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JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

VOL. XXII
1906

PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY
CHAPEL HILL, N. CO.

Journal of the Mitchell Society.

Fé
CONTENTS.

VOL. XXII.

1906.

“Physiological Economy in Nutrition.’’—Jsaac H. Manning........... 1

Oorundum and the Peridotites of Western North Carolina. A
Renae: alle a Ie rh Ohpaledle Lat GGA en Aas A eas OE bwocemoee 8

Notes on the Geology of Currituck Banks.—Collier Cobb.............. 17

The New Orleans Meeting of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science and the American Chemical Society.

mast SLIT Ey 0a aT a IONS Sar ba Pols Le ete Pe RR SO eS co 20
The Cement Gold Ores of Deadwood, Black Hills, South Dakota.—

Ts, JEANIE Pee Syne Daas Bs Pea es oie IE REO eka Me rtrd DPS Pp 23
Ohemical Research in America.—Francis P. Venable.................- 29

The Coral Siderastrea Radians and its Postlarval Development.—H.
ea OURO 10eai rated eek 2 Ae CI Ra Ree RO a MLD es SIRO Vb yay pet ye aie eae a ot 41

~

The Source of the Sun’s Heat.—John &. Lanneaw...................-- 45

Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Meeting of the North Carolina
Academy of Science Held at Raleigh, N. C., May 18 and 19,

eMC i Mitre yeti tN Acta ENN LL tke we dp ole Airey otis gina atareras 57
The Building and Ornamental Stones of North Carolina. A.

Review.—Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist..............62045 63
Where the Wind Does the Work.—Collier Cobb. ..............--+4--: 80

Chicral—ag—Naphthylamine and Chloral—§{—Naphthylamine.—

PAA Ss PL CELCTAO TAL Ole Crs GACTUNEISY Silo bis cere Bh ek ieee eels obi 90
Proceedings of the Elisha Mitchel! Scientific Society.................. 95
Bilees lsat saree LETC LTTE Weds hk Ene he ULL SE Neds eles bite el ccalece abnigeie ede ascely 98

JOURNAL
EuisHa MITCHELL ScIENTIFIC SocrETY.

MARCH, 1906
VOL. XXII NO. 1!

“PHYSIOLOGICAL ECONOMY IN NUTRITION’—
Chittenden.

DR. ISAAC H. MANNING.

There cannot be a more generally interesting subject than
Physiological Economy in Nutrition. The habit of excessive
indulgence at the table is still very common and habitual
over-eating is practically universal. The pernicious effects
of the former are often immediate and convincing, while the
harmful effects of the latter, though insidious, are none the
less certain. The restraint of one’s appetite, after genera-
tions of hereditary and years of acquired indulgence, and its
restriction to a diet nearly approaching the actual needs of
the body, requires a degree of self control and watchfulness
that few of us possess, and yet it needs no argument to con-
vince us that every ounce in excess of this entails a wasteful
expenditure of body energy, an unnecessary and harmful bur-
den on the body machinery, and places both our mental and
physical effectiveness on a lower plane. The mental and
physical hebetude following a heavy meal is a common expe-
rience and so often has disease been traceable to disturbances

Printed March 10th,

2 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [March

in nutrition that it is a medical axiom that the ‘‘majority of
diseases of mankind are due to or are connected with perver-
sions of nutrition.” The habit of undereating is none the less
pernicious, but, if we are to accept Dr. Chittenden’s standards,
it is so rare as to demand little consideration.

A diet just sufficient to maintain the highest mental and
physical effectiveness, with due consideration for a capricious,
somewhat fanciful appetite is the ideal. An effort to estab-
lish such a dietetic minimum, of more or less general applica-
tion, through experiment, has resulted in the formulation of
dietetic standards by Voit, Ranke, Hoppe-Seyler, and others,
all agreeing in the main that the average adult doing an
ordinary amount of work requires something more than 100
grams (3 to 4 oz.) Proteids (the chief constituent of meat),
250 grams (9-10 oz.) Carbohydrates (the chief constituents of
cereals), and 100 grams (3-4 0z.) fat; which, together, should
have a heat value of about 3,000 heat units (the large calorie).
On such a diet it has beet found that the individual could
maintain a nutritive balance, neither gaining nor losing in
weight. These standards have been generally adopted and
an analysis of the average diet of soldiers and laborers of.
different nationalities, as well as other groups of men, have
shown them to be gather more than less. But from time to
time individual experience and experiment have suggested
that they were too high and should be subjected to a critical
review atid revision. With this object in view, Dr. Chitten-
den, of Yale University, began his investigation, the results
of which have been published in book form under the well
chosen title of Physiological Economy in Nutrition (Stokes &
Co., New York).

Among the striking features of the book is the prominence
given the proteid constituents of our diets and his conclusions
will be disappointing to the average American who is pro-
verbially a heavy meat-eater and to the athlete who often
thinks his success depends upon the number of pounds of
meat he can consume. The proteids have been recognized as

1906] — MaNnNING—Economy IN NuTRITION. 3

the basic constituents of all bioplasm (living substance) and
for its repair and growth they must form the most important,
though not necessarily the most abundant constituent of our
diets, for it has been demonstrated over and over again that
one cannot maintain a healthy condition without proteids in
one form or another. This has been perhaps the strongest
argument with the trainer who wishes to encourage the
growth of muscles, notwithstanding the easily proved fact
that muscular exercise does not increase the use of proteid
matter. Dr. Chittenden-calls attention to the fact that an
excessive proteid diet produces more strain than any other.
They are difficult to digest, difficult to assimilate, and the
waste is difficult to eliminate, taxing especially the liver and
kidneys. Then again, among the innumerable products of
_proteid digestion, there are formed many more or less poison-
ous compounds which act deleteriously on the nervous, mus-
cular, and circulatory systems. Hence an excess of proteids
is especially to be avoided. The fat and carbohydrates—
especially the latter—are ultimately oxidized to CO, and
-H,O, and the elimination of the excess does not entail so
a great hardship. This, however, does not warrant an
excessive indulgence. |
An ideal diet, then, should contain just sufficient proteid to
make good the wear and tear of the body machinery and to
provide for a legitimate growth and, in addition, sufficient
carbohydrate (especially) and fat to furnish the body energy;
a little meat and the rest vegetable matter. The chief object
of the research is to determine the minimum amount of pro-
teid necessary to maintain a proteid balance, with an ade-
quate amount of fats and carbohydrates, for it has been
shown that, in the absence of the latter, the proteids will be
utilized directly for the production of body energy—a misap-
propriation—and the proteid diet correspondingly high. -
The index to the amount of proteid digested in the body is
the amount of nitrogen excreted in the urine during a corre-
sponding period of time. To this is added the amount

4 JouRNAL OF THE MrrcuHELL SOCIETY. {March

of undigested nitrogen and the sum should be equal ‘to the
total nitrogen taken in with the food. Where such 1s the
case the individual is said to be in nitrogen balance—the
intake is equal to the outgo. If, however, the income is less
than the outgo, the individual is accumulating nitrogen as
proteid orvits by-products. In neither case is one in nitrogen
balance. It must be remembered, however, that there may
be a nitrogen balance on an excessive proteid diet—so elastic
is the assimilating and eliminating power of the body. But
it would seem that on a minimum proteid diet this method
would give us control of the process.

Different individuals—differing in size, weight, habits, and
occupation—require a slightly different amount of proteid,
and inorder to eliminate this personal equation as far as pas-
sible and to make the dietetic standard of general application,
it was necessary to experiment upon a number of individuals.
In this investigation there was a liberal choice. -Among
those experimented upon we find professional men, teachers,
students, athletes, and soldiers (a squad being detailed from
the U. S. Army Hospital corps)—representing a variety of
individuals engaged more or less actively in mental and phys-
ical exercises.

In previous nutrition experiments the period of time ‘cov-

ered by the experiment has been too short to warrant
safe conclusions. In these, however, the individuals -were
under experimental observation for periods of six and nine
months, which would seem amply sufficient to determine
whether the individual can be maintained indefinitely in
nutritive balance with full mental and physical vigor on a
given diet. In this respect thé investigation is superior to
those previously reported and warrants a greater degree of
confidence in the conclusions.

The plan of the investigation was exceedingly well thought
out and faithfully executed. For two weeks previous to the
curtailing of the diet, and while the individual was still liv-
jing on his accustomed diet, daily determinations of the tota]

—e——

1g06) Mannrixnc—Economy in’ NUTRITION. 5

nitrogen excreted in the urine were made and its equivalent
im proteid recorded. Then there was a gradual withdrawal
of. the diet—especially the proteid constituents—thus allow-
img the body to adjust and adapt itself to the change; and
this: was: continued until a nutritive balance (as indicated by
a constant body weight and confirmed by balance experiments)
was: reached. The balance experiments were performed at
stated: intervals and covered periods of seven days, during
which the food was accurately weighed, samples drawn
and analyzed, and daily determinations of the nitrogen in the
excreta were made aud a balance sheet drawn. During the
investigation each individual was furnished with a liberal
diet list—the composition of the different ingredients being
furnished—from which he might select such articles as would
gratify his taste, bearing in mind only the general purpose of
the experiment. The advantage of this is obvious when we
remember that however choice a diet list may be, if it is
restricted in variety, it will become distasteful. Systematic
records were kept of the body weight, muscular power, and
mental vigor, as is customary in gymnasiums and psycholog-
ical laboratories, to which was added the testimony of the
individual as to his general health, physical and mental con-
dition. In some cases periodical blood examinations were
made to detect, if possible, any change in its character in
consequence of the restricted diet and the results recorded.

The enormous amount of work entailed by such an investi-
gation can only be appreciated by a careful examination of
the innumerable tables which contain the results of the quan-
titative analyses of foods and excretions, blood tests, physical
tests, etc., which were systematically made throughout the

entire period on each individual. The energy, patience, and
perseverance displayed excites one’s admiration.

The investigation seems to demonstrate conclusively that
Voit’s and all previously formulated standards are much too
high, especially as regards their proteid constituents. These
can be safely reduced 50 or 60 per cent., provided there is an

6 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocrEerTy. [March

adequate amount of fats or carbohydrates. The further con-
clusion seems warranted that it is seldom necessary to increase
the heat value of the food beyond 3,000 large calories and in
most instances it may be less. This reduction in the diet
does not bring us to vegetarianism nor abstinence from meats,
but merely to temperance. Nor does it mean the slightest
loss in physical or mental vigor or endurance. On the con-
trary, the records indicate an increase in muscular power and
endurance and so far as mental vigor may be tested or judged,
this was unimpaired. The improvement in the general health
in Dr. Chittenden himself during the nine months in which
he was on a restricted diet and among those who independ-
ently adopted a similar regime amply justifies the assertion
that dietetic temperance conduces not only to one’s general
health, but must contribute to longevity of life. Nor does it
entail any discomfort arising from an unsatisfied appetite after
one has become adapted and adjusted to the restriction, and
this may, in a measure, be controlled by prolonged chewing
of the food, which is a good habit under any circumstances.
It may prove interesting to outline Dr. Chittenden’s record of
himself during the period of experiment, which is not the
least interesting one. Previous to the experiment he was
living on a diet corresponding approximately to Voit’s stand-
ard and was eating sufficient proteids to pass about 16 grams
N. in his urine per diem. At this time he was 47 years old and
weighed about 167 pounds. He gradually reduced his diet
until he was passing on an average of only 5.669 grams N. in
24 hours; corresponding to 35.6 grams Proteids—about one-
third the amount prescribed by Voit. And while the heat
value of his diet fluctuated to some extent, it seldom exceeded
2,000 large calories and was generally below it. In the early
weeks he lost slightly in weight reaching 160 pounds, and it
then remained constant throughout the experiment. Fora time
he would eat no breakfast, a light lunch at 1:30 and a heavier
dinner at six. .This degree of temperance could be reached
only after a gradual reduction, but he states that even now

1g00 | Manninc-——-Economy in NvutTRITIon. ri

he has no desire to return to his former habits. He succeeded
in reducing the Nitrogen in his urine to a greater extent than
any one else, but this was probably due to a greater self con-
trol, born of his enthusiasm for the investigation. It is
interesting to note that Folin in reporting the analysis of the
urine of a vegetarian in apparently perfect health as contain-
ing a little less than 5 grams Nitrogen, remarks that ‘‘no one
would be willing to call it normal urine” (the usual interpre-
tation put upon such urine would be an insufficient action of
the kidneys).

It is interesting to contrast Dr. Chittenden’s record with
Stapleton’s, a professional athlete and wrestler, who is
described as a man of great muscular development and power.
At the beginning of the experiment he weighed about 195
pounds, and on his customary diet was excreting an average
of 19.7 grams Nitrogen, corresponding to 123 grams metabol-
ized proteids. (Unfortunately the heat value of the diet is
not stated, but it was probably large). He succeeded in
reducing the Nitrogen excretion to 9 grams in the 24 hours,
corresponding to about 57 grams proteids—a reduction of
more than one-half—and this on a diet that rarely exceeded
3,000 heat units. In the early weeks, as before, there was a
slight reduction in weight until he reached 185 pounds and
this remained fairly constant; his total muscular power
increased 25 per cent. during the six months, and this, it may
be stated, was not due to a change in the character or the
amount of exercise. Similar results were recorded of other
athletes and the soldiers who were given more or jess vigorous
gymnasium exercise, and it may be well to call attention
again to the conclusion that a heavy meat diet for athletes is
unnecessary and irrational.

The results of this classical investigation are of such far
reaching importance that they should not only interest the
physician, but every one who takes himself seriously and
wishes to bring himself to the highest plane of physical and
mental effectiveness. The book is thoroughly readable and
comprehensible to the average reader,

CORUNDUM AND THE PERIDOTITES OF WEST-
ERN NORTH CAROLINA.
A REVIEW.

JOSEPH HYDE PRATT AND JOSEPH VOLNEY LEWIS.

Under the above title, Volume I of the North Carolina
Geological Survey reports has recently appeared. The scope
of the work, however, is broader in many ways than this title
indicates. It is a volumes of 464 pages and is illustrated by
45 plates and 35 figures in the text. ‘While the report is the
result of collaboration, the work has been divided so that, in
the main, the mineralogical investigations have been con-
ducted by Dr. Pratt and the petrographical study of associ-
ated rocks has been the work of Professor Lewis. The preface
states: ‘‘To only a limited extent have the authors been able
to carry on field work together. The work for the most part
has been done at different times, each working independently.
Notwithstanding this fact and the somewhat different meth-
ods employed, each has been led to essentially the same con-
clusions in the interpretation of field observations. Especially
is this true in regard to the theories of the origin and present
relations of both the peridotites and the corundum.

A brief sketch of Geology of the State is given in Chapter
I, with a somewhat fuller description of the belt of gneiss,
granites and schists, constituting the mountain section of the
west, and in which the peridotites and the corundum do
of the State occur.

Chapter II deals with the peridotites and associated basic
magnesian rocks, including four varieties of peridotites, four
pyroxenites, four gabbroic rocks, an amphibolite, and three
varieties of dicrite. These are chiefly well known types, with
the exception of the pyroxenite composed of the orthorhombic

8 (March

5900 PratT AND LEwis—A REEIEW 4

pyroxene, enstatite. [his rock 1s somewhat commonly tound
throughout the region and forms many masses of considerable
extent. The name emstatolite is proposed for this type, in
conformity with the terms bronzitite and hypersthenite
These rocks are discussed in their relations to the belt of sim-
ular rocks which extends the whole length of the eastern
crystalline belt, from central Alabama through Georgia,
South Carolina, North Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, Dela-
ware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, the New Eng-
land States, Quebec, and Newfoundland.

Maps are given showing the distribution and relations of
these rocks to the crystalline rocks in eastern North America
and western North Carolina, besides several detailed maps of
various portions of the belt of particular interest. The con-
toured map of western North Carolina is on scale of eight
miles to the inch, with the base printed in three colors, after
the manner of the maps of the United States Geological Sur-
vey. On this the ‘“‘Conglomerates, quartzites, slates, etc.,
chiefly ‘Ocoee,’ correlated with Cambrian by the U. S. Geo-
logical Survey,” and the ‘‘Gneisses, schists, granites, diorites,
and other crystalline rocks of pre-Cambian age,” are clearly
represented by tints, while the numerous dikes of peridotites
and related rocks and the occurences of corundum, chromite
and asbestos, are shown in bright red.

The petrographic descriptions which coustitute Chapter III
are illustrated by half-tone reproductions of photomicro-
graphs, showing the mineralogic and structural variations
-and modes of alteration of the rocks described. Following
the general descriptions of these rocks throughout the Appa-
lachian region, the distribution and petrographic characters
are given in considerable detail for western North Carolina

In addition to the numerous facies of primary rocks, sec-
ondary types are also described, including those mechanically
derived from the primary types, now represented by gneisses,
schists and gabbro-diorite, and also a series of hydrous alter-

10 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. { March

ation products, including serpentine, steatite, and chloritite
(chlorite-rock). The vast majority of occurrences of these
basic rocks, while showing more or less alteration, are essen-
tially fresh primary types, especially the pure olivine-rock
dunite, which is much the most common. Steatite is pretty
widely distributed as an alteration product, but massive ser-
pentine is almost entirely confined to an area extending about
15 miles north andsouth of the French Broad river. Even in
these cases, however, the origin of the serpentine from peri-
dotites of exactly similar character to those found in adjoin-
ing regions is very evident.

Chapter IV takes up the modes of alteration and decompo-
sition of the peridotites, and five distinct processes are recog-
nized: 1. Weathering; 2. Serpentinization; 3. Steatitization;
4. Chlorotitization; 5. Amphibolization. The processes of
weathering and sepentinization are wellnigh universal, though
developed only to a slight extent except in a few localities.
Alteration to talc, chlorite and amphibole are much more
limited in their manifestations, but have given rise to many
important rock masses. The various processes as affecting
the peridotites of diverse composition are described minutely.

The long vexed question of ihe origin of peridotites is taken
up in Chapter V. The streng trend of modern thought
toward the theory of igneous origin is clearly brought out,
and the correctness of this theory is abundantly substantiated
by observations in North Carolina. The data presented upon
this point are arranged under five heads: 1. Mineralogic
characters; 2. Microscopic characters; 3. Gross structures;
4. Modes of occurrence; 5. Relations to the gneisses and
schists. This is followed by a discussion of the general
petrology of the peridotites and associated rocks in which the
conception of genetic unity of the whole series is strongly
emphasized.

It is pointed out as a noteworthy fact that many of these
rock types are closely associated in almost every occurrence

7906) PRATT AND LEwIs—A REVIEW. 11

throughout the crystalline belt of eastern North America.
Usually one or another type preponderates in any particular
region, but the associations are always essentially the same.
Thus the peridotites, particularly dunite, prevail in North
Carolina and Quebec, the pyroxenites in Pennsylvania, and
the gabbros are very abundant in Delaware and Maryland.
In fact the types represented in the various regions are almost
identical, and the petrology is closely similar, except in
relative abundance of the various types, and in degree of
alteration.

In discussing the magnetic relations of the peridotites,
anorthosites, amphibolites, etc., two generations of corundum
are recognized. The greater part, including all deposits of
commercial value, belongs to the first generation, and was
formed by the crystallization of the excess of alumni in the
original peridotite magma. A very small part, however,
occurring in microscopic grains, has been produced by an
excess of alumina arising from the corrosion of anorthite by
the still molten magnesia magma. This process has pro-
duced the sheaths of intermediate minerals which form the
corrosion mantles, so beautifully developed in some localities,
or which, in some cases, entirely replace the anorthite or the
olivine, as the case may be, with nest-like aggregates.

Regarding the age of the peridotites, the conclusion of the
present writers may be summarized as follows: Sufficient
data are not yet available for a satisfactory determination of
the age of these rocks, but their intrusion was probably con-
temporaneous, or practically so, for the whole region from
Newfoundland to Alabama. The peridotite belt lies in a
region of great disturbance and intense metamorphism. This
fact, together with the geological relations to the northward,
suggests the hypothesis that the principal period of intrusion
was closely associated with the orogenic movements which
closed the Lower Silurian (Ordovician) period. The distribu-
tion of these rocks may well mark toa great extent the axis

12 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL SOCIETY. ' March

ot most intent folding and taulting. The latter Appalachian ;
disturbances, at the close of the Carboniferous, have produced
the laminationso often seen in these rocks, and have proba-
bly given occasion for later minor intrusions. This hypothe-
sis is not offered as a final answer to the question of age of
the peridotites. Much painstaking work yet remains to be |
done before an entirely satisfactory solution of this problem
can be expected.

The chapter closes with a discussion of the relations ot the
secondary rocks, in which the attempt is made to trace the
various laminated and hydrated alteration products back to
their original types. Here the question 1s reaahed, whether
the amphibolites. diorites, hornblende-schists and hornblende
gneisses may not themselves have been derived from corre-
sponding pyroxenite types, such as are met with in the Mary-
land and Delaware gabbro areas The fact is pointed out
that undoubted gabbro-diorites ‘do exist in portions of the belt
in North Carolina, and hence it is considered probable that
many, if not all of these rocks, as well as similar rocks
throughout the region, have had a like origin.

After a discussion of the physical and chemical properties
of corundum in Chapter VI, is given a description of the vari-
ous applications of the mineral in the arts, and an outline of
the process of manufacture of the several types of corundum
and emory wheels on the market.

Chapter VII deals with the modes vt occurrence of corun-
dum. In North Carolina the mineral 1s known in five types
of igneous rock; namely, peridotite, pyroxenite, amphibolite,
anorthosite, and pegmatite, in six metamorphic rocks, ser-
pentine, gneiss, mica-schist, amphibole-schist, and chlorite-
schist. It1s also found in gravel deposits of emery whose
relations are undetermined. These modes of occurrence are
described in detail, and are compared with similar occur-
rences, when known, 1n other parts of the world. The deposits
which have been of chief commercial importance in North

4
‘
i
{
a

1906) Pratt anp Lewis—A Review 13

Carolina have been associated with peridotites, and to a less
extent with pyroxenites and amphibolites. The gravel depos-
its are of considerable interest on account of the corundum
gems (ruby) and associated garnet gems (rhodolite) that
have been found in some of them.

With the peridotites the corundum occurs chiefly in ‘‘peri-
pheral or border veins” striking along the borders of many
of the massive outcrops, and in “‘interior veins” extending
from the borders at greater or less distances toward the center
of the peridotite masses. In the pyroxenite and certain of
the amphibolite occurrences the mode is similar. In other
amphibolites the corundum is irregularly distributed in grains
and larger plates and nodules through portions of the rock.
Certain small pegmatite dikes accompanying and penetrating
both the peridotite and amphibolite, are found also to carry
corundum. ‘The corundum-bearing serpentine, amphibolites,
and chlorite-schists are simply alterations of some of the fore-
going types, with more or less dynamic disturbances and
re-atrangement of materials. Corundum-bearing belts of the
gneisses and mica-schists, which sometimes pass into quartz-
schists, have no apparent or probable relation with the peri-
dotites, although occurring in the same region, and in some
cases near the outcrops of these rocks.

The chief localities of corundum-bearing peridotite are in
Clay, Macon and Jackson counties, in the southwestern corner
of the State, and most of the corundum-bearing gneisses, etc.,
are also found in the same counties. Certain scattered occur-
rences of corundum in amphibolite dikes and also in the
gneisses are found east of the mountains, particularly in
Iredell county.

“Other occurrences of corundum in America” extends the
list of corundum-bearing igneous rocks to include granite,
syenite, nepheline-syenite, plumasite, norite, andesite, and
monchiquite, and adds crystalline limestone to the list of
metamorphic corundum-bearing rocks. A brief description

«

14 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [March

of each of these modes of occurrences is given with references
to the literature of those that have been previously described.
An additional list of ‘‘Modes of occurrence of corundum not
found in America” adds to the number of corundum-bearing
igneous rocks, kyschtmite, tonalate, gabbro, quartz-porphyry,
trachyte, and basalt, besides contact-zones and inclusions in
igneous rocks. To the metamorphic list are added corundum-
schists and porphyroids and graphite. These are followed in
turn by brief descriptions, completing the list to date of all
known modes occurrence of corundum throughout the world.

The distribution of corundum is described in Chapter VIII.
Like the peridotites, this is treated first with reference to the
Appalachian belt as a whole, noting the occurrences in Ala-
bama, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Pennsyl-
vania, New Jersey, Connecticut and Massachusetts. Corundum
in the western part of the country includes descriptions of
occurrences thus far known in Montana, Colorado and Cali-
fornia. This is followed by a ‘description of the North Caro-
lina localities in detail, arranged by counties, beginning in
the southwestern corner of the State. The chapter closes
with the description of foreign corundum and emery deposits,
including those of Canada, India, Turkey, and the Grecian
Archipelago.

Chapter [X deals with the alteration of corundum and its
associated minerals in great detail. The list of minerals
found associated with corundum in North Carolina includes
62 species, each of which is described, with its mode of occur-
rence, and its relations to the occurrence of corundum. Many
have chemical analyses and crystallographic characters also
given. ‘‘Minerals associated with corundum not found in
North Carolina” adds 12 more to this list, from various Amer-
ican and foreign localities.

The difficult question of the origin of corundum is discussed
in Chapter X. This is prefaced by an account of the artificial
production of corundum, and the origin of corundum in nature

a ee

1906] Pratr AnD Lewis—A REvIEWw. 15

is introduced by a sketch of the various hypotheses that have
been proposed during the last quarter of a century. After a
discussion of the field relations and the later experiments in
the production of artificial cornadum, the conclusion is
reached that the corundum was held in solution in the molten
magma of the peridotite when it was intruded into the
country rocks, and that it separated out among the first
minerals segregated as the mass began to cool. ‘The conclu-
sion is also reached that the corundum in the quartz-schists
and gneisses is the result of metamorphism of sandstones and
shales, some of which were rich in alumina, perhaps in the
form of bauxite, which, during metamorphism, crystallized
out as corundum.

Chapter XI deals with corundum mining and milling. It
is introduced by a historical sketch of corundum mining in
the East, followed by a sketch of mining in America. ‘‘Sug-
gestions to prospectors” and methods of mining and milling
aS carried out at various plants, conclude the chapter.

Chapter XII discusses the chromite and other economic
minerals of the corundum-peridotite belt. Chromite in prom-
ising quantities has been found at a number of the peridotite
localities in western North Carolina, particularly in Jackson
and Yancey counties. Its origin and relations are discussed
and the conclusion reached is essentially the same as for
the origin of corundum in peridotites. A discussion of the
chemical composition of chromite and its uses, and a descrip-
i tion of the chromite locolities of the region, with a summary
of occurrences in other parts of the world, follow. The dis-
q tribution and character of asbestos, nickel ores, serpentine,
and limonite, minerals which, thus far, are of minor import-
i atice in the region, close the chapter.

K An appendix, consisting of a bibliography of American
peridotites, and corundum and associated minerals, is not
complete, perhaps, as regards the whole of North America,
but is believed to be practically complete for North Carolina

e

ue 7

JouRNAL OF THE MiTrcHELL SOCIETY.

16
and the eastern crystalline region in general. There are
also many references to foreign literature in foot-notes
throughout the work, and the volume is closed with an elab =
orate index. | he ah
vp
Copies of this volume may be had by addressing the Nor
Carolina Geological Survey, Chapel Hill, N. C.

NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF CURRITUCK BANKS.

BY COLLIER COBB

During the past summer (August, 1904) I have made a
careful examination of the Currituck Banks from the Vir-
ginia line to Kittyhawk Bay and the Kill Devil Hills,
studying also the adjoining islands and mainland to the west.

On Knotts Island the Columbia sands form a thin covering
from one to three feet in thickness, resting upon clays of
- Neocene age, not more than ten to twelve feet thick, at sev-
eral points where I bored with a soil auger. Beneath these
clays are the Tertiary shell marls so well known over eastern
North Carolina. This shell-rock, as it is called here, occurs
at a number of points in Currituck Sound, as I found by sail-
ing pretty well over the entire sound. A somewhat extensive
area of this deposit lies near the surface of the water
between Church’s Island and the Currituck Bank, being about
half a mile west of the Whalehead Life Saving Station.

The cruise in the Sound revealed well-marked channels end-
ing against The Banks at the sites of Old Currituck Inlet,
New Currituck Inlet, Caffey’s Inlet, and the old inlet opposite
Colleton Island. The sand-reefs or banks along the North
Carolina coast have grown steadily in length from the time of
the earliest settlements, until there 1s now no inlet from Cape
Henry to Oregon Inlet The inlets through the Currituck
Banks have been closed up by the steady southward march of
the great barchanes or medanos, crescentic sand-dunes, known
locally as whaleheads. These dines are composed of singu-
larly homogeneous blownsands, the horns or cusps of the bar-
chanes pointing to lee-ward, which is almost due South.

* 1906) 17

18 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ March

Following the ocean side of Currituck Banks, one may
often see a distinct terrace marking the line between the Col-
umbia sands and the Neoceue clays; on stormy days commin-
uted Tertiary shells are wasted up; and quite frequently
after a storm one may pick up water-worn shells of Cardium,

Anomia, and Exogyra, of which I brought away a score of

specimens. These are distinctly Cretaceous forms. Ostrea
is unknown among these deposits, but oyster shell heaps of
recent date are common on the sound side near the southern
end of Currituck.

The facts go to show that The Banks are not of such
recent origin as is usually supposed, but are of the same age
geologicaly as the adjacent mainland.

On the Atlantic side of this Currituck Bank I found numer-
ous pebbles, some as much as three to four inches in diameter,
buried in the upper sands and muds, some well rounded,
others sub-angular, and some of these latter even striated. I
have collections of exactly similar stones from the beaches of
the North Shore of Massachusetts, from Aquidneck Island,
and from Martha’s Vineyard. There are, however, in my
collection from this Currituck beach many fragments of Tri-
assic trap and sandstone, which are not known among the
beach pebbles of the other localities.

These pebbles are, almost without exception, unlike any of
the stone of the mainland of North Carolina; and both their
position and individual characters point to their glacial ori-
gin. It is clear that they are the work of the ice sheet of the
last glacial period, drifted southward by icebergs which
stranded on the Carolina coast. A rather rapid subsidence of
the coast is now in progress, the blown sands and the silt,
arrested by aquatic vegetation are rapidly filling in the sound
side of the Banks, and the water of the Currituck Sound has
already become fresh since it has been cut off from direct com-
munication with the sea, the inflowing streams having leached
out the salt.

The Great Whaleshead barchane opposite Church’s Island

EE

as

rgoo | Copsp—-GEoLoGy oF CurRRITUCK BANKs. 19

has moved southward three quarters of a mile in twenty years,
and the closing up of the sound has been so rapid as to bring
about litigation in the courts for the possession of the new
made land. The subsidence of the land is so easily seen from
beacons and telegraph poles as to be a matter of remark
among the least observant of the inhabitants.

Presented October 11, 1904.

THE NEW ORLEANS MEETING OF THE AMERICAN’
ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF
SCIENCE AND THE AMERICAN
CHEMICAL SOCIETY.

BY CHAS. H. HERTY

One of the prime objects of the American Association for
the Advancement of Science is, as formulated in its Constitu-
tion, ‘“‘by periodical and migratory meetings, to promote
intercourse between those who are cultivating science in dif-
ferent parts of America.” Following this policy the 35th
meeting of the Association was held during Convocation week,
Dec. 29th, ’05-Jan. 4th, 06 at New Orleans, La., this being
the first meeting held in that section of the country. The
fact that mavy of the affiliated societies met at the same time
at other points reduced largely the attendance at the New
Orleans Meeting, but the joint sessions of Section C (chemis-
try) and the American Chemical Society resulted in a full
program and a large attendance of chemists. The buildings
of Tulane University were placed at the disposal of the Asso-
ciation, the meetings of Section C and the American Chemi-
cal Society being held in the chemical laboratory. The ses-
sions of the American Chemical Society were presided over by
President F. P. Venable of the University of North Carolina,
while Dr. L. P. Kinnicutt of Worcester, Mass. officiated in
the sessions of Section C.

In his address as retiring president of the American Chemi-
cal Society, President Venable presented an interesting his-
torical account of the early days of chemical research in this
country, the development of chemical societies and the publi-
cation of journals intended primarily for the stimulation of

20 [March

7900 | Hertv—-AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY. 2)

research among American chemists. The address closed
-with an appeal for more earnest prosecution of research,
especially by those connected with educational institutions.

“The Sanitary Value of a Water Analysis” was discussed
by Prof. Kinnicutt the presiding officer of Section C. His
wide experience in this important field gave added weight and
interest to the conclusions he drew and to the standards he
recommend.

It is difficult to make selections from the long list of papers’
presented. Some however were more general in their charac-
ter than others and aid thus in such a selection

The many sided claims of Agricultural Chemistry upon all
branches of Chemistry were ably set forth in a paper by Dr.
H. W. Wiley of the U: S. Bureau of Chemistry, while Dr. W.
L. Dudley of Vanderbilt University discussed ‘‘Laboratory
Designing and Construction,” a subject in which all were
interested and on which each chemist had his own views; but
from the paper and the discussion which followed valuable
ideas were gained for guidance in future laboratory construc-
tion.

Perhaps the most interesting paper, recording the
results of careful research in the laboratory, was that on
‘Recent Experimental Researches on Osmosis” by Prot. Louis
Kahlenberg of the University of Wisconsin. This work, to be
published immediately, promises to be revolutionary. Prof.
Kahlenberg found in ordinary rubber dam, such as used by
dentists, a semi-permeable membrane which, unlike those
used in former experiments on osmosis was permeable to col-
loids but impermeable to crystalloids. The accidental discov-
ery of the great change in osmotic pressure on stirring the
liquid lying next to the membrane throws great uncertainty
on all results recorded hitherto on this subject.

' Prof. W, D. Bancroft of Cornell University presented an
interesting paper in which was offered a probable explanation
of the marked difference in behavior of electrolytes in-very
dilute and in concentrated solutions.

22 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY, | March

A number of valuable papers were read by representatives
of the U. S. Bureau of Sails. While far from complete it
seems reasonable to hope that the work now being conducted
by this Bureau will yet throw vaiuable light upon the whole
subject of artificial fertilization of soils,

Hearty endorsement was given both by the American
Chemical Society and by Section C to the efforts of the Com-
mittee of Manufacturers ‘‘in urging the passage of an act
through Congress providing for the sale of tax-free alcohol
under proper restriction.” The inability at present to secure
such tax-free alcohol is most largely responsible for the fact
that many of our manufacturers of chemical products can not
compete successfully with the manufacturers of ‘‘Germany,
France and England where the laws permit the sale of tax-
free alcohol for use in the arts and industries.

This short sketch will not permit of more detailed discus-
sion of the program, but no account of a meeting of chemists
would be complete without some word about the excursions
which constitute such pleasant additions to the program,
affording the members opportunity for inspecting chemical
operations on a commercial scale and at the same time easy
means for getting into closer personal touch with each other.
The chief object of interest at New Orleans was the Sugar
Experiment Station at which was exhibited every stage of
the sugar industry from the cutting of the cane in the fields
to the barrelling of the pure white sugar. The quaint char-
acter of the old French Quarter of New Orleans interested
all.

THE CEMENT GOLD ORES OF DEADWOOD, BLACK
HILLS, SOUTH DAKOTA.

BY JOSEPH HYDE PRATT.

The ore deposits of the Black Hills that are known as the
“Cement Gold Ores” or ‘‘Fossil Placer” are to a certain
extent peculiar to this general section of South Dakota and
are in reality old auriferous placer deposits whose constituent
sands and pebbles have become tightly cemented together
with silica and iron oxide, forming such a hard, compact rock
that now as they break the line of fracture is just as apt to
pass through the pebbles of the conglomerate as the cement-
ing material. The conglomerates of which the cement gold
ores are a part are found over quite an extensive area as the
basal portion of the Cambrian strata, but in most of the areas
where they have been observed, they are but a few feet in
thickness and carry little or no gold. There are two areas,
one in the vicinity of Spearfish Canyon and the other in the
vicinity of Lead, about 3 miles west of Deadwood, where the
conglomerate reaches a thickness of from 20 to 40 feet. It is
the latter locality, however, where the conglomerates are
auriferous.

These conglomerates in the vicinity of Lead, Lawrence
County, designated as the ‘‘Deadwood Cement Gold Ores”
have been found over an area but a few miles in lengih and
one mile in width which is exposed as isolated areas extend-
ing from just south of the city of Lead ina northerly direc-
tion across Bobtail Gulch, Sawpit Gulch, through the small
town of Central and across Blacktail Gulch, making a total
distance of something over 2 miles in this direction. They

1906 | 23

24 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [March

are exposed on each side of this line at intervals so that the
total width is about one mile. These conglomerates through-
out this area vary considerably in thickness and, although
they are all auriferous, they vary widely in the value of their
gold contents and it is only in a comparatively small portion
of this area that they are of economic importance. ‘The most
extensive mining has been done on the slopes of the moun-
tains rising on both sides of Blacktail Gulch in what is
known as the Whitewood Mining District. These cement
gold ores rest unconformably on the old Algonkian schists:
and slates which are tilted at very steep angles and they have.
been derived from the destruction and the erosion of the auri-

ferous quartz seams and veins that these schists contained. In.

the erosion of these schists there has been left a very uneven
surface with ridges aid shallow depressions that have been
subsequently covered with gravels, which have produced the
placer deposits. These are lying conformably with the sand-
stone and quartzite above. These latter rocks are capped by
a flow of porphyritic rock in some cases a phonolite, which
was the last rock formed and was intruded through the
schists, conglomerate and quartzite as dikes, chimneys and
laccolites.

The history of these rocks would read something as follows:
The old Algonkian schists and slates which contained the
auriferous seams and veins of quartz, were subjected to con-
stant erosion during the early Silurian period, yielding sands,
gravels, etc., which in time formed the conglomerate, sand-
stones, imposed thereon, which are a part of the Cambrian.
During the formation of the Cambrian rocks the Algonkian
rocks of this section were not submerged, although the
Algonkian land was slowly subsiding. These gravels or
conglomerates have been partially formed by the action of
shallow seas, but they are also the result of erosion by
streams and rivers, in the same manner as ordinary placer
deposits that are now being worked by hydraulic methods
were formed. In many cases the old water courses can be

vg06] Prarr—Crement Gorp Orrs or DEapwoop. 25

distinctly traced, as they are exposed in mining the conglom-
erates. These Algonkian rocks were exposed as a rugged
island with perhaps the highest point toward Harney Peak to
the south, and in this direction the present cement beds have
a tendency to become thinner. This whole Algonkian area
was finally submerged and when it was raised again above
the surface, the overlying rocks were not disturbed or tilted
to any considerable extent. Later the schists, conglomerates
and sandstones were cut by intrusions of quartz-porphyry and
Pphonolite, partly in the form of dikes and as laccolite or sheet
flows, so that at the present time the rocks are capped by the
‘eruptives. ‘These intrusions have metamorphosed, somewhat,
‘the conglomerates and sandstones, partially converting them
‘into quartzite-conglomerate and quartzite. These intrusive
flows also penetrated laterally into the rocks forming thin
sheets, varying from a few inches to several feet in thickness.

While the different strata of sandstones and conglomerates
are lying conformably with each other, the lower stratum of
‘conglomerate is lying unconformobly upon the Algonkian
slates and schists.

While all of these cement ores carry gold values to some ex-
tent, they are found to be richer insomeportions than in others.
‘There are deep channels between riins of the schist which
carry the greater amount of gold, and as the conglomerate is
mined toward these rims it becomes thinner and thinner with
‘diminishing values. These ancient channels were the natu-
Tal lines of concentration.

These sedimentary and metamorphosed rocks have a gen-
‘eral northerly course and are dipping in the same direction at
a very flat angle (about 12 degrees), while the schists are
dipping easterly at very steep angles. At the Homestake
mine the small amount of cement or conglomerate ore that
‘was encountered was near the summit of the hill in which are
the immense open cuts of this mine. The conglomerate at
‘the Homestake was thin, but becomes thicker toward Black-
$ajl Gulch to the north aud at the Phoeuix aud Jupiter mines

26 JoURNAL oF THE MITCHELL SocreTy. (March

it is as much as 40 feet thick and 700 feet below the summit
of the ridge. The thickness of these conglomerates rises
from a few feet where they are just above some of the rims of
the schists to about 40 feet, measured from the lowest point
in the channel to Bessie Gulch. It is the few lower feet that
are carrying most of the values, and that in direct contact
with the schist, which would correspond in an ordenary pla-
cer deposit to the gravel resting on bed rock, contains most
of the gold. It is therefore essential in mining these cement
or conglomerate ores to clean up carefully all the fines and
gravel resting on the schist and a few inches of the schist
itself. Then again, the better values will be apt to be found
in the troughs and depressions of the schist rock and have a
tendency to become less and less toward the rims of the
troughs or channels. Also any slight protuberance in the
schist which may rise even but an inch or two above the gen-
eral level, will have acted as ripples and thus have retarded
the fall of the gold.

There has been some deposition of sulphides carrying gold
in these conglomerates after their formation; but the larger
portion of the gold is the free gold that was deposited in the
original placer deposits.

It is essential in estimating the value of deposits of this
character to determine to what distance from the enriched
portions or channels and what thickness this material can be
mined and milled asa profit. Thus to satisfactorily sample
this ore, it must be so opened up that it can be done from and
including a portion of the bed rock upwards for a distance of
at least 5 feet as this thickness of material must be removed
in ordinary mining.

Another possibility in connection with the mining of these
cement ores is that of encountering workable deposits of the
gold-bearing schist, The general strike of the band of aurif-
erous schist, upon which is located the Homestake mine
would indicate that it would pass about % mile to the north-
west of the main deposits of cement ores; but the strike of the

————

1906] Pratr—Crment GoLtp Orrs or DEADWOOD. 27

auriferous schists encountered in the Caledonia mine is N. 15°
W. and its extension would pass almost directly under the
conglomerate of Blacktail Gulch. In only a few instances
have the underlying schists of these cement ore mines been
tested, but in a number of cases where this has been done,
fair values have been obtained. In testing the schists care
must be taken to reach a sufficient depth before sampling so
as to be beyond the influence of the gold that may have pene-
trated into the schist from the placer deposits.

It has been estimated that $1,500,000 has been taken from
these conglomerate or cement ores in the early mining; and
in the aggregate there is still a larger value in these deposits.

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JOURNAL

OF THE

EvisHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY

JUNE, 1906
VOL, XXII NO. 2

CHEMICAL RESEARCH IN AMERICA.*

FRANCIS P. VENABLE.

At the last meeting of the American Chemical Society, held
in June at Buffalo, the secretary called for reports from vari-
ous educational institutions as to the investigations then in
progress in their laboratories. I was much struck by three
things connected with these reports. The large number of
institutions reporting, the wide field covered, analytical, inor-
ganic, organic, physical, physiological, technical and the high
grade of the work. These reports promise to be one of the
most interesting features of future meetings, and the thought
how meagre such details would have been a decade or so ago
has led me to devote this presidential address to a discussion
of the progress in chemical research in America.

It is to be expected that a people, thinly scattered over a
vast area of new and unbroken country, confronted with the
problems and difficulties of a nation just emerging from its
birth throes, would have little time to give to the arts and
Sciences, and yet the impetus from the wonderful discoveries

*Presidential address delivered at the New Orleans Meeting of the
American Chemical Society, December 80, 1905.

Printed June 21st,

30 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

of Priestly, Scheele, and Cavendish and the splendid work of
Lavoisier, with his revolutionary deductions, crossed the ocean
and found its echoes in our wilderness. That Priestly, one of
the greatest of these heroes of chemistry, should have been
forced to flee from his native land and find refuge on these
shores and should have continued his work here for a time
brought the great movement nearer home to us. It is a pleas-
ure to note the appreciation of his work shown by the offer of
the chair of chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania, the
first institution in this country to show an active interest in
the development of chemical science, and the first one to have
a distinct professor of chemistry in the person of the celebra-
ted Dr. Benjamin Rush, whose appointment dated from 1769.

This interest took active shape in the formation of the earl-
iest known chemical societies. ‘The Chemical Society of Phil-
adelphia was ‘‘instituted” in 1792, forty-nine years before the
founding of the London Chemical Society, the first one to be
established in Europe. Its first president was Dr. James
Woodhouse, professor of chemistry in the University of Penn-
sylvania, and Priestly was one of the members. Probably the
most important paper brought before it was one by Robert
Hare on the ‘‘Discovery of Means by which a Greater Con-
centration of Heat Might Be Obtained for Chemical Purposes.”’
In this he announced his invention of the oxy-hydrogen blow-
pipe—called by him the ‘thydrostatic blowpipe.” Hare was
then only twenty years of age. Later he became professor of
chemistry in the medical school of the University of Pennsyl-
vania and had a distinguished career as an author and chem-
a ee

In 1811 there was founded by ‘‘a number of persons desir-
ous of cultivating chemical science and promoting the state
of philosophical inquiry” the Columbian Chemical Society of
Philadelphia. The patron was Thomas Jefferson, the presi-
dent was James Cutbush, professor of natural philosophy,
chemistry, and mineralogy in St. John’s College, and the mem-
bership seems to have been drawn from a wide area, as we

ee ee

1900] VENABLE—CHEMICAL RESEARCH IN AMERICA. 31

find among them Archibald Bruer, professor of mineralogy
in Columbia College, New York; Thomas Cooper, afterwards
professor of chemistry and president of South Carolina Col-
lege; Edward Cutbush, professor of chemistry in Columbian
University, Washington; de Butts, of the college of Maryland,
Jackson, of Athens College, Ohio; MacLean, of Princeton;
Silliman, of Yale; Troost, of Nashville, etc.; truly a national
society and the first national society with a distinguished roll
of foreign members.

The Delaware Chemical and Geological Society was organ-
ized in 1821. It was much more local in character and soon
died for lack of support.

The papers presented before these societies are largely dis-
cussions of the discoveries or views of European chemists or
are of a speculative character. Analyses are reported and
methods of analysis devised, but synthetical research is lack-
ing. Dr. Bolton, to whom I am indebted for the foregoing
facts concerning the early American chemical societies (J.
Am. Chem. Soc. xix. 716), suggests various reasons for the
absence of research, but it seems to me that there is sufficient
explanation in the necessity for devoting thought and strength
to the development and building up of a new country and the
small incentive to the search after truth for the truth’s sake.

During the first quarter of the nineteenth century while
European chemists were busied with atomic weight determi-
nations, the testing of the law of multiple proportions, the
extension of the list of elements and the multiplication of
new compounds, the few American chemists who had access
to laboratories were busied with the analysis of minerals and
natural waters. It must be borne in mind that at this time
there were no public laboratories either in this country or
abroad to which students could readily findaccess. Universities
did not provide laboratories for theirstudents. Certain great
teachers abroad, as Berzelius and Gay-Lussac had private lab-
oratories but it was extremely difficult for a young worker to
secure admission, The available equipment in this country

32 JoURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

must have been meagre indeed. Even the illustration of
chemical lectures by experiments was a rare thing. Liebig,
in his autobiographic fragment, writes of the lectures which
he heard in Paris in 1852. ‘‘The experiments were a real de-
light to me, for they spoke to mein a language which I under-
stood and they united with the lectures in giving a definite
connection to the mass of shapeless facts which lay mixed up
in my head, without order and without arrangement.” It
was Liebig himself whoa few years later at the University of
Giessen opened to students the first public laboratory for re-
search in chemistry. .

In this country during the second and third quarters of the
nineteenth century the American Journal of Science furnished
an excellent medium for the publication of scientific papers.
Established in 1816 by Benjamin Silliman at Yale University,
it stood for fifty years almost alone for the upbuilding of sci-
entific investigation in America and can boast ninety years of
great usefulness. Without some such journal there is little
encouragement for research. The scientific man finds a keen
delight in the search of truth but he,also loves to impart his
discoveries to others and to win the commendation of those
who can understand and appreciate his work and there must
be some arena upon which controversies can be fought out and
truth winnowed from the chaff. The chemical contributions
to the American Journal of Science have dealt largely with
the analysis of minerals, meteorites, and waters. This was
especially true of the first few decades.

Schiffand Sentini (Annalen 228, 72) mention as the first work
in pure chemistry in America the formation of a compound of
arsenious acid with potassium iodide. This was described in
the year 1830 by J. P. Emmett. He obtained the compound
in the form of a white crystalline powder by adding potassium
iodide to a very dilute solution of arsenious acid, or potassium
arsenite exactly neutralized with acetic acid. Emmett was
professor of chemistry in the University of Virginia from its
foundations in 1825 to 1842, one of the band of brilliant men

o>)
Ww

1906) VENABLE—CHEMICAL RESEARCH IN AMERICA.

brought over from England by Mr. Jefferson to aid in the up-
building of his pet institution. With the exception of a few
investigations by Robert Hare and the elder Silliman, which
pertained rather to analytical, technical and mineralogical
subjects, the communication of Emmett belongs to the earliest
period of chemistry in North America.

It will scarcely repay us to linger over the years from 1830
to 1860. These were largely barren years. Not that chemi-
cal research was altogether lacking, but it was rather a dim
and uncertain light beside the shining of such bright, partic-
ular stars as Dumas, Thénard, and Marignac in France, Gra-
ham in England, Stas in Belgium, and Wo6hler, Liebig, and
Kekulé in Germany.

One name stands out prominently during this period, con-
spicuous not merely because of the paucity of the work done
by others but because of the sterling character of his own
work. This is the name of J. Lawrence Smith. According
to the elder Silliman the first piece of elaborate work or re-
search in organic chemistry by an American was done by J.
Lawrence Smith in 1842. Smith was a student of Emmett at
the University of Virginia and a visit to Liebig’s laboratory
at Giessen formed the turning point in his life. His first or-
ganic research was entitled: ‘‘The Composition of Products of
Distillation of Spermaceti.” In this he first made known the
composition of spermaceti and set aside the views of Chev-
reul.

Smith was later professor of chemistry in the University of
Louisiana, then in the University of Virginia, and lastly in
the University of Louisville where he furnished his private
laboratory and did most of his work. He was an untiring
worker and while much of his time was given to analyses of
minerals and meteorites he was also a brilliant investigator.
In analytical work we find him suggesting the use of potas-
sium chromate for the separation of barium and strontium,
and methods for the decomposition of silicates, especially the
well known methods for the determination of alkalies. Only

34 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

once or twice did he touch again upon organic chemistry, the
subject of his first research. He contributed some sixty or
seventy papers up to 1870 and his total contributions number
one hundred and forty-five.

Besides the work of Lawrence Smith during this period
some excellent work was done by Mallet at the University of
Alabama, where he was professor of chemistry and chemist to
the Geological Survey of Alabama. Here he made the first of
that long and brilliant line of investigations upon the atomic
weights—the first atomic weight work done in America.
Following up the master work of Berzelius upon the constants,
Dumas, Marignac and many others in Europe were busily en-
gaged in making new determinations of them with all the ac-
curacy possible from their improved apparatus and new
methods. In his scantily furnished laboratory, Mallet, a pupil
of Wohler, gave himself, so far as his many other duties per-
mitted, to this exacting work, completing in 1856 his determ-
ination of the atomic weight of lithium from thechloride, and
in 1859 the determination from the sulphate.

While not coming strictly under the head of researches it
may be mentioned that some interesting speculations as to

‘chemical theories were proposed by Cooke of Harvard and
Lea of Philadelphia in the fifties and we have Hinrichs’
remarkable deduction of the fundamental principle of the
periodic system that the properties of the chemical elements
are functions of their atomic weights, drawn from the con-
sideration of their spectra. The synoptical table of Gibbs
of Charleston falls just beyond this period, but is interesting
to all Americans as so closely paralleling the practically co-
temporaneous work of Meyer and evidently independent of it.

In this diagram, prepared for his classes in 1872, he made
use of the spiral very much as was done by de Chancourtois,
Meyer, and Mendeléeff, anticipating in a measure the work of
Spring, Reynolds, and Crookes. Further he anticipated some
of the geometrical work of Haughton, observing that no
linear equation can be constructed to give more than rude ap-

71906] V8NABLE—CHEMICAL RESEARCH IN AMERICA. 35

proximations of the atomic weights, and that to construct
curves, two points of inflection, or contrary curvature, must
be given. These are the serpentine cubics afterwards worked
out by Haughton.

It is not a sufficient explanation of the barrenness of this
period to say that laboratories and other facilities were poor.
The absence of proper facilities had not proved a bar in the
way of some of the greatest chemists of the century. The
spirit of investigation was lacking in our colleges and few of
the teachers had the necessary training forit. Very few in-
deed were those who bad received an inspiration by coming in
contact with the great masters of the science.

A few years after the close of the great civil war American
students began flocking in large numbers to the German uni-
versities. A great many of them studied chemistry under the
masters of the science such as Wohler, Liebig, Fresenius,
Kekulé, and Hoffman. ‘The best laboratories and the most
enthusiastic teachers were then to be found in Germany. The
marvellous development of organic chemistry offered a most
attractive field of research. Very little attention was given
to this branch of chemistry in America before 1872 and the
facilities: for investigations in organic chemistry were very
limited. Such work as was done was still chiefly in the line
of mineral analyses or simpler investigation among the inor-
ganic salts. The most important work was the determina-
tion of atomic weights and Americans may well be proud of
their contribution to the knowledge of these constants, which
can be worthily compared with those of any other nation.
Cooke, Mallet, Clarke, Richards, Morley, Edgar F. Smith and
others have been the leaders in this work, to which some of
the best laboratories were largely given up during the last
quarter of the nineteenth century.

The hundreds of young chemists, trained in the best meth-
ods of the Germans and inspired by their contact with vigor-
ous original thinkers, returning home, brought with them an
enthusiasm and an impetus which has since placed American

36 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

research well to the front. Those who had this training in
the first half of the nineteenth century were comparatively
few in number but they were practically the only ones who
engaged in important investigations. Cooke, Mallet, Law-
rence Smith, and Wolcott Gibbs all studied in German labor-
atories.

Aside from occasional scattered papers by a student here
and there the first institution to send out annual reports of
researches undertaken in its laboratory was the University of
Virginia. These were regularly reported by Mallet m the
London Chemical News beginning with the year 1862, and
have continued for thirty-three years. In 1877 the Johns
Hopkins University began its work and scientific research be-
came an essential function of every true University. From
that year we may date the building up of the graduate depart-
ments of our larger, wealthier institutions and the setting into
motion that immense force which is giving America its proper
place among the learned nations or the world—a force which
has made Germany what it is to-day. Looking back over the
work accomplished it seems scarcely possible that this truly
great event took place only a little more than twenty-five
years ago.

In 1879 this University gave to the growing body of Amer-
ican chemists the first suitable journal for the publication of
their researches. It is true the American Chemist, published
by the Chandlers in New York, had made its appearance in
1871, but it had failed to secure the adherence and support of
more than a smal! body of chemists and had. too technical a
tendency for general support. It had already passed out of
existence two years before the American Chemical Journal ap-
peared. From the beginning the distinguished editor of the
latter journal, our former president, Ira Remsen, President of
Johns Hopkins University, and fully worthy of all honors
which he has received, set a high standard and for twenty-six
years has maintained its excellence.

It is difficult to overestimate the influence of such a journal

i\

7906] WVENABLE—CHEMICAL RESEARCH IN AMERICA. 37

upon the development of research. At first the regular con-
tributions came from a few laboratories only, notably the
Johns Hopkins, Yale, Harvard, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and
Cincinnati. Speedily the number grew until all parts of the
country were represented and the valuable researches pub-
lished placed the /ourna/ on a plane with the best in the old
world. It has thus done more to secure recognition for Amer-
ican research than any other one factor.

There was a crying need, however, for a strong well-organ-
ized chemical society. The memory of those early Philadel-
phia societies has faded out. The only common meeting
ground for chemists was furnished by the sub-section of chem-
istry of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science which did not rise, liowever, to the dignity of a section
until 1881. It is true that this became one of the largest and
most active sections of that association, gathering in annual
meetings a hundred or more chemists. It is also true that
certain local chemical societies were formed, but a national
society was needed on the lines of the English or German or
French Societies. The social need for such a society for re-
ceiving and entertaining distinguished guests was especially
felt during the centennial year and so in 1876 the American
Chemical Society was established in New York City. Though
it failed to receive hearty support at first and the Journal ap-
peared with discouraging irregularity aud a woeful paucity
of pages, it grew surely and the need for it was increasingly
felt. When the happy idea of local sections was evolved
many of the difficulties arising from the vast territory covered
by the Society disappeared and a rapid growth ensued which
has placed us in the fore-front of national societies. The
Journal of the Society in 1889 contained 158 pages. In 1904
the total number of pages exceeded 2300, nearly 1700 of these
being taken up with original articles. The number of mem-
bers of the Society is rapidly nearing the 3000 mark.

Besides the Journal of the Society aud the American Chemi-
cal Journal other specialized journals have arisen and worthily

38 JoURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

represent American research. Among these may be mention-
ed the Journal of Physical Chemistry, the Transactions of the
Electro-Chemical Society, the Chemical Engineer and others.
The government scientific departments at Washington have
contributed largely to the sum total of American.research and
a vast amount of investigation in agricultural chemistry has
been done in the laboratories of the agricultural colleges and
experiment stations established in every state.

Some years ago it was humiliating to see how the work of
American chemists was almost completely ignored by foreign
investigators and writers. It isa source of pride to-day that
we are pressing forward in every branch of pure and applied
chemistry and hold a worthy place among those who are ad-
ding to the world’s store of knowledge and extending the
bounds of science. A distinguished European authority has
lately testified to the growing strength of American research
and the way in which this country is forging to the front.
But the fact remains that in these hundred years and more
America has produced no great chemist, no Lavoisier to de-
velop a new chemistry, no Woéhler to break down old barriers
and add a new realm to the science, no Liebig to revolution-
ize the agriculture and industries of a world.

In conclusion let me plead for the encouragement of research
among American chemists. I sometimes fear that the im-
mense industrial development of the country will call away
our strongest and most promising chemists to fields in which
the material rewards are greater. And yet forthe success of
our chemical industries it is imperatively necessary that a
large army of quiet workers should be busied in investigation,
in the simple search after truth without a dream of the prac-
tical utilization of the results obtained. These are the men
who patiently and laboriously forge the chain, link by link,
that leads to some of the greatest economic changes, often
changing the industries of a whole nation. It is chiefly in
the laboratories of our colleges and universities that these in-
vestigators must be found. ‘There alone can the necessary

as ee ae

7906] VENABLE—CHEMICAI, RESEARCH IN AMERICA. 39

freedom of purpose, of view and of action be preserved.
There alone is the truth all-important and the money value
unconsidered. No truth is insignificant, no fact is too trifling
to warrant observation and careful accounting. It was inthe
laboratory of the University of Giessen that Liebig did his
quiet work that made agriculture a science and made possible
much of the comfort and luxury of the present day. It was
Graebe and his discovery.of synthetic alizarin in the labora-
tory of the University of Berlin which revealed the value of
the almost useless coal tar and laid the foundations of Ger-
many’s great commercial growth. And many lesser cases
might be cited. The governments of Europe vie with one
another in fostering chemical research, Germany most wisely
doing this in her universities. Weasa nation cannot long
afford to be behind them in this matter. In the close com-
petition of the near future we must depend upon these toilers
of the laboratories for our supremacy in the world’s markets.
But to my mind a far stronger plea for investigation lies in
the inspiration which comes from such work, the broadening
horizon and the fuller life.

What are the conditions necessary for chemical research
and can we meet these conditions in most or all of our edu-
cational institutions? As the spirit of research seems to have
developed with the increase in wealth of our larger institu-
tions, many have come to regard research as a prerogative of
these institutions and expensive equipment as a prerequisite
to it. Theideaistotally false andcalculated to do much harm.
It is accepted by many who hold positions in the smallest col-
leges as an excuse for their quietly sinking into a dull round
of routine and unproductive drudgery. Ido not believe that
any teacher of science can keep fresh and enthusiastic and
have a touch of inspiration about him unless he keeps in
touch with nature through personal investigation of her facts
and laws. And unless a teacher has these qualities he is not
worth his salt and should not have the opportunity for dull-
ing the originality of others. It too often happens that our

40 JoURNAL or THE MITCHELL SocreEty. [ June

young chemists, having completed their researches at some of
the larger institutions, published their dissertations, won
their doctorates and secured professorships in minor colleges
stifle their consciences with the excuse that they lack equip-
ment or leisure, give up all idea of original work, settle down
to a humdrum teaching of text-books and limit their ambit-
ion to drawing their meagre salaries and grumbling at their
poor opportunities.

Let me tell you that which is no secret but is open to every
one who has studied the history of the science, neither fine
laboratory nor costly outfit nor abundant leisure are essent-
ials for the search after nature’s secrets. These are good and
helpful things but the one essential is the earnest investigat-
ing mind, enthusiastic, determined, and plucky in surmount-
ing obstacles. A quiet corner, a little apparatus, some spare
time snatched from a multitude of other duties, these will
suffice to give any one the opportunity to show what is in
him. If he fails to avail himself of it, it is a tacit confes-
sion of his lack of energy, or originality, or pluck. He need
not grumble at his meagre salary. He is getting more than
he is worth.

I do not mean to be unjust or harsh but when I think of
the thousands of young men who year after year are subjected
to deadening, uninspiring, humdrum teaching of science and
are thus lost to the ranks of our workers, and of the possible
brilliant, elect spirits among that number, I must cry out
at the terrible waste. The field of knowledge is vast and
growing vaster with the ever widening horizon. ‘The harvest
is plentiful and the call for laborers is ever more insistent.
It is necessary to impress this great truth that the true teach-
er must be a learner also, drawing constantly fresh inspiration
from the fountain head,

.
|

THE CORAL SIDERASTREA RADIANS AND ITS
POSTLARVAL DEVELOPMENT. *

H. V. WILSON.

The Coral Siderastrea Radians and its Postlarval Develop-
ment. By J. EK. Duerden. Washington, U.S. A. Pub-
lished by the Carnegie Institution. December, 1904. Pp.
130, with 11 plates.

The handsome Carnegie memoir contains the record of an
investigation begun at the Institute of Jamaica and subse-
quently carried on at the Johns Hopkins University and the
American Museum of Natural History in New York. The
author’s prolonged residence in the West Indies gave him un-
usual opportunities in the way of command over living mater-
ial, and the memoir makes valuable additions to our knowledge
on many points of coral morphology.

An introduction deals with the systematic zoology and the
habits of the species which is abundant and accessible in
Kingston harbor. The form is obviously one of those con-
venient hardy types destined to play a part in laboratory in-
vestigations of histological and physiological character.
Both the adult colony and the young polyp after metamopho-
sis grow in confinement and may be hand-fed. There follows
an ample description of the anatomy of the adult. The
species, like other West Indian corals, is possibly protogy-
nous, although Professor Duerden calls to mind that Gardiner
has established the converse phenomenon, protandry for //a-

bellum. Duerden takes up the question as to the way in

which the coral skeleton, as a product of cellular activity, is

*Reprinted from Science, N. 8., Vol. XXIII., No. 587, Pages 497-498,
March 30, 1906.

1906) 41

42 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

produced. He confirms Miss Ogilvie’s observation that the
corallum can be seen in favorable parts of the adult and
young polyps to be composed of minute skeletal units of a
polygonal shape and exhibiting a fibro-crystalline structure.
But whereas Miss Ogilvie interpreted these bodies as actual
cells which were produced through the proliferation of the
ectoderm, becoming calcified as fast as produced, Duerden re-
gards them as secretory products which are laid down wholly
external to the ectodermal cells. In support of this view,
essentially that advanced by von Koch, Duerden finds that
the layer of estoderm concerned in the production of the
skeleton is always a simple layer, and that, moreover, it is
always separated from the corallum by a homogeneous meso-
gloea-like stratum. It is in this stratum of homogeneous
matrix that the author believes the calcareous crystals form-
ing the skeleton are first deposited.

A third section deals with the post-larval development.
The larvae, of the usual coral type, were obtained in July, and
were kept under continuous observation for some months
after attachment. Many valuable facts concerning the suc-
cession of the tentacles, mesenteries and various parts of the
corallum are recorded in this section. A feature of interest
lies in the attention paid to individual polyps. The partial
transparency of the young animal permits of instructive views
during life, and thus in one and the same individual the cor-
related development of the various organs could be followed
from day today. A result of this method was that periods
of rapid growth and relative rest could be distinguished.
The author points out that a phylogenetic significance pos-
sibly attaches to some of the more persistent stages, such as,
for instance, that in which complete pairs of mesenteries
(directives) are found at the two ends of the oesophagus, with
two pairs, each consisting of a long (complete) mesentery
and a short one. on each side of the oesophagus. This con-
dition continued unchanged for a period varying from three
weeks to three months. The author’s theoretical views as to

a

es

a

af TA oreo Fae

3
yy +

i

79006] Witson—A REVIEW. 43

the meaning of this particular stage are summed up as fol-
lows:

The long retention of freedom of the fifth and sixth pairs of protocnemes
suggests to my mind an ancestry in which the mesenteries as a whole,
including the metacnemes, were alternately long and short, excluding, of
course, the axial directives. Among modern examples this is retained in
the menesterial system of the zoanthids, Porifes, and Madrepora, and was
perhaps characteristic of the Rugosa.

The building up of the corallum is followed out in detail
through the formation of the third cycle of permanent septa.
Among the illustrations of this part of the work special mention
is due the microphotographs of macerated skeletons of devel-
oping polyps, and the figuresof living polyps with the be-
ginning skeleton cz sz/u. “Much interestattaches to Professor
Duerden’s account of the development of the septa. It has
been hitherto assumed that the septa of a new cycle appear in
the exocceles (7. ¢., the space between two pairs of mesenter-
ies), but are later embraced by the newly appearing pairs of
mesenteries in such wise as to lie in the entocceles(z. ¢., the
space between the mesenteries of a pair). Thus the same
septa would be first exoccelic and then entoccelic. In opposi-
tion to this scheme Duerden’s observations lead him to the
conclsion that while exosepta are formed in successive cycles,
they never become entosepta. The cycles of entosepta are
strictly new formations, appearing as do the primary six
septa in entoccelic spaces. The succession of the cycles of
exoccelic septa is maintained through the continued periphe-
ral bifurcation of preexisting exocoelic septa. The bifurcated
extremities become the (exoceelic) septa of a new cycle, while
the main septum is incorporated in the growing body of one
of the last formed cycle of entosepta. Having respect only
to the actual facts as observed in Srderastrea, 1t has been
found that any one of the permanent septa, later than the first
six, has a double origin. It is in parta new formation (ento-
coelic), and in part a preexisting formation (exoceelic). The
two parts fuse, and the fusion is interpreted by Professor

44 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

Duerden as the incorporation by a growing organ of the rem-
nant of a vanishing organ. In a developing corallum accord-
ing to this view exosepta are formed at each stage of growth,
only to disappear as the permanent septa, entosepta, come
into existence. ‘Thus the development of coral septa affords
an excellent example of substitution: temporary organs pre-
cede and are replaced by permanent organs performing the
same function as the former. Asa corollary to this conclu-
sion the author expresses his belief that the exoseptal prede-
cessors of the permanent septa do not wholly disappear in all
corals, as independent structures, but persist in some species
in the shape of the pa/z found in front of the larger septa.

a

THE SOURCE OF THE SUN’S HEAT.*

JOHN F. LANNEAU.

Doubtless the sun is now receiving more expert attention
than any other single object in the material universe.

The world’s telescopes daily confront it. At the Solar
Observatory in Washington it is questioned almost hourly by

Langley’s exquisitely sensitive bolometer—sensitive to the

one-millionth part of a centigrade degree. At Williams Bay,
with the Yerkes’ forty-inch telescope and Hale’s marvelous
spectroheliograph, its entire disk is photographed day by day,
giving a permanent record of changes in the spots and facu-
lae of the photosphere, and of the slow or rapid mutations in
both the quiescent and the eruptive prominences of the
chromosphere. And on Mt. Wilson near Los Angeles, Cali-
fornia, is a veritable Sunbeam Laboratory-—the unique Solar
Observatory of the Carnegie Institute. It is a long, low,
multiple-walled, canvas structure. At one end a great clock-
controlled heliostat steadily reflects sunbeams horizontally to
the far end mirror which returns them to its distant focus,
forming there an exceptionally large, well defined image of
the sun. This faithful image can be patiently scrutinized the
day long, and its every detail permanently mapped by a five-
foot spectrohelitograph—the largest yet constructed.

ESTABLISHED FACTS.

Since Galileo’s embryo telescope, three centuries of persis-
tent effort have built a secure scaffolding for intelligent
approach to the distant sun—a scaffolding of established facts.

*Address before the N. C. Academy of Science, May 18, 1906, by Presi-
dent John F. Lanneau.

1906) 45

46 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

1. The sun’s parallax is now known to within two-hun-
dredths of a second, its apparent diameter to within two sec-
onds. ‘These measurements show that its diameter is 109%
times the earth’s diameter; and that its distance from us is
not quite ninety-three million miles.

2. Since the volumes of globes compare as the cubes of
their diameters, the sun is more than a million times larger
than this earth. In mass or weight, however, it is only
332,000 times greater. Its density, therefore, is only one-
fourth of the earth’s—or not quite one and a half times the
density of water.

3. Gravity at the surface of a globe depends on its mass
divided by the square of its radius. At the sun’s surface
therefore, gravity is nearly 28 times greater than gravity at
the earth’s surface.

That is, if a common brick here weighs 7 pounds, on the
sun it would weigh 200 pounds. A brick there would weigh
as much as a barrel of flour here!

LOOK AGAIN AT. THESE FACTS.

The sun’s size:—a vast globe more than three-fourths of a
million miles indiameter. From its centre to its surface is
nearly twice the distance from the earth to the moon!

The sun’s mass:—its immense volume, as shown later, is a
seething body of commingling gases—a great globe of glow-
ing gas!

Expanding gas, growing larger and larger? Not at all.
The expansive force lessens as the surface temperature is
lowered by the cold of outer space; and it is checked also by
the continuous inward pull of gravity. Ata certain distance
from the center, therefore, the outward and inward forces
just counterbalance, giving definite size and boundary to the
vast solar globe of gas.

‘Light as gas?” Yes. But increase quantity, and weight
increases. Double, treble, multiply quantity; and weight is

1906 | LANNEAU—SOURCE OF THE SunN’s Hear. 47

doubled, trebled, multiplied. The sun-globe of gas weighs as
much as-a third of a million worlds like ours!

The sun’s distance:—ninety-three million miles. Our best
modern rifled artillery will throw a ball a half mile in one
second.

At that rate a cannon ball will go 30 miles a minute; in an
hour, 1800 miles; in a day, over 40,000 miles; in a month,
more than one and a quarter million miles. And keeping an
undeviating course sun-ward with unslacked speed, the so
swift cannon ball would not quite reach the sun in six years!

At that unthinkable remoteness, we yet feel here its pant-
ing July heat. There, yonder—beyond the swift missile’s
six year flight—at the sun, on its hot surface, how hot?

NATURE OF HEAT.

Facts in regard to the sun’s heat have been reached slowly
because of peculiar difficulties due to the nature of heat. It
is not, as once held, the fourth form of elementary matter—
earth, water, air, fire—nor yet, the subtile matter, ‘‘caloric”,
of a century ago.

Indeed, though intimately associated with all forms of
matter, heat itself is not matter. It is force—energy—the
force or energy of the constituent particles of either solids,
liquids, or gases when the particles are in rapid motion—in
minute, invisible, intense vibration.

Matter may be opaque or transparent. We perceive its
heat by the sense of touch. Heat is recognized not visually,
but palpably. It is felt.

As the feeling of warmth is the effect of the intense, invis-
ible activity of the constituent particles of matter, so that of
coldness results from their inactivity—their stillness.

Every hot body tends to coldness because its hedged-in
multitudes of agitated particles, by the resistance of their
recurring collisions, gradually settle towards rest.

Meanwhile, the molecular vibrations, imparted to the adja-
cent all prevading ether, are transmitted radially to distant

48 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

bodies, communicating vibratory motion to their particles.
Thus a cold body may receive radiated heat from a distant
hot body.

Air waves bring us the musical vibrations of a distant bell,
and its pleasing sounds are reproduced in our aural nerves.
Ether waves bring us the vibrations of a distant hot body,
and its heat is reproduced in our tactile nerves.

Usually heat is produced in either of two ways, mechani-
cally or chemically.

The heat of combustion in a wood or coal fire, or in a can-
dle, is produced by the avidity of the oxygen particles of the
air for the constituent particles of the fuel. Their clashings
in chemical union maintain that atomic commotion which
constitutes the heat of the fire or of the candle flame—heat
produced chemically.

Hammer vigorously a cold anvil. Both anvil and hammer
become hot. The checked energy of the descending hammer
is reproduced in the invisible commotion of the iron’s particles.
Energy of mass is transformed into energy of molecules, into
heat—heat produced mechanically.

Force, like matter, is indestructible. This is the gist of
the broad physical law of the conservation of energy. If any
force is seemingly annulled, Proteus-like it reappears in anew
form—or, it is stored for future delivery.

The mechanical power of Niagara’s water becomes in the
shafts crowning dynamo electric power. And that electric
power at Niagara becomes in distant Buffalo light energy, or
heat energy, or again motive power.

From yonder far off, hot sun comes radiated heat; from
this, our tropic and temperate heat, our wind and water
power, and plant and animal energy; indeed, all terrestrial
activity—from the modest up-peep of tiniest grass-blade, to
the proud coursing high over continents and seas of the com-
ing air-ship !

AMOUNT OF SUN’S HEAT.

The elder Herschel was the first to investigate the universe

rie

7900 | LANNEAU—SOURCE OF THE Sun’s Hear. 49

of stars and nebulae. His illustrous son in 1838 took the
first well directed step in the study of the sun’s heat.

A sunbeam of a known section, imparting its heat to a
definite weight of water, raising its temperature an observed
number of degrees, in a certain length of time, gave the
coveted, fundamental data.

Namely, the amount of heat received on a square foot of
surface in one minute—taking asa unit of heat, the heat
which raises a pound of water one degree Fahrenheit.

He found that the heat received at the earth from the sun
in the zenith, is sufficient to melt an inch-thick layer of ice in
2 hours and 13 minutes.

That is, if an inch-thick shell of ice encompassed the sun,
distant from its centre in all directions 93 million miles, that
immense, remote ice shell would all be melted in 2 hours and
13 minutes.

With Young, our highest authority on solar facts, fancy
such an inch-thick shell of ice kept intact and drawn inward
toward the sun, all the while containing the same quantity of
ice, becoming thicker as it lessens in size. When it touches
the sun’s surface, its thickness will exceed one mile.

That vast, solid glacier embracing the sun, at every point
over one mile high, would all be melted by the the sun’s heat
in 2 hours and 13 minutes. It would melt a layer about 40
feet thick each minute! ;

All honor to Herschel’s conception and achievement. His
method was perfect, but not his instruments. Better means
now prove that the sun radiates from its entire surface in one
minute enough heat to melt encasing ice 64 feet thick !

TEMPERATURE OF THE SUN.

Within experimental limits Stephan’s thermal law holds;
namely, that the rate of heat radiation is as the fourth power
of the absolute temperature. Assuming it to hold univers-
ally, this law and the known rate of sun’s radiation—500,000
units of heat per minute from each square foot of solar sur-

50 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

face—give as the sun’s surface temperature 12000° F.; about
sixty times the temperature of boiling water!

With much more certainty a lower limit to the sun’s sur-
face temperature has been found experimentally.

Scheiner by ingenious use of the spectroscope, comparing
lines of the solar spectrum with certain lines of magnesium,
proved that the photosphere is hotter than the electric arc—
that is, that its temperature is certainly above 7000° F.

So also, the heat at the focus of a powerful lens has fur-
nished a lower limit in a very realistic way.

The sun’s rays received on a lens or burning-glass are con-
verged to its focus, producing at that point a high tempera-
ture. A point out in space to which the sun’s rays naturally
converge at an angle equal to the focusing angle of the lens,
may be termed the space-point of equal temperature. Its dis-
tance from the sun is easily found. For the ratio of that dis-
tance to the focal length of the lens, is the known ratio of the
sun’s diameter to the lens’ diameter.

At the focus of the largest lens yet constructed the high
temperature produced instantly melted and vaporized the
most refractory materials—platinum, fire-clay, carbon —
everything tested.

And its space-point of equal temperature is about 250,000
miles from the sun’s surface—a little further from the sun
than the moon is from us.

If then our solid earth were placed at that distance from
the sun—a quarter of a million miles—it would quickly melt
—vaporize—vauish!

That certainly is the temperature at one-fourth of a million
miles from the sun. Still higher is it at the sun’s surface—
and inconceivably higher, the internal temperature.

SOURCE OF THE HEAT.

How does the sun produce its enormous output of heat, and
maintain its inconceivably high temperature?

7900] LANNEAU—SOURCE OF THE SuNn’s Heat. SL

Of four theories to be considered—if the newest suggestion
can be called a theory—only one is perfectly satisfactory,

1. THE COOLING THEORY.

It is certain that the sun is not simply an intensely hot
body slowly cooling. For in that case, its materially lowered
temperature after thousands of years of human history would
have caused decided climatic changes. but we know the
vine, the olive and the palm are fruitful now just where they
flourished in the days of classic writers.

2. THE COMBUSTION THEORY.

It is equally certain that the sun is not simply burning up—
that its heat does not result from ordinary combustion.

As estimated by Young, its continuous great yield of heat
could be produced by the consumption every hour of a layer
of coal all over the sun’s surface nineteen feet deep. That is,
by burning one ton of coal hourly on each square foot of the
sun’s surface.

Lord Kelvin computes that were its vast mass solid coal
environed by pure oxygen, and yielding its heat by combus-
tion, it would be utterly consumed in five thousand years. It
would, then, have dwindled more than one-third since Ptole-
my’s day. Yet, in the nearly two thousand years elapsed, it
has certainly not diminished appreciably.

3. THE RADIUM THEORY.

Though not produced by combustion, the sun’s heat is now
surmised by some to be due largely if not entirely to radium
—that most remarkable of known substances, discovered less
than eight years ago by Mme. Curie.

Proofs of its properties are ably presented in Rutherford’s
“Radio-Activity”. It is not only self-luminous, but is also
self-heating, giving out every hour enough heat to melt more
than its own weight—of ice—a fourth more.

2 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

tn

It seems to be a very rare element. Tons of pitchblende
yield only a few grains of radium.

But as radium evolves helium, and helium is known to be a
chief component of the sun’s chromosphere, it is suggested
that the sun contains much radium.

Recall that the sun radiates from its entire surface in one
minute enough heat to melt encasing ice 64 feet thick. With
this measure of the sun’s heat, and radium’s heat emission
per minute—melting one forty-eighth of its own weight of
ice—as data, we readily find that the sun’s heat equals the
heat emitted by a mass of pure radium weighing nearly as
much as the whole earth weighs. That much of this rare
and peculiar element in the sun—our world’s weight of rad-
ium—would yield its known output of heat.

The surmize that such a quantity of radium is there,
rather segregates the sun from common matter.

Moreover, the properties of radium are none too well
known.

At present, therefore, attributing the sun’s heat to radium,
is simply an interesting speculation.

4. THE MECHANICAL THEORY.

There remains for consideration the mechanical origin of
solar heat—that is, the conversion of force, or the energy of
moving matter, into heat energy.

There can be no doubt that many millions of meteoric bod-
ies are hourly falling into the sun. We know that something
like twenty million so-called shooting stars plunge into our
atmosphere daily. Their checked energy of motion reappears
in the air as light and heat.

But the heat thus imparted to our earth in a year has been
shown to be less than we receive from the sun in one second!

Incomparably more of these meteoric bodies must plunge
into the solar atmosphere contributing, however, compara-
tively little to the sun’s heat. For while interplanetary
space, at least as far out as the earth’s orbit, is threaded by

ioe)

7906} LANNEAU—SOURCE OF THE Sun’s Hear. GC

countless meteoroids, if sufficiently numerous to produce by
impact on the sun a large part of its heat, the outlying mul-
titudes would affect perceptibly not only the periodic comets
but also the planet Mercury. And no such effects have
developed.

Helmholtz’s theory of the mechanical origin of solar heat
—his contraction theory announced in 1853—fully accounts
for the sun’s heat.

Recall that the inward pull of gravity at the sun’s surface
is nearly twenty-eight times gravity at the earth’s surface.
Abundant evidence furnished by the spectroscope, and the
sun’s known low density—not much greater than that ol
water—force the conclusion that the sun is a vast sphere of
commingling gases, including the vapor of most, if not all, of
the terrestrial elements.

As the sun contracts by its own powerful gravitation, the
potential energy lost by gradual inward motion is replaced by
equivalent heat energy. Every particle in the whole stupen-
dous mass moving inward, contributes to the sun’s inconceiv-
able aggregate of heat. Helmholtz computed that an annual
contraction of 200 feet in the sun’s diameter is sufficient to
produce the heat it radiates. More accurate recent measure-
ments of the amount of heat radiated, indicate a greater con-
traction-—a lessening of the sun’s diameter by 300 feet
annually.

This, even, 1s so slight a change in that diameter of neara
million miles that in seven thousand years it will not appreci-
ably alter the sun’s apparent breadth. Our present most
exact heliometers could not then detect the change—a change
in the sun’s angular breadth in seven thousand years of less
than a single second!

But as the sun is a gaseous mass, its expanding force just
counterbalanced by its gravitating force, it can contract only
as its expanding force lessens by loss of heat readiated.

Will it not then cool as it contracts? Not necessarily.
For Lane’s law, discovered about 1870, asserts the paradox

54 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

that a globe of gas contracts by its own gravity and grows
hotter, as necessary results of losing the heat radiated.

To illustrate: Let v = volume of a globe of gas; p = its
surface gravity, or pressure; and t = its absolute tempera-
ture. When from loss of heat by radiation its radius con-
tracts one-half, let v’, p’, t’ represent respectively its changed
volume, pressure, and temperature.

Since volumes compare as their radii cubed, and surfaces as
the radii squared, v’ will = %v; and the surface of v’ will =
\% the surface of v.

Since surface gravity increases as the square of the radius
diminishes, the inward pull or pressure on the surface of v’
will = 4 times what it was on the surface of v; and as just
shown, the surface of v’ is only one-fourth that of v. TThere-
fore, as a 4 times greater force will be exerted on a 4 times
smaller surface, on a unit of surface the force or pressure on
v’ is 16 times the former pressure on v. That is, p’ = 16p.

As is well known for a gas the product of its volume and
pressure changes as its temperature changes.

Hence, WARD in) AW AGrp 0) es ete eee
or, V = pt 26 ova Lop. Si ote
or, ye ee ee nie fee
or, pies

Thus, when contracted to half its radius the globe of gas is
twice as hot as at the outset. In general, as it radiates heat
it contracts, and as it contracts it grows hotter.

If, then, our sun is truly gaseous from centre to surface,
notwithstanding its vast output of heat it must, by contrac-
tion, continually grow hotter.

If, however, as is likely, the photosphere of incandescent
clouds of carbon droplets and the central density have made
it partly viscous, or partly liquid, or even semi-fluid, then the
heat produced by contraction may just equal that lost by rad-
iation.

TaN

“=

1905 | LANNEAU—SOURCE OF THE Sun’s Hear’. 55

In this case the sun’s temperature will be constant—as prob-
ably it has been during the historic past.

With increased condensation, the heat of contraction will
fail to replace that lost by radiation, and the sun’s tempera-
ture will lower more and more until it becomes cold, solid,
dark!

When by contraction its present diameter is reduced one-
half, its density will be increased eight-fold. It may then be
non-gaseous, and will doubtless be cooling. Contracting
still, cooling more, radiating less and less heat, it must
finally fail to support any of the present forms of terrestrial
life—the world we know will be dead!

It is somewhat comforting to learn from Newcomb and
from other eminent authorities, that this sad failure of our
now glorious Day-Star, when its generous heat and light
shall be quenched—our world’s night of death—is probably
distant in the future some ten million years!

JOURNAL

OF THE

EuisHa MircHett ScENTIFIC SOCIETY

NOVEMBER, 1906
VOL. XXII NO. 3

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING
OF THE NORTH CAROLINA ACADEMY OF
SCIENCE HELD AT RALEIGH, N. C.,

MAY 18 & 19, 1906.

Fripay, May 18ru, 1906.

This evening was devoted to a joint meeting of the Acad-
emy and Cheinical Society in the Anditorium in the Agri-
cultural Building at which the Presidential address upon the
subject: ‘“Ihe Source of the Sun’s Heat” was delivered by
Prof. John F. Lanneau of Wake Forest College. The address
was followed by a smoker.

SATURDAY, May 19TH, 1906.

A meeting of the Exucutive committee was held. The
following members were present: President John F. Lan-
neau, Secretary F. L. Stevens, and Professor Collier Cobb.

The following members were nomitated to the Academy by
the Executive Committee: Mr. J. C. Temple, of the A. & M.
College, Mr. F. C. Reimer, of the A. & M. College, Dr. FE.
W. Gudger, of Greensboro, Dr. Archibald Henderson, of
Chapel Hill, and Mr. R. S. Woglum, of Raleigh.

Printed December 8, 1906,

58 JOURNAL OF THE MrrcHett, Socrrty. [Nov.

A business meeting of the Academy of Science followed.
The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.
The two followlng amendments previously submitted to the
Executive Committee were received and adopted by the

Academy:
1. ‘To strike out of Article 2, Section 1, all of the second
paragraph.

2. ‘fo strike out from Article 2, Section 2, the following
words: ‘“I‘hree dollars and for associates.”

The names of the following persons previously accepted by
the Executive Committee were received and the candidates
elected to membership in the Academy: J.C. Temple, F. C.
Reimer, EK. W. Gudger, Archibald Henderson, and R. S.
Woglum. <A nominating committee previously appointed
reported the nominations as follows: For President, Profes-
ser Collier Cobb; Vice-president, Professor J. L. Lake; Sec-
retary-Treasurer, F. L. Stevens; members of the Executive
Committee in addition to the ex-officio officers, Dr. W. C.
Coker, Franklin Sherman, and ‘Professor J. F. QLanneau.
‘The report of the Committee was adopted and members
named declared elected to the respective offices.

The report of the treasurer showing the balance of $141.43
was received. Mr. C. B. Williams was appointed as auditor.

Following the business meeting was held the meeting for
the presentation of papers, a summary of which follows:

Autophytopraphs, . . «+ sss, «+=: . Colliermars

Name suggested by C. H. White (Am. Jour. Sci., March,
1905) for a plant record formed by the extraction of coloring
matter through decay of plant, or a black deposit reproduc-
ing perfectly the leaves of the plants, illustrated by speci-
mens from the neighborhood of Wilkesboro, N. C., and else-
where. Such records have also been made in geological
past, and Professor Cobb reporied fern autophytographs on
carboniferous rocks from near Pottsville, Pa., exhibiting two
different specimens of the same.

7900 | ProcEEDINGS N. C. ACADEMY Or ScCtENCR. SY

Notes on the Variation in the Number of Egos or Young
Produced by Some American Snakes. . C. 8. Brimley

This paper gave the largest, smallest, and average number
of eggs or young produced, according to the author’s exper-
ience by the following species of American snakes: Eutoenia
sirtalis, Eutoenia saurita, Natrix sipedon, Haldea striatula,
Storeria dekayi, Storeria occipitomaculate, Virginia valer-
ioe, Bascanium constrictor, Heterodon Platyrhinus, Ophib-
olus getulus, Cyclophis aestivus, Coluber quadrivittatus,
Carphophiops Amoenus, Ancistrodon contortrix, Ancistrodou
piscivorus. Comments are also made on the confusion
caused by the application locally of the same popular or local
name to different species of snakes in different places, and by
different names being applied to the same species.

The Embryo-sac of Liriodendron. . . . . . W.C. Coker

_ The development and structure of the embryo-sac of the
ordinary tulip tree, Liriodendron, was explained with
blackboard drawings. ‘The special point of interest was that
though this tree is ancient geologically, yet its embryo-
sac presents no unusual features.

Bere 07 WIOUNS > ool io teh ae CxS, Brimley

The author’s experience in sugarine for moths in July,
August, and September, was given. Names of the mixtures
employed and how applied, and what species of moths and
other insects were captured. Notes that a very large pro-
portion of the attracted moths were species of economic im-
portance, viz., the army-worm and cutworm moths, which do
considerable injury to field and garden crops. Notes what
insects were attracted to the sugared patches in the day time
and also that rough barked trees were better to sugar than
smooth-barked ones.

60 JourNAL oF THE MrrcHeLt SOcrery. [WVov.

PRhoehc Flora of Moncure Shales... . . Collier Cobb

Specimens of Liriodendron (7?) reported from Deep River
Trias in 1904 in association with Macrotoeniopteris, and then
regarded by speaker as Lower Trias, led to the tracing of
this bed eight miles northeastward through Lockville to
Moncure, and to the discovery of one nearly complete Lirio-
dendron leaf and several fragments in association with lyco-
pods, conifers, and equisetaceae with many examples of more
modern plants yet to be determined, constituting what is
probably a transition flora. Many of the specimens were
from a well recently dug by the Seaboard Air Line Railway.

The Inifinuence of Citrous Stocks on Scions Mr. F. C. Reimer

An investigation was made in Florida to determine whether
the stock influences the scion in any way. ‘The following

‘outline covers most of the work which was done:
1. Influence on rate of growth—(a) in diameter, (b) in

height.
2. On shape of tree.
3. On hardness.
4. On diseases.
5, On fruit—(a) amount, (b) quality, (c)} season of ripen-

ing, (d) color, (e) dropping.
Interesting results were obtained which will appear in
Science in full at a later date.

Mr. J. C. Temple discussed the bacterial flora of cow man-
ure, showing the average number of germs present in fresh
manure and in manure of different ages. The relation of
these various germs to the nitrogenous material of the man-
ure. He also presented important results concerning the dis-
tribution abundance and variation of the colon bacillus.

A paper by Lewis T. Winston in his absence was read by
Dr. F. L. Steveng on ‘‘Bacterial Analysis of Various Lithia

rgo0 | PROCEEDINGS N. C. ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. 61

Waters,” in which it was stated that while most of the lithia
waters were above reproach from a bacterial view point, some
of them are of such condition that if submitted to the ordi-
nary board of health analysis they would be condemned.

Liverwort Types for Elementary Classes . . W.C. Coker

It was suggested that Pallavicinia, on account of its simple
structure and easily demonstrated organs was far more suit-
able for elementary work than the more complex Marchantia
which is generally used. Frullania Virginica was sug-
gested as the best type for use in demonstrating the develop-
ment of the capsule.

Mr. W. C. Etheridge explained a series of tests which he
had made concerning the various methods of analysis of milk
to determine the effect of the various media, various ages of
plate, different degrees of acidity, and effect of ventilatiou
upon the bacterial count.

Mr. C. 8S. Brimley presented a paper on the ‘‘Zoology of
Lake Ellis, Craven County, N. C.”

The Endosperm of the Pontedertaceae. . . . W. C. Coker

It was shown that the endosperm of the three genera of
this family so far investigated was of two sorts. The defin-
itive endosperm nucleus on its first division forms a wall
separating the sac into an upper and a lower part. The
endosperm in the upper part is quite different in appearance
from that in the lower.

PO OAGHILCVGIZON >) a is te eR = Mire. We Me Allen

This paper showed the great effect of the adulteration of
human foods on mankind; how it affects both the health and

the wealth.
It seems that the greatest danger to health lies in the use

62 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [Nov.

of chemical preservatives in fresh meats and sausages by
butchers and meat men, often ignorant, having no conception
of what they are dispensing to their customers.

The meeting was well attended and interest was manifest.

Following the meeting for the presentation of papers the

Academy of Science and the Chemical Section adjourned to

Giersch’s café where the visiting members were entertained

at lunch by the Raleigh members of these two organizations.
F. L. StTEvENs,

Sec. & TREAs.

—* =

THE BUILDING AND ORNAMENTAL STONES OF
NORTH CAROLINA, A REVIEW.

BY JOSEPH HYDE PRATT, STATE GPROLOGIST.

There has recently been published by the North Carolina
Geological and Economic Survey a report on the Building
and Ornamental Stones of the State, which was prepared by
Prof. Thomas L. Watson and Francis B. Laney, with the
collaboration of Dr. George P. Merrill. This report repre-
sents nearly three years of field and laboratory work and
shows that North Carolina is well supplied with a great
variety of building stone materials, particularly those of a
granitic type. With perhaps the possible exception of Geor-
gia, it is better supplied with both as regards quality and
variety than any of the other Appalachian States south of
New England. When this fact is taken in connection with
the mildness of the climate, which permits a long season of
outdoor labor, and with the cheapness of labor itself, it will
undoubtedly result in the development of a very extensive
industry.

The granitic rocks have been especially studied by Dr.
Watson, who worked almost exclusively in the granites and
gneisses, with incidental reference to the associated erupt-
ions, the diorites, diabases, and gabbros. In connection with
the field work on these granitic rocks, he was ably assisted
by Mr. Laney, who, lowever, devoted the larger part of his
time to the marbles, limestones, sandstones, serpentines, and
road materials,

Dr. Merrill’s guiding hand is plainly seen in the character
of the work and its form of presentation. There were but
few tests made to ascertain resistance to crushing, shearing,

1906] 63

64 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [Vov.

elasticity, or absorption, chiefly because the report does not
pretend to be either exhaustive or final, but has been publish-
ed to call attention to the deposits of stone, especially those
of known economic importance, and to indicate how these
can be opened and operated profitably. No chemical analy-
~ ses were attempted, nor were they for the most part consid-
ered essential for the present work, as Dr. Merrill still
adheres to his opinion that more can be learned from an
examination in the field than through all known laboratory
tests taken together. There are a number of chemical analy-
ses given throughout the report which have been taken,
however, from previous reports of the Survey.

The volume is divided into nine chapters, with a short
appendix on stones for road buiding. In Chapter I, which
is entitled Preliminary Generalities, the essential qualities of
building stones are thoroughly discussed, attention being
called to the influence that color has on the market value of
a stone; the ease or difficulty with which a stone can be
worked, and the location of the deposit with respect to trans-
portation facilities. The surface features of the State are
considered and it is shown that the geological formations
which are capable of yielding desirable stone for structural
purposes or ornamentation traverse the State in northeast
and southwest directions. Begiuning at the western margin
of the coastal plain, there is found extending northeast from
Raleigh a broad belt of gneissic rocks, succeeded on the west
by one of brown sandstone, and this in order by belts of
schist, granites, and gneisses to the State line, the last men-
tioned belt carrying in Cherokee, Graham, and Swain
counties a narrow belt of marble. Within these areas there
are numerous minor exceptions to the regular order men-
tioned above. The geographic position of the State is con-
sidered with reference to other than local markets and it 1s
clearly shown that North Carolina is near the center of an
area containing hundreds of large and prosperous cities and
towns which will afford a market for a much larger amount

7900 | Pratr—A_ ReEvIEw. 65

of building stones than it is now supplying, which should
result in the development of the quarry industry on a much
Jarger scale and without any danger whatever of ruinous
competition.

Chapters IJ, IV, and VI take up in detail the building
and decorative stones roughly classified as follows: (1) The
crystalline siliceous rocks, including the granites, gneisses,
and diabases, or traprocks; (2) the calcareous rocks, includ-
ing all limestones and dolomites, both the crystalline and
compact common varieties; and (3) the fragmental or clastic
rocks, including the sandstone aud clay slates. Those of the
first group result either as erupted molten matter from the
earth’s interior or from the metamorphism of siliceous sedi-
ments. Those of the second group originate mainly as
deposits of calcareous mud from the breaking up of shells,
corals, and the remains of other marine animals on an old
sea bottom. Those of the third group result from the break-
ing up of older rocks, and the accumulation on the bottom of
lakes and seas of the resultant sand, clay, or mud in beds of
varying thickness, to be subsequently hardened into stone.

‘‘Now the essential difference between a marble and a com-
pact common limestone, like those of Ohio or Kausas, is that
the first has undergone, through the combinded action of
heat and pressure, just the right degree of change, or meta-
morphism as it is technically called, to develop in it crystalli-
zation and color; the essential difference between a brick or
fire clay and a cleavable slate suitable for roofing, is, as ex-
plained elsewhere, that the first named still retains its plastic
condition as it was laid down in the form of fine silt on a sea
bottom, while the slate has by geological agencies, by actual
movements of the earth’s crust, been so squeezed and com-
pressed as to lose all resemblance to its former self, and
become the cleavable article of commerce we now find it.

‘‘These processes of change, as noted above, are dependent
very largely upon the actual movements; warpings and fold-
ings as one might say, of the earth’s crust and the heat and

66 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocIFrTy. [Nov.

chemical action which is thereby generated, and since these
movements take place only with extreme slowness, whole
geologic ages being occupicd in their inception and com-
pletion, it follows as a matter of course that these metamor-
phic rocks, these gneisses, marbles and roofing slates, are
found only among the older rocks and only in those portions
of the country where this crust has been warped, compressed,
and folded as in the process of mountain making.”

Thus, one will find these rocks in their best development
in those regions bordering along more or less extensive moun-
tain ranges.

The area of the State containing rocks of the first class is
very extensive and includes the three larger physiographic
provinces af the State, namely, the coastal plain, the Pied-
mont plateau, andthe Appalachian Mountain; but the greater
part of the granites and other crystalline rocks of economic
importance are included in the Piedmont plateau region.
Along the inner margin of fhe coastal plain region there are
a number of small workable areas of eranite of excellent
quality; but in the mountain region the large granitic areas
are usually schistuse in structure and are not very desirable
for the higher grades of work in which granites are used.
These crystalline rocks are discussed in groups:

T. The Coastal Plain Area, this area including Wilson,
Edgecombe, Nash, Anson, and Richmond counties. In this
region the areas capable of preducing workable granite either
lie close to or are crossed by the principal lines of railroad in
the eastern part of North Carolina, rendering them easily
accessible and providing ample facilities for transportation
of the stone. The outcrops are usually large and are so
located as to offer advantageous quarry sites. They are all
biotite granites, showing a considerable range of variation in
color and texture, from light gray to pink with occasionaly a
mixed yellowish and pink appearance. No systematic quar-
rying has as yet been undertaken and all that has been quar-
ried has been used locally.

7900 | Pratr—A REVIEW. 67

II. The Piedmont Plateau Reyion.

1. The Northeastern Carolina Granite Belt, including
Wake, Franklin, Vance, Granville, and Warren counties.
In this belt extensive workable areas of different grades of
granite are found suited for all grades of work in which
granite is used, except for the better grades of monumental
work. Systematic quarrying, however, has been limited to
areas in and around Raleigh, Wake county and at and near
Greystone and Middleburgh, Vance county. ‘These quarries
have been operated quite extensively, furnishing stone to
Kastern Virginia and Carolina, principally in the form of
blocks and curbing for street purposes; and for general build-
ing purposes. Throughout this belt the granites show but
little variation in mineral composition and, with one excep-
tion, they are biotite-granites. Minerals such as free sul-
phides and iron oxides, which are a source of discoloration to
stone on exposure, are practically absent from the granites of
this belt.

2. The Carolina Metamorphic Slate and Volcano Belt,
including Orange, Durham, and Chatham counties. The
country rocks of this belt comprise argillaceous, sericitic and
chloritic metamorphosed slates and crystalline schists; sedi-
mentary pre-Juratrias slates; and ancient volcanic rhyolites,
quartz porphyries, and pyro-clastic breccias that are often
sheared and altered andesites. Rocks of granitic composition
have as yet only been noted in Orange county, and they are
of doubtful commercial value except for railroad ballast and
road purposes.

3. The Carolina Igneous Belt (The Main Granite Belt),
including Mecklenburg, Gaston, Cabarrus, Iredell, Rowan,
Davidson, Davie, Forsyth, Guilford, and Alamance counties.
In this belt granite is one of the principal and most wide-
spread rocks, and in each of the ten counties included in the
belt, extensive areas of granite are exposed. Outcrops of
firm and hard moderately fresh granite are not uncommon,
and as a rule the exposures are large enough to admit of the

We SES ES

ee rye
- An

a

Pen Mae

ya

nes

SSS Oe ee
=

68 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [Wow.

opening of large quarries without much stripping, The
stone is usually well suited to the many purposes for which
granite is used, and the belt is traversed in nearly all direct-
ions by lines of railroads which offer ample facilities for
transportation. Notwithstanding these conditions, only a
limited amount of quarrying has been done in these counties,

vo

ee

a

te

aes

lee

Figure 1. Boulder outcrop of orbicular-gabbro diorite, Hairston farm,
Davie county, 10 miles west of Lexington, Davidson county.

with the exception of Rowan, where systematic quarrying
has been developed ona large scale on the Dunns Mountain
granite ridge.

There are two distinct phases of the granite developed, an
even granular or normal and a porphyritic granite, both of
which have wide distribution within the limits of the belt
and, with one exception, represent different phases of the

=” eee

a

7906 | Pratrt—A REVIEW. 69

same rock mass, the porphyritic texture grading into the
even-granulay. With hardly an exception the granites are
mica (biotite) bearing and they vary in color from nearly
white, through the lighter to the darker shades of
gray. In several places over Dunns Mountain a beautiful
shade of pink granite is quarried. This stone has attracted
a great deal of attention aud is much admired as a decorative
stone.

4. The Western Piedmont Gneiss and Granite Belt,
including Surry, Wilkes, Alleghany, Alexander, and Cleve-
land counties. In this belt the massive granites are less
abundantly distributed than over other parts of the granitic
areas. They are all biotite-bearing, usually of light color
and of medium texture. No injurious minerals are, asa rule,
observed. The rocks possess marked strength and durability
and are very desirable granites for certain grades of work.
Mt. Airy, Surry county, one of the principal localities in this
belt yielding rock of this type, constitutes the largest quar-
rying center in the State. The demand for this stone is rap-
idly increasing and wherever used has givén entire satisfac-
tion both as regards color and durability.

III. The Appalachian Mountain Region, comprising
McDowell, Buncombe, Heriderson, Madison, Jackson, Hay-
wood, Macon, Transylvania, Swain, Mitchell, Caldwell,
Watauga, and Ashe counties.

No systematic quarrying has as yet been undertaken at
any point in this mountain region, but numerous small open-
ings have been made in exposures of the rock in many places,
but the stone has been used entirely for local purposes. The
larger amount of the rock quarried has been used for ballast
and road purposes. Transportation is the serious difficulty
confronting the quarrying of the mountain granite for build-
ing purposes, except for local use.

The report shows that North Carolina is well supplied
with granite deposits that are easily accessible and are of a

70 JouRNAI, oF THE MircHELL Socregry. [Vov.

quality that will permit of their being used for all grades of
work.

Some of the rocks included under the head of the crystal-
line rocks are of especial interest and are mentioned more iu
detail.

Orbicular Gabbro-Diorite:— ‘The orbicular gabbro-diorite
is fouud on the Hairston plantation, Davie county, ten miles
west of Lexington and one mile west of Oak Ferry. It
occurs in high boulders occupying a low indistiuct ridge,
which culminates in a peak or knoll about thirty feet above
the surrounding plain, Fig. 1. This is the only point where
the orbicular rock outcrops prominently, but it can be traced
in a southwest direction by means of residual decay for a
distance of one-half to three-quarters of a mile in length and
of several hundred yards in width. The orbicular rock
undoubtedly occurs in the form of a typical dike penetrating
the porphyritic granite and is parallel to and probably of the

same age as some large, massive, unaltered diabase dikes in
the vicinity which are intersecting the same rock..

This rock presents two distinct and strongly contrasted
phases, one the pronounced orbicular and the other a gran-
itic. Around the knoll referred to, the rock shows the typi-
cal orbicular texture, with the well rounded spheres varying
in width from one-eighth to one inch and sometimes two
inches in diameter. Some distance from the knoll the rock
assumes a granitic texture, but is composed of the same min-
erals. Mimneralogically, this rock is composed principally of
a basic plagioclase feldspar, showing, as a rule, but slight
polysynthetic twinning, uralitic hornblende, and diallage.
Besides these, titanite, apatite, magnetite, and zircon occur
aS accessory minerals, and quartz, muscovite, calcite, and
zoisite as secondary minerals.

In color the rock is dark, with a greenish tinge due to the
dark green horablende. It has a pronounced mottled appear-
ance produced by the nearly black green nodules of hornblende
in a ground-mass of the intensely white plagioclase feldspar,

05 ee.

i

ew

a

7906 | Pratt—A Ravikrw. 71

The contrast is very pleasing and it is brought out much
more prominently inthe cut and polished surfaces. The spheres

Figure 2. Photograph of fresh surface of leopardite showing the stone
when broken at right angles to the long parallel streaks or pencils of a
dead black color,

JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [Vov.

~I
bo

usually exhibit a fibrous, radiating structure from a common
center outward. In some instances a small fragment of
feldspar, quartz, or pyrite has been the nucleus about which
the spheres of the hornblende have been formed. The con-
centric structure which is usually observed in orbicular rocks
is not at all pronounced in the North Carolina rock; and
where the spheres of orbicular granite and diorite heretofore
described are composed usually of a number of minerals, the
North Carolina rock is ouly composed of one, the dark green
hornblende.

As a decorative or ornamental stone, this unique stone
should find very great favor. It works easily and well as is
shown by a polished column and sphere that are in the State
Museum at Raleigh. That it wears well is demonstrated by
the fact that some of this stone quarried prior to the Civil
War and used for gate posts and steps to the house on the
Peter Hairston property, do not show any signs of decay.

Quartz-Porphry (Leopardite):— Intersecting the biotite-
granite at Belmont Springs 1% to 134 miles east of Charlotte,
Mecklenburg county, is a dike of quartz porphry about one-
half mile long, whose width nowhere exceeds 25 feet and
which has been most appropriately named Leopardite. It is
a dense, hard, tough and compact cryptocrystalline rock,
which breaks with a conchoidal fracture. ‘The fresh rock is
nearly pure white, tinged in places a very faint greenish,
and penetrated by long parallel streaks or pencils of a dead
black color. If it is broken at right angles to these streaks,
the surface is dotted with rounded irregular black spots
varying from pin heads up to half an inchindiameter. This
peculiar spotted appearance is well illustrated in Fig. 2.
When the rock is broken or cut parallel with the direction of
the pencils, the surface is streaked with long irregular black
lines, which are sometimes approximately parallel and at
others assume a dendritic or fern-like appearance, as illus-
trated in Fig. 3. These black streaks or pencils are not reg-
urlarly distributed throughout the quartz-porphry, but in

+

7900] Pratt—A REvIEw. i3

some areas they are entirely absent, while in others they are
crowded very closely together.

Mineralogically the rock is composed essentially of feldspar,
both potash and plagioclase varieties, with a smaller amount
of quartz,, which forms minute irregular interlocking grains.
Considerble of it is intergrown with the feldspar in micro-
graphic structure, forming more or less rounded disk-like
areas. ‘The black streaks or pencils are composed of oxides
of manganese and iron and are supposed to represent the per-
colation of manganese and iron solutions through the rock.

The rock is susceptible of an excellent polish and could be
used with splendid effect in inlaid work. On account, how-
ever, of its exceeding hardness and toughness and absetice
of any definite rift, it will be a rather expensive stone to
quarry.

Unakite:— In Madison county, about 5 miles southwest
of Hot Springs, there is an irregular area of granite contain-
ing epidote as a characterizing mineral. The main mass of
this rock is described as a dark pink and green epidote-biotite-
eranite of coarse texture and somewhat schistose structure
varying from a typical schistose granite in which the quartz
is present in the usual amount to a nearly quartzless rock of
the same color and texture.

Penetrating this granite probably in the form of narrow
veins is the unique and beautiful variety of granite known
as unakite. This rock is composed of yellow-green epidote,
dull pink or red feldspar and quartz. The unakite is not uni-
form in color and composition, but shows pronounced grada-
tion into a highly feldspathic rock of pink color on the one
hand and an epidote rock of a yellow-green color on’ the
other. Usually in the veins the normal unakite, which is a
coarse, massive rock of even texture, occupies the middle
portion of the vein and graduates toward the enclosing
gneiss either into the feldspathic or epidotic rock or both.

Under the microscope the unakite is shown to be com-
posed of the usual granitic minerals such as orthoclase and

74 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [Vov.

microcline in nearly equal proportions, a little plagioclase,
quartz, occasional biotite, zircon, apatite, rutile, magnetite,

Figure 3. Photograph of a section of the leopardite cut parallel with
the direction of the pencils,

7906 | Pratt—A REvIEw. 75

and a few small grains of pyrite, with the secondary miner-
als epidote, chlorite, kaolin, and a green mica.

One of the best exposures of the unakite in its relation to
the other granitic rock is along Roaring Fork and a short
distance above its entrance into Meadow Fork. The com-
mercial value of the rock would be for decorative or orna-
mental purposes, but at the present time it has not been
developed sufficiently to determine what quantity of this
rock can be obtained commercially.

In Chapter III there is a short description of the dikes and
veins penetrating the crystalline rocks previously described
which include, beginning with the most acid, true quartz
veins, pegmatite, aplite and granite dikes of normal compo-
sition and texture; and abundant dikes of basic igneous rocks,
of which diabase and diorite are the most common types.

Chapter IV treats of the calcareous rocks, limestones and
marbles, taking up in detail their varieties, structure, weath-
ering qualities, uses, and geographical distribution. The
marble localities are confined to Cherokee, Swain, McDowell,
and Mitchell counties. The only ones that have been devel-
oped commercially are those in Cherokee county. The mar-
ble of Mitchell county is perhaps worthy of more detailed
notice on account of its occurrence and quality.

White Marble from Mitchell County:— 'This marble was
first exposed in a railroad cut on the north bank of North
Toe River near the mouth of Sink Hole Creek about 3% miles
above Toe Cane Station. ‘The marble is exposed in a bed
about 60 feet thick interbedded with typical mica schists, and
is exceptionally pure and of very uniform texture. As far as
can be judged from the exposure of the blocks that are
blasted out, it is remarkably free from joints, It has a beau-
tiful pure white color and takes a good polish. It can be
traced northeastward from the outcrop at the railroad for
about a mile and is favorably located for quarrying, being
on a mountain side about 100 feet above the valley, thus
affording natural drainage and space for disposal of waste

76 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL SOCIETY. [ Nov.

material. Considering the location of this marble and its
texture, purity, and color, it offers a very favorable commer-
cial quarry proposition.

One peculiar feature of this marble deposit is the occur-
rence of a large pegmatitic vein in the midst of the marble
as illustrated in Fig. 4.

The limestone areas are rather scarce throughout North
Carolina and in no place are they of sufficient magnitude to
be of any large commercial importance either for building
purposes or for burning into lime. In a few localities a small

Figure 4. Pegmatic dike (c) cutting the Mitchell county marble (b).
The country rock is a contorted typical mica schist (a) which at its con-
tact with the marble is quite calcareous.

amount of the stone is used for road purposes or burned into
lime for local use. In Buncombe county, about 2 miles north
of Fletcher, two kilns having a capacity of 700 bushels per
day have been erected for burning a limestone that is of a
peculiarly fine grained structure, containing little or no im-
purities, the analyses giving 95.32 per cent. calcium carbon-
ate.

The serpentines and verdantique marbles are described in
Chapter V. They are at the present time of no commercial
importance and they have been described in detail in a pre-
vious report of the North Carolina Geological Survey on
Corundum and the Peridotites of Western North Carolina.

The sandstones and quartzites, which are taken up in

7906] Pratt—A Review. 77

Chapter VI, are discussed more from a commercial than a
scientific standpoint. Although in previous years there has
been considerable quarrying of the sandstone from Moore
county, in recent years the industry has come nearly to a
standstill. This, however, has not been on account of the
quality of the sandstone as much as transportation difficul-
ties.

The dikes penetrating the sandstones are taken up in Chap-
ter VII, which contains tables showing their distribution
and their relation to the jointing of the sandstone.

Ure ee
TSP evra CF aune Ry

ge 22s +.

' ’

' .
Povoe®

'
'
' 4 ———
'

Figure 5. Diagram illustrating method of cleaving granite by meaus of
compressed air. B, lift or drill hole; BC, area cleaved by powder; AFI,
area cleaved by compresse air; DE, thin edge on down hill side of quarry
where air escaped.

78 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [Nov

Chapters VIII and IX relate to the quarrying, working
and weathering of building stones. One interesting method
of quarrying building stones that is especially mentioned is
that used by the North Carolina Granite Corporation at its
Mt. Airy quarries, which is described as follows:

‘Tn the center of the sheet or area to be lifted a drill hole
2 to 3 inches in diameter is sunk 6 to 8 feet depth, depending
on the greatest thickness of stone required, and the operation
is continued by the discharging of successive small amounts
of powder similarly as described under the method of quarry-
ing by using water™ until the crevice extends a distance of 75
feet or more from the hole in all directions. A pipe is then
cemented into the hole and connected by means of a globe
valve to an air pipe line from an aircompresser. Compressed
air at 70 to 80 pounds pressure is gradually admitted and the
cleavage rapidly extends until it comes out upon the hillside
in a thin edge as indicated by the cross-section, Fig 5. A
sheet of several acres in extent may be raised in this manner,
affording a bed plane approximately horizontal, to which the
quarrymen can work, thus securing stone of any required
thickness. The first time compressed air was used a pres-
sure of 80 pounds was admitted into the cavity which had
previously been extended to a distance of 100 feet from the

*After being drilled, the hole is fired by a succession of light blasts
using in the first charge about a handful of blasting powder. The opera-
tion is begun by discharging about a quarter of a pound of dynamite in
the bottom of the hole. This small charge of dynamite pulverizes the
stone slightly at the bottom of the hole and forms a small chamber. The
tamping is then cleaned out of the hole which is recharged in the same
manner, this time, however, using about a handful of powder. The re-
charging of the hole is continued with small charges of powder until a
small seam has been started at the bottom of the hole extending parallel
with the surface. This is found out by using a small steel rod bent at the
lower end and sharpened to a point and passing it up and down the hole
until the crack is located. After the crack has once been started, the use
of light charges of powder is continued, increasing the charges gradually
as the seam is found to extend in all directions from the lift hole until the
crevice eztends a distance of 75 feet or more from the hole.

7900] _ Pratt—A REvIEw. 79

lift-hole. ‘The power of the air, however, was too great for
the easily splitting stone and the cleavage turned abruptly to
the surface. In the next hole, however, the compressed air
was admitted very gradually and the stone could soon be
heard cracking in all directions and in about half an hour
the cleavage came to the surface of the hillside as a thin edge
some 225 feet from the lift-hole. To extend the cleavage by
means of powder for a hundred feet would require from 6 to
12 days, and with water from 3 to 5 hours, while with the
compressed air the larger area was split in half an hour.

Appended to the volume is a short description of stone
found throughout the State that is suitable for road build-
ing, together with a table showing the results of tests made
on certain stones suitable for use in road building.

Although this volume deals especially with the economic
and commercial phases of the building stones of North Car-
olina, making it particularly interesting and valuable to con-
tractors, builders, and dealers in building stones; yet there is
sufficient detailed scientific work included to make it of con-
siderable interest and value to the student of North Carolina

geology.

eo

WHERE THE WIND DOES THE WORK.*

BY COLLIER COBB.

No portion of the North American continent is so widely
known, and at the same time so little known, as the chain of
low-lying islands and iringing sand-reefs extending along
the North Carolina coast for a distance of more than three
hundred miles. This is especially true of Hatteras Isl-
and, a sand spit whose dangerous projection and shifting
shoals have made this portion of our Atlantic seaboard a ver-
itable graveyard of American shipping.

Distinguished scientists on both sides of the Atlantic have
discussed the origin of Cape Hatteras without having set foot
on the island or coasted along its shores. The origin of well
nigh all the features of this coast have been discussed at long
range, and yet hardly half a dozen people from the outside
world have any personal acquaintance with the island.

It was on this coast that Fessenden and Thiessen experi-
mented successfully with wireless telegraphy. At Kitty
Hawk, on these banks, the Wrights conducted their experi-
ments in mechanical flight.

Though difficult of access the inhabitants of these islands
are in close touch with the rest of world by the telegraph
and telephone lines of the U. S. Weather Bureau and the
Life Saving Service as well as by the wireless telegraph.

Those who watch the reports of shipping need not to be told
that winds are constant in this region. - The strong winds
of midwinter come from the north, and the gentler steady

*This article appeared in the National Geographic Magazine for June,
1906, with map and nine illustrations in half-tone from photographs, aud
is here reprinted with the permisson of the editor of that magazine.

80 | Nov.

7906| CossB—WHERE THE WinD DoEs THE WoRK. 1

winds of midsummer aud of the greater part of the year
blow usually from a little west of south.

These constant winds were early taken advantage of by
the inhabitants, and windmills for grinding corn dot the
whole chain of islands, though most of them have now fallen
into disuse. A small boy on Church’s Island hauls freight for
the people of his village on a car furnished with a sail and
propelled by the wind.

The frequency of wrecks upon this coast is too well known
to require comment; though such is the efficiency of the life
savers, who brave the perils of any storm, that life is rarely
losthere. But the lightship has sometimes been broken from
its moorings on Diamond Shoals and driven upon the Hat-
teras Banks.

The strong north-winds pile the sands up into great bar-
chanes or medanos, cresentic sand-dunes, known locally as
whaleheads, which are steadily moving southward. These
are best developed along the Currituck Banks, from Virginia
as far south as the Kill Devil Hills, and numbers of them
may be seen to the north and to the south of Currituck
Light. These whaleheads are composed of singularly homo-
geneous blown-sands, the horns or cusps pointing to leeward,
which is almost due south.

The prevailing winds from a little west of south have rip-
pled the heterogeneous sands on Hatteras just south of the
cape, on Shackleford at its southwest extremity, and on the
southwest side of Smith’s Island. These wind-ripples,
started in sands exposed by the removal of a strip of
forest next the shore, have grown in size to great sand
waves and are advancing on forests, fields, and houses. As
the sand-wave has advanced, it has taken up several feet of
the loose soil over which it has passed, undermining houses,
laying bare the roots of trees, and exposing the bones of
the dead in the cemeteries.

Diurnal winds from the sea have piled the sands into small
wandering dunes and hillocks, and even sometimes into sand

82 JoURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [Vov.

waves which are marching steadily inward and shoaling the
waters of the sound. At Nag’s Head, a large hotel constituting
a solid obstruction, soon had a sand wave built up a short dis-
tance in its rear until the level of the roof was reached, when
the wave moved forward and engulfed the hotel. In the im-
mediate neighborhood two cottages suffered a similar fate.
Here the land gained on the sound three hundred and fifty
feet in ten years.

On the northern end of Hatteras Island a fishing village has
been similarly buried, while the sand has entirely crossed the
island at several places north of the cape. This movement
of the sand was started just after the Civil War by the cut-
ting of trees next the shore for ship timbers, and the section
is still known as The Great Woods, though not a stick of
timber stands upon it today. Pamlico Sound for two miles
from the Hatteras shore is growing steadily shallower from
the deposit of blown sand.

On Smith’s Island a pilot’s village has been buried be-
neath the sand wave for a number of years, but this has been
qnite recently resurrected and its hcuses are again occupied.
On Currituck, below Caffey’s Inlet Life Saving Station,
the sand has advanced entirely across the land, and one
man moving his home before the advancing sand has at last
built his house on piles in the sound.

The writer has found by experiment that heterogeneous
sands, consisting essentially of quartz, orthoclase, some mica,
iron, bits of shells, and many mineral substances showing lit-
tle if any decomposition,* ripple readily in the wind and are
easily arrested. This he accomplished in one instance by
planting the seed of a native pine and covering the dune with
brush. In another case the movement was checked by the
unassisted growth of grass upon dunes from which hogs and
cattle were fenced out. Several native grasses on these isl-
ands are excellent sand-binders; but so far he has found no

*I consider these sands to be of glacial origin, scraped off the granite
rocks of New England by the ice-sheet of the last glacial epoch.—O. C.

7900] Cosp—WHERE THE WIND Doxrs THE Work, 83

means of checking the movement of homogeneous sands that
do not ripple, these consisting entirely of well rounded and
wind-sorted quartz grains of the same size throughout a sin-
gle dune.

Other trees beside the pine may be used as sand binders.
Some live oaks and myrtles serve well inthis capacity, and
on Hatteras Island young olives and palms have been observed
growing on the dunes, though this is the northern limit of
both these trees, and they are even unknown on Ocracoke
Island next to the south.

As already pointed out, the movement of these sands was
in every case started by the deforesting of astrip of land next
the shore; but in several instances nature has herself grown
forests on dune sands. Above Kitty Hawk Bay large dunes
are covered with a growth of pine, maple, oak, cedar, sassa-
fras, locust, elm, beech, persimmon, sycamore, hickory, and
in the damp interdune areas cypresses and gums. Here are
matly veteran pines, some of them having attained a diam-
eter of three feet. An essentially similar forest is found
growing upon the high dunes to the southwest of Cape Hat-
teras, bnt here we have to add the olive to the list, and there
are broad interdune palmetto swamps.

On Bogue Banks, where deforesting has only just begun
at two points, we have 20 miles of woodland, the virgin
forest extending down to the water’s edge and preventing the
formation of dunes.

From Southport westward into South Carolina the dunes
have moved northward and inland in some places completely
filling the lagoons. At one point such a filled lagoon has pro-
duced a pine forest in something more than forty years.

The checking of these moving dunes presents a problem
of increaing importance not only to the inhabitants of these
sand keys, but to the navigators of the inland water-ways as
well, and it is interesting to know that its solution is at hand,
and that the encroachment of the sand may be effectually
stopped.

84 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL Socrety. [NVov.

It is fortunate that the strong north winds that pile up the
sands and the strong east winds that cause the greater
amount of the sand movement blow iu the winter months
rather than in the season of plant growth. The spring rains
are usually of light intensity and long duration, and on Hat-
teras Island at least they come with the gentler southwest
winds. Hence it is comparatively easy to plant grasses and
shrubbery in late winter or early spring and have them gain
a firm footing and accomplish something of their growth
before the strong winds come.

In January, 1886, the writer planted the seed of the lob-
lolly pine on the back of a dune and covered the area with
brush cut from a near-by road in process of making. The
brush served not only to break the wind bunt to conserve the
moisture of the sands, and today there is a forest of several
acres where twenty years ago was a moving sand waste. The
wethod so common abroad of building a barrier dune by
macans of wind breaks has been tried several times along this
coast, but always without success.

The atmospheric humidity of Hatteras Island is greater
than that of any other station in the United States except in
the Puget Sound region, and even there the excess over Hat-
teras is not great. Yet there are more days of sunshine on
Hatteras than at Cape Henry, or Norfolk, or Wilmington.
The heaviest rains come between late July and mid October,
after the plants have done most of their growing for the year
and when plants in many parts of the country are suffering
greatly from the drouth.

The people of these islands are not the slothful bankers
and rude wreckers pictured in song and story. They are fair
women and brave men, most of whom live and do for others,
—lifesavers, heroes. Their homes are comfortable and well
kept; they attend regularly upon the services of the church,
and their children are in school for eight months of the year,
for the inhabitants of Dare County have voted upon them-
selves a special tax for this purpose. The islanders have

7906] Cops—WHERE THE WIND Doxrs THR Work, 85

herds of small wild ponies, and flocks of sheep and goats, as
well as cattle, on some of the islands.

True some primitive customs are preserved among them,
and some early English forms of speech. Their lodges
used in fishing and hunting are built after the most primitive
types of straw thatch, while a higher type, similar to that
used in the village of Gabii in the days of Romulus and
Remus, is used as a temporary residence during their camp
meetings in the summer, and this higher type of dwelling is
on Hatteras built of palmetto thatch.

There is no better type of the average man than the native
North Carolina banker.

The possibilities of these islands are as yet undreamed of by
their inhabitants and utterly unknown to the outsider, who
visits only the most barren of them in the duck-shooting sea-
son.

The regaining of the shore strip by reforesting the sands,
and the retention of the dunes that are devastating the
meadow lands, would make of Hatteras Island, at least, a
subtropical garden, where southern fruits and early vegeta-
bles once plentiful here might come into the market. The
game still lingering among the wooded dunes would be
greatly multiplied, and the herds of wild ponies now dwind-
ling away would again increase in numbers. ‘Then conserva-
tive lumbering could be added to the industries of the island.

It is also within the range of possibilities that the black
beachsands which are concentrated by wave action at a few
points might be made to yield from their iron ores a return
for the labor of gathering them.

THE CORAL SIDERASTREA RADIANS AND ITS
POST-LARVAL DEVELOPMENT.*

H. V. WILSON.

The Coral Siderastrea radians and its Post-larval Develop-
ment. By J. E. DuERDENt. Washington, U.S. A. Pub-
lished by the Carnegie Institution. December, 1904. Pp.
130, with 11 plates.

This handsome Carnegie memoir contains the record of
an investigation begun at the Institute of Jamaica and subse-
quently carried on at the Johns Hopkins University and the
American Museum of Natural History in New York. The
author’s prolonged residence in the West Indies gave him
unusual opportunities in the way of command over living
material, and the memoir makes valuable additions to our
knowledge on many points of coral morphology.

An introduction deals with the systematic zoology and
the habits of the species which is abundant and accessible in
Kingston harbor. The form is obviously one of those con-
venient, hardy types destined to play a part in laboratory
investigations of histological and physiological character.
Both the adult colony and the young polyp after metamor-
phosis grow in confinement and may be hand-fed. There
follows an ample description of the anatomy of the adult.
The species, like other West Indian corals, is possibly pro-
togynous, although Professor Duerden calls to mind that
Gardiner has established the converse phenomenon, protandry

*Reprinted from Science, N.S., Vol. XXIII., No. 587, Pages 497-498,
March 30, 1906.

+Professor Duerden served as Acting Professor of Biology in this Uni-
yersity during the year 1902-03.

86 [ Nov,

7906] Witson—A REVIEW. 87

for Flabellum. WDuerden takes up the question as to the way
in which the coral skeleton, as a product of cellular activity,
is produced. He confirms Miss Ogilvie’s observation that the
corallum can be seen in favorable parts of the adult and young
polyps to be composed of minute skeletal units of a polygonal
shape and exhibiting a fibro-crystalline structure. But
whereas Miss Ogilvie interpreted these bodies as actual cells
which were produced through the proliferation of the ecto-
derm, becoming calcified as fast as produced, Duerden regards
them as secretory products which are laid down wholly exter-
nal tothe ectodermalcells. Insupport of this view, essentially
that advanced by von Koch, Duerden finds that the layer of
ectoderm concerned in the production of the skeleton is always
a simple layer, and that, moreover, it is always separated
from the corallum by a homogeneous mesogloea-like stratum.
It is in this stratum of homogeneous matrix that the author
believes the calcareous crystals forming the skeleton are first
deposited.

A third section deals with the post-larval development.
The larve, of the usual coral type, were obtained in July,
and were kept under continuous observation for some months
after attachment. Many.valuable facts concerning the suc-
cession of the tentacles, mesenteries and various parts of the
corallum are recorded in this section. A feature of interest
lies in the attention paid to individual polyps. The partial
transparency of the young animal permits of instructive views
during life, and thus in one and the same individual the cor-
related development of the various organs could be followed
from day to day. A result of this method was that periods
of rapid growth and relative rest could be distinguished. The
author points out that a phylogenetic significance possibly
attaches to some of the more persistent stages, such as, for
instance, that in which complete pairs of mesenteries (direct-
ives) are found at the two ends of the cesophagus, with two
pairs, each consisting of a long (complete) mesentery and a
short one, on each side of the cesophagus. ‘This condition

gg JouRNAL oF THE MircHELL SOCIETY. [ Nov.

continued unchanged for a period varying from three weeks
to three months. The author’s theoretical views as to the
meaning of this particular stage are summed up as follows:

The long retention of freedom of the fifth and sixth pairs
of protocnemes suggests to my mind an ancestry in which the
mesenteries aS a W rhole, including the metacnemes, were alter-
nately long and short, excluding, “of course, the axial directives.
Among modern examples this is retained in the mesenterial
system of the zoanthids, Porites, and Madrepora, and was
perhaps characteristic of the Rugosa.

The building up of the corallum is followed out in detail
throughout the formation of the third cycle of permanent
septa. Among the illustrations of this part of the work spec-
ial mention is due the microphotographs of macerated skeletons
of developing polyps, and the figures of living polyps with the
beginning skeleton zz sztu. Much interest attaches to Pro-
fessor Duerden’s account of the development of the septa. It
has been hitherto assumed that the septa of a new cycle
appear in the exocceles (7.'¢., the space between two pairs of
mesenteries), but are later embraced by the newly appearing
pairs of mesenteries in such wise as to lie in the entocoeles
(z. e., the space between the mesenteries of a pair). Thus the
same septa would be first exocoelic and then entoccelic. In
opposition to this scheme Duerden’s observations lead him to
the conclusion that while exosepta are formed in successive
cycles, they never become entosepta. The cycles of ento-
septa are strictly new formations, appearing as do the primary
six septa in entocoelic spaces. ‘The succession of the cycles of
exoccelic septa is maintained through the continued peripheral
bifurcation of preexisting exoccelic septa. The bifurcated
extremities become the (exoccelic) septa of a new cycle, while
the main septa is incorporated in the growing body of one of
the last formed cycle of entosepta. Having respect only to
the actual facts as observed in S7derastrea, it has been found
that any one of the permanent septa, later than the first six,
has a double origin. It is in part a new formation (entocoe-
lic), andin part a preexisting formation (exoccelic). The

79006] Witson—A REVIEW. 89

two parts fuse, and the fusion is interpreted by Professor
Duerden as the incorporation by a growing organ of the rem-
nant of a vanishing organ. Ina developing corallum according
to this view exosepta are formed at each stage of growth,
only to disappear as the permanent septa, entosepta, come
into existence. ‘Thus the development of coral septa affords
an excellent example of substitution: temporary organs pre-
cede and are replaced by permanent organs performing the
same function as the former. As a corollary to this con-
clusion the author expresses his belief that the exoseptal
predecessors of the permanent septa do not wholly disappear
in all corals, as independent structures, but persist in some
species in the shape of the Ja/z found in front of the larger
septa.

CHLORAL—«a—NAPHTHYLAMINE AND CHLORAL—
B—NAPHTHYLAMINE.

ALVIN S. WHEELER AND V. C. DANIELS.
[Ohemical Laboratory of the University of North Carolina. ]

In an attempt to prepare condensation products of chloral
with the two isomeric naphthylamines, we were able to
_ obtain the addition products only. These latter were pro-
duced when the reaction was carried out at the ordinary, or
better, somewhat reduced, temperature. If the reaction mass
was heated to one hundred degrees in order to eliminate the
elements of water and thus obtain a condensation product,
the reaction went too far and black oily substances resulted.
We studied the addition products, however, and found that
they were formed by the addition of one molecule of chloral
to one molecule of the naphthylamine. This work was done
in the spring of 1905 and since the same compounds have
recently been described [L. Rugheimer, Ber. d. deutsch
Chem. Ges. 39, 1662] we wish to record our results, although
we had intended to await further accumulation of material.

CHLORAL—a—NAPHTHYLAMINE, CC1CHOH.NHC_H.

Seven grams of chloral (M. W.=147) were dissolved in 10
cubic centimeters of cold benzene and 5 grams of e—naphthyl-
amine (M. W.=143), dissolved in 15 cubic centimeters of ben-
zene, were added slowly with constant stirring. By surround-
ing the beaker with cold water the temperature is kept suffic-
iently low. About 50 cubic centimeters of ligroin are next
added, causing a very dense white crystalline precipitate.
The yield of the dried product was 7.8 grams, the theoretical
being 10.1 grams. The melting point of the crude substance

90 Nov.

7906] WHEELER AND DANIELS—NAPTHTHYLAMINE. BL

was 89°C. Purification was effected by dissolving in as
small an amount of cold benzene as possible and precipitat-
ing with ligroin. Vigorous stirring for about ten minutes is
of considerable assistance in causing a complete precipitation.
The melting point was raised to 92°C.

The following analytical results were obtained:
I. 0.2265 gram substance was heated with 0.5908 g silver
nitrate and fuming nitric acid in a sealed tube. 11 c,c. stan-
dard ammonium sulphocyanate solution (1 c.c.=0.0173 g
AgNO.) were used in titrating the excess of AgNO.,.
II. 0.2117 g substance gave 0.3900 g CO,
Ill. 0.2117 g substance gave 0.0727 g H,O.
IV. 0.3697 g substance gave 17 c.c. nitrogen at 22°C. and
under a pressure of 756 mm.

Calculated for Found
C_,H,,ONCI1, bated Thee EVE
(@| 36.61 36.88
c 49.58 50.24
H 3.48 3.81
N 4.83 Epey-

Chloral—a—Naphthylamine is soluble in glacial acetic acid,
alcohol, and benzene and slightly soluble in ligroin and
ether. It is a white crystalline compound, the needle like
crystals collecting in bundles like sheaves of grain. It is
insoluble in water and turns black when the water is heated.
It can not be long exposed to light.

CHLORAL—#B—NAPHTHYLAMINE, CC],CHOH.NH.C,,H,

Five grams of 8—naphthylamine were dissolved in as little
ether as possible and to this solution were added 7 grams of
choral in 10 c.c. of ether. After concentrating the solution
to about 20 c.c., ligroin was added in considereble quantity.
A dense white precipitate of the addition product was imme-
diately thrown down. On account of the difficult solubility
of 8—naphthylamine in ether, too much of it was used in our
first work and the isolation of the product after the addition

oat: JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [NVov.

of ligroin was troublesome. Riigheimer uses chloroform in

place of ether in this preparation. The yield of pure sub-

stance was rather small, about 27 per cent of the theoretical.
The following analytical results were obtained:

I. 0.2289 g substance was heated with 0.6148 g silver nitrate.

1.53 c.c. of standard ammonium sulphocyanate solution (see)

above) were used to titrate the excess of silver nitrate.

II. 0.2862 g substance gave 0.2332 g CO.

III. 0.2862 g substance gave 0.0961 g H,O.

IV. 0.2912 g substance gave 12.2 c.c. nitrogen at 18°C and

under a pressure of 758 mm.

Calculated for Found
~Cr2H, ONCI, | ane WM
Cl 36.61 36.98
C 49.58 50.08
H 3.48 3.52
N 4.83 4.82

The S—isomer crystallizes in colorless needles and in the
mass is light and bulky. It is solnble in ether, benzene, and
alcohol but only slightly soluble in ligroin. It melts at 104°C
and soon decomposes on exposure to the light.

The constitution of these addition products is represented
by the following graphic formulae:

Chloral—a—naphthylamine, CCl

Vie
g
’

1906] WHEELER AND DANIELS—NAPTHTHYLAMINE. 93

Chloral—8—naphthylamine,

Chapel Hill, N. C.,
Sept. 24, 1906.

ee
Vai

JOURNAL

OF THE

EuisHaA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY

DECEMBER, 1906
VOL, XXII . NO. 4

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ELISHA MITCHELL SCIEN-
MIFIC, SOCINITEY:.

A business meeting was held on eee 27, 1905, for
the purpose of electing officers. The election resulted as fol-
lows:

H. V. Wilson, Preszdeuz.

Archibald Henderson, V2ce-Presrdeni.

F. P. Venable, Corresponding Secretary.

A. S. Wheeler, Aeecording Secretary.

Editorial Committee: W. C. Coker, Chairman, A. Hender-
son, J. EK. Latta.

The following programs were carried out during the col-
lege year, 1905-1906:

lolst Mrretinc, OcTrossr 17, 1905

Paper Making—A. S. Wheeler.
On the Formation of Regenerative Bodies in Sponges
When Kept in Confinement—//7. V. H7/soxn.

162ND MEETING, JANUARY 23, 1906.

Tropical Notes—W. ©. Coker.
A Group of Cross Ratios—A. Henderson.

Printed January 19, 1907,

96 JOURNAL OF THE MITHELI SOCIETY. [ Dec.

163RD MEETING, FEBRUARY 13, 1906.

The Epiploical Appendages— C. S. Mangum.
The Cement Gold Ores of South Dakota—/. H. Pratt.
Colloidal Solutions—F. O. &. Davis.

1647TH MEETING, MARCH 13, 1906.

President F. P. Venable addressed the society on ‘‘The
Progress of Chemical Research in the United States.”

165TH MEETING APRIL 10, 1906.

The Panama Canal—Wi/iiam Cain.

166TH MrrtTinGc May 8, 1906.

An Architectural Scheme for the University Buiidings—J.
C. Curtis.
Recent Work in Osmosis— C. HZ. /ferty.

Bustnkss MEETING, SEPTEMBER 17, 1906.

The annual business meeting was held in Room 4, in the
new Chemical Laboratory. The following officers were
elected for the coming year:

C. H. Herty—President.

W. C. Coker— Vice-President.

F. P. Venable— Corresponding Secretary,

A. S. Wheeler—/ecording Secretary.

Editorial Committee: W. C, Coker, Chairman, A. Hender-
son, J. KE. Latta.

167TH MEETING, OcTOBER 9, 1906.

Geology and Forestry in the Ducktown Region—Colher
Cobb,

7906] PROCEEDINGS oF ‘THE MrrcHELL Socirry. 97

Deforesting of the Ducktown Region by Sulphur Fumes—
Hampden Hill.
The Electric Smelting of Iron Ores—C. /7. flerty,

168TH MEETING, NoveMBER 20, 1906,

Denatured Alcohol—A. |S. Wheeler,
The Mutual Absorption of Attraction by the Attracting
Particles—/, &. Mills.

A. S. WHEELER,
Recording Secretary.

2 tae
aN]

MOLECULAR ATTRACTION. VI.

On THE Muruat NEUTRALIZATION OF THE ATTRACTION BY
THE ATTRACTED PARTICLES AND ON THE NATURE
oF ATTRACTIVE FORCES.

By-J.. Ey. Maer.

Introduction. We have in several previous papers* dis-

cussed au equation of the form,
L—E#,.

——-—— = Constant, (L isheat of vaporization of
Mi Bids a .
a liquid, 4, is the energy spent in overcoming external pres-
sure, d and Y are the densities of liquid and vapor respec-
tively). This equation was derived theoretically on the
assumption that the attraction between the molecules of a
liquid varied inversely as the square of their distance apart
and did not vary with the temperature. The equation has
now been tested for thirty-three substances over wide ranges
of temperature, (usually from near the freezing point of the
liquid to the critical temperature), and the evidence in favor
of the truth of the equation is exceedingly strong. This
evidence will be briefly reviewed later. But admitting the
truth of the equation, does it necessarily follow that the
assumed law of attraction was the true one? Could it be
possible that some other law of attraction operating either
by itself, or in connection with other energy changes would
givea similar equation? It is with this phase of the ques-
tion that the present paper is concerned, and we will
endeavor to show that the assumptions upon which the equa-

*Jour. Phys. Chem., 6, 209, (1902); 8,888, (1904); 8,598, (1904); 9,402,
(1905); 10,1, (1906).

98 [Dee,

7906] MiLt~ts—MoLEcuLaR ATTRACTION, 99

tion is based are correct, and that the equation is correctly
deduced. Having given the evidence upon this point - we
show further that the conclusion may be drawn with con-
siderable certainty that the molecular attraction is mutually
absorbed by the attracted particles. Finally our knowledge
of the laws of molecular attraction enables us to institute a
comparison with other attractive forces and obtain some very
suggestive results.

The conclusions to be drawn so closely concern our funda-
mental ideas of matter that we nay be pardoned for briefly
calling attention to laws and ideas, more or less generally
admitted, upon which the present work is based.

True FUNDAMENTAL IDEAS SERVING AS A BASIS FOR THE
PRESENT WorRE.

Our Idea of Matter. Since scientists are somewhat divided
in their belief as to the ultimate nature of matter, we would,
even though it involves repetition from a previous paper,
make clear our own position in this regard, for the question
with which we are dealing leads back to a consideration of
the nature of mass as we measure it, if not to a consideration
of the nature of matter. Because we use the term ‘‘mole-
cule”, ‘‘molecular attraction”, and ‘‘distance between the
molecules”, we do not wish to be understood as possessing
the idea that a molecule is zecessarily a little hard sphere or
some other particular shape of a piece of ‘‘something”
extended in space. In the latter part of this paper we have
something to say, (by way of speculation suggested by
the facts to be considered), regarding the possible ultimate
nature of mass. But in the present part of this paper we do
not care to consider the nature of matter. We do not care
whether it consists wholly of a ‘‘something” that possesses
the property of extension, or wholly of energy, or is a, m1x-
ture of the two. The law of gravitation has been shown to
hold between certain large masses of a thing commonly
called ‘‘matter”. If later it happens to be proved that

100 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ Dee.

matter, (in the sense of an ‘‘extended something”), is not
reality and that only energy exists, we do not suppose the
proof will greatly affect the calculations of the astronomers,
or the position of the heavenly bodies, or their movement in
accordance with the law of gravitation. The object of this
series of papers is to throw light upon the law of attraction
which exists between smaller masses of the same material of
which these larger bodies are more conspicuous representa-
tives. Following considerable precedent, we have called
these ‘‘smaller masses” molecules, a term which conveys to
every scientist a group of properties sufficiently clearly
defined for the purpose in view. By the expression ‘‘distance
between the molecules”, we mean the distance between their
centers of mass—an expression exactly analogous to the dis-
tance between two heavenly bodies. The ‘‘center of mass”
is therefore a mathematical point, determined by the same
principles that would be used for large masses. The term
“molecular attraction” indicates a force which can be regarded
as having its origin at the mathematical point thus deter-
mined. Weare accordingly entirely free from any assumption
as to the size of the particles (molecules), their nature, or
the ultimate cause of the force. What we really assume is,
that-in nature certain forces act as though they proceeded from
mathematical points, and we clothe these mathematical
points with the name ‘‘molecule”.

The Kinetic Theory of Gases. It is by no means necessary
for us to point out how the laws of gases discovered by
Boyle and Gay Lussac, and the simple relations connecting
the densities of gases, discovered by Gay Lussac, but stated
_ most clearly in the terms of Avogardro’s hypothesis, that equal
volumes of all gases contain the same number of molecules,
are explained by the kinetic theory of gases. Nor how
this theory similarly explains Dalton’s law for the pres-
sure of mixed gases and Henry’s law governiug the solution
of a gas in a liquid. Nor how the theory lead Clark Max-
well to the discovery of the law governing the viscosity of

7906] Miits—MoLEcuLaR ATTRACTION. 101

gases, and Waterston to the simple relation existing between
the two specific heats of a gas. Van der Waals theory also
is a fruit of the kinetic theory, and indeed the kinetic theory
has been the stimulus and the guide to much of the work
upon both liquids and gases. We do not believe that there
are many chemists who will object to the acceptance of the
kinetic theory of gases as a basis for further work.

According to the kinetic theory of gases we may regard
the total energy of a gaseous molecule as being the sum of
certain amounts of energy which may be quite clearly differ-
entiated from each other. We would distinguish thése ener-
gies as follows:

I. The chemical energy, or energy of combination of the
atoms constituting the molecules. It can be shown, inde-
pendently of theory, that the molecule must possess this
energy at the absolute zero of temperature,—273°C. (We do
not suppose that all motion ceases at this temperature. Just
what part of the motion ceases is perhaps even yet a matter
of doubt). To prove this proposition we will consider the
reaction.

2.016 grams hydrogen (gas) + 16.00 grams oxygen (gas) =
18.016 grams water (liquid).

The amount of heat evolved by this reaction, when taking
place at 18°C has been measured by Thomsen and found to
be 68420 calories. Now the total amount of heat necessary
to raise hydrogen and oxygen from the absolute zero to 18°C
can be ascertained from the following data.

_ Hydrogen Oxygen

Melting point 14, {0 ‘Travers Below 50° Travers
Boiling point 20.41 ‘Travers 90.20 Travers
Specific heat of solid 23 Cals. |[Kopp 0.25 Cals ‘Kopp

\ Estimated
Specific heat of liquid 6.00 * ) Dewar 0.347 “ JAlE
Specific heat of gas 3.410 *° Wiedemann 0.2175 ‘“ Regnault

\ Estimated
Heat of Fusion 16.0 _/ Dewar 4.9 ‘Estimated

Heat of Vaporization 125,0 st Dewar 150.92 ‘* |AIt

102 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [Dee.

The specific heat of ice is given as 0.4627 by Regnault and
the heat of fusion of ice as 79.9 calories by Smith.

If to the energy added to the substance as specific heat of
the solid, liquid, and gas, respectively, there be added the
heat of fusion and the heat of vaporization, we will obtain the
total heat required to raise the body from the absolute zero
of temperature to the chosen temperature, in this case to
18°C. We have therefore for the total energy necessary to
raise the temperature from 0° absolute to 18°C for,

2.016 grs. of hydrogen == 2286 calories.
16.00 grs. of oxygen == 20> s
18.016 grs, of water == 3865 7%

The values given are probably maximum values and not
very far from the truth except in the case of water, where we
think the value would probably be considerably too large,
due to the use of the specific heat for ice as found by
Regtiault between —78° and 0°C as representative of the aver-
age specific heat of ice, -273° to 0°. The value of the specific
heat, judging from analogy, probably decreases as the tem-
perature is decreased.

It appears therefore that in raising the 2.016 grams of
hydrogen and the 16.00 grams of oxygen from the absolute
zero to 18°C only 4301 calories of energy were required, while
at this temperature 68420 calories were given out when they
combined. Since the water formed possesses about 3865
calories of energy, it follows that the hydrogen and oxygen
possessed at least 67984 calories of chemical energy at the
absolute zero. Further, since only. the difference between
the chemical energy of the 7, and (,o0n the one hand and of
the H,O on the other, is ascertained, we cannot make any
statement as to the actual amount of chemical energy pos-
sessed by the /7, and Q, at the absolute zero. Wecan only
say that it is certainly not Jess than 67984 calories. It may
be many times more.

It follows from the above that the chemical energy has

aero

Siar EE

7906 | Mii.1s—MOoLEcuLar ATTRICTION. 103

been either entirely unaffected by the change in temperature
of 291°, or has been affected only in a very minor degree.
For a stable chemical body, where the change in temperature
is not large, we have little hesitation in saying that the
chemical energy, /° , of the body is a constant.

ee, = constant.

We will return later to a further discussion of the chemi-
cal energy.

2. The Translational or Kinetic Energy of the Molecule.
This energy for any particular molecule is equal to % the
mass of the molecule multiplied by the square of its velocity.
It follows from the well known investigation of Clerk Max-
well that the velocities of the different molecules of a gas
vary somewhat, but the variation is confined within rather
narrow limits and only very few of the molecules have a velo-
city greatly above or greatly below the average molecular
velocity. This theorem of Maxwell regarding the distribu-
tion of velocity among the molecules of a gas has been
proved with strictness for the supposition that the molecules
act on each other only at the moment of collision. For such
a condition, using the constants adopted in former papers,
the sum of the translational energy, Ex, of all of the mole-
cules can be represented by,

&.
Meee a of fe 2981 7 calories.
m
where 7 is the absolute temperature, and #7 is the mole-
cular weight referred to oxygen — 16.00 ag standard.

It has never been shown that the translational energy of a
molecule, when the molecule is subject to attractive force,
can be calculated by this formula and the formula is there-
fore proven (with assumption of the kinetic theory) only for
so-called ‘perfect’ ’gases.

3. The Internal Energy of a Molecule. Experiments have
shown that the specific heat of a gas at constant pressure 1s
nearly a constant over considerable ranges of temperature. The

104 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL SOCIETY. [ Dee.

variation from absolute constancy appears to be due to varia-
tions from the gas laws, when the gases examined are far
removed trom the condition designated as ‘‘perfect” gases, and
also to certain progressive changes taking place within the.
molecule as the temperature is raised—the progressive changes
finally ending inthe decomposition of the molecule. The meas-
urements therefore make it very probable that for a perfect
gas, and one that is chemically stable, (that is, one in which
the chemical energy does not change with the temperature),
the specific heat at constant pressure would be a constant.

But for such gases the law, PV = F7, holds true, and
consequently, dV = Ad7, which for a change of one
degree gives, Pdv = Fr. Ifo, ando, denote the specific
heat at constant pressure atid constant volume respectively,
we have,

S: Tp bay oy —_— ie.

If the increase in the translational energy of the molecules
of any gas be subtracted from the specific heat at constant
volume of the gas, a certain residue remains, (equal to zero
for monatomic gases), which we shall consider as being due
to a change in the internal energy, /£; , of a molecule. We
will have, therefore,

dk, dk;
Se Pee +. = Constant.
re ad aT:

True strictly only for a ‘‘perfect” gas.
Now from the theory by Waterson,

ERNE, 4 aN ALO ge

Sp Se , aT being equal to1°C. ©
CT, adF&;, = dk;
Wherefore substituting for A its value, 734;,, and solving,
5 — Pe sy (ill
6. FE; = ——— & = 2.9817 |

—— | — Calories.
Pr Lyi do on

7906] Mrtits—MorecuLar ATTRACTION. 105

The internal energy in a perfect gas ts therefore proportional
to the translational energy.

The exact function of the internal energy required by a
molecule has never been satisfactorily explained, but the fact
that it is proportional to the translational energy leads to the
belief that the internal energy is a direct consequence of the
translational energy It should be understood however,
that equation 6 embodtes.no assumption whatever regarding
the internal energy. ‘That it is proportional to the transla-
tional energy follows necessarily, if the specific heat at
constant volume is a constant andif the gas law, PV = AT,
holds true. Nor will the possibility that this internal energy is
merely the rate of change of,(the differential of), the chemical
energy with the temperature, in any way affect our conclusion.

The data upon the specific heat of gases cannot be dis-
cussed briefly. Much of the data is given and discussed in
Meyer’s Kinetic Theory of Gases and in Nernst’s Theoretische
Chemie. Reference must be made to these or similar works
for the actual data showing the constancy of the specific
heat under the conditions set forth above.

4. The Energy of Position Due to the Attraction between
the Molecules.

It is the purpose of this series of papers to show that thts
potential energy is due to an attractive force emanating from
each molecule—that this force varies inversely as the square
of the distance apart of the molecules—is mutually neutralized
by the attracting particles—and is unaffected by temperature
changes. We will later deduce the law governing this
energy.

5. The Energy of Volume Due to the External Pressure.
This energy, it is evident, is measured simply by the pressure
times the volume. Denoting this energy by &. we have,

7. Ee = 0.0,41833PV calories,

Where FP is expressed in millimeters of mercury. The
constants used have been given iu previous papers.

We can regard a perfect gas as a gas in which there is no

106 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [Dee.

energy due to attraction and therefore the energy of such a
gas could be represented thus:—

8. SE = Fe neinieal + Ee einctie = Po internuat == Eivcternate

We can also regard a perfect gas as one in which the mole-
cules are so far removed from each other that their mutual
attraction has no appreciable effect in modifying the motions

of the particles. Such a gas would still possess potential

energy due to the attraction and we would therefore have,

9. >a == FF Ghenieal ai ERinetic =- Sorina = Lo xipaemee +
tetera -

We could differentiate between the chemical energy as
being a function of the atoms, the kinetic, internal, and
attractive energies, as being a function of the molecule, and
the external energy as being a function of the mass. The
internal energy may be only the differential of the chemical
energy with respect to the temperature, and consequently, be
more directly a function of the atoms.

Equations 8 and 9 represent the condition of things in a
perfect gas. If we now consider a saturated vapor or a
liquid, where the molecules are so close together that the gas
laws are not obeyed. it is evident from what has already
been said that /, is, if the body be chemically stable, the
same as for that substance when existing as a perfect gas.
The value for the external energy can be readily calculated,
independently of assumptions, save the first law of thermody-
namics. ‘The internal energy, /;, is, we have seen, propor-
tional to the translational energy, A;,, and it is highly
improbable that this proportionality would be destroyed by
the nearness of the molecules and their increased mutual
attraction. The kinetic energy of the molecules might itself
be altered, equation 2 having been proved to hold only for a
perfect gas. But where mathematical proof is lacking,
experimental evidence has taken its place. Since Van’t
Hoff showed that for undissociated dissolved substances the
osmotic pressure given by a dissolved substance was equal to

7906 | Mir1s—MoLecuLrar ATTRACTION. 107

the pressure that the dissolved substance would exert
were it a gas at that volume and temperature, it has been
very probable that the osmotic pressure was due to the same
cause as the gas pressure viz:—the motion of the dissolved
particles, and therefore, the kinetic energy of the dissolved
substance is the same that it would be for a gas under the
same conditions of temperature and volume.

The molecules of the dissolved substance could not have an
average kinetic energy different from the average kinetic
energy of the molecules of the solvent, a fact long ago pointed
out by Ostwald*. Therefore it seems probable that equation
2 holds also for liquids.

(The work of Morse and Frazer} shows that the theory of
Van’t Hoff needs some modification, and the work of Kahlcn-
berg{ is in evidence against the theory. We would, as
regards the work of Kahlenberg, point ont that his experi-
ments numbers 53, 59 and 60 show that the dissolved
substance was obeying Boyle’s law for gases, (as concerns
concentrations), and experiment 53 was performed without
stirring. Also the manometer tube attached to Kahlenberg’s
osmotic cell, as given by him, was only of 0.5 mm. bore, and
consequently, to produce a rise of 50 cms. in his manometor
tube only “oe of a cubic centimeter of liquid needed to enter
the cell. The amount of ZzC7/ leaving the cell was 0.0130
and 0.0267 and of cane sugar 0.1149 and 0.2205 grams and he
osmotic pressure is determined by the relative rate of inflow and
outflow. It seems to us possible, also, that thermometer
effects of the cell were not wholly elimitated from influenc-
ing the results. We would not therefore, as yet, abandon
Van’t Hoff’s theory and its results as a reason for believing
that equation 2 holds also for liquids and that the average
kinetic energy of the molecules of a liquid is equal to the

*Solutions, p. 147, 148.
+Amer. Chem. Jour. 34, 1, 1905,
tJour. Phys. Ohem., 10, 3, 141, (1906).

108 JouRNAL oF THE MITCHELT. SocrRry. [ Dec.

average kinetic energy of the molecules of its vapor at the
same temperature).

Further Traube finds that his ‘‘co-volume” for liquids
varies as the absolute temperature™.

We give additional evidence bearing on the truth of
equation 2 later in this paper.

If it be granted, then, that equation 2 holds also for liquids
and for saturated vapors, the energy of a molecule of a vapor
differs from the energy of a molecule of a liquid only because
of changes in &, and &.. The latter change is easily cal-
culated and we can therefore obtain a measure of the former
—the energy change due to the attraction.

Expressing the above belief in a different form we may say
that the energy necessary to change a liquid into a gas must,
then, be spent solely in overcoming. the external pressure and
in altering the distance apart of the molecules. (Unless the
molecule breaks apart also or nears the point of disruption).
Denoting the heat of vaporization by Z and the energy
necessary to overcome the external pressure during the
change from liquid to gas by Ar, lL. — A. must equal the
energy spent in overcoming the molecular attraction.

DERIVATION OF THE EQUATION.

The derivation of the equation expressing the energy due
to the molecular force as given in the first paper of this series
was not carried out with strictness and we therefore give
below a proof which we believe to be mathematically rigorous.

Let v and V represent the volume of the liquid and vapor
before and after expansion, and d and DP represent the cor-
responding densities. Let 2 equal the number of molecules
and m the mass of each molecule. Suppose the molecules
evenly distributed throughout the space occupied by them.

*Numerous papers Among others: J. Traube, Grundrissd. Phys. Chem.,
Boltzman, Festschrift (1904). Sammlung Chemischer und Ohemisch—
teohniecher Vortraege IV, 255.

ne ee
ee

~
ee

SE ee ee ee

1906 | Mii1is—MorkcuLar ATYRACTION. 109

Then

and the 10
n n
represent the relative distance apart of the molecules of liquid
and vapor respectively.

Itis highly improbable that the molecules of a liquid are
evenly distributed throughout the space occupied by them
But if they are shifted from their ideal position by reason of
the attractive force, the particles would gain in kinetic
energy exactly so much as -they would lose in potential
energy. We may therefore, without error, consider them to
be shifted back into this ideal position of even distribution,
and the fundamental supposition upon which the mathema-
tical work given below is based, is, that the molecules of a
liquid and the molecules of its vapor have fer se, (exclusive
of &, and &, ), the same energy when they ure in this tdeal
position of even distribution throughout the space occupied
by them.

If this supposition represents truly the condition of the
molecular energy, then it is possible to find the law govern-
ing the forces which act between the molecules. For we
have only to assume the law and deduce the corresponding
equation. If the deduced equation fails to agree with the
experimental facts then another law could be assumed and
the process repeated until the correct supposition had been
made. :

We will assume that the molecular attraction varies inversely
as the square of the distance apart of the molecules and is a
mutual property of each pair of molecules. Hence the force

pom

~2

7

where »« is the attraction at unit distance on unit mass, and 7
is the distance apart of the molecules whose mass is
Tepresented by m.

110 JOURNAL OF THE MrTcHELL Socrety. [ Dee.

If now we consider two molecules whose distance apart is
XV ve

before expansion, (vaporization), after expansion their dis-
tance apart will be ’

r

DG pee

Vt

and the work done in pulling them apart will be,

Rn ar |i) ape a: io 4h

where x is an unknown constant. If we in turn consider
the work, W., done in pulling all of the molecules away from
one molecule, and sum up. we will have, similarly,

[ itt a)
11 W, = me | oe — oe | +
ee eet lla
ee ee
Oe oe eae x4

If now we take any other molecule and similarly sum up
the energy, W,, required to pull all of the molecules away

from it, we have for the work so done,

1 1 1 1a
Edis Heme is Geran eo |
ae Le ee Maas

By similarly extending the process to the other molecules,
each considered in turn as a center, we will obtain a series of
similar expressions, 7 in number. ‘The last factor of each
member of the series depends only upon the number of the
molecules m,, and is entirely independent of the nature of the

7906 | Miiis—Mo.EcuLar ATTRACTION. 111

molecules or of the forces. We may, therefore, denote this

Pemeaccor in the diferent series by 6,\\6.)) 0.5). 2 xs 0s. ln.s
Summing up the entire 7 series of equations we will have,
ee st Wate We ee a Wy
] 1
We pe 3 tha PY na ae Sia ae €, Pa NGM sige pe tage es ale
n vt

The last factor of this equation is a constant if the num-
ber of molecules remains the same. Let C represent this
constant. * We have then for the total work of expansion, IW,

i 1
Ba WV == mp EY a ae Oy

nu n
Equation 14 gives the entire energy required to pull all of
the molecules from each other as vaporization proceeds. It
must therefore equal the internal heat of vaporization and
we have for mass 7,

1 NAR
Deen e —— Fe.) == a? C Fy eines w
; NIN ° “nm
Letting ¢@ == gy I ee > WM = am, we have,
v V
ML — ££.) Mew? C
16. - - = ——-—
ea — a TE Te va m
or for a constant mass,
Th hae ees
e's - —=||\Constant,

Ni. s
yoa— vin
The constant of equation 17 we shall call p’
(In the previous derivation of this equation 17, we assumed,
6 = 6 = ..... = Cy, a fact which is experimentally

true, but which is contradictory to the law of attraction
assumed, if the latter is unmodified. Also we regarded the

2 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELI, SOCIRTY. [ Dec.

entire attraction in each case as proceeding from one mole-
cule and being measured by
pn

7?
instead of being a mutual property of the two molecules and

being measured by
heme

i
See further below).

EVIDENCE PROVING THE EQUATION,

The evidence proving that

1s a wy
va — YD

is equal to a constant, has been given in the second, third
and fifth papers of this series. We would only summarize
here by saying that thirty-five substances have now been
examined, at intervals of 10°C, over wide ranges of tempera-
ture, extending usually from near the boiling point of the
substance to the critical temperature, Within ten degrees of
the critical temperature there is an apparent divergence due
to causes shown. Omitting these observations out of 435
remaining observations on 26 different substances only thirty
differed from the mean value of the constant for that sub-

stance by more than two per cent and only four of these
thirty by more than five per cent. The reason for most of

these divergences is suspected and investigation will be made
of them later. Of the remaining substances, CO,, VO, and
SO,, gave probably as good agreement as the data permitted.
Five other substances were associated and showed, as was to
be expected, a divergence from a constant value for the con-
stant, and .SvC/, likewise showed a divergence. The
evidence in favor of the truth of the equation is therefore

== a

1906 | Miiis—MorkcuLar ATTRACTION. 113

most convincing. ‘That the equation itself is true can hardly
be doubted when the evidence is examined. But does it
follow that the assumed law of attraction is the true one?

Tur NeurraLIzATION OF THE ATTRACTION BY THE ATTRACTED
PARTICLES.

The answer to this question is of great interest. For it
the attraction between the molecules varies inversely as the
square of their distance apart, then the resultant attraction
caused by the large number of molecules must apparently
increase as we proceed outward from an interior centrally
chosen particie. This follows because the number of mole-
cules increases as the cube of the distance from the centrally
chosen molecule, whereas the attraction varies ouly inversely
as the square of that distance. Hence the resultant attrac-
tion of any mass upon a particle exterior to the mass, when
regarded as proceeding from the center of that mass, must
vary as the mass.

The molecular sphere of action could not, therefore, be
small but would embrace the entire mass taken. Now we
regard the evidence that the molecular sphere of action is
small, as being beyond dispute and will not attempt here to
give the evidence for this idea. But we will point out that
the derived equation 16, itself bears evidence that we have in
previous papers been considering only one phase of the
question. ‘lhe equation was given in the form,

WEE ih.) Mec

7p ad i Oy ny m
where (7 represents the mass of liquid taken for the vaporiza-
tion. Now in the test of the equation, the number of mole-
cules was assumed constant, and this was justifiable, since it
would be experimentally possible to have them constant.
But should they vary, we know experimentally that the left
hand side of the equation varies simply with the mass taken,

114 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL Socterry. [ Dec.

While the right hand side of the equation varies, not alone
because of the variation thus caused in JZ, but also because
of the variation caused at the same time in C and in z.
Since C is function of 7, it might be supposed, as one occurs
in the numerator and the other in the denominator, that the
variation would cancel. We have not succeeded in summing
up the 7(#z —vz ) terms represented by the Cof equation 16,
but che relation of C to 7 can be obtained by ate the
problem somewhat differently,

Helmholtz in 1854 investigated the amount of energy that
would be given out by the contraction of the sun in order to
determine if the energy continually radiated from that body
could be thus obtained. In this investigation he assumed
that the particles of which the sun was composed were at
the same temperature before as after the contraction, the
excess of energy having been radiated off into space. He
also assumed that the force acting between the particles of
the sun’s mass obeyed the Newtonian law of gravitation.
Hence the investigation was essentially the same as the one
above carried out. But Helmholtz made possible a better —
mathematical treatment by the assumption that the sun was “_
homogeneous in density. We take the liberty of giving
below the investigation as given by Helmholtz*.

‘‘Consider a homogeneous gaseous sphere whose radius is
fe, and density o. Let 7, represent its mass. Let dm represent
an element of mass taken anywhere in theinterior or at the
surface of the sphere. Let /¢ be the distance of dm from the
center of the sphere, and let 47 represent the mass of the
sphere whose radius is /’. The element Ot mass in polar coor-
dinates 1s,

18. dM = oF’ cosbdododle.

The element is subject to the attraction of the whole
sphere within it. As can shown. the attraction of the spher- —
ical shell outside of it balances in opposite directions so that

*Oelestial Mechanics. Moulton, p. 58.

1906 | MiLtLs—MoLkEcuLAR ATTRACTION. 115

it need not be considered in discussing the forces acting upon
aM. Every element in the infinitesimal shell whose radius
is 7 is attracted towards the center by a force equal to that
acting on d//: therefore the whole shell may be treated at
once. Let d//, represent the mass of the elementary shell
whose radius is A. It is found by integrating 18 with
respect tof and ¢. ‘Thus,

2r ib
Ha, = chdle | : cospad ta = 4rohdh.
T
0 ie
Ie MaM,
The force to which d//, is subjected is — ——-——.
Shad

The elemetit of work done in moving d//, through the ele-
ment of distance df is
Le M
aw, = —dM,-—-—dR.
fe

The work done in moving the shell from the distance CR to
R is the integral of this expression between the limits C?
and A’, or

A ab Be aM, K?M/C -— 1
W, = —dM, k?M — = —- ——-— }.
BY SOY oa Rr é
But / = ‘ wo/?; hence substituting the value of di/, from

equation 19 and representing the work done on the elementary
shell by W, = dW, it follows that

C-—1
dW = “wen ——"*)ieur
G.
The integral of the expression from O to A, gives the total
amount of work done in the contraction of the homogeneous
sphere from radius CR, to X,. That is

116 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society. [ Dec.

C—Z RP, C—r
20. W= “90° A{ —— RdR =" x0 K{ —— ) Rs
6 O . C

which may be written

1 1
1. W= eM. — = =)
FU a

o

Now if the contraction takes place between the limits
y rv je and =

we have for the work done,

1 1
22. W= eM Fe ig var ) a
Arr An
0.968242 14 a — D)
Comparing this expression with equation 14 we have only
to replace the attraction at unit distance between the ele-
ments of mass, by the molecular attraction at unit distance

and observe that
C = 0.968225

if the mass were of uniform density throughout. We cannot
see how the transformation from a sphere of uniform density
to one of uniformly distributed particles could effect any
change in the energy relations involved. We would there-
fore write:
M ( L—E, )
23. ——————— = 0. 9682p* 7%
vYa—-wvyDd
So long as a constant mass is taken the equation will

reduce to the form,
L-E£E.

Ya-/D
If, however, the mass be varied, the equation informs us that
the work done should vary as the five-thirds power of

— Ot Ss battL.

1906] Mir.t.s—MoLEcuLAR ATTRACTION, 117
the mass. It should require three and two-tenths
times as much heat to vaporize two grams of a liquid as to
vaporize one gram. As a matter of fact, we know that
it only requires twice as much heat to vaporize two grams
as to vaporize one gram. How is this discrepancy to be
explained?

In attacking this problem we would call attention to the
fact that the equation,

L—E,

Ya—PvD

== CONStallr

does correctly represent the variation of the euergy change
caused by the attraction with the distance, as is shown by
the evidence accumulated in previous papers and as indicated
in the brief summary above. It seems reasonable therefore
to suspect the cause of the variation to be due to the numer-
ator of the function representing the law of the force,

owe

a?
and not the denominator.

If now, we study the action of other attractive forces, such
as magnetic forces, we find an explanation of the apparent
contradiction at once suggested. The magnetic force varies
directly as the product of the strengths of the poles and
inversely as the square of their distance apart. But the inter-
position of a piece of sheet iron into the magnetic field
between the magnet and the attracted particles serves to cut
off the attraction, more or less completely, from the formerly
attracted particles. Whether we look upon the interposed
sheet of iron as actually absorbing the force, or as merely
changing the direction of the lines of force, is not essential,
the result at least is clear—particles beyond the interposed
sheet are subject to less attraction because of the interposi-
tion. So if we were to imagine a magnetized particle of iron
surrounded by other particles of iron, evenly distributed, and

118 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ Dec.

similarly magnetized, the attraction would vary inversely
as the square of the distance apart of the particles and yet
the sphere of action of any particular particle would be small,
due to the shielding action of the particles. And it seems to
us that we may have here an exact representation of molecu-
lar attraction.

There is much indirect evidence to support such a conclu-
sion. The attraction designated as chemical affinity is-
mutually absorbed by the combining bodies. At least the
force is canceled by the combination so far as its effect on
other particles is concerned. The combination of one sodium
atom with one chlorine atom certainly serves to shield other
bodies from the attractions of both the sodium and the chlo-
rine, rendering them ina large measure chemically inert.
And this action is commonly represented by saying that the
‘‘hond” of the sodium is neutralized or saturated by the
‘‘hond” of the chlorine. As we have just mentioned, a simi-
lar effect happens with magnetic forces. If electrical forces
be considered we find again the same to be true. And if we
undertake to consider yet more closely the nature of attrac-
tions in general, is it not apparent, that, whatever the ulti-
mate nature of the attractive force may be, yet it cannot be
infinitely multiplied? That just so much force must emanate
from each particle, and if this force is exerted on one particle
there will be somewhat less of the force remaining for the
remaining particles. /s zt nol unreasonable to suppose thata
particle could exert its attractive pull upon one thousand, or one
million, or one hundred million, particles and yet always have
just as much of its force remaining to exert on other particles
brought within the same distance? We are not confusing force
andenergy. Cana man by means of a rope exert the same
pull on each of twenty other men that he could exert on one
man? Does not each stress exerted lessen by just so much
the power of a man to exert a similar pull upon other things?
Can we multiply, ad imfinitum, any force about whose real
nature we know anything at all, merely by the introduction

7906 | M1Lt~ts—Mo.LecuLaR ATTRACTION. 119

of further objects upon which the force can be exerted? Is
there any form of wave motion, vibration or emanation,
known, whose effect can be thus infinitely increased?

Look at the question from the other side. Is it reasonable,
that the introduction of particles of matter into the space
surrounding a molecule chould be absolutely without influ-
ence on the emanation which proceeds from the molecule and
gives rise to the phenomena of attraction? And that this
filling in of the space surrounding a molecule with other
particles of matter (or centers of energy, if you choose)
should be able to continue, ad infinitum, without disturbing
the attractive radiation proceeding from the body?

Moreover the mere fact that all of the attractive forces,
whose law of variation with the distance we know; do vary
inversely as the square of the distance from the attracting
body, ¢s evidence, that the attractive force ts in each case some
sort of wave motion or emanation whose intensity decreases
directly in proportion to the increase tn the surface of the wave
or emanation front, since and because this surface varies as
the square of its distance from the origin. Can we, on the one
hand,believe that the intensity of these forces thus decreases,
and on the other, consider them unmodified by the presence
of matter and capable of infinite multiplication by the intro-
duction of additional matter into an infinite range of action?

In place of such a conception we would introduce the idea
that the attractive forces, whatever their nature, whether
chemical, molecular, magnetic, electrical, or gravitational,
which proceed from a particle, are definite in amount. Tf this

attraction is exerted upon another particle the amount of the

attraction remaming to be exerted upon other particles ts dimin-
ished by an exactly equivalent amount.

We are of course aware that no such diminution of the
attraction is supposed, or is supposed possible, for gravita-
tional forces. That certain facts have led to the belief,
difficult of conception as it may be, that this force attracts
every particle of matter in the universe exactly as if no other

120 JOURNAL OF THE MITHELL SOCIETY. [ Dec.

particle of matter were present. And that these facts would
at once be urged as contradicting the above statement as to
the attractive forces. We would answer by calling attention
in detail to the evidence in favor of the above idea.

FurRTHER EVIDENCE REGARDING THE MOLECULAR ATTRACTION

As regards the molecular attraction the conclusions cited
above have been based on evidence which, for purposes of
examination, may conveniently be divided into five steps as
follows:—

1. The equality of the energy fev se of the molecules of a
liquid and of the molecules of its vapor at the same tempera-
ture. That is & + &, + &; for a molecule of a liquid
equals & + A, + &; for a molecule of its vapor, the dif-
ference in their energy consisting of a difference in /y and

ae

2. The assumption that the attraction was a mutual pro-
perty of each pair of molecules, varying directly as the mass
of the molecules, (so long as the same chemical body is con-
sidered), and inversely as the square of the distance apart of
the molecules, Later modified by 5 below.

3. The derivation of an equation expressing the energy rela-
tions necessitated by the above two conditions.

4. The experimental evidence deduced in favor of the
equation.

5. The facts leading to the supposition that the molecular
attraction is mutually absorbed by the attracting particles.

Examining these steps separately, let us see which are
open to doubt. Considering first the fourth—the experi-
mental evidence in favor of the equation—we would here add
nothing new. But we would put one portion of the evidence
in amore striking form. We will use the equation derived
by Helmholtz in 1854 as expressing the energy given out by

7900 | Mitis—MoLrcuLaR ATTRACTION. 121
9

the contraction of the sun, to calculate the energy given out
by the Contraction of isopentane from a gas to a liquid.
The equation of Helmholtz has been given, equation 22, and
is, for a change of volume corresponding to a change of den-
sity from J to d,

22. W = 0.9682A°Ms4(p/a — WD)

To apply the equation to one gram of isopentane we have
only to substitute for the constant in the above equation, the
value for this constant that we have already found, 105.4.
The equation then becomes,

24. W = 105.4(/d — pr D).

We give below in Table 1 the data and the results. The
values given by equation 24 are in the column headed W.
Under the heading 2 — £&, we give the values of the inter-
nal heat of vaporization as actually determined from Young’s
measurements. It is inconceivable to us that the agreement

between Wand Z — &. could be accidental.
TABLE 1
Temper-| Density of | Density of | ,.— = | S
ature | liquid | vapor Pra ach oD) eae
0° UO, 6382 .001090 7585 rt ig 81.8
20 6196 | 002358 | 7194 75.8 | 75.2
40 5988 004480 6781 ee tel 70.7
60 5769 OOTSL9 .6340 66.8 66.4
80 | 9540 .01284 O8TL G9 61.8
TOO! | 5278 =| .02022 | 53857 56.4 56.7
IO | 4991 | 03106 4788 50.5 50.9
P40; yi) 4642 .04728 4127 | 43.5 44.0
160 4206 WenOReso) 5.) 8316 | 349 | 35.4
180 .B498 | 1258 .2085 Hae ye ea 21.0
Taba | 3142 1574 1399 14.7 | 14.0
187 2857 .1838 .0905 9.5 | 8.8
187.4 2761 .1951 .O712 7.5 6.9
0.0 0.0

187.8 2348 23438 0.0

The formula used by Helmholtz to represent the contraction
of the sun does represent the contraction of tsopentane from the
gascous to the liquid condition. And not only isopentane but
essentially as well all of the non-associated substances ex-

122 JOURNAL OF THE MitrcHELL SOCIETY. [ Dec.

amined byus. For we have already published* similar compar-
tsons for all of these substances, the only difference being that we
added to the energy viven out by the contraction, the value
of the energy due to the action of the external pressure, and
thus obtained the heat of vaporization. We have here
republished the results for isopentane as coming from Helm-
holtz’ formula only to emphasize the statement that we have
not gone beyond the facts when we declare that, as regards
vartation with the distance, the law of molecular attraction ts
identically the same as the law of gravitation, and precisely the
same formula is applicable to both.

The formula is,

25.) isa, =p ee,
where »’ has the meaning assigned previously in this and
earlier papers.

As regards the third step mentioned above—the derivation
of the equation—we can detect no flaw in the proof given by
the author, or the proof given by Helmholtz, the basis of the
mathematics as expressed in steps 1 and 2 being granted.

As regards the second: step—the assumption of the law
of the attraction—the fact that a true equation was
deduced, entirely theoretically, from the assumption, is the
surest evidence that the assumed law was the true one. One
point remains to be examined here. Could any other law of
attraction have produced the same equation, or one equally in
accord with the ‘facts? -

To satisfy ourselves upon this point we have in a similar
manner deduced the corresponding equations on the assump-
tion that the attraction varied as the third, the fourth, the
fifth, and the sixth, powers of the distance ‘between the mole-
cules. These equations would take the form:—

For the inverse third power of the distance,

*See third paper of this series, Tables 1 to 21, and fifth paper, Tables 15 to
24.

7906 | Miiys—MoLkcuLar ATYPRACTION. 123

ML fea] Ee)
26. - = 0.4841y*?/*s = Constant for a constant
d% — DY
mass.
For the inverse fourth power of the distance,
ML — -.)
Bie —-—— = 0.32274°4 = Constant for a constant
d— D
mass.

For the inverse fifth power of the distance,

ML — ELE.)
28. = 0.2420p? 7% = Constant for a constant
ds: — D*%
mass.

For the inverse sixth power of the distance,

M(L — FE)
29. a = 0.19364’? 4742 — Constant for a constant
ds — D%
mass.

Applying these equations to isopentane, the constant given

ft
by equation 26 is shown im the column headed — the constant
r
1
given by equation 27 in the column headed — etc. The val-
r*

ues at the critical temperature, 187.8°C, were obtained by
substituting for 7 — AY its value,

dP
esieza Vea Wi Bh
af

and getting the limit of the resulting equation where V was
eqaul tov. ‘The resulting equations are,
For the lamit of equation 26,

dP
30. Constant = .0477V%| —-T — P
aT

124 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ Dec.

For the limit of equation 27,

dP
S02) 3 Coustant — .0,31833.V%q —_f
dT

For the limit of equation 28,

ar
For the limit of equation 29,

GP
33... Constant = .0,191V% (=P — )
ai,
The critical temperature is 187.8°C, the critical pressure is
25020 millimeters of mercury, the critical volume is 4.268, and
dP

the —— at the critical temperature is 406, from the measure-
dT

ments by Dr. Sydney Young.

It will be seen that when the equation is deduced on the
assumption that the attraction varics inversely as the square
of the distance apart of the molecules a conslant is obtained,
and on no other supposition does the corresponding equation
give a constant. It is evident therefore that no simple change
in the assumption as to the variation of the attraction with the
distance will serve to explain the fact that the heat of vapor-
zzation does vary proportionately to the mass taken.

dP
Be.) Coustant ==).0 239 VT ir,

TABLE 2—ISoPpENTANE.

| | ae a 1
Tempera- | | }— |} — | — | — | —
ql ere L--£. | d@ | D.| FWP AP 1 ee

0°O.! 81.35) .6892; 001090) 107.2; 111.2 127.6) 147.8) 171.5

50 | «68 62} .5881; 005967) 104.5 102.6 117.9 139.6) 166.3

100 56.67) .5278 02022 | 105.8 979 111.6 1346 165.1

150 40.13) 4445, 05834 106.9 92.9 104.0 126.7 160.5

180 91.04 8498 1268 108.4 85.7, 93.9 1A T 148A

187.8 | 0.01 2844! .9344 | 1072) 86.9] 94.0 1144! 1488

7906 | Mitis—MorkcuLar ATTRACTION. 125

The law of the attraction assumed, seems, therefore, to be
the only assumption that will give an equation in accord with
the facts.

As regards now the first step—the equality of the energy
per se of a molecule of a liquid and of a molecule of its vapor
—we have already stated in outline the facts which led us
tothat belief. ‘This first step is the most fundamental and
important step in our work and is perhaps the most open to
doubt. The fact that using this belief as a basis we derived
an equation that appears to be true, is, perhaps, again the
best evidence that the belief, expresses, at least partly, the
truth. But only in part, for in attempting to derive a direct
method for testing this belief we find that it will require
some modification, An account of this work could not be
introduced within the limits of this paper and we hope shortly
to publish this investigation in a separate article. Recog-
nizing the doubt, we would state that any errors introduced
by our statemeut have undoubtedly canceled, since one is
certainly able to calculate the energy given out by the con-
traction of vapor into a liquid from the same formula used to
calculate the energy given out by the contraction of the sun.

As regards now the fifth step—the conclusion that the
molecular attraction is mutually absorbed or canceled by the
attracting particles— we have only to say here that the con-
clusion is necessitated by the four previous steps and the
further well known facts, that the molecular sphere of action
is small, and that the heat of vaporization of a liquid is pro-
portional to the mass of the liquid taken for evaporation.

THE NATURE OF THE ATTRACTIVE FORCES.

We would now return to a consideration of the idea pro-
posed on page 119 of this paper, ‘hat the attractive forces,
whatever thetr nature, whether chenucal, molecular, magnetic
electrical, or gravitational, which proceed from a particle are
definite in amount. If this attraction ts exerted upon another
particle the amount of the attraction remaining to be exerted

126 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ Dec.

upon other particles is diminished by an exactly equivalent
amount,

We shall call attention to what is actually known as to the
action of attractive forces by the following table.

ri | Medium| Effect of| Isthe | Isthe {Law of| _
lof propo tempera-| attraction | attraction) dis- |Numerator factor of
Force gation ture neutralized? directive?) tance | _ force.
i; Ac CaO, Lit Hi Nature Nature
| ? of x of
Chemical | Ether |Noeffect/Neutralized| Yes | atom atom
Par) cnet i | Nature Nature
j | | | ? =D} | of of
Molecular | Ether (No effect/Neutralized | __d? ‘molecule “~ molecule
ae eee | [en econ Fe Strength Strength
} ? | we _ KS of
Magnetic | Ether | Neutralized Yes d2 | pole pole
——— tain a
| ? — Charge X Charge
Hlectrical | Ether | __|Neutralized| Yes =| d?_
} 7
Gravita- | Not | | —> Mass X Mass
tional | Ether No effect neutralized Nos) |) a2

The general resemblance between these forces is so striking,
we think, as to warrant a very serious consideration of any
idea which leads to the belief that all of the forces do not fol-
low the same law. Are they not perhaps all, in fact, one and
the same force?

Considering the chemical force of attraction, the fact that
this force does vary as some function of the distances apart
of the atoms concerned has, we think, been already shown by
the work of Richards* and Traube}. The latter says, ‘‘ We
von mir zuerst fesigestellt wurde, ist der Raum eines Atoms
keine Konstante, sondern andert sich von Stoff zu Stoff und ist
um so kleiner, je grosser die Affinitat des betreffenden Alomes zu
den Atomen ist, mit welchen es in unmittelbarer Verbindung
steht. Die Kontraktion der Atome ist daher ein unmittelbares
Mass der Afinitat.” Concerning Traube’s claim to priority
in this discovery see remark by Richardst. While we prefer
not to accept the conclusion of these investigators that the

*Proc. Amer. Acad, of Arts and Sciences, XXXVII, 1; XXXYVII, 15;
XXXVIIT, 7; XXXIX, 28.

+Zeitschrift fur Anorganische Chemie, 40, 380 (1904).

¢+Proc. Amer, Acad, of Arts and Sciences, XXXIX, 28, p. 588,

ee

~I

7906 Mitins—MorLkcuLar ATTRACTION. 12
9

atoms themselves suffer a contraction we cannot doubt from
the evidence that they have brought forward that the chemi-
cal attraction between atoms is one of the deciding factors as
to the distance apart of these atoms when combined into a
molecule. hat is to say, the distance apart of the @toms is
some function of the chemical affinity. The problem is as
yet too complicated to permit of finding the law of the attrac-
tion, and at present we must limit ourselves to the statement
that the inverse square law of the distance is possible also
with this force. When Newton discovered the law of gravi-
tation others at once seized upon that daw ‘as a_ possible
explanation of chemical affinity. Newton himself showed
that the chemical attraction decreased more rapidly with the
distance than was required by the inverse square law. But
if the chemical attraction is mutually absorbed or canceled
by the attracting particles, then it again becomes possible
that the force itself varies inversely as the square of the dis-
tance from any particular atom, itself alone considered.
Moreover we know that this mutual absorption of the chemi-
cal attraction does take place.

We have made the statement that temperature has no effect
upon chemical affinity. We have shown as a reason for this
statement that 2.016 grams of 7, and 16.00 grams of Q, at
the absolute zero possess at least 67984 calories of chemical
energy, while the total energy necessary to raise the //, and
the O, from the absolute zero to 19°C is only 4301 calories.
Now of this 4301 calories we can account for all but about
165 calories as necessitated by the changes in /#;, Ay, and
&.. The details of this calculation will be given in the sub-
sequent paper referred to above. At present we give the
result only, as indicating the minute influence that tempera-
ture has upon chemical affinity. It is possible that /; is
really the differential of the chemical energy. But even if
this be true, it may more reasonably be referred to a slight
alteration in the distance apart of the atoms composing the
molecule, than to a real alteration of the chemical affinity,

128 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ Dec.

In what form can the enormous amount of energy possessed
by the hydrogen and oxygen at the absolute zero exist?
Clausius has shown* that no system of particles could exist
in stable equilibrium if all of the energy possessed by those
particles was present as kinetic energy. Nor could all of the
energy exist as potential energy. The energy must be partly
kinetic aud party potential Nowit can be shown that when
two particles exist under a mutual attraction varying
inversely as the square of the distance apart of the particles,
that the system composed of these two particles, assumes the
most stable equilibgium when one half of the total energy is
kinetic and one half is potential. We cannot but believe it
probable, that in a system of particles a similar distribution
of energy would take place. The enormous amount of chem-
ical energy that is existent at the absolute zero of temperature
must, it seems to us, be present, one half as potential and’ one
half as kinetic energy. That is to say, the hydrogen
atoms and oxygen atoms at the absolute zero would revolve
in pairs around a common center of gravity with enormous
velocity, held in their orbits by the chemical attraction.
This conception seems to us quite sufficient to explain the
repulsive tendency referred to by Richards in his fourth paper
above cited. We shall deal with this subject more fully
Jater. We would only remark that the above conception of
the mechanism of chemical affinity introduces no new
assumption, save that the attraction obeys the inverse square
law. ‘This being true the other results follow if the princi-
ples underlying mechanics be true. ;

Our statement concerning the magnetic and electrical
forces, not being the subject of dispute, may be passed over
without comment.

As regards the gravitational force we meet the first
aud only exceptions to a complete similarity between the
forces. ‘The gravitational attraction is supposed not to be
absorbed or neutralized by the attracting particles.

*See Myer—Kiuetic Theory of Gases, p 344.

a ais a

——_s

1906] Mit~ts—Mo.EcuLaR ATTRACTION. 129

The questions involving the nature and laws of the attrac-
tive forces cannot, we are well aware, be settled by any
appeal to our minds as to the relative difficulty or ease of the
conception, But on the other hand such an appeal is no/
withoul value. If in the last analysis the testimony of con-
sciousness cannot be trusted we had just as well give up the
search for truth. We cannot hope to attain to any absolute
knowledge or full conception of any of the more elementary
ideas such as time, space, matter, or motion. But we may
attain to a partial knowledge of these ideas, and this partial
knowledge, we trust, may represent the reality truly, so far
as it represents it at all. And in attempting to attain this
partial knowlege, if one goes directly contrary to the testi-
mony of one’s mind as to the possibility or impossibility of a
conception one should not forget that the process of denying
the truth of the testimony of conciousness once begun, can
be as legitimately extended to an absolute agnosticism,
must be so extended, if one is consistent. One can refuse to
examine the foundations for a house but one cannot under-
mine the foundations and yet continue to build the house.
We do not believe therefore, that the difficulties in the con-
ception of the action of gravitational forces can longer be
be passed over as constituting no objection to the present
statement of the law. Since Newton in 1682 deduced the law, all
of the attempts—and they have been numerous—to formulate
a sufficient cause for the law, have completely failed. The
attempts have ended not only in failure to formulate a cause
for the law, but in emphasizing, most distinctly, the difficulty
of forming such conceptions at all.

May not the real cause of the trouble lie in the fact that
scientists have been trying to explain how a force can be
infinitely multiplied and absolutely unaffected by intervening
matter, when force with such properties has really no exis-
tence?The line of apsides of mercury’s orbit has a slight motion
unaccounted for by the law of gravitation. Dr. Asaph Hall
pointed out that the observations could be statisfied by chang-

130 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ Dec.

ing the law of gravitation by very slightly increasing the ex-
ponent of the distance factor. May not this slight divergency,
explained as an /vcrease in the exponent of the denominator,
be explained rather by a decrease in the numerator, due to
a neutralization of the attraction by the attracted particles.
The planets are but dots in space, and the distortion of the
field of force by the attraction which they would neutralize
would be extremely small.

It will be further urged that we have no evidence of any
shielding action in the case of gravitational forces and that,
besides, gravitation is proportional to mass and not to sur-
face in any way. In reply we would point out that we are
dealing with a very fundamental queston, and that we have,
as yet, no explanation of mass. Mass is best represented
perhaps by the term ‘‘inertia”, but the question is what is
‘inertia’? Why has a molecule of lead more inertia than a
molecule of aluminum? We have not, so far as the author
knows, one iota of evidence, save in the suggestiveness of the
periodic table of the chemical ‘elements, that there is
really more of the ‘ultimate material” in the molecule of lead
than in the molecule of aluminum. For anything we know to
the contrary, mass might be created at the same time as the
attraction, a sort of action and reaction due to the same
cause. And why this suggestion?

Because if one attempts to consider what changes must be
made in the numerator factor of the forces in order to derive
a common expression for all of the attractive forces, one
starts with the broad idea that the force is measured by the
effect which it produces. In producing this effect an opposite
and equal effect must be produced on the force itself. This
is according to Newton’s third law of motion. Any other
supposition would mean that the forces could be increased
indefinitely. Force is transference of energy. We have no
law as to the conservation of force but we have a law as to
the conservation of energy, The amount of energy in the
universe is constant, In a given time a constant amount of

le

7900] Mitits—MoLecuLar ATTRACTION. 131

energy could not produce an infinite amount of force. But
this production of an infinite, inexhaustible force is exactly
what the law of gravitation necessitates, if it expresses the
entire truth. We repeat ‘hat one cannot believe that one par-
licle of matler in the uutverse can attract every other particle of
matter in the universe and itself suffer no dimtnuation in tts
power to attract yet other particles of matter and hold also that
the law of the conservation of cnergy ts true. For these two
beliefs necessitate thal a constant energy, tn a giveu time should
be able to produce an infinite force, and this 1s tmpossible. We
reach therefore the conclusion that the attractive force given
out by a particle in a given time is definite in amount. If
therefore a portion of this attraction is expended upon one
particle there remains exactly an equivalent amount less to
be expended on the remaining particles. Consequently the
attraction can be measured by the amount of the neutralized
force. This deduction we claim to be founded on the first
law of thermodynamics, the conservation of energy. Now
the amount of attractive force which can be neutralized will
vary inversely as the square of the distance apart of the par-
ticles, because the surface front of the attractive wave of
force increases as the square of the distance apart of the
particles and its intensity must correspondingly diminish,
since the force cannot be indefinitely multiplied. We can
therefore write, attractive forces are measured by,

amount of attraction neu- |
tralized at unit distance \

| amount of attraction neu-

« ( j tralized at unit distance

Ee

Examining the numerator of the above fraction, there
appears nothing improbable as regards its application as a
general expression to take the place of the first four forces
giveti in the table, —chemical, molecular, magnetic, and elec-
trical. As regards gravitational force it makes mass. propor-
tional to the amount of attraction absorbed at unit distance.
Is this idea necessarily wrong?

We doubt if the idea is necessarily opposed to established

132 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [Dec.

astronomical data. We might suggest that one reason why
no Shielding action had becn detected among the heavenly
bodies was because the mass really did vary with the amount
of the shielding and exactly canceled the effect produced.
Whether the idea is supported by molecular phenomena is
more asubject of doubt. It might possibly explain the
increased specific heat of a solid and liquid as compared with
the corresponding vapor. We will return to this point
in a later paper.

Chemical, magnetic, and electrical forces show decided evi-
dence of directive action. We distinguish, moreover, posi-
tive and negative electricity, positive and negative poles of a
magnet, and positive and negative elements, as indicating
some difference in the kind of attractive force which they
exert. As evidence of variation in the intensity of the mol-
ecular forces with their spatial relation around the molecule,
might be cited the phenomena of crystalline form, of water
of crystallization and molecular combinations in general, and
also those cases where a liquid appears to show a definite
and symmetrical structure. The evidence is not convincing,
nor is there evidence indicating positive and negative molec-
ular attraction. With gravitational forces similarly, there
is no evidence showing directive, or positive and negative
tendencies, unless the earth’s magnetic field should be such
an evidence.

The exceedingly close relationship between the electrical
and chemical forces have often suggested their identity. The
close relationship between electrical and magnetic forces is
also recognized. ‘There is also some evidence that molecular
attraction is closely connected with electrical phenomena.
Thus it has been pointed ont by Abegg that liquids which
cause dissociation are themselves most associated. We would
note further a correspondence between the amount of disso-
ciation produced by a liquid on a dissolved substance and the
size of the molecular attraction p’, as obtained by us. Per-
haps it is also not without significance that the metals are

i oe

1
]
J

79006 | Miiis—MoLkcuLarR ATTRACTION. 133

the best conductors of electricity, are monatomic, and have
a very great cohesion.

The amount of the molecular attraction, and the greater
or less interpenetration of the molecular attraction among
other molecules berore it is neutralized, may, it seems tous,
be the determining factor in the elasticity, ductility, mallea-
bility, brittleness, and hardness of substances in general, and
of metals more particularly.

Our knowledge at present, is hardly sufficient to warrant
speculation regarding the ultimate cause and nature of the
attractive forces. They may be one and the same force,—
the molecular attraction being the unneutralized portion of
the chemical attraction, magnetic attraction being a mani-
festation of the latter, and electricity closely connected with
the former. Gravitation would be the unneutralized portion
of the molecular attraction. We consider it possible that the
attractive forces are one and the same force manifested
under different conditions.. We consider it likely that all of
the forces are produced by some interaction between matter
and ether. Weconsider it highly probable that the forces
obey the same law whether their ultimate cause and identity
be the same or not. We hope to develop the subject further
in later papers.

Summary. 1. The evidence that the molecular attrac-
tion varies inversely as the square of the distance apart of
the molecules, and does not vary with the temperature, is
reviewed and strengthened.

2. It is pointed out that the molecular attraction must be
neutralized by the attracting molecules.

3. It is shown that the equation deduced by Helmholtz in
1854, to represent the energy given out by the contraction of
the sun will, by changing the constant, represent accurately
the energy given out by isopentane and other substances in
changing from a saturated vapor toa liquid.

4. It is shown that a large amount of chemical energy is
possessed by hydrogen and oxygen at the absolute zero, and

134 JourNAL or THE MircHEi. Society. [Dec.

that this energy is probably existent half as potential, half
as kinetic, energy.

5. It is shown that chemical attraction is probably unaf-
fected by temperature.

6. The idea is introduced that the attractive forces, what-
ever their nature, whether chemical, molecular, magnetic,
electrical, or gravitational, which proceed from a particle, are
definite in amount. If this attraction isexerted upon another
particle the amount of the attraction remaining to be exerted
upon other particles is diminished by an exactly equivalent
amount.

7. The laws governing attractive forces are compared and
it is suggested that all of the forces really obey the same
law, viz.—the attractive forces are measured by the amount
of the attraction neutralized, which is

amounl of atttraction neu- | \ amount of attraction neu-
tralized at unit distance \ “~ | tralized at unit distance

7

8. The idea that the gravitational attraction of a particle
could remain undiminished regardless of the amount of the
attraction exerted upon other particles is shown to be con-
trary to the law of the conservation of energy.

Chemical Laboratory, University of North Carolina,
December ro, 1906.

JOURNAL

i OF THR

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

VOL. XXHUlI
1907

PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY
CHAPEL HILL, N. C.

Ae
Ki ae

\ 4 +“
ON en
Re

\
H

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

CONTENTS
VOU.) Senne

LOOT.

PAGI
The Foundations of Geometry.—Archibald Henderson .........55 seeees 1
A New Color Test for the Lignocelluloses.—Alvia S. Wheeler ......... AZ:
Notes on the Geology of Core Bank, N. C.— Collier Cobb .............. 26
Note on Electrical Ageing of Flour.—J. W. Gore ..............-00000- 29
Industrial and Scientific Aspects of the Pine and its Products.
SMR RED NOED ERCP EDN ctalel tu Naa) ane A Haut ds: ala ed Aight a acaiaicd Lh ih Aen Sta MtIa 30
Proceedings of the North Carolina Academy of Science, Sixth Annual
Meeting, Held at Chapel Hill, May 17th and 18th, 1907. ......... 45
The Garden, Field, and Forest of the Nation.—Collier Co BOM easiness 52
Some Interesting Grasshoppers (and Relatives) of North Carolina.
CET OT SULENTIUGID CRE crs 84 ENNIS aaah ia WicteNaC Rha taA RA Atel ye ase len ate 71
Notes on Some Turtles of the Genus ee deuies: —C. S. Brimley ....... 76
Three Little Known Species of North Carolina Fungi.—J. G. Hall .... 85
Proceedings of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, January 1907 to
“Se ater Dy 5 A EC OAL AL EAE CA BLU USA Se A 89
A New Method by which Sponges may be Artificially Reared.
So SAN EN OE Te Cat 3d Og ORE A PS ORR SY RL! Ne OOS 91
The Condensation of Chloral with Primary Aromatic Amines, II.
AUBIN SHINYA LCCLEF SDE hoo) e\ckeyailes cla tavetatet el are pened tena toy atatay ope te ales etalon ay ch ate 98
Recent Changes in Gold Mining in North Carolina that have Favorably
Affected this Industry.— Joseph Hyde Pratt and A. A. Steel ...... 108
Chapel Hill Ferns and their Allies. —W. C. Coker .............-00. 000 13¢
Salisbury’s Physiography.—Coliier Cobb ........ ccc cece eee ce ete s eens 137
Artificial Key to the Species of Snakes and Lizards that are found in
earth Carolina. ——O. iS.) Bi2niley Seles syd a)sighs ld wine aeveierale wate 141
The Salamanders of North Carvlina.—C. S. Brimley ..........2.. 00008 150
A Key to the Species of Frogs and Toads Liable to oecur in North
(Giro) mee Not ONIN 39 01772 a) RRS RU PAS RT ENS es 157
On Some Phenomena of Coalescense and Regeneration in Sponges.
ae aSRa IE URL OMSCIYRT) SMSC a iy sch ss c\x2 a) LODE EI a ALUN! TSS ye 161
The Fishes of North Carolina; A Review.— Joseph Hyde Pratt ...... 175
MUP PA hates Ri ic ree AION Maa UAN yea ai Gy erat d tava) Wad wicialat fate 184

REVIEWS.

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JOURNAL

EvisHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY
MAY, 1907
VOL. XXII NO. 3}

THE FOUNDATIONS OF GEOMETRY.

BY ARCHIBALD HENDERSON, PH.D,

The study of the historical development of mathematics,
and in particular the study of geometry, leads one to the con-
clusion that the great roles in the drama of science have been
played by two inter-related, yet widely differing, forces—
intuition and logic. Huxley once laughingly said of Herbert
Spencer that his idea of tragedy was a deduction killed by a
fact. Some of the greatest parts in the drama of science
have been played by intuition; but that drama becomes a
tragedy when intuitional prevision is annihilated by the inex-
orable irony of fact. The most epoch-making discoveries find
their origin in the fortunate conjunction of intuition and
experience. And the whole history of science is the history
of the struggle of man’s intuition, fortified by experience, to
read the inscrutable riddle of Nature.

I venture to assert that nowhere is this struggle more suc-
cinctly and definitively illustrated than in the story of man’s
effort to formulate the hypotheses which constitute the foun-

Printed May 13.

2 JouURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [May

dations of geometry. For precise reasons, the names of
Euclid and Newton stand above all other names in the fast
of mathematics; and the reasons are strikingly similar in the
two cases. In writing of Zhe Wonderful Century, the nine-
teenth, Alfred Russel Wallace says of all time before the
seventeenth century: ‘‘Then, going backward, we can find
nothing of the first rank except Euclid’s wonderful system of
geometry, perhaps the most remarkable mental product of
the earliest civilizations.” In modern times, Newton’s colos-
sal figure occupies the centre of the stage, looming large, as
he himself explained, because he stood upon the shoulders of
giants. Like Euclid, his claim to pre-eminence rests less
upon the discovery of new principles than upon the immeas-
urably greater service of the universal formulation and
grounding of mathematics. Newton brought all natural phe-
nomena under the reign of universal law, Euclid reduced
all geometrical knowledge to system.

“Tt is certain,” says Philip Kelland, ‘‘that from its com-
pleteness, uniformity and faultlessness, from its arrangement
and progressive character, and from the universal adoption of
the completest and bestline of argument, Euclid’s Alements
stand pre-eminently at the head of all human productions. In
no science, in no department of knowledge, has anything ap-
peared like this work: for upwards of 2,000 years it has com-
manded the admiration of mankind, and that period has sug-
gested little toward its improvement.” Indeed it is no cranky
enthusiasm, but absolute conviction that prompts the mathe-
matician to say that geometry is ultimately fundamental for
the progress of science and thea dvancement of humanity. It
is continually bringing to pass those epoch-making events in
the history of science whereby what one day seems to be the
purest science becomes the next a vitally important piece of
applied science. Such events enable us to realize that pure
science and utilitarian science are not differentiable, butat
bottom and in essence one and the same thing. ‘‘I often find
the conviction forced upon me,” said the brilliant English

7907| HENDERSON—FOUNDATIONS OF GEOMETRY. 3

geometer H. J. S. Smith, ‘‘that the increase of mathematical
knowledge is a necessary condition for the advancement of
science, and, if so, a mo less necessary condition for the
improvement of mankind. I could not augur well for the
enduring intellectual strength of any nation of men, whose
education was not based on a solid foundation of mathemat-
ical learning, and whose scientific conceptions, or, in other
words, whose notions of the world and of the things in it,
were not bound and girt together with a strong framework of
mathematical reasoning.”

In that charming book, cast in the dialogue form and enti-
tled Huchd and his Modern Rivals, by the Rev. Charles L.
Dodgson, the brilliant ‘‘Lewis Carroll” of Alice in Wonderland
fame, Euclid confesses with reluctance that some secret law
lies at the root of the subject of parallel lines. Probabilities,
not certainties, are all that he has in vindication of his belief.
Here we lay our fingers on the rift in the lute; in this con-
fession, we catch a glimpse of that zgnzs fatuus that mathe-
maticians have pursued in vain for well-nigh two thousand
years. Professor G. B. Halsted cites Sohncke* as saying that
in mathematics there is nothing over which so much has been
spoken, written, and striven, as over the theory of parallels,
and all, so far (up to his time), without reaching a definite
result and decision. It is impossible, says the great Poincaré,
to imagine the vast effort wasted in this chimeric hope, this
‘ evanescent dream. Indeed, it was not until the nineteenth
century that the truth began to dawn upon the minds of
men; and almost simultaneously from the distant frontiers of
Kurope, at Kazan onthe Volga and at Maros-Vasarhely in far
Erdély, there came the startling generalizations that have ten-
ded to revolutionize our conceptions of geometry, and thrown
doubts upon the very nature of the space in which we live.

*Encyclopedie der Wissenchaften und Kunste; Von Ersch und Gruber,
Leipzig, 1838, under ‘‘Parallel.”’

sCompare The Value of Non-Euclidian Geometry, by G. B. Halsted;
Pop. Sci. Monthly, vol. 67, pp. 639-646. At the outset, I wish to acknow-

4 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [May

In order to make ,the matter clear to ‘‘the man in the
street,” it is necessary to speak, not so much as a mathema-
tician as one who knows, let us say, no more of mathematics
than is taught in the Freshman year in the college or university.
Werecall that Euclid uses three terms in laying the foundations
for his geometry: Definitions (oor), Postulates (orrujpara),
and Common Notions (xowa ewoou). He defined his elements:
point, line, etc.; he assumed that you can draw a straight
line from one point to another; and he laid down as accepted
such statements as ‘‘Things equal to the same thing are
equal to each other,” etc. For Euclid’s Common Notions
later geometers substituted the unfortunate term—unfortun-
ate, as we shall subsequently see—Axzoms. This word Axiom
(Greek, afwya) is used by Aristotle to mean ‘‘a truth so
obvious as to be inno need of proof’—virtually in the modern
sense of a ‘‘self-evident truth.” Euclid used only five Postu-
lates and thirteen Common Notions, none of which chal-
lenged doubt save the celebrated ‘‘parallel-postulate.” Indeed,
all were very simple except this fifth postulate,* which excited
suspicion, not only on account of its cumbrous form, but be-
cause it is used only once—to prove the inverse of a proposition
already demonstrated—the seventeenth. ‘‘It requires,” says
Staeckel, ‘‘a certain amount of courage to declare such a
requirement, alongside the other simple axioms and postu-
lates.” The Swiss mathematician, J. H. Lambert,t averred
that Proklos, Euclid’s first commentator (410-485 A. D.)
argued that the parallel-postulate was demonstrable, because
it was the inverse of the seventeenth proposition. —
Euclid’s twenty-seventh proposition: that straight lines

ledge my general indebtedness to the writings of Professor Halsted, to
which I occasionally refer.

*Also given in various editions of Euclid as a Common Notion—eley-
enth, twelfth, or thirteenth.

;Lambert’s Theory of the Parallel Lines was not published until 1786
twenty years after it was written and nine years after his death, by Bern-
ouilli and Hindenberg in the Magazin fur die reine und angewandte Mathe-
matik,

Ur

7907) He&NDERSON—FOUNDATIONS OF GEOMETRY.

making with a transversal equal alternate angles are
parallel, .is easily demonstrated. But in order to prove its
inverse: that parallels cut by a transversal make equal
alternate angles, he is forced to resort to the following pos-
tulate axiomatically stated (Williamson’s translation, Ox-
ford, 1781):

11. And ?f a straight line meeting two straight lines makes
those angles which are inward and upon the same side of
it less than two right angles, the two straight lines being
produced indefinitely will meet each other on that side
upon which the angles are less than two right angles (fig.
I, Angle A +, Angle B less than 180°).

FIG 1.

The points to be observed in connection with this postulate are
two in number. First, ‘‘no one had a doubt of the external
reality and exact applicability of the postulate. The Euclid-
ian geometry was supposed to be the only possible form of
Space-science, that is, the space analyzed in Euclid’s axioms
and postulates was supposed to be the only non-contradictory
sort of space.” Second, the postulate was neither so axiom-
atic nor so simple as the proposition it was used to prove;
and hence the world of mathematicians concluded, with
Proklos, that this postulate could be deduced as a theorem
from the other assumptions and the twenty-eight preceding
theorems, And so, for hundreds and hundreds of years, the

6 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [May

mathematical world exhausted itself in the effort to prove
Euclid’s celebrated parallel-postulate. E’tolemy, the great
astronomer, wrote a treatise purporting to prove it; and
Nasir Eddin (1201-1274), whose work on Euclid in Arabic
was printed at Rome in 1594, sought to dispense with the
problem of parallelism, by taking his stand upon another pos-
tulate: that two straight lines which cut a third straight
line, the one at right angles, the other at some other angle,
will converge on the side where the angle is acute, and diverge
where it is obtuse. Other mathematicians, notably John
Wallis whom I claim as an ancestor, sought to turn the flank
of the difficulty by identifying the problem of parallels with
the problem of similitude. In general, we may say that the
problem was attacked from three sides.

First, there were those who sought to substitute a new
definition of parallels for Euclid’s, which reads (1, Def. 35):

‘‘Parallel straight lines are such as are in the same plane,
and which being produced ever so far both ways do not
meet.”

To cite a few classic definitions, Wolf, Boscovich, and T.
Simpson use the following: ‘‘Straight lines are parallel
which preserve the same distance from each other.” But

this is begging the question, asHalsted has remarked, since it

assumes a definition, viz.: ‘Two straight lines are parallel
when there are two points of the one on the same side of the
other from which the perpendiculars to it are equal;” and at
the same time assumes a /heorem: ‘‘All perpendiculars trom
one of these lines to the other are equal.” Those geometers
who assume that parallel lines have the same direction are
guilty of a fetitio principi, in assuming (Varignon and
Bezout) the definition that ‘‘parallel lines are those that make
equal angles with a third line,” and also in assuming the
theorem that ‘‘Straight lines that make equal angles with
one transversal make equal angles with all transversals.”
The second method of attack, far more logical, was to pro-

a

7907| HernpERSON—FoUNDATIONS OF GEOMETRY. 7

pose a substitute for the parallel-postulate, such as ‘“T'wo
straight lines which intersect cannot doth be parallel to the
same straight line” (Ludlam), and ‘‘Any three points are col-
linear or concyclic” (Bolyai). And the celebrated Hilbert, in
his Vorlesung ueber Enklidische Geometric, (winter semester,
1898-9) cites the following theorems:

1. The sum of the angles of a triangle is always equal to
two right angles.

2. If two parallels are cut by a third straight line, then
the opposite (corresponding?) angles are equal.

3. Two straight lines, which are parallel to a third, are
parallel to each other.

4. Through every point within an angle less than a
straight angle, one can always draw straight lines
which cut both sides (not perhaps their prolonga-
tions).

5. All points of a straight line have from a parallel the
same distance.

His comment is, ‘‘Finally we remark, that it seems as if
each of these five theorems could serve precisely as the equiv-
alent of the Parallel Axiom.”

The third class of investigators consisted of those geom-

eters who foundered upon the rock of the attempt to deduce

Kuclid’s parallel-postulate from reasonings about the nature
of the straight line and the plane angle, helped out by
Enclid’s other assumptions and his first twenty-eight theo-
rems. Euclid took pains to prove things which were more
axiomatic by far—tor instance, that the sum of two sides of
a triangle is greater than the third side—a thing which any
ass knows. To give one illustration of the many so-called
proofs, take the most plausible one, exposed by Charles L.
Dodgson, in his Curzosa Mathematica, Part I. pp. 70-71, 3rd
edition, 1890:

‘*“Yet another process has been invented—quite fascinating
in its brevity and its elegance—which, though involving the

8 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL SOCIETY. [May

same fallacy as the Direction-Theory, proves Euc. I, 32,
without even mentioning the dangerous word ‘Direction’.

FIG. 2.

‘‘We are told to take any triangle ABC; to produce CA to
D; to make part of CD, viz., AD, revolve, about A, into the
position ABE; then to make part of this line, viz., BE, revolve,
about B, into the position BCF; and lastly to make part of
this line, viz., CF, revolve, about C, till it lies along CD, of
which it originally formed a part. We are then assured that
it must have revolved through four right angles: from which
it easily follows that the interior angles of the triangle are
together equal to two right angles.

‘“The disproof of this fallacy is almost as brief and elegant
as the fallacy itself. We first quote the general principle
that we can not reasonably be told to make a line fulfil two
conditions, either of which is enough by itself to fix its pos-
ition: e. g., given three points X, Y, Z, we can not reason-
ably be told to draw a line from X which shall pass through _
Y and 7; we can make it pass through Y, but it must then
take its chance of passing through Z; and vice versa.

71907] HENDERSON—FOUNDATIONS OF GEOMETRY. 9

‘‘Now let us suppose that, while one part of AK, viz., BE,
revolves into the position BF, another little bit of it, viz.,
AG, revolves, through an equal angle, into the position AH;
and that, while CF revolves into the position of lying along
CD, AH revolves—and here comes the fallacy.

‘“‘You must not say ‘revolves through an equal angle, into
the position of lying along AD,’ for this would be to make AH
fulfil two conditions at once.

“If you say that the one condition involves the other, you
are virtually asserting that the lines CF, AH are equally
inclined to CD—and this in conseguence of AH having been
so drawn that these same lines are equally inclined to AE.

‘That is, you are asserting, ‘A pair of lines which are
equally inclined to a certain transversal, are so to any trans-
versal.’ [Deducible from Euc. I, 27, 28, 29].”

Thousands of mathematicians have tried in vain to prove
something that only a genius could see was indemonstrable.
The history of the evolution and exfoliation of that fertile
idea is of very great interest to the mathematician of today,
especially in view of the fact that beyond contradiction the
most original researches of the last quarter of the nineteenth
century pertain to the non-Euclidian geometry.

The most notable attempt to demonstrate Euclid’s parallel-
postulate that has been preserved to the world is embodied in
a book entitled Huchd Vindicated from every Blemish, by
a Jesuit priest named Hieronymus Saccheri (1667-1773).*
He was in close association with the great Italian geometer
Giovanni Ceva (through his brother Tommaso), whose natne
a celebrated theorem bears; and by purely geometrical meth-
ods in RKuclidian style, he sought to apply the reductio ad
absurdum method to the problem of the parallel-postulate.
His method is essentially as follows: At the end-points of a
sect AB erect two equal perpendiculars AC and BD on the

*Euclides ab omni naevo vindicatus; sive conatus geometricus quo stabili-
uniur prima ipsa universae geometriae principia. Auctore Hieronymo
Saccherio Societatis Jesu, Mediolani.

10 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [May

same side of AB. Join C and D by a straight line; and it
easily follows that the angle ACD is equal to the angle BDC.
Now there are three possibilities: (1) The angle ACD is
acute; (2) the angle ACD is obtuse; (3) the angle ACD is a
right angle. He undertook to prove the absurdity of the first
two possibilities so as to leave only the third possibility, viz.,
that the two angles ACD and BDC are each right angles.
He pursued the lines of argument, following from the first
two assumptions, at some length—for his book was more
than a hundred pages long; but was doubtless amazed to dis-
cover that for quite a time he was unable to involve himself
in.any logical contradiction. In the event, certain of his con-
clusions were erroneous, and led him to believe that he had
actually proved the parallel-postulate. What he really did
do was to identify the assumption of the right angle with the
parallel-postulate, thus showing the two to be mutually inter-
changeable postulates.

In 1766, Johann Heinrich Lambert wrote his theory of par-
allel lines, in which he starts from the notion of the sum of
the angles of a triangle being equal to 180 degrees. If the
sum is equal to 180 degrees, the triangle is a figure in a
plane; if the sum is greater than 180 degrees, the triangle is
on a sphere; if the sum is less than 180 degrees, the triangle
is on the surface of an imaginary sphere (radius equal to the
square root of minus one)--Lobatchevsky—-Bolyai ‘imaginary
geometry,” so called because its trigonometric formulas are
those of the spherical triangle if its sides are imaginary. As
to the third hypothesis, Lambert naively said: ‘*There is
something attractive about this which easily suggests the
wish that the third hypothesis might be true.”*

France contributed little to the solution of the problem;
recognition, however, should be given to Legendre, who stud-

*Compare The Philosophical Foundations of Mathematics, by Dr. Paul
Carus; The Monist, vol. 13, pp. 273-294; 370-397; 493-522, to which I am
indebted. I once had the pleasure of hearing Dr. Oarus lecture on this
snbject before the Mathematical Olub of the University of Chicago.

7907| HenpERSON—FoOUNDATIONS OF GEOMETRY. 11

ied the problem all his life. By the aid of the principle of
continuity, the so-called Theorem of Archimedes, he did prove
two well known theorems:

1. Ina triangle, the sum of the three angles can never be
greater than two right angles.

2. Ifthe sum of the three angles is equal to two right
angles in one triangle, it is equal to two right
angles in every triangle.

But Euclid’s geometry can be built up without the contin-
uity assumption; and only a short time ago, there was proved
by Dehn, something that might have been inferred, viz., that

‘Legendre’s first theorem does not hold, i. e. not without the

continuity assumption. *

In addition to Legendre, there was one other Frenchman,
Joseph Lagrange, France’s greatest mathematician in his
day, who attempted to prove Euclid’s parallel-postulate.
Toward the end of his life, so the story runs, Lagrange com-
posed a discourse on parallel lines. He began to read it in
the Academy, but suddenly stopped, and, in confusion, stam-
mered: ‘‘Il faut que j’y songe encore”’—‘‘T’ll have to think
about it a while longer.” He stuck his manuscript in his
pocket, sat down, and never recurred to the subject.

The first distinct epoch in the history of the non-Euclidian
geometry begins with the time of the great German mathe-
matician, Karl Friedrich Gauss. He is in no sense entitled to
credit as a discoverer in this line, although for many years he
occupied himself with the problem. The researches he
claims to have made on the subject have not come down to
us; but he was closely associated, according to abundant testi-
mony, with Schweikart and Bolyai, two of the three indepen-
dent discoverers of the non-Enclidian geometry. The publi-
cation in 1900 of the eighth volume of Gauss’ Collected Works
shows, from a letter to Bolyai, the elder, a Hungarian mathe-

*Oompare The Foundations of Geometry, by David Hilbert; Translation
by E. J. Townsend, Open Court Publishing Oo., Chicago.

12 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [May

matician, that in 1779 Gauss was still hopelessly attempting
to prove that Euclid’s was the only non-self-contradictory
system of geometry, and also the system of our space. Bol-
yai, the elder, submitted to Gauss, in 1804, a pseudo-proot of
the parallel-postulate, but Gauss immediately detected the
fallacy. When Bolyai, the elder, submitted a second pseudo-
proof to Gauss, in 1808, he never replied. Bolyai’s words,
accompanying one of these pseudo-proofs, are pathetic in
their earnestness and yearning: ‘“‘Oft have I thought, gladly
would I, as Jacob for Rachel, serve in order to know the par-
allels founded even if by another. Now just as I thought it out
on Christmas night, while the Christians were celebrating the
birth of the Saviour in the neighboring church, I wrote it
down yesterday, and I send it to you enclosed herewith.”

On November 23, 1823, Bolyai the sou, called Janos, wrote
a letter to his father, professor of mathematics at Maros-
Vasarhely, in which he announces his discovery of the non-
Euclidian geometry—a letter full of youthful fire and enthus-
iasm, from which I quote:

“T intend to write, as soon as I have put it into order, and when
possible to publish, a work on parallels. At this moment it is not
yet finished,but the way whichI have hit upon promises me with
certainty the attainment of the goal, if it in general is attainable.
It is not yet attained, butI have discovered such magnificent things
that I myself am astounded at them.

“Tt would be damage eternal if they were lost. When you see
them, father, you yourself will acknowledge it. Now I cannot say
more of them, only so much: that from nothing I have created another
wholly new world. All that I have hitherto sent you compares to
this only as a house of cards to a castle.’’*

His results were printed as an Appendix to his father’s
work, entitled Zentamen Juventutem Studiosam in Elementa
Matheseos Purae, Elementaris ac Sublimioris, Methodo In-
tuttiva, Evidentia—que huic Propria Introducendi. 'The two
dozen pages contributed by the younger Bolyai have been some-

*The Science Absolute of Space, by John Bolyai, translated by G. B.
Halsted; Introduction, pp. XX VU, XXVIII.

7907| HrNDERSON—FOUNDATIONS OF GEOMETRY. 13

what exaggeratedly characterized as the most remarkable two
dozen pages in the history of thought. When this work at last
reached Gauss, he wrote to his pupil and friend, Gerling: ‘‘I
hold this young geometer von Bolyai to be a genius of the
first magnitude.” Bolyai called his work, Zhe Sczence Abso-
lute of Space, independent of the truth or falsity of Euclid’s
‘Axiom XT (which can never be decided A PRtoRI). And later,
we read on the title page of the elder Bolyai’s Aurzer Grund-
riss: ‘‘the question, whether two straight lines, cut by a third,
if the sum of the interior angles does not equal two right
angles, intersect or not? no one on the earth can answer with-
out assuming an axiom (as Euclid the eleventh).” The work
of Bolyai, the younger, which makes all preceding space only
a special case, only a species under a genus, and requiring a
descriptive adjective Hucldzan, was rescued from oblivion,
after thirty years, by Professor Richard Baltzer, of Dresden;
and J. Hotiel, of Bordeaux, following in the steps of Baltzer,
inserted extracts from Bolyai’s book in his Assaz Critique sur
les principes fondamentaux de la Geometrie elementaire.
Indeed, this scientist mastered the principal Kuropean lan-
guages in order to make known to his contemporaries the
most celebrated mathematical works.

There is another name which deserves to become conspic-
uous in the history of non-Euclidian geometry; but not until
1900 were the facts in connection with his independent dis-
covery accurately known. In a letter to the elder Bolyai,
written October 31, 1851, Gerling, a scholar of Gauss and
Professor of Astronomy at Marburg, wrote as follows: ‘‘We
had here about this time (1819) a law professor Schweikart,
who ...... had attained to similar ideas, since without help
of the Euclidian axiom he developed in its beginnings a geom-
etry which he called Astralgeometry. What he communi-
cated to me thereon I sent to Gauss, who then informed me
how much farther already had been attained on this way, and
later also expressed himself about the acquisition, which is
offered to the few expert judges in the Appendix to your

14 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [May
book.” On the publication of volume 8 of Gauss’s Collected
Works, in 1900, light is at last thrown upon Schweikart’s
discovery. Here we find Gerling’s actual letter to Gauss,
written in 1819, in which he says, among other things:
‘‘Apropos of the parallel-theory, ........ I learned last year
that my colleague Schweikart ........ had written on paral-
lels........ Hesaid that he was now about convinced that
without some datum the Euclidian postulate could not be
proved, also that it was not improbable to him that our geom-
etry is only a chapter of a more general geometry.”"* En-
closed in this letter was a paper by Schweikart, dated Mar-
burg, December, 1818. From this we learn:

‘‘There is a two-fold geometry—a geometry in the nar-
rower sense—the Euclidian, and an astral science of
magnitude.

. ‘The triangles of the latter have the peculiarity,
that the sum of the three angles (of a triangle) is
‘not equal to two right angles.

‘This presumed, it can be most rigorously proven: ©

(a) That the sum of the three angles in the tri-
angle is /ess than two right angles;

(b) That this sum becomes ever smaller, the more
content the angle encloses; .

(c) That the altitude of an isoscles right angled
triangle indeed ever increases, the more one length-
ens the side; that it, however, cannot surpass a cer-
tain line, which I call the constant.”

It can be easily proved that if this constant is infinitely
great, then, and then only, is the sum of the three angles of
every triangle equal to two right angles.

That the doctrine made converts in high places is evidenced
by Bessel’s letter to Gauss, Feb. 10, 1829: ‘Through that
which Lambert said, and what Schweikart disclosed orally, it

*Gauss and the non-Euclidian Geometry, by G. B. Halsted; Science, N.S.
Vol. XII, No. 309, pp. 842-846, Nov. 80, 1900.

7907| HENDERSON—FouUNDATIONS OF GEOMETRY. 15

has become clear to me that our geometry is incomplete, and
should receive a correction, which is hypothetical, and if the
sum of the three angles is equal to one hundred and eighty
degrees, vanishes.

“That were the /rwe geometry, the Euclidian, the practical,
at least for figures on the earth.’”*

The third name most closely associated in the popular mind
with the discovery of the non-EKuclidian Geometry is that of
Nicolai Ivanovich Lobatchevsky. This brilliant genius,
afterwards dubbed by Hotel the modern Euclid, was born in
the year 1793 near Nijni Novgorod on the Volga. He stud-
ied under the great Bartels, was graduated with distinction,
became professor of mathematics, and finally rector, of the
University of Kazan. The manuscripts of certain of his
works were lost, but fortunately there remains the world-
famous Geometrical Researches on the Theory of Parallels.+
While both Gauss-and Lobatchevsky were students of Bar-
tels, there is even less reason to believe that Gauss contrib-
uted to Lobatchevsky’s, than that he assisted in Bolyai’s, dis-
covery of the non-Euclidian geometry. In his Vew Elements
of Geometry, we find Lobatchevsky’s clear enunciation:

“The futility of the efforts which have been made since Euclid’s
time during the lapse of two thousand years awoke in me the sus-
picion that the ideas employed might not contain the truth sought
to be demonstrated. When finally I had convinced myself of the
correctness of my supposition I wrote a paper on it (assuming the
infinity of the straight line).

“It is easy to show that the straight lines making equal angles
with a third never meet.

‘Euclid assumed inversely, that two straight lines unequally in-
clined to a third always meet.

“To demonstrate this latter assumption, recourse has been had to
many different procedures.

*The Philosophical Foundations of Mathematics, by Paul Carus; The
Monist, vol. 13. p. 280.

+Compare the English translation by G. B. Halsted, published by the
University of Texas, Anstin, 1891,

16 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [May

‘‘All these demonstrations, some ingenious, are without exception
false, defective in their foundations and without the necessary rigor
of deduction.”’

Lobatchevsky classifies all the co-planar lines through a
given point A with reference to another co-planar line BC
not passing through A, under two heads—cutting and non-
cutting (Fig. 3). The transition from the non-cutting lines,

K EG, ¢

= H' ge! K! B
FIG 3.

such as EA and GA, to the cutting lines, such as FA, is
marked by one line HA—the boundary line between the two
classes; this he entitles the parallel line. From the assumpt-
ions, there arises the necessity of making a distinction of
sides in parallelism, and hence there must be two parallels,
so-called, one on each side. One logical consequence of this
is that ‘‘if in any rectilineal triangle the sum of the three
angles is equal to two right angles, this is also the case for
every triangle”—one instance is the criterion for all.

07] HENDERSON—FoOUNDATIONS OF GEOMETRY. 17

As Poincaré, perhaps the world’s greatest living mathema-
tician, recently said, in his review of Hilbert’s Grundlagen
der Geometric:

‘‘Lobachevski succeeded in building a logical edifice as
coherent as the geometry of Euclid, but in which the
famous postulate is assumed false, and in which the
sum of the angles of a triangle is always less than
two right angles. Riemann devised another logical
system, equally free from contradiction, in which the
sum is, on the other hand, always greater than two
right angles. These two geometries, that of Lo-
bachevski and that of Riemann, are what are called
the xon-Eucldian Geometries. The postulate of
Euclid then cannot be demonstrated; and this impos-
sibility is as absolutely certain as any mathematical
truth whatsoever.”*

Limits of space forbid more extended treatment of the
work of Schweikart, of Bolyai, and of Lobatchevsky. By no
means secondary in interest to the investigations of these
men are the researches of Riemann upon the Elliptic Geom-
etry; Cayley’s projective theory of measurement, and the
Absolute, leading through Klein to the non-Euclidian geom-
etry; the hypotheses advanced by Clifford to explain the
nature of the space in which we live; the popular expositions
of Helmholtz; and Lie’s great group-theoretic structure
built upon the hypothesis of Zahklenmannifaltigkeit. Nor can
I enter, at this place, into any discussion of the recent move-
ment toward the treatment of geometry as a whole from the
purely synthetic standpoint, inaugurated by Pasch, carried
on by Peano, Pieri, and Veronese, and crowned by the mas-
terly work of Hilbert. These modern investigators in what
has been fittingly termed abstract mathematics have exhibited
the potency of symbolism in removing from attention the

*Compare The Value of Non-Euclidian Geometry, by G. B. Halsted;
Pop. Sci. Monthly, vol. 67, pp. 642-3.

18 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [May

concrete connotations of the ordinary terms of general and
mathematical language. And yet, as Professor EK. H. Moore
has pertinently suggested, ‘‘the question arises whether the
abstract mathematicians in making precise the metes and
bounds of logic and the special deductive sciences are not
losing sight of the evolutionary character of all life-processes,
whether in the individual or in the race. Certainly the log-
icians do not consider their science as something now fixed.
All science, logic and mathematics included, is a function of
the epoch—all science, in its ideals as well as in its achieve-
PHCHES 2% =i. .... One has then the feeling that the carrying
out in an absolute sense of the program of the abstract math-
ematicians will be found impossible. At the same time, one
recognizes the importance attaching to the effort to do pre-
cisely this thing. The requirement of rigor tends toward
essential simplicity of procedure, as Hilbert has insisted in
his Paris address, and the remark applies to this question of
mathematical logic and its abstract expression.”

Perhaps a not unnatural confusion may arise in the mind
of the layman in regard to the ultimate meaning, the far-
reaching significance of these discoveries. As Artemus
Ward used to say, ‘‘Why this thusness?” Indeed so revolu-
tionary have many of the new theories and discoveries ap-
peared that their authors, in more than one instance, have
hesitated long before giving them to the world. The pio- _
neers in science sometimes dread, not inadvisedly, the pos-
sibility that their startling and epoch-making hypotheses and
investigations may lead them to be dubbed sensationalists
and fakirs. Compare, for example, the letter Gauss wrote to
Bessel, Jan. 27, 1829:

‘I have also in my leisure hours frequently refiected upon another
problem, now of nearly forty years standing. I refer tothe founda-

tions of geometry. Ido not know whether I have ever mentioned
to you my views on this matter. My meditations have also taken

*On the Foundations of Mathematics, by E. H. Moore. Presidential ad-
dress, Am, Math. Soc., Dec. 29, 1902. Science, March i3, 1903, pp.401-416.

7907} HENDERSON—FOUNDATIONS OF GEOMETRY. 19

more definite shape, and my conviction that we cannot thoroughly
demonstrate geometry a priori is, if possible, more strongly con-
firmed than ever. But it will take a long time for me to bring my-
self to the point of working out and making public my very exten-
sive investigations on this subject, and, possibly this will not be done
during my life, inasmuch as I stand in dread of the clamor of the
Boeotians, which would be certain to arise if I should ever give /ree
expression to my views.’’

As that wayward Irishman, Bernard Shaw, has said, the
prime and indispensible quality of the pioneer must be his
willingness to make a fool of himself—at first! And it mat-
ters not in what sphere, whether art, literature or science, the
great thing, as Henrik Ibsen says, is not to allow one’s self to
be frightened by the venerableness of the institution.

Now that the truth in regard to many of the mooted ques-
tions which pertain to the foundations of geometry has at
last been daringly disclosed, the first question that naturally
arises is: Has Euclid’s fame suffered by the discovery ? One
might be led to think so if dependence were to be placed in
Clifford’s characterization of Lobatchevsky’s celebrated mon-
ograph as ‘‘Huclid without the vicious assumption.” Such a
remark is not only misleading: it displays a fundamental mis-
apprehension in regard tothe Euclidian and non-Kuclidian
geometries. . The real truth of the matter is that Euclid’s
genius today shines forth more resplendently than ever; the
almost flawless perfection of his work is only thrown into
clearer perspective and higher relief. From the purely philo-
sophical, the metaphysical point of view, the discovery of the
non-Kuclidian geometry is of vast interest; for it gives rise
to endless speculations in regard to the character of space—
even of inter-stellar space. Are the three angles of a trian-
gle equal to two right angles if the sides of the triangle are
the distances from the earth to the remotest fixed star? In
the realization that Euclidian geometry is only a chapter ina
more general geometry, fitly entitled Pan-Geometry, and the

consequent almost infinite extension of the domain of research
consists the great value of the discovery to the mathemati-

20 | JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [May

cian. Most interesting comparisons between the different
types of geometry flow from a study of certain surfaces.
Since the sum of the three angles of a spherical triangle is
greater than two right angles, it is evident that the charac-
teristic geometry of the sphere is Riemannean; it has been
known, since Lobatchevsky and Bolyai, that the characteris-
tic geometry of the orisphere is Euclidian; since Beltrami, that
of the Euclidian pseudo-sphere is Lobatchevskian.* Such
generalizations as Barbarin’s Theorem, for example, link to-
gether the various types of geometry in a most succinct and
illuminative fashion, exhibiting with great clarity their fun-
dainental distinctions and similarities. Text books in non-
Euclidian geometry are now being written; Professor Hal-
sted entitles a popular article Zhe Non-Euclidian Geometry
Inevitable. 'The first step toward the popularization of non-
Euclidian geometry is the clear enunciation, at the proper
place in our ordinary text-books of geometry, of the principle
on which the Euclidian geometry rests: that from the stand-
point of pure logic the parallel-postulate is a mere choice be-
tween alternatives. ‘‘In all the books put into the hands of
students,” as M. Barbarin has said, ‘‘the hypothetical and
wholly factitious character of the Euclidian postulate (should)
be put well into relief.”+

The second great gain from the discovery of the non-Euclid-
ian geometry is the possibility of the formulation of the prin-
ciples of the general geometry. It is most instructive and
stimulating to the mathematical student tosee the theories of
Euclidian geometry emerge as special cases of the more gen-
eral and comprehensive theories of Pan-Geometry. The

*If we consider the tubes or surfaces equidistant from a straight line,
and make that distance infinite,we have the orispheres; the pseudo-spheres
are surfaces of revolution which have for meridians a tractrix or line of
equal tangents. A pseudo-sphere finds its approximate counterpart in na-
ture in a morning-glory whose stem is infinitely prolonged; for a figure,
ef. Elements of Trigonometry, by Phillips and Strong, p. 126.

+On the Utility of Studying Non-Euclidian Geometry, by’P. Barbarin; Le
Mathematiche, May, 1901.

a
d

7907| HErnDERSON—FOUNDATIONS OF GEOMETRY. 21

general geometry contains many propositions common to all
the systems, which should be enumerated in the same terms
in each of these. Sometimes a modification in the form of
statement, veiling the special property of the figure in the
particular type of space, would result from a generalization
of the theorems for the general geometry, in which case such
special properties should be clearly indicated. ‘Thus, to state
an illustration cited by M. Barbarin,* that of the convex quad-
rilateral inscribed in a circle, in Euclidian geometry, the sum
of two opposite angles ts constant and equal to two right angles;
in non-Euclidian geometry, ¢hzs swum is variable. Notwith-
standing this, the two forms may be reconciled, since in
both cases the sum of two opposite angles equals that of the
other two, and this is sufficient for a convex quadrilateral to
be inscriptible. Such generalizations often lead to a com-
plete redistribution of values, and so clarify the processes of
Euclidian geometry in the most distinctive way. Professor
EK. Study has said:

“The conception of geometry as an experimental science is only
one among many possible, and the standpoint of the empiric is as
regards geometry by no means the richest in outlook. #'or he will
not, in his one-sidedness, justly appreciate the fact that in mani-
fold, and often surprising ways the mathematical sciences are in-
tertwined with one another, that in truth they form an indivisible
whole.

“Although it is possible and indeed highly desirable that each sep-
arate part or theory be developed independently from the others and
with the instrumentalities peculiar to it, yet whoever should disre-
gard the manifold interdependence of the different parts, would de-
prive himself of one of the most powerful instruments of research.

“This truth, really self-evident yet often not taken to heart, ap-
plied to Euclidian and non-Euclidian geometry, leads to the some-
what paradoxical result that, among conditions to a more profound
understanding of even elementary parts of the Euclidian geometry,
the knowledge of the non-Euclidian geometry cannot be dispensed
with. ”’+

*On the Utility of Studying non-Euclidian Geometry, 1. c.
7 Ueber Nicht-Euklidische und Linien-Geometrie, Greifswald, 1900.

22 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [May

Lastly, the discovery of the non-Euclidian geometry virtu-
ally fixes upon the Euclidian geometry its practical and em-
pirical character. ‘‘In connecting a geometry with experi-
ence,” to cite the view of the most confirmed of non-Euclid-
ians, ‘‘there is involved a process which we find in the theo-
retical handling of any empirical data, and which therefore
should be familiarly intelligible to any scientist. The results
of any observations hold good, are valid, always only within
definite limits of exactitude and under particular conditions.
When we set up the axioms, we put in place of these results
statements of absolute precision and generality. In this ideal-
ization of the empirical data our addition is at first only re-
stricted in its arbitrariness in so much as it must seem to ap-
proximate, must apparently fit, the supposed facts of experi-
ence, and, on the other hand, must introduce no logical con-
tradiction. Thus to-day the ordinary triply-extended space
of our experience may be purely Bolyaian, or purely Eu-
’ clidian, or purely Cliffordian, or purely Riemannian.”* To
put it extravagantly, the non-Euclidian geometer, like a crou- -
pier, cries out to his audience: ‘‘Here are three assumptions
in regard to the angle sum of a triangle; from not one of the
three do any logical contradictions follow; which one will you
take ? Messieurs, faites vos jeux!” 'Vhe result is, not that the
mathematical world singles out one to the exclusion of the
others—but studies all three, their inter-actions, inter-relations,
and mutualdependencies. And yet if the ‘‘man in the street”
impatiently cries out: ‘‘I am not interested in what may be
the possible nature of space in the vicinity of Mars, or even the
possible character of geometrical figures on the planet Jupiter,
or in the tortuous reasonings of a mathematical Alice in Won-
derland. Tell me, what is the character of the space I occu-
py, the nature of the physical worldin which I live and move
and have my being?” And the answer of mathematicians
throughout the world, with certain distinguished exceptions,

*The Appreciation of non-Euclidian Geometry, by G. B. Halsted; Science,
March 22, 1901, pp. 462-465,

7907| H8NDERSON—FOUNDATIONS OF GEOMETRY. 23

would doubtless be: ‘‘Although it can never be mathematically
demonstrated, our space I believe to be Euclidian space be-
cause of the testimony of experience.” The three angles of
a triangle can never be mathematically demonstrated to be
equal to two right angles; nor can experience ever give the
absolutely exact metric results desiderated. And yet, this
thing amounts to what we crudely call ‘‘moral certainty”,
viz. that the ‘‘practical geometry”, as Bessel rightly called
it, within reasonable limits of error—for which we must
always allow in this imperfect world—, and for limited por-
tions of space, is Euclidian. So, after all, it seems that
we are forced to the conclusion that the axioms of geom-
etry, although they are, abstractly speaking, assump-
tions, are, practically speaking, deductions from expe-
rience. Only as suppliants at the feet of Nature her-
self can we ever hope to penetrate to the heart of her mys-
tery.

’

A NEW COLOR TEST FOR THE LIGNOCELLULOSES.

ALVIN S. WHEELER.

The lignocelluloses give a number of color reactions, the
most valuable being the reaction with phloroglucinol in
hydrochloric acid solution. The rich reddish violet color is
very pronounced. The salts of anilin give a golden yellow
but the color is not sufficiently dark to allow them to com-
pete with phloroglucinol. However, I have observed that
the salts of the nitranilines produce a color which is very
striking, a rich blood red color. As phloroglucinol solutions
are said to deteriorate with age, I have kept for one year
exposed to full daylight a hydrochloric acid solution of
phloroglucinol and also one of paranitraniline. The phenol
solution became brown, showing some decomposition and on
applying it to pine sawdust the violet color was not fully
developed instantly but in a few minutes became as dark as
that made by a fresh solution. The nitraniline solution was
perfectly stable and gave its reaction as quickly as a fresh
solution. So far as a year’s time is concerned the new
reagent has no real advantage over the old.

The red color is produced by the salts of the ortho, meta
and paranitranilines but the meta compounds are much
inferior, the color being pale in comparison. The ortho and
para compounds give the same deep color. Paranitraniline
is to be preferred since it is more readily obtained. Different
salts of this amine such as sulphate, nitrate, hydrobromide
and hydrochloride were tested but no difference was noted.
The hydrochloride was adopted for use. This salt, dis-
solved in pure water, only gives a yellow color, but on stand-

24 [May

1607) WHEELER—CotLor TEst For LIGNOCELLULOSES. 25

ing for some hours the red color develops. Since the best
results are obtained when free acid is present, various
strengths of hydrochloric acid were tried from one-half to a
twelve per cent. solution but no important difference could
be observed. It is convenient to use an acid of specific grav-
ity 1.06. A study of various concentrations of the parani-
traniline in acid solution revealed no differences of conse-
quence. It was observed that in all cases hot solutions pro-
duced much quicker results than cold ones. In fact hot solu-
tions seemed to give the full depth of color instantaneously.

The reagent was applied to a wide variety of woods, to
jute, to oat straw and to many samples of paper. A No. 1
book paper showed numerous small red fibres, indicating
adulteration with mechanical wood or else incomplete con-
version of the lignocellulose. A yellow paper containing
five per cent. of mechanical wood gave a deeper color, like-
wise a Salmon pink paper. A very deep blue paper made of
sulphite cellulose showed scattering red fibres which were
easily seen. A sample of white paper made from bleached
sulphite gave no trace of color.

A striking lecture experiment is carried out by projecting
a quantity of the hot solution against a large sheet of paper
made of mechanical wood, such as newspaper stock.

In conclusion, the reagent is made by dissolving two grams
of paranitraniline in one hundred cubic centimeters of hydro-
chloric acid, either of specific gravity 1.06 or a 4N solution.
When used hot, a blood red color is instantaneously
obtained with lignocelluloses.

University of North Carolina,
February 21, 1907.

NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF CORE BANK, N.C.

BY COLLIER COBB.

The storm of October 17th, 1906, cut three inlets across
Core Bank, just below Cedar Island Inlet (closed since 1805)
and near the site of Old Drum Inlet (closed in 1822), and
revealed the fact that the beach sands and dunes (Columbia)
rest upon a clay foundation (Neocene), which in its turn is
underlaid by Tertiary shell-rock, exactly similar to the shell
rock occurring at various points in Currituck Sound and
already noted in this Journal.* Among the forms observed here
were Zurritella, Lunatia, Glycymeris, Tornatellaea, Nucula,
Lucina, Corbula, Protocardia, Modiolus, Arca, Ostrea. 'These
were in most cases packed together in the shell-rock, anda
few sharks’ teeth were included. The upper portion of this

rock was made up almost entirely of the shells of Zed/ina.

After the storm the éntire bank in the region of the new-
formed inlets was black with magnetic sands, heavily ripped,
their thicknes being in some cases as much as three inches.
Numerous water-worn shells of Cardium, Anomia, Exo-
gyra, Serpula, Gryphaca, of species identical with those
found by the writer on Currituck Banks, were washed up by
the storm, as were also the bones of fishes, all these being
Cretaceous fossils. Many coral fragments were also found.
The Captain of the Core Bank Life Saving Station, Willis,
sailed through one of the inlets and found six feet of water
in its shallowest part. On December 16th, 1906, I walked
across all three of the inlets at low water in company with
Captain Wm. T. Willis of the Core Bank Life Saving Station,

*VoL. xxii, No. 1, 1906, pp. 17-19.
26 [May

1907 | Copp—GEOLOGY OF CoRE BANK. 27

and Mr. R. C. Holton of Atlantic, the washing up of sand
from the sea and the southward movement of the dunes hav-
ing nearly filled them.

The Tertiary shell-rock was encountered in Core Sound
between Core Bank and Cedar Island, and between Core
Bank and the mainland. There is thus no longer any ques-
tion as to the origin of Core Bank or of Currituck Bank, for
they are both essentially parts of the mainland. Currituck
Sound was formerly a river that flowed into the Albemarle or
Caroline River before the present Albemarle Sound was
formed by the drowning of that valley; and Core Sound was
for the greater part of its length a southern tributary of the
large river made up of the Pamlico and the Neuse, and pass-
ing to seaward through the present Ocracoke Inlet. The
Albemarle River passed through the present fresh ponds just
south of the Kill Devil Hills, and the margin of the conti-
nent was some three score miles eastward of its present posi-
tion.

Then came the subsidence which drowned out the lower
river valleys producing the estuaries and sounds already men-
tioned, and this subsidence may still be in progress in the
region to the north of Cape Hatteras.

Since that subsidence, however, there has been an uplift of
the land from Cape Hatteras southward, which, in all proba-
bility is still going on. As the dunes advance towards the
sound side they depress by their weight the swamp muck in
which the trees of that side grow, and these are left exposed
on the seaward side when the dunes have passed. This com-
pression of the muck, which is common from Hatteras Island
northward, may easily be mistaken for subsidence of the
land.

But on the land opposite Core Bank, successive strata of
muck, filled with well-rounded wind-blown sands rise twenty
feet above Core Sound at Atlantic. Kitchen middens, too,
mark this line of elevated shore, the heaps being composed
mainly of oyster shells with an occasional bit of broken

28 JoURNAI, OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [May

Indian pottery, and an occasional stone cleaver. Similar
evidences of recent elevation have been observed by the
writer at various points from Cape Hatteras to Cape Sable.

Notge—This paper was presented, with lantern illustrations, before Sec-
tion E, of the American Association for the Advancement of Science,
New York, December 31st, 1906, and an abstract appears in Science N. S.
vol. xxv, p. 297, Feb. 22, 1907.

NOTE ON ELECTRICAL AGEING OF FLOUR.

J. W. GORE.

The Alsop Process of Ageing flour was described in the
Electrical World of December 8th, 1906, which is now in use
in many mills in the United States and also in foreign
countries.

The apparatus consists of a 500 volt Shunt Wound dynamo,
with an induction coil in series with it, and an air pump.

The circuit is automatically broken at each stroke of the
pump; the break is between two copper electrodes, and the
resulting arc is drawn out until broken.

The air through which this flaming Electrical discharge
passes is forced by the air pump through the flour as it comes
from the mill.

A 1% kw dynamo is sufficient for a mill of some 30 to 40
barrels daily output.

It has been the practice of’millers and warehouse men for a
long time to age fresh flour by storage, thus fitting it better
for bread and yielding a higher grade product. By Alsop’s
process these beneficial results are obtained in a few moments.

The conclusion is that the active elements in the atmos-
phere which improve the bread making qualities of the flour
when stored, are plentifully produced by the flaming
discharge of Electricity between Copper Electrodes.

1907) 29

INDUSTRIAL AND SCIENTIFIC ASPECTS OF THE
PINE AND ITS PRODUCTS.*

BY CHAS. H. HERTY, PH.D.

Consideration of the annual production of volatile oils shows
at once the great preponderance of spirits of turpentine over
all others combined. Each quart of spirits of turpentine rep-
resents approximately one year’s output of this product from
one tree. At least nine-tenths of the world’s supply of this
substance comes from our Southern States, for the production
of which not less than one hundred and twenty millions of
trees are annually subjected to turpentining. Two millions
of acres of virgin timber are annually brought into operation
to supply the place of exhausted timber. Millions of pines
which have never been turpentined are felled each year by the
mills in Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas. Every winter the
entire turpentine producing section is swept by ground fires
which destroy most of the seedlings, and thus make impos-
sible reproduction on any large scale. The annual revenue
- from the naval stores industry can be conservately estimated
under present prices at not less than forty millions of dollars.
Surely such a situation justifies and demands systematic
experimental work in the hope of conserving this valuable
native resource.

EFFECT OF TURPENTINING ON LUMBER.

The pine has a two-fold commercial value, first, as timber,
second, as a producer of the oleo-resin, ‘‘crude turpentine.”

*Reprinted from The Chemical Engineer, March, 1907.

80 {May

ir yes

7907] Herty—TuE Pink AND rts Propucts. 31

For many years it was believed that timber which had been
turpentined, commonly called ‘‘bled timber,” was inferior to
‘‘unbled” for construction purposes. A thorough investiga-
tion of this question in 1893 by the Division of Forestry of the
U. S. Department of Agriculture showed the fallacy of this
belief, and now no distinction is made. Indeed in France
timber from trees which have been turpentined is preferred
for all purposes where strength and elasticity are demanded.

CRUDE TURPENTINE.

Previous to the last twelve years no systematic experiments
had been carried out in this country on the production of crude
turpentine, The records of the U. S. Patent Office as far
back as 1869 show various inventions designed as substitutes
for the ‘‘box,” this being a deep hole cut in the base of the
tree, having a capacity of about one quart and serving to col-
lect the crude turpentine which flows from the scarified trunk
above. None of these devices however gained permanent
favor among turpentine operators. In 1894 W. W. Ashe, of
the N. C. Geological Survey, began a comparative study of
crude turpentine collected by the ‘‘box” system, uniformly
practiced in this country, and by the ‘‘cup” or Hugues system,
practiced in France. ‘These experiments were planned with
care, and although carried out on a small scale gave interest-
ing results. They were discontinued after one year.

In the hope of accomplishing something toward the conser-
vation of the pine forests of Georgia I began during the sum-
mer of 1901 field experiments on the production of crude
turpentine by the pine. With an apparatus somewhat similar
to that used in France, but essentially modified to suit our
system of scarification or ‘‘chipping,” various studies, both
qualitative and quantitative, were made in the pine forests of
the southern part of the State. Many of the specimens col-
lected were afterwards examined in the chemical laboratory.
The striking character of the results obtained aroused the
interest of the U. S. Bureau of Forestry, and during the fol-

32 JouRNAL OF THE MrrcHELL Society. [May

lowing winter I was led to accept a commission in the Bureau
for the purpose of carrying out on a commercial scale the
experiments already begun.

As introductory to the discussion of that work let me
explain briefly the operations commonly in practice in the
turpentine woods. During the winter the ‘‘boxes” are cut in
the trees. In early spring the weekly scarification or ‘‘chip-
ping” begins. It is necessary to renew this wound each week,
as the flow of crude turpentine practically ceases after seven
days. Chipping extends each year about eighteen inches up
the tree, the depth of the cut being about one inch and the
width, on an average tree, fourteen inches. When the boxes
fill, usually every four or five weeks, the crude turpentine is
removed to buckets, then to barrels and hauled to the still.
During the year some of the product remains sticking to the
exposed ‘‘face” of the tree. This is collected in the fall and
distilled, although it has a much smaller percentage of spirits
of turpentine than the ‘‘dip” from the boxes. Lastly a space
around each tree is cleared of all combustible material as a
protection against the annual ground fires.

The basis of my work was the conviction that the pine is
not so much a store-house but rather a factory for the pro-
duction of crude turpentine, and that timber which is not
boxed should produce more than timber whose vitality is di- _
minished by the cutting of the box. Comparative experiments
were carried out in 1903 at Ocilla, Ga., on thirty thousand
trees. In these experiments both the ‘‘box” and the ‘‘cup
and gutter” systems were used under conditions as nearly
identical as possible. The results showed an even greater
difference in favor of the unboxed timber than was expected,
while the qualitative results previously obtained by Ashe
were confirmed. The immediate commercial introduction of
the cup and gutter system was assured by the financial gain
from the increased output, the improved quality of the rosin
and the protection given to the trees against wind and fire.

For the production of crude turpentine it is necessary to

-907 | Herty—TuHer PIng AND 1tTSs PRODUCTS. 33

wound the tree. If the tree is girdled it dies. What then is
the limit of wounding to which it is necessary to subject the
tree in order to get the most profitable yield, and beyond
which it is unsafe to go? It had been proved at Ocilla that
the box was an unnecessary wound and that by its elimina-
tion the yield could be increased. The next step then was to
make comparative tests bearing upon the extent of the wound
given in ‘‘chipping.” For the past two years such experi-
ments have been conducted in Florida by the U. S. Forest
Service, and by the courtesy of the Service I am enabled to
tell you that results already obtained show that shallow chip-
ping produces as much or eventually more crude turpentine
than the customary deep chipping, while at least one year in
three can be gained in the usual rate of ascent of the tree
without diminishing the output. Still other experiments
yielding most valuable results are in progress, all bearing
upon more conservative wounding of the tree. None of these
experiments are extreme, but all are rational modifications of
present practices which will carry conviction when the details
are published.

Of an entirely different character from the experiments
just mentioned, but of great scientific and practical value,
are the recent studies of Prof. A. Tschirch, of Switzerland, on
resin secretion. By the use of the microscope and suitable stains
he has proven that the seat of resin production is in a muci-
laginous layer lining the inner walls of the resin ducts. Ina
later study, carried out upon a large number of trees, he has
further demonstrated that while there are a limited number
of ‘‘primary” resin ducts present in the untapped pine, by far
the greater flow of resin proceeds from secondary ducts
formed in the outer sap wood after the wounding of the tree.
The resin from the ‘“‘primary” ducts is a physiological pro-
duct, that from the ‘‘secondary” a true pathological product.

While many chemical studies have been made of the pro-
ducts obtained by distillation of crude turpentine, only one
detailed investigation is on record regarding the nature of the

34 JoURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society. [May

oleo-resin secreted in the Longleaf pine. 'Tschirch and Ko-
ritzschoner have shown that this oleo-resin consists of

Palabienic Acid—C,,H,,O, 5 per cent.
4 iy, Palabietic Acid—CyH,,O.— 6 Oa
a and B—Palabietidlic Acid—C,H,O— 56 ‘ “
Spirits of Turpentine zy ** as
Paloresene 1g. ee

Impurities, Bitter Principle and Water 3 ‘ -

No study has been published of the oleo-resin from Pinus
Heterophylla, or Cuban pine, which occurs so frequently in
the Florida forests and from which therefore so large a pro-
portion of the present supply of spirits of turpentine and
rosin is prepared. Such an investigation has been begun in
the laboratory of the University of North Carolina.

Many interesting new lines of investigation in this field
suggest themselves if the chemist instead of waiting for
specimens to reach the Jaboratory will study and note the
changes at the tree. When the oleo-resin first appears it is
a perfectly clear liquid. In the case of some pines it remains
thus for weeks and then slow crystallization of the dissolved
acids begins, with others the crystallization begins within a
minute after thedrop appears. Evidence already in hand points
to the probability that the clear liquid issuing from the
resin ducts is a supersaturated solution. To what is this
condition of supersaturation to be ascribed ? Again, the flow
of resin is relatively rapid during the first forty-eight hours
after wounding, then quickly diminishes and practically
ceases after seven days. Is this cessation to be explained by
the plant physiologist or by the chemist ? Has the inner lin-
ing of the resin duct lost its power of production, or has the
duct been closed by oxidation, or crystallization of the oleo-
resin which it exudes? If chemical, can it be prevented by
some simple means? A practical solution of this problem
would be a great blessing to the turpentine operator in these
days of scarcity of labor and would do more than anything

7907] Herty—Tuer Ping AND Irs PRODUCTS. 35

else for the preservation of our pine forests. Still again—
what is the chemistry of ‘‘scrape” formation ? Why the va-
riation in the amount of scrape formed in pines of different
species and even among those of the same species? These
are a few of the many problems in this untouched field
awaiting the skill and patience of the investigator.

DISTILLATION.

Crude turpentine is of very little commercial use. It must
be separated by distillation into its constituents, spirits of
turpentine and rosin. In this country distillation is carried
out in large copper stills heated by direct fire. During distil-
lation a current of warm water is let into thestill. The steam
produced by the water added during distillation materially
lowers the temperature and lessons the time necessary for the
complete removal of the spirits of turpentine. An interesting
study of this subject from a physico-chemical standpoint has
been made by Prof. Vezes, of Bordeaux. By distilling at this
lower temperature the possibility of destructive distillation of
the rosin is avoided. ‘The vaporized spirits of turpentine and
the steam are condensed in a water jacketed copper coil and
collected in a suitable vessel where separation takes place
owing to the difference in specific gravities and the mutual
insolubility of the two liquids. On completion of the distil-
lation the cap of the still is removed and the excess of water
boiled off to prevent opaqueness in the rosin. The molten
rosin is then run through an opening near the bottom of the
still into strainers lined with cotton batting through which
it filters into a vat. After partial cooling the rosin is dipped
into barrels where it slowly solidifies.

During the summer of 1903 I had opportunity to study the
systems of distillation practicedin France. Three types were
found, first distillation by free flame and addition of water,
as in this country, second by steam alone in steam jacketed
stills, and third by a system of ‘‘ mixed injection,” i. e. free

36 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. -[May

flame and addition of water together with steam injection.
The cost’ of a plant for distillation by steam alone is far greater
than that of the simple plants in thiscountry. After careful
study of these systems I am convinced that if a skillfull
“stiller” is in charge, as good results are obtained here as with
the best of the French steam stills, but the personal equation,
which plays no role in the steam still, is of prime importance
with us. Perhaps the best of these for our conditions would
be that of mixed injection, for the extra cost of installation
and operation is not great and the personal element of the
‘‘stiller ” is entirely eliminated.

SPIRITS OF TURPENTINE.

The chief constituent of spirits of turpentine is pinene,
C,H, Many battles have been waged over the structural
formula of this compound. At first it was classified among
the open chain hydrocarbons but later was shown to be a ring
compound. Of the many formulas proposed that of Wagner
is most in accord with the reactions of the substance.

vd
Cc
AC CH,
vie CH
Cc
!
CH;

Some of the work upon American spirits of turpentine has
been in vain, because investigators failed to take into account

the facts that in our turpentine orchards more than one species

of pine is turpentined and that the crude turpentine from each
is indiscriminately mixed when collected. Recognizing these

~ Sena

(oe)
J

7907 | Herty—TueE PINE AND ITS PRODUCTS.
7

facts J. H. Long in 1893 secured specimens from identified
individual trees, distilled the volatile oils from each and con-
cluded that while American turpentine rotates the plane of
polarized light to the right the variations in the amount of
rotation in different specimens is due to admixture of the lavo-
rotatory oil from Cuban pine with the dextro-rotatory oil from
theLong leaf pine, and as the latter tree generally predominates
the resultant oils are more or less dextro-rotatory. New light
has been thrown upon this subject by an investigation carried
on during the past year in the chemical laboratory of the
University of North Carolina in collaboration with the U. S.
Forest Service, by which the results of this study are to be
published shortly. Through the courtesy of the Service lam
enabled to refer to some of the results of special interest in
this connection. During the past season, at regularintervals
of four weeks, the crude turpentine has been collected sepa-
rately from seven Longleaf and seven Cuban pines. A study
of the oils distilled from these specimens has shown a marked
variation in the rotation of polarized light. The variation
exhibits itself not only in the oils from the two species of
pines, but even among those from the same species. The
Longleaf pines generally yielded dextro-rotatory oils. One,
however, yielded a levo-rotatory oil, while another scarcely af-
fected the plane of polarization. The Cuban pines gave gen-
erally levo-rotatory oils but through wide variations, one of
them effecting only a very slight rotation. In the case of
each tree, however, the rotation of its oil was found to be
practically constant throughout the season.

The rapid rise in the price of spirits of turpentine during
the past few years has led to frequent adulteration and the
offering for sale of many substitutes. The producer, tempted
by the great difference in price of spirits of turpentine and
kerosene, has frequently mixed the two. The remedy was
peculiar. Seeking to advance the price by producing less
spirits of turpentine, the operators soon found that their suc-
cessful effort to curtail had been fully off-set by the addition, -

38 JouRNAL OF THE MiTcHELL SOCIETY. [May

at many stills, of kerosene sufficient to keep the output atits
former figures. The most prominent producers then led the
fight for ‘‘ pure spirits” laws and in the largest producing
States effective legislation on this subject has been enacted.
Similar laws have recently been passed in New York State.

Mineral oil constitutes the chief adulterant of spirits of
turpentine. While such an addition may not materially lower
the solvent power, it diminishes the oxygen carrying power
directly in proportion to the amount present, since American
petroleum is composed almost wholly of saturated hydrocar-
bons. So skillful has become the art of adulterating with
petroleum products that detection by the ordinary physical
tests can beevaded if the adulterant is not present in too great
quantity. But by polymerization of the terpenes with con-
centrated sulphuric acid, Herzfeld’s method, adulterations
even as low as one to two per cent. can be detected with cer-
tainty. Especially is this true if after successive polymeriza-
tions the oils, distilled with steam, be examined with the re-
fractometer, as recommended by McCandless.

No discussion of spirits of turpentine would be complete
without embracing that form now legally designated as ‘‘wood
spirits of turpentine.” It is no new thing that a volatile oil,
various heavy oils and charcoal can be obtained by destructive
distillation of ‘‘fat lightwood.” More than forty years ago
extensive plants for such distillation were in operation in North
Carolina. But the low price of spirits of turpentine made
these financial ventures unsuccessful. A few plants continued
operations on a small scale, but the matter dropped out of
public notice for a long while. With the recent rise in price
the subject was again agitated. By the aid of clever promo-
tion, by the exhibition of actual results obtained, but from
raw material above average richness, by frequent reference to
latter-day success in saving and utilizing by-products and
finally by that sweet vision of pestiferous stumps removed
from the cotton rows, great enthusiasm was raised, and at

,one time unlimited capital was available for destructive dis-

1907] Hrerty—TueE PINE AND ITs PRODUCTS. 39

tillation plants, provincially called ‘‘ stump factories.” Many
were built, but it was soon found that the paint and varnish
people did not want the product, as the quality was irregular
and the odor bad. ‘Then, too, the by-products so carefully
saved found no market. Finally through faulty construction
or careless management many of the plants burned. Conse-
quently destructive distillation lost favor and plants were
erected for the extraction from lightwood by steam of spirits
of turpentine alone. This method gives an oil of good qual-
ity, and with increased experience a product is now manufac-
tured which is practically the same as ‘‘ gum spirits.” But
the yield from average raw material is rather low and if it be
sought to increase the yield by elevation of temperature the
quality is inferior.

I think I have stated the case fairly. We all hope that this
industry will eventually be placed upon a good solid basis. Let
me emphasize three points in connection with this subject :—

First.—Fewer promoters aud more chemists would improve
the situation.

Second.—Investors must not expect to realize the enormous
profits claimed by some of the over-enthusiastic, but the busi-
ness is capable of yielding fair dividends if the plants are
properly located and carefully managed.

Third.—In spite of the preference now shown for steam
extraction, the future of this industry lies in destructive dis-
tillation, but not as at present practiced. The difficulty of
securing profitably a permanent supply of raw material will
lead to the establishment of numbers of cheap stills. Such
stills require no expert labor and can be easily moved from
time to time to fresh portions of the territory for raw material.
The crude product from these small stills will be shipped to cen-
tral refineries where suitable apparatus will be found operated
under the direction of chemists.

ROSIN.

What is rosin and of what. chemical compounds is it

40 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [May

composed? This question has interested chemists for
many years. ‘The literature of the subject is very exten-
sive and the views held at various times were and even
now are widely different. By Maly and Fluckiger rosin was
considered the anhydride of abietic acid. Henriques con-
tended for the presence of lactonic acids, Benedict for free
acids and ethereal salts, Fahrion for sylvic acid, while
Tschirch has recently separated from American rosin three
isomeric acids a, 8 and y abietic acids, and considers that all
other workers in this field have been dealing with impure
products. ‘The controversy on this subject between Tschirch
and Fahrion is not yet ended. T'schirch can not decide
between C,,H,,O, and C,H,O, as the correct formula for
abietic acid. Nor has it been determined with any certainty
whether the oxygen atoms of this acid are present in the
form of hydroxyl or carboxyl groups. It is possible that
some of these differences may be due to the fact that many of
the specimens used for investigations are so called ‘‘Amer-
ican Rosins,” without taking into account the fact that much
of this rosin is derived from at least two different species of
pines, Pinus Palustris and Pinus Heterophylla.

Rosin varies in color from a pale yellow to avery deep red,
the price of the rosin decreasing with increasing color. In
France the better grades of rosin are placed in shallow trays
and exposed for three or four months to the bleaching action
of sunlight. Almost colorless grades are thereby obtained.
This practice is carried on by one firm in this country. But
sun-bleaching is not effective with the darker rosins. The
great difference in price between the low and high grades
has led to many efforts to devise chemical methods for bleach-
ing rosin. A number of patents have been issued on the
subject, but so far as I know none of these have proved
commercially profitable. Here is a live problem for the
chemist, the correct solution of which is certain to bring rich
returns.

For many years the commercial demand for rosin was very

7907] Herty—TuHe PINE AND ITS PRODUCTS. 41

limited. Indeed at one time the price dropped so low that
it was frequently the custom in North Carolina to distill the
oil from the crude turpentine and turn the rosin into the
creeks and swamps. In these latter days of higher prices the
rosin from these dumping grounds has been dug up, melted,
strained and shipped to market. The cause of this increase
in price is not difficult to discover. It is the manufacture of
rosin oil. Of the total amount of rosin produced about 10
per cent. is used for sizing, varnishes and other minor matters,
35 per cent., approximately, for soap making, while not less
than 55 per cent. is subjected to destructive distillation
whereby rosin spirits, various rosin oils, brewers pitch, etc.,
are obtained. As a substitute for or adulterant in linseed oil,
as lubricants, in printer’s ink and in many other ways rosin
oils are finding wider and wider application. This industry
thrives chiefly in Germany, to quite a large extent in England
and Scotland, and a much more limited extent in France,
where a high tariff prevents the importation of American
rosin. In this country there are about three rosin oil distil-
leries, operated somewhat in the same manner as the
European plants. Why should not this industry thrive in
our Southern States? It would seem that the same logic
which led to the recent movement to erect cotton mills near
the fields of cotton would apply in this case also. We have
a great advantage over the foreign manufacturer if we will
only make use of it. When the German or English rosin oil
manufacturer gets the rosin thoroughly melted in his still he
is just at the point where we were at the moment the molten
rosin was turned out of our turpentine still into the vat.
Meanwhile what has happened? The heat stored up in the
molten rosin has gone to waste, there has been added the
labor of dipping it from the vat into the barrels, the cost of
inspection, broker’s commissions, transportation costs, labor
in getting the rosin from the barrels and breaking it into
lumps of suitable size for the still, and finally the cost of fuel
for again melting the rosin, and why? All in order to get it

42 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [May

back again into the conditionin which we once had it. Many
industries have been developed on a much narrower basis of
saving than that just indicated. Adjacent to each of our
turpentine stills there should be found one or more for rosin
oil, placed on a lower level, so that the molten rosin could be
run directly from the one to the other and destructive distilla-
tion of the rosin begun. ‘The stills for rosin oil being made
of iron are not expensive and the skill required for distilling
is far less than in the distillation of crude turpentine.
Again, but little labor would be required, nor would it be
necessary to find markets or uses for the products: these
already exist and are constantly increasing. With such mani-
fest advantage we should be able to locate the whole of this
industry in our midst.

\\

JOURNAL

EvuisHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY
JUNE, 1907

VOL. XXIii NO. 2

PROCEEDINGS OF THE NORTH CAROLINA ACAD-
EMY OF SCIENCE, SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING,
HELD AT CHAPEL HILL,» MAY
17tH AND 187TH, 1907.

The executive committee met Friday, May 17th at1 p. m.,
the following members being present: Collier Cobb, W. C.
Coker, John F. Lanneau, and F. L. Stevens.

The following names were’proposed for membership to the
Academy and were elected to membership by the executive
committee: Dr. C. H. Herty, Chapel Hull; Dr. J: H: Pratt,
Chapel Hill; Dr. A. S. Wheeler, Chapel Hill; Dr. J. E. Mills,
Chapel Hill; Dr. R. O, EB. Davis, Chapel Hill; N. C. Curtis,
Chapel Hill; J. G. Hall, West Raleigh; H. W. Smith; W. A.
Withers, West Raleigh; Dr. G. A. Roberts, West Raleigh; F.
P. Drane, Chapel Hill; R. T. Allen, U.S. Geological Survey;
J. EK. Pogue, Jr., Chapel Hill; Miss Daisy B. Allen, Raleigh;
Louis W. Gaines, Wake Forest; W. N. Hutt, Raleigh ;
a J. Wolfe, Durham; M. H. Stacy, Chapel Hill; Clifton D.
Howe, Biltmore; C. W. MacNider, Raleigh: Will ©. Brewer,
Greensboro.

At 3 p.m. Friday, the 17th, the Academy was called to

Printed June 17,

44 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ june

order by its President, Professor Collier Cobb, and an address
of welcome was extended to the Academy by President Fran-
cis P. Venable, of the University of North Carolina. A
response to the address was made by the retiring President,
John F. Lanneau, of the Academy of Science. The
remainder of the afternoon session was devoted to the pre-
sentation of papers.

At9 p. m. the Academy met in Gerrard Hall, and the
presidential address, ‘‘The Garden, Field, and Forest of the
Nation,” was delivered by President Cobb. Following this
address a reception was extended the visiting members in the
Y. M. C. A. building.

Saturday, May 18, at 9 a. m., the Academy convened for a
business meeting. The minutes of the last meeting were read
and approved, and the names of the new members, as elected
by the executive’ committee, were read and formal vote of
election to membership was made.

The nominating committee, previously appointed, presented
for election the following names: President, T. Gilbert
Pearson; Vice-President, W. C. Coker; Secretary, F. L. Ste-
vens; members of the executive committee, Franklin Sher-
man, Jr., J. J. Wolfe, and John F. Lanneau. It was moved
by F. L. Stevens that the name of E. W. Gudger be substi-
tuted for thatof F. L. Stevens for Secretary. ‘The amend-
ment was carried. ‘These nominees were then elected to office
for the ensuing year. The report of the Treasurer, showing
a balance of $122.53, was received. Raymond Binford and
Franklin Sherman, Jr., were appointed as auditors. It was
moved and carried that the executive committee be requested

to hold the meeting next year two weeks earlier than that of -

this year.
Following tlie business meeting was held a meeting for the
presentation of papers.

The following papers were presented:

1. The Sparsity of the Stars, the Measureless Remoteness of

——.

|
;

7907] _ + Procrrepines N. C. AcapEMy OF SCIENCE. 45

each Star from All Others, John F. Lanneau, Wake
Forest College.
The paper will appear in full in Popular Astronomy.

2. The Foundations of Geometry, Archibald Henderson, of
the University of North Carolina, published in The
Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Society, May, 1907.

3. Some New Sources of Light, C. W. Edwards, Trinity
College. Read by title.

4. Some Interesting Grasshoppers (and Their Relatives) of
North Carolina, Franklin Sherman, Jr., State Ento-
mologist.

5. Osteogenesis Imperfecta (with a report of a case), Lewis
M. Gaines, of Wake Forest College. Read by title.

6. Notes on the Cultivation of Algae for Class Use, F. L,
Stevens, of the North Carolina College of Agriculture
and Mechanic Arts.

Suggestions were given for the isolation and cultivation of
algae upon solid medium, consisting of 75 per cent, ager made
up with Knopf’s solution. This medium solidifying at lower
than 34 degrees, can be safely used in plating out algac.
Cultures of several forms were exhibited.

lord

7. Fusion of Sponge Larvae with formation of composite
sponges, H. V. Wilson, of the University of North
Carolina.

The ciliated larvae of silicious sponges (Stylotella) may
be made to fuse, thus giving rise to composite sponges. To
accomplish this result it is only necessary to bring the larvae
in close contact at the time when the ciliary action is no lon-
ger locomotary and fixation is about to occur. The compos-
ite masses representing (in the actual experiments) from two
to six larvae complete the metamorphosis.

46 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

8. Wind-polished pebbles, and Palaeolithic Man, Collier
Cobb, of the University of North Carolina.

The close similarity between pebbles faceted and polished
by the sand-blast and the implements of early man was indi-
cated, and the errors which might result from superficial
observation were pointed out.

9. Notes on the Zoology of Lake Ellis, C. S. Brimley,
Raleigh, N. C.

The paper discusses the occurrence of various insects and
reptiles taken by the writer and others in the vicinity of Lake
Ellis, Craven County, N. C., during June, 1905, and May,
1906. The rare salamander, Stereochilus marginatus, which
had not been taken for many years, was found to be common,
and several specimens of the frog, Rana virgatipes, were
taken. Nine alligators were secured on the two trips by the
author’s companion, and several rare snakes. Five species
of dragon fly, new to North Carolina, were secured, and (in
June, 1905,) numerous specimens of the yellow fly (Diach-
lorus ferrugatus). Notes on other members of the Tabani-
dae are also given.

10. Single Phase Railway Work, J. E. Latta, of the Uni-
versity of North Carolina.

11. The Relation of the Cattle-tick to Southern Agriculture,
Dr. Tait Butler, State Veterinarian, Raleigh, N. C.

12. The Design of High Masonry Dams, William Cain, of
the University of North Carolina.

The method of finding the resultant of the water pressure
and the weight of masonry pertaining to any horizontal joint
of adam is given; also the decomposition of the vertical com-
ponent of this resultant along the joint according to the
usual hypothesis. The hypothesis of the conservation of
plane sections, in the case of a battered wall, is then criti-
cised and the resulting vertical unit pressure at a face of the

ee ae ee

ee

7907 + ‘Procrrpines N. C. ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. 47

wall, shown to be too high and therefore on theside of safety,
But since the pressure near a face, acts necessarily parallel
to that face, the vertical unit pressure just computed, is not
the whole pressure.

The difficulty of computing exactly this whole pressure is
next entered into and an upper limit found by an approximate
method which again gives an excess pressure.

Rankine’s suggestion, to use the ordinary formula for ver-
tical unit pressure, but specify higher limiting unit pressures
for the up-stream face than for the down stream face is adopted
provisionally.

The claim is made that, in addition to the three universally
imposed conditions, no tension, safe unit pressures and no
possible sliding at any horizontal joint—a fourth condition
must be imposed, viz., that the factors of safety against
overturning and sliding shall increase gradually from the
base upwards to allow for the proportionately greater influ-
ence, on the upper joints of wind and wave action, floating
ice or other bodies, and especially of the great forces caused
by the expansion of thick ice under an increase of tempera-
ture and by earthquakes.

It was found that this could easily be done by taking the
well-known theoretical triangular type of cross-section of
dam and making some additions at the top sufficient for a
roadway.

A preliminary design is given foradam 258 feet high,
with factors of safety and unit pressures marked onthe draw-
ing, satisfying all four conditions. The area of cross-sec-
tion and height being the same as for the celebrated Quaker
bridge design, a comparison was instituted, unfavorable to
the latter, in that its factors of safety are too small, par-
ticularly in the upper portions, where by the proposed fourth
condition they should be largest.

This criticism owes its significance to the fact that the new
Croton Dam of New York, 224 feet high to water surface and
finished February 1st, 1906, at a cost of over $7,500,000, has

48 JoURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

a profile for 224 feet in depth, exactly the same as the Qua-
ker bridge design for the same depth.

Engineering News for June 30, 1888, January 12, 1893, and
May 9, 1907, is referred to for the destructive action of ice
on ponds, lakes, and rivers, due to the expansion from an
increase of temperature during the day. At night, contrac-
tion causes cracks to form, often several inches wide, which
are filled up with new ice and thus the effect, from day to
day is cumulative and very destructive as far north as Can-
ada and in the Northern States. As yet, the action of ice on
high dams has not received much attention.

For earthquake action on houses, Milne is referred to; also
a personal experience of the author in Charleston, S. C., is
recited. It was pointed out, however, that dams being built
into the sides of the valley at their ends, were not so free to
move at their tops as houses.

A brief description and analysis of the failure of the Habra
dam concludes the paper.

13. Three Little Known Species of North Carolina Fungi,
J. G. Hall, of the North Carolina Experiment Station.

14. A New Form of Achlya, W. C. Coker, of the University
of North Carolina.

During the fall of 1906 an Achlya was found at Chapel
Hill, N. C., which agrees with Ach/ya racemosa, vat. stel-
ligera Cornu, in many respects, but different from it in having
the autheridum cut off immediately below the oogonium, and
the fertilizing tube arising from the division wall and enter-
ing the oogonium from below, as in Saprolegnia hypogyna
Pringsheim. Such an origin for the fertilizing tube is new
for the genus Achlya, and is not known elsewhere except in
Saprolegnia hypogyna.

15. Notes upon the Preparation of the Silicate Medium for
the Cultivation of Bacteria, J. C. Temple, N. C. Agri-
cultural Experiment Station.

7907) +~=ProcmEpincs N. C. ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. 49

Directions were given for the preparation of this medium
obviating the necessity of dializing, and making it possible
to prepare this medium with greater certainty and greater
accuracy. The use of the medium prepared in this way for
the culture of various organisms was illustrated by colonies
of various bacteria growing in a thriving condition upon the
medium.

16. Breeding Colonies of Birds (Illustrated with Eggs and
Stereopticon views), T. Gilbert Pearson, of Greens-
boro.

17. The Efficiency of Soil Inoculation in the Production of
Root Tubercles, F. L. Stevens, of the North Carolina
Agricultural Experiment Station.

Data was given concerning the inoculation of soils with
liquid cultures obtained from the Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C. From many tests conducted in various
ways there was no evidence whatever that inoculation with
these cultures was efficient in the production of tubercles
upon the legumes. The cultures employed were issued in
liquid condition in hermetically sealed test tubes, and were
obtained directly from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wash-
ington, D. C.

18. The Opportunities for Study and Research at the Beau-
fort Laboraty, H. V. Wilson, of the University of
North Carolina.

19. Does Blood Tell? Heredity According to the Experi-
ence of the Children’s Home Society, William B.
Streeter, of Greensboro, N. C.

20. Geology of the Cape Fear River, Joseph E. Pogue, Jr.,
of the University of North Carolina.

21. The Relation of Sporangium of Lygodium to the Evo-

lution of the Polypodiaceae, Raymond Binford, of
Guilford College.

50 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

22. The Condensation of Alipatic Aldehydes with Aromatic
Amines, Alvin S. Wheeler, of the North Carolina Uni-
versity.

The following reaction takes place without any dehydrat-
ing agent: RCHO+2RNH,—RCH (RNH),+H,O. In some
cases at low temperatures the addition product is obtained.
Condensation products of Chloral with the three nitranilines,
-p-bromaniline, o-toluidine, anthranilic acid, and o-anisidine
were prepared. By-products, as yet unidentified, were
obtained with o-toluidine and with anthranilic acid. The
condensation products are readily broken down by Hydro-
chloric acid and by acetic anhydride. When suspended or
dissolved in the glacial acetic acid they react with extreme
smoothness with bromine, forming beautifully crystalline
compounds which are much more stable than the condensation
products.

23. Chapel Hill Ferns, by W. C. Coker, of the University of
North Carolina.

A collection of the living ferns and fern allies native to
Chapel Hill, N. C., was made and exhibited in pots. Twenty
species were represented, including all the known Ptridophytes
of the neighborhood, except Botrychium ternatum and its
variety, dissectum, which had not yet appeared above
ground.

24. Notes on Turtles of Genus Pseudemys, C. S. a of
Raleigh, N. C.

25. Electricity in Heavy Traction (Illustrated by lantern
slides), J. E. Latta, of the University of North Caro-
lina.

26. The Optical Rotation of Volatile Oil, C. H. Herty and
G. A. Johnson, of the University of North Carolina.

27. Children’s Home Society Methods, William B. Streeter,
of Greensboro.

go7] + Procrrpines N. C. AcapEMmy or SCIENCE. 51

28. Gametophytes of Botrychium Virginianum, Raymond
Binford, of Guilford College.

They were found in moist oak woods under the leaves.
Some were almost on the surface of the soil while others
were imbedded one to two inches in the soil. They seem to
have gotten down by means of worm holes or cracks made by
roots of trees. Sizes ranging from 2 m. m. to 10 m. m. were
shown, Specimens of these plants were exhibited before the
Academy.

A motionof appreciation of the courtesies extended to the
Academy by the members at Chapel Hill and ladies of Chapel
Hill was unanimously carried.

At 1:30 o’clock Saturday the Academy adjourned.

F. L. Stevens, Secretary.

THE GARDEN, FIELD, AND FOREST OF THE
NATION.

BY COLLIER COBB.
(Address as President of the North Carolina Academy of Science. )

It has been the boast of more than one of our politicians
that North Carolina could well be independent of the rest of

the world, for we might enclose the State with a high wall

and get along just as well, since we produce within our
borders everything that we need. This boast was based on
the fact that North Carolina puts something in every column
of the blanks sent out by the Agricultural Department at
Washington, that she produces a little of everything; but the
inference drawn from this fact is far from being true.
Not a single county in the State produces food-stuff sufficient
to sustain its population. As our towns and cities have
grown, the relative food production has diminished, and in
most of our counties this diminution in the amount of food
produced has been not only relative but absolute.

For the last score of years the population of our towns and
villages has increased as families have gone from the farms
to the factories, often to live off the labor of the children, or
from the rural districts to the city in order to give the chil-
dren better schooling. The increase of our population from
outside sources, too, has helped to swell the urban popula-
tion. But farmlands are not increasing, the acres planted
with food stuffs have steadily diminished in number, and
under our old system of cultivation there has been a steady
diminution in the value of the returns per acre. Even

52 [June

a tis

7907] GARDEN, Fre_p, AND ForEstT oF THE NATION. 53

Orange County, which may be reckoned a rural district,
does not begin to make food enough to maintain its
inhabitants through the year, and the inhabitants of our
adjoining county of Durham would starve in less than a
fortnight if they had to depend on the food product of the
county for support. When some of us in this hall came to
college the village of Durham could claim no other distinction
than that of being the railway -station from which students
drove to Chapel Hill. Today it is a city of more than 20,000
inhabitants, drawing its population from all parts of the
world, and dependent upon distant fields for its support.
And not one of our large cities, Wilmington, Charlotte,
Asheville, Greensboro, or Raleigh, could depend on its own
county, or even upon the surplus of a score of adjoining coun-
ties, for its food.

Notwithstanding the several years of unprecedented crops
that we have had, amounting almost to seven years of plenty,
we are practically face to face with a famine. ‘The wheat
lands of our own Northwest have been practically exhausted of
their lime, as an acre of wheat will use up ten pounds of lime
in coming to maturity; and this loss, added to the damage
done the soil by the poisons excreted by the roots of the
wheat, has caused our farmers of the great plains to seek
new fields in the Canadian West. Already the natural pas-
turage of our semi-arid regions has beeu practically exhausted,
and neither cattle-raising nor sheep-raising is profitable,
where within two decades vast fortunes have been made in
these industries. Those of you who paid your month’s
butcher’s bills on the first of May were doubtless led by
their unusual size to investigate causes, and learned that for
the first time in the history of the Chicago and Kansas City
packing houses they have not been able to fill their cold
storage. The demand of the country for fresh meat has
consumed the entire output of these houses during their busy
season. And this state of things has come about after three
years of abundant crops, during which time the packing

54 JoURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

houses have paid their own prices for meat. Now leta
drought come and there is absolutely no escape from a meat
famine.

But what are we going to do about it? What is the solu-
tion of the problem? Weare all familiar with the fact that
in our older States of the South the annual product per acre
has greatly decreased, owing to the rapid loss of soil fertility,
and that even our moderate production is maintained only at
increased cost; and also, that the comparatively new States
like Texas, as well, show a rapid deterioration of land and
loss of fertility. And it may be pointed out that our farmer
is of all men most miserable; neglected and looked down
upon; slave to the credit system; servant where he should be
master; poor and becoming poorer; the prey of sharpers; the
disconsolate follower of a calling which he has inherited
with his deteriorating acres, clinging to the past, knowing
no higher law than chance, planting, rearing, and gathering
his crop under the leadership of luck, each succeeding year
seeing his granary heaped fuller of disappointments, leaving
him poor in purse and lean in hope. None of us can deny
that this is a true picture of the average farmer of our State
as we have known him from our youth up. The politician
who has flattered him biennially that his calling, seen in its
true perspective, is outranked by no other in power, scope,
or service to mankind, has gone his way and made laws
directly opposed to all the farmer’s interests.

Still, what are we going to do about it? How are we to
escape famine if our present source of supply should be
exhausted ? What is the solution of the problem ? Increase
the output from the soil that we have by the application of
science—‘‘that sensible science of our day which has for its
ultimate aim not merely discovery but application; which is
not so delighted by the formulating of a new law as it is
overjoyed at the lifting of a burden;” science, in which
laboratory investigation goes hand in hand with field experi-
mentation, the science of our present time, which is applied

Se

<o

I

~-

7907| GARDEN, FIELD, AND Forest oF THE NATION. 55

common sense, combining laboratory practice with business-
like methods. Such science our United States Department of
Agriculture is engaged in and encouraging; so also the
various State agricultural experiment stations and most of
the agricultural colleges, corn breeders’ associations, truck
growers’ associations, sugar producers, tobacco growers,
private investigators like Luther Burbank, all laboring to
lift the burden from the agriculturist, and make him indeed
what the politician has been flattering him that he is.
Greater progress has been made in all departments of life
dependent upon the soil in the last score of years than in the
previous two score centuries.

The most important of all this service of science to the
farmer bas been the study of the soil, the fundamental factor
in all the varied lines of life that branch out from agricul-
ture. How tosave it, how to nourish it, how to restore it to
life when dead, what it is composed of, how it is formed,
how to interpret it so that any man may understand it—these
have been, and still are among the great problems before us.
Their solution is being worked out and already that work has
revolutionized agriculture within our own State and is slowly
changing conditions for the better in the entire South.

Tobacco is grown in eastern North Carolina today because
a soil investigator found out that the marls just beneath the
soil there contained in available form the lime that the
tobacco plants require for their growth, and of course all the
other essential minerals are there. Hitherto tobaccos had
been grown on limestone soils, or on soils derived from
igneous and metamorphic rocks rich in lime-soda feldspars.

In a similar manner it was discovered that the sands of the
sand-hills regions of the Carolinas contain both lime and
potash in available form, whereas similar sandy soils of
Western Europe are practically devoid of these necessary
plant foods, but this soil is particularly adapted to the
growth of the vine, and in consequence an important grape
industry has grown up in our sand-hills district,

56 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

Similarly it was found out that certain incoherent white
quartz sand in Florida was valuable pine-apple soil, notwith-
standing it was over 99.5 pure quartz, because it possessed
certain properties that the bacteriologist discovered.

Investigation showed that the soil of the Connecticut
Valley, which produced only low grade tobaccos, sneered at
as Connecticut cabbage leaf, was essentially the same as that
which produced the Sumatra tobacco. But it was necessary
to change the climatic conditions, and this was done by the
use of cheese-cloth, increasing the humidity and raising the
mean temperature ten degrees Fahr. Somewhat similar
experiments have been tried in Darlington District, South
Carolina, the result, so far as the production of Sumatra
wrappers was concerned, being entirely satisfactory. And
such investigations and experiments have been carried on all
the way from Connecticut to Alabama and Texas with the
result of greatly improving the product and greatly increas-
ing the output, producing in the Southern States the cigar
tobaccos of all lands.

This matter of the investigation of soils isby no means
new, thougl its methods and their application to agriculture
are matters of little more than a decade. Such investigations
were begun by Liebig at Giessen more than half a century
ago. He and his assistants made countless analyses of the
ashes of plants. These showed the presence of different
minerals in every species, that each species requires from the
ground the same class of salts, and hence that it must sooner
or later exhaust the supply of these salts in a given plot, and
render it unfit for the growth of the species in question
unless fresh supplies are provided.

‘TLiebig attempted to give the necessary supplies in the
form of ‘Mineral Manure’, and soon set to work to study prac-
tically the effect of mineral manures on a large scale. In
the year 1845, previous experiments in a garden having
proved unsatisfactory, he purchased from the town of Giessen
about ten acres of barren land—a sand pit, as he says, which

Ur
~I

1907) GARDEN, Fre_p, AND Forest oF THE NATION.

surpassed all the land in the neighborhood in its barrenness
for ordinary cultivated crops; in the year this land hardly
grew so much fodder as would have sufficed for a single
Sheep. It consisted partly of sand, partly of coarse quartz
and pebbles, with strata of sand and some loam.

‘‘Some of the soil was first tested by sowing it with seeds
in pots after enrichment with some single mineral manure,
with the result that not one of the plants got beyond flower-
ering; this showed that the soil was bad. enough for his
purpose of testing the value of minerals as mauure.

‘‘A number of mineral manures were then prepared for him
according to prescriptions based on his analyses, and these
were spread over the land; next he sowed on different sub-
divisions of it wheat, rye, barley, clover, potatoes, turnips,
maize. In some cases he added sawdust to the manure, and
in one case he used stable manure; otherwise no ammoniacal
manure and no mineral matter was employed, except that to
one plot he applied some forest soil and to another a mixture
of forest soil and mineral manure. Even in the first year he
had a harvest; the best results were given by those plots in
which mineral manures were mixed with forest soil or stable
manure. This, as he says, enabled him to correct his earlier
ideas of the functions of humus, which by its decay renders
an extra supply of carbonic acid gas to the plants that is
especially valuable at the early stages. Gradually, without
any other supply of manure except mineral manure, the land
so improved in productiveness that in the fourth year his
crops excited the wonder of all who had known the original
state of it.

‘In 1849 this little farm was purchased by his gardener,
who was the. able to farm it with profit, raising some cattle
on it yearly and getting such satisfactory crops of corn that
in 1853 a neighboring farmer wrote: ‘With us the wheat
crops are very poor, but on the height (Liebig’s plot) they
have harvested three fuder of rye twelve simmer, while I
from three fuder of the best rye, have only got five simmer,

58 JOURNAL OF THE MitrcHELL SOCIETY. [ June

If you were to see it, you would be astonished; it is truly
wonderful.’ ”

From his experiments with this land Liebig was led to form
the opinion that it was possible, by giving the soil proper
physical quality and composition, to bring about a state of
things in which sufficient ammonia to maintain its fertility can
be collecteed or condensed from the air. He recognized not
only that certain elements were necessary in a fertile soil,
but more—and what certain soil chemists have been slow to
recognize—that these elements must occur in certain combi-
nations as minerals to be available as plant-food. He found,

too, that certain earths and other substances might be added

to soils, which would withdraw to some extent soluble salts
from their solutions, removing from the soil substances
injurious to plant life. Liebig was greatly interested in the
experiments made in England by Sir Thomas Way on the
absorptive power of soils, and was the first to recognize the
true value of these experiments to agriculture.

Thus it was that a chemist sixty years ago recognized that
the study of soils was as much the province of the geologist,
the mineralogist, and the physicist, as of the chemist; and
the work with which he is credited in Denmark shows that
he also regarded it as within the province of the botanist.
So greatly did he value the structural features and mineral
composition of a soil as indicators of its fertility, that he said:
‘In matters of this kind the farmer must pursue his own
course..............he must not put the least faith in the
assertion of any foolish chemist who wants to prove to him
analytically that his field contains an inexhaustible store of
this or that nutritive substance.”

In other words, Liebig saw that it is not so much the
chemical elements in a soil as their mineral combination which
determines their available plant food, and the geologists
have found that very different rocks may be made from the
same molten magma under different conditions of cooling.
And it was Liebig who pointed out to the farmers that they

S| <= ee

7907| GARDEN, Find, AND Forest or THE NATION. 59

might change the fertility of their soil by changing its texture.
In examining into the improved conditions of agriculture in
the dune districts of the Jutland Peninsula a number of
years ago, I found that the farmers of that country attri-
buted their prosperity wholly to the suggestions made to their
fathers and grandfathers by Liebig who went to Denmark to
study moving sands; but I have not been able to find that he
ever published anything on the subject.

But the dream of Liebig is being realized, and the study of
soils is enlisting the closest attention of the chemist, the
geologist, the mineralogist, the bacteriologist, the botanist, —
a relatively small but powerful coterie of men who are the
investigators and interpreters of modern agriculture. The
chemist has found the essential plant foods, the geologist has
noted the natural distribution of vegetation with relation to
rocks both as to composition and structure, the mineralo-
gist and geologist have studied the rock-making minerals in
relation to their available plant-foods, the bacteriologist has
shown us that certain living organisms in the soil are of
enormous. importance to every mat who raises food for man
and beast, the botanist has busied himself with breeding
certain plants adapted tocertain soils. ‘‘Knowledge is now
no more a fountain sealed.” ‘The farmer of to-day may, nay
he must, come up to his calling ‘‘as fully equipped for service
as the lawyer, the editor, the doctor, the captain of industry;
for the curious fact has developed that the calling in which
the unlettered and untrained man was once supposed to have
as good a chance as the educated one, is now the calling in
- which wide and varied knowledge is almost as imperative as
in almost any other known among men.”

Of the more than seventy elements that make up the crust
of the earth only about a dozen are essential to successful
agriculture and practically all soils contain these in one
form or another. Only four of the twelve—nitrogen, phos-
phorus, potassium, and calcium—are liable to be lacking in

60 JoURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

any given soil. But when any one of these four is wanting
dire results follow.

The results that may be obtained, even where all these
elements are present in proper proportion, depend upon the
size of the soil particles, upon the number of grains of soil in
the little measure of a gram; for the freedom with which the
film of soil moisture moves over the soil grains determines
the amount of plant food taken out of the soil. If the farmer
is a raiser of truck for the early market, the soil for his
lettuce, peas, beans, onions and radishes must be of a certain
well-defined structure—it must have at least one billion,
nine hundred and fifty millions of particles in a gram, in less
than a thimbleful of earth. If he is going in for ordinary
summer and autumn vegetables, corn and cabbage and potatoes,
then there must be at least two billion additional particles in
each gram of soil. If he is a wheat planter he must be sure
that there are not less than ten billion, two hundred millions
of particles in his little thimbleful of soil; while for wheat
and grass land combined the soil must be in finer particles
still.

While it has been known for at least two centuries that
bacteria exist in the soil, it is only recently that they have been
studied with any degree of satisfaction. They exist every-
where in earth and air and sea. They were believed at one
time to have animal life, but they are now almost universally
accepted as low forms of vegetable life. Over a thousand
different kinds are now known, and the list is being steadily
added to as knowledge of them increases. They increase by
dividing themselves in two, and this they do at a marvelous
rate of progression. One of them, according to a bacteriolo-
gist who has studied it closely, would, if left to itself,
produce seventeen million descendants in twenty-four hours.
Another scientist calculates that another particularly rapid
multiplier could produce, if it had penty of food, four
thousand seven hundred and seventy-two billion progeny in a
single day. They differ from plants which we see growing

——- . s_ - S

7907) GARDEN, Freud, AND Forest oF THE NATION. 61

about us in that they have no chlorophyl—the material
which gives the green color to the plants.

In a Kansas soil it was found that there were as many as
one billion, six hundred and eighteen million, six hundred and
eighty-one thousand, eight hundred and ten bacteria in a
single gram or small thimbleful from a field under examina-
tion, while another field nearby had only a few overa
million. As air is necessary for their existence, they rapidly
decline in numbers as you go down in the soil to a point
where none is ever found.

Many different families of these bacteria live in the earth,
making their homes in the soil. They help to decompose it,
thus transforming it into food. They draw vast stores of
food supplies from the air. At every point they act as
agents in advancing the interest of man.

Four-fifths of the air we breathe is one of the most valuable
plant foods, nitrogen. Some of this nitrogen is available in
one form and some in another, but it must all be put into
such form that it may pass into the system of the plant and
be utilized in the building up of stalk and leaf and ripened
seed.

In portions of North Carolina I have seen a field worn out
by injudicious cropping, the plants struggling to grow ina
depleted soil into what would be at best but a lean and
starved maturity. In an immediatly adjoining field, with a
soil of precisely the same character, with no advantage in
point of moisture, heat, or sunshine, with precisely the same
kind of seed planted as in the ‘first case, were tall, strong,
and thrifty plants, neighbors to the thin, yellow, beggarly
ones of the first field.

The only difference between the two was that when the
seed were planted there was sprinkled in the rows of one
field some plain simple dirt brought from another State, and
the field that had this dirt sprinkled in its rows was the field
with the strong and vigorous plants. What wrought the
wonderful change was a colony of nitrifying bacteria, living,

62 JOURNAL oF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

moving things, that helped the crops to get their nitrogen
from the atmosphere. Long ago it was discovered that cer-
tain plants, as the beans, clovers, peas, vetch, alfalfa, and
the like, form upon their roots little bunches of tubercules, as
they are called. When science sought out the meaning of
these tubercules, why they formed on these particular plants,
what purpose they served, it was seen that they were not
abnormal, but necessary, and that plants that had them
were more thrifty than those fhat had them not. It was dis-
covered that their task was to take nitrogen from the air and
transform it into nitrogen suitable to be taken up by the
plant.

Having learned, then, the soil conditions necessary for
plant growth, the next thing is to apply them.

Residual soils, those found upon the rocks from which they
are derived, have certain definite characters determined by
the characters of the rocks beneath, and they are not apt to
deteriorate, since their source of food-supply is immediately
at hand, unless the fine particles are carried away by erosion
faster than the rock beneath can rot into soil. ‘Transported
soils, on the other hand, are very readily exhausted, since
they are far removed from the parent rock, and they need to
have their supply of plant-food constantly replenished by the
use of fertilizers. One way of keeping up the fertility of the
soil is by rotation of crops requiring different plant-foods.

The best way to farm is to plant in each field the crop to
which the soil of that field is by nature best adapted.

But we often desire, or actually need, crops to which the
soil of a given district is ill-adapted. Since we cannot
change the soil materially, the difficulty is met by breeding
plants to suit the soil, and what has been accomplished in
this direction is little short of miraculous.

The wasting of soils where serials are grown, and the
‘gradual reduction, year by year, in the yield of these crops,
has led more than one thoughtful student of human condi-

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Ss

7907] GARDEN, FiIrip, AND Forxs’t or THE NATION. 63

tions to predict a time, and that not very far distant, when
there will not be bread enough to go around.

While enough has been done in the restoration of worn out soils
to show that the time is farther away than was at first feared,
much more has been done in the breeding of new varieties
of wheat and corn to take the place of the old and unsatisfac-
tory ones. New wheats have been created not only showing
larger yields and as great nutrition in experimental plots, but
in the thousand-acre farm of the advanced American Agri-
culturist as well. More than this, wheats have been bred to
fit a climate, redeeming vast areas of abandoned land sup-
posed to be wholly unfit for wheat production.

New corns have been created, far richer in food values, far
larger in yield, than the best known types of the past. More
than this, corns have been created at the command of man
for any one of a series of specific purposes—to be rich in one
element and lean in another, to be food for man or food for
beast. They are, in a word, as much the creation of man as
the beautiful vase in the hands of the potter. .

The experiment station of the University of Tennessee
determined to breed a wheat that should fit the soil and cli-
mate of that State, where no wheat would grow and produce

good results. When the experiments were begun, eight

bushels to the acre was a fair average yield. After several
years of testing, breeding, and selection, they have produced
a wheat that has produced as high as forty-eight and one-half
bushels per acre on the same land, while maintaining an
average of over thirty-seven bushels for a period of four or
five years. And we in North Carolina have reaped the bene-
fits of this and similar experiments elsewhere in the extension
of wheat producing area to the poorer lands of the eastern
part of the State.

When we consider corn, the greatest cereal in point of value
of annual production in the United States, the results achieved
are even more Satisfactory. The object sought in breeding
new corns was not only to produce corn with a heavier yield,

64 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

but to change the character of the corn itself. Corn for
human food should be rich in one element. Corn for manu-
facturing into any of the various products which are now
made from it should be rich in certain other elements.

So the corn kernel was studied in order to find out precisely
what it was made of, that by selective breeding this might
be changed. By taking kernels from a series of ears known
to be rich in one particular element, and breeding from these
ears year in and year out, carefully selecting for future seed
only the richest and best kernels and only those approaching
the ideal established, little by little, with infinite pains and
patience, new corns have been built up having the desired
character and composition.

A manufacturer desires corn for the production of oil, now
one of the most valuable products of the corn plant. It is in
large demand among the olive-oil manufacturers of Europe.
The oil comes from the fat in the tiny germ of the corn, and
the larger the germ the greater the supply of oil. Corn-oil
is in demand for many other purposes, and it appears to be
but at the beginning of its commercial life. Hopkins in Illi-
nois has succeeded in producing a corn relatively much richer
in oil than any that has preceded it, one having 6.96 per
cent. oil while the corn with which he started only six years
before contained only 4.7 per cent. of oil. To some mannu-
facturers the fat of the germ is not essential, so, to accom-
modate these, he reversed the process and bred a corn low in
fat or oil, reaching 2.99 per cent.

The element of the corn which is most valuable for strength-

ening food, which is the muscle-building material of all food, ©

has also been increased at will, and where it could make way
for some other element suitable for some other purpose, it
has been decreased. All this has been accomplished by
selective breeding. Corn has been produced having 16.11 pro-
tein, a remarkably large amount, while the protein has been
reduced to 6.66 per cent., a difference in protein of nearly ten

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7907] GARDEN, Freip, AND ForREST OF THE NATION. 65

per cent. Corn is also bred for a large amount of starch,
and similarly useful results follow.

The breeding of corn has gone to yet another extreme, the
breeder having succeeded in doing away almost entirely with
the grain and producing a large, firm cob. These cobs, that
are produced on some of the poorest land in Missouri, are
used for making the corn-cob pipe, and the introduction of
the Collier corn into that district has been a Godsend to the
poorest farmers with the poorest lands in the State. <A very
Similar result has recently been obtained in Illinois, where a
large firm cob with an insignificant grain has been produced
ona soil of nearly pure siliceous sand. It has been found
that the pith of the corn cob is a most valuable substance for
calking ships and stopping leaks, the pith absorbing water
and swelling to fill the crevice, and corns have been produced
with a maximum of pith in the cob.

The corn of our mountain districts is rich in fat, and there
too is the only portion of the South where we may raise sugar
corn with success. The longer season in the lowlands adimits
of the elaboration of the fats into proteids. It is interesting
to note in this connection that the corn of our mountains and
thecorn of thenorth are rich in heat producing elements, while
these are almost entirely wanting in Southern varieties of corn,
the long growing season admitting of the change of the sugars
and fatsinto proteids. We cannot even raise sugar corn in our
coastal plain from the seed of sugar corn grown there, but
must get our seed each season from acolder region. The
same is true with regard to the seeds of cabbage grown in
the South except in the mountain region.

The changes in the character of corn are in no small meas-
ure the work of members of the corn-breeders’ association,
and show what may be accomplished through co-operation
among farmers. This association has been working to make
corn a complete ration. Here in the South, Williamson has
greatly improved corn both as to quality and yield per acre,
by a method peculiarly his own. The seed has been planted

66 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

and allowed to grow with grass and weeds until the plant
has reached a weak maturity and is just ready to bear grain.
Then the grass is cleared out, the corn well worked and
heavily fertilized, when its stimulated growing energy goes
allto fruiting. It has its parallel in the intellectual activity
of the boy who comes from the back districts where he had
no advantages of an intellectual sort, but his energies being
aroused at the right moment, often surpasses his more fortu-
nate associates in his college course and in the race of life.

Some of the most interesting experiments in plant-breed-
ing have resulted in the production of food stuffs adapted to
semi-arid regions, and these are of especial interest to us for
the reason that we have a long strip of semi-arid land in the
South, lying mainly in the sand-hills region and immediately
bordering that region on the northwest, little more than a
barren sand-waste until the introduction of new methods and
new plants suited toits conditions.

Alfalfa has been bred to resist both drought and alkali, and
it has also been found in nature. Agents of our Agricultu-
ral Department searched the earth for what was needed, and
found just the thing desired growing in an oasis of the Alge-
rian Sahara. Luther Burbank has bred a spineless and edi-
ble cactus admirably adapted by nature to such regions, and
this may yet become an important food plant in certain por-
tions of the South.

Rice forms the principal food of one-half the population of
the earth. It is more widely used as a food stuff than any
other cereal. Where dense populations are dependent for
food upon an annual crop, and the climate admits of its cul-
tivation, rice has become the staple food. The luxuriant
growth of leguminous plants (peas, beans, etc.) in warm
climates provides the nitrogenous elements necessary to sup-
plement rice. A combination of rice with legumes is a much
cheaper complete food than wheat and meat, and can be pro-
duced on a much smaller area. |

The Carolinas in the decade ending 1860 produced approxi-

7907| GARDEN, FIRED, AND Forest oF THE NATION. 67

mately eighty-five million pounds of clean rice. Now the
total product for a like period is only about thirty-five mil-
lion pounds, of which North Carolina only produced about
seven million. But the total rice product of the entire South
has advanced from 103 millions to 143 millions in the same
time, thanks to the valuable investigations of and improved
methods introduced by Dr. S. A. Knapp, of the United States
Department of Agriculture.

Horticulture is coming to be a most important branch of
agricuiture, and its surprising progress has already been so
fully discussed in our newspapers and periodical literature that
I need do little more than advert to it here. Suffice it to say
that in 1870 the export of fruits preserved in cans or other-
wise from the United States to foreign countries amounted in
value to $81,735.00. Ten years later the value of the canned
fruits exported had advanced to $371,118.50. In 1890 it was
over $600,000.00, and in 1900 had passed two millions. ‘This
does not give us any indication of the enormously increasing
domestic consumption of fruits.

It is an interesting fact that the traveler of to-day does not
find his way across the desert by the bones of men and beasts
that have started on the perilous journey before him, but by
the shining tin cans left by those who have made the jour-
ney in safety.

This progress in fruit growing has been made possible by
the breeding of fruits to suit different climates, and by the
importation of insects to prey upon the-insect enemies of
fruit trees.

Already our trucking interests have made the South the
garden of the nation, for we have here the broad coastal
plain soils that yield readily to cultivation; but business
methods have gone hand in hand with the application of
scientific methods and are always equally important to the
agriculturist. The managers of the truck-growers’ associa-
tion see to it that the crops come on in regular rotation from
Florida, Georgia, the Carolinas, Virginia, and Delaware.

68 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. { June

The Strawberry Trust at Selma, a North Carolina organiza-
tion, has an agent who gets each night reports from all the
strawberry eating cities as to the number of crates of berries
on hand, and he then learns from the fields how many they
can supply, and an effort is made to keep the shipments just
alittle short of the demand. Then by uniting their ship-
ments and sending them forward in carload lots, the shippers
get a better rate and quicker transportation.

Notwithstanding the South produces so much rice, and
the entire, product of the country, still we produce only half
of what is consumed in the United States; but with the im-
proved methods of cultivation, it will be but a short time
before we produce enough for the entire nation.

Of corn we can produce every variety from our coastal
plain to our mountains, and corn culture is extending about
as rapidly asthe culture of rice. The culture of wheat is
extending as new varieties are being bred for our lands, and
wheat culture is extending into regions where wheat has
never before been raised. New varieties of potatoes have been
produced in our potash soils, and already the best of these are
grown in the South, and the rapid extension of their culture
will soon make us the most important potato producers in the
country.

Of cotton, we have not simply the monopoly of this coun-
try, but practically the world’s monopoly as well. Experi-
ments carried on at Darlington, S. C., have resulted in the
production of a long-stapled cotton that will grow far from
the sea islands. And the new methods of tobacco culture
are showing us that we can produce all the grades of tobacco,
and these in any quantity.

Thus we already have the garden of the nation; we may
become, nay, are rapidly becoming the nation’s field for the
production of food stuffs; and whether we will or no, we will
soon be the only forest that the nation has left, except in the
national forests scattered over our broad domain.

Forest trees depend more directly upon rock composition

7

7907] GARDEN, FinLp, AND Forest OF THE NATION. 69

and geological structure than any other products of the soil.
This is beautifully illustrated in our State where conifers
predominate over the coastal plain and sand hills region,
and the broad-leaved deciduous trees over the granitic and
schistose rocks farther west. Within these areas species and
varieties vary with the changes in character of the rock
and the change of its dip helping or. hindering drainage.
This is beautifully illustrated in the neighborhood of Chapel
Hill, where our Triassic sandstones bear the loblolly pines,
except where the rocks are cut by dikes, and then you may
trace the dike by the broad-leaved trees that grow upon it.
The crystallines of the Chapel Hill mass have their charac-
teristic diciduous species, and these again vary as the rock
structure changes.

We have in the Appalachians practically the only hard wood
forests on the continent, and many of the most valuable spe-
cies are confined to the Southern Appalachian mountains. In
the north these forests have been ruined by the destructive
work of the lumberman, before the introduction of the
methods of modern scientific forestry; but here wealready
have the forest of the nation if we will but preserve it, and
upon its preservation depend the field and the garden.

Our fathers had a true instinct when they pictured a great
civilization in the South based upon the soil. Their vision
is to be more than fulfilled when Southern agriculture can
bring to its aid science, that sensible science of our day,
which has for its ultimate end not merely discovery, but
application; which is not so delighted with the formulating
of a new law as itis overjoyed at the lifting of a burden.
‘Then the tiller of the soil will come upto his calling as
fully equipped for service as the lawyer, the doctor, the cap-
tain of industry; for it has come to pass that the calling in
which the unlettered and untrained man was once supposed
to have as good a chance as the educated one, is now the call-
ing in which wide and varied knowledge is as imperative as
in almost any other known among men.”

70 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

Men have also come to the same views as those expressed
by the King of Brobdingnag, who ‘‘gave it as his opinion,
that whoever could make two ears of corn, or two blades of
grass to grow upon a spot of ground where only one grew
before, would deserve better of mankind, and do more essen-
tial service to his country, than the whole race of politicians
put together.”

And better still: While the politician of the not very
remote past flattered the farmer and yet made laws directly
opposed to all his interests, the new politician in the South
shows constructive statesmanship by helping him to take
advantage of the opportunities around him, helps him with
his inland waterways, helps him to preserve his forests.

—

SOME INTERESTING GRASSHOPPERS (AND RELA-
TIVES) OF NORTH CAROLINA.

BY FRANKLIN SHERMAN, JR.

The grasshoppers and their relatives comprise the order of
insects known as the Orthoptera. The entire order contains
probably about 150 species native to North Carolina, of which
about 130 have now been collected, identified, and recorded.

There are not many students of Orthoptera in this country
and what few entomologists there are in the Southern States
have neglected the group entirely, hence practically nothing
was known of the actual distribution of our species until
1903, when Prof. A. P. Morse, of Wellesley College, made a
special tour through the Southern States to study this subject,
and, partially through the entreaties of Mr. C. S. Brimley
and the author, he devoted more time to North Carolina than
to any other State,—traversing it from east to west and then
again visiting the high ranges in the western section. During
his tour, Prof. Morse spent two days at Raleigh, at which
time Mr. Brimley and the author accompanied him in collect-
ing jaunts with the result that our latent interest in this neg-
lected order was considerably aroused. The facts set forth
in this paper have, therefore, for the most part, been collected
in the last three or four years, by C. S. Brimley, G. M. Bent-
ley, and the writer.

While no one can seriously study this order of insects
without becoming interested in the special structures and their
use in classification, as well as in the habits of the living
insects,—yet there are about a dozen species which would
more particularly arouse the interest or curiosity of the ordin-

1907] 71

72 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

ary observer, and to mention these is the special object of this
paper.

Labidura riparia. This insect belongs to the family of
insects known as the ‘‘Ear-wigs”. The group is abundantly
represented in Europe, but only sparsely in America, the few
American representatives, however, being more especially
distributed in the Southern States. Most of our ear-wigs
are of small size, ranging from one-half to three-fourths of
an inch in total length. In mid-April of the present year a
janitor brought to the office a living specimen of this species,
a fine large male, the first to be taken in the State.

Cryptocercus punctulatus. This insect belongs to the fam-
ily of roaches, a few species of which infest houses, though
more are found in the forest. The present species has been
taken in four localities in this State, three of which are in
the mountains, the exceptional locality being Newton. Itis
rather a large species, is entirely wingless, and is rather slow
and stiff-bodied in movement, in which respect it differs from
most other roaches. Our specimens have all been found under
logs, in the months of July, August, and September.

Stagomantis carolina. This creature is most commonly
known by the names of ‘‘Rear-horse”, ‘‘Devil’s Riding-horse”,
‘Praying Mantis”, and other expressive common names. It
often arouses curiosity by its peculiar appearance and
demeanor. It probably occurs throughout the State, at least
east of the mountains, though we have had specimens from
only a few localities. It is the only member of the Orthop-
tera in the State whichis known to be predaceous in habit.

Diapheromera femorata. ‘This insect is also known by the
name of ‘‘Walking-stick”, so called because its very slender
body gives it a resemblance to small twigs, and because the
insect always deliverately wa/ks, and never runsor jumps. All
through the summer the young insectsare greenish in color,
corresponding to the color of young twigs and the petioles of

—— a

7907} Somer GRASSHOPPERS OF NorTH CAROLINA. 73

leaves among which they live, but in the autumn when the
leaves fall and the twigs become gray or brown, these insects,
being then near maturity, turn gray in color. These remark-
able resemblances, combined with their deliberate movements,
render them quite difficult to detect, unless they force them-
selves accidentally upon one’s notice.

Eritettix navicula. 'This is one of the true grasshoppers,
which so far as has been observed inhabits rather low, grassy
grounds. It is an exception in that it is the only species
which has the antennael enlarged into a knob or club, at the
tip.

Trimerotropis saxitalis. ‘This very remarkable grasshopper
is an inhabitant of the exposed, lichen-covered surface of the
rocks on some of our mountains. In his trip through the
Southeastern States Prof. Morse failed to take it in this State,
but recorded its presence on the summit of Stone Mountain,
in Northern Georgia. In September last (1906) Mr. Woglum
and myself took it quite commonly in favorable spots on the
summits of Satula and Whiteside Mountains, near Highlands,
Macon County. The species bears a remarkable resemblance
to the lichen-covered rocks on which it is found, and when
flushed will invariably settle again on the rock, it being only
in most exceptional cases that they could be persuaded or
forced to alight in grass or herbage. When cornered they
would quickly fly back within a foot or two of the collector
to again reach the rock, although the species is quite shy
when once disturbed.

Leptysma marginicollis. This species is found in grassy
places where it clings to the upright stalks or blades, so
closely applying its body to the grass as to render detection
difficult, both the shape and color of the insect being protect-
ive. One remarkable feature of this insect is the fact that
the front of the head (or face) slopes away under the body in
such degree that the mouth is situated almost between the
front legs.

74 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

Melanoplus punctulatus. The genus Melanopsus contains
many species, the majority of which are not especially strik-
ing in appearance or habits, but this species is an exception
in that, while all the other species habitually live on the
ground or on low-growing grass or herbage, this one is con-
sidered to be strictly arboreal, occurring on trees, stumps,
shrubbery, etc. Our one specimen of this species was taken
in Transylvania County by Mr. Woglum, and is mottled in
appearance, which renders its color protective when on
lichen-covered bark. It is likely that the species does not
occur east of the mountains in this State.

Dissotetria carolina. This is one of our most common
grasshoppers, and in nature (if not in the cabinet) is surely
familiar to most observant country people in this State.
Among those who have any common name for it, it is known
as the Carolina Locust. It occurs throughout the State along
roadsides and in cultivated fields. The remarkable thing
about this species is the variability of its protective colors.
In sections where the soil is grayish in color there the insect
is grayish, while only a mile away may be found red clay soil
and grasshoppers of a decidedly reddish tinge. Not that the
resemblance is perfect, but the difference in color of speci-
mens taken on differently colored soils is quite noticeable.
On one occasion in Raleigh I took a specimen on a railway
embankment and the greater portion of the body was black-
ish to correspond to the soot and cinders among which it was
found, No similarly colored specimen has since been taken
anywhere, and others were not seen at that time.

Gryllotalpa borealis. 'This is commonly known as the
‘‘Mole-cricket”, so called from its habit of burrowing in the
ground like a mole, and from the further fact that it has
developed along very similar lines, the front limbs being
much enlarged like the front paws of the mole, and like them
are used for digging.

Myrmecophila pergandei. ‘This small and wingless cricket

7907] ‘Somrk GRASSHOPPERS OF NortH CAROLINA. 75

is found beneath stones in company with ants, whose nests
they inhabit, and in cousequence of the darkness prevailing
in its usual haunts, is white in color. Thus far it has been
taken only at Raleigh, though doubtless it occurs in other
localities.

Tridactylus sp. 'This is a small, blackish species taken at
Raleigh early this month for the first time. It was found in
low,sandy ground in whichit frequently disappeared down very
minute burrows. When disturbed or alarmed they jump with
marvelous agility, their small size causing them to instantly
disappear from view when they once leap away. After cap-
turing several specimens by laboriously approaching them
with the killing bottle, we finally began to walk rapidly over
the ground and sweep the collecting net back and forth at
random, and by this means secured them in considerable
numbers.

NOTES ON SOME TURTLES OF THE GENUS
PSEUDEMYS.

BY C. S. BRIMLEY.

The genus Pseudemys comprises a number of large fresh
water turtles found in the streams and ponds of North Amer-
ica. ‘These have the carapace marked with a more or less
variegated pattern of light and dark colors, and are distin-
guished from allied genera by the broad masticating sur-
faces of the jaws, which arein the upper jaw divided by a
longitudinal ridge parallel to the margin.

The species dealt with in this paper fall more or less natu-
rally into three groups, which are characterized as follows:

Group I. Upper jaw witha notch at the symphisis and a
cusp or tooth on each side of the notch. Lower jaw, at least,
strongly serrated. Ridges in masticating surfaces of jaw
tuberculate.

Grove II. Upper jaw without either notch of cusps, other-
wise as under Group I. Plastron always yellow, unblotched.

Group III. Upper jaw notched at symphisis, but without
cusps. Edgesof jaws not serrated. Ridge in masticating
surface of jaws not tuberculate.

Group I comprises three nominal species, P. rubiventris
LeConte, P. alabamensis Baur, and FP. texana Baur. Of
these the first and last are certainly distinct species, but the
second, of which I have seen no specimens, may be the same
as the first.

Of P. rubiventris I have seen only one specimen, this be-

76 [June

7907] TURTLES OF THE GENUS PSEUDEMYS. 77

ing a live individual from Orlando, Florida, which meas-
ured 267 mm. over curve of shell, 245 in straight line, 167 in
greatest breadth, 110 in greatest height. Shell strongly
arched. Carapace black with red markings, marginal plates
with much red below, plastron yellowish brown, but reddish in
front and behind, legs with red stripes. The head markings
I couldn’t see, as he would not put his head out. Lower jaw
very strongly serrated, with a serrated cusp at tip; upper jaw
slightly serrated, with a median notch anda strong cusp on
each side of it. Date, March 16, 1902.

Alabamensis, according to Baur,* has the shell more arched
than in vubzventris, and the plastron is yellow with brown
markings, instead of red as in rudbzventris.

Of thethird species of Group I, P. fexana, I have seen
only two undoubted specimens, one a living specimen from
Colmesneil, Texas, measuring 284 over curve of shell, and
265 in straight line; greatest width 215. Shell smooth, not
wrinkled, and without traces of a keel. Color slaty brown
with yellowish markings, the markings on the costal plates
transverse to the longitudinal axis of the shell. Marginals each
with a vertical yellow bar down the center. Plastron yellow
without markings. Both jaws serrated, the lower much the
most so; upper jaw notched in front but without cusps. Date,
July 7, 1902.

The second specimen, which was from Shell Bank, La.,
was much the same color, and had the upper jaw notched in
front, with aslight cusp on each side of the notch. Other
characters, as in the first specimen. Length in straight line
225, width 150. Date, July 27, 1903.

Group II includes five nominal species, P. concznna LeConte,
P. mobiliensis Holbr,t P. floridana LeConte, P. hierogly phica,

* ‘Notes on the classification and taxonomy of the Testudinata, part
IV, The species of the genus Pseudemys’’ by G. Baur. (Proc. American
Philos., Soc. XX XI, May 5, 1893).

+ According to Dr. Baur (loco cito), P. mobiliensis Agassiz is not the
same as P. mobiliensis Holbr., the former being a composite species equal-
ing P. alabamensis Baur plus P, tecana Baur,

78 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

Holbr, and P. labyrinthica C. Dumeril, but how many species
it really contains I don’t know, as individual variation in at
least one species seems quite wide and obliterates the distinct-
ive features ascribed to most of the others.

According to Dr. Baur (/oco cito) these species are charac-
terized as follows:

Concinna by its broad and low shell and its small head.

Hieroglyphica by its elongated, narrow shell and its head,
which is stillsmaller; the yellow stripes and dotson the head
are also very:much more expressed than in concznna.

Labyrinthica shows the coloration of head and neck of
hieroglyphica, but the head is larger and the shell more as in
mobiliensts, but by far not so large.

Mobtliensis has the head like concznna, but larger, the shell
very much more arched especially in front, the animal
much larger than in concinna, the upper shell reaching a
length of 385 over the curve.

Floridanus is at once distinguished by its oval form and
the great elevation of the carapace and its color. The cara-
pace has a very dark brown color with numerous irregular
lines of yellow. The marginals are dark brown and have
only one vertical, median yellow line, and are without
the yellow concentric lines so characteristic of concemna and
mobiliensis. The carapace is much more arched than in ma6-
tliensis and nearly forms a half circle. The skull is also
larger than in this species and the jaws are not serrated (szc).

The characters quoted above, except those for floridanus,
all fall within the range of individual variation of Raleigh
specimens of concinna, and hence until I am able to examine
specimens of the others, I cannot help feeling doubtful of their
validity.

Raleigh specimens of concinna present the following char-
acteristics: The carapace is marked with a variegated pattern

7907| TURTLES OF THE GENUS PsEUDEMYs. 79

of brown and yellow lines, these forming more or less distinct
concentric figures, parts of three of which usually enter each
costal plate. Markings of the carapace usually not definitely
transverse to the axis of the body, on the costals. Marginal
plates marked above with a median, vertical, yellow bar, and
yellow concentric figures between the yellow bars of adjoin-
ing plates; quite frequently, however, the vertical bars are
absent on some of the plates and the concentric figures
replaced by longitudinal yellow lines, continuous on adjoining
plates, this occurring on the middle and posterior marginals,
but not usually on the anterior ones. In seven adults this
feature is present or absent as follows: In one the longi-
tudinal lines replace the vertical bars and concentric lines on
all the marginals; in two others they do not occur at all; in
a fourth they occur only on marginals 4, 5, 6, right, and 11,
12, left; a fifth has them on the four middle marginals on
each side; a sixth on numbers 5, 9, 7, right, and 6, 7, left; a
seventh, on numbers 4, 7, 8, 9, 11, on both sides, and on No.
12, right also. The presence of a vertical yellow bar across
the center of each marginal is so constant in all specimens of
Pseudemys that I have seeu, except those from Raleigh, that
the variation seems worth noting. Head and legs with yel-
low stripes. Plastron yellow, unblotched.

In the shape of the shell there is also a good deal of varia-
tion, some specimens being broad and flat with a median,
dorsal depression; others are broad and flat but lack the dor-
sal furrow, while others again have comparatively high and
arched shells, and in any case the dorsal depression is only
present in full grown specimens, not in young nor in half
grown ones. The flat shelled specimens seem to be mainly
males, and the more arched ones females, but I have not exam-
ined enough specimens to be sure that the variation is wholly
sexual and not individual.

The size of the head also varies, being large in some spec-
imens and small in others, the difference being apparently

80 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

sexual, the small headed ones being males,* the large headed
ones females. Young specimens are nearly circular witha
distinct dorsal keel, as in all young Pseudemys, but a speci-
men 130 mm. long has substantially the form of the adult. :

Some measurements of specimens from Neuse River near
Raleigh are as follows:

Taken. Greatest Length. Width. Height.
1. eb... 26; 1902, sex? 131 1074 55
2. April 23, 1906, male 150 114 54
3. March 29, 1904, female 161 — —
4. Jaly | 24,1903, sex? 202 139 —
5. March 24, 1903, male 214 150 82
6. March 29, 1904, female 240 158 —
7, Juneo > ay 1905, sex? 240 172 80
8. March 24, 1903, female 275 185 110
9. March16, 1902, sex? 280 195 107

Of what Baur called modzlenszs, I have had one adult and
several smaller specimens from Baker County, in Southwest
Georgia, but while the adult has an arched shell and isa
little larger (290 mm. long) than the largest I have meas-
ured from Raleigh, its shell is not more arched than those of
some Raleign specimens, nor is the head larger than in some
of them. Incoloration it is identical with Raleigh speci-
mens, aS are also the young ones, except that none of them
have any vertical yellow bars and concentrix markings on the
marginals replaced by longitudinal yellow lines. I am inclined
to consider this form as merely, at the most, a large south-
ern form of concinna.

Of floridana I have had three good sized adults from John-
ston County, N. C., and quite a number of small and half
grown specimens from Southwestern Georgia, and Florida.
These differ from concénna in usually having a vertical yellow

* See also ‘‘Some observations on the turtles of the genus Malademmys”’
by O. H. Hay, (Proc. U. S. N. M., Vol. XV, No. 908) in which he states
that the females of this genus have larger heads than the males,

7907) TURTLES OF THE GENUS PSEUDEMYS. 81

bar, forking at the upper end, down thecenter of the first and
second costal plates, and in having the markings on the rest
of the shell less concentric and usually in larger pattern.
The marginal plates have a vertical yellow bar down the cen-
ter of each, with concentric markings between; these latter,
however, only occur in quite small specimens, as they disap-
pear early in life leaving only the vertical bar. Head, legs,
and plastron colored as in concinna. Ground color of cara-
pace dark brown, darker than in concinna. The really import-
ant difference lies, however, in theshape of the shell, which
is shorter and more arched than in conciuna, being in fact
more nearly the shape of that of /. scripia, to which species
floridana bears a superficial resemblance. The males have
smaller heads and lower shells than the females.* The upper
jaw is slightly, the lower jaw strongly, serrated, in all speci-
mens that I have seen,
The measurements of the shells of some specimens are:

Taken. From. Length. Width. Height.
1° June 20, 1905, Johnston Co., N. C., 250 197 110
Zw dane 30) 1905, y th aM PP 149 95
3./) June 30, 1905, a ne FOO —— —
4. May 14, 1904, Baker Co., Gas; 136 114 BT
Si July, 20, 1904, by Sh 150 — a

I have seen no specimens of Jabyrinthica or hieroglyphica
and the characters assigned to them by Dr. Baur (loco cito),
are not of specific value, as they fall within the range of the
individual variation of concinna. As labyrinthica is smaller
than concinna and mobziliensis larger, it is quite possible it isa
smallerf northern race of that species, just as modzlzensis
appears to be a larger southern race.

* According to Dr. Baur (loco cito) floridana does not have serrated jaws,
qut he places it in asection of the genus with lower jaw strongly serrated,
so the absence of serrations probably applies only to the upper jaw, where
they are little evident.

+ Labyrinthica occurs in Tennessee and Illinois in the tributaries of the
Mississippi.

82 JoURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

Group III comprises three species which agree in having
the upper jaw with a notch at the symphisis, but without
cusps on each side of the notch, in the edges of both jaws
being without serrations, in the ridge in the masticating sur-
face of the jaws being non-tuberculate, and in the plastron
being more or less blotched. These three are seripia of
the Southeastern United States, and e/egans and troosti of
the Mississippi Valley and southwestward.

The three may be distinguished as follows:

1. Carapace keeled at all ages, a vertical yellow bar just
behind eye. Scrzpia.

Carapace not keeled in adult, no vertical yellow bar
behind eye.

2. An elongate-oval red mark on neck behind eye. Llegans.

No oval red mark on neck. TJvoostiz.

Scripta is a large, heavily-built terrapin, with a wrinkled
shell, and a distinct dorsal keel at all ages. A diagnostic
mark of this species is a vertical yellow figure just behind
the eye. The marginals are marked as usual in the genus
with a vertical yellow bar and concentric figures between; the
latter, however, are usually absent in adults. The carapace
is marked on the costals with yellow, black and brown mark-
ings, there being usually a central yellow stripe down the
middle of each costal with yellow and brown lines parallel to
it and meeting their fellows above its upper end, and to some
extent below its lower end; the black is more irregular in
amount and position than the other colors, but there is always
some black on each plate in the adult, although it is wanting
in young specimens. On the posterior costals the markings
are less regular and more confused. The plastron is yellow,
or occasionally brownish, with a round black spot on each of
the two anterior plates; often there is a black spot on the
next two plates also, and occasionally one on every plate,

mh, ——

-

7907] TURTLES OF THE GENUS PSEUDEMYS. 83

The largest specimen I have seen weighed seven and a half
pounds and measured 272 mm,

Elegans is much like scripia in general appearance and in
markings, but the shell is flatter and not keeled in the adult
and the red neck spot is characteristic at all ages. The mark-
ings on the carapace are variable, but usually much as in
scripta, but those of the plastron are different, each plate
usually containing a black or dusky spot which is usually sur-
rounded by one or more dusky concentric lines.

Of troostii I have only seen one specimen and that differed
greatly in many respects from all the specimens of scr7f/a and
elegans that I have seen. It was from St. Louis, Mo., and
measured 185 in length and 137 in breadth, and the tipof the
nose extended 107 mm. beyond the front edge of the shell,
when the neck was stretched to its fullest extent. The
upper jaw was notched in front, lower jaw pointed at tip,
neither serrated. Both upper and lower jaws much wider
and more rounded than in any other pseudemys with which I
am acquainted, especially than in elegans and scripta, which
have the snout notably pointed. Head dark above with nar-
row, pale stripes; chin, throat, and neck below, light colored
with rather pale darker stripes on neck below, much as in
Detrochelys reticulata. ‘Shell rather flat on top, rounded off
on sides, rather deep, and much the shape of Dezrochelys, but
the bridge and shell not so high; shell smoother and without
the wrinkles so characteristic of Dezrochelys. Carapace dark
brown with indistinct paler markings, most of the marginals
with faint vertical bars which are barely visible. Plastron
pale with some dark markings round the edges of the plates.
Superficially and in Jength of neck this specimen resembles a
D. reticulata more than it does the other species of Psez-
demys, but I found on examination that the basal portion of
the ribs was short, straight and broad as in other Pseudemys,
not long, slender and arched as in Dezrochelys.

84 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL Socre’ry. [ June

SPECIMENS EXAMINED.

P. rubiventris, Orlando, Florida, one.
P. texana, Colmesneil, Texas, one; Shell Bank, La., one.
P. concinna, Raleigh, N. C., nine adults and several young.

P. mobiliensis (=P. concinna?), Mimsville, Ga., one adult,
two young.

P. floridana, Johnson County, N. C., three adults; Orange
County, Fla., two young; Mimsville, Ga., two half-
grown specimens and several young.

P. scripita, numerous specimens from Raleigh, N. C., and
Mimsville, Ga.; Lake Ellis, N. C., several.

P. elegans, Austin, Texas, three; St. Louis, Mo., three;
Shell Bank, La., one.

P. troostii, St. Louis, Mo., one

Es

THREE LITTLE KNOWN SPECIES OF NORTH CAR-
OLINA FUNGI.

BY J. G. HALL.

It is my purpose to take up three species of fungi that are
little known in North Carolina, and in fact in the United
States, and to give a brief description of them.

The first two belong to the Hyphomycetes of Saccardo,
but to different groups under this head. ‘The third belongs
to the Pyrenomycetes, and the family Sphaeriaceae.

The first I have preferred to call by the known name of
Martensella pectinata, although as will be seen later, there
are sufficient differences to make it a newspecies. It was
first described by Coemaus in 1863 from Belgium.

This fungus is new to North Carolina, and in so far as I
have been able to determine, has not been reported in print
from the United States, although I know it to be in culture
in one other place than West Raleigh.

The discovery of this species was partly an accident. Last
December I was making some plate cultures from some soil
that came from New Bern, in the eastern part of the State,
for Sclerotinia, a lettuce disease upon which we have con-
ducted a series of experiments.

In the culture I noticed growing a fungus that at first I
took to be Botrytis, but upon microscopic examination found
to be Martensella.

The fruiting hyphae stood erect and unbranched, except
for the short spore bearing stalks, although later I found that
the fungus became branched, and some times very much so.

1907) 85

86 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

The erect hyphae are septate and after arising a short dis-
tance above the substratum each cell sends out a short branch
near the outer end. These short branches become the spor-
ophores, and at first are indistinguishable from the main
hypha except in size. Almost immediately the tips of the
sporophores bend upward at approximately right angles and
the portion beyond the bend rapidly becomes closely septate,
having six to nine septae. The sporophores very soon become
boat-shaped with the keel toward the main hypha. Upon
the side away from the main hypha there arise small protu-
berances, the first appearing nearest the bend, and then being
produced in succession toward the tip.

These growths early begin to show a slight swelling, form-
ing a kind of head at the tip, which later lengthens into the
fusiform spores; these are constricted into a very fine thread
at the base, which connects them with a swollen base (basi-
dia) that joins them to the naviculate sporophore.

Saccardo places this fungus in that group of the Hypho-
mycetes called the Mucedineae, because of the looseness and
lightness of color of the mycelium. Also among the Amer-
osporeae of the latter, because of the shape and color of the
spores.

In quoting the original description in his Sylloge Fungorum
Saccardo says that the sterile hyphae are procumbent, with
the fertile erect, with both branched and septate; the spores
are borne on short lateral branches and in two rows along the
face of the naviculate sporophore, being cylindric-fusiformin
shape, and measuring 10-20x3 »; that it is parasitic on Muco
and the Saprolegneae. After giving the habitat a note is
added saying that Cremans describes some of the spores as
being borne in chains, and Engler & Prantl reproduce fig-
ures of the fungus which show some of the sporophores
bearing catenulate spores, which are nearly globose in shape.

After the note Saccardo makes the very significant remark
that the appearance of the catenulate spores is exceedingly
strange.

7907] =‘ TureE LirrLn—E KNown Sprcies or Funct. 87

Engler & Prantl also show the sporophores with the spore-
bearing surface upward and inward.

In the early part of this note I said that I believed I would
be justified in making a new species on account of the dif-
ferences I found between my specimens and those in Saccardo
and Engler & Prantl. I found: that the plant grew very
freely with Penicillium as a host; that the spores are never
borne in chains but alwa¥s singly; that instead of being
borne in two rows along the face of the sporophore, they are
arranged all over its surface. In otherrespects my specimens
agree with the descriptions noted.

The second species that we consider is one of the Genus
Epicoccum, which belongs to the Tuberculariae, another
group of the Hyphomycetes, so called because the mycelium
forms a tubercle or mass of threads from which the spores
arise.

The spores are borne in masses almost without sporophores,
but what there is of them is light brown, although the greater
part of the Mycelium is white. The spores are black when
mature but brownish black in the younger stages. They are
rough on the surface and look very much as if they were
four-celled, but I have not been able to see any definite par-
titions. They are globose and measure from twenty to
thirty win diameter. —

In germination the spores send out short, almost globose
cells, and after forming two or three of these at each point of
germination, they grow into the regular septate hyphae,
which continue to lengthen for some time.

Near the growing tip of the mycelium short branches arise,
at first just a single filament, but very soon becoming much
and irregularly branched, forming a hemispherical mass
(sporodochium) upon the surface of which the spores are
borne.

As an experiment this fungus was grown upon several dif-
ferent kinds of media to see if different nutrients ae differ-
ent effects upon it.

88 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY. [ June

A medium which we called C. B. A., Chemical Base Agar,
was made as follows: Water, 1000 grams; Di Potassium-
phosphate, 2.5 grams; Calcium Chloride, 01 gram; Magne-
sium sulphate, 01 gram; Sodium Chloride, 2.5 gram; Potas-
sium sulphate, 2 grams; Agar, 15 grams.

To this was added Sodium Aspariginate in one case; So-
dium Aspariginate and Starch in another; Sodium Asparigi-
nate and glucose in another, and one or two others. Four
per cent. Pea Agar and Apple-twig Agar were also used.

On the Pea Agarthe Mycelium was white with very few
pink spots; upon the Apple and Apple-twig Agar the Myce-
lium was orange yellow with abundance of pink spots. Upon
C. B. A. and N. A.S. and N. A. G. the Mycelium was white
but with a large number of large pink spots. In all cases
spores were formed in equal abundance and they were most
numerous near the point of inoculation.

The third and last species belongs to a very different group
of fungi, the Pyrenomycetes, which has its spores borne in
sacs (asci) within closed or nearly closed conceptacles called
perithecia. In giving the systematic position of this species,
I shall follow Ellis & Everhart’s North American Pyrenomy-
cetes.

This is a new species of fungus, but I hesitate to give it a
name because of the scarcity of material. It is one of the
Genus Podospora, in the family Sordaieae, which is one of
the sub-order Sphaerioceae.

The perithecia are borne singly and scattered, are black
and flask-shaped. The asci are clavate and bear the eight
spores which are the distinguishing feature of the plant.
They are dark, elliptical, and are joined by a filament into
pairs.

So far as I have been able to learn, there is only one species
that approaches this in any way, and that is Podospora zygos-
pora,in which the spores are similarly joined in pairs, but
the thread joining each pair is septate, while in this one
there are no septae in the connecting thread.

JOURNAL A

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

NOVEMBER, 1907

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ELISHA MITCHELL SCIEN-
TIFIC SOCIETY, JANUARY 1907 ‘TO
OCTOBER 1907.

169TH MEETING, JANUARY 15, 1907.

V. Wilson: The Regenerative Power of Sponges.
W. Gore: Direct Current Transmission of Power.
The Electrical Aging of Flour.

Er.
li:

170TH MEETING, FEBRUARY 12, 1907.

J. H. Pratt: The Fish and Oyster Industries in North
Carolina.
Collier Cobb: Some Human Habitations.

171ist MkETING, Marcu 19, 1907.

J. E. Latta: Some Recent Developments in Electric Trac-
tion.

N. C. Curtis: Architectural Composition.

172ND MEETING, APRIL 16, 1907.

Archibald Henderson: The Foundations of Geometry.

Chas. H. Herty: The Optical Rotation of Turpentines.

At the close of the program a business meeting was held
to consider the programs. It was voted that a minimum of
four meetings be held each year but, if possible, one meeting
per month.

90 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELI, SOCIETY [November

Business MEETING, SEPTEMBER 23, 1907.

A business meeting was held in the chemical laboratory
with Pres. Herty in the chair. The following officers were
elected for the ensuing year:

President: W. C. Coker.
Vice-President: J. E. Latta.
Permanent Secretary: F. P. Venable.
Recording Secretary: A. S. Wheeler.
Editorial Committee:

W. C. Coker, Chairman.
A. Henderson.
E. V. Howell.

A. S. WHEELER, Recording Secretary.

i

A NEW METHOD BY WHICH SPONGES MAY BE AR-
TIFICIALLY REARED."'

~

DR. H. V. WILSON

I have found in the course of an investigation carried on for
the Bureau of Fisheries that silicious sponges when kept in
confinement under proper conditions degenerate, giving rise
to small masses of undifferentiated tissue which in their turn
are able to grow and differentiate into perfect sponges. The
investigation has been prosecuted during the past three sum-
mers at the Beaufort Laboratory. While the degeneration with
the formation of the indifferent masses has been observed in
several species, it is only in one species, a Sty/ote//a, that the
process as a whole has been worked out.

This sponge, which is exceedingly abundant in Beaufort
Harbor, is a fleshy monactinellid commonly reaching a thick-
ness and height of 10-12 cm. Conical processes with termin-
al oscula project upwards from the lower body. With this
species, which is a light-loving form, I have obtained the
best results when outside aquaria, either concrete aquaria or
tubs, were used. The method of treatment is briefly this:
Into a tub about 60 cm. by 30 cm. and covered with glass, a
half dozen sponges, freed as far as possible from live oysters
and crabs, are put. They are raised from the bottom on
bricks. The tub is emptied, filled and flushed for some minutes
three times in every twenty-four hours. Direct rays of the

1Published with the permission of Hon. Geo. M. Bowers, U. 8. Com-
misioner of Fisheries.

Reprinted from Science, N. $., Vol. XXV., No. 649, Pages 912-915,
June 7, 1907,

92 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [November

sun should be avoided. Tubs answer as well as concrete
aquaria, and have the advantage of being movable.

In a day ortwo the oscula of the sponge disappear, and the
surface begins to acquirea peculiar smooth, dense and uni-
form appearance. Microscopic study reveals the fact that not
only the oscula, but the pores also, for the most part close,
and the canal system becomes interrupted and in some degree
suppressed. The mesenchymeis more uniform, and is denser
than in the normal sponge, owing in part at least to the dis-
appearance of the extensive collenchymatous (very watery
mesenchyme) tracts of the latter.

The whole sponge may pass into this state and remain with-
out great change for weeks. During this period it shrinks
greatly in size, in agiven case to one quarter the original
bulk. The arrangement of the skeletal spicules becomes
much simplified. With the shrinkage in size the sponge be-
comes more solid, z. e., more of the canal space is suppressed.
Some flagellated chambers persist and there are a few small
scattered apertures on the surface. The bulk of the chamb-
ers disappear as such, the collar-cells transforming into simple
polyhedral masses which become scattered singly or in groups
in the general mesenchyme. The mesenchyme is a syncyti-
um composed of well-marked cells that are freely intercon-
nected. The sponge in this condition closely resembles
Spongillain its winter phase, as described by Weltner.* Pre-
sumably water continues to circulate through the body, but
the current must be anexceedingly feeble and irregular one.

As a sponge in this condition continues to shrink, it may
subdivide and thus a large sponge may eventually be repre-
sented by numerous masses, in a given case about 1 cm. in di-
ameter. Now if the sponge in this condition or if one of the
masses into which it has split up, be attached to wire gauze
and suspended in a live box floating at the surface of the
open water of the harbor, the sponge or piece will in a few
days grow and redevelop the pores and oscula, flagellated
chambers, tissue differentiation, and skeletal arrangement of

2 ’Spongillidenstudien, II. Archiv fur Naturgeschichte,’ 1893.

:
:
x
:
¥
7
’
3

7907 | WiLtson—A Nrw Metruop 93

the normal sponge. Whether inthis regeneration the trans-
formed and separated collar cells again unite to form the flag-
ellated chambers, I can not say. I think it very doubtful.

In the two classes of cases just described the sponge as a
whole degenerates and slowly shrinks. Cellular death takes
place so gradually that at no time is there any obvious corpse
tissue or skeletal debris. Much more common and of far great-
er interest are the following cases. In these a large part of
the sponge body dies in the course of two or three weeks,
leaving the skeletal network still in place and bearing the
brown decaying remnants of the flesh, which, as maceration
continues, are washed away. In places, however, the sponge
body does not die. Here masses of living tissue are left,
conspicuous amidst the dead remains by their bright
color and smooth clean surface. These living fragments may
be classified into three groups. First, the upper end of an as-
cending lobe or a considerable part of the body of the lobe may
be left alive in its entirety, thus forming a more or less cylin-
drical massup to 5 mm.diameter, with a length sometimes
two or three times the thickness. The histological condition
of these masses is not very different from that of the sponges
already described. Such a mass may be said to consist of an-
astomosing trabecule, separated by the remains of the canal
system. The mesenchymecomposing the trabecule consists
of discrete cells interconnected by processes to form a syncti-
um. The flagellated chambers as such have nearly disap-
peared, although remnants may still be recognized. In them
the collar cells have transformed into simple polyhedral bodies
that are widely separated. The bulk of the chambers have
broken up into their constituent cells, and these are now scat-
tered as elementary parts of the general mesenchyme. When
such masses are attached to wire gauze and hung in a float-
ing live-box they transform into perfect sponges.

A second class of surviving remnants includes masses scat-
tered over the general surface of the sponge. These may be
spheroidal and small, less than one millimeter in diameter.
Usually they are flattened and of an irregular shape with

94 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ Vovember

lobes, suggesting a lobose rhizopod or myxomycete plasmodi-
um. Such masses which may be connected by slender strands
are commonly from two to five millimeters in the longest di-
rection. The third class of remnants are found scattered
through the body of the dead and macerated sponge, in which
they sometimes occupy positions that are obviously favorable
for respiration. These bodies are more or less spheroidal and
small, their diameter varying commonly from one half to one
and a half millimeters. In the most successful cases of treat-
ment, the small masses, internal and superficial, are exceed-
ingly abundant, and the dead and macerated sponge body
with its contained nodules of conspicuous living tissue strong-
ly suggests a Spongzlla full of gemmules.

These living remnants of the sponge (bodies of the second
and third classes) execute slow amoeboid changes of shape
and position, behaving thus like plasmodia, and they may be
designated as plasmodial masses. Microscopic examination
shows them to be of an exceedingly simple character. without
canal spaces or flagellated chambers. The mass does not con-
sist of discrete cells, but isan aggregation of syncytial proto-
plasm studded with nuclei. The protoplasm is stored with
minute inclusions and is reticulate in arrangement. The nu-
clei are practically all alike, and there are no signs of per-
sisting collar-cells. Such a mass represents a portion of the
original sponge in which the degenerative changes have pro-
gressed farther than in the larger remnants. In the latter
we find a syncytium made up of discrete cells among which
some persisting collar-cellsare distinguishable. But in the
plasmodial mass the cells have united sointimately that cell
outlines have been wiped out, and recognizable collar-cells
(or their nuclei) have disappeared. The optical evidence
points to the conclusion that the latter help to form the gener-
al syncytium, undergoing regressive changes in their differen-
tiation which result in their becoming indifferent parts of
this unspecialized tissue.

The plasmodial masses remain alive in the laboratory in-
definitely, but do not transform. They attach to the bottom

a
t
|

7907 | Wiitson—A New MertTHop 95

of the vessel, but so feebly as to be easily shaken loose. In
order to see if they would transform when returned to natur-
al conditions, I devised the simple plan of enclosing them in
fine bolting-cloth bags which were hung in a live-box float-
ing in the harbor. The bags, rectangular, were divided into
compartments about an inch square with the two flat sides
nearly touching. In each space an isolated plasmodial mass
was inserted, and the bag sewed up. It was found that in
such bags the masses were held in place long enough for
them firmly to attach to the bolting cloth. Once attached to
the cloth they grow, sometimes quite through the wall of the
bag to the outer water, and transform into perfect sponges
with osculum, canals, pores and flagellated chambers in such
abundance as to be crowded.

This ability to undergo—when the environment is unfavor-
able but not excessively so, regressive changes of differentia-
tion resulting in the production of a simpler, more uniform
tissue, is something that is plainly useful, z. ¢., adaptive. In
the simplified state the sponge protoplasm withstands condi-
tions fatal to such parts of the body as do not succeed in
passing into this state, and on the return of normal condi-
tions again develops the characteristic structure and habits of
the species. That this power is exercised in nature there can
scarcely be a doubt, since the conditions that are present in
an aquarium must now and then occur in tidepools.

It is probable that the power thus to degenerate with the
production of masses of regenerative tissue is general among
sponges. I first discovered the phenomenon in J/7crociona, a
very different form from Sty/ote//a and one in which the skel-
eton includes much horny matter. Andin two other Beau-
fort species I have succeeded in producing the plasmodial
masses. There is every reason for believing that the com-
mercial sponge shares in this ability. If this is so, we have
here a means of propagation which with a further develop-
ment of methods may at some time become economically
practicable. In any case it is now possible to study the dif-
ferentiation of a quite unspecialized tissue, one that is physi-

96 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [November

ologically embryonic, into a perfect sponge at any time of the
year irrespective of the breeding season. We may even exer-
cise some direct control over the size of the plasmodial
masses, as the following experiment shows.

Microciona was kept in aquaria until the degenerative pro-
cess had begun. Pieces were then teased with needles in a
watch glass of sea water in such a way as to liberate quanti-
ties of cells and small irregular cell-agglomerates. ‘These
were gently forced with pipette to the center of the watch
glass. Fusion of cells and masses, with amoeboid phenom-
ena, began at once, and in half an hour quite large irregular
masses existed. In the course of a few hours the masses
grew enormously through continued fusion. From this time
on they adhered firmly to the glass, retaining irregular plas-
modium-like shapes, and the growth was inconspicuous, To
bring them together once more and induce further fusion
they were on the following day forcibly freed, with pipette
and needle, and to clean them of cellular débris and bacteria
were transferred to a tumbler (covering with bolting cloth)
in which they were kept actively moving under a fine glass
faucet for about thirty minutes. In the course of this violent
agitation a good many masses were lost. Those remaining
in the tumbler became in the next few hours noticeably
rounder and smoother at the surface. From this experiment
eighteen more or less spheroidal masses were obtained, some
of which measured one half millimeter in diameter. They
were similar to the small plasmodial masses produced in this
species (and in S/olote//a) when the sponges are allowed to
remain quietly in aquaria. As already stated, it is only in
Stylotella that I have directly proved the regenerative power
of these masses.

Maas has just announced’ that calcareous sponges (.Sycons)
when exposed to sea water deprived of its calcium undergo

3 ‘Ueber die Einwirkung karbonatfreier und kalkfreier Salzl6sungen auf
erwachsene Kalkschwamme und auf Entwicklungsstadien derselben. Ar-
chiv fur Entwicklungsmechanik der Organismen,’ Bd. XXII., Heft 4,
December, 1906, ;

|

oO

1907] Witson—A New MErTHop 97

marked degenerative changes, which may be of such a char-
acter that the living tissue quite separates from the skeleton
and breaks up into compact cords of cells showing active
amoeboid phenomena. The cords further constrict into
rounded masses the likeness of which to gemmules is pointed
out. Maas states that he is not yet in a position to say
whether these masses have the power to transform into
sponges, but adds that some of his observations induce him
to believe that this is possible. ;

It is evident that Maas, working on very different forms,
has independently met with the same degenerative-regenera-
tive phenomena as are described in this communication, the
essential facts of which were presented (together with an ex-
hibit of gemmule-like degeneration masses and young
sponges into which such masses had transformed) at the re-
cent December meeting of the American Society of Zoolo-
gists. I may add that more than two years ago at the end of
the summer of 1904, in my official report (unpublished since
the research was still in progress) to the Bureau of Fisheries
on the investigation under my charge, I described the degen-
erative phenomena in Microciona and Stylotella, 2. é., the for-
mation under certain conditions of confinement of minute
masses presenting a likeness to gemules, and emphasized the
probability that these masses were able to regenerate the
sponge. It was not, however, until the summer of 1906 that
I was able to demonstrate the truth of this view.

UnrIversity oF NortTH CAROLINA.
CHAPEL Hii, N. C.,
February 16, 1907.

THE CONDENSATION OF CHLORAL WITH PRIMARY
AROMATIC AMINES. _II.*

BY ALVIN S. WHEELER.

A number of condensation products of chloral with primary
aromatic amines have already been described. ‘The first men-
tion of such a reaction is probably that of Maumené’ who
hoped to obtain indigotine by the action of chloral (2 mols. )
upon aniline (3 mols.). His product was a brownish black
uncrystallizable substance containing no chlorine. Schiff
and Amato’ first describe a condensation product of chloral
(1 mol.) and aniline (2 mols.) with the formula

CCl.CH(NHC,H,)..

In the same year Wallach*® describes this compound. Later*
he gives a full description of the products obtained from
aniline, p-toluidine, and a sample of xylidine boiling at 212°-
216°. EKibner® studied the condensation of chloral with p-ni-
traniline, m-chloraniline, p-chloraniline, and 1, 2, 4-dichlor-
aniline and showed that 1, 2, 4, 6-trichloraniline and 2, 6-di-

*Contribution from the Chemical Laboratory of the University of North
Carolina.

1[Ber. 3. 246, (1870)}.

2{Gazz. chim. ital. 1,376 (1871)].
3( Ber. 4. 668).

4( Ann. 173,274).

5( Ann. 302,235),

a

a ee

1907 | WHEELER—THE CONDENSATION OF CHLORAL 99

chlor-4-nitraniline do not react. Wheeler and Weller’ pre-
pared the o- and m-nitraniline compounds and Wheeler and
Daniels’ Showed that only addition products could be obtained
with the naphthylamines. Niementowski and Orzechowski’
found that one molecule of chloral condensed with one mole-
cule of anthranilic acid but later? obtained the expected
diphenamine compound. Finally Rugheimer”® describes the
compounds with o- and p-phenylenediamine and 1, 2, 4- and
1, 3, 4-toluylenediamine. He also states that only addition
products are obtained with the naphthylamines.

The chloral diphenamine compounds vary considerably in
stability. Most of them may be kept for years. They pos-
sess great crystallizing power. Their behavior toward
alkalies is variable. The aniline derivative is decomposed
by alcoholic potash into aniline, chloroform and phenyl cya-
nide according to Wallach. The p-nitraniline derivative is
converted by alcoholic potash into an hydroxy compound, one
chlorine being replaced by the hydroxyl group according to
Wheeler and Glenn’. They are not stable in the presence of
strong mineral acids. These split the compound so as to re-
form the amine. Ejibner has shown that boiling acetic anhy-
dride and benzoyl chloride give the acetyl or benzoyl deriva-
tive of the original amine. I have found that all of them
react with great readiness with bromine in the cold. There
is a substitution of one hydrogen atom in those which have
been analyzed. This substitution probably occurs in the
methylene group of the chloral residue.

With the exception of the anathranilic acid products the
following are thought to be new.

6( Jr. Am. Chem. Soc. 24, 1063).

7(Jr. Elisha Mitchell Sei. Soe. 22, 90 (1906).
8( Ber. 28, 2812).

9( Ber. 35, 3898).

10( Ber. 39, 1653).

1(Jr. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 19, 68, 1903).

100 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [Vovember

CHLORAL AND p-BROMANILINE.
Trichlorethylidenedi—p—bromphenamine,
CCLCH(NHBrC,H.)..

With C. W. Miller. Ten grams of p-bromaniline were dis-
solved in 50cc benzene and 8 grams of chloral (4.2 grams
required by theory) in 10cc benzene were added. The mix-
ture was concentrated one-half on the water bath and cooled.
A white flocculent precipitate came down. This gave a
melting point of 135°. On further evaporation a second crop
was obtained, showing a melting point of 119°. By several
recryStallizations from benzene the melting point was raised
to 140°. The yield of the crude product was quantitative.

Analysis:
0.1588g substance gave 0.2049g CO, and 0.0352¢ H,O.
0.1638g substance gave 9cc nitrogen at 15° and 755mm.
0.0890 substance heated with 0.3274g AgNO, required

9.8cc NH,SCN (Ice = 0.0173g AgNO).
Calculated for

C_H,,N,C1Br, Found
Carbon 35.45 35.03
Hydrogen 2.34 2.46
Nitrogen 5.93 6.38
Chlorine + bromine 56.24 55.58

Trichlorethylidenedi-p-bromphenamine consists of fine col-
orless needles, melting at 140° and decomposing at 205°. It
is extremely soluble in alcohol, acetone, glacial acetic acid
and hot benzene. It is sparingly soluble in cold benzene and
insoluble in ligroin. It is readily purified by using a mixture
of benzene and ligroin. It is not decomposed by boiling
water but is split by boiling concentrated hydrochloric acid
with, the regeneration of p-bromaniline. A bromo derivative
is easily obtained by adding bromine toa glacial acetic acid
solution. ‘The product, consisting of plates, melts at 203°

7907] WHEELER—THE CONDENSATION OF CHLORAL 101

after several recrystallizations from glacial acetic acid.
Determinations of carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen give very
satisfactory figures for a monobrom compound. A study of
its constitution is under way. Chlorine gives a similar reac-
tion. The product, crystallizing in long colorless needles,
melts at 93° after recrystallization from glacial acetic acid.
Analysis indicates a monochlor derivative. These bodies will
be described in a later paper.

CHLORAL AND O-—ANISIDINE.

Trichlorethylidenedt-o-methoxy phenamine,
CC1,CH(NHOCH._C,H.)..

With W. S. Dickson. Two molecules (12.3¢) of o-anisi-
dine were dissolved in 50cc benzene and one molecule (7.3g)
of chloral were added. After warming a short time on the
steam bath a separation of colorless needles occurred. These
decomposed at about 215° and weighed 0.05g. On concen-
tration of the filtrate in a dessicator a mass of fern-like crys-
tals was obtained mixed with a thick liquid. After filtering
the crystals were pressed on a porous tile. The product was
white, melted at 112°-114° and weighed 9.7 grams. On re-
crystallizing from benzene the melting point was raised to
121°. The thick liquid finally solidified, considerably in-
creasing the yield.

Analysis:
0.2000 gram substance gave 0.2294 gram AgCl.
1.0000 gram substance gave 0.073 gram nitrogen (Kjel-
dahl).
Calculated for

C_,H,,O,N,Cl, Found
Cl 28.35 28,35
N 7.47 7.30

Trichloretylidenedi-o-methoxyphenamine crystallizes from
ligroin or benzene in magnificent rhombohedra, from one

102 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [November

quarter to one half inch long, always with a slight yellow
color. It is easily soluble in cold benzene and carbon tetra-
chloride and hot glacial acetic acid. It is slightly soluble in
cold ligroin and fairly soluble in hot ligroin. It crystallizes
from alcohol in long slender prisms. One hundred cubic cen-
timeters of boiling alcohol will dissolve approximately 7
grams and at 25° about 2.5 grams’ It is insoluble in and
unchanged by boiling water. When boiled in concentrated
hydrochloric acid the odor of chloral could be detected in the
vapors. A bromo derivative is readily obtained by adding
bromine to a concentrated glacial acetic acid solution. The
crystals occur in clusters of needles and decompose at about
230°. This compound is being further investigated.

CHLORAL AND p-ANISIDINE.

Trichlorethylideneds- p-methoxyphenamine,
CC1,CH(NHOCH,C,H,)..

To a solution of 12.3 grams p-anisidine in 20cc benzene (a
nearly saturated solution) is added 7.3 grams chloral. The
solution turns to a dark red color at once, much heat is devel-
oped and a deposition of 0.22 gram small colorless crystals
occurs. ‘These decompose at about 215° as in the case with
o-anisidine. After filtering, the reaction mixture is boiled
15 minutes and then allowed to stand several hours. An
abundant crystalline precipitate is formed. After filtering
and pressing on a clay plate, the product melted at 115° and
weighed 10.5 grams. A further yield was obtained from the
mother liquor. Purification was effected by using the mixed
solvent, benzene and ligroin. The melting point was raised
to 118°-120°.

Analysis:

0.2087 gram substance gave 0.2398 gram AgCl.

Calculated for
CH ONCE Found

Cl 25.35 28.41

7907) WHEELER—THE CONDENSATION OF CHLORAL 103

The para compound crystallizes from ligroin in brilliant
scales, showing a strong pink color in the mass. It melts at
118°-120° and decomposes at 158°. It is fairly soluble in
cold benzene, alcohol and ether. It is readily soluble in gla-
cial acetic acid, hot benzene and hot alcohol. The hot alco-
hol solution emits a most disagreeable odor and on spontane-
ous evaporation to dryness a jet black crystalline mass
remains. It is very slightly soluble in cold ligroin and not
readily in hot ligroin. On treatment with bromine in glacial
acetic acid solution a crystalline product is obtained which
blackens at about 198°. This compound will be studied
further.

CHLORAL AND ANTHRANILIC ACID.

The product obtained in this case depends upon the pro-
portions used. One molecule of chloral will condense with
one or two molecules of anthranilic acid with the elimination
of one molecule of water. The two products have been de-
scribed by Niementowski but his method yields a mixture
and we have improved upon it since we wish to make the
compounds in quantity in order to study their bromo deriva-
tives.

Trichlorethylidene-o-aminobenzoic Acid,
CC]_CHNC,H COOH.

With W. S. Dickson. Five grams of anthranilic acid were
dissolved in 40cc boiling benzene (a saturated solution) and
5.5 grams chloral in 10cc benzene were added. The weights
are in the proportion of one molecule to one molecule. The
mixture was boiled under a reflux condenser for \three hours,
filtered from a small precipitate and then cooled. A crystal-
line deposit, weighing 5.0 grams and melting at 148°-151°,
separated. The crystals were large elongated tables, occur-
ing in clusters. From the filtrate was obtained 3.0 grams of
material, melting at 145°-150°. Several recrystallizations
from benzene raised the melting point to 152°. Niementow-

104 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [Movember

ski and Orzechowski’ prepare this compound without the use
of any solvent. They use an excess of chloral and get sev-
eral by-products. We have tried their method but have
employed theoretical proportions. Even so we get the same
by-products. We set the mortar in a block of ice and rapidly
stirred together the previously cooled substances. The mix-
ture liquefied and then rapidly became very hard. This pro-
duct decomposed at about 127°, after two hours on ice at 124°
and after three hours more at room temperature at 118°. It
was rubbed up with a little water and filtered. The decom-
position point rose to 135°. Now taking advantage of the
marked difference in solubility in benzene of the mono- and
di-compounds (not observed by Niementowski) we extracted
the crystalline mass, weighing 8.2 grams, with 45cc boiling
benzene. From the extract there separated a mass of color-
less needles, weighing 3.7 grams and melting 149°-152°,
hence nearly pure mono-compound. On evaporating the fil-
trate a residue was obtained, weighing 1.3 grams and melting
at 160°, a good quality of the di-compound. A second ex-
traction was made with 33cc of boiling benzene. On cooling
this yielded a product weighing 0.8 gram and melting at 162°,
and a residue at 157°. There still remained an insoluble
residue, dark purple in color. These results are in marked
contrast to those obtained by our method of boiling in ben-
zene, for we get practically only the mono-compound and
consequently a much larger yield.

Analysis:
0.2000 gram substance gave 0.3189 gram AgCl.

Calculated for
C,H,O,NC1, Found

Cl a9.92 39.43

On treating a glacial acetic acid solution of this compound
with bromine a bromo derivative is obtained in large quan-
tity. On cooling a hot glacial acetic acid solution it deposits

1(Ber. 28, 2812).

ee

7907] WHERLER—THE CONDENSATION OF CHLORAL 105

in clusters of fern-like crystals which decompose at 237°.
This body is under investigation.

Trichlorethylidenedi-o-aminobenzoic Acid,
CCLCH(NHC,H,COOH)..

Five grams (2 molecules) anthranilic acid in 40cc boiling
benzene were treated with 2.9 grams (1 molecule) chloral in
10cc benzene and boiled under a reflux condenser for three
hours. During the boiling there separated 3.25 grams of the
di-compound, melting at 164°-165°. On cooling a further
yield of 0.6 gram was obtained. On evaporation to dryness
the residue was found to weigh 4.0 grams and to melt at
157°. The pure body melts at 165°. The method of Nie-
mentowski' was tried and although found to be better than
for the preparation of the mono-compound it gave a smaller
yield than our method and a larger amount of unknown col-
ored by-products.

Analysis:
0.5000 gram substance gave 0.0410 gram NH, (Kjeldahl).
0.2000 gram substance gave 0.2113 gram AgCl.
Calculated for

CeO NCr Found
N 6.96 6.76
Cl 26.11 26.10

The di-compound consists of a crystalline powder and may
be purified by precipitating its ether solution with ligroin.
Upon boiling eight hours with acetic anhydride and cooling,
a crystalline substance deposits, melting at 183° and crystal-
lizing from benzene in needles. This corresponds to acetyl-
o-aminobenzoic acid. On treating a glacial acetic acid
solution with bromine there is almost instantly obtained a
heavy precipitate which after recrystallization from glacial
acetic acid melts with decomposition at 236°. This behavior
is surprisingly like that of the bromo derivative of the mono-
anthranilic acid compound.

1(Ber, 35, 3898).

106 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ November

CHLORAL AND O-TOLUIDINE

Trichlorethylidenedi-o-tolamine,
CC1.CH(NHC,H,CH)..

With Strowd Jordan. Chloral and o-toluidine were brought
directly together in the proportion of one molecule to two
molecules. No advantage was found in using benzene as a
solvent. 19.3 grams chloral were added to 28 grams of o-tol-
uidine, the mixture turned dark red and the temperature rose
to 80°. After standing for some time, often over night, a
quite hard crystalline cake formed. This was dissolved up
in ether or successively extracted with benzene. In either
case, a small residue weighing 0.7 gram remained. This
was pale greenish in color and melted at 213°. The main
product of the reaction was recrystallized from ether until
the melting point reached 80°.

The yield was 70 per cent of the theory.

Analysis:
0.1763 gram substance gave 0.2194 gram AgCl.

0.2000 gram substance required 0.2915 gram AgNO..
0.2000 gram substance required 0.2973 gram AgNO,.

Calculated for
C,H, N,Cl, Found

Cl 30.95 30.77 30.40 30.96.

The Stepanow method’ was employed in the second and
third analyses and found to be extremely convenient. With
some of our compounds we have found it impracticable on
account of the deep color of the solution. We found it advis-
able to adopt the suggestion of Rosanoff and Hill’ and filter
off the silver chloride before titrating.

Trichlorethylidenedi-o-tolamine crystallizes in very long
silky needles. It is not very stable in solution or when ex-

1(Ber. 39. 4056).
2(Jr. Am. Chem. Soc., 29, 269).

‘
!
t
4
y
‘
;
.

7907] WHEELER—THE CONDENSATION OF CHLORAL = 107

posed to the light. It is decomposed by water into chloral
and o-toluidine. It is soluble in cold alcohol, ether, acetone,
chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, carbon disulphide and gla-
cial, acetic acid. It is soluble in hot ligroin, benzene and
methyl alcohol. The pure substance melts at 80° and will
melt repeatedly at that temperature. A bromo derivative is
readily obtained in glacial acetic acid solution. It forms sil-
very white plates which melt with decomposition in the
neighborhood of 268°.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION.

We were led to a study of the physiological action of the
trichlorethylidenedi-o-tolamine by an accidental observation.
Mr. Jordan unintentionally got a small quantity in his mouth
and within a few hours there followed a marked physiologi-
cal action. A preliminary test has been made upon two rab-
bits. Dr. Wiliiam DeB. MacNider of this University kindly
carried out the test for us in the pharmacological laboratory
of the University of Chicago. A 5 per cent dilute alcoholic
solution was employed. This was first used in 10cc doses,
intravenously. It produced at first a slow heart action ac-
companied by a slight fall in blood pressure. Following this
initial change the respirations became accelerated, the heart
action fast and the fall in blood pressure much more pro-
nounced. Doses of 25cc given by the stomach caused the
animal to become drowsy, inactive and imperfectly responsive
to stimuli. The respirations were accelerated. One rabbit
returned to a normal condition in six hours. The other ani-
mal, receiving the drug by the stomach, died apparently from
respiratory failure. A more complete study is under way
upon a large number of rabbits. This study will be extended
to other diphenamine derivatives of chloral.

Chapel Hill, N. C.
Oct. 16. 1907.

RECENT CHANGES IN GOLD MINING IN NORTH
CAROLINA THAT HAVE FAVORABLY AFFECTED
THIS INDUSTRY

BY JOSEPH HYDE PRATT AND A. A. STEEL *

Before taking up an account of the changes that have been
recently introduced in gold mining in North Carolina, it may
be of interdst to mention some of the causes for failure in the
profitable mining of gold in this State, as the changes to be
described hav to some extent at least modified and lessened
the chances for failure.

Many of the causes of failure in North Carolina gold min-
ing can be traced toa lack of adequate capital, which pre-
vents mining from being conducted in the most economic
manner. One of the most noticeable of these is the tendency
to sink the shafts but 15 to 30 feet before driving a new
level and then stoping out a small block of ground instead of
having the levels from 75 to 100 feet apart. Since a ton of
ore removed in driving the level even in a wide vein will cost
fully twice as much as a ton of ore in stoping, it is obviously
more economical to have as few levels as possible. It
it becomes dificult to make the raises more than 100 feet and
is expensive to get men and timbers into much higher stopes.
Therefore, the levels should not be over 100 feet apart. Ina
narrow vein where much waste could be left in a stope, the
economy is greater. Somewhat similar to this is the habit of
sinking a number of shafts close together instead of only
one or two ona vein. Thisis not so bad for working ore

* Published with the permission of the State Geologist of North Carolina

108 [November

|
|
|
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7907 | RECENT CHANGES IN GOLD MINING 109

near the surface, but becomes very expensive as the mine
gets deeper, especially when hoisting machinery is required
on each shaft. This is partially explained by the fact that
many of the old mines have been worked at very irregular
intervals and the old shafts have become caved in during the
period of idleness.

Even those mines having capital are often badly managed.
They frequently put in machinery of unnecessarily large
capacity, not realizing that a very small engine and bucket
can easily get out 10 or 15 tons of ore per day and keep a five
stamp mill busy. There are many little mines that could
pay a profit under careful management with five stamps and
running only one shift; but some of them have engines big
enough to hoist four times as much ore. Since the engineer
and top men must be there all the time, there is no economy
in operation but may even be a loss, since the engine cannot
work steadily and fuel is wasted keeping up a big fire; and’
of course, the first cost is greater. If the mine ever gets
much too big for the small engine, it can be used in prospect-
ing or underground work.

A great many shafts are much to big. It isnot uncommon
to see a little bucket, 30 inches accross dangling in the mid—
dle of a hoisting compartment 6 feet square in the clear, It
is considerably cheaper to sink a shaft with compartments
only 4 feet square in the clear and when the hoisting compart-
ment is smoothly lined with plank ( to assist ventilation ), or
fitted with guides, it has jnst as great a capacity — usually
more than enough for the output of the mine. If necessary,
the hoisting capacity of a shaft may be greatly increased at
any time by putting ina tall bucket, or better a self-dumping
skip and high speedengine. The ladder and pipe compartment
is often as big as 6 by 8 feet. Since the cheaper and better
direct acting steam pump would now be placed in a shaft,
instead of the clumsy and bulky Cornish pump, the water,
steam and compresed air pipes take up very little room. It is
now customary to put in slanting ladders between landings
some distance apart. They can almost as well be a little

110 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ November

steeper and shorter and go in a smaller space. The men will
always ride up in a bucket, fitted with a crosshead running
in proper guides or running in a closely planked compart-
ment if the shaft iscrooked. Therefore, the ladderway is an
emergency exit only and a good, continuous vertical ladder
securely fastened against one wall of the compartment is all
that is needed, and the compartment for ladder and pipes
may seldom need be over 3 by 4 feet. The two compartments
and the division between them then need be only 4 by8 or 3%
by 7 feet inside. Besides being much more cheaply and
rapidly sunk, the small shaft need not be so heavily timbered,
since the shorter timbers are stronger and the earth pressure
tends to arch around the shaft instead of coming fnll upon
the timbers. On the other hand, the first 6 by 10 feet ( 8%
by 12% feet outside timbers) shaft at the Montgomery Mine,
at Candor, Montgomery County, became useless after about 5
years from the buckling of the timbers, although splendidly
timbered with 12 by 12 inch oak sets, which showed no signs
of decay.
_ There is, of course, very seldom any need for more than
one hoisting compartment, since the saving in power will
only pay for the greater expense of engine and shaft when a
large amount of ore is to be hoisted from considerable depth.
When a single large skip will handle all the ore, there is no
need of putting in another to remain idle half the time.
Timber framing for shafts and tuunel sets is often unnec-
essarily complicated and the carpenter must waste mnch time
chiselling, when simple notches laid off with a square and
cut by saws are often stronger and always more easily made.
The most disastrous error is usually great haste in putting
ina mill or smelter. It seems that the first thing that many
miners think of after finding a little good ore is to stop work
in the mine and put in a mill; so there are mills which have
been able to run less then a month before the mine was ex-
hausted. There is usually a neighboring mill to which the
ore might as well have been hauled. It is seldom that tests
are made to tell what sort of a mill and treatment is adapted

7907] RECENT CHANGES IN GOLD MINING 111

tothe ore. Unless the ore body is large, no mill should be in-
stalled until the changed ore below the water level has been
tested. -

In North Carolina there seem to be only a few miners who
deceive themselves by assaying the rich streak and assuming
that the entire streak will be equally as good. The general
principles of sampling the entire body seem to be well under-
stood, although it is not always done as accurately as it
should be.

Ever when good ore occurs in paying quantities the miner
frequently builds a mill that is too large; For there is only a
little extra expense in increasing the size of the mill after it
has been running awhile instead of building a large mill all at
once. So there is little excuse for assuming the greater risk
of a large mill. There is less loss of gold in adjusting a
small mill.

One agreeable exception to the practice of building a mill
before the mine is sufficienty developed is seen in the work of
the Whitney Company, who have carefully tested and
explored a number of mines. Many of the options were given
up of course. At the old McMakin Mine at Gold Hill, as
explorations proved the value of the mine, the contemplated
scale of working was gradually increased. When the small
shafts of the upper levels were deepened, the lower parts
were made large enough for balanced hoisting and the small
part wil! be enlarged later. In the meantime most careful
sampling and assaying was done and when enough ore had
been blockedout, careful mill tests were made chiefly upon the
material obtained from drifts. In this way a total of 4,950
tons of ore was run through the little mill on the ground;
careful records of everything gave an average recovery of
$4.52 of gold on the plates and only $0.34 per ton as a concen-
trate worth but $5.03 per ton and $0.83 per ton in the tail-
ings. These tests made clear that the most economical
method is simple amalgamation, giving a saving of about 80
per cent of the gold, with no attempt to concentrate and treat
the concentrates.

112 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [Movember

The two main shafts are down 800 feet and another is 400
feet deep, with the levels averaging over 700 feet long.
This work shows a vein averaging 14 feet wide and
gives a million and a half tons of ore blocked ont ready
to stope, and which will yield $2.50 per ton by amalgamation.
They have accordingly planned a mill large enough to treat
1,000 tons of ore per day, making the estimated total cost of
mining, milling and transporting the ore only $1.48 per ton.
They are now waiting for the completion of their water-
power plant before building the mill and since they have suf-
ficient ore blocked out, the mine has been idle and full of
water since the spring of 1905. The intention is to keep a
reserve of 500,000 tons of ore in advance of the stoping.

The Bonnie Doone, or Old Smart Mine, has also been prop-
erly developed by Mr. J. C. Bates, a former owner of the
Howie Mine. The old 80 foot shaft has been deepened to 200
feet, with levels 125 feet long at 60 feet, 100 feet at 120 feet,
160 feet at 186 feet. The ore obtained from these workings
is now piled in a large dump estimated to contain 3,000 tons.
And before the mill was planned, this was carefully sampled
by a competent mining engineer, who dug deep trenches
across it and found it to average $15.00 per ton. Of course a
great deal of the same quality of ore has been blocked out in
the mine. There are about 500 tons in another dump of
material which came from work in the walls and is chiefly
slate but contains a few of the veinlets and masses of milky
quartz, and is said to assay about $1.50 per ton. It has been
kept out of the good ore at only a nominal expense. The
mill has not been built on account of the continued sickness
of the owner, so there is no machinery at the mine except the
sufficiently large prospecting hoist.

As an example of a mill too large for the development may
be mentioned the Reimer Mine, near Salisbury. Here a 20
stamp mill with chlorination failed simply because no ore
at all had been blocked out and it could not be mined rapidly
enough to keep the mill going. An examination of the mine
by the late Mr. Parker, mining engineer for the Whitney

J
4

i

7907] RECENT CHANGES IN GOLD MINING 113

Company, showed a remarkably continuous vein, averaging
3% feet wide and carrying $7.50 in gold.

Mr. Parker planned to develop the mine so that it might
easily yield 50 tons per day, so the total cost of mining and
treating the ore would be about $4.50 per ton, which includes
depreciation, etc.

The general custom of having no reserves of ore blocked
out prevents conservative mining men from investing in them,
since there is no way of determining the value of the vein
unless it is opened up. It would be much better to spend the
cost of a premature mill in developing ore so that there would
be no difficulty in securing capital or selling the mine to
advantage.

It is also quite customary to extract all of the ore by under-
hand stoping. This becomes very expensive when the vein
is so narrow that some of the wall-rock must be broken to
make room, or when the vein contains much barren rock.
All of this waste material must then be hoisted to the surface
and much of it becomes mixed with the ore in the bins and
chutes. If the stopes are mined upward or overhand, all the
waste can be left in them supported on a single line of stulls
over the drift. This often affords a scaffold for the men and
so saves the great expense of putting in many stulls. In
addition a large block of filling will serve asa pillar to hold
the walls apart so no ore need be left in the mine. One
excellent mine superintendent said that the reason for this
was the fact that most of the miners are more properly farm-
ers and cannot drill holes upwards. They do not work
steadily enough to warrant an attempt to teach them how,
even though skilled men prefer to drill ‘‘uppers.”’ This
objection can be overcome in those mines having air drills
for driving levels by installing a few of the blockholing or
air hammer drills which may be held in one hand and,
besides being much quicker, can be worked in stopes too nar-
row for hammering by hand. So far there seems to be none
of these machines in North Carolina, although they are be-
coming standard in the west.

114 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ Vovember

When the mines yield rich ore in narrow streaks, it should
be hand-picked before going to the mill. For this purpose
the Miami Mining Company have installed at the Phoenix
Mine, near Concord, Cabarrus County, an ore picker. ‘The ore
is sorted into coarse and medium material by passing through a
trommel, where it is also washed by a spray pipe. It then
passes over a couple of belts 30 inches wide and 30 feet long.
A number of boys sit along these belts and pick out the waste,
which is removed by another belt, while the good ore passes
direct to a Dodge crusher. The dirt and fine ore removed by
the water is raised by a saud pump directly to the battery.
These machines would not pay at a small mine where an
arrangement like that at the Hercules Mine at Cid, Davidson
County, is better. Here the ore is dumped from the skip on
to a slightly elevated platform, where it is washed by a
stream of water from a hose and the waste thrown into a car
standing near, as the good ore is shovelled into a car for tak-
ing it to the mill.

Since the publication of Bulletins Nos. 3 and 10 of the
North Carolina Geological Survey, there have been a number
of changes in mining practiced in the State, which, given in
the order of their probable importance, are:

1. The application of machines of the old log washer type
to separate gold from saprolites as is now being practiced at
the Shuford, Empire, Beaver Dam, Troy, Sawyer and other
mines.

2. The introduction of square set timbering in the extrac-
tion of soft, deep ore bodies, which is now being practiced at
the Union Copper Mine at Gold Hill.

3. The introduction of the cyanide process for treating
certain sulphuret ores, which has been practiced on the
tailings trom the [ola, Montgomery and Howie mines.

4. Theintroduction of self-dumping skips, picking belts etc.

eer ee”

1907] RECENT CHANGES IN GOLD MINING 115

Loc WASHERS

Perhaps the most important change to be noted in gold
mining practice in North Carolina is the introduction of log
washers in treating many of the saprolitic ores that are found
quite abundantly throughout many portions of the State.
The old principle of the log washer cannot be patented, but
the machines that are now being used, known as modern pul-
verizing concentrating machines, possess many mechanical
improvements that adapted them to the work that they are
called upon to do.

Each separate unit of these machines consists of two
improved log washers running at high enough speed to read-
ily disintegrate the soft material and so mix the clay into a
fine pulp with water that the gold can readily settle to the
bottom. Each machine is essentially a long trough or boiler
plate containing a revolving cylinder fitted with heavy white
iron arms set spirally so that the ore, while being hammered
fine, is gradually worked tothe discharge end. At the end
of the first washer, the larger, hard and nearly barren quartz
stones are removed by a revolving screen and belt conveyor,
this being done to save wear and power in the second washer,
where the gravel is still further reduced iu size and more gold
settles out. The gravel that remains after passing the second

_ washer is removed by a finer screen and the chief pulp, free

from stones, passes from the riffled sluices about three feet
wide and of varying lengths, which contains mercury to
amalgamate and save any free gold that does not settle in the
machine.

The steel troughs are about 2 feet wide by 2% feet deep,
the first being 18 feet long and the second 12 feet, with a
semicircular bottom and a flat wood top. The revolving cyl-
inder is made of an 8-inch steam pipe carried upon a heavy
steel shaft, passing through stuffing boxes at the ends of the
trough. Wrought iron bars reach through this pipe cross-
wise and project about 3 inches on each side to form legs to
which 8% inch cast iron arms are bolted to take all the wear.
There is about 4 inch clearance between these arms and the

116 JoURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [November

bottom of the troughs, which allows the formation of a bed
of stones, which reduces the wear on the bottom and helps
save the gold. This bed of stones is of course more or less
shaken up by blows from the large fragments of quartz and
by the revolving arms, thus permitting the gold to settle
through as in panning. The constant striking of the paddles
against the surface of the water will also weight and sink
some of the float gold. The discharge end of the machine is
set 6 inches higher than the feed end so that the gold, once
down amongst the pebbles of the bed, is not apt to be pushed
out.

Riffles of the sluices are made ‘by boring inclined auger
holes in the planks laid lengthwise in the cement-lined sluice
boxes. Since all the coarse gravel has been screened out,
there is little wear upon the riffles and the fall and quantity of
water are less than in the regular sluice for hydraulic mining.
In cleaning up, the planks are lifted up and turned over and
the gravel and mercury washed to the end of the sluice where
quicksilver and amalgam are washed out in hand pans.
When through cleaning up, the planks are simply replaced
and the riffles filled with mercury and the machine started
again.

In cleaning the washers, which is usually done twice a week
the machines are stopped and all the gravel within washed
out with a hose through an opening in the bottom. This
gravel is then panned by hand and the gold amalgamated.
Any nuggets that occur in the rock are pounded free from
quartz and are then also amalgamated.

The amalgam from all sources is strained out of the quick-
silver and then retorted and the bullion sold.

The chief wear on the machine is the arms, which under
certain conditions, as on the sharpore at the Shuford mine,
only last six weeks. They can, however, be readily made at
any foundry.

It is recommended by the maker that the first washer be
driven at 150 to 250 revolutions per minute and that the second
one at 250 to 350 per minute and that for acapacity of 10 tons

ee

1907 | ReCENT CHANGES IN GoLD MINING 117

per hour, each machine be given 72 gallons of water per min-
ute. This willthen at times require 25 H P. for a complete
unit of two washers and trommels. These factors will vary
greatly with the character of the ore. Since the power, and
therefore the wear, will increase even more rapidly than the
square of the speed, this should be kept low. Inthe absence
of any coarse stones, there is also danger that the pulp may be
too greatly agitated to allow the settling of the gold. On the
other hand, the speed and work must be sufficient to grind up
the ore. If there is too little water, the clay paste may not
allow the gold to settle. If there is too much, there is a dan-
ger of the gold being washed out. While a large capacity is
of advantage and desirable, still it will mean danger of insuf-
ficient grinding, too thick pulping, or too strong a flowing of
water. A great deal of skill and patience is, therefore,
required in adjusting these fixtures, but when once adjusted,
they will work satisfactorily. It is to be recommended that
a first unit be installed and run over several months at var-
ious speeds, capacities and amounts of water and the machine
should be given plenty of time after each change of condition
to adjust itself. Also, careful tests of the ore and tailings
should be made between times. The capacity and speed
Should first be adjusted until the best result is given in reduc-
ing the amount of gold left in the tailings so combined that
it will not pan. The pulp should of course be kept at a reas-
onable consistency throughout the changes and the amount
of water finally adjusted so that the tailings will show a min-
imum of free gold in the pan.

These machines are made in Knoxville, Tenn., and are
handled by Geo. L. Erdman, of Asheville, N. C. One of the
first of these machines was installed at the Shuford Mine,
owned by the Catawba Gold Mining Company, and situated
about three-quarters of a mile north of the post-office of
Edith, about 5 miles south-east of Catawba Station on the
Southern Railway. They have a plant of 4 double units.
The Company are operating on a tract of land containing a
gold-bearing zone said to be 2 miles long and 600 feet wide.

118 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ Vovember

This will all pan gold at the surface and has been tested by
bored holes 30 to 50 feet deep to water level and by one old
shaft 115 feet deep. This zone is filled with small quartz
seams from a line to occasionally several inches thick and
having all possible strikes and dips and seldom more than two
feet apart in every direction. The country rock varies from
schist to gneiss and is generally heavily stained by iron oxide
and thoroughly decomposed, except for a few, bold out-
cropping hard masses. The quartz is usually thoroughly
honey-combed and broken into soft, angular fragments.
Except at the surface, most of the gold is in these quartz
streaks, but the hard and solid portions of them seldom have
much value. At the present time the entire mass is being
mined by means of an irregular pit which was, in the summer
of 1906, 90 feet deep and 250 to 300 feet across at the top.
The material at the bottom is just as soft and decomposed as
at the top and the ore is loosed by black powder and shov-
elled by hand into cars containing a cubic yard. The cars
are hoisted up a steep incline and automatically dumped over
a grizzly of light steel rails. The fines are washed through
the grizzly by jets of water, the soft large lumps being
crushed and knocked through by means of a pick. In 18
months operation only a few tons of large, hard lumps have
thus far been thrown out. The material is. then washed
down a trough about 50 feet long, thus becoming pretty uni-
formly mixed before being divided among the washers. At
this mine the machines are run at only 150 revolutions per
minute. ‘They were tried at a lower speed, but there was
trouble with the gold sticking to clay balls. The machine
used about 150 gallons of water to the minute and the whole
plant is run by a 35 horsepower engine which, when the three
units are running, is probably overloaded. ‘The tailings,
when tested, usually pan nothing at all, but assay a few
cents, due. to gold included in the sand. While this loss
could be reduced by speeding up the second washer to grind
the sand finer and trusting to the riffles to save what little
additional free gold would not then settle in the machine, it

1907 | RECENT CHANGES IN GoLpD MINING 119

is doubtful whether with the present small plant and so
vast a quantity of ore controlled by the Company such
refinements are advisable, since they would probably reduce
the capacity of the plant. It is estimated that the present
cost of treatment is 22 cents per cubic yard loose measure
with a recovery of between 50 cents and $1.00 per cubic yard.

A great deal of the success of the Catawba Gold Mining
Company is due to its conservative policy and the skill with
which the whole mining and milling operation has been con-
ducted.

‘The next machine to be placed in operation was at the old
Laflin Mine, near Cox, Randolph County, about 4 miles east
of Cid Station on the Thompsonville and Glen Anna Railway.
The Empire Mining Company own a tract of land which con-
tains argillaceous slates containing two gold-bearing zones,
200 feet wide by % mile long, the northwest zone being along
the south side of a hard quartz and siliceous slate vein. The
early work on this property was done at the northeast end of
the northwest zone where there are several large pits, some
50 feet deep. The entire surface was tested by pan assays
(weighing the amount of gold from known weighed amounts
of ore) and a number of trenches were dug across the better
portions of the zone. The results of this test led the Com-
pany to instal their experimental plant on the gentle slope to
another stream near the southwest end of the northwest zone.
At the other end the slates are still soft at a depth of 50 feet,
but here they were found to be quite solid and tough within
6 or 7 feet of the surface, though drill holes are said to have
proved that the rock is again soft below a 5 or 6 foot shell of
hard material. The dip at this end is only 15 or 20 degrees
instead of being nearly vertical as at the other. This tough
slate is thoroughly oxidized and shows a very uniform distri-
bution of wheat-like grains of limonite, formed from pyrite,
which lie along the cleavage planes of the slate and all the
gold occurs in them.

This small branch has a steep fall for 2 miles to the Yad-
kin River and for the experimental plant water is returned

120 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ Vovember

from a small settling pond nearby. In order to get sufficient
fall for the head and tail sluices, the machines are put pretty

high up on the hill so that a fat incline has been put in with’

dumping arrangements, etc. similarly as at the Shuford Mine.
The ore is broken up by hand into about 3 inch cubes and
when not hard, there is some tendency for it to stick in the
grizzly crusher owing to the large percentage of clay, which
is often moist. The first machine is run as high as 250 revo-
lutions per minute on hard rock, but was found to give best
results on average partly decomposed slates at 175 revolutions
per minute. As there is no hard quartz in this ore, there is
no need of an intermediate trommel. The second machine is
operated at only 90 revolutions per minute and saves most of
the gold, which is very fine. The trommel which follows
this washer removes practically nothing but fragments of
tree roots, which shows that everything is ground below
4-mesh. The riffles are 64 feet long, but very little gold is
found below the first 20 feet. With this soft, clayey ore the
capacity is about 8 tons per hour and 110 gallons of water
per minute are required. In the summer of 1906 the machine
had hardly passed the experimental stage, but the tailings
almost never showed any free gold and assays of carefully
taken samples showed a recovery of 90 per cent of the soft
material and 80 per cent on the hard.

A few modifications of the machine have been made by Mr.
O.K. McCutcheon, Superintendent of the Empire Company,
by introducing an improved stuffing box and valve for the
clean-up openings and in the second washer iustalling a plate
9 inches wide and one inch above the center of the bottom
with cross-lots % inch by 5 inches. This false bottom is

curled up at the discharge end and serves as a riffle plate,

thus considerably increasing the recovery of very fine gold.

One double unit of these machines was being worked on
the property of the Troy Mining Co., 7 miles north of Troy,
Montgomery County. There are some old shafts, but the
two main workings are based upon recent discoveries. By
test pits and panning it seems there are two parallel zones of

SS SS eS ee ms

——

7907] RECENT CHANGES IN GOLD MINING 121

slate bearing gold. Open cut No. 1 shows white and pink,
clay-like slates with iron stains and abundant limonite cubes
and seams. The direction of the slates is N. 45° E. and part
of the material seems to represent thoroughly decomposed,
sheeted, coarse grained porphyry so that the deposit is proba-
bly on a contact. The values are not uniform and at a depth
of about 12 ft. the deposit seems to be about 20 ft. wide, 50
ft. long and the upper part of a rounded lens, richest in the
center, where a 25 ft. shaft is said to have produced $30.00
ore. To develop deeper, a shaft was sunk in the hanging
wall. At adepth of 70 feet, it was stopped just as it began
to cut light-colored, sericitic schists, carrying pyrite.

The material from open cut No. 1 was all conveyed by a
sluice to the mill, a short distance away. Although a good
deal of gold was saved, the tailings ran $3.00 a ton and tests
were stopped.

Open cut No. 2 was made by recent unsuccessful hydraulic
mining. It was, at the time of the visit, 200 feet long, 20 to
24 feet wide and 2 to10 feet deep. This zone pans quite uni-
formly 18 to 20 feet wide in the cut and in cross trenches
beyond the end of it. No assays of average samples have
been made. There is a barren, white quartz vein, with some
large quartz crystals, along part of one side of the zone and
most of the material seems to have been more or less siliceous
Sericite schist, now thoroughly decomposed to purple clay or
fine sand. At the time of the visit, 100 tons were being
hauled over muddy roads to the mill about a quarter of a
mile away, to make a test run.

The machines were found to give a little less free gold in
the tailings as the speed was reduced, and at the time of the
visit, both sections were being run at only 60 R.P.M. The
rate of feeding is very low, apparently only 2 tons per hour,
and the amount of water is very large, apparently about 150
gallons per minute. As there was no hard pebbles or
other material in the ore to form a bed in the machine,
it is probable that most of the gold was washed out. Even
at this low rate of speed the coarsest tailings were very fine

122 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [November

particles of sand. Samples of the tailings included only the
coarser, rapidly settling parts, so that the assays made were
probably too high. It may be that the slower speed simply
decreases the pan assay of the tailings by not freeing such a
large percentage of gold which remains included in the
larger grains.

The most apparent recommendation would be to put
McCutcheon riffles in the bottom of the machine, run the
first machine faster than the second and greatly increase the
percentage of ore fed to machine as compared with the
amount of water used. No samples of the ore had been taken
so the tests are not conclusive.

The latest reports are that the tailings frei open cut No.

2 also assayed $3.00 toS4.00 per ton; that the washers are
abandoned and that a 50 ton cyanide mill will be erected. It
is also said that some good ore was struck below a quartz vein
in a17 ft. shaft, sunkin open cut No. 2. It is probably well
to abandon the washers here because the thoroughly decom-
posed soil gets very hard not far from the surface, and the
water level will be less than 30 feet below the highest part
of the ore zone now exposed. Therefore the available ton-
nage of decomposed material is rather small. A shaft on a
third vein, just below the creek bed, shows hard silicified ser-
icite slates, with much pyrites but no visible copper or other
minerals which would interfere with the cyanide plant adapted
for handling slimes.

Machines have also been installed at the old Sawyer Mine
in Randolph County 5 miles west of Sophia and about 14
miles from High Point. This property has been worked off
and on for many years, but has failed because the gold could .
not be saved by a stamp mill and plates. The machine will
first treat the soil and very soft outcrops and then the hard
rock, which does not slack by itself will be crushed fine by
rolls and the machine used simply as a panning device. This
will be a new and novel use for this machine and the results
will be watched with interest.

The McCutcheon modification of the Modern Pulverizing
and Concentrating machine is being installed at the old Mer-

1907 RECENT CHANGES IN GOLD MINING 123

rill Mine on Carraway Creek 3 miles west of Sophia, The
old workings are said to show a zone 1-2 mile long which is
composed principally of clay to a depth of 50 or 60 feet.
There are eight long cross-cut trenches and many test pits
have been made which are said to have given ore running
from $1.50 to $1.90 per ton.

Near Newton, Catawba County, one of the machines is
being installed to work a property said to be similar to the
Shuford Mine in the same county.

From information obtained by observation in the field and
tests in the laboratory, it would seem that this Modern Pul-
verizing and Concentrating machine is adapted for certain
ores such as those of the Shuford Mine and that with certain
modifications as have been worked out by Mr. McCutcheon,
the machine can be adapted to still other ores. It is neces-
sary, however, to make a careful study of the ore and to
adjust the machine to each particular ore before it can be
determined whether or not the machine will save the gold;
and a machine should not be accepted or discarded until the
ore has been thoroughly tested to ascertain whether or not
the machine can be adapted to that particular ore.

SQUARE SETS.

The second change in mining practice of great importance
to the gold mining industry in North Carolina is the intro-
duction of square set timbering in the extraction of soft deep
ore bodies. This method was introduced by Mr. H. L. Gris-
wold, superintendent of the Union Copper Company’s mine at
Gold Hill, N. C. In former mining the old stopes were held
open by miscellaneous timbering such as stulls, lock sets and
truss sets. Such methods were not satisfactory and prevent-
ed the stoping of the ore in the most economical manner. By

. the introduction of the western square set method of timber-

ing, the stoping of the ore is being done safely, completely
and economically. The sets are made of 8 x 8 inch sawed
oak and the mine carpenter can usually easily frame enough
timber for this work in about one-eighth of his time. The

124 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL, SOCIETY [Movember

sets are 6 ft. 3 inches high in the clear and 5 feet across in
the clear. ‘The posts are, therefore, 6 ft. 3 inches long be-
tween the shoulders and havea 5x 5inch tenon 1% inches
long at each end; the caps are 5 it. 3 inches between shoul-
dets and have a 5x5 inch tenon 2% inches long at each end;
the ties are 5 feet between shoulders and have a tenon 5x8
inches and 11% inches long at each end.

The size of the timbers will of course vary with the weight
to be sustained. This style and proportions of framing are
very good for oak timbers; but for pine, which crushes so
easily across the grain, it is better to have the ends of the
post tenons to touch each other. The light timbers are of
course cheaper and much more easily handled. As thestopes
get large, they are more or less completely filled with waste
rock which is usually obtained in mining and would other-
wise have to be hoisted out in working the usually underhand
stopes. This filling also holds the posts in position and
helps to prevent them from buckling or ‘‘jack-knifing” if any
one timber yields, which might otherwise endanger the whole
system. Since most of the pressure is downward, as soon as
the ore is blasted away to make room for a new set, all the
sets below are relieved and tend to come back to their origin-
al position. Thus, even light timbers will hold very well if
the stope is worked rapidly enough.

In the Union Copper mine the square sets were founded
upon a platform built upon the old solid looking truss sets.
As soon as a heavy load came upon them the trusses buckled
sidewise and everything caved in. A new foundation was then
made upon reinforced stulls and there has been no trouble
since. Mr. Griswold is starting a new lot of square sets in
a large open chamber just above the fourth level and he will
thus be able to work out easily all the ore left above, espec-
ially a big pillar that remains between the first and second
levels.

A new set can be added in any position at any time with-
out disturbing the adjoining timbers and the old timbers can
easily be supported by temporary props while making room

7907 | REecENT CHANGES IN GOLD MINING 125

for an additional set. When the old timbers have been re-
placed the entire flooring of sets is easily put in as the ore
is removed; a temporary plank covering may be placed across
the old timbers to protect the men from falling rocks. ‘Tem-
porary plank floors are placed upon the sets for the men to
stand upon and, as the system becomes higher, chutes and
mill holes are put in to conduct the ore to the car on the
track below. Any waste rock mined is merely dumped in
and around the lower sets.

There has been little or no trouble indtroducing the square
set method of timbering and at the Union Copper Mine the
work is done under the immediate supervision of Mr. Hed-
rick, a skilfull North Carolina shift boss who has had no
previous experience with square sets. Some of the miners,
especially negroes, when first stoping by means of square set
timbering are a little nervous because they are so close to the
roof that they can see how loose the rocks are; but they
soon realize that they can pick down the loose rock or prop
it up and, therefore, are safer than when they are so far
away that they cannot tell at what moment the rock may fall
upon them. Also when working at the bottom of a high,
underhand stope, a blow from even a small rock would be
dangerous.

CYANIDE PLANTS.

The introduction of the cyanide process for treating certain
sulphuret ores is a third change in mining practice in the
State that has added considerable to the production of gold.
One of the most successful cyanide plants was the one erected
to work the tailings of the Howie mine, near Waxhaw, Union
County,. This mine is ina zone of hard, siliceous slates, carry-
ing chimney-like bodies of pretty high grade ore. The gold
is all free but so finely disseminated that the high grade ore
which is a laminated or schistose quartz has merely a golden
sheen. A great deal of this escaped amalgamation although
enough was saved to pay well. These old tailings, which are
rumored to have been worth 5 or 6 dollars a ton, soften

126 JoURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ Vovember

somewhat upon exposure to the weather so that the recovery
by cyanide was very good.

The old cyanide plant had four iron tanks 5% feet deep and
30 feet in diameter and supposedly the necessary other tanks
and apparatus. When the tailings were exhausted the mine
was sold to the Colossus Mining Company, a London corpor-
ation, which proposed to put in an immense plant to treat
the entire zone. This zone lad previously been cross cut by
two trenches somewhat over 20 feet deep, but it was never
properly sampled, for although there are many fairly rich
streaks, the general average value is only 40 to50 centsa ton.
The tanks of the old mill were made a part of the new big
mill, so the original arrangement of this successful plant
could not be learned and also no one could be found to give
information about the successful treatment. There is nowa
Ledgerwood cableway for economical handling of excavated
rock, This dumps the skips of rock upon the feeding plat-
form of a very large gyratory crusher discharging into a
trommel. ‘The coarse rock from the trommel goes through a
smaller gyratory crusher into the bin cotaining the finer rock.
From this bin it is hoisted to a long, rotating cylinder dryer
discharging to the first of a pair of Allis rolls working in
series with necessary screens and elevators. The fine mate-
rial from these rolls is divided among three ball mills of pecu-
liar design. They have a vertical axis bearing arms which
push a number of six inch iron balls around a horizontal run-
way.

There are at present no screens on these, and the product
contains a good deal of troublesome dust or slimes, and some
sand too coarse for successful cyaniding. From the ball
mills a fine set of conveyors carry the dry material to any one
of the leaching tanks. ‘There are six tanks 5% feet deepand
40 feet in diameter, and four tanks 5% feet deep by 30 feet in
diameter, all in the open air; and the necessary solution,
gold and slumptanks. The mill is very badly designed since
the rolls have scarcely capacity for 75 tons per day and the
ball mills were so overworked that much coarse sand passed

1907 | RECENT CHANGES IN GOLD MINING 127

through them. On the other hand, the crushers, elevators,
etc., have a capacity fully four times as great. The mill has
been used by the present management in making cyanide
tests upon the rich ore remaining inthe chimneys. Even
when crushed very fine this fresh unaltered ore can be leach-
ed for a week without apparently giving up more than half
its gold, thus this cyanide plant cannot be used for this ore.

At present the most productive cyanide plant in this State
is the one at the Iola Mine, near Candor, Montgomery
County. The ore, coming from a pretty sharply defined
vein, is either a hard, glassy, white quartz with traces of un-
replaced slate, carrying coarse gold in octahedral crystals;
or soft sugary, white quartz generally richer but not show-
ing visible gold. This ‘‘sugar quartz” has lately been run-
ning from $14.00 to $20.00 per ton. It is crushed in a dilapi-
dated 20 stamp mill where the coarse gold and much of the
fine gold is amalgamated as usual. The tailings are elevated
and are run to the various settling tanks or ‘‘sand boats,”
3 feet wide at one end, 5 feet at the other, 12 feet
long and 3% feet deep, having at the small end a wooden
lattice on the inner side of which a canvass curtain
may be rolled up from the bottom. When the thin tailings
run into this the sand settles out and the fine part or
slimes flow into the slime tanks. As the sand accumulates
the curtain is unrolled so that the overflow is just above the
level of the top of the sand. The other two sand boats, just
above the tanks, are plain boxes 6 feet by 3% by 15 feet. One
end is bored full of holes to let out the slimes. ‘These are
plugged as the level of the sand reaches them.

The wet sand from these boats is shovelled or wheeled into
whichever of the sand tanks may be empty. This shovelling
thoroughly breaks up any water tight layers of slime which
may have formed when the mill was shut down for a short
time, and the thin pulp remaining below the overflow has a
chance tosettle in a layer on top of the sand. It also sup-
plies the needed oxygen to aid the cyanide in dissolving the
gold. The sand tanks were made locally of yellow pine and

128 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [Movember

are 4 feet deep and 20 feet in diameter with the usual
cocoa matting filter in the bottom. When filled to conveni-
ent height, they hold 40 tons of sand. A solution containing
1.4 pounds of potassium cyanide per ton of water is pumped
upon this and drained off through the filter; this solution is
kept circulating as rapidly as possible, keeping the sand
always covered, for three or four days until the sand must be
removed to make room for another batch. ‘Then the solution
is allowed to drain off, after which a little water is added to
displace what solution remains in the damp sand. The sand
is then washed out by a stream of water from a hose through
an opening in the bottom of the tank into a trough or
launder, to a settling pond where the sand settles out and the
water collects to be pumped back again.

The slimes flow from the sand boats to one of the three
agitation tanks 10 feet deep and 20 feet in diameter. Near
the bottom of each of these is a slowly revolving paddle consist-
ing of four well braced oak arms carrying pins. Some of the
surplus water is drained off anda solution carrying 1 pound
of potassium cyanide per ton of water (0.05%) is added.
The agitation continues while the solution and slimes are
drawn off at the bottom to a 4-inch centrifugal pump, thus
thoroughly aerating and mixing it. This process continues
until the tank is needed for more slimes. The solution is

‘then pumped into one of the settling tanks 14x18 feet at a
little lower level. Here the solid matter slowly. settles out

and the clear solution is drawn off. Sometimes the slimes.

are returned for a treatment with a second solution until
they are finally sluiced out to waste.’ The solution from the
sand tank, which now contains the gold, is passed directly to
the zinc boxes; these have six compartments, 2x2x2 feet, with
a side trough and a diaphragm for circulating the solution.
This arrangement allows any one box to be emptied and
cleaned while the solution circulates through the others.
From the zinc boxes the solution flows to the sump tank,
10x20 feet. Here more potassium cyanide is added to replace
what has been consumed until the solution reaches the right

wie kena

—

1907 | RECENT CHANGES IN GOLD MINING 129

strength. This sump tank thus serves for a solution tank,
from which the solution is raised by a small centrifugal
pump to the sand leaching tanks. Most other mills have a
small extra tank at the highest level in which the solution is
made up and from which it flows by gravity to the sand
tanks.

The clear solution from the slime settling tank is stored in
the tank 24x8 feet. From this it flows through an eight com-
partment zinc box like the other one and to the sump and
weak solution tank.

In the zinc boxes zinc from a mass of fine zinc shavings
enters the solution in place of the gold which is precipitated
as a black coating upon the zinc. Each month the zinc in
the boxes is sifted and the fine stuff saved, and the coarse
stuff returned to the box. The deficiency of coarse zinc in
the first box is made up by taking some of it from the second,
which is in turn filled from the third and so on. All the
fresh zinc required is added to the last compartment, and,
since much of the gold sticks to the zinc until it is all dis-
solved, most of the gold slimes are recovered from the first
compartment where precipitation is also most active, as the
solution passing through it contains the largest percentage of
gold.

The gold slimes, or finely divided gold, containing small
scraps of zinc, is melted in a graphite crucible to which a
little nitre is added to oxidize the zinc and cause it to unite
with the borax used as a flux. The melted gold is cast into
bricks and sent to the mint.

All the tanks are in the openair. The pipes are wrapped to
prevent freezing, and there is no trouble except that heavy
rains increase the amount of solution which must be wasted
and so cause a greater loss of potassium cyanide. The
pumps, and the engine for driving them and the agitators,
are housed in. In thesame building is the room containing
the zinc boxes and furnace for melting the bullion. About
4-10 of a pound of potassium cyanide is consumed per ton of
ore. In the ore are no copper minerals or similar sub-
stances to consume cyanide.

130 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ Vovember

Eight pounds of lime are added to each ton of tailings
ou its way to the cyanide plant. This is to cause the
slimes to settle more readily and neutralize any acid which
may be formed from the pyrites in the ore, and which would
otherwise consume cyanide. The chief loss of cyanide is,
therefore, in the solution that is wasted with the wet
slimes.

There is required one solution man at $1.50 a day for
each shift. If one-half of the steam used at the mill is
charged to the cyanide part, the total cost exclusive of inter-
est and depreciation is $0.90 per ton. The tailings from the
cyanide plant contain about $1.00 per tonof gold. Since the
sands from the mill had been carrying $4.86 per ton, there is
a handsome profit in the cyanide plant—about 32.90 per ton
treated. The cost of the plant was from $10,000 to $12,000.
The loss in the tailings could be reduced by a longer treat-
ment of the sands and the intention is to add two more sand
leaching tanks for this purpose.*

At the Montgomery mine, which adjoins the Iola, there is
another cyanide plant for treating tailings from a10 stamp mill.
All of the tanks are square. The stream of tailings is first sepa-
rated into slimes and sands in a pointed box. Near the bot-
tom of this box is a pipe out of which the coarse sand, which
settles most rapidly, flows to the settling tanks, over the
sand tank, while the slimes overflow at the top opposite the
inlet. The slimes are not treated and the sand treatment
does not differ essentially from that at Iola. The mine was
shut down at the time of the visit so no data as to the
cyanide |treatment could be obtained. From the relatively
ereater tank capacity, the sand probably receives a longer
treatment. The solution tanks and zinc boxes are inside the
mill.

There is a new cyanide mill at the Southern Homestake Mine,
13 miles south of Thomasville, near Cox, Randolph County.

*Nore—The data as to the cyanide treatment was mostly obtained from
Mr. W. T. Sawyer, former superintendent, checked as far as possible by
Mr. Jones, the present superintendent.

q
‘
;

ee

at in eee ata

1907] RecENT CHANGES IN GOLD MINING 131

The ore passes over a grizzly, the oversize from which goes
through a Blake crusher, and, with the fines from the grizzly,
are elevated to a trommel screen above a small storage bin.
The oversize from this trommel passes through a pair of cor-
rugated rolls, then back to the same trommel, and so on, until
itis all reduced to sand. The corrugated rolls chattered
badly on account of the coarse feed; and the soft clayey ore
tends to stick them so it will probably be better to use instead a
number of smooth rolls in series.

The fine dry ore is taken by a belt conveyor to one of the
three sheet iron leaching tanks, 6 feet deep and 30 feet in
diameter. It was assumed that the solution would percolate
through the 5% feet of dry crushed ore, even though the
slimes were not removed; but in the actual tests the tanks
were filled only half full. Below the level of these leaching
tanks are zinc boxes and sump tanks; the three solution tanks
are on a trestle outside the main building, covering the leach-
ing tanks.

The property was purchased without adequate sampling
and the work was abandoned after treating 150 tons and find-
ing that the ore averaged only $2.00 a ton. No data as to
time of treatment, strength of solution, etc., was obtained.
The recovery on the three tanks tried was 70, 80 and 83 per
cent respectively. The oré is decomposed rock, occurring in
wide zones and carrying a great deal of clay. No data was
obtained as to the capacity of the mill.

MINING DETAILS (SELF-DUMPING SKIPS, ETC.)

Many of the mines in North Carolina are based upon more
or less flat veins and since most of the ore is hoisted in
buckets, it is customary to sink vertical shafts. When the
mines become deep, this requires expensive cross-cuts to
reach the vein; hence there are many vertical shafts which are
turned upon reaching the vein and not adapted to the use
of a cage or an ordinary style skip. Mr. Geo. E. Price has
overcome this difficulty at the Rudisill Mine, at Charlotte,
Mecklenburg County, by modifying the ordinary skip, and

132 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ Vovember

adapting it to his special needs. The shaft is vertical
for 200 feet and then inclines at an angle of 35°
from the horizontal for 150 feet more. The skip is the
ordinary iron skip, except that the wheels area little larger
than usual to reduce friction on the incline and all have
narrow treads. In the vertical part these wheels run between
two vertical guide timbers. The rope is not over thecenter
of the shaft but toward the dumping side so that when
the skip reaches the top the front wheels run down the
forward curve of the track until they strike the top.
Then the rear wheels swing to the rear in the arc of
a circle. Just before they reach the top of this arc
the nose of the skip strikes a roller which raises the front
wheels sufficiently to bring them to a bearing against the
front vertical guide so that incase of overwinding the skip
rises at the dumping angle and rock cannot be dumped down
the shaft. In this way the skip need wait at the top of
the shaft only long enough for the ore to slide out of it,
which is but a small fraction of a minute.

The ore is dumped from the car on to a_ platform about
3 feet below the level of the rails and the skip is stopped
with its topabout level with this platform and nearly fill-
ing the opening in it. If the output of the mine was a
little greater, Mr. Price would replace the platform by a
small bin, into which the cars could be dumped as they
reach the station and from which the ore could be rapidly
run into a skip through a chute. But since the man that
would be required to operate the gate has ample time to shovel
all the ore into the skip, there would be no labor saving in
the bins and no justification for the expense. For evena small
mine this skip saves the labor of a top man.

In the ordinary vertical shaft the bales of the skips are
fitted with shoes and there are no wheels on the skip which is
unlatched and dumped at the top by rollers striking suitable
curved guides. Such askip has the advantage of needing
only one set of guides and no wheels, but it cannot be operat-
ed around acurve.

—"

Sa

1907] RECENT CHANGES IN GoLD MINING 133

The labor of the top.man is also avoided by a self-dumping
bucket observed at the Haile Gold Mine, South Carolina.
This is an ordinary bucket fitted with guide wheels. ‘The
back wheels are caught by a latch at the dumping place
and turns over when the rope is slacked off. Then the
bucket is raised, the latch is withdrawn by the engineer
and the bucket lowered.

CHAPEL HILL FERNS AND THEIR ALLIES

The accompanying list’of ferns of this region, including an
area of about two milesradius around Chapel Hill, has been
in course of preparation for several years, and is now, in all
probability, very nearly complete. The topography of
Chapel Hill is quite favorable to fern growth, and the num-
ber found here is as large as could be expected in regions free
from limestone.

In his ‘‘Catalogue of the Indigenous and Naturalized
Plants of the State,” by Dr. M. A. Curtis*, there are given
thirty-eight true ferns and eleven fern allies for the State
of North Carolina. Of the species mentioned by him, eigh-
teen ferns and four fern allies occur in Chapel Hill, while two
of the ferns in the following list are not recorded by Curtis
for this State. These are Botrychium obliquum var. dissec-
tum, and Dryopteris Goldieana var. celsa.

The list of our ferns is as follows:

BotrycHIUM oBLIQUUM Mun. (B. ternatum Chapm.).
Ternate Grape fern. Not uncommon in damp, shaded places.

BorTryCHIUM OBLIQUUM VAR. DISSECTUM. Dissected Grape-
fern. Found only once in a low place near Judge’s spring.

BorTryCHIUM VIRGINIANUM (L.) Sw. Virginia Grape-fern.
Rather more common than B. obliquum and occurring in
similar situations.

OsMUNDA SPECTABILIS WILLD. Royal Fern. (Distinct from
O. regalis L. of Europe). Common along small streams.

OsMUNDA CINNAMOMEA L. Cinnamon Fern. Common
along small streams and in low, damp places.

POLYPODIUM VULGARE L. Common Polypody. Very rare.
Known only to occur at Upper Laurel Hill where it covers the
face of a high rock, looking north.

*Geological and Natural History Survey of North Carolina, Part III,
Raleigh, 1867.
134 { November

Seaton. = 1 eal

1907] CHAPEL Hitt, FERNS AND THEIR ALLIES 135

POLYPODIUM POLYPODIOIDES (L.) A. S. Hitchcock. (P.
incanum Sw.). Resurrection Fern. On shaded trunks of
elms and occasionally on rocks; not rare.

PYERIDIUM AQUILINUM (L.) Kuhn. (Pteris aquilina L.)
Bracken or Brake. In dry woods and sometimes in fields.
Common.

ADIANTUM PEDATUM L. Maiden-hair Fern. Found in
three situations; in rich places near the foot of hills looking
north.

CHEILANTHES LANOSA (Michx.) Watt. (C. vestita Sw.)
Hairy Lip-fern. Found only on one rock on northern side of
Morgan’s Creek near Scott’s Hole.

ASPLENIUM PLATYNEURON (L.) Oaks. (A. ebeneum Ait.)
Ebony Spleenwort. Common in woods and in niches of stone
walls.

ASPLENIUM ACROSTICHOIDES Sw. Silvery Spleenwort.
Found only in two clumps near the base of Lone Pine Hill
looking north.

ASPLENIUM FELIX-FOEMINA (L.) Bernh. Lady Fern.
Very common along streams and in damp places.

WooDWARDIA AREOLATA (I,.) Moore. ChainFern. Found
only in a marshy spot about one-half mile south-west of the
University.

ONOCLEA SENSIBILIS L. Seusitive Fern. Scattered here
and there in wet places.

DRYOPTERIS ACROSTICHOIDES (Michx.) Kuntze. Christ-
mas Fern. Abundant along streams and on northern slopes
of hills.

DryoprERIs THELYTERIS (L.) A. Gray. Marsh Shield-
fern. Found only in marsh north of Lone Pine Hill.

DryopTERIS GOLDIEANA (Hook.) A. Gray. var. celSa.
This fern was recently found near the northern foot of Lone
Pine Hill. About eight specimens occurred scattered over a
radius of seventy-five yards, It has not before been recorded
for this State. It was described from Dismal Swamp by
Palmer in the Proceedings of the Biological Society of Wash-
ington, Volume XIII, page 65, 1899. Specimens have since

136 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ November

been found in New York and New Jersey. For this informa-
tion Iam indebted to Professor L. M. Underwood and Mr.
R. C. Benedict of New York, Dr. Underwood considers the
fern a hybrid between D. goldieana and D, marginalis. It is
not described in any of our manuals,

PHEGOPTERIS HEXAGONOPTERA (Michx.) Fée. Beech Fern.
Not uncommon in flat places along small streams,

WoopsIA oBTUSA (Spreng) Torr, Found only on a few
stone walls in town,

The fern allies found here are as follows:

EQUISETUM HYEMALE L, Scouring.rush. Found by Dr,
H,. V, Wilson along Morgan’s Creek, Occurring also along
the Oxford road near Durham,

LYCOPODIUM ALOPECUROIDES L, Club-moss, Growing
only in an open wet place near the spot where Woodwardia
was found,

LycorpoDIuM coMPLANATUM L, Christmas-green, Found
by me only near upper Laurel Hill. Reported from a few
places by others,

SELAGINELLA Apus L. Spring. Rather common among

moss in wet places,
JOUCELILTE

SALISBURY’S PHYSIOGRAPHY.*

COLLIER COBR,

Teachers of physiography in colleges will welcome this book,
not only because it is the first of its kind of college grade,
but also for the large amount of fresh material that it con-
tains and its admirable arrangement, the author being at the
Same time a skilled investigator and a successful teacher.

‘In the preparation of the text,” he tells us, ‘‘the effort has
been to shape it, when practicable, so as to lead the student
into the subject under discussion, rather than to tell him the
conclusions which have been reached by those who have
made the subject their special study.” The author holds
persistently to that idea of physiography which regards the
origin of land forms asits chief problem. This is not the
English idea of physiography, butit is preéminently the Amer-
ican idea. It is the geography which Mackinder of Oxford
defined as the study of the present in the light of the past,
aS distinguished from geology, which is the study of the
past in the light of the present.

If the high school teacher is disappointed that small space
has been given to certain topics that he has associated with
text-books of physical geography, such as minerals and rocks,
and plants and animals, let him remember that in colleges,
where the author purposes the book shall be used, special
courses in these related subjects are given in associated
departments. In fact a strong point of the book is that,

*PrystocrapHy. By Prof. R. D. Salisbury, University of Chicago. 8 vo.
770 pp. American Science Series—Advanced Course. $3.50. New York:
Henry Holt and Company.

1907} 137

138 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ Vovember

with the exception of a few references to physiographic
effects on human lite, scattered through its pages, it presents
physiography as a science associating causes and effects
clearly and forcibly, thus avoiding the mistake made by
many who exalt physiographic control at the expense of a
science deeply interesting for its own sake.

Any study of the origin of land forms involves the study of
both air and water, since air is the medium through which
solar energy is applied to the earth, and water is the greatest
agent in producing effects on the earth’s surface. Though
the greater part of the book is given to land forms, still
273 pages remain for the treatment of the atmosphere, the
ocean, and the earth’s solar relations. The treatment is
essentially dynamic, and the movement in the direction of
the explanation of the origin of the land forms of the earth.
The reader is led to see these forms in the process of becom-
ing what they are, and to anticipate the time when they
shall give way to other forms. ‘The surface of the earth
becomes a stage where physical forces play their part, now
in oue role, now in another, until the land above the sea is
reduced to base level, or rejuvenated by elevation to begina
similar sequence of events, to enter upon a new cycle.

The first chapter of the book introduces the reader to the
chief relief forms of the earth’s crust and the materials out
of which they are made. This general survey places the
problem of the land forms well before the student, and pre-
pares him for the consideration of the agents that have
shaped them. Then follow chapters explaining and discuss-
ing the work of the atmosphere, of ground water, running
water, snow and ice, of waves and currents in the construction
of shore forms, of vulcanism, and the effects of crustal move-
ment, or diastrophism. For the first time does the work of
the atmosphere receiye anything like adequate treatment ina
text-book of physiography. These chapters are followed by
a very excellent generalization and summary of the origin
and distribution of land forms clinching in the minds of the
students the facts that have been brought out and driven
home by varied investigations.

1907 | SALISBURY'S PHYSIOGRAPHY 139

The part played by the atmosphere in the evolution of
surface forms has received a treatment comparable in detail
to that presented by special text-books of meteorology. The
energy derived from the sun is followed through a series of
transformations, in the chapters on atmospheric pressure, the
movement of air currents, and the transportation of water
vapor to its final precipitation upon the earth. The various
elements of climate and the zones of climate receive due
attention. In these chapters the composition of the atmos-
phere, the air in its life relations, the distribution of temper-
atures over the earth, and the philosophy of the movements of
the air are treated in an interesting and original manuer.
The chapter on the storms of the United States is especially
detailed and iilustrated by a complete series of isothermal
charts and weather maps. Following the chapters on the
atmosphere, six chapters covering fifty pages are given to
the discussion of the principal facts of oceanography.

The book contains more than seven hundred illustrations,
forty-three of which are sections of topographic maps; and of
the others more than half are hali-tones from excellent photo-
graphs. This can by no means replace field-work but serves
rather to invite to work out of doors; for the author says in
his preface: ‘‘Another phase of work which should not be
neglected is work out of doors. ‘This must form a part of the
work of every strong course in this subject. Directions for
local field-work cannot be outlined profitably in a text-book,
for the work must be shaped with reference to the specific
locality where the subject is studied. Both field-work and
map work should have for their aim the application of the
principles studied, in such a way as tomake the subject vital.
The aim of every laboratory exercise carried out in connec-
tion with this subject should be the same, and any laboratory
work which does not either illustrate and enforce principles,
or lead to them, is not worth development. The student
who cannot apply what he has learned in the class-room to
to his out-of-door surroundings, has not secured the maximum
good from his study of the subject.”

140 JOURNAL OF THE MrrcHEL), SOCIETY [ Vovember

At the end of each chapter is a well selected list of topo-
graphic maps, with suggestions as to their use in relation to
the text, and a list of classified and paged references for sup-
plementary reading. These references, even without the
text, would be a most valuable aid to the advanced student or
teacher, as they have been gathered through loug experience
in the class room. The author’s style is pleasing and not too
technical, and the average public school teacher will find the
book an invaluable aid in the teaching of physical geography,
though it was written primarily for the college student.

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

DECEMBER, 1907
VOL. XXIill NO. 4

ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE SPECIES OF SNAKES
AND LIZARDS WHICH ARE FOUND IN
NORTH CAROLINA.

1. Eyelids moveable; external ear present; underparts cov-
ered with numerous scales; limbs present, except in
Ophisaurus. Lizards. 2.

Kyelids immovable; no external ears; underparts covered

-_

with broad band like plates; limbs absent. Snakes. 7.

2. Limbs absent. Length when adult about 2 ft. of which
about two thirds are normally tail. *Glass or Joint Snake.
(Ophisaurus ventralis).

Limbs present. Length when adult 1 ft. or less. 3.

3. Body very smooth and shiny. 4.
Body not very smooth and shiny, scales at least somewhat
rough. 5.

4, Length about 5 inches or less, unstriped. Ground Lizard
(Leiolepisma laterale).
Length over 5 inches or else with lengthwise stripes.
Large adults often unstriped with reddish head. Alue-

*The tail as in all lizards is very easy to break off, and hence a glass
. snake with an injured tail growing afresh, may have the tail quite short.

1907] 141 Printed Feb. 13, 1908

142

6.

“J

ok

10.

JoURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

tailed Lizard, ‘‘Red-headed Scorpion” (Eumeces quin-
guelineatis.)

Back crossbanded, or else throat and sides of belly dark
blue. Scales very rough. Fence Lizard (.Sceloporus
undulatus).

Back not crossbanded, throat not dark blue, scales not
very rough. 6.

Back with lengthwise stripes Sand Swift ‘ Cnemido-
phorus sexlineatus). :
Back unstriped. Color green, brown or blackish. Gyvreen
Lizard, *‘Chameleon” (Anolis carolinensis).

A pit of hollow in the side of head between eye and
nostril. Plates on underside of tail mostly not in pairs.
Head much broader than the neck. Zhe fattlesnakes
and their kin. (family Crotalidae). 8.

No pit on side of head between eye and nostril. Plates
on under side of tail in pairs. Top of head covered
with large plates. 11.

Tail with a rattle. Top of head covered with large
plates. Size small. Rattle small. Ground Faittlesnake
(Szstrurus miliarius).

Tail with a rattle. -Top of head covered with small
scales. Size large, rattle large. 9.

Tail without a rattle. Top of head covered with large
plates. 10.

Markings on back in form of diamond-shaped blotches.
Diamond Rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus).

Markings on back in form of dark, ragged-edged cross
bands, or sometimes when the animal is very dark, wholly
absent. Banded Rattlesnake ( Crotalus horridus).

Top of head blackish brown, colors darker. *Cotton-
mouth ( Ancistrodon piscrvorus).

* The Cottonmouth is continually confused with the large water snakes
of the genus Natrix, which are perfectly harmless.

|

1907 | ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE SNAKES 143

i

12.

16.

LZ.

18.

is

Top of head reddish, colors paler. Copperhead (Ancis-
tron contortrix).

Upper parts unmarked. 12.
Upperparts with evident markings. 22.

Upper parts green. 13.
Upper parts not green. 14.

Scales keeled. Southern Green Snake ( Cyclophis aesti-
wus).

Scales smooth. Vorthern Green Snake (Liopeltis ver-
nalts).

Color of upper parts black. 15.
Color of upper parts some shade of brown. 17.

Snout recurved and keeled. Scales keeled. Black Adder
(Heterodon platyrhinus var. niger).
Snout as usual, not recurved nor keeled. 16.

Scales all smooth. Underparts slaty black except the
throat which is white. Black Snake (Bascanion con-
strictor).

Middle rows of scales faintly keeled. Underparts black-
ish, except for about the front third, which is white.
Chicken Snake ( Coluber obsoletus).

Scales keeled. 18.
Scales smooth. 19.

Size small, under 1 ft. when adult. Brown Snake ( Hal-
dea striatula).

Size large. Coppery red below. Copperdelly (Natrix
f. erythrogastra).

Size large. (Young crossbanded, a foot long when
hatched.) Coachwhtp (Bascanion flagellum).
Size small, under one foot when adult. 20.

+ The scales of a snake are either perfectly smooth or else with a little

ridge down the middle, in the latter case they are said to be keeled.

144

20.

21.

nN
No

nN
o>)

JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

Under parts reddish. Ground Snake (Carphophiops
amoenus).
Under parts whitish or yellowish. 21.

Top of head darker than back. Color of back reddish
brown. Brown-headed Snake (Rhadinaea flavilata).
Top of head same color as back. Color of upper parts
grayish brown. *Valertas Snake ( Virginia valeriae).

Markings confined to red and black blotches on the sides.
Under parts red. Size large, scales smooth. Horn Snake
(Farancia abacura).

Markings on upper parts confined to a light or dark
cross band on neck. 23.

Back striped or spotted or both. 24.

Under parts white, crossband on neck black. Crowned
Tantilla ( Tantilla coronata).

Under parts reddish, crossband on neck white. Brown
Snake ( Haldea striatula), some young specimens.

Under parts yellow, spotted with black, crossband on
neck, yellow. Aingnecked Snake (Diadophis punctatus).

Body striped lengthwise. 25.

Body not striped lengthwise. 31.

Scales keeled. 26.

Scales, or at least most of the lower rows, smooth. 30.
Under parts with dark stripes. Willow Snake (Natrix
leberis).

Under parts not striped. 27.

Size small, under 1 ft. when adult. No side stripes but
only one down the middle of back. 28.

Size larger, adults over two feet in length. Side stripes
usually present. 29.

Under parts red. Three pale spots on nape. /tedbel-
lied Snake (Storeria occipitomaculata).

*Valerias Snake usually has small blackish dots on back, but these are
not very conspicuous.

ee

7907 | ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE SNAKES 145

29.

30.

oan

32.

SRE

34.

36.

Under parts whitish. Not three pale spots on nape.
Defkays Snake (Storeria dekay?).

Side stripes on third and fourth rows of scales, count-
ing from belly plates; no square black spots between
stripes of side and that on back. Stim Garter Snake
(Eutaenza sirtalis).

Side stripes on second and third rows of scales. Square
black spots between stripes. Garter Snake (utaenia
strialis).

Three red stripes on a darker ground. Underparts red,
spotted with black. Hoop Snake (Abastor erythro-
grammus).

Four dark stripes on a lighter ground. Underparts yel-
lowish. Striped Chicken Snake ( Coluber guadrivittatus).

Body above with crossbands of red, black, and white
(or yellow). 32.
Body not colored as above. 34.

Every alternate crossbar yellow. Coral Adder (laps
fulvius).
Every alternate crossbar black. 33.

Snout narrow, under parts white. Red Snake (Cemo-
phora coccinea).

Snout rounded, under parts with black markings. ed
King Snake ( Ophibolus dotiatus coccineus).

Scales all smooth, 33.
Scales keeled, 42.

Black with narrow white crossbars forking on the sides.
King Snake ( Ophibolus getulus).
Not as above. 36.

Underparts with squarish black spots. 37.
Underparts not with squarish black spots. 38,

146

SES

40.

41.

44,

JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

Head large, broader than the neck. Anal plate divided.
Spotted Racer. Fat Snake (Coluber guttatus).

Head small, not broader than neck. Anal plate undi-
vided. Milk Snake (Ophibolus doliatus triangulus).

Head large, broader than neck. Anal plate divided. 39.
Head small, not broader than neck. Anal undivided.
Brown Kmg Snake ( Ophibolus rhombomaculatus).

tScales in 25 or 27 rows. 40.
Scales in 19 rows. 41.

Underparts yellowish. Striped Chicken Snake, young.
Underparts slaty black behind, whitish in front. Chicken
Snake, young.

SUpper lip plates 7 on each side. lack Snake, young.
Upper lip plates 8o0n each side. Coachwhip, young.

Snout recurved and keeled. 43.
Snout not recurved and keeled. 44.

Small plate just behind snout plate with several small
scales round it. Snout more strongly recurved and
keeled. Hognosed Snake ( Heterodon simus).

Small plate just ‘behind snout plate without any small
scales round it. Snout less strongly keeled and recurved.

Spreading Adder (H. platyrhinus).

Anal plate undivided. Ground color whitish with
dark spots on back, ull Snake (Pityophis melanoleu-
cug’s).

Anal plate divided. 45.

+Anal plate is the plate immediately in front of the vent, which in most
of our forms is divided longitudinally into two pieces, but in some it is
undivided.

+Rows of scales are counted diagonally beginning with the row just above
the belly plates and are usually uneven in number.

§The upper labials or lip plates are the plates along the edge of the
upper lips, excluding the plate at tip of snout.

1907 | ARTIFICIAL Key TO THE SNAKES 147

45. Only the middle rows of scales keeled, size small.
*Chicken Snake, young.

All rows of scales strongly keeled. 46.

46. Spots on back forming crossbars with no alternating
spots on sides. Southern Water Snake (Natrix fasciata
Jasciata).

Spots on back forming crossbars on front part of body,
and on hinder part alternating with spots on the sides.
Common Water Snake (Natrix fasciata Sipedon).

Spots on back alternating with spots on sides from head
to tail. Pred Water Snake (Natrix taxispilota).

NOTES ON THE SPECIES INCLUDED IN THE KEY.

The following species are poisonous: The three species of
Rattlesnake (Ground, Banded, and Diamond Rattlesnakes),
the Copperhead, and the Cottonmouth, and lastly the Coral
Adder, which last belongs to the same group of snakes as the
deadly cobra of India. The following harmless snakes are
often confused with poisonous species: the Spreading Adder
with the Copperhead; the harmless water snakes with the
cottonmouth, both forms being indiscriminately known as
water moccasins; and thé red snake and red king snake with
the coral adder.

A few of the species listed have not yet been recorded from
North Carolina, these are the coral adder, northern green
snake, coachwhip, and milk snake, and we have only one
unsatisfactory record of the bull snake.

Of the species included in the key, the following have not
yet been taken in this state outside of the lower austral life
zone, whose northern boundary in this state appears to be
approximately a line drawn from Norfolk through Raleigh,
and thence to Charlotte:

*The Southern Chicken Snake (Coluber obsoletus confinis) may possibly
occur, in which case the keys for the young of the Chicken Snake would
apply to this also. I do not know how the young of the two forms would
be distinguished.

148 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [| December

Glass Snake, at Raleigh, Garner, Southport, Beaufort.

Green Lizard, at Southport, Wilmington, Beaufort, Lake
Ellis, Tryon, and Lumberton.

Hoop Snake, at Newberne, Kinston, Wilmington, Lake
Ellis.

Horn Snake, at Newberne, Wilmington, Lake Ellis.

Brown headed Snake at Fort Macon.

Hognosed Snake in Wake Co., at Goldsboro and Lake
Ellis.

Spotted Racer at Raleigh, Lake Ellis and Washington.

Striped Chicken Snake, at Newberne and Cape Hatteras.

Red King Snake, at Raleigh,

Red Snake at Raleigh.

Pied Water Snake at Kinston, Avoca, Newberne and Lake
Ellis.

Southern Water Snake at Newberne, Wilmington, and
Lake Ellis.

Crowned Tantilla at Raleigh.

Cottonmouth at Newberne, Wilmington, Lake Ellis, Cape
Hatteras, Beaufort, Washington, and Raleigh.

Ground Rattlesnake, at Wilmington, and Beaufort.

Diamond Rattlesnake at Havelock below Newberne.

Records of the Coral Adder, Coachwhip, Milk Snake,
Northern Green Snake, and Bull Snake are very much desired
as also records of any other species of snakes and lizards,
particularly those confined to the lower austral zone.

Of the four species listed as possibly occurring in the state,
the Coral Adder and Coachwhip are confined to the lower
austral zone, and should be looked for in the southeastern
portion of the state, while the Milk Snake is most apt to be
found in the northwest corner. The Northern Green Snake
is apt to occur anywhere in the state but is not likely
to be common anywhere, and the Bull Snake, of which we
have adoubtful record from Wake Co. is liable to occur in
the pine woods of the region near the coast.

The other species of snakes and lizards probably occur
throughout the entire state, except in portions of the moun-

1907 | ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE SNAKES 149

tain region, but our actual records are few and scattered.
Persons having specimens of any reptile that they are not

well acquainted with, would do well to communicate with the

Curator of the State Museum at Raleigh, or with myself.

C. S. BRIMLEY,
Newberne Ave., cor. Tarboro St.,
Raleigh, N. C.

(Information is also desired concerning the occurrence of
the alligator in the state and also as to the occurrence of the
species of soft shelled turtles in the Mississippi drainage as
well as in the southeast of the state, the two different parts in
which they may possibly occur.)

THE SALAMANDERS OF NORTH CAROLINA

Cc. S. BRIMLEY

Salamanders are animals which are commonly confused
with lizards and which mainly resemble them in external ap-
pearance. Their true affinities, in spite of the possession of
limbs, are however with the fishes, with which group they
and the other amphibians are sometimes combined under the
name of Icthyopsida.

They differ externally from from all our lizards irthe pos-
session of a moist skin without scales, while all our lizards
have a dry scaly skin. The skin in salamanders and other
amphibians (frogs and toads) is always moist, and used to
some extent (wholly in many species) as an organ of respira-
tion.

The forms which occur or are liable to occur in this state
may be recognized by the following key.

KEY TO THE SALAMANDERS OCCURING OR LIABLE TO OCCUR IN
NORTH CAROLINA

1. Adults with with external gills, 2.
Adults without external gills, 5.

2. Hind limbs absent, 3.
Hind limbs present. Toes 4 on both hind and fore-
feet, 4.

3. Toes 4. Size large. Great Siren (Siren lacertina).
Toes 3. Sizesmall. Lzttle Stren (Pseudobranchus striatus).

4. Brown with darker spots. Water Dog (Vecturus mac-
ulatus).
150 {| December

1907 | THE SALAMANDERS OF NortH CAROLINA 151

6.

10.

11.

12.

Pale unspotted. Southern Water Dog (Necturus punc-
tatus).

Adults with a rounded opening on each side of neck, 6.
Adults without a rounded opening on each side of
neck, 7.

9

Body eel-shaped, with rudimentary limbs. Toes 2 or 3
each on both fore and hind feet. Dztch Kel (Amphi-
uma means).

Body stout, salamander shaped. Toes 4 on fore, 5 on
hind feet. Hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleghaniensts).

Tongue mushroom shaped, i. e. a circular disk on a
central stalk, 8.
Tongue not attached by a central stalk only, 15.

Toes on hind feet 4. Size very small, yellowish brown.
Dwarf Salamander (Manculus quadridigitatus).
Toes on hind feet 5. (Genus Spelerpes), 9.

pCostal erooves, 13\or 14.) ‘10.
Costal grooves 15 to 17. 13..

Tail about as long as rest of body. Yellow with a dark
line along each side of back. Underparts unmarked.
Striped Salamander (S. bilineatus).

Tail 1 1-2 to 2 times as long as body. 11.

Color vermilion red, with many brown spots. Tail
spotted, not barred. Spotted tailed Trition (S. maculi-
caudus).

Color yellow. 12.

Underparts marbled with black. Back with a black
stripe down middle and another on each side. Ao/-
brook’s Triton (S. guttolineatus).

Underparts unmarked. Back and sides with irregular
black spots. Long-tailed Salamander (S. longicauda).

*Costal grooves are grooves on the sides indicating where the ribs are,

152

2.

14.

1

16.

ihe

18.

19,

JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

*Upper jaw bearing on its margin, immediately below
each nostril, a prominent tubercule. Color light choc-
olate brown, spotted with brown. Underparts unmarked.
Daniel’s Salamander (S. danzelsz).

Upper jaw bearing no such tubercle. 14.

Color red of varying shades spotted above or below
with black or both. ed Triton (\S. ruber).

Color yellowish or purplish brown above, irregularly
blotched with gray. Purple Salamander (S. porphy-
riticus ).

Head with three longitudinal grooves. Underparts yel-
low or red below with black dots. 16.
Head without longitudinal grooves. 17.

Each side with a row of red spots, each spot surrounded by
a blackring. American Newt (Diemyctylus viridescens).
Each side with a series of black bordered red lines,
replacing the black ringed spots. Wrlmington Newt
(D. v. vittatus).

Salamanders with rather long toes on all four feet, the
outer and inner ones well developed. Tail compressed.
(Genus Ambystoma). 18.
Salamanders with shorter toes, the outer or inner toes
or both usually reduced in size or rudimentary. Tail
not much compressed. 26.

Costal grooves 10. Form short and stout. Color black-
ish brown with gray, lichen like markings. Mole Sala-
mander (A. talpordeum),

Costal grooves more than 10. 19.

Costal grooves usually 11. 20.
Costal grooves 14. 23.

*Similar tubercles occur more or less frequently in Manculus quadridi-
gitaus, Sp. bilineatus, Sp. guttolineatus and regularly in Sp. maculicauda,

7907 } THE SALAMANDERS OF Nortu CAROLINA 153

20.

nN
Ny

23.

24.

Bluish black with gray or white blotches or crossbars
on the upper parts of head, body and tail, usually
about 12 or 14 in all. Underparts unmarked. A/arbled
Salamander (A. opacum).

Not as above. 21.

Black with a series of large round yellow spots down
each side of back. A strong dorsal groove. Spotted
Salamander (A. punctatum).

Lead colored with one or two series of small yellow
Spots along sides. No dorsal groove, size small.
Smaller Spotted Salamauder (A. conspersum).

Not as above. 22.

Dark brown, yellowish below. No markings. Sofe’s
Salamander (A. Sopeanum).

Olive brown, yellowish below. Limbs banded, tail
spotted. A few ill-defined yellowish spots above. TZwo
colored Salamander (A. bicolor).

Markings grayish or whitish. 24.
Markings brown or yellow. 25.

Olive brown or blackish with pale or bluish spots, these
Sometimes absent. /efferson’s Salamander (A, jefferson-
zanum) .

Black with a narrow gray line between each pair of
costal folds, these either crossing the back undivided
to meet their fellows from the opposite side or forking
to meet a similiar fork from the other side. Under-
parts thickly speckled with gray. Banded Salamander
(A. cingulatus).

Tail very long, much longer than head and body. Ohzo
Salamander (A. xiphias).

Tail about as long as head and body. Color varying
from uniform brown to yellow, but usually spotted.
Tiger Salamander (A. tigrinum).

Toes on hind feet 4. Underparts with dots like ink
spots. Scaly Salamander (Hemidactylium scutatum).
Toes on hind feet 5, 27. .

154

bo
jo)

30.

SL:

33.

34,

JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

Head with enlarged pores, which give it a pitted ap-
pearance. Underparts usually with black dots. Sides
with dark longitudinal stripes. Margined Salamander
(\Stereochilus marginatus).

Not as above. 28.

Tail compressed and finned at least for the apical two
thirds. 29.
Tail rounded. 32.

Color wholly black above and below. Slack Triton
(Desmognathus nigra).
Color not all black. 30.

Snout very flat, broad and depressed. Yellowish buff,
thickly marked above with confluent black blotches.
Underparts unmarked. Moore's Triton (Leurognathus
marmoratus ).

Snout more or less arched. 31.

Skin of head granulated. Underparts usually more
or less uniform slate color. Size rather large. Moun-
tain Triton (Desmognathus quadrimaculatus).

Skin of head not granulated. Underparts pale. Brown
Triton (Desmognathus fusca).

Color brownish yellow, often spotted. 2¢/low Salaman-
der (Desmognathus ochrophea) .*
Color blackish or plumbeous. (Genus Plethodon.) 33.

Color lead-colored with a chestnut red dorsal band, size
small. Medbacked Satamander (P. erythronotus).

Color uniform lead color. Plumbeous Salamander P.
é. cinereus).

Color black with various markings. 34.

Black with red legs. Sherman Salamander (P. Sher-
mant).

*All the species of the the genus Desmognathus haye a peculiar physiog-
nomy which is very characteristic, but not easy to describe.

1907 | THE SALAMANDERS OF NortH CAROLINA 155

Black with an orange yellow stripe on sides of head
and neck. Jordan Salamander (P. jordant).

Black with bluish white blotches and specks, occasion-
aly unspotted. Stimy Salamander (P. glutinosus).
Black with yellowish green blotches of irregular form
on back and sides. Gronzy Salamander (P. aeneus).

Of the above species the following have not yet been taken
in the state: Little Siren, Spotted-tailed Triton, Long-tailed
Salamander, Smaller spotted Salamander, Cope’s Salamander
Two-colored Salamander, Banded Salamander, Ohio Sala-
mander, Scaly Salamander, Jordan Salamander, Bronze Sala-
mander. Most of these however may possibly occur, and
some of them are almost certain to be secured with more
careful and complete collecting.

The species known to occur in the State have been collected
in the following localities:

Great Siren. Craven Co., New Hanover Co.

Water Dog. Wake.

Southern Water Dog. New Hanover.

Ditch Eel. Wake, Edgecombe, Dare, Bertie and Craven.

Hellbender. Yancey.

Dwarf Salamander. Wake, Lenoir.

Striped Salamander. Wake, Buncombe, Yancey, Mitchell
and Forsyth.

Holbrook’s Triton. Wake, Buncombe, Forsyth, and valley
of French Broad.

Daniel’s Salamander. Yancey.

Red Triton. Wake, Buncombe, Mitchell, Carteret, Yan-
cey, Burke, Orange, Wayne, Forsyth and Henderson.

Purple Salamander. Mitchell.

American Newt. Wake, Henderson, Lenoir.

Wilmington Newt. New Hanover.

Mole Salamander. Valley of French Broad.

Marbled Salamander. Wake, Edgecombe, Guilford, Col-
umbus, Forsyth, Lenoir.

Spotted Salamander. Wake.

156 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [{ December

Tiger Salamander. Moore.

Jefferson Salamander. Mitchell.

Redbacked Salamander. Mitchell, Pitt (same localities
for Plumbeous S$).

Margined Salamander. Craven.

Black Triton. Mitchell.

Moore’s Salamander. Grandfather Mt.

Mountain Salamander. Yancey, Mitchell, Henderson.

Brown Triton. Wake, Craven, Forsyth, Lenoir.

Yellow Triton. Yancey, Mitchell.

Sherman Salamander. Nantahala Mt.

Slimy Salamander. Whole State.

A KEY TO THE SPECIES OF FROGS AND TOADS

nN

Oo

1907)

LIABLE TO OCCUR IN NORTH CAROLINA

Cc. S. BRIMLEY

Upper jaw without any teeth. 2.

Upper jaw with teeth. 5.

Skin smooth. Size small. Snout pointed. No para-
toid glands (just behind ear). Hind feet not webbed.
Toothless Frog (/:ngystoma carolinense).

Skin warty. Paratoids large. Hind feet little webbed.

9

Head with bony ridges above. Toads. 3.
Size small, length of head and body one inch. Skin
very rough. Bony ridges turning inward almost at
right angles just back of the eyes. Dwarf Toad (Bufo
Guercicus ).

Size larger, adults about 3 or 4 inches long, Skin not so
rough. Bony ridges on top of head not turning abruptly
inward back of eyes. 4.

Bony ridges ending in a knob behind. Southern Toad
(B. lentiginosus).

Bony ridges not ending in a knob behind. Common
Toad (BP. l. americanus).

Paratoids present. Hind feet webbed. Heel with a flat,
sharp-edged spur. Solitary Spadefoot Scaphiopus hol-
brookt).

Paratoids absent. No sharp edged spur on heel. 6.
Fingers and toes dilated at their tips, this dilation
forming a viscous disk. Tree frogs. 7.

Fingers and toes not much dilated at tips. 13,

157

158

10.

A.

12.

14.

15.

16.

JoURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

Back with a dark x-shaped mark, size small. Peeper
(Hyla pickering?).

Back marked or not, but if marked, the markings do
not form an x-shaped mark. 8.

Back of thigh not marked with yellow spots or varie-
gations. 9.
Back of thigh with yellow spots or variegations. 11.

A yellow band on upper lip and sides of body, sharply .
defined above and below. Back with minute yellowish
spots. Carolina Tree Frog (Hyla cinerea).
Yellow or white band on sides not sharply defined
above and below. 10. |

Size large, feet edged with yellow. Georgia Tree
Frog (H. gratiosa).
Size small, feet not edged with yellow. Sguzrrel Tree
Frog (H. squirella).

Size large, skin of back rough. A light spot on upper
jaw just below eye. Common Tree Frog (H. versicolor).
No light spot below eye. 12.

A plum colored line along sides of body with yellow
spots below it. Anderson's Tree Frog (H. andersonz).
No yellow spots on sides. Pe woods Tree Frog (A.
Jemoralis).

Feet unwebbed, size small. (Genus Chorophilus). 14.
Feet more or less webbed. 15.

Skin of upper surface granulated. Chorus Frog (C.
nigritus and subspecies).

Skin of upper surface smooth, a dark patch on ear.
Smooth Chorus Frog (C. occidentalis).

Size small. Skin above warty. A dark triangle be-
tween eyes. Cricket Frog (Acris gryllus).
Size larger. Skin above smooth. 16.

A ridge of raised skin along each side of back. 17.
No narrow ridge of raised skin along side of back. 19.

1907 | SPECIES OF Frocs AND TOADS 159

17. A black ear patch. Wood Frog (Rana sylvatica).
No black ear patch. 18.

18. Fold of skin down each side of back white. Back with
large dark spots. Leopard Frog (Rana pipiens).
Fold of skin down each side of back the same color as
back. Back with a few small dark spots or none.
Spring Frog (Rana clamata).

19. Back with large dark spots in two rows. Size medium,
Pickerel Frog ( Rana palustris).
Back with irregular dark spots or none. Size large.
Bullfrog (Rana catesbiana).
Sides with two light brown longitudinal bands. Cope’s
Frog (Rana virgatipes).

Of the species included in the key the following have not
yet to my knowledge been recorded from from North Caro-
lina: Anderson’s Tree Frog, Georgia Tree Frog, Smooth
Chorus Frog, and Southern Toad.

The other species have been taken in the following local-
ities:

Toothless Frog. Wake, Johnston and Wayne Co’s.

Dwarf Toad. Lenoir and Carteret.

Common Toad. Forsyth, Wake, Jackson, Craven, Lenoir
and Wayte.

Solitary Spadefoot. Wake.

Peeper. Wake, Mitchell, Wayne, Johnston, Guilford.®

Carolina Tree Frog. Lenoir and Dare.

Squirrel Tree Frog. Dare, Craven, Brunswick.

Pine woods Tree Frog. Craven and New Hanover.

Common Tree Frog. Wake, Wayne, Forsyth Pitt.

Chorus Frog. Guilford and Wake.

Cricket Frog. Wake, Craven, Wayne, Forsyth, Guilford.

Wood Frog. Lenoir.

Pickerel Frog. Wake, Mitchell, Lenoir.

Leopard Frog. Wake, Craven, Edgecombe, Dare.

Spring Frog. Craven, Wake, Forsyth, Guilford, Mitchell.

Bullfrog. Wake, Craven, Edgecombe.

Cope’s Frog. Craven.

160 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | December

These keys (to snakes ‘and lizards, salamanders, and to
toads and frogs) have been prepared with the idea of giving
intelligent persons without special knowledge on the subject
an opportunity of identifying our native forms of these
groups. The keys must not be expected to be infallible
though I have endeavored to make them as accurate as
possible.

|
|
)
|
|

ON SOME PHENOMENA OF COALESCENCE AND
REGENERATION IN SPONGES:

BY H. V. WILSON

I

In a recent communication I described some degenerative
and regenerative phenomena in sponges and pointed out that
a knowledge of these powers made it possible for us to grow
sponges in a new way. The gist of the matter is that sili-
cious sponges when kept in confinement under proper condi-
tions degenerate in such a manner that while the bulk of the
sponge dies, the cells in certain regions become aggregated
to form lumps of undifferentiated tissue. Such lumps or plas-
modial masses, which may be exceedingly abundant, areoften
of a rounded shape resembling gemmules, more especially the
simpler gemmules of marine sponges (Chalina, ¢. 2.), and
were shown to possess in at least one form (Stylotella) full
regenerative power. When isolated they grow and differen-
tiate, producing perfect sponges. I described moreover a
simple method by which plasmodial masses of the same
appearance could be directly produced (in Microciona). The
sponge was kept in aquarium until the degenerative process
had begun. It was then teased with needles so as to liberate
cells and cell agglomerates, These were brought together
with the result that they fused and formed masses similar in
appearance to those produced in this species when the sponge
remains quietly in aquarium. At the time I was forced to

1Reprinted from JoURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY, VOL. v, No. 2., and
published with the permission of Hon. Geo. M. Bowers, U. S.° Com-
missioner of Fisheries.

1907) 161

162 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

leave it an open question whether the masses of teased tissue
were able to regenerate the sponge body.

During the past summer’s work at the Beaufort Laboratory”
I again took up this question and am now in a position to
state that the dissociated cells of silicious sponges after
removal from the body will combine to form syncytial masses
that have power to differentiate into new sponges. In Micro-
ciona, the form especially worked on, nothing is easier than
to obtain by this method hundreds of young sponges with
well developed canal system and flagellated chambers. How
hardy sponges produced in this artificial way are and how
perfectly they will differentiate the characteristic skeleton,
are questions that must be left for more prolonged experimen-
tation.

Taking up the matter where it had been left at the end of
the preceding summer, I soon found that it was not neces-
sary to allow the sponge to pass into a degenerative state,
but that the fresh and normal sponge could be used from
which to obtain the teased out cells. Again in order to get
the cells in quantity and yet asfree as possible from bits of
the parent skeleton, I devised a substitute for the teasing
method. The method adopted is rough but effective.

Let me briefly describe the facts for Microciona. This
species (M. prolifera Verr.) in the younger state is incrust-
ing. As it grows older it throws up lobes and this may go
so far that the habitus becomes bushy. The skeletal frame-
work consists of strong horny fibers with embedded spicules.
Lobes of the sponge are cut into small pieces with scissors
and then strained through fine bolting cloth such as is used
for tow nets. A square piece of cloth is folded like a bag
around the bits of sponge and is immersed in a saucer of fil-
tered sea-water. While the bag is kept closed with the fin-
gers of one hand it is squeezed between the arms of a small
pair of forceps. The pressure and the elastic recoil of the

21 am indebted to the director of the station, Mr. H. D. Aller, for his
kindly aid in supplying all facilities negded in the course of my inyesti-
gation.

1907 | SomE PHENOMENA IN SPONGES 163

skeleton break up the living tissue of the sponge into its con-
stituent cells, and these pass out through the pores of the
bolting cloth into the surrounding water. The cells, which
pass out in such quantity as to present the appearance of red
clouds, quickly settle down over the bottom of the saucer like
a fine sediment. Enough tissue is squeezed out to cover the
bottom well. The cells display amoeboid activities and
attach to the substratum. Moreover they begin, at once to
fuse with one another. After allowing time for the cells to
settle and attach, the water is poured off and fresh sea-water
added. The tissue is freed by currents of the pipette from
the bottom and is collected in the center of the saucer.
Fusion between the individual cells has by this time gone on
to such an extent that the tissue now exists in the shape of
minute balls or cell conglomerates of a more or less rounded
shape looking to the eye much like small invertebrate eggs.
Microscopic examination shows that between these little
masses free cells also exist, but the masses are constantly
incorporating such cells. The tissue in this shape is easily
handled. It may be sucked up to fill a pipette and then
strewn over cover glasses, slides, bolting cloth, watch glasses,
etc. The cell conglomerates which are true syncytial masses
throw out pseudopodia all over the surface and neighboring
conglomerates fuse together to form larger masses, some
rounded, some irregular. The details of later behavior vary,
being largely dependent on the amount of tissue which is
deposited in a spot, and on the strength of attachment
between the mass of tissue and the substratum.

Decidedly the best results are obtained when the tissue has
been strewn rather sparsely on slides and covers. The syn-
cytial masses at first compact and more or less rounded, flat-
ten out, becoming incrusting. They continue to fuse with
one another and thus the whole cover glass may come to be
occupied by a single incrustation, or there may be in the end
several such. If the cover glass is examined at intervals, it
will be found that differentiation is gradually taking place.
The dense homogeneous syncytial mass first develops at

164 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

the surface a thin membrane with underlying connective tis-
sue (collenchyma). Flagellated chambers make their appear-
ance in great abundance. Canals appear as isolated spaces
which come to connect with one another. Short oscular tubes
with terminal oscula develop as vertical projections from the
flat incrustation. If the incrustation be of any size it pro-
duces several such tubes. The currents from the oscula are
easily observed, and if the cover glass be mounted in an
inverted position on a slide the movements of the flagella of
the collar cells may be watched with a high power (Zeiss 2
mm.). This degree of differentiation is attained in the
course of six or seven. days when the preparations are kept in
laboratory aquaria (dishes in which the water is changed
answer about as well as running aquaria). Differentiation
goes on more rapidly when the preparation is hung in the
open harbor in a live-box (a slide preparation inclosed in a
coarse wire cage is convenient). Sponges reared in this way
have been kept for a couple of weeks. The currents of water
passing through them are certainly active and the sponges
appear to be healthy. In such a sponge spicules are present,
but some of these have unquestionably been carried over from
the parent body along with the squeezed out cells.

The old question of individuality may receive a word here.
Microciona is one of that large class of monaxonid sponges
which lack definite shape and in which the number of oscula
is correlated simply with the size of the mass. While we
may look on such a mass from the phylogenetic standpoint
aS a corm, we speak of it as an individual. Yet it is an indi-
vidual of which with the stroke of a knife we can make two.
Or conversely it is an individual which may be made to fuse
with another, the two forming one. To such a mass the ordi-
nary idea of the individual is not applicable. It is only a
mass large or small having the characteristic organs and tis-
sues of the species but in which the shape of the whole and
the number of the organs are indefinite. As with the adult
so with the lumps of regenerative tissue. They have no defi-
niteness of shape or size, and their structure is only definite

ae ae ---~ ——

ee

7907 | SomE PHENOMENA IN SPONGES 165

in so far as the histological character of the syncytial mass is
fixed for the species. A tiny lump may metamorphose into
a sponge, or may first fuse with many such lumps, the aggre-
gate also producing but a single sponge although a larger
one. Ina word we are not dealing with embryonic bodies of
complicated organization but with a reproductive or regener-
ative tissue which we may start on its upward path of differ-
entiation in almost any desired quantity, A striking illus-
tration of this nature of the material is afforded by the fol-
lowing experiment. The tissue in the shape of tiny lumps
was poured out in such wise that it formed continuous sheets
about one millimeter thick. Such sheets were then cut into
pieces, each about one cubic millimeter. These were hung
in bolting cloth bags in an outside live-box. Some of the
pieces in spite of such rough handling metamorphosed into
functional sponges.

Even where the embryonic bodies of sponges have a fixed
structure and size, as in the case of the ciliated larva, the
potential nature as displayed in later development, is not
fixed in the matter of individuality. Sucha body may form
a single individual or may fuse with some of its fellows to
form a larger individual differing from the one-larva sponge
only in size. Itis then in spite of its definiteness of shape
and size, essentially like a lump of regenerative tissue in that
whether it develops into a whole sponge or a part of asponge
depends not on its own structure but on whether it is given
a good opportunity of fusing with a similar mass. A _ paral-
lel case to the coalescence of larve is afforded by the gem-
mules of fresh water sponges. Mr. M. E. Henriksen in a
manuscript account submitted to me a year ago, describes the
fusion of gemmules to form a single sponge.

In the preceding description I have passed over the question
as to the precise nature of the cells which combine to form
the masses of regenerative tissue. On this point as on the
histological details in general I hope to have more to say
later. Nevertheless the phenomena are so simple that obser-
yation of the living tissue reveals much, probably indeed all

166 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

that is of fundamental importance. If a fairly dense drop of
the squeezed out tissue be mounted at once and examined with
a high power (Zeiss 2 mm., comp. oc. 6), the preparation is
seen to consist of fluid (sea-water) with a few spicules and
myriads of separate cells. The cells fall into three classes.

1 The most conspicuous and abundant are spheroidal,
reddish, densely granular, and about 84 in diameter. These
cells which can be nothing but the unspecialized, amoeboid
cells of the mesenchyme (amoebocytes or archzocytes), put
out hyaline pseudopodia that are sometimes elongated, more
often rounded and blunt.

2 There is also a great abundance of partially trans-
formed collar cells, each consisting of an elongated body with
slender flagellum. The cell is without the collar, the latter
doubtless having been retracted. In the freshly prepared tis-
sue the flagella are vibratile, the cells moving about. Soon
however the flagellum ceases to vibrate.

3. The third class is not homogeneous. In it I include
more or less spheroidal cells ranging from the size of the
granular cells down to much smaller ones. Many of these are
completely hyaline, while others consist of hyaline proto-
plasm containing one or a few granules.

Fusion of the granular cells begins immediately and in a
few minutes time most of them have united to form small
conglomerate masses which at the surface display both blunt
and elongated pseudopodia. ‘These masses soon begin to
incorporate the neighboring collar and hyaline cells. One
sees collar cells sticking fast by the end of the long flagellum
to the conglomerate mass. Other collar cells are attached to
the mass by short flagella. Still again only the body of the
collar cell projects from the mass while there is no sign of
flagellum. Similarly spheroidal hyaline cells of many sizes
are found in various stages of fusion with the granular con-
glomerate. In such a preparation the space under the cover
glass is soon occupied by innumerable masses or balls of the
kind just described, between which continue to lie abundant
free cells, some collar cells, others hyaline. Practically all

1907] SomE PHENOMENA IN SPONGES 167

the granular cells go to make up the balls. The play of pseu-
dopodia at the periphery of such balls, which results in the
incorporation of free cells and in the fusion of balls to form
larger masses, is easily watched. Along with such a cover
glass preparation it is convenient to have some of the
squeezed-out tissue ina watch glass of sea-water. In the
watch glass preparation it is instructive to watch with a two-
thirds or one-half objective the fusion of the cell conglomer-
ates to form masses like those strewn on covers, slides, etc.

These observations on the early steps in the formation of
the masses of regenerative tissue make it plain that such
masses are composed chiefly of the spheroidal, granular cells
(amoebocytes or archezocytes), but that nevertheless other
cells, collar cells and more or less hyaline cells also
enter into their composition. I may recall the fact that in
the formation of regenerative masses in a degenerating
sponge,’ the evidence from sections, which is the only evi-
dence available in the case, points to the conclusion that the
collar cells help to form the syncytial tissue of the masses.
The question of interest lying at the heart of this matter may
be so formulated: can particles of the Microciona protoplasm
differentiate into functional collar cells and, when the occa-
sion arises, change back into unspecialized masses capable of
combining with other masses of unspecialized protoplasm to
form a regenerative body? The facts to which I have just
alluded support this idea, and indicate that the immediate
problem is one worth pursuing farther as a good case of tem-
porary differentiation of protoplasm in the metazoa analo-
gous to the temporary specialization of the cell individual
which occurs in such colonial protazoa as Protospongia.‘

As far as the amcebocytes are concerned it is certain that
they have great regenerative power. Weltner in a recent

3 A new method by which sponges may be artificially reared, Science, n.
s., vol. xxv, no. 649, 1907.

4 Metschnikoff, Embryologische Studien an Medusen, p. 147, 1886,

168 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

paper® has emphasized the importance of these unspecialized
cells in the process of growth and regeneration. His con-
clusions which refer directly to fresh water sponges, are that
in a growing sponge, in a sponge regenerating new organs
after its winter period of simplification, and in the regenera-
tion of a sponge from a cutting, the amcebocytes are the all-
powerful elements in that they give rise to all the new tissues
formed. He further alludes to the fact that such reproduc-
tive bodies as the gemmules of fresh water sponges and the
buds of Tethya (according to Maas) are only groups of amee-
bocytes; further that the gemmules of Tedania and Esperella
described by Wilson as developing into ciliated larve, and the
similar bodies found by Ijima in hexactinellids, are such
groups. Imay add that the presence of such groups of
unspecialized cells in the hexactinellids has recently been con-
firmed by the master in sponge-morpholagy, F. E. Schulze,
who recognzzes the probability of their reproductive nature
and gives them a new name, that of sorztes.© It is clear then
that in many sponges reproductive bodies are formed by the
association of unspecialized amoeboid cells. But there is
nothing in this fact which precludes the possibility that the
groups of amcebocytes are in part recruited from transformed
collar cells and other tissue cells, such as pinacocytes (flat
cells of canal walls), that have undergone regressive differen-
tiation into an unspecialized amoeboid condition.

Cells analogous to the amoebocytes of sponges are found
elsewhere in the metazoa, e. g., in the ascidians.? It would
be interesting to kuow what capacity, if any, for develop-
ment they have, when freed from the parent (bud) and col-
lected together in sea-water.

5 Spongilliden-studien V. Zur Biologie von Ephydatia fluviatilis und die
Bedeutung der Ameebocyten fir die Spongilliden. Archiy fiir Naturge-
schichte, 73 Jahrg., 1 Bd., 2 Heft, 1907.

6 Wissensch. Ergebn. d. Deutsch. Tiefsee-Exp. 1898-99. Hexactinellida,
pp. 218-15. Jena, 1904. :

7Comp. Hjort’s and Lefevre’s papers on budding in ascidians.

1907] SoME PHENOMENA IN SPONGES 169

Il

I shall here briefly record some experiments which gave
only negative results but which under circumstances admit-
ting of a wider choice of species, ought to yield returns of
value. These experiments were based on the assumption
that if the dissociated cells of a species will recombine to form
a regenerative mass and eventually a new sponge, the disso-
ciated cells of two different species may be made to com-
bine and thus form a composite mass bearing potentially the
two sets of species-characteristics. It is clear that such an
organism would be analogous to one produced by an associa-
tion of the blastomeres of the two species. Pending the suc-
cessful carrying out of this experiment, it would be idle to
discuss further the nature of the hypothetical dual organism.

In my own experiments three sponges were used: Micro-
ciona, Lissodendoryx and Stylotella. Thethree are all mon-
actinellids but Microciona is the only one in which the skele-
ton includes any considerable amount of horny substance.
Dissociated cells of Microciona and Lissodendoryx were mixed,
and again dissociated cells of Microciona were mixed with
those of Stylotella. Ineach case the experiment was per-
formed at two different times, and a considerable number of
admixtures, in watch g@lasses and on cover glasses, was made.
The preparations were examined at short intervals with the
microscope. The cells of these three species are colored very
differently, and are therefore easily distinguished, at least as
soon as fusion sets in and little masses of cells begin to be
formed. In all the experiments the cells and cell-masses of a
species combined and not the cells of different species. Thus
in the admixture of Microciona and Lissodendoryx, Microci-
ona regenerative masses and Lissodendoryx regenerative
masses were produced. Similarly when Microciona and Styl-
otella cells were mixed, the resultant masses were pure, some
Microciona, some Stylotella. The Microciona masses in these
experiments were hardy. They continued to develop and in
some preparations metamorphosed. The cell masses of the
other two species while they reached a considerable size were

170 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

not hardy, most dying soon although some began the process
of metamorphosis.

These three species are so unlike that there was little
ground in the beginning for the expectation that coalescence
would take place. Possibly as in the cases where fusion of
egy and sperm of different species is induced through some
alteration in the physiological state of protoplasm, so the
generative cells and cell masses of different species may be
made to combine under abnormal conditions. The more
promising task is however to find allied species and subspe-
cies, the regenerative tissue of which will combine under nat-
ural conditions. Such forms, I take it, should be sought
among the horny sponges and the monactinellids with abun-
dant horny matter.

III

The tendency to fuse so vigorously displayed by the cells
and cell masses of regenerative tissue led me to examine into
the power that larve have to fuse with one another and the
capacity for development in the resultant mass. Delage and
others have remarked on the not infrequent occurrence
of fusion between sponge larve. Delage® says that he has
often observed two or several larve unite to form a single
sponge ‘‘which has from the start several cloacas.”

I find that this power to fuse displayed by the larve is one
that is easy tocontrol. Fusion between the larve will read-
ily take place if they are brought in contact at the critical
time when the ciliated epithelium is being replaced by the
permanent flat epithelium. At this time they will fuse in
twos or threes or in larger number up to and over one hun-
dred. The smaller composite masses composed of as many
as five or six larve metamorphose into sponges. The larger
masses composed of many larve did not metamorphose in my
experiments but experience with the regenerative tissue sug-
gests that such masses would metamorphose if certain
mechanical difficulties due to the great size of the mass were

8 Embryongénie des Eponges. Arch. de Zool. Exp. et Gén., p. 400, 1892,

1907] SomE PHENOMENA IN SPONGES 171

removed. Possibly this might be accomplished by cutting a
flattened sheet composed of some hundred larve (such as I
have produced) into pieces and inducing the pieces to meta-
morphose separately.

I may now describe some of the details in this process of
larva-fusion. In a species of Lissodendoryx used the larva is
of the following character. It has the usual ovoidal shape
with a protuberant non-ciliated pole. The anterior pole is
somewhat truncated and is sparsely ciliated. The rest of the
body bears the usual thick covering of cilia. As seen with
reflected light the bulk of the body is dead white, the poster-
ior pole deep blue, and the anterior pole bluish. ‘This color-
ation is not absolutely fixed for the species, but the larve used
in my coalescence experiments were all of this character.
Within twenty-four hours after liberation the ciliated larve
are creeping (remaining in contact with the bottom as they
swim) over the bottom of the dish. Some are now put in
deep round watch glasses and with pipette and needle coaxed
together into a clump. Fusion soon begins and on the next
day plenty of composite larve are present. The larve fuse
endwise, for the most part in pairs. The compound larva so
produced owing to its weight has a very feeble locomotory
power. Using pairs that are nearly motionless, larve may
be brought together (coaxed with needle) and arranged in a
desired position on a cover glass for instance. In successfui
cases fusion results before the separate masses move apart.
In this way, selecting an instance, I have added to one arm
of a quadruple mass a pair of larve, and to the opposite arm
two pairs,

For the purpose of bringing about the fusion of many lar-
ve the following simple method is convenient. Suppose
that we have the larve in a paraffine-coated dish, and they
are in a late ‘‘creeping” stage. Small excavations, 2-3 mm.
deep and 4-5 mm. wide, are now made in the paraffine, and
with the pipette the larve are driven into the holes. -They
lie here in numbers up to and over one hundred, crowded
together and heaped upon one another. Fusion begins soon

172 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

and the larve are gradually converted into a flattened cake.
The larger cakes thus made measured four by three millime-
ters. The body of sucha cake is a continuous flattened mass
in which there is no indication of the component larve, but
the rounded ends of the larve that have last fused with the
general massremain for a time distinguishable. Owing to
their blue coloration the ends of the larve may be recognized
in these and the other compound masses even after the outline
of the larva has been completely lost.

As already stated the smaller compound masses metamor-
phose without difficulty. The coalesced larvae may be made
to attach to cover glasses, slides, etc. Larger masses com-
posed of about twenty larve underwent a partial metamor-
phosis. Such masses were laid upon bolting cloth to which
they readily attached. The larges masses were hung in
small bolting cloth bags in a live box. Whether owing to
bad handling or more probably to some inherent difficulty,
they did not metamorphose but soon died.

The ease with which larve of the same species may be
made to fuse together suggests that larve of different species
might likewise be induced to coalesce. Some experiments
along this line could not fail to be of interest.

IV

In the tendency to fuse with the production of a plasmo-
dium, the dissociated cells of sponges resemble the amocebo-
cytes (amcebule) of the mycetozoa and Protomyxa. The
regenerative power of the plasmodium has an interest both
theoretical and economic in itself. Butit is the tendency to
fuse displayed by the cells that have been forcibly broken
apart, which constitutes the fact of most general physiolog-
icalimportance. Discarding for the moment the word ‘‘cell”
and speaking of the protoplasm of a species as a specific sub-
stance, the phenomena may be restated to advantage in the
following way.

A mass of sponge protoplasm in the unspecialized state
typically exhibits pseudopodial activities at the surface. In

—— se ee ee ee ae ee hg ae es ee ee ee

a.

7907 | SomE PHENOMENA IN SPONGES 173

lieu of more precise knowledge it is useful to regard the pseu-
dopodia as structures which explore and learn about the envi-
ronment.. On coming in contact two masses of the same spe-
cific protoplasm tend to fuse. This tendency is probably use-
ful (2. e., adaptive) in that the additional safety (from ene-
mies and ‘‘accidents”) accruing from increase in size of the
mass more than compensates for the reduction -~in number of
the individual masses that start to grow (rearing of sponges
shows that masses of good size frequently withstand condi-
tions that effectually wipe out the very small masses.) Unlike
specific substances (protoplasms of quite different species) do
not tend to fuse.

To the many biologists who have found ideas and observa-
tions of deep interest in the papers on protoplasmic activities
by Professor and Mrs. KE. A. Andrews (G. F. Andrews), the
statement just made will have a familiar sound. Mrs.
Andrews in her essay on The Living Substance as Such and
as Organism’ and her paper on The Spinning Activities of
Protoplasm* makes, it would appear from subsequent confir-
mations, a definite advance in our knowledge of the intimate
structure of protoplasm. But it is her generalizations, based
on singularly acute observations, with respect to the dehavior
of protoplasm, that have especially influenced my own work.
The particular generalizations referred to may be so formu-
lated:

1 Protoplasm tends to produce a viscous, pellicular layer
with formation of pseudopodial outgrowths over the surface.
whether external or internal to the mass, which establishes
contact with the environmental medium.

2 Pseudopodia from adjacent masses of the same specific
substance tend to fuse. Thus actual connections which can
be made and remade, and along which transference of sub-
stance takes place, are established between the masses.

That these phenomena are observable in widely separated
groups of metazoa has been also shown by Professor Andrews

9Suppl. to Journ. Morphology, vol. xii, no. 2,£1897.
10 Journ. Morphology, 1897.

174 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

in a series of brief studies marked with his well known skill
and accuracy of observation and statement. I fully agree
with him as to the great importance of the facts.

The general point of view entertained by Mrs. Andrews in
her much discussed essay is perhaps not everywhere clear to
me. It is manifest however that she consistently subordi-
nates the idea of the individual, whether entire organism or
cell, to that of the specific substance of which it is but amore
or less detached piece. As far as the cell is concerned this
point of view seems to be essentially that of Sachs and Whit-
man. Mrs. Andrews extends it to the whole organism, and I
may say that this way of looking at an animal or plant (or
piece of the same) is in my opinion a habit of mind that will
justify itself and indeed is doing so today, in that it leads to
discoveries concerning the nature of DOM PE aa as revealed
by what they can do.

University of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill, N. C.
October 29, 1907.

Se ee

a
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3
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,
'

FISHES OF NORTH CAROLINA; A REVIEW

BY JOSEPH HYDE PRATT

There has just been issued by the North Carolina Geolog-
ical and Economic Survey Volume II on The Fishes of North
Carolina. This volume has been prepared for the Survey by
Dr. H. M. Smith, Deputy U. S. Commissioner of Fisheries.
The object of this publication is to give to the people of
North Carolina and to others a more accurate knowledge of
the abundance, distribution, habits, migrations, spawning,
food value, etc., of the fishes in the belief that such knowl-
edge will lead toa fuller realization of the economic import-
ance of the fishery resources to the State. For this reason,
it has been the special aim to make the report useful to all
the fishing interests of the State. No essential technical
considerations have been slighted but the scientific treatment
has been adapted to the needs of fishermen and others who
have had no opportunity to study ichthyology. It is most
desirable that there be created a deeper interest in the wel-
fare of both fishes and fishermen and a better understanding
of the conditions and needs of the fishing industry with a
view of placing this important branch on a permanent basis
and making it yield an increasing revenue to both State and
people. This volume will also be of interest to the layman
and perhaps of special interest to the angler, as he will be
able to make use of the work in the identification of species.
As the scientific aspects of the subject have not been neg-
lected, the work will also be found to have a value to icthy-
ologists and zoologists in general.

1907 175

176 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

As a means of identifying any fish that may be taken in
any waters of the State, artificial keys have been prepared
based on the external characters that commercial fishermen
and anglers may readily appreciate and, further, there is a
copious index of common names which gives a further clue to
all the species whose size makes them objects of capture.

As Dr. Smith states: ‘‘Although the fish life of North
Carolina is not of a new or distinctive type and bears a
rather close resemblance to that of the adjoining States, it
does nevertheless have some features of exceptional interest.”

On account of the great variation in the topography of the
State, the number, length and volume of the rivers and
streams, the large, shallow sounds which fringe the coast,
the long coast-line, and the wide variation in climatic con-
ditions, there has been developed in North Carolina a fish
fauna rich in both species and individuals. Some of the
species found in North Carolina are peculiar to this State,
while others which were first identified in this State, have
later been found elsewhere. Other species exist in much
greater greater abundance in this State than in others.

Among the more prominent features of the fish fauna in
North Carolina, Dr. Smith mentions the following:

‘“(a) The abundance of certain anadromous fishes, whose
numbers are scarcely surpassed in any other waters, the chief
of these being the shad, the alewives, and the striped bass.

‘““(b) The variety and abundance of suckers, minnows, and
sun-fishes in the fresh waters generally, and of darters in the
headwaters of the streams on both sides of the Alleghanies.

‘“(c) The occurence in the sounds and along the outer
shores of immense schools of mullet, squeteague, menhaden,
blue-fish, croaker, spot, pig-fish, pin-fish and other food
fishes.

‘“(d) The extension to the North Carolina coast of many
species which are characteristic of the West Indies or
Florida.

‘“(e) A few species of the Atlantic coast reach their south-
ern limit in North Carolina (such as the cod and tautog) or

FISHES

FIRST DESCRIBED FROM

NORTH CAROLINA WATERS

RR ORIGINAL NAME COMMON NAME vyPx Locauiry |DPESCRIBER AND
IDENTIFICATION YEAR
pub mi! i | ca | See
SILURID2:
Schilbeodes furiosus * 'Noturus furiosus |\Mad-tom ; Tabby-cat \Neuse River \Jordan & Meek,
CATOSTOMID2: | | i
Moxostoma papillosum Ptychostomus papillosus|Red horse; Shiner ; (Catawba and Yad- Cope, 1870
White mullet | kin rivers
Moxostoma collapsum* Ptychostomus collapsus Sucking mullet; Small- |Neuse, Yadkin Cope, 1870
| mouth Red horse and Catawba)
rivers
Moxostoma pidiense* Ptychostomus pidiensis |Sucker lYadkin River Cope, 1870
Moxostoma coregonus* Ptychostomus coregonus| Blue mullet (Catawba and Yad-|Cope, 1870
| kin rivers |
Moxostoma album * Ptychostomus albus /White mullet \Catawba River Cope, 1870
Moxostoma thalassinum* ptychostomus thalas- Sucker Yadkin River Cope, 1870
sinus
Moxostoma robustum* pPtychostomus robustus Lee horse ‘Yadkin River Cope, 1870
| | -Mullet ; Red horse; Red) |
| || horse-mullet; Sucker-|
Moxostoma crassilabre* ‘Ptychostomus crassila- || mullet; Golden mullet ;) Yadkin River \Cope, 1870
bris Golden-finned mullet;|
Horse-fish Red fin; |
Trout-Sucker |
Moxastoma conus* Ptychostomus conus Sucker Yadkin River \Cope, 1870
Moxostoma rupiscartes Moxostoma rupiscartes Jumping mullet; Jump-Catawba River Jordan & Jenkins,
| rocks 1889
CYPRINIDAE: 3 |
Notropis pyrrhomelas Photogenis pyrrhomelas |Fiery black minnow \Catawba River |Cope, 1870
Notropis niveus Hybopsis niveus Shiner; snowy minnow Catawba River cone 1870
Notropis chlorocephalus Hybopsis chlorocephalus Green-headed minnow Catawba River |Cope, 1870
Notropis brimleyi* \Notropis brimleyi ‘Brimley’s minnow ' \Cane River Bean, 1903
Notropis chiliticus* Hybopsis chiliticus Red-lipped minnow Yadkin River Cope, 1870
Notropis altipinnis* Alburnellus altipinnis |(High-finned minnow Yadkin River Cope, 1870
Notropis umbratilis |Alburnellus matutinus Minnow Neuse River Cope, 1870
matutinus * |
Hybopis labrosus \Ceratichthys labrosus Thick-lipped minnow Catawba River —_ Cope, 1870
Hybopis hysinotus Ceratichthys hysinotus High-backed minnow Catawba River Cope, 1870

PQ@crLitDAE:
Fundulus rathbuni*

EXOC@TIDAE:
Cypselurus lutkeni*

PERCIDAE:

Boleosoma maculaticeps*
Etheostoma rufilineatum

Etheostoma swannanoa*
Etheostoma vulneratum

Joa vitrea
TRIGLIDAE:
Prionotus scitulus
GOBIIDAE:
Microgobius holmesi *

Fundulus rathbuni

\Exoccetus lutkeni

|
|
|
|

um

Peecilichthys vitreus
Prionotus scitulus

Microgobius holmesi

Rathburn’s killifish

Flying fish

Boleosoma maculaticeps Spotted-head darter
Peecilicihthys rufilineat- Red-lined darter

Etheostoma swannanoa Swanannoa darter

Peecilichthys vulneratus Red-spotted darter

\Glassy darter

Cape Fear River

Beaufort

Catawba River
French Broad
River

Jordan & Meek,
1889

Jordan &* Ever-
mann, 1896

\Cope, 1870
'Cope, 1870

‘Swannanoa River| Jordan & Ever-

‘French Broad
River
\Neuse River

| ( Slim-flying trad; Fly-
|) 28 fish; Flying trad ;/Beaufort

sea robin

|Holm’s Goby

| Beaufort

mann, 1889
'Cope, 1870

\Cope, 1870

Jordan & Gilbert,
} 1882

‘Smith, 1907

i ‘

hae

7907 | Fishes oF NortH CAROLINA 177

do not occur in noteworthy numbers further south (such as
the white perch and striped bass),”

There have thus far been described from North Carolina
waters 345 different species of fish; one species of lancelet;
and one of lamprey. This number includes several species
that have been introduced into the waters of North Carolina
but which have become more or less established. Of these,
209 are marine or brackish water species; 125 are fresh water
species; and 11 are anadromous or catadromous species.

Of this number, 29 species of fish were first described from
North Carolina waters, of which 18 have as yet been found
in no other State. These species are given in the following
table together with the name of the species as described in
the volume, name under which it was first described, the
common name, type, locality, and the person by whom named
and the date when the species was established. Those
species marked by an asterisk have not been found as yet in
any other State.

Under the heading of Systematic Catalogue of North Car-
Olina fishes there is given a full list of all the species of
fishes known to inhabit the fresh or salt waters of North Car-
olina and under each species there is given its technical name
and original describer, its popular names, a brief synonomy,
a diagnostic description and then a general account of their
distribution, abundance, size, habits, food value, economic
importance, etc., which have special reference to North Car-
olina. Asan aid to the diagnostic description, a figure is
given which shows the parts referred to and the names which
designate them (Fig. 1)

Of the three great classes into which fishes and fish-like
animals are divided, only the third is important in connection
with the fishes of North Carolina, as the first two classes
contain only one representative each. These classes are as
follows:

178 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

KEY TO THE CLASSES OF FISHES AND FISH-LIKE ANIMALS

z, Animals with cartilaginous skeleton and without brain
or skull; fins rudimentary and only on median line of body;
mouth a slit surrounded by bristles; heart a tubular vessel
without separate chambers; blood colorless; gillslits
numerous, the respiratory cavity opening into the abdomen;
inspired water discharged through a special abdominal pore.

LEPTOCARDII (lancelets).

z. Animals with cartilaginous or bony skeleton; skull and
brain present; heart developed as a cavity with at least two
chambers; blood red.

a. Kel-shaped; skeleton cartilaginous; skull imperfect;
mouth circular, suctorial; no jaws or paired fins; a
single median nostril; gills pouch-shaped and numerous;
skin naked; alimentary canal straight, without cceca;
pancreas and spleen absent.

MARSIPOBRANCHII (lampreys, etc.)

aa. Skull well-developed; jaws distinct; fins usually
highly-developed, some of them paired; skin usually
scaly; nostrils at least two, not median; gill-openings a
single slit on each side in most fishes (numerous in a
few families); alimentary canal more or less convoluted;

pancreas and spleen present.
Pisces (fishes).

Of the third class, Pisces, the North Carolina representa-
tives fall into two easily recognized groups or sub-classes:
(1) the Shark, Skates and Rays and (2) the True Fishes,
which are distinguished anatomically as follows:

z. Skeleton cartilaginous; skull without sutures and with-
out membranous bones; gill openings numerous (5 to 7) and
slit like, the gills attached to the skin; tail heterocercal; skin
tough, naked or covered with small rough scales, spines, or
tubercles; air-bladder absent; jaws separable from skull;
species viviparous or ovoviviparous, the eggs large and few
in number; embryo with deciduous’external gills.

SELACHI or E1,ASMOBRANCHII (sharks, skates, rays, etc.)

7907 | FisHEs OF NortH CAROLINA 179

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Ventral fin

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14, Depth of caudal peduncle

—
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180 JouRNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Society [December

7. Skeleton bony in all but a few families; skull with
sutures and membranous bones (opercula, etc.); gill-openings
a single slit on each side, the gills attached to bony arches;
tail heterocercal or homocercal; body usually covered with
numerous flat scales; air-bladder present or absent; jaws not
distinct from the skull; species oviparous (exceptionally vivi-
parous), the ova small and numerous.

TELEOSTOMI (true fishes).

In the first class are included 9 species of shark and 11
species of rays. In the second class (true fishes) there are
325 species. The 12 largest families included in these are as
follows:

Cat-fishes : : : : . 12 species in 4 genera.
Suckers : ; : : A 18 be -<| e
Minnows ‘ : : ; . 7 3b Y i. Se
Killi-fishes ; : ; ‘ i aes & i. Seas
Mackerels ; ; ; ; 5 hh: bs ee yey
Carangids : : : ; sy, * SE
Sun-fishes : : : : won, 2 << Ove
Perches : : ; : a Meee + Lee
Sea basses : ; ; ; ey | i ae
Sparids : ; : ; ; 7 Fe << See
Drums . : : : eV Jake a « 10a
Flounders : ; : ; Prats bd te i

The fisheries of North Carolina are of considerable econ-
omic importance to the State, approximating in value
$2,000,000 per year, the catch being utilized largely for food
purposes. Of the 347 species listed, there are about 90 that
are of present commercial value, most of which are used for
food. In the following table there is given a list of those
that are used for this purpose. In this table there is given
the common as well as the scientific name.

7907 | Fisues oF NortH CAROLINA 181

FISHES USED FOR FOOD IN NORTH CAROLINA.

Sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrhynchus).

Suckers (Family Catostomidae. North Carolina has more
species of suckers than any other State; 8 species used
as food).

Red Horse (Mowxostoma Crassilabre).

Choly; shiner (/ybognathus Nuchalis).

Horned dace (Semotzlus Atromaculatus).

Roach; shiner (Votemzgonus Crysoleucas).

Carp (Cyprinus Carpio).

Kel, fresh-water eel (Anguzlla Chrisypa).

Sea Herring (Clupda Harengus Linnaeus).

Hickory Shad (Pomolobus Mediocris).

Branch Herring, Alewife (Pomolobus Pseudoharengus).

Glut Herring, Shoal Herring (Pomolobus Aestivalis).

Shad (Alosa Sapidissima).

Menhaden (vevoortia Tyrannus).

Brook Trout; Mountain Trout (Salvelinus Fontinalis).

Rainbow Trout; California Trout (Sa/mo Irideus).

Pike; Pickerel (sox Americanus and Esox Reticulatus).

Mullets (Zugzl Cephalus and Mugil Curema).

Bonito (Sarda Sarda) variety of mackerel.

Spanish Mackerel (Scomberomorus Maculatus).

Cero (Scomberomorus Reegalis and Cavalla).

Sword-fish (AX7zphias Gladius).

Pompano; Sun-fish ( 7rachinotus Carolinus).

Blue-fish (Pomatomus Saltatrix).

Cabio; Crab-eater (Aachycentron Canadus).

Star, Harvest-fish (Peprilus Alepidotus).

Butter-fish (Poronotus Tricanthus).

Calico Bass; Speckled Perch ( Pomoxts Sparoides).

Flier (Centrarcus Macropterus).

Rock Bass (Ambloplites Reupestris).

Goggle-eyes; Warmouth ( Chaenobryttus Gulosus).

Long-eared Sun-fish; Red-belly; Robin (Lepomis Auritus).

Blud Joe; Blue-gills; Blue Sun-fish (Lepomis Jnctsor).

Holbrook’s Sun-fish (Lepomis Holbrook).

182 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Socrety December]

Sand Perch; Pumpkin-seed (Lepomzs Gibbrosus).
Black Bass; small mouthed (MZicropterus Dolomien).
Black Bass, large mouthed (Micropterus Salmoides).
Pike Perch; Wall-eyed Pike (.Stzzostedion Vitreum).
Yellow Perch; Red-fin (Perca Flavescens).
Striped Bass; Rock-fish (/toccus Lineatus).
White Perch (Marone Americana).
Black-fish; Sea Bass ( Centropristes Striatus).
Pig-fish; Hog-fish ( Orthopristis Chrysopterus).
Snapper; Grunt (Hemulon Plumierz). |
Scup; Pin-fish (Stenotomus Chrysops).
Sailsois choice; Robin (Lagodon Rhomboides).
Sheepshead (Archosargus Probatocephalus). ,
Squeteague; Weak-fish; Sea Trout (Cynoscion FRegalis).
Spotted Squeteague; spotted Weak-fish (Cynoscion Nebulo-
Sus).
Yellow Tail; Sand Perch; Perch ( Bazrdiella Chrysura.)
Spot (Lezostomus Xanthurus).
Croaker (/icropogon Undulatus).
Red Drum; Red-fish (Sczaenops Ocellatus). a
King-fish; Sea Mullet; Carolina Whiting ( Menticirrhus Y
Americanus ).
Sea Mullet; King-fish (MWentecirrhus Saxatilis).
Surf Whiting (Wenticirrhus Littoralis).
Black Drum ( Pogonzas Cromis).
Oyster-fish; Tautog ( 7autoga Onitis).
Porgee, Spade-fish (Chaetodipterus Haber).
Cod (Gadus Callarias).
Flounder; Summer Flounder; Plaice (/Paralchthys Denta-
tus).
Flounder, Southern, (/aralichthys Lethostigmus).
Flounder (Paralchthys Albiguttus).

All the fishes mentioned in this list are found to a greater
or less extent in the markets, but only a few of them are of
any large economic value to the State. Of the migratory
fishes, the most conspicuous and the ones of most value are

‘yy

7907) Fisues or Norra CAROLINA 183

the shad, alewives, hickory shad, striped bass, white perch,
eel and sturgeon, Of the salt water fishes would be included
the mullets, squeteagues, Spanish mackerel, croaker, spot
and menhaden. The principal fresh water fish is the large-
mouthed black bass. ‘The spotted squeteague, pig fish, hick-
ory Shad and black bass are taken in larger quantities in
North Carolina than in any other State.

On account, however, of over-fishing and non-enforcement
of present laws relating to the fisheries, the industries are
deteriorating and in some instances quite rapidly. Unless
the State will provide prompt and adequate protection to the
shad, alewives, striped bass and other species which are be-
ginning to show a decrease in abundance, they will soon
share the same fate as the sturgeon.

There is no reason why the fisheries of North Carolina
should not be maintained for an indefinite period and even
be very greatly improved; and to this end the session of the
Legislature of 1907 created a Fsh Commission, but with very
limited powers. It is to be hoped that at the session of 1909
the powers of the Fish Commission will be increased so that
it will be in a position to prevent the causes of decline in
these industries and be able to utilize all resources for build-
ing up and increasing the abundance of fish.

The Geological and Economic Survey, in cooperation with

the United States Bureau of Fisheries, has carried on certain
lines of work in regard to the protection and reproduction of
the fishes of North Carolina, conducted through the Biolog-
ical Laboratory at Beaufort, the hatchery at Edenton and
the temporary hatching stations near Weldon. A number of
fish have been introduced into the waters of North Carolina,
some of which have become widely distributed and firmly
established, such as the rainbow or California trout and the
carp.
Large numbers of native fishes from outside hatcheries
have been planted in the State, among these being the brook
trout, large-mouthed and small-mouthed black basses, various
sun-fishes, and several kinds of cat fishes.

REVIEWS

Van Nostrand’s Chemical Annual, 1907. First Year of
Issue. Edited by John C. Olsen, A. M., Ph. D. New York,
D. Van Nostrand Co. x —- 496 pp. The ‘‘Chemiker Kalendar”’
has long been a most useful publication but American chem-
ists have desired a similar publication in English. In the
new Annual Professor Olsen has improved upon the German
model and produced an extremely satisfactory reference
work. It consists exclusively of tables of physical and chem-
ical data and lists of pnblications. The physical constants
of inorganic and organic compounds are given in two tables,
comprising nearly one half of the book. It is a pleasure to
find frequently definite values for solubilities. The ‘‘Review
of Chemical Literature” consists of a classified list of the
more important articles published in the Journals and also a
classified list of books, the time covered being from Jan. 1,
1905 to June 1, 1906. It is cause for congratulation that
Professor Olsen undertook the editorship of a book which is
so indespensible to the chemist. The execution of the mech-
anical part is excellent. A. S. W.

Solubilities of Inorganic and Organic Substances. A
hand-book of the most reliable quantitative solubility deter-
minations. Recalculated and complied by Atherton Seidell.
8vo X - 367 pp. D. Van Nostrand Company. New York,
1907. The only dictionary of chemical solubilities has been
Comey’s which was published in 1894. Although it is a book
of great value there are several defects which detract from its
usefulness. It contains no organic substances but we find
instead a great variety of rare inorganic double salts. Too
many unreliable determinations are incorporated and the
arrangement is not consistent throughout so that it is fre-

184 { December

de ee Se el eee ee

‘=

1907 | REVIEWS 185

quently troublesome to locate a compound. Seidell has intro-
duced a large number of important organic substances, the
selection’ of inorganic compounds is more satisfactory, the
arrangement is logical throughout, and the determinations
are more reliable. Greater reliability was arrived at with
much labor by recalculating the various determinations to a
common basis and drawing curves through the points plot-
ted. Selections were then made after comparing the curves
and studying the methods of determination. An index adds
to the value of the book. Every chemist should have access
to this thoroughly satisfactory dictionary, in fact it should
be in every working scientific library. A. S. W.

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JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

VOL. XXIV
1908

WITH ONE PLATE

ISSUED QUARTERLY

THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
CHAPEL HILL, N. C.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
Micro-SrrucruRE AND PROBABLE ORIGIN oF Furnt-Likr SLATE
NEAR CHAPEL Hiwx, Nort Carotina.—H. N. Eaton...... 1
FYELD FoR Economic PLANT BREEDING IN THE Corron BELY.
eR NURMC Slee CODON: Mice vsnncaresdectede tomer a eos g
Nores ON THE Lirs-Zones IN NortH Carotina.—C. S. Brimley
A VERIO. SETURL. ST occccck ces ee eee 14
A Bacrerrotoaic Stupy or tHe BLank Carrripce.— David H.
11 TRAE ERIE!) sie CS er RE a On eee ASUS SN AL a NaC 23
6 EA SEEGER SSR ME Pe a Pe ERA LY RIMM ROT oo EL? 29
PPMOMRSUEVEGATING TO SCIENCE. 001.0 .cccccdedececccoeceeccasevcscosceacs 30

ORNITHOLOGICAL WorkK IN NortH Carouina.—T". Gilbert Pearson 33
PROCEEDINGS OF THE NortTH CAROLINA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE..... 44

THE San JosE ScaLe.—Franklin Sherman, Jr...........0ccceeceee 52
MonazrrE AND MonazireE MINING IN THE CAROLINAS.—Joseph
Hyde Pratt and Douglas B. Sterrett....... See Recents 61
THE Optical Rorarion oF Spirits OF TURPENTINE.—Chas.
. Herty......: fare Sa none SE Poe ERD E ee RN E SE 87

THE CHARACTER OF THE ComMpoUND FoRMED BY THE ADDITION
oF AMMONIA TO I rHyYL-PHOSPHO-PLATINO-CHLORIDE.—Chas.

Ee PEMEP ESTEE Fed Os Bos) TNRUES ou wavs couk ess oonh eaven dal uewteace 92
THE VoLaTILE O11 oF Prxus Serorina.—Chas. H. Herty and

[1 aufo ate) 2] 27 Rs naa aie PLE J Pee See eats OSes ane 101
MICROPEGMATITE AT CHAPEL Hiitu.—H. N. Eaton ............... 104
REMI US vas tail toh hee toate ina cath une tamauit Lug cn he clu datiat wha’ 106
THe AMANITAS OF NortH CaroLina.—H. C. Beardslee............ 115

INVESTIGATIONS OF THE N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND Economic Sur-
veY RELATING to ForEsrRY PROBLEMS ALONG THE Norv
CaROLINA Banks.—Joseph Hyde Pratt.............ccccceccevees 125

Srreprococcus JNFECTIONS OF THE TONSILS, THEIR DIAGNosis
AND RELATIONSHIP To ACUTE ARTICULAR RHEUMATISM.—

erage O28 a Ta (Se Py ee Oa Ce RUC ee Rei aea 139
Tue ‘‘Pincn-Errecr’’ in UNIDIRECTIONAL ELEcrRic SPARKS.—
Andrew H. Patterson...... LL erate Rea A Le BRN coats SOT LE Aas 145

Tre Recent BAtrimoRE MeErrines oF ScrentTiFic Socreries..... 148

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JOURNAL
Hlisha Mitchell Scientific Society

VOL. XXIV NO. J

MICRO -STRUCTURE AND PROBABLE ORIGIN OF FLINT -
LIKE SLATE NEAR CHAPEL HILL,
NORTH CAROLINA

HH. No BATON

Two miles south of Chapel Hill, North Carolina, along the bed
of a small stream known as Morgan’s Creek occur extensive
exposures of a series of rocks whose general strike is east and west.
From Purefoy’s Mill on the Pittsboro road eastward along the
stream bed to a point three miles distant on the Mason farm,
these rocks are of the same general character, and consist of a
series of conglomerates, sandstones, and flint-like slates lying in
places upon felsite, and dipping southward 50 to 70 degrees.
Sills of fine grained acid and basic igneous rocks are frequently
found intercalated in this series, and all the rocks are cut by
a set of basic dikes. The flint-like slates alone form the basis for
the present paper.

This series of rocks has often been included in a great formation
of slates and schists of debatable age, extending from Virginia

1908} 1 Printed May 29, 1908

2 JOURNAL OF THE MircHEeni Socrery | May

southwesterly across central North Carolina into South Carolina,
and known as the Carolina Slate Belt. Ebenezer Emmons’ placed
all these rocks in his Taconic system, and W. C. Kerr® con-
sidered that they belonged to the Huronian. Without consider-
ing the vexed question of age, we turn to the views expressed by
former writers as to the origin of the flint-like, slaty members of
the series.

As early as 1822 the existence of novaculite in Orange County,
North Carolina, was noted by Denison Olmstead*. In 1828 the
same writer* again mentioned the novaculite of the slate forma-
tion, and stated that the most valuable bed was found at MeCau-
ley’s quarry, seven miles west of Chapel Hill. The rock here is
olive green in color, has a horny look, and is transparent on thin
edges.

Emmons’ described this rock under the head of quartzite as
follows: “‘Color, bluish black passing into purple, grayish, white
and green of several shades, and sometimes banded; texture, fine
when compared with the finest sandstones; translucent on edges;
fracture, flat-conchoidal and frequently brittle, or it may be tough
in the mass, but small pieces easily chip off with a light blow. ft
passes on the one hand into a fine grit, and on the other, into the
compact slate and a condition like flint. When struck with the
hammer, it is sonorous like cast iron. It is rarely if ever a sim-
ple substance like limpid quartz as it usually weathers and loses
thereby its homogeneity; besides it is often porphyritic or por-
phyrized, and frequently the fresh fracture is dotted with small
limp: | crystals of quartz, which crystalized out from the mass
when it was in a semi-fluid state.’’

1 Geological Report of the Midland Counties of North Carolina, New
York, 1856, pp. 38-73.

2 Report of the Geological Survey of North Carolina, vol. 1 Raleigh, 1875,
pp. 131-139.

3 American Journal of Science, Series 1, vol. 5, 1822, p. 262.

4 American Journal of Science, Series 1, vol. 14, 1828, p. 238.

5 Ibid. pp. 69-70.

oe i

1908 | FLINT-LIKE SLATE NEAR CHAPEL HILh 3

Albert Williams, Jr," writing in 1888, stated that novaculite
was quarried on an extensive scale a few miles west of Chapel Hill.

In his monograph on the Arkansas novaculite, published in
1892, L.-S. Griswold’ cites the above references to Olmstead and
Albert Williams, Jr. This writer, in the course of a description of
that type of novaculite known as the ‘‘Arkansas Stone’’, says,
“The only other stone in this country which resembles the
Arkansas Stone and is worked, is that of North Carolina, but
the greasy talcose appearance of the latter suggests that its
internal structure differs from that of the true novaculite.’’

H. B. C. Nitze’, in 1896, describing the rocks of the Carolina
Slate Belt, writes thus under the heading, ‘“‘Quartz Rocks—The
Volcanic Series’’:

“The crypto- crystalline varieties of quartz (flint, chert, horn-
stone, agatized, chalcedonic) are of especial interest, and warrant
a careful consideration. It is again deplored in this connection
that the present report did not allow the time for a microscopic
study of the thin sections. Such cherty, flint-like masses have
been described from the Sam Christian, Moratock, Silver Valley
and Hoover Hill mines. Jt is at present the opinion that these
rocks belong to the class of ancient (pre-Cambrian) acid volcanics,
and in many respects analogous to, and probably contemporaneous
with, similar rocks of South Mountain in Maryland and Pennsyl-
vania, whose discovery was first announced by the late Dr. Geo.
H. Williams*. Miss Florence Bascom?’ has described the origin,
devitrification and structure of the acid types of these rocks. Dr.
Williams’ has outlined the general distribution of the ancient vol-

1 Mineral Resources of the United States, Calendar year 1887, Washing-
ton, 1888, p. 772.

2 Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Arkansas for 1890, vol. 3,
1892, Whetstones and the Novaculites of Arkansas, pp. 21 and 22.

3 North Carolina Geological Survey, Bull., No. 3, Gold Deposits of North
Carolina, by H. B. C. Nitze and G. B. Hanna, 1896, pp. 37-38.

4 The Volcanic Rocks of the South Mts. in Pa. and Md., Am. Jour. Sci.,
vol. 44, Dec., 1892, pp. 482-496. Scientific American, Jan. 14, 1893,

5 Journal of Geology, vol. I, 1893, pp. 813-832.

6 Ibid. vol. 2, 1894, pp. 1-31,

4 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL Society [ May

canic rocks along the eastern border of North America. These
rocks are analogous to the hialleflintas and eurites of Southern
Sweden, described as volcanic rocks by Nordenskjéld. They
would also correspond to Hunt’s pre-Cambrian petro-silex rocks,
called by him the Arvonian, being below his Huronian.

“‘The hornstones have every appearance of being acid feldspar-
quartz rocks, and will probably be found, on further study, to
belong to the class of apo-rhyolites, a term introduced by Miss
Bascom to denote a devitrified rhyolite. Emmons describes
the type very well under the head of quartzite. They resemble
perfectly crypto-crystalline quartz, and on weathering present an
earthy, yellowish surface. The color of the fresh rock is drab,
bluish to almost black; translucent on edges; fracture flat con-
choidal; sometimes banded, showing flow structure, etc.’’ On
pages 41 and 42 of the same report the following is quoted from
Dr. Williams” article: ‘* ‘In a drive from Sanford to Chapel Hill
an abundance of the most typical ancient lavas, mostly of the
acid type, was encountered’’? - - - - ‘‘ “Another locality in
the voleanic belt was visited on Morgan’s run, about 2 miles
south of Chapel Hill. Here are to be seen admirable exposures
of volcanic flow and breccias with finer tuff deposits, which have
been extensively sheared into slates by dynamic agency.’’’ The
above is repeated verbatim by the same author’ the same year
(1896) in an article entitled, ‘‘Some Late Views of the So-called
Taconic and Huronian Rocks in Central North Carolina.’’

The tenor of those parts of Nitze’s paper just quoted referring
to the origin of the fine grained quartz rocks, seems to be that
these rocks are closely connected with the ancient surface lava
flows which are so common throughout the region. He states
that none of them were examined miscroscopically, but suggests
that the hornstones will probably be found to be apo-rhyolites.
The references to the work of Dr. Williams and Dr. Bascom on the
structure and deyvitrification of ancient acid lavas show that Nitze

1 Geological Report, Midland Counties of N. C,, New York, 1856, p. 51.
2 Journal of Geology, vol. 2, 1894, pp. 1-31.
3 This journal, vol. 13, Part Second, July- Dec., 1896, pp. 53-72.

1908 | FLINT-LIKE SLATE Near CHAPEL HILi 5

considered the formation of the hornstones and flinty slates as
due to a change in the latter rocks. The existence of tuff deposits
along this part of Morgan’s Creek mentioned by Williams and
quoted by Nitze is strongly discredited by Professor Collier Cobb,
who has had occasion to learn thoroughly the structure of the
region in question during the course of his work at Chapel Hill.
Professor Cobb, however, takes his classes to such tuff deposits
southwest of the village, and it is these that Williams and Nitze
have evidently confused with the slates of Morgan’s Creek two
miles south of Chapel Hill.

As Professor Cobb has pointed out to the writer, these slates are
bedded alternately with sandstones and conglomerates. The con-
glomerates are composed of well-rounded pebbles of several kinds of
voleanic rocks, but are by no means volcanic agglomerates. The
slates are coincident in dip with the sandstones and conglomerates
with which they are associated, and, from all field evidence obtain-
able, seem to have been deposited as regular members of the sedi-
mentary series.

Specimens of the rock for investigation were obtained near the
dam at Purefoy’s Mill. The general macroscopic description
given by Nitze applies very well to the rock from this locality.
In handspecimen, the rock is olive green in color, weathering to
brownish clay; banding faint, becoming more apparent on a
weathered surface; appearance waxy; structure dense and com-
pact, with occasional minute reflecting crystal surfaces; trans-
lucent on edges; fracture conchoidal; very brittle; hardness 6.5.
Its resistance to abrasion is evidenced by the fact that all of the
arrow heads and spear heads of primitive man found in the
vicinity of Chapel Hill are made of this material.

Microscopically, this slate is seen to be a true crypto-crystalline
rock, containing the minerals feldspar, quartz, kaolin, and epi-
dote. The groundinass is composed of very fine quartz crystals
and minute feldspar fragments through which kaolin scales are
plentifully scattered. Larger crystals of feldspar form a promi-
nent feature, and occur individually or in groups throughout the
groundmass. Sections cut at right angles to the lamination show
that the kaolin scales occur in distinct bands varying in width

6 JouRNAL OF THE MircHELL SocrETY [ May

from .25 to 1.1mm. To the existence of these bands is due the
laminated appearance of the rock in hand specimen. In some
cases, also, there seems to have been a rough assortment of
the larger feldspars in bands, although this occurrence was not
observed to be universal.

The feldspar is plagioclase, and occurs in crystals varying in
size from the very minute particles of the groundmass up to .286
mom. in diameter. The average diameter of the larger crystals is
from .065 to .1 mm. The form is usually sub-angular, although
rounded crystals are seen, suggestive of a clastic derivation. All
the crystals polarize separately. Some crystals are intimately
interlocked. Others have deep re-entrants into which the silica
of the groundmass protrudes, suggesting a partial resorbtion of the
feldspar by the groundmass. Albite twinning is universal, the
maximum angle of the striations in the zone perpendicular to M
lying between 10 and 16 degrees. Hence the plagioclase mixtures
lie between basic oligoclase and andesine. The crystals show
little if any decomposition. The largest feldspar noted, .286 mm.
in diameter, is nearly round, is completely encased in a thin rim
of greenish glass, and lies in a rubble of small angular feldspar
fragments.

The crystals of the groundmass all polarize separately and
exhibit low interference colors. The grains are extremely irreg-
ular in outline, and are closely intelocked. The average diameter
is -015 mm. Many of these grains are seen to be plagioclase from
the albite striations. Many are quartz, but owing to the diffi-
culty of distinguishing between quartz and feldspar in very small
angular fragments, it is not possible to state definitely the per-
centage of each mineral. That much free silica is probably
present, however, is indicated by the high total percentage of
silica in the rock. .

Kaolin occurs in minute scales. In the narrow bands above
noted, kaolin is by far the most abundant mineral, and the scales
lie very close together. It is likewise found in less abundance in
every part of the rock. The diameter of the scales varies from
.0026 to .0052 mm.

Epidote occurs rarely in minute grains in small clusters. The
interference colors are of a low order.

1908 | FLINT-LIKE SLATE NEAR CHAPEL HILL i

A partial analysis of the rock by Dr. A. 8. Wheeler, associate
professor of Chemistry in the University of North Carolina, gives
the following results:

SRC ase uae alteenn heckldav es 5 ste 77.54 per cent.
ASTUTE eee ae eel cea 13.51 per cent.
J igo) 80) 16 (ee ne ns a 1.17 per cent.
Bian ae Geet Bee BEE EEE BREE 1.10 per cent.
Mimemeuiatime ec cteea sts i too ce 0.23 per cent.

This analysis confirms the microscopic determination.

Hana specimens and thin sections of a somewhat similar fine
grained siliceous rock from Gold Hill, N. C., collected last sum-
mer by Mr. F. B. Laney of the North Carolina Geological Sur-
vey, were lent the writer by the State Geologist, Dr. Joseph Hyde
Pratt. A hasty examination of thin sections of the latter rock
reveals its close resemblance to the Purefoy’s Mill material, the
main difference between the two being that the feldspars in the
Gold Hill rock are uniformly larger.

Griswold’ defines novaculite as “‘a fine-grained, gritty, homo-
geneous, and highly siliceous rock, translucent on thin edges, and
haying a conchoidal or sub-conchoidal fracture.’? The Purefoy’s
Mill rock differs from the Arkansas novaculites in its lower silica
content, and in containing kaolin and feldspar in abundance. It
resembles the true novaculites in its general physical character.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS AS TO ORIGIN.

Field evidence shows that the flint-like slate found at Purefoy’s
Mill is a member of an undoubted sedimentary series, with dis-
tinct lamination or stratification coinciding in dip with the other
members of the series. Microscopic study reveals the fact that a
mechanical sorting and arrangement of the kaolin particles in lay-
ers took place prior to consolidation.

Professor Cobb is of the opinion that the rock owes its origin to
the consolidation of fine voleanic sand sorted by and deposited in
deep water, or that the sediment may have been derived from the

(1) Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Arkansas for 1890, vol. 3,
jon Itsy

8 JOURNAL OF THE MircHeLL Society [ May

felsites and rhyolites on which it rests, its crystalline structure
being due to subsequent metamorphism.

The writer, rather, believes that the rock has remained essen-
tially unchanged since its consolidation, and that its formation
was similar to that of arkose, viz: that its component minerals
are the detrital fragments of a rock or rocks rich in quartz and
feldspar. Many of the feldspars are rounded, suggesting a clastic
origin, and are roughly arranged in layers parallel with the kaolin
bands. The chemical analysis, as far as it was carried out, is
very much like the analysis of the average rhyolite, and it is
highly probable that the materials of which the rock is composed
were derived from such acid volcanic rocks as occur in great
abundance in the vicinity.

The writer wishes to express his indebtedness to Professor Cobb
for suggestions in preparing this paper, and also to Dr. Pratt and
Mr. Laney for kindly loaning him material for comparison.

Department of Geology,
University of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill, N. C.

}

a

FIELD FOR ECONOMIC PLANT BREEDING IN THE COT-
TON BELT*

DAVID R. COKER

In considering any subject related to the present condition of
Southern Agriculture, it is well to remember that our section has
not completely recovered from the effect of the civil war and the
ensuing period of negro rule. This cannot be but plain to the
student of Southern Agricultural conditions and is largely caused
by the almost complete paralysis of our educational system during
and for some years after the war.

A large percentage of our farmers, not having had the opportu-
nity to obtain an education, have been unable to keep full pace
with the advance of their profession. The influence of our Agri-
cultural Colleges and the missionary work of such men as Dr. J.
M. McBryde, Col. J. S. Newman, Prof. W. F. Massey, Mr. E.
Mclver Williamson and Editors Jackson and Hunnicutt are, how-
ever, plainly evident in the general and rapid improvement of
conditions. :

Though great advances along many lines have been made, the
subject of plant breeding and its vital relation to agriculture has
hardly begun to attract attention in our section. Scarcely any of
our farmers have the slightest conception of what plant breeding
means, and there is now almost no supply of pedigreed seed of
any of our staple crops. Our farmers, however, can be counted
on to buy scientifically bred seed and devote some attention to
seed selection, as soon as the great value of pure breeding is
impressed upon them. Our Agricultural Colleges and farm journ-
als have a gread field for missionary work on this subject, which,
as yet, they have scarcely touched.

*Read before the American Breeders Association, Washington, D. C.,
January 30th, 1908.

1908] 9

10 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL SocieTy [ May

There are for sale in the South numerous so called varieties of
seed which are advertised under high sounding names and with
most extravagant claims of productive capacity. Many of these,
however, prove to be mixtures of types and are frequently found
to be worse than valueless. Plant breeders, as well as farmers,
would welcome an effort by the National and State Governments
to stop this pestiferous class of swindling, and I hope the Associa-
tion will take some steps to this end for the general good and pro-
tection of its members.

The importance of plant breeding to the south cannot better be
shown than by calling attention to the value of some of the work
that has already been done.

The earliest work of this kind that is known of by the writer
was undertaken before the war by Hon. John Townsend of Edisto
Island, who succeeded in improving a strain of Sea Island cotton
until its length was about two inches. I am informed that he
invariably got $1.00 or more per pound for this cotton as long as
he lived. Other Sea Island planters have kept up a more or less
perfect system of breeding to the present day, and to this, in part
at least, is undoubtedly due to the admitted pre-eminence of
South Carolina Sea Islands.

Valuable varieties of upland long staples have been originated
by Mr. Allen and Mr. Griffln of Mississippi and Mr. Stoney and
Prof. G. L. Newman of South Carolina. Prof. Newman has also
done some remarkable work on field peas.

The experiment Stations of all the cotton states are, I believe,
now doing more or less plant breeding, but most of their work has
not advanced far enough to have general effect on agricultural
conditions.

The work of the National Plant Breeding Department, under
the direction of Dr. H. J. Webber, stands preeminent in the breed-
ing of those of our economic plants to which attention has been
given.

The success of this department with pineapples, citrus fruits,
cotton and tobacco are no doubt more or less familiar to all of
this audience.

The Columbia, bred by Dr. Webber personally, is the first of
his cottons to be distributed by the Department of Agriculture.

1908] Fretp For Economic PLANT BREEDING 11

It has yielded with the best of the varieties tested at our State
Experiment station, and its money out-turn was the greatest of
any, on account of the premium which its long staple commands.

My own experiments with this cotton seem to coincide with
those obtained at Clemson the last season. I tested it with nine
other varieties and, though the general results were not conclusive,
owing to irregularity of stand, Columbia undoubtedly stood first in
money value.

Dr. Webber’s Citranges are also an important addition to our
economic plants, as they provide an entirely new class of fruits for
the cotton belt.

A plant of Rusk Citrange which fruited in my garden last sea-
son has thus far proved entirely hardy. The delicious ade made
from this fruit may soon be expected to alleviate the situation in
the broad area of southern prohibition territory.

I would like to mention the work of a number of the men in the
Bureau of Plant Breeding, but refrain from lack of space. I
must say, however, that Mr. A. D. Shamel has obtained results
with shade grown tobacco that deserve the widest notice and com-
mendation. He has, in fact, revolutionized that industry. Mr.
Orton also, in saving the cotton plant from extinction over con-
siderable areas, has earned the gratitude of the cotton states.

The production of varieties of cotton similar to Columbia,
suited to each section of the south, is one of the most promising
opportunities now in view for southern plant breeders. This work
is especially important to the eastern part of the belt where up-
land cottons average less than one inch in length of staple and
sell in the markets of the world at a lower price than any except
Fast Indians.

It should be noted that most of Dr. Webber’s promising new
cottons, including Columbia, originated with selections from exist-
ing varieties and not from hybrids.

My method of cotton breeding is similar to that originated by
Dr. Webber, but differs in a few details. I started with a deter-
mination to breed, if possible, an up-land cotton of maximum
production that would command a staple premium. All extra
staple varieties then known to me were much lower in yield than

12 JOURNAL OF THE MIrcHELL Socrery [ May

the best short staple sorts. I have, therefore, from the first exam-
ined only the most productive plants, and of these only the ones
which show an increase in length of lint are selected for breeding.
I give the plants a distance of 4 by 4 or 5 by 5 feet and have inci-
dentally made the interesting discovery that on good soils these
distances produce more cotton than the usual farm method of
crowding in the drill. I find it a good plan to have two breeding
plats, one on heavy and one on light soil, putting part of the seed
of each mother plant on each plat under the same breeding num-
ber. Before selection is begun I take one seed with lint attached
from each of a dozen plants on each breeding row and mount
them. By a comparison of these a quick approximation can be
made of the average performance of each breeding number in
length and percentage of lint. Selections are then made from
every number not palpably deficient in some cardinal point, for I
find it impossible to judge with the eye the relative yield of differ-
ent rows of cotton. A record of the exact yield of each row on
both plats is, therefore, kept and if the same number shows max-
imum yields as well as other desirable qualities on both the light
and heavy soil rows, there can be little question of the inherent
quality of the selections made from it. Selections from rows of
poor yield are, of course, discarded unless very exceptional.

My best number last season showed a production about 10 per
cent greater in both plats than any other row. It was also quite
satisfactory in length and percentage of lint, largeness of boll and
other desirable characteristics, and I hope to make from it a vari-
ety as good as, or better than Columbia.

The low yield of corn throughout the cotton belt is presumptive
evidence of both poor seed and inferior cultural methods.

The latter is being rapidly remedied, largely through the agita-
tion begun by Mr. E. McIver Williamson of my own County,
(Darlington County, S. C.) who has perfected a method of cul-
ture that not only produces large crops, but rapidly improves the
soil.

Such corn breeding work as is now being carried on so gener-
ally and successfully in the middle states is almost unknown to
the South. Here and there, intelligent farmers have improved

1908] Fretp ror Economic PLANT BREEDING i 3

their own seed by selection in the field. None of them, however,
that I know of has resorted to pedigreed breeding, and if any
acclimated corn of pure pedigree is being offered to the farmers
of the cotton belt, I do not know of it.

My own work, begun only a year ago, indicates as great varia-
bility in the yielding power of individual ears as has been noted
by Mr. J. Dwight Funk and Prof. C. G. Hopkins of Illinois. A
most notable result in my experiments was the absolute failure of
the seed ear which in all visible points was best.

The limits of this paper do not allow mention of the breeding
requirements of each of the many southern economic plants.
Suffice it to say that nearly all of them (and their number is
legion) can be greatly improved in quality and productive capac-
ity by systematic breeding.

The record of southern plant breeding is, as yet, very short.
Here and there, work has begun and quick and valuable results
have invariably followed; but compared with what yet remains to
be done, that already accomplished is indeed small.

No fairer or broader field exists in American Agriculture today
than the field for economic plant breeding in the Cotton Belt.

HARTSVILLE, 8. C.

NOTES ON THE LIFE - ZONES IN NORTH CAROLINA

Cc. 8. BRIMLEY AND FRANKLIN SHERMAN, JR.

The old-established popular division of North Carolina into
eastern, middle, and western sections, is familiar to us all. It is
an interesting fact that a study of the available zoological records
gives a somewhat similar division of the state into life-zones or
areas.

This detailed study of the animal life of the state shows that,
while a small number of species are widely distributed throughout
all sections of the state, yet the majority show in some degree, a
more or less restricted range within our borders, — and it is upon
a study of all available records of these restricted forms, that our
provisional map of the life-zones of the state is based. In these
studies we have depended mainly on mammals, reptiles and batra-
chians. Fishes have been practically omitted, and birds and
insects owing to their powers of flight and tendency to wander,
have been used chiefly for confirmation, and even then we have
relied principally on records of breeding birds, which would be
more likely to be within their proper range.

It has been known that four of the recognized life-zones of North
America are represented in our state. These are:— 1st, the Cana-
dian,— 2nd, the Alleghanian (or Transition), —3rd, the Upper
Austral (or Carolinian),— 4th, the Lower Austral (or Austro-
riparian. )

1. The Canadian Zone in this state includes only the tops of
the higher mountains. Aside from a few scattered records the
places from which we have sufficient data to positively mark as
belonging to this zone are, the higher altitudes in the Black
Mountains, Roan Mountain, Grandfather Mountain (including

14 [May

1908 | Nores ON THE Lire-ZoNES 15

Blowing Rock), Bald Mountain in Yancey County, and the higher
mountains in the vicinity of Highlands in Macon County,—
although it is practically certain that more extended collecting
and observation will show that this same zone includes also the
tops of some other mountains, especially the Balsams, Mount
Toxaway, and Pisgah Ridge. This zone does not extend below
an elevation of 4,500 feet. The animals known to occur in this
zone in this state and which do not normally extend into the zones
of lower elevation, are named below. We include those species of
birds whose nesting habitat is in this zone, though the same birds
may of course be found in other zones when not nesting.

Mammals:

Carolina Red-backed Mouse (Evotomys Carolinensis) .

Canadian Deer-mouse (Peromyscus canadensis).

Woodland Jumping-Mouse (Napaeozapus insignis).
Birds (breeding) :

Golden-crowned Kinglet (Regulus satrapa).

Red-breasted Nut-hatch (Sitta canadensis) .

Brown Creeper (Certhia familiaris).

Winter Wren (Olbiorchilus hyemalis).

American Crogs-bill (Loxian minor).

Pine Siskin (Spinus tristis).

Carolina Junco (Junco hyemalis carolinensis).

Batrachians:

Black Salamander (Desmognathus nigra).
Purple Salamander (Spelerpes porphyriticus).
Yellow Salamander (Desmognathus ochrophea) .

2. The Alleghanian Zone embraces a large part of our moun-
tain region, including practically all between the elevations of
2,500, and 4,500 feet. In our map we have conservatively
restricted this zone to the higher known ranges. We have record
of the following species which are characteristic of this zone as con-
trasted with the more highly-elevated Canadian zone:

Mammals:

Common Flying-squirrel (Seiuropterus yolans),

16 JoURNAL OF THE MircHELL Socrety [ May

Deer-mouse (Peromyscus leucopus).
Pine-mouse (Microtus pinetorum).

Cotton-tail Rabbit ‘Lepus floridanus mallurus).
Dusky Bat (Vespertilio fuscus).

Common Mole (Scalops aquaticus).

Reptiles and Batrachians:
Viscid Salamander (Plethodon glutinosus).
Red Triton (Spelerpes ruber).
Hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleghaniensis).
Ground Snake (Carphophiops amoenus).
Chicken Snake (Coluber obsoletus) .
Banded Rattlesnake (Crotalis horridus).
As the above-named species distinguish this zone from the
Canadian, just so the following species distinguish it from he
lower and warmer Upper Austral zone.

Mammals:

Star-nosed Mole (Condylura cristata).
Brewer’s Mole (Scapanus breweri).
Smoky Shrew (Sorex fumeus).

Red Squirrel (Sciurus hudsonius).
Wood-chuck (Artomys monax).

Batrachians:

Daniel’s Salamander (Spelerpes danielsi).
Mountain Salamander (Desmognathus quadrimaculatus).

3. The Upper Austral Zone seems to include (roughly speaking)
all of our territory north and west of a line drawn from Suffolk,
Va. to Raleigh, thence to Charlotte, and thence a little south of
west to the South Carolina line at or near Tryon in Polk County,
—except that part of the mountain region occupied by the Alle-
ghanian and Canadian zones. The animals which occur in this
zone in this state and which are generally considered to distin-
guish it from the higher and colder Alleghanian zone are:

Mammals:

Opossum (Didelphis virginianus).

a eae

1908 | Nores oN THE Lirr-ZoneEs 17

Gray Fox (Urocyon cinereo argenteus) .
Golden Mouse (Peromyscus nuttalli).
Little Mole Shrew (Blarina parva).
Twilight Bat (Nycticeius humeralis).
Georgia Bat (Pipistrellus subflarus).

Reptiles and Batrachians:

Marbled Salamander (Amblystoma punctatum).

Holbrook’s Triton (Spelerpes guttolineatus).

Ground Lizard (Liolepisma laterale).

Brown King-snake (Ophibolus rhombomaculatus).

Muhlenberg’s Terrapin (Chelopus muhlenbergi).

And this same zone is distinguished on the south and west by

having the following animals whose range does not normally
extend into the Lower Austral zone.

Mammals:

Chipmunk (Tamias striatus).

Deer-mouse (Peromyscus leucopus).
Cooper’s Lemming (Simaptomys cooperi).
Meadow Mouse (Microtus pennsylvanicus).
Jumping Mouse (Zapus hudsonius).
Weasel (Putorius novaboracensis).

Mole Shaew (Blarina brevicauda).

Red Fox (Vulpes fulvus).

Reptiles and Batrachians:

Common Water-snake (Natrix fasciatus sipedon).
Wood Frog (Rana sylvatica) .

Pickerel Frog (Rana palustris).

Red-backed Salamander (Plethodon erythronotus).

4. The Lower Austral Zone includes all of our territory south
and east of the line already described for the eastern and southern
boundary of the preceding (upper austral) zone. The number of
animals occurring in this state in this zone but not ordinarily
extending into the Upper Austral Zone is quite large, and includes
the following:

18 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL SocIETy

Mammals:

Southern Fox Squirrel (Sciurus niger).
Cotton Mouse (Peromyscus gossypinus).
Cotton Rat (Sigmodon hispidus).

Rice-field Rat (Oryzomys palustris).
Roof-rat (introduced) (Mus alexandrinus).
Marsh Rabbit (Lepus palustris) .

Southern Shrew (Sorex longirostris).
Carolina Mole Shrew (Blarina carolinensis).
Big-eared Bat (Plecotus mocrotis).

Birds:

[ May

A considerable number might be mentioned but are not need-

ed to confirm the zone.

Reptiles:

Alligator (Alligator mississipiensis) .

Joint Snake (Ophysauris ventralis).

Green Lizard (Anolis principalis).

Southern Water-snake (Natrix fasciata).

Pied Water-snake (Natrix taxispilota).
Hoop-snake (Abastor erythrogrammus).
Horn-snake (Farancia abacura).

Striped Chicken-snake (Coluber quadrivittatus).
Spotted Racer (Coluber guttatus).
Brown-headed Snake (Rhadinea flavilata).

Red King-snake (Ophibolus coccineus).

Red Snake (Cemophora coccinea).

Hog-nosed Snake (Heterodon simus).

Crowned Tantilla (Tantilla coronata).
Cotton-mouth Moccasin (Akistrodon piscivorus).
Ground Rattle-snake (Sistrurus miliarius).
Diamond Rattle-snake (Crotalus adamanteus).
Smooth Terrapin (Pseudemys concinna).
Florida Terrapin (Pseudemys floridanus).
Rough Terrapin (Pseudemys scripta) .

1908 | Norges oN tHE LirE-ZONES 19

Batrachians:

Carolina Tree-frog (Hyla cinerea).

Squirrel Tree-frog (Hyla squirella) .
Pine-woods Tree-frog (Hyla femoralis) .

Dwart Toad (Bufo quercicus) .

Narrow-mouth Toad (Engystoma carolinense).
Margined Salamander (Stereochilus marginatus).
Dwarf Salamander (Manculus quadridigitatus).
Mole Salamander (Amblystoma talpoideum).
Ditch Eel (Amphiuma means).

Southern Water-dog (Necturus punctatus).
Mud Kel (Siren lacertina).

In outlining this map the most important step has been to
locate the line separating the lower and upper austral zones. In
placing this line where we have it, we have been influenced by
the following data: The Dismal Swamp region, which lies partly
in the northern end of Camden county, is known to have decided-
ly lower austral affinities, so that our line would seem to start
west of this swamp. The only section in the northeast part of
the state which has enough records to furnish a reliable guide is
the southeastern part of Bertie county, where Sans Souci and
Avoca have on record five distinctively lower austral forms, to two
upper austral. Meagre data from Jackson (Northampton County)
and Tarboro (Edgecombe Co.) indicate a mixed fauna at both
places, and therefore we have run the line between them. Ral-
eigh is really the strongest point in locating this line. Abundant
data indicates that the fauna of Raleigh and vicinity is thoroughly
mixed, with no decided preponderance in either direction,—
therefore we have run the line directly through Raleigh. This
gives practically a straight line from Raleigh toward Suffolk, Va.,
until the state line is reached at Chowan River.

West of Raleigh and east of the mountains our data is scant.
Cary, with one decidedly upper austral form (Chipmunk) which
does not occur at Raleigh, finds a place above the line, while
Apex with one lower austral form is below it. It is interesting to
note here that the Chipmunk recorded from Cary was taken not
more than seven miles from Raleigh but has never been taken actual-

20 JOURNAL OF THE MircHALL Soclery [ May

ly at Raleigh, while the Florida Terrapin, (a very decidedly lower
austral form) has been taken in north-west Johnston county, but
is not known at Raleigh. This gives further warrant for running
the dividing line directly through Raleigh.

The line, passing between Cary and Apex, runs straight to
Charlotte. Southern Pines, many of whose insects are known,
shows strong lower austral affinities, while Stanly and Cabarrus
counties each contribute one lower austral record. As Salisbury
and Statesville both show records which would tend to exclude
them from the lower austral zone, we have run the line straight
to Charlotte so as to leave these points in the upper austral, but
including parts of both Stanly and Cabarrus counties in the lower
austral.

From Charlotte we have run the line slightly south of west, so
that it crosses the South Carolina line at or near Tryon in Polk
County. This latter locality seems to be (biologically) one of the
most remarkable in the state. Its vicinity within a radius of a
few miles is so varied in elevation and temperature that we have
records of lower austral, upper austral, and Alleghanian forms,
and there may be an infusion of strictly Canadian forms on the
tops of the higher mountains of that locality. Of the strictly
lower austral forms known at Tryon we may mention the Green
Lizard, and a species of true Scorpion, the latter having never yet
been taken at any other place in the state.

It may be well to mention a few rather exceptional records.
Coopers Lemming, — recorded as an inhabitant of sphagnum
swamps which are generally considered to present Alleghanian
tendencies,—has been taken at Chapanoke in Perquimmans county.
The Diamond Rattle-snake, — considered to be a decidedly lower
austral form, — has been recorded at Jackson, Northhampton Co.
The Red-backed Salamander, — not known at Raleigh and a dis-
tinctively upper austral form, — has been taken at Greenville, Pitt
Co. At Kinston the Wood-Frog and Pickerel Frog (both consid-
ered to be upper austral species) have been taken. The Weasel
(upper austral) has been taken at New Bern. The Glass Snake,—
a typically lower austral form, —has been taken at Statesville.
In Transylvania county there is record of the Mole Salamander,
which is a distinctively lower austral form. Insects of normally

1908 | Norrs oN THE LiIFE-ZONES 21

lower austral habitat have been taken at Andrews in Cherokee
Co. and near Franklin in Macon Co. The Green Lizard (lower
austral) is also said to occur along the Little Tennessee River in
Graham or Swain Counties, but this record is open to question.

At Weaverville, Buncombe County, the Big-eared Bat (lower
austral) has been recorded.

These exceptional records, while in our opinion not sufficiently
numerous or consistent to change the course of the faunal lines as
shown on the map, serve to emphasize the fact that no faunal
lines or zones can be claimed to be absolute. Animals typical of
one zone will occasionally wander into a neighboring zone. It is
therefore not surprising to find a typically lower austral form as
much as twenty to forty miles north or west of the faunal line, or
on the other hand to find a distinctively upper austral form a
similar distance east or south of this line, —and this overlapping
of forms along the edges of the zones occurs with special frequency
among those animals which move rapidly from place to place and
which may therefore from hunger, fright or other causes become
restless and wander out of their normal range. But it would be
worthy of note if a distinctively upper austral form were found to
occur regularly and in any degree of abundance, in the warmer
parts of our state which are well within the Lower Austral zone as
defined on our map. In this connection we would call attention
to the localities of Cape Hatteras, Beaufort, Havelock (Lake Ellis)
and Wilmington. From these four localities we get a total of 46
characteristic records, every one of them lower austral. But when
we go nearer to the line to the north and west as at Greenville,
Tarboro and southeastern Bertie County, we strike scattering
upper austral records. The few upper austral rocords for New
Bern and Kinston are of such character as not to materially affect
their standing as strictly lower austral localities. The presence
of several lower austral records in the southern part of our moun-
tain region is plainly attributable to the proximity of the Gulf
coast only a few hundred miles to the south, whence characteristic
forms no doubt migrate with more or less frequency up- the
streams or through the low mountain valleys, — while the high
mountain ranges present many Alleghanian and even some Cana-
dian forms. These conditions of life-zones normally opposed to

22 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society [May ~

one another being brought so closely together in the southern part
of our mountain section, render it a region of peculiar biological
interest.

With regard to this southwestern section of our state, we can-
not do better than to quote from an article on ‘“An Ornithological
Reconnaissance of Western North Carolina’ by Wm. Brewster,
published in ‘‘The Auk,’’ January, 1886. He says:

I have left a valley where Mocking-
birds, Bewick’s Wrens, and Cardinals were singing
in water-oaks, sweet-gums and magnolias (all upper
austral birds and plants), climbed a mountain side
covered with oaks and hickories inhabited by Wil-
son’s Thrushes, Yellow-throated Vireos and Rose-
breasted Gross-beaks (Alleghanian forms) , and with-
in an hour or two from the time of starting found
myself in a dense spruce forest where Winter Wrens,
Golden-crested Kinglets and Red-bellied Nuthatches
(Canadian forms) were the most abundant and char-
acteristic birds. Indeed, were it possible in the
present state of our knowledge to indicate accurately
on the map the relative extent and position of the ;
three faunae (life-zones) by using a different color
foreach . . + the work when completed would
certainly present a strangely patched appearance.

‘‘The boundaries of these divisions are determined
chiefly by elevation, the Canadian occupying the
tops and upper slopes of the mountains down to
about 4,500 ft., the Alleghanian the mountain sides,
higher valleys, and plateaus between 4,500 and 2,500
ft., and the Carolinian (upper austral) everything
below the altitude last named.”’

The authors in preparing this map have chosen to be conser. a-
tive in representing the Alleghanian and Canadian zones, and
there is doubtless more territorry actually included in each of
these than the map shows. Furthermore, the extreme northwest
counties are as yet practically unknown from a zoological stand-
point, so that, — while we might assign most of its territory on
hypothetical reasoning, we haye preferred to leave it unmarked
save by an interrogation point.

RateicnH, N.C.

—————

—— ee ee

————

A BACTERIOLOGIC STUDY OF THE BLANK CARTRIDGE*

DAVID H. DOLLY

It appears from statistics in THe JourRNAL of the American
Medical Association, August 29, 1903, that of 392 cases of tetanus
incident to accidents on the previous July 4, 363 followed wounds
from the blank cartridge and toy pistol. In other words, 92 per
cent. of the tetanus cases were apparently attributable to wounds
from blank cartridges.

Dr. A. I. Ludlow, assistant resident surgeon at the Lakeside
Hospital, succeeded in isolating B. tetani from the blank cartridge
wounds in one out of five fatal cases of tetanus, but cultivated the
B. aerogenes capsulatus in four. In none of these cases was there
emphysema nor emphysematous gangrene of the wounds, which
were routinely treated by free incision and packing with iodoform
gauze. In one of these which came to autopsy I failed to isolate
B. tetani from the wound of the hand, but obtained B. aerogenes
capsulatus from the local lesion and heart’s blood. There was no
gaseous emphysema of any organ.

These findings led me to investigate several makes of blank
cartridges, and the results of these investigations form the basis of
the present paper. The infectious agents concerned in these
wounds (apart from the contents of the cartridge), may come
from the skin and parts of clothing introduced. These latter
sources of infection were not considered.

SOURCE OF MATERIAL

The cartridges used were manufactured by the Peters Cartridge
Co., the Winchester Arms Co., and the Union Metallic Cartridge
Co., and were bought in the open market at various times and
places.

*Reprinted from The Journal of the American Medical Association, Feb. 11,
1905.

1908) 23

24 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Socrery [ May

CULTURAL EXPERIMENTS

(A) Wads.—In both the cultural and animal experiments the
wads were extracted with a sterile instrument, every care being
taken to exclude accidental contamination.

The wads were placed in a 1 per cent. glucose bouillon, and
incubated under anaérobic conditions (usually in Novy jars) at
body temperature, for from 3 to 5 days, when coverslip prepara-
tions were studied. Not infrequently slender bacilli with end
spores suggestive of B. tetanit were seen. Nine cultures containing
these tetanus-like bacilli were inoculated in fresh hematoma in the
thigh of guinea-pigs. All of these animals survived but one,
which died at the end of the month without symptoms of tetanus.
These tetanus-like bacilli decolorized by Gram and were proved
by cultural methods to be identical with a pseudo-tetanus bacillus
discovered by Bain in blank cartridges. Many cultures contained
a stout bacillus with square ends, apparently encapsulated, and
subcultures made on glucose agar showed abundant gas formation.
Nine rabbits injected with these gas-forming cultures, and killed
ten minutes afterward, showed after from 8 to 20 hours’ incuba-
tion marked gaseous emphysema, and B. aerogenes capsulatus was
isolated from them all in pure culture. All efforts to demonstrate
the presence of B. tetani failed. In a total of 250 wads examined
by culture, the B. aerogenes capsulatus was demonstrated in sixty-
six, or 26.4 per cent., and from sixty-one it was isolated in pure
culture. Two of these were worked through all media, but in
general the cultural characteristics on glucose agar, milk, and
blood serum, together with the morphology, the capsule formation,
the positive Gram stain, and the failure to grow aérobically, were
deemed sufficient for identification. It is interesting to note that
spore formation occurred in old milk and agar cultures, as well as
on blood-serum. Some difficulty was experienced in separating
B. aerogenes capsulatus from the other anaérobic organisms present
in wads until Kitasato’s method of heating for one hour at 80
degrees C. was adopted. It invariably survived this. That the
explosion of cartridges neither kills nor inhibits the growth of B.
aerogenes capsulatus was demonstrated by shooting the wads into
jars containing melted glucose agar, which on incubation gave

1908| BacrertoLtocic Srupy or THE BLANK CARTRIDGE 25

abundant growth of this organism in four out of five experiments.
The following table gives the proportinn in which B. aerogenes
capsulatus was found in wads of the different makes:

Wads examined BAC: Per cent.

eters .32 caliber. odteotk see. ien 54. 32 50.9

iPeters:.22 caliber: ..¢)4..;20..% 50 21 sree

UMM. LSB.) Se eae ed Be 49 f 7.0

IVE Ci 2D Ne a ee NO 50 0 Mi oe

Winchester .22 caliber........ 47 6 12.7
250

(B) Powder.—Cultures from the powder of 101 cartridges were
usually serile. Neither B. tetani nor B. aerogenes capsulatus was
isolated.

INOCULATION OF ANIMALS

At the suggestion of Prof. William H. Welch, the rat was used
as being probably the animal most susceptible to tetanus.

To give B. tetani, if present, the most favorable environment
possible, use was made of two procedures, the second one of which
has not been employed in similar investigations. The first is
inoculation of fresh hematoma, which increases greatly the
chances of growth of B. tetani. As to the second one, Vaillard
and Rouget established that ‘‘tetanus spores when free from toxin
are innocuous when not accompanied by another bacterium, unless
protected from phagocytes.’’ , Twelve white tats were inoculated
under strict asceptic precautions with wads from the Peters Co.
32 caliber cartridges. In addition, a loop of a pure aérobic cul-
ture was added, in six an attenuated Staphylococcus pyogenes
aureus and in the remaining six B. coli communis. The skin was
then closed by a stitch and covered with celloidin.

Nine of these rats died in convulsions, the tenth quietly, while
the other two survived. The incubation period varied from sixty
to seventy hours. The character of the convulsions differed from
that usually described for animals. The first symptom was a
marked spastic condition of the inoculated leg, which was held
in extreme flexion, explained by the laceration of the extensor
muscles. Gradually this spastic state extended to the whole

‘body, so that the animal would retain its distorted shape in any

position. In all, there was emprosthotonos, in two associated
with pleurothotonos. The forelegs were held closely against the
abdomen and the non-inoculated leg in extension. At short, ir-

26 JourRNAL oF THE MitcHELL Soctety [ May

regular intervals there were definite convulsions, the most typical
of which started with several rapid nods of the head, followed in
order by clonic spasms of forelegs and hindlegs, passing in a few
seconds into a tonic spasm of the whole body. In several, clonic
spasms alone appeared. The convulsions lasted from one and a
half to three hours, the animals all dying at the end of a spasm.

At autopsy no lesions of internal organs were found. Smears
from the meninges were negative for leucocytes and bacteria.
Bearing in mind previous failures to cultivate B. tetani from
wounds, it was thought wiser to subinoculate from these animals.
Accordingly, the wads, with some necrotic tissue, were removed
from six of the rats and inoculated into three guinea-pigs and
three rabbits. The guinea pigs died during the night, but the
rabbits developed tetanus in about thirty hours. The character of
the convulsions corresponded to the description in text-books.

In smears from the rats and guinea-pigs, a few spore-bearing
bacilli morphologically resembling B. tetant appeared. These
were somewhat more numerous from the rabbits. From one rat
only one such bacillus was seen after an hour’s search. In all
smears bacilli morphologically identical with B. aerogenes capsula-
tus were recognizable, together with numerous other organisms.
Cultures were made from the wounds and wads on glucose bouil-
lon and glucose agar, as well as blood serum. There was marked
gas production, but repeated search failed to disclose B. tetant.
Numerous subcultures, made both with and without Kitasato’s
method, were likewise negative. B. aerogenes capsulatus grew so
rapidly and vigorously that it apparently crowded out B. tetani
Many anaérobic plates were also unsuccessful as regards B. tetant.
In explanation of these failures, it may be said that the tetanus-
like bacilli were extremely scanty, while B. aerogenes capsulatus
was relatively abundant; and, further, that several other bacilli
were present in the Peters wad, which resisted heating as well,
one of these forming colonies much resembling those of B. tetani.

However, of five rabbits inoculated with five or six loops of the
original cultures, three died in convulsions. Smears and cultures
from their wounds were also entirely negative for B. tetani, though
made as soon as symptoms of tetanus appeared.

—

a eS S|

Oe eee

1908| Bacreriotogio Srupy of THE BLANK CARTRIDGE 27

The experiment was next tried of adding several crystals of
urea to the material inoculated for its antichemotactic effect. In
this rabbit the exude was poor in leucocytes, and tetanus-like
bacilli more numerous than in previous experiments, but B. aero-
genes capsulatus had increased proportionately and several series of
plates were again negative for B. tetani.

A second series of inoculations with the Peters wads was next
made. Three rats and three guinea-pigs were each inoculated
with two wads, together with Staphylococcus pyogenes mucus, and
several small crystals of urea. One rat and two pigs developed
tetanus. As in the previods experiments, tetanus-like bacilli
appeared in greater numbers than in the first series, but have not
yet been isolated.

Inoculation experiments were also tried with the other brands
of cartridges. In the case of the Union Metallic cartridges, the
wads from the seven original bouillon cultures which yielded B.
aerogenes capsulatus were used. One rat died without tetanic
symptoms, the others survived. Likewise, thirteen wads of the
Winchester cartridges, distributed among three rats and three
guiney-pigs, produced no symptoms, and the animals survived
the local suppuration produced by the staphylococcus.

Previous work has been done on this subject by Le Garde, Tay-
lor, Wells, and the Boston Health Department, a total of 759
cartridges having been examined, both by culturcs and animal
inoculations, all with negative results for B. tetani. The only
report of the finding of B. tetani in cartridges is made by R. N.
Connolly, bacteriologist to the board of health of Newark, N. J.
He bases his diagnosis, apparently, on the morphology and odor
of cultures, and no inoculation of animals is reported. With
regard to B. aerogenes capsulatus, Wells alone describes an obligate
anaérobe which corresponds closely to this organism, but says it
seemed to have motility, and it is not identified.

My thanks are due to Dr. W. T. Howard, Jr., and to Dr. Roger
G. Perkins, for their valuable suggestions.

CONCLUSIONS

1. B. aerogenes capsulatus (Welch) was present in a large pro-
portion of the wads of the three makes of cartridges examined,

28 JOURNAL OF THE MircHett Socrery [ May

2. The wads of the Peters Company, inoculated in rats, guinea-
pigs, and rabbits, produced characteristic symptoms of tetanus.

3. The powder of the three varieties of cartridges examined was
negative for B. tetani and B. aerogenes capsulatus.

4. My efforts at isolation of B. tetani from the wads have
so far been unsuccessful.

5. There is abundant evidence, from clinical observations and
animal experiments, that the wads of certain blank cartridges
contain B. tetant. Dr. Welsh told me that he considered it
diagnostic to see an animal in convulsions.

REVIEW

The Chemistry of Commerce, R. K. Duncan. Harper & Bros., 1907.
In this new book the author again, as in his ‘“New Knowledge’’,
translates admirably the technical and scientific facts into lan-
guage easily understood by the layman. This he states to be his
object, and he has succeeded well. The chief value of the book is
not simply in the facts that are therein stated, nor in the descrip-
tion of the great industries dependent upon chemical science, but
in the suggestions for improvement, in the inspiration to greater
things, in the call to larger influence.

Although in the main the author does treat of the chemistry of
commerce, yet in a few chapters the relation is somewhat far
fetched. As an example, a chapter on “‘Floral Perfumes’’ treats
for the most part on the methods used in obtaining the perfumes
from flowers and only at the end records briefly the chemical pro-
duction of artificial perfumes. Again in the chapter on ‘‘Making
of Medicines’’, biology plays a more important part than chemis-
try. But if this is a fault, it may be largely overlooked because
of the intensely interesting things therein recorded.

The author constantly points out the fact that Americans, while
excelling in mechanical appliances are far behind in scientific
knowledge concerning the basis of their industries, and hence the
enormous waste through bye-products of factories. Finally he
appeals to the manufacturer for a more scientific business, to the
scientist for at least a toleration of research on technical problems,
and the Universities to stand sponsor between the two.

The book is one that every manufacturer should read, to gain
a knowledge of how the chemist may help him: it is one that
every chemist should read to gain inspiration in his work.

Re OH. Bp:

1908) 29

PAPERS RELATING TO SCIENCE

Published or read by the members of the Faculty of the University of
North Carolina® during 1907.

CoLLIER Coss.

Notes on the Geology of Core Bank, N. C. Journal of the Elisha
Mitchell Scientific Society, May, 1907.

The Garden, Field, and Forest of the Nation. Address as Presi-
dent of the North Carolina Academy of Science. Journal of the
Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, June 1907.

The Geological Work of the Atmosphere. Illustrated. Address at
Guilford College, N.C.

Wiutu1aM C. CoKEr.
Fertilization and Embryogeny in Cephalotaxus Fortunet. Botanical

Gazette, Oct. 1907.
Chapel Hill Ferns and Their Allies. Journal of the Elisha

Mitchell Scientific Society, Noy. 1907.
A New Form of Achlya. Paper before the N. C. Academy of
Science, May 1907.

ARCHIBALD HENDERSON.

Recent Investigations in the Foundations of Geometry. Paper before
the N. C. Academy of Science, Chapel Hill, May 1907.

The Foundations of Geometry—An Historical Sketch. Journal of
the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, May, 1907.

J. 3. Tiara.
Notes on Motor Circuits. Electric Journal, Jan. 1907.

Witu1AM DEB. MacNIper.

The Action of the Nitrites on the Heart. The American Journal of

the Medical Sciences, Vol. 135, page 99.
A Further Study of the Action of Magnesium Sulphate on the Heart.
American Journal of Physiology, Vol. 22, No. 11.

30 [May

1908 | Papers RELATING TO SCIENCE 31

Some of the Later Manifestations of Syphilis with Report of Cases.
Charlotte Medical Journal, September 1907.
J. E. Mints.

A Review on ‘Researches on the Affinities of Elements,’’? by Geof-
frey Martin. Science, August 2nd, 1907.

Molecular Attraction VII. An Examination of Seven Esters.
Journal of Physical Chemistry, Vol. 11, p. 594, 1907.
A. S. WHEELER.

Eine neue Farbenreaktion der Lignocellulosen. Ber. der deutsch.
Chem. Ges., Vol. 40., p. 1888, 1907.
H. V. WItson.

A New Method by which Sponges may be artificially reared. Science,
Vol. 25, No. 649.

On Some Phenomena of Coalescence and Regeneration in Sponges.
Journal of Experimental Zoology, Vol. 5, No. 2.

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JOURNAL
Clisha Mitchell Scientific Society
VOL. XXIV ME NO. 2

ORNITHOLOGICAL WORK IN NORTH CAROLINA*

T. GILBERT PEARSON

Our earliest record of an ornithological observation in North
Carolina is that of Captain Barlow who in company with his asso-
ciate, Captain Amadas, visited the coast in 1584. Entering the
Sounds by one of the inlets they sailed to Roanoke Island and
landed. Evidently they climbed one of the tree-covered dunes
girting the east side of the island, for Captain Barlow writes,
‘Under the bank or hill whereon we stood, we beheld valleys
replenished with goodly cedar trees, and having discharged our
barquebus shot, such a flock of cranes (the most part white) arose
under us, with such a cry redoubled by many. echoes, as if an
army of men had shouted together.’’ One visiting Roanoke Island
today will still see goodly cedar trees but the herons, (which
doubtless were the birds to which he referred) are no longer to be
found in such numbers. Three hundred and twenty-five years of

*Presidential address before the North Carolina Academy of Science,
May 1, 1908.

1908} 33 Printed June 20, 1908.

34 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Socrery [ June

man’s destructive influences have written their story large among
the bird life of that interesting region, and the most northerly
breeding colony of herons known to exist in the State is situated
on an island in Matamusket Lake 45 miles away in a southwes-
terly direction. The birds here are so few in number, and their
united cries would not equal the lusty shout of a corporal’s guard.

Two years after this, viz.: in 1586, Thomas Hariot came to the
island and made a list of the birds he found there. Of these he
says there were ‘“Turkey cocks and turkey hens, stock doves, par-
tridges, cranes and herons, and in winter great store of swan and
geese. Of all sorts of fowl, I have names in the country language,
four score and six; of which number, besides those that he named,
we have taken, eaten, and have the pictures as they were drawn,
with names of the inhabitants; of several strange sorts of water
fowl eight, and seventeen kinds more of land fowl, although we
have seen and eaten many more which for want of leisure there
for the purpose, could not be pictured; and after we are better
furnished and stored upon further discovery with their strange
beasts, fish, trees, plants and herbs, they shall be published.
There are also parrots, falcons, and merlin-hawks, which although
with us they be not used for meat, yet for other causes I thought
good to mention.’’

One of the most interesting items in this narration is the refer-
ence to ‘‘parrots’’, which establishes the fact without doubt that
the Carolina Paroquet at one time inhabited the immediate neigh-
borhood of the coast.

John Lawson, Gentleman, in his History of North Carolina
published in London in 1714, devotes fully ten pages to an enum-
eration of the birds of the state and a dissertation on the habits
and activities of some of them. Many of the birds which he found
here were new to him, and as he evidently was not a trained
ornithologist he failed in many instances to note the difference
between them and those species of Europe which to his eye they
much resembled. To many of our native birds therefore he gave the
names of English species, and his descriptions being meagre we are
often left in doubt as to what birds he really had in mind. Thus
what he calls “‘Moorehen’’ may have been either the Gallinule or

1908 | OrnitHoLoGicaAL Work In Norra CAROLINA 35

the coot. His ‘“Lay-wing’’ was perhaps one of the plovers, the
golden, black-bellied, Wilsons or piping, or may have been the
dowitcher or turnstone.

Among the hawks he speaks of the ‘“Hobbie’’. I am yet at a
loss to understand to what species he referred as all the other small
hawks are evidently accounted for under such English titles as
Falcon, Merlin, ete.

He made the mistake of regarding the young Bald Eagle as a
distinct species and calls it the gray eagle. This error, by the
way, was long followed by subsequent observers of North American
bird life. Audubon, writing over a hundred years later, tells in
much detail about the life history of the gray eagle, in fact he has
left us a full page drawing of the magnificent ‘‘Bird of Washing-
ton’’, as he calls it. The fact that the young bald eagle does not
acquire its white head and tail until after an elapse of three years
will account in a measure at least for its mistaken identity.

On the other hand some of Lawson’s statements which bear on
the face evidences of being perfectly truthful, reveal some valuable
information. One of these is his account of the breeding of the
black duck in the eastern marshes and another which tells of the
common occurrence of the sand hill crane. These are the only
two positive records we have of this character within the borders
of North Carolina, for so far as known no one else has recorded
cranes in the state, and while the black duck is a common winter
visitor and has long been suspected of breeding here, we know of
no authoritative record of a nest having been found since this
account given by Lawson.

In the days of Lawson the wild pigeon which has since become
extinct, was an aboundant bird in North Carolina. They proba-
bly gathered to breed in vast numbers in the mountains, after
which they spread over the low country and their numbers being
augmented by great flights from the north, the pigeon population
must have been something enormous. Lawson says ‘‘I saw such
prodigious flocks of these pigeons in January and February, 1701-2
(which were in the hilly country between the great nation
of the Esaw Indians and the pleasant stream of Sapona,
which is the west branch of Clarendon, or Cape Fear River, that

36 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL Society [ June

they had broke down the limbs of a great many large trees all over
those woods, whereon they chanced to sit and roost; especially the
great pines which are more brittle wood, than our sots of Oak are.
These Pigeons, about sunrise, when we were preparing to march
on our journey, would fly by usin such vast flocks that they
would be near a quarter of an hour before they were all passed by,
and as soon as that flock was passed another would come, and so.
successively one after another for a greater part of the morning.
It is observable that wherever these fowls come in such large num-
bers, as I saw them then, they clear all before them, scarce leay-
ing one acorn upon the ground, which would doubtless be a great
prejudice to the planters that would seat there, because their swine
would be thereby deprived of the mast. When I saw such flocks —
of the Pigeons I now speak of, none of our company had any
other sort of a shot than that which is cast in moulds and was so
very large that we could not put above ten or a dozen of them into
our largest pieces. Wherefore we made but an indifferent hand
of shooting them; although we commonly killed a Pigeon for every
shot. They were very fat and as good Pigeons as ever I eat.’’

While it can hardly be claimed that the writings of John Law-
son are of any great ornithological value, they are at least inter-
esting from a historical standpoint and should most assuredly be
included in any bibliolographical sketch of North Carolina orni-
thological study.

The work of Col. Wm. Byrd of Westover, Va., next claims our
attention. It was he who conducted the survey of the boundary
line between —————,, Va., and North Carolina in 1729. The
narrative of his experiences which we are told was written largely
for his own amusement and that of his friends, contains besides
an account of the survey many side remarks on the inhabitants of
the territory which he traversed. His references to natural his- —
tory are not infrequent, but are for the main part of little mo- ~
ment. The following contribution on the habits of the Carolina
paroquet, a bird now extinct, may be of interest. ‘‘Very few in
this country have the industry to plant orchards, which in a dearth
of rum might supply them with much better liquor. The truth
is there is one inconvenience that easily discourages lazy people

1908 | OrnITHOLoGicAL Work IN Norra CAROLINA 37

from making this improvement. Very often in autumn when the
apples begin to ripen they are visited with numerous flights of
paroquets, that bite all the fruit to pieces in a moment for the
sake of the kernels. The havoc they make is sometimes so
great that sometimes whole orchards are laid waste in spite
of all the noises that can be made or mawkins that can be dressed
up to frighten them away. These ravenous birds visit North Car-
olina only during the warm season and so soon as the cold begins
to come on retire back towards the sun. They rarely venture so
far north as Virginia except in a very hot summer, when they
visit the most southern parts of it. They are very beautiful, but
like some other pretty creatures are apt to be loud and mischiey-
ous.”’? He does not attempt to catalog the birds of the country.

In the library of the State College at Columbia, S. C., I recent-
ly found that rare and interesting work of Catesby ‘‘The Natural
History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands,”’ published
in 1731. A careful reading of its pages, however, reveals the fact
that the author in all probability was never within the borders of
North Carolina. He went up the Savannah river almost to the
mountains and hunted buffalo with the Indians; later he sailed
for Virginia, and ascending the James river, traveled thence
westward to a point almost north of that reached on his trip from
Savannah. There seems to be no evidence that he ever saw the
intervening territory. This is to be regretted, as Catesby was not
only an artist of merit but for the times must have been a very
careful and painstaking naturalist. I mention this work because
its title would lead one to think he had made a study of the Nat-
ural History of this state.

In my quest for information regarding early ornithological
writers I applied to North Carolina’s most noted historian of today,
Dr. Stephen B. Weeks, and from him. received many courtesies
including the loan of some of the books from his extensive library.
One of these is the work of Dr. John Brickell published in Dublin
in 1737, and bearing a comprehensive title as follows: “The Nat-
ural History of North Carolina, with an account of the trade, man-
ners, and customs of the Christian and Indian inhabitants; illus-
trated with copper plates, whereon are curiously engraved the map

38 JoURNAL OF THE MrrcHELL Socrery | June

of the country, several strange beasts, birds, fishes, snakes, insects,
trees and plants, etc.’’

His list of birds follows closely that of Lawson published some
years previously, and the similarity of the text in many instances
strongly suggests the idea that he frequently bordered closely on
plagiarism.

He enumerates 129 kinds of birds. Five of these at least we
must eliminate at the start. He makes three eagles out of one,
naming as he does in addition to the bald eagle the black and
gray eagles which are simply different phases of the immature
bird. We, of course, cannot accept two species of leather-winged
bats for birds, and the nightingale which he mentions is not found
in a wild state in the Western Hemisphere.

Although Dr. Brickell in his Preface says regarding his Natural
History writing “‘I have been very exact,’’ the reader is not
always so impressed. Of the brown pelicans he says ‘‘They have
an odd kind of note much like the braying of an ass, and in spring
they go into the woods to breed and return in the autumn.’’
Whereas it is a well-known fact that the pelican is an absolutely
silent bird and breeds on the ocean beaches or on mangrove Keys
of the Gulf coast. Of the cuckoo he writes “‘In winter they hide
themselves in hollow trees, and their feathers come off, and they
are scabby, they usually lay one egg, and that in the nest of the
Hedge Sparrow.’’

This reminds one of the story of the Naturalist Humbolt to
whom a student stated that a lobster was a red fish which runs
backwards. Humbolt is reported to have replied ‘‘You are right
in all but three things, viz: it is not red, it is not a fish and does
not run backwards.’’ The Carolina cuckoos do not hide in hol-
low trees, they do not lose all their feathers at once and become
scabby, they lay not one but from two to four eggs in a nest of
their own construction, and finally the hedge sparrow is not found
in America.

In treating of the gray eagle he discusses at considerable length
its interesting characteristics of form and activities. In part he
says “They are great thieves, and live to be very old and die not
from age nor any sickness, but of mere hunger by reason that the

1908 | OrniTHOLOGICAL WorKk IN NortH CAROLINA 39

upper beak of their bill is so far over grown and turneth inward
so much, that they are not able to open it to feed themselves.
They seldom seek their prey in the forenoon, for they are found
sitting idle and perched upon trees all the morning. It is reported
that the quills or feathers of eagles laid amongst those of other
fowls will rot and consume them, which I have not faith to be-
lieve. The flesh though scarce fit to be eaten is medicinal
against the gout, the bones of the skull in powder are good
against megrim, the brain drank in wine, helps the jaundice, and
the gaul is of excellent use in most disorders of the eye, and
applied helps the bitings of serpents and scorpions, etc.

Delicious as Brickell’s natural history sketches are, it is almost
certain that he acquired much of his material from the Indians
and settlers and has woven into his narrative many of the tradi-
tions and superstitions of the country. Positive statements as to
what he actually saw occur but seldom, one of these is when in
speaking of the smallness of the hummingbird he remarks “‘I
have frequently seen butterflies chase them away from the
flowers.’? The butterfly of his day must have been a pretty for-
midable creature.

Another of these early gentlemen who traveled through the
South and left his writings for the benefit of posterity was Wm.
Bartram in 1791. His book is entitled “‘Travels through N. C.
S.C., Fla., ete.’’ Itseems, however, that he made but one hasty
trip through North Carolina. He traveled by land. Entering
the State in Brunswick county, he proceeded to Southport, passed
from there up the Clarendon (or Cape Fear river) to Cambletown
(now Fayetteville), and thence on to Virginia. He speaks: briefly
of the trees, soil and rocks, but makes no reference to the wild
animal life. Some of his stories are very lightly colored. He
speaks of the alligators of 8. C., rushing at him with terrible roar-
ings and with steam rushing from their mouths and nostrils which
threw over him a hurricane of water. In reading his writings one
is inclined to believe that William Bartram would come under the
class of President Roosevelt’s ‘‘Nature Faikirs.”’

Apparently the first real ornithologist to visit North Carolina for
the purpose of studying the birds was Alexander Wilson, a Scotch-

40 JoURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocIETY [ June

man who traveled through the country collecting birds and mak-
ing drawings of them by day and playing the violin for profit or
diversion at night. Wilson was a field naturalist of the first order,
and his great work “‘American Ornithology’’ illustrated in colors
with his own most creditable drawings in colors has well won for
him the title of “‘“Father of American Ornithology,’’ despite the
fact that his work was eclipsed some years later by the stupendous
undertaking of Audubon. As an ornithologist Audubon was Wil-
son’s superior only in that he was a more skilful artist. As a man
Wilson was of humble parentage, but indifferently educated, was
poor, retiring, sensitive and self-effacing. Audubon was of excel-
lent parentage, was highly educated, was always confident and at
times self-assertive. Both were great contributors to the world’s
knowledge of American birds, and it was their work which aroused
real interest in the subject and put in motion the movement
for bird study from which has since developed a long line of
brilliant American naturalists.

On one of Wilson’s trips through North Carolina, he found a
specimen of the largest of all American wood-peckers, the Ivory-
billed. The bird has long been extinct in this State. Another
point of interest attending this capture by Wilson is that there is
no record of one ever having been taken farther north in Eastern
America. His record is therefore interesting and unique. He
says, ‘‘The first place I observed this bird at, when on my way to
the south, was about twelve miles north of Wilmington in North
Carolina. There I found the bird from which the drawing of the
figure in the plate was taken. This bird was only wounded
slightly in the wing, and, on being caught, uttered a loudly reiter-
ated, and most piteous note, exactly resembling the violent cry-
ing of a young child; which terrified my horse so, as nearly to
have cost me my life. It was distressing to hear it. I carried it
with me in the chair, under cover, to Wilmington. In passing
through the streets its affecting cries surprised every one within
hearing, particularly the females, who hurried to the doors and
windows with looks of alarm and anxiety. I drove on, and on
arriving at the piazza of the hotel, where I intended to put up,
the landlord came forward, and a number of other persons who

1908 | ORNITHOLOGICAL Work IN NortH CAROLINA 41

happened to be there, all equally alarmed at what they heard;
this was greatly increased by my asking, whether he could furnish
me with accommodation for myself and my baby. The man
looked blank and foolish, while the others stared with still greater
astonishment. After diverting myself for a minute or two at
their expense, I drew mp woodpecker from under the cover, and
a general laugh took place. I took him up stairs and locked him
up in my room, while I went to see my horse taken care of. In
less than an hour I returned, and, on opening the door, he set up
the same distressing shout, which now appeared to proceed from
grief that he had been discovered in his attempts to escape. He
had mounted along the side of the window, nearly as high as the
ceiling, a little below which he had begun to break through. The
bed was covered with large pieces of plaster; the lath was exposed
for at least fifteen inches square, and a hole, large enough to ad-
mit the fist, opened to the weatherboards; so that, in less than
another hour he would certainly have succeeded in making his
way through. I now tied a string around his leg, and, fastening
it to the table, again left him. I wished to preserve his life, and
had gone off in search of suitable food for him. As I reascended
the stairs, I heard him again hard at work, and on entering had
the mortification to perceive that he had almost entirely ruined
the mahogany table to which he was fastened, and on which he
had wreaked his whole vengeance. While engaged in taking the
drawing, he cut me severely in several places, and, on the whole,
displayed such a noble and unconquerable spirit, that I was fre-
quently tempted to restore him to his native woods. He lived
with me nearly three days, but refused all sustenance, and I wit-
nessed his death with regret.’? The above account refers to a
great woodpecker nearly as large as a crow and now confined to
the more inaccessible swamps of the Gulf coast.

What we may term recent ornithological research began in
North Carolina in 1871, when Dr. Eliott Coues published in the
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, May 2, a series of notes on
the birds observed by him while stationed at Fort Macon in Cart-
eret county, 122 species of birds were mentioned.

In 1886, William Brewster of Cambridge spent some time in the

42 JOURNAL OF THE MircHEeLL Socrery [ June

mountains of western North Carolina, and his list of birds pub-
lished in the ‘‘Auk’’ contains records of 120 species. The preced-
ing winter Charles Bachelder, also of Cambridge, made a number
of observations on the winter bird life of the mountains and this
likewise was published in the “‘Auk.’’ One of the discoveries
made by Mr. Brewster was the Carolina snow bird (Junco hye-
malis Carolinensis). J. S. Cairns, an enthusiastic student of birds
living at Waynesville, published the results of his observations in
the “‘Ornithologist & Oologist’? in 1887. He enumerates 169
varieties of birds in Buncombe County. It was he who first dis-
covered the Cairns Warbler.

Messrs. H. H. & C. S. Brimley, of Raleigh, were for many
years engaged in collecting birds for scientific purposes. During
this time and since they have gathered much valuable information
on the nesting and migration habits of the birds which occur there.
Between 1884 and 1891 they published in the ‘‘Ornithologist &
Oologist’’ 76 articles on Raleigh Bird Life. Mr. R. B. McLaughtin
during 1887-1888 contributed 9 articles to the same publication
on the birds of the Statesville region.

Additional papers on the bird life of the state to the extent of
47 in number by various authors have been published; princi-
pally in the “‘Auk’’ and the “‘Ornithologist & Oologist.”’

Thus briefly and somewhat hastily I have attempted to sketch
what has been done in the line of ornithological study in North
Carolina. It will be observed that the work done has been mostly
in gathering notes on the geographical distribution, migration and
modification of the species found in the state. Considerable
attention has also been paid to Oology by Messrs. Brimley of Ral-
eigh, McLaughtin of Statesville, Joseph Armfield of Greensboro
(whose splendid collection of eggs of our native birds may be seen
at the Museum of this College), Dr. Smithwick of Arora and a
few others.

Today we know of positive records of 325 species of birds which
have been taken in the state, some of these at least are exceedingly
rare and may be regarded only as stragglers. Among these
may be mentioned the Northern Phalerope taken by Dr. Bishop
at Pea Island; the Ruff taken at Raleigh by Mr. Brimley; the

1908 | ORNITHOLOGICAL Work IN Norv CAROLINA 43

Black-necked Stilt captured at Roanoke Island by the Rev. Mr.
Moyle; the bay-breasted Warbler noted at Chapel Hill and the
Man-o’-war bird secured at Ocracoke by the speaker.

It may not be out of place here to mention that the state Audu-
bon Society has in preparation a book on the birds of the state and
a note regarding any rare finds made by members of the Academy
will be greatly appreciated. In conclusion it has occurred to me
that it might not be out of place to present to the Academy some
views illustrating game preserve activities in the state also showing
what the Audubon Society has been able to accomplish in one
small island in the way of protecting sea birds.

Greensboro, N. C.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE NORTH CAROLINA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE

The North Carolina Academy of Science held its seventh annual
meeting at the State Normal College, Greensboro, N. C., on Friday
and Saturday, May 1 and 2, 1908.

The Academy was called to order at 3:30 P. M., May 1, by the
president, T. Gilbert Pearson. A letter of welcome to the acad-
emy from President J. I. Foust of the College was read. A response
to this welcome was made by the retiring president, Collier Cobb,
of the Academy.

At 8:30 in the evening the Academy met in the auditorium of
the Students’ Building, and the presidential address, ““An Histori-
eal Sketch of Ornithology in North Carolina’’ (illustrated by lan-
tern slides)* was delivered by President T. Gilbert Pearson.
Following this address a reception was tendered the members of
the Academy by the faculty and students of the senior and junior
classes of the College in the dining room of Spencer Building.
Later President and Mrs. Pearson received the visiting members at
their home on West Market Street.

At9 A. M. Saturday, May 2, the Academy convened for a busi-
ness meeting. Reports of various committees were heard. The
report of the treasurer showed a balance of $119.60.

The following new members were elected: Mr. Harry N.
Eaton, Instructor in Geology, and Mr. Hubert Hill, Assistant in
Geology, University of N. C.; Mr. R. I. Smith, Entomologist to
the N. C. Experiment’ Station, West Raleigh; Mr. 8S. B. Shaw,
Assistant Horticulturist N. C. Department of Agriculture; Dr. L.
L. Hendron, Professor of Applied Mathematics, Trinity College,
Durham, N. C.; John Roy Williams, M.D., Greensboro; Mrs.
Charles D. McIver, State Normal College, Greensboro.

*This address appears in full in this issue of the Journal.
44 [ June

As 1908 | Prockepinas or N.C. ACADEMY oF SCIENCE 15
‘

ru

a rh fe . . f .

“ Phe following officers were chosen for the ensuing year:

President, Tait Butler, Department of Agriculture, Raleigh.

Vice-President, J. J. Wolfe, Trinity College, Durham.

Secretary-Treasurer, E. W. Gudger, State Normal College,
Greensboro.

lixecutive Committee, Chas. H. Herty, University of N. C.,
Chapel Hill; John F. Lanneau, Wake Forest College, Wake Forest;
W. H. Pegram, Trinity College, Durham.

The Committee on Resolutions brought in the following report,
which was unanimously adopted:

In pursuance of the duties devolving upon the commit-
tee appointed, the committee begs to submit the follow-

ing resolutions:

(1) That in the death of Prof. J. W. Gore, Dean of
the Department of Applied Science and Professor of
Physics at the University of North Carolina, the North
Carolina Academy of Science feels that it has suffered
profound loss,—the loss of an investigator whose scien-
tific attainments were notable, a scholar whose interest
in scientific progress, in general as well as in his own and
allied subjects, was unbounded, and a man whose broad
humanity and high Christian character were a source of
inspiration to all with whom he came in contact.

(2) That a copy of these resolutions be published in
the official organ of the Academy and likewise in the
public press.

The next meeting of the Academy will be held at Trinity Col-
lege, Durham, N. C., May, 1909.

The following papers were presented:

The Amanitas of the Asheville Plateau, by H. C. Beardslee, of Ashe-
ville, N.C.
The following list of species was reported:
Amanita Caesarea Scop., A. virosa, A. Phalloides Fr., A. mus-
b
earia Linn., A. pantherina DC., A. junquillea Quel., A. strobili-
?
formis Paul., A. solitaria Bul., A. schinocephala Vitt., A. rubes-

46 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Soctrry | June

cens, A. cinerea Bres., A. nitida Fr., A. vaginata I'r., A. volvata
Pk., A. farinosa Schw., A. mappa Fr.

The species A. verna, virosa, and phalloides were considered
as not distinct.

Amanita junquillea Quel. was illustrated by photographs and
specimens and compared with the European forms. The Ameri-
cac A. russuloides Pk. was referred here, also the European spe-
cies A. amici, adnata, and vernalis. Photographs and specimens
had been seen by Bresadola and Boudier who verify this conelu-
sion. Specimens of the European form had also been examined.

Amanita cinerea Bres. was shown to include A. spreta Pk.

A. volvata was shown to be the plant referred by Quelet and
Bataille to A. coccola Scop. It was also considered the true A.
agglutinata of Curtis, and A. baccata as understood by Bresadola.

Photographs of many forms of A. solitaria and its allies were
shown illustrating the difficulty of successfully defining species in
this much confused group.

Distribution and Migration of Warblers at Raleigh. C. S. Brimley
of Raleigh, N. C.

An Adjustable Armellary Sphere—Newly Designed, J. F. Lanneau,
of Wake Forest College, N. C.

This paper dealt with a unique piece of apparatus—a light,
symmetrical mechanism, built by Wm. Gaertner & Co., Chicago,
after Professor Lanneau’s design—for class-room use in Wake
Forest College.

Its special feature is the placing of the horizon plane and ver-
tical circles within the celestial circles, and the two concentric
systems, mechanically independent, allowing of the real eastward
rotation of the former, or of the apparent westward rotation of
the latter.

SOME ILLUSTRATIONS.

1. An alluminum ball at the centre represents the sun; and
by a simple device a smaller ball revolves around it eastward in
the plane of the ecliptic, representing the earth’s annual
motion.

i
ve
f
1908 | ProckEDINGS OF N.C. ACADEMY oF Scrence: 17
“y
* 2. With central ball representing the earth, to it is securely

attached the horizon plane and vertical circles for, say, an
observer in latitude 36° north. Clamping the celestial circles in
fixed position, the earth-ball with its horizon system is easily
rotated eastward, showing sun-rise and sun-set and the rising and
setting of moon, stars and planets—these objects being suitably
indicated, for any given date, in their apparent places on the
celestial frame-works. Or clamping the horizon in its seemingly
fixed position, the celestial circles and objects in place are readily
rotated westward in accord with familiar appearances.

3. Altering in latitude the attachment of the horizon plane to
the earth-ball, the apparatus shows in tum the reality and the
appearances to an observer at the equator; or, again, to an obser-
ver at the north pole during his six-months’ day and his six-
months’ night.

4. Some circles and the celestial objects may be variously
adjusted and placed for an indefinite number of of astronomical
illustrations.

5. Selected circles and objects may be duly disposed to facili-
tate apprehension and solution of numerous celestial problems
and, if problems also in geodesy and navigation which involve
the ever-recurring ‘‘astronomical triangle?’

QUESTION AND ANSWER.

Are the earth and sun at the centre? They are not held to be
at the centre of the myriad stars of the visible universe. They
are at the centre of the ‘‘celestial sphere’’, conceived of as every-
where equidistant from the earth; so distant as to be beyond the
remotest star. Its quasi reality is that vast shell of void space
beyond the stars, upon which as a dark, spherical background all
the stars appear fixed as viewed from the central earth. So
measureless its remoteness, any point within the earth’s com-
paratively little orbit, including the sun, is virtually its centre.

This “‘celestial sphere’’, with sun or earth as centre. is the

‘a basis of practical astronomy. Its standard circles in miniature
are part of our armillary sphere.

48 JOURNAL OF THE MircHeLi Socrery { June

Concerning Sclerotinose of Lettuce, F. 1.. Stevens and J. G. Hall,
of the N. C. Experiment Station, Raleigh.

The term Sclerotinose was proposed as a designation for diseases
caused by Sclerotinia, and Sclerotinose of lettuce was characterized
as one form of lettuce drop caused by S. Libertiana.

As the result of two years’ study the authors conclude that the
only part of the fungus that lives through the quiescent period of -
the disease is the sclerotium and that each season’s infection is by
wind borne ascospores produced from these sclerotia. They rec-
ommend that the formation of sclerotia be prevented by early
removal and destruction (incineration or burial) of infected plants.
This course followed for a few years, accompanied by the exhaus-
tion of all sclerotia originally in the soils by germination, seems
promising as a means of ridding infected regions of the pest.

The Origin of Certain Topographic Features along the Sand-Hills
Border of the Atlantic Coastal Plain. Collier Cobb, of the
University of North Carolina.

Notes on the Life-zones in North Carolina.* By C. 8. Brimley and
Franklin Sherman, Jr., Raleigh, N.C.

The authors, having made a careful detailed study of all avail-
able records of the occurrence and distribution of animals in the
state, present their conclusions as to the probable boundaries of
the different life-zones. The groups of animals chiefly relied
upon are: Mammals, Reptiles, and Batrachians. Birds and
insects have been used mainly to confirm ideas otherwise origi-
nated.

It is found that four distinct life-zones are represented in the
state as follows:

1. The Canadian Zone, including only the tops of the
higher mountains, usually above 4,500 feet elevation. The fol-
lowing places are placed in this zone: Black Mountains, Roan
Mountain, Grandfather Mountain, Bald Mountain in Yancey
County, and the higher mountains in Macon County near High-
lands.

*This paper was published in full in this Journal, for May, 1908.

1908] Proceepinas or N.C. ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 49

2. The Alleghanian Zone, includes practically all between the
elevation of 2,500 ft. and 4,500 ft. This includes most of the
Blue Ridge and Smoky Mountains, Nantahala Mountains, Bal-
sam, Pisgah Ridge and the lower elevations of Black Mountains
and others mentioned as belonging to the Canadian zone.

3. The Upper Austral Zone includes all of the state north and west
of a line drawn from Suffolk, Va. to Raleigh, thence to Charlotte,
thence to the South Carolina line near Tryon in Polk County—
except that portion already assigned to the Canadian and Alle-
ghanian zones.

4. The Lower Austral Zone includes all of the state to the
south and east of the line just mentioned.

Lists are given of the characteristic animals in each of these
zones, and mention is made of a number of exceptional records,
where animals have been taken beyond the limits of what their
range would supposedly be.

The counties in the extreme northwest part of the state have
not yet been zoologically explored, and are therefore not yet
assigned to any zone, awaiting the accumulation of more records.

The Relation of Bovine Tuberculosis to the Public Health. Tait
Butler of the Dept. of Agriculture, Raleigh.
“The Twenty-Seven Lines Upon a Cubie Surface.’?? Archibald Hen-
derson of the University of North Carolina.
In his paper, Dr. Henderson explained that by the selection of
a highly symmetrical equation of a cubic surface:

ip y 2 w EZ yw
uv, Y2 a, W, Ue, Vy Ww,
x Y Z w XZ yw
i -({—-+—-+—-+—- —~—])=0
i Y, Z, Ww, sh YW,

by a proper choice of constants 2, Y,, 2, Wij Ve» Yo % Ws and
finally by employing a regular tetrahedron of reference, that it
was not difficult to derive very simple and symmetrical equations
of the twenty-seven lines upon the cubic surface, and therefore to

50 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocrETY [ June

construct a string model of the configuration, showing the funda-
mental tetrahedron and the twenty-seven lines in proper relation
to each other and to the fundamental tetrahedron. Instead of
a string or wire model, he exhibited a beautiful perspective draw-
ing in colors, of the configuration.

The Scope and Function of Science. Wm. Louis Poteat of Wake
Forest College. [Read by title. ]

Some Trials of a Museum Curator. H.H. Brimley, State Museum,
Raleigh. [Read by title. ]

The Oral Gestation of the Gaff Topsail Catfish, Felichthys marinus.
E. W. Gudger of the State Normal and Industrial College.

This paper was given by permission of the Commissioner of
Fisheries and will later be published in the Bulletin of the Bureau.

The Proximate Constituents of the Oleoresins of Pinus palustris and
Pinus heterophylla. Chas. H. Herty of the University of
North Carolina.

The San Jose’ Scale.* By Franklin Sherman, Jr., Entomologist
N. C. Dept. Agriculture, Raleigh.

The paper opens with an apology and explanation for present-
ing a paper upon so threadbare a subject before the Academy, —
stating however, the author’s belief that popular presentation of
subjects of economic interest to the state should have a conspicu-
ous place on the program.

A brief account of the history and general distribution of the
San José Scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus, Comst.) is given, and
mention is made of the principal food-plants, and methods of
spread.

Referring to conditions within the state of North Carolina it is
shown that present records indicate the pest in 65 counties, at 145
different post-office localities and on at least 423 different prem-
ises. It is a safe presumption that it is in many localities in addi-
tion to those on record. It isa reasonable presumption that it is

*This paper appears in full in this issue of the Journal.

1908 | ProceEepIncs or N. C. ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 51

in every county in the state but it cannot be presumed that it is in
every locality, — and there is every reason to believe that many
individual premises are not yet infested by it.

In at least seventeen communities it is generally distributed,
having been found in a number of orchards or perhaps in all. In
the west, it is known in the counties of Cherokee, Haywood,
Mitchell and Watauga, — and in the east in the counties of Bruns-
wick, New Hanover, Carteret and Pasquotank. It is found only
a few feet above sea-level, and at an elevation of 4,000 ft.

According to present records the worst-infested counties are as
follows in order of infestation: Catawba, Surry, Guilford, Moore,
Gaston, Wake and Polk.

Concerning the Difference of Behavior of Soil Organisms When in
Solution and When in Soils. F. L. Stevens and W. A.
Withers of the N. C. Experiment Station, Raleigh.

(A prelimiminary Report of work done by F. L. Stevens and

W. A. Withers assisted by W. A. Symeand J. C. Temple.)

Results of numerous experiments were adduced to show that
the activities of ammonifying, nitrifying, denitrifying and nitrogen
gathering bacteria are different in soils from what they are in
solutions and that no adequate knowledge of the efficiency of
these various soil organisms in effecting chemical change can be
attained by tests conducted in solutions. Even the relative
powers of different organisms or of different soils is largely affected
by the conditions of the test. It seems therefore that in the study
of soil bacteria the work must be done with soils, rather than with
solutions or at least that frequent controls or checks in soil must
be made.

THE SAN JOSE SCALE

A Brier Poputar Account oF A Nororious Insecr PrEst, WITH
A STATEMENT OF ITs PRESENT RECORDED STATUS
IN Norro CARoLiIna*

BY FRANKLIN SHERMAN, JR.

About three years ago, two prominent amateur collectors of
insects, each an authority in his chosen group, were in this state
on a brief collecting trip, and, by arrangement, I met them and
spent a day in their company. It chanced that the orchards
throughout all that neighborhood (Southern Pines) are infested
with the San José Scale, and when I mentioned this fact quite
incidently, both immediately expressed great interest and desire
to see the pest, saying that they had often heard of it but had
never seen it or received any first-hand information concerning it.
Yet this insect is so notorious a pest, that among economic ento-
mologists the discussion of it is now almost debarred, by mutual
consent and unwritten law, from the public meetings. One year
ago, at the sixth annual meeting of our Academy at Chapel Hill,
Dr. Butler gave a discussion of the Cattle Tick, a pest of wide dis-
tribution and of tremendous economic importance to the live-
stock interests of the southern states, and while none of the facts
which he gave could in any wise be regarded as new and original
contributions to science, yet the paper was received with manifest
interest by our Academy.

These facts have convinced me that however desirable it may
be to present at our meetings the results of really new and original

*Read before the North Carolina Academy of Science, May 2, 1908.

~

52 [June

1908 | Tue San José Scate 58

research, one of our most beneficent functions will be missed if we
fail at the same time to have on our programs a certain number
of popular discussions of matters of economic importance to our
state.

So much by way of apology for discussing before this body a
subject which to economic entomologists at least, has become
threadbare and almost barren of new thoughts.

ok 7K *

The San Jose’ Scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus) was first described
to science in 1880 by Prof. J. H. Comstock, who found it very
destructive in deciduous fruit orchards in the Santa Clara valley of
California. He recognized it as one of the so-called ‘“‘Seale-
insects’’, belonging to the genus Aspidiotus, remarking that it was
the most pernicious scale-insect known to him, and therefore
applying to it the specific name of perniciosus, and proposed that
it be called the Perniciosus Scale. But as the city of San José is
not distant from the place where it was discovered it became
known by the popular designation of The San José Seale.

There is reason to believe that it became established in Califor-
nia as early as 1870, and there is reason also to believe that it
was introduced into California from China, which seems to have
been its original home. é

In the eastern United States the insect was not known until
1893 (only fifteen years ago) when it was discovered at Charlottes-
ville, Va. on trees which had been purchased from New Jersey
nurseries and these nurseries had presumably become infested by
the importation of stock from California. Only four or five years
later it was known to exist in twenty states east of the Mississippi
river. It is not to be supposed that Charlottesville, and the New
Jersey nurseries, were the only sources of scale in the east. It is
likely that it became established in many other localities and per-
haps in other nurseries at about the same time.

So far as we know the San José Scale gained its first foot-hold
in North Carolina at or near Southern Pines, Moore County,
about 1893 or 1894, approximately at the same time that it was
discovered at Charlottesville. It was not recognized until 1895 at

54 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL Socrery | June

which time it had gained a strong foothold. In 1897 it was
known in six or eight localities, In 1900 it was known in about
twenty places. In August 1904, it was known in 44 counties.
At present (April 1908) it is known to be on no less than 423
different premises, at 145 different post offices (or rural routes
therefrom), in 65 counties. Further details of its present known
distribution in this state will be discussed later.

Trees that are very badly infested with the San José Seale look
as if they had been dusted over with ashes. Examined with a
lens this scurfy crust on the branches is found to be made up of
hundreds of little nipple-like objects or scales, lying close to the
bark. The largest scales are those of the mature females and are
gray in color, circular, about the size of the head of a good-sized
pin but with a slightly greater degree of convexity than the sur-
face of the top of the pin-head. Slightly to one side of the cen-
ter of the scale is a lemon-yellow nipple or ‘‘center’’. Turning
over this scale with a pin or knife-point we may find the bright
yellow, soft-bodied, wingless, eyeless, legless body of the female
insect beneath. Indeed, her energies seem concentrated on the
two all-important biological functions of assimilating food and
reproduction. The food is procured by means of a slender thread-
like organ thrust into the bark and through which the sap of the
tree is imbibed.

The young are born alive, there being no distinct egg-stage in
the life-history of the species, and the young are able to creep out
from under the parent scale. For a few hours these yellowish
young lice, barely visible to the naked eye, are able to creep
about freely, but when they are compelled by hunger to thrust
their beaks into the bark to draw nourishment they become per-
manently attached, and after a few hours more the scale begins to
form, being composed of a waxy secretion from the body, com-
bined with the cast skins of the growing young insect.

There are a number of complete and distinct generations of the
insect in the course of the season, but when settled cold winter
weather comes the old insects nearly always die, leaving only the
partly-grown ones to survive. These over-wintering scales are

almost black and about as large as the cross-section of the body of |

—. -

1908) Tre San Jos& Scat 55

a good-sized ordinary pin. When the growing season opens in
the following spring the female develops as already described while
the scale of the male becomes elongate and the creature finally
develops into atiny yellowish, winged, flying insect, which
although mouthless and thus incapable of taking sap from the
tree, is endowed with an extra set of eyes to make all the more cer-
tain of finding mates and providing for the perpetuation of his
species.

We have said that the scales may be matted together in a scurfy
coating over twigs and branches of badly-infested trees. In cases
of slight infestation the scales may be scattering, only a few being
found on a piece of twig, or perhaps even only one or two being
found on an entire tree. Where the scales are scattering on the
bark each scale is apt to be (but is not always) surrounded by a
reddish blotch or spot. This reddish staining is very noticeable
in the inner bark of badly infested twigs. It is also quite con-
spicuous on those varieties of trees which have a yellowish or
greenish bark, in contrast to which the reddish blotches show up
in bold relief.

We have stated that the insect after once settling down to feed
remains attached at that spot. We have also seen that the female
never emerges from under the shell or scale. The adult male,
which ean fly, can play but an unimportant part in the spread of
the species. How, then is the species distributed? The several
agéneies by which this is accomplished are:—1st, by its own
natural powers, each young louse often crawling several inches
from the parent scale before attaching itself, 2nd, by wind,
which in blowing through an orchard may waft the tiny young
like particles of dust or pollen from one tree to another, 3rd, by
birds, which may alight in an infested tree and then rapidly trans-
port young crawling lice on their feet or feathers to new trees,
4th, by insects, In same way as by birds, 5th, by man, horses,
ete. in cultivating or working in the orchard and passing from tree
to tree. All the above means facilitate its spread locally from
tree to tree, or from one orchard to another in the same neighbor-
hood. But for spread into new and distant localities the San
José Scale is chiefly dependent on still another method, namely 6th,

56 JouRNAL OF THE MrrcHELL Socretry [ June

the transportation of infested trees or plants. It is on account of
this last feature of its spread that all of the eastern states have
adopted measures providing for the the inspection of fruit-tree
nurseries and the condemnation of stock found to be infested.

The San José Scale is not capable of living and thriving on all
kinds of plants. For convenience its food-plants may be divided
into three clases. First, the ordinary food plants on which it is
most commonly found, and including peach, apple, plum, pear,
cherry, and apricot. Second, the not wncommon food plants,
including currant, gooseberry, rose, grape, osage-orange, thorn-
apple, Japan walnut, Japanese (or flowering) quince,
poplar, elm, and linden. Third, what we may call the uncommon
or rare food-plants including persimmons, walnut, sumac, catalpa,
willow, ash, dogwood, maple, spruce, cedar, raspberry, strawberry,
milkweed, and even crabgrass.

In short, while it is found on a great variety, yet its economic
aspect is principally concerned with its occurrence on our culti-
vated deciduous fruit plants, (especially orchard trees) and such
ornamental plants as belong to the botanical family Rosaceae.
Only in rare cases has it been found in the actual forest and the
forests are not appreciable factors in harboring or disseminating it. —

The length of time that a tree will live after it becomes infested
depends upon the hardiness of the tree and the age at which it—
becomes infested. With peaches from two tosix years (depending
on age) will usually be fatal, while for apples from two to ten
years is required to kill, or perhaps they may not entirely die at
all from the scale. |

There are certain natural enemies which have a tendency to
reduce the numbers of the scale, or at least to prevent its becom-_
ing so abundant as it otherwise might. Several species of internal -
insects parasites infest it, while more than one of our native Jady- |
beetles devour it. A fungous disease also does some good work,
while only in recent years the U. S. Department of Agriculture
introduced a Chinese species of lady-beetle for which great things
were hoped but which has been unequal to the emergency.

For nearly ten years after this pest was discovered in the
eastern states fruit-growers relied upon emulsions of kerosene or

1908 | Tue San Jos Scare 57

solutions of soaps to subdue it, and the more skillful, careful and
resourceful growers were enabled to keep their orchards profitable,
even though -badly infested. During 1901 and 1902 experiments
were made which demonstrated that the lime-sulphur-salt wash,
long in use on the Pacific coast, was useful here also and_ it
quickly came into general use. Within another two years it was
clearly demonstrated that the salt was not of material value in the
mixture. The mixture as now most widely used in this state
consists of 20 pounds lime and 17 pounds sulphur, boiled an hour,
to 50 gallons of water, the wash being sprayed on the trees while
still hot or warm. This remedy not only holds the scale in prac-
tical control, but also retards other insects to some extent, and is
also claimed to be quite an effectual preventative of leaf-curl of
peaches. Certainly it is efficacious in removing much moss,
lichens and loose dead bark from trunk and branches and it seems
to promote a healthy growth of new wood and bark. Indeed, so
marked have been the benefits from this wash that many thought-
ful, sensible fruit-growers declare that, all things considered, the
appearance of the San José Scale in their orchards has worked
to their ultimate advantage rather than otherwise. Certainly the
appearance and spread of the pest has caused our fruit-growers to
awaken to the importance of other insects also, as nothing else
had done before,—and the science of Economic Entomology has
gained a decided impetus from it.

* * *

Referring again to the present known conditions with regard to
the San Jose Scale in this state,—it has been my frequent experi-
ence to be asked by really intelligent and apparently otherwise
well-informed men, whether this pest is actually known to occur
within the borders of North Carolina. In order that at least
every person here present may be assured in the affirmative on
this point I present herewith a map of the state on which each
locality where the scale is known to exist, no matter how
sightly, is marked with a black dot. The numbers refer to the
number of different premises actually known to be infested
in the county. Localities which seem to be generally infested

58 JouRNAL oF THE MrrcHELL Society | June

with the San José Scale (the pest presumably being present in all
or most of the orchards) are marked with black circles or ellipses,
etc. as the case may require to denote the infested territory. It
must be remembered that this records the present conditions only
so far as known to us, and our knowledge is probably far from com-
plete.

Without going intoa detailed consideration of each county a
few general considerations may be of interest. The map shows
the scale recorded in 65 of the 98 counties in the state. It
shows145 different localities infested (and really there are more as
a locality as here designated includes all who are served by the
rural mail routes from that point) and the complete list numbers
423 separate premises. In 17 communities the scale is generally
distributed. We find that it is in the counties of Cherokee, Hay-
wood, Mitchell and Watauga bordering the Tennessee line, and in
the east it is found in the counties of Brunswick, New Hanover,
Carteret and Pasquotank. With regard to elevation, it occurs at
sea-level in Brunswick and but little higher in Carteret, Beaufort
and Pasquotank, yet it is also found at 3,000 ft. elevation in Hay-
wood and at about 4,000 ft.in Watauga. The area of heaviest
infestation seems to be the piedmont, but the fact that this is the
most thickly settled region, has been more frequently visited and
inspected, and that we have more correspondence among farmers
in this section than others explains this condition to some
extent. The records of one case each in the counties of Craven,
Beaufort and Pasquotank are due to the activity of Prof R. I.
Smith, Entomologist of the Experiment Station who discovered
these cases while on a recent Farmers’ Institute tour through
this section,—and they go to show that the scale is far more
widespread than our records yet indicate.

We know therefore that the San José Scale is already wide
spread in the state. It is a safe presumption that it is in many
localities in addition to those on record. Itis a reasonable presum-
tion that it is in every county in the state, though we connot yet
rightfully presume that it is present in every locality, and there is
every reason to suppose that there are many individual orchards
which are yet free from its attacks. But it is plainly evident that

1908 | Tre San José ScaLe 59

no section of the state is immune, and no man can safely presume
that his neighborhood is free from it. It is firmly established as
a permanent pest to be taken into consideration from the outset
be every person who enters the fruit growing business.

It is difficult to say which county is the worst infested. Based
solely on the number of infested premises on record Catawba
county leads with 62 cases, Guilford second with 32, and Gaston
a close third with 31. Based on the number of localities where
scale is known to exist Surry leads with 9 localities, Guilford sec-
ond with 7, while Moore and Gaston tie for third place with 6
infested localities each. The following table briefly indicates the
recorded conditions for each county which is known to have 5
or more localities in which there is San José Scale.

No. Localities No. Premises Average Premises

County Infested Infested ° per locality.
Catawba 5 62 12 2-5
Surry | 27 3

Guilford if 32 4 4-7
Moore 6 28 4

Gaston 6 ob 5 1-6
Wake 5 mA 4 1-5

Polk in ‘ 16 3 1-5

In conclusion it should be repeated that all the statements as to
the present conditions in this state are based solely on the present
available records. New cases are still coming to light almost
every week.

. Raleigh, N. C.

JOURNAL

OF THE

~ Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

NOVEMBER, 1908
VOL, XXIV.

NO. 3

MONAZITE AND MONAZITE MINING IN THE CAROLINAS*

BY JOSEPH HYDE PRATT AND DOUGLAS B. STERRETY

[NvRODUCTION

' Monazite is one of the minerals which for a long time was con-
sidered rather rare in its occurence, but upon a commercial de-
mand arising for it prospectors and engineers soon located large
deposits of it in the Carolinas and Brazil, and the supply has al-
ways been able to meet the demand. During the past year
further sources of supply of monazite have been discovered and
developed in Idaho. North and South Carolina, however, are the
only states that have thus far put any monazite on the market.

This mineral is essentially an anhydrous phosphate of the rare
earth metals, cerium, lanthanum, and didymium (Ce, La, Di) PO,.
There is nearly always present a varying but small percentage of
thoria (ThO,) and silicic acid (SiO,), which are very probably
united in the form of a thorium silicate (ThSiO,). Some mona-
zites contain but a fraction of a per cent of thoria, while others
have been recorded that showed the presence of 18 to 32 per cent;

*Paper read at the Chattanooga meeting of the American Institute of Min-
- ing Engineers, October 1908.

1908) 61 Printed November 138, 1908

62 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | November

but the majority contain from 3 to 9 per cent of this oxide. It is
the presence of the thorium oxide that gives the monazite its com-
mercial value. The analysis occasionally shows also the presence
of other constituents, as the yttrium and erbium oxides, zirconia,
alumina, magnesia, lime, iron oxides, manganese oxide, and tita-
nium ozide.

Monazite is light yellow, honey yellow, reddish, brownish, or
greenish yellow in color, with a resinous to vitreous luster, and is
translucent to subtransparent. It is brittle with a conchoidal
to uneven fracture, and is from 5 to 5.5 in hardness. It erys-
tallizes in the monoclinic system, and some crystals have been
observed that were 2 inches in length. The more perfect crystals
are, however, very small, ranging from an eighth toa sixteenth
of an inch in length down to microscopic ones.

The mineral is usually readily recognized after a few samples
have been examined. Its color, usually yellowish inclined to
reddish, its hardness 5 to 5.5, being readily scratched by feldspar
(hardness 6) or quartz (hardness 7), and its high specific gravity,
4.64 to 5.8, are the chief micrcscopic properties that will aid in
distinguishing it. The principal chemical and blow-pipe reactions
that can be readily employed to identify monazite are the follow-
ing: It is incompletely soluble in hydrochloric acid, but is com-
pletely and readily acted upon by sulphuric acid. If oxalic acid
is added to the very dilute filtered sulphuric acid solution, or to
the solution obtained by fusing the mineral with soda, a precipi-
tate is obtained which upon ignition becomes brick red, due to
cerium oxide. Before the blowpipe the mineral turns gray, butis
infusible. If heated with sulphuric acid, it colors the flame
bluish green, due to phosphoric acid.

The presence of the thoria content of the monazite, which is
the substance for which the mineral is mined, varies quite widely
from .01 to over 7 per cent. The following analyses of thoria
will illustrate the variation in the percentage of this oxide.

7908] Monazit® AND MonazirE MINING 63

Percentage of thoria (ThO,) in North Carolina monazite sand.
L 2 3 4 o 6 7 8 7) 10
ThO,...2.15 2.25 6.54 1.27 6.30. 2.48 5.87 6.26 3.98 1.93

1. White Bank gold mine, Burke County.

2. Hal! Creek, Burke County.

3. Linebacher place, Silver Creek, Burke County.
4. Long Branch, McDowell County.

5. Alexander Branch, McDowell County.

6. MacLewrath Branch, McDowell County.

7. Proctor farm, near Bellwood, Cleveland County.

8. Wade McCurd farm, Carpenters Knob, Cleveland County.
9. Davis mine, near Mooresboro, Cleveland County.
10. Henrietta, Rutherford County.
These results are for the concentrated sand, but in a number of
cases they could have been concentrated to a higher degree of
purity and thus contain a higher percentage of thoria.

GEOGRAPHY

Monazite is of wide spread occurrence in the United States,
though commercial deposits have been found in but few regions.
The area in which monazite deposits of commercial value have
been found in the Carolinas lies in the south central part of — wes-,
tern North Carolina and in the extreme northwestern part of
South Carolina. This area covers about 3,500 square miles and
includes part or all of Alexander, Iredell, Caldwell, Catawba,
Burke, McDowell, Gaston, Lincoln, Cleveland, Rutherford, and
Polk counties in North Carolina; and Cherokee, Laurens, Spar-
tanburg, Greenville, Pickens, Anderson, Oconee counties in South
Carolina. The larger towns within or near the monazite region
in North Carolina are Statesville, Hickory, and Shelby; and in
South Carolina, Gaffney, Spartanburg, and Greenville. This
monazite region is crossed by the Southern, the Seaboard Air
Line, and the Carolina & North Western railroads.

Several deposists of monazite have been located in northeastern
Georgia, though their value has not yet been determined. One of
these in Rabun County showed a good quantity of both gold and
monazite in a preliminary test. In the adjoining Jackson County

64 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [November

of North Carolina, monazite was found in several pannings that
were made in the Horse Cove region two miles east of Highlands.
At a number of other places in the mountain region of North
Carolina monazite occurs in pegmatized gneisses and schists.
Several small deposits of fairly rich monazite bearing gravels are
reported by Mr. Geo. L. English to occur in Clay County, North
Carolina. The lack of large areas of bottom lands, however,
limits the value of these deposits. It has also been found to a Jimited
extent in Cub Creek near Wilkesboro, Wilkes county, North
Carolina.
PHYSIOGRAPHY

Physiographically, North and South Carolina are divided into
three parts. These are the coastal plain, extending from the At-
lantic Ocean northwestward for a 100 to 150 miles; the Pied-
mont Plateau, extending from the limits of the coastal plain
northwestward for 100 to 130 miles to the foot of the Blue Ridge;
and the mountain region extending northwestward from the Pied-
mont Plateau to the State lines. The coastal plain and the Pied-
mont Plateau are prominent in both States, but only North Caro-
lina contains a large portion of the mountain area.

The coastal plain is abroad, nearly flat stretch of country
rising from sea level on the southeast to an elevation of a few hun-
dred feet on the northwest, in which direction it is practically
limited by the boundaries of the rock formations of which it is
composed. The Piedmont Plateau is an elevated district rising
from a few hundred feet above sea level on the southeast to 1200
or 1500 feet on the northwest. It forms a plateau much dissect-
ed by valleys from 50 to 200 or 300 feet deep, and its regularity
is further disturbed by scattered mountain peaks and smaller hills
rising above its general level. The features of the plateau are
best observed from a prominent ridge or one of the smaller hills
of the region. In the mountain region are included the Blue
Ridge and its foothills, and the higher mountains to the north-
west. The country in the mountain region is exceedingly rough,
and the elevations range from 1500 to over 6500 feet.

The region in which valuable deposits of monazite have been
found may be defined as a belt from 20 to 30 miles wide and over

1908) MONAZITE AND MONAZITE MINING 65

150 miles long. This belt lies wholly within the Piedmont Pla-
teau and borders closely on the Blue Ridge, to whose general
course it is roughly parallel.

GEOLOGY

Formations

The rocks of the Carolinas monazite region are principally
gneisses and schists. These include the Carolina and Roan
gneisses; granite gneiss and porphyritic granite gneiss. Among
other rocks are massive granite, pegmatite, peridotite and allied
rocks, quartz diorite, and diabase.

The Carolina gneiss is of Archaean age and is the oldest and
most important rock of the region. It is composed of several
types of gneisses and schists which exhibit various degrees of
metamorphism. The most common types are mica, garnet,
cyanite, and graphite gneisses and schists or combinations of two
or more of these types. The mica of the micaceous types may be
either biotite or muscovite or both. More or less mica is generally
present in all of the types of the Carolina gneiss, while the garnet
and cyanite types with or without the graphite type also occur
together. The different types of the Carolina gneiss vary in color
from light gray to dark gray and are sometimes bluish gray or
bluish black where graphite is abundant in them. Some types of
the Carolina gneiss are fine grained so that the component miner-
als are distinguished with difficulty, while others are more coarsely
crystallized. Some of the common constituent minerals of the
Carolina gneiss are biotite, muscovite, quartz, garnet, cyanite,
feldspar, and graphite. The presence of much pegmatitic
material is a characteristic feature of much of the Carolina gneiss.

The Roan gneiss is the next oldest formation of the monazite
region and is also of Archaean age. It consists of hornblende
gneiss and schist, with occasionally the less metamorphosed phase
diorite. The hornblende gneisses and schists are composed chiefly
of small interwoven and matted hornblende crystals and grade
into diorite which contains a noticeable amount of feldspar and
has a granitoid texture. The hornblende rocks vary from black
to dark green in color. Bands of mica gneiss and schist, possibly
of the Carolina gneiss, are included in both large and small
masses of the Roan gneiss.

66 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIFTY [Vovember

The age of many of the granites and granite gneisses has not
been determined though a part are probably Archaean. The
granites and their different phases are next to the Carolina gneiss
in importance, and are particularly prominent in areas where rich
deposits of monazite exist. The types found in the monazite
region are biotite granite, muscovite, and hornblende granite,
while in some places considerable secondary garnet has developed
in the gneissoid granites. The texture of the granites are gneissic
or schistose, porphyritic, and massive. Where the granite is both
porphyritic and schistose the feldspar phenocrysts often have an
augen form, caused by crushing and shearing. Many of the
granite masses have much quartz in veins and veinlets throughout
their mass. Some of this quartz is massive crystalline and other
occurs with more or less well-defined crystal form, or drusy sur-
faces. The occurrence of quartz veins is not always confined to
the granite masses, but in many places extends some distance
from the contact of the granite into adjacent formations. The
composition of the granite masses near the contact with other for-
mations has in many cases been altered by the partial or complete
absorption of inclusions of those formations. This phenomena is
particularly evident where a mica granite, by intrusion into a
mass of Roan gneiss, has become a hornblende granite near its
borders through the absorption of hornblende.

Pegmatite is a common rock throughout the monazite region
and is especially prominent in those areas rich in monazite. Two
principal methods of occurrence are here recognized. In one the
pegmatite occurs in distinct masses or bodies composed of quartz
and feldspar, with or without mica and other accessory con-
stituents. The texture of these masses is, in some cases, extreme-
ly coarse with the minerals composing the pegmatite separated out
in crystals or masses many inches across. The other type is peg-
matized gneiss, representing the addition of the pegmatite minerals
to the gneiss, with perhaps some recrystallization of portions of
the inclosing rocks. The nature of this pegmatized rock varies
considerably. In some places secondary quartz is the principal
mineral added, while feldspar is present in smaller quantities. In
others feldspar is more prominent. Mica may or may not be

1908] MonazItE AND MoNAzITE MINING 67

present in the pegmatitic material but has generally been plenti-
fully developed in the mass of the gneiss by metamorphism. The
feldspar of pegmatized gneisses often assumes a porphyritic form
producing augen gneisses. The gneisses and schists are often
banded with or cut at all angles by streaks of pegmatitic or grani-
tic material. The recrystallization of the gneisses and _ schists,
with the development of pegmatitic material or the injection of
such material through the rocks, may be called pegmatization. In
many places the process has proceeded so far that it is very diffi-
cult to distinguish pegmatized gneiss from granite gneiss, especially
from porphyritic and flow-banded granite gneiss. This difficulty
is partly due to the fact that granite and pegmatite are composed
of the same minerals and have no sharp division line between the
size of their grains.

The peridotites and allied basic rocks are dark-green to greenish
black in color and contain one or more of the ferromagnesian
minerals, olivine, pyroxene, and hornblende as chief constituents.
So far as known these rocks are of Archaean age and are probably
genetically connected with the Roan gneiss. Though a relatively
unimportant rock of the monazite region, these basic rocks gener-
ally outcrop prominently wherever they occur, and many of the
outcrops are marked by large rounded ‘“‘nigger-head’’ bowlders.
The peridotites and allied rocks are often altered to talcose or
chloritic soapstone or serpentine. In some cases this alteration is
only superficial, but in others whole masses have been so meta-
morphosed. These rocks generally occur in lens-shaped bodies
parallel. or nearly so, to the schistosity of the inclosing rocks.

Quartz diorite of undetermined age is one of the less important
intrusive rocks of the monazite region. It isa hard, fine grained
rock, composed of granular quartz and feldspar with varying
quantities of hornblende. Locally, garnet is distributed pro-
miscuously through it. Quartz diorite occurs in small dikes,
from a few inches to several feet thick. cutting the formations at
various angles. Their size is offset by their abundance in some
sections and resistance to erosion, owing to which they leave much
debris over their outcrops in the form of hard rounded bowlders.

Diabase, probably of Triassic age, is the latest intrusive rock
known in the monazite region. It is adense, hard rock of dark

68 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society [ November

green to black color, composed chiefly of olivine and a lime
feldspar and is rather abundant in some seetions and occurs in
dikes from a few to over a 100 feet wide. The outcrop is gener-
ally marked by abundant characteristic spheroidal ‘‘nigger-head’’
bowlders. The diabase dikes cut the rocks at various angles,
though in many cases they have a north to northwest strike.

STRUCTURE

The rocks of this region have undergone extreme regional meta-
morphism, with accompanying folding and faulting. The mash-
ing and recrystallization of the rocks of the Carolina gneiss forma-
tion have been so extensive, in some cases, that much of the
original sedimentary structure and igneous texture have been
destroyed. The folding of the older formations has resulted, in
some places, in complex structure of both large and small dimen-
sions. Some of the folds extend over miles of region, while others
are confined to a few feet or inches. The minor deformations and
crumplings—miniature Appalachian folds—-seen in some rock
exposures portray the form of the larger folds. The Carolina
gneiss has been intruded by rocks of later age and cut by them
into irregular-shaped masses, many of which fork out into long
tongues or occur as narrow streaks in the intrusives or vice versa.
There have been successive intrusions of igneous rocks of later age
into the earlier formations. Thus the Carolina gneiss is cut by
the Roan gneiss, and both are cut by granites of later age.

The structure of the pegmatite in this region is quite variable.
In some places the pegmatite occurs in sheets or lenses interbedded
and folded with the inclosing gneisses and schists. In other places
it occurs in dikes, veins, or lenses either conformable with the
inclosing rocks through part of its extent and cutting across them
in other parts, or in irregular masses having no definite orienta-
tion in the surrounding formations. In pegmatized rock masses
pegmatization has generally affected certain beds, which grade into
regular pegmatite in either the direction of their greatest or that of
their least extension. In such rocks it is often impossible to de-
termine the line of demarcation between the two. There is also
a gradation between the pegmatized beds and ordinary gneiss.

1908) MOoNAZITE AND MoNAzITE MINING 69

Rocks AND SOILs

The rocks of the southern Appalachain region have undergone
extensive weathering and in many places in the Piedmont Plateau,
especially, are concealed by a thick mantle of residual soil. In
many sections good outcrops are scarce and are found mostly on
steep hillsides, along water courses and in road cuts. The resi-
dual soils often furnish evidence of the nature of underlying rocks
and can be used as a guide to their determination. It is first
necessary to learn the different stages of soil formation by the
examination of many outcrops and their graduations into residual
soil.

The Carolina gneiss, on partial disintegration and decomposition,
commonly forms a gravelly soil with a red clayey matrix. This is
especially characteristic of the garnetiferous and graphite-cyanite
types, which are abundant in parts of the monazite region. The
pebbles are composed of small fragments of the original rock, such
as tufts of cyanite impregnated «with hematite or limonite, iron
stained garnets, or pieces of hematite. On more complete decom-
position a fine reddish clayey soil results, with no decided character-
istics. Other types of the Carolina gneiss, in which mica is an
important constituent, leaves a micaceous soil, much of which
assumes a purplish color. Granite and its various phases, on
partial disintegration and decomposition, yields light sandy soils.
On more complete decomposition the granites yield soils of a light
to dark reddish color, depending on the quantity of ferromagne-
sian minerals. as biotite or hornblende, in the original rock.
The quartz grains of the granite remain as sand mixed through a
clayey matrix. This quartz sand is almost everywhere to be seen
at the immediate surface, from which the clays have been washed
by rains. Where Carolina gneiss and granite are intimately
associated, or where pegmatization has been extensive in a body of
Carolina gneiss, there results a sandy soil, characteristic of granite,
through which are scattered pebbles of hematite and- ferruginous
cyanite, characteristic of the Carolina gneiss. The relative impor-
tance of pebbles in such soils decreases as the quantity of pegma-
tite or of granite in the rock formations increases. These features
of the soils are especially marked on the broad, flat ridges charac-

f
70 JoURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocIETY [November —

terizing much of the Piedmont Plateau region. The Roan gneiss —
leaves a greenish sandy soil on disintegration, and an ocher-yellow ©
to dark reddish brown or chocolate-colored clayey soil on decom- |
position. Black stains of manganese are associated with many of
the soils derived from hornblendie rocks.

A clew to the nature of the rock formations in a given region is
often furnished by the character of the gravels in the bottom
lands and streams draining that region. Thus in this area a very
light colored gravel with much quartz debris indicates a granite or
its contact or a very highly pegmatized country rock. Garnets and
hematite iron ore, with which blocks of mica or cyanite gneiss are
associated, indicate Carolina gneiss. Quantities of black sands in
the stream gravels, containing magnetite, ilmenite, hornblende,
etc., are characteristic of the Roan gneiss.

OccURRENCE

Monazite has been found in several varieties of rocks, in the
soils derived from monazite bearing formations, and in gravel beds
formed through the erosion of these formations. Only gravel
deposits have been profitably worked for monazite on an extensive |
scale, though in some places the surface soils adjoining rich ~
deposits of monazite, or the saprolite or rotted rock underlying ©
them, are found to be sufficiently rich in monazite to be sluiced
down and washed.

The percentage of monazite in both the original rock matrix and
in the gravel deposits is small, and probably does not often run
over 1 percent. Figures are not available for the percentage of
monazite in gravel deposits. From the saprolite underlying the
F. K. McCurd mine, three-fourths of a mile northeast of Carpen-
ter Knob, N. C., Mr. George L. English obtained about one-third
of a pound of monazite per ton, or about 0.016 per cent. At the ~
British Monazite mine, 3 miles northeast of Shelby, N. C., the
quantity of monazite in the hard rock formations was found by
Mr. Hugh Stewart, engineer in charge, to run from between 0.03
per cent and less up to over 1.10 per cent.

— 1908] MonaziItTEr AND MonaAzITE MINING 71

MonaAziITe-BEarRIna Rock

Monazite has been observed in the Carolinas in several types of
rock, among which are gneiss, pegmatized gneiss and schist, peg-
matite, and different varieties of granite. The occurrence of mon-
azite in ordinary pegmatite masses is in large masses of crystals.
These have been found varying from an ounce or two to several
pounds in weight in the mica mines of Mitchell and Madison
- counties, N. C.

Most of the pegmatized gneiss bodies which are rich in monazite
represent phases of the Carolina gneiss in which the original
nature of the rock has been largely obliterated as a result of the
addition of new minerals and the recrystallization of the original
ones into pegmatitic material. The texture developed during this
pegmatization is in many cases porphyritic, in which the feldspar
phenocrysts assume somewhat of an augen form. The feldspar
phenocrysts range in size from some smallér than a grain of wheat
to others the size of a walnut. The porphyritic gneiss may grade
into less or more highly pegmatized gneiss, and from the latter into
regular pegmatite. This gradation may be between two separate
beds or from one part to another of the same bed. In those beds
or portions of beds where there has been little pegmatization mon-
azite occurs sparingly. The same is true where pegmatization has
been complete and but little of the original gneiss remains. It is,
then, the beds of gneissic rock which are rich in secondary quartz
and contain numerous small masses of feldspar throughout that
carry the most monazite. In such rocks there is generally much
biotite, with graphite and perhaps some muscovite and other acces-
sory minerals, as well as abundant quartz and feldspar. The
quartz occurs in layers or scattered grains throughout the rock,
inclosing and replacing the other constituents. The feldspar crys-
tals chiefly replace, though they partly displace the other minerals
of the rock, Monazite in a rock matrix almost invariably pos-

sesses crystal form, often with brilliant faces.

A typical example of rich monazite-bearing rock could be.
described as follows: The chief constituents of the rock are
quartz, feldspar (mostly the potash variety), biotite, graphite,
muscovite, monazite, and a little zircon. It has a banded stuc-

72 MoNAZITE AND Monazit&é MINING [ November

ture caused by the more or less separate occurrence of certain
minerals arranged in parallel streaks, with a roughly parallel
orientation of the crystals or grains of each mineral. The princi;
pal features of the banding consist of larger quartz streaks wit
several smaller ones and individual grains in a regular bioti
schist. The other minerals occupy various positions and sho
diverse relations to the minerals of these bands and to each other
The feldspar is porphyritic and occurs chiefly in individual ery
tals, some of which are of considerable size. A number of tt el.
feldspar phenocrysts are small bodies of pegmatite in themselves.)
The feldspar phenocrysts replace the other minerals. Grap ite}
occurs in large amounts with biotite, though it is associated will
nearly every other mineral of the rock. Where present, muscov te
is chiefly associated with the feldspar. Monazite seems to Dey
indiscriminately scattered through the rock, included in or asso-
ciated with all the foregoing minerals. Though generally free
from inclusions, it is not invariably so, and in one case a plate of
graphite was observed within a monazite crystal. All the minerals
observed in the rock, with the exception of zircon, have been note
as inclusions in the feldspar phenocrysts.
In microscopic sections cut from specimens from one of the ore
streaks, the minerals described above were observed, together with}
some iron staining. The feldspar is principally orthoclase andj,
microcline, partially kaolinized. The quartz is plainly secondary,
and occurs in bands or streaks or grains parallel with the schis.

Gas cavities and inclusions of very fine acicular needles,
bably rutile, are abundant in the quartz. Biotite occurs in inter-h
woven laths and crystals roughly parallel to the banding of the
rock. The pleochroism of the biotite is light yellow-brown te i
greenish brown or dark purplish red. Graphite occurs as plates
and laths, in general lying parallel to the banding of the rock.
Some of it is interbanded and even interleaved with biotite; else
where the plates are turned across the foliation. In one section 4
lath of graphite was observed inclosed in quartz which filled 2;

|

1908] JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY 73

Fracture across the foliation of a biotite crystal. Monazite occurs
m contact with the various minerals of the sectoin, though it is
more commonly surrounded by or included in grains of biotite and
quartz. The position of the monazite in the biotite indicates
eplacement, and the biotite foliae are not displaced around the
rystals. In the microscopic sections sufficient feldspar was not
bbserved to determine its relation to the other minerals.

The rock has been so thoroughly recrystallized that it is diffi-
ult to give the relative order of formation of the minerals. _ Bio-
ite, if not still in its original condition, was probably the first
mineral to form during recrystallization. Part of the graphite
was probably contemporaneous with the biotite. Some, however,
was introduced later and formed at the same time with the quartz.
he small amount of muscovite in the rock was probably next to
form, followed closely by quartz. .From the small amount of
feldspar in the microscopic sections, it was not possible to state its
relative period of formation. From the hand specimen, however,
} is evident that the feldspar was introduced later than the quartz,
* possibly contemporaneously with part of it.

ORIGIN

The occurrence of monazite in granitic and pegmatitic rocks indi-
ates that its origin is associated with magmatic agencies. It is
brobable that the constituents of monazite are associated with gran-
itic magmas and that only part of the mineral crystallizes out
when such magmas solidify. During the: formation of pegmatite
magmas and solutions from the residues of the solidification of
granite part of the constituents of monazite are retained. When
these pegmatite magmas and solutions are intruded into or depos-
ited in the gneisses and schists in masses such as are mined for
mica, monazite forms in large masses or crystals. During
the pegmatization of rock formations by these magmas and solu-
tions the monazite is carried into the gneisses and schists where it is
now found. This pegmatization with which monazite is associated
was probably produced by the passage'of active magmatic solutions
through the rock, both aiding in recrystallization of the original
constituents, and depositing the materials held in solution when
conditions of temperature or agents of precipitation were favorable.

74 MoNAZITE AND MONAZITE MINING _ [November

It is possible that in some cases the monazite in pegmatized
gneiss is formed by the gathering together of the proper elements
disseminated through the origina] rock during recrystallization.
It is probable that pegmatization in which much quartz with but
little feldspar has formed represents a phase of recrystallization
in which the quartz may either in part or wholly have come from
the original rock itself or may have been added by solutions pass-
ing through the formations. In either case the materials do not
represent the work of active magmatic solutions or magmas such
as might give rise to regular pegmatite bodies. In those recrystal-
lized or pegmatized rocks where the feldspathic component of peg-
matite is not plentiful, monazite occurs but sparingly. On the
other hand, monazite is found more abundantly in pegmatized
rock formations in which feldspar plays a prominent part. The

common proximity of this form of pegmatization to granite

masses, or its gradation into pegmatite bodies, gives evidence of
its formation through magmatic agencies.

The monazite of rock formations has, then, probably been
derived from aqueo-igneous solutions such as give rise to certain
forms of pegmatite and have in these cases affected large masses of
rock.

PLACERS

The commercial deposits of monazite occur in the gravel beds of —

creeks and streams and in the bottom lands adjacent to them.
The thickness of the gravels ranges from a foot or two, including
over-burden, to 6 or 8 feet. The distribution of the monazite in
them is, as with all heavy minerals, richer near the bed rock and
poorer above, grading into the over-burden. In some deposits the
whole thickness of the gravel, with the finer alluvium at the sur-
face, is rich enough to be washed directly or sluiced down and
washed. The extent and value of these deposits vary with the topog-
raphy of the country and the nature of the gravels. In some places
the bottom land, containing rich monazite-bearing gravels, are over
100 yards wide and extend a half a mile or more along the streams.
In other places the bottom lands are small and there is but little
more than the stream gravels present. The best deposits are more
commonly associated with light colored gravels and sands, con-

1908] MoNAZITE AND MonazitTE MINING 75

taining considerable quartz debris and fragments of other light
colored rocks, such as pegmatite, granite, mica, and cyanite gneiss.
On the other hand, the absence of much quartz and pegmatitic or
granitic debris fromthe gravel is generally characteristic of low
grade deposits of monazite. The presence of black sands—mag-
netite, ilmenite, hornblends, ete.—in the gravels does not neces-
sarily indicate a low grade deposit, unless quartz and pegmatitic
minerals are also lacking. Monazite deposits in regions where
hornblende rocks are abundant generally contain a large percent-
age of black sands, and it is then often difficult to concentrate
the monazite to a marketable grade. Asan offset to this, how-
ever, especially in regions where granite is associated with the
hornblendic rocks, gold is often found in the concentrates in quan-
tity more than sufficient to pay the cost of separation, and in the
same localities the concentrates generally carry also a quantity of
zircon. ‘This zircon is in the form of small, clear crystals with
brilliant lustre, which range in size up to 1 millimeter square and
about 2 millimeters long.

REstipuAL DEposits

It has been found profitable to sluice down and concentrate the
surface soils on the lands adjoining some of the richer monazite
bearing deposits. The residual soils that have suffered but little
displacement on the surface can be thus profitably washed to a
depth of 3 or 4 inches, and where the drift soil has collected on
the gentle slopes below a steeper hillside several feet can be sluiced
down in some cases. The partial concentration of monazite in the
top layer of soil is caused by the washing away of the clay and
other light decomposition products of the rock. The supply of mon-
azite in the stream gravels in favorable areas is often replenished
by the wash from the hillside soils during rains; especially where
the hills have any considerable slope and the land is cultivated.
Under such conditions the stream gravels are often worked two
or more times In a year.

The saprolite or retted rock underlying the richer deposits of
monazite is at some places sluiced down to depths of a few inches
to a footor so, along with the overlying gravels. At other places
small amounts are removed and washed separately for the mona-

~ L '
76 JouRNAL oF THE MitcHELL Society ~ [November i .

zite they contain. The formations that have been found especi-
ally favorable for such work are highly pegmatized gneiss or schist.
Such deposits have generally soon been lost or grown poor, prob-

ably on account of the fact that the miners have cut through the
richer bed or failed to follow it in the direction of its extension.
The occurrence of monazite in saprolite is merely an altered phase
of the occurrence in hard rock formations.

COMMERCIAL DEPOSITS

All the monazite mined in the Carolinas is obtained from gravel
deposits which lie in and along the stream and creek beds where
the monazite is collected after being liberated from the rocks by
their alteration and erosion. While no accurate record has been
kept of the percentage of monazite in these gravel deposits, yet it
is undoubtedly true that the percentage per cubic yard, reckoning
from surface to bed rock, is not over 1 percent. This, however,
is sufficient to make profitable mining. In many localities it has
been the custom to sluice not only the gravels but all the over- ©
burden, inasmuch as even the top soil carries a small amount of
monazite.

There are no large hydraulic plants in operation, but nearly all
the monazite is obtained in sluice boxes fed by hand. These
boxes are fitted at their upper end with a sieve or shaking hopper
with a mesh of about No. 12. The boxes vary in length from 8
to 20 feet, and in some instances are fitted with riffles holding
mercury for catching the gold. An interesting fact noted in con-
nection with the deposition of monazite in the stream beds is that
when the gravels have been washed for monaziteand then leftfora _
few months ora year (especially if there has been considerable rainy
weather), there is another supply of monazite deposited, which in
many cases can be profitably worked. This monazitehasresulted _
from the washing in of the mineral from the surface adjoining the —
streams where it had been during the decomposition and erosion
of the original rock matrix. This second deposition of monazite
is facilitated by plowing the adjoining fields. In a few places”
Wilfley tables have been introduced for treating the concentrates
from the sluice boxes. Where these tables are used the soil ¢ an

1908) MoNnazITE AND MonazitTE MINING 77

gravels are washed into shaking hoppers and then through sluice
boxes, the over size thrown out and the sands fed to Wilfley
tables. At one mine it is necessary to raise the gravels by a
mechanical elevator in order to bring them to a sufficient height
to feed them to the table. They are fed into a revolving screen
and from that to the table. The heads from this first washing do
not contain a very large per cent of the monazite, and the mid-
dlings are, therefore, re-fed to the table with other feed ore. In
some cases the feed ore is all run over the machine and a rough
concentrate first obtained and then this re-fed. The product from
these machines contain from 50 to 80 and occasionally 90 per cent
of monazite. Where there is a large amount of the heavy black
sands occurring in the gravel with the monazite, it is almost
impossible to get the percentage much over 50 per cent monazite.
Where, however, these occur more sparingly, it is possible by this
method to obtain a monazite concentrate containing 80 per cent
monazite.

All the concentrates from the sluice boxes and Wilfley tables
have to be dried before they can be treated on the magnetic sepa-
rators. There are two different methods used in the monazite dis-
trict for this purpose. In one the sand is spread over an oiled or
rubber cloth in a thin layer and exposed to the heat of the sun.
It dries very quickly, due perhaps partly to the heat absorbed by
the dark iron sand. It requires, however, a considerable surface
to accommodate any large amount of sand. The other method of
drying is by heating over furnaces. A small ditch from 4 to 8
feet long and 1% to 2 feet wide and about one foot deep is dug, at
one end of which there is built a rock or brick chimney. The
ditch is usually built up of stones with an opening at the opposite
end of the chimney for firing. Over the ditch there is a sheet iron
cover or drying plate. The monazite is spread on this and exposed
to the action of the hot fire underneath. These dry sands are
often further concentrated by means of the ordinary horseshoe
magnet, which picks out all the magnetite. The miners are paid
for their sand on the basis of 100 per cent. product and the nearer
they can bring their sand to this, the better prices they receive for

78 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [November

it. The sand brought into the magnetic concentration plants is
worth from 4 to 8 cents per pound while after a magnetic separa-
tion, its value is increased to 12 to 20 cents per pound.

This material represents what is known as crude monazite sand
and contains, besides the monazite, magnetite, ilmenite, garnet,
zircon, rutile, corundum, cyanite, hornblende, and occasionally
chromite. In order to separate the monazite from its associated
minerals, it is necessary to run this crude sand through some elec-
trical apparatus. There are two types of machines that are in
operation: (1) the Wetherill electro-magnetic machine and modi-
fications of this; and (2) machines in which the minerals are
deflected by electro-magnets while falling. Of these, the first type
is the one most generally employed. By means of these various
machines a product can be obtained varying from 90 to 98 per
cent of monazite and represents the sand that is shipped to the
manufacturers of the incandescent mantles.

MAGNETIC SEPARATION

The first application of magnetic separation was in the concen-
tration of certain iron ores, principally magnetite, in order to pro-
duce a product richer in iron and also to eliminate certain miner-
als that contained elements injurious to the metallic iron. The
next application was to other iron ores such as limonite, hematite,
and siderite after they had been given a preliminary roasting to
convert them into the magnetic oxide. The next step was in the
separation of magnetic iron particles from certain copper, gold
and zinc ores either before or after roasting. For many years this
was the only application made of magnetic separation. It was
found, however, upon experimenting with an electro-magnet with
a higher intensity that other minerals were subject to magnetic
attraction and that it was possible to separate minerals into more
or less pure products by varying the intensity of the magnetic
field. Thus, it has been possible to adapt this method of separa-
tion to ores containing iron or manganese, which are only weakly
magnetic. As is well known, steel bars may be magnetized and
they will retain more or less of this magnetism indefinitely, while
bars of softer wrought or cast iron may be magnetized by means s
of electric currents in surrounding coils of insulated copper wire.

1908] MoNAZITE AND MONAZITE MINING 79

These iron bars do not become permanent magnets but form elec-
tro-magnets as long as the current flows around them. They
can be given a greater and more constant strength than can
be given to the permanent steel magnets and for this reason, in
nearly all of the magnetic processes, electro-magnets are used
instead of the field magnets.

The magnetism of these electromagnets can be varied and dif-
ferent intensities obtained ranging from indefinitely weak to a
certain maximum strength. It is also possible to control the
intensity of any magnetic field so that minerals that are strongly
attracted may be separated from minerals that require a magnetic
field of much higher intensity. This intensity of the magnetic
field depends:

1. On the size of the magnet.

2. On the shape of the magnet.

3. On the distance between the magnet and the body to he
attracted. ,

4. On the number of amperes turns in the magnet coil, that is,
the product of the amperes or current flowing in the coil times the
number of turns around the core.

There are many substances that are attracted by electro-mag-
nets that are not influenced apparently at all by the strongest steel
magnet and for this reason, formerly many substances which were
considered non-magnetic, have been proved to be magnetic when
subjected to the intense magnetic field obtained in an electromag-
netic separator. All substances are of course either attracted or
repelled by magnets and the former are called para-magnetic and
the latter dia-magnetic. The latter class is the most numerous,
but since the introduction of electromagnets, the former class,
which up to this time had been considered extremely small, has been
largely increased. The paramagnetic substances are the metals iron,
nickel, cobalt, manganese, chromium, cerium, palladium, plat-
inum, osmium and many of their salts and compounds. The degree
of attraction of these varies very widely and, as an illustration
between a strong and weak magnetic substance, it has been esti-
mated that if the attraction of steel be taken at 100,000, then
magnetite would be 65,000, siderite 120, hematite, 93 to 43, lim-

80 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ Novemb er

onite 72 to 483. By using the electromagnetic separators, which
can be regulated so as to give a very strong field and at the same
time a field which is capable of fine adjustment, it is now possible
not only to separate the paramagnetic from the diamagnetic sub-
stances, but also to separate the paramagnetic from each other.

There are a large number of magnetic separators that have been
invented, many of which are now on the market. Perhaps the
simplest of all these magnetic separators is one devised by Edison.
In this separator the particles of mineral are permitted to fall in a
thin sheet in front of the poles of a strong bar electromagnet, which
causes a deflection of the magnetic particles from a direct down-
ward path, while the nonmagnetic particles would not be
influenced by this attraction and would fall vertically. It is possi-
ble to'make two and sometimes three products in this way.

There are three general classes of these magnetic separators as
follows: (1) in which the magnetic particles are held to revolving
cylindrical rolls or drums within which are magnets; (2) those
in which the magnetic particles are carried by conveying belts or
pans passing over the magnets; (3) those in which the ore falls in
front of a magnet. There are a number of points of difference in
the machines such as permanent or electromagnets; treating the
ore wet or dry; magnets acting continuously or intermittently ;
and the use of direct or alternating current. It will be found that
different machines are suited for different purposes according to the
character of the material to be treated. As I have stated before,
most of the machines were originally designed simply to treat iron
ores, or to separate iron minerals from other ores and there are
but few of them that are adapted for the separation of monazite,
zinc minerals, etc.

The first class is represented by the Ball-Norton separator which
consists of two revolving drums within each of which is a series of
stationary electro-magnets so wound that opposite poles are adja-
cent to one another. The capacity of a machine with 2 drums 2!
dia. and 2! face raises 15-20 tons per hour, 16-20 mesh. The ore
is fed upon the top of the first drum and the magnetic particles
are held by the drum, while the non-magnetic fall into the hopper
below. As the drum revolves, the magnetic particles get beyond

1908) MONAZITE AND MoONAZzITE MINING 81

the magnetic field and are thrown by centrifugal force on to the
second drum. This drum, which does not have quite so strong a
current as the first, does not attract as many of the magnetic par-
ticles so that some of these drop off into a second hopper, forming
a middling product, while the stronger magnetic particles are held
by the drum and carried a certain distance, when they get beyond
the magnetic field and are dropped into a third hopper. On
account of the alternate polarity of the adjacent magnets, the par-
ticles roll over and thus facilitate the elimination of any gangue
particles that may be mixed with the magnetic.

Another simple drum separator is the Heberli. In this machine
there is but one drum and the electro-magnets extend over about
one-fourth of the area of thedrum. The ore is fed to the drum
just above the centre radius and about the middle of the magnets.
The drum revolves in the opposite direction to which the ore is fed
and the magnetic particles are attracted by the drum and carried
up and over the magnets while the non-magnetic particles drop
into the hopper below. As the magnetic particles leave the mag-
netic field, they are dropped on the opposite side of the drum into
another liopper. .

2. It is the magnetic separators of the second class that have
been used principally in the separation of monazite in the Caro-
linas. Of these machines, the Wetherill stands out most promi-
nently and was probably the first to commercially treat weakly
magnetic materials. The principal idea of these machines is to
secure a very strongly magnetic field by concentrating the lines of
force as far as possible, this being accomplished by placing the two
poles of the magnet facing one another with a minimum air gap
between them and by bevelling down the pole pieces to their end.

The type of the Wetherill magnetic separator that is more gener-
ally used is known as the Rowand type, which has a magnetic
pole with sharp edge between the travelling feed belt and a blunt
pole directly under it. Both of these poles are capable of being
magnetised by an electric current which will produce a condition
varying from weak to intensely strong magnetism. The concen-
tration of magnetism at the sharp edge causes all the grains to
jump to the upper pole. A cross-belt directly beneath this pole,
which is running at right angles to the feed belt and is running

82 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ November

rapidly, readily takes off these grains and deposits them in a bin
while the non-magnetic grains go on with the belt. There can be
readily arranged above the travelling feed belt a series of such
poles, each stronger than the one before, so that the first will take
off the strongest magnetic particles. The travelling feed belt
varies in width from 12 to 18 inches. The material fed to the
machine is classified and allowed to pour over a revolving drum,
which concentrates it evenly over the feed belt. The pole pieces
are made of soft iron and weigh up to 90 pounds each. They are
adjustable so that the length of ore gap between them may be
varied. The strength of the current in amperes can be varied and
also the distance of the feed belt beneath the poles.

The monazite sand, which is fed to the travelling feed belt,
passes along under four powerful electo-magnets. The first re-
moves all the magnetic iron and generally all of the titanic iron or
ilemnite and any chromite that might be present. The second
magnet removes all the fine grains of garnet, the coarser ones, if
present, usually being removed by the first magnet. The third
magoet is so adjusted as to remove only the coarser particles of
monazite, while the fourth removes all the finer pieces of mona-
ate. The remaining portion of the sand, consisting largely of
zircon, quartz, and a little rutile, corundum, cyanite, etc., is
dropped off at the end of the large belt into a waste pile.

In another type of machine used in the monazite district there
are a series of magnets over which are travelling belts which pick
out different minerals, according to the intensity of the magnetic
field. In this machine the magnetic particles are carried over and
under the magnet and dropped into a hopper as they leave the
magnetic field, while the tailings are dropped into another hopper
and fed to another travelling belt and over a second magnet of
stronger intensity, which picks out the garnet. This is dropped
into a special bin and the balance into another hopper and fed to
a third magnet, whick picks out the monazite. It is possible by
these separators to obtain a monazite sand of from 90 to 99 per
cent monazite, according to the care that is taken in separating it.

The other products, as the iron minerals magnetite and ilmenite,
and garnet, can also be obtained in a very pure state. From a
long series of experiments that have been carried on, it has been

1908) MonazItTE AND MONAzITE MINING 83

determined that in machines of this type the magnetite can be
removed when the amperage is .2; ilmenite with 1.1; chromite
with 1.6; garnet with 1.75; hypersthene and olivine with 2.2; mon-
azite with 3.5 amperes. “Zircon is left behind with the gold as
non-magnetic. Any platinum that might be present would begin
to be lifted by the weakest current, but most of it would not be
lifted until the current was 1.5 amperes.

It is possible to separate almost completely pyrite from horn-
blende by picking out the hornblende with the electro-magnet, the
pyrite remaining in the tailings. Such minerals as pyroxene, epi-
dote, titanite, tourmaline, and serpentine are readily picked out
by the Wetherill magnetic separator with a current of 2 to 2.5
amperes. Brookite and cassiterite can occasionally be picked out
with an amperage of 3.5.

USES OF MONAZITE

The commercial value of monazite depends upon the incandes-
cent properties of the rare earth oxides which it contains, such as
cerium, lanthanum, didymium and thorium oxides, which are
used in the manufacture of the Welsbach and other incandescent
gas light mantles. It is the thoria that is used in largest amount
and which gives the actual value to the monazite. Im the reduc-
tion of the monazite sand, there are a number of the rare earth
salts that are obtained in considerable quantity, which has made it
possible to carry on an extensive series of experiments with these rare
earth oxides. It requires from 4 to 6 months to recover from the
monazite sand its percentage of thoria and render it sufficiently
pure to be used in the mantles.

The Welsbach light consists of a cylindrical hood or mantle com-
posed of a fibrous network of the rare earths, the top of which is
drawn together and held by a loop of asbestos or platinum wire.
When in use, this mantle is suspended over the flame of a burner,
constructed on the principle of the Bunsen burner, in which the
heating instead of the illuminating power of the hydrocarbon : of
the gas is used by burning it with an excess of air. In this man-
ner the mantle becomes incandescent and glows with a brilliant
and uniform light.

84 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [November

A short description of the method of manufacture of these man-
tles may be ofinterest. The first part of the process is the selec-
tion of the thread fibre from which the mantle fabric is knitted.
The fibre mostly used is cotton, either the upland, river bottom,
Peeler, Allen seed, Sea Island or Egyptian variety, the market
prices varying from about 10c for the upland to 30c per pound
for the Egyptian. The cheaper cottons are used in the lower grade
mantles, the highest grade mantle requiring the best quality of
cotton. The thread is purified, so as to remove every possible
trace of mineral matter. If the thread used shows a mineral im-
purity above .015 per cent, it will introduce factors that will affect
the physical and lighting life of the mantle. Cylindrical networks
of varying diameters are knitted out of the thread and then wash-
ed in ammonia and distilled water and wrung out in mechanical
clothes wringers. After it is dry it is cut into pieces sufficiently
long to make two good mantles.

These knitted fabrics are then placed in a suitable vessel and
covered with the “‘lighting fiuid.’’ They remain in this until
thorougly saturated. The excess of fluid is drawn off amd the
fabric put through an equalizing machine piece by piece. The
‘lighting fluid’’ is composed of a solution of approximately 99
per cent thorium nitrate and 1 per cent cerium nitrate in distilled
water, in the ratio of 3 parts of water to 1 part of mixed nitrates.
The fabric is dried and then cut to the proper length required for
a hood. They are then shaped over a wooden form and the upper
end drawn together by means of an asbestos cord (occasionally of
platinum). After the mantle has been modelled the cotton fibre
is eliminated by heating them over a hot Bunsen burner flame,
leaving the mantle composed of the ash of thorium and cerium.
The peculiarity of these oxides is that they have sufficient cohesion
to hold together during the balance of the process of manufacture,
after every bit of the supporting cotton thread has been burned
away. They are then subjected to a series of tempering and _test-
ing heats during which the mantle is carefully shaped to its per-
manent form. In order to protect the ash of the mantle during
its inspection, packing, transportation, and installation, it is dip-
ped in collodion. Just before using a mantle this collodion cover-

1908] MonazITE AND Monazite MINING 85

ing has to be burned off. It is estimated that the American mar-
ket consumes 40,000,000 of these mantles per year.

Another element obtained from the monazite is didymium,
whose oxide is dark brown. Use is made of this for branding the
mantles with an indelible brand. Anitrate solution is made and
an ordinary rubber stamp used for branding.

Of the associated minerals, zircon has a commercial value of 20
to 25 cents per pound for its zirconia content, which is used in
the manufacture of the glower of the Nernst lamp. The funda-
mental principle of this Nernst lamp is that certain of the rare
earths or refractory oxides will conduct an electric current and
glow after they have been heated to redness. This discovery,
which was made by Dr. Nernst in 1897, has resulted in the devel-
opment and perfecting of the glower which is now embodied in the
Nernst lamp. This glower is composed of a mixture of the rare
earth oxides and is made in the form of a small rod or pencil of
chalk-like material, having wire terminals at either end. When
cold, the glower is an insulator, but by means of the wire the
glower becames heated to redness when a current is passed through
these wires, and its resistance gradually decreases until it has
reached a red heat, when with 220 volts across the terminals it
starts to conduct the current and give light. :

In bringing a glower up to its starting point corresponding to a
temperature of 1,200° F., use is made of a small electrical heater
composed of two or more small tubes of porcelain, about 14 inches
long and ¢ inch in diameter, which are overwound with fine plati-
num wire, this in turn being held in place and protected from the
intense heat later generated by the glower by an outer coating of
porcelain paste. After the glower becomes heated, there is, of
course, no further use for the heater, and it is cut out by a small
electro-magnet cut-out, which consists of a magnetic coil connect-
ed in series with the glower, an armature, and the necessary con-
tacts in the heater circuit. Thus, when the glower has become
heated sufficiently, the current begins to pass through it, and
when this becomes sufficiently strong the armature is attracted
and the contacts are separated, thus disconnecting the heater from
the line. The surface of the glower before being used presents a

86 JOURNAL oF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [November

smooth, white, porcelain or chalky appearance, but after having
been in use about 500 hours, it is rough or crystalline in appear-
ance.

The yttria contents used in the manufacture of the Nernst glow-
er are obtained principally from the mineral gadolinite, which has
not thus far been found in North Carolina. There are, however,
a number of minerals containing yttria, such as samarskite, eux-
enite and fergusonite, which have been found in the State.

The magnetite and ilmenite may find a use in the manufacture
of magnetite electrodes that are manufactured by the General
Electric Company.

The garnet grains are sharp and can be used for abrasive pur-
poses in the manufacture of garnet paper, which is used extensive-
ly in the boot and shoe trade.

THE OPTICAL ROTATION OF SPIRITS OF TURPENTINE*

BY CHAS. H. HERTY

Among the physical properties of spirits of turpentine, none
has proved of more interest than its optical rotation. In most
specimens this property is very marked, and as the liquid is color-
less and the determination readily made, many data are found on
this subject in chemical literature. Slight variations in the rota-
tion of different samples are to be expected, as spirits of turpen-
tine is not a chemical compound but a mixture of substances,
chiefly terpenes. From the results of numerous observations upon
commercial samples, the view commonly held previous to 1891
was that French spirits of turpentine, distilled from the oleoresin
of Pinus maritima, is levo-rotatory and that American spirits of
turpentine, distilled in years past, almost wholy from Pinus palus-
tres, is dextro-rotatory. The difference in the character of the
rotation was ascribed, therefore, to the different species from which
the spirits of turpentine was produced.

Recognizing the fact that American spirits of turpentine is dis-
tilled from more than one species of pine, J. H. Long,’ in 1891,
undertook a study of the volatile oils distilled from oleoresins of
well identified individual trees, these trees embracing the several
species of pines subjected to turpentining in our southern states.
He found that specimens from Pinus palustris (Long Leaf Pine)
gave dextro-rotatory oils, while those from Pinus heterophylla
(Cuban or Slash Pine) gzve levo-rotatory oils. Since the oleore-
sins from these two species are indiscriminately mixed, at the
time of collection in the woods, the rotation of the oil distilled
from such a mixture would naturally vary. Pinus palustris is the

*Reprinted from the Journal of the American Chemical Society, vol. 30,
p. 863.
1J. Anal. Appl. Chem., 6, 1.

1908] 87

88 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [November

predominating species and Long attributed to this fact the dextro-
rotatory character of American spirits of turpentine. This view
has been generally accepted.

The fact that spirits of turpentine is frequently adulterated with
optically inactive mineral oil, led A. McGill’ to make a large num-
ber of determinations of the rotation of commercial samples of
spirits of turpentine, in the hope of utilizing this property for the
detection of adulteration. From the widely varying results
obtained he was compelled to declare the method useless.

New evidence upon this point has been obtained from investiga-
tions carried on in this laboratory in collaboration with the U. 8S.
Forest Service, the experimental work having been carried out by
Messrs. George A. Johnston and W.S8. Dickson under the direc-
tion of the writer. In order to gain a better knowledge of the
oleoresins from the two principal species of pine utilized in the
turpentine industry at the present time, fourteen trees were
selected on a Florida turpentine farm. One-half of these were
Pinus palustris, the other half Pinus heterophylla. Three trees of
each species were tapped for the first time at the beginning of the
experiments. In each case a smail, young pine, a medium pine,
and a large, old pine were selected. In another set four trees
were selected, two each Pinus palustris and Pinus heterophylla.
These trees had been subjected to turpentining during the pre-
vious year, the chipping or weekly scarification, on all of them
having been unusually shallow, only about one-halfas deep as is
commonly practiced. In a third set four trees were selected, two
of each of Pinus palustris and Pinus heterophylla, which had been
turpentined during the previous year, and on each of these the
depth of the chipping was the normal cut. The trees in each set
were chipped at intervals of seven days.

Special precautions were taken in the collection of the oleore-
sins. The cup and gutter system described in Bulletin No. 40,
U. S. Bureau of Forestry, was used. Instead of the clay cup com-
monly used, oyster pails were substituted. The entire apparatus
was covered with black oilcloth fastened securely into the bark of
the tree above the chipping surface, thereby protecting the resin

2 Bulletin No. 79, Inland Revenue Dept., Canada.

1908] Optical ROTATION OF TURPENTINE 89

from light and avoiding the filling of the pails with rain water.
Every four weeks these pails were removed from the tree, tightly
stoppered and immediately shipped to this laboratory for exami-
nation. The specimens so obtained were extremely pure and free
from chips. After removal of the pails, the metal gutters were
raised to a point near the shipping surface in order to minimize
the amount of oleoresin which might stick to the exposed portion
of the trunk above the gutters.

The distillation of the oleoresins was carried out in a 500 ce.
Kjeldahl flask, surrounded by a bath of cottonseed oil. Steam
from a small boiler was first passed through a small iron pipe in
which it could be superheated, then into the distillation flask
through a glass tube having on its end a bulb containing a num-
ber of openings. By this means strong agitation of the molten
oleoresin was obtained. Thermometers were placed both inside
the flask and in the oil-bath. The mixed vapors of steam and
spirits of turpentine were passed through a Hopkins condensing
bulb to prevent the carrying over of solid particles of resin, con-
densed in an ordinary Liebig condenser and collected in a separa-
tory funnel. After drawing off the lower layer of water, the spir-
its of turpentine was transferred to a dry flask and allowed to
stand over night with calcium chloride. The determinations of
the optical rotation of the volatile oils were made with a Schmidt
and Haensch half-shadow polariscope, sodium flame, at 20°.

In the following table are given the results from the first collec-
tion of the oleoresin in early spring:

TABLE J
Optical rotation
Tree Diameter 100 mm. tube,
designation Species (inches) Character of chipping 20 C

Al _P. heterophylia...... 7.0 Ist year, normal depth —20°5
A2 ing 14.5 ins ce + 0° iby
A3 ae 94.5 ce “se ef Y
Lee SUP CUUSITUS oa cs ce checsy edie on - +-15°4:

AD cs 15.0 “es ce + Se y
A6 a 21.0 aS es +18°18/
C1. OPP. heterophylia...... 12.3 2nd year, shallow —27°1V
C2 cs 8.2 ee ss —26°28
STD ea LOR aE eee 13.0 “ eS — 7°26/
C4 re 8.7 3S =a + 7°31
Di es 9.0 2nd year, normal depth +10°50/
D2 es 13.5 : & + 1°93
D3 _—sO&P. heterophylla...... 13.0 if 7 —18°35
D4 Se 9.0 oe A —29°2

90 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ November

These results show a wide variation in the optical rotation of
the volatile oils from the individual trees, even among trees of the
same species. In a genera] way the figures give support to Long’s
view, namely that the volatile oils from Pinus palustris are
dextro-rotatory and those from Pinus heterophylla levo-rotatory.
That this is not strictly true, however, is evidenced by the dextro-
rotation of A, (P. heterophylla) and more especially by the levo-
rotation of C, (P. palustris).

With these variations in the first collection from the several
trees, the question naturally arose, would the variations change as
the season advanced or would the figures prove constant for the
individual trees? The rotations for the successive collections fol-
low in Table I:

Tape I].—Opricat Roration 1x 100 mm. Tusr, 20° C.

Collection Al A2 A3 Ad AD5 A6 Cl
1.. —20°50 +0°154 —15° 0 +15°40 +8° 9 +18°18 —27°1l1,
2.. —22° 5° —0°30 —14°26¢ +15°22/ +8°50 +17°43/ —26°4%
3.. —21°45/ +0°15/ —15°55’ +14°15’ +8°27/ +19°30/ —26°25/
4.. —21° 7% —1°15/ —15°50’ +14°20° +8°34 +18°46/ —23°32/
5.. —20°30° —2° 5’ —15°15’ +14°21/ +8°32/ +19°24/ —21°12/
6.. —20°15) —3°30 —15°27 +14°35, +8° 4 +18°16 —21°46/
7... —22°15¢ —5°45° —17°52/ +12°49 +7° & +14°477 —21°35/

Collection C2 C3 C4 Di B2 D3 D4
1.. —26°28 —7°2V + 7°31f +10°507 -+1°23/ —18°35° —290°96
2.. —25°37/ —6°42/ + 7°27” +11°237 +2°40° —17° 0, —27°4y
Bs FOUL te AAS Cos ck caches +13° 7, +2°25/ —15°20° —28°19
se ees): +12°46 +2°25 —15° WY —27°38/
Ce 7 Say Bs rr +13° 0° +1913 —14°38% —27°48/
Go BOO a noes ea ete +13° 0, +1°15/ —14° 7% —26°11/
To DOCDBO BOY 4s. ccencs +10°48° —0°55’ —14°19 —26°12’

Note.—The yield of oleoresin from C4 was so small, after the first and second col-
lections, that not enough volatile oil conid be obtained on distillation to fill the 100 mm
tube.

From this table it is seen that the rotation in most cases is quite
constant throughout the year. The most marked exception is A,
(P. heterophylla). It is evident that some distinct change in the
biological activity of this tree has taken place, for while the rota-
tion is reasonably constant during the first half of the year, a
steady increase in the levo-character of the oil is apparent during
the last half. In the case of C, (likewise P. heterophylla) some-

1908 | Opticar, Rorarion or TURPENTINE 91

what the reverse has taken place. A rather marked decrease in
the levo-rotation is shown just at the middle of the year, then the
rotation remains practically constant during the last half. In the
case of C,, another type of change is represented, the leyo-rotation
decreasig up to the middle of the season and again increasing
during the latter half.

With the limited facts at hand, it is impossible to interpret the
significance of these changes. That tree which shows the most
marked variation, A,, is a healthy, vigorous tree, from which
variations would be least expected. Nor can an explanation he
offered for the wide variations in the optical rotation of oils from
the same spieces. All of the trees in Series A are located within
20 yards of each other and have, therefore. the same general con-
ditions of climate, light and soil. Fractionation of the volatile
oils from these show practically the same rise in boiling-point
for the same volume of distillate. It would seem, therefore,
that these volatile oils, consisting so largely of pinene, are mix-
tures principally of dextro- and levo-pinene, the preponderance
of the one or the other determining the optical rotation.

University or NortH CAROLINA,
CHAPEL Hut, N. C.

THE CHARACTER OF THE COMPOUND FORMED BY THE
ADDITION OF AMMONIA TO ETHYL-PHOS-
PHO-PLATINO-CHDORIDE*

BY CHAS. H. HERTY AND R. O. E. DAVIS

By heating together phosphorus pentachloride and spongy plati-
num, Baudrimont* obtained the phospho-platino-chloride PtCl.-.
PCl,. Later Schutzenberger’ prepared the compound PtCl,.2PCl,
by treating Baudrimont’s salt with phosphorus trichloride and he
studied the various derivatives of these two substances.

The apparent analogy of these compounds to those of platinous
chloride with ammonia led one of us (Herty) in 1901 to investi-
gate them further by physico-chemical methods, in order to
determine whether the analogy was real and therefore whether
they conformed to Werner’s® extension of the valence hypothesis.
If so, various possibilities of isomerism at once suggested them-
selves.

These views, in abstract form, were presented to the commit-
tee in charge of the C. M. Warren Research Fund and a grant was
made for the purchase of platinum. Work was begun at once,
but unfortunately a call to another field made impossible the com-
pletion of the investigation. The platinum was recovered, sold,
and the grant returned.

1 Ann. chim. phys. [4], 2, 47.

2 Bull. soc. chim. [2], 17, 482; 18, 101, 148.
3%. anorg. Chim., 3, 267.

4 Thid., 37, 394; 48, 34.

*Reprinted from the Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 30,
p. 1084, 1908.

92 { Novembey

ee

7908) Am™montiA-ETHyYL-PHOSPHO-PLATINO-CHLORIDE 93

Later, Rosenheim‘ published the results of an investigation
covering practically the same ground. He found that the anal-
ogy was real and succeeded in obtaining numerousisomers. With
the stable ethoxy derivatives, molecular weight determinations,
both ebullioscopic and cryoscopic, showed that while the formula
of the 1 : 2 compound is normal, that of the 1 : 1 compound must
be doubled, thus

PtC],.2P(OC,H,),and (PtCl,.P(OC,H,),)..

These facts show both compounds in strict accord with Werner’s
coordination ideas, namely, that the coordination number of plat-
inum in platinous compounds is four. Accordingly, their formu-
las would be

Cl,
4 Pt
1, Bi | P(OC.H,),

| Ete
(POC HLT: Ch

P(OCH), §

The addition of one molecule of aniline to the former, results in
one chlorine atom becoming ionizable, but from the latter, Rosen-
heim succeeded in obtaining two isomeric substances, a white and
yellow modification, each having the formula

ys
P P(OC,H,)s
CHNH. |

again conforming to Werner’s views.

However, when gaseous ammonia was used instead of aniline an
unexpected result was obtained. Two molecules of the base were
added for each atom of platinum present, the empirical formula
being PtCl,.P(OC,H,),.2NH,. According to Wermer’s views, such
a compound should be diionic, as represented by the formula

44 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [| November

Cl
Pt(NH,), Cl.
P(OGH.); |

But Rosenheim found that silver nitrate precipitated at once both
chlorine atoms, even at 0°, and that the molecular conductivity

(°)
at 25> was

ee Sonccece earnest co 32 64 128 256 512
lec enatee sends Poca ceeeous 155.9 160.8 160.4 160 162.5

From these facts and from the composition of the double salt with
chlorplatinic acid, he concluded that the formula may be

f (NH,),
Pt + Cle,
L procHy, J

but since such a formula is not in aceord with the coordination
number of platinous platinum, and since the compound is derived
from the double molecule

‘ey!
w Pt “
P(OC,H,) , }’

Rosenheim assigned to it the formula

(NH).!

H4y

5 Pt
| P(OCH,); }°

Such a formula appeared to us to be a strained interpretation
of Werner’s views. Furthermore, the molecular conductivity, as
given by Rosenheim, is abnormal in every way. It seemed desir-
able, therefore, to repeat the preparation of the substance and to
study its properties further. Experience gained in the study of
the molecular conductivity of complex ammonia compounds at 0°*

1 Werner and Herty, Z. phys. Chem. vol. 38, p.331.

1908| AMMONIA-F/rHyL-PHOSPHO-PLATINO-CHLORIDE 95

justified the hope that such a study of this compound might throw
more light upon its constitution. Following the directions of Schut-
enzberger and of Rosenheim,pure spongy platinum was heated with
phosphorus pentachloride, the latter freed from trichloride and oxy-
chloride by heating in a current of dry air at 110°. The fused mass
on treatment with hot benzene, free from thiophene and _ purified
by freezing, yielded on cooling an abundant crop of well crystallized

(ces)
< Pt >
t por, J

Freed from benzene, at the same time carefully protected from the
action of moisture, the compound wos immediately treated with
absolute alcohol in order to convert it into the ethoxy derivative

er sel
a Pts Wey oe
BOC Hy

The alcoholic solution was then placed in a desiccator over two ves-
sels, one containing concentrated sulphuric acid, the other pow-
dered lime, and left to evaporate to crystallization. Removal to a
new building necessitated cessation of the work for several months.
On resuming, it was found that the solution in the desiccator had
evaporated to dryness, no distinct crystallization being noticeable.
This mass was dissolved in pure benzene and into the solution dry
ammonia gas was conducted. The absorption of ammonia was
accompanied by a marked elevation of temperature, the original
yellowish tint of the solution gradually faded and then, rather
suddenly, a mass of white crystals separated, the mass becoming
almost solid. The completion of the reaction was indicated by the
return to normal temperature. The crystal broth was set aside
and owing to the exigiencies of other work, two weeks elapsed
before the crystals were separated from their mother liquor. The
substance, freed from benzene, was recrystallized from alcohol and
obtained in a very pure form,

96 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ November

A portion of the substance dissolved in water showed no acid
reaction, although Rosenheim found an immediate acid reaction
and explained the peculiar results he obtained from a study of its
molecular conductivity by assuming a rapid hydrolysis of the
compound. Analysis showed:

Found by Rosenheim

I II 1 i

Cl (lonizable)......... 8.02 7.96 15.08 14.42
By dtm ede tata 42.30 41.40 41.68. (eee
INNER A hoe eee eee 7.04 7.18 719° ees

Theoretical for

(NH 3)2
[P: |. Cla | Pt CNHs “ Je
P(OC2H5)3 P (OC2 H5)3

CU (wonizable)s.; 2: 7.ctac- nese 15.23 7.62
| 2a Sete Spies) Ca ee TR ete aS 41.82 41.82
SIS Bees geri: aon eee ce 7.30 7.30

Ionizable chlorine was determined at room tempcrature by precip-
itation of the water solution of the substance with excess of silver
nitrate. The filtrates remained clear even after standing several
weeks. Platinum was determined by Rosenheim’s method’, ammo-
nia by the Kjeldahl method.

Effort was then made to determine the total chlorine by Rosen-
heim’s method’ but concordant results could not be Obtained.
Determinatians of the total chlorine by Stepanow’s’ method gave:

Total Chlorine

ié II. Theoretical
15.19 15.00 15.23

Determination of the molecular conductivity at 25° showed

Ui Aetecscvstecesepucncgee set 32 64 128 256 012 1024 2048
Jee icssccasssee eo ees e ee 95.79 100.13 106.09 113.49 119.70 127.97 138.98

Found by Rosenheim 155.9 160.8 160.4 160.0 162.5: ....c:)ieee

1 Z. anorg. Chem-, Vol. 37, p. 395.
2 Ber., Vol, 39, p. 4056.

oO
or

1908| AmmMontA-E7rHyL-PHOSPHO-PLATINO-CHLORIDE 97

The values for » found by us agree closely with the figures
obtained by Werner and Miolati® and by Werner and Herty* for
all diionic complex ammonia compounds. No evidence of hydrol-
ysis could be detected in the solution which had been used for
the determination of the molecular conductivity, the reaction was
perfectly neutral.

From all the above facts, it is evident that the formula of our
compound is

( Cl l
4 Pt(NH.), Cl,
P(OC,H.), J

a formula strictly in accord with Werner’s coordination law. It
would seem further that we have here another case of isomerism
of inorganic compounds.

In order to gain further knhwledge of the conditions which
determine the formation of the one or the other of these sub-
stances, new experiments’ were begun. <A fresh portion of the
compound

( Cl, }

| *(OCH). (-

was prepared. Twenty-one grams of the substance were dissolved
in seventy-five cc. of benzene and the solution was divided iuto
three equal portions. In one, designated A, the substance was pre-
pared under the conditions above described. In another, desig-
nated B, the crystals were promptly separated from the benzene
liquor. In the third portion, designated C, the temperature was
maintained at 6° throughout the experiment.

In order to insure as far as practicable a uniform addition of
ammonia in the several experiments, thirty-five grams cach of
finely pulverized ime and ammonium chloride were thoroughly
mixed and placed in a 500 ce. round bottom flask and heated in a

3 Z. phys. Chem., Vol. 12, p. 35; Vol. 14, p. 506; Vol. 21, p. 225,
4 Ibid., Vol, 38, p, 331.

98 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ November

bath of cottonseed oil. At 220° copious evolution of ammonia be-
gan. The gas, dried over quicklime, was passed through the benzene
solution of the ethoxy compound for forty-five minutes, during
which time the temperature of the oil bath was gradually raised to
245° .

The benzene solution was placed in a 50 cc. round bottom flask
provided with a three-hole rubber stopper through which passed
a thermometer dipping into the solution and the inlet and outlet
tubes for the ammonia.

Experiment A: The initial temperature of the benzene solution
was 22°. When the temperature of the oil bath surrounding the
generator reached 220° the temperature in the absorption flask
began to rise. After five minutes it was 25°, after ten minutes
33°, after fifteen minutes, 38°. Meanwhile the yellow color of the
original solution gradually faded. After twenty minutes the tem-
petature was 40°, then suddenly the separation of the white sub-
stance took place to such an extent that the mass became almost
solid. A portion of the substance was at once removed from the
absorption flask, pressed between folds of drying paper and dis-
solved in water. No evidence of hydrolysis could be detected, the
solution being perfectly neutral to indicators, As Rosenheim
found that his salt was strongly hydrolyzed, it was decided to con-
tinue the passage of the ammonia gas into the crystal broth longer.
Accordingly, this was continued for twenty-five minutes more, the
temperature of the solution falling gradually. The vessel tightly
corked was allowed to stand two weeks. At the end of this time
the crystals were filtered from the benzene and pressed between
folds of drying paper, then recrystallized from absolute alcohol
and labeled “‘A’’.

Experiment B: This was a repetition of Experiment A except
that the crystals were removed from the benzene immediately after
the conclusion of the experiment. The maximum temperature
observed in the absorption flask was 44°. The separation of the
crystals took place twenty-two minutes after the temperature of
the oil bath surrounding the ammonia generator had reached 220°.
The substance recrystallized from aleohol was labeled ‘‘B’’.

——-

—

1908) AmmontA-Eruy.i-PHospHo-PLATINO-CHLORIDE 99

Experiment C: ‘This was a repetition of Experiment B except
that the temperature of the benzene solution was kept constantly
at 6°. The crystal separation took place twenty-four minutes
from the time the oil bath reached 220°. Reerystallized from alco-
hol the substance was labeled “C’’.

The results of the analyses of the three preparations follow:

Theoretical chlorine for

Cl
Pt (NH 3)e2 Cl.

lonizable ehlorine P(OC2H5)3
Total ———____—_
I Wl Chlorine _—_Ionizable Total
PAPER Cee Sed acs ides 7.66 7.64 15.16 7.62 15.23
1b Re ate ee fey | 7.66 155) (7 ore on em Ql) bet te
(Cee eR a 9 7.49 TESCO By Aalto” Saat

From these results it is evident that we have succeeded in pre-
paring only the normal salt

( a
+ Pt (NH,). Cry
| P(Oc:H,),

And yet Rosenheim’s directions have been faithfully followed and
his description of the absorption experiment coincides with our
observations. It is therefore not considered profitable to further
undertake the preparation of Rosenheim’s compound until more
specific directions are given. Meanwhile, it is our intention to try
to prepare the compound

sana’
PE, :
P(OC.HL), |

analogous to the aniline compound prepared by Rosenheim, and
to gain further light upon the character of the reaction by which
the addition of ammonia changes the non-ionizable compound

bs }
Pi

P(OCH,), } °

Se ke . pad tise
mime Oe af ee,

ry ¥ v7 | ? a) ran

100 = JournaL oF THE Mitcuett Society — [[_

| wid

into the ionizable compound

Cl
Pt (NH,), Cl.
P(OC-H.),

Universiry or NortH CAROLINA
CuHapeL, Hu, N. C.
March 11, 1908

THE VOLATILE OIL OF PINUS SEROTINA*

BY CHAS. H. HERTY AND W. 8. DICKSON

Scattered among the forests of Long Leaf pine along the Atlantic
seaboard, there are found, usually in mixed stands, patches of
Pond pine (Pinus serotina) and Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda).
These pines are seldom subjected to turpentining, as the yield of
oleoresin is not so plentiful as from the predominating types Pinus
palustris and Pinus heterophylla. Nor are the two species usually
distinguished locally, the name “‘black pine’’ being applied to
each. The striking odor of the wood of Pinus serotina when
freshly cut made desirable an investigation of its volatile oil, and
in collaboration with the U. 8S: Forest Service, the oil has been
studied in this laboratory during the past year. Well identified
trees were selected in Florida. The trees were regularly chipped
throughout one season of eight months. The product from each
tree was collected every eight weeks. The oleoresin closely resem-
bles that from Cuban pine (P. heterophylla) being quite liquid and
containing relatively about the same proportion of crystalline
acids. To this low percentage of crystalline matter is to be as-
signed doubtless, as in the case of P. heterophylla, the absence of
““scrape’’ formation on the scarified surface of the tree, a forma-
tion so typical of P. palustris).

The volatile oil was distilled from the oleoresin by steam in the
apparatus described on page 865 above. The oleoresin evidently
contains a greater portion of mucilaginous substances than that
from the more common pines, for it was much more difficult to
distil. On heating to 140°, the usual temperature of distillation,
and introducing steam, the easily molten mass froths badly.
This could be avoided only by raising the temperature at the out-

*Reprinted from the Journal of the American Chemical Society. Vol. 30,
p. 872. May, 1908.

1908} 101

102 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ November

set to 160°. At this temperature, the viscosity is diminished suf-
ficiently to enable a complete distillation to be carried out without
frothing. During the latter part of the summer, however, and
during the autumn, the amount of this mucilaginous substance
evidently increased, and to such an extent that it became practic-
ally impossible to distil off the volatile oil. Partial success was
secured by he addition of concentrated sodium hydroxide solution
to the distilling flask.

The resin left after distillation is pale yellow, similar to the best
grades of commercial resin. Acid number 167.

The volatile oil, freed from water by standing in contact with
caleium chloride, was a limpid liquid with a fragrant odor sug-
gesting at once the presence of limonene. The physical constants
of the oil follow:

Sp. gr.: 20°, 0.8478.

Sp. rotation: 20°, —105°36.

Index of refraction: 20°, 1.4734.

Acid number: 0.

Saponification number: 1.54.

Jodine number: 378.

Solubility in ethyl alcohol at 22.5°:

95 per cent. alcohol 1.35 parts required to dissolve 1 part of volatile oil.
90 per cent. alcoho] 4.80 parts required to dissolve I part of volatile oil.
85 per cent. alcohol 8.10 parts required to dissolve 1 part of volatile oil.
80 per cent. alcohol 16.20 parts required to dissolve 1 part of volatile oil.
70 per cent. alcoho] 56.00 parts required to dissolve 1 part of volatile oil.

Comparative evaporation with the volatile oil of P. palustris, at
room temperature, in shallow watch glasses, 0.2 gram of each
used.

P. palustris P. serotina

Time Per cent. Per cent.
Tie AEE OG OUT s.r. tes ae 35.7 20.30
TEAS PATE PULMRETIOUN © 2s cee eeatanee 62.5 37.30
Lossvaiter 13¢ hours ........:.-....- 91.7 53.40
Mossiaiter on NOUTS! 623.2. .c be ke oe 96.0 68.47
Dgssinitermoiecrours ec, Lon renee 97.8 98.80

On fractionation the following results were obtained:

sli i ODED

——_ ~~

1908 | VOLATILE O11 oF Pinus SEROTINA 103

Per cent. Index of refrac- Rotation in 100
Temperature distillate tion, 20° mm. tube 20°
172-175° 27.4 1.4716 —87°53’
175-180° a7) 1.4724 —92°21’
180-185° 8.4 1.4744 —92°14’
185--+- hes LH0E rhs 0 FT ae Ee

Repeated fractionation at atmospheric pressure showed some
polymerization. From a fraction, 175-176°, a large yield of lim-
onene tetrabromide was obtained. Melting point 103°-1038°.
The solution of the tetrabromide in chloroform was levo-rotatory,
— 70-0°.

A study of the oxygen absorbing power of this volatile oil in
comparison with that of the ordinary spirits of turpentine
obtained from P. palustyis showed a much larger absorption by
the oil of P. serotina during the early days of the experiment, but
the total absorption after three months’ exposure to northern
light was practically the same in each.

These results show a wide variation in the optical rotation of
the volatile oils from the individual trees, even among trees of the
same species. In a general way the figures give support to Long’s
view, namely that the volatile oils from the Pinus palustris are
dextro-rotatory and those from Pinus heterophylla levo-rotatory.
That this is not strictly true, however, is evidenced by the dextro-
rotation of A, (P. heterphylla) and more especially by the levo-
rotation of C, (P. palustris).

UnIversiry oF NorTH CAROLINA
CHapen Hin, N. C.

MICROPEGMATITE AT CHAPEL HILL.

BY H. N. EATON.

During the course of an investigation of the Chapel Hill granites
now in progress an occurrence of micropegmatite was discovered
which seems worthy of special mention. The binary granites
were found to contain micrographic intergrowths of quartz and
feldspar. The one showing the best development of this pheno-
menon is described below.

This rock occurs in a slightly weathered condition just beyond
the village limits on the slope of the hill along the Hillsboro road
and south of Bolin’s Creek. Its extent and relation to the other
rocks of the igneous complex of the region are unknown.

In handspecimen, the rock is grayish pink in color, and fine
grained. No hint of the arrangement of the minerals is given
from a freshly broken surface owing the uniform fineness of grain.

In thin section, the mineral content is seen to comprise plagio-
clase, orthoclase, microcline, and some accessory magnetite. The
striking feature of the slide is the arrangement of the quartz and
alkali feldspar in the micropegmatitic relation.

With the exception of the magnetite, plagioclase was the first
mineral to crystallize. It occurs sparingly in short, stout prisms,
for the most part idiomorphic, but in places showing absorption by
the later formed minerals. Twinning occurs after both the carls-
bad and albite laws. Owing to strong kaolinization the albite
striations are frequently difficult to recognize. The maximum
extinction angle noted was 13 degrees, thus placing the species
between oligoclase and andesine, and nearer the latter of the two.

Quartz and alkali feldspar occur mutually inclosing and inter-
penetrating each other in micrographic intergrowths. The

104 [ November

1908 | MICROPEGMATITE AT CHAPEL HILI, 105

quartz is best seen in this relation in long, spindle-shaped forms
with parallel orientiation over a considerable portion of the field.
These are wholly inclosed in orthoclase or microcline and extin-
guish simultaneously over wide areas. Measurements with a mi-
crometer eye-piece gave lengths of .58 m.m., .62 m.m., and .69
m.m. for the longer quartz spindles. In places the large spindles
radiate from centers in which clusters of smaller quartz crystals
are imbedded in orthoclase and microcline. There are a few
places where quartz occurs in the triangular and knee-shaped form
characteristic of graphic granite as originally described.

The orthoclase is very abundant and forms a large percentage of
the rock. Crystal boundaries are very indistinct. Large areas
inclosing the quartz Spindles extinguish as single crystals sepa-
rately from the quartz.

Microcline is less abundant than orthoclase, and the areas
occupied are smaller. Crystal boundaries are indistinct.

The impression first given by the slide is that the orthoclase and
microcline were the last to crystallize, and constitute a groundmass
in which the quartz is set, but a careful examination reveals many
quartz-feldspar boundaries in which the two minerals are mutu-
ally interpenetrating. Many quartzes also contain small poikilitic
inclusions of orthoclase. It is therefore probable that the
quartz and the alkali feldspars crystallized contemporaneously.

University OF NortH CAROLINA

CHAPEL Hii, N. C.
March 11, 1908

ABSTRACTS

On THE Errect oF COMPLETE ANEMIA OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS
Sysrem in Docs ResuscrraTeD AFTER RELATIVE DeatH. D. H.
Dolley and George Crile, M. D.* Jour. of Expe. Med., vol. 10,
Noy. 1908.

This study of brain anemia is the sequence of provious work on
the resuscitation of animals killed by anaesthetics and asphyxia,°
which may be briefly summarized as follows: By measn of a cen-
tripetal arterial infusion of salt solution under sufficient pressure,
together with the injection of one to two cubic centimeters of
1-1,000 adrenalin chloride in mass dose early and along with the
infusion, and the simultaneous employment of vigorous artificial
respiration and gentle but firm cardiac massage through the
unopened thorax, a heart which has ceased to beat may be excited
to resume beating within certain limits. Up to five minutes of
total cessation of function, these efforts are uniformly and readily
successful, provided that the full technique has been used: up to
ten minutes, there is an occasional failure, but after that the
chances of success become progressively less. Our limit was
five minutes in puppies (three cases).

To determine the limits of recovery after the total anemia of
the centrai nervous system incident to a state of relative death, a
series of thirty dogs was killed by chloroform and _ resuscitated
after varying times from three to fourteen minutes. Under five
minutes the recovery of function was rapid and strikingly free
from the after effects which characterized longer periods. Of seven
animals between the periods of five minutes and six and one half

1From the Laboratory of Surgical Physiology, Western Reserve Univers-
ity, and the Pathological Laboratory, University of North Carolina.
2Jour. of Exper. Med., vol. 18, p. 718, 1906.

106 [November

(

1908 | ABSTRACTS 107

minutes, only one died apparently as a direct result of the ane-
mia, but of twelve between the periods of seven minutes and eight
and one half minutes, only one, after seven and one half minutes,
recovered. The remaining dogs all died.

After a resuscitation, the course of events in the animals which
succumbed, while limited according to the extent of the reanima-
tion, was similar to that in the dogs which did eventually recover.
Many of the dogs showed more than a mere reflex revival there
being some temporary manifestation of special senses and higher
faculties in addition. In general, three stages were to be observed.
A state of hyperexcitability followed reanimation, reaching its
maximum in one to three hours, when retrogression began. This
second stage was characterized by the onset of uncontrolled mus-
cular movements, either coordinate or convulsive, lasted a longer
time, and gradually passed into the third stage of depression and
paralysis. The crisis in practically all the experiments was
reached in from twelve to twenty-four hours. Then death quickly
ensued or distinct improvement of nervous functions shortly
began, continuing more or less rapidly till complete restoration,
though the convalescent period lasted in two dogs four and six
weeks respectively. There was no intermediate condition of fatal
outcome delayed for several days except m several cases in which
death was due to accidental organic lesion. Up toacertain point,
not to be exactly limited, but roughly six minutes, the after
effects were not marked, and the second, third, or fourth day
brought complete recovery. Beyond the six minute limit, how-
ever, there was a great deal of after effect, increasing out of ail
proportion to the increase in the duration of the period of anemia,
reaching as well in the dogs which finally recovered a temporary
state in which the animal] was little more than a cardio-respira-
tory mechanism.

(The sequence of return of the various functions and _ reflexes
and the special phenomena following a resuscitation are dis-
cussed in detail.)

Histological examination both of presumptive recoveries and
fatal cases was made by ordinary methods and those of Niss] and
Marchi. The neurocytes of the fatal cases uniformly presented
the greatest change, not merely chromolytic but here and there

108 JoURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ November

indicative of cel] death. Marchi’s method further supported these
findings by proving the existence of fibre degeneration. Finally,
showing the narrowness of the escape, the best result in recovery,
seven and one half minutes in time, which at the end of four
weeks had apparently entirely returned to a normal state, by the
Marchi method had a degeneration of a number of fibres localized
in the pyramidal fascieuli, which were traced from the cord to
the cortex, and in Flechsig’s fasciculus, as well as a more sparsely
scattered degeneration of both ascending and descending fibres
elsewhere. The results of the histological examination place the
limits of experimental resuscitation upon an anatomical basis.

CONCLUSIONS

1. In dogs anesthetized by ether for preparation and killed
quickly by chloroform, the average limit of total cerebral anemia,
estimated from the cessation of the heart sounds to the return of
circulation, which admits of recovery, is between six and seven
minutes. Any recovery beyond seven and half minutes would be
exceptional, and the ulterior limit appears to be under ten min-
utes, hitherto stated as the most conservative figure after other
modes of investigation.

2. Further, experience with resuscitation of animals killed by
anesthetics and asphyxia, embracing numerous unrecorded exper-
iments as well as those forming the basis of the present article,
establishes our former conclusion, that the procedures detailed
afford a reliable method within its limitations, and certainly uni-
formly successful within the limits compatible with the recovery
of the central nervous system.

Brypers FoR Coat Briquets, by J. E. Mills. Bulletin 348
of the United States Geological Survey.

The bulletin contains a report of investigations made at the
Fuel-Testing Plant, St. Louis, Mo., by the author. The charae-
teristics of good briquets are discussed and the general conditions
governing the use of binders. A very large number of different
binders were investigated in the laboratory, the effort having been
made to include in the list all binders which it was thought

{

———

1908 | ABSTRACTS 109

might be used commercially in the United States, as well as cer-
tain other substances which seemed fitted to throw light on the
laws governing the action of the binder. Attempt was also made
to study such modifications and combinations of the different
binders as it seemed might produce more efficient commercial
results. The author gives the following summary of the investi-
gations:

“Definite answer to the question ‘What is the best binder to
use in making briquets?’ depends, as repeatedly emphasized in
this paper on the locality, on the character of the coal, and on
the purpose for which the briquets are intended. For purposes
of a brief comparison consideration is given to the binders avail-
able for a coal which is fairly easy to briquet and which cakes
rather readily. A few coals will briquet with somewhat less and
others require greater percentages of binder, but an endeavor has
been made in the following summary to strike a reasonable
average.

‘‘The experiments herein reported show that, in general, for
plants situated where it can be obtained, the cheapest binder will
prove to be the heavy residuum from petroleum, often known to
the trade as asphalt. Four per cent of this binder being suffi-
cient, its cost ranges from 45 to 60 cents per ton of briquets pro-
duced. This binder is particularly available in California, Texas,
and adjacent territory.

“Second in order of importance comes water-gas tar pitch.
Five to six per cent usually proving sufficient, the cost of this
binder ranges from 50 to 60 cents per ton of briquets produced.
As water-gas pitch is also derived from petroleum, it will be avail-
able more particularly in oil-producing regions.

‘Third in order of importance is coal-tar pitch. Being derived
from coal, this binder is very widely available. From 6.5 to 8
per cent will usually be required, and the cost ranges from 65 to
90 cents per ton of briquets produced.

‘Of local importance, where the price permits, are natural
asphalts and tars derived from wood distillation. The price of
each of these binders varies greatly with the locality, but there
are doubtless places where they could compete with the binders

110 JOURNAL OF THE MrrcHELL Society _ | Navember

above mentioned. Wax tailings could be used with an easily cak-
ing coal.

“Pitch made from producer-gas tar is not yet on the market,
but it will produce excellent briquets with a lower percentage of
binder than other coal-tar pitches. It will doubtless be available
in the future.

‘“‘Briquets excellent in all respects except that they are not
waterproof can be made by using 1 per cent of starch as a binder,
the cost of which is 20 cents per ton of briquets produced. Extra
care is necessary in drying and handling these briquets, and this
adds to their cost.

‘The waste sulphite liquor from paper mills also producees
excellent briquets except that they are not waterproof. At present it
is a troublesome waste product dissolved in much water. Its utili-
zation for this purpose will bear further investigation.

‘‘Of inorganic binders, magnesia might be utilized, as its prob-
able cost would not exceed 22 to 30 cents per ton of briquets pro-
duced. Other inorganic binders, while available as regards price,
would not make first-class briquets.

‘“‘The briquetting of lignite coal offers a peculiarly difficult
problem. If the lignite cakes in the fire, asphaltic residues from
petroleum or water-gas tar pitch may be used as binder, larger
percentages being required than for ordinary coals. The most
promising binders for lignites that do not cake are starch, sul-
phite liquor, and magnesia. Lignites may be briquetted without
binder if they are to be burned on grates specially constructed to
overcome the tendency to fall to pieces in the fire.

‘“ Attention is called to the suggested method of deciding as to
the value of coal-tar pitch for briquetting purposes. The method
is likewise applicable to asphalts and petroleum residues gener-
ally; (1) The pitch or tar is distilled and all oils coming off
below 270° C. are rejected as being of no value; (2) the flowing
point of the portion to be used in briquetting is determined (this
should generally not be less than 70° C.) (8) the pitch is
extracted with carbon disulphide. The smaller the amount of
residual carbon the more satisfactory is the pitch. The less read-
ily the coal cakes the higher must be the flowing point of the
pitch. Ifa pitch cracker is used, the pitch to work successfully

—

1908 | ABSTRACTS 111

on a hot summer’s day must have a flowing point above 120° C.
In the winter pitch with a flowing point of 100° C. may be used.
All softer pitches and asphalts have to be melted and mixed in
liquid form with the coal.

A pitch with a very high softening point, above 150° C., should
be either thinned or superheated in the mixer. The efficient use
of a binder depends very largely on the proper regulation of the
conditions in the mixer. The presence of low-volatile compounds
in the pitch to be used as a binder increases the smoke in burn-
ing; and also increases the tendency of the briquet to soften and
crack open in advance of combustion, owing to the volatilization
and escape of these compounds.

“The main problem in briquetting is to find a suitable binding
material at sufficiently low cost. When the difference in price
between the slack coal and the first-class lump coal is $1, the cost
of briquetting should not exceed this amount. Of this the binder
must cost less than 60 cents per ton, as the cost of manufacture
averages about 40 cents. To leave out of consideration the pos-
sible advantages in the use of briquetted coal over run-of-mine
coal, due to the greater efficiency and smokelessness of briquets,
it will probably not be necessary to pay any attention to binding
materials costing $1.25 or more per ton of briquets produced.’

THE VOLATILE O1L oF Pinus Serorina, by Chas. H. Herty
and W.S. Dickson. Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., vol. 30, p. 872.
May 1908.

A study of the volatile oil obtained by distillation with steam
from the oleo-resin of Pinus Serotina (Pond Pine) showed that. it
contained large quantities of limonene instead of the more com-
mon pinene present in ordinary spirits of turpentine. The oil
showed the following physical contents:

Specific Gravity: 20° 0.8478

Specific Rotation: 20° —105° 36!

Index of Refraction: 20° 1.4734

Acid Number: 0

Saponification Number: 1.54

Iodine Number: 378

On Fractionation the oil showed;

112 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL Society — [November

Temperatures Per Cent of Distillate
172-175 27.4
175-180 57.0
180-185 8.4
185-+ C2

The limoene was identified by conversion into the tetrabromide.

THe CHARACTER OF THE CoMPOUND FORMED BY THE ADDITION
oF AMMONIA TO EQPHYL-PHOSPHO-PLATINO CHLORIDE, by Chas. H.
Herty and R. O. E. Davis. Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., vol. 30, p.
1084. July 1908.

(NH,),
Efforts to prepare Rosenheim’s Salt ~ Pt Cl,

| PCoc.H), $°

failed. On each attempt, following closely Rosenheim’s directions,
Cl
the salt } Pt (NID): ( Cl was obtained. Only half of the chlo-
P(OCHL), |

rine in this compound can be precipitated by silver nitrate.
Determinations of its molecular conductivity show close agreement
with analagous di-ionic complex ammonia compounds studied by
Werner, Miolati and Herty. The character of the compound
agrees fully with the co-ordination hypothesis of Werner.

Corrosion oF Iron, by R. O. E. Davis. Ch. Eng., vol. 5, p.
174. 1908.

The corrosion of iron in explained by different workers in sev-
eral different ways, but the main discussion is whether it is oxygen
or carbon dioxide that is essential to rusting. Experiments were
devised to determine this point, from which the conclusion is
drawn that corrosion of iron takes place with water and oxygen
but not with water and carbon dioxide. The presence of carbon
dioxide may accelerate the reaction but is not essential to it.

Tue OpticAL Rorarion or Sprrits or TuRPENTINE, by Chas.
H. Herty. Jour. Am Chem. Soc., vol. 30, p. 863. May 1908.

The results of this investigation were obtained from oleo-resins
from individual trees in Florida of Pinus Palustris and Pinus Heter-

[ 1908 ABSTRACTS 113

rophylla. The collections of the oleo-resins from which the vol-
atile oils were distilled were made at regular intervals throughout
a complete season, March to November. A number of trees of
eacb species were used.

The optical rotation of the severel volatile oils obtained on
distillation showed a marked variation. Those from Pinus Palus-
tris were generally dextrorotatory, varying however from +1°
23' to +18° 18' (100 mm. tube). One specimen showed a_leyo-
rotation of —7° 26'. The oils from Pinus Heterophylla were levo-
rotatory, with one exception -+0° 15', varying from —7° 31! to
—29° 26'.

While these wide variations were noticed in the specimens from
the individual trees, there was but slight variation in the speci-
mens from-the same tree throughout the season.

JOURNAL
Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society
DECEMBER, 1908

VOL. XXIV NO. 4

THE AMANITAS OF NORTH CAROLINA

BY H. C. BEARDSLEE

The Amanitas are among the most conspicuous and interesting
of our fleshy fungi and for that reason most frequently serve as the
starting point for the beginner. In the following paper the
attempt has been made to furnish a key and synopsis. .of the genus
which will be serviceable to students of this state. All the species
which are listed, with two exceptions have been found near Ashe-
ville and will be found generally distributed through this and the
surrounding states.

The names used are in the main those in common use. The
few changes which have been made, have been determined upon
only after carefully comparing our plants with European speci-
mens and after submitting good specimens and life sized photo-
graphs to European authorities. Bresadola, Boudier, and Carle-
ton Rea have given much assistance in this work and have placed
the author under great obligations.

The genus Amanita may be distinguished among the white
spored species by the volva which surrounds the entire plant in its —
younger state. In the mature plant this is often largely obliter-

1908) 115 Printed January 30, 1909

116 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

ated, but its remains will usually be seen on the pileus or at the
base of the stipe, according to the nature of its development. In
some cases the valva is a loose membranous sack, which splits as
the pileus develops, and is left as a loose cup at the base of the
stipe. In other cases the volva breaks at the margin of the pileus
leaving a part adherent to the pileus in the form of irregularwarts,
while the basal portion remains adherent to the base of the stipe,
either in the form of a sheath with an even margin where it has
been ruptured, or in the form of scales.

Species, then, with white spores, a distinct cup at the base of
the stipe, or the pileus adorned with superficial warts may be
looked for in this genus. The Volvarias wich are rather rare have
the same loose cup at the base of the stipe, but will be at once
distinguished by the red spore print which will be obtained by
placing a cap on white paper,

KEY TO THE GENERA AND SPECIES

Stipe furnished with an annulus. Amanita.

Stipe without an annulus. Amanitopsis.
Amanita.

Volva forming a loose membranous cup at the base of the stipe

Volva forming a distinct marginate sheath adnate to the stipe

Volva not as above. 4.

om

1. Gills yellow. A. caesarea.

1. Gills white, margin of pileus striate. A. spreta.

1. Gills white, margin ef pileus even. 2.

2. Annulus remaining white. A. phalloides.

2. Annulus becoming sooty black. A. porphyria.

3. Pileus yellow. A. mappa.

3. Pileus white. A. cothurnata.

3. Pileus gray or brownish gray. A. pantherina.

4, Pileus striate on the margin, spores elliptical. A. muscaria and
A. russuloides.

4. Pileus striate on the margin, spores subglobose. A. frostiana.

5. Flesh with red stains when wounded. A. rubescens.

5. Notas above. 6.

6. Pileus adorned with erect pointed warts. A. echinocephala.

ee

eS ie

1908] Tur AMANITAS OF NorTH CAROLINA 117

6. Pileus adorned with thin, adnate, polygonal warts.
A. solitaria.
6. Pileus adorned with thick, large polygonal warts.
A. strobiliformis.

Amanitopsis.
Volva persisting as a membranous cup.
Volva separating into warty scales on the pileus. 2.
Volva pulverent. A. farinosa.
1. Pileus sulcate striate on the margin. A. vaginata.
1. Pileus even on the margin. A. agglutinata.
2. Pileus red. A. muscaria coccinea.
2. Stipe distinctly bulbous. A. russuloides.
2. Not as above. A. strangulata.

AMANITA CAESAREA Scop.

Pileus 4 to 10 inches broad, smooth, varying from bright scarlet
to orange or dingy yellow, distinctly striate on the margin; gills
yellow, free; stipe firm, stuffed, usually yellow and _ flocculose,
with a large, persistentannulus. Volva large thick loose, persis-
tent, white. Spores elliptical, 10 to 12 by 5 to 6 me.

This is easily the finest and most striking of the Amanitas. It
is very abundant in Western North Carolina, but is rare farther to
the north. It is highly esteemed in Europe as an edible species,
but like all the Amanitas should only be used for food when it has
been identified beyond all possibility of mistake. It should be
remembered that several species of Amanita are highly dangerous.

AMANITA SPRETA PECK.

Pileus 2-6 inches broad, usually gray, or brownish gray, but
varying to white. Smooth or nearly so, striate on the margin;
gills white, free; stipe cylindrical, not bulbous, stuffed or hollow.
Volva loose, free, persistent. Spores 10-12 by 7-8 me, elliptical.

This is very abundant and also very variable. The common
form at Asheville is large and robust, with the margin nearly even,
and the pileus brown or dark gray. Other forms are found which
are slender and occasionally almost pure white. The more slen-
der forms are much like A. cinerea Pres. which is the European
form of this species. One interesting form occurs on our dry hill-

118 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

sides which is so distinct that both Peck and Bresadola declare it
a distinct species, Careful observations have lead to the conclu-
sion that it is however merely a very distinct variety. I have fig-
ured it as A. spreta parva n. var. It may be readily known by
its small size. Pileus .5 to 1 inch broad, thin and membranous,
soon plane or depressed, deeply sulcate striate on the margin.
Stipe slender white with a distant, almost median annulus.
Spores as in the type.

AMANITA PHALLOIDES FR.

Pileus 2-5 inches broad, omooth or with a few fragments of the
volva, white, yellow, or oliveaceous, often darker on the disk,
margin even; gills white, free; stipe white, smooth, bulbous at
the base, which is surrounded by the globose, free, membranous
volva. Spores globose 9-10 me.

Common and yariable in color. The most common form is
pure white and so distinct that it has been separated under the
name A. verna. This may be found in our woods in profusion.
It may at once be recognized by its pure white pileus, and the glo-
bose base of the stipe surrounded by the loose volva. This is the
deadly Amanita. It should be remembered that in spite of its
attractive appearance it is the most dangerous of our Agarics.

AMANITA PORPHYRIA A. AND §.

Pileus 2-4 inches broad, brownish gray often with a tint of pur-
ple, even or slightly striate on the margin, smooth; gills white,
slightly adnexed. Stipe stuffed, then hollow, bulbous at the base;
volva free; annulus persistent, becoming sooty black. Spores glo-
bose, 10-12 mc.

This species has not as yet been detected at Asheville, but is
inserted in the conviciion that it will eventually be found here.
It has been found by the author in Maine agreeing in every par-
ticular with specimens found in Sweden. The peculiar annulus
should distinguish it. It collapses upon the stipe and forms a
sooty ring which is characteristic.

AMANITA COTHURNATA ATKINSON.
Pileus 2-4 inches broad, white, viscid when moist, covered with

ee ee ee

se eS

7908} Tue AMANITAS OF NorTH CAROLINA 119

flat, irregular, white warts, striate or tuberculate striate on the
margin; gills white, free, broadest at the margin; stipeslender,
white, abruptly enlarged into a globose bulbous base. Volva
adnate to the base of the stipe, upon which it forms a distinct
sheath with a distinct margin. Spores elliptical, 8-10 me.

Very abundant during the summer. We have used the
American name, though with the conviction that this is only a
form of A. pantherina. One of the decisive reasons for its separa-
tion from A pantherina was that the spores are globose instead of
elliptical. This is certainly not true of the fresh plant, though
the spores in my dried specimens show a curious habit of becom-
ing distended, and are filled with a large globule which takes the
place of the proper contents. The main difference is in the
color which is a doubtful character. Typical A. panterina has
a dark pileus upon which the white warts are very conspicuous.
The curious sheath at the base of the stipe will at once character-
ize this species.

AMANITA MAPPA FR.

Pileus 2.5 anches broad, yellow or pallid, dry, with flat white
or yellow scales from the fragments of the volva, even on the mar-
gin; gills white slightly adnexed; stipe stuffed then hollow, white,
striate at the apex, with a globose marginate bulb. Spores glo-
bose 8 me.

Found in pine woods, rather rare. This is identical with the
the plant which is found inSweden. It is much like A. phalloi-
des in some regards but has no free volva. The basal portion of
the volva is adnate to the bulb and is cut squarely across forming
a thick margin at the margin of the bulb.

AMANITA RUBESCENS PERS. .

Pileus 2 to 5 inches broad, brown, or red brown, varying to pale
or yellow, even or slightly striate on the margin, thickly covered
with irregular fragments of the veil, somewhat viscid when moist;
gills white, rather narrow, tapering toward the stipe; stipe white,
stuffed, becoming hollow, usually bulbous at the base. Flesh of
plieus and stipe becoming red when wounded. Spores elliptical
7-9 by 5-6 mc.

120 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

Very common. In mature specimens it can at once be recog-
nized by the red stains which will be seen where insects have
formed their burrows in the stipe. No trace of the volva will be
seen at the base of the stipe in the mature plant.

AMANITA MUSCARIA LINN.

Pileus 3 to 6 inches broad, viscid when moist, thickly covered
with the remains of the volva, which breaks up on the pileus in
the form of irregular white or yellow warts, varying from bright
orange to yellow or pallid, striate on the margin; gills white;
stipe white or yellowish, bulbous at the base which is at first
covered with scales from the volva. Spores 8-10 by 6-8 me.

Probably the best known of the Amanitas. The bright orange
forms are very beautiful, but the more dingy forms are with us,
the most common. It should be carefully distinguished from A.
caesarea especially by those who are interested in the Caesars mush-
room for food, as it is a dangerous species. The two species may
be also identical in color. In other respects they are widely dif-
ferent. A. caesarea has a loose cup shaped volva at the base of the
stipe, yellow gills, and a smooth pileus. A. muscaria has no cup
shaped volva, white gills, and a warty pileus. No difficulty should
be experienced in distinguishing the two species but all doubtful
apecimens should be rejected as being possibly the most danger-
ous A. muscaria.

AMANITA MUSCARIA COCCINEA BEARDSLEE.

Pileus bright scarlet, viscid, striate on the margin, thickly
covered with yellow warts. Gills yellow, yellow pulverent on the
margin; annulus lacking. This is one of our most striking forms
and is so constant that it deserves recognition, especially as it
seems to be quite abundant. It may prove to be not distinct from
A. gemmata Fr. and A. nitido guttata Paul. though it does not
well correspond with the discriptions.

AMANITA ECHINOCEPHALA VITT.

Pileus 3-8 inches broad, pure white to dull olive green, thickly
covered with erect pointed scales; gills from pure white or cream
to sordid olivaceous, free; stipe solid, colored like the pileus,

7908] +~+‘Tue Amanrras or Nortu CAROLINA 121

mealy or clothed, especially below, with pointed scales, enlarged
at the base into a bulb from which a long root like projection is
given off. Strong odor of chlorine in old plants. Spores ellip-
tical, 10-12 me. long.

AMANITA SOLITARIA AULL.

Pileus white or slightly gray, convex, even on the margin,
covered wieh thin adnate polygonal warts: gills white, free: stipe
solid white, flocculose, somewhat bulbous at the base, bulbs point-
ed. Spores 10-12 by 7-9 mc. Odor as in the preceding. In
woods, less abundant than the preceding species.

AMANITA STOBILIFORMIS PAUL.

Pileus large and firm 8 to 8 inches broad, white or light gray,
covered with thick brown polygonal warts, even on the margin;
gills white; stipe thick, solid, farinose or scaley, enlarged below
into a bulb which is often marginate. Spores 10 to 12 me ellip-
tical.

I have given here the description of these three species in order
to facilitate the study of the group to which they belong.
It is necessary to add that the status of this group is more than
doubtful, and that there is no agreement among the best authori-
ties in regard to it. The truth in regard to the group
seems to be this. It is rather rare in the north. Peck
says for example that it is of little consequence to determine
whether it is or is not edible on account of its rarity. In the
south it is abundant and can be gathered by the bushel. Itseems
certain that only one who has observed it in comparative rarity
should feel sure of the distinctions which are drawn. My obser-
vations which are recorded in a large series of photographs are
that none of the ‘‘characters’’ are constant enough to be of much
value. The shape of the warts and their nature seems to depend
largely upon the conditions of development and, in what is clearly
the same species, may vary from a thin mealey covering to hard
polygonal warts. The shape of the bulb is just as uncertain. In
the same species it may be entirely lacking or highly developed,
marginate or immarginate, and smooth or scaley. While the
dimensions of the spores vary I have been unable to base any sep-

1:22 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | December

aration on this character. The most striking forms which occur
in North Carolina are a form which is dull olive green throughout
and gives dark olive spore prints (apparently A. umbella of
Cuelet and Bataille’s monograph) and the huge attractive form
which has been known as Lepiota vittadinii Moret. Upwards of
thirty “‘species’’ have been described in this group, part attributed
to Lepiota and part to Amanita. Most of these are certainly of
no value. It is my present opinion that they will all eventually
be reduced to synonyms. It is hoped that those who are inter-
ested in the subject may secure specimens and photograps of mem-
bers of the group which are found in their vicinity. It is only by
the study of ample material that the matter can be cleared up.

AMANITA RUSSULOIDES PECK.

Pileus 2 to 4 inches broad, pale yellow, viscid when moist,
covered at first with white irregular warts, tuberculate, striate on
the margin; gills white, free; stipe stuffed, smooth, bulbous.
Spores 10 to 11 by 7 to 8 mc. Very abundant in the Ashe-
ville region. It is known in Europe as A. junquillea Quel.
Amanita vernalis Gilet and A. amici are doubtless but forms of
the same species. Itis probable also that A. adnata Smith is to
be referred here. The form found at Asheville has either no annu-
lus, as is the case with the form figured by Smith or at the most
a very rudimentary one. The species is doubtless not rare in our
State and will be easily recognized. The pale yellow or straw
colored pileus with its striate margin and the rounded bulb at the
base of the stipe are characteristic. Specimens from Boudier have
been carefully compared with our own material and there can be
no doubt of the identity of the two.

AMANITA FROSTIANA PECK.

Pileus 1-2 inches broad, bright yellow or orange, warty from the
remains of the volva, even or slightly striate on the margin;’ gills
white, stipe white or yellow, bulbous, spores 8-10 mc, broadly ellipti-
calor globose. Growing in woods. In appearance this is,a small
A. muscaria, but the spores are different. It will doubtless be
found generally through the the state.

ah

a ee ee

————_

1908] Tur AMANITAS OF Nor?TH CAROLINA 123

AMANITOPSIS.

This genus differs from Amanita in the absence of an annulus.
The division is rather artificial and the fact that some species are
found either with or without an annulus makes it of question-
able value.

AMANITOPSIS VAGINATA BULL.

Pileus ovate, becoming expanded and plane or depressed, pal-
lid, gray, tan or brown in color, naked or with a few flat frag-
ments of the veil, deeply sulcate, striate on the margin; gills
white, free; stipe slender, tapering upward, flocculose; volva
membranous, persistent, lax. Sporesglobose7 to 10mce. One of
our most abundant and variable species. The loose, cup shaped
volva at the base of the stipe, lack of an annulus, and striate mar-
gin readily distinguish it.

AMANITOPSIS AGGLUTINATA B. & C.

Pileus firm, convex, even or only striate on the margin, white,
slightly colored on the disk.and somewhat flocculose scaley; gills
white, broad, rounded; stipe not enlarged at the base, equal or
tapering upward, stuffed flocculose; volva firm, free, forming a
persistent, membranous cup at the base of the stipe. Spores ellip-
tical 11-14 by 5-7 me.

This is A. volvata Peck and is shown under that name in
this country. In Europe it is considered by Bresadola to be the
real A. baccata of Fries. Boudier finds it and refers it to A. coc-
cola. Specimens from him are identical with our plant and his
figure(Bulletin of the French Mycological Society, Vol. 18, Page
253] represents it perfectly. The description given by Berkeley is
howeyer unmistakable and is substantiated by specimens. It
seems best to use the first authentic name since A. baccata Fr.
must always be an uncertainty. Fries’ figure of A. baccata does
not seem to represent our plant. A. barlae Quel. is probably
another synonym.

AMANITOPSIS STRANGULATA FR.

Pileus 1-4 inches broad, campanulate, becoming expanded and
plane or depressed, brown or gray-brown, deeply striate on the

124 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

margin, warty, viscid when moist: stipe tapering upward, slightly
enlarged at the base, white. Gills not crowded, white, free; volva
firm in texture, breaking up into broad felty scales on the pileus
and forming a more or less perfect ring which projects like a false
annulus from the base of the stipe. Spores globosed 10-12 me.
This is not rare in the mountains af West Virginia and I have
included it here although it has not been reported as yet from
North Carolina. It comes close to A. vaginata, but seems suffici-
ently distinct. The curious false annulus is its distinguishing mark.

AMANITOPSIS FARINOSA SCHW.

Pileus 1-2 inches broad, gray or brownish gray, mealy with
gray particles which are thickest at the disk, deeply striate on the
margin; gills white, free; stipe slender, pallid or gray, bulbous at
the base. Spores elliptical or subglobose 6-7 me long. In open
woods along paths. Common.

This dainty species is common in western North Carolina, but is
rare farther to the north and is entirely unknown in Europe. The
volva is represented by a gray farinose covering which at first
covers the entire plant. It is a very distinct and attractive species.

AMANITA Spissa should be found in our state and it is hoped that
collectors will watch for it. It is much like some forms of
A. rubescens but the warts on the pileus are gray and the flesh
unchangeable. I have observed it in Maine but not at Asheville.

ASHEVILLE, N. C.

INVESTIGATIONS OF THE N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND
ECONOMIC SURVEY RELATING TO FORESTRY
PROBLEMS ALONG THE NORTH
CAROLINA BANKS

BY JOSEPH HYDE PRATT, STATE GEOLOGIST

Problems of considerable interest have recently come up regard-
ing the preservation of the small areas of forests that still remain
on a few sections of the Banks along the North Carolina coast and
of the reforestation of certain other sections. Conditions along
the banks have been studied and, although the investigations have
shown that over certain areas it will be impractical to attempt
any reforestation or to try and check the progress of the dunes,
yet there are certain other areas that should be protected and
reforested. The greatest enemy of the areas of forests now exist-
ing on the Banks are the dunes and one of the greatest difficulties
in the way of checking the progress of the dunes is the cattle,
sheep, and hogs that roam over these Banks, devouring the grass,
roots, tree sprouts, etc. The survey has been assisted in its work
of collecting data regarding the conditions existing along the
Banks by Professor Collier Cobb of the University of North Caro-
lina, Mr. I. F. Lewis of Johns Hopkins University, and the U. S.
Forest Service. The principal investigation has been on Shackle-
ford Banks, extending from Cape Lookout southwestward about
eight miles to Beaufort Inlet and from Cape Hatteras to Hatteras
Inlet, a distance of about twelve miles.

Shackleford Bank extends from Cape Lookout southwestward
about eight miles to Beaufort Inlet, and is from a half to three-
quarters of a mile broad. The whole Bank was, within the mem-
ory of the older inhabitants, heavily wooded over iis entire area.
Owing, however, to cutting of the timber for firewood and lumber,

125 { December

126 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | December

the sand of the beach began to drift in on the forest somewhere
near 1840. At this time the beach was higher than the forest on
the sound side. The beach is described by Mr. Torrey Moore, an
inhabitant of the Bank since 1828, as “‘flattening out on the
woods,’’ and so killing the trees. At the present date the eastern
end of the Bank is completely “‘sanded over.’’ The original
forest is represented only by several clumps or “‘islands’’ of live-
oak, which happened to be hardy enough to withstand the drift-
ing sand. Near the western end of the Bank, about two miles of
this forest land still remains, though it is rapidly being encroached
upon by the advancing sand. Along the seaward side of this strip
the beach, originally narrow, has broadened to a quarter of a mile
or more, destroying the forest as the sand moved toward the sound.
The sand is encroaching on the forest with greater rapidity as the
increased breadth of the beach gives more surface for the wind to
take up the dry particles and blow them over on the forest.

The forest here is made up chiefly of live-oak and red cedar, with
the red mulberry, holly, water beech (Carpinus), and red bay
(Persea) occurring commonly. The trees are not large, but are
densely massed, and serve to prevent the winter storms from
sweeping over the Bank. Cutting of timber was once a common
practice but is no longer so, for the reason that the islanders real-
ize that their only protection from storms lies in the forests them-
selves. The trees are still sometimes used for firewood by the
natives.

The inhabitants of the island live on the side of the Bank near
the sound, and make their living partly by fishing and partly by
gardening. The soil is a deep and mellow loam, suitable for most
vegetables grown in this country. The principal plant now under
cultivation are figs, tomatoes, sweet and Irish potatoes, cabbage,
turnips, beans, peas, watermelons and cantaloups, If the drift-
ing sand is allowed to advance much farther toward the sound,
these gardens must be abandoned and the living of the inhabitant
must become very precarious.

In the woods on the western end of Shackleford are a consider-
able number of ponies, cattle, sheep and goats. Sheriff Hancock
of Carteret County estimates the numbers from Cape Lookout west

1908] ForESTRY PROBLEMS ON N. C. BAnxKs 127

as follows: Three hundred ponies, 500 sheep, 250 cattle, 300
goats. These animals are very destructive, and are rapidly
destroying all grass, shrubs, and tree sprouts on the Banks. Com-
mercially they are of little value and a law compelling the people
to keep them up would in the end work no hardship on the citi-
zens of the Banks.

A more important, though Jess immediate, reason for checking
the sand drift lies in its effect on the channels and fisheries of the
sounds. Where the once wooded Bank has become a sandy desert,
the sand blown by the wind has filled in or is filling in the chan-
nel of Core Sound. Wherever the woods are still in existence, the
deep water extends up to the Bank, but where the woods have
been exterminated, the channel near the Bank haf been filled up,
being now only one or two feet deep at low water. This in itself
is not of great importance for navigation so long as other channels
near the mainland can be kept open, However, as the sand drifts
in, these will gradually become shallower until, probably within
the course of a few decades, the waterway between Bogue and
Pamlico sounds will become closed. The effcet of a filling in of
the channels would be disastrous to the fishing industry at this
point. The enormous stream of mullet and other fish now coming
through Core Sound from Pamlico would be diverted to some other
outlet, and fishing would cease to be a means of existence to the
people of the region.

As an example of the effect on the people of the drifting sand,
attention is called to Diamond City, a fishing viliage on the sound
side of Shackleford Bank not far from Cape Lookout. When the
forest covered this part of the Bank the villagers were prosperous,
being sure of a good catch of fish and having productive gardens
under cultivation. As the sand came over from the beach, the
gardens were first destroyed, then the channels began filling in and
the catch of fish fell off. Finally, as the sand spread out more
and more, the winter storms began to sweep the Bank more and
more completely, until, about 1908, conditions became such that
the settlement was broken up, and the inhabitants, about four
hundred in all, were compelled to move over to Harker’s Island,
near the mainland. Now Diamond City is visited only in the fall,

128 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

when fishermen take up temporary quarters during part of the
fishing season.

To the north of Cape Lookout, the more important forest areas
are on Hatteras Island, between the inlet and the cape, one just
to the west of the Cape consisting largely of loblolly pine, and
another near Hatteras village, composed largely of red cedar, pine
and live oak. To the southwest of the inlet there are small scat-
tered areas, containing a good many olive trees. These latter
trees make especially good binders in checking the advance of the
sand dunes inasmuch as they are able to sprout from their
branches, after the main part of the tree has been covered by the
sand.

There is one element of the situation which, so far as is known,
is different from the conditions where sandbinding work has been
instituted, as, for instance, Cape Cod. The winds which cause
the sands to move are from the south, blowing pretty constantly
during the spring and summer, or growing season. The stronger
northeast winds of winter have little effect on the sand. What
effect they have consists in blowing the sand back towards the
ocean. They are less effective as sand movers than the south
winds of summer, partly because they blow less constantly and
partly because their force is greatest when the sand is wet from
winter rains and not easily to be moved. At any rate, the sand
is moving north, carried so chiefly in the summer months, whereas
at other points where conditions have been studied, it moves south
and west, being blown by winter winds. This condition, which
probably obtains along the South Atlantic and Gulf coast, causes
the problem to to be presented in a slightly different aspect from
that usually considered, and serves to emphasize the desirability
of experimental work at this point.

A special report was made for the N.C. Geological and Eco-
nomic Survey, by Mr. Jay F. Bond of the U. S. Forest Service on
the practicability of forest protection on the Banks and how to
accomplish it. Mr. Bond’s report is as follows:

EXAMINATION OF THE NORTH CAROLINA BANKS

Introduction
The following report is the result of a brief examination of the

ee

1908) Forestry Prosiems on N. C. BANKs 129

banks off the North Carolina coast between Cape Hatteras and the
wooded area about six miles west of Beaufort Inlet. This investi-
gation was undertaken by the Forest Service at the request of the
State Geologist of North Carolina and was intended only to deter-
mine, in a general way, the damage being done by drifting sands
on the area examined. If considered necessary, methods of pro-
tection against further damage were to be recommended.

The portion of the banks covered by this report is typical of the
entire strip and within this area are the only places where active
protective measures seem to be required at the present time. A
detailed plan for the treatment of these lands is included in this
report.

Damage by Shifting Sands

There is abundant evidence, throughout the area examined, of
marked changes within a comparatively recent time. Within the
recollection of many of the residents, practically the entire banks
were forest covered. At present, bowever, the forests occur only
at two points. Immediately west of Cape Hatteras are approxi-
mately 2,500 acres covered principally with loblolly pine. Recent
estimates of the amount of pine in thisstand approximate 20,000, -
000 feet board measure. Although this figure seems excessive,
there is undoubtedly a considerable amount of valuable timber in
forest. The trees are of medium size and the lumber of rela-
tively low value, but the accessibility of the stand and the great
market for even the poorer grades will make the exploitation of
this timber profitable. These lands are held by private owners
and the stumpage is controlled by a company which holds an
option at $.50 per thousand feet, B, M. This option expires Jan-
uary 1, 1910.

Poor business management has eaused a suspension of logging
operations, but it is practically certain that lumbering will be
resumed in the near future and that a considerable portion of the
forest will be removed before the expiration of the option, since it
could be renewed only ata much higher rate.

Near the western end of Shackleford Banks are a few hundred
acres of forest composed almost entirely of red juniper. This is
being exploited in a small way for posts.

130 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

The entire area between these points is barren and unproductive.
Only at the villages of Hatteras and Ocracoke where the residents
maintain small gardens is there any attempt to utilize the land in
any way except for the pasturage of a small number of stock.
Sand more or less fixed in the form of dome-shaped dunes extends
from the ocean to the sounds. The damage here is complete and
the improvement of the area as a whole is practically impossible.

There are two localities on the area under discussion where pro-
tective measures would prove a decided benefit. At the south-
eastern and southern part of the woodland near Cape Hatteras the
blowing sand is rapidly encroaching upon and destroying the for-
est while at Beaufort Inlet the surface sand is being blown into
Core Sound and, through the destruction of the beach, the width
of the inlet is perceptibly increasing. The problem of arresting
the damage at these two points is discussed in detail below.

Cape Hatteras Forest

Along the entire southern and western edges of the forest west
of Cape Hatteras a considerable area of woodland is being buried
and destroyed by blowing sand. As stated above, this timber has
a distinct value and, in addition to its value for lumber, the occur-
rence of the forest makes this locality by far the most desirable
residence section of the banks. It is simply a question ofa rather
limited time, however, when the encroachment of shifting sands,
together with destructive logging, will complete the permanent
denudation of the area. .

The greatest difficulty to be encountered in the treatment of
these lands is the fact that they are private property and therefore
ean scarcely be controlled by legislative action. Apparently
nothing can be done, except in an advisory way, to regulate the
exploitation of these woods. Fortunately, however, the logging
operations were begun at the sound side of the forest remote from
the area being encroached upon by the sand and hence the cut-
over area will have an opportunity to reforest naturally before the
removal of the timber immediately in the lea of the approaching
gand dunes. The large proportion of loblolly pine in the stand
makes reproduction certain with a minimum of protection. It is

7908) Forestry Prosrems or N, ©, Banxs 131

certain, however, that by far the greatest factor in the destruction
of the original stand has been careless lumbering.

The destruction resulting from logging has been made perma-
nent by unrestricted grazing, Cattle, sheep, goats and hogs have
free range and the damage from these sources cannot be overesti-
mated. Hogs are the greatest menace and a single hog, practi-
cally valueless, will root out large areas of sandbinding grasses
along the beech. Cattle and sheep complete the destruction by
eating the roots of the uprooted grass. The sand thus liberated is
carried away by the wind and a “‘blow-out’’ results. This blow-
out constantly enlarges until the damage becomes general and
large areas are affected.

Even if grazing were an important industry on the islands, free
range of stock would be fatal to the industry itself as well as to
the general productiveness of the lands. The reverse is the fact,
however, since competent observers place the total value of all stock
between Cape Hatteras and Hatteras Inlet at no more than $1000.
The cattle, sheep and horses are in-bred and of minimum value
while the hogs are practically worthless since the meat is unfit for
consumption, owing to the carrion fish upon which they feed.

It is strongly recommended, therefore, that the Legislature
enact suitable laws providing for the fencing of all stock upon
this portion of the Banks. This will work no real hardship upon
stock owners and’, moreover, is an economic necessity if the indus-
try be made profitable. Without such legal protection, all meas-
ures for the control of shifting sand such as are described below
will be useless. In addition, natural reproduction on the cut-over
forest areas cannot be satisfactory since, under present conditions,
live oak reproduction, which would otherwise be abundaut, is
missing and even pine reproduction is very seriously damaged.

The sand dune area which is encroaching upon the forest lies to
the south and east of the woodland. Beginning at a point two
miles east of Creed’s Hill Life Saving Station, it extends westward
four and one-half miles and beyond the wooded area where the
sand extends entirely across the banks to the sound. A descrip-
tion of this area and certain recommendations appear below.

132 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

Cape Hatteras Sand Dune Area

The moving sand of the dune area between the forest and the
ocean has already covered up and destroyed the growth for about
one-half mile inland. At the western end of the dune the sand
gradually slopes into a low marshy area which extends to Durant’s
Life Saving Station where a small body of liveoak occurs. To the
south of this woodland is a long, narrow sand dune and to the west
a low wash-flat extends to Hatteras Inlet where there are a few
mound-like dunes near the beach.

It is only the dunes immediately south and west of the Cape
Hatteras forest which are discussed below, since the dunes further
to the west can do practically no damage. Over this entire area
the sand is constantly moving in a northeast direction. The sur-
face is practically bare of vegetation and such growth as does
spring up from time to time is promptly destroyed by stock.

The direction of the movement of the dunes is undoubtedly
influenced by the forest growth which shelters the area from the
northerly winds. From the south the winds have uninterrupted
sweep and, in consequence, the sand is carried by these winds in
a northerly direction. The prevailing winds in the different sea-
sons also have a greater or less influence on the direction in which
the sand is carried. During the summer the sand becomes very
dry and in this condition is easily carried by the winds which are
southerly at this season. In the winter, however, the moist con-
dition of the sand prevents it from being easily carried by the
northern winds which prevail. The result is that even where the
winds have full sweep in both directions the general movement
of the dunes is toward the north.

At the northern end of the sands the dunes terminate abruptly
at the edge of the woods. Here there is a high dune rising gradu-
ally to a height of about 25 feet. To the leeward the slope of the
dune is fully 35°, which seems to be as steep as sand will remain
at rest.

The rate at which this dune is advancing inland could not be
determined the short time available. It is very evident, however,
that the advance is relatively rapid, since there are numerous liy-

es ey ye a

ety

ee.

4

§
i

1908] ForrEstry Prosiems or N. C. BANKS 133

ing tops of trees protruding above the sand considerably to the
windward of the crest of the leeward dune.

To control and fix these sands will require most careful treat-
ment and an expense entirely disproportionate to the value of the
reclaimed land and of the forest lands in the lea. So long as the
present conditions in respect to laws and the ownership of the
greater part of the area exists protective measures are impossible.
In addition to the enactmen of stock laws as recommended above,
it is recommended that the state acquire by purchase a strip of the
forest land in the lea of the dunes not less than 500 and preferably
1,00 feet wide and extending along the entire area so far as the
forest occurs. When this has been done the active measures look-
ing to the control of the sands may be put into effect.

The Fixation of the Sands

The permanent reclamation of the sand waste depends upon two
things: (1) Since the source of supply of the sand is inexhaust-
ible, a barrier must be provided near the beach to prevent new
supplies of sand which are brought up by the surf from being
blown inland. (2) The loose moving sand in the lee of this pro-
posed barrier must be permanently fixed by growing forests.

The success of all work relative to the satisfactory growth of the

trees and consequent binding of the sand depends upon the barrier
and past experience has established that this barrier is most satis-
factory, if it consist of a littoral dune of proper height built up by
sand which is arrested by means of mechanical obstructions and
held in place by suitable sand-binding grasses. It should be built
up parallel to the shore line and not nearer than 100 feet to
high water mark.
When the work of fixation is complete, the entire area with the
exception of the strip between the barrier dune and the shore line
will be covered by a forest. The strip to the windward of the bar-
rier must be held in place by the planting of grass. When the for-
est has been established, it should be cared for according to usual
forest practice. ;

It will be impossible to establish a forest directly upon the drift-
ing sand either by sowing the seed or by setting out young trees,
since the blowing sand either uncovers the seed or buries it too

134 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

deeply, while in the case of planted trees, the sand cuts the leaves
and bark or buries the plants. It will therefore be necessary to
hold the sand in place by some mechanical covering until the trees
have developed and formed a natural cover.

The work of fixation is thus divided into two stages: (1) Pre-
liminary, holding the sand in place. (2) Permanent, establish-
ing aforest. Upon the coast strip the work never proceeds beyond
the first stage and the maintenance of a grass cover will require
constant care.

The Coast Strip and the Barrier Dune.—The coast strip and the
barrier dune should be handled in such a way that the surface of
the strip may not jeopardize the stability of the dune. It is
obvious that the first work is the proper formation of the dune.
This is done by rapidly accumulating blowing sand so as to form
a long ridge. For this purpose, palisade fences arranged in a dou-
ble row 6 feet apart are used. Each fence should be made of inch
boards 6 inches wide and 5 feet long, driven about two feet into
the sand. The tops of the fences should be of equal height and
the palings should be four inches apart. Such an arrangement of
fences allows the wind to pass through, but reduces its velocity
and hence sand is deposited within and on both sides.

As the sand accumulates to the tops of the fences, the palings
should be raised and, when the dune has reached a height of 30
feet, sea oats (Unzola Paniculaia) should be planted 3 feet apart
alternating in rows three feet apart, parallel to the crest of the
dune. The grass should be planted on both sides of the dune and
gradurlly extended toward the windward until the dune attains a
fairly permanent form with a gradual slope toward the windward,
while on the leeward side the slope will be approximately 30°.
The successive steps in the formation of the barrier dune is shown
in the series of diagrams accompanying the report (Plate I).

The barrier dune, when completed, will protect the area in the
lee but will require constant care tc keep it in proper condition.
Every precaution should be taken to prevent a break in the dune
and, if such occurs, it must be repaired immediately, since the
wind will constantly enlarge the opening. A break may be
repaired by the simple expedient of piling brush on the surface of

7908] Forrstry ProsiEems or N. C. BANKS 135

the blowout and, when the sand has filled in to its former level,
by replanting grass as before. The main care should be to main-
tain a good grass cover over the dune and the coast strip. When
the grass becomes thin in one place, plants should be taken from
areas where it is thicker than necessary and replanted where
required.

Forestation-—The area in the lea of the littoral dune must’ be
planted in forest trees to accomplish permanent fixation. Local
conditions and geographical position of the area to be planted are
such that proven methods developed in extensive work of this
character in Europe may be adapted to this project.

It has been established that the most certain method of securing
a forest cover on waste sands is by direct sowing of the seed, pro-
vided that suitable species are available for use in the locality and
also that the sand be temporarily fixed until the young trees are
well established. Upon the formation of the barrier dune the
sands in the lee will be comparatively free from the action of the
wind, since the dune will protect the area from the southerly
wind, while the forest will serve as a windward to the north.

Loblolly pine, a rapid growing species which produces valuable
timber, grows throughout the banks. Although, owing to the
exposed situation, the qualiiy of timber produced cannot equal
that of the forests of the mainland, this tree is by far the most
desirable commercial species on the banks.

The proper method of sowing the seed can be determined only
by experiment. Two methods are suggested, the second to be used
only when it has been clearly demonstrated that the first is not
feasable. (1) Sowing the seed directly on the surface. (2) Sow-
ing the seed after the sand has been temporarily fixed by a light
covering of brush.

At the western end of the shore dune, on a strip 500 feet wide
and extending from the dune to the forest, loblolly pine should be
sown at the rate of 12 pounds per acre. The seed should be
sown directly on the surface of the sand without any preparation
of the site. Although there is good reason to count upon favyour-
able results, there are several possible objections to this method.
Large quantities of the seed are almost certain to be destroyed by

136 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

birds and to guard against this the seed should ke coated with red
lead before being sown. Again, wind will blow away some of the
seed and in other cases will cover the seed too deeply with sand.
It is certain that the action of the wind will be greatly reduced
by the littoral dune and the forest, but just how efficient this shel-
ter will be can be determined only by actual experiment.

It is obvious that if the sweep of the wind over the area in the
lee of the dune is not reduced to a minimum, the success of plant-
ing by direct sowing without previous preparation of the site will
be impossible. In such a case the surface of the area to be planted
must be covered with a light covering of brush, laid in rows par-
allel to the barrier dune. Seed should then be sown at the same
rate as above among the brush.

Such a method, although more expensive than the first plan,
will insure success. The brush should be allowed to remain until
the young trees are established and the year following the sowing
it should be removed in order not to interfere with the growth of
the seedlings.

Brush can be obtained from the nearby forest. Myrtle, red
bay, yaupon, or any similar material may be used. Brush cut
from the tops and limbs of conifers after lumbering will serve
admirably. Such material may be obtaided from recently cut-
over areas in the forest.

The forest immediately in the lee of the sands, the purchase of
which has been recommended above, should be carefully conserved.
Absolutely no cutting should be permitted until the dune forest is
firmly established.

The expense of fixing the sands can be only approximated.
There was no opportunity in the limited time available to deter-
mine the rapidity at which the barrier dune would accumulate.
It is obvious therefore that the cost of the dune cannot be deter-
mined, since it will vary directly with the the length of time
which will elapse before it assumes permanent form. The cost of
forestation can, however, be approximated, and will vary from
$25 tn $40 per acre, depending upon the method. Seed of the
loblolly pine are quoted in the market at $2 per pound but could
undoubtedly be secured by contract at a much lower figure,

1908 | ForEstry ProsieMs or N. C. BANKS 137

Material for the palisade needed in the building up of the barrier
dune represents a first cost of $900 at present prices and labour for
its construction will add at least $500. The cost of maintenance
cannot be predicted.

Grass planting on the coast strip and the littoral dune will be
expensive and at least $500 must be allowed for this work exclusive
of maintenance.

The entire cost of the work of fixation, exclusive of any expense
necessary in the acquisition of the lands, will reach at least
$40,000.

Advisability of Project.—This report does not aim to outline
a policy. It merely suggests a definite plan by which the areas
under discussion can be protected and leaves the advisability of
the action to the proper authorities.

The work of fixing the sands will serve to accomplish the per-
petuity of the only forest remaining on the banks above Beaufort
Inlet. If prompt measures, such as outlined above, are not taken,
the destruction of the forest is certain. The lands will become a
sand waste similar to the larger part of the area of the banks.
The cost of the work, however, is large and it is doubted if the
value of the property to be protected will equal the cost.

Aside from the intrinsic value of the property, it must be con-
sidered that this area supports a considerable population which will
be seriously affected should the land become waste. These people
are entitled to protection by the State and, although relief could
be secured by temporary measures involving less immediate
expense,, the method of treatment recommended necessitates the
lowest coast consistent with permanent protection.

If, however. the project is undertaken, it is strongly advised
that the work of carrying out the details of the general plan
advised be entrusted to a competent official and be made a part of
his duties.

The Beaufort Inlet Project

The Department of War maintains a series of sand fences on
either side of Beaufort Inlet at the entrance to the harbor. These
fences are to hold the sand as it is brought to the beach in order
to build up the beach and prevent the inlet from increasing in

138 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

width. The effect of the blowing sand which might be deposited
in the channel is not considered, since the currents will serve to
keep the channel clear.

Since the Department of War has made provision for the con-
tinuance of this protective work, a further discussion is not essen-
tial.

These investigations regarding the preservation of the forests on
the Banks of North Cirolina will be continued by Mr. W. W.
Ashe, Forester of the Survey, and he will also have supervision of
any work that the Survey. may undertake to actually protect and
perpetuate the forests.

STREPTOCOCCUS INFECTIONS OF THE TONSILS, THEIR
DIAGNOSIS AND RELATIONSHIP TO ACUTE
ARTICULAR RHEUMATISM.*

BY WM. DEB. MACNIDER.

Perhaps it may seem a rather late day to resurrect such an old
and well studied subject:as throat infections and their diagnosis.
The subject has recently aroused much interest in me from having
to deal with two small epidemics of such cases which proved to be
of a non-diphtheritic nature and from the complications referable
to the joints which several of these cases developed.

Within the past two years I have had the opportunity of study-
ing fifty-eight infections of the tonsils and adjacent soft ports.
With but few exceptions these infections have been in males
between the ages of 16 and 80. Six were in children between 3
and 8 years of age and four cases occurred in women.

The acute inflammations of the tonsils are usually due to infec-
tions by the Staphylococcus or the Bacillus Diphtherix. Some
organisms of the streptothrix group which are usually present in
the mouth and which are non-pathogenic, may perhaps under
fayorable circumstances become pathogenic and should be classed
among the organisms capable of causing acute infections of the
throat.

These organisms may be present in pure culture, but frequently
a mixed infection exists. In such cases a styphylococcus is often
the organism. It is a large coccus, grows luxuriantly on the
ordinary culture media add is feebly pathogenic for rabbits when
they are inoculated subcutneously.

*Reprinted from The Charlotte Medical Journal, September, 1908.
139

140 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

In the ordinary cases of acute follicular tonsilitis the styphylo-
coccus is the commonist organism found. It can be easily
obtained from the white fibrinous plugs in and around the open-
ings of the tonsilar follicles.

Of the fifty-eight cases of throat infection presented in this
paper, thirty were subjected to a bacteriological examination and
as the other cases which were not so examined developed within a
few weeks and in the same locality as those examined, it is not
illogical to conclude that they had as their cause the same organ
ism.

Technique.—The bacteriological examination consisted in first
making from the exudate covering the tonsils or fauces, two film
preparations. One was stained with Loeffler’s alkaline mythylene
blue and one by Neisser’s method. The last method of staining
has the advantage of clearly defining the polar bodies, which are to
some extent characteristic of the bacillus diphtherie.

Secondly with the aid of a cotton swab three blood serum tubes
were inoculated from the exudate. These were incubated from
twelve to twenty hours and from the colonies which formed film
preparations were made and stained by the above methods.

The result of these examinations showed constantly present
both in the films made from the throat and from the colonies, an
organism having the characteristic chain grouping of streptococcus.
Associated with this organism was a diphlococcus of rather large
diameters which did not grow well on the ordinary media.

In no instance were there organisms found which at all resem-
bled the bacillus of diphtheria. In the films made from the
throat, bacilli were often present which differed from the diph-
theria bacilli in that their protoplasm stained uniformly, there
was no ‘‘barred’’ appearance, no polar bodies, the organisms were
not curved or clubbed but were straight bacilli with rounded ends.

Symptoms.—The symptoms manifested in these cases were those
of an acute infection. The onset was sudden with a chill or chilly
sensation followed by headache, rather severe backache, a rapid
rise of temperature to 103-104 deg. F., a large hightensioned
pulse, which compared with the degree of fever was slow, usually
about 90-100 per minute.

1908| SrrEprococcus INFECTIONS OF THE TONSILS 141

The tonsils in the majority of cases were only slightly enlarged.
The lymphatic glands of the neck were enlarged but this change
was not pronounced. The inflammatory reaction of the tonsils
consisted in the formation of a grayish white membrane which
covered their surface, usually involved both tonsils, and in four
cases extended up the anterior pillars of the fauces. The mem-
brane was tough, was removed with difficulty, and after its
removal in many instances left behind a raw bleeding surface.
In only ten of the fifty-eight cases, was the membranous deposit
limited around the follicular openings.

So far as the appearance of the throat was concerned, these
cases would have been diagnosed as diphtheritic infections. Such
a diagnosis was made in the first four on a purely clinical basis.
Their failure to respond to antitoxin treatment led to a bacterio-
logical examination with the demonstration of a streptococcus
infection.

A series of such cases, twenty-four in number, have been
reported by Prudden of New York in which the streptococcus
was the organism present and not the bacillus of diphtheria.

The existence of such cases renders the diagnosis of diphtheria
when approached entirely from the clinical side extremely diffi-
cult, if not impossible. All cases should be subjected to a bacteri-
ological examination before a diognosis is made.

The second point of interest which developed from the study of
this series of cases was the occurrence of symptoms referable to the
joints. Many of the patients complained of pain in one or more
joints and in a few cases the joints were slightly swollen. Such
symptoms lasted but a short time and did not return.

In four of the series the joint symptoms were prominent and
persisted. For the sake of brevity a detailed history of the cases
will not be given.

Case 1.—A. R. D., male, age 17. The general symptoms were
those of an acute infection. The throat examination revealed
a grayish membrane covering the right tonsil and sneaking up
the right anterior faucal pillar. The lower half of the left tonsil
was covered by a similar membrane.

The bacteriological examination demonstrated as a streptococ-
cus infection.

142 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

Four days after the patient was first seen the right shoulder
joint became swollen, red, tender and painful. The following
day the left knee became involved. The joints remained swollen
for about one week and gradually returned to the normal. Dur-
ing the time the joints were effected the temperature ranged
around 103 degrees., occasionally falling to 101 degrees F., follow-
ing profuse sweats. At no time was there a leucocytosis.

Case 2—L. A., male, aged 21. This case was very similar to
case No 1, with the exception that the changes in the tonsil were
those of a follicular tonsilitis. The exudate was more or less con-
fined to the surface immediately around the follicles. From the
exudate streptococci were isolated. A few days after the tonsilitis
the right shoulder and knee joint become involved.

Case 3.—R. L. W., male age 19. When the patient was first
seen he was just recovering from a severe sore throat. His chief
complaint was soreness in the left shoulder joint, which he attri-
buted to an injury. Temperature 100 degrees F., pulse 75. The
following day the joint was decidedly enlarged and very painful.
Five days from this the right ankle joint became swollen and pain-
ful, then the left ankle and right shoulder. Within two weeks all
the joints had returned to their normal size, except the first jot
affected. This joint remained slightly swollen and the move-
ments greatly restricted.

One month from the time the patient was first seen he suddenly
complained of intense pain in the left shoulder jot. Within
twenty-four hours the joint had increased perceptibly in
size and gave evidence of a rapid accumulation of fluid. The
joint was opened, liberating a few old tarry looking clots, fresh
clots and some pus. Immediately following the operation the
patient became profoundly shocked from which condition he failed
to rally,

Case 4.—A. H. B., male, aged 19. Mr. B. was seen early in
the course of an acute tonsilar infection of streptococcus origin.
The local condition had the same characteristics as previous cases.

A membranous deposit over both tonsils and extending to both

anterior pillars. During the early stage of the infection his tem-
perature remained constantly elevated, ranging between 101 and

1908| SrrEPrococcus INFECTIONS OF THE TONSILS 143

104 degrees F. At the end of the first week several points became
involved, the swelling and pain presisted for several days and
gradually subsided, following the subsidence of the joint changes.
The joints at this stage of the infection gave no trouble but severe
pain was complained of in the muscles and tendons. This dis-
turbance continued sixteen weeks at the end of which time the
patient entered on a tedious convalescence which terminated in
complete recovery.

A. fifth case recently seen, presented nothing in general
different from the cases reported, except the development of a dry
pericarditis followed by quite an extensive effusion.

The streptococcus in an organism which varies much in its
morphological and biological characteristics as well as in the type
of infection which it produces. In some instances it rapidly
causes a septiceemia while in other cases it is content to remain a
circumscribed infection producing an abcess, or at other times to
extend to the adjacent structures without entering the general cir-
culation.

The frequency with which the tonsils act as an avenue for the
entrance of an infection has long been recognized. The develop-
ment of a tonsilitis before or during an attack of acute articular
rheumatism, first suggested the possibility of the disease being of
microbic and of metabolic origin.

Taking into consideration the ease with which a local infection
of the tonsil could become generalized, the frequency with which
joint complications follow streptococcus infections of these struc-
tures, and lastly, the variety of changes this organism is capable
of causing, it is not improbable that a modified streptococcus or
or an organism clasely related to it, is the specific cause of acute
articular rheumatism.

The specific cause of acute rheumatism,is at the present time,
receiving much attention. There practically remains no doubt
that the disease is an acute infection and that in many of the
cases the tonsils are the portals of entry. The question which is
at present under much discussion is whether the disease should
be considered as a condition produced by one specific organism,
the Diplococcus Rheumaticus of Poynton and Paine. This organ-

144 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | December

ism has been isolated from the synovial fluid of patients with
acute rheumatism, has been cultivated on special media where it
grows characteristically, and lastly an acute arthritis has been
produced by various investigators by giving intravenous injections
of the organism to rabbits. This diplococcus is Gram negative,
the streptococcus is invariably Gram positive.

The question of the specific nature of acute rheumatism has
been well summed up by Cole of the Johns Hopkins Medical
School. His views are certainly conservative. They are as
follows:

“‘T greatly fear we are not as yet in a position to make any
positive statements as to the etiology of this disease. It seems to
me that there are at least three possibilities. First, that acute arti-
cular rheumatism is a definite, acute, specific infectious disease,
the cause of which we do not know, and that the cocci which
have been isolated were secondary invaders. Second, that there
is no such specific disease as acute articular rheumatism, but that
the cases grouped under this term are those of a mild and moder-
ately severe case of general streptococcus infection, in which the
joints and heart are generally involved. Third, that acute artic-
ular rheumatism is due to a specific form of streptococcus, which
at present we have no accurate method of distinguishing from
Streptococcus Pyogenes, but which, owing to the specific character
of the lesions induced in man, must possess special characteris-
tics.’’

Lastly, in regard to the treatments of these cases a point of
interest develops. It is well known that the salicylates have a
more or less specific influence in cases of acute rheumatism. In
all of these cases of streptococcus infections of the tonsils the sali-
cylates were of great service in relieving the subjective symptoms.
This relief might be produced through the general action of the
salicylates on the nervous and circulatory systems, or, on the
other hand, it might be explained through a germicidal action of
the salicylates on the specific cause of the disease.

Untversity oF NortH CAROLINA,
Cuapre, Hua, N. C.

THE ‘“‘PINCH-EFFECT’’ IN UNIDIRECTIONAL ELECTRIC
SPARKS."

BY ANDREW H. PATTERSON.

Prof. Nipher has recently* described some interesting experi-
ments on momentum effects in electric discharge, and writes as
follows concerning the undirectional sparks obtained by the inser-
tion into the circuit of strips of cloth moistened with a saline
solution: “‘....the sparks are large and brilliant at the negative
end in both positive and negative lines, and thin out towards the
positive end. The negative terminals are large spheres of about
10 em. diameter. The positive terminals are small knobs, of
1 cm. diameter. While on the large sphere the electrons repel each
other. But when they start into motion across the spark-gap, they
attract each other electromagnetically. This appears to be the reason
why the spark thins out as the electrons proceed in their motion
across the spark-gap. The italics are mine.

According to theory, two like charges repelling each other when
at rest, begin to develop an electromagnetic attraction for each
other as soon as they are put in motion in the same direction.
But this attraction does not become equal to the electrostatic
repulsion until the charges move with the velocity of light. This
used to seem very puzzeling to me, for I reasoned as follows:—
Imagine a positively charged hopper filled with steel balls, which
continually dropped into two parallel inclined glass troughs. As
the motion of the charged balls is constantly accelerated, the
electromagnetic attraction which they exert on the charged balls

1Reprinted from Science, vol. 29, p. 731, Jan. 1, 1909.
“Science, vol. 28, p. 805, Dec. 4, 1908.

1908) 145

146 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | Decembe1

in the other trough grows larger and larger until the velocity is that of
light, when the streams of balls in the two troughs are exerting
zero fource on each other, (for their electrostatic repulsion is
exactly balanced by their electromagnetic attraction), and yet
they are said to be behaving like electric currents. Why, then,
do parallel currents actually attract each other? No one supposes
that a current in a wire travels faster than light. Some years
ago in Cambridge I asked Prof. (now Sir) J. J. Thomson about it,
and he replied that my analogy was all right, except that according
to the electron theory the glass trough should have a metal covering
outside, which is positively charged, the hopper should be negatively
charged, and the charge on a unit’s length of the trough should
equal the sum of the negative charges on the balls contained in
that length. Then, the analogy, while crude, would be com-
rlete:—the steel balls would represent electrons, and the current
in the ordinary sense would flow up the trough instead of down.
The charge on the covering of the trough would represent the
the charges on the positive atoms in a conductor. Under these
circumstances it is easy to see that attraction between the troughs
would ensue as soon as the balls began to move. Prof. Nipher’s
explanation, therefore, would seem to be valid only on the suppo-
sition that the positive ions in the line of the disruptive discharge
(which are dashing towards the negative terminal) would take
the place of the metal-covered trough in my analogy, thus render-
ing the electromagnetic attraction of the moving electrons effective
in drawing them together in a column which continually thins
out towards the positive terminal. If this be true, the effect
ought to be rendered more intense because of this consideration :—
the analogy would then be that of the trough itself (carrying a
a positive charge) moving in the opposite direction to the motion of
the steel balls, thus making the relative velocity of the balls greater
and the attraction more intense.

But there is another way of looking at it which may be more
natural. The negative terminal is a large sphere 10 cm. in diameter,
while the positive terminal is but 1 cm. in diameter. The lines
of force are therefore strongly convergent frem the negative to the
positive sphere, somewhat like the ropes from the gas bag of a

\

1908 | “Princo Errects” In ELectric SPARKS 147

balloon to the much smaller basket beneath, and electrons sliding
down these lines (along their negative direction, of course) would
naturally arrange themselves in a column larger at the negative
end, especially as these lines are themselves falling towards the
center line of the discharge. In this case would not the phenom-
enon simply show the pinch effect in gaseous discharge?

University oF NorrH CAROLINA,
Cuaret Hitt, N. C.

THE RECENT BALTIMORE MEETINGS OF SCIENTIFIC
SOCIETIES

ZOOLOBY

Both the American Society of Zoologists and Section F
(Zoology) of the American Association held meetings. Thirty
three papers were read before section F and fifty nine papers
before the Society of Zoologists. The meeting like all those of
recent years in America gave ample evidence of the strength of
the analytic tendency. Striking discoveries in morphology whether
of adult forms, larvae, or embryos, or of tissues, or of cell group-
ings and movements during embryonic life, continue to be few.
The relationships of animals (phylogenetic classification) have for
the time being almost dropped from the list of subjects discussed.
Keen interest is however manifested in morphological data that
can be interpreted as throwing light on the physiology of develop-
ment. Prominent in this connection were papers by E. B. Wil-
son and T. H. Morgan on sex determination and the nuclear con-
stitution of the sperm in certain insects. These investigators
produced new facts as to chromosome arrangement which lend
support to the hypothesis that sex is determined in the individual
germ cell by the presence of a male-producing or female-produc-
ing chromosome.

Underlying this special question of sex determination is the
general question as to the nature of the whole process of differen-
tiation during development. As bearing upon this question E.
G. Conklin presented the results of an experimental study of egg
organization in ascidians and mollusks. Earlier studies led him
to the conclusion that the egg cytoplasm in these forms becomes
differentiated into substances (‘‘organ-forming substances’’) that
have fixed and different potentialities, such for instance as a cyto-
plasmic area that necessarily develops into the notochord.
Conklin employing the centrifuge alters the arrangement of sub-

148 [ December

1908 | RECENT BALTIMORE MEETINGS 149

stances in the egg and obtains larvae with correspondingly mis-
placed organs. Thus experiment confirms his earlier conclusion.

In cases like the preceding, differentiation even when inter-
fered with is not directly affected by external factors but is clearly
the result ef internal agencies. A capital instance, as it would
seem, of the direct influence of an external agency on the differ-
entiating embryo was discussed by C. R. Stockard, who finds that
if the fertilized eggs of the teleost Fundulus are treated with a
trace of magnesium chloride cyclopean monsters regularly develop
in considerable number. Another interesting paper dealing with
vertebrate monsters and the causes of their production was pre-
sented by H. H. Wilder who sharply separates mere malforma-
tions from bilaterally symmetrical monsters which develop in an
orderly fashion, as Wilder thinks, in obedience to a mechanism of
control inherent in the germ.

The numerous experiments of recent years on hybridization and
artificial parthenogenesis in the echinoderms have made it clear
that before we can deduce with certainty the influence of the two
sexes in determining the characters of the resultant embryo and
larva, we must know more about embryonic variability in the
species experimented upon. D. H. Tennent has made a good
step in this direction in his mapping out of the embryonic varia-
bility in the Beaufort echinoids which he has been using for experi-
mental work.

A considerable number of papers that would collectively fall
under the rubric of experimental evolution dealt with phenomena
of inheritance as disclosed in the breeding of poultry, pigeons,
rats, and insects. Some of the results fit in very well with the
hypothesis of unit.characters and Mendelism, but W. L. Tower
stated that he had been unable to make use of Mendel’s ideas in
his experiments, since in the offspring from his crossed forms the
parental characters might or might not appear in the Mendelian
ratios. C.B. Davenport voiced the widely entertained opinion that
even in apparently contradictory cases, such as those presented by
Tower, Mendelism gives a clue that will aid in unravelling the
tangle of factors.

Good contributions to systematic zoology and geographical distri-
bution were not lacking. C. Hart Merriam gave an account of the

150 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocrETY | December

work of the U. 8S. Biological Survey. There were papers on cestodes
by Edwin Linton, on bryozoa by R. C. Osburn, on isopods by Miss
Harriet Richardson. The evolution of species and races in cer-
tain land shells of the Society Islands was discussed by H. E.
Crampton who has made a careful study, during several visits to
the islands, of the local distribution of the different forms.
Mention should be made of a number of papers by H. 8S. Jen-
nings, L. L. Woodruff, and others on the behavior of protozoa in
respect to conjugation and in response to various stimuli. The
instinctive actions of higher forms, too, received attention, especi-
ally in one of F. H. Herrick’s studies of bird behavior (cuckoo)
in G. A. Drew’s account of the reproductive processes of the squid.
Finally there were papers dealing with the analysis of physiologi-

cal processes in the adult. Among these may be mentioned A.

G. Mayer’s fine study of the cause of rhythmical pulsation in the

scyphomedusae. H. V. Wuason.
CHEMISTRY

The 39th general meeting of the American Chemical Society
was held in Baltimore Tuesday, December 29, 1908 to Friday
January 1, 1909 in conjunction with the meeting of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science. The attendance was
the largest in the history of the society, partly due to the favor-
able meeting place and partly due to the fact that recent large
accessions to the membership have made it one of the largest
chemical societies in the world. The last report gave an enroll-
ment of 4008. The great increase in membership during the last
year was primarily due to the establishment of the Industrial
Division and the promise of a journal devoted to technical chem-
istry. This “Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry’’
has now made its appearance. Two years ago the society began
the publication of ““Chemical Abstracts’’, a semi-monthly periodi-
cal, the most complete chemical abstract journal published.
Three journals are now issued by the society. The success of the
Industrial Division led to the organization at Baltimore of the
Division of Physical and Inorganic Chemistry, Division of Organic
Chemistry and the Division of Fertilizer Chemistry.

1908 | ‘ RecENT BALTIMORE MEETINGS 1

on
—

By far the larger part of the papers are given in sectional meet-
ings but at Baltimore more than the usual number of general
meetings was held, thus bringing all sorts of chemists together
more than ordinarily. This general mixing was further increased
by the fact that the best place to obtain the noon lunches was at
the Woman’s College where the meetings were held. In the
morning of the first day the society listened to the following
addresses: ‘““The Untilled Field of Chemistry’’ by A. D. Little,
Chairman Division Industrial Chemists and Chemical Engineers,
‘The Use and Abuse of the Ionic Theory’’ by G. N. Lewis, Chair-
man of Physical Chemistry Section; ““‘The Work of Werner on
the Constitution of Inorganic Compounds’’ by Charles H. Herty,
Chairman of Inorganic Chemistry Section. The afternoon was
given exclusively to the meeting of the new Section of Chemical
Education, four papers being presented as follows: ‘‘Science
Teaching as a Career’’ by H. P. Talbot, Chairman of this section;
“The Efficiency and Deficiencies of the College Trained Chemist
when Tested in the Technical HField’’? by William H. Nichols; .
““To What Extent Should College Training Confer Practical Effi-
ciency along Technical Lines’’? by L. M. Dennis; “The Attitude
of Technical Institutions to Post Graduate Study’? by William
MeMurtrie.

In the evening at the Hotel Belvedere William Simon gave an
illustrated lecture on the ‘‘Lumiere Process of Color Phography.”’
This was followed by a complimentary smoker. Sectional meet-
ings were held Wednesday forenoon and on subsequent days.
Agricultural and Food Chemistry Section, H.J. Wheeler, Chairman,
21 papers; Biological Chemistry Section, J. J. Abel, Chairman, 16
papers; Division of Industrial Chemists and Chemical Engineers,
A. D. Little, Chairman, 26 papers; Fertilizer Chemistry Section,
F. B. Carpenter, Chairman, 10 papers; Pharmaceutical Chemistry
Section, Edward Kremers, Chairman, 5 papers; Inorganic Chem-
istry Section, Charles H. Herty, Chairman, 17 papers; Organic
Chemistry Section, S. F. Acree, Chairman, 29 papers: Physical
Chemistry Section, Gilbert N. Lewis, Chairman, 31 papers.
Wednesday afternoon was devoted to two excursions, one to the-
U.S. Naval Academy at Annapolis and the other to Sharp and
Dohme, pharmaceutical chemists. In the evening at the Girl’s

152 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

Latin School Prof. M. T. Bogert, President of the Society deliv-
ered an address on ‘‘The Function of Chemistry in the Conserva-
tion of Our Natural Resources.’’ It was shown that chemistry
does play and will play a more important role in the conservation
of our resourses by developing better methods of working up the
natural resources and new methods of utilizing waste products.

Thursday forenoon at the business meeting resolutions of respect
on the death of Wolcott Gibbs were passed. The following
addresses were given at this time: ‘““The Future of Agricultural
Chemistry’? by H. J. Wheeler, ““The Quantitative Study of
Organic Reactions’’ by S. F. Acree, ‘‘The Classification of Carbon
Compounds’’ by Edward Kremers. In the evening a subscription
dinner was given at the Hotel Belvedere. It was an unusual suc-
cess, not only in point of cuisine but in the great enthusiasm and
jollity that was manifest throughout the evening. On Friday
adjourned meetings of the sections were held and a trip was made
to the Maryland Steel Company’s works at Sparrow’s Point.
William R. Whitney, Director of the Research Laboratories of the
General Electric Co. was elected president for the coming year.
The following were elected Councilors-at-Large: W. Lash Miller,
Chas. H. Herty, S. W. Parr, W. H. Walker. The summer
meeting of 1909 will be held at Detroit and the winter meeting
at Boston. ALVIN S. WHEELER.

PHYSICS

The attendance at the meetings of Section B was larger than
ever before, the Physics lecture room at the Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity being comfortably filled at almost every session. No
striking discoveries were reported, and there was not the enthusi-
asm which greeted for example, the papers of Rutherford at earlier
meetings, but the interest was sustained throughout, and the
discussions were incisive and entertaining. The noticeable feature
was that while all the speakers seemed to realize that the electron
theory is yet simply a working hypothesis, still the language and
the conceptions of that theory were constantly used to explain
phenomena described in various papers. The listener could not
fail to discern a quiet note of confidence in the substantial aceur-

Se

1908] ( RECENT BALTIMORE MERTINGS 153

acy of that theory. Another point of interest was that terrestial
and cosmical physics was brought into prominence as never before
at these meetings. Quite a number of papers were presented
dealing with various phases of this growing branch of physical
science, and Dr. L. A. Bauer, Director of the Department of
Terrestial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution, took a prominent
part in the discussions, and indeed was elected Vice-President of
Section B for next year. Many papers dealt with attempts to
““try out’? many phases of the Electron Theory experimentally,
in some cases w!th negative, in other cases with positive results.
Among the more inportant papers should be mentioned those on
“The extension of the Balmer series of lines in the Sodium Spec-
trum,’’ by Prof. R. W. Wood, of Johns Hopkins University;
“The Optical Properties of Films of Magnetic Metals,’’ by Prof.
GC. A. Skinner, University of Nebraska; and ““Solar Vortices and
Magnetic Fields,’’ by Prof G. E. Hale, of Mount Wilson Observa-
tory, Cal.

The Physicists’ Dinner, a new departure, at the Country Club
near Baltimore, was a decided success, and will doubtless be a
regular part of the program in the future. It was decided at this
dinner to cable the congratulations of those present to Prof.
Ernest Rutherford, a former member of the American Physical
Society, on receiving the Nobel prize in Chemistry for last year.

A. H.. Parrerson.
GEOLOGY

The twenty-first annual meeting of the Geological Society of
America was held in the geological building of Johns Hopkins
University, Tuesday to Thursday, 29 to 31 December, 1908.
The morning and afternoon sessions were devoted to the transac-
tion of business and the reading and discussion of original papers.
The formal address by President Samuel Calvin on “‘The Latest
Phase of the Pleistocene Problem in Iowa’’ was delivered Tuesday
enening in the main lecture room, followed by a smoker and
social hour in the laboratory. Wednesday evening the annual
dinner of the Society took place at the Hotel Rennert, President
Calvin acted as toastmaster. Over one hundred geologists were
present. The guest of honor was Professor Albrecht Penck, of
the University of Berlin. Informal talks were make by Professor

154 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

Penck, Professor Chamberlain, President Van Hise, Professor
Stevenson, Professor Fairchild, Dr. W. B. Clark, and others.
Dr. Gilbert spoke feelingly of his life spent in geology. Dr. G.
O. Smith told of the work of the federal survey, and Dr. Brock
spoke in behalf of the Canadian Survey.

Seventy two papers were listed on the programme, of which
about three-fourths were read. They were arranged in the follow-
ing groups: Physical and Structual, Glacial, Stratigraphic, Areal,
Paleontologic, Petrologic, Physiographic, Cartographic, Economic.
By invitation of the council Professor Penck delivered a lecture
on interglacial epochs Wednesday morning. This great geog-
raper and glacial geologist in the brief time at his disposal
summed up the evidence, as exhibited in the Alps and in North
America, bearing upon the lapses of time between the different
ice invasions.

““Some Distinctions between Marine and Terrestial Conglomer-
ates’’, by Joseph Barrell, followed the same line which this author
has pursued for some years, and showed his usual painstaking
research. Professor Chamberlain’s paper, ‘‘Diastrophism of the
Ultimate Basis of Correlation’’, was appreciated by all. The sen-
sation of the meeting came when Frank B. Taylor in his paper,
‘“The Bearing of the Tertiary Mountain Belt upon the Origin of
the Earth’s Plan’’, suggested the possibility of the earth having
captured the moon in late geological time, thus accounting for the
earth’s polar shortening. The papers by Fairchild on the reces-
sion of the ice in New York, elicited much comment from Brigham
and others, and it seemed difficult for the glaciologist to agree
upon details. Dr. W. B. Clark spoke of the results of the invisti-
gation of the coastal plain formations along the Atlantic coast.
Of interest to North Carolinians were the papers by E. W. Berry
on ‘The Geologic Relations of the Cretaceous Floras of Virginia
and North Carolina’’, and by 8. L. Miller on ‘‘Erosion Intervals
in the Tertiary of North Carolina and Their Bearing upon the
Distribution of the Formations’’. Dr. E. O. Hovey displayed
some very fine views of Mont Pelé and the Soufriére taken last
summer, and pointed out recent changes in the two volcanoes.

The paper most eagerly awaited by stratigraphers and general
geologists entitled, “‘Revision of the Paleozoic Systems in North

fi

1908 | RECENT BALTIMORE MERTINGS 155

America’’, by E. O. Ulrich was read to a crowded audience. Dr.
Ulrich has spent many years during his connection with the U. S.
Geological Survey in gathering first hand knowledge of the Paleo-
zoic formations, and his conclusions are the ripe fruit of a mind
long trained in field observation and paleontology. Such vague
terms as Cambro-Ordoyvician and Devono-Mississippian are decried
by him as savoring of ignorance, and the attempt is made to show
that defiinite boundaries can be discovered by careful field search
and close correlation. ‘‘The proposed classification is based
primarily on crustal movements, diastrophism, the succession of
which is determined by the faunal evidence. The occurance of
such movements is determined, aside from plain physical evidence,
primarily by mutations in the faunas, especially by the introduc-
tion of new faunal elements and facies, etc.’? One of the pro-
posed changes is the insertion of a new system, the Ozarkian,
so-called for its development in Missouri and Arkansas, between
the Cambrian and Ordovician systems. This system occurs also
along the Appalachian Valley from New York to Alabama, and
is separated from both Cambrian and Ordovician by unconformi-
ties. Another change consists in placing the Meramec and
Chester groups of the Mississippian in the system, the Tennesseean,
between the Mississippian and the Pennsylvanian.

The meeting of the Society disbanded with the offering of a
formal yote of thanks to Dr. W. B. Clark and his colleagues for
the entertainment and courtesy extended to all visiting geologists.

H. N. Haron.

BOTANY

The recent meetings in Baltimore of the botanists of America
were the largest, most interesting, and most successfully conducted
of any ever held in this country. The botanical societies that
came together there were Section G. of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science, The Botanical Society of America,
The Sullivant Moss Society, The Wild Flower Preservation
Society, and The American Nature Study Society (which is inter-_
ested in the teaching of botany).

The Secretaries of Section G. and of the Botanical Society of

156 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

America were so successful in arranging their sessions as to avoid
any conflict of programs, but it was found necessary to segregate
the papers on fungi into a separate program. This withdrawal of
the fungologists into sessions of their own marks another step in
the process of specialization that characterizes the advance of all
our sciences. The economic importance of the fungi in producing
diseases of plants and animals has naturally attracted much atten-
tion to them, and papers on their structure and habits are becom-
ing more numerous with each succeeding year.

Attractive as the newer fields of botanical research undoubtedly
are, thcy have not led to a decline of interest in the subjects of
morphology and classification. Such papers as Chrysler’s “‘On
the nature of the fertile spike in the Ophioglossaceae’’ which
throw new light on relationships, and as Shattuck’s on the
‘‘Origin of Heterospory in Marsilea’’, a good piece of work on
oxperimental morphology, never fail to attract attention.

During the last few years the most notable development in our
knowledge of morphology has been along the line of vascular
anatomy. In the words of Prof. John M. Coulter “‘Phylogenetic
vascular anatomy was developed at an auSpicious time, for phyl-
ogeny based upon reproductive structures was beginning to waver.
Wider research had begun to dissipate rigid categories into mists,
and especially had expermental morphology begun to play havoc.
The whole situation has been steadied, at least momentarily, by
the recent development of vascular anatomy, including as it does
the enormously important ancient history of the vascular groups.’’

Prof. J. C. Bosk, a hindoo, who was here on a commission
from the government of India, gave an address on the little known
subject of “‘Electrical response in plants’’ that attracted much
attention.

From the program it was obvious that the study of ecology™ is
gaining ground. A symposium on the subject was held by the
Botanical Society of America in which papers were given by

*Students of Dr. W. K. Brooks will remember how much he disliked that
word, claiming that it was not needed, its meaning being entirely covered
by the word ‘“‘biology’’.

1908 | ' ‘Recent BavtimoreE MEETINGS 157

Cowles, Livingston, Shaw Spalding, and Transeau. Expressions
in these papers indicated that the long dominent idea that all
structure and activities of a plant must have some useful purpose
or express some adaptation is fast being replaced by one that
admits the possibility of useless structures. It is a relief, as Cowles
says, not to be compelied to find adaptations where none exists.

Interest in the factors of evolution and the laws of inheritance is
still most active, and evidence is being sought by experiments in
many directions. The mutation theory and the laws of Mendel
still focus the attention of the students of evolution; but it seems
evident that we are still far from the time when these highly com-
plex phenomena may be expressed in simple laws.

To commemorate the birth of Charles Darwin one hnndred
years ago a memorial session was held by the Botanical Society of
America. The following addresses were made:

‘General sketch and estimate of Darwin’s work on cross-polli-
nation in plants,’’ by William Trelease. ‘“‘Estimate of Darwin’s
work on movement of plants,’? by H. M. Richards. ‘‘Darwin’s
influence on plant ecology and plant geography,’’ by F. E. Clem-
ents. A Darwin centenary memorial was also held by the Ameri-
ean Association for the Advancement of Science, together with the
American Society of Naturalists, all sciences participating. The
two addresses given by botanists were as follows: ““The Theory
of Natural Selection from the standpoint of botany,’’ by John. M.
Coulter; “‘The Direct Effect of Environment,’’ by Daniel T.
MacDougal. From the tenor of these addresses it was evident
that the fame of Darwin is in no wise on the decline.
His influence on science, philosophy, life is beyond all
estimate. Fifty years have passed since the publication of
“The Origin of Species,’’ years unparalled for progress in the
history of the world; and it was the momentum of Darwin’s
thought that initiated that progress and that sustained it in its
course. Since that eventful year of 1859 much new knowledge
has been acquired and points of view have changed, new theories
have been proposed and old ones modified; but through bitter
assault and turmoil and testing the foundations that Darwin built ©

158 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY

have remained unshaken, and of all the great names that make
memorable the 19th century his, at least, is secure:

‘‘Nothing is here for tears, nothing to wail
Or knock the breast; no weakness, no contempt,
Dispraise, or blame; nothing but well and fair,
And what may quiet us in a’’ life ““so noble.’’
W. C. CokER.

PLATE I.
‘on

a
NG PROGRESSIVE STEPS IN THE FORMATION OF BARRIER DUNE

When the dune has assumed the form illustrated by Fig. 4, grass is planted, and by extend-
g the area planted towards the shore (to the left) the subsequent form of the dune is influenced.

North Carolina Geological Survey.

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