 20 m, Combretum wooded grassland, occasional

173. Celastraceae

Hippocratea sp.

Liane, groundwater forest on Rojewero, local

180. Salvadoraceae F.T.E.A. (1968)

Dobera glabra (Forsk.) Poir.

Tree up to 6 m, A/C bushland, occasional
Salvadora persica L.

Shrub, 3 m, bank of Tana River, common

185. Loranthaceae

Erianthemum ulugurense (Engl.) Danser

Parasite on Combretum aculeatum , uncommon
Phragmanthera dschallensis (Engl.) Balle forma vel. sp. aff.

Parasite on Lonchocarpus eriocalyx, uncommon

190. Rhamnaceae F.T.E.A. (1972)
Berchemia discolor (Kl.) Hemsl.

Tree, 8 m, riverine in southern section, common

G 16991; A & M 288

G & A s.r.

A & M 20
A & M 422

A & M 211

O 75/1
A & M 416

A 537/A

A 524

SM 13, 59; A 563

Page 20

Ziziphus abyssinica A. Rich. EP

Small tree, 5-6 m, in A.W.G. and C.W.G., occasional
Z. pubescens Oliv. EP

Tree to 15 m by streams in west of park, occasional

191. Vitaceae (Ampelidaceae)

*Cayratia gracilis (Guill. & Perr.) Suesseng.

Climber, Groundwater forest margin, occasional
Cissus quadrangularis L.

Succulent climber rocky places, occasional
Cyphostemma sp. aff. cyphopetalum (Fres.) Wild & Drum.

Climber, Combretum wooded grassland, occasional

G & A 20165
SM 42; A s.r.
G 20131

194. Rutaceae

Clausena anisata (Willd.) Benth. A & M 54

Shrub or small tree, 4 m, forest margin, common
Teclea simplicifolia (Engl.) Verdoorn A 532

Shrub, 4 m, Acacia/Commiphora B., common, subdominant Rhino Alley
Vepris eugeniifolia (Engl.) Verdoorn ? A & M 163

Shrub, 4 m. Acacia / Commiphora bushland, common

195. Simaroubaceae

*Brucea sp. perhaps new G & A 20168

Shrub, 2 m, groundwater forest, occasional
Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv. A & M 365

Shrub, 2 m, ubiquitous, common

* Kirkia tenuifolia Engl. G 17006

Small bushy tree, 5 m, A/C.B. in S.E. of park, occasional

195A. Balanitaceae

Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. A & M 92, 322

Tree, 10 m, Acacia wooded grassland, common
B. sp.

Scrambling shrub, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, occasional A & M 30

196. Burseraceae

Boswellia hildebrandtii Engl.

Shrub or small tree, 4 m, Acacia/Commiphora B., common
Commiphora africana (A. Rich.) Engl.

Shrub or small tree, 4 m, Acacia/Commiphora B., common
C. boiviniana Engl. ssp. boiviniana A & M 76, 341

Shrub or small tree, 4 m, occasionally liane-like, A/C.B. especially in less dry parts, common
C. campestris Engl. ssp. heterophylla (Engl.) —

Small tree, 5 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common
*C. engleri Guillaumin or related sp.

Shrub, 3 m, A/C.B. in S.E. of park, uncommon
C. flaviflora Engl.

Shrub, 2-4 m, A/C. bushland in east of park, occasional
C. holtziana Engl, (perhaps = C. erythraea (Berg) Engl.)

Shrub or tree, 8 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, frequent
C. madagascariensis Jacq.

Shrub or tree, 8 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, frequent
C. mollis (Oliv.) Engl, forma (C. mildbraedii Engl.)

Tree, 8 m Acacia/Commiphora bushland among rocks, occasional
C. rostrata Engl. G 17000; A 554

Shrub, 2 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland in E. of park, occasional
C. samharensis Engl., or related sp. G 17025; A & M 348

Shrub or small tree, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, occasional
C. schimperi (Berg) Engl. G 20174

Shrub, 3-4 m. Acacia W.G. in west of Park, occasional
*C. sp. undescribed ? A 445

Sprawling shrub, 1 m, A.W.G. near Murera river, uncommon

G 18912; A & M 215
G 16987, 18908 ; A 558, 578.

A & M 31, 411
G 18904
EP

G 16999; 20132; A & M 387
A & M 347
G 16988; A & M 361

197. Meliaceae

Melia volkensii Guerke A & M 39, 421

Tree, 15 m, outcrops of basement rock in A.W.G. & C.W.G., occasional
Trichilia roka (Forsk.) Chiov. A & M 86, 425

Tree, 12 m, riverine, occasional near west boundary.

Page 21

*Turraea parvi folia Defiers A & M 27

Shrub, 2 m, Acacia/Commiphora — A.W.G. ecotone, occasional

198. Sapindaceae

Allophylus sp.

Shrub, 3 m, at edge of groundwater forest, locally frequent
Blighia unijugata Bak.

Tree, 30 m, groundwater forest on Rojewero, local
Cardiospermum corindum L.

Climber, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, uncommon
C. halicacabum L.

Climber, Acacia W.G. and Combretum W.G., occasional
*Deinbollia borbotiica Scheff.

Tree, 5 m, riverine, A/C.B. — C.W.G. ecotone, common
Lecaniodiscus fraxinifolius Bak.

Tree, 20 m, riverine, occasional
Lepisanthes senegalensis (Poir.) Leenh.

Sapling, 4 m, riverine, occasional near W. boundary

205. Anacardiaceae

Heeria reticulata (Bak.f.) Engl.

Tree, 10 m, Combretum wooded grassland, occasional
Lannea stuhlmannii (Engl.) Engl.

Tree, 10 m, Combretum wooded grassland, occasional
L. triphylla (A. Rich.) Engl.

Tree, 5 m, Acacia wooded grassland, uncommon
Sclerocarya caffra Sond.

Tree, 8 m, riverine, common near west boundary

JA 2; M & F 656;

G & A 20162

A & M 52; G & A 20169
A & M 359
A & M 64; A 556
A & M hi
A & M 305
A & M 58

A & M 403
A & M 17, 396
G 17023; A 551
A & M 69, 402

213. Umbelliferae (Apiaceae)

Pimpinella sp. aff. etbaica Schweinf. A 429

Herb, 0.4 m, common on disturbed land

DICOTYLEDONS: GAMOPETALAE

221. Ebenaceae

Diospyros abyssinica (Hiern) F. White A & M 71

Tree, 10 m, riverine and G.W.F. near west boundary
Diospyros mespiliformis A. DC. A & M 56

Tree, 20 m, groundwater forest on Rojewero river, local

222. Sapotaceae F.T.E.A. (1968)

Pachystela brevipes (Bak.) Engl. G & A 20172

Tree, 20 m, groundwater forest in W. of park, occasional

230. Apocynaceae

Adenium obesum (Forsk.) Roem. & Schult.

Shrub or small tree with swollen stem, 6 m, A/C.B., uncommon
Hunteria zeylanica Thw. var. africana (K. Sch.) Pichon
Tree, 7 m, bank of Ura River, occasional
Pleiocarpa pycnantha (K. Sch.) Stapf

Shrub, 2 m, groundwater forest on Rojewero, occasional
Rauvolfia caffra Sond.

Tree, 10 m, riverine, common near west boundary
Tabernaemontana usambarensis K. Sch.

Tree, 12 m, riverine, common near west boundary

A 443

G 18905; A & M 388
A & M 169
A & M 72
A & M 44

231. Asclepiadaceae

Calotropis procera (Ait.) Ait.f. A & M 13

Woody herb, 2 m, widespread, occasional
Cynanchum defoliascens K. Sch. SM 132

Slightly woody twiner, A/C.B. in south of the park, occasional
Diplostigma canescens K. Sch. G 18914

Softly woody twiner, A/C.B. in S.E. of park, occasional
Dregea stelostigma (K. Sch.) Bullock G 18920; A & M 336

Woody herb, 0.5 m, Acacia wooded grassland, occasional
Kanahia laniflora (Forsk.) R. Br. G 16997; A & M 32

Herb, 1 m, on rocks or gravel near rivers, common

Page 22

Oxystelma bornouense R. Br.

Twiner near river in A/C.B. in S.E. of park
Pergularia daemia (Forsk.) Chiov.

Twiner, on stony hill in A/C.B. in east of park, occasional
Statlimostelma pedunculatum (Dene.) K. Sch.

Herb, 30 cm, Combretum W.G., common near W. boundary

232. Rubiaceae

Adina microcephala (Del.) Hiern

Tree, 25 m, riverine, occasional near W. boundary
Carphalea glaucescens (Hiern) Verde.

Shrub, 2 m, AcaciajCommiphora bushland, occasional
Conostomium quadrangulare (Rendle) Cuf.

Herb, 60 cm, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common
Hymenodictyon parvifolium Oliv.

Shrub, 3 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, occasional
Kohautia caespitosa Schnizl. var. amanienis (K.Kr.) Brem. A 571
Herb, 0.5 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common roadside
*Oldenlandia ichthyoderma Cuf.

Herb, 25 cm, A/C.B. — A.W.G. ecotone, occasional
Otomeria oculata S. Moore

Herb, 0.5 m, rocky inselbergs, uncommon
Oxyanthus oxycarpus S. Moore

Shrub, 2 m, groundwater forest on Rojewero, occasional
Paederia pospischilii K. Sch.

Climber, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, occasional
Pavetta capillipes Brem.

Shrub, 1-2 m tall, near river, uncommon
Pentanisia ouranogyne S. Moore

Herb, 25 cm, A.W.G. & A/C.B., common
Pentas parvifolia Hiern

Semi woody shrub, 2 m, C.W.G. — A/C.B. ecotone, common
Psychotria riparia (K. Sch. & K. Kr.) Petit

Shrub, 2 m, G.W.F. in W. of park, occasional
*Tapiphyllum sp.

Shrub, 2 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, occasional
Tarenna graveolens (S. Moore) Brem.

Shrub c. 1 m, tall on rocky slopes near Tana R., occasional
Vangueria acutiloba Robyns

Tree, 6 m, groundwater forest on Rojewero, local

238. Compos! tae (Asteraceae)

Aspilia mossambicensis (Oliv.) Wild

Herb, 1 m, margins of thickets in N.W. of park and near Leopa
Blepharispermum fruticosum Klatt & Schinz

Shrub 1-1.5 m tall, occasional in N.E. part of park
Conyza aegyptiaca Ait.

Herb, 40 cm, riverine, common in Acacia wooded grassland
Helichrysum glumaceum DC.

Herb, 50 cm, A.W.G. & A/C.B., common
Launaea comma (Oliv. & Hiern) C. Jeffr.

Herb, 30 m, Acacia W.G. and Combretum W.G., occasional
Sclerocarpus africanus Jacq.

Alien weed near Leopard Rock Camp
Sphaeranthus ukambensis O. Hofffn.

Herb, 25 cm. Acacia wooded grassland, common
Tridax procumbens L.

Herb, 40 cm, common near Tana River
Vernonia cinerascens Sch. Bip.

Woody herb, c. 1 m tall, A.W.G., occasional
V. colorata Drake

Softly woody shrub, 4 m, C.W.G., occasional near water
V. pauciflora Less.

Herb, 1 m, Combretum wooded grassland, common
V. sp. near hindii S. Moore

Herb, Combretum W.G., common near W. boundary

G 16998; PA 516
M & F 661
A & M 205

A & M 22, 316
G 18896; A & M 383
A & M 196
A & M 135

weed

A & M 328
A & M 276
G & A 20167
A & M 380, 423
JA 66/1
A & M 184
A 530

G & A 20166
A 522
SM 138
A&M55

M & F 616; A 533
:d Rock, occasional
SM 73

A & M 107

A 544; G 20148

A & M 50

SM 38

A & M 91

A & M 289

SM 4

A & M 65

A & M 126

A & M 78

Page 23

248. Campanulaceae

Cyphia glandulifera Hochst

Twining herb with tuberous root, Combretum W.G., occasional

249. Boraginaceae

Cordia africana Lam.

Tree, 30 m, groundwater forest on Rojewero, local
C. ovalis DC.

Shrub or small tree, 3 m, A/C.B., common near water
C. quarensis Guerke or related sp.

Shrub, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common
C. sinensis Lam.

Shrub or small tree to 6 m, near water courses, common
Heliotropium pectinatum Vaupel

Herb, 50 cm, Acacia W.G. and Combretum W.G., common
77. steudneri Vatke

Herb 50 cm tall in Acacia W. G., locally common
77. strigosum Willd.

Herb, 30 cm, Combretum wooded grassland, occasional
77. subulatum (DC.) Martelli

Herb, 25 cm, A. W.G. — A/C.B. ecotone, occasional
Trichodesma zeylanicum (L.) R. Br.

Herb, 1 m, A.W.G., occasional at swamp margins

250. Solanaceae

Solanum arundo Mattei

Shrub, 3 m, A.W.G. in N.E. of park, occasional
S', dasyphyllum Thonn.

Herb, 1 m, Combretum W. G., common in shady places
S. dubium Fres.

Herb, 50 cm. Acacia W.G. & A/C.B. ecotone, common
S. incanum L.

Herb, 1 m, Combretum W. G., common on disturbed land
S. renschii Vatke

Woody herb, c. 1 m tall, A.W.G., occasional
S. sp.

Herb, 0.5 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common

251. Convolvulaceae F.T.E.A. (1968)
Astripomoea hyoscyamoides (Vatke) Verde, var hyoscyamoides
Herb, X m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common
A. lachnosperma (Choisy) Meeuse

Herb, 40 cm, Combretum wooded grassland, common
A. malvacea (Kl.) Meeuse var .floccosa (Vatke) Verde.

Herb, 60 cm, Combretum wooded grassland, occasional
Convolvulus rhyniospermus Choisy

Herb, 25 cm, Acacia wooded grassland, uncommon
Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L.

Herb, 25 cm. Combretum wooded grassland, common
Hildebrandtia sepalosa Rendle

Shrublet, 0.5-1 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, frequent
Ipomoea arachnosperma Welw.

Climbing herb, Combretum W.G., occasional near W. boundary
7. cicatricosa Bak.

Shrub, 1-2 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, occasional
*7. coscinosperma Choisy

Creeping herb, common at swamp margins
*7. fulvicaulis (Choisy) Hall. f. vel. aff.

Annual, 50 cm, A.W.G. near Leopard Rock, occasional
7. mombassana Vatke

Climbing herb, Acacia wooded grassland, common
7. obscura (L.) Ker Gawl

Low, creeping herb, Acacia/Commiphora B., occasional
7. spathulata Hall.f.

Climber, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, occasional
Merremia pinnata (Choisy) Hall.f.

Annual herb, 40 cm, Combretum W.G. in S.W. of park, frequent

A & M 311

A & M 53
A & M 136
A & M 108
SM 99

SM 5; A & M 42, 134
F & M 49928
G & A 20157
G 16981 ; A & M 410
A & M 98

SM 185

A & M 307

AM 160; M & F 36;

A & M 414
A & M 124

SM 17

A & M 221

G & A 20154

G 17007, 20153 ; A & M 195
A & M 352
A 547
A & M 238
G 18910
A 526
A & M 216
A 473
M & F 629
A & M 90
A 576
A & M 224
G 17015, 20137

Page 24

*M. sp. A & M 132

Herb, Combretum wooded grassland, uncommon
Seddera hirsuta Hall.f. var. gracilis (Chiov.) Verde. SM 112

Prostrate herb on poor soils in A.W.G., occasional
S. latifolia Hochst. & Steud. var. argentea (Terrac.) Capua G 18895

Woody herb, 20 cm, eroded slopes in A/C.B. in S.E. of park, locally frequent

252. Scrophulariaceae

Craterostigma sp. A & M 326

Herb, A/C.B. — A.W.G. ecotone, uncommon
Ghikaea speciosa (Rendle) Diels G 18923; A 543

Woody herb, 1 m, A.W.G. & A/C.B. locally, frequent near E. boundary
Pseudosopubia hildebrandtii (Vatke) Engl. G 17019

Herb, 50 cm, Combretum wooded grassland, occasional
Stemodiopsis rivae Engl. V 3743

Small herb on rocks, Mugwongo hill, occasional

257. Bignoniaceae

Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. A & M 15

Tree, 20 m, A.W.G. and C.W.G., common
Markhamia hildebrandtii (Bak.) Sprague A & M 46

Tree, 20 m, riverine, common near west boundary

258. Pedaliaceae F.T.E.A. (1953)

Sesamothamnus busseanus Engl. A & M 356, 39

Shrub or small tree, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common
Sesamum angustifolium (Oliv.) Engl. A & M 197

Herb, 0.5 m, A/C.B. — A.W.G. ecotone, uncommon
S. latifolium Gillett A & M 204

Herb, 1 m, Combretum wooded grassland, uncommon

259. Acanthaceae

Adhatoda englerana (Lindau) C.B. Cl.

Shrub, 1 m, ground water forest margin, common locally
Anisotes parvifolius Oliv.

Shrub, 1-2 m, A/C. bushland near Tana R., occasional
Asystasia charmian S. Moore

Herb, 25 cm, C.W.G., occasional near water

A. somalensis (Franch.) Lebrun & Touss.

Herb, 25 cm, locally frequent
Barleria argentea Balf.f.

Herb, 25 cm. Acacia wooded grassland, occasional

B. eranthemoides R. Br.

Shrublet, 0.5 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common
B. submollis Lindau

Woody herb, 0.5 m semiscandent, A/C.B. occasional
Blepharis linariifolia Pers.

Herb, 15 cm. Acacia wooded grassland, occasional
B. maderaspatensis (L.) Roth ssp. rubiifolia (Schumach.) Napper
Herb, 25 cm, Acacia W.G., common riverside weed
Crabbea velutina S. Moore

Herb, 25 cm, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, occasional
Duosperma kilimandscharicum (Lindau) Dayton

Scrambling shrub, C.W.G. — A/C.B. ecotone, riverine, common
D. sp. ‘A’ of Upland Kenya Wild Flowers V 3742; G 20143 ; A & M 36

Bushy herb, 1-1.5 m, A.W.G. & A/C.B., locally common
Dyschoriste thunbergiiflora (S. Moore) Lindau F & M 49932; A & M 213

Herb, 1 m, riverine in Combretum W.G., occasional
D. sp. G 18901

Prostrate herb, eroded slopes in A/C.B. in S.E. of park, locally common
Justicia cordata (Nees) T. And. A & M 34, 301

Herb, 60 cm. Acacia wooded grassland & C.W.G., common
J. exigua S. Moore A & M 386

Herb, 25 cm, A/C.B., common along Ura River
J.fischeri Lindau SM 134

Herb, 40 cm, A/C. bushland near Tana River
jf.flavaV ahl A & M 397

Herb, 25 cm, Combretum wooded grassland, frequent

G & A 20163
SM 133
A & 398, 495
H.S. s.n.

JA 5; G 17002; A & M 37
SM 12; A 459
G 17010; A 521
A & M 43
A & M 200
A & M 344

SM 143; A & M 160, 174

Page 25

J. whytei S. Moore or related sp.

Herb, 40 cm, Acacia wooded grasland, occasional
J. sp.

JA4

A & M 188; 252

Herb, 40 cm, Acacia/Commiphora bushland and A.W.G., occasional
Neuracanthus ukambensis C.B.C1. JA 70; HS s.n.

Herb, up to 1 m, A/C. bushland, locally frequent
* Rhinacanthus pulcher Milne-Redh. PA 517

Herb, 1.5 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, occasional
Ruellia sp. A & M 308

Herb, Combretum W.G., common on shaded river banks
Rutty a fruticosa Lindau A 466

Shrub, 2 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, uncommon
Thunbergia guerkeana Lindau A & M 40

Climber, unbiquitous, common

263. Verbenaceae

Ghascanum hildebrandtii (Vatke) Gillett

Herb, 0.5 m, C.W.G. & A/C.B., common
Clerodendrum sp. near myricoides R. Br.

Shrub, 1.5 m, A/C.B. — C.W.G. ecotone, common
Cyclocheilon eriantherum (Vatke) Engl.

Shrub, A/C.B. — A.W.G. ecotone, occasional
Lantana camara L.

Shrub, A.W.G., occasional near buildings at Kenmere
L. viburnoides (Forsk.) Vahl

Shrub, 1.25 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common
Premna hildebrandtii Guerke

Woody climber in riverine thicket near W. boundary, common
P. oligotricha Bak.

Semi-scandent shrub, Acacia/Commiphora B., Common
P. resinosa Schauer

Shrub, 2 m, Acacia/Commiphora B., occasional
P. sp.

Shrub, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, occasional

G 17017; A 573
A & M 262
G 18919; A & M 332
A & M 282
A & M 384
A & M 57
A & M 343
G 18917
A & M 154

264. Labiatae (Lamiaceae)

Becium sp.

Herb, 25 cm, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common roadside
Endostemon gracilis (Benth.) Ashby

Herb, 25 cm, Combretum W. G., common at swamp margins
E. tereticaulis (Poir.) Ashby

Herb, 20 cm, Acacia/Commiphora B., locally frequent
Geniosporum hildebrandtii (Vatke) Ashby

Herb, 40 cm, Combretum wooded grassland, locally frequent
Hoslundia opposita Vahl

Woody herb, 1.25 m, Combretum wooded grassland, occasional
Leucas mollis Bak.

Shrubby herb, 1.2 m, Acacia wooded grassland, frequent
L. pratensis Vatke

Slender straggling herb, occasional
*L. sp. aff. L. mogadoxensis Chiov.

Herb, 40 cm, A.W.G. — A/C.B. ecotone, occasional
*L. sp.

Herb, 50 cm, Combretum wooded grassland, locally common

A & M 177
weed

A & M 229

G 20128

G 17018

A & M 253

HS s.n.', SM 26;
G & A 20159
SM 24

A & M 377

A & M 367

Ocimum hadiense Forsk. G 18921, 20127;

R 1785, 1801

Herb, 50 cm, open spots in A/C.B. in S.E. of park, locally abundant

O. suave Willd.

Herb, 1-1.5 m. Acacia wooded grassland, occasional
Orthosiphon sp.

Herb, 25 cm, common along N.E. boundary of park
Tinnea aethiopica Hook. f.

Shrub, 1.5 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, occasional

SM 68
A 540

A & M 349; A 546

Page 26

A & M 227
A & M 263
A & M 117
A & M 239
A & M 203
A & M 202
G 18882; A & M 147

MONOCOTYLEDONS
280. Commelinaceae

Aneilema johnstonii K. Sch.

Herb, 30 cm, Combretum W.G., occasional at swamp margins
A. petersii (Hassk.) C.B.C1.

Herb, 30 cm, A/C.B. — C.W.G. ecotone, common
Anthericopsis sepalosa (C.B.C1.) Engl.

Herb, 30 cm, Combretum W.G., A/C. bushland common
Commelina africana L. var. milleri Brenan

Herb, 20 cm, Combretum wooded grassland, occasional
C. albescens Hassk.

Herb, 15 cm, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, occasional
C. benghalensis L.

Herb, 30 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common
C. forskalaei Vahl

Herb, 25 cm, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common in rocky places
C. sp. ‘C’ of Upland Kenya Wild Flowers A & M 210

Herb, 30 cm, ground water forest on Rojewero, locally common
Cyanotis sp. G s.r.

Succulent herb, 15 cm, rocky places, frequent

293. Liliaceae

Albuca wakefieldii Bak. R 2120

Bulbous herb, Combretum wooded grassland, occasional
Anthericum cooperi Bak. A & M 331, 394

Herb, 20 cm, Acacia wooded grassland and C.W.G., common
Asparagus racemosus Willd. A & M 47A

Climber, common in dense bush near W. park boundary
A. setaceus (Kunth) Jessop A & M 47B

Climber, common in dense bush near W. park boundary
Chlorophytum gallabatense Bak. A & M 165

Herb, 25 cm, A/C.B. — Combretum W.G. ecotone, common
C. tenuifolium Bak. A & M 209

Herb, 25 cm, A/C.B. ecotone — Combretum W.G., common
C. tuberosum (Roxb.) Bak. A & M 127

Herb, 0.5 m, Combretum W.G., common in damp places
*C. sp. undescribed ( = Gillett 12819) A & M 251

Herb, 25 cm, common in swampy grasslands
*Drimiopsis volkensii (Engl.) Bak. JA 65

Bulbous plant, uncommon

Eriospermum triphyllum Bak. A & M 168, 260

Herb, A/C.B. — C.W.G. ecotone, common
Gloriosa minor Rendle A & M 408

Herb, 30 cm. Acacia W.G. and Combretum W.G., occasional
G. superba L. R 2119

Erect or climbing herb to 1 m, Combretum W. G., occasional
Ornithogalum donaldsonii (Rendle) Green way G 18928

Bulbous herb, 30 cm, A/C.B., common locally in S.E. of park
Scilla kirkii Bak. A & M 250

Bulbous herb, 20 cm, common in swampy grassland near W. boundary

302. Araceae

Stylocheiton sp. (broad leaves) G & A 20160/B

Herb, 30 cm, N.W. side of park, occasional in evergreen bushland
5. sp. (narrow leaves) G s.r.

Herb, 25 cm, A/C.B. in S.E. part of park, locally common

306. Amaryllidaceae

Crinum kirkii Bak. A & M 193

Bulbous herb, near W. boundary of park, occasional
* Pancratium trianthum Herb. A & M 173

Bulbous herb, Combretum W.G. & Acacia W.G., locally common

313. Agavaceae

Sansevieria? intermedia N.E.Br. R 2107

Leaves subcylindric, on red sandy soil in A/C.B.

5. ? raff illii N.E.Br. R2118

Leaves flat, in Acacia wooded grassland

Page 27

314. Palmae (Arecaceae)

Hyphaene coriacea Gaertn. S s.r.

Tree, 12 m, common in swamps and on river banks
Phoenix reclinata Jacq. A & M 87

Tree, 5 m, riverine, common

Raphia farinifera (Gaertn.) Hyland. A s.r.

Riverine, common, particularly near W. boundary

318. Hypoxidaceae

Hypoxis angustifolia Lam. A & M 248

Herb, 20 cm, Combretum wooded grassland, common

319. Velloziaceae

Xerophyta spekei Bak. A & M 272

Woody herb, 1 m, summit of Mughwango, dominant locally

331. Cyperaceae

Bulbostylis sp. A & M 145, 273

Rocky outcrops, common in wet season

Cyperus alternifolius L. ssp. flabelliformis (Rottb.) Kukenth. A & M 4

Common in swamps and at river sides

C. articulatus L. G 20119; A 457

Riversides, common

C. dives Del. A & M 407

Riversides, common, particularly near N.W. park boundary
C. giolii Chiov. A & M 255

Swamp margins in Combretum W.G., common
C. laevigatus L. A & M 7

Swamps, common

C. obtusiflorus Vahl A & M 118

Riversides, common

C. undulatus Kukenth. A & M 3

1.5 m, growing densely towards centre of swamps, common
C. sp. near kilimandscharicus Kukenth. A 481

Widespread, common in damp places

C. spp. A & M 18, 219

Widespread, swamps rivers, occasional

Fimbristylis complanata (Retz.) Link A & M 66

Riversides in Combretum wooded grassland, common
F. sp. A & M 12

Swamp margins, common

Fuirena pubescens Kunth A & M 5

Swamps, common

Kyllinga chrysantha K. Sch. A & M 325

Acacia/Commiphora bushland, common in damp places
K. comosipes (Matf. & Kukenth.) Hepper A & M 181

Acacia/Commiphora bushland, seasonally common in rocky places
K. jiava C.B.C1. A & M 259

Common on river banks near W. park boundary
Mariscus pseudovestitus C.B.C1. A & M 280

Acacia/Commiphora bushland, occasional in rocky places
M. sp. = Napper 1617 A & M 269

Summit of Mughwango, local

*Pycreus unioloides (R. Br.) Urb. A & M 1 1

Swamp margins, uncommon, first record for Kenya
Scirpus jacobii Fisch. G 2015 1

By pool in rocky river bed, locally common
S. sp. aff. jacobii G 20150

By pool in rocky river bed, locally common

332. Gramineae (Poaceae)

Acrachne racemosa (Roem. & Schult.) Ohwi

1 m, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, occasional
Aristida adscensionis L.

Ubiquitous, common
Bothriochloa glabra (Roxb.) A. Camus

Combretum wooded grassland, scattered dense clumps

R 1799; A 458
A & M 265; R 1798
A & M 242

Page 28

Brachiaria brizantha (A. Rich.) Steud.

Acacia wooded grassland, common near water

B. deflexa (Schumach.) Robyns

Acacia wooded grassland, occasional, particularly on limestone

B. cruciformis (Sm.) Griseb.

Low, isolated clumps, Combretum wooded grassland, near water

B. leersioides (Hochst.) Stapf

A/C.B. — C.W.G. ecotone, common among rocks

B. serrifoiia (Hochst.) Stapf

Beneath Acacia by river in A/C.B., locally frequent
Cenchrus ciliaris L.

Ubiquitous, occasional clumps
Chloris gay ana Kunth

Dominant over most swamps and river valleys

C. roxburghiana Schult.

Ubiquitous, common in scattered clumps

C. virgata Sw.

Widespread, occasional clumps
Chrysopogon plumulosa Hochst.

Dominant over much of the Acacia wooded grassland
Cymbopogon excavatus (Hoschst.) Stapf

Tall, c. 2 m, occasional clumps along N.W. park boundary

C. pospischilii (K. Sch.) C.E. Hubb.

Tall. 1.5 m. Acacia wooded grassland, occasional
Dactyloctenium scindicum Boiss.

Widespread, occasional
Dichanthium annulatum (Forsk.) Stapf
Swamp margins, occasional

D. papillosum (A. Rich.) Stapf

1.5 m., widespread, common near water
Digitaria milanjiana (Rendle) Stapf

1 m, Combretum wooded grassland, occasional

D. pennata (Hochst.) T. Cooke

D. velutina (Forsk.) Beauv.

Acacia/Commiphora bushland, occasional
Dignathia hirtella Stapf

Acacia wooded grassland, occasional
Dinebra retroflexa (Vahl) Panz.

30 cm, A/C.B. — A.W.G. ecotone, common
Echinochloa haploclada (Stapf) Stapf

Widespread, common in damp places

E. sp.

Common at swamp margins
Enteropogon macrostachys (A. Rich.) Benth.

Widespread, common in damp places
Eragrostis caespitosa Chiov.

Combretum wooded grassland, common on Ntoe Ndogo

E. cilianensis (All.) Lut.

Acacia wooded grassland, particularly on limestone, common

E. ciliaris (L.) R. Br.

Acacia/Commiphora bushland, scattered among weeds
E. cylindriflora Hochst.

Widespread, occasional
E. maculenta (A. Rich.) Steud.

Common in shade of riverine thicket near W. boundary
E. superba Peyr.

Ubiquitous, common especially in seasonally damp places
Eremopogon foveolatus (Del.) Stapf

1 m, ubiquitous in isolated clumps
Eriochloa procera (Retz.) C.E. Hubb.

Riversides, occasional
E. sp.

0.5 m, common on disturbed ground near W. boundary
Heteropogon contortus (L.) Roem. & Schult.

Ubiquitous, occasional extensive pure stands
Hyparrhenia anamesa Clayt.

Common in swamps along N.W. park boundary

A

503

A

435

A

482

A

& M

266

G

20139

A

& M

84, 223, 368

A

& M

232,

234

A

& M

100;

A 438

A

5i5

A

& M

324;

A 442

A

& M

83; L

\ 491

A

440

A

& M

330

A

& M

I

A

& M

3731

A 470

A

507

R

1803

A

& M

00

\r\

m

A

439

A

468

A

& M

233

A

& M

230

A

& M

357;

A 454

A

& M

353

A

432

A

572

A

& M

3631

A 431

A

-£*■

00

00

A

& M

240,

24

R

1800

1 A 436

A

461

A

494

A

& M

256

A

& M

82

Page 29

H. filipendula (Hochst.) Stapf var. pilosa (Hack.) Stapf

Tall, 2 m, common bordering swamps along N.W. boundary
H. rufa (Nees) Stapf

Occasional clumps along west boundary
Leptochloa chinensis (L.) Nees

Margin of rainwater pool in rocky river bed, locally frequent
Leptothrium senegalensis (Kunth) Clayt.

25 cm, Acacia/Commiphora bushland, frequent
Lintonia nutans Stapf

Combretum W.G. and A/C. ecotone, occasional
Loudetia arundinacea (A. Rich.) Steud.

Summit of Mughwango, local
Microchloa kunthii Desv.

Summit of Mughwango, local
Panicum coloratum L.

Ubiquitous in damp shady places
P. deustum Thunb.

Acacia/Commiphora bushland, occasional
P. maximum Jacq.

Widespread, common in damp shady places
Pennisetum typhoides (Burm.) Stapf & C.E. Hubb.

Occasional on disturbed ground
P. sp.

Clumps to 1 m, common near N.W. park boundary
Rhynchelytrum repens (Willd.) C.E. Hubb.

Widespread

R. villosum (Pari.) Chiov.

Widespread, occasional
Rottboellia exaltata L.f.

Widespread, common in damp places
Schmidtia pappophoroides J. A. Schmidt

Summit of Ntoe Ndogo, abundant, isolated
Schoenefeldia transiens (Pilg.) Chiov.

Widespread, occasional
Sehima nervosum (Willd.) Stapf

Dominant over much of C.W.G., common in A. W.G.

Setaria aurea A. Br.

Acacia wooded grassland, near N.W. boundary, occasional

A 490
A 512
G 20152

SM 174; R 1788; G 18900
A & M 374
A & M 270
A & M 275
A & M 323
A & M 161; A 453
A & M 257, 375
A 476
A 499
A & M 267
A 460
A 437
A & M 351
A 467

A & M 351; A 430
A 493

S. holstii Herrm.

Combretum wooded grassland, common at swamp margins
5. incrassata (Hochst.) Hack.

Occasional, clumps to 1 m, A/C.B. — Acacia W.G. ecotone
S', pallidifusca (Schumach.) Stapf & Hubb.

Acacia W.G. and Combretum W.G., common, not abundant
Sorghum versicolor Anderss.

Ubiquitous, dominant in patches near N.E. boundary
S. verticilliflorum (Steud.) Stapf

Tall, 2 m, Combretum W. G., occasional near W. boundary
Sporobolus fimbriatus (Trin.) Nees

Acacia wooded grassland, common near N.W. boundary
S. geminatus Clayt.

1 m, common in dry stream beds
S. helvolus (Trin.) Dur. & Schinz

1 m, Combretum W.G., common in damp places
S. pyramidalis P. Beauv.

Tall, 1.5 m, C.W.G., occasional at swamp margins

S. spicatus (Vahl) Kunth

1 m, Combretum W.G., occasional small pure stands, near swamps
Tetrapogon cenchriformis (A. Rich.) Clayt. H 1795

40 cm, Acacia/Commiphora B. on sandy soil, occasional

T. tenellus (Roxb.) Chiov. R 1796; A 441

Ubiquitous, common

A & M 231, 376
A 450
A 426, 500
A 425

A & M 103; A 489
A 492

A & M 14; A 446
A 499

A & M 243; A 506
A 498

Themeda triandra Forsk. A & M 300, 405

Combretum wooded grassland, common
Tragus berteronianus Schult. A 434

Acacia wooded grassland, common on limestone

Page 30

Tricholaena eichingeri (Mez) Stapf & Hubb. A & M 271

Summit of Mughwango, local

Urochloa mossambicensis (Hochst.) Stapf A & M 222

Combretum wooded grassland, common

REFERENCES

AGNEW, A. D. Q. (1974), Upland Kenya Wild Flowers, O.U.P., London.

DALE, L. and GREENWAY, P. J. (1961), Kenya Trees and Shrubs, Nairobi.

DODSON R.G. (1955), Geology of the North Kitui Area. Geological Survey of Kenya Report No. 33.

Flora of Tropical East Africa (1952 — in progress) Various authors. Govt. Bookshops London,
Nairobi, Entebbe and Dar es Salaam.

GILLETT, J. B. and MACDONALD, P. G. (1970). A Numbered Check List of Trees, Shrubs
and Noteworthy Lianes Indigenous to Kenya, Nairobi Govt. Printer.

GREENWAY, P. J. & VESEY-FITZGERALD D. F. (1969). The Vegetation of Lake Manyara
National Park, J. Ecol. 57; 127-149.

GREENWAY, P. J. (1969). A Checklist of Plants Recorded in Tsavo National Park East,
J.E.A.N.H.S. 28 (3); 169-209.

HARKER, K. W. & NAPPER, D. M. (i960). An illustrated Guide to the grasses of Uganda,
Entebbe Govt. Printer.

NAPPER, D. M. (1968). Grasses of Tanganyika. Bull. Minist. Agric. Forest & Wildlife No. 18.

PRATT, D. J., GREENWAY, P. J. & GWYNNE, M. D. (1966). A Classification of East African
Rangeland with an appendix on Terminology. J. Appl. Ecol. 3; 369-382.

RIX, P. (1967). Geology of the Kinira Area. Geological Survey of Kenya Report No. 81.

Page 31

INDEX

to families and

genera (by

family

numbers)

Abrus

148

Brassicaceae

39

Abutilon .

- 132

Bridelia

136

Acacia

147

Brucea

195

Acalypha .

136

Bulbostylis

331

Acanthaceae

• 259

Burseraceae

196

Acrachne .

Actiniopteris

Adansonia

• 332

before 1

- 131

Caesalpinia

C

146

Adenium .

232

Caesalpiniaceae .

146

Adina

230

Calotropis

231

Adhatoda .

• 259

Campanulaceae

248

Aerva

63

Capparaceae

36

Aeschynomene .

148

Cardiospermum

198

Agavaceae

• 3i3

Carphalea

232

Aizoaceae .

54

Cassipourea

122

Albizia

147

Cassytha .

XI

Albuca

293

Cayratia .

191

Allop hyl us

198

Celastraceae

173

Alysicarpus

148

Celosia

63

Amaranthaceae

63

Cenchrus

332

Amaranthus

63

Cephalocroton

136

Amaryllidaceae

36

Chascanum

263

Ammannia

72

Chloris

332

Ampelidaceae

191

Chlorophora

167

Anacardiaceae .

205

Chlorophytum

293

Aneilema

280

Chrysopogon

332

Anisotes .

• 259

Cissus

191

Anthericopsis

280

Clausena .

194

Anthericum

• 293

Cleome

36

Apiaceae .

213

Clerodendrum

263

Apocynaceae

230

Clitoria

148

Araceae

302

Clusiaceae

126

Arecaceae

- 3i4

Coccinia .

103

Argomuellera

136

Combretaceae .

I2X

Aristida

• 332

Combretum

121

Aristolochia

24

Commelina

280

Aristolochiaceae

24

Commelinaceae .

280

Asclepiadaceae .

231

Commicarpus

83

Asparagus

• 293

Commiphora

196

Aspilia

238

Compositae

238

Asteraceae

238

Convolvulaceae .

25 1

Astripomoea

. 251

Convolvulus

251

Asystasia .

• 259

Corchorus

128

Balanitaceae

B

• 195/A

Cordia

Conyza

Crabbea

249

238

259

Balanites .

• 195/A

Craibia

I48

Baphia

148

Crassulaceae

45

Barleria

259

Craterostigma .

252

Basananthe

IOI

Crinum

306

Bauhinia .

146

Crotalaria

148

Becium

264

Cruciferae

39

Berchemia

190

Cucumis .

103

Bignoniaceae

257

Cucurbitaceae .

103

Blepharispermum

238

Cyanotis

280

Blighia

198

Cyclocheilon

263

Boerhavia

83

Cymbopogon

332

Bombacaceae

131

Cynanchum

231

Boraginaceae

249

Cyperaceae

331

Boscia

36

Cyperus .

33X

Boswellia

196

Cyphia

248

Bothriochloa

• 332

Cyphostemma .

191

Brachiaria

•

• 332

Cyathula .

.

63

Page 32

INDEX

D

Heliotropium

249

Dactyloctenium

• 332

Hermannia

130

Dalbergia .

148

Heteropogon

332

Dalechampia

136

Hibiscus

132

Deinbollia

198

Hildebrandtia .

251

Delonix

146

Hippocratea

173

Dichanthium

• 332

Hoslundia

264

Dicotyledons : Archichlamydeae .

11-213

Hunteria .

230

Dicotyledons: Gamopetalae

221-264

Hybanthus

40

Digera

63

Hymenodictyon

232

Digitaria .

• 332

Hyparrhenia

332

Dignathia

. 332

Hyphaene

314

Dinebra .

• 332

Hypoxidaceae

318

Diospyros

221

Hypoxis .

318

Dobera

180

Dregea

. 231

I

Drimiopsis

• 293

Indigofera

148

Duosperma

• 259

Ipomoea .

251

Dyschoriste

• 259

T

E

Jatropha .

J

136

Ebenaceae

221

Justicia

259

Echinochloa

332

Endostemon

264

K

Entada

147

Kalanchoe

45

Enteropogon

• 332

Kanahia .

231

Eragrostis

• 332

Kedrostis .

I03

Eremopogon

• 332

Kigelia

257

Erianthemum

185

Kohautia .

232

Eriochloa

• 332

Kyllinga .

331

Eriospermum

293

Erythroxylaceae

• 135

L

Erythroxylum .

• 135

Labiatae

264

Euphorbia

136

Lamiaceae

264

Euphorbiaceae .

136

Lannea

205

Evolvulus

251

Lantana .

282

Launaea .

238

F

Lauraceae

11

Fabaceae .

148

Lawsonia

72

Farsetia .

39

Lecaniodiscus .

198

Ficus

167

Lepisanthes

198

Fimbristylis

• 33i

Leptochloa

332

Fuirena

• 331

Leptothrium

332

Flacourtiaceae

93

Leucas

264

Liliaceae .

293

G

Lintonia .

332

Gamopetalae

221-264

Lonchocarpus .

148

Garcinia .

126

Loranthaceae

185

Geniosporum

264

Loudetia

332

Geraniaceae

67

Lythraceae

72

Ghikaea .

. 252

Gisekia

54

M

Glinus

54

Maerua

36

Gloriosa .

. 293

Malpighiaceae .

133

Glycine

148

Malvaceae

132

Gossypium

132

Mariscus .

33i

Gramineae

• 332

Markhamia

257

Grewia

128

Meineckia

136

Guttiferae

126

Melhania

130

Gynandropsis

36

Melia

197

Meliaceae

197

H

Merremia

251

Harrisonia

.

195

Microchloa

332

Heeria

205

Mimosaceae

147

Helichrysum

.

238

Mollugo .

54

Page 33

INDEX

Monadenium

136

Rhizophoraceae

122

Monocotyledons

280-332

Rhynchelytrum

332

Monsonia

67

Rhynchosia

146

Moraceae

167

Ricinus

138

Rottboellia

332

N

Rubiaceae

232

Neuracanthus

259

Ruellia

259

Neorautanenia

148

Rutaceae .

194

Newtonia .

147

Ruttya

259

Nyctaginaceae .

83

Q

O

Salicaceae

0

156

Ocimum

264

Salvadora

1 80

Ochna

114

Salvadoraceae .

180

Ochnaceae

114

Sansevieria

313

Oldenlandia

232

Sapindaceae

198

Ormocarpum

148

Sapotaceae

222

Ornithogalum .

■ 293

Schmidtia

332

Orthosiphon

264

Schoenfeldia

332

Otomeria

232

Scilla

293

Oxyanthus

232

Scirpus

331

Oxygonum

51

Sclerocarpus

238

Oxystelma

231

Sclerocarya

205

Scrophulariaceae

252

P

Securinega

136

Pachystela

222

Seddera .

251

Paederia .

232

Sehima

332

Palmae

• 314

Sericocomopsis

63

Pancratium

306

Sesamothamnus

258

Panicum

• 332

Sesamum

258

Papilionaceae

148

Sesbania

148

Passifloraceae

IOI

Setaria

332

Pavetta

232

Sida

132

Pavonia

132

Simaroubaceae .

195

Pedaliaceae

258

Solanaceae

250

Pellaea

before 1

Solanum .

250

Pennisetum

• 332

Sorghum .

332

Pentanisia

232

Sphaeranthus .

238

Pentas

232

Sporobolus

332

Pergularia

231

Stemodiopsis

252

Phoenix

• 3i4

Sterculia .

130

Phragmanthera

185

Sterculiaceae

130

Phyllanthus

136

Stathmostelma .

231

Piliostigma

146

Streptopetalum .

34

Pimpinella

. 213

Stylocheiton

302

Pleiocarpa

230

Stylosanthes

148

Poaceae

• 332

Synadenium

136

Polygala .

42

Polygalaceae

42

T

Polygonaceae

57

T abernaemontana

230

Populus

156

Talinum

56

Portulaca

56

Tamarindus

146

Portulaceaceae

56

Tapiphyllum

232

Premna

263

Tarenna .

232

Pseudosopubia .

252

Teclea

194

Psilotrichum

63

Terminalia

121

Psychotria

232

Tephrosia

148

Pteridophyta

before 1

Tetrapogon

332

Pycreus

• 331

Themeda

332

Thunbergia

259

R

Tiliaceae

128

Raphia

314

Tinnea

250

Rauvolfia

230

Tragia

136

Rhamnaceae

190

Tragus

332

Rhinacanthus

• 259

Triaspis .

.

133

Page 34

INDEX

Tribulus .

66

Vepris

194

Trichilia

197

Vernonia

238

Trichodesma

• 249

Vigna

148

Tricholaena

332

Violaceae

40

Tridax

238

Vitaceae .

191

Triumfetta

128

Tumeraceae

34

W

Turraea
Tylosema .

197

146

Waltheria

130

U

X

Umbelliferae

213

Xerophyta

.

• 319

Urochloa .

V

332

Zehneria .

z

103

Vangueria

232

Ziziphus

.

190

Vatovaea .

148

Zornia

. .

148

Velloziaceae

• 319

Zygophyllaceae

.

66

(Received 18 August 1973)

ADDENDA — to 13 September 1975

Pteridophyta

Marsilea ? macrocarpa Presl

Swampy, sunny, edge of perennial stream in A.W.G., rare
63. Amaranthaceae

Achyranthes aspera L.

Herb 1 m tall, shady places in A.W.G., locally common

103. Cucurbitaceae

Lagenaria sphaerica (Sond.) Naud.

Climber near streams, uncommon

G 20811
SM 86
SM 170

146. Caesalpiniaceae

*Parkinsonia anacantha Brenan TA in EA 12684

Shrub 2 m tall at N. end of park, rare

148. Papilionaceae

Indigofera spicata Forsk. G 20803

Prostrate herb in shade near buildings in A.W.G., occasional
Mundulea sericea (Willd.) A. Chev. G 20805

Shrub 1-2 m tall in A.G.W. at N. end of park, rare
Ormocarpum trachycarpum (Taub.) Harms G 20806

Shrub 1-2 m tall in A.W.G. at N. end of park, occasional

185. Loranthaceae

Plicosepalus curviflorus (Benth.) Van Tiegh.

Parasitic on Acacia elatior near river, occasional

191. Vitaceae

Cyphostemma nieriense (Th. Fr.) Desc.

Climber over shrubs near rivers, occasional

264. Labiatae

Capitanya otostegioides Guerke

Herb c. 40 cm tall in A/C.B., uncommon

332. Gramineae
Andropogon ascinodis C.B.C1.

Top of cliff at edge of Combretum W.G., occasional
Aristida kenyensis Henr.

Top of cliff at edge of Combretum W.G., occasional
Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Beauv.

Top of cliff at edge of Combretum W.G., occasional

G 20812

SM 163

R 2225

R 2221
R 2223
R 2219

Published by the East Africa Natural History Society, Box 44486, Nairobi, Kenya
and printed by Kenya Litho Ltd., Box 40775, Nairobi.

OF THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

25th October, 1975 No. 155

NOTES ON SOME EAST AFRICAN APHIDS (HOMOPTERA, APKIBQIDEA)

By

Ole E. Heie

Skive Seminarium, Biology Department, Dk-7800 Skive, Denmark

Twenty aphid species are recorded from Kenya and Tanzania. Eonaphis crotonis
Quednau is new to East Africa; Aphis fabae subsp. solanella Theob. and Macrosiphum
rosae L. are new to Tanzania. New host-plant records are added to some of the species.
The male of Neophyllaphis grobleri Eastop is described for the first time and measurements
of other morphs of this species and of the little known Eonaphis crotonis, previously found
only once, are given.

INTRODUCTION

The aphid fauna of East Africa is treated in a monograph by Eastop (1958). Including
some subsequent additions by Eastop (1959, 1961, 1966) the number of species previously
known from Kenya and Tanzania amounts to 94, of which 81 species have been recorded
from Kenya and 42 species from Tanzania.

The writer collected 20 aphid species in East Africa during an excursion with the
Danish Natural History Society from December 26, 1971 to January 15, 1972. Eight
species were found in southern Kenya and thirteen species in the north-eastern part of
Tanzania.

The species are listed alphabetically below. Three of them are new to Tanzania and
one of these is also new to East Africa. New host-plant records are added to some of the
aphids previously known from Kenya and Tanzania.

Most of the plants on which the aphids were found were collected. They were
subsequently delivered to the East African Herbarium, Nairobi, and identified by
J. B. Gillett (indicated by an asterisk (*) in brackets behind the name of the plant). A
few plants were identified in the field by the writer or by other members of the excursion.
The aphids were identified by the writer.

LIST OF SPECIES

Aloephagus myersi Essig, 1950

Kariandusi Site, north of Naivasha, Kenya, Dec. 30; on Aloe sp. (Liliaceae).

Aphis craccivora Koch, 1854

Tsavo National Park East, Kenya, Jan. 1; on Platycelyphium voense (Engl.) Wild (*) (Papilio-
naceae), large colonies; also on Alternanthera pungens H. B. & K. (*) (Amaranthaceae) at the same
locality, infested by large numbers though not a host; the aphids arrived from Platycelyphium
a few metres away.

Aphis fabae Scopoli, 1763, subsp. solanella Theobald, 1913

West Kilimanjaro Forest Station (about 1500 m), Tanzania, Jan. 11; on Solanum nigrum

Page 2

L. var. ‘A’ (*) (Solanaceae), large colonies crumpling the leaves; on Malva verticillata L. (*)
(Malvaceae), only alatae; on Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Med. (Cruciferae), colonies on somewhat
crumpled leaves.

Momella, Tanzania, Jan. 9-1 1; on Bidens pilosa L (*) (Compositae), colonies; on Nicotiana
glauca R. Grah. (*) (Solanaceae), alatae in the inflorescences; on Chenopodium opulifolium Koch &
Ziz (*) (Chenopodiaceae), large colonies on upper parts of stems; on Agapanthus sp. (cultivated)
(Alliaceae), colonies on flowers and fruits; on Vernonia pauciflora Less. (*) (Compositae), one dead
alata.

Mt. Meru, Tanzania, Jan. 12; on Clutia sp. (Euphorbiaceae), colonies on undersides of young
leaves.

These seem to be the first records from Tanzania. The subspecies occurs in Africa and Europe,
originally described by Theobald from Kenya. Eastop (1958; 72) recorded it from Njoro and
Muguga in Kenya.

Aphis frangulae Kaltenbach, 1855, subsp . gossypii Glover, 1877

Momella, Tanzania, Jan. 10; on Ageratum conyzoides L. (*) (Compositae), apterae and nymphs.

Aphis nerii B. de Fonscolombe, 1841

Near Buiko between Tanga and Same, Tanzania, Jan. 9; on Calotropis sp. (Asclepiadaceae),
colonies in inflorescences and in concavities on undersides of leaves (like Cryptomyzus ribis (L.)
on Ribes rubrum), visited by ants.

Eonaphis crotonis Quednau, 1962

Arusha National Park, Tanzania, Jan. 10; on Croton macrostachyus A. Rich. (*) (Euphor-
biaceae), large colonies consisting of apterous and alate viviparous females and immature specimens
on undersides of leaves together with some ants. Croton macrostachyus was examined at several
places, but the aphids were found on only one plant, near Momella Lakes.

This interesting species, which belongs in Setaphidinae, has previously been found only
once, viz. in Wonderboom Nature Reserve, South Africa, Dec. i960 — Jan. 1961 on Croton subgratis-
simus, by Quednau, who described it (1962).

Also in South Africa the aphids were found on only one tree, although Croton subgratissimus
occurred abundantly in the area.

The specimens from Tanzania are somewhat bigger than those described from South Africa,
with longer antennal segment III and total antennal length, so some measurements (in mm) are
given below:

Apterous viviparous females: body length 1.46-1.88, ant. 1.56-1.68, ant. segm. Ill 0.57-0.66.
One specimen: body 1.73, ant. 1.60, ant. segm. Ill 0.64, IV 0.31, Va 0.21, Vb 0.30, siph. 0.13,
ultimate rostral segm. 0.15, 2nd segm. of hind tarsus 0.11.

Alate viviparous females: body 1.63-1.66, ant. 1.60-1.83, ant. segm. Ill 0.64-0.72 with 18-24
secondary rhinaria. One specimen: body 1.66, ant. 1.70, ant. segm. Ill 0.72, IV 0.32, Va 0.21,
Vb 0.31, siph. 0.13, ultimate rostral segm. 0.16, 2nd segm. of hind tarsus 0.11.

In Quednau’s material the antennae are about 0.8 X body length in alatae, in the present
material of the same length as the body or a little longer.

Hyperomyzus lactucae (L., 1758)

Thomson’s Falls (2361 m), Kenya, Dec. 28; on Sonchus oleraceus L. (*) (Compositae).

Lake Naivasha (1893 m), Kenya, Dec. 29; on Sotichus oleraceus L. (*).

The species is almost cosmopolitan, according to Eastop (1966) occurring in Kenya highlands
at altitudes of 1800-2700 m, whereas the related H. carduellinus (Theobald) in Kenya is found only
up to about 2100 m.

The present material is identified with H. lactucae by means of the key in Eastop (1966).
The altitudes of both above mentioned localities are more than 1800 m.

Macrosiphum rosae (L., 1758)

Arusha, Tanzania, Jan. 13; on Rosa sp., cultivated in gardens, pink apterae and nymphs.

This almost cosmopolitan species, the common pest to roses in Europe, has been recorded
from several localities in Africa, in Eritrea, Kenya, Rhodesia, Uganda, South Africa (Eastop 1958:
47), Mozambique (Ilharco 1970), and Angola (van Harten & Ilharco 1971). This is the first record
from Tanzania.

Macrosiphum ( Sit obion ) africanum Hille Ris Lambers, 1954

Western slope of Kilimanjaro (about 1800 m), Tanzania, Jan. 11; one alata swept from low
vegetation on roadside in rain forest.

Macrosiphum ( Sitobion ) sp.

Mt. Meru, Tanzania, Jan. 12; on a woody member of the Hypericaceae, apterae killed by
fungus disease.

Page 3

It is perhaps M. ( S .) nigrinectaria Theobald, 1915, but identification is not possible because
the hind tarsi are missing.

Myzus ornatus Laing, 1932

Lake Naivasha, Kenya, Dec. 29; on cultivated variety of Achillea millefolium L. (Compositae)
in gardens, large numbers of apterae and nymphs together with ants.

Ngurdoto Crater, Arusha National Park, Tanzania, Jan. 10; on Sphaeranthus suaveolens
(Forssk.) D.C. (*) (Compositae), only two alatae.

Myzus ( Nectarosiphon ) persicae (Sulzer, 1776)

Near Ngobit north of Nyeri, Kenya, Dec. 28 ; one aptera swept from vegetation with Bidetis
pilosa L. (*) (Compositae).

Neophyllaphis grobleri Eastop, 1955

Near Amani, Usambara Mountains, Tanzania, Jan. 8; on Podocarpus usambarensis (according
to label on the tree in the forest of the Malaria Station) (Podocarpaceae), large colonies on fullgrown
tree, apterous and alate viviparous females and sexuales.

The host record is new. Previously this aphid has been found on Podocarpus gracilior (Eastop
1955)5 T. milanjianus (Eastop 1958), P. henkelii (Quednau 1962), and P. engelmannii (according
to label on sample from West Africa collected by Eastop). It is known only from Africa south of
Sahara (Kenya, Tanzania, South Africa, Cameroons) and is the only Neophyllaphis species occurring
in Africa. The sample was identified by means of the key in Hille Ris Lambers (1967), and the ovi-
parous females were compared with material from British Museum.

As the specimens from P. usambarensis are a little bigger than the specimens described by
Eastop (1955) some measurements (in mm) are given below:

Apterous viviparous female: body 2.27, ant. 1.22, ant. segm. Ill 0.50, IV 0.21, V 0.20, Via
0.13, VIb 0.04, ultimate rostral segm. 0.07, 2nd segm. of hind tarsus 0.16.

Alate viviparous females: body 2.x 1-2.84; number of rhinaria on ant. segm. Ill 92-104.
Most specimens are ovipariform with hind tibiae bearing up to five pseudosensoria. One specimen:
body 2.43, ant. 2.04, ant. segm. Ill 0.93, IV 0.39, V 0.32, Via 0.16, VIb 0.04, ultimate rostral segm.
0.09, 2nd segm. of hind tarsus 0.17, hind tibia with one pseudosensorium.

Alate oviparous female: body 2.37, ant. 2.05, ant. segm. Ill 0.94, with 96-97 secondary
rhinaria, IV 0.39, V 0.33, Via 0.16, VIb 0.04, ultimate rostral segm. 0.08, 2nd segm. of hind tarsus
0.17, hind tibia with 35-36 pseudosensoria.

Alate male: has not been described previously. It is similar to the alate viviparous female,
except that the third antennal segment bears about 140-150 secondary rhinaria, which in the basal
half of the segment are of a shape similar to that in the alate female, viz. narrow, transversal, and
linear and not ciliated, but not extending around the segment for more than a half of its circum-
ference; in the middle part of about the same shape, but ciliated; and in the distal one third to two
fifths transverse-oval or subcircular, ciliated and situated not only on one side of the segment,
and the fourth segment with about 35 transverse-oval, ciliated rhinaria on all sides of the segment
(the rest of the antenna is missing). Measurements of one specimen : body 2.13, ant. segm. Ill 0.84,
IV 0.39, ultimate rostral segm. 0.07, 2nd segm. of hind tarsus 0.16.

In the viviparous females ant. segm. Ill is longer than in the material described by Eastop,
and there are more secondary rhinaria in the alate viviparous females (92-104 against 54-76).
Material from West Africa bridges the gap, however. In one sample collected by Eastop in Cameroons
an alate viviparous female similar to Eastop’s type material, with body length 2.60 mm and ant.
segm. Ill 0.77 mm with 64 rhinaria, occurs together with an alate oviparous female similar to my
material from the Usambara Mts., with body length 2.90 mm and ant. segm. Ill 0.97 mm with
81-82 rhinaria, so the differences should probably be ascribed to intraspecific variation only.

Rhopalosiphum rufiabdominalis (Sasaki, 1899)

Western slope of Kilimanjaro (about 1800 m), Tanzania, Jan. 11; one alata swept from low
vegetation on roadside in rain forest.

Saltusaphis scirpus Theobald, 1915

Lake Naivasha, Kenya, Dec. 29; on Pennisetum clandestinum Chiov. (*) (Gramineae), apterous
and alate viviparous females and immature specimens caught by shaking high grass in one place
and low short-leaved grass of the same species in another place several metres away.

Though the aphids belong in two samples from the same plant species it is doubtful that
Pennisetum is a true host because, elsewhere, this well-known aphid has been found feeding on
Cyperaceae only. It is recorded from Egypt, Sudan, Kenya, South Africa, Mozambique, and
Angola.

Schoutedenia bougainvilleae (Theobald, 1920)

Diani Beach south of Mombasa, Kenya, Jan. 3; on Phyllanthus sp. (*) (Euphorbiaceae), small
colonies visited by ants, apterae and nymphs, from some of which alatae were reared.

Page 4

Tetraneura nigriabdominalis (Sasaki, 1899)

Lake Naivasha, Kenya, Dec. 29; on Pennisetum clandestinum Chiov. (*) (Gramineae), alatae
taken by shaking the plants over a board.

Toxoptera aurantii (B. de Fonscolombe, 1841)

Mt. Meru, Tanzania, Jan. 12; on Rhamnus prinoides L’Her. (*) (Rhamnaceae), apterae and
nymphs on undersides of leaves.

It is previously known from Rhamnus, though not Rh. prinoides.

Toxoptera citricidus (Kirkaldy, 1907)

Mt. Meru, Tanzania, Jan. 12; on Clutia sp. (Euphorbiaceae), one alata visited by ant.

Uroleucon ( Uromelan ) Compositae (Theobald, 1915)

Momella, Arusha National Park, Tanzania, Jan. 9-11; on several Compositae, large colonies
on Vernonia lasiopus O. Hoffm. (*), V. pauciflora Less. (*), and Conyza floribunda H. B. & K.
(*): a few specimens (alatae, apterae, nymphs) on Gnaphalium undulatum L. (*), some of them dead
or dying, in one little colony together with a coccid-like ladybird larva: and finally single specimens
on Ageratum conyzoides L. (*) (aptera), Bidens pilosa L. (*) (aptera), and Galinsoga parviflora
Cav. (*) (alata).

Roadside between Momella and Arusha, Tanzania, Jan. 13; on Vernonia glabra (Steetz)
Vatke (*) (alatae, apterae, nymphs).

The material all belongs to U. compositae subsp. compositae, also the sample from Vernonia
glabra, the only host of U. compositae subsp. evansi Eastop, which lives in southern Tanzania and
Rhodesia.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my sincere thanks to J. B. Gillett for identification of host-plants, V. F
Eastop, British Museum, for loan of specimens of Neophyllaphis grobleri Eastop, and the late
D. Vesey-FitzGerald, Arusha National Park, for leading an excursion on Mt. Meru.

REFERENCES

Eastop, V. F. (1955) New East African aphids (Hem., Aphididae). Entom. Monthly Mag. 91:
154-160.

(1958) A study of the Aphididae ( Homoptera ) of East Africa. London. 126 pp.

(1959) New African Sitobion (Aphididae, Homoptera). The Entomologist 92: 96-105.

(1961) A study of the Aphididae ( Homoptera ) of West Africa. London 93 pp.

(1966) A taxonomic study of Australian Aphidoidea (Homoptera). Aust.J. Zoo. 14: 399-592.
Harten, A. van & Ilharco, F. A., (1971) Notes on the aphid fauna of Angola with description of
a new species of Schizaphis Borner. Rev. Cine. Bioldgicas, 3 (A) : 1-24 (1970).

Hille Ris Lambers, D., (1967) On the genus Neophyllaphis Takahashi, 1920 (Homoptera,
Aphididae) with descriptions of two new species. Zool. Mededelingen, 42: 55-66.

Ilharco, F. A., (1970) Notes on the aphid fauna of Mozambique. Part I. Rev. Cienc. Bioldgicas
2 (A): 1-9 (1969).

Quednau, F. W., (1962) A list of aphids so far unrecorded from South Africa, with descriptions
of two new species (Homoptera, Aphidoidea). South African J. Agr Sci. 5: 253-642.

(Received 14th April 1973 )

Published by The East Africa Natural History Society, Box 44486, Nairobi, Kenya and
printed by Kenya Litho Ltd., Box 40775, Changamzve Road, Nairobi.

* CD /

^ (i

y.wJy< > p

AX w 4 73 \i

m '' X X^ivA^i^y m Nx^vc;sv^>/ ^ rn

_ co " £ (/> £ co

aiavasn libraries Smithsonian institution NoiiniusNi _ nvinoshiiws saiavaai

— <n ~~ in

2

x A

o x 6

S " ^ > 2 x^vosh^

STITUTION ''^0linillSNI_NVIN0SHimS</,S3 I U V U Q I l^L I B R A R I ES^SMITHSONIAN^INSTITUTIOI

^ — 2 \ *0 -?> co

cfoivox m ^ w /<2^\ ^ CO

— /vit I «— 5 .ov»V AT/Sa w trJBb.'t'X i ^ — sssssss s/.. /rr<*

O ■ ^ __. yvwy o

_ 2 -J 2 _ _

3IHVH8I1 LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlifllllSNI NVINOSHIIIAIS S3IHVH8I

r* x r~ x f“ z

^STITUTION NOlifllllSNI NVINOSHIIIAIS SSiavaail LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTE

3 i ava a

2 >

CO 2 CO

1 LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI NVINOSHIIIAIS S3iava8

X «o X ^ co - co

fr 2vtso£>v Ui , « Xavcsov/X UJ /CoXa^n. £ ,s^\ . • LU /TvSvvvTx

Q x^v ql_^x — '■Cjf?"' o 'vi^v_DC_^ X^UnS^X O " ^

dSTITUTION^ N0liniliSNI~NVINQSHlllAIS~S3 I a VB a n JL I B R AR I ES~ SMITHSONIAN^ INSTITUTE

l I I «#%. 1 ^

/< > i£j

XI

m '' X K^vasv^X m x^yosv^iX ^ m x^vosl^

co ‘ ' £ co 2 co

Biavaan libraries Smithsonian institution NoiiniusNi nvinoshiiws saiavaa

z v w z t co 2:

< V 2 < v S ^ < ^TTXx ^

x

CO

o

£ t £ KKr'^n^r-A'-y !x \\m" tz •, " / — “/

_ __ > ■' 2 xiLos^y' >

co ' N 2 co X co

1STITUTI0N NOIifl 1I1SN I _ NVINOSHIIIAIS S3IHVaail LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTE
(/) -7 X ^ _ _ —5j co

CO

- /^rt?fca-N

(T ^o\ X

<

££

cvasvcLZ q 2 O

X _J X

aiavaan libraries Smithsonian institution NoiiniusNi nvinoshxiws saiavas
r; z <2 z £ , z ^

■tvAs*^ rn <' w ~ xjvasb^ m 'il m

co ± CO _ CO _.

8-RARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOIlfllllSNI NVINOSH1IWS S3IHVaan LIBRARIES

I CO Z -y CO Z CO z

< % i 2 ^ *

CO zl CO zl w

OlinillSNI_ NVIN0SH1IIAIS SBIUVUSH LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI

co — in — to

IBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI NVIN0SH1IIAIS S3iyVM3n LIBRARIES
z ■“ — — —

m ^ rn X XffcusgX m

l — W ~ c/) \ ? CO

CiinillSNI NVINOSHIIINS S3ldVMan LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSN
z __ co z co 2 ">

W X . >4* /X# o X O

q 1/1 ■/jrssZffl co w^\ 00 «4*i co

s/ O Ws/Mfl X wV\ o

> W* 5 '*' > xcuiis^x 2 ^ >

co z co •» z c n k ~z

BRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI NVIN0SH1IIMS SBiaVHail LIBRARIE:

CO ~ CO — CO —

u co 1x1 ^ .^V.: LU x^Trx ■fz /oTisov^

O x «— XlOlllV^X Q

3linillSNI~'NVINOSHlllMS'~S3 lUViian LIBRARI E S^ SMITHSONIAN^ INSTITUTION NOlinillSN
^ \M ^ x) t: a» ‘

>
aj

tvA?v"JX m ’ S£ N^jvAs^x m nS;os 'iL m

II co ’ — co fE co ^

BRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI NVIN0SH1IINS S3iaVUan LIBRARIES

40 ^ Z * CO Z CO z

.v^IiAoX < v» S <

ilinillSNI_NVIN0SHlllMS'/'S3 I dVB 3 I "A I B RAR I ES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSN

co — CO

LU

UJ

BRA

m g ^4^ t

-J 2 _j ^ _)

LE-S SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI NVIN0SH1IINS S3ldVyan LIBRARIES