Cl Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales 2017 Volume 150 Part 2 Numbers 465 & 466 ‘ for the encouraganent of studies and investi^ons in Science Ait literature and Philosophy 55 The Royal Society of New South Wales Patron President Vice Presidents Hon. Secretary (Ed.) Hon. Secretary (Gen.) Hon. Treasurer Hon. Librarian Hon. Web Master Councillors Southern Highlands Branch Representative Office Bearers for 2017 His Excellency General The Honourable David Hurley AC DSC (Ret’d) Governor of New South Wales Em. Prof. David Brynn Hibbert BSc PhD CChem FRSC FRACI FRSN Dr Donald Hector AM BE(Chem) PhD FIChemE FIEAust FAICD FRSN Prof Ian Sloan AO PhD FAA FRSN Ms Judith Wheeldon AM BS (Wis) MEd (Syd) FACE FRSN Em. Prof Robert Marks MEngSci ResCert PhD (Stan) FRSN Dr Herma Biittner Dr.rer.nat FRSN Mr Richard Wilmott Dr Ragbir Bhathal PhD FSAAS A/Prof Chris Bertram PhD FRSN Dr Erik W. Aslaksen MSc (ETH) PhD FRSN Dr Mohammad Choucair PhD Em. Prof Robert Clancy PhD FRACP FRSN Dr Desmond Griffin AM PhD FRSN Mr John Hardie BSc (Syd) FGS MACE FRSN Em. Prof Stephen HiU AM PhD FTSE FRSN Em. Prof Heinrich Hora DipPhys Dr.rer.nat DSc FAJP FInstP CPhys FRSN Prof E James Kehoe PhD FRSN Prof Bmce Milthorpe PhD FRSN Hon. Prof Ian Wilkinson PhD FRSN Ms Anne Wood FRSN Executive Office The Association Specialists Editorial Board Em. Prof Robert Marks BE MEngSci ResCert MS PhD (Stan) FRSN — Hon. Editor Prof Richard Banati MD PhD FRSN Prof Michael Burton BA MA MMaths (Cantab) PhD (Edinb) FASA FAIP FRSN Dr Donald Hector AM BE(Chem) PhD (Syd) FIChemE FIEAust FAICD PRSN Em. Prof David Brynn Hibbert BSc PhD (Lond) CChem FRSC FRACI FRSN Dr Michael Lake BSc (Syd) PhD (Syd) Dr Nick Lomb BSc (Syd) PhD (Syd) FASA FRSA Prof Timothy Schmidt BSc (Syd) PhD (Cantab) FRSN Website: http: / / www.royalsoc. org.au The Society traces its origin to the Philosophical Society of Australasia founded in Sydney in 1821. The Society exists for "Phe encouragement of studies and investigations in Science Art Uterature and Philosophf: publishing results of scientific investigations in its Journal and Proceedings', conducting monthly meetings; awarding prizes and medals; and by liaising with other learned societies within Australia and internationally. Membership is open to any person whose application is acceptable to the Society. Subscriptions for the Journal are also accepted. The Society welcomes, from members and non-members, manuscripts of research and review articles in aU branches of science, art, literature and philosophy for publication in the Journal and Proceedings. Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, vol. 150, part 2, 2017, pp. 139-142. ISSN 0035-9173/17/020139-04 X Editorial Robert E. Marks HAR 1 2 20 W -iiSARIES We live in exciting times. No sooner had this years Nobel prize for physics been awarded to the team leaders of the LI GO gravity-wave observatories that had earlier in the year reported the first detections of gravity waves — of two black holes fusing (what do they do? holes colliding?) - — than Virgo, a third observatory, helped to triangu¬ late the source of a new gravity-wave burst: two neutron stars colliding (definitely col¬ liding) to form a black hole. Whereas not much if any radiation escapes a black-hole encounter, neutron stars colliding produce light, radio waves. X-rays, and gamma rays, which can be independently observed. But not yet neutrinos. This was accomplished with optical observatories and others cor¬ roborating the event. A hundred years after Einstein’s prediction of these ripples in space-time, mankind has developed a completely new way to observe activity in the cosmos. Moreover, the obser¬ vations from the neutron-star encounter appear to confirm predictions that elements heavier than iron — gold, platinum, ura¬ nium and many of the rare-earth elements — - are created during neutron star collisions. This issue contains an absorbing report from Brynn Hibbert, the President, on the revision of the International System of Units (SI) to send the “Big K,” the reference kilo¬ gram mass in Paris, to oblivion, or at least to a museum, by defining the metre, kilogram, second, and ampere (etc.) using the so-called fundamental physical constants. There are five submitted papers, and three invited or contributed papers. The lead author of the first of the submitted papers. on the impacts of the new environmental flows on the Snowy River, is Wayne Erskine. The paper had been reviewed and revised and accepted, when I learnt of Professor Erskine’s sudden death. His co-authors have written an obituary of him, which appears at the end of the paper. The second submitted paper is a study from across the Pacific, into the use of dis¬ tance sensing on Easter Island (Rapa Nui), that sad example of a land now completely denuded of the extinct Rapa Nui Palm (Jubaea sp.) and all other endemic trees. (Hunt and Lipo, 2006). The third and fourth submitted papers are of historical interest, introducing a long-lost report by the geologist (and 1888 Clarke Medalist of the Royal Society), Fr. Julian Tenison-Woods (1832-1889), one of sev¬ eral nineteenth-century clergyman-scientists active in the Society. As Roderick O’Brien describes it, he came across the report as the appendix to an 1885 report published in the Straits Settlements (Singapore). It is here reproduced, and joins 15 earlier papers by Tenison-Woods in the Journal, from 1877 to 1888. Ann Moyal, a more recent Royal Society prize-winner, has taken some 70-year-old correspondence between her late husband, the mathematician Jose Moyal (1910-1998), and the Nobel Laureate Cambridge physicist, PA. M. Dirac (1902-1984), which shows Dirac struggling with the radical approach to quantum mechanics of the young, unpub¬ lished mathematician/statistician, who had recently escaped to Britain from Paris. Dirac, in effect, delayed publication of Moyal’s first 139 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South "Wales Marks Editorial paper, later rewritten as two papers, and published with some support from Dirac, who was not convinced by MoyaFs statistical approach to formalising quantum mechan¬ ics. In recent emails, Cosmas Zachos of the Argonne National Laboratory, commented that Dirac “believed that Poisson Brackets would solve everything, and missed the breathtaking innovation of Moyal brackets.” Curtright and Zachos (2012) provide a more formal summary of the development of the phase-space interpretation of quantum mechanics, including MoyaFs contribution. Meanwhile, Dirac was not alone in his skep¬ ticism: Google Scholar shows that MoyaFs 1949 paper, “Quantum mechanics as a statistical theory,” now has 3210 citations, and rising, and very recently I received an email confirming that MoyaFs phase space approach had anticipated Richard Feynman’s propagator approach by a decade or more.i Reading Ann MoyaFs paper, I thought I should try to obtain the original paper of J. MoyaFs and publish it; Cosmas Zachos would love to see it. But, apparently, Moyal did not bring a copy to Australia with him in 1954; at any rate it is not amongst his surviving papers. What, I thought, about Dirac’s collected papers, at Florida State Uni¬ versity? Inquires turned up nothing. Then I read the complete letters, in Ann Moyal’s 2006 book. Dirac always promised to return the draft after reading it. Then it hit me: with computers, photocopiers, printers, we are overwhelmed by copies of papers. But 70 years ago, if one had not made carbon copies of a draft when it was first typed up, there were only two ways of making further copies, short of retyping from scratch: pho¬ tography, or off-prints after publication in a ^ Email from Basil Hiley, Professor Emeritus of Physics at London University, of 15 November 2017. journal.2 (There are of course many stories of the single copy of a MS lost in a taxi, flood, or fire.) So soon we forget. So, unfortunately, no copy exists of MoyaFs first paper, the one he disagreed with Dirac over. The sixth submitted paper, by Robert Young, is a reevaluation of the scientific legacy of the Rev. W. B. Clarke, founder of the Royal Society, whose contributions in several fields have been forgotten. It is appro¬ priate to publish this reappraisal now, 150 years after the founding of the Society. I admit to being excited by the invited papers. With the 2017 Four Academy Forum exploring, inter alia, the undermin¬ ing of scientific expertise in these times of Trump, I thought it might be timely to see what science (in this case, applied psychol¬ ogy) could tell us about those who deny the conclusions of climate science: the deniers. Last year I had come across The Debunking Handbook (Cook and Lewandowsky, 2011). I approached John Cook (now at George Mason University in Virginia) to write a review article for us, which appears below. An advance copy was sent to all presenters at the 2017 Forum. In May 2017, a new guidebook to Aus¬ tralian birds (Menkhorst et al. 2017) was published; as a confirmed birder I bought a copy and was struck by a chapter on the evolution and relationships among Austral¬ ian birds as revealed by recent DNA analy¬ sis. The chapter was rather lost in the guide¬ book, I thought, and wrote to Leo Joseph, its author, to seek permission to republish it 2 My 1969 Masters thesis, “Optimisation and plastic analysis,” was typed on one of the first IBM Selectric typewriters in Melbourne, with carbon copies of the text, but I had to photograph the print-outs of the computer simulations to include them in the bound thesis. 140 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Marks — Editorial here, which was granted. An updated version appears below. ^ The final invited paper is a commissioned study of the Royal Society at two dates, in 1867 and 2017, as a celebration of its sesqui- centenary. It is also the second paper in this issue by the indefatigable Ann Moyal. The issue includes 1 1 abstracts of recent Ph.D. dissertations, from the University of New South Wales, the University of New England, Charles Sturt University, South¬ ern Cross University, the Australian Catholic University, and the University of Canberra. (The other universities in NSW and the A.C.T. were asked to nominate outstanding theses, but have not yet responded.) The Society, under the two recent presi¬ dents and councils, has been moving to broaden its appeal, in particular to extend beyond the physical sciences to the social sciences, the arts and humanities. Of some interest, then, might be a new magazine, America, the tagline of which is (in French) ^ “America like you Ve never read it.” It was conceived to help French readers understand the U.S.A. in the age of Trump. The motiva¬ tion, according to its editor, Francois Busnel, is that, while political experts had dismissed the possibility of Trump s success, some American novelists and writers had foreseen it. Its editorial mix includes long interviews with novelists, as well as essays and excerpts in translation. Although Australia is not as forlorn as the U.S. post September 11th, 3 21115 paper is timely: recent work has confirmed that songbirds originated in Australia in the Oligocene, between 34 and 22 million years ago, and then spread to the rest of the world via Wallacea (Moyle et al., 2016). ^ Incidentally, there has been only one paper in French in the Journal, by Julien Bernier, in Volume 32, 1898. And two papers (in English) by Louis Pasteur s nephew, Adrien Loir, in Volume 25, 1891. our Federal politics has been topsy-turvy for almost the last ten years. Meanwhile, the recently appointed Distinguished Fellow and Booker-Prize-winning novelist, Thomas Keneally, will give the Distinguished Fellows Address next May, which will appear in the June 2018 issue of the Journal. So the Royal Society, too, is looking to novelists and writ¬ ers and the humanities for insights, insights sometimes beyond the ken of scientists, of all stripes. I thank Ed Hibbert, Rory McGuire, and Jason Antony for their assistance in the pro¬ duction of this issue. Remember, the Journal archive can be found on-line, at https://royal soc.org.au/links-to-papers-since-1856. Dargan, NSW, 24 November 2017 References America'. I’Amerique comme vous ne Favez jamais lue, hrtp://america-mag.com Castelvecchi, Davide (2017), Colliding stars spark rush to solve cosmic mysteries, Nature, 16 Oct. http://www.nature.com/news/ colliding-stars-spark-rush-to-solve-cosmic- mysteries-1 .22829 Cook, John, Lewandowsky, S. (2011), The Debunking Handbook, St. Lucia, Qld: Univ. of Queensland. Nov 5. http://sks.to/debunk Curtright, Thomas L. and Zachos, Cosmas K. (2012), Quantum mechanics in phase space, Asia Pacijic Physics Newsletter, 1(1): 37-46, May. https://doi.org/10.ll42/ S225 11 58X1 2000069 The Economist (2017), Gravitational-wave astronomy starts in earnest, The Economist, 21 Oct. https://\vww.economist.com/news/ science-and-technolog)V 2 1 730326-stellar- collision-glows-bright-and-shakes-fabric- space-gravitational-wave Flunt, Terry L. and Lipo, Carl P. (2006), Late colonization of Easter Island, Science, N. S., 311, (5767): 1603-1606. 141 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Marks — Editorial Marks, R. E. (1969), Optimisation and Plastic Analysis, Melbourne University. hrrp://www.agsm. edu.au/bobm/ papers/ MEngSdThesisl 969.pdf Menkhorst, R, Rogers, D., Clarke, R., Davies, J., Marsack, R and Franklin, K. (2017), The Australian Bird Guide. CSIRO Rublishing, Melbourne. Moyle, R.G., Oliveros, C.H., Anderson, M.J., Hosner, RA., Benz, B.W., Man they, J.D., Travers, S.L., Brown, R.M., and Faircloth, B.C. (2016), Tectonic collision and uplift of Wallacea triggered the global songbird radiation. Nature Communications 7. https://www.nature.com/articles/ ncommsl2709 Moyal, Ann (2006), Maverick Mathematician: the life and science ofj. E. Moyal, ANU E Rress, Canberra, http://www.oapen.org/ search?identifier=459368 Moyal, Jose E. (1949), Quantum mechanics as a statistical theory, Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 45, 99-124. 142 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, vol. 150, part 2, 2017, pp. 143-151. ISSN 0035-9173/17/020143-09 Standards and units: a view from the President of the Royal Society of New South Wales D. Brynn Hibbert The Royal Society of New South Wales, UNSW Sydney, and The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry Email: b.hibbert@unsw.edu.au Abstract As the Royal Society of New South Wales continues to grow in numbers and influence, the retiring president reflects on the achievements of the Society in the 21*^ century and describes the impending changes in the International System of Units. Scientific debates that have far reaching social effects should be the province of an Enlightenment society such as the RSNSW. Introduction t may be a long bow, but the changes in the definitions of units used across the world that have been decades in the making, might have resonances in the resurgence in the fortunes of the RSNSW in the cen¬ tury First, we have a system of units tracing back to the nineteenth century that starts with little traction in the world but eventu¬ ally becomes the bedrock of science, trade, health, indeed any measurement-based activ¬ ity. Second, the RSNSW, similarly aged and arising out of the great Enlightenment push for understanding and knowledge, might not have underpinned quite such a wide move¬ ment, but is now finding its niche as a place for thoughtful people to meet, receive knowl¬ edge, and reflect on the modern and complex world we live in. Although science heavy, it is interesting that the Forums, where we come together with the four learned Academies in Australia have been on the bigger questions of “The Future of Work”, “Society as a Com¬ plex System” and “The Future of Rationality in a Post Truth World”. Each of these 'hard’ problems is informed by science, but not solved by science alone. Our own Society embraces “science literature philosophy and art” and we see with increasing clarity that our business ofi:en spans all these fields. As we shall learn the choice of units with which to measure our world is driven by science, philosophy, history and a large measure of social acceptability, not to mention the occa¬ sional forearm of a Pharaoh. Measurement We take measurement for granted. Each of us has an idea of our height, weight, age, how far it is from Sydney to Brisbane, the freezing point of water, and so on. There is little need to reflect on how these concepts come about and how numbers can be put upon specific instances. We might remem¬ ber there can be different systems of units; water freezes at the same temperature, but we can call that temperature 0 °C, 32 °F or 273.15 K. Do we worry about measurement uncer¬ tainty? Our three freezing point tempera¬ tures imply very different levels of precision, as suggested by the number of digits used to 143 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South "W^les Hibbert — Standards and units: a view from the President give the numerical value. We might say that Sydney to Brisbane is 1 thousand kilome¬ tres, and be sufficiently correct to the nearest thousand (the crow-flies distance is 733 km, Google maps offers 922.3 km to drive). A high quality, single-frequency global posi¬ tioning system (GPS) has an horizontal accu¬ racy of less than 1.9 m for 95% of measure¬ ments (William J. Hughes Technical Center WAAS T&E Team, 2017), so if we wanted to we could measure the distance between points in Sydney and Melbourne to be, say, 733875.5 m with an uncertainty of ± 2.7 m (Vlx 1.9 m). Such are the achievements of the 2T^ century. Metrology Metrology (no, not meteorology), is the science of measurement and has an inter¬ national infrastructure that maintains our understanding of this important human activity. Eight international organisations^ come together in the Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology and through its two working groups prepares the Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement (GUM) (Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology, 2008) and the International Vocabulary of Metrology (VIM) (Joint Com¬ mittee for Guides in Metrology, 2012). 1 International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM), International Electrotechnical Commission (lEC), International Federation of Clinical Chemis¬ try and Laboratory Medicine (IFCC), International Organization for Standardization (ISO), International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (lUPAC), International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (lUPAP), International Organization of Legal Metrol¬ ogy (OIML), International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation (ILAC). Figure 1: Pavilion de Breteuil, home of Bureau Internationale des Poids et Mesures (BIPM) (photo: D B Hibbert, 2012) These bodies meet at the BIPM on the out¬ skirts of Paris (Fig. 1), and for many years the author travelled twice a year to sit on the GUM working group representing lUPAC. It is a hard life, but someone has to do it. This essay concerns the measurement of quantities the values of which are repre¬ sented by a “number and a reference together expressing magnitude” [VIM 1.19] The ‘reference’ is our unit without which the number has no meaning. (Consider if you were told water freezes at 0, 32 or 273.15). So far so good, but where do units come from? A Brief History of Units As soon as you want to pass on informa¬ tion about the magnitude of something the concept of an agreed example of that quan¬ tity to serve as a unit becomes evident. 2 Where terms are defined in the International Vocabu¬ lary of Metrology (VIM) the entry number is given in square brackets [VIM x.y] , See Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology, 2012. 144 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Hibbert — Standards and units: a view from the President Figure 2: Papyrus showing weighing the souls of the dead and a copy of the Royal Cubit, (courtesy Paul De Bievre) Counting (enumeration) of objects predates measurement as such, where the unit is one thing, but very quickly after the introduc¬ tion of writing we see references to standards of length, volume and weight appearing in the Middle East, particularly Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, and in China. For exam¬ ple the Royal Cubit (Fig. 2), the length of the Pharaohs forearm and hand was used as a length standard in constructing the Pyra¬ mids and for monitoring the depth of flood¬ ing of the Nile in the period between 3000 and 2700 BCE (Clagett, 1999). Very quickly the utility of standards spread and we find examples in every soci¬ ety (Fig. 3). Figure 3: Chinese weight from the War¬ ring States Period 244 BCE (Photo D B Hibbert) Medieval Europe and the need for standardisation of the standards Kings were particularly keen on stand¬ ards, no doubt something to do with taxes. Having standardised measures is prescribed in Magna Carta, and then at diflFerent times after that standards were issued by the crown. Edward I of England required each town to have an ‘ellwand’, a rod the length of an ell (about 46 cm or twice that depending on who you read). The ell was a realisation of the old cubit being about the distance from an elbow to the tip of the middle finger. Not surprisingly there were many versions of the ell named after the country or town of origin, and none were the same. The plethora of standards between and within countries would have been seen as an impediment to trade. Discussions of what would become the ‘metric system’ start with Bishop John Wilkins FRS (1614—1672), the first secre¬ tary of the Royal Society of London. He was asked by the Society to devise a universal standard of measure. In 1668, in Chapter VII in his hook An Essay towards a Real Char¬ acter and a Philosophical Language^ which mostly dealt with the possibility of an inter¬ national language, he proposed a system of measurement based on a decimal system (Wilkins, 1668). It was the French however who then made all the running. Metric systems and the SI The creation of the decimal metric system and the subsequent deposition of two platinum standards representing the metre and the kilogram, on 22 June 1799, in the Archives de la Republique in Paris can be seen as the first step in the development of the present International System of Units. Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855) promoted the applica¬ tion of this decimal metric system, together 145 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Hibbert — ^Standards and units: a view from the President with the second which was defined in astron¬ omy, as a coherent system of units [VIM 1.14] for the physical sciences. The Metre Convention (Convention du Metre), signed by delegates from seventeen countries on 20 May 1875, established, by Article 1, the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, the BIPM (BIPM, 2007), charged with pro¬ viding the basis for a single, coherent system of measurements to be used throughout the world. The General Conference of Weights and Measures (CGPM) was also established, and work began on the construction of new international prototypes of the metre and kilogram. Together with the astronomical second as the unit of time, these units con¬ stituted a three-dimensional mechanical unit system with the base units metre, kilogram, and second, the MKS system. The system developed and, in I960, at the 11th CGPM it was called the International System of Units (Systeme International d’Unites), SI [VIM 1.16]. The SI has now seven base units [VIM 1. 10] from which other units can be derived (for example the unit of energy, joule J which is kg m^s ^). See Table 1 and (BIPM, 2014). It is the proposed revision of the SI to which I shall devote the rest of this address. Table 1 : Base units of the SI Base quantity Name of unit Symbol length metre m mass kilogram kg time second s electric current ampere A thermodynamic kelvin K temperature amount of substance mole mol luminous intensity candela cd Definitions of units The base units of the SI have been defined after much discussion of how best to obtain the following: “units should be chosen so that they are readily available to all, are constant throughout time and space, and are easy to realize with high accuracy” (BIPM, 2014). Falling foul of “readily available to all” the kilogram is defined as the mass of the inter¬ national prototype of the kilogram, an object made of platinum and iridium, which is held in two safes under three bell jars in the base¬ ment of the BIPM. It has only been brought out on three occasions since its manufacture in the 1890s. Metrological traceability [VIM 2.41] of mass measurements to this artefact is achieved through six copies held at the BIPM, tens more distributed to the National Measurement Institutes of many countries, and then thousands of standard weights that are used to calibrate balances, even unto weighing potatoes at your local supermarket. The ‘Big K', as it is affectionately known, is the only material object in the SI. The metre, the unit of length, once being defined by a standard platinum-iridium bar that was constructed to be a particular fraction of the distance between two points on the Earth, is now the distance light travels in a vacuum in 1/299 792 458 of a second. Even though you or I might find it difficult to create a metre so defined, this definition of metre no longer makes a single thing at a particular place on Earth the sole ultimate realisation of the unit. This definition also leads to the question of where we get the rather short time from, the answer being by knowing the speed of light with exceptional accuracy. In fact, if you con¬ sider it, if metre is defined as written above then the speed of light in a vacuum has to be exactly 299 792 458 m s-i. More of fixing values of phenomena later. 146 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Hibbert— -Standards and units: a view from the President Mise en practique Reflecting on the discussion of how to define units you might have realised that the defini¬ tion is one thing, but how is it to be used to actually measure a quantity in the real world is something else. The set of instructions on how to make’ a unit at the highest metro¬ logical level is called the mise en practique. Although the kilogram is reviled for being an artefact, its mise en practique is quite clear, essentially being “take the Big K out of its bell jars and safes, buff it up with a chamois leather cloth and some propanol, and weigh one of its six copies against it.” The potatoes in the supermarket gain the benefit of this practice by a long chain of subsequent com¬ parisons of weights establishing the so-called metrological traceability chain [VIM 2.42] (De Bievre et ah, 201 1). As for the rest their mise en practique can be quite tricky. How to make a new SI Replacing the kilogram It is not just the dear old kilo that is on the nose. We also realised that the definition of the ampere, the unit of electric current, was not exactly easy to realise. (The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infi¬ nite length, of negligible circular cross-sec¬ tion, and placed 1 metre apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 x 1 0-^ newton per metre of length.) Rather than the super-scientific application of the Enlightenment, it turns out that the SI is a bunch of nearly ad hoc definitions that work together, but only just. There are many reasons, not just scientific ones, that have led to the present SI, sup¬ porting my contention that what we do, even in the name of high science, is ultimately a human activity relying as well on “literature philosophy and art.” Ike ^‘New SI” Thank you for bearing with me. And now with a drum roll I give you news of the com¬ pletely new SI. More than a decade in the planning (CPGM, 2007) and most recently resolved by the CGPM in 2014 (CPGM, 2014), the new approach has turned on their heads the concept of definition of a unit and measurement of fundamental constants. At present having set up a system of units we go into the world and measure quantities (mass of potatoes etc.). A set of quantities of great importance to science are so-called fundamental physical constants of Nature (NIST, 2014). We have already encountered the speed of light in a vacuum. Another is the Boltzmann constant, and another is the atomic fine splitting constant. Knowing, by measurement, these constants to the best accuracy we can manage is important to just about every activity in science. We can measure the values of these constants, with measurement uncertainty, because we have defined units in the SI. The point about fundamental physical constants is that we believe they are constant anywhere in the universe and for all time (since a bit after the Big Bang). We write quantity = number x unit, (1) (e.g. the Planck constant, h = 6.626 070 040(81). 10-34 x joule second, where (81) at the end gives the standard measurement uncertainty [VIM 2.30] in the last two figures). The value has uncer¬ tainty because the quantity is measured. Now suppose we decide that the measured value is the very best we can obtain and so can be fixed without uncertainty. We assert 147 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South ^O^les Hibbert— Standards and units: a view from the President that the actual quantity in Nature is fixed in value, and now we have a fixed number. Et voila! According to Eq. (1), if two out of the three terms are fixed, the third the unit “ is now defined without uncertainty. A definition of the unit joule second (symbol J s) would therefore be “The unit of action, J s, is that action for which the Planck constant has a value of exactly 6.626 070 040.10-34 X joule second.” To avoid changing the base quantities for which we determine base units (Table 1) it has been decided to fix enough constants that the existing base units can still be defined. As will be decreed by the CPGM at its 26^h meeting in 20 1 8 (Richard and Ullrich, 2017), the (new) SI will be the system of units in which: • the ground state hyperfine splitting frequency of the caesium 133 atom Av (i33Cs) is exactly 9 192 631 770 x hertz, • the speed of light in vacuum c is exactly 299 792 458 x metre per second, • the Planck constant h is exactly 6.626 070 15.10-34 x joule second, • the elementary charge e is exactly 1.602 176 634.10-19 x coulomb, • the Boltzmann constant is exactly 1.380 649.10-23 X joule per kelvin, • the Avogadro constant is exactly 6.022 140 76.1023 x reciprocal mole, • the luminous efficacy of monochro¬ matic radiation of frequency 540.1012 x Hz is exactly 683 lumen per watt, where the hertz, joule, coulomb, lumen, and watt, with unit symbols Hz, J, C, Im, and W, respectively, are related to the units second, metre, kilogram, ampere, kelvin, mole, and candela, with unit symbols s, m, kg. A, K, mol, and cd, respectively, according to Hz = 5-1,] = m2 kg s-2, C = s A, Im = cd m2 m-2 = cd sr, and W = m2 kg s-3. Arguments for and against the New SI Opinion was that the old SI had gone as far as it could, and perhaps something needed doing, at least for the ampere and kilogram. The chemists had never been comfortable with the quantity amount of substance’ measured in mole or indeed the Avogadro constant with units mol-i. We (I am an ana¬ lytical chemist) have more or less ignored the SI as far as measuring the numerosity of atoms and molecules. Older concepts of ‘gram mole’ and an Avogadro number as a kind of chemist’s dozen are still widely taught even by university lecturers, who in theory should know better. Despite wide acceptance of the need for change and somewhat reluctant support for the proposed New SI, there is still a loud complaint from the periphery, outside the BIPM and National Measurement Institutes and the major international organizations. (Hill, 2011). Apart from moaning about lack of transparency of the process (many discus¬ sions are behind closed doors, but science was never a democracy), the main arguments against are: • There are no more independent base units. The seven defining constants are taken together to make all units, base or otherwise. See Fig. 4. However, this inter¬ dependency means that errors in any one assignment will impact the rest, with the exception of the mole which only depends on the Avogadro constant. • Are the constants of Nature truly constant? If one is not, even ones not immediately in the chosen seven, for example the fine 148 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Waxes Hibbert“— Standards and units: a view from the President structure constant, because we have fixed the numerical value, and we no longer measure the constant, we can only infer changes through other measurements. • Are these definitions teachable and under¬ standable by all but the most sophisticated scientists? (Baraiiski, 2013) • Chemists have supported the unit of mass being related to the dal ton (Da), which is presently defined as 1/12 the mass of an unbound atom with measured value 1.660 538 782(83) kg, rather than the Planck constant with its quantum mechanical associations. The gram to dalton ratio is the Avogadro number, but this definitional agreement will no longer hold in the proposed new SI, although practically nothing will change. Figure 4: Relationships and dependencies among the seven base units of the SI (circles) and the defining fundamental physical con¬ stants (rectangles). See text for description of symbols. These concerns are mostly answered: • There is really no need to have base units anymore, although the new SI will be cast in terms of the old base units for continu¬ ity. The SI is a coherent system, and the correlation among units actually leads to smaller uncertainties of measurement. • While there has long been discussion about the constancy of fundamental constants (Dirac, 1938) on the scale of the Universe, it is not likely that the values of the chosen constants will change appreciably any time soon. • Some of the definitions might not be as straightforward as they used to be, but practically nothing will change. Aus¬ tralia will still have its national standard kilogram against which all weights in the country will be measured. • The use of the Planck constant over the dalton is admittedly not the preferred option for chemistry but it works better for the SI as a whole with the set of con¬ stants chosen. Defining two out of kilo¬ gram, Avogadro constant and dalton is a matter of choice ™ sorry we didn’t choose yours. Realising the kOogram and Avogadro constant An excellent result from the whole process is that a great effort has been put into real¬ ising the kilogram via the Kibble Balance (before called the watt balance) “ see Chao et ak, (2015) for a LEGO® version that can be constructed at home — and the Avogadro constant by the ‘silicon route’. Chemists and metrologists, and particularly Austral¬ ian chemists and metrologists, have under¬ taken a worldwide experiment in which the purest silicon 28 is made into the most per¬ fect spheres. By X-ray diffraction the dimen¬ sions of the silicon unit cell are measured and then the volume of a weighed silicon 28 sphere (Fig. 5) is measured. The ratio of the molar volume to the atomic volume is the 149 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Hibbert^— Standards and units: a view from the President Avogadro constant (Hibbert, 2008). Fig. 5 shows Australia’s contribution to the project, which was to fashion the silicon spheres by, in the last stages, hand polishing with jew¬ ellers’ rouge. Measurements of the sphere’s diameter reveal an almost perfect surface. Discussion and Conclusions As I compiled this brief account of units, I see personal, national and international rivalry, and scientific arguments being made in wonderfully self-serving ways. The French were the problem in the old days. Before signing of the Treaty of the Metre in 1875 France had the prototypes of the metre and the kilogram, but the military successes of Germany and the commercial hegemony of Britain meant that offering them to the international community was the only way to keep the standards in Paris, albeit in the new international organisation BIPM, The USA was an original signatory to the Treaty, but has cleaved to its version of British Imperial units ever since. Britain, although attending the metre convention in 1875, wouldn’t have a bar of the new Treaty, even though they had pioneered the idea, and a British company, Johnson Matthey, made the prototypes and copies of the kilogram and metre. Britain did join in 1884, and Australia became a formal member in its own right in 1947. Figure 5: Walter Giardini of the National Measurement Institute Australia holding a silicon sphere as part of the Avogadro project, (photo D B fiibbert) The anarchy of the debate around the most recent changes in the SI has detracted from the great effort the world is putting into global standards. Early attempts to steam¬ roller the changes caused a backlash that has taken years to sort out. I happened to vote for the changes presented without warning at an lUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) meeting in Glas¬ gow in 2009, the support endorsed by the lUPAC Council. Realising I had not made a considered decision my division mounted opposition for the next four years until lUPAC created a union-wide project to con¬ sider the changes to the SI. This reported in 2017 (Marquardt et ah, 2017), after exten¬ sive consultation in the chemical community, recommending again acceptance of the pro¬ posed changes but with a new suggestion for the definition of the mole. Perhaps only a society that boasts the breadth of interest as the RSNSW is equipped to advise and debate the most momentous issues of the day. If climate change had not been fought over as a purely scientific proposition, but from the start the social and political aspects had been properly 150 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Hibbert— Standards and units: a view from the President integrated into the debate, we might be in a better place. The Royal Society of New South Wales has a serious future in support¬ ing the ‘whole of human activity’ approach to problems, and I have valued my part in bringing this about. References Barahski, A. (2013) The prospect of the dalton in the new SI: an educators point of view, Accreditation and Quality Assurance^ 18, 5, 441-445. BIPM (2007) The International Bureau of Weights and Measures, www.bipm.org, BIPM, Accessed: March 2017. The International System of Units (SI) Updated 8th Edition (2014), BIPM, Intergovernmental Organisation of the Convention of the Metre, Sevres, France. Chao, L. S., Schlamminger, S., Newell, D. B., Pratt, J. R., Seifert, F., Zhang, X., Sineriz, G., Liu, M. & Haddad, D. (2015) A LEGO Watt balance: an apparatus to determine a mass based on the new SI, American Journal of Physics, 83, 11, 913-922. Clagett, M. (1999) Ancient Egyptian Mathematics, American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia. CPGM (2007) On the possible redefinition of certain base units of the International System of Units (SI), BIPM, Sevres, https://www. bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/23/12/, Accessed: 31 October 2017. CPGM (2014) On the future revision of the International System of Units, the SI, BIPM, Sevres, https://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/ db/25/1/, Accessed: 31 October 2017. De Bievre, P, Dybkaer, R., Fajgelj, A. & Hibbert, D. B. (2011) Metrological traceability of measurement results in chemistry: concepts and implementation (lUPAC Technical report). Pure and Applied Chemistry, 83, 10, 1873-1935. Dirac, R A. (1938) A new basis for cosmology, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 165, 921, 199-208. Hibbert, D. B. (2008) The Avogadro project and the definition of the kilogram, Materials Australia A\, 3, 58-59 Hill, T. P. (201 1) Criticisms of the proposed “new SI,” Accreditation and Quality Assurance: Journal for Quality, Comparability and Reliability in Chemical Measurement, 16, 8, 471-472. Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology (2008) Evaluation of measurement data — = Guide to the expression of uncertainty in measurement, BIPM, Sevres Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology (2012) International vocabulary of metrology — = Basic and general concepts and associated terms VIM, BIPM, Sevres Marquardt, R., Meija, J., Mester, Z., Towns, M., Weir, R, Davis, R. & Stohner, J. (2017) A critical review of the proposed definitions of fundamental chemical quantities and their impact on chemical communities (lUPAC Technical Report), Pure and Applied Chemistry, 89, 7, 951-981. NIST (2014) CODATA Internationally recommended 2014 values of the Eundamental Physical Constants, https://physics.nist. gov/ cuu/ Constants/index. html. Physical Measurements Laboratory, NIST, Accessed: 31 October 2017. Joint CCM and CCU roadmap for the adoption of the revision of the International System of Units (2017), Richard, P. & Ullrich, J., BIPM, Sevres, 3. Wilkins, J. (1668) “Measure,” An essay towards a real character, and a philosophical language. The Royal Society of London, London, 190 - 194. Global Positioning System ( GPS) Standard Positioning Service (SPS) Performance Analysis Report (2017), William J. Hughes Technical Center WAAS T&E Team, William J. Hughes Technical Center, Atlantic City International Airport, NJ, 146. 151 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, vol. 150, part 2, 2017, pp. 152-171. ISSN 0035-9173/17/020152-20 Bedform maintenance and pool destratification by the new environmental flows on the Snowy River downstream of the Jindabyne Dam, New South Wales Wayne Erskinei, Lisa Turner^, Teresa Rose^, Mike Saynor^ and AsUey Webb^* 1 The late Wayne Erskine was Conjoint Professor, School of Environmental and Life Sciences, The University of Newcastle, Australia; Adjunct Professor, Research Institute for the Environment and Livelihoods, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Australia; and Formerly Appointed Member, The Snowy Scientific Committee, Canberra, Australia. He died on 27 July 2017, after the revised paper had been accepted for publication. 2 Forestry Corporation of NSW, PO Box 100, Beecrofc NSW 2119, Australia 3 RIVEROSE, 69 Bettington Circuit, Charnwood ACT 2615, Australia ^ Environmental Research Institute of the Supervising Scientist, Darwin NT 0801, Australia 5 NSW Department of Primary Industries, Tamworth Agricultural Institute, 4 Marsden Park Road, Calala NSW 2340, Australia *Corresponding author. Email: ashley.webb@dpi.nsw.gov.au Abstract The hydrology, geomorphology and aquatic ecology of the Snowy River below the Snowy Mountains Hydroelectric Scheme were greatly altered by large-scale interbasin water transfers for power genera¬ tion and the supply of water for irrigation until recent increases in environmental flow releases from Jindabyne Dam, Between 1967 and 2000 maximum releases from Jindabyne Dam were smaller than the lowest ever recorded mean daily discharge before flow regulation. The New South Wales and Victorian Governments agreed to return up to 28% of the natural mean annual flow to the river in keeping with recommendations from a community-sponsored Expert Panel. Detailed analyses of bedforms for 303 continuous km below the Scheme indicate that the new environmental flow regime will increase the pool-riffle spacing by between 3 and 294 m by increasing scour of pools and runs, and by reversing long-term channel contraction and pool infilling. Furthermore, strong thermal gradients and persistent oxygen stratification that produce bottom anoxia in upland pools will not develop under most environmental flows because of strong mixing. Even marked salt stratification in the upper estuary which can produce density differences of up to 14.9 kg/m^ between surface and bottom waters is unlikely to develop in future. Introduction key issue for many regulated rivers throughout the world is the determi¬ nation of environmental flows to sustain aquatic ecosystems, to restore rivers degraded by flow regulation and to protect biodiversity for future generations (Petts 1996; Arthing- ton et al. 2006; PofF et ah 2010; Williams, 2017). The basis of the problem is the con¬ flict between the needs of aquatic ecosystems and the consumptive and economic require¬ ments of water users (Petts 1 996; Arthington et al. 2006; PofF et al. 2010). Dam releases driven by power generation, irrigation and water supply needs have greatly altered the 152 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Erskine et al. Bedform maintenance and pool destratification timing, magnitude and duration of flows and sediment fluxes, thus severely degrading the morphology and habitat of many Australian rivers and their water-dependent flora and fauna (for example, Sherrard and Erskine 1991; Benn and Erskine 1994; Sammut and Erskine 1995; Erskine 1996a; Erskine et al. 1999a; 1999b; Arthington et al. 2006). Large interbasin water transfers for hydro¬ electric power generation substantially changed the hydrology of the Snowy River downstream of Jindayne Dam between 1967 and 2000 (Figure 1). The maximum releases from the dam before recent structural changes to the outlet and spillway were usually only 63% of the lowest mean daily discharge ever recorded at the same site over the 54 years before the Scheme (Brizga & Finlayson 1994; Erskine et al. 1999a). Such hydrologic changes have also significantly impacted on the geomorphology and aquatic ecology of the river (Davies et al. 1992; Brizga & Fin¬ layson 1994; Erskine et al. 1999a; 1999b; 2001; Turner & Erskine 2005). According to Brookes and Shields (1996), river rehabilita¬ tion refers to a partial return of a river to a pre-regulation structure or function which can require enormous amounts of expendi¬ ture (Williams 2017). The implementation of a ‘restoration pro¬ tocol’ (Stanford et al. 1996; Lake et al. 2007) or an ‘ecologically acceptable flow regime’ (Petts 1996; Poff et al. 1997) which will partially reverse the recent geo-ecological changes of the SnoMy River was first pro¬ posed by a community-sponsored expert panel (Anon 1996). The Snowy Water Inquiry was set up as part of the corporatization of the Scheme’s management authority. The Inquiry pro¬ vided, among other things, the New South Wales and Victorian Governments with fully costed options for the restoration of the Snovy River (Anon. 1998). However, the Inquiry never considered the restoration option, i.e. the complete structural and func¬ tional return of the Snowy River to a pre-reg¬ ulation state (Brookes & Shields 1996). The Inquiry’s recommended flow option (option D) involved the release of 10% of the pre- Scheme mean annual flow from Jindabyne Dam with another 5% being delivered by the decommissioning of the Mowamba River Aqueduct. This option was supposedly suflB- cient to provide minimum habitat utilisation flows, flushing flows and channel mainte¬ nance flows. However, these flows were not quantified. The Inquiry’s composite option F crudely approximated the Expert Panel’s (Anon. 1996) recommended flow regime (25% of the pre-Scheme mean annual flow) but was not recommended (Anon. 1998). River and catchment works were also recom¬ mended to further improve stream condi¬ tion (Anon 1998). A similar situation has also occurred more recently throughout the Murray-Darling basin (Williams 2017). The New South Wales and Victorian Gov¬ ernments did not implement the Inquiry’s recommendations. Instead a new water allo¬ cation was finalized on 6 October 2000 fol¬ lowing the efforts of Victorian Independent MP Mr Craig Ingram. It was agreed that A$300 X 10^ would be spent over the next 1 0 years to return 2 1 % of the natural mean annual flow to the Snowy River. A subse¬ quent increase to 28% was envisaged after 10 years. Rose (2017) has shown that the new environmental flow regime has certainly improved, to some degree, river condition and health. The purpose of this paper is to determine whether the Expert Panel’s recommended environmental flows were adequate to 153 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Erskine et al.”™Bedform maintenance and pool destratification reverse channel contraction and pool infill¬ ing by increasing bedforms and aquatic habitats, and to destratify upland pools near Jindabyne Dam as well as shallow pools in the upper estuary. Turner & Erskine (2005) established that upland pools and pools in the upper estuary were occasionally oxygen stratified during low flows and/or unusually hot weather. These issues were not consid¬ ered by the Expert Panel (Anon. 1996) or by the Snowy Water Inquiry (Anon. 1998) or by previous research on the Sno\vy estuary (Hinwood & McLean 1999a; 1999b). The Snowy Mountains Hydroelectric Scheme (SMHS) is briefly outlined below because it is necessary to appreciate the magnitude of its impacts on the Snowy River below Jindabyne Dam. Snowy Mountains Hydroelectric Scheme The SMHS diverts water from the upper Snowy, Murrumbidgee and Tooma rivers in the Snowy Mountains into either the Tumut or Swampy Plains River, generat¬ ing hydroelectric power in the process. The Scheme was built between 1949 and 1974 at an historical cost of A$800 x lO*" (Frost 1983). Engineering features of the Scheme include 16 large dams, many more smaller structures, 145 km of tunnels, seven power stations, one pumping station and 80 km of aqueducts (Anon 1993; Dann 1969; 1970). The total generating capacity of the Scheme is 3.74 X 106 2.nd, on average, 2.36 x lO^ m3/yr of additional water is made available for irrigation purposes on the Murray and Murrumbidgee rivers (Anon 1993). Just within the Snowy River catchment, there are two large dams (Eucumbene and Jindabyne), two small dams (Guthega and Island Bend), one pumping station, one power station, five tunnels and nine aqueducts (Anon. 1993). Eucumbene and Jindabyne Dams are the most important in terms of their eflFect on flow regulation of the Snowy River and Eucumbene Dam is the largest reservoir in the SMHS (Anon. 1993). Jindabyne Dam stores runoff from the Snowy River catchment below Island Bend and Eucumbene Dams as well as spills and releases from both dams (Figure 1). Eucum¬ bene Dam has never spilled. The original siphon outlet on Jindabyne Dam could release up to 0.57 m^/s (Howard & Holliday 1968) and was rebuilt to release the new envi¬ ronmental flows (see below). The Mowamba River Aqueduct diverts up to 4.8 m^/s from Cobbin Creek and Mowamba River, two right bank tributaries of the Snowy below Jindabyne, upstream into Jindabyne Dam (Howard & Holliday 1968). In 1961, the licensing authority determined the releases from Jindabyne Dam only on the basis of the existing and predicted downstream consumptive water uses to be Visible flow’ in the Snowy River above its junction with the Mowamba River, a discharge of not less than 0.081 mVs immediately downstream of the Mowamba River, a discharge of not less than 0.284 m^/s immediately downstream of the Dalgety gauging station, a discharge of not less than 0.197 mVs immediately down¬ stream of the Snowy-Delegate rivers junc¬ tion and a maximum release from Jindabyne Dam of 0.57 m^/s or the estimated natural inflow to the reservoir when less than 0.57 m3/s (Clarke & Bate 1992; Bate & Whalley 1993). Figure 1 (opposite): The Snowy River catch¬ ment showing the river reaches defined in Table 1 and Snowy River benchmarking sites, some of which were used for stratification studies. 154 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Erskine et al. — Bedform maintenance and pool destratification kilometres BASS STRAIT 155 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South ^^es Erskine et al. Bedform maintenance and pool destratification Figure 2: Longitudinal profile of the 352.5 km of the Snowy River downstream of Jindabyne Dam compiled from 1:25,000 and 1:50,000 topographic maps. The channel reaches outlined in Table 1 and mapped in Figure 1 are also shown. 156 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Erskine et al. — Bedform maintenance and pool destratification Table 1: Channel reaches in italics and post- regulation changes in flows, sediment inputs, channel morphology, bed sediment and riparian vegetation on the Snowy River below Jinda- byne Dam. Bedform terminology follows Grant et al. (1990). Channel reaches are shown in Figures 1 and 2. River types follow Erskine et al. 2017. Channel Ro.ch Jindabyne Gorge (1 1.5 km long) Granodiorite Gorge river type Dalgety Uplands Reach (57.5 km long) Laterally bedrock confined and vertically bedrock constrained river type Burnt Hut Gorge (57 km long) Adamellite Gorge river type Reach Characteristics Channel deeply incised into plateau of Late Silurian granodiorite of the Kosciuszko Batholith, producing a gorge. River debouches from the gorge at the Barneys Range fault scarp. Bedrock and boulders laterally and vertically confine the channel, producing a steep slope (7. 1 m/km) punctuated by gravel riffles, rapids and cascades with boulder and bedrock steps separating occasional long remnant pools, especially on valley bends. There is often a narrow inner bedrock channel flanked by bedrock shelves veneered with thin sediment deposits and peat. Limited bar and bench development at valley expansions and bends, and downstream of tributary junctions. Channel flows across Monaro Tableland and ftequendy impinges against or flows across a range of rocks of Ordovician Adaminaby Group and Late Silurian granodiorite and adamellite of the Ber- ridale Batholith. Short sections of gorge occur repetitively. Flatter bed slope (2.1 m/km). Well-developed, vegetated bars of sand and gravel. Relatively shallow pools floored by fine-grained sediment laminae and submerged macrophytes. Limited floodplain development. Steep gorge (5.9 m/km) cut into Monaro Tableland, exposing mostly Late Silurian adamellite of the Berridale Batholith and Silurian Yalmy Group. Bedrock fall (Snowy Falls) at downstream end. River closely vertically constrained and laterally confined by bedrock. Channel character¬ ised by steep bedrock and gravel rapids and long pools. Post-Remilation Channel Changes up to 2000 Mean annual flow reduced by 98% and all floods suppressed. Episodic thermal and oxygen stratification develops in deep remnant pools. Channel contraction; vegetation invasion on channel margins; pool infilling with clastic and biogenic sediment; formation of Phragmites aus¬ tralis chokes on former riffles, tributary mouth bars and thick fine-grained sedi¬ ment laminae in bed; peat formation on bedrock ledges beside inner bedrock channel. Fine sediment intrusion into bed sediment; lichen colonization of exposed bedrock surfaces. Mean annual flow reduced by 94% and flood flows greatly suppressed. Chan¬ nel contraction; vegetation invasion of channel margins; bed aggradation and sediment storage; formation of Phragmites australis chokes, tributary mouth bars and thick fine-grained sediment laminae in bed; fine sediment intrusion into bed. Lichen colonization of exposed bedrock surfaces. Substantial flow reduction. Suspended sediment plumes generated by unregu¬ lated Delegate River. Sand inputs from gully erosion of granitoid areas on Monaro Tableland. Vegetation invasion, particu¬ larly by exotic tree species; fine sediment intrusion into bed. 157 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Ersldne et al. — Bedform maintenance and pool destratification Channel Reach Willis Sand Zone (93.5 km long) Laterally bedrock confined and vertically bedrock constrained river type Tulloch Ard Gorge (41.5 km long) Volcanic Gorge river type Lucas Point Reach (22.5 km long) Laterally bedrock confined and vertically bedrock constrained river type Long Point Reach (18 km long) Laterally bedrock confined river type Orbost Alluvial Reach (11 km long) Straight sand-bed channel river type Reach Characteristics Channel alternates between relatively flat, sand-bed sections flanked by extensive side bars and steeper bedrock sections with rapids, falls and bedrock inner chan¬ nels. Slope much less than upstream (1.6 m/km). Valley floor trough wider than upstream. Granodiorite and adamellite of the Kosciuszko Batholith outcrop in bed. Deep, narrow channel cut through resist¬ ant granodiorite and Snowy River Vol- canics Group. Steep bedrock gorge (2.4 m/km) with long pools and steep rapids, cascades and falls. Channel laterally confined and vertically constrained by bedrock. Slope less than upstream (1.2 m/km) deep pools present and some sand storage in pools, point bars and benches. Bedrock and gravel rapids, gravel armoured bars and small inner bed¬ rock channel present. Deeply incised, irregular, sinuous bed¬ rock valley which laterally confines chan¬ nel. Abrupt change to sandy bed-material because of slope reduction (0.7 m/km). Common sand bars and benches with spatially disjunct riparian vegetation. Extensive floodplain borders sand-bed channel which occasionally impinges against bedrock valley sides. Relatively straight sand-bed channel in upstream sec¬ tion with transverse, longitudinal and side bars, often flanked by benches. Slightly sinuous channel with point bars further downstream. Smaller channel capacity in slightly sinuous section because of exten¬ sive flood channels on the floodplain. Post-Reeulation Channel Changes up to 2000 Substantial flow reduction. Substantial historical local sand input from soil ero¬ sion. Vegetation invasion, particularly by exotic plant species; loss of native riparian trees due to lower water tables; extensive sandy side bar and bench development in flatter sections. Substantial flow reduction. Little sediment storage in channel, except in large pools; and weed invasion of riparian zone. Mean annual flow reduced by 29%. Veg¬ etation invasion, particularly by exotic plant species in the riparian zone; sand storage in pools, bars and benches. Mean annual flow reduced by 12%. Exotic vegetation invasion; pools rapidly infilled with sand after flood scour; sub¬ stantial sand storage in the bed but gravel armoured sections still occur. Substantial flow reduction. Replacement of bank-attached, alternating sandy side bars with sandy transverse and longitudi¬ nal bars in straight section; loss of small pools opposite side bars in straight section; sand storage in channel. Loss of native riparian vegetation and weed invasion of riparian zone. 158 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Erskine et al. — - Bedform maintenance and pool destratification Channel Reach Reach Characteristics Post-Regulation Channel Changes up to 2000 Orhost Estuarine Reach (20.5 km long) Sand-bed estua¬ rine channel river type Barrier type estuary (Roy 1984) at an advanced stage of infilling with fluviatile and marine sediment. Estuarine lakes still present in side embayments. Fluvial sand slug extends to mouth of the Little Snowy River. Sand transported to coast. Extensive sections of Phragmites australis- lined and pasture-covered banks. Mouth episodically closes due to sedimentation. Occasional cutoffs present. Thermal, oxygen and salt stratification develops during prolonged low summer flows in upper estuary. Bank-attached, alternating side bars largely replaced with transverse and longitudinal bars in upper estuary; sand storage in channel as a sand slug in upper estuary. Substantial erosion of estuarine islands in lower estuary. Recommended environmental flows The Government agreed environmental flow regime for the Snowy River downstream of Jindabyne Dam was to progressively return 28% of the natural mean annual flow over more than 1 0 years so that the Expert Panel’s (Anon. 1996) targets were achieved. The Expert Panel s environmental flow regime is outlined because it is used below to assess bedform maintenance and pool destratifi¬ cation. An annual flood of up to 139 m^/s for 3-5 days at Jindabyne and at least 231.5 m3/s at Dalgety was recommended to create and enlarge the channel so as to reverse channel contraction, pool infilling, ripar¬ ian vegetation invasion and fine sediment intrusion into the bed (Rose 2017). The range of flood peak discharges with annual exceedance probabilities of 99 to 1% before flow regulation at Jindabyne was relatively small (125.8 to 1093 m^/s) (Erskine et al. 1999a). As a result, flood variability as meas¬ ured by the Flash Flood Magnitude Index of Baker (1977) was only 0.202, which is low by Australian standards (McMahon et al. 1992; Erskine 1986; 1996b; Erskine & Saynor 1996; Erskine & Livingstone 1999). Therefore, natural channel-forming discharges before flow regulation were mod¬ erate floods of frequent occurrence equiva¬ lent to or less than the mean annual flood (411 m3/s) (Leopold et al. 1964; Duty 1976; Baker 1977). The large bank-full capacities reported elsewhere in New South Wales by Pickup & Warner (1976), Nanson (1986) and Erskine (1994; 1996b), among others, do not apply here because of low flood vari¬ ability. The smallest recorded unregulated annual flood occurred in 1938 and was only 123 m^/s, so the Expert Panel recom¬ mended an annual flood of 139 vcPis to initi¬ ate fluvial disturbance to reverse long-term channel shrinkage but not to re-establish the pre-Scheme channel, i.e. rehabilitation, not restoration. Natural monthly streamflows at Jindabyne before regulation increased progressively from February to October before declin¬ ing progressively to February (Erskine et al. 1999a). Similar seasonal flow distributions for unregulated conditions were recorded at the Dalgety, Basin Creek and Jarrahmond gauges (Erskine et al. 1999a). The need for variable flows on at least a monthly scale but preferably more frequently was empha¬ sised by Anon. (1996). The Expert Panel adopted the 95% flow duration discharge for the unregulated period at Jindabyne for each 159 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South "W^les Erskine et al. — - Bedform maintenance and pool destratification month downstream of the Mowamba River junction to include natural runoff from the Mowamba River following decommission¬ ing of the Aqueduct and recommended that a minimum discharge of 2.3 m^/s be adopted between Jindabyne Dam and the Mowamba junction (Anon. 1996). The 95% flows ranged from 2.2 to 27.8 m^/s depend¬ ing on the month and greatly exceed the maximum release specified in the original licence of 0.57 mVs. The purpose of decom¬ missioning the Mowamba Aqueduct was to return some natural daily flow variability to the Snowy River (Anon. 1996). River reacho River reaches are homogeneous lengths of channel within which hydrological, geo¬ logical and adjacent catchment conditions are sufficiently constant to produce either a uniform morphology or a consistent pat¬ tern of alternating morphologies (Kellerhals et al. 1976; Erskine 2005). The classifica¬ tion scheme of Erskine et al. (2001) has been adopted for the Snowy River. Nine river reaches are mapped in Figure 1 and described in Table 1, which also summa¬ rises post-regulation channel changes docu¬ mented by published work. River types are also included in Table 1 . Figure 2 shows that the reaches exhibit consistent slopes and that reach boundaries usually coincide with abrupt breaks in slope. Bedform terminology in Table 1 follows Grant et al. (1990). River reaches are appropriate spatial units for flow management, monitoring of river condition and determining channel changes as part of an adaptive management frame¬ work (Stanford et al. 1996; Erskine et al. 2001). The same reaches were also adopted for determining river response to the new environmental flow regime (Rose 2017). 2000 1S0D 1600 •g 1400 o 5 1200 < a. m m 1000 K 800 o o Q. z < LU 800 400 200 JINDABYNE DALGETY BURNT HUT WILLIS TULLOCH ARD LUCAS POINT RIVER REACH Figure 3: Mean pool-riffle spacing for the six upstream river reaches on the Snowy River contained in Table 1 and Figures 1 and 2 160 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Erskine et al. — Bedform maintenance and pool destratification Bedforms Bedforms were mapped for the 352.5 km of the Snowy River downstream of Jinda- byne Dam from pre-2000 vertical air pho¬ tographs (Webb & Erskine 2000). Dates of the photographs ranged from February 1 994 to February 1998 and ranged in scale from 1:20,000 to 1:25,000. The length of every distinct bedform was measured to construct a complete longitudinal sequence (Webb & Erskine 2000) . This paper is restricted to the 303 km covering the six upstream reaches (Figure 1 and Table 1). According to the velocity reversal hypoth¬ esis (Leopold et al. 1964), pools are sites of flood scour and riffles are sites of flood depo¬ sition. Flood suppression should therefore result in the infilling of the upstream end of pools provided there is a source of sedi¬ ment. Erskine et al. (1999a; 1999b; 2001) reported channel contraction, particularly at riffles and pool infilling on the Snowy River downstream of Jindabyne Dam. Figure 3 shows the mean pool-riffle spacing for the six upstream reaches. As expected, there is a trend of increasing pool-riffle spacing with catchment area, with the exception of the Tulloch Ard Gorge. This gorge is eroded into very resistant rocks (Orth et al. 1993; 1995) and hence is constrained from readily adjust¬ ing to discharge. Pool-riffle spacing in the late 1990s ranged between 6.7 and 16.2 bank-full chan¬ nel widths and hence was greater than the 5-7 channel widths commonly reported in the literature (Leopold et al. 1964; Rich¬ ards 1982). This is not surprising because the channel did not reach a new equilib¬ rium condition adjusted to the post-Scheme discharges. Further channel contraction and pool infilling would have occurred if the releases from Jindabyne had not been increased so that more frequent greater flood scour was re-introduced. Pool-riffle spacing is directly related to channel width (Leopold et al. 1964) but channel width is directly related to bank-full discharge (Leopold et al. 1964; Richards 1982). Therefore, bank- full discharge indirectly controls bedforms. Figure 4 shows that the mean annual flood Figure 4: Least-squares linear regression equations for the mean annual flood-catchment area relationships before and after flow regulation of the Snowy River by the Snowy Mountains Flydroelectric Scheme. Mean annual flood is the mean of the logiQ-transformed annual maximum flood series. 161 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Erskine et al. Bedform maintenance and pool destratification (antilog of mean of the log^ of the annual flood series) on the Snowy River downstream of Jindabyne Dam has been greatly reduced by flow regulation at every gauging station. The regressions were performed on the data of Erskine et al. (1999a) with the addition of the post-Scheme data for the Burnt Hut Crossing and McKillops Bridge gauges and with the adoption of the maximum release from Jindabyne specified in the operational licence. Tfie increase in slope of the regres¬ sion for the post-Scheme period indicates that the rate of increase in mean annual flood with catchment area is now greater, as expected. Similarly, the large reduction in the y-intercept value indicates that the upper catchment has been effectively removed as a generator of flood discharge. Indeed between 1967 and 2000 Jindabyne Dam only spilled twice in October and November 1974 and 1975 when the flood gates on the spillway were tested, "The rate of channel adjustment to such large-scale flood suppression will vary with the degree of bedrock confinement of the channel boundary and the amount of sediment supplied to, and stored in, the channel and available for subsequent fluvial redistribution (Erskine 1996b), The least squares linear regression of 1990s pool-riffle spacing (PRS) on mean annual flood {MAP) is: PRS = 0.5703 MAP + 371.27 (1) It is significant at p = 0.03, Applying the recommended mean annual floods from the Expert Panel (Anon. 1996) to this equation and allowing for downstream flood rout¬ ing and tributary inflows, yields increases in pool-riffle spacing of between 3 and 294 m between Jindabyne and McKillops Bridge but a predicted decrease in the Lucas Point Reach. This decrease is highly unlikely because the pools and riffles are largely struc¬ turally controlled (Table 1). Therefore, the fully implemented Expert Panels (Anon. 1996) recommendations should produce increased pool scour and a reversal of long¬ term contraction. Recent monitoring shows that this has been the case in response to the new environmental flow regime (Rose 2017). Stratification Although Lake Jindabyne thermally stratifies each year between about October and April, and hypolimnetic dissolved o^gen satura¬ tion progressively declines until the autumn overturn (Turner & Erskine 2005; Bowling 1993; Bowling etal. 1993; Kinross &Acaba 1996; Maini et al. 1996), our monitoring has shown that the former siphon outlet ensured that releases closely matched epilimnetic water quality in the lake. As a result, there were no cold anoxic releases. Turner & Erskine (2005) reported strong thermal gradients with well-developed oxygen stratification and anoxic conditions below the oxycline which varied in depth from 2,75 to 4.25 m in deep upland pools for 50 km below Jindabyne Dam during warm weather (Figure 5). Continuous data¬ logging of water quality near the surface and near the bottom for continuous 24 h peri¬ ods demonstrated that the strong thermal gradients and oxygen stratification persisted throughout the day and night (Turner & Erskine 2005). Oxygen stratification with hypolimnetic anoxia was only recorded where the remnant pools were deeper than 4 m during summer baseflows. Depth is an important control on the development and persistence of stratifi¬ cation in weir pools on the Nepean River (Turner & Erskine 1997a; 1997b), 162 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Erskine et al. — Bedform maintenance and pool destratification Tlie upper reaches of many barrier estuaries in East Gippsland were strongly salt, oxygen and reverse thermally stratified during very low freshwater inflows in May 1998 at the time of the Snowy Water Inquiry (Anon. 1998). Estuary fishermen often referred to catching warm Southern Bream’ (Acantho- pagrus butch eri Munro) at that time. This was not surprising because the water tem¬ peratures at that time below the halocline, where the bream were caught, were up to 6.6 °C warmer than surface waters. Autumn mixing was inhibited by the very high salini¬ ties below the halocline at the head of the estuary and the very low freshwater inflows. A thin, usually 0.25 m deep, freshwater lens was present above the halocline throughout the upper 5 km of the estuary which were not investigated in earlier studies (Hinwood & McLean 1999a; 1999b; McLean & Hin¬ wood 2015). The thin freshwater inflow had a salinity of 0 ppt but the upper estuary at the limit of tidal influence (1 km upstream of the Princes Highway Bridge at Orbost on the Snowy estuary) had measured salini¬ ties below the halocline of up to 21.6 ppt. A minor fish kill occurred in the upper Snowy estuary where bottom anoxia devel¬ oped at that time, but not in other nearby estuaries (Cann River/Tamboon Inlet and Genoa River/Mallacoota Inlet) (Erskine et al. 1999b). Figure 6 shows the highly stratified conditions that existed in the upper Snowy estuary at Orbost on 3 May 1998. The oxy- cline and halocline were generally coincident at between 0.25 and 0.5 m below the surface in the upper 5 km of the Snowy estuary but bottom anoxia was only well developed in the upper estuary. Further downstream, the estuary was not oxygen stratified and the halocline deepened to a consistent depth of 0.5 m. Following a major flood in June 1998 (Erskine et al. 2017), the estuary was well mixed to the mouth. Destratification The Richardson Number {Ri) is used to predict the stability of stratification and is the ratio of the stabilising forces of density stratification to the destabilising eflFect of velocity shear (Christodoulou 1986; Horne & Goldman 1994; Western et al. 1996; Dyer 1997). Due to practical problems of meas¬ uring density and velocity gradients, the layer Richardson Number was used by Dyer (1982) to determine whether mixing will occur in estuaries when only the surface layer is moving in relation to the bottom layer. The layer Richardson Number (i?4) h: RiL = {~)-9-D/U^ (2) where 8p is the density diflFerence between the surface and bottom layer, p is water density, g is the gravitational acceleration constant and D is the depth of the surface layer flowing with a velocity U, relative to the deeper layer (Dyer 1982; 1997). Dyer (1982) found that fully developed mixing (i.e. complete breakdown of density stratification) occurred at Rii< 2, that mixing was increasingly active for 20 > Rii > 2 and that turbulence was ineffective in break¬ ing down density stratification at Rii > 20. Christdoulou (1986) re-examined the litera¬ ture on interfacial mixing in stratified flows and proposed four different power equa¬ tions for different ranges of the Richardson Number. 163 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South 'V^les Erskine et al. Bedform maintenance and pool destratification Temperature 02-Jyi-98 ■^iBs.Temperature 30-Ns¥-9S Temperature 20"Jan-i9 - - Dissolved Oxygen 02-Jul-iB ■ Dissolved Oxygen 30-Nov-98 ^ » Dissolved Oxygen 20"Jan-99 Figure 5: Examples of thermal and oxygen profiles in a remnant pool at Benchmarking site 2 (Figure 1), Isothermal conditions existed on 2 July 1998 but there were strong thermal gradients on 30 November 1998 and 20 January 1999. Anoxic conditions were present below the oxycline for the two summer profiles. Figure 6: An example of salt, oxygen and reverse thermal stratification that was measured in the Snowy River estuary at the Princes Highway Bridge (Orbost) on 3 May 1998, 164 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South 'Wales Erskine et al. Bedform maintenance and pool destratification Density profiles were calculated from the thermal and salinity depth profiles because they are required as inputs to the layer Richardson Number calculations. Figure 7 shows three profiles for benchmarking site 2 and demonstrates that when strong ther¬ mal gradients were present in the Jindabyne Gorge density increased by up to 0.86 kg/ m3 from the surface to the bottom. On the other hand, density differences above and below the halocline in the upper estuary on 3 May 1998 were very large (Figure 8). Clearly the salinity differences greatly compensated for the reverse thermal stratification, pro¬ ducing a density difference of 14.87 kg/m^. This indicates that much higher flows are required to effect destratification in the estu¬ ary than in the Jindabyne Gorge (Turner & Erskine 2005). The approach adopted to calculate layer Richardson Numbers was to investigate well gauged reaches where discharge was meas¬ ured at gauging stations. Detailed depth profiles of various water quality parameters undertaken at multiple sites were used to identify temporary and/or seasonal pycno- clines. This permitted the accurate specifi¬ cation of epilimnetic flow depth. Detailed observations of zones of slackwater, wind lanes and reverse currents under a range of streamflows and wind conditions were made at each site. This enabled the calculation of mean cross-sectional area of active flow {A): ^ = W.D (3) where W is average active flow width and D is mean epilimnetic depth. The continu¬ ity flow equation was then manipulated to calculate mean flow velocity ( [/) at each site for each day of measurements: f/= QIA (4) where Q is discharge. This was necessary because attempts to measure flow veloc¬ ity with a current meter were unsuccessful because of the very low values and because a strain gauge could not be obtained for field work. Dyer (1982) concluded that mixing characteristics are better parameterized in terms of bulk flow properties than local gra¬ dient values at the pycnocline which may indicate an apparently more stable stratifica¬ tion. Christodoulou (1986) demonstrated the appropriateness of using mean flow velocity as the velocity measure irrespec¬ tive of flow type and noted that it is the simplest to estimate. The estimated mean flow velocities during field measurements ranged between 0.002 and 0.019 m/s. The calculated epilimnetic mean flow velocity and densities were then used to determine the layer Richardson Number at each site. The layer Richardson Number predicts that rapid destratification {Rii < 2) requires relatively small flows in the Jindabyne Gorge (<10 m3/s) and that slower destratification {Rii < 20) requires relatively minor flows (<4 m3/s). The Expert Panel’s (Anon. 1996) recommended mean daily flows for at least 8 months of the year will ensure that pools generally do not stratify. While larger flows are required to cause destratification in the upper estuary when it is salt stratified, these flows are still relatively small for such a large river (20-30 m^/s). The Expert Panel’s (Anon. 1996) recommended annual flood of 139 m3/s at Jindabyne and at least 2315 m^/s at Dalgety would cause mixing and destratifica¬ tion of the estuary, if unregulated tributary inflows compensated for downstream rout¬ ing effects. Furthermore, if larger releases are maintained from Jindabyne Dam, it is likely that salt wedge penetration into the upper estuary (Erskine et al. 1999b; 2001; Turner & Erskine 2005) will not occur in future. 165 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Erskine et al. — Bedform maintenance and pool destratification -♦-02-JUI-98 -•-30-NOV-98 -i^20-Jan-99 Figure 7: Density profiles in a remnant pool at Benchmarking site 2 during winter isothermal conditions (2 July 1998) and during strong summer thermal gradients (30 November 1998 and 20 January 1999). For location of site, see Figure 1. DEPTH (m) Figure 8: Density profile for the Snowy River estuary at the Princes Fiighway Bridge (Orbost) on 3 May 1998. See Figure 6 for thermal and salinity profiles. 166 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Erskine et al. — Bedform maintenance and pool destratification Discussion and Conclusions Hall (1989) and Harris & Silveira (1997) carried out fish habitat assessments at six sites in the lower six reaches of the Snowy River. Recommended flows for optimum habitat provision for a range of native fish species ranged from 6.9 to 1 1.6 mVs in the reaches above the estuary (Hall 1989). The proposed minimum flows by the Expert Panel (Anon. 1996) alone will meet these targets for 6 months of the year. Allowance for tributary inflows between Jindabyne Dam and Halls (1989) sites should result in the optimum flows for habitat maximisation being reached in most months. Clearly, envi¬ ronmental flows for pool destratification will also meet minimum habitat requirements for fish. Furthermore, the Expert Panels (Anon. 1996) recommended annual flood will scour pools, rework riffle and run bottom sedi¬ ments and hence improve fish habitat. The essential components of an environ¬ mental flow regime should include at least channel maintenance flows that maintain the size, shape and bedforms of the channel and re-establish ecological connectivity, habitat maintenance flows that remove accumulat¬ ing silt and organic detritus and destratify pools, minimum flows to sustain aquatic and semi-aquatic ecosystems within the riverine corridor, optimum flows to maximise habitat for target species and the natural seasonal flow distribution (Petts 1996; Stanford et al. 1996, Erskine et al. 1999a; Arthington et al. 2006; Poff et al. 2010). While the Expert Panel process was a rapid assessment method the recommended flows are now known to be appropriate to re-introduce scour of pools and runs, and to destratify temporarily stratified upland pools and the episodically but strongly salt stratified upper estuary (Turner & Erskine 2005). While these factors were certainly considered by the Expert Panel at the time, the degree of analysis undertaken was minimal and based on expert opinion. Synergies between panel members and agency staff can also be effec¬ tive in resolving issues and determining solu¬ tions to problems. The Snowy River case study further illus¬ trates the major problems that arise when efforts are made to introduce an updated environmental flow regime when the issue is not covered in a legally binding licence. The message is clear that it is important to cover the major issues in the first place so that appropriate water allocations are made initially. What has happened on the Snowy River is similar to other rivers in Australia (Williams 2017) but government response has not always been forthcoming (Sherrard & Erskine 1991; Benn & Erskine 1994; Turner & Erskine 1997a; 1997b). Acknowledgements This work was funded by an Australian Research Council grant, an Australian Post¬ graduate Award, the NSW Department of Natural Resources, Victorian Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Aus¬ tralian Department of Environment and Heritage, East Gippsland Catchment Man¬ agement Authority and NSW Environment Protection Authority. We thank them for funding. The editor and referee construc¬ tively criticised the manuscript. References Anon (1993) Engineering Features of the Snowy Mountains Scheme, Snowy Mountains Hydro- Electric Authority, Cooma, NSW, Aust. Anon (1996) Expert Panel Environmental Flow Assessment of the Snowy River below Jindabyne Dam. 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(1997a) Morphometry and stratification of the Bents Basin scour pool, Nepean River, NSW Wetlands (Australia), 17, 14-28. Turner, L. M. & Erskine, W. D. (1997b) Thermal, oxygen and salt stratification in three weir pools on the Nepean River, NSW, in Riley, S. J., Erskine, W D. & Srestha, S. (eds.). Proceedings Science and Technology in the Environmental Management of the Hawkeshury-Nepean catchment. Institution of Engineers Australia National Conference Publication NCP 97/01 and Geographical Society of NSW Conference Papers No. 14, Barton, ACT, Aust, 87-92. Turner, L. M. & Erskine, W D. (2005) Variability in the development, persistence and breakdown of thermal, oxygen and 170 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Erskine et al. — Bedform maintenance and pool destratification salt stratification on regulated rivers in south-eastern Australia. River Research & Applications y 21, 151-168. Webb, A. A, & Erskine, W D. (2000) Fluvial Geomorphology of the Snowy River below Jindabyne Dam. NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation, Cooma, NSW, Aust. Western, A. W, O’Neill, L C., Hughes, R. L. & Nolan, J. B. (1996) The behaviour of stratified pools in the Wimmera River Australia. Water Resources Research, 32, 3917- 3206. Williams, J. (2017) Water reform in the Murray Darling Basin: a challenge in complexity in balancing social, economic and environmental perspectives. Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 150, 68-92. Wayne Erskine s co-authors have ’written the following obituary: “Professor Wayne Erskine ( 1954- 2017) graduated with a Bachelor of Arts (Hons 1) from the School of Geography, UNSW in 1979. He then completed his PhD at UNSW on “River metamorphosis and environmental change in the Hunter Valley, NSW’ in 1986. Wayne worked as a Scientific Officer with the NSW Water Resources Commission in North Sydney from 198 1—1 986 before becoming a Lecturer/Senior Lecturer in the School of Geography at UNSW from 1986—1998. He was then employed by State Forests of NSW from 1998—2004, firstly as a Research Hydrologist, then as Senior Soil, Water and Fish Specialist based at West Pennant Hills. Wayne subsequently joined the University of Newcastle-Ourimbah as a Professor of Natural Resource Management from 2004—2011. He provided much advice on rehabilitating the hydro-geomorphology of Australia’s iconic Snowy River. He finished his career as Program Leader and Principal Research Scientist at the Environmental Research Institute of the Supervising Scientist in Darwin from 2011 until his retirement in 2014. During his career. Professor Erskine supervised more than 30 Honours, 20 Masters and 17 PhD students. He published over 150 refereed journal papers, book chapters and conference papers and will be remembered as one of Australia’s most influential fluvial geomorphologists.” 171 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, vol. 150, part 2, 2017, pp. 172-178. ISSN 0035-9173/17/020172-07 First characterization of Easter Island inland waters using remote sensing techniques Patricio De los Rios Escalantei’^,*, Eliana Ibanez^, Patricio Acevedo^’^, Manuel CastroS 1- Laboratorio de Ecologi'a Aplicada y Biodiversidad, Escuela de Ciencias Ambientales, Facultad de Recursos Naturales, Universidad Catolica de Temuco, Casilla 1 5-D, Temuco, Chile. 2- Nucleo de Estudios Ambientales, UC Temuco. 3- Universidad de La Frontera, Departamento de Ciencias Ffsicas, Casilla 54-D, Temuco, Chile. 4- Center for Optics and Photonics, Universidad de Concepcion, Casilla 4012, Concepcion, Chile. 5- Laboratorio de Teledeteccion Satelital, Departamento de Ciencias Fisicas, Facultad de Ingenierfa y Ciencias, Universidad de La Frontera, Casilla 54-D, Temuco, Chile. * Author for correspondence, email: prios@uct.cl Abstract Easter Island is the farthest human-inhabited site from a continent, and due to this condition stud¬ ies on it are very scarce and restricted to basic field descriptions of its coastal marine and terrestrial ecosystems. The aim of the present study is to complete a first description of Easter Island s inland waters using remote sensing techniques, specifically the GVMI index. The results revealed monthly fluctuations in water body and wet soil surface that are due mainly to rainy seasons. These results provide an interesting first step for other limnological studies in Easter Island and other sites with access problems. Keywords: remote sensing, GVMI index, Easter Island. Introduction aster Island, located in the mid-subtropi¬ cal Pacific Ocean, is the farthest human- inhabited site from any continent. The island has endemic species, as well as Asia-Pacific and South American species (Fernandez et ah, 2014). In terms of hydrologic con¬ ditions, it has two crater lakes (Rano Kau and Rano Raraku) and some ephemeral pools that are present during rainy periods (Niemeyer & Cereceda, 1984; Dummont & Martens 1996). The first faunal descrip¬ tions were of aquatic insects (Campos & Pena, 1973; Dummont & Verschuren, 1991), rotifers (Segers & Dummont, 1993) and crustaceans (Dummont & Martens, 1996). Regarding fish species, the presence of introduced Gambusia affinis was reported in the mid- 19th century (Baird & Girard, 1853; Magliulo-Cepriano et ah, 2003; De los Rios-Escalante, 2010). The widespread presence of crustacean species for Easter Island that probably were human introduced were described more recently (De los Rios- Escalante & Ibanez, 2015). In spite of these reports, there are no limnological descrip¬ tions for Easter Island, and in this context, if we consider its geographical isolation, it would be possible to do a first study using remote sensing techniques as an exploratory approach (Kondratyev & Filatov, 1999; Ver- poorter et ah, 2012; 2014). In this context, remote sensing techniques have been used for first observations of mountain lakes in Chilean Patagonia (De los Rios-Escalante et al., 2013; 2016, 2017; De los Rios-Escalante 172 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales De los Rios-Escalente et al. — First characterization of Easter Island inland waters & Acevedo, 2016a,b). The aim of the present study is to do a first ecological limnology analysis of Easter Island water bodies using remote sensing techniques, considering the access difficulties of these water bodies. Material and Methods Study site: Easter Island was visited between 19th and 24th September 2014, when it was sampled at three sites: Rano Kau and Rano Raraku crater lakes, located in the homony¬ mous volcanoes and Rano Aroi plain, in a high plain with ephemeral pools and streams, (Table 1, Fig. 1). These sites are the main inland water bodies of Easter Island (Dum- mont & Martens, 1996; Canyellas-Bolta et aL, 2014; De los Rios-Escalante & Ibanez, 2015). Rano Kau lake has a surface area of 0.11 km2 and is 2-3 m deep (Canyellas-Bolta et al., 2014), whereas Rano Raraku lake has a surface of 0.09 km^ and is 3 m deep (Dum- mont et al., 1998), and Rano Aroi is a high plain with approximately a flooding zone of 0.13 km2 (Margalef et al., 2013). Each site was geo referenced using a Garmin GPS, and we also measured in situ water conductivity and total dissolved solids with a FIANNA sensor. i f - ' ^4 ’ P5 ■- 7> ,/ • , ' / ■ > Fig. 1. Sampling monitoring of GVMI index. Satellite information and wet index: the satellite information corresponding to ten images (Table 1), of the multispectral Operational Land Imager (OLI) sensor of LandSat-8 satellite. In the processing of the images a radiometric correction and reflect¬ ance calibration were applied, with atmos¬ pheric adjustment using software ENVI, with Flash, one of the standard MODTRAN model atmospheres and the 2-Band K-T (Kaufman & Tanre, 1 992) aerosol retrieval method. After image calibration, we used the spectral index Global Vegetation Moisture Index (GVMI) for wet study (Ceccato et al., 2002; Sow et al., 2013). The GVMI was calculated from equation 1 : ^Pnir T 0.1) iPswir T 0.02) ni GVMI = . ipnir + 0.1) + (pswir + 0.02) where Pnir and Pswir are the reflectance in close infrared bands (NIR 850-878 nm) and medium infrared (SWIR: 1556-1651 nm). The NIR and SWIR bands spatial resolution of the OLI sensor is 30 m. Ceccato et al. (2002), define the GVMI based on an EWT (leaf equivalent water thickness), by adjusting spectral reflectance in the close and medium infrared. The index provides primarily phenological and water information, given its high sensitiv¬ ity to the change of moisture content in vegetation (Sanchez, 2002; Ceccato et ah, 2002; Sanchez & Chuvieco, 2000; Yang et al., 1997), whereas SWIR sensitivity is due to water presence. According to the results obtained from SWIR and NIR, it is possible to use both as eflPective tools to remove the vegetation influence (Ceccato et ah, 2002). Satellite monitoring: the GVMI index considered six sites where PI, P2 and P3 are located in the Rano Aroi plain, P4 and P5 are located in the surrounding of the Rano 173 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wa.les De los Rjos-Escalente et al. — First characterization of Easter Island inland waters Raraku volcano, and P6 is located inside the Rano Kau volcano. The GVMI index values correspond to mean values of areas not covered by water inside the crater (Fig. 1 and Table 1). Results and Discussion The results revealed that all sites have low conductivity, low total dissolved solids values and relatively neutral pFI (Table 1). All sites have high levels of the GVMI index during the southern autumn and winter (April to August). The Rano Kau volcano site has a low GVMI index because it is a permanent lake with much surrounding vegetation, and with many submersed macrophytes that form a kind of vegetation island, whereas the Rano Raraku crater lagoon has intermediate values because it is a permanent lake with low lit¬ toral vegetation (Fig. 2, Table 3). A different situation was observed for the Rano Aroi sites: high GVMI index values with marked differences in seasons, with markedly low values in the southern spring-summer (Sep¬ tember to March, Figure 2, Table 3) and high values in June, due to the rain increase in autumn (Niemeyer & Cereceda, 1984). These results agree with field observations in September 2014 (De los Rios-Escalante & Ibanez, 2015). Table 1. Geographical location, altitude (m a.s.l.) total dissolved solids (mg/L), and conductivity (dS/cm), for studied sites. Rano Aroi 1 Rano Aroi 2 Rano Aroi 3 Rano Raraku Rano Kau Nomenclature at map (see fig. 1). PI P2 P3 P4-P5 P6 Geographical location 27° 06' 02.5" S 109° 22' 24.3" W 27° 06' 01.5" S 109° 22' 21.5" W 27° 06' 06.0" S 109° 22' 13.0" W 27° 07' 23.8" S 109° 17' 26.0" W 27° 08' 08.4" S 109° 26' 37.9" W Altitude 420 402 380 90 23 TDS 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.45 0.05 Conductivity 0.04 0.01 0.04 1.17 0.11 Table 2: Satellite images used in this study. The (*) corresponds to a condition free of clouds. Date D-M-Y PI P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 16* February 2014 * * * * * * 05* April 2014 X * * * * * 07* May 2014 * * * * * * 24* June 2014 * * * X X X 26* July 2014 * * * X X * 27* August 2014 * * * X * X 28* September 2014 * * * * X * 14* October 2014. * X * * X * 15* November 2014 X X *■ * * X 17* December 2014 * * * * * * 174 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales De los Rios-Escalente et aJ. — First characterization of Easter Island inland waters Table 3: Results of GVMI index for the studied sites in Easter Island. Date PI P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 16'h February 2014 0.22 0.18 0.25 0.13 0.24 0.06 05* April 2014 No data 0.20 0.31 0.30 0.34 0.05 07* May 2014 0.28 0.21 0.32 0.31 0.33 0.08 24* June 2014 0.33 0.35 0.39 No data No data No data 26* July 2014 0.22 0.28 0.19 No data No data 0.12 27* August 2014 0.19 0.22 0.19 No data 0.24 No data 28* September 2014 0.12 0.18 0.12 0.18 No data 0.02 14* October 2014 0.11 No data 0.11 0.17 No data 0.05 15* November 2014 No data No data 0.11 0.15 0.22 No data 17* December 2014 0.12 0.14 0.17 0.14 0.27 0.01 A 'V nV fv vV 0? 6'^ ^ ^ .'f .6^ .2/ •/ ^ O' V V SPl ■ P2 ■ P3 ■ P4 BPS flP6 Fig. 2. GVMI index results during 2014 at six points considered in the present study. 175 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales De los Rios-Escalente et al. - — First characterization of Easter Island inland waters The results would indicate that it is possible to use the GVMI index to study variations in wetlands or ecotones con¬ formed by littoral vegetation or submerged macrophytes in shallow lakes (Nagler et ah, 2013; Jarihani et ah, 2014; Brooks et ah, 2015; Giardino et ah, 2015). From this viewpoint, these remote sensing techniques would be an important tool for basic explo¬ ration in inland waters with access prob¬ lems (Mathews, 2011; Palmer et ah, 2015). Moreover, if we integrated these findings, it would be possible to study variations in littoral vegetation over temporal intervals (Perez-Luque et ah, 2015). The current literature mentions the importance of small lakes in global ecologi¬ cal processes (Downing & Duarte, 2009; Downing, 2010), and in these conditions it would be important to characterize and to do an inventory of these small lakes with a surface area less than 1 km^ (Downing et ah, 2006; Bartout et ah, 2015). In this scenario, the use of remote sensing techniques could be useful for characterizing small lakes for inventory purposes (Verpoorter et ah, 2012; 2014). This first study could be a basis for fur¬ ther studies of the variations in Easter Island inland waters and surrounding vegetation communities. Acknolowledgements The present study was funded by the Global Green Grants Foundation, TIDES TRF13- 03011 and MECESUP UCT 0804. We thank M. I. for her valuable comments and suggestions, and Nora Naoe, loani Naoe and Tulio Vergara for logistic support. 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Detecting vegetation leaf water content using reflectance in the optical domain. Remote Sensing of Environment^ 77: 22 — 23. Ceccato, R, Flasse, S., Gregoire, J-M. (2002). Designing a spectral index to estimate vegetation water content from remote sensing data: Part 2. Validation and applications. Remote Sensing of Environment, 82, 198- 207. De los Rios-Escalante P. (2010). Freshwater ecosystems in oceanic islands of Chile: Conservation of endemic microfauna and the role of exotic species in the biological control of tropical diseases. Revista Chilena de Historia Natural 83: 459-460. De los Rios-Escalante P, Quinan E, Acevedo P. (2013). Crustacean zooplankton communities in lake General Carrera (46°S) and their possible association with optical properties. Crustaceana, 86: 507-513. De los Rios-Escalante P, Acevedo P. (2016a). First observations on zooplankton and optical properties in a glacial north Patagonian lake (TaguaTagua lake, 41° S Chile). 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A global inventory of lakes based on high resolution satellite imagery. Geophysical Research Letters 41: 6396-6402, 2014. Yang X., Yang L., Merchant J.W. (1997). An assessment of AVHRR/NDVI- ecoclimatological relations in Nebraska, USA. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 18: 2161-2180. 178 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, vol. 130, part 2, 2017, pp. 179-182. ISSN 0035-9173/17/020179-04 Introducing Julian Tenison-V(bods and Malacca Roderick O’Brien School of Management, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia Email: Roderick.O’Brien@unisa.edu.au Abstract In 1883 and 1884, the Australian pioneer scientist and priest, Julian Tenison-Woods, conducted geo¬ logical, zoological, and geographical research in the area which is now Malaysia. The government of the Straits Settlements commissioned this research, and reports made by Tenison-Woods to the govern¬ ment contain some of the results. One of these reports on the geology and mineralogy of Malacca is printed in this issue of the Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales and this short text is an introduction to Tenison-Woods’ report. not included in the lists of Tenison-Woods’ publications prepared by Sr. Margaret Press, although it is mentioned in her biography. (Press 2004, p. 210). This introduction will give background information about Tenison- Woods’ visit to the Straits Settlements. However, before proceeding, acknowl¬ edgement must be given to Mr Tim Yap Fuan of the library of the National University of Singapore, who brought this document to modern readers. Mr Tim’s familiarity with the Straits Settlements’ documents is evident from the speed with which he was able to find this report. Julian Tenison-Wjods, pioneer Australian scientist Clergy were prominent among pioneer sci¬ entists in Australia. (The Royal Society of New South Wales named its Clark Medal for Anglican clergyman and geologist William Branwhite Clark, a founder of the Society.) As a young man, Julian Woods (as he was then known) had migrated from his native England to Australia, and after brief studies at Sevenhill College in South Australia — where his scientific interests were encour¬ aged by Jesuit John Hinteroecker, who had The Source The Proceedings of the Legislative Council of the Straits Settlements may seem an unusual place for geological reports, but we should not be surprised. We can recall that the Proceedings (in a similar usage as parlia¬ mentary papers in Australia) include a vari¬ ety of reports and other materials which were tabled for the use of Legislative Councillors and the public. In those Proceedings we can find the work of one of Australia’s pioneer scientists, Fr. Julian Edmund Tenison-Woods. Readers may already be familiar with Teni¬ son-Woods as an honorary member of the Royal Society of New South Wales, who in 1888 was awarded the Society’s Clarke Medal for distinguished contribution to the geol¬ ogy of Australia. Between 1877 and 1888, Tenison-Woods contributed fifteen papers to the Society’s Journal, listed below. In the Proceedings of the Legislative Council of the Straits Settlements for 1885, we read a series of appendices. The second of these, laid before the Council on 22 January 1885, is the Report on the Geology and Mineralogy of the State of Malacca, by Tenison-Woods. (Tenison-Woods, 1885a) This report is 179 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South ^^les O’Brien— Introducing Julian Tenison-Woods and Malacca been a professor of natural science in Linz (Anon. 1 924j p. 4) — Woods was ordained as a Catholic priest. He served for ten years in rural South Australia, where he began publishing on scientific subjects. Julian is best known for his relationship with Aus¬ tralia’s first Catholic Saint, Mary of the Cross MacKillop, whom he met in Penola, and with whom he worked in the foundation of the Sisters of St Joseph. Woods went on to be a pioneer in education as the first director of Catholic Education in South Australia, and as a founder of other religious orders. Leav¬ ing South Australia, he worked for many years as an itinerant missionary up and down the east coast of Australia and in Tasmania. Woods has been the subject of some book- length biographies and numerous journal articles (O’Neill 1929; Hepburn 1979; Doherty 1996; Press 2004). Woods himself wrote extensively, and began using the name Tenison-Woods to distinguish himself from other scientists named Woods (his mother s maiden name was Tenison), and henceforth we will use this name. After publishing a number of articles (Wilson 2011, p 30), at only thirty years of age he embarked on his first book on the geology of South Australia (Tenison-Woods 1862). His commitment to science and to publication in the journals of learned societies and in the popular press continued for the rest of his life. He was still dictating publications in his last illness. Teni- son-Wbods died in October 1889, honoured especially by the scientific community. One aspect of Tenison-Woods’ later work was writing reports for government. In 1881 he had reported to the Queensland Gov¬ ernment on mining for tin (Tenison-Woods 1881). The New South Wales government had requested a book on fish and fisheries, commissioned for the Fisheries Exhibition in London in 1883 (Tenison-Woods 1883a). Further reports to government are discussed below. From 1875 to 1880 Sir Frederick Weld, of a recusant Catholic family, was Governor of Tasmania. At this time Tenison-Woods was conducting missions for the Catholic Church, and was also researching and writ¬ ing as he travelled. Weld chaired some of Tenison-Woods public lectures, and was president of the Royal Society of Tasma¬ nia when Tenison-Woods presented his researches (Somerville 1943 pi 99). It is to Weld that we owe the next chapter in Tenison-Woods life. Julian Tenison-’^feods in the Straits Settlements For reasons beyond the scope of this paper, opportunities for Tenison-Woods to serve as an itinerant missionary became fewer in the 1880s. By this time Weld had become Governor of the Straits Settlements, and he invited Tenison-Woods to conduct a geological survey in the Straits Settlements and Peninsular Malaya, Tenison-Woods accepted this invitation, and in mid- 1883 began the journey to Singapore. On the way, the Queensland government commissioned a report on coal resources (Tenison-Woods 1883b; Tenison-Woods 1883c). His journey, assisted by letters of introduction from Weld, took Tenison-Woods through what is now Indonesia, and in October 1883 he arrived in Singapore, Weld left for a visit to England, where he found time to address the Royal Colonial Institute. Describing the geography and geol¬ ogy of peninsular Malaya, Weld remarked: “The exact facts will be reported on by the Rev. Julian Tenison-Woods, a well-known geologist, who has just visited the district 180 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales O’Brien— Introducing Julian Tenison-Woods and Malacca on behalf of the Perak Government” (Weld 1883-1884, p266). Tenison-Woods soon embarked on a pre¬ liminary journey north, returning to Singa¬ pore in time for Christmas, 1883. During 1884, he continued his research, which gen¬ erated a number of scientific papers. One of these was the report on Malacca reproduced below. Another was the report on Perak, which Tension-Woods also published in Sydney (Tenison-Woods 1885b). Some of his later travels included a voyage on HMS Pegasus j and it was on Pegasus that in 1885 he was able to visit Labuan and Brunei. The results of his observations on coal were pub¬ lished in England (Tenison-Woods 1885c). Soon after, Tenison-Woods had the opportu¬ nity to travel on HMS Flying Fish^ then con¬ ducting surveys in south-east Asia, planning to return ultimately to Australia. Changes of plan along the way meant that Woods did not return to Australia until June 1886, when he disembarked in Darwin. Hie scientific output of Julian Tenison-Woods Reports for government were an important part of Tenison-Woods’ scientific output. Here we have a report from his work in Malacca made available to modern readers. After his return to Australia, he continued to accept government commissions. In 1886 he reported to the government of South Aus¬ tralia on the geology of the then Northern Territory of South Australia (Tenison-Woods 1886). Perhaps other reports might again become available, including a report on coal which was mentioned in one of the notices of his death (Anon. 1889, p 6). Besides reports, Tenison-Woods also wrote regularly for the popular press and gave interviews on scientific topics. He was respected for his ability to articulate his scientific knowledge for a general audience. Nevertheless, at the heart of his scientific output we find lectures and papers for learned societies. Without a university degree, Teni¬ son-Woods, like many of his contemporary scientists, found his membership of learned societies provided validation of his work, and a congenial company of largely amateur sci¬ entists. While Tenison-Woods contributed most to the Linnaean Society of New South Wales, and served as its president, he contrib¬ uted to other learned societies (King 2016, p 49.) Honorary memberships also served him well, providing opportunities for his interaction with knowledgeable scientists. In the Straits Settlements he became an hon¬ orary member of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, and published in the branch’s journal. We can conclude by recall¬ ing his status as an honorary member of the Royal Society of New South Wales, and as a frequent contributor to its journal. References Anon. (1924) “St Ignatius Church, Norwood: A Witness to the Jesuit Fathers’ Labours” The Register (Adelaide) Saturday 3 1 May 1 924. http:// trove.nla.gov.au/ ndp/ del/ article/57390574 (accessed 3 June 2017) Anon. (1889) “The Late Rev J ETenison Woods” The Advertiser ^ October 1889 page 6. http://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/ article/24485915 (accessed 19 May 2017) Doherty, C (1996) Song of the Seasons: Father J E Tenison Woods, Sisters of Perpetual Adoration, Wollongong. Hepburn, I (1979) No Ordinary Man: Life and Letters of Julian E Tenison Woods, Sisters of St Joseph, Wanganui. King, R (2016) “Julian Tenison Woods: Natural Historian” Journal of the Linnaean Society of New South Wales, vol 138 O’Neill, G (1929) Life of Reverend Julian Edmund Tenison Woods, Pellegrini and Co, Sydney. 181 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales O’Brien — Introducing Julian Tenison-Woods and Malacca Press, M (2004) Julian Tenison Woods: Father Founder^ St Pauls, Strathfield Somerville, J (1943) “The Royal Society of Tasmania 1843- 1943” Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania, 1 943. Tenison-Woods, JE (1862) Geological Observations in South Australia, principally in the district south-east of Adelaide, Longman, London. Tenison-Woods, JE (1881) Report on the Wild River and Great Western Tin Mines (near Herberton), Government Printer, Brisbane. Tenison-Woods, JE (1883a) Fish and Fisheries of New South Wales, Government Printer, Sydney. Tenison-Woods, JE (1883b), Coal Resources of Queensland, Government Printer, Brisbane. Tenison-Woods, JE (1883c) “Coal on the Central Railway” Brisbane Courier Monday 27 August 1883 p5 http://trove.nla.gov.au/ newspaper/page/81403? (accessed 4 June 2017) Tenison-Woods, JE (1885a) Report on the Geology and Mineralogy of the State of Malacca, Appendix 2 in Proceedings of the Legislative Council of the Straits Settlements for 1885, Thursday 22 January 1885, available at Public Records Office, London, C.O. 275130 Tenison-Woods, JE (1885b) “Report on the Geology and Physical Geography of the State of Perak” Proceedings of the Linnaean Society of New South Wales, vol 9 Tenison-Woods, JE (1885c) “The Borneo Coal Fields” (23 April 1885) Nature nq\ 31 Tenison-Woods, JE (1886) Report on the Geology and Mineralogy of the Northern Territory, Government Printer, Adelaide (Parliamentary Paper 122 of 1886) Weld, F (1883-1884) “The Straits Settlements and British Malaya” Proceedings of the Royal Colonial Institute, vol 1 5 Wilson, J (201 1) “Julian Tenison Woods: Geologist in South Australia” South Australian Geographical Journal, vllO Appendix A list of the contributions by Fr. Julian Tenison-Woods to the Royal Society of New South Wales: “On the Tertiary deposits of Australia” (1877) JProcRSNSW, 11: 65-82. “On some new Australian polyzoa” (1877) JProcRSNSW, \ \i^3-U. “The palaeontological evidence of Australian Tertiary formations” (1877) JProcRSNSW, 11: 113-128. “On some Australian Tertiary corals” (1877) ]ProcRSNSW, 11: 183-195. “Tasmanian forests: their botany and economical value” (1878) JProcRSNSW, 12: 17-28. “The molluscan fauna of Tasmania” (1878) JProcRSNSW, 12: 29-56. “On some Australian tertiary fossil corals and polyzoa” (1878) JProcRSNSW, 12: 57-61. “On the anatomy of Distichopora, with a monograph of the genus” (1879) JProcRSNSW, 13: 49-63. “The Hawkesbury Sandstone” (1882) JProcRSNSW, \G: 53-116. “On some carboniferous marine fossils” (1882) JProcRSNSW, 16: 143-145. “On some Mesozoic fossils from the Palmer River, Queensland” (1882) JProcRSNSW, 16: 147-154. “A fossil plant formation of central Queensland” (1882) JProcRSNSW, 16: 179-192. “On the Wianamatta shales” (1883) JProcRSNSW, 17: 75-85. “On the anatomy and life history of Mollusca peculiar to Australia” (1888) JProcRSNSW, 12: 106-187. “The desert sandstone” (1888) JProcRSNSW, 12: 290-335. 182 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, vol. 150, part 2, 2017, pp. 183-187. ISSN 0035-9173/17/020183-05 Report on the geology and mineralogy of the State of Malacca By the Revd. J. E. Tenison-Woods, FGS, &c. Abstract In compliance with a request from His Excellency Sir Frederick Weld, previous to his going to England, that I should visit and report on the geology of Malacca and the neighbouring states, I visited Malacca in October, 1884. The following is the result of my brief examination of the Malacca territory. Reporti he geology of the State of Malacca is of a very simple character. It consists of low hills of paleozoic strata with occasional outcrops of granite and a small amount of overlying beds of alluvial. The minerals found in these rocks are gold, tin and iron. I shall briefly consider the above forma¬ tion in detail, in the order in which they are named. Palaeozoic Rocks This formation consists of highly inclined ferruginous slates, schists and gneiss, with occasional veins of quartz. On the surface it weathers into a red honeycombed rock not like [sic] a decomposed volcanic ash. Possibly some of it may be volcanic, but of great antiquity, as, for instance, Bukit China, where the volcanic character seems marked. There are other places where the wearing and weathering of the ferruginous rocks have affected the underlying granite, which now alone remains. The partly decomposed gran¬ ite then appears as a brown mass with white crystals of felspar scattered through it. ^ Reprinted from Appendix 2 in the Proceedings of the Legislative Council of the Straits Settlements for 1885, January 1885. The formation is distinctly stratified, the strata being highly inclined, and occasion¬ ally quite perpendicular. There are numer¬ ous bands and partings of slate, chert, marly rubble, and green sandstones with mica. The general appearance of the deposit strongly reminds one of the palaeozoic or Ordovi¬ cian rocks of Victoria and New South Wales in Australia, which have proved to be so extensively and richly gold-bearing. I think it highly probable that the beds are of the same age, more especially as from time immemorial these Malacca strata have been worked for gold. There are true quartz veins amongst them and one at the foot of Mount Ophir has been worked quite recently by an English company. I was never able to examine a section show¬ ing the actual junction of the palaeozoic rocks with the granite, at least in the Malacca terri¬ tory. The possibility is that the passage from one rock to another is gradual and manifests metamorphism. I should think that this has taken place after the upheaval of the slates to their present perpendicular position. Without an accurate survey, it is impos¬ sible to say what the thickness of these beds may be. They are doubtless repeated in suc¬ cessive folding, as their present perpendicu¬ lar position is due to lateral pressure. The formation itself is not very thick, as the granite is, in numerous places, quite close 183 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Tenison-Woods— Report on the geology and mineralogy of the State of Malacca to the surface. In all such localities, tin may be looked for in small quantities. The palseozoic rock is largely mixed with poor iron ores, and where the surface water charged with carbonaceous matter has come into contact with these ores, they have been oxydised [sic] and converted into a red and reddish-brown limonite called here laterite. This laterite has been a geological puzzle to most of those who have written on the geology of the Malayan Peninsula. It is remarkable what a variety of guesses have been hazarded as to its origin. Some writers who have pretended to offer an explanation seem purposely to have obscured their mean¬ ing from inability to deal with the difficulty. It has been called volcanic, and regarded as a tertiary outpouring of basalt, and so forth. As already stated, the real character of the stone is simply due to the oxydation [sic] of a ferruginous series of rocks. The formation which has mostly supplied the materials for the laterite is the stratified palseozoic slates and the granite in contact with them. It is a decomposed rock. Water and air have been the decomposing agents. It is a most significant fact that there is no evidence whatever of recent upheaval from the sea, or even marine action. It would be hardly possible for this laterite or limonite with silicates of iron to be in course of for¬ mation without entombing some marine remains had they been in contact with them. Malacca is no exception to the general rule throughout the Malayan Peninsula that there is no evidence of recent upheaval in all the great extent of its coastline. Granite The granite is of the usual grey colour of the granites which form the main axis of the Malay Peninsula. It seems in every respect to have the same mineral character. There is every reason to believe that it is an altered stratified rock of the same character as the granite in Perak, and probably possessing similar metals, such as tin, gold and iron. Alluvial The alluvial is the result of surface weather¬ ing. Water-worn drifts are not common in the Malacca territory. Whatever decomposi¬ tion has taken place has, for the most part, remained in its original position. This fact has an important bearing on the way in which a search should be made for the minerals contained in the rocks. An explanation will be given further on. Physical Geography If we suppose Mount Ophir to be outside the boundaries of the territory of Malacca, there are no high mountains within its limits. The whole of the State may be said to consist of undulating hills of very moderate eleva¬ tion and having generally a trend in the direction of the main axis of the peninsula. A few streams of small importance drain into the Straits of Malacca to the westward, as the land is on the western watershed. The hills are, no doubt, outliers of the main range. Their character will be better understood if it be borne in mind that the main range, which forms the backbone of the Malayan Peninsula, gradually declines after reaching its culminating point in the high mountains of Perak and Pahang. About the latitude of Malacca, not only does the range decline, but loses its continuity. To the south and east of Malacca, there are places where the watershed of the peninsula is, with difficulty, determinable. The range becomes broken up into isolated groups of mountains. Of this. Mount Ophir is one. It does not belong properly to the territory, nor is the country affected to any extent by its proximity, so that 184 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Tenison-Woods — Report on the geology and mineralogy of the State of Malacca I do not include it in its physical features. It is the highest mountain in this part of the peninsula but very much below the moun¬ tains of Perak and Pahang. It is isolated and not accompanied by any great elevation of the main range in its neighbourhood. Thus there is not extensive drainage passing through the Malacca territory, and consequently no large deposit of alluvial matter on the surface. Now, bearing in mind these features, it is easy to arrive at the general conclusions as to the mineral resources of the Settlement, and what are the probabilities of any extensive development of the mining industry. Observations in other parts of the penin¬ sula have shown me that the stream tin deposits are alluvial and that they are found in the greatest quantity in the junction of the granite with the paleozoic schists, slates, and gneissose rock already referred to. The abso¬ lute amount of tin at this junction is probably not great, but when it accumulates under the influence of alluvial washing from the weath¬ ering of the rocks, it becomes considerable. Thus, if the laterite or red rock were washed at its junction, or near to its junction, with the granite, it would not yield tin enough to pay for the labour. Some tin will be found, but not enough to pay for the mining. It requires the operation of nature’s laboratory, or mechanical terrestrial forces, to produce the deposits of sufficient extent to remunerate regular working as a mine. What is needed is the weathering influences of streams acting upon large surfaces of rock and acting upon them during long periods of time. By these means, the matrix is worn down and reduced to the finest sub-division. The lighter parti¬ cles are carried away by the streams, whose waters are then rendered turbid. They are deposited as sediment on the coasts: on mud flats which accumulate to such a considerable extent on the shores of the Straits of Malacca. This tin, by its weight, remains behind, being sifted and mingled with coarse gravel. It can be easily perceived that the higher the mountains, the more extensive the drain¬ age and consequent weathering. This action is also more rapid. Thus all the most valuable of the tin mines in the neighbourhood of the Straits Settlements are found in those parts of the peninsula which are very moun¬ tainous, and where the mountains are both high and steep. While, therefore, I think that probably there is as much of the tin-bearing rocks on the territory of Malacca as in any part of the peninsula, I must add that, owing to the moderate elevation of its mountain system, at present, there are no surface indi¬ cations of sufficient alluvial deposit to give prospects of rich accumulations of stream tin. Deeper deposits there may be, as I shall explain further on. The preceding conclusions will show where the ore deposits are to be looked for. These are:- on the slopes of mountains, by the sides of streams, or in their ancient beds and especially where the granite crops out at the junction of the palaeozoic rock. Mines in the Territory of Malacca Besides the many localities where the sand is washed by a few Chinese for the small quan¬ tity of tin which it contains, there are two or three places only where more extended mining operations are carried on. Linggi Sands As an instance of the small operations of Chi¬ nese sand-washing, I may mention that of Linggi. A little to the south of the river of that name, at a distance of a mile or so, a few Chinese gain a precarious subsistence on the sea-shore, by washing the sand for tin at low tide. The quantity obtained is small, and in 185 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Tenison-Woods— -Report on the geology and mineralogy of the State of Malacca the form of coarse, rounded grains of cassiter- ite. The ore has this peculiarity that the grains are not of a generally uniform size, but of a mingled character, large and small together. I attribute this to the fact that the grains have not been sorted by alluvial washing, but are found in this position, just washed out by the sea from the junction of the granite and palseozoic rock. Now, at Thaipeng and other alluvial tin mines in Perak, where the sands have been subject to much silting by alluvial action, the tin ore is generally found to be sorted. Near the mountains and in the steep gullies, the tin ore is coarse, and the farther it is traced from the hills the finer it becomes. A slight experience enables one to tell at a glance what is the nature of the locality from which ore has been derived — whether near moun¬ tains or from plains, or from the sea-shore. Panchor At a place called Panchor, seven miles south of Linggi, there is another small area where the sand is washed for tin by two or three Chinese. The beach is lined with vesicular red rock or palseozoic slates, which have been much affected by sea water. Granite crops out close by. The amount obtained here is very small, and only to be got at low tide, the men employed scarcely make the moderate wages which will maintain a Chinese coolie. Chin-Chin These mines are situated near the southern boundary of the territory of Malacca, about ten miles from Mount Ophir. They are the largest tin mines in the territory, but I should think that all the country right to the foot of Mount Ophir, may reasonably be expected to produce tin. The land and the character of the mine have considerable resemblance to the Kamunting mines in Perak. The ground is very undulating. The workings are at present between the low hills. On the surface the ground is strewn with angular fragments of quartz, slate, jasper, and gneiss. The sinking is through two to three feet of black carbonaceous mould, then two or three feet of yellow, or red gravel, then 40 to 50 feet of white pipe-clay and sand, then the wash dirt or tin sand. The surface has evidently been a swampy jungle, and there are signs of workings having been carried on for a considerable period. About 100 coolies were employed at the time of my visit. The tin seemed of good quality in finely divided grains. From this, I should infer that it has travelled some distance. Probably other beds of coarser tin will be found nearer to the mountainous spurs of Mount Ophir. On the whole, I consider that the mineral resources of the district are decidedly promising. At Chin-Chin itself, the great thickness of the overlying alluvial, which is 50 feet at least, must be a great drawback, but it is probable that other and shallower deposits will be found towards the mountains. There is one consideration connected with this mine which ought not be lost sight of When we find 50 feet of alluvial drift in one place, and under what is now a level swamp, it shows that there are immense accumula¬ tions of detritus hidden under a level surface. It shows also that there have been long peri¬ ods of weathering action in the geological history of the country. This we might con¬ clude from the enormous mud deposits along the shallow coasts and banks of the Straits of Malacca. The ore has, during past ages, largely encroached upon the land. In the alluvial action, some mountains must have been worn down, and the detritus undoubt¬ edly must be rich in tin. This leads me to the conclusion that boring operations in some of 186 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Waxes Tenison-Woods— Report on the geology and mineralogy of the State of Malacca the level marshy flats where rice is now grown may be attended with successful results, and rich deposits of tin found where hitherto it has never been looked for. It may yet be worth the while of the Government to test this question. It may be that these marshy flats represent the ancient drainage of the country, and from what little I have been able to observe, I strongly suspect that it is so. Former historians of Malacca speak of a stream on the south side of the city^. This stream has disappeared, as no doubt many others have done. The tendency is of moun¬ tain drainage to become obliterated as the sources are lowered by weathering and the estuaries fill up from the sluggishness of the waters. If my suggestions are correct not only tin may be looked for, but also alluvial gold, in the drift under the marshes. Gading A small mine is worked by a few Chinese on the road between Allot Gadja and Ayer Panas. The washings are exactly on the junction of some decomposed palteozoic rock with the granite at a few feet below the surface. The tin is fine, with much iron intermixed. None but the most economical methods would enable even the Chinese to work such a deposit with profit. Only about half-a-dozen men are employed. Conclusion The peculiarity of the geology of the territory of Malacca renders it probable that small 2D. E A. Hervey, “Valentyns description of Malacca,” Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, No. 13 Qune, 1884), pp. 49-74B, 260 quantities of tin are spread throughout the whole extent of the country. I am further of the opinion, that my suggestion that the marshy lands represent the former drainage of the country, must lead to an important development of the mining interests of the Colony. They are so extensively spread, and occupy so large a portion of the territory, that even if tin or gold be found in a third of them, the result must be great. I should strongly recommend that a small sum should be annually set apart for boring operations so that the ground may be thoroughly tested. Gold'. I entertain no doubt that the quartz veins of the palaeozoic formation are all more or less auriferous. In ancient times we may be pretty certain that the alluvial depos¬ its contained gold. In the more populous parts of the country this has long ago been extracted, but I think it very likely that a careful search might reveal washing stuff which would yield small quantities of gold. Like most of the gold found in connection with granite, it will probably be scaly, or else in the form of gold dust. If prospecting be undertaken, it should be in alluvial gravels, and first of all in the upper waters and banks of small streams; as already stated, the lower portions of the streams have been well worked formerly. For any other metals excepts gold and tin, the geological indications in Malacca are not favourable. If near a coal mine, the red rock might be valuable for iron. If the trade of the port were larger, it might even pay to export it as ballast. The iron from such ores is usually of excellent quality. J. E. Tenison-Woods Singapore, 30^^ December, 1884 187 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, voL 150, part 2, 2017, pp. 188--194. ISSN 0035-9173/17/020188-07 P. A. M. Dirac and the Maverick Mathematician Ann Moyal Emeritus Fellow, ANU, Canberra, Australia Email: moyal.ann@)gmaiLcom Abstract Historian of science Ann Moyal recounts the story of a singular correspondence between the great British physicist, P. A. M. Dirac, at Cambridge, and J. E. Moyal, then a scientist from outside academia working at the De Haviland Aircraft Company in Britain (later an academic in Australia), on the ques¬ tion of a statistical basis for quantum mechanics. A David and Goliath saga, it marks a paradigmatic study in the history of quantum physics. . A. M. Dirac (1902—1984) is a pre¬ eminent name in scientific history. In 1962 it was my privilege to acquire a set of the letters he exchanged with the then young mathematician, Jose Enrique Moyal (1910—1998), for the Basser Library of the Australian Academy of Science, inaugurated as a centre for the archives of the history of Australian science. This is the only manu¬ script correspondence of Dirac (known to colleagues as a very reluctant correspondent) held in Australia. The twenty-four letters exchanged between the two men in 1 944-46 at the height of war oflFer an important and little known case study — a paradigmatic study — in the history of physics. The two correspondents, despite a common engineering component, came from very different backgrounds, Jose Enrique Moyal (who would fetch up as Reader in Statistics at the Australian National University in 1958-1965) was born in 1910 in Jerusa¬ lem to a Jewish lawyer father and a French mother and was educated at the local Her- zliya Hebrew Gymnasium in Tel Aviv. From there, unmentored, he made his way in 1927 to Magdalene College, Cambridge, to study mathematics, but facing unsupported uni¬ versity costs, he moved to the school of engi¬ neering at the Institut d’Electrotechnique in Grenoble, enrolling subsequently at the Ecole Superieure d’Electricite in Paris. Trained as a civil engineer, Moyal worked for a period in Tel Aviv but returned to Paris in 1937, where his exposure to such foundation works as Georges Darmoiss Statistique Mathema- tique and A. N. Kolmogorovs Foundations of the Theory of Probability introduced him to a knowledge of pioneering European stud¬ ies of stochastic processes. In 1939 he added theoretical physics focused on the founda¬ tions of quantum theory at the Institut Henri Poincare at the University of Paris. After secret wartime work in Paris with the French Minis¬ try of Air, and the German invasion of France, Moyal escaped to Britain where he was posted by C. P. Snow, then in charge of Scientific Manpower, for wartime research at the De Haviland Aircraft Company in Hampshire. Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac, by contrast, was born in Bristol in 1902, took a degree at Bristol University in engineering and graduated in 1923 with first-class honours in mathematics. With initial published research in statistical mechanics, he gained his Ph.D. in quantum mechanics in 1926, from which his classic work, The Principles of Quantum Mechanics (Dirac, 1930—58), 188 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Moyal— P. A. M. Dirac and the Maverick Mathematician led him to election to the Royal Society of London in 1930, appointment as Lucasian Professor at Cambridge in 1932 (a post he held for 47 years), and a Nobel Prize, which he shared with Erwin Schrodinger in 1933. Widely regarded as the high priest of British physics, Dirac had established the standard theory of quantum physics, his book became the bible in the field, and he was assured that his methodology was correct and his theory complete. It was to this pre-eminent but reclusive scholar, an academic known for ignoring the work of upcoming younger men (Farmelo, 2009), that J. E. Moyal, a British citizen of the Mandated Territory of Palestine, a researcher from outside academia, applied by letter on 1 8 February 1 944 with his contro¬ versial idea of the possibilities of a statistical basis for quantum mechanics and a method to make the connection of classical mechan¬ ics to quantum mechanics in phase space. He found the professor in receptive mood. “I should be glad to meet you any weekend,” Dirac replied on 22 February, 'so choose any weekend you like.” Their meeting on 1 1 March 1 944 at Dirac s house in Caven¬ dish Avenue, Cambridge, however, appar¬ ently brought the professor little joy. As his biographer, Helge Kragh, writes, Dirac “did not consider the probabilistic interpreta¬ tion as something inherent in the quantum mechanical formulations” (Kragh, 1999). But, undeterred, on 26 June 1 944 Moyal returned to the task. On thinking over the objection you raised when I last saw you to my statistical treat¬ ment of quantum mechanics, [he wrote] it has occurred to me that the difficulties are chiefly a question of interpretation... As I explained in my paper, I consider the form I obtained for the phase-space distribution F as in a way of extension, or rather an exact form of Heisenberg’s principle of uncertainty. Sketching out his mathematical formula¬ tion carefully, he posited that, in fact, the dynamical problems the two had discussed offered “one case where the methods I have outlined may have advantage over the usual method.” The theory led, in Moyal’s view, to the distribution of phase space and also to correlations at two instants of time where, he suggested, “there is a possibility that it may lead to experimental verification in the field of electron and molecular beams.” “Another field where I think the theory may be of some value,” he added, “is in the study of statisti¬ cal assemblies, since it leads to phase-space distributions for p and q, for Fermi-Dirac and Bose-Einstein assemblies.” Dirac, however, remained silent. When he wrote again some nine months later, on 19 March 1945, he had slightly ameliorated his negative view and indicated that work he had been doing had caused him to think there might be “a limited region of validity for the use of a joint probability distribution” in Moyal’s work. Seeking a copy of the paper, he conceded, “I may get a more favourable opinion of it this time.” Responding on 22 March 1945, Moyal referred Dirac to Maurice Bartlett^ who had “worked out a new and improved method of obtaining a joint distribution” and noted that, in col¬ laboration with Bartlett, he himself had also “carried further the treatment of the harmonic oscillator in phase space” (Bartlett and Moyal, 1949). “I also [he added] have been considering applications to statistical 1 Maurice Bartlett had studied statistical mechanics with R. H, Fowler and physics with Dirac at Cam¬ bridge. He became a leading figure in Britain in sta¬ tistical mechanics and probability theory. 189 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Moyal“ — P. A. M. Dirac and the Maverick Mathematician mechanics which, since they require distri¬ bution in phase space, would seem to offer an obvious field for the theory” Dirac s reply a month later, on 20 April 1945 (for both men were engaged in demand¬ ing wartime work, Moyal researching the mathematical character of complex systems, electronic instrumentation and the theory and practice of space vibrations and waves needed in the wartime aircraft industry, and Dirac importantly for the government on uranium separation relating to the con¬ struction of atomic bombs), was less than encouraging. He did not believe that the phase-space approach offered anything sig¬ nificant outside his own established formula¬ tion. Clearly satisfied with this dismissal and committed to his own interpretation of non¬ commuting observables in the paper he was preparing for Reviews of Modern Physics, he proposed to refer to Moyal s work in broad terms. “The possibility of setting up a prob¬ ability for non-commuting observables in quantum mechanics to have specified values,” he set down, “has been previously considered by J. E. Moyal. . . but its region of applicabil¬ ity is rather restricted and it does not seem to be connected with a general theory of functions like the present one.” Moyal s letter in reply on 29 April 1945 was robust. “I do not think that your refer¬ ence to my work gives a correct description of it,” he wrote (for Dirac, it appears, was confusing commuting p and q variables with non-commuting operators, P and Q). And unintimidated by his contester, he went on: “This would perhaps not matter a great deal if my work was already published, since readers could then refer to the original. I have not however been able so far to arrange for its publication, due largely as you will no doubt remember, to your veto which made the late Professor Fowler hesitate about presenting it to the Royal Society.” As an outsider pinning his hopes of a research career on his research achievement, Moyals frustration was real, since he believed that his reply to the domi¬ nant physicist had presented his reservations satisfactorily. “The papers you have seen,” he now told Dirac, “represent my first real effort at research in pure mathematics and theoreti¬ cal physics; I was hoping that their publica¬ tion would eventually enable me to transfer my activities entirely from the field of engi¬ neering and applied physics to that of pure science. ...Failure to obtain publication has forced me to adjourn such plans sine die? The mathematician from outside academia had run up against an entrenched paradigm. As the most esteemed figure of quantum mechanics in Britain, Dirac’s position within the discipline was set in stone. At Cambridge, he had always conducted his research on his own, in marked contrast to his eminent Euro¬ pean colleagues who enjoyed the advantage of both formal and informal collaboration. Moreover, from his earliest endeavours, he was introspective and tenacious in his confi¬ dence in his own views. With sixty-four pub¬ lished papers behind him in 1945 and his foundation book, he appeared, as both Kragh and the distinguished Australian mathemati¬ cian, Alan McIntosh, characterised him, as “intellectually incapable of, and unwilling to give ground” (McIntosh, 2003). The David and Goliath struggle would continue across two more months. In his letters of 1 1 and 18 May 1945, Dirac again resisted Moyafs position and attempted to show that his argument was trivially wrong. But, stirred perhaps by Moyal’s charge over publication, he went so far as to suggest: “I would be willing to help you publish if you would change it [the presentation] so that 190 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Moyal“™P. A. M. Dirac and the Maverick Mathematician it does not contain any general statements which I think to be wrong.” Such surrender was not acceptable to the independent Moyal. His forthrightness owed something to his ‘Israeli’ background. He would not be cowed. Born in Palestine in the last decade of the Ottoman Empire, Moyal belonged to no particular nation but, as the region’s history unfolded, he deemed himself an ‘Israeli’. “Summarizing,” he concluded in his letter to Dirac of 15 May 1945, “I think it would be fair to say that my paper gives a derivation of classical quantum mechanics on a purely statistical basis (plus Newtonian mechanics) which is equivalent to the stand¬ ard matrix theory. , . and furthermore that it shows the consequences such a theory entails with regards to the problem of determinism, probability distributions, fluctuations, quan¬ tum statistics.” He would affirm his position even more firmly in his subsequent letter of 26 May 1945: I don’t think [it read] your remark on [my] getting the right answer ‘by borrowing suf¬ ficient results from the ordinary quantum theory’ quite fair. In so far as my theory is equivalent to the ordinary theory, it leads to the same eigenvalues for the mean of the energy, as I have shown in my paper. In order to prove an inherent inconsistency in my theory one would have to show that the method you use follows necessarily from my basic postulates, and this is not the case. My method on the other hand is based on a theory for statistical assemblies resulting from these postulates. As such it is quite consistent with the rest of the theory, and also appears to lead to correct results. To little avail. Despite Moyal’s objection to its contents, Dirac made no change in his original reference to his discussant’s work in his Reviews of Modern Physics paper of 1945 although, in a rare reference to a con¬ temporary researcher, he went so far as to allow: “This work is not yet published. I am indebted to J. E. Moyal for letting me see the manuscript.” Dirac, however, had made one positive recommendation. If Moyal wrote the quantum theory part of his work in a sepa¬ rate paper, he himself could communicate it to a scientific journal. More controversial communication lay ahead, but, in July 1945, Moyal was notifying Dirac, that, as suggested, he was “rewriting the part of my paper on quantum mechanics as a separate paper.” Moyal’s, ‘Quantum Mechanics as a Sta¬ tistical Theory’ was at last submitted to the Cambridge Philosophical Society from his first academic post at the Department of Mathematical Physics, Queen’s University, Belfast, in November 1947 and published Proceedings m 1949 (Moyal, 1949a). A second section of his manuscript was pub¬ lished as his paper, ‘Stochastic Processes and Statistical Physics’, in the Journal of the Royal Statistical Society (Moyal, 1 949b) that same year. But as he affirmed privately in later years, “my first paper really contained all the essentials of the formalism, the version of quantum which is an equivalent of older mechanics” (Moyal A., 1979). ‘Quantum Mechanics as a Statistical Theory’ proved to be a research contribu¬ tion far ahead of its time. Received initially by a small range of researchers in quantum fields, it made quiet headway while the fundamental formalism it presented in the ‘Moyal bracket’, the ‘Moyal formula’ and ‘Moyal plane’ (phrases that indicated non¬ commutativity) flowed into the lexicon of physics from the 1960s, gathering range and currency as the international research community grew. It was not, however, until the new century that the paper burst into 191 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Moyal—P. A. M. Dirac and the Maverick Mathematician high prominence and came to underlie an explosion of research in quantum physics and related fields that stretched from string theory, atomic and molecular systems and quantum chaos to optics, biology, mathematical theory, and an array of cascading computational and technological developments. Moyal s own career as an academic had moved on from his appointment as a lecturer at Queens University, Belfast, in 1946, to a rich period from 1950 in the Department of Mathematics at Manchester University, and brought him to the Australian National University in 1958. Headhunted in 1965 by Americas leading national laboratory for the peaceful uses of atomic energy, Argonne National Laboratory, for his work on nuclear physics, probability and stochastic processes, he returned to Australia as a senior profes¬ sor in the Department of Mathematics at Macquarie University in 1972. A researcher across three fields of mathematics, statistics, and quantum physics, his publications ran to thirty-six major papers but, in the award of a Doctor of Science honoris causa by the ANU in 1 997, he was pronounced one of the most original thinkers in twentieth-century Australia. Although aware in his retirement of a significant flow-on of his work in quantum mechanics, he did not live to see the final effect of its range and power. Joe Moyal died in May 1 998 at the age of 87. He knew, how¬ ever, that he had fought a singular fight and preserved the correspondence for posterity.^ For my part, I had married Joe Moyal in 1 963 and, as a historian of Australian science and technology, was alerted after his death to the accelerating impact of his ‘Quantum Mechanics as a Statistical Theory’ by his former younger colleagues at Macquarie University. I followed its growing presence in 2 No copy of the original paper survives. the scientific citations at the Web of Science. After five decades, in 2001 they sat at 69 hits (scientists are exultant if they reach the 100 mark), but in 2003 the citations soared to 980, to 1,220 in 2005 and, by 2006 had reached 1,245. In March 2017 citations of the paper at the Web of Science sat at 1 ,983, and at Google Scholar at 3,129. It was, as Peter Medawar once famously defined the core accomplishment of science, “a seminal theory that had come to stretch far beyond its own creative era and to emerge as a general statement of steadily increasing explanatory power and compass” (Medawar, 1969). Steered by these colleagues, I would carry the story forward. Alan McIntosh, FAA, who had become head of the Centre for Math¬ ematics and its Applications at the Australian National University, having read a copy of the correspondence, observed, “Joe is putting forward an entirely different formulation of quantum mechanics, a formulation which he is claiming is equivalent to the others and more useful in solving evolution equations, how the system evolves from time to time. Dirac didn’t understand it; he didn’t think it possible and he contradicts himself But this is precisely why his [Moyal’s] work and his statistical method is being used so widely today” (McIntosh, 2003). Similarly, Dr John Corbett, emeritus professor of quantum physics at Macquarie, noted that the correspondence revealed “not only how new ideas and approaches are only accepted reluctantly, and how even very good scientists can read their own problems into another’s work,” but that Dirac was overly concerned with the quantization problem. “While his own method did not give a one- to-one correspondence between a classical quantity and a quantum counterpart,” he concluded, “Dirac failed to yield answers 192 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Moyal"— "P. A. M. Dirac and the Maverick Mathematician and played his cards close to his chest” (Cor¬ bett, 2005). Delivering the correspondence by email, I sought the further evaluation of several key international scientists working in the field of Moyal phase space whom I traced through the Web of Science. Their response was gen¬ erous and enlightening. At the Centre of Theoretical Physics in Marseilles, Dr Bruno lochum, fascinated to find that Moyal of the ‘Moyal planes’ was “a person,” put me in touch with his colleagues, Drs. Joseph Varilly and Jose Gracia-Bondia, at the University of Costa Rica, San Jose, and the University of Complutense in Madrid respectively, who had conducted their joint research deriving from the Moyal paper. Together they con¬ tributed valuable information, checks and insights to my research. “Without dispute,” wrote Varilly, “‘Quantum mechanics as a statistical theory’ is one of the great physical papers of the 20*^^ century” (Varilly, 2003). In addition, a collegiate duo of Ameri¬ can physicists reputed in the field gladly accepted copies of the Dirac-Moyal corre¬ spondence and offered their informed judg¬ ments. Professor Thomas Curtright of the Department of Physics at the University of Miami summed up: “Seven of the letters are pure gems. They definitely show Dirac to be wrong about some really basic points in quantum mechanics. That by itself is most remarkable. But then they also show that Dirac is basically unfair and incredibly stub¬ born.” “Indeed,” he added, “it is stunning to a reader well-versed in quantum mechanics that Dirac — the master formalist - — makes such silly mistakes and commits them in writing for posterity” (Curtright, 2003). Concomitantly, Dr Comas Zachos of the Division of High Energy Physics at Moyal’s former stamping ground, Argonne National Laboratory, had published papers featuring Moyal’s work and had already recorded that his pioneering paper of 1 949 had offered “a grand synthesis of the scattered mathemati¬ cal machinery into a confident interpreta¬ tion of quantum mechanics as a statistical theory.” Writing to me with substance over several years, he set down: “Moyal’s most celebrated pioneering 1 949 paper in which he established an independent formulation of quantum mechanics in phase space is well validated by posterity.” “This formulation of quantum mechanics serves as describ¬ ing quantum transport processes in phase space. Such processes are of importance in quantum optics, nuclear and particle physics, condensed matter, the study of semi-classical limits of mesoscopic system and phase tran¬ sition of classical statistical mechanics. It is the natural language to the study of quan¬ tum chaos and decoherence (of utility, e.g., in quantum computing) and provides crucial intuition in quantum mechanical interfer¬ ence problems, probability flows as negative probability backflows and measurements of atomic systems. The mathematical structure of the formulation is of relevance to Lie Alge¬ bras, martingales in turbulence, and string theory. . .In addition, it is significant outside physics, as for example in fundamental work on wavelet methods in signal processing.” I had much to learn. Surprised that Dirac “did not jump at the opportunity to embrace the innovations [that] are now seen to be compatible with this methodology,” Zachos also noted that, rather, the great physicist “had declined to give ground even in the final edition of his Principles of Quantum Mechan¬ ics m 1958” (Zachos, 2005). This rich polyvocal input into my research — conducted by email with quickening pace — - convinced me of the importance 193 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South 'Wales Moyal““P. A. M. Dirac and the Maverick Mathematician of this case study, a study with so high a figure that captured an experience known throughout the world of science. As a histo¬ rian totally untutored in physics, quantum mechanics and statistics, I profited deeply from the interest of these distinguished sci¬ entists and their friendship and zeal. The American scholars subsequently republished ‘Quantum Mechanics as a Statistical Theory in their Quantum Mechanics in Phase Space. An Overview with Selected Papers (Zachos, Curtright, Fairlie, 2005). The manuscript collection, ‘P. A. M. Dirac- J. E. Moyal Correspondence 1944-1946’, was held by the Basser Library, Australian Academy of Science from 1962 to 2017, when, with the closure of the Library, it was transferred to the Papers of Ann Moyal, National Library of Australia, Canberra. Professor Dirac’s letters are written by hand. The J. E. Moyal Medal and Lecture, established in 2000, is awarded annually at Macquarie University in math¬ ematics, statistics and physics. References Bartlett, M. and Moyal, J. E., (1949), ‘The exact transition probability of quantum mechanical oscillators calculated by the phase-space method’. Proceedings Cambridge Philosophical Society, 45: 545-553. Corbett, J., letter to Ann Moyal, 5 May 2003. Curtright, T L., email communication. May 2003. Curtright, T. L., Fairlie, D. B., and Zachos, C. K., (2014), A Concise Treatise on Quantum Mechanics in Phase Space, Singapore, World Scientific Publishing, http://www.hep.anl. gov/ czachos/ a. pdf Dirac, P. A. M., (1930-1958), Principles of Quantum Mechanics, Oxford University Press. Farmelo, G., (2009), The Strangest Man. The Hidden Life of Paul Dirac, Mystic of the Atom. Faber and Faber, London. Kragh, H. S., (1999), Dirac. A Scientific Biography, Cambridge University Press, p. 42 and Proc. Roy Soc. Land, A1 13, p. 641 and p. 21 McIntosh, A., oral interview with Ann Moyal, 9 May 2003, Canberra. Medawar, P. B., (1969), ‘Two conceptions of science’. The Art of the Soluble: Creativity and Originality in Science, Penguin, Flarmondsworth, pp. 127-146. Moyal, Ann, (2006), Maverick Mathematician. The Life and Science off. E. Moyal, ANU E Press, Canberra. This contains the full published correspondence of P. A. M. Dirac and J. E. Moyal, Appendix 2. http://press. anu.edu.au/ node/ 301/ download Moyal, Ann, oral interview with J. E. Moyal, 1979, Canberra. Moyal, J. E., (1949a), ‘Quantum mechanics as a statistical theory,’ Proceedings Cambridge Philosophical Society, 45: 99—124, reproduced in Moyal, Ann (2006), Appendix 3. Moyal, J. E., (1949b), ‘Stochastic processes and statistical physics,’ Journal Royal Statistical Society B, 11: 1 50-2 1 0. Varilly, J., email communication to A. Moyal, April 2003. Zachos, C. K., email communication to A. Moyal, May— June 2003 and October 2005. Zachos, C. K., Fairlie, D. B., and Curtright, T. L, (eds.), (2005), Quantum Mechanics in Phase Space: An Overview with Selected Papers, World Scientific Series in 20^^ Century physics, Vol. 34, World Scientific Publishing, Singapore. Dr Ann Moyal AM was awarded the Royal Society of New South Wales Inaugural Medal in the Flistory and Philosophy of Sci¬ ence in 2015. 194 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, vol. 150, part 2, 2017, pp. 195-206. ISSN 0035-9173/17/020195-12 The scientific legacy of the Rev. W B. Clarke R,W. Young 4 Roxburgh Ave, Thirroul, NSW 2515 Email: aiyoungl453@gmail.com Abstract That the collective memory of even so dominant a figure in Australian colonial science as W B. Clarke has faded 140 years after his death is hardly surprising. What is so striking is the marked variation in the degree to which his legacy is recognised, even where he was arguably the major contributor in his time. He is of continued interest to the Royal Society of NSW, but not so to most other learned societies. Though the focus of much work by Australian historians of science, he is virtually ignored in general histories of the country; remembered in geology, he is almost totally forgotten in meteorology. And when remembered, he has at times been reinterpreted; portrayed as Darwins colonial ‘bulldog’, he actually had grave reservations about such theoretical constructs. Clarke’s legacy is considered here as Memory Maintained and Restored, Memory Lost, and Myth as Memory. Key words: Clarke, Australian, Science, History. Introduction hen William Branwhite Clarke arrived in Sydney in 1839 he already had a considerable cultural and scientific reputa¬ tion. He had published five books of poetry, had forty-one scientific papers to his name, mostly dealing with meteorology and geol¬ ogy, and had been elected to the prestigious Geological Society of London. Over the next four decades he played a major role in the development of colonial society in the broadest sense of the term. By the year of his death in 1878 he had published over 500 articles ranging from various aspects of science, especially geology, to free trade and the promotion of education (see Michael Organ’s Bibliography ofW.B. Clarke)^ and had established a worldwide network of scientific correspondence (see Ann Moyal’s The Web of Science). He had also been very active in the revitalisation of the colony’s essentially moribund Philosophical Society in 1866 (under its new name of the Royal Society of New South Wales), the substan¬ tial upgrading of the Australian Museum in Sydney, the founding of the University of Sydney and its associated St. Paul’s Col¬ lege, the setting up of the Academy of Art (that later became the Art Gallery of New South Wales); and he had served as a Trus¬ tee of the Free Public Library. Furthermore, he had been a prolific journalist for Sydney newspapers, especially The Sydney Morning Herald, occasionally acting as editor of that journal, and had given strong journalistic support to the expeditions by Leichhardt and Kennedy into remote areas of the con¬ tinent. His efforts had received international recognition, notably in the awarding to him of the Murchison Medal of the Geological Society of London, and by his election to the Royal Society of London, with Charles 195 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South "^les Young ““The scientific legacy of Rev. W. B. Clarke Darwin and the eminent economist Wil¬ liam Stanley Jevons^ as sponsors; and locally by the Clarke Medal of the Royal Society of New South Wales. All this was achieved in spare time from clerical duties as a priest of the Church of England (see R. W. Young This Wonderfully Strange Country, Rev. W. B. Clarke Colonial Scientist). Clarke was certainly remembered with much respect by scientists who had known him. In the words of his friend, the emi¬ nent botanist Rev. Dr. William Woolls, “Mr. Clarke had a remarkable versatility of genius: he was a poet of no mean powers, a liberal theologian, an eloquent classic, an observ¬ ing naturalist, whilst to the depth of phi¬ losophy he added the simplicity of a child and a fund of never failing humour.” In the next generation, it was not only geolo¬ gists such as Richard Daintree and Charles Wilkinson who admired him, but also the highly respected chemist Archibald Liver- sidge (see Roy Macleod’s Imperial Science under the Southern Cross). Yet memory fades with time, and less than two decades after his death. Price Warung lamented in Cosmos Magazine that the public had so quickly all but forgotten this “Nestor of Australian Philosophers” (a title he attributed to the great botanist von Mueller). Whereas the memory of the general public is notoriously short, Clarke was still remembered well enough in 1887 to be given a substantial entry in the British publication Diction¬ ary of National Biography edited by Leslie Stephen. A century later, however, he was dismissed in three condescending sentences over the two volumes of Manning Clark s A History of Australia, and was not mentioned 1 During his time at the Sydney Mint in the 1850s, Jevons had first known Clarke when both were mem¬ bers of the Philosophical Society of N.S.W.. — Ed. in either the Oxford Companion to Australian History or Alan Atkinson’s recently published The Europeans in Australia. Of course, the lengthening of historical experience leads to a thinning out of collective memory, and scholarly specialisation leads to its fragmen¬ tation. Nonetheless, with a polymath such as Clarke, who had played an important role in a wide range of scientific, cultural and social aspects of colonial life, fading memory is more problematic. What then of Clarke almost 140 years further on? To what extent is his legacy maintained in collective memory, and what has been the variable role of historians in its continuation or its loss? I consider these questions especially in the light of comments made by Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy in his controversial, though deeply insightful. Out of Revolution, Autobiography ofWestern Man (1969 pp. 697-8): “the historian is as often the grave-digger of our memories as their restorer. His work tests the duration of living memory, strengthens the rising, and buries the withered,” and “Myth, as modern literati use the word, is a substitute for lost memory.” The extent to which memory of Clarke has been retained, lost or converted into “myth” varies considerably both between and within the fields of interest in which he worked. As Michael Organ (1998) put it, “A knowledge of the breadth of his output leaves one with the belief that to simply proclaim him ‘the Father of Australian geology’ is to fail to do justice to his life’s work,” but dealing with his complete range of interests is beyond the scope of this review, which concentrates on his major scientific work. 196 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Young — -The scientific legacy of Rev. W. B. Clarke Memoiy Maintaiiied and Restoreds Royal Society of New South Wales The founding and nurturing of the Royal Society was undoubtedly one of Clarkes greatest achievements. As noted above, the Society honours him with the annual award of the Clarke Medal for original research, and he has certainly figured in the publications of the Society, especially in its Journal & Pro¬ ceedings. In A Contribution to the History of the Royal Society of New South Wales^ that was to have marked the 50th Anniversary of the Society, but which was delayed until 1918 largely owing to the stringencies of war, the prominent botanist]. H. Maiden did much to restore the memory of Clarke s efforts in the founding of the Society and especially in the changing of its name. He reminded his audience that according to Clarke s Inaugural Address of 1 867 the old Philosophical Society had languished because its previous title gave the impression that the subjects discussed were of an “abstruse and abstract character ... which assigns to it an exclusiveness by which many are deterred from becoming members,” and that Clarke had recommended “the more comprehensive and expressive title of the Royal Society” be adopted. Maiden also drew attention to Clarke s recognition of the need for the Society to be multidisciplinary, a stance that it has maintained in the face of the seemingly ever-increasing specialisation of scientific and literary journals. In the Society’s Centenary Oration^ The Challenge to Science, 1866: the Challenge of Science, 1966, the well-known anthropologist A. P. Elkin praised Clarke as “the ‘founding father’ of our Royal Society,” who, “In true Baconian spirit steered the Society along that path in which it would be able to take up the challenge of the country and the nation to science.” In the second part of the Ora¬ tion, entitled The Passing of the Former Chal¬ lenge, Elkin proposed that the Society turn its attention to “the philosophical problems raised by science” that “are moral and social on the one hand, and cosmological on the other.” Elkin rightly emphasised the impor¬ tance of such issues in a world of nuclear weapons, and suggested that “the Society pay serious attention to the Philosophy, and by implication to the History of Science.” Curiously, however, he made no mention of the assault on contemporary philosophy that was a major part of Clarkes Inaugural Address (see below). In recent decades the Journal & Proceed¬ ings have included several notable reviews dealing with Clarke’s scientific work, such as The Bibliography of the Rev. W.B. Clarke by Michael Organ (1994), ...a small fish in a big pond. . . the Reverend W.B. Clarke ( 1 798- 1878): what did he actually do? by the same author (1998-99), and Friends, Savants and Founders: W. B. Clarke and J. D. Dana by Ann Moyal (2012). Historical books and papers Important contributions on Clarke were by no means limited to publications by the Royal Society. Indeed, the first really detailed account of Clarke’s life and work appeared in 1944 when James Jervis wrote his first-rate review in the Journal of the Royal Historical Society of Australia. Clarke’s scientific work was later placed in a broader context in Ann Mozley’s (1967) Evolution and the Climate of Opinion in Australia 1840-1876, and was continued in Moyal’s A Bright and Savage Land (1986). Popular interest in Clarke was markedly boosted by the details of his per¬ sonal and family life given in The Remarkable Reverend Clarke by Elena Grainger (1986). The appreciation of his scientific effort increased markedly during the next decades 197 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Young— The scientific legacy of Rev. W. B. Clarke with the publishing of Moyal’s (2003) The Web of Science, a two-volume compilation of Clarke s scientific correspondence (including all of Clarke’s letters referred to here), and by R. W Young in This Wonderfully Strange Country, Rev. W B. Clarke Colonial Scientist (2015). Significant comment on Clarke has also been made in works on other subjects, as for example, in E. M. Webster’s Whirl¬ winds in the Plain (1980), where his jour¬ nalistic support of Ludwig Leichhardt in the confrontation with Sir Thomas Mitchell was reviewed in much detail. Geology Given Clarke’s pioneering work on the geol¬ ogy of Australia, it is hardly surprising that he is best remembered in that science. For example, in 1911 C. A. Siissmilch said of him, “This great worker, the pioneer geolo¬ gist of this State, laboured for many years singlehanded in a thinly populated area of vast extent;” and in 1999, when reply¬ ing to the comment by T. G. Vallance that Clarke had been “a small fish in a small pond,” Michael Organ wrote that “Per¬ haps a big fish in a big pond’ would be a more appropriate epitaph.” But it was not just in volumes recording the history of the development of Australian geology that he is remembered. To the contrary, the naming of the W B. Clarke Geoscience Centre, at Londonderry, west of Sydney, is clear testi¬ mony of his ongoing legacy to Australian geology. That legacy is conveyed by the very site of the Centre on the clays and gravels of Tertiary age that were first described by Clarke in 1 842, and by the view westward from it, “where the escarpment of the Blue Mountains forms the side of a great fault, the Wianamatta beds abut against the Hawkes- bury rocks or recline at a high angle on the slopes” (Clarke 1867) — reference to the easterly inclination of the Wianamatta beds shows that he recognised the escarpment to be the result of folding rather than just fault¬ ing sensu stricto. Moreover, the Wianamatta and the Hawkesbury are two of the major stratigraphic units named and mapped by him. The narrow gorges exiting from the Blue Mountains are likewise testimony of that legacy, for it was in a series of articles on these gorges published in The Sydney Herald on 12th December 1842 and 3rd January 1843 that Clarke first noted the shortcom¬ ings of Charles Darwin’s theory of marine erosion of valleys, and tentatively proposed instead that they had been eroded by the streams that flow through them, albeit with once greater discharges. His subsequent mapping of river gravels along the summit and flanks of the escarpment into which the gorges were incised, together with his recognition by 1 844 that the fossil fish pre¬ served in the Wianamatta and Hawkesbury sediments were fresh water species, made Darwin’s claim of marine erosion of the val¬ leys unlikely (see Young 2007). An important, although partly forgotten matter, was Clarke’s own assessment of the early development of geology, the key to which is probably his First Lecture on Geol¬ ogy to the Church Book Society reported in The Sydney Herald on 7th April 1 843. James Hutton, lauded in most histories as the founder of the discipline, was mentioned only briefly; the real founder in Clarke’s eyes was William Smith: It was not till the year 1790 that any cor¬ rect observations appeared to have been made respecting the real state of the surface of the Earth. Mr. William Smith (a man who could never be mentioned without honour as the parent of English Geology), being employed as a surveyor, made the 198 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South \)C^es Young— Hie scientific legacy of Rev, W, B. Clarke observation that the island of England and Scotland was divided into bands of rocks and clays which succeeded each other in a certain order, never reversed, and that the certain distinguishing fossils, found in the rocks and clays, always belonged to the same formation, a discovery which had laid the foundations of the present science. From this dated all that could properly be called Geology. Smiths forte was systematic mapping, and Clarke was soon to be known as the “Aus¬ tralasian Smith” (see Young 2015). As important as the Blue Mountains were in Clarke s early work in Australia, the recognition and mapping of major strati¬ graphic units that figured so prominently in his geological work was initially the product of seven surveys in the Illawarra and Shoal- haven districts on the coast south of Sydney. His first trip southward was early in 1840 with J. D. Dana, who had recently arrived with the U.S. Exploring Expedition; their major findings were summarised on the map of the Illawarra district drawn by Dana in 1840 and, with additions from Clarke, published in 1849. Clarke returned to this district in 1841 with the British geologist]. B. Jukes; their observations, together with those by Clarke elsewhere in the colony, were included in the first geological map of the continent published by Jukes in 1 846. During these trips, Clarke had paid specific attention to coal-bearing strata, and by the end of 1 847 he had mapped coal over some 17,000 square miles. His mapping was then greatly extended during two major expe¬ ditions to the newly discovered goldfields between northern Victoria and southern Queensland in 1851-53. Four decades of geological mapping by him culminated in The Geological Sketch Map of New South Wales Compiled from the Original map of the Late Rev. W. B. Clarke by Charles Wilkinson Gov¬ ernment Geologist^ that was published by the Department of Mines in 1882. Subsequent mapping in the state has essentially been built on the foundation of those pioneering endeavours, and reference to him is scattered throughout numerous geological reports. Yet this had not been mapping for map¬ pings sake, but was driven by Clarke s outlin¬ ing to the Philosophical Society in 1861 of what he saw as “the principal object now in view which is the correlation of our Australa¬ sian formations with those of Europe.” He has recently been criticised for being “per¬ haps too wedded to European stratigraphic concepts, tending to push’ his observations to fit them” (Branagan 2012); perhaps, but how else could Australasian research be inte¬ grated into a global stratigraphic system? And behind that endeavour was Clarke’s rejection, forcefully stated in his lecture to the Church Book Society in 1 843 (reported in The Herald, 7 April), of earlier specula¬ tion about this land being fundamentally dijferenP, of being for example, as argued by Blumenbach, part of the sun displaced by a comet, then populated by different life forms. Indeed, it was Clarke’s pursuit of the similarities in the geological histories of the continents, especially those of the South¬ ern Hemisphere, that gave rise to perhaps his most important theoretical contribu¬ tion, that of the sundering of a once vast super-continent. He first speculated on this idea in a letter to his mentor at Cambridge, Adam Sedgwick, after arriving in Australia via southern Africa in 1839. He developed the idea more fully by correspondence with geologists in New Zealand and especially in India, where Ottakar Feistmantel, among 199 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Young-— The scientific legacy of Rev. W. B. Clarke others, had begun working in detail on the Gondwana System. Whether Clarke believed in continental drift in its modern sense is uncertain (c.f. Grainger 1982, Moyal 2007, Young 2015), but he certainly was speculat¬ ing on some form of large-scale continental sundering three-quarters of a century before Alfred Wegener published Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane. Grainger sug¬ gested that Clarke 'may even have influ¬ enced Wegener,” but there is no mention of him in Die Entstehung — nor, for that matter, in any major reviews of the development of ideas on continental movement. Colonial life in Australia was transformed by the great gold rushes after 1850, in which Clarke played a very significant, though still disputed, role. Although Edward Hargraves is still widely believed — though not by some experts in the matter — to have been the first discoverer of gold in Australia, both Clarke and Strzelecki claimed to have dis¬ covered it at least a decade earlier. The lack of a clear recording of events seems to have been the result not just of the conflicting claims by various "discoverers” (see Young 2015), but also both of government policy and the judgement of later historians. Clarke maintained that when in 1 844 he had told Governor Gipps of his discovery of gold sev¬ eral years earlier, the Governor had replied, "Put it away, Mr. Clarke, or we will have our throats cut.” Clarke was later accused of fabricating this claim, as for example in The Rush That Never Endedy where Geoffrey Blainey wrote "While he has gone down in history as the author of that pithy sen¬ tence, Tut it away etc,' Clarke himself was the author.” But, as Clarke had pointed out in Researches in the Southern Goldfields, Strzelecki had stated in his Discovery of Gold in Australia that Gipps had requested him to remain silent about gold for the same reason that he gave to Clarke. Memoiy Lost: Meteorology The scientific field in which Clarke s impor¬ tant pioneer contributions have been almost completely forgotten is meteorology, even though his output there was second only to that in geology. Before he departed for Australia, Clarke had already published 14 papers on the broad topic of meteorology, especially on the apparent relationships between atmospheric phenomena and vol¬ canic activity, and between vegetation and climate. He then published four more in British journals, mainly from observations recorded on the voyage south. Although useful, these early papers gave little indica¬ tion of the depth of understanding revealed in 1 842 when he published 20 long articles, under the general heading Meteorology As Applicable to Australia, in The Sydney Herald (16, 22 January, 7, 12 February, 1, 7, 11 March, 7, 14, 16, 22, 26, 30 April, 6, 16, 24 May, 3, 13, 15, 17 June). These were by no means just summaries of local events, but attempted to explain the major meteorologi¬ cal systems of varying scales operating over and around Australia, and displayed a thor¬ ough grasp of relevant knowledge worldwide at that time. These articles essentially formed the foundations of atmospheric studies in Australia. Of particular importance was his grasp of the dominant role of weather systems moving across the continent from the west, and thereby the need to modify ideas about general circulation in the Southern Hemi¬ sphere. Now this constant tendency of the wind from the west must materially modify any lower current, should the upper strata 200 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Young —The scientific legacy of Rev. W B. Clarke descend, of which there is no question in many great aerial commotions ... But it is clear that, if westerly winds be constant, the doctrine which gives to the southern hemisphere a complete inverse condition of the direction of the wind must be modi¬ fied: and then, in some cases, there can be no question, that the law of storms in the southern hemisphere will not appear as a complete reversal of those in the north¬ ern. He also emphasised the importance of vary¬ ing scales of phenomena, noting that while local winds were essentially a response to thermal and barometric conditions, atmos¬ pheric circulation on a much larger scale was dominant in the general movement of weather systems. The last five of the articles in The Herald series dealt with “Hot Winds” and their bearing on the problem of the postulated arid interior. Clarke suggested that aridity might not be the dominant control, but rather that the wind might well be the cause of the desert, as was apparently the case in the deserts that lay between latitudes 1 5° to 30« N. Should this be applicable to the southern hemisphere, then would the interior of Australia, within the course of circuit NW winds be placed within the desert zone of no rain, and the question of the cause of the desert zone might be satisfactorily resolved upon the principles we have adopted. He was here close to the concept of the dominance of high-pressure systems moving from the west over the arid lands of that latitudinal belt. Clarke published at least another 35 articles on meteorology between 1 843 and 1863. He expanded on Strzelecki’s idea of the switch in dominant rotation of winds from left to right in summer, to right to left in winter, thereby laying the foundation of understanding the seasonal change of cells of high and low pressure across the conti¬ nent. He made valuable additions to Captain Henry Piddingtons The Law of Storms, espe¬ cially in noting the great scale of cyclones in the Tasman Sea, that were of real importance in the age of sail. So too was his emphasis on the influx of tropical weather systems into southern Australia. And his highly detailed description in The Herald on 28th December 1850 of the great storm at Sydney a week earlier, which drew on observations from six barometers and 10 thermometers, gave weight to his comment in a letter to Adam Sedgwick in 1847, “I have logged about 100 thunderstorms — I put down every wink of lightning, and every grunt of thunder. I am sure that I have made out the law of such storms in the Colony so clear that I could wind one up and set it going.” After about 1845 he became increasingly interested in temporal variations, both short and long term, especially of extreme events such as the cold weather of 1844 that he attributed to the movement of Antarctic ice¬ bergs observed as far north as 35° latitude. By 1 847 he was propounding changes at the global scale by comparing the fluctuations in temperatures, recorded in the colony and in England, with observations of ice in adjacent oceans: “The cold and wet felt occasionally in New South Wales is probably also due to the ice set free from the Antarctic regions floating northwestwards, just as it flows southwards in the other hemisphere.” Then in 1851 he recognised evidence of much greater climatic fluctuations in the remains of former glaciation and frost action near Mt. Kosciuszko, and in the former outlet of Lake 201 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Young — The scientific legacy of Rev. W. B. Clarke George at Geary s Gap that indicated water levels “96 feet” above the now partly dry lake bed. As most of his observations appeared as articles in The Sydney Morning Herald, and as vivid descriptions in his Researches in the Southern Goldfields, details of the source and content of them are listed by Moyal (2003) and Young (2015). The importance of Clarke s contribution in laying the foundations of atmospheric science in Australia was well appreciated by many of his contemporaries and by experts in the succeeding generation. When revising his Climate of New South Wales in 1 877, the government meteorologist, H. C. Russell, drew substantially on Clarke’s observations, and said of him, “In Meteorology, as in all that he did, Mr. Clarke was a most indefati¬ gable worker and painstaking investigator.” A decade later in \T\s> Astronomical and Meteoro¬ logical Workers in New South Wales, Russell (1888, p 45) again paid tribute to “the very important contributions which came from his busy brain and pen.” Clarke’s contribu¬ tions were still recognised after the turn of the century in the short historical review at the beginning of Griffith Taylor’s Australian Meteorology (1920). But he received no men¬ tion among the prominent colonial research¬ ers listed in W. J. Gibbs’ The Origins of Aus¬ tralian Meteorology (1975) or in the revised edition of that work published by the Bureau of Meteorology in 1998. The only mention of Clarke in the Bureau’s Metarch Papets is in the reprinting of Russell’s 1889 paper, and in t\it Australian Meteorological Magazine a dep¬ recating comment about him quoted from a letter by Ludwig Leichhardt that his “head is full of vortices and wind-classification, as you may well suppose from his extraordinary deductions” (Nicholls 2005). Why Clarke’s contributions have been overlooked remains speculative. Gibbs’ review certainly extends to contributions made prior to Clarke’s arrival in the colony, including those of Philip Parker King, who was Clarke’s friend and meteorological corre¬ spondent. Perhaps it was Clarke’s well-known reputation as a geologist which obscured his meteorological efforts, or it was that their publication mainly in newspapers rather than scientific journals resulted in them being overlooked. But how Russell’s work, which was cited by Gibbs, could be read without the tribute to Clarke being noted seems very odd indeed! And the same could be said of a reading of Taylor’s book without noting his reference to Clarke. Yet such was the case, and once Clarke was left out of the list of pioneers, the historian essentially had become the “grave digger.” Myth As Memory: Clarke as Darwinist On page 1 1 of The Remarkable Reverend Clarke Elena Grainger declared that “if T H. Huxley was Darwin’s ‘bulldog’ in Britain and America, Clarke played the same role in Australia.” Is this an accurate statement, or is it really to be seen in the context of a pre¬ vailing “myth”? C. S. Lewis in The Funeral Of A Great Myth, published in 1967 though written somewhat earlier, argued that “What the Myth uses is a selection from the sci¬ entific theories a selection made at first, and modified afterwards, in obedience to imaginative and emotional needs.” The cen¬ tral idea of the mythical vision that Lewis had come to bury (at least philosophically) had its roots early in the 19th Century, and was what its believers called “Development” or “Emergence,” and which had attached to itself the scientific hypothesis of “Evolution,” especially in the form advanced by Darwin. 202 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Young— The scientific legacy of Rev. W. B. Clarke Of course, the fossil record of changes in the history of life on earth must be distin¬ guished from the hypotheses advanced to explain that history, and Darwins major contribution was in the latter category As the following quotation from On the Origin of Species (p 81) regarding the operation of the principle of the survival of the fittest shows, it already had its own metaphysical aura: “we may feel sure that any variation in the least degree injurious would be rigidly destroyed.” And the penultimate sentence of that book leaves little doubt about why it was so rapidly incorporated into that prevail¬ ing “myth:” “Thus from the war of nature, from famine and death, the most exalted object of which we are capable of conceiving, namely the production of the higher ani¬ mals, directly follows.” That far more than a new scientific theory was being proclaimed is abundantly clear from Thomas Huxleys well-known description of Darwinism as the “New Reformation.” As noted above, while urging the Royal Society to pursue the philosophical setting and impact of science, Elkin in his Cente¬ nary Address made no mention of Clarke’s polemic in the Inaugural Address against the then dominant philosophies, which he dis¬ missed by quoting George Lewes’ descrip¬ tion of them as “a Desert whose only resem¬ blance of vegetation is a mirage.” For, Clarke said, “It is one thing to respect the method by which a logical argument is to be main¬ tained, and another to defend the introduc¬ tion of investigations which are often based on conjecture, and are altogether specula¬ tive.” He made no attempt to gloss over his Christian commitment, remarking in the Inaugural Address that “there appears to me to be only one true Philosophy that which is given to and not elaborated by man,” but he was certainly no fundamentalist clinging to the Mosaic account of a six-day creation. To the contrary, in his lecture to the Church Book Society in 1843, he attacked the so- called “Scriptural Geologists” who held such views, and in reference to claims in Cowper’s The Task, he stated that “if the date of the Earth, called ‘in the beginning’ was revealed to Moses, he had never been able to find where Moses said so; it was a pity that if Cowper knew the date he had not told us, and saved all the controversy.” Moreover, he was the leading colonial palaeontologist and knew better than anyone else in Australia the great changes in the form of life that had occurred on this continent: as Richard Owen commented in a letter to him in 1872, “ Timeo Clarkeum et fossilia mittenern' (I fear Clarke and the fossils he sends). Although Clarke was also on generally cordial terms with Darwin, who eventually was one of his sponsors for his election to the Royal Society of London, care must be taken against reading too much into these relationships. Grainger entitled the chapter in which she discussed The Origin of Spe¬ cies as “Mr. Darwin’s Book,” but as is clear from a letter to Adam Sedgwick in 1839, the book to which Clarke actually referred by this title was not The Origin of Species, but rather Darwin’s Voyage ofH.M.S, Beagle. Indeed, in The Geology of Australia, a lecture given to the Philosophical Society of New South Wales in 1861, the year in which he first read The Origin of Species, Clarke’s only reference to it was dismissive. Much also has been made of a passage in the Inaugural Address of 1867: “Nor is there any objection to the statement of arguments relating to the Origin of Species, or observations on which these arguments are based.” But as Darwin is not mentioned by name, nor Origin of 203 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Young— The scientific legacy of Rev. W. B. Clarke * Species set in the same format as all other references in the Address^ Clarke was presum¬ ably commenting on the general hypothesis rather than the specific book. His rejection of Darwins hypothesis was shown beyond doubt in Extinct Animals published in The Sydney Herald on 31st May 1869 where he wrote that he could not accept that “recent animals are the offspring of the olden forms', I believe that species as such were made by the Creator.” This was not a clinging to fun¬ damentalism in response to any Darwinian challenge, for the operative words were spe¬ cies as such. Clarke was well aware of varia¬ tions within species, of the numerous exam¬ ples of the sterility of cross breeding between species, and of the problematic nature of the extinction of species in the context of both space and time. It expresses rather his belief in structure and purpose, not chance, as the basic determinant of the history of life on Earth. That belief owed as much to his clas¬ sical Aristotelian training, with its emphasis on change being limited to the attributes of species {substances) rather than to species per se, as it did to his Christian theology. Furthermore, given Clarke s well-known deep concern for social welfare, especially that of convicts and Aborigines, his estrange¬ ment from Darwinism was surely completed by the rise of Social Darwinism that applied the rule of survival of the fittest to human affairs, and which was perhaps most aptly expressed in Darwin’s own words from the Descent of Mam ... we institute poor-laws, and our medi¬ cal men exert their utmost skill to save the life of every one to the last moment ... Thus the weak members of civilised soci¬ eties propagate their kind. No one who has attended to the breeding of domestic animals will doubt that this must be highly injurious to the race of man. It is surprising how soon a want of care, or care wrongly corrected leads to the degeneration of a domestic race; but excepting in the case of man itself, hardly any one is so ignorant to allow his worst animals to breed. Ultimately Clarke s unwaveringly orthodox Christian faith could not be reconciled with, as he put it in a letter to John Dunmore Lang in 1877, “those who derive ‘Man’ from a speck of abbuminous [albuminous] matter in a dirty ditch.” To call him “Darwins bull¬ dog” was substituting myth for memory! Research into comparative anatomy and molecular biology since Clarke’s time has put paid to his claim that species are independ¬ ent of their predecessors, but the Darwinian concept of life progressing from very limited beginnings to an increasingly complex array of forms has been subject to doubt in recent decades. As Simon Conway-Morris wrote in the Crucible of Creation, “... although the Darwinian framework provides the logical underpinning to explain organic evolu¬ tion, the actual pattern of life we observe may require a more complex set of explana¬ tions.” Thus, Clarke’s misgivings about the Darwinian band-wagon, especially of the triumphalism trumpeted by Huxley, now seem more to the point than they did several decades ago. Conclusion Memory, whether personal or collective, obviously may range from true recollection to apparently total loss, while what may seem to be true can be actually a reconstruction to fit prevailing ideas or sentiments. Clarke’s role as a founding father does much to account for the continuing and prominent memory of him in the Royal Society of New South Wales and in Australian geology in 204 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South W^es Young— The scientific legacy of Rev. W. B. Clarke general. Yet in both cases there is a prevailing tendency to look to the past as well as the present; geology is by its very nature an his¬ torical science, and is conscious of the major shifts that have occurred in its own develop¬ ment, while in deliberately maintaining a broad range of interests the Royal Society has essentially avoided the tight focussing on the latest discoveries characteristic of many specialist societies. Of course, pitfalls are ever present, as for example the dressing up of Clarke in Darwinian clothing. Aus¬ tralian historians of science have shown the importance of Clarke to our understand¬ ing of colonial society, and he remains rel¬ evant today especially because the theme of “Advancing Australia” underlay so much of his work, and, as he warned in The Sydney Morning Herald on 1st January 1847, “...we see in the present indefatigable exertions to develope [sic] the capabilities of New Hol¬ land something more than the solution of hydrographical or geographical problems.” References Atkinson, A. (20 1 6) The Europeans in Australia, Democracy: Volume 2, University of New South Wales Press, Sydney. Blainey, G. (1963) The rush that never ended. A history of Australian mining, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne. Branagan, D. (2012) “Fleshing out the landscape: two centuries of Australian geological heroes,” Episodes, 35, 1-44. Clark, M. (1986) A Short History of Australia, Penguin, Ringwood. Clarke, W. B. (1860) Researches in the Southern Goldfields of New South Wales, Reading & Wellbank, Sydney. Clarke, W. B. (1867) “Inaugural Address,” Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 1, 1-27. Conway-Morris, S. (1998) The Crucible of Creation, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Darwin, C. R. (1859) On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, 6th ed. cited. Dent, London. Darwin, C. R. (1882). The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex, 2nd ed., Murray, London. Elkin, A. P. (1966) “Centenary Oration, The Challenge to Science, 1 866: the Challenge of Science, 1 966,” Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 100, 105-118. Gibbs, W. (1975) The Origins of Australian Meteorology, Australian Bureau of Meteorology, Canberra; Revised ed. Metarch Papers, 12, 1998. Grainger, E. (1982) The Remarkable Reverend Clarke, the life and times of the Father of Australian Geology, Oxford University Press, Melbourne. Jervis, J. (1944) “Rev. W. B. Clarke, M.A., ER.S., EG.S., F.R.G.S., ‘The Father of Australian Geolo^’”. Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society, 30, 345-458. Lewes, G. (1853) Biographical History of Philosophy, Knight, London. Lewis, C. S. (1967) The Funeral of a Great Myth, ” in Hooper, W. ed. Christian Refections, Geoffrey Bles, London. 82-93. Macleod, R. (2009) Archibald Liversidge: Imperial Science under the Southern Cross, Royal Society of New South Wales and Sydney University Press, Sydney. Maiden, J. H. (1918) “A Contribution to a History of the Royal Society of New South N/Acs', Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 52, 215-361. Moyal, A. (1986) A Bright and Savage Land: Scientists in Colonial Australia, Collins, Sydney. Moyal, A. (2003) The Web of Science, The Scientific Correspondence of The Rev. W B. Clarke, Australians Pioneer Geologist, Australian Scholarly Publishing, Melbourne. Moyal, A. (2012) “Friends, Savants and Founders: W. B. Clarke and J. D. Dana,” Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 145, 54-58. Mozley, A. (1967) “Evolution and the Climate of Opinion in Australia, 1840-1876,” Victorian Studies, 10, 411-430. 205 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Young — The scientific legacy of Rev. W. B. Clarke Nicholls, N. (2005) “Climate and cultural connections in Australia,” Australian Meteorological Magazine^ 54, 309-319. Organ, M. K. (1994) “Bibliography of the Rev, W. B. Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 27, 83-134. Organ, M. (1998,1999) “ ‘ ... a small fish in a small pond...’ The Reverend W. B. Clarke (1798-1878): 'what did he actually do?” Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 131, 101-112; 132, 13-18. Rosenstock-Huessy, E. (1938) Out of Revolution, Autobiography of Western Man, Reprinted 1969, Berg, Providence. Russell, H. C. (1877) Climate of New South Wales; Descriptive, Historical and Tabula, Charles Potter, Sydney. Stephen, L. ed. (1887) Dictionary of National Biography, Smith Elder, London, v.lO, 450- 52. Sussmilch, C. A. (1911) An Introduction to the Geology of New South Wales, Govt. Printer, Sydney. Taylor, G. (1920) Australian Meteorology, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Warung, P. (1895) “The Rev. W. B. Clarke, M.A., ER.S., The Nestor of Australian Philosophers,” Cosmos Magazine, 1, 533-539. Young, R. W. (2007) “Reverend W. B. Clarke, ‘Father of Australian Geology’, on the origin of valleys,” Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 54, 127-134. Young, R. W. (2015) This Wonderfully Strange Country, Rev. WB. Clarke Colonial Scientist, (published by the author). 206 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, vol. 150, part 2, 2017, pp. 207-219. ISSN 0035-9173/17/020207-13 Understanding and countering climate science denial John Cook Center for Climate Change Communication, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, USA Email: jcook20@gmu.edu Abstract Science denial causes a range of damaging impacts on society. This is particularly the case with climate science denial, which has resulted in strong polarization around a non-controversial scientific issue, and prolific dissemination of climate misinformation. This in turn has had the effect of reducing public acceptance of climate change, and eroding support for policies to mitigate climate change. In order to develop effective responses to science denial, it is necessary to first understand the drivers of science denial, which leads to deeper understanding of the techniques employed to cast doubt on the reality of climate change. Analysis of denialist techniques can inform development of interventions that neutralize misinformation. Inoculation has been shown to be an effective way to preemptively reduce the influence of climate science denial. Two methods to practically implement inoculation are misconception-based learning (teaching science by addressing scientific misconceptions) and techno¬ cognition (an interdisciplinary approach that implements psychological principles in the design of technological solutions to misinformation). Interventions and procedures developed for the counter¬ ing of climate misinformation may also be applied to other scientific topics rife with misinformation, such as vaccination and evolution. Introduction here is an overwhelming scientific con¬ sensus that humans are causing global warming. Between 90 to 100% of climate scientists have concluded that humans are causing global warming, with a number of studies converging on 97% consensus (Cook et al., 2016). Despite the strength¬ ening consensus, a small proportion of the U.S. public continue to reject the findings of mainstream climate science (Leiserowitz et ah, 2017). This small but vocal minority has persistently and prolifically produced misin¬ formation about climate change, with the purpose of confusing the public about the reality of human-caused climate change. Misinformation is commonly defined as information that is initially presented as true but later shown to be false (Lewandowsky et al. 2012). There is growing awareness of the damaging and significant impacts of misin¬ formation. In 2014, the World Economic Forum named online misinformation as one of the top ten trends of global concern (WEF, 2014). In recognition of the salience of misinformation, Oxford Dictionary named “post-truth” the 2016 word of the year (Flood, 2016). One year later, Collins Dictionary named “fake news” the 2017 word of the year (Flood, 2017). Climate misinformation has contributed to public misperceptions about climate change (McCright and Dunlap, 2010). For example, there is a significant gap between scientific understanding of climate change, and public perceptions, with only 12% of the American public aware that the scien¬ tific consensus on climate change is greater than 90% (Leiserowitz et al. 2017). Students hold a number of misconceptions about 207 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Cook — Understanding and countering climate science denial the greenhouse effect and its role in causing global warming (Chang and Pascua, 2015). These misconceptions are dangerous because they reduce concern about climate change and support for mitigation policies (van der Linden, 2017; Ranney and Clark, 2017). Understanding science denial Science denial is the unwillingness to accept existing scientific evidence. In the case of climate science denial, this may apply to evi¬ dence supporting the existence of climate change, humanity’s role in causing recent global warming, and/or the severity of cli¬ mate impacts. A number of terms have been used to characterize climate science denial, such as scepticism, contrarianism, dismissal, dissent, doubt, or anti-climate change. Most common is the term sceptic (e.g., Capstick and Pidgeon, 2013; Rahmstorf, 2004). How¬ ever, using the term sceptic to describe the rejection of scientific evidence is problematic and misleading (Lewandowsky et ah, 2016; Odenbaugh, 2016). Genuine scientific scep¬ ticism requires an evidence-based approach, eschewing pseudo-scientific principles. This is the polar opposite to science denial, which involves denial of inconvenient evidence and eager adoption of pseudo-scientific arguments if they support preconceptions. Consequently, this paper refers to the rejec¬ tion of mainstream climate science as climate science denial. We begin our examination by first exploring what motivates some people to reject climate science. Psychological drivers of science denial A survey-of-surveys found that the strongest drivers of climate beliefs are political affili¬ ation and political ideology (Hornsey et al. 2016). Politics is a greater influence on cli¬ mate perceptions than education, income level, gender, race, and even science literacy levels. Why would political beliefs influence a person’s views on a scientific matter such as climate change? The answer is aversion to proposed policies to mitigate human-caused global warming. When political conserva¬ tives are presented with information about climate change as well as one of two pro¬ posed solutions to climate change (either regulation of pollution or nuclear energy), they respond positively to the nuclear ver¬ sion but negatively to the regulation version (Campbell and Kay, 2014). Disliking the solution to climate change, political con¬ servatives are predisposed to deny that there’s a problem that needs solving. While individual cognition plays a strong role in people’s climate attitudes, social and external cues are also important. One of the strongest external influences are cues from political elites (Brulle et ah, 2012). Public concern about climate change dropped dra¬ matically around 2009. Analysis of public surveys conducted over this time found that the change in climate attitudes was due pri¬ marily to elite cues (Mildenberger and Leise- rowitz, 2017). Over this same time period, there was a sharp up-tick in the production of misinformation targeting climate science (Boussalis and Goan, 2016; see Figure 2). Putting these disparate studies together, we see that misinformation disseminated by conservative leaders played a strong part in reducing public concern about climate change. Figure 1 , derived from Cook and Lewand¬ owsky (2016), provides a concise visual sum¬ mary of some of the contributing factors to misconceptions about climate change. The graph shows survey results of perceived con¬ sensus, with the horizontal axis representing political ideology, depicting clearly the gap between public perceptions of consensus and 208 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South W^es Cook— Understanding and countering climate science denial the actual 97% agreement among climate scientists that humans are causing global warming. Ideology Figure 1: The consensus gap (Cook and Lewandowsky, 2016). While political ideology has a strong influ¬ ence on climate perceptions, there is still a large “consensus gap” among political lib¬ erals who possess no ideological reason to reject climate science. This “liberal consensus gap” is driven by either lack of awareness of the consensus, or misinformation that casts doubt on the consensus. Climate mispercep¬ tions are the result of both cultural biases and informational deficiencies. The origiii of climate science denial Climate change hasn’t always been a polar¬ ized, partisan issue. In 1989, Republican President George H. W. Bush promised to “fight the greenhouse eflPect with the White House effect” (Peterson, 1989, p. Al). However, the issue gradually became polarized due to misinformation campaigns in the early 1990s conducted by conserva¬ tive think-tanks with the purpose of under¬ mining the Kyoto Protocol (McCright and Dunlap, 2000). These campaigns were ena¬ bled and amplified by billions of dollars of funding from the fossil fuel industry (Brulle, 2014; Farrell, 2016a; Farrell, 2016b). Ini¬ tially, conservative think-tanks disseminated their misinformation through the publica¬ tion of a number of books sceptical about environmental science and policy (Jacques et ah, 2008). To disseminate their messages, think- tanks relied on a small number of contrar¬ ian scientists. Only a small minority of cli¬ mate scientists reject human-caused global warming (Anderegg et al., 2010; Doran and Zimmerman, 2009), and climate misinfor¬ mation has a vanishingly small presence in the scientific literature (Cook et al., 2013; Oreskes, 2004). The few number of papers that do manage to get published in peer- reviewed journals have been shown to pos¬ sess fatal flaws in their analysis (Abraham et al., 2014; Benestad et al., 2016). However, conservative think-tanks have exploited the journalistic norm of media balance to ensure that contrarian voices receive roughly equivalent media coverage to mainstream climate scientists (Painter and Ashe, 2012). The prevalence of false balance coverage in mainstream media has had broad impact, with analysis indicating semantic similari¬ ties between misinformation, media cover¬ age, and U.S. Presidential statements (Far¬ rell, 2016b). The spilling of misinformation into public statements by political leaders is especially significant given that cues from political elites has been found to be a cru¬ cially important influence on public concern over climate change. Rejection of climate science continues unabated. An analysis of conservative think- tank articles about climate change found that misinformation casting doubt on climate science has been on the increase relative to arguments against climate policy, as depicted in Figure 2 (Boussalis and Coan, 2016). In 2016, the most shared climate story on social media featured the Global Warming 209 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Cook— Understanding and countering climate science denial Petition Project: an online petition listing tens of thousands of dissenting people with a science degree as evidence that there was no scientific consensus on climate change (Readfearn, 2016). Figure 2: Relative increase of climate sci¬ ence denial relative to climate policy denial (Boussalis & Coan, 2016, with updated data incorporating blog posts). Impacts of misinformation Climate misinformation causes a number of negative impacts. First, it can lower public perceptions of climate change. Ranney and Clark (2016) found that exposing people to just a few misleading statistics lowered acceptance of climate change as well as confidence in their understanding of the science. Similarly, showing a single piece of misinformation about the scientific consensus on climate change significantly decreases perceived consensus (Cook et ah, 2017; van der Linden et ah, 2017). These manufactured misconceptions have conse¬ quential floW“On effects. Understanding of the greenhouse mechanism and perceived consensus both have a strong influence on acceptance of the reality of human-caused global warming, and support for mitigation policies (Ranney and Clark, 2016; van der Linden, 2015). Second, misinformation can cancel out the positive effect of accurate information. McCright et al. (2017) found that denial- ist frames reduced the positive effect of a number of different climate frames. Van der Linden et al. (2017) found that when par¬ ticipants were presented with information about the scientific consensus alongside mis¬ information casting doubt on the consensus, the overall effect was no significant change in perceived consensus. Cook et al. (2017) found that false balance media coverage of climate change, where factual information was presented along with misinformation, resulted in a decreased in perceived consen¬ sus. Third, misinformation has a polarizing effect, disproportionately influencing politi¬ cal conservatives (Cook et al., 2017; van der Linden et ah, 2017). Consequently, com¬ munities that receive misinformation show a divergence in climate attitudes along politi¬ cal lines. Lastly, another mostly overlooked but dangerous effect of climate denial is the mis¬ conception of pluralistic ignorance — the lack of awareness among people concerned about climate change that most people share their concern. National surveys of the U.S. public find that most of the public are alarmed or concerned about climate change (Leiserow- itz et ah, 2017), but also that they think they are in the minority. This causes people to self-censor and refrain from discussing cli¬ mate change with their friends (Geiger and Swim, 2016). This silence in turn reinforces the misconception of pluralistic ignorance, resulting in a “spiral of silence” (Maibach et ah, 2016). Pluralistic ignorance and the subsequent climate silence is another insidi¬ ous impact of a small but vocal dissenting minority. 210 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South "'^^es Cook— Understanding and countering climate science denial The techniques of science denial Content analysis of conservative think-tank articles about climate change has identified three major topics in denialist text: science, policy, and scientific integrity (Boussalis and Coan, 2016). Within the science topic, Rahmstorf (2004) lists three categories of misinformation: trend (global warming isn’t happening), attribution (humans aren’t caus¬ ing it), and impact (climate impacts are not bad). Poortinga et al. (2011) found that denial of one aspect of climate science (e.g., trend) was associated with denial of other aspects of climate science (e.g., impact). However, there is little coherence across these positions— a denialist blog can be seen arguing that global warming isn’t hap¬ pening one day, then claiming that global warming is caused by the sun the next day (Lewandowsky et al., 2016). The one con¬ sistent theme among denialist claims is the conclusion of each argument— opposition to climate mitigation policies. Climate science denial is not a coherent, evidence- based worldview — rather, it is a collection of rhetorical arguments pursuing political objectives. Among the various movements that reject a scientific consensus, whether it be on climate change, evolutionary biology, or the health impacts of smoking, five char¬ acteristics or techniques of science denial are observed (Diethelm and McKee, 2009; Hoofnagle, 2007). F L I C C C) o o ® o Fake Logical Impossible Cherry Conspiracy Experts Fallacies Expectations Picking Theories Figure 3: FLICC^ — the five characteristics of science denial (Cook et al., 2015; Hoofnagle, 2007). Fake experts: This involves spokespeople who convey the impression of expertise on a topic and yet possess little relevant expertise. The Global Warming Petition Project is the most prevalent form of this technique within climate misinformation, featuring 31,000 signatories of an online petition dissent¬ ing against human-caused global warming. However, 99.9% of the signatories, while holding a science degree, possess no exper¬ tise in climate science. This petition has been found experimentally to be one of the most effective denialist arguments in lower¬ ing acceptance of climate change (van der Linden et al., 2017). Logical fallacies: Arguments designed to persuade people consist of one or more premises, leading to a conclusion. Climate denialist arguments typically contain fatal logical flaws (Cook et al., in review). There are three classes of logical fallacies found in climate misinformation: fallacies of rel¬ evance (where the premises are irrelevant to the conclusion), scope (where not all relevant evidence is considered), and pre¬ sumption (where the argument contains false premises). Impossible expectations: This involves demanding unrealistic levels of proof, or misrepresenting the nature of scientific uncertainty. As science is typically proba¬ bilistic, calls for absolute scientific certainty are an effective method of casting doubt on scientific findings. This denialist technique is known as “Scientific Certainty Argumen¬ tation Methods” (SCAMS, Freudenberg et al., 2008). Cherry picking: This technique is defined as selectively chooses data leading to a desired conclusion that differs from the conclusion arising from all the available data” (Cook et al, in review). A common example of cherry 211 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Cook — ^Understanding and countering climate science denial picking is arguing that global warming isn’t happening because of cold weather in a par¬ ticular location at the same time that the planet as a whole is experiencing record high temperatures. Conspiracy theories: Around 20% of the U.S. public believe that climate change is a scientific hoax (Lewandowsky et al., 2013). Conspiracy theories have a number of nega¬ tive effects, even when people are not con¬ vinced by them. They can lower support for climate action (van der Linden, 2015), decrease one’s intent to reduce one’s carbon footprint (Jolley and Douglas, 2014), and decrease trust in government (Einstein and Click, 2014). It is important to recognise that denialist techniques may manifest from both genuine belief and intentional deception, and that it is virtually impossible to distinguish between the two. This is because ideologically-driven denial causes psychological biases that mani¬ fest in the same type of denialist behaviour as intentional deception. For example, people ascribe greater expertise to spokes- people whom they agree with, resulting in the vulnerability of relying on fake experts (Kahan, 2011). Correia (2011) argues that motivational biases can cause people to use a number of logical fallacies in false arguments, which also explains why these types of argu¬ ments tend to be so persuasive. Impossible expectations can arise from disconfirmation bias— -where threatening evidence is vigor¬ ously opposed. The flip side of disconfirma¬ tion bias is confirmation bias — -where people place greater weight on evidence that sup¬ ports their prior beliefs-— resulting in cherry picking. Lastly, climate science denial has been associated with conspiratorial thinking (Lewandowsky et ah, 2013). Responding to science denial As the use of denialist techniques may arise from genuine belief, accusing people who adopt these techniques of intentional decep¬ tion is problematic (and often incorrect). A more robust response is to focus on the techniques employed, rather than the often- unknowable intentions of the misinformer, Diethelm and McKee (2009) argue that identifying and exposing denialist tactics are necessary in order to counter science denial. Critical thinking analysis of climate myths is useful in developing refutations (Cook et ah, in review). Debunking Once misinformation has taken hold, it is extremely difficult to dislodge (for a review of research into debunking misinforma¬ tion, see Lewandowsky et al. 2012; Swire and Ecker, in press). If a refutation threat¬ ens a person’s worldview, it can even cause a counterproductive backfire effect (Hart and Nisbet, 2012). Informing people that a piece of information is false creates a gap in their mental model of the world. If the gap is not filled by a replacement fact, the myth will continue to influence people (Seifert, 2002), Consequently, refutations are most effective when they include a factual replace¬ ment that meets the causal explanations sup¬ plied by the original misinformation (Ecker et ah, 2015). Another element of an effective debunking is a warning preceding the myth, which makes people cognitively alert and less likely to be influenced by the misinforma¬ tion (Ecker et al., 2010). 212 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South ^Wales Cook “-“Understanding and countering climate science denial Inoculation Research indicates that wherever possible when countering misinformation, preven¬ tion is better than cure (Bolsen and Druck- man, 2015). Inoculation theory offers one framework for pre-emptive strategies to neutralize misinformation. This approach applies the concept of vaccination to knowl¬ edge (McGuire and Papageorgis, 1961). Just as exposure to a weak form of a virus helps people build resistance to the actual virus, similarly when people are exposed to a weak form of misinformation, they become less vulnerable to being influenced by actual mis¬ information. An inoculating text requires two elements: a warning of the threat of being misinformed, and counterarguments explaining how the misinformation is false. The efficacy of inoculation against misin¬ formation has been found in several stud¬ ies involving climate misinformation. One experiment found that after specific flaws in the Global Warming Petition Project were explained to participants, the misin¬ formation was mostly neutralized (van der Linden et ak, 2017). In another experiment, when participants received an explanation of how false balance media coverage can mis¬ lead people, the typical negative impact of false balance media coverage was removed (Cook et al., 2017). This study also found that explaining a general technique of mis¬ information was effective in neutralizing the misinformation without actually mentioning the specific myth. Figure 4 shows how cli¬ mate misinformation has a disproportionate effect among political conservatives (orange line) but is completely neutralized across the political spectrum after receiving an inocula¬ tion treatment (blue line). Figure 4: Inoculation (Cook et al. 2017). This approach of general inoculation with¬ out mentioning a specific myth is consistent with the idea of an “umbrella of protection”, with inoculation found to convey resistance to other arguments besides the one men¬ tioned in the inoculation (Parker et al., 2012; Pfau et al., 1997). It also echoes a millennia- old approach advocated by Aristotle, who argued that understanding the logical falla¬ cies of false arguments provides a universal safeguard against misinformation (Comp¬ ton, 2005). This is particularly relevant with climate science denialist arguments, which employ recurrent fallacious errors (Cook et al., in review). Another benefit of inoculation is that people exposed to an inoculation are more likely to talk about the issue (Ivanov et al., 2015). This is particularly relevant given the prevalent “climate silence”, with even people who are alarmed or concerned about climate change mostly not talking about climate change with family and friends (Maibach et ah, 2016). One of the drivers of this cli¬ mate silence is fear of looking incompetent (Geiger and Swim, 2016). Consequently, it is possible that inoculating people against counter-arguments from denialists mitigate this fear. 213 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Cook— Understanding and countering climate science denial Misconception-based learning Misconception-based learning offers a pow¬ erful and practical way to apply inoculation in an educational setting. Tliis involves teaching scientific concepts by examining misconceptions and how they distort the science, or by critiquing misinformation and the techniques employed to mislead. Mis¬ conception-based learning has been found to be one of the most powerful ways of teaching science, with a number of benefits in com¬ parison to standard science teaching that fails to address misconceptions. It leads to greater and longer lasting learning gains (McCuin et ah, 2014), improved argumentative and critical thinking skills (Kuhn and Crowell, 2011; Berland and Reiser, 2008; Todd and O’Brien, 2016), and is more engaging to students (Mason et ak, 2008). Consequently, teachers are recommended to benefit from courses that target climate misconceptions (Frankie, 2014). Educa¬ tors have already employed this teaching approach in classrooms (Bedford, 2010; Cook et ak, 2014; Lambert and Bleicher, 2017; Lovitt and Shuyler, 2016). There have also been attempts to develop educa¬ tional resources for educators, in the form of a textbook (Bedford and Cook, 2016) and a Massive Open Online Course (Cook et ak 2015). Nevertheless, there remains a dearth of educational resources that adopt a misconception-based learning approach (Tippett, 2010), and further development of resources using this approach is required. Technocognition While psychological research offers best practices for designing refutation content in response to misinformation, there is also a need to develop ways to deploy such con¬ tent in a timely and scaleable fashion. Given that social media and the Internet have con¬ tributed to the dissemination and amplifi¬ cation of misinformation, it is fitting (and indeed necessary) that technology should be employed to neutralize misinformation’s influence. However, technological solutions can be ineffective or counterproductive. Zollo et ak (2017) found that Facebook fact- checks caused conspiratorial users to increase their engagement with conspiratorial posts. General warnings about fake-news run the danger of breeding cynicism about news arti¬ cles in general (Pennycook and Rand, 2017; van Duyn and Collier, 2017). In order for technological solutions to be most effective, they should incorpo¬ rate the findings of psychological research, an approach known as “technocognition” (Lewandowsky et ak, 2017). This is an inter¬ disciplinary approach that combines research findings from psychology, critical thinking approaches from philosophy, and behav¬ ioural economics principles, in the design of information architectures deployed via scaleable, technological solutions. For example, automatic detection and instant assessment of the veracity of arti¬ cles is considered the “holy grail” of fact¬ checking (Hassan et al., 2015). There are a number of ways that researchers are explor¬ ing the detection of misinformation, with the approaches grouped into linguistic or networking approaches (Conroy et ak, 2015). Linguistic approaches include ana¬ lysing language structure, discourse analy¬ sis, and using machine learning to sort text into categories. Network approaches include social network analysis and construction of knowledge networks in order to assess how new claims integrate within existing knowl¬ edge structures. 214 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Cook”™ Understanding and countering climate science denial While automatic detection of misinforma¬ tion is a steep challenge, the characteristics of climate science denial mean that real¬ time debunking is a practical reality. The denialist arguments deployed today are the same arguments deployed in the early 1990s (McCright and Dunlap, 2000). The static nature of climate misinformation means that the last few decades offer a vast corpus of data containing consistent textual pat¬ terns, potentially allowing the detection of specific denialist claims. Automated analysis of climate misinformation is already being conducted, with Boussalis and Goan (2016) analysing conservative think-tank articles using a supervised machine-learning tech¬ nique. This enabled them to detect overarch¬ ing topic categories such as science, policy, and scientific integrity. This research needs to be extended to be able to detect specific denialist claims about climate change, which could then be mapped to refutations in real- world, automated applications. Conclusion Fake news and post-truthism has become a highly salient issue in recent times, with misinformation playing prominent roles in the Brexit and U.S. Presidential elections. While the mainstreaming of post-truthism is a recent phenomenon, climate misinforma¬ tion has existed for decades and there is a corresponding large body of research study¬ ing its nature and how to counter it. This research tells us that the damaging influence of misinformation cannot be ignored. Fortunately, there is a large and growing body of psychological research into understanding and responding to climate misinformation. These lessons need to be implemented in technological solutions that seek to neutralize the influence of misinfor¬ mation in broad, scalable applications. The lessons learnt from the study of cli¬ mate misinformation can also be applied to other disciplines. Misinformation abounds in other scientific topics such as vaccination, health, and evolution. Consequently, the procedures and applications being developed to counter climate misinformation may also be adapted and applied to science denial in general. References Abraham, J. R, Cook, Fasullo, J. 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Outlook on the Global Agenda 2014. World Economic Eorum. Retrieved from http://reports. weforum.org/ outlook- 1 4/view/ top-ten- trends-category-page/ 1 0-the-rapid-spread-of- misinformation-online/ Zollo, E, Bessi, A., Del Vicario, M., Scala, A., Galdarelli, G., Shekhtman, L., Havlin, S. & Quattrociocchi, W. (2015). Debunking in a world of tribes. arXiv preprint arXiv:1510.04267. 219 Journal dr Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, vol. 150, part 2, 2017, pp. 220-231. ISSN 0035-9173/17/020220-12 A guide to the evolution and classification of Australian birds in 2017 Leo Joseph Australian National Wildlife Collection, National Research Collections Australia, CSIRO GPO Box 1700 Canberra ACT 2601 Email: LeoJoseph@csiro.au Abstract This article was first published in 'The Australian Bird Guide ( CSIRO Publishing, 2017). It is reproduced here with minor updates and modifications. Scientific names of individual species are listed in an Appendix except where pertinent to points in the main text. The recently published Australian Bird Guide (Menkhorst et ah, 2017) comes at a time of tremendous and ongoing change in our understanding of bird evolution and how the classifications we adopt can best summarize that understanding. Imagine two Australian ornithologists, one from 1935 and one from 1975, find- ing themselves perusing the new field guide in 2017 when this is being written. Both recognize most but not all of the birds in it. Neither recognizes the Eungella Honeyeater (but that 1 962 photograph in Emu of a sup¬ posed Bridled Honeyeater now makes more sense to our 1975 friend). The Grey Grass- wren, officially described in 1968 and thus unknown to our 1935 colleague, was found in 1975 in South Australia beyond where it was first discovered around the western parts of the New South Wales-Queensland border. Western Whipbirds, thought in 1935 to be heading to extinction in Western Australia, had been confirmed in eastern Australia just two years earlier in 1933. Both our ornithologists can see how bird names have changed and find much to talk about in this book, but it s the ways in which we now understand groups of birds to be related to each other that really animates their conversation. Chats are honeyeaters. “Well, yes, I suppose that’s nearly been suggested,” the 1975 worker says. Owlet-nightjars next to swifts. “Surely, you modern people have been misled!” Falcons next to parrots and not with other diurnal birds of prey. “Now you’re delirious!” Budgerigars close relatives of lorikeets, the Scrub-tits of whitefaces? “Madness!” Shrewder, well-informed orni¬ thologists of any era would wryly note that hints of these relationships were often seen in behaviour, eggs, nests, anatomy, moults and plumage. The point here is that a revolution in ornithology, especially in systematics (the scientific study of relationships and how to classify according to those relationships), began in the late 1960s and today shows little sign of stopping because of the produc¬ tion of new field guides, such as the 2017 Bird Guide. Arguably, American ornitholo¬ gist Charles Sibley started it by studying bird systematics through molecules, first proteins then DNA, and especially at the higher taxonomic levels of order and family. Since the 1980s, techniques to read and analyse DNA sequences have improved such that 220 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Joseph— “A guide to the evolution and classification of Australian birds in 2017 we can now sample DNA from most of the genome — the full complement of DNA in a cell. DNA provides new frameworks with which to understand how species are related to each other in the avian evolutionary tree of life, or phylogeny. A well-supported phyl- ogeny helps us assess how any aspect of bird biology has changed during the various proc¬ esses of evolution. Charles Sibley placed the birds of Aus¬ tralia front and centre in this global, orni¬ thological revolution, along with those of New Guinea and New Zealand (Sibley and Ahlquist, 1985). In looking at why this happened, I hope the reader of today, if not our imaginary 1935 and 1975 friends as well, will embrace three ideas. First, science constantly refines our understanding of the avian phylogenetic tree and how we use clas¬ sification from the Class Aves’, right down to the level of the species, to summarize that understanding. There are mis-steps along the way, for sure, but that is how science, and people, work. Second, the 2017 Guide and its successors should look very different from each other and from their predecessors in the species and groups they recognize. Third, research in systematics can enliven the way one observes any bird. When observing a bird, we are looking at the latest steps in ongoing and open-ended evolution. That makes things far more interesting than if our understanding of the birds and the names we use all just stood still. The Big Picture Observing a community of birds is also akin to looking at different branches of the phy¬ logenetic tree of birds. A brief summary of our current understanding of the avian tree of life from the roots to the tips will be help- fitl (see details in Jarvis et al., 2014; Prum et ah, 2015). At the tree’s trunk, living birds divide into Palaeognath^ (ratites, tinamous) and Neognathae (all others). The pal^ognaths continue to surprise. The flighted tinamous of the Americas are more closely related to the extinct New Zealand moas among the flightless ratites (emus, cassowaries and so on) than some of the latter are to each other. Kiwis appear closer to the extinct elephant birds of Madagascar (Mitchell et al., 2014). A corollary is that flight must have been lost multiple times in the evolution of palxog- nathous birds. The Neognathse, in turn, branches into the Galloanseres (waterfowls and chicken¬ like birds) and the Neoaves (all other birds). Research in the study of whole genomes in 2015 challenged the view suggested by similar research from 2014. It is fair to say that much of this debate centres on how, in the absence of a complete fossil record, our genomic technologies can recover from DNA any kind of signal of evolutionary events that happened a very long time ago. It is also fair to remind ourselves that while it is always tempting to think of a new study of avian relationships as being the best or final word on a topic to date (and maybe it is), the next study will likely differ (and it did — see Burleigh et al. 2015!), however slightly, but, again, that is how science works. So, while it is reassuring that the composi¬ tion of most of the major groups of birds seems to be settled, there is still uncertainty as to where some of them fit on the avian evolutionary tree relative to each other. For example, it is now not debated that swifts, nightjars, owlet-nightjars, frogmouths and hummingbirds form a natural evolutionary grouping. Research published at the end of 2014 suggested that that group is embedded in the Neoaves whereas Prum et al., (2015) 221 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Jose ph — A guide to the evolution and classification of Australian birds in 2017 placed it as the closest living relative of all other Neoaves. Other differences are appar¬ ent among the two recent genomic studies but I am struck by the commonalities more than the differences. For example, Jarvis et ah (2014) recognized that most Neoaves are in what they called the Passerea, which has several main lineages, the two main ones being so-called “core” landbirds (Telluraves) and waterbirds (Aequornithia) . The Tellu¬ raves branches into Australaves (passerines, parrots, falcons. South American seriemas) and Afroaves (kingfishers and relatives, owls, eagles, woodpeckers, hornbills, trogons). Prum et al. (2015) retained the composi¬ tion and structure of the Telluraves, for example, especially its two enormous com¬ ponent groups together in the same pattern of relationships but differs from the earlier work in how the ever-mysterious South American Hoatzin is related to them. I can live with that kind of debate! Resolution of these debates will depend on how well we can analyse any signal of the deep evolu¬ tionary past of birds that is present in their genomes. A closer look Considering some neognathous birds can deepen ones appreciation of Australia’s role in bird evolution. Megapodes (mound- builders, such as the familiar Australian Brush-turkey), Plains-wanderer and Magpie Goose each have their closest living phylo¬ genetic connections in South America, the first being most closely related to curassows and guans, the second closest to seedsnipe, and the third to the marvellously named screamers. Indeed, the Magpie Goose when so considered is a very special anseriform bird (ducks, geese, swans). It sits on its own branch in the anseriform phylogenetic tree, South America’s three species of screamers being on another and then all other living anseriforms essentially making up a third and final “very bushy” branch. Next, Aus¬ tralia’s four smallest rails, the White-browed, Spotted, Spotless and Baillon’s Crakes, far from being a cohesive evolutionary group, apparently represent three different lineages (Garcia-R. et al., 2014). The White-browed appears to be most closely related to a simi¬ larly odd African bird, the Striped Crake, and the bush-hens. The Spotted is closest to a handful of similar Porzana species worldwide, whereas Spotless and Baillon’s are on a differ¬ ent branch as their own closest relatives. This is why they have recently been assigned to a different genus, Zapornia^ which is not very closely related to Porzana. It also reminds us that a “body plan” like that of small crakes may not always be a good indicator of who is most closely related to whom. Parrots and passerines (the latter loosely termed perching birds’), which turn out to be each other’s closest relatives in a phy- logenetically surprising result, yielded still further phylogenetic surprises. In passerine evolution, the first branching point led to New Zealand wrens in one lineage and all other passerines in the other. Similarly in parrots, the first branching point led to New Zealand’s kakapo, kea and kakas in one line¬ age and to all other parrots in the other. Our understanding of passerine evolution has advanced steadily to the point where remem¬ bering the detail of what we have learned is a formidable task. In essence, the lineage in passerines that led to all species other than New Zealand wrens subdivided into sub- oscines (represented on mainland Australia only by pittas), and oscines or songbirds. The deepest lineages of the oscines are in Australia and New Guinea (Australo-Papua), 222 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Joseph —“A guide to the evolution and classification of Australian birds in 2017 Vocal learners Birds of Prey Waterbirds NEOAVES NE06NATHAE 96 91 7 0 ri In 91 ssr Passeriformes (Osclnes)^^^ "Passeriformes (Suboseines) Passeriformes (New Zealand Wrens) Psittaciformes (Parrots> Falconiformes (Falcons) Cariamiformes (Seriemas) Coraciiformes (Bee-eaters) Piciformes (Woodpeckers) Bucerotiformes (Hornbills) rd GALLOANSERES PALAEOGNATHAE € Trogoniformes (Trogons) Leptosomiformes (Cuckoo-roller) Coliiformes (Mousebirds) Strigiformes (Owls) Accipitriformes (Eagles) Accipitriformes (New World Vultures) Pelecaniformes (Pelicans) Pelecaniformes (Herons) Pelecaniformes (Ibises) Pelecaniformes (Cormorants) Procellariiformes (Fulmars) Sphenisciformes (Penguins) Gaviiformes (Loons) K ~r Phaethontiformes (Tropicbirds) Eurypygiformes (Sunbittern) Charadriiformes (Plovers) _ _ _ Gruiformes (Cranes) ^0£l^©coiT^fori^sJHo^^n^ Caprimulgiformes (Hummingbirds) "I Caprimulgiformes (Swifts) Caprimulgiformes (Nightjars) Otidiformes (Bustards) Musophagiformes (Turacos) Cuculiformes (Cuckoos) Mesitornithiformes (Mesites) Pterociiformes (Sandgrouse) Columbiformes (Doves) Phoenicopteriformes (Flamingos) Podicipediformes (Grebes) Galliformes (Landfowi) ^^nseriformes^Wat^jfowi^ Tinamiformes (Tinamous) & Struthioniformes (Ostrich) Cretaceous Paleogene I - - - p— r- 1 j - - 1 - - n - - - 1 f 1 . . . 1 - ■ - T" 110 100 90 80 70 T 60 SO 40 30 20 10 Millions of years ago Passari- morphae Coracii- morphae Acefpitri- morphae Pelecani- morphae Procellarii- morphae Gavif- morphae Phaethonti- morphae Cursor!' morphae Caprimulgi' morphae Otidi- morphae Columbi- morphae Phoenicopteri' morphae Q. CO Q. m > z 2 to "O 0> CO CO CD “t CD fP o o C 3 cy CD 0) Figure 1: This figure is reproduced from a paper published in Science in 2014 (Jarvis et al. 2014). It is a summary or hypothesis of the relationships among the major groups of the world s birds based on an extensive dataset of avian genomes. While not the final word in pattern of relationships, the different colours used for the names of different groups indicate various aspects of avian biology and how many times they may have evolved independently. Light green names, for example, applied to oscine passerines, parrots and hummingbirds show that the biological mechanisms for learning of vocalizations have evolved independently at least twice, and red names show that predation has evolved twice. 223 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Joseph— “A guide to the evolution and classification of Australian birds in 2017 this being our current understanding of a finding Sibley first reported in 1985 (Sibley and Ahlquist, 1985). Examples include so many birds characteristic of Australia (and New Guinea) that have no very close relatives in the Northern Hemisphere despite some having similar sounding English names: lyre¬ birds, scrub-birds, bowerbirds, treecreepers, whipbirds, logrunners, Australo-Papuan babblers (to distinguish them from scimitar babblers and their allies), fairy- wrens, hon- eyeaters, acanthizids (thornbills, gerygones and allies), whistlers, woodswallows, butch¬ erbirds, and more. Mostly beyond Australia, an even larger group of passerine species, recently termed the Passerides, evolved and mostly in the Northern Hemisphere. One of its earliest branches, however, is the line¬ age of Australo-Papuan robins, and could even be largely descended from an ancestor of that group itself. Some Passerides have later (‘secondarily ) returned to and radiated within Australo-Papua, grassfinches being a fine example. The true thrushes, white- eyes, swallows and martins, reed- warblers, cisticolas, and grassbirds are all in this cat¬ egory. Many other Passerides are only con- vergently similar to birds in the Australian region. Thus, treecreepers and creepers are not closely related to each other, and fairy- wrens are not at all close to true wrens, for example. TEe 1935 worker especially might need to sit down at this point. Down to genus We have seen that at higher levels of bird classification, research most often clarifies which clearly defined group is related to which other clearly defined group, rather than altering the membership of the groups themselves. What of the genus-level? Why so many perhaps unfamiliar generic names in the 2017 Guided Examples will show that, in essence, much the same reasons apply. Since 1975, several generations of ornithol¬ ogists have become accustomed to some 20 species of honeyeaters making up the genus Lichenostomus. Not until 2011 did the first of several DNA studies tackle this and find that Lichenostomus in Australia was made up of at least seven diflPerent groups or lineages (Nyari and Joseph 201 1; Joseph et al., 2014); the total number is eight, now that one key New Guinean species, formerly known as Oreornis chrysogenys^ has finally been included in DNA studies (Mark! et al., 2017). Further, at least six generic names were needed for the Australian species. Why? Five of the seven Australian groups were scattered throughout the full honeyeater phylogeny and were not each others closest relatives, and so needed five generic names. The remaining two were indeed each others closest relatives. They could validly be placed in a single, sixth genus or divided into a sixth and a seventh. The argument was made that because they are such distinctive lineages which diverged sev¬ eral million years ago, assigning them to two genera Ptilotula and Gavicalis (“plumed” and “fasciated” honeyeaters, respectively) made sense. Consider, for example, how different are the “plumed” Yellow-plumed and “fas¬ ciated” Singing Honeyeaters. The habit of using a broad Lichenostomus is dying hard, but die it must. Incidentally, the New Gui¬ nean species that was last to be included in DNA studies belongs in the genus Micropti- lotis, itself split from Meliphaga (Joseph et al., 2014; MarH et al., 2017). And, last but not least, two species remain in Lichenostomus. One is the species on which Lichenostomus was based, the Purple-gaped Honeyeater L. cratitius, and the other is its closest relative, the Yellow-tufted Honeyeater L. melanops. 224 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South ^W^es Joseph -““A guide to the evolution and classification of Australian birds in 2017 Still with honeyeaters, three species having black-and-white plumages (Pied, Black, Banded) were long placed in Certhionyx. They are not each other’s closest relatives and must be classified in three different genera (Joseph et ah, 2014). Monarch flycatchers all look like mon¬ arch flycatchers, so they belong in the genus Monarcha. Right? No. DNA showed that Monarchdy like Lichenostomus^ fell into groups or lineages of species that are not all each other’s closest relatives (Andersen et ah, 2015). So, again, Monarcha is restricted to the lineage that includes the single species on which Monarcha was first based, the Black¬ faced Monarch M. melanopsis. Monarcha, then, is more closely related to Pacific island genera such as Chasiempis and Pomarea than to other Australian and New Guinean spe¬ cies formerly placed in Monarcha. So, those other species need other genera and they now fall into two genera, Symposiachrus and Carterornis. And, finally here, the Aus¬ tralian Magpie-lark and its close relative the Torrent-lark of New Guinea are a part of the monarch flycatcher radiation. The importance of all this is not that names have changed — that’s the least of it. It is that through systematics we grow to appreciate the spectacular evolution of even our most familiar birds. Systematics directs taxonomic changes, the details of which are governed by the rules of zoological nomen¬ clature. All of this enhances what you see when observing a bird! The species level — higher hanging taxonomic jfruit Discovery of the Eungella Honeyeater, the last unquestioned species of Australian bird to be discovered and scientifically described (Longmore and Boles, 1983), did not mean the end of species-level taxonomy for Aus¬ tralian birds. Modern research documents the complex evolution still occurring at the species-population level, within and among species. We interpret this through ‘lenses’ of different biological characters (DNA sequences, plumage, vocalizations, and more). Interpretation through one such lens coupled with one of many ways of defining a species might suggest two populations share a gene pool and that they should be treated as one species. Another lens and another way of defining a species might suggest that they are well and truly diflPerent lineages in the avian phylogeny and that two or more species should be recognized. Reconciling these different lenses using a taxonomic system devised before Charles Darwin is akin to feeding rocket fuel to a horse pull¬ ing a cart: things may collapse! By another analogy, seeing present-day diversity through two different lenses of biological characters is akin to slicing a cake two different ways. Both have their validity but which will we follow? Fortunately, one category of problem is simplest to resolve and again hinges on free- thinking’. Until 2010, the White-naped Honeyeater Melithreptus lunatus was thought to comprise eastern Australian M. L lunatus and south-western Australian M. 1. chlorop- sis. DNA shows the eastern birds are more closely related to the Tasmanian endemic Black-headed Honeyeater M. affinis than to the western birds (Toon et al., 2010). We infer that the white nape-band was present in the ancestor of Melithreptus honeyeaters but has been lost in M. ajfinis. We could treat all three as one species (sensible? you decide!) or the western birds must be a separate, third species, M. chloropsis. In this case, the DNA evidence has in effect argued that it is time to 225 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Joseph— “A guide to the evolution and classification of Australian birds in 2017 correct and update an earlier way of thinking based on similarities and differences. In Golden Whistlers, Pachycephala pecto- raliSy separate populations in Western Aus¬ tralia and, mostly. South Australia charac¬ terized by cinnamon-bellied females were assigned to the subspecies Pachycephala pec- toralis fuliginosa. The significance of subtle differences between them in plumage had been debated since the 1950s. DNA shows that those two isolated or at best tenuously connected populations are not each others closest relatives. Further, the eastern (mostly South Australian) populations of p.fuligi- nosa’' are not genetically separate using the markers studied to date from other eastern Australian populations (Andersen et al. 2014; Joseph et ah, 2014). Most critical of all, the western populations of “/? p. fuliginosd' are likely more closely related to another spe¬ cies of whistler altogether and so may not even be the closest relative of eastern Aus¬ tralian Golden Whistlers at all. Again, the cinnamon-belly of females in south-western and some parts of south-eastern Australia may be an ancestral character lost in some, but not all, present-day populations. Taxo- nomically, the south-west Western Austral¬ ian populations must become a separate spe¬ cies, which happily does have some subtly distinct plumage characteristics, and rules of nomenclature dictate that it be known as Pachycephala occidentalis. Further study is needed to address how the re-defined P pectoralis fuliginosa mainly of South Australia relates to other eastern Australian Golden Whistlers. What of cases like the Crested Shrike-tit s “Eastern”, “Northern” and “Western” forms where slight plumage differentiation (as we perceive it) between isolated populations has long led ornithologists to say, “They are just subspecies”? These seem thornier, not so much because the various birds are again geographically isolated from each other, but because debate about how many spe¬ cies there are has never really settled on any one prevailing view. Why? I suggest this is partly because there is often an unspoken undercurrent of thinking in cases like the shrike-tits concerning how we should inter¬ pret similarities and differences. That is, to us they look so similar that the notion of them being separate species seems harder to digest despite any differences and similari¬ ties in vocalizations or behaviour. If some other differentiating character appears, such as vocalizations, coupled with whether their ranges overlap naturally or not, two species may become accepted. Think of the very similar-looking Chirruping and Chiming Wedgebills, which sound so very different and occupy different habitats where they approach each other geographically that their recognition as two species now goes unre¬ marked. DNA evidence supports this (Toon et ah, 2013). Critically needed research on isolated populations like the shrike-tits wont change the reality of their existence: bird¬ ers should want to see and hear them all! As with the Melithreptus honeyeaters and whistlers, research is needed to reveal one or other of a fairly small number of predict¬ able patterns of relationships among them. The problem then is in interpreting patterns among such isolated populations under the Biological Species Concept, ornithology’s dominant definition of a species since the mid“20^*^ century. It requires that we venture to supposition at the edge of science. Does it matter whether they could interbreed if they came together, which clearly they aren’t about to do? Does the degree of differentia¬ tion between some other closely related pair 226 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Joseph— A guide to the evolution and classification of Australian birds in 2017 guide us? I askj “Is this the best our science can do today?” I hope not. Alternatively, in the case of such isolated populations about which there is taxonomic debate, we are interested in how they are related to each other in the avian phylogeny, how similarities and differences in other traits can be inter¬ preted in a framework of well-understood evolutionary relationships and, perhaps, a different species concept, whether gene flow has ceased among them, and whether they are continuing to diverge even if there is gene flow, however occasional. We can test that using data and analyses of those data that can be repeated. That is science. So, I suggest that the species or subspecies ques¬ tion is interesting for very different reasons these days but, nonetheless, debate about it won’t go away, especially where isolated populations are concerned. I suggest that it will often be more interesting and useful to first examine how the isolated popula¬ tions are related to each other. Then we can ask whether some phenomenon like gene flow, say between two and not a third, is affecting their divergence. Finally, does all of that dictate an alternative approach to classification? An example that involves present-day iso¬ lated populations and past gene flow will help here. Debate has long been whether Grey and Silver-backed Butcherbirds are one or two species. We now know that Silver-backed Butcherbirds are the closest relatives of a third bird, the Black-backed Butcherbird. The Grey Butcherbird is, in turn, the closest relative of the other two. Recent research (Kearns et ah, 2014) gave a twist: genes from Grey Butcherbirds entered into eastern populations of Silver-backed Butcherbirds, probably some 20,000 years ago, and have now spread west through Silver-backed Butcherbirds. Only in the westernmost parts of Silver-backed’s range is the relevant piece of DNA still in its “pure” Silver-backed Butcherbird form, and clos¬ est to that of Black-backed Butcherbirds. Silver-backed and Grey cannot be regarded as the same species. Hybridization and gene flow has, we argue, occurred among species that are not closest relatives, that pattern of relationships having been established much earlier in butcherbird evolution. In other words, hybridization need not mean that the birds involved are closest relatives. A classification reflecting evolutionary history is not achieved by making Grey and Silver- backed the same species because of past gene flow. A very similar example concerns the Pale-headed, Northern, and Eastern Rosel- las. Pale-headed and Northern Rosellas are closest relatives and can be recognized as two species. Genes from the Pale-headed appear to have extensively “infiltrated” East¬ ern Rosellas of the mainland but not Tas¬ mania. Eastern Rosellas must nonetheless be regarded as a third species (Shipham et ah, 2015, 2017). Recognition in the 2017 Guide of the Copper-backed Quail-thrush as a species separate from the Chestnut Quail- thrush arose from an example of this kind of research into past gene flow having been explored (Dolman and Joseph, 2016). By telling us about the phylogeny — the evolutionary history or evolutionary foot¬ print of a species or population — we can learn something about biogeography: how species evolve as landscapes also evolve and climates change. They tell us that the Tasma¬ nian population of Eastern Ground Parrots, for example, still share genetic diversity with mainland eastern Australian populations despite current isolation by Bass Strait. The Western Ground Parrot, however, is weakly 227 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Joseph — A guide to the evolution and classification of Australian birds in 2017 but consistently differentiated in plumage and shares no diversity with any eastern birds for the piece of DNA so far studied (Murphy et ah, 201 1). Recognizing these as two species says that until we can demon¬ strate genetic connections between western and eastern populations, we interpret the available data as favouring the idea (‘hypoth¬ esis’) that they are two lineages not exchang¬ ing genes and that we should call them two species. Further, we can suggest why they look so similar: strong natural selection for camouflage to avoid predation. Indeed, the unquestionably different species, the Night Parrot, is in many ways not so different in appearance, so its plumage, too, is probably under similar long-term evolutionary pres¬ sure. This reiterates potential traps of rely¬ ing on differences in plumage. Australian populations of the Spectacled Monarch most definitely are two genetic groups with respect to mitochondrial DNA, but these in no way match geographical structure in their plum¬ age variation. Research is still in progress to examine why this is so; the answer, I suspect, will again involve how well we can under¬ stand intricacies of the population genetics of the species in its past. Lessons have been learned about how important it is to understand what we might call DNA’s own natural history. DNA studies of two pairs of Australian birds well illustrate one potential interpretative trap. One pair of species is the White-browed and Masked Woodswallows, and the other is the Grey and Chestnut Teals. What we have learned from these two pairs concerns multiple species that have diverged from their most recent common ancestor only very recently in evo¬ lutionary terms. It may be that we can see (or hear) very clearly that they are distinct spe¬ cies, Some of the DNA we study, especially mitochondrial DNA, may not have “caught up” yet, as it evolves more slowly than, say, plumage and the genes controlling plum¬ age differences. Certainly, in the teals and perhaps in the woodswallows, those genes may well even be located on the sex chro¬ mosomes, whereas their pool of diversity for mitochondrial DNA may still essentially be that of their common ancestor (Joseph et ah, 2006; Dhami et al., 2016). Alternatively, testing for a role of natural selection at the level of DNA itself can be critical. This has, we believe, led to the best approach to understanding some truly remarkable patterns of genetic diversity in the Eastern Yellow Robin. Within that species, there is a geographically structured but extraordinarily deep genetic break in mitochondrial DNA diversity between two groups of populations. The magnitude of this break is more typical of that seen between genera than within a species. We have argued, however, that it is best interpreted as evidence of selection on mitochondrial DNA, and that there is no need to alter subspecies or even species-level classifications (Morales et al., 2015, 2017). Geographical overlap of migratory and non-migratory populations also needs dis¬ entangling by field, museum and labora¬ tory work. The mystery of how many spe¬ cies should be recognized in the Cicadabird, which by our current understanding also occurs widely outside Australia, is a fine example (Pedersen et al., in press). I hope all this gives a taste of the complex¬ ity of these species-level problems and why they will be around for a while yet. Each case will be different. Patterns of relation¬ ships and what gene flow does or does not mean with regard to whether it is stopping divergence between two populations will be critical. The 2017 Guide is a treasure chest of 228 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Joseph —“A guide to the evolution and classification of Australian birds in 2017 the problems waiting for study. How many species are in the Purple Swamphen, Spinifex Pigeon, Red“tailed Black-Cockatoo, Hel- meted Friarbird, Spectacled Monarch and Cicadabird, to name a few? Are the three Pol- ytelis parrots (Superb, Regent and Princess) more closely related to each other than one or two of them are to other parrots? While reassuring our friends from 1935 and 1975 that we have made strides, they d delight in reminding us of the old maxim — - the more we learn, the more questions we find. And that is as it should be. Appendix Scientific names of species mentioned hut omit¬ ted in the text for clarity of reading Australian Brush-turkey Alectura lathami Plains-wanderer Pedionomus torquatus Magpie Goose Anseranas semipalmata White-browed Crake Amaurornis cinerea Spotted or Australian Crake Porzana fiu- minea Australian Spotless Crake Zapornia tabuensis {Porzana tabuensis in some texts) Baillons Crake Zapornia pusilla {Porzana pusilla in some texts) Grey Teal Anas gracilis Chestnut Teal Anas castanea Australasian Purple Swamphen Porphyria melanotus {Porphyrio porphyria in some texts) Hoatzin Opisthocamus hoazin Spinifex Pigeon Geophaps plumifera Budgerigar Melapsittacus undulatus Red-tailed Black-Cockatoo Calyptarhynchus banksii Superb Parrot Palytelis swainsanii Regent Parrot Palytelis anthopeplus Princess Parrot Palytelis alexandrae Pale-headed Rosella Platycercus adscitus Northern Rosella Platycercus venustus Eastern Rosella Platycercus eximius Eastern Ground Parrot Pezaporus wallicus Western Ground Parrot Pezaporus fiaviven- tris Night Parrot Pezoporus occidentalis Grey Grasswren Amytornis barbatus Eungella Honeyeater Bolemoreus hind- woodi Bridled Honeyeater Bolemoreus frenatus Yellow-plumed Honeyeater Ptilotula ornata Singing Honeyeater Gavicalis virescens Helmeted Friarbird Philemon buceroides Scrub-tit Acanthornis magna Copper-backed Quail-thrush Cinclosoma clarum Chestnut Quail-thrush Cinclosoma castano- tum Western Whipbird recently advocated to be Psophodes nigrogularis and Psophodes leucogaster Chirruping Wedgebill Psophodes cristatus Chiming Wedgebill Psophodes occidentalis Crested Shrike-tit Falcunuclus frontatus Spectacled Monarch Symposiachrus trivir- gatus Cicadabird Edoliisoma tenuirostre Grey Butcherbird Cracticus torquatus Black-backed Butcherbird Cracticus menta- lis Silver-backed Butcherbird Cracticus argen- teus White-browed ^oodswAlom Artamus super- ciliosus Masked Woodswallow Artamus personatus Eastern Yellow Robin Eopsaltria australis Acknowledgements I am very grateful to John Manger and Peter Menkhorst for their support in inviting me to write the piece (Joseph, 2017) on which the present article is based and for their per¬ mission to modify it here. Dr Robert Marks 229 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Joseph — A guide to the evolution and classification of Australian birds in 2017 kindly suggested its appearance here and I thank him for that support. J. Van Remsen offered comments on a draft, and I followed some of them! References Andersen, M.J., Nyari, A. S., Mason, L, Joseph, L., Dumbacher, J.P., Filardi, C.E. Moyle, R.G. 2014, Multi-locus phylogeography of the world’s most polytypic bird: the Pachycephala pectoralis/melanura species complex. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society^ 170, 566-588. doi: 10.1111/ zoj. 12088. Andersen, M.J., Hosner, P.A., Filardi, C.E., and Moyle, R.G. 2015. Phylogeny of the monarch flycatchers reveals extensive paraphyly and novel relationships within a major Australo-Pacific radiation. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 83, 118-136. Burleigh, J.G., Kimball, R.T., and Braun, E.L. 2015. Building the avian tree of life using a large-scale, sparse supermatrix. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 84, 53-63. Dhami, K., Joseph, L., Roshier, D., and Peters, J. 2016. Recent speciation and elevated Z-chromosome differentiation between a sexually dichromatic and monochromatic pair of Australian teals (Anatidae: Anas). Journal of Avian Biolog,y 47, 92-102. doi: 10.1111/jav.00693. Dolman, G. and Joseph, L. 2016. Multi¬ locus sequence data reveal Pleistocene speciation in semi-arid southern Australian birds {Cinclosoma spp.) was associated with increased genetic drift. BMC Evolutionary Biology, 16, 226. doi: 10.1 186/s 12862-0 16- 0798-6. Garcia-R., J.-C,, Gibb, G.C., andTrewick, S.A. 2014. Deep global evolutionary radiation in birds: Diversification and trait evolution in the cosmopolitan bird family Rallidae. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 8 1 , 96-108, Jarvis, E.D., Mirarab, S., Aberer, A.J., Li, B., Houde, P, [and 100 other authors]. 2014. Whole-genome analyses resolve early branches in the tree of life of modern birds. Science, 346, 1320-1331. doi: 10.1126/ science. 1253451 Joseph, L. 2017. A guide for birders to the evolution and classification of Australian birds. In Menkhorst, P, Rogers, D., Glarke, R., Davies, J., Marsack, P & Franklin, K., The Australian Bird Guide, CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, 23-29. Joseph, L. and Buchanan, K. L. 2015. A quantum leap in avian biology. Emu 115(1) 1-5. doi: 10.1071/MUvll5nUED Joseph, L. Nyari, A. and Andersen, M. 2014, Taxonomic consequences of cryptic speciation in the Golden Whistler Pachycephala pectoralis complex in mainland southern Australia. Zootaxa, 3900, 294-300. Joseph, L., Toon, A., Nyari, A. S,, Trueman, J. and Gardner, J. 2014. A new synthesis of the molecular systematics and biogeography of honeyeaters (Passeriformes: Meliphagidae) highlights biogeographical complexity of a spectacular avian radiation. Zoologica Scripta, 43, 235-248. dohlO.ll Ifl/zsc. 12049 Joseph, L., Wilke, T, Ten Have, J. and Chesser, R.T 2006. Implications of mitochondrial DNA polyphyly in two ecologically undifferentiated but morphologically distinct migratory birds, the Masked and White- browed Woodswallows Artamus spp. of inland Australia. Journal of Avian Biology, 37, 625-636. Kearns, A., Joseph, L., Toon, A. and Cook, L. 2014. Australia’s arid-adapted butcherbirds experienced range expansions during Pleistocene glacial maxima. Nature Communications 5, 3994 doi: 10.1038/ ncomms4994. Longmore, N.W and Boles, WE. 1983. Description and systematics of the Eungella Honeyeater Meliphaga hindwoodi, a new species of honeyeater from central eastern Queensland, Australia. Emu, 83, 59-65. Marki, P.Z.L., Jonsson K.A., Irestedt, M., Nguyen, J.M.T, Rahbek, C., and Fjeldsa, J. 2017. Supermatrix phylogeny and biogeography of the Australasian Meliphagides radiation (Aves: Passeriformes). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 1 07, 516-529. 230 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Joseph —A guide to the evolution and classification of Australian birds in 2017 Menkhorst, R, Rogers, D., Clarke, R., Davies, J., Marsack, P. and Franklin, K. 2017. The Australian Bird Guide. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne. Mitchell, KJ., Llamas, B., Soubrier, J., Rawlence, N.J., Worthy, T.H., Wood, J., Lee, M.S.Y., and Cooper, A. 2014. Ancient DNA reveals elephant birds and kiwi are sister taxa and clarifies ratite bird evolution. Science, 344, 898-900. Morales, H.E., Pavlova, A., Joseph, L., and Sunnucks, P. 2015. Positive and purifying selection in mitochondrial genomes of a bird with mitonuclear discordance. Molecular Ecology, 24, 2820-2837. doi: 10.1111/ mec. 13203. Morales, H., Pavlova, A., Joseph, L., and Sunnucks, R 2017. Perpendicular axes of incipient speciation generated by mitochondrial introgression. Online early 19 April 2017. Molecular Ecology, doi: 10.1 1 1 1/ mec.l4l 14. Murphy, S., Joseph, L., Burbidge, A. and Austin, J. 201 1. A cryptic and critically endangered species revealed by mitochondrial DNA analyses — the Western Ground Parrot. Conservation Genetics, 12, 595-600. doi: 10.1007/sl0592-010-0l6l-l Nyari, A. and Joseph, L. 2011. Systematic dismantlement of Lichenostomus improves the basis for understanding relationships within the honeyeaters (Meliphagidae) and historical development of Australo-Papuan bird communities. Emu, 111, 202-2 1 1 . Pedersen, M.P, Irestedt, M., Joseph, L., Rahbek, C., and Jonsson, K.A. In review. Phylogeography of a “great speciator” (Aves: Edolisoma tenuirostre) reveals complex dispersal and diversification dynamics across the Indo-Pacific. Accepted Journal of Bio^eo^raphy, 4 December 2017, doi: 10.1111/jbi.l3182 Prum, R.O., Berv, J.S., Dornburg, A., Field, D.J., Townsend, J.P, Lemmon, E.M. and Lemmon, A.R. 2015. A comprehensive phylogeny of birds (Aves) using targeted next- generation DNA sequencing. Nature, 526, 569-573. doi: 10.1 038/nature 1 5697. Shipham, A., Schmidt, D., Joseph, L. and Hughes, J. 2015. Phylogenetic analysis of the Australian rosella parrots {Platycercus) reveals discordance among molecules and plumage. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 9 1 , 150-159. doi:10.10l6/j.ympev.2015.05.012. Shipham, A., Joseph, L., Schmidt, D. and Hughes, J.H. 2017. A genomic approach reinforces a hypothesis of mitochondrial capture in eastern Australian rosellas. The Auk, 134, 181-192. doi: 10. 1642/AUK- 16-3 1.1. Sibley, C.G. and Ahlquist, J.E. 1985. The phylogeny and classification of the Australo- Papuan passerine birds. Emu, 85, 1—14. http:/ / dx.doi.org/ 1 0. 1 07 1 / mu985000 1 Toon, A., Hughes, J. and Joseph, L. 2010. Multilocus analysis of honeyeaters (Aves: Meliphagidae) highlights the spatio- temporal heterogeneity in the influence of biogeographic barriers in the Australian monsoonal zone. Molecular Ecology, 19, 2980-2994. doi: 10.1 1 1 l/j.l365- 294X.20 10.04730.x Toon, A., Joseph, L. and Burbidge, A. 2013. Genetic analysis of the Australian whipbirds and wedgebills illuminates the evolution of their plumage and vocal diversity. Emu, 113, 359-366. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ MU13005. 231 Journal dr Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, vol. 150, part 2, 2017, pp. 232-245. ISSN 0035-9173/17/020232-14 Creative foundations. Hie Royal Society of New South Wales; 1867 and 2017 Ann Moyal Emeritus Fellowship, ANU, Canberra, Australia Email: moyal.ann@gmail.com .Abstract There have been two key foundations in the history of the Royal Society of New South Wales. The first at its creation as a Royal Society in 1 867, shaped significantly by the Colonial savant, geologist the Rev. W. B. Clarke, assisted by a corps of pioneering scientists concerned to develop practical sci- entific knowledge in the colony of N.S.W, And the second, under the guidance of President Donald Hector 2012-2016 and his counsellors, fostering a vital “renaissance” in the Society's affairs to bring the high expertise of contemporary scientific and transdisciplinary members to confront the complex socio-techeo-economic problems of a challenging twenty-first century, fcC^’T'^his country is so dead to all that X concerns the life of the mind”, the scholarly newcomer the Rev. W. B. Clarke wrote to his mother in England in Septem¬ ber 1839 shortly after his a.rrival in New South Wales (Moyal, 2003, p. 10). But a man with a future, he quickly took up the offer of the editor of The Sydney Herald^ John Stokes, to contribute to the paper on sci¬ ence, and with John Fairfax’s proprietorship of the renamed Sydney Morning Herald in 1841, Clarke launched a series of twenty unsigned articles entitled 'Meteorology as applicable to Australia in January 1842 and followed it in July-December 1 842 with a second unsigned series, Australasi- ana,\ in which he sought to bring local sci¬ entific discoveries before the public and to call upon colonists “through the habit of observation” to make useful contributions to natural science. Thereafter across the next two decades Clarke became The Sydney Morning Heralds, major contributor of arti¬ cles, letters, scientific reports and editorials, (sometimes anonymous, or with cryptic sig¬ natures) on a span of topics that embraced geology, meteorology, climate, mineralogy, the natural sciences, earthquakes, volcanoes, comets, storms, inland and maritime explo¬ ration and its discoveries which gave singular impetus to the newspapers role as a media pioneer in the communication of science (Organ, 1992). With only three scientific institutions in mid-century New South Wales — the Royal Botanic Gardens, the Parramatta Observa¬ tory and the Australian Museum — the sci¬ entific community was small. The Australian Philosophical Society, formed in 1850 (as a post-event of Governor Brisbane’s fleeting Philosophical Society of Australasia of 1 82 1), was renamed the Philosophical Society of New South Wales in 1855 and gained some vigour under the presidency (1856-61) of the scientifically-minded Governor-General of the Colonies, Sir William Denison. Yet by 1 866, stirred by the establishment of the new universities of Sydney (1852) and Mel¬ bourne (1855), the growth of museums and observatories, and the advent of a major geo- 232 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Waxes Moyal—' Creative foundations. The Royal Society of New South Wales: 1867 and 2017 logical survey in gold-rich Victoria, a view gained currency that the historical concept of a ' Philosophical’ society no longer reflected a community with diverse scientific interests and an expanding government commitment to science. With the assistance of the Gov¬ ernor, Sir John Young, the Royal Society of New South Wales gained Royal assent in 1866 and was formally established in 1867, the third society in Australia to acquire the Royal title, following the Royal Society of Van Diemen’s Land in 1 832 (renamed Royal Society of Tasmania in 1911), and the Royal Society of Victoria in 1859. In this forward thrust, Clarke, a long-time councillor and Vice-President of the Philosophical Society, was a prime mover. By the end of the ’fifties William Bran- white Clarke was the most strategically placed scientist in the Colony. Arriving from Britain to take up his profession as an Anglican clergyman in Sydney in May 1839, he had received geological training with Adam Sedgwick at Cambridge Uni¬ versity, published papers on aspects of Brit¬ ish and Continental geology, was a Fellow of the prestigious Geological Society of London and arrived in the Colony as the first trained geologist to settle in Australia. While he earned his way as a churchman, Clarke early began his pioneering geological excur¬ sions, publishing papers in Britain and the Colonies and communicating new findings to the Sydney press. Importantly, through his service to Government on a variety of committees on artesian water and gold and, notably, through his role as Geological Sur¬ veyor appointed by government in 1 85 1—53 to conduct surveys of the mineral wealth of New South Wales excursions that yielded twenty detailed reports published by the Legislative Council of New South Wales and distilled through The Sydney Morning Herald — Clarke had emerged as a leading savant, a prominent player in negotiating science, and a household name. He had become, in eflFect, what British historian of science, James Moore, defined in Britain’s scientific community, as the owner of intellectual “scientific credit”, one who, offering support and advancement to others, carried “symbolic capital” (Moore, 1996). As a researcher, Clarke had also developed strong connections outside the Colony as an honorary member of the New Zealand Society, a life Fellow of the Royal Geo¬ graphical Society, a member of the Societe Geologique de France, and, strikingly, had fostered and continued to foster a substan¬ tial correspondence with intercolonial and international scientists in the natural and physical sciences. Combining many parts, he was elected senior Vice-President of the new Royal Society of New South Wales and, at the age of 69, played a key part in the Society’s formative first seven years. One hundred and eight men signed the Membership List of the new Royal Society in 1867. Their collective company repre¬ sented a wide community of men of differ¬ ing pursuits and ages who shared a sense of buoyancy at the opportunities for fresh initiatives and knowledge in the Colony. Made up of senior civil servants from the Colonial Departments of Lands, Works, Mining, Land Titles, Telegraph, Publishing, the Colonial Secretary, the Attorney-General, the Colonial Architect, the Surveyor-Gen¬ eral, and professional scientists from Sydney Observatory, the Botanic Gardens, the Aus¬ tralian Museum and the Mint, two professors from Sydney University, they also included independent astronomers, entomologists and natural scientists, an array of physi- 233 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South '^les Moyal ”= Creative foundations. The Royal Society of New South Wales: 1867 and 2017 clans and clergymen with scientific inter¬ ests, several MLC s and MLAs and two staff members from The Sydney Morning Herald. They hence included an association of play¬ ers both involved professionally in aspects of scientific and technological progress in New South Wales, together with a corps of independent participants with research pub¬ lications and overseas experience and a lively interest in the natural sciences ( Transactions, 1867, 1, pp. xi™xiii)h It was to this newly founded learned society that W. B. Clarke gave the Inau¬ gural Address on 6 July 1867 as first Vice- President, a position he would hold until his death in 1878. Considering the concept of a “philosophical” society as no longer alone appropriate to national ends, he offered a broad and practical vision for the future: “Let us perform our own proper work [he said], not caring whether we ever arrive at complete knowledge of the methods by which the Universe was formed and per¬ fected. We have before us in this Colony a vast region, much of which is still untrod¬ den ground. We have, as it were, a new heaven for Astronomy and a new earth for Geology. We have climatical condi¬ tions of the Atmosphere, which are not to be viewed by us merely as phenomena interesting to the Meteorologist. We have facts to accumulate relating to Droughts and Floods which have a deep financial and social importance. We have a super¬ ficial area which may engage the atten¬ tion of Surveyors, Agriculturalists, and Engineers for years to come. We have unrevealed magazines of mineral wealth in which Chemists and Miners may find employment for ages after we shall all have ’ See http://www>biocliversitylibrary;org/page/40522032 mingled with our parent earth. All that we have to trouble ourselves with, is the right interpretation and development of these physical riches, so bountifully spread around and beneath us for our investiga¬ tion and use” (Clarke, 1867, p 26). It was relevant that in the decade when The Origin of Species was in discussion in the Col¬ onies and Clarke himself was in correspond¬ ence with Charles Darwin, his conclusion was open and germane. “We must strive to discern clearly, understand fully, and report faithfully; to love truth in things physical as in things moral; to adjure hasty theories and unsupported conjectures; where we are in doubt not to be positive; to give our brother observer the same measure of credit we take to ourselves; not striving for mastery, but leaving time for the formation of the judg¬ ment which will inevitably be given, whether for or against us, by those who come after; contented if we are able to add but one grain to that enduring pyramid which is now in course of erection as the testimony of Nature to the truth of Revelation.”^ Within the Colony’s scientific activi¬ ties, astronomy was in the ascendant. Ever since Governor Brisbane’s establishment of the Parramatta Observatory in 1821, the resulting publication of the first major star catalogue of the southern hemisphere. The Parramatta Catalogue of 7,385 Stars (1838), had focused international attention on Aus¬ tralian astronomy and fostered its develop¬ ment. With the closure of the Parramatta 2 Like many key scientists in the Australian Colonies and in Britain and the United States, Clarke remained a 'Separate Creationist’ all his days. Corresponding with Darwin in August 1861 on receipt of The Origin, the first page of his letter of greeting is missing from the Darwin Correspondence held in Cambridge. The full letter relates to geological findings (Moyal, 2003, vol 1. pp 551-2) with the evolutionist. 234 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Moyal--“ Creative foundations. The Royal Society of New South Wales: 1867 and 2017 Observatory in 1848, work began in 1856 on construction of the Sydney Observatory and the Rev. William Scott, a Cambridge wrangler and lecturer in mathematics from Sydney Sussex College, Cambridge, was appointed Government Astronomer. Scott oversaw the Observatory’s construction at Flagstaff Flill, began meridian observations on the position of certain stars, and with an Equatorial telescope of a 7.25-inch aperture began observations of comets (ADB, 6). Both Scott and the brilliant locally born astronomer, John Tebbutt, Jr., were early members of the Royal Society. Exploring the southern heavens with an ordinary ship’s tel¬ escope and sextant from his home at Wind¬ sor, New South Wales, 27-year-old Tebbutt had the grand experience of discovering the ‘great comet” of 1861 and enlarging the rep¬ utation of Australia’s astronomical science. Tebbutt built his own modest observatory at Windsor, independently maintaining a remarkable series of accurate descriptions on comets, occultations on stars by the moon, eclipses, transits of Jupiter’s satellites, variable stars and double stars, and the positions of minor planets, all of which were invaluable to world astronomers. He proved a prolific sharer of his scientific knowledge, report¬ ing his cometary observations in 6 1 research papers and in the press, publishing Mete¬ orological Observations made at the Private Observatory of John Tebbutt Jnr, and produc¬ ing some 300 papers in scientific journals. Tebbutt won the title of Australia’s greatest nineteenth-century astronomer (Bhathal, 1993; Moyal, 1976, pp 133“5). Drawing on experience at the Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope, and as lecturer in mathematics at Kings College, London, George R. Smalley succeeded Scott as Government Astronomer in 1864. He shared the Vice-Presidency of the Society with Clarke and contributed several papers on astronomy to the Transactions before his unexpected death in 1870 (ADB, 5). The astronomers were served by the expertise of another Society member, the scientific instru¬ ment maker, Angelo Tornaghi. Born in Milan, Tornaghi came to Australia in 1858 to super¬ vise the installation of instruments at the FlagstaflF Observatory, and set up a scientific instrument, optical and clock-making busi¬ ness in Sydney, which became a major source of expertise supplying instruments and build¬ ing and servicing telescopes for the Colony’s professional and amateur astronomers. The fields of biology and zoology were also richly represented in the Society. Dr George Bennett, a practising zoologist in the Colony since 1836, had trained as a medical doctor at the Hunterian School of Medicine, London, where he began a life¬ long friendship with fellow student Richard Owen. His research centred on the kangaroo and other marsupials, and the monotremes; he published Wanderings of a Naturalist in New South Wales, Batavia, Singapore and China (1834) and Gatherings of a Naturalist in Australasia (1860). Settled in Sydney as a physician, Bennett served as Secretary of the Colonial Museum 1836—42. His long life of field research exemplified the vital link forged between science at the periphery and the metropolis in his sustained contri¬ bution of biological specimens of marsupi¬ als, monotremes, and the fossil remains of extinct marsupials to Professor Owen, the towering leader of British comparative anat¬ omy and palaeontology (Newland, 1991; Moyal, 1976, p 896). By contrast at the Australian Museum, the German zoologist, Johann Gerard Krefft, marked an independent-minded researcher 235 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South "^^^es Moyal— “Creative foundations. The Royal Society of New South Wales: 1867 and 2017 and author who sought local authority for his Australian work. Emigrating to the Vic¬ torian goldfields in 1857, he became Curator at the Australian Museum in 1 864. A Fellow of the Linnaean Society of London and a correspondent of the Zoological Society of London, Krefft was the author of Snakes in Australia (1869) and Mammals of Australia (1871) and had the distinction of being an early and articulate Darwinian in Aus¬ tralia (ADB, 5; Moyal, 1976, pp 822—3). Charles Moore, trained at Kew Gardens and appointed as Colonial Botanist in New South Wales, developed a scientific herbar¬ ium at Sydney and as Director of the Botanic Gardens became an active member of the Royal Society’s Council (ADB, 5). The Society’s membership in applied sci¬ ence evolved through staff members from the Sydney Branch of the Royal Mint. Its first Deputy Master, Captain Edward Ward, appointed in 1854, became an influential figure in Sydney, a member of the Philo¬ sophical Society of New South Wales, and a Corresponding member of the Royal Soci¬ ety when he moved in 1 869 to establish the Melbourne Branch of the Royal Mint.^ Legal tender was at last established in the Colonies in 1857. Robert Hunt, Deputy Master from 1865, was a Society member, while Dr Adolph (Carl) Leibius, trained in chemistry in Ger¬ many at the University of Heidelberg and in analytical and assaying chemistry in London, joined the Mint in 1859 and, a contributor to the Transactions with his colleague and Fellow member Francis Miller, was later 3 His creative first Assayer, and member of the former Society, was the remarkable young William Stanley Jevons, whose rich, if reclusive, intellectual period spent in Sydney from 1854-59 led to his distinguished career as an economist (both theoretical and applied) and social theorist in England (Marks, 2016). destined to play an active role as Honorary Secretary of the Royal Society. There, too, was Thomas Mort, businessman and entre¬ preneur, who from 1866 financed experi¬ ments and ideas in refrigeration machinery (ADB, 5). Civil servant members of the Society exhibited a range of talents. The Colonial Architect, James Barnet, a man of striking creative achievement across his long career, 1865“90, built courthouses, police stations, post offices including Sydney’s distinguished General Post Office, the Customs House, the Public Library, the Medical School of the University of Sydney, and finally Sydney’s famous International Exhibition building, the Garden Palace Building, made of glass and iron, to showcase the Colony’s resources and activities. His buildings, it was said, “took the public taste”. Of eclectic interests, Barnet published A Monograph of Australian Land Shells (1868) (ADB, 3). E. C. Cracknell, Superintendent of Tel¬ egraphs in New South Wales, brought the transformative new technology of the tel¬ egraph to the Colony. Emigrating to Aus¬ tralia from Britain as technical assistant to the newly appointed Astronomer of South Australia, Charles Todd, in 1855 Cracknell moved to Sydney as assistant superintend¬ ent in 1858. The Colony was soon ringed about with electric telegraph lines — that 'Most Wonderful Invention’ — while, as Superintendent from 1861, Cracknell built connections with the stretching intercolonial telegraph networks and in January 1876 offi¬ ciated at the joining of the cable connection from Botany Bay to New Zealand to link the seven “Australasian Colonies”. The medical contingent in the Society, numbering some eight doctors including Dr Bennett and the respected Rev. Dr John 236 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Moyal"-“ Creative foundations. The Royal Society of New South Wales: 1867 and 2017 Dunmore Lang, held other engaged partici¬ pants. Dr James Cox FRCS, pastoralist and merino breeder (an editor of The Stud Book of New South Wales), founded the local Lin- nean Society, was elected a Fellow of the Lin- nean Society of London, and was a dedicated conchologist, publishing several editions of that popular colonial topic, Monograph on Australian Land Shells (1858) (ADB, 3). Dr John Le Gay Brereton, poet and prose writer, was also numbered among the members while Charles Nathan, trained at Westmin¬ ster Hospital School of Medicine, founded the New South Wales Branch of the British Medical Association, was a member of the N.S.W Medical Board, a founding member of the University Senate, and was the doctor called upon when the Duke of Edinburgh was wounded in an assassination attempt in March 1868 (ADB, 5). Edward Bedford FRCS, surgeon, politician and public servant during an eminent medical career in Hobart, emigrated to Sydney in 1863 where he was appointed medical adviser to the New South Wales government. He joined the Society in 1864 and contributed several papers to the Transactions also serving from 1867-74 as Honorary Treasurer. (ADB, 3, obituary; Clarke, 1876, p 11). Most important to the character of the new Society, however, was the influence of the University. From the beginning, Sydney University took its cue from London Uni¬ versity, with its strong emphasis on scientific chairs, planning four in mathematics; anat¬ omy, physiology and medicine; chemistry and experimental physics; and natural history. To the vocal disappointment ofT. H. Huxley, an eager candidate for the proposed but dis¬ carded natural history chair (Moyal, 1976, pp. 98—100). John Smith M.D., lecturer in chemistry from Aberdeen University, was the first academic science appointment as Profes¬ sor of Chemistry and Experimental Physics at Sydney in 1852, together with the first Pro¬ fessor of Mathematics, Morris Birkbeck Pell, 1852—76. Smiths research interests were in water analysis and educational policy and he served on many commissions. Pell’s teaching in Mathematics underwrote its teaching as a compulsory subject in the Bachelor of Arts degree, and its impact proved crucial. Henry Chamberlain Russell, born and educated in Maitland, New South Wales, graduated in physics and chemistry with a BA degree in 1858 and was at once appointed “computer” at the Sydney Observatory, rising to Acting Director 1 862--4, and Government Astrono¬ mer on Smalley’s death in 1870. As such, he was the first graduate from Sydney University to rise to eminence and influence in Colonial science. Russell’s work in astronomy, meteor¬ ology and geophysical science was far-reach¬ ing. Equipping a huge number of meteoro¬ logical stations in New South Wales with his privately designed self-recording instruments, he based his pioneering papers on Australian weather and the cyclic behaviour of climate on this accumulated mass of evidence. He also published the first Australian Weather Map in The Sydney Morning Herald, 3 Feb¬ ruary 1877^. In astronomy, Russell gained international prominence in organizing Aus¬ tralia’s observations of the transit of Venus in December 1874 and in his pioneering stellar and lunar photography of the Milky Way and Magellanic Clouds and large stars. A formidable contributor to the Royal Society, (he published some 69 papers in its Journal and numerous works elsewhere), he followed Clarke’s steps in becoming a three-time Vice- President of the Society. He was elected a ^ See http://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/ 13389140/1438919 237 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Moyal — Creative foundations. Tlie Royal Society of New South Wales: 1867 and 2017 Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1881 (ADB, 6; Bhathal, 1991; Moyal, 1976, pp 832-^3). In December 1866, Dr A. M. Thomson, one of London University’s first doctors of science, with experience at the Royal School of Mines, arrived at Sydney University as Reader in Geology, marking an important extension in science. Working also as assist¬ ant in chemistry to Professor Smith, he published a number of pioneering geologi¬ cal papers and a Guide to mineral explorers in distinguishing minerals, ores and gems (1869) and was posted as the first Professor of Geology at the University in 1870 where he taught “very up-to-date- courses”, gave popular public lectures and opened science teaching to senior students at Sydney Gram¬ mar School. Thomson was rapidly recruited to the Royal Society where he became a member of Council in 1870 and a key con¬ tributor. His brilliant young life, however, was cut short as an outcome of his work with Gerard Krefft in the excavation and examination of fossils of extinct marsupi¬ als in 1869 in the damp Wellington Caves (Moyal, 1976, pp. 206—211). He died in 1871, a significant loss to the Colony, the Society, and to Clarke, for whom, through their close geological collaboration, he had become a “scientific son.” Such, in sum, was the diverse company of the Royal Society when it gathered its members together to begin a new creative epoch in its affairs. It fell to George Smalley, the second Vice- President, to indicate the progress made in the Society in its first year in his Opening Address to members on 3 June 1868. With the new name, he declared “we are exhibiting signs of fresh vitality”. Smalley pressed the value of “meeting in a social manner” and judged that in the long history of establish¬ ing societies for the advancement of science, art and literature, “In a young community, a society such as this is the only one likely to be appreciated in promoting the advancement of art and science with an energy adequate to meet the requirement”. “Great things”, he predicted “grow out of small beginnings”, and he hoped that women, whom he con¬ sidered “neither uninterested nor unappre¬ ciative of science” and “not incapable of understanding it”, would not only “grace with their presence at the Conversationes of this society, but sometimes attend the ordinary meetings” (Smalley, 1868, p. 8). It was a view that took root in the establish¬ ment of the periodic social public assemblies that were held by the Society from 1873 and greatly enlarged its audiences. Volume 1 of the of Society’s Transactions of their first year of meetings was published in 18685. With papers from Clarke, Smalley, Krefft, and Pell, it covered topics as wide as ‘On the Auriferous and other Metallifer¬ ous Districts of Northern Queensland’, ‘The Mutual Influence of Clock Pendulums’, ‘The Vertebrates of Tasmania, recent specimens and fossils’, and ‘On the Rates and Expecta¬ tion of Life in New South Wales compared with England and other Countries’. Vol¬ umes 2 and 3 of the Transactions, present¬ ing papers of 1868-9, extended the ranged. There was Dr Alfred Roberts ' On the Hos¬ pital Requirements of Sydney’, Clarke 'On the Causes and Phenomena of Earthquakes, especially in relation to the shocks felt in New South Wales, and in other provinces of 5 See https://royalsoc.org.au/council-members-sectioii/ 73- jprocrsnsw-vol-l 6 See https:// royalsoc.org.au/ council-members-section/ 74- jprocrsnsw-vol-2 and https://royalsoc,org.au/ council-members-section/75-jprocrsnsw-vol-3 238 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Waxes Moyal— "Creative foundations. The Royal Society of New South Wales: 1867 and 2017 Australasia’, Smalleys 'On the value of Earth Temperatures’, Russell’s 'Tables for Calculat¬ ing the Humidity of the Air’, Smith ' On the Water Supply of Sydney’ and ‘On the results of the Chemical Examination of Waters for the Sydney Water Commission’, Dunmore Lang ‘On the Origin and Migration of the Polynesian Nation, Edward Cracknell on the Electric Telegraph, mathematician Martin Gardiner’s contributions on ‘New Hieorems in the Geometry of Three Dimen¬ sions’ and ‘Improving Solutions of Problems in Trigonometrical Surveying’, R B. Miller ‘On Refining Gold by Means of Chlorine Gas’, A. Leibius ‘On a New Apparatus for Reducing Chlorine of Silver’ and Alexander Thomson’s ‘Notes on the Geology of the country around Goulburn’. Investigative advances had been made and serious scien¬ tific information transferred. By 1 869 forty new members had joined the Society. W. B. Clarke’s part in the expansion of the Society’s new mode drew strongly on his reputation and continuing scholarly work. Touching 70, his nets never dried; he remained the senior geologist in the country. Retiring from his large parish of St. Tho¬ mas’s Church, North Sydney in 1870, he became deeply engaged in bringing his long researches and collections on the stratigra¬ phy of the country to fruitful conclusion in a lengthy correspondence with the dis¬ tinguished Belgian palaeontologist Laurent de Koninck, Professor of Palaeontology and Chemistry at Liege University, conducted entirely in French. ^ 7 From 1864-77 de Koninck undertook the classifi¬ cation of Clarke’s Devonian, Silurian and Carbon¬ iferous specimens, lists of which Clarke published as an Appendix to the 4* edition of his Remarks on the Sedimentary Formations of New South Wales^ 1878. De Koninck’s Recherches sur lesfossiles palaeozoic de la Nouvelle-Galles du Sud (Australie) 1 876-77 describing In addition to his own work, Clarke used his “scientific credit” to influence the Queensland Government to appoint two geological surveyors, dropped from the disbanded Geological Survey under Alfred Selwyn in Victoria, to new survey posts in Queensland Christopher Aplin in South¬ ern Queensland and Richard Daintree in the North where their pointers to gold proved invaluable in stimulating the gold rushes in that Colony. Their geological find¬ ings along with that of scattered others found their way as major contributions to knowl¬ edge through the Anniversary Addresses which Clarke, as Vice-President, delivered to the Society and in the many papers he wrote for the Transactions. Drawing on a substantial survey of new information on diamonds and other minerals, he reported in his Vice-Presidential Address of 22 May 1872, “We have now evidence that Eastern Australia is what I have often stated, one vast field of mineral wealth. From north to south, and from the coast to the 4h^ meridian, the western boundary of New South Wales, we know that coal, gold, copper, tin, and, in many places, lead, and other minerals of less local importance, are found in abundance” (Clarke, 1872, p 38). Clarke was also a great encourager of younger members in other disciplines. H. C. Russell wrote to him calling on his exper¬ tise on weather, climate, floods, storms, tides and coastal elevation and the vary¬ ing appearance and disappearance of Lake George. Informing letters also came to him from Gerard Krefft, to whom he gave strong support during the 1870’s, while the warm collegiate correspondence and exchange some 266 of Clarke’s fossil specimen was finally pub¬ lished in English by T. W. E. David, Mrs David and W. S. Dun in 1898 (Moyal, 1976, p 668). 239 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South "^les Moyal— Creative foundations. The Royal Society of New South Wales: 1867 and 2017 Clarke enjoyed with Alexander Thomson underscored his role as mentor, savant and collaborative forward thinker. Clarke was a polymath in mid- to late-nineteenth century Australian science and his careful retention of a vast colonial, intercolonial and interna¬ tional correspondence conducted from 1 840 to 1876 illuminated his unique part.^ For the first seven years of the Royal Soci¬ ety, Clarke emerged as the thread on which many matters hung. As his sometime fellow Vice-President, Professor John Smith, saw it, “he was a centre around which all facts and discoveries were sure to group them¬ selves” (Moyal, 1976, p. 57). Challenges were abundant; membership fees proved tardy; there was the need over several years for a permanent home for the Society and for a growing Library. There was also need for a wider than local emphasis, and Clarke, as an Honorary member himself of several overseas societies, early advocated extending reciprocity to other societies and offering Honorary Fellowships to reputed scientists in the Colonies and overseas. Centrally, a government stipend was urgently required to support and enhance the publications of a society which, in Clarke s words, “was performing a very important service to the community” (Clarke, 1876, pp 3-4). In one arena, the press, the early Royal Society was singularly well supported. Pro¬ prietor John Fairfax was a member of the Society from its foundation and the prac¬ tice of The Sydney Morning Herald in giving prominent place in its front pages to the Annual Addresses and extracts of papers from the Society’s meetings the following day, in addition to its sustained scientific 8 W. B, Clarke was one of the few scientists in the Colony who preserved his personal correspondence for posterity. journalism, offered a strong and continuing image of public science. As Clarke early told Richard Owen, the newspaper “was the sci¬ entific journal of the Colony” (Moyal, 1976, p 1 0). Overall there was Societal growth: 116 members were reported in 1873--4, 155 in 1875, and 170 in 1876 (Clarke, 1875, p 6). As membership grew, other proposals envis¬ aged a division into Subsections that would encourage greater concourse among special¬ ists in different disciplinary arena. “When these separate parts are brought together,” said Clarke, “all of them assist towards com¬ pletion of the whole object” (Clarke, 1876, p 7). Enunciated by Clarke, these ideas were swiftly taken up and acted upon by the young Archibald Liversidge, who arrived as Reader in Geology and Assistant in the Laboratory at the University in 1872 in suc¬ cession to Thomson, and joined the Society’s Council in 1873. As Liversidge s biographer recounts, “Clarke had set the Society on its course of reconstruction in July 1 867, he had inspired Russell and Liversidge to action in May 1875; now it was Clarke who carried the tablets from the mountain” (MacLeod, p 162). Acting in concert as Honorary Secre¬ taries, Liversidge and Russell shouldered the Society’s practical needs of finally securing some government funding to create a perma¬ nent premise, editing and adding scientific illustration to the Transactions and Journal, encouraging public science through well attended ' conversationes’, and steering the formation of Sections. Clarke gave his final Anniversary Address to the Society on 1 May 1876. As the Soci¬ ety’s shaper, he had stood essentially on the cusp between amateur and independent engagement with science and its increasing professionalization. With gathering pleas¬ ure, he saw that there had been consider- 240 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Moyal— Creative foundations. The Royal Society of New South Wales: 1867 and 2017 able progress in the Society and that the first two elected Honorary Fellows, James Hector from New Zealand and Professor de Koninck from Belgium, would recognise that they had become members of a society that was both “active and vigorous”. It was a society “which had already contributed much useful information”. It was not Promethean science. His central theme remained a constant. “Our true position”, he reminded his audience, “is that of pioneers, sowers, foundation layers; and in that respect we have assuredly an honourable occupation... As such I have aspired to take a part . . . sometimes scatter¬ ing a seed for thought here and there — - and sometimes adding a pebble to what hereaf¬ ter will, I hope, see itself surmounted by a superstructure of enduring reputation, when you and I will have long passed beyond the heats of controversy... Let us do what we can to serve honestly our day and generation” (Clarke, 1876, pp 32-3). The Council viewed his contribution in larger terms and in 1875 commissioned Giulio Anivitti, an Italian artist recently appointed instructor in painting and draw¬ ing at the new Art Training School in Sydney, to paint Clarkes portrait. Decked in a cas¬ sock with a foreground of a globe and a substantial book, Clarke hoped that his portrait “might look down upon a flourish¬ ing Association of men”. A greater recog¬ nition, however, was to come. On 1 June 1786 the Rev. W. B. Clarke, after a long and fertile scientific life, was elected Fellow of the Royal Society of London, his nomination proposed by four notable Fellows, Charles Darwin, William Stanley Jevons, Robert Lowe (former N.S.W. lawyer and politician and from 1868-73 Gladstones Chancel¬ lor of the Exchequer), and James Hector. “The Council,” wrote the Society’s Secretary enthusiastically, “fully acknowledges your claims, and both Hooker and Huxley were warm in your favour, so that you came in, it maybe said, triumphantly” (Moyal, 1976, pp 56, 65). Jevons, well known to Clarke when serving as assayer at the Mint, sent words to praise him. “You have founded the geology of a new continent,” he graciously wrote early in November 1876, “and I might also say founded a Royal Society of your own” (Moyal, 1976, p 1147). It fell to H. C. Russell as a new Vice-Pres¬ ident in May 1 877 to sum up the progress achieved by the Society since its foundation. “Allow me to congratulate you upon our flourishing condition,” he declared. “With 1 32 members added to our number during the year, seven working sections, 1000 books added to our library, and friendly relations established with no less than 107 kindred societies scattered over all parts of the world” and “a fair prospect of help from a liberal government to carry out our purposes ... we have good reason to congratulate ourselves” (Russell, 1877, pp 1—2). Clarke, still actively engaged with his geo¬ logical affairs, died on 16 June 1878. The Clarke Medal awarded for meritorious con¬ tributions to the natural sciences, (defined subsequently in geology, biology and zoology presented in alternate years) was dated from 1878. It marked the first scientific Medal awarded in Australia. An enduring legacy from the Society’s foundation, a hundred and thirty-eight Clarke Medals have been awarded to date to distinguished leaders in their fields. 9 9 Attuned to his Association of men’, Clarke would doubtless be surprised, yet perhaps gladly, that four Clarke Medals have been won by women in geology, and six in the botanical and biological sciences. 241 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wm.es Moyal — Creative foundations. The Royal Society of Ne’w South Wales: 1867 and 2017 2017 One hundred and fifty years have elapsed since the founding of the Royal Society of New South Wales, which recent president, Dr Donald Hector, has claimed as “the lead¬ ing learned institution of its type in Australia and in the Southern Hemisphere.” For well over a century [he suggests] , it was the lead¬ ing learned institution in N.S.W. and, argu¬ ably, in Australia.” (Hector, 2014, p 1). Func¬ tioning across decades Societies such as this have all experienced varied epochs of progress, zenith, and change (Branagan, 1972). Cur¬ rently, however. Dr Hector as President from 2012—16, has become the torch bearer in a movement to effect a “renaissance” in the Royal Society to meet a new and increasingly complex environment for science and its community and “to re-establish the Society as a leader in the intellectual life of N.S.W. and of the country” (Hector, 2016, p 5). Hector s motive, and that of his Council, springs from the perception that the Soci¬ ety’s intellectual contribution has suffered a dilution of influence over recent decades arising from factors that include the advent of the four learned academies, increasing specialization in the scientific disciplines and in their publications, and a diminishment of communication across the disciplines. Moreover, while in its founding days, the Society of 1 867 had before it “a new heaven for Astronomy and a new earth for geol¬ ogy”, in the century it has come to face a force of complex socio-techno-economic problems that are transdisciplinary, national and global in their crucial challenge. Is there an answer? Focusing on mankind’s “remarkable capacity for intellectualizing problems and solving them in the abstract” (Hector, 2016, p 6), Hector early put the case that the Society could play a special role in bringing much greater insights into previ¬ ously unassailable problems. The Royal Soci¬ ety, he argued, “is uniquely placed to provide leadership in this type of complex analysis”. At a first level, the Society can provide “a forum where like-minded people can gather and understand what is happening in other disciplines” (Hector, 2014, pp 1-2). Fie also underlined, that the “wisdom of the found¬ ers in defining such a broad remit of human knowledge — - science, art, literature and philosophy — - was truly prescient”. But the current environment called for major change. Solutions, he advised, will not be found in science and technology alone. For impact, “we need more writers, architects, sociologists, musicians and historians” (Hector, 2016, p 15). Only then will we be able to engage with the community: “we can harness both intuitive and rational thought to bring great creativity”, he said. It marked a clarion call. By 20 1 2 the Council had already stirred a sense of outreach and collective action. The Society was engaged in a range of awards and special named lectures (the Dirac Lecture in the physical sciences is one). In Febru¬ ary 2013 the Society held its first annual Four Societies Forum with the Nuclear Engineering Panel of the Sydney Branch of the Institution of Engineers, Australia, and the Australian Institute of Energy. In a key Council initiative, several highly eminent members of the science community already linked to the Society were elevated as ' Dis¬ tinguished Fellows’: Nobel Laureates, Pro¬ fessors Peter Doherty and Brian Schmidt, Sydney-born, former UK Chief Scientist, Lord May, Emeritus Professors Jill Trewhella and Eugenie Lumbers, Professor Michael Archer, and the Hon. Barry Jones, unique as an elected Fellow of all four learned Societies 242 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South ^X^es Moyal— Creative foundations. The Royal Society of New South Wales: 1867 and 2017 (Hector, 2014, p 2). In December 2013, a further Council decision was taken to extend the knowledge base of the Society through the election as special members of a number of highly accomplished leaders across fields of knowledge drawn from the professori¬ ate of the universities in the State of New South Wales. The Awards Advisory Panel, composed of the Deans of Science and the Deans of Engineering, chaired by Professor Mary O’Kane, Chief Scientist and Engineer of New South Wales, selected some twenty- one new members — the “FRSN” for formal election in May 2014. Other ventures flourished. The first Forum of the Society with the four learned Acade¬ mies was held at Government House, Sydney, in September 2015 on 'The Future ofWork’io. Introduced by the Governor, General David Hurley, it brought a broad range of academics and business leaders to bear on one of the big national and social issues, “a futuristic look at the technological, social and cultural change expected over the next 30 years” (RSNSW Annual Report 2014) expressing in the Gov¬ ernor’s words “the Royal Society’s defining purpose of rigour in challenging received opinion and dominant authority through its motto, omnia quarite^ question everything”. A second Joint Forum of the Society and the four Academies, held at Government House in 20 1 6, titled ‘Society as a Complex System: Implications for Science, Practice and Policy’, spanned a wide scientific and political spec¬ trum and brought diverse minds to bear. The papers from both Forums are published in the Society’s Journal & Proceedings. This in- house resource has also been reinvigorated to include key invited lectures and articles solicited for special issues, and others based ^0 See https://royalsoc.org.au/council-members- section/ 240-j procrsnsw-vol- 148-2 on personal historical background. Extend¬ ing new membership has brought needed finances to the Society while its core goal of “renaissance” is expressed in its wide intel¬ lectual interaction, consultation, multidis¬ ciplinary narratives, and in the stimulus of personal interconnections. Embracing com¬ munity, the Society’s Annual Dinners gather participants in a linked reflection of the ‘con- versationes’. Special invited lectures throw critical light on key often “wicked” problems. Speaking at the Awards Dinner on 7 May 2014, savant and one-time politician, Barry Jones con¬ tended that “the quality of public debate on scientific issues had been trivialised, even infan tilised”. “Despite Australia’s large number of graduates (more than 4 million),” he said, “our 38 universities and intellectual class generally have very limited political lev¬ erage and appear reluctant to offend govern¬ ment or business by telling them what they do not want to hear. . . In a democratic soci¬ ety such as Australia, evidence is challenged by opinion and by vested and self-interest. Australia has no dedicated Minster for Sci¬ ence with direct ownership/involvement in promoting scientific disciplines.” In an era of super-specialisation, he suggests “many scientists are reluctant to engage in debate, even where their discipline has significant intersectoral connections” (Jones, 2014). A widely disseminated lecture by Dis¬ tinguished Fellow, Professor Brian Schmidt, on ‘Evidence and Expertise in a post-truth world,’ invites us to inspect the tenuousness of our human future. He sees “a post-truth world” itself as a threat to our survival and one that, unless dealt with quickly, threat¬ ens us severely. Our planet, he reminds us, emerged 3.7 billion years ago “a small grain of sand” in the universe, but a grain we need to 243 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Moyal— Creative foundations. The Royal Society of New South Wales: 1867 and 2017 preserve. There are 7.4 billion people now on Planet Earth, and an increase of one hundred million every year. Using energy, water, land and pollution we have a difficult challenge on our hands: that “we, humanity, have to fit on Earth,” as Schmidt says. In this, “evi¬ dence and expertise” are critical. Numerate, deeply expert in the history of the universe, Schmidt contends that “we will be a bunch of rabbits around a waterhole” if we take wrong or inconsequential action. “It is only by being human,” he maintains, and, by using decisions to share Planet Earth in learning to reduce our collective population and distrib¬ ute the planet s finite resources, “that we will have a path that will enable us to save our¬ selves”. (Schmidt, 2017). Or as Bill Bryson (20 1 0) writes more simply in Seeing Further: The Story of Science and the Royal Society, “If we have an earth worth living on a hundred years from now, the Royal Society [of London] will be one of the organizations our grandchildren will wish to thank” (p 13). On a smaller canvas in its transformative processes, the Royal Society of New South Wales has much to share with, and learn from, this ancient Society With its seven journals, its endless stream of papers, its communi¬ cation through lectures, its transdisciplinary principles, its manifold committees, its many awards and prizes, its contribution to chang¬ ing legislation, it exemplifies many concepts and trends that the N.S.W Society endorses. Articulate for many years in the climate change debate, work-shopping and despatching a steady flow of communications on policy to government and the media, it also provides public information to the lay reader on energy policy and global warming. By repute, the Royal Society of London provides “a vibrant showcase of science”. It also acts as “the con¬ science of a nation” (Bryson, p. 13). In a richly engaged period for the Royal Society of New South Wales, large and unpredictable questions lie ahead. Martin Rees (2010, p. 485) offers a fitting frame for us all in his ‘Conclusion: Looking Fifty Years AJiead’ in Brysons Seeing Further. “Wise choices will require the idealistic and effective efforts of natural scientists, envi¬ ronmentalists, social scientists and human¬ ists aided by the insights that twenty-first century science will surely bring.” From 1867 to 2017 such recommenda¬ tions have the ring of truth. Acknowledgments I acknowledge with thanks assistance from Dr Donald Flector, Professor Mary O’Kane, and Professor Robert Marks. References ADB, Australian Dictionary of Biography, Melbourne University Press, 1966-1976, volumes 1—6. hrtp://adb. anu.edu.au Bhathal, Ragbir. (1991), H. C. Russell: 19^^ century astronomer, meteorologist and organizer of Australian science. Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 124, pp 1—18. http://www. biodiversitylibrary.org/page/46l 55 104 Bbatbal, Ragbir Australian Astronomer, John Tebbutt: the life and world of the man on the $100 note. Kangaroo Press, Kentburst, N.S.W Branagan, David (1972), Words, action, people: 150 years of tbe scientific societies in Australia, Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 1 04, pp 1 23—14 1 . http:// royalsoc.org.au/images/ pdf/ journal/ 1 04_branagan.pdf Bryson, Bill (ed.) (2010), Seeing Further: The Story of Science and the Royal Society, Harper Press, London. Clarke, W. B. (1867), Inaugural address to the Royal Society, delivered at its first meeting, 9'^ July, 1 867, Transactions of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 1, pp 1-27. http://wvw. biodiversitylibrary org/ page/ 40522032 244 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Moyai“-~ Creative foundations. The Royal Society of New South Wales: 1867 and 2017 Clarke, W. B. (1872), Anniversary address, 22 May 1872, Transactions of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 6, pp 1-66. http://www. biodiversitylibrary.org/page/40536878 Clarke, W. B. (1875), Anniversary address, 12 May 1875, Transactions & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 9, pp 1—56. http://wvAv.biodiversitylibrary.org/ page/41593456 Clarke, W. B. (1876), Anniversary address, 17 May \^7G, Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 10, pp 1—34, http://www.biodiversitylibrar)^.org/ page/36338350 Hector, Donald (2014), President’s address. Annual dinner, 7 May 2014. Typescript. Hector, Donald, (2016), Presidential address, Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 149, pp 5-16. https:// royalsoc.org.au/ images/ pdf/journal/ 1 49- Hector-Presidential-Address-20 170131 .pdf Jones, Barry O., (2014), Evidence, opinion and interest — the attack on scientific method. Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 147, pp 2— 1 1. h ttp : // royalsoc. o rg. au/ images/ pdf/ j o ur nal/J_ Proc_RSNSW_VoLl47_l_Jones.pdf Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 1878, 12, pp 177-8. http:// www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/4l4l 5703 MacLeod, Roy, Archibald Liversidge, FRS, Imperial Science under the Southern Cross, Royal Society of New South Wales and University of Sydney Press, Sydney Marks, Robert E. (2016), William Stanley Jevons. Fellow of the Philosophical Society of New South Wales, 1856-1859, & Proceeding of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 149, pp 59—64. https://royalsoc,org. au/ images/ pdf/journal/ 1 49-Marks — william- stanley-20 170131 .pdf Moore, James (1996), Green Gold: the riches of Baron von Mueller, Historical Records of Australian Science, 11, 3, pp 371—88. Moyal, Ann, (ed.) (2003), The Web of Science. The Scientific Correspondence of the Rev. W B. Clarke, Australians Pioneer Geologist, 2 volumes, Australian Scholarly Publishing, Melbourne. Mozley Moyal, Ann (ed.) (1976), Scientists in Nineteenth Century Australia. A Documentary History, Collins, Sydney. Newland, Elizabeth A. (1991), Dr George Bennett and Sir Richard Owen. A case study of the colonization of early Australian science, in R. W. Home & S. G. Kohlsted (eds.). International Science and National Scientific Identity: Australia between Britain and America, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, U.S.A., pp 55-74. Organ, Michael (1992), W. B. Clarke as scientific journalist. Historical Records of Australian Science, 9, 1> pp 1—16. Rees, Martin (2010), Conclusion, Looking Fifty Years Ahead, in Bryson, op. cit. Royal Society of New South Wales, Annual Report of Council, 31 December 2013. Royal Society of New South Wales, Annual Report of Council, 31 December 2014. Russell, H. C. (1877), Anniversary address, Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 1 1, pp 1—20. http://wvvw. biodiversitylibraty.org/page/4098378 1 Schmidt, Brian (2017), Evidence and expertise in a post-truth world, 1 8'^ Annual Manning Clark Lecture, 3 March, http://www.abc.net. au/ radionational/ programs/bigideas/ fuzzy- thinking- wont-save-the-planet/ 845847 8 Smalley, George R. (1868), Opening address. Transactions of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 2, pp 1—12. http://www. b i o divers ityl i b raty. o rg/ page/ 40521750 Dr Ann Moyal, historian of Australian sci¬ ence and technology, is the recipient of the Royal Society’s Inaugural Medal for the His¬ tory and Philosophy of Science, 2015. 245 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, vol. 150, part 2, 2017, p. 246. ISSN 0035-9173/17/020246-01 Thesis abstract Role of Progesterone Receptor Membrane Component 1 (PGRMCl) in cancer cell biology Partho Adhikary Abstract of a thesis for a Doctorate of Philosophy submitted to Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, Australia Progesterone Receptor Membrane Com¬ ponent 1 (PGRMCl) is a 22 kDa Cyto¬ chrome b5 related haem-binding protein. PGRMCl is an evolutionarily conserved protein. It is involved in maintaining vari¬ ous cellular processes such as damage resist¬ ance, lipid and drug metabolism, apoptosis and cell proliferation. PGRMCl is over expressed in multiple types of cancer. It plays an important role in cancer by regulating tumour growth and cell differentiation. A previous proteomics study on human breast cancer tissue found that PGRMCl was phosphorylated. Three different isoforms of PGRMCl were identified and phosphatase treatment revealed those isoforms were dif¬ ferentially phosphorylated. PGRMCl pro¬ tein contains putative Serine and Tyrosine ph osphorylation sites and has binding sites for Src homology 2 (SH2) and SH3 domain containing proteins. In this thesis, I investi¬ gated the role of phosphorylated PGRMCl in cancer cell biology and tumourigenesis. I generated mutant stable cell lines by remov¬ ing putative phosphorylation sites at Serine and Tyrosine residues of PGRMCl. Removal of phosphorylation sites in the Mia PaCa-2 pancreatic cancer cell line, affected the cell biology profoundly. It induced changes in cellular proteome and signalling pathways. It changed cell morphology and migration patterns, induced mesenchymal to amoe¬ boid transition. It affected glucose uptake and lactate production. Overexpression of wild type PGRMCl showed more cancer relevant phenotype. Depletion of PGRMCl by RNA interference and removal of Serine ph osphorylation sites impaired MDA-MB- 231 breast cancer cells metastatic growth in a mouse xenograft model. Overexpres¬ sion of PGRMCl increased breast cancer bone metastases and induced osteolytic bone damage. Taken together, these results suggest that PGRMCl is involved in tumourigen¬ esis and a potential target for cancer thera¬ peutics. Dr Partho Adhikary School of Biomedical Sciences Charles Sturt University Wagga Wagga NSW 2678 AUSTRALIA Email: adhikarypartho@hotmaiLcom 246 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, vol. 150, part 2, 20 1 7, pp. 247-248. ISSN 0035-9173/17/020247-02 Thesis abstract Adventure therapy: treatment effectiveness and applications with Australian youth Daniel Bowen Abstract of a thesis for a Doctorate of Philosophy submitted to University of Canberra, Bruce, Australia Adventure therapy involves use of small groups, nature-contact, adventure activities, and therapeutic processes to create opportunities for psychological change in participants, usually with the purpose of supporting an individual (or family) to move towards greater health and well-being. Adventure therapy programs involve diverse target groups, settings, program models and aims; yet too little is understood about their characteristics and efficacy. This thesis, including published works, assists in improv¬ ing the health and well-being of Australian youth by providing up-to-date information, and consolidating and advancing under¬ standing of the therapeutic uses and treat¬ ment effectiveness of adventure therapy. Fur¬ ther, by evaluating two specific therapeutic adventure-based interventions for youth, this thesis provides valuable insight about the current utility and therapeutic outcomes of adventure therapy programs in Australia. This thesis includes four studies reported in four papers, each of which contributes to its overall aims. Study 1 examines the efficacy of adventure therapy programs internation¬ ally through a meta-analysis of outcomes and moderators. Study 2 provides an up- to-date description of outdoor adventure interventions for youth in Australia based on a national survey of program managers and leaders. Study 3 examines the efficacy of the Wilderness Adventure Therapy®^ (WAT) model of clinical treatment for Australian youth, while Study 4 examines the efficacy of the Queensland Police-Citizens Youth Welfare Association Bornhoffen Catalyst program for Australian youth-at-risk. Meta-analytic results from Study 1 con¬ firmed that adventure therapy programs are moderately effective (.47) in facilitating positive short-term change in psychological, behavioural, emotional, and interpersonal domains and that these changes appear to be maintained in the longer-term. Such magni¬ tude of benefit is comparable to the majority of efficacious treatments for patients across the age span reported in the literature. As the most comprehensive and robust meta-analy- sis of adventure therapy studies to date, the findings from Study 1 can be recommended for use in benchmarking and monitoring program effectiveness. Results from Study 2 indicated considerable breadth, depth, diver¬ sity and differences in the organisation, pro¬ gram, staff, and participant characteristics of outdoor adventure interventions in Australia. The main outcomes of outdoor adventure interventions, as perceived by staff, were recreation, and personal and social devel¬ opment. Surveyed staff believed that the 1 Wilderness Adventure Therapy® is a registered trade¬ mark in Australia and New Zealand. 247 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Bowen — Australian therapy majority of participants obtained significant long-lasting benefits. Findings from Studies 3 and 4 suggest some cautious promise that two Australian adventure therapy programs (WAT and the Catalyst program) each offer a viable alternative to traditional psychothera¬ peutic approaches through prevention and intervention programs for youth-at-risk. Overall, the findings of this thesis confirm that adventure therapy has the potential to play important roles in improving the health and well-being of Australian youth. While adventure therapy is not a panacea, these findings indicate that it is useful in a wide range of settings and for a broad spectrum of clients. Thus, findings from this thesis strongly support the assertion that adventure therapy should be in the suite of therapeutic interventions that operate in diverse service settings across Australia. Future research could build on Study 2 by conducting a dedicated survey of adventure therapy programs in Australia. In addition, research utilising a comparison or wait-list control group, multiple sources of data, and a larger sample, could help to qualify and extend findings of Studies 3 and 4. Over¬ all, despite the promising findings, more rigorous research evaluations of adventure therapy programs (e.g., quasi/experimental, case study, observational, mixed method, and longitudinal design) are needed to strengthen the reliability, validity, and usabil¬ ity of adventure therapy research. Dr Daniel Bowen Centre for Applied Psychology University of Canberra Bruce ACT 2601 AUSTRALIA Email: daniel@danielbowen.com.au Thesis: http://www.danielbowen.com.au/ research/PhD 248 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, vol. 150, part 2, 2017, pp. 249-250. ISSN 0035-9173/17/020249-02 Thesis abstract Delinquency and problem drinking among Australian youth: a common cause psychosocial control perspective Angela Curcio Abstract of a thesis for a Doctorate of Philosophy submitted to University of Canberra, ACT, Australia Delinquency and problem drinking are two commonly occurring risk-taking behaviours among youth. Relative to delin¬ quency, far less research has focused on an integrated theoretical framework of prob¬ lem drinking that considers both psycho¬ logical and social factors. Based on common cause conceptualisations of youth problem behaviours, the overarching aim of the current thesis was to examine whether an existing psychosocial control theory of ado¬ lescent delinquency could be modified and extended to explain both delinquency and problem drinking behaviours among non- clinical samples of adolescents and young adults in the contemporary Australian soci¬ ety. In order to achieve this overarching aim, this research program employed a sequential mixed methods design that consisted of five phases. While prevalent youth problem behav¬ iours often co-occur, risk factors underlying delinquency and problem drinking are not usually considered together. Thus, Phase I involved a systematic review of the literature to explore whether delinquency and prob¬ lem drinking share psychosocial risk factors. Providing support for a common conceptual model, shared risk factors were found and broadly encompassed within Maks (1990) psychosocial control theory of adolescent delinquency, with the exception of sensation seeking and peer risk-taking behaviours. Owing to a paucity of qualitative research incorporating stakeholders’ views pertain¬ ing to adolescent delinquency and problem drinking, Phase II comprised a qualitative study to determine risk factors for delin¬ quency and problem drinking from the phenomenological perspectives of adoles¬ cents and relevant stakeholders. Risk factors tended to be congruent with the proposed revisions to psychosocial control theory as identified in Phase 1 . In order to examine risk factors under¬ pinning delinquency and problem drink¬ ing, current and reliable instruments that accurately reflect the incidence of these behaviours among young Australians in the general population are required. Therefore, the objective of Phase III was to update an Australian measure of adolescent delin¬ quency to ensure representation of prevalent delinquent activities and consistency with the current youth culture. The revised instru¬ ment was subsequently utilised to examine the concurrence between adolescent drink¬ ing with domains of delinquent offending. Although the majority of research per¬ taining to psychosocial control theory has focused on adolescent samples, there is evi¬ dence to suggest that the extent of problem drinking is particularly concerning among 249 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South ^^les Curcio Delinquency and problem drinking among Australian youth young adults in Australia. Therefore, phases IV and V tested, and found broad support for, the revised psychosocial control model to explain delinquency and problem drink¬ ing respectively, spanning from early adoles¬ cence to emerging young adulthood. This thesis including published v^orks, makes an original contribution to the field by using a systematic literature review, quali¬ tative stakeholder enquiries, and empirical quantitative research to identify shared risk factors for delinquency and problem drink¬ ing, and subsequently tested, and provided broad support for, an integrated psychoso¬ cial control framework of delinquency and problem drinking along a trajectory from early adolescence to young adulthood. This research program additionally generated five self-report measures with sound psychomet¬ ric properties. This thesis has highlighted the role of risk-taking peers as a potential mediator between conventional social con¬ trol agents with delinquency and problem drinking, as well as establishing conceptual and empirical differences between impulsiv- ity and sensation seeking as risk factors for youth delinquency and problem drinking. Dr Angela Curcio Centre for Applied Psychology University of Canberra Canberra ACT 2617 AUSTRALIA Email: Angela.Curcio@act.gov.au Thesis: http://www.canberra.edu.au/ researchrepository/ items/ d546ddd2-87 1 2- 4504-956e-fb0b4c5ab547/l/ 250 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, vol. 150, part 2, 2017, pp. 251-252. ISSN 0035-9173/17/020251-02 Thesis abstract A philosophical-empirical interrogation of infant participation in research Sheena Elwick Abstract of a thesis for a Doctorate of Philosophy submitted to Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, Australia This thesis is about a philosophical-empir¬ ical interrogation of infant participation in research. It reports on a doctoral study that brought together philosophy from diverse backgrounds, empirical data, and an interrogation of the concept of infant participation. The study was located in an Australian Research Council Linkage project that endeavoured to enable infants to enact their participatory rights in research con¬ cerning their lives in early childhood educa¬ tion and care (ECEC) environments. Moves towards employing participatory research approaches with infants are influ¬ enced by several discourses including dis¬ courses of childrens rights and discourses related to participatory research with older children. Notably, Article 12 in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child is often presented by researchers as entitling infants the right to participate in research concerning their lives. Language, methodological foci, and methods used in participatory research with older children are also frequently presented as appropri¬ ate. The rhetoric of infant participation has, therefore, mostly been put into practice as ‘listening’ to and reporting on infants’ expe¬ riences and perspectives’ via observation of their expressions and behaviours. Once ascertained, those experiences and perspec¬ tives’ are reported on, by and large, in the form of second-hand narratives, and excerpts of video-recordings, or case-studies, that are subsequently analysed through various theo¬ retical and conceptual lenses. Whether or not such research achieves what it claims to achieve in regards to enabling infants to efficaciously enact their human rights, and particularly their participatory rights, is generally left unquestioned. This thesis problematises and responds to that absence of questioning and, in the process, provides an in-depth example of a philosophical- empirical interrogation of infant participa¬ tion in research. The aim of the study was to negotiate ethical and participatory relations with the infants involved in the study, from within the complexities of the moments that we shared. To that end, I shifted my attention away from researching and writing about infants’ expressions and behaviours (infants’ bodies, so to speak) towards researching and writing about my own bodily responses as I opened onto a world that included infants (and others) in specific times and spaces; and the ethical reflexivity and questions that emerged. I also drew on moments shared with six infants (aged birth to eighteen months) in three Family Day Care homes, and a diverse range of scholarly sources that 251 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South 'Wales Elwick — Infant participation in research included Merleau-Ponty’s philosophy as a common thread, to interrogate the questions and uncertainties that emerged. The findings of the study suggest that although attention has been given to responding to infants’ rights as outlined in Article 12, and the value of that response is recognised, much less attention has been directed towards critiquing and evaluat¬ ing the effectiveness of those responses in practice. This has, perhaps, resulted in a gap between the rhetoric of infant participation and how infant participation is negotiated between particular researchers and infants in specific times and spaces. The findings of the study also revealed that it was through my own carnal responsivity to infants’ pres¬ ence, during my encounters with infants, that they were able to displace my experi¬ ence of self, provoke ethical reflexivity and provide unexpected possibilities for moving forward together towards a shared future. Engaging with that experience of displace¬ ment and the questions provoked is essential to establishing any emancipatory discourse concerning infants. Dr Sheena Elwick School of Education Charles Sturt University Albury NSW 2640 AUSTRALIA Email: selwick@csu.edu.au 252 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, vol. 150, part 2, 2017, pp. 253-254. ISSN 0035-9173/17/020253-02 Thesis abstract Determinants of the Islamic revival and its political implications Maleke Fourati Abstract of a thesis for a Doctorate of Philosophy submitted to University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia Culture and religion have only gained interests among economists in the last couple of decades. In fact, Adam Smiths was the first scholar to establish a link between religion and economics. Yet, the link may at first not be obvious. So the natural ques¬ tion to ask is how do religion and econom¬ ics interact? There are many ways through which economics, religion and politics can be associated. Values and beliefs stemming from religion may affect individuals’ prefer¬ ences and thus their economic, social and political behaviours. Likewise, engaging and/ or supporting religious political activism and parties may emanate from a rational choice. This dissertation contributes to the emerging literature of economics of religion focusing on Islam. It does so by providing empirical insights seeking to enrich understanding of this religion in ways that intersect political sciences and economics. First, it reveals that economic factors as redistributive considera¬ tions are crucial in explaining support for political Islam. Second, it shows that feelings of frustration are a plausible source of the revival of the Islamic culture among initially religious individuals. This suggests that Islam per se does not trigger considerable social 1 Smith, Adam, 1979. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations: Books I— III. New York: Penguin, 1776. behaviours. Yet, it makes one feels closer to her/his group and further apart from other groups, thus reinforcing club-good effects. Finally, this dissertation argues that Mus¬ lims’ attitudes towards women are not nec¬ essarily in the expected direction in terms of material deprivations as often portrayed in the literature. The empirical insights of this dissertation, that may challenge precon¬ ceptions attached to Islam, are the results of original field work. The first and second chapters use a representative sample of 600 Tunisians. The second and third chapters use lab-in-the-field experiments which combine both external validity of the field data and results from cautiously designed experimen¬ tal games. Render Unto Caesar; Taxes, Charity and Political Islam (joint with Gabriele Gratton and Patdine Grosjean) In this chapter, we investigate the origin of political support for religiously affiliated parties. Using an original, nationally repre¬ sentative survey of 600 individuals, we show that support for Islamic parties in the first post-Arab Spring Tunisian election came from richer districts and individuals. We show that standard public finance arguments help explain this voting pattern better than other available explanations. Our model pre- 253 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Fourati— Determinants of the Islamic revival diets that a voters probability to vote for a religious party: (i) increases in income for the poorest voters, but possibly decreases in income for the richest; (ii) is greater for voters in richer districts; and (iii) increases v^ith the voter’s religiosity. Our empirical results align with our predictions and suggest that belonging to the middle class and living in a richer district together affect voting deci¬ sions more than being a religious voter. We test for other possible factors affecting voting, such as education, frustrated aspirations, or attitudes towards corruption. Finally, we document similar patterns in other key elec¬ tions in the Muslim world. Envy and the Islamic Revival: Experimental Evidence from Tunisia In this chapter, I investigate the psycho¬ logical factors at the origin of the Islamic revival, defined as the recent resurgence of Islamic culture and against previous trends of “westernization.” I design and conduct a survey with an embedded lab-in-the-field experiment to test whether envy triggers popular support for the Islamic revival using a nationally representative sample of 600 Tunisians. Envious individuals who live in highly unequal environments and feel rela¬ tively poor are more likely to engage in reli¬ gious and political activities. I trigger envy with a 2 X 2 design by interacting a priming video and low stakes. I find that individuals in the envy treatment donate a larger pro¬ portion of their endowment to a religious political charity, my measure of support for the Islamic revival. The effect is more pro¬ nounced among highly religious individuals but is otherwise less robust. The survey data provide consistent results with my experi¬ mental findings. Overall, the results confirm the idea that envy is a key determinant of popular support for the Islamic revival, but its effect is conditional on the individual already being highly religious. Are Muslim Immigrants Really Different^ Experimental Evidence from the Lebanese Australian Community (joint with Danielle Hayek) In this chapter, we investigate whether Muslim immigrants in a Western destina¬ tion country behave differently from their Christian counterparts towards females and the poor. We test this by conducting a Pris¬ oner’s dilemma and a Dictator game with Lebanese Australians. Lebanese Muslims and Christians are comparable in all aspects but religion. Hence, using this sample allows us to isolate the role religion plays in shaping social attitudes as we are able to remove the effects of economic institutions of country of ancestry and hold constant all other factors such as ethnolinguistic groups. We find that when compared to Christians, Muslims are significantly more cooperative with the poor and that this effect is stronger when the poor recipient is female. The effect remains even after controlling for altruism. Dr Maleke Fourati Faculty of History, Economics and Society University of Geneva Geneva Geneva 1205 SWITZERLAND Email: Malek.Fourati@unige.ch 254 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, vol. 130, part 2, 2017, p. 255. ISSN 0035-9173/17/020255-01 Thesis abstract Contemporary political participation: exploring the relationship between technology and politics in late modernity Max Halupka Abstract of a thesis for a Doctorate of Philosophy submitted to University of Canberra, Canberra, Australia This thesis by publication analyses emerg¬ ing forms of civic engagement, focusing particularly on conceptualising technology’s relationship with politics. It explores three central issues within current debates on alter¬ native forms of political participation. First, it critiques the dualism between arena and process definitions of politics, and suggests how it can be overcome (Halupka 2017). Second, it examines the division between collective and connective action movements in both theory and practice (Halupka 2015). Third, it focuses upon the impact that new technology, specifically the internet, has had on political participation (Halupka 2014). Taken together, this thesis addresses a number of significant conceptual and theo¬ retical issues that the literature had largely ignored. Consequently, this paper looks to extend current theoretical and empirical debates, and, in this way, to move the lit¬ erature in new directions. Halupka M. (2014). Clicktivism: a systematic heuristic. Policy & Internet^ 6(2); 115-132 Halupka M. (2015). The rise of information activism: how to bridge dualisms and reconceptualise political participation. Communication & Society, 19(10): 1487-1503 Halupka M. (2017). What Anonymous can tell us about the relationship between virtual community structure and participatory form. Policy Studies, 3 8 (2) : 168-184 Dr Max Halupka Institute for Governance and Policy Analysis University of Canberra Canberra ACT 2900 AUSTRALIA Email: max.halupka(2)canberra.edu.au Thesis: http :/Avww. Canberra, edu.au/ researchrepository/ items/ 004a578b-3c34- 4699-9b6e-ea8954b56c6c/ 1 / 255 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, vol. 150, part 2, 2017, pp. 256-257. ISSN 0035-9173/17/020256-02 Thesis abstract Sindhi multiscriptality, past and present: a sociolinguistic investigation into community acceptance Arvind Iyengar Abstract of a thesis for a Doctorate of Philosophy submitted to the University of New England, Armidale, Australia This thesis falls within the field known as the sociolinguistics of writing, namely, the study of the role of written language and writing in society. It deals with the mutual relationship between the written form of a language and a community that uses the language, and how the use of written lan¬ guage within the community is impacted by societal changes. The thesis focuses on Sindhi, an Indo- Aryan language native to the Sindh province of southern Pakistan, but also spoken by 1 .7 million people in India. The minority Sindhi community in India is recognised as having achieved exceptional economic success and near-universal literacy. However, the commu¬ nity has attained literacy predominantly in languages other than Sindhi, chiefly English and Hindi. In fact, community competence in written Sindhi in India has been declining for several decades. This is attributable to the lack of economic use for the language in India, and to the fact that the language has traditionally been written in the intricate Perso-Arabic script. Consequently, commu¬ nity motivation to learn this script purely for reading and writing Sindhi is low. Attempts have been made to use the Devanagari script for the Sindhi language in India, with par¬ tial success. Of late, a community proposal for using the Latin or Roman script for the Sindhi language has emerged, claiming to bridge the script divide in the community between Perso-Arabic and Devanagari. On this basis, the thesis investigates the use of scripts for the Sindhi language, both from a diachronic and synchronic perspec¬ tive. It addresses the questions of how and why certain scripts were and are being used for the Sindhi language. It also explores what the Indian Sindhi community today feels about using the Roman script to read and write the Sindhi language. In doing so, the study examines the potential Roman has in improving community competence in writ¬ ten Sindhi, and identifies solutions that may aid Sindhi language maintenance in India. The thesis first analyses the rich but understudied script history of the Sindhi language from the tenth century to modern times. Domains in which certain scripts were used are investigated, and definite patterns in script distribution are identified. Partic¬ ular attention is paid to Perso-Arabic and Devanagari, which emerged as the two most widely used scripts for the language in the twentieth century. The diachronic analysis draws on archival sources as well as academic works on the Sindhi language, and brings to the fore hitherto neglected data on historical script use for the language. 256 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South ^V^^es Iyengar— “Sindhi multiscriptality, past and present The thesis then analyses present-day com¬ munity opinion on the proposal to use the Roman script to read and write SindhL Dis¬ tinct themes in community opinion are high¬ lighted, and popular semiotic associations of Roman, Perso-Arabic and Devanagari are identified. The synchronic analysis is based on original fieldwork data, compris¬ ing in-depth qualitative oral interviews with members of the Indian Sindhi community (n = 50) of diverse backgrounds and ages from various geographical locations. The findings of the historical and contem¬ porary sociolinguistic investigation in this study challenge the simplistic view preva¬ lent in the literature that past and present script use for the Sindhi language has been the result of either authoritarian imposition or voluntary choice. They also question the oft-asserted claim in the literature that the choice of script for a language is a reflection of its speakers’ ideological affiliation. Rather, the study’s findings point to more quotidian factors influencing historical and contempo¬ rary script use for Sindhi, including socio¬ economic need and situationally-determined appropriateness. The study’s findings also indicate that community members consider oral competence in the Sindhi language to be more important than written competence in it. Finally, from a pedagogical point of view, both Devanagari and Roman are shown to have distinct advantages for beginner readers in Sindhi. The thesis thus makes key con¬ tributions not just to the existing body of knowledge on the Sindhi language, but also to the fledgling field of inquiry that is the sociolinguistics of writing. Dr Arvind Iyengar Discipline of Linguistics School of Behavioural, Cognitive and Social Sciences University of New England Armidale NSW 2351 AUSTRALIA Email: arvind.iycngar@une.edu.au Thesis: https://goo.gl/LnkLzL 257 Journal dr Proceedings of the Royal Soeiety of New South Wales, vol. 1 50, part 2, 2017, p. 258. ISSN 0035-9173/17/020258-01 Thesis abstract Phosphorus remobilisation during grain filling in rice Kwanho Jeong Abstract of a thesis for a Doctorate of Philosophy submitted to Southern Cross University Phosphorus (P) is applied to crops to ensure high yields but adds to costs and contributes to water eutrophication. Most P in cereals is in harvested grain removed from fields. Improving plant P recycling and/ or reducing the P in grains may overcome this; however, the physiology and molecular mechanisms of P remobilisation from veg¬ etative tissues to developing grains must be better understood. The pattern of P accumulation in devel¬ oping rice {Oryza sativa L. ssp. indica cv. IR64) grains and P remobilisation from flag leaves were investigated during grain filling. Transcriptome (RNA-seq) analysis was undertaken at two time points, six days after an thesis (DAA) when flag leaf P content was maximal, and 1 5 DAA when flag leaf P content had declined due to P remobilisa¬ tion to developing grains. Three P-starvation response (PSR) genes {OsPAP3^ OsPAP9b and OsPAPlOa) and three genes not previ¬ ously implicated in the P-starvation response {OsPAP26, SPX-MFSl and SPX^MFS2) had expression profiles consistent with a role in P remobilisation. Metabolic pathway analysis suggested phospholipids may be degraded and replaced by other lipids, liberating P for export to developing grains. The effect of P withdrawal from nutri¬ ent solution during grain filling on biomass accumulation, yield, flag leaf photosynthesis and remobilisation of P from leaf P fractions was investigated. Phosphorus withdrawal at anthesis or 8 DAA impaired photosynthesis by 1 6 DAA, presumably due to competition for P between vegetative tissues and develop¬ ing grains. Withdrawal of P at anthesis led to premature mobilisation of inorganic P (Pi) from flag leaves at 8 DAA, most likely vacuolar Pi that met the P demands of devel¬ oping grain while ensuring suflhcient P was available for metabolic activities. The lipid P fraction appeared to be the first P fraction mobilised at 8 DAA when P was withdrawn at anthesis, presumably because reserves of vacuole Pi were insuflBcient. Early remobi¬ lisation of lipid-P suggested phospholipids were replaced by other lipids to conserve P, although further lipidomics studies are required to confirm this. RNA-seq analysis of flag leaves under P-limited conditions during grain filling iden¬ tified genes which may play a role in P remo¬ bilisation during grain filling. The response to P withdrawal was clearly distinct between early (8 DAA) and the later (16 DAA) stages of grain filling. Upregulated expression of genes involved in photosynthesis occurred at 8 DAA while at 16 DAA withdrawal of P induced genes involved in the degradation of polysaccharides to monosaccharides. Dr Kwanho Jeong Southern Cross Plant Science Southern Cross University Lismore NSW 2480 AUSTRALIA Email: kwanhojeong@gmail.com 258 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, vol. 150, part 2, 2017, p. 259. ISSN 0035-9173/17/020259-01 Thesis abstract Outsourcing responsibility. Towards a transformative politics of domestic work Ulrike Prattes Abstract of a thesis for a Doctorate of Philosophy submitted to the Australian Catholic University, North Sydney, Australia In this doctoral thesis, I start from the body of feminist scholarship on “out¬ sourcing” domestic and care work in the global North. I maintain that this debate has importantly highlighted the interactions of gender with class, race, and ethnicity. In its almost exclusive focus on differently situ¬ ated women, however, the debate tends to reproduce the organization and performance of reproductive work as a “womans issue,” simultaneously shrouding men’s positions therein. Via an in-depth empirical study, I conducted with five domestic work outsourc¬ ing, opposite-sex couples in Vienna, Austria, I seek to bring to the fore the affective rela¬ tions and corporeal practices of responsive¬ ness and non-responsiveness between the outsourcing partners, and their positioning vis-a-vis migrant domestic workers. Using a relational concept of responsibility, I argue that responsiveness to human interconnect¬ edness is required for responsible practices to emerge. I critique the notion of the sup¬ posedly “self-sufficient” autonomous indi¬ vidual, and draw on feminist care ethics, to highlight the existing relationality and interdependence among the various actors. I position my project against the positivist paradigm and bring empirical and theoreti¬ cal material into a conversation at eye level. First, I trace the reproduction and mainte¬ nance of unjust structures within the field of outsourcing in concrete, everyday, social interaction in order to emphasize their social nature and changeability. I strive for a sys¬ temic portrayal of non-responsive practices as shaped by an epistemology of ignorance, rather than accidental “failures,” and thus critique asymmetrical structures, not indi¬ vidual “character flaws.” Second, I want to identify existing potentials for transforma¬ tion in regards to the structurally vulnerable position of migrant domestic workers. I high¬ light potentials for transformation towards social justice that are there and should be amplified. These consist of feelings of guilt, which I here read as affective “spill-over” that cannot be contained within the narrative of autonomous, independent individuals on the one hand; and on the other hand, prac¬ tices of responsiveness, and the potential for creative embodied, (affective and relational) performances. Dr Ulrike Prattes Institute for Social Justice Australian Catholic University North Sydney NSW 2060 AUSTRALIA Email: ulrike.prattes@gmail.com 259 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, vol. 150, part 2, 2017, pp. 260-261. ISSN 0035-9173/17/020260-02 Hiesis abstract Localising the Global Eco-Schools™ Program in South Africa: a postcolonial analysis Elizabeth Ryan Abstract of a thesis for a Doctorate of Philosophy submitted to Southern Cross University Environmental educators are exhorted to ‘Think Global and Act Local’. This popular refrain encourages environmental educators to consider the interface between the universal and the particular. It also highlights the ways global environmental education programs such as the Founda¬ tion for Environmental Education’s (FEE) Green Flag Eco-Schools Program can shape the pedagogy and practice of environmen¬ tal educators in localized settings around the world. Originally a Danish initiative designed for a European context, the Eco- School Program is now the most widely adopted environmental education program in the world, deployed in over 64 countries. As such it has the capacity to significantly influence environmental education peda¬ gogy and practice internationally, yet little is known about its effect. My research explores the influence of Eco- Schools on the ways that teachers from non- Western contexts understand themselves and their work. Specifically, I am interested in understanding the extent to which Eco- Schools, as exemplars of a global environ¬ mental education program, impose particu¬ lar discourses, visions or imaginaries of what it means to be an environmental educator on teachers in Southern contexts. Through a case study of the implementation of FEE Eco-Schools in South Africa, I explore the ways in which the program shapes what counts as environmental education knowl¬ edge, what pedagogies are deemed appropri¬ ate, and what kinds of student actions are encouraged. The key research questions I address are: 1 . Flow are Eco-Schools teachers imagined through global and local discourses? 2. Fiow has the South African host organisa¬ tion (WESSA) interpreted Eco-Schools discourses; and what are the mechanisms through which they subject Eco-Schools teachers to these discourses? 3. FFow do South African Eco-Schools teach¬ ers subject themselves to, and resist, such discourses? A postcolonial lens is employed to illuminate the everyday eflFects of power on teachers’ perceptions of themselves and their work. Postcolonial concepts offer an innovative way of investigating teacher identity and self-perceptions of capacity and agency in environmental education because they emphasise the powerful colonising effects of discourse as well as the possibility of agency through discursive disruption. My research provides a telling case study of Eco-School teachers in South Africa and how they are both subject to and subject themselves to different teacher identities made available through Eco-Schooling discourses. Through the methodology of postcolonial discourse 260 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Ryan— Localising the Global Eco-Schools™ Program in South Africa analysis, I draw upon a range of global Eco- Schooling policies and curriculum resources as well as interviews with South African Eco- School coordinators and teachers to explore how Eco-Schooling identities are negotiated across global and local discursive fields in South Africa. My research shows how Eco- School teachers are both taking up and resisting dominant discourses available in these global and local arenas, creating new hybrid identities that offer spaces for teacher agency. Dr Elizabeth (Lisa) Ryan School of Education Southern Cross University Lismore NSW 2480 AUSTRALIA Email: ERyan(2)usc.edu.au 261 Journal dr Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, vol. 150, part 2, 2017, pp. 262-265. ISSN 0035-9173/17/020262-04 Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales The 2017 programme of events — Sydney Held at the Union, Universities and Schools Club, 25 Bent St, Sydney unless otherwise stated. Wed 1 Feb 1250* Ordinary Meeting RSNSW Scholarship winners Yik Lung (Jeremy) Chan, University of Technology Sydney Andrew Ritchie, University of Sydney Isobel Ronai, University of Sydney Effects of maternal cigarette smoke exposure on brain health in offspring New ways of modelling the ancient past to understand evolution Anarchy in the honey bee colony: the genetic basis of worker sterility Thu 23 Feb The Four Societies Lecture Rear Admiral, The Honourable Kevin Scarce AC CSC RAN (ret'd.) South Australia: a nuclear State in a global solution Held in conjunction with the Nuclear Engineering Panel of the Sydney Branch of Engineers Australia, the Australian Nuclear Association and the Australian Institute of Energy. Held at Hamilton and Parkes Rooms, Level 47, MLC Centre, King and Castlereagh St. Wed 1 Mar 124Lt Ordinary Meeting Richard Ferguson FRGS Executive Director, Craft Australia Creative minds: Artistic and scientific endeavour on polar expeditions 1851 to 1951 Wed 5 April 1242nd Ordinary Meeting and 150* Annual General Meeting Dr Greg Organ Senior Sensory Specialist, Lion Company The science of beer Wed 3 May Annual Dinner: Distinguished Fellows Lecture and presentation of the Society’s 2016 awards Guests of honour: The Society’s Vice-Regal Patron, His Excellency General The Honourable David Hurley AC DSC (Ret’d), Governor of New South Wales and Em. Professor Peter Baume AC DistFRSN Don’t blame the unemployed 262 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Waxes Proceedings -~~~2017 TTiu 11 May Liversidge Lecture Scientia Professor Justin Gooding, UNSW Sensing our world: From glucose sensors to counting single molecules and cells Held in conjunction with Royal Australian Chemistry Institute. Held at Tyree Room and Balcony, John Niland Scientia Building, UNSW Wed 7 June 1253*^^^ Ordinary Meeting Professor Madeleine Beekman, University of Sydney Are you smarter than a slime mould? Wed 5 July 1254^^ Ordinary Meeting Professor Andrea Morelia Understanding Quantum Theory Wed 2 Aug 1255'^ Ordinary Meeting Professor Ann Williamson UNSW Self-Driving Cars: Will they help? Tu 1 Aug ANSTO, AIP, RACI, RSNSW Round Table Discussion with Em Prof Heinreich Hora, Grahame Campbell, Dr Richard Garrett The Future of Fusion Held in conjunction with the Australian Institute of Physics, the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, the Royal Australian Chemical Institute and RSNSW Held at the Discovery Centre, ANSTO, Lucas Heights Sydney Science Festival lunchtime science talks Fri 11 Aug Sydney Science Festival Professor John Murray, UNSW Smoking and lung cancer: How are we doing? Mo 14 Aug Sydney Science Festival Dr Kathleen Riley, Writer, classical scholar and theatre historian Fred Astaire and the Science of Spontaneity Tu 15* Aug Sydney Science Festival Professor Leslie Burnett, Garvan Institute of Medical Research Personalised medicine - healthcare in the 21st century Thu 17 Aug Sydney Science Festival Em Professor D Brynn Hibbert, UNSW, President RSNSW Scientific and not-so-scientific fraud: crooks, cranks and charlatans 263 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Proceedings — 20 1 7 Tu 29 Aug Poggendorff lecture Associate Professor Andrew Robson, University of New England Applied remote sensing applications for Australian agricultural and horticultural industries Held at Mitchell Theatre, Level 1, Sydney Mechanics’ School of Arts, 280 Pitt St., Sydney Mo 4 Sep RSNSW/SMSA Enlightenment Series Susannah Fullerton, Author, lecturer and literary tour leader Lecture 1 : Samuel Pepys, His Library and the Enlightenment RSNSW/SMSA Joint Lecture Series: Is the Enlightenment dead? Held at Mitchell Theatre, Level 1, Sydney Mechanics’ School of Arts, 280 Pitt St., Sydney Wed 6 Sep 1256th Ordinary Meeting Dr Helen Mitchell, Conservatorium of Music Multisensory music: listening by ear and eye? Wed 4 Oct 1257* Ordinary Meeting Professor Pip Pattison AO, Deputy Vice Chancellor, University of Sydney The science of social networks Mo 6 Nov 2016 Dirac Lecture Professor Boris Altshuber Columbia University Dark Matter in the Universe Held at Ritchie Theatre, John Niland Scientia Building, UNSW Mo 6 Nov RSNSW/SMSA Enlightenment Series Professor Robert Clancy AM The freedom to use one's own intelligence: the Enlightenment and the growth of the Australian nation RSNSW/SMSA Joint Lecture Series: Is the Enlightenment dead? Held at Mitchell Theatre, Level 1, Sydney Mechanics’ School of Arts, 280 Pitt St., Sydney Wed 1 Nov 1258* Ordinary Meeting Pamela Griffith, Artist, designer, master printer and author Women artists: barriers and frustrations Tue 29 Nov RSNSWand Four Academies Forum Government House, Sydney; hosted by his Excellency General The Honourable David Hurley AC DSC (Ret’d) Governor of NSW and Patron of the Royal Society of NSW at Government House The future of rationality in a post¬ truth world Held in cooperation with the Australian Academy of Science, the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering, the Australian Academy of the Humanities and the Academy of Social Sciences in Australia. Wed 6 Dec 1259* Ordinary Meeting Royal Society of NSW 2017 Jak Kelly Award: Moritz Merklein, University of Sydney How to store light: an optical memory based on sound waves 264 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Proceedings -—2017 The 2017 programme of events — Southern Highlands Held at the Performing Arts Centre, Chevalier College, Bowral. Venue from October 2017: Mittagong RSL, 1st Floor, Joadja/Nattai Rooms. Thu 16 Feb 2017 Prof Adam Guastella Brain & Mind Research Institute Autism and ASD (Autism Spectrum Disorder) Thu 16 Mar Dr Barbara Briggs Royal Botanic Gardens Two hundred years of the Royal Botanic Garden Sydney, Australia’s oldest continuing scientific instimtion. Thu 20 Apr Dr Michael Kennedy Consultant Physician and Clinical Pharmacologist, St Vincent's Hospital Post mortem drug studies : What happens to drugs after death Thu 18 May Prof Gregg Suaning Professor of Biomedical Engineering, University of NSW The Bionic Eye "... to do for vision what the Cochlear implant has done for hearing" Ihu 15 June Dr Michael Birrell Luxor temple : The Southern Harem of Amun Thu 20 July Dr Wes Stein, CSIRO Smoke and Mirrors — Where to for Clean Energy? Uiu 17 Aug Hugh Mackay Psychologist, Sociologist and Social Researcher The changing place of religion in Australia Thu 28 Sep Professor Peter Schofield Executive Director and CEO, NeuRA (Neuroscience Research Australia) Biomarker Changes in Dominantly Inherited Alzheimer’s Disease Thu 19 Oct Professor Dean Rickies Professor of History and Philosophy of Modern Physics, University of Sydney Quanmm Gravity Thu 16 Nov Yik Lung (Jeremy) Chan, University of Technology Sydney Effects of Maternal Cigarette Smoke Exposure 265 Journal dr Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, vol. 150, part 2, 2017, pp. 266-268. ISSN 0035-9173/17/020266-03 Awards 2017 James Cook Medal Scientia Professor Gordon Parker AO FRANZCP FASSA is the winner of the James Cook Medal. He is Professor of Medicine at the University of New South Wales. Professor Parkers research has been focused on psychiatry, specialising in clinical research in mental health, in particular, depression and bipolar disorder. He was founding Director of the internationally recognised Black Dog Institute, dedicated to understanding, preventing, and treating mental illness. Thus, his contributions have had a major and lasting impact on human welfare in Australia, the Southern Hemisphere and beyond. The James Cook Medal is awarded from time to time for outstanding contributions to both science and human welfare in and for the Southern Hemisphere. Edgeworth David Medal Edgeworth David Medal for 2017 will be awarded to Dr. Angela Nickerson. She is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Psychology University of New South Wales, and an emerging international leader in the field of refugee mental health. Dr Nickersons research has been highly influential on both the direction of the research field, as well as policy and practice both in Australia and overseas. Her research has been at the forefront of uncovering the psychological mechanisms that underpin refugee mental health. The Edgeworth David Medal is awarded each year for distinguished research by a young scientist under the age of 35 years for work done mainly in Australia or for contributing to the advancement of Australian science. Clarke Medal for Botany This year’s winner of the Clarke Medal is Professor David Keith. He is Professor of Botany, University of New South Wales and Senior Principal Research Scientist, NSW Office of Environment & Heritage. Professor Keith is widely regarded as a leading plant ecologist at a state, national, and international level. His standing is founded on diverse contributions to botany, ecology, and conservation biology, both within Australia and globally. These contributions include long¬ term ecological studies, extensive vegetation surveys and mapping, studies on the ecology of rare and threatened flora, conservation risk analysis for species and ecosystems, applied fire ecology, and most recently a seminal synthesis in a new book on Australian vegetation. The Clarke Medal is awarded each year for distinguished research in the natural sciences conducted in the Australian Commonwealth and its territories. The fields of botany, geology, and zoology are considered in rotation. For 2017, the medal was awarded in Botany. 266 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Awards —“201 7 History and Philosophy of Science Medal Professor Peter Godfrey-Smith will receive the History and Philosophy of Science Medal for 2017. He is Professor at the School of History and Philosophy of Science at the University of Sydney. Professor Peter Godfrey-Smith has made seminal contributions to the philosophy of biology especially evolutionary theory and to the philosophy of mind, particularly in relation to animal cognition and the evolutionary origins of subjective experience and ‘consciousness’. The Society’s History and Philosophy of Science Medal is awarded each year to recognise outstanding achievement in the History and Philosophy of Science, with preference being given to the study of ideas, institutions, and individuals of significance to the practice of the natural sciences in Australia. Royal Society of New South Wales Scholarships Three scholarships of $500 plus and a complimentary year of membership of the Society are awarded each year in order to acknowledge outstanding achievements by young researchers in any field of science. Applicants must be enrolled as research students in a university in either NSW or the ACT. This year’s winners are: Grace Causer, PhD Candidate at the University of Wollongong and the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation. Ms Causer investigates novel and artificial nanomaterials, e.g., spintronic and multiferroic materials, using neutron and X-ray scattering methods. Consequently, these studies could lead to future applications in hydrogen gas sensing, spintronic, memory storage, and logic devices. Yu-wei Lin, PhD Candidate in the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sydney. Mr Lin’s area of research is concerned with developing valuable pharmacological information with regards to life-threatening respiratory tract infections caused by the deadly Gram-negative ‘superbugs’. Cara Van Der Wal, PhD candidate at the University of Sydney and the Australian Museum. Her research focuses on a remarkable group of crustaceans known as mantis shrimps. Many species live in Australian waters, but the evolutionary history and diversity of mantis shrimps remain poorly understood. Subsequently, these studies will fill the biological knowledge gap on genetic resources from this group of crustaceans. Pollock Memorial Lecture The Pollock Memorial Lectureship for 2017 will be awarded to Professor Andrea Morello LAPS FRSN, University of New South Wales. Professor Morello is an internationally recognised leader in quantum science and technology. He has invented and demonstrated all of the fundamental building blocks of a silicon quantum computer, laying the foundations for its practical manufacturing. 267 Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales Awards — 20 1 7 The Pollock Memorial Lectureship has been awarded from time to time for research in physics. It is jointly sponsored by the University of Sydney and the Society in memory of Professor J.A. Pollock, Professor of Physics at the University of Sydney (1899“ 1922) and a member of the Society for 35 years PoggendorfF Lecture Associate Professor Brent Kaiser will be awarded the PoggendorfF Lectureship for 2017. He is Professor at the School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney. Professor Kaiser is a molecular plant physiologist whose research into the sustainable use of nitrogen in cereal and legume grain crops has not only advanced the field, but achieved also tangible improvements in agricultural production and environmental stewardship. The Poggendorf Lecture is awarded every two to three years for research in plant biology and more broadly agriculture. RSNSW Medal Dr Donald Hector AO FRSN will be awarded the RSNSW Medal for 2017. He is Vice- President of the Society and immediate past President. Dr Hectors contributions to the RSNSW have been important, extensive and over a number of years. In particular, the recent restructuring of the Society’s membership and organisation has allowed the Society to become a true leader of NSW intellectual life. The Society’s Bronze Medal is awarded from time to time to a member of the Society who has made meritorious contributions to the advancement of science, including administration and organisation of scientific endeavour and for services to the Society. Jak Kelly Award The winner of the Jak Kelly Award for 2017 is Moritz Merklein from the University of Sydney. His research investigates a memory for optical data that is based on sound waves and has the potential to revolutionise next-generation computer chips. The Jak Kelly Award encourages excellence in postgraduate research in physics. The winner was selected from a short list of candidates who made presentations at a recent joint meeting at UNSW of the Australian Institute of Physics NSW Branch, the Royal Australian Chemical Institute, and the Royal Society of NSW. 268 The Royal Society of New South Wales . Information for authors j Details of submission guidelines can be found in the on-line Style Guide for Authors at: https:/ /royalsoc.org.au/society-publications/information-for-authors Manuscripts are only accepted in digital format and should be e-mailed to: journal-ed@royalsoc.org.au The templates available on the Journal website should be used for preparing manuscripts. Full instmctions for preparing submissions are also given on the website. If the file-srie is too large to email it should be placed on a CD-ROM or other digital media and posted to: The Honorary Secretary (Editorial), The Royal Society of New South Wales, PO Box 576, Crows Nest, NSW 1585 Australia Manuscripts will be reviewed by the Editor, in consultation with the Editorial Board, to decide whether the paper will be considered for publication in the Journal. Manuscripts are subjected to peer review by at least one independent reviewer. In the event of initial rejection, manuscripts may be sent to other reviewers. Papers (other than those specially invited by the Editorial Board) will only be considered if the content is either substantially new material that has not been published previously, or is a review of a major research programme. Papers presenting aspects of the historical record of research carried out within Australia are particularly encouraged. In the case of papers presenting new research, the author must certify that the material has not been submitted concurrendy elsewhere nor is likely to be pubKshed elsewhere in substantially the same form. In the case of papers reviewing a major research programme, the author must certify that the material has not been published substantially in the same form elsewhere and that permission for the Society to publish has been granted by all copyright holders. Letters to the Editor, Discourses, Short Notes and Abstracts of Australian PhD theses may also be submitted for publication. Please contact the Editor if you would like to discuss a possible article for inclusion in the Journal. The Society does not require authors to transfer the copyright of their manuscript to the Society but authors are required to grant the Society an unrestricted licence to reproduce in any form manuscripts accepted for publication in the Journal and Proceedings. Enquiries relating to copyright or reproduction of an article should be directed to the Editor. Volume 150, Part 2, 2017 SMITHSONIAN LIBRARIES 3 9088 01 930 5580 CONTENTS Numbers 465 & 466 Robert E. Marks-. Editorial. 139-142 Presidential Address — D. Brynn HibberP. Standards and units: a view from the President. 143-151 Refereed Papers — Wayne Erskine'\ , Lisa Turner, Teresa Rose, Mike Saynor and Ashley Webb-. Bedform 152-171 maintenance and pool destratification by the new environmental flows on the Snowy River downstream of the Jindabyne Dam, N.S.W. Patricio de los Rios Escalante, Eliana Ibdhez, Patricio Acevedo, and Manuel Castro-. First 172-178 characterization of Easter Island inland waters using remote sensing techniques. Roderick O’Brien: Introducing Julian Tenison- Woods and Malacca. 179-182 J. E. Tenison-Woods: Report on the geology and mineralogy of the State of Malacca (1885). 183-187 Ann Moyal: P, A. M. Dirac and the maverick mathematician. 188-194 R. W Young. The scientific legacy of the Rev. W. B. Clarke. 195-206 Invited Papers — John Cook: Understanding and countering climate science denial. 207-219 Leo Joseph: A guide to the evolution and classification of Australian birds in 2017. 220-231 Ann Moyal: Creative foundations. The Royal Society of N.S.W: 1867 and 2017. 232-245 Ph.D. Thesis Abstracts — Partho Adhikary: Role of Progesterone Receptor Membrane Component 1 (PGRMCl) in 246 cancer cell biology. Daniel Bowen: Adventure therapy: treatment effectiveness and applications with Australian 247-248 youth. Angela Curcio: Delinquency and problem drinking among Australian youth: a common 249-250 cause psychosocial control perspective. Sheena Elwick: A philosophical-empirical interrogation of infant participation in research. 251-252 Maleke Fourati: Determinants of the Islamic revival and its political implications. 253-254 Max Halupka: Contemporary political participation: exploring the relationship between 255 technology and politics in late modernity. Arvind Iyengar. SindhI multiscriptality, past and present: a sociolinguistic investigation into 256-257 community acceptance. Kwanho Jeong Phosphorus remobilisation during grain filling in rice. 258 Ulrike Prattes: Outsourcing responsibility. Towards a transformative politics of domestic work. 259 Elizabeth Ryan: Localising the Global Eco-Schools™ Program in South Africa: a postcolonial 260-261 analysis. Proceedings and Awards, 20 1 7 Information for Authors 262-268 Inside Back Cover ISSN 0035-9173 770035 917000 The Royal Society of New South Wales P.O. Box 576 Crows Nestj NSW 1585? Australia info@royalsoc.org.au (general) editor@royalsoc.org.au (editorial) www.royalsoc.au www.facebook.com/ royalsoc -9 Published December 2017