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Flower 512 LARGER MAMMALS OF PER1YAR SANCTUARY (1943) did note that elephants may propagate their species several years before they attain their full growth. At Periyar the intensity of biotic disturbance was probably at its height during the study period. If a drastic reduction in the number of male elephants occurred during this period the result in terms of num- ber of calves bom will be apparent only after a few years, the gestation period in elephants being of this order. The proportion of young (calves + juve- niles) to adult female, subadult male to sub- adult female and adult male to adult female are shown in Fig. 4. The young to the adult female ratio in Periyar is similar to that of other populations. So also the sex ratio between subadult males and subadult females. There is significant difference between adult male to adult female when compared to other popu- lations. In Wilpattu National Park in Sri Lanka for every two adult female elephant there was a male elephant (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972), whereas this numberjn Bandipur and Periyar are 8.8 adult female per adult male and 57 adult female per adult male elephants respectively. When due allowance is given for the solitary nature of the male elephant and that the above figures are based on male elephants seen with herds it does not seem to be too alarming. But the shortage of adult male elephant in Periyar population is quite obvious. Plate 2 shows a herd of elephants on lake shore. Solitary elephants The number of solitary tuskers sighted in the study area was fewer compared to other populations as mentioned earlier. Presence of large number of makhnas in the population also do not seem to be the case. Eisenberg and Lockhart (1972) are of the opinion that makhnas are not difficult to notice in a herd because of the male elephant’s habit of pro- truding his penis, especially while moving from one habitat to another. At Periyar solitary tuskless elephants were not encountered. Based on sightings of tuskers from 1979 to 1982 and examination of their individual peculiarities we conclude that there are only about nine adult tuskers in the study area. Out of these only four tuskers were seen dur- ing the year 1981-82. Movement pattern In Periyar elephants are found to use the lake shore, the grassland, the deciduous forest and to a lesser degree the evergreen forest. It is not known whether elephants could move from lake areas to the evergreen forests and then to the eastern regions because of the presence of steep mountains in between. The question whether the herds observed deep inside the evergreen forests move to the rest of the area in the reserve remains un- answered. In the Bandipur National Park elephant move away to the wet areas during summer (Nair et al 1977). Elephants are seen more- or less throughout the year in the study area and therefore there is no mass movement from one area to the other (Fig. 5). Our studies show that categorisation of Periyar elephants into three groups by Nair (1978) based on movement and temperament is untenable. Ele- phants have been sighted almost throughout the year around the lake. Feeding habits and food requirements Elephants feed on a large variety of plants. Their specialised trunk and thick tongue enable them to feed even on thorny plants. Grass seems to be their major food item in Periyar. Elephants feed a great deal on bamboos and reeds which are found in many 513 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 83 514 LARGER MAMMALS OF PERIYAR SANCTUARY parts of the reserve. Fruits of trees like mango and jack are also eaten. An adult elephant consumes about 250 to 350 kg of green fodder (Krishnan 1975). Vancuylenberg (1977) stated that an elephant spends 17 to 19 hour a day for feeding. It consumes about 150 kg of green matter and defecates about 80 kg of dung. GAUR In the study area gaur has been sighted at locations like Edappalayam, Kavalappara, Chakkappara, Aruvi, Poovarasu, Panamkala oda. Ottamaram, Kattumadu mottai, Kumari- kulam, Varayattumudi, Chaverkuzhi, etc. in different types of vegetation. The gaur is a widely ranging animal, sometimes migrating to adjacent areas when food becomes scarce (Krishnan 1976, Johnsingh 1980). It is not known whether there is any such movement to adjacent areas by these animals in Periyar or how far and how long they stay in a particular locality. The total number of gaur and their sex ratio in the sanctuary could not be estimated accurately due to the very scanty population which is slowly getting established after the rinderpest outbreak in 1974. Rinderpest seems to play an important role in regulation of gaur populations. The population builds up at a rapid rate and the animals become nume- rous in large herds readily seen in sanctuaries. An outbreak of a contagious disease like rinderpest almost wipes out the population and the whole process repeats. The periodicity of rinderpest occurrence is not known. Food requirements Gaur is described as both a grazer and a browser preferring green grass when available but otherwise consuming coarse dry grass and large variety of forbes, leaves and fruits (Schaller 1967, Krishnan 1975) like Hibiscus lampus, Grewia aspera, Grewia hirsuta, Des- modium pulchellum, Emblica sp., Cordia myxa, Zizyphus trinervia, Zizyphus xylopyrus, Smilax zeylanica, Gmelina arborea, T erminalia bellerica and Bambusa arundinacea which are present in the reserve. The gaur in captivity is report- ed to consume about 20 kg of green fodder a day. In the wild it visits water bodies at least once during hot days. SAMBAR Two factors, dense cover and water influ- ence the distribution and abundance of sambar (Johnsingh 1980). In the study area there were small groups of animals in every hillock or valley. They are not very conspicuous and their non-gregarious nature and dispersed dis- tribution tends towards an underestimation of their number. The largest group seen consist- ed of ten individuals (seven does and three fawns). Sambar is an important prey species in the sanctuary. Wild dogs can often be seen chasing them to water and killing them in water. For other carnivores such as panther and tiger also they form an important prey species. Food requirement Sambar deer like the gaur is a browser and grazer. According to Schaller (1967) young grass constitute their major forage during the rainy season. Browsing is resorted to when grass is scarce. In Periyar small groups of sambar can be seen grazing on the lakeshore and grassland. Their nipping the tender leaves of Panicum repens in marshy areas is parti- cularly noticeable. Feeding trials on a captive sambar deer showed high preference for grass. In captivity sambar deer are given 2.6 kg of green leaves and 3.0 kg of grass daily. Fruits of Emblica officinalis, Zizyphus jujuba, Randia dumetorum, T erminalia belle- 515 % OF HERDS SIGHTED JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Fig. 6. Distributed of group sizes of sambar deer sighted. 516 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 Ramachandran et al. \ Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary Plate 3 Above: A large sounders of wild boar near the lake shore. Below: Nilgiri langur jumping from one tree to another! LARGER MAMMALS OF PERIYAR SANCTUARY rica, T. chebula also are eaten in large quantity when available. The thickets of Lantana camara and Bambusa arundinacea provide them shelter and fodder. They visit waterholes almost everyday, sometimes at night. Population density The sambar deer seems to be very unevenly distributed in the reserve. Some areas have very high concentration of these animals. Four study plots contained as much as about 75% of the pellets collected. Herd composition and sex ratio The frequency distribution of number of animals in sambar groups seen is shown in Fig. 6. Sambar populations in other areas examined show remarkable similarity with that of Periyar with the solitary individuals occupy- ing 30-50% of the total. The group size rarely exceeds eight individuals. Johnsingh (1980) found a density of 4.2 sambar/km2 in wet season and 2.25 sambar/km2 in the dry season in his focal study area at Bandipur. The density of sambar in the Kanha National Park was estimated ot be 1.6 to 2.3 animal/km2 (Schal- ler 1967). The density of sambar in the Wilpattu National Park was estimated at 1.17 animals/km2 (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972). Sex and age distribution Attempts were not made for determining age of sambar deer during visual observations. The sex could be identified for larger indivi- duals. Out of 104 individuals accurately sexed 33.65% individuals were males, giving a male to female ratio of 1:3. All age categories seem to be represented in the pellets collected from the sample plots. Sambar stags were seen in velvet during the months of March, May, June, August and December. This rules out a particular season for shedding antler. WILD BOAR The Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), one of the most widely distributed non ruminant ungu- lates in peninsular India is also one of the least studied animals. The animals are seen in sounders ranging from a few to about sixty individuals. In some seasons large sounders of 80 or more indi- viduals can be seen (Plate 3). The significance of such aggregations, seen only on few occa- sions is not known. Lone animals can also be frequently seen. The sightings of pigs in the reserve show that they are seen mostly around the lake, and sounders ranging from six to eleven individuals were most well represented. In the Wilpattu National Park (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972) wild boars have the highest frequency of four individuals; after the single individuals. Sounders consisting of four to fifteen individuals were most common, there being fewer groups near the upper margin (Fig. 7). The high incidence of solitary indi- viduals, mostly males, suggest the possible existence of elaborate social structure. Opinions vary about the ranging pattern of the Wild boar. Eisenberg and Lockhart (1972) found them to be migratory in the Wilpattu National Park while Johnsingh (1980) con- siders them to have a fixed home range in Bandipur. In Periyar there do not seem to be any migration as indicated by sightings almost throughout the year. Unlike many sanctuaries they can be seen more readily in Periyar, almost throughout the day especially in the tourism zone. Our observations indicate that the members of a particular sounder are fixed and also that the adult males are solitary, probably joining the sounders only for mating. A case of wild boar feeding on carcass of their own species was also reported. At the reserve they 517 30 20 10 0 20 10 0 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 83 (a) WILPATTU 5 10 15 (b) PERIYAR 10 15 GROUP SIZE a Fig. 7. Distribution of groups of wild boar in Wilpattu and Periyar. LARGER MAMMALS OF PERIYAR SANCTUARY can be approached close on foot and they move away only at very close distance. When approached very close on foot they make threat displays. Flocks of jungle mynas can be seen accompanying wild boar and other grazers for catching the flushed insects. Wild Boar mostly lives in open habitat, grass or scanty bush jungle and prefers thick forest least. They are omnivorous living on a variety of roots, tubers, insects and carrion. The tubers notably of Panicum repens in marshy areas seem to be an important food item in Periyar. They were seen feeding on tadpoles of Rana curtipes which appear in large quantities in some seasons in the lake. There was an instance of a wild boar feeding on a dead fish. SMALLER MAMMALS The barking deer, mouse deer and the black-naped hare are included in this section. These are mostly very shy animals and occupy a habitat at the edge of the forest. The barking deer ( Muntiacus muntjak) is described as a solitary animal which hides the young ones in thickets till they are mature (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972). A captive male barking deer kept by us was fatally attacked by a wild male. This probably shows that the males are territorial and actively keep off other males. Nature of the male female bond is not known. Barking deer was record- ed in areas like Chevlod, Manakkavala, Ottamaram and Thekkady. Because of diffi- culty in distinguishing the pellet from that of Sambar and mouse deer detailed computations were not attempted. Nilgiri Tahr ( Hemitragus hylocrius ) the endangered ungulate is no more seen in the reserve even though they have been reported to be present on the tall steep hill tops. Mouse deer ( Tragulus meminna) is a small solitary deer, nocturnal in habit with a colour pattern suitable for concealment (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972). We have recorded a case of wild dogs killing a pregnant mouse deer in the month of April. Eisenberg and Lockhart (1972) suspect a consistent home range and the mouse deer having social interactions at least in the breeding season. There was diffi- culty in distinguishing pellets of mouse deer from that of young of other deer and hence detailed computations of age categorising were not attempted. The frequency distribution of pellet size was symmetrical. Mouse deer drop- pings were observed mostly in Chevalod and Ottamaram plots. The blacknaped hare ( Lepus nigricollis) also is not very active during the day time, it hides in grass during day. They seem to prefer forest edges. Their droppings are very common in rocky areas. Availability of fodder to herbivores Grass is abundant in the grassland on hill tops, savannah areas, lakeshore and marshes. Of these the grass in regions other than lake shore and marshes is mainly Cymbopogon sp. which is palatable only in young stages and is burned in the summer resulting in scarcity of grass. The evergreen forest also contain grass where the canopy is not closed. This grass is available almost throughout the year. Attempts were made to estimate the grass production in grassland, marshy area and savannah areas. The grass production is quite high in the grassland areas as shown by har- vesting experiments described below. The grass production at the end of the growth season is about 700 tonnes /km2. About 20% of the grass produced is consumed by herbi- vores. This means that animals depend upon 519 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 other plants and grass in the deciduous and evergreen areas a great deal. Of the different sites, Edappalayam had the maximum grass production followed by Manakkavala and Thanikudy. The three sites had different grass species, Edapalayam and Thanikudy predo- minently elephant grass and Manakkavala predominently Panicum sp. characteristic of marshy regions near the lake. At Edapalayam, at the beginning of the growth season, no direct comparison was pos- sible as the regions outside the protected part burned. Total grass and herbaceous vegetation had a dry weight of 196.31 gm/m2 inside trench and 205.22 gm/m2 outside. In the ungrazed regions Cymbopogon sp. accounted for 98.69% of the total weight. But in grazed regions only for 85.82% of the total. Species Cymbopogon and Desmodium seem to be heavily grazed whereas Desmostachya bipin- nata, Cyperus sp., Eupatorium odoratum etc. were more in grazed areas. Total grass pro- duction at Manakkavala in ungrazed account- ed to 711.8 gm/m2 and 592.72 gm/m2 in grazed areas. On the whole the species diver- sity seem to be less in the marsh compared to other areas, Panicum repens accounted for 93 . 89% of the total dry weight in grazed areas and 95.46% in the ungrazed areas. This is an important grass because elephants depends on this in the dry season to a great extent; the wild boar feed on its rhizomes, the sambar eats its tender shoot tips. Bamboo flowered around 1977 and was getting established again only during the study period. Coming to trees there are very few trees the elephants directly fed upon. Bark of GrevAa tiliaefolia was eaten. The number of these trees in the forest seem to be very few. The deciduous areas have Lagerstroemia lanceolata, Terminalia chebula, Bridelia retusa, Emblica officinalis, Randia dumetorum, Carey a arborea, Dillenia pentagyna, etc. Elephants hardly feed on any of these. Fruits of most of the other trees are eaten by sambar, bark- ing deer, etc. Enumeration of these trees or their phenology was not done. Regarding the numerous evergreen trees no particular tree seems to be extensively fed by elephants. Concerning the feeding of arboreal animals like giant squirrel, flying squirrel, bonnet macaque, liontailed macaque and nilgiri lan- gur, their feeding habits were not investigated in detail. Competition among herbivores The herbivores considered are elephant, gaur, sambar, cattle, wild boar, barking deer, mouse deer and hare. Ten biological factors such as degree of tree use, degree of usage of shrubs, browsing, grazing, dependance on underground tubers, need for water, diurnal/ nocturnal nature, preference for open habitat and sun tolerance were considered. Elephants feed on trees like Grewia and Ficus sp. Sambar deer and barking deer feed on fallen fruits. In using the shrubs also elephants top the list with its ability to break the stem and to feed from considerable height. Most of the animals considered are capable of both grazing and browsing. Only wild boar and elephant are able to dig or pull out underground stems and tubers. Need for water is more or less similar among the animals, wallowing animals like the wild boar, sambar and elephants needing it more than small deer like barking deer and mouse deer. Most of the animals were active during day time, the mouse deer and barking deer are more active during dawn and dusk. Elephants, hare and mouse deer have been found to be active during considerable part of the night also. Sun tolerance was rated maximum for cattle and least for the solitary deer. Hare was considered as an animal of 520 LARGER MAMMALS OF PERIYAR SANCTUARY the open habitat. Other animals preferred mostly a habitat with both open areas and cover. The highest density of sambar deer was recorded in Kadukkapara area with extensive Lantana thickets. The Lantana shrubs were very heavily browsed in this area. This is parti- cularly notable because Lantana is usually described as an unpalatable weed. A similarity matrix of similarity in habits and habitat use of the above herbivores was prepared from subjective values assigned to each of the parameters. Clustering by the hierarchical method (Cody 1974) show animals like barking deer, sambar, gaur, cattle and elephant forming one group and animals like mouse deer and hare forming another group. The Wild boar is not in either group and stands out alone having the least overlap with the rest of the animals. ARBOREAL MAMMALS The Malabar giant squirrel, flying squirrel, bonnet macaque, Nilgiri langur and the lion- tailed macaque are the major arboreal mammals. Malabar Giant Squirrel This squirrel ( Ratufa indica) is found in deciduous to evergreen vegetation, and builds large globular nests of twigs and leaves on smaller branches of tall trees. Giant squirrel is seen almost throughout the sanctuary. They feed on a large variety of fruits, barks, leaves and seeds. Their extensive feeding on teak seeds is particularly remarkable. They have been observed to feed on jackfruit, Terminalia paniculata (fruits), Bombax malabarica (seeds), Machilus macaranga (flowers), Ptero- carpus marsupium (bark), etc. Flying squirrel Petinomys fuscocapillus, the small Travan- core flying squirrel has been observed in the Thekkady region. This animal is mainly nocturnal, very active during dusk. Liontailed macaque This endemic endangered arboreal macaque, Macaca silenus is limited to the evergreen forests of western ghats — Nagercoil district to North Kanara (8°-15°N and 75°-80°E) (Karr 1973, Green and Minkowski 1977, Kurup 1978, Johnson 1980). In Periyar, they were recorded in Melappara cardamom estate, Elatheri, Koyilmala, Ponvarai, Pachakanam, Aladi, near the eastern border and Pachiar estate. A lone monkey was seen near Sabari- mala temple. A troop of seven individuals were sighted in Poonkavanam area. In Pacha- kanam area as described by Kurup (1978) their number is on the decline due to human activity. Near Melappara cardamom estate a troop of 32 liontailed macaques were sighted. Green and Minkowski (1977) observed that the liontailed macaques feed on Cullenia exarillata and Artocarpus heterophyllus almost throughout the year. Preference for other species vary between different months of the year. Other important species for the animal are Tetrastigma sulcatum, Litsea wightiana, Loranthus elasticus, etc. Periyar has one of the most extensive ever- green forests harbouring this monkey. The exact number, troops and general distribution in this reserve has not been thoroughly in- vestigated so far (Green and Minkowiski 1977, Kurup 1975) due to the extreme difficulty in approaching this area and rugged nature of the terrain. Bonnet macaque Those found in the natural forest were very shy and smaller in size compared to the ones found near habitation. 521 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Bonnet macaques have been found in Mela- ppara, Elatheri, Ummikuppan, Anchuruli, Tanikudy, Vaikkappadappu, Koyilmala, Pachaiyar estate, etc. These monkeys live in highly social groups. The largest troop found consisted about 40 individuals. Nilgiri langur The Nilgiri langur, Presbytis johnii is com- monly found almost all over the reserve (Plate 3). They have been reported to feed on plants like Pterocarpus marsupium, Grewia tiliaefolia, Dalbergia latifolia, Artocarpus hir- suta, etc. (Roonwal and Mohnot 1977). Group size varies from three to 35 individuals and the home range is proportional to the group size ranging from a few hectares to few km2. CARNIVORES Sloth bears were recorded from places like Manakkavala, Medaganam, Mullathode, Otta- maram, Mulakupara, Chaverkuzhy, Vaikkapa- dappu, Chorakotta, Koyilmala, Pulikkayam, Kozhikanam and Edappalayam. The sloth bear seems to prefer available paths in the forest as indicated by droppings and foot prints. They consume fruits of wild mango, Zizyphus jujuba, Syzigium cumini, Cassia fistula, Cordia myxa, etc. when available. A charred body of a sloth bear was observed in March 1978 at Chamikayam medu in the burnt grassland. Otter The Otter ( Lutra sp.) is present in the lake and upstream of Periyar in good numbers. They are seen in groups ranging from a few individuals to about 15 animals. They feed mainly on fish in the lake. A territorial habit is suspected as groups are repeatedly seen near particular areas. Tiger The Periyar Wildlife sanctuary has been declared as a Project Tiger area in 1978. No details are available regarding the previous number of tigers in the reserve. Varghese (1975) estimated a total of 30 tigers (11 males, 5 females, 8 subadult males, 3 subadult females and 3 cubs) in the reserve. By 1981 the num- ber of tigers had increased to 38 with 16 adult males, 10 adult females, 8 subadults and 4 cubs (Varghese 1981). These studies are based on analysis of pugmarks. During the reconnaissance period about 25 to 30 tigers were estimated based on spatial distri- bution of indirect evidences. Tigers were sighted at Edappalayam, near boat landing, Manakkavala and Thanikudy. Pug marks were seen in areas like Ummikuppan, Melappara, Thanikudy, Manakkavala, Panan- kala Oda, Poovarasu, etc. A total of four kills were examined, out of these three were domes- tic cattle and fourth a sambar stag. In all cases the tiger shifted the carcass about 200 metres each day. Leopard Only very limited details could be collected on Leopard, Panthera pardus from the study area. It is possible that many of the foot prints were mistaken for that of the tiger due to difficulty in recognising the pugmarks of tiger and leopard. Wild dog In Periyar the pack size ranged from 2 to 14. At Kanha the pack size was 2 to 12 ani- mals (Schaller 1967). Johnsingh (1980) is of the opinion that pack size will be small in areas where food is scarce. Wild dogs were sighted in areas like Manakkavala, Edappala- yam, Thekkady boat landing, Thanikudy, Melappara, Paravalavu, Medaganam, Cheriya- 522 LARGER MAMMALS OF PERIYAR SANCTUARY kanam, Nellikkampatti, Anchuruli, etc. The main prey of wild dog in the reserve seem to be sambar deer. Often the wild dogs were seen chasing the sambar to water and biting them to death, swimming around it. One wild dog was found dead, presumably from injuries sustained during hunting. Near the inhabited areas in the reserve people used to take away deer killed by the wild dog. John- singh (1980) is of the opinion that in these cases where the kills have been stolen wild dogs attempt one more kill on the same day. Availability of prey and competition among carnivores At Periyar the sambar deer constitute a major prey species for the wild dog, leopard and tiger. Spotted deer is not present in Periyar. The wild boar form the second prey species. We have recorded cases of wild dog hunting barking deer and mouse deer. Porcupine quills in some tiger droppings indicate tiger preying upon porcupine also. Conclusion As a habitat for herbivores, Periyar Wild- life Sanctuary contains sufficient fodder, water and diversity of forest. The overall density in the case of elephants is about one animal per km2. Whereas the ecological density is as high as three elephants per km2 in some areas in the dry season. The dense evergreen forests are found to be less suitable for larger mam- mals like elephants, gaur and sambar. Certain ecologically rich portions of the habitat con- sisting of lake shore, marshes and bushy thickets contain high density of deer species. There is a high concentration of wild boar near the lake shore due to abundant food availability and protection. High rainfall, lack of medium sized prey animal and uneven distribution of the prey animals seem to keep the density of carnivores in Periyar to a lower level. Acknowledgements We express our thanks to the Kerala Forest Department for financing the study. Contri- butions of Dr. V. S. Vijayan who initiated the project. Dr. M. Balakrishnan, Mr. P. V. Balakrishnan, Mr. P. V. Unnenkutty and Mr. K. Sasidharan who worked for short periods during the study is gratefully acknowledged. Dr. C. T. S. Nair and Dr. K. S. S. Nair examined the manuscript and suggested many useful changes. Encouragement and advice of Dr. P. M. Ganapathy and Dr. S. Kedharnath during the study is also gratefully acknow- ledged. References Benedict, F. G. (1936): The physiology of ele- phant. Carnegie. Institute of Washington Publica- tion No. 474. Bourdillon (1893) : A report on the forests of Travancore. Government Press, Trivandrum. Chan drasekh aran, C. (1973) : Forest resources of Kerala — A quantitative assessment. Kerala Forest Department, Trivandrum. Cody, M. L. (1974): Competition and structure of bird communities. Princetion University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. Douglas-Hamilton, I. (1972) : On the ecology and behaviour of the African elephant. D. Phil. Thesis. Oxford University, England. Eisenberg, J. F. & Lockhart, Melvyn (1972) : An Ecological Reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park, Ceylon. Smithsonian Contribution to Zoology No. 101. Flower, S. S. (1943): Notes on age at sexual maturity, gestation period and growth of Indian elephant Elephas maximus. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 113, 1943: 21-26. 523 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Green, S. & Minkowski, K. (1977) : The Lion- tailed Monkey and its South Indian Rainforest habitat, pp. 289-337. In: Primate Conservation. Eds. Rainier, H. S. H. and G. H. Bourne. Academic Press. Johnsingh, A. J. T. (1980): Ecology and be- haviour of the dhole or Indian Wild dog — Cuon alpinus Pallas 1811, with special reference to pre- dator-prey relations at Bandipur. Ph.D. Thesis. Madurai Kamaraj University. — (1983): Large mammalian prey-predators in Bandipur. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80(1): 1-57. Johnson, J. M. (1980) : The status, ecology and behaviour of liontailed macaque (Macaca silenus). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. 75, Supplementary issue, pp. 1017-1027. Karr, J. R. (1973): Ecological and behavioural notes on the liontailed macaque ( Macaca silenus) in South India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 ( 1) : 191-193.. Krishnan, M. (1975) : India’s Wildlife in 1959-70. An ecological survey of the larger mammals of Peninsular India. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Kurup, G. U. (1971) : A preliminary ecological survey of the Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala State. Cheetal, 13(1): 5-18. Kurup, G. U. (1975) : Status of the Nilgiri langur, Presbytis johnii in the Anamalai, Cardamom and Nilgiri hills of the Western Ghats, India. J. Bom- bay nat. Hist. Soc., 72(1) : 21-29. Kurup, G. U. (1979): Distribution, habitat and status survey of the Liontailed macaque, Macaca silenus (Linnaeus). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 75(2): 321-340. Laws, IC. M., Parker, I. S. C. & Johnstone, R. C. B. (1975) : The ecology of elephants in North Bunyoro, Uganda. Clarendon Press, Oxford. Nair, S. S., Nair, P. V., Sharatchandra, H. C. & Gadgil, Madhav (1977) : An ecological reconnais- sance of the proposed Jawahar National Park. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 74(3) : 401-435. Nair, N. R. (1978) : Elephant country. The Illus- trated Weekly of India. April 30, 1978. pp. 28-31. Roonwal, M. L. & Mohnot, S. M. (1977): Licntailed Macaque. In: Primates of South Asia- Ecology, Sociobiology and Behaviour, pp. 217-222. Schaller, G. B. (1967): The Deer and the Tiger. A study of wildlife in India. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. Vancuylenberg, B. W. B. (1977): Feeding beha- viour of the Asiatic elephant in south-east Sri Lanka in relation to conservation. Biol. Conserv., 12: 33-54. Varghese, Rajan (1975) : Statistical survey of Wildlife (Phase I) Tiger and their natural prey. Project Report, Department of Mathematics, Union Christian College, Alwaye. (1981) : Statistical survey of wildlife (Phase II) Tiger and their natural prey. Project Report, Department of Mathematics, Union Christian College, Alwaye. Vijayan, V. S., Balakrishnan, M. & Easa, P. S. (1979): Periyar Tiger Reserve — a reconnaissance report. KFRI Interim report. Kerala Forest Re- search Institute, Peechi, Trichur. Ward, Lt. & Connor, Lt. (1827): Memoirs of Travancore and Cochin states. Surveyor General’s Office, Madras. 524 SOME ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF MANGROVE FOREST OF ANDAMAN ISLANDS1 V. P. Singh, L. P. Mall, A. Garge and S. M. Pathak2 { With two text-figures) Introduction Mangroves are defined as characteristic littoral plant formations of tropical and sub- tropical protected coastlines. No other plant community in the world has perhaps, attracted more scientific attention than mangroves, pri- marily on account of their growing on a highly stressed habitat due to high amount of dis- solved salts in the substratum and the water which periodically covers the root system during tides and the very poor amount of aeration available. Also the presence of vari- ous types of aerial roots primarily for aeration and viviparous seedlings hanging on most of the trees are characteristic features. In India mangroves are found in very limited areas — Gangetic delta, mouths of Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna, Cauvery delta, Bombay region, Saurashtra and Kutch coast and Anda- man and Nicobar Islands. Nearly 85% of the Indian mangals are confined to West Bengal and to the Islands of the Andaman and Nico- bar groups. A study of mangrove vegetation of Andaman and Nicobar Islands was under- taken to know the ecological status, composi- tion, stratification and zonational pattern. Andaman group consists of 204 islands 1 Accepted May 1985. 2 School of studies in Botany, Vikram University. Ujjain. (Parkinson 1923) but according to the latest information it includes 291 islands, forming a chain lying in a north-south direction. The land area of the whole group is approximately 6,400 sq. km. Climate : The year may be divided into dry season and rainy season, and there is a little fluctuation in temperature with a brief cold season during the months of December and January. Dry season occurs from the months of January to April during which little, if any rain falls. In the months of February and March the weather is often sultry, and very little wind blows. The rainy season occupies the rest of the year, and during this period, varying degrees of rain occurs. The rainfall ranges from 279.4 to 433.5 cm per year, and varies in different parts of the islands. Soil: The soil of Andaman archipelago is usually soft, deep sandy loam, varying from a fine texture on the alluvial flats to gravel strewn soil. Under mangrove formations there is saline low-lying land, which is usually of alluvial nature. This is inundated at regular intervals by the rise and fall of tides. Vegetation: The five main types of vege- tation in Andaman group have been recognised by Parkinson (1923) as a. Mangrove forest b. Beach forest c. Evergreen forest d. Semi-evergreen forest e. Alluvial forest. 525 4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 83 Fig. 1. Sketch map of the Andaman Islands, showing their position (in inset) mangrove forest (light shading) and localities mentioned in text. MANGROVE FOREST OF ANDAMAN ISLANDS According to Chengappa (1944) the area under mangrove forest is nearly 44.330 hec- tares, total area of the Andaman mangrove is estimated at about 1,00,000 ha (Blasco 1977). Study sites : On the basis of extensive survey of these islands following sites have been selected for details study due to differences in substratum, topography, habitat, etc. (fig. 1). Site-1 Alexandra Island: Situated nearly 36 km from Port Blair. Here the substratum is sandy and mangal formation is dense and mostly species of Rhizophora dominate. Site-2 Wandoor: Situated at about 36 km from Port Blair very near to site-1. The sub- stratum is muddy and sandy and vegetation is almost similar to that of the 1st site with dense population of animals, e.g. mudskippers and snails. Site-3 Carbynscove: Located towards the east coast of South Andaman, 15 km from Port Blair, the substratum is clayey and muddy, with lot of human disturbance. Site-4 Chiriya-tapu : On the south coast of South Andaman, 42 km from Port Blair. There is open formation of rocky and stony shore. Here mangrove formations are found on rocky substratum. Site-5 Bambooflat: This site is along an inlet stream and is muddy with marked mangal formation. Some of the area is under acute human disturbance. Site-6 Wrightmyo: The site is along creeks and is marshy and muddy with dense mangal formation. Site-7 Oralkatcha: Situated at a distance of 35 km from Port Blair. This is an Island having a sea creek and inlet streams. Here the best developed mangrove was noticed. Site-8 Nilamboor: An island having a sea creek and inlet streams. Here also very goodgrowth of mangrove was noticed. The soil is muddy and sandy and vege- tation is almost similar to previous one. Site-9 Gandhi jetty: This site is situated along long creeks and mangrove formations are found on large flat areas. Site- 10 Kandamtala: Situated in the Middle Andamans at distance of 60 km from Port Blair. Mangrove formations are found on large flat areas along the creek. Methodology Phytosociological studies were made during 1983 to 1984 along a series of transects across the tidal flats. Transects were selected to cover a wide range of mangal types. For the deter- mination of composition and structure of mangrove forest at various sites, presence and absence of each plant species in each site were noted and finally percentage species compo- sition was calculated following Philips (1954). Sorensen index of similarity was used for the quantification of communities which was calculated on the basis of Sorensen (1948). Complexity index was calculated using the method given by Holdridge (1967). Soil sam- ples at different sites were collected from 15 cm depth and all the soil analysis was done by following Piper (1942) and Jackson (1958). Results and Discussion Floristic composition : The tidal zones of tropical seas are frequently lined with great mangroves. The outstanding features of these plants are adoptation to growing in sea water and establishing themselves in estuaries, creeks and lagoon areas. The coast line of the islands 527 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Table 1 Mangrove species recorded during the survey of various sites S.N. Family Species 1. Acanthaceae 1. Acanthus ilicifolius L. 2. A. ebracteatus Vahl 2. Avicenniaceae 3. Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh. 4. A. officinalis Blume. 3. Myrsinaceae 5. Aegiceras corniculatum (L.) Blanco 4. Rhizophoraceae 6. Bruguicra gymnorhiza (L.) Lam. 7. B. parviflora (Roxb.) Wight 8. B. cylindrica (L.) Blume 9. B. sexangula (Lour.) Poir. 10. Ceriops tagat (Perr.) C. B. Rob. 11. Rhizophora apiculata Blume 12. R. mucronata Lamk. 13. R. stylosa Griff. 14. R. lamarckii Montr. 5. Euphorbiaceae 15. Excoecaria agallocha L. 6. COMBRETACEAE 16. Lumnitzera littorea (Jack.) Voigt 17. L. racemosa Willd. 7. Palmae (Nypaceae) 18. Nypa fruticans Wurmb. 19. Phoenix paludosa Roxb. 8. Rubiaceae 20. Scyphiphora hydro phyllacea Gaertn. f. 9. SONNERATIACEAE 21. Sonneratia alba J. E. Smith 22. S. apetala Buch.-Ham. 10. Meliaceae 23. Xylocarpus granatum Koen. 24. X. moluccensis (Lam.) Roem. 11. Sterculiaceae 25. Heritiera littoralis (Dry and) Ait. Table la Other common associated species which are not true mangrove occurring along the innermost margin S.N. Family Species 1. Fern 1. Acrostichum aureum L. 2. A. speciosum Wild. 2. Caesalpiniceae 3. Caesalpinia bonducella Fleming 4. C. nuga Ait. 3. Verbenaceae 5. Clerodendrum inerme Gaertn. 4. Leguminosae 6. Derris scandens Benth. 7. Pcngamia pinnata Vent 8. Afzelia bijuga A. Gray 5. Malvaceae 9. Hibiscus tiliaceus Linn. 10. Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland. 6. Rubiaceae 11. Guettarda speciosa Linn. 7. Apocynaceae 12. Cerbera floribunda K. Schum. 8. Bignoniaceae 13. Dolichandrone rheedii Seem. 9. Pandanaceae 14. Pandanus tectorius Soland. 10. Palmae 15. Liacula spinosa Warmb. 528 MANGROVE FOREST OF ANDAMAN ISLANDS is irregular and deeply indented thereby giving rise to a number of tidal creeks. These creeks are densely populated by this peculiar plant community. Here the mangroves are well pro- tected against heavy tidal action and some what sheltered from high wind. Most of the islands have muddy, sandy and to some extent muddy sandy soil type. These factors provide ideal conditions for mangrove development and establishment. Extensive survey of various Islands of south and Middle Andaman was done and we came to the conclusion that the mangrove Community of these islands is greatly dominated by the family Rhizophora- ceae and the seaward line is always occupied by Rhizophora spp. We have collected a total of 40 species of mangroves belonging to 28 genera distributed over 20 families. Among these 25 species are exclusive species (Table 1). According to the latest census (COE 1983) Table 2 Floristic composition of mangrove forest at various sites S.N. Name of the species Occurrence of species at : different sites Pre- sence Class 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total % 1 . Acanthus ilicifolius - X X - X X X - - - 50 3 2. A. e brae teat us - X X - - - X - - - 30 2 3. Avicennia marina - - X - - - X X X X 50 3 4. A. officinalis X X X X X X X X X X 100 5 5. Aegiceras corniculatum - - - - - - X - X - 20 1 6. Bruguiera gymnorhiza X X X X X X X X X X 100 5 7 . B. parviflora - - X - X X - - - - 30 2 8 . B. cylindrica - - X - X X - - X X 50 3 9. B. sexangula - - - X - - - - - - 10 1 10. Ceriops tagal X X X X X X X X X X 100 5 1 1 . Rhizophora apiculata X X X X X X X X X X 100 5 12. R. mucronata X X X X X X X X X X 100 5 13. R. stylo sa - - X X - - - - X - 30 2 14. R. lamarckii X 10 1 15. Excoecaria agallocha - - X - - - X - - - 20 1 16. Lumnitzera littorea - - X - X - X X X - 50 3 17. L. racemosa - X X 20 1 18. Nypa fruticans - - X - X - X X - X 50 3 19. Phoenix paludosa X - X X 30 2 20. Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea - X - - X - X X X - 50 3 21. Sonneratia alba - - X X - - - - - - 20 1 22. S. apetala - X 10 1 23. Xylocarpus granatum X - - - - X X X - X 50 3 24 . X. moluccensis X X 20 1 25. Heritiera littoralis X - X X X - X X X - 70 4 Total number of species at various sites. 8 10 17 9 12 9 16 11 13 12 % Contribution 32 40 68 36 48 36 64 44 52 48 529 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 there are 60 exclusive species distributed over 16 families confined to mangrove habitat only 23 non-exclusive species which occur in that habitat and elsewhere also. We have noted 15 non-exclusive species at various sites in the Andamans (Table la). From Table 2 it is seen that some species, e.g. Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata, Ceriops tagal, Bruguiera gymnorhiza and Avi- cennia officinalis are common to all sites. Sites 3 and 7 are very rich in floristic composition, contributing 68% and 64% of the total man- grove species respectively. Index of similarity among 10 sites were analysed (Table 3). From the table it is seen that maximum similarity is present between mangals of site-3 and site-7 and minimum between those of site-6 and site-7. Table 3 Similarity index at different mangroves sites Sites Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Site 5 Site 6 Site 7 Site 8 Site 9 Site 10 Site-1 1.0 58.82 48.79 57.14 43.75 78.28 50.00 48.22 43.75 50.00 Site-2 100 51.28 46.15 53.33 46.15 42.85 51.85 46.66 53.33 Site- 3 100 ... . 54 69^45 47.. 05 87 14 52.-94— .64,-84- 59.45 Site-4 100 50.00 38.09 68.88 67.12 58.35 41.66 Site-5 100 50.00 45.00 64.00 64.28 42.85 Site- 6 100 33.33 54.84 48.00 64.00 Site-7 100 59.45 60.00 50.00 Site-8 100 72.00 72.00 Site-9 100 64.28 Site- 10 100 Table 4 . . ^Complexity index of various sites of Andaman Islands S.N. Site No. of species No. of trees above 10 cm diam. Height in m Basal area in m Complexity index Rainfall in mm 1. Alexandra Island 8 90 8.7 1.51 9.45 2286 2 Wandoor 10 102 10.0 1.40 14.28 2286 3. Carbynscove 17 80 7.7 0.91 9.52 2286 4. Chiriyatapu 9 120 7.7 4.93 40.99 2212 5. Wrightmyo 12 160 9.3 2.43 43.3 2417 6. Bambooflat 9 157 9.0 1.75 22.25 2417 7 Oralkatcha 16 175 17.0 6.95 330.82 3429 8. Nilamboor 11 131 12.7 5.64 103.21 3429 o ji •• 1. 1 1 1 QO 1 TL /C . 1 1 c _Q3-C7 3429 y. oananijetty 1 J l oU l a. O J . ID 10. Kadamtala 11 163 12.0 4.68 100.69 2810 * Complexity index is for function of no. spp., density, basal area, height and factor 10-3 based on 0.1 ha. 530 MANGROVE FOREST OF ANDAMAN ISLANDS Complexity index : Is a very simple mathe- matical expression for the quantitative charac- ters of the community in term of complexity index. The coefficient was used originally only for comparing the floras of larger areas in relation to rainfall. Holdridge (1967) gave the idea of complexity index in case of man- grove forest. We have determined the comple- xity index of all the 10 sites (Table 4). Maxi- mum complexity index has been noted at Table 5 Structure of mangrove and rainfall (Based on 0.1 ha. area) Country No. of spp. No. of trees above 10 cm diam. Basal area in m Pleight in m Complexity Index Rain fall mm Costa Rica (Main river) 4 118 9.53 16.0 72.0 3300 Costa Rica (Santa rosa) 2 80 2.22 io. a 3.6 1800 (6 months dry) Puerto Rico (Mona Island) 2 179 2.97 15.0 15.9 1631 Puerto Rico 2 17 0.17 4.8 1 860 Andaman South 9 120 7.7 4.93 40.99 2286 Andaman middle 16 175 17.0 6.95 330.82 3429 Table 6 Genf:ral stratification of species in the mangrove forest of Andaman Islands Stratum 1 Trees or tall shrubs abundant and contributing to the physiognomy of the association. Stratum 2 Shrubs or small trees which may be locally abundant. Stratum 3 Low shrubs or lianas frequently present in edaphically restrictive situations. Outer 1 . Inner Zone : Rhizophora mucronata Ceriops tagal R. apiculata Bruguiera parviflora R. stylosa Aegiceras corniculatum Ceriops tagal Avicennia marina A. officinalis 2. Middle Zone: Bruguiera gymnorhiza Excoecaria agallocha Acanthus e bract eatus B. parviflora A. ilicifolius Sonneratia alba Lumnitzera littorea Xylocarpus granatum X. moluccensis 3 . Distal Zone : Heritiera littoralis Phoenix paludosa Nypa fruticans 531 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 X i 1 V f f T f ? T f f * t V ? T V o|a t it r p profile of mangal at different sites Key to species: .<*hi z opho fast ylosa. _R.mucronata. .R.apiculata. _Bruguiera parviflora. J&cyllndrica. _B.gytnnorhiza. .Scyphiphora hydrophyila. .Heritiera littofalis. .Ceriops tagal. .Avicennia officinalis .A.alba. .Aegiceras corniculatum. _Excoecaria agallocha -Pandanus tectorius. - Lumnitzera uttorea. - L.racemosa. . Nypaf rut leans. .Sonneratia alba. .^.apetala. -Xylocarpus granatum. -X.moluccensis. -Phoenix paludosa. -Acrostichum aureum. -Acanthus ilicifolious. _ A.ebracteatus -Cerbera ftoribued. _ Afzelia bij uja „ Hibiscus tiliaceus. -Pongamia pfnnata Fig. 2. 532 MANGROVE FOREST OF ANDAMAN ISLANDS Oralkatcha (Baratang Island), the value is 330.82 and minimum is at Carbynscove the value is 9.52. The high value of complexity index at Oralkatcha is due to high rainfall and the undisturbed condition of the mangroves forest. There is no felling, while at other sites of South Andamans complexity index is generally low, this may be due to the low rainfall and high human interference in these islands. At sites- 1 and 2, felling in many places is so common that whole areas are devoid of vegetation and there are no natural regeneration, resulting in change of the basic structural pattern of man- grove forest. A comparative complexity index has been given in Table 5, from the table it is seen that mangroves of Andaman Islands are richer and healthier in comparison to man- groves of Costa-Rica and Puerto-Rico. Stratification : The structure that results from the distribution of organism and their inter- action with their environment can be called pattern. Many different kinds of arrangement in the standing crop of organisms contribute to pattern diversity in the community as for example: 1. Stratification pattern (vertical layering), 2. Zonational pattern, 3. Activity pattern. 4. Food web pattern, 5. Reproductive pattern etc. In all, stratification pattern is most important pattern for the study of any forest. In a forest the two basic layers the autotrophic and heterotrophic strata- that are characteristic of all communities are frequently distinctly stratified into additional layers. In the case of the mangrove forests of Andamans there is layering but the layering is not as clear as is found in the beach forests or evergreen forests of the Andamans. In some places where the mangrove forest is well developed and there is no interference of biotic factors, e.g. Kadamtala, Gandhi Jetty and Oralkatcha, the height of many trees, e.g. Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Lunmitzera littorea , Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata and R. apiculata reaches to 30 to 45 metres. We have noted three strata in case of mangrove forests of Andamans: Upper stratum — occupied by tall mangrove species, e.g. Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Lumnit- zera, littorea, Rhizophora mucronata, R. apiculata etc. Middle stratum — Occupied by shrubs and small trees which are abundant in middle zone, e.g. Ceriops tagal, Excoecaria agallocha, Aegiceras corniculatum, Bruguiera parvi- flora, etc. Lower stratum — It is occupied by small shrubs and fern, e.g. Acanthus ebracteatus, A. ilici- folius, Nypa fruticans, etc. Zonational trends of mangrove swamp of Andaman : Based on the study of the structure and composition of mangrove forest at diffe- rent sites the following 7 major types of mangrove communities are recognised: 1 . Rhizophora mucronata — Rhizophora apiculata Community 2 . Bruguiera gymnorhiza — Ceriops tagal Community 3 . Rhizophora mucronata — Bruguiera gym- norhiza Community 4 . Lunmitzera littorea — Avicennia officinalis Community 5. Bruguiera gymnorhiza — Avicennia offi- cinalis Community 6. Heritiera littoralis — Pongamia pinnata Community 7. Acanthus ilicifolius — Acrostichum aureum Community Rhizophora species grows typically on the outer seaward (fig. 2) fringe of the swamp, where the water is most salty. The distribution of species in such habitat is largely controlled by salinity of substratum, frequency and dura- tion of flooding by tide water, and moisture content of substratum. Zonational pattern of 533 Table 7 Ecological distribution pattern of mangroves at different sites in relation to habitats JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 II 4J d o N o s § s s Co f! 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S X (K ft; ft; ss a K? a a U ’S . 00 _ a a to a a ^ CQ a «o ^ . . 00 c< C< a co d ^ -53 f co 2 ^:s i § «A ^ .y * Co .. a •« ^ b .a ci *E co- S s ^ g .a sis ° I >6® is § -s a • • a a v» C a to *£* r= .3 g •|-§ •■ » t l£| tn ~Cj 00 ~ a c a a . o a sj >u o ss g a 2r •b G Co o C ^ a «n *a h-. ■*- a 2 ^ •• 1 a 1 1 Sea. * 1* a ^ do a a a 2 I ,a .a ’a ' a . _ Wj t« b C a b c s ° "2 v. . . a CQCQCQOHJftlCQ^: I s a _ d. 2 . ss T Sa^K •5 3 •• -I o a S a „ ?s a « do co J a b I .3 I c a . 5 ft! T « »o b n g 6 & CO ^ts? c ,vT ■§ :i ^ os ft; ^ >> d cd d ^ S 7 *3 ^ § ^ M >> 8 § >. ■X3 X d >. x >* X x 3 d CO A g co 73 OS to X OS X 00 a a Q u X u O O co d 0 d co ►a CQ X >> O CO 5 Co > B ^«c3 OD 534 MANGROVE FOREST OF ANDAMAN ISLANDS N & to « 5 x © a o N © > D O I J-H X 00 X fl X Kt s s © § N © C o © 00 C c •ri xi g £ C5 a Qh Q* O or5 £ a . 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X C^.H 1 • • X b x q. a a a, a g*.§ §•! 00.2 5 x . © X . > © *R • ft; hJ ^ ft: •& -3 3 ■a I ^ ei Co’S II si «S o CQ u >> ^ o3 O O !©^ "=3 X £ X T3 1 1 § §3 1 o § a /^S /— N ^-*s OO On 52 535 8 I I JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 mangroves of all sites have been studied and is given in Table 7. From the table, it is seen that mangroves of all sites have three zona- tion, namely Proximal zone, middle zone and distal zone. Proximal zone : This is the seaward zone where frequency of inundation is maximum. The species in this zone are Rhizophora api- culata, R. mucronata, Ceriops tagal, Sonne - ratia alba, etc. Salinity is in neighbourhood of that of sea water. Middle Zone : This zone is towards the inte- rior, soluble salts are more than in sea water. The common species are Bruguiera spp. having great girth. Lumnitzera littorea, Aegiceras corniculatwn, etc. usually they attained great height and girth. Distal Zone: This zone is towards landward fringe, where salinity may be high. The com- mon species are Heritiera littoralis, Acrosti- chum aureum, Acanthus species, etc. This type of zonational pattern is called metabolic zonation. From water edge to inland, a pattern of change in soil salinity and corresponding zonation of the mangrove species is usually observed. Each species occupies a salinity zone to which it is best adapted; more of the energy goes to growth and less to maintenance (i.e. respiration) as compared to potential competi- tor species. This adaptation to salinity regime is known as the metabolic zonation. Man- groves such as Avicennia, Aegiceras and Aegia- litis have salt secreting glands on their leaves. The sap which passes up their xylem contains 0.2-0. 5% Sodium Chloride. Mangroves such as Rhizophora , Bruguiera and others lack the salt secreting glands and the concentration of salt in their sap is only about 1/10 of the above group. They have an ultra-filtration mechanism in their roots enabling selection absorption of ions. In some species, e.g. Sonneratia and others have been found to have excessive amount of ions in their organs and thus with the absorbed and accumulated ions the leaves become quite fleshy. In all cases the osmotic pressure of cell sap is now near that of sea water. The normal process of transpiration accounts for flow of water through the plant. The main difference between mangroves and other plants is that the mangroves have an usually high osmotic pressure in the leaf cell sap. It seems that physiologically salt excluding membrane system is more efficient than the system having salt secreting gland on their leaves. The occur- rence of Rhizophora spp. in proximal zone or at seaward side at various study sites supports this idea. Other species like — Avicennia, Aegiceras and Lumnitzera sp. are always recorded in the middle zone of the mangrove forest, where soluble salts are more. From the zonational study it seems that habitat if sandy and not flat has less species composition and less zonational pattern. Those areas which are flat and muddy have greater number of species composition and broad zonational pattern. Summary Ecological studies of mangrove forest were undertaken at 10 sites covering a large area of mangrove forests of the Andaman Islands. Forty species belonging to 28 genera, of over 20 families have been recorded. Complexity index of each site has been determined. Man- groves of middle Andaman have more comple- xity index than south Andaman. Zonational pattern of mangrove species at different sites was studied. It is seen that each species usually occupies a salinity zone to which it is best adapted. 536 MANGROVE FOREST OF ANDAMAN ISLANDS Acknowledgements We are thankful to the Department of Environment, Govt, of India for giving finan- cial assistance to carry on research work on Refer Blasco, F. (1977): Outlines of ecology, Botany and forestry of the mangals of the Indian subcon- tinent. In: Ecosystems of the world-Wet coastal Eco- systems. Ed. by V. J. Chapman. Pages 141-158. Chengappa, B. S. (1944): Andaman forests and their vegetation. Indian Forester 70: 297-304. COE (1983): Global Status of Mangrove Eco- systems. Edited by Saenger, Hegerl and Davis, Gland Switzerland. Holdridge, L. R. (1967): Life zone ecology. Tropical Science Center. San. Jose Costa Rica. 206pp. ecology of mangroves of Andaman Islands. Thanks are also due to Prof. S. K. Chauhan, Head, School of studies in Botany, Vikram University, Ujjain for providing facilities. ENCES Jackson, C. (1958) : Soil Chemical analysis. Prantic Hall CUglewood Clopp. 42 pp. Parkinson, C. E. (1923) : A Forest flora of Anda- man Islands. Bishen Singh, Dehradun. 235 pp. Philips, E. A. (1954) : Methods of vegetation study. Hewry Halt and Co. INC. Piper, C. S. (1944): Soil and Plant analysis. Uni- versity of Adelide, Adelide. Sorensen, T. (1948): A method of establishing group equal amplitude in plant sociology based on similarity of species content. Det. Kong. Desk. Vid. Selsk. Biol. SKR Copenhagen, 5: 1-39. 537 SURVEY OF THE FRESHWATER TURTLES OF INDIA PART I: THE GENUS KACHUGA 1 Edward O. Moll2 { With a colour plate and eight text-figures) Kachuga is the most diverse genus of the Asiatic batagurines. This paper recognizes 7 species and 10 subspecies (one new and one resurrected). All but one occur in India. Egg shell and penial morphology support a close relationship of Kachuga to Batagur, Callagur, Hardella, and Morenia. Two distinct species’ groupings evident within the genus are tentatively designated the subgenera Kachuga and Pangshura. The former contains the larger (>40 cm CL) species, K. dhongoka and K. kachuga-, the latter includes the smaller (< 30 cm CL), K. smithii, K. sylhetensis, K. tecta and K. tentoria. Sexual dimorphism in size characterizes both groups but pronounced sexual dichromatism is known only in the Kachuga. Members of both subgenera are highly aquatic, herbivorous species but differ in other aspects of their ecology. Members of the subgenus Kachuga are inhabitants of moderate to large rivers, nesting on sand banks chiefly in March and April. Members of the Pangshura inhabit lentic as well as lotic habitats and nest in the winter months of October through January in a variety of situations. Keys and descriptions are provided for identifying each species and subspecies. Verified locality records are plotted on distribution maps. I N TROD U CTIO N India boasts one of Asia’s most diverse assemblages of chelonians. At least 5 families, 23 genera and 31 species occur within the boundaries of the country. Generally the dis- tribution and the biology of these species are poorly known. Much of our knowledge of this assemblage comes from writings of the British naturalists of the nineteenth and early twentieth century. For the most part these men were concerned only with taxonomy. Their locality data were seldom precise (e.g. North India, Peninsular India) and natural history data were rarely provided. To further complicate 1 Accepted September 1986. 2 Dept, of Zoology, Eastern Illinois University, Charleston, Illinois, USA. matters much of the describing and classifying was done by museum curators such as John Edward Gray, Albert Guenther, and George Albert Boulenger who had never been to India and who often relied on second hand infor- mation, drawings and dried specimens to pre- pare their accounts. Considerable confusion and lengthy synonomies have resulted. Malcolm Smith’s 1931 treatise on chelonians in The Fauna of British India series did much to summarize the available information and to reduce confusion. Nevertheless the distributions given were still sketchy and little natural history information was provided. A long lapse followed Smith’s work during which time there was meagre interest in field biology of turtles particularly freshwater species. With a few exceptions (e.g. Acharji 538 FRESHWATER TURTLES OF INDIA 1950, 1955, Hora 1948, Jayaram 1974) only a scattering of small notes concerning freshwater chelonians appeared in the Indian journals from the thirties to the eighties. Interest was rekindled by conservation concerns of the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources). Meeting in conjunction with the 1981 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) in New Delhi, the newly formed Freshwater Chelonian Specialist Group (FCSG) of the IUCN noted that a proportionately large number of the chelonians listed on CITES Appendices I & II (endangered and threatened categories) inhabited India and Bangladesh. It also noted that there were few data concerning the status and distribution of these species in the region. A survey of the freshwater chelo- nians of India to obtain data on their distri- bution and conservation status was given a “highest priority” status for action by the group. The initial survey of the Indian chelonians was funded by a grant from World Wildlife Fund to Rom Whitaker and me and was carried out by Ms. J. Vijaya in West Bengal and adjoining states from August 1981 to February 1982. This was followed by a more extensive survey of Indian rivers and markets from September 1982 to June 1983 conducted by myself, Vijaya and Satish Bhaskar with funding from an Indo-American Fellowship. Some of the findings of these surveys have now been published or are accepted for publi- cation (Groombridge et al. 1983; Moll 1983, 1984, 1985, in press a, b, c.). Publicity about these surveys and the plight of the South Asian chelonians in general helped to spark the in- terest of other investigators, contributing to a flurry of recent publications (many conser- vation oriented) concerning these species (e.g. Das 1986, Khan 1982, Rao and Singh 1984, 1985; Vijaya 1982a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, 1983a, b, c, d, e; Whitaker 1982, and Yadava and Prasad 1982a, b). This paper begins a several part series aimed at incorporating the findings of the aforemen- tioned surveys with recent information from other authors to provide an updated account concerning identification, distribution and biology of the Indian freshwater chelonian fauna. This part considers the Indian repre- sentatives of the most diverse genus of Asiatic batagurines, the Kachuga. Methods In the course of our surveys, we visited 14 major rivers: the Ganges and its tributaries (the Hindon, Yamuna, Chambal, Ghagra, Rapti, Gandak and Hooghly) along with the Subharnareka, Mahanadi, Godavari, Cauvery, Narmada and Tapti. Typical procedure of these surveys included sampling available habi- tats with baited hoop traps (Legler 1960) and trammel nets, contacting fishermen and market vendors for information and specimens, and canvassing garbage dumps for skeletal mate- rial. Voucher specimens for most localities have been placed in the collections of the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) or the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago (FMNH). A few have been kept alive for captive breeding purposes at the Madras Crocodile Bank. Others are in the author’s possession (EOM). Specimens were measured with aluminium forestry calipers, weighed with portable spring scales and described before being preserved or released. Standard measurements, given in centimeters unless otherwise indicated, are maximum carapace length (CL), carapace width (CW), plastron length (PL) and height of shell (H). Color descriptions of living 539 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 specimens were made using color swatches of Smithe (1975). Scute and bone terminology of the shell follows Zangerl (1969). Common names follow Iverson (1985) except that terra- pin has been substituted for turtle in the Kachuga to be consistent with the names of close relatives (painted terrapins — Callagur ; river terrapins — Batagur). Keys, descriptions and colored photographs showing ontogenetic and sexual variation are provided herein to facilitate identification. To save space in the descriptions certain forms of abbreviation have been used requiring ex- planation: The seam contact formula indicates where the seams of the pleural scutes contact the marginals. The abbreviations used are modified from that of Tinkle (1962). Five pleural or carapacial seams contact the marginal scutes. The anterior edge of the first pleural typically contacts the first marginal. To indicate whether this contact is usually in the anterior, middle or posterior third of the marginal scute, the respective designations of 1<, 1M, or 1> are used. The formula 1M 4> 6> 8M 11 < indicates that the five contacts were middle third of Marginal 1, posterior third of Marginals 4 and 6, middle third of Marginal 8 and anterior third of Marginal 11. The neural formula signifies the number of sides on each of the eight neurals (i.e. 4, 6, or 8). For hexagonal neurals the symbols > and < denote whether the short sides of the bone are located anteriorly or posteriorly (see Fig. 3). When the number of sides is highly variable a range is given (e.g. 4-6). The plastral formula indicates relative lengths of the plastral scutes along the midline of adults (juveniles often differ). Scute abbre- viations are : G = gular, H = humeral, P = pec- toral, Ab = abdominal, F = femoral, and A = anal. The signs >, <, and >< connote res- pectively — greater than, less than, and either may be the larger. Other abbreviations include: RCM — Rela- tive clutch mass (modified from Vitt and Price 1982) is the ratio of clutch mass to body mass of the spent female. ELI — Egg length index is the ratio of mean egg length to carapace length x 100. EWI — Egg width index is the ratio of mean egg width to cara- pace length x 100. EMI — Egg mass index is ratio of mean egg weight to body mass x 100. AP, MP, and UP are used to indicate the states of Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh in localities. In addition to specimens collected on the surveys, I was able to examine the collections of chelonians in the Bombay Natural History Society (all), the Zoological Survey of India in Calcutta (part) and the British Museum of Natural History (BMNH) in London (part). When positive identification of specimens with seemingly accurate locality data was possible, I have included these in the ‘Distribution’ section to increase the number of reliable records available for the country. Relationships The Kachuga are members of the sub- family Batagurinae of the family Emydidae sensu McDowell (1964). Hirayama (1984) and Gaffney (1984) support elevating the sub- family to familial rank. The interfamilial relationships of the bata- gurines are still being debated. See for exam- ple McDowell (1964), Carr (1981), Sites et at. (1984) and Hirayama (1984). My own studies of the penis and eggs (see below) support the scheme of Hirayama which consi- ders Kachuga most closely related to Batagur, Callagur, Hardella, and Morenia. This is also similar to the view expressed by Loveridge 540 FRESHWATER TURTLES OF INDIA and Williams (1957). All of these genera comprise herbivorous and highly aquatic species. Morphological characteristics shared by this group include a large foramen orbito- nasale, a broad secondary palate, serrated tomia, strong plastral buttresses, the ento- plastron lying anterior to humero-pectoral sulcus, and fourth marginal scutes contacting the second pleural scutes. All of the aforementioned genera share a distinctive penial morphology characterized by a highly elaborated plica media (Fig. 1). The lateral fold of the plica media is modified into two pairs of flaps — a proximal rounded pair with a more prominant, pointed pair distally. The smaller, lower medial fold is conspicuously Fig. 1. Penis of Kachuga kachuga. Labled parts as follows: a. Plica media — medial fold. b. Plica interna, c. Plica media — lateral fold (small arrow indicates distinctive pointed flaps), d. Plica externa, e. Seminal groove. Scale marker represents 5 mm. triangular in shape. No other batagurines have yet been found with this unusual type of penis. The genus Ocadia shares the triangular shaped medial fold but the distal flaps of the lateral fold are neither well developed nor pointed. Ewert (1979) recognized three types of egg shells, brittle, hard-expansible and pliable. Batagur, Callagur, and Kachuga which lay hard-expansible to pliable-shelled eggs are the only batagurines thus far reported that do not lay brittle-shelled eggs. The egg shell type of Hardella and Morenia is unreported. Within the genus Kachuga, there are two distinct species groups. One comprises the large, riverine species, dhongoka, kachuga, and trivittata. The other includes small to medium- sized turtles, smithii, tecta, tentoria, and sylhet- ensis, that inhabit rivers, nullahs and tanks. Gray (1855) recognizing the distinctness of the two groups placed them as subgeneric divisions ( Kachuga and Pangshura) of the genus Batagur. Gunther (1864) and Gray (1869) elevated the Pangshura and Kachuga respectively to generic rank. Boulenger (1889) subsequently lumped both groups as the genus Kachuga. This arrangement which has lasted to present obscures the close relationship of the four smaller species which share a suite of derived characteristics not found in the larger forms. A tentative list of characters defining the two groups is provided in Table 1. The list is tentative as it is based chiefly on material collected by the survey and because no skele- tons of Kachuga sylhetensis have been exa- mined as yet. A larger study to determine the extent of geographical and individual variation in these characteristics is in progress. For the purposes of this paper, the evolutionary divergence of these two lines is recognized by resurrecting Pangshura and Kachuga as sub- genera of Kachuga. 541 5 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Table 1 Diagnostic characters of the subgenera Kachuga and Pangshura. Numbers in ( ) indicate figure NUMBERS DEPICTING EACH CHARACTER Character Kachuga Pangshura Upper Jaw (2) Medial Notch, Weakly Bicuspid Unnotched. Neural Formula (3) 4, 6>6>6> 6>6>6>4 - 6> 4, 6>6>8, 4, 6>6>4-6> Apex of Shell (4) Vertebral 2 Vertebral 3 Fourth Vertebral Broad Anteriorly, Narrow Anteriorly, Scute (5) Overlaps 4 neurals Overlaps 5 Neurals Costo-Peripheral Remain Prominant Fused by Maturity or Fontanelles (6) in Males Very Small Carapace Three Striped Or Usually Median Stripe Unmarked Only Maximum Size > 40 cm CL < 30 cm CL Key to the Indian species of Kachuga (adults) 1 Apex of shell at posterior of second vertebral (Fig. 4A); fourth vertebral contacts third broadly (Fig. 5A) ; upper mandible usually bicuspid with medial notch (Fig. 2A) (subgenus Kachuga ) 2 Y Apex of shell at posterior of third vertebral (Fig. 4B); fourth vertebral attenuated anteriorly, narrowly contacting third (Fig. 5B); upper mandible not bicuspid, lacks medial notch (Fig. 2B) (subgenus Pangshura ) 3 2 Second vertebral pointed posteriorly (Fig. 5A); shell usually patterned with three-stripes, a dis- tinct dark mid-dorsal stripe flanked by less distinct broken or continuous lateral stripes K. dhongoka 2' Second vertebral not pointed posteriorly; shell lacks a distinct pattern K. kachuga 3 Fifth vertebral widest at anterior half of scute; usually 13 pairs of marginal scutes with those along posterior border strongly serrated K. sylhetensis y Fifth vertebral widest at posterior half of scute; usually 12 pairs of nonserrated or weakly serrated marginal scutes present 4 4 Shell relatively low — maximum height usually less than 44% of maximum length; median keel of carapace with weak or no spine on third vertebral (when present not angled sharply upward) K. smithii 4' Shell high vaulted — maximum height usually exceeds 45% of maximum length; median keel with prominant spine on third vertebral angled steeply upward (may be worn down in old individuals) 5 5 Head patterned with broad orange to red crescentic postocular bands which curve upward from under the eyes often merging to form a chevron at the back of the head; plastral pattern typically of multiple small dark blotches on each scute K. tecta S' Head pattern lacks broad crescentic band, one or two reddish to brownish postocular spots often present; plastron with a single, large dark blotch per scute or unmarked K. tentoria Species Accounts Genus Kachuga Gray 1855 Indian Roofed Terrapins Distributed from Pakistan to Burma, the genus contains seven species and ten sub- species, all but one of which occurs in India. Roofed turtles can be distinguished from other batagurines by an elongated fourth vertebral scute which covers all or part of at least four neural bones. 542 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55(3) Moll: Freshwater Turtles Plate I A B C D E F (A) Kachuga dhongoka — Female (36.9 cm CL) purchased in Calcutta market. (B) K. dhongoka — Hatch- ling (5.3 cm CL) from eggs collected on sand banks of the Chambal River near Bah, U.P. (C) K. kachuga — Female (48.4 cm CL) from Yamuna River, at Bateshwar, U.P. (D) K . kachuga — Male (29.0 cm CL) from the Chambal River near Barenda, M.P. (E) K. kachuga — Hatchling (6.0 cm CL) from eggs collect- ed on sand banks of the Chambal River near Bah, U.P. (F) K. kachuga — Immature female (20.5 cm CL) from the Yamuna River at Bateshwar, U.P. FRESHWATER TURTLES OF INDIA Fig. 2. Anterior view of the heads of Kachuga kachuga (A) and K. tentoria (B). Note weak bicuspid condition with slight medial notch in A and its absence in B. Scale marker represents 1 cm. Description : Small to large (56 cm CL) aquatic turtles having serrated jaws; an ex- panded secondary palate bearing one or two denticulated ridges; a large foramen orbito- nasale exceeding many times the diameter of the posterior palatine foramen; the fourth marginal scute contacting the second pleural scute; expanded plastral buttresses in which the anterior contacts the first rib and the posterior the fifth and sixth costals near the neural suture; the entoplastron positioned anterior to the humero-pectoral suture; narrow band-like scales on the limbs; and fully webb- ed feet with five clawed toes on the forefeet and four on the hind feet. Subgenus Kachuga Contains three species — dhongoka, kachuga, and trivittata (from Burma). For the most part this subgenus is diagnosed by plesiomor- phic or primitive characteristics shared with sister groups such as Hardella and Callagur (see Table 1 and Figs. 2-6). They are large riverine species showing moderate sexual dimor- phism and with the exception of dhongoka, pronounced sexual dichromatism. Kachuga dhongoka (Gray 1834) Three -striped Roofed Terrapin — Plate I, A+B Identification : A large riverine Kachuga (upto 48 cm CL) identifiable by a single denticu- lated ridge on the palate, a pattern of three stripes (may be obscure) on the carapace and a posteriorly pointed second vertebral scute in adults. Description: Sexes colored similarly (BNHS 1343 and FMNH 224136); carapace — brownish olive, olive gray or smoke gray 543 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ground color patterned with dark brown to black stripes and marginal border; plastron unpatterned — straw to sulfur yellow or cream but may darken in old adults particularly males; head and neck grayish olive to gray; a cream colored stripe beginning at the snout runs above the eye and tympanum; mandibles and chin light olive yellow to cream but again A B Fig. 3. Neural bones of Kachuga dhongoka (A) and K. tentoria (B). Arrow indicates the fourth neural which is hexagonal in A but octagonal in B. may darken in old individuals; iris brown to smoke gray. Head moderate in size with somewhat up- turned snout projecting beyond jaw; skin smooth anteriorly dividing into small irregular scales at rear of head; apex of upper jaw with shallow notch flanked on each side by small tooth-like projections; triturating surface broad, bearing single denticulated ridge; hyoid (immature female) with cartilaginous body and two pairs of ossified, single element horns. Shell oval flaring posteriorly being widest across rear of Vertebral 4; a median keel usually evident anteriorly with a pronounced knob on Vertebral 2 and a lesser one on 3; Vertebrals 1, 3 and 4 usually longer than wide while 2, and 5 tend to be as wide or wider than long; seam contact formula: 1M 4> 6> 8M 10>; plastron narrow, truncated ante- riorly and notched posteriorly; plastral for- mula: Ab > F > H >< P > A >< G; bridge broad exceeding length of both anterior and posterior lobes of the plastron; cloacal bursae present. Size and Sexual Dimorphism : The sexes differ greatly in size. Seventeen shells collected along the Ganges River at Rajamahal and Kahalgaon were divided into male and female types (maturity not known). Average CL of nine “males” was 18.7 (range 15.9 to 21.3) cm while eight “females” averaged 36.6 (range 33.9 to 40.9) cm. The largest male and female examined in West Bengal markets measured 19.8 and 48 cm CL respectively. Chaudhuri (1912) and Das (1986) reported that males do not exceed ten inches and 25.5 cm CL respectively. Seven mature females collected by Rao and Singh (1985) from the Chambal River in Madhya Pradesh averaged 44 cm CL (range 39.2-48.0). Dimensions of two typical individuals are: Female: 42.2 CL 31.2 CW 38.9 PL 16.3 H. 544 FRESHWATER TURTLES OF INDIA o Fig. 4. Shells of Kachuga dhongoka (A) and K. tentoria (B). Note that the apex of A is at the second vertebral and that of B is at the third vertebral. Weight 8.25 kg. Male: 19.1 CL 13.3 CW 16.2 PL 7.3 H. Weight 0.85 kg. In addition to size, males can be distinguish- ed from females by a longer tail in which the cloaca extends beyond the edge of the shell and by the presence of costo-peripheral (usually four prominant and one or two tiny) fonta- nelles in the carapace (Fig. 6). Hatchlings : Eight hatchlings from four clutches obtained at the Chambal River in Madhya Pradesh had mean dimensions of 5.15 CL 4.41 CW 4.74 PL 2.47 H and mean weight of 24.25 g. Shells of hatchlings are weakly serrated posteriorly (Marginals 7-12). The central keel is broken and modified into two prominant, knobby spines on Vertebrals 2 and 3 and a smaller one on Vertebral 4. Vague lateral keels are represented by a line of tiny tubercles, one each on the areolae of Pleurals 1-4. A pair of keels run along either side of the plastron. Vertebral 2 is not pointed as in adults nor is Vertebral 4 particularly elongate. These characteristics develop with age. Hatchling coloration is similar to that of adults. The central stripe is usually broken and is most pronounced on Vertebrals 2 and 3. The lateral stripes are less obvious consisting of a broken line of dashes or spots along the pleural scutes. Another series of dark blotches or dashes usually border the edge of the shell. The underside of the marginals may also be marked with dark pigment but the plastron is unpattemed. Smith’s (1931) report of reddish brown patches on the plastral scutes of juve- niles was likely an iron-based stain that com- monly forms on the shell when turtles burrow in certain substrates. A cream to tan stripe beginning on the snout and running over the eye and tympanum is usually evident. Natural History : The three-striped roofed terrapin inhabits moderate to large rivers. It appears highly aquatic, leaving the water only to bask and for nesting. Like certain other large riverine species (e.g. Dermatemys, Calla- gur ), adults have considerable difficulty or are unable to right themselves once placed on their backs. The turtle is not aggressive and attempts to bite only after some provocation. K. dhongoka were regularly seen basking on logs, debris, and sand banks during our survey of the National Chambal River Sanc- tuary, March 31-April 6. However, few were seen basking on an earlier trip during the 545 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Fig. 5. Vertebral scutes of Kachuga dhongoka (A) and K. tentoria (B). Arrow denotes broad contact between the third and fourth vertebrals in A but narrow contact in B. cold season (January 18-29). On this trip two females were captured by fishermen by dragg- ing large hooks over the bottom in deep water (c. 10 m) of the nearby Yamuna River suggesting that some members of the popula- tion may have been dormant. Anderson (1876) reported the species to be herbivorous based on his observations of two captives. Males, however, are omnivorous. Feces of a male (19.8 cm CL) purchased in a West Bengal market were full of bivalve mollusc shells while the digestive tract of another (19.1 cm CL) contained stems and leaves of aquatic plants and a trace of mollusc shells. No female feces were examined. Nests of K. dhongoka were observed only in March and April at the National Chambal Sanctuary. However, two females reaching the Howrah markets on December 3 were gravid as was one of the aforementioned dormant (?) females collected on 27 January. Rao and Singh (1985) have confirmed that March and April are the peak nesting months in the Sanctuary but they also have found one gravid female as early as 17 December. This suggests the possibility that females may carry shelled eggs for a long period (including a period of dormancy) prior to nesting. The latest evidence of nesting was from the ovaries cf a butchered female (38 cm CL) in a market in Belacoba, West Bengal which contained 18 fresh corpora lutea on 28 April. Nesting takes place on sand banks near the river. Sixty two nests were found from 1 to 100 m (mean 14 m) inland from the river. Five which were excavated had an average depth to the first egg of 21.5 (18 to 27) cm and to the bottom of the nest of 31 (25-35) cm. The nests contained from 21 to 34 (mean 26.2) eggs. Rao and Singh found an average and mode cf 23.5 and 25 (16-35) eggs per clutch at this locality in 65 nests examined from 1983 and 1985. Based on 161 eggs from 7 clutches, egg length varies from 46 to 65 (mean 57.3, SD 4.8) mm, egg width from 32 to 39 (mean 35.9, SD 1.5) mm and weight 30 to 55 (mean 43.7, SD 6.1) g. Egg shells vary from flexible to brittle even within a clutch. Usually the shell can be indented with moderate thumb pressure but this often re- sults in localized fracturing of the mineral layer. Little is known concerning the reproductive effort of individual females. One (42.6 cm CL and 6.65 kg) from the Yamuna River 546 FRESHWATER TURTLES OF INDIA Fig. 6. Shell of a Kachuga drongoka male with scutes removed to show large costo-periferal fontanelles. contained 26 eggs with a RCM of 0.128. The ELI, EWI and EMI were 11.3, 7.9, and 0.498 respectively. Rao and Singh (1985) provided data for two others. One (415 cm and 7.86 kg) with 18 eggs had an RCM of 0.097 and ELI, EWI, and EMI of 14.4, 8.1, and 0.59. The other 40.5 cm CL (no weight given) contained 21 eggs having an ELI of 15 and an EWI of 9.5. Three eggs incubated in a plastic refrigerator box on moist cotton at ambient temperatures ranging from 28 to 35 degrees hatched in 53 to 55 days. The earliest date of nest emergence observed on the Chambal River was 29 April (Rao and Singh 1985). Distribution : The three-striped roofed terrapin occurs in the Ganges and Brahmaputra drainages of Nepal and India. Only a shell has been found in Bangladesh (Khan 1982) but considering the known distribution, its occurrence in this country is expected. Smith (1931) reported that the species occurred only as far westward as Allahabad on the Ganges but recent records indicate that it is distri- buted throughout most of this river’s drainage (Fig. 7). Specimens were collected from the following localities during the survey: FMNH 224108 — Hindon River, Mohen Nagar, Ghaziabad, Meerut District, U.P. BNHS 1343 — Yamuna River, nr. Etawah, Etawah District, U.P. FMNH 224154 — Chambal River, Barenda, Morena District, M.P. BNHS 1320 — Narayani River, Parsauni Farm, c. 40 km NW Bettiah, Bettiah (W. Champaran) District, Bihar. EOM 2751 — Ganges River, Kahalgaon, c. 50 km W. Sahibganj, Bhagalpur District, Bihar. EOM 2730 — Ganges River, Rajmahal, Dumka (Santhal Parghana) District, Bihar. FMNH 224136 — Market at Belecoba, Jalpaiguri District, West Bengal. (Said to be from Bihar). In addition, I have examined preserved specimens from the following localities and judge them valid. ZSI 194+197 — Yamuna River, Agra, Agra District, U.P. Yadava (1980) — Saryu River, Ayodhya, Faizabad District, U.P. 547 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo I. 83 Fig. 7. Distribution map of Kachuga dhongoka in India based on surveys of Indian rivers conducted from 1981 to 1983 and including museum records verified by the author. FRESHWATER TURTLES OF INDIA BMNH 1878.8.18.12 — Ganges River, nr. Varanasi, Varanasi District, U.P. ZSI 18319+20 — Brahmaputra River, Sonarpur, Kamrup District, Assam. Kachuga kachuga (Gray 1831) RED-CROWNED ROOFED TERRAPIN — Plate I, C-F Identification : A large riverine Kachuga (to 56 cm CL) having two denticulated ridges on the palate, an unpatterned carapace, a second vertebral scute with a straight posterior margin and a pair of oval yellow, red or orange patches on throat. Description : Sexual dichromatism pronounc- ed. Males (FMNH 224128 and BNHS 1341): carapace — unpatterned, drab to brownish olive, a wash of red may be present along midline anteriorly; plastron — unpatterned, cream to light yellow; head and neck brightly patterned; ground color of head blueblack a broad geranium red patch extending from top of snout to occiput; neck creamy white dor- sally with six bright parallel red stripes, four of which converge at posterior of head merg- ing into red patch (most descriptions of this species in the literature state there are seven red stripes on the neck; this may be an error perpetuated from the early descriptions, at least this was not true of these males); two sulfur yellow stripes mark the side of the head — a post ocular running from the eye across the top of the tympanum and another beginning at the snout, crossing over the upper mandible and the lower edge of the tympanum onto the neck; iris and sclera of eye orange to orange yellow; lower mandible with a creamy white stripe along its lower border; throat creamy- white with an orange oval spot on each side; limbs brownish olive anteriorly with a wash of yellow. (Anderson 1878 reported red on the limbs but none was evident here.) The bright male coloration appears some- what seasonal. FMNH 224128 appeared as above when captured in January but after two months in captivity, the red stripes had darken- ed to a deep red (almost maroon), the whitish areas between the stripes had become gray and the orange tri orange-yellow eyes had become light yellow. Females (FMNH 224152) : dorsum unpat- terned; coloration dark brown to black includ- ing carapace, head, eyes, neck, and anterior face of limbs; silvery to pale yellow mandibles in conspicuous contrast to the otherwise dark turtle; plastron pale yellow but under side of marginals marked with diffuse melanin. (Note: Another female obtained from the Calcutta markets differed from the above by having a poorly defined, light postocular stripe and con- siderable dark pigment on the plastral scutes.) Head medium-sized with a slightly, upturned, somewhat projecting snout; skin of head smooth anteriorly dividing into irregularly shaped scales postero-laterally; jaws strongly serrated; upper, weakly bicuspid with shallow notch; lower with a single central tooth flank- ed by notches; palate broadly expanded, its triturating surface bearing two denticulated ridges (as in Batagur ), the anterior being most prominant; lower jaw with pronounced coro- noid process and triturating surface bearing single denticulated ridge ( Batagur differs in having a low coronoid process and a second ridge at posterior edge of triturating surface). Shell oval, widest across Vertebral 4 between the seventh marginals; a median keel with prominant knob on Vertebral 2 and lesser knobs on Vertebrals 3 - 5 becoming obscure in older individuals; seam contact formula: 1M 4> 6M 8M 11 <; Vertebrals 2 and 4 usually longer than wide while Vertebrals 1,3. and 5 are wider or as wide as long; plastron narrow, shallowly notched posteriorly and truncated anteriorly; plasral formula: Ab> 549 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 F>H>P> A>G; bridge width extensive exceeding length of either plastral lobe. Anderson (1876) reported that the cloacal bursae are present but that their walls are smooth not lined with villi as in the Pangshura. Size and Sexual Dimorphism : Measurements of four males and three females examined on the survey are as follows: FMNH 224127 M(shell) — 25.2 CL 19.8 CW 23.7 PL Living M — 26.5 CL 21 .2 CW 24.2 PL 10.9 H BNHS 1341 M — 27.9 CL 20.6 CW 24.5 PL 11.3 H 2.5 kg FMNH 224128 M — 29.0 CL 22.1 CW 25.1 PL 10.9 H 3.1 kg FMNH 224152 F — 47.8 CL 36.9 CW 45.6 PL 20.4 H 15.7 kg Living F — 50.4 CL 38.3 CW 48.0 PL 20.2 H 18.6 kg EOM 2841 F(shell) — 52.0 CL 38.2 CW Males differ from females by having brighter coloration, smaller size, four prominent costo- peripheral fontanelles in the shell and a rela- tively long tail in which the vent opens beyond the edge of the carapace. Hatchlings and Immatures : A recently hatched individual (PI. I-E) from a clutch obtained on the Chambal River in U.P. measur- ed: 6.0 CL 5.0 CW 5.6 PL 2.9 H 36 g Wgt. The shell is strongly serrated posteriorly (more than in K, dhongoka). Sharp spines are pre- sent on the free edges of Marginals 5-7; spines on Marginals 8-12 are blunt but a deep notch just anterior to each gives the posterior of the carapace a ragged appearance. The mid-dorsal keel is modified into blunt spines on Verte- brals 2 and 3 and a small sharp spine on 4. Lateral keels are indicated by a weak ridge over the pleurals. On the plastron two parallel ridges running along either side from humeral to anal scute are decked with a small sharp spine at the posterior of each scute. The shell is light grayish-olive above with a pale yellow band along the periphery of Marginals 4-12. The plastron is pale yellow and unpatterned. The head is olive brown with a broad, light cinnamon stripe extending posteriorly from the eye over the tympanum and onto the neck; immediately beneath a wide plumbeous to dark neutral-gray stripe runs from beneath the eye and the angle of the mandibles over the lower part of the tympa- num to the neck. Within this dark stripe a narrow light neutral-gray runs from beneath the eye to the tympanum. Six faint stripes of light cinnamon outlined in black are discern- ible on the neck. The throat is pearl gray decked with dark oval patches on either side instead of bright orange as in adults. An immature specimen (20.5 CL 16.0 CW 18.9 PL 8.8 H and 1.24 kg) from Bateshwar, U.P. (PI. I-F) is briefly described herein to provide additional information on ontogenetic change in coloration. The carapace is olive gray to drab with central keel paler in color. The cream colored plastron is unpattemed. The head is olive-gray with a broad creamy band running along dorso-lateral portion from top half of eye over tympanum to neck. Below a medium neutral-gray band runs from lower portion of eye posteriorly over tympa- num onto the neck. The neck, also medium neutral-gray, is decked by six somewhat darker gray stripes. The iris is amber. The mandibles are light orange-yellow near the tomium and olive-gray elsewhere. The limbs are olive-gray anteriorly and creamy white posteriorly. Natural History : Little has been published concerning the habits of this species and what information is available must be viewed with caution as the turtle may be easily confused with Batagur. 550 FRESHWATER TURTLES OF INDIA Fig. 8. Distribution map of Kachuga kachuga in India. (See legend of Fig. 7). 551 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Red-crowned roofed terrapins were found in moderate to large rivers (Chambal, Yamuna, Gandak). When in the water their heads can be recognized at a distance by their bright yellow to silvery mandibles. We observed both sexes basking on rocks, logs and debris on the Chambal and Yumuna Rivers in late March and early April. All three females observed basking were near deep pools but a single male was on a rock not too far from shore. They were very wary and could not be approached. On an earlier trip to the same area during the cold season (January 18-29), no basking was observed by this species even though large numbers of the smaller K. ten- tori a basked every day. Fresh nests were located on the Chambal River, 12 km south of Bah in the Agra Dis- trict of U.P., April 2-4. Average measurements of 18 eggs selected randomly from three nests containing 20, 25 and 25 eggs were: length 71.6 (64-75) mm, width 40.3 (38-45.5) mm and weight 51.8 (45.5-67.5) g. The nests were 8 to 31 m from the water and from 42 to 54 cm deep. Between 1983 and 1985 Rao and Singh (1985) examined 11 clutches ranging from 11 to 30 (mean 18, mode 18) eggs in the National Chambal Sanctuary. Although the primary nesting season is March and April in this region, they found one female (53 m CL and 22 kg) carrying 18 eggs on 17 Dec- ember 1984. Based on data provided by Rao and Singh, the mean egg size for the above female was 64.5 x 39.9 mm and 55.3 g allowing a cal- culation of the reproductive effort as: RCM — 0.046, ELI — 11.5, EWI — 7.12, EMI — 0.25. Another female (49 cm CL, no wgt. given) with an average egg size of 66.5 x 37.6 mm would have an ELI — 13.5 and an EWI — 7.6. vity readily ate leafy vegetables and fruits. One male gorged itself on casuarina leaflets which dropped into its tank from over hanging trees. Distribution : The red-crowned roof terrapin definitely occurs in the Ganges drainage of India and Nepal (Fig. 8). Other records must be viewed with caution. The considerable degree of ontogenetic variation, moderate sexual dimorphism and extreme sexual dichro- matism have caused frequent misidentification of this species. For example I have found specimens confused with K. dhongoka, K. smithii and Batagur baska at the Zoological Survey of India. Therefore the occurrence of K. kachuga in Burma (Gunther 1864, Theo- bald 1868) and the Krishna (Gray 1862) and Godaveri (Anderson 1878) drainages of India need verification. Our survey of the lower Godaveri found no evidence of large Kachuga. I have examined the type of Batagur ellioti (BMNH 55.12.17.15) reputed to be from the Krishna River. The specimen is definitely a young K. kachuga but the locality is question- able. The actual specimen is without data but Gray (1862) felt that it looked so similar to a specimen from the Kistna (Krishna) River drawn by Walter Elliot that he assumed this to be the type locality. Specimens were collected at the following localities: FMNH 224128 — Chambal River, Barenda, 10 km W Pinahat, Morena District, M.P. FMNH 224152 — Yamuna River, Bateshwar, 13 km N Bah, Agra District, U.P. EOM 2841 — Bherihari Colony Village, 10 km S Valmiki Nagar (Nepal Border), Bettiah District, Bihar. In addition the following preserved specimens have been examined and the identifications verified. ZSI 501 and 502 — Allahabad, Allahabad District, U.P. Food, habits were not observed in the wild but two females and two males kept in capti- ZSI 20632 to 20634 — Ganges River, Rajmahal. Dumka (Santhal Pargana) Distrcit, Bihar. {to be continued) 552 BASIC DIURNAL ACTIVITY PATTERN OF BLACKBUCK, ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA LINN. OF BALLAVPUR WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, W. B. AND ITS SEASONAL VARIATION1 Bratindranatei Chattopadhyay2 and Tan MAY Bh ATTACH ARYA3 {With four text-figures) The diurnal activity pattern of Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra Linn, was studied in the Ballavpur wildlife sanctuary for a year. Existence of a basic activity pattern has been established with both diurnal and seasonal variation in relation to sex and age class of the individuals. Pasture and climatic conditions appear to be the major factors influencing the pattern. Introduction Method of study Ballavpur wildlife sanctuary, a man made forest, holds a small and manageable popula- tion of blackbuck Antilope cervicapra Linn. (Bhattacharya & Chattopadhyay 1979). Attempts are being made to identify various aspects of the ecology and behaviour of the antelope in the sanctuary during the past few years. The present paper is a part of the in- vestigation and deals with the major activities of the antelope within the diurnal and seasonal time-frame. Only stray informations in this regard are available through the works of Schaller (1967), Nair (1977), Krishnan (1972), and Roberts (1977). 1 Accepted June 1983. 2 Department of Zoology, School of Life Sciences, Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan, West Bengal, 731235, India. 3 Present address : Reader, Department of Life Sciences, Calcutta University, Post Graduate Centre, Agartala-799004, Tripura, India. The activity patterns of the blackbuck were broadly classified following Jarman and Jar- man (1973) into 4 categories namely, grazing, walking, standing/ scanning and lying. In this study, activity refers to any action which re- sulted into a change in the position of the creature in relation to space. An animal was considered static while standing or scanning and while lying down, otherwise it was con- sidered mobile. Main mobile activities were grazing and walking. Walking in this account refers to the movement resulting into change in location and includes running, trotting etc. Stand/scan activity was qualified as the animals observed standing idly with occasional scanning. Scanning refers to searching, looking for or at object in a standing posture. Only these major activities were studied for esta- blishing the daily activity pattern and its seasonal variations. Various other activities like, urination, defecation, display of different 553 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Fig. 1. Total Activity of Blackbuck between 06.00 and 18.00 hours. behaviours etc., that are spaced within these major activities were not taken into conside- ration. Routine observations were made by walking along the laid gridlines. Whenever a group or individual animal came into the sight the observational informations were recorded in the data sheets. A safe distance of about 75-100 metre was found to be adequate for observing the animals. Observations were made using a 7x35 binoculars. A pilot survey was conducted during May to July 1977. This was followed by a syste- matic regular observation schedule between September 1977 to August 1978. The daily observation schedule was divided into three shifts; morning shift: 06.00-10.00 hr. noon shift: 10.00-14.00 hr and afternoon shift: 14.00-18.00 hr. Once in a month a continuous 12 hourly observation schedule (06.00 to 18.00 hr.) was undertaken. The total time spent in the sanctuary during this study was 660.30 hr. The hour-wise analysis of the activities during the day time (from 06.00 hr to 18.00 hr) is represented here as the mean of the percen- tage of the total number of animals observed 554 standing/ walking(X) scanning (/«) LYING (%) DIURNAL ACTIVITY OF BLACKBUCK 30 1 IO- T 1 1 Fig. 2. Activity : Hourwise analysis. STANDING/ srazing(Z) walking(/J scanning^) lying (/) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 83 i 1 1 — r 1 1 1 1 1 JFMAMjJ A S © N D MONTHS Fig. 3. Activity Budget: Monthwise analysis. 556 DIURNAL ACTIVITY OF BLACKBUCK during the different hours of the day, during the entire study period. Results Daily activity pattern The total daily activity cycle of the black- buck is shown in fig. 1. The animal mostly remained active in the day time except a brief spell around noon when less than 50% of the population were seen to be active. The acti- vities reach their peaks once in morning, at 08.00 hr. and again during afternoon, at 15.00 hr. when about 90% of the animals were active. These two peaks tally with the time of the supply of supplementary food. After 08.00 hr. the total activity declined through noon except for a brief rise at 13.00 hr. An analysis of the various major activities (Fig. 2) revealed that grazing followed the general pattern of daily activity, peak period of grazing corresponding with the decline in walking, standing /scanning or lying. On the other hand hours of low grazing were com- pensated by walking, standing/ scanning or lying. During peak hours of grazing no indi- vidual was seen lying, whereas, during low period of activity and grazing, many were seen lying down. None the less only less than 35% of the population was seen at any time to be involved either in lying or in standing/ scanning taken separately (Fig. 2). Annual pattern The monthly variation and annual pattern of different activities are shown in figure 3. As far as grazing is concerned, it was found to be quite common between September to February, when at least 50% of the total popu- lation were seen to be engaged in doing so. From March onwards a decline in grazing was seen till May when only 38.4% of black- buck were seen grazing. With the onset of rains in June again a rise in the grazing activity was observed. Turning to walking (in- cluding running) it may be observed that between July to November more than 20% of the individuals were seen walking. Maximum degree of walking was observed in November (23.1%). On the other hand between Decem- ber to June less than 20% of the individuals were seen walking. The lowest frequency was encountered in May (11.7%). Standing, scanning and lying, as static acti- vities, characteristically show just the reverse relation with grazing and walking in annual pattern. These activities were at their peaks in May. Lying was more common compared to standing/scanning. However, in either case only less than 25% of individuals were engaged in such activities except in April and May in case of lying and only April in case of stand- ing/ scanning. Monthly variation in the activity pattern in relation to sex and age Although grazing was less frequent in males than the females yet both the sexes followed a more or less similar pattern all round the year with lowest frequency encountered during May (Fig. 4). On the contrary, although both males and females followed same trend as far as walking is concerned it was more frequent in males. Monthwise variation in the frequency of grazing activity of yearling show two dis- tinct phases: a more or less steady high level from July to February and a declining phase between March to June when grazing is less frequent. Fawns on the other hand show a low frequency of grazing during summer months (April and May) which increased with the onset of rains and maintained a more or less high value thereafter. Similarly both fawns and yearlings had 557 6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Contd. 55iS Fig. 4. DIURNAL ACTIVITY OF BLACKBUCK Fig. 4. Monthly variation in activity pattern in relation to sex and age class. JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 83 identical annual activity pattern as far as walking is concerned which was at low key between May and June. Likewise standing/ scanning, also followed a more or less similar trend with relatively high value during April and May, in males and females and during June, in fawns and yearlings. Lying, which was more common among males than in females, followed the same annual pattern in both the sexes with high frequency during May. Fawns and yearlings also had a peak value during May. Fawns spent more time in lying between January and May in comparison to yearlings but the pattern was reversed during rest of the year. Discussion In the diurnal activity pattern grazing and walking showed alternative bouts with propor- tional intensities. Whenever the frequency of grazing for a particular hour dropped, that of walking increased suggesting a good coordina- tion among those two activities where walking is a function of grazing or vice versa. This functional relationship reflected the mobile- grazer character of the species. Such mobile- grazer character of this species in open land has also been reported by Prater (1965), Schaller (1967) and Roberts (1977). However, in the monsoon and post-monsoon months, with the new flush of green vegetation the animals required little walking while grazing upon thick and continuous carpet of grass. Different social interactions reached their peaks by that time, resulting in high frequency of walking during that period. Nair (1977) also observed that during rutting more time is spent in walking and displaying than in grazing by the males. The number of antelopes observed lying and standing/ scanning were high throughout the summer and early monsoon, the common functions of these two types of activities were occasional rumination besides watching, tak- ing rest or sleeping while in lying posture. The standing /scanning and lying activities drop re- markably from monsoon to winter and per- haps the high value of these activities in summer was due to the thermal reaction of the animals and its occupation with rumina- tion. Balch (1955) has referred that ruminants rarely sleep because of the need to keep the thorax upright while ruminating. However, the rumination will also take longer time during summer due to the high content of fibers, in the available food. Morag (1967) has suggest- ed that in sheep, rumination replaces sleep, when they are fed with high fiber containing food. In blackbuck the inactive portion of the small intestine is relatively larger and the reticulum of the stomach is comparatively inefficient. To overcome these inefficiencies a fine grinding of food is required (Gill & Korda 1960). The situation changes with the new flush of ground vegetation after rain. The dominance of the grazing activity throughout the daytime is also reported by Schaller (1967), Krishnan (1972) and Roberts (1977). Perhaps the extensive feeding of this mobile-grazer species during daytime is faci- litated by the day fight in selecting grass and keeping it alert against predators. Thus it seems that there is a definite pattern as far as the major activities are concerned in the fixed hours of the day which are sub- jected to seasonal variations. Other activities i.e. urinating, defecating, displaying etc. are jected to seasonal variations. Other activities, discussed here. The availability of pasture and atmospheric temperature seem to be the most strong ecological determinants in the seasonal variation of the basic type. Grazing and walk- ing almost exactly correspond with the seasonal variation in pasture quality. However, 560 DIURNAL ACTIVITY OF BLACKBUCK with the declined pasture quality an increase in walking activity may be expected but the high temperature in summer acts as a limiting factor for mobile activities. Similar observa- tions have been made by Krishnan (1972). The entire diurnal activity pattern can be divided into two distinct phases, one corres- ponding with low sun elevation i.e. morning and afternoon and the other with high sun elevation, i.e. from late morning to late noon. This arbitrary classification, however, excludes 08.00 hr and 15.00 hr activities as these are conditioned with the supply of food at the feeding stations. Along with the seasonal pasture quality and atmospheric temperature, the sun elevation in day time also acts as an important factor. This is explained by the high mobile activities during morning and afternoon hours and diminishing late morning to late noon activities. The activity pattern of ungulates may also be influenced by the sex and the age of the animals (Jarman & Jarman 1973, Leuthold 1977, Sharatchandra & Gadgil 1980). Fawns are more sensitive to extremes of temperature than yearlings. As far as the grazing is concerned, Refei Balch, C. C. (1955) : Sleep in Ruminants. Nature, Lond. 175 : 940-941. Bhattacharya, T. & Chattopadhyay, B. N. (1979) : Population status of Indian Blackbuck {Antilope cervicapra Linn.) and spotted deer (Axis axis Erxleben) in Ballavpur wildlife sanctuary, West Bengal. Cheetal, 20(A) : *39-47. Gill, J. & Korda, P. (1960) : Untersuchungen uber Den magendarmkanal der hirschziegenantilope, Antilope cervicapra (Linnaeus 1758). Acta Theriol. 4(4): 45-52. Jarman, M. V. & Jarman, P. J. (1973): Daily activity of Impala. E. Afr. Wildl. J., 11: 75-92. Krishnan, M. (1972): An Ecological survey of the larger Mammals of Peninsular India. J. Bombay nat . Hist. Soc., 69(2): 469-501. Leuthold, W. (1977): African Ungulates: A comparative review of their Ethology and Behaviour Ecology. Springer-verlag, Berlin, Hidelberg, New York: 305 pp. the new flush of green influences higher mobile activity of the fawns relatively more than those of other members. Throughout the mid winter and summer the fawns spend much time in lying down. Social interactions have a remarkable effect on the increased mobility of the males and relatively decreased mobility of the yearlings. As in the present investiga- tion it was also reported by Schaffer (1967) and Nair (1977) that in blackbuck grazing is more frequent in females than in males. On the other hand lying was more frequent in males than in females as observed by Schaffer (1967). ACK NO WLEDGEM E NTS We sincerely acknowledge the help rendered by Directorate of Forests, Govt, of West Bengal and Staff of the local Forest Beat Office. Thanks are also due to Head of the Department of Zoology, Visva-Bharati, for providing facilities and to the President, Forest Research Institute and Colleges, Dehra Dun, for providing a Junior Research Fellowship to one of the authors (B.C.). EN CES Morag, M. (1967) : Influence of Diet on the be- haviour pattern of sheep. Nature, 213 (5071): 110. Nair, S. S. (1977) : A population survey and observations on the Behaviour of blackbuck in the Point Calimere Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu, /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 73(2) : 304-10. Prater, S. H. (1965) : The book of Indian Ani- mals. Bombay Natural History Society and Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, 2nd. Ed.: 270- 271. Roberts, T. J. (1977) : Mammals of Pakistan. Ernest Benn Ltd., London and Tonbridge: 178-180. Sharatchandra, H. C. & Gadgil, M. (1980): On the Time-budget of different Life-history stages of Chital (Axis axis). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 75 (Supplementary) : 949-960. Schaller, G. B. (1967) : The Deer and the Tiger: A study of Wildlife in India. The University of Chicago Press. Chicago and London.: 370 pp. 561 ICHTHYOFAUNA OF BIJNOR DISTRICT (UTTAR PRADESH)1 M. K. Sharma and D. B. Rajput2 (With a text-figure) Introduction Bijnor district, Uttar Pradesh has its own zoogeographical significance. In spite of the richness of its varied fauna no attempt has so far been made to explore them. With this point in view faunal studies of fishes covering Bijnor were taken up. Stray references in faunal studies covering much wider areas, such as those of Hamilton (1822) and Day (1878) are the only sources of information. A few references are available on the fish fauna from adjoining areas namely collections from Eastern Doons, Hora & Mukerjee (1958), Lai & Chatterjee (1962), Sinha and Shiromny (1953) from Meerut, Majumdar (1958) from Delhi State and Mahajan (1963) from Muzaffarnagar. Materials and Methods The fishes were obtained from Commercial catches. Cast net was most commonly used although sweeping, towing and bag nets were also frequently employed. Daily visits to the Bijnor, Najibabad, Afzalgarh, Dhampur, Sherkot and Chandpur fish markets were made during three years and collections were made of fishes not commercially exploited. Repre- sentative specimens of each species were 1 Accepted February 1982. 2 Dept, of Zoology, Vardhaman College, Bijnor (U.P.). brought to the laboratory and their taxonomy studied either on fresh or preserved specimens. Topography Bijnor district is situated towards the east of river Ganges between Muzaffarnagar and Saha- ranpur districts in the west, Nainital in the east; Pauri-Garhwal to the north and in the south Moradabad. (Fig. 1). It is roughly pentagonal in shape with an altitude varying from 238 to 593.44 metres above sea level and located bet- ween 29° and 30°N and 78° to 79°E. Its length from north to south is about 99.2 km. and width from east to west 89 km, covering an area of about 4833 square km. The region is mostly cold for six months or moderately cold. In other months it is hot but never excessively so. The average temperature during winter varies from 7.5°C minimum to 30°C maxi- mum and during summer it is 23.8° to 39°C maximum. The average rainfall varies from 85 to 121 cm in different parts of the district. There is a considerable slope from north to south. The main rivers descend into the plains from the Himalayas, which accounts for the number of hillstream fishes recorded in the Table 1. Fishery Resources The district has rich fishery resources. Be- sides the two large rivers, the Ganges and Ramganga, there are seven smaller ones which 562 ICHTHYOFAUNA OF BUN OR DISTRICT 563 Family Clupeidae JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. 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SOCIETY, Vol 83 cd 3 CO © > G c |1 1 1 O O O O Q O O ed UOOOUrt Cd © § XS oo § cd >> 4) Xi S £ *•< I © -G I ” 5 1 S' l'§ P o ft 3 ft cd If 15 a cj P4 ft cd S 2 2 oo Vh H G ft -3 cd cd cd 03 CO 03 00 c C/3 r- r< H Cd 3 3 cd 00 5_i cd cd (—i rcr © 00 CO ft 0X1 G G 00 cd cd cd cd q qj G -C o xi 00 G O X3 1 O w 1/3 J© XJ *3 3 £ 0 x> cd s o -C a cd G cd 03 t/3 *3 G a cd rivers rivers Cd 00 a pH 1 ft *, cd © © 00 qj © G ^ © s- cc! < 8 00 § cd .5 (h til 1/3 C/3 -3 *3 C G 3 o 8 .3 oo h a.g t/T © 00 G cd CO *3 G o H o ft a £ O o4 pH O *4 & Q 2 pjj « ft ft ft O o- a ft 2 a cd S © 5 0 JO 3 1 j3 | 3 g 2 XI 3 ,.<2 cd Cd O ft ft r;- 1. n rt Vl P-l c — ft t" O'- f"- 566 ICHTHYOFAUNA OF BIJN OR DISTRICT * fo c o > G >> G 4) tH o d d d CD CD d O (SI £ Pi Pi Pi 5 5 Pi tH Vh d d H d tH d t-H d CD >> tH d t-H d t-H d t-H d C/3 tH d > tH CD >» >> >. >. >> 3 >> G In CD g CD £ si X CD X CD X , 60 t-H tH S 00 60 00 >> .£ d tG *G G c i ! § § G o H X! 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In addition to these there are numerous perennial and seasonal ponds and lakes all over the district such as Khokra pond, Dharmnagari Dhaya, Chahshirin pond and Siau Kund which are fed by local canals, distributaries, flood and rain water drains. This richness of water resources has resulted in a varied fish-fauna fairly represen- tatives of the north Indian freshwaters. Discussion About 75% of the recorded fishes belong to a single Order, Cypriniformes. Atleast 33% of the fishes listed are of considerable econo- mic importance as edible fishes. A number of fishes are known to have varying degrees of accessory breathing capacity and possess re- markable accessory respiratory organs: Rita rita, Clarias magur, Chaca chaca, Channa punctatus, Channa marulius, Channa striatus, Amphipnous cuchia, Nandus nandus, Heterop- neustes fossilis, Glossobius giuris and they can live without water for a considerable time. The regular availability of Clarias magur from a number of ponds in the district throughout the year agrees with the report by Mahajan (1963) but is interesting in view of the report by Sinha & Shiromny (1953) that the species has only a localised distribution, being found only in a few ponds at Garhmuk- teshwar in the months of April, May and June. It appears that the fishes are present throughout the year in these ponds and find a safe place in the bottom of the ponds which is their natural habitat, while they are easily netted only in April, May and June as most of the water dries up at that time and the level is the lowest. The distribution of Mystus corsula is reported by Day (1878) to be from Orissa through Bengal and Assam. The only report of its occurrence in this region is by Sinha and Shiromny (1953) from Hindon nadi in Meerut district and by Mahajan (1963) from Muzaffarnagar district. Similarly Sicamu- gil (Mugil) cascasia has been recorded by Day from rivers of north-west provinces of Assam. The only report of the occurrence of this species in this region is from Jamuna river from Delhi State by Mahajan (1963) from Kali nadi, Muzaffarnagar. A number of genera viz., Barilius, Garra, Labeo, Gagata, Nemacheilus, Glyptothorax, Barbus and Crossochilus, characteristic of hill- streams are found here. A few of them have also been recorded by Mahajan (1963) from Muzaffarnagar District. The only possible ex- planation of their occurrence is that they are swept along the current due to the presence of an excessive slope described in the topo- graphy of the disrtict. Chaca chaca of family Chacidae is a com- mon fish of this region which not been re- ported earlier except for a single specimen obtained by Mahajan (1963). The Anabas testudinus occurs throughout the district, although only two specimens were obtained from fish markets where fishes come only from Ganges. Acknowledgement Grateful thanks are due to Dr. V. P. Agra- wal. Principal, D. V. College, Muzaffarnagar for inspiration and encouragement during the period of collection. 568 ICHTHYOFAUNA OF BIJN OR DISTRICT Referen ces Day, F. (1878) : The Fishes of India, being a Natural history of the fishes known to inhabit the seas and freshwaters of India, Burma and Ceylon. Vol. I & II London (Reprint 1958). Hora, S. L. & Mukerjee, D. D. (1958) : Fishes of Eastern Doons, United Provinces. Rec. Ind. Mus. 38(2): 133-146. Lal, M. B. & Chaterjee, P. (1962): Survey of the Eastern Doons fishes with certain notes on their Biology. Jour. Zool. Soc. India 14(2) : 230-242. Mahajan, C. L. (1961): Fish fauna of district Muzaffarnagar. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60(2) : 249-251. Majumdar, N. N. (1958) : On a collection of fishes from Delhi state, ibid. 55(2) : 366-370. Sinha, B. M. & Shiromny, P. A. (1953) : The fishes of Meerut. Rec. Ind. Mus. 57(1): 61-66. 569 MATERIAL FOR THE FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR - 7 P. V. Bole and M. R. Almeida [Continued from Vol. 82(1): 86] Ulmaceae 1. Leaves glabrous, broadly ovate Celtis 1. Leaves with white pubescence beneath, ovate- lanceolate Trema Celtis Linn. 1 . Celtis cinnamomea Lindl. ex Planch., in Ann. Sci. Nat. ser. 3, 10: 303, 1848; FBI 5: 482; Cooke, T. 2: 630 (3: 128); Talbot 2: 299, t. 14. C. wightii Planch., in Ann. Sci. Nat. ser. 3, 10: 307, 1848, Wight, Icon. t. 1969, 1953; Cooke, T. 2: 631 (3:129). Rare tree in forest areas along Fitzgerald Ghat. FLOWERS & fruits: February-May. Trema Lour. 1 . Trema orientals (Linn.) Blume, Mus. Bot. Lugd. Bat. 2: 58, 1856; FBI 5: 484; Cooke, T. 2: 631 (3: 129-30); Talbot, 2 : 500, t. 515; Naime, 303. Celtis orientalis Linn. Sp. PI. 1044, 1753; Graham, 189, 1839. Sponia wightii Planch., in Ann. Sci. Nat. ser. 3, 10: 322, 1848; Wight, Icon. t. 1971, 1853; Dalzell & Gibson, 238, 1861. Trema wightii (Planch.) Cooke, T. Gazett. Bom- bay, 649, 1885. Rare tree at Mahabaleshwar. Only one speci- men has been collected from Fitzgerald Ghat. flowers: December. local names: Gol, Ghol. Urticaceae 1. Leaves and stem with stinging hairs 2 2. Ovary oblique; an annual herb Laportea 2. Ovary straight; a perennial herb Girardinia 1 . Leaves and stem without stinging hairs 3 3. Female perianth 3-5 partite or obsolete Lecanthus 3. Female perianth tubular, shortly toothed or sub-entire, enclosing the achenes 4 4. Fruiting perianth fleshy; stigma penicillate Debregeasia 4. Fruiting perianth dry, numerous; stigma filiform 5 5. Shrubs; stigma persistant Boehmeria 5. Herbs, stigma jointed, deciduous Pouzolzia Boehmeria Jacq. 1 . Boehmeria scabrella (Roxb.) Gaud., in Frey. Voy. 500, 1826; Cooke, T. 2: 636 (3: 135); Santapau, 310, 1963. Urtica scabrella Roxb., FI. Ind. 3: 581, 1832; Wight, Icon. t. 691, 1841. Splitgerbera scabrella Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 239, 1861. B. platyphylla Don var. seabrella Wedd. Mon. 365, 1856; FBI 5: 578; Birdwood, 26, 1897. Very common and often very gregarious shrub along the edges of the forest, in partially shaded places. flowers & fruits: September-December. Debregeasia Gaud. 1. Debregeasia longifolia (Burm. f.) Wedd., in DC. Prodr. 16: 235, 1869; Cooke, T. 649, 1885; Santapau, 288; Vartak, J. Univ. Poona, 18: 97, 1960. 570 FLORA OF MA HA BA LESH WAR-7 Urtica longifolia Burm. f., FI. Ind. 197, 1768. D. velutina Gaud., Bot. Voy. Bonite, t. 90, 1844-6; FBI 5: 590; Birdwood, 26, 1897; Cooke, T. 2: 640 (3: 139); Puri & Mahajan, 132, 1960. Conocephalus niveus Wight, Icon. t. 1959, 1853; Dalz. & Gibs. 239, 1861. Boehmeria ramiflora Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 187, 1839. Rare shrub near water-courses and on sides of streams. flowers: December. local name: Kapsi. Laportea Gaud. 1. Laportea interrupta (Linn.) Chew., Gard. Bull. Straits Settlm. 21: 200, 1965; T. P. Rama- murthy, in FI. Hassan Dist. 89, 1976. Fleurya interrupta Gaud, in Freyc. Voy. Bot. 497, t. 8, 1826; Dalz. & Gibs. 238; Wight Icon. t. 1975, 1853; FBI 5: 548; Birdwood, 26, 1895. Urtica interrupta Linn. Sp. PI. 985, 1753; Graham, 187. Rare herb in waste-lands and among the undergrowth along the margins of the forests. flowers: July- August. local name: Khajoti. Lecanthus Wedd. 1 . Lecanthus peduncularis (Wall, ex Royle) Wedd., in DC. Prodr. 16: 164, 1869 (p.p.): Santapau, 400, 1962 & 310, 1963. Procris peduncularis Wall, ex Royle, 111. t. 83, f. 2, 1839. L. wallichii Wedd., in Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. ser. 4, 1: 187, 1854; Cooke, T. 2: 634 (3: 133). L. wightii Wedd., l.c.; FBI 5: 559; Birdwood, 26, 1897; Cooke, T. l.c. Elatostemma oppositifolium Dalz. in Kew Joum. Bot. 3: 179, 1851; Dalz. & Gibs. 239; Cooke, T. 651, 1885. E. ovata Wight, Icon. t. 1985, 1852. Common herb on old walls and on tree- trunks in latter half of the monsoon. flowers & fruits: August-September. Girardinia Gaud. 1 . Girardinia zeylanica Decne, in Jacq. Voy. 152, 1844; Cooke, T. 2: 633 (3: 132); Puri & Mahajan, 132, 1960; Santapau, 254. Urtica heterophylla Roxb. FI. Ind. 3: 586, 1832; Graham, 187; Wight, Icon. t. 1687, 1851. G. heterophylla Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 238, 1861 (non Decne, 1844); Cooke, T. 651, 1885; Bird- wood, 26, 1897. G. heterophylla Decne var. zeylanica Hook, f., in FI. Brit. India, 5: 551, 1888. Common stinging nettle along road-sides. Stinging hairs cause skin irritation and produce quite large blisters. flowers & fruits: September-November. local names: Moti Khojati, Aghada. Pouzolzia Gaud. 1 . Pouzolzia zeylanica (Linn.) Benn., PI. Jav. Rar. 67, 1838; Santapau, 310, 1963. Paritaria zeylanica Linn., Sp. PI. 1052, 1753. P. indica Linn. Mant. 1 : 128, 1767; Graham, 187. Pouzolzia indica (Linn.) Gaud. Bot. Frey. Voy. 503, 1826; FBI 5: 581; Dalz. & Gibs. 240; Wight, Icon. 1980, f. 1 & t. 2100, f. 40, 1853; Cooke, T. 2: 638 (3: 137). Rare herb on slopes of Fitzgerald Ghat. flowers & fruits: July-September. Cannabidaceae 1 . Cannabis satiya Linn. Sp. PI. 1027, 1753; Graham, 187; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 79; Lisboa, 223; FBI 5: 487. C. indica Lamk., Encycl. Method. 1 : 695, 1783. This species is included here on the authority of Lisboa. We have not seen any specimen, in any of the herbaria visited. local names: Bhang, Ganja, Hemp. Moraceae 1. Stamens inflexed in buds; anthers reversed Morus 1 . Stamens and anthers erect in buds 2 571 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 2. Flowers on the inner wall of a close re- ceptacle Ficus 2. Flowers in globose, oblong or cylindric heads Artocarpus Artocarpus J. R. Forest & G. Forst 1 . Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk. Encycl. 3: 210, 1789; Jarett, in Arn. Arbor. 40: 334, 1959. A. integri folia Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 192, 1839 (non. Linn. 1781): Dalz. & Gibs. 244; FBI 5: 541; Lisboa, 223; Birdwood, 26, 1897; Cooke, T. 2: 657 (3: 158). A. integrifolia Linn. var. heterophylla Pers., Syn. PI. 2: 531, 1807. Rare cultivated tree in private gardens. flowers & fruits: December-May. local names: Phanas, Jack-fruit. Ficus Linn. 1 . Male, gall and female flowers in the same receptacle 2 2. Stamens 1 3 3. Petioles short, stout, never joined to the blade 4 4. Leaves more or less tomentose 5 5. Leaves obtuse; receptacles puberulous, globose, red F. bengalensis 5. Leaves bluntly apiculate; receptacle pisciform, grey-tomentose F. tomentosa 4. Leaves glabrous F. retusa 3. Petioles long, slender sometimes joined to the blade 6 6. Apices of leaves caudate-acuminate 7 7. Apical tail half as long as blade F. religiosa 7. Apical tail less than l/5th as long as blade 8 8. Bases of leaves cordate 9 9. Peduncles 0.2-0.4 in. long F. arnottiana 9. Peduncles 0.5-1.0 in. long F. palmata 8. Bases of leaves tapering F. rumphii 6. Apices of leaves not caudate-acuminate F. infectoria 2. Stamens 2 F. racemosa 1 . Male and gall flowers in one set or receptacle and fertile and female flowers in another 10 10. Male flowers with 2 stamens F. racemosa 10. Male flowers with one stamen 11 1 1 . Leaves at least some opposite F. hispida 11. Leaves all alternate 12 12. Creeping shrubs; bracts present F. heterophylla 12. Erect shrubs; bracts absent F. asperrima 1. Ficus asperrima Roxb. FI. Ind. 3: 554, 1832; Graham, 191; Wight, Icon. t. 633, 1843; Dalz. & Gibs. 243; FBI 5: 522, 1888; Cooke, T. 2: 653 (3: 153); Birdwood, 26, 1897; Santapau, 258. Rare tree along the edges of the forests along Fitzgerald ghat. flowers & fruits: January- April. local name: Kharvat. 2. Ficus bengalensis Linn. Sp. PI. 1059, 1753; FBI 5: 499; Birdwood, 26, 1897; Cooke, T. 2: 645 (3: 145); Puri & Mahajan, 132. F. indica Linn. Amoem. Acad. ed. 3, 1 : 27, 1787; Graham, 189. Urostigma bengalense Gasp. Nov. Gen. Ficus 7, 1844; Wight, Icon. t. 1989, 1853; Dalz. & Gibs. 240. Quite common tree all over in open sunny places. 572 FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR-7 flowers & fruits: February- June. local name: Wad. 3. Ficus cariea Linn. Sp. PI. 1059, 1753; Graham, 191; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 80; Cooke, T. 2: 655 (3: 155). F. virgata Roxb. FI. Ind. 3: 530, 1832; Lisboa, 223; Puri & Mahajan, 133, 1960. Rare shrub, cultivated for its fruits in gar- dens. flowers & fruits: January-March. local name: Anjir. 4. Ficus arnottiana Miq., Ann. Mus. Lugd. Bat. 3: 287, 1867; FBI 5: 513; Cooke, T. 2: 649 (3: 149). F. cordifolia Graham Cat. 192, 1839 (non Roxb. 1832); Lisboa, 223; Cooke, T. 648, 1885. Urostigma cordifolium Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 242, 1861 (non Miq., 1859). Rare tree on hard rocky grounds or some- times found on rocks and broken walls. flowers & fruits: December- April. local names: Pair, Asit. 5. Ficus heterophytla Linn, f., suppl. 442, 1781; Graham, 191; Dalz. & Gibs. 243: Wight, Icon. t. 659, 1843; Cooke, T. 2: 652 (3: 152); Birdwood, 26, 1897. F. acutiloba Miq. in Hook. Lond. J. Bot. 7: 227, 1848; Dalz. & Gibs. 243. Rare scandent shrub on sides of streams. flowers & fruits: March-July. local name: Karoti (Birdwood). 6. Ficus hispida Linn. f. suppl. 442, 1781; FBI 5: 522; Cooke, 2: 653 (3: 154); Bird- wood, 26, 1897; Santapau, 301, 1963. F. oppositifolia Willd. Sp. PI. 4: 1151, 1805; Graham, 191; Wight, Icon. t. 638. Covellia oppositifolia Gasp. Ricer Caprif. 85, 1845; Dalz. & Gibs. 243. C. daemonum Miq. in Hook. Lond. Journ. Bot. 7: 462, 1848. F. daemona Koen., in Graham, Cat. Bombay PL 192, 1819; Wight, Icon. t. 641, 1843. Rare shrub on slopes of Fitzgerald ghat and along the banks of streams. flowers & fruits: March- July. local names: Kala Umbar, Bodeda. 7. Ficus lacor Buch.-Ham., in Linn. Trans. 15: 150, 1825. F. infeotoria Roxb., FI. Ind. 3: 551, 1832 (Excl. syn. of Rheede) (non Willd., 1806); Graham, 191; Wight, Icon. t. 665, 1844; FBI 5: 515; Birdwood, 26, 1897; Cooke, T. 2: 241 (3: 151). Urostigma infectorium Miq., FI. Ind. Bat. 1(2): 339, 1859; Dalz. & Gibs. 241. flowers & fruits: October-March. local names: Kel, Bassari, Pipli. 8. Ficus racemosa Linn. Sp. PI. 1060, 1753. F. glomerata Roxb., PI. Corom. 2: 13, t. 123, 1798; Graham, 190; Wight, Icon. t. 667, 1843; Cooke, T. 648 & 2: 654 (3: 154); Lisboa, 223, Birdwood, 26, 1897; Puri & Mahajan, 133, 1960; Santapau, 399, 1962 & 301, 1963. Covellia glomerata Miq., in Hook. Lond. Journ. Bot. 7: 465, 1848; Dalz. & Gibs. 243. Common tree all over along sides of streams and also along road-sides. flowers & fruits: Throughout the year. local names: Umbar, Rumad. 9. Ficus rdigiosa Linn., Sp. PI. 1059, 1753; Graham, 190; FBI 5: 513; Birdwood, 26, 1897; Cooke, T. 2: 649 (3: 149). Urostigma religiosa Gasp., Ricer. Caprif. 82, t. 7, f. 1-5, 1845; Wight, Icon. t. 1967, 1853; Dalz. & Gibs, 241. Common tree all over. flowers & fruits: March-July . local names: Pipal, Astha, Ashit. 10. Ficus retusa Linn. Mantissa 129, 1767; FBI 5: 511; Birdwood 26, 1897; Cooke, T. 2: 647 (3: 146-7). F. benjamina Willd., Sp. PI. 4: 1143, 1806 (non Linn. 1767) : Graham, 191. Urostigma nitidum Miq., in Hook. Lond. Journ. Bot. 6: 582, 1847; Dalz. & Gibs. 242. U. retusum Gasp., Nov. Gen. Ficus 7, 1844. Rare tree along road-sides on way to Panch- gani and along Fitzgerald ghat. flowers & fruits: September-March. local names: Nandruk, Raneikut. 573 7 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 11. Ficus rumphii Blume, Bijdr. 437, 1825; FBI 5: 512, 1888; Cooke, T. 2: 648 (3: 148); Bird wood, 26, 1897; Puri & Mahajan, 133, 1960. F. cordifolia Roxb., FI. Ind. 3: 548, 1832 (non Blume 1825); Wight, Icon. t. 640, 1843. Rare species along road-sides. flowers & fruits: February- July. local names: Pair, Ashtha, Pahir. 12. Ficus tomentosa Roxb., FI. Ind. 3: 550, 1832; Wight, Icon. t. 647, 1843; Birdwood, 26, 1890; Cooke, T. 2: 646 (3: 146). There are few trees of this species planted along road-side between Mahabaleshwar and Panchgani. flowers & fruits: January- April. local names: Karvat, Kallugoli. 13. Ficus pahnata Forsk., FI. Aegypt. 179, 1775; FBI 5: 530; Birdwood 26, 1897; Naime, 308. F. caricoides Roxb., FI. Ind. 3: 529, 1832; Wight, Icon. t. 649, 1843; Cooke, T. 648, 1885. According to Birdwood this is a common fig at Mahabaleshwar. We have not found it on the plateau and there is no herbarium specimen in any of the herbaria consulted. We include it here on authority of Cooke and Birdwood. Morus Linn. 1. Moms alba Linn. Sp. PI. 986, 1753; Graham, Cat. 194; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 80; FBI 5: 492; Birdwood, 26, 1897; Cooke, T. 2: 658 (3: 159); Puri & Mahajan, 133, 1960. M. atropurpurea Roxb., FI. Ind. 3: 595, 1832; Cooke, T. 648, 1885; FBI 5: 491, 1888. Commonly cultivated for its edible fruits and for leaves which are used for feeding silk- worms in sericulture. flowers & fruits: September-December. Casuarinaceae Casuarina Adans. 1 Casuarina equisetifolia J. R. Forst & G. Forst, Char. Gen. 104, t. 52. 1776; Dalz. & Gibs. Suppl. 82, 1861; FBI 5: 598; Birdwood, 26, 1897; Puri & Mahajan, 133, 1960. C. muricata Roxb., FI. Ind. 3: 519, 1832; Graham, 196; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 82. Rare tree planted along road-sides and on hill-slopes by forest department. The tree is considered to be a very good wind-break. flowers & fruits: September-December. local names: Suru, Beef-wood, Cassowary tree. Fagaceae Quercus Linn. 1. Quercus robur Linn. Sp. PI. 996; 1753; Birdwood, 26, 1897. There are a few planted trees at Sindola. According to Birdwood these trees were raised from acorns brought by Dr. John Wilson, from Scotland. Salicaceae Salix Linn. 1. Salix tetrasperma Roxb., PI. Cor. 1: 66, t. 97, 1795; Graham, 195; Wight, Icon. t. 1954, 1853; Dalz. & Gibs. 220; Lee, 466, 1885; Cooke, T. 648, 1885 & 2: 661 (3: 162); FBI 5: 626; Lisboa, 222; Birdwood 26, 1897; Puri & Mahajan, 133; Santapau, 261, 1963. Common tree in spring beds along Yenna River. Elegant tree, especially when in flowers, bearing catkin-like spikes. flowers & fruits: October-December. local names: Walunj, Indian Willow. 574 FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR-7 CUPRESSACEAE Cupressus Linn. 1 . Cupressus sempervirens Linn. Sp. PI. 1002, 1753; FBI 5: 645; Cooke 2: 666 (3: 168). Rare cultivated tree at Wilson Point. cone formation: December. local name: Suruboke. Gnetaceae Gnetum Linn. 1. Gnetum ula Brongn. in Duperrey, Voy. Coquille 12, 1829; Birdwood, 27, 1897; Santa- pau, 297, 1963. G. funiculata Smith ex Wight, Icon. t. 1955, 1853. G. scandens Roxburgh, FI. Ind. 3: 518, 1832; Graham, 188; Dalz. & Gibs. 246; Talbot, For. FI. 2: 543, f. 537. Rare lofty climber on tall trees in Fitzgerald Ghat. cone formation: December-March. local names: Kombal, Wumbli. Ginkgoaceae 1. Ginkgo biloha Linn. Mant. 2: 313, 1771; Bailey, Manual cult. pt. 99, 1949. Rare plant in cultivation in private gardens at Mahabaleshwar, but only grown as a potted plant and never grows to be a shrub. local name: Maiden Hair-Tree. Hydrocharitaceae 1. Stems well-developed, branching Hydrilla 1. Stems rhizomatous 2 2. Perianth of a single row Vallisneria 2. Perianth of two rows Blyxa Blyxa Noronha ex Thouars 1. Seeds spinescent with long filiform tails at each end B. echinosperma 1. Seeds without tails B. octandra 1 . Blyxa echinosperma (Clarke) Hook, f., in FI. Brit. Ind. 5: 661, 1888; Cooke, T. 2: 671 (3: 172) (Pro parte); Birdwood, 27, 1897; Puri & Mahajan, 133, 1960. Hydrotrophus echinospermus C. B. Clarke, in J. Linn. Soc. 14: 8, t. 1, 1875. This species is reported here on authority of Cooke, Birdwood as well as Puri & Maha- jan. We have not seen any authentic specimen from Mahabaleshwar. Specimens in Blatter Herbarium, which have been identified as be- longing to this species have all turned out to be B. octandra (Roxb.) Planch ex Thwaites. 2. Blyxa octandra (Roxb.) Planch ex Thwaites, Enum. PI. Zeyl. 332, 1864; Santapau, 297; Den Horteg, in FI. Malesiana 5(9): 392, 1957. Vallisneria octandra Roxb. PI. Cor. 2: 34, t. 165, 1798; Graham, 199. B. roxburghii Rich., in Mem. Inst. Fr. 77, t. 5, 1811; FBI 5: 660; Cooke, T. 2: 670 (3: 172). Rather rare herb in shallow waters along the edges of the Yenna lake and also in rice- fields. Leaves spreading on the surface of the soil. Flowers white, erect above water. flowers : October-February. Hydrilla Rich. 1. Hydrilla verticillata (Linn, f.) Presl., Bot. Bemerk. 112, 1844; Dalz. & Gibs. 277; FBI 5: 659; Cooke, T. 2: 668 (3: 170). Serpicula verticillata Linn, f., suppl. 416, 1781; Graham, 76. H. ovalifolia Rich., Mem. Inst. Fr. 12(2) : 76, t. 2, 1811. Common submerged herb in Yenna lake and in stagnant waters in rice-fields. flowers: December. idcal name: Sheval. Burmanniaceae Burmannia Linn. 1 . Burmannia pusilla (Miers.) Thwaites, Enum. PI. Zeyl. 325, 1864; FBI 5: 665; Santa- pau, 262, 1967. 575 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 B. coelestis Don var. pusilla Triman, Handb. FI. Ceyl 4: 131, 1898; Naime 318; Cooke, T. 2: 672 (3: 174); Puri & Mahajan, 133, 1960. 1 3. coelestis Fish., in FI. Madras Pres. 1399, 1928 (non Don, 1825); Birdwood, 27, 1897. B. triflora Roxb., FI. Ind. 2: 117, 1832 (p. p.); Dalz. & Gibs. 271; Cooke, T. 651, 1885. B. disticha Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 223, 1839 (non Linn., 1753). Gonyanthes pusilla Miers., in Trans. Linn. Soc. 18: 537, t. 38, f. 3, 1841. Very common and gregarious herb in wet places, generally hidden among the grasses. flowers & fruits: September- January. Note : T. P. Ramamurthy in Saldanha & Nicolson, FI. Flassan District, treats this taxon as synonymous with B. coelestis Don giving cita- tion of Janker, in Steenis, FI. Malesiana Ser. I, 4: 17, 1948. However Ramamurthy has confused the nomenclature and synonymy followed by him is definitely not the same as that of Janker, cited in either of the two refer- ences. Rev. Fr. H. Santapau (FI. Khandala, ed. 3, 262) has not cited basionym of specific epithet “pusilla” and misquoted page 30 for 130, otherwise giving the clear and correct nomen- clature. Orchidaceae 1. Epithytic or lithophytic plants 2 2. Plants with distinct pseudobulbs 3 3. Pseudobulbs with 2 or more nodes 4 4. Pseudobulbs flattened, discoid or rotund Eria 4. Pseudobulbs elongated, ovoid or conical 5 5. Pedicels and ovary sparsely pubescent; pollinia 8, pyriform Eria (E. mysorensis ) 5. Pedicels and ovary glabrous; pollinia 4, linear or linear-oblong Dendrobium 3. Pseudobulb with a single node Cirrhopetalum 2. Plants without pseudobulbs 6 6. Leaves membranaceous, plicate; lip superior Malaxis (P.P.) 6. Leaves fleshy or coriaceous, not plicate; lip inferior 7 7. Plants without distinct stem; leaves radical Oberonia 7 . Plants with a distinct stem; leaves cauline 8 8. Leaf-apex irregularly toothed with 1-3 sharp teeth Rhynchostylis 8. Leaf-apex bilobed, lobes unequal or sub-equal, rounded or sub-acute 9 9. Stem short, ± 5 cm long Smithsonia 9. Stem long, over 15 cm long Aerides 1 . Terrestrial or saprophytic plants 10 10. Lip not spurred, often saccate at the base; sac never projecting beyond the lateral sepals 11 11. Leaves and flowers appearing together Malaxis (P.P.) 11. Leaves and flowers not appearing together 12 12. Plants with pseudobulbs .... Nervi! lea 12. Plants without pseudobulbs, rhizomatous ... Cheirostylis 10. Lip spurred; spur projecting beyond lateral sepals 13 13. Leaves plicate or absent Eulophia 13. Leaves not plicate; anthers immovably afixed to column by a broad base 14 14. Flowers ± 7.5 cm across, stigma tic surface flat, almost confluent Platanthera 14. Flowers less than 3 cm across, stigmatic surface not flat, separate 15 15. Ovary and capsules ± erect and parallel to peduncle, not spreading at an angle to it; stigmatic surfaces in form of small swellings on edge of lip Peristylus 15. Ovary and capsules widely spreading at an angle to peduncle; Stigmatic lobes standing out as stalked appendages Habenaria 576 FLORA OF MAHABALESHW AR-7 Aerides Lour. 1. Midlobe of lip linear-oblong, about 7 mm long, white or pale lilac; spur nearly equalling the lip A. ringens 1. Midlobe of lip broadly obovate or obovate deltoid over 14 mm. long, deep pink-mauve; spur as half as long as lip 2 2. Sepals and petals spotted; lateral lobes of lip minute, rounded; mid-lobe 12-14 mm long A. maculosum 2. Sepals and petals not spotted; lateral lobes of lip 7-9 mm long, narrowly oblong; midlobe 22-22 mm long A. crispum 1 . Aerides crispum Lindl., Gen. Sp. Orch. 239, 1833; Birdwood, 27; Cooke, T. 2: 700; Puri & Mahajan, 133; Sant. & Kapadia, 123. A. lindleyana Wight, Icon. t. 1677, 1851; Dalz. & Gibs, 265; Cooke, 2:652 (3: 204); Lisboa, 224. A rare epiphytic orchid at Mahabaleshwar. The reason for its near extinction in Mahabaleshwar is its showy and fragrant flowers. There is one teratological specimen of this species in Blatter Herbarium which has produced leaves at the end of the spike. flowers: May-June; fruits: July onwards. vernacular names: Ruk Shing, Pan Shing. distribution at mahabaleshwar: China- man’s falls, Yenna lake, Koyna Valley. 2. Aerides maculosum Lindl. in Bot. Reg. t. 58, 1845, Cooke, 652; Birdwood, 27; Nairne 325; Cooke, T. 2: 699 (3: 203); Santapau & Kapadia, 122. Saccolobium speciosum Wight, Icon. tt. 1674-5, 1851. A common epiphytic orchid in open deciduous forests. Very often the velamen roots are associated with tubercled swelling. flowers: May-June; fruits: July onwards. DISTRIBUTION AT MAHABALESHWAR: Kelghar Ghat. 3. Aerides ringens Fisher, in Kew Bull. 1928: 284, 1928; Blatter & McCann, 490, 1932; Santa- pau & Kapadia, 119. A. radicosum A. Rich, in Ann. Sc. Nat. (ser. 2) 15: 65, f. 1C, 1841; Cooke, 2: 700 (3: 204); Puri & Mahajan, 1 34. S. paniculatus Wt. Ic. 5(1) : 9, t. 1676, 1851. This species is given here on the authority of woodrow only. There are no specimens available from Mahabaleshwar in any of the herbaria. flowers: March- July. fruits: July onwards. Bulbophyllum Thouars. 1 . Bulbophyllum dmbriatum (Lindl.) Reichb. f. in Walp. Ann. 6: 260, 1861; Blatter & Mc- Cann, 35: 265, 1931. Cirrhopetalum fimbriatum Lindl. in Bot. Reg. Misc. 72, 1839; Wight, Icon. t. 1665; Cooke, 652 & 2: 686 (3: 188); Birdwood, 27; Santapau & Kapadia, 197-8. C. wallichii Graham, Cat. Bomb. Plants, 205, 1839 (non Lindl.). This species is found in open deciduous forests. The flowers give an unpleasant odour. Specimens of this species in Blatter herbarium differ from North Kanara specimens in having slightly larger petals. flowers: March -April; leaves: June-November. DISTRIBUTION AT MAHABALESHWAR: Rotunda Ghat, Below Bombay point, Koyna Valley. Cheirostylis Blume 1. Cheirostylis flabellata Wt. Icon. 5(1): 16, t. 1727, 1852 ( Monochilus flabellatum in Plate). FBI 6: 105. A rare epiphytic species known from a single collection from Linsmala (P. V. Bole -2244). flowers: November. Cymbidium Sw. 1 . Cymbidium aloifolium Sw., in Nov. Act. Sc. Upsal. 6: 73, 1799; Graham, 203; Nairne, 325. This species has been reported from Maha- baleshwar by John Graham (1839). We have not seen any specimen of this species. 577 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Dendrobium Sw. 1. 1. Rhizome distinct, creeping; leaf 1, from top of pseudobulb; flowers 1-2 borne on the top of the pseudobulb D. macraei Rhizome not distinct; leaves several, bifaxious; flowers many in racemes or in pairs, rarely solitary 2 2. Stems usually tufted forming small ovoid pseudobulbs, rarely elongate; flowers in slender racemes, rarely solitary 3 3. Stems long, much branched; lip undivided or obscurely 3-lobed D. herbaceum 3. Stem simple often reduced to small pseudobulbs; lip distinctly 3-lobed 4 4. Small plants with crowded, ovoid pseudobulbs; petals not broader than dorsal sepal 5 5. Lip pink with deep purple veins, irregularly crenulate, broader across later lobes than the midlobe; small, irregularly crenulate, truncate or subretuse D. microbulbon 5. Lip pale yellow or yellow-green, ± suffused with pink, equal to or narrower than midlobe; midlobe of lip suborbicular, with two rows of stiff, glandular hairs on margin, rounded or subemarginate D. nanum 4. Larger plants with elongate pseudobulbs (rarely uninodal); petals much broader than the dorsal sepal 6 6. Flowers cream-coloured; midlobe of lip somewhat quadrate-rounded D. ovatum 6. Flowers pure white or tinged with pink; midlobe of lip broadly ovate, or ovate-oblong or rarely sub-flabellate D. barbatulum 2. Stems elongate, clavate or nodose; flowers in lateral pairs or fascicles, rarely solitary 7 7. Flowers subregular; mentum absent; column without a foot D. lawianum 7. Flowers zygomorphic; mentum distinct; column with a distinct foot 8 8. Flowers pale watery-green, lateral lobes broad, flat D. aqueum 8. Flowers white or suffused with pale rose; lateral lobes forming a small pouch at the base D. crepidatum 1. Dendrobium aqueum Lindl., in Bot. Reg. Misc. 6, t. 54, 1843; Cooke, T. 2: 653 (3: 187); Santapau & Kapadia, 99. D. album Wight, Icon. 5(1): 6, t. 1645. 1851. A fairly common epiphytic species, espe- cially on Terminalia chebula. flowers : September-October. fruits: December-May. distribution: Lingmala Fall, Below Bom- bay Point, Rotunda Ghat, Fitzgerald Ghat. 2. Dendrobium barbatulum Lindl., Gen. Sp. Orch. 84, 1830; Dalz. & Gibs. 261; Naime 322; Cooke, T. 652 (3: 184); Lisboa, 224; Bird- wood, 27; Gammie, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 17: 31, t. 2, 1906; Cooke, T. 2: 682; Puri & Mahajan, 133 (herbatulum); Santapau & Kapadia, 93-4. Common and abundant orchid all over in deciduous forests. flowers: January-May. fruits: March- July. distribution : Chakdev, Lingmala, Fitz- gerald Ghat. 3 . Dendrobium crepidatum Lindl., in Paxton, FI Gard. 1: 63, f. 45, 1850-51; Birdwood, 27; Gammie, 33; Cooke, 2: 683 (3: 185); Puri & Mahajan, 133; Santapau & Kapadia, 101-2. Flowering specimen of this species has not been collected after its report by Dr. T. Cooke, from Mahabaleshwar. It is included here on Cooke’s authority. Reported only from Koyna Valley. vern. names: Bechu, Nangli. 4. Dendrobium herbaceum Lindl. Bot. Misc. 69, 1840; Nairne 323; Cooke, 2: 682; (3: 184); Puri & Mahajan, 133; Santapau & Kapadia, 82-4. 578 FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR-7 D. ramosissimum Wight, Icon 5(1) 6, t. 1648; Cooke, 2: 682 (3: 184); Puri & Mahajan, 133; Santapau & Kapadia, 82-4. Quite common epiphyte in deciduous forests. This orchid comes in bloom soon after the monsoon is over. Collected from Lingmala, Rotunda Ghat, Pratapsingh Park. flowers : September-October. fruits: October onwards. 5. Dendrobium lawianum Lindl., in Journ. Linn. Soc. 3: 10, 1859 (lawanum); Cooke, 2: 652 (3: 186); Santapau & Kapadia, 102-105, t. 25. Dendrobium roseum Dalz,, Hook. KeW Journ. 4: 291, 1852. This species is included here on authority of T. Cooke (1885): There is no good flower- ing specimen of this species in any of the herbaria consulted. There is one sterile speci- men collected by T. Cooke, deposited in Blatter Herbarium. This sterile specimen re- sembles very much to D. aqueum Lindl. 6. Dendrobium nanum Hook, f., in Hook. Icon. PI. t. 1853, 1889; FBI 5: 717, 1890; Seidenfaden, in Mathew, FI. Tamilnadu Kar- natek, 1587-8, 1983. D. mabelae Gammie, in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 16: 567, 1905; Cooke 2: 681 (3: 183); Blatter & McCann, 262; Santapau & Kapadia 89-91, t. 20. A perennial epiphyte with yellowish green pseudobulbs. Membranaceous sheeth of pseudo- bulbs forms network of fibres after drying of leaves. Collected from Lingmala, Fitzgerald Ghat, and Rotunda Ghat. flowers: July-September. fruits: September onwards. 7. Dendrobium macraei Lindl., Gen. Sp. Orch. 75, 1830; Cooke, T. 652; Birdwood 27; Cooke, 2: 680 (3: 182); Santapau & Kapa- dia, 79-81, t. 16. D. nodosum Dalz., in Hook. Journ. Bot. 4: 292, 1852. Very remarkable species with distinct and creeping rhizome. Leaves remain persistent throughout the year. This species is included here on the authority of T. Cooke and Wood- row. It is reported by them from Koyna Valley. flowers: July- August. 8. Dendrobium microhulbon Rich, in Ann. Soc. Nat. (ser. 2), 15: 19, t. 8, 1841; Bird- wood, 22: Nairne 322; Cooke, 2: 681 (3: 183); Puri & Mahajan, 133; Santapau & Kapadia, 87-8, t. 18. D. humile Wight, Icon. t. 1643, 1852; Cooke, 652. A tiny pseudobulbous epiphytic orchid. Leaves caducous. Flowers white with faint fragrance appear in the beginning of the monsoon. flowers: July-October. fruits: January -May. distribution: Chinaman’s Falls, Lodwick point, Mahabaleshwar town. 9. Dendrobium ovatum (Willd.) Kranz., in Planzenr. 45: 71, 1910; Puri & Mahajan, 133; Santapau & Kapadia, 91-3, t. 21. Cymbidium ovatum Willd. Sp. PI. 4: 101, 1805. D. chlorops Lindl., in Bot. Reg. Misc. 44, 1844; Birdwood, 26; Cooke, 2: 682 (3: 184). D. barbatulum Wight, Icon. t. 910, 1843 (non Lindl.). This species is usually found in open decidu- ous forests, as an epiphyte. It is reported from Mahabaleshwar by T. Cooke. We have not seen any reliable specimen in any of the her- baria consulted. flowers: September- January. fruits: February-March. 10. Dendrobium macrostacliyum Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orch. 78, 1830; Wight, Icon. t. 1647, 1851; Cooke, 2: 683 (3: 185); Santapau & Kapa- dia, 96-8. A pendulous epiphyte with sweet scented flowers which are racemose, pale green first 579 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 This species has been collected by T. Cooke from Koyna Valley. flowers: May- June. fruits: June-December. 11. Dendrobium pierardii Roxb., in Hook. Exot. Flor. t. 9, 1828 et FI. Ind. 3: 482, 1832; Graham, 203; FBI, 5: 738-9; Birdwood, 27; Cooke, 2: 685 (3: 187). The species has been recorded by Birdwood. But Santapau & Kapadia have not included this species among Bombay Orchids. Eria Lindl. (nom. cons.) 1. Flowers 20-30 mm long, solitary E. reticosa 1 . Flowers under 12 mm long, in racemes 2 2. Pseudobulbs conical-ovoid; scapes shorter or equalling the leaves; pedicels and ovary pube- ralous E. mysorensis 2. Pseudobulbs discoid; scapes longer than the leaves; pedicels and ovary glabrous 3 3. Scapes usually without leaves, zigzag, 1-4 cm. long; flowers greenish white E. exilis 3. Scape always with leaves, straight, 3-9 cm long, flowers pale yellow 4 4. Flowers secund, lip without callosites at the base E. dalzellii 4. Flowers not secund; lip with two callo- sites at the base E. microchilos 1 . Eria dalzellii (Hook.) Lindl. in J. Linn. Soc. 3: 47, 1858 (nom. et syn., non descr.); Birdwood, 27; Cooke 2: 651 (3: 193); Santa- pau et Kapadia, 152-3. Dendrobium dalzellii Hook. J. Dot. 4: 292, 1852. More or less robust herbs with stout pedun- cles. Floral bracts up to 3 times longer than the ovary. Margins of sepals and petals with capitate glands. Lip without callosites at the base. flowers: July- August. fruits : August-October. distribution: Lingmala, Fitzgerald Ghat, Koina Valley. 2. Eria exilis Hook. f. in FI. Brit. India, 5: 788, 1890; Hook. f. Ic. PI. t. 2074, 1891; Santa- pau & Kapadia, 150-151. E. minima Blatt. & McCann, in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 274, f. 2, 1931. Minute epiphytes with pseudobulbs 3-12 mm across. Leaves sessile appearing usually before the flowers. Petals more or less half as long as sepals; the lip more or less equalling the petals. flowers : October-December. fruits: October-May. distribution: Tiger Path, Madhu Kosh, Folkland point, Lodwick point, Chinaman’s falls. 3. Eria microcliilos (Dalz.) Lindl. in J. Linn. Soc. 3: 47, 1858 (nom. et syn., non descr.); Cooke 2: 652 (3: 194); Santapau et Kapadia, 154-6. Dendrobium microchilos Dalz. in Hook. J. Bot. 3: 345, 1851. Slender herbs with more or less filiform peduncle. Floral bracts just longer than ovary. Margins of sepals and petals without glands. Lip with 2 callosites at the base. flowers: July- August. fruits : August-October. 4. Eria mysorensis Lindl. in J. Linn. Soc. 3: 54, 1858; Birdwood, 27; Cooke, 2: 652 (3: 194); Santapau & Kapadia, 149. E. pubescens Wight, Icon, 5(1) : 4, 1851, E. poly- stachya Wight, Icon. t. 1634, 1851 (non A. Rich. 1841). Epiphyte with ± 3 cm long pseudobulbs. Flowers white; lip with purple blotches at the base and apical part yellow. The only speci- men of this species near Mahabaleshwar was collected from Koyna Valley. flowers: July. 5. Eria reticosa Wight, Icon. 5(1): 4, t. 1637, 1851; Cooke, 2: 690 (3: 193); Puri & Maha- jan, 133; Santapau, 303; Santapau 8z Kapadia, 146-7, t. 34. 580 FLORA OF MAH A BALESFIW A R-7 E . uniflova Dalz. in Hook. J. Bot. Ill, 1852. E. bracteata Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 262, 1861 (non Lindl. 1859); Cooke, 2: 652 (3: 193); Bird- wood, 27. E. rupestris Blatt. & McCann, in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 270, f. 6, 1931. This species is found on perpendicular rocks and tree-trunks in open situations, always directly facing the monsoon showers. Pseudobulbs discoid with reticulate sheath, which become loose on drying. Leaves appear- ing along with flowers. Flowers white, variable in size, sweetly and strongly scented. flowers: June- July. fruits: August-March. distribution: Fitzgerald Ghat, Lodwick point, Rotunda Ghat, Lingmala. Eulophia R. Br. (nom. cons.) 1. Eiilophia mida Lindl., Gen. Sp. Orch. 180, 1833; Blatter & McCann, 487; Cooke 2: 693 (3: 197); Santapau & Kapadia, 115-6. E. bicolor Dalz. in Kew J. Bot. 3: 343, 1851. Cryptopera fusca Wight, Icon. 5(1): 11, t. 1690, 1891. Very variable plant, in respect to the size and colour of the flowers. This species collect- ed from Ambenali from the foot of Maha- baleshwar, by Blatter & McCann. flowers: June. Habenaria Wiild. 1 . Petals 2-partite . . . . 2 2. Lower segment of petals filiform, less than or upto half as long as the upper ones H. digitata 2. Lower segments of petals 2-3 times longer than the upper ones 3 3. Leaves several, clustered about the middle of the stem H. multicaudata 3. Leaves few, radical 4 4. Leaves 2-5, oblong or oblong-lanceo- late, thin, not flat on ground H. rariflora 4. Leaves 1-2, ovate to almost orbicular, flat on ground, fleshy, coriaceous H. grandifloriformis 1 . Petals entire 5 5. Leaves 2, rarely more, flat on ground FI. crassifolia 5. Leaves radical or cauline, not flat on ground ..6 6. Lateral lobes of lip broader than midlobe, obliquely truncate, denticulate at apex .... 7 7. Spur shorter than or equalling ovary.. H. panchganensis 7. Spur If -3 times longer than ovary. . . . H. plantaginea 6. Lateral lobes of lip not broader than mid- lobe, linear-oblong to linear-filiform .... H. hayneana 1 . Habenaria crassifolia A. Rich., in Ann. Sci. Nat. (ser. 2) 15: 72, t. 3C, 1841; Bird- wood, 28; Cooke, 2: 722 (3: 227); Santapau & Kapadia, 22-4; Puri & Mahajan, 134. Platanthera brachyphylla Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orch. 293, 1835; Wight, Icon., t. 1694, 1853; Lee, 466. This is a common orchid, found on hill- slopes among grass. flowers: August-October. distribution: Petit Road, Lodwick point, Yenna Lake, Lingmala, Fitzgerald Ghat, Chinaman’s falls, Wilson point. Dhobi falls. 2. Habenaria digitata Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orch. 307, 1835; Cooke, 2: 715 (3:220); Puri & Mahajan, 134; Santapau, 303; Santapau & Kapadia, 10-12, t. 3, ff. 7-8. H. trinervia Wight. Icon. t. 1701. 1851; Cooke. 652, 1885. Common orchid in open grasslands. flowers: July-October. fruits : August-November. distribution: Petit Road, Lodwick point, Lingmala, Chinaman’s falls, Kate’s point, Bobington point. Old Mahabaleshwar, Wilson point. 3. Habenaria gibsoni var. foliosa (Hook, f.) Santapau & Kapadia, in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 56: 194, t. 2, f. 6, 1959. 581 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 A. foliosa A. Rich, in Ann. Sci. Nat. (ser. 2) 15: 71. t. 3 A, 1841; Wight, Icon. t. 1700, 1853; Cooke 2: 716 (3: 221). H. digitata var. foliosa Hook. f. in FBI. 6: 135, 1890; Cooke. 2: 716 (3: 220). H. spencei Blatt. & McCann, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 17, t. 3, 1932. A rare species of which only two specimens are known from Mahabaleshwar. Santapau & Kapadia ascribe the authority of this variety to Achille Richard, but actually the species was reduced to varietal rank by J. D. Hooker in Flora of British India. This taxon is known from Mahabaleshwar from a single collection. flowers: September. 4 . Habenaria grandifloriformis Blatter et McCann, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 17, 1932; Santapau & Kapadia, 17-19. H. grandiflora Lindl. ex Dalz. & Gibs., Bombay FI. 267, 1861; (non Torr. ex Beck. 1823); Birdwood. 27; Cooke, 2: 716 (3: 221); Santapau, 400, 1962 & 303, 1963; Puri & Mahajan, 134. H. rotundifolia Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orch. 306, 1835. (non A. Rich. 1823). H. grandifloriformis var. aequiloba Blatter et McCann, ibid. 18, 1832. A common orchid in open grasslands among short grasses. It is one of the first species to come into flowers at the beginning of the monsoon. flowers: June- July. distribution: Wilson point, Kate’s point. 5. Habenaria heyneana Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orchid. 320, 1835; Wight Icon. t. 923; Cooke, 2: 199 (3: 225); Santapau, 400, 1962 & 303, 1963; Santapau & Kapadia, 32-3. H. Candida Dalz., in Hook. J. Bot. 2: 262, 1850. H. cerea Blatter & McCann. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 21, t. 6, 1932. H. cerea var. polyantha Blatter & McCann, ibid. 22, 1932. H. subpubens A. Rich., Ann. Sci. Nat. (ser. 2) 15: 75, t. 4C, 1841; Birdwood, 28: Naime 331. A rather variable orchid growing abundantly in rocky plateaus. Flowers are white or cream coloured which turn yellow gradually and finally black on drying. It is a common orchid on hill-slopes among grass. flowers : August-November. distribution : Petit Road, Kate’s point, Sindola. 6 . Habenaria multicaudata Sedgwick, in Rec. Bot. Surv. India, 6: 352, 1919; Blatter & McCann, 16; Santapau & Kapadia, 14-15 t. 6. f. 1. This species is known from a single collec- tion from Mahabaleshwar and it is not report- ed from the reorganised State of Maharashtra by earlier collectors. flowers: September. 7 . Habenaria panchganensis Santapau & Kapadia, in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54: 478, 1957 et Orchid Bombay, 27-8, t. 6, f. 24. H. variabilis Blatter & McCann, in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 19-20, tt. 4-5, 1932 (non Ridley, 1886). This is one of the commonest and most abundant ground orchids at Mahabaleshwar during the monsoon. flowers: July-September. distribution : Sindola plateau, Wilson point, Kate’s point, Petit Road. 8 . Habenaria plantaginea Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orch. 323, 1835; Wight, Icon. t. 1710, 1851; Cooke, 2: 718 (3: 224); Birdwood, 28; Santa- pau, 308; Puri and Mahajan, 134. This species is found on open slopes of hills either singly or in groups. flowers : September-November. distribution: Lodwick point, Ambenali. 9. Habenaria Songecorniculata Graham, Cat. Bombay Plants, 202, 1839; Santapau & Kapa- dia, 29-30. H. longecalcarata A. Rich, in Ann. Sci. Nat. (ser. 2) 15: 71, t. 3B, 1841: Wight, Icon. t. 1925, 1853; Cooke 2: 198 (3: 223); Puri & Mahajan, 134. H. longecalcarata var. viridis Blatter & McCann, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 20, 1932. 582 FLORA OF M A HA BA LESH WAR-7 This species is reported here only on the authority of Puri & Mahajan. We have not seen any authentic specimen from Mahabaleshwar although it is quite common at Matheran, Amboli, Poona & Khandala. flowers: July-September. fruits: October. specimen mentioned: Puri -25625 (BSI). 10. Habenaria rariflora A. Rich., Ann. Sci. Nat. (ser. 2) 15: 70, t. 20, 1841; Wight, Icon, t. 924; Cooke 2: 776 (3: 221); Santapau & Kapadia, 15-17, t. 3, ff. 9-10. Rare species among the grasses. Only speci- men of this species in Blatter Herbarium (L. J. Sedgwick — 7964) is supposed to have been collected in April, which is otherwise a typical monsoon species. Malaxis Solander ex 0. Swartz I . Malaxis rheedii Sw. Kongl. Vetansk. Acad. Nya Handl. 21: 235, 1800; Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 202, 1839; Nair & Ansari, Taxon 30: 475, 1981. Malaxis versicolor (Lindl.) Santapau & Kapadia. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58: 347, 1961. Microstylis versicolor Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orch. 21, 1830; Cooke, 2: 678 (3: 179-80); Puri" & Mahajan. 133; Santapau, 304. M. rheedii Wight, Icon. t. 902, 1844-5; Cooke, 652, 1885; Birdwood, 27. Quite common perennial herb in shady places usually found in rocky grounds. flowers: July-November. distribution: Yenna lake, Lingmala, Fitz- gerald Ghat, Goulani Point. Nervilia Comm, ex Gaud. (nom. cons.) 1 . Nervilia prainiana (King & Prantl.) Seidenf. Dansk. Bot. Ark. 32(2): 149, 1978. Nervilia crispata auct. (non(Bl.) Schltr. 1911); Rao, Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 5: 63, t. 1, 1963. Pogonia pr aim ana King & Prantl. J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, Pt. 2, Nat. Hist. 65: 129, 1896. N. monantha Blatter & McCann, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 724, 1932; Santapau & Kapadia 130. A rare species in shady places near Lin- gmala. Only known from a single collection (M. R. Almeida — 2236). flowers : August-September. Oberonia Lindl. (non. cons.) 1 . Flowers in distinct verticals, not imbricating; pedicels more than 2 mm. long. . . .O. recurva var. lingmalensis 1. Flowers imbricating; pedicels short (0.75-1.5 mm. long) O. recurva var. recurva 1 . Oberonia recurva Lindl. in Bot. Reg. Misc. 8, 1839; Cooke, 2: 676 (3: 176); Bird- wood, 27; Cooke 2: 676; Puri & Mahajan, 133; Santapau & Kapadia, 61-2. Rare epiphytic orchid, very variable with regards to its shape and size of the floral parts. flowers : November-February. fruits: December- July. 2. Oberonia recurva var. lingmalensis (Blat- ter & McCann) Santapau & Kapadia, J. Bom- bay nat. Hist. Soc. 57: 259, 1960; Santapau & Kapadia, 64. O. lingmalensis Blatter & McCann, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 255, 1931. Common epiphytic orchid all over Maha- baleshwar. flowers: July-December. distribution: Yenna Lake, Lingmala, Wil- son point, Bhilar estate, Kate’s point, Maha- baleshwar Bazar. Peristylus Blume 1 . Leaves sessile, narrowly lanceolate; Lateral sepals linear; lateral lobes of lip subulate, or narrowly linear oblong, spreading, about twice as long as the midlobe; spur scarcely clavate at the apex.. . . P. densus 1 . Leaves tapered at the base, broadly obovate- elliptic; lateral sepals broad; lobes of lip sub- equal; linear-oblong, rounded; spur inflated at the apex 2 583 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 2. Spur equalling or exceeding the sepals; flowers yellow P. stocksii 2. Spur shorter than the sepals; flowers green.. P. aristatus 1 . Peristylius dcnsus (Lindl.) Santapau & Kapadia, Orchids of Bombay, 46-8, t. 9 A-B, 1966. Coeloglossum densum Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orch. 302, 1835. Habenaria peristyloides Wight, Icon. t. 1702, 1851. H. stenostachya Benth. FI. Hong Kong, 362, 1861; Birdwood, 28. P. xanthochlorus Blatt. & McCann, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 734, 1932. Rare orchid in partially shaded places along forest margins. flowers : August-October. 2. Peristylus aristatus Lindl. ex Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 1474, 1928; Jorapur & Garg, Ind. J. Forestry, 3(2): 174-5, 1980. H. aristatus Hook, f., in FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 156, 1890. This species has been reported from Babing- ton point on way to Robber’s Cave in open cut forest. Only specimen of this species is in Herbarium of Botany Department of Karna- taka University. flowers: August. 3. Peristylus stocksii (Hook, f.) Kranz. Orchid, Gen. Spec. 1: 51, 1898; Cooke, 2: 710; Santapau & Kapadia, 48-9, t. 9 C-D!. Habenaria stocksii Hook, f., FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 158, 1890. Common orchid in the undergrowth of forests. flowers: July-September. fruits : August-October. Platanthera L. C. Rich. 1. Platanthera susannae (Linn.) Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orch. 295, 1835; Wight, Icon. t. 920, 1844- 5; Lee, 466; Nairne 329-30; Cooke, 2: 713; Puri & Mahaian 134; Santapau 134; Santapau & Kapadia, 42-5, t. 7. Orchis susannae Linn. Sp. PI. 939, 1753. Habenaria susannae R. Br. Prodr. 312, 1810; Birdwood, 24. H. gigantea Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 24, 1825; Gra- ham, 201. Rare species among the grasses and extreme- ly endangered due to enthusiastic collectors, for its large fragrant flowers. occurrence: Lingmala. flowers : September-October. fruits: October-December. Rhynchostylis Bl. 1 . Rhynchostylis retusa (Linn.) Blume, Bijdr. 286, t. 49, 1825; Santapau, 304 1963; Santapau & Kapadia, 211-12. Epidendrum retusum Linn. Sp. PI. 953, 1753. Aerides retusum Sw. in Schrad. J. 2: 233, 1799; Graham, 204. This species is reported from a single collection from Mahabaleshwar (H. Santapau - 13134 B). We have not seen this species at Mahabaleshwar and Rev. Fr. Santapau’s above mentioned specimen is not located in Blatter Flerbarium. Thurda Reichb. f. 1 . Thunia venosa Rolfe, in Orchid. Rev. 13: 206, 1905; Cooke, 2: 692; Puri & Mahajan, 133; Santapau & Kapadia, 184-6, t. 43. There is only one herbarium specimen at Calcutta (CNH), collected by Cartensen. We have not seen it in the area under study. flowers: July, fruits: March. Vanda R. Br. 1. Vanda testacea (Lindl.) Reichb. f., Gard. Chron. 2: 166, 1877; Santapau & Kapadia, 219-220. Aerides testaceum Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orch. 238, 1833. V. spathulata Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 204, 1839 (non Spr. 1826). 584 FLORA OF MAHABALESHW AR-7 V. parviflora Lindl., Bot. Reg. 30: Misc. 45, 1844; Wight, Icon. t. 1669, 1851; Cooke, 2: 703; Puri & Mahajan, 1 34. Rare orchid in Koyna Valley, below Maha- baleshwar. We have not seen this species on the plateau. flowers: May-June; fruits: July onwards. ZlNGIBERACEAE 1. Lateral staminodes broad 2 2. Connectives not spurred at the base; corolla- tube long, slender 3 3. Stigma turbinate Hitchenia 3. Stigma subglobose Hedychium 2. Connectives spurred at the base; corolla- tube funnel-shaped Curcuma 1. Lateral staminodes small, obtuse, narrow Zingiber Curcuma Linn. 1 . Flowers appearing with the leaves; bracts of coma with purple edges only C. pseudomontana 1. Flowers appearing before leaves on a separate stalk; bracts of the coma entirely purple or crimson C. zerumbet 1 . Curcuma pseudomontana Graham, Cat. PI. Bombay 210, 1839; Dalz. & Gibs. 275; Cooke, 2: 730 (3: 236). C. ranadei Prain, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 11: 463, 1898. C. montana Baker, in Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 6: 214, 1892 (non Rose., 1828); Birdwood, 28, 1897. Quite common rhizomatous herb in open forests among undergrowth. flowers : September-October. local name: Ram Haldi. 2. Curcuma zerumbet Roxb., in Asiat. Res. 11: 333, 1810; Graham, 209. C. zedoaria Rose., Monandr. PI. t. 109, 1828; FBI 6: 210; Birdwood, 28, 1897; Cooke, 2: 732 (3: 238). Cultivated in private gardens for tubers which are used in medicines as well as making red powder which is used during Holi festival. flowers: July-September. local name: Kachora. Hitchenia Wall. 1. Hitchenia caulina (Graham) Baker, in Hook. f„ FI. Brit. India 6: 224, 1890; Birdwood, 28, 1897; Nairne 337; Cooke, 2: 728 (3: 233); Santapau, 398, 1962 & 311, 1963; Puri & Maha- jan, 134, 1960. Curcuma caulina Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 210, 1839; Dalz. & Gibs. 275; Lisboa, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 2: 140, t. opp. p. 140, 1889; Lee 466, 1885; Cooke, 651, 1885. One of the common and abundant plants of Mahabaleshwar, in monsoon. It is found all over in open as well as in partially shaded places at Lingmala, Wilson point, Kate’s point, Babington point, Fitzgerald ghat. Petit road, Lodwick point, Madhu kosh, etc. Tubers of this plant are collected for edible starch. There are two forms commonly met at Mahabaleshwar; one with white bracts and other with purple. Flowers in one form are white whereas in the second form they are pink in colour. Roots bear terminal tubers. flowers : J uly-September . local names: Chowar, Chavar, Araroot. Hedychium Koenig 1 . Hedychium coronarium Koenig, in Retz. Obs. Bot. Fasc. 3: 73, 1783; Graham, 205; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 86; Wight, Icon. t. 2010, 1853; Bot. Mag. t. 708, 1803; FBI 6: 225; Birdwood, 28, 1897; Cooke, 2: 728 (3: 234); Puri & Mahajan, 134, 1960. This species has been reported to occur near Lingmala on sides of Yenna river. We have not been able to locate it in wild state, however it is quite common in cultivation at Mahabaleshwar. flowers: Throughout the year. local names: Sontaka, Gulabchampa. 2. Hedychium coronarium Koeng. var. flavum (Roxb.) J. G. Baker, in FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 226, 1892; Birdwood, 28, 1897. 585 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 H. flavum Roxb. FI. Ind. 1: 12, 1824; Bot. Mag. t. 3039, 1831. This variety with fragrant bright yellow flowers has been reported by Birdwood, on Lisboa’s authority. According to him this species comes in blooms immediately after the first rains. Zingiber Boehm. 1 . Zingiber neesanum (Graham) Rama- murthy, in FI. Hassan Dist. 769, 1976. Alpinia neesana Graham, Cat. PI. Bombay 207, 1839. Z. macrostachywn Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 4: 342, 1852; Dalz. & Gibs. 273; FBI 6: 247; Lee, 466, 1885; Cooke, 651 & 2: 735 (3: 241); Birdwood 28; Puri & Mahajan, 134; Santapau, 400, 1962 & 311. 1963. Rhizomatous perennial found all over along forest margins as well as in dense shady places among undergrowth. Common at Kate’s point, Lingmala, Petit road, Kelghar ghat. Nakinda village, Fitzgerald ghat, and near Yenna lake. Spikes and bracts of the plant are orange-red in colour and develop laterally to the main stem. flowers: July- August, local name: Nisan. Cannaceae Canna Linn. 1. Canna indica Linn. Sp. PI. 1, 1753; Graham, Cat. 211; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 88; FBI 6: 260; Cooke, 2: 744 (3: 251). Common cultivated ornamental in gardens. Flowers scarlet in colour. flowers: Throughout the year. local name: Dev-kel. Musaceae 1 . Leaves distichous Ravenala 1. Leaves in whorls 2 2. Stems dilated at base; fruits with seeds Ensete 2. Stems not dilated at base; fruits seedless. . . . Musa Ensete Bruce 1. Ensete superbum (Roxb.) Cheesman, in Kew Bull. 1947: 100, 1948; Santapau, 298, 1963. Musa super ba Roxb., FI. Ind. 2: 489. 1824; Wight, Icon. tt. 2017-18, 1853; Dalz. & Gibs. 272; Bird- wood, 28, 1897; Cooke, 2: 740-41 (3: 247). M. textilis Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 213. 1839. Quite common tree-like monocarpic herbs, found on inaccessible cliffs and on hill-slopes along ghat areas. Fruits develop seeds and are not eaten by man, but are eaten by monkeys. Young inflorescences are used as vegetable. flowers: Throughout the year. local names: Ran-kel, Chavan-kel. Chowani, Chawai. Musa Linn. 1 . Musa paradisica Linn. Sp. PI. 1043, 1753; Cooke, 2: 742 (3: 249). Well known Banana plant cultivated for its fruits, in private gardens. flowers: Throughout the year. local name: Kel. Ravenala Adans. 1 . Ravenala madagascarensis Sonn. Voy. 3(5): 244, 1782; FBI 6: 198; Cooke, 2: 744 (3: 250). Urania speciosa Willd., Sp. PI. 2: 7, 1799; Graham, 213; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 89. Rarely cultivated in gardens as an ornamen- tal plant. local name: Traveller’s tree. Haemodoraceae Ophiopogon Ker-Gawler 1 . Ophiopogon i adieus Wight, Icon. 6: 26, t. 2050, 1853. O. intermedius D. Don var. pauciflora Hook, f., Flora Brit. India 6 : 269, 1892; Cooke, 2: 745 (3: 252). 586 FLORA OF MAHARALESHWAR-7 O. intermedins Trim. FI. Ceylon 4: 267; 1885 (non Don, 1825); Birdwood, 28; Woodrow, in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12: 521, 1899. Chlorophytum laxum sensu Santapau, 299, 1963 (non R. Br. 1810). Quite common herb in shady places near Chinaman’s fall, Lodwick point. Tiger’s path, Dhobi’s falls and on Lingmala flats. Flowers are white and are borne in pairs in each bract in a terminal raceme. All the specimens in the Blatter Herbarium were identified as Chlorophytum laxum. Rev. Fr. Santapau’s record of C. laxum from Mahabaleshwar is also constituted on material belonging to this species. flowers: Throughout the year. Agaveceae 1. Flowers over 10 cm. long; perianth lobes erect Agave 1. Flowers less than 6 cm long; perianth-lobes spreading Furcraea Agave Linn. 1. Agave vivipara Linn. Sp. PI. 323, 1753. Wight, Icon. 6: 18, t. 2024, 1853; Birdwood, 28, 1897. A. cantata Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. suppl. 93, 1861 (non Roxb., 1832); Lisboa 224. A. wightii Drumond & Prain, in Agric. Ledger 7: 91, 1906; Cooke, 2: 753 (3: 261). Aloe americana Roxb., FI. Ind. 2: 167, 1832 (non Agave americana Linn. 1753). Rarely planted as a hedge plant at Maha- baleshwar. local names: Chota guial, Guital. Furcraea Vent. 1. Furcraea foetida (Linn.) Howorth, Syn. PI. Succ. 73, 1812; Baker & Bakh., FI. lav. 3: 165, 1968. Agave foetida Linn. Sp. PI. 323, 1753. F. gigantea Ventenat, Bull. Soc. Philom. Paris 1: 65, 1793. There are few plants of this species planted near Wilson point and near Bhilar. flowers: October. Amaryllidaceae 1. Filaments are attached to the perianth-lobes, but not connate Crinum 1 . Filaments united towards their bases by an in- tervening petaloid membrane Pancratium Crinum Linn. 1 . Perianth erect, salver shaped 2 2. Perianth lobes linear 3 3. Leaves 7-10 cm wide; umbels 15-20 flower- ed C. asiaticum 3. Leaves 1.5-2 cm wide; umbels 6-12 flowered C. defixum 2. Perianth funnel-shaped C. woodrowii 1. Perianth funnel-shaped 4 4. Style longer than the filaments; stamens de- cimate C. lati folium 4. Style shorter than the filaments; stamens not declinate C. brachynema 1 . Crinum asiaticum Linn., Sp. PL 292, 1753; Graham, 215; Dalz. & Gibs. 275; Cooke, 2: 749 (3: 258), 1885; Birdwood, 28; Curtis, Bot. Mag. t. 1073, 1807. C. toxicarium Roxb. FI. Ind. 2: 134, 1832; Graham, 216; Wight, Icon. tt. 2021-22, 1853. Commonly cultivated species in gardens. Very prominent species due to its large cylin- dric stem-like neck. flowers: June-July. local name: Nagdaun. 2. Crinum brachynema Herbert, in Bot. Reg. Misc. 36, 1842; Cooke, 651, 1885; Woodrow 28; FBI 6: 284; Cooke, 2: 751 (3: 258); Lisboa 224; Puri & Mahajan, 134. Quite common species in open forests. Naked scapes appear just before the monsoon. flowers: May. 3. Crinum defixum Ker-Gawler, Journ. Sci. & Arts 3: 105, 1817; FBI 6: 281; Curtis, Bot. Mag. t. 2208, 1818; Cooke, 2: 749 (3: 257). C. roxburghii Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 275, 1861; Lee, 466. 587 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 C. asiaticum Roxb., FI. Ind. 2 : 127, 1832: (non Linn. 1753); Cooke, 651, 1885; Birdwood, 28. Common bulbous plant on Lingmala plateau and near Yenna lake. flowers : August-September. 4. Crinum latifcliuin Linn. Sp. Pi. 291, 1753; Graham, 216; Wight, Icon tt. 219-20, 1841; FBI 6: 283; Birdwood 28; Cooke, 2: 750 (3: 258) . Rare species along the margins of water courses and in wet grounds. flowers: May- June. 5. Crinum woodrowii Baker, in Bot. Mag. t. 7597, 1898; Cooke, 2: 750 (3: 257). This species was described from plants grown from bulbs sent by G. M. Woodrow to Kew, from Mahabaleshwar. flowers: May- June. Pancratium Linn. L Pancratium tiiflonim Roxb., FI. Ind. 2: 126, 1832; FBI 6: 285; Cooke, "2: 752 (3: 259) ; Puri & Mahajan, 134. This species has been reported from Maha- baleshwar by T. Cooke, as well as by Puri & Mahajan. We have not seen any authentic specimen from the area under study. flowers: May- June. Hypoxidaceae 1. Fruit indehiscent Curculigo 1 . Fruit opening at the top as a circumsessile or 3- valved capsule Hypoxis Curculigo Gaertn. 1. Curculigo orchioides Gaertn., Fruct. 1: 63, t. 13, 1788; Graham, 215; FBI 6: 277; Birdwood, 28; Cooke, 2: 748 (3: 255); Santa- pau, 401, 1962 & 297, 1963. C. malabarica Wight, Icon. 6: 22, t. 2043, f. 1 , 1853; Dalz. & Gibs. 276; Birdwood, 28. C. brivifolia Dryand. in Ait. Hort. Kew (ed. 2), 2, 253, 1811; Graham, 215; Dalz. & Gibs. 276. Very common herb in open as well as in shady places at Lingmala, Wilson point, Fitz- gerald ghat, Kate’s point and near Yenna Lake. Very attractive plant with tiny yellow flowers arising from the axils of the radical leaves. It is the first species to sprout in the monsoon and to disappear last. Roots supposed to have medicinal properties and sold in local market under the trade name “Kali Musli”. local name: Kajuri. Hypoxis Linn. 1 . Hypoxis aurea Lour., FI. Cochinch. 200, 1790; FBI 6: 277; Cooke, 2: 747 (3: 254); Puri & Mahajan, 134; Santapau 401, 1962 & 297, 1963. C. gramini folia Nimmo ex Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 215, 1839; Dalz. & Gibs. 276. Fairly common and abundant herb among the grasses. Cleistogamic flowers and fruits are present on the bulbs. Flowers bright yellow. Fruits with many seeds. flowers & fruits: May-November. Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea Linn. 1 . Stems twining clock- wise; seeds winged 2 2. Leaf-bases acute or rounded; male spike many in fascicles D. oppositifolia 2. Leaf-bases cordate; male spikes 1-3 together D. belophylla 1 . Stem twining anti-clock- wise; seeds winged at the base only 3 3. Leaves simple .4 4. Stems winged D. sativa 4. Stems not winged D. bulbifera 3. Leaves 3-5 foliate D. pentaphylla 1. Dioscorea belophylla Voight, Hort. Sub. Calc. 635, 1845; Prain & Burkill, in Ann. Bot. Gard. (Calcutta) 14(2): 348, t. 127, 1938; Santapau, 294, 1963. D. nummularia var. belophylla Prain, Bengal PI. 2: 1067, 1903. 588 FLORA OF MAH A BA LESHW A R-7 A rare climber along edges of the forests near Lingmala. All specimens at Blatter Her- barium are sterile. 2. Dioscorea hulbifera Linn., Sp. PI. 1033, 1753; Graham 219; Birdwood 28; Wight, Icon, t. 878, 1844, Cooke 2: 758 (3: 268). Heimia bulbifera Kunth., Enum. 5: 435, 1850; Dalz. & Gibs. 247. Rarely cultivated in gardens for the bulbils which are used as vegetables. flowers : August-September. local name: Karanda. 3. Dioscorea oppositifolia Linn. Sp. PI. 1033, 1753; Graham 219; FBI 6: 292; Dalz. & Gibs. 247; Wight, Icon. t. 813; Cooke, 2: 758 (3: 266): Common climber along road-sides and along edges of forests, the flowers are produced in great profusion and in bud condition they are used by local people as a vegetable. flowers : August-October. local name: Paspoli. 4. Dioscorea pentaphylla Linn., Sp. PI. 1032, 1753; Graham 218; FBI 6: 281; Dalz. & Gibs. 247; Wight, Icon. t. 814, 1844; Birdwood 28; Cooke, 2: 757 (3: 264); Puri & Mahajan, 134; Santapau, 294, 1963. D. triphylla Linn. Sp. PI. 1032, 1753; Graham, 218; Dalz. & Gibs. 247; Cooke 651, 1885. D. jaquemontii Hook, f., in FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 290, 1892. Common climber with white flowers at Fitz- gerald ghat. Old Mahabaleshwar, Lingmala, Lodwick point, Madhu Kosh and Dhobi’s Falls. flowers : September-October. local names: Shend-Vel, Shendon-Vel. 5. Dioscorea sativa Linn. Sp. PI. 1033, 1753; Graham, 218; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 92; Hook, f., in FBI 6: 295, 1892; Birdwood 28. D. bulbifera Linn. var. sativa (Linn.) Prain, Ben- gal PI. 1065, 1903; Cooke, 2: 758 (3: 266). Rarely cultivated in gardens for its edible tubers. flowers: October. local names: Godri (Birdwood), Gorkan (Cooke). Marantaceae Globba Linn. 1. Globba bulbifera Roxb., As. Res. 11: 358, 1810; FBI 6: 206; Cooke, 2: 724-5 (3: 230). G. marantina Wall. Cat. 6532, 1825 (non Linn., 1753) (nom. nud.); Graham, 211; Dalz. & Gibs. 272; Lee. 466. This species reported here on authority of Lee. Liliaceae 1 . Shrubs with perennial stems above ground; fruits berry-like Asparagus 1 . Herbs with annual stems or scapes rising usually from underground perennial root-stock', corm or bulb 2 2. Underground perennial stem small; root-fibres large, numerous, usually some or all fleshy or tuberous Chlorophytum 2. Usually underground stems are large in pro- portion to the roots 3 3. Climbing herbs Gloriosa 3. Erect herbs 4 4. Perennial stem a solid corm, covered with brown sheathe; usually stems leafy; flowers solitary or corymbose... Iphigenia 4. Perennial stem a tunicated bulb; annual scape simple, naked; leaves radical; flowers racemose 5 5. Seeds sub-globose Scilla 5. Seeds flattened 6 6. Perianth campanulate, 6- partite Urginia 6. Perianth cylindric, 6-lobed Dipcadi Asparagus Linn. 1. Asparagus racemosus Willd. var. javanica (Kunth.) Baker, in J. Linn. Soc. London 14: 589 8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 624, 1874; FBI 6: 316; Cooke, 2: 762 (3: 270); Sanlapau 298. A. sarmentosus Graham Cat. Bombay PI. 221, 1839 (non Linn., 1753). A. jaquemontii Baker, l.c. 615, 1874. Asparagopsis sarmentosa Dalz. & Gibs., Bombay FI. 246, 1861 (non Kunth., 1850); Cooke, 649, 1885. Asparagus racemosus sensu Birdwood, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.: 28, 1897 (non Willd. 1850); Puri & Mahajan, 134. Asparagopsis javanica Kunth., Enum. 5: 100, 1850. Common deciduous sarmentose shrub, gene- rally springing from the shades of other bushy trees and shrubs. Common along sides of Petit Road and along margins of Yenna Lake. Also common at Kate’s point. flowers: June-September. local name: Ashwal. Chlorophytum Ker-Gawler 1 . Flowers in densely flowered racemes C. breviscapum 1 . Flowers solitary or two in a raceme C. orchidastrum 1. Chlorophytum breviscapum Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 2: 141, 1850; Dalz. & Gibs. 252; FBI 6: 333; Birdwood 28; Cooke 2: 771 (3: 280). This species has been reported from Maha- baleshwar by Birdwood. We have not seen any specimen, from the area under study. local name: Kula (Birdwood). 2. Chlorophytum orchidastrum Lindl., in Bot. Reg. t. 813, 1824; FBI 6: 336; Cooke. 2: 771 (3: 282); Birdwood 28. Anthericum nimmonii Graham, Cat. Bombay. Chlorophytum nimmonii (Graham) Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 2: 142, 1850; Dalz. & Gibs. 252. Phalangium oligospermum Wight, Icon. 6: 21, t. 2038, 1753. C. glaucum Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 2: 142, 1850; Dalz. & Gibs. 252; FBI 6: 334; Cooke 2: 772 (3:281-2); Santapau, 299, 1963. C. glaucoides Blatter, in J. Proc. Asiat. Soc. Bengal (N.S.) 26(1): 361-2, 1930. Often gregarious on grassy slopes, usually found on precarious rock-ledges and occasionally among the undergrowth in forests. Root-stock is somewhat curled, having about 20 tubers. Tubers white. Common at Lingmala, Ledwick point. Tiger’s path and Chinaman’s falls. flowers : J uly-October. Dipcadi Medic. 1 . Dipcadi ursulae Blatter, Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 32(4): 735, 1928. There are few specimens in Blatter herba- rium from Bhilar Estate. All specimens are in fruiting condition and without leaves. fruits: April. Gloriosa Linn. 1 . Gloriosa superba Linn. Sp. PI. 305, 1753; Graham, 221; Wight, Icon. t. 2047, 1853; FBI 6: 358; Cooke 2: 766 (3: 274). Methonia superba Crantz, Inst. Herb. 474, 1766; Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 250, 1861. Rare climber with apical tendrils, found on lower slopes of hills near Wada and in Koyna Valley. flowers : August-October. local names: Bachnag, Khadyanag. Iphigenia Kunth. 1. Flowers white or pale yellow; capsule obovoid 7. pallida 1 . Flowers deep purple; capsule ellipsoid-oblong . . . 7. indica 1 . Flowers pinkish-purple 7. stellata 1. Iphigenia indica (Br.) A. Gray, in Kunth., Enum. 4: 213, 1843; FBI 6: 357; Birdwood 29; Cooke 2: 766 (3: 275); Puri & Mahajan* 134. Anguillaria indica Br. Prodr. 273, 1810. 590 FLORA OF MAHABALESHW AR-7 This species is reported from Maha- baleshwar by Birdwood. We have not seen any authentic specimen in any herbaria from the locality under study. flowers: June-July. local name: Markalli (Cooke). 2. Iphigenia pallida Baker, in J. Linn. Soc. 17: 451, 1879; FBI 6: 357; Nairne 349; Cooke, 2: 767 (3: 275-6). Anguiliaria indica Graham. Cat. Bombay PI. 222, 1839 (non R. Br. 1810). This species is reported by Cooke on basis of a herbarium specimen at Kew, without precise authority, collected from Maha- baleshwar. 3. Iphigenia stellata Blatter, Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 32(4): 734. 1928. Common herb among grasses in rocky grounds. Abundant at Wilson point, Kate’s point and Petit road. Flowers pinkish purple. Seeds of this species contain highest percen- tage of colchicine among Iphigenia Spp. flowers: June-September. S cilia Linn. 1 . Sdlla hyacinthina (Roth.) McBride, in Contr. Gray Herb. (N.S.) 56: 14, 1918. Ledebouria hyacinthina Roth., Nov. PI. So. 195, 1821; Wight, Icon. t. 2040, 1853; Graham 220; Dalz. & Gibs. 251. L. maculata Dalz., Kew Journ. Bot. 2: 143, 1850; Dalz. & Gibs. 251; Cooke, 651, 1885. S. indica Baker, in Saund. Refug, Bot. 3; appendix 12, 1870 (non Roxb.. 1832); FBI 6: 348; Birdwood, 28; Nairne 349; Cooke, 2: 767 (3: 276); Puri & Mahajan, 134; Santapau 401, 1962 & 299, 1963. Fairly common bulbous herb in open grass- lands during first half of the monsoon. Flowers light-purple. Leaves appear after flowers. Abundant at Wilson point and Lingmala. flowers: June-July. Urginia Steinh. 1 . Urginia polyantha Blatter, Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 32(4) 735, 1928. Rare species among the grasses. Only known from a single collection from Bhilar Estate, on way to Panchgani. flowers: April. Smilacaceae Stnilax Linn. 1. Stnilax zeylanica Linn. Sp. PL 1029, 1753; FBI 6: 309; Santapau, 399, 1962 & 304, 1963. S. macrophylla Roxb.. FI. Ind. 3: 793, 1832 (non Willd., 1806); FBI 6: 310; Graham 219; Dalz & Gibs. 246; Birdwood 28; Cooke 2: 763 (3:271-2); Puri & Mahajan, 134. S. ovalifolia Roxb., FI. Ind. 3: 794, 1832; Graham 219; Wight, Icon. t. 809, 1844; Dalz. & Gibs. 246; Lee, 466; Cooke 649, 1885. Woody deciduous climber with small prickles, climbing on tall trees. Fruits globose in umbels in axils of leaves. Leaves 5 -nerved. Common along Petit Road, near Chinaman’s falls, Ludwick point and Lingmala. flowers: May. PONTEDERIACEAE Pontederia Linn. 1 . Pontederia cordata Linn. Sp. PI. 288, 1753; Bot. Mag. t. 1156, Engler, in DC. Monogr. Phan. 4: 532, 1883; Bailey, Man. Cult. PI. 200, t. 32, 1949. Aquatic fleshy herb in marshy places, in dense clumps in blue flowers. Possibly an introduced plant. flowers: May. Comm ELI naceae 1. Leaf-sheaths inflated Amischophacellus 1 . Leaf-sheaths not inflated 2 2. Flowers irregular .... Cammelina 591 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 2. Flowers regular 3 3. Stamens 6, all fertile; cymes scorpoid. . Cyanotis 3. Stamens 3 fertile and 3 sterile or sterile stamens absent; cymes panicled Murdannia Amischophacellus Rao & Kamathy 1 . Amisdiophacellus axillaris (Linn.) Rao & Kamathy, J. Linn. Soc. Bot. 59: 306, 1966. Commeiina axillaris Linn. Sp. PI. 42, 1753. Tradescantia axillaris Linn. Mant. PI. 321. 1771; Graham, 223. Cyanotis axillaris (Linn.) Roem. & Schult. f., Syst. 7: 1154, 1830; Dalz. & Gibs. 256; FBI 6: 388; Birdwood, 29; Cooke 651, 1885 & 2: 795 (3: 305). This species is reported here on authority of Birdwood. flowers : August-October. Commeiina Linn. 1 . Commeiina paludosa Blume, Enum. PI. Jav. 1: 2, 1825; Rolla & Kamat. in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59: 60, 1962. C. obliqua Buch,-Ham. ex Don, Prodr. FI. Nepal, 45, 1825 (non Vahl, 1806); FBI 6: 372; Cooke 2: 784 (3:293-4); Santapau, 292, 1963. C. polyspatha Wight, Icon. 6: 29, t. 2066, 1853. C. communis sensu Cooke, Gazett. Bombay 651. 1885. C. hirsuta sensu Santapau, J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 401, 1962. Common along the road-sides among the hedges in shady places. This is one of the largest flowered species in the genus. flowers : August-October. Cyanotis Don (nom. cons.) 1 . Roots bearing fusiform tubers C. tuberosa 1 . Roots fibrous, not tuberous 2 2. Plants cottony; hairs of filaments of two colours C. fasciculata 2. Plants not cottony; hairs of filaments one coloured 3 3. Seeds trigonous; striate C. cristata 3. Seeds truncate at base, not trigonous C. wightii 1 . Cyanotis cristata (Linn.) Schult. f., Syst. 7: 1150, 1830; Wight, Icon. t. 2082, 1853; Cooke 2: 794 (3: 304); Puri & Mahajan 135; Santapau 135 & 401, 1962. Commeiina cristata Linn. Sp. PI. 42, 1753. This species is reported here on authority of Puri & Mahajan and Santapau. We have not seen any authentic specimen from Maha- baleshwar. 2. Cyanotis fasciculata (Heyne ex Roth.) Schultes f., Syst. 7: 1152, 1830; FBI 6: 387; Dalz. & Gibs. 225; Cooke, 2: 787 (3: 303). C. rosea Wight, Icon t. 2086, 1853. C. dichotricha Wight, Icon. t. 2088, 1853. Tradescantia fasciculata Heyne ex Roth Nov. PI. Sp. 189, 1821. C. fasciculata Heyne ex Roth. var. glabrescens C. B. Clarke in DC. Monogr. Phan. 3: 253, 1881. Common, often in dense patches, but scarcely abundant species at Fitzgerald ghat, Chinaman’s fall, Wilson point, Pratapsingh Park, Yenna lake, Lingmala and along Petit road in hard rocky grounds. Flowers blue turning bright purple at maturity. In Maha- baleshwar specimens there is gradual variation in this species from cottony-wooly to glabrous plants. Therefore we prefer to merge the variety glabrescens with the typical Variety. flowers: July-October. 3. Cyanotis tuberosa (Roxb.) Schult. f., Syst. 7: 1153, 1830; Dalz. & Gibs. 256; FBI 6: 386; Cooke, 2: 793 (3: 302-3); Santapau, 326. Tradescantia tuberosa Roxb., Cor. PI. 2: 5, t. 108, 1798; Graham, 223. Common among grasses in rocky grounds, especially on way to Kate’s point and Lingmala falls. Reddish purple flowers clustered in a head make this species very conspicuous along the forest fringes. flowers : September-October. 4. Cyanotis wightii C. B. Clarke, in DC. Monogr. 3: 250, 1881; FBI 6: 386; Birdwood 29; Cooke 2: 795 (3: 304); Puri & Mahajan. 135. 592 FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR-7 Cyanotis longifolia Wight, Icon. 6: 33, t. 2084, 1853 (non Benth. 1849). This species is reported from Mahabaleshwar by T. Cooke. Murdannia Royle 1 . Inflorescence terminal, cymose paniculate 2 2. Grass-like herbs; leaves needle-shaped M. nimmonii 2. Not grass-like herbs; leaves not needle-shaped 3 3. Weak, prostrate Or decumbent herbs .... 4 4. Capsules 9 or less than 9 seeded M. nudiflorum 4. Capsule more than 9-seeded M. spiratum 3. Erect, robust herbs 5 5. Roots tuberous M. simplex 5. Roots fibrous M. giganteum 1 . Inflorescence axillary, consisting of 1-3 flowers. .. 6 6. Flowers ochre-yellow 7 7. Filaments bearded M. versicolor 7. Filaments naked M. ochracea 6. Flowers blue 8 8. Filaments bearded; seeds angular M. lanuginosa 8. Filaments naked; seeds cubical M. wightii 1 . Murdannia gigantea (Vahl) Bruckn. in Pfam. 15A: 173, 1930. Commelina gigantea Vahl, Enum. 2: 177, 1806. Aneilema giganteum R. Br., Prodr. 271, 1880; FBI 6 : 379; Cooke 2: 789 (3:299); Puri & Mahajan, 135. A. encifolium Wight, Icon. t. 2074, 1853. This species is included here on authority of Cooke and Puri & Mahajan, who have reported it from Mahabaleshwar. 2. Murdannia lanuginosum (Wall, ex Clarke) Bruckn. in Pfam. 15A, 173, 1930. Aneilema lanuginosum Wall, ex Clarke, in DC. Monog Phan. 3: 214, 1881; FBI 5: 380; Cooke, 2: 790 (3: 300); Puri & Mahajan, 135. Rare erect herb near Lingmala, along road- sides with Ochre-yellow flowers. flowers: May-October. 3. Murdannia nimmoniana (Graham) Comb. Nov. Commelina nimmoniana Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 224, 1839. M. semeteres (Dalz.) Santapau, in Poona Agric. Coll. Mag. 41: 284, 1951 & Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 16(1): 325, 1953. Aneilema semeteres Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 3: 138, 1951; Dalz. & Gibs. 254. A. paniculata Wall, ex Clarke, in DC. Monogr. Phan. 3: 815, 1881; FBI 6: 381; Cooke, 2: 790 (3: 300). Dichaespermum juncoides Wight, Icon. t. 2078, 1853. Common herb near Wilson point. Flowers blue. Leaves characteristically needle-shaped. flowers : J uly-September. Note : The earliest name, Commelina nim- moniana Graham, is very often neglected by modern taxonomist as nomen sub-nudum, because it is not well described by Graham. But it is the only member of family Commelina- ceae from its type locality with needle-shaped leaves which was well known to Cooke, and which was placed by him in the synonymy of Aneilema paniculatum Wall. 4. Murdannia nudiflora (Linn.) Bruckn., Kew Bull. 7: 189, 1952. Commelina nudiflora Linn., Sp. PI. 41, 1753 (pro parte), Graham, 223. Aneilema nudiflorum (Linn.) Wall., List. 182, no. 5224, 1839 (non R. Br., 1810); Dalz & Gibs. 253; Cooke 2: 788 (3: 298). M. malabarica (Linn.) Bruckn. in Pfam. ed. 2, 15A: 173, 1930; Santapau, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52; 658, 1955. Tradescantia malabarica Linn. Sp. PI. ed. 2, 412, 1762. Commelina communis Walter, FI. Carol. 68, 1788; Dalz. & Gibs. 252; Cooke, 651, 1885. Common herb among grasses. flowers : September-October. 5. Murdannia ochracea (Dalz.) Bruckn., in Engl. & Prantl. Pfam. 15A: 173, 1930. Aneilema ochraceum Dalz., in Kew Journ. Bot. 3: 135, 1851. Dichaespermum repens Wight, Icon. 6: 31, t. 2078, f. 3, 1853 (non Hask., 1881). JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 83 This species is known from a single collec- tion from Mahabaleshwar (BSI — -No. 67575). 6. Murdannia simplex (Vahl) Brenan, Kew Bull. 1952: 186, 1952; Gandhi, FI. Hassan 649, 1976. Commelina simplex Vahl, Enum. 2: 177, 1806. Aneilema sinicum Ker-Gawler, Bot. Reg. t. 659, 1822; FBI 6: 379; Birdwood 29; Cooke, 2: 789 (3: 299); Puri & Mahajan, 134. A. secundum Wight, Icon. t. 2075, 1853. Very common and abundant, very often gregarious herb in moist grounds along road- sides, in open grass-lands and along edges of forests. Tallest species in the genus, easily dis- tinguishable due to its tuberous roots and blue flowers. Collected from Lingmala, Kate’s point, Lodwick point & Bhilar estate. flowers : August-September. 7. Murdannia spiratum (Linn.) Bruckn., in Engl. & Prantl., Pfam., ed. 2, 15A: 173. 1930; Santapau, 324. Commelina spirata Linn. Mant. 1 : 176, 1767. Aneilema spiratum R. Br., Prodr. 271, 1810 (in adnot); FBI 6: 377; Birdwood, 29; Cooke 2: 787 (3: 296-7); Puri & Mahajan, 134. A. canaliculatum Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 3: 137. 1851; Dalz. & Gibs. 254. A. nanum Kunth. Enum. 4: 65, 1843; Wight, Icon, t. 2977, 1853. Occasional among grasses in hard rocky grounds. flowers : J uly-November. 8. Murdannia wightii Rao et Kamathy, in Bull. Bot. Surv. India, 3: 168, 1961. M. pauciflorum (Wight) Bruckn., in Engl. & Prantl.. Pfam. 15A: 173, 1930. Aneilema pauciflorum Wight, Icon. t. 2077, 1853 (non Dalzell, 1851); FBI 6: 378; Birdwood, 29; Cooke. 2: 788 (3: 297); Puri & Mahajan, 134. This species also known from a single col- lection from Mahabaleshwar by T. Cooke. flowers: October. 9. Murdannia versicolor (Dalz.) Bruckn., in Pfam., ed. 2, 15A: 173, 1930; Santapau, 324. Aneilema versicolor Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 3: 136, 1851; Dalz. & Gibs. 253; FBI 6: 378; Cooke 2: 788 (3:298). Occasional among grasses in moist and slop- ing grounds. Common at Babington point. Dhobi’s falls, Lingmala, Lodwick point and in Pratapsingh Park. flowers : September-November. Arecaceae 1 . Basal leaflets not spinous Caryota 1 . Basal leaflets spinous Phoenix Caryota Linn. 1. Caryota urens Linn. Sp. PI. 1189, 1753; Graham, 226; Dalz. & Gibs. 278; FBI 6: 422; Birdwood, 29; Cooke 2: 805 (3: 315-6); Puri & Mahajan, 135. Rare palm along forest margins. flowers: Throughout the year. local names: Bherli mad. Fish-tail palm. Phoenix Linn. 1 . Phoenix sylvestris (Linn.) Roxb., FI. Ind. 3: 787, 1832; Graham, 224; Dalz. & Gibs. 278; Cooke 2: 801 (3: 311). Elate sylvestris Linn. Sp. PI. 1189. 1753 (pro parte) . Rare palm at Mahabaleshwar. flowers : January-February. local name: Shindi, Wild date palm. 594 FLORA OF MAHABALESHW AR-7 Araceae 1. Plants not climbers 2 2. Aquatic or marsh plants, without tubers Cryptocorine 2. Terrestrial tuberous herbs 3 3. Flowers bisexual (spadix homogenous); venation striate Zantedeschia 3. Flowers unisexual; venation reticulate 4 4. Leaves simple 5 5. Plants bearing leafless bulbiferous shoots Remusatia 5. Plants without leafless bulbiferous shoots 6 6. Spadix with a barren terminal appendix 7 7. Ovules many, parietal Colocasia 1. Ovules few, basal Alocasia 6. Spadix without barren terminal appendix 8 8. Leaves not variegated Ariopsis 8. Leaves variegated Caladiiim 4. Leaves compound 9 9. Male flowers stipitate; flowers diocious Arisacma 9. Male flowers sessile or so; flowers always monoecious Amorphophallus 1 . Climbers 10 10. Leaves pinnately cut or perforated Monstera 10. Leaves entire 11 11. Leaves with reticulate venation Epipremnum 1 1 . Leaves with parallel venation Rhaphidophora Amorphophallus Blume ex Decaisne (nom. cons.) 1 . Amorphophallus commutatus (Schott.) Engler, in DC. Monogr. 2: 319, 1879; FBI 6: 515; Lisboa. Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 10: 527, 1896; Cooke, 2: 826 (3: 337); Santa- pau, 291. Conocephalus commutatus Schott., in Bonaplan. 7: 28, 1859. Thomsonia nepalense sensu Birdwood l.c. 29, (non Wall. PI. As. Rar. 1: 83, t. 99, 1839). A. sylvaticus Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 256, 1861 (non Kunth., 1841). Pythonium waltichianum Kirtikar, in Journ. Bom- bay nat. Hist. Soc. 7: 312, 1893 (non Schott., 1832). Synantherias sylvatica Schott., Gen. Aroid. t. 28, 1858; Birdwood 29; FBI 6: 518. Dracontium polyphyllum Graham. Cat. Bombay PI. 229, 1839 (non Dennst, 1819). Common along Fitzgerald ghat, in partially shaded places. Vegetative shoots appear after flowering spadix in monsoon. Spathe is purple coloured with white blotches. flowers: May-June. local names: Sheula, Sheuli. Alocasia (Schott.) G. Don (nom. cons.) 1 . Alocasia indica (Roxb.) Schott, in Oestr. Bot. Wochenol 410, 1854; FBI 6: 525; Cooke, 2: 830 (3: 341). Cultivated for its stems and root-stocks which are used as vegetables. Ariopsis Nimmo 1 . Ariopsis peltata Nimmo ex Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 252, 1839; Dalz. & Gibs. 259; FBI 6: 519; Cooke 2: 827 (3: 338); Santapau, 288, 1963. Remusatia vivipai-a Wight, Icon. t. 900, 1844 (non Schott, 1832). 595 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Rare species in shady places in rocky grounds. Very often found in crevices of rocks and among stones in broken old walls. flowers: June- August. Arisaema Martius 1. Leaves 2-3 together 2 2. Leaf-segments pedatisect A. tortuosum 2. Leaf-segments radiatisect A. neglectum 1 . Leaves solitary 3 3. Leaflets petiolate A. caudatum 3. Leaflets sessile 4 4. Leaves appearing after the flowers; spathe 9-12 cm long A. murrayi 4. Leaves and spathes appearing simultani- ously; spathe 6-18 cm. long A. leschenaultii 1 . Arisaema caudatum Engler, in DC. Monogr. Phan. 2: 559, 1879; FBI 6: 508; Rolla Rao & Ahuja, Bull. Bot. Surv. India 1 1 : 450, 1969. A. longecaudatum Blatter, in Asiat. Soc. Bengal 26: 362, 1930 & J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 20, 1931; Chatterjee, in Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal 8: 128, 1954; Santapau, 401, 1962 & 288, 1963. Very common and abundant herb all over Mahabaleshwar in monsoon. flowers: June-September. 2. Arisaema leschenaultii Blume, Rumphia 1: 93, 1835; FBI 6: 504; Lisboa, 223; Cooke, 2: 821 (3: 332); Blatter & McCann, J. Bom- bay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 19, 1931. Arum crubescens Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 258, 1861 (non Schott., 1830). Rare, in shady places among the under- growth in the forest areas. flowers : J une-September. 3. Arisaema murrayi (Graham) Hook, f., in Bot. Mag. t. 4388, 1848; FBI 6: 507; Dalz. & Gibs. 258; Nairne, 362; Cooke 651 & 2: 281 (3: 332); Birdwood 28; Lee 466; Blatter & McCann, l.c. 18; Puri & Mahajan, 135. Arum murrayi Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 229, 1839. 596 Fairly common perennial herb all over, usually occurring in groups of 5-7 plants toge- ther, during monsoon. flowers: June- July. local name: Sapacha kanda. 4. Arisaema neglectum Schott., in Bonapald. 7: 26, 1859; FBI 6: 504; Blatter & McCann, l.c. 21. A. tortuosum (Wall.) Schott, var. neglectum (Schott.) Fisher, in Gamble, FI. Madras Pres. 1585, 1931. A rare herb among grasses with radiatisect leaflets. flowers: June. 5. Arisaema tortuosum (Wall.) Schott., in Schott. & Endl. Melet. Bot. 17, 1832; FBI 6: 502; Cooke, 2: 820 (3: 331-2). Arum tortuosum Wall.. PI. Asiat. Rare. 2: 10, t. Ill, 1830. Arisaema curvatum Dalz. & Gibs., Bombay FI. 258, 1861 (non Kunth., 1841); Hooker, Bot. Mag. t. 5931, 1871. Common species in partially shady places. fix)wers: June. Caladium Vent. 1 . Caladium bicolor Vent., Jard. Cels. t. 30, 1800; Baily, Man. cult. PI. 188, 1949. Quite commonly cultivated in gardens as an ornamental plant. flowers: July. Colocasia Schott. 1 . Colocasia esculenta (Linn.) Schott., in Schott. & Endl. Melet. 1: 18, 1832; Bailey, Man. Cult. PI. 189, 1949. Arum esculentum Linn. Sp. PI. 965, 1753. Colocasia antiquorum Schott., in Schott. & Endl., Melet 1: 18, 1832; FBI 6: 523; Cooke 2: 829 (3: 340-41); Blatter & McCann, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 29, 1931; Santapau, 293. Rare species in cultivation. Leaves are used as vegetable. local name: Alu. \ FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR-7 Cryptocorine Fisher 1 . Tube of the spathe much longer than the limb C. retrospiralis 1 . Tube of the spathe much shorter than the limb C. spiralis 1 . Cryptocorine retrospiralis (Roxb.) Fisher ex Wydler, in Linnaea 5: 428, 1830; FBI 6: 493; Wight, Icon. t. 772, 1844; Cooke 2: 818 (3: 329). C. roxburghii Dalz. & Gibs., Bombay FI. 259, 1861 (non Schott., 1832); Cooke, 651, 1885; Bird- wood 29. Arum spirals Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 228, 1839 (non Retz. 1779). Ambrosinia retrospiralis Roxb., FI. Ind. 3: 492, 1832. Common on margins of pools, lake and beds of streams as well as in rice-fields, near Ling- mala. Plants are usually found partially sub- merged under water. flowers : November-February. 2. Cryptocorine spiralis (Retz.) Fisher ex Wydler, Linnaea 5: 428, 1830; FBI 6: 494; Wight, Icon. t. 773, 1844; Cooke, 2: 818 (3: 329). Arum spirale Retz. Obs. Bot. 1: 30, 1779. C. hugellii Schott., Gen. Aroid, 8, t. 12, 1853; FBI 6 :.494, 1893. C. tortuosa Blatter, & McCann, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 16, t. 1, 1931; Santapau, 398, 1962 & 288, 1963. This species is found abundantly along the margins of Yenna lake and near Lingmala. flowers : August-December. Epipremnum Schott. 1 . Epipremnum aureum (Linden ex Andre) Bunting in Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 1: 78, 1964. Pothos aurea Linden ex Andre, in Illustr. Hortic. 27: 69, t. 381, 1880; Cooke, 2: 818 (3: 340). Commonly cultivated in gardens as well as indoor ornamental plant. local name: Money plant. Monstera Adanson (nom. cons.) 1 . Monstera deliciosa Liebm. Videnk. Med- del. Dansk. Naturalist. Foren. Kjobenhaur 1 & 2: 19, 1849; Bailey, Man. Cult. PI. 183, 1949. Rarely cultivated in gardens as an ornamen- tal plant. Remusatia Schott. 1 . Remusatia vivipara (Roxb.) Schott., Melet. 1: 18, 1832; FBI 6: 521; Cooke 649, 1885 & 2: 828 (3: 339); Blatter & McCann, J. Bom- bay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 30 1931; Santapau, 400, 1962 & 288, 1963. Arum viviparum Roxb., FI. Ind. 3: 496, 1832; Graham, 228; Wight, Icon. t. 798, 1844; Birdwood, 29. Caladium viviparum Lodd., Bot. Cat. t. 281, 1820. Colocasia vivipara Thwaites, Enum. 336, 1784. Common epiphytic or lithophytic herb all over. Usually the plants are found associated with leafless reddish-brown shoots covered with bulbils, which resemble tiny flowers. We have not come across flowering specimen in the area under study. Rhaphidophora Hasskarl 1. Rhaphidophora pertusa (Roxb.) Schott., Bonaplandia 5: 45, 1857; FBI 6: 546; Cooke 2: 831 (3: 342). Pothos pertusa Roxb., FI. Ind. 1: 455, 1820; Graham, 230. Scindapsus pertusus Schott, in Schott. & Endl. Melet. 1: 21, 1832; Wight, Icon. t. 781, 1844. Rarely cultivated in gardens as an ornamen- tal climber. Zantedeschia Sprengel (nom. cons.) 1 . Zantedeschia aethiopica (Linn.) Sprengel, in Linn. Syst. Veget. ed. 16, 3: 735, 1826; Bailey, Manual Cult. PI. 181, 1949. Calla aethiopica Linn. Sp. PI. 968, 1753. This tropical African introduced species has been collected by Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, from 597 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Lingmala, which is probably an escape from cultivation. flowers : September. Lemnaceae 1 . Fronds flat, with one or more roots, bearing the flowers in marginal clefts; anthers 2-celled; filaments slender Lemna 1 . Fronds minute, like grains of sand, root-less, proliferous, bearing the flowers on the upper surface; anthers sessile, one-celled Wolff ici Lemna Linn. 1 . Roots solitary L. trisulca 1 . Roots many L. polyrhiza 1. Lemna trisulca Linn. Sp. PI. 970, 1753; Dalz. & Gibs. 281; FBI 6: 557; Birdwood, 29; Cooke 2: 831 (3: 343). Common floating herb in stagnant waters in ponds and in ricefields. flowers: September. local name: Duck weed. 2. Lemna polyrhiza Linn. Sp. PI. 970, 1753; FBI 6: 557; Birdwood 29; Cooke, 2: 832 (3: 433). Rare weed in ponds and in rice-fields, in stagnant waters. flowers: September. Wolff ia Horkel 1 . Wolffia arrhiza (Linn.) Horkel, ex Wimm., FI. Schles, ed. 3, 140, 1857: Birdwood 29. Lemna arrhiza Linn., Mantissa 2: 294, 1771; Syme, Eng. Bot. ed. 3, 9: 24, t. 1398, 1869. L. globosa Roxb. FI. lnd. 3: 565, 1832; Graham, 252; Dalz. & Gibs. 281. Wolffia globosa (Roxb.) Horteg & Vander Plas Blumea 18: 367, 1970. W. michellii Schleid. Beitr. Bot. 233, 1844; Cooke 2: 832 (3: 344). Tiny weed in stagnant waters, covering water surface like green scum. flowers: September. Eriocaulaceae Eriocaulon Linn. 1 . Anthers white or yellow 2 2. Plants of marshy places; heads 1 cm across E. horsely-kondae 2. Plants of pools and wet grounds; heads 0.5 cm or less across E. mitophyllum 1 . Anthers black 3 3. Sepals of the female flowers deeply boat- shaped; keel thickened or expanded into a wing or crest -.4 4. Head under 1 mm. in diameter 5 5. Female sepals equal, equally crested E. margarettae 5. Female sepals unequal, one not crested E. eleanorae 4. Heads 5 mm or more in diameter E. stellulatum 3. Sepals of the female flowers not boat-shaped; keel not thickened 6 6. Male flowers with one enlarged petal projecting beyond floral bracts 7 7. Leaves 2-5 cm long, lanceolate; scapesl5-25 cm long E. odoratum 7. Leaves 4.5-6 cm long, linear; scapes 30-45 cm long E. cristatum 6. Male flowers not with enlarged petal 8 8. Stems disciform, 0; floral bracts black 9 9. Receptacle villous 10. Inflorescence bracts obtuse; horizontal 11 11. Female petals linear E. thwaitesii 1 1 . Female petals absent E. nigricans 10. Involucral bracts reflexed, shorter than heads E. sedgwickii 9. Receptacle glabrous 12 12. Heads 4-6 mm across; female petals glabrous E. duthiei 12. Heads 7-10 mm across; female petals hairy in upper part E. bolei sp. nov. 8. Stems elongated, slender L. setaceum 598 FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR-7 1 . Eriocaulon cristatum Mart, in Wall. PI. As. Rar. 3: 28, 1832; FBI 6: 574; Fyson, Ind. Sp. Erioc. 48, t. 31. E. miserum Koern. in Linnaea 27: 607, 1856. Rare species at Mahabaleshwar. It has been collected from Bhilar estate. flowers: November. 2. Eriocaulon duthiei Hook. f. in FI. Brit. India 6: 578, 1983; Fyson, Ind. Sp. Erioc. 27, t. 7. Rare species on sides of stream near Bhilar. Herbarium specimen was identified by H. N. Moldenke as E. odoratum Dalz. but our speci- men differ from E. odoratum Dalz. in having boat-shaped sepals in female flowers and hav- ing smaller heads. flowers: November. 3. Eriocaulon eleanorae Fyson, in Journ. Indian Bot. 2: 316, 1921 & Ind. Sp. Erio- caulon 52, t. 35; Santapau 294. Quite common and gregarious in rocky grounds near Lingmala, Kate’s point and Yenna Lake. flowers : September-October. 4. Eriocaulon margarettae Fyson, in Journ. Indian Bot. 2: 316, 1921 & Ind. Sp. Erio- caulon 52, 1923. E. humile Moldenke. Phytologia 3: 162. 1949; Santapau, 294-5. Rare species at Mahabaleshwar and at Bhilar among the grasses. Some specimens of this in Blatter Herbarium (BLAT) have been mis- identified as E. quinqueloculare Linn., but Mahabaleshwar specimens lack in red colour- ed leaves and belong to this species. flowers : October-November. 5. Eriocaulon mitophyllum Hook, f., in Flora Brit. India 6: 575. 1893. E. miserum Koern. var. mitophyllum (Hook, f.) Fyson, Ind. Spec. Eriocaulon 59, t. 48, 1923. Common and abundant species on rocky grounds very often partially submerged in puddles. Very common at Wilson point. Petit road and near Pratapsingh park. flowers: July-September. 6. Eriocaulon nigricans R. Br. Prodr. 254, 1810. Eriocaulon achiton Koern. in Linnaea 27 • ^30. 1854. FBI 6: 584; Fyson, Ind. Sp. Eriocaulon 29-30, f. p. 30, 1923. This species is known from Mahabaleshwar from a single Collection (S. C. Tavakari — s.n. B), from Chinaman’s falls. flowers: October. 7. Eriocaulon odoratum Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 3: 280, 1851; Dalz. & Gibs. 280; FBI 6: 574; Cooke, 2: 844 (3: 355-6); Fyson, Ind. Sp. Erioc. 44, t. 28. Common and abundant and one of the dominent species in rocky grounds near Wilson point, Pratapsingh park and Bhilar Estate, among grasses. flowers : September-November. 8. Eriocaulon horsley-kondae Fyson, in Journ. Ind. Bot. 3: 13, 1922 & Ind. Spec. Eriocaulon, 58, t. 43, 1923. Common herb on moist rocky grounds along with E. odoratum Dalz. on Wilson point. flowers : September-October. 9. Eriocaulon setaceum Linn. Sp. PI. 87. 1753; Cooke 2: 842 (3:354); Fyson, Ind. Sp. Erioc. 20, t. 1. E. capillus-naiadis Hook. f.. FI. Brit. India. 6: 572, 1893, Rare species found on margins of Yenna lake with black flowering heads. flowers: November. 10. Eriocaulon stellulatum Koern. in Linnaea 27: 620, 1856; FBI 6: 579; Cooke, 2: 846 (3: 358); Fyson, Ind. Sp. Erioc. 53, f. 55. Very common and abundant herb among grasses at Bhilar estate, Madhukosh, Lodwick point, Chinaman’s falls, Lingmala, Dhobi’s falls and near Yenna lake. flowers : October-December. 599 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 11. Eriocaulon sedgwickii Fyson, Journ. Ind. Bot. 2: 260, 1921 & Ind. Sp. Eriocaulon, 36, t. 16, 1923. Rare species at Mahabaleshwar. There are no other collection of this species at Blatter herbarium, other than type specimen collected by L. J. Sedwick. flowers: November. 12. Eriocaulon thwaitesii Koern., in Linnaea 27: 627, 1854; Fyson, Ind. Sp. Erioc. 29 & 68, 1923. This species has been reported from Ling- mala, Mahabaleshwar by Fyson, (Sedgwick — 4646). 13. Eriocaulon bold sp. nov. Similis Erio- caulon sedgwickii Fyson sed differt laevibus capitibus. Similis E. duthiei Hook. f. sed differt prolatis capitibus. Holotypus — P. V. Bole 2230 (BLAT) lectus Lingmala, Mahabaleshwar die 6.11.1955. Herbs 4-8" tall, with sheaths 1.5-2" long. Scapes glabrous. Leaves small, lanceolate. Heads ± 1 cm across, white. Bracts covering the floral parts completely. Male flowers 1-3 in a single bract. Sepals 2, lanceolate or spathu- late. Petals united into a tube. Stamens 4-6. Anthers black; basifixed. Female flowers 1-2 in each bract, sepals 2, boat-shaped, hairy on the back. Petals linear, with faint black spots, with long white hairs. Ovary trilocular, style with trifid stigma. Nut brown-red. Gregarious herb on side of a stream in running water near Lingmala. flowers: November. There is one specimen of this species in Blatter Herbarium, collected by the Senior author on way to Lingmala via Panchgani Road. Exsiccata : P. V. Bole — 2230 (6-11-1955). It comes near to E. sedgwickii Fyson, and E. duthiei Hook. f. It differs from the former in having glabrous heads whereas it differs from the latter due to its longer heads. Cyperaceae 1. Nut enclosed in an utricle Care x 1 . Nut not enclosed in an utricle 2 2 . Glume distichous in entire inflorescence 3 3. Rhachilla of spikelets disarticulating above two lowest glumes Mariscus 3. Rhachilla of spikelets persistant Cy perus 2. Glumes spirally imbricately arranged 4 4. Style base persistant, swollen, when cadu- cous not leaving a tumour on the nut. . . . Fimbristylis 4. Style base deciduous, leaving a tumour on the nut Bulbostylis Bulbostylis Kunth. 1. Bulbostylis densa (Wall.) Hand.-Mazz. in Karsten & Schenk, Vegetation 20, 7: 16, 1930; Santapau, 303. Scirpus densus Wall, ex Roxb. FI. Ind. 1: 231. 1820. B. trifida Kunth., Enum. 2: 213, 1837. B. capillaris Nees var. trifida (Kunth.) C. B. Clarke, in Flora Brit. Ind. 6: 652, 1894; Blatter & McCann, Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 37(4): 765- 1935. Common herb among grasses at Shindola summit. flowers: November. Carex Linn. 1 . Spikes long-cylindric; peduncles 1-2 in each sheath C. baccans 1 . Spike short, numerous, without sheaths 2 2. Each spikelet with 3-4 nuts C. cruciata 2. Each spikelets with 6-10 nuts 3 3. Nut ovate-elliptic, not stipitate C. glaucina 3. Nut ovate, short stipitate C. lindleyarta var. major 1 . Carex baccans Nees, in Wight Contr. 122, 1834; FBI 6: 722; Blatter & McCann, 765. Rare, robust species in wet places. flowers: November. 600 FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR-7 2. Carex cruciata Wahlenb. in Vet. Akad. Handl. Stockholm 24: 149, 1803; FBI 6: 715; Blatter & McCann, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 38(1): 7, 1935. C. condensata Nees, in Wight Contr. 123, 1834; FBI 6: 716; Cooke 2: 905 (3:420); Puri & Maha- jan, 1 34. C. indica Nees, in Wight, Contri. 123, 1834 (non Linn. 1753); Graham 233; Dalz. & Gibs. 288; Cooke 651, 1885; Birdwood 29. Common along road-sides and along forest fringes near Chinaman’s fall and Lodwick point. Tolerates shade to a great extent. flowers : October-December. local name: Lavicha Gavat. 3. Carex glaucina Boeckler, in Linnea 40: 353, 1876. C. filicina Nees var. glaucina (Boeck.) Kuken- thal, Pflanzenr. 38: 274; 1909; Santapau, 303. In wet places near Chinaman’s falls. Petit road, Lingmala, Babington point, Madhu- kosh and Lodwick point. flowers : October-December. 4. Carex lindeyana Nees var. major Fisher, in Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 3: 1169, 1928. C. mercarensis Hochst. var. major Steud. Syn. PI. Cyper. 194, 1855; FBI 6: 719; Cooke, 2: 906 (3: 421); Puri & Mahajan, 135. C. mercarensis Woodrow, Journ. Bombay. Nat. Hist. Soc. 13: 433, 1901. Occasional in shady places in forest areas. Rare along Petit Road and near Yenna lake. flowers: October-March. Cyperus Linn 1 . Stigmas 2 2 2. Rhachilla deciduous as a whole C. brevifolius 2. Rhachilla persistent 3 3. Superficial cells of the nut nearly square C. globosus 3. Superficial cells of the nut longitudinally oblong or elliptic 4 4. Spikelets lanceolate, 20-60 flowered; nut obovoid, black C. latespicatus 4. Spikelets linear-oblong with exactly parallel sides; hh 20 flowered; nut globosely ovoid, brown C. malabaricus 1 . Stigmas 3 5 5. Rhachilla of the spikelets not winged C. nutans 5 . Rhachilla of the spikelets 2-winged 6 6. Leaves short, rarely half as long as the stem or absent 7 7. Rhizome short, stoloniferous C. macer 7. Rhizome elongated, not stoloniferous 8 8. Bracts linear-enciform, shorter than the inflorescence, to 5 cm long, 3 cm wide; wing of rhachilla narrow, pale in colour C. corymbosus 8. Bracts longer than the inflorescence, upto 60 cm long and 7 mm wide; wing of the rhachilla broad, red in fruiting specimens C. pangorei 6. Leaves long, often longer than the stem C. rotundus 1. Cyperus brevifolius (Rottb.) Hassk. Cat. Hort. Bogor. 24, 1844. Kyllingia brevifolia Rottb., Desr. et Ic. 13, t. 4. f. 3, 1773; Blatter & McCann 25. Rare species at Mahabaleshwar, found in wet places along water courses. flowers: October. 2 . Cyperus corymbosus Rottb., Desr. & Icon. 42, t. 7, f. 4, 1773; FBI 6: 612; Cooke, 2: 870 (3: 383); Blatter & McCann 270. In gregarious patches near banks and along water-courses. Always associated with araceous plants ( Cryptocorine spp.). flowers : August-November. 601 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 3. Cyperus digitatus Roxb., FI. Ind. 1: 205, 1832; FBI 6: 599; Cooke, 2: 862 (3: 387); Blatter & McCann 259. Rare herb along water-courses. flowers: November. 4. Cyperus globosus Allioni, FI. Pedem. 49, 1789; Cooke 2: 857 (3: 370); Puri & Maha- jan, 135. Pycreus globosus Reich., FI. Germ. Exc. 140, 1830; Blatter & McCann 29. P. capillaris Nees, in Linnaea 9: 283, 1834; FBI 6: 591; Birdwood 29. P. flavidus Retz., Obs, 5: 13, 1789 (nec Clarke 1893). Common in moist places. flowers: October. 5. Cyperus latespicafcus Boeck., in Flora 42: 441, 1859; Cooke 2: 855 (3: 368); Puri & Mahajan 135. Common among the grasses and in rocky hard grounds at Shindola summit, Lodwick point and Wilson point. flowers: November. 6. Cyperus macer C. B. Clarke, in Journ. Linn. Soc. London, 21: 160, 1884. Rare along sides of streams on hill slopes, near Lingmala. flowers: November. 7. Cyperus malabaricus (Clarke) Cooke, FI. Pres. Bombay 2: 856, 1908. Pycreus malabaricus Clarke, in Journ. Linn. Soc. London 34: 12, 1898; Blatter & McCann 28, t. 3. Common herb in moist places and on sides of rice fields. flowers : October-November. 8. Cyperus nutans Vahl, Enum. 2: 363, 1806; Cooke, 2: 868 (3: 381); Santapau, 300. C. distans Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 232, 1839 (non Linn., 1753); Dalz. & Gibs. 283. Rare sedge near Babington point. flowers: October-November. 9. Cyperus pangorei Rottb. Desr. & Icon. 31, t. 7, f. 3. 1773 (non Retz., 1789); neck C. B. Clarke, 1893). C. corymbosus Kunth., Boeck. et Alior. (non Rottb., 1773). C. tagetum Roxb., FI. Ind. 1 : 208, 1832; FBI 6: 613. Common sedge in running water of Yenna stream, in rivulets near Chinaman’s fall and near Dhobi’s fall. flowers : August-October. Mariscus Gaertn. 1. Spikelets in compact single head M. blatteri 1 . Spikelets in umbellate inflorescence 2 2. Spikelets distant along the rhachis M. konkanensis 2. Spikelets closely packed along the rhachis . .. M. cyperinus 1 . Mariscus blatteri McCann, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 37(3): 532-3, 1934. Rare species with compact single head. Head 1.5-2 cm across. flowers: October. 2. Mariscus cyperinus (Retz.) Vahl, Enum. 2: 377, 1806. Kyllinga cyperina Retz. Obs. Bot. 6: 21, 1791. Scirpus cyperoides Linn. Mant. 2: 181, 1771. (non M. cyperiodes (Roxb.) A. Distr. 1833). Cyperus cyperoides (Linn.) O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. 2: 333, 1898. Common herb along road-sides in Fitzgerald ghat. flowers : August-October. 3. Mariscus konkanensis (Cooke) Sedgwick, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 25: 698, 1918; Blatter & McCann, 535. Cyperus konkanensis Cooke, FI. Pres. Bombay 2: 874, 1908. M. sieberianus Nees var. subcomposita Clarke, in FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 522, 1893. C. cyperoides (Linn.) O. Kuntze var. subcomposita (Clarke) Kukenth., in Pfrech. 101: 516, 1936. Rare herb on sides of streams among grasses on Southern side of the Plateau. flowers: November. {to be continued) 602 THE BIRDS OF THE KEDARNATH SANCTUARY, CHAMOLI DISTRICT, UTTAR PRADESH: STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION1 Michael J. B. Green2 (With a plate and a text -figure) Ornithological data obtained during three years spent in the Kedamath Sanctuary of the Garhwal Himalaya, North India are presented. A total of 146 species were identified, including Muscicapa westermanni, Seicercus poliogenys and Certhia nipal- ensis which have not previously been recorded west of Nepal. Species accounts include details of altitudinal distribution, status, habitat and behaviour. Introduction Information about the birds of the Kedar- nath Sanctuary in the Garhwal Himalaya of Chamoli District has not previously been documented. Furthermore, published observa- tions concerning the avifauna of the Garhwal Himalaya are limited. Osmaston (1921) noted 96 species during his ten years’ residence in the region, Lavkumar (1956) recorded 133 species during a two month visit in early summer and Devillers (1976) observed 93 species in the course of a three week expedi- tion in spring. The purpose of this paper is to list 146 species recorded in the Kedamath Sanctuary during a three year study of the Himalayan musk deer Moschus chrysogaster, from Febru- ary 1979 to December 1981 (see Green 1985). Of this total, 40 species are not mentioned in the lists of either Osmaston, Lavkumar or Devillers. Several species have not previously been recorded west of Nepal according to Ali and Ripley (1968-74), Fleming et al (1976) 1 Accepted August 1985. 2 Department of Applied Biology, Pembroke Street, Cambridge CB2 3DC, England. Present address : Conservation Monitoring Centre, 219 (c) Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 ODL, U.K. and Inskipp and Inskipp (1985). These are the Little Pied Flycatcher Muscicapa wester- manni, Grey-cheeked Warbler Seicercus polio- genys and Nepal Tree Creeper Certhia nipal- ensis. In addition, the upper altitudinal limit of 14 species is higher than that given by these authorities. Identifications are based on field observa- tions. Specimens were not collected except in the case of several species of game bird, which were inadvertently caught in box traps set for musk deer. Weights and measurements of these specimens are appended. Observations were not standardised and most were made at the southern edge of the sanctuary, within a triangular area lying between Chopta Chatti, Tungnath and Mandal and referred to as the main study area (Fig. 1). Other obser- vations were made during visits to Bisuri Tal, Kedamath, Madhyamaheshwar and Rudranath (Fig. 1). Kedarnatei Sanctuary The sanctuary was created in 1972 and takes its name from the famous Hindu shrine at Kedamath. It is situated about 300 km north- east of Delhi and, covering an area of 975 km2, is the largest protected area in the Himalaya 603 CHAUKHAfVSBA JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 604 Fig. 1. A map of the Kedamath Sanctuary showing the main study area and routes taken to other parts of the sanctuary. BIRDS OF KEDARNATH SANCTUARY of India. The entire sanctuary lies in the northern catchment of the Alaknanda river, which is the major tributary of the upper reaches of the Ganges. The sanctuary is bounded to the north by a range of peaks, mostly over 6,000 m, and in the south by the Mandal-Okhimath road (Fig. 1). Altitude ranges from 1,160 m (near Phata) to 7,068 m (Chaukhamba peak). The climate is considerably influenced by the southwest monsoon in summer and by the passage of belts of low pressure, known as ‘western disturbances’, in winter (see Mani 1981). The sanctuary is fully exposed to the summer monsoon because its main valleys tend to lie in a N-S direction and there is very little rain-shadow effect from the 3,000 m high hill ranges to the south. Of the mean annual precipitation of 3,093 mm at 3,050 m in the main study area, 81% fell in the mon- soon, between June and September, and 11% fell as snow in winter, between December and March (Green 1985). Temperatures are highest in May or June prior to the arrival of the monsoon, after which conditions become over- cast, and lowest in the first half of January. The highest and lowest temperatures recorded at 3,050 m in the main study area were 25.0°C and — 10.5°C, respectively (Green 1985). The sanctuary is snow-bound for about three months of the year, following heavy snow- falls in December. A great variety of vegetation types occurs in the sanctuary, reflecting the complex and diverse nature of the climate, geology and topography in the region. The subtropical, temperate, subalpine and alpine zones are re- presented in the sanctuary but the tropical zone, which does not occur above 1,200 m, is absent. The major forest types, based on the classification of Champion and Seth (1968), are described by Agrawala (1973). For pre- sent purposes it is convenient to distinguish the following types of vegetation, all of which occur in the main study area. Subtropical and Temperate Zones Ban/moru oak forest (1,500-2,750 m) Ban oak ( Quercus incana) or moru oak (Q. dilatata), at altitudes above 2,100 m, pre- dominate with Rhododendron arboreum often constituting a second storey. Elm ( Ulmus wal- Uchiana ), horsechestnut ( Aesculus indica), bird-cherry ( Prunus padus), hazel ( Corylus colurna ) and maple ( Acer spp.), which are absent from the lower altitudes, are often associated with moru oak. Common shrubs include Indigofera, Berberis, Rubus, Viburnum and, in the case of moru oak forests, bamboo ( T hamnocalamus spp. ) . Temperate Zone Karsu oak forest (2,500-3,300 m) Karsu oak (Q. semecarpifolia) is usually associated with a second storey of R. arbo- reum. Other tree species may include fir ( Abies pindrow), maple (A. caecium), Meliosma dilleniaefolia, rowan ( Sorbus Janata) and yew ( Taxus baccata ). The understorey is dominat- ed by impenetrable thickets of bamboo ( T . spathiflorus) wherever undisturbed. Common shrubs include Berberis, Cotoneaster, Rosa, Skimmea, Spiraea and Viburnum. Conifer forest (2,600-3,400 m) Fir (A. pindrow) is predominent and often restricted to northern and sheltered slopes. Rhododendron arboreum mixed with karsu oak comprise a second canopy. The under- storey is similar to that of karsu oak forest. 605 9 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Subalpine Zone Birch-rhododendron scrub forest (3,100-3,350 m) This forest type occurs above the conifer and oak forests and fringes the alpine meadows. Birch ( Betula utilis ), the characteristic species, is sparsely distributed and does not form a complete canopy. Prunus cornuta, Rhododen- dron arboreum, Sorbus foliolosa and Vibur- num foetens form a second storey. The under- storey is dominated by extensive evergreen stands of Rhododendron campanulatum, fre- quently intermingled with clumps of bamboo ( T . spathiflorus). Other common shrubs in- clude Cotoneaster, Rosa, Rubus and Spiraea. Alpine Zone Rhododendron scrub (3,350-3,500 m) Birch-rhododendron scrub forest grades into rhododendron scrub, chiefly R. campanulatum, above 3,350 m. Trees are absent but the com- position of the shrub layer is similar to that of birch-rhododendron scrub forest. Pasture (above 3,500 m) The herb community is often dominated by Danthonia cumminsii which forms tussocks of grass over extensive areas. Small shrubs such as Gaultheria nummularioides, G. trichophylla and Rhododendron lepidotum are also pre- sent. Forbs are predominant in the vicinity of former kharaks (settlements temporarily used by herdsmen and shepherds), particularly nitrophilous species such as Bistorta spp., Potentilla fulgens, and Selinum vaginatum. Large patches of forest within the tempe- rate and subalpine zones have been cleared, over many decades, primarily for pasture and also for fuelwood. The grassland communities are maintained by regular burning in early spring and grazed by livestock (goats, sheep and water buffalo) during the summer months. Also grass is cut for fodder in autumn. More widespread is the considerable depletion of the forest understorey, particularly in the tempe- rate zone. Bamboo and other resources that are valuable commodities are removed and subsequent grazing by livestock inhibits rege- neration of the shrub layer. Species accounts The following is an annotated preliminary list of birds found in the Kedamath Sanctuary. It is not comprehensive as many parts of the sanctuary were never visited. Moreover, some of the species that are difficult to identify in the field were undoubtedly overlooked. All records relate to the main study area unless a species was seen elsewhere, in which case all locations are given. Species not recorded by either Osmaston (1921), Lavkumar (1956) or Devillers (1976) are marked with an asterisk. The systematics and scientific nomenclature follow those of Ali and Ripley (1968-74); common names are taken from Fleming et al. (1976). The numbers in square brackets refer to the subspecies in Ali and Ripley. Informa- tion about seasonal status is based on Ali and Ripley, Fleming et al. and Inskipp and Inskipp (1985). Accipitridae IPernis ptilorhynchus Honey Buzzard [130] 3,290 m Resident Probably seen once. Usually not recorded above 1,800 m (Ali and Ripley 1968), although Inskipp and Inskipp (1985) recorded a pro- bable migrant at 3,050 m in May. 606 Plate l J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 Green: Kedarnath Sanctuary Above: The main study area lies at the southern edge of the Kedarnath Sanctuary, above the Mandal-Chopta Chatti Road (foreground). The peak (top left) is Chan- drasila (3,680 m.) Below: The Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus is fairly common in the sanctuary. {Photos: Author) BIRDS OF KEDARNATH SANCTUARY ? Milvus mi grans Dark Kite [134] 3,470 m Summer visitor Probably seen once, perched on cliffs at Rudranath. *Buteo sp. Buteo [154] 3,050-3,660 m Resident Fairly common, around oak-rhododendron forest and clearings. Dark patches on the carpels. The species is either buteo, hemilasius or rufinus, all of which are difficult to distin- guish in the field. One seen on 5 June dropped its nesting material after being divebombed by another (R. T. Sauey pers. comm.). Once, in November, one seen being mobbed by at least nine jungle crows. *Spizaetus nipalensis Mountain Hawk-eagle [158] 3,050 m Resident Scarce — seen once, perched on a rhododen- dron tree at the forest’s edge. Elsewhere not recorded above 2,835 m (Inskipp and Inskipp 1985). Aquila chrysaetos Golden Eagle [166] 2,130-3,350 m Resident Occasional, above open forest and cliffs. Locals report that it hunts Impeyan Pheasant. * Aquila nipalensis Steppe Eagle [169] 1,680-3,660 m Winter visitor Occasional, over open forest and cliffs. Ictinaetus malayensis Black Eagle [172] 3,200 m Resident Scarce — seen once, over forest. Torgos calvus Black Vulture [178] 1,370-2,290 m Resident Occasional, between Chopta Chatti and Okhi- math and in Madhyamaheshwar valley. Gyps himalayensis Himalayan Griffon Vulture [181] 1,680-3,660 m Resident Common, over forest and cliffs in the main study area and near Kedarnath. One of two roosting sites, situated 40 m apart on some cliffs, was occupied by 1700 h on 17 June. The occupant rested thereafter despite being ap- proached, at 1900 h, to within 15 m by maraud- ing langurs ( Presbytis entellus ). Gypaetus barbatus Bearded Vulture [188] 2,900-3,660 m Resident Fairly common, in the vicinity of cliffs in the main study area and at Kedarnath and Rudra- nath. A pair seen copulating repeatedly on 8 October while perched on some cliffs. Circus cyaneus Hen Harrier [189] 3,050-3,960 m Winter visitor and/or passage migrant Fairly common, above the tree line. Males and females seen singly, usually in autumn and once in spring. *Spilornis cheela Crested Serpent Eagle [196] 1,830 m Resident Probably occasional — seen once, between Chopta Chatti and Okhimath (R. T. Sauey pers. comm.). Falconidae *Falco sub buteo Eurasian Hobby [212] 3,350 m Winter visitor or resident Scarce — seen once, perched on a rock at the edge of oak-rhododendron forest. May well breed in the area, as in western Nepal (In- skipp and Inskipp 1985). Falco tinnunculus Eurasian Kestrel [222] 2,440-3,510 m Resident Common, in forest clearings and by cliffs. Phasianidae Lerwa lerwa Snow Partridge [227] 3,110-3,660 m Resident Fairly common, on rocky and grassy slopes. Coveys of 5-20 birds recorded in winter, from late November until early April. Summer months spent above 3,660 m. 607 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Tetraogallus himalayensis Himalayan Snowcock [232] 3,200 m Resident Scarce — seen once, when two were sighted on a grassy slope above the tree line. Francolinus francolinus Black Partridge [238] 1,830-1,950 m Resident Fairly common, in the understorey of oak- rhododendron forest. Arborophila torqueola Common Hill Partridge [267] 2,710-3,140 m Resident Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest. Covey of two males and three females seen on 9 February. Female with several chicks seen on 28 June. * Arborophila rufogularis Rufous-throated Hill Partridge [270] 2,930-3,050 m Resident Occasional, in oak-rhododendron forest amidst dense undergrowth. Previously not recorded above 2,400 m (Ali and Ripley 1969). Lophophorus impejanus Impeyan Preasant [290] 2,470-3,690 m Resident Common, in oak-rhododendron forest and on grassy slopes and cliffs above the tree line in the main study area, Kilpulbhadni, Madhya- maheshwar, Okhla Dhar, Rudranath and near Kedarnath. Two males observed fighting on 26 April. A nest with three eggs found under an overhanging rock on 27 April; a fourth egg laid by 28 April but the nest was sub- sequently deserted. A total of six females and 11-12 fledglings recorded in an area of about 1 km2 during the first week of July (A. D. Lelliott pers. comm.). Personal observations suggest that the density of the population in the main study area was at least ten pairs km-2. Lophura leucomelana Kalij Pheasant [293] 1,520-2600 m Resident Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest. Up to ten males and one female in May and eight males and six females in October record- ed along an approximately 8 km stretch of road between Mandal and Pangarbasa. Pucrasia macrolop ha Koklas Pheasant [305/6] 2,100-3,350 m Resident Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest and rhododendron scrub in the main study area, Kilpulbhadni and at Rudranath. Two males seen fighting in dense forest on 8 June (B. Breeden and R. T. Sauey pers. comm.). A female seen with six, possibly seven, fledgl- ings on 17 June; another seen with six fledgl- ings on 7 August. About five pairs km*2 in the main study area (Green unpublished data). Charadriidae Scolopax rusticola Woodcock [411] 3,050-3,380 m Summer visitor Occasional, in oak-rhododendron forest. Some- times seen ‘roding’ (see Ali and Ripley 1969) at dusk in June. COLUMBIDAE Columba leuconota Snow Pigeon [513] 2,800-3,050 m Resident Fairly common, around cliffs. Considerable seasonal altitudinal movement — a flock of about 30 birds descended to 2,830 m in con- secutive winters and roosted by some caves among cliffs. Streptopelia orient alis Rufous Turtle Dove [531] 2,800 m Resident Fairly common, on forest roads. PSITTACIDAE Psittacula himalayana Slatyheaded Parakeet [562] 1,680 m Resident Occasional, in flocks in oak-rhododendron forest. 608 BIRDS OF KEDARNATH SANCTUARY CUCULIDAE *Cuculus sparverioides Large Hawk-Cuckoo [572] 2,900-3,200 m Resident Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest. Previously not recorded above 2,900 m (Fleming et al 1976). Cuculus canorus Eurasian Cuckoo [578] 3.050- 3,660 m Summer visitor Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest. Cuculus saturatus Himalayan Cuckoo [580] 2,740-3,350 m Resident or summer visitor Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest. Calls were heard for the first time in 1981 on 19 March. One of a pair seen collecting grass on 18 April. Strigidae *Otus spilocephalus Spotted Scops Owl [611] 3.050- 3,200 m Resident Common, in oak-rhododendron forest. Could be heard throughout the night during summer. Previously not recorded above 2,745 m (Fleming et al 1976). *Strix aluco Tawny Wood Owl [662] 3,050 m Resident Common, in oak-rhododendron forest. Never seen but calls recognised by S. and B. Breeden and R. T. Sauey (pers. comm.). Capri mulgidae Caprimulgus indicus Jungle Nightjar [670] 3.050- 3,810 m Resident Fairly common, at edge of oak-rhododendron forest or rhododendron scrub. A previously unrecorded call heard at dusk on 10 May and 28 June at Bisuri Tal while seen flying low over rhododendron scrub. This call also re- corded by A.D. Lelliott (pers. comm.) who describes it as a series of 5-14 ‘chuck’ calls. crescending in the middle of the sequence and diminishing towards the end. The call lasts for about five seconds and is often accompani- ed by a ‘rushing of wind’ note that usually terminates very abruptly. This note has been described as the ‘whish-whish’ of the wings of a powerful bird in flight (Osmaston 1921). Previously not recorded above 3,300 m (Ali and Ripley 1970). Apodidae Collocalia brevirostris Edible Nest Swiftlet [683] 2,800-3,050 m Resident Fairly common, seen on several occasions above ridges (S. Breeden pers. comm.). Apus pacificus Large Whiterumped Swift [700] 3,050 m Resident Fairly common, above ridges. lApus affinis House Swift [703] 3,050 m Resident A probable sighting above cliffs by T. Milli- ken (pers. comm.). The species does not normally occur above 2,100 m (Inskipp and Inskipp 1985). Upupidae *Upupa epops Hoopoe [765] 1,830 m Resident Scarce — seen once, on a forest road. Capitonidae Megalaima virens Great Himalayan Barbet [777] 1,680-2,130 m Resident Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest (S. Breeden pers. comm.). PlCIDAE Picus squamatus Large Scalybellied Woodpecker [807] 2,180-3,220 m Resident 609 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest and rhododendron scrub. Seen once on the snow-free part of some cliffs above the tree line, where the surrounding slopes were com- pletely snow-covered. *Picus canus Blacknaped Woodpecker [809] 1,920-3,230 m Resident Common, in oak-rhododendron forest and clearings in the main study area and at Ansuya Devi. Often on the ground, sometimes with Laughing Thrushes and once with White- collared Blackbirds. Previously not recorded above 2,440 m (Fleming et al 1976). *Hypopicus hyperythrus Rufousbellied Sapsucker [833] 1 ,680-2,590 m Resident Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest. Dendrocopos himalayensis Himalayan Pied Woodpecker [837] 2,190-3,110 m Resident Common, in oak-rhododendron forest. While drilling a hole in an oak tree ( Quercus seme- car pi folia) on 10 April, a female hid behind the far side of the trunk whenever a Jungle Crow flew past. * Dendrocopos macei Fulvousbreasted Pied Woodpecker [845] 1.950-2,040 m Resident Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest. Hirundinidae Delichon urbica Eurasian House Martin [930/1] 3,260-3,630 m Summer visitor Occasional, in flocks above cliffs in the main study area and at Rudranath. Laniidae Lanius schach Rufousbacked Shrike [947] 1,680 m Resident Common, in open country around villages. Oriolidae Oriolus traillii Maroon Oriole [961] 2,300-3,030 m Resident Occasional, in oak-rhododendron forest. Pre- viously not recorded above 2,440 m (Fleming et al 1976). Dicrurus leucophaeus Ashy Drongo [965] 1.680- 2,040 m Resident Fairly common, in the vicinity of forest. Adults seen feeding fledglings on 4 June (S. Breeden, pers. comm.). Sturnidae Acridotheres tristis Common Myna [1006] 2,060 m Resident Common, around the temple at Ansuya Devi. * Acridotheres fuscus Jungle Myna [1009] 1.680- 1,830 m Resident Fairly common. Pairs nesting in a tree hollow and among rocks along a forested roadside on 4 June; one parent fed young with a skink (S. Breeden pers. comm.). Corvidae Garrulus glandarius Eurasian Jay [1020] 1,800-3,200 m Resident Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest in the main study area and at Ansuya Devi. Previously not recorded above 2,740 m (Flem- ing et al 1976). Garrulus lanceolatus Blackthroated Jay [1022] 1,830 m Resident Probably occasional — seen once, between Chopta Chatti and Okhimath (R.T. Sauey pers. comm.). Cissa flavirostris Yellowbilled Blue Magpie [1025] 1.680- 3,080 m Resident Common, in oak-rhododendron forest. Two fledglings seen learning to fly on 30 June. Seve- 610 BIRDS OF KEDARNATH SANCTUARY ral birds seen mobbing a Himalayan yellow- throated marten ( Maries flavigula) on 20 March. Dendrocitta formosae Himalayan Tree Pie [1037] 1.680- 1,830 m Resident Common, in cultivated fields and forest. Nucifraga caryocatactes Nutcracker [1043] 3,050 m Resident Scarce — seen once, in oak-rhododendron forest in the main study area (S. Breeden pers. comm.). Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax Redbilled Chough [1047] 3,140-3,510 m Resident Fairly common, among cliffs in the main study area and near Rudranath and Kedamath. Corv us macrorhynchos Jungle Crow [1054] 2,800-3,720 m Resident Common, in forest and above the tree line. Fledgling seen learning to fly on 2 June. Parents observed feeding two young with chapattis on 14 July. Once several birds seen repeatedly divebombing a male Impeyan Pheasant, which was feeding, but they did not mob its mate just 30 m away. Campephagidae Pericrocotus ethologus Longtailed Minivet [1085] 1.680- 3,200 m Resident Common, in oak-rhododendron forest. Pycnonotidae Pycnonotus leucogenys Whitecheeked Bulbul [1125] 1,680 m Resident Common, in oak-rhododendron forest. Pycnonotus cafer Redvented Bulbul [1131] 1,680 m Resident Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest in the main study area and at Ansuya Devi. Muscicapidae Pomatorhinus erythrogenys Rustycheeked Scimitar Babbler [1182] 2,040 m Resident Scarce — seen once, in secondary scrub bor- dering cultivated fields at Ansuya Devi. *Pnoepyga albiventer Scalybreasted Wren-Babbler [1197] 3 ,050-3 ,190 m Resident Occasional, in bamboo thickets. IStcichyris chrysaea Golden-headed Babbler [1212] 2,440 m Resident Probably seen once, in oak-rhododendron forest between Chopta Chatti and Okhimath (S. Breeden, pers. comm.). Previously not record- ed west of Central Nepal (Ali and Ripley 1971, Fleming et al. 1976). *Paradoxornis nipalensis Nepal Parrotbill [1239a] 3,000-3,150 m Resident Occasional, among rhododendron and bamboo thickets in oak forest. Previously not recorded above 3,000 m (Inskipp and Inskipp 1985). Garrulax albogularis Whitethroated Laughing Thrush [1273] 1.680- 2,440 m Resident Common, in oak-rhododendron forest and clearings. Seen in parties of up to 30 in the main study area and at Ansuya Devi. Garrulax striatus Striated Laughing Thrush [1279] 1.680- 3,260 m Resident Common, in oak-rhododendron forest. Consi- derable seasonal altitudinal movement — seen just below the snow line at 2,130 m on 12 January. Previously not recorded above 2,850 m (Inskipp and Inskipp 1985). Garrulax variegatus Variegated Laughing Thrush [1290] 2.800-3,280 m Resident 611 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Common, in oak-rhododendron forest in parties of up to five. *Garrulax ocellatus Whitespotted Laughing Thrush [1298] 2.900- 3,080 m Resident Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest. Garrulax lineatus Streaked Laughing Thrush [1314] 2.040- 3,230 m Resident Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest and clearings in the main study area and at Ansuya Devi. Garrulax erythrocephalus Redheaded Laughing Thrush [1324] 2.040- 3,290 m Resident Common, in oak-rhododendron forest in the main study area and in cultivated fields at Ansuya Devi. Minla strigula Barth roated Minla [1358] 3.050- 3,280 m Resident Common, among bamboo thickets in oak- rhododendron forest. Yuhina gularis Stripethroated Yuhina [1371/2] 2,350-3,290 m Resident Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest and birch-rhododendron scrub. Seen in parties of up to a dozen in the main study area and near Kedarnath. Alcippe vinipectus Whitebrowed Tit-Babbler [1380] 2.900- 3,570 m Resident Common, in scrub. Heterophasia capistrata Blackcapped Sibia [1396] 2,130-2,590 m Resident Common, in oak-rhododendron forest. Muscicapa sibirica Sooty Flycatcher [1406] 3.050- 3,200 m Summer visitor Fairly common, at the edge of clearings in oak- rhododendron forest in the main study area and at Kilpulbhadni. *Muscicapa strophiata Orangegorgetted Flycatcher [1414] 2,590-3,080 m Resident Common, in oak-rhododendron forest. *Muscicapa westermanni Little Pied Flycatcher [1419] 3,080-3,200 m Summer visitor Occasional, in oak-rhododendron forest. Pre- viously not recorded west of Nepal or above 3,000 m (Inskipp and Inskipp 1985). Muscicapa superciliaris Whitebrowed Blue Flycatcher [1421] 2,440-2,530 m Resident Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest and clearings. Muscicapa leucomelanura Slaty Blue Flycatcher [1423] 3,200 m Resident Occasional, close to the ground in bamboo thickets. * Muscicapa sundara Beautiful Niltava [1432] 1,680-3,200 m Resident Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest. Muscicapa thalassina Verditer Flycatcher [1445] 2,130-3,200 m Summer visitor Common, in tree tops at the edge of clearings in the main study area and “at Kilpulbhadni.” Culicicapa ceylonensis Greyheaded Flycatcher [1448] 1,950-3,050 m Summer visitor Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest. Rhipidura hypoxantha Yellowbellied Fantail Flycatcher [1450] 2,100-3,280 m Resident Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest. Cettia brunnifrons Rufouscapped Bush Warbler [1486] 2,040-3,350 m Resident Common, in rhododendron bushes and bamboo thickets. 612 BIRDS OF KEDARNATH SANCTUARY Bradypterus thoracicus Spotted Bush Warbler [1490] 3.110- 3,230 m Resident Common, in pastures. Three nests, lined with grass and feathers and containing 3-4 eggs, found 10-40 m apart in grass tussocks (A,D. Lelliott pers. comm.). Phyllo scopus inornatus Plain Leaf Warbler [1590] 3,050 m ?Summer visitor Probably common but seen only once by A.D. Lelliott (pers. comm.). *Phylloscopus maculipennis Greyfaced Leaf Warbler [1597/8] 3.110- 3,200 m Resident Fairly common, in open oak-rhododendron forest. *Phylloscopus magnirostris Largebilled Leaf Warbler [1601] 3,510 m ?Summer visitor Probably fairly common but seen only once, at Rudranath. Phylloscopus trochiloides Dull Green Leaf Warbler [1604] 3,350 m ?Summer visitor Probably fairly common but seen only once, in rhododendron scrub at Rudranath. * Phylloscopus reguloides Crowned Leaf Warbler [1609] 2,800-3,410 m Resident Common, in open oak-rhododendron forest and rhododendron scrub. A nest, containing four chicks with their eyes closed, found in a hole on a 45° slope on 29 May. A fifth chick lay dead outside the nest. One chick had its eyes open by 2 June. The chicks were last seen on 6 June and the nest was empty by 14 June. Siecercus burkii Yellow-eyed Warbler [1614/5] 2,990-3,410 m Summer visitor Fairly common, in rhododendron scrub. Seicercus xant hose hist os Greyheaded Warbler [1616] 3,110-3,630 m Resident Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest and above the tree line. Previously not re- corded above 2,700 m (Ali and Ripley 1973). *Seicercus poliogenys Greycheeked Warbler [1620] 3,110-3,260 m Resident Scarce, in rhododendron scrub. Previously not recorded west of Central Nepal or above 3,200 m (Inskipp and Inskipp 1985). *Brachypteryx stellata Gould’s Shortwing [1635] 3,540 m Resident Scarce — seen once, in rhododendron scrub at Rudranath. Erithacus cyanurus Orangeflanked Bush Robin [1654] 2,040-3,280 m Resident Common, in oak-rhododendron forest, rhodo- dendron scrub and clearings. Nest with at least two chicks discovered in a hole on a 45° grass slope on 30 May. It was subsequently found, on 17 June, strewn outside the hole with one unhatched egg (18x13 mm). Nest made of grass, lined inside with moss and the hairs of musk deer (2,762 hairs counted by S. Breeden). *Erithacus indicus Whitebrowed Bush Robin [1659] 3,110-3,350 m Resident Occasional, in oak-rhododendron forest and rhododendron scrub in the main study area and at Rudranath. Phoenicurus caeruleocephalus Blueheaded Redstart [1670] 2,440-3,200 m Resident Fairly common, in forest clearings and rhodo- dendron scrub. Phoenicurus frontalis Bluefronted Redstart [1675] 3,350-3,510 m Resident 613 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Fairly common, in open scrub. Male seen gathering food for young nesting in cliffs on 5 June (S. Breeden, pers. comm.). Rhyacornis fuliginosus Plumbeous Redstart [1679] 1,980-2,350 m Resident Occasional, by fast flowing streams. Seen along the Balasuti Nala, north of Mandal, and near Ansuya Devi. *Grandata coelicolor Grandala [1683] 3,960 m Resident Scarce — seen once, a pair on rocky slopes near Bisuri Tal on 8 June (S.M.C. Poulton pers. comm.). Enicurus scouleri Little Forktail [1684] 1.830- 3,280 m Resident Common, by streams in closed and open habitat. *Enicurus immaculatus Blackbacked Forktail [1685] 1.830- 2,130 m Resident Occasional, by streams in forest. Previously not recorded above 1,450 m (Ali and Ripley 1973). Enicurus maculatus Spotted Forktail [1688] 1.830- 3,050 m Resident Fairly common, by streams. Chaimarrornis leucocephalus Whitecapped River Chat [1716] 1.830- 3,510 m Resident Common, along fast flowing streams and rivers. Two pairs building nests on 5 June (S. Breeden pers. comm.). Flightless chicks in a nest on 6 July; two fledglings seen flying with adults on 7 July (A.D. Lelliott pers. comm.). Monticola cinclorhynchus Blueheaded Rock Thrush [1723] 3,110 m Summer visitor Scarce — seen once by R. T. Sauey (pers. comm.). Monticola rufiventris Chestnutbellied Rock Thrush [1724] 2,740-3,290 m Resident Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest and rhododendron scrub. Monticola solitarius Blue Rock Thrush [1726] 3,140-3,200 m Resident Scarce, near water in rhododendron scrub. Myiophonus caeruleus Whistling Thrush [1729] 1,830-3,350 m Resident Occasional, by rivulets in forest. *Zoothera dixoni Longtailed Mountain Thrush [1740] 3,440 m Resident Scarce — seen once by A. D. Lelliott (pers. comm.). Zoothera dauma Speckled Mountain Thrush [1741] 3,050 m Resident Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest. Zoothera monticola Large Longbilled Thrush [1745] 3,050-3.140 m Resident Scarce — seen once, near a rivulet in rhodo- dendron scrub. *T urdus unicolor Tickell’s Thrush [1748] 2,740 m Summer visitor Scarce — seen once, in oak-rhododendron forest. Turdus albocinctus Whitecollared Blackbird [1749] 2,040-3,350 m Resident Common, in oak-rhododendron forest and birch-rhododendron scrub in the main study area and at Rudranath and Ansuya Devi. Some seasonal altitudinal movement — a flock seen on the ground just below the snow line at 2,130 m on 12 January. Nest, lined with moss and containing two eggs, found in a tree hollow, 1.2 m above ground level (A. D. Lelliott pers. comm.). 614 BIRDS OF KEDARNATH SANCTUARY T urdus boulboul Greywinged Blackbird [1750] 2, 1 30-2, 1 90 m Resident Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest. *T. urdus merula Eurasian Blackbird [1752] 1.830- 3,460 m Resident Occasional, in oak-rhododendron forest in the main study area and between Rambara and Kedamath. T urdus rubrocanus Greyheaded Thrush [1758] 2,130 m Resident Scarce — seen once, amidst a flock of White- collared Blackbirds in oak-rhododendron forest. *T urdus ruficollis Blackthroated Thrush [1763] 3,230 m Winter visitor Occasional — seen once, a party of at least six in rhododendron scrub. T urdus viscivorus Mistle Thrush [1768] 2,740-3,170 m Resident Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest and forest clearings. Troglodytidae Troglodytes troglodytes Wren [1771] 2.830- 3,200 m Resident Occasional, in forest clearings and rhododen- dron scrub. Cinclidae Cinclus pallasii Brown Dipper [1775] 2.350-3,200 m Resident Occasional, along fast flowing streams and rivers. Prunellidae Prunella collaris Alpine Accentor [1778/9] 2,380-3,170 m Resident Fairly common, on cliffs and by the roadside. Seen below the tree line only in January and February. *Prunella himalayana Altai Accentor [1780] 3,310-3,440 m Winter visitor Occasional, in flocks on grassy slopes. Seen in the main study area only between late March and mid-May. Paridae Par us monticolus Greenbacked Tit [1799] 2,040-3,170 m Resident Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest in the main study area and at Ansuya Devi. Parus melanolophus Spotwinged Black Tit [1802] 2,800-3,140 m Resident Common, in oak-rhododendron forest. *Parus rubidiventris Rufousbreasted Black Tit [1805] 3,050-3,410 m Resident Common, in oak-rhododendron forest and rhododendron scrub. The presence of grey on the rufous breast and belly suggests a transi- tion form. Possibly the species hybridises with P. rufonuchalis (Simla Black Tit). *Parus dichrous Crested Brown Tit [1807/8] 2,830-3,170 m Resident Common, in oak-rhododendron forest. Parus xanthogenys Yellowcheeked Tit [1809] 1,680 m Resident Probably occasional — seen once by A. D. Lelliott (pers. comm.). Aegit halos concinnus Redheaded Tit [1818] 1,680-2,100 m Resident Fairly common, in scrub. Aegit halos niveogularis Whitethroated Tit [1822] 3,410 m Resident Occasional, a party of about a dozen seen in rhododendron scrub. SlTTIDAE Sitta himalayensis Whitetailed Nuthatch [1834] 3,050 m Resident 615 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest. Tichodroma muraria Wall Creeper [1839] 1,520-3,350 m Resident Occasional, on cliffs. A bird in summer plum- age, with a black throat, seen on 29 March. Certhiidae Certhia familiaris Northern Tree Creeper [1843] 2,590-3,050 m Resident Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest. Certhia nipalensis Nepal Tree Creeper [1851] 3.050- 3,140 m Resident Fairly common, in oak-rhododendron forest. Previously not recorded west of Nepal (In- skipp and Inskipp 1985). Motacillidae Anthus hodgsoni Hodgson’s Tree Pipit [1852/3] 2,800-3,310 m Resident Common, around forest clearings. Flies to tops of tree when disturbed and pumps its tail. Solitary individuals often seen in winter. Anthus roseatus Rosebreasted Pipit [1865] 3,200-3,660 m Summer visitor Fairly common, in pastures. Anthus sylvanus Upland Pipit [1873] 3,050 m Resident Probably occasional — seen once by A. D. Lelliott (pers. comm.). Motacilla caspica Grey Wagtail [1884] 1,830-2,740 m Summer visitor Occasional, on forest road in the main study area and river terraces near Kedarnath. Motacilla alba Pied Wagtail [1887] 3,510 m Summer visitor Scarce — seen once, near Kedarnath. Nectarxniidae * Aethopyga nipalensis Nepal Sunbird [1922] 3.050- 3,150 m Resident Occasional, in oak-rhododendron forest. * Aethopyga ignicauda Firetailed Sunbird [1930] 3.050- 3,470 m Resident Occasional, in oak-rhododendron forest. A male seen feeding from Rhododendron arbo- reum flowers on 29 March. Ploceidae Passer domesticus House Sparrow [1939] 1,680 m Resident Common, around villages. Fringillidae Mycerobas affinis Allied Grosbeak [1983] 2,900-3,140 m Resident Occasional, in oak-rhododendron forest in the main study area and at Kilpulbhadni. Carduelis carduelis Eurasian Goldfinch [1989] 1,520-3,290 m Resident Fairly common, seen on several occasions by A. D. Lelliott (pers. comm.). Leucosticte nemoricola Hodgson’s Mountain Finch [2000] 2,040-3,350 m Resident Occasional, on grassy slopes in the main study area. Flock of about 100 seen at Ansuya Devi. ^Carpodacus nipalensis Nepal Rosefinch [2014/5] 3.050- 3,350 m Resident Fairly common, in open scrub and pastures. Carpodacus rhodochrous Pinkbrowed Rosefinch [2017] 3,350 m Resident Occasional, in rhododendron scrub. Males seen singly, or in twos, and females in parties of up to a dozen at Rudranath on 21 June. * Carpodacus thura Whit eb rowed Rosefinch [2020/1] 3,050 m Resident Occasional, in pastures. 616 BIRDS OF KEDARNATH SANCTUARY Carpodacus puniceus Redbreasted Rosefiiich [2030] 3.170- 3,200 m Resident Occasional, in open scrub. *Haematospiza sipahi Scarlet Finch [2034] 3,000 m Resident Scarce — a pair seen once, in the tops of a fir ( Abies pindrow). Pyrrhula erythrocephala Redheaded Bullfinch [2039] 3.170- 3,510 m Resident Fairly common, in birch-rhododendron scrub in the main study area and near Kedarnath. Emberizidae Emberiza cia Rock Bunting [2052] 1,980-2,440 m Resident Common, in forest clearings. Melophus Iathami Crested Bunting [2060] 1,680 m Resident Common, in cultivated fields. Acknowledgements Stanley and Belinda Breeden, Tony Lelliott and Ron Sauey kindly contributed informa- tion on a number of species. I am also very grateful to Stanley Breeden, Tim Inskipp, Tony Lelliott and Derek Lees-Smith for com- menting on earlier drafts of the manuscript. Table 1 Weights (kg) AND MEASUREMENTS (cm) of GAME BIRDS CAUGHT IN BOX TRAPS IN THE MAIN STUDY AREA Species Date Age Sex Weight Wing Tail Bill Tarsus, middle toe and claw Lophophorus 3.7.81 Ad. M* 2.3 30 23 4.8 15.2 cm impejanus 27.8.81 1mm. 0.8 31 — 3.8 12.5 cm Arborophila torqueola 13.6.81 Ad. M 14 4 2.5 11.0 cm Scolopax rusticola 21.6.81 Ad. — 18 5-6 7.5 8.7 cm * Crest measured 8.6 cm. References Agrawala, N. K. (1973): Working plan for the Kedarnath Forest Division 1972-73 to 1981-82. Work- ing Plans Circle, Naini Tal, Uttar Pradesh. Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1968-74): Handbook of the birds of Indi^i and Pakistan. 10 volumes. Oxford University Press, Bombay. Champion, H. G. & Seth, S. K. (1968): A re- vised survey of the forest types of India. Govern- ment of India, New Delhi. Devillers, P. (1976) : Observations ornitholo- giques de pr intemps au Garhwal, Himalaya Indien. Gerfaut 66: 221-249. Fleming, R. L. Sr., Fleming, R. L. Jr. & Bang- del, L. S. (1976) : Birds of Nepal with reference to Kashmir and Sikkim. R. L. Fleming Sr. and Jr., Kathmandu. Green, M. J. B. (1985) : Aspects of the ecology of the Himalayan musk deer. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Cambridge. Inskipp, C. & Inskipp, T. (1985): A guide to the birds of Nepal. Croom Helm, Beckenham, Kent. Lavkumar, K. S. (1956): A contribution to the ornithology of Garhwal. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 315-329. Mani, A. (1981) : The climate of the Himalaya. In: The Himalaya: aspects of change, ed. J. S. Lall in association with A. D. Moddie, pp. 3-15. Oxford University Press, Delhi. Osmaston, A. E. (1921): A note on the nidifi- cation and habits of some birds in British Garhwal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 28: 140-160. 617 TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE MARINE OSTRACODA FROM INDIA. FAMILY: LEPTOCYTHERIDAE HANAI, 19571 C. Annapurna and D. V. Rama Sarma2 (With five plates) Introduction Although several publications are available on the systematics and ecology of benthic ostracods from other countries, there is no comprehensive work either on taxonomy or ecology of marine and estuarine ostracods from India. Some information is available on the systematics of ostracods from the Miocene, Pliocene and Holocene sediments. While investigating the systematics and ecology of benthic ostracods, 40 species be- longing to 27 genera and 14 families were identified from the marginal marine environ- ments namely Bimili backwaters (17°54'N, 83°28'E), Balacheruvu tidal stream (17°39'N, 83°15'E) and Vasishta Godavari estuary (16°18'N, 81°42'E). Among the members of the family Lepto- cytheridae Hanai, 1957, Leptocy there andhra ensis, Tanella estuarii and T. kingmai are new to science, Callistocy there sp. aff. C. crispata is found to be the first record from Indian waters. T. vasishta Annapurna & Rama Sarma 1979 and T. indica Annapurna & Rama Sarma 1979 were described earlier from the lower reaches of the Vasishta Godavari estuary and the marginal water bodies on the east coast 1 Accepted March 1984. 2 Department of Zoology, Andhra University, Waltair 530 003, India. of India (Annapurna & Rama Sarma, 1979a; 1979b) Material and Methods Regular sampling of the bottom sediments was made at monthly intervals with a core- device developed by Phleger (1960). The material was strained through a large sieve of 250 microns mesh size. The material was carefully washed and the rolled up sediment was gently broken up into fine sediment fractions with a brush. After the fine sediment was thus washed away, the specimens were transferred to a counting dish. The material was examined under a stereo binocular micro- scope and the forms were picked up with a double zero brush. After establishing their identity, the total number was counted and categorised as living and dead. The adults were dissected under glycerine and the appen- dages were sketched under camera lucida. The shells were mounted on microfossil slides. Results and Discussion 1. Genus Leptocythere Sars, 1928 Key for identification 1 . Carapace elongated and subquadrangular and smooth L. pellucida 2. Carapace oblong and subreniform, surface orna- mented with closely indistinct pits . . L. macallana 3. Carapace oval and quadrangular and marked with closely set, sharply defined, round, pits... L. castanea 618 j. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 Annapurna & Rama Sarma: Marine Ostracoda A. Leptocythere andhraensis — exterior view of complete shell; B. Callistocythere sp. aff. C. crispata — exterior view of complete shell; C.Tane/la estuarii — dorsal view of carapace; D. Tanella kingmai — exterior view of carapace. TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON MARINE OSTRACODA 4. Carapace narrow, elongated and ornamented with few tubercles L. tenera 5. Carapace oval and subreniform and ornamented with elevated ridges L. crispata 6. Carapace oblong, elongated carapace, ornament- ed with dense pits L. andhraensis Leptocy there andhraensis sp. nov. (Plate 1,A; Plate 2, A & B; Plate 3, 1-9) Carapace oblong and moderately elongated, compressed laterally. Anterior end broadly rounded, posterior end truncated above, round- ed below. Surface ornamented with dense pits. Hinge in the right valve antimerodont type; posterior sockets crenulate with crenulation of median hinge bar. The median hinge bar strongly crenulated in the left valve. Inner lamella wider anteriorly and narrower poste- riorly and posteroventrally. Marginal pore canals straight and simple. Dorsal and ventral margins straight. Normal pores moderate in number and small. Central muscle scars in a vertical row of four and V-shaped frontal scar. Eye spot absent, left valve slightly larger than right. Length : 0.57 mm; Height : 0.27 mm. Antennule 3 -jointed, ultimate podomere narrow and elongated and bears five claw-like setae. First claw-like seta divided into two setae. Antenna 3 -jointed, penultimate podomere con- sists of slender setae; ultimate podomere with two pairs of claw-like setae. Spinneret seta 2- jointed, reaching the distal ends of claws. Mandible consists of one pair of long and three pairs of short teeth; mandibular palp 3 - segmented and ends with five slender setae. Maxilla with masticatory lobes narrow and elongated and bears three elongated claw-like setae and five small setae. Vibratory plate wide with 13 unfeathered elongated rays. Thoracic legs 4-jointed ending with curved claws. Distal ends of each podomere with 1 to 3 setae. Palp- like structure developed on the first thoracic leg. Remarks'. In hingement, marginal pore canals and muscles scars L. andhraensis re- sembles L. pellucida, L. macallana, L. casta - nea, L. tenera and L, crispata. This species differs from the above species in (oblong and elongate) shape and densely pitted ornamenta- tion. In the antennule, each claw-like seta is divided into two. Type-locality : Bimili backwaters on the east coast of India. Type-specimens : Holotype and two para- types are deposited in the Museum of Zoolo- gical Survey of India, Calcutta, India. Occurrence : Bimili backwaters and Vasishta Godavari estuary. The species is named after Andhra Pradesh, the state in which both the localities are situated. 2. Genus Callistocy there Ruggieri, 1953 Callistocythere sp. aff. C. crispata (Brady, 1868) (Plate 1, B) Cythere crispata Brady, 1868, pp. 72-73, pi. xiv, figs. 8a-d. Shape elongated to subquadrangular; com- pressed laterally. Maximum height generally equal to half the length at the anterior end. Valves heavily calcified. Dorsal margin nearly straight. Posterodorsal cardinal angle promi- nent. Anterior end more broadly rounded than the posterior one. Ventral margin sinuous in the anterior half. Ornamentation strongly reti- culate. Anterior and posterior marginal ridges well developed. Antero-ventral marginal and postero-ventral denticulation clear. Hinge amphidont/archidont type. Inner lamella wide in anterior and postero-ventral area. Line of concrescence almost coincides with the inner margins; anterior vestibulum poorly develop- ed; selvage near and parallel to outer margin 619 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 83 but in the posterior part often considerably removed removed from it. The left valve has a selvage-like ridge with a ‘snap-pit on its outer side, situated at the sinuous margin, corresponds to ‘snap-knob’ in the right valve. Marginal pore canals less numerous, most wide at the base, typically branching. Normal pores moderate in number and open. A row of four adductor scars and one fulcral point present. Eye spot very weak. Left valve larger than right. Length: 0.51 mm; Height: 0.34 mm. Occurrence : Bimili backwaters; Balacheruvu tidal stream; Vasishta Godavari estuary. 3. Genus Tanella Kingma, 1948 Key for identification 1 . Shape of carapace elongate and narrow 3, 6 2. Carapace oblong and tumid 7 3. Hexagonal network with a prominent ridge 9 4. Reticulated, longitudinal ridges strong and arched 1 1 5. Pits separate and limited in number T. estuarii 6. Pits in clusters and innumerable T. kingmai 7. Posterior reticulation clear with 4 to 5 pits T. miurensis 8. Posterior reticulation obscure with 3 to 6 pits arranged in groups 13 9. Socket in right valve crenulate 12 10. Socket in right valve smooth 11,13 1 1 . Marginal pore canals polyfurcate T. gracilis 12. Marginal pore canals bifurcate T. vasishta 13. Marginal pore canals intermediate between polyfurcate and bifurcate branching T. indica 3a. Tanella estuarii sp. nov. (Plate 1, C; Plate 2, C&D; Plate 4, 1-10) Carapace thin oblong and tumid in outline. Anterior margin obliquely rounded. Dorsal mar- gin nearly straight inclined towards the poste- rior. Ventral margin straight sinuous at the ante- rior end. Posterior end truncated above and rounded below. Surface sculptured by strong vertical ridges at anterior and posterior ends. Pits arranged in rows. Anterior marginal ridges strong beginning at anterior cardinal angle and ending in anteroventral area. Poste- rior marginal ridges strong, beginning in poste- rior part of dorsal margin and extending to postero-ventral area and become straight and run parallel to ventral margin to ventral sinuous area. Hinge structure and adductor scars same as in type genus. Viewed from above, carapace ovate; with anterior and pos- terior marginal ridges projecting. Sexual dimor- phism very strong. Male form more elongated than female. Posterior end broad in female for keeping eggs in brood cavity. Length : 0.33 mm; Height : 0.17 mm. Antennule 4-jointed, first two podomeres as long as the remaining two podomeres. Third podomere with dorsal claw-like setae and ulti- mate podomere with three stout distal claws. Antenna 4-jointed, second podomere twice the length of third podomere. Third podomere bears two setae on either side. The ultimate podomere consists of one seta at the anterior side and ends with two stout distal claws. Mandible with three serrate teeth laterally placed on cutting area. Mandibular palp 4- segmented. The first segment bulbous, second segment more elongated than the remaining one. Third segment bears two elongate setae. Fourth segment ends with five strong claws. Maxilla with three narrow masticatory lobes, the basal part slightly curved, terminate down- wards in three short cylindrical rows. Jointed masticatory process and palp built of two podo- meres. The masticatory process ends with setae. The exopodite well developed in the maxilla as a branchial plate or vibratory plate bearing 11 unfeathered rays. In thoracic legs, endopo- dite well developed protopodite 3-segmented ends with curved claws. Third thoracic leg directed downwards. Paired furcae attached to 620 J. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. 83 PLATE 2 Annapurna & Rama Sarma: Marine Ostracoda U-J A. leptocythere andhraensis— interior view of right valve; B. Leptocythere andhraensis— interior view of left valve; C. Tanella estuarii— interior view of right valve; D. Tanella estuarii— interior view of left valve; E. Tanella kingmai — interior view of right valve; F. Tanella kingmai — interior view of left valve. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 83 Annapurna & Rama Sarma: Marine Ostracoda U 01 MM Leptocythere andheraensis 1. antennule; 2. antenna; 3. mandible; 4. mandibular palp; 5. maxilla- 6 thoracic leg; 8. third thoracic leg; 9. genital organ. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 Annapurna & Rama Sarma: Marine Ostracoda Plate 4 Tanella estuarii 1. antennule; 2. antenna; 3. mandible with palp; 4. maxilla; 5. vibratory plate; 6. first thoracic leg; 7. second thoracic leg; 8. third thoracic leg; 9. masticatory lobe of maxilla; 10. furcae. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 Annapurna & Rama Sarma: Marine Ostracoda Plate 5 thoracic leg; 8. third thoracic leg; 9. genital organ. O -1 mm TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON MARINE OSTRACODA the posteroventral end of the body and un- segmented. Remarks : In the shape of carapace, margi- nal area and in the arrangement of muscle scars T. estuarii resembles T. gracilis and T. vasishta. It differs from T. vasishta in poly- furcate branching of marginal pore canals. T. estuarii differs from T. miurensis and T. indica in the shape of the carapace and surface sculptured with pits, separate and limited in number. Type-locality : Vasishta Godaviri estuary on the east coast of India. Type-specimens : Holotype and three para- types are deposited in the Museum of Zoolo- gical Survey of India, Calcutta, India. Occurrence : Bimili backwaters, Balacheruvu tidal stream and Vasishta Godavari estuary. This species is named after the type-locality. 3b. Tanella kingmai sp. nov. (Plate 1, D; Plate 2, E & F; Plate 5, 1-9). Carapace narrow and elongate; highest at anterior cardinal angle, anterior margin turn- ing downwards and rounded. Dorsal margin straight showing concavity in the centre. Poste- rior and truncated above, narrowly rounded below. Anterior marginal ridges strong begin- ning at cardinal angle and ends in antero- ventral region. Carapace sculptured by deep pits. Pits arranged in pairs in the centre at anterior end in rows. Hinge structure same as in type genus. Muscle scars 4, adductor scars in a vertical row. Furcal muscle scars not clear. Marginal pore canals same as in type genus. Sexual dimorphism clear. Length: 0.42 mm; Height: 0.18 mm. Antennule 4-jointed, first two podomeres as long as remaining podomeres. Penultimate podomere with single seta and ultimate podo- mere with 3 claw-like setae and 4 slender setae; third podomere with two claw-like setae and one slender seta. Exopodite 2-jointed not reaching ends of distal claws. Mandible with three serrate teeth placed laterally on cutting edge. Mandibular palp 3-segmented; first seg- ment bulbous, last segment with one claw-like seta and six slender setae. In maxilla, masti- catory lobe short and ends with setae, vibratory plate with 11 unfeathered rays. Thoracic legs same as that of type species. Remarks : In the shape of the carapace, marginal area, marginal pore canals and arrangement of muscle scars T. kingmai re- sembles T. gracilis, T. vasishta and T. estuarii. It differs from T. indica, T. miurensis in the body shape. It differs from T. estuarii by the surface of the carapace being sculptured with pits, pits arranged in clusters and are innume- rable. Postero-dorsal region is tilted upwards characteristically. Type-locality : Bimili backwaters, on the east coast of India. Type-specimens : Holotype and three para- types are deposited in the Museum of Zoolo- gical Survey of India, Calcutta, India. Occurrence : Bimili backwaters, Balacheruvu tidal stream and Vasishta Godavari estuary. This species is named after Dr. J. Th. Kingma, in appreciation of his excellent work. Summary Distinguishing characters relating to carapace and soft parts of three new ostracode species, namely Leptocy there andhraensis, Tanella estuarii and T. kingmai inhabiting the shallow backwaters of Bimili, Balacheruvu tidal stream and Vasishta Godavari estuary, on the east coast of India are described. The description of Callistocythere sp. aff. C. crispata which is recorded for the first time from the Indian waters is also given. 621 10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 83 Ack NOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks are due to the Head of the Depart- ment of Zoology of Andhra University for facilities, to Prof. M. Subba Rao, Geology Department for his interest and encouragement in the study and to Dr. S. V. Darvasula, Refei Hanai, T. (1957): Studies on the Ostracoda from Japan. 1. Sub-family Leptocytherinae n. sub-fam. J. Fac. Sci. Univ. Tokyo, Section II, 10: 431-438. Annapurna, C. & Rama Sarma, D. V. (1979a): Occurrence of a new podocopan ostracode Tanella vasishta in the Vasishta Godavari estuary. Curr. Sci., 48: 42-43. Annapurna, C. & Rama Sarma, D. V. (1979b): Occurrence of a podocopan ostracode Tanella indica sp. nov. in the marginal water bodies on the east coast of India. Indian J. Mar. Sci., 8: 117-118. Phleger, F. B. (1960): Ecology and Distribu- tion of Recent Foraminifera. Johns Hopkins Press, Bedford Institute of Oceanography, Dartmouth, Canada for providing us with Scanning Elec- tron Micrographs. The willing co-operation of Mr. M. Ananda Rao, Geology department in the identification of the species is thankfully acknowledged. One of us (CA) is grateful to the C.S.I.R. for financial assistance. EN CES Baltimore, 297 pp. Sars, G. O. (1922-1928): An Account of the Crustacea of Norway. Vols. 1-9: Ostracoda, 277 pp. *Ruggieri, G. (1953) : Etae e faune di un terrazzo marine sulla costa ionica della Calabria. Giorn. Geol. Scr., 2A, 23: 19-168. Brady, G. S. (1968) : A monograph of the Recent British Ostracoda. Trans. Linnean Soc., 26: 353-495. Kingma, J. Th. (1948): Contributions to the knowledge of the young Caenozoic Ostracoda from the Malayan region. Doctoral thesis, Univ. Utrecht. 119 pp. * Not referred to in original. 622 FOSSIL BIRD EGG SHELL FRAGMENTS FROM KAREWAS OF KASHMIR VALLEY (J&K), INDIA: A SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE STUDY1 Ashok Sahni, V. J. Gupta, Bhuvan Prakash2 and B. S. Kotlia3 {With a plate and two text-figures) The present discovery of avian fossil egg shell fragments from the Plio-Pleistocene Karewa lake sediments is the only documented such find in India, Fossil bird egg shells, varying in thickness from 0.2 to 0.35 mm, have been discovered from two sites namely Kilar and Sombur (Karewa Group), Kashmir Valley and have been studied by scanning electron microscopy. The sediments, exposed near Kilar, con- stituting the Lower Karewa Formation, are about 1.8 m.y. to 1.6 m.y. in age. The ossiferous horizon at Sombur which has yielded bird egg shell fragments together with several remains of Elephas hysudricus, is younger than 0.73 m.y. The egg shell structure is well calcified, primatic with a smooth external surface having isolated circular pores. The mammillae are of variable size and range in diameter from 0.03 to 0.04 mm. The presence of fossil egg shells in the Karewa deposits has been attributed to birds on the basis of morphological similarities to egg shell structure of recent birds. The only group to which the Kashmir egg shells resemble are gekkonids. However, reptiles are poorly represented, the fauna being dominated by elephants, deer, horses, microtine, murid rodents, shrew-like insectivores and cyprinid fishes. Introduction The present paper deals with the discovery of fossil egg shell fragments from near Kilar and Sombur (Kashmir Valley), constituting the Lower and Upper Karewa respectively (Kotlia 1985). The fossil record of birds in India is rather poor as compared to the other vertebrates. Because of their light weight and delicate skeletal structure, bones are easily decomposed before the process of fossilization starts. 1 Accepted October 1985. 2 Centre of Advanced Study in Geology, Panjab University, Chandigarh. 3 Physical Research Laboratory, Navrangpura, Ahmedabad. The egg shell of different reptiles and birds have specific microstructure (Sochava 1969, 1970 and 1971; Hirsch 1979, 1983, 1985). The hard calcareous egg shell is characteristic of birds whereas a soft parchment-like egg shell is produced by most reptiles (Hirsch 1979). On the basis of their internal structure, egg shells have been divided into two types, single layered (testudoid) and double layered (orni- thoid). The double layered egg shells in turn can be subdivided into two types namely angusticanalicular and prolatocanalicular, de- pending upon the shape of the aeration canals running through the spongy layer. An angusti- canalicular type egg shell is observed in modern birds (Sochava 1969) where aeration 623 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 canals are narrow and have constant width. In prolatocanalicular shells, aeration canals vary greatly in transverse section. Turtles and crocodiles have testudoid type egg shell. In avian egg shells the basic units (spheroliths) are slender columns arising from the relative- ly narrow mammillary layer (cone layer). Spheroliths are usually wedge shaped in croco- diles and turtles (Fig. 1) (Hirsch 1985). rocks (Lydekker 1984, Sahni, in press). The fossil birds so far recovered from the Siwaliks are mostly aquatic except for the remains of some large terrestrial flightless birds. The re- mains of aquatic birds (herons, pelicans) are best preserved in sediments in sites around their natural habitat for example lakes, rivers and along coastal areas. Hence, this group is relatively better represented as fossils. Though -cl I I I L- c. d Fig. 1. Comparative structural features of egg shell in (a) Chelonia, (b) Crocodilia, (c) Dinosauria, (d) Aves (after Hirsch 1979, Erben 1970). Abbreviations cl — cone layer; eisp — eisosphertite; exsp — mammillary layer; psp — primary spherite; zsp — zone of spherite. Dinosaurian egg shells are closest to those of birds in structure and have similar correspond- ing basic units to those found in bird egg shells (Fig. 1) (Sochava 1970). Dinosaur egg shells, about 75 to 65 million years in age have re- cently been described from Jabalpur (Sahni and Gupta 1982). Nagpur and other regionally adjacent localities (Sahni et al 1984, Jain and Sahni 1985). Fossil avifauna from the Indian subconti- nent is known from the Siwalik Group of exospherite; extz — external zone; ml — spl — spongy layer; teg — tegmentum; very little is known about the fossil record of birds, earlier descriptions of Siwalik birds are known from the notes of Capt. Hugh Falconer and Gen. Sir S. W. Baker. Later, the collec- tion of Falconer and Cautley were published by Lydekker in 1879. Lydekker (1884) re- ported a number of birds from the Siwalik Group rocks. His scheme of classification was somewhat incomplete again due to the lack of most of the diagnostic characters and was limited to fragmentary limb bones and verte- 624 FOSSIL BIRD EGG SHELL brae. Siwalik birds were reviewed recently by Sahni (in press). The main birds from the Siwaliks are: Pelicanus cautleyi, P. sivalensis, Phalacrocorctx, Leptoptilus, Argola, Mergus, Strut hio asiaticus and Dromaeus (?) sivalensis. Pelicanus cautleyi and P. sivalensis are re- cognized by the distal extremity of the ulna which is smaller than in the existing Indian and African P. mi t rat us. Later, De Terra and Paterson (1939) carried out considerable and comprehensive field work in the Karewas and reported the remains of birds along with the remains of Elephas hysudricus and a number of bones of artiodactyls mammals from ‘Sombur Bone Bed’. More recently, Tripathi and Chandra (1962), on the basis of skeletal elements also reported birds (but did not illustrate or describe these) from the Lower Karewa deposits, exposed at Nichahoma and Tsrar Sherif. The remains of the struthious birds are relatively more common because of the more robust nature of their bones (Lyde- kker 1884). Ostrich egg shells at some archaeological sites in western India are also known (H. D. Sankalia, pers. comm.). Locality and stratigraphic position The Valley of Kashmir is symmetrically oriented about the northwest syntaxis and is an intermontane basin developed within the southern Himalayan Schuppenstruktur. It has accumulated about 1225 m of Plio- Pleistocene synorogenic sediments (deltaic, lacustrine, fluvio-glacial). These sediments lie unconformably over the Panjal Trap and Triassic Limestone. On the basis of different lithologies, Karewas have been divided into three structural units i.e.. Lower and upper Karewa Formations and Loess deposits (Bhatt 1979, Agrawal et al. 1979). The developmental history of the intermontane basin of Kashmir, based on geological and palaeomagnetic studies have shown that Karewa sedimentation had been initiated by about 4.0 m.y. ago (Burbank and Johnson 1982, Kusumgar et al 1985a, b). Since then, lacustrine and glacio-fluvial sedi- ments dominating the Karewa sequence have preserved a large number of megavertebrates (Badam 1979, Sahni 1982, Kotlia et al. 1982. Kotlia 1985) as well as microvertebrate and micromammals (Sahni and Kotlia 1983, 1985; Kotlia 1985). Fossil bird egg shell fragments have been recovered from two localities, Kilar and Som- bur, constituting the Lower Karewas and Upper Karewa respectively. Kilar section (33°48'03"N, 74°75'53"E), the lateral exten- sion of the Romushi Karewa sediments, is exposed along Birnai Nala between Kilar and Lasidaban villages (Fig. 2A, B), 60 km SW of Srinagar. The section is considered to be lithologically equivalent to part of the Romushi section exposed below Aglar Conglomerate and is ascribed to the same formation as the conglomerate horizon exposed at the top of the Kilar section which has been physically traced to Aglar village where it constitutes a well organised conglomeratic bed (Kotlia 1985): Kilar section comprises a compact and bluish mudstone sequence interlayered by fine grained sandstone layers showing wave built structures. The bluish lenticular sand bodies are associated with finely laminated yellowish rhythmite layers showing wave ripples. The sediments, specially in the middle part of the section are rather disturbed and not continu- ously exposed. The upper part of Kilar section is a mudstone-sandstone succession dominated by compact and bluish mudstone with thin and thick sandstone alternations. The mud- stone dominant succession contains abundant gastropod shells at the base otherwise it shows faint laminations. Detailed lithostratigraphy of 625 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 83 MUD STONE [l-Z-ll SANDY MUDSTONE RHYTHMITE SANDSTONE SILTY MUDSTONE YELLOW SILT «. CLAY LIGNITE QjHT] GASTROPOD SHELLS BRECCIA \» 31000 and 18000 year B. P. respectively (Agrawal et al. 1979). Age of ossiferous horizons Based on the magnetic measurements (Kusumgar et al 1985a, b; Kotlia 1985), Kilar sediments, yielding the egg shell fragments fall well within the Olduvai Event (1.8 m.y. to 1 . 6 m.y.), whereas Sombur sediments fall within the Brunhes magnetic epoch, hence are younger than 0.73 m.y. Systematics Scanning electron microscopy has confirmed the structure of these egg shells. Because of the isolated, assorted nature of the egg shell fragments, it is not possible to definitely relate the egg shells to any particular bird genus. There appear at least two different types of egg shells judging from the different thickness 627 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 of the shells. Their ultrastructure, however, is fairly similar and presently no further light can be thrown on the taxonomic affinities of these two egg shell types. It is speculated, given the palaeoenvironmental conditions, that the eggs may have belonged to aquatic birds. Such birds have been reported earlier by Lydekker (1884). The other group of vertebrates which have a rigid calcareous egg shells and which are found in Karewa sediments (albeit rarely) are gekkonid lizards. Little is known about the ultrastructure of gekkonid shells and so pre- sently the shell fragments are being referred to birds. At present, there is no fossil record in the Kashmir Karewa of turtles, crocodiles and snakes some of which have rigid calca- reous shells. The shell fragments are represented by about fifteen specimens less than a square mm in size. Nearly all the specimens exhibit a smooth surface exposed above the spheroidal surface of the shell (Plate 1, Figs. 1, 5). The thickness of shell varies from 0.2 to 0.35 mm. The shells have simple isolated spherical nodes sometimes showing elongation and extended nodes which coalesce together to form ridges. Fig. 1 (Plate 1) displays simple as well as spherical nodes rising from the delicately sculptured surface having sparse and indistinct pore openings. On the smooth external sur- face, the presence of minute pores can be observed (Plate 1, Fig. 1). External pores are not depressed into the surface but rather the edge of each orifice is nearly flat. The openings are generally circular but may be subcircular with the deviations being arcuate expansions of a circle rather than subcircular restrictions. Study of the transverse sections of egg shells under light microscope shows the retention of the spherolith structure. Because of the spongy nature of the prismatic layer, spheroliths are not clear (Plate 1, Fig. 4) but boundaries of individual units are easily discernible. Dughi and Sirugue (1976) also stressed the presence of the spongy nature of the prismatic layer in avian egg shell which is supposedly absent in reptilian egg shells. The internal surface shows well developed mammillary knobs with a coarse and irregu- lar appearance of the mammillary layer. The mammillary knobs have well developed and radial spicular calcite/ aragonite. The mammi- llae are of variable size and range in diameter from 0.03 to 0.04 mm. Some specimens (Plate 1, Figs. 2, 3) show distinct resorption craters. Resorption craters in these egg shells indicate that the embryo developed absorbing and leach- ing out the calcium minerals of the outer shell. The mammillae, normally appear as subround- ed cones and are loosely associated, allowing for an inter-mammillary ventilation system. In longitudinal sectional view, the individual spheroliths are not very distinct (Plate 1, Figs. 5, 6). The mammillary layer is restricted somewhat internally. The greater part consists of the spongy or prismatic layer. The external layer is not well defined. Under electron microscope, spheroliths are clear and aeration canals extend from inner or papillary layer to the external surface (Plate 1, Figs. 5, 6). Aeration canals have been described by Erben (1970) for Strut hio and Rhea bird egg shells. In the specimens (Plate 1, Figs. 2, 3) aera- tion canals are very prominent part of the structure. They seem to radiate out from the mammillae extending towards the external surface. They are not traceable within spongy or prismatic layer (Plate 1, Figs. 4, 5) though their extension can be observed on the shell surface. These aeration canals transmit oxygen required for breathing of the embryo (Sochava 1970). All specimens examined by scanning elec- tron microscopy, show all the structures of an 628 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 Sahni et al. : Bird Egg shell Plate l FOSSIL BIRD EGG SHELL 1. External surface view showing pores; 2. Mamillary surface showing resorption craters with aeration canals; 3. Enlarged view of single mammillae showing aeration canals having constant width; 4. Longi- tudinal section showing two distinct spheroliths;. 5. Longitudinal section showing mammillae and spongy layer; 6. Enlarged view of single mammillae showing mammillae and spongy layer. Abbreviations ac, aeration canal; p, pores; si, spongy layer. FOSSIL BIRD EGG SHELL avian egg as also indicated by Thaler (1965) in his identification of the fundamental diffe- rence between eggs of birds and dinosaurs. Thaler (1965) separated them on the basis of the microcrystalline structure of the shell and accepted that in the bird eggs, the customary definition of a mammillary spherolithic zone is distinct from an upper arched or spongy layer. In his comprehensive review of egg shell struc- ture of reptiles and birds, Erben (1970) studied the ultrastructure of various birds. He describ- ed in detail the various component units of avian egg shell structure and pointed out that while the avian structural pattern was similar to that of other reptiles, it could be easily differentiated from that of other reptiles. Re- cently, Sahni et al. (1984) have described some thin egg shell fragments from the Cretaceous-Palaeocene beds of peninsular India and ascribed them to of uncertain relationship, possibly related to dinosaurian, avian or lacer- tilian affinities. The Kashmir egg shells have a comparable shell thickness and are found asso- ciated with a similar biotic component (fishes, charophytes, ostracods, molluscs) indicating a similar depositional environment. However, in the absence of comparative material, it is presently not possible to precisely document the affinities of thin egg shells. Palaeoecology A preliminary study of the faunal assem- blage from Kilar reveals that the material was transported from both long and the short distances and was probably secondarily con- centrated in the Karewa basin (Kotlia 1985). Fossil vertebrates belonging to the upland and lacustrine communities are found in the Kilar sediments. The presence of microtine rodents in these sediments indicate the advent of the colder climatic conditions. Torrential river fishes, i.e. Schizothorax and Oreinus together with microtine rodents, constituting the major part of Kilar fauna (Sahni and Kotlia 1983) are still unknown from the contemporaneous Siwaliks of India. The reason for disparity in type of fishes and rodents found both in the Karewas and the Siwaliks could be due to the lower temperatures prevailing in the Plio/ Pleistocene of the Kashmir Valley in compa- rison to those of Pinjor basin of the Siwaliks. We opine that the lacustrine and fluvial conditions persisted during the deposition of the Sombur sediments which have yield- ed scattered micromammalian fauna. In the lower part of the section, the lacustrine environ- ment persisted as is indicated by current bedded and lenticular gritty sand bodies. The absence of lignite layers in Sombur section may indicate the absence of swampy environ- ment. The presence of bird egg shells in Kilar and Sombur sections indicate that birds formed a small but important part of the Karewa lake community through a wide temporal span. When one considers the fact that most of the Karewa ecosystem has been stable and has not changed significantly from the present ecosystem, it is reasonable to assume that the birds, like their modern day counterparts were marsh or lake dwellers and probably were nourished by the abundant fish fauna. Acknowledgements We are grateful to Prof. S. B. Bhatia, Chairman, Centre of Advanced Study in Geology, Pan jab University, Chandigarh for the help rendered during this work. We wish to express our thanks to Prof. D. P. Agrawal, Project Leader, Kashmir Palaeoclimate Pro- ject, for logistic help and fruitful discussions. The financial assistance from CAS in Geology to Bhuvan Prakash is gratefully acknowledged. 629 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 References Agrawal, D. P., Krishnamurthy, R. V., Kusum- gar, S., Nautiyal, V., Athavale, R. N. & Radha- krishnamurthy, C. (1979) : Chronostratigraphy of loessic and lacustrine sediments in the Kashmir Valley, India. Acta Geologi. Acad. Scient. Hungari Tomus. 22 ( 1-4): 185-196. Badam, G. L. (1979) : Pleistocene Fauna of India. Deccan College, Pune: 1-250. Bhatt, D. K. (1976) : Stratigraphic status of the Karewa Group of Kashmir, India. Him. Geol. 6: 197-208. — (1979): Lithostratigraphic sub-divi- sions of Hirpur Formation (Lower Karewa) — a critical review and modification. 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P., Kusumgar, Sheela, and Krishnamurthy, R. V. Today and Tomorrow’s Publi- shers, New Delhi: 27-28. Lydekker, R. (1884): Siwalik birds. Mem. Geol . Surv. India. 10(3) : 136-202. Pant, R. K., Agrawal, D. P. & Krishnamurthy, R. V. (1978): Scanning Electron Microscope and other studies on the Karewa beds of Kashmir, India. In: W. H. Whalley (eds.) Scanning Electron Micro- scopy in the study of sediments: 278-283. Sahni, A. (1982) : Karewa vertebrates : biostrati- graphy, palaeohistology and palaeoecology. Man Environ. 6: 16-20. — (in press) : Fossil birds. Encyl. Ind. Nat. Hist. Mus. Cent. Sahni, A. & Gupta, V. J. (1982): Cretaceous egg shell fragments from the Lameta Formation, Jabalpur, India. Bull. l.G.A. 75(1): 85-88. Sahni, A. & Kotlia, B. S. (1983): Micromam- mals from the Karewa Group of Kashmir. Man Environ. 7: 157-158. (1985): Karewa microvertebrates: biostratigraphical and palaeoecolo- gical implications. In: Climate and Geology of Kash- mir and Central Asia: The 4 Million Years: (eds.) Agrawal. D. P.. Kusumgar, Sheela, and Krishna- murthy, R. V. Today and Tomorrow’s Publishers, New Delhi: 29-44. Sahni, A., Rana, R, S. & Prasad, G. V. R. (1984) : SEM studies of thin egg shell fragments from the Inter-trappeans (Cretaceous-Tertiary transition) of Nagpur and Asifabad, Peninsular India. Jour. Pal. Soc. India. 29: 26-33. Singh, I. B. (1982): Sedimentation pattern in the Karewa basin, Kashmir Valley, India and its geolo- gical significance. Jour. Pal. Soc. India. 27: 71-110. Sochava, A. V. (1969): Dinosaur eggs from the 630 FOSSIL BIRD EGG SHELL Upper Cretaceous of the Gobi desert. Jour. Pal. 4: 517-527. (1970): Microtexture of Dino- saur egg shells from the Lower Cretaceous of the Northern Gobi. Doklady Akademi Nauk SSR. 192 (5): 1137-1140. (1971): Dinosaur eggs in Gobi desert. Priroda. 10: 65-68. Thaler, L. (1965) : Les oeufs des Dinosaurs due midi de la France livrent le secret de leus extinction; Paris. F. Dunod, Science Progress Lt. Nature : 41-48. Tripathi, C. & Chandra, P. R. (1962) : Detailed examination of the Karewas of Kashmir for the remains of early man. Unpubl. Geol. Surv. India Report. Wadia, D. N. (1951) : Pliocene-Pleistocene boun- dary in NW India. Xll Int. Geol. Cong. London (1948). 18: 43-48. 631 NEW DESCRIPTIONS A NEW SPECIES OF COPRIS MULLER (COLEOPTERA: SCARAB AEIDAE) FROM SOUTH INDIA1 B. D. Gill2 ( With a plate ) Copris keralensis sp. nov. is described from the rainforests of Kerala State. It appears closely related to species in the subgenus Paracopris Balth. Both sexes are figured. In the process of gathering data on the for- aging behavior of Scarabaeinae, a series of an unsual species of Copris was collected in the rainforests of the Western Ghats. Comparison with material in the collections in Paris and subsequent search of the literature has con- firmed that it is indeed a new species and is described below. The sexual dimorphism exhibited by this species is unusual for the sub- genus Paracopris Balthasar (1939) to which it evidently belongs. Copris keralensis sp. nov. (Plate I-Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4) Holotype. Male length 12.3 mm, greatest width 6.9 mm. Body and legs chocolate-brown; antennae reddish-brown. Head and ventral sur- face strongly shining, pronotum less shining; elytra and pygidium opaque. Clypeus (Fig. 1) broadly bidentate, margin reflexed; surface smooth anteriorly, punctate basally. Frons with a long conical horn arising medially in front of eyes, slightly inclined posteriorly. Pronotum lacking median groove or line; very densely punctate, appearing rugose; punctures with 1 Accepted October 1985. 2 Biology Dept. Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada K1S 5B6. minute yellowish setae. Anterior emargination of pronotum with broad marginal membrane; margin with a median pair of sharp anteriorly directed teeth. Elytra lightly striate, striae with coarse shallow punctures; intervals flat, finely sparsely punctate, punctures with short yello- wish setae. Pygidium densely punctate, punc- tures minutely setose. Metasternum finely punctate medially, coarsely punctate anteriorly and laterally. Ventral surface of femora closely punctured. Front tibia with four teeth; apex of tibial spur bluntly rounded. Genitalia as in figs. 3 and 4. Allotype. Female, length 12.2 mm, greatest width 6.8 mm. Differing from holotype in the following characters: frons (Fig. 2) with a slightly elevated median tubercle arising just in front of the eyes; anterior margin of prono- tum obtusely angulate at midline, lacking teeth; front tibia with apical spur acutely rounded. Type Material. Holotype, male, India, Kerala, 60 km E Alwaye, 1 VIII 1984, B. Gill, 300 m. Allotype, female, same data as holotype. Paratypes, 4 males, 11 females same data as holotype; 2 males, 8 females, India, Kerala, 66 km E Alwaye, 1 VIII 1984, B. Gill, 500 m. Holotype and allotype deposited in the National Museum of Natural History (Ottawa, Canada). Paratypes in the Zoologi- 632 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 Plate I Gill: Copris keralensis sp. nov. Holotype, drosal view of genitalia. NEW DESCRIPTIONS cal Survey of India (Calcutta), Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle (Paris), H. & A. Howden collection (Ottawa) and B. Gill collection (Ottawa). Remarks. The 25 paratypes range from 10.5 to 13.0 mm in length. With the exception of a few teneral individuals that are reddish- brown, the paratypes do not vary noticeably from the holotype. The evenly convex pro- notum, punctate metasternum and smooth clypeus will cause the new species to key out to C. furciceps Felsche in Arrow’s fauna of British India (1931). It can be distinguished from that species by the broadly bidentate clypeal margin and the presence of a single horn or tubercle upon the frons. The presence of two sharp teeth on the anterior margin of the pronotum in the males is also very distinc- tive of the new species. Copris keralensis appears to be closely rela- ted to a number of species placed in the sub- genus Paracopris by Balthasar (1963). It shares with them nearly opaque coloration, R E FE Arrow, G. J. (1931) : The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma. Lamellicornia Part III (Coprinae). London, p. 1-428. Balthasar, V. (1939) : Neue arten der copro- phagen Scarabaeiden aus dem Museo Zoologico della R. Universita di Firenze. Redia 25 : 1-26. (1963): Monographic der Scara- baeidae und Aphodiidae der palaearktischen und orientalischen Region (Coleoptera : Lamellicornia). slender legs and a strongly punctate and flat- tened body form. However the sexually dimor- phic pronotum of this species certainly falls outside of the subgeneric limits established by Balthasar (1963, p. 329) “der Halsschild ist in beiden Gruppen vollkommen einfach ...” A re-evaluation of the characters used to parti- tion the genus Copris (s. lat.) may therefore be warranted (Paulian 1945). All specimens were collected in pitfall traps placed in the forest and baited with 2 ml of human dung. Traps were similar in design to those used by Peck and Howden (1984). ACK NOWLEDGEM ENTS I am most grateful to G. M. Sirur and family for their generous hospitality and as- sistance during the field work in India. Dr. H. F. Howden very kindly provided financial sup- port and guidance for this research. Dr. C. Scholtz assisted with the German translations and Mr. L. E. C. Ling took the scanning micrographs. EN CES Band I. Academia Verlag. Praha, p. 1-391. Paulian, R. (1945): Faune de l’Empire Francais III. Coleopteres Scarabeides de l’lndochine. I. Paris, p,. 1-224. Peck, S. B. & Howden, H. F. (1984): Response of a dung beetle guild to different sizes of dung bait in a Panamanian rainforest. Biotropica 16(3): 235-238. 633 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 NEW SPECIES OF SCORPION OF THE GENUS LYCHAS (BUTHIDAE: SCORPIONIDA) FROM NASIK DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA, INDIA1 D. B. Bastawade2 (With thirteen text-figures) Introduction Eleven species of the genus Lychas C. Koch, are known from Indian sub-continent. Among these six species under three sub-genera have been described from the southern part of India (Tikader & Bastawade 1983). I continued the study of Indian Scorpions and recently collect- ed -a good number of scorpion specimens from Western portion of Nasik district during my Western Ghat Survey (1984). The genus Lychas is known only by Lychas ( Alterotri - chus) rugosus (Pocock) from Nasik District. The present communication describes a new species from Kharpadi village, Harsul, Peinth Taluk of Nasik district. Lychas (Alterotrichus) kharpadi sp. nov. (Figs. M3) General : Yellow scorpion of small to medium body size. Carapace and mesosoma sparsely and weakly granular and with few scattered dark patches. Male smaller and more slender than female. Metasoma reddish brown on posterior segments and telson. Pedipalps delicate. Pectines well developed. Measurements'. $ — Total length 38.75 mm. Carapace 4.50 mm long, mesosoma 11.50 mm long, metasoma 22.75 mm long. $ — Total length 45.25 mm. Carapace 5.00 mm long, mesosoma 15.00 mm. long, metasoma 25.25 mm long. 1 Accepted March 1985. 2 Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Station, Pune 411016. Carapace'. Entire surface weakly and sparsely granular. A pair of median eyes situated anteriorly in the ratio 1: 2.25 as in fig. 1. Five pairs of lateral eyes present on anteriolateral portion with smooth lateral ocu- lar tubercles of which two anterior pairs directed anterio-laterally, third pair posterio- laterally and last two pairs dorso-posteriorly and posteriorly respctively. Interocular portion black and more granular on anterior. Carinae absent. Anterior margin invaginated slightly and smooth. Lateral margins finely crenulated. Posterior margin smooth. Chelicerae smooth on basal segment with typical Buthid dentition except only one tooth on ventral surface of immovable finger. Pedipalps : Delicate, cari- nated and confusicated on femur and patella. Femur as long as carapace but shorter than patella, all carinae crenulated. Patella cari- nated and anterior or inner carinae evenly crenulated. Manus smooth, without carinae and length of under hands less than half the length of femur. Fingers as long as patella, smooth. Dentition on fingers over-lapping, with two unpaired teeth on proximal portion of movable fingers as in fig. 2 and a strong apical tooth. Trichobothrial pattern on pedipalp of typical Alterotrichus types but differs from known species of the sub-genus as in figs. 6-13. Legs', delicate, weak, finely granular and cari- nated on femur and patella. Tibia smooth, with very short and inconspicuous tibial spur on III & IV pairs. Tarsomere I almost as long as tibia but slender, smooth and clothed with 634 NEW DESCRIPTIONS bristles on ventral portion. Tarsomere II deli- cate, thin, smooth, covered thickly with paired bristles on ventral portion. A pair of claws strong. Pectines : A pair of pectines well deve- loped and more than four times as long as wide, middle lamillae divided into 8-9 small pieces. Fulcra distinct. Lamillae and fulcra covered with setae. Pectinal teeth strong in male and 17/17 in number and 18/18 in fe- male. Basal piece smooth, not much sclerotized Figs. 1-5. Lychas ( Alterotrichus ) kharpadi sp. nov. 1. Dorsal aspects of carapace; 2. Dorsal view of movable finger of pedipalp; 3. Ventral aspects of cephalothoracic sternum, genital operculum and pec- tines; 4. Dorsal aspects of tergite III; 5. Lateral aspects of Metasomal segment V & Telson. and invaginated on anterior margin as in fig. 3. Genital operculum wider than long, a pair of sclerites exposed posteriorly in male through which male papillae visible, while completely fused in female. Cephalothoracic sternum triangular. Mesosoma : All tergites sparsely granular. Tergites I- VI monocarinated, with three dark and four yellow spots on posterior portion -as in fig. 4. Lateral margins crenulated, posterior smooth. Pretergal portion finely granular. Tergite VII more granular and with four crenulated carinae. Lateral and posterior margins granular. Sternites III-VI smooth, lateral and posterior-margins also smooth, each sternite with a pair of book lungs. Last sternite 635 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Figs. 6-9. Showing trichobothrial patterns on exterior surface of patella for 6. mucronatus; 7. rugosus; 8. hendersoni; 9. kharpadi sp. nov. Figs. 10-13. Showing trichobothrial patterns on exterior surface of Manus and immovable finger of Pedipalp 10. mucronatus; 11. rugosus; 12. hendersoni; 13. kharpadi sp. nov. 636 NEW DESCRIPTIONS granular and carinated. Carinae weakly crenu- lated and granules obsolete. Lateral margins crenulated. Posterior margin smooth. Prester- nal portion short and smooth. Metasoma\ Cauda slightly more than five times as long as carapace. Basal segment longer than wide. All segments carinated. Segments I and II with all eight carinae, all carinae crenulated. Segments III & IV with six carinae, all carinae crenulated and lateral carinae deve- loped only on half of anterior portion of seg- ment III. Dorsal carinae on segments I-IV weakly tuberculate posteriorly. Intercarinal portion weakly and much sparsely granular. Anterior and posterior margins of each seg- ment smooth. Segment V almost as long as carapace, only inferior lateral and single in- ferior median carinae poorly granular and weakly crenulated. Intercarinal space poorly granular. Anal rim of this segment smooth. Telson slightly shorter than segment V. Vesicle as long as segment II, weakly granular, ventral median crest ending posteriorly into a sub- aculear spine, provided with a pair of minute teeth on inner margin. Aculeus long, as long as vesicle, sharp, not much curved and dark on distal portion as in fig. 5. Etymology : The specific name refers to the locality and has been used as a noun in appo- sition. Type-specimens : Holotype : 1 A in spirit. Allotype : 1 $ in spirit, will be shortly depo- sited in the National Collection, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Type-locality : Near Kharpadi village, Har- sul. Taluk Peinth, Nasik district, Maharashtra, India. 4.ii.l984. Coll. D. B. Bastawade. Distribution'. Known only from type loca- lity. Habit and Habitat : This species is arboreal in habit and lives under the bark of trees. The specimens were collected from a height of 10' to 11' above the ground. Discussion : This species closely resembles Lychas ( Alterotrichus ) hendersoni Pocock in its colour patterns and in having the same number of pectinal teeth but it differs as follows: i) Movable finger of pedipalp has two unpaired proximal teeth in outer row. (ii) Inter relations between the trichobothria et , est and emx & em2 on patella of pedipalp totally different from that of known species (Figs. 7-10). (iii) Inter relations between the trichobothria dt, db to et est on immovable finger of pedipalp are also different from that of known species (Figs. 11-13). Acknowledgements I thank Dr. B. K. Tikader, Director, Zoo- logical Survey of India, Calcutta and Officer- in-Charge, Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Station, Pune for providing facilities to carry out this work. My thanks are also due to Mr. P. W. Garde for preparing the final diagrams for this paper. Reference Tikader, B. K. & Bastawade, D. B. (1983) : Fauna of India: Scorpions, Sangam Press, Pune,: 1-671. 637 11 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 83 DESCRIPTION OF TWO NEW SPECIES OF CLADOCERA OF FAMILY DAPHNIIDAE FROM MADHYA PRADESH, INDIA1 Pramod D. Rane2 (With two text-figures) Daphniopsis surname sp. nov. and Daphnia sarojae sp. nov., two cladocerans collected from Jabalpur and Mandla districts of Madhya Pradesh are described and illustrated. The new species are compared with their closely allied species. Types are deposited in National Col- lection of Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, and the registration numbers are given in text. Daphniopsis sumanae sp. nov. (Fig. 1) FEMALE Head relatively large, never producing any helmets, length of the head is slightly more than 1/3 of its height and i of the valve length. Anterior lateral margin of the head above the eyes almost straight which gives appearance like a triangular head. Optical vesi- cle placed more dorsally and anteriorly from the longest point of head. Ocellus small, trian- gular. Rostrum small, obtuse at tips, looks like a knob. Ventral margin of the rostrum deeply and simply concave and not sinuate even near the rostrum. There is marked con- vexity at the base of the small antennule. Median carina on posterior surface of head continued into a mound between tips of anten- nules. Fornix strongly prominent and termi- nating behind on each side in a well marked 1 Accepted September 1985. 2 Zoological Survey of India, Central Regional Station, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India. Present address : Zoological Survey of India, 933-A, Shivaji Nagar, Pune 411 016. sharp corner. Valvular part of the shell (cara- pace) when seen laterally is broadly oval in outline, with stout spine not longer than J of the valve length. Spine thickened at its base and arises dorsally from the middle axis of the body. There is a slight bulging of shell, at the ventral side near the joint of spine. A dis- tinct notch by which the dorsal part of head is demarcated from the carapace. Denticles on the dorsal edge long, thick and overlapping, extending below the well marked notch. Ven- tral edge denticles extends slightly more than \ length of the carapace. The denticles are most heavily set on the shell spine. Postero- dorsal edge of the postabdomen deeply sinuat- ed beyond middle dividing the denticles in two sets. Anterior set with 5-6 curved and thick based anal denticles. Posterior set with 4-5 straight denticles. Claw with three pecten, all unequal size. Proximal pecten with 10-12 teeth, circularly arranged; middle pecten with rather thick, large 21-23 teeth of which first 3-4 are much smaller; distal pecten with numerous thin, equal sized teeth. Two ephip- pial eggs present, lying at right angles to the dorsal margin. Tips of eggs strongly pointed, coming out above the level of the ephippium at lateral margin. Ephippium reticulated with dense circles. Four abdominal process pre- sent. First large and turned upward, second hook-shaped turned downward, with dense hairs all over. No parthenogenetic female present in the collection. All females either bearing mature, dark brown ephippium or with developing (two) ephippial eggs. 638 NEW DESCRIPTIONS men of female; 5. Carapace marking in ephippial female; 6. Claw of female; 7. Male; 8. Shell spine; 9 and 10. Ephippium, dorsal and lateral view; 11. Male postabdo- men; 12. Dorsal view of male head. 639 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Length of the ephippial female — 2.44 mm. MALE Similar to female in general shape of the body. Size 1.18 mm. Head almost as long as one third of valves. Fornix highly expanded. Eyes comparatively larger than the females, with several refractive bodies. Antennule with large flagellum narrowing evenly to the distal end. The inner tip of the ventral margin of valve has a dense row of feathered setae along 2/3 of its length. Postabdomen with small reduced abdominal process. Dorsal side of the post- abdomen sinuate, with rather small 6-7 anal denticles. Pectinate claw. Some specimens have one spine above the head. Holotype. 9 India: Madhya Pradesh, Mandla district, a ditch about 30 cm. depth in the Narmada river at Sahastradhara about 6 km. North of Mandla, 17.12.80, (P. D. Rane), C. 3474/2. Allotype : c?» (same data as holotype), C. 3475/2. Paratypes : 17 $9,5 <$<$, (Same data as holotype), C. 3477/2. Comments. The species shares the generic character of Daphniopsis Sars, 1903, namely a distinct notch by which the dorsal part of the head is demarcated from the carapace. The new species comes close to D. studeri Riihe, 1914 but it differs by its broad ephip- pium and more pointed eggs. Several plumose setae at ventral margin of male valve is also a unique character for the new species. Daphnia sarojae sp. nov. (Fig. 2) FEMALE. Carapace, seen laterally, rounded and oval in outline, with the spine generally long, more than 1/3 of the valve length and slightly turned obliquely upwards, issuing somewhat above the axis of the body; denticles of dorsal edge extending beyond the cervical region, denti- cles of ventral edge starting almost from the join of head and carapace. Head of moderate size and defined from the carapace above by a slight concavity of the dorsal margin; Helmet may be present in early deve- loping stages. Eye and ocellus of moderate size. Rostrum small, pointed. Ventral margin of head concave and sinuate near the rostrum. Antennule small, knoblike. Fornix well deve- loped. Carapace distinctly reticulated all over by deep rectangular and squarish cells. Dorsal edge of postabdomen straight but not sinuate. There are above 10-12 anal denticles. Claw straight, pectinate, with proximal and distal pecten. Proximal pecten with 8-9 teeth arrang- ed in half circles, distal pecten with 18-19 large equal teeths. There are fine hairs extending from distal pecten to the end of claw. Three haired abdominal process present. Intestine opens near the base of the claw. Ephippial female was not recorded in the collection. Length of the female, 2.2 mm. MALE. Similar to female in general shape of body, size about 1.4 mm. Antennule with long flagellum narrowing evenly to the distal end, large eye, no abdominal process and hook at first leg. Post-abdomen much narrowed, with small four spines near \ region of dorsal side. Claw with pecten. Rostrum obtuse. Holotype . 9, India: Madhya Pradesh, Jabalpur, Rain puddle near rice field on Shahpura Road about 6 km. from Jabalpur near Tewar village. (P. D. Rane), 25.6.1983, C. 3478/2. Allotype, (Same data as holotype), C. 3479/2. Paratypes. 95 9 9,4 cf cT (Same data as holotype) C. 3480/2. Comments . This form is allied to Daphnia 640 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Fig. 2. (1-10). Daphnia sarojae sp. nov. 1. Parthenogenetic female; 2. Male; 3. Immature female; 4, Immature male; 5. Postabdomen of male; 6. Postabdomen of female; 7. Head of female, lateral view; 8. Head of male, lateral view; 9. Claw of female; 10. Dorsal view of female head. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 lumholtzi Sars, 1885 but differs conspicuously in broader valves and arrangement of denti- cles on ventral and dorsal valves. The reticu- lation of the carapace with very distinct rectan- gular cells is a unique character of the new species. Acknowledgements There are due to Officer-in-Charge, Central Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India for providing facilities. I am also grateful to Shri Satish Fadnavis, departmental artist, for his kind help in making the illustrations. A NEW SPECIES OF A PODOCOPAN OSTRACOD, FROM THE EAST COAST OF INDIA1 C. Annapurna and D. V. Rama Sarma2 (With a photograph and eight text -figures) Introduction While studying the ecology of the benthic ostracods inhabiting marginal water bodies on the east coast of India, a new species of podocopan ostracod belonging to the genus Atjehella was collected from the backwaters of Rimili (lat. 17°54'N and long. 83°28'E) and in the lower reaches of the Vasishta Godavari estuary (lat. 16°18'N; long. 81°42'E). So far, only one species of Atjehella is on record (Kingma 1948). Family: Cytherettidae Triebel, 1972 Genus: Atjehella Kingma, 1948 Key to the species of Atjehella 1 . Surface of carapace sculptured with 3 or 4 longi- tudinal ridges 3 2. Surface of carapace sculptured with numerous longitudinal ridges: 4 3. Merodont type of hinge 5 4. Amphidont type of hinge 6 5. Branching marginal pore canals A tjeh el la semi pi i cat a 6. Simple and straight marginal pore canals. A. multicostatum 1 Accepted September 1985. 2 Department of Zoology, Andhra University, Waltair 530003 (A.P.). Atjehella multicostatum sp. nov. (Photo 1; Figs. 1-8) Carapace laterally compressed, valves heavi- ly calcified and very shallow in lateral view. Anterior end broadly rounded, posterior end less rounded than anterior end. Dorsal and ventral margin nearly straight and converging slightly towards the posterior end. Carapace ornamented with numerous longitudinal ridges on posterior half of the shell. Hinge amphi- dont type, 3 sockets are connected by a crenulate bar. Inner lamella wide anteriorly and ventrally. The line of concrescence coin- cides throughout with the inner margin, runs an irregular course with a prominent ventral loop. Marginal pore canals 10 in number at the anterior end. Marginal pore canals simple and straight; normal pores few, scattered and open. Central muscle scars in a vertical row of 4 adductor scars. Eye spots absent. Left valve slightly larger than right. Length: 0.52 mm; Height : 0.33 mm. Antennule 6- jointed, second podomere bear- ing tuft of hairs dorsomedially, third podomere 642 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Photo. 1 : Atjehella multicostatum sp. nov. — exterior view of left valve. bulbous and short. Consists of 2 claw-like setae, fourth podomere narrow and consists of 4 claw-like setae and slender setae arranged between the claws. Antenna 6- jointed, distal ends of first segment with 2 claw-like setae, ultimate podomere with 2 pairs of claw-like setae, the slender setae, arranged between the claw-like setae. No spinneret seta. Mandible with 6 pairs of teeth arranged laterally on the cutting edge. Mandibular palp 3 -jointed. First segment bulbous. Ultimate segment with slender setae. Maxilla with 3 masticatory lobes, narrow and elongated masticatory lobes end with elongated slender setae. Vibratory plate well developed with 15 unfeathered rays. In first thoracic leg, endopodite develops as palp — a characteristic feature of the family Cytherettidae. Second and third thoracic legs each with 3 podomeres, ends with curved claws. Remarks : In the general shape of the carapace A. multicostatum is similar to A. semiplicata as illustrated by Kingma (1948). It differs from it in the presence of numerous longitudinal ridges, amphidont type of hinge and the marginal pore canals being simple and straight. The name of the species is based on the characters of systematic importance, viz. sur- face of the carapace sculptured with numerous longitudinal ridges. Type specimens'. Holotype and 2 paratypes 643 WW 10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Figs. 1-8. Atjehella multicostatum sp. nov. 1. Antennule; 2. Antenna; 3. Mandible with palp; 4. Maxilla; 5. Vibratory plate; 6. First thoracic leg; 7. Second thoracic leg; 8. Third thoracic leg. NEW DESCRIPTIONS are deposited in the National Collection, Zoo- logical Survey of India, Calcutta, India. Type locality: Bimili backwater. Occurrence : Backwaters of Bimili and Vasishta Godavari estuary, east coast of India. Acknowledgements We thank the Head of the Department for facilities. We are thankful to Prof. M. Subba- rao. Geology Department of Andhra Univer- sity for his interest and encouragement in this work. One of us (CA) is grateful to the CSIR, New Delhi for financial assistance. Reference Kingma, J. T. H. (1948) : Contributions to the knowledge of the young-caenozoic ostracoda from the Malayan region. Acal. thesis Utrecht. TWO NEW SPECIES OF ORIBATIDS (ARACHNIDA: ACARINA) FROM SOUTH INDIA1 M, M. Balakrishnan2 {With seven text-figures) Two new species of oribatid mites, viz. Mixacarus quadrifasciatus sp. nov. (Lohman- niidae) and Neogalumna curviporosa sp. nov. (Galumnidae) are described with illustrations. Both the genera are new to India. Mixacarus quadrifasciatus sp. nov. (Figs. 1-3) Dimensions : Length: 800-928 (852.5) ju,; width: 432-480 (444) height: 320 p. Prodorsum (Fig. 1): Broadly triangular, ornamented with rounded or irregular foveolae and small circular areae porosae; lamellar {la) and interlamellar {in) hairs almost equally long; rostral {ro), anterior exobothridial {exa) and posterior exobothridial {exp) setae short and of squal length; all prodorsal setae 1 Accepted November 1985. 2 Department of Zoology, University of Calicut, 673 635, Kerala, India. Present address : Regional Research Station, Coffee Board, Chundale, 673 123, Kerala. India. with minute barbs; sensillus (ss) with 11-12 branches, of which the proximal one and distal two being very short (fig. 2); a transverse ribbon-like band present posterior to the level of in. Notogaster (Fig. 1): Lateral margins more or less parallel; posterior margin slightly wavy; surface with closely set rounded or irre- gular foveolae and scattered small circular areae porosae; four transverse bands present, probably S2, S3, S5 and S6; S2, S3 and S6 in- complete; S5 complete with the middle portion curved posteriorad; sixteen pairs of setae, all with minute barbs; lateral setae longer than the median ones. Ventral side (Fig. 3): Infracapitulum punc- tate, with 4 pairs of unilaterally barbed setae and a few small circular areae porosae; epimeral setal formula 3-1 -3-4, all setae short and provided with minute barbs; coxisterna I with 6-11 small circular areae porosae; genital setal formula 6+4; pre-anal plate widest 645 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Figs. 1-3. Mixacarus quadrifasciatus sp. nov. 1. Dorsal side; 2. Sensillus; 3. Ventral side. 646 NEW DESCRIPTIONS ro Figs. 4-7. N eogalamna curviporosa sp. nov. 4. Dorsal side; 5. Sensillus; 6. Ventral side; 7. Tarsus I. 647 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 in the middle; two pairs of anal and 4 pairs of adanal hairs, all unilaterally barbed; adanal setae slightly longer than the anal setae. Legs: All legs monodactylous; left leg I with 2 claws in one paratype. Holotype $ . India. Kerala, Tunakadavu (Nelliyampathy Hills), collected from leaf litter on forest floor. 10. v. 1982. Coll. M. M. Balakrishnan. Paratypes 3 $ . $ , data same as for holotype. Remarks : The genus Mixacarus is hitherto known from 8 species: M. integer Balogh, 1958 from Africa, M. hammani Balogh, 1961 from Java, M. neotropicus Balogh, 1962 from Peru, M. chapmani Wallwork, 1962 from Ghana, M. exilis Aoki, 1970 from Tsushima, M. van - honggui Mahunka, 1973 from Korea, M. brevipes (Banks) Norton, 1978 from North Carolina and M. zhuzhikovi Bulanova Zakh- vatkina, 1979 from the USSR. The present species can be distinguished from all its known congeners by the presence of 4 transverse bands on the notogaster. Neogalumna curviporosa sp. nov. (Figs. 4-7) Dimensions : Length: 510 [i; width: 357 /a; height: 293 ji. Prodorsum (Fig. 4) : Surface smooth; inter- lamellar setae slightly long; lamellar setae vety thin; rostral setae originating in front of a transverse elevation; dorsosejugal suture arcuate; areae porosae dorsosejugales long; sensillus with a short stalk and long spindle- shaped head provided with barbs (fig. 5). Notogaster (Fig. 4) : Integument with irre- gular and diffuse foveolae disposed laterally and posteriorly; ten pairs of alveoli; four pairs of areae porosae; Aa ribbon-shaped and curved; Ax irregularly rounded; A2 and Az ribbon-shaped (A2 of left side was seen very close to A i). Ventral side (Fig. 6): Infracapitulum punc- tate; epimeral and anogenital regions smooth; circumpedial lines distinct; six pairs of genital, 1 pair of aggenital, 2 pairs of anal and 3 pairs of adanal setae; iad off anus; postanal area porosa ribbon-shaped. Legs : All legs tridactylous and heterodacty- lous; tarsus I (fig. 5) becoming narrower abruptly after J of its length; a total of 23 hairs present on tarsus I. Holotype $ . India. Kerala, Tunakadavu (Nelliyampathy Hills), collected from leaf litter on forest floor. lO.v.1982. Coll. M. M. Balakrishnan. Remarks : The genus Neogalumna is repre- sented only by the type species N. antenniger described by Hammer (1973) from West Samoa. The present specimen differs from the type species in the presence of (1) prominent interlamellar setae, (2) sensillus with short stalk and long spindle-shaped head provided with barbs, (3) long areae porosae dorso- sejugales, (4) long and curved Aa and (5) ribbon-shaped A2 and A3. Since the lamellar setae of both the species of Neogalumna are very thin when compared to the rostral setae, it seems justifiable to be treated as a generic character. The type specimens are to be deposited in the Zoological Survey of India, 34, Chitta- ranjan Avenue, Calcutta. ACK NOWLEDGEM E NTS I am grateful to the Head, Department of Zoology, University of Calicut, for facilities, to Dr. M. A. Haq for encouragement and to the University of Calicut for financial support. 648 NEW DESCRIPTIONS References Aoki, J. (1970) : The Oribatid Mites of the Islands of Tsushima. Bull. Nat. Sci. Mus. Tokyo, 75(3): 395-442. Balogh, J. (1958) : Oribatides nouvelles de l’Afrique tropicale. Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 58: 1-34. (1961): An outline of the family Lohmanniidae Berl. 1916 (Acari: Oribatei). Acta Zool. Hung., 7: 19-44. (1962): Identification keys of world oribatid (Acari) families and genera, ibid. 7: 243- 344. Bulanova Zakhvatkina, E. M. (1979) : Finding of Mixacarus zhuzhikovi new species (Oribatei, Mixonomata) in Termite Nests. Biol. Nauki, 0(9) : 29-32. Hammer, M. (1973): Oribatids from Tongatapu and Eua, the Tonga Islands and from Upolu, Western Samoa. Biol . Skr. Dan. Vid. Selsk., 20(3) : 1-70. Mahunka, S. (1973) : Zwei neue Lohmanniiden Arten aus Korea (Acari, Oribatida). Folia Entomol. Hungarica, 26(1) : 49-56. Norton, R. A. (1978) : Some Lohmanniidae (Aca- rina: Oribatei) from North and South Carolina Forest Soils. J. Georgia Entomol. Soc., 13(1) : 15-24. Wallwork, J. A. (1962): Some Oribatei from Ghana. X. The Family Lohmanniidae. Acarologia, 4(3): 457-487. 649 REVIEWS 1 . POPULATION DYNAMICS OF RABIES IN WILDLIFE. Edited by Philip J. Bacon, pp. 349 + index (23 x 15.5 cm), with several text-figures. London, 1985. Academic Press Inc. Price not mentioned. Rabies has been known since the dawn of history and is traditionally associated with dogs to such an extent that, in many parts of the world people are still not aware that rabies can be caused by animals other than dogs. In fact, rabies can infect any warm blooded animal, and any infected animal, not exclud- ing man, can transmit the disease to others. However, the dog remains the main reservoir and vector for transmission of this disease, and European countries, which have efficiently eliminated stray dogs have kept themselves free of this disease for the greater part of the present century. Wild animals do suffer from rabies but they impinge of human communities so rarely as to remain something of a curiosity. In most of the developing world, where dog rabies is still the predominant source of infec- tion, wild animal rabies is of only academic interest. However, in recent years particularly after the war of 1939-45 there appears to be an upsurge of wild animal rabies in Europe and studies made in western Europe show that the main vector of this disease is the red fox. This animal is found over most of Europe inhabiting mainly open scrub land, and hilly areas where little or no agricultural activity takes place. In recent years, the num- ber of foxes dying of rabies has increased, and incidents of foxes attacking dogs, live- stock, and even man have been increasing. Rabies infection in these animals appears to be spreading gradually southwards. The first records were from Scandinavia and North Germany. Later rabid foxes have been report- ed in France and as far south as northern Italy. In the beginning efforts were made to control this spread of rabies by shooting the fox, but it soon became evident that this was not the answer. When foxes were shot, there was a temporary depletion of the fox popula- tions, but a few months later more foxes drifted in from surrounding areas to restore the populations. Complete extermination is neither practical on a continental scale, nor desirable ecologically. It was therefore felt that efforts should be made towards contain- ment of the fox population, and to control the spread of rabies in this population. One of the efforts, not described in the book under review was the immunization of foxes by putting out baits containing oral rabies vaccine. This is reported to have been very successful in Switzerland but the scientific follow up reports are still not available. Under these circumstances it was felt that an effort to understand the mode of spread of rabies in the fox population and its rate of advance would help us to determine what sort of control measures are likely to give the best results. The use of mathematical model- ling where, in a model, change of one or more parameters can indicate the sort of end result such a change would produce, would be of help in determining what measures to use. Preparation of such models requires not only 650 REVIEWS close collaboration between biologists and mathematicians but needs certain background information such as the rate at which breeding occurs, i.e. the rate at which new susceptibles are added to the population, the actual inci- dence of rabies in the population at a given time, the frequency of infection occurring in the population, etc. Most of these are unknown. Despite this efforts have been made by assigning arbitrary values or ‘guesstimates’ to some of these factors, to devise models, spatial as well as temporal, for estimating the spread of rabies in the red fox population and how the modification of various factors involved in the model would affect the out- come. Various types of models are presented in this book, and effects of various manipu- lations have been extrapolated. Since the factors required in preparing the original model are not exactly known these models and their predictions have to be tested in the field to establish whether, and to what extent, they correspond to what happens in nature. Mathematical modelling is a fascinating exercise, and when the basic presumptions correspond with the facts, can give surprisingly clear quick answers to questions posed. However, in the present instance where many of the basic parameters are unknown, it be- comes an exercise of preparing a model with a given set of parameters and seeing how it would progress with time or in geographical space if these parameters continue to remain in force. The result of such extrapolation is compared with observed phenomena. If the correspondence with observation is close, one may take it that the assumed parameters were near enough to the truth. If it does not corres- pond to observed phenomena, the parameters may be redesigned or modified to get a more suitable fit. The models presented in this book, and the simulations based on extrapolations of these, are of great interest to all those in- volved in these disciplines as well as to biolo- gists concerned with the problems of spread of rabies. As such it forms a useful contribu- tion for epidemiological research, enabling us to decide what type of action would be most fruitful in preventing further spread of disease. Mathematical modelling can be applied to many types of problems, and its usefulness in wildlife studies is only beginning to be explor- ed. The models presented deal solely with the problem of rabies in the red fox in Europe. The introductory chapters however give an excellent overview of the knowledge about rabies in Wildlife in different parts of the world. A. N. D. NANAVATI 651 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 2. FIELD GUIDE TO THE COMMON TREES OF INDIA. By P. V. Bole and Yogini Vaghani. pp. xxiii+125 (18x11.5 cm) with line drawings by Yogini Vaghani. Bombay, 1986. Oxford University Press for World Wildlife Fund - India. Price Rs. 18.50. The problem faced by beginners is, how to identify plants and which books should they refer to. There are hardly any book suitable for amateurs on identification of Indian plants. The ‘Field Guide to the Common Trees of India’, is a welcome attempt to help amateurs. The book describes briefly about hundred of the most common trees of the Indian plains and foothills including some of the trees in- troduced into India from other parts of the world. Each description is accompanied by a line drawing to assist in identification. But the drawings are very disappointing. There is no comparative scale for flowers, fruits, etc and this leads to misinterpretation. However an interesting feature is the key to the identification of the trees described in the text on the basis of the branching, leaves. stipules, spines etc. It would have been more useful if in the beginning a few pages depicting different parts of plants, and shapes and types of leaves had been included. The book also has a colour classification of flowers, which should be very useful during the flowering seasons. The book has a well chosen glossary and index of both common and latin names. There are several typographical errors. The key on page 7 (line 14) is erroneous and difficult to understand. It is indeed very diffi- cult to choose hundred common trees from the several thousands found in India and to prepare a simple key for the same. It may also happen that several closely related species may have similar features and may lead to erroneous identification. MEENA HARIBAL 652 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1. A NOTE ON THE INTERACTION OF COMMON LANGUR (PRES BYT IS ENTELLUS ) AND WOLF (CAN IS LUPUS ) In the early morning of March 7th 1986, I (BRM) was observing an all male langur troop at Nahargarh Reserve forest, about 10 km from Jaipur city, feeding on the leaves of Anogeissus pendula. Suddenly one animal gave an “Alarm bark”, and all members of the troop became alert, and peered towards the nearby hills. I saw a wolf (Cams lupus) sitting on a rock. The langurs started jumping from branch to branch and came very near to the Dept, of Zoology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur-302 004, May 7, 1986. wolf, and started barking. Initially, for more than half-an-hour, the wolf was quiet. Then the wolf started reacting. The langurs were frightened, and climbed up to the top of the trees. However they continuously barked and tried to chase the wolf and followed, it as the wolf moved out of the area. No case of such interaction appears to have been reported so far. B. RAM MANOHAR REENA MATHUR 2. SIGHTING OF AN UNKNOWN SPECIES OF CAT Returning from Hayuliang in the eastern Mishmi hills of Arunachal Pradesh on the road to Tejn and some 15 km from Hayuliang, I came across on the road at night, a darkish rusty-brown cat about the size of the domestic cat but longer and with a long and prominent tail. The animal was distinctly visible at close range in the powerful beam of the jeep lights. It was marked with chocolate brown spots but not very prominent, the size and the num- ber of spots increasing from the front portion of the body towards the hind portion, the tail being very prominently marked by rings of the same colour. I have not seen a cat of this kind and have not heard of one such being reported. It was not a domestic cat be- cause firstly the Mishmi tribes there do not keep domestic cats and in any case the sight- ing was quite far from any habitation and what clinched the issue was the fact that some 2 km further up I saw ail identical specimen again. The closest in resemblance is the rusty spotted cat, but it was a little different, especially in the matter of rings around the tail and I am not aware of any rusty spotted cat being reported anywhere in that region or for that matter in eastern India. M. K. RANJITSINH Joint Secretary, Deptt. of Environment & Forests, (Wildlife Wing), Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi, May 24, 1986. 653 12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 3. NOTE ON INDIAN WILD DOGS ( CUON ALPINUS) IN SARISKA NATIONAL PARK ( With a plate) Sariska has traditionally been the hunting preserve of the Maharajas of the erstwhile state of Alwar in Rajasthan. To the best of my knowledge there is no authenticated record of wild dogs in the area during the Maha- raja’s time or later. I have been visiting these forests since 1972 and neither have I come across wild dogs on my various visits, nor have 1 heard reports of their occurrence dur- ing this period. Some few weeks back I received informa- tion that 3 wild dogs had been seen inside the National Park. I was in Sariska on 23 rd and 24th April when this report was confirm- ed by the forest department staff and the wild dogs have been seen on kills of sambar and cheetal fawns. On 24th April, I was sitting in the hide on a water hole at Kalighati. At 5.00 p.m. there were about eight cheetal and four sambar at the waterhole with an assortment of peafowls, tree pies, crows, etc. Suddenly a sambar and a cheetal gave alarm calls and all of them bolted and the birds flew off in- No. 1, Mansingh Road, New Delhi-110 011, June 4, 1986. stantly as would happen on the arrival of a large predator. Within seconds a female wild dog arrived, entered the water, sat in it and quenched its thirst. She remained there for about five minutes and departed. While the sambar and cheetal again arrived within minutes of the departure of the wild dog, there was no sign of the other two wild dogs until I left the hide at dusk around 6.30 p.m. In sharp contrast, the arrival of a jackal earlier at 4.30 p.m. caused no commotion among the prey population, and infact the former had to demonstrate and charge the sambar and cheetal to shoo them off the water hole. As far as wild dogs are concerned, I am told that they were found in and around the present Ranthambor National Park but not in the last 30 years or more. It would be interest- ing to know if there are any reports of these animals in the vicinity of Sariska to find out where the three animals in question came from. DIV Y ABHANUSINH 4. SOME NOTES ON FIELD BIOLOGY OF RHOMBOMYS OPIMUS, MERIONES PERSICUS AND MUS MUSCULUS BACTRIANUS WITH REFERENCE TO ORCHARDS OF BALUCHISTAN Introduction The Great Gerbil or the Giant Day Jird ( Rhombomys opimus Lichenstein, 1823), the Persian Jird ( Meriones persicus Blandford, (PAKISTAN) 1875) and the House Mouse ( Mus musculus Linnaeus, 1758; M. m. bactrianus Blyth, 1846, the Persian House Mouse) are known from Baluchistan through some casual distributional notes and some occasional ecological inferences 654 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 Divyabhanusinh: Cuon alpinus Plate l Indian Wild Dog ( Cuon alpinus) in Sariska National Park. {Photos: Author) l|M f,: MISCELLANEOUS NOTES mostly drawn from the generalizations based upon the studies from other regions (Roberts 1977). During the course of our studies on the biology of vertebrate pests of orchards of Baluchistan (Mian and Ali in press, Mian et al. in press) limited data was collected on these species which is being presented here. Methods and Materials A total of 30 individuals of R. opimus (Quetta valley, 5; Mustung, 16; Gulistan, 9); 10 specimen of M. persicus (Ziarat, 8; Chao- tair, 2) and 10 individuals of M. m. bactrianus (Quetta valley, Ziarat and Choatair) were trapped from the localities mentioned against each with the help of steel snap traps. The individuals were brought back to the labora- tory and were sexed, weighed and analysed for various ecological parameters as per methods outlined in Mian (1986, in press). Sokal and Rohlf (1969) was followed for statistical analysis. Results and Discussion Rhombomys opimus : All the 30 individuals of this species were trapped from apple orchards during winter months (November through January, no trap- ping being undertaken in these areas in other parts of the year). Quetta valley, Mustung and Gulistan, share a common character in having loose sandy soil, steppic vegetation and an altitudinal location ranging from 1500-2000 m above sea level. This habitat is in confor- mity to the one described by Roberts (1977) for this species, in general. However, Roberts (1977) has not marked these areas in the tentative distribution map which mostly res- tricts the distribution of the species to the border area of north east Chagai (southwestern Baluchistan). Further, the species in Pakistan has been associated with uncultivated patches of steppic vegetation and hence was consi- dered as of no economic importance. The present trapping of the species from orchards, hints at the importance of this species as a potential pest to orchards or other irrigated plantations. Further data is needed in support or otherwise of the present information. The species may also pose a potential threat to the small earth filled dams which play an impor- tant role in the economy of the area. Our trapping data suggests that there is a gross imbalance in the sex ratio exhibited through our total sample (25 males: 5 females; Male : Female sex ratio, 5:1) and in the different samples collected from different localities (Quetta, 4 males: no female; Mus- tung: 14 males: 3 females; Gulistan, 7 males: 2 females). This imbalance in sex ratio can be attributed to a number of factors, includ- ing the higher population of the males in winters, trap shyness of the females, larger home range of males, males being more attracted to the cultivated tracts of the apple orchards and males being more exploratory in habit than females. The present data is insufficient to lend support to any of these alternative hypotheses. The fairly high trap success (0.0156 indi- viduals/trap /day) shown in the winter may indicate that the species does not hibernate during the cold winter months. This observa- tion partially confirms the earlier report of Sokolov (1963) suggesting that the species will feed above ground even when there is snow on the surface. None of the females trapped (total of 5) during our sampling period was reproductively active indicating that there is no reproductive activity during the winter months. 655 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Meriones perskus : 10 specimens (6 c? <$ and 4 $ ? ) were trapped from the valleys located at higher altitudes, in forests of Juniperus macropoda and were equally shared in the two seasonal samples, i.e.. May and July. Out of the two females trapped during May, one was pregnant with three embryo (2 in the left uterine horn and one in the right, average weight of the embryo was 0.46 g). The other female col- lected in July had a vaginal plug indicating a recent mating. Mus museums : A total of 10 specimens of the House Mouse were trapped from Quetta valley (2), Ziarat (6) and Chaotair (1) during the summer months, i.e., April to July. The absence of the individuals of this species in the samples collected in other parts of the year specially in those collected from Quetta valley is rather hard to explain. It is quite possible that the species remains underground where it depends upon the stored food collected in the burrows or in the godowns established in human settlements (Roberts 1977). M. m. bactrianus is very widely distributed and is usually associated with human settle- ment (Roberts 1977, Taber et al. 1967) Department of Zoology, University of Baluchistan, Quetta, Pakistan, August 12, 1986. Refer Mian, A. (in press) : Field biology of Nesokia indica with reference to orchards of the Baluchistan (Pakistan). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. (1986): Field biology of collared Pika, Ochotona rufescens, with reference to orchards of Baluchistan (Pakistan). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83(2): 423-425. though it has been trapped at a distance of 4 miles (more than 6 km) from the nearest human habitation. The presence of this species in orchards may also be due to their asso- ciation with human settlements in the vicinity of orchards. In the overall sample 4 males and 6 females were trapped. Out of the 6 females captured 3 had vaginal plugs, indicating a recent mating and another had a visible pregnancy. The pregnant/potential pregnant females were equally distributed in the samples collected in the months of April, May and July. One of the pregnant female had 6 embryos in the uterus (2 on the right side and 4 on the left side). This is in conformity with the one recorded by Roberts (1977), who suggested an average size of 5 embryos per female for this species /subspecies. Ack nowledgements This study was supported by Pakistan Science Foundation through Project No. B- BU/BIO (107). Thanks are due to Dr. M. Ali, Mr. R. Ali, Dr. M. A. Beg, Mr. A. A. Khan, Mr. A. R. Khokhar, Mr. Ghulam Sultan and Mr. Q. Ah for their support at various stages of this research. AFSAR MIAN !NCES Mian, A. & Ali, M. (in press) : Biology of verte- brate pests of orchards of Baluchistan. Science, Technology and Development. Mian, A., Ali, M. & Ali, R. (in press): Damage to orchard plantation by vertebrate pests in Balu- chistan (Pakistan). Pakistan J. Agri. Res. (in press) : Distribu- 656 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES tion of different species of vertebrate pests in orchards of Baluchistan (Pakistan). Pakistan J. Agri. Res. Roberts, T. J. (1977): The Mammals of Pakis- tan. Ernest Ben Limited, London and Tonbridge, pp. 361. Soical, R. R. & Rohlf, F. J. (1969): Biometry, The Principles and Practice of Statistics in Biolo- gical Research. W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco. Sokolov, I. I. (1963) : Mammalian Fauna of the USSR, Gromov, I. M., A. A. Gureev and K. J. Chapskii, Moscow, Vol. I. Insectivora, Chiroptera and Lagomorpha (in Russian, as quoted by Roberts, 1977, Mammals of Pakistan). Taber, R. D., Sheri, A. N. & Ahmad, M. S. (1967): Mammals of the Lyallpure Region, West Pakistan. /. Mamma!., 48: 392-407. 5. ASSOCIATION OF NESOKIA INDICA GRAY WITH MICROFLORA AND FAUNA OF ITS BURROW SOIL AND DROPPINGS Introduction The habits and habitats of rodents are often very different and is reflected in the flora and fauna of burrows. Nesokia indica G. a field rat, inhabits bunds of field, banks of water channels and occasionally flat fields. Rodents in general are considered to be carriers of diseases. The studies on the microflora and fauna were, therefore, conducted to investi- gate whether or not N. indica is associated with pathogens affecting human, plant and the rat itself. Materials and Methods a . Microflora 1. The fungal flora of rat burrows For the isolation of soil fungus a method described by Waksman (1927) was followed. Soil samples from various burrows situated in irrigated and non-irrigated areas were collected and mixed thoroughly. Soils around the burrows were also collected and mixed thoroughly, these samples served as control. Potato dextrase agar (P.D.A. containing 200 g Potato extract, 20 g agar-agar, 20 g dextrose and 3.3 ml of 1% Rose Bengal in 1 litre) media sterilized by autoclaving at 151b for 20 min. was used for plating. Each plate held 20 ml of medium soil samples which were plated by direct method and the plates were incubated at 25 °C for one week. These plates were examined for colonies of fungus. Two replicates were maintained for each set. The fungi were isolated and identified. 2. Isolation of fungi from rat droppings Droppings were collected from various burrows and were powdered. The same tech- nique as described above was adapted for fungi isolation and identification. b. Fauna of rat burrows 1 ) Nematodes : The method included the following steps: (i) Extraction, (ii) Killing, (iii) fixing and identification. i) Extraction of nematodes. Soil samples used here were same as that for fungal studies. Samples were processed by 'Cobb’s modified sieving and Baermann funnel technique (Christie and Perry 1951). 20, 60, 200 and 325 mesh sieves were used. In place of the funnel 10 cm diameter petri dishes were used. The catch from all the sieves except 20 mesh sieve was poured over tissue paper (three layered) spread over coarse aluminium gauge touching the water layer in the petri dish (Schindler 1961). This was left for 48h and the suspension containing 657 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Table 1 Fungal flora (a) Burrow soil Control * (b) Droppings Aspergillus flavus Aspergillus flavus Aspergillus flavus A. niger A. niger A. niger A. versicolor A. versicolor A. versicolor A. ter reus A. terreus Penicillium sp. A. tomori A. sydowii Penicillium sp. Trichoderma sp. Cladosporium sp. Paccilomyces sp. A. tomori Penicillium sp. Trichoderma sp. Trichoderma sp. * Soil collected from the vicinity of the burrows. nematodes was collected and transferred into a bottle and was concentrated by decantation. ii and iii). Killing, fixing and identification. After decantation, the suspension was transferred to a McCartney bottle and was kept in boiling water for 2 minutes. Then an equal quantity of 5% formalin was added to it. The nematode suspension was observed under a binocular microscope and the identi- fication of nematodes was done upto generic level. A similar procedure was followed for the isolation of nematodes from the droppings. The burrows were also searched and the presence of various fauna recorded. Results and Discussion Examination of microflora and fauna in soil samples collected from the burrows of N. indica has revealed that the burrow soil is rich in flora and fauna. Ten different species of fungi were obtained while there were only 7 found in the soil collected around the burrows. Table 1 shows the various types of flora obtained during the investigation. Most of the fungi are saprophytic, some of them under congenial conditions may cause diseases in certain host plants (Facultative parasites). Urs et al. (1966) have also reported different microflora obtained from soil samples of the burrows of R. rattus, M. musculus, B. indica, B. bengalensis and T. indica. They also report Aspergillus and Pencillium in almost all burrow soils. Table 2 shows various types of nematodes, plant parasitic in nature, obtained from the burrow soil. No nematodes were isolated from the droppings. Chakraborty (1975) also found nematodes in the burrow soils of B. bengal- Table 2 Fauna of burrows (Nematodes) Burrow soil Control* Mononchus sp. Mononchus sp. Cephalobus sp. Cephalobus sp. -VTylenchorynchus vulgaris +Pratylenchus sp. +Hoplolaimus indicus Dorylaimids sp. Dorylaimids sp. _ * Soil collected from the vicinity of the burrows. 4- Plant parasitic. 658 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ensis, but has not given any account about their role. Apart from nematodes, isopods, spiders, centipedes, toads, ants, ground beetles, eggs of reptiles, were found in the rat burrows. Nothing specific is known about the role of these organisms on rat activity. However, it was observed that in the burrows, in which spiders were present, the rats had already deserted the burrow. Ants can be also source of nuisance for rats, it is very likely that ants force the rats to keep on changing their abode. In case of other species of rats, e.g. B. indica (Arjunwadkar and Gadgil 1974) and B. ben- gal ensis (Chakraborty 1975) some informa- Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110 012, June 7, 1986. tion on the fauna is available. But nothing is known about their role on rat activity. There- fore, it can be concluded that there is a need to investigate the role of microflora and fauna in detail in order to understand their influence on the population dynamics of this pest, and also to human, plant and the rat itself. Ack nowledgements I wish to thank my supervisor Dr. R. N. Katiyar for his valuable guidance during this study. I am grateful to Mr. I. Krishna Murthy for typing this manuscript. This study was done during the tenure of my Masters Degree programme. P. RAMESH1 Referen ces Arjunwadkar, A. V. & Gadgil, M. (1974): Bur- rowing habits of greater bandicoot rat ( Bandicota indica B.). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 7/(1) : 138- 140. Chakraborty, S. (1975): Field observations on the Biology and Ecology of the Lesser Bandicoot- rat, B. bengalensis G. in West Bengal. All India Rodent Seminar, held at Ahmedabad, India. Sept. 23-26, 102-109 pp. Cristie, J. R. & Perry, V. G. (1951): Removing nematodes from soil. Proc. Helm. Soc. Wash. 18: 106-108. Schindler, A. P. (1961): A simple substitute for a Baermann funnel. PI. Dis. Reptr. 45: 747-748. Urs, L. Yoshoda, Krishnakumari, K. M. & Majumdar, S. K. (1966): A report on the burrow- ing habits of rodents. Ind'an Rodent Symp. held at Calcutta. Dec. 8-1, pp. 199-203. Waksman, S. H. (1927): Principles of soil micro- biology. Bailiere, Tindall and cox. London. 1 Present address: Sorghum Entomology, ICRI- SAT, Patancheru PO, A.P. 6. A FIGHT BETWEEN BULL GAURS IN MUDUMALAI On 9.1.86 at 3.30 p.m. while moving on elephant back through compartment 12, we heard animals crashing through and thrashing- bushes Gopan, the Mahout cautiously took his ward Bama to an advantageous place, to have a safe look of what was happening. We saw on a sloping opening 2 bull Gaurs thump- ing and snorting, near a herd of 14 plus, (Herd marker-old Cow with tom left ear); one bull was young the other, older. There was no 659 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 appreciable difference in size; the dewlap of the young bull was nearly touching the ground and his dorsal ridge was prominent. The old bull had some identification marks — a pale patch above right carpal joint — a conspicu- ous dip in the dorsal ridge — his right horn appeared shorter by 2-3 inches than the left, with tip broken and frayed. The young bull exhibited lateral display, turned toward the old bull attacking with low horn threats (18 times). The older bull appeared to retreat, before actual contact of heads (12 times) turned aside; both pushed the head of the other without twisting (5 times) pushed twisting heads (once). It appeared that the old bull wanted to get away, exhibiting submissive gestures and swinging around, when the young bull forged forward. The old bull who first stood on the lower side of the slope; by strategic moves, enticed the young bull to attack, retreated in small semi circles and manoevoured to occupy a position higher than the young bull and stood along the contour. The old bull then started snorting vigorously and thumping, I thought the old bull was preparing to attack but it did not. The young bull responded with thumps and snorts after a lateral display and attacked up the slope. The old bull gave one powerful push and the young bull went crashing (probably roll- ing) down the slope. It looked that the older bull manoevoured his adversary, cleverly to a lower position where the slope and his own weight acted against the animal and the old bull took advantage of the slope. They had been fighting for about 45 minutes. The next day I located the herd but not the young bull. After two days I saw him limping severely and grazing solitarily, 3 km away from the herd. Wildlife Warden, I. MANGALRAJ JOHNSON Mudumalai Sanctuary, Udhagamandalam 643 001, Tamil Nadu, June 26, 1986. 7. INSTANCE OF AN INDIAN PANGOLIN (MANIS CRASSICAUDATA GRAY) DIGGING INTO A HOUSE At about 2 O’Clock on the night of 5/6 October 1984, I and my friend woke up when we heard a ‘hiss’ from inside a room which had been since long locked up and had an uncemented floor. On opening the door, we found a long burrow in a corner and an Indian Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata Gray) standing nearby. Obviously, it had arrived by burrowing from outside into the house. As the compound fence Hanuman Nagar, Phalka Bazar, Gwalior-474 009 (M.P.), July 26, 1986. R E FE of the house is not less than 12 feet away from the spot, it should have made a long burrow. The Indian Pangolin is occasionally seen in the villages near Gwalior and in the Madhav National Park, Shivpuri (M.P.) (Saxena 1985). However, it is the first time that it came into a house ! The pangolin was greenish-brown in colour. It was captured and sent to the Gwalior Zoo. RAJIV SAXENA EN CE Saxena, Rajiv (1985): Indian Pangolin (Hindi). Swadesh. 27 December. 1985. 660 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 8. OCCURRENCE OF THE GREAT CRESTED GREBE PODICEPS CRIST AT US (LINNE) AT TADOBA, MAHARASHTRA On December 4th, 1984 while watching a group of Red Crested Pochards Netta rufina, on Tadoba lake in Chandrapur district, we saw a whitish thin necked bird having a black crest far away at the center of the lake. Next day while walking along the lake shore we (IIT Wildlife Club) saw the same bird near the pump house often diving into the water and staying as long as twenty to thirty seconds inside the water. It was immediately recognis- ed as a large grebe. We went closed to have a better look and identified it as the Great Crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus. This is the first report of its occurrence in Maharashtra (Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra). 4, Modi Nivas, Telang Road, Matunga, Bombay 400 019, January 10, 1985. The southern most record of this bird is from Puri (19°40'N and 86° E), in Orissa. Tadoba is 45 kms from Chandrapur, almost on the same latitude (20° N and 79°20' E), but about 650 km to the west of Puri. It is interesting to note that this species is accepted as winter visitor entering from north-west and going as far as Assam and Manipur in the east and Gujarat in the south. This bird now seems to be visiting new areas where it was earlier unknown ( JBNHS 80: 414). Maha- rashtra lies between Gujarat and Orissa. Hence it would be interesting to find out whether it is passage migrant at Tadoba. We were in Tadoba during the next ten days and saw the Grebe every day. MEENA HARIBAL 9. SPOTTING OF HABSHI FLAMINGOS IN NANI- B ANN! About 25 kilometres from Bhuj, on both sides of the Road going to Khavda, rain water had accumulated in considerable quantity. This temporary water logging is because of heavy showers in the second week of September, 1984. The water logged area which forms a part of Nani-Banni and has now become a temporary dwelling ground for the migratory birds. This is my third consecutive monsoon in Kachchh but it is the first time I have seen water and the bird life in this particular area. The previous two have been low rainfall years and not a trace of water was to be seen in this tract of Nani-Banni immediately after monsoon. It appears that the water accumu- lated during the current year may remain till the end of January, 1985 and I therefore thought it wise to take observations at least twice in a month. This was all the more neces- sary for me as flamingos form one of the largest populations here and I being one of the members of the Committee appointed by the Government to find out the reasons for their disappearance, was interested in locating the youn gones, if any, as the area is adjacent to the Great Rann of Kachchh. On 09-10-1984 when the first visit was made to this area the count of flamingos was about 1500. Two small groups of demoiselle cranes 661 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 83 and numerous Blackwinged stilts and sand- pipers along with coots and few Avocets were located. Careful observation on the flamingos did not reveal the presence of chicks. Whatever small birds were seen could be safely classed as Lesser flamingos because of their adult like movements. While we were making the observations two individuals quite close to the road were seen treading in the water. Because of their dirty white or some- what blackish-grey colour they attracted my attention. These two individuals behaved exact- ly like other adult flamingos. One was fully grown while the other was of a slightly smaller size. It had black beak and black legs with dirty white or ashy appearance. The colour was uniformly ash to blackish depending upon the angle of sun’s rays. Attempts were made to take a closer look but the birds got disturb- ed and flew away. In order to locate these abnormal, blackish- grey flamingos again a visit was made on 20-10-1984 but such birds could not be locat- ed. During this visit however the population of flamingos was estimated as over 2000 and number of cranes, coots, stilts and avocets had increased. Dabchiks and cotton teals were spot- ted during this visit. Osprey and Marsh Harrier were also seen near the pools. A further visit to this area was made on 29-11-1984 and to my great surprise a very high number of blackish grey flamingos were located. When the count was taken in a group of exactly 400 birds, 21 turned out to be blackish grey. These birds were exactly the size of greater flamingos with the normal variations in size as is seen in the latter. They were so intimately mixed-up with others that they could hardly be separated from the group by a layman. Because of the above encouraging findings further search was made and to our astonish- ment an altogether separate group of 16 birds was located at one spot. This was a group of grey or blackish-grey flamingos with blackish beaks and legs. Except for the difference in coloration no other difference could be seen as compared to greater flamingo. These birds had no trace of pink coloration. When observed in flight through binoculars a few blackish in- dividuals could be seen prominently. When these birds were shown to the local inhabi- tants who have been seeing flamingos all these years they expressed surprise and said that they were seeing such black or “Habshi Flamingos” for the first time. On going through some of the available literature on flamingos I find that there is no mention of such a blackish-grey flamingo ex- cept for some abnormally large sized indivi- duals which will be very few and rare. Here in Nani-Banni area it is seen that every large group has a few such individuals which are not abnormally big but are of varying sizes as is the case in greater flamingos. I do not know whether any such spottings of blackish-grey or “Habshi Flamingos” is in your records. I would appreciate if I am enlight- ened about it and if such spottings are not recorded in past then the same may be brought to the notice of the members of the Society through your esteemed Journal. A. A. VAIDYA Conservator of Forests, Kachchh Circle, Bhuj, January 4, 1985. [I think the dark birds referred to are undoubt- edly juveniles in various stages of the brown juv. plumage. In size some brown individuals may be nearly as big as adults. — Salim Ali] 662 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 10. RED SPURFOWL ( GALLOPERDIX SPADICEA CAURINA ) On 29th May, 1982 I witnessed on interest- ing behaviour of spur Fowl. In Bhomat, a hilly tract west of Udaipur there is a place called Kiary covered by dry-deciduous miscellaneous forest. I entered a narrow ravine strewn with boulders and scrub jungle looking for Grey Junglefowl ( Gallus sonneratii). When nego- tiating a bend I startled a family of spurfowl in front of me, near a fair sized boulder. The cock started circling the boulder chuck- ling and gave a spectacular display of its feathers while the hen with her five chicks started climbing the steep slope to my left taking advantage of every bit of cover. The chicks were very small and the side of the ravine was very steep so the progress of the hen was very slow. 1 changed my direction 41, Panchwati, Udaipur - 313 001, February 21, 1985. and edged forward so as to reduce the dis- tance between me and the boulder as well as the hen. The cock increased its pace. It circled the boulder thirteen times and on its last two rounds it passed within a few feet of me. Mean- while the hen and chicks reached a dense patch of scrub and were hidden from my view. The cock when it was on the other side of the boulder flew away and joined its family. To save its progeny the cock had diverted the attention of the intruder by madly, circling round the boulder while the hen led the chicks to safety. In these birds devotion of the cock towards its offspring is very great and it takes consi- derable risk to protect them. RAZA H. TEHSIN 11. BREEDING OF THE PAINTED SNIPE ( ROSTRATULA BENGHA LENS IS) IN TRIVANDRUM. KERALA Since the days of H. S. Ferguson (vide JBNHS 38: 694-5 & 39: 576), no one seems to have recorded the breeding of the Painted Snipe from Kerala. We would, therefore, like to place it on record that we came across a pair of Painted Snipe with a tiny chick in paddy fields near Peroorkada, Trivandrum. We first saw the Painted Snipe at this place at 1700 hrs on April 23, 1984. Two adults were feeding in a water-logged paddy field. On the 17th of May, 1984, at 1730 hrs we found a male and a female in a field. A few yards away were another male and a tiny chick. While the adult was wading through the slush, the chick swam after it. On seeing us approaching, the parent and the chick hid themselves among the stubbles. When we went closer, the adult flew off and alighted a few yards away. It then put on a ‘wounded-bird display’, crawling along with one wing raised and the other trailing on the ground. Mean- while the chick remained silent and motion- less. We carried the chick home, took some photographs and within twenty minutes re- turned the chick to the place where we had found it. We waited at a distance to see what would happen and were greatly relieved to find the parent (the male) coming to the place where the chick was. We are greatly obliged to Professor K. K. Neelakantan for his help in identifying the bird and for advising us to send this note to the Journal. 663 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 “Padmalayam”, Indira Nagar, C. SUSANTH Peroorkada, Trivandrum 695 005, C. SURESH February 27, 1985. S. RAJEEVAN 12. RECOVERY OF A RINGED SANDWICH TERN, STERNA SANDV1CENSIS SANDV1CENSIS FROM RAMESWARAM ISLAND, TAMILNADU Terns are known for their long inter- continental wintering migration. Though the sandwich tern Sterna s. sandvicensis Latham has been known to frequent Sind and Makran coast (Ali and Ripley 1981) and Sri Lanka coast (Ceylon Bird Club Newsletter 1978), it has not so far been recovered from the main- land of India. However it has been sight re- corded from Saurashtra (Dharmakumarsinhji 1958). On 17.9.1983 a sandwich tern was recover- ed from Kundukal point of Rameswaram Island v/ith a metal ring having Russian in- scription and a number P. 702628 on it. The salient characters of the bird are as follows: Crown black, a black stripe continues from the eye back to the crown; body ash colour dorsally, white ventrally; bill long, slender tipp- ed with yellow; legs, web foot and the pri- Regional Centre of Central Marine Fisheries, Research Institute, Mandapam Camp, Tamil Nadu, August 18. 1986. Refer Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. D. (1981): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 3, p. 70, Oxford University Press, London. maries black. The bird is locally known as ‘Katrenji’ in Tamil. It may be mentioned that two other birds of the species were also recovered from the Pillaimadam lagoon, near Mandapam on 24.6.1983 and 7.11.83, indicating that the bird is a common visitor to these areas. They were found along with other common terns, namely Hydroprogne caspia (Caspian tern), Sterna aurantia and Gelochelidon nilotica. It is of interest that the bird is found in Rameswaram area from 24.6.1983 as indicat- ed by its capture. It is much earlier than its occurrence in the Sri Lanka coast in Decem- ber. It is not known how much time these birds stay in their wintering areas. This recovery, the second of the sandwich tern with a ring, confirms that the species is a common migratory bird to the Southern Peninsula. R. S. LAL MOHAN ENCES Dharmakumarsinhji, R. S. (1958): Sandwich tern Thalasseus sandvicensis sandvicensis (Latham) in Saurashtra. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55: 357. 664 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 13. LACK OF TRAFFIC SENSE AMONGST INDIAN ROLLERS On 28th November 1984, we were travelling on the Bombay-Goa Road. Halfway between Vadakhal Naka and Mahad, our car passed over an Indian Roller ( Coracias benghalensis) sitting on the middle of the road. I immediate- ly asked the driver to halt, and walked back to the spot where the roller was still sitting on the road. Whilst I was walking back, five heavy trucks, one Matador van and two cars either passed over the bird or swerved to the side to avoid hitting it. Only once did the bird attempt to fly off, but only succeeded in hitting the bottom of a truck as it passed overhead, and again fell back on the road. On reaching the roller, I discovered it was an immature bird. Finding that it was still 13, Neel Tarang, 210 Veer Savarkar Marg, Mahim, Bombay-400 016, December 25, 1984. alive, I picked it up. Thinking that it may be critically injured, I placed it on the fork of a large tree on the side of the road. However, to my great surprise, as soon as I released my grip on the bird, it immediately flew off, totally unhurt, and apparently none the worse for its experience. While returning to the car I noticed a black- winged kite ( Elanus caeruleus) that had been sitting on an adjacent tree fly away in a different direction. I am unable to say whether the roller had sought the dubious sanctuary offered by the road to escape the unwelcome attentions of the kite, or whether the kite had spotted the roller’s hapless plight and had come to capitalise on the situation, or whether the kite’s presence was merely coincidental. DEBI GOENKA 14. OCCURRENCE OF THE LITTLE PIED FLYCATCHER (MUSCICAPA WESTERMANN1) IN NARSAPUR, MEDAK DISTRICT, ANDHRA PRADESH On 11th November 1984, the Birdwatchers’ Society of Andhra Pradesh had gone on a field outing to Narsapur Forest area (17°45' N and 78°17'E) in Medak District of Andhra Pradesh. Narsapur is approximately 60 km North-West of Hyderabad city, at a height of 635 m above sea level. The vegetation of the area is mainly deciduous with Tectona grandis, Terminalia foment osa, Terminalia arjuna, etc., as the main plant species. While walking along a small stream-bed, (at approx. 1100 hours) trying to locate the whereabouts of a pair of Blackbacked Wood- peckers Chrysocolaptes festivus which we had seen a few minutes ago, our attention was drawn towards a small (sparrow — ) flycatcher in the canopy of a Terminalia tomentosa tree. This little black and white bird was flitting about and actively hunting in the upper storey. The plumage was pied with white underparts, a large white wing-patch and a broad, long, white supercilium. The upper plumage was black in colour and the sides of the tail, near the base were white. We watched this bird for a good ten minutes as it flittered about above us. All identification marks pointed to 665 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 a male Little Pied Flycatcher Muscicapa westermanni ! According to the handbook, Muscicapa westermanni is an “altitudinal and short-range migrant, not common.” It is found in North- East India and “winters in the foothills upto c 1 800 m, and over the plains as far as Surguja (North-East M.P.), Manbhum (South Bihar) and Midnapore (West Bengal).” . . . In winter frequents the vicinity of well-wooded streams. 14-7-370 Begum Bazar, Hyderabad 500 012, December 28, 1984. The bird we saw was most likely a wintering vagrant. Altitude does not seem to be an im- portant criterion in its winter range, since it has been already been reported from areas with such diverse heights as 915 m above sea level (Surguja) and sea level, i.e., 0 ft (Midna- pore). Plowever the wintering habitat pre- ferred by this bird is represented almost exactly in Narsapur where we saw it in the vicinity of a well-wooded stream. AASHEESH PITT IE Reference Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. D. (1983) : Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan — Compact Edition. Oxford University Press, Bombay. 15. BLYTH’S REED WARBLER ACROCEPHALUS DUMETORUM WITH AN ABNORMAL RECTRIX (With a text -figure) An unusual specimen of Blyth’s Reed Warbler Acrocephalus dumetorum was caught at Point Calimere, Tamil Nadu on 3 Novem- ber 1983. On examination it was noted that ringed and released. I am aware of only one other instance of a similar abnormality, that of a male Copper Pheasant Syrmaticus soem- meringi, reported by Murie (1865). Fig. 1. End-on view of tail of the right centre rectrix was nearly upside- down (Fig. 1). The feather was firmly attach- ed to the bird and there was no evidence of any damage. The rest of the plumage was normal and in fresh condition, indicating that the bird had recently completed a full moult and this was an adult (Gaston 1976). It was Acrocephalus dumetorum. Acknowledgements I thank Dr. Salim Ali and S. A. Hussain for inviting me to join the BNHS Avifauna Project team and Dr. R. Sugathan for his hospitality and assistance. 666 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES BNHS Avifauna Project, Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023, February 25, 1985. DAVID S. MELVILLE1 References Gaston, A. J. (1976) : The moult of Blyth’s Reed Murie, J. (1865) : Note upon the abnormality of Warbler Acrocephalus dumetorum, with notes on the a tail feather in a male Soemmering’s Pheasant. Proc. moult of other Palaearctic warblers in India. Ibis Zool. Soc., Land., 12 December 1865. 118: 247-251. 1 Present address: WWF Hong Kong, GPO Box 12721, Hong Kong. 16. OCCURRENCE OF CROWNED LEAF WARBLER (. PHYLLOSCOPUS OCCIPITALIS) IN BOMBAY The Crowned Leaf Warbler ( Phylloscopus occipitalis) winters in the peninsula from Southern Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and East- ern ghats, south to southernmost hills (Ripley 1982). This species is not included in the ‘Birds of Bombay and Salsette’ (Ali & Abdul- ali 1941) and in the recent, ‘Checklist of birds of Borivli National Park’. (Abdulali 1981). I first came across this species in Borivli National Park in January 1984 and in the winter seasons of 1983-84 and 1984-85, I was able to get more than 10 sightings of this species in the Park. It seems that this species is not an uncommon visitor to Borivli National Park. I also saw a small flock of this species in Karnala Bird Sanctuary on 2nd February 1985. In the National Park this species seems to prefer denser parts of forest with tangled vegetation with creepers etc. It is always found in small flocks, mostly in hunt- 3, Rocky Hill, Malabar Hill, Bombay 400 006, February 6, 1985. ing parties with fly-catchers, bulbuls etc., and is silent. This phylloscopus is one of the easiest to identify in the field. The prominent coronal bands distinguish it at once from other phyllos- copus species that winter in this area. (Except from P. reguloides which do not occur here.) The yellow wingbar, yellow wing-bend and the pinkish bill are also prominent. The undertail coverts are creamish in colour and have curious plumpish appearance. I am familiar with this species in the W. Himalayas, where I was able to spend two summer seasons (1983 and 1984) watching the Phylloscopus genus. It is also in- teresting to note that there is marked change in the colour of the bill in breeding and non- breeding season. The bright orange lower mandible in summer changes to dull pinkish in winter, and possibly plays an important role in the breeding biology of this species. NITIN JAMDAR 667 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Referen ces Abdulali, Humayun (1981): Checklist of the Birds of Borivii National Park. Ali, Salim & Abdulali, Humayun (1941) : Birds of Bombay & Salsette. Prince of Wales Museum. Ripley, S. D. (1982) : Synopsis of the Birds of India & Pakistan. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. 17. NEW RECORDS OF SOME BIRDS FROM DIFFERENT PARTS OF EASTERN INDIA During faunistic surveys conducted by me in different parts of eastern India since 1977, I came across some birds which appear to be new records from those areas. They are: 1 . The Himalayan Cuckoo, Cuculus saturatus saturatus Blyth As per extant literature the Himalayan Cuckoo winters in the plains of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar and Assam. However, I collected a male at Baj Baj, 24 Parganas dis- trict, West Bengal, on 23 October 1977. The presence of a few feathers with brown bars on the chin and upper breast and an ashy spot on the crown indicate, that it is a young bird. Material : Id (23 Oct. 1977), Baj Baj, 24 Parganas, West Bengal; Srikumar Chatto- padhyay, collector. Measurement (in mm) : Wing 193, tail 163, bill 97. The species can be identified in the field by its smaller size than the Asiatic Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus, and the pure white edge of shoulder which is clearly visible when the bird is perched. After this collection I have observ- ed this bird on two more occasions. Once on 7 October 1981 on the eastern side of the Dhakuria Lake in Calcutta, the bird was in hepatic phase and was being chased by crows; and again on 14 October 1984 in the Senpukur Swamp at Baj Baj. On the last occasion there were two birds foraging for rice moths in a patch of Scirpus sp. in an inundated paddy field. On both the occasions the birds were completely silent. It is also to be noted that these birds were seen only during October in lower Bengal and all attempts to locate them after October failed, which may indicate that they were on passage. 2. Mandelli’s Yellowbrowed Leaf Warbler, Phylloscopus inornatus mandellii (Baker) Out of the three subspecies of the Yellow- browed Leaf Warbler, Phylloscopus inornatus, two are reported from lower Bengal, viz., Hume's Yellowbrowed Leaf Warbler, Phyllos- copus inornatus humei (Brooks) and the Siberian Yellowbrowed Leaf Warbler, Phyllos- copus inornatus inornatus (Blyth). During a bird collection trip around Baj Baj in Lower Bengal, I collected an example of Mandelli’s Yellowbrowed Leaf Warbler on 26 October 1977. It was collected from the first storey of an old mango tree, while foraging and producing a feeble, long-drawn, sweet si-i-ip. This bird has a very prominent supercilium which is pale yellow in the proximal part up to the eye and whitish distally. Two promi- nent wing bars are nearly white, and the outer edges of scapulars are white with faint greenish wash. Upper parts darker and rump bright green, which confirms its identity. Another specimen was collected on 14 Decem- ber 1978, from an identical habitat in a neighbouring village. This is a new record of this bird from lower Bengal. 668 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Material : Id1, 1? (14 Dec. 1978, 26 Oct. 1977), Vill. Barabagan and Vill. Senpukur, Baj Baj, 24 Parganas District, West Bengal; Srikumar Chattopadhyay, collector. Measurements (in mm) : Wing tail Bill cf 58 42 12.5 $ 53 40 10.5 It is also to be noted that both the speci- mens have very narrow white edges on sixth to 10th primaries, all secondaries and tertiaries. 3. The Himalayan Rubythroat, Erithacus pectoralis (Gould) During November 1979, I visited an island locally known as Sahebdubir Chaur, c 5 km south of Sagar Island, 24 Parganas District, West Bengal. The island which is used as a temporary fishing centre by local fishermen, is mostly barren with small sand-dunes barring some grasses, Ipomoea species and a few stunted mangrove bushes. The island attracts a large number of birds, mainly gulls, terns and waders, and the stunt- ed mangrove bushes attract a large number of passerines. Among other birds, I have collected an example of the Himalayan Rubythroat from one such bush. The specimen was a female with dark grey breast, tail tip white suffus- ed with rufous; underwing grey, inner side of the thighs grey and brown on the outer side. Material : 1 $ (11 Nov. 1979), Sahebdubir Chaur, off Sagar Island, 24 Parganas district. West Bengal; Srikumar Chattopadhyay collec- tor. Measurements (in mm) : Wing 70, tail 56, tarsus 29, bill 15. The specimen had nonbreeding ovary. Zoological Survey of India, 8, Lindsay Street, Calcutta-700 087, March 20, 1985. 4. Redwinged Crested Cuckoo, Clamator coromandus (Linnaeus) While bird watching in the western slope of Susunia Hill, c. 11 km north of Bankura town. West Bengal, in the afternoon of 18 August 1984, I heard a call, vaguely reminis- cent of the call of the Green Magpie, Cissa chinensis, from the other side of the hill. As I approached towards the source, I inadver- tently disturbed a group of the Common Langur foraging on the top of the hill, and the langurs rushed down the other side of the hill and probably disturbed the bird which came flying overhead, calling and alighted in the Sal and Teak forest at the base of the hill. In flight it resembled the Pied Crested Cuckoo, but had very dark chestnut wing and a white collar, which confirmed its identity as the Redwinged Crested Cuckoo, Clamator coromandus Linnaeus. The bird was observed again in a patch of Sal and Teak on the western side of the hill on the next day in the morning. The bird was very silent and therefore difficult to locate when perched. It gives its klinck-klinck call in rapid succession in flight, and also when dis- turbed at rest. According to the extant literature, this bird breeds in the Himalayan foothills from Garhwal east to Arunachal Pradesh and south in the hills of Assam and the adjoining states. The bird seen by me in Susunia Hill was probably on passage to South India. Acknowledgement I am grateful to Dr. B. Biswas for his kind help and constant inspiration in this study. SRIKUMAR CHATTOPADHYAY 669 13 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 18. A NOTE ON A HAWKSBILL TURTLE ( ERETMOCHELYS 1MBR1CATA ) AT GAHIRMATHA BEACH OF BHITARKANIKA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, ORISSA Gahirmatha beach, a stretch of 35 Km. long in Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary of Orissa is renowned for mass nesting or ‘arribada’ of Olive Ridley Turtles, Lepidochelys olivacea . No other species of marine turtles, except Olive Ridley turtles have been observed nest- ing at Gahirmatha beach. However, in March, 1984 one adult dead leatherback turtle ( Der - mochelys coriacea) was recovered from Shortt’s Island, not far from Gahirmatha turtle nesting beach which was in an advanced stage of decomposition. Again, in the night of 20.2.86 a sub-adult Hawksbill turtle ( Eretmochelys imbricata) was seen crawling on the beach by the Research Assistant and the Research helpers, who were actively collecting data Research Officer, Saltwater Crocodile Research & Conservation Centre, Dangmal-754 248, RO. Iswarpur, Dist. Cuttack, Orissa, India, October 11, 1986. on mass emergence, nest and nesting of olive ridley turtles. It was captured and was brought to the Gahirmatha Marine Turtle Research and Conservation Centre and retained in capti- vity for study on its food and feeding, growth and behavioural aspects. Nesting of Hawks- bill turtle in Orissa coast has so far not been observed /reported. Sporadic nesting of Hawksbill turtles along the Tirunelveli coast of Tamilnadu has been reported by Fernando (1983). This Hawksbill turtle is now doing well at the centre and has increased its weight of 5.5 Kg. and length of 0.5 m. (at the time of capture) to 7.2 Kg. and 0.62 m. respectively (15.9.86). SUDHAKAR KAR Reference Fernando, A. Bastian (1983): Nesting site and veli coast of Tamilnadu. Mar. Fish Inf or. Serv. hatchery of the Hawksbill turtle along the Tirunel- T.&.E. Ser. 50: 33-34. 19. CANNIBALISTIC BEHAVIOUR OF FRESH WATER TURTLES IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN The Keoladeo National Park at Bharatpur has an aquatic area of 8.5 sq. km. During the summer of 1985 the aquatic area dried up completely leaving a deep pond, Manasarovar where the water was between 40-50 cm. A massive concentration of about 358 turtles were noticed in this pond. Most of them were Lissemys punctata. The turtles very active between 02.00 and 05.00 hrs, and 18.00 and 20.00 hrs. On 2nd July 1985 at 07.00 hrs, I saw in the water a big turtle catching by the neck a small turtle of the same species. The small turtle struggled for about ten minutes to 670 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES escape; but it was futile. The upside down body of the small turtle was dragged above the water level and the plastron could be seen above the water. The dead, turtle was carried along the pond slightly above the water level. Almost a similar incident was noticed on 5th July also. On the morning of 6th July, I saw a dead turtle in the shallow water on the shoreline of the same pond. The fore and the hind limbs on the left side of the body were completely eaten. When I pushed the carcass slowly into the deeper water 3-4 small turtles of the same species appeared all of a sudden and started feeding on the dead turtle. A big turtle came about 5 minutes later and carried away the dead turtle by holding it upside down above the water level. Another big turtle was attract- ed to this and there was a tussle between the two for the carcass. There is no previous record of cannibalistic behaviour of fresh water turtles from the Park. One of the possible reasons for this canni- balistic behaviour could be the tough compe- tition for space as there was no other water body in the park during this period. Whether it was for food is not clear as Daniel (1983) has recorded that the turtle could survive without food for 2 years. Acknowledgements I am thankful to Dr. V. S. Vijayan, Project Scientist for encouraging me to write this note. M. JOHN GEORGE Junior Field Biologist, BNHS Ecological Research Centre, 331, Rajendra Nagar, Bharatpur (Rajasthan), May 31, 1986. Reference Daniel, J. C. (1983) : The book of Indian Rep- tiles. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, pp. 141. 20. FRESH WATER TURTLE CAPTURING AQUATIC BIRDS On the morning of 1st October 1985, I saw a fresh water turtle capturing a cormorant in an Ipomoea patch of the Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur. This observation was made near the sluice gate in Sapan mori area, where a large flock of cormorants were actively feeding on fish. Suddenly quite close to the road, a turtle grabbed the leg of one of the little cormorants. The bird flapped its wings and struggled to escape for more than 5 minutes, when at the approach of a tourist, the turtle left the bird and disappeared. It had crushed the leg of the bird upto the thigh. Within an hour I observed similar incidents but this time the species were the shag and large cormorant. These are not uncommon incidents in the Park as I have recorded turtles capturing Indian moorhen, bronzewinged jacana, gadwall, little grebe, coot and cotton teal. I am not sure whether the turtle feed on these birds or not. The fresh water turtle cap- turing coot has been reported earlier by Kannan (1985). But their observations on other species has not been reported earlier from this Park. 671 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Acknowledgements and Dr. (Mrs.) Lalitha Vijayan, Senior Field Biologist, BNHS Ecological Research Centre, I thank Dr. V. S. Vijayan, Project Scientist for their encouragement. Junior Field Biologist, C. SIVASUBRAMANIAN BNHS Ecological Research Centre, 331, Rajendra Nagar, Bharatpur - 321 001, Rajasthan, India, August 30, 1986. Reference Kannan, R. (1985) : Fresh water turtle capturing coot. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82(1) : 244. 21. RECORD OF THE FUNGOID FROG RAN A MALABARICA (BIBRON) IN NAVSARI (GUJARAT STATE) A frog was collected from a temporary flooded area at Navsari and was identi- fied as Rana malabarica (Bibron) on the basis of colour and other characters. This frog appears to be rare in this area. So far it could be located only at Navsari, a town in South Gujarat. The earlier records regarding its distribution indicates its occurrence in Western ghats and Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, M. S. University of Baroda, Baroda, Department of Biology, B. P. Baria Science Institute, Navsari, December 10, 1986. low lands along west side of ghats from Kasara Ghat in Nasik district of Maharashtra to Edanad, Chenganur (Kerala). (J. C. Daniel 1975). The occurrence of Rana malabarica (Bibron) in Gujarat is being reported for the first time with our finding a specimen of this species at Navsari. Y. M. NAIK R. K. PATEL Reference Daniel, J. C. (1975): Field guide to the amphi- bians of Western India. Part III. ibid. 72(2) : 506- 522. 672 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 22. OCCURRENCE OF WHIRLING DISEASE IN C1RRH1NA M RIG ALA IN WARDHA (With a photograph) Information on occurrence of whirling disease in the major carps in India is sparse. During my visits to Fish Seed Farm, Kelzar (District Wardha) in 1983. I collected a few specimens of Cirrhina mrigala with deformed spinal column. These were found to be similar in appearance to European and American salmonids suffering from whirling disease as reported in Fish Culture by Marcel Huet. I preserved one of them for the departmental museum. In August 1984 I brought about 100 finger- lings of mrigal from the same farm for in- tensive culture for study of their growth rate many of them died by October end. In Nov- ember 1984 one of the remaining fishes had a similar deformed spine. It had grown to about 10 cm. It was taken out of the culture tank and kept separately in an aquarium for observation. It was observed that the fish used to take rounds in the same direction several times, coming to the surface and then falling to the bottom. It repeated the same process after some time. This went on for two weeks and then it died. The deformed spine and the specific behaviour of the fish was a clear in- dication of the whirling disease. Head of the Zoology Dept., Jankidevi Bajaj College of Science, Wardha, September 28, 1985. Photo. 1. Mrigal suffering from whirling disease. I then contacted the Fisheries Development Officer, Kelazar requesting him to give me more information, if he had also come across such deformities in the fishes left and reared in the farm after the sale of seed every year. In the last week he sent me one Twelve inch specimen of mrigal with similar charac- teristics. More information is yet to be col- lected. If the disease has invaded the farm it could be very harmful, as once a fish is infected by the causative agent, the protozoon Myxosoma ( Leptospora ) cerebralis, it cannot be cured. And once a farm is infected it is difficult to rid it of the disease. S. C. MAHESHWARI 673 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 23. DEVELOPMENT AND SURVIVAL OF MYZUS PERSIC AE (SULZER) ON TARAMIRA ( ERUCA SAT1VA LINN.) INFLORESCENCE AT LUDHIANA* I NTRODUCTION Out of ten different species of insects re- ported to attack taramira in Punjab, Myzus persicae is the only insect which causes eco- nomic damage (Sandhu et al. 1981). The insect attacks 33 plant species belonging to 15 different families around Ludhiana (Pun- jab). In addition to the loss caused by feeding, the insect is capable of transmitting more than one hundred virus diseases in India (Nagaich and Agrawal 1969). In the early stage of this crop the nymphs and adults of this insect suck cell sap from the leaves, but after the appearance of inflores- cence developing buds are preferred. This leads to reduction in the size and number of pods. (Singh and Singh 1985). Since the aphid is confined to the inflorescence after the bud initiation stage, it was considered desirable to study the development and survival of M. persicae on inflorescence during the peak acti- vity period, i.e. January-April. The results are presented in this paper. Methods and Material The studies were conducted in the screen house cages of the Department of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. Various parameters, viz. nymphal instars, nym- phal duration, nymphal survival, pre-reproduc- tive, reproductive and post-reproductive periods, fecundity and longevity were studied * Based on the thesis of the senior author, ap- proved for M.Sc. (Entomology) degree of Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, for two generations. For this study the plants of ITSA variety of taramira were grown in earthen pots (14 cm dia.) and raised up to inflorescence stage. A single apterous aphid was released on the inflorescence under a cylindrical alkathene microcage, 15 cm long. In order to fix it on the inflorescence, it was supported with the help of a wooden stick using rubber band. It was closed by muslin sleeves at its ends. Twenty five such plants were kept for the study. The observations were recorded daily. Observations for one generation were re- corded during third week of January to third week of March (over temperature 13.2°C and R. H. 62%) and for second generation from first week of March to second week of April (over temperature 21.1°C & R.H. 56%). Results and Discussion Duration of various nymphal instars: The duration of first instar nymph (Table 1) varied from 2-4 days from third week of January to third week of March. It varied from 2-3 days from first week of March to second week of April. The overall mean duration of 1st in- star was 2.4 ± 0.31 days. The duration of second instar nymph was 2-4 days from third week of January to third week of March. It was only 2 days from first week of March to second week of April. In all the 2nd instar nymph took 2 . 5 ± 0 . 54 days. The duration of third instar nymph varied from 2-5 days from third week of January to third week of March. The duration of this instar was 1-2 days from 1st week of March 674 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Table 1 Duration and survival of nymphal stage of M. persicae on inflorescence Period of observation Mean duration of nymphal instars (days) Total Nymphal nymphal survival period (%) (days) Tem. (°C) R.H. (%) 1st Ilnd nird rvth Jan.-March Range 2-4 days 2-4 days 2-5 days 2-8 days 13-19 64 13.2 62 (23.1.83 to 21.3.83) Mean 2.71 ±0.54 3.09+0.60 4.55+0.92 5.15 + 1.26 15.68±1 .77 March- April Range 2-3 2 1-2 2-3 8-9 73 21.1 56 (4.3.83 to 13.4.83) Mean 2.09+0. 28 2.0 +0.0 1.81+0.38 2.18+0.38 8.09±0.28 Overall 2.4 ±0.31 2.54+0.54 3.18+1.37 3.66 + 1.48 11.88±3.79 Mean +S.D. Table 2 Pre-reproductive, reproductive, post-reproductive period, longevity, period of generation and fecundity of M. persicae on inflorescence o *43 c3 •8 I fi-8 2 g g g '■8 & 1 1 t> 13 II O -O * ^ 8 w> ^ it) g w * o si ll 8 g c u & o a ~ T3 +j v — ' O d r k'i 0h O* Oh ‘5 & I 1 £ < > 8 o Oh § £ g -3 I | S £ S M £ 00 8g jf, S .2 < <£ Jan.-March Range 1-3 3-32 0-9 3-39 21-56 3 89 37.1 (23.1.83 to 21.3.83) March to Mean 1.88+0.58 16.18 + 8.21 1.75±2.56 17.93 + 10.37 36.18+9.97 April Range 0-1 5-21 0-23 5-42 13-50 22 87 69.4 (4.3.83 to 13.4.83) Mean 0.54+0.49 18.4+4.30 16. 36±6.24 34.36+9.98 40.27 + 12.08 Overall mean ±S.D. 1.21+0.67 17.09+0.91 9. 05 ±7. 30 26.14+8.21 38.22+2.04 to second week of April. The overall mean duration of this instar was 3.18 ± 1.37 days. The duration of fourth instar nymph varied from 2-8 days from third week of January to third week of March, and 2-3 days from 1st week of March to second week of April. On an average, the fourth instar nymph was com- pleted in 3 . 66 ± 1 . 48 days. Total duration of nymphal instars : The nymphal stage lasted for 13-19 days from third week of January to third week of March. The total nymphal period varied from 8-9 days 675 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 from first week of March to second week of April. The overall mean duration of nymphal instars was 11.88 ±3.79 days (Table 1). Survival : The survival of nymphs varied from 64 per cent during January-March to 73 per cent during March-April. Pre-reproductive period : The pre-reproduc- tive period varied from 1-3 days from third week of January to third week of March but it varied from 0-1 days from 1st week of March to second week of April. In all, pre- reproductive period was completed in 1.21 dz 0.67 days on inflorescence (Table 2). Reproductive period : The duration of re- productive period varied from 3-32 days from third week of January to third week of March. From 1st week of March to second week of April, the reproductive period varied from 5-21 days. The mean reproductive period of this aphid was 17.09 ±0.91 days (Table 2). Post-reproductive period : The post-repro- Department of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. Agricultural Assistant, United Commercial Bank, Nakodar (Jalandhar), July 27, 1985. ductive period varied from 0-9 days from third week of January to third week of March and 0-23 days from first week of March to second week of April (Table 2). On an average, the post-reproductive period of this aphid on in- florescence lasted for 9.05 zt 7.30 days. Adult longevity : Mean longevity of adult was 26.14 ± 8.21 days. Period of generation : It ranged from 21-56 days from third week of January to third week of March and 13-50 days from first week of March to second week of April. The average longevity of this aphid was 38.22 =f= 2.04 days (Table 2). Fecundity : The number of young ones laid by a single female varied from 3-89 from third week of January to third week of March and 22-87 from first week of March to second week of April (Table 2). Average fecundity per generation in former case was 37 . 1 nymphs, whereas in latter case it was 69.4 nymphs. GURVINDERJIT SINGH GURDIP SINGH References Nagaich, B. B. & Agrawal, H. O. (1969): Re- search on potato virus in India. Indian J. agric. Sci. 39: 286-296. Sandhu, G. S., Singh, B., Bhalla, J. S. & Brar, K. S. (1981) : Insects, mites and birds associated with Eruca sativa Mill, and Chemical control of Myzus persicae (Sulzer) infesting flower buds in India. Oilseeds J. 11 : 3-5. Singh, G. & Singh, G. (1985) : Effect of dates of sowing on the appearance and abundance of Myzus persicae (Sulzer) and yield of tar amir a crop. Indian J. agric. Sci. 55(4) : 287-289. 676 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 24. MORMON BUTTERFLY ( PAPILIO POLYMNESTER ) AND ITS STATUS AROUND BOMBAY I refer to Mr, J. S. Serrao’s note under this heading (1978, JBNHS 75: 241), I wish to present my observations on this butterfly in Bombay. I have seen this butterfly between August and September every year since 1978 (1978, 3 sightings; 1979, 4 sightings; 1980, 5 sightings; 1981, 4 sightings) in IIT Powai. In 1982 this butterfly seemed to be fairly common through- out from July to March and it was also report- ed by several of my colleagues. In all these sightings the butterfly did not seem to be flying in any particular direction. It has also been observed several times in 4, Modi Nivas, Telang Road, Matunga, Bombay-400 019, January 1, 1985. Borivli National Park, around Tulsi lake dam during monsoon months. On August 6th 1979, one specimen was seen flying near Matunga station at 10.00 hrs. It was flying towards west and settled on Lantana flowers for few seconds. Several other observers also have seen this butterfly on different occasions in and around Bombay (Tungareshwar and Chinchoti Water- falls). These observations show that this butterfly is probably a seasonal migrant and have become more abundant in recent years or must have escaped the observation of com- petent observers in the past. MEENA HARIBAL 25. OCCURRENCE OF CYDIA SP. ? FUNEBRANA (TREITSCHKE) AS APRICOT FRUIT BORER — A NEW RECORD FROM INDIA In the year 1978-79, heavy infestation by a lepidopteran fruit borer was observed on apricot at several localities of Himachal Pradesh stretching from 1500 to 2100 m above mean sea level. Its incidence was 20 (Janjehli area of Mandi district) to 100 per cent (Chopal area of Simla district). In the following two years, its attack remained low and detailed investigations on the biology, beha- viour and control of this pest were made during 1981 to 1984 at Janjehli (2100 m) where the pest had more preference to apricots than to plums. For obtaining the adult moth, infested fruit were brought to the laboratory and kept in jars containing seived sand. The moths were identified by the Commonwealth Institute of Entomology London as Cy dm sp.? fune - brana (Treitschke), of the family Tortricidae of order Lepidoptera. The moths were seen on wing at dusk from April end to May. Usually, eggs were laid singly on developing fruit at dusk. Female had a capacity to lay 40 to 60 eggs which hatched in 9 to 14 days. The neonate larva crawled over the fruit before boring into it from any point. Depending upon stage of the fruit development, 1 to 7 larvae per fruit were observed. The caterpillar made galleries of variable shape and size by feeding on meso- carp, preferably around the stone. Sometimes, the larva superficially gnawed the developing 677 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 stone. Presence of the caterpillar and its ex- creta, as well as development of sooty moulds on the deteriorating fruit render it unfit for human consumption. The attack could easily be detected by the presence of a brownish ring around the minute entrance hole from which juicy secretion oozes out. Such infested fruit often fell down at slight disturbance. The failing of infested fruit synchronized with the physiological fruit-drop in June and hence the pest attracts little attention from the orchardist. Full grown larvae come out of the fruit in 21 to 24 days and form cocoon near the base of the tree, on its bark or any other suitable site on the ground and pupate inside. Moths emerged from pupae in first week of June to the June-end and lived for a week or so (8 to 10 days). Eggs laid by the impregnated females hatched in 8 to 10 days. Developing larvae of the second generation were found in the ripened fruit. Such infested fruit usually drop- ped down and larvae continued to feed on the pulp. Under the climatic conditions of Janjehli, almost completely developed larvae were observed in such fallen rotting fruit until end of August. Since some full fed larvae were observed hiding under the silken web in cracks and crevices of the bark, such larvae were periodically observed in situ. They pupated by the mid of April and moths emerged by the April end to first week of May. Thus the pest overwintered as full-fed larvae and had two generations in a year. Collection and destruction of fallen fruit and debris harbouring cocooned larvae, and treat- H. P. Govt., Deptt. of Horticulture, Bagsiad-175 035, Mandi. Department of Entomology & Apiculture, College of Agriculture, Nauni-173 230, Solan (H. P ), July 27, 1985. ment of tree-basins with 200-250 g aldrin 5%, or BHC 10% dust by end of August, reduced the inoculum and incidence of the pest in the ensuing year. Further, it was noticed that in orchards where dormant spray oil (Hindustan Petroleum Spray Oil E) 2% mixed with feni- trothion. 0.05% was sprayed, a negligible attack of the pest was noticed in the following season. In preliminary field trials, spraying of fenitrothion 0.05%, quinalphos 0.05%, mala- thion 0.1%, or carbaryl 0.2% in first week of May followed by a second spray by first fortnight of June provided effective control of the pest on apricot. Cydia funebrana is a well known pest the world-over of the plum and is known to occur in France, Italy, Central Europe, Scandinavia, North-Western and South-Western Russia and Asia Minor (Vassiliev 1913). On apricot fruit, Anarsia Uneatella Zell, has been record- ed in Kashmir (Fletcher 1932) and Cacoecia sarcostega Meyr. damaged fruit in Baluchistan (Pruthi 1938). Atleast from India, occurrence of Cydia sp.? funebrana on apricot is a new report. Life history and behaviour of this species resembles with that recorded from Switzerland (Faes et ah 1934, Bovey 1936), and Austria (Bohm 1948). Acknowledgements We are grateful to Dr. J. D. Bradley and Dr. D. J. Carter of Commonwealth Institute of Entomology, London, for identification of the apricot fruit tortricid. S. K. SHARMA P. R. GUPTA 678 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES References Bohm, H. (1948): Unter suchungen iiber Biologie Und Bekampfung des Pflaumenwicklers ( Grapholita funebrana Tr.). Pflanzenschutzberichte 2(1-2): 1-15. Bovey, P. (1936): Sur la biologie du carpocapse des prunes ( Laspeyresia funebrana Tr.). Mitt, schweiz. ent. Ges. 16 ( 12) : 730-732. Faes, H., Staehelin, M. & Bovey, P. (1934): La lutte contre les ennemis des arbres fruitiers, insectes et champignons en 1932. Landw. Jb. Schweiz 48(3) : 241-280. Fletcher, T. B. (1932) : Life histories of Indian Microlepidoptera (Second Series). Alucitidae (Ptero- phoridae), tortricina and Gelechidae. Sci. Monogr. imp. Coun. agric. Res. (India) No. 2, 58 pp. Pruthi, H. S. (1938): The distribution, status and biology of codling moth ( Cydia pomonella, L.) in Baluchistan with notes on some other insects infest- ing apples. Indian J. agric. Sci. 5(4) : 499-547. Vassiliev, Eug. M. (1913): The latest data con- cerning caterpillars which injure the principal fruit crops in Russia and Western Europe. Reprint from (Horticulturist and Market Gardenar) Kiev, nos. 46-47, 12 pp. 26. MULBERRY, MORUS ALBA LINNAEUS, A NEW HOST PLANT FOR THE BLUE PUMPKIN BEETLE, RHAPHIDOPALPA INTERMEDIA JACOBY (CHRYSOMELIDAE : COLEOPTERA) Mulberry (Morus alba L.) has been report- ed as host for four leaf beetles, Chirida bi punctata Linnaeus, Cryptocephalus schestedti Fabricius, Aspidomorpha miliaris Fabricius and Rhaphidopalpa abdominalis (Fabricius) (Chrysomelidae: Coleoptera), which feed on the leaf of the mulberry (Kotikal 1982). Studies conducted at Agricultural College campus, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad on various insect pests of mulberry Department of Sericulture, College of Agriculture, Dharwad-580 005. July 26, 1985. revealed the occurrence of the blue pumpkin beetle, Rhaphidopalpa intermedia Jacoby on mulberry during the months of September- October, 1984. The beetles fed on the leaves and flowers of all three cultivated varieties of mulberry, i.e. Mysore local, M-5 and S-54. The beetles were mostly found on the tender leaves and damaged them by making small holes. The average population of adults per plant was two. R. RAJASHEKHAR GOUDA M. C. DEVAIAH R. H. PATIL Reference Kotikal, Y. K. (1982): M.Sc. (Agri.), thesis submitted to the University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore. 679 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 27. CAREX HEBECARPA MEY. — A NEW RECORD FOR NORTH-WEST HIMALAYA While studying the specimens of the genus Carex L. in the herbarium of Forest Re- search Institute, Dehradun (DD) for the ‘Flora India Project’, a specimen collected from Himachal Pradesh and labelled as C. foliosa was found to be different. On critical examination and matching it with type and authentic specimens, it was identified as C. hebecarpa, not known from N.W. Himalaya, earlier. C. foliosa and C. hebecarpa are repre- sentatives of two different subgenera of Carex. The main differences are in the nature of style and inflorescence. In C. foliosa the style is 2 fid and inflorescence is spicate while in C. hebecarpa the style is 3 fid and inflorescence is clearly racemose type. The up to date nomenclature of C. hebe- carpa alongwith flowering and fruiting period, distribution, ecology and specimens examined is as follows Botanical Survey of India, Northern Qrcle, Dehra Dun 248 001, August 17, 1985. Carex hebecarpa Mey. in Mem. Acad. St. Petrsb. 1: 223, t. 12. 1831; Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 747. 1894 excl. syn. C. lachno- sperma Kuekenth. in Engl., Pflanzenr. heft 38: 744. 1909; Koyama in Hara et al., Enum. FI. PI. Nepal. 1 : 102. 1978, Rao et Verma Cyper. N.E. Ind. 85. f. 62-62 b. 1982. C. kunthii Drejer, Symb. Caric. 22. 1844. FIs. and Frts. : March-Sept. Distribution: India: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur. Indo china, Nepal. Specimens examined : Himachal Pradesh, Shille, 4,850 ft. (1,478 m), 23.9.1950, Range officer 50 (DD). I am thankful to Dr. U. C. Bhattacharyya, Deputy Director, Central National Herbarium Howrah for encouragement. Thanks are also due to Shri B. M. Wadhwa, Regional Botanist at Kew for sending the photographs of type and authentic specimens. NEELAM GHILDYAL 28. VEGETATION OF THE KAPILAS HILLS IN DHENKANAL DISTRICT, ORISSA I NTRODUCTION The Kapilas, a short range of hills is located in the district of Dhenkanal which lies bet- ween 20°29' and 21°42' N latitudes and 84° 16' and 86°2'E longitude. The term “Kapilas” might have been derived from “Kailas”, the abode of Lord Siva, now called as Chandra- sekhar. The temple is situated on the slope of the peak at a height of 1500 ft. A zigzag motorcycle path leads upto the temple front from Deogan which is 15 miles east of Dhen- kanal. Kapilas is regarded as a summer resort of Orissa. This has also been declared as a Wildlife Sanctuary by the Govt, of Orissa (vide Notification No. 1443 dt. 22.6.83). Principal animals of the sanctuary are Panther, Spotted Deer, Wild Boar etc. The 680 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES main objective of this sanctuary is to protect the forest ecosystem and hill ranges alongwith the typical life-forms. There are numerous peaks in the Kapilas hill range, the loftiest being 2280 ft. at Devasava. There is also a spring which has attained reli- gious sanctity. The climate is moderately salubrious with temperatures not exceeding 35 °C in Summer and not less than 13°C in Winter. The average rainfall is 55 inches. Soil is mostly lateritic. Botanical Work: Past and Present Haines (1961) while botanising in Bihar and Orissa reported 227 species of Angio- sperms from Dhenkanal district. However, he reported only 6 taxa from the Kapilas hills though it is floristically very rich. It seems, he had visited Kapilas only once during his survey. Mooney (1950) who concentrated on the hilly tracts of Western Orissa had not collected in the Kapilas hills. Thereafter, records reveal that very few collections have been made. In the Orissa District Gazetteer on Dhenkanal (Senapati & Tripathy 1972) there is scanty information regarding the vegetation of the district as a whole. Realising the meagerness of floristic information we undertook a de- tailed floristic survey of this region under the District Flora Scheme sponsored by Botanical Survey of India. Through regular field trips, plants were collected in different seasons. Phenology, sociability, ecological aspects we studied with critical observations on vegeta- tional pattern. Vegetation : The vegetation mainly falls under Tropical Semi-evergreen mixed type of forest. The top canopy is mostly composed of large decidu- ous/evergreen trees like Adina cordifolia, Bridelia tomentosa, Mitragyna parviflora, Xylia xylocarpa , M allot us philippensis, Mangifera indica, Shorea robusta, Callicarpa arborea, Anogeissus latifolia, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Cassia fistula, Ochna obtusata, Kydia calycina, Polyalthia cerasoides, Ardisia solanacea, Maca- ranga peltata, Dalbergia sissoo, Semecarpus anacardium, Pterospermum heyneanum Pro- tium serratum etc. Of these Shorea robusta is found in pure stands on the hill top. Caryota urens is also met with occasionally. The chief climbers associated with the top storey plants are Schefflera venulosa, Bauhinia vahlii, Caly- copteris floribunda, Combretum roxburghii, Acacia pennata, Millet tia racemosa etc. The ground flora is composed of Flemingia chappar, Clausaena excavata, Flemingia bracteata, Des- modium pule helium, Murray a koenigii etc. which are characteristic elements of sal forest. However, during dry season most of them wither away as such the ground becomes barren except for a few hardy and xeric species. The plants like Lagerstroemia parviflora, Bixa orellana, Aspidopterys indica, Grewia dis- perma, Wrightia arborea, Trema orientalis, Wrightia tinctoria, Stereospermum tetragonum form the second storey. At lower heights on the hill the gregarious growth of plants like Boehmeria macrophylla, Colebrookea oppositi- folia, Micromelum integerrimum, Pavetta to- mentosa, Glycosmis arborea, Leea macrophylla are very conspicuous. Scandent shrubs and twinners like Opilia amentacea, Celastrus paniculatus, Clematis smilacifolia, Cynoglos- sum lanceolatum, Ipomoea eriocarpa, Crypto- lepis buchananii are also found in association with these plants. This association forms the micro-ecological niche which provides cogenial habitat for shade-loving plants like Psychotria adenophylla, P. curviflora, Thysanolaena maxima, Ecbolium viride, Petalidium barlerioi- des, Phaulopsis imbricata. 681 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 83 The notable epiphytic taxa are Dendroph- thoe falcata, Viscum nepalense, Vanda tessel- lata, Bulbophyllum triste which are mostly found in the higher elevation chiefly growing on Shorea robusta and Mangifera indica. Ferns like Drynaria quercifolia, Pyrosia num- mularifolia growing on mango trees are also common. Along the edge of the spring hygro- phillous plants are abundant, alongwith some pteridophytic species such as Doryopteris ludens, Pleopeltis linearis, Adiantum caudatum, Pteris biaurita and Adiantum capillus -veneris. Succulent herbs like Rhynchoglossum obli- guum, Begonia picta, Epithema carnosum grow along with Elatostema cuneatum, Biophytum sensitivum in abundance on moss-covered rock steps in early Winter. Terminalia alata, Terminalia bellerica, Shorea robusta, Madhuca longifolia var. latifolia, Xan- tolis tomentosa, Azadirachta indica, Aegle marmelos etc. form a thick belt around the hill base and represent a mixed category mostly associated with Combretum roxburghii as a dominant climber. The shrubby elements are poor in respect of variety. However, Holarr- hena antidysenterica, Clerodendrum viscosum, Chromolaena odorata, Cipadessa baccifera, P. G. Department of Botany, Utkal University, Vani Vihar, Bhubaneswar-751 004, August 17, 1985. R EFE Haines, H. H. (1961): The Botany of Bihar and Orissa. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta (Rep. Edn.). Mooney, H. F. (1950) : Supplement to th© Botany of Bihar and Orissa. Catholic Press, Ranchi Saxena, H. O. & Brahmam, M. (1984) Rare and endemic flowering plants of Orissa. In : An Woodfordia fruticosa etc. are occasionally met with in this zone. Interestingly, Natsiatum herpeticum (Icaci- naceae) has been collected during the present survey which is listed as a rare plant (Saxena and Brahmam 1984) for Orissa state. Aegle marmelos, Michelia champaca, Nyctanthes arbortristis are found in abundance in Kapilas. The leaves, flowers and fruits of these plants are used for the ritual activities connected with Lord Chandrasekhar. In addition to these, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Mangifera indica etc. are gregarious in the area which provide fruits to the nearby inhabitants as well as to the wild animals. In all 30 tree species 65 shrubs and 92 herbs have been collected, identified and catalogued. All these plants have been preserved and are housed in the herba- rium of P. G. Dept, of Botany, Utkal Univer- sity, Bhubaneswar. Ack nowledgements We thank the Professor & Head, P. G. Dept, of Botany, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar for providing facilities for this work. Financial assistance from the Botanical Survey of India is also gratefully acknowledged. B. C. PATRA B. P. CHOUDHURY EN CES assessment of threatened plants of India. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta (Ed. S. K. Jain & R. R. Rao). Senapati, N. & Tripathy, P. (1972) : Orissa Dis- trict Gazetteers — Dhenkanal. Orissa Government Press, Cuttack. 682 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 29. ADDITIONS TO THE PTERIDOPHYTIC FLORA OF NAINI TAL During the course of the preparation of the Pteridophytic flora of Naini Tal six ferns and fern allies were collected and identified with the help of available floras. A perusal of earlier literature and records indicate that these species were neither collected nor reported by earlier workers from Naini Tal. This note, records these addition to the Pteridophytic flora of Naini Tal along with other relevant informations. The voucher specimens are housed in the Herbarium, Botany Department, D. S. B. College, Kumaun University, Naini Tal. Field number of each species along with collector’s name is given in brackets. Lycopodiaceae 1 . Lycopodium setaceum Buch.-Ham., Prodr. FI. Nepal 18, 1825; Spring, Monogr. Lycopod. 42. 1847; Clarke, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. 2 (Bot.) 1 : 590, 1880. L. pulcherrimum Wall, ex Hook, et Grev., Bot. Misc. 2: 367, 1831. L. gramineum Spring, Monogr. Lycopod. Part 2: 19, 1848. Occurs frequently on shady - moist moss laden boulders. Rarely as an epiphytic on Pinus roxburghii and Quercus leuchotricho- phora trees between 1,300-1,400 m. Bajoon (YPSP 105). POLYPODIACEAE 2. Drynaria propinqua (Wall, ex Mett.) J. Smith, Journ. Bot. 4: 62, 1842; Bedd., Handb. Ferns Brit. India Suppl. 339, t. 189, 1892. Polypodium propinquum Wall, ex Mett., Farn- gatt. Polypod. 120, 1857; Clarke, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. 2 (Bot.) 1: 556, 1886. Extremely rare species occurring at 1,400 m. Usually growing on moss covered tree trunks. Bajoon (YPSP 198) Thelypteridaceae 3. Pronephrium nudatum (Roxb.) Holttum, Blumea 20 (1): 111, 1972. Polypodium nuda- tum Roxb., Calcutta Journ. Nat. Hist. 4: 491, 1844. P. multilineatum Wall, ex Hook. Sp. Fil. 5: 11, 1863. Thelypteris multilineata (Wall, ex Hook.) Morton, Amer. Fern Journ. 49(3): 113, 1959; Nayar, Rec. Bot. Surv., India 20 (2): 16, 1973. Nephrodium moulmeinense Bedd., Ferns Brit. India 18, 1876 et Handb., Ferns Brit. India Suppl. 73, 1892. Dryopteris moulmeinsis (Bedd.) C. Chr., Index Fil., 278, 1905. Abacopteris multilineata (Wall.) Ching, Bull. Fan. Mem. Inst. Bot. 8: 253, 1938. A rare species occurring at 600 m by the side of streamlets in deep shady ravines in sal forest. Bhujia Ghat (YPSP 172). Nepeirolepidaceae 4. Neplirolepis cordiiolia (Linn.) Presel., Tent. Pterid. 79, 1836; Clarke, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. 2 (Bot.) 1: 540, 1880: Bedd., Handb. Ferns Brit. India Suppl. 282, t. 144, 1892. Poly podium cordifolium Linn., Sp. PI. 1098, 1753. Aspidium tuberosum Bory, Willd. Sp. PI. 5: 234, 1810. Nephrolepis tuberosa Presl., Tent. Pterid. 79, 1836. This species is commonly cultivated for indoor and outdoor decoration. Naini Tal (YPSP 98). Aspidiaceae 5. Polystichum Ientum(D. Don) Moore, In- dex Fi, 86, 1858. Aspidium lentum D. Don, 683 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Prodr. FI., Nepal 4, 1825. A. auriculatum Swartz var. lenta Clarke, Trans, Linn. Soc. Lond. 2 (Bot.) 1: 507, 1880. Polystichum auriculatum (Linn.) Presl. var. lenta Bedd., Handb. Ferns Brit. India 204, 1883. A rare species. Grows on moist, shady rocks in ravines at 1,300 m. Bajoon (YPSP 85). V ITTARIACEAE 6. Yittaria flexuosa Fee, 3 We Mem., 16. 1851-52; Clarke, Trans. Linn, Soc. Lond. 2 (Bot.) 1: 572, 1880; Bir, Res. Bull. Punjab Department of Botany, D. S. B. College, Kumaun University, Naini Tal - 263 002 (U.P.), July 20, 1985. 30. FLORAL BIOLOGY OF CA Introduction Cassia an gust i folia Vahl. (Caesalpineaceae) a perennial plant indigenous to Somaliland and Arabia, which is now grown extensively in South India. It grows wild in certain parts of Kutch. The leaves and pods of the plant contain glycosides called ‘sennosides’ and have been long used for laxative purpose by allo- pathic and indigenous medical practitioners. India has been the exporter of the crude drug (leaves and pods). The agronomical, phyto- chemical and pharmacological aspects of ‘Senna’ have been studied in detail. Other botanical aspects such as floral biology, gene- tics, etc. have not received attention. The floral biology of Senna is described here. Material and Methods Floral biological studies were conducted during the years 1983-84 on Senna plants Univ. (n.s.)., 13: 22. f. 20-23, 1962. V. lineata sensu Bedd., Ferns South India, t. 54, 1883; et Handb., Ferns. Brit. India 407, 1883. Ecology : - A rare species and grows on moss covered tree trunks in deep shady ravines at 1,300 m. Jeolikote (YPSP 102). Acknowledgement We are thankful to Prof. B. S. Mehrotra, Head, Botany Department, D.S.B. College, Kumaun University, Naini Tal for providing facilities and encouragement. Y. P. S. PANGTEY G. S. RAWAT S. S. SAMANT SSIA ANGUSTIFOLIA VAHL raised at Central Research Farm, Jodhpur. Observations were recorded from tagged flowers on bud development, anthesis and dehiscence. Stigma receptivity was studied by visual observation and experimentation by hand pollination. Observations on pollens, pollina- tors, fruit set and post-fertilisation development were also recorded. Results and Discussion a) Flower bud development : In Indian Senna plants, initial flowering starts when they are 90 to 100 days old. A succession of blossoms appear at periodic intervals there- after. In Russia, senna is reported to commence flowering earlier, at the age of 50 to 60 days (Nikolaeva 1973). The inflorescence buds appear in the axils of the pinnately compound leaves. The smallest recognisable size of in- florescence bud is 5 mm., when the young leaves 684 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES are 2.5 to 3.7 cm. long (mature leaf mea- sures 15 cm). A fully mature inflorescence (raceme) is lOdtl cm long, normally bearing 13 to 15 floral buds spirally on the rachis. The smallest individual floral bud measuring 3 mm becomes 13 mm (a day before anthesis) in an interval of about 15 to 20 days. Few upper most buds on the rachis do not reach anthe- sis. Young buds are pale yellowish green and bright yellow when mature. A thin membran- ous bract protecting the bud falls off when the bud matures. b) Anthesis and dehiscence : Anthesis pro- ceeds basipetally, from basal flowers towards apex, in order of maturity. It is observed that 86 per cent flowers opened between 4 a.m. and 6 a.m., while 14 per cent opened from 6 a.m. to 8 a.m. Russian senna flowers are reported to open during night in warm weather and during day in autumn (Nikolaeva 1973). It takes about 15 days for all the flower buds on the inflorescence axis to complete anthesis. Anthers are variable in size and three of them are staminodes. Two largest anthers and the style are curved. Dehiscence is apical and commences within 1-3 hours of anthesis. The release of pollen is slow and gradual extend- ing for over about 24 hours. Pollen grains are triangular and 3 . 8/x to 4.1//, in size. Pollen fertility is about 98%. The buds and the bright yellow flower attract ants, flies, wasps and moths ( Pieris brassicae, especially), due to a sugary secretion. These insects help in cross pollination as pollens have been observed on their bodies. It takes 10 to 14 days for com- pletion of anthesis. Division of Plant Studies, Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, July 4, 1985. c) Fruit set and Post fertilisation develop - ments : Experimental study shows that stigma becomes receptive soon after anthesis. No fruit set was recorded when hand pollinated 24 hours before anthesis. It is also evident that both self and cross pollination exists. Under normal and natural conditions, fruit set was found to be 74.48%. The carpel is 7.5 mm long a day before anthesis, 10 mm on the day of anthesis and 12 mm long on a day after anthesis. Soon after fertilisation, the sepals bend backwards, wither and fall away along with stamens within 48 hours. The bright yellow petals which are more persistent, bend downwards, yellow colour gradually bleaching to white. Within one week of anthesis, all parts are shed. Style is most per- sistent, dried on the tip of pod. Fruit is a legume, about 5x2 cm in size and takes about 25 ±3 days to mature. After this period, the mature green pods start turning dark brown to black (ripening). Nikolaeva (1973) reported that fruit development took 12 days and seed ripening occurred after 40-45 days of anthesis. Each pod contains upto 8 seeds normally. The rachis (inflorescence axis) grows from 10 ±1 cm (at the time of anthesis) to 13=fcl cm., when the pods mature, so that the pods are well apart. Acknowledgements Thanks are due to Dr. K. A. Shankamara- yan. Director, Central Arid Zone Research Institute for suggestions and providing faci- lities. V. A. AMALRAJ 685 14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 83 Reference Nikolaeva, I. G. (1973): Cassia angustifolia, south of the Turkmen SSR. Izv. Akad. Nauk. biology of blooming and seed formation in the Turkm SSR Ser. Biol. Nauk. 4: 17-22. 31. NEW DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORDS FROM CHAMOLI DISTRICT IN N. W. HIMALAYAS Introduction The district of Chamoli, lies between 29° 55' 32" and 31° 4' 22" latitude and 78° 54' 26" and 80° 6' 14" longitude, covering an area of 9,125 Sq. Km. The district is bounded on the east by the district of Almora and Pithoragarh, on south by the district of Pauri Garhwal, on west by districts of Uttarkashi and Tehri and on the north by the snowy ranges of Tibet. Enumeration We have been engaged in a study of the flora of Chamoli district for some time and report here 10 species for the first time from this part of N.W. Himalayas. The flowering and fruiting time together with range of alti- tude of occurrence is also given. The numeral given immediately after the place of collection indicates the collection number of the plant from the locality concerned. The herbarium specimens cited are depo- sited in the herbarium of Botany department, Meerut University, Meerut. Nymphaea alba Linn. Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 1: 114, 1872, LN Kamal. (Nymphaeaceae) Aquatic herb with thick, creeping rhizomes. Flowers, white, solitary on long peduncles. FI. & Fr. June-Oct. Coll: Benital. Alt. 1830 m. Anaphalis aristata DC. Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 3: 285. (Asteraceae) Erect, wooly herb. Heads turbinate, in globose, corymbose clus- ters. FI. & Fr. Aug.-Oct. Coll: Way to Kedarnath 4115. Alt. 2438- 3048 m. Bidens cernua Linn. Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 3: 309 (Asteraceae) Erect, glabrous herb with fistular stems. Leaves opposite, auricled. Heads yellow, erect or drooping. Outer involucre leafy. Achenes cuneiform, truncate, margins recurved, spiny; apex with 1-4 bristly pappus. FI. & Fr. Aug.-Oct. Coll: Benital 3335. Alt. 1830 m. Parthenram hysterophorus Linn. Sp. PL, 988, 1753. (Asteraceae) An erect, tufted, leafy herb. Stem scabrid hairy, grooved. Heads heterogamous, in axillary or terminal, leafy, corymbose cymes. Achenes obovae, black. FI. & Fr. Aug.-Nov. Coll : Near Gwalior 4290. Alt. 800 m. Commelina suffruticosa Blume, Enum. 3, 1830; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 374, 1892 (Commelinaceae) Scandent herb. Leaves large, lanceolate, scabrid-pubescent. Sheath auricled, hairy-fringed on the mouth. Flowers white, in ovate-cordate spathe. Seeds 2, ellipsoid, rugose, puberulous. FI. & Fr. May-Nov. Coll: Tigaddi 2012. Alt. 1350 m. Ceratophyllum demersum Linn. Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 5: 639 (Ceratophyllaceae) Submerg- ed, aquatic herb. Leaves pinnatisect, segment filiform. Flowers solitary axillary, monoecious. FI. & Fr. Aug.-Oct. Coll: Near Gauchar 2674. Alt. 700 m. 686 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Wolffia arrhiza (Linn.) Horkel ex Wimm. FI. Schles. 140, 1857; FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 306 (Lemnaceae). Small, floating herb. Fronds sub-globose beneath. FI. & Fr. Aug.-Oct. Coll : Karankund 1089. Alt. 305-914 m. W. microscopia (Griff, ex Voigt.) Kurz., Jour. Linn. Soc., Bot. 9: 265, 1867; FL Brit. Ind. 6: 558. (Lemnaceae) Minute, floating, aquatic herb. Frond subglobose, tapers into conical appendage beneath. FI. & Fr. Sept.-Nov. Coll: Langasu 4798. Alt. 305-762 m. Najas graminea Del. Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. Botany Department, G. M. V., Rampur, Maniharan (Saharanpur). 6: 569. (Najadaceae) Submerged, aquatic herb. Leaves linear to subulate, with dentate mar- gins. Flowers solitary or 2-4 together. Seeds areolate. FI. & Fr. Aug.-Oct. Coll : Hailuri 4674. Alt. 610-1200 m. Brachiaria villosa (Lam.) A. camus var. barbata Bor. Var. Nov.; Bor in Grass. Bur. Cey. Ind. Pak. 286, 1960 (Poaceae) Erect, decumbent, villous-hairy annual grass. Spike- lets in hairy panicles. Upper glume, hairy tipped, equalling the spikelet. FI. & Fr. Aug. -Nov. Coll: Gwaldam 4218. Alt. 1200 m. K. N. NAUTIYAL Botany Department, Y. S. MURTY Meerut University, Meerut, May 30, 1985. 32. UROCHLOA PANICOIDES P. BEAUV. (POACEAE) IN SOUTH INDIA (With a plate) JJrochloa panicoides, an annual ruderal serves as an excellent fodder for cattle. A scrutiny of literature reveals its wide distri- bution in India both in plains and on the Himalayas upto about 5000 ft. It contributes much to the greenness of disturbed waste lands and is also a dominant weed in culti- vated dry lands during monsoon. In Australia it was used in 1940s to smother weeds on black soils (Buckley 1959). The species occurs with four morphologically distinct varieties (Bor 1960) viz., Urochloa panicoides P. Beauv. var. panicoides, var. pubescens (Kunth) Bor, var. marathensis (Henr.) Bor and var. velutina (Henr.) Bor. While collect- ing the species of Urochloa for Biosystematic studies, all four varieties were collected from various parts of South India. All the floristic accounts record and describe the species with var. panicoides and/or var. pubescens, while the var. velutina and var. marathensis are not properly recognised in regional herbaria such as MH and BSI. Taxonomic Status Urochloa panicoides belongs to the tribe Paniceae of Panicoideae. The species was first described by de Beavois (1812). Various classificatory exercises have been made on the 687 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 species by different authors. Kunth (1829) described the pubescent variant as Urochloa pubescens. In view of the common occurrence of glabrous and pubescent spikelets and sub- marginal fringe of hairs in the lower lemma in most of the species of the genus Urochloa, Stapf (1929) abstained from giving these states varietal names and preferred to distin- guish to them as forms. But Henrard (1922) raised the var. marathensis to species Urochloa marathensis and placed the var. velutina as a variety under this new species. In 1960 Bor, made a new combination of four varieties under U. panicoides. The species is very similar to Brachiaria ramosa with which it can be rather easily confused. Its distinguishing characters are com- paratively large abaxial spikelets and a short fine mucro from the obtuse apex of the upper lemma. Species description is given in many Population Studies The previous studies clearly show the exist- ing confusion in the taxonomic position of these taxa. Hence an attempt has been made to answer these. About 400 collections were made from various parts of South India, which include all the four varieties. Minor differences in number of tillers per plant, leaf size, leaf pubescens, number of racemes, raceme length, number of spikelets, spikelets size etc., were noted between the varieties in different popu- lations. Variations observed in spikelet size and degree of pubescens in three populations where all the four varieties were growing intermixed are illustrated here. Habit of the species is shown in fig. 1 (Plate) and the varieties can be distinguished by the spikelets on the racemes (Plate, fig. 2). Mean length and width Table 1 Mean spikelet length (mm.) and width (mm.) of four varieties of U. panicoides in three populations var. panicoides var. pubescens var. marathensis var. velutina Agric. Coll. Poona Agric. Coll. Dharwar Manasagangotri, Mysore Length Width Length Width Length Width 4.43±0.24 2.10±0.08 3.98±0.29 1.89 ±0.09 3.68±0.08 1.79±0.12 4.29+0.13 2.24+0. 12 3.79+0.09 1.97+0.09 3.64+0.13 1.85+0.06 4.47+0.15 2.27 + 0.13 4.02+0.09 2.00+0.04 3.70+0.13 1.89+0.05 4.43±0.20 2.25±0. 11 4. 14±0.08 2.04±0.06 4.04±0.05 1.89±0.11 floristic accounts. The key for identification of the varieties on the basis of additional characters (Bor 1960) is as follows; Lower lemma without a fringe of bristles. Spikelets glabrous U. panicoides var. panicoides Spikelets pubescent var. pubescens Lower lemma with a conspicuous fringe of bristles. Spikelets glabrous var marathensis Spikelets pubescent var. velutina of spikelets of all the four varieties of three populations are given in Table 1. The collections (Basavaiah 233-236) from Agriculture college fields, Poona exhibit the largest spikelets in all the four varieties and conspicuous pubescence in the pubescent varieties (Plate, fig. 3a-3d). The collections Basavaiah 273-276) from Agriculture College fields, Dharwar showed medium sized spikelets 688 Plate J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.SJ Basavaiah & Murthy: Urochloa panic oides Fig. 1. Urochloa panicoides P. Beauv. Fig 2. Racemes of four varieties of U. panicoides. a) var. panicoides ; b) var. pubescens\ c) var. marathensis ; d) var. velutina. Fig. 3a-3d. Spikelets of four varieties collected from Poona. Fig. 4a-4d. -do- Dharwar. Fig. 5a-5d. -do- Mysore. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES with moderate pubescence (Plate, fig. 4a-4d). Similarly some of the collections (Basavaiah 52, 53, 60 & 100) of Manasagangotri, Mysore showed smaller spikelets and inconspicuous pubescence (Plate, fig. 5a-5d). Such collections from Mysore pose difficulty to differentiate the varieties with the existing key. Hence other aspects of Biosystematic study of this exomor- phic complex have to be made to delimit the taxa. The herbarium specimens cited, are lodged Department of Post-Graduate Studies and Research in Botany, Univ. of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysore-570 006, Karnataka, in the herbarium (MGM), University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysore. Acknowledgements We thank the authorities of MH and BSI for herbarium and library facilities. The senior author thanks UGC, New Delhi, for the award of a Research fellowship. BASAVAIAH T.C.S. MURTHY References Beavois, A.M.F.J., Palisot de (1812): Urochloa panicoides. Essai d’une nouvelle agrostographie. Paris. Bor, N. L. (1960) : Grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India and Pakistan. London. Pergamon Press, pp. 371-373. Buckley, K. S. (1959) : Plant testing for soil conservation at Inverell. /. Soil Conser. Serv. N.S.W. 15: 327-345. Henrard, J. Th. (1922) : Urochloa marathensis. Meded van’s. Rijks Herb. Leiden, n. 43, 2. Kunth, C. S. (1829) : Urochloa pubescens. Revi- sion des Graminees. 1, 31. 33. A CONTRIBUTION TO THE MOSS FLORA OF NORTH WESTERN GHATS, INDIA Although the moss flora of Eastern India, Himalayas and the Nilgiris in the South are well known, there are comparatively few re- ports of mosses for the bryologically rich area of the Western Ghats. This is specially true for Mahabaleshwar and surrounding areas in Northern Western Ghats. Dabhade (1966, 1969, 1970) reported 10 mosses from the Western Ghats while Tixier (1979) listed 21 species from Mahabaleshwar. Barring these reports, only sporadic references to mosses exist for this region. On 27th to 29th January, 1984, a collection of bryophytes were made by us at three loca- lities Mahabaleshwar, Poona and Khandala in North Western Ghats, the outcome of which is this report. The Western Ghats are geologically formed of basaltic lava of varying thickness, the top part of which is laterite. Mahabaleshwar re- ceives an annual rainfall of 700 cm, mostly during the South West Monsoon months of June to September. The hottest months are April and May. Collection and list of localities’. Voucher specimens are deposited at the Bryophyte Herbarium of the Botany Dept., Universiti Malaya (KLU), Bryophyte Herba- rium of the Botany Dept., Poona University 689 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , VoL 83 and occasional duplicates at Missouri Botani- cal Garden (MO). A list of collection sites by collection numbers follows: 400-424 Khandala, Alt. 850 m., January 27th., 1984. 425-454 Mahabaleshwar, Alt. 1382 m. Along road from Mahabaleshwar Town to Pratapgad Road, January 28th., 1984. 446-470 Mahabaleshwar, Alt. 1320 m. Road from Pratapgad to Lodwick point, January 28th, 1984. 471-473 Poona University Campus, 1000 m, January 29th, 1984. List of species. Species marked with a single asterisk are new to the moss flora of Western Ghats. Fissidentaceae 1 . Fissidens ceylonensis Dozy & Molk. - 432. 2. *F. diversifolius var. rubricaulis (DIX.) Norkett in Gangulee — 470. 3. F. mitteni Par. — 468b. 4. *F. poly set ulus C. Muell. ex Gangulee & Norkett — 468a 5. *F. pulehellus Mitt. — 433. 6. F. ranchiensis Gangulee - — 4216, 434, 437. 7. F. sylvaticus Griff. — 460, 463, 464, 465a. 8. *F. zollingeri Mont — 431, 435. Dicranaceae 9. Campylopus aureus Bosch & Lac. — 438, 451, 452. 10. *C. durelli Gangules — 456. 11. C. gracilis (Mitt.) Jaeg. — 458. 12. C. richardii Brid. — 446, 450. Leucobryaceae 13. Octoblepharum albidum Hedw. — 408. POTTIACEAE 14. Barbula indica (Hook.) Spreng — 402, 403, 410. 15. *Gymnostomum calcareum Nees & Hornsch. — 405b, 420. 16. Gymnostomiella vernicosa (Hook.) Fleisch. — 403. 17. Hymenostylium recurvirostre var. auran- tiacum (Mitt.) Gang. — 460, 465a, 466, 473. 18. Ilyophila involuta (Hook.) Jaeg. — 400, 401, 405a, 418a, 428. Funariaceae 19. F unaria hygrometrica Hedw. — 426. Bryaceae 20. Anomobryum auratum (Mitt.) Jaeg - 441. 21 . Brachymenium acuminatum Harv. — 4186. 22. B. indicum (Dozy & Molk.) Bosch & Lac. 442, 459. 23 . *B. longidens Ren. & Card. — 454. 24 . Bryum coronatum Schwaegr. — 407a, 427. 25. *B. plumosum Dozy & Molk. — 417. 26. B. porphyroneuron C. Muell. — 420, 421b. 27. B. nitens Hook. — 471, 473. 28 . B. wightii Mitt. — 445, 456, 465b. Bartramiaceae 29. Philonotis hastata (Duby) Wijk & Marg. — 422. 30. *P. leptocarpa Mitt. — 407a. 31. P. longicaulis (Hampe) Mitt. — - 418b. 32. P. mollis (Dozy & Molk.) Mitt. — 405b, 421a, 421b. Erpodxaceae 33 . Er podium mangiferae C. Muell. — 472. 690 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Orthotrichaceae 34. Macromitrium sulcatum (Hook.) Brid. — 430a, 439, 451. Trachypodaceae 35. Diaphanodon procumbens (C. Muell.) Ren. & Card. — 413, 419a, 429, 430a, 438a, 461, 469. Endemic to Western Ghats. Pterobryaceae 36. *Pterobryopsis acuminata (Hook.) Fleisch. — 461. 37. *P. flexipes (Mitt.) Fleisch. — 413, 416, 432. 38. P. walked (Broth.) Broth. — 407 b. Meteoriaceae 39. Meteodopsis squarrosa (Hook.) Fleisch. ex Broth, var. longicuspis Nog. — 462. Daltoniaceae 40. *Daltonia adstifolia Ren. & Card. — 443. Botany Dept., Universiti Malaya, Malaysia. Dept, of Botany, Poona University, Poona 411 007, India, Apdl 6, 1985. Refer Babhade, G. T. (1966): Some interesting mosses of Western India. Proc. Autumn School in Botany. Mahabaleshwar, 91-97. (1969) : Investigation of the genus Bryum (Hedwig.) Schimp. from Western India. Maharashtra. Vig. Mandir Patrika 4: 13-21. Entodontaceae 41 . *Entodon laetus (Griff.) Jaeg. — 458a. Plagotheciaceae 42. *Stereophyllum ligulatum (C. Muell.) Jaeg. — 411, 429b, 430b, 433. Sematophyllaceae 43. *Tdchosteleum boschii (Dozy & Molk.) Jaeg. — 453. Hypnaceae 44. *Ectropothecium monumentorum (Dub.) Jaeg. — 414. Rhytidiaceae 45. *Okamurea hakoniensis (Mitt.) Broth. — 412. AcK NO WLEDGEM E NTS We thank Dr. Robert E. Magill for assis- tance in the identification of the mosses and The Missouri Botanical Garden for financial assistance and facilities provided to one of us (M.A.H.M.) during the preparation of the manuscript. M. A. HAJI MOHAMED N. V. BIRADAR J. G. VAIDYA EN CES (1970) : New records of F una- rm (Entosthodon) nutans (Mitt.) Broth, from West- ern India. Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal 24: 83-85. Tixier, P. (1979): Bryophytes exotiques (IV). Les Mousses et les limites du domaine des oceans Indien et Pacifique. Bull. Mus. natn. Hist, nat., Paris 4e ser,, 1: 107-125. 691 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 34. ON THE IDENTITY OF HEDY OTIS ERECT A MANILAL & SIVARAJAN (RUBIACEAE) We have been working on the taxonomy of the genera Hedyotis L. and Oldenlandia L. for the last 6-7 years and have published notes (Deb & Dutta 1983, 1985 a, b) on nomen- clatural and taxonomic changes involving about 15 species. Hedyotis erecta Manilal & Sivarajan in Bot. Notiser 129(2): 191. 1976. was distin- guished from H. corymbosa (L.) Lamk. for (1) invariably erect main shoot with fasti- giate branches, (2) stipule with 2 or 3 filiform appendages and (3) testa cells with straight walls. It is apparent that the authors did not give due consideration to variability and the pre- sent circumscription of H. corymbosa. The original description of this species has under- gone changes from time to time at the hands of different workers, which deserve due con- sideration to ascertain its differences from other species. It is now generally admitted that H. corymbosa is highly polymorphic in habit, shape and size of leaves, number of flowers in a cyme, length of peduncle and pedicel and capsule shape and size, J. D. Hooker, FI. Brit. Ind. 3: 64. 1880 treated this species under Oldenlandia and considered it as very varia- ble. He further observed that “various forms of the plant are distinguished by botanists as species; but these run so much into one another that it is impossible to correlate des- criptions exactly with the specimens in Wallich’s and Wight’s herbaria”. It is obvious that Hooker f. (l.c.) reduced to its synonymy several species described by different workers. Verdcourt in Kew Bull. 30: 296-298, 1975 & FI. Trop. E. Africa (Rubiaceae part 1): 308-310, 1976 treated under O. corymbosa L. 4 varieties, namely, var. corymbosa , var. linearis (DC.) Verde., var. nana (Bremek.) Verde, and var caespitosa (Benth.) Verde. J. D. Hooker (l.c.) treated O. linearis as synonymous with O. heynii G. Don. Breme- kamp (1952) and Hepper (1963) observed that O. linearis differs widely from O. heynii in arrangement of flowers and testa cells struc- ture, but is closer to O. corymbosa being distinguishable by narrow leaves and straight wall of testa cells. Verdcourt (l.c.) considered these variations as of varietal rank and treated O. linearis as a variety of O. corymbosa. H. erecta Manilal & Sivarajan does not dif- fer from O. linearis DC. in any respect and agrees with it both in description and illus- trations. Thus this new species cannot be sus- tained, and is synonymous with O. corymbosa var. erecta. Since the genus Oldenlandia L. is treated as synonymous with Hedyotis L. by the authors of the present note a new combi- nation at varietal rank under the genus Hed- yotis is proposed as follows. Hedyotis corymbosa (L.) Lamk. var. linearis (DC.) Deb et Dutta comb. nov. Basionym: Oldenlandia linearis DC. Prodr. 4: 425. 1830 (Type: Senegal, Bay of St. Louis, Perrottet s.n. (G. holo, P, K iso, DC. micro- fische!); Bremek. in Veh. Kon Netherl. Akad. Wet. Afd. Natuurk. Ser. 2, 48(2): 258. 1952; Hepper in FI. West Trop. Afr. ed. 2, 2:211. 1963. O. biflora auct., non L., Roxb. FI. Ind. 1: 422. 1820 & 1: 445. 1832. (Type: Cour- tallum, Heyne s.n , in Wall Cat. 868, pro parte CAL!); Roxb. Icon. 1342 CAL!, H. burman- niana R. Br. ex Wall. Cat. 868, pro parte, 1829, non Schult. 1827. H. biflora Smith in Rees Cycl. 17: 15. 1811, non Lamk. 1792 (Type: E. Indies, 1804, N.E. Kinder sley s.n. LINN microfische!). O. burmanniana (Wall.) 692 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES G. Don, Gen. Syst. Gard. Bot. 3: 529. 1834. H. linearis (DC.) Steud. Nom. Bot. 728. 1840. O. corymbosa L. var linearis (DC.) Verde, in Kew Bull. 30: 296. 1975 & FI. Trop. E. Afr. Rubiac. 1 : 309. 1976. H. erect a Manilal & Botanical Survey of India, Howrah, May 5, 1986. R E FE Deb, D. B. & Dutta, R. (1983): Nomenclatural changes in the genus Heclyotis (Rubiaceae) of South Asia. Taxon 32(2): 284-285. (1985a) : Further nomen- clatural changes in Hedyotis (Rubiaceae) of South Sivarajan in Bot. Notiser 129(2): 191. 1975 (Type: Kerala State, Idimuzhikhal, Sivarajan 491 LWG), Syn. nov. Distribution : Tropical E. Africa and India (Throughout). D. B. DEB RATNA DUTTA EN CES Asia. Taxon 34(2): 296-297. (1985b) : On the identity of 2 species of Oldenlandia L. (Rubiaceae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78 ( 1) : 232. 693 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FOR TFIE YEAR 1984-85 Executive Committee President Dr., Salim Ali, d.sc., f.n.a. Vice-Presidents Mr. D, J. Panday Dr. C. V. Kulkarni Prof. P. V. Bole Ex-Officio Member Secretary, Dept, of Science & Technology, Government of India Elected Members Mr. Humayun Abdulali Mr. M. D. Agharkar Mr. M. R. Almeida Dr. S. R. Amladi Mr. H. K. Divekar ( Honorary Treasurer ) Mr. R. E. Hawkins Dr. Ashok Kothari Mrs. Phillippa Mukherji Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati ( Honorary Secretary) Mr, Ulhas Rane Mr. Bittu Sahgal Mrs. Dilnavaz Variava Advisory Committee Mr. H. G. Acharya Ahmedabad Mr. F. C. Badhwar, o.b.e. New Delhi Dr. B. Biswas Calcutta Mr. S. Chaudhuri New Delhi Dr. Madhav Gadgil Bangalore Mr. N. D. Jayal New Delhi Mr. Shivarajkumar Khachar Jasdan Mr. Lavkumar Khacher Rajkot Mr. M. Krishnan Madras Mr. Duleep Matthai New Delhi 694 HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1984 101st Year Membership The membership continue to show a slow but steady increase but there is certainly a pressing need to increase the membership. Your Committee is examining the con- straints which restrict the membership and how best these can be removed to accelerate member recruitment. The cost of member facilities and the strain it puts on the administration of the Society are also under consideration. The possibility of journal and non-journal membership and more realistic membership dues is being exa- mined. The journal for instance costs the Society Rs. 55 per member plus Rs. 11 to- wards postage out of a current subscription of Rs. 60 ! Details of membership for the past quin- quennium, showing members fully paid up on 31st December of each year are given in the statement below: Members’ Activities Field trips'. During the year one day field trips were arranged largely within the San jay Gandhi National Park for Bombay members. These were bird watching treks and included treks from Kanheri Caves to Mamma Bhanjhan, and Chunabatti village to Tulsi Lake. The field trips were well attended and enabled us to introduce members to birds and bird habitats, including vegetation studies and information on other aspects of natural history. The monthly roadside bird count continues to be operated by a hard core of enthusiastic bird watchers, who have over the years be- come quite competent in bird identification. Weekend field trips : A few limited capacity field trips were organised to acquaint members with nature reserves and habitats within an overnight jour- ney distance of Bombay. 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 Ordinary members 764 1044 1137 1533 1762 Corporate members 168 176 162 158 132 Life members 327 349 407 484 562 Compound Corporate members 20 37 52 102 107 Student members 94 165 126 182 192 Honorary Members 3 3 3 3 3 Vice Patrons — 3 4 4 6 1376 1777 1891 2466 2764 Members elected in 1984, but not paid 24 Members paid for 1983, but not paid for 1984 218 695 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Nature Camp : The Centenary Nature camp was organised at Chopta (10,000 ft) in Garhwal Himalayas. The Natural beauty of this area is comple- mented by the variety of its birdlife includ- ing such spectacular forms as the Monal Pheasant. There were two batches of 25 persons each from 27th September to 6th October. Members were taken to Dungalbetta, a trek of 4 km and on the way they saw varieties of Himalayan flowers and birds. Members were also taken to the Musk Deer breeding Centre at Karchula Khark. Member Field Surveys and Projects Study of Nilgiri Langur in Mundanthurai, Tamil Nadu : Dr. Johnsingh initiated this project. The study is broadly divisible into two categories, i.e. (1) Survey of the distribution of the Nilgiri Langur troops on Mundanthurai Plateau and (2) an indepth study on the feeding ecology and ranging patterns of troop which lives in the Gallery Forest to the east of the conflu- ence of the river Tambiraparani and Servelar in Tamil Nadu. (Supported by the Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund). In search of the Malabar Civet'. Mr. E. R. C. Davidar undertook this pro- ject to rediscover the Malabar Civet. No attempt has been made recently to ascertain the status of the Malabar Civet. Mr. Davidar conducted an enquiry in the Wynaad and Malabar areas to determine if the civet still existed. Posters were prepared and circulated in the former areas of distri- bution of the species. (Supported by the Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund). Report available. Karvi observations at Mahabaleshwar area: The strobilanthes which flowers every eighth year synchronously flowered in 1984. Obser- vations on flowering period, pattern mecha- nism of pollination, period of fruit setting and maturation were made by a team led by Prof. P. V. Bole. (Supported by the Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund.) Report available. Status survey of Honey-Guide at Bhutan : Mr. Sunjoy Monga undertook this project. Most of the information currently available on I. xanthonotus is from occasional notes pub- lished in various journals. A preliminary sur- vey was done at Bhutan for a possible long term study of the ecology of this species. (Supported by the Salim Ali Nature Conser- vation Fund.) Report available. Bastar Buffalo Study : Mr. H. K. Divekar initiated a project to survey and study the status of the wild buffalo in Bastar district. This is the only population of the species in peninsular India and is under considerable stress. (Supported by the Pirojsha Godrej Fund). Natural History of the Garhwal Himalayas : A team of young members of the Society namely Dr. (Miss) Meena Haribal, Mr. Nitin Jamdar, Mr. Hemant Shinde and Ms. Arti Kaikini trekked in the Garhwal Himalayas studying the natural history of the hills. The expedition was supported by the Pirojsha Godrej Fund. Report available. Malshej Ghat Bird study: Mr. Abdulali carried out a study of birds at Malshej Ghat at the foot of the Harischandra Gadh. During monsoon this area is covered with thick mist. Due to poor visibility several birds while flying through this area hit the wall of the rest house and die. The causative factors were examined. (Supported by Charles McCann Fund.) 696 A.G.M. 1984-85— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS Avifauna of plantations : Agriculture demands large areas of land and creates changes in ecosystems. With the current emphasis on social forestry planta- tions of quick growing species of trees have come up, which have their own ecosystem quite different from the ecosystem of natural forests. Mrs. Tara Gandhi is studying the com- parative ecology of bird populations of plan- tation with those of natural forest habitats in the same area. (Supported by the Salim Ali/Loke Wan Tho Ornithological Research Fund). Publications Journal : During the year the August and December issues for 1983, Vol. 80 (2) & (3) and the April and August issues for 1984, Vol. 81 (1) & (2) were published. The 959 pages of these journals held 224 articles and notes. We re- ceived from members and others 257 articles and notes for publication in the journal in 1984. Hornbill : The Hornbill continued to maintain its popu- lar appeal to members and is a reflection of member talent in different fields of natural history. A special issue of the Hornbill giving the complete history of the Society was published during the year. the book of Indian birds continued to be the best seller among the Society’s Publica- tions followed by the book of Indian ani- mals. Both publications were reprinted during the year. The year also saw the release of the book of Indian reptiles, the latest addition to the Society’s list of natural history books. Sales statement The Book of Indian Birds The Book of Indian Animals Some Beautiful Indian Trees Glimpses of Nature in India Booklet Snake Chart Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra (2nd edition) Checklist of the Birds of Delhi, Agra & Bharatpur A synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan Grasses of Western India Some Beautiful Indian Climbers & Shrubs A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Sub-continent A Century of Natural History The Book of Indian Reptiles * including 2063 copies sold by OUP. Sales 1983 in 1984 Compli- mentary copies Balance stock 31.12.84 2067 1469 6 44 710 692 1 485 292 225 1 1280 548 434 3 81 27 37 282 (Including soiled copies) 130 83 1 1550 153 18 35 103 68 1 1514 95 66 1 257 187 162 2 2208 338 3811* 4 4863 263 269 93 2311 725 55 4220 697 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 83 Book under preparation : ENCYCLOPEDIA OF INDIAN NATURAL HISTORY Centenary Publication 1883-1983 Owing to various problems the Encyclopedia is still pending publication. The major portion of the work has been completed and we hope to publish this volume in 1986. THE BOOK OF INDIAN TREES The preparation of the material for this book by Prof. K. C. Sahni is in hand and photographs /transparencies of the 150 common trees in India which will be described are be- ing collected. Conservation The Society continues to be recognised by the Central and State Governments in India and by International Organisations abroad as an authoritative source for information on con- servation of wildlife and natural resources. The recognition is expressed in the form of association of its officials with State and Central Wildlife Advisory Boards and repre- sentation on the specialist groups of the Species Survival Commission of the Inter- national Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural resources. The Curator represented the Govt, of India at the Conference at Groningen, Netherlands of the parties to the Convention on the Con- servation of Wetland Habitats. At the instance of the Govt, of India, the Curator assisted by Dr. R. B. Grubh and Mr. Hussain visited the Gir Forest on a fact find- ing survey with reference to the disposal of trees felled by the 1982 cyclone. The report examined this problem as well as status of wildlife particularly the Lion. University Department Recognition for M Sc and Ph D in Plant Studies : The University of Bombay recognised the Bombay Natural History Society under section 46 of the Bombay University Act, 1974 for guiding student for M Sc and Ph D degrees in the subjects of Botany (Field Botany) for a period of 3 years. Additional seats'. The University was requested to consider the possibility of increasing the number of students, we can register from 10 to 50 for M Sc and Ph D in Field Zoology (Ornitho- logy, Mammals, and Herpetology). We have the following students registered for M Sc and Ph D at the Society. 698 A.G.M. 1984-85— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS Student M.Sc. Guide Financial support Mr. Aloysius Gnanasekar Ecology of Amphibia of Sanjay Gandhi National Park Mr. J. C. Daniel Nil Mr. Ranjit Manakadan Ecology of the Great Indian Bustard Habitat - do - Nil Mrs. Tara Gandhi Bird communities of Dr. Salim Ali Fellowship from Salim exotic tree species with special reference to Casuarina Ali/Loke Wan Tho Fund Mr. Shahid Ali Ecology and behaviour of the Grey Partridge Francolinus - do - - do - pondicerianus Mr. S. C. Tewari Ecology of the Musk Shrew Suncus murinus with emphasis on breed- ing biology, food habits, home range and territoriality Mr. J. C. Daniel Nil Mr. Bharat Bhushan The Food and feeding behaviour of the Great Indian Bustard Choriotis nigriceps. - do- Nil Mr. Alagar Rajan Ecology of Spotted and Ring Doves Dr. R. B. Grubh Nil Mr. Vibhu Prakash Biology of Raptors Dr. V. S. Vijayan Nil Mr. Gurmeet Singh Ecology of Bank Myna Dr. R. B. Grubh Nil Ph.D. in Field Zoology Mrs. Lalitha Vijayan Comparative Biology of Dr. Salim Ali Fellowship from Salim Drongos with special reference to Ecological Isolation Ali/Loke Wan Tho Fund Mr. Anwarul Islam Ecology of the Laughing Thrushes of India with special reference to the Endemic species Dr. Scilim Ali - do - Mr. U. Sridharan Ecology of Residential Ducks in Keoladeo National Park Mr. J. C. Daniel Nil Mr. Goutam Narayan Birds of Prey - do - Nil Ph. D. in Plant Studies Mr. Manek Mistry Contributions to the Flora, of Ratnagiri District in Maharashtra Prof. P. V. Bole Nil 699 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 83 Nature Education Scheme During the year 475 schools in Bombay, Thane and Kalyan were contacted and about six thousand students participated in our different activities. Besides school students 280 trainee teachers from 4 B.Ed. colleges and 110 trainee teachers from 2 D.Ed. colleges participated in our activities. Orientation programme on environmental education for the trainee teachers of P.V.D.T. college was arranged. This included lectures and a visit to the Society. As a part of National Sponsorship Programme for 150 Municipal school students at R.C.F., Chembur, a slide talk on birds around Bombay was deli- vered and the students were taken out for birdwatching. The World Forestry day cele- brations included a wildlife quiz programme for the students of 8th, 9th standard. Six schools participated. The programme was later broadcast on AIR in their ‘‘Wonderland- world” programme. Field trips continued to be a major activity and 37 field trips to the Sanjay Gandhi National Park were organised as also one trip to Karnala Bird Sanctuary and two field trips to Khandala. 1500 students participated. Throughout the year talks illustrated with slides on birds, animals, insects and plants were arranged in different schools and colleges. Films on wildlife were shown in a number of schools and colleges including Range Forest School at Chandrapur. Tree planting was organised during the World Environmental Day with the help of World Wildlife Fund-India and 10 schools participated. Research Funds Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund : Assistance from this source was given to members for field projects (see under Mem- ber’s activities). Salim AlijLoke Wan Tho Ornithological Research Fund : Assistance in the form of fellowships was extended to field researchers in ornithology (see under University Department). Godrej Fund: Assistance was given to members for field activities in Bastar and the Himalayas (see under Member’s activities). Charles McCann Fund: Assistance was given to a member to study birdlife in the Malshej Ghat area of Maha- rashtra (see under Member’s activities). Donations The Society is deeply grateful to the follow- ing Institutions, Organisations and individuals for substantial donations towards the activities and welfare of the Society. General donation: Rs. P. Calcutta Tea Trading Co. 1,500.00 Ostrum Enters Trust 1,064.40 Bombay Exports 1,000.00 Mr. Sidharaj Hamirmal Bafna 750.00 Mrs. Kanak Kumari H. Bafna 750.00 Mr. Harshand H. Bafna 750.00 Mr. Ajit Kumar Bafna 750.00 Tehmina K. Katrak Charitable Trust 500.00 Mr. J. P. Elijah 123.00 Mr. Prabhakar Thakur 101.00 Centenary donation: Mr. A. K. Stuart 801.69 Mr. C. V. Rajeevan 251.00 Nature Education Scheme: Mr. Trevor Price 500.00 700 A.G.M. 1984-85— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund : Dr. Salim Ali 9,000.00 Life Membership Donation'. Mr. Ashwin Mehta 500.00 Charles McCann Fund : Mr. Schandhai 600.00 Mr. Akbar Abdulali 600.00 Mr. H. Abdulali 7,500.00 Plant Study Fund : United Phosphorus Pvt. Ltd., 50,000.00 Dr. Salim Ali 1,000.00 Mr. T. J. Roberts 874.20 Dr. C. V. Kulkarni 600.00 Mr. S. Joseph Wright 586.87 Mr. K. R. Sethna 500.00 Mr. Ashok Kumar 500.00 Darbar Shri Alkhacher Charitable Trust 500.00 Mr. M. A. K. Stuart 465.00 Mr. David Challinor 435.00 Mr. N. S. Talekar 394.78 Mrs. A. FI. Patel 300.00 London A/c Luc Ftoffman 267.80 Mr. Franklin L. Wesber Councillor 200.00 Mr. Berry Bean 206.13 Mr. S. Moolgaokar 200.00 Ms. Mary R. Halle 200.00 Tia Rai and others 175.00 Thomas Gene Benedict 154.01 Mr. H. K. Divekar 150.00 Mr. R. D. Hodgkins 139.97 Ms. Anna Barbara Fischer 107.48 Mr. S. B. Motiwala 104.00 Mr. John R. Oppenheimer 101.00 Ms. Perin M. R. B. Jeejeebhoy 101.00 Mr. K. T. Mathew 101.00 Mr. Suhrid Sarabhai 101.00 Mr. Y. R. Ghorpade 101.00 Mr. E. Hanumantha Rao 101.00 Mr. Ajit Wagh 100.00 Mr. Madukant Thacker 100.00 Dr. D. K. Lahiri Choudhury 100.00 M/s. Firdos S. Cambatta 100.00 Mr. C. Ramakrishna 100.00 Mr. J. R. Codho 100.00 Mr. D. Ranganathan 100.00 Mr. Shaik Samasul Huda 100.00 Mr. Sikandar Futehally 100.00 Mr. O. S. Fernandes 100.00 Mr. C. F. Hawilloy 100.00 Mr. David Ferguson 100.00 Total amount received during 1984 65,302.35 And also there were 107 donations which were below Rs. 100/. For Field Studies & Scholarships : Watanmal Bookhand Charitable Trust 15,000.00 For Photographic Exhibition : Mr. M. Y. Ghorpade 10,000.00 We are particularly grateful to M/s. Larsen and Toubro Limited for the donation of 16000 greeting cards. Research Funded by Government and Governmental Agencies Studies on the movement and population structure of Indian Avifauna : The project continued with bird ringing and related studies. Rajasthan government, at a meeting of the Wildlife Advisory Board, dis- cussed the matter of granting permission for ringing at Bharatpur. But since the permit was not issued during the year, there was no ring- ing activity in the sanctuary. Seasonal ringing stations were conducted at Mundanthurai and Kalakkad in Tamil Nadu, Jamnagar and Khijadia in Saurashtra, Chilka in Orissa and Harike in Punjab. 701 15 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 Endangered species project staff undertook ringing in Karera (M.P.) on exploratory basis. Total number of birds ringed during the year are as follows: Point Calimere 8538 birds of 90 species; Chilka 2414 birds of 47 species; Harike 4327 birds of 65 species; Jamnagar and Khijadia 294 birds of 26 species. Highlights of the Recovery Data : The following countries have reported re- covery of our ringed birds: 1. E. Africa — 1 (Reeve); 2. S. Africa — 1 (Reeve); 3. China — 1 (Redcrested Pochard); 4. U.S.S.R. — 46 (Pintail, Common Teal, Gadwall, Kigeon, Common Pochard, Tufted Duck, Coot, Ruff and Reeve, Little Stint, Curlew, Sandpiper) (through Prof. Gavrilov), 2 (Little Stint, Curlew, Sandpiper). An Ecological Study of Bird Hazards at Indian Aerodromes Work at Aerodromes: Field study has been completed at Gwalior, Jodhpur, Trivandrum and Bangalore. Work started at Dundigul and Gorakhpur. Reports will be prepared for all these aerodromes. The remaining aerodromes are Patna, Nagpur, Kalaikunda, Calcutta, Tezpur, Chabua, Madras, Jammu, Srinagar, Adampur and Chandigarh. The ARDB has requested us to take up Hyderabad also for study; for which we have agreed. Banding vultures to study their movement : The work was held up due to shortage of research hands and non-availability of num- bered wing tags. Vulture Aviary experiment at KVIC premises: This was delayed as it took a long time to get a favourable response from the Khadi and Village Industries Commission who own the premises. Publications : a) The first Annual Report under Phase-2 covering Delhi, Bombay and Hindan aero- dromes was produced. b) Guide booklet on “Potential Problem Birds at Indian Aerodromes” was pub- lished for the ARDB. Ecology of Certain Endangered Species of Wildlife and Their Habitats Great Indian Bustard : The year 1984 saw the achievement of all the objectives of this project namely: 1 . Present distribution 2. Examinations of the habitats 3 . Determination of transient or resident nature of the bird 4 . Determination of breeding areas and season 5. Study of the biology 6. Dispersal and seasonal movement 7 . Management Plan Future Plans: We still have one and a half year of the project. During this period, in addition to continuing our ongoing studies, we plan to do the following studies: a) Establishment of a field station at Rolla- padu 702 A.G.M. 1984-85— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS b) Study of the movement of the banded bustards at Nanaj c) Study of the individual behaviour of the colour-banded birds at Karera with spe- cial reference to intra-specific interaction. d) More surveys in Gujarat, Rajasthan and Karnataka for determining the exact population of the bustards. Second annual report has been published. Elephant : Extensive studies were conducted in Tiru- nelveli and Kanya Kumari districts. The areas covered were Thirukkuremgudi range, Nam- bikoil area Nadugani, Kodaikolasharmottai, Panagudi hills, Balamore Tea Estate, Keeri- perai area, Sengalltheri (Kalakkadu Wildlife Sanctuary), Naiaikadu and Mundanthurai Wildlife Sanctuary. These surveys were aimed at collecting food plants and studying the feeding habits of elephants. Preliminary work was also carried on in Bandipur and Mudu- malai Sanctuaries. Intensive studies at Mudu- malai and Bandipur Sanctuaries have been planned for 1985. Hydrobiological ( Ecological ) Research Station at Keoladeo Ghana National Park , Bharatpur : Data was collected in various disciplines to determine factors influencing the ecosystem. New areas under study during the year were: 1 . Silica content in water, 2. Biological oxygen demand in the lake, 3. Diurnal cycle of Planktons, 4. Impact of guano on the aqua- tic life, 5. Sarus Crane studies, 6. Raptor studies, 7. Wintering ecology of Siberian Cranes. Cattle grazing in the park was stopped during the year and its effect on the ecology of the Sanctuary is being studied. Meetings & Field Trips January : Slide show : “A trip across Tibet” by Dr. Lawrence Swan, on 4th January 1984. February : Festival of films : “A property in the country” and “Missing Monsoon”, on 6th February. “The Great one-horned Rhino- ceros” and “Round Robin”, on 7th February. “The Hidden World” “The Last Roundup” and “Adventure has wings”, on 8th February. “The Leopard that changed its spots” and “Operation Osprey”, on 9th February. “Tiger Tiger” and “Flight for survival”, on 10th February. March: Talk : “Nisarg Yatra around Kon- kan” by Oswald Thayil, on 22nd March. April: Talk : “Nandur-Madhmeshwar” by Debi Goenka St Oswald Thayil, on 12th April. Film Show: “A Robe of White” and “The Language of Birds”, on 21, 23 St 24th April. May: Musical concert : By Smt. Kishori Amonkar at Birla Matushri Sabhaghar, on 6th May. The Society is indebted to Smt. Kishori Amonkar for generously donating her time and talent for this fund raising programme. June: Slide show : “Birds of Indian Wet- land” by Pakshi Mitra Mandal, Nasik, on 8th June. Nature camp : At Malshej Ghat, on 23rd & 24th June. Slide show: “Identification of common butterflies” by Meena Haribal, on 30th June. July: Field trip: “Field identification of butterflies at I IT Powai Camp, Slide show: “Bird community structure around the world” 703 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 by Dr. David L. Pearson, on 2nd July. Nature walk : At Borivli National Park, on 29th July. August: Slide show : “A visit to Garhwal Himalayas” by Meena Haribal, on 10th August. Nature walk : From Forest Checknaka to Bhoot Bangla, on 12th August. Nature camp : At Pal Yawal (Jalgaon disk), from 25th to 29th August. September: Slide show : “Recent Measures to Save Certain South-east Asian Endangered Species” by Major Ian Grimwood, on 4th September. Nature walk : “Monsoon Flora” at BNHS Land, on 9th September. Film show : “The making of a Natural History Film”, on 17th September. October: Film show : Nature films sponsored by Sanctuary Magazine, on 1, 3, & 5th Octo- ber. Nature walk : At Nag-phani & Tiger’s Leap, on 13th & 14th October. Slide show: On butterflies by Mr. N. D. Mulla, on 17th October. December: Nature camp : At Chanderi, on 2nd December. Nature walk: At IIT Powai, on 9th December. Reference Collection During the year 139 specimens were regis- tered into the collections. Birds 16 Frogs & Toads 57 Lizards 21 Snakes 5 Insects 40 139 Interesting additions are the Spoonbilled Sandpiper and the Skink Dasia haliana. During the year Mr. Humayun Abdulali continued the cataloguing of the bird collec- tion. Part 30 of the catalogue, which covers 1141 specimens of 107 species and sub species. Nos. 1471-1571 ( Tesia cyaniventer to Sylvia nana nana) in Indian Handbook and Synop- sis, and 15 extra-limitals was completed in 1984. Revenue and Accounts The financial situation of the Society is a cause for concern. The year’s working showed a deficit of Rs. 28,807.46. Staff The Committee wishes to record its appre- ciation of the willing co-operation of the staff in the activities of the Society. 704 A.G.M. 1984-85— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS rf oo On cq § p Q C CO - Q s I d c* hQ W rs> S S > ^ t^l H >s > bQ s £ I 0:5 g p s ^ s Co fcQ !> CQ tJ- S £ T3 tp) tS X 42 5/3 &5 03 -S> P © o p O PQ J ^ ^ 'O ^ -a V. §- O fe « < 8 5 a w S & e III ■ S’* P a 13 w « -S 8*. 3 * £ £ 3 3 -5 d >» © w> .S N P 'O a o a s -h Ov Q t> in O cO oo in © «-< t — ■ c — *n m» ^ oob m o od io i-H in m ,— i i—i rf cN CQ © P ■s 'O CO 8-i 8, C/> < C0 . P !/> o © -P 11 03 X) CQ P in -i_i s-1 'o O n C 0) .. ft 11 >2 Jh -5 r? <3 Ph «$ 0) I & >1 g H g d u J to fO On VO r4 cn 00 r4 s PQ co < r. o ^ X X ° | a 2 ^ m 2 * fi a> to a o 8 H X O O ISO X CL) in N O h m in o m rn oo oo K h in m ^ in O cn in vd vo vd 50 a) C/5 8 ^ & 2 ® d & £ K .<£ cj 8 . . « ?e a « g g-H a H P ! I o z 5 o o o o o H H H H If sj d. Ov 2 S3 3 ISO .3 ^ o •■S 8 ^3 ~ a >> §4 "I ^ <5. 0 Cfc, 50 %P 5 8. H *> d E 8 CO I i S ..*1 g 5 1 II 3 c o2 = « - 60 > 2 £ A ~ £ <1 V Oh Q ’g ft § * Q 50 3 ft ‘ £ jo 50 d a o Co TO 5 Q o -m > CD •S- o g,^S §1 i d § d •2°. g * I 3 8 2 q o 3 X o> cu «2 co 3* -rt to d »n On o ON oo o' 00 m n cn of j-i ri d CD >> t) CD 3 X CO 60 d to § •§ 8 1 d XI d x O <50 Y— < 00 On VO 00 S »n On s ri rrT t" M VO — < o o in On vp 00 Os' ve si 3 2 PQ g & la 0® •S -a a o *> a o, « d | £ & 2 2 -□ si I CQ £8 On CA *-h rn T— I C5 i S C/5 cj & > a Si I 03 o> ‘o 0 . co f £ -< < CQ 2i § 1 I Is vo «Ci 06 3 I $ I a 1 Q CO ^ * 3 e «« 5 ^ & | £ N Co o ° 2 o . w . >s 'G o « fe3 ■§ | ■d S O o o On vo t-H s VO oo © 00 vn <*5 /— N ri vn t-H 00 VO VO* 'w' , 0 § C * _ a ^ ^ ^ "S s: a T3 o ^ S •£ Jb ^ ^ o C3 o -a I o ^ 3 ^ *£ a ^ cO s s VO O 00 I I I I a o tn XI 3 a CQ 3 © O d C/3 X > X Tjj E >* C5J> o 'o 0 N © c3 u x © 1 d I o s & o Is 8 d #o £ © to C cO o 9 ^ ^ s © TJ 3 § % f t^- m 00 t-H 00 ON 1 ■d 1 Os t" in On cn 00 r^- 1 © 1 tn 8 r- § VO 00 m 00 r| rn in" VO I I I « g > ^ ^ ft £ § . So ’Ft ft ft ft, ft, ts o •«: C H Sr .& % * ^ fej T? §2 ■B S ** 8|rf ft ft h ° N B 1 §> 8 fe -I € * ■$ o a ft ^ ft ^ VO £ 1 £ 2 o o , 3 8 VO d rg 5 /— s d I d d 1 VO* s s *5 2 &0 £ .2 .S ft o t"~ oo 8 vn o o o' Os vo~ Cv *§ ^ ^ ^ | -i § I 3 ^ I I I 8 8 O o * CQ ^ -d t/> 3 ,— i p -d c3 .Eh 00 CJ H § «j 2 5 3 .2 £ H Ph ^ co ’d vw § 0 IH ® aJ d & .2 o d -d £ O •S*- >>S W) CO I §j £ £ ft S >> s 1| CO M d •& a p £ co *d d £ B ^ B * o T-H * s <2 d £ .2 6 id o Bi o S:.s S o 709 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 S 0 o 00 >< Qd o H CO < z >* < CQ s o CQ I CQ ffl i-3 D Q W a o CO OO Os 1 s § 2 ro Co I I CQ k, o a 5 Qd § t*3 § 5 CO 1§ O O c ^ S o hj S 5 *ss e cS ^ /—s >% ^ ss S ^ 3 g O B 3 SO IT) 3 /— N v£> oi 4 | 4 Os’ «L> 'w' oS> o 5 Os -3 $ £ 00 t"- 4 t" ll $> .13 ^ Is %> •5 ts c 3 *S III 3 C3 3 b CQ O e ^ ^ 5 . w O cx £ 1*3 '•s* *>* is. C P 00 p g > 3 ^ S 3 £ x 3 p 3 3 2 ft, CQ S to 3 s ij 3 rh ^ ac rl SO Tf iy-i -^r 4 Os Os 00 Tf r- t-~ 2 Oo o o .s £ .. £2 IL ^ O O Qd 3 § 00 ^4 . OO 3 2 4 oo £ 2£ Oo 3 S 4 i 1 1 1 C rr 00 1 1 ) o .3 r^l oo 2 00 3 "3 5 X i s ! os o H 710 Schedule ‘B’ (Part II) A.G.M. 1984-85— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS H PQ 0 O Xfl > & O H GO < < 'Z >< < PQ s O PQ Tt* oo PQ PQ S' Q hs 2 co En X co En EaQ s ?2 co k3 £ PQ O On s £ § S i § 5 CO c ft, a o 3 2 I ■§ ■k* e 2 ts s £r O u o i < § "cd 00 Z 4 00 C3 cd a ~o t > s5 ^ =a n ca a i 2 j| g < O T3 . CO a c « < CQ 711 Chartered Accountants. SCHEDULE FORMING PART OF INCOME & EXPENDITURE & BALANCE SHEET AS AT 31 ST DECEMBER 1984 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 l-M 3 P Q W U t"- 1 1 1 1 8 8 ^ a *•* * r3 V * ^ s Os K tq 3 o o ■§ e 1 1 .e t. OS c4 o SO VS SO e ... (3 C 8 (A s 8 c4 o oo o Vs* T? od cn 8 VS $ VS so so 2 so* o V r~-" t— 1 o" vs SO 3 82 5 ^ v '-w' -st- r4 VO SO r- vs SO n r o VS c^s O £ cq o S3 8 SO oo" VS rd ■"fr — < —s' ^ 5 bo « S > S ^ S s c ^ S & a «> ^ ^ < § v « !•§ §1 III5 CQ <*S £ s s Tt- T— 1 cd (N so’ o so Os £ r~~" Os" so" fM so Tf" rf Os Oi 712 Schedule ‘B’ (Part III) (contd.) A.G.M. 1984-85— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS I S O O g* s ° S 5 *3 Cj c a B " c I c o C k. &o § R S 5 § 2 ^ ^ h-. ^ \ _ <3 ~ N in r* ^ .t: S w g ^ ^ ^ J* & P ^ b £ -&3 ? S'? | 5 -Si b 3 <3 P b CQ o 1*2 *> b I -i -g - c*N cS ^ 1 1 -S-S -2 b 5 2o Q o, cq cq On no NO .a 1 1 88 8 I -5' m cn in 8 8 8 8 I I - O O o o t"> O tJ- m m in I I in 00 c/a O & ON <4-1 0 .2 o cS j3 4-5 aJ ta cj 1 3 a I ^ 5 *S -§ | ^ ~ •§ cq c ^ o K fO ■» I* £1" flo .5 n no rM i— < On CM © On K ON »n ~ 8 8 8 VN VO 8 1 2 1 d oo TT d 1 oo VN cn VO o' vO 04 cn o^ vr> d vO cl Q W ffi o co PP Ij 1 1 I a w a 4) II >» -o a 5 I C/5 Q is CL, $5 6 jo w I cd •— < 715 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 m D Q ffl U in oo Os tq CQ 1 a Q hn 2 co 05 S S o cq O hn ft. hj £ e> 0 hs 1 1 § Ps. so l> 8 CO so Rs. s 00 VO CO •0; 0 so Os H OO (N n 'O 00 rO r- O ^ CO °0 OO ^ 00 VO CO 00 T-* '*t ro CO © m © so Os "rjr © CO Os -^r co1 © 00 06 CO rf 88888 8 2 88 CQ 716 includes earmarked against the following funds : (p. 717) A.G.M. 1984-85— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS vOf^O^OOOOOC^ ^1-OOiOMON i m q tj\ o oo o w oC o o O >n' fi N rl^ 1- ^ O 'o ^ ^ r^T \6' hN m (N t ^ &&&&&&&&&&& 3 c\» w m & W «» x> o -o a> <+h oa *g ^ 717 16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 £ gj 0 8 ;* oC 3 CO HH ffi t I < CQ S o PQ o 10 ^ l-H * s c/d P H 06 C/D D W SI pa P w * D 0) P4 rf oo ON EQ s p b3 Q hs CO Q pq Q £ tq til s £ 0 k. 1 0 H X tq § K. 1 I § s I 88 8 VN P; 8 i § 8 23 s' g O »n r- r4 a 3 S 8 * 8 § Is •O ON Tf r- *5 >> 60 JO 'o o N 0) cd t-i X o *2 « I* § l ao o . 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SOCIETY, Vol. 83 43 OX) 3) O pa r- © r-f 5 43 ? u oa fl § a,,g a II w 00 V. .3 ° £ S_1 cO °1 6 3 © LLi C/D *** I - o> .a B! 11 ON M pH 33 B c« § tj | “<2 43 o •Sl« >* “5 3 § g o ^ o 43 <8 £ $ s ?? & b .© £ z-gfe , s~ a^S 3 0 0) ' 0^1 a&* oo '— • ri M3 •a c ^ 43 ;» co T3 •43 a 11 tJ- »n t<. oo Tt rt- r- oo On On r-H~ rf s s Ph «> o 42 1 J*1 'b .3 a o .g « •S £ O ^ 00 00 *8 •* S 8 a. co s £ fla .Si II I a o , 5 o 8S! *n S 3 -8 ^ 69 gp ^3 S | ^ ^ ^ ^ 3 «3 £» <§ .£; co 43 a o Q C3 & as 1 . g >.•§ •a 8 I ■& « en in d- » d X> 1 O d o I 51 & & „ '3 o E 3 co in -d o 3 — O a is P4 Z S « >» .5 h d d d 13 I n CO 0H U 4) SP I 1 d & § 6 * d 8-3 d n o ■ d "d a <3 >» CQ 88? * tn in r- d- c- m i-i m rf Vtf 1 _ C Q\ O sl >» Q - 8 o d d tj > ■B 3 a to ^ * y c oo & u s; o^o j_. O t; « o o 5X §*1 1 *h i to ifl b 8, ° < >> o O C CO 2! & a a c* < W 1 1 1» q£5 “ &I S g c3 O y v! a ^ % 5§| I OQ .f t & 3 b a a ** £ £ li Jz * s- x> I ffi 723 Bombay, 8fft December, 1986. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY WAS HELD ON TUESDAY, 31ST DECEMBER 1985, AT HORNBILL HOUSE AT 6.00 P.M. WHEN THE FOLLOWING MEMBERS WERE PRESENT: 1 . Mr. Humayun Abdulali 2. Mr. M. R. Almeida 3. Mr. M. K. Mistry 4. Mr. J. C. Daniel 5. Mr. A. T. Faria 6. Mr. Archie D’Souza 7. Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati 8. Mr. Nigam R. Pandya 9. Prof. P. V. Bole 10. Dr. C. V. Kurkarni (in the chair) 1 1 . Mr. A. G. Newalkar 12. Mr. S. A. Hussain 13. Mr. H. K. Divekar 14. Mr. K. Naoroji 15. Dr. Robert B. Grubh 16. Mr. Sarosh Bana 17. Dr. V. S. Vijayan 18. Mr. Shyam Chainani 19. Mrs. P. Mukherjee 20. Ms. Meena Haribal 21 . Mr. Nitin Jamdar 22. Mr. Virendra Kumar Seth 23. Mr. D. P. Banerjee 24. Mr. S. K. Tadvi 25. Mr. Susheel Borkar 26. Mr. G. S. Malwankar 27. Ms. Heta Pandit 28. Mr. Debi Goenka 29. Mr. Kiran Srivastava 30. Mr. Sunjoy Monga The Honorary Secretary, Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, requested Dr. C. V. Kurkarni, Vice President of the Society to conduct the meeting. 1. The Honorary Secretary hoped that members had collected the cyclostyled copies of the report for 1984, and it could be taken as read. In his supplementary report, covering 1985, he drew attention to the salient features such as recognition of Prof. P. V. Bole and Mr. M. R. Almeida for guiding post graduate students in Plant Study, donation of a bus by Telco, a donation of Rs. 25,000 for the publication of Hornbill by Seth Purshottamdas Thakurdas Devaliba Trust and a donation of Rs. 50,000 for Plant Study Fund by United Phosphorus Pvt. Ltd. As regards activities under the So- ciety’s field projects, he advised that the reports of these projects are under prepara- tion. The report was then discussed. Mr. Shyam Chainani requested the Chairman to inform the General Body about the offer of land to the Society by the Karnataka Govt, for setting up a Tropical Research Centre and requested him to explain the steps taken by the Society and if the offer of the Karnataka Government has been accepted or rejected. The Honorary Secretary explained to the General Body that the offer of the Karnataka Govt, had been accepted in principle. He stated that our pro- posal for setting up a field research station at Goregaon had not yet been finalised. Any peripheral station would have to be planned after the form of the Centre for ornithology is decided. Hence the matter is kept pending. However, the offer of the Karnataka Govt, stands open until we reply and tell them of 724 MINUTES OF THE A.G.M. OF THE B.N.H.S . our intentions. Mr. Chainani suggested that we should not lose this opportunity of getting land from the Karnataka Govt, and every effort should be made to set up the Tropical Forest Research Centre. Dr. Grubh stated that we should not neces- sarily wait for the finalisation of the Centre proposal but that land must be cleared for the Society as today’s government may change and the offer of the land to the Society may be lost. Mr. Abdulali stated that it was not brought to the Executive Committee’s notice that such a proposal had been made to the Karnataka Govt, and it was done without the Executive Committee’s authorisation. The Curator explained to the General Body that this offer was conveyed through Mr. Hussain to the Society when he was in Banga- lore by the Chief Minister of Karnataka. No proposal was made by the Society. Mr. Hussain stated that when he was in Bangalore he had the opportunity to meet the Chief Minister of Karnataka through the Secretary to Govt, of Karnataka (Forests) and in the discussion the Minister had offer- ed the land for the Society to set up a Tropi- cal Forest Research Centre. The offer had been immediately conveyed to the Society. Mr. Abdulali stated that despite his objec- tion to the wrong information given in Dr. Sugathan’s article on the Birds of Point Cali- mere it was published by the Society. He also stated that his frog report which was sub- mitted for publication in the Journal was kept pending for six years. Mr. Hussain emphasised that there was nothing wrong in the article published by Dr. Sugathan. The controversy had started on the identification of a bird on which Mr. Abdulali differed though he had not seen the bird himself. The Society had published the article along with Mr. Abdulali’s comments as well as Mr. Hussain’s clarification on the points raised by Mr. Abdulali. There was nothing wrong in this system. The Curator stated that Mr. Abdulali did not submit his frog report for publication in the Journal six years back as claimed by him. The fact was that he had submitted his report to the ICAR, who were funding the project, six years ago and the article was not sent to the Society for publication then. Mr. Goenka asked for details of the date of submission of the article for publication, on which the Curator mentioned that he could not be specific but the article was not sub- mitted for publication more than two years ago. He assured that he will let the members know the details, (see letter from Curator, circulated to members). Thereafter Mr. H. K. Divekar proposed acceptance of the report and Mr. Naoroji seconded it. The report was adopted by the meeting. 2. The Chairman advised that since the auditor’s report and the audited statement of accounts & balance sheet were not ready due to the auditor being out of station this item required to be postponed. Mr. Debi Goenka wanted to know why the audited statement of accounts and the audi- tor’s report was not ready and when the accounts will be ready. The Chairman stated that accounts were ready but the auditor, not being accessible, having gone out of station, his report was not available. The report would now be available within two week’s time. The Honorary Secretary stated that certain persons had written to the Auditors conveying numerous baseless accusations about use of Society’s funds. To protect himself in this situation, the auditor was compelled to go 725 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 through every item and every voucher in de- tail. This took time. Mr. H. K. Divekar Honorary Treasurer, advised that the Society’s accounting period should be changed to April to March so as to be in line with the Government’s accounting year, and auditing should be started as early as possible. Several suggestions were made. Finally the Chairman stated that Honorary Treasurer should make every possible effort to complete the audit and prepare the statement of accounts well in time and positively before end of June each year. Mr. Nitin Jamdar wanted to know if the meeting v/as adjourned for consideration of accounts, whether any other matters could be discussed. To this the Chairman advised that this could be done under the item ‘Any other business with the permission of the Chair’. Mr. Debi Goenka wanted to know about the outcome of the enquiry conducted by the Enquiry Committee formed for the purpose of looking into the matter of defalcation of pro- ject money at Bharatpur and whether any report had been prepared and what progress had been made regarding the recovery of the amount. The Curator advised that the matter is pending with the Police, and the report is yet to be submitted. The Honorary Treasurer stated that after we have received the auditor’s report we can discuss this matter. Mr. Goenka also wished to see the report submitted by the Project Scientist before the adjourned meeting commences. 3. The Chairman stated that since the auditor’s report and the audited statement of accounts were not available, consideration of this matter be postponed for the adjourned meeting. 4. Election of the Committee for the year 1985-86 The consideration of this item was post- poned for the adjourned meeting since nomi- nations from the members were not received due to lack of time available to them. The despatch of the notice was delayed due to the accounts and hence it was not possible for the office to give sufficient time to the members to enable them to send nominations for the Exe- cutive Committee. The Chairman proposed that this item also be adjourned. At the adjourned meeting, even when held in 1986, all members eligible to attend the present meeting would automatically remain eligible to attend and vote, i.e. all members paid up for 1985. The Honorary Secretary proposed to hold the adjourned meeting on the 31st of January 1986 at 6.00 p.m. 5. Mr. Nitin Jamdar stated that the So- ciety’s name had been degraded due to the non-cooperation by the Society. He reported the instance of the letter from Friends of Birds, Nasik who had requested a list of mem- bers of the Society, to which the Society had refused to comply. Mr. Abdulali stated that M/s, Natraj Pub- lishers were allowed to have a copy of members list and also to send circulars on the Society’s letterhead. He wished to know as to who is paying for the expenditure on this account. The Curator explained that M/s. Natraj Publishers were sending the circular themselves and all stationery was at their cost. The list was provided to them as they were corporate members, and as they were giving discounts to the Society’s members on natural history publications. In this context Ms Meena Haribal stated that the Society should make available list of members to any member of the Society who 726 MINUTES OF THE A.GM. OF THE B.N.H.S. wishes to obtain one on payment, if necessary. The Chairman advised that the list of mem- bers are made available to members on a nominal charge. Mrs. Phillippa Mukherjee stated that the publications of the Society should be publi- cised widely and a brochure should be pre- pared to give publicity to this effect. The Honorary Secretary informed that it would be good idea to bring out a brochure illus- trating the natural history publications by the Society presently does not have. However, the the Chairman assured that efforts will be made to prepare a brochure. Mr. Archie D’Souza suggested that the So- ciety’s Hornbill Newsletter should be put on sale to bring revenue for the Society and the Govt, should be asked to provide subsidised paper for its publication. Chairman agreed that this could be examined. Mr. Debi Goenka wanted to know about the progress made on the Centenary Seminar Proceedings. The Curator advised that pro- gress has not been rapid as he had only one person working on this. He hoped to bring out the proceedings next year. The meeting terminated with a vote of thanks to the Chair. 727 THE ADJOURNED ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY TO CONSIDER ACCOUNTS AS ON 3 1ST DECEMBER 1985 WAS HELD AT HORNBILL HOUSE, AT 6.00 P.M. ON 3 1ST JANUARY, 1986, WHEN THE FOLLOWING WERE PRESENT: 1 . Mr. Debi Goenka 2. Ms. Heta Pandit 3. Shri Jayesh Y. Vadhavkar 4. Mr. S. K. Tyagi 5. Mr. N. D. Mulla 6. Mr. Sumant R. Shah 7. Dr. M. R. Almeida 8. Dr. P. J. Deoras 9. Mr. Shyam Chainani 10. Mr. Nitin N. Jamdar 1 1 . Mr. Suresh G. Bhatkal 12. Mr. Humayun Abdulali 13. Mr. N. D. Sethna 14. Mr. Sunil R. Zaveri 15. Dr. Robert B. Grubh 16. Mr. Goutam Narayan 17. Mr. Nigam R. Pandya 18. Mr. Anthony G. T. Carter 19. Mr. Vasant N. Raiji 20. Mr. Vasant Gandhi 21 . Mr. Archibold T. Faria 22. Mr. Archie D’Souza 23. Mr. Bansi Mehta 24. Dr. (Mrs.) Saraswati Unnithan 25. Mr. Ranjit Manakadan 26. Ms. Arati A. Kaikini 27. Mr. G. B. Nadkarni 28. Prof. P. V. Bole (in the chair) 29. Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, 30. Mr. J. C. Daniel 31. Mr. H. K. Divekar 32. Dr. C. V. Kulkarni 33. Mr. Ulhas Rane 34. Mr. M. D. Agharkar 35. Ms. Uma Roy Choudhury 36. Mr. Sam N. Mistry 37. Dr. Usha Shah 38. Mrs. D. S. Variava 39. Mr. J. P. Irani 40. Mr. Sarosh Bana 41. Mr. Sunjoy Monga 42. Mr. Premchand T. Dabrai 43. Mr. Deb Priya Bannerjee 44. Ms. Lima Rosalind 45. Ms. Meena H. Haribal 46. Commd. Elotan Panthakee 47. Mr. Jayant A. Shah 48. Mr. Cyrus J. Guzder 49. Shri N. Vaidyanafhan 50. Dr. A. K. Joshee 51. Mr. Sorab D. N. Gandhi 52. Dr. S. H. Dandekar 53. Mr. Anand Khatau 54. Mr. Ranvir Singh 55. Mr. Sharad A. Ruparel 56. Commander GVK Unnithan 57 . Mr. Chandrakanth G. Wakankar 58. Mr. Parvish Pandya 59. Mr. Sudhir R. Paradkar 60. Mr. S. A. Hussain 61 . Mr. Kiran Srivastava 62. Mr. A. L. Hegde 63. Mr. Dinshaw J. Panday In the absence of the President who was out of town, Mr. D. J. Panday proposed Prof. P. V. Bole Vice President to the Chair. The proposal was seconded by Dr. A. N. D. Nana- vati. At the outset Prof. P. V. Bole advised mem- 728 MINUTES OF THE A.G.M. OF THE B.N.H.S. bers of the demise of M. K. Dharmakumar- sinhji of Bhavnagar, a long-standing and valued life member of the Society. Members observ- ed a minute’s silence, all standing, as mark of respect to the memory of the deceased. Dr. P. J. Deoras referred to a press note concerning Dr. Salim Ali’s resignation as President of the Bombay Natural History So- ciety, and asked whether it has been accepted. He was told that the Executive Committee of the Society has not yet taken a decision. Agenda item 1. Statement of Accounts for the year 1984. The Honorary Treasurer advised that there was an unfortunate delay in auditing of the accounts as the auditors were busy owing to other preoccupations. The Honorary Treasurer stated that there were some plus as well as minus points in the Balance Sheet. He pointed out that the Society has created out of the income for 1984 an Education and Research Fund amounting to Rs. 96,196.16. The minus point was the defi- cit of Rs. 21,119.76 which is the excess of expenditure over income. The Auditor’s report was then considered. The Honorary Treasurer drew attention to the defalcation of Rs. 27,860.15 in the accounts of the Hydrobiology Studies Project at Bharatpur. On Dr. P. J. Deoras enquiring whether a report has been filed with the Police, Mr. M. D. Agharkar gave a resume of the incident, and the steps taken for the recovery of the amount. Briefly, the defalcation was by Nara- simha Raju Pakalapaty, Account /Administra- tive Assistant in the Bharatpur Centre who had absconded with amounts drawn from the bank towards payment of salaries not dis- bursed but kept overnight in a steel cupboard. The key unfortunately had been left with Narasimha Raju Pakalapaty by the Research Biologist, Shri Natarajan, who was in charge in the absence of the Project Scientist on leave. The complaint lodged with the Police has not produced results so far, and the last inti- mation from the Police received in October 1985 is that investigations are in progress, and that R.aju has not yet been traced. Mr. Nata- rajan went on home leave on the plea that his father was seriously sick, and subsequent- ly resigned from his post on 4.4.1985. Mr. Sumant Shah enquired about steps be- ing taken to prevent recurrences in the future, and suggested that persons handling cash should be insured. The Honorary Treasurer replied that the Society investigated the possi- bility of insuring the staff under fidelity cover. However, such cover is available only to permanently employed staff. The Society’s Project Staff, except the Project scientists, be- ing temporary this facility of Fidelity cover was not available. Mr. Debi Goenka drew attention to Rule No. 63 of the Society requiring employees to provide a surety as a condition of appoint- ment on the staff. The Honorary Treasurer informed members that though such a rule exists in the book, it has not been operative during the 100 years of the Society’s existence, and it was felt unnecessary to invoke the same in the future. Mr. N. D. Mulla felt that surety was necessary and should be asked from the Society’s staff. Mrs. D. S. Variava felt that: (1) surety could not be asked from staff now long employed with the Society; (2) a new temporary appointed may not be in a posi- tion to furnish such a surety; and (3) the only thing that could be done is to see that there is no recurrence of such acts in the future by being careful about who handles cash. Mr. Shyam Chainani suggested that Rule 63 be scrapped, and some other measure be 729 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 taken to ensure safety of the cash at the Projects. The Honorary Secretary pointed out that among measures taken to prevent recurrence, monthly salaries to the staff are now being posted to the employees individually by de- mand drafts made out for payee’s account. All permanent staff handling cash are now covered by Fidelity Insurance. In reply to Mr. Nitin Jamdar’s query if the defalcated amount would be written off, the Chairman replied that the Society is await- ing the report from the Police. Mr. Humayun Abdulali stated that he was not satisfied with the disbursal of the amounts received from the Tata Press for a Desk Diary for 1985 for which he had provided expert advice. Two cheques had been received one as honorarium for his work which he asked the Society to credit to Charles McCann Re- search Fund, and the other for payment to the photographers. His complaint was that the Honorary Secretary had not accepted his sug- gestion that the photographers be paid only at the rate of Rs. 500/- per picture, and the balance kept for the Society. The Honorary Secretary replied that he had paid the photographers the full amount of Rs. 750/- as Mr. Abdulali had not provided copies of written agreement with the photo- graphers, without which he had no authority to dispose of their fees. Mr. Ulhas Rane, one of the photographers involved, pointed out that Mr. Humayun Abdulali had no authority to decide what the photographers should receive by way of pay- ment for pictures they had given to Tatas. Mr. N. D. Mulla stated that though the Auditors had accepted the accounts of the Chopta Camp organized by the Society in the Centenary year, he was unhappy with the expenditure incurred where large amounts had been spent without proper supporting vouchers but had been accepted on the basis of signed statements by the staff involved in organizing the camp. He particularly drew attention to expenditure on transport. He felt that over- heads charged to camp expenses were exces- sive. Mr. Sumant Shah felt that the expenses were high because the camp catered to mem- bers who were not prepared to rough it out, and required certain facilities. Thus the ex- penses may have been a little on the higher side. Arising out of this discussion it was felt necessary that suitable voucher forms may be prepared and supplied to staff for giving de- tails of expenses. Members put forth various views on con- trolling expenses, and it was felt that members who were willing to rough it out if it meant less cost should not be overlooked as students and younger members who required to be shown the gift of nature can then be catered to. The consensus of the meeting was that there should be two types of camps organised for members. Mr. Raiji expressed the opinion that some of the members appeared to be unduly agitated over the defalcation and administrative ex- penses and since the Auditors have expressed opinion where necessary there was no need for the members to be unnecessarily perturbed. The proposal that in future the Auditors’ Report should be made available with the accounts of the Annual General Meeting was accepted. The accounts were then put to vote and were accepted, 23 voting for, and 11 against. Appointment of Auditors : Messrs Habib & Co., Auditors, were reappointed for the ensuing year. Agenda item 2. The Executive Committee Mr. Shyam Chainani proposed and it was 730 A.G.M. 1984-85— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS agreed to that while circulating the names of the candidates to be elected to the Executive Committee, the names of the President and Vice-Presidents need not be circulated as they were not concerned in the election process. It was also agreed that biodata of persons who may be co-opted to fill vacancies occurring during the term of office of a Committee should be published for the information of the members. Agenda item 3: Other business The Resolutions submitted by members were taken up for consideration. 1 . “RESOLVED that Accounts of the So- ciety be finalised within 3 months of closure of the books of accounts, and that the Annual General Meeting of the mem- bers be held within one month of the same.” Proposed by: Sunil Zaveri and Seconded by: Parvish Pandya. was considered and after discussion was accepted in the revised form given below: “RESOLVED that the Accounts of the Society be finalised and submitted for auditing by the end of June”. 2. “RESOLVED that the Nett Sales Pro- ceeds realised by the Sale of Greeting Cards and Calendars be credited to the Members’ Activities Corpus Fund.” Pro- posed by: Parvish Pandya; Seconded by: Nosherwan Sethna. This was considered along with a similar Resolution proposed by Ms. Heta Pandit, and seconded by Debi Goenka reading: “RESOLVED that the nett sale proceeds realised by the sale of Greeting Cards and Calendars be credited to a ‘Members’ Activities Corpus Fund”, the interest from which shall be used solely to finance Mem- bers’ Activities.” Both these Resolutions were withdrawn when Mrs. D. S. Variava explained to the members the purpose for which these funds were set aside. During the discussion it was suggested by Ms. Heta Pandit that New Activities (reference to Greeting Cards) if undertaken by the Society should be reported in the Horn- bill. 3 . “RESOLVED that the Balance amount of Rs. 89,340.39 in the Centenary Fund be transferred to the Library Corpus Fund.” Proposed by: Nosherwan Sethna and Seconded by: Sunil Zaveri. This was considered along with a similar Resolution proposed by Mr. Debi Goenka and seconded by Ms. Heta Pandit. “RESOLVED that the balance amount in the Centenary Celebrations Fund be trans- ferred to the Library Fund.” were withdrawn following the explanation that these funds would be used for the publication of the Centenary Seminar Proceedings. The Resolution put forward by Ulhas Rane, reading “RESOLVED that the following correction to be made in Agenda Item No. 2: “Election of the Executive Committee for 1986-87 as provided under Rule 32. “The list of names of persons nominated should be also for the term 1986-87. “It is further RESOLVED that the General Body confirms and approves that the outgoing committee elected for 1983- 84 had also worked for the year 1985.” was put to vote and accepted. The following resolutions put forward by Mr. Debi Goenka, Ms. Heta Pandit and N. D. Mulla. “RESOLVED that the sum of over Rs. 27,000/- that was stolen at Bharatpur because of the negligence on the part of the Project Authorities and which is now irrecoverable because of flagrant viola- 731 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 tions of Rule 63 on the part of the Exe- cutive Committee, should be reimbursed to the Society by the members of the Executive Committee of 1983-84.” Proposed by: Debi Goenka and Seconded by: Ms. Heta Pandit was withdrawn on the con- dition that Rule 63 would be deleted during the revision of rules and the members advised at the next Annual General Meeting. 2. “RESOLVED that a Board of Editors be appointed by the Executive Committee for the Journal comprising of at least two experts in each of the following fields: mammals, birds, reptiles, invertebrates, in- sects, plants, fishes and wildlife.” Propos- ed by: Ms. Heta Pandit and Seconded by: Mr. N. D. Mulla. The Curator explained the mode of opera- tion of the Journal and advised that all papers were reviewed by referees who were experts in their fields and only accepted for publica- tion if approved by the referees. In some instances referees advised revision. This pro- cedure has been found quite effective. The resolution was put to vote and was lost by 11 voting for and 14 against. It was, however, agreed that the Executive Committee should reconsider the Editorial policy. 5. “RESOLVED that the draft minutes of the Annual and Extraordinary General Meetings be circulated within three weeks to all members of the Society present at the Meeting; the Minutes should be ap- proved formally by the members present, at the next Annual Meeting”, Proposed by: N. D. Mulla and Seconded by: Ms. Heta Pandit. was finalised in two parts at Mrs. D. S. Variava’s instance. The first part was amend- ed to read: “RESOLVED that the draft Minutes of the Annual and Extraordinary General Meetings be circulated within six weeks to all members of the Society present at the meeting.” “RESOLVED that the draft of the minutes be confirmed at the next Annual General Meeting”. Put to vote the amended Resolutions were passed with 20 members voting for with one voting against. A Resolution of appreciation moved by Mrs. D. S. Variava and seconded by Mr. D. J. Panday at the rediscovery of Jerdon’s Courser was unanimously accepted. The meeting terminated with a vote of thanks to the Chair. 732 MINUTES OF THE EXTRAORDINARY GENERAL MEETING OF THE SOCIETY HELD FOR DISCUSSING THE PROPOSED CHANGES IN THE RULES An Extraordinary General Meeting of the Bombay Natural History Society was held on Thursday, the 19th December 1985, at Horn- bill House at 6 p.m. when the following were present : 1 . Mr. Humayun Abdulali 2. Mr. Nitin Jamdar 3. Ms. Heta Pandit 4. Mr. N. P. Behramfram 5. Mr. Debi Goenka 6. Dr. (Mrs.) S. Unnithan 7. Dr. Robert B. Grubh 8. Mr. Parvish Pandya 9. Dr. A.N.D. Nanavati 10. Mr. Dilip Patil 1 1 . Mr. D. J. Panday 12. Mr. M. D. Agharkar 13. Dr. C. V. Kulkarni (in the chair) 14. Mr. D. C. Balsara 15. Mr. S. A. Hussain 16. Ms. Uma Roy Choudhury 17. Mr. S. N. Mistry 18. Mr. Sunil R. Zaveri 19. Mrs. D. S. Variava 20. Mr. Bansi Mehta 21 . Mr. Cyrus J. Guzder 22. Mr. N. D. Mulla 23. Mr. D. P. Bannerji 24. Mr. Sorab D. N. Gandhi 25. Cdr. GVK Unnithan 26. Dr. A. K. Joshee 27. Mr. Suresh Bhatkal 28. Mr. G. L. Kalro 29. Mr. A. V. Ghangurde 30. Mr. Ulhas Rane 31 . Ms. Sumati Sampanene Mr. D. J. Panday proposed Dr. C. V. Kulkarni to the Chair and was seconded by the Honorary Secretary. Dr. C. V. Kulkarni explained to the audience the purpose for which they had assembled, namely to discuss the proposed amendments to the Rules and Regulations of the Society. He pointed out that the amendments were based on the suggestions received by the Executive Committee from members and have been circulated to all members. He further stated that Mr. M. D. Agharkar headed the sub-committee which worked on the sugges- tions made by the members, and drafted the present amendments which were to be dis- cussed. Dr. Kulkarni also explained to the meeting that the suggestions made by Mr. Ulhas Rane were inadvertantly omitted to be included in the papers submitted to Mr. M. D. Agharkar, and as such had to be considered at the current meeting. Mr. Agharkar then explained that a sub- committee went through the amendments and he examined all the suggestions made by different members and then drafted the pre- sent amendments after discussing them with the Executive Committee. The draft of the rules to be amended were sent to 2350 members of the Society (exclud- ing student members, and members overseas), and the approval or otherwise received from 75 individuals is summarized in the paper put before the members. A discussion followed. Mr. Humayun Abdulali pointed out the inadvisability of the members present for the current Extraordinary 733 m JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 General Meeting to approve or otherwise the views of 75 members who responded to the circular; and the most that could be done was to discuss the rules to be amended one by one without any resolutions being passed thereon. The Chairman pointed out that this meet- ing was called for discussion of all the amend- ments and to ascertain the views of members thereon, and it was not proposed to pass any resolutions at the meeting. Mr. Abdulali also told the audience that his several queries as to whether the amend- ments of rules would be done by referendum or otherwise, had failed to elicit a response from the Society’s Executive Committee for reasons unknown. Mr. Abdulali was support- ed by Messrs Debi Goenka, N. D. Mulla, Ulhas Rane, Sunil Zaveri, and Bansi Mehta. Mr. Nitin Jamdar pointed out that the Society had stated in the monthly programme sheet circulated among members that the Special General Body Meeting called for on 19th December 1985 was “for the amendments of BNHS rules”. It was explained that the pro- gramme notice was not an official notice of the meet and the error was regretted. Mr. S. A. Hussain informed the audience that many of the overseas members he met wanted to know the reason why they are not able to vote in the meetings of the Society of which they are members. It was explained that this was due to logistic factors which would usually prevent our receipt of the replies in time. Mr. Hussain then suggested that air mail communications should be sent to those members willing to pay the air mail charges, and it was agreed that this would be consi- dered. The meeting then proceeded with the dis- cussion on the rules one by one and the suggestion made were recorded by Mr. M. D. Agharkar for consideration and final adoption. The Honorary Secretary asked whether members had objections to a referendum when it was obviously in the interest of the Society to get a response from all rather than from a small number able to attend the meeting. Several members opined that a referendum may be acceptable provided that all amend- ments proposed, and not merely those approv- ed by the Committee, were voted on in such a referendum. This was agreed to. After going through all the rules listed in the circular the meeting terminated with a vote of thanks to the Chair. 734 THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater, 4th edition (reprint). 28 plates in colour by Paul Barruel and many other monochrome illustrations. Rs. 85.00 ( Price to members Rs. 65) The Ecology of the Lesser Bandicoot Rat in Calcutta, by James Juan Spillett. Rs. 10 The Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali. 11th (revised) edition. 74 coloured and many monochrome plates. Rs. 75.00 ( Price to members Rs. 60) A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent, by Salim Ah & S. Dillon Ripley (available to members @ Rs. 115.00) A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, by S. Dillon Ripley H. An up-to- date checklist of all the birds resident and migrant, including those of Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. 2nd edition. -Rs. 100.00 ( Price to members Rs. 80) Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra, by Humayun Abdulali, 2nd edition. Rs. 4 Checklist of the Birds of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur, by Humayun Abdulali & J. D. Panday. Rs. 3.00 The Book of Indian Reptiles, by J. C. Daniel Rs. 85.00 ( Price to members Rs. 65) Identification of Poisonous Snakes, Wall chart in Gujarati, and Marathi. Rs. 5 Some Beautiful Indian Trees, by Blatter and Millard. With many coloured and monochrome plates. 3rd edition (Reprint). Rs. 40.00 {Price to members Rs. 35) Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs, by Bor and Raizada. With many coloured and monochrome plates. 2nd edition. Rs. 100.00 (Price to members Rs. 75) Grasses of Western India, by Toby & Patricia Hodd. With 64 monochrome plates. Rs. 50.00 (Price to members Rs. 37.50) Encyclopedia of Indian Natural History, Edited by R. E. Hawkins Rs. 245.00 (Price to members Rs. 185) A Century of Natural History, Edited by J. C. Daniel Rs. 150.00 (Price to members Rs. 110) Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets : 1. Our Birds I (with 8 coloured plates) in Kannada 2. Our Monsoon Plants (with 8. coloured plates) in Hindi and Marathi. 3. Our Animals (with 8 coloured plates) in Gujarati, and Hindi. TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP Entrance Fees : Ordinary and Life Members Student Members Subscription : (a) Ordinary individual Members . . . . . . . . Rs. 75 ( b ) Ordinary Corporate Members .. .. .. .. Rs. 250 (c) Ordinary Members resident outside India . . . . . . Rs. 270 Life Members , .. .. .. .. .. Rs. 1200 (Rs. 250 after 20 years) Life members resident outside India . . . . . . . . Rs. 5000 Compound Corporate Members . . . . . . . . Rs. 2500 Student Members (without Journal) . . . . . . . . Rs. 25 Annual subscription to Journal . . . . . . . . Rs. 270 Members residing outside India should pay their subscription by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription to the Society in Bombay on the 1st January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of £ 15 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers — The Grindlays Bank Ltd., 13, St. James’s Sq., London SW1Y 4LF. Account No. 1101091. The subscription of members elected in October, November, and December covers the period from the date of their election to the end of the following year. Rs. 0.65 Rs. 0.80 Rs. 1.25. Rs. 50 Rs. 10 CONTENTS ISSN 0006-6982 Page The birds of Kanha Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh, India. By Paul N. Newton, Stanley Breeden and Guy J. Norman .. 477 Immobilizing Gaur with an Etorphine and Tranquilizer mixture. By Paul J. Conry . . 499 Ecology of larger mammals of Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary. By K. K. Rama- chandran, P. Vijayakumaran Nair and P. S. Easa . . 505 Some ecological aspects of Mangrove forest of Andaman Islands. By V. P. Singh, L. P. Mall, A. Garge and S. M. Pathak . . 525 Survey of the Freshwater Turtles of India Part I: The Genus Kachuga. By Edward O. Moll . . 538 Basic diurnal activity pattern of Blackbuck, Antilope cervicapra Linn, of Ballavpur Wildlife Sanctuary, W.B. and its seasonal variation. By Bratin- dranath Chattopadhyay and Tanmay Bhattacharya . . 553 Ichthyofauna of Bijnor District (Uttar Pradesh). By M. K. Sharma and D. B. Rajput . . 562 Material for the Flora of Mahabaleshwar-7. By P. V. Bole and M. R. Almeida 570 The birds of the Kedarnath Sanctuary, Chamoli District, Uttar Pradesh: Status and Distribution. By Michael J. B. Green . . 603 Taxonomic studies on the Marine Ostracoda from India. Family: Leptocy- theridae Hanai, 1957. By C. Annapurna and D. V. Rama Sanna . . 618 Fossil bird egg shell fragments from Karewas of Kashmir Valley (J&K), India: a scanning electron microscope study. By Ashok Sahni, V. J. Gupta, Bhuvan Prakash and B. S. Kotlia. . . 623 ■ New Discriptions . . 632 Reviews . . 650 Miscellaneous Notes . . 653 Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History Society for the year 1984-85 694 Statement of Accounts of the Bombay Natural History Society . . 705 Minutes of the Annual General Meeting . . 724 Minutes of the Extraordinary General Meeting of the Society . . 733 RN 5685/57 Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Bombay 400103 and published by Editors: J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole, and A. N. D. Nanavati for Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400023. Natural History 1986 f URNAL of the B695 ’l mhay Natural History Society^ V * « \\ * 1 1886-1986 1 centenarV SUPPLEMENT JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY CENTENARY SUPPLEMENT 1886 - 1986 Edited by. J. C. Daniel A. N. D. Nanavati P. V. Bole VOLUME 83 (Supplement) CENTENARY ISSUE 1886-1986 Date of Publication : 13-4-1987 CONTENTS Page The Journal: Its role in Indian Natural History. By Salim Ali ... 1 A review of infanticide among Hanuman Langurs and other primates. By Y. Sugiyama ... 7 A note on Rhinolophus pearsonii Horsfield, 1851 and Rhinolophus yunanensis Dobson, 1872 (Chiroptera: Rhinolophidae). By J. E. Hill ... 12 Consequences of seed dispersal by birds: a case study from Central America. By Henry F. Howe. ( With a plate and six text-figures ) ... 19 Phytochorology of Kodagu (Coorg) District, Karnataka. By J. P. Pascal and V. M. Meher-Homji. {With three text-figures ) ... 43 Reflections upon the distribution of Indian mammals. By T. J. Roberts ... 57 Conservation of wildlife in Tamil Nadu. By E. R. C. Davidar ... 65 Adaptive specialization in relation to niche diversity in Phytophagous and Mycophagous Thrips. By T. N. Ananthakrishnan. {With three plates and a text- figure) ... 72 Breeding biology of some Indian Bats — A review. By A. Gopalakrishna and V. M. Sapkal. {With eleven text- figures) ... 78 High frequency cinematography studies on location and preying in Indian Skitter Frogs Rana cyanophlyctis Schneider, 1799. By Rudolf Altevogt, Hiltrud Holtmann, and Norbert Kaschek. {With two plates and three text-figures) 102 Redescription of the Cane Turtle with notes on its Natural History and Classification. By Edward O. Moll, Brian Groombridge and J. Vijaya. {With a colour plate and three text-figures) ... 112 On the taxonomic status of Psittacula intermedia (Rothschild). By S. R. Sane, P. Kannan, C. G. Rajendran, S. T. Ingle and A. M. Bhagwat. {With a text- figure) ... 127 An overview of the Amphibian Fauna of India. By Robert F. Inger and Sushil K. Dutta ... 135 An experience of Wildlife Photography. By M. Y. Ghorpade. {With fourteen plates) ... 147 Automimicry and Batesian mimicry in Uropeltid Snakes: Pigment pattern, proportions, and behavior. By Carl Gans. {With two colour plates) ... 152 Photographic record of the Jerdon’s or Double-banded Courser Cursorius bitor- quatus. By Bharat Bhushan. {With a colour plate) ... 159 The earliest record of a White Tiger {Panthera tigris). By Divyabhanusinh. {With a colour plate) ... 163 Status of wildlife and habitat conservation in Karnataka. By K. Ullas Karanth. {With a map) 166 Blacknecked Crane {Grus nigricollis) in Ladakh — 1986. By Goutam Narayan, Asad Akhtar, Lima Rosalind and Eric D’Cunha. {With three colour plates) 180 Miscellaneous Notes: Mammals: 1. Painted Bats and nests of Baya Weaver bird. By Satish Kumar Sharma (p. 196); 2. A note on the Rhesus Macaque ( Macaca mulatia ) feeding cn Calotes. By C. Sivasubramanian (p. 197); 3. A Panther’s misadventure. By J. Mangalraj Johnson (p. 197). Birds: 4. Imprinting in Spotbill Duck Anas poecilorhyncha. By Manjit S. Dhindsa and Jaswinder S. Sandhu (p. 198); 5. Duck migration across the Himalaya — Tufted Duck Aythya fuligula at 13,700' on Rohtang Pass, Himachal Pradesh. By Lavkumar Khacher (p. 199); 6. Communal gathering of Blackwinged Kites ( Elanus caeruieus vociferus). By Rishad Naoroji (p. 200); 7. The Pariah Kite Milvus migrans (Boddaert) feeding on flowers! By Lavkumar Khacher (p. 201); 8. Peculiar feeding behaviour of the Shikra Accipiter badius (Gmelin) and the Honey Buzzard Pernis ptilorhyncus (Temminck). By Himmatsinhji (p. 201); 9. A Crested Hawk-eagle Spizaetus cirrhatus (Gmelin) killing a Peafowl Pavo cristatus Linnaeus. By Amrut S. Dhanwatey (p. 202); 10. Predation attempt by Black Eagle ( Ictinaetus malayensis perniger ) on Giant Squirrel ( Ratufa indica elphin- stonii ). By Renee Borges (p. 203); 11. A large roost of harriers in Andhra Pradesh, India. By Asad R. Rahmani and Ranjit Manakadan (p. 203); 12. Pre-migratory flocking of the Demoiselle Crane, Anthropoides virgo (Linnaeus). By Mukund Shah, Malay Shah and Arun Kumar Banerjee (p. 204); 13. Feeding method of Spoon-billed Sandpipers on a mudflat in South Korea. By Theunis Piersma (p. 206); 14. Strange diversion enacted by a Nightjar. By E. K. Bharucha (p. 208); 15. Mass courtship display by Great Pied Hornbill, Buceros bicornis. by Angus F. Hutton (p. 209); 16. De-ticking by a Large Grey Shrike, Lanlus excubitor. ( With a plate). By Ravi Sankaran and Asad R. Rahmani (p. 210); 17. Recovery of an Indian Golden Oriole ( Oriolus oriolus kundoo ) in the U.S.S.R. (With a text-figure). By V. C. Ambedkar (p. 211); 18. Additional records of the Black Drongo (Dicrurus adsimilis) feeding on birds. By U. Sridharan and C. Sivasubramanian (p. 212); 19. Display of thickbilled flowerpecker Dicaeum agile. By. S. G. Madge (p. 213); 20. Colour selection by the Blackthroated Weaver bird Ploceus benghalensis. By Satish Kumar Sharma (p. 214); 21. Some comments on the distribution of the Ostrich in Asia and North Africa. By Michael Walters (p. 217); 22. Mortality from a hail-storm at the Karera Bustard Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh. (With a plate). By E. P. D’Cunha and Asad Akhtar (p. 218); 23. Intimidation among waterbirds at Bharatpur. By Debi Goenka and Heta Pandit (p. 219). Reptile: 24. Note on the strange behaviour of a Marsh Crocodile (Crocodylus palustris). (With a plate). By Divyabhanusinh (p. 220). Botany: 25. Identity of “Bahel Schulli” of Hortus Malabaricus. By M. R. Almeida and S. M. Almeida (p. 221); 26. Notes on identification of some unidentified plant-species in Hortus Malabaricus. By M. R. Almeida and S. M. Almeida (p. 222); 27. Proliferation in Opuntia d’llenii (Ker-Gawler) Haw. (With a photograph). By K. Gcpalakrishna Bhat (p. 224); 28. A new exotic Solanaceous weed in old world tropics. (With a plate and three text-figures). By M. V. Viswanathan and H. B. Singh (p. 226); 29. Rediscovery of Blechnidium melanopus (Hook.) Moore (Blechnaceae) — A rare Fern from Arunachal Pradesh, India. (With four text-figures). By G. D. Pal. (p. 230). Appendix ... 233 RN 5685/57 ISSN 0006-6982 Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Bombay 400 103 and published by Editors: J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole, and A. N. D. Nanavati for Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023. JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY December 1986 Vol. 83 Supplement THE JOURNAL: ITS ROLE IN INDIAN NATURAL HISTORY Salim Ali By 1886 — three years after the founding of the Bombay Natural History Society — the largely attended monthly meetings of its fast growing membership had become very popu- lar but were tending to become more like social get-togethers than scientific seminars. To give the Society’s serious activities meaningful significance it was considered desirable to publish a quarterly journal for maintaining a permanent record of the business transacted at the meetings — of the papers read and discussed and of the natural history specimens collected, exhibited and described by mem- bers, and hunting experiences of discerning sportsmen. Such a publication, it was felt, would also help to stimulate an intelligent and well-informed interest in Nature among the many who, though naturalists in the truest sense of the term, lacked a formal biological background. It would, moreover, keep the scattered outstation members in touch with the Society and with each other and encourage their participation in its activities. Up to that time there was no publication devoted to natu- ral history in Bombay Presidency nor indeed in the Subcontinent as a whole. Little was known and recorded, and vast tracts of the country lay unexplored for their animals and plants. Additional reading matter for the journal would be contributed by members with specialized interests such as mammals, birds, insects etc. and by perceptive sportsmen- naturalists recording their observations on the animals they hunted — their habits, food, behaviour, reproduction and other facets of their ecology. To gather representative material for building up the reference collections and for the journal, five sections were formed each of members specially qualified in the different branches of natural history: Mammals, Birds, Reptiles and Fishes, Insects and other inverte- brates, and Botany. The secretaries of the respective sections would invite members to communicate their observations and also impel them to collect biological specimens for the Society’s fast developing museum. How richly JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) the decision to publish a journal paid off is evident from the popularity and scientific prestige it has developed for itself and the Society over the years. The consistent and growing demand for complete sets of the Journal by the burjeoning educational institutions and libraries of colleges and universities within the country and scien- tific institutions abroad is a tacit recognition of the prestige and importance the Journal enjoys as a repository of Indian biology. In- deed for students of biology and wildlife con- servation, and for a proper understanding of the ecology and bionomics of the subconti- nent’s prolific animal and plant life, the Jour- nal has become indispensable. Since the cost of reprinting the earlier volumes — either out of print or brittled by age — would be un- economical under prevailing financial con- straints, and in order to meet the growing demand for complete sets as far as possible, it was decided to have the volumes reproduced in microfiche which would be economical in cost as well as in storage space which latter has become a serious problem for modestly endowed institutions. Microfiche films of Vols. 1-64 are now available and stocks of the printed subsequent volumes are as yet suffi- cient to meet a reasonable demand. The first issue of the Journal Vol. 1(1), saw the light in January 1886 under the capa- ble editorship of E. H. Aitken (EHA) who was the Honorary Secretary of the Bombay Natural History Society at the time. Another energetic naturalist-member, R. A. Stemdale, took over the editorship soon afterwards upon EHA leaving for England on home leave. Part 1 of Vol. 1 consisted of a total of 30 pages 1 The first journal of its kind to be established in India. Published quarterly between 1840 (or *41) and February 1848. in all. It contains an Introduction and a list of the 236 members that stood on the rolls of the Society at the time, only 15 of whom, be it noted, were Indian. These pages are followed by a Catalogue of the Mammal and Bird specimens in the Society’s collection and a pathetically skimpy list of books in its library — 27 titles in all, comprising Mam- mals, Birds, Reptiles, Fishes, Insects and other Invertebrates. Among them are 8 titles on Botany and 12 on general natural history, the last including 7 volumes of the rare Calcutta Journal of Natural History 1 and file Vols. I-VI of the Asian newspaper, both containing a wealth of invaluable archival references per- taining to shikar and wildlife in India of over a hundred years ago. Of literary contributions the very first is a “Note on an undescribed Hamalopsida” by Rev. F. Dreckmann. This is followed by a “Note on a probable new species of Ibex” by R. A. Sterndale and “A Note on the spider My gale fasciata” by Capt. T. R. M. Macpherson. The issue closes with a note by EHA himself “On the mimicry shown by Phyllornis jerdoni” in the felicitous pithy style that characterizes all of this gifted naturalist’s writings. In the early days of the Journal, and until fairly recently — more or less all through the British period — the emphasis was largely on game animals and shikar. But the recorded experiences and field observations of well-in- formed and discerning sportsmen have helped substantially to build up our knowledge of the life histories not only of quarry species but also others of lesser interest to the sportsman. A large proportion of the natural history of our game animals, both mammal and bird, has been acquired in this way, especially since the Journal made its appearance. Most of such knowledge is seminal and would have remain- ed unavailable but for the published notes and 2 THE JOURNAL IN INDIAN NATURAL HISTORY articles of observant sportsmen. The latter consisted chiefly of British district officials. Army personnel and planters dispersed in re- mote backwoods lacking social amenities and congenial company, who had therefore taken to natural history and shikar by way of relaxa- tion and recreation, a few of them developing into reputable authorities in their special sub- jects. One of the most prolific of such sports- men-naturalists was E. C. Stuart Baker whose long and popular serial on “Indian Ducks and their Allies”, illustrated with beautiful colour- ed plates of waterfowl by some of the finest European bird artists of the day, started in 1897 and continued almost without any inter- ruption for the next 10 years or more. The articles were highly appreciated by sportsmen all over the country and added substantially to the popularity of the Journal and to the strength of the Society’s membership. The second number of Vol. 1, containing a heterogeneous variety of articles and notes on plants and animals — taxonomical, ecological and anecdotal — set the pattern which the rest of the volumes up to the present have more or less followed. The Miscellaneous Notes section which follows the main articles has always been the most popular feature with readers whose scientific interest is marginal; but many an anecdote casually recounted for its novelty for the writer has often proved of sufficient significance to be meaningful to a scientist as corroborative or supplementary evidence for some pet theory of his own. From chiefly shikar in the early days of the Society the accent in the Journal has steadily shifted to conservation on the growing realization that all was not well with our wild- life and that the once teeming game was vanishing fast throughout the country. This was partly due to excessive hunting by unethi- cal sportsmen and organized poaching for commercial gain by local shikaris, but mainly to the destruction of wildlife habitats by the thoughtless clearing of forest in later days and to large scale illicit encroachment of forest land by squatters and refugees or repatriates, often with the connivance of crooked politi- cians. Latterly the modern craze for mono- culture, mostly of exotic fast-growing tree species to pander to the needs of industry, has also been responsible for the destruction of natural mixed forests which supported most of our wildlife. Throughout its existence the Society has been deeply concerned about wildlife and environmental conservation, and the Journal has functioned as its main “mouthpiece” and an effective vehicle for its campaign against public and official apathy. All these destruc- tive forces had to be resisted and countered by creating a healthy public opinion and pre- ssurizing and persuading government to insti- tute adequate legislative measures. The special volume published in 1933 to commemorate the Jubilee year of the Society gives an excellent account of the Journal and its editors and functioning up to the 36th volume. These volumes represented the So- ciety’s contribution to the advance of our knowledge of the botany, zoology and nature conservation of the Subcontinent and adjoining countries. They point out how, apart from the results of scientific researches and field sur- veys, the Journal is unique in that it contains a vast amount of data — the notes and obser- vations contributed by perceptive field natu- ralists which have helped significantly in promoting the refreshing trend of Indian biology from the museum to the field — from the study of the dead to the living : from taxo- nomy to ecology. The need for protecting wildlife against unregulated hunting and large scale commer- 3 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) cial poaching by village shikaris was increas- ingly felt by forest officials and discerning sportsmen even since the early years of the 20th century. Sporadic efforts had been made by far-sighted individuals to arouse the con- cern of the discerning public and the autho- rities to the deteriorating status of forests and wildlife — game animals in particular — and some local legislation was also enacted by Provincial governments for their own forests. But the absence of an influential non- governmental central forum for disseminating a consensus of the views of enlightened and knowledgeable naturalists and sportsmen on conservation problems on a countrywide scale stood in the way of introducing any compre- hensive legislation applicable to British India as a whole. The Bombay Natural History So- ciety, founded in 1883 by a group of percep- tive naturalists, provided just such a forum. Its membership constituted the nucleus of the sporting fraternity in India at the time, the majority of whom were British officials and professional men zealously interested in the preservation of game animals even though maybe sometimes not from purely altruistic motives ! The wildlife protection movement visibly began in 1869 and culminated in The Wild Birds and Game Protection Act of 1887 (Act XX of 1887), shortly after the Journal was launched. Most of the individuals responsible for ushering in this legislation had joined the Society by then, helping thus to present a consolidated demand. Although this Act was intended to cover all animals in the whole of British India, it was in fact directed chiefly against the destruction of Birds, and was at first restricted only to Local Governments (Municipalities, Cantonments) who were em- powered to apply its provisions to any other game within their limited jurisdictions. It was in this context that the Journal fired the first shot in its conservation campaign, as early as 1888 (Vol. 3) when, in response to a refer- ence made to it by the British President of Ahmedabad Municipality the Society’s Com- mittee recommended that all wild animals in the neighbourhood of Ahmedabad, including game birds as well as all others, should be protected by law between 15 July and 15 October — the general breeding season. Criti- cisms and dissatisfaction as to the inadequacy of the Act resulted in a new all-India Act 25 years later “to make better provision for the protection and preservation of certain species of wildlife” called The Wild Birds and Ani- mals Protection Act, 1912, which received the assent of the Governor-General on 18 September 1912 and remained in force till superceded by a newer and more comprehen- sive legislation. This was a distinct step forward in the recognition by the Central Government of the importance of wildlife to the country. It was the Journal that published some useful criti- cisms and suggestions for emendations in the Act for considerably simplifying the implemen- tation of various provisions and rendering it more practical and effective. Some of these suggestions were accepted by Government, especially as to the inclusion of correct verna- cular names of animals listed in the Schedule for non English-knowing persons. The Act of 1912 was a marked advance on its 1887 pre- decessor which it replaced. But in the year from immediately after World War I great disorganization was caused through many of the conservation-minded British forest officers having left the country on war service and the general slackening in the law and order situation. Through all these vicissitudes the Journal kept plugging away in its campaign to create an awareness among the public of 4 THE JOURNAL IN INDIAN NATURAL HISTORY wildlife and the growing need for nature con- servation. But it was not till the Golden Jubilee of the Society in 1933 that wildlife preserva- tion really came into sharp focus. It was the masterly address delivered by Mr. S. H. Prater, the Society’s Curator, on that occasion on “The Problems of Wildlife Protection in India” that seriously set the ball rolling and paved the way for the calling by the Viceroy (Lord Willingdon) — the Patron of the So- ciety — of the all-India meeting at Delhi of prominent naturalists and sportsmen to review the deteriorating situation and suggest practi- cal methods for effective conservation of wildlife. Though a follow-up was much delay- ed owing to the interruption caused by World War II (1939-46), the formation of the Indian Board for Wildlife in 1951 — as soon as conditions became more or less stabilized after Independence and Partition — was a direct result of the Delhi meeting. The disorganiza- tion of the services during the war and its political aftermath had aggravated the wildlife situation alarmingly and in certain areas, erst- while famous for game and shikar such as many of the princely states, wildlife, particu- larly ‘prime’ species like the tiger, had been completely wiped out. It was chiefly during this depressing period that the Journal proved the most effective champion for the cause. And it was the untiring and dedicated advo- cacy of the Society’s stalwarts like Col. R. W. Burton, E. P. Gee and R. C. Morris, who through their authentic well-researched articles in the Journal, kept the subject in sharp focus with government and the discerning public, leading to the establishment of most of the National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries and nature reserves that exist today, and to protective legislation culminating in the comprehensive Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972. With proper implementation, this central legislation — itself based on the provincial Bombay Wild Birds and Wild Animals Preservation Act of 1951 (for which again BNHS was largely respon- sible) — should go a long way to saving what can still be saved of the splendid wealth and diversity of our once teeming wildlife and its natural habitats. A succint account of the Journal and its editors and achievement in the way of popu- larizing Indian natural history and arousing an interest in nature in the ‘common man’ in the first 36 volumes published between 1886 and 1932 will be found in the special volume com- memorating the 50th anniversary of the So- ciety and does not need repeating here. It had become an unwritten convention for the Hono- rary Secretary of the time to be the editor; though in later days after appointment of the first stipendiary Curator (N. B. Kinnear) in 1907, most of the actual editing and donkey work connected with the publication of the Journal fell to the lot of the professional Curator. The Curator at the completion of Vol. 36 and for the next 15 years, till he retired in 1948 to settle down in the U.K.. was Mr. S. H. Prater. Prater remained the de facto editor of the Journal, associated for varying periods from time to t:mc with the Honorary Secretary of the day. Followed an ‘interregnum’ while the search for a worthy successor to Prater was on, during which the Journal was edited by the ‘reigning’ Honorary Secretary assisted by one or two, or a small panel, of knowledgeable members : thus vols. 48-57 were edited by Salim Ali (who simultaneous- ly also acted as Curator for a brief period), 58 & 59 by Humayun Abdulali & Rev. Fr. Santapau, 60 & 61 by Zafar Futehally & Santapau, 62 by H. Santapau, D. E. Reuben, Zafar Futehally & J. C. Daniel, the last named having meanwhile been appointed Curator of the Society. Thereafter Vols. 63-66 were 5 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) edited by Santapau, Futehally & Daniel. After Vol. 66 and to date J. C. Daniel and the Honorary Secretary (Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati) and one or two specialist members took over the editorship. It is no exaggeration to say that the Journal reached the peak of its reputa- tion and credibility during the editorship of Prater especially while associated with Sir Reginald Spence as Honorary Secretary. Spence was an influential and dynamic personality and took a more active part in the affairs of the Society and in editing the Journal than most others. As executive editor Prater’s name had become synonymous with the Bombay Natural History Society and he is largely res- ponsible for the international recognition the Journal has acquired as the foremost natural history publication in Asia. Prater’s flair for guzzling through heavy scientific literature and translating its essentials into simple jargon- free language for the layman was outstanding. He was, moreover, blessed with a phenomenal memory which enabled him to comment rationally on whatever he was editing or by immediately recalling what he had read on the subject, maybe years before, and could lay his hands on the source for reference without hesitation or fumbling. Prater set the trend followed to this day in the editing and presentation of the best in natural history writing and research in the Indian Sub-continent. 6 A REVIEW OF INFANTICIDE AMONG HANUMAN LANGURS AND OTHER PRIMATES Y. SUGIYAMA1 1 . First Discovery and Response to it The first discovery and the scientific descrip- tion of the conspecific infanticide among larger mammals in their own habitat was recorded on the Hanuman langur {Presbytis entellus) at Dharwar (or Dharwad), Karnataka, south India (Sugiyama 1965). Before this study there might have been facultative observations by naturalists on conspecific killings among lan- gurs or other animals and there was an inten- sive field study on the Hanuman langur (Jay 1962, 1965). However there was no record of conspecific killing which made clear the rela- tion among killer, victim and the particular situation with special reference to the group structure and ecology of the species. The reason why the above study made the first discovery is found in its methodology. First, the individual identification of all animals of a group or even of a local population. Second, continuous observations on them through long term studies. They are common, at pre- sent, for sociobiological studies in free-ranging as well as in captive colonies. The first report on the conspecific infanti- cide written in an European language was published in 1964 (Sugiyama 1964), however, there was little response. In late 1964 I present- ed a paper at an international symposium on primate communication at Montreal organized by Dr. S. A. Altmann. In this paper, I describ- ed the regular occurrence of conspecific infan- 1 Kyoto University Primate Research Institute, Inuyama 484, Japan. ticides in Hanuman langurs and discussed its relation to sexual drive of surplus (extra-troop) males, effect of incidents and the long-term continuation of one-male troop structure of this species at Dharwar (Sugiyama 1967). But the chairman of the session concluded that, “the periodic liquidation of the baby langurs impresses me as being potentially dysgenic in its consequences” (Warren 1967). For about 10 years a similar responses con- tinued, that is, the conspecific infanticide was thought to be very special, exceptional and abnormal behavior. Only the response of Japa- nese field primatologists was different from the first publication. They recognized the regularly occurring conspecific infanticide of langurs as a part of adaptive mechanism to maintain the one-male troop structure (Itani 1972). At the 2nd All India Congress of Zoology held at Varanasi (or Benares), Uttar Pradesh, in 1962 Dr. M. D. Parthasarathy and I pre- sented a paper of our field study on the langur social structure with special reference to re- peated infanticides. Dr. M. L. Roonwal, Director of the Zoological Survey of India, showed much interest in our study and after he was promoted to the Vice Chancellor of the University of Jodhpur, Rajasthan, he began to work with his student, S. M. Mohnot, on the field study of langurs which live near Jodhpur. Therefore, the second scientific report on the infanticide of langurs came out in 1971 (Mohnot 1971). The basic social structure and the process of the infanticide were almost same as those found at Dharwar. That is, the bisexual 7 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) troop consisted of a male and some females with their offspring, surplus males in an all- male group attacked the former, they ousted the troop male and his sons, only a dominant male from among the attackers took over the females, he bit and killed all infants and, then, mated with females including the victims’ mothers. Rudran (1973) reported from Ceylon (Sri Lanka) on the purple-faced langurs ( Presbytis senex) and Hrdy (1974) from Abu, Rajasthan, on the Hanuman langur. Furthermore, on the lion (P anther a leo) of Serengetti, East Africa (Bertram 1975) and on a south American monkey, the red howler ( Alouatta seniculus) (Crockett & Sekulic 1984) very similar in- fanticides by a new male after the usurpation of the troop (or dominant status) were re- peatedly confirmed. Other than the repeated and regular occurrences of infanticides mainly by an invading male after the replacement of the resident male, mentioned above, facultative infanticide have been confirmed at least in 13 species of non-human primates (Itani 1982, others) . 2. From “Maladaptive” to “Adaptive” Accompanying the increasing observa- tions of conspecific infanticides much interest came to be concentrated on the factors which lead animals to kill infants. Curtin & Dolhinow (1978) stated that “langurs of Dharwar (and other infanticidal areas) concentrated in what little remained and greatly disturbed habitat by human acti- vities”. Boggess (1979) also believed that the “infant killing in association with troop social change represents maladaptive behaviors occur- ring in isolated and rare situations or in popu- lations characterized by extreme crowding”. Finally they concluded this behavior as “social pathology”. These responses were the last flame of the old candle which tried to lock this abominable behavior of our relatives in a special box labelled dysgenic, abnormal, mal- adaptive and pathological behavior without recognition of details of incidents and environ- ment. Actually the forest of western Dharwar during the studies was well grown secondary forest for the climate of the given area with minor effect of human activities. The forest of about 400 km2 was connected with adjacent forests through scrub forest and patchy culti- vated field with gallery forest which are also favourable habitat for langurs. From the time of the first discovery I have never stated that this behavior is either normal or abnormal, or, pathological or not. Be- cause once a given behavior is labelled “abnormal” or “pathological”, one tends to stop searching for more exact reasons why a male langur killed all infants of the troop he has usurped and why victim’s mother soon mated with him. Nevertheless I (Sugiyama 1967) pointed out that, “because a female langur usually delivers an infant every 2 or 3 years, the loss of the infant has the effect of advanc- ing the estrus of the female”. I also said that the local difference of occur- rence and non-occurrence of troop usurpation and infanticide is related to the ecological characteristics of the habitat, population den- sity, troop type (one-male or multi-male) and other sociological characters (Sugiyama 1976). Hrdy (1979) classified the factors of con- specific infanticide among animals and care- fully examined them. Then, she refined my preliminary hypothesis and concluded that the infanticidal male increases his fitness through elimination of his predecessor’s infants and she raised the sexual selection hypothesis. She also paid attention to the local difference of the same species, that is, infanticide may occur in 8 INFANTICIDE AMONG HANUMAN LANGURS some areas but not in others and concluded that the most obvious factor influencing facul- tative expression of the infanticidal trait is population density. In fact Vogel & Loch (1984) confirmed that the infanticidal male exactly gets his own off- spring earlier than non-infanticidal male in a same situation if he eliminates a dependent infant from its lactating mother. Most succes- sors reconfirmed the above reproductive advan- tage of the infanticidal male who kills infants after the troop usurpation and then, mates with the mothers of victims in most cases as seen at Dharwar when first reported. Therefore the hypothesis is now called the male reproductive strategy hypothesis. Before Hrdy (1979) most of hypothesis which searched the factor of conspecific infan- ticide tried to find out the direct factor of the infanticide or motives of the behavior and possible factors. There were common motives in many cases and research areas, however, some motives were not seen in other non-human primate species. All conspecific infanticides of langurs occurr- ed after troop usurpation. Infants of the troop were killed by the usurper who had had no chance to mate with females before it. After infants were eliminated their mothers soon mated with the infanticider and, then, they gave birth to infants sired by him. Many other species of non-human primates in which in- fanticide occurs also showed similar process. They were mostly folivores, they had one-male troop structure and the population density was rather high. However, only the male reproduc- tive strategy hypothesis does not have excep- tion and this hypothesis could explain the ultimate factor how infanticidal males repro- duced more offsprings than non-infanticidal ones in the same population and how this behavior evolved. After 1980 all studies on the infanticide emphasised effectiveness of this hypothesis. The book edited by Hausfater and Hrdy (1984) collated the results. Today, however, some studies reject coexist- ence of any hypothesis focusing on proximate factors with the ultimate factor in emphasis of the male reproductive strategy or place proximate as well as ultimate factors in the same category and pick up only the male re- productive strategy as the correct factor (e.g., Sommer & Mohnot 1985). Here, I wish to comment only on one point. That is, proximate factors and ultimate factor (s) work at diffe- rent levels of the biological mechanism and they must be examined separately. 3. Necessity to search for Proximate Factors Boggess (1979) and Bishop (1979) empha- sised that male langurs of Himalayan high altitude with low population density, Solu re- gion, Nepal, neither take over the bisexual troop nor kill infants of the troop but freely emigrate from the natal troop and join other troops. Most of bisexual troops are multi-male type. Population density of langurs at the Kanha forest, 46.2/km2, is lower than that of Dharwar, 85. 3 /km2 (Sugiyama 1964), and higher than that of Simla of Himalayan high altitude. 24.6/km2 (Sugiyama 1976). Recent- ly at Kanha infanticides by invading males were confirmed to occur in a low frequency after troop usurpation (Newton 1985). It is not possible to explain the total figure of infanticide of langurs and other animals only by the male reproductive strategy hypo- thesis. In other words, if we consider the reason of the local difference of the infanticidal frequency or the reason why it does not occur in some populations, we have to find out the proximate factors which depend on difference of environmental and social conditions; such as the topography and vegetation of habitat, food 9 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) distribution, population density, troop type (one-male or multi-male) and male tenure length in a one-male troop. Furthermore, when we consider the origin of this behavior there must be proximate fac- tors or direct motive for invading males which led them to attack and kill infants of resident females of his usurped troop. Repeated occur- ence of infanticide might have led all or most invading males of a given population to kill infants as their evolutionary stable strategy pressing down the number of offsprings of non-infanticidal males. Even if the first infan- ticidal male had the benefit in his reproductive success he must have his own direct motive or reason to perform this violent attack on infants. The second and third infanticidal males must have too. In some populations of langurs where there is few or no infanticide most surplus males may gain cycling females and succeed to reproduce without killing infants. This must be the important cause for local and individual difference for infanticide among non-human primates. Hrdy (1979) herself recognized the ultimate factor as well as the factor which influences the local differences, however, some of her suc- cessors in 1980’s reject each of the proximate factors presenting an episode which is not related with a particular example of the sug- gested proximate factors. Today, it is not possible to reject “social pathology hypothesis” without presenting and examining the exact definition and details of “pathology” and this kind of argument does not contribute to the solution of the problem. If one could suggest in late 1960’s or early 1970’s that the repeated infanticide of non- human primates after male replacement is the vivid and effective strategy for them specifically related with their social structure his article would have been ten times more valuable than recent such articles. Conclusion For establishing a certain behavior pattern, e.g., infanticide, as an evolutionally stable one may give benefits measured by reproductive success to the performer. However, in the pro- cess of evolution proximate factor or direct motive leads animals to repeat it. Basically depending on differences of environment and life form of each species existence or non- existence of the proximate factor strongly works in some populations and does not work much in other populations. Then, the local difference develops. Therefore the ultimate factor which may be common throughout a certain taxonomic group and the proximate factors which may be different to populations according to environment must be considered separately. Acknowledgements The Japan-India Joint Research, 1961-1963, through which we first found infanticides in the Hanuman langur was sponsored by the Rockefeller Foundation and assisted by the Bombay Natural History Society. I wish to express again my heartfelt gratitude to both organizations and assistance given by Dr. Salim Ali, J. C. Daniel and Dr. Harold Trapido. 10 INFANTICIDE AMONG HANGMAN LANGURS Refer Bertram, B. C. (1975) : The social system of lions. Scientific American, May: 54-65. Bishop, N. H. (1979) : Himalayan langurs: tem- perate colobines. J. Hum. Evol., 8 : 251-281. Boggess, J. (1979) : Troop male membership changes and infant killing in langurs ( Presbytis entellus). Folia Primatol., 32: 65-107. Crockett, C. M. & Sekulic, R. (1984): Infanti- cide in red howler monkeys ( Alouatta seniculus). In: “Hausfater, G. & S. B. Hrdy eds., Infanticide” pp. 173-191, Aldine, New York. Curtin, R. & Dolhinow, P. (1978): Primate social behavior in a changing world. Amer. Sci., 66: 468-475. Hausfater, G. & Hrdy, S. B., eds. (1984) : In- fanticide — Comparative and evolutionary perspec- tives. 39+598 pp. Aldine, New York. Hrdy, S. B. (1974): Male-male competition and infanticide among the langurs ( Presbytis entellus ) of Abu, Rajasthan. Folia Primat., 22: 19-58. Hrdy, S. B. (1979): Infanticide among animals: A review, classification, and examination of the im- plications for the reproductive strategies of females. Ethol. SociobioL, 1: 13-40. Itani, J. (1972) : A preliminary essay on the relationship between social organization and incest avoidance in nonhuman primates. In: “Poirier, F. ed., Primate socialization”, pp. 165-171. Random House, New York. Itani, J. (1982): Intraspecific killing among non- human primates. /. Social Biol. Struct., 5: 361-368. Jay, P. C. (1962) : Aspects of maternal behavior among langurs. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 102(11): 468-476. Jay, P. C. (1965) : The common langur of north India. In: “Devore, I. ed., Primate behavior”, pp. 197-249. Holt-Rinehart-Winston, New York. Mohnot, S. M. (1971): Some aspects of social e n c E s changes and infant-killing in the Hanuman langur, Presbytis entellus (Primates: Cercopithecidae) , in western India. Mammalia, 35: 175-198. Newton, P. N. (1985): The behavioural ecology of forest Hanuman langurs. Tiger Paper, 12: 3-7. Rudran, R. (1973): Adult male replacement in one-male troops of purple-faced langurs ( Presbytis senex senex ) and its effect on population structure. Folia Primat., 19: 166-192. Sommer, V. & Mohnot, S. M. (1985) : New ob- servations on infanticides among hanuman langurs ( Presbytis entellus ) near Jodhpur (Rajasthan /India). Behav. Ecol. SociobioL, 16: 245-248. Sugiyama, Y. (1964) : Group composition, popu- lation density, and some sociological observations of hanuman langurs ( Presbytis entellus ). Primates, 5 (3-4): 7-48. Sugiyama, Y. (1965) : On the social change of hanuman langurs ( Presbytis entellus ) in their natural condition. Primates, 6(3-4) : 381-418. Sugiyama, Y. (1967) : Social organization of hanuman langurs. In: “Altmann, S. A. ed., Social Communication among Primates”, pp. 221-236. Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago. Sugiyama, Y. (1976): Characteristics of the eco- logy of the Himalayan langurs. /. Hum. Evol., 5 : 249-277. Vogel, C. & Loch, H. (1984) : Reproductive para- meters, adult-male replacements, and infanticide among free-ranging langurs ( Presbytis entellus ) at Jodhpur (Rajasthan), India. In: “Hausfater, G. & S. B. Hrdy eds., Infanticide: Comparative and evo- lutionary perspectives”, pp. 237-255. Aldine. New York. Warren, J. M. (1967) : Discussion of social dyna- mics. In: “Altmann, S. A., ed., Social communica- tion among primates”, pp. 255-257. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago. 11 A NOTE ON RH1NOLOPHUS PEARSON1I HORSFIELD, 1851 AND RH1NOLOPHUS YUNANENSIS DOBSON, 1872 ( CHIROPTERA : RHINOLOPHIDAE) J. E. Hill1 The Asian horseshoe bats Rhinolophus pearsonii Horsfield, 1851 and R. yunanensis Dobson, 1872 are reviewed, defined and discussed, with confirmation of their status as distinct species. Introduction Classifications of the Asian bats of the genus Rhinolophus often reflect the pioneer work of Dobson in the decade 1871-1880 and its sub- sequent refinement by Andersen some thirty years later. Thus R. yunanensis Dobson, 1872 was put into synonymy by its author (1876, 1878) shortly after its description, a view confirmed by Andersen (1905). Since then it has been rarely used and following these authors was synonymized for many years with R. pearsonii Horsfield, 1851. However, Hinton & Lindsay (1927) employed it for a specimen from Meghalaya (Assam), and more recently specimens from Thailand led Hill (1975) to revive it again, but without detailed explana- tion, and to suggest in Lekagul & McNeely (1977) that it should be considered a distinct species. Modern compilers (Corbet & Hill 1982, 1986; Honacki et al 1982) have adopted this opinion. Systematic Section Rhinolophus pearsonii Horsfield, 1851 Rhinolophus pearsonii Horsfield, 1851: 33. Darjee- ling, West Bengal, NE India. 1 Department of Zoology, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, United Kingdom. Rhinolophus larvatus Milne-Ed wards, 1872: 248, pi. 37a, fig. 1, pi. 37c, fig. 1. Moupin, Sichuan (Szechuan), S China. Not of Horsfield, 1823. (?) Rhinolophus pearsoni chinensis Andersen, 1905: 289. Kuatun, Fujian (Fukien), SE China. Description. Size medium to large (length of forearm 48-57 mm) for the genus; anterior noseleaf or horseshoe very large, completely covering the muzzle, anteriorly deeply emargi- nated and with a moderate covering of short hairs; internarial region slightly expanded, a little wider than the base of the sella, slightly cup-shaped; sella contiguous with internarial expansion, its basal third widened, upper two thirds a little constricted to form a parallel- sided structure with rounded apex; connecting process originating from rear of sella at or near its apex, in profile rounded, low, its height little more than that of the apex of the sella; posterior leaf triangular, cellular, high, its late- ral margins very slightly concave, with pointed tip. The connecting process does not invariably arise from below the apex of the sella as is implied by Allen (1938) or by Sinha (1973). More often than not the point of origin on the sella is at or very near the summit of this structure: the assumption may arise from Andersen (1905) who in allying pearsonii to the Rhinolophus macrotis group gave as an essential external character for the group “rounded connecting process, starting from a point below the summit of the sella”. 12 RHINOLOPHUS PEARSONII AND RHINOLOPHUS YUNANENSIS Ears large, more or less triangular, bluntly pointed, the anterior margin of the ear convex, the posterior margin slightly concave just below the tip, then convex, with a deep, narrow emargination separating a large, rounded anti- tragal lobe; wing inserted at the ankle; third metacarpal the shortest, fourth metacarpal very slightly shorter than fifth; first phalanx of third digit not shortened, the second phalanx less than one and one half times its length; tibia long; foot small; calcar extending along about one third of the uropatagial margin. Skull with short, wide braincase; strong sagittal crest bifurcating anteriorly to enclose a moderate frontal depression; rostral expan- sions well developed, inflated, wider than deep; zygomata strong, massive, zygomatic expansion greater than mastoid width; length of palatal bridge one third or a little less than one third the length of the maxillary toothrow; palate rounded, mesopterygoid fossa not widened; basioccipital narrow. Upper incisors (i2-2) bicuspid, inwardly directed; anterior upper premolar (pm2) large, with small cusp, usually in toothrow, sometimes very slightly extruded; second lower premolar (pm3) small, almost entirely extruded from row or extruded with the anterior (pm2) and posterior (pm4) pre- molars in contact. Measurements appear in Table 1. Those provided by Sinha (1973) for R. pearsonii as it is represented in the collections of the Table 1 Measurements (number of specimens, minimum, maximum, in mm) of Rhinolophus pearsonii India, Meghalaya, Sikkim, Nepal Burma, China, N Vietnam Thailand 98 BM(NH) .11. 1.2 Holo- type chinensis Fujian Length of forearm (ID 50.7-54.0 (3) 51.8-56.9 (3) 48.0-50.1 51.8 Length of tibia (ID 26.0-27.4 (3) 26.2-26.7 (3) 25.6-27.1 26.7 Greatest length of skull to canine (13) 22.6-23.8 (3) 22.2-23.5 (2) 21.8,22.1 23.5 Condylocanine length (12) 20.1-21.2 (3) 20.1-21.0 (2) 19.7, 19.9 21.0 Width of rostrum (17) 5.8- 6.2 (4) 5.5- 6.1 (3) 5.8- 6.0 6.1 Width across anteorbital foramina (17) 5.1- 5.9 (3) 5.4- 5.9 (3) 5.5- 5.6 5.8 Least postorbital width (17) 2.2- 2.7 (3) 2.2- 2.6 (2) 2.4, 2.4 2.5 Zygomatic width (14) 11.5-12.1 (3) 11.5-12.0 (3) 11.0-11.4 12.0 Width of braincase (15) 9.4- 9.8 (3) 9.3- 9.9 (2) 9.4, 9.8 9.9 Mastoid width (13) 10.4-10.9 (3) 10.5-10.9 (2) 10.3, 10.6 10.9 c1-c1 (alveoli) (16) 5.7- 6.4 (4) 5.7- 6.3 (2) 5.7, 5.8 6.3 m3-m3 (alveoli) (16) 8.3- 9.0 (4) 8.1- 8.8 (3) 7.8- 8.0 8.8 c-m3 (17) 9.1-10.0 (4) 8.9- 9.6 (2) 8.3, 8.6 9.3 Length complete mandible from condyles (12) 15.4-16.5 (2) 15.5, 15.8 (1) 14.6 15.8 Length right ramus from condyle (17) 16.1-17.0 (4) 16.0-16.5 (3) 15.0-15.5 16.5 c“m3 (16) 9.5-10.6 (3) 9.4-10.0 (3) 8.7- 9.1 10.0 13 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) Zoological Survey of India apparently refer in part to a composite series that includes a specimen of R. yunanensis. The list of material examined by Sinha includes a male example in alcohol from Hotha, Yunnan, SW China, col- lected in 1868 (misprinted 1863): this is appa- rently one of the original specimens of yunan- ensis (see below). Thus at least the values for external measurements (length of forearm, length of tibia) given by Sinha (loc. cit.) for R. pearsonii have as their maxima dimensions that most probably correctly refer to R. yunanensis. Distribution. India: N Uttar Pradesh (Wroughton, 1914); N West Bengal (Hors- field, 1851; Wroughton, 1916); Sikkim (speci- men in British Museum (Natural History)); Meghalaya (Assam) (Hinton & Lindsay, 1927); Nepal (Hinton, 1923); Bhutan (Saha, 1980) ; Burma (Andersen, 1907); Thailand (Hill, 1975; Lekagul & McNeely, 1977); china: S Xizang Zizhioqu (Tibet) (Cai & Zhang, 1981) ; Yunnan (Thomas, 1923); Sichuan (Szechuan) (Milne-Edwards, 1872); Guangxi (Kwangsi) (Shih, 1930a); Hunan (Shih, 1930b); Guangdong (Kwantung) (Shih, 1930c); Fujian (Fukien) (Thomas, 1898); Guangzhou (Canton) (Mell, 1922); Anhui (Anwhei) (Honacki et al, 1982); Vietnam: Tonkin (Osgood, 1932); malaya (Honacki et al., loc. cit.) The species is known to occur at relatively high altitudes, having been obtained at 6000 ft at Lwarkhet, north of Almora, Uttar Pradesh, N India (Wroughton, 1914), at 10000 ft in the Li-Kiang Range, Yunnan, China (Thomas, 1923) and at 11000 ft at Parchung, about 40- 50 miles N of Katmandu, Nepal (Hinton, 1923). subspecies. The subspecies R. pearsonii chinensis Andersen, 1905 was based originally on a single specimen (BM(NH)) 98.11.1.2 from Fujian (Fukien), SE China which accord- ing to its describer could be distinguished from the nominate subspecies (specimens from Darjeeling and Masuri, West Bengal, NE India) by its shorter tibiae, slightly smaller skull, narrower maxillary width and shorter mandible and toothrows. Subsequently Ander- sen (1907) reported chinensis from Taho, in the Karen Hills, northeast of Tounghoo, S Burma, and more recently Shih (1930b, c) re- corded it from Hunan and Guangdong (Kwan- tung), China, while Osgood (1932) reported specimens from various localities in Tonkin, Vietnam. The limited sample of specimens from China, Burma and Vietnam (including the holotype of chinensis and the specimen from Taho) in the collections of the British Museum (Natural History) does not support this division, current measurements with a dial reading micrometer failing to agree in every instance with those recorded by Andersen (1905, 1907) for the Chinese and Burmese specimens. The holotype of chinensis is similar in size in most respects to specimens from Darjeeling and Masuri and moreover many of its dimensions exceed those of specimens obtained in Nepal and Meghalaya since Ander- sen wrote. However, a similarly restricted sam- ple of specimens from Thailand is a little smaller on the whole than those from the re- mainder of the range as represented in the collections in London. In these circumstances the continued maintenance of chinensis as a valid subspecies seems doubtful. Remarks. Dobson (1876, 1878) placed R. larvatus Milne-Edwards, 1872 in the synonymy of R. pearsonii (see below) where it has since remained, this opinion being supported by Andersen (1905). The original description and illustrations of larvatus indicate that particu- larly with regard to size of skull it is indeed synonymous with pearsonii. Anderson (1881) 14 RHINOLOPHUS PEARSONII AND RHINOLOPHUS YUNANENSIS reported R. mitratus Blyth, 1844 from Darjee- ling, West Bengal, on the basis of a specimen (105c) in the Indian Museum, Calcutta (the collection of the Zoological Survey of India). According to Sinha (1973) this specimen is however an example of R. pearsonii, subse- quently recorded from the Darjeeling District by Wroughton (1916). Rhinolophus yunanensis Dobson, 1872 Rhinolophus yunanensis Dobson, 1872: 336. Hotha, Yunnan, S China. Diagnosis and Description. Externally exactly like R. pearsonii but larger: similarly, the skull precisely resembles that of pearsonii in its structural features but is larger and more massive, with correspondingly heavier teeth. Measurements appear in Table 2. Distribution. India: Meghalaya (Dobson, 1874, Hinton & Lindsay, 1927); n Burma (specimens in British Museum (Natural His- tory); THAILAND (Hill, 1975; Lekagul & McNeely, 1977); china: Yunnan (Dobson, 1872). In Meghalaya Dobson (loc. cit.) records the species from Tupai Mukh in the Lushai Hills while Hinton & Lindsay (loc. cit.) report it from Dening, in the Mishmi Hills, at 2250 ft, these latter authors also recording R. pearsonii from the Jaintia and Khasi Hills. Burmese specimens of yunanensis are from the Nam Tamai Valley (27° 42' N, 97° 50' E), Kajihtu Table 2 Measurements (number of specimens, minimum, maximum, in mm) of Rhinolophus yunanensis BM(NH) 21.12.5.2 Meghalaya Burma Thailand BM(NH) 9.4.4. 3 Syntype yunanensis Yunnan Length of forearm 59.4 (4) 55.0-57.3 (7) 55.5-59.6 57.3 Length of tibia 30.3 (4) 28.6-30.9 (9) 28.3-31.8 28.4 Greatest length of skull to canine 25.4 (3) 24.5-25.0 (8) 25.1-26.9 26.0 Condylocanine length 22.8 (3) 22.4-23.0 (6) 22.8-24.3 23.5 Width of rostrum 6. 3 (4) 6.3- 6.7 (9) 6.4- 6.9 6.4 Width across anteorbital foramina 6.0 (4) 5.8- 6.4 (9) 6.3- 6.6 6.0 Least postorbital width 2.4 (3) 2.2- 2.5 (8) 2.4- 2.9 2.5 Zygomatic width 12.6 (3) 12.2-13.0 (8) 12.4-13.9 12.6 Width of braincase 10.1 (3) 9.9-10.5 (7) 10.6-11.2 10.5 Mastoid width 11.4 (3) 11.0-11.9 (7) 11.7-12.0 11.3 c1-c1 (alveoli) 6.8 (4) 6.7- 6.8 (8) 6.6- 7.1 6.6 m3-m3 (alveoli) 9.0 (4) 9.3- 9.7 (8) 9.3- 9.9 8.8 c-m3 10.1 (4) 10.1-10.5 (8) 10.2-11.1 10.2 Length complete mandible from condyles 17.6 (3) 17.0-17.5 (7) 17.7-18.6 17.9 Length right ramus from condyle 18.2 (4) 17.7-18.2 (8) 18.2-19.3 18.6 c-m3 10.9 (4) 10.8-11.1 (8) 11.0-11.9 10.8 15 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) (26° 18' N, 97° 50' E) and Mahtum (26° 06' N, 97° 58' E), Andersen (1907) having record- ed pearsonii from the Karen Hills to the south. In Thailand yunanensis is reported from the provinces of Chiang Mai, Nan, Sara Buri and Rat Buri by Hill (loc. cit., who also reported pearsonii from Chiang Rai, Chiang Mai, Nan, Lop Buri, and Kanchanaburi) and from Chiang Dao by McFariane & Blood (1986). The type locality, Hotha, in Yunnan, SE China is not far distant from the Li-Kiang Range whence Thomas (1923) reported pearsonii. Original Specimens. According to Dobson (1876: 44, 1879) the original series of R. yunanensis consisted of two male specimens and one female example. However, although Dobson (1876: 194) and Anderson (1881) recorded both males in the collections of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, neither of these authors mentioned the female specimen and its fate is unknown. The collections of the British Museum (Natural History) include a male specimen (in alcohol, its skull extracted), BM(NH) 9. 4. 4. 3, labelled ‘Cotype’ of yunanensis, re- ceived from the Indian Museum, Calcutta. That this is one of the original specimens is clear from its labels: it has attached metal tags with the numbers 147 and 107B, and a paper label in its bottle states “Rhinolophus yunanensis, cotype. 107B = 147. Hotha, Yunan, 1868. Yunan Exp. (Dr. J. Anderson coll.). Calcutta Mus. [P].” Clearly this is specimen 147 of Dobson (1876: 194) and specimen 107b of Anderson (1881). The other specimen, 146 of Dobson (loc. cit.) or 107a of Anderson (loc. cit.), remains at the Indian Museum, in the collection of the Zoological Survey of India (Sinha 1973), but is not recorded as a ‘cotype’ by Khajuria et al. (1977). According to Dobson (loc. cit.), speci- men 146 is in alcohol, 147 likewise but without skull, and a further number, 148 is allocated to the skull of 147: Anderson (loc. cit.) listed but two numbers, “107a &b, two adult males in alcohol, and the skull of b”. However, Andersen has annotated p. 195 of a copy of Dobson (1876) (Monograph of the Asiatic Chiroptera and Catalogue of the species of bats in the collection of the Indian Museum, Calcutta) in the Library of the British Museum (Natural History) to the effect that the entry “without skull” refers to specimen 146 on the preceding line, and that the skull 148 is in fact that of the specimen listed by Dobson as 146. The archive in London shows that the type specimens of bats in the Indian Museum were loaned to Andersen in 1907-1908 and it seems possible that he found that it was the skull of specimen 146 that had been extracted, that of 147 then remaining in situ. This specimen remained in London and is now BM(NH) 9. 4. 4. 3; its skull bears a label appropriate to that period and may have have been extracted and labelled after its accession to the collec- tions, the Accessions Register indicating mere- ly that it was then a specimen in spirit, not a specimen in spirit with skull. For the present both specimens seem best regarded as syntypes : the measurements given by Dobson (1872, 1879) conform closely to those of BM(NH) 9. 4. 4. 3. History. Rhinolophus yunanensis Dobson, 1872 has been rarely employed. Soon after proposing the name, Dobson (1874) remarked that Rhinolophus larvatus Milne-Edwards, 1872 was most probably identical with yunan- ensis, and reported a specimen (a dried skin, Dobson, 1876: 194) from Tupai Mukh, Megha- laya, collected by the Lushai Expedition. Later, Dobson (1876, 1878) synonymized yunanensis and larvatus with Rhinolophus pearsonii Hors- field, 1851, explaining that the type of the last 16 RHINOLOPHUS PEARSONII AND RHINOLOPHUS YUNANENSIS had been inaccessible for many years in the collection of the Museum of the East India Company, a circumstance that had led to other names being applied to the species. Subsequent- ly, Dobson (1879) gave a further account of the material upon which yunanensis was based, but as R. pearsonii. Andersen (1905) consider- ed that from published descriptions and figures of yunanensis and larvatus both were indistinguishable from typical pearsonii but certainly different from R. pearsonii chinensis. Howevev, Hinton & Lindsay (1927) referred a specimen from the Mishmi Hills, Meghalaya to yunanensis with the comment “It is prefer- able to refer this specimen definitely to yunan- Refer Allen, G. M. (1938) : The mammals of China and Mongolia. In Granger, W., Natural History of Central Asia. Vol. 10, Part 1. New York. Andersen, K. (1905) : On the bats of the Rhino- lophus macrotis group, with descriptions of two new forms. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (7), 16: 289-292. (1907) : Chiropteran notes. Ann. Mus. civ. Stor. nat. Genova (3), 3, (43): 473-478. Anderson, J. (1881): Catalogue of the Mamma- lia in the Indian Museum, Calcutta. Part I. Primates, Prosimiae, Chiroptera, and Insectivora. Calcutta. Blyth, E. (1844): Notices of various Mammalia, with descriptions of many new species. Part I. — The Primates, Lin. /. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 13 : 463-494. Cai, G.-q. and Zhang, N.-z. (1981): On mamma- lian fauna in Medog region, Xizang. In Liu, D.-s. (Ed. in chief). Proceedings of Symposium on Quinghai- Xizang (Tibet) Plateau (Beijing, China). Vol. 2. Environment and ecology of Quinghai-Xizang Plateau, pp. 1021-1026, 3 tabs. Beijing; New York. Corbet, G. B. and Hill, J. E. (1980): A world list of mammalian species. 1st. ed. London; Ithaca. (1986) : A world list of mammalian species. 2nd. ed. London; New York. Dobson, G. E. (1872) : Brief descriptions of five new species of Rhinolophine bats. /. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 41(2): 336-338. (1874) : List of Chiroptera inha- biting the Khasia Hills, with description of new ensis, since its measurements are distinctly greater than for pearsonii ” and so revived it as a distinct species, while Osgood (1932) pointed out that the status of yunanensis was uncertain, although later Ellerman & Morrison- Scott (1951) and Sinha (1973) treated it as a synonym of R. pearsonii. More recently the name has been employed by Hill (1975) and Lekagul & McNeely (1977) for specimens from Thailand, and following these authors is listed as a distinct and valid species by Corbet & Hill (1980, 1986) and Honacki et al. (1982). McFarlane & Blood (1986) also employed yunanensis for specimens from northern Thailand. EN CES species. J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 43, (2) : 234-236. (1876) : Monograph of the Asiatic Chiroptera and catalogue of the species of bats in the collection of the Indian Museum, Calcutta. London. (1878): Catalogue of Chiroptera in the collection of the British Museum. London. (1879) : Chiroptera. In Anderson, J., Anatomical and zoological researches comprising an account of the zoological results of the two ex- peditions to Western Yunnan in 1868 and 1875: and a monograph of the two cetacean genera Platanista and Orcella. Part 1. Mammalia. London. Ellerman, J. R. and Morrison-Scott, T. C. S. (1951) : Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian mam- mals 1758-1946. London. Hill, J. E. (1975) : Taxonomic background, systematic section, summary of taxonomic work, bibliography, gazetteer. In CTNRC Staff, Hill, J. E. and McNeely, J. A., The bats and bat’s parasites of Thailand. U. S. Army Research and Develop- ment Group Far East, Report No. FE-516-1 (Final Report), pp. 3-40, 79-84. Hinton, M. A. C. (1923): Bombay Natural His- tory Society’s Mammal Survey of India, Burma and Ceylon. Report No. 37. Nepal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 29: 399-428. and Lindsay, H. M. (1927) : Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of India, Burma and Ceylon. Report No. 41. Assam 17 2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 83 (, SUPPLEMENT ) and Mishmi Hills. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 31 : 383-403. Honacki, J. H., Kinman, K. E. and Koeppl, J. W. (1982) : Mammal species of the world. A taxo- nomic and geographic reference. Lawrence, Kansas. Horsfield, T. (1851): A catalogue of the Mam- malia in the Museum of the Hon. East- India Com- pany. London. Khajuria, H., Chaturvedi, Y. and Ghoshal, D. K. (1977): Catalogue Mammaliana. An annotated catalogue of the type specimens of mammals in the collections of the Zoological Survey of India. Rec. Zool. Surv. 'India Misc. Pub. Occ. Pap. No. 7 : 1-44. Lekagul, B. and McNeely, J. A. (1977) : Mammals of Thailand. Bangkok. McFarlane, D. A. and Blood, B. R. (1986): Taxonomic notes on a collection of Rhinolophidae (Chiroptera) from northern Thailand, with a des- cription of a new subspecies of Rhinolophus robin- soni. Z. Saugetierk. 51: 218-223, 2 figs. Mell, R. (1922) : Beitrage zur Fauna Sinica. I. Der Vertebra ten Sudchinas; Feldlisten und Feldnoten der Sauger, Vogel, Reptilien, Batrachier. Arch. f. Naturgesch. 88, sect. A, No. 10: 1-134, 1 fig., 4 pis., map. Milne-Edwards, M. H. (1872): Recherches pour servir a l’histoire naturelle des mammiferes compre- nant des considerations sur la classification de ces animaux. 2 vols. Paris. Osgood, W. H. (1932) : Mammals of the Kelley- Roosevelts and Delacour Asiatic Expeditions. Publ. Field Mus. nat. Hist. Zool. Ser. 18: 193-339, 2 figs., 2 pis., map. Saha, S. S. (1980) : A supplementary note on some mammals recently collected in Bhutan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. (1979), 76: 155-156. Shih, C. McA. (1930a): Preliminary report on the mammals from Yaoshan, Kwangsi, collected by the Yaoshan Expedition of Sun Yatsen University, Canton, China. Bull. Dept. Biol. Sun. Yatsen Univ. Canton No. 4: 1-10. (1930b) : Note on the mammals from south-western Hunan. Bull. Dept. Biol. Sun Yatsen Univ. Canton No. 9: 1-4. (1930c) : Further note on mammals of Yaoshan, North-River, Kwangtung. Bull. Dept. Biol. Sun Yatsen Univ. Canton No. 12: 1-8, 2 figs. Sinha, Y. P. (1973): Taxonomic studies on the Indian horseshoe bats of the genus Rhinolophus Lacepede. Mammalia 37: 603-630, 1 fig., 9 tabs. Thomas, O. (1898): On mammals collected by Mr. J. D. La Touche at Kuatun, N. W. Fokien, China. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. 769-775. (1923): On mammals from the Li-Kiang Range, Yunnan, being a further collection obtained by Mr. George Forrest. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (9), 11: 655-663. Wroughton, R. C. (1914): Bombay Natural His- tory Society’s Mammal Survey of India, Burma and Ceylon. Report No. 15. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 23: 282-301. (1916) : Bombay Natural His- tory Society’s Mammal Survey of India, Burma and Ceylon. Report No. 26. Darjiling District. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 24: 773-782. 18 CONSEQUENCES OF SEED DISPERSAL BY BIRDS : A CASE STUDY FROM CENTRAL AMERICA Henry F. Howe1 * * ( With a plate & six text-figures) Introduction Many ecological questions can only be answered through an analysis of plant and animal interactions. This is best recognized for pollination. Because the vast majority of tropi- cal angiosperms require animals for effective fertilization (Bawa 1974), explanations of floral biology require an understanding of animal perception and behavior (Jones and Little 1983). By comparison, the effective dis- persal of viable seed is all but unexplored. Thirty-five to 95% of tree and shrub species in Old and New World tropical forests bear fleshy fruits which vary enormously in size, color, presentation, and structure (Howe and Smallwood 1982). These fruits attract birds and mammals, ranging in size from 10 to 107 grams, which may disseminate, digest, or sim- ply destroy seeds (Howe 1986). Beyond bio- geographic studies of long-distance dispersal (Ridley 1930), and the classic natural history of birds which scrape the seeds of parasitic mistletoes onto the bark of host plants (e.g. Darwin 1859, Davidar 1978), the ecological implications of these vast arrays of fruit mor- phology and frugivore function are virtually unknown. Here I explore the local advantages to bird dispersal of a New World nutmeg, 1 Program in Evolutionary Ecology and Behavior, Department of Biology, University of Iowa, Iowa City. Iowa 52242, U.S.A. Virola surinamensis (Rol.) Warb. (Myristica- ceae), which are so decisive as to suggest that certain vertebrate dispersal agents can be critical for reproduction of canopy trees. The objective of my study of Virola suri- namensis seed dispersal is to explore the mutual benefits gained by fruit-eating animals and this common tree of the forest canopy. The perspective is the study of the Virola surinamensis “dispersal system,” or the Barro Colorado population of trees and the animals which disseminate, digest, or simply waste its seeds. Each “focus” of field study bears on two central questions. Do Virola surinamensis trees secure the services of some fruit-eating animals that have a far greater influence on tree reproduction than others? If so, is depen- dence on especially efficient dispersal agents mandatory, or can Virola “make do” with inefficient dispersal by a variety of species? Answers have much to say about the possi- bility of coevolution between plants and birds, as well as for the implications of ecological dependence for conservation of small forest reserves. One focus has been on “reliability” of animal use of plants. “Reliability” implies both frequency and effects of visits to plants (Howe and Estabrook 1977). I document which species ignore Virola fruits, which eat them, and whether those that eat them are or are not dispersal agents. The point is to distinguish potentially reliable dispersal agents JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) from animals that digest seeds, and from “fruit thieves” that consume edible pulp, but drop seeds under the tree crown. A second focus concerns tree competition for dispersal agents. Some Virola trees secure fruit removal, while others do not. Variations in phenology, crop size, and the sizes and rewards of fruits from different trees are ex- plored to uncover the sources of intraspecific differences in fruit removal. The rationale is to pinpoint possible sources of natural selection by dispersal agents through study of variation in a correlate of plant fitness, seed removal (see Maynard Smith 1978). Differential fruit removal implies differential reproduction. The third and last focus probes the conse- quences of seed dispersal for seed and seedling survival, and ultimately Virola recruitment. Janzen (1970) and Connell (1971) hypothe- size that insects or rodents find and eat seeds or seedlings in aggregations under the crowns of fruiting trees, but fail to find those scatter- ed by animals. I confirm this “escape” hypo- thesis for Virola surinamensis, and further show that patterns of seed dissemination by some birds are far more conducive to “seed escape” than those of other species. A con- tinuing study attempts to tease apart the rela- tive importance of “seed escape” and chance dissemination to edaphic conditions suitable for germination and growth. This short review highlights work in Central America which undoubtedly has important implications for many other “dispersal systems” in the Old and New World tropics. Similar details of natural history for a variety of other dispersal systems will help ecologists and managers understand how frugivory evolved, and how tropical plants and animals can be preserved. A tight bond of dependence bet- ween plant and particular bird species makes coevolution possible, whereas a loose bond precludes coevolution (Howe 1984a). Perhaps of more immediate concern, the degree of ecological dependence between plants and birds also has consequences for refuge management (Howe 1984b). Natural reserves without a key dispersal agent may doom one or more tree species to local extinction, just as reserves lacking a key fruiting tree are unlikely to support birds or mammals dependent on it for a critical food resource. Study Site My collaborators and I have studied Virola surinamensis dispersal since May 1979 at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute field station on Barro Colorado Island (9°09'N, 79°51'W), Panama. This island of 15 square kilometers was separated from the mainland by the flooding of Gatun Lake during the building of the Panama Canal in 1914. Appro- ximately two square kilometers on the top of the island are a flat basaltic cap; the remain- der is heavily dissected with ravines. The 25 Virola surinamensis trees discussed here are scattered throughout a 23 hectare study area in remnants of Old Forest on these ravines and surrounding ridges. The climate is that of seasonal moist forest, with virtually all of the annual rainfall of 2500 mm falling between late April and mid December. Details of climate and other physical and biotic features of the Barro Colorado forest are explored in Leigh et al (1982). The Barro Colorado forest harbours nearly 400 species of trees (Croat 1978) and over 300 species of birds and mammals (Enders 1935, Willis 1980). Nearly half of the island, cleared and occupied by workmen during the canal construction, is now covered with advanced second growth forest. The other half is mature “old forest,” thought to be at least 20 SEED DISPERSAL BY BIRDS 450 years in age (Foster and Brokaw 1982). Some insectivorous birds have become extinct since the formation of the Panama Canal (Willis 1974), but no frugivorous birds known to eat Virola are known to have disappeared in recent decades. Most families of frugivorous birds (e.g. Cotingidae, Cracida, Picidae, Psittacidae, Ramphastidae) and mammals (e.g. Cebidae, Mustelidae, Phyllostomatidae, Procyonidae, Tapiridae) with members large enough to eat Virola fruits are well-represented. Background natural history Virola surinamensis is a dioecious tree of moist and wet forests from Costa Rica and Panama south to the Guianas and Brazil, with disjunct populations in the Antilles (Croat 1978). This is a canopy species, with repro- ductives ranging from 19-80 cm dbh and 14-34 m in height. Fruits fit the classic avian dis- persal syndrome (van der Pijl 1972). A fibrous capsule dehisces in the morning to expose the unit of dispersal, a grey seed c. 2 cm long by 1.5 cm wide, surrounded by a bril- liant red laciniate aril 1 mm thick (Plate I; Table 1). Individual trees may be found with fruits during any month of the year, but the Table 1 Generic components of Virola surinamensis fruit parts. The sample consists of 20 fruits from a TREE FELLED BY WIND. VALUES ARE FOR DRY MASSES Carbo- Mass Ash Protein Lipid hydrate* Energy (g) (%) (%) (%) (%) (kJ/g) Capsule 2.0 5.4 3.5 8.8 8.5 17.2 Aril 0.8 1.3 3.3 53.2 5.6 28.7 Seed 2.0 1.8 5.5 63.3 2.8 30.8 * Nonstructural carbohydrate. From Howe and Vande Kerckhove (1981). greater majority bear fruit between March and September, with a distinct peak in July or August. Crops of individual trees are mode- rate in size, always falling at the lower end of a continuum of animal-dispersed plants in this forest from the rodent-dispersed Gustavia superba (Lecythidaceae) with only a dozen or so compound fruits of 5-50 seeds (Sork 1985), to bird- and mammal-dispersed figs (Ficus; Moraceae) with hundreds of thousands of fruits, each containing hundreds to thousands of seeds (Morrison 1978, Wiebes 1979). As a population, Virola surinamensis bears fruit each year. As individuals, some trees of this species bear fruits each year, while others miss one or two years in five. The Barro Colorado forest harbours appro- ximately 256 species of resident and migrant birds and 55 species of mammals. Of these, 62 bird species and 18 mammal species eat fruits (Willis 1980 and Enders 1935, respec- tively). Spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) are conspicuous visitors to the trees, and were once thought to be the principal dispersal agents (White 1974). More careful observa- tions show that eight bird species also visit the trees regularly, including the Black-crested Guan (Penelope purpurascens) , Slaty-tailed Trogon ( Trogon massena ), Rufous Motmot ( Baryphthengus martii), Collared Aracari ( Pteroglossus torquatus ), Chestnut-mandibled Toucan ( Ramphastos swainsonii). Keel-billed Toucan ( R . sulfuratus), and Masked Tityra (Tityra semifasciata ) (Howe and Vande Kerck- hove 1981). Perhaps most notable, several large and abundant frugivores are never seen eating Virola surinamensis fruits. For instance, Willis (1980) estimates 250 Purple-throated Fruit- crows (Querula querula; 110 g) on the island; one to three pairs were always present in the Virola study area. Milton (1977) reports 1200 largely frugivorous Howler Monkeys 21 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) ( Allouatta palliata: 5-8 kg) on Barro Colorado Island; at least three troops with a total of 30-45 animals were always in and near the Virola study site. Yet neither of these species, nor several other large and conspicuous frugi- vores, were ever seen eating Virola surinam- ensis fruits in the course of seven years of field study. Frugivores swallow the seed and aril, and normally regurgitate (most species) or defecate ( Ateles , Penelope) the seed intact. Seeds fall to the forest floor and germinate in two or three weeks. Many seeds are eaten by mam- mals; weevils ( Conotrachelus New Species; Curculionidae) oviposit on others as the radicle penetrates the seed coat, resulting in destruc- tion of the seed by the larvae (Plate I). Seedlings drop the seed coat at about 12 weeks of age, and persist as surpressed juve- niles 10-15 cm high until a tree fall or branch fall allows light to reach the forest floor. Seedlings and saplings are moderately common in the preferred habitat of steep ravines and streamsides, but are rare in the immediate vicinity of fruiting adults. Animal visitors An initial objective of the Virola study is to determine which animal visitors were relia- ble dispersal agents, and which are not. A “reliable” dispersal agent is one that consis- tently disseminates viable seeds to sites suitable for germination and growth (Howe and Estabrook 1977). The first step in assessing reliability is to distinguish vertebrate visitors that actually disperse seeds from those that either digest them or drop them under the fruiting tree. A second step is to ensure that intact seeds dropped by different animals are actually viable. Observations of the activities of dispersal agents are subject to several biases which make much of the published literature uninterpret- able. Casual observations rarely reflect actual visitation frequencies; even extensive notes gathered without a systematic method favor large or raucous animals over silent foragers (see Table 2 in Howe 1980). Even more mis- leading, extensive documentation of animal diets rarely suggests the relative importance of different dispersal agents, from the plant perspective. For instance, a primatologist that follows one monkey species from tree to tree may have a false impression that it is a prin- cipal dispersal agent of the plant, when other birds or mammals actually remove more viable seeds or take them to sites more favorable for germination and growth. Quantitative data have their own biases. Censuses, timed throughout the day or night, can provide comparable quantitative data for several to many individual trees over several years with a minimum of effort. Even careful censuses, however, disproportionately list frugi- vores with long visits over those that stay only a short time (Howe 1980). Unless the number of fruits eaten bears a constant rela- tion to visit time, for all species foraging in the tree, a census cannot estimate relative im- portance of different dispersal agents to a tree species. Finally, extended watches of select trees permits an evaluation of frequency of fruit use by different animal species, and allows an observer to tabulate the numbers of fruits consumed, dropped, regurgitated, or defecated for visits by each frugivore. But such obser- vations are so time-consuming that only a few trees can be watched; frugivores that visit some trees may ignore others of the same species. Finally, observations at the beginning or end of a season often distort interpretations because visitors common during some months are entirely absent in others (Howe 1977). A 22 ■: 1 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (supplement) Howe: Seed dispersal by birds Plate I Above left : Virola surinamensis fruit at dehiscence. Above right : Keel-billed Toucan ( Ramphastos sulfuratus). Below left : Conotrachelus weevil on germinating V. surina- mensis seed. Below right: Fatal damage of Conotrachelus larva on V. surinamensis seed 8 weeks after fruit fall. See Howe et al. (1985). SEED DISPERSAL BY BIRDS “reliable” dispersal agent must be consistent throughout a season, as well as from one season to another. Birds and mammals visiting Virola Surinam - ensis trees were evaluated with a combination of extended observations and censuses. Watches of five hours duration documented frugivore activity in detail at a limited number of trees; censuses allowed comparisons of dis- perser assemblages across years. Extended watches during 1979 involved 40 hours of observation in five hour blocks at each of eight trees. Observations at each tree were between 0600 and 1100 hours in the morning, and were spaced throughout the fruiting season. Two observers alternated five hour blocks. Censuses involved 15-30 second scans of Virola crowns with binoculars. Each census walk took one hour, covered 1.5 km, involved 19-22 fruiting trees, and were under- taken between early June and late August in 1979, 1980, 1981, and 1982. Five hours bet- ween 0600 and 1700 were randomly selected for each day from a random-number table (Rohlf and Sokal 1969); these censuses were walked two days each week. Extended watches during daylight hours revealed that only seven of 62 frugivorous birds, and one of 18 frugivorous mammals, consistently ate Virola surinamensis fruits (Table 2). Trees were devoid of animals for most of the day, but experienced heavy use early in the morning and during periodic spates of activity (Fig. 1). Extended watches in the morning sample the period of greatest use of Virola trees by animals, although censuses later Table 2 Number of frugivores observed eating Virola surinamensis fruits. Censuses involved 180 rounds of 19 trees (3420 scans); watches included 40 h of observacion at each of 8 trees (320 h) Family Common name (binomial; weight) Censuses Sightings (N)* Watches Cracidae Crested Guan ( Penelope purpurascens\ 2000 g) 9 11 Trogonidae Slaty-tailed Trogon ( Trogon massena\ 145 g) 10 82 Motmotidae Rufous Motmot ( Baryphthengus martii; 185 g) 12 97 Ramphastidae Collared Aracari 7 16 ( Pteroglossus torquatus’, 229 g) Chestnut-mandibled Toucan 47 118 ( Ramphastos swainsonii ; 640 g) Keel-billed Toucan 59 112 ( Ramphastos sulfuratus’, 339 g) Cotingidae Masked Tityra (Tityra semifasciata\ 84 g) 19 48 Cebidae Spider monkey ( Ateles geoffroyi ; 6000 g) 55 33 * Distributions of sightings from the two methods differ (Z2 = 37.7, 7 df, P < 0.005). From Howe and Vande Kerckhove (1981). 23 Visits (n) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) Crested Guan 20 0 Slaty-tailed Trogon Rufous Mot mot Chest nut -mandibled Toucan Keel-billed Toucan 6 8 10 6 8 10 Time of Day (am) Fig. 1. Visitation times of eight common frugivores seen foraging at Virola surinamensis during 40 h of observation at each of eight trees. (Howe and Vande Kerckhove 1981). 24 SEED DISPERSAL BY BIRDS Table 3 Relative contributions to dispersal and waste of arillate seeds handled by frugivores visiting Virola trees. “Waste” includes seeds dropped under tree crowns as well as those facing inevitable MORTALITY IN FECAL CLUMPS OF MONKEYS (SEE TEXT) Common Name Sightings (N) Seeds per visit Estimates of seeds Total handled Dropped (X) Removed (X) Wasted (N) Dispersed (N) Wasted Dispersed (%) (%) Black-crested Guan 10 0.0 5.1 0 51 0 9 Slaty-tailed Trogon 81 0.0 0.7 0 56 0 10 Rufous Motmot 97 0.1 0.8 10 78 2 14 Collared Aracari 16 0.0 0.3 0 5 0 1 Chestnut-mandibled Toucan 119 0.1 1.7 12 202 2 35 Keel-billed Toucan 112 0.1 0.4 11 45 2 8 Masked Tityra 40 0.7 0.0 28 0 5 0 Spider Monkey 29 1.2 1.3 54* 19f 9 3 * Includes seeds dropped as well as those doomed to sibling competition in droppings, f Estimated number of seeds dispersed = number of droppings = number of seeds removed/number of seeds per dropping. From Howe and Vande Kerckhove (1981). showed that some activity extends through the afternoon and into the evening hours. Rate of fruit consumption and waste per visit could be tabulated when a visitor was in continuous view from entry to departure. These complete records show the peril of treating visits of different species as equiva- lent, from the plant perspective (Table 3). For instance, two large toucans, the Chestnut- mandibled and Keel-billed, had equivalent visitation rates but different rates of fruit re- moval. Because the larger Chestnut-mandibled Toucan foraged methodically and often ate one to five fruits in a visit, while the smaller and peripatetic Keeled -bill Toucan rarely ate more than one or at most two fruits per visit, the large bird was nearly four times as likely to remove Virola seeds as the smaller. Chest- nut-mandibled Toucans did not actively chase smaller species, as they do at some other species of trees (Howe 1977, 1981; see Pratt 1983). Likewise spider monkeys once thought to be primary dispersal agents of this tree, actually ate few seeds and knocked down more than they consumed (cf. White 1974). One small cotinga, the Masked Tityra, was a “fruit thief” because it peeled off arils without consuming or otherwise removing seeds. The large size of the fruit undoubtedly limited the tityra’s ability to swallow the seeds. This bird is an effective dispersal agent of the much smaller-seeded Virola sebifera (Howe 1981) and of other small-seeded trees (Howe 1977, Howe and De Steven (1979). Censuses revealed the same assemblage of dispersal agents, throughout the day and season for four years (Table 4). A compari- son of watch and census data for 1979 shows that visitors which snatch one seed at a time are under-represented in census data (e.g. trogons and motmots), while monkeys that forage slowly, rest, and even sleep in the trees 25 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) Table 4 Table 5 Annual differences in census counts of frugivores at 19-23 V. surinamensis trees (standardized to 3400 tree checks each)* Annual differences at night census counts at twenty-two V. surinamensis trees (standardized at 308 tree checks) Number of sightings Frugivore Number of sightings Frugivore 1979 1980 1981 1982 (Binomial) 1979 1980 1981 1982 Black-crested Guan 7 6 14 15 Opposum Slaty-tailed Trogon 7 12 11 9 ( Didelphis marsupialis) * 0 1 0 0 Rufous Motmot 13 4 6 8 Night Monkey Collared Aracari 7 8 16 4 ( Aotus trivirgatus ) 0 4 0 0 Chestnut-mandibled Coatimundi Toucan 31 38 40 36 (Nasua narica ) * 0 1 0 0 Keel-billed Toucan 52 52 39 22 Kinkajou Masked Tityra** 18 48 20 11 ( Potos flavus ) 0 18 3 14 Spider Monkey 50 57 91 38 White-faced Monkey* * 0 8 31 36 Total 185 233 268 179 * From 1980 to 1982, 4 trees were added to the 19 censused in 1979. ** Not dispersal agents. Augmented from Howe (1983). are over-represented (Table 2). Annual varia- tion in assemblage character can be seen in comparing census data from one year to the next. Of special note is the addition of white- faced monkeys ( Cebus capuchinus) from 1980 through 1982. This species is a fruit thief when it nips the base of the aril and drops the seed, and is a “seed predator” when it peels and discards the aril and eats the seed. White-faced monkeys are apparently not con- sistent dispersal agents of Virola surinamensis. Night censuses were also conducted between 1930 and 2100 hours, at the peak of nocturnal frugivore activity (Glanz 1982), with an elec- tric spotlight and binoculars. Nocturnal acti- vity was negligible during two years, but sub- stantial during 1980 and 1982 (Table 5). Of the four species of nocturnal mammals seen, only the kinkajou (Procyonidae) was a fre- quent visitor. * Not dispersal agents. Augmented from Howe (1983). All members of this disperser assemblage defecate or regurgitate viable seeds, except the white-faced monkey. Seeds covered with an aril rot in the field, as they do on top of the soil in a screened growing house (Table 6). Those with arils removed by me or by regular dispersal agents germinate. Seeds are not scarified, but they must be free of a moldy aril to germinate. Table 6 Germination of Virola surinamensis processed and NOT PROCESSED BY FRUGIVORES Planted Germinated Treatment (N) (N)* Aril intact 30 0 Regurgitated by toucans 30 26 Arils removed by investigator 30 28 Defecated by guans 10 9 Defecated by spider monkeys 24 17 * Observed for 15 wk; germination occurred in 2-3 wk. From Howe and Vande Kerckhove (1981). 26 SEED DISPERSAL BY BIRDS Finally, field observations give some hints as to the disposition of seeds. Birds which have eaten Virola fruits generally fly to a non-fruiting tree nearby, where the aril is stripped and the seed regurgitated in 10-25 minutes (most species) or defecated in 30-45 minutes (guans). Perch sites vary in distance from fruiting Virola trees (Table 7). Smaller from fruiting trees. Other species are potential dispersal agents, but are less reliable from the plant perspective because they eat relative- ly few fruits, are wasteful foragers (i.e. spider monkeys), drop seeds near Virola crowns (motmots, trogons), or defecate seeds in large piles from which few or none survive (kinka- jous). In the Barro Colorado forest, three large Table 7 Minimum estimates of the percentages of seeds dropped by birds at different distances from Virola surinamensis trees Distance from crown edge (m) Bird (N)* Under tree 0-9 10-19 20-29 30-39 >40 Crested Guan (17 0 5 37 0 5 53 Slaty-tailed Trogon (38) 8 53 24 10 0 5 Rufous Motmot (17) 12 76 6 6 0 0 Keel-billed Toucan (32) Chestnut-mandibled 0 6 16 22 0 56 Toucan (48) 23 4 4 8 8 52 * Each carry refers to a seed taken from a tree to some point at which it is regurgitated (most birds) or defecated (i.e, guans). Augmented from Howe and Vande Kerckhove (1981). trogons and motmots leave approximately 80% within 20 m of the feeding tree, whereas much larger guans and toucans take at least half > 40 m away. Spider monkeys scatter seeds widely in groups of two to four per dropping. Kinkajous defecate viable seeds, but often leave them in heaps directly under hollow tree cavities where they sleep during the day. Four years of observations at one such hollow showed >> 500 Virola seeds each season, but no seedlings; all seeds were killed by insects and rodents as they germinated. In sum, only a small proportion of fruit- eating animals on Barro Colorado Island eats Virola fruits. Of these, only the Chestnut- mandibled Toucan is both a consistent visitor and takes most seeds a substantial distance birds are the best potential dispersal agents and only one, the Chestnut-mandibled Toucan, actually does the job well. Competition for dispersal agents Dispersal agents are in limited supply if many fruits remain undispersed; differences in fruit removal among plant species suggest that some compete for fruit-eating animals better than others (McKey 1975). Similarly, a high variance in number or proportion of fruits removed from trees of the same species sug- gests that some individuals vie more effec- tively for dispersal agents than others (Howe and Estabrook 1977). To determine the likely sources of natural selection, one must evaluate 27 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) sources of variance in dispersal. This distin- guishes chance differences in fruit removal from those which might be under the control of parent trees, and consequently subject to natural selection. An evaluation of “dispersal success” re- quires estimates of both the number of fruits produced and the number removed by ani- mals for each Virola surinamensis individual (see Howe 1980, Howe and Vande Kerckhove 1981). These estimates were achieved from 1979 through 1983 with 1 m2 fruit traps con- structed of plastic (PVC) tubing, with plastic insect netting fastened to a square frame with nylon fishing monofilament. Each square was raised off of the ground 0.5 to 1 m, depend- ing on topography. Traps were placed in a randomized design (coordinates chosen from a random number table; Rohlf and Sokal 1969) in quarter circle sampling areas under each tree crown, where the radius of the circle (r) was the distance from the trunk to the crown edge. A sum of four sample areas, each 0.25 t t r2, defined the total area under of crown of each tree. One to 10 fruits traps were random- ly assigned to each quarter, with the intention of sampling 10% of the crown area. In prac- tice, 12±4% S.D. of the crown areas actually were sampled with 5-18 (10±4 S.D.) traps per tree. A unique estimate of individual fruit production is possible by dividing the number of items (e.g. capsules or seeds) caught by the proportion of the crown sampled (e.g. 507 capsules /0. 125). Fruit traps sample empty capsules and un- dispersed seeds that fall directly under the tree crowns. The difference between the two esti- mates the number of seeds taken away. Capsule debris shows that individual Virola surinam- ensis trees produce as few as 100 to more than 30,000 fruits in a season, with the median individual crop ranging from 2,000 to 8,600 Table 8 Annual variation in fruit production at V. surinamensis trees Year N Range Median (25-75% quartiles) 1979 17 214-10412 2082 (1326-3584) 1980 25 428-31006 8579 (4161-12493) 1981 25 638-26163 3990 (2687-6687) 1982 25 78-14075 5612 (1945-8008) 1983 25 92-14450 2420 ( 509-5333) Augmented from Howe (1983). (Table 8). Such fecundity is much lower than that of many forest trees, such as figs ( Ficus ), but apparently satiates available dispersal agents; only 40 to 65% of the fruits in this population are removed by animals in a given year (Table 9). A plot of census data (pre- Table 9 Annual variation in the percentage of fruits taken from 15 V. surinamensis trees Year Range Mean (± S.D.) 1979 13-91 60—20 1980 24-73 46±15 1981 40-77 59 ±10 1982 13-64 41 ±=12 1983 27-90 65±16 Augmented from Howe (1983). vious section) against individual production over the 1979 season suggests one reason why fruits are wasted; the number of individual birds and mammals censused at a tree in- creases with its crop size (r2 = 0.62, P < 0.0005), but the number of species does not (P>0. 1). Unlike some trees with smaller fruits (e.g. Casearia, Howe and Vande Kerck- hove 1979; Tetragastris, Howe 1980), Virola 28 SEED DISPERSAL BY BIRDS surinamensis does not have a virtually infinite assemblage of potential dispersal agents to draw upon. Census data show that large and small trees use the same small “gallery of connoisseurs,” and fruit traps suggest that this limited coterie of species often has more fruits available than can be consumed. Data from fruit traps also suggest intense competition for dispersers among trees within the Virola population (Table 9). As many as 91% or at few as 13% of the fruits are taken by animals, leaving 9% to 87% directly under the tree crown. Five or six times the percentage of fruits taken from some trees are taken from others, sometimes in the same stand. Average removal is low enough to indicate disperser limitation, while variance in removal is high enough to suggest active competition for dis- persal agents. If consistent over the lives of these trees, such differences would translate into a differential dispersal success of tens or even hundreds of thousands of seeds. Trees with large crops virtually always dis- perse more seeds than those with small ones, indicating an ultimate numerical advantage in high fecundity within a tree population (Howe and Vande Kerckhove 1981). But small trees grow into large ones; the lifetime dispersal of a tree is the sum of the proportion of fruits taken in each season multiplied by the number of fruits available in each season. An evalua- tion of the proportional advantage in fruit removal that some plants have over others of their species provides a glimpse into differen- tial reproduction during a five-year time frame. Firstly, crop size does not influence the pro- portion of fruits removed by animals. If birds had difficulty finding small trees and easily found large ones, the proportion of fruits taken should increase with crop size. If birds had difficulty finding small plants and were satiated at large ones, a curvilinear relation- ship between proportion taken and crop size would exist. Neither a linear nor curvilinear relationship holds, or even approaches statisti- cal significance (Howe 1983). Whatever in- fluences proportional dispersal is independent of individual crop sizes. Secondly, the nutrient content of arils does not influence dispersal. Tremendous variation does occur from tree to tree in the nutritive content of arils (Table 10). But none of these Table 10 Percentage of aril components for individual Virola surinamensis trees, in percent dry mass* Trees (N) Range (%) Mean (%) SD (%) Ash 17 0.9-1. 3 1.1 0.2 Protein 17 1.6-3. 6 2.5 0.7 Lipid 16 46.0-86.2 63.1 14.0 Free carbohydrate 17 6.6-12.6 9.2 1.5 * Energetic content for arils from 17 trees ranged 26.2-29.5 kJ/g (27.9±0.8). From Howe and Vande Kerckhove (1981). differences are significantly correlated with the proportion of or the absolute number of fruits taken from different trees (Howe 1983). These results might reflect coarse techniques that in- volve composite analyses of several arils from each tree. Results are so overwhelmingly nega- tive, however, that it seems safe to conclude that birds simply do not discriminate intra- specific differences in aril composition, or that their discrimination is so subtle that it is easily obscured by other sources of variance in the data (see Sorensen 1981). My colleagues and I have noticed that spider monkeys ( Ateles ) consistently smell and reject more than half of the fresh fruits that they encounter, and Virola arils from some trees are far too astringent for 29 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) me to eat (Howe and Vande Kerckhove 1981). This fruit is apparently protected against some primates, which are often exceedingly wasteful foragers (Howe 1980). Possibly, volatile com- pounds not analyzed in the laboratory would account for some variation in fruit removal by birds (see Sorensen 1983). Finally, birds might discriminate between trees with different investments in edible aril, as compared with bulky and indigestible seeds. Birds are aerodynamically stressed if they must carry much more than 5% of their body weight, and indigestible Virola seeds averaging 3-4 g in weight would seem to be unwelcome ballast. In fact, Virola seeds vary four-fold in weight; 78% of this variance is attributable to differences between trees, and 22% is attri- butable to differences within trees (Howe and Richter 1982). A plot of the proportion of fruits removed against the average weight of aril plus seed from different trees shows a clear negative correlation; dispersal agents tend to avoid trees with heavy fruits (Fig. 2). A further test shows that the proportion of fuits taken is strongly correlated with the average ratio of aril to seed for a sample of trees (Fig. 3A), and is negatively correlated with the mean weight of seeds from indivi- dual trees (Fig. 3B). For the year shown, the aril/ seed ratio accounted for 52% of the variation in dispersal success. Dispersal agents are capable of assessing the profitability, or the energy benefit as contrasted with the energy cost, of eating Virola fruits from different trees. The question arises whether this potential for selection on trees is consistent from year to year. A repeated analysis confirms that differential fruit removal occurs, but differs in magnitude (Table 11). Highly significant cor- relations between proportion taken and the aril/seed ratio occurred during 1979 and 1983, Table 1 1 Correlation of proportion of seeds removed and THE RATIO OF ARIL TO SEED WEIGHT IN V. surinamensis Year Trees (N) r Significance (p<)* 1979 17 0.72 0.001 1980 25 0.37 0.06 1981 25 0.37 0.06 1982 22 0.43 0.05 1983 17 0.55 0.01 * 2 tail test. when Virola surinamensis crops were small (medians under 2,500 fruits per tree) and fruits were scarce in the population. Less significant results were obtained for other years, when Virola fruits were more plentiful. This implies that dispersal agents seek out the “best” trees when fruits are scarce, but do not bother to find them when fruits are super- abundant in the forest. This interpretation gathers support from an ad hoc analysis of fruit depletion in 1980 and 1981, when weak correlations existed between fruit removal and the aril/seed ratio. Trees bearing fruit early in those seasons, when fruit was generally scarce, showed a strong positive correlation between dispersal and aril/ seed ratio; the same trees lost those correlations in mid and late season when fruits were far more common (Howd 1983). Apparently, Virola trees are potentially under selection by dispersal agents when fruits are scarce but not when fruits are common, whether the time scale is an entire season or simply a few weeks of dearth. But there is no particular advantage to large aril or small seed size when fruits are so superabundant that birds need not travel far to find them. In sum, natural variation in dispersal suc- cess can in part be explained by fruit charac- 30 Seeds Removed (%) SEED DISPERSAL BY BIRDS 100 “ 80 - 60 » 40 “ S * * § r=-.675 p < .002 “n — " — 2.5 3.0 3.5 Arillate Seed Wt. (g) Fig. 2. Seeds taken by animals plotted against the mean dry weight of seed plus aril (Howe and Vande Kerckhove 1981). 31 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) teristics. Birds sensitive to weight avoid heavy fruits when they must fly substantial distances to feed. Under such conditions of scarcity, they prefer Virola trees with an unusually high ratio of nutritious pulp to seed ballast. Other sources of variance on which selection might act are not yet clear. Proximity of productive neighbors can sometimes depress fruit removal (Manasse and Howe 1983), and highly destructive monkeys can obscur rela- tionships which might otherwise show through (Howe 1983). At present, however, neighbor- hood effects and monkey depredations are best considered stochastic effects on fruit removal. Consequences of seed dispersal What are the consequences of frugivory by different dispersal agents for Virola surinam- ensis reproduction? Most visitors regurgitate or defecate viable seeds (Table 6), but tend to drop them at different distances from fruit- ing Virola trees (Table 7). Do small differ- ences in dispersal distance have consequences for seedling establishment and growth, as Janzen (1970) and Connell (1971) speculated? Natural seed fall in Virola surinamensis is, as is typical of other plants in central Panama (Augspurger 1983), characterized by high and variable densities of seeds under fruiting trees, and very low densities beyond the edge of the tree crown (Fig. 4). A rain of seeds untouched or knocked down by animals ensures that seed densities under the crown can be over 1000 times as high as densities only 10 metres from the base of a tree. In fact, seed fall beyond the crown can only be estimated with sampling wedges (10°) that dramatically increase the area sampled as one moves away from a tree; the dilution of seeds that occurs at a rate of t r r2 as one moves radially from a central point makes scattered seeds very difficult to find. The natural seed fall in this species offers ample potential for devastating insect or rodent attacks on densely clumped seeds or newly germinated seedlings. The far lower densities even a few metres from the trunk might, as Janzen (1970) suspected, make local dispersal extremely important. The question asked here is, simply, whether a seed dropped directly under a Virola crown has a different probability of survival than one drop- ped at some specified distance away. The “seed escape” hypothesis was tested with experimental plantings of seeds, germi- nating seeds, and established seedlings at 5, 15, 25, 35, and 45 m from trunks of fruiting Virola trees. Practical considerations prevented one “clean” experiment. Rates of seed and early seedling death were so high that 250,000 seed plantings would have been required to produce as few as 500 yearlings. As an alter- native, my colleagues and I placed three co- horts in randomly chosen spots on circles at each distance. The first placement, in 1982, involved 3,400 seeds in groups of 40 scattered on each of the five circles, for each of 17 female trees. Forty seeds at five metres around each of 13 male Virola trees (a total of 400 seeds) provided a partial control for possible effects of inevitably higher densities of experimental seeds in small circles under females. Males do not normally have seeds under or near them. Another planting of seeds germinated in a screened growing house was made at six weeks in 1983. Space in the grow- ing house reduced this sample to 2,000 ger- minating seeds, which were placed in sets of 25 on the perimeters established in 1982 for 13 females and 15 males. The experiment was repeated for fully established 12 week old seedlings in 1984, using 25 plants for each perimeter at 7 female and 7 male trees. In each year, plants were checked each two weeks after planting. 32 SEED DISPERSAL BY BIRDS Overall, this series of experiments provide a dramatic confirmation of the prediction that local dispersal should help seeds escape dis- proportionate mortality near parent trees. Fewer than 20% of the seeds survive the first six weeks, ranging from < 4% under the crowns to 16% at 45 m (Fig. 5). During the second experiment, survival was 1% under the crown and approximately 11% at 45 m (Fig. 6). Overall, over 99% of the seeds and seed- lings die within the first 12 weeks after fruit fall. Even with such high overall mortality, A 100 75 E *o ■u 0) 0) w 25 * o -f- — s 1 — r- 0 02 0.4 0.6 there is a 10 fold advantage to dispersal only 15 m, as compared with 5 m, and more than a 40 fold advantage to dispersal 45 m. Mortality under female trees is far higher than that under male controls. In 1983, as many seeds survived to 12 weeks 5 m from males as survived 45 m from females. This suggests that effects of aggregating seeds under trees in the experimental design are minor compared clumping produced by natural seed fall (Fig. 4). Major sources of mortality include inges- B • •• 1“ —i 1 r" 0 1.5 2.0 2.5 Aril wt/seed wt Seed wt (g) Fig. 3. (A) Strong positive correlation of the proportion of seeds taken from individual trees and the mean ration of dry aril to dry seed weight at each tree (r = 0.71, P<0.001). (B) Strong negative correlation between the proportion of seeds taken and seed dry weight (r= -0.77, P< 0.0002). See Howe and Vande Kerckhove (1980). 33 3 SEEDS PER 10 METER JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) 150 — 100 — CM weevil, which oviposites on seeds from germi- nation at 2-3 weeks through 8-10 weeks of age. This is easily seen during the first two weeks after fruit fall, when nearly half of the seeds are eaten by mammals, with no noticeable effect of distance from the fruiting trees (Fig. 5). Dramatic effects of distance are evident from J TWO WEEKS : + + + + + 30 25 20 L -p r — — r r 0-3 12-15 27-30 42-45 METERS FROM TRUNK Fig. 4. Natural seed fall around five fruiting Virola surinamensis trees. Seeds were sampled over 2 wk for each tree by randomly directed wedges encom- passing 707 m2. Means ± 1 standard error. See Howe et al. (1985). tion by mammals, such as paca ( Agouti paca) and deer ( Dama virginiana), and larval feed- ing by a curculionid weevil ( Conotrachelus , new species; Plate I). During the first 12 weeks, approximately half of the mortality is attributable to mammals, and half to the weevils. Interestingly, disproportionate morta- lity near fruiting trees is almost all due to the 15 12 -| FOUR WEEKS . + 8 H 4 SIX WEEKS 8 6 4 2 0 T + + t r + + + + — t r t r r 5 15 25 35 45 DISTANCE FROM TREE (m) Fig. 5. Survival as a consequence of distance from 17 fruiting Virola surinamensis trees during the first 6 wk after fruit drop. Two hundred freshly fallen seeds were placed in concentric rings around each tree, with 40 seeds per ring per tree. Means ± 1 standard error. Patterns are significant at four weeks (F = 5.96, P < 0.0005) and six weeks (F = 9. 02, P <0.0001). See Howe et al (1985). 34 NO. SURVIVING SEEDLINGS SEED DISPERSAL BY BIRDS 4-12 weeks, when Virola seeds and young seedlings are vulnerable to Conotrachelus. A more detailed investigation shows that mam- 0 EIGHT WEEKS 4 - + + 2 - + TEN WEEKS o J r 5 15 25 35 45 DISTANCE FROM TREE (m) Fig. 6. Survival as a consequence of distance from 13 fruiting Virola surinamensis trees. One hundred and twenty-five germinating seeds 6 wk after fruit drop were placed around each tree in the design used for Fig. 4, but with 25 seeds per ring per tree. Means ± 1 standard error. Patterns are significant at each age (Friedman’s tests; X2V— 11.9, 27.7, and 16.6, all 4 df, all P < 0.02 or better). See Howe et al. (1985). mals, if anything, eat more seeds and seedlings away from Virola trees than under them (Howe et al 1985). There is no evidence that rodents bury these seeds. Seedlings are not found pushing up from the subsoil, and piles of seed dust testify to direct consumption. Some rodents thought to play a major role in seed dispersal, such as the agouti ( Dasyprocta punctata ; see Janzen 1970), eat Virola suri- namensis arils, but neither eat nor transport the seeds (Larson and Howe, in press). While early seed and seedling mortality show a 40 fold advantage to short-distance seed dispersal away from fruiting trees, patterns of survival and mortality after independence from parental seed stores show no such advantage. Approximately 60% of the 12 week old seed- lings planted in concentric rings around fruit- ing Virola trees in 1984 died within six months; within 12 months 70% were dead. This mortality appears to be random with respect to distance from fruiting trees, although markedly non-random with respect to light and edaphic conditions within the forest ravines inhabited by the species. For instance, seed- lings surviving the first dry season were those planted on steep slopes (36±13° S.D.). This might indicate intolerance of desiccation; Run- dell and Becker (manuscript) find higher water stress in seedlings on flat than steeply sloping ground. Similarly, this species is shade tole- rant, but grows best under a broken canopy (Howe et al 1985). The combined effects of slope, light, and death or decapitation by browsers are currently under investigation. In short, a strong early advantage to escape from high seed and seedling densities does favor local seed dissemination by birds. Be- cause toucans carry seeds further than small trogons or motmots, the larger birds are from the plant perspective four to 40 times as effective as the smaller species. This effect is 35 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) entirely due to devastating attacks by weevils that infest otherwise viable seeds and seedlings under and near fruiting Virol a trees during the first few weeks after fruit fall. General Discussion Mutually beneficial interactions between plants and animals may or may not be obli- gate, may or may not result from coevolution of particular plant and animal taxa, and may or may not have consequences for tropical forest conservation and management. If only because it is better known than others, the Virola surinamensis dispersal system does offer insights into general issues likely to be impor- tant in other relationships between plants and fruit-eating animals. The Virola Dispersal System The three foci of this investigation each have implications for other dispersal systems in the Old and New Worlds. First, fruiting trees may depend upon, and perhaps be important for, a small proportion of the total frugivore fauna in a given tropical forest. Though it produces one of the most energy-rich arils known, Virola surinamensis consistently attracts only seven of 80 (9%) potential dispersal agents on Barro Colorado Island. Some birds, such as manakins (Pipri- dae) weighing 12-20 g, are simply too small to swallow the fruits. That size is not the key issue is clear from the fact that the much smaller seeded Virola sebifera attracts the same frugivores in the same forest (Howe 1981). Many mammals eat fruits, but the most abun- dant fruit-eating monkeys and bats in the Barro Colorado forest shun Virola. Whether this is due to inaccessibility or to chemical defenses against wasteful foragers is not known. Whatever the reasons that 90% of the availa- ble frugivores always or usually ignore Virola fruits, the plant and its small “gallery of con- noisseurs” show a certain degree of speciali- zation. On closer examination, frugivore use of Virola is even more particular. On the average, half of each Virola crop drops underneath the fruiting trees and is killed by insects or mammals, and half is scattered through the forest. Over half of the seeds transported more than 15 or 20 m are taken by two large toucans or a guan, or by wasteful spider mon- keys. Of these relatively regular dispersal agents, only one large toucan ( Ramp hast os swainsonii) both takes a large proportion of the fruits eaten by animals (35%), and habi- tually carries a large proportion of those that it eats (60%) more than 20 m from the trees. On Barro Colorado Island, observations of the feeding activity of frugivores suggest that Virola surinamensis is at least potentially de- pendent on this toucan species. Similar depen- dence on one or two dispersers has been inferred for other Central American trees (Howe 1977, 1980, 1981; Greenberg 1981), but the numerical evidence for Virola suri- namensis is much more complete. Secondly, Virola trees compete for dispersal agents. The proportion of fruits that are not disseminated by any animal varies annually from 35 to 60%, and in any given year the failure of different trees may range from 9 to 87%. Much of this variation is unexplained, especially during years of fruit superabun- dance. But in lean years as much as 60% of this variation can be explained by the mean ratio of edible aril to indigestible seed of in- dividual trees, and by proximity of heavily fruiting neighbors (Howe 1983). Variation in individual dispersal occurs in other trees, such as Casearia corymbosa (Howe and Vande Kerckhove 1979), Tetragastris panamensis 36 SEED DISPERSAL BY BIRDS (Howe 1980), and Virola sebifera (Howe 1981), but the components of variance re- main unknown. The influence of aril/ seed ratio on dispersal is consistent with some theoretical expectations, but is anomalous for others. As expected, “seediness” counts. Foragers take more fruits from trees with a high benefit in edible pulp for the cost of carrying bulky seed ballast than they do from others (see Herrera 1981). Unexpectedly, this pattern shows up in years or in portions of seasons in which Virola fruits are scarce. Theory predicts that animals favor the most “profitable” food (here with the highest aril /seed ratio), the more common it is (MacArthur 1972). The apparently anomalous result is probably due to the fact that fruit-eating birds face several contin- gencies which most insect-eating birds, such as the ones modelled by MacArthur, do tiot. Accessibility of superabundant fruits overrides inherent preferences in several small manakins and tanagers (Moermond and Denslow 1983, Levey et al. 1984), and probably accounts for the lack of apparent selectivity by Virola visitors when fruits are abundant. Birds must often travel hundreds of metres from n£sts, territories, or other food sources to feed in the rare “best” trees; it is not worth their while when Virola fruits are common. When fruits are scarce, these same birds rapidly deplete trees with the “best” aril/seed ratios, and then forage for other foods. This inter- pretation is consistent with the general view that birds compete for fruits only during times of scarcity (R. Foster 1982b, Fleming 1979). Explicit tests of such hypo- theses are only now becoming possible, as foraging models become available which give realistic weight to competition for fruits and to long-distance foraging costs (Martin 1985). Thirdly, some tropical trees are heavily dependent on seed transport for normal seedling recruitment. Disproportionate morta- lity from pathogen attack clearly makes seed dissemination by wind important for Platy - podium recruitment (Augspurger 1983, Aug- spurger and Kelly 1984), and a variety of investigations of varying depth suggest the same for animal dispersed species (see Clark and Clark 1984). The Virola study is unique in demonstrating a 40 fold advantage to local dispersal by known seed vectors, and in sort- ing out the various sources of mortality. While mammals and weevils each account for half of Virola seeds and young seedlings killed shortly after fruitfall, only the insects have a decisive effect on the advantage to seed escape (see Janzen 1970, contra Connell 1971). In Virola surinamensis , the 99.96% mortality of seeds and seedlings directly under crowns of fruiting trees makes it very unlikely that the species could reproduce without dispersal agents. Implications for Coevolution Many or even most angiosperms produce fruits adapted for animal consumption, and many birds and mammals eat fruits and dis- seminate viable seeds. Do plants and particular dispersal agents “coevolve,” or influence each other’s evolution? In theory, coevolution of species pairs is possible even among non- symbiotic mutualists (Roughgarden 1983). Both pollination and seed dispersal of some mistletoes (Loranthaceae) by flowerpeckers (Dicaidae) may reflect coevolution of species pairs (Docters van Leeuwen 1954, Davidar 1978, 1983). A legitimate question is whether conditions of coevolution are met for Virola surinamensis and the animals that eat its fruits, or for similar dispersal systems. An alterna- tive is that plants evolve means of attracting an array of animals, which may or may not 37 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) be closely related, that provide more or less similar services (Janzen 1980, Herrera 1982, Howe 1984a). Similarly, fruit-eating animals may evolve general adaptations for finding and processing fruits, without regard to species of food plants (Moermond and Denslow 1985; Wheelwright 1985). Specialization might only limit the range of dispersal agents used by plants or the range of food items preferred by animals. The Virola system has some, but not all, preconditions for coevolution of species pairs. The plant appears to be entirely dependent on animals for seedling recruitment; on Barro Colorado Island one Ramphastos toucan is a far more reliable dispersal agent than others. The degree of dependence of the toucan on Virola is not well known, but heavy use of these trees over many years suggest the proba- bility of a close, if not obligate, relationship. Furthermore, the distaste of many mammals of Virola arils, and the distaste of even con- sistent visitors like spider monkeys for the arils of some Virola trees, suggests that the plant has defended itself against some wasteful visi- tors (see Howe 1980, 1983). Based on studies on Barro Colorado Island alone, coevolution between nutmegs and toucans might seem reasonable. Several points argue against this interpretation, however. First, unrelated birds perform similar dis- persal functions for Virola surinamensis', diffe- rences in “reliability” probably reflect different abundances more than different adaptive poten- tials. Guans (Cracidae) are not at all closely allied with toucans (Ramphastidae), yet they disperse these seeds as well as the much more common toucans. Similar potential among dis- tantly related dispersal agents has also been noted for other bird-dispersed trees (e.g. Howe and Vande Kerckhove 1979, Wheelwright and Orians 1982), as well as for one monkey- dispersed tree (Howe 1980). The close depen- dence of Virola surinamensis and Ramphastos swainsonii is probably a local relationship, which may or may not be as strong elsewhere. Second, geographical ranges do not closely overlap. Ramphastos swainsonii occurs north of the Virola surinamensis range, and the tree occurs well south of the toucan range. Con- geners of both do overlap throughout Central and South America, and some scattered obser- vations show that toucans eat nutmegs of other species in quantity (Bourne 1977; Howe 1977, 1981). It may be that these food preferences represent a long common history between New World nutmegs and toucans, although the plants are dispersed by other animals, and the toucans certainly eat fruits of many other plants. Third, ecological variation makes coevolu- tiop of species pairs highly unlikely (Howe 1984a). Normal variation in Virola spatial dis- tributions, densities, size and fecundity distri- butions, and weather all affect the fruit re- sources available to toucans or other animals in any given time or place. Similar factors, affecting other fruit-bearing tree species, as well as the relative abundances of other fruit - eating animals, quite likely influence toucan loyalty to nutmegs. Such variation will clearly alter selective intensity of birds on plants, and plants on birds, over time and space. Fourth, assymmetries in mutualisms preclude coevolution. Asymmetries in dependence appear to be common in both pollination (Schemske 1983) and seed dispersal (Howe 1984a). A rare plant with low fecundity may require common birds with generalized food habits. More commonly, a plant provides a critical resource for animals which do not disperse its seeds. To the degree that a plant or animal relies on another species less than 38 SEED DISPERSAL BY BIRDS the other species relies on it, evolutionary rates in the two species will differ. Finally, there is as yet little evidence that plant and particular bird taxa have coexisted for long. Snow (1981) comments that many African tree taxa existed long before their contemporary dispersal agents evolved. Herrera (1985) finds that, in general, angiosperm shrubs and trees average 27 and 38 million years in the fossil record, while mammals and birds average 0. 5-4.0 and 0.5 million years, respectively. Given that plant fossils are more common than those of small vertebrates, and that the taxonomic status of plant and animal fossils may be only roughly comparable, it still seems likely that evolution modifies fruit struc- ture far more slowly than it modifies animals that eat fruits. Animals appear to adjust, both behaviorally in a local community and evolu- tionary over millenia, to whatever fruit re- sources are at hand. Plants that find themselves without adequate dispersal agents for any con- siderable length of time probably become locally extinct (Howe 1985). Implications for Conservation Networks of ecological interdependence pose hazards for forest management. A chance ex- tinction or omission of a keystone tree or frugivore species from a forest reserve could in theory precipitate a chain reaction of local extinctions, leading to abrupt changes in over- all species composition (Howe 1977, 1984b; Gilbert 1980). In this context a “keystone” species is one which is critical for the survival of several other species in the community. The potential for such losses always exists because isolated reserves always lose species from random extinction (MacArthur 1972). The potential for interconnected extinctions is especially high in diverse seasonal tropical forests in which most species are rare (see Hubbell and Foster 1982), and which often experience wide variations in fruiting pheno- logies (see Foster 1982a, 1982b). At present, no one knows whether keystone mutualists are common in nature because few dispersal systems are known in enough detail to allow a strong inference. Some do fit the keystone mould. For instance, an uncommon Casearia in one Costa Rican reserve helps maintain its dispersal agent, Tityra semifasciata, and 21 other species of fruit-eating birds through an annual scarcity of fruit production in December (Howe 1977, see Frankie et al. 1974). Failure of this tree would undoubtedly decimate several bird species which are disper- sal agents of other plants at other times of the year. On Barro Colorado Island, the small- seeded Virola sebifera supports at least three obligate frugivores, including two critical to Virola surinamensis, through seasonal scarcity in November and December (Howe 1981). But this plant is common on the island. It is a “keystone” ecologically, but is both abun- dant enough and consistent enough in its fruit- ing phenology that its failure is unlikely. Virola surinamensis requires seed dispersal for its reproduction, and attracts several of the same birds that use its small congener. How- ever, V. surinamensis bears fruits in June, July, and August, when many other trees are also productive (Foster 1982a). Chance failure of this species would be unlikely, and would in any case not affect frugivores that could switch to other fruits during an emergency. In short, keystone or pivotal species may be critical features of tropical forests (Howe 1977, Gilbert 1980). Their chance extinction or omission from natural reserves is most likely in refuges of small area, highly diverse biota and seasonal climate (Howe 1984b). The key- stone concept is only partially relevant to 39 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) Virola surinamensis. The tree would undoubt- edly vanish if its dispersal agents disappeared, but at least some of its dispersal agents might be capable of switching to other foods if the tree failed or became locally extinct. But per- manent disappearance of this plant from Barro Colorado Island probably would reduce popu- lations of toucans and guans, with as yet un- Refer Augspurger, C. K. (1983) : Offspring recruitment around tropical trees: Changes in cohort distance with time. Oikos 40: 189-196. & Kelly, C. (1984): Patho- gen mortality of tropical tree seedlings: experimen- tal studies of the effects of dispersal distance, seedling density, and light conditions. Oecologia 61: 211-217. Bawa, K. 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(1983) : Annual variation in a neo- tropical seed-dispersal system. In Tropical rain forest: ecology and management. Eds. Sutton, S. L., Whit- more, T. C. & Chadwick, A. C. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, pp. 211-227. (1984a): Constraints on the evolu- tion of mutualisms. American Naturalist. 123: 764- 777. — : (1984b): Implications of seed dis- persal by animals for the management of tropical reserves. Biological Conservation. 30: 261-281. (1985): Gomphothere fruits: a critique. American Naturalist. 125: 853-865. (1986): Seed dispersal by fruit- eating birds and mammals. In Seed dispersal. Ed. Murray, D. R. Academic Press, Sydney. In press. Howe, H. F. & De Steven, D. (1979) : Fruit pro- duction, migrant bird visitation, and seed dispersal of Guarea glabra in Panama. Oecologia. 39: 185-196. Howe, H. F. & Estabrook, G. F. (1977): On intraspecific competition for avian dispersers in tro- pical trees. Am. Nat. Ill: 817-832. Howe, H. F. & Richter, W. 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(1985): Resource selection by tro- pical frugivorous birds: integrating multiple inter- actions. Oecologia. 66: 563-573. Maynard Smith, J. (1978) : Optimization theory in evolution. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Systematics. 9: 31-56. McKey, D. (1975): The ecology of coevolved seed dispersal systems. In Coevolution of animals and plants. Eds. Gilbert, L. E. & Raven, P. Univer- sity of Texas Press, Austin, pp. 159-191. Milton, K. (1977) : The foragings strategy of the Howler Monkey in the tropical forest of Barro Colorado Island, Panama. Dissertation. New York University, New York. Moermond, T. C. & Denslow, J. S. (1983) : Fruit 41 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) choice in tropical frugivorous birds: effects of fruit type and accessibility on selectivity. J. Animal Ecol. 52: 407-421. (1985): Neotro- pical avian frugivores : patterns of behavior, mor- phology, and nutrition with consequences for fruit selection. Ornithological Monographs. 36: 865-897. Morrison, D. (1978) : Foraging ecology and energetics of the frugivorous bat Artibeus jamaic- ensis. Ecology. 59: 716-723. Pratt, T. K. (1983) : How long fruit-eating birds stay in the plants where they feed ; implications for seed dispersal. American Naturalist. 122: 797-805. Ridley, H. N. (1930): The dispersal of plants throughout the world. Reeve, Ashford. Rohlf, F. J. & Sokal, R. R. (1969): Statistical tables. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco. Roughgarden, J. (1983) : The theory of coevo- lution. In Coevolution. Eds Futuyma, D. & Slatkin, M. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Massachusetts, pp. 33-64. Schemske, D. W. (1983) : Limits to specializa- tion and coevolution in plant-animal mutualisms. In Coevolution, Ed. by M. H. Nitecki. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 67-111. Snow, D. W. (1981): Tropical frugivorous birds and their food plants: a world survey. Biotropica. 13: 1-14. Sorensen, A. E. (1981): Interactions between birds and fruit in a temperate woodland. Oecologia. 50: 242-249. vSorensen, A. E. (1983) : Taste aversion and frugivore preference. Oecologia. 56: 117-120. Sork, V. L. (1985): Germination response in a largeseeded neotropical tree species, Gustavia super ba (Lecythidaceae). Biotropica. 17: 130-136. van der Pijl, L. (1972) : Principles of dispersal in higher plants. Second Edition. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. Wheelwright, N. T. (1985): Fruit size, gape width, and the diets of fruit-eating birds. Ecology. 66: 808-818. & Orians, G. (1982): Seed dispersal by animals: contrasts with pollen dispersal, problems of terminology, and constraints on coevo- lution. Am. Nat. 119: 402-413. White, S. C. (1974) : Ecological aspects of growth •and nutrition in tropical fruit-eating birds. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, Philadel- phia. Wiebes, J. J. (1979): Co-evolution of figs and their insect pollinators. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 10: 1-12. Willis, E. O. (1974) : Population and local ex- tinctions of birds on Barro Colorado Island, Panama. Ecological Monographs. 44: 153-169. (1980) : Ecological roles of migra- tory and resident birds on Barro Colorado Island, Panama. In Migrant birds in the neotropics. Eds. A. Keast and E. S. Morton, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, pp. 205-226. 42 PHYTOCHOROLOGY OF KODAGU (COORG) DISTRICT, KARNATAKA J. P. Pascal1 and V. M. Meher-Homji2 {With three text-figures) This study on phytochorology attempts to explain the vegetation patterns in relation to climatic conditions. Three main types distinguished are (1) potential evergreen forests, sub-divided into three types according to elevation, (2) potential moist deciduous and (3) dry deciduous forests. The potential evergreen forests enjoy a rainfall of over 2000 mm, a tropical regime with a single peak of rains in July and 4 dry months; it is the elevation and the factor most closely linked to it — the temperature — which distinguish the three types: (a) Dipterocarpus-Kingiodendron-Humboldtia upto 750 m altitude, (b) Mesua- Palaquium from 750 to 1400 m and (c) ScheftleraAGordonia-Meliosma above 1400 m. The disturbed forests, woodland, savanna-woodland and coffee plantations within the potential evergreen forest belt occur within the range of 2000 to 5000 mm rainfall; below this lower limit of rainfall dominate the moist {Lagerstroemia-Tectona-Dillenia) and dry deciduous ( Anogeissus-Tectona-Terminalia ) forests; they occur below 900 m, the former with a rainfall of 1400-2000 mm and a dry season of 4-5 months, the latter within 900-1400 mm belt with 5 months dry. Introduction Chronology is the term used to describe the sequence of events in time. Chorology is the scientific study of the geographical extent or distribution in space. It also means causal study of the distribution of organisms. The term was used in 1883 by von Richthofen to mean the explanatory distribution of areas (Dudley Stamp 1966). Phytochorology thus refers to the spatial distribution of vegetation depicted on a map. Location. The Kodagu (Coorg) district forms the south-west part of Karnataka State. It lies 1 Institut de la Carte Internationale de la Vege- tation, 39 allees Jules Guesde, Toulouse, France. 2 French Institute, Pondicherry. between latitude 11°56'-12°52' North and longitude 75°22'-76°ir East, bounded on the north by the Hassan district, on the west by South Kanara, on the east by Mysore district and in the south by the Cannanore district of Kerala. Coorg is the anglicized form of the word Kodagu, which according to one version is derived from Kodimalenad meaning dense forest-land on steep hills; the other view is that Kodagu means the country of millions of hills as the district has a mountainous configuration. The main range of the Western Ghats extends to about 100 km from the Brahmagiris in the south to the Subramanya in the north-west. Several long and elevated ridges run west to east from this portion of the Western Ghats (Anonymous 1965). The southern section of the Ghats, the Brahmagiris (average elevation 1360 m) forms 43 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) the southern boundary with the Wynad plateau of Kerala. Incidentally, there is also another Brahmagiri peak near Bhagmandala which is the source of the Kaveri. The highest peak of the district, Tadiandamol, is at 1734 m. Other notable peaks are in the Pushpagiri hill at 1700 m and at Kotebeta (1600 m) which is one of the ridges that branches off from the Subramanya range. Madikeri (Mercara) plateau at an average elevation of about 1050 m extends northwards as far as Somwarpet, a distance of 30 km but on the east slopes down to the Kaveri. This hilly district may broadly be divided into two, — the uplands in the west and the lower land in the east. Previous studies. Among the studies on the evergreen forests of the Western Ghats in Karnataka, the most complete synthesis is that of Pascal (1984). Earlier, there have been some good attempts notably by Kadambi (1939). Rai (1981) has given a good account of the production aspect. As to the vegetation of Kodagu district itself, mention may be made of the investigations of Arora (1960, 1964a, b). Lakshmana and Subramanyam (1976, 1977) have provided in- formation on the grassy patches of the district. Climate. The climate has been summarised in Fig. 1 after Pascal (1982). Three classes of tempe- rature have been recognised on the basis of the mean temperature of the coldest month (t) : (1) t > 23 °C (2) t between 16°C and 23 °C (3) t between 13.5°-16°C, which class * A month is defined as dry when its mean monthly rainfall in mm is less than twice its mean monthly temperature in °C (Bagnouls and Gaussen 1953). corresponds to the higher elevations of the Ghats. From point of view of annual average rain- fall, five classes have been distinguished rang- ing from over 5000 mm per annum to 900-1200 mm. The combination of the above temperature and rainfall ranges result in 8 climatic classes as given in the legend of Fig. 1. On the basis of length of dry season, two categories have been formed: — 4 months dry* — 5 months dry The five dry months category corresponds to the two lower rainfall classes (1200-1500 mm and 900-1200 mm). The map in Fig. 1 is accompanied by climate diagrams depicting the rainfall curves. Meher-Homji (1979) has analysed the inter-annual variability of the climate of Madikeri (Mercara). The district may clearly be divided into two vertical halves, a wider western elevated por- tion with rainfall of over 1500 mm and dry season of 4 months and a narrower lower eastern fringe with rainfall ranging from 900 to 1500 mm and a longer dry period of 5 months. To these distinct climatic-physiographic divisions correspond vegetational differences. Vegetation. The western rainy portion is potentially a zone of evergreen forests whereas the drier eastern fringe is a zone of deciduous forests. Evergreen forests. Earlier workers recognised essentially one main evergreen type, as for example Mesua- Calophyllum-Dipterocarpus type of Arora (1960) with mention of “mixed communities with three or more codominant species” and “mixed associations of evergreen species”. 44 PHYTOCHOROLOGY OF KODAGU SCALE 10 15 20 Legend of the diogrom Rain foil curve Temperolure curve ^^Temperatu?e(®C) RoinfolUssifn) I3°5 < t 23° P > §000 ISgg BP9B9 EZ3 2000 2000 (even exceeding 5000) Tropical with a single peak in July 4 >20 >14 (2) Mesuct-Palaquium Medium elevation 750-1400 m ” J) 4 16-23 < 15 (3) Schefflera-Gordonia- Meliosma High eleva- tion > 1400 m ” 55 4 13-16 9-13 (4) Disturbed forests, woodland to savanna-woodland, coffee plantations within the poten- tial evergreen forest belt Low to high 2000-5000 4 Within the above range IT. Deciduous (1) Moist deciduous Lager stroemia-T ectona- Dillenia Low eleva- tion < 900 m 1400-2000 Tropical with a secon dary peak in October 4-5 >20 13-20 (2) Dry deciduous Anogeissus-T ectona- Terminalia 900-1400 55 5 >20 13-20 In the present work, three distinct ever- green forest types have been distinguished on floristic basis, linked with altitude and climatic factors (Table 1; Fig. 2). (1) Dipterocarpus indicus — Kingiodendron pinnatum — Humboldtia brunonis type occurs at lower elevation, under 750 m with rainfall of over 2000 mm and dry season of 4 months. The mean of the coldest month is over 20°C and the mean of the minimum of the coldest month over 14°C. (2) Mesua ferrea — Palaquium ellipticum type prevails at medium elevation between 750- 1400 m. The rainfall amount and distribu- tion remain the same as in the preceding type but the mean temperature of the coldest month is lower: 16°-23°C, and mean of minimum of the coldest month is under 15°C. The Dipterocarpaceae and the Ebenaceae which dominate at low altitude have a minor role to play. The Qusiaceae {Mesua, Calo- phyllum, Garcinia ), the Sapotaceae (P ala- 46 PHYTOCHOROLOGY OF KODAGU raw Disturbed forest Logerstroemia-Tectona-Dillenio Anogeissus - Tectona- Terminal 'ia }© }® Potential moist deciduous type Potential dry deciduous type PLANTATIONS V Coffee H Rubber E E Eucalyptus $s Sandal Woodland to savanna-woodland Sw Softwood T T Teak Elil Thicket ! I Tree savanna to scattered shrubs Limits of Potential types Fig. 2,. Vegetation map of Kodagu (Coorg) District. (After Pascal. Shyam Sunder & Meher-Homii 1982) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) quium), the Meliaceae ( Aglaia ) and the Euphorbiaceae ( Agrostistachys , Mallotus, Dry- petes ) gain importance. (3) A montane type develops at higher ele- vation of over 1400 m in the Western Ghats. This type is termed Schefflera spp. - Gordonia obtusa-Meliosma. Mean of the coldest month is 13°-16°C and that of minimum of the coldest month 9° to 13°C. The nomenclature of the type Schefflera- Gordonia-Meliosma is that of Gaussen et al. (1965). However, it does not bring out the essential floristie features: the dominance of Lauraceae ( Litsea , Cinnamomum, Alseodaphne, Actinodaphne, Neolitsea), particularly conspi- cuous from 1400 to 1600 m in the W. Ghats and of Myrtaceae (Eugenia, Syzygium , Rhodo- myrtus). The Araliaceae is also well repre- sented with five species of Schefflera among which some begin their existence as epiphytes like certain species of Ficus. Among other important families are the Anacardiaceae ( Holigarna , Mangifera, Meliosma), Celastraceae (3 species of Elaeocarpus) , Euphorbiaceae ( Agrostistachys , Glochidion, Mallotus ...), Flacourtiaceae ( Casearia , Flacourtia, Hydno- carpus, Scolopia), Myrsinaceae ( lxora , Lasianthus, Psychotria...), Staphyleaceae ( Turpinia ), Symplocaceae ( Symplocos ) . The detailed floristie composition of the three evergreen types is given in Table 2. Disturbed Forests in Evergreen types. They appear over the entire area of the evergreen forests when exploitation is very in- tensive. Considerable removal of commercial trees and numerous and extensive openings have brought about a profound change in the climatic conditions and in the populations of certain species. It is this state of structural and floristie disturbance that characterizes the dis- turbed forests. The emergents have disappeared and the upper storey is relatively low and disconti- nuous. The understorey is invaded by young subjects on account of openings made for exploitation. In the upper storey are found evergreen light tolerant species with a large ecological ampli- tude, which are common to all disturbed forests. Among these may be mentioned. Alstonia scholaris Artocarpus heterophyllus A. hirsutus Canarium strict um Carallia brachiata Cinnamomum spp. Dimocarpus longan Dysoxylum malabaricum Elaeocarpus serratus Holigarna arnottiana H. grahamii Hopea ponga Knema attenuata Mangifera indica Myristica dactyloides Persea macrantha Polyalthia fragrans Syzygium cumini Woodland to Savanna-woodland. These are open forests. There is a conti- nuous cover of tall grasses in the savanna- woodland, in absence of which the formation is referred to as woodland. In the tree savanna are seen twisted low- branched fire-resistant individuals of less than 8 m height like Wendlandia notoniana Ziziphus rugosa Z. oenoplia Careya arborea Emblica officinalis Gardenia turgida G. gummifera Glochidion sp. Phoenix humilis (dwarf palm) A few low deciduous trees are also encountered: Terminalia paniculata, T. chebula, Buchanania lanzan, Bridelia sp., Butea monosperma. 48 PHYTOCHOROLOGY OF KODAGU Table 2 Floristic lists of evergreen forests Forest types Dipterocdrpus- Mesud- Schefflerd- Kingiodendron- Pdlaquium Gordonid- Humboldtid Meliosmd 1 2 3 UPPER STOREY Acrocarpus fraxinifolius Wt. + Aglaia roxburghiana Hiern + Antiaris toxicaria Lesch. + Bombax ceiba L. + Calophyllum apetalum Willd. + C. polyanthum Wall, ex Choisy + Dipterocarpus indicus Bedd. + Dysoxylum malaburicum Bedd. + Fahrenheitia zeylanica (Thw.) Airy Shaw + Holigarna grahamii (Wt.) Kurz + Hopea parviflora Bedd. + H. ponga (Dennst.) Mabberley + Kingiodendron pinnatum (DC.) Harms. + Lophopetalum wightianum Arn. + Myristica malabarica Lam. + Onmosio travancorica Bedd. + Polyalthia fragrans (Dalz.) Bedd. + Pterygota dldta R. Br. + Termindlid bellericd (Gaertn.) Roxb. Bischofid jdvdnicd Bl. Actinodophne molobarico Balak. + + + Alseoddphne semecarpifolio Nees + Bhesd indicd (Bedd.) Ding Hou + Cinndmomum wightii Meissn. + Cryptocdryd Idwsoni Gamble + C. neilgherrensis Meissn. + Gdrcinid pictorius (Roxb.) D’Arey + Litsed stocksii Hk. f. Meliosmd pinndtd (Roxb.) Walp. ssp. + drnottidnd (Walp.) Bers. + M. simplicifolia (Roxb.) Walp. + Michelid chdmpdcd L. + Schefflerd cdpitdtd Harms. + S. micrdnthd Gamble + S. rdcemosd Harms. + Syzygium cdryophylldtum (L.) Alst. + Turpinid cochinchinensis (Lour.) Mori + 49 4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 (, SUPPLEMENT ) Table 2 (contd.) T. malabar ca Gamble Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. + + + Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. + + A. hirsutus Lam. + + Mastixia arborea (Wt.) Bedd. + + Mesua ferrea L. + + Mimusops elengi L. + + Palaquium ellipticum Engl. + + Strombosia ceylanica Gardn. + + Syzygium gardneri Thw. + + Valeria indica L. + + Beilschmiedia wightii Benth. + + Elaeocarpus serratus L. + + Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wt. + + Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels + + Canarium strictum Roxb. + + + Dimocarpus longan Lour. + + + Elaeocarpus tuberculatus Roxb. + + + Holigarna arnottiana J. Hk. + + + Mangifera indica L. + + + Persea macrantha Kost. + + + Toona ciliata Roem. + + + UPPER & MIDDLE STOREY Drypetes elata (Bedd.) Pax & Hoffm. Hydnocarpus laurifolia (Dennst.) Sleumer Symphyll’a mallotiformis Muell. Vitex altissima L.f. + + + + Dry petes oblongifolia (Bedd.) Airy Shaw + Agrostistachys meeboldii Pax & Hoffm. + Cinnamomum sulphur atum Nees + Gordonia obtusa W. & A. + Litsea bourdillonii Gamble + L. floribunda Gamble Knema attenuata (J. Hk. & Th.) Warb. + + + Cinnamomum verum Presl. + + Dillewa pentagyna Roxb. + + Zanthoxylon rhetsa (Roxb.) DC. + + Syzygium hemisphericum (Walp.) Alst. + + Vernonia arborea Ham. + + Caryota urens L. + + + Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) Robson + + + Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) Muell. + + + Myristica dactyloides Gaertn. + + + Olea dioica Roxb. + + + MIDDLE STOREY Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) Parker + Artocarpus gomezianus Wall. + Cryptocarya bourdilloni Gamble + 50 PHYTOCHOROLOGY OF KODAGU Table 2 (contd.) Diospyros crumenata Thw. + D. pruriens Dalz. + D. stricta Roxb. + Garcinia talbotii Raizada ex Sant. + Madhuca neriifolia (Moon) Lam. + Pajanelia longifolia (Willd.) Schum. 4- Trewia nudi flora L. + Walsura trifolia (A. Juss.) Harms. + Agrostistachys indica Dalz. Apodytes benthamiana Wt. Apollonias arnottii Nees Daphniphyllum neilgherrense Ros. Eugenia mooniana Wt. Euonymus crenulatus Wall. E. dichotomus Heyne Isonandra montana Gamble Litsea oleoides Hk. f. Mallotus tetracoccus (Roxb.) Kurz Neolitsea zeylanica Merr. Phoebe wightii Meissn. Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) Moore ssp. laurina (Retz.) Noot .S', macrophylla Wall, ex DC. Syzygium arnottianum Walp. S. rubicundum W. & A. Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr. 4- Garcinia indica Choisy + G. morel la Desr. -f G. pictorius (Roxb.) D’Arey -I- Otonephelium stipulaceum (Bedd.) Radik. + Fagraea ceilanica Thunb. MIDDLE & UNDER STOREY Aglaia anamallayana (Bedd.) Kost. 4- Aporosa lindleyana (Wt.) Baill. + Baccaurea courtallensis Muell. + Polyalthia cerasoides (Roxb.) Bedd. + Elaeocarpus tectorius (Lour.) Poir. Casearia coriacea Thw. C. rubescens Dalz. Glochidion ellipticum Wt. G. fagifolium Hk. f. G. neilgherrense Wt. G. zeylanicum A. Juss. Gomphandra coriacea Wt. Ligustrum gamblei Ramam. Rhodomyrtus tomentosa Wt. Hydnocarpus alpina Wt. + Elaeocarpus munroii (Wt.) Mast. + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 4 + + + + + + + + + + + + + 51 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) Table 2 (contd.) Scoiopia crenata Clos. + + Symplocos racemosa Roxb. + + Tricalysia apiocarpa Gamble + + Viburnum punctatum Ham. ex Don + + Cal dear pa tomentosa (L.) Murr. 4 + + Trichilia connaroides W. & A. + + + UNDER STOREY Arenga wightii Grif. + Euonymus indicus Wall. + Harpulla arborea (Blanco) Radik. + Isonandra tanceolata Wt. + Leptonychia moacurroides Bedd. + Memecylon umbellatum Burm. + Microtropis stocksii Gamble + Neonauclea purpurea (Roxb.) Merr. + Nothopegia beddomei Gamble + Beddomea simplicifolia Bedd. + Apama siliquosa Lam. + Ardisia rhomboidea Wt. + A. solanacea Roxb. + A. sonchifola Mez. + Canthium neilgherrense Wt. + Dimorphocalyx lawianus Hk. f. + Ixora nigricans W. & A. + I. notoniana Wall. + Lasianthus rostratus Wt. + Memecy on gracile Bedd. + M. malabaricum (Cl.) Cogn. + Pittosporum neelgherrense W.&A. + Psychotria elongata Hk. f. + P. globicephala Gamble + 1 P. truncata Wall. + Sauropus androgynus Merr. + Tarenna asiatica (L.) Schum. + Wendland’a thyrsoidea (R. &S.) Steud. + Humboldtia brunonis Wall. + + Pinanga dicksonii (Roxb.) Scheff. + + Syzyg;um laetum (Haw.) Gandhi + + Flacourtia montana Grah. + + Acronychia pedunculata (L.) Miq. + + Archidendron monadelphum (Roxb.) Niel. 4 + + Euodia ]unu-ankenda (Gaertn.) Merr. + + + Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Muell. + + + UNDER STOREY & UNDERGROWTH Blachia umbellata Baill. + Gomphandra tetrandra (Wall.) Sleumer 4- 52 PHYTOCHOROLOGY OF KODAGU Table 2 (contd.) Mollotus beddomei J. Hk. + Memecylon angustifolium Wt. + Canthium dicoccum (Gaertn.) T. & B. Goniothalamus cardiopetalus (Dalz.) J. Hk. Meiogyne ramarowii (Dunn.) Gandhi + Antidesma menasu Miq. ex Tul. Leea indica (Burm.) Merr. + UNDERGROWTH Atalantia wightii Tanaka + Croton malabaricus Bedd. + lx or a n ;gr icons W. & A. + Ochlandra travancorica Gamble + Psychotria nigra (Gaertn.) Alst. + Eurya japonica Thunb. Lasianthus acuminatus Wt. Maesa indica (Roxb.) DC. Psychotria daizeltii J. Hk. Apama siliquosa Lam. + Debregeasia longifolia (Burm.) Wedd. + Dendrocnide sinuata (Bl.) Chew. + Ixora elongata Heyne + Pandanus thwaitesii Mart. + HERBS Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton -f Hedychium coronarium Koenig -f Lepianthes umbeHata (L.) Raf. + Schumannianthus virgatus (Roxb.) Rolfe + Aeschynanthus perrottetii A. DC. Elatostema cuneatum Wt. Arisaema leschenaultii Bl. EJatostema lineolatum Wt. Hedy otis stylo sa Br. Sopubia delphinifolia (L.) Don LIANAS Asparagus racemosus Willd. + Bauhinia phoenicea W. & A. + Canthium angustifolium Roxb. + Combretum latifolium Bl. + Coscimum fenestratum Colebr. + Entada pursaetha DC. + Calamus thwaitesii Becc. ex Beee. & J. Hk. Erythropalum populifolium (Arn.) Mast. Ventdago madraspatana Gaertn. Calamus huegelianus Mart. Celastrus paniculata Willd. Clematis gouriana Roxb. + + + + + + + + + + -t -l- + + + + + + + + + 53 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) Table 2 (contd.) Elaeagnus kologa Schl. + Schefflera wallichiana Harms. + Scutia myrtina (Burm.) Kurz + Ancistrocladus heyneanus Grah. + + Gnetum ula Brong. + + Piper nigrum L. + + Smilax zeylanica L. + + Schefflera venulosa Harms. + + Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. + + The grass stratum is composed of species of Andropogon, Arundinella, Chrysopogon, Cymbopogon, Heteropogon, Pollinia and Themeda. Deciduous Forests. The deciduous forests occur under an ele- vation of 900 m and rainfall of less than 2000 mm. Another point of difference compared to the evergreen forests is whereas in the former the rainfall regime is tropical with a single peak in July, the areas under deciduous forests also exhibit a secondary peak in October besides the main July peak (Table 1). Along the west-east increasing gradient of dryness, the deciduous forests are divided into two types: the moist deciduous Lagerstroemia microcar pa-T ectona grandis-Dillenia pentagyna type with rainfall of 1400-2000 mm and dry- ness of 4 to 5 months and the dry deciduous Anogeissus latifolia-T ectona grandis-Terminalia alata type (rainfall of 900-1400 mm and 5 months dry). The following species of the moist decidu- ous forest tend to disappear in the dry deci- duous type as they cannot tolerate lower rain- fall prevailing in the zone of the dry deciduous forest. Dillenia pentagyna Lagerstroemia microcarpa Alstonia scholaris Vitex altissima Anthocephalus cadamba Mallotus philippensis Callicarpa tomentosa Clerodendrum viscosum Bambusa arundinacea. On the other hand, some species like Anogeissus lad folia become more frequent in the dry deciduous forest. Thickets, tree savanna to scattered shrubs constitute different stages of degradation of moist and dry deciduous forests. Savanna physiognomy with tall grasses forming the ground-cover is the result when fire is a fre- quent phenomenon passing through the forest floor. The fire stimulates the growth of grasses. In a tree savanna, there are a few trees left amidst the grasses. The other mode of degradation of the forest is through overgrazing and overbrow- sing. All the palatable species including grasses have been eliminated. Due to dearth of in- flammable material, fire can no longer pass through the formation. Thorny and spiny shrubs and stragglers predominate forming a thicket. The thicket may be reduced to a stage of scattered shrubs because of intensive anthropic activities. Fig. 3 depicts a West-North-West — East- South-East oriented climate-vegetation transect 54 DRV ™ I ' I 1 EVERGREEN FOREST - MOIST DECIOUOUS FOREST - DECIDUOUS Dipterocorpus- § E Schefflero- —J fQ*isT Kingiodendron* o 5 « Gordonio. AnoLeissus- Humboldtio- gf^Meiiosmo Disturbed forest ond coffee plontotions Logerstroem.o-Tectono T ? fore8t- so-^rest D"leni0 T|rminolio PHYTOCHOROLOGY OF KODAGU shinow Aya jo on 55 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo\. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) in relation to relief. The transect extends from Mundrote in WNW to Murkal in ESE (see Fig. 1) covering a distance of 80 km. The altitude increases from Mundrote to reach the high elevation of the Padinalknad Ghat at about 1500 m. Another peak is Kabinakad estate at 1400 m, east of which the topography is in form of a slightly undulating plateau with elevation under 900 m. The rainfall curve which is over 5000 mm in the WNW decreases drastically in the lee of the crest of the Kabinakad estate. Over the Refer Anonymous (1965): Gazetteer of India-Mysore State-Coorg district. Govt. Press, Bangalore. Arora, R. K. (1960): The botany of Coorg forests. 1-General. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 50B(III): 289-305. (1964a) : The botany of Coorg forests-II. ibid. 54B(II) : 100-112. (1964b): Ecological notes on the vegetation of Coorg district, Western Ghats, Indian For. 97(10): 722-742. Bagnouls, F. and Gaussen, H. (1953) : Saison seche et regime xerothermique. Documents pour les cartes des productions vegetates 5(1): 1-47. Dudley Stamp, L. (1966): A glossary of geogra- phical terms. Longman Group Ltd., London. Gaussen, H., Legris, P., Viart, M. and Meher- Homji, V. M. (1965): International map of vege- tation and environmental conditions. Sheet: Mysore. ICAR, New Delhi and Inst. Fr. Pondichery. Tr. Sect. Sci. Tech. Hors Serie No. 7. Kadambi, K. (1939): The montane evergreen forest, Bisale region. Indian For. 65(4): 189-201. plateau there is a gradual decline from 2707 mm at Karada to 1491 mm at Murkal. Parallel to this, the length of the dry season increases from 4 months (up to Gonicoppal) to 5 at Tittimati and Murkal. The rainfall regime (i.e. season of occurrence of rains) is tropical with a single peak in July up to Gonicoppal but Tittimati, Nagarhole and Murkal reveal a secondary rainfall peak in October besides the main peak in July. The vegetation pattern link- ed to these climatic factors (mentioned in Table 1) is depicted at the top of Fig. 3. EN CES Lakshmana, A. C. and Subramanian, C. K. (1976): Grassy patches in the Western Ghats of Karnataka with particular reference to Coorg. My Forest 72(4) : 179-181. (1977): Grassy patches in the Western Ghats of Karnataka. Part II. ibid. 75(2): 125-139. Meher-Homji, V. M. (1979) : A biometeorolo- gical assessment of climate : Case studies of Bombay and Mercara. Indian Geogr. J. 54(2) : 43-54. Pascal, J. P. (1982): Bioclimates of the Western Ghats. Inst. Fr. Pondichery. (1984): Les forets denses humides sempervirentes des Ghats Occidentaux de l’lnde. Inst. Fr. Pondichery. Tr. Sect. Sci. Tech. 22: 1-365. Pascal, J. P., Shyam Sunder, S. and Meher- Homji, V. M. (1982): Forest Map of South India. Sheet: Mercara-Mysore. Forest Depts. of Karnataka and Kerala & French Institute, Pondicherry. Rai, S. N. (1981): Productivity of tropical rain- forests of Karnataka. Ph.D. Thesis, Bombay University. 56 REFLECTIONS UPON THE DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN MAMMALS T. J. Roberts1 The study of the world-wide distribution of present day animals and extinct forms, has developed into the science of zoogeography. Why various creatures got where they are to- day, yet are not found in apparently suitable areas elsewhere, and why there are striking similarities between populations of animals occurring in widely separated places, are pheno- mena which have always intrigued biologists. As our understanding of this planet has in- creased, zoogeographers have developed more refined theorems to explain present day patterns of distribution. The Indian sub-continent (taken here to include Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Bangla- desh, Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan), poses many fascinating problems because of its complicat- ed geological history, and existing land con- nections with both southeastern Asian coun- tries and also central Asian and western countries, at either end of the great Himalayan mountain barrier. In looking at the sub-con- tinent’s mammalian fauna from this perspec- tive, it is helpful to keep in mind both the region’s geologic history as well as some of the related fields of scientific study upon which zoogeographers depend. Taking the first, one is at once aware of how many great time span gaps there are, in our knowledge of what has happened in the past. Mammals are of comparatively recent evolutionary origin compared with other life 1 Cae Gors, Rhoscefnhir, Nr. Pentraeth, Anglesey. LL75 8 YU, North Wales, U.K. forms, with the first fossil evidence of mammal- like reptiles and primitive true mammals during the Jurassic period of the Mesozoic era, 180 million years ago (Davis & Golley 1963). But, most of the present day surviving taxa of mammals, especially at the present day generic level, arose much later during the later part of the Tertiary period, especially from the Pliocene (13 million years ago), up to the Pleistocene (less than 1 million years ago). During the Tertiary period, the region was a separate island (the so-called Gondwana land), divided from the Asian land-mass by the great sea of Tethys in the northwest and a much more extensive northward stretching Bay of Bengal in the northeast. There were three great upheavals in the earth’s crust dur- ing the Tertiary period. The first is believed to have resulted in the partial raising of the northern Himalayan regions, particularly in the eastern part, and is thought to have occurred during the Eocene epoch 50 million years ago. The result of this raising of the land was the creation of a land bridge between Gondwana and southeast Asia, particularly the Malaysian region, and this is considered to have enabled many of the present day mammals to colonise the sub-continent and to have given the region its predominantly Oriental Faunal character- istics. Later, a second upheaval occurred during the middle Pliocene epoch, about 13 million years ago and it is thought that this was of a more violent nature, creating the present day very high jagged Himalayan ranges (as well as the Alps in Europe). One result of this 57 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) upheaval, was to create a physical barrier for the dispersal or movement of mammals north- wards into central Asia, and also a climatic barrier for the warm moist monsoon winds, which resulted in the gradual dessication of the Tibetan plateau region, giving Ladakh and Baltistan their distinctive mammalian fauna, much of which is desert adapted. During the late Pliocene, less than 4^ to 3 million years ago, smaller upheavals or movements of tecto- nic plates, created an uptilting of the Hima- layan foothill zone and thus produced the region known as the Siwaliks. These were originally sedimentary deposits laid down 25 million years ago by rivers draining into the sea of Tethys from the Himalayas. It is fortu- nate for Palaeontologists and zoogeographers that the richest source of fossil remains espe- cially of mammals and birds, have always been found in water laid sediments and exploration in the Siwaliks have revealed a varied and fascinating range of fossils, showing that the sub-continent was once populated by mammals which are mostly extinct or whose modern descendants survive only within the continent of Africa. There were no less than 11 kinds of Elephants or Mastodons, six kinds of Rhinosceros as well as Giraffe-like mammals and Hippopotamuses (Prater 1965). Also many forms from the late Miocene which still have living counterparts in the sub-continent, such as Langurs (earliest fossil record, 5 million years ago). Macaques, true Cats, Foxes, Jackals, Sloth Bears and Ratels (Pilbeam 1979). Also such Rodents as the Bamboo Rats (Rhizo- myidae). Bush Rats ( Golunda ) and Climbing Naked-tailed Rats ( Rattus sp.) from the Pleistocene epoch (Jacobs 1978). There is evidence that the Sea of Tethys did not sud- denly disappear, but continued as pockets of water, as a fossil whale from the late Pleisto- cene has recently been found near Kohat in the North West Frontier Province of Pakistan (Kidwai 1984), in a region which is on the western rim of the Siwalik zone. Also in the Punjab Salt Range (geologically part of the Siwaliks), fossil remains of Ramapithecus have been found, possibly the oldest recogni- sable ancestor of present day man (Pilbeam 1979). During these epochs, it is also known that there were major climatological changes. Up to the Miocene epoch, 20 million years ago, the whole of the sub-continent was much milder and probably more humid than at the present time, with much more favourable con- ditions for life forms extending over the Tibetan plateau and the great Indian desert of Rajasthan. Subsequently as the Himalayas rose, they became colder and in the late Pleistocene epoch the whole planet cooled down and there were successive periods of glaciation when parts of the Himalayas were covered by an ice cap and sea levels sank, due to lack of water run-off. It is presumed that many Palearctic mammals were forced to retreat southwards down to warmer climates, or perish, and that much of the Siwalik fauna disappeared due to climatic changes during this period. Turning now to the second area of know- ledge upon which the zoogeographer must draw, besides the fossil evidence of Palaeon- tology and a knowledge of stratographic geological history, our understanding has been sharpened by developments in the study of evolution and of taxonomy. Such relatively modern sciences as Ethology with interpreta- tion of animal behaviour and biochemical systematics, particularly critical microscopic examination of chromosome numbers and egg albumen morphology etc. by the use of Gel electrophoresis has enabled the taxonomists to 58 DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN MAMMALS determine inter-specific relatedness, much more closely, sometimes between outwardly dissimilar species (Vuilleumier in Lack & Campbell 1985). The Palaeontologist con- stantly improves his ability to classify fossil remains, or recognise the probable ancestors of present day forms as our knowledge of taxonomy improves. Likewise the theory of tectonic plates has helped zoogeographers in our understanding of continental drift and geographic changes, which have in turn pre- vented or enabled animals to colonise diffe- rent areas. Our increasing knowledge of genetics and evolution has also enabled us to realise that relatively small isolated popula- tions can change quite rapidly, due to the selective pressures of the environment and the minute genetic changes which have more chance to persist in relatively small popula- tions. The Indian sub-continent is characterised as belonging to the Oriental faunal realm and this major zoogeographic sub-division lies mainly between 68° and 135° East and between 10° South and 32° North, being bounded on the west by Pakistan (mostly those parts east of the Indus River), in the north by the great Himalayan chain and including in the east, regions beyond the Himalayas such as south- west China, the Malaysian archipelago, western parts of Indonesia, the Philippines and Taiwan. All the land masses in this faunal realm show a certain degree of homogeneity in their higher vertebrate fauna. Though the Indian region has many mammals which are endemic or unique to the sub-continent, the majority share Malaysian affinities and typical examples are the Hog Badger ( Arctonyx collaris). Tree Shrews (Tupaiidae), Lorises (Lorisidae), Lesser Panda ( Ailurus fulgens), the Chevrotain (Tragulidae) (Mouse Deer), and the Serow ( Capricornis sumatraensis) . All these are typically Oriental faunal mammals not found in the Siwalik beds and presumed to have colonised India through that newly created northeastern corridor. Compared with the Palearctic region to the north, the sub-continent has a more diverse fauna than Eurasia, but a much less varied fauna than the Ethiopian faunal realm. This illustrates an important principle determining species diversity and distribution. It is greatest in warm moist regions, such as the tropical and sub -tropical forest belts, and it is lowest in high cold (tundra and alpine), or hot dry (desert and arid zone) regions. The greater diversity of African mammals and birds is partly accounted for by its bigger land surface area, straddling both sides of the equator and providing a more varied rainfall and climate pattern, encouraging to some extent nomadism, which is typical of many of the African ante- lope species. About 40 percent of the distinc- tive mammalian groups in the Oriental region are shared with the Ethiopian faunal realm, whereas only 21 percent are shared with the Palearctic and a further 20 percent such as the Canidae (dog family), Mustelidae (Weasel family). Cats (Felidae) and Squirrels (Sciu- ridae), are considered to be world-wide in distribution (Davis & Golley, op. cit.). Consequently, within the Indian sub-continent itself we see the greatest diversity of mammal species in the moist tropical and sub-tropical forest belts, and the poorest numbers in the dry north-western regions. Among mammals adapted to mountain forest, we also see the greatest diversity in the eastern Himalayas, whilst the fauna of the colder dryer north- western Himalayas is much more restricted. Another important principle governing distribution is that of barriers. These can be physical, such as sea or high moun- tains, or they can, on a longer time 59 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) scale, be climatic barriers. Thus many oriental mammals of wide distribution in mountain forest could spread westwards along the Himalayas but could not penetrate the colder dryer extreme western forests nor down into the plains of India. The Goat Antelopes (Rupicaprinae) such as the Goral ( Nemorhae - dus goral), Serow ( Capricornis sumatraensis) and Takin ( Budorcas taxicolor) are examples, with all three occurring in the eastern Hima- layas, but only the Goral extending as far west as Pakistan. Sri Lanka provides many fascinating examples of the ‘island barrier’ effect upon the distribution of higher animals. The sea was apparently too great a barrier for the Tiger to have reached, but the smaller hardier and more adaptable Leopard did so, as well as the Indian elephant, known to be a powerful swimmer. Sri Lanka has a less diverse and more limited bird and mammal population than the mainland, yet it has a higher proportion of endemic (unique) species, due to genetic isolation of relatively populations. There are seven endemic mammals, S uncus zeylanicus , Crocidura miya, Solisorex pearsoni. Ferulas ferulus, Leolomys mayor i, Srilankamys ohiensis, Mas fernandoi and Rattus montanus, with three more confined only to Sri Lanka and the southern Deccan rain forest zone viz. Loris tardigradus, Presby- tis senex and Macaca sinica (McKay 1984). Its bird fauna, with only 251 resident species compared with over 1,750 resident bird species in the rest of the sub-continent (S. D. Ripley 1982), is at the same time quite unique with no less than 21 endemic species (De Zylva 1984). For much the same reasons, we find that the two great faunal realms of Australasia and Neotropical, both have a much higher proportion of endemic species than the Oriental region. Moreover, as these regions are huge continent sized “islands”, (South America was separated from North America by a water gap during the Tertiary), they have a very large and diverse fauna which shares practi- cally nothing in common with the land mass of Eurasia. Besides the isolating effect of islands or geographic barriers, we can see a converse effect in the former or continuing existence of land or water bridges, which actually aid in distribution. Typically Himalayan species such as the Himalayan Black Bear ( Selenarctos tibetanus) and the Markhor Wild Goat ( Capra falconeri ) have been able to migrate south- wards along the mountain ranges of Swat and Waziristan down into central Baluchistan and thus colonise a region much more arid and harsh than the rest of the Himalayas. Other examples of Himalayan species penetrating into central Baluchistan are such birds as the Streaked Laughing Thrush ( Garrulax linea- tus), the Black-crested Tit ( Parus rufonu- chalis ) and Bar-tailed Tree Creeper ( Certhia himalayana). Where mammals occur, as iso- lated disjunct populations, the causal reasons are often difficult to determine, but two or three previous conditions must have obtained in earlier times. Firstly, during an era of more equable climatic conditions, there must have been a continuous and widespread distribution of that particular species with no intervening gaps in its range. Secondly, competition with other species caused that mammal population to adapt and evolve specialised features enabling it to exploit a less competitive ecolo- gical niche. Thirdly, some geographic or physical barrier has intervened, such as un- favourable climatological changes. We know that the Alps and Himalayas both evolved in their present form in fairly recent geologic times. Presumably during an earlier period of more equable, possibly warm and moist clima- tic conditions, there was a continuous distribu- 60 DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN MAMMALS tion of such mammals as Marmots {Mar mot a spp.) and Ibex Wild Goats right across southern Europe and Central Asia. Subsequent climatic changes are presumed to have forced populations to retreat to high mountain plateau regions, possibly where there was less competition from other grazing mammals. Here in the European Alps and Himalayas quite disjunct populations continu- ed to survive and gradually evolved into dis- tinct species or sub-species. Anyone who has been fortunate enough to visit both the Alps and the Himalayas within the space of a few weeks, as I was this summer, would be struck by the very close resemblance in voice, habits and appearance of the Alpine. Marmota mar- mota, and the Himalayan Marmota caudata as well as C. ibex ibex of the Alps and C. ibex sibirica found in the Himalayas and Altai mountains. A third population of Ibex (C. ibex nubiana) has also survived in the high plateau regions of northern Sudan and south- ern Egypt. The classical case of the Tahr is less easy to understand. Ethological studies clearly demonstrate that this is one of the more primitive goats, from which the true goats of Capra genus are thought to have developed (Schaller 1973 & 1974). There is no doubt that in earlier times before the late pleistocene, that the Tahr occurred widely as a continuous population. Fossil remains have been found in the Siwaliks and on Perim island near Bombay (Meinert- zhagen 1928). Perhaps competition with more adaptable ungulates forced these goats to re- treat and adapt to relatively precipitous mountain faces and later a period of unfavour- able climate, probably of dry heat, forced them to retreat to higher mountain ranges where micro-climatic effects created some greater humidity and coolness. Whatever the causal reasons, one population was able to survive in the comparatively low hot mountain ranges of Oman and Saudi Arabia (recently rediscovered in that country), where a distinct species, the Arabian Tahr {Hemitragus jaya- keri) has evolved. Another population retreat- ed to the Nilgiri hills of south India {Hemitragus hylocrius), whilst a third, known as the Himalayan Tahr {Hemitragus jemlaicus ), was able to survive in the Himalayas. Because of their comparatively earlier isolation they have evolved into three distinctive species in contrast to the 3 geographically isolated but closely similar sub-species of C. ibex. Another important principle or theorem determining distribution is that of dispersal. This is based upon the known ability of living mammals to spread from their centre of origin, which can be studied from recent recorded human history. A good example is the spread during the 14th and 15th centuries of the Roof or Ship Rat {Rat t us rat t us) from the oriental region to western Europe and throughout many islands of the Pacific, with the advent of larger sized ships and intercontinental sea trade. Dispersal is only possible within a mammals ecological and physiological tole- rances. Whereas a land tortoise can float on the sea and survive without food for as long as a month (and may have reached the Aldabra Islands that way), the example of Sri Lanka shows that many mammals cannot survive long sea crossings. During one of the four glaciation periods of the Pleistocene, many mammals having a con- tinuous distribution from the western Palearctic to Ethiopian regions, were probably forced to retreat southwards where they survived in warmer regions of the Middle East and the Mediterranean bordering countries. Probable examples were the Lion {Panthera leo). Cara- cal Cat {Felis caracal ), Cheetah ( Acinonyx jubatus) and Red Sheep {Ovis orientalis). 61 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) These animals were able to extend their range eastwards into the Indian sub-continent. The Cheetah became extinct in India as recently as 1948 (Van Ingen & Van Ingen 1948) and the Lion as is well known, now survives in an isolated pocket in the Gir forest with no in- tervening populations outside of Africa. It was not uncommon in the present regions of Israel and Jordan in Biblical times, whilst the last authentic specimen to be shot in Sind pro- vince, in what is now Pakistan, was killed in 1810 near Kot Diji (Kinnear, N.B., 1920). The disappearance of the lion from the intervening countries, in comparatively recent historic times, was undoubtedly due to competition with man and his domestic stock, in an other- wise comparatively arid and unfavourable ecological zone. The comparatively cool climatic conditions with coniferous forests or sub-alpine scrub, which are found in the higher western parts of the Himalayas, have also enabled many palearctic mammals of the Boreal forest zone to colonise these regions. Examples of such mammals are the Lynx ( Felis lynx), the Stoat (M us tela erminea), the Red Bear ( Ursus arctos isabellinus) and the widely distributed Red Deer or Hangul of Kashmir ( Cervus elaphus hanglu), which has evolved into a very large and distinctive sub-species. Another important theorem developed by zoogeographers is called the “Centre of Origin”. This states that animals disperse, or spread outwards, from a particular region which can be identified from the presence of the greatest number of related fossil forms (which are usually very limited), or from the present day greatest variety of living species. It is argued that such a centre is an area which provided the widest range of ecological niches and was a region of optimal habitat for that particular taxon. Over a period of time, evolutionary pressures and competition with other fife forms, resulted in the greatest possible taxonomic diversity within that particular group of ani- mals. There is some disagreement in the interpretation of this theory with one school of thought arguing that the most advanced and specialised, or adapted species, within a group, would occur in the centre of origin whilst the more primitive unspecialised members would occur mainly around the periphery of the centre of origin. Another school argues, more persuasively in my opinion, that as animals spread outwards they would encounter less favourable climatic or ecological conditions, which would exert upon them greater evolu- tionary pressure to adapt and modify their physical attributes. This would result in the more advanced or highly specialised forms occurring furthest away from their centre of origin (Darlington 1957). Probably both sets of factors have influenced animal dispersal and the resulting pattern of distribution is more complicated than can be explained by any single theorem. The Himalaya, quite evidently, has the greatest species diversity in its Eastern range and it is logical to assume that plant and animal forms spread westwards from the northeastern comer, gradually diminishing in diversity as they reached the western boundary of the Himalayas (Meinertzhagen 1928). It is easier to draw upon examples of this pheno- menon from the plant and avian kingdoms, as the variety of mammal species is so much smaller, and mammals themselves have more ability to adapt to different conditions. For example, there is only one Rhododendron species ( Rhododendron ferrugineum) found wild in the European Alps and only two in the Pakistan Himalayas ( Rhododendron lepi- dotum & R. arboreum) (R. Stewart 1958), whilst Nepal has over 30 different species 62 DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN MAMMALS (Polunin & Stainton 1984). Similarly there are only 3 species of Laughing Thrush of the genus Garrulax found in Pakistan today (G. linea- tum, G. variegatum & G. albogularis) , whilst there are 15 in Nepal (Inskipp & Inskipp 1985). Amongst mammals, perhaps the best example are the Goat-antelopes of the tribe of Rupi- caprinae, which has already been cited at the beginning of this article. It would be difficult in a short article of this nature to cover all factors which have contributed in India’s unique pattern of mammalian distribution and an excellent summary of zoogeographic origins and history of the sub-continent is given in the Introduc- tion to Volume I of Handbook series (Salim Ali and S. D. Ripley 1968). The great riverain systems of the Indus and Brahmaputra /Ganges undoubtedly provided favourable habitat for the evolution of swamp - dwelling animals during periods of drier climate and there has arisen a number of endemic species unique to this region. Quite early on, human settlement coupled with subsequent changes in the course of rivers has led to diminution of suitable swampy areas and the division into two similar but widely separated tracts of tall cane grass and seasonal swamp. One, along the Indus river and the other now mainly confined to the more eastern Himalayan sub -foothill zone, known as the Duars or Terai. Here distinct sub-species have evolved such as the Blind Dolphins, Platanista gauge - tica and Platanista indi (Roberts 1977) as well as birds like the Long-tailed Grass Warbler ( Prinia burnesii burnesii) of the Tndus and Prinia burnesii cinarescens of the Terai. Even in recent times the Great Indian Rhinoceros ( Rhinoceros unicornis) survived in the riverain tracts of the upper Indus, as revealed in the diaries of the great Moghul Emperor Babur who hunted this animal in 1526 on the Kabul river near Peshawar and in the area which today forms part of lower Swat in Pakistan (Babur-i-Nama, trans. Beve- ridge 1921). Today it survives only in pockets along the Duars and Terai in the foot of the eastern Himalayas. There are many intriguing facets of mam- malian distribution still difficult to explain. Why does the sub-continent have compara- tively few, (5, if we include the Tibetan Chiru Panthelops hodgsoni) antelope related species, four of which are uniquely endemic to the region? These are the Nilgai ( Boselaphus tragocamelus), the Blackbuck ( Antelope cervicapra) and the Four-horned Antelope ( Tetracerus quadricornis) and the more wide- ly distributed Chinkara gazelle ( Gazella gazella benneti), all adapted to rather arid savannah or thorn forest ecosystems. By contrast the Ethiopian region has over 72 different species of gazelle, antelope and Reed-buck (Dorst & Dandelot 1970). Except for the Barbary Stag (Cervus elaphus barbarus) which occurred in Algeria, north Africa, outside of the true Ethiopian realm, Africa has no deer species (Cervidae). Yet the Indian sub-continent has nine, if the primitive Chevrotain and Musk Deer are included. Undoubtedly deer are of ancient origin, with fossil forms first appear- ing in the lower Miocene (Prater 1965), and they are believed to be mainly of old world origin, and to have developed in Eurasia rather than in tropical regions. Moreover, most are adapted to live in forest, or a more sheltered vegetative cover than the open grass- lands typically favoured by antelopes. As will be seen, this account raises more questions than it provides answers and our conclusions about mammalian distribution in the region still remain highly speculative. Every step forward in our knowledge about the 63 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) physiology and habits of present-day Indian will undoubtedly throw more light on these mammals and their ecological requirements fascinating questions. References Ali, Salim and Ripley, S. Dillon (1968) : Hand- book of the Birds of India & Pakistan, Vol. I. Oxford University Press, Bombay. Beveridge, Annette S. (1921) : ‘Babur-i-Nama’ (Memoirs of Babur). Vol. II. London, Reprint 1975 Niaz Ahmad, Sangemeel, Lahore. Darlington, P. J. (1957) : Zoogeography: The Geographical Distribution of Animals, John Wiley, New York, 675 pp. Davis, David & Gglley, Frank B. (1963) : Prin- ciples in Mammalogy. Reinhold Publishing Corpo- ration, New York, USA. De Zylva, T. S. U. (1984) : Birds of Sri Lanka, Trumpet Publishers, Colombo, 133 pp. Dorst, Jean and Dandelot, Pierre (1970) : A Field Guide to the Larger Mammals of Africa. Collins, London. Jacobs, Louis L. (1978): Fossil Rodents (Rhizo- myidae and Muridae) from Neogene, Siwalik Depo- sits — Pakistan. Museum of Northern Arizona Bulletin Series 52. Kidwai, Azim (1984) : Fresh Insight into Geo- dynamics of Pakistan. Dawn Newspaper, Oct. 5th., 1984. Kinnear, N. B. (1920): The Past & Present Dis- tribution of the Lion in Southeast Asia. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 27(1) : 33-39. McKay, G. M. (1984): Ecology and Biogeography in Sri Lanka in Dumont H. J. (Edit.) Monographiae Biologicae, Vol. 57, Dr. W. Junk Publisher the Hague. Meinertzhagen, R. (1928) : Some Biological Pro- blems Connected with the Himalaya. Ibis, July 1928, pp. 480-533. Pilbeam, David R. (Edit.) (1979) : Miocene Sediments and Faunas of Pakistan, Postilla No. 179, Peabody Museum of Nat. History, Yale. Prater, S. H. (1965): The Book of Indian Ani- mals. 2nd Edit. Bombay Natural History Society. Polunin, Oleg and Stainton, Adam (1984): Flowers of the Himalaya, Oxford Univ. Press, Delhi, 580pp. Ripley, S. Dillon (1982) : A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan. (Revised Edit.). Bom- bay Natural History Society. Bombay. Roberts, T. J. (1977): The Mammals of Pakis- tan. Ernest Benn Ltd., Tonbridge, 384 pp. Schaller, G. (1973) : Observations of Himalayan Tahr ( Hemitragus jemlahicus) . J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 ( 1): 1-24. Schaller, G. and Laurie, A. (1974) : Courtship Behaviour of the Wild Goats, Zeit fur Saugetierk- unde Vol. 39, pp. 115-127. Stewart, R. R. (1957, 1958) : The Flora of Rawal- pindi District. Pakistan Journal of Forestry, Rawal- pindi. Van Ingen and Van Ingen (1948): Interesting Shikar Trophies. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 47(4 ) : 718. Vuilleumier, Francois (1985) : Article ‘Zoogeo- graphy’. In\ Campbell, B. & Lack, F. (Eds.) Dic- tionary of Birds, Calton & Vermillion. 64 CONSERVATION OF WILDLIFE IN TAMIL NADU E. R. C. Davidar1 The recent history of Wildlife Conservation in Tamil Nadu dates back to the Nineteenth Century when the State was part of the Madras Presidency. This Province encompassed within its boundaries the whole of Tamil Nadu and parts of Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh until the Indian Union was reorga- nised into smaller linguistic units in 1956. Conservation began with the implementation of the Madras Forest Act of 1882. The objec- tive of this enactment was to declare and define the boundaries of Government forests and safeguard them. Affording protection to the habitat of wildlife, the first step in any conservation programme, was achieved thus. Wild birds and animals protection 1912 was the next step. The emphasis then was not so much on conservation, as the concept has come to be understood, as on exploitation. But then there was a method to such exploitation. Forests were divided into blocks and worked and rested at regular intervals. Similarly, wild animals and birds, particularly those that were classified as “game” were allowed to be har- vested. Apart from the written rules, there was an unwritten ‘Sportsmen’s Code’ that was observed fairly strictly. There were revenue and private forests where free hunting was to be had. Rulers of Indian States and Zamin- daris exercised control over their forests; the degree of such control varied depending upon the ruler’s interest in shikar. Compared to some parts of India, the extent of this class 1 David Nagar, Padappai, Madras - 601 301. of forests was small in the Madras Presidency. The bulk of wild animals and birds lived with- in the confines of reserved forests and enjoyed a fair degree of protection. However, as far as predators were concern- ed, apart from the general protection, they received by residing within reserved forests, they were at the mercy of game licence holders. There was a notion at that time that predator and prey cannot co-exist and that the predator must be eliminated if game animals and birds were to thrive. Tigers and leopards were classified as vermin and rewards were paid for their destruction. And dhole were out and out outcastes. The same applied to the lesser cats, mongooses etc. But predators managed to survive mainly because the methods em- ployed against them were generally fair and sporting. Wild elephants came in for special protec- tion under the Wild Elephants Protection Act of 1 876, a Central Act. However, during World War II, crop raiding elephants were allowed to be shot freely in cultivated areas as they were believed to interfere with the ‘Grow More Food’ campaign. Poaching fell into three categories, namely, the Village poacher with his blunderbuss, the poacher from urban area who had local influence and the official poacher. There was no large scale poaching. Poisoned baits and the like were unknown. It was after the war with the advent of jeeps and spotlights when hunting became safe and easy that armed gangs from cities went into forests and ravaged 65 5 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) them. And hunting ceased to be a sport ex- cept for the diehards from the old school. This was more or less the general situation that obtained in South India and for that matter throughout the Indian sub-continent. Some areas in Tamil Nadu enjoyed a special status, which was unique in many respects and deserve special mention. Nilgiris : The Nilgiri mountain did not come to the notice of the British and the outside world until the eighteen twenties. Its salubrious climate and scenic beauty brought a proces- sion of European settlers and vacationers. The hunters among them called it a ‘Sportsman’s paradise’ and unleashed a war on its wild animals and birds on a scale never equalled before or since. As weapons improved it became a slaughter and for miles around each hill station in ever widening circles game was annihilated. Some species such as the Nilgiri tahr were brought to the brink of extinction. Appalled at the state of affairs a band of fair minded sportsmen decided to act to stem the rot. In 1877 they established the Nilgiri Game Association with the object of preserving game and fish in the Nilgiris. Their very first action established their bona tides. It was to impose restrictions upon themselves by way of close seasons, bag limits, banning hunting of females, calves and immature males. Then they approached the Governor to give legislative form to their action. The Duke of Buckingham, the Governor not only accepted the NGA’s recommendations, but acted promptly. In 1879, the Nilgiri Game and Fish Preservation Act, a state enactment, the first of its kind in India was passed. The rules empowered to the Collector (the head of the district) to admi- nister the Act. He invited the NGA to advise and assist him in implementing the Act. The District Forest Officer was elected Honorary Secretary of the Association and the adminis- trative functions were carried out by an Honorary Superintendent, who was elected from among the members of the Executive Committee. In this manner, an ideal working arrangement in which officials and non-officials co-operated, was brought about. This happy situation was soon reflected in the field. Nilgiri tahr, for instance, were brought back from the brink to a state where it was possible to permit the hunting of saddle backs. Game showed allround improvement in status. Despite un- restricted hunting of predators these too seem- ed to thrive. Preservation of game was achieved through management of hunting. Palani hills : An Association known as the Palani Hills Game Association was formed on the lines of the NGA. It functioned well for a while, but soon lost its vigour as it lacked dedicated membership and ceased functioning altogether. Game associations promoted sportsmanship and fair play in hunting which contributed in no small measure to the preservation of game. These values have endured. When Tamil Nadu State came into being ten years after Independence, the post war rot had already set in. It became fashionable for the new rich, who lacked sporting values and tradition to indulge in shikar to satisfy their egos. Jeeps and spot lights made things easy. To make matters worse the State Government closed some well stocked forests to hunting to give them rest, but without strengthening the protection machinery. What happened in fact was the opposite of what was planned. Another shortsighted move was the banning of hunting of tigers and leopards without preparing the ground for such a move. Affected cattle owners were left with no option but to take the law into their own hands to protect their property. Folidol, a potent insecticide was freely available and cattle owners resorted 66 CONSERVATION OF WILDLIFE IN TAMIL NADU to poisoning kills. Tigers and leopards that had learnt to outwit the hunter could not cope with poisons and whole families perished. However, before it became too late, the Tamil Nadu Government took certain steps that arrested the trend and they went a long way towards promoting wildlife conservation. A Wildlife Advisory Board was set up in the Nineteen sixties. It was a representative body on which people and organisations holding a wide range of views were accommodated. A separate officer designated. State Wildlife Officer, was appointed to look after the in- terests of wildlife. Steps to promote wildlife preservation consciousness were initiated. Sanctuaries were established and protection tightened up. A scheme for compensating villagers who lost their cattle to tigers and leopards was introduced. Most States are ostrichlike in their attitude towards hunting. They ban hunting, bury their heads in their paper orders and pretend that all is well. Tamil Nadu is one of the few States that follows a pragmatic policy. Wild pigs and small game in some Reserved Forests and outside are allowed to be shot by game licence holders. This policy has eliminated poaching to some extent. National Parks and Sanctuaries'. Tamil Nadu has a land area of 1,30,069 sq. kms. of which only 20,910 sq. kms. or 16% is forest and sanctuaries occupy about 2,500 sq. km. or 12%. Although the area under sanctuaries and some sanctuaries themselves are small, the range is truely remarkable. Coral reefs, mangrove swamps, coastal forests, fresh water lakes, open plains, mountains and forests of various kinds including tropical wet ever- green forests and evergreen sholas are included in this range. As may be expected, the range in wild animal and plant life is equally wide. To describe some of the principal sanctuaries briefly. The Guindy National Park : This tiny park of 2.8 sq. km. which forms part of the Government House Estate within Madras City limits is the only National Park in the State. It has an overflowing black buck and spotted deer population. The Mudumalai Wildlife sanctuary : Situat- ed in the Nilgiris, 65 Km from Ooty on the Ooty-Mysore highway, Mudumalai, established in 1940, is the oldest sanctuary in the State and one of the first to be set up in India. Its present area is 321 sq. km. The average elevation is 1,000 m. Mudumalai is contiguous with the Bandipur Tiger reserve in Karnataka and the Wynaad Wildlife sanctuary in Kerala. Moist and dry deciduous forests predominate. Teak, naturally grown as well as raised as plantations is the principal tree species. Ele- phant and gaur are the main attractions. Tigers, leopards and wild dogs are the large preda- tors. the last named is by far the most visible and destructive of the three. Anamalai Wildlife Sanctuary : This is the largest wildlife refuge (958 sq. km.) in the State. From the plains of Coimbatore, the sanctuary ascends all the way to Grass Hills in Valparai Taluk situated at a height of over 2,000 m. Topslip is the focal point. Nilgiri tahr and lion-tailed macaque both endangered are the main attractions. Birds of the plains as well as hill birds are found in this sanctuary. Mundanthorai and Kalakadu sanctuaries : Mundanthorai (567 sq. kms.) and Kalakadu (223 sq. kms.) are contiguous. Different forest types including tropical wet evergreen forests occur. Kalakadu is well known for its popula- tion of liontailed macaques. Point Calimere : Calimere is the point pro- jecting into the Bay of Bengal on the south eastern coast line of India just above Sri 67 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) Lanka. Point Calimere was made into a sanctuary mainly to protect the herds of black buck and spotted deer inhabiting the coastal forests and plains there. After the N. East monsoon the place comes alive with water birds as flocks of waders and ducks species some from up country and the rest from across the Himalayas, in some cases from as far north as Siberia congregate to spend winter or to use it as a staging point in their migra- tion to Sri Lanka. Mukurti : The wild country along the western edge of the Nilgiri plateau consisting of rolling grass hills interspersed with evergreen sholas of the southern montane wet temperate type and bounded on the west and south by awesome precipices, the home of Nilgiri tahr has been made a sanctuary and named after the most striking physical feature there, the Mukurti peak. It has great scenic beauty, unique animal and plant life and a cold brazing climate. Some plants, animals and birds of this region have their nearest congeners in the Himalayas lending support to the theory that at one time in the earth’s development there was a connection between the two regions. Yedanthangal : This is a waterbird sanctuary situated 70 km from Madras. It is one of the best heronries in the country, patronised by cormorants, grey herons, open billed storks, spoonbills and others. Many species of migrant water birds choose Vedanthangal for their winter sojourn. There are some more water bird sanctuaries in the State. Megamalai in Madurai district to protect giant squirrel of the grey variety (Rat ufa macrura) and Nilgiri tahr; Gulf of Mannar (Kurusadi islands) to protect coral beds; and rich marine life there; Pichavaram, to protect mangrove swamps, are some of the recently formed sanctuaries. Status of wild life : primates: Lion-tailed macaque — The small populations found in the State in Kalakadu and Anamalais are well protected. They have been the subject of intensive research. Nilgiri langur — In well protected areas they are on the increase. Poaching is a pro- blem in remote areas. Common langur — In the south these monkeys are confined to forest- ed hills where due to predation and other causes their numbers have not increased. Bonnet macaque — They are proliferating and need some form of control particularly since they destroy crops or orchards. elephant: According to the April 1983 count there were 2179 elephants in Tamil Nadu. The trend shows a steady increase. As against this situation, the problems faced by elephants are many. Shrinking habitat due to destruction and degradation of elephant forests and fragmentation leading to ‘pocketing’ of sub-populations are the most serious among the problems. Ivory poaching besides being an evil by itself is causing anxiety because of the scale of such poaching and the long term effect it is bound to have on elephant popu- lations such as, imbalance in sex ratio and genetic degradation due to loss of fine breed- ing bulls. At this rate it is feared that in a few years time hardly any tuskers will be left. gaur: Gaur are on the increase in suitable areas. Habitat destruction and denudation is a problem they share with elephants. Gaur are subject to periodic outbreaks of rinderpest in epidemic form, no doubt brought into the jungle by domestic cattle. And there seems to be no way of keeping cattle out of even sanctuaries because of political pressures. A good development is the practice of protect- ing domestic cattle against rinderpest. nilgiri tahr: Nilgiris and Grass hills in the Anamalai hills hold largest populations. Popula- 68 CONSERVATION OF WILDLIFE IN TAMIL NADU tion trends reveal that optimum levels have been reached. There are small populations scattered over isolated hill tops and ridges. These face a bleak future. There are a few populations on the eastern face of the Western Ghats in the Anamalais hills which are thriving in low level habitats where the vegetation is of the dry deciduous scrub type. Protection is a problem where isolated, outlying populations are con- cerned. Tahr have had to yield ground before Hydroelectric projects, eucalyptus and wattle plantations and developmental work in the name of hill area development. deer: Sambar — In well protected areas sambar are on the increase. Spotted deer — where wild dogs are operating, numbers have declined. Barking deer — They seem to be holding their own in suitable country. Mouse deer — As they are nocturnal it is difficult to make an assessment. Indications are that they are doing alright. antelope : Black buck — The status of these antelopes has improved and they are expand- ing their range. Four-horned antelope — They are rare and always have been. wild boar: In many areas their natural enemy, the leopard has disappeared leaving only man. Cultivators have been protesting against giving protection to pigs. However, the Government by permitting hunting of pigs on licences in some areas has been taking the pressure off the demand to scrap the Wildlife (Protection) Act itself. tiger: In spite of official claims, there has not been any significant improvement in the status of tigers. But there has been a rather slow and steady improvement since the nineteen sixties. Easy access to potent pesticides conti- nues to be a cause for concern. leopards: Leopards are on the increase in well protected areas and frequently wander outside reserves into towns and villages and cause problems for themselves and humans. wild dogs (dhole) : In certain areas such as Mudumalai, they are fairly numerous and have been causing havoc among spotted deer. They have also taken to killing domestic stock and invite retribution usually through poison- ing of kills. sloth bear : Bears have few natural enemies and habitat destruction is the main obstacle standing in the way of their conservation. Where bear habitat has been left undisturbed, these animals have increased. striped hyena: It is not difficult to locate hyenas through their dens. This makes hyenas highly vulnerable to attack particularly where their habitat is subject to degradation. The once common hyena is uncommon now. lesser predators: No serious attempt has been made to census or survey small mamma- lian predators, such as jungle cats, leopard cats, the various mongooses and others. Official records where they exist are open to question. Ratels are rare. Less is known about the distribution and status of the high elevation fauna, such as the Nilgiri marten. Status survey of the different species of otters has also not been attempted. pangolin: Reports show that they continue to be rare. Jackals, fox: Foxes are fewer; pressure on land being the cause. Jackals are adaptable and have been managing to survive. black -n aped hare. Tribals, both resident as well itinerent have been exerting pressure on the hare through hunting and netting. These adaptable animals have been managing to survive where adequate cover is available. birds: Game birds such as partridges and quail and waders continue to be hunted and netted by Narikoravas, an itinerant tribe. And game birds and hare are openly sold by them in towns and villages. Peafowl enjoy greater 69 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) protection due to sentiment and are increasing. Grey jungle fowl are generally on the decline, but are thriving in suitable localities. The same is the case with the red spur fowl. Painted spur fowl are rare. Fruit eating birds are the worst sufferers when forests and groves are felled. Their decline in number is apparent. reptiles : Marsh crocodile or muggur — There are still a few places in the State where crocodiles are found in the wild. Crocodile breeding through collection of eggs of wild crocodiles and hatching them in hatcheries has been successfully tried out in Tamil Nadu. Snakes — Tanneries in the State have proved to be collection, curing and despatch centres for snakes skins from all over the country. In spite of periodical raids and seizures, the trade has not come to a stop. Some tribals also indulge in the trade as snake catchers. For how long snakes will be able to stand this onslaught is anybody’s guess. Turtles, terrapins and tortoises — Fortunate- ly for the sea turtle, few people in the State have developed a taste for its flesh. This cannot be said for terrapins in tribal areas. Olive Ridley is the commonest sea turtle. Fewer tortoises are met with. Habitat destruc- tion is the principal reason for the fall in numbers of terrapins and tortoises. The Chief Wildlife Warden, a senior forest official is the enforcing authority under the Wildlife (P) Act. He has his office at No. 571 Trichy Road, Coimbatore. Each major sanc- tuary is under the control of a Wildlife Warden. Regrettably dual control still exists. The Wildlife Department has set up croco- dile farms at Mettur, Amarvathi, Sathanur and other places where crocodiles are bred and reared. Crocodiles have been brought from the brink of extinction to a state where they have put officials in a quandary due to over produc- tion. Sea turtle eggs are collected when gravid females come ashore and lay eggs saving them from predators such as dogs, jackals and humans. The eggs are hatched in a central place and hatchlings released into the sea. This scheme has been in operation for the past five years or so and has been quite successful. Tamil Nadu is fortunate in having dedicated local conservation organisations to augment the Government’s efforts in this direction. To name the important ones — Nilgiri Wildlife and Environment Association, the Madras Snake Park, the Madras Crocodile Bank, the Irula Snake Catchers Co-operative (which has been established to wean away Irulas from killing snakes for their skins, to catching them for the extraction of venom; the snakes being released into the wilds after venom extraction), Madras Naturalists Society, Tirunelveli Wild- life Preservation Society, Ramanathapuram Wildlife Society etc. There are colleges in the State offering marine biology and wildlife biology degree courses. It must be said to the credit of the Tamil Nadu Government that it has been following an enlightened policy by encouraging natura- lists and wild life researchers to work in its sanctuaries. It can take credit for providing facilities to the Bombay Natural History Society to run a bird banding and research centre at Point Calimere which has been doing excel- lent work. The Tamil Nadu Government is one of the few Governments to appoint hunters as Honorary Game Wardens thus associating hunters in conservation efforts. The Forest Conservation Act, the Nilgiris Biosphere Reserve proposal, the policy deci- sion of the Tamil Nadu Government to abandon clear felling and in some cases even selection felling in sanctuaries and other progressive measures augur well for the conservation of 70 CONSERVATION OF WILDLIFE IN TAMIL NADU wildlife. The Wildlife (Protection) Act deserves to be better known. Most of the offenders are not aware of the implications of the Act. Tree felling laws applicable to privately owned trees and groves are negative in character. What is needed is a positive thrust to encourage raising trees through private initiative. The mounting pressure on forests and forest produce due to unbridled increase in human population is going to be the real challenge in the years to come. To meet this challenge, not only are imaginative measures needed, but the strength of the wildlife staff needs to be increased in proportion to the wide scope and ambit of the law which is their responsibility to enforce. 71 ADAPTIVE SPECIALIZATION IN RELATION TO NICHE DIVERSITY IN PHYTOPHAGOUS AND MYCOPHAGOUS THRIPS T. N. Ananthakrishnan1 {With three plates and a text-figure) Thrips species like many other insects tend to maintain an understandable degree of stability, irrespective of their habits — whether phytophagous, mycophagous, cecidicolous or predatory, through evolving optimal behaviou- ral strategies or adaptations in view of their ability to compete for resources, as well as for mates, emphasising the importance of resource utilisation and mating competition in the suc- cessful survival of a species (Ananthakrishnan 1984). As the number of locally coexisting species tend to differ from place to place, their abundance tends to fluctuate with time, and the distribution of individuals among these species also varies with different localities, communities and populations. Natality /morta- lity schedules also play a pivotal role in maintaining the stability and survival proba- bilities of fluctuating populations. Studies on other phytophagous /mycophagous insects like other animals have also shown that fluctuations in the environment, predation /parasitisation, presence and availability of food, are related to community structure. The operation of ‘r’- selection in an uncrowded or unstable environ- ment is evident when a species can maximize its growth rate, while k-selection at the other extreme involves maximizing its competitive ability when in a crowded state. Both are 1 Entomology Research Institute, Loyola College, Madras 600 034. equally typical of thrips species inhabiting diverse habitats. The tendency for generalist- specialist demarcation is equally well evident, the specialist being more restricted in its niche-width, the generalist having a wider niche-width, more intraspecific competition and polymorphism and better utilisation of food and consequently of increased reproductive success. An interesting aspect of thrips is their ability to adapt to varying environments, the abundance of phytophagous species being correlated with particular types of plant formations. Many terebrantian species infest- ing leaves of plants show a vertical distribution or stratification, inhabiting different nodes thereby avoiding competition. Many others are known to form galls or malformations in plants and yet others are predatory feeding on aphids, coccids, thrips, mites etc. Some are essential elements of the edaphon occurring as prepupae and pupae upto a depth of 10-30 cms. in the soil, while dead and decaying vegetation, bark, litter harbour several mycophagous species. For an understanding of the behaviour of phytophagous thrips communities, a pre- requisite is an understanding of their distri- butional patterns on the leaves or flowers of the concerned plants. Very often adult and nymphs of a single species are known to occupy different nodal leaves of the same plant. It is also known that as many as seven species of 72 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Sqc. 83 (supplement) Plate 1 Ananthakrishnan : Thrips Thrips in pollination. A — Ail immature stage carrying pollen. B, C — Scanning Electron Micrographs showing pollen attachment to setae. D — Adult thrips with a mass of pollen. Primitive mycophagous Terebrantia. Uzelothrips. B — Erotidothrips. C — Merothrips. ADAPTIVE SPECIALIZATION IN THRIPS thrips occupy different nodes of single host plant avoiding competition and this is evident in the common castor plant Ricinus communis (Ananthakrishnan 1984). Added to this, eco- logical succession of different thrips species in- festing flowers is also known, leading to the recognition of primary, secondary and tertiary inhabitants as evident in the flowers of Ruellia tuberosa (Viswanathan & Ananthakrishnan 1976). The phenology of thrips assemblage in terms of abundance and flower preference is equally typical of several species. Ecological succession as well as species packing with as many as four species within a single flower or inflorescence is also known. The ability of thrips to carry sufficient quality of pollen grains of a variety of flowers during their flight tends to promote cross pollination, the efficiency of pollination naturally depending on the size, viscosity of the pollen grains, attractiveness of the flowers as well as the number and species of thrips present. The number of individuals present in the flower as well as the amount of pollen grains per insect would determine the pollen load or the total amount of pollen that they carry, on the thoracic and abdominal setae as well as on the wing setae, fringes and antennae. As such species with; well- developed setae such as those of Frankliniella tend to be more efficient carriers of pollen. The maximum number of pollen grains carried is around 200 per thrips in Frankliniella schultzei inhabiting Compositae flowers (Ananthakrishnan 1982) (Plate 1). It: is now well presumed that the Thysa- noptera evolved from insects in which both the mandibles were reduced and the asymmetry resulting from the enlargement of the left mandible was associated with pollen feeding. In view of the fact that most thripids feed on vascular plants and pollen, a correlation of the development of the left mandible with the corresponding reduction of the right, so that the single mandible served as a more efficient tool for piercing the pollen. It was therefore inferred that the evolution of thrips occurred through pollen feeding and until the angiosperms evolved, thrips could have fed only on gymnospore pollen and spores. In this evolutionary advancement, the tubuliferan thrips developed longer maxillary stylets, in- vaded the saprophytic fungal zone and pro- liferated within diverse fungal niches. Of particular interest is the recognition of three groups of mycophagous species, the first which retained the short maxillary stylets, the second developed the tendency for flexible maxillary stylets, developing complex convolutions and third producing thicker stylets, developing the tendency to feed on spores, so that we have the mvcetophagous and sporophagous species among the mycophagous group (Ananthakrish- nan 1979, Mound 1977a, 1977b; Mound and O’Neill 1974). Such microhabitats invaded by mycophagous species enjoy a relatively constant environ- ment, more particularly in the Tropics, so as to enable easy mingling of individuals. In such situations the rate of speciation is reduced, besides increasing the chances of survival of relict species such as the more primitive fungus feeding Uzelothrips, Erotidothrips and species of Merothrips. (Plate 2). The impact of habitat fluctuations and food combined with other related factors, both internal and external have contributed to the evolution of wing poly- morphs as well as the production of a structu- rally diverse series of forms, the gynaecoid and oedymerous males and major and minor females favouring equally diverse mating patterns and associated differences in fecundity. What is striking about the incidence of sex- limited polymorphism is the degree of pheno- typic flexibility which is more typical of 73 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) mycophagous species and the ability of the genotypes of the concerned species to produce a range of varying phenotypes, through varia- tion in the degree of expression and suppression of one or more characters, which could pos- sibly be explained as due to pleiotropy and polygeny (Ananthakrishnan 1973, 1979, 1984). Several species of mycophagous Tubulifera have developed the tendency to aggregate, the nature of aggregation and population size mostly depending on fungal food availability which in turn depends upon the environment (Plate 3). As for their food, the phlaeothripines feed on fungal mycelia imbibing their con- tents, while the idolothripines consume spores and so are essentially sporophagous. Feeding on spores involves contraction and dilation of cibarial and pharyngeal muscles followed by a rapid wafting action through the development in many species of a ‘wafting comb’ compris- ing diverse types of long or short inward pro- cesses of the muscular wall of the foregut, especially in species feeding on large, single to many celled, thick-walled spores with dense pigment. The maxillary stylets in the myceto- phagous species range from 0.85-1.7 p wide with pointed apices, while in sporophagous idolothripines they are 5-14 p wide exhibiting considerable variation distally. As such feed- ing diversity in respect of fungal resource utilization in diverse ecological niches is very typical of sporophagous idolothripines, enabling recognition of the following distinct fundamen- tal categories. (a) Species which exploit various hosts for fungal food resources, but feed only on the spores of one and the same fungus. Example: Dinothrips sumatrensis feeds only on the spores of Lasiodiplodia theobromae. (b) Species which are host specific, but feed on a wide variety of fungi present, in- volving all the major categories, Asco- myctes, Coelomycetes and Hyphomyce- tes. e.g. Tiarothrips subramanii feeding on Ant host omella consanguinea, A. sepi- libilis, A. phoenicicola, Pestalozzia algeriensis , Melanographium citri, (c) Species with a restricted host range and restricted feeding, e.g. Elaphrothrips denticollis, occurring in large numbers in drying leaves of Areca catechu and Tectona grandis feeding on the spores of Pestalozzia algeriensis and Phomopsis tectonae and Bactrothrips idolomorphus on dry leaves of Shorea robusta feeding on Pestalozzia and Lasiodiplodium. (d) Species occurring on a wide range of hosts, mostly drying grass clumps, feed- ing on a wide range of fungal spores as in Loyolia indica. Adaptive diversity in terms of reproduction is well developed in sporophagous species, all phytophagous species reproducing only by oviparity involving both sexual and partheno- genesis reproduction in many cases, mostly in Terebrantia and only by the sexual method in the others. While oviparity is very typical of mycophagous species, several sporophagous species show varying degrees of oviparity, ovoviviparity and viviparity. The type of re- production, whether oviparous or ovovivipa- rous, is determined by factors such as environment, fungal food availability, aggrega- tion and oviposition behaviour (Fig. 1). Ovipa- rity occurs during the more-moist months when sufficient fungal food is available and a longer incubation period does not result in dessicca- tion, the patterns of oviposition varying with species. Tn the drier summer months, repro- duction involves the graded types of ovovivi- parity and viviparity thus enabling protection of the eggs from desiccation and overcoming the fungal food scarcity. Viviparity and 74 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. S3 (supplement) Plate 3 Ananthakrishnan : Thrips Aggregation patterns of adults and oviposition patterns in some mycophagous thrips. A — Egg mass of Ecacanthothrips. B— Egg laying pattern of Tiarothrips. C — Egg laying pattern of Ethirothrips. D — Adult and immatures of Ecacanthothrips on bark. E— Adult of Priesneriana on bark. F — Aggregation of insects of Tiarothrips . BEHAVIOURAL TRENDS IjN REPRODUCTION ADAPTIVE SPECIALIZATION IN THRIPS JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) ovoviviparity are also adaptations to shorten the life-cycle, enabling the young ones to complete development before the food dis- appears (Ananthakrishnan et ai 1983). Of particular interest is the adaptative specialization of some of the phytophagous species taking to a cecidogenous habitat pro- ducing malformation or galls. It is well known that the initiation and exploitation of plant tissues leading to the formation of galls is a highly developed form of phyto- phagy. Different kinds of tissue reorga- nization result when a gall is formed and the basic strategies for successful survival within the gall environment is hyperplasy and hyper- trophy and incidental cell realignment so as to establish the gall form. Transformation of such differentiated tissues into actively dividing meristematic tissues as well as the organization of a nutritive zone in the form of highly specialised patches of cells are further adapta- tions for survival by gall thrips as of other gall insects. The occurrence of polymorphism is equally typical of gall thrips and such polymorphism induces intraspecific competition (interspecific when more than one species is involved), which considerably influences the patterns of mating and fecundity. Rarely as in Thilakothrips bahuJi forming the leaf rosette galls in Acacia Ieucophloea, there is the ability to switch over to the formation of the inflorescence gall from the leaf rosette gall, with accompanying changes in the duration of the life cycles, being shorter in the inflo- rescence galls and longer in the leaf rosette galls. Gall insect-host plant association there- fore exemplifies an advanced level of ‘trophic strategy’ (Ananthakrishnan 1984). Studies involving the role of larvae, adult males, and adult females on gall development and induced morphological variations by main- taining a constant population of each of them on the leaves of host plants of varying ages reveal the efficiency of larvae and adult females towards a faster development of the galls together with significant morphological and internal structural variations involving maxi- mum tissue responses, indicating the signifi- cance of the role of the cumulative feeding effect of larvae and adult females in the galling phenomena (Ananthakrishnan 1981). Adult females when compared to the males spend more energy by laying eggs for the build-up of populations resulting in continuous feeding to compensate for the energy lost. The adult males which spend less energy, exhibit poor feeding responses. Larvae being voracious feeders also contribute much to the galling phenomena. Another interesting feature is the change of feeding sites by adult thrips to the lower epidermis due to competition among in- dividuals under high population densities. The host plant is a part of the essential framework within which intraspecific competition between the insects must take place to limit the number when it rises above a critical density, while at the same time the growing insect population makes increased demands on the plant, thereby affecting its growth and quality. As disclosed by van Emden and Way (1973), that limita- tion through complete utilization of available food supply may occur more commonly when the insect is severely restricted to a particular part of the plant or by a ‘resistance’ mecha- nism to a particular growth stage, appears significant in the galling phenomena. 76 ADAPTIVE SPECIALIZATION IN THRIPS References Ananthakrishnan, T. N. (1973): Mycophagous Tubulifera of India. Occl. Publ. 2. Madras: Loyola College Entomol. Res. Unit. 144 pp. — — — — — (1979) : Diversity in- dices in relation to intrapopulation variation in two species; of Mycophagous tubuliferan Thysanoptera. Proc. Symp. zool. Surv. India, 1 : 19-26. — (1982): Thrips and Pollination Biology. Curr. Sci., 57(4) : 168-172. (1984): Adaptive strategies in cecidogenous insects. In : Biology of gall insects. Ed. Ananthakrishnan, T. N., (Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi), 1-9 pp. — (1984): Bioecology of Thrips. Indira Publishing House, Michigan, USA, 233 pp. Mound, L. A. (1977a): Species diversity and the systematics of some New World leaf litter Thysa- noptera (Phlaeothripidae: Glyptothripini) . Syst. Ent. 2: 225-244. (1977b) : Leaf-litter Thysanoptera of the subtribe Williamsiellina (Phlaeothripidae). Bull. Br. Mus. (Nat. Hist.). Ent. Ser., 36: 171-192. Mound, L. A. and O’Neill, K. (1974): Taxo- nomy of the Merothripidae with ecological and phylogenetic consideration. J. Nat. Hist. 8: 481-509. van Emden, H. F. and Way, M. J. (1973): Host plants in the population dynamics of insects. In : ‘Insect Plant Relationships’ Ed. V. F. van Emden, Symposia of the Royal Entomological Society, Lon- don, Number VI, 181-199. V ISWANATHAN, T. R. AND ANANTHAKRISHNAN, T. N. (1976) : Aspects of host preference and succes- sion in thrips infesting Ruellia tuberosa. Entomon, 7: 71-77. 77 BREEDING BIOLOGY OF SOME INDIAN BATS — A REVIEW A. Gopalakrishna and V. M. Sapkal1 {With eleven text-figures) Introduction A reviews of earlier literature on the repro- duction of bats have been made by Baker and Baker (1936), Baker and Bird (1936), Gopalakrishna (1947) and more recently by Gustafson (1979), Krutzsch (1979), Oxberry (1979), Jerrett (1979) and Racey (1979) on certain aspects of the breeding biology of the bats. The present article highlights the repro- ductive patterns of some Indian bats. However, references to the work on bats in other parts of the world will be made where pertinent. The first discovery by Pagenstecher (1859) in Germany of the presence of large numbers of live spermatozoa in the genital tract of the females of Pipistrellus pipistrellus throughout winter months, even though ovulation had not occurred in these specimens, drew the atten- tion of several workers in Europe to this curious fact. Several subsequent workers (Eimer 1879, Benecke 1879, Fries 1879, Rollinat and Trouessart 1895a, b, c, 1896, 1897; Grosser 1903, Courrier 1924, 1927; Rendez 1929 and Matthews 1937) confirmed that copulation in several European vespertilionid and rhinolophid bats occurs during autumn and the spermatozoa remain alive and viable throughout winter and fertilise the ova released during the following spring. Such a phenome- 1 Department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Nagpur. non was also reported to occur in several bats inhabiting cold and temperate regions (Gaisler 1965, Dwyer 1966, A1 Rabaake 1968, Kitchener 1975, Hiraiwa and Uchida 1955). The crucial experiment of keeping inseminated females isolated from the males throughout winter were carried out by Gates (1936), Folk (1940), Wimsatt (1942, 1944), Hiraiwa and Uchida (1956) and Racey (1973, 1975) who affirmed that in several European, American and Japanese bats the spermatozoa inseminated during autumn remain viable and fertilise the ovum released during the following spring. A few other workers (Guthrie 1933, Caffier and Kolbow 1934, Miller 1936, 1937, 1939; Pearson et al 1952), however, indicated that, although copulation in the bats inhabiting temperate regions occurs during autumn, subsequent copulations also occur during winter and spring either as a general rule or in those females which had missed or had unsuccessful copu- lation during autumn. In spite of the fact that the seasons are not very well demarcated in the tropical regions, most bats inhabiting these regions have a strict reproductive periodicity (Baker and Baker 1936, Baker and Bird 1936, Gopalakrishna 1947, 1948, 1949; Brosset 1962a, b, c, 1963; Gopalakrishna et al 1975, Gopalakrishna and Choudhari 1977, Gopalakrishna and Rao 1977, Gopalakrishna and Madhavan 1978, Gopala- krishna et al 1979, Gopalakrishna and Bhatia 1983, Gopalakrishna et ah 1985, Ramaswamy 78 BREEDING BIOLOGY OF SOME INDIAN BATS 1961, Kumar 1965, Madhavan 1971, 1978, 1981; Sapkal and Khamare 1984, Sapkal and Bhandarkar 1984, Sapkal and Deshmukh 1985, Kashyap 1980), and undergo copulation which is immediately followed by fertilisation and pregnancy. Storage of inseminated sperma- tozoa, and fertilisation by the stored sperma- tozoa of the ova released several weeks later, have been reported only in a few tropical species (Gopalakrishna and Madhavan 1971, 1978; Medway 1972, 1973; Racey et al. 1975, Krishna and Dominic 1978). The foregoing account presents only two main patterns of reproduction in bats, namely, where there is no sexual synchrony between the male and the female (mostly in species in- habiting cold and temperate regions) and where the sexual activity is synchronous in the two sexes (mostly in tropical species). Reproductive patterns in the female Anatomy of the female genitalia Although in all Indian bats the uterus is constructed on a bicornuate plan, there are interesting variations in the details of the in? ternal anatomy. Ashfaque and Tungare (1960) studied the anatomy of the female geni- talia of a few bats and indicated that they exhibited an evolutionary pattern from a condition, where the two sides are nearly completely separate, to a condition where the partial atrophy of one of the uterine cornua gives the genitalia a nearly unicornuate appearance. In Pteropus giganteus giganteus the vagina is septate for more than three fourths of its length and the two uterine cornua open into the vaginal canal of the respective side. Thus, the two sides of the genitalia in this animal are nearly completely separated — almost recalling the condition occurring in Metatheria. In Cynopterus sphinx gangeticus the septum in the vagina extends to about half the cranial length of the vagina. In Rousettus leschenauld (Choudhari 1968, Karim 1975) the lumina of the two uterine cornua remain separate and open by indepen- dent canals at the tip of a bulbous cervix which projects for a short distance into the vagina. In Taphozous longimanus (Gopala- krishna et al. 1979), whereas the two cervical canals open independantly at the tip of an elongated cervix in the nonparous females, the tip of the cervix seems to break away during the first parturition. Hence, in adult females the two cervical canals, although independent, join just before opening into the vagina at the tip of the cervix. In most of the bats (Gopalakrishna and Karim 1980), the two uterine cornua become confluent and open into to cervix by a common opening. In Tadarida plicata plicata (Pendharkar 1981) and Miniop - terns schreibersii fuliginosus (Chari 1980, Gopalakrishna and Chari 1984) the left uterine cornu is markedly smaller than the right. Physiology of the female genitalia Most vespertilionids are polytocous and the two uterine cornua are physiologically symme- trical and the two sides of the genitalia are functional during every breeding cycle (Gopala- krishna 1947, Madhavan 1971, 1978, 1981). Bats belonging to other families are usually monotocous and exhibit varying degrees of physiological dominance. In Taphozous longi- manus (Gopalakrishna 1954, 1955), Rousettus leschenauld (Gopalakrishna 1964, 1969; Gopalakrishna and Choudhari 1977) and Cynopterus sphinx (Sandhu 1984), while the two sides of the genitalia have equal physio- logical potentiality, only one side functions during each cycle, and there is a physiological alternation of the two sides of the female genitalia in successive cycles. Among hipposi- derid bats (Madhavan et al. 1977, Gopala- 79 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) krishna and Bhatia 1983, Sapkal and Bhandar- kar 1984) the left side of the genitalia exhibits a distinct physiological dominance over the right side — about 65 to 75% of ovulation and pregnancy occurring on the left side. In Megaderma lyra lyra (Ramakrishna 1951, Ramaswamy 1961, Gopalakrishna et al. 1979) the left side of the genitalia is completely dominant, and ovulation and pregnancy in every cycle occur only on the left side, the right ovary not even producing mature follicles. Two cases of twinning have been reported in this bat, but only in one case it was proved conclusively that both the cornua had a foetus each (Ramaswami and Kumar 1963); in the case of the other twin embryos (Gopalakrishna et al. 1974) there was no mention regarding the location of the two twin embryos. In both cases the authors could not identify the ovary, which had ovulated, due to the absence of the corpus luteum in the ovaries since the corpus luteum in this bat disappears at an early stage of pregnancy (Gopalakrishna and Badwaik — in press). In contrast to this con- dition, the right side of the genitalia is com- pletely dominant in Rhinolophus rouxi (Gopalakrishna and Rao 1977), Taphozous melanopogon (Gopalakrishna and Karim 1980, Sapkal and Khamare 1984, Sandhu 1986), Taphozous kacchensis (Sapkal and Deshmukh 1985), Tadarida aegyptiaca (Kashyap 1980, Sandhu 1986) and Tadarida plicata plicata (Pendharkar 1981). In parous females of the two species of Tadarida the left uterine cornu is markedly smaller than the right, and the left ovary does not even produce mature follicles. Miniopterus schreibersii fuliginosus presents the most extraordinary condition of the female genitalia. In this species, while ovu- lation as a rule occurs from the left ovary, and fertilization of the ovum and the early development of the embryo take place in the left Fallopian tube, the embryo in the morula stage migrates to the right uterine cornu, where it implants and undergoes further deve- lopment (Gopalakrishna et al. 1979, Gopala- krishna et al. 1981, Gopalakrishna et al. 1985). The dominance of the right uterus in bearing pregnancy was noticed in Myotis lucifugus lucifugus, but ovulation in this species occurred from either ovary with nearly equal frequency (Wimsatt 1979). Breeding habits On the basis of the breeding habits the Indian bats can be broadly classified into the following categories: Annual cycle The species which have an annual repro- ductive cycle and breed once a year in a strictly defined breeding season fall into this category. The exact season of reproduction, however, varies among different species. This category can be further recognised into three types depending on the season of onset of breeding activity. It is pertinent to mention here that in Indian conditions the words ‘spring’, ‘autumn’ and ‘winter’ do not have the same significance as in temperate and cold countries because the changes in the different seasons in the tropics are not so marked as those in cold countries. These words are used in the present article broadly to indicate February-April as spring, September-December as autumn- winter and June- August as rainy season. Spring breeders These species come to sexual activity, and copulate and undergo ovulation in March- April with pregnancy following immediately. To this category belong Scot op hit us temmincki 80 BREEDING BIOLOGY OF SOME INDIAN BATS (S. wroughtoni) (Gopalakrishna 1947, 1948, 1949) around Bangalore, Miniopterus schrei- bersii fuliginosus (Gopalakrishna et al. 1985) at and around Mahabaleshwar, Taphozous melanopogon at Chikalda and Narnala (Sapkal and Khamare 1984) and at Burhanpur and Asirgarh (Sandhu 1986) and Taphozous kacch- ensis (Sapkal and Deshmukh 1985) at Agra. Autumn — Winter breeders These come to sexual activity during October-December and experience pregnancy immediately after copulation. To this category belong Megaderma lyra lyra at Srirangapattana (Ramakrishna 1951), at Agra (Ramaswamy 1961) and around Nagpur (Gopalakrishna 1950, Gopalakrishna et al. 1974), Rhinolophus rouxi at Khandala (Gopalakrishna and Rao 1977, Gopalakrishna and Ramakrishna 1977) and at Bangalore and Khandala (Ramakrishna and Rao 1977), Hipposideros fulvus fulvus at Nanded (Madhavan et al. 1977) and Hippo- sideros ater ater at Nanded (Gopalakrishna and Madhavan 1978). Rainy season breeders Those bats, which come to sexual activity in June or early in July and experience preg- nancy soon after copulation, come under this category. To this category belong Tadarida aegyptiaca at and around Khandwa (Kashyap 1980, Sandhu 1986) and Tadarida plicata plicata (Pendharkar 1981). Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix at Nanded (Madhavan 1971, Gopalakrishna and Madha- van 1971) experiences estrus and undergoes copulation during the first two weeks of June, but ovulation does not take place until about the second week of July, when the inseminated stored spermatozoa, which remain viable, fertilise the ova and pregnancy follows imme- diately. A similar phenomenon, but occurring during a different season, obtains in Scotophilus heathi at Cochin (Gopalakrishna and Madha- van 1978, Madhavan 1981) in which, while copulation occurs in the middle of November, ovulation and fertilisation do not take place until about the last week of December. During this interval the inseminated spermatozoa are stored in the female genital tract and retain their viability. Breeding twice in a year with strict sexual periodicity Some species have a strict reproductive periodicity, but experience two cycles in quick succession. In these species the lactation period of the first cycle overlaps the early pregnancy of the second cycle. Such a situation occurs in Rousettus leschenaulti at Aurangabad (Gopala- krishna 1964, Gopalakrishna and Choudhari 1977) and Cynopterus sphinx at Bangalore (Ramakrishna 1947) and at Nagpur (Sandhu 1984). In Rousettus leschenaulti the two sides of the genitalia function alternately in succes- sive cycles due to the protracted persistence of a large corpus luteum until the beginning of the succeeding pregnancy (Gopalakrishna 1969). Anomalous breeding habits There are certain bats, which, although ex- periencing a strict reproductive periodicity, present a few anomalies. Rhinolophus rouxi (Ramakrishna and Rao 1977) presents certain reproductive adaptations to suit the environ- mental conditions. At and around Bangalore ovulation and fertilisation occur in the last week of November, whereas at Khandala female do not undergo copulation until the middle of December. The gestation period of this bat is 150 ± 8 days. Whereas the early embryonic development of this species is con- siderably slowed down at Bangalore, there is 81 6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) a delay in the implantation of the blastocyst in the specimens at Khandala. Deliveries at Bangalore occur about four weeks earlier than at Khandala. The authors suggested that this change in the reproductive pattern of the same species at two different localities is an adapta- tion to bring forth the young ones at the most propitious season. A situation nearly similar to that of Rhinolophus rouxi appears to obtain in Hippo - sideros speoris, which has been studied at Bangalore, Nanded and Chandrapur. Although the female breeds only once a year, the time of breeding is delayed progressively at higher latitudes. At Bangalore the females come to estrus and copulate late in October and con- ceive immediately. At Chandrapur, although the specimens undergo copulation in the first week of December and the spermatozoa remain in the female genital tract during the follow- ing weeks, ovulation does not occur until the last week of December or early in January. Fertilisation and conception occur at this time in most females in the colony and deliveries occur after a gestation of 135 ± 5 days. How- ever, some females in the colony come to heat early in March and deliver their young in the last week of July. It is not known if in- seminated spermatozoa are stored and fertilise the ova released several weeks later in these specimens, which copulate early in December and conceive during the last week of Decem- ber. Some more details about this species will be described while dealing with the male sex- cycle. In Hipposideros lankadiva at Balharsha (Saokal and Bhandarkar 1984) copulation occurs during the latter half of August and is immediately followed by ovulation and ferti- lisation. However, the early development of the embryo until implantation of the blasto- cyst is unusually slow — nearly two months. Even the post-implantation development is also considerably retarded until the limb-bud stage of development. Consequently, the gesta- tion of this bat lasts for about 260 to 270 days. Continuous breeders A few Indian bats do not have a strictly defined reproductive season. In Taphozous longimanus at Nagpur (Gopalakrishna 1954, 1955), Pipistrellus mimus mimus at Nanded (Gopalakrishna et al. 1975) and Pipistrellus dormeri at Nanded (Madhavan 1978) there is a quick succession of pregnancies and the lactation period of one cycle overlaps the early gestation of the succeeding cycle. More than two litters are produced during each year in these species. Reproductive patterns in the male This is the first report on the male repro- ductive habits of most of the Indian bats described here. Hence, a brief description of the material and methods are given below. The specimens for the present study were collect- ed from different localities in India at least for two successive years such that every month is represented by one collection or more. The specimens were collected from their natural roosts, killed by chloroform, and the male reproductive organs and accessory reproduc- tive structures were fixed in various fixatives such as neutral formalin, Bouin’s, Rossman’s, Zenker’s or Camoy’s fixative. The right testis of all the specimens was weighed by a Mettler balance. The tissues were stored in 70% etha- nol after fixation for 24 hours and processed by the usual procedure, and paraffin embedd- ed tissues were sectioned serially at 6 to 10 g. thickness. For the present work the tissues were stained by Ehrlich’s or Harris’ haema- toxylin and counterstained by eosin, dehydrat- 82 BREEDING BIOLOGY OF SOME INDIAN BATS t-H 2 ’g § O -K .ft -5 S s fn 3 -3 5 §;= § ts§£« s ►-> ft o a * s| §< rk>- 3 | S -§■- II to) O to) -ft Co o I5 5< 3 K» /• — % r— i /• — \ r — n r — n r — n r — v r — % \ • • ^ ^ r- ^ N — / S_^ \Q 'w' N / S / N — ' ' / V — ' ^HHrtN WWWWWWW<^ y-< WWW ioO\^fr>NioO^'^>n^'0 <±<££.±i £<£.£ CM ^|- •“< /— S /-S /~N /-V N ^ ^ VI ^ O /*■*■> O-N 0'\«OC^»0’— I’-H’—l’-H’— •*— 'Oit" tomo^nvoa\MO\-iN N-HNOttotviNrtrHCto^ cm ^O IO Is / — \ / — s m /-*>> / — s /-V /— s / v Tt- m rj- 'w w fM '<— ' w W- v — ' © ^MNlHOOrlfONM^ON-- Os V) /—>\ 1— i 00 »0 I/-) c*to Tt ^-\ OO Os w w rn w 'w s»/ w- w w m w w mCMwOmcM-^J-SOOs'^'t^-l^ NrtrtNHHrHrt\OMN & i ++++++++ © -^-^moco^ost^- (M CM r- / — s /^-s /— s vo /— > w Tt so m w w 0p + + + + m h >n h A A vosfVOOsts>'0/^ffi'n/-vMVO ^ ^ ■w w' -w^ co CM ^ ' 's-^ HfOrONOvs^coM'~/|nvo vd'd-'tinmrtOvrHNOO + T-”r + 'f' + d"'l-4' (Nff\inh>\£ifoOsr> , « to) in -h (M rt CM CM V) ^ H a P -g - ft a c mc >» 2 a -8 ^ S 4 ft S < S 5 1 1 a a a £ * 8 1 I a a <0 - • a a a a a a 0> 6 a a • • • i • I a a a a • • 1 • a a a a a 4 • • • i a • • a a a a a • • • • • i • 1 a • a • a a a 2 • a • • • • 1 f i # • • i i i i 1 i 1 i 1 i i i 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Body weight in Gms. Fig. 9. Scatter diagram in which the testis weight is plotted against the body weight in Hipposideros fulvus fulvus. Note that the regressed testis of some adult specimens weigh less than the testis of some juveniles. 93 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) 30 28 i 26 6 24 .£ 22 £ 20 o> • 18 16 <0 o> K- (2 10 8 6 4 2 40 E 30 20 10 Hipposideros speoris ® s • s • • * * s i‘ © I f s © I • • I * • If ® o • «■ I f . ? • 7 8 9 10 Body weight in 6ms. 12 13 14 15 Fig. 10. Scatter diagram in which the testis weight 0 — mU.vU ivjiu wwgin is jjiuiicu agdiiisi ooay we Hipposideros speoris. The situation is similar to that of H. fulvus fulvus. Rhinotophus rouxi s plotted against body weight in • » • • • e • ® e» »®#©l • • • © 09 « # 9 • • 9 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 Body weight in Gms. 17 18 19 Fig. 11. Scatter diagram in which the testis weight is plotted against body weight of Rhinolophus rouxi. The situation is similar to that in H. fulvus fulvus. 94 BREEDING BIOLOGY OF SOME INDIAN BATS Scotophilus heathi from Cochin This species has been included in this study because it presents some interesting features in its breeding habits. Although near the equator, this bat has a strictly defined repro- ductive periodicity, and unlike the allied species, Scotophilus temmincki (Gopalakrishna, 1947, 1948, 1949), which breeds in March- April at Bangalore, this species comes to sexual activity in November-December, that is, it presents an autumn type of breeding pattern. The increase in the weight of the testis commences early in November and reaches maximum values during the last week of November and the first week of December. The testis undergoes regression and sperma- togenetic activity ceases after the end of December. The changes in the testis weight are shown in figure 7. It has been already mentioned that even though the specimens copulate early in December, the inseminated spermatozoa remain viable and fertilise the ova released during the last week of December (Gopalakrishna and Madhavan 1978). Age at sexual maturity In most bats the rate of growth of the body, as indicated by the increase in the body weight, is rapid and, hence, in most species the body weight cannot be used as a sure criterion for determining the age at sexual maturity except in Rousettus leschenaulti in which all female specimens above the body weight of 50 gms and all males above the body weight of 73 gms were mature (fig. 8). In other species no such direct correlation exists between the body weight and sexual maturity. Figures 9-11 are intended to illustrate this point in three species of bats. All these figures are scatter diagrams in which the testis weight is plotted against the body weight. The figures indicate that the body weight of some sexually immature ani- mals may be more than that of sexually mature specimens. Similarly, the weight of the regressed testis of adults may be less than the weight of the testis of immature specimens. In the latter case the immature specimens represent animals approaching their first rutting season. But the pregnancy record in the female and the histological structure of the testis and the accessory reproductive organs in the males are reliable criteria to determine sexual matu- rity or otherwise in these animals. Further, in those species, which have pubic dugs, the size of the pubic dugs is an additional crite- rion to determine sexual maturity since the pubic dugs become enlarged during the first lactation as they are used by the sucking young for anchoring by the claws of their hind limbs. The dugs do not become reduced in size during the rest of the life of the females. Hence, the presence of large pubic dugs is a sure sign that the female had borne at least one young. The normal method of calculating the approximate age at sexual maturity in those bats, which have an annual cycle in a sharply defined season, is to find out if immature specimens occur in the colony during the breeding season. The presence of immature specimens during the breeding season clearly indicates that the animals do not attain sexual maturity within the year of birth, and the earliest age of sexual maturity in these animals is the period from birth to the second breed- ing season of the species. It should, however, be mentioned that the animals may take even longer to attain sexual maturity, perhaps more than one breeding season after birth, but this is unlikely. On the basis of this criterion the bats having a strictly defined breeding season can be classified into two categories — (1) those which attain sexual maturity within the year of birth, and (2) those which do not 95 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST , SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) attain sexual maturity within the year of birth. Further, while in some species the age at sexual maturity is the same in both sexes, in others there is a marked difference between the two sexes with regard to the age at sexual maturity, and in the latter cases the females reach sexual maturity at an younger age than the males. There are yet other species in which the age of sexual maturity varies on the basis of the season of birth in both the sexes. This situation is particularly conspicu- ous in those species which breed twice in quick succession within the year, for example, Rousettus leschenaulti (Choudhari 1968, Gopalakrishna and Choudhari 1977). In this bat the females born in March-April reach sexual maturity in November of the same year, that is, 7 to 8 months of age, and those born in July come to heat and experience their first breeding cycle in December, that is, about 5 months. Among the males those born in March-April come to rut and participate in copulation at an age of 19 to 20 months, while those born in July attain sexual maturity at the age of 15 to 16 months. This difference is probably due to the fact that the breeding season in this bat commences in October- November. Among the other seasonally breeding bats the following species attain sexual maturity and participate in copulation in the year of their birth — Scotophilus temminki (Gopala- krishna 1947, 1948), Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix (Madhavan 1968, 1971), females of Scotophilus heathi (Madhavan 1981), Hip - posideros ater ater (Gopalakrishna and Madhavan 1978), Hipposideros speoris (Bhatia 1980, Gopalakrishna and Bhatia 1984), Tada- rida aegyptiaca (Kashyap 1980, Sandhu 1986) and females of Tadarida plicata plicata (Pen- dharkar 1981). The following species do not breed within the year of birth and probably attain sexual maturity and participate in copulation in the second year of their birth — Rhinopoma microphyllum (Sandhu 1986), Rhinolophus rouxi (Rao 1973, Gopalakrishna and Rao 1978), Hipposideros fulvus fulvus (Madhavan et al 1977), Hipposideros lanka- diva (Sapkal and Bhandarkar 1984), Tapho- zous melanopogon (Sapkal and Khamare 1984), Taphozous kacchensis (Deshmukh 1984, Sapkal and Bhandarkar 1985), Mega- derma lyra lyra (Ramakrishna 1951, Rama- swamy 1961) and Miniopterus schreibersii fuliginosus (Gopalakrishna et al 1985). It is not known with certainty whether the males of Scotophilus heathi breed within the year of birth although Madhavan (1981) suggested that they may attain sexual maturity within the year of birth. In the cases of those species, which breed throughout the year, the above criteria cannot be applied for determining the age at sexual maturity. The only way to determine the age at sexual maturity in these bats is to band the newly born young ones and examine their genitalia periodically. No such work has been reported so far on any Indian bat. Influence of external factors In sexual periodicity of bats An analysis of the data available on Indian bats indicates that no single external factor or a combination of external factors appear to be responsible for triggering the onset of breeding activity in these animals. This con- clusion is drawn on the basis of the following facts: (1) Several species inhabiting the same locality and under similar ecological conditions have different patterns of repro- duction and breed during different periods, and (2) the same species inhabiting different localities have a nearly same breeding pattern 96 BREEDING BIOLOGY OF SOME INDIAN BATS although in these cases the actual onset of breeding becomes slightly advanced towards lower latitudes. Evidently, factors such as tem- perature, rain fall, humidity, duration of the day etc. may not play a major role in esta- blishing the reproductive periodicity in these animals. At best these factors may influence to a small extent so that delivery of the young ones may take place at the most advantageous season of the year. There is yet no evidence to indicate that food habits have any influ- ence on the breeding pattern. It appears that the breeding rhythm is genetically determined for each species, and the influence of external factors, if any, is only marginal. General conclusions and remarks From the foregoing account, it appears that ‘autumn’ is the basic breeding season in the bats, and only a few species have adopted ‘spring’ as the breeding season. This conclu- sion is borne out by the fact that most species of bats, both tropical and temperate, come to sexual activity in autumn when they undergo copulation. The protracted storage of insemi- nated spermatozoa in the genital tract of the female in the autumn breeders of temperate regions appears to be an adaptation to bring forth the young ones in a season when there is abundant supply of food both for the mothers in lactation and the newly weaned young ones. The spring breeding in tropical hats is a modification of the same mechanism because even in these bats the time of delivery is so adjusted as to be most advantageous to the adults and the juveniles. A few bats like Rousettus leschenaulti and Cynopterus sphinx combine both autumn and spring breed- ing and form an intermediate stage of change over from the autumn breeding pattern of temperate species to the spring breeding pat- tern of some tropical species. A few tropical species, which breed throughout the year, form the extreme stage of evolution of reproduction in bats, and this is, perhaps, an adaptation to increase fecundity in these animals. One of the interesting features of the re- productive biology of bats is the marked uneven sex-ratio with females out-numbering the males in the adult stage although the sex- ratio at birth is even. Such a feature has been reported in all the Indian bats so far studied (Gopalakrishna and Madhavan 1970, Gopala- krishna el al 1985, Madhavan 1971) except in Taphozous melanopogon and Hipposideros lankadiva (Abdulali 1949). Evidently, there is a preferential mortality of the males during the growth period, and this is probably an adaptation to increase the potential reproduc- tive population of the species. The only ex- ception to this is Taphozous melanopogon (Abdulali 1949, Sapkal and Khamare 1984) in which the males outnumber the females in the colony. The available data do not permit an explanation for this anomaly. One inte- resting feature about this bat is that it is a seasonal migrator (Gopalakrishna 1986) and perhaps the males and the females live in different colonies except during the breeding season. Unless several colonies of this species are examined from different regions and dur- ing different seasons of the year, it is not possible to establish unquestionably that the males outnumber the females in this species. Earlier, Hipposideros lankadiva (Abdulali 1949) was described as having a male domi- nant sex-ratio, and this conclusion was based on the examination of one or two colonies once or twice in the year. But recent work on this species from several colonies and during all the months of the year has esta- blished that in this species also the females outnumber the males (Sapkal and Bhandarkar 97 7 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) 1984). Perhaps a similar situation may obtain in Taphozous melanopogon also. The low fecundity of most of the bats be- cause of physiological asymmetry of the female genitalia and the animals being monotocous, and their having a single annual breeding cycle should normally reduce the population of the species progressively. Since this does not happen in the natural populations it is reasonable to assume that the bats must have a sufficiently long life so as to be able to produce at least 6 to 8 young ones during their life (allowing for the preferential morta- lity of the males during the growth period and for accidental death of the females). One Refer Abdulali. H. (1949): Sex ratio in Indian bats. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 48: 423-428. Ae Rabaake, K. (1968): Notes on the biology of the tomb bat, Taphozous nudiventris magnus (V. Wettstein) in Iraq. Saugetierk Milt., 16: 21-26. Ashfaque, M. and Tungare, S. M. (1960) : Observations on the structure of the female repro- ductive organs in Indian bats. Bull. Zool. Soc., Coll. Sci., Nagpur. 3: 1-8. Baker, J. 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(1962c) : do Part in. ibid. could reasonably assume that the monotocous bats, which come to sexual activity in the second year of their birth and breed in a sharply defined breeding season, must have a longevity of at least 8 to 10 years to be able to produce 6 to 8 young ones during their life. Banding experiments alone can definitely determine the longevity of bats, but unfortu- nately no such experiment has been reported about Indian bats. Acknowledgements Dr. A. Gopalakrishna is thankful to the C.S.I.R. for financial assistance for carrying out this project. E N CES 59: 707-746. (1963): do Part IV. ibid. 60: 338-355. Caffier, E. and Kolbow, H. (1934): Anatomisch- Physiologische Genitalstudien an Fledermausen zur Klarung der therapeutischen sexualhormonwirkung. Zeit. f. Geburtschilfe u. Gynak., 108. Chari, G. C. (1980): Studies on the embryology of the vespertilionid bat, Miniopterus schreibersii fuliginosus (Hodgson). Unpublished thesis, Nagpur University. Choudhari, P. N. 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(1979) : Pregnancy record in some Indian bats. Curr. Sci., 48: 716-718. Gopalakrishna, A., Khaparde, M. S. and Sapkal, V. M. (1974): Parturition in the Indian false vam- pire, Megaderma lyra lyra (Geofroy). /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 73 : 464-467. — — and Madhavan, A. (1970) : Sex-ratio in some Indian bats. ibid. 67: 171-175. (1971): Survival of the spermatozoa in the female genital tract of the Indian vespertilionid bat, Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix (Wroughton). Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 73: 43-49. (1978): Viability of the inseminated spermatozoa in the In- dian vespertilionid bat, Scotophilus heathi (Horse- field). Ind. J. Exptl. Biol. 16: 852-854. — and Murthy, K. V. R. (1976) : Studies on the male genitalia of Indian bats — Part I — Male genitalia of the Indian fruit bat, Rousettus leschenaulti (Desmarest). Jour. Zool. Soc. India, 28: 52-63. and Ramakrishna, P. A. (1977): Some reproductive anomalies in the Indian rufus horse-shoe bat, Rhinolophus rouxi (Temm.) . Curr. Sci., 46 : 767-770. 99 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) Gopalakrishna, A. and Rao, K. V, B. (1977) : Breeding habits and associated phenomena in some Indian bats — Part II — Rhinal ophus rouxi (Temm.). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 213-219. , Thakur, R. S. and Madiia- van, A. (1975): Breeding biology of the southern dwarf pipistrelle, Pipistrellus mimus mimus (Wrough- ton) from Maharashtra, India. Dr. B. S. Chauhan Comm. Vol. 225-240. , Varute, A. T., Sapkal, V. M., Unune, A. R., and Chari, G. C. (1985) : Breed- ing habits and associated phenomena in some Indian bats — Part XI — Miniopterus schreibersii fuligi- nosus (Hodgson) — Vespertilionidae. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82: 594-601. Grosser, O. (1903): Die physiologische bindege- webige Atresie des Genitalcanals von Vesper ugo noctula nach erfolgter cohabitation. Verh. d. Anat. Gessel. Heidelberg. 17: 129-132. Gustafson, W. (1979) : Male reproductive pat- terns in hibernating bats. J. Repr. Fert., 56: 317-331. Guthrie, M. J. (1933): The reproductive cycles of some cave bats. J. Mammal., 14: 199-215. Hiraiwa, Y. K. and Uchida, T.- (1955) : Fertili- sation in the bat, Pipistrellus abramus abramus (Temminck). II — On the properties of the semen stored in the uterus. Sci. Bull. Fac. Agr. Kyushu Univ. 30: 255-266. — — — ■ (1956): Fertili- sation capacity of spermatozoa stored in the uterus after the copulation the Fall, ibid., 31 : 565-574. Jerrett, D. P. (1979): Female reproductive pat- terns in non-hibernating bats. J. Repr. Fert. 56: 369-378. Karim, K. B. (1975) : Utero-vaginal junction in the Indian fruit bat, Rousettus leschenaulti (Desma- rest). Curr. Sci. 44 : 706-707. K ASH YAP, S, K. (1980): Reproduction in Tada- rida Genus (A microchiropteran bat) . Unpublished thesis, Saugor University. Kitchener, D. J. (1975) : Reproduction in female Gould’s wattelled bat, Chalinolobus gouldii (Gray) (Vespertilionidae), in Western Australia. Aust. J. Zool. 23: 29-42. Krishna, A. and Dominic, C. J. (1978) : Storage of spermatozoa in the female genital tract of the Indian vespertilionid bat, Scotophilus heathi (Horse- field). J. Repr. Fert. 54: 319-321. Krutzsch, P. H. (1979): Male reproductive pattern in non-hibernating bats. J. Repr. Fert. 56: 333-344. Kumar, T. C. A. (1965) : Reproduction in the rat-tailed bat, Rhinopoma kinneari. Jour. Zool. Lon- don. 147: 147-155. Madhavan, A. (1968) : Breeding habits and sex- cycle in the vespertionid bat, Pip'strellus cey Ionic us ceylonicus (Wroughton). Unpublished thesis. Nagpur University. (1971): Breeding habits in the Indian vespertilionid bat, Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix (Wroughton). Mammalia', 35: 28 3- 306. — — — — (1978): Breeding habits and associated phenomena in some Indian bats — Part V — Pipistrellus dormeri (Dobson) — Vespertilionidae. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 426-433. — (1981): Breeding habits and associated phenomena in some Indian bats — Part VI — Scotophilus heathi (Horsefietd) — Vespertilio- nidae. ibid. 77: 227-237. — -5 , Patil, D. R., and Gopala- krishna, A. (1977): do Part IV — Hippo- sideros fulvus fulvus (Gray) (Hipposideridae) . ibid., 75: 96-103. Medway, Lord (1972) : Reproductive cycles of the flat-headed bats, Tylonycteris platypus and T. robus- tula (Chiroptera — Vespertilionidae) in a humid equatorial environment. Zool. J . Linn. Soc. 51: 333- 361. — (1973): Hypothermia in flat- headed bats (Chiroptera, Vespertilionidae: Genus Tylonycteris ) . Mammalia, 37 : 646-653. Matthews, L. H. (1937) : The female sexual cycle in British horse-shoe bats, Rhinolophus f err um equinum insulanus Barrett-Hailton and R. hipposi- deros minutus Motague. Trans. Zool. Soc. London , 23: 224-266. Miller, R. E. (1936): The reproductive cycle in the males of some cave bats. Anat. Rec. 67 : 62. — 7T — — (1937) : Further observations on the reproductive system in male bats. Anat. Rec. { Abst .). 70: 62. . — — — — — (1939) : Reproductive cycle in male bats of the species Myotis lucifugus lucifugus, . J. Morph. 64: 267-295. Murthy, K. V. R. (1969): Histophysiolo.gy of the penis in the Indian sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous longimanus (Hardwicke) with notes on the morpho- logy of the internal genitalia. Jour. Zool. Soc. India. 21: 149-159. (1971) : Studies on the male reproductive organs and accessory structures in some Indian bats, Unpublished thesis. Nagpur University. — AND Vamburkar, S. A. (1978) : Studies on the male genitalia of Indian bats — Part 100 BREEDING BIOLOGY OF SOME INDIAN BATS II. Male genitalia of the giant Indian fruit bat, Pteropus giganteus giganteus (Bmnnich). Jour. Zool. Soc. India. 30: 47-55. Oxberry, B. A. (1979) : Female reproductive pat- terns in hibernating bats. /. Repr. Fert. 56 : 359-367. Pagenstecher, H. A. (1859) : Uber die Begattung von Vesperugo pipistrellus. Verh. des Naturalist- Mediz . Vereins zu Heidelberg I. Pearson, O. P., Koford, M. R. and Pearson, A. K. (1952): Reproduction of the lump-nosed bat, ( Corynorhiims rafinesquei ) in California. /. Mammal. 33: 273-320. Pendiiarkar, Y. D. (1981): Early development, development of foetal membranes and placentation in the Indian molossid bat, Tadarida plicata plicata (Buchanan). Unpublished thesis. Saugor University. Racey, P. A. (1973): The viability of sperma- tozoa after prolonged storage by male and female European bats. Period. Biol., 75: 201-205. (1975) : The prolonged survival of spermatozoa in bats. In The Biology of the male gamete: 385-416, Eds. J. G. Duckett and P. A. Racey, Academic Press, London. 1 (1979) : The prolonged storage and survival of spermatozoa in Chiroptera. /. Repr. Fert. 56: 391-402*. , Suzuki, F. and Medway, Lord (1975) : The relationship between stored sperma- tozoa and the oviducal epithelium in bats of the genus Tyfonycteris. In: The Biology of spermatozoa: Trans- port, survival and fertilising capacity, 123-133. Eds. E. S. E. Hafez and C. G. Thibault. Karger, Basel. Ramakrishna, P. A. (1947) : Post-partum estrus in the short-nosed fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx sphinx. Curr. Sci. 16: 186. ■- — (1951) : Studies on reproduc- tion in bats ---I — Some aspects of reproduction in the Oriental vampires, Lyroderma lyra lyra (Geoff.) and Megaderma spasma (Linn.). Jour. Mys. Univ. 12: 107-118. — • ■ • — AND Rao, K. V. B. (1977): Reproductive adaptations in the Indian rhinolophid bat, Rhinolophus.rouxi (Temm.). Curr. Sci. 46 : 270- 271. Ramaswami, L. S. and Kumar, T. C. A. (1963) : Differential implantation of twin blastocysts in Mega- derma (Microchiroptefa). Experientia, 19: 1-2. .Ramaswamy, K. R. (1961): Studies on the sex- cycle in the Indian vampire bat, Megaderma ( Lyro- derma) lyra lyra (Geoffroy). Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India. 27: 287-302. Rao, K. V. B. (1973) : Reproduction in the rhino- lophid bat, Rhinolophus rouxi (Temminck). Un- published thesis. Nagpur University. Rendez, E. (1929) : Das Verhalten der Saugetier- spermatozoen sweischen Begattung und Befruchtung. Z. Zeillforsch. Mikrosk. Anat. 9: 734-749. Rollinat, R. and Trouessart, E. (1895a): Sur la reproduction des Chiropteres. C. R. Soc. Biol. Paris. 10: 134. — (1895b) : Die- xieme note sur la reproduction sur Chiroptera. ibid. 10: 210. (1895c): Sur la reproduction des Chauves — Souris. Bull. Soc. Zool. 20: 207. — — (1896) : Sur la reproduction des Chauves-Souris. Vespertilio murinus. Mem. Zool. Soc. France, 9: 114-138. (1897): do Les Rhinolophes. ibid. 10: 139-149. Sandhu, S. K. (1984): Breeding biology of the Indian fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl) in Cen- tral India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 81: 600-611. (1986) : Studies on the embryo- logy of some Indian Chiroptera. Unpublished thesis. Nagpur University. AND Gopalakrishna, A. (1984): Some observations on the breeding biology of the Indian fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl) in Cen- tral India. Curr. Sci. 53: 1189-1192. Sapkal, V. M. and Bhandarkar (1984): Breeding habits and associated phenomena in some Indian bats — Part IX — Hipposideros lankadiva (Kelaart) — Hipposideridae. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81: 380-386. and Deshmukh, A. H. (1985): do Part X — Taphozous kacchensis (Dob- son) — Emballonuridae. ibid., 82: 61-67. and Khamare K. G. (1984): — — -do — — Part VIII — Taphozous melanopogon (Temminck) — Emballonuridae. ibid. 80: 303-311. Vamburkar, S. A. (1958): The male genital tract of the Indian megachiropteran bat, Cynopterus sphinx gangeticus (Anderson). Proc. Zool. Soc Lon- don. 130: 57-77. Wimsatt, W. A. (1942): Survival of spermatozoa in the female reproductive tract of the bat. Anat. Red 3 83: 299-307* (1944) : Further studies on the survival of spermatozoa in the female reproductive tract of the bat. ibid. 88 : 93-104. (1979) : Reproductive asymmetry and unilateral pregnancy in Chiroptera. J. Repr. Fert. 56: 345-357. 101 HIGH FREQUENCY CINEMATOGRAPHY STUDIES ON LOCOMOTION AND PREYING IN INDIAN SKITTER FROGS RAN A CYANOPHLYCTIS SCHNEIDER, 1799 Rudolf Altevogt,1 Hiltrud Holtmann and Norbert Kaschek (With two plates and three text -figures) High frequency cinematography (upto 1.500 frames per second) and flash photography recordings were made of the prey catching performance of the Indian skitter frog, Rana cyanophlyctis. The main temporal and spatial parameters thus found were com- pared to relevant data of other quick moving animals proving the skitter’s pole position in view of acceleration and speed among jumping vertebrates. According to Daniel (1974), “The com- monest and most easily seen species of Indian frogs is the Skipper, Rana cyanophlyctis, a medium sized frog rarely exceeding 60 mm in snout to vent length. Almost all ponds, shallow stretches of rivers, rain water pools have their quota of this species easily recognized by their habit of skipping over the water like a rico- chetting stone” (p. 392). In fact, every Indian naturalist must have encountered the skipper when it heads in herds for the open water surface after the human intruder stirred them up from the bank of a reed- or bamboo-fringed pond. Apart from the early report by Annandale (1919), the skater seems to have been studied in India only by Gans (1976), who noticed that “particularly, Rana cyanophlyctis was seen to skitter across the water”, and “these frogs 1 Physiology and Ecology, Zoological Institute, Munster University, Badestr. 9, D-4400 Munster, Federal Republic of Germany. 2 In the 16th Century, the Moghul Emperor Babur 1526-1532 commented that “The frogs of Hindustan are worthy of notice. Though of the same species, as our own, yet they will run 6 or 7 Gaz on the face of the water” — Eds. do not have to start well above the surface, but can start from a floating position, jumping free of the surface, and bouncing more than half a dozen times before either reaching land or diving to the bottom”. Gans “filmed this behavior a number of times and in different localities” (in India and Sri Lanka).2 Unfortunately, Gans did not specify his film recordings, and quite apparently the usual shots taken at 24 frames per second do not tell the whole story. This holds also true for some reports on other skittering frogs: Flower (1896) said that Rana erythraea “can hop over the surface of a pond, much as Rana cyanophlyctis does in India, and also jump right out of the water” (quoted from Romer 1951): Romer (1951) extended these findings to R. taipehensis and stated “that both R. erythraea and R. taipehensis can hop over the surface of the water” (p. 414). The phenomenon in question popped up outside India in short notes by Chabanaud (1949) on the African frog R. occipitalis which “dashes across the surface of the water, ricochetting over the surface by striking the water rapidly with its hind limbs”, and he has 102 LOCOMOTION AND PREYING IN R. CYANOPHLYCTIS “observed them crossing at top speed the full breadth of “marigots” some meters wide” (p. 288). Dunn (1928) gives a similarly brief mention of the skittering locomotion in the East Indian Rana macrodon. Blair (1950) has seen juvenile Acris crepi- tans (Hylidae) in Oklahoma (USA) “which were sitting along the bank (of a slough 6 to 8 feet wide, authors), and when disturbed almost invariably “bounced” two or three times on the water and landed on the opposite bank” (p. 237). The same behaviour was reported by Hudson (1952) for this Hylid from the Delaware Canal (20 feet wide) in Pennsylvania, where “they exhibited skittering locomotion along the surface for a distance of 3 or 4 feet, then returned and swam rapidly back to the bank” (p. 185). Finally, Janson (1953) referred to Hyla cinerea cinerea from North Carolina (USA) which “appeared unable to employ the skitter- ing type of locomotion unless the starting point was well above the surface of the water” (P- 62). Our frog is found from the Arabian penin- sula to Thailand. Its remarkable ability to seemingly stride or skate across the water surface enables it to cover aqueous stretches of several meters in leaps and bounds. The observer’s naked eye does not notice much more than circular patterns at intervals of some decimeters on the water surface, and for a more detailed analysis of the striding pro- cess, its beginning and its end, flash photo- graphic and slow motion cinematographic recordings are needed. Among the frog family Ranidae, R. cyano- phlyctis is especially adapted to aquatic life, probably more so than any other Ranid species : due to some anatomical peculiarities involv- ing pulmonar and other relevant features the skater can remain floating at the water surface for hours and hours without exerting much energy. And it is from this floating position that it can perform leaps of upto 50 cm height to catch insect prey passing by in flight. Simi- larly, from this position the fleeing reaction referred to above can be elicited. To accomplish such feats, most, if not all other frogs need a solid surface as a launching pad. To study these unique abilities, we brought four adult R. cyanophlyctis taken in the vici- nity of Cochin, South India, to the lab. Sur- prisingly enough, the skippers are fairly sensitive to changes of their habitat and thus we had to condition them to jumping from the water surface for insect prey offered as flies and moths tethered on thin threads. There were two males weighing 4.9 and 7.8 g, both 39 mm long, and two females of 12.9 and 13.8 g body weight with 44 and 46 mm snout- vent length. Their aquarium measured 90 x 45 x 45 cm, and the water, kept at 24-26°C, was 25 cm high with a bottom substratum of fine gravel. We wanted to analyse the prey catching action of the skipper by high frequency cinematography, i.e. extreme slow motion movies, ranging upto 1 . 500 frames per second instead of the usual 24 f/s. Thus, the happen- ings from take-off to aqua-landing would be slowed down by a factor of 62.5. We have a LOCAM camera 51-0002 from Redlake Corporation, Campbell, California, for upto 500 frames per second, and a HYCAM K 200/R from Red Lakes Labs., Santa Clara, California, for the higher frames. Illumination was done by 8 bulbs of 750 Watts each. The shots lasted from 3 to 10 seconds thus keeping low an increase of temperature, unavoidable when using such powerful lamps. Frame-to- 103 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 (, SUPPLEMENT ) frame analyses and the relevant drawings were done using the cutting-cum-editing machine S T 1201 from Steenbeck, Hamburg. Contrary to common belief frogs are good learners: after few futile attempts to catch food dummies (plastic models of flies) they would no longer jump at them, though a live blowfly in a small glass vial would then again release the preying reaction. Again after about five trials when the fly could not actually be caught the frogs would stop and we had to Fig. 1. Rana cyanophlyctis : start from the floating position. Time between successive phases: 0.013 seconds. switch over to tethered live flies offered at' about 20 cm above the water surface. The typical habitat of R. cyanophlyctis, fresh water ponds, tanks and calm rivers with- out much water turbulence, is often shared by R. hexadactyla. Ecologically, they are nicely separated, however, in that R. hexadactyla prefers the vegetation belt near the banks, while R. cyanophlyctis is more often found in the open central areas, simply floating in the said manner. Unlike other frogs, in the floating skipper the longitudinal axis is almost parallel to the water surface (in the others dangling downwards considerably), and the hindlegs are held close to the body, in an angular position (fig. 1). Due to an apparently large lung volume — quantitative anatomical details still lacking — in some skippers a good part of the back and hindlegs is even pro- truding above the water surface (For further details on this floating posture and the func- tions of accompanying foot movements see Gans, l.c., and Holtmann 1985). To maintain and re-orient this floating posi- tion, the skipper performs typical hindleg movements: about once per second both hind- legs are slightly moved backwards performing equilibrating movements at an angular speed of upto 463 degrees per second. When prepar- ing to jump out of the water these move- ments are increased in frequency. According to Satyamurti (1967) and Daniel (1975), the food of R. cyanophlyctis consists of insects, their larvae, and small vertebrates like frogs and tadpoles to which Minton (1966) added aquatic invertebrates like: crustaceans and snails which are said to; be caught under water. In our observations in the field and laboratory we saw only once that a conspecific tadpole of 8 cm length was swallowed by a skipper, but numerous small fishes (like Lebistes reticulatus) in our aquaria 104 LOCOMOTION AND PREYING IN R. CYANOPHLYCTIS ' were never attacked by our skippers even when extremely hungry. When bluebottles ( Calliphora ) were offered along with wax- moths ( Galleria melonella), the frogs at first would not show any food preference but after a few days they developed a definite prefer- ence for the moths. Even when Calliphora and Lucilia flies, would no longer elicit prey cap- ture, waxmoths would still trigger the jump for them. This fact shows that the skipper can very well distinguish such objects visually at distances of at least 20 cm. The neuro-etholo- gical basis of this and similar behaviour features of anurans are at present under intense study in various laboratories (see Ewert and colla- borators 1973, 1980). The typical frog jumping from a solid substratum shows three separate acts: 1. take- off, 2. aerial phase, and 3. landing. The energy necessary for take-off is mustered in two stages, first by muscular forces of the hindlegs ( Musculus extensor femoris) and the Os cruris, contributing the main part of the propulsion energy. After this first impulse, a second burst of muscular energy is released by stretching the tarsus, metatarsus and toes (Kamon 1971, Calow and Alexander 1973, Zajac and Levine 1979). Energetically, a take-off angle of 45 degrees is optimal, as under this premonition the im- pulse is equally shared into its horizontal and vertical components (Gray 1968, Treff 1969, Luthanen and Komi 1978). Such ideal condi- tions, however, are hardly met with by the frog in its natural habitat, and jumps would be ideally ballistic only in flight reactions yielding maximum width at minimum energy expenditure. More often, the frog’s jump is aimed at prey, and their location and position make take-off diverge from that ideal angle. Schneider (1954) observed frog take-offs at 110 angular degrees, i.e. in a backward direction. At any rate, it is essential to gain propulsion energy for take-off in as high a fraction of time as possible (Hempel 1952, Gans 1961, Bennet-Clark 1974). When taking off from the floating position, the skipper’s femora and tibiae start the ex- tension (i.e. stretching) movement from the folded position referred to above, both legs acting synchroneously if a straight forward and upward jump is needed. Otherwise, jumps to the left or right side are performed by metachroneously activating the right resp. left hindleg. At the same time the forelegs are moved caudally by about 90 degrees so that they can come to rest along the ventro-lateral side of the body. This position enhances thrust and reduces water drag along the body’s longitudi- nal axis (fig. 2). Before act 2 of the take-off process (see above) is displayed,, the skipper enlarges the surface of its heavily webbed hindfeet by abducing its toes spreading its metatarsal and phalangeal radii and thereby passively stretch- ing its webs. As an example of this process and its energetic effects, the following data are illustrative: a male frog of 3.9 cm body length and 7 . 8 g body weight commands a web surface of 2.29 cm2 per foot, and in a frog with 4.6 cm and 13.8 g this area amounts to 2.89 cm2. Thrust pressure in such cases reaches values of 1 .7 g and 2.38 g per square centimeter. In exerting the take-off thrust against the water drag, the hindfeet assume a concave shape hence improving the hydrodynamic efficiency and reducing “slipping” of the feet in the water layers. As stated above, in frogs starting from a solid surface, take-off angles of more than 110° have become known. They may relieve the JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 83 {SUPPLEMENT) 0 0 o 0 0 Fig. 2. Rana cyanophlyctis : Aqueous take-off, postural sequence, limb posture and tongue-action in prey-catching. Time between successive phases: 0.003 seconds. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (supplement) Plate I Altevogt, Holtmann & Kaschek: Rana cyanophlyctis Left: Fig. 3. Rana cyanophlyctis: Split-seconds after aqueous take-off, the fore-limbs are brought forward for gripping the prey. Right: Fig. 5. Rana cyanophlyctis: Fore- limbs help tongue in securing prey, eyes fully open. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (supplement) Altevogt, Holtmann & Kaschek: Rana cyanophlyctis Plate II Fig. 6. Typical inflight-actions of Rana cyanophlyctis to catch a fly (a, b, c) and to alter aerial posture and flight course by extending foot-webs (d). Photo flash 1/5000 sec. LOCOMOTION AND PREYING IN R. CY AN OPHLY CTIS frog from too much pre-start orientation move- ments by turning around its vertical axis in which possibly precious time may be lost dur- ing which the passing prey may have vanished for safety. In aqueous take-off, skippers can also perform such shows attaining more than 100 angular degrees, i.e. doing a sort of backward somersault head over tail. As can be seen from fig. 2, the take-off proper, i.e. from leg-stretching to clearing the water (phases b through d in fig. 2), takes roughly 5/100 seconds. If correction move- ments become necessary due to fast moving prey, skippers can respond within split seconds by horizontally turning round, covering 20 angular degrees in 0.013 seconds, i.e. one full round-turn takes only 0.234 s. All these anatomical and physiological pecu- liarities enable the skipper to attain vertical take-off speeds of 3.3 m per second (equal to 11.9 km per hour) which places the skipper way ahead of Rana temporaria with 1.8 m/s (= 6.48 km/h) [Calow and Alexander 1973] and R. ridibunda with 1.4 m/s (=5.04 km/h) [Hirsch 1931] which, moreover, started from a solid launching pad and that, no doubt, pro- vides much more favourable conditions than an aqua-take-off. The skipper’s performance is also ahead of the data (“estimated velocity”) of nine species of Hylidae and Gastrophryne carolinensis (Microhylidae) from Mississippi reported by Zug and Altig (1978). Though in tree-frogs the physical and physiological parameters of their body seem to favour locomotion by leaps and bounds (as their name implies), the best jumper of these authors’ lot attained only an estimated velocity of 2.2 m/s (=7.92 km/h). All this may not seem much if we compare the human high- jumper (3.28 m/s = 11.81 km/h; Luthanen and Komi 1978). For a proper comparison, however, we should focus our attention on the acceleration data which, in the forementioned examples would read 10.35 m/s2 in the human high- jumper, about 10 m/s2 in the space ship launch, but 25.2 m/s2 in R. cyanophlyctis. For further comparison we tabulate the rele- vant data of acceleration and speed of a num- ber of quick jumping animals some of which have been worked out in our laboratory using high speed cinematography and stroboscopy. Unfortunately, the relevant data pertaining to the American bullfrog Rana mugiens Merr. cannot yet be included here from which Hesse and Doflein (1910) stated that it performs leaps of 2 m in length and easily crosses hedges of 1.5 m in height. Gans (1961), reporting on R. catesbeiana, the common American bullfrog, and showing beautiful flash photographs by M. F. Roberts, does not give quantitative data on acceleration and speed except that “segments of the frog’s limbs are moving at speeds in excess of six feet per second” (p. 32) which would correspond to 6.48 km/h, i.e. to the speed of Rana tempo- raria. The quickest space-ship with the fastest acceleration is not worth anything if not pro- perly aimed at its target or destination. And though the average horizontal speed of a blowfly passing across a skipper’s abode is only about 1.6 m/s (= 5.76 km/h, Schneider 1965) and the skipper’s speed easily exceeds this mark, its body, gripping forelegs and tongue need to precisely zero in on the prey if the jump is to succeed. To do so, the frog, after clearing the water with forelegs still “folded” sideways in the ventro-lateral posi- tion along the body, propels both its forelegs snoutwards within one hundredth of a second (Plate I, fig. 3) and within the same short in- terval shoots out its tongue forward so that its 107 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) Table 1 Velocity and acceleration in the jump of some vertebrates and invertebrates ./--// V. ' .vl ? : . Velocity m/s km/h Acceleration m/s2 Author (s) Mammalia Homo Pant her a 0.03 10.91 9.55 16.0 Luthanen and Komi, 1978 Bennet-Clark, 1977 Amphibia Rana ridibunda 1.4 5.04 Hirsch, 1931 Rana catesbeiana 1.8 6.48 Gans, 1961 Rana temporaria 1.8 6.48 Calow and Alexander, 1973 Rana cyanophlyctis 3.3 11.9 25.2 this paper (Micro-)Hylidae 2.2 7.92 Zug and Altig, 1978 Insecta Cicadina/Auchenorrhyncha Philaenus spumarius 3.56 12.82 4750 Sitterle,, 1984 Stenocranus major 3.95 14.22 2420 Sitterle, 1984 Aphrodes bicincta 3.3 11.88 2152 Sitterle, 1984 Aphrophora alni Siphonaptera 3.96 14.26 5125 Sitterle, 1984 Spilopsyllus Coleoptera 1.2 • 4.32 1330 Bennet-Clark and Lucey, 1967 Elateridae Athous 2.4 8.64 3800 Evans, 1972 Lacon 2.75 9.9 6875 Kaschek, 1984 Dalopius Histeridae 1.74 6.26 2970 Kaschek, 1981 Hitter unicolor 0.25 0.9 107 Frantsevich, 1981 Atholus duodecimstriatus Halticinae 0.60 2.16 1177 Frantsevich, 1981 Tlamma 2.3 8.28 1344 Kleine, 1978 Haltica aenescens Mordellinae 1.26 4.54 189 Kleine, 1978 M or dell ochroa abdominal is 0.69 2.48 190 Reuter, 1985 Anaspidinae Anaspis frontalis Saltatoria 0.23 0.83 63.33 Reuter, 1985 Locusta Collembola 3.2 11.52 180 Bennet-Clark, 1975 Sminthurus Myriapoda 1.4 5.04 970 Christian, 1978 Diopsiulus 0.48 1.73 39.0 Evans and Blower, 1973 Amphipoda Orchestia cavimana 1.01 3.64 202 Bracht, 1.980 Hyale nilssoni 0.99 3.56 495 Bracht, 1980 Arachnida Sitticus 0.67 2.41 51.3 Parry and Brown, 1959; Denkler, 1977 Note: In most of the invertebrates mentioned here, the remarkable jumping data are due to various energy storing mechanisms. 108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) two distal tips can nicely and firmly grip the prey (fig. 4). Speeds attained in these “arm” propulsions are upto 3 m/s. Both forelegs now serving as “arms” and hands in tucking the insect into the frog’s mouth (Plate I, fig. 5), the successful jumper falls back into the water in a statistically haphazard manner: head or tail first or last, with the left or right side first touching down on and through the water surface. Normally, after such successful jumps, the skipper dives to the bottom, devouring the prey and returning to its floating position for the next jump. Eig2 4. Tongue action in Rana cyanophlyctis. Time interval between two successive phases: 0.003 seconds. Even after being on its way after take-off, the skipper has two means of correcting its course and improving its aiming success. Not unlike the postural mechanism in a cat falling from a roof and making its landing on its feet rather than its back, skippers can alter their body posture and thus their trajectory by upto 25 angular degrees in flight. Hence they can to a certain extent overcome lateral displace- ments of their prey. Another means of improving the zeroing in on the prey is provided by the tongue even while the frog is already in flight: the flicking movement of the tongue normally aiming straight forward as seen in fig. 1 and 2, can be laterally diverted to cover upto 25 angular degrees. Thus, even fast escaping flies can be caught. Our high frequency shots of normal tongue actions yielded some more data highlighting its efficiency. The tongue in flight can be flicked out of the frog’s mouth upto 20 mm distance, and it takes only 0.016 seconds to do so to full extension. The two sticky lobes of the tongue’s tip envelop the prey and retract in within about the same short time into its buccal resting position. Gans (1961) reported 0.05 s in R. catesbeiana for the tongue to emerge and “less time than this” for retraction. Another interesting retraction concerns the frog’s eyes during the initial phases of its trajec- tory: they are retracted into their sockets. This is also proved in the excellent photos of jump- ing frogs by Roberts (in Gans 1961), and by Dalton (1982) on R . temporaria opining that one cannot think of an aerodynamic effect but rather of a means of protection for the eyes. In fact, Gans (1976) reported that skittering skippers hit a sloping rock upon the fourth or fifth bounce and flipped completely onto their backs: here protected eyes would certainly be advantageous. m JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) On the other hand, however, protectively closed eyes would tend to impede visual (re-) orientation in flight, becoming necessary if, after take-off, the prey has moved away. Gans (1969) has drawn attention to this fact in the American bullfrog and thinks “that the nicti- tating membrane is thick, but transparent, and would seem capable of changing the optical qualities of objects seen through it” (p. 34). In our slow-motion shots, towards the end of the flight, before hitting the prey, the eyebulbs emerge again allowing for better visual input (Plate II, fig. 6c). No doubt, this is a pre- requisite for the remarkable corrections, body, tongue and hands can perform, if the first attempt to grasp the prey proved futile. Ruppell (1979) presented excellent flash photographs and slowmotion shots of Rana esculenta and emphasized the fact that the Refer Annandale, N. (1919): Some frogs from streams in the Bombay Presidency. Rec. Indian Mus. 16: 121-125. Bennet-Clark, H. C. (1975): The energetics of the jump of the locust Schi&tocerca gregaria. J. exp. Biol. 63: 53-83. Blair, A. P. (1950) : Skittering locomotion in Acris crepitans. Copeia 1950 (3) : 237. Bracht, G. (1980): The jump of Orchestia cavi- mana Heller, 1865 (Crustacea, Amphipoda, Tali- tridae). Experientia 36: 56-57. Calow, L. J., and Alexander, R. McN. (1973) : A mechanical analysis of a hindleg of a frog ( Rana temporaria). J. Zool., London, 171; 293-321. Chabanaud, P. (1949): Skittering locomotion of the African frog, Rana occipitalis. Copeia 1949 (4) : 288. Christian, E. (1978): The jump of the spring- tails. Naturwissenschaften 65 : 495-496. Dalton, S. (1982): Caught in Motion. Hongkong. Daniel, J. C. (1974): Amphibia. In: Gazetteer of India. Maharashtra State Gazetteers. General Series: Fauna. Bombay. (1975) : Field guide to the amphi- bians of Western India. Part III. J. Bombay nat. frogs can alter their trajectory while already in flight and perform correction movements apparently guided visually. In one example, after a frog missed and failed to envelop the prey, it fired the next correcting tongue shot a mere 9;/ 100 seconds later. This, according to Ruppell shows “that the behaviour of our water frogs seems much more variable and adaptable to the relevant situation than one has thought so far”. We hold that our quantitative data bear also witness to this fact for the skitter frog and would like to conclude these short notes with Gans, that “many things re- main to be learned, even about the commonest animals, and it is obvious that photography can considerably assist the learning process” (1961, p. 37). We hope to learn more about the skittering method of R. cyanophlyctis in the near future. e n c e s Hist. Soc. 72: 506-522. Denkler, K. H. (1977) : Untersuchungen zur Kinematik des Springvorganges heimischer Salticidae. Thesis, Munster (FRG). Dunn, E. R. (1928) : Results of the Douglas Burden expedition to the island of Komodo. IV. Frogs from the East Indies. Amer. Mus. Novitates 315: 1-9. Evans, M. E. G., and Blower, L. G. (1973) : A jumping millipede. Nature, Lond. 246: 427-428. Ewert, J.-P. (1973): Lokalisation und Identifika- tion im visuellen System der Wirbeltiere. Fortschr. Zool. 21: 307-333. (1980): Neuroethology. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. Frantsevich, L. I. (1981) : The jump of the black- beetle (Coleoptera, Histeridae). Zool. Jb. Anat. 106: 333-348. Gans, C. (1961): A bullfrog and its prey. Natu- ral Hist. 70: 26-37. (1976): The process of skittering in frogs. Ann. Zool. Agra 12 : 27-40. Gray, J. (1968) : Animal Locomotion. London (Weidenfeld and Nicolson). Hem pel, G. (1952): Korpergrosse, Korperzeiten 110 LOCOMOTION AND PREYING IN R. CY ANOPHLY CTIS und Energiebilanz. 7. Mitteilung. Die Energetik des Feldheuschrecken-Sprunges. Z. vergl. Physiol. 34 : 26-40. Hesse, R. and Doflein, F. (1910): Terbau und Tierleben. Bd. 1. Der Tierkorper als selbstandiger Organismus. Leipzig und Berlin. Hirsch, W. (1931) : Zur physiologischen Mecha- nik des FroschsPrunges. Z. vergl. Physiol. 15 : 1-49. Holtmann, Ij. (1985): Funktionsmorphologische Untersuchungen zum aquatischen Nahrungserwerb von Rana cyanophlyctis. Thesis. 53 pp. Munster (FRG). Hudson, R. G. (1952): Observation on cricket frog locomotion. Copeia 1952(3 ) : 185. Janson, H. S. (1953): Skittering locomotion in the frog Hyla cinerea. Copeia 1953 ( 1 ) : 62. Kamon, E. (1971): Electromyographic kinesiology of jumping. Arch. Phys. Med. 1971: 152-157. Kaschek, N. (1981): Vergleichende Untersuchun- gen liber Verlauf und Energetik des Sprunges der Schnellkafer (Elateridae, Coleoptera). Thesis. Mun- ster (FRG). (1984): Vergleichende Untersuchun- gen iiber Verlauf und Energetik des Sprunges der Schnellkafer (Elateridae, Coleoptera). Zool. Jb. Physiol. 88: 361-385. Kleine, G. (1978): Experimentelle Untersuchun- gen zum Sprungvorgang bei Erdflohen (Halticinae) . Thesis, Munster (FRG). Luthanen, P. and Komi, P. V. (1978) : Segmental contribution to forces in vertical jump. Eur. J. appl. Physiol. & occup. Physiol. 38: 181-188. Minton, S. A.: (1966): A contribution to the herpetology of West Pakistan. Bull. Am. Mus. nat. Hist. 134: 51-58. Parry, D. A. and Brown, R. H. J. (1959): The hydraulic mechanism of the spider leg. /. exp. Biol. 36: 423-433. Reuter, M. (1985): Funktionsmorphologische Studien zum Sprung der Stachelkafer (Mordellidae, Coleoptera). Thesis. Munster (FRG). Romer, J. D. (1951) : Surface-locomotion of cer- tain frogs (Rana), and the occurrence of R. taipe- hensis van Denburgh in India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 414-415. Ruppell, G. (1979) : Ein Frosch kann mehr als grosse Spriinge machen. Sielmanns Tierwelt 3 : 25-33. Satyamurti, S. T. (1967): The South Indian Amphibia in the collection of the Madras Govern- ment Museum. Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. new Ser. 7(2): 9-13. Schneider, D. (1954a) : Das Gesichtsfeld und der Fixiervorgang bei einheimischen Anuren. Z. vergl. Physiol. 36 : 146-164. (1954b) : Beitrag zu einer Analyse des Beute- und Fluchtverhaltens einheimischer Anuren. Biol. Zbl. 73 : 225-281. Schneider, P. (1965): Vergleichende Untersuchun- gen zur Steuerung der Fluggeschwindigkeit bei Calli- phora vicina Rob., Desvoidy (Diptera). Z. wiss. Zool. 173: 115-173. Sitterle, J. (1984) : Vergleichende phanomenolo- gische, energetische und funktionsmorphologische Untersuchungen zum Springen der Zikaden (Auche- norrhyncha, Homoptera). Thesis, pp. 126. Munster (FRG). Treff, H.-A. (1970): Der Absprungwinkel beim schragen Sprung des Galago (Galago senegalensis) . Z. vergl. Physiol. 67: 120-132. Zajac, F. E. and Levine, W. S. (1979): Novel experimental and theoretical approaches to study the neuronal control of locomotion and jumping, pp. 259- 279. In : Talbott, R. E., and D. R. Humphrey (Eds.) : Posture and Movement. New York. Zug, G. R. and Altig, R. (1978): Anuran loco- motion — structure and function : The jumping forces of frogs. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 68: 144-147. Zug, G. R. (1978): Anuran locomotion — struc- ture and function, 2: Jumping performance of semi- aquatic, terrestrial, and arboreal frogs. Smith. Con- trib. Zool. 276: 1-31. Ill REDESCRIPTION OF THE CANE TURTLE WITH NOTES ON ITS NATURAL HISTORY AND CLASSIFICATION Edward O. MoliT Brian Groombridgb8 and J. Yijaya5 ( With a colour plate & three text-figures) Geoemyda silvatica, described in 1912 from two specimens collected in Kerala, India ,was rediscovered to science in 1982. This paper reports on the first direct observations by biologists of the species in its natural., habitat along with observations of live captives and preserved specimens. The turtle is redescribed from 20 specimens including ontogenetic and sexual variation. Females tend to be slightly larger, relatively heavier and less colorful than males. Mature females develop a kinetic plastron through erosion of the bony suture between the hypoplastron and carapace. The turtle, an inhabitant of hill forests above 300 meters altitude, Ts a secretive, nocturnal species. It is omnivorous, feeding on arthropods, mollusks, fruits and leafy vegetation. Two large brittle-shelled eggs are laid in the latter months of the year during the dry season. ^ ^ The species was most recently placed in the genus Heosemys based on the absence of a post-orbital bar in the skull. However, it differs from other Heosemys in a number of significant characteristics. Comparisons indicate that it is most closely related to Geoemyda spengleri and thus should be returned to. its original genus. m v ^ i n TRod u CTO N Xil-OS.’!: Vs .'I Until mid- 1982 the eniydid turtle, Heosemys silvatica was known to science by only two specimens, collected in 1911. These specimens were obtained in the dense forest of south- western India near Kavalai, (c. 450 m) in the formef ‘Cochin State Forests’, approximately 30 km east of Chalakiidi, in the Trichur Dis- trict, of Kerala. This locality is on the north- western fringe of the Anaimalai Hills, a region still supporting some areas of evergreen* semi- evergreen rainforest and more seasonal forest. The first known specimen of H. silvatica , 1 Department of Zoology, Eastern H. University, Charleston, IL USA. 2 Conservation Monitoring Centre, 21 9C Hunting- don Rd., Cambridge, UK. 3 Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, Madras, Tamil Nadu, India. an adult male was collected by Kadar tribals (a semi-nomadic hill forest people) and pre- sented to a collecting party headed by J. R. Henderson, superintendent of the Madras Government Museum. A second, immature specirnen, was obtained by Henderson later in 1911 through a European living in Chalakudi. Although the original source of this specimen is unclear, probably it too was collected by the Kadars. The. type description of the species by Henderson (1912) was apparently based on both specimens although color notes and measurements were provided for the male only. The paper also included notes on natural history based on Henderson’s observations of the two captives and on second-hand infor- mation from the Kadars who provided the specimens. No further scientific information on the 112 REDESCRIPTION OF THE CANE TURTLE species was forthcoming for the next 70 years. It is now known that a few specimens entered the pet trade over this period but they were sold under the names Melanochelys tricarinata or M. trijuga (S. R. Sane-personal communi- cation). In 1982 within a space of a few weeks, two researchers (J. Vijaya in July and P. Kannan in August) independently visited the vicinity of the type locality and obtained a living cane turtle female from tribals there. Vijaya subsequently published a brief des- cription of her specimen (originally reported as a male) along with notes on the turtles behavior in captivity and additional observa- tions of the Kadar tribals concerning the natu- ral history (Vijaya 1982 a, b, c). We surveyed the Anaimalai Hills near Kavalai from October 26 to November 5, 1982. Our chief goals were to make first hand observations of the turtle under natural condi- tions, determine its conservation status and obtain several specimens for a captive breed- ing colony at the Madras Crocodile Bank Trust. For a general account of this trip see Groombridge et al. (1983). A shell and twelve living turtles were obtained (ten were observed under natural conditions). Five (1 male, 1 female, 3 juveniles) were marked and released at their collection site. Six (3 males 2 females, 1 juv.) were removed to Madras and placed in a semi-natural enclosure along with female previously obtained by Vijaya. One male was sacrificed for examination of internal and skeletal characteristics. Subsequently we have located and examined an additional eight tur- tles (2 living, 6 preserved) in museum and private collections including the type which is now in the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI 17115) collection in Calcutta. Utilizing data collected from the above specimens, this paper: 1) expands the type description of Heosemys silvatica including information on ontogenetic, individual and sexual variation; 2) augments the meager knowledge of cane turtle natural history with first-hand observations of the species in the wild and with additional observations on the beha- vior of captive; 3) reviews the present classi- fication of the species. Methods For each of the twenty specimens examined, the following measurements were taken with vernier calipers in the manner depicted by Carr (1952) — length of carapace (CL); width of carapace (CW); length of plastron (PL) and the height or depth of shell (H); width of the bridge and of the anterior and posterior lobes of the plastron. Other measurements included length of plastral scutes, and length and width of the vertebral and nuchal scutes. Weights were taken on 8 living specimens. Seam contacts of the five pleural scutes with the marginal scutes were recorded using a modified system of Tinkle (1962). The num- ber of the marginal scute contacted by each seam was recorded sequentially from anterior to posterior followed by one of these symbols <, M, >, indicating the contact was at th® anterior, middle or posterior third of the marginal scute respectively. The neural formula used herein comprises the number of sides for each neural from anterior to posterior. In the case of hexagonal neurals > indicates that the broad end faces anteriorly while a < indi- cates posteriorly. Color descriptions were made by comparing turtle coloration with swatchs of standard colors from the Naturalist’s Color Guide (Smithe 1975). Comparisons were made with Heosemys grandis (8) and H. spinosa (8) from the senior author’s collection, and with Geoemyda s pen- 113 8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) gleri from the USNM collection (10) and R. Hirayama (2) and literature descriptions. Description External Features : Heosemys silvatica is a small, terrestrial turtle (maximum size 131 mm CL) having a relatively low three keeled carapace and a strongly hooked upper mandible among its more prominent features. The margin of the shell is smooth and rounded in older individuals but the posterior portion is moderately reverted in the young. The width of the shell tends to be slightly more than double its height. It is widest in the region of marginals seven and eight and highest between the posterior of vertebral one and the anterior half of vertebral two. The carpa- cial keels are prominent in all but the oldest individuals but the central one is widest and most pronounced. The lateral keels parallel the central one anteriorly but converge to- wards it along the posterior half of the shell. The five pleural scute seams contacted marginals 1 > (90%) — 5 M (80%) — 7 < (90%) — 11 < (65%) respectively for 20 individuals. Although the position of the con- tact on the marginal scute varied somewhat the scutes contacted (1,5,7,9,11) were con- stant except for one individual in which the fifth seam contacted M 10. The nuchal though absent from one individual is usually well developed. Nuchal underlap (length beneath the shell lip) exceeds the dorsal length of the nuchal, a common characteristic of terrestrial species. Henderson (1912) reported that the verte- brals were broader than long except the last where length and width were approximately equal. In 20 individuals examined by us, this held true except that the length and width of vertebral 1 tended to be subequal (being wider in 55% and longer or equal in 45%). Vertebral 1 tended to be widest anteriorly (95%), whereas vertebrals 2-4 were widest in the middle third of the scute (100%) and vertebral 5 was widest posteriorly (100%). The longest median seam of the plastral scutes is usually between the abdominals (90%) whereas the shortest is between the gulars (95%) or the anals (15%). Both gulars and anals are conspicuously notched at the midline. Axillary and inguinal scutes are usually present (67%) but tiny. The posterior lobe of the plastron usually exceeds the width of the bridge (95%). The skin on the posterior dorsal surface of the head is divided forming a series of irre- gular shaped shields. The granular strip of skin posterior to the eye is relatively narrow usually comprising but two scale rows at the eye. The tongue is broad, fleshy and villose in appearance being covered with relatively long, flat, pointed projections. The forelimbs are heavily armored anteriorly with enlarged, imbricate, squarish to penta- gonal shaped scales extending onto the toes and soles of feet. On the hind limbs, enlarged scales are confined to the posterior-medial surface except for the feet where they cover the entire surface. A large pointed scale is present on each heel. Contrary to Smith (1931), the hind legs do not appear club shaped but have moderately elongated toes. The fifth toe is short and off set from the plane of the other four appearing as a small fleshy spur near the heel. Smith reported that the fingers are one- third webbed but usually the vestige of webb- ing is somewhat less than a third of the finger length. Internal Features : This account is based on one male (EOM 2644) dissected and skeletonized for study 114 REDESCRIPTION OF THE CANE TURTLE and the broken shell of a female (EOM 2622). The internal choanae lack flaps and papillae, rather there is a simple ridge of tissue along the lateral border (Type C of Parsons 1960). Cloacal bursae are absent. The penis (Fig. 1) is of the typical bata- medial surface. A pair of sinuses (as indi- cated by lightened spots of tissue associated with a small papilla) are located on either side of the seminal groove between the proxi- mal ends of the plica externa. When turgid, the penis is almost circular in outline and the 1 2 Cf 3 Fig. 1. Comparative penial morphology of 1. Geoemyda silvatica, 2. G. spengleri, 3. Heosemys spinom. In no. 1 letter “a” indicates the plica externa, “b” the plica media (lateralis), “c” the plica media (medialis) and “d” the plica interna. The arrow in no. 3 designates a swollen protuberance on the lateral plica media shared by the three species. The scale marker represents 5 millimeters. gurine type (see Zug 1966). The plica ex- terna is evident as a low triangular fold being somewhat more prominant proximally, its halves converging to an apex at the distal fibrous end. The plica media is a double triangular-shaped fold. The lateral portion is most prominant and is ornamented by a pair of rounded, medially projecting protuberances midway along its length. The medial fold is smaller, lower and has the well-developed flap-like plica interna attached at the proximo- folds of the plica media expand to cover most of the underlying structures, leaving only a small opening near the triangular distal end for the sperm to pass. Skeleton : While a complete description of the skull (Figs. 2&3) will not be attempted here, seve- ral features are of particular importance. The quadratojugal is absent leaving the jugal con- tacting only the maxilla and postorbital. This 115 5V# JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) Fig. 2. Ventral, dorsal and lateral aspects of the skull of the cane turtle. 116 REDESCRIPTION OF THE CANE TURTLE Fig. 3. Frontal view of the skull in A. Heosemys grandis, B. Geoemyda spengleri and C. G. silvatica. Numbers 1 and 2 indicate the premaxilla and maxilla respectively. The arrow indicates the fissure ethmoidalis (solid black). characteristic occurs in other Heosemys, cer- tain Cuora and Hieremys of the batagurines. The foramen palatinum posterious is mode- rately large c. 1 . 5 times longer than wide. The foramen orbito-nasale is tiny — a quarter to third the length of the palatinum posterious. The palatinum posterious of other Heosemys is larger and more elongate usually two or more times as long as wide and at least four times longer than the orbito-nasale. In Geoe- myda and Pyridea the palatinum posterious is small being only slightly larger than the foramen orbito-nasale. The frontal bone enters the orbit; its ante- rior processes are short and do not extend anterior of its lateral projections. The alveolar shelf is relatively narrow. The anterior maxillae-premaxillae articula- tion is unusual among emydids and differs markedly from other Heosemys examined. Usually the maxillae do not contact anteriorly but in silvatica extensions of this bone meet at the anterior medial suture in two places: 1) above the premaxillae forming the inferior border of the external nares and 2) below the premaxillae at the apex of the tomium (margin of jaw) forming a projected hooked beak. The premaxillae thus appear as a small island surrounded by the maxillae (Fig. 3). In other Heosemys the premaxillae form the tomium anteriorly and instead of a projected hook, the midline is bicuspid — notched and flanked by a triangular projection on each side (Fig. 3). The cervical articulations based on this one specimen is unusual in respect to the fifth and sixth vertebrae. In most batagurines the articulation here is single but this speci- men has a double joint between 5 and 6, an emydine characteristic (McDowell 1964). The neural formula for four shells examined was quite variable: A = 6<4-8-4-8-4-7-5; B=4-6>8-4-8-4-8-4; C=6<6< 6<4-8-4-6>6> D = 5-7-6<4-8-4-6>7. The most consistent feature of the formula was that neurals 4, 5 and 6 were 4, 8 and 4-sided respectively. An unusual feature of the plastron is that the humeropectoral suture curves downward 117 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) bordering the posterior margin of the ento- plastron where it joins the hypoplastron. The plastral buttresses are weakly developed. The axillary buttresses attach to the carapace on costal 1 at the costoperipheral suture whereas the inguinal buttresses fuse to costal 5, again at the costoperipheral suture. Coloration : Although marked sexual dichromatism is relatively rare among the Testudines, it does occur in several batagurines (Moll et al. 1981). Heosemys silvatica has obvious sexual color differences. The descriptions below are based on color notes taken from 3 juveniles, 4 females and 4 males. Juveniles are chiefly light brown (PI. I-D). The carapace varies from cinnamon to clay and except for a somewhat lighter stripe along the central keel, is unicolored. The ground color of the head and neck is similar to that of the shell but is variously marked with orange. A pale orange post-ocular stripe runs from the eye, above the tympanum and ends at its posterior edge. Several orange tubercles dot the granular strip of skin between the tympanum and the eye. The clay-colored iris is surrounded by an orange sclera and eyelid. The dark background of the turtle’s chin is also dotted with orange tubercles and the lower mandible has an orangish cast. A light clay stripe runs from the side of the nostril across the upper mandible to the angle of the jaws or may extend to meet the post-ocular stripe. The large shingle-like scales of the forelimb are dark brown with a narrow orange inferior border. The venter varies from buff yellow to cream. A dark plastral figure is confined to the mid- line of the pectorals, abdominals, femorals and sometimes the anals. The bridge is dark brown. Females maintain the juvenile coloration to a greater degree than males but differ in seve- ral respects (PI. I-C). The largest individual observed had a dark brown stripe along the central keel and on the anterior third of each lateral keel. Otherwise the carapace is un- patterned, being somewhat more reddish than juveniles and varying from cinnamon to tawny or raw umber. Typical head coloration ranges from clay to cinnamon rufous. The largest again varied in that the coloration of the skin of the head and mandibles was a buff that had become heavily infused with red giving the overall appearance of a light brick red. The post-ocular stripe when present is a dull gera- nium pink (1 of 4 examined lacked the stripe). A light buff stripe extends from the snout over the top of the eye to the post-ocular stripe. The iris is amber to chrome orange and is surrounded by a scarlet to flame scarlet sclera. The mandibles are a dull buff which may be washed with red. The plastron tends to be buff to buff yellow but the central plastral figure is absent except for some scattered dark pig- ment along the seams. Brown pigment is still present on the bridge but this is relatively light. The skin of the limbs is dirty gray with the large scales being cinnamon brown to gray brown or grayish olive. Males are generally darker and have brighter pink markings than females (PI. I-A). The male coloration was also more variable than the females in the group examined. The head is usually black with a geranium pink snout and post-ocular stripe. The stripe may be complete or broken into parts. In one, the pink had expanded to cover the sides and much of the posterior of the head (PI. I-B). Another variant was the largest (oldest?) male in which the post-ocular stripe was absent and the top and sides of the head were almost entirely black. The only pink on this indivi- 118 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (supplement) Plate Moll, Groombridge & Vijaya: Cane Turtle Sexual and ontogenetic variation in the coloration of cane turtles from the Trichur District, Kerala. (A) Typical coloration of an adult male (118 mm CL). (B) A young male (115 mm CL) with unusually extensive red head markings. (C) Coloration of an large adult female (131 mm CL). (D) Coloration of a juvenile. Note similarity of coloration to that of leaf litter. REDESCRIPT ION OF THE CANE TURTLE dual was a pair of flat tubercles in the granular skin anterior to the tympanum. The iris is usually flame scarlet surrounded by a scarlet sclera. The rim of the eyelid is geranium pink. Again the largest male varied by having a creamy white iris, a scarlet sclera and no pink on eyelid. The mandible is yellow to orange-yellow and considerably brighter than that of the female. The chin is a creamy white with scattered pink flecks. The skin of the forelimbs is dirty gray and the scutes on the anterior surface are olive brown. The carapace is much darker than that of the female varying from burnt umber to dusky brown. Henderson (1912) characterized the coloration as uniformly black or almost dark bronze. The plastron is straw to sulfur yellow. The plastral figure is absent or reduced. In two individuals having the figure, one had only a black blotch on either side of the mid- femoral seam whereas in the other the dark figure was evident only at the midline on the femoral and anal scutes. In the latter, lines of dark pigment also extended laterally along the seams of the humerals, abdominals and femo- rals. The bridge and adjoining marginals are much more darkly pigmented (burnt umber to dusky brown) than that of females. The other marginals are the color of the plastron. Previously we suggested that the bright colo- ration of the eye and head might be seasonal (Groombridge et al. 1983). This has not been confirmed. Captives at the Madras Crocodile Bank did not change appreciably in color over eight months of observations. Based on this small sample there may be an ontogenetic change, however, with older males tending to lose the bright red markings. Sexual Dimorphism : In addition to the striking color differences, males and females differ in certain structural features easily observed externally. As is com- mon in terrestrial and semiterrestrial turtles, the male has a concave plastron compared to females in which the plastron is relatively flat. Male silvatica have an elongated concavity involving the abdominal and femoral regions. A second dimorphic feature is the tail which is more elongated and thicker at the base in males. The length of the tail proximal to the cloacal opening easily exceeds the portion distal to it whereas in the females the proximal portion is the shorter. Based on the data in Table 1, females tend to be somewhat larger and more massive than males. The composite male of the sample would measure in millimeters 115 CL — 81 CW — 99 PL — 40 . 5 H whereas the composite female would be 121 CL — 87 CW — 108 PL — 43 H. Although weights were taken for only a few, females seem to be much heavier than males of a comparable length. A small female (116 mm CL) length weighed 222 grams whereas the largest male examined (125 mm CL) weighed only 159 grams. The most unusual dimorphic feature con- cerns the connection of the hypoplastron to the carapace. In males and immatures, the plastron is solidly joined to the carapace by a bony suture. As females mature, however, the bony connection between hyponlastron and the carapace begins to erode and is replaced by ligament. The plastron becomes somewhat more moveable, an adaptation which likely allows for the passage of the relatively large eggs which otherwise could not fit through the posterior opening of the shell. Sexually dimorphic plastral kinesis (term of Waagen 1984) has been reported for several other batagurines. Anderson (1878) first re- ported that the hypoplastral-carapacial connec- tion is ligamentous in female Melanochelys tricarinata. Smith (1931) and Moll (1985) 119 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) Table 1 Standard measurements of living and preserved Heosemys silvatica are rounded to the nearest MILLIMETER AND WEIGHTS ROUNDED TO THE NEAREST GRAM. ALL KNOWN SPECIMENS ARE FROM KERALA. THE TYPE SPECIMEN WAS REMEASURED FOR THIS PAPER. Field or Museum Numbers Sex Locality CL CW PL H WGT 12L Juv Trichur District 58 48 47 20 — 2R Juv Trichur District 59 48 47 22 — 1L1R Juv Trichur District 64 56 52 25 24 1R Juv Trichur District 67 55 53 25 — 8R F(IM) Ernakulam District 105 81 92 39 95 UF 52515 F Kozhikode District 114 88 105 41 — 9R F Trichur District 116 87 110 45 222 11L F Trichur District 117 84 103 41 — — F Idukki District 120 86 107 43 — EOM 2622 F Trichur District 125 87 109 — — — F Idukki District 127 91 113 47 — — F Trichur District 131 92 119 46 245 10L M Trichur District 100 80 87 35 — EOM 2644 M Trichur District 113 78 99 38 134 12R M Trichur District 115 80 99 42 139 EOM 2890 M Trichur District 118 81 104 41 157 ZSI 17115 (type) M Trichur District 120 82 104 44 — 10R M Trichur District 125 83 105 43 159 have confirmed this observation. Mertens (1942) later described a more extreme condi- tion in Heosemys spinosa in which the erosion includes not only the hypoplastral-carapace connection but the lateral portion of the hyo- hypoplastral suture as well. Pritchard and Trebbau (1984) reported that the bridge of female Rhinoclemmys is poorly ankylosed posteriorly and the posterior butresses do not fuse to the carapace. In making comparisons for the relationship section of this paper, we discovered that the condition may also be present in Geoemyda spengleri. In one female examined (USNM 34053) the posterior portion of the hypoplastral-carapacial connection is not solid and appears ligamentous. This observa- tion needs to be confirmed on additional specimens particularly on living turtles and skeletal material. The genera Cyclemys and Notochelys differ from the above in that both sexes develop the hinged plastron and ligamen- tous connection of plastron to carapace at maturity. Natural History All previous natural history information on Heosemys silvatica had been obtained second- hand from tribals or from observations on three captive specimens. The following obser- vations on cane turtle natural history reported by Henderson (1912) and Vijaya (1982a, b, c.) are: 1 . a terrestrial species inhabiting hill forests of Kerala above 1000 feet altitude. 2. herbivorous, feeding on fruits and other vegetation. 120 REDESCRIPTION OF THE CANE TURTLE 3. preyed upon by man (Kadars), wild dogs, leopards and other carnivores of the area. 4. secretive nocturnal or crepuscular forms hiding in short underground burrows or among spiny cane plants ( Calamus sp.), under logs and within rock crevices dur- ing periods of inactivity. 5. two eggs are laid in a small depression on the ground. Now that we have observed these turtles under natural conditions and greater numbers in captivity, we are able to support some of these observations while refuting others. Habitat : We observed cane turtles in an unlogged area of semi-evergreen hill forest on gentle to steep slopes at some 400 meters altitude. The most productive sites had a considerable undergrowth of herbaceous plants around one to two feet high. Turtles were either conceal- ed beneath these plants or amidst the floor leaf litter. The three-ridged, light-colored shell of juveniles especially resembled the coloration and vein pattern of leaves among the litter making them particularly difficult to discern. The turtles appeared to be completely terrestrial. A small stream ran through the area but none were found closely associated with it. In regard to Henderson’s (1912) report that the turtles inhabit short underground burrows, we found no burrows in the vicinity of our collections. However, it is still possible that they may utilize burrows at other (drier?) times of the year. The Kadar name for H. silvatica, ‘churel amai’, means cane turtle — cane referring to a plant species of the genus Calamus which is common in the area. Although the Kadar’s report that the turtle uses this spiny plant as cover, we found none near the cane. Diet : Our findings contradict previous reports that the cane turtle is herbivorous. These reports were based on observations of captive indivi- duals which showed a predilection for fruits and vegetables (Henderson 1912, Vijaya 1982 a, b, c). A preliminary account of our survey (Groom- bridge et al. 1983) reported finding a millipede scute in feces of a wild individual. We now have analyzed fecal samples from 5 wild caught individuals (3 males, 1 female and 1 imma- ture). Four of the five samples contained ani- mal food comprising 20 to 70 percent of the total (Table 2). Millipede parts were most common and occurred in all four samples. Shells of gastropod mollusks were in three samples and one sample contained a buprestid beetle (possibly Chrysoris stollii). In contrast, definitely identifiable plant material (pieces of leaves) occurred in only one sample. However, there was a great deal of material in all the samples which could not be definitely assigned to plant or animal. As soft fleshy portions of fruit which are readily eaten in captivity would digest rather thorough- ly, some to all of this unidentified matter could be of such material. This remains to be demonstrated. In captivity the six silvatica kept at the Madras Crocodile Bank Trust (MCBT) regu- larly ate the plant material offered. They have been seen feeding on bananas, jack fruit, pine- apple, and tomatoes. The turtles were also fed carrots, greens, apples and cabbage which regularly disappeared but whether this was due to the turtles or wild rodents is not known. Two observations of carnivory were made by MCBT staff. One turtle was seen feeding on termites attracted to the electric light hanging 121 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 (, SUPPLEMENT ) Table 2 Analysis of fecal contents from five Heosemys silvatica collected October 30 and 31, 1982 in the Anaimalai Hills of Kerala. Importance of each food item is indicated first by the percent of the VOLUME IT COMPRISED IN EACH INDIVIDUAL’S GUT CONTENTS AND SECONDLY BY THE PERCENT FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE (PERCENT OF THE FIVE SAMPLES WHICH CONTAINED THE ITEM) Food Item Sample Sex Millipedes Snails Insect Plant Unident 1 M 70% _ _ — 30% 2 M 10% 15% — — 75% 3 M 5% 15% — — 80% 4 F 10% 5% 30% — 55% 5 Im — — — 15% 85% % Freq. of Occurrence 80% 60% 20% 20% 100% in the enclosure. On another occasion a turtle was observed covered with small black ants. Everytime an ant approached the turtles jaws it made a sharp sideways jerk of the head simultaneously snapping the jaws. The observer felt the turtle was catching the ants rather than using this behaviour in defense against them. Behavior : Diurnal cycle — Our observations confirm a crepuscular-nocturnal cycle. Members of the captive population usually spent the daylight hours hidden beneath leaf litter emerging only at dusk or after to forage and move about. To quantify these observations employees of the Madras Crocodile Bank made regular checks of the turtle’s enclosure through the day and night from mid-December through January recording the number of turtles that were active (exposed with heads out) (Table 3). In 48 days of observation active turtles were recorded 47 times and 41 (87%) of these observations were at night. Of the latter, 27 (65%) were observed in the early evening (1900-2200). Both sets of observations deviat- ed significantly from those expected through chance alone (X2 =. 37.59 P<0.001 and X2 = 7.19 PC. 01 respectively). Table 3 Activity periods of captive cane turtles at the Madras Crocodile Bank recorded over a 48 day period (December 15, 1982 -January 31, 1983) Time Day Active Turtles Observed 0800 • — 1000 3 1300 1 1600 2 6 Night 1900 16 2200 11 0100 5 0400 9 41 Aggression and defensive behavior — Aggressive behavior though not widely report- ed in turtles is not uncommon (see Bury et al. 1979, Bury and Wolfheim 1973, Froese and Burghardt 1974, Harless 1979). On May 10, 1983 an aggressive encounter was observed between two of the captive males (118 mm CL and 115 mm CL) which had been removed 122 REDESCRIPTION OF THE CANE TURTLE from their enclosure and placed in a plastic tub along with two females. After approxi- mately half an hour, the larger male was observed rapidly approaching the smaller with the head and neck partially extended and the mouth open. Upon reaching the smaller, the larger bit at its head causing it to withdraw into the shell. The larger then moved away but when the smaller again extended its head and neck the larger approached once again with the mouth gaping. This time the smaller turned its head away and tipped its carapace toward the aggressor again stopping the attack. The tipping of the carapace was very similar to the defensive behavior of the snapping turtle Chelydra serpentina described by Dodd and Brodie (1975). The large turtle attacked the smaller on two more occasions during an hour period of observation. The smaller never made any attempt to actively defend itself but assumed the tipped carapace posture on both occasions. Another type of defensive behavior was observed in both sexes. Cane turtles when picked up frequently defecated. Males used the penis to push feces out of the cloaca. In- terestingly, they continued to extend the penis outside of the tail even after all feces had been expelled. This behavior provided the investi- gators opportunity to examine the penis in a turgid state. Reproduction : On 22 December 1982, two eggs were dis- covered in the turtle enclosure at the Madras Crocodile Bank (Whitaker 1983). The small size of the opaque band that had formed on one of the eggs indicated that they had been laid within a couple days of that date. The eggs set in a slight depression in the sand substrate covered with leaf litter. They had hard brittle shells that measured 44 mm x 22.5 mm and 45 mm x 23.5 mm. Unfortunately the only egg to develop an opaque band (in- dicating its viability) was broken either by the turtle or by the discoverers. No weights were taken at the time of discovery but the intact egg (smaller) weighed 15.25 grams on Janu- ary 8. Although it is uncertain which of two mature females in the enclosure laid these eggs, an examination on January 4 found that the plastron of the larger (131 mm CL) was particularly flexible at the ligamentous con- nection with the carapace. Assuming this female laid the clutch, the egg size indices based on length (egg length /Cl x 100) and weight (egg weight /turtle weight x 100) would be 35.1 and 6.2 respectively. By comparison, a terrestrial emydid from the Nearctic ( Terra - pene Carolina ) had length and weight indices of 28.8 and 2.2 respectively. Batagurine emydids lay unusually large eggs compared to their body size and Heosemys are at the upper extreme of the group. This observation adds credence to informa- tion from the Kadars that the turtle usually lays 2 eggs. These same tribals reported that the nesting season was in October and Nov- ember. Classification The cane turtle was originally placed in the genus Geoemyda which then housed a variety of semiaquatic to terrestrial forms inhabiting both Oriental and Neotropical regions. McDowell (1964) reorganized the Emydidae largely on the basis of cranial anatomy and partitioned the genus Geoemyda into the genera — Heosemys , Melanochelys, Rhinoclemmys and Geoemyda. Although he examined no specimens, silvatica was included in the genus Heosemys alongwith depressa, grandis, spinosa 123 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 (, SUPPLEMENT ) and leytensis presumably because the skull lacks a temporal arch. A “Geoemyda Complex” was erected housing all the old members of the genus Geoemyda plus Cuora, Cyclemys and Notochelys. McDowell’s classification has been widely used (with modification) by present day workers but alternative classifications do exist. Wermuth and Mertens (1977) for example classified Geoemyda, Heosemys, Melanochelys and Rhinoclemmys as subgenera under the Genus Geoemyda. Bramble (1974) in review- ing the shell closing apparatus of emydids pro- posed a Heosemys complex including Cuora, Cyclemys, Pyxidea and Heosemys. However, he was unaware of sexually dimorphic plastral kinesis in certain genera at this time (see Moll 1985). Having now had the opportunity to examine both skeletal and living material, we question the placement of silvatica with the genus Heosemys. The temporal arch has been lost in other batagurine lines independently (e.g. Cuora flavomarginata, C. galbinifrons, Hiere- mys annandalii) and hence cannot alone be diagnostic. Other skull similarities such as relatively large palatinus posterious foramina and tiny orbito-nasale foramina are shared by most members of the Geoemyda complex. Conversely there are a number of signifi- cant differences between silvatica and the other Heosemys. Table 4 summarises a number of the differences and similarities. Overall we conclude the differences outweigh the simila- rities and indicate a different generic allocation of silvatica. One recent classification by Lorenz Table 4 Comparison of silvatica with Geoemyda ( spengleri ) and Heosemys ( spinosa and grandis ) relative to 17 CHARACTER STATES — “+” INDICATES THE CHARACTER IS PRESENT. ABSENT AND “±” AN INTERMEDIATE CONDITION No. Character silvatica Geoemyda Heosemys 1. Hooked Beak + + _ 2. Maxillae meet anteriorly excluding premaxillae from labial border of mandible + + 3. Pterygoid does not contact Jugal + + _ 4. Fissure ethmoidalis relatively narrow + + — 5. Choanae-Type C (Parsons 1968) + + — 6. Carapace with 3 prominant keels + + - 7. Cloacal bursae _ _ + 8. Pattern of dark rays on plastral scutes _ _ + 9. Sexual dimorphic plastral kinesis + + 10. Postorbital bar present _ + — 11. Posterior palatine foramina large and elongated ± _ + 12. Inferior process of parietal convergent ventrally narrowing cranial cavity if- + 13. Posterior margin of carapace strongly serrated _ + + 14. Humero-pectoral seam transverses entoplastron _ + + 15. Large bony shingle-like scutes on forearm + + + 16. Enlarged scutes on the sole of the foot + + + 17. Knob-like prominences on lateral plica media of penis + + + 124 REDESCRIPT ION OF THE CANE TURTLE (1984) has already excluded silvatica from the genus. Following recommendations made by Mertens (1942, 1971), Lorenz lumped all members of the Geoemyda complex having a ray-like pattern on the plastral scutes ( dentata , depressa, grandis and spinosa) into the genus Cyclemys. Those Heosemys lacking such a pattern ( silvatica and leytensis) were not in- cluded nor was their generic allocation discussed. Perhaps the most significant character for assigning silvatica to a new genus is the nature of the hooked beak. The aforementioned ex- tensions of the maxillae which form the beak and surround the premaxillae is an unusual derived feature, rare among batagurines. We are aware of only one other member of the Geoemyda complex having this trait — the leaf turtle, Geoemyda spengleri (Fig. 3). This species like silvatica is a small, three keeled, terrestrial turtle. The nominate race of leaf turtles G. s. spen- gleri has been reported from southern China, Viet Nam and Indonesia. Another race G. s. japonica occurs on Okinawa. In addition to the hooked beak and the strong superficial resemblance, silvatica and spengleri share a variety of other characteristics not shared with Heosemys (Table 4). Among these the lack of contact between pterygoid and jugal bones of the skull and the absence of cloacal bursae are particularly noteworthy. Both species lack the ray type of plastral pattern. The plastral pattern of spengleri , a uniformly dark bridge and plastron except for a peripheral border of yellow, could have evolv- ed into the small dark central figure of silvatica through a simple reduction in extent of the dark pigment. Despite the distinct differences, we concur with McDowell (1964) that the genera Geoemyda and Heosemys are themselves closely related. Similarities in scutellation of the foreleg and foot and penial morphology (Fig. 1) support this conclusion. In certain traits silvatica is intermediate between the con- dition in the Heosemys and spengleri (Tables 4, Nos. 11 & 12) or is more similar to Heosemys (Table 4, No. 10). In the framework of the McDowell (1964) classification, we recommend that silvatica be removed from the genus Heosemys and be included in the genus Geoemyda . McDowell included two other species with hooked beaks ( Pyxidea mouhotii and Cuora flavomarginata) as members of Geoemyda. It is beyond the scope of this paper to extensive- ly evaluate the merits of this inclusion. We have not examined flavomarginata but it is worth noting that mouhotii does differ from silvatica and spengleri on one key feature. The pre- maxillae rather than the maxillae forms the beak in mouhotii. The jugal bone of mouhotii is similar, however, in not contacting the pterygoid. More comparisons are needed to clarify these relationships. Acknowledgements We thank the Kerala Forest Department, particularly Shri G. Mukundan (Additional Chief Conservator of Forests), Shri R. Nair (Conservator of Forests, Trichur District) and Shri Joseph (Divisional Forest Officer, Chala- kudi Division, Trichur District) for permission to visit the study area and for aid in reaching the site. Romulus and Zaida Whitaker of The Madras Crocodile Bank Trust generously pro- vided assistance in obtaining permits, items of equipment, and the use of their facilities. We are indebted to Dr. P. Cherian, Mr. R. Hirayama, Shri P. Kannan, Dr. John Legler (UU), Mr. Peter Meylen (UF); Shri S. R. Sane, Dr. R. C. Sharma (ZSI) and Dr. G. Zug 125 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) (USNM) for allowing us to examine speci- mens in their care. Ms Kit Morice provided figures 1 and 3. The senior author’s studies were financed by an Indo-American Fellowship Refer Anderson, J. (1878-9) : Anatomical and zoologi- cal researches and zoological results of the Yunnan expeditions. Bernard Quaritch, London. Bramble, D. M. (1974): Emydid shell kinesis: biomechanics and evolution. Copeia 1974(3 ) : 70 7- 727. Bury, R. B. & Wolfheim, J. H. (1973) : Aggres- sion in free-living pond turtles (Clemmys marmo- rata). BioScience 23: 659-662. Bury, R., Wolfheim, J. & Luckenbach, R. (1979): Agonistic behavior in free-living painted turtles (Chrysemys picta bellii). Biol. Behav. 4 : 227-240. Carr, A. F. (1952) : Handbook of turtles. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY. Dodd, C. K. & Brodie, E. D. jr. (1975) : Notes on the defensive behavior of the snapping turtle, Chelydra serpentina. Herpetologica 31: 286-288. Froese, A. D. & Burghardt, G. M. (1974) : Food competition in captive juvenile snapping turtles, Chelydra serpentina. Anim. Behav., 22: 735-740. Groombridge, B., Moll, E. & Vijaya, J. (1983): Rediscovery of a rare Indian turtle. Oryx 17(3): 130-134. Harless, M. (1979): Social behavior, pp. 445- 492. In: M. Harless and H. Morlock (eds.) Turtles — perspectives and research. J. Wiley and Sons, New York. Henderson, J. R. (1912): Preliminary note on a new tortoise from south India. Rec. Indian Mus. 7: 217-218. Lorenz, W. (1984) : Die asiatischen Schildkroten der Familie Emydidae. Pt. 2. Die Gaffungen Cycle- mys Bell 1834 and Notochelys Gray 1863. Schild- krote 6(1) : 4-20. McDowell, S. B. (1964) : Partition of the genus Clemmys and related problems in the taxonomy of the aquatic Testudinidae. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 143: 239-279. Mertens, R. (1942): Zwei Bemerkungen iiber Schildkroten Siidost-Asiens. Seneckenbergiana 25: 41-46. — — — (1971) : Die stachelschildkrote (Heosemys spinosa) und ihre Verwandten. Sala- mandra 7(2) : 49-54. Moll, E. O. (1985): Comment: Sexually dimor- phic plastral kinesis — the forgotten papers. Herp. Rev. 16(1): 16, and a grant from the New York Zoological Society. The second author was supported by a grant from the People’s Trust for Endanger- ed Species. EN CES Moll, E., Matson, K. & Krehbiel, E. (1981): Sexual and seasonal dichromatism in the Asian river turtle Callagur borneoensis. Herpetologica 37 (4) : 181-194. Parsons, T. S. (1960) : The structure of the choanae of the Emydinae (Testudines : Testudinidae) . Bull Mus. Comp. Zool. 123(4): 111-127. (1968) : Variation in the choanal structure of recent turtles. Canadian J. Zool. 46(6) : 1235-1263. Pritchard, P. C. H. & Trebbau, P. (1984) : The turtles of Venezuela. Soc. for Study of Amphibians and Reptiles. Smith, M. A. (1931) : The fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and amphibia, vol. I. Loricata, Testudines. Taylor and Francis, London. Smithe, F. B. (1975) : Naturalist’s color guide. American Mus. Nat. Hist., New York. Tinkle, D. W. (1962): Variation in shell mor- phology of North American turtles. I. The carapacial seam arrangements. Tulane Stud. Zool., 9(5) : 331- 349. Vijaya, J. (1982a) : Rediscovery of the forest cane turtle, (Heosemys silvatica) and Kerala. Hamadryad. 7(3): 2-3. (1982b) : Rediscovery of the forest cane turtle, Heosemys (Geoemyda) silvatica (Repti- lia, Testudinata, Emydidae) from Chalakudy forests in Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79: 676-677. (1982c) : Rediscovery of a rare turtle from Kerala forest. Hornbill. 1982(4) : 25-26. Waagen, G. N. (1984) : Sexually dimorphic plas- tral kinesis in Heosemys spinosa. Herp. Rev. 15 : 33-34. Wermuth, H. & Mertens, R. (1977): Testudines, Crocodylia, Rhynchocephalia. In Liste der rezenten Amphibien und Reptilien. Das Tierreich 100 (I-XXVII). Walter de Gruyter Berlin. Whitaker, R. (1983) : World’s rarest turtle (we think) lays eggs in captivity. Hamadryad 5(1): 13. Williams, E. E. (1950): Variation and selection in the cervical central articulations of living turtles. Bull. American Mus. Nat. Hist. 94: 505-562. Zug, G. R. (1966) : The penial morphology and the relationships of Cryptodiran turtles. Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan. 647: 1-24. 126 ON THE TAXONOMIC STATUS OF PSITTACULA INTERMEDIA (ROTHSCHILD) S. R. Sane1, P. Kannan2, C. G. Rajendran3, S. T. Ingle3 and A. M. Bhagwat3 (With a text-figure) Specimens belonging to four species of Indian parakeets were studied for biochemical characteristics. A comparative analysis of the variations in haemoglobin, plasma albumin and enzymes lactate dehydrogenase and non-specific esterases on PAGE was made so as to understand the taxonomic affinities of parakeets with special reference to the little known Rothschild’s parakeet, Psittacula intermedia. Such an analysis considered along with constant morphological differences between specimens of P. intermedia strongly suggests an independent identity of P. intermedia as a valid species. Sexual dimorphism in this species is Introduction Psittacula intermedia the Rothschild’s para- keet is known to science only from 7 skins in the Rothschild’s collection of American Museum of Natural History (AMNH). Of these 7 specimens 6 are alike and the all-green seventh is believed to be an immature speci- men. For description of the species and body measurements refer to Rothschild (1895) and Biswas (1959). Walters (1985) has elabora- tely discussed the taxonomic status of Psitta- cula intermedia on the basis of published literature. He has concluded that “there is no hard evidence at all in favour for intermedia being a hybrid, and all available evidence, (though inconclusive) points to it being a dis- crete taxon”. Further he has suggested that the group be treated as a species owing to 1 M/s Sachetan, L 4-5, Sitaram Building, Palton Road, Bombay 400 001. 2 Wild Life Regional Office, 11, Air Cargo Com- plex, Sahar, Bombay 400 057. 8 Department of Biological Sciences, R. J. College, Ghatkopar (West), Bombay 400 086. identified for the first time. lack of information whether it would be a species or sub-species of himalayana/cyano - cephala/roseata groups. In addition Walters (loc. cit.) has also remarked that “if it is not extinct, it is probably highly endangered” as live specimens have not been found for so many years. Sane (1975, 1977) the first of the authors of this paper in his letter to the Avicultural Society (1975) and as an appeal to Parrot Society, U. K. (1977), reported about an immature live specimen of P. intermedia in his collection. 2. Notwithstanding its rarity, each year between 1979 and 1984, one or two live speci- mens of this species were available in the Indian bird market most of which could not however be acquired by us due to restrictions under the Indian Wild Life (Protection) Act. These birds were reportedly trapped in the plains of Uttar Pradesh, around Mattiyar and Varanasi regions, along with Roseringed (P. krameri) and Blossomheaded (P. cyano - cephala) parakeets. Some of these birds had the maroon shoulder patch. This year also (May 1985) we have received one of these 127 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) wildcaught birds with a shoulder patch, re- sembling Rothschild’s description of P. inter- media but sent to us as a mutation of P. cyano- cephala. 3. One of the Rothschild’s parakeets in the Collection (Sane 1977) died in 1978 after getting an adult plumage. It did not have the maroon /red wing patched but was un- layana. But the sub-adult female received by us earlier this year was to begin with practi- cally all-green, with only a faint suggestion of the maroon shoulder patch. As we write this paper in September 1985 the maroon patch has already become quite prominant as also the lilac on the sides of the head extending to the ears. The body measurements (see Table 1) of Table 1 A comparison of measurements (in mm) of P. intermedia holotype and paratypes with study SPECIMENS Specimen Wing Tail Bill Remarks 1. Holotype 157 — 20.5 Preserved skin with maroon wing patch. Not sexed. 2. Para type (5) 148, 155, 156, 185, 202, 19, 20, 20, — do — 155, 168 221 21,21 3. Specimen in BNHS L 153 Measured when the bird was Collection R 151 223 21.5 alive. Sexed after death $ , no wing patch. 4. $ adult with SRS L 162 Living mated with Rosering. R 161 234 21.5 No wing patch. 5. $ Subadult with L 152 212 21 Living with a maroon SRS R 155 wing patch. doubtedly a male with developed testes. An- other male in the collection, which is still living, had mated with a female Roseringed parakeet. However, the eggs laid were infertile. 4. These two specimens indicate that con- trary to the assumption of Biswas (1959), the 6 skins of adult P. intermedia in the collection of AMNH are all females ! This is in marked contrast to the shoulder patch in other species of this genus where when present in one of the sexes (Blossomheaded, Slatyheaded) it is a character of the male or may be present in both sexes as in Rosyheaded (P. roseata) and Alexandrine parakeets. It is not clear to us as to how Biswas (loc. cit.) and others before him identified the all-green seventh skin in AMNH as an immature specimen of inter- media since it could as well be that of hima- this female specimen are within the range of females in AMNH. The measurements of the two males of P. intermedia given below are fresh data on this species and suggest that the males are slightly larger than the females. 5. One other sexual difference among In- dian parakeets (in fact, parrots in general) well known to aviculturists is the thickness of the white ring in the eye. In Roseringed, Alexandrine and Blossomheaded parakeets the female has a slightly thicker white ring around the iris than the males. This also seems true of P. intermedia. Colours of soft parts undergo considerable change soon after death and due to action of the preservatives. Given below is the descrip- tion of soft parts of P. intermedia based on live specimens with us. 128 TAXONOMIC STATUS OF PSITTACULA INTERMEDIA Beak : Similar in both sexes; the upper beak red, not the bright red of Roseringed or Alexandrine but a lighter shade of vermilion with pale margin all around. The lower beak is black which has not faded at all in the specimen in BNHS. The beaks of all three live specimens studied by us are as described here and not cream-yellow as in the colour illustra- tion of Foreshaw (1973). It is noteworthy that the description of the holotype by Rothschild (1895) gives the colour of the “under man- dible” as “orange-yellow”. We suggest that the lower beak colour in holo and paraytpes may have been affected by chemicals used for preserving the specimens. Call Notes : Generally very silent in capti- vity but we have heard the birds give a single syllable, loud, throaty call, not unlike that of Roseringed parakeet. 6. The use of biochemical characteristics to determine taxonomic relations is rapidly becoming popular (Ferguson 1980). An ana- lysis of these characters, along with morpho- metric and ecological factors yields valuable information on the systematics of a species. For the present study we analysed variations in the biochemical characters such as haemo- globin (Hb), Plasma albumin (Alb) and isoenzymes Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and non specific esterases (Est) of 9 species of Indian parakeets. However considering the limited scope of this paper we have restricted the data to P. intermedia and 3 other Indian parakeets (P. himalayana, P. cyanocephala and P. krameri ) which some authors, notably Hussain (1959) suspected to be the parent form of a hybrid, the Rothschild’s parakeet ! The following is a report on this analysis: Material and Methods Blood samples each of c. 0.3 ml. were col- lected using a syringe, from adult parakeet specimens of different species in the collection of SRS, without killing the birds. The samples were centrifuged to separate red blood cells (RBC) from the plasma and the fresh plasma used as a source of the plasma albumin and enzymes LDH and Est. The different proteins in the samples of plasma as well as Hb were separated by Poly- acrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (PAGE) under carefully controlled factors like gel concentra- tion (7.5%), pH of stacking (8.3) and run- ning (9.5) gel, buffer system (Tris-glycine pH 8.3), voltage, current (4 mA per tube), tem- perature (4°C ± 1°C) the time of the run etc. Near constancy of these factors has faci- litated a comparative analysis of the results. The dye bromophenol blue, mixed with the samples before loading on the gel columns in neutral glass tubes served as a marker. In each set of electrophoretic run one tube was loaded with human serum which served as a standard. For staining the gels after electrophoresis to identify the various specific proteins, we follow- ed Gordon (1980) for plasma proteins. Brewer and Sing (1970) for LDH and non-specific esterases and Ornstein (1967) for Hb fractions. Relative mobility (Rm) of each identified protein was calculated as a ratio of the dis- tance travelled by the protein from the origin (base) as compared to the distance travelled by the marker in the same run. Each sample was analysed in at least 5 replicates. The mean Rm with a standard deviation from the mean for each identified protein band was recorded. Zymograms and protein profiles were prepared by plotting the Rm values. The band of the highest mobility was numbered 1 and those with successive lower mobilities were number- ed 2, 3, 4 etc. as done by Ferguson (1980). Results and analysis Table 2 to 5 and Figure 1 include the data on Hb, LDH, non-specific esterases and plasma 129 9 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) ESTERASES LACTATE DEHYDROGENASES v 12 3 456789 C Q 123456789 C -•0-2 — — — -•0-3 -■0-5 “ -0-6 -07 ~ ~ -■0-8 •■0-9 -10 PLASMA ALBUMINS 1 23456789 C ••0 ■ 0-1 ..02 -0-3 ■ 0-4 --0-5 -0-6 -07 — — — •0-8 — — ••09 — — _ ..1-0 Fig. 1. Zymograms and Profiles of Esterases, Lactate dehydrogenases, Haemoglobin and plasma albumins from the nine species of Psittacula. * (1) P. intermedia (Rothschild); * (2) P. cyanocephaia (Linn.); * (3) P. himalayana (Lesson); (4) P. alexandri (Miller); (5) P. derbiana (Fraser); (6) P. eupatria (Linn.); * (7) P. krameri (Scopoli); (8) P. calthorpae (Blyth); (9) P. columboides (Vigors) . * Species described in the present paper. HAEMOGLOBINS 123456789 C 130 TAXONOMIC STATUS OF PSITTACULA INTERMEDIA Table 2 Variations in relative mobilities (Rm) of Haemoglobin fractions from four species of Psittacula Hb Species number band 1 2 3 4 C++ number 0.07 0.07 ±0.005 ±0.005 6 0.13 0.13 ±0.007 ±0.007 5 0.17 ±0.01 4 0.03 0.29 0.29 0.30 ±0.001 ±0.01 ±0.007 ±0.01 3 0.35 ±0.01 2 0.58 0.58 ±0.01 ±0.01 1 Mean and S.D. of five replicates. ++ Consolidated pattern for Hb from Psittacula sp. 1 . Rothschild’s 2 . Blossomheaded 3 . Slatyheaded 4 . Roseringed albumin profiles of the four parakeets studied for this work. Hb profiles of Blossomheaded and Slaty- headed parakeets had a two band pattern. Blossomheaded had Hb fractions of lesser mobilities Hb6 and Hb5 than Slatyheaded and Rothschild’s parakeets. The Slatyheaded parakeet, though with a two band pattern, had one band, Hbl, of the highest mobility which it did not share with any other Indian parakeet and a second fraction, Hb3, that was in com- mon with the single band of Rothschild’s and Roseringed parakeets. Thus the Hb pro- files of only the Roseringed and Rothschild’s resembled each other. The plasma albumin profiles of all four species showed that relative mobilities of their albumin bands were within a very narrow range Rm — 0.7 to 0.87, within which there were five distinct bands. Roseringed had a two fraction plasma albumin profile and the other three of only a single fraction. However, the Rm of the single fraction of Rothschild’s parakeet was much greater being at Alb2 than the other two with the plasma albumin frac- tion at Alb4, in which position we also found one of the two fractions of Roseringed para- keets. The plasma albumin profile of Roths- child parakeet was therefore quite distinct from those of the other three species. The isozyme patterns for LDH are more varied in the nine species of parakeets, studied by us. Though a total of fifteen bands of activity were observed, on consolidation of all the patterns, the basic pattern appeared to be a three band pattern, observed in six species. Table 3 Variations in relative mobilities (Rm) of Plasma ALBUMIN FRACTIONS FROM FOUR SPECIES OF Psittacula Hb Species number band 1 2 3 4 C++ number 0.70 0.70 ±0.001 5 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.75 ±0.01 ±0.005 ±0.005 ±0.1 4 0.81 ±0.005 3 0.84 0.84 ±0.01 ±0.01 2 0.87 ±0.001 1 Mean and S.D. of five replicates ++ Consolidated pattern for Hb from Psittacula sp. 1 . Rothschild's 2. Blossomheaded 3 . Slatyheaded 4 . Roseringed 131 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) Table 4 Variations in the relative mobilities (Rm) of LACTATE DEHYDROGENASES FROM THE PLASMA OF FOUR species of Psittacula LDH Species number Bond 1 2 3 4 C++ number 0.025 0.026 3= 0.003 ±0.006 15 0.026 ± 14 0.086 0.086 ± — ± — 13 0.11 0.097 ±0.01 ±0.01 12 0.12 ±0.008 11 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.16 ±0.01 ±0.01 ±0.01 ±0.01 10 0.19 0.20 ±0.008 ±0.004 9 0.24 ± 8 0.38 0.38 0.38 ±0.004 ±0.005 ±0.005 5 0.41 ±0.01 6 - K 0.44 / 0.44 ±0.005 ±0.007 5 0.48 L 0.48 I ±0.005 ±0.005 4 0.54 ± 3 0.64 i±. ; 2 0.68 ± — 1 Mean and S.D. of five replicates ++ Consolidated pattern for Hb from Psittacula sp. 1 . Rothschild’s 2 . Blossomheaded 3 . Slatyheaded 4 . Roseringed including the Rothschild’s. Of the four species being analysed, the Slatyheaded was the only species with a two band pattern. Of the other three species, each having 3 bands, the Rm of bands were as follows: Rothschild’s (LDH 7, 9 and 15), Blossomheaded (LDH, 4, 10 and 11) and the Roseringed (LDH, 7, 10 and 13). Thus the combination of bands for each species was distinct. Analysis of Rm values for non specific esterases indicated that there were lesser varia- tions in these fractions when compared with Table 5 Variations in relative mobilities (Rm) of non- specific ESTERASES FROM THE PLASMA OF FOUR SPECIES of Psittacula Species number 1 2 3 4 Est Band C++ number 0.08 0.08 ± — ± 11 0.12 0.12 ±0.008 ±0.01 10 0.14 0.16 0.15 ±0.01 ±0.01 ±0.01 9 0.37 0.37 ± — ± 8 0.52 ±0.002 7 0.52 0.55 ±0.004 ±0.01 6 0.58 0.58 ± — ±0.006 5 0.63 0.63 ±0.001 ±0.002 4 0.65 0.65 ±0.003 ±0.005 3 0.68 0.68 ±0.006 ±0.006 2 ♦ ' 0.72 1 Mean and S.D. of five replicates ++ Consolidated pattern for Hb from Psittacula sp. 1 . Rothschild’s 2. Blossomheaded 3 . Slatyheaded 4 . Roseringed 132 TAXONOMIC STATUS OF PSITTACULA INTERMEDIA LDH system. A total of eleven bands, Esti to Estn, were identified as a consolidated pattern. Of the four species dealt with here fraction Estio was represented only in Slatyheaded. The overall pattern for esterases was three bands in Rothschild’s and Roseringed parakeets; the other birds showed a two band pattern. Frac- tions Esti, Est7 and Ests were seen only in the Roseringed. The fractions of Rothschild parakeet were however at Est3, Est4 and Est9. Discussion During the past two decades, there has been an explosion of literature on biochemical aspects of systematics and organic evolution. Several authors (Uthe et al 1965, Tsuyuki et al 1965, 1966; Moller and Naevdal 1966, Selander et al 1969, Yoshida et al 1972 and De Smet and William 1978) have used the electrophoretic technique to identify species specific proteins. Ferguson (1980) has recog- nised that although this technique helped to establish differences between forms, it has not been successful in bringing out the similarities between them. The limitations of the technique are overcome in a comparative study of blood samples of various forms collected in an iden- tical manner along with appropriate controls and the data analysed objectively. Adoption of this advice is the basis of this work to deter- mine the taxonomic affinity of the Rothschild’s parakeet. Generally, haemoglobin is considered a stable molecule, useful in identifying simila- rities in taxa higher than species. Notwith- standing the slight differences in the number and Rm of haemoglobin fractions of the 4 species, the electrophoretic data confirms the essential taxonomic affinity between species of this genus. The Hb profiles of Rothschild’s and Roseringed parakeets are nearly identical is noteworthy. The esterases and albumin profiles are use- ful to identify the taxonomic difference at the species level. The higher Rm of the single Alb fraction is Rothschild’s parakeet sets it apart from all others as a different species. The Rm of Est fractions of the Rothschild’s parakeet is also quite different from the other three forms, which confirms its distinct identity. Even conceding that electrophoretic mobility of plasma proteins, especially of albumins and globulins, is easily affected by ecological factors including such environmental pollutants as insecticides, the difference in the Rm of Alb and Est fractions of captive specimens of the four species (sharing as they are a nearly identical environment) are interpreted by us as denoting interspecific differences. The mark- ed differences in the Rm of serum LDH frac- tions of the four species are also similarly in- terpreted here as indicating the taxonomic differences at the species level, this despite the fact that physiological condition of individual specimens could influence the LDH fractions. Thus a comparison of all the characters in the four species of parakeet studied strongly suggests an independent identity of the Roths- child’s parakeet and we therefore agree with the opinion of Biswas (1959) that Rothschild’s parakeet is a valid species. ACK NO WLEDGE M E NTS We are grateful to Dr. S. M. Karmarkar, Principal and Head, Department of Biological Sciences, R. J. College, Ghatkopar, for pro- viding the necessary facilities and also for his keen interest and encouragement. Dr. B. Biswas helped us with a copy of Rothschild’s (1895) description of the parakeet. 133 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) References Biswas, B. (1959) : On the Parakeet Psittacula intermedia (Rothschild) (Aves: Psittacidae) . J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 56: 558-562. Brewer, G. J. & Sing, C. F. (1970): An intro- duction to isozyme techniques. A. P. New York and London. De Smet & William, H. C. (1978): A compa- rison of the electrophoretic haemoglobin pattern of the vertebrates. Acta. Zool. Pathol. Antwerp., 70: 119-131. Forshaw, J. M. (1977): Parrots of the world. 2nd edition, Melbourne, Australia. Ferguson, A. (1980) : Biochemical systematics and Evolution. First Edition. Blackie, Glassgow and London. Gordon, A. H. (1980): Electrophoresis of pro- teins in polyacrylamide and starch gels. In Labora- tory techniques in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology — Work, T. S. and Work, (Eds.). Elsvier- North Holland. Biomedical Press, Amsterdam, New York. Hussain, K. Z. (1959): Is Psittacula intermedia (Rothschild) a valid species? Bull. Br. Orn. Club, 79: 82-92. Moller, D. & Naevdal, G. (1966) : Serum trans- ferrins of some Godoid fishes. Nature, 210: 317-318. Orn stein, L. (1967) : Methods of detecting and identifying protein zones, pp. 175 — in Paper chro- matography and Electrophoresis. Vol. 1 — Electro- phoresis in Stabilizing Media by Whitaker, J. R. (1967) AP. New York and London. Rothschild, W. (1895): On a new parrot. Nov. Zool, 2: 492. Sane, S. R. (1975): Rothschild’s Parakeet. Letters to Editors, The Avicultural Society, London. Sane, S. R. (1977) : The Rothschild’s Parakeet {Psittacula intermedia ). An appeal. Parrot Society, U.K. Selander, R. K., Hunt, W. G. & Yong, S. Y. (1969): Protein Polymorphism and genetic hetero- zygosity in two European Subspecies of the house mouse. Evolution, 23: 379-390. Tsuyuki, H., Roberts, E. & Vanstone, W. E. (1965) : Comparative Zone electrophorograms of muscle myogens and blood haemoglobins of marine and fresh water vertebrates and their application to biochemical systematics. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, 20(1): 101-104. Uthe, J. F., Roberts, E., Clarke, L. W. & Tsuyuki, H. (1966): Comparative electrophorograms of representatives of families Petromyzontidae, Esoi- dae, Centranchidae and Percidae. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, 23(2): 1663-1671. Walters, M. (1985): On the status of Psittacula intermedia (Rothschild). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52(1): 197-199. Whitaker, J. R. (1967) : Paper chromatography and Electrophoresis Vol. 1. Electrophoresis in stabi- lizing media. A. P. New York and London. Wright, C. A. (1974): Biochemical and Immuno- logical Taxonomy of Animals. First Edition. A.P., New York and London. Yoshida, T. H., Kato, H., Tschiya, K. & Mori- waki, K. (1971) : Karyotypes and serum transferrin patterns of hybrids between Asian and Oceanian black-rats. Rattus rattus. Chromosoma, 34(1) : 40-50. 134 AN OVERVIEW OF THE AMPHIBIAN FAUNA OF INDIA Robert F. Inger1 and Sushil K. Dutta2 Introduction The last complete review of the Amphibia of India was Boulenger’s in 1890. Since then many papers have been published describing new species (e.g., Rao 1937), revising certain species groups (e.g., Pillai 1978), or reviewing the species of a particular area (e.g., Daniel 1963, 1975). Through these publications and others cited below, the number of species of amphibians known to occur in India has more than doubled the 77 reported by Boulenger. Additions to the known fauna have not ended. The literature of the last 100 years has also added much to our knowledge of the distri- bution of Indian amphibians (e.g., Mahendra 1939, Jayaram 1974). Yet even a casual exa- mination of Tables 1 and 2 in this paper will reveal that in this area, too, there is much to learn. Given that so many basic facts concerning composition and distribution of the fauna re- main to be gathered, we present this overview knowing that it will require serious revision in the future. Nonetheless, we believe its publi- cation now is justified if for no other reason than to provide a summary of present know- ledge. The relationship of the Indian fauna to those of adjacent areas can also be dis- cerned now, even given the imperfect state of our knowledge. We present our view of that 1 Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, Illinois, USA. 2 Utkal University, Vani Vihar, Bhubaneswar, Orissa, India. relationship. We are indebted to Mr. J. C. Daniel, who suggested that we consider this review. Size and composition of the Indian AMPHIBIAN FAUNA The variety of climates, vegetation, and topography encompassed by India (includ- ing here Sikkim and Bhutan) provide a great range of environments which leads one to expect a highly diverse fauna. The Amphibia reflect this effect, for at least 181 species occur in India (Table 1). Yet, as we will show below, there are good reasons for believing that the Indian amphibian fauna is still in- completely known and that the true diversity of the fauna is greater than just indicated. All three extant orders of Amphibia occur in India: Caudata (salamanders) — 1 species; Gymnophiona (caecilians) — 15 species; Anura (frogs and toads) — 165 species. That only one species of salamander is found in India is not surprising, for the group is essentially temperate in its Asian distribution. Only three species occur south of China in eastern Asia, none south of the southern flank of the Hima- layas and northern Burma, Thailand, and Vietnam. The caecilians, a small pan-tropical group with only about 160 species world-wide, had been little studied anywhere in the world until recently. Seven of the Indian species were described in 1960-1964 (Taylor 1960, 1964). Frogs and toads make up 91% of species of Indian amphibians, which is just slightly 135 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) Table 1 List of Indian species of amphibians and known occurrence in states Species States ANURA Pelobatidae : 1 Leptobrachium hasselti Tschudi, 1838 2 Megophrys boettgeri (Boulenger, 1899) 3 Megophrys parva (Boulenger, 1893) 4 Megophrys robusta (Boulenger, 1908) 5 Scutiger occidentalis Dubois, 1977 6 Scutiger sikimmensis (Blyth, 1854) Bufonidae: 7 Ansonia ornata Gunther, 1875 8 Ansonia rubigina Pillai & Pattabiraman, 1981 9 Bufo abatus Ahl, 1925 10 Bufo beddomii Gunther, 1875 11 Bufo brevirostris Rao, 1937 12 Bufo camortensis Mansukhani & Sarkar, 1980 13 Bufo fergusonii Boulenger, 1892 14 Bufo himalayana Gunther, 1894 15 Bufo hololius Gunther, 1875 16 Bufo koynayensis Soman, 1963 17 Bufo latastii Boulenger, 1882 18 Bufo melanostictus Schneider, 1799 19 Bufo microtympanum Boulenger, 1882 20 Bufo parietalis Boulenger, 1882 21 Bufo silentvalleyensis Pillai, 1981 22 Bufo stomaticus Lutken, 1862 23 Bufo stuarti Smith, 1929 24 Bufo viridis Laurenti, 1768 25 Bufoides meghalayana (Yazdani & Chanda, 1971) 26 Pedostibes kempi (Boulenger, 1919) 27 Pedostibes tuberculosus Gunther, 1875 Hylidae : 28 Hyla annectans Jerdon, 1870 Microhylidae: 29 Kaloula pulchra Gray, 1831 30 Melanobatrachus indicus Beddome, 1878 31 Microhyla berdmorei (Blyth, 1856) 32 Microhyla chakrapani Pillai, 1977 33 Microhyla inornata Boulenger, 1890 34 Microhyla ornata (Dumeril & Bibron, 1841) 35 Microhyla rubra (Jerdon, 1854) 36 Ramanella anamalaiensis Rao, 1937 Meghalaya Assam, Arunachal Pradesh Sikkim, West Bengal West Bengal Jammu & Kashmir Sikkim, West Bengal Karnataka Kerala West Bengal Kerala Karnataka Andaman Islands Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, Tamil Nadu Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Sikkim, West Bengal Kerala Maharashtra Jammu & Kashmir all Kerala Kerala Kerala Assam, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Jammu & Kashmir, Maharashtra, Orissa, West Bengal Assam Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab Meghalaya Meghalaya Kerala Assam, Meghalaya Assam, Karnataka, West Bengal Kerala Meghalaya Andamans Andamans all Assam, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal Kerala 136 AMPHIBIAN FAUNA OF INDIA Table 1 (contd.) 37 Ramanella minor Rao, 1937 38 Ramanella montana (Jerdon, 1854) 39 Ramanella mormorata Rao, 1937 40 Ramanella triangularis (Gunther, 1875) 41 Ramanella variegata (Stoliczka, 1872) 42 Uperodon globulosus (Gunther, 1864) 43 Uperodon sy stoma (Schneider, 1799) Ranidae: 44 Amolops afghanus (Gunther, 1858) 45 Amolops formosus (Gunther, 1875) 46 Amolops monticola (Anderson, 1871) 47 Micrixalus borealis Annandale, 1912 48 Micrixalus fuscus (Boulenger, 1882) 49 Micrixalus midis Pillai, 1978 50 Micrixalus opisthorhodus (Gunther, 1868) 51 Micrixalus saxicolus (Jerdon, 1853) 52 Micrixalus silvaticus (Boulenger, 1882) 53 Micrixalus thampii Pillai, 1981 54 Nannobatrachus beddomii Boulenger, 1882 55 Nannobatrachus kempholeyensis Rao, 1937 56 Nanorana pleskei Gunther, 1896 57 Nyctibatrachus aliciae Inger, Shaffer, Koshy & Bakde 1984 58 Nyctibatrachus deccanensis Dubois, 1984 59 Nyctibatrachus humayuni Bhaduri & Kripalani, 1955 60 Nyctibatrachus major Boulenger, 1882 61 Nyctibatrachus minor Inger, Shaffer, Koshy, & Bakde, 1984 62 Nyctibatrachus sanctipalustris Rao, 1920 63 Nyctibatrachus sylvaticus Rao. 1937 64 Occidozyga lima Kuhl & Van Hasselt, 1822 65 Rana alticola Boulenger, 1882 66 Rana andamanensis Stoliczka, 1 870 67 Rana annandalii Boulenger. 1920 68 Rana cissamensis Sclater, 1892 69 Rana aurantiaca Boulenger, 1904 70 Rana beddomii (Gunther, 1875) 71 Rana bilineata Pillai & Chanda, 1981 72 Rana blanfordii Boulenger, 1882 73 Rana brachytarsus (Gunther, 1875) 74 Rana brevipalmata Peters, 1871 75 Rana cancrivora Gravenhorst, 1829 76 Rana crassa Jerdon, 1853 Karnataka Kerala, Maharashtra Karnataka Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal Assam, Bihar, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, West Bengal Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, Himachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Sikkim, West Bengal Meghalaya, Punjab, Sikkim, West Bengal West Bengal Arunachal Pradesh Kerala Kerala Kerala Kerala Kerala, Tamil Nadu Kerala Kerala, Tamil Nadu Karnataka Jammu & Kashmir Kerala Kerala Maharashtra Kerala Kerala Karnataka Karnataka West Bengal Meghalaya, Sikkim Andamans West Bengal Meghalaya, West Bengal Karnataka, Kerala Kerala. Maharashtra Meghalaya Meghalaya, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal Kerala Kerala, Tamil Nadu Madhya Pradesh Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Kerala, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, 137 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) Table 1 (contd.) 77 Rana curtipes Jerdon, 1853 78 Rana cyanophlyctis vSchneider, 1799 79 Rana danieli Pillai & Chanda, 1977 80 Rana diplosticta (Gunther, 1875) 81 Rana doriae Boulenger, 1887 82 Rana garoensis Boulenger, 1920 83 Rana gerbillus Annandale, 1912 84 Rana hascheana (Stoliczka, 1870) 85 Rana hexadactyla Lesson, 1834 86 Rana intermedins Rao, 1937 87 Rana keralensis Dubois, 1980 88 Rana khasiana (Anderson, 1871) 89 Rana laticeps Boulenger, 1882 90 Rana leithii Boulenger, 1888 91 Rana leptodactyla Boulenger, 1882 92 Rana leptoglossa (Cope, 1868) 93 Rana liebigii Gunther, 1860 94 Rana limnocharis Boie, 1835 95 Rana livida (Blyth, 1855) 96 Rana malabarica Tschudi, 1838 97 Rana mawphlangensis Pillai & Chanda, 1977 98 Rana minica Dubois, 1975 99 Rana murthii Pillai, 1979 100 Rana nicobariensis (Stoliczka, 1870) 101 Rana nilagirica Jerdon, 1853 102 Rana phrynoderma Boulenger, 1882 103 Rana sauriceps Rao, 1937 104 Rana semipalmata Boulenger. 1882 105 Rana sikimensis Jerdon, 1870 106 Rana sternosignata Murray, 1885 107 Rana syhadrensis Annandale, 1919 108 Rana taipehensis Van Denburgh, 1909 109 Rana temporalis (Gunther, 1864) 110 Rana tenuilingua Rao, 1937 111 Rana tigerina Daudin, 1803 112 Rana travancoriea Annandale, 1910 113 Rana tubercidata Tilak & Roy, 1985 114 Rana vicina Stoliczka, 1872 115 Ranixalus gundia Dubois, 1985 116 Tomopterna breviceps (Schneider, 1799) 117 Tomopterna dobsonii (Boulenger, 1882) 118 Tomopterna leucorhynchus (Rao, 1937) 119 Tomopterna parambikulamana (Rao, 1937) 120 Tomopterna rolandae Dubois, 1983 Karnataka, Kerala all Meghalaya Kerala Andamans Meghalaya Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya Andamans Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan (?), Tamil Nadu, West Bengal Karnataka Kerala Meghalaya Assam Gujarat, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra Kerala Assam, Meghalaya Jammu & Kashmir, Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal all Assam, Meghalaya, Sikkim, West Bengal Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra Manipur, Meghalaya Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh Kerala Nicobars Kerala, Tamil Nadu Kerala Karnataka Kerala Meghalaya, Sikkim, West Bengal Jammu & Kashmir Maharashtra, Orissa Assam, Orissa, West Bengal Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra Karnataka all Kerala Uttar Pradesh Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh Karnataka Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu.. Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu Karnataka Kerala Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal 138 AMPHIBIAN FAUNA OF INDIA Table 1 (contd.) 121 T omoptenia rufescens (Jerdon, 1854) Rhacophoridae : 122 Chirixalus doriae Boulenger, 1893 123 Philautus andersoni (Ahl, 1927) 124 Philautus annandalii (Boulenger, 1906) 125 Philautus beddomii (Gunther, 1875) 126 Philautus bombayensis (Annandale, 1919) 127 Philautus chalazodes (Gunther, 1865) 128 Philautus charius Rao, 1937 129 Philautus cherrapunjiae Roonwal & Kripalani, 1961 130 Philautus crnri Dutta, 1985 131 Philautus elegans Rao, 1937 132 Philautus femoralis (Gunther, 1864) 133 Philautus flaviventris (Boulenger, 1882) 134 Philautus garo (Boulenger, 1919) 135 Philautus glandulosus (Jerdon, 1853) 136 Philautus hassanensis Dutta, 1985 137 Philautus kempiae (Boulenger, 1919) 138 Philautus kottigeharensis Rao, 1937 139 Philautus leucorhinus (Lichtenstein & Martens, 1856) 140 Philautus melanensis Rao, 1937 141 Philautus narainensis Rao, 1937 142 Philautus noblei (Ahl, 1927) 143 Philautus parked (Ahl, 1927) 144 Philautus pulcherrimus (Ahl, 1927) 145 Philautus shill ongensis Pillai & Chanda, 1973 146 Philautus signatus (Boulenger, 1882) 147 Philautus swamianus Rao, 1937 148 Philautus temporalis (Gunther, 1864) 149 Philautus travancoricus (Boulenger, 1891) 150 Philautus variabilis (Gunther, 1858) 151 Polypedates leucomystax (Gravenhorst, 1829) 152 Polypedates maculatus (Gray, 1834) 153 Rhacophorus bipunctatus Ahl, 1927 154 Rhacophorus calcadensis Ahl, 1927 155 Rhacophorus dubius Boulenger, 1882 156 Rhacophorus jerdonii (Gunther, 1875) 157 Rhacophorus lateralis Boulenger, 1883 158 Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1870 159 Rhacophorus maximus Gunther, 1858 160 Rhacophorus naso Annandale, 1912 161 Rhacophorus pleurostictus (Gunther, 1864) 162 Rhacophorus taeniatus Boulenger, 1906 163 Rhacophorus tuberculatus (Anderson, 1871) 164 Theloderma asper (Boulenger, 1886) 165 Theloderma moloch (Annandale, 1912) Kerala, Maharashtra Arunachal Pradesh Assam Assam, West Bengal Kerala Maharashtra Kerala Karnataka, Kerala Meghalaya Karnataka Karnataka Kerala Kerala Meghalaya Kerala, Maharashtra Karnataka Meghalaya Karnataka Kerala Karnataka Karnataka Kerala Kerala Kerala Meghalaya Kerala Karnataka Kerala Kerala Andhra Pradesh, Kerala Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Sikkim, West Bengal all (except Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan) Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya Kerala West Bengal Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, West Bengal Kerala Karnataka, Kerala Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, West Bengal Arunachal Pradesh Kerala, Tamil Nadu West Bengal Assam, West Bengal Arunachal Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh 139 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) Table 1 (contd.) GYMNOPHIONA Ichthyophiidae: 166 Ichthyophis beddomei Peters, 1879 167 Ichthyophis bombayensis Taylor, 1960 168 Ichthyophis malabarensis Taylor, 1960 169 Ichthyophis pen'nsularis Taylor, 1960 170 Ichthyophis sikkimensis Taylor, 1960 171 Ichthyophis subterrestris Taylor, I9601 172 Ichthyophis tricolor Annandale, 1909 173 Uraeotyphlus malabaricus (Beddome, 1870) 174 Uraeotyphlus menoni Annandale, 1913 175 Uraeotyphlus narayani Seshachar, 1939 176 Uraeotyphlus oxyurus (Dumeril & Bibron, 1841) Caeciliidae: 177 Gegeneophis carnosus (Beddome, 1870) 178 Gegeneophis fulleri (Alcock, 1904) 179 Gegeneophis ramaswamii Taylor, 1964 180 Indotyphlus battersbyi Taylor, 1960 CAUDATA Salamandridae: 181 Tylototriton verrucosus Anderson, 1871 Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu Maharashtra Kerala Kerala, Tamil Nadu Sikkim, West Bengal Kerala, Maharashtra Kerala Kerala Kerala Kerala Kerala Kerala Assam Kerala Maharashtra Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, West Bengal more than their percentage on a world-wide basis. Twenty of the species of anurans have been described since 1970. Wherever recent intensive collecting has been carried out in India, new species of frogs and toads have been discovered, for example, at Silent Valley (Pillai 1981, Pillai and Pattabiraman 1981) and Ponmudi (Inger et al. 1984) in Kerala and in Meghalaya (Pillai and Chanda 1973, 1978; Yazdani and Chanda 1971). Chanda has three new species from northeastern India in manuscript (Chanda, personal communication); these are not included in our count of species, but they emphasize the point being made here. As none of these new species can be called “cryptic” or “sibling” and as only one of them belongs to a taxonomically difficult genus (Philautus in this case), the accretion of new forms to the faunal list is still the result of relatively coarse screening. It seems clear that further collecting, particularly in the Eastern and Western Ghats, should uncover additional new species, and that more intensive work in the Northeast should result in new Indian re- cords of species now known only from the hilly country of Southeast Asia. Recent dis- covery of sibling species in such widely dis- tributed “species” as Rana limnocharis (Dubois 1975) and the virtual doubling of the number of species of caecilians in the last 25 years are additional indications that one can expect the faunal list to grow significantly. The faunal list includes eight genera not found outside India : among the caecilians, Indotyphlus, Gegeneophis, and Uraeotyphlus ; among the anurans, the bufonid Bufoides, the microhylid Melanobatrachus, and the ranids Ranixalus, Nannobatrachus and Nyctibatra- chus. The last two are closely related (Shaffer, in press) and, together with Nannophrys from Sri Lanka, probably constitute a single, dis- tinctively Indian, ranid radiation. In addition to Melanobatrachus, the microhylid genera Raman el la (with 6 species in India and 2 in Sri Lanka) and Uperodon (with one of its two species occurring in Sri Lanka as well as 140 AMPHIBIAN FAUNA OF INDIA in India) represent at least one additional Indian radiation; the uncertainty arises be- cause, despite an excellent monograph on the Microhylidae (Parker 1934), phylogenetic relationships within the family are obscure. The ranid genus Micrixalus has most of its species in India. Indeed, Pillai (1978) has suggested that only the species from India and Sri Lanka are congeneric. At the very least, the Indian species of Micrixalus constitute another re- gional radiation. The recently described Rani- xalus appears to us, on the basis of the original diagnosis and description (Dubois 1985), to be closely related to Micrixalus and part of the same radiation. The caecilian genera are mem- bers of two families and, therefore, represent at least two more Indian radiations. Additional evidence for the distinctiveness of the Indian amphibian fauna comes from the four most speciose anuran genera, Bufo, Rana, Philautus, and Rhacophorus, and the largest caecilian genus, Ichthyophis, all of which have wide distributions outside of India. Species of these four anuran genera account for 106 of the 165 species of frogs and toads occurring in India, and of those 106, 61 are restricted to India. If we add in those species whose ranges do not extend beyond the terri- tories immediately adjacent to India, i.e., Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh, endemism in these four anuran genera in- creases to 77%. All seven of the Indian species of Ichthyophis are restricted to the territory of India. Turning the picture around, we find only 23% of 181 species of Indian amphibians occur beyond the fringes of India as far as China, Burma, or Southwestern Asia. Geographic distribution within India The abundance of species of amphibians is very uneven across India. The highest con- centrations of species and genera are in the Northeast and in the Western Ghats of the West Peninsular region (Table 2). As endemic species constitute 62% of the Indian fauna, it is not surprising that the distribution of endemics is also uneven: 84 of the endemics are found only in the Western Ghats and 20 only in the Northeast region. The magnitude of the disparity between the two areas of highest diversity and the others shown in the table is partly a reflection of very unequal collecting intensity. This effect seems especially apparent in the case of the Eastern Ghats (included in the East Peninsular region of Table 2); the semi-deciduous forests that still exist there in patches should provide good habitats for a number of species. Yet no ende- mic arboreal anuran has been recorded from the ghats in Orissa or Andhra Pradesh. How- ever, given the long known association between amphibian diversity and perhumid environ- ments (for an Asian example, see Inger 1980) we expect the regional disparity shown in the table to remain large, for the Northeast and the Western Ghats are the areas of heaviest precipitation in India. The high diversity regions are also those that until relatively recently had large areas of tropical evergreen forests, structurally complex environments providing the maximum number of micro- habitats. The interaction between forest environ- ments and diversity is clearly seen when the proportions of bush and tree dwelling frogs in the fauna of the Northeast (32%) and Western Ghats (29%) are compared to the proportions (<13%) in the other regions. A small group of anuran species accounts for much of the overlap between regions: Bufo melanostictus, Microhyla ornata, Rana cyanophlyctis, R. limnocharis, R. tigerina, and Polypedates maculatus. These species live in close association with man wherever they occur 141 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) Table 2 Distribution of Indian amphibians by regions. The climates of the Indian regions as defined here are: Northwest — temperate, montane; West — arid to semiarid; Deccan — hot, monsoonal; Ganges- Brahmaputra Valley — humid, hot, monsoonal; East Peninsular — monsoonal, humid in areas; Northeast — humid, to subtropical to tropical, montane; West Peninsular — humid tropical, partly MONTANE. Region States included Order Genera Species Species code* Northwest Jammu & Kashmir Anura 9 21 5, 17-8, 22, 24, 34, Himachal Pradesh 43-5, 56, 72, 78, 93-4, Punjab 98, 106, 111, 113-4, Uttar Pradesh (part) 116, 152 West Gujarat Anura 5 9 18, 34, 78, 85, 90, Rajasthan 94, 111, 116, 152 Deccan Madhya Pradesh Anura 7 18 13, 18, 22, 41-2, 75, Andhra Pradesh (part) 76, 78, 85, 90, 94, Bihar (part) 96,111, 116-7, 120, Karnataka (part) Maharashtra (part) Tamil Nadu (part) 150, 152 Ganges-Brahmaputra Valley Uttar Pradesh (part) Anura 9 18 18, 22, 29, 34-5, Bihar (part) 41-3, 64, 76, 78, 85, Assam (part) 94, 108, 111, 116, West Bengal (part) 120, 152 East Peninsular Orissa Anura 8 21 13, 18, 22, 34-5, Andhra Pradesh (part) 41-3, 76, 78, 85, 94, Tamil Nadu (part) 101, 107-8, 111, 116, 117, 120, 150, 161 Northeast Arunachal Pradesh Anura 16 53 1-4, 6, 9, 14, 18, 23, Bhutan 25-6, 28, 31, 34, 44-7, Manipur 65, 67-8, 71-2, 78-9, Meghalaya 82-3, 88-9, 92-5, 97, Sikkim 105, 111, 122-4, 129, Assam (part) 134, 137, 145, 151, West Bengal (part) 153, 155-6, 159-60, 162-5 Gymnophiona 2 2 170, 178 Caudata 1 1 181 West Peninsular Kerala Anura 17 99 7-8, 10-1, 13, 15-6, Maharashtra (part) 18-22, 27, 29-30, Karnataka (part) 34.43, 48-55, 57-63, Tamil Nadu (part) 69, 70, 73-4, 76-8, 80, 85-7, 90-1, 94, 96, 99, 101-4, 107, 109-12, 115-21, 125-8, 130-3, 135-6, 138-44, 146-50, 152, 154, 157-8, 161 Gymnophiona 4 13 166-9, 171-7, 179-80 * Species code = numbers preceding species names in Table 1. 142 AMPHIBIAN FAUNA OF INDIA and all but the last range far beyond the borders of India. Removal of these ubiquitous commensals of mankind from the regional lists eliminates or greatly reduces overlap among regions. In fact, without these six weed-like species, there remain only five significant over- laps (i.e., 7 or more species in common to two regions) among regional faunas: both Deccan and Ganges-Brahmaputra faunas with the East and West Peninsular faunas and bet- ween the East and West Peninsular faunas. The known overlaps among regional faunas, with the six commensals of man removed, are accounted for largely by a set of seven other species that burrow and live in open fields: Bufo stomaticus, Uperodon globulosus, U. sy stoma, Rana crassa, Tomopterna breviceps, T. dobsoni, and T. rolandae. The only excep- tional overlap is that between Northeast and Northwest faunas, which involves four swift- water breeders typical of mountainous areas: Rana blanfordi, R. liebigi, and two species of Amolops. Thus, virtually all of the similarity among regions, considering all species of amphibians, is accounted for by species of anurans that can tolerate conditions created by man’s activities. The most distinctive regional faunas are the two largest, the Northeast and the West Penin- sular. Pillai and Chanda (1976) recorded the species known at the time from the Northeast and Chanda has a thorough review of this fauna in ms. As would be expected, in the Northeast one finds the largest concentration of species whose ranges are mainly Southeast Asian or Burman-Chinese, 28 of 56 species. In the West Peninsular, as already noted, the largest number of endemics occurs. All Indian caecilians are confined to these two areas of high diversity, 2 of the genera and 13 of 15 species being restricted to the West Peninsular region. Intensive collecting and observation in the near future will almost certainly increase the number of endemics known from the East Peninsular, Deccan, and Ganges regions, but it is unlikely that the numbers will ever approach that in the West Peninsular area. Beyond the changes in overlap between Indian regions, additional collecting and re- porting will clarify the ranges of many species that have obviously imperfectly known distri- butions. As examples, we need only cite the ranges of Uperodon sy stoma, Rana beddomii, R. crassa, R. malabarica, and R. syhadrensis (see Table 1) each of which has a gap that appears to be an artifact resulting from im- perfect knowledge rather than a significant biological phenomenon. Despite the present weaknesses in the faunal lists of large areas and in the known ranges of individual species, it is clear that Indian amphibian species constitute three distributional types: (1) species confined to the Western Ghats, the largest unit; (2) species known in India only from the Northeast; and (3) a set of essentially ubiquitous species that comprise the bulk of the known fauna in all of the territory between the Western Ghats and the Northeast. Comparison with faunas of other regions Although the Indian amphibian fauna has a number of endemic genera and many endemic species, it does share species with adjacent areas (see above). Most of these shared species occur in Burma (33 anurans, 1 salamander) and somewhat fewer in Sri Lanka (21 species of anurans) and Nepal (16 anurans, 1 salamander). These relations are what one would expect given the relative sizes of the adjacent faunas and the nature of environments at the borders. Twenty-one species are shared with China, but all except 143 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) 5 of them also are known from Burma. None of the Indian caecilians is known from out- side the country. Compared to anuran faunas to the east, the Indian fauna seems to have high proportions of frogs of the families Ranidae and Rhaco- phoridae and low proportions of Pelobatidae and Microhylidae (Table 3). However, apply- Diversity of the Indian anuran fauna at the species level appears to be higher than in the other Asian faunas (Table 3). The difference may be due to the wide geographic separa- tion of the two largest Indian subregional faunas, which has clearly resulted in two separate areas of speciation, and the juxtaposition of one of them to a rich. Table 3 Comparison of Indian amphibian fauna with those of other Oriental areas. Sources for areas other than India India Thailand Yunnan Borneo Family Number of % of Number of % of Number of % of Number of % of gen.* spp.** spp. gen. spp. spp. gen. spp. spp. gen. spp. spp. ANURA 27 165 22 86 18 60 26 122 Discoglossidae 1 2 3.3 1 1 0.8 Pelobatidae 3 6 3.6 2 11 12.8 3 11 18.3 3 11 9.0 Hylidae 1 1 0.6 1 1 1.2 1 1 1.7 Bufonidae 4 21 12.7 4 7 8.1 1 2 3.3 6 28 23.0 Microhylidae 5 15 9.1 5 13 15.1 4 9 15.0 7 20 16.4 Ranidae 8 77 46.7 4 37 43.0 4 23 38.3 5 34 27.9 Rhacophoridae 6 45 27.3 6 17 19.8 4 12 20.0 4 28 23.0 GYMNOPHIONA 4 15 1 4 1 1 2 5 Caeciliidae 2 4 ICHTH YOPH IIDAE 2 11 1 4 1 1 2 5 Sources: Anura—Thailand — Taylor, 1962. Yunnan — Zool. Inst. Sichuan, 1977. Borneo — Inger, 1966; Inger & Frogner, 1979; Inger & Gritis, 1983; Dring, 1983a &b; Kiew, 1984a, 1984b; Matsui, 1986. Gymnophiona= Frost, 1985. * Genera. ** Species. ing an arcsin test of the proportion of species in each family in the Indian fauna against the corresponding proportion in each of the other faunas yields only one statistically significant difference: that between the proportions of ranid species in the Indian and Bornean faunas (t=3 . 40, P=0 . 001 ) . Therefore, in terms of distribution of species of anurans in fami- lies, the Indian fauna does not differ impor- tantly from the Southeastern faunas. external source (Burma) of additional species. Diversity of Indian anurans in terms of genera does not differ significantly from the other Asian faunas (Table 3). India clearly has a larger and generically more diverse caecilian fauna than the other areas (Table 3). As observed earlier, this high diversity is concentrated almost entirely in the Western Ghats. 144 AMPHIBIAN FAUNA OF INDIA Conclusion The following points seem evident to us: (1) That the Indian amphibian fauna as a whole is quite distinct, having endemic genera of ranid and microhylid frogs and caecilians, and a large number of endemic species of several wide-spread Oriental genera — Bufo, Rana, Philautus, and Ichthyophis. (2) That there are only two Indian areas of known high endemism, the Northeast and the West Peninsular (which includes the Western Ghats). (3) That the Indian fauna is divisible into three groups of species: those known only Refer Boulenger, G. A. (1890) : The fauna of British India. Reptilia and Batrachia. London. Daniel, J. C. (1963) : Field guide to the amphi- bians of Western India. Parts 1 & 2. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 60: 415-438, 690-702. (1975) : Field guide to the amphi- bians of Western India. Part 3. ibid. 72: 506-522. Dring, J. (1983a): Frogs of the genus Leptobra- chella (Pelobatidae). Amph.-Rept., 4: 89-102. (1983b) : Some new frogs from Sarawak, ibid. 4: 103-115. Dubois, A. (1975) : Un nouveau complexe d’especes jumelles distinguees par le chant: le gre- nouilies du Nepal voisines de Rana limnocharis Boie (Amphibiens, Anoures). C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, 281 : 1717-1720. (1985): Diagnose preliminaire d’un nouveau genre de Ranoidea (Amphibiens, Anoures) du sud de l’lnde. Alytes, 4: 113-118. Frost, D. R. (ed.) (1985) : Amphibian species of the world. Lawrence, Kansas. Inger, R. F. (1966): The systematics and zoo- geography of the Amphibia of Borneo. Fieldiana: Zool, 52: 1-402. (1980) : Relative abundances of frogs and lizards in forests of Southeast Asia. Biotropica, 12: 14-22. from the Northeast, those known only from the Western Ghats, and a small group of ubiquitous species. (4) That as expected the regions abutting other continental areas, that is, the North- west and Northeast, show the highest levels of non-Indian species. (5) That the actual geographic distributions of many Indian species are very poorly known and, therefore, that knowledge of the faunas of several Indian regions is very weak. (6) That additional intensive collecting and observation will certainly result in the discovery of new species as well as im- provement in our understanding of distri- bution of the fauna. ENCES & Frggner, K. J. (1979): New species of narrow-mouth frogs (genus Microhyla ) from Borneo. Sarawak Mus. J., 27: 311-324. & Gritis, P. (1983): Variation in Bornean frogs of the Amolops jerboa species group, with description of two new species. Field- diana: Zool., (n.s.), no. 19, 13 pp. , Shaffer, H. B., Koshy, M. & Bakde, R. (1984) : A report on a collection of amphibians and reptiles from the Ponmudi, Kerala, South India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 : 406-427, 551-570. Jayaram, K. C. (1974) : Ecology and distribution of freshwater fishes, Amphibia, and reptiles. In : Ecology and biogeography in India, pp. 517-584. Kiew, B. FI. (1984a): A new species of burrow- ing frog ( Calluella flava) from Borneo. Malayan Nat. J., 37: 163-166. (1984b) : A new species of frog ( Kalophrynus baluensis ) from Mount Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia, ibid. 38: 151-156. Mahendra, B. C. (1939): The zoogeography of India in the light of herpetological studies. Sci. & Culture, 4, no. 7, 11 pp. Matsui, M. (1986): Three new species of Amo- lops from Borneo (Amphibia, Anura, Ranidae). Copeia, 1986: 623-630. 145 10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 (, SUPPLEMENT ) Parker, H. W. (1934) : A monograph of the frogs of the family Microhylidae. London. Pillai, R. S. (1978): A new* frog of the genus Micrixalus Boul. from Wynad, S. India. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., (B), 87: 173-177. (1981) : Two new species of Amphibia from Silent Valley, S. India. Bull. Zool. Survey India, 3: 153-158. & Chanda, S. K. (1973): Philau- tus shillongensis, a new frog (Ranidae) from Megha- laya, India. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., (B), 78: 30-36. (1976): The dis- tribution pattern of Amphibia in North-East India. J. Assam Sci. Soc., 19, no. 53, 4 pp. (1978): Two new species of frogs (Ranidae) from Khasi Hills, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 74: 136-140. & Pattabiraman, R. (1981) : A new species of torrent toad (genus: Ansonia ) from Silent Valley, S. India. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., (B), 90: 203-208. Rao, C. R. N. (1937): On some new forms of Batrachia from S. India. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., (B), 6: 387-426. Shaffer, H. B. (in press) : Size and scaling in the Indian frogs Nyctibatrachus and Nannobatrachus (Ranidae). Fieldiana: Zool., (n.s.). Taylor, E. H. (1960) : On the caecilian species Ichthyophis monochrous and Ichthyophis glutinosus with descriptions of related species. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 40: 37-120. (1962) : The amphibian fauna of Thailand. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 43 : 265-599. (1964) : A new species of caecilian from India (Amphibia, Gymnophiona) . Sencken- bergiana Biol., 45:. 227-231. Yazdani, G. M. & Chanda, S. K. (1971): A new toad, Ansonia meghalyana (family Bufonidae) from Meghalaya (Assam), India, with observations on its breeding on Pandanus furcatus Roxb. J. Assam Sci. Soc., 14: 76-80. Zoological Institute of Sichuan (1977) : Key to the Amphibia of China. Chengdu, Sichuan. 146 AN EXPERIENCE OF WILDLIFE PHOTOGRAPHY M. Y. Ghorpade1 (With fourteen plates) As I have said in my book “Sunlight & Shadows” — An Indian Wildlife Photographer’s Diary: “A good wildlife photograph conveys directly the joy and beauty of nature. It can make us happy, which, in the ultimate analysis, is the main motive force for any real transformation of attitudes and sincere sustained action”, in any field including the vital area of nature conservation. “I consci- ously chose the medium of black-and-white photography for its relative permanence com- pared to colour, and the scope it gives for artistic expression — the delicate play of light and shade to softly delineate texture and mood”. I do hope these photographs reflect the joy of nature, the excitement of wildlife observation and photography, and the great need to conserve our rich flora and fauna. The best way to convey to the reader how photographs can be taken is to perhaps faith- fully describe how some of these photographs were actually taken. There are so many favour- able factors which have to come together to make a good photograph but one has to be constantly and correctly aware of the nature of the opportunity in terms of photographic values and lighting. It is the total effect that one has to keep on visualising in the midst of fleeting moments and changing scenes. Ultimately much depends on how we react, which in turn depends on some kind of total awareness and harmony between ones inner 1 Regional Representative (S.R.), IBWL, Shivapur, Sandur, Bellary District, Karnataka-583 119. and outer environment at a given moment of time. A good wildlife photograph is never made to order. The element of chance or luck is always there, in the sense that one rarely has complete control over the opportunity, which sometimes lasts only for a split second. To know the nature and behaviour of the film and the camera is only the first step, though an important and unavoidable one. But after that one has to concentrate on picture taking which is not just technique but an adventure and an experience. One of my earlier photographs is that of a Hanuman monkey or langur ( Presbytis entellus), (Plate 1, Fig. 1), racing up and down at top speed, leaping from pillar to pillar along my old fashioned compound wall at Shivapur (my residence at Sandur, in the Bellary district of Karnataka). With a 35 mm single lens reflex camera having a shutter speed of 1/ 1000th of a second (which could be used in the lighting because of the fast 400 ASA TRI-X film I had loaded), I positioned myself at a spot from where, without causing much alarm to the monkey, I could take a picture at right angles, as the langur leapt into the air. In anticipation of the monkey repeating its exhuberant run along the line of pillars, I focussed at a pre-determined spot and waited. Sure enough the monkey, true to its nature, came hurtling at top speed and I pressed the trigger as his hind legs were about to leave the focussed spot. It was as though the speed and rhythm of this fast action had triggered my reflexes and the index finger which did its 147 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) work with hair-breadth precision and timing. I got the monkey in mid-air, his long tail imitating the undulating Sandur hills beyond. This is a photograph which depends on its animation and split-second timing. One other langur photograph which I took years later was in the forests of Kanha, the subdued light percolating softly through the foliage, making it possible to show detail in the black faces of two langurs sitting on a low rock with a charming expression and catch-light in their eyes (Plate 1, Fig. 2). This is a photograph which depends heavily on correct lighting, exposure and development. If I had managed to click a split-second earlier, I could have got three langurs in a row, which might have been a more impressive photograph; the third langur could also have spoilt the picture by doing something at the nick of time which was not in consonance with the harmony and balance of the picture as a whole. The pleasing photograph of two sambar does and a stag (Plate 3, Fig. 3) in evening pictorial light was taken at Ranthambhore which is a gem of a sanctuary. A great deal depends on responding quickly to an above average opportunity. The element of chance is also very much there. Once when my jeep had got stuck in the slush of a Bandi- pur forest road in a downpour, a tusker came along the same road and started rubbing him- self in the natural shower, giving me an opportunity to experiment with shutter speeds to try and get a photograph in which the elephant would be sharp though seen through a translucent curtain of rain (Plate 2, Fig. 4). This is one of my favourite photographs. In the same forest I once photographed a magni- ficent tusker surrounded by a herd of female elephants (Plate 3, Fig. 5) trying to guard him with all their might and heavy devotion. I managed to get a photograph filling the ideal format frame before an irate female close to the tusker decided to chase me to a safer distance. In this photograph all the animals form a photogenic group and there is a broad spectrum of animation and life. The photo- graph tells its own story and can be blown up easily to a size of 40" x 60" without any serious loss of definition. The photograph of elephant mothers and aunts scrubbing their babies was taken at Periyar, also with the bigger negative (Plate 4, Fig. 6). It depends for its appeal on the rare subject interest in- spite of the harsh top lighting. A part of this large herd moving away into the forest, with their bodies glistening ebony-wet after a cleans- ing swim across the river, was pictorially caught to convey the atmosphere and the movement (Plate 4, Fig. 7). It has always been an exciting experience to photograph tigers in broad daylight from fairly close distances, to try and fill the square negative of my Hasselblad camera, using the appropriate tele lens. However, the photograph of the snarling tigress was taken with a 6x7 Pentax SLR camera and a 200 mm lens, from an open jeep, at a distance of exactly eight metres. I had sat motionless in the jeep for nearly an hour before the tigress got up from the heavy grass and walked straight towards the jeep. Just then the sun had gone behind a cloud making the light ideal for photography. I clicked when the tigress was looking straight at me; she snarled and I clicked again (Plate 5, Fig. 8). I got my pictures. The experience of taking these photographs had made an un- forgettable impression on me which the photo- graph may not succeed in conveying, in all its nuances, to another person who is only looking at the photograph. The tiger on the rock and the tiger in the pool were taken from a riding elephant which is always a tricky business, as one can never be sure of 148 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (supplement) Plate 1 Ghorpade: Wildlife Photography Above: Fig. 1. Hanuman’s leap. Below : Fig. 2. Two langurs on a rock. C Photos : M. Y. Ghorpade) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (supplement) Plate 2 Ghorpade: Wildlife Photography Left : Fig. 27. Sarus cranes in greeting display. Right: Fig. 4. Tusker in the rain. (Photos: M. Y. Ghorpade) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (supplement) Ghorpade: Wildlife Photography Plate 3 Above : Fig. 3. Samba r in pictorial evening light. Belov/: Fig. 5. A tusker and elephant herd at Bandipur. ( Photos : M. Y. Ghorpade) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (supplement) Ghorpade: Wildlife Photography Plate 4 Above : Fig. 6. Mother elephants scrubbing babies. Below : Fig. 7. Elephant herd after a swim. ( Photos: M. Y. Ghorpade) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (supplement) Ghorpade: Wildlife Photography Plate 5 Above : Fig. 8. Snarling tigress. Below: Fig. 9. Tiger on the rock. ( Photos : M. Y. Ghorpade) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (supplement) Ghorpade: Wildlife Photography Plate 6 Above: Fig. 10. Tiger in the pool. Below: Fig. 11. Tigers with a natural kill. {Photo: M. Y. Ghorpade) {Photo: Ajai M. Ghorpade) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (supplement) Ghorpade: Wildlife Photography Plate 7 Above : Fig. 12. Lion. Below: Fig. 13. The sharp gaze of the lioness. (. Photos : M. Y. Ghorpade) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (supplement) Plate 8 Ghorpade: Wildlife Photography Above : Fig. 14. Tiger staring. Below : Fig. 15. Big tiger at Kanha Kisli. ( Photos : M. Y. Ghorpade) I a i £ j' '.', «\9*#^?4fa|s| gmfp WKg&m Mi i •'>$** Above: Fig. 16. African leopard. Below: Fig. 22. Wild buffalo bull (Manas). ( Photos : M. Y. Ghorpade) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (supplement) Plate 9 Ghorpade: Wildlife Photography J. Bombay nat. Hist. See. 83 (supplement) Ghorpade: Wildlife Photography ( Photos : M. Y. Ghorpade) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (supplement) Ghorpade: Wildlife Photography Plate 11 .V*‘ / if \ ' -s • ;>> Above : Fig. 19. Loving and lovable chital. Below : Fig. 20. Stag kissing doe. ( Photos : M. Y. Ghorpade) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (supplement) Plate 12 Ghorpade: Wildlife Photography Left : Fig. 21. Big Bull rhino. Right: Fig. 24. Blackbuck. ( Photos : M. Y. Ghorpade) J. Bombay nat. Hist. So c. 83 (supplement) Ghorpade: Wildlife Photography Plate 13 Above : Fig. 23. Blackbuck and doe. Below: Fig. 26. Painted stork alighting on nest. ( Photos : M. Y. Ghorpade) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (supplement) Plate 14 Ghorpade: Wildlife Photography Fig. 25. Brahminy mynah. (Photo: M. Y. Ghorpade) WILDLIFE PHOTOGRAPHY getting a shake free picture from an elephant which is never perfectly still. One has to care- fully choose the moment to click and try and operate the shutter at not less than 1 /250th of a second. Fast film definitely helps as the problem of minimal shake is more serious than is generally realised, and shows up badly when one makes big enlargements. Apart from the elephant’s breathing, awareness of ones own breathing is important in getting shake free pictures. It helps to empty ones lungs and then hold the breath at the time of releas- ing the shutter, which has to be as smooth as possible. The tiger on the rock is a picture of perfect confidence and power, his relaxed front paws with half-exposed claws symbolising strength which could go into action any time (Plate 5, Fig. 9). The mood of the tiger in the pool is reflected in his eyes, half-raised head, alert ears and the tail which has been lifted from the pool in a question mark, water dripping from its tip like a tap (Plate 6, Fig. 10). It was also at Kanha that I once witnessed a tiger cub make a natural kill and then wait in the pool for his mother, the tigress, to walk towards him with the kill held firmly in her more experienced mouth. The two played in water for a long time. It was a unique oppor- tunity and, as the tigress walked across the sandy river bed towards her cub crouching in shallow water, I clicked away from elephant back along with my son, Ajai, who timed his shot and got this rare wildlife photograph with the Hasselblad and the 250 mm Sonnar lens from a distance of about 20 metres. I had in my hand the other Hasselblad camera with the 150 mm lens. The swift action and the excitement did not permit changing of lenses at the last minute. But Ajai made no mistake. The picture is perfectly composed and records a rare experience (Plate 6, Fig. 11). At Gir, locating lions was not a problem, nor going close enough to them. But getting a very good photograph was still not so simple. After going after lions for days, and taking a number of photographs whenever it was possible to do so, I got a picture which satisfied me — a male lion in soft majestic light (Plate 7, Fig. 12). I started photographing the lion, on foot, from a distance of about 30 metres with my Hasselblad 250 mm lens, slowly approaching to about 10 metres of this lordly animal, when I used my 150 mm lens to include enough of the forest background and get enough depth. I stood leaning against a convenient tree and clicked whenever the light picked up the features of the beast, pleas- ingly. I could clearly see the light brown pattern in his eyes. On another occasion I was able to capture the deep concentration and mesmeric sharpness in the eyes of a lioness (Plate 7, Fig. 13). from very close at ground level. At Kanha I got a picture of a tiger staring at me with the same sharpness and perhaps a little more anger (Plate 8, Fig. 14). The big male tiger at Kanha Kisli (Plate 8, Fig. 15), panting in the heat with his mouth open was taken at a distance of about 15 metres with my Hasselblad and 250 mm lens, which is ideal in such a situation. Under In- dian conditions a 350 mm lens is also extremely useful to fill the frame without trying to get closer to the animal than the critical distance. To know by experience and pay enough atten- tion to the critical distance is very important in wildlife photography, to maximise one’s chances of getting good results without disturb- ing the animal concerned. Much also depends on what the animal has experienced and the conditions in a given area or situation. This is where wildlife photography is not merely a question of knowing ones camera and other accessories but the behaviour pattern and 149 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) mood of the animals being photographed. Close observation is the very essence of suc- cessful wildlife photography which only freezes a particular moment for ones own continued pleasure and for posterity. Wildlife photography in India is generally far more challenging than in Africa where the equatorial light is remark- ably shadow free and animals are mostly roaming in the open. This photograph of the leopard (Fig. 9, Fig. 16), which is no different to the Indian one, was taken in the Serengeti National Park of Africa. It is amazing how easy it is to take photo- graphs of chital or spotted deer at the Bandipur National Park in Karnataka. But it is not so easy to get an outstanding photo- graph of even the chital which is such a common and undisturbed animal in these parts. A photograph as a record and as an aesthetic achievement serves two purposes which if combined results in a pleasing wildlife photograph. Photographs of the Peacock (Plate 10, Fig. 17) and the Peahen (Plate 10, Fig. 18) were taken at Bandipur, the latter with a Hasselblad 500 mm lens, throwing the background out of focus. The loving and lovable chital (Plate 11, Fig. 19) and the stag kissing doe (Plate 11, Fig. 20) are two pictures which portray a soft mood in soft light. In the former, the young male has shot out the tip of his tongue towards an inquisi- tive doe, in a sudden gesture of affection, which would have been impossible to record if I had not been continuously watching the animals through the camera lens, ready to click any moment. Taking pictures from the hatch in the roof of my jeep-van makes for greater freedom, support and stability. Wild- life photography is a continuous process of learning and adaption to field conditions, the nature and temperament of different species, and the mood of a particular animal in a given situation. At Kaziranga, I succeeded in photographing an impressive male specimen of the Great Indian one-horned rhinoceros {Rhinoceros unicornis ), from almost ground level, by making my riding elephant sit down while I took my picture (Plate 12, Fig. 21). Next time, a different Rhino whose mood I had misjudged did not permit the same stable strategy and came snorting at my riding elephant which managed to get up on all fours just in time. At the Manas Wildlife Sanctuary I managed to photograph a good specimen of a wild buffalo bull (Bubal us bubalis ) resting my Hasselblad 500 mm lens on a tree which was lying across an open patch of land (Plate 9, Fig. 22). I am sure if it were not for this tree, the buffalo, which defiantly stood his ground, would not have allowed me to get away with it. One has always to be careful and never take wild ani- mals for granted. That often proves a fatal error. Wildlife photography is not meant to endanger either the photographer or the photo- graphed. As I have said in Sunlight & Shadows: “There is always a certain amount of risk in wildlife photography, especially when one has to get close enough to take a picture; but a combination of ignorance and arrogance can be fatal”. The Blackbuck (Krishnasara in Sanskrit) is a typically Indian antelope eulogised in our classical literature but now an endangered species in its own land. The grace and ele- gance of the blackbuck has to be seen to be believed and yet many sophisticated persons have never seen a blackbuck in the wild or know what it looks like. Only photography can now bring the animal within the visual reach of the many, both in the urban and the rural areas. Here are photographs of a blackbuck and doe (Plate 13, Fig. 23) and a single blackbuck strutting about with his handsome 150 WILDLIFE PHOTOGRAPHY head held high and horns slanting backwards and downwards, forming a romantic triangle with the horizontal back-line and the perpendi- cular neck and chin pointing proudly to the skies (Plate 12, Fig. 24). Kalidasa highlights the loving grace of the blackbuck in his Kumarasambhava and Shakuntala. Must the romance of the blackbuck come to an end? If it does, a beautiful aspect of the soul of India would have perished for ever. It is the purpose of wildlife photography to make us aware of our natural heritage and make us want to preserve it with all our heart and soul. Finally a word about bird photography. I have done nest-site photography with an electronic flash and have been able to arrest birds in flight with fairly simple equipment, as in the case of the brahminy or black-headed mynah returning to its nest in a tree hole to feed its young (Plate 14, Fig. 25). But what I have enjoyed more is to take pictures of birds in the open in natural light. The Bharat - pur bird sanctuary provides excellent oppor- tunities for such work. The painted stork alighting on its nest (Plate 13, Fig. 26) made a good picture but what gave me supreme satisfaction was to photograph a pair of sarus cranes (Plate 2, Fig. 27), from a hide, with my Hasselblad EL and the 500 mm lens mounted on a tripod. After hours of patient waiting I got a perfect opportunity to capture the birds in the ecstasy of action when they “suddenly indulged in a beautiful greeting dis- play, their heads pointing to the heavens, beaks partly open and eyelids fluttering in a spontaneous expression of joy and conjugal bliss. They were happy to be happy”. The time was 8.45 a.m. A thin cloud covered the face of the sun, reducing its harshness with- out affecting very much its light value. I could give an exposure of f8 and 1 /250th of a second with a fast 400 ASA ORWO film, rated by me at 320 ASA, to suit my well tried exposure development technique using Micro- dol-X (1:3 dilution). I have done most of my wildlife photography with this film mainly for reasons of availability. Wildlife photo- graphy is much more than just equipment and materials. It is essentially a way of looking at nature and its denizens with a kind of sensi- tivity and response which is a part of ones innate personality. 151 AUTOMIMICRY AND BATESIAN MIMICRY IN UROPELTID SNAKES: PIGMENT PATTERN PROPORTIONS, AND BEHAVIOR Carl Gans1 ( With two colour plates) Introduction The 35 species of the snake family Uro- peltidae, endemic to southwestern India and Sri Lanka, are burrowers that appear to be most closely related to members of the genus Cylindrophis (Daniel 1983, De Silva 1980, Gans 1966, 1976; Mahendra 1983, Rajendran 1986). Uropeltids have cool-temperature ther- mal preferenda, modified burrowing method and musculature, friction resistant skin and a short, blunt tail capped with a spinous caudal cap, from which the family derives its name (Gans 1974, 1976). The burrowing pattern permits them to move deeply into tropical soils, utilizing their more-or-less pointed head and the ability to throw the neck into a series of S curves for penetration and widening tunnels amid roots and rock particles. The majority of the uropeltids show a variety of bright contrasting colors along the sides of their trunk, generally of shades of orange and red offset with black; also they display a curious constricting behavior whenever they are dug up. Over the last fifteen years, I have worked at obtaining an understanding of the distribu- tion and biology of these animals. The metho- dology consisted of collecting systematically, initially in Sri Lanka. We first visited localities from which specimens had been deposited in museums or reported in the literature. We 1 Department of Biology, The University of Michi- gan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, U.S.A. then tried to collect in intermediate localities to see whether the species occurred there and whether disparate forms were connected by morphologically intermediate variants. Also, we worked around the periphery of known ranges in order to document these more care- fully. Finally, we worked through regions for which no specimens had been reported pre- viously and visited localities and biotopes that had not previously been sampled to see what forms might occur there. In the wet forest areas, our collecting proved relatively simple because I could, after some time, identify microhabitat situations in which particular species were taken with substantial frequency. However, for dry and low-land areas, it was best to rely on the advice of local people for the initial information. To- ward this end, we would stop along the road and in small hamlets, there to talk to farm workers, local agriculturalists, road construc- tion people, school teachers and their students. A diversity of specimens, sealed in plastic or glass tubes, was, in each case, displayed to them, as we found that verbal descriptions of what was and was not to be found in a parti- cular area were much improved when one or more actual specimens were at hand. These served as a refresher of memory and refined the descriptions by people who had seen the species earlier. We then distributed preser- vation materials as well as prefranked and numbered postcards, permitting simple notifi- 152 Plate I Above: Rhinophis blythi. Below: Rhinophis drummondhayi. ( Photos : Author) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (supplement) Gans: Uropeltid snakes J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (supplement) Gans: Uropeltid snakes Plate II Above: Uroveltis phillipsi. Below: Pseudotyphlops philippinus. ( Photos'. Author) MIMICRY IN UROPELT1D SNAKES cation once the rains had come and specimens had been obtained. Whereas the project was not fully com- pleted, we did obtain enough material for a marked refinement of distributional and alti- tudinal maps, for some biochemical studies and for the characterization of new species. It is hoped that the reports on these will be ready for publication in the not too far distant future. Also, the work allowed us to develop some general treatments in discussing the Sri Lankan species and their biology. General Defensive Pattern Analysis of some of the characteristics men- tioned in the original species diagnoses and incidental natural history notes indicate that these characteristics confer some level of pro- tection against predation encountered in the tunnels. The nature of such defenses is con- strained by the nature of the burrowing mechanism. As this is concentrated in the head and anterior 20 per cent of the animal’s trunk, the remainder lacks strong muscles, so that these species cannot dig backward and are only capable of slight reversing move- ments. The vulnerability of the posterior end is reduced by the caudal cap. This is not only reinforced interiorly and overlain by heavy covering keratin, but the spines and ridges cause dirt particles to be wedged into place. These in turn cohere with other bits of soil, forming a cap of mud that follows the animal down the tunnel. Whereas we still lack statistically evaluable data for predator prey interactions, it is interesting that uropeltids found in the stomach of various burrowing snakes, such as Cylindrophis and Bungarus, always have been swallowed head first. The defense represented by the caudal cap then succeeds as often as 50 per cent of encounters. Whereas deeply burrowing snakes should but rarely encounter visually hunting animals, uropeltids show some aspects that conflict with this remark. The three factors are general crypsis, head-tail mimicry and Batesian mimicry. The first observation is that a number of uropeltid species show an overall coloration that matches the color of the soil in which they live. Thus, the yellowish Rhinophis punctalus lives in zones of yellow sand, the more orange tinted R. dorsimaculatus in lenses of more reddish sands, whereas the black R. oxyrhynchus, R. philippinus and R. trevelyanus mainly occupy very dark soils. Such cryptic matching of the background color is otherwise concentrated to species occupying open areas and has there been shown to reflect defense against sight-hunting predators (Greene, in press; Pough, in press). The second characteristic suggesting that sight hunters are an important component in the life of some uropeltids is the general tendency to head-tail mimicry. It could be argued that the blunt form of the tail is due to the in-tunnel defense mechanism, and that the slender termination of the head and neck reflects the specialized tunnel-forming methods. Indeed it is quite clear that these biological roles establish and maintain the major pheno- typic pattern, which in this sense represents a morphological constraint. However, several major considerations argue for the effect of surface predation. The first is a behavioral one, in that uropeltids always hide the head and display the tail. The head tends to hide under the coils and will engage in active movement into soil, forming or entering existing tunnels, while the tail is simultaneously waved about. The second is that the coloration enhances the illusion. The caudal cap is often distinctly marked, both laterally and ventrally, so that the image of a head with eye spots appears 153 11 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. S3 ( SUPPLEMENT ) obviously expressed as the tail is lifted and. waved about during disturbance. In contrast, the head markings break up the outline of the anterior end. In Rhinophis blythi, there is a lateral band around the head that crosses the oculars and gives the impression in dorsal view that the head is slimmer and shorter. In R. punctatus a middorsal V of darkened pig- ment emphasizes the slender caudal end. The third aspect relates to the lateral mark- ings on the trunk. Whereas the dorsal surface is generally unicolored (except for that of the spectacular Uropeltis phillipsi), these lateral markings are expressed in sharply defined patches of strongly contrasting colors, solid whites, yellows and oranges. The intermediate zones tend to be as dark or darker than the dorsal surface. Certainly, these lateral markings cannot be seen as cryptic; however, they may represent startle marks, displayed only after the animal has been discovered by a predator. On the other hand, they can be interpreted as Batesian mimicry of some of the many species of yellow and black banded centipedes that are commonly encountered sympatrically with uropeltids. Some of these have a poison- ous bite. Theoretical considerations indicated that the dupe in the system would likely be one of several species of fowl, endemic throughout the range in which the uropeltids occur. They meet the conditions that the dupe should be a predator which shared the biotope, which was common enough there to represent a sub- stantial threat (thus justifying the cost of pro- tection) and which could recognize the signal being mimicked. Jungle fowl, spur fowl and pea fowl occur on the forest floor and scratch through the leaf litter and superficial soil layers, invaded by uropeltids in search of prey. The birds were formerly extremely com- mon, moving in large flocks that aggregated in mast fruiting sites. Fowl are visual hunters and have good color perception. The kinds of conclusions deriving from comparison of behavior, shape and color patterns of uropeltids with those of other lizards and snakes are intrinsically flawed; they represent possibilities rather than proba- bilities. The only thing that endows the conclu- sions with some level of respectability is the ever increasing amount of detailed experi- mental observation on multiple other species. Even then, it is best to increase the robustness of the conclusion by actual test of interactions between potential prey and possible predator. These considerations led me to carry out some initial tests on the interaction of birds and uropeltids. Experiments with Birds Two such tests were possible. The first test (in November 1974) involved a small flock of chickens maintained on a recently cleared area near Bibilegama in the vicinity of Namu- nukula, Sri Lanka. The appearance of these local chickens was very close to that of the endemic jungle fowl; consequently, it was to be assumed that these individuals might share the behavior of the wild population. The second set of tests was run two years later (on 8 August 1976), utilizing caged spur fowl, jungle fowl and pea fowl in the enclosures of the Colombo Zoological Garden. The jungle fowl were housed by themselves in an appro- ximately 3 metre by 3 metre enclosure. The pea fowl were running in the open area, and the spur fowl, as well as a number of other birds, were in a very large enclosure combin- ing open areas and shrubs planted among open patches. In most cases, the animals were used to intermittent feeding by hand and showed no particular fear of people. 154 MIMICRY IN UROPELTID SNAKES The domestic chickens were offered pieces of cracker, boiled rice, and worms, all spread randomly over the ground. The cereals were swallowed with a single peck-swallow move- ment, unless more than particle was picked up at a time. Whenever earthworms were intro- duced, the birds pecked at them and then flipped them through the air two or three times before swallowing them. After the birds had become used to our presence, we released a living Rhino phis drum- mondhayi, approximately 15 cm long. The snake started moving but did not move con- certedly across the surface, rather making ineffective attempts at burrowing into the hard soil. The chickens noticed the snake (when passing less than 75 cm away) but initially seemed to be afraid, moving backward as they noted its tail waving movement. They would peck at grain in its vicinity and cock their head sideways to watch. Suddenly, one of the chickens darted approximately 30 cm, bit the snake, lifting it off the ground and tossing it perhaps 50 cm. The bird followed immediate- ly, pecked again and repeated the flip. There were two important aspects of this behavior. The first was that the peck-flipping was re- peated many times without any attempt at swallowing. The second was that the snake initially waved the caudal tip, enhancing a head image, and that more than 90 per cent of the bites were directed at this caudal tip. After approximately 35 flips, the bird was disturbed and the snake retrieved essentially undamaged. When placed on soft soil, it burrowed effectively at almost normal speed. After being chased away from the prey, the bird proved to be still hungry and immediate- ly started feeding. Earthworms offered imme- diately thereafter were swallowed after 2 to 5 flips; however, a single centipede was flipped at least a dozen times before it was lost after hitting some bushes. A second trial proceeded similarly. A series of preliminary experiments utilizing the wild-caught birds in the zoo provided approximately equivalent results. The zoo animals reacted like the domestic chickens to other possible food items. They fed on grain with single pecks, used not more than 5 peck/ flips for worms, and a markedly greater series for centipedes. Several specimens of the patterned Rhino- phis drummondhayi and the unicolored black R. philippinus were then offered to three species of birds in a random pattern. If swallow- ing had not occurred at the 35th peck, they were removed. Some sample observations follow. Jungle fowl : A female was immediately at- tracted to the R. philippinus moving toward it from 2 m away. She pecked it, whereupon the snake started curling randomly and was pecked four more times. In each case, the peck hit the tail. The snake was then checked and showed no damage. Upon release, the snake curled about a bush. The bird accidentally bit the snake’s head twice and then continued to peck at the tail. The snake did not seem damaged, but kept on moving in the same pattern. Appa- rently disturbed by the observers, the bird then bit the snake at midbody and carried it to another part of the cage. The bite clearly hurt the snake; although its skin was not broken the internal organs may have been crushed. The snake was then left on another open spot and the female returned to it at intervals, peck-flipping it whenever it moved. Another female then took over and kept shaking and flipping it for more than four minutes. The frequency of tail strike was over 95 per cent (it may have been higher; however, we only scored for tail strikes when the snake was unequivocally seen to have been hit in the 155 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 (, SUPPLEMENT ) tail). A male bird moved by but ignored the snake. The female finally swallowed the snake 22 minutes after the initial attack. When another R. philippinus was exposed to a pair of jungle fowl they showed only faint interest. In another cage, a R. philippinus dug very fast. Although the fowl pecked its tail, the snake escaped. Observations on spurfowl ( Gallopodus bicalcarata) gave similar results. Neither species attacked the R. drummon- dhayi; they repeatedly approached the speci- mens and then backed off, seemingly disturbed by its bright color markings. Several jungle fowl repeatedly walked around specimens, looked at them and walked away, all the time feeding on other items. Only once was a snake bitten; it had crawled right up to the cock, touching its feet. The bite was directed at the head, but the snake seemed unharmed. Peafowl: The large specimens attacked, killed and ate two R. philippinus, the first in about 5 min. They treated the R. drummon- dhayi quite differently. One specimen was attacked before the R. philippinus had been presented. The flock shifted their attention to these and only then returned to the snake with markings. Twenty-five minutes later, the snake was still crawling about on the solid floor, being pecked every so often and flipped through the air. After 40 minutes, the snake was swallowed; it is uncertain by which of the birds. Deductions and Further Tests The initial observations on uropeltids all suggest that these animals were initially adapted to life within tunnels through the soils of moist tropical forests (Gans 1976, 1978). Subsequent studies have confirmed that the caudal specializations primarily represent de- fensive devices, reducing the potential effect of snake and perhaps other subterranean pre- dators (Gans and Baic 1977). It now appears that the snakes also show defenses against surface predators. In this category there is the display of cryptic coloration including color matching to that of the prevalent soil, auto- mimicry of head to tail and Batesian mimicry with the model being several species of centi- pede and the dupe the several species of fowl. The results of the preliminary tests are in concordance with the basic hypothesis; they do not prove it. What is required at this moment are further studies on a variety of levels. What follows is a testing program which I had intended to carry out in Sri Lanka, but which was prevented by people and circumstances. It may be useful to state this explicitly, as it may encourage studies by others who live closer to the animals involved. First of all, it would be most useful to obtain additional information on the natural predators of uropeltids. This would involve the analysis of stomach contents of animals killed incidentally or for other studies. As much of Sri Lanka has resident populations of uropeltids, such studies should proceed in lowland, at mid elevation and at high elevation zones. They should also address ontogeny as the juveniles of some species appear to have distinct colors. If possible, they should then search for information about the places at which the predated uropeltids were taken. Did the predators dig them up or encounter only those individuals which for some reason pass the surface accidentally. Next, it would also be of interest to determine the extent to which the predators were those that specifically hunted uropeltids rather than those that fed on them incidental to predation on other organisms. Next, it would be desirable to see to what 156 MIMICRY IN UROPELTID SNAKES extent the several presumed patterns of pre- dator avoidance were effective. Toward this end, one could model uropeltids (using wood, plaster or rubber castings) and paint them in variants of their natural colors before exposing them either in the natural surroundings or with caged predators. In this phase, it might be interesting to use different substrates, moving or non-moving snake models; on the other hand, this phase could also be modified by using living snakes, but painting them to distinct colors. The pre- liminary experiments suggest the importance of head /tail reversal. Strikes at the tail induce minor damage. Those at body and head incur a higher risk of major destruction. Here again, two kinds of tests would be possible. The simplest one would require a change of shape, most simply arranged by attaching rubber molds to the anterior and odd posterior por- tion of the animal, perhaps more simply by making the snakes more truly symmetrical, or by reversing the head and tail shapes. Beyond testing the matter of shape as an isolated variable, it would also be possible to check for shape enhanced by color pattern in the several ways described. Finally, it would seem useful to test for the mimicry hypothesis. This could be handled in two ways. First, by testing whether the accepta- bility of centipedes as potential prey changes once they are deprived of their “warning colors”, and secondly, by enhancing or mask- ing the lateral, bright colors of uropeltids. It should be stressed that such a research program should not expect to see absolutes of costs and benefits. Assuming that the basic hypothesis is correct, we could see some benefit to even slight avoidance of predator attention, but this would depend on the pre- dator addressed, being strongest for “to whom it may concern” hunters and weakest to specia- lists on uropeltids, if there are such. The effectiveness of color matching would also differ, depending on local variants of the soil, surface reflectivity, variants of moisture con- tent, and whereas that of highly hydrophobic snakes surface does not. Also, the intrinsic variability of surface textures and vegetation includes substrates on which even color- matched animals may be very obvious than those on which they would, in any case, be masked by vegetation. Most uropeltids dis- covered on the surface were apparently there due to flooding or similar circumstances. Thus, unpredictable aspects will affect the responses to be expected. Furthermore, there is the issue of diversity. The ranges of many uropeltids are quite restricted, generally likely to be far more restricted than those of their predators. Is there a functional basis to the local color variants of the different snakes, or does this reflect phylogenetic or developmental aspects? All of these are aspects for which we cannot provide believable responses until we have additional data regarding these animals and their possible predators. Uncertainty will re- main; however, the next level of tests should indicate to what extent we are on the correct track. Acknowledgements I wish to dedicate this paper to the hun- dreds of plantation workers, small farmers, rubber tappers, tea pickers, drainage workers, school teachers and their students, and others whom we met during our travels and who not only helped us, but often extended personal hospitality and advice. I am grateful to Prasanna Fernando, who participated in the first field trial and to the staff of the Colombo Zoo who assisted with trials there. During field work in Sri Lanka, I was able to utilize 157 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) vehicles of the Smithsonian Institution’s Ento- mological Field Project. Some aspects of all of these studies and the preparation of the Refer Daniel, J. C. (1983) : The Book of Indian Reptiles. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Gans, Carl (1966): Uropeltidae. In : Liste der rezenten Amphibien und Reptilien. Das Tierreich, (Berlin), 84: 1-29. (1973) : Uropeltid snakes — survi- vors in a changing world. Endeavour, 52(116) : 60- 65. (1976) : Aspects of the biology of uropeltid snakes. In: (A. d’A. Bellairs and C. B. Cox, eds.). Morphology and Biology of Reptiles. Linn. Soc. London, Symp., (3) : 191-204. (1978): All animals are interesting! Presidential Address. Amer. Zool., 18(1) : 3-9. (1979) : A subterranean snake with a funny tail. Natural Hist., 88(5) : 70-75. Gans, Carl & Baic, Dusan (1977): Regional specialization of reptilian scale surfaces: Relation of present report were supported by the National Science Foundation, most recently under DEB 8509490. ■ . '• ENCES texture and biologic role. Science, 195 (4284) : cover, 1263, 1348-1350. Gans, Carl, Herbert C. Dessauer, and Baic, Dusan (1978) : Axial differences in the musculature of the uropeltid snakes: The freight- train approach to burrowing. Science, 199 (4325) : 189-192. Greene, H. W. (in press) : Predation and antipre- dator responses in reptiles. In: Biology of the Repti- lia. (C. Gans and R. B. Huey, eds.). John Wiley, Inc. New York, 16. Mahendra, B. C. (1983) : Handbook of the Snakes of India, Ceylon, Burma, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. Ann. Zool., Agra, 22 (1984B) : i-xvi+1-412. Pough, H. (in press) : Mimicry. In: Biology of the Reptilia. (C. Gans and R. B. Huey, eds.). John Wiley, Inc., New York, 16. Rajendran, M. (1985) : Studies in Uropeltid Snakes. Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai. 158 PHOTOGRAPHIC RECORD OF THE JERDON’S OR DOUBLE-BANDED COURSER CURSOR1US BITORQUATUS Bharat Bhushan1 (With a colour plate) Introduction The Jerdon’s or Double-banded Courser Cursorius bitorquatus had been resighted after 86 years (since its last record in 1900) in the Lankamalai hill-range areas on 19 January 1986 (Bhushan 1986). The events leading upto the resighting and previous records by Jerdon near Cuddapah (Blyth 1848), Blanford near the Godavari at Bhadrachallam (Blan- ford 1898), and, by Campbell near Anantapur (Ali 1977) have been described in detail in my earlier paper (Bhushan 1986b). Failure to record the Jerdon’s Courser after the 1900 sighting had led to the species being consi- dered as either extinct or nearly so (Ripley 1952, 1961, Greenway 1958, Howard and Moore 1980, Walters 1980, King 1981). The Jerdon’s Courser was known only from the two skins collected by Blanford, now housed in the British Museum, prior to my January 1986 record. Apart from the communications mentioned above, very little biological work has been done on the Jerdon’s Courser. The present study formed part of the Bombay Natural History Society’s (BNHS) research project “Study of Ecology of Rare and Endangered Species of Wildlife and their Habitat” funded 1 Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road. Bombay-400 023. by the Fish and Wildlife Service, USA, through the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Wildlife, Govt, of India. The study has been conducted at the Lanka- malai hill-range area during discontinuous study-periods from January to May and September to October 1986. The main study area was the foothill-scrub expanses below Lankamalai hills near Reddipalli and Konduru villages of Atlur Mandal, Cuddapah district of Andhra Pradesh. The Lankamalai hills are part of the Lankamalai Reserve Forest in the Siddavatam Range of Cuddapah Forest Division of Andhra Pradesh. The main study area refers to the foothill-scrub intersected by the reserve forest boundary line and also considers the scrub expanses in the non-reserve forest areas. Both areas are referred to as ‘above’ and ‘below’ the line (Bhushan 1986b, p. 10). The Lankamalai foothill- scrub forest types were both Thorny and Non-Thorny scrub jungle patches (Champion & Seth 1968). While the Thorny scrub consisted of Acacia, Zizy- phus and Carissa, the Non-Thorny Scrub was of Cassia, Hardwickia, Dalbergia, Butea and Anogeissus among other species. Further ahead, above the line, towards the lower slopes are Hardwickia binata forests followed by Thorn forests dominated by Anogeissus along with Albizzia, Acacia, and Zizyphus (Reddy 1983, Bhushan 1986b). 159 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) Methodology The preliminary surveys in 1985 had in- volved eliciting information from locals about their knowledge of the Double-banded Courser’s existence (Bhushan 1985 a&b). Field-work in 1986 was undertaken with the help of individuals who knew exact locations of the Courser (Bhushan 1986 a&b). Field work involved walking about in the area, listing the birds seen and keeping track of the extent of habitat-types. This was alter- nated by using a spotterscope of 10 x magni- fication. Equipment used also included a 12x50 pair of binoculars. Photographs were taken with an Asahi Pentax Program Plus Camera with a normal 50 mm 8i 70-210 mm zoom lenses. A wide-angled instamatic camera was also utilised. Results A solitary Jordon’s Courser was sighted on 24th September 1986, in similar habitat as the January sighting and was approximately two kilometres north of the same. The courser has also been reliably sighted by local Reddi- palli villagers, Aitanna and PulJiah, at another location in the foothill scrub in between the other two sightings on 10th May 1986. The wto coursers seen in January at night had flown up and glided down noiselessly into open patches. The September sighting was at 0630-0715 hours. The bird was sighted in a Carissa bush (height c. 30 cm) and walked off on being flushed accidentally by my near presence. It sat next to a stone beside a dead branch in the open patch and remained motion- less as I kept approaching while photograph- ing it. The courser then stood up and walked off behind an Acacia bush (2.5 m tall) as I went closer, stood for less than 30 seconds. and sat under its canopy in the shadow of the stem. The bird later walked to another bush, went under the canopy, stood in the shade for about a minute, flew up and beyond the bush-line against the hills. It could not be sighted later. The three sightings have been in similar habitat-patches in the foothill scrub. The Jerdon’s Courser seems to be almost restrict- ed to bare grassless patches of open ground amidst scrub bushes. These patches have a cover of grass only during the monsoon and is under grazing pressure otherwise. The three open patches in which the courser was seen are not more than 500 sq. m in area. There are similar sized open patches all along the Lankamalai foothills both above and below the line. The photographs now constitute the only known positive evidence of the species’ presence in its habitat. Below the line and after the scrub areas near Reddipalli and Konduru villages, are present open bare grazing grounds larger than 500 sq. m and nearly 1-3 sq. km in area. The vegetation in these larger open patches com- prise of shrub bushes towards the reserve forest area and of cultivation towards the village areas. The Jerdon’s Courser has never been sighted in the larger open patches even by locals who frequent these grounds regularly. Discussion Intruder reaction The Jerdon’s or Double-banded Courser’s reaction to my presence during the January and September sighting is similar to the Rhinoptilus behaviour recorded for presence of an intruder. Bannermann (1931) records Major Hutson describing a R. chalcopterus sighted on a “newly burnt patch in fairly open 160 Plate J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (supplement) Bhushan: Cursorius bitorquatus Above: The Jerdon’s Courser. Below: Habitat of the Jerdon’s Courser. ( Photos : Author) PHOTOGRAPHIC RECORD OF JERDON’S COURSER bush. It stood motionless when approached and only took to flight when he was within six yards, and then landed again and stood motionless once more. This performance dur- ing which it did not utter a note, was repeated several times”. Andersson, in the same account, describes his experience in attempting to flush the chalcopterus from the undergrowth. He men- tions, “when suddenly flushed, the bird darts behind a tree” where it stops, and continues its “flight by hard running, only using its wings in its utmost need”. Rudolf Braun, a German naturalist, record- ed the chalcopterus getting up “right under one’s feet, coming down again 30-40 metres away and usually remains perfectly motion- less”. (Bannermann 1951). Habitat Jerdon (1877) had found the Double-handed Courser to inhabit “rocky and undulating ground with thin forest jungle” and believed the species to be a “mountain form of Cur- sorius, frequenting rocky hills with thin jungle”. Blanford (1898) recorded the species in “thin forest or high scrub, never in open ground” and “never saw any on hills” in con- trast to Jerdon’s belief. I have described the Double-banded Courser being present in simi- lar habitat in my earlier communication (Bhushan 1986 b). Among the African species, the Bronze- winged Courser R. chalcopterus prefers bush- covered country and also utilizes “little bare, gravelly patches among the woods” as breed- ing spots (Bannermann 1931). The Two-banded Courser R. africanus is a “bird of rocky thorn scrub country, sandy plains and flat deserts” while the Heuglin’s or Three-handed Courser R. cinctus is rarely found away from thick thorn scrub (Mackworth-Praed and Grant 1952). Later communications record the three- banded Courser nesting on bare ground, next to a pile of windblown leaves about one metre from the base of a small Acacia tree (Kemp and Maclean 1973). Uys and Underhill (1977) recorded the Two -banded Courser breeding on bare ground, a few metres away from stunted bushes on both the occasions the bird had allowed the observers to approach very closely in a manner similar to my September sighting of the bitorquatus during which, however, I could not record any breeding. The habitat is similar to descriptions of the same for the three African Rhinoptilus. Maclean (1967) describes the habitat of the Double-banded Courser R. africanus as ‘cal- crete covered with small woody shrubblets between six inches and a foot”, and, records that the africanus is “almost confined to the calcrete, which is usually bare between the shrublets, except after good rains. . He also mentions that “the barest areas where drink- ing antelopes have trampled the vegetation are usually avoided by the coursers”. Acknowledgements The Bombay Natural History Society permit- ted me to undertake the survey under their research project on Endangered Species. This study received financial assistance from the Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S.A. in the form of a grant (USDIFWS Grant No. 8851-658-02) received through the Department of Wildlife, Ministry of Environment, Forests and Wild- life, Government of India. I am grateful to these organisations for their support. Grateful thanks is due to Mr. J. C. Daniel, Curator, BNHS, for his encouragement and supervision throughout the many stages in the final outcome of the survey. I am also grateful to Dr Salim Ali, Dr Asad 161 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) Rahmani, Mr S. R. Nayak and Mr Isaac Kehimkar. I had useful discussions with Dr Dillon Ripley, Dr Graham Cowles, Mr David Ferguson, Mr. S. A. Hussain and Dr. R. Rudran. The Andhra Pradesh Forest Department and Refer Ali, S. (1977): President's letter: “Mystery” Birds of India-2: Jerdon’s or Double-banded Courser. Horn bill Oct.-Dec. 1977: 5-7. Bannermann, D. A. (1931): The Birds of Tropi- cal West Africa. Vol. 2: 92-107. London. (1951): The Birds of Tropi- cal West Africa. Vol. 8: 214-217. London. Bhushan, B. (1985a) : Jerdon’s or Double-band- ed Courser Cursorius bitorquatus (Blyth) — Preli- minary Survey. Penner river valley areas. Andhra Pradesh. Technical Report No. 9, Endangered Species Project. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. (1985b) : Jerdon’s or Double-band- ed Courser Cursorius bitorquatus (Blyth) — Pennar river valley areas : Andhra Pradesh. Surveys and Discussion. In: “The Floricans’ Annual Report 1984- 85. Endangered Species Project. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. (1986a): Rediscovery of the Jer- don’s Courser. Hornbill 1986(1) : 1-6. — (1986b) : Rediscovery of the Jer- don’s Courser Cursorius bitorquatus (Blyth). /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83: 1-14. Blanford, W. T. (1898) : The Fauna of British India. Birds. Vol. IV. Taylor and Francis. London. Blyth, E. (1848): Proceedings of the Asiatic Society — Report of the Curator, Zoological Depart- ment. Journal Asiatic Soc. Bengal, xvii (1) : 254. Champion, H. G. & Seth, S. K. (1968): A Re- vised Survey of the Forest Types of India. Govern- ment of India Press, Delhi. Greenway, J. C. (1958) : Extinct and Vanishing Birds of the World. American Committee for Inter- national Wildlife Protection. New York, pp. 270-271. particularly Mr Pushp Kumar, ACCF- Wildlife for the facilities granted. To my parents and sister who never showed their anxiety at my absence during the survey — mere thanks would be insufficient. EN CES Howard, R. A. & Moore, A. (1980) : A Com- plete checklist of the World. Oxford University Press, London. Jerdon, T. C. (1977) : The Birds of India, Vol. II, Part II. Calcutta, pp. 626-629. Kemp, A. C. & Maclean, G. C. (1973): Nesting of the Three-banded Courser. Ostrich 44: 82-83. King, B. S. (Ed.) (1981): Endangered Birds of the World: The ICBP Red Data Book, Smithsonian Institution Press & ICBP. Washington, D.C. Maclean, G. L. (1967): The breeding biology and behaviour of the Double-banded Courser Rhinoptilus africanus (Temminck). Ibis 109: 556- 569. Mackworth-Praed, C. M. & Grant, C. H. B. (1952): Birds of Eastern and North-Eastern Africa. Longman. New York. pp. 396-402. Morse, D. (1980): Behavioural mechanisms in Ecology. Harvard University Press. Reddy, C. S. (1983): Management plan for the forests of Cuddapah District. 1982-1997. Vol. I Research and Development Circle. Andhra Pradesh Forest Department. Ripley, S. D. (1952): Vanishing and extinct Bird species of India J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 902- 906. (1961): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan. First edition. Bombay Natu- ral History Society, Bombay. Uys, C. J. & Underhill, G. D. (1977): Nesting of the Double banded Courser in the Worcester District. Bokmakierie 29: 43-45. Walters, M. (1980) : The Complete Birds of the World. David and Charles, London. 162 THE EARLIEST RECORD OF A WHITE TIGER ( PANTHERA TIGRIS) Divyabhamusinh1 (With a colour plate) Mutant “white” tigers are a fairly well documented phenomenon in India. This jour- nal has recorded no less than 17 instances of “white” tigers being shot in India between 1907 and 1933 (Gee 1954), i.e. in a period of 16 years only. Several other instances are recorded of sightings and trophies of such animals as well. The most famous and recent case being that of Mohan the great while partriarch of Rewa, whose descendants stock the zoos the world over. There has been only one recorded instance of true albino tigers, this is of two cubs shot in Cooch Bihar in 1922. (Narayan 1922). The earliest known record of a “white” tiger however is that of the Mughal period and more precisely of the year 1561 A.D. Emperor Akbar who ruled from 1556 A.D. to 1605 A.D., caused his life and times to be recorded by his trusted courtier Abul Fazl. His “Akbar Nama” became a detailed account of the Emperor’s reign. It had run into 2 volumes and the third one was incomplete when he was waylaid and killed by the forces of Raja Bir Singh Deo of Orcha on Jahangir’s orders in 1602 A.D. barely 3 years before Akbar’s own death. There are two illustrated versions of the chronicle that survive in parts. One is the second volume of Akbar Nama which is the royal copy bearing Jahangir’s own signa- ture preserved in Victoria and Albert Museum, 1 No. 1, Mansingh Road. New Delhi 110 011. London. The first volume is untraceable while the third is dispersed. The second volume covers the period of 1560 to 1577/8 A.D. It has in all one hundred and sixteen miniature paintings executed by forty nine painters and sometimes as many as three of them worked on the same painting. The other illustrated versions was painted between 1603 and 1605 A.D. and it is preserved in the British Museum Library, London and Chester Beatty Library, Dublin. Every painting in Akbar Nama illustrates an episode in the life of the Emperor. The painting which interests us here, illustrates one such episode in the royal copy in Victoria and Albert Museum but the same episode is not illustrated in the other surviving version referr- ed here. The episode in question, occurred near Gwalior in 1561 A.D. in the 5th regnal year when Akbar was returning to Agra from Malwa. It is recorded thus: “His Majesty went on stage by stage, hunt- ing and shooting but also going on rapidly. When his crescent standard cast their rays on the territory appertaining to the fort of Narwar, a tiger, such as may terrify the leopard of heaven, came out of the forest with five cubs and on the track by which the cavalcade was proceeding. His Majesty the Shahinshah who had the strength of the lion of God in his arms and the coat of mail of the Divine protection on his breast, went alone and with- out hesitation in front of the iron-clawed 163 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) fiery-natured wild animal. When the spectators beheld this the hair on their bodies stood erect and sweat distilled from their pores. His Majesty with swift foot and alert arm attacked the brute and killed it by one stroke. . . “The wild beast, so great and terrible, fell bleeding to the dust before the strength of his arm and the might of his courage, and a shout arose one all sides. This was the first beast of prey which His Majesty personally attacked. Its cubs were killed by the swords and arrows of a number of brave men who were in attendance on the sublime stirup” (pp. 222-3, Vol. II, Beveridge, 1910). This episode is illustrated with a double page painting. The right page shows young Akbar astride a black mount slaying the tigress with his sword, some of his courtiers are looking on. A “white” tiger lies disembowelled and dead below Akbars’ horse. Another normal coloured tiger has attacked a soldier and is in the process of being speared, while a third tiger again a “white” one, is being stabbed with a “khan jar” by one soldier and another is about to attack it with a sword. The left page shows a tiger dead and lying on its back with its four feet in the air while another is about to meet its end, both these are of normal colour. From the paintings we see that all the five cubs are large, almost fully grown. The narrative does not mention “white” tiger cubs, yet the painting is clear and leaves us in no doubt. Mr. Robert Skelton of Victoria and Albert Museum. London, and an authority on Mughal paintings, informs me that the two tigers in the painting in question are of a “light fawn” colour (Skelton, pers. com. 1984) which is not the normal colour of tigers at all. Then why is the next silent? Abul Fazl started working on the chronicle around 1588 A.D. (p. 34. Sen 1984) while this incident took place in 1561 A.D. As such his account is hearsay committed to writing 27 years after the event. There is yet another factor: Abul Fazl’s chronicle is one long essay in the celebration of the Emperor and his greatness as is evident from the reading of the text of Akbar Nama. In the narrative of this episode the object is very clearly to illustrate Akbar’s bold and fearless action and to record the fact that this was the first time that the Emperor had personally attacked and killed a beast of prey. The colour of the tigers slain, and in this case of those killed by others such as soldiers or courtiers, was of little conse- quence. The Persian text uses the word “babri” which is used interchangeably for both tigers and lions and there is no description of the striped cats which again goes to show the thrust of the chronicle towards the Emperor’s bravery rather than the uniqueness of the animal’s colour. The painting on the right page was com- posed by Basawan and painted by Tara the elder. The faces were painted by Basawan. Whereas the left page was composed by Basa- wan and painted by Sarwan (p. 69, Sen, 1984). Of 116 paintings that survive in the second volume of Akbar Nama , ten were composed or painted by Basawan and two by Tara the elder. Each and every painting pertaining to wildlife in the Chronicle is very accurately executed. A keen observer of wildlife would be amazed at the accurate reproduction of animals in Akbar Nama paintings and he would inevitably reach a conclusion that the painters had a personal knowledge of their subjects. The colour of the two tiger cubs in question is so unmistakably different, “light fawn”, that it cannot be ascribed to chance. To me the painting appears to have been exe- cuted on the basis of authentic eye witness reports. It is on record that painters often 164 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (supplement) Divyabhanusinh : White tiger Plate “Akbar slays a tigress which attacked the royal cavalcade.” This painting is the right hand side of a double page illustration in the Akbarnama. The colour of the two almost full grown cubs is light fawn in sharp contrast to that of the mother being slain by the Emperor Akbar. RECORD OF A WHITE TIGER accompanied the Emperor during expeditions and journeys. Basawan may well have witness- ed the scene at Narwar, Abul Fazl joined Akbar’s service much later. A dyslexic emperor (for Akbar could neither read nor write and he is believed to have suffered from dyslexia) may overlook an inaccuracy of the written word, but surely an emperor of Akbar’s keenness for the hunt and the chase would not overlook a mistake if it was one, in rendering the correct colour of tigers which were common if not favourite objects of imperial hunting persuits. What is more, while this royal copy of Akbar Nama bears Emperor Jahangir’s signature, even he, ever the keen observer of Nature, is silent about the tiger cubs in the painting. If some- thing was amiss, he would surely have noted it. In fact, what we are witnessing here are two mutant “white” tigers. The painting has been published several times starting with Wilhelm Staude in 1932, Stuart Cary Welch in 1960 and 1964 (p. 69, Sen, 1984), Bamber Refer Beveridge, Henry, Tr. (1910): Akbar Nama by Abu-l-Fazl, pp. 222-3, Vol. II, Calcutta (New Delhi, 1979). Gascoigne, Bamber (1971) : The Great Moghals. London, 1971, (London, 1985). Gee, E. P. (1954) : Albinism and Partial Albinism in Tigers. J. Bombay nat. His. Soc. 56 ( 3) : 581-7. Narayan, Victor N. (1922): Notes on Man Eat- Gascoigne (a poor colour reproduction in this case) in 1971 (p. 112-3, Gascoigne, 1971), Geeti Sen in 1984 (pp. 48, 69, Sen, 1984), John Reay in 1985 (pp. 216-7, Reay, 1985), Stuart Cary Welch in 1985 (pp. 147-8, Welch, 1985), and others. Though the painting has been scrutinised by many historians and critics, it is strange that the “white” tigers have escaped attention till now. The only expla- nation is that India’s rich heritage has been rarely examined to record or study its natural history. Acknowledgements I am greatful to Dr. Asok Kumar Das, Director, Maharaja Sawai Man Singh II Museum, Jaipur for bringing to my attention this particular painting in the Akbarnama. I am also grateful to Mr. Robert Skelton of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London for offering his views on the painting in question. Their help has greatly enriched this article. However, I am solely responsible for short- comings, if any. ENCES ing Tigers, ibid. 28(4): 1124. Reay, John (1985) : India Discovered, The Achievement of the British Raj, London. Sen, Geeti (1984) : Paintings from the Akbar Nama: A Visual Chronicle of Mughal India, Vara- nasi. Welch, Stuart Cary (1985) : India, Art and Culture, 1300-1900, New York. 165 STATUS OF WILDLIFE AND HABITAT CONSERVATION IN KARNATAKA K. Ullas Karanth1 (With a map) This paper reviews the status of wildlife and habitats of Karnataka State in India. The overview briefly covers (i) Available habitat types in the major biogeogra- phic zones of the state; (ii) Current distribution of important mammalian species; (iii) Protection status of wildlife and habitats in the recent years; and (iv) The existing and proposed nature reserve areas I N TROD U CTIO N Karnataka State in South-Western India is a region naturally endowed with a diversity of bioclimatic, topographic and edaphic varia- tions (Pascal 1982, Rama Prasad and Malhotra 1984). For example, the annual precipitation of the order of 6000 mm at the Western edge of the State declines to less than 800 mm with- in a short distance of about 150 kms East- wards. The coastal plains which are virtually at sea level rise precipitously to the Western ghat ridges at around 1500 m elevation only to slope down gently on to the Deccan plateau Eastwards. The soil types range from coastal laterites through the sandy loams of the Southern plateau to the deep black cotton soils of the Northern plains. As a result of such natural variations, the State has a variety of wildlife habitats and a rich diversity of plant and animal commu- nities. These habitats include many types of forests: Montane Shola, Wet-evergreen, Semi- evergreen, Moist deciduous. Dry deciduous. Dry evergreen. Thorn scrub as well as Rive- 1 Centre for Wildlife Studies. 499, Kuvempu Nagar, Mysore - 570 023. in Karnataka. rine. Mangrove and other wetland vegetations. In recent times, the State has made some determined attempts to conserve this biologi- cal wealth. Arguably, this effort has been more effective than in many other parts of India, particularly in terms of restricting forest ex- ploitation and setting up nature reserves. In this paper I have attempted to present an overview of the conservation status of Karnataka State’s wildlife and wildlife habi- tats. This overview is primarily restricted to terrestrial habitats and focusses on the larger mammalian fauna. I have briefly mentioned each of the habitats occurring in the four bio- geographic sub-regions of the State: (1) West coast plains; (2) Western ghat slopes and foothills; (3) Southern plateau and Eastern ghat hills; (4) Northern plateau (Map 1). A brief review of the conservation status of these habitats is here. The current presence /absence data on the distribution of important mamma- lian species is also included as an indicator of the status of wildlife. I have summarised additional information about some species which are of special conservation interest. This is followed by a brief section on problems of wildlife and habitat protection in the State and existing and suggested nature reserve areas. 166 CONSERVATION IN KARNATAKA Map. 1. Karnataka — Bio-geographic regions and important wildlife habitats. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) Apart from my own field notes, I have con- sulted several published and unpublished accounts by various authors. These are quoted in the appropriate context. On the whole this paper essentially highlights gaps in our know- ledge about the faunal distribution in Karnataka and is meant to serve as a basis for more detailed work in future. Wildlife Habitats in Karnataka Coastal Plains , Western Ghat Slopes and Foothills These two regions receive very high rainfall ranging around 1500-5000 + mm annually (Pascal 1982). The coastal plains have two main littoral habitat types — the sand dune vegetation on the seashore and the mangroves on the coast and riverine estuaries. A recent comprehensive survey by Untwale and Wafar (1986) highlights the precarious status of these habitats and estimates that only a few hundred hectares of these remain intact. It also docu- ments their ongoing destruction by the local people for fuel, timber, conversion to agricul- tural uses as well as other developmental acti- vities. These habitats are almost entirely out- side the control of forest /wildlife departments and no effective protection has been possible as a result. Most of the climax evergreen forests of the coastal plains were also not protected as reserved forests in the late 19th century, being left in the custody of local villages as common lands. These have totally vanished due to the reckless abuse by these custodians (Stebbing 1929). Such areas are now covered by degrad- ed physiognomies like scattered shrubs, grass and tree savannas and thickets (Pascal et al. 1982). Even in the small pockets of reserved forests on coastal plains, the climax evergreen forest type is almost absent, having degraded into semi-evergreen and moist deciduous formations due to biotic interferences like lopping for fuel wood /green manure, cattle grazing and forestry operations. The low and medium elevation climax ever- green forests are now confined mainly to the slopes of the Western ghats and their outspurs to the South of 14°N latitude and are fairly extensive. It is officially estimated that about 4300 km2 area is under evergreen type and about 1500 km2 area is under semi-evergreen type in Karnataka. These evergreens belong to several distinct vegetation series with charac- teristic plant associations as described by Pascal et al (1982). Most of these are sub- types of the Dipterocarpus-Mesua-Palaquium series. However, to the North of Sharavathi river (14°N lat.) the Persea-Macarantha-Dio- spyros-Holigarna type and Memecylon-Syzi- gium-Actinodaphne types also occur. The semi evergreen series Diospyros-Dysoxylum malaba- ricum-Persea macarantha, locally known as “Kan type” is unique to this region. The high elevation montane shola vegetation is found only in small patches of Schefflera-Gordonia- Meliosma type forests occurring amidst exten- sive grass savannas above 1250 m elevation, primarily in Chikmagalur and Kodagu districts. Southern Plateau, Eastern Ghat Hills and Northern Plains The elevated plateau country that extends Eastwards from the foot of the Western ghats, receives an annual precipitation ranging bet- ween 1500 mm on the West to about 600 mm on the East. The plateau region South of 14°N lat. approximately still supports extensive climax deciduous forests. In tracts which re- ceive precipitation in excess of about 1200 mm these forests are moist deciduous and belong to the Lagerstroemia-T ectona-Dillenia series 168 CONSERVATION IN KARNATAKA occurring mainly in Belgaum, Uttara Kannada, Shimoga, Chickmagalur, Hassan, Kodagu and Mysore districts. These moist deciduous forests are estimated to cover about 5700 km2 area in the State, a figure which includes secondary moist deciduous forests of the coastal plains also. Most of these forests are woodlands rather than dense forests due to selective logging. A substantial area of moist forests have been converted to plantations of teak, eucalyptus, rubber, cocoa and other crops in the past. The natural climax vegetations over most of the plateau region receiving less than about 1100 mm annual precipitation are dry deci- duous forests. These are primarily of two types : A nogeissus-T ectona-T erminalia series in the Southern plateau region and Anogeissus- Hardwickia series in the North. A transitional type, Anogeissus-Chloroxylon-Albizzia series is also recorded (Saldanha 1984). The Southern plateau and the Eastern ghat hills still have substantial areas under the first type in the reserved forests. The second type is confined to degraded small pockets of reserved forests, which occupy only around 5% of the land area in the Northern plateau and probably no patches in near climax conditions are available anywhere in the State. The other vegetation types that are of in- terest which occur in small fragments are: (i) Dry evergreen forests in Eastern part of both North and Southern plateau; (ii) Semi arid thorn forests in drier parts of Bellary and Chitradurga; (iii) Riverine gallery forests along the Kaveri river in Southern plateau region; and (iv) ‘Evergreen’ shola type patches dominated by Shorea talura in the upper reaches of Mahadeshwara malai hills in the Eastern ghats. Status of Wildlife The diverse habitat types described above naturally support an equally rich diversity of animal species; mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fishes and insects etc. No detailed inventory of the faunal wealth is available. Further, the recent conservation status of most of the non-mammalian species is virtually unassessed. I have restricted this overview of conservation status of wildlife in the State primarily to some of the terrestrial mammals. Table 1 contains the available presence/ absence data on the current distribution of 53 mammalian species in each of the four regions of the State described earlier. Some typical localities where each species occurs is also mentioned where possible. The following notes provide additional information on some species (Scientific names in Table 1) which are of special interest. Primates The earlier accounts (Green and Minkowski 1977, Kurup 1978) have considered the lion- tailed macaque as a species on the verge of extinction in Karnataka and that conservation efforts for this species are not viable in the State for want of adequate habitats. The population estimates were placed as low as two groups in the entire State without any detailed survey. Subsequent efforts by Bhat (1984) indicated additional localities. In 1983- 84 a detailed field survey by me (Karanth 1985) has revealed that about 1000 km2 area of potential liontailed macaque habitat is available in Karnataka. Based on sighting re- ports by reliable informants (the same tech- nique used by Green and Minkowski 1977, Kurup 1978), actual sightings and wild caught captives, locations of 133 groups of macaques between 14°30'-12°N lat. in Karnataka 169 12 Distribution of wild mammals in JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. 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I |p4e4tfOP4p4| I c* I I I | lol l I I I lo I I O I lol I I I P4 I I p4 O I O I > I > I lol I I I I I lo I |p4^>^p4op4 !p4o4 I I |p40p^poIoIop4>> o Ph o p^ C4 cn -rjr »/-) vo oo a\ o h n m s o O ^ o S o O^hPQOOO^OHO 00U\O^NcnT|-io«h-000\O'- - r l M N M N N N N M Cl rc cc ft !i •g ft 3 s 3 r® J § -ft r* «0 g a £ sj tn ft, ft -s; PQ PP CD 05 P O e I3 H g CO p 3 « I -2 P CD O r£ O H 193 I Chushul Hanle Chumur Other Areas Remarks JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 (, SUPPLEMENT ) 3 3* < ft »H tH i-i 00 03 03 03 60 60 600 .s .s .5 -3 '3 -5 oo^lll^lllloll>>l>lo o P o O & I I > O Sh I ■ > > o o o I > o O I I I \ Pi I o > I I I > > > I o > > I I o P o Pi o ccj Pi er CD > O 04 > Pi o o o o > > o > I o Pi o > o o pi Pi Pi Pi o o > o m > o o o o o > > > > > I o o vot^oooNC>’-HrNic^'T}-»J«-)'or~-QooNO’-^c^c^-^f-»o'»or~oo<3\0’— ir^fri'^‘D-)Vor'Oo^o 194 BLACKNECKED CRANE (GRUS NIGRICOLLIS) IN LADAKH APPENDIX II (contd.) FISHES 1 . Schizopygopis stoliczkae 2. Ptychobarbus conirostris 3. Noemacheilus sp. REPTILE Toad-Agama Phrynocephalus theobaldi MAMMALS 1 . Wolf 2. Red Fox 3. The Himalayan Marmot 4. Quetta Vole 5. Woolly Hare 6. Himalayan Mouse-Hare 7. Tibetan Wild Ass Cdnis lupus Vulpes vulpes Marmota bobak himalayana Ellobius fuscocapillus Lepus oiostolus Ochotona roylei Equiis hemionus kiang 195 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1. PAINTED BATS AND NESTS OF BAYA WEAVER BIRD During July- August 1984 while I was study- ing some colonies of Baya Weaver Bird ( Ploceus philippinus) at Kishore Pura Mixed Plantation Area in Alwar District, Rajasthan. I found three different half built nests of the baya, P. philippinus on different trees of Prosopis spicigera which were occupied by painted Bat Kerivoula picta. My observations are as follows (Table 1). I never saw any male baya on such encroached nests. The observed area is an undulating, hilly area with sparse vegetation. Prosopis spicigera , Saccharum munja, Leptadinia sparitum, Lizy- phus spp., Calotropis procera etc. are impor- tant species growing here. Most of Prosopis spicigera trees are rather stunted due to repeated illicit felling and lopping. A lot of Table 1 SI. Date of observation Area Stage of Time of Host plant on No. of bats No. Surveyed nest occupi- observation which baya colony observed in ed by bats was present the nest 1 15th July 1984 25 ha. Half built 1400 hrs. Prosopis spicigera 1 2 1st August 1984 25 ha. Half built 1500 hrs. P. spicigera 4 3 4th August 1984 25 ha. Half built 1000 hrs. P. spicigera 1 Along with half built nests, I have examined a large number of completed nests also but these held no bat. I have observed a fair number of half built and completed nests of P. benghalensis also but all were without bats. The Bats use the ceiling of the nest for hanging instead of the chinstrip of the nest. Forest Range Officer, Udaipur (West) Range, Gulab Bagh Zoo, Udaipur-313 001, Rajasthan, February 13, 1986. old trees have been hacked down for firewood and fodder, with the result that several hole nesting and roosting birds, mammals and other animals have no suitable site for making nests or roosts. Bats are probably using these baya nests as roosting place owing to scarcity of roosting sites. SAT1SH KUMAR SHARMA 196 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 2. A NOTE ON THE RHESUS MACAQUE (MAC AC A MULATTA) FEEDING ON While walking through the woodlands of Bharatpur, Keoladeo National Park, I saw near the Bison mori area a troop of Rhesus monkeys feeding on the ground vegetation. An adult female was sitting near a termite mound. She suddenly captured a calotes lizard and carried it to an Acacia mound nearby. Holding the lizard by its upper part, she bit off its head with lightning speed and devoured it immediately. Next she ate the tail, followed by the thighs. She then opened its belly, threw away some of the intestinal parts and ate the rest. She then sat down more comfortably, peeled off the skin let it drop and ate practically the entire remaining portion. Junior Field Biologist, BNHS Ecological Research Centre, 331, Rajendra Nagar, Bharatpur-321 001, Rajasthan, India, August 30, 1986. Refer Prater, S. H. (1971): The book of Indian ani- mals. 3rd ed. Bombay Natural History Society, Bom- bay. 3. A PANTHER’S On 13-8-82 tribals noticed unusual agitation among common langurs, between the footpath from Loghouse at Theppakkadu to the first watch tower. The focus of their attention was the carcass of a panther hanging on a Teak tree, neck held in a fork of a branch at a height of about 25 m. The carcass which was well hidden in the canopy was dry and the CALOTES According to Roonwal and Mohnot (1977) ‘M. mulatta is largely vegetarian, its diet including leaves, flowers, fruits, berries, seeds of many species of plants, grass, grains, and algae from ponds. It is not known to eat small birds, lizards or similar small animals’. Prater (1971) states that ‘Ground plants, insects and spiders are their usual fare’. Acknowledgements I thank Dr. V. S. Vijayan, Project Scientist and Dr. (Mrs.) Lalitha Vijayan, Senior Field Biologist, BNHS Ecological Research Centre, Bharatpur, for their encouragement. C. SIVASUBRAMANIAN ENCES Roonwal, M. L. & Mohnot, S. M. (1977) : Primates of South Asia. Ecology, Sociology and Behaviour. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mars. MISADVENTURE fur was falling off in flakes and floating in the air. The langurs were coughing at the fallen and floating fur pieces and at the carcass. The carcass appeared to be 20-25 days old. No one had noticed it though the footpath was almost directly underneath and was being used fre- quently. We could only guess at the cause: It is 197 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 (, SUPPLEMENT ) possible that the Panther attempted to chase or catch a langur missed a hold or slipped, and the head got irretrievably caught in the fork. Was death instantaneous from the momentum of the moving body causing the break in the neck when the head was caught in the fork ? Wildlife Warden, j. MANGALRAJ JOHNSON Mudumalai Sanctuary, Templeton Cottage, Udhagamandalam, Tamil Nadu, June 28, 1986. 4. IMPRINTING IN SPOTBILL DUCK ANAS POECILORHYNCHA It is well known that the eggs of wild birds can be successfully hatched in incubators or under domestic hens. Artificially reared chicks of wild geese and ducks, during their early life, recognise any large moving object as their mother and start following it. The foster birds which rear them or even human beings are also followed by such chicks. This following response, technically known as imprinting, was first described by Heinroth (1910). This communication reports on imprinting in a Spotbill Duck Anas poecilorhyncha reared under a domestic hen at Harike (Punjab). Though imprinting has been well established in Mallard Anas platyrhynchos , Tufted Duck Aythya fuligula, Moorhen Gallinula chloropus, Coot Fulica atra, Wood Duck Aix sponsa and Shelduck Tadorna tadorna (Hinde et al. 1956, Hess 1957, Thorpe 1964, Van Tyne and Berger 1976), it had not been reported in Spotbill Duck so far. We came to know about the Spotbill Duck on 5 February 1985 when one of us (MSD) visited the Harike Bird Sanctuary along with Dr. Robert Grubh and Mr. S. A. Hussain of the Bombay Natural History Society. The Spotbill was feeding in shallow water just at the bank of the lake along with a domestic duck. Mr. Sucha Singh, Boatman of the Punjab State Fisheries Department, who had hatched the duck under a domestic hen, could not be contacted that day. On 27 March, we again visited Harike and interviewed Sucha Singh. Following is the summary of what he told us about the duck. A nest of the Spotbill was found in a bunch of Phragmites in the littoral zone of the lake during April 1984. There were six eggs in the nest which seemed to be deserted. Fearing that the eggs will be devoured by some preda- tor, Sucha Singh collected them and put them under an incubating domestic hen. Only three eggs hatched in about 25 days. He fed the Spotbill chicks on moistened wheat flour plus wheat bran and provided water ad libitum. The chicks followed the foster hen who look- ed after them just like other chicks. Two chicks fell to some predator at the age of one month whereafter he took special care of the third chick so that it may survive. Every day in the morning, he would make an enclosure with a fish net in shallow water just near the margin of the lake and release the chick in it for feeding. He would take out the chick in the evening. The chick then started follow- ing him to his house where it was offered 198 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES additional food and put in a cage for night. This chick, a female, has survived. The Spotbill is now one year old. She leaves home daily and flies to the distant parts of the lake to feed in the company of wild birds but regularly returns home. Sometimes she does not go far away and feeds in shallow water near the bank of the lake along with a female domestic duck which was also reared under the same hen. Whenever the Spotbill starts going away from the lake shore, the domestic duck makes a lot of noise as if calling her back. She often leaves water and comes to Sucha Singh’s house during the daytime where she is offered chapati pieces. Whenever he called aa. ...aa... .aa. .. .aa, she obliges and comes out of water to feed on whatever is offered by him. Curiously, since Dept, of Forestry & Natural Resources, Dept, of Zoology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004, Punjab, April 30, 1985. Refer Heinroth, O. (1910) : Beitrage zur Biologie, namentlich Ethologie und Physiologie der Anatiden. Verhl. V Internat. Orn. Kongr., Berlin 1910 : 589- 702. Hess, E. H. (1957): Effects of meprobamate on imprinting in waterfowl. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 67: 724-732. Hinde, R. A., Thorpe, W. H. & Vince, M. A. the last two weeks, a wild male Spotbill accompanies her from the lake up to the shore as if to say “good bye” to her. Sometimes while following her, he even comes out of water but remains at a distance. Probably she has mated with this male but whether they have made a nest is not known. Having lived in association with Sucha Singh for about a year, the Spotbill seems to have no fear of man. We photographed her from as close as 3 m and she was not at all disturbed. This case seems to be the extreme case of imprinting in which, according to Thorpe (1964), the young bird comes to accept a “human being as its proper associate and to retain for the rest of its like a tendency to regard human beings as fellow members of its species”. MANJIT S. DHINDSA JASWINDER S. SANDHU ENCES (1956) : The following response of young Coots and Moorhens. Behav. 9: 214-242. Thorpe, W. H. (1964): Imprinting. In: A New Dictionary of Birds. Thomson, A. L. (ed.). Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd., London, pp. 393-396. Van Tyne, J. & Berger, A. J. (1976) : Fundamen- tals of Ornithology. 2nd Ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 5. DUCK MIGRATION ACROSS THE HIMALAYA — TUFTED DUCK AYTHYA FULIGULA AT 13,700' ON ROHTANG PASS, HIMACHAL PRADESH On 15th June 1985, I set off from the 13,000 ft. Rohtang Pass diagonally traversing the 15,000 ft. Rohtang Pyramid on the west flank of the pass to visit Dashawe Kund a high altitude lake at over 14,500 ft. on the main Pir Panjal range across which the Rohtang Pass gives passage to Lahoul. About 700 ft. above the pass I came across 199 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) a dead drake of the Tufted Duck Aythya fuligula. The bird was in good state of pre- servation and had apparently died a few days earlier, though small red ants had attacked the eyes. The bird had an injury on its left side suggesting that it had struck the mountain while speeding north across the pass, pre- sumably in bad weather when clouds make for poor visibility well below the pass itself. 14 Jayant Society, Rajkot 360 004, Gujarat, June 27, 1985. Even if the crossing is attempted on a clear day, strong winds blow down the pass forcing birds to fly low against the head wind and an accident might easily be caused. Several years ago I had reported the reco- very of a Common Teal exhausted on the Beas Kund Glacier not far from where the Tufted Duck was located. LAVKUMAR KHACHER 6. COMMUNAL GATHERING OF BLACKWINGED KITES t ELANUS CAERULEUS VOC1FERUS) On 6.5.84 in the Ranthambhor Tiger Re- serve Shri Fateh Singh, the Field Director, two friends and I set off from Jogi Mahal at about 3.40 p.m. to locate and photograph tigers. Opposite the second lake we approach- ed a Dhok tree, Anogeissus pend ala, on the side of the road in the vicinity of which a pair of Blackwinged kites were observed for the past few weeks and on many occasions also perch- ed on the tree. As we passed the tree three Blackwinged kites flew from it immediately followed by many more. We stopped and eventually counted positively twelve, and there were altogether probably about fifteen to seven- teen birds flying out of this single tree. They then flew around, some settling on nearby trees. As the evening’s purpose was to locate tigers we unfortunately had to proceed and thus no further observations were possible. The park is well represented with Blackwinged kites but gatherings of so many together have Belha Court, 24, Strand Road, Bombay-400 039, July 29, 1985. never before been recorded so early during the day. Past records indicate that they are known to roost communally at dusk. No signs of breeding were evident though the breeding season of this species is in April & May. It is extended (according to Ali 1954, Ali & Ripley 1968) varying locally to cover practically the entire year. No other evidence of easy availa- bility of any concentrated food source was observed, to account for this unusual gathering behaviour. One can only speculate the reason and put it down for the record. Acknowledgements I am indebted to Shri Fateh Singh Rathore for taking me around and whose help and support was invaluable during my search for and photographic sessions on the Bonelli’s eagle. Thanks also to Valmik Thapar and Tejbir Singh for helping out in so many ways. RISHAD NAOROJI 200 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES References Ali, Salim (1954) : The Birds of Gujarat. J. hook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 1. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52(2) : 392. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, p. 213. Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. Dillon (1968): Hand- 7. THE PARIAH KITE MILVUS MIGRANS (BODDAERT) FEEDING ON FLOWERS ! On 26th March I was with the Sarabhai family having a picnic lunch on the lawn of their Usmanpura house across the Sabarmati River to Ahmedabad city. There was a brisk breeze blowing in from the north-east provid- ing ideal conditions for Pariah Kites to indulge in their mastery of aerobatics. Admiring their flight abilities we noticed individuals feeding on some light coloured objects. Sometimes a piece would fall and another kite would come swooping in to catch the piece in mid air. Some of us presumed they were playing, others thought it was the passing of food between a bonded pair and ofcourse a third opinion was that we were seeing parents teaching their 14, Jayant Society, Rajkot 360 004, April 2, 1986. fully fledged young the art of catching objects in mid air ! Observing the kites more carefully I noticed that they came in against the wind to snatch a flower from a tall Tubobea tree. The flower would be eaten in the usual kite fashion in flight and pieces accidentally being dropped in the process would be swooped on by other kites. Once a flower flew off from the tree in a particularly strong gust of wind and a kite immediately swooped down and caught it in its extended talons. There were more than half a dozen kites circling overhead eating the flowers ! LAVKUMAR KHACHER 8 . PECULIAR FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE SHIKRA ACCIP1TER RADIUS (GMELIN) & THE HONEY BUZZARD PERNIS PTILORHYNCUS (TEMMINCK) On July 17, this year, I saw a Shikra along with a Crow-Pheasant moving about on the ground and constantly picking up something with its bill. This was in my garden here in Bhuj. On going closer to investigate as to what it was eating, I found that the two birds were feeding on flying termites as they emerg- ed from underground. Elsewhere in my garden the termites which were coming out and flying up were being caught on the wing by crows, drongos etc. However the shikra concerned, never even once made an effort to catch a flying insect. While in the process of eating it was twice disturbed by passers-by when it flew up and sat on the branch of a neem tree nearby to come down again to resume its peculiar way of feeding. It remain- ed on the ground for at least about 15 minutes, walking with an awkward gait and picking up the winged termites. 201 14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 {SUPPLEMENT) I have also observed more than once a Crested Honey Buzzard coming down on an open plot in my garden to eat white ants. This buzzard did not move about, but kept sitting near the termites’ nest hole and con- tinued eating the insects after exposing them Jubilee Ground, Bhuj, Kutch, July 30, 1985. [Though the Shikra is known to take flying insects on the wing by dashing after them, Hume and Davison record them frequently descending to the ground to pick up something ( Stray Feathers 6: 7-8). As regards Honey Buzzard, Major R. S. P. Bates records one of the pair hanging about his by removing the sand covering with sideways movements of its beak. This mode of feeding by these two birds of prey has not been mentioned in any of the reference work I have with me, and hence this note to elicit information whether this has been ever observed by any one else. HIMMATSINHJI bungalow in Chittagong busily devouring termites on the ground. Whenever winged swarms appeared along with the Pariah and Brahminy kites, mynas and crows, the Honey Buzzards were seen wheeling to and fro screaming continuously (/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 38: 162) — Eds.] 9. A CRESTED HAWK-EAGLE SPIZAETUS CIRRHATUS (GMEL1N) KILLING A PEAFOWL PAVO CRISTATUS LINNAEUS A leopard had hidden its sambar kill in some thick lantana scrub, very close to our observation hut in the Koktu-Valley in the core area of the Melghat Tiger Reserve. In the early hours of 29th May 1986, we were trying to stalk the leopard which seemed reluctant to leave the kill area, possibly owing to the presence of other carnivora. Suddenly, very agitated alarm calls of a peafowl ( Pavo crist at us) and Grey Junglefowl ( Gallus son- neratii), of which the undergrowth seemed to be full of, erupted all round us. Sinking to the ground, we saw an adult Crested Hawk- Eagle ( Spizaetus cirrhatus), go skimming over the lantana. Sighting two peahens, i.e. ( landor ) 108, Ramdaspeth, Nagpur - 440 010, July 8, 1986. it swerved with spread wings and attempted to herd them towards the embankment. One of the Peafowl managed to take off but the other skidded around. The eagle fanning its huge wings hopped after her and jumped on her back, wrapping its wings around its prey. They tumbled behind some rocks accompani- ed by desperate screams of the landor. After three or four seconds there was total silence. We waited for 15 minutes, but the birds did not appear. Next day some bits of skin and feathers were found. The Peafowl must have been at least one-third bigger than her attacker. AMRUT S. DHANWATEY 202 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 10. PREDATION ATTEMPT BY BLACK EAGLE ( ICTINAETUS MALAYENSIS PERNIGER) ON INDIAN GIANT SQUIRREL ( RATUFA IND1CA ELPHINSTONII ) On the 13th of December 1985, at Bhima- shankar (District Pune, Maharashtra. Lat: 19°4'N. Lon: 73°32'E.), I witnessed a pre- dation attempt by a black eagle ( lctinaetus malayensis perniger) on an adult male Giant Squirrel ( Ratufa indica elphinstonii) . The in- cident occurred at 1036 hrs. It was a cold morning and the adult male squirrel, exposed fully to the sun, was feeding on the inner bark of the wild mango ( Mangifera indica ), at the top of the tree. I observed a black eagle that had been gliding over the canopy, suddenly swoop so low over the squirrel that it smacked the vegetation with its wings. The sound on impact was considerable. The squirrel dashed away without sounding an alarm and conceal- Bhimashankar, Taluka Ambegaon, District Pune, Maharashtra, March 6, 1986. ed itself in thick foliage at a lower level. It remained there, motionless and quiet, for nineteen minutes while the eagle continued to glide in the vicinity before moving out of view. Squirrels generally sound an alarm when a Crested Serpent Eagle ( Spilornis cheela) or a Black Eagle is overhead. Therefore, avian predation on these squirrels must occur. Though, I have often heard locals in the semi- evergreen forest of Yellapur in the Malnad region of Karnataka, relate incidents of actual predation by the Crested Serpent Eagle (S', c. melanotis) on the Giant Squirrel (R. i. indica) this is the first time I have observed a preda- tion attempt by a raptor on this squirrel. RENEE BORGES 11. A LARGE ROOST OF HARRIERS IN ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA Near Rollapadu village, which is 20 km east of Nandikotkur town (15°52'N and 78° 18' E) in Kurnool district, Andhra Pradesh, India, an eight hundred acre grassland plot has been protected (from grazing) from 1984 for the breeding of the Great Indian Bustard. The dominant grass species are Heteropogon contortus, Chrysopogon fulvus, Eremopogon foveolatus, and Aristida funiculata. The sur- rounding area is also open, flat or gently undulating grassland, occasionally punctuated by crop fields. Grasshoppers are so abundant that one flushes a few at every step. In winter, the grasslands of Rollapadu attract large numbers of harriers and short- toed larks. During the winter of 1985-86, our estimate is that between 800 to 1,000 harriers used to roost in the Rollapadu grassland enclosure. During the day, fifty to sixty harriers could be seen tirelessly quartering the grassland and by evening, birds from the surrounding areas would arrive and after sun- 203 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) set, hundreds of harriers could be seen either sitting on the ground or flying just above the ground in search of a roosting place. Due to continuous movement of birds, it was extre- mely difficult to count them, but our estimate is that about one thousand harriers could be seen. This could be vertified by the number of roosting sites. In one open fallow field of about five acres, we counted 42 rooting spots. Both, tall grassland and bare open fallow fields/burnt areas were selected for roosting but more birds used to roost in the grassland. In the grassland also, two areas were more frequently used and about fifty per cent of the harriers roosted in these areas. Apparently similar areas were not occupied throughout the winter. Ninety per cent of the adult male harriers were identified as Montagu’s ( Circus pygar- gus), while the remaining were Pale (C. macrourus) and Marsh (C. aeruginosus) . Ali & Ripley (1968) opine that the Montagu’s Harrier is perhaps slightly less common than the Pale but both are equally widely distri- buted over the subcontinent. However, in Rollapadu we found that almost all the adult male harriers which could be unmistakably identified were Montagu’s. We do not know the species composition of the immature and female harriers because they were difficult to identify in the field. Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay-400 023, May 24, 1986. Reference Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1968) : Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 1, Oxford Univer- sity Press, Bombay. 12. PRE-MIGRATOR Y FLOCKING OF THE DEMOISELLE CRANE, ANTHROPOIDES VIRGO (LINNAEUS) ASAD R. RAHMANI RANJIT MANAKADAN The Demoiselle Crane, Anthropoides virgo, is a common winter visitor in the north- western and west-central parts of the Indian subcontinent (Ali and Ripley 1983). The Saurashtra region (lat. 20° 10' and 24° 45' N, long. 68° 10' and 70° 30'E) of Gujarat State is now recognised as an important wintering ground of these cranes. We frequently visit, the Lalpari Dam re- servoir located within the Rajkot city limit and the Nyari Dam reservoir outside the city limit, and watch the cranes usually resting, but some- times also feeding, on the banks and islands of the reservoirs in the morning and evening. During October to February the usual number of cranes recorded by us ranged from about 300 to 2000 at Lalpari and 700 to 4000 at Nyari (Table 1). Between 1 and 20 March 1985, we visited the Lalpari reservoir on several evenings and counted about 2000 to 4000 cranes during each visit. However, when we visited the reservoir on the evening of 22 March, we witnessed a spectacular assembly of cranes the 204 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Table 1 Number of Demoiselle Cranes recorded at Lalpari and Nyari reservoirs, Rajkot Lalpari reservoir Nyari reservoir Date & time* No. of Date & time* No. of cranes cranes 12.x. 83. M 1447 7.x. 83. M 771 l.xi.83. M 1242 6.xi. 83. M 1823 17.xii. 83. M 1483 3. xii. 84. M 3054 18.xii.83. M 338 9. xii 84. M 4038 25.xii.83. M 2025 26. xii. 83. M 1465 15. i. 85. E 500 5. i. 84. M 3787 1 5 . xii . 85. E 2000 13.i. 84. M 1415 * M — morning hours between 0900 to 1100. E — evening hours between 1700 to 1900. like of which we had never witnessed before. When we reached the reservoir at about 1800 hrs, a few hundred cranes were feeding in the crop fields near the reservoir. Then, more and more birds started coming in from the sur- rounding areas to land on the reservoir bank. At first the inflow of birds was slow and we could count the number of incoming birds, but after sunset flocks after flocks of birds from several directions started converging to land on the reservoir banks in rapid succes- sion so that after counting about 20,000 birds, we gave up counting. When we left the site under the rapidly fading light of the dusk, we left behind a huge congregration of cranes standing on a vast expanse of the gradually Rajmoti Industries, Bhavnagar Road, Rajkot. Senior Research Fellow, Department of Biosciences, Saurashtra University, Rajkot-360 005, August 30, 1985. sloping reservoir banks, and still more cranes coming in. We visited the Lalpari reservoir again, on the evening of 23 March and witnessed a large number of cranes assembling as on the previous day. However, on 24th evening, only about 3000 cranes assembled there in the evening and on 25th evening none came there. On 22 March evening, some of our friends had gone to Nyari reservoir and had seen there only about 54 cranes. These observations suggest that the cranes from the areas atleast around Rajkot were flocking together and roosting at Lalpari on 22 and 23 March. The cranes are known to leave Saurashtra for their return journey to their breeding quarters in the second half of March. The date of migration is usually inferred by noting an increased nocturnal flights of cranes over certain areas. Our observations reveal that prior to migration the cranes from a vast area tend to assemble at one particular site for roosting, and this gathering of cranes may occur over a few da}'s before they finally depart. The observation is significant in that by keeping the large assembly formation of cranes under observation, the date of depar- ture from an area can be determined with a relatively high degree of precision. Ack nowledgement We are greatful to Prof. R. M. Naik, Depart- ment of Biosciences, Saurashtra University, Rajkot for his criticism and help. MUKUND SHAH MALAY SHAH ARUN KUMAR BANERJEE 205 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) Reference Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1983) : Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford University Press, Bombay. 13. FEEDING METHOD OF SPOON-BILLED SANDPIPERS ON A MUDFLAT IN SOUTH KOREA The peculiar spatulate bill of Spoon-billed Sandpipers Eurynorhynchus pygmaeus has led to much speculation about the bill’s particular function and evolution, which is, however, hampered by the scarcity of detailed accounts of the bird’s foraging behaviour (Burton 1971). This note is to add to the existing, but rather anecdotal, information about the forag- ing behaviour of Spoon-billed Sandpipers. From 14 to 28 September 1984 the waders of the Nakdong Estuary (35°15'N; 129°10'E) near Pusan in South Korea were studied (Piersma 1985). On 17 September 4 and on 26 September 1 1 Spoon-billed Sandpipers were counted at high tide. On both occasions, the birds roosted, one by one, over the 4 km long and 100-200 m wide, sandy and bare barrier island Galmaegi Deung, amongst flocks of Red-necked Stints Calidris ruficollis. All the Spoon-billed Sandpipers observed were in juvenile or winter plumage. On 24 September I encountered 5 Spoon- billed Sandpipers during low tide on an inter- tidal flat (unvegetated soft sandy mud, very uniform), one km north of the roosting places on Galmaegi Deung. The birds foraged indi- vidually, in the neighbourhood of Dunlins Calidris alpina. When foraging on dry surfaces, the birds walked quickly, straight-on, and pecked sideways, alternately to the left and to the right, with a rate of about one peck per one or two sec. During some of the pecks, birds made short vibrations in the sediment with the tip of the spatula. When arriving in shallow water (1-2 cm, i.e. ’knee-deep’), the foraging method changed abruptly. The birds started to walk much slower and made conti- nuous series of rapid but clearly discernible sideways movements (left to right and vice versa) of the spatula through the shallow layer of water, alternated with short series of dis- crete pecks. During foraging, the bill was held down (almost) vertically. During a protocol of 46 sec. (recorded on a tape-recorder), a bird spent two bouts of 2 and 5 sec. preening. In the remaining 39 sec, 54% of the time (21 sec.), the tip of the bill was submerged, making these rapid sideways swishing move- ments in 5 different bouts. Between these bouts, series of 7, 6, 10, 2 and 1 discrete pecks were made. The swishing movements remind- ed me strongly of the sideways sweeps made during foraging by Spoonbills Platalea leuco - rodia, although the tempo was much higher in Spoon-billed Sandpipers. I was unable to observe if the Spoon-billed Sandpipers had their mandibles slightly opened during the swishes, as can easily be seen in Spoonbills. The birds were observed at a distance of 30-50 m with a 20X-60X zoom-telescope, but I was unable to see any food items being ingested by the birds. I therefore suggest that the Spoon-billed Sandpipers took very small macrobenthic animals (retained by a 1 mm sieve), or even smaller, meiobenthic prey. The sampling work of Y. W. Jo (Institute of 206 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Marine Sciences, Pusan; pers. comm.) per- formed at a nearby site one month before my observations, suggests that the prey may con- sist of small polychaete worms (notably Prionospio krusadensis and Notomastus lati- raceus, the only two abundant worms here) and small crustaceans ( Corophium and Haustoriidae species). No small bivalves or small gastropods were found on this locality. On their north-east Siberian arctic tundra breeding grounds. Spoon-billed Sandpipers ate many kinds of insects (adults and larvae), which were captured in the air and on the ground by discrete pecking movements (Por- tenko 1957). Dixon (1918) saw birds foraging along a shoreline, taking insects and their larvae from piles of algae washed together. Jahn (1942) mentions a bird in Japan that made continuous sieving movements with its bill through soft mud, in half circles around itself and entering the water up to its belly. Voronov (1980) observed a Spoon-billed Sandpiper on a beach at Sakhalin Island, racing up and down the shore following the breaking waves (probably much like Sander- lings Calidris alba). The bird took small crabs which were washed out of the sediment by the turbulent water, occurring in densities of 10 000’s per m2. At Hong Kong and at Point Calimere, Tamil Nadu, India, Melville (1978 and pers. comm.) observed that foraging Spoon-billed Sandpipers often made side to side movements with their bill through the upper layer of the sediment (resp. damp mud and wet sand). Portenko (1981) mentioned Zoological Laboratory, University of Groningen, P. O Box 14, 9750 AA, Haren, The Netherlands, December 7, 1985. an observation by V. E. Yakobi of Spoon- billed Sandpipers foraging on an estuary-bank at low tide: ‘Running a little in the shallow water, they would rapidly extract food con- sisting of tiny larvae from the semifluid silt’ and, compared to nearby foraging eastern little (?) stints. Spoon-billed Sandpipers ‘sub- merged the beak in the water somewhat more deeply and flicked it from right to left’. Swennen & Marteijn (MS) made detailed observations at an intertidal flat in Thailand and reported that Spoon-billed Sandpipers made drilling (up and down) movements with their bill, usually in front of the body but also to the sides. The bill never went deeper down in the mud than the spatula. This short review suggests that Spoon-billed Sandpipers are able to use their spatulate bill in a variety of ways. However, with the possible exception of Portenko (1981), no author has mentioned the Spoonbill-like side- ways swishes of the spatula through a layer of water on top of soft sediments, as was observed in Nakdong Estuary. Acknowledgements I am grateful to NEDECO (Netherlands Engineering Consultants) for financing this study, to Marjolein Veldkamp for translating a Russian note into Dutch, to Jan Hulscher and David Melville for comments and to many other people, mentioned in the report, for other kinds of help. THEUNIS PIERSMA 207 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 (SUPPLEMENT) References Burton, P. J. K. (1971): Comparative anatomy of head and neck in the Spoon-billed sandpiper, Eurynorhynchus pygmeus and its allies. J. Zool., Lond. 163 : 145-163. Dixon, J. (1918) : The nesting grounds and nest- ing habits of the Spoon Sandpiper. Auk 25: 387- 404. Jahn, H. (1942) : Zur Oekologie und Biologie der Vogel Japans. J. Orn. 90: 277-278. Melville, D. S. (1978): Note on Spoon-billed Sandpiper. Hong Kong Bird Report 1976: 19. Piersma, T. (1985) : Wader studies, and water- birds, in the Nakdong Estuary, South Korea, in September 1984. WIWO report 7, Zeist. Portenko, L. A. (1957) : Studien an einigen seltenen Limikolen aus dem nordlichen und ostlichen Siberian. I. Die Loffelschnepfe — Eurynorhynchus pygmaeus. J. Orn. 93 : 454-466. (1981): Birds of the Chukchi Peninsula and Wrangal Island. Vol. 1. (Translated from Russian 1972). Amerind, New Delhi. Swennen, C. & Martexjn, E. C. L. (MS). Forag- ing behaviour of Spoon-billed Sandpipers on a mud- flat in peninsular Thailand. Voronov, V. G. (1980): Observations on the feeding of the Spoonbill Stint (Eurynorhynchus pygmaeus) . In : New studies on the biology and distribution of waders. (Ed. V. Flint), pp. 138-139. Nauka, Moscow, (In Russian). 14. STRANGE DIVERSION ENACTED BY A NIGHTJAR On the 7th of May ’85 at 5 p.m. I was following a fresh trail to photograph a small herd of Gaur at the Radhanagari Bison Sanctuary at Dajipur in the Sahyadris. While hurriedly crossing a small clearing in the dense forest a nightjar took off from a shrub nearby. The bird promptly put up a convincing broken wing display. In fact it performed so well that my friends were sure it was dying and wanted to help ! I took a hurried picture since we were more interested in following the disappearing Gaur. When we came back to the same area half an hour later the bird repeated the same be- haviour. After I had followed it around for a few minutes to get a picture, we left it alone and began to carefully search for the nest. The bird seemed to instantly realize that the trick was a failure and we had seen through it. It then changed to a surprisingly different strategy. Flying some distance away on per- fectly healthy wings it settled down near a bush on the ground, gently shuffling her wings and breast feathers, as ground nesters do when adjusting themselves on their nests. I was so sure that we had located the nest that I erept slowly towards the now quietly settled nightjar, camera on the ready. As I approached however it flew off and I went closer to photograph the nest with the expected eggs or chicks in it. To my utter surprise there was nothing there but bare lateritic rock. The bird had enacted the whole episode, pretending that it had settled on the nest, while actually her eggs or chicks were surely hidden safely elsewhere. I had never heard of a bird pretending to incubate on a non-existant nest so as to divert attention from the site of the real nest to that of fictitious one. Recently I again saw a similar display by a Pratincole though it appeared to be part of the regular broken wing display. The hand- book OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN. Vol. 3 (1969), p. 17 also describes a similar pattern incorporated into the display. 208 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES I would like comments from any other species, wherein a bird has convincingly pre- observers of a similar episode seen in any tended to incubate at a ‘pseudo nest’. ‘Saken\ Valantina Society, E. K. BHARUCHA North Main Road, Koregaon Park, Pune 411 001, April 12, 1986. 15. MASS COURTSHIP DISPLAY BY GREAT PIED HORNBILL, BUCEROS BICORN IS On the evening of 24th April 1985, while staying at the Forest Rest House, near Tipi Orchid Research Station, Arunachal Pradesh, during the course of a survey on Butterflies as a UN/FAO/UNDP Consultant, my com- panion Dr. Pratap Singh, of the Forestry Re- search Institute, Dehra Dun, drew my atten- tion to the fact he had just seen no fewer than eight hornbills fly across the river. I immediately got my Nikon 10x25 Bino- culars and quickly located them all in one tree some 100 metres across the Bhalukpong river. As we watched it seemed that some unusual activity was taking place. There were at that time 4 distinct pairs of birds standing on the branches facing each other and with some deliberation knocking their beaks toge- ther and then rubbing them up and down. While scanning a few trees further downstream, I was excited to see more hornbills engaged in the same antics. Dr. Singh and I were frantically taking turns with the binoculars to see this extra- ordinary display and counting the number of birds involved and each time the number seemed to increase. When the count finally reached 16 (at this time all in the same tree- which was shaking visibly) we thought we had witness something quite unusual, how- ever. the best was yet to come ! We had noticed, briefly, that ever so often a bird would appear to literally jump or fall out of the tree, seemingly out of control, but each time recovering some distance from the ground and return to its original perch. Keep- ing a very close watch on two males, visible at the same time, we noticed one hop a short way up a branch and tug with some vigour at the bulb of some tree orchids (with yellow flowers, that were everywhere). After a violent tussle the bird, to our amazement, stepped off the branch almost doing a somersault in the process but still retaining a firm grip on the orchid bulb. It hung there like a trapeze artiste for a few seconds and then by holding its wings half open (like a cormorant) and flapping vigorously it started to twist back and forth and jerk at the same time. With the entire weight of the bird tugging, of course he got the bulb dislodged and most undignifiedly disappeared in reverse towards the ground with wings flapping madly and successfully pulled out before the reaching the ground into orderly flight and return to the patient waiting lady friend who was duly presented with the hard won trophy. She held it in her beak, but as far as I know didn’t eat it. We watched several other males going through the same performance. By this time it was getting fairly late as we had been 209 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) watching them for a good hour. Suddenly, as if on a given signal, they flew out of the tree, one by one, back to our side of the river. Like a countdown we checked the numbers and came up with 21 birds — what the odd one out thought about all these “spring in the air” goings on we will never know ! In all my years of bird watching it was quite one of the most remarkable displays I have C/o Wildlife Institute of India, F. R. I. Campus, New Forest, Dehra Dun, U.P., India, May 21, 1985. ever seen. Dr Pratap Singh, who knows a lot more about Indian birds than I do, reckoned it had to be some kind of record so we share it with other members of the BNHS — perhaps someone else has seen a similar display ? Only having a 100 mm lens I took a few photos, but it was hopeless and needed a 600 mm lens at least. Also I only had 50ASA film as 200 ASA was unavailable. ANGUS F. HUTTON 16. DE-TICKING BY A LARGE GREY SHRIKE, LANIUS EXCUB1TOR ( With a plate) According to the handbook (Ali & Ripley 1983), the large grey shrike ( Lanius excubi - tor) is a wary bird usually difficult to approach. Its food is recorded as insects, lizards, rodents, young and sickly birds. During a recent great Indian bustard ( Ardeotis nigriceps) survey of Rajasthan, we found that the large grey shrike was fairly common around human habitation and could be approached to within five metres. In Jaisalmer district, on 25th January 1986 at the Desert National Park chowki of Sam, we had a most interesting observation of the shrike’s feeding habits. At about 0800 hours, a large grey shrike was seen to de-tick a sit- ting camel (Plate 1). At our approach it flew off with a tick in its beak and consumed it on the roof of a nearby hut before return- ing to further investigate the camel’s body. When a common myna ( Acridotheres tristis) Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay - 400 023, March 27, 1986. hopped close to the camel, the shrike threaten- ed it by fanning its tail, slightly parting its wings and ruffling its neck feathers. A few days later at the Miyajlar chowki a shrike was seen perched on a branch just above a camel. Still later at the Khuri area of the Desert National Park, while scanning for bustards from camel back, a shrike alighted on a bush within 1 . 5 m of the camel. It followed the camel for a short distance before flying off. While in the latter two in- stances de-ticking was not observed they in- dicated an interest of the shrike in camels. It seems that the large grey shrike has learnt to de-tick camels in the desert areas probably due to the scarcity of normal insects (especial- ly during winter when insects population is very low). As this behaviour has not been recorded in other areas by us, it is obviously a case of an acquired habit. RAVI SANKARAN ASAD R. RAHMANI 210 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (supplement) Plate 1 Sankaran & Rahmani: Lanius excubitor Above: A large grey shrike with a tick in its beak sitting on the leg of a camel. Below : Shrike perched on camel back. ( Photos : Asad R. Rahmani) mm MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Reference Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1983) : Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. (Compact Edition). Oxford University Press, New Delhi. 17. RECOVERY OF AN INDIAN GOLDEN ORIOLE ( ORIOLUS ORIOLUS KUNDOO) IN THE U.S.S.R. {With a text-figure) During the Society’s bird ringing camp at Bhavnagar, Gujarat (21°46'N, 72°11'E) bet- ween 12 and 30 September 1961, five Orioles (3 females, 1 male, 1 unsexed) were ringed. Of these one (unsexed) Wing 132 mm was ringed (No. B-2575) on 29th September 1961. The Centre of Ringing and Marking Birds, Moscow, has informed the Society that this bird was recovered at Ordjonikidzeobad (38°29'N, 68°58'E), Tadzhikistan on 10th June 1971. Dewar (1908) summarizing the information 211 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 83 (, SUPPLEMENT ) on the local movements of the Indian resi- dent birds, concluded that the Indian Golden Oriole (Oriolus oriolus kundoo ) is a migrant. On the other hand Ali and Ripley (1972) state, “Status difficult to define accurately, varies with locality and season between resi- dent, seasonal visitor, local and/or extralimital passage migrant”. The recovery of this bird in the USSR is noteworthy specially when there is no definite information on the move- ments of the Indian Orioles, though Demen- tiev gives the status as nesting and migratory Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay - 400 023, December 17, 1985. within the USSR and resident and nomadic in India. Although this is a single record, it furnishes the first positive proof that the Indian Golden Oriole migrates long distances including the USSR where it also breeds (Dementiev 1970). The bird had travelled approximately 2100 kilometres north of the ringing place and was recovered 9 years 8 months and 16 days later. Incidentally this is longest life span recorded for the Oriole in the wild state. V. C. AMBEDKAR Refer Ali, S. & Ripley, S. Dillon (1972): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 5: 103. Oxford University Press, Bombay. Dementiev, G. P. & Gladkov, N. A. (1970) : 18. ADDITIONAL RECORDS ( DICRURUS ADSIMILIS) The Black Drongo has been occasionally observed to include small birds in its diet. Osmaston (1922) records an incident in which a black drongo preyed on a white eye ( Zoste - rops palpebrosa). Two other birds earlier re- corded as having fallen prey to the drongo are Prinia and Aegithina (Ali & Ripley 1983). While walking through the woodlands of Bharatpur’s Keoladeo National Park, we had an opportunity to observe a black drongo feeding on an Indian wren warbler ( Prinia subflava). The drongo swooped down and captured the warbler, which was foraging in the lower thickets, and carried it away to an Acacia tree whereupon it started devouring NCES Birds of the Soviet Union. Vol. 5 : 175. Dewar, D. (1908) : Local bird migration in India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 18: 343-356. OF THE BLACK DRONGO FEEDING ON BIRDS it. It took exactly 50 minutes for the bird to complete its meal. A few days later (7.1.85), one of us (U.S.), along with another BNHS biologist Mr. Vibhu Prakash, observed a similar inci- dent in which a black drongo was preying on an Indian cliff swallow ( Hirundo fluvicola). This was seen on an Acacia tree standing by one of the dykes intersecting the wetland. Identity of the prey was confirmed by view- ing through a high power telescope. Both the above incidences happened during the peak of the cold season, a time during which insects are bound to be scarce. A highly 212 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES insectivorous bird like the drongo is perhaps forced to make an unusual meal of a bird or two as a compensation for the dearth in insect population. No such event was, however, recorded dur- Field Biologists, BNHS Eco. Res. Centre, Bharatpur-321 001, (Rajasthan), June 2, 1986. ing the following winter (1985-86). Further observations are required to substantiate the theory that drongos take to preying upon birds more often in winter than in the other seasons. U. SRIDFIARAN C. SIVASUBRAMANIAN Osmaston, B. B. (1922) : Predaceous habit of the common king crow. J. Bombay mat. Hist. Soc., 28 (2): 546. References Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. D. (1983) : Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan, Compact edition, pg. 353. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. 19. DISPLA Y OF THICK BILLED FLOWERPECKER DICAEUM AGILE On 2nd February 1985 in company with Nitin Jamdar, Atul Jamdar and Kiran Shrivastava I visited Karnala Bird Sanctuary. At a point where the path levels out before the final climb to “Fort”. I saw a Thickbilled flowerpecker ( Dicaeum agile) among the branches of an almost leafless tree about 5 m. tall which had many small fruits along the thin upper branches (Earlier I had seen a ‘Blue Rock Thrush’ Monticola solitarius take one of these small round fruit which it swallowed) . While watching the flowerpecker, which was also seen by the other members of the party a second bird flew towards it giving excited twittering calls and fluttered over it. It did this several times and it was evident that it 7, Murley Close, George Hill, Crediton, Devon, U.K., April 30, 1985. was engaged in a form courtship display and was presumed to be the male of a pair. As it was displaying, I noted that there was a distinct white line showing as a mesial streak across the crown and down the nape. At one time when its excitement was intense, the centre of the crown seemed to be flecked with white looking like a small brown and white flower. When it moved, away from the presumed female the white was not apparent. My impression was that in display, it could erect and open out the feathers of the crown and nape to show the white feather bases. Identification of the bird was easy as it was in strong sunlight and the dark stubby bill was seen and tail-moving noted, and was confirmed by Nitin Jamdar who is familiar with the species. S. G. MADGE 213 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) 20. COLOUR SELECTION BY THE BLACKTHROATED WEAVER BIRD PLOCEUS BENGHALENSIS Examination of half-built nests of Ploceus benghalensis at the forest plantation Tatarpur (Alwar), Rajasthan, showed that they were decorated with yellow coloured (or some close variant of yellow) floral material around their egg chambers. This type of adornment was associated with the half-built nests only and not with the completed nests. Implanta- tion of yellow floral parts was done on the margin of the egg-chamber and not at the deeper points of the same. The implantation was done on a bed of wet cowdung which was deposited before flower insertion. In a very few cases flower insertion was done without deposition of wet dung. The following floral material has been noted so far (Table 1). From the Table 1 it can be clearly seen that P. benghalensis has a definite preference for using yellow floral material to decorate its half-built nest. Response of d P. benghalensis to artificial adornment Experiments were conducted to judge the response of the male P. benghalensis to arti- ficial adornment of its nest. Three males (Pbl, Table 1 No. Name of plant Kind of adornment Colour of adornment Remarks 1. Lantana sp. flowers or/and petals yellow to orange 2. Lagerstroemia indica(l) petals pink 3. Acacia nilotica inflorescence yellow 4. Cucumis me to var. momordica flowers yellow $ flowers used only 5. Momordica dioica flowers light yellow $ flowers used only pieces of rind of ripened fruit yellow to orange 6. Acacia nilotica subsp. indica var. cupressiformis inflorescence yellow Table 2 No. Name of plant Kind of adornment Colour of adornment 1. Momordica dioica fresh flower light yellow 2. M. dioica fresh flower bud green 3. Acacia nilotica fresh flower head yellow 4. A. tortilis fresh flower head whitish yellow 5. Tephrosia purpurea fresh flower red 6. Commelina benghalensis fresh flower blue 7. Acacia Senegal fresh flower whitish 8. Solanum nigrum fresh flower white 214 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Table 3A Pbl in N1 Frequency of removal Sequence of removal Name of plant Colour of flower Highest I Removal T. purpurea red Moderate II Removal S. nigrum white „ HI „ A . Senegal whitish 99 IV „ C. benghalensis blue 99 V M. dioica (flower) light yellow „ VI „ M. dioica (fl. bud) green 99 Last „ A. tortilis whitish yellow Lowest Not removed A. nilotica yellow Table 3B Pb2 in N2 Frequency of removal Sequence of removal Name of plant Colour of flower Highest I Removal T. purpurea red Moderate II A. Senegal whitish 99 HI „ S. nigrum white 99 IV „ A. nilotica yellow 99 V M. dioica (fl. bud) green 99 VI „ C. benghalensis blue 99 vn „ A. tortilis whitish yellow 99 Last M. dioica (flower) light yellow Lowest * M. dioica light yellow * Although the male removed the flower of M. dioica, it picked it up again from the ground and put it back in the nest in its own way. Table 3C Pb3 in N3 Frequency of removal Sequence of removal Name of plant Colour of flower Highest I Removal T. purpurea red Moderate II Removal C. benghalensis blue 99 III „ A. tortilis whitish yellow 99 IV „ A. nilotica yellow 99 v A. Senegal whitish 99 VI „ S. nigrum white ” VII „ M. dioica (fl. bud) green Lowest Last „ M. dioica (flower) light yellow 215 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) Pb2 and Pb3) and their half -built nests (Nl, N2 and N3 respectively) were selected. In nests N2 and N3 the birds had inserted male flowers of M. dioica after heavy deposition of cowdung. In the third nest, Nl, a flower head of A. nilotica had been inserted without any dung deposition. Taking care not to disturb the floral material already present in the three nests, various flowers, one of each kind, were put in the egg chambers of each nest. See Table 2. The birds were then observed from within a hide. It was noted that all three birds removed the red flowers of T. purpurea first. The ex- periment was repeated several times. The frequency and sequence in which the flowers were removed differed for the three nests. See Tables 3A, 3B and 3C. Pvemoval of the flowers was not a continu- ous activity but done along with the weaving of the nest. The response of the birds to the flowers artificially put in their nests decreased when the experiment was repeated more than twice. After the first, or second time the birds ceased to be much disturbed by the extra floral material placed in their nests. It was also noted that the birds removed the flowers one at a time. However, when two flowers were kept very close together, they were some- times removed in twos. Forester, I/c Mixed Plantation, Tatar pur (Alwar), Rajasthan, October 15, 1984. Response of female P. benghalensis to artificial adornment During the experiments Nest N2 was visited twice by prospecting females; first by a single female and later on by two. One of the latter entered the half-built nest. She did not touch or seem disturbed by the floral material put there. However, after a few minutes she picked up one flower of M. dioica and inserted it in the wail of the egg chamber. When nest N2 was completed, a female (perhaps the same) occupied it for breeding. When there was only one egg in the egg chamber many flowers of various colours were inserted in the egg chamber by me. Some of these were thrown out of the nest by the male and the remaining were later thrown out by the female. This experiment was repeated several times for nest N2 that day. The next morning the nest was found empty; the one-day old egg had also been thrown out of the nest. Thus it can be said that the male P. benghal- ensis has an affinity for yellow or its close variant colours for decorating its nest. When the nest is artificially decorated, the bird first rejects the red, blue and white flowers. How- ever, if many flowers of each species are in- serted together, their removal becomes haphazard. The value of decorating the nest exists until the nest is accepted by a female; after acceptance by her the nest decoration loses its importance. SATISH KUMAR SHARMA 216 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 21 SOME COMMENTS ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE OSTRICH IN ASIA AND NORTH AFRICA As an inhabitant of the deserts of Asia, the ostrich Strut hie camelus is generally considered to have died out by the end of the Pleistocene (Brodkorb 1963) but my attention was recent- ly drawn to a paper by E. D. Ross (1909) which may have escaped the notice of ornitho- logists. Ross discusses, and attempts to identify a number of descriptions of birds contained in the so-called “Manchu-Chinese Mirror” an exhaustive vocabulary of the Manchu language published in 1771. A number of the birds des- cribed are readily identifiable, but a consider- able number are not, and some of these may represent aberrant individuals, hybrids, domes- tic varieties, or frankly fictitious species. On the other hand it is quite possible that some of them may represent species which formerly occurred in eastern Asia, but are now extinct. It is regrettable that so many of the descrip- tions appear to be vague, however among them a rather unmistakable bird, the ostrich, seems to occur. This is Ross’s bird no. 113 which is variously called Ustur Murgh in Turki, Temege coko in Manchu, and T’o chi [using the Wade spelling] in Chinese. All these names seem to mean literally “Camel Fowl” or “Camel Bird” a very reasonable description of the ostrich. According to Ross, the “Mirror” describes the bird thus:- “This bird in the Southern Seas and in the south of the province of Fu-Kien. It is very large, measuring six feet in height. It is unable to fly. When full grown, five colours are represented on its body.” Although the last statement is rather obscure, this description, if accurate, can only refer to a large ratite, and the ostrich seems the most likely candidate. As Chinese civilisation probably began in the Hwang-ho river valley, and gradually spread southward; until quite late in history the southern part of the country was probably comparatively sparsely popu- lated. The coastal region of South China (e.g. Fukien) is therefore just the sort of place where a population of a bird such as the ostrich might be expected to finger long after the species had died out elsewhere. Although the date of publication of the “Mirror” (1771) is no proof that the bird was still extant at that date, it does suggest the possibility that a bird of the genus Struthio persisted in South China until perhaps the seventeenth or early eighteenth centuries. A study of the literature of the Indian sub- continent might perhaps reveal similar records there. After the publication of a previous note (Walters 1982) further confirmation of the probable existence of a population of small ostriches in Northern Africa came to fight in the form of an egg brought to the Museum by Mr. Philip Carter who had spent some time in Libya as an employee of an oil con- cern. Mr. Carter’s egg was picked up in the Libyan Desert, having already been exposed both totally and partially for varying periods. The whole of the outer porcellainous layer had been removed, resulting in a matt chalky surface over part of the shell — this chalky surface could easily be scratched with a finger-nail. Subsequently the egg seems to have lain partly exposed for a considerable time, as the rest of the shell was highly eroded, and subsequently polished by wind or sand abra- sion to a gloss. This gloss was most pro- nounced in one small area, and here the shell appeared darker than elsewhere. The egg had a hole in one side which was clearly old, 217 15 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 83 (, SUPPLEMENT ) the edges having been smoothed and eroded; and this suggested that the egg may have been used as a water container. When found it was completely buried in the sand, and is now in Mr. Carter’s possession. It measured 147 x 126 mm and is therefore comparable in size with the eggs of Struthio British Museum (Natural History), Tring, Hertfordshire, England HP23 6AP, March 6, 1985. Refer Brodkorb, P. (1963): Catalogue of Fossil Birds, pt. 1. Bull. Florida State Mus. 7(4) : 196-199. Ross, E. Denison (1909): Polyglot List of Birds — Turki, Manchu, Chinese. Memoirs As. Soc. Ben- gal, 2(9): 253-340. camel us syriacus and S. c. spatzi (Schonwetter 1960). Although it also falls within the range quoted by Schonwetter (142-175 x 120-145 mm) for S. c. camelus it is quite possible that Schonwetter’s figures may be biased to the bottom end of the range by the inclusion of one or more eggs of this small form. MICHAEL WALTERS iNCES Walters, M. (1982): A small ostrich egg from Egypt. Sand grouse 4: 116-117. Schonwetter, M. (Ed. M. Meise) (1960) : Hand- biich der Oologie, part. 1. 22. MORTALITY FROM A HAIL-STORM AT THE KARERA BUSTARD SANCTUARY, MADHYA PRADESH (With a plate) Natural calamities like floods, forest fires and earthquakes are known to cause consider- able damage to living organisms. A similar natural calamity was witnessed by us recently which created panic and confusion leaving behind a trail of destruction. On 10th February 1986, around 1500 hrs an unprecedented hail-storm lashed parts of Shivpuri district, Madhya Pradesh. The effect of this hail-storm was very severe in the Karera Bustard Sanctuary (lat. 25°30' to 25°40'N and longitude 78°5' to 78° 12' E). The hail-storm lasted for about 25 minutes. The weight of the hailstones varied from 250 to 350 gm. The effect of the hail-storm was very severe around the Diyala Jheel situated in the Karera Bustard Sanctuary. The Jheel at that time sheltered a large number of migratory water- birds like ducks, geese and smaller waders. As the hail-storm lashed, the birds tried to take off and escape but were dashed to the ground by the heavy hailstones. According to our estimate, about two thousand waterbirds alone died or were badly injured. Soon after the storm abated, the villagers from nearby villages rushed towards the jheel and carried away dead and dying birds in gunny sacs. Dead birds were strewn all over the place. Next morning one of us (EDC) with the help of a bird trapper collected some of the dead bodies of birds from the jheel, recover- ing 130 of them. Most of them had been killed from injury to the wings, rump and head and neck. Some had broken wing bones jutting out. A few had their eyes gouged out. We saw a Sarus Crane (Grus anti gone) immobilised 218 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (supplement) D’Cunha & Akhtar: Karera Bustard Sanctuary Plate I Above: Piles of birds killed by the hail-storm. Below: A sarus crane with wings broken by the hail-storm. ( Photos : Asad R. Rahmani) MISCELLANEOUS NOTES with broken wings and feet (Plate I). It was calling helplessly and it died after a day. A Demoiselle Crane ( Anthropoides virgo) was found limping. Three whitebacked vultures ( Gyps bengalensis) also died. Apart from birds, two blackbuck ( Antilope cervicapra) and a good number of livestock also perished. Two shepherds who wer e out in the field were hit but they managed to save their lives. The hail-storm caused considerable damage to the standing wheat and groundnut crops. Given below is a list of birds that were collected by us from the jheel on 11.2.1986 in the morning between 1000 and 1200 hrs. The list represents but only a small percentage of the birds killed. Since these were entangled in the grass in deep water the villa- gers were unable to collect them. Many birds with deep gashes could be seen fluttering around the whole sanctuary for a couple of days. In all it was a pathetic sight. Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023, April 2, 1986. Species 1. Phalacrocorax fuscicollis 2. Threskiomis aethiopica 3. Platalea leucorodia 4. Anas acuta 5. Anas crecca 6. Anas strepera 7. Anas penelope 8. Anas clypeata 9. Netta rufina 10. Ay thy a ferrina 1 1 . Aythya fuligula 12. Fulica atra 13. Hydrophasianus chirurgus 14. Vaneltus leucurus 15. Tringa erythropus 16. Gallinago gallinago 17. Calidris testacea 18. Philomachus pugnax 19. Streptopelia tranquebarica 20. Streptopelia decaocto 21 . Psittacula krameri * denotes birds with BNHS rings. A denotes collected from outside the jheel. E. P. ERIC D’CUNHA ASAD AKHTAR No. of birds 1 1 6 5 7 5 2* F 59014 1 9 3 6 76 2 2 1* 1B46852 1 1* AB 117351 1* B 64617 1A 2A 1A 23. INTIMIDATION AMONG WATERBIRDS AT BHARATPUR On 28th February 1985 at about 16 hours, we were watching a mixed flock of birds feed- ing at the Keoladeo Temple at the Keoladeo Ghana National Park, Bharatpur. The mixed flock included purple moorhens, whitebreasted waterhens, pond herons, little egrets, cattle egrets, median egrets, glossy ibis, purple herons, grey herons, a blacknecked stork, Sarus cranes, Siberian cranes, whitetailed lapwings, and some ducks, amongst others. Whilst most of the other bird species were engaged in feeding, some competition for food was observed between the several pond herons at the site. Some aggressive behaviour was also observed between the purple moorhens. One of the more successful pond herons suddenly came up with a prize catch — a black catfish over six inches long. Perhaps apprehensive of the fact that the other pond herons might deprive him of this catch, he quickly flew off with the fish, which, held at right angles to his beak, was making a valiant attempt to escape. Unfortunately, though the pond heron suc- ceeded in evading the unwelcome attentions of his comrades, a purple heron decided to in- 219 16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) vestigate. Deciding that the catfish was too much of a mouthful for the pond heron, the purple heron attacked the pond heron, who promptly dropped the fish and sat down with a loud squawk. The purple heron swooped down on the fish and picked it up without alighting, but unfortunately for him, the pond heron’s cry had attracted the attention of a grey heron and a blacknecked stork. We were treated to the rare sight of the purple heron being chased by the grey heron which in turn was being chased by the blacknecked stork. Flying at a height of not more than fifty feet, the purple heron made a valiant attempt to escape by circling back. The grey heron sud- denly decided that discretion was the better 13 Neet Tarang, 210, Veer Savarkar Marg, Mahim, Bombay-400 016. part of valour and gave up the chase after about 30 seconds, flying off at a tangent, leaving the field clear for the black-necked stork. Realizing that the blacknecked stork was not going to give up so easily, the purple heron dropped the fish and settled down at a distance, while the blacknecked stork dived triumphantly to retrieve the fish. Alas, there is many a slip ‘twixt the cup and the lip, for this time, the fish had fallen in one of the shallow marshy pools. Though the blacknecked stork settled down very quick- ly and made a number of attempts to locate the fish, he was unable to do so. When we left half an hour later, he was still jabbing away. Intimidation doesn’t always pay ! DEBI GOENKA 74 Turner Road, HETA PANDIT Bandra, Bombay-400 050, July 10, 1985. 24. NOTE ON THE STRANGE BEHAVIOUR OF A MARSH CROCODILE ( CROCODYLUS PALUSTRIS) (With a plate) On 3rd of June, 1986, I was at the Raj Bagh Lake in Ranthambore National Park observ- ing the activity around a female sambar kill of a tiger on the edge of the lake. The kill was half eaten and vultures were already on it. Around 2.00 p.m. a crocodile came out of the water, went to the dead sambar and after a spell of inactivity, took three bites out of it. Soon this crocodile was followed by an- other who settled down near the kill on the opposite side. The first returned to the water and so did the second without eating anything. The third crocodile (all of them were around ten feet in length) came out of the water, went to the kill, caught the dead sambar by the neck and spun round five to six times with the kill still in its mouth. The crocodile came to rest with all its feet in the air and remained in this position for a few seconds before turn- ing right side up on to its feet. Soon thereafter, this crocodile also went back into the lake without attempting to eat anything from the kill. 220 i H 2 u- £ a a .52 a ^ B ^ a w a 3? H o £ pc h x < e 2 ‘35 3 >- C s .2 s-8 >> > ■;5 & Crocodile spinning with the kill in its mouth. (Photo: Udaybhanusinh) MISCELLANEOUS NOTES I have never seen such behaviour and nor can I explain it in any way apart from the possibility of the crocodile repeating on the ground certain motions which it performs in the water. It appeared to me to be an attempt of the crocodile to dismember the kill. How- No. 1, Mansingh Road, New Delhi-110 011, July 8, 1986. ever, in this case the latter remained intact after the crocodile’s efforts. The accompanying photograph (Plate I) shows the crocodile spinning round with the kill in its mouth, it is in “mid-air” so to speak. DIVYABHANUSINH 25 . IDENTITY OF “BAHEL SCHULLI” OF HORTUS MALABARICUS “Bahel Schullii” was the local name used by Draakestein van Rheede for the acantha- ceous plant presently known in our Indian Floras as Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine. The first valid binomial used for this taxon was Barleria longifolia Linn. (Amoen. Acad. 4: 320, 1759). This species was placed under the genus Hygrophila R. Br. as H. spinosa. T. Anders, by its author on taxono- mical grounds. The specific epithet longifolia is occupied by another distinct species in that genus by Hygrophila longifolia Nees (1847) and therefore a new combination H. auriculata (Schumach.) Heine (Kew Bull. 16: 172, 1962) was proposed based on the earlier name Barle- ria auriculata Schumach. (Schumach. & Tonn. Beskr. Guin. PI. 285, 1827). Francis Hamilton (1824), unaware of the earlier Linnean binomial Barleria longifolia Linn. — for this plant thought that this well described and figured plant of Rheede’s Hortus Malabaricus is devoid of any valid binomial and proposed a new binomial Bahel schulli Hamilt. (Trans. Linn. Sco. Lond. 14: 289, 1824), treating Bahel as generic name and schulli as specific epithet, giving pre-Linnean identity of the species and a first-hand fresh description. However, Hamilton’s binomial has escaped the attention of the modern taxono- mist because of the later generic homonym Bahel proposed by Hamilton. In fact Rheede (Vol. 9: 169, t. 87, 1689) had used the orthographic varient of local name “Bahel tsjulli” for another distinct species belonging to family Scrophulariaceae, now placed in genus Art enema Don. Adanson (Fam. PI. 2: 210, 1763), however had used Generic name Bahel for Scrophula- riaceous “Bahel tsjulli”. Hamilton’s generic name Bahel is therefore later homonym of Adanson’s name. However his binomial Bahel schulli Hamilt. is validly published and according to Article 68.1 its specific epithet schulli is available for use in genus Hygrophila R. Br., which has priority over Barleria auriculata Schumach. We, therefore propose a new combination Hygrophila schulli (Hamilt.) comb. nov. (Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. 14: 289, 1824). Basionym: Bahel schulli Hamilton. Hamilton also mentions a variety of this species having pure white flowers. There is no subsequent record of this species having seen in pure white flowers. We have recently col- lected this pure white-flowered variety at Nandur-Madhmeshwar. 221 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 (, SUPPLEMENT ) Alchemie Research Centre, M. R. ALMEIDA Thane-Belapur Road, Thane-400 601. Blatter Herbarium, S. M. ALMEIDA St. Xavier’s College, Bombay-400 001, October 22, 1986. 26. NOTES ON IDENTIFICATION OF SOME UNIDENTIFIED PLANT-SPECIES IN HORTUS MALABARICUS During our studies on plants of Western Ghats (Maharashtra) we had the opportunity to go through the pioneering work on Indian plants by Draakestein van Rheede (1678- 1693). In spite of a number of attempts to identify and name the species figured and described in the 12 volumes of van Rheede’s work, a number of species still lack proper identifications and good nomenclatural con- cepts. We have tried to interpret the plates in these volumes and assign them correct botani- cal names. The following three are unknown or obscurely known in modern taxonomical terms and are attempted below: 1, katou-theka (Catu-tekka in English) Ranpaphla (Brahmin). Rheede, Hort. Mai. 4: 59, t. 28, 1683. In the post Linnean period, Poir (Lamarck Encycl. 5: 1, 1804) identified this figure as belonging to a species of Psychotria. Hamilton while giving the commentary on this species concluded that, as suggested by Wildenow, Katou-theka is the same ‘cupi’ of another figure of Rheede (Hort. Mai. 2: 37, t. 23, 1679); he identified it as Webera corymbosa Willd. After careful study of van Rheede’s figure and the description, we have come to the conclusion that the Rheede’s species re- presents the Rubiaceous plant Psychotria dalzelli Hook. f. We justify the identity of this figure as Psychotria dalzellii Hk. f. on the bases of fol- lowing reasons: 1 . Leaves in this taxon are given as more or less spatulate as in Psychotria dalzellii Hk. f. 2. Inflorescence is a terminal cyme, the cyme branches whorled, the lower in whorls of 4, subtended by 4 large bracts. 3. Flowers crowded at the tips of branches. 4. Fruit sub-globose, crowned by calyx limb, subtended by persistent bracts. Typical specimen : S. M. Almeida 420, Charatha-Savantwadi (25-7-77). J. F. Fernan- des 1626 — Yellapur N. K. (1-6-1950), (BLAT). We do not concur with Hamilton (1835) that the Rheede’s figure belongs to Webera corymbosa due to following reasons: 1 . Leaves in Webera corymbosa Willd. are not spatulate; they are linear-lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate. 2 . Inflorescence terminal, compound dicha- sial cyme, not arising in whorls of 4; not subtended by large bracts. 3 . Fruit globose, not subtended by large bracts. 4. Webera corymbosa Willd. is already sepa- rately figured and described as ‘cupi’ by van Rheede, (Vol. 2: 37, t. 23, 1679). 222 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 2. ben-teka (Malayalam) Saili (Brahmin). Rheede Hort. Mai. 4: 63, pi. 30, 1683. The Figure of this species in Hortus Mala- baricus is botanically not well represented, but after studying the figure and the text, we have come to the conclusion that it belongs to the species presently known as Hymenodictyon excelsum Wall. Lamarck (Encycl. 1: 401, 1785) gave the description of this species under its local name ‘ben-teka’ without any specific epithet and with- out a validly published generic name. Denn- staedt provided the botanical binomial Kasailo racemosa Dennstd. which is also considered as an invalid name (see Article 42. IC of ICBN). The first valid binomial for the taxon was published by Roemer & Schultes (1819) as Ben-teka rheedii Roem. & Schult. (Syst. 4: 706 1819). However, this binomial was con- fused as belonging to family Apocynaceae due to Ben-teca Adanson (Fam. 2: 166, 1763), Ben-teka Adanson (Fam. 2: 525, 1763). These v/ere considered congeneric and equated with Ambelania Aubl. (Apocynaceae). There are a number of defects in Rheede’s figure which has made this taxon unrecogniz- able to the commentators. We enumerate the following few defects which have made the figure unrecognizable — 1 . Fruits in some cases have been shown blunt at apex; whereas they are always acute at the apex when they are young or unopened. 2. Fruits are shown without stalk borne on the inflorescence branches, but actually the fruits are stalked and do not originate in clusters as shown in the figure. 3. The leaves are shown as alternate or as if they are coming only from one side of the stem; whereas they are typically opposite in actual plants. We could at once recognize this plant as belonging to presently known species Hyme- nodictyon excelsum Wall, due to the follow- ing reasons — 1 . Leaves broadly ovate, long-petioled, acu- minate at apex, narrowing to the base to the petiole. 2. Inflorescence a long raceme, flowers in clusters, shortly pedicellate; style exerted, stigma large, capitate. 3 . Fruit ellipsoid, acute at apex, on decurved stalks. But for expert field knowledge of this species, it is impossible to place this taxon in its proper place. We cannot understand the basis of Francis Hamilton (1825) placing this taxon in “The order” Solanaceae. As the identity of the taxon is clear to us now, we find the earliest validly published name for this species is Benteka rheedii R. & S. Therefore, we propose the following new combination for this taxon. Hymenodictyon rheedii (R. & S.) comb, nov. Basionym ; Benteka rheedii R. & S. Syst. 4; 706, 1819. Benteca Adanson is heterotypic generic homonym and orthographic variant of this taxon. In the latest code of ICBN, on page 411, in entry No. 8197, we find Benteca Adanson is given as a rejected name (Nom. reiicienduml against Hymenodictyon Wall, ex Roxb. and they are shown as taxonomic synonyms based on different types. This entry needs two cor- rections in view of our findings: 1. Benteka Adanson (Fam. 2: 525, 1763) based on the type of Rheede Hortus Malabaricus 4: 63, pi. 30, 1683 is con- generic with Hymenodictyon Wall, ex Roxb. and not with Benteca Adanson (Fam. PI. 2: 166, 1763), which is based 223 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) on different type species Benteca odorata Rafin. 2. Benteka Adanson is not only a taxonomic synonym, but it is a nomenclatural syno- nym of Hymenodictyon Wall, ex Roxb. Typical specimen — K. V. Shenoy: 3719 — Mumbra (9-7-1954) (BLAT). 3. sundari: Rheede, Hort. Mai. 5: 79, t. 40, 1685. In our opinion this taxon belongs to the species known today as Ehretia laevis Rox- burgh. It is called ‘Sundari’ by van Rheede, but there is no indication to suggest whether it is the Malayalam name or the Brahamin name of the species. It was described as ‘Kaka-ponna’ allied to genus Euonymus (Celastraceae) by Poiret (Ency. 8: 228, 1834) Alchemie Research Centre, Thane-Belapur Road, Thane 400 601. Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s Colloge, Bombay 400 001, November 4, 1986. and was given the binomial Sundaria cranga- noorensis by Dennstaedt. Dennstaedt’s name is invalid under Article 42. IC of ICBN. Hamil- ton identified this as a species of Rhamnaceae, where as Don and Poiret thought it to be be- longing to Celastraceae. Ultimately, nobody so far has correctly identified this plant belong- ing to Ehretiaceae. The plant when in bloom, is very beautiful and it attracts number of bees and other in- sects. The local name sundari might be indi- cative of aesthetic beauty of this species. Typical specimen : Santapau — 18396 Waghai- Dangs forest (12.3.1954), (BLAT). We are grateful to the authorities of Blatter Herbarium for providing facilities to work, and to Dr. (Mrs.) A. R. Daruwalla for making necessary corrections in the manuscript. M. R. ALMEIDA S. M. ALMEIDA 27. PROLIFERATION IN OPUNTIA DlLLENll (KER-GAWLER) HAW. (With a photograph) Opuntia dillenii (Ker-Gawler) Haw., an introduced cactus from Californian Peninsula, is frequent in various places of Deccan Plateau, along hedges and wastelands; it is also occasionally cultivated in gardens as an ornamental plant. In one of the plants grow- ing in our garden mature fruits are never pro- duced and young fruits wither and fall off after some time. However, in a few cases, surprisingly, I observed the development of normal flattened joints with spines from the fruit when it is still attached to the mother plant. On critical observation, these fruits showed no viable seeds but only sterile ovules. Sections of such fruits revealed that prolife- ration took place from the receptacular part of the inferior ovary. The ovary, thus, func- tioned as a joint of the stem. These fruits never ripened and remained green without any significant enlargement. 224 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Photo. 1. Opuntia dillennii (Ker-Gawler) Haw. showing the development of normal joints from the fruit (arrow). The inferior ovary, in members of Cacta- ceae, is commonly interpreted as having originated by the sinking of the gynoecium into the floral axis (receptacle) and the present observation is a strong evidence in favour of this interpretation. Department of Botany, POORNAPRAJ NA COLLEGE, Udipi - 576 101, Karnataka, May 30, 1986. Acknowledgement The photographic assistance rendered by Dr. N. A. Madhyastha is gratefully acknow- ledged. K. GOPALAKRISHNA BEAT ■ it i 225 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) 28. A NEW EXOTIC SOLANACEOUS WEED IN OLD WORLD TROPICS {With a plate and three text-figures) Introduction Plant migrations have not only enabled human civilizations to flourish in different con- tinents of the globe, but also caused natural calamities that led to human migrations (Baker 1974, Hutchinson 1965). These catastrophies are the consequences of conversion of produc- tive ecosystems into non-productive ones due to invasion of aggressive exotic weeds and the outbreak of epidemics of plant, animal and human diseases through the accidental intro- duction of virulent pathogens and pests from one country into another. The former is exemplified by the rapid invasion of life sup- porting aquatic systems by the obnoxious South American weed — Eichhornia crassipes Solms, resulting in the eutrophication of lakes and in the disruption of ecological balance; the latter is exemplified by another American weed, the congress grass ( Parthenium hystero- p horns Linn.) causing allergy to animals and humans; and the damage caused by the pests is best illustrated by the crop losses due to accidental introduction of weed seed carrying virus and bacterial diseases. These facts de- monstrate that plant migrations have played havoc with human civilizations. Weeds have been the subject of much research because of their importance in agri- culture and horticulture (Baker l.c.). Weed floras include both native and immigrant weeds. The naturalized exotic weeds (aliens) often displace native flora and cause an ecological disturbance. In fact, in tropics a genus {or even family) where weediness is not prevalent. 226 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES may contain an occasional species with an evolved combination of characters that have enabled it to ‘hit the weed jackpot’ and spread widely with human aid (Baker l.c.)- This aspect of evolution of weeds is evident from the weeds of South American origin in India, which is represented by the members of Amaranthaceae, Asteraceae, Malvaceae, Sola- naceae, and others. Within Solanaceous weeds. a majority of them belong to Solarium and a few of them are represented by the species of Physalis. The genus Petunia comprises species which are chiefly American in distri- bution, the nomenclature of the genus itself having been derived from the South American aboriginal name, ‘Petu-nia’ (Bailey 1944). The genus contains 40 species, mainly South Ame- rican in occurrence, among which Petunia par- 80 1 84°' 8ef> 9^* 9^' I ' s ^ > '7 INDIA ( 227 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 (, SUPPLEMENT ) viflora Juss. is a remarkable species with a wide range of disjunct distribution (Fig. 1), and is of South American (Brasilian) origin; it occurs as a common weed in the dry areas of South Western, Central, North Eastern and North Western United States (D’Arcy 1978, Munz & Keck 1959). The genus contains many species of horticultural value, the culti- gen. Petunia hybrida Vilm., being grown in Indian gardens too. But the occurrence of a weed species of Petunia — P. parviflora Juss., is reported here for the first time from the Old World tropics. Observations and Discussion In the course of our investigations on the Flora of Delhi, we encountered a population of plants in cultivated fields of Purana Basant village located about 6-8 km east of Palam — the International Airport, at New Delhi (Fig. 2). Detailed examination of these plants indi- cated that the population represents an unusual taxon not reported so far from the Indian Sub- Continent, and resembles superficially, Bacopa of Scrophulariaceae. Further studies revealed that the plants did not belong to Scrophularia- ceae, but could be referred to Salpiglossidae of the family Solanaceae. Since we could not identify the species locally, the specimens were sent to Dr. William D’Arcy (Missouri Bota- nical Garden), Dr. Michael Nee (New York Botanical Garden) and to Dr. Dan Nicolson (Smithsonian Institution, Washington) all of whom are authorities on Solanaceae and who have identified the species as Petunia parviflora Juss. of Salpiglossidae of Solanaceae. The occurrence of P. parviflora the type species of the genus, in the Indian subconti- nent gives a clue that it may also occur else- where in the Old World tropics as an accidental introduction. The fact that the population is restricted to a field close to the International Airport suggests that the seeds of P. parviflora might have arrived alongwith the air cargo. It is now spreading fast in the nearby fields. The observations demonstrate that the species is of recent introduction and is now getting naturalised as an alien species. Since it forms a component of weed flora of agricultural fields, it is essential to eradicate it right in the initial stages before it could spread to other parts of the country and to neighbouring countries in the sub-continent. Petunia parviflora is a creeping herb, rooting at nodes and often forming mats (Plate, Fig. 3). It is usually associated with other weeds such as Chenopodium, Amaranthus, and Por- tulaca. Besides vegetative reproduction by stem stolons, the species produces copious seeds. On an average, a single plant produces about 60 to 80 seeds per capsule, which have con- siderable dormancy. The seedlings usually emerge during the months of March/ April and the plants flower and fruit in the months of May- June and this continues till the advent of winter. In order to facilitate easy identification of the species, diagnostic morphological features are provided here. Petunia parviflora Juss. (Fig. 4) Creeping annual herbs, rooting at nodes; branches glandular-hairy, with purple, 2-3 celled hairs, particularly when young. Stems terete, yellowish-green when dry. Leaves alter- nate in the lower part and opposite in the upper part, often fascicled because of con- densation of intemodes, obovate, spathulate, subsessile or shortly petioled, obtuse or obtusely acute at apex, entire, glandular ciliate, glandular hairy on both surfaces, with a pro- minent midrib, 4-20 mm x 1-4 mm. Flowers solitary axillary, bract eate, upto c 10 mm long; subsessile or shortly pedicellate, pedicel 228 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (supplement) Plate Viswanathan & Singh: Petunia parviflora Petunia parviflora — a creeping herb. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Fig. 4. Petunia parviflora Juss. A. Habit; B. Calyx; C. Flower L. S.; D. Pistil; E. Ovary C. S.; F. Capsule enclosed in calyx; G. Capsule-open; H. seed. upto c 6 mm long, glandular hairy. Calyx 5 lobed, glandular hairy, lobes oblong, broader towards the apex, obtuse, unequal in size, posterior one being larger, 2-6 mm long, and 0.5-1 mm broad, 1 -nerved. Corolla slightly longer than the calyx, upto 10 mm long, in- fundibuliform; tube greenish outside, yellowish within, 1-2 mm broad; throat glabrous; lobes 5, pink, slightly irregular, upper 3, lower 2, roundish, acuminate, glandular hairy on the outer surface, glabrous within, 2x2 mm. Stamens 5, included, inserted at the base of corolla tube, unequal, longer ones 4-5 mm, shorter one 3-4 mm; anthers bright yellow, glabrous, 2 celled, cells distinct, parallel, diver- gent at base, dehiscing longitudinally and late- rally, posterior ones touching the stigma; pistil 6 mm long; ovary hypogynous, pink, glabrous, ovoid, 1 mm long, 2-carpelled; ovules many on swollen axile placenta; placenta somewhat oblique, the septum pushed towards the poste- rior wall of the ovary; style simple, 4-5 mm long, dilated upwards; stigma capitate, creamish, slightly 2-lobed. Capsule enclosed within the persistent, enlarged calyx, brown, glabrous, ovoid, septicidal, 2-valved, valves entire, dehiscing from the top, separating from the central column, 4 mm long. Fruiting calyx upto 15 mm and 0.5 to 1 mm broad. Seeds many, about 60-80 in each fruit, reddish- 229 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) brown, somewhat triangular, lenticular, faveo- late, 0.5-0. 7 mm in diameter, with slightly curved embryo. Specimens examined : India: New Delhi, Purana Basant, 21-5-1981, Viswanathan & Singh 575 (RHMD). Ack nowledgements Our sincere thanks are due to Dr. Dan Nicolson (Smithsonian Institution, Washington, USA), Dr. William D’Arcy (Missouri Bota- Raw Materials Herbarium & Museum, Publications & Information Directorate (CSIR), Hillside Road, New Delhi- 110 012. nical Garden, USA) and Dr. Michael Nee (New York Botanical Garden, N.Y., USA), for the identification of the specimen. We are grateful to Dr. C. R. Babu (Botany Dept., University of Delhi, India) for his valuable suggestions and guidance in the preparation of this paper. We are indebted to the Editor- in-Chief and Mrs. K. Ramachandran of the Publications & Information Directorate, for providing all facilities and constant encourage- ment. M. V. VISWANATHAN H. B. SINGH Referen ces Baker, H. G. (1974) : The Evolution of Weeds. Ann. Rev. Eco. Syst. 5: 1-24. Bailey, L. H. (1944) : Manual of Cultivated Plants. The MacMillan Company, London. D’Arcy, W. G. (1978) : A preliminary Synopsis of Salpiglossis and other Cestreae (Solanaceae) . Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 65: 698-724. Hutchinson, J. B. (1965): Crop Plant Evolu- tion. Cambridge Univ. Press. London. Munz, P. A. & Keck, D. D. (1959): A Cali- fornia Flora. Univ. California Press, Berkeley & Los Angeles, U.S.A. 29. REDISCOVERY OF BLECHNIDIUM MEL AN OPUS (HOOK.) MOORE (BLECHNACEAE) — A RARE FERN FROM ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA {With four text -figures) During the course of botanical exploration of Lower Subansiri District in April, 1980, for preparation of District Flora, I collected this rare and noteworthy fern from subtropi- cal primary forest. Beddome in his hand book of ferns of British India (1883) listed this plant from Khasia hills of Meghalaya and Taiwan. There is no other record of the occurrence of this taxon from anywhere else. It is now being reported for the first time from Arunachal Pradesh. The present report is also significant as this plant is collected after a considerable lapse of time. Besides, it is not represented in the Central National Herbarium (CAL) and is not at all represented in the Regional Her- barium at Shillong (ASSAM). Keeping in view the taxonomic and botanical interest of such taxon, it is necessary to recollect and conserve this poorly represented monotypic taxon and grow it under suitable conditions for preservation. A detailed description, with ecological notes and illustration based on my collection is provided. Blechnidium Moore, Octava Nat. Print. Brit. Ferns 2: 210. 1860, Types Species: B. melanopus (Hook.) Moore, l.c. (= Blechnum 230 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Figs. 1-4. Blechnidium melanopus (Hook.) Moore. 1. Plant; 2. Scale; 3. A part of Lamina; 4. Sporangia. 231 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) melanopus Hook. Sp. Fil. 3: 64. t. 161. 1860). Blechitidiiim melanopus (Hook.) Moore, Octava Nat. Print. Brit. Ferns 2: 210. 1860. Bedd. Ferns Brit. India t. 50. 1865; Handb. Ferns Brit. India 133. t. 67. 1883 Blechnium melanopus Hook. Sp. Fil. 3: 64. t. 161. 1860. Terrestrial. Rhizomes creeping, slender, 5-8 mm diam., densely scaly, scout, with fibrous roots. Roots Wiry, with dark brown ramenta. Scales 4-6 x 1 .0-1 .5 mm, lanceolate to oblong- lanceolate, acuminate, membranous, brown. Fronds 25-45 cm long, 3. 0-4. 5 cm broad, articulate. Stipes 12-30 cm long, =b 2 mm across, wiry, terete or obscurely ridged, glabrous, shining black, reddish-black when young. Lamina 12-25 cm long and 3. 0-4. 5 cm broad, lanceolate to oblong, narrowed at base, acuminate, pinnatifid; lobes 20-22 pairs below the acuminate apex, reflexed at margin, coria- ceous glabrous; basal lobes 4-5 x 6-8 mm, sub- orbicular, obtuse at apex; lobes 8-25 x 5-8 mm, oblong, falcate, acute or obtuse at apex; apical lobes 1-2 lobulate or entire, obtuse; veins anastomosing forming large arched areoles. ultimate veinlets free; costae distinct, whitish grey. Rachis 10-20 cm long, glabrous, black upto the middle of lamina from base. Sori 5-15 mm long, along either sides of costa, linear, continuous, indusiate. Sporangia 200 mm. obovoid, annular, stalked, brown (Figs. 1-4). Ecological notes : In undergrowth in primary forest. Soil clay-loam with much humus. Specimen examined : India, Arunachal Pra- desh, Lower Subansiri District, 12 km East of Begi, ± 1800 m; 26th April, 1980, G. D. Pal 78265 (ARUN). Distribution : Taiwan, and India (Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh). Local name and uses : Tari in Apatani; Tafeo in Nishi. The entire plant is used in all festivals. Note : This taxon should be incorporated in the National List of endangered species. Acknowledgement I thank to Dr. K. Thothathri, Joint Direc- tor, Botanical Survey of India for guidance. G. D. PAL Botanical Survey of India, Arunachal Field Station, Itanagar-791 111. Reference Beddqme, R. H. (1883): Handbook to the Ferns of British India, Ceylon and the Malay Peninsula, Calcutta. 232 APPENDIX The Editors’ Who’s When A scrutiny of the Journal for the names associated with the editing of the 83 volumes, from its in- ception in 1886 to the present day, reveals as follows : Vols. I-II (1886-7) : R. A. Sterndale & E. H. Aitken. .. III-XI (1888-97): H. M. Phipson. „ XII-XVI (1898-1904): H. M. Phipson & W. S. Millard. XVII (1907): W. S. Millard, E. H. Comber & L. C. H. Young. „ XVIII-XXVI (1907-1918): W. S. Millard, R. A. Spence & N. B. Kinnear. „ XXVII-XXIX (1920-23): R. A. Spence, B. C. Ellison & S. H. Prater. „ XXX (1924): R. A. Spence, P.M.D. Sander- son & S. H. Prater. ., XXXI (1926) : R. A. Spence & S. H. Prater. ., XXXII (1927-8): R. A. Spence, P. M. D. Sanderson, S. H. Prater & S&lim Ali. „ XXXIII (1928-9): R. A. Spence, S. H. Prater & Sfilim Ali. „ XXXIV-XXXV (1930-32): R. A. Spence & S. H. Prater. „ XXXVI-XXXVII (1932-34): R. A. Spence, P. M. D. Sanderson, S. H. Prater & C. McCann. „ XXXVIII-XL (1935-39): P. M. D. Sander- son, S. H. Prater, C. McCann, H. M. McGusty & J. F. Caius. „ XLI-XLIII (1939-43): H. M. McGusty, J. F. Caius & S. H. Prater. ,. XLIV (1943-44): J. F. Caius, S. H. Prater & C. McCann. „ 45-47 (3) (1944-48): S. H. Prater, C. Mc- Cann & Salim Ali. „ 47 (4) -48 (2) (1948-49): S&lim Ali & S. B. Setna. .. 48 (3) -51 (1949-53): Salim Ali, S. B. Setna & H. Santapau. „ 52-56 (1954-59) : S£lim Ali & H. Santapau. „ 57-59 (1960-62) : H. Santapau & H. Abdulali. „ 60-61 (1963-64): H. Santapau & Z. Futehally. ,, 62-63 (1965-66) : H. Santapau, D. E, Reuben, Z. Futehally & J. C. Daniel „ 64-67 (1967-70) : H. Santapau, Z. Futehally & J. C. Daniel. 68-70 (1971-73): Z. Futehally, J. C. Daniel & P. V. Bole. „ 71-83 (1974-86): J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole & A. K. D. Nanavati. The Editors’ Who’s Who 1. Humayun Abdulali One of India’s leading ornithologists and author of two regional checklists. He was the Society’s Honorary Secretary from 1954 to 1962 when there were many changes in its organisation. It was the period when the Society cut its umbilical chord with Phipson & Co. and the Natural History Sec- tion of the Prince of Wales Museum. His most notable contribution was the successful negotiation with the Government of India and the Prince of Wales Museum for the building to house the So- ciety's offices — Hombill House. 2. Edward Hamilton Aitken Better known as EHA, hardly requires introduc- ing. As author of several books which have become almost classics, he enjoys a wide reputation as a naturalist. ‘Behind the Bungalow’, ‘Tribes on my Frontier’, ‘A Naturalist on the Prowl’ and ‘Common Birds of Bombay’ are amongst his most popular writings. Indeed EHA is claimed by some to be India’s greatest naturalist-writer, and a perusal of his books shows that this is by no means an exagge- rated view. He was an exceptionally keen observer of nature, interested in everything that lived and breathed and possessed the gift of humorous and imaginative, yet scrupulously accurate, description such as has seldom been surpassed or equalled. When EHA resigned his editorship of the Journal in 1887, presumably because of transfer from Bom- bay, his place was taken by H. M. Phipson who had in the meantime returned from leave in England. Sir Norman Kinnear relates that in an obituary notice that appeared on his death in 1909 in a local newspaper of his provincial home town in Scotland, EHA was described as an expert on Indian birds, Bungalow Economy and the Frontier Tribes ! How EHA himself would have enjoyed this des- 233 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) cription can be imagined by any one familiar with the spirit of his writings. 3. Salim A 1 i Has had a long and active association with the Society. His chief interest is birds, particularly the field aspects of their study, and he is the author of several books on Indian birds. He served as one of the editors in 1927-28 (Vols. 32 and 33), and resumed his connection with the Journal in 1944 (Vol. 45), collaborating with S. H. Prater and C. McCann. Upon their leaving India, SMim Ali took over as General Editor assisted by Dr. S. B. Setna for a year, when Fr. H. Santapau joined the board. Presently the Society’s President. 4. P. V. Bole Retired as Professor of Botany at St. Xavier’s College, Bombay and is actively associated with the Blatter Herbarium and the Society for almost 30 years. He has contributed papers on floristics of W. India, plant ecology and survey of economic plants as well as on ethnobotany. He is interested in conservation of natural habitat and propagation of indigenous plants. 5. Fr. Jean Ferdinand Caius, s.j. A distinguished biochemist, was Professor of Che- mistry in St. Xaviers College, Bombay, from 1922, and founder and first director of the Pharmacolo- gical Laboratory at the Haffkine Institute (Govern- ment of Bombay) from 1924-1932. He became Honorary Secretary of the Society in 1941 and serv- ed as Chairman of the Sub-Committee of Trustees of the Natural History Section of the Prince of Wales Museum, and as one of the editors of the Journal till his death in 1944. He was an indefati- gable worker and among his more outstanding scientific achievements were the intensive investiga- tions he carried out at the Haffkine Institute on the therapeutic value of various remedies employed against diseases caused by hookworm and roundworm, so prevalent in India. His work has been recognised as the most exhaustive and complete treatise on the subject and is widely quoted in most text books on pharmacology. Another contribution by Fr. Caius was his extensive studies of the poison apparatus of snakes and of the remedies employed against snake poisons, particularly those alleged to be effi- cacious in the Ayurvedic and Unani systems of medicine. His experiments proved that all of such cures, even those most widely reputed, were com- pletely ineffective against cobra and viper venom. He contributed a valuable series of articles to the Journal on the Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of India, and completed the revision started by the late Fr. Blatter, of Kirtikar and Basu’s Medicinal Plants of India’. Fr. Caius died in Bombay in July 1944. A full obituary notice appears in Vol. 45, pp. 79/80. 6. Edward Comber A partner in the Liverpool firm of East India Merchants, Lyon, Lord & Co., was one of the most active members of the Society in its early years. He was a great yachtsman, and keenly interested in birds and insects though his many notes and articles between Vols. 10 and 20 of the Journal cover practically every branch of animal life and reveal the wide range of his natural history interests. Among his contributions is a series ‘Hints to Begin- ners on collecting and preserving Natural History Specimens’ — Mammals (Vol 13; 100), Birds (Vol. 13; 270), Reptiles & Amphibians (Vol. 13; 641) and Fishes (Vol. 17; 396), which by the help they afforded upcountry members, were largely instru- mental in building up the Society’s zoological collec- tions from different parts of the country. Comber was largely responsible for the proper care and cataloguing of the various collections, lists of which he published in the Journal from time to time. Also for preparing the first General Index for Vols. I to XII. 7 . J. C. Daniel Studied at the Madras Christian College and the Madras University Zoology Research Laboratory. He joined the Society as a Research Assistant in 1950. Joined the Natural History Museum at Darjeeling as Curator in 1955 and returned to the Society as its Curator in 1960. His interest in natu- ral history is eclectic, with a leaning towards reptiles and wildlife conservation. 8. Bernard C. Ellison Was selected on behalf of the Society by R. C. Wroughton (who was working in the British Museum on the collections of the Mammal Survey) on Kinnear’s departure from India, and sent out as curator Bombay in 1920. The choice would, on the whole, seem to be an unfortunate one since 234 APPENDIX Ellison — overtly, at any rate — possessed few of the qualifications that might be expected in the curator of a natural history museum or in the editor of a scientific journal. Ill health terminated his contract with the Society early, and he returned to England in 1923. 9. N. B. (Sir Norman B.) Kinnear Came out to India in 1907 as the first wholetime curator of the Society. He had had his training in the Royal Scottish Museum at Edinburgh under the wellknown ornithologist Dr. William Eagle Clarke, and his advent marked the immediate shift of the Society’s activities to a more scientific plane through a proper rearrangement, labelling and cataloguing of its various collections. His staff work in connec- tion with the Society’s Mammal Survey was in- valuable, and the success of the undertaking is due in no small measure to the care he bestowed on its planning and direction. His main influence on the Journal was also in the direction of a greater scien- tific bias. He encouraged and guided many young people to develop their particular interests in natu- ral history, and several of the names that have since gained prominence in its pages can be claimed to have derived their inspiration largely from Kinnear. He published numerous notes and short articles in the Journal on various branches of Indian history, and through country-wide correspondence with outstation members elicited a wide range of useful and interesting matter for the Miscellaneous Notes section. Kinnear’s special interest lay in Mammals and Birds, and field study in these two branches receiv- ed a great fillip whilst he was in the country. Since his return to London he has maintained a lively interest in the affairs and progress of the Society and rendered valuable assistance to it in various ways. He has also contributed important papers on birds of the Palaearctic and Oriental Regions to the Journal including the report on the Vemay Scientific Survey of the Eastern Ghats — writing in collaboration with the late Hugh Whistler — which, by showing up the many gaps in our knowledge of Indian ornithology led the way to the useful regional bird surveys that have since been sponsored by the Society. Kinnear left India in 1919 to take up an appoint- ment in the Bird Room of the British Museum (Natural History), London. He rose to be Director in 1948, an eminence from which he retired in 1950. 10. Zafar Futehally Took over from Humayun Abdulali as Honorary Secretary. An avid birdwatcher, Zafar has the abi- lity to communicate his enthusiasm to others. It was during his stewardship that the Society stopped be- ing introspective and widened the scope of its activities. Zafar is the founder of the Bird- watchers’ Field Club of India and editor since its inception in 1960 of the Newsletter for Birdwatchers’ now in its 26th volume. 11. Charles McCann Joined the Society as a collector in the Mammal Survey in December 1921 and was appointed Assis- tant Curator in 1922 and Joint Curator in January 1946. Later in the year he resigned his post and left India. The minute of the Society’s Executive Committee dated 14th November 1946 recording its apprecia- tion of his services and regret at his resignation gives a good sketch of McCann’s career. It reads in part as follows: — ‘The merit of his scientific work is evidenced in his many biological contributions to the journal of the Society. He is one of the outstanding botanists in India and his monograph on Grasses which he wrote jointly with the late Father Blatter, and which was published under the aegis of the Imperial Coun- cil of Agricultural Research, will remain for many years the standard work on the subject. Equally outstanding in merit are his various revisions of the genera and species of Indian plants which the Society was privileged to publish. Mr. McCann also contributed various authoritative papers on Indian Mammals, Reptiles and Amphibia. They are based on careful field work and observations. The study of Nature was his absorbing passion and his main recreation. In the Museum his services were invaluable, and the galleries of the Natural History Section of the Prince of Wales Museum and the fine range of groups and well-mounted exhibits owe much to his skill and ability. His resignation is a great loss to the Society.’ McCann was indeed a phenomenal field natura- list. His powers of observation were uncanny in their keeness and incisiveness Nothing escaped his attention as he tramped through the jungles of his beloved Western Ghats. The degree of his familia- rity with all living things was such that whether it be plant or rat, bird or snake, lizard or frog, butter- 235 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) fly or snail, he could identify it pat and without hesitation correctly down at least to the genus in nine cases out of tea, and often give you the species as well ! 12. H. M. McGusty Was a senior assistant in the firm of Phipson & Co., which has had a traditional unbroken con- nection with the B. N. H. Society from the time it was founded. He served the Society variously as Honorary Secretary and Honorary Treasurer for several years between 1934 and 1941 when he finally left India. His connection with the Journal was, however, purely ex-officio and titular, and he had no active hand in editing it. 13. Walter Samuel Millard Who took over from Phipson in 1906, had already been associated with the editorship since Vol. 14 (1903). Millard proved an admirable successor to Phipson, and the period of his stewardship may be called the period of consolidation for the Society, when it expanded widely both as regards member- ship and usefulness. His most notable contribution to its progress and scientific reputation was the organising and carrying out of the Mammal Survey of India, Burma and Ceylon, a full account of which is contained in Part III (pp. 86-89) of the Society’s Jubilee volume published in 1934. Millard was an expert gardener, and his garden on Malabar Hill is still remembered with pleasure and nostalgic envy by some of the older residents of Bombay. His short notes in the Journal cover many branches of natural history, and jointly with Rev. Fr. Blatter he was author of ‘Some Beautiful Indian Trees’, an attractive well-illustrated book published by the Society in 1937. Millard left India on retirement in 1920, and died in 1952. An obituary notice appears on p. 910 of Vol. 50. 14. A. N. D. Nanavati Was the first medical man to take over the administration of the Society. A virologist, he was Asstt. Director of the Haffkine Institute at Bombay till his retirement in 1974. Dr. Nanavati’s dispassionate assessment of issues has strengthened the Society’s handling of problems that arise. 15. Herbert Musgrave Phipson Was a truly remarkable man. During the early years of the Society, Phipson as Honorary Secretary and Editor was its virtual ‘Ma-bap’. It is largely to his keenness and contagious zeal as a naturalist, his devotion to the cause, his untiring enthusiasm and energy, and above all to his wonderful personality that the Society and its journal owe their growth and prosperity. This was the truly formative period, and the firm foundation upon which Phipson built has enabled the Society to weather the storms and stresses of subsequent years. Phipson’s particular interest lay in Snakes and he contributed a great deal to their study; but except for a few short notes he unfortunately published little of his own observations in the Journal. He left India in 1906 and died in London in 1936. A good biographical sketch of H. M. Phipson appears on pages 152-154 of Volume 39 (December 1936). 16. Stanley Henry Prater Had entered the Society’s service in 1907, work- ing first under the guidance of E. Comber and sub- sequently as assistant to N. B. Kinnear. He was a voracious and discriminating reader, particularly of natural history books in his early years, had the power of assimilating what he read, and was blessed with a remarkably retentive memory. He was a clear and lucid descriptive writer with a pleasant easy style; a good artist and modeller, and dextrous with his hands in other ways. He possessed an almost uncanny aptitude not only for picking up techniques but for passing on what he learnt to his assistants and then getting the best out of them. These qualities, fortified by the practical experi- ence he had acquired and a course of academic grounding in systematic zoology with the late Fr. E. Blatter to provide the necessary scientific back- ground, fitted Prater admirably for taking charge of the Society’s museum and journal. Prater’s forte was his capacity to pick out the essentials of any- thing he read — of separating the grain from the chaff — and of clothing the substance in clear jargon-free language. He was a master in the art of compilation. The skill and discernment with which he would browse among heavy scien- tific literature and the facile way in which he connect up and expound disjointed facts culled from a dozen sources and produce harmony from them, excited the admiration and envy of less gifted souls. It is but natural that a person possessing all these advantages should, up to a point, 236 APPENDIX dominate his colleagues, and indeed from the time his name first appears on the cover of the Journal — Vol. xxvii (1920) — and up to the time of his retirement in 1948. Prater virtually ruled the edi- torial roost. He had the contents of all the previous volumes at his fingers’ tips and could recall every- thing published on any topic before, by whom and when, and could turn to it without effort or fum- bling. His familiarity with the Society’s reference library was also such that he knew exactly where to turn for just the information needed. And how most effectively to make use of that information is of course what he excelled in. As a natural histo- rian he was an all-rounder, having had, during his long connection with the Society, the opportunity of working fairly thoroughly through all its collections and acquiring a wonderful general knowledge of the various branches. He could name straightway almost at a glance, most specimens brought in by members of the less uncommon mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fishes, butterflies and many other groups of insects, and could usually tell of their distribution and habits as well. His numerous notes and articles in the Journal cover a very wide range of natural history topics. Though not a specialist in any particular branch, he was perhaps more at home with birds and snakes than with other groups. Yet such was his general grasp and versatility that whatever he chose to write on bore the imprint of authority. Indeed he wrote nothing of doubtful authenticity since all his basic facts wer e garnered from authoritative sources. His master- ly treatment of The Whale Shark in Indian Coastal Waters (Vol. 42; 255) and Fish Supply of the West Coast of India (Vol. 34; 973 & Vol. 35; 77) and The Game Fishes of Bombay, etc. (Vol. 36; 29) are examples. On perusing them it seems in- conceivable that they should be written by any but a specialist — so sound and facile are they. It was largely during the run of Prater’s editor- ship that the Society’s journal attained the esteemed position it now enjoys among the scientific periodi- cals of the world; of course we were fortunate also in our contributors who included an increasing number of workers of distinction in the international field. Prater retired in 1947 after some 40 years of devoted service to the Society. 17. D. E. Reuben A member of the ICS who retired as Chief Justice of Bihar before settling in Bombay. Mr. Reuben’s meticulous editing was of considerable help when Salim Ali retired as Executive Editor. Mr. Reuben though his name was on the editorial board only very briefly was a de facto editor of the Journal over several volumes. 18. P. M. D. Sanderson Also of the firm of Phipsons, whose name flicks sporadically on the editorial board first in 1924 (Vol. XXX) and again in 1928 as an editor for Vol. XXXII (4), acted as Honorary Secretary dur- ing Sir Reginald Spence’s periodic absences on leave in England. He was also one of the old brigade with Millard and Spence who had had their intro- duction to Indian natural history under Phipson’s tutelage. On Spence’s retirement from India in 1934, Sanderson took over from him as Managing Direc- tor of Phinson & Co. and, in keeping with the long established tradition, more or less automatically stepped in as Honorary Secretary of the Society as well. Though a keen naturalist and sportsman, and an enthusiastic protagonist of the Society, Sanderson’s activities in regard to the Journal were more of a general supervisory character, and strangely enough the Journal carries no article contributed by him. 19. Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s, j. Studied at the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, and in Kew Gardens and speci- alized in Plant Taxonomy. He was particularly in- terested in the botany of Western India and has done intensive explorative work in Khandala, Puran- dhar, Mahableshwar and in Saurashtra. He was director of the Biology Department of St. Xavier’s College, Bombay. 20. Dr. S. B. Setna Studied under Dr. J. Gray, Professor of the Zoo- logical Laboratory, Cambridge University, where he obtained his Ph.D. degree. He was the Director of Fisheries, Bombay State, since the inception of the department in 1945. In this capacity he was respom- sible for the development of freshwater and marine fisheries in the State and. also for the maintenance 237 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83 ( SUPPLEMENT ) of the Taraporevala Aquarium. He was elected a Fellow of the National Institute of Sciences of India in 1947 and was awarded the first Chandra Kala Hora Memorial Gold Medal in 1950 for conspicu- ously important contributions to the development of the fishing industry. Dr. Setna was one of the editors of the Journal since 1947 and was chiefly responsible for editing the articles relating to fish and fisheries. 21 . R. A. (afterwards Sir Reginald) Spence Who succeeded Millard, had likewise started his career in India as a young assistant in the wine business of Phipson & Co. He had early caught the contagion of enthusiasm for natural history from his chief, and was nurtured in this interest through Phipson’s guiding care. During Spence’s long asso- ciation as its Honorary Secretary, the Society may be said to have attained its flowering. His genial personality won him many friends, and the esteem he commanded both with the public and with Gov- ernment reflected beneficiently on the affairs of the Society. He brought to fruition the negotiations started by his predecessors regarding the transfer of financial responsibility for the housing and pro- per care of the Society’s zoological collections from the Society to the Government of Bombay, and had the satisfaction of feeling the imminent fulfilment of his labours before leaving India in the detailed plans for the completion and utilization of the beautiful new natural history wing of the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, which has since come into being. As editor of the Journal Spence was fortunate in having the able collaboration first of N. B. Kinnear, a trained and experienced zoologist lately out from England as the Society’s first stipendiary curator, and then, after 1919, of S. H. Prater who succeeded him in office. Though increasing demands on his time from business and social work caused Spence latterly to leave much of the actual editing to his colleagues, he nevertheless continued to take a lively interest in the welfare of the Journal and to guide its gene- ral policy. His outstanding contributions to the Journal, both written jointly with Prater, were the articles on ‘The Fish Supply of the Western Coast of India’ (Part I, Vol. xxxiv; 973, Part II, Vol. xxxv; 77) and ‘Game Fishes of Bombay, the Deccan and the Neighbouring districts of Bombay Presidency’ (Vol. xxxvi; 29). Sir Reginald left India on retirement in 1934. 22. Robert Sterndale Came to Bombay soon after the Bombay Natural History Society was formed in 1883, and at once joined it and worked for it with his characteristic enthusiasm. The idea of starting a journal originat- ed with him and ‘proved practicable only because of the way in which his ready pen and pencil solved all difficulties.’ Being an exceedingly keen and ver- satile field naturalist, he himself contributed many interesting articles and was largely responsible for getting the Journal under way. Sterndale is perhaps best known as the author of ‘Natural History of Indian Mammalia’ which, published in 1884, is still one of the standard reference books. He ended his official career as Governor of the island of St. Helena, and died in 1902. 23. L. C. H. Young Who, with E. Comber, was an editorial collabo- rator of Millard’s for Vol. 17, came out to Bombay about 1903 on the staff of the insurance department of Forbes, Forbes, Campbell & Co. He was a Marlborough man, and a keen and knowledgeable lepidopterist, being a disciple of the distinguished entomologist, E. 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