SS an datnnnoM Mites teeantatatrrat Ne ee ee lee Aine :, = ¥ it natevesapotetet tA, ier heree Ra ey ebb enter a ee Aa fovea fous sngenenaate! bot eal ee ccmumeatetaheaeehee Peanes cones cian as teeta th Chabal. dines Ae ON, wt of tina Panta * Pos h-ndrer tevevrars § m oh Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2009 with funding from University of Toronto http://www.archive.org/details/journalmitchel12elis 4 \ ayy a | 5 5 i" HN | " ji 4 i) D MP RC YA, eas ae [hy i) : ' rn : roves ian ite Te JOURNAL OF THER Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society VOLUME XII—PART FIRST FANETA RY == puiy POST—OFFICE : ClsUM PANE; IBUOEAR RS INC. ISSUED FROM THE UNIVERSITY PRESSES. CHAPEL HILL, N- C-. 1895: Za TABLE OF CONTENTS: Reactions Between Copper and Concentrated Sulphuric Acid. Chas; "Baskervilles nos pated ie 2 oe ke cee ee ; * Zirconium Sulphite. F. P. Venable and Chas. Baskerville... The Chlorides of Zirconium. F. P. Venable.................. The Drudsenry ofsScience, H-sP2 Venablesss....---- see Notes on the Underground Supplies of Potable Waters in the South Atlantic Piedmont Platean. J. A. Helmes....... PAGE. JOURNAL OF THE Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society. REACTIONS BETWEEN COPPER AND CON- CENTRATED SULPHURIC ACID.! BY CHAS. BASKERVILLE. ‘ Andrews?® in writing on the ‘‘ Assumption of a Spe- cial Nascent State,’ argued that the production of sul- phur dioxide, as a result of the reaction between cop- per and concentrated sulphuric acid, was due, not to nascent hydrogen, as is commonly considered, but to the deoxidation of sulphur trioxide by the copper with the production of copper oxide as a primary product. Having noted frequently the evolution of sulphur diox- ide gas before any evidence of this ‘‘ copper oxide,’’ at the suggestion of Dr. F. P. Venable, I began some experiments with a view of studying this complicated reaction, so simply treated in most text-books. When my work was completed, in verifying my refer- ences I chanced on Pickering’s' work on the same sub- ject which had escaped me. Most of my work, espe- cially that part which concerns the secondary reactions, is in accord with that of Professor Pickering. My observations concerning the primary reactions were not 1 Read at the Springfield meeting of American Chemical Society. 2 Chem. News, 70, 152.: Iowa Acad. of Sciences, Proc. p. 4. 2 JOURNAL OF THE the same however. In making known the latter, I feel at liberty to give the results of my work, as indepen- dent corroboration is of some value. The reactions which take place when copper is treated with concentrated sulphuric acid may be divided into primary and secondary. Primary: 1) Cu+2H, 50, =CaS07- se, 2b: This may be regarded as taking place in two steps: (a) Cu+H,S0O,=CuS0;, +E (b) HoH SO; =S0; 4H. o: Still no hydrogen could be detected in the gas given off. (2) 5Cu+-4H,SO, =Cu,8+3CuS0O,+4H,0. Secondary: (1) Cu. S8+2H,SO,=CuS+CuSO,+S0, +28,0, (2) CuS+2H,SO, =CuSO,+58+S80,+2H,0. The experiments were carried out under various con- ditions of temperature and time, exposure of the metal to the action of the acid, and varying proportions of metal and acid. ‘The copper ribbon used was cut into small pieces one cm. wide by two to three cm. long. Concentrated c. p. sulphuric acid, 1.84 sp. gr. was used. Each experiment, except where noted, was car- ried out in a flask in which the air had been displaced by a neutral gas, hydrogen or carbon dioxide. The evolved sulphur dioxide was led through a strong solution of sodium hydroxide and the sulphite formed titrated with a standard iodine solution or oxidized by bromine, and the sulphuric acid determined gravime- trically. A rapid stream of the inert gas was driven through the apparatus just at the close of the experi- 1 J. Lond. Chem. Soc. Trans., 1878, p. 112. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 3 ment. Water was poured into the flask and the whole quickly filtered, and the copper remaining unattacked was then cleaned as well as possible by rubbing, dried and weighed. The copper, as sulphate, was determined by electrolysis. The residue was burned'ina porcelain crucible, treated with concentrated nitric acid, ignited and weighed as copper oxide. Sulphur was determined by weighing a dried portion of the residue, treating with carbon disulphide, and the loss in weight taken as sul- phur. Primary Feactions. My experiments showed that the first of the primary reactions predominated when copper was treated with concentrated sulphuric acid at different temperatures (0°-270° C.)~ At the highest temperature it was found that that reaction alone took place, but at all lower temperatures the second primary reaction also occurred. The proportion of the material following the second equation increased from 0° to 100° C., and then decreased to 270° C., when there was no longer evidence of any such reaction, that is, no black residue was formed. At the lower temperatures, under 100° C., only the two primary reactions seemed to take place; at the higher temperatures the secondary reactions if the action were prolonged, frequently set in, complicating matters as far as: quantitative determinations were con- cerned. If the time of action were shortened evidence of the occurrence of the primary reactions alone was found. Having an excess of copper present was also necessary, because as soon as all the copper had been attacked the secondary reactions set in at once. The conditions seemed most favorable for the forma- tion of the insoluble residue at the temperatures from 100° to 130° C. as may be seen from the table. The 4 JOURNAL OF THE proportion of the insoluble residue decreases rapidly in either direction from these temperatures. Some insol- uble residue is produced at all the lower temperatures but none is produced when the reaction takes place at 270° C.. and lasts for only a few seconds. Ratio of cop- Temperature Sulphur per sulphate of Copper Copper as dioxide to copper No. reaction. used. sulphate. sulphide. produced. sulphide. 1 0°-10 0.1350 0.1340 0.0005 0.1343 268 /025¥ 2 ee 0.0750 0.0740 0.0003 0.0780 246.0 : 1 3 20°—30° 1.3379 1.3260 O:0121 7 Wee TS Ora 4 re 1.2473 1.2000 0.0184 1.2442 68.0 : 1 5 65° 0 1650 0.1600 0.0050 0.1648 33301 6 70°-80 0.0760 0.0730 0.0035 eee PAL it 100 0.1380 0.1060 0.0300 0.0840 SO ste 8 oe 0.3818 0.2800 0.1082 0.1166 AB ao! 9 3 0.9200 0.6400 0.2748 0.2165 3.3) se 10 120°-130 5.2578 4.0800 1.1946 2.0932 Sone 11. = 140°-160° 5.0900 4.5100 0.5759 3.3084 S:0ner: 12 160°-190 S75 1.1200 010930" eee 12.0722 13 200°—220 1.5450 1.4518 0.0932 1.0904 16-0 : 1 14 220°-230° 0.9815 0.9400 0.0332 0.9365 29.0) ce 15 230° 3.8915 3.8200 0.0796 3.6327 49.0: 1 16 230° 2.0000 1.9750 0.0388 2.2313 SL Oset 17 240° 11235 1.1035 0.0200 0.9855 5505s 18 250°-260° 2.1365 2.1000 0.0280 2.0304 80.0 : 1 19 270° 4.0000 abs fenwtele None. Aon Ra Berzelius! noted this black substance when copper was treated with concentrated sulphuric acid. He said it appeared to be a subsulphate because it was oxidiza- ble by nitric acid. He made no quantitative determi- nations to show its composition. Such a body would contain fifty-seven per cent. of copper and in no case did I find the black residue to contain less than 67.64 per cent. Barruel? found that sulphuric acid acted on copper at ordinary temperatures if sufficient time were given. He claimed that the sulphur dioxide produced was dis- solved in the acid and attacked the copper forming cop- 1 Traite de chimie 4, 324. 2 Journ. de Pharm, 20. 13. 1834. ~ ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 2, persulphide and oxide, the latter being dissolved in the acid. . Maumené' claimed that his black residue contained four different bodies; copper subsulphide and three oxysulphides, CuO.2Cu,.5 or Cu;S,O, CuO.2CuS or Cuz5,0, and CuO.CuS or Cu,SO. In my analyses, as also in Pickering’s, the sum of the percentages of copper and sulphur always approxi- mated 100. In one experiment I did find a body whose composition approximated CuO.2Cu,S. I shall speak of that apparent exception further on. Calvert and Johnson? performed some experiments on the action of strong and dilute suiphuric acid on copper at temperatures from 130° to 150° C. They noted the formation of the subsulphide and claimed it was due to the liberation of free sulphur which after- wards combined with the copper direct.* There was evidently something very wrong in their observations, for they failed to note any action below 130° C. Bar- ruel in 1834 had noted that action took place at the temperature of the air. I have noted the action at 0° C. According to Andrews Cu+S0,=—Cu0+S0, CuO+H,S0,=CuS0,+H,0 are the correct formulas, SO, existing at the tempera- ture necessary for the reaction, and the insoluble resi- due being the oxide. That would do if the reaction occurred only at those higher temperatures, whereas it occurs as well at 0° C. Besides this the undissolved residue is not the oxide at all, as he says it is, but 1 Ann. Chim, Phys., 1846, 3rd Series, 18, 311; Traite de chimie generale, Pelouze et Fremy, 2nd Ed., I, 388. 2 J. Chem. Soc., 19, 438, 1866. 3 Pickering proved this impossible. The amount of sulphide produced was not increased by adding sulphur direct to the experiment, 6: JOURNAL OF THE invariably the sulphide. In making his analyses very likely he determined the copper alone and the per- centage of copper in copper oxide and cuprous sulphide is the same. In a subsequent conversation with Dr. Andrews, I haved learned that this was the case. This black residue when thoroughly washed free from any sulphuric acid always gave off hydrogen sulphide on treatment with hydrochloric acid. ; The composition of the insoluble residue was deter- mined by analysis: Found. Calculated for Cus. SUL O) SUNG het aos Beeman eso 20.44 20.14 COPPEEA A ee CO ee eee 79.56 (by difference) 79.86 100.00 100.00 In the first of the two primary reactions, Cu+2H05S0, —Cris0,4-oO0; 4-20.0, it is seen that for each atom of copper found as sul- phate, one molecule of sulphur dioxide should be evolved. Calculating on this basis from the following table we have the ratio of 2 : 3 between the copper as subsulphide and the copper as sulphate unaccounted for in the production of the sulphur dioxide. Correspond- Totalcop- Copper Difference. Ratio. Sulphur ing cop- per as as sul- Columns Columns No. dioxide. per. sulphate. phide. 3 and 4. Sand 6, 2 8 0.1166 0.1158 0.2800 0.1082 071642 2S 9 0.2165 0.2132 0.6400 0.2758 0.4268 203 The formula 5Cu+4H,SO,=3CuS0O,+Cu,8+4H,O shows that relation between the two compounds of_ copper. , Second Reactions.—The secondary reactions depend 1 Pickering states (loc. cit.. p. 117) that once at 80° C, he cbserved that the copper - in the two compounds stood in the relation of 2:2.9, I have not been able, however, to have concentrated sulphuric acid act on copper at auy temperature from 0° C, to -- 270° C. without the evolution of sulphur dioxide. which is not accounted for at all in case the second of the primary reactions alone takes place, which he states did take place at 80° C. a | ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. upon the second of the primary, that is, the cuprous sulphide produced. If the experiment were carried out so as to cause a rapid evolution of gas and the resi- due not allowed to form a protective coating over the copper, as long as an excess of the metal was present, only the primary reactions occurred. This was accom- plished at 160°-170° C. If the strips of copper were touching they almost always became bound together by the anhydrous copper sulphate and a coating of the black residue formed a protective covering to the cop- per. When such astate of affairs occurred, no sharply defined line could be drawn to show, of these second- ary reactions, when the first ends and the second begins, because as soon as some cuprous sulphide is changed to cupric sulphide, the latter is attacked by the sulphuric acid, sulphur being one of the products of the last reaction. Several experiments carried out at 140°-150°C. when this occurred with an excess of copper gave evidence of all the reactions, primary and secondary. Sulphur was deposited on the sides of the flask and the black residue contained 20.71 per cent. sulphur, and the theoretical percentage for cuprous sulphide is 20.138. This showed the presence of some cupric sulphide in which the percentage of sulphur 15993:597. Some freshly prepared cuprous sulphide was treated with concentrated sulphuric acid. Sulphur was deter- mined in the undissolved residue, the free sulphur being first removed. Found. Calculated for CuS, sirdbosttled none Gancndo meee 32.36 33.59 The formula, 2. Watts (vol. II, p. 41, 1875, Ed.) notes this complete decomposition, 8 JOURNAL OF THE Cu,5+2H,S0,=CuS+CuSO,4+S80,+H,0 explains such a change. Another portion of cuprous sulphide was boiled with concentrated acid until it nearly all disappeared. The free sulphur produced was determined. Found. Calculated. S101 MT ees wes Gey: x BRA 20.138 The formula Cu,S+4H,SO,=2CuSO, +280, +8+4H,O shows the final result of the continued action of sul- phuric acid on the subsulphide. From these data the secondary reactions between copper and concentrated sulphuric acid may be ex- pressed by the two formulas, 1. Cu.5+2H,S0,=CuS+ CuSO, +80, +2H,0. 2. CuS+2H,S0,=S+CuS0,+S0, +2H,0. The occurrence of sulphur on the sides of the flask at the end of the reaction may be said to be due to the sublimation of that element which is produced by the direct decomposition of sulphuric acid without the intermediate formation of hydrogen sulphide for the following reasons: 1. If hydrogen sulphide were produced by the decom- position of the sulphide, it is natural to expect some to escape in the gases which are given off. Ione could be detected. 2. As is well known, hydrogen sulphide is decom- posed by concentrated sulphuric acid. 3. The deposit of sulphur is first noted on the sides of the flask and not in the delivery tube where the eases, hydrogen sulphide, and sulphur dioxide, would naturally come into the most intimate relations. 4. If flowers of sulphur be heated with concentrated ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 9 sulphuric acid in a flask provided with a long outlet tube, much of the sulphur will be seen to creep up the sides of the flask, and some sublimed even into the tube, which shows that the state of affairs observed may be attained without any trace of hydrogen sul- phide being present. COPPER OXYSULPHIDE. Contradictory evidence to what has been stated above was found in one case where the insoluble residue approximated CuO.2Cu,S in composition. This is one of the oxysulphides stated by Mauniené to exist in the black residue. The acid was heated to 250° C. in an Erlenmeyer flask. The air was not removed by an inert gas. The copper was suspended in long strips, only a third of which was immersed in the acid, the other part being exposed to the air. The black residue formed under these conditions gave on analysis: Calculated for Found. Cun0.2Cu, S. SSCL poe she ao e's colar ateisieversy es 16.16 16.15 Oxy OiO TM Soe entice trae sisters sveiehsnos 3.54 4.03 COppertas so scst Casitas se eee 3 undetermined 79.82 Schuster! found that copper was acted on by dilute sulphuric acid only in the presence of atmospheric oxygen. ‘Traube® noted that copper was not oxidized in moist air, but was slowly in the presence of dilute sulphuric acid. Although copper is unable to decom- pose sulphuric acid at ordinary temperatures (accord- ing to Traube) its affinity for SO, and that of hydrogen for oxygen are together sufficient to cause sucha decom- position, the probable reaction being: Proc. Roy. Soc. 55, 84; Ber. d. chem. Ges., 28, 219, Ber. d. chem, Ges., 18, 1887-1890, Loc, cit., p, 138, oo a! 10 JOURNAL OF THE Cu+ B,S0,--O,=CuS0;4-H,0;; and CuH,O,=Cu0+H,0. I could detect no oxygen in the gases given off when the experiments were carried out in an inert atmos- phere. Nor could I detect hydrogen dioxide. Traube himself states that no ‘‘active’’ oxygen was liberated in the reaction because carbon monoxide was not oxidi- zed to carbon dioxide. Pickering* suggests that the sulphide formed is *‘ oxidized at the time of its appear- ance by the oxygen which would be liberated at the surface of that portion of the copper which is immersed in the acid, since the whole arrangement would form a galvanic cell consisting of a metal, a liquid, anda gas.”’ UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA. SOME OF THE PROPERTIES OF CALCIUM CARBIDE. BY F. P. VENABLE AND THOMAS CLARKE. The calcium carbide used was prepared by the Wil- son Aluminum Company. In this preparation, lime is mixed with some form of carbon, as coal-tar; the mass is then heated, with stirring, until a thorough mixture is obtained. ‘The proportions are so arranged that the mass becomes dry and hard on cooling. ‘This mass, in lumps, is then placed in the electric furnace. Ina very short time after the turning on of the current, the pro- cess is complete. The molten mass can be run out of the crucible or it may be removed after cooling. On examination, it is easy to see that there is more or less carbon unchanged, or rather converted into the graph- ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 11 itic variety by the intense heat. Along with this are to be seen crystalline masses, lustrous and dark brown- ish black in color. These are quite hard, and break with a crystalline fracture. Several efforts at effecting a separation from the graphitic carbon were unsuccessful. The lustre is slowly lost on exposure to air, more rapidly if the air be filled with moisture. The work will finally crum- ble down into a gray powder with particles of black evraphite interspersed through it. The carbide can be kept for a year or two if placed in a tightly stoppered bottle and is quite easily preserved if a little coal-oil is placed in the vessel containing it. By tar the most interesting property of this carbide is its decomposition when brought in eontact with water. The metallic carbides seem to be distinguished by the ease with which:they exchange their carbon for the oxygen of water or for the radicals of various acids, the carbon combining with the hydrogen to form var- ious hydrocarbons. Several authors have reported that the decomposition of this particular hydrocarbon caused the formation of acetylene. Experiments were carried out by us proving this fact, some time before there were any publications concerning it'in the chemical journals, but we were not at liberty to publish any- thing concerning it at that time. If the gas, as evolved, is passed through a set of absorption flasks containing ammoniacal copper solution it will be entirely absorbed, not a bubble passing through, out of one or two liters of gas. Thus it seems to be pure acetylene. The amount of gas yielded by any one sample will be affected to some extent by the amount of graphitic carbon present. Hence different lots will vary some- 12 JOURNAL OF THE what. The average is about 200 cc. to the gram of carbide. If the gas be ignited, as it is evolved, it gives a smoky flame; if it be considerably diluted, as one part of gas to from six to ten of air, a flame of great brilliancy and intensity is gotten. A company has been formed to introduce this as an illuminant upon the market. The cheapness of the materials used and the ease with which the gas can be found ought to make it a valuable and useful addition to our illuminants. If too large a proportion of air be admixed a very violent explosion can be brought about by igniting it. In some cases we have noticed the flame rapidly travelling backwards along a rubber tube towards the gasometer in which the gas was stored. One explosion taught us that care was necessary in handling the mixture. Several analyses were attempted of the carbide, but for obvious reasons failed to give very satisfactory results. In the first place there was uncombined car- bon present, also a small portion of a tarry matter, which could be detected by heating to high tempera- tures, and lastly, the specimens worked upon were sev- eral months old and in spite of careful keeping, had been slightly acted upon by the air and so contained uncombined lime or calcium carbonate. Moissan gives C,Caas the formula calculated from his analyses. This would agree well with the decomposition by water; C,Caj-HO,=C. Be eaw. Action of Hydrogen upon the Carbide.—Dry hydro- gen has no action upon this carbide in the cold. Sev- eral small pieces of the carbide were placed ina piece of combustion tubing, drawn out at one end toa point suitable for testing the flame. Dry hydrogen was then passed over it and as soon as the air was expelled the ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 13 hydrogen was ignited at the jet and a lamp placed under the tube so as to heat the carbide. In a little - while the colorless flame became luminous and remained soa short time. A brownish, tarry matter condensed in the cooler parts of the tube. The mass of the car- bide assumed a dull grey tint and a very thin white sub- limate collected at a short distance from where the tube was heated. The ignition was carried on for five hours. The driving off of this tarry matter seemed to be the only action. ‘The substance on removal from the tube, was still hard. On exposure to the air, it disintegrated, and, if thrown into the water, it was decomposed, show- ing the same behavior as the original carbide. Action of Air and of Oxygen.—Some fresh pieces of the carbide were placed in the tube and heated while dry air was passed over them. A luminous flame was gotten as before and the same tarry matter was driven off and then there seemed to be no further action. Tests showed the carbide apparently unchanged at the end of prolonged heating. Oxygen was then passed over some of the carbide which was being moderately ignited. No change was observed after two hour’s heating. If the temperature was very high, such as that gotten in a combustion furnace, the carbide glowed brightly, as if burning, and a nearly white powder was obtained. The com- bustion was imperfect, however, unless the tube was very hot and the ignition prolonged. ‘This refers not merely to the graphitic carbon mixed with the carbide but to the carbide itself. In several experiments the substance withdrawn from the tube, after heating some hours in oxygen, decomposed violently in water. It may be added, as was to be expected, that carbon dioxide had no appreciable action upon the carbide. 14 JOURNAL OF THE Action of Hydrochloric Acid.—Hydrochloric acid had no action upon this substance in the cold. When passed over the heated substance it caused it to swell up and assume a dirty gray appearance. A small amount of a liquid, apparently water, collected in the cooler portions of the tube and parts of the carbide fused down in glassy globules and masses. These were soluble in water and were easily shown to be cal- ciumchloride. White fumes were evolved, some of which settled as a white solid upon the sides of the tube. Action of Chlorine and Bromine.—When chlorine was passed over fresh carbide in the cold no action was observed. If even a moderate heat was applied, how- ever, the lumps of carbide glowed very brightly, swelled, and fused together. A slight yellowish white sublimate was found in the tube. The fused mass was calcium carbide. Bromine mixed with air was then passed over the fresh carbide. In the cold no action was observed. On heating, the carbide became red and the smaller pieces glowed. The lumps fused together and bubbles were observed on the surface as if some gas was escaping from the mass. Some condensed matter was found afterwards in the tube, and, on cooling, a peculiar odor was noticed different from that of the bromine. The fused mass dissolved readily in water and gave the tests for calcium bromide. Of course in this and the - previous experiment the black specks of graphitic car- bon were found unchanged. It was easy to distinguish them from the carbide. A few pieces of the carbide were dropped into strong, freshly prepared, chlorine water. There was a very violent disengagement of gas but it was not ignited as reported by Moissan. ‘The gas was inflammable and burnt very much like acety- ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. is lene. [The odor was, however, peculiar. The same experiment was tried several times with a concentrated solution of bromine in water. The action again was very violent but there was no spontaneous ignition of the gas. Little difference could be detected between this and the action of the chlorine water. Action of Acids.—A piece of the carbide was placed in concentrated pure sulphuric acid. A few small bub- bles came off but the action seemed light. On heating. the action was greatly increased and centinued after the removal of the flame. A gas was given off which burned with a luminous flame. A mixture of sulphuric acid and potassium bichro- mate acted most violently upon the carbide. ‘There seemed to be a very vigorous oxidation, and several attempts at igniting the gas given off resulted in fail- ure. ‘There could have been very little, if any, acety- lene present in it. Strong nitric acid attacked the carbide with the for- mation of brown-red fumes. The gas evolved could be ignited and burned with a smoky flame. Glacial acetic acid decomposed the carbide slowly in the cold. It may be added that no change was observed on adding a piece of the carbide to some boiling sulphur. On allowing the mass to cool the carbide was regained in its original condition. Action of Alkalies.—A few grams of sodium hy- droxide were melted in a nickel dish and a piece of the carbide was added. There was violent action, a gas being given off which burned with a luminous flame and which was taken to be acetylene. A small amount of sodium dioxide was also melted ina nickel dish. When the carbide was added to this 16 JOURNAL OF THE it was rapidly attacked, the action being about the same as in the experiment just mentioned. An inflammable gas was evolved. In conclusion, we would give due credit to Mr. W.R. Kenan, who carefully verified some of the experiments here recorded. UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA, February. 1895. ZIRCONIUM SULPHITE. BY F. P. VENABLE AND CHARLES BASKERVILLE. Very little is recorded in the text-books on chemistry with regard to this compound of zirconium. Berthier is reported as having examined it and found it to bea white insoluble body, shightly soluble, however, in an aqueous solution of sulphurous acid, from which it is thrown down again upon boiling. Whether this was what is commonly known as the neutral, or the acid, cra basic sulphite, is not recorded. It is highly proba- ble that with so weak an acid as sulphurous acid, zir- conium would form under these circumstances only basic compounds. We may state with regard to our own work that we have been unable with one exception to form any sulphite corresponding to the acid or the neutral.. Only very indefinite compounds or mixtures of the sulphite with the hydroxide have come into our hands, as a rule. The subject was first brought to our attention by the study of the reaction utilized by Baskerville for the quantitative separation of zirconium from iron and ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. Mi aluminum.’ It was also put into use by him for short- ening the method of preparing the pure zirconium chlorides.” The reaction in question is that which takes place when a nearly neutral solution of zirconium chloride is boiled with sulphur dioxide in excess. Several points of interest were observed as to this reaction. It was found that when a solution of the sulphate was used it was difficult to secure any precip- itation by means of sulphur dioxide even with persis- tent boiling. The chloride was clearly the best salt to use. The pure chloride was made up into approxi- mately a two and a half per cent. solution and this was either very nearly neutralized by means of ammonia, or ammonia was added until there was a slight permanent precipitate. In the latter case the saturation of this solution with sulphur dioxide produced an immediate precipitate. If this were permitted to stand for some time the precipitate was redissolved, the remaining liquid being only slightly clouded. This re-solution was probably due to the hydrochloric acid liberated and also to the excess of suiphurous acid present. If this solution of zirconium chloride saturated with sul- phur dioxide were diluted with several times its volume of water and boiled from fifteen to thirty minutes, a heavy white precipitate was produced. This was quite easily filtered by means of an unglazed porcelain suc- tion filter. The precipitate was washed several times and finally dried over sulphuric acid in a desiccator. The analysis gave: Zirconium dioxide... 61:10 61:75 61:75 .... 61.00 23,3 Sulphur dioxide..... ae : Bey pee? wasn eee Bek Ratio of zirconium to sulphur dioxide is 2: 1, approximately. Ratio of zirconium to sulphur dioxide in the neutral sulphite, Zi (SOe)e, is 1: 1.4. 1. J. Am. C. Soc, 16, 475. 2. THIS JOURNAL, 11, 85. 18 JOURNAL OF THE This substance when so dried was perfectly white and quite hard. It was powdered with some difficulty in an agate mortar and resembled, very much, finely divided silica. It was sometimes noted that the precipitate formed on passing the sulphur dioxide into the solution of zirconium chloride was partially dissolved upon the prolonged passage of the gas. To determine in how far the liberated hydrochloric acid was the agent caus- ing this re-solution, some zirconium hydroxide, freshly precipitated by means of ammonium hydroxide, was washed free from hydrochloric acid and was then treated with a concentrated and freshly prepared solution of sulphur dioxide. This was allowed to stand during two or three months and was frequently shaken. The solid at the bottom of the flask separated into two lay- ers, the gelatinous hydroxide settling first and upon this a white, finely divided, substance formed. ‘The super- natant liquid was found to contain zirconium. The white layer was separated from the hydroxide aad analyzed. It contained: AECOMIMMICTORIGe TT see eee 15.05 15.53 Eo Sil piutrdsOxid eaoeic cee! se yee ei Eee Age ots 4,86 Water(blast-lamiip)2-s-aee oe 2.78 3.03 Wit betmaitgoo mows; ci. ieee ena 77.41 76.33 100.10 99.75 Ratio of zirconium to sulphur dioxide is 2.2: 1. This substance apparently came toa constant weight on drying in a steam-bath at 95° C. A somewhat peculiar product was obtained during an attempt at filtering the precipitated sulphite. It filtered very slowly and in the course of a few hours a layer of a watery liquid formed above the white sul- phite. This was allowea to stand several days and turned into a solid jelly. This was noticed several ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 19 times. The thickness of the jelly-like layer, would of course, depend upon the amount of moisture in the pre- cipitate but several times it was half an inch or more in thickness. This body was analyzed in the moist condition after simply drying between filter paper. It gave: Zirconium dioxide...... 20.02 20.65 sae: me A Sulphirmicdioxidelsasen = - Tae sate2 5.19 Spo Water (blast lamp)..... 9.14 8.53 \WWanueieyehe O52 (Colo ooseee 65.65 65.22 100.00 999% Ratio of zirconium and sulphur dioxide is here 3: 1. A portion of this jelly was brought to constant weight by heating for a number of hours in a steam- bath. About sixty-five per cent. of the original weight was lost and the body assumed a translucent appear- ance like dried gelatine. The analysis of this gave: ALE COnitirManGtOxiden sas sede 59.34 Sarae Siuhomie Chorale. 96 ose koe eee 11.46 Water (blast-lamp).......... 29.20 100.00 Ratio of zirconium to sulphur dioxide is 4: 1. The analysis shows that some of the sulphur dioxide was lost on drying. It will be seen that these different preparations show a very varying ratio of the zirconium to the sulphur dioxide and in no case approach to the ratio of the neu- tral sulphite (1:1.4). They are, therefore, to be looked upon as either mixtures of the sulphite and hydroxide or very unstable compounds. The jelly-like substance mentioned last gives more promise of being a chemical individual; still it has not been thought legitimate to attempt the calculation or assignment of a formula to it. A last attempt at preparing the neutral sulphite was made by placing some of the excess of sulphurous acid, 20 JOURNAL OF THE which had been standing over the precipitated zircon- ium sulphite, in a dessiccator and allowing it to evapo- rate over sulphuric acid. The bulk of liquid decreased from about 200 cc. to five to ten cc. and then hard, white, warty crystals began to form, which were quite difficult to remove from the crystallizing dish. In appearance they resembled zirconium sulphate. The solution had lost the odor of sulphur dioxide. The time consumed in the evaporation was several months. The crystals were dried upon filter-paper and yielded, on analysis: Zirconium .....24.47 per cent. ona dry basis, 35.43. Sulphur dioxide 34.54 ** Shey SE See ee Calculated for Zr(SO,);, Zr 36.25; SO; 51.207 “hese crystals then seemed to be a hydrated sulphite of the composition Zr(SO,), 7H,O. The nature of the precipitate gotten by means of sodium sulphite was also examined. The sulphite used was fairly pure. The zirconium chloride solution was distinctly acid and the mixed solution was acid. A transient precipitate was produced in the cold on mix- ing the two. On heating, a good flocculent precipitate was formed which settled well and was easily filtered. The precipitate looked like the hydroxide, rather than the white sulphite already described. The analysis wave: Zircormitim Gioxide «2.2... - 5.25 Se Sulphiurnidioxide 42. 23-22% - - Sa ae 1. 05 1.004 Ratio cf zirconium and sitar dioxide is 4:1. Chancel,’ in giving a method of separation of iron from zirconium, states that by meaus of a boiling solu- tion of sodium thiosulphite the zirconium is precipi- tated as thiosulphite. Stromeyer’ stated that if a dilute 1 Ann. d. Chem. u. Pharin.. 108, 237: Watt’s Dictionary, 5. 1081, 1877. 1 Ibid, 113, 127. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. PAX zirconium chloride solution be neutralized by sodium carbonate in the cold and sodium thiosulphite added until the solution was decolorized and then boiled as long as sulphur dioxide came off, the zirconium would be precipitated as oxide (meaning doubtless hydroxide). To test these observations a solution of zirconium chloride was neutralized by ammonia and an excess of sodium thiosulphite was added in crystals. A precipi- tate began to be formed directly. This was washed eight or ten times by decantation, filtered, the precipi- tate dried by absorption paper, and analyzed. It gave: Zirconium dioxide...... 19.66 20.50 ae : Sulphur dioxide........ ate wich 4.03 4.14 Water (blast-lamp)..... 16.05 16.41 Wiaterraits Iom Coase cc ss 60.11 58.58 99.85 99.61 Percentage of zirconium on a water-free basis is 75. Percentage of zirconium calculated in Zr(S»9 O33) is 21.95. A second experiment was carried out with an acid solution of zirconium chloride. The sodium thiosul- phite crystals were added in the cold and when com- pletely dissolved the solution was heated to boiling. This precipitate, on analysis, gave: Zirconium dioxide ..... 21.74 20.73 $4 SHlpinitme dioxide. 34. ccr : bt 5-39 5.41 Water (blast-lamp)..... D2 8.64 Wiaiteraraitsol Cctnece fe 63.28 65.37 100.07 100.15 Finally another portion was taken, precipitated with an excess of sodium thiosulphite, and boiled until there was no longer any odor of sulphur dioxide. This pre- cipitate was analyzed: Zirconium dioxide... .. 47.01 47.19 neg arenes Sulphur dioxide........ tee Aa 6.90 6.95 Water (blast-lamp)..... 21.41 21.14 WWaterrarOormi Gas. 2). 24.16 24.72 99.48 100.01 yb JOURNAL OF. THE The percentage of water here was due to the expos- ure of the precipitate in a warm room and its conse- quent partial drying. There is no evidence here nor in the previous cases of the formation of any definite thio- sulphite and we would question its existence under ordinary conditions. There is no evidence of the for- mation here of an hydroxide as one of the authors quoted states. Basic salts seem to be the only products. UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA, March. 1895. THE CHLORIDES OF ZIRCONIUM. BY F. P, VENABLE. In a report upon the examination of the chlorides of zirconium! it was stated that pure zirconium tetrachlo- ride was formed by the solution of zirconium hydrox- ide in hydrochloric acid and repeated crystallization from the concentrated acid. This statement was based ona partial analysis by Linnemann’, the result of which made him call the substance the tetrachloride; and on repeated partial analyses of my own, in which the zir- conium present was determined by ignition as zirconium dioxide. So firmly convinced was I of the fact that this was the normal tetrachloride that I determined to use it in revising the atomic weight. Ten closely agree- determinations were made and they yielded as the per- centage of zirconium dioxide found 52.99, or, calcula- ting with 90.62 as atomic weight of zirconium (Bailey) 1. J. Am. Chem. Soc, 1894, 16, 460-475, 2. Lond. Chem, News, 52, 233-240. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 23 39.16 per cent. of zirconium. The zirconium in the tetrachloride amounts to 38.99 per cent. Bailey made several very widely differing determina- tions of the chlorine in this body and considered it the oxychloride. His determinations varied so greatly and his mode of drying were so faulty that I simply con- cluded he was mistaken, being unable to detect a source of error in my analyses which would allow for a change from 39.16 per cent. of zirconium to 46.79 per cent., the amount needed for the oxychloride. Still, as a necessary precaution, I made some deter- minations of the chlorine in the pure crystalline pro- duct and was greatly surprised to find only 35.5 per cent. of chlorine instead of 61.01, the amount required for the tetrachloride. The percentage in the oxychlor- ide would be 36.63. I regard the results as very singular. The substance must be an oxychloride, but what is its composition? The simplicity of its preparation and the constancy of its composition, along withits stability, would argue for a simple formula. No such formula can be calculated from the analysis. Probably the best formula suggested for this oxychloride, corresponding closely with the above analysis, is Zr,(OH),Cl, 5H,O. UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA, August, 1895. THE DRUDGERY OF SCIENCE. The study of Natural Science presents so much that is attractive and entertaining that a distaste is some times begotten in the mind of the beginner for the sober, plodding side of it. A lecturer upon Geology 24 JOURNAL OF THE or Chemistry is at the disadvantage of having an audi- ence which expects to be amused, as at some exhibition of jugglery, whereas the language teacher has under him those who realize fully that there is no royal road to learning. I have hearda distinguished professor of chemistry say that he always felt his class begin to drag when he passed the ‘‘fizz, pop and bang stage. They would gaze in wonder at the beautiful experi- ments upon the elemental gases but had no stomach for the hard work of the science. And yet, how essential this plodding, this toil without apparent, or at least immediate, reward, is to the truth of the picture and to the success of the study. The drudgery ceases to be such in the eyes of the enthusiastic searcher into na- 99 ture’s mysteries. It becomes a joy, as bringing him a step nearer to the realization of his hopes. If any of you are looking forward to a life-time of work in the realms of science it is well that you should face clearly the condition demanded of you for the high- est, truest success, namely, patient and often times seemingly fruitless toil. A patient worker who has just laid his tribute on the altar of science, before an admiring world of fellow-citizens-—-I refer to Morley and his monumental work upon the atomic weight of oxygen—writes: ‘Do not deceive yourselves, however, by thinking that patient toil can accomplish everything. Genius is not ‘an infinite capacity for taking pains’ but a something broader and deeper, that lifts the drudgery into the sublime. You may take infinite pains and still be only a drudge. You must take infinite pains to be a brilliant leader.”’ One of the most valuable qualities of mind to a man of science is persistence, obstinacy, doggedness—what- ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 5 ever you may choose to call it. It means an unyield- ing determination to persevere in spite of difficulties and discouragements. Accuracy of observation, clear- ness of intellect are all good and necessary, but unless you have genuine grit, and stick at the task you have set yourself, you can make no very valuable conquest from nature nor contribution to the store of human knowledge. It is the patient settler who has cleared the land, tilled the soil, sown the seed, toiled, suffered and waited and thus has won for the world its great feeding-ground in our Western States, and so it is the patient Darwin, the toiling Agassiz, the untiring Liebig, who have opened to us such great vistas in the domain of science. If we would follow them we must toil over the stepping stonés they have succeeded in laying. If we would go yet further and discover Nature’s secrets for ourselves, a capacity for patient drudgery must be ours. And yet, though it seem drudgery to others who are merely looking on, it is not really such, for to us it must be a labor of love. I wish to brine before you some eminent examples of drudges that you may draw encouragement from them. Many instances might be drawn, first, from the life of Darwin. Take, for example, his patience when he reports himself as watching for two hours to see whether a spider put the right foot or the left foot in front in weaving, and his honesty in confessing, at the end of it, that he could not tell. Consider those fifty years during which he watched the lowly earth worm and found out for us its beneficent action in preparing our soils. Patient drudges, or shall we call them heroes, are to be found in all the branches of science. Think of Lub- bock and his work with ants and bees; of Ehrenberg 26 JOURNAL OF THE and his blinding himself with his microscopic investi- gation of infusorial earths; of Galileo and his tele- scope. My acquaintance lies mostly, however, with chemists, and I shall draw from among them the ex- amples we need. Some years ago Dr. Kerr, our former State Geolo- gist, supplied a distinguished English chemist, Dr. Crookes, with a large amount of a rare mineral, sam- arskite, found inthis State. Years were spent by this gentleman in, what he speaks of as the most trying and laborious of work, fractiona] precipitations, in order to separate the rare elements contained in the mineral. This meant a repetition for many hundreds of times of the same delicate and trying operations. The final report of the work occupied only a few pages and gave to the uninitiated little sign of the labor spent upon it. Another instance of the same sort of work came to my notice a few years ago. Dr. Shapleigh, an ambi- tious American chemist, wrote me that he too had been working on the rare earths (from cerite and monazite also gotten from this State) trying to separate praseo- and neo-dymium and to prepare their compounds, with the hope of thoroughly studying them. After three years of daily toil and over 400 precipitations from 8 or 10 tons of materials, he had them separated and the compounds prepared and then found himself unable to continue the work and earn the reputation which he so richly merited. A German chemist wishing to find out some of the constituents of the sugar-beet worked over six thous- and pounds of them in small portions, by prolonged and patient operations. We have some remarkable instances of patient toil among the older chemists also. Thus Boerhaave dis- ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. Pil tilled the same lot of mercury five-hundred times to con- tradict the old alchemical notion that an essence could be gotten from it, and other mercury he kept at a raised temperature for fifteen years, watching for any chang- es, meaning countless repetitions of the same tiresome work. I knew, myself, a young German student who, for weeks and weeks, was practically an outcast, working ina part of the laboratory to himself, unable to eat with his fellows, a burden to himself and to others be- cause of the loathsome chemical substances he had chosen to work upon. We always threatened to put him under the sink or soak him in the water butt if he came near our part of the laboratory, and so I know little of his work or success, but he showed the scien- tific spirit and pluck. The work had to be done to gain the desired knowledge. It was loathsome, it was drudgery, but someone had to do it, and why not he? I have heard of an American student who spent months in distilling and examining foetid bone oil. It seems to me, as a would-be scientific man, I should be forced to draw the line at bone-oil. Only a year or two ago, I reported to the Society the patient toil of an English worker who was trying to understand the processes in the germination of grain. His microscopic dissections counted up into the hun- dreds, and yet, though spoken of casually and asa mat- ter of course, seemed to me a marvellous proof of skill and patience. But this drudgery may meet you at the outset of your career, and not only after you have become veter- ans. and if we listen to the older masters of Sci- ence, it is best for us that we should be so tried. My teacher was one of the pupils of the great Ger- 28 JOURNAL OF THE man chemist Wohler. He told me that when he first entered Wohler’s laboratory, the dried-up looking but brilliant German set him to grinding some hard sub- stance ina mortar, and kept him at that and nothing else for three solid weeks. Perhaps it was the mem- ory of this that made him set me, first, at a task of dis- tilling water and keep me watching its drip, drip, for one long and weary week. How such training can be of use, is told us in the charming and all too short autobiography of Justus v. Liebig, published by the German Chemical Society. His father was a dealer in colors. ‘The boy, driven by the workings of the chemist spirit within him, experi- mented with his father’s slender store of chemicals, and as the possible mixings and changes were necessa- rily limited, never wearied of repeating them, learning thus exactly the appearance and the changes they un- derwent, and acquiring perfected powers of observa- tion to which he largely owed his after successes. He says, that it taught him especially to detect without fail similarities between bodies. Wohler’s training led him to take the contrary view and always to see the differences between the different kinds of matter before him. As much of their work was done in common, these two great men supplemented one another in their trained faculties, and from the farmer to the manufac- turer, from the poor man who enjoys cheap clothing and better food to the suffering patient who is restored to health, mankind arises and calls them blessed. Please note that this toil and drudgery is something different from the hap-hazard work of the alchemists and gold-seekers of the middle ages, and yet al] of you have heard the tales that go to show how all-consum- ing was the pursuit of that flighty, illogical work. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 29 That which I have been referring to is logical, carefully _ planned work, with definite ends in view. I will close by recounting for you, in part, the story of Palissy, the potter. It may bea twice-told tale to you, but it well illustrates scientific drudgery pursued either to death or to success. Europe was without por- celain. The only pottery known to French art was common earthenware. Palissy set for himself the task of discovering how the beautiful enamel was made which could be seen on priceless ancient pieces or on im- ported Eastern ware. How was he to begin? He had no teacher, he had no property. He himself says: “Without having heard of what materials the said vessels were composed, I pounded, in those days, all the substances which I could suppose likely to make anything,and having pounded and ground them I bought a quantity of earthen pots and broke them to pieces. I put on them some of the materials that I had ground and having marked them, I set apart in writing what things I had put upon each, and having made a furnace to my fancy, I set the fragments down to bake.” He built his furnaces, exhausted his resources and Jailed. He pulled down his furnaces, broke fresh pots, undeterred by an empty purse, an empty cupboard and a remonstrating wife, and /azled again. Then he prepared three or four hundred pieces and sent them to a neighboring potters-kiln to be burned, after, as he says, he ‘‘had fooled away several years, with sorrows and sighs because he could not arrive at his intention.”’ The result was that he ‘‘received nothing but shame and loss because they turned out good for nothing.”’ This he did several times with failure only for his re- ward. Then hunger at home and the clamors of Mad- 30 JOURNAL OF THE ame Palissy could no longer be disregarded and he gave up for awhile. For a year and a half he was conjugally a happy man, but scientifically wretched, for the fire of genius within could not be quieted. Having earned some lit- tle money by other work, he turned again to his enamel. For two years he continued his experiments and Mad- am Palissy scolded. His house was stripped, his chil- dren hungry. He agreed to make one final experi- ment, and if it failed to give up that for which he had labored five long, hard years. His trial was a partial success and nerved him to further efforts. Time fails me to follow him through all of his trials and disappointments. Ido not know of any more piti- ful and yet more wonderful and stirring account of man’s triumph over obstacles that most would call in- surmountable. He blundered thus for fifteen or eighteen years. He wasted away until there was no form nor prominence of muscle on arms or legs. He received no help nor consolation at home nor abroad, and yet he triumphed at last. ‘The secret was learned, the art was won. No- blemen visited his cottage. Madame Palissy smiled againand purchased a ‘‘fine grass-green camlet’’as some sort of amends for her furniture, burned in his furnace, and her years of home happiness sacrificed. He remov- ed to court, was highly fav oredby the king, and France and Kurope were filled with his fame. May you have something of his energy and his per- severance and be blessed with wives more patient and more helpful than Madame Palissy. BRLISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 31 NOTES ON THE UNDERGROUND SUPPLIES OF POTABLE WATERS IN THE SOUTH ACMA TIC PLE DMONT PLAT HAU.* BY J. A. HOLMES. It is a fact that is coming to be more widely recog- nized by the general public as well as by members of the medical fraternity, that the health of persons liv- ing in our hill country depends in no small degree upon the drinking water obtained,—yjust as it has been found that the use of pure water in the lowlands and swamp areas of the Southern states results in practical im- munity from malarial diseases. Hence the problem of how to obtain supplies of wholesome water for the towns and manutacturine establishments in the hill country or Piedmont plateau region of the south-east- ern states comes to be one of considerable interest, the importance of which will continue to increase as the favorable conditions for manufactures and agriculture in this region will make it in the near future the most thickly populated portion of the South Atlantic states. Water supplies from surface streams are ungestion- ably of the first importance; and in the mountain coun- ties where the region is still largely forest covered and the streams rapid and continually aerated by rapids and cascades, the water is of superior purity and clear- ness. This statement is also applicable to the more elevated and sparsely settled portions of the Piedmont pleateau; but in the icss hilly and more thickly settled portions of this region the streams are more sluggish and the waters more muddy and less pure owing to the fact that a much larger proportion of the surface is * From Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Engineers, XXV.. 1895. 32 JOURNAL OF THE under cultivation. Furthermore, many of the towns and manufacturing establishments are located at dis- tances from the larger rivers and creeks too great to permit of the water being lifted and transported to them by pipe lines at any reasonable cost. Rain water caught from the roofs of houses, under favorable conditions, and kept in properly constructed cisterns, is probably the safest for drinking purposes, but under unfavorable conditions and when not prop- erly attended to, cistern water must be considered as not altogether safe; and in any case the supply is in- adequate for large establishments. Such being the case with regard to surface supplies of water, it will be seen that, in a number of cases, we must depend for potable waters upon underground sup- plies. These may be obtained either from springs or wells. Of the latter we may consider three varieties: The ordinary open well such as is often seen about pri- vate residences; deep bored wells which penetrate the crystalline rocks, in the endeavor to obtain artesian supplies of water; and the shallow bored wells which are put down through the soil to the surface of these crystalline rocks in the hope of striking underground currents along the lines of contract between the lower portion of the soil and the upper portion of the unde- composed rock. In this latter case generally several such wells are bored withina short distance of each other and these are connected by iron pipes, and water is pumped from the various pipes through a common pipe to a common reservoir or tank. This is what is gen- erally known as the tube well system. The open spring's furnish an excellent but limited supply of water for family use; a supply, however, which while it is sufficient for the needs of isolated residences, ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 33 it is generally inadequate to meet the demand about towns and manuiacturine centers, and futhermore, in such latter cases, and frequently even near isolated country residences, the surface in the neighborhood of the spring becomes so contaminated with decaying or- ganic matter that the water becomes unfit for drink- ing purposes. The same general statement may be made concerning ordinary open or driven wells, which for the sake of convenience must be located near resi- dences where the surface soil becomes more lable to contamination as the region becomes more thickly set- tled. Examples of this are not infrequently seen, where the water from wells and springs in newly settled com- munities is found to be healthful, but a few years later it has become so contaminated with organic matter, which has permeated the soil fromabove, that sickness follows its use, and it must be finally abandoned. It is difficult, however, to get the average citizen to un- derstand that the organic matter of the water in his well or spring comes from the soil immediately about his premises, as the prevailing notion concerning these supplies of water is that they come, not from the im- mediate vicinity, but from some distant region. Con- sequently in many of our towns and even about the is- olated country residences, the barn yards and the priv- ies and the hog pens seem to be built upon the princi- ple of convenience alone, and this frequently places them in close proximity to the well or spring from which the family supplies of drinking water are ob- tained. But outside of this the question as to the purity of the water, the supply of water from the isolated springs and open wells is generally quite inadequate for towns or manufacturing establishments of any considerable 34 JOURNAL OF THE size unless the number of these wells is greatly multi- tiplied, and their multiplication means their wider dis- tribution through the settlement or community, and thus a multiplication of the possible sources of disease from the drinking of contaminated waters. Neverthe- less, the fact remains that, many of the towns of this region, witha population of from a few hundred to sever- al thousand, are still without any general supply of water other than that from independant shallow wells. And while the amount of disease in such cases generally 1n- creases with the age of the town, and the physicans, at least, recognize the increasing contamination of the water as the source of this increase in sickness, yet for the lack of a better system this one continues in exis- LeHCE: Deep artesian well supplies are not to be depended upon for the reason that the geologic conditions in the the Piedmont plateau region are not favorable. The rocks of this region are crystalline schists, gneiss and e@ranites with the dips (schistocity) generally steep and varying on both sides of the vertical. A considerable number of borings varying from 100 to 1000 feet, have been made into these crystalline rocks in the Pied- mont region of the two Carolinas and Georgia during the past few years, with the expectation of securing either an ‘‘artesian’’ (overflow) supply, or a supply that would come near enough to the surface to be reach- ed by pumps. But the results have been generally unsatisfactory, the holes being ‘‘dry’’ or the supply of water being inadequate. A somewhat exceptionally favorable result was experienced in Atlanta. Some years ago (1881-82) a well was bored into the gneiss rock in the heart of Atlanta to a depth of about 2200 feet, at a cost of about $20,000.00. Ata depth of 1,100 at, ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 35 feet a large supply of water was tapped, and it rose to within about 17 feet of the surface.’ For several years this well constituted the water supply for a consider- able part of the city, but the water was pronounced unsafe by the medical authorities, and the well has been abandoned for a water supply from the Chatta- hooche river. Ina few other cases exceptionally large supplies of water have been reached; but as a rule the boring of these wells has failed of satisfactory results. Some professional well borers, like some professional miners, with a laudable desire to be kept busy, urge that the deeper the hole the better are the chances of success; an opinion that has frequently but slight foun- dation in the case of the mines, and in the case of well boring it is, in this region of crystalline rocks, con- trary to both theory and experience. The possibility of exceptions no one will deny, as we see that ina few of the deeper mines of this region considerable streams of water are tapped; and in some cases there is a bare possibility that the hole to be drilled for a water sup- ply may tap such an underground stream of water, as was the case in Atlanta; but the chances are more than 10 to 1 against such “‘luck.’’ As a rule these crystalline rocks become harder and more solid as we descend, the chances of securing a reasonable supply of water—never good after the hole enters the real mass of rock—may be said to decrease as the hole descends. There is, however, one certainty about this operation, and that is, other things being equal, the deeper the hole the more rapidily the cost increases. During the past few years the tube well system mentioned above has been introduced in a number of communities in this piedmont region and with decided success in furnishing a vood supply of drinking water 36 JOURNAL OF THE to the smaller towns and manufacturing communities. This system is baséd upon the existence of fairly well defined underground ‘‘currents’’ of water in regions where the topography is favorable and where the rocks have decayed to a considerable depth, and where near the lower limit of this decay there is more or less por- ous material through which this water may readily percolate. Of course it has been well known in the past that more or less well defined underground move- ments of water existed, and that at favorable locations the small currents come to the surface as springs, and that frequently, on both elevated regions and about lowlands, when wells are sunk sufficiently deep into the soil,—usually near the surface of the hard rocks,—a sufficient amount of water is found either to empty 1n- to the well as a small stream or to ooze into it from the surrounding soil and thus furnish a limited supply. But it is only recently that the location and extent of these underground sources of water have been investi- gated in some regions with considerable care and have been found to yield under proper treatment much larger quantities of water than have been reckoned upon in the past. This investigation has been prosecuted in this region mainly by Mr. Henry E. Knox, Jr., a hy- draulic engineer, of Charlotte, N. C., and he has in this way located considerable supplies of underground water in regions where these were sorely needed. I give below, in tabulated form, the results obtained by Mr. Knox in Piedmont North and South Carolina. His method of investigation is to examine carefully the topography and geology of the region where the water supply is ueeded. The topographic conditions favor- able to success are, as might be expected, where there is more or less of the basin, shallow ravine, or valley, ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 37 so that the water that falls upon this surface, instead of running off in opposite directions, if the soil is suffic- iently porous naturally percolates downward and tends to concentrate along the lower portion of such basin or ralley where it may meet with least resistance in the more porous materials. By way of exploring such a region, a number of noles are bored in line across the basin or valley, so as to determine the existence and location of such an un- derground ‘‘current’’ of water. In this way its posi- tion at intervals is determined and the intervening course is traced by additional borings. If the water supply is tapped by these borings it sometimes over- flows; the output of the pipe at the surface of the ground and the quantity thus overflowing is measured, and pumps are then applied so that the possible yield of water can beestimated. In these underground ‘streams’ the water usually follows the topographic conditions, as might be expected, but in some cases it moves more or less obliquely across the ravines, showing that the overlying soil has not the same thickness everywhere, and that the topography of the soil surface is not the same as the topography of the underlying rock surface; and the water current moves along down the incline of least resistance of the rock surface, in a measure inde- pendently of the topography of the surface soil. The fact that that the water percolates through this more or less porous material at considerable depths below the surface, of course suggests that the movement must be sluggish; but that there is a definite movement is shown by the fact that where there are a number of holes bored at intervals along the line of the ‘‘stream’’ and coloring matters are in- troduced into one of them, in a short time the color ap- 38 JOURNAL OF THE pears in the water coming from the adjacent holes in one direction but does not appear in the water from the holes in the opposite direction. But the average rate of movement has not been determined with a sufficient degree of accuracy to admit of its being stated. These currents are quite limited in their width; ranging in the cases tested, from a few feet to, in rare cases, more than 100 yards. And, as might be expected, the width is not at all constant, but while it gradually increases further down the ‘‘stream’’ as the supply of water be- comes greater, yet this increase of width is by no means constant. The depth at which these underground water currents have been found varies from about 20 to nearly 100 feet, and generally they have been found at less than 50 feet below the surface. The fact that in the case of some of these wells the water overflows at the surface is due to topographic ra- ther than geologic influences. In some cases, especially at Charlotte, N. C., as mentionedin the table below, the flow froma single well amounts to as much as 10> gallons per minute. Here, as in other places where the overflow is slight—even less than one gallon per minute—the amount of water which can be pumped from such a well is considerably larger. Thus in the case mentioned at Charlotte (Latta Park) there are several overflowing wells with an average depth of 42 feet. The maximum natural flow from one of these wells is 10 gallons per minute, but with the application of a pump the eight wells yield readily 230,000 gallons per day. Again at Chester, S. C., one well which yields in natural overflow 6 gallons per minute, with the aid of a pump yields nearly 62 gallons per minute or 99,280 gallons per day. In another case, the maxi- mum natural overflow of any one of the eight wells ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 39 bored at the Western Hospital, at Morganton, N. C., is only four gallons per minute, while the eight wells, with an average depth of about 39 feet, yield upon the application of a pump 165 gallons per minute or 237,600 gallons per day. The quality of the water obtained from these wells has been pronounced satisfactory in every case by the health officials. Of course the continuation of this con- dition of things will depend largely upon the continued freedom from contaminating influences of these water basins, and one advantage of this system of water sup- ply is that the basins, being generally limited in area, may be generally controlled by one or more indi- viduals or a corporation, and may be thus kept free from sources of contamination. As might beexpected, thesearch for the underground supplies of water has not by any means been success- ful in every case, but the limited experience leads one to believe that they may be found in a majority of com- munities, where search is extended over a sufficiently large area and is made with sufficient care. It would at present, however, be too much to claim that these underground supplies of drinking water can be found sufficient to meet all the demands of larger towns and cities, though they would prove of material service in this connection. But I anticipate that they will be found of greatest importance in connection with water supplies of smaller towns and of more or less isolated manufacturing establishments, where there are usually several hundred or several thousand operatives. In the following tabular statement will be found a list of the more important places where these under- ground water currents have been found and where the gang well system has been introduced, the name of the 40 JOURNAL OF THE special establishments for which the wells were bored, the number of wells at each place, the average depth of the wells, the natural overflow in one minute of time from that one of the series of wells from which the overflow is largest, and the aggregate yield of wa- from the several wells at each place in 24 hours when the steam pump is applied. The data for this tabular statement has been supplied by Mr. Henry E. Knox Jr., of Charlotte, N. C., who bored all of these wells. and who states that out of 23 surveys made by him, only three were unsuccessful in locating the desired quantity and quality of water. 4 IFN TIFIC SOCIETY. ‘ IEE; She = q HE \ 4 ELISHA MITC “SHIH, 1079309 PUP) 4, 000° 00I! ” T | Of je}uers ,, 0°87 » STTTASproa “STITIN, U0}}OD OTOQGSoUOl’) ,, 000'S) ache eae I JSIYOS AO ote ,, (O10qQsouor OD SHIOM 197BM) 4, — 000°00Z| eel OU ) rp STs “A ee7 “a Hl», 000/02 OL OL ” ” O°Cr “ON (9}}0]4e YO » PEGMeE}E) ,, 000'°0E . I Cc y OSL ” 9 ” . OO00'OE ” c iE . ny SCP ” STITH, Weysury ,, ORT'66 . 9 I O}IUPRIS ,, £Or ” *19}S9Y) 50 3p ” a 000°00T I Si ss ” OSE ” ” ” TOZTOd| ,, O00'00T . OL > |sstous ” OTT ” “LOZ Iq ‘OO (F. UPN ITTIN 340) ss 000°0¢ oo Si t ” ” OSE ” “THA F404 ‘aS9110D ‘[T pue ‘nN doryzurm| ,. 000'TL aa S f jeyluPIs ,, 09S -9O°S ‘HH 31904 ‘TooyoS quing pur jeoq Re 000‘ 00T An I S 94) ” Oe & ” ‘yeIdsoH 9321S, 4, 009° LET » | 8 9 ry) 0°62 . ‘O—d Suluury oying ,, 000°0ST “ I g (sstoUs'mos9q) ¢°8Z 5, ‘UOJURSDIOPL “SITHN 107}09 RBIOINY|'Ss]e4) OOO'OT) “UOTTRS) T GS |*]JeAvPIs JOpod! G'LZz ‘OCN ‘Uo} SUITING | ‘*sanoy +2 [fas oun | ‘SpTfoar | 2 jjooy ul ; pealog WOYM 10 oT | Syeda Wot} ONUTLU jo “EIEIS | yydeq “AOW Td suidun gq tod Moy ‘xeyw| ‘ON od1,AV ‘ON ‘HLLOINVHD ‘MHANIOND DITAVUAGAPH “Ul °XONM “Y AMNHH Ad GHNOg ‘VNIIOMNVO BHLOOS GNV HLAON AO NOIDAM OVALVId LNONGHId AHL NI SITHM DONIMOTW AO LSIT ag ~ "4 : es ar ¥ 7) . es si ‘ aa ° - i % > y . - > » . , y ‘ Ae . > hy \ . * : od - 4 ‘ ' F _ os » a . , : 2 a . .) d JOURNAL OF THE Elisha Mitchell Scientitic Society VOLUME XII—PART SECOND JULY --DECEHEMBER. 189 n POST-OFFICE : CHEAP HT, Eudes IN. Cc: ISSUED FROM THE UNIVERSITY PRESSES. CHAPEL HILE, N. GC. 1895. Pa TABLE Oreo n as Na (PD Notes on the Kaolin and Clay Deposits of N. C., J. A. Holmes Description of Some Muscles of the Cat, H. V. Wilson and G. Origin of the Peridotites of the Southern Appalachians. J. V. WeEWiS2 3 fos Kou cist. kc SURE ea eee ns ae Monazite>s Wiebe Ci INWZe.. . 3222 ace eee ele eee Table of Contents of First Twelve Volumes,..................-- JOURNAL OF THE Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society. NOTES ON THE KAOLIN- AND CLAY- DEPOSITS OF NORTH CAROLINA.* BY J. A. HOLMES, CHAPEL HILL, N. C. As the Appalachian mountains reach their maxi- mum development in western North Carolina, we find also in that region indications of extensive dynamic dis- turbances and alterations undergone by the rocks in connection with these mountain uplifts. Among the minor results of these changes have been the formation of numerous dikes of ‘‘veins’’ of exceedingly coarse granitic materials, which in some places are mined for the mica which they contain, and in other places are quarried for kaolin. These dikes are filled with quartz, feldspar and mica, in varying proportions, very coarsely crystalized. Sometimes the mica (generally muscovite), sometimes the feldspar (generally albite or orthoclase), predominates. When the mica is present in considerable quantity and in large crystals, the dyke is usually spoken of as a mica-vein, and is often worked for mica. Sometimes these crystals of mica occur on one side or the other, sometimes on both sides, * From the Transactions of the Am. Inst. of Mining Engineers, Vol. XXIV, 1895. f JOURNAL OF THE and sometimes they are largely concentrated in the middle of the vein, or, it may be, distributed through- out the dike with a considerable degree of uniformity. In many cases the crystals are too small and few to permit of the working of the vein as a mica mine; in other cases very little mica is present, and the feldspar constitutes the larger part of the material. This feld- spar of the dikes undergoes, through the weathering action of the atmosphere, certain chemical changes re- sulting in its alteration from feldspar into kaolinite— the kaolin of commerce. These dikes vary considerably in size, ranging from a few inches to several hundred feet in thickness, and up to many hundred yards in length. They are gene- rally parallel to the schistosity of the crystalline rocks, which, however, in some cases, they cross at various angles. The kaolin in those dikes which occur in the: Unaka or Smoky mountains is said to have been mined by the Indians, ‘‘packed’’ across the country to the seaboard, and shipped to England as early as the 17th century. From one of them, near Webster in Jackson Connty, kaolin is now mined (by the Harris Clay Co.) and shipped to Trenton, N. J. and other centers for the manufacture of fine pottery. This Webster dike con- tains very little mica and comparatively little quartz. It has a maximum width of about 300 feet, and has been traced for a length of more than a half mile. It is mined to a depth of from 60 to 120 feet, below which the original feldspar has not been sufficiently altered, and is too hard for economic mining. The kaolin is brought from the mine, crushed, and washed in a se- ries of settling-vats, for the purpose of separating it from the granular quartz. Its plasticity is increased a ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. A both by washing and by the subsequent grinding which it receives. The following analysis* of the washed and dried product ready for shipment shows the general character of such material. ANALYSIS OF KAOLIN, HARRIS MINE, NEAR WEBSTER, N. C. PER CENT. \aee quien, Gili averclcwatel senaGl™ oe cee doandudsenacesooscuso: 2.28 (Comnloninechshveny » 5 aeaet Bac do abot Gio obo boo cai amerernints Eee rIerIEe 41.62 JAVA, 2S Blen Geag alo trcrneetocio EiGAl Sein Ge BOS Saeed BIN neater 40.66 ORGOIS Ot Tieoriice Laotian Series nee aims 2 cro cormeeminiog fe crane corde 0.14 /AITRIRGSS SESS Gel eeo eee ERS eI oe oS care nineteen Saaremaa rae 0.46 TLakia® \hep pis redgees Snes Gled le Resi Bees Ae ts bo 5 Po ea ws aie iach be none MIN BTOSIAy iS Se one d8.0 ee Sea Seman: Acs ones pidiis cob d adn re trace (Crevanloninars lag hiae. US psgtenicn pease ise ho Skt. ocho Eee atin cucts 14.00 WHORNRG | Ste he Ge eens DO ODER ee er anne 0S > SSS cna iaacrta aac 0.84 TOPE OS: BYGHGL = ae eared | ic eae ene mc ie Rei DR Enea eeremoen: none Total 100.00 Many similar but smaller feldspathic and kaolin dikes are found in the various other counties west of the Blue Ridge, and at a number of these the feldspar has been altered into kaolin for considerable depths be- low the surface, but none of them have been worked extensively for either the feldspar or the kaolin, except the Harris clay-mine just mentioned. Also at various points in the Piedmont Plateau, which extends east of the Blue Ridge for from 150 to 200 miles, there are to be found deposits of this kaolin which have doubt- less originated in much the same way as those west of the Blue Ridge; but none of these are now worked to any considerable extent. The age of these crystal- line rocks in the Piedmont plateau and the mountain * Made for the Harris Clay Co. of Dillsboro, N. C. at the Pitts- burgh Pa. Testing Laboratory. 4 JOURNAL OF THE counties, and the exact time at which the disturbance took place which resulted in the formation of these massive granitic dikes is, as yet, a matter of doubt. So numerous are these dikes in certain places, and so long have their feldspars been undergoing surface transformation into residual kaolin or clay, that one might expect to find in this region, as in some other countries, sedimentary deposits of this material which had been transported for greater or less distances; but when we bear in mind the general elevation in the mountain-region and the consequent rapidity of its streams, we can readily understand that this product of denudation would scarcely be deposited until it had been carried so great a distance from the original source as to be lost by commingling in the lowlands with larger proportions of other and different materials. Along the borders of the Piedmont plateau-region there are occasionally found deposits of this kaolin material which has evidently been carried but a short distance. Such occurrences are more extensively known on the western border of the Coastal Plain region, mainly in the Potomac formation, as in the neighbor- hood of Aiken, S. C., and Augusta, Ga., and in many other places, where considerable deposits of this kaolin- material occur, both in the form of arkose (where the kaolin is still mixed with the quartz and mica of the original granitic formation) and in the clay-beds, where it has been more completely sorted, and the kaolin has been separated from the coarser materials, so as to form extensive beds of what is locally termed ‘‘china’’- or potters-clay. In some cases, in the arkose material just referred to, the partially decayed crystals of feld- spar are frequently found with the kaolinization in- complete; and mingled with these are fragments of ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 5 other minerals, transported from the débris of the crys- talline rocks occurring along the borders of the Pied- mont plateau, not many miles away. The points above noted may explain, perhaps, the confusion which has arisen in the use of the term ‘‘ka- olin.”’ The applicability of this name to the material described above as having its origin directly in the large granitic dikes, I suppose no one will question. But if the residual material of dike-Gecomposition has been transported a short distance by the streams and deposited without further sorting the materials, or if it has been transported to a much greater distance, so that the sorting has become fairly complete, and the mineral kaolinite, while separated from the quartz and mica of the original mass remains unmixed with other foreign materials, so as to be itself fairly pure,—the question arises whether the term kaolin is still appli- cable in both cases; and if so, to what extent, in its transportation and sorting, this material may become mixed with other foreign materials resulting from the decay of crystalline rocks in the region through which it has been transported, before the term kaolin would become inapplicable. In other words, where, in such a case, should we discontinue the use of the word ‘‘ka- olin’ and apply the broader term ‘‘clay’”’? Further discussion of this question cannot be attempted in this paper; but it is mentioned here because the writer has recently heard a number of complaints from practical potters who use the clay-material on a commercial scale, that many people throughout the country were designating all the samples of their material forward- ed as ‘“‘kaolin,’’ regardless of their color and other characteristics. Through many places, both in the mountain- and the 6 JOURNAL OF THE Piedmont plateau-regions, there are deposits of clay resulting from the decay of granites, gneisses and crystalline schists. Many of these have a structure which would indicate that the materials have been transported for greater or less distances. But in, per- haps, many other cases, the materials have evidently decayed in place, since the gradations can be traced from the clay down into the partly altered rock below. These clays, of course, vary in composition with the character of the rocks from which they have been formed. They have frequently a reddish or yellowish color, due to the oxides of iron present, though in many places the colors are much lighter, the iron having been re- moved through the action of organic matter. As will be seen from the above statement, these may be classed as partly residual clays and partly transported clays. They have been worked on a smal! scale in many plac- es for brick; and in a few places, as at Biltmore (Bun- combe County) and at Pomona (Guilford County) they have been used in the manufacture of tile-, drain-, and sewer-pipes; also at Pomona for fire-brick; and near Grover (Gaston County) for fire-brick and vitrified or paving-brick. The age of these transported clays of the mountain- and Piedmont plateau-counties is unknown. Some of them, upon careful investigation, may be shown to be- long to certain definite recent geologic periods; but most of them, probably, cannot be ascribed to any def- inite geologic time, but must be attributed simply to local conditions; and their age is probably recent. The clay and brick-loam deposits along tlie river terraces of the mountain and Piedmont counties which, in many places, are well adapted to the manufacture of brick, may be Columbian or older in age. aa ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. ih Those residual clays of these regions which have been formed 77 sz/z are the result of the processes of decay, the operation of which cannot be limited to any definite epoch, but may be ascribed, in general, to re- cent geologic time. The most extensive beds of clay known in North Carolina are those found in the Coastal Plain region. In the Potomac (lower Cretaceous) formation, there are extensive beds of laminated, dark-colored clays, exposed along the banks of rivers crossing the coastal- plain region, notably on the Cape Fear river, for fifty miles below Fayetteville. These clays are usually dark in color, owing to the vegetable matter which they contain; and, in some cases, they are highly lignitic. The thin laminae are frequently separated by still thin- ner partings of sand; and frequently within a short distance (from a few feet to a few hundred feet) the clay-laminae become thin and disappear, while the sand-partings gradually thicken, so that the whole as- sumes the character of a sand-bed instead of a clay- bed. This feature, which indicates plainly the shift- ing conditions under which these deposits were laid down in certain localities, illustrated in the accompa- nying sketch of the river bluff at Prospect Hall on the Cape Fear river, 21} miles below Fayetteville. In some portions of these clay-beds, pyrite occurs in such quantities as would probably interfere with their industrial use; but the larger portion of the deposits appears to be free from pyrite, and will probably prove to possess considerable economic value. ‘Thus far no efforts have been made to utilize them; but both ana- lytic and practical tests of them are being made at the present time. Along the western border of the Coastal Plain re- *SUIMPAID OY} UL pe}PeOIpPUL ST ULY} o104} JUOUTMOAd O1OW YONI o1v S}SutO UOT 9 }—UIeIT}S UMOP—PpU9 ffoT OY} ydooxmy| ‘ooRpIMS 94} avou pues ys ond ~ TA Se = SSS SSSNSAISLUS y y LEGEND: Schists and Gneisses. Peridotites and other Basic, Magnesian Rocks, Corundum localities. AM.BANK NOTE CO.N.Y. . PLATE Il. Ly ENG'D BY AMFRICAN BANK NOTTS * ay ~ _— > ———— 3800: is S z = Ve x oO y = es = zy nine = 3 = Bt ean z 3 = .¢ 9 a u 3 = 2.8% = 2 Qoxnd . 2 $ = Ea) n wu = 2 w es Ss 3 a RS Zu Su =z e Fy 2 = ah oe & = = S Be pee) (Od Sa = = < = EE 5 =] Q = & E o Fs g é § = cz < a & < a Ae = eh a 4 a XK “A A A, A CONTOUB INTERVAL FIFTY FEET: FIGURES ON CONTOUR LINES GIVE ELEVATIONS ABOVE SEA LEVEL. 7 VERY ALT ' . * fi \ " f ) } j Peel a) .) aT : ‘ 4 re . Wag op 3 ” a ‘ ; : » 7 i ; * 5 7 if ! f a ae betg : re oh ra a i an | j , o + | iv ; . bt = ‘J e ' i ‘ * “Le “ i 7 Vy : nae . A ' i We 4, ATA ANG Rradh-Snovre eG ae he DRL oe 4 : e. ao voy Sgy® - Aw oW i i ~, of , 7 i? al MM Bs i " ay ae i . iu! ae wee ) i ae PLATE III. LEGEND: MAP OF Gneiss CORUNDUM HILL (Showing directions of strike and dip.) Macon County, N.C. ¥ By J. Volney Lewis, 1895. ; EE, Mica-Sehist Topography by Chas. E Cooke. Contour Interval 10 feet. ; SCALE OF FEET: ee | Corundum Workings 0 100 200 300 400 — SE Eee) ENG'D BY AMERICAN BANK NOTE CO.,N.Y. = FIGURES ON CON TOUR LINES GIVE ELEVATIONS ABOVE AN ARBITRARY BASE—THE FLAT ROCK BED OF THE BRANCH NEAR THE SOUTHWESTERN CORNER OF THEMAP. Lael = ae ve \ aa i OS of - \ o “ ia ai =" ee ~~ - io — sp nso he : ‘ %, - i ¢ f ' “ F | : 24 «A , \ { a > aay! ¢ ae eee “4 i 3 + rf ‘ , ¥ i i 4 " Yo Aare & x — ws § ‘ 5 ‘ J in} f me % re * xr a \ "4 u* ‘ a P UL ' 4s t3 : , 2'\ / io Wh “yk 7:4 GOO VNB - itiece f° SRE? : - ‘ law + aoe »/ Tar. 7 ee”. | . a | im & wl rm ‘ 7 ee ‘ x - ajdt ap ‘0 . ¥ i si aay ein Nae teat il oF ? ‘ na th Pag ep, PHL bP ic iba reall PLATE IV AAG i \) AG wys-- AW yw MAP OF THE WEBSTER PERIDOTITE AREA LEGEND; | Dunite. —— F ° > = w =, 3 °o w bE a 2 7 Fa < o 3 . 2 2 Or wou & ZZ 3 3 wa rg AS > ~¢sAS w © beac | 8 a Uy & SAB eu Ff O =e 07 9 O28 S58 w it) BBs ay: ego * a i i—! ‘a 3 73 i= e v Fe - a7 ee °c A a i 2) a 3 2 a ® 2 4 @ é 2 a as FE & ose FT B77. FIGURES ON CONTOUR LINES GIVE ELEVATIONS ABOVE SBA LEVEL. i j > h : j ' . 1) ‘ ‘ ’ bs 2 ‘ i . \ + . ; 1 S ' . * * = = rah \ . + + ; 4 P wf ’ r a y ts ’ 4 _ i ‘ f a . J } ; ? : — ar *,. ‘ : 4 ; ; {7 ‘ Z a ‘ fle + ies 2 } » J : . Ny f , ) - - ' va —- ry ect (rca is: a : NT My BGT OS eee 2 aw “ ’ ‘ ve We * ‘war ' ] - Ut Te ‘ ' va saia ‘it s * < a 7 * | Be of ry ah, a ae x a - YT ¢ a” < “ P 4 ¥. 4 . a = 9 * 2 ° / — ; x . a - ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 33 of a cementing material in a clastic rock; and this is true only when thin sections are viewed in ordinary light. (Pl. V, fig. 4.) For, so long as numerous oli- ivine remnants remain embedded in the serpentine, they are frequently found to extinguish together over con- siderable areas, showing that the fragments belong to the same crystalline individual, representing the larger erains of the original rock. Such fragments may be as widely separated by the alteration product as are the portions of entirely distinct individuals. Even after all traces of unaltered olivine have disappeared, the orig- inal granular character, and occasionally the outline of a crystal form, are still shown in some of the ser- pentines by the narrow, reticulating bands (‘‘mesh- structure’’) of parallel-polarizing, fibrous serpentine, representing the first stage of alteration along the bor- ders and fissures of the olivine grains. Plate V. is reproduced from photomicrographs of thin sections of typical dunite. A perfectly fresh spec- imen is shown in figure 1. Figure 2 shows a slight beginning of serpentinization about the borders of the olivine. Figure 3 is taken froma fresh specimen in which the original grains, like those in figure 1, have been broken into great numbers of smaller grains, with- out perceptibly disturbing their orientation; this sec- tion is seen between crossed nicols. A more advanced stage of alteration than that of figure 2 is shown in figure 4; the olivine grains, the light portions of the field, are reduced to mere remnants. Figure 5 repre- sents the final result of serpentinization, in which no fragment of unaltered olivine remains. With the ex- ception of spots caused by segregation of iron oxides, the rock appears perfectly homogeneous in ordinary light. When viewed between crossed nicols, however, 34 JOURNAL OF THE the ‘mesh-structure’ is distinctly brought out, and the original granular nature of the rock clearly seen, as shown in figure 6. The variation between the different mineralogic va- rieties within the same rock mass,and the essential unity of the whole peridotite group, have been pointed out above in the descriptions of the various types. Dunite, harzburgite and enstatite rock are often found to blend into each other as inseparable parts of the same rock mass, with no banding or irregularity of structure, whatever, between the different types. These phenomena are such as are referred to magmatic seg- regation or differentiation in well recognized igneous rocks. In the enstatite bearing type, the crystals of this mineral are much larger than the grains of olivine and are in the form of broad, flat plates; yet, when the rock has not been sheared, no trace of parallel arrange- ment has been detected. Even when considerably sheared and laminated, only a partial parallelism has been effected between the enstatites, and they have usually been altered into talc. Similar transitions from dunite to amphibole-picrite are found within the peridotite area at Buck Creek (PI. Il.). Here, too, and also throughout a considerable territory to the southwest, transitions are found from dunite, the pure olivine rock. to troctolite, the coarse olivine-feldspar type; and the latter, in turn, passes in- to the pure anorthite rock, anorthosite. The extremely fresh condition of the olivine, even in the surface exposures, is a very striking feature of these peridotites. Most of them, it is true, show some tendency to serpentinization when examined with the microscope, and ina few cases they have undergone complete transformation; but a number of specimens - = ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 35 have been collected almost at the surface in which scarcely a trace of alteration could be seen. It is well Ynown that olivine is remarkably prone to alteration, either to serpentine, through hydration, or to iron ox- ides and soluble carbonates, in ordinary surface weath- ering. Even if it might be conceived that a pre-ex- isting olivine lava had been beaten down by the waves and deposited as beds of sand along the beach, as we are told actually occurs on some of the Hawaiian coasts, it would be extremely difficult to imagine this rock, with all its contained water, placed under conditions, nec- essary to complete solidification into a sandstone, and carried through all the metamorphosing conditions that the enclosing gneisses have certainly undergone, and at last, by erosion to the very heart of the Appa- lachians, brought to the surface unaltered. With a sandstone of almost pure silica, I can imagine such an evolution possible; but with unstable olivine, the hy- pothesis seems entirely untenable. The rapid rate of erosion in the mountain region and the ease with which the granular olivine rock crum- bles down under surface weathering, may well account for the freshness of the present exposures. But beds of olivine sand are not formed under these conditions, even in the channels of neighboring streams, Hence, I am led to the conclusion that no theory of sediment- ary origin can adequately account for existing condi- tions, and that these olivine rocks are now practically in the state in which they originally solidified from the molten magma. SUMMARY OF EVIDENCE. I have endeavored to show that the peridotites of the South Appalachian region must be regarded as plu- tonic igneous rocks for the following reasons: 36 JOURNAL OF THE (1) Their blunt, lenticular form is difficult to under- stand as the result of any kind of sedimentation, but is easily explained when they are considered as small in- trusions into a highly laminated rock. (2) In a number of cases apophyses are sent off into the enclosing gneiss—a condition that can be produced only by igneous action. (3) In one case, at least, a large block is completely enclosed by the peridotites in such a manner as to pre- clude all hypotheses of sedimentation, and attributable only to the intrusion of the peridotites in a molten state. (4) The lamination found in many cases which has been considered true bedding, is always accompanied by abundant evidence of shearing; and this is regarded as the most natural explanation of all such parallel structure in these rocks. (5) at Buck Creek and in adjoining regions, both the main masses of the peridotites and their apophyses are accompanied by amphibolite dikes, showing that the former occupy positions of marked weakness in the oneisses. (6) The massive character of the typical outcrops is incompatible with contemporaneous origin with the e@neisses; for such character could not have been main- tained through the intense metamorphosing processes to which the eneisses: have been subjected. (7) The extremely basic peridotites are enclosed in highly acid gneisses over an extensive territory, but they are everywhere perfectly separate—no transitional types are found. (8) Under the microscope these peridotites show the typical granular structure of plutonic igneous rocks, ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 37 the grains fitting perfectly into each other without in- terstitial spaces or cementing material. (9) The mineralogical varieties pass irregularly into each other without interlamination or any regularity of structure whatever. They present typical magmatic differentiation. (10) The perfectly fresh condition of the olivine, a mineral so prone to alteration, is incompatible with any theory of sedimentation with subsequent solidification, metamorphism and erosion. Chapel Hall N-iC:,; Feb 1, 1896. EXPLANATION OF PLATE V. Fig. 1. Specimen from railroad cut 2 miles west of Balsam Gap, jackson. Go:, IN. (CG. This is an exceptionally fresh specimen of the pure olivine type. Crystal outlines are rather more common in this section than usual, Fig. 2. Specimen from Carter Corundum Mine, Madison Co., N.C. This figure represents the prevailing character of the surface ex- posures of dunite. The first narrow bands of yellowish green ser- pentine, which afterwards constitute the ‘ mesh-structure’ have just been formed. Fig. 3. Specimen from Carter Corundum Mine, Madison Co., N C. This section shows a common type of fine grained dunite. It is here seen between crossed nicols, and the extinction together of the fine grains over considerable areas shows that it is essentially a coarse-grained rock, like that shown in Fig. 1. Fig. 4. Specimen from Webster, Jackson Co., N. C. This specimen shows an advanced stage in serpentinization, the beginning of which is shown in figure 2, Rejected iron oxides have been deposited in dark bands about the olivine remnants. Fig. 5. Specimen from Paint Fork, Madison Co., N. C. No olivine fragments are found in this specimen. Except for the black accumulations of iron oxides, the rock looks homogeneous in ordinary light. Fig. 6. Specimen the same as for Fig. 5. This figure is identical with the last, except that it is here seen between crossed nicols. The ‘mesh-structure’ outlining the origi- nal olivine grains is well shown. (The view is inverted with refer- ence to figure 5,) MONAZITE* Bx BEB C2 NEL ZE: . During the past two years the mineral monazite has come into considerable prominence, owing to the demand for it in the manufacture of mantles for the incandes- cent gas light, which is at present creating such wide spread interest the world over. In Bulletin No. 9 of the North Carolina Geological Survey, 1895, I have published a monograph on the subject of Monazite and the Monazite Deposits of North Carolina, and a similar chapter also appears by me in ‘*’Mhe Mineral Resources of the United States,’’ Part IV., Sixteenth Annual Report of the Director of the U.S. Geological Survey, 1894-1895, pp. 667 to 694. In this place I propose to give a general resumé of monazite, its properties, composition, occurrence and use. NOMENCLATURE. The earliest identification of this mineral as a sepa- rate species in the mineral kingdom was in 1823, al- though at that time it was known as ‘‘ Turnerite.”’ The name monazite was given in 1829, and its meaning —from the Greek—is, ‘‘to be solitary,’’ on account of the great rarity of the mineral at that time and long subsequently. Other names for this mineral, given at various times when they were thought to represent separate and distinct species, were mengite, eremite, edwardsite, cryptolite. monazitoid, phosphocerite, ur- * Published by permission of the State Geologist of North Caro- lina, who also allows the use of plates prepared for Bulletin 9 of the N. C. Geological Survey. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 39 dite and kararfveite. ‘These were all shown, by the patient investigations of renowned mineralogists, to be identical with monazite, and that name was retained because at the time it was given it represented a crys- tallographically as well as chemically known mineral, while the attributes of the others were not so well es- tablished until later. And so the name monazite is in common use to-day. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Chemically, monazite is an anhydrous phosphate of cerium, lanthanum and didymium. It also contains, almost invariably, small percentages of thoria and sil- ica; and some of the more complete analyses have shown the presence of yttria, erbia, alumina, ferrous and ferric oxide, lime, magnesia, manganese, tin and lead oxides, fluorine, zirconia. tantalicand titanic acids. Un- doubtedly most of these latter existed as impurities, in all probability, attached to the monazite. Below are given a few detailed analyses from various localities. ANALYSES OF ON 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 nO 28.62 27.07 | 23.85) 27.28, 17.94, 28.78 | 26.86 | 29.28 Ce2O3 | 32.52 | 25.82| 27.73] 30.46 127.73 | 24.80 | 31.38 La,03 | 29.41 | 30.62 | 21.96 | 24.37 | 21.30] 39 94 | 96 44 | 30-88 Di203 | | Nie 3 2.04| 2.03! 2.86] 1.58 | | ThOg 4.54| 9.60| 9.05| 11.57 12.60 | 6.49 SiO» 1.51| 1.85| 5.95; 2.02| 1.60 91 | 1.40 Ale Os 2B 15 Fe,03 36| 1.01] 4.63] |trace| 1.30 | 1.07 FeO | 1.10 MnO 0s ee CaO Balk Ot | 4-83 105). E50). 90 | | MgO OS: trace 04 ZrO» 66 | 1.54 SnO> 22 | os | PbO 58 birsze : | TasO; | | Gee) | TiOs | H.2O 27 |) .25)\. 1961). 38)! 1236 Fan e20 CeO 149.35 x Er203 | | | 4.76 40 JOURNAL OF THE (1) to (4) inclusive are from pegmatite veins of southern Norway, by C. W. Blomstrand. (5) From Lake Ilmen, Russia, by R. Her- mann. (6 From Arendal, Sweden, by C. F. Rammelsberg. (7) From Ottawa County, Quebec, by F. A. Genth. (8) From Burke County, IN GC. by. 14. benteld: Penfield* deduces the molecular formula: (Cela, P20. P.O. Aen ‘CHO: SiO. ei The former corresponds to the normal phosphate of the cerium metals (R,P,.O,); the latter corresponds to the normal thorium silicate, which, in combination with a small percentage of water, makes the mineral thorite or orangite (ThSiO,.H,O). He concludes, therefore, that monazite is essentially a normal phos- phate of the cerium metals, in which thorium silicate is present in varying proportions as an impurity in the form of the mineral thorite or orangite. Dunningtont had somewhat previously come to the same conclusion. Rammelsberg’st formula of thorium free monazite from Arendal, Norway, was R,P,O, (Ce, La, Di),P,O,, thus agreeing with Pénfield. Blomstrand,§ from kis analysis of Norwegian and Siberian monazite concludes that the mineral is a nor- mal tri-basic phosphate, an excess of bases being com- bined with SiO,. Thus: 2(3RO,P,O;) + 2RO,SiO, + £H,O, where m =5 to 20, and # = less than 1 usually. He does not believe, as Penfield does, that the thoria is originally combined with silica as thorite, but that * Am. Jour. Sci. (3) vol. XXIV, 1882, p. 250; vol. XXXVI, 1888, p. 322. Zeitschr. fiir Kryst., vol, VII, 1883, p. 366; vol. XVII, 1890, p. 407. * Am. Chem. Jour., vol. IV, 1882, p. 138, t Zeitschr. Deutch. Geol. Gesell. Berlin vol. XXIX, 1877, p. 79.; Zeitschr. fiir Kryst., vol, III, 1879, p. 101. § Zeitschr. fiir Kryst., vol. IX, 1887, p. 160; vol, XX, 1892, p.367. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 4) it is present as a phosphate, either in combination with the cerium or as an isomorphous mixture, thus: Iv Iil LY, CeCe (One ©).andn. | h(O; PO), . and that it isaltered to the silicate by siliceous waters. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. The crystallographic form of monazite is monoclinic, and the commonly occurring planes are ortho- and cli- no-pinacoids and domes, the unit prism and the unit pyramid. The basal pinacoid is rare, having been observed only on crystals from the Urals and from A1- exander County, N. C. The usual crystal habit is tabular, parallel to the ortho-pinacoid; also short columnar, and sometimes elongated parallel to the prism. ‘Twins are not com- mon, the twinning plane being usually parallel to the ortho-pinacoid. These crystals vary in size from the microscopic nee- dles of cryptolite, which have a thickness of 0.00015 to 0.00062 inch, to the abnormally large crystals of Ame- lia County, Va., 5 inches in length. The more general variation lies between ,", and 1 inch. The cleavage of monazite is most perfectly devel- oped parallel to the basal pinacoid, it is also distinct, as a rule, parallel to the ortho-pinacoid; and some- times visible parallel to the clino-pinacoid. The mine- ral is brittle, with a conchoidal to uneven fracture; the hardness is 5 to 5.5; specific gravity 4.64 to 5.3; lustre resinous to waxy; the crystal faces are splendent in fresh, pure specimens, dull in weathered, impure spec- imens; the color is honey yellow, yellowish brown, am- ber brown, reddish brown, brown or greenish yellow; the purest specimens are transparent, becoming trans- lucent, and even opaque in the impure varieties, 42 JOURNAL OF THE The optical properties of monazite are:—thin sec- tions, by trausmitted light, are colorless to yellowish; pleochroism is generally scarcely noticeable; absorption b is greater than ¢ = a; the plane of the optic axis is perpendicular to the plane of of symmetry, that is the clino-pinacoid, the positive acute bisectrix lies in the oblique angle 8, hence sections parallel to the basal pinacoid show the full interference figure; the extinc- tion angle varies from 1°04! to 5°54'; the optical angle is small, 2K, (red) = 25°221, 2K, (yellow) = 24°561, 2V (yellow) = 12°44', (from Schiittenhofen, Bohemia); the dispersion is weak and horizontal; the single refrac- tion is high, and the double refraction considerable, y —a = 0.0454, y — 80.0446, B — a =0.0008 (from Aren- dal, Norway). DISTRIBUTION AND MODES OF OCCURRENCE. Until comparatively recently the localities in which monazite was found were few and far between. The original specimen of turnerite came from the Dau- phiné in France; in 1826 Menge discovered some crys- tals in the Ilmen Mountains of Russia; it was then found in the United States at Norwichand Watertown, Conn. Uptothe present time, it has been found in over 75 localities in the United States, Canada, South America, England, Sweden, Norway, Finnish Lap- mark, Russia, Belgium, France, Switzerland, Ger- many, Austria and Australia. And’the probabilities are that these localities will be rapidly added to in the future. Monazite is an accessory constituent of the granite eruptives and their derived gneisses. It has been found in these rocks over widely separated areas of the Earth’s surface, and further search and study is liable to reveal its more general presence in similar rocks, * ELISHA MITCHELL SICENTIFIC SOCIETY. 43 than was formerly supposed. ‘Thus Derby,* by exam- ining the heavy residues of a number of hand speci- mens, selected at random from the collection in the National Museum at Washington, D. C., described the occurrence of monazite in certain granites and gneisses of Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island and Massa- chusetts. In Norway, Silesia and Bohemia, and in some of the mica mines of Canada, Virginia and North Carolina, monazite has been found in pegmatite dikes. Derby has found the mineral in a red syenite at Serra do Stauba, in the province of Bahia, Brazil. The turner- ite of the Saacher Lee (which is an extinct volcanic crater) near Coblenz, in Prussia, was found in a druse in a sanadine bomb, the only known occurrence of mo- nazite in an undoubted volcanic rock. The turnerite of Olivone, Switzerland, occurs in a quartz vein 20 to 30cm. wide, traversing crystalline schists. The cryptolite of Norway occurs as inclusions of very fine, needle-shaped crystals in apatite. In Cleveland County, N. C., monazite has been found intergrown in cyanite. The percentage of monazite in these rocks is exceed- ingly small, often infinitesimal; thus Derby* states that the granite dikes of Serra de Tingua, near Rio, are rich in the yellow mineral, carrying 0.02 to 0.03 per cent, and a fine-grained granite dike on the outskirts of Rio de Janeiro, showed 0.07 per cent monazite. Monazite has not been found ir the sedimentary rocks, although it may be present in some of these as a sec- ondary mineral of transportation. * Proc. Rochester Acad. Sci., vol. I, 1891, p. 294. * Proo. Rochester Acad, Sci. vol. I, 1891, p, 294, 44 JOURNAL OF THE The monazite is contained in the main constituents of the granitic rocks, in the quartz, feldspar and mica, though it appears to be more generally confined to the feldspar. Zircon may be regarded as a constant associate; among the other usually associated minerals, of coeval origin with the monazite, are xenotine, fergusonite, sphene, rutile, brookite, ilmenite, cassiterite, magnetite, and apatite; sometimes beryl, tourmaline, cyanite, co- rundum, columbite, samarskite, uraninite, gummite, autunite, gadolinite, hielmite and orthite. Among the principal secondary minerals found in as- sociation with monazite, are rutile, brookite, anatase, epidote, orthite, garnet, sillimanite, and staurolite. The economically valuable deposits of monazite are found in the placer sands of streams and rivers, in the irregular sedimentary sand deposits of the adjoining bottom lands and in the beach sands along the seashore. The decomposition and disintegration of the crystal- line rocks, the original source of the mineral, has pro- ceeded to considerable depths in certain localities, par- ticularly in the southern unglaciated countries. By erosion and secular movement the material is depos- ited in the stream beds and there undergoes a natural process of sorting and concentration, the heavy mine- rals being deposited first and together. The richer portions of these stream deposits are thus found near the headwaters. ‘The accompanying plate shows one of these small valleys (Lattimore’s), three miles north- east of Shelby, N. C., where all of the underlying gravel is being dug and washed for monazite (see also plate facing p. ), and where the sand in the bed of the small stream is also being washed for the same pur- pose. The geographical areas over which such work- ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 45 able deposits have been found up to the present time, are quite limited in number and exteut. In the United States the placer deposits of North and South Carolina stand alone. Similar deposits exist in the provinces of Bahia, Minas Geraes, Sao Paulo, and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; in the river sands of Buenos Ayres, Argentine Republic; in the gold placers of Rio Chico, at Antioquia, Colombia; and in the Bakakui placers of the Sanarka River, Russia. In Brazil there are also important deposits in the beach sands in the southern part of the province of Bahia, near the island of Alcobaca. But little reliable information is at hand concerning these foreign deposits, and the remainder of the pres- ent paper will be taken up with a description of the Carolinian deposits, and the methods of mining and cleaning the sand, employed there. The Carolinian area includes between 1600 and 2000 square miles, situated in Burke, McDowell, Ruther- ford, Cleveland, and Polk Counties, N. C., and the northern part of Spartanburg County, S. C. The principal deposits of this region are found along the waters of Silver, South Muddy, and North Muddy creeks, and Henry’s and Jacob’s forks of the Catawba River in McDowell and Burke counties; the Second Broad River in McDowell and Rutherford counties; and the First Broad in Rutherford and Cleveland coun- tes, N.C. and Spartanbure County, S.C. ‘hese streams have their source in the South Mountains, an eastern outlier of the Blue Ridge. The general out- lines of this area are indicated on the accompanying map. The country rock is granitic biotite gneiss and dio- ritic hornblende gneiss. The existence of monazite 46 JOURNAL OF THE here in commercial quantities was first established in 1887. The thickness of these stream gravel deposits is from one to two feet. The percentage of monazite in the original sand is very variable, from an infinites- imal quantity to one or two per cent. WASHING AND CLEANING MONAZITE SAND. The monazite is won by washing the material in sluice boxes, about 8 feet long by 20 inches wide by 20 inches deep, exactly after the manner that placer gold is worked. Magnetite, if present, is eliminated from the dried, concentrated sand by treatment with a large hand magnet. Many of the heavy minerals such as zircon, menaccanite, rutile, brookite, corundum, gar- net, etc., cannot at present be completely separated. The commercially prepared sand, therefore, is not Azure monazite. A cleaned sand, containing from 65 to 70 per cent. monazite is considered of good quality. The most systematic washing method employed is by the use of two sinice boxes, the mouth of one dis- charging into the head of the other, placed below. The gravel is charged on a perforated plate at the head of the upper box, and the clean up isso thoroughly washed as to give a high grade sand, often up to 85 per cent. pure. The tailings discharge directly into the lower box, Where they are rewashed, producing a second grade sand. At times the material is subjected to as many as five similar consecutive washing treatments in the sluice boxes. A further concentration of the dried washed sand is sometimes made by pouring from a cup in a fine, steady stream from a height of about 4 feet, on toa level platform; the lighter quartz and black sand, with the fine grains of monazite (tailings) fall on the periphery of the conical pile and are constantly brushed aside with hand brushes; these tailings are ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 47 afterwards rewashed. Or, instead of pouring and brushing, the material is treated in a winnowing ma- chine, similar to that used for separating chaff from wheat. Although the best grade of sand, produced by the above complicated treatment, may be as high as 85 per cent. pure, its quantitative proportion is small as com- pared with the second and other inferior grades, and there is always considerable loss of monazite in the final tailings. It is impossible to conduct this washing pro- cess without loss in monazite, and equally impossible to make a perfect separation of the garnet, rutile, ti- tanic iron ore, etc., even in the best grades. But very few regular mining operations are carried on in the region. Asarule each farmer mines his own monazite deposit and sells the product to local buyers, often at some country store in exchange for merchan- dise. . At the present time the monazite in the stream beds has been practically exhausted, with few exceptions, and the majority of the washings are in the gravel de- posits of the adjoining bottoms. These deposits are mined by sinking pits, about 8 feet square to the bed rock, and raising the gravel by hand labor toa sluice- box at the mouth of the pit. The overlay is thrown away, excepting in cases where it contains any sandy or gritty material, when it is also washed. The pits are carried forwards in parallel lines, separated by narrow belts of tailings dumps, as shown by the accompany- ing illustrations taken from the Lattimore mine, three miles N.K. of Shelby, Cleveland County. It has been shown that the monazite occurs as an accessory constituent of the country rock, and that the latter is decomposed to considerable depths, sometimes 48 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. as much as 100 feet. On account of the minute per- centage of monazite in the mother rock, it is usually impracticable to economically work the same in place, by such a process of hydraulicking and sluicing for instance. However, hillside mining of surface soil to depths of 4 to 6 feet, has been carried on in certain localities with apparent success. The material is transported in wheelbarrows to washing boxes situated below a water race, as shown in the accompanying illustration from the Pheifer mine, three miles east of Shelby. The resulting monazite product is very clean, and the cost of digging and washing the soil is even less, at times, than that in working the lowland gravels. The value of monazite is more or less dependent on the percentage of thorium which it contains, as this is the element of greatest value in the manufacture of the incandescent mantles. As the percentage of thoria varies in difierent sands, the value of the sand conse- quently varies in a measure also. There is no method of determining even the probable percentage of thoria, excepting by careful chemical analysis. Some mona- zite contains practically no thoria. ‘The best Carolina sand runs from 2 to as high as 6 per cent. thoria. The price of Carolina monazite has varied from 25 cents per pound in 1887, to as low as 3 cents for infe- rior grades and 6 to 10 cents for the best grades in 1894 and 1895. The production and value of Carolina sand for the past three years was as follows: 1893 1894 1895 Amount | Value | Amount| Value | | | Amount | ‘Value | 130,000 lbs | $7,600 | 546,855 | $36,194 | 1,573,000 | $137,150 — x £ Piked bare KO, C SSS ORR SSS S PALES SSD BAR t Sees SO GEOLOGICAL SKETCH MAP OF 7 =] Coastar Plain Fonmations . NORTH CAROLINA SSS ta Mal 74 3 TRiassic. F Bedard cea ne 7 SJ Sandstone. SHOWING LOCATION OF CHIEF . Z -brutuswion Sees & Gneisses, Ne Sore eee VZZZZ Crystalline Schists. MONAZITE DEPOSITS. aes Sy, Oe eae ———— a ear 2 au i d a Eager WORKABLE MONAZITE AREA IN NORTH CAROLINA. ‘Senuth Avg RLS WASHING GRAVEL AND SAND IN STREAM BEDS FOR MONAZITE, LATTIMORE MINE. westm «s000 Pus nine wei at it Kei az > ee te ee cet rare caine red we a idee at sh elon! ali eal) dpaciam Uy a"a mi Wa ween bcs We oe eae ah dete, PurrmwuiiieRme vIiFhiha sranasiere. cnt & Bee MINING AND WASHING GRAVEL BEDS FOR MONAZITE, LATTIMORE MINE. Fy aca nisi a. DIGGING AND WASHING HILL-SIDE SOIL FOR MONAZITE. us Leo beOks CONTENTS OF THE FIRST TWELVE VOLUMES OF THE JOURNAL OF THE ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY VOLUME ONE (1884). PAGE IREDOCES. Oe OisKerereakoy om kstey sos pn aoe Shon Ae mam de OO eee ons cee 3-8 Sketch of Hlisha Mitchell; Dr Charles Phillips.........2:<-..-. 6 Decomposition of Potassium Cyanide, J. KF. Wilkes............ 18 Reversion of Phosphoric Acid by Heat, W. B. Phillips......... 21 Analysis of Chapel Hill Well Waters, EK. A. de Schweinitz.... 23 Action ofAmimonium Hydroxide upon Lead Chloride, Julian VA COGS ace iG Pena Sey ot ona hc Seta Sees recreate 24 Examination of Iron Ores from Chapel Hill Mine, J.C. Roberts 26 Notes on the Richmond Co. Tornado, J. A. Holmes............ 28 Meteorologicol Record at Chapel Hill 1844-1859, Dr. Jas. Phillips 35 Alterability of Amorphous Phosphorus, J.C. Roberts........ 37 Halon loodiin Chatham (Co, iB. iP: Venables... ..../..2s.4- 38 Catawba and Iredeil Co. Tornado, 1884, J. A. Stephenson.... 40 Action of Ammonia on Lead Iodide, J. Wl. Borden...-........ 43 Dates of Flowering of Plants, Phillips and Battle............ 45 AmMcemeWrinkino water, .P Vienabley:). o66..s.s5. 23s occ vee 47 Conpemandsbaritini eANcetate, ss. Co RobertSs sas. sin... se 50 sie ommGtshornadoes;, | Ji, Wi GOLGI. ss. sisson oa nvece sine eam eee Sof Solmbulinvot IN. Csehosphate Rock, Jsij. Borden.........2..s- fos) Reverstonnn oiipeEpnospiates,.. . WB. Phillips... 25.05... ..5.- 56 None anolinanosphates, Wi. 8. Philltpss .... 1.5... .2->- 50 Nonth Carolina Phosphates, Chas. W. Dabney, Jr............. 64 Bitter trom Weiehed Amountsof Milk, 3. PP. Kerr...........- 68 Hydrated Carbon Bisulphide, . PB) Venable... °.......:...... 69 Indian Burial Mounds of Kastern N.C., J. A. Holmes........ 73 Cassitenite tron Rane’s Mt. (C) W. Dabney, Jite....:...-...a- 82 Noves: Temperature of C. H. Well Waters, F.P.Venable.... 82 Bilevatoniot ChapeleEilldn WiaGores........4.022).58 82 Nhl Ly SISTOteROCKa Salts sleewadGlittes. esse 8-4. eee oe 83 SOMO tvArp El 22 188s. hs IPS Venable... s...-0-4. 4. 83 Analysis of Deposit of Zinc Oxide, T. Radcliffe........ 84 Caffeimun Veopon eaves, EH: P. Venable... 022.) ..- 85 Filters Washed with HF, F. BP. Venable.............. 85 Abies Canadensis and Pinus Strobus, J. A. Holmes.... 86 Masnetite from Orange €o.,° J. I--Borden............ 87 Action of Gasoline upon Copper, F. P. Venable........ 88 50 TABLE OF CONTENTS. VOLUME TWO (1885). Reports of Officers for 1884-1885.......... sa Sup ele Woyent Gee ity EERO 3-7 Obituary? Of Dire WIGS Rename bs ao ay: oe Sees ee eo eae Oe ee 8 Sketch of the Botanical Work of Rev. M. A. Curtis, T. F. Wood 9 Watitideor (Chapel ball Mien Wi. Gore... 254-4. 2 eee eee 32 ManufactureofAcid Phosphate, WB: Phillips. .:...-.2-5-5eee 38 Analysis of the Leaves of the Ilex Cassine, F.P. Venable...... 39 Determination of ‘‘Total’? Phosphoric Acid, F.B.Dancy...... 41 Analysisvo: SpierelHisen, Max Jackson®.c22).-.tscs5 oe eee 46 Occurrence of Citric and Malic Acids in Peanuts, E. A. de CHW emMit7. 1 3.28 speisyse cs tele hws ers ene nite ei ee 47 Meteorological Record of Chapel Hill, 1880--1884, F. P. Venable 48 Kerctions or ehosphonus, chi-es Venables oe eo eae aes eae | 5y/ Analysis of Deposit from Salt-making, W. B. Phillips........ 60 Crystals of Dog-tooth Spar, W.B. Phillips. ......:2.----eeeeee 62 Notes on Plant ‘Tfrauspiration, “lh P. Venable... 2. 7... eee 63 Sodium Chloride as a Wash in Determining Phosphoric Acid, BRS DWatieyan ae otic ere OE rio oe Coe 66 Determination of Sugar in Urine, Jas. Lewis Howe.......... 69 Additioms to Curtis’s Catalogue of Indigenous Plants, M. E. EV Vat G30 ie Oi csc ce. specs micaeks Se ere aes Oye Sa 72 Attempts at Forming Heptyl-benzol, F. P. Venable.......... 77 Mercurous Hypophosphite, HE. A. de Schweinitz.............. 78 Eocene Deposits in Kastern North Carolina, W.C. Kerr...... 76 Ammonia in Saliva, Max Jackson....2...-5--0) 5-5-4 0Seeeeee 85 Geology ol the Region about Tampa, Fla., W.C. Kerr......... 86 Solubility of Barium Chromate, Jo EF. Wilkes? 6-- 727s eee 60 Norrs: Daxodinnm in) N. C. Quarternary, J- A ‘Holmess ssa 90 Analysis of Kaolin, 1. Hi Marining <2. = aces 93 Twistins: of Trees, “JA. Holmes... ---- eee 94 Sport in Leaf of Bliphila Ciliata, Raf., M. EK. Hyams.. 94 Analysis of Specular Iron Ore, I.H. Manning............ 95 Analysis of Hematite from Forsyth Co., A. E. Wilson.... 95 VOLUME THREE (1886). Reports: of OmeCcersy. a5... sees oe need ele eee 3-8 Life and work of Lewis David von Schweinitz F. P. Venable 9 Pulverization of Fertilizer Samples, H. B. Battle............. 27. Loss of Moisture in bottled Samples, H.B. Battle............ 30 Improved Wash-bottle, “Be Be Battles. 3. fae. 2 2 4- = ae 32 Meteorological Record at Chapel Hill, 1885, F.P. Venable.... 34 Determination of Potash, “b)B: Danty--5------ eo eee RY Propeuyl-iso-toluylen-amidine, J.-M. Pickelay= 3. 5--- eee 40 Effect of Freezing on Standard Solutions, F.B.Dancy........ 33 Indian Antiquities of Caldweli Co., J. M. Spainhour.......... 45 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Sil Estimation of Phosphoric Acid, HH. Bi Battle: ).........02....- 5 Bituminous Coals of North Carolina and Tennessee, H. B. Battle 51 Determination of Phosphoric Acid, H. B. Battle.............. 54 Determination of Moisture in Fertilizers, H. B. Battle.......... 54 On the Neutrality of Standard Ammonium Citrate Solutions, Tal, 185 [BRNO clams Ee Bio oe OG IO Oe cee PEN aS Cae cas aa eS 58 @etylbenzoley HAN Ge Sch weinibe eo. ae sleet cielo os oo ee toe ae 60 iMheaGioacette Beetle, 1G. HoAtkinsome cs 25.52... oes os ole wd ayelee 68 Wotes onthe Orchard Scolytus, G. F. Atkinson.............. 74 Wilmington Flora, ‘T. F. Wood and Gerald McCarthy........ 77 Nores: Thermometer for Class Illustration, F.P. Venable.... 142 Sugar Beets from Kentucky, Jas. Lewis Hcowe...... 143 Lithographic Stone from Tennessee, J. Lewis Howe.. 144 Ciicla mechan ee is ta Hem Guta Gliv jure eet ine ALN Fe vesic aye) Bee 145 VOLUME FOUR—PART FIRST (1887). IPSOOUS Git (Ouiikrdsy eens a comic aaa Hao ote CUR On TaeOer ae Ee 4-12 Sketch and Bibliography of N. M. Hentz, G. F. Atkinson.... 13 HKeNewsLrap-doorspider, (G. KH. Atkinsom..<.....::...0-2+.«)-- 16 A Family of Young Trap-door Spiders, G. F. Atkinson...... 26 Some New Salts of Camphoric Acid. I. H. Manning.......... 52 Decomposition of Potassium Cyanide, I. H. Manning.......... 54 Wead Chiloro-sulpho-cyanide, KR. G. Grissom. .°............... 55 Soiubility of Alumina in Sulphuric Acid, R.G. Grissom...... 56 Analysis of Water from Durham Artesian Well, F.H.Venable 58 The Fertilizer Trade in North Carolina in 1886, W.B. Phillips 58 VOLUME FOUR—PART SECOND (1887). Bore piiveOteWe i eaerts di -An MOIMES. ole) eis Ack. voice oie oe ae hesindy, of Mocal Mloras, Gerald McCarthy... ......-.::.:-0: 25 ier Giniitsc or cienSenses, hes Weniables ss... .s.+..552500- ose 21 The Elements Historically Considered, F. P. Venable......... 36 Effects of Decomposing Organic Matter on Insoluble Phos- DIMAS Ch IbaymeSR. ID. Rise Deva ong ood aes aa Bee Cbe One auDor 41 Preliminary Catalogue of Birdsof N.C., G. F. Atkinson...... 44 Singular Adaptation in Nest-making by an Ant, G. F. Atkinson 88 Remarkable Case of Phosphorescence in an Earthworm, G. F. ANU RASONIG 6. ete Se Oe Ge SOM TE O Be CORI Oe ARE Rone Rn an eee rE ee 89 Observations on the Female Form of Phengodes Laticollis LEIOieie > HG IEE Seta AIS Ory aS ety eabe ebero = ea Vee ae eee 92 Analysis of N. C. Wines, F. P. Venable and W. B. Phillips.... 96 Action of Chlorous Acid upon Heptylen, R.G.Grissom........ 99 A New Form of of Bunsen Burner, F.P. Venable............ 103 Pe wehestalar Tron, uber. Venable. 250250005 sms s ses ssec ace as 105 FMISSELOhysis of water, Hi) Venables... ..caceghes 0... c0t eee 105 52 TABLE OF CONTENTS. VOLUME FIVE—PART FIRST (1888). North? Carolinas Desmids* ‘Wo i) Poteato. sss. ene eee On the Bromination of Heptane, EF. P. Venable...............- Some New Salts of Camphoric Acid, G. W. Edwards.......... New Halogen Compounds of Lead, F.P. Venableand B. Thorp 10 On the Chord Common to a Parabola and the Circle of Curva- CO tn bt ti revat anys oat, --URs EH. (Gravesterietne.:.. 224 ee oe 14 ‘he bocal Chord of a) Parabola, “R>H.' Graves) 52... 224-6 eee 15 List of N. C. Fishes, with Description of a New Species, V.S. BEY aMbs Lae oot esc eeRioe tee es ea Nee Likomtae Uae aCe eee 16: List of Butterflies collected at Chapel Hill, A. Braswell ..... 10 Aquatic Respiration in a Musk Rat, W. lL. Spoon.............- 21 Changes in Bottled Samples of Acid Phosphate, W, B. Phillips 22 New Instances of Protective Resemblance in Spiders, G. F. PAS CK aS Onl A ete treteh crave ea tenevs secre a eiesalet hones Gi ed nse ohoe 8 Ae 28 Note on the Tube-inhabiting Spider. G. F. Atkinson.......... 30 Temperature and Rainfall in North Carolina, J. A. Holmes.. 31 INE pPoLtsiot OMICerSs wise No rparses nie eee etre AARON 42-50 VOLUME FIVE—PART SECOND. Erection of the Monument to Elisha Mitchell, W. B. Phillips.. 55 Soaring of the Lurkey Vulture, Gi 2 Atkinson... .. shone 59 Of the Three Crystallocraphic Axes, W. B. Phillips... - seen: 66 Chlorination of Auriferous Sulphides, EH. A. Thies***-........ 68 A Method of Finding the Evolute of the Four-cusped Hypo-cy- cloids | RCH NGiavesns. feces seeks unre Net dels = ie ee 172 Nica Mininesan North Carolinas ‘We By Pinilipsaee. eee vA Recalculations of the Atomic Weights, F. P. Venable........ 98 Change in Superphosphates when Applied to the Soil, H. B. Batley aa 2 eye coe nearer ah: aise min Stee ere ec vereuy ere cre a ee Mee Partial Chemical Examination of Some Species of Ilex, F. P. Metab les). 0 care te tin iene bins srabstae Cg ates she ioloke cite ate cee ie eee 128 VOLUME SIX—PART FIRST (1889), Historical Notes of N. C. Geological Survey, J. A. Holmes.... 5 Dacpemtame and IRosin, Were ie aliligss:. sy.,dccs ee sete eee 19 ‘The Creosoting of wood with Creosote Oil, I. H. Manning.... 27 Botany as a Disciplinary Study, Gerald McCarthy...........- 33: VOLUME SIX—PART'SECOND (1889) Addendum to the Minerals and Mineral-Localities of North Carolina, Weak). aiddeni a. is) see ctink cae ee ee ee 45 Nematode Root Galls,) Gab. Atkinsons.5060405 eee 81 Aeiiiber building. Spider. Wels eo tedtes ane see eee 134. TABLE OF CONTENTS. VOLUME SEVEN—PART FIRST (1890) Determination of Available Phosphoric Acid in Fertilizers Con- caine COLtomoced Meal Hy Ba Daney.+.......-2-5..05- Distribution of Boracic Acid among Plants, J. S. Callison.... Boracic Acid as an impurity in Caustic Alkalies, Callison and W CGLDIOE ol Secopete are MOS enS CO eEaICLS nt Glo Gl AS eta een een The Determination of Crude Fiber, W. A. Withers............ Modifications of the Method of Determining Crude Fiber, W. INMAVVAEDCES S564 stad sein ce se wee SA AOE ae ee koe ornis 6 Se ‘Biaree New Masses of Meteoric Iron, Geo: HB. Kam7.)..........- iworNeweMeteoric Irons, HP. Venables... iii. 2.....6.-0:.220- A List and Description of the Meteorites of N. C., F. P. Venable New and Improved Methods of Analysis, S.J. Hinsdale...... VOLUME SEVEN—PART SECOND (1890). Some Erysipheae from Carolina and Alabama, G. F. Atkinson The Proper Standard forthe Atomic Weights, F.P. Venable... The Action of Phosphorus on Metallic Salts. Gaston Battle.... Mmeacdi@hloro-bronides, HP eVienabless.-.526-2s-s6 sess. seco oe Weadetromo-titrates) te) dy.) Millers se! sj2%5.0 Jee heck ec eee. Adulterated Spirits of Lurpentine, S. J. Hinsdale..-......... Mineralogical, &c. Survey of South Carolina, J. A. Holmes... VOLUME EIGHT—PART FIRST (1891). Demonstration of the Method of Least Work, Wm. Cain...... Additions to the Avifauna of North Carolina, J. W. P. Smith- ne wicxander:Co. Meteorite, “S.C. MH. Batley...........0.2.. Treatment of Zircons in Preparing Zirconium Oxychloride. F. IP, WEN OSs ao coe pe coe seb Chit oae sb Gnd Ae aoR Sram eee VOLUME EIGHT—PART SECOND (1891). Some Cercosporae from Alabama, G. F. Atkinson............ AeNorth Carolina’ Blomary Horge. Hi. i. Harris.............. Notes on the Fertility of Physa Heterotropha Say, W. L. Poteat Occurrenceioh Zirconium= HIPS Vienables..5.:2...2.......-...: Maonetie iron. Oresof Aishe’Co., NaC: HB. C: Nitze... ...2-- Notes on the Development of Some Sponges, H. V. Wilson.... itewbramcit1oseGtinwe,, Wands aliens 0s one odche occ acs wees deasews ee The Occurrence of Platinum in N. Carolina, F. P. Venable... Yr a) OW bd N G2 = sl Gi Or G2 D4 TABLE OF CONTENTS. VOLUME NINE—PART FIRST (1892). On the Fundamental Principles of the Differential Calculus, Remarks on the General Morphology of Sponges, H. V. Wilson VOLUME NINE—PART SECOND (1892). Statistics of the Mineral Products of N. C., 1892, H. B. Nitze.. Additions to the Breeding Avifauna in N.C., J. W. P. Smith- An Example of River Adjustment, Baskerville and Mitchell.. Character and Distribution of Road Materials, J. A. Holmes.. To Set Slope Stakes on Steep but Uniform Slope, J. M. Bandy On the Development of a Supposed New Method of Reproduc-_ duction in the Sub-animalcule, Actinosperium Eichornii, Js MaStedimanti.,: 262 se eisce oie ls checcceie ee Sa Some Fungi of Blowing Rock, N.C... Atkinson and Schrenk.. VOLUME TEN—PART FIRST (1893). Notes on the Forest Resources of N. C., W. W. Ashe.......... Deflective Effect of Karth’s Rotation Shown in Streams, Col- 1ersCoObD cee ce Eis eae cas 6 wa. es ee The Stene Arch... Wim. Cain. d20.22aSdeieg caw ie eee Ee VOLUME TEN—PART SECOND (1893). A Comparison of the Methods for the Separation and Estima- tHiom or Zirconitm, Charles Baskerville]. ..)--t.-2. see Primitive Streak and Blastopore of the Bird Embryo, H. V. Wy iISOns he tinct fee in Se eee ye aio ye fens Cee eee Additions to the Erysipheae of Alabama, G. F. Atkinson...... Some Septoriae from Alabama, G. F. Atkinson................ Additional Note on the Fungi of Blowing Rock, G. F. Atkinson An Examination of the Chlorides of Zirconium, F. P. Venable Attempt at Forming Ethyl Glucoside, J. R. Harris............ Geological History of Certain Topographical features East of _ the Blue Ridge, Collier Cobb). - 2 cnc =2-5.-5.% sek eee Do Snakes Charm Birds? Collier Cobb VOLUME ELEVEN—PART FIRST (1894). The Long Leaf Pine and its Struggle for Existence, W. W. Nitritication, JiR. Harris, 2...) c.afia.42 cae «te eee The Exhaustion of the Coal Supply, F. P. Venable............ Sulphur from Pyrite in Nature’s Laboratory, Collier Cobb.... 26 32 16 30 ee ee TABLE OF CONTENTS. 50 VOLUME ELEVEN—PART SECOND (1894). Histopy of the Atlantic Shore Wine, VE. 1). Harris.............- 33 Examination into the Nature of the Palwotrochis, C. H. White 50 ‘The Atomic Weights and their Natural Arrangement, F. P. Wei OO. 635 m.cemion jain ase CAO r bis SUCCES ares ae 67 Improved Method of Preparing Zirconium Chloride, C. Basker- Walle. 6 6 SRE ee ioe oo CBR SURO I: ben Cal Gear a ene 85 A New Post Oak and Hybrid Oaks, W. W. Ashe.............. 87 VOLUME TWELVE—PART FIrsT (1895). : Reactions between Copper and Sulphuric Acid, C. Baskerville 1 Properties of Calcitim Carbide, Venable and Clarke.......... 10 Zirconium Sulphite, Venable and Baskerville................. 16 PBhewOilorides of Zirconium, HP. Venable... J2.--.2:.--.2.cse: 22, fimerErniMdaery OF Science, 7Huo. Venable: 7.22.40. le... oe. gee 23 Notes on the Underground Supplies of Potable Waters in the South Atlantic Piedmont Plateau, J. A. Holmes VOLUME TWELVE—PART SECOND (1895). Notes on the Kaolin and Clay Deposits of N. C., J. A.Holmes 1 Description of Some Muscles of the Cat, H. V. Wilson and G. ln{, ISAO a ogc eon Serge ap Ueto AMO Gn ce Raa U cen arate era 10 Origin of the Peridotites of the Southern Appalachians. J. V IDWS So oR ehod MBk Oy MOC MOe CRE STON o Peta Orig HOE oe ee Eerie: 24 IMioraaarhees ASS KGa ON ae rer ee ARE chee: ae eRe et ee ee ee 38 ‘Pable of Contents of Hirst Twelve Volumes,......i...-.-...2--- 49 JOURNAL OF THE Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society VOL. XIII 1896 OHAPEL HILL, N. O. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY TAVATOY ~ ait WO ik OV apa! . 10 sib ao ; eMBRe TMU HE CHENSATT| ff A Journal of the Mitchell Society. CONTENTS. VOL. XIII. 1896. A Study of the Zirconates.—F. P. Venable and Thomas Clarke.............. 1 HivyereAdjastments.in Ni C:—W. J. Weaver... ........0.cecscceoesescsccncateoses 13 Reduction of Concentrated Sulphuric Acid by Copper.—Chas. Bask- CIPO, Bhi too CO SORA SEE Bebe ic COPE SO OE EEL DBCS ORE E CAE B EHEC DO EE EOE PORTE ny Poorer 24 The Use of the Periodic Law in Teaching.—F. P. Venable............... 30 The Present Position of the Periodic System.—F’. P. Venable............... 1 Notes on the Exact Composition of the Queen Part Truss.— WW. Cain..... 43 Some Late Views of the So-Called Tocanic and Huroniau Rocks in APicrentrce ly Nes © FO EIN TICE en ee cc aA Sea. al Reeeen cae ramet Seem ZTVRTHOD © LIE .WJOV. ba Pi. dety site, sdanit) eowakt? heen sidanst “La sotecrorniS ald-ite ‘ s —— “net \ lO 7b aia ae fan, 4 — seg ¢d bisd ofigdalee beliriianoaed to Hee ve Mor TS gaidonet abyred siboito adhe teuexstees=ts sinew Sl MM cose niboried ot to nufiteo Mi ee 00. geo T eS codaQ sd) To icniioyenD doazel prea at advo waidgwi fax iad) boll<0-08 act To avaleaae fe hate A, 0) he Pec § erstti eves G2 044e ’ JOURNAL OF THE Flisha Mitchell Scientific Society. [CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE CHEMISTRY OF ZIRCONIUM. NO. 5.] Aes LUDDY, OF RHE ZIRCON A’THS. By F. P. VENABLE AND THOMAS CLARKE. This class of compounds of zirconium has received but little attention from chemists, The chief investigator in the past who has worked in this field was Hiortdahl.! Of recent years several papers by L. Ouvrard’ have ap- peared. The accounts given in the various text books of these zirconates are based upon the work of Hiortdahl or upon such abstracts of it as were to be found in the Jah- resberichte, or in such dictionaries as that of Watts. This is unfortunate, as to the best of our knowledge the work of Hiortdahl itself is in some respects inaccurate and erroneous, and the abstracts of it are misleading. Before giving an account of our own experiments, it may be well to gather together the statements regarding these bodies «s given by Watts and in the original article of Hiortdahl. Watts says that the compounds of zirconia with the stronger bases are obtained by precipitating a zirconium salt with potash or soda, alsc by igniting zirconia with an alkaline hydroxide. ‘‘Zirconate of potassium thus ob- tained, dissolves completely in water.’’ His first mode. of preparing the zirconates is very questionable; the last statement is not true. He then goes on and describes zirconates of sodium, calcium and magnesium, as describ- ed by Hiortdahl. The details of Hiortdahl’s analyses, 1 Ann. Chem. Pharm., 137, 34, 236. 2 Compl. Rend., 112, 144-46, and 113, 1021-22. 2 JOUUNAL OF THE etc., will show on what an imperfect basis the knowl- edge of the constitution of these bodies rests. Hiortdahl states that he secured direct union only by ignition with alkaline carbonates. His attempts with the volatile chlor- ides failed. On heating zirconia with sodium carbonate one equivalent of carbon dioxide was driven out, and it is on the loss of carbon dioxide upon ignition that his figures for the composition of the resulting prodticts are largely based. On heating equivalent amounts of zirconia and sodium carbonate a crystalline mass was obtained, which slowly absorbed moisture from the air. On treating this with water no decomposition was noted at first, but soon the water became alkaline and zirconia separated. This was taken as proof that the zirconia was decompos- ed by the water. In the experiment 0.3910 gram zirconia heated with 0.3130 gram sodium carbonate to a dark red- ness for nine hours lost 0.1310 gram carbon dioxide, and on treatment with water 0.3871 gram ‘‘zirconia,’’ or 99.03 per cent. was left. If an excess of sodium carbonate is used can one drive out two equivalents of carbon dioxide. A dittle further down he notes that the ‘‘Gewichtsverlust zugleich von der Temperatur und der Dauner des Glihens abhangt.’’ These are the determinations from which formulas for the zirconates are worked out. It is scarcely necessary to say that for purposes of cal- culation these figures are entirely worthless. The loss of carbon dioxide is due toa partial formation of hydrox- ide as well as to a combination with zirconia. ‘The fused mass of sodium carbonate, hydroxide, zirconate and un- changed zirconia will of course prove hygroscopic, and water will wash away all except the last two mentioned. We have failed to get any positive evidence that a zircon- ate formed by fusion was decomposed by water or was appreciably soluble in it. In his second paper, Hiortdahl treats the fused mass of zirconia and sodium carbonate with water acidified with hydrochloric acid and analyzes the residue, finding in it: ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 3 ZrO,, 78.54 per cent.; Na,O, 5.40 per cent.; and H,O, 16.89 per cent., corresponding to Na,O.8ZrO,. He gets zirconate of magnesium and calcium by fusing zirconia and silica with magnesium chloride and calcium chloride respectively. Ouvrard obtained his zirconates by fusions with the chlorides, also using those of lithium, calcium, strontium and barium. In some cases, instead of using zirconia, he took powdered zircons, obtaining silico-zirconates. In our own experiments the following methods of form- ing the zirconates were tried: I. Fusing in boron trioxide the zirconia and the basic oxide (Kbelmen). Ul, Fusing zirconia with alkaline carbonates, (Hiort- dahl). Tt. Fusing zirconia with alkaline hydroxides. IV. Fusing zirconia with alkaline or earthy chlorides (Hiortdahl). ‘ V. Precipitation of solutions of zirconium salts with alkaline hydroxides (Watts). VI. Dissolving zirconium hydrroxide in strong solu- tions of sodium or potassium hydroxide and precipitation by'dilution or by neutralization with an acid. I. FUSION WITH BORON TRIOXIDE. This method, made use of by Ebelmen in the case of other oxides, is useless in the case of zirconia, because this oxide is not taken up by the boron trioxide, and so does not come in contact with the other oxide. The melt of boron trioxide was kept at a high temperature for a number of hours without any appreciable solvent action upon the zirconia, added in small portions. Il. FUSION OF ZIRCONIA WITH ALKALINE CARBONATES. The purified zirconia used had been dried at the tem- perature of the steam bath and therefore was not in the inactive condition brought about by igniting it at a very 4 JOURNAL OF THE high temperature. This was the case in the subsequent experiments also. It is by fusion with sodium carbonate that Hiortdahl claimed to have prepared his zirconates. Ouvrard seems to have gotten little besides crystals of zirconia. Very little action could be seen in the experiments described below. The zirconia sank to the bottom of the fused mass and remained without apparent change for hours. Varying the time of heating did not seem to have much effect upon the results. After the fused mass had cooled it was leached with successive portions of water until no alkali could be de- tected. The wash water contained no zirconium. As the mass left will absorb carbon dioxide, it was dried as rapidly as possible at about 150° to constant weight. Di- lute hydrochloric acid was used to separate the zirconate formed from the unchanged zirconia. As this zirconia was now in the ignited and even crystalline form, it was concluded that it vas insoluble in the dilute acid. The zirconia in the solution was precipitated as hydroxide and determined as oxide, and the alkali determined in the fil- trate. ‘Two grams of zirconia were used in each case and a large excess of the carbonate. The amount of unattacked zirconia ranged from ninety-three to ninety- nine per cent., showing thus very little action after many hours of fusion. In some cases, therefore, the amount of supposed zirconate obtained was too small for reliable analysis. I. WITH SODIUM CARBONATE. Three experiments with sodium carbonate were carried to completion. 1. Two grams zirconia and eight grams sodium car- bonate were fused three hours. Amount of residue after leaching, soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid, 0.1588 gram, or eight per cent. In this ZrO,=75.70 per cent.; Na,O =o, ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 5 2. ‘Two grams zirconia fused with sixteen grams sodium ‘carbonate for four hours. Amount of residue soluble in hydrochlroic acid, 0.3042 ¢rams. Percentages: ZrO,, 74.18; Na,O, 25.81. These correspond fairly with (ZrO,),(Na,O).. 3. Two grams zirconia fused with sixteen grams so- dium carbonate for eight hours. Amount soluble in di- lute hydrochloric acid 0.1220 gram, or six per cent. Percentages: ZrO,, 58.16; Na,O, 41.84. Il. WITH POTASSIUM CARBONATE. When potassium carbonate was used the action was so slight that it was not possible to get enough for analysis. In one case, after heating for ten hours, the amount solu- ble was just one-half per cent. ‘This accords with the observation of Ouvrard. Of course it is possible that the leaching with water had a partially decomposing effect upon the zirconates. Very little could be justly concluded, however, from ex- periments in which there was so little action, therefore the effort at forming the zirconates by fusion with the carbonates was abandoned. Iii. FUSION OF ZIRCONIA WITH HYDROXIDES. Zz. Fusion with sodium hydroxide. Here considerable action was noticed. The fusions were made ina silver dish. The heating was kept up un- til the mass became semi-solid. The treatment of the fused mass and the analysis were carried out as before. No zirconium was detected in the wash water. 1. Two grams zirconia fused with eight grams sodium : hydroxide. Total amount dissolved, 1.1855 grams. An analysis, reduced to dry basis, gave ZrO,, 92.29, and Na,O, F205: 2. Same amount taken as in experiment 1. Total amount dissolved 0.7655 gram, containing ZrO,, 93.19, and Na,O, 6.22. 6 JOURNAL OF THE 3. Two grams zirconia and sixteen grams sodium hy- droxide. Amount dissolved 0.8004 gram, containing ZrO,, 92.57) and NasOsS 7.358: 4. Two grams zirconia were fused with eight grams of sodium dioxide, instead of the hydroxide. Amount dis- solved 0.7074 gram, and this contained 91.21 per cent. Zt). Na,O.(ZrO,), contains ZrO, 1 29.30; ans Nal, 7.30 Na,O.(ZrO,), contains ZrO,’ 93.29; and Na,O, 6.79. 2. Fusion with potassium hydroxide. These were carried out ina manner similar to those with sodium hydroxide and the action seemed to be about thesame. Ineach experiment two grams of zirconia were taken and fused with sixteen grams of potassium hydrox- ide. 1. Dissolved by hydrochloric acid 0.8850 gram which contained 79.63 per cent. ZrO,, 2, Dissolved 1.5241 grams which contained ZrO,, 82.98; KO.47.00: 3. Dissolved 1.2078 grams which contained ZrO,, 78.59; KO; 21°40. 4. Dissolved 0.9297 gram which contained ZrO,, 85.51; K,O, 14.49. In analyzing these alkaline zirconates the water pres- ent was not determined. ‘The moist powder was treated with hydrochloric acid, the insoluble portion caught upon a filter, and the zirconia and alkali determined in the fil- trate and the results calculated upon a dry basis. If the analysis given by Hiortdahl is calculated upon a dry basis, it gives for ZrO, 93.51,and Na,O, 6.49, or very nearly the the numbers gotten in experiment 2 in the fusions with sodium hydroxide. It is difficult to interpret the results of these fusions with thealkaline carbonates and hydroxides. ‘The fusions do not yield the same definite results each time, and in- deed it cannot be claimed from the analyses that definite zirconates have been prepared. Some allowance must be ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. . 7 made for the imperfect method of separation of the zir- conate from the unchanged zirconia, some of the former being taken up by prolonged digestion with hydrochloric acid. ‘There isa marked tendency, however, toward the formation of certain zirconates under approximately the same conditions. ‘Two of the experiments with sodium carbonate give results fairly in accordance with the for- mula (Na,O),(ZrO,),. In the fusion with sodium hydroxide the results range from (Na,O) (ZrO), [GrO,=90.76: Na,O =9.24], to (Na,O) (ZrO), [GrO,—94.08; Na,O—5.92], and it is with these that the analysis of Hiortdahl agrees, though his was a fusion with sodium carbonate. Why there should be this difference is not clear. The tenden- cy is manifestly toward the formation of what may be called the polyzirconates, having a considerable excess of zirconic acid. In the case of potassium the carbonate failed to givea compound. ‘The hydroxide gives results ranging from ee ©)(4c0;),([47O0,=—79.57; K,0=20.43], to (ZrO,), (KO), (ZrO, =86.74;. K,0=13.26]; again polyzirconates with ex- cess of zirconia. Other fusions were carried out with sodium and potas- sium hydroxides, and the resulting masses were leached with dilute acetic acid, a solvent which had to be used in leaching away the alkaline earths in the subsequent ex- periments. In the case of sodium the leaching removed practically all of the alkali. In the case of potassium a substance containing ZrO,, 78.59 per cent., and K,O, 21.41 per cent. was left. This nearly corresponds to the form- ula K,O.(ZrO,),.. It is almost exactly the result gotten in one of the previous experiments. 3. Lithium gave no zirconate when the carbonate was used for the fusion. With the hydroxide it gave the fol- lowing results: Two grams ZrO, were fused with excess of lithium hy- droxide, leached with dilute acetic acid and with water. This gave on analysis Z1O,, 89.11 per cent.; Li,O, 10.99 8 JOURNAL OF THE per cent. Percentage of ZrO, calculated for Li,O.2ZrO, is 89.13. 4. Calcium oxide was also heated for a number of hours with zirconia and gave the followiug results: Calculated for if 1% CaO.ZrOg. VAL OGRA esi a thd sch tae 70.11 70.83 68.54 CaQO) Eos ag ae e 29.88 29.14 31.16 These residues, after treatment with dilute acetic acid and water, were crystalline. 5. Barium hydroxide differs from that of calcium in that it fuses readily and thus affords much better oppor- tunity for reaction. The fusion gave abundant evidence of action. ‘The excess of hydroxide was washed out with water. The carbonate present was dissolved away with dilute acetic acid until there was no more barium in the wash water. No zirconia was found in any of these wash- ings. Towards the latter part of the washing the solid particles settled out with great difficulty. The residue was analyzed with the following result: | Calculated for Found. BaO.ZrO 9 ; Th) OS ARE its ac eer eee 313 55.95 EO se pees: «besa a sees 44.49 44.05 This is a grayish white powder, very fine and easily soluble in hydrochloric acid. Practically all of the zir- conia was taken up, leaving little undissolved by the hy- drochloric acid. 6. Strontium oxide was prepared by ignition of the nitrate and heated in the same way as the calcium oxide. This mass was pinkish white, probably from slight im- purities, and was completely soluble m dilute hydrochlor- ic acid. On analysis the following results were obtained: Caleulated for Found. SrO ZrO. Th OLR E Be AH) SAR Regeln Aree 54.22 54.55 SrOede vials cece eee 45.77 45.45 7. The magnesia(eight grams)and zirconia(two grams) ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. g was heated together for about four hours and then treat- ed in the same manner as the calcium fusion, 7.e., first leached with dilute acetic acid and then washed with water until free from magnesia. The residue gave evi- dence of being crystalline. Caleulated for Found MeO.ZrOe2 Gik Om SEOs GeO RIES ao OEE 76.28 75.30 ROMO Gestalt ie oie esas Sea's. Shaieye's OLO 24.70 IV. FUSION OF ZIRCONIA WITH CHLORIDES. This method was used by Hiortdahl in preparing the -zirconates of magnesium and calcium, and by Ouvrard for the same, and also for strontium, barium and lithium. According to the latter they all gave zirconates of the form M,ZrO,. I. Fusion with sodium chloride. There appeared to be very little action. The fusion was washed with water until free from chlorine. It was then treated as in the case of the carbonates. When two grams of zirconia were fused with sixteen grams of sodium chloride, it was found that less than two per cent. had been dissolved. In a second experiment, after heating six hours, the amount dissolved was less than iwo-tenths ema per cent. 2. Fusion with potassium chloride. No action was observable. When two granis of zir- conia were heated a number of hours with an excess of potassium chloride and the mass then treated as above, only three-tenths of a gram had been acted upon. There seemed to be even less action in the case of lithium chlor- ide at the temperature attainable by means of an ordinary water-blast lamp. 3. Fusion with alkaline earths. Two attempts were made to prepare magnesium zir- conate by fusing zirconia with magnesium chloride and ammonium chloride. It was not possible to prevent 10 JOURNAL OF THE decomposition of the magnesium chloride. There seemed to be some action, but much difficulty was experienced in separating the products. The method described by Ouv- rard gave evidences of zirconium in the washings. In the case of fusions with calcium chloride no action could be observed. Two experiments were made, follow- ing closely the directions of Ouvrard, except as to tem- perature possibly, as to which no exact directions were given. A water-blast lamp was used tor several hours. After leaching and washing, the mass left behind gave no zirconium to hydrochloric acid. Our experiments with the chlorides have led us to be- lieve that there is little or no action between zirconia and the chlorides of the alkalies or alkaline earths except where these chlorides are decomposed by the heat and oxides formed. Any action noticed is to be attributed to the oxides. V. PRECIPITATION FROM THE SOLUTION OF A ZIRCON- IUM SALT BY MEANS OF AN ALKALINE HYDROXIDE. Watts speaks of this method but no experiments are recorded. It seemed to us upon examination of the ques- tion that very little evidence as to the existence of the zirconates or their properties could be drawn from such a method of preparation as this. It has been repeatedly observed that the precipitate formed by means ot am- monium hydroxide is extremely hard to wash free from ammonia. After a very large number of washings, how- ever, itis practically free from ammonia. The same is true of sodium and potassium hydroxides. Isit to be inferred that a definite zirconate is precipitated? At what point shall the washing be stopped, for manifestly some wash- ing is necessary? Equally, it cannot be decided because of this loss of alkali by prolonged washing, that we have a decomposition of the zirconate caused by the action of the water. It, therefore, seems to be quite useless to make analyses of the precipitates gotten with different degrees ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 11 of washing; especially as somewhat similar experiments were carried out under the next heading. VI. THE SOLUTION OF ZIRCONIUM HYDDOXIDE IN CAUS- TIC ALKALI. It was found that zirconium hydroxide was percepti- bly soluble in solutions of potassium and sodium hydrox- ide. Experiments were first made with a view of deter- mining the extent of this solubility. Solutions of the two alkalies were made up of different strengths, an excess of zirconium hydroxide added, and the solution then boil- ed. After cooling, a measured quantity of the solution was drawn off and the amount of zirconia present deter- mined. A 50 per cent solution potassium hydroxide dissolved per cc 0.00233 gm. 33 ee ee ‘ se se oe ae 0.00097 ee 25 oe ae ve ‘. ee. oe ee ‘es 0.00075 ec 12 Pad .. oe ve a we oe a 0.00009 ee In the case of sodium hydroxide there seemed to bea stronger solvent action. | A 38 per cent solution dissolves per ec. 0.00245 gram. eared act ee 00012 12 0.0008 He If a concentrated solution of alkali, saturated with zir- conium hydroxide, is diluted, a portion of the zirconium will be precipitated. Neutralization with acid will also cause a precipitation of the zirconium. In both cases alkali is retained by the precipitate in spite of washing. Analyses were made of some of these precipitates after very thorough washing (in no case was less than a liter of water used.) ‘The results in four experiments were sufficient to show that these precipitates were practically zirconium hydroxides with a varying percentage of alka- li, this percentage ranging from 1.15 to 3.94. It is pos- sible to assume that zirconates were formed and then de- composed by the action of water during the washing, but it seems more probable that this is, as is true in the 1 JOURNAL OF THE case of so many hydroxides precipitated by alkaline hy- droxides, merely a stubborn retention of alkali. Assum- ing that the strong alkaline solutions held zirconates in solution, attempts were next made to prepare other zir- conates by precipitation from them. The addition of solutions of various salts gave small precipitates which seemed to be formed mainly because of the dilution of the alkaline hydroxide and to consist almost entirely of zirconium hydroxide. It was neces- sary, therefore, to use strongly alkaline solutions of the compounds of the elements to be experimented with. This greatly diminished the choice of compounds. Con- centrated solutions of aluminum and zinc hydroxides in potassium hydroxide gave precipitates but they were in too small amounts for reliable analyses to be made. Summing up the results of the experiments performed, it is clear that the method yielding the best results for the preparation of the zirconates is fusion of gently dried zirconia with hydroxides or prolonged heating with the oxides. In the case of the alkaline earths this yields zir- conates containing one equivalent of each oxide,CaO.ZrO,, etc. The same is true of the magnesium compound. For lithium the compound obtained was LiOZrO,. For the alkalies it seemed to be possible to obtain only zircon- ates having a largely preponderating proportion of zir- conia. ‘There seems to be a tendency toward the forma- tion of distinct compounds under certain conditions. These polyzirconates, and the lithium-compound also, may be decomposition products due to the action of the water used in leaching. No other mode of separation from the products of the fusion could be devised by us, however, If they are produced by the decomposing and solvent action of water, it isa little strange that a point should be reached beyond which the leaching extracted no more alkali, and that this point varied with changed conditions. This is not the case where zirconium hy- droxide has been precipitated by an alkali. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 13 DOUBLE ZIRCONATES. Two attempts at the formation of double zirconates were made. I. Potassium calctum zirconate. About two grams each of zirconia, potassium hydrox- ide and lime were heated together for about four hours. There was evidence of considerable action. The mass was treated with dilute acetic acid and thoroughly wash- ed. Then on treatment with dilute hydrochloric acid nearly the whole residue went into solution. The analy- peecare: 40) 67.21) per cent.; CaO; 31.06; K,O, 1.11. This is a calcium zirconate, (CaO.ZrO,), with a small part of the CaO substituted by K,O. 2. Potassium aluminum zirconate. Two grams of zirconia were fused for eight hours with two grams potassium hydroxide and three grams of alumina. The mass was washed with dilute acetic acid until no more alumina was dissolved. ‘The residue was treated with dilute hydrochloric acid and the insoluble portion removed by filtration. The analysis gave ZrO, 72.38 per cent; Al,O,, 7.66; K,O, 20.00. These experi- ments indicate the possible existence of double zirconates, and when time permits this point will be further examin- ed. RIVER ADJUSTMENTS IN NORTH CAROLINA. W. J. WEAVER. Norr.—In presenting this paper I beg to acknowledge my indebtedness to the lectures of Prof, Collier Cobb, and to his work and that of Messrs. Chas. Baskerville, R. H. Mitchell and other members of the class engaged in advanced work in Physical geography; but the mode of presentation is my own and I alone am responsible for any short-comings it may have. As my paper was presented for the Kerr Prize in Geol- 14 JOURNAL OF THE ogy it has not even had the critical reading of the head of the department, and lack of funds prevents my presenting as many maps as were contained in the paper, North Carolina is natually divided in three sections: (1)The Eastern or Costal plain; (2) The Piedmont Sec- tion, and, (3)The Western or Mountain District. The costal plain runs inland about 100 or 125 miles. ‘Its western boundry line runs from the western part of Warren through Franklin, Wake, Cumberland, Chat- ham, Moore, Montgomery, and Anson counties.’” The whole coastal plain belongs to the Quarternary system, with frequent expanse of the Eocene and Miocene of the Tertiary along the rivers and ravines. As we go inland the country rises about one foot per mile, but from North to South is almost level. Over the whole section the primitive rocks are covered with a deep stratum of earth, principally sand. Along the western border and river courses we find granite, slate, and other rocks sparingly distributed, but no rocks of any kind can be tound any where else in the region. The section is made up of beds of clay and sand with vast quantities of shell imbeded in them. ‘The upland soil is mostly sandy loam which yields very good crops. ‘There are vast areas of sand that will not yield anything but pines. In fact we know that this whole region has in recent geological time been raised above the sea level.’ The Piedmont Section begins on the western edge of the coastal plain and runs west to the borders of the Blue Ridge. It isa rolling prairie in the east and gets rougher towards the west, including some small mountain ranges, the Brushy, Pilot, and King’s Mountain. The mountain chains of the western part of the Piedmont belt run northeast and southwest; and as the rivers pass them they form rapids and falls that give excellent opportunity for manufacturers. 1. Handbook of North Carolina, 1885, published by Board of Agri- culture. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 15 Though you would expect a very rough hilly country on the West you do not find it so. The slope on the east- ern side of the Blue Ridge is much steeper than that of the West. West of the Blue Ridge we havea very large valley bounded on the East by the Blue Ridge and on the West by the Great Smoky Mountains. This valley runs northeast and southwest between the two mountain chains and composes the mountainous districts of North Caro- lina. This area has principally crystalline schists and gneisses with patches of conglomerates, sandstones, and shales and limestone. Both the Smokies on the West and the Blue Ridge on the East presents an anticlinal structure; the latter often having its monoclinal member absent. The area was in all probability once covered by an eastern ex- tension of the Paleozoic rocks of FEfast Tennessee, the sandstones of the western district being probably Cam- brian (Chilhowee or Potsdam), the patches of limestone probably Silurian, and the grits and shales farther Kast possibly Carboniferous.' I assume that the fold- ing that produced the Appalachian System was, as in Pennsylvania, rapid enough to deform the river systems. It gave rise to four great systems in North Carolina. The first we may call the Deep River syncline. It had its head in Chesterfield County, South Carolina, on the North Carolina line and ran northeast into Virginia. The second had its head in Caldwell County, North Carolina ran east of northest and joined the first in Virginia. This one may be called the Dan River syncline. The third had its head in Catawba County, North Carolina, and ran south into South Carolina. This may be cailed the King’s Mountain syncline. The fourth, which we may call the Asheville syncline was rather a canoe-shaped basin with a length of about 150 miles and a width of 20 1. ‘Professor Collier Cobb’s Lectures on General Critical Geology, 1893-94; see also Cobb’s Map of North Carolina, 1887, 16 JOURNAL OF THE miles in Watauga county and 50 miles in Henderson. Its ends are in Virginia and Georgia, and it took a Northeast and Southwest course. It was probably a lake for a long time until it flowed over, most probably in Henderson county. We find evidences of shores in Transylvania county that were evidently made by alake. These syclines and the rivers that occupied them may be seen on map (1) It can be seen from the map that the original drainage of western North Carolina was not as it nowis. Yet the present rivers are in many cases in the original river beds, The original river of the Asheville syneline headed in the northwest with what is now New river, ran southwest and crossed near Boone into the head waters of Watauga river, ran along the head waters of Watauga, but in the opposite direction taken by the Wautaga now, for a few miles aud crossed into the head of what is now Linville river, ran down the stream for about 20 miles and crossed into Brush creek and then into Toe river. At this point Linville river now enters what is known as the gorge. Thisisa very deep valley that has been cut since the original drainage we are describing. The river that cut through this great plateau has captured the Linville river and led it through, but at the time we are describing this gorge did not exist and the natural outlet was through Brush creek as stated. The river continued down Toe river as far as the fork known as South Toe, and there it crossed the present gap known as the Toe river gap. DownSwannanoa to French Broad and up French Broad and out through Mud creek into South Carolina, thence to sea. The drainage on the southwest began with the Hiwassee river which has since been captured and inverted, and ran east or a little south of east to Valley river, up Valley river, across Red Mar- ble Gap and into Nantehala river, down this to its junc- tion with Tuckaseege river, thence up Tuckaseege and across what is now known as Road Gap, down Richland creek to Pigeon river, up Pigeon to the great bend and ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 17 thence across Hominy Gap and down Hominy into the French Broad, up French Broad and out through Mud creek into South Carolina. We have many of our rivers in the original river beds. ‘The Hiwassee has been cap- tured and inverted but it still occupies the old bed. ‘The Nantehala and Tuckaseege still occupy their old beds though there has been considerable change, a part of the latter having been inverted. We would expect to find in these inverted rivers evi- dence of it in their sluggish movement but we must re- member that most of them have since their inversion been so much lowered that they are the roughest to be found. The Little Tennessee River has cut a gorge through the GreateSmoky Mountains over four thousand feet deep and we could hardly expect a river to be slow and sluggish whose lower waters had been lowered so much. Like- wise the French Broad from above Hot Springs is very rough owing to the same fact. On the northwest the New river was made by cutting into the syncline and leading a part of the original river out. In map (1) wesee that it is about to cut into the syncline and capture a part of the original river. Its headwaters push forward into the syncline until it has captured the headwaters of the original river and inverted a small part of it. This inverted part having a greater fall will move the divide southwest by degrees; and this continues until it reaches the mountain ranges near Boone which on account of its structure marks its final divide. The next stream that cut into our original river was the Watauga. It cut through the Smokies from Tennessee and led off a por- tion, but did its best work in determining the divide for the other rivers. The strata not all being of the same hardness we can see why these captures went as far as they did and no farther. When New River was inverted it probably would have led out much more of the streams of the northern and middle portions of the basin but for the fact that there was a ledgé of rock that outcropped 18 JOURNAL OF THE about the central part of Watauga county and ran en- tirely across the basin at that point. These rocks had no influence upon the streams until the streams had levelled the country down to them. Then they formed a natural divide and fixed definitely the headwaters of New River. The Watauga was probably captured by a westward flow- ing stream on the southwest of these and therefore could not capture any of the New River’s headwaters. Fur- ther on ‘the south of the Watauga and running parallel to it there is another outcrop of rocks which run across the basin and join the Blue Ridge at Grandfather’s Moun- tain, thus fixing definitely the divide between Linville and Watauga rivers. From this divide the river which goes south is Linville, which runs in the channel o@eupied formerly by the original river. ‘This channel has the highlands of the Blue Ridge on the south and east; and on the west there is a range of mountains which separate Linville and Toe River. Linville River now runs down this valley about twenty miles and then enters what is known as the gorge. The original river formerly passed over and went down Brush Creek, Linville gorge not having been cut at that time, to Toe and down Toe as far as where South Toe enters. The Linville gradually gnawed its way back through a vast plateau and tapped the original river, thus leading off a few miles of it. We will also note that Linville is the only river that captured a stream from this basin and led it out to the east, all the rest have been captured and led off to the west through the Great Smokies. The next capture was that of the headwaters of the Toe by tne Nolichucky. ‘This led all the North Forle of the original river out except the Swannanoa which still re- tains its old position. As the Nolichucky cuts through the Smoky Monntains it gradually lowers its channel and lowers the whole of the river. As the Nolichucky cuts its way back it furnishes a shorter route to the lowlands and being shorter it hasa more rapid current which cuts et ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 19 its channel faster and the divide migrates eastward un- til it is finally permanently located at Toe River gap, all the waters of the northwest having been captured by westward flowing streams. ‘The vnext capture I shall take up belongs to the southwest tributary of the original river. ‘The Hiwassee originally formed the headwaters of the river that drained the southern end of the Ashe- ville syncline and led its waters up to the French Broad and thence out by that river. Itis almost if not quite im- possible to determine which of these captures took place first and in what order the others followed, but Iam in- clined to think that the rivers of the northeast were cap- tured pretty much in the order that I have treated them, i. e., the headwaters (New River) were captured first, then a new stream cut in and took another deal off the head and so on do vn; in the southwest it is most probable that they did take this order. Considering the amount of erosion that the Little Tennessee has done I think that that stream was the first one to cut through and make a capture, thus draining all the basin west of the Balsam Mountains. Later the Hiwassee was captured and in- verted and now runs out the southwest end of the baisin. We can see by comparing the sketch of the original drainage with the map of to-day that the capture would turn a large volume of water through the Little Tennes- see’s gorge and thus help tosink it very rapidly. This is most probably what happened. As evidence of capture and inversion in the Little Tennessee River we have sev- eral rivers coming into it like the barbs on an arrow; i. e. they show their former tendency to run the other way. The Hiwassee also has several branches coming in in that - manner, as the Nattely River and Shoal Creek. In map (1) we can see the river system of the Asheville syncline as it originally was. We see the little Tennessee and the river that captures the Hiwassee just cutting through the Great Smoky Mountains and looking in upon their prey. They are moving their respective divides to the 20 JOURNAL OF THE east and this continues until the divides have moved to their present position, and by this time the Little Ten- nessee has captured and inverted all the waters west of the Balsam Mountains and the divide has moved to Road Gap where it stops on account of the rocks that outcrop here. The Hiwassee is gradually overcome and captured inasimilar manner. ‘This only leaves Pigeon in its orig- inal position and running over what we now call Hominy Gap to the French Broad, and on the west we see the riv- er that is to capture it cutting through the Smokies and gradually capturing its headwaters until they are finally all captured and led out through the Smokies. The New Found Mountains form a barrier between this river and Hominy Gap—the bed of the original stream is still the lowest gap in these Mountains. The creek that flowed from the gap to French Broad is Hominy Creek and since the days of the readjustment it has recaptured two of its old tributaries; i. e. the two small branches that once ran to Pigeon River, now run into Hominy Creek and thence to French Broad*. All these waters that originally found their way to the sea through the upper French Broad valley would have made a large valley and such we find to-day. This stream has been cut into and captured by astream from the west thus invert- ing the French Broad from its original course. The French Broad from the mouth of Swannanoa to Brevard, a distance of about forty miles, is a very smooth, sluggish river, so slow in its movements that one can but notice it and compare it to other mountain streams that usually go so rapidly. This is evidence of an inversion which has evidently taken place. From Asheville west, the French Broad is noted for its beauty, which consists in its rough, rugged course over rocks and through gorges, winding its way through the Great Smokies into the Appalachian River. ‘There is very little fall in the French Broad be- tween Brevard and Asheville while between Asheville * National Geographic Magazine, vol. I, no. 4. By Bailey Willis, ee ey ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 21 and Paint Rock there is a great fall. At Asheville the altitude of the river is about 2100 feet while at Paint Rock it is 1264, thus giving a fall of 181 feet to the mile. The town of Brevard is lower than Asheville but both towns are above the river. However I believe that there would not be a difference of many feet in the altitude of the stream at the two places. Wecan see from map of the original drainage the French Broad as it ran south- east, with the river that is about to capture it cutting through the Smokies and having their divide just east of the Tennessee line. As in the other cases the divide has migrated east and the western river has captured and in- verted the French Broad and led it out to the west. This finishes up the Asheville basin or syncline. Now let us look at the others. The next one I will take up is the old Dan River syncline which I have described above. It has had two changes. First it has been cut into by the Yadkin which has led about 50 miles of the Dan River headwaters to the sea through its channels and secondly it has had numerous readjustments through its headwa- ters and those of John’s River, a tributary of the Ca- tawba. In the drawing of the original drainage, map (I,) we cau see the position of this syncline which originally extended into Virginia and met the Deep River syncline. In the drawing we see that the Yadkin is about to cut into the Dan and as soon as it cuts through it will take the waters to the sea because having a shorter distance to go it must have a greater fall and will hence take the Dan in preference to being captured. The Dan was thus turned from its course and led to the sea by the Yadkin. The present Dan River has a branch, Town Fork, that still follows the old bed. ‘The headwaters of the Yadkin have extended themselves still further north and are now known as the Ararat River. We will now turn our at- tention to the captures made in the headwaters of the syncline; and this brings me to mention a fifth syncline in North Carolina which I had not noticed until after I had 22 JOURNAL OF THE begun my work on this paper. This syncline we may call the Round Knob syncline since Round Knob is in the syncline and near its head. It began in the west of Mc- Dowell and ran a little north of east through Burke and Iredell counties, and it is probable that it continued through Davidson, Randolph and Chatham and joined the Deep River syncline in the latter county although we have no definite evidence that it did. In Map (1) we can see the drainage of this syncline as well as the cap- tures which its waters made on those of the Dan River Syncline. I was at first disposed to think that John’s River had captured the branch of Yadkin called Yadkin and that later it had been retaken by the Yadkin, but upon examination I find that those branches near the head of the Yadkin come down from a high plateau and enter the Yadkin at right angles and 1am convinced that the branch called Yadkin is merely conforming to the family trait and has never been captured by John’s River. If we look at the branches now called John’s River and Buf- falo Creek we find they have the Yadkin family traits and they show they have been captured by John’s River. As the Yadkin cut into and captured the Dan so the Round Knob Syncline has been cut into by the Yadkin and probably by the Catawba and its waters’have not gone through the Deep River as they probably did at first. Third Creek is probably nearest the old channel that traversed Round Knob Syncline. ‘The Catawba that cut into the Round Knob Syncline ran a little east of the King’s Mountain Syncline originally and it was its trib- utaries that cut through the eastern side of this syncline and led its waters out. The River that originally occu- pied the syncline was most probably what we call West Fork of Catawba River. This joined the Catawba where it passes to South Carolina. We see from the original diagram that the tributaries of the Catawba are about to cut through the eastern border of the King’s Mountain syncline and lead its waters to the Catawba, and as time a eee a ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 23 passed we see they kept pushing to the west until they have obtained the position they now occupy. Dutchman’s Creek has cut through and branched in the syncline and now drains the whole of it. West Fork of the Catawba which was originally in the syncline has cut through the western border and now drains a large area northwest of the syncline; thus in time the rivers have changed their positions and have so greatly eroded the syncline that we only find traces of it left, such as Anderson and King’s Mountain on the west, and on the east not even so much, however we can traceits borders between Dutch- man’s Creek and Catawba. The Deep River syncline headed in Chesterfield county South Carolina, and ran northeast to Virginia where it joined the Dan River syncline. We can see its position by turning to the general drainage Map of North Caro- lina after the Permian uplift, (Map I). Its eastern bor- der still makes the fall line in our rivers, but its western borders were not so well marked, and did not have so definite a boundary. Infact the eastern border wasa wide spread of country gradually sloping into it. ‘The eastern border may be seen by drawing a line from Cheraw, South Carolina, northeast passing about ten miles east of Raleigh and striking the Virginia line where Dan river enters North Carolina. Along this line is an outcrop of a number of the older rocks, principally granite. (Hand Book of North Carolina, 1886.) Anda little west of this is the old Deep River bed. The river headed in South Carolina with Brown’s Creek and ran northeast to the Pee Dee River which formed a part of its bed, up what is now Little river, across to Wolf’s Creek, down this to Deep river and down Deep river to Haw river where it turned up what now is New Hope river and across to Store Creek, down this and up Knopf of Reed’s Creek across to Tar river, up this, and to Fox Creek, over to Grassy Creek and down to the Dan river. At this time the coast line was only a few miles east of 24 JOURNAL OF THE this and the rivers such as Roanoke, Tar, Neuse, Cape Fear and others had not cut back to the syncline, however the distance to the sea was small and the fall was com- paratively great and they were gradually cutting away. In drawing (Map 1) we can see how they cut this original deep river upand send their streams on westward for other adventures. The Great Pee Dee cut into the syncline near its head and led off Brown’s Creek and inverted and led off Little river, then sent one of its streams on northwest and at last under the name of the Yadkin it cuts into the Dan River Syncline and captures a large part of its head- waters as we have described above. Cape Fear cuts into the syncline and leads off the part we now call New Hope and sends its branches on to help drain the territory northwest of thesyncline (note the slowness of New Hope River). The Neuse cuts in and leads off a small portion as does the Roanoke, and thus helps the waters to find a shorter route to sea. At last this syncline leaves us this remnant of its former self as evidence of what it has been The inverted creeks and rivers are yet at a loss to know what to do and so move along slowly, but by and by when they get accustomed to their new environment they will pick up their spirits and move along joyously as they did of old, and later generations will never know what a deal of trouble they have had. ‘Their rate of flow is prob- ably even now being accelerated by the lowering of the eastern border of the central plain. REDUCTION OF CONCENTRATED SULPHURIC ACID BY COPPER. BY CHARLES BASKERVILLE. In a previous communication! the writer noted that copper was acted upon by concentrated sulphuric acid 1This Journal, 17,90. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 25 (1.84 sp. gr.) not only at the ordinary temperatures of the air, 20°-30°C., but at zero as well. Andrews! states that the assertion is incorrect and that it does not occur until the temperature 86°C. has been reached, or a point above the dissociation temperature ot the concentrated sulphuric acid, 67°C. according to him. Andrews fur- ther says that the author’s statements were based ‘‘not upon the demonstrations of the formation of sulphurous acid, but solely on the formation of copper sulphate,” which, he says, occurs only ‘‘in consequence of the pres- ence of the air.”’ It is to be regretted that Dr. Andrews did not note carefully the statements of the author in his previous communication, as no reason whatever exists for any such conclusions, because it was distinctly stated that not only the copper as sulphate, but as sulphide was de- termined, as well as sulphurous acid, and moreover, that the experiments were carried out when the air had been replaced by a neutral gas, either hydrogen or carbon di- oxide. | The author, although confident of the correctness of his former statement, carried out further experiments to correct the error, if committed or to establish, beyond question, the fact that concentrated sulphuric acid of 1.84 sp. gr. is reduced by copper below 86°C., the limit Aosz- tively set by Dr. Andrews. The fact that these experiments but confirmed the for- mer statement of the author allows the incorporation of of the results in this paper. As far back as 1838 the fact that copper is acted upon by concentrated sulphuric acid at ordinary temperatures, if sufficient time be given, was made known by Barruel’. Calvert and Johnson,* however, failed to obtain any ac- tion below 130° C., and considered that none took place. 1 J. Am. Chem. Soc., 18, 253. 2 J. de pharm., 20, 13, 1834, 3 J. Chem. Soc., 19, 438, 1866. fe JOURNAL OF THE Pickering’ however stated that ‘‘sulphuric acid attacks copper at all temperatures from 19° C., (and probably even still lower) upwards.”’ First Experiment.—Copper ribbon in strips, 1 x 3-4 cm., was submerged in concentrated sulphuric acid ina clean glass stoppered flask fora month. At the end of that time not only were there white crystals of an- hydrous copper sulphate clinging to the sides of the con- $ taining vessel, but there wasavery appreciable amount of brownish black cuprous sulphide and sulphur dioxide was easily detected by its strong odor when the vessel: was opened. - Andrews? states ‘that in the presence of air sulphuric acid is attacked by copper at ordinary temperatnres, but without reduction of the acid. The reaction must take place according to the equation, 2Cu+ 0,4 2H,SO,=2CuSO,+2H,0. Formerly the author‘ stated that the presence of the oxygen of the air when it comes into contact with the copper in the acid has great influence on>the reaction. Fifty yearsago, Maumené’ proved that when acurrent of oxygen gas was passed through the boiling acid, the amount of insoluble residue, e. g., cuprous sulphide, was diminished, that is, less than there would be formed if the experiment were carried out with a current of carbon dioxide. The copper must be directly opposed to the ox- gen by only partial submersion or the bubbling of the air against or around the submerged copper; but the air in a confined space, not at all in contact with the copper, but: separated by a thick layer of concentrated sulphuric acid, has little or no effect. Yet grant that the oxygen of the air (volume of air 1 J. Chem. Soc., 'Trans., 1878, 113. 2 J. Am. Chem. Soc., 18, 252. 3 Ibid 17-912. 4 Am, Chem. Phys. 1846 [3], 18, 311. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 27 about 200 cc.) confined in the flask, had been utilized in - the formation of the copper sulphate produced. Accord- ing to the formula given above; the oxygen would be ab- sorbed and no corresponding amount of any other gas would be eliminated; consequently there should a greater external pressure at the close than at the beginning of the experiment. When the smoothly fitting glass stopper was removed, not only no extra external pressure was noticed, but in facta pressure from within. ‘This was evidently produced by the sulphur dioxide generated. The sulphur dioxide was swept out by a current of air through a dilute solution of potassium permanganate, which was quickly bleached. The presence of sulphur dioxide was turther proven by the addition of barium - chloride to the bleached potassium permanganate solu- tion. Nor does the formula given above account for the cuprous sulphide which is always produced. Second experiment.—Realizing the possibility of some organic matter or dust remaining in the flask, although it had been carefully cleansed, the first experiment was repeated with the greatest precaution to ensure the ab- sence of dust. ‘The flask was scoured with boiling con- centratedfpure sulphuric acid containing potassium bi- chromate and carefully cleansed with distilled water. The last traces of water were removed by four subse- quent washings with the same kind of concentrated acid used throughout the experiments. The experiment was carried out in the same manner as the first, the same re- sults being obtained. A blank experiment was carried out at the same time. The flask was rendered dust free in the manner just mentioned and fifty cc. of the same acid allowed to re- main in the flask for six months. At the end of that period not a trace of sulphur dioxide could be detected in the blank, therefore the sulphur dioxide produced when the copper was inserted could not be due to the reduction of the sulphuric acid by an extraneous substance, but 28 JOURNAL OF THE solely by~the copper. The conclusion is that?sulphuric acid is reduced by copper when air is present at the ordi- nary temperatures, 20°-30° C. Third experiment.—An ordinary Kjeldahl digentiinn flask was made dust free by the treatment{jnoted above. 100 cc. sulphuric acid, 1.84 sp. gr., were placed therein and clean dry strips of copper-ribbon ,were completely submerged in the acid. Now air-free carbon dioxide was passed through the flask for three hours. The inlet tube was just dipped into the acid. The flask was then attached to a suction pump, with a sulphuric acid drying flask intervening to prevent a possible return flow of gas or air which might carry mvisture or dust into the flask. The flasko was exhausted ofgthe carbon dioxide present for three hours at a pressure of 150 mm. It was then sealed with the blast lamp and placed aside in a darken- ed cupboard. Observations were made:every few days to note any reaction taking place. Within two days it could be easily seen that copper sulphate had been formed and the liquid was somewhat clouded by very finely divided suspended cuprous sulphide. Continued observations ex- tending over a period of seven weeks showed only an in- crease in the amounts-of both of these substances. The temperature of the cupboard had at no time risen above 20° C., and was for most of the time much lower. ‘The flask was then opened as any other sealed tube, and in- stead of an external pressure inward, which had been sufficient to heavily dent the tube in sealing, there was a strong internal pressure outward. ‘The gas evolved was sulphur dioxide, easily detected by its strong odor and bleaching effect upon a dilute solution of’potassium permanganate. ‘The sulphuric acid produced by the oxi- dation of the sulphur dioxide by the permanganate was precipitated by barium chloride. All solutions and ap- paratus were proven to be free from traces:of sulphur di- oxide and sulphuric acid by a blank experiment. Conclusion,—Concentrated sulphuric acid, 1.84 sp. gr., ham ee I ee ae ee OP oe : ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIBTY. 29 is reduced by copper when air is absent and at tempera- tures far below 86° C., in fact at the ordinary atmos- pheric temperatures with the formation of copper sul- phate and cuprous sulphide and the production of sul- phur dioxide. Finally.—Apparatus similar to that made use of by Andrews’ with the modification of having three drying flasks containing concentrated sulphuric acid instead of one, and a Meyer absorbtion tube was substituted for a single small flask. ‘These served merely as extra pre- cautions against dust and insured an intimate mixing of the outgoing gases with permanganate. Within twelve hours the permanganate was bleached. Andrews’ exper- iment lasted only fifteen minutes. The presence of the sulphur dioxide produced was easily detected by the odor when the apparatus was opened, and in the bleached permanganate solution by barium chloride. Copper sul- phate and cuprous sulphide were formed. Concentrated Sulphuric Acid ts Acted upon by Cop- per at Zero.—Quantitative experiments were carried out by the author when the concentrated sulphuric acid in which the copper was submerged was practically at zero.” In stating the results, however, the author gave the temperature as ‘‘0°-10° C.’’ The flask containing the acid was buried in an ice-bath and the temperature of the liquid noted by a thermometer inserted through a rubber stopper. The apparatus was air-tight. A stream of hydrogen gas was continued through the zpparatus in one experiment for six weeks and in another two months. On two occasions when the ice in the bath had melted in going over Sunday, the temperature rose to10° C. The temperature could not possibly have remained that high for over twelve hours, which would have had small in- fluence when the experiments lasted through a number of days. The temperature was reported 0°-10° C., how- _ 1J. Am. Chem. Soc., 18, 251. 2 Ibid, 17, 908, 30 JOURNAL OF THE ever. Not only copper sulphate, but cuprous sulphide and sulphur dioxide had also formed. Copper, therefore, decomposes concentrated sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1.84) practically at zero. From my own experiments and from experiments per- formed with apparatus similar to that used by Andrews and under the same conditions, except in regard to the important element, time, which consideration is necessary for all chemical reactions, the author must adhere to his former statement. THE USE OF THE PERIODIC LAW IN : TEACHING. Read before Am. Asso. Adv. Science, Buffalo, August, 1896. Only a few years after the announcement of the period-_ ic law, when as yet it had attracted little attention, Lo- thar Meyer pleaded for its introduction by teachers of Inorganic Chemistry so that something of the orderliness observed in organic chemistry might begin to appear in the study of the inorganic elements. A casual examina- tion of the text-books of the period and indeed of those for a number of years afterwards, would show the great need of some such system Again the great German teacher twenty years later appeared before the Chemical Society at Berlin and threw the weight of the experi- ence of these added years and all his enthusiasm in favor of a thorough use of the periodic system in teaching in- organic chemistry. Some system must be adopted in teaching this branch of chemistry or the task is hopeless. What will you use if the periodic system is rejected? Some have answered this by using the old families where the elements are ar- ranged by chemical analogies. Even in these families’ . Vy) aes Aut me OY - 7 2. F . ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 31 the influence of the periodic law is deeply felt as any one can see by examining into their condition a dozen years ago and comparing it with the present. Still they are a most unsatisfactory guide to the truths of the science. Some have maintained that the periodic system was little more than those same old groups or families. That shows great ignorance, and a most superficial study of the peri- odic system. It does include all that was of value in the old groups but much more besides. The history of the atomic theory is repeated in that of the periodic system. It is now meeting something of the opposition and even denunciation which the atomic theory met with in the third and fourth decades after its an- nouncement. ‘The unexplained exceptions to it are being magnified and many are inclined to think them insupera- ble and to look with doubt upon the entire system, while some are ready to throw it overboard as rubbish past its usefulness. I do not think that in these classes of opponents will be found any who have made patient and thorough study of this system. To me, the more I study it the more its in- terest and value grows and the more fascinating the search after the great truths which unquestionably lie within it and of which it yields glimpses even in its incom- plete state. For the system is incomplete. It cannot well be otherwise until our knowledges of the science is broader and deeper. It will grow with and direct the growth. But in its incomplete state it is amply sufficient to act as a most helpful guide to the study of inorganic chemis- try. It introduces order and clearness where such were previously, in large measure, Jacking. It saves much useless repetition and so brings about conciseness and brevity, a saving that appeals to both teacher and pupil. There are few earnest students who will not become en- thused with the wonderful symmetry of the science and hence of all nature when this Natural System is unfold- 32 JOURNAL OF THE ed tothem. I have had a student come to me with the confession that he had been able to see nothing of the at- tractive beauty of the science in his study of it until this system brought law and order into what had only been confusion to him before. The brief time allotted to me gives opportunity only for an earnest plea in behalf of the introduction of the system and does not admit of an extended exposition of the ap- plication. An excellent guide along this line will be found in the lecture of Lothar Meyer before the German Chemical Society which I have already referred to but let me say that the only truly successful way of teach- ing this system is for the teacher to make a faithful study of it and its capabilities for himself. It is not the old system of families and it is not to be treated merely as affording a convenient classification. All that was true in those groups it retains but it further develops and in a measure explains them. A few of the lines of usefulness of the system may be pointed out. First arbitrary distinctions, such as be- tween metals and non-metals, which have given chemists so much trouble to define and maintain, can be done away with. The Berzelian division into electro-positive and negative elements is revived and fixed and enables one to account for the gradations between these elements. The system gives a simple, easily remembered and ap- plied arrangement of valence in the place of the confu- sion and difficulties of the old methods. The full introduction of the periodic system means a consecutive study of the elements as allied bodies. ‘This in a measure resembles the study of the hydrocarbons in organic chemistry. It is very valuable as giving a con- nected view of these bodies. ‘The symmetry of chemistry is better shown and the student feels that he has a grasp of the whole, an intelligent comprehension of the propr- ties chemical behavior and inter-relations of the elements which he can scarcely arrive at by the old way.. Bede. connectedly. Thus the ae of all the ele- mel nts, are examined, giving their relation to hydrogen; ] 5h hen the oxides and the influence of the negative and posi- Bie tive nature of the elements upon their relation to oxygen and hydrogen. Under the head of each acid (for theacid Me rgely determines the general characteristics of the salt) the various salts are discussed. This gives a bet- : ter understanding of the characteristics, saves repetition ty and tends to fix in the memory the compounds or classes. : one so too the constant taking up of the elements in their ups and series fixes them m the mind. eee I cannot give the system in detail. Study the periodic = ae and Meyer’s lecture carefully and then laying de prejudices and traditions go boldly to work. What ? lave stated about the advantages of the system may ¥ eem overdrawn. ‘The statements are based upon an ex- ee % ou: of three years and no one has the right to gain- wee y them | until he has faithfully tried the system. c Fig.1. Original Drainage. Fig. 2. Present Drainage. JOURNAL OF THE al % a Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society. THE PRESENT POSITION OF THE PERIODIC SYSTEM. The atomic theory, (first announced by Dalton in 1803) has for nearly a century formed the basis of Chemistry asascience. It is still the only plausible explanation of the vast array of facts gathered by chemists of allages and forms the web and woof of all modern chemical the- ories. It has been the object of prolonged discussion and attack, but having withstood the storms of nearly a hun- dred years, its acceptance now is full and it has becomeso ingrained into the chemist’s conception of his science that he looks upon it almost as one of his facts, a foundation stone of his building and seldom stops to realize that after allit isonly an assumption, an hypothesis, a theory. To shake it would sadly disturb the fabric of his science. A little more than twenty-five years ago with the an- nouncement of the Periodic Law by Mendeléeff this atomic theory reached its highest developmentand gaveits clearest promise of finally leading up to the solution of the true nature of matter. Like the original theory, this development of it received but tardy recognition but the sense of its importance has grown until it stands to-day the central fact of chemistry. Through it new zest has been given to research in fields from which it was thought the harvest had been gathered. It has given a new object to the chemist’s work. It systematizes and arran- ges all the facts which he gathers. It gives a compact- ness and symmetry to his science unknown before. It brings a step nearer the realization of that dream of the 35 JOURNAL OF THE ages—the Unity of Matter. It may be said, with truth, that the Periodic System is the science of Chemistry itself. As such it must of necessity be incomplete. Through it we have been forced to realize how incom- plete our science really is. In one sense, then, to study the present condition of the Periodic System would be to study that of chemistry. We will examine the question, however, from another and more-restricted point of view. We may, in discussing the present position of the Pe- riodic System, draw a distinction between certain points 5 which are well established and others which are still 3 under discussion or beyond our grasp at present. ; First it is clear that the natural arrangement of the elements is in the ascending order of their atomic weights. ‘ This arrangement proveda failure when attempted by _ Gladstone because of imperfect atomic weights. Inthe § — hands of de Chancourtois, Newlands, Meyer and Mendel- éeff it was developed and the singular relations between the elements, called periodic, were madeapparent. This brings us to the second point, that when the elements are ar- ranged in the order of their atomic weights they fall naturally into certain analogous groups and periods with a recurrence, or repetition, of properties at certain in- tervals. This leads up to the third point which we may acknowledge as fixed, namely that the properties of the elements are determined by and dependent upon the atomic weights. This was first stated by de Chancourtois, was proved independently and from a different standpoint by Hinrichs and was forced upon the attention of the world by the genius of Mendeléeff. The points which still remain to be settled are very numerous. In the first place the number of the elements isunknown. Clarke, in the recent revision of his classicre-. calculations of the atomic weights, givesa list of 74. This leaves out-of account all whose atomic weights are still eens A. »* > AS Ae ey £25 ' = es ee ee eee ee eee + r é a Ls te ae Sida — very imperfectly determined or whose existance is still in doubt. Mendeléefi’s table allows for the existence of ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 36 106 elements if a sub-period between hydrogen and lithium be granted. Meyer’s table contains 79 spaces, or counting a similar hydrogen period 86 in all. If helium and its mysterious companion really have the two atomic weights assigned them, the assumption of this hydrogen group wili become necessary. If Mendeléeff is right, then not more than three-fourths of the elements are at present known tous. The vacant space allowed by Meyer for new discoveries is much more reasonable and probably not much in excess of the demand of the near future. Of the 74 recorded by Clarke less than one-half have the atomic weight determined with accuracy to the first decimal place. As Clarke says: ‘‘In most cases even the first decimal is uncertain, and in some instances whole units may be in doubt’’. As the entire arrangement is dependent upon the atomic weights it is manifest that the doubt attaching to those in use seriously retards the development of the system. Some points of great interest must be left entirely in abeyance until data for accurate reasoning are at hand. The atomic weights of the first third of the elements are among the best known and this justifies the arrangement of those imperfectly determined. We would otherwise scarcely be justified in laying much stress upon the pe- riodic arrangement. The imperfectly known” atomic weights makes it im- possible to assign positions in the system to some of the rare earth elements and certain of those more recently discovered. If some of the atomic weights assigned those elements at present are even approximately correct then it seems to be impossible to give them their proper places in any of the more prominent tabular arrangements of the system. This matter of the tabular arrangement of the elements is one which is very far from settled at present. Men- deléeff offers two arrangements, one in vertical, the other i 37 JOURNAL OF THE in horizontal series. They differ widely in many impor- tant points. Some teachers make use of one, some of the other. ‘The Germans and many teachers in England and America use Meyer’s horizontal table. Many other tables have been proposed but they differ widely from those of the two great discoverers of the Periodic System and are generally intended to present and advocate some scheme as to the Genesis of the Elements or some other wild and questionable fancy. I may be pardoned a brief reference to the table worked out by myself and suggested as an aid to teachers. It does not depart very far from the Mendeléeff horizontal table, but my own experience has proved it to be more easily taught and more quickly learned and hence very valuable for the teacher. It certainly brings out some facts which no other table presents, and when our know- ledge is fuller it may aid in solving some of the puzzles . now connected with the system. It must be said that none of the systems are satis- factory, all are imperfect and incomplete and must remain so until our knowledge of the science is itself complete. Recent growth in the science has shown the insufficiency of the older arrangements. The discovery of argon and helium (and shall we add asterium?), the repeated de- termination of the atomic weights of iodine and tellurium and of the nearly twin elements cobalt and nickel show-— ing them to be out of place in Mendeléeff and Meyer tables, have proved surprising reverses to the system after the brilliant successes of its earlier history. Inthe first table the existence of new elements had been predicted with an exact statement of their properties. These predictions had been marvellously fulfilled in the discovery. of scan- dium, gallium and germanium. It was to be expected that future discoveries would only strengthen that which was already so strangely confirmed. But these new ele- ments, argon and helium, were not predicted and refuse to be fitted into the system, as at present constructed, and are . > —— $ i el eel at ~ ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 38 altogether obstinate and refractory. Inthe minds of some the whole system seems overthrown. Let us have patience a little while until the light isclearerand both systems and these elements are better known and understood. As Winkler recently said before the German Chemical Society (Ber. d. Deutsch Chem. Ges. 30. 19) ‘‘Es erscheint nicht ausgeschlossen, dass die Entdeckung der beiden neuen Elemente Argon und Helium Anlass zum weiteren Ausbau, wenn nicht zur Umegestaltung, des period- ischen Systems geben wird, wobei vielleicht auch gewisse, jetzt noch vorhandene Unsicherheiten und Widerspriiche ihre Lésung finden werden.”’ It must not be forgotten that these tabulations began their existence with a serious blot upon them, an unsolved puzzle. From the very beginning no logically satisfac- tory position could be nor has yet been assigned to hydro- gen. There have been sundry attempts at doing this, it is true, but they are not satisfactory and su the standard ele- ment, in some respects the most remarkable and important of them all, is without an abiding place in the home of its brethren. It would seem to be the play of Hamlet with Hamlet left out. That these tabulations of Mendeléeff and Meyer are regarded as imperfect and unsatisfactory is shown by the large number of tables suggested within the last decade. Reynolds, Reed, Flavitzky, Livermore, Tchitcherine, Wendt, Wilde, Preyer, Deeley, Traube, Thomsen, de Boisbaudran are some of the names connected with these tables. They serve to show that many minds are attack- ing the proolem and give much hope for the future. If the clear, pellucid truth can be filtered away from the wild and fanciful and false the progress will be more rapid. Our little systems have their day, They have their day, and cease to be. So far, no really good method of graphically illustra- ting the Periodic Law has been suggested. The spiral 39 JOURNAL OF THE used by de Chancourtois in his really remarkable work has been the favorite method of illustrating it. It has been followed by Lothar Meyer, Mendeléeff, Gibbes, Baumhauer, von Huth, Carnelley and others. Probably a better method for class and teaching purposes is the pendulum-like diagram of Spring, used also by Reynolds and Crookes. Mendeléeff’s objection to the curves of Lothar Meyer seems to me valid though many prefer to use these or similarly constructed curves. They are, at any rate, scarcely suited to the needs of the student who is indifferently equipped with math- ematical ideas. ‘Two objections can be raised to any and all of these diagramatic illustrations. In the first place they fail to bring out some of the important conceptions of the system, even obscuring some of the points; and in the second place, they generally include fancies and spec- ulations not essential to this system and not justified by our present knowledge of it. They go too far and like much teaching of science by analogy, are liable to be presented by those using them without due care and pre- caution. This is especially the case wherever they are looked upon as illustrating the genesis of the elements, about which we still know nothing and should say nothing. Hartley puts the matter in this way. ‘‘The Periodic Law can then be thus stated: The properties of the atoms are a periodic function of their masses. In any eraphic representation of the periodic law the fact that itis upon the mass of the atoms that their properties depend should zppear prominently. The diagram of Dr. Johnstone Stoney used to illustrate the ‘‘Logarithmic Law of Chemistry’’ has, on this account, alone a pre- eminent importance.’’ This diagram of Dr. Stoney’s could scarcely be used by the average teacher because of its complicated nature and the knowledge of mathematical operations required. Surely the greatest requirement is clearness and simplicity. It should appeal readily to the ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 40 eye and carry in itself in great measure its own explana- tion. It should present the details of the law and not some portion of them merely. It should not lead to con- fusion of thought, nor to erroneous conclusions, nor to un- confirmed dreams and fancies. It is manifest that in the present imperfect state of the system no such diagram is possible. Of all which have been offered I do not know of a single one which is truly helpful, which has not upon it some serious blemish, and sol would give voice to _ a warning against their use. Some one of the tabula- tions must serve our purposes for the present as a means ___ of graphic representation. 4 While it is true that the Periodic System has not told us how these simple bodies which we call elements were : generated nor from what they came, while it leaves for the present the so-called Genesis of the Elements a blank A and may never contribute anything to raise the vail, it is i still true that the System has done much to strengthen , the belief in the Unity of Matter and to prove beyond all i doubt that these elements are not independent, discon- j nected units but strangely related and interwoven parts _ of one symmetric whole. However powerless we may be ___to decompose these simple bodies and split them up into components, it is becoming every day clearer that they ; are not truly simple but compound. Of what composed or : how, we know not, but through them all there runs the 4 traces of some community of nature. Chemists, in their : conservatism, areslow toacknowledgea change in belief, so ‘ radical as this, without strong bases of proof, either di- © rectly or indirectly experimental. It smacks strongly of i the baseless fancies of the early alchemists and the Science _ cannotafford any more Will-o-the-Wispchases. But when - such great names as those of Wislicenus, Thomsen and our own Remsen lend their weight and influence to the ~~ new movement we can follow, using the same caution as our leaders. ‘To quote Remsen ‘‘It has been shown by a Russian chemist, Mendeléeff and at the same time by a 41 JOURNAL OF THE German, Lothar Meyer, that the elements are related in a very remarkable way, so closely that it is possible to arrange them all in one table, in which they form parts of a system general. The law governing the variations in properties of the elements is known as the Periodic. Law. The limits of this article will not permit any de- tailed explanation of this remarkable law. ‘The main point that I wish to emphasize is, that the so-called elements are shown to be related to one another and it seems impossible in the light of these facts, to believe. that they are distinct forms of matter. It seems much more probable that they are in turn composed of subtle elements and it has been pointed out that all the substan- ces which we now call elements, of which there are about seventy, can be conceived to be made of two fun- damental elements combined in different proportions. There does not, however, appear to be any immediate prospect of discovering these fundamental substances.” The Periodic System is giving us a clearer perception of many things and gives promise of a deeper insight into the nature of matter. Yet there are unsolved mysteries connected with these numbers which the chemical world has been puzzling over for nearly half-a-century. What is the meaning of the group-differences and the strange recur- renceof certain difference numbersand factors which were noticed by Dumas and Cooke and have fascinated and be- wildered a host of others since? Why should the num- bers eight and eighteen be so frequently repeated in these differences? Thus we find sixteen as the interval between the atomic weights in the alkali, alkaline-earth, oxygen and other groups (using the old designations). Why should seven be the number of elements in a period? Is there a great law of octaves running through nature, in music, color, and the elemental simple bodies? ‘There is little of practical value to be gotten from such specu- lations but judging from the large numbers of numerical regularities reported it has proved a seductive field. Lit- ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 42 : tle is to be gleaned fromsuch work. Strange and puzzling figures occasionally appear but the fanciful erratic na- ture of most of it can be seen from the connection reduced by some between these numerical regularities and the plan- etary distances or other matters, equally as far away. Some have sought out mathematical formulas by which the atomic weights might be calculated but without very gratifying success. One of the most persistent dreams of the century, Prout’s Hypothesis, seems to have received its quietus for a time at least. Such error is hydra-head- ed and one can never be sure that all the heads are off. A grand service has been done Chemistry by the dis- covery and announcement of this system. Chemists have the short-comings of their science brought clearly to their notice and research which was before somewhat desultory and aimless, a little picking here and there, is concentrated and direct so that the work may tell. And this is well as we enter upon a new century-——one whose close is to seeus a good hundred years further on than we are now. The gaps must be filled,error eliminated, knowledge perfected, so that we need grope no longer but may walk in the light of truth. The man who takes some little portion of the field and examines the inconsist- ent statements, and stumbles over the absolute errors, and loses his way along paths upon which research has shed no light at all, must bow his head in shame at the small result of our toil during all these centuries of grop- ing. Let us then be up and doing. Strive to make some one thing clearer, to brush away some error, or to place one stepping stone securely for the feet that are to fol- . *Address before N. C. Section Amer. Chem. Soc., F. P. Venable, Ra- * leigh Feb. 22, 1897. NOTES ON THE EXACT COMPUTATION OF THE QUEEN POST TRUSS. The Queen Post Truss is extensively used in the con- struction of ordinary highway bridges, as on account of its simple details it is easily constructed by the average carpenter. As usually built by him, there are no coun- ter braces in the middle panel, so that for an eccentric load, the stiffness of the chord has to be depended upon to transfer part of the load toeither abutment. Plate 1 represents a bridge composed of two Queen Post trusses placed parallel to the line of road and sixteen feet apart in the clear. The ends of these trusses rest upon wood- en timbers (wall plates) at either abutment and the lone vertical rods hold up the suspended beams which extend under the bridge from truss to truss. The joists which hold up the planking of the roadway are placed parallel to the trusses and rest at their ends upon the suspended beams and the wall plates. Any load which comes upon the planking is transferred by these joists, acting as beams, to the suspended beams and wall plates. The load thus transferred to a suspended beam is carried to its ends and thence by the vertical rods to the upper joints of the truss, whence it travels down the rafters or main braces to the abutments. For a uniform load over the bridge both suspended beams carry the same loading and the computation of the stresses in the truss members is made in the usual manner. If, however, a heavy con- centrated load, as that due toa road roller or a crowd of people, is supposed to act on only one suspended beam, the investigation is of a different character. The part of this concentrated load which is held up by the vertical rods, meeting at an upper joint of a single truss, will be ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 44 called W. At the upper joint, this vertical load W is decomposed by the parallelogram of forces method into components acting down the main brace and along the upper chord respectively. ‘The resulting push along the upper chord is decomposed at the next joint into compon- ents acting along the other main brace and vertical. The triangle of forces at this second joint is necessarily the same as that at the first joint, as the horizontal com- ponent is the same and the rafters are equally inclined to the vertical. ‘Therefore the stresses in the vertical and rafter at the second joint are precisely the same in char- acter and amount as at the first joint. Hence there will be a tension W, in the verticai rods at the second joint and this tension, pressing the suspended beam upwards against the lower chord, tends to bend it upward. The lower chord is thus in the condition cf a beam of length equal to the span and subjected to a single upward force W, acting at one third of its length from one end for equal panel lengths. The force W, causes the lower chord to press upwards against the feet of the rafters, with a force 2W at the nearest rafter and }W at the furthest. As we found the vertical component of the stress in both rafters = W, acting downwards, the resultant pressures on the abutments are, W—2W=:iW and W—iW=2Was should be, by the law of the]_ver, for the original load W acting at the first joint, the larger reaction occurring at the abutment nearest the load. The lower chord must be made of sufficient dimensions to act as a beam to safely sustain a vertical force W act- ing upwards and placed a panel length from one end. The moment is greatest at the force and equals 3 W (its re- action at foot nearest rafter) multiplied by one-third the span or length of lower chord from foot of one rafter to ‘that of the other. In addition, the section of the lower chord must be made large enough to provide for the hor- izontal component H_ of the stress in a rafter at its foot. This thrust generally acts at “inches above the center of 45 JOURNAL OF THE the chord, depending on the depth of the notch where the rafter joins the chord, and thus not only causes a uniform stress, in the chord but one due to the moment Hz. ‘The maximum fibre stress in the lower chord at a panel point is that due to the abeve forces combined with that due to the weight of the chord, for all of these influences cause tension in the top fibre of the chord at a panel point. With a full live load W at each end of both suspended beams, the stresses in the verticals are W as before. Sothat the stresses in rods, rafters and upper chord are precise- ly the same as for the eccentric load first considered. In this case, the stress in the vertical rods = W, is exactly balanced by the load W held at foot of rod, so there is force tending to bend the chord. The dead load stresses are of course to be found and added to those caused by the live load, The above theory is upon the supposition that the ‘‘Suspended beams’’ are not fastened to the lower chords. If they are fastened, a load at one suspended beam only, is partly carried by the chord ‘‘acting as a beam’’ and partly by the vertical ties. Reasoning as before, the stresses in the verticals at the other joint are the same as those of the first, giving an upward pull on the chord where the suspension beauis meet it. The lower chord in this case, is bent downward at the load and upwards at the other panel points, thus giving a reverse curva- ture to the chord, so that it can resist bending much more effectively than in the former case, where it was compelled to actas a beam with a span equal to the span of the bridge and was acted on by a full panel load. The exact solution for this case cannot be effected by statics alone. Another principle has to be made use of and I have © availed myself of the principle of least work, for which see an article by the writer in the Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers for April, 1891. In this article, the writer deduced the principle of least work, with effect of temperature changes included, by _ ELISHA MITCHELL, SCIENTIFIC SOCIBTY. 46 the method of virtual velocities, to which it readily lends itself. Castligliano in his ‘‘Systemes Elastiques,’’ a work that deserves to become classic, had already deduced the principle in an entirely different manner and given nu- merous applications to structures in metal and stone. The writer has followed essentially his manner of ap- plying the principle, to the truss next to be examined, though by regarding the chord, when acting as a beam, to be ‘‘free’’ under the action of certain forces. there isa gain in simplicity. Ihave computed in full, the truss shown in plate 2, an inverted Queen Truss. As it corresponds exactly in theory to the truss shown in figure 1, if we suppose the suspended beams there to rest on or be fastened to, the lower chord, the solution of the one truss will indicate that of the other. Reference will be made to the following principles in the theory of elastic work: Ina straight bar of length a and cross section w, sub- jected to a gradually applied stress which reaches its max- imum s, the elastic work of deformation, e being the co- efficient of elasticity of the bar is, 7 es 2 ew In a beam subjected to vertical external forces, if we call the length of a segment of the beam 2/ and the mo- ments of the external forces, at the right end of the seg- ment M,, at the middle M, and at the left end M,., the elastic work of deformation, of the segment considered is ke —— -—(M?x 4M,’+ M?®,)...... (@). 2EI 3 K being the modulus of elasticity of the beam. The principle of least work requires that the sum of the work due to all members of the Structure shall bea minimum, when one unknown stress is required. - a. a re” ee é : ata os ¥ " Ww 1 on fe ae A - . 47 JOURNAL OF THE In the elevation of one truss of the structures shown by fig. 2, the centre line of chord is 45 ft. long and is di- vided into three equal panels. From centre line of chord to bottom of posts is 4 feet, thus giving the length of inclined rods AC (from washer to foot of post) 15.52 feet and the length of horizontal rods CC 15 feet. We shall suppose that the two suspended beams on either side of the left post, transfer to the chord through the hangers, a load of 14 thousand poundsand the sus- -— pended beams at the right post similarly transfer a load of 4.5thousand pounds. [All loads, reactions and stresses will be expressed in thousand pounds. ] Call # the part of the load 14 that is supported by the chord acting as a beam and therefore 14— will be the part held up by the left post. The downward thrust of the post on the ties gives a stress in the left inclined tie =15.52(14—4)+4 and in the horizontal tie, 15(14—4)+4. This last tension, when resolved at foot of right post into ~ components, gives a tension in inclinced tie there and compression in post, the same as found at the left apex C, the triangles of forces being equal at the two apices as the stress in the horizontal tie is the same ‘in both. The right post thus pushes upwards with a force 14—-4, which is assumed, as we shall find it to be, great- er than the load 4.5 applied to chord at right post. The difference (14—f4)—4.5 = 9.5—4 represents then, the up- ward thrust against the chord there which must be sus- tained by the chord acting as a beam. The chord acting as a beam, therefore sustains a downward force over left post of 4 and an upward force at right post of (9.5—A). By the law of the lever, these forces cause a downward pressure at the left abutment of (4—3.166) and an upward effort at right abutment equal to (6.3334). As the vertical components in both inclined rods are each (14—#) we have, as the total pressure of truss on left abutment, (A—3.166) + (14—p) = 10.833 and at right AG Oe ae ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 48 abutment (14—fA)—(6.333—A) = 7.666, just as we should find for the two original loads by the law of the lever. These results are true for any value of A(< 14) that may be assumed. They do not determine A. We shall soon see how to determine it after expressing the work of deformation of the entire truss in terms of /. As the elastic work in the vertical posts is very small it will be neglected. The work in the ties s given by formula (1). For the two inclined ties, the stress, s=15.5 x (14-4) +4, a=15.5 and w=—.04 square foot nearly. Substituting these values in (1) and multiplying by 2 we get the elas- tic work by inclined ties at either end. Similarly the stress in the horozontal tie CC, s=15 (14—4A)~+4, also a=15 and w =.04. These values substi- tuted in (1) gives the work of horizontal rod CC. As the modultis e is for iron and E for wood, take e=16 K, then the work of the iron ties in one truss will add up to, 1 (10757? —29600f) -. 2.2. ee eee 2E on neglecting terms that do contain A, as will be done in what follows, as snch constant terms disappear when dif- ' fertiated as to 7. To ascertain the work on the chord acting as a beam, _ we use formula (2). We have the downwaad force / act- ing at left post, the upward force (9.5—) at right post, _ the upward reaction at left abutment—(A—3.166) and the downward reaction at right abutment —(6.333—4). The beam can thus be considered as free and subjected to x these forces only, Let us apply formula (2) first to right segment of chord from E to B, 15 feet in length, 27=15, M25 9 M, = (6,333—)7.5, 49 JOURNAL OF THE M,= (6,333—f)15; giving the work of deformation for this section, if ——(1125 Z” —14250 p) -..:.......-) Ge 2K I hd neglecting the constant term as before. For the middle ~ seoment, 2 /=1 5, M,=(6.3333—f)15 M,=(4—3:166)225-—7.5p M, =(f—3.166)15 The work by (2) for this segment is therefone, 1 2EI Lastly for the left segment A B, 27=15, NEP, —o. 166) 15 M,=(f—3.166)7.5 (3375¢* 320624)... .. J. Se Me=0 .’. by (2) work equals 1 —(11257’—7125p) ................ .-(6) 2E1 Adding together (4), (5) and (6) and for a beam 6X16 inches, putting, ate icp (ere We get as the total work of the chord acting asa beam, 1 | ag | Sess —S810509 Snr Shab eu Open 2E: J The uniform compression in the chord, s= 15 (14—4) | +4, causes elastic work given by (1), on substituting, a=45 and w= square foot; the amount being, ae ) —— | [9502’—266004] | 3... 4. 2E | J —— Pe Se ee ™ 3 ; i = 4 . ; ; I | ‘ . ELISHA MITCHELL, SCIENTIFIC SOCIBTY. 50 On adding the expressions (3), (7) and (8), we find for the total elastic work of one truss, neglecting con- stants, 1 } —— | [589602 *—5972504] | —.. .. -. ye ee 9). 2K } By the principle of least work, the derivative of this with respect to # must be placed equal to zero in order to find f. 117920A—597250—0 p—5.07. So that the chord, acting as a beam, sustains a down- ward force at the left post of about 5 thousand pounds and an upward force at the right post of 9.5—4 or about 4.5 thousand pounds, causing the chord to bend down- at the left post and upward at the right post. This reversed curve assumed by the chord causes it to be more efficient as a beam than in the preceding bridge exam- ined. The value of the reactions of the chord, acting asa beam, at the ends, we have seen to be, p—3.17=1.90 and 6.33—f= 1.26; thus giving the greatest moment at the left post equal to 1900 x 15=28500 foot Ibs. If we allow, by the usual formula, 1200 pounds per square inch fibre stress the chord, for a depth otf 16 inches, should be 6.6 inches wide in place of the 6 inches assumed. Certain changes of temperature will increase this width still further as we shall see. INFLUENCE OF CHANGE OF TEMPERATURE. The linear expansion of iron, per unit of length, for each degree centigrade (1°C), is 1+82500. Suppose the bridge put together at 10°C (50°F) and that . 7 if JOURNAL OF THE Cr 2 the temperature afterwards rises /=25°C (45°F). Ifthe —~ expanded horizontal bar CC is supposed in position, the end bars A C and EC will each be too long by Leak ¢ 15.522 | — —— costt+ ——=.000276¢ | 2 82500 82500 ; where 7 = angle that end bar m kes with chord. - The tension in end rod or tie is 15.5 (14—f) +4 Twice the product of these two expressions, or, (consltant—.00214¢) f gives the work due to heat in the truss, neglecting any ~~ expansion of the wood. By the article of the writer referred to above (Section 6), we must add this term to the elastic work (9) of the entire truss and put the derivative with respect to p equal to zero. Doing this we obtain, 58960A—298625—.002142K =0. ee If we assume FE for yellow pine, 1,600,000 pounds per ‘ sq. inch, or, as we must substitute it here, where all dimensions are in feet and loads in thousand pounds, ‘ KK} =230400 thousand pounds per sq. foot, | we derive, ee 58960A—298625—493¢=0........(10), whence for 4=+25(C), f=5.27 us and for. /=—25(C); p=4:8>: . The rise of temperature of 25°C (45°F) above the sup- posed normal of 10°C (50°F) gives the greatest. reaction, | 2103 pounds, at left abutment, and hence the greatest | momemt = 210315 fcot pounds -at left post. ‘This moment calls for a beam 7.4 inches wide by 16 deep. It was made 8 inches wide to allow somewhat for the uni- form compression, which, however, is less than 300 a pounds per Square inch on account of the large section of : the chord. At the left post, the weight of the chord ~ - shi ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC, SOCIETY. 52 tends to cause tension in the upper fibre. Its influence being beneficial, was not further regarded. The method has now been given in full for ascertain- ing the stresses in the various members for a non-uni- form loading. itIn this particular case, the dead‘ load per panel per truss, was assumed at 4500 Ibs., which is found to be nearly exact on making out weights, etc. The live load was assumed to be that due to a crowd of people weighing nearly 80 Ibs. per sq. foot, for a clear width between trusses of 16 feet; the portion held at one apex of one truss being 9500 pounds. As sucha partial load can only be obtained by supposing the live load to extend from an abutment two panels and then neglecting the part held up at the farthest apex, it-is in excess of any eccentric load that can be placed only at one apex und thus is on the side of safety. The influence of temperature changes is seen to be very marked for this combination bridge and would be stiil more pronounced for more northern latitudes, where greater ranges of temperature are experienced than in the Southern states. By giving any desired value to ¢ in equation (10) above, the resulting value of f ts readily found and the chord examined as before for proper width. It would materially tend to obviate the bad effects of temperature if the truss was assembled in the heat of summer without any camber in the chord. As it became colder, the chord would receivea slight camber upwards, which would increase with the fall of temperature, and thus tend to diminish the large bending stress in the chord at the most heavily loaded apex. For this case, we should put, say, / =—50 in eq. (10) and thus find A= 4.65 and finally the resulting maximum moment in the chord act- ing asa beam which turns out to be at the right post _ where no live load is supposed to rest. It is 108315 ft. lbs., and thus less than for the temperature at which the 53 JOURNAL OF THE bridge is assembled; so that no increase of stress is expe- rienced, but the reverse and the width of chord can be safely taken at 6.6 inches, or say 7 inches, for a depth of 16 inches, as first found. The maximum stresses in the ties and posts are of course under a full loading of 14,000 pounds at each post. The chord now bends downwards throughout so that it cannot sustain near as much of the load (acting asa beam) as before. The strict investigation can be made as above; but it may prove near enough in determining the section of the ties (the posts evidently having an ex- cess of strength) to suppose each post to carry the full panel load in place of the strict value (14—4), to the ties and proportion them for the corresponding stress in an end tie, as their section is uniform throughout. The sec- tion given was determined in this way for an assumed unit stress of 10,000 pounds per square inch. SOME LATE VIEWS OF THE SO-CALLED TACONIC. AND HURONIAN ROCKS CENTRAL NORTH CAROLINA.! BY H.? Be CoeNED The region under discussion embraces a belt, from 8 to 40 miles in width, of metamorphic slates and schists, extending from Virginia in a general southwesterly direc- tion across the central part of North Carolina into South Carolina. This area forms the principal gold ore belt 1For further discussion of this subject and for map showing the dis- tribution of the rocks here described, see Bulletin 3 N. C. Geological Survey, 1896. ‘ ¢2- Prise ae oe: ‘ha ad ke . ¢ . i? % al ¥ 7 i ~ a Bote: | Flooring 2 inches thick iz) Subendad Beas sb5] American Bank Note Co;.N.Y. |_| QUEEN POST TRUSS ¢ Floor Plan Plates kindly loaned by Prof. J. A. lfolmes. State Geologist. me | PLATE 2. Fig. e. Detail of Iron Washer t 6x 8 " Two Rods 1% diameter DECK BRIDGE, 45 FEET SPAN, Side View. ae; A Fig. d. Detail of Iron Shoe Chord 8x 16. " e " Pew oS a peek ae eS, SE ren center Wall Plates 16 feet clear width Planking 3"x 6 Suspended Beam 7"x 16” Chord 8"k 16” P) Suspended Beam 7'x 16” oe + ny ok Ate z : an ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 54 of North. Carolina, in which connection it is known as the Carolina Slate Belt. It includes, in North Carolina, portions of the counties of Granville, Person, Durham, Orange, Alamance, Chatham, Randolph, Davidson, Row- an, Moore, Montgomery, Stanly, Cabarrus, Anson, and Union. On the west it is bounded by an area of igneous crystalline rocks, and on the east, for the greater part, by the Jura-Trias sandstones, conglomerates and shales. The general term sla/es and schists, used above, covers a broad designation. The country rocks of the region are:—1) Argillaceous, sericitic (hydro-micaceous), and chloritic slates and schists, all of them more or less meta- morphosed. 2) Sedimentary pre-Jura-Trias slates. 3) Ancient volcanic rhyolites, quartz-porphyries, etc., and pyroclastic breccias, often sheared into a schistose struct- ure. The general strike of the schistosity is N. 20° to 50° E., and the dip is steeply to the northwest. In 1856, Prof. Ebenezer Emmons, in his Geological Re- port of the Midland Counties of North Carolina (pp. 38-73) described this region and referred the rocks to the Taconic system; and in 1875, Prof. W. C. Kerr, in his Report of the Geological Survey of North Carolina (vol. 1; pp. 131-139) included the same rocks in the Huronian. In order to gain a more comprehensive oversight of this important geological area, it will be well to first state briefly both Emmons’ and Kerr’s conceptions of their Taconic and Huronian in this part of North Carolina; and then to discuss the same in the light of more recent inves- tigations, carried on by the writer during the latter part of 1894, for the North Carolina Geological Survey. These investigations were unfortunately of acursory and incom- plete nature, and can but form the beginning of a more thorough study of the region lateron. However, they will well serve the present purpose of showing the errors into which Emmons and Kerr had fallen, and the miscon- = >) JOURNAL. OF THE ceptions they entertained regarding the nature of these rocks, due perhaps chiefly to the lack of petrographic evidences, the science.of microscopic petrography being totally unknown in Emmons’ days, and certainly in its infancy at the time of Kerr. EMMONS’ TACONIC SYSTEM IN NORTH CAROLINA. Emmons placed these rocks among the oldest sediment- aries, 1. e. at the base of the Paleozoic. In his words:' ‘The formation of the midland counties, which eccupy the largest extent of surface, are slates and siliceous rocks, which have been called quartzites.” “ .* "=e ‘The slates are variable in color and composition. They are mineralogically clay, chloritic, and talcose slates, taking silica into their composition at times, and even passing into fine grits and hornstones, but still variable in coarseness. In the order in which they lie the talcose slates and quartzites. are the inferior rocks, though quartzites. occur also in the condition of chert, flint or hornstone in all the series.”’ He established their sedimentary origin from the oc- currence of numerous beds containing, in his_ belief, rounded pebbles. Further, ‘‘I found, however, many beds among them which looked like sediments, were por- — phyrized and somewhat changed, though not strictly por- phyries. I found after much search too, beds which were unequivocally pebbly; and finally, to remove all doubt, I was fortunate in discovering that the porphorized beds also frequently contained pebbles; proving most conclu- sively that they are sediments which were partially al- tered. ”f One of the arguments that Emmons used to prove the sedimentary nature of the Taconic, and its derivation from the basal complex, is the presence of gold in the 1Geol. Report of Midland Countiss of N. C. 2Tbid, p. 47. -BLISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 56 slates and schists, ‘‘which of course must have been com- mingled with the sediments at the time these rocks were deposited.”” * * * * ‘*The gold exists mostly in the western belt of granite in the veins belonging to the horn- blende and gneiss of the Blue Ridge.””' Furthermore he claimed to have discovered ix his Low- er Taconic sandstones and cherty beds at Troy and Zion (12 miles southwest of Troy) in Montgomery county, sev- eral species of fossils.”. He described these as_ siliceous corals of a lenticular form, from the size of a pea to two inches in diameter. ‘Two varieties are distinguished and named by him: Paleotrochis (old messenger) major and, Paleotrochis minor. The following descriptive section, in the ascending order of the rocks and beds, in which these supposed fossils were found, is given: ** (1) Talcose slates, passing into siliceous slates, and which are often obscnrely brecciated. Thickness unde- termined. ‘*(2) Brecciated conglomerates, sometimes porphyrized. **(3) Slaty breccia, associated with hornstone. \ (4) Granular quartz, sometimes vitreous and filled with fossils and siliceous concretions of the size of almonds; two to three hundred feet thick. ““(5) Slaty quartzite with very few fossils; abont fifty feet thick. ‘*(6) Slate without fossils; forty feet thick. | “(7) White quartz, more or less vitrified, filled with fossils and concretions; seven to eight hundred feet thick. (8) Jointed granular quartz, with only a few fossils. (9) Vitrified quartz without fossils, and thickness very great, but not determined, ‘“The fossils also occur in the variety of quartz or quartzite known as burrhstone, and which is often por- phyrized.”’ " 1Ibid, p. 57. 2Idib pp. 48. 60. 57 JOURNAL OF THE These fossiliferous beds are stated to be some biaien auriferous. He is therefore disposed from the above facts, to place all of the rocks not decidedly igneous, that is, those which he regarded as stratified (though in reality the apparent stratification is but schistose lamination), with the sedi- ments. He then correlates these rocks with the taconic, the infra-silurian sediments of Massachusetts, based main- ly on ‘‘their lithological characters, and the relations in which they are placed to the older rocks, and those which they sustain to each other.’’ In North Carolina, he says, these rocks have been derived from syenitic granites, which he believes to belong to the primary or basal com- plex. He makes two divisions, the Lower Taconic and and the Upper Taconic, noting that the distinction be- tween them, however, is less obvious‘in North Carolina than in the northern equivalents. The Lower Taconic, ‘*The Lower series will contain the talcose slates. white and brown sandstone, or quartz, which is frequently vitrified or cherty, and the granular limestone and associated slates.'”’ The talcose slates are stated to be made up of talc and fine grains of quartz, becoming a friable sandstone when quartz predominates. Color and lustre silvery when chlorite is absent, and greenish when chlorite is present. The following varieties of these quartz rocks are given:* ‘1) A fine grained coherent quartz. (2) A fine grained friable quartz. ‘*(3) A fine grained micaceous and talcose quartz. **(4) Vitrified quartz or chert. (a) green, blue, (b) aga- tized. ‘(5) A cherty or apparently porphyrized quartz, which contains feldspar, which decomposes and leaves a rough porous mass similar to burrhstone. 1Ibid, p. 49; Ibid, p. 51 2 Ibid, p. 55. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 58 **(6)Pebbly and semi-brecciated quartz. ‘(7) Common brown quartz. Sener r0ck, sr 1S associated with *..* tale cose slates. Itis repeated two or three times. * * * It frequently contains beds of pebbles. But its most in- teresting feature appears in its passage into hornstone, chert or flint.’’ The apparent vitrification he considers due to a chem- ical combination of the particles, that is, toa cause inde- pendent and distinct from heat. ‘‘Agalmatolite’’ (pyrophyllite) is mentioned as occur- ring in beds in this Lower Taconic series. And lime- stone, containing talc and tremolite, issaid to be associated with slate and quartz, Kmmons’ rocks of the Lower Taconic, then are: (1) ‘‘Beds of talcose slates. (2)Quartz rocks with their alternating series of talcose sla.es. (3) Beds of agalma- tolite. (4) Limestone with its interlaminated slates. The Upper Taconic. ‘*This division of the system is Homvery clearly marked. *~-*.* In North Carolina the linc of demarcation is sometimes difficult to define. But the rocks which I regard at the present time are*(in as- cending order)’: (1) *“‘Argillaceous, or clay slates, with many subordi- nate beds, roofing slates, mountain slate. .(2) **Chloritic and argillaceous sandstones, flagging stones, etc. (3) *‘Brecciated conglomerates. The ordinary solt, greenish slates may be regarded as the prevailing mass of the first division. The predominant ® coloris greenish gray. A red decomposed variety’ is mentioned as being common near Pittsboro, Chatham county. ‘‘The subordinate beds are fine siliccous ones passing into chert or hornstone. ig are blue, purple and green.’’ 1 Tbid, p. 55. » [bid p. 65. The colors ne r we ‘ Feo eee Ee ~ at a] ° . ‘ m 59 JOURNAL OF THE ny ‘The slate in the ascending order is more and more in- ; terlaminated with thick beds, which have an intermedi- ~~ ate composition between a sandstone and slate, the second - 2S SES = division. Among them are beds of conglomerate. These beds may be mistaken for trap, being greenish and tough, and besides like trap the broken strata become — concretionary and exfoliate in concentric layers.”’ ‘The brecciated conglomerate has an argillaceous or chloritic base. The mass is composed in the main of fragments of other rocks mostly retaining an angular form. The fragments are sometimes eighteen inches, - and even two feet long.”’ ‘’Theclay slates and breccia, with their intermediate beds are traversed by veins of milky quartz. They are some- times auriferous.”’ The so-called quartzite of both the Upper and Lower . Taconic is considered of such peculiarity that a separate . chapter is devoted to its description. It is described as an uncrystallized quartz, resembling gun-flint, and is also called flint, chert and hornstone. Color bluish-black, passing to purple, grayish, white and green; sometimes banded; texture fine when compared with the finest sand=- stone; translucent on edges; fracture flat conchoidal; often porphyritic, porphyrized; and it is stated that frequently the fresh fracture is dotted with small limpid crystals of quartz. ‘The varieties of quartzite are’ numerous if color and texture are made grounds of distinction:! (1) ‘Light gray and compact, or very finely granular. (2) ‘Smoke gray, with grains of hyaline quartz dis- seminated in the mass. (3) ‘*Texture fine granular, with drab color. (4) ‘‘Porphyrized quartzite. (5) ‘Light green quartzite. 1 [bid, p. 71. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 60 (6) ‘‘ Greenish, and full of cavities, and frequently epi- dotic. (7) ‘‘Banded quartzite, or coarsely agatized. “These forms of quartzite are not confined to rocks of a particular age, or to a given series. They seem to be distributed through:formations of all ages and epochs. They are common to both divisions of the Ta- conic.”’ Emmons explains their origin from an aqueous chem- ical standpoint. KERR’S HURONIAN SYSTEM IN CENTRAL NORTH CAROLINA. Kerr recognized five principal outcrops of the Huronian rocks. The one that corresponds to the Central Slate belt, and hence of interest here, is stated to lie on the west side of the Raleigh e@ranite.? ‘‘The bottom beds are argillaceous and talco:d.* * * Three or four miles from Raleigh these slates become highly plumbaginous, * * * anda heavy body of micaceous, white, slaty quartz- ites follows closely along the west side of the graphite. Alternations of argillaceous, talcoid and quartzitic beds continue for five or six miles, when they disappear be- neath a narrow -trough of Triassic sandstones, beyond which they emerge along an irregular, but approximately northeast and southwest, linein the central mineral bear- in@ slate belt. * * * ‘This tract extends quite across the State in a breadth of 20 to 40 miles, and is composed of siliceous slates and clay slates chiefly; the former being often brecciated and congIcmerate, the pebbles sometimesa foot and upwards in diameter, frequently chloritic, and often passing into hornstone and chert, and occasionally into quartzite. The clay slates are generally thin-bed- ded, often shaly, gray, drab, banded, blue and frequently greenish from an admixture of chlorite; sometimes tal- 1[bid. pp. 51 and 72. ? Report of the Geol. Sur. of N. C., 1875, Vol. 1. pp. 181-9, 61 JOURNAL OF THE coid or hydro-micaceous; and very often they may be bet- ter described as conglomerate slates, being composed of flattened antl differently colored soft, slaty fragments of all sizes, from minute particles to an inch and more in diameter. * * * * * In Montgomery county, in a very heavy ledge of siliceous slates, occurs a siliceous con- e@lomerate, which is filled for hundreds of feet with very singular siliceous concretions, some of which Dr. Em- mons has described under the name of Paleotrochis; but the rock for several miles, as wellas at this particular locality, contains a multitute of rounded and ovoid masses from the smallest sizes to that of a hen’s egg: showing the w de prevalence of conditions favorable to the operation of concretionary forces. * * * The tal- cose, siliceous, chloritic slates are more abundant towards the base of the series, Be east side, and the clay slates predominate on the west.’ He also mentions the occurrence of beds ai pyrophyl- lite, and the abundance of quartz veins. The strike is givenas northeast, and the dip prevalently west at steep angles. ‘’The belt is bounded on both sides by the Laurentian, on which it lies unconformably, and from which its ma- terials were derived. The stratigraphy therefore indi- cates the horizon of these rocks to be the Huronian, and lithology agrees with that determination.””! RESULTS OF MORE RECENT PETROGRAPHIC STUDIES. The Slates and Schists. One of the results of the late geological work in this belt has been to identify at least the argillaceous, sericitic, and chloric schists and slates with those of Emmons’ Taconic and Kerr’s Huronian. These rocks are termed schists, and again they are term- ed slates. Certainly a great number of them have a true slaty cleavage, while others are more truly schistose, i. e. the laminae are not essentially parallel. These different 1Tbid, p. 133. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 62 structural effects are due to dynamo-metamorphie action on materials of different composition. The argillaceous types might more properly be called the slates (clay- slate, thon-schiefer, argyllite, phyllite) as they contain more uncrystalline matter, and possess a more definitely slaty structure. So also bedding planes are more easily distinguishable in these, if at all; and altogether their sedimentary or clastic origin is more evident. At the same time they are metamorphosed in varying degrees, and possess many secondary cleavage structures. These slates often have a calcareous tendency in their composi- tion, as is exemplified by the numerous small calcite seams that intersect them, and the coatings of calcite on their cleavage planes. The term ¢a/lc (¢alcose, talcotd) slate or schist, used by Emmons and Kerr, and generally by many others, isa mistaken one. It is true that it is perhaps an excusable error, for these slates and schists are often so soft and greasy that the resemblance to talc is very great. "How- ever, chemical analysis and other characteristics would place the mineral in the class of hydro-muscovite or seri- cite, the percentage of magnesia being far too small for talc. Several analyses of type specimens of this rock from the Haile gold mine in Lancaster county, S. C., by Dr. Chas. Baskerville, of the University of North Caro- lina, show: $10; 44.61 61.02 Al1,O, ales 4 25.54 FeO 3155 4.46 CAO) 0.20 0.60 MgO 0.22 0.14 MnO Oats Worn soa Na,O 6.96 2.19 K,O 6.97 1.81 H,O 5.80 4.20 100.04 99.96 The term that I shall therefore use as more appropri- 63 JOURNAL OF THE ate is sericite schist. The true talc schists are very rare. The chloritic schists are probably more truly crystalline schists, and are richer in accessory metamorphic minerals, such as garnet and epidote. The argillaceous slates and sericite schists are fre- quently silicified; the chlorite schists are not asa rule. This silicification exists in varying degrees up to a com- pleteness which renders the rock so hard that it resists scratching with a knife. The strike of the formation as a whole is generally northeast, and the dip steepiy to the northwest. ‘These strikes and dips refer to the schistosity of the rocks, and not to the bedding planes. y In general the force producing schistosity and slaty cleavage appears to have acted downward from the north- west, producing normal faulting with but little deform- ation. No instance of reverse faulting was recorded. Now, as to the origin of these schistose and slaty recks; in part it seems that they must be sedimentaries altered by dynamo- and hydro-metamorphism. The evi- dence of this is offered by several observations of bedding and banding extending across the schistosity, generally at low angles, although in most instances this original structure has been obliterated. Emmons’ supposition that the gold in the slates and schists is of sedimentary origin (page 55) is altogether untenable. The lamination or schistosity, however, is wholly the effect of shearing, produced by dynamo-metamorphism. It has no connection with bedding planes of stratigraphic structure, as both._Emmons and Kerr supposed. The original bedding planes may correspond to certain of the present cleavage planes, i. e. lie parallel to them, but in that case the bedding structure has been obliterated. Schistosity must not be confounded with bedding. It does not seem probable, at the present stage of in- vestigation, that these slates have been derived from the granitic and other more basic igneous masses lying on at ee Cg ira . K , _ ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 64 the west; for these are supposed to be later intrusive bosses. That others of these schists, particularly the chloritic varieties, are metamorphosed, sheared eruptives seems most probable. They are even porphyritic and brecciated in places. In fact Emmons hints at such rocks in his description of his Upper Taconic chloritic member, when he says: ‘‘These beds may be mistaken for trap, being greenish and tough, and besides like trap, the broken strata become concretionary and exfoliate in concentric layers.”” (Page 59.) This subject will be recurred to later on. The Monroe Slates. At Monroe, in Union county, a considerable area of truly bedded and but little indurated or metamorphosed slates was discovered. Similar slates were also found at the Parker gold mine near New London, Stanly county, at the townof Albemarle in Stan- ly county, and at the Sam Christian gold mine in Mont- gomery county. Thus they presumably cover a large area in the southeastern portion of the Carolina Slate Belt. In the fresh condition this slate is black, weather- ing to dark and light drab, greenish and even reddish colors. At the railroad station (Monroe) it lies in a low, gently undulating axticlinorium. Several hundred yards south of the depot the strike is N.85°K., and the dip is 30°S.E. Ata point } mile north of the depot it is finely banded and lies nearly horizental. It has been quarried here for use as paving blocks in Monroe. That these slates are of sedimentary origin and of later age than the slates and schists to the west and north can scarcely admit of doubt. They are reported to dip under the Jura-Trias conglomerate at Polkton, about 20 miles east of Monroe, and might be looked upon as Lower Pal- eozoic; but the absence of :fossitis (at least so far none have been found, though a careful search is certainly warranted) must, for the time being, place them provis- 65 JOURNAL OF THE ‘ . ionally in the Algonkian. They might appropriately be named the Mozroe slates. The Volcanic Series. The middle member of Emmons’ Lower Taconic is the quartz rock (white and brown sand- stone), which is stated by him to exist in many varieties; (p. 57). I did not observe any true granular quartzites, such as characterize the Cambrian for instance (even in a metamorphosed state); and in fact, from Emmons’ ana Kerr’s descriptions, their rocks of this class are rather fine-grained, thin bedded, quartzose schists, and devitri- fied quartz or chert, often porphyrized and_ brecciated. It is probable that Emmons’ fine grained talcose quartz (p. 58) corresponds to the silicified schists, (p. 63) whese quartzitic nature is due to a later hydro-silicification. The crypto-crystalline varieties of quartz (flint, chert, hornstone) are of especial interest, and warrant a careful consideration. It is at present the opinion that these rocks belong to the class of ancient (pre-Cambrian) acid volcanics, in many respects analogous to, and probably contemporaneous with, similar rocks ef the South Moun- tain in Maryland and Pennsylvania, whose discovery was first announced by the late Dr. George H. Williams.1 Miss Florence Bascom has described the origin, devitri- fication and structure of the acid types of these rocks.” And Dr. Williams has outlined the general distribution of the ancient volcanic rocks along the eastern border of North America.’ These rocks are analogous also to the halleflintas and eurites of Southern Sweden, described as volcanic rocks by Nordenskjéld. They would also cor- respond to Hunt’s pre-Cambrian petro-silex rocks, called by him the Aryonian, being below his Huronian. The hornstones have every appearance of being acid feldspar quartz rocks, and will probably be found, on 1The Voleanic Rocks of the South Mountain in Pa.and Md. Am. Jour. Sei. xliv., Dec. 1892. pp. 482—496. 2 Jour. Geology, Vol. 1. 1893. pp. 8183—832. 3 Jour. Geology, Vol. 2. 1894. pp. 1—31. nad \ 2 7 = Le Se a be -< it 4 ee ot Ae a ~ es > Pe pe es ee ee? oe on vale ELISHA MITCHELL, SCIENTIFIC SOCIBTY. 66 further study, to belong to the class of apo-rhyolites, a term introduced by Miss Bascom to denote a devitrified rhyolite. Emmons describes the type very well under the head of quartzite (p. 59). They resemble perfectly crypto-crystalline quartz, and on weathering present an earthy,, yellowish surface. Thecolor of the fresh rock is drab, bluish to almost black; translucent on edges; frac- ture flat conchoidal; sometimes banded, showing flow Structure, as at the Silver Valley mine in Davidson county, where the rock is locally called ‘‘gun-flint.”’ It often contains small crystals of metallic sulphurets, chiefly pyrite with some galena, chalcopyrite and blende. At the Moratock gold mine in Montgomery county, a siliceous rock occurs in large masses, which at first sight resembles a compact, homogeneous hornstone, but which on close investigation is found to be dotted with smali, dark-colored, glassy specks. ‘These are minute quartz crystals, and the microscopic examination of thin sections shows the rock to be an undoubted quartz-porphyry. Its true porphyritic character is best illustrated in the weathered specimens, the feldspathic groundmass_ be- ing decomposed and altered, leaving the quartz pheno- erysts clearly outlined. The flow structure is also beau- tifully brought out in the weathered groundmass. Kmmons, in his description of his quartzite, states that it is often porphyritic and porphyrized, and that fre- quently the fresh fracture is dotted with small limpid crystals of quartz (p. 59). In the enumeration of the varieties of Lower ‘Vaconic quartz rocks (p. 57) he mentions a cherty or apparently porphyrized quartz, which contains feldspar, which de- > composes and leaves a rough porous mass similar to - burrhstone.”’ Kerr says: ‘In Montgomery county, in ' avery heavy ledge of siliceous slate, occurs a siliceous - conglomerate which is filled for hundreds of feet with . a very singular, siliceous concretions, some of which Dr. - r 1 a - \ particular locality, contains a santetiete of rounded and ovoid mass:s, from the smallest sizes to that of a hen’ Ss ye egg, showing the wide prevalence of conditions favorable to the operation of concretionary forces’”’ (p. 61). These gentlemen have without much doubt described the quar, aa _ porphyry of the Moratock mine, or one similar thereto. i It appears highly probable that at least some of these — . siliceous, so-called pebbly concretions are spherulites. Whether they constitute Emmons’ pebbly beds, from which he determined the sedimentary origin of his Ta- conic, is not known. However, it is quite possible that | i they misled him in that direction. Certain it is that he says: ‘‘I found, however, many beds among them (slates re and associated rocks) which looked like sediments, were porphyrized, and somewhat changed, though not strictly porphyries. I found after much search too, beds which - were unequivocally pebbly; and finally, to remove all doubt, I was fortunate in discovering that the porphy- rized beds also frequently contained pebbles; proving» most conclusively that they are sediments which were ~ partially altered’’ (p. 55). © a Pie Thus he evidently mistook either the concretionary form of the weathered porphyry and felsite, or else the - partially rounded felsite fragments in the accompanying pyroclastic breccias (which wiil be Seones of later on) for pebbles. 2 My *Prof. Marsh in 1867 made a short stndy of Emmons’ 8) 4 ~ Paleotrochis, and in his words: ‘‘An examination of the at interior of several specimens clearly indicated that they were not corals, and as soon as microscopical specimens eh could be prepared, they were more carefully examined but no trace of organic structure could be detected, t! entire mass being evidently a fine grained quartz. T. specimens examined were undoubtedly authentic exampl 1Am. Jour. Sci. (2), Vol. 45, 1868, p. 217. Py of * | ELISHA MITCHELL SCIRN'TIFIC SOCIETY. 68 f Paleotrochis, as some of them presented to the Yale cabinet by Prof. Dana,’ were sent to him by Prof. Em- ; mons, and the rest were given to the writer by Prof. . _-W.C. Kerr, the present state geologist of North Caro- Seetina ~*~ * * * . Admitting the inorganic nature of these remarkable torms, their origin becomes an interest- * ing question, and it certainly is not easy to give a satis- factory explanation of it. They appear, however, to have some analogy with ‘‘cone in cone,’’ which, as the writer has shown elsewhere,’ is probably due to the action of _ pressure on concretionary structure when forming. In some respects the two are quite distinct, but evidence of 2 pressure is clearly to be seen in both.”’ ’ _ Kerr evidently agreed with Marsh as to the inorganic - nature of the Paleotrochis, and Mr. C. D. Walcott, the '» director of the U. S. Geological Survey. entertains the same opinion.” _. According to both Kmmons’ and Kerr’s descriptions, a these peculiar forms appear to occur in what are now -known to be the acid effusive rocks. In his descriptive ction of the rocks which carry the Paleotrochis, Km- ~ mons names the following (p. 56): BS “Granular quartz, sometimes vitreous and filled with - fossils and siliceous concretions of the size of ees, ! & “Slaty quartzite with very few fossils. ' “Slate without fossils. “White quartz more or less vitrified filled witi fossils bead. concretions. *Joimted granular quartz with only a few fossils.’ And he says: ‘‘These fossils also occur in the variety _of quartz or ee which I have described as burrh- stone, and which is often porphyrized.”’ (p. 56.) Be An interesting point is suggested in the above succes- sion of rocks, namely, that there was more than one vol- Xe , _1Proc. Amer. Assoc, Adv. Sci., vol. 16, 1867, p. 1385, -2Private communication to the writer, Be Bee" ar? PER Are eres ck eI % Se 7 dy é 7 S* r. * ; x eS [fp eae es Seals { aah eo whi le. LN nt i a 4a Ve 69 JOURNAL, OF THE eae ‘ canic outbreak, and during at least one period of inactiv-_ ee ity sedimentary slates (the Monroe slates) were depos- ited. These acid volcanics are accompanied by py roclastie & breccias and basic eruptives. ‘The basic rocks are of dark green color, and are perhaps pyroxenic in composi- tion. They cover large areas, and are often massive or | only partly schistose; again they are largely sheared into schists. It is quite probavle that most of the chloritic schists in this part of the Carolina Slate Belt are of this nature. The breccias consist of this basic material in which are imbedded angular fragments of the felsite (apo-rhyolite) or porphyry up to one foot in diameter. ‘They are dis- tinctly pyroclastic breccias and hence the basic rock, or | porphyrite as it may be provisionally called, is later than .— the quartz porphyries and rhyolites. This would agree — a with the generally accepted law of eruptions, i. e. from the normal to the acid to the basic types. Ssae Emmons, in his description of the Upper Taconic, men- tions brecciated conglomerates as the most remarkable mass of this division. As he states, ‘‘It has an argilla- ceous or chloritic base. The mass is composed in the main of fragments of other rocks, mostly retaining an ang- ular form; but frequently rounded and worn rocks are © enclosed in the mass. The Be ec are sometimes 18 _ inches and even 2 feet long.’’ (p. 59.) ; Kerr mentions brecciated and conglomerated (siliceous — “4 slates, the pebbles sometimes a foot and upwards in di- — ameter, frequently chloritic and often passing into horn- stone and chert, and occasionally into quartzite’’ [p. 60]). That these rocks correspond to the above desea pyro- “#& po wy. clastic breccias is at once evident. ¢ These ancient volcanics have also been found covering large areas iu Chatham and Orange counties, near the eastern edge of the Carolina Slate Belt, and fully 40 miles east of the region including the above described — Ft Sat bl 4 ' pia 4 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIRTY. 70 ‘ localities. During the summer of 1893, Dr. George H. Williams in company with Prof. J. A. Holmes, State Geologist of North Carolina, made a reconnaissance trip through Chatham and Orange counties, the results of which are included in Dr. Wilhams’ paper on the distri- bution of the ancient volcanic rocks in eastern North America." He says: ‘In adrive from Sanford to Chapel Hill an abundance of the most typical ancient lavas, most- ly of the acid type, was encountered. On the road from Sanford to Pittsboro purple felsites and porphyries show- ing spherulitic and beautiful flow structures, and accom- panied by pyroclastic breccias and tuffs, were met with two miles north of Deep river, and were almost continuous- ly exposed on Rocky river Here devitrified acid glasses ‘with chains of spherulitic and eutaxitic structure were collected, while beyond, as far as Bynum on Haw river, four miles northeast of Pittsboro, the only rocks seen were of the same general character. On the farm of Spence Taylor, Hsq., in Pittsboro, a bright red porphyry with flow lines is exposed in so altered a condition that “it can easily be cut into any form with a knife, though it fee still preserves all the details of its structure. *° * * | Three-quarters of a nile beyond Pittsboro, on the Bynum | road, there is a considerable exposure of a basic amygda- 5 loid. South of Hackney’s Cross Roads there are other | excellent exposures of ancient rhyolite with finely devel- oped spherulitic and fiow structures. * * * Another locality in the volcanic belt was visited on Morgan’s run, about two miles south of Chapel Hill. Here are to be seen admirable exposures of volcanic flow and breccias with finer tuff deposits, which have been extensively sheared into slates by dynamic agency. Towards the east and north these rocks pass under the transgression of Newark sandstone. * * * From still another local- ity at the Cross Roads near the northern boundary of 1Jour. Geol., vol. 2, 1894, pp. 1-32, ’ GS ies eae pee TEST en Phd TOR Og ONS aE ee ; Wap ee aoe Be. 71 JOURNAL OF THE . ae a Ree. ’ Ea ahbaien a Holmes informs me that specimens of nadonee 3 ed volcanic rocks have recently beensecured. He has also- sent me, within the past month, a suite of similar speci- mens from Pace’s Bridge, on Haw River, three miles above Bynum.’ Since that time the same volcanics have been found at the Narrows of the Yadkin river, along the Deep river at — Lockville, and for five or six miles northwest of Lock- ville. At the last two localities the masses are often brecciated and usually sheared into perfect crystalline chloritic schists. It is of interest to note, in the above deceriptine of Drs Williams, the occurrence, on the Taylor farm near Pitts- boro, of a bright red porphyry with flow lines, in so alter- eda conditfon that it can be easily cut into any form with a knife. This is undoubtedly the same rock, and from ~ the same locality, as that described by Emmons as a de- composed red variety of his Upper Taconic argillaceous or clay slate, (p. 58). | Conclusions. In this brief resumé, then, wecan recog- nize Emmons’ Taconic and Kerr’s Huronian rocks of the central gold-bearing slate belt. The bitter controversies regarding the Taconic ques- tion among geologists are well known, and need not ~ be taken up here. It is sufficient to say that geologists by later and more detailed work and study have seen ‘fit 4 to differentiate various members of the old Taconic SYS- tem in differ rent parts of the country, and refer them to E more definite horizons. Thus the granular quartz of — Emmons’ typical Taconic section in the Berkshire Hills — of Massachusetts, has been found to be characterized by the Olenellus fauna of the Lower Cambrian; and the — Berkshire or Stockbridge limestone by the Chazy-Tren- — : ton, and perhaps at its base by an Upper Cambrian fauna; — and the original Lower Taconic slate of Emmons is cor- related, by its stratagraphic position, with the Auta _ s« BLISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETX. Us shales.'! In 1888, Walcott, in studying a section of these ~ rocks in Newfoundland, placed, from paleontological evi- dences, the ‘‘Red Sandrock’’ series, the Georgia shale and slate series, the ‘‘Granular Quartz’’ and ‘‘the Uppe - ‘Paconic’’ of Emmons beneath the Middle Cambrian or -Parodoxides zone of the Atlantic coast.” bp And so the rocks of the old Taconic or Huronian belt - in central North Carolina must also in time be differenti- ated and recorrelvted when they have been more carefully studied. Kimmons was in a measure quite correct in calling his 4 Taconic rocks of central North Carolina the bottom sedi- | ‘ments, and placing them below the Silurian. The absence of fossils in the slates, however, necessitates our going back still another step, and placing them below the Cambrian sediments, in the Algonkian, which Van Hise has defined as including all recognizable pre-Cam- _ brian clastics and their equivalent crystallines, the base of the Cambrian being placed at the Olenellus fauna.* Here the matter must rest until we can find fossils in the 4 rocks, or verify the organic character of Emmons, Paleo- trochis; or until we can trace the rocks into a terrane of known age. So also the pyroclastic volcanics must be looked upon as pre-Cambrian. It is of interest to note that here, as in other portions of eastern North America, the ancient volcanics occur in close proximity to the western edge of the Jura-Trias _ basin. Adopting Suess’ theory of the formation of moun- _ tians, we may look upon this central belt of sheared and _ faulted slates as the levelled site of an ancient Atlantic mountain range; while the bodering Jura-Trias represents _ a transgression formed by the sunken block on the east; and the early phases of this subsidence were accompanied __ by the exhibition of volcanic forces. Evy S. ee iota Bull. 81. Correlation Papers: by C. D. aa Ibid, p- 113. f 3U. S. Geological Survey. Bull. 86. Correlation Papers: Archean- _ Algonkian; p. 495. JOURNAL OF THE Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society VOL. XIV 1897 CHAPEL HILL, N. O. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY | Ks Journal of the Mitchell Society. CONTENTS. VOL. XIV. 1897, Notes on the Natural History of the Wilmington Region.—//. JV. HIRES ORME MRR rece etna ch ovecis cto s neater dense MNon wees AeA sea cedys acc cea Sasecmanees 1 The Oxalates of Zirconinm. —F. P. Venable and Chas. Baskerville.. 4 The Halogen Salts of Zirconium.—/’. P. Venable and Chas. Baskei Pa CMR NER ceran Nelo ntcaia etn caeon th selaean twine slucbnngesteacaoure wat ee Ree one ee ee ean ae 12 The Glabrous-Leaved Species of Asarum of the Southern U. S == VMS VS LEU O oe aA SRA eRe a She = LAR a Dn Aen 21 A Review of the Atomic Weight of Zirconium.—/’. P. Venabdle.......... 27 Notes on Darhya and Buckleya.—W. W. Ashe.......ccc.. cece cceccecec ce ceeeees 46 Rubia Boyntonit Sp. Nov.—W. W. Ashen. occ.s.cececccccnetece seen oseseeene eee 51 On the Origin of the Vertebrated Sense Organs.—H. V. Wilson........... 56 Notes on N. C. Minerals.—/. H. Pratt............. Beer ated deli creeisicn ce Saaeuntaas Wives GikenmcupIN(e wae VTE Tren lope Santana ste a cues Ne ake Co shelves, deine ee ela swe ce 62 Ghalig aie eo... cv. a ase Re EE ee etic Stine nice esebapoeceaiee 70 JANE OYFULTEND pd cane Srocooddo soSno cad ogead0s8s0 se Boao LOGO BSE Oe ceaoL aan ee Reena re eer ee 72 PSNER ECT G) ENON AULT LG were: Sera, SOR yet aa ENS LEE NSS on S321 nas bu aed daalucameedesee 73 ID TRE DURIRO . ancespbade abrectoticec tes one ole: Core tCE IS fc cno= ane Ce os er eee aa P ee arr 75 Binstatite (Bronzite),.....c.....ssceece.0eses- MO ici Scab, 3s exe tees nee a6 iBterald: Beryl... cccccc.ecseeess00 SAS soho: ace ONS SE at eR TREE ee 79 POR AN Ser TIN © yeILLLG en meee este se MIME PE ocr o 8 Pas wane sla eeoemeotiaes 80 TUG DLEE So Re ER aN ee Re eR Sh PEE Slt Aan ee CREAT DE er 8z JOURNAL OF THE Flisha Mitchell Scientific Society. FOURTEENTH YEAR—PART FIRST. 1897. NOTES ON THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE WILMINGTON REGION. H. V. WILSON, A brief collecting trip to the vicinity of Wilmington, N. C., made about the middle of April, greatly impressed me with the natural history advantages of the region. I publish these few notes in the hope that they may be of service to other naturalists who think of visiting the Southern coast. In Wilmington itself no one can fail to notice the ad- mirable shade tree, the laurel oak (Quercus laurifolia Michx.), socommon along the streets. This tree in Wil- mington passes under the name of water oak; in South Carolina it is known as the Darlington oak. Its straight bole, symmetrical top and moderate size give it an ele- gance of shape well suited to city streets, and the im- pression of finish is heightened by the glossv aspect of the toliage. From the city there runs a most excellent road, eight miles long, to Wrightsville, a settlement on the coast. The road is a well kept shell road, smooth, hard, and good for bicycling. Scrub oaks, elms, long-leaf pines and cypresses edge it, and near the sound the full green heads of the live oaks are seen on all sides. In the open td JOURNAL OF THE meadow-like places (savannahs) to the right and left of the road there grow in great abundance insectivorous plants, the most interesting members, to the general bi- ologist at least, of that rich Wilmington flora made _ known through the labors of Curtis, Wood and other systematic botanists. The vellow-flowered pitcher plant, Sarracenia flava, dots the savannahs in all directions; its great flower (four inches wide) upheld by a scape one to two feet, making it a conspicuous object. The fly-trap, Dione@a, and sun-dew, Drosera, neither in flower at the time of my visit, are scattered thickly about. Intermin- gled with these are a blue and yellow species of butter- wort, Pinguicula, their bright flowers standing out clearly against the (at this time) brownish savannah and often leading one to patches of Dionwa and Drosera, which otherwise would have been passed by unnoticed. These five insectivorous planis may sometimes be found growing together in a little patch of ground, scarcely larger than a square foot. The topography of the Wrightsville district is that characteristic of the Carolina coast, and in a less degree of the Southern coast.in geseral. A sound separates the mainland from a seaward strip of land, known as the ‘banks.’ Wrightsville, largely made up of houses occu- pied only during the summer, is on the mainland. Oppo- site it, on the banks, is a newer summer settlement. Between the two, the sound is crossed by a railroad tres- tle, the piles of which afford good collecting. The sound something less than two miles wide, is divided into a narrow outer portion, adjoining the banks and known as the banks channel, and a wider inner por- tion, studded with sandy-mnd shoals. The banks chan- nel isa narrow but pretty boating ground, opening out to sea through two inlets, one recently made in a heavy storm. Along the inner edge of the channel lie some is- lands, the ‘hammocks,’ wooded with live oaks, about ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 3 which jackdaws (Quiéscalus major) were flying. This bird.is said to spend the winter here. At high water one can sail over many of the shoals of the inner part of the sound, but at low water the course from the mainland to the banks channel is a meandering ene, ‘dhe shoals are alive with worms, Areztcola, Dio- patra, Clymenella and other annelids, along with the ereat Balanoglossus, were dug up in quick succession. The reddish egg masses of Arenicola lay about in abund- ance on the flats. The low water collecting in the shoal part of the sound is very easy. Pushing along in a skiff throueh the shallow channels between the flats, one finds starfish (As/eréas), the red and white sea-urchins (Aréa- ctaand Toxopreustes), abundant crabs and other common bottom forms. Scattered about over the bottom in great “numbers is the interesting anemone, Cerianthus america- nus. - The tubes that were dug up were something over a foot in length; they contained animals, which of course had greatly contracted, about six in¢ches long. This dis- tinctively Southern actinia, originally found on the South Carolina coast by Professor Louis Agassiz (Verrill, Re- vission of the Polypi of E. Coast of U. S., p. 32. Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. I.), has been observed by Mr. Wm. Stimpson and Professor McMurrich at Beaun- fort, N. C., where I have seen it myself. It is, however, far more abundant at Wrightsville, and any one wishing to work out the life-history of this remarkable form could find no better locality than the latter place. I may add that the reproductive organs of the specimens I collected were very small. The breeding season probably comes: on later. Just before high water I towed in the neighborhbod of the old inlet. As I had anticipated from previous expe- riences 1n Beaufort harbor at this time of year, not much of interest was in the water. Small hydromeduse, crus- lacean larve, abundant Sagz//as, make up the tow stuff. Later in the year, doubtless as at Beaufort, the towing is 4 JOURNAL OF THE excellent. I am told that abundant large jelly-fish and Portuguese men-of-war make their appearance in August and September. The sea-beach has a very gentle slope, and judging in part from specimens sent me by Mr. Chas. M. Whitlock, of Wilmington, many things of interest are to be had just beyond the line of breakers, where the sea is frequently calm enough to permit collecting. In the main the Wrightsville fauna is evidently very similar to that of Beaufort (see the lists in Studies of Biol. Lab. Johns Hop- kins Univ., Vol. IV., No. 2, and the list of annelids by Professor Andrews, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. XIV,, No. 852). I may add that some of the local collectors would recognize, froma description, many of the striking forms, such as Chetoplerus, Chalina arbuscula, Lepto- gorgia virgulata, all of which may be had here.’ 1From Science N. S., Vol. VI. No. 135. July 30, 1897. (CONTRIBUTIONS TO THI CHEMISTRY OF ZIRCONIUM. NO. 6.) THE OXALATES OF ZIRCONIUM. \ BY F. P. VENABLE AND CHARLES BASKERVILLE. The text-books of chemistry make either very little or no reference to the oxalates of zirconium. Beyond an occasional reference to the oxalate or basic oxalate gotten by precipitating oxalic acid or an oxalate, we can find lit- tle mention of these compounds. Behrens, in his micro- chemical work, speaks of an oxalate prepared as colorless pyramids by precipitating a solution of zirconium sulphate with potassium binoxalate, but no analyses are given, and the crystals ceuld scarcely have been the pure oxalate. Paykull' speaks of double oxalates being prepared with Ase e.)!|lCl le ee e a i are eee ae el ieee Ee KLISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 5 the alkaline oxalates (1:2) and of his failure to prepare the neutral oxalate. His methods, and indeed full results, are unknown to us, as we did not have access to the orig- inal paper. We may summarize the work which follows in the suc- ceeding pages by saving that we found it possible to pre- pare the basic oxalates by precipitation. This was usu- ally in the form of Zr(C,O,),, Zr(OH),, though other ratios were gotten. The neutral oxalate we did not succeed in preparing, but instead the tendency seems to be toward the formation of the acid oxalate, Zr(C,O,),. H,C,O,.8H,O. This tendency toward the formation of acid salts was shown also in the double oxalates. Two of these were prepared. Hor sodium, Zr(C,O,),,3Na,C,0,.H,C,0,5H,O, and for potassium the salt [Gr(C,O,),],.(K,C,O,).. H,C,O,. 8H,O. The oxalate with amonium as a constituent was not so easy of preparation in a pure state. The com- pound secured was Zr(C,O,),.2(0NH,),C,O,. The experi- ments and analyses are given in detail. ZIRCONIUM OXALATES. The Oxalate Gotten by Precipitation.—On the addition of a saturated solution of oxalic acid to a slightly acid solution of zirconium chloride until no further precipita- tion occurred, a gelatinuous precipitate formed which had very nearly the composition Zr(C,O,),.2Zr(OH),. Analy- sis I gave Zr, 46.39, and C,O,, 30.89, instead of the theo- retical 46.40 and 30.93 respectively. The filtrate from this was turbid, and on standing yielded another precipi- tate which had nearly the composition 2Zr(C,O,), Zr (OED). The basic oxalates are very difficultly soluble in acids, and of extremely fine subdivision, settling slowly and passing through even the best filters. It does not -seem probable that they could be secured of very constant com- 1Ofv. af. Vet. At. Foérhandl. ref. in Ber. d. chem. Ges., 12, 1719, 6 JOURNAL OF THE position. Probably basic oxalates with many different ratios between the oxalate and the hydroxide might be secured. Qn drying at 100°, or even a little lower, the oxalic acid is gradually volatilized and lost. This is true of all the oxalates and double oxalates prepared so that the only mode of drying these preparations was between filter paper. The Acid Oxalate Prepared by ‘Crystallization.—In preparing this oxalate, zirconium hydroxide was dissolved in oxalic acid. The hydroxide is quite soluble in oxalic acid, and aconcentrated solution is readily obtained. A considerable excess cf the acid is required to hold the oxa- late thus formed in solution. If this solution be acidified by means of hydrochloric acid a very fine precipitate is obtained settling very slowly, easily passing through the best filter papers and insoluble even in a considerable excess of the acid, but soluble in concentrated sulphuric acid. This precipitate was not analyzed, nor were the exact conditions of its formation determined, as its exam- ination did not promise results of sufficient importance to justify overcoming the difficulties in the way. On evaporating the acid solution of the oxalate the excess of oxalic acia first crystallized out. In the various prep- arations made, the first one or two crops of long crystals were found to be nearly pure oxalic acid, and were rejected. Th n the form of the crystals changed to small granular or prismatic masses, and with each succeeding crop of crystals the percentage of zirconium increased, reaching speedily an approximately constant ratio. No difference in the form of the crystals in these different crops could be detected on superficial examination, and hence it was impossible to distinguish between the zirconium oxalate and the oxalic acid almost free of zirconium, except by analysis. In no case was the normal oxalate secured. The analyses showed a tendency toward the formation of an acid oxalate and to mixtures of this with the normal oxalate. These mixtures were gotten in the later crys- a | ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. tallizations, but the last crystallization, when nearly the whole would solidify into a crystalline mass, showed decreased percentages of zirconium. It is possible that larger amounts than we had at our disposal would enable one to so fraction the crystalizations as to secure a pure oxalate. It is, however questionable whether the normal oxalate can exist in solution without admixture with some oxalic acid. Four series of crystallizations were made, and in two cases fairly abundant crops of crystals corresponding to the acid oxalate were obtained. In each series enough of the zirconium hydroxide was taken to form about twenty ¢rams of the oxalate. First series. Second series. Sixth faaction. Fifth fraction. int TET. Zt (Ce,O4)9.HeCoO,4. i oe es ee Db Ad: 25.28 25253 ‘CE Oi ie ee 74.55 74.72 74.47 These are calculated upon the water-free basis. The crystals contained 29.34 and 29.27 per cent. of water respectively, where the salt Zr(C,O,),.H,C,O,.8H,O con- tains 28.90 per cent. Other crops of crystals contained percentages of zirconium not ‘varying greatly from those given above as 28.14, 27.62, 24.9, 23.83. The percentage of zirconium in the normal oxalate is 33.96. ZIRCONIUM SODIUM OXALATE. The addition of sodium oxalate to a slightly acid solu- tion of zirconium chloride gives a gelatinous white pre- cipitate. Most of this dissolves in an excess of the oxa- late. The undissolved portion settles to the bottom, and after prolonged standing, a second layer of a moré pow- dery appearance forms. ‘This can also be gotten by con- centration of the filtrate from the first precipitate. An- alysis showed that the first gelatinous precipitate was chiefly Zr(OH),. The second precipitate was a double oxalate of zirconium and sodium, but was either of incon- 8 JOURNAL OF THE stant composition (varying ratios of sodium to the zir- conium), or was decomposed by the washing. The analyses, calculated on a dry basis, gave: Iv. Wis VI. Ziisisieey ioe nee eee 53.12 46.86 41.98 IND anc. Wer Eee 9.16 4.10 1.07 Gis 2 ee P3806 39.64 eel ks: If the solution made with the excess of the sodium oxa- late was diluted considerably with water, a gelatinous pre- cipitate was formed, very fineandinsoluble. Precipitates were also formed by the addition of hydrochloric acid. This mode of forming the double oxalate was abandoned, and the following method was adopted with. greater suc- cess. Zirconium hydroxide was dissolved in an excess of oxalic acid, and to this a concentrated solution of sodium hydroxide was added, bringing it nearly to neutralization. When the solution was concentrated an abundant crop of crystals was obtained on cooling, a good dcal of heat being evolved in the mixing. Further evaporation yielded other crops of crystals. These were washed, dried between filter paper andanalyzed. The results are given in the following table: vil. VIII. ex Calculated. Naseer 18.14 17.46 Ares 18.19 Lie OP en ee 12.59 12.66 12.78 11.93 Ca Omveree coe 69.27 66.89 69.47 69.88 These resuits show a somewhat wide variation from those calculated. This probably arises from the fact that the fractions were not composed of the crystals of a single kind of oxalate, but had other oxalates mixed with them in small amounts. Examined under a magnifying glass they seemed to be homogeneous, but the different crops could not be distingu shed from one another. They were all small, hard prismatic crystals, somewhat diffi- cultly soluble in water. One set of crystals, the aualy- sis of which is reported under VII in the above table, was Fe a liens ee ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 9 redissolved in water and recrystallized. On analysis it yielded the following results: VII. 13: IED: SB To One DOTS ee CERT A Oe RIaIae 18.14 18.19 TTC se. SA a i Na Rat Ee CoE 12.59 PATA MEM ee ce cn Sins | ok 69.27 69.10 These were calculated upon a water-free basis. The crystals from the various crops mentioned above did not contain a very constant amount of water, but ranged from 9.13 to 11.06. The calculated amount of water in Zr (C,O,),.3Na,C,O,.5H,O is 10.62. It would seem, there- fore, that the tendency, when this method of formation is adopted, is toward the formation of crystals containing free oxalicacid and with the sodium and zirconium oxalates bearing a ratio o: three to one. ZIRCONIUM POTASSIUM OXALATE Tie curdy precipitate gotten by precipitating zircon- inm chloride with normal potassium oxalate is iusoluble in an excess of either of the substances. The precipitate first obtained is an impure zirconium hydroxide, contain- ing only small amounts of oxalic acid. The supernatant liquid on concentration yields needle-like crystals of po- tassium oxalate, carrying only traces of zirconium. Af- ter the separation of a good deal of this potassium oxalate, further concentration yielded a gelatinous substance having the composition (XII): Zr, 39.34; K, 5.06; C,O,, 43.05; which seems to be a basic zirconium oxalate, mixed or united with a small proportion of potassium oxalate. If the potassium be calculated as potassium oxalate and subtractea, the composition of the remainder would be approximately Zr (OH),. Zr(C,O,),. On adding potassium binoxalate to a solution of zircon- ium chloridea white curdy precipitate was obtained which was not completely soluble in excess of the binoxalate. The somewhat turbid solution was filtered and evapor- ated. Large crystals resembling those of oxalic acid formed. These were separated, and on analysis proved 10 JOURNAL OF THE to be oxalic acid. At the same time a number of small crystals were formed, which were mechanically separated, washed and dried. These were analyzed and are report- ed under XIII. A further crop was gotten from the mother liquor, and the analysis is given under XIV. XIII. P.O Rs (Aaa IE oh eh Sg 19.59 17.99 | OB A hee SS ea 16.18 13.91 Gane Pees whos hbo. ges 64.23 68.09 The curdy precipitate, which first formed, was also ex- amined and found to have the composition Zr(C,O,),. 261(OH); The addition of a solution of potassium tetroxalate to zirconium chloride gave a gelatinous precipitate of zircon- ium oxalate (basic), carrying a little potassium oxalate. Subtracting the potassium oxalate, the percentages (X VI) Zr, 39.09 and C,O,, 38.63 are left, which are not very dif- ferent from the heures gotten for the precipitate from potassium oxalate (neutral). This curdy gelatinous precipitate was dissolved in ex- cess of tetroxalate and thesolution placed over sulphuric acid to crystallize, and yielded crystals having the com- position (XVID): Gr, 20.85; K, 16.72;.and CO, 62231 will be seen, these are not far from the 1:2 zirconium potassium oxalate, with excess of oxalic acid. When potassium hydroxide was added to a, solution of zirconium oxalate in oxalic acid until nearly neutral and then set aside for crystallization, various crops of crys- tals were gotten, as in the case of the double sodium oxa- lates. These crops of crvstals were similar in appear- ance to the sodium crystals. They were analyzed and showed fairly constant composition. (Zr(C204)e)2- XVIII. xXIxX. XX. XXI. (KaC20O4)y.HeCe2O0n. Ly Seep te 0}: 19.25 19.83 18.47 18.95 Se ve 16.41 16.35 14.84 14.46 16.34 C904. .66.51 64.40 65.33 67.07 64.71 The three previous an alyses may also be referred to ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. Et here as having approximately the same composition. See analyses XIII, XIV, XVII.. These are calculated as water-{rce. In the analyses XVIII and XIX the per- centages of water were 12.99 and 12.38. These would correspond to the formula (Zr(C,O,),),.(K,C,O,),.H,C,O,. 8H,O. In thiscase, as in the zirconium oxalates and the sodium oxalates, the crystals seem to form only along with free oxalic acid, giving acid salts. ZIRCONIUM AMMONIUM OXALATES. The addition of a solution of ammonium oxalate to the shehtly arid solution of zirconium chloride gave a heavy gelatinous precipitate which was soluble in excess of am- mouium oxalate and proved to be zirconium hydroxide with more or less zirconium oxalate and small amounts of ammonia. The filtrate from this precipitate was evap- orated slowly and a fine crystalline powder obtained. This contained (X XII) Zr,42.17 per cent. and C,O,, 39.86 ver cent. This is in fair agreement with Zr,(C,O,),.Zr (OH),. When ammonium oxalate is added until the first gelatinous precipitate is redissolved and then evaporated to crystallization, different crops of crystals can be vot- ten containing various amounts of ammonia. These did not seem to have any regular composition in our experi- ments and were looked upon as basic zirconium oxalates with varying amounts of ammonium oxalate present. Thus for one of these the figures (XVIII) Zr, 31.48; NH,, 7.14; and C,O,, 61.38 were gotten. Abandoning this method and using the one adopted in the cases of the sodium and potassium double oxalates, a more favorable result was optained. Zirconium hydroxide was dissolved in excess of oxalic acid and then this was nearly neutralizel by means of ammonium hydroxide, Analyses of these crops of crystals follow: Zit: (Ce ON) 5x OaKe ROY, s(NHzs6.@g Sie CASES CADE CEE ORE 16.55 16.66 17.58 NEI oo 14.46 13.35 13.28 CON ines ties act biels s 69,99 69.99 €8,94 12 JOURNAL OF THE While these do not show that the crystals had been thoroughly purified. the restlts indicate that the compo- sition is one zirconium oxalate to two ammonium oxalate. On recrystallizing one of these crops of crystals, zircon- ium hydroxide was observed to separate when the solu- tion was heated (to evaporate to crystallization), and the crystals which were obtained consisted of ammonium ox- alate alone. In general it may be stated that the zirconium oxalate fails to show any decided tendency to enter into clearly defined combinations with the alkaline oxalates, exhibit- ing rather a power of crystallizing along with them in mixtures of any proportions, It can be said at best that under the conditions of our experiments certain ratios seem to be preferred, and appeared more presistently. In all cases the crystals formed from oxalic acid solutions, and this free oxalic acid crystallized with them, giving acid oxalates. THE HALOGEN SALTS OF ZIRCONIUM. F. P. VENABLE AND CHARLES BASKERVILLE. I. DECOMPOSITION OF THE ZIRCONS. It may be well to give in detail the method (Jour. An. and Ap. Chem. 1891.551) as modified by an experience of several years. The zircons are ground in an iron mortar soas to pass a 90 mesh sieve. The proportions used in a fusionare 150 grams zircons, +00 grams sodium hy- droxide 40 grams sodium fluoride. The sodium hydroxide and fluoride are fused in a nickel crucible (400 cc) then heated for fifteen or twenty minutes with the water blast ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 13 The zircons are introduced in portions of five or six grams. If the temperature is high enough there is a rapid evolution of bubblesof eas. It must be stirred to prevent foaming over (the stirrer being a strip of nickel fastened toa glass rod.) After the introduction of three-fourths of the zircon the temperature should be increased by adding other lamps as the mass becomes pasty and sluggish to- wards the close of the reaction, making the escape of bubbles somewhat explosive. The success of the opera- tion depends on the high temperature, especially at the close. With a lower temperature much will be left un- acted upon. After the introduction of all the zircon the mass should be heated and stirred until no more bubbles escape. This stirring can only be imperfectly carried out towards the close. The mass should then be im- mediately removed by means of a nickel spatula and the lumpy pieces allowed to cool on crucible tops or sheets of nickel. The crucible should be scraped as clean as pos- sible before cooling. It is'best then to quench it with water before the adhering pieces of the melted mass cool, and crack the crucible incontracting. A number of cruci- bles crack during the fusion. If they escape this they al- most infallibly crack in the cooling unless cooled down filled to the brim with water. Of course due care must be taken in introducing the water. It can be safe- ly blown in from a distance with a wash bottle. As there is much spitting of melted caustic soda during the fusion the hands should be gloved and the handle of the stirrer should be long enough to secure the face and eyes from danger. The lumps, while still hot, are removed from the nickel sheet and placed in water in acasserole (1 litre capacity). After a few minutes the water becomes muddy on agita- tion. Pour off this water with the suspended particles into a large settling jar. Refill the casserole, heat to boiling, stir and pour off again, thus removing gradually the finer masses. This is the best way of disintegrating 14 JOURNAL OF THE and washing the mass. The particles settle best from hot water. After a while they settle slowly. It is best to use two or three settling jars, pouring off from the first to the others before a second washing is added from the casserole. Nearly all settles in the first jar and that which settles more slowly may be allow to take its time in the other jars. After a while the disintegration may be helped by breaking with a glass rod or rubbing with a pestle. Five or six gallons of water should be used in washing as this removes the sodium silicate and it is far easier and better to get rid of itin this way than to be worried by its presence later on. Of course it is not entirely removed and some little of the zirconate is also lost. After washing the sodium zirconate must be de- composed by the addition of hydrochloric acid. Strong acid is used and it is boiled with the zirconate in the casserole used for washing. Usually all dissolves up ex- cept a few grams of undecomposed zircon. It is not necessary to filter the solution. It may be immediately transferred toa large evaporating dish and carried down to dryness, first over the naked flame and then, as silica etc., begin to separate out, on the sandbath. It is neces- sary to watch the temperature of the latter and to stir the mass up occasionally to prevent overheating but a great deal of time may thus be saved. It is usually pos- sible to begin a fusion in the morning and have the hy- drochloric acid solution of it ready for evaporation before the day’s work is over. If the washing was well done the amount of silica sep- arating is not large. Hydrochloric acid is added to the dried mass, then water and it is filtered. The clear fil- trate is again evaporated to dryness to remove the last traces of silica. We have uniformly adopted this precaution but seldom found any silica separated by the last evap- oration. After this second evaporation and filtration the solution is ready for the separation of the iron. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 15 The larger portion of the iron may be separated by the use of sulphur dioxide. The impure zirconium chloride is made up into a moderately dilute soiution in a large jar. This is nearly neutralized with ammonia and _ sul- phur dioxide is passed through. ‘The zirconium is pre- cipitated out as a basic sulphite. This is filtered away from the solution containing most of the iron. In most cases it is advisable to dissolve again in hydrochloric acid and precipitate once more with sulphur dioxide: The filtrate containing the iron also contains much of the zir- conium. between filter paper, II over sulphuric acid, III] was I pressed between filter paper and then dried over sulphnu- ric acid, [V was dried a long time over sulphuric acid. The analyses gave the following: i Ei ul. IV. Ls ae 28.52 34.91 37.78 35.69 Clee eee 21.93 26.09 25.87 21.74 Less vce ae 49.55 39.10 36.35 42.57 or calculated on a dry basis: Ti 2 eld 56.93 57.23 59.34 62.14 eee 43.07 42.77 40.66 37.86 Lastly he allowed a solution of the chloride to evaporate over sulphuric acid washed the crystals obtained with alcohol and pressed them between filter paper. Analyses gave TIT a SES Fhe on ES OB PRI Oe Cree ee 28.74 Oe per Ais ac ci, Ta I eR as Be oe 26.67 Boscia: Pe ... od OT ae 44.74 42.62 or calculated on a dry basis: ——-Found—— Theory. Zit . Se ats 9; DU LSO 50.04 LAE & 55s honda ee ol oreo 49.44 49.96 CIP et aarer 61.50 ELISHA MICHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 19 Nylander’s description of this salt is correct. Very large handsome crystals can be secured on evaporating an aqueous solution of the chloride prepared by dissolving the hydroxide in hydrochloric acid. If this evaporation is too rapid gelatinous masses separate out, re-dissolving on stirring. There is a considerable loss of hydrochloric acid during this evaporation. ‘The best crystals may be obtained by evaporation over sulphuric acid. These crystals easily dry on porous plates or on filter paper. There is no necessity for the elaborate methods of drying adopted by Nylander. There is however a constant though slight loss of hydrochloric acid. Nylander’s an- alyses (marked I) agree very closely with one made by us. LSS eis tera k dcr ths oiaesy Armee oT DD) Clee eee Pel o9 TOSS Meiosis 50.46 There is then manifestly a definite compound obtained inthis way. It is unquestionably an oxychloride and the loss (50.46 per cent.) represents both water and combiaed hydroxyl or oxygen. At ordinary temperatures there is a -ontinuous loss from day to day which makes it impos- sible to get a fixed initial weight. This loss is shown by the following weighings. Date Oc ee OCi wl OC te .un Oct. 13.1 Octwlou, Oct. 18. Weighings 1.2806 1.2796 1.2792 1.2787 1.2779 1.2758 By heating to 135°-140° for six hours a large amount of chlorine is driven off and yet not all of the water. The mass leit is insoluble. Heated to 100° under a stream of hydrogen chloride the weight was constant and the loss corresponded to 26.84 per cent. of the original weight. The residue is entirely soiuble in water. While these data are not altogether sufficient it will be seen that they correspond fairly accurately with the formula ZrOCl, 8H,O. Five molecules of water are lost at 100° and the compound left is ZrOCl,.3H,O. The first formula is the formula assigned by Paykull and confirms his results as against those of Melliss. The formula gotten by Herr- mann, ZrOCl,.9H,O was manifestly obtained from imper- fectly dried crystals. 20 JOURNAL OF THE Bailey repeatedly crystallized the chloride from hydro- chloric acid, washed it with hydrochloric acid and then removed the free acid. (1) By washing with a mixture of one part alcohol and ten parts of ether. (2) By gently heating the salt. (3) By exposing the finely divided salt at ordinary tem- peratures in a vacuous desiccator over potash until no hydrochloric acid appeared when air was passed over it. The analysis was performed by dissolving the salt in water and precipitating the zirconia with ammonia, then acidulating with nitric acid and precipitating the chlorine by means of silver nitrate. By method (2)a constant and progressive diminution of chlorine was observed. 'There- fore no analyses were made. For the other methods he cites the results of the analyses by a statement of the relation of ZrO, to AgCl. Beczehinsiderenmination, ~ Meas at. pee. oe L> , =, ego he MME Sr SPS Nr to os 22260 BartleyzsSmmethodel. . . . iden. eee ee oe T2206 is 4 oc og cael topes oor ares 1 2.1779 es. 575.2, 5 2 ee ee ee 1 2.226 SE Ne sts sie a 1 2.260 4 ESO Lis yeohe sche: Sal 1 2.264 without washing...... 1 2.245 2 CE!” HOR a, Sie estes 3 1 2.309 a2 oe wate SSS a xs ore ee ee 1 ene LLDCS eee ss = '. dias he Ls Soo In ail of these the drying has gone too far and some of the chlorine has been lost or the crystals still retained hygroscopic moisture. This salt, as will be seen later on, is not ZrOCl, but ZrOC1,.3H,O and the true ratio is Zee = Cle meee oT. Hermann (Watts’ Dict., 5, 1080.) states that the hydra- ted chloride, gotten in crystals on evaporating its aqueous solution, becomes opaque at 50° C., giving off part of the water and half of the hydrochloric acid and leaving a basic chloride or oxychloride, ZrCl,.ZrOQ,.18H,O or ZrOCl,.9H, QO. The same compound is obtained in stellate groups of Oe ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 21 white silky prisms on evaporating a solution of the chlo- ride. These crystals when heated become white and turbid and are converte! into the anhydrous dioxychloride, Ase 2Z7rO,: Linnemann(Chem. News., UII, 224.)maintains that crys- tallization from hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.17) and treat- ment with alcohol and ether gives a fine, crystalline, snow white, silky body, leaving hfty per cent. of its weight on ignition and therefore very nearly pure ZrCl, which should leavero2:o per cent. “He claims that this\is ‘‘chiefly a neutral, not a basic compound.’ Our own experiments on the dehydration of the salt obtained by crystallization from water extended over two years, as opportunity was afforded. Several series of ex- periments were undertaken, some along the lines attempted by others, and others by methods not tried before. In all the purified chloride obtained by repeated crystalliza- tion from hydrochloric acid was used, the salt being still wet with the excess of the acid. There was no attempt at drying this between filter paper. In the first experiment this chloride was washed once with water and then put in a desiccator and dried over calcium chloride (porous desiccated). It remained in the desiccator about seven months. Even after this lapse of time it still continued to show a shght loss in weight. It yielded on analysis 48.84 per cent. ZrO,,. Another portion was placed in a jar over solid lumps of sodium hydroxide. After six weeks the loss was very shgeht. Careful ignition left a residue of ZrO, equivalent to 42.99 per cent. of the original weight. There was found to be 24.44 per cent. of chlorine present. Again a portion was placed over calcium chloride and dry air was drawn over it at the rate of about fifty ters in the twenty-four hours for six months. After the first two months it was examined weekly by the interposition of a flask containing silver nitrate to see whether hydro- chloric acid was still coming off. Even after the lapse 22 JOURNAL OF THE of so long a time as this it was found that the loss of hy- drochloric acid continued, although it was slight. On analysis this gave ZrO, 42.28 per cent., and Cl 24.35 per cent. Although the results in this, and the experiment immediately preceding correspond fairly well, they are unsatisfactory as they point either to a mixture of chlo- rides or an oxychloride of very complicated formula and heuce unsuited for the ul‘imate aim of the research. Lastly a portion was placed over concentrated sulphuric acid aud the atmosphere above it exhausted occasionally. This was kept up during two months of summer weather. The loss in the last fifteen days was about 0.02 per cent. of the whole. The mass was powdery with a slightly discolored crust. It was all soluble in water, however, and yielded a clear colorless solution. It contained 53.30 per cent. of ZrO,. This corresponds very nearly to the formula ZrOCl,.3H,O. This last experiment showed the possibility of securing pure zirconium chloride, provided the excess of hydro- chloric acid could be removed. It was thought that this might be done by heating in an atmosphere of hydro- chloric acid. A weighed flask was so arranged that it could be kept at a definite temperature while a stream of dry hydrogen chloride was passing through it. The temperature ranged from 100° to 110° C., and the chloride placed in the flask melted, solidifying again after the loss of the water and excess of hydrochloric acid. If the dry- ing was done slowly enough, apparently crystaliine oxy- chloride was gotten whick lost no further weight on being kept at 100°C. Ball“Lore Bote 24: soll. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 47 bluff near the original station at Paint Rock. I have noticed it, however, only a few meters at most away from the river or from some stream. But what I regard as restricting the distribution of the plants fully as much as any of the above assigned causes is the heretofore unrecorded fact of their parasitism. Although Dr. Gray*’ dug up Backleva toe remove it to Cambridge for the botanical garden at that place; and more recently Professor Sargent’ has carried both seed and young plants from Paint Rock to the Arnold Arbor- etum, where a few of the plants were induced to grow, it was not noticed by either that Peackleya formed reot- attachments to other plants. Great difficulty was en- countered in inducing the platts to grow, and what is not strange, all means of propagation failed. Mr. J. G. Jack writes me that one of the plants of Bauckleya which Dr. Gray took to Cambridge lived for a great many vears beneath a hemlock where it was planted in the Botanic Garden and to the roots of which I think it had un- doubtedly formed attachments. I have been aware of the parasitic nature of these plants for several years. The parasitism of Darbya was first discovered, and subsequently that of Buckleva. In the autumn of 1894 Mr. F. E. Boynton and I collected speci- mens of Darbya near Salisbury, N. C., where I had pre- viously noticed the plants. He had already suggested the parasitism of Pyrularia, as recently published,’ and which I was soon after able to verify. We consequently suspected the parasitism of Dardbyva, knowing that many of the San/alaceae are root-parasites.” 3Gard. and Forest, l.c. 4Ibid. 5 Distribution from Biltmore Herbarium: /Pyrularia oleifera Mx, parasitic on roots of trees etc. 6 Hieronymus (Die Natuerlichen Pflanzenfamilien von Engler und Prantl, 203) gives only the following genera as being root-parasites: Osyris, Santalum, Commandra, Thesium, Arjona, and Quinchamalium, 48 JOURNAL OF THE On carefully digging up the plants the roots, or what I rather regard as prolonged subterranean stems, were found to be very much as Miss K. A. Taylor’ has de- scribed them. The plants propagate by these under- ground stems which are 8-1l5mm in thickness and similar to those of Commneandra, but larger. These, in the cen- tre, are firm, tough and woody. This core of wood is covered with a thick, tough, though rather corky bark, 3-4mm in thickness. From the lower side of this are fre- quent small roots, none of them over 3mm in thickness which torm attachments to the roots of the trees and shrubs growing around. These slender roots are attached to the host by disk-shaped haustoria, somewhat similar in structure to those described for Commandra.* Miss Tayior’ gives the length of the ‘‘roots’’ dug up at Columbia, S. C., as being only a few yards. They are frequently very many vards in length, however. One plant I recently had dug up, had an unbroken stem measuring nearly 10cm, and as there Wasa growing-point at only one end the length must have exceeded this. The vegetative stems are apparently developed in no regular order and from no evident buds. though this will bear farther examination. The stems lie from 12-15cm below the surface and fori at frequent but irregular intervals. The underground stems are tipped with a growing-point in appearance not unhke that of many of the large roots of plants. As this growing-point pushes forward during the season of growth, many small roots are developed from tne lower side of the newly formed stem. These penetrate either straight down or somewhat laterally until they reach the roots of some tree or shrub suitable for attachment, where haustoria are formed. The longest of these roots found was about 3cm in leneth. While 7iGard. and Forest, 7: 94. 8 Von Schrenk, Bul. Tor. Bot. Cl. 12. 9Gard, and Forest, 1. c. eee ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 49 developing and before attachment is secured they are cov- ered with thin-walled celis, but old roots which have been attached to a host-reot for some time, appear to have en- larged while the walls of the epidermal cells have become thickened. It is possible that the newly developing root is capable of absorbing from the soil, while the older ones that have already made attachment are no longer able to absorb; but neither of these statements is vet definitely known to be true. And since the seedling plant of Buck- leya as [have recently found out by planting them, is thus able to exist for some time without the imtervention of attachments, it is quite possible that not only the young plants of Daréva may do the same, but that newly devel- oping roots as well may possess this ability to derive nutri- ment from the soil. ‘This, however, is merely conjecture. These roots showed few forks and no roots could be found, except those developed in the spring, which had not formed an attachment or were evidently breken, so it is probable that those roots which do not find attachment soon lose their vitality and die. Polygamous plants seem to mature fruit only when fertilized by staminate plants or perhaps by other seed- ling polygamous plants. Near Chapel Hill in the lower valley of Morgan’s creek polygamous plants are found for three or four miles along the narrow strips of alluvial soil that border the creek, but no seed are produced. This would seem to indicate that all the groups of plants along Morgan’s creek have a common origin and are vegetative- ly produced from a common stock. The staminate plant is not found near Chapel Hill. Near Salisbury, N. C., many groups of the sterile plants are to be found within an area of two or three square miles, but as no trace of a polygamous plant has been tound within twenty miles of these groups I am inclined to trace these, as well, to a common plant and derived from it vegetatively. This view is further strengthened 50 JOURNAL OF THE by the fact that in the few localities where seed are pro-. duced both sexes occur abundantly, though usually the plants are separated into more or less evident groups, as Miss Taylor’ observed at Columbia, S. C. If these disassociated groups of plants are of common origin, Darbya would seem to be, under its natural con- ditions, a plant which readily and rapidly propagates. In one place the underground stem seemed to have made as much as three feet of growth in one year. I have extended the distribution of Darbya as far north as Halifax county, southern Virginia. Dr. Mohr has found it as far west as northern Alabama; and in Geor- gia it has been found as tar south as Macon. The most eastern place where it has been found is near Willardville, Durham county, N. C. I have recorded from my own observation thirteen stations for the plant in Virginia and the Carolinas, the numerous groups of plants around Salisbury and Chapel Hill, and similar groups at other places, being regarded as constituting a single station. At only three of these stations are seed known to be pro- duced. The staminate plants are much more abundant than the polygamous. As in the case of Commandra attachments are made to the roots of most trees and shrubs. The following have been verified to serve for Buckleva: Quercus alba, Q. minor, Q. velutina, Q. Marylandica, Q. nigra; Pinus echinata, P. Virginiana; Hamamelis; Vaccinium corym- bosum, V. vaccillans; Hicoria Carolinae-Septentrionalis, H. alba; Crataegus sp. ign.; Acer rubrum. It is probable that this list could be extended by carefully fellowing the roots. . Darbya, 1am convinced, can be grown by planting the seed among trees or shruvs that will serve as hosts in a place where it will not be necessary to move it. If it is desired to move the plants the seed should be planted in 10Gard. and Forest, 7: 94. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 5] jars with seedling oaks or pines, and when large enough to set out remove the contents of the jar without disturb- ing the roots of the plants. Buckleva, since it sometimes reaches the size of a small tree, is the largest known American parasite. It has many more fibrous roots than Darbya and the sub- terranean stem is not so extensive. The clasping disks by which attachments are made are larger and somewhat more cup-shaped than are those of Darbya. It is chiefly parasitic on the small roots of hemlock, beech, sugar maple, birch (sp. ind.) and red oak. It can be cultivated in the same manner as Darbva. The manner of propagation of Pyre/aria is like that of Darbya but the underground stems are shorter and more abundantly supplied with small roots. ROBINIA BOYNTONII sp. nov. ‘CONTRIBUTION FROM MY HERBARIUM. NO. II. W. WILLARD ASHE. For many years a plant which was originally described by Pursh*’ as Pobinia hispida var. rosea has been con- fused with the Robinia hispida of Linneus by both American and Kuropean authors. This confusion origi- nated from the inadequacy of Pursh’s* description; and has been continued by later writers who, having no spec- imens of Pursh’s plant for comparison, transferred its name to smooth or nearly smooth forms of A. hispida which seemed in part to agree with the description of the variety rosea. Asa matter of fact the variability of 1 Recieved March 18th, 1898. 2Flora Amer. Sept. 2: 488. 3 Robinia rosea B. R. foliolis plerumque alternis, ramulis glabriusque. 52 JOURNAL OF THE hispida in those characters which were usually relied upon for segregation has justified it. Pursh, in spite of his brief and unsatisfactory technical description, in making some general references to the dis- tribution, etc. of the plants he had just described, com- pares the relative sizes of /#?. hispida and PR. hispida var. rosea in such a manner as to leave no doubt in regard te their identity: ‘‘The variety Bis less hispid and grows to a considerable large upright shrub, whereas the orig- inal Aisfpida isa low stragiing plant.’ This acurately presents the salient features of the habit of the two plants, and enables one, familiar with both in the field, to easily differentiate the true rosea. But while usually a form of 27sfpzda is referred to rosea, in the last edition of Gray’s Manual of Botany‘ the de- scription of A7sfzda includes not only all the true forms of hispida, but the rosea of Pursh as well, the latitude of the description embracing plants with “‘less bristly or naked branches, smaller flowers etc.”’ than the immedi- ately preceding technical description covered. The allu- sion to small-flowered forms can only be interpreted as a reference to vosed, as a comparison of the description of the two plants which follows will show. It is probable that Marshall as well included both plants in his vosea, which is usually referred only to A/s- pida, as he mentions the large size that some specimens of his plant attain, whereas the true Az7sp7da is always of small size. American botanists, when separating the two plants at all, have retained the vosea under its original name, and where first placed as a variety of Azsfida but the two plants are so different that rosea is eminently worthy of specific rank. As no additional names have been proposed by Euro- pean botanists there is no tortuous synonomy to be traced. 4Sixth edition, 134. —————— Ks on KO HLISHA MITCHELL, SCIENTIFIC SOCIEY. Robinia dubia Fouc.’ and the other names included in its Synonomy refer toa plant which has long been cultivated in Hurope, and which, if not a hybrid’ between 72. Pscud- acacia.and #. viscosa, is a garden variety of 7. viscosa. It is separated from the plant under consideration no less by its stout spines, than by the presence on its twigs and pods of the viscid secretion so characteristic of véscosa. Since Pursh’s name vosea is excluded by the previous use of it by Marshall and du Monceau for 2. hispida, and no other has been published, I propose the name Loyn- fon??, complimentary to Mr. F. 2. Boynton of Biltmore, N. C., an observer having a most extensive acquaintance with the southern Appalachian flora. The proposed species is characterized as follows: Robinia Boyntonit, sp. nov. Robinia hispida var rosea Pursh, Fl. Amer. Sept. 2:488. Robinia rosea D.C. Prod. 2:262. Robinia hispida (in part) Gray, Man. Fifth ed. 131. Mature twigs 3-4mm thick, terete, a bright varnished brown, glabrous; stipules minute, awl-shaped, caducous; shoot of the season at first minutely pubescent, at length glabrous or nearly so. Leaves 10-locm long, leaflets 9-13, mostly placed alternately, short-stalked, oblong or oblong-ovate, 2-¢4cm long, 1-2cm wide, tipped with a slender mucro. Petiole and leaflets minutely pu- bescent when young, soon glabrous. Racemes axillary, erect or nodding, 7-9cm long, one-half to two-thirds the length of the leaves, rather loosely 8-12 flowered. Flowers on slender, erect or spreading pedicels 4+-S5mm long, rose- purple, pink, or purple and pink on the outer portion, white or much paler towards their base, when expanded 5In Desy. Journ. Bot. 4: 204. 6 London (Trees and Shrubs Brit. 236) stated that it is a hybrid which originated in 1730, 3 54 JOURNAL OF THE barely 2cm long; blade of wing abruptly contracted into the slender claw; keel rather broad, (each portion) spat- ulate in outline. Calyx short, 6mm in length, as broad as long, the very short, broad lobes, 2-3mm long, abrupt- ly acute, smooth, or minutely pubescent when young. Pod slender, many seeded, smooth, even when young. A shrub with virgate branches, 1.5mm to 2.5m in height, or exceptionally Jarger and assuming an arborescent form. Mountains of Virginia (7) and western North Car- olina to Georgia, usually at high elevations. It is one of the handsomest of the Appalachian species of the genus, equalling in brilliance of color and abundance of flowers R. viscosa. Growing specimens of this plant have been extensively distributed by the Kawana Nurseries of Ka- wana, N. C. Specimens examined: Kelsey: Mitchell county, N. C. J. A. Tatham: Cherokee county, N. C. Ashe: Randolph county, N.C. Ashe: Greenville county, S: C. The plant is local, but fairly abundant where it occurs, and it should be frequent in cultivation. Robénia hispida L. with which it has been confused has the following characters: Robinia hispida l., Mant. 1: 101. Robinia rosea Duham., Arb. 1. 7. 18. Robinia rosea Marsh., Arb. 134. Robinia montana Bartr., Trav. 335. Pseuducacia hispida Moench, Meth. 145. Aeschynomene hispida Roxb. (7) Mature twies rather stout, 4+-5mm thick, terete, dark brown, bristly-lispid, papillate, or nearly smooth. Shoot of the season from densely bristly-hispid with stiff pur- ple hairs to nearly smooth; stipules, minute early decidu- ous. Leaves rather large, 12-20cm long, petiole usually hispid; leaflets 7-11, rarely 13, mostly opposite, short- stalked, ovate or orbicular, 2-3cm wide, 2-4cm long, ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. ro) tipped with a short, stout mucro, cordate or subcordate at base, more or less pubescent when young, soon smooth. g, cm long, one-fifth to one fourth the length of the leaves, peduncles usually hispid. Flowers purple-blue in the Racemes axillary, nodding or drooping, 3-5 Howered, 4-5 bud, becoming on expansion deep purple or red-purple, but hehter-colored at the base, when open 2.5cm or more long; blade of wing projecting beyond point of union with claw, so as form a narrow but deep sinus between them; each division of keel oblong, abruptly contracted into the claw. Calyx 8-10mm long, the 4-7mm long acuminate lobes much longer than the short broad generally hispid tube. Pod short, stout, few-seeded, @landular-hispid. A low straggling shrub, 1-3 feet in height. It occurs from Virginia to Georgia and Alabama? in and near the mountains. Inthe mountains it is for the most, part con- fined to the crests and dryer southern flanks of ridges, and is not uncommon. Its altitudinal distribution 1s from 300m to 1500m. It seems to pass gradually into the low- country form which is nearly destitute of bristles and more or less pubescent. Robinia Boynton? is separated from PR. hispida L. by its greater size, smooth pod, oblong leaflets, many-flow- ered racemes, short calyx-lobes and smoothness. From FR. v/scosa Vent. it is separated by having only about one-half the number of leaflets, a smooth pod and the absence of viscid secretion. In many characters it is nearly allied to A. Pseudaca- cia La: The leaflets are about the same number, twigs and pods are smooth; but the flowers are rose-colored and smaller than in A. Psewdacacta and no stipular spines are developed. Since the above was put in tvpe I find that Podbsnza Boyntonii has been distributed by the Biltmore Herba- rium, but without a name, as No. 3268: Near Highlands, Macon county, N. C. ON THE ORIGIN OF THE VERTEBRATE SENSE ORGANS. BY H. V. WILSON. The belief that the chief sense organs of vertebrates have been evolved from a longitudinal series of simple and superficially situated organs rests on morphological evidence, which if not conclusive is yet very considerable. Beard’ in 1885 described in selachian embryos a series of rudimentary sense patches (ectodermal thickenings), on eabove each gill cleft. These he termed the branchial sense organs. Similar organs have been found by Beard and several observers (Froriep, Kupffer etc.) in the em- bryos of other Ichthyopsida, birds, and mammals. It may be confidently asserted that a phylogenetic signifi- cance attaches to these formations, and that the ancestors of existing vertebrates had a series of sense organs (two series, one more dorsal than the other: Kupifer) situated in the anterior (branchial) region of the body. The sense organs of the lateral line, and of the mucus canals of the head, found in adult fishes, tailed amphibia, and in anuran larvae, are known to arise by the prolifer- ation of the above mentioned embryonic organs, which thus became extended far beyond the seat of their origi- nal appearance. The position and mode of origin of the embryonic nasal and auditory invaginations led Beard to regard these or- gans as homologous with his series of branchial sense or- gans. And this conclusion has been in general accepted by later investigators. It might some years ago have seemed impossible to in- 1 Branchial Sense Organs of Ichthyopsida. Quart. Journ. Mier. Sci, 1885, ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. a | clude the eye in this lateral series of homodynamous or- gans. But while the eyes (optic vesicles) ordinarily orig- inate as diverticula from the fore-brain, it is now known that in many forms they make their appearance as invag- inations of the surface ectoderm, long before the neural folds have closed. In this condition the optic vesicle is a circular depression, substantially like the auditory or nasal pit. ater these depressions are carried inwards with the invaginating neural plate, and then appear as outgrowths of the brain. The early appearance of the optic vesicles has long been known 1n mammals, but until within recent years it has been regarded as a peculiar and precocious feature of this group. Through the ob- servations of Whitman’, Hyclesheimer*, and Locy', we have learned that the optic vesicles originate in this man- ner in several amphibia, .1n ‘selachians, and the chick. These observations at least lend us a basis for the com- parison of the eyes with the other segmentally arranged sense organs, and meantime (Locy Ic. p. 5560) ‘‘we are in the attitude of awaiting further facts.”’ The scattered integumentary sense organs (taste buds, touch corpuscles) have not been shown to be derived from anlages, serially homologous with the antericr segment- ally arranged series. The derivation of the chief vertebrate sense organs from a longitudinal series of superficial neuro-epithelium patches, might at first thought be construed into a sound argument for the annelid-theory of vertebrate ancestry. But when it is borne in mind that the vertebrate series is, in the embryo, confined to the anterior (branchial) re- gion, whence the organs spread back over the trunk and forwards over the head by proliferation, it will be receg- 2Journal of Morphology, 1889, p. 593. 3 Journ. Morphology, 1898, Vol. VIII, No. 1, p, 189. 4Contributions to the Structure and development of the Vertebrate Head. Journ. Morphology, 1895. 58 JOURNAL OF THE nized that this series of organs differs at any rate in the matter of distribution, from the segmentally arranged organs extending alone the side of the body of certain annelids (Capitellidae, Kisig’; leeches, Whitman’. ) The small number and local distribution of the seg- mental sense organs of the vertebrate embryo, as com- pared with the condition after the lateral line has become well developed, suggests inevitably the question: If so much of the metameric character of these organs in the adult (or larva) is clearly secondary, how deeply seated is the metameric arrangement of the primitive (few, em- bryonic) branchial sense organs? Is it possible that this series of organs has arisen from a single pair (one on each side of the body), as some (Brooks') believe the gill clefts to be traceable to a single pair? There exist certain observations which it is possible to interpret as supporting this idea. In 1891 I described‘ for a teleost (Serranus embryos) a sensory anlage on the side of the head. The reference to these observations in Minot’s Human Embryology (1892) is succinct, and indi- cates the state of our knowledge on this point at the time: ‘’This thickening (the anlage on each side of the head) forms a long shallow furrow, which subsequently divides into three parts, of which the first becomes a sense organ over the gill cleft, the second, the auditory invagination, and the third, the anlage of the sense-organs of the lat- eral line. This peculiar development confirms the notion that all these organs belong in one series, but the appear- ance of a continuous thickening as the anlage of them all, has as yet been observed only in this fish, and may not indicate a corresponding ancestral condition. Unfortu- 5 Die Segmental-organe der Capitelliden. Mitt. a. d. Zool. Sta. zu Neapel, 1879. 6 Some New Facts about the Hirudinea. Journ. Morphology, 1889. %The Genus Salpa. Baltimore, 1893. 8 Embryology of the Sea Bass. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. Vol. IX. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 59 nately Wilson was unable to make out anything as to the connection of the sensory plate with the ganglia. The sense organ above the gill cleft, although differentiated, is a larval structure only, and disappears in the adult” (quoted from Locy lc. p. 548). Locy writing on elasmobranch development (1895, Ic.) goes on to show the advance of our knowledge in this matter—‘*‘A quite similar condition is now known to ob- tain in some elasmobranch forms. Mitrophanow in 1890 publishedja preliminary report of his observations on the lateral line of Acanthias and other elasmobranchs. In 1893 he published a full report of the same, illustrated by many figures. He describes a continuous thickening of the epidermis along the sides of the head, embracing the territory of the roots of the seventh to tenth nerves. From this thickening there is separated the material for the auditory saucer, the branchial sense-organs, and the beginning of the lateral line. My Jobservations on this region in. Squalus agree with: those of Mitrophanow.”’ Locy’s observations are briefly described further on in his paper (p. 517), the author mentioning that ‘‘a considera- tion of the so-called branchial: sense-organs and their ganglia is reserved to be published later.” The discovery that the common anlage was not a pecul- iar feature of a teleost species, but existed in widely dif- ferent Ichthyopsida (Mitrophanow® describes the anlage not only for selachians, but for teleosts, cyclostomes, and amphibia as well), indicated that the point was one worth following ‘up. The Serranus egg is a small, pelagie egg. In it the common anlage is more sharply differentiated from the general ectoderm, than in the selachian and cyclostome forms studied by Mitrophanow and Locy. In Serranus the anlage is a furrow, in the latter forms it isa thicken- 9Etude embryogénique sur les Sélaciens. Arch. de; Zool. exp, et gen 1893. 60 JOURNAL OF THE ing. In the teleost forms studied by Mitrophanow (spe- cies not stated) the anlage develops in same way as in Serranus—as a furrow. The salmon egg is very different from that of Serranus. It is large, and wijh relatively firm yolk. At my sug- gestion Mr. J. EK. Mattocks undertook the problem of ascertaining in the first place, whether the common anlage existed in the salmon embryo, and if so, what was its character. The result of Mr. Mattocks’s werk (pub- lished in Anat. Anzeiger XIII Bd. Nr. 24), was to show that the common anlage does exist in the salmon; that it is not a furrow, as in Serranus, but a thickened stripe of ectoderm as in selachians; that it divides into three parts, the middle becoming the auditory sac. the posterior the rudiment of the lateral line, and the anterior remaining as a very noticeable thickening situated above the anterior gill clefts. It thus turns out, as might have been ex- pected, that the peculiarly distinct, furrow-like character of the analge in Serranus. is not universal in teleosts. The difference in the character of the anlage between Serranus and Salmo is perhaps associated with the dif- ference in-the character of the two eggs. One is small, light, the embryo cosisting of comparatively few cells, the other large, heavy, the embryo relatively massive and of many cells. Without dwelling on this point (which like other similar questions can be cleared up only by an extensive Comparative study of closely related forms, aided, where the method is practicable, by intelligently ‘put’? experiments— in this connection see Davenport’s very suggestive ‘‘Catalogue of the processes concerned in Ontogeny.’’ Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Vol. XXVIL. No. 6), it is safe to say that comparative embryology lends some support to the generalization that in embryos of the former type invagination or evagination is apt to eccur, while in embryos of the latter type the invagina- tion or evagination is frequently represented by solid in- ELISHA MIECHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 61 erowths or ontgrowths (i. e. thickenings)—-compare for instance the formation of the mesoblast of Amphioxus with that of other vertebrates, the invaginate g@astrula of Leucifer with the corresponding stage of such a form as the lobster. If we suppose (as a basis for further work, rather than for any other purpose) that the common lateral an- lage in the ichthyopsidan embryo indicates the presence in the chordate ancestors of a single elongate sense-organ on each side of the hean, then what was the character of this organ? Was it a sac (groove), or merely a superfi- cial sensory area? It is worth while often. to put the question, even it the answer is not forthcoming. Cer- tainly the answer is not now at hand. Though merely putting the qnestion calls to mind the cephalic slits of nemerteans, and Hubrecht’s ingenious, if not very pep- ular theory of chordate ancestry. NOTES ON NORTH CAROLINA MINERALS.* JB Gedig aly API VIRAR CONTENTS. PAGE. AUUBEN Tale STMUECNT HAG INES WH IVETNIR ROAM Sites baa MG sich cere se Od se dle Set Otale eee 62 ELATRAZATIN DL. Seb onic. co OS'S OS REREEG CORE EONS 05 Ste See ne ene nears eee 2 70 AISNE BOO 6 ph OO dit OHO DERE OTTO ITO Sr cs 1 een nr anne ae era 72 JAD TMRIOISIEATIBIVIMND oh 5 OE SI Seen Ud pea RO BED e oc a ee are ee ene: 73 TEIN SIPAVIRIIE 6. chert roea xe CRONE IRE ORE ER IEE A a iis BPS PACITEE: w (EMRE NIZUIUE) Wr eee IS. SEP Mewe oe odd Saas claleidaqoae dates 76 MBI AILIO) IBID Bo, See cite eb 6 Golo Cease Sik: o:ceae eae mene ie aera eae 79 (FASS) (GiRimnigk) (OaeANIGS DO eins Grip Iar nie oc o> 5 Sef Een mee ae eae eee 80 EIR EON oe 6 a. $ OR OR Ob Bed & BEE icity eee 82 . INTRODUCTORY NOTE. The contents of this paper are notes on the North Car- olina minerals that have been collected during the past few years. Some of these have already been published *By permission of the Director of the N. C. Geological Survey. 4 62 JOURNAL OF THE during’ the past year, ana reference is made to this under the head of these minerals. These notes are intended primarily for a Bulletin on the Mineral Resources of North Carolina, but the more important of these are published as occasion offers. WELLSITE, A NEW MINERAL.* Occurence.—This mineral occurs at the Buck Creek (Cullakanee) corundum mine in Clay Co., North Carolina, and was. collected by Professor S. L. Penfield and the author during the summer of 1892 while engaved in work on the North Carolina Geological Survey. The corundum vein in which the mineral is found is composed chiefly of albite feldspar and hornblende, and penetrates a peridotite rock, dunite, near its contact with the gneiss. The peridotite outcrop is one of the largest in the State and has been thoroughly prospected for cor- undum. At only one of the veins opened was the new mineral found, although a carefui search was made for it at all the openings, especially those affording feldspar. No mining. has been done at the locality since 1891, but if work is resumed and the veins uncovered, more of the material will undoubtedly be found, The mineral is found in isolated crystals mostly at- tached to the feldspar but also to hornblende and corun- dum, and is intimately associated with chabazite, (see p. 70), which occurs in small transparent rhombohedrons. The largest crystals that were observed were not over 1" ia diamrivapame 2 ie lenodily Crystalline form.—The crystals belong to the mono- clinic system and they aire twinned similarly to those of harmotome and phillipsite. The common habit is shown in fig. 1, which represents a combination of twinning about.c, 001 and ec, 011. ‘Fhe crystals are practically square prisms, terminated by pyramidal faces, thus imi- “*Am. J. Sci. Vol. IIT. p. 443, 1897. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 63 tating closely a simple combination of a prism of one order aud a pyramid of the other in the tetragonal system. The apparent prismatic faces are formed for the most part by the pinacoid faces, 4, but the crystals interpenetrate each other somewhat irregularly so that portions of the base c, 001, coincide with 4, fig. 1. The lines of twinning on the pinacoid faces between / and 6 twinned are generally regular, while those between 4 and cand also those which cross the prism faces #2, 110 (the apparent pyramid) are generally quite irregular. The & faces do not show, the striations parallel to the edges 4 and m, which, meeting along the twining lines, often reveal the complex nature of such crystals, nor were any reéntrant angles observed parallel to the edges of the apparent prism as are common on phillipsite and harmotome. Fig. 2 represents another habit of the crystals where m, 110 is wanting and a, 100 is in combination with 6, 010. The method of twinning is similar to that already described, but the crystals being terminated by a, 100 instead of az, 110 show prominent reéntrant angles at their ends. These crystals are very similar to those of harmotome from Bowling near Dumbarton on the Clyde, described by Lacroix.* 1 a } . " | 3 . Ig / } | is | [5 di] | R ' ; i Op er at | c “he | PoE | f / j 3 | ‘at nn te Ra ‘a\ | pee eee Laka NEE = Ne The only forms that were observed were a, 100; 4, 010; c, 001 and m, 110, with e, 011 only as twinning plane. The faces of the crystals are somewhat rounded and *Bull. de la Soc. Min, de France, No. 4. p. 94, 1885, 64 JOURNAL OF THE vicinal so that the reflections were not very perfect. The angle of the apparent prism /Ad twinned is approx- imately 90°. Also the angle mAm over the twinning plane 011 could be measured only appreximately, varying from 0°49 to 1°25. The approximate angles are given below, and from those marked with an asterisk the fol- lowing axial ratio was calculated: a :b:¢ ="768 +1 :1°245; B=53°27 —001A100 Measured Calculated. bAb, OIOAOIO = *90° Cover twinning plane) ada, 1O0OA100 *73°6 (over twinning plane) bam, 01VA110 *58°19 cAa, 0014100 53°27'=£6 cam. 001A110 60°, 59°45...59°57 » 599337 Physical propertics.—The crystals are brittle and show no apparent cleavage. The luster is vitreous. Many of the crystals are colorless and transparent while others are white. The hardness is vetween 4 and 4°5. The specific gravity taken on a number of separate cry- stals, by means of the heavy solution, varied between 2:278 and 2°306. This variation was probably due to the difference in the ratio of the barium to the calcium in the different crystals. A section parallel to the pinacoid faces 6, 010, the apparent prism, re- .ealed in polarized light the struct- ure shown in fig. 3. The parts I and | extinguish simultaneously, as also IL and II; while portions III, which are parallel to the basal plane, show parallel extinction. The section showed something of a zonal structure, so that the extinct- ion could only be measured approxi- ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 65 mately, Using the Bertrand ocular, this was found to be 33° from one pinacoid on to the other over the twinning plane. The axis a makes an angle of 52° with the verti- cal axis c in the obtuse angle B. The double refraction is positive and weak. The acute bisectrix ¢ is at right angles to the pinacoid 010, and the divergence of the optical axes is large. 2E probably varies from 120° to 130°, but this could not be measured directly. Chemical analysts.—The mineral was purified for analysis by means of the heavy solution and that which was used varied in specific gravity from 2°278 to 2°360. The analyses were made by Mr. H. W. Foote,** who describes the methods used as follows: “Water was determined by loss on ignition, and silica and alumina by the ordinary methods after fusion with sodium carbonate. The filtrate from the alumina pre- cipitation was evaporated with aqua regia to remove the large excess of ammonium salts and a small amount of ammonium chloride was again added. Calcium, barium and strontium were then precipitated together, with a considerable excess of ammonia and ammonium carbo- nate, and magnesia was determined in the filtrate. The mixed carbonates were dissolyed in hydrochloric acid evaporated to dryness and taken up in about 300% of wa- ter. ‘The method used for separating barium was that recommended by Fresenius.* To the hot selution, a few drops of acetic acid were added and 10° of a 10 per cent solution of ammonium chromate containing a_ small amount of dichromate. After standine until the solu- tion became cold, the clear liquid was decanted and the precipitate of barium chromate was washed with a weak chromate solution and with water. The precipitate was *Zs. Anal. Chem., xxix, 426. **Of the Chemical Laboratory of the Sheffield Scientific School, New Haven, Conn. 66 JOURNAL OF THE dissolved in 2°° of pure dilute nitric acid, which was then partly neutralized with ammonia. © Ammonium acetate was added and 10° of chromate solution aS before, and after standing, the precipitate was filtered on a Gooch crucible and weighed as BaCrQ,. ‘The filtrate from the barium precipitation was con- centrated somewhat, and calcium and the small quantity of strontium precipitated as before. They were ignited and weighed as oxide. Strontium was then separated by treatment with amyl alcohol and determined as sul- phate. : “The alkalies were determined by a Smith fusion in the ordinary way.” The results of the analyses are as follows: if ID {) .awerage: Ratio. Oh c. ite eaeed 44-11. 43°86 “731 =e ALO), 2 sieved eoauer 24°89 24-96 ‘244 = 1.00 Ait © perme s)())0) sie es me iow i) ‘033 | Sree ee ela 1 TS eisai ‘O11 | Cav oh aSaaie OP FF SU "104 5980 193 MoO." eae oro O62 Hs62 ‘OLS Ca ie GOs ce hee 340 340 ‘036 | NatO' nee 180 1-80 "(29 | sO) > t:nttee ld aoe 13,39), 13.35 “742 = 3.04 100°01 The’ ratio of SiO, : Al.O, :RO:H,O is: very close’ to 317123) which’ gives ‘the formula: R“ALSi,O,) 2 3ogOs The ratio of BaO : CaO : K,0+Na,O'in the above analy- ses 1s nearly 1:3:2 and the theoretical composition cal- culated fer this ratio is given below together. with the analysis after substituting tor Na,O its equivalent of K,O and for MgO and SrO their equivalents respectively of CaO and BaO and then recalculating to 100 per cent, ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC. SOCIETY. O07 Theory for R” Al,Si,O,,; 2 3H;O where R is 4+Ba, 3Ca, 2K. Sia si, aks) 4B 49:87 Bhi @ny. ties tere DAR 54 94°27 Ghd eth eee GE Os 6°62 Ca@ ok seh 6859 7-7 REO me ..2.0. cee p S98 6°10 Eas, 2: 2 eee 322 12:87 100.00 100-00 Experiments were made to determine at what temper- atures the water was driven off, and the results are eviven in the following table, the mineral being’ heated in each case until the weight became constant. The last trace of water could only be driven off by heating the mineral over the blast lamp. Loss. AGE MOORE 1258 2 SIN ae 8s nothing. ize X eee Gteapine he loot 4B M48 200 ORs eet tte 7/3925) 260 eae) a. - 3°69 295 Se piel ee ee tine IEA Redateates scene ee 4 9G.) a OMeI@ aS lie: EN ine ee LOSS.) eel Geshe sca cc. StS As is seen from the above, about one-third of the wa- ter, or one molecule, is given off between 100° and 200°, another third approximately between 200° and 300°, while the remainder is expelled only at an intense heat. This would indicate that the water exists in-three differ- ent conditions in the molecule. If only that which is expelled below 200° be regarded as water of crystalliza- tion, the composition would be H,R’ Al, Si,Q,,+ 0,0. That the new mineral would be closely related te the 68 JOURNAL OF THE phillipsite group of the zeolites, was expected from the first on account of its crystalline form, and this relation is very satisfactorily brought out by a comparison of the crystallographic properties and chemical composition. They all have very nearly the same axial ratios: a. 29a. Wellsite....°768 $f 1245 B=535707) Phillipsige: . 70949 ,: 1 24°25603 °° B=55'- 37 Harmotome.°70315 :1:1°2310 B=55 10 Stiblite .... °76227 :1:1°19401 B=50 49% In their habit and method of twinning, they are also very similar, all the crystals being uniformly penetration twins. This is especially noticeable between the new mineral and phillipsite and harmotome which are common as double twins with c, 001 and e, 011 as twinning planes. The place of the mineral in the phillipsite group its clearly shown by a comparison of their chemical compo- sitions. Arranged in order of their proportions of silica and water to the bases, we have the tollowing interest- ing series, in which R represents the bivalent elements: Welisite.. ©... . $Ad,S1,0,,.3H,0 Phillipsite......RAJ,Si,0,,.45H,O Harmotome....-RAJ,Si1,0,,.5H,O Shilbpite...’...:.° RAMSL.O, 6b. The ratio of RO:A1I,O, is constant, 1:1, in the series, while the proportions of silica and water have a constant ratio, 1:1. between themselves, except in the case of phillipsite. As there is, however, considerable variation in the analy- ses of phillipsite, it is not improbable that the ratio of S10,:H.O, given as 4:43, should be in some cases at least, 4:4. The minerals then form a gradual series, increas- ing in the proportions of SiO, and H,O from wellsite to stilbite. Fresemus* has shown that this group of minerals may be regarded as a series in which the ratio of RO:A1,O, is #73, Kr., III, 42, 1878. “ BLISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 69 constant; 1:1, while the silica and water vary between certain limits. He has assumed as these two limits: RAI,Si,O,,+6H,.O and R, Al,Si,O,,+6H,0 The first would be a hydrated calcium albite and the last a hydrated anorthite. From a comparison of the wellsite-stilbite series, it seems more probable that the anorthite end would be RAI,Si,O,+2H,O, or doubling this for better comparison with the formula of Fresenius PeAiS1,0,,+-4H,Q. It is not unreasonable to expect that the first thite member of this series may be found 1: the completed series would then be: Anorthite limit... RAI1,Si,O,+2B.0 | ued) Mietisite....2-. ALSO Phillipsite .......RAJS: uaps +H.O) Harmotome ......R Si bbrte:. = ..<- FEU) It is also int te that the formula of the new mineral we the same as that assigned toe edingtonite, but the cter is essentially a barium mineral and being tetragonal shows no crystallographic relations to wellsite. Pyrognostics.—When heated vefore the blowpipe, the mineral exfoliates slightly and fuses at 2°5-3 to a white bead, coloring the flame slightly yellow. In the closed tube, water is given off at a low temperature. It is very readily decomposed by hot hydrochloric acid with the separation of silica, but without gelatinization. When the water in the mineral is driven off below 265° C., it is nearly all regained on exposing the mineral to the air. If the water, however, is driven off at a red heat, none is regained by the mineral. Name.—The name Wedlls¢fe is given to this mineral in honor of Professor H. L. Wells of the Shefheld Scientific School, Yale University. 70 JOURNAL OF THE CHABAZITE. Occurrence.—As described on page62, this mineral 1s intimately associated with the wellsite, at the Buck Creek (Cullakanee) corundum mine in Clay Co., occurring as amass of small crystals coating the feldspar, horn- blende and corundum. hus far this mineral has been found only at the large open cut on the eastside of Buck Creek, just northwest of the shaft. The crystals are transparent to white and very small, no crystal being found that measured over one millimeter ia. diameter. The only form observed on any of these crystals was the unit rhombohedron, 1011, which occurs as simple crystals and also as penetration-twins, with ¢, as the twinning axis. Chemical analysis.—In obtaining material for analysis, the crystals of the chabazite and wellsite, freed as far as practicable from the feldspar and hornblende were crushed and sifted to a uniform grain. By means of the heavy solution, the chabazite was separated from, the wellsite and also from any feldspar or hornblende that may have been attached to them. CUS ET eae ie Es 63 reer feet. S140 Pt eh O239 re ren i Glo Soh), 31 ee lige 1 BOM io: 28 228.68 28.69 erie eit ieailitk 250 .20 Peer rte. 2 oes) 163 1.67 Loss at 100° = 33 i Pe 99.76 99.99 The two analyses are very similar, and confirm Prof. Pentield’s conclusion that the specimen described by him was from the Bakersville locality. One specimen of a true anthophyllite was found at Corundum Hill by Prof. Penfield; but this was more fibrous and not of such good quality as that from the Bakersville locality. ENSTATITE. The enstatite from Corundum Hill that is commonly called anthophyllite, occurs as a rock composed of a mass of interlocking bladed grayish crystals of the mineral. The rock is very tough and tenacious and forms a per- fectly continuous mass with the dunite. The outcrop of the dunite at Corundum Hill is very similar to that near Bakersville. The hill of nearly ten acres in extent ha the dunite exposed over nearly its entire surface, and tie enstatite is found at the lower south end of the outcrop in the zone of alteration products developed near the contact of the dunite with the hornblende gneiss. SAutw. J. oC. Xl, 1890) p. 396: 76 JOURNAL OF THE The analysis of this mineral by Dr. Baskerville* 1s as follows: Ratio SiO, 51.64 861 A1,O, Ag 001 FeO 9,28 129 | MnO 50 008 | MeO 31.93 798 faa CaO 45 008 | H,O 5.45 303 99.43 It is evident from the amount of H,O found, that the material analyzed was not pure, but was probably a mix- ture of the enstatite with serpentine and talc. As is shown by the calculations below, the ratio in the above analysis would be satisfied by a mixture of 44.5 per cent. enstatite, 35 per cent. serpentine and 20.5 per cent. talc. The analysis is also given below after sub- stituting for MnO and CaO their equivalents of MgO, deducting Al,O, and recalculating to 100 per cent. 44.5 per cent. 35 per cent. 20 per cent. Recalculated Enstatite. Ratio. Serpentine. Ratio. Talc. Ratio. Total. Analysis. SiO»g..24 42 .407 14.87 .246 §=13.02 .217 —52.31 52,19 HeOh:. (27158) e105 1.84 1025, | === — 9,42 9:39) MoO..12.50 .312 13.83 .346 6.51 .163 ——32.84 32290 H.O.. --- 4.46 .246 97 .054 — 5.43 Dot 44.50 35.00 20.50 100.00 100.00 ENSTATITE (BRONZITE. ) The occurence of this mineral in any considerable amount in North Carolina was first mentioned by Dr. G. H. Williams** who described specimens of a bronzite-di- opside rock, to which he gave the name websterite. *N. C. Geol. Survey, Bull. 11, p. 27. '** American Geologist VI, pp. 43-4, 1890. : +3. V. Lewis N. C. Geol. Suryey, Bull. 11. p. 27. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. Ti These specimens were collected near Webster, Jackson Co., by Mr. Geo. P. Merrill of the U. S. National Mu- seum, ‘On the road from Webster, following up the Tucka- seegee river valley and about ene half mile from the town, a mass of dunitet is exposed for over 1500 feet on a hillside facing the river. In the midst of this outcrop, the websterite occupies a width of nearly 300 feet. This outcrop of dunite is very similar to that near Bakersville and at Coumdum Hill, described above, This rock as described by Williams,* is composed en- tirely of bronzite and an emerald-green diopside. The ground mass of this rock is composed of the brilliant green grains of the diopside through which rounded crys- tals of the pale brown bronzite are disseminated. The relative amount of the bronzite is variable as it shows a tendency to concentrate in nests or bands. Lewis** speaks of this rock as a compact granular rock closely resembling the dunite with which it is asso- ciated, Near the north end of the dunite outcrop, at the side of the road, boulders were observed, which when “broken open were found to be composed almost entirely of bron- zite. Besides the boulders a mass of the same rock was observed apparently 272 s7/z. The bronzite composing this rock is of a resinous brown color, and of a bronze like luster, even on the unaltered surfaces. On the cleavage surface tne Juster is decidely pearly. No distinct crystals were observed, the speci- mens being a mass of interlocking crystals making a very tough rock similiar to the enstatite described above. . In most. of the specimens, the crystals were so interlocked that ne crystal outline of these could be distinguished. In a few of the specimens the crystals were much larger *American Geologist VI, pp.’ 43—4, 1890. **N) C. Geol. Survey Bull. 11. p. 27. ro) 78 JOURNAL OF THE in their development and their outline could readily be de- tected. Some of the crystals measured 2°" in the direc- tion of the 4, axis. Associated with the bronzite is the emerald-green di- opside mentioned by Williams, which is sparinglg scat- tered through the rock in very small, clear, green grains. While the websterite is composed of a base of diopside grains with the rather large rounded crystals of the bronzite penetrating through it, the bronzite rock is es- sentially interlocking prismatic crystals of the bronzite with a few grains of the diopside disseminated through it. This rock, also, does not show any of the granular character of the websterite; but on the contrary it is very compact and tough. The material for analysis was hand picked and that se- lected showed no impurities or decomposition when exam- ined with the magnifying glass. The results of the analysis by Dr. Baskerville are giv- en below: Ratio SiG) APRN. 8 BGR "6D ‘S94 =]. j -Q7 . © A,O, 20-505 oe 97 009 1 ee COPS Ted ee PS r0.64. “50 “UO3 | ReQittupe oft). icc sande 125) Ca sys: tS O31: 994. 1 sae Wit) eames dan. Soe 838 | a Oe = Ue "19 Q9-62 In the above analysis the ratio of the bivalent oxides to silicia is close to 1:1. an/ of ferrous oxide to maguesia and lime is very near to 1:7; this would give the formu- la (MeFe)SiO, with Mg :Fe=7:1. Assuming that the Al,O, and Cr,O, belong to spinel and deducting RO suf- ficient to combine with them, the analysis, after substitu- ting for CaO its equivalent of MgO and recalculating to 6 ey ere hg oh a i ELISHA MITCHEL1, SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 19 100 per cent, is given below together with the theoretical composition calculated for this formula. Found Theory for (Mok’e)Si0,; Mo : Fe=7: 1 SOS a). 55535 09 MeO. 9°14 8°65 MeOwirds 35:51 33°66 L00°00 LOO"O0 The name bronzite is very appropriate to this Webster enstatite, for the luster is of a decided bronze-like char- actér throughout the entire mass and is undoubtedly not of a secondary origin, but is the natural luster of this mineral. A similiar bronzite, showing the same decided bronze-like luster has been found at the Buck Creek, Cullakanee,) corundum mine in Clay county. EMERALD BERYL. Although the beryl is a very common accessory miner- al, in granite veins, especially those of a peematitic charac- ter, 1t is not common to find the deep emerald green va- piebys 1 he earliest report of the emerald in North Car- olina is 1880, by W. E. Hidden* who deseribes the oc- currence in Sharpes Township, Alexander Co. w ere it is found associated with the emerald ereen biddenite. The occurence of the emerald in Mitchell Co. has been known since 1886, though but little work has been done to develope the locality and to estimate its economic value. The mineral is found on the divide between Brush and Crabtree Creeks about four miles south-of Spruce Pine, post office. The vein carrying the beryl is of a pegmatitic character consisting chiefly of quartz and an albite feldspar, with *Elisha Mitchel Scientific Society. 1880. SO JOURNAL OF THE tourmaline, garnet and the beryl as accessory minerals. ‘Yhe country rock is a gneiss and biotite schist. The emerald beryl has the characteristic green color of the gem and some of the crystals are transparent. They all have the hexagonal prism well developed. but none were observed that showed any terminations. The crystals vary in size from less than a millimeter up -to eight millimeters in diameter. They are found imbedded in the quartz, teldspar and biotite schist, but are for the most part near the contact of the vein with the schist. The most transparent and deepest green crystals ob- served were either entirely surrounded by the schist or close to the contact. Those in the quartz were usually more transparent than those found imbedded in the feld- spar. The color of the crystals varies with their loca- tion in the vein, those nearest the schist being of the em- erald variety, whiie those farther away are pale green or yellow. The yellow or cream colored beryls are very abundant though the vein. The crystals vary considerably in size, from those hardly 2™™ in diameter to one that measured | eae The locality as yet has not been developed sufficiently to demonstrate whether it will warrent its being worked for gems. Both Col. Rorison of Bakersville, and Capt. Isaac English of Spruce Pine report that crystals have been found from which good gems were cut. GRASS GREEN CYANITE.* The mineral to be described occurs on the farm of Tiel Young, near Nortn Toe River, Yancey Co., North Carolina, a few miles from Spruce Pine, Mitcheli Co. _ Some exceptionally large crystals of a grass-green col- or’ were obtained by the author durine the summer of *Am, J. Sci. Vol. V, 1898, p, 126. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 8] 1896 from Mr. M. Alexander, a jeweler in Asheville. After some difficulty the occurrence was located, during the summer of 1897, and the locality has been thoroughly worked by Geo. L. English & Co. of New York, with the result that many good crystals of the cyanite have been obtained. The mineral occurs in a decomposed mica schist from which the single crystals are easily separated.” The crystals are often intergrown and masses of these were obtaimed as large as one’s two fists. All of the crystals found were of a rich grass-green color and many were quite transparent. A few of the crystals showed a deep blue center with the grass-green margins. The erystals vary m size from 1X°7°™ to 3-2X6°™; a few coarser ones were observed that were considerably larger. The fin- est crystal that has been found at this locality measured 5°8X2°2x1°8" and was perfectly transparent at one end for about 2°". The three pinacoids were the only faces ebserved on this crystal and these were evenly and well develoved. This crystal is now in the Brush Collection at New Haven, Conn. The faces are generally smooth, go- giving fair reflections of the signal on the reflecting niemeter. The forms observed on these crystals are as follows. c, 001 a, 100 M, 110 4, O10 me, 110 Q, 120 t, 520 The face 520 is apparently a new one for cyanite. The three pinacoids were the only faces observed on the majority of the crystals, some of which were doubly ter- minated. After a very careful examination of the termi- natio s, they were decided to be real basal planes and not cleavage surfaces. On one of the crystals, all of the faces observed were developed. The following table shows the identification of the forms by calculated and measured angles. In obtaining the calculated angles the elements given in Dana’s Min- 82 JOURNAL OF THE eralogy (1892), deduced from Rath’s measurements® on Greiner crystals, have been used. a :b6:c =0°89938:1 -0°70896; a=—90°5)’; B=101°2)';y= 105°4 45° Calculated. Measured. aam, 1004110 2 eae La S4 UT 34° Bite av M, 1004110 48 18 48 43:48 41; 48°45 aaQ, 100a120 48 43 48 50 ast. 100a520 ipene iW.43 ash, 100010 TS 26 13-40 2°93 38° %oaee ha MVM, 0104110 57 46 57 41 The specific gravity is 3°64 and was determined upon several different samples. | Pleochroisim is very strong, Iron and chromium were very carefully tested for, but no trace of either was observed in the analysis, which showed only the presence of alumina and silica. Crystallized cyanite is usually in long bladed crystals without terminations, the best crystals having been found at St. Gothard in Switzerland and on Mt. Greiner in Tyrol. These crystals of a blue and blueish white color, are often transparent but are seldom over a few millimeters wide. This new occurrence of the cvanite is not only of inter- est on account of the deep green color of the mineral but also on account of the exceptional size and development of the crystals. Pale green cyanite has been obtained from a number of localities and it has also been found in the vicinity of the green cyanite locality on the farm of Isaac English of Spruce Pine, Mitchell Co., imbedded in an undecomposed mica schist. Another occurrence that is worthy of note is that of Graves Mt., Georgia. At this locality thin small plates of the pale green cyanite are associated with well crystallized rutile. ¥7s. Kr.. v, 17, 1880. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. $3 ZIRCON. * Some specimens of zircon crystals were obtained of Messrs. Geo L. English & Co., from New Stirling, LIre- dell o., CNorth Carolina, and on account of their size and development it has been thought a description of them would be of interest. The crystals are all very similar in their habit, in which the unit pyramid is strongly developed while the prisms faces are short, figs. ¢and 5. Fig. 4+ represents the majority of the crystals, where the prism of the first order is only shghtly developed, at times being hardly perceptible. Those represented by fig. 5 are similar in their habit to some zircon crystals described by the au- 4. 5: thor from the townships of Dungannon and Faraday, Ontario. * The following forms were observed on these crystals: POs et LO a TL: ae Be: ay SI. The face x, 311 was only observed on a very few of the crystals and was but slightly developed. The crystals are all well developed with smooth faces, making them well adapted for measurement on the reflecting goniome- ter. Although the author had no reflecting goniometer at hand, the faces were readily identified by means of the contact goniometer. The crystals vary in size from 1° to 2°5*™ in diameter and are of a reddish-brown color. ATH. J. cis. Vol. Vi, 1898, p. 127. #Am. Jour. Sci., vol., xlviii, p. 215, 1894. 3 (7a sg me i EY 88 —? ok & aa C6 if re 4 m x ; iy a > A ; } tee Ti q =) ts ! > z “a & “ ii “ighad Aare chostty toe JOURNAL OF THE Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society VOL. XV 1898 CHAPEL HILL, N. O. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY Journal of the Mitchell Society. CONTENTS. WV OL. eV. 1898. The Nature of the Change from Violet to Greenin Solution of Chro- mium Salts.—F. P. Venable and F. W. Miller...:................sceceeee- 1 Nesting Habits of Some Southern Birds in Eastern N. C.—T. G. ESCO OF TMM ea noes BOR SERENA sic sXe clas ntoaeee AUER NSE Sais waive bavicbse Saleen 17 EAE secre cc hO SSE SADE LO BIO SDOCERE OCS EERE DBC CON SOO REO OOO OC ho EET EEE EE Orr 22 Natural Science of the Ancients as Interpreted by Lucretius.—F’. P. CTI sh OR PA Oo ee SN ra a A. a ee eee 62 On the Feasibility of Raising Sponges from the Egg.—//. V. Wilson...... Distribution of Water-powers in N. C.—J. A. Holmes.............0 00 00cccee es 92 VOLOSTONEGTRSROS—— ii. WV A SIE eoa ccc ovzb cociceoces tao eee deans oaecucas duccsenctaceees 122 ete on ee 5 “a meee: tee enl be ~~ mas > Oe bd: Vite hb wie | 7 ‘ « ve ° i uci { * ' j | \ . i i+ in iM 4 vow Hd Caterers ee eiatt Mees / . = at ae An Se cae JOURNAL OF THE Flisha Mitchell Scientific Society. FIFTEENTH YERAR—PART ONE. 1898. THE NATURE OF THE CHANGE FROM VIOLET TO GREEN IN SOLUTIONS OF CHROM- IUM SALTS. By F. P. VENABLE AND F. W. MILLER. It is a well-known fact that solutions of certain chrom- ium salts which are violet in color become green on heat- ing. This has been especially noticed in the case of the chrome-alums and of the sulphate, but is also true of the nitrate, chloride, and acetate, in fact, of all the soluble compounds of chromium. A reverse reaction also takes place and all of these solutions made green by heating ° become violet again on standing, the nitrate, chloride, and acetate very rapidly, the sulphate and alums slowly, and often only after prolonged standing. It is quite rea- sonable to suppose that these changes are caused by sim- ilar reactions in the case of various salts, and that there is one explanation for all. A large number ot explanations have been offered by various investigators. In fact it 1s surprising to find how many have been drawn to investigate these changes and what an amount of work has been done upon them. Perhaps the difficult nature of the problem has been the great source of attraction. Fischer’ and Jacquelain? 1Kastner’s . Nat. Herb., vol. 3, No. 1: 321892). Not P. capzi- lare var. minus Muhl. (1817). Culm erect, strict, single or a few together from a short root-stock, very slender, glabrous, 11’—18’ high. Sheaths glab- rous, the lower very short; ligule none. Stem leaves rigid, spreading, lanceolate, 13’—3’ long, 3’’—4’’ wide, taper- pointed, scarcely narrowed at the ciliate base, glabrous on both sides, the lowest distant, the upper approximate. Panicle 2’ long or less, oval, the few branches spreading ; spikelets 14”’ long, elliptic, nearly glabrous. The autum- nal form is sparingly branched above. Common.—This species is closely related to P. commutatum from which itis separated by its slender, strict habit, more narrow, rigid and spreading leaves approximate atthe topofthe culm. Dry shady woods, New York to Georgia and Missouri. New York: Ashe; Ithaca, July 1898. North Carolina: Ashe; near Wilmington, June 1898. Missouri: Bush; Aug. 12, 1892, sub. nom. P. dichotomum, L. 18) PanicuM WEBBERIANUM Nash, Torr. Bul. 23: 149 (1896). Stems tufted, erect or ascending, 18’—24’ high, smooth except below, where minutely puberulent. Sheaths smooth, except the ciliate margin, or sometimes puberulent, inflated, shorter than the internodes; ligule a mere ciliate margin. Leaves erect or ascending, lanceo- late, narrowed to a rounded base, 2’—3’ long, 3’’—4’’ wide, 7—11-nerved, glabrous or the base, sparingly cili- 36 JOURNAL OF THE ate, generally purplish, very numerous. Panicle 2’—4’ long, one half as wide, the slender, mostly single branches spreading; spikelets obovate, apiculate, 1}’’ long, on pedicels of about the same length or longer, first scale obtuse, about one-fourth the length of the 7-nerved sec- ond and third. Low pine land. Florida: Nash; Lake Co., May, 1894, No. 781. Re- lated to P. demissum Trin. but larger in every way and erect, where- as that is ascending from a geniculate base or is prostrate. 19) PANICUM ‘JILCOXIANUM Vasey, Bul. U. S. Div. of Bot. 8: 32 (1889). Culms somewhat tufted, erect, about 8’ high, pubescent, at least below. Sheaths shert- er than the internodes, papillose-pubescent with rough, appressed or ascending hairs ; ligule pilose. Leaves in the simple form not crowded, ascending, nearly lanceolate, the largest about 3’ long, 2’? wide, narrowed to the some- what rounded base, pubescent. Panicle long-peduncled, 1’—13’ long, ovoid, compact, the branches ascending; spikelets broadly elliptical, 14”’ long, pubescent. Dry, sandy soil, Nebraska. ‘Type material collected by Dr. Wilcox in 1891. Closely related to P. Scribnerianum. 20) PANiIcuM GEORGIANUM Ashe, sp. nov. Low, 4’—8’ high, densely tufted, much branched below and spreading, even betore flowering; stems glabrous or soft- pubescent. Sheaths generally longer than the internodes, soft-pubescent or nearly glabrous; ligule witha few soft hairs. Leaves ascending, oblong lanceolate, 1’—2 long, about 2”? wide, taper-pointed, rounded at the base, 5—7- nerved, soft-pubescent or glabrate. Panicle short-pedun- cled, one inch long or less, generally overtopped by the upper leaves, the few, short branches ascending; spikelets, 1%” long, broadly elliptical, the first scale obtuse, one- third the length of the very pubescent second and third. Dry sandy soil, southern Georgia and Florida. Related to P. consan- guineum. Georgia: Small; Darden Junction, McIntosh Co., June 27, 1895. Florida: Chapman; Apalachicola. a ELISHA MITCHELI, SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. a7 21) PANICUM POLYANTHES Schultes, Mant. 2:257 (1824). P. multiforum Ell. Sk. 1:122 (1817). Not Poir (1816). P. microcarpon Muhl. Gram. 111 (June 1817.) Not Muhl. ex Elliott (Jan. 1817). Culms often single, erect or nearly so, 16’—30’ high, glabrous. Sheaths glabrous, gen- erally longer than the internodes and overlapping; ligule none. Leaves ascending, scattered along the entire stem, lanceolate, 3’—6’ long, 6’’—10”’ wide, taper-pointed, glab- rous except at the ciliate, cordate base ; basal leaves ros- ulate, ovate-lanceolate, rigid. Panicle oblong or ellipti- cal, pointed, 3’—5’ long, branches fasciculate, the lower ascending. Spikelets very numerous, nearly }’’ long, broadly elliptical or spheroid; first scale small, one-fourth the length of the pubescent 7-nerved second and third. Moist, shady woods, not common, Florida, Texas aud Indian Terri- tory northward to Michigan and Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania: C E. Smith, Chester. Missouri: Stewart Weller, 1892. Georgia: Ashe; Albany, 1896. District of Columbia: Holm: 1896. 22) PANICUM SPHAEROCARPON Eyl. Sk.1: 125 (1817). Stems sometimes tufted, erect or ascending 12’—28’ long, glabrous. Sheaths olabrous (or sometimes the low- er nodes slightly barbed), the lower longer than the in- ternodes and overlapping; ligule none. Leaves ascend- ing, lanceolate, 2’—23’ long, 4’’—5”’’ wide, long taper- pointed, ciliate at the barely rounded base, about 7-nerv- ed. Panicle long-peduncled, oval 2’—3’ long, the fasci- cled branches somewhat ascending; spikelets obovate or nearly spherical, %’’ long. Common in old fields and sunny woods, New Englandand Ontario to Missouri, Mexico (fide Vasey) and Florida. New York: Townsend; Niagara, 1894. Missouri: Bush; Montier, 1894, No. 763. Georgia: Small; Stone Mt. 1895. Illinois: Hill; Chicago, 1898. 23) PANICUM ERECTIFOLIUM Nash, Tor. Bul. 23: 148 (1897). P. sfaerecarpon var. Floridanum Vasey, Bul. U.S. Div. of Bot. 8:33 (1889). Not P. Floridanum 38 JOURNAL OF THE Trin. (1834) P. sfpaerocarpon Ell. ex Chapm. Flora. First Ed. 576. Culms tufted, erect or ascending, 14’—24’ high, rather stout, glabrous. Sheaths glabrous, lower generally longer than the internodes; no ligule. Leaves thick, erect, rigid, lanceolate or narrower, 2’—3’ long, 4’’—6”’ wide, taper-pointed, rounded at the ciliate base, otherwise glabrous. Panicle 15’—3’ long, oval or oblong, branches fascicled, the lower ascending. Spike- lets numerous, very small, scarcely $’’ long, spherical. Distinguished from P. sphaerocarpon by having narrower, erect leaves,and smaller spikelets. Northern Florida and probably the ad- jacent parts of Georgia. Florida: Curtiss; Jacksonville, 1894, No. 4812. 24) Panicum AppisonizI Nash, Torr. Bul. 25: 83 (1898). ‘Tufted, stems erect or ascending froma genicu- late base, rigid. At first simple, at length much branch- ed, the branches erect, the lower part of the stem pu- bescent with long ascending hairs which become much shorter towards the top. Sheaths appressed pubescent, sometimes longer than the internodes. Leaves erect, glab- rous, acuminate, lanceolate, 1’—3’ long, 1%’’—3’’ wide; ligule pilose. Panicle, long-peduncled, ovate to oblong, the rather few branches erect or ascending; spikelets ob- ovate, 1’ long, the first scale about one half as long as the 9—11-nerved, very pubescent second and third. Type material from southern New Jersey. Related to P. con- sanguineum., 1 have found the same species in eastern North Carolina. 25) PANICUM CONSANGUINEUM Kth. Enum. PI. 1: 106 (1833). Stems sometimes tufted, generally single, vil- lous with soft spreading or ascending hairs, at least be- low, 12’—30’ long, spreading or ascending from a genic- ulate base, at first simple, the autumnal form very much branched above, and often reclining. Sheaths shorter than the internodes, villous with soft grayish pubescence, liguie a ring of very short hairs, sometimes of longer. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. sy Stem leaves erect, oblong-lanceolate, the largest near the middle of the stem, 2’—33’ long, 2’’—4’’ wide, about equalling the internodes, thickish, smooth to villous; the later leaves smooth and much smaller, densely fasci- cled at the upper part of the stem. Panicle long-pedun- cled, 2’—3’ long, the few long, flexuous branches ascend- ing, few-flowered. Spikelets 14’’ long, broadly obovate, obtuse, abruptly contracted at the base, the second and third scales strongly 7—9-nerved, very pubescent. Virginia: Ashe; June, 1897. North Carolina: Ashe; Chapel Hill, 1496. Florida: Curtiss. P, oligosanthes Schult. and P. Ra finesqut- anum Schult. are probably referable to this species. 26) PANICUM NEURANTHUM Griseb. Cat. Pl. Cub. 532 (1866). Culms somewhat clustered, at first simple, erect or ascending, 8’—20’ long, at length very much branched above and reclining or spreading, glabrous or somewhat pubescent. Sheaths shorter than the inter- nodes, the lower pubescent, the upper smooth, those of the fascicled secondary branches much crowded ; ligule pubescent. Earlier leaves erect, flat, glabrous, linear- lanceolate, the largest 3’—4’ long, 2’’—23’’ wide, nar- rowed at the base, longer than the internodes ; the later crowded, smaller, linear, ascending on the spreading or reclining branches, often involute, very much longer than the small, barely exserted panicles. Primary panicle oblong, 3’—4' long, glabrous, the branches at first as- cending, at length spreading, the rather few large flow- ers borne mostly on long flexuous pedicels; spikelets about 1” long, broadly obovate. Dry sandy soil along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts from Virginia southward. This species is apparently very close to P. consanguineum. I have only been able to examine Curtiss’ 3587,* which has been referr- ed by Nash to this species, and this being in the autumnal state, is rather unsatisfactory for comparision. 27) PANICUM ANGUSTIFOLIUM Ejll., Sk. 1:129(1817), P. setaceum Muhl. Gram. (1817). Stems generally sin- 40 JOURNAL OF THE ele, at first simple and erect, later much branched, spreading or reclining, glabrous, or below somewhat pubescent. Sheaths shorter than the internodes, the lowest generally pubescent, the upper smooth. Primary leaves,erect, flat, glabrous, linear-lanceolate, the largest 3°’—4’ long, 2’’—23’’ wide, narrowed at the base, secon- dary leaves much smaller and crowded at the top of the ascending or reclining branches. Primary panicle ob- long, 3’°—4’ long, glabrous, the branches at first erect, at length spreading, the flowers on long flexuous pedicels, spikelets 1’* long, or over, elliptic, acute, abruptly con- tracted at the base. Dry sandy soil from eastern Virginia southward to Texas, Mary- land: Canby, 1894. Florida: Nash; Eustice, 1894. Mississippi : Kearney ; Biloxi, 1896. Texas: Reverchon; Dallas, 1881, sub. nom. P. neuranthum. 28) Panicum BICKNELLU Nash, Torr, Bul. 24:193 (1897). Culms tufted erect, slender. smooth above, pub- erulent below, a foot or more tall. Sheaths often lenger than the internodes, the lower pubescent with the nodes bearded ; ligule pubescent. Stem leaves linear-lanceo- late, narrowed at the ciliate base, otherwise smooth, the largest 5°—®8’ long, 4’’—5"’ wide, the upper ones longest. Panicle 2’—4’ long, with ascending, flexnous branches; spikelets obtuse, oval or obovate, about 15’’ long, second and third scales 9-nerved. Secondary panicles much smaller, on erect branches, and not basal as in P. depau- peratum. This species has the habit and appearance of P. depauperatum, from which it is separated by having much broader leaves and smaller spikelets. New York, Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Porter; Penn- sylvania; Chambersburg, July, 1896. 29) PANICUM DEPAUPERATUM Muhl. Gram. 112 (1817). P. strictum Pursh FI, (1814). Not R. Br. (1812). P. rectum R.& S. P. involutum Torr. Stems tufted, 8’-18’ high erect, mostly glabrous. Upper sheaths elon- ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 4] gated, glabrous or hirsute; ligule hairy. Stem leaves érect, longest towards top of culm, 3’ te 8’ long, 13’’—2”’ wide, smooth or hirsute, sometimes involute; basal leaves similar to those of the stem but sherter. Panicle loose, 3’—5’ long, branches erect or ascending, mostly single, flexuous. few-flowered, pedicels mostly very long ; spike- lets 13’’—23” long. broadly elliptical or obovate, acute, the 8-nerved second and third scales much longer than the obtuse.fourth. Elliott does not seem to have known this species. Throughout the eastern United States from Maine and Florida to Texas. Dry, sandy woods and fields. Washington, D. C.: Holm, 1895. Iowa: Bessey ; Ames, 1872. Georgia: Ashe; Stone Mountain, 1896 Texas: Reverchon. New Hampshire: Eaton ; Seabrook, 1898. 30) PANICUM LINEARIFOLIUM Scribn. Bul. 11, U.S. Div. of Agrost. 42 (1898). Densely tufted, 8’—14’ high, stems erect, smooth. Sheaths somewhat shorter than .the internodes, usually hirsute; ligule hairy. Leaves linear—lanceolate, erect, firm, 2’—6’ long, 13’’—2"’ wide, the base barely- narrowed, glabrous above, or with a few long hairs. below appressed pubescent. Primary paxicle open, 2’—4’ long, the mostly single branches ascending, the rather few spikelets borne on pedicels two to many times their length. Spikelets elliptical, obtuse, 1’’ or shehtly more long, very strongly 7-nerved. Secondary panicles crowded at base of the culms. Maine and New Jersey to Minnesota and Missouri. Distinguished from /. depauperatum by having more slender, obtuse spikelets; while its somewhat longer, more elliptical spikelets, its pubescence and the basal panicles separate it from P. Wernert. Minnnesota ; Holzinger; June, 1888. Maine; Merrill; July, 1898. Illinois; Hall; 1862. Missouri: Bush, 1892. 31) PaNnicuM WERNERI Scribn. Brit. and Brown’s lil. Flo. 3; 501(1898), Densely tufted, stems very. slen- der, smooth and glabrous throughout. Sheaths smooth, ligule a mere margin. Leaves linear, erect, often over- topping the panicles, the upper leaves the longest, 3’—7’ 42 JOURNAL OF THE long, 1°’—2”’ wide, glabrous. Panicles long-peduncled, 2’—4’ long, loose, the slender flexuous, generally solita- ry branches ascending ; spikelets about 1’’ long, obovate, the first scale about one third the length of the 7-nerved second and third. Secondary basal panicles only spar- ingly developed. Very close to P. lineartfolium. Connecticut to Ohio in swamps. Connecticut: Eames; Fairfield, 1896. New York; Rowlee; Ithaca, 1892. 32) PANICUM NEMOPANTHUM Ashe, sp. nov. ‘Tuft- ed, stems erect, 14’—20’ high, glabrous. Sheaths glab- rous, or the lowest pubescent, the upper sometimes longer than internodes, the nodes, at least the lower ones, barbed with long hairs; ligule none. Leaves linear lan- ceolate, spreading or ascending, long taper-pointed, glabreus or ciliate toward the narrowed base. Panicle 3’—4’ long, broader than long, the mostly single branch-. es wide-spreading, lax and drooping, few-flowered ; spikelets elliptic, acute, nearly 13’’ long, on long, flexu- ous pedicels, the obtuse first scale over one-third the length of the glabrous, 7-nerved second and third. Type material collected by the writer April, 1895, in the Penitentia- ry woods, Raleigh, N. C. A very distinct species. 33) PANICUM DICHOTOMUM L, Sp. Pl. 58 (1753). P. ramulosum Mx. P. nodifiorum Lam.? Several stems to- gether, 10’ -- 24’ high, erect. Sheaths, except the low- est, glabrous, lowest node occasionally barbed and its sheath pubescent. Sheaths shorter than the internodes; ligule none. Leaves spreading, lax, largest 1)’—23’ long, 3’’-—4’’ wide, narrowed to a rounded, sparingly cil- iate base, otherwise glabrous. Primary panicle 2’ or more long, oval, the branches lax; spikelets 1”’ long, el- liptic, glabrous. Shady woods throughout the eastern United States north of Florida and Texas. Florida: Chapman; Apalachicola. Texas: Nealley; Rock ——— es el ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 43 land, 1892. New York: Rowlee: Ithaca, 1895. Maine: Fernald; 1895. This is the most common vernal species from North Carolina northward. Elliott seems to have overlooked this species. His P. dichotomum is either P. demissum or P. arenicolum or some closely related species, which, in habit, resembles P. axgustifolinm, as he compares his P. di- chotomum with P. angustifolium in both habit and form. PANICUM DICHOTOMUM ELATUM Vasey Contrib. from. U.S. Nat. Herb. vol. 3 No. 1:30 (1892). Stems stouter, leaves longer, 23 —3’ long, panicle very much larger than in the type, 3’—4’ long and fully as wide. Maryland and southward. District of Columbia: Scribner 1894. North Carolina: Ashe; Chapel Hill, 1897. PANICUM DICHOTOMUM VIRIDE Vasey, “Contrib. from Os. Nat. Heb: Vol. 3, No. 1:30 (1892) is a tender, slend- er, few flowered form, growing in very deep shady woods. It is very common to the northward, but is less common to the south. It does not branch or only spar- ingly during the summer, the basal nodes and sheaths are glabrous, and it is probably specific. It approaches P. luctdum. P. dichotomum has been burdened with numberless va- rieties by later American authors, most of these varieties ‘being well-marked species, which were so regarded by early American botanists. 34) PANICUM BOREALE Nash, Torr. Bul. 22: 421(1895). Culms generally tufted, ascending or erect, 14’—20’ high, glabrous. Sheaths glabrous, except for the ciliate mar- gin, often as long as the internodes; ligule of very short hairs. Leaves glabrous, lanceolate, or sometimes ciliate at the base, 3’—5’ long 3’ wide or less, taper-pointed, narrowed to the rounded base, ascending. Panicle 2’—3’ long, nearly as broad, branches numerous, fascicled, very slender; spikelets 1’’ long, elliptic, acutish, nearly glab- rous, rather numerous, on long filiform ascending or spreading pedicels. Autumnal form unbranched. 44 JOURNAL OF THE Northern New England to Minnesota, South to Pennsylvania. Relat- ed to P. dichotomum, Maine: Merrill; East Cerbum. New York: Ashe; Courtland, 1898. 35) PANICUM MACULATUM Ashe, sp. nov. Culms single, erect, glabrous, at length sparingly branched. Sheaths shorter than internodes, glabrous, spotted ; lig- ule none. Basalleaves and nodes glabrous; stem leaves ascending, largest 3’—4’ long, 4°’—5’’ wide, lanceolate, tapering to the rounded glabrous base, margins very rough, 5—7-nerved. Panicle 2’—3’ long, nearly as broad, oval, the clustered branches lax. Spikelets 3” leng, obovate, acute. Related to P. dichotomum, from which distinguished by the longer, ascending leaves and smaller spikelets, Spikelets about the size of those of P. barbulaium. Collected by the writer at Raleigh, N. C. May, 1895. 36) PANICUM ROANOKENSE Ashe. sp. nov. Culms somewhat tufted, 18° or more high frem a geniculate base. Plant ylabrous throughout. Sheaths one-half as long as the internodes or more; ligule none. Leaves glabrous, ascending, narrowly lanceolate, 2’—3’ long, 2”,—3” wide, firm, 5—7-nerved. Panicle 2}’—3%’ long, broadly oval, the slender, fascicled branches spreading or drooping ; spikelets numerous, 1’’ long, elliptical-ebo- vate, glabrous. Type material collected by writer in dry soil, Roanoke Island, N. C. June, 1898; also collected at Rose Bay and Mackleyville, N. C., the same month. 37) PANICUM DEMISSUM Trin. Sp. Gram. 3: 319 (1836), Panicum Nashianum Scrib. Bul. U.S. Div. of Agrost.7: 79 (1897). Stems tufted, 10’—18’ long, very slender, wiry, risingor reclining from geniculate base, joints geniculate, purplish, glabrous or minutely rough, puberulent below, at first simple, becoming much branch- ed above late in the season. Sheaths much shorter than the internodes, the upper ones glabrous, the lower gen- ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 45 erally puberulent ; ligule none. Leaves ascending, oblong- lanceolate, 15’ leng or less, about 2’’ wide, 1’ longest and broadest near the base of the culm, the upper reduced in size, glabrous. Panicle short-peduncled or sessile, 1’—2’ long, the branches short, flexuous, spreading; spike- lets obovate, 1’ long, contracted at the base, glabrous. Related to P. Webberianum, but distinguished by being much smaller and ascending from a geniculate base. Common inthe pine barrens. North Carolina ; Ashe; near Newberne, 1898. Georgia ; Small; near Thomasville, June, 1892. Florida; Curtiss ; Jacksonville, No. 4637. 1894. 38) PANICUM MATTAMUSKETENSE Ashe, sp. nov. Erect, sometimes tufted, strict, rather stout, 2 feet to 4 feet high, often purplish, nodes strongly barbed. Low- er leaves and sheaths solft-pubescent the upper glabrous; ligule pubescent, otherwise glabrous. Leaves lanceolate. 3’—5’ long, 4”—7” wide, spreading. Panicle 3’--5’ long, ovoid, long-peduncled, the branches numerous, cluster- ed; spikelets ellipsoid, glabrous, pointed, 1” long, first scale one-third the length of the spikelet. Roadsides, ditch banks and wet open woods around lake Mattamus- keet, N. C., where it grows with P. 6arbulatum. June andJuly. The later stages profusely branched above with shorter leaves and small few-flowered panicles. Collected by the writer, and Mr. Gilbert Pear- son in June, 1898. 39) PANICUM BARBULATUM Mx. Flora, 1:49(1803). P. discolor Spreng, ex Muhl. Gram. 114(1818). P. het- erophyllum Schreb? Stems erect, often tufted, 2 feet to 3 feet high, the nodes barbed, otherwise glabrous. Sheaths shorter than the internodes, glabrous ; ligule pubescent. Leaves spreading or ascending, lanceolate, rounded at the base, 3’—4’ long, 3’’—6’’ wide. Panicle 3’—5’ long, ovoid, peduncled, the branches fascicled, z . . . 399 - numerous ; spikelets ellipseid about }’’ or less long, pointed. The later stage very much branched above, with smaller leaves and small, few-flowered panicles. 46 JOURNALOF THE + Wet shady places, very common. Florida and Texas to (according to Britton & Brown) Ohio and Connecticut. Texas: Nealley; No, 26. Florida: Chapman; Apalachicola, Biltmore Herbarium, No. 803c. District of Columbia: Kearney, 1895. Kentucky: Miss Price; Bow- ling Green. This species has the general appearance of P. dichotomum, but is distinguished by the smaller spikelets and barbed nodes. Near- ly related to P. annulum and P. Mattamusketense. 40) PANICUM ENSIFOLIUM Baldwin, Ell. Sk. 1:526 (1817). P. albo-marginatum Nash, Torr. Bul. 24:40 (1897). Stems tufted, branching from the base or near it, glabrous, 8’—14’ high. Sheaths generally much shorter than the internodes, crowded on the branches above, glabrous, except the very short, hairy ligule. Leaves glabrous, lanceolate, mostly clustered near the base of the stem, the largest 1}’—2’ long, 3’’—4’’ wide, the margins white and thickened, upper reduced in size. Panicles small, 1’—13’ long, long-exserted, oval, the branches ascending; spikelets numerous, %’’ long, ellip- tical-obovate, the first scale about one-fourth as long as the pubescent 7—nerved second and third. Moist or dry woods middle North Carolina to Florida. North Caro- lina: Ashe; Chapel Hill, June, 1896. Georgia: Baldwin. Florida: Nash; Lake county, 1894, No. 925. A specimen in the herbarium of the Philadelphia Academy of Science sent by Baldwin from Georgia, and labelled by him P. enstfolium, matches my material from North Carolina and Nash’s from Florida. Italso agrees very well with Elliott’s description of this species. 41) Panicum BauLpwini Nutt. ex Chapman, Flora, 3rd_ edition 586 (1896). Densely cespitose, glabrous, stems much branched near the base, low 8’—16’ high, stiff ana rigid. Sheaths smooth; ligule pubescent. Stem leaves rigid, erect, narrowed at base, $’—14’ long, acuminate, glabrous. Basal leaves tufted. Panicle 1’ or less long, much divided ; the obovate or elliptic spike- lets barely $”’ long, the second and third scales indis- tinctly 5—nerved. Georgia: Baldwin, in Herb, Philadelphia Acad. of Natural Science. Florida: Curtiss ; Indian river, No. 5804. Florida: Chapman; Apa- lachicola. Related to the next. BLISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 47 42) PaNnicuM WRIGHTIANUM Scribn., Bul. 11, U.S. Div. of Agrost., 44 (1898). Stems densely tufted, much branched above, sometimes puberulent. Sheaths very short, occasionally pubescent; ligule sometimes pubes- cent. Leaves lanceolate, somewhat rounded at the base, 1’—2’ long, erect, glabrous, taper-pointed. Panicle ob- long, }’—1}’ long, branches fascicled, short; spikelets obovate, less than }” long, second and third scales faint- ly 5-nerved. Florida and westward along the South Atlantic and Gulf coasts. Florida: Nash; Lake county, 1894, No. 1238. Florida: Curtiss; Jack- sonville, 1894, No. 5588. North Carolina: Ashe; near Newberne, 1898. 43) PANICUM SPHAGNICOLUM Nash, Torr. Bul. 22: 422 (1895), Cespitose, stems at first erect, soon reclin- ing and much elongated, 12’—30’ long, very slender, glabrous. Sheaths much shorter than the internodes, elabrous, no ligule. Leaves erect, $’—1}’ long, 2”—3? wide, narrowly lanceolate, narrowed to the somewhat rounded base, glabrous, 5-nerved. Panicles 1’—13’ long, branches erect, or ascending; spikelets }” long, broad- ly obovate, glabrous, the second and third scales 7-nerved. Delaware to Florida and Tennessee. At first unbranched, eventual- ly with slender, reclining branches and small, sessile panicles. Color light green. Delaware : Canby ; Ogleton, June, 1896. District of Columbia: Kearney ; June, 1897. North Carolina: Small; Duns’ Mt., August, 1894. North Carolina; Biltmore Herbarium, Biltmore, August, 1898 No. 5066b. Florida; Nash, No. 2500. 44) Panicum LuctipUM Ashe, sp. nov. Cespitose, culms reclining or prostrate, weak, glabrous. Sheaths glab- rous, except the ciliate margin, very short; ligule none. Leaves spreading, 1’ long or generally less, narrowly lanceolate, very acute, narrowed to the base, glabrous, rather distant. Panicle peduncled, 13’ long or less, equally as wide, the branches single or several together, 48 JOURNAL, OF THE wide-spreading; spikelets about %’’ long, elliptic or nar- rewly obovate, acute, glabrous. Collected in June 1898 by the writer in deep, shady swamps border- ing lake Mattamuskeet, N. C. Probably found in other swamps along the coast of the southernstates. Very different from P. sphagnicolum., 45 PaNnicuM CUTHBERTI Ashe, sp. nov. Culms very slender, erect or spreading, densely tufted, glabrous, 8’— 24’ long, the autumnal state unbranched or slightly so. Sheaths very short, glabrous; no ligule. Stem leaves distant, narrowly lanceolate, taper-pointed, 3 to 5 ner- ved, narrowed, at the base, thin, glabrous, }’—13’ long, 1’’—2”’ wide, spreading or ascending; basal leaves densely tufted. Panicle breadly oval about 1’ long, the slender branches spreading; spikelets narrowly elliptical, acute, !’’ long, the first scale one-fourth the length of the 7-ner- ved finely pubescent second and third. Wet sandy woods, North Carolina and South Carolina. South Car- olina: Cuthbert; St. Helena island. North Carolina: Ashe; Chapel Hill, June,1898. Itis separated from P. exst/olium by the strict habit and arge basal leaves of the lattcr; while P. sphagnicolum hasthe branches of its panicle ascending and larger obovate spikelets; and P. lucidum has much larger and broader spikelets, and a decumbent habit. 46) PANICUM PARVISPICULATUM Nash, Torr. Bul.24:347 (1897.) P. microcarpon(?) Muhl. ex Ell. Sk. 1:127 (1817). Stems tufted, erect, 8’—30’ high, glabrous, or with some appressed pubescence on the lower part and sometimes with the nodes barbed. Sheaths very short, generally glabrous, the lower sometimes pubescent; ligule short, pilose. Leav-s distant, ascending, much shorter than the internodes, lanceolate, narrowed at the base, 2’—3’ long, 3°’—4"’ wide, generally glabrous. Basal leaves oblong lanceolate, 2’—4’ long, about 4’’ wide, stiff and erect. Panicle 14’--3’ long, oval or oblong, the numerous ascend- ing branches thickly fascicled; spikelets very numerous, small, scarcely §’’ long, broadly oval. This species is intermediate between P. /eucothriv Nash. and P. niti- ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 49 dum Yam., and is the P. nitidum of Dr. Chapman’s Southern Flora. It is also probably the P. microcarpon of Elliott. It occurs along the coast as far north as eastern Virginia. As it is variable in the amount of pubescence, some specimens being quite glabrous, and others hay- ing the stems and sheaths pubescent, and nodes barbed, it is possible that Elliott may have based his 7. microcarpon on specimens of the pubescent form. Virginia: Curtiss; Bedford Co., 1873, sub nom. P. nodiflorum Tam. North Carolina: Ashe; Wilmington, 1895. Florida: Chapman; Apalachicola. Curtiss, Jacksonville, No. 4033. 47) PANICUM LEUCOTHRIX Nash, Torr, Bul. 24:41 (1817). Stems somewhat tufted, slender, 12’—30’ tall, glabrous, or pubescent below. Sheaths shorter than the internodes, glabrous or the lower pubescent ; ligule pil- ose. Leaves lanceolate,13’ long or jess, 1”—-2’’ wide, nar- rowed to the base, spreading or ascending. Panicle ob- long, }’—13’ long, the numerous short fascicled branches ascending ; spikelets very numerous, less than §’’ long, spheroid, whitish or purple. Central Florida to North Carolina near the coast. Florida: Curtiss; Jacksonville, 5912. North Carolina: Ashe; Manteo, June, 1898. Re- ated to P. parvispiculatum, 'This is Elliott’s P. nitidum. 48) Panicum. EKatontr Nash, Torr. Bul. 25: 84 (1898). Erect, 1’--3’ tall, glabrous. Sheaths smooth: ligule pilose. Leaves lanceolate, taper-pointed, ascend- ing, becoming much smaller towards top of culm, the largest 3’--4 long, and 4-5” wide: panicle long-pe- duncled, oblong, 3’--3’ long, the numerous short branch- es ascending ; spikelets oval, about }” long, first scale about one-third as long as the pubescent, 7-uerved sec- ond and third. “Wet places along the coast, Maine to New York.” Description based on material sent me by Mr. A. A. Eaton of Seabrook, N. H. 49) PanicuM Col1,UBIANUM Scribn. Bul. U.S. Div. of Agrost. 7: 78 (1897). Stems somewhat tufted, 8’-20’ high, strict, glabrous or the lower pubescent: ligule pilose. Leaves distant, ascending, lanceolate, taper- pointed, the upper reduced in size, largest 2’--3’ long, 4 50 JOURNAL OF THE 3”—4” wide. Panicle long-peduncled, mostly smooth, 1’—-2’ long, at first contracted, later pyramidal, branches numerous, fascicled; spikelets broadly ovate, ~” long purplish, first scale minute, second and third 7-nerved, ‘pubescent. Later stages fasciculate branched, the small branches and leaves ascending. * Too close to P. nitidum, from which it is distinguished only by its smaller size, and smaller panicle. New Jersey: Commons; 1897, District of Columbia: Kearney ; June, 1897. 50) Panicum NITIDUM Lam. Encl. 4; 748 (1797). Stems often tufted, erect, strict, 10’ to 33 feet high, near- ly glabrous; later stages much branched from the sheaths. Sheaths shorter than the internodes, giabrous or with soft ascending hairs, or, to the southward, the lower sheaths papillose-hirsute; ligule pilose. Leaves firm, ascending, 7--9-nerved, oblong-lanceolate, 2-4" long, 3”--4” wide, glabrous, or appressed pubes- cent beneath, shorter than the internodes; upper much reduced. Panicle 2’--3’ long, broadly oval, at least the lower branches ascending, spikelets numerous, on very slender pedicels, about {” long, broadly ovate. New England to North Carolina, and Wisconsin. Its distribution farther westward undetermined. District of Columbia: Kearney; 1897. | North Carolina: Ashe ; 1898. Wisconsin: Pammel; Prairie du Chien, 1891. This is a very confusing and variable species. I have studied it in the field for three seasons and have carefully noted its variability. To the northeast, where it is common at least as far as New Jersey, it is generally glabrous or nearly so; to the southward it is often pubes- cent, with the sheaths papillose-hirsute, though the glabrous form oc- curs occasionally along with it. It is Variable in size and in the shape and size of its spikelets, even on the same individual. The long pilose ligule, however, is constant. To the extreme southeast P. leucothrix occurs, which is closely allied to P. mitidum, and isthe P. nitidum of Elliott. It is also very variable in its pubescence and in the size and shape of its spikelets. In the extreme west P. nitidum is represent- ed by P. thermile Boland, a rather low, nearly glabrous species ; while closely allied to it is a very villous form with larger, narrower spike- lets, which seems to be specific. Its description follows: ELISHA MITCHELL, SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 51 51) PANICUM HUACHUCAE Ashe, sp. nov. Stems somewhat clustered, erect, slender; villous, 2 feet to 3 feet high. Sheaths shorter than the internodes, villous to papilose-hirsute ; ligule long-pilose. Leaves erect or ascending, 3’—-4’ long, 3’--4” wide, generally villous, ob- long-lanceolate. Panicle 3-—S long, oval, pubescent ; spikelets nearly 1” long, oval, or elliptical, pubescent. Based on: Lemnon: P. dichotomum var. nitidum, subvar. barbu latum ; Huachuca Mountains, Arizona, 1882. North Carolina: Ashe; Chapel Hill, June, 1898. Towa: Bessey; Ames, 1875. Delaware: Commons; sub nom., /. Januginosum. Missouri: Glatfeller; St. Louis, 1897. 52) Panicum viscipumM Ell. Sk. 1: 124(1817). 2. scoparitum Mx. Flora 1: 49(1803). Not Lam. (1797). Tufted, large and stout, 2 feet to 3 feet high, ascending, from a generally geniculate base; stem pilose, especially below. Sheaths shorter than the internodes, pilose on the lower part, the upper generally viscid, barbed at the nodes, with a naked viscid ring below the node; ligule of very short pubescence. Leaves 3’—5’ long, 4”—7” wide, lanceolate or narrower, narrowed to the base, glabrous above, generally pilose beneath. Panicle short-pedun- cled, 2’—4 long, broadly oval, the numerous, fascicled branches ascending; spikelets broadly obovate or nearly spherical, 13’’ long, apiculate; axisof panicle often viscid. Later state much branched. New Jersey to Florida and Texas. Frequent in wet or moist sandy places. Florida: Chapman, Apalachicola. Delaware: Canby, 1894, Texas: Reverchon. North Carolina: Ashe, 1897. 53) PANICUM CILIIFERUM Nash, Torr. Bul. 24: 195 (1897). Culms tufted, erect or ascending from a genicu- late base, the joints geniculate. 18’ -- 24 high. more or less villous below with appressed or ascending: hairs, above smooth. Sheaths much shorter than the inter- nodes, villous with soft, appressed pubescence; pubes- cence of ligule very short or sometimes long and villous. 52 JOURNAL OF THE Stem leaves erect or ascending, long—acuminate, broadest near the somewhat rounded base, tne lowest lanceolate, 2’—4 long, 4°—5” wide, 9—13-nerved, the upper much reduced. Panicle pyramidal, 2—4’ long, the fascicled branches very long and slender, spreading or the lowest reflexed, spikelets purple, obovate, abruptly contracted at the base, 1” long, the first scale one-third the length of the smooth, 9—-nerved second and third. Shady pine lands, Eastern North Carolina to Florida. North Car- olina: Ashe, Manteo, 1898. Florida: Curtiss; Jacksonville, 1897, No. 5866. Related to P. arenicolum but larger in every way, more pubes- cent, and with longer leaves. 54) PANICUM TSUGETORUM Nash, Torr. Bul. 25: 86 (1898). Stems tufted, 18’ or less high, at first erect, and simple, at length much branched above and prostrate, pubescent with short ascending hairs, or with longer ones towards the base. Sheaths shorter than the inter- nodes, pubescent with ascending hairs; ligule short, pub- escent. Leaves lanceolate, the largest 2’—3’ long, 3”—4” wide, later ones smaller, glabrous above, beneath ap- pressed pubescent. Panicle broadly oval, about 2’ long, the branches ascending; spikelets broadly obovate, about <” long, pubescent. Hemlock woods; Connecticut, and New York. 55) PanicuM TENNESSEENSE Ashe, sp. nov. Tufted, low, 5’'—12’ high, erect or ascending froma geniculate base, very slender, at first simple, soon densely branch- ed above with short branches, glabrous or nearly so. Sheaths often nearly as long as the internodes, at least the lower ones covered with a short, seft pubescence; ligule short-pilose. Leaves spreading, thin, 3—5-nerved, the margins very rough, smooth above, beneath appress- ed pubescent and roughish, the largest 23’—3’ long, 3”—4” wide, widest in the middle, abruptly pointed, nar- rowed to the rounded base; secondary leaves thickly ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 53 crowded above, about 1’ long, spreading, much longer than the vety numerous, short, secondary panicles. Primary panicles short-peduncled, 1’—2’ in length, oval, the spreading branches mostly single, rather few flowered, the slender peduncles two to many times the length of the obovate, pubescent, ?” long spikelets, Related to P. Joorii, which it somewhat resembles. Based on No. 7087 Biltmore Herbarium: Cedar glades, LaVergne Co., Tennessee. 56) Panicum ATLANTICUM Nash, Torr. Bul. 24:346 (1897). Culms tufted, erect or ascending from a usually geniculate base, 10—20’ high. Stem more or less pilose with spreading or ascending hairs, the nodes long-barbed above the nakedring. Sheaths pilose to villous, gener- ally papillate, the lowest nearly as long as the inter- nodes, the upper much shorter; ligule pilose, hairs 2”—3” long. Stem leaves ascending, above smoothish, below generally villous, the margins often ciliate with long hairs, 2’—3’ long, 2”—3” wide, linear-lanceolate; narrow- ed at the somewhat rounded base, taper-pointed, middle leaves the longest; basal leaves much shorter; the later leaves on the secondary branches, ascending, one-half the length of the primary,smooth. Panicle 2—3’ long, nearly as wide, long-peduncled, the branches somewhat ascend- ing, spikelets rather numerous, ebovate, acute, quite 1” long, the first scale full one-third as long as the minutely pubescent 9-nerved second and third; later panicles not expanding, one-half the length of the surrounding leaves. New York to North Carolina, and probably farther southward, gen- erally near the coast. Delaware: Commons; 1872. North Carolina: Ashe; Cape Hatteras, 1898. 57) PANICUMSCOPARIOIDE Ashe. sp. nov. Stems sin- ele or a few together, erect, columnar, 16’—20’ high, appressed pubescent. Sheaths papillose-pubescent, with ascending or appressed hairs, the lower much shorter than the internodes, the upper longer; ligule pilose. 54 JOURNAL OF THE Leaves linear-lanceolate, spreading and ascending, 2’—3’ long, about 3” wide, rounded at the base, generally 9-nerved, beneath appressed pubescent, above glabrous, lower leaves distant, the upper approximate. Panicle 13’—2’ long, broadly oval, the branches fascicled, spread- ing, spikelets rather numerous, broadly obovate, some- what over 1” long, apiculate, the acute first scale scarce- ly one-third the length of the nearly smooth 7-nerved second and third. A species with the habit of P. scoparium, and spikelets which are nearly the size and shape of those of P. wiscidum. Based on No. 283, ex Herb. A. Commons. Dry soil, Centreville, Del. June, 1873. Dis- tributed sub nom. P. Scribnerianum Nash. 58) PANICUM VILLOSSISSIMUM Nash, Torr. Bul. 23: 149 (1896). Stems erect or ascending, tufted, slender, 16’——24’ high. villous with long, ascending hairs, barbed above the glabrous nodes, joints geniculate. Sheaths much shorter than the internodes, villous; ligule pilose. Stem leaves linear-lanceolate 2}’—4’ long, 3’’—4’’ wide, rounded at the base, ascending, longest about the middle of the culm, the upper scarcely reduced, more or léss vil- lous with spreading hairs; basal leaves much shorter and not conspicuous. Panicle 2}’—3%’ long, equally as broad, the numerous slender branches fascicled; spikelets ob- ovate. about 1”’ long on slender pedicels. Collected by Dr. J. K. Smallin the Ocmuigee river swamp in May, 1895. Related to P. pubescens and P, haemacarpon. 59) PANICUM PUBESCENS Lam. Encl. 4:748 (1797). Culms tufted’ 10’—20’ high, slender, erect, joints genic- ulate, stem to base of panicle villous with long, white, spreading hairs, a ring of longer hairs above the joint, below which is a naked ring. Sheaths about one half the length of the internodes, villous with long white hairs, minutely papillate; ligule pilose. Stem leaves ascending, linear-lanceolate, gradually narrowed at the base, taper- = ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. rey) pointed, villous to sparingly hirsute, 7--9-nerved, the longest about 3’ long and 3”’ wide; upper leaves much re- duced in size; basal leaves hirsute, shorter and broader. Panicle about 2inches long, nearly as broad, the branches single or in pairs, spreading or ascending; spikelets somewhat obovate, obtuse, scarcely 1” long, first scale one third the length of the pubescent, 7-nerved second and third; peduncled 2 to 3 times the length of panicle. The late form densely fasciculately branched and spread- ing’. Maine tolowa, Georgia and Missouri. Very close to P. implicatum. Maine: Merrill, 1895. Georgia: Ashe; Atlanta, 1896. lowa: Crat- ty; Armstrong, 1889, No. 1067. Missouri: von Schrenk; St. Louis, 1897. 60) Panicum CoMMONSIANUM Ashe, sp. nov. Stems clustered, erect, strict, 8’'—16’ high, below appressed pubescent, above glabrous or puberulent. Sheaths short- er than the leaves or the lower overlapping, the lower appressed pubescent with ascending hairs, the nodes densely barbed with short ascending hairs. Leaves glab- rous, or sparingly ciliate near the base erect or ascend- ing, narrowly lanceolate, gradually narrowed to the apex from near the base; 1}’—2’ long, ligule pilose. Panicle 13’ —3’ long, as broad, as long, the branches fascicled, spreading, long-peduncled, glabrous or the axis puberu- lent; spikelets 1’’ long, obovate, or broadly elliptical, pu- bescent. Roots very long and fibrous. Based on No, 341, Commons. Collected in drifting sands along the coast, Cape May, N. J. June, 1898. Related to Vie haemacarpon. 61) PANICUM HAEMACARPON Ashe, sp. nov. Tufted, stems erect or ascending from a geniculate base, 12’—18’ high, below villous with long spreading or ascending hairs, above sometimes smoothish. Sheathsshorter than the internodes, papillate, villose with long soft, spreading hairs; the nodes bearded with spreading or reflexed hairs. 56 JOURNAL OF THE Leaves erect or ascending, 1’—2’ long, 2’’—3’’ wide, lan- ceolate, the middle ones longest, the upper much reduced, the lower pilose beneath, the upper pubescent with long scattered hairs on the upper surface,appressed pubescent, often papillate, beneath. Panicles 14’—2’ long, broader than long, the branches wide-spreading somewhat fasci- cled, rather few-flowered; spikelets 1’’ long, broadly ob- ovate, apiculate, the first scale one-third the length of the pubescent second and third. Spikelets generally red, or purplish. Closely related to P. villossissimum from which separated by its gen- erally ascending habit. erect leaves, the upper reduced, and shorter usually ascending pubescence. District of Columbia: Kearney; 1897. Ashe: North Carolina; Chapel Hill, 1898. Iowa: Carver; Jewell Junction, 1895, No 258. 62) PANICUM ARENICOLUM Ashe, sp. nov. Erect from a usually geniculate base, 10’ to 24’ high, pubescent, at least below, with soft ascending hairs. Sheaths shorter than the joints, pibescent with short ascending hairs Stem leaves erect er ascending, longest near the base of the stem, much reduced in size upward, the largest 2’— 3’ long, 2” wide, long taper-pointed, glabrous above, be- neath more or less papillose-pubescent. Panicle long ex- certed, 2—3’ long pyramidal, the flexuous fascicled branches spreading, at length reflexed. Spikelets somewhat less than 1” long, obevate, obtuse. Intermediate in size, habit, and general characters between P. cilitfe- rum and P, demissum, smaller than the former and larger than the latter. Type material collected by the writer at Chapel Hill, N. C. June 1898, and later at several localities in the eastern portion of the same state, 63) PANICUM LAXIFLORUM Lam. Encvcl. 4: 748 (1797). P. Muhlenbergit Nutt.in Herb. P. acuminatum Swarz. ex Muhl. Gram. Stems densely tufted, ascend- ing or spreading or later reclining, 15’—20’ long, smooth or somewhat pubescent. Sheaths very short, ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 57 one-third the lengthof the leaves, papillose-hirsute: l- gule a mere margin. Stem leaves few, mostly near the base of the culms, ascending or spreading, narrowly lan- ceolate, very taper-pointed, narrowed at the base or somewhat rounded, 7 to 9-nerved, the largest 3’—4’ long, 4”—5”* wide, the upper leaves, scarcely reduced in size, e@labrous or hirsute with long white hairs, often with cil- iate margins ; basal leaves shorter but similar to these of the stem, ciliate-margined, often hirsute, very abundant, soft and lax. Panicle 3’ to 4’ long, obovate, the branches slender, lax; spikelets obovate, about 1’’ long, the acut- ish first scale one-fourth the length of the very pubescent, 9-nerved second and third. Late panicles included in very short sheaths which are not longer than the basal leaves. Primary culms do not become fasciculately branched. Color light green. Damp shady hillsides, Maryland and Ken- tucky to Alabama and Florida. The basal leaves form large tufts which remain green throughout the winter. It is one of the earliest spring species. April-July. West Virginia; Small, 1892. Florida ; Curtiss, Juniper, 1895, No. 5537. Tennessee ; Ruth, 1897. Panicum caricifolium Scribn. in herb. as distrihuted by Kearney (Washington, D. C., May, 1897) differs from this only in its somewhat smaller—quite 3%”? long spikelets. 64) PANICUM LANUGINOSUM Elliott. Sk. 1:123 (1817). Stems ascending from a geniculate base, rather stout, 12’—24 long, villous below, pubescent above. Sheaths shorter than the leaves, the lower, at least, densely pilose with soft pubescence, the upper often glabrous, barbed above the naked joint ; ligule a ring of long hairs. Stem leaves lanceolate, rounded at the base, spreading or as- cending, the largest near the base of the stem, 23’—3’ long, 3”—4” wide, 9—11-nerved, generally soft-pubescent be- neath, glabrous above, or the lowest pilose on both sides, finely ciliate on the margins, particularly the upper ones toward the base ; upper leaves much reduced in size. Pan- icle 2’—3’ long nearly as wide, the numerous, fascicled, smooth branches ascending ; spikelets small for size of 58 JOURNAL OF THE plant, about }’’ long, obovate, very pubescent, first scale about one-third as long as the 7-nerved second and third. Peduncle twice the length of panicle. Dry sandy fields, New Jersey to Georgia near the coast. Related to P. viscidum. Description based on plants growing at Chapel Hill, N. C. Delaware : Commons ; Mt. Cuba, 1871. Washington, D. C.: Kearney; 1897 Ashe; North Carolina: Chapel Hill, 1898 65) PANICUM IMPLICATUM Scribn. Bul. 11, U. S. Div. of Agrost. 43 (1898). Culms erect, tufted, 12’—20’ high, very slender, somewhat geniculate at the nodes. Stem, to base of panicle, more or less pubescent with short white hairs, barbed above the naked ring at the joints. Sheaths about one-half the length of the inter- nodes, more or less hirsute, at least below ; ligule a ring of hairs 2” long. Stem leaves ascending, linear-lanceo- late, gradually narrowed to the base, 2’—3’ long, about 3”? wide. 7—9-nerved, more or less pubescent; basal leaves much shorter, nearly glabrous. Panicle 1’ or more long, about as wide, the numerous slender branches spreading ; spikelets obovate, apiculate, 3’’—%z’’ long, first scale minute, one-fourth as long as the nearly glab- rous, 7-nerved second and third. Color of piant green, often purplish. Late stages much branched above. Northeastern States. Specimens examined: New Jersey; Com- mons, 1897. New York : Wiegand, Ithaca, 1893. New York : Ashe; Watkins, June, 1898. New York: Ashe; Courtland, Aug. 1898. Maine; Merrill, 1897. Its smaller leaves, more branched panicle, and smaller spikelets separate this plant from P. pubescens to which it is most closely related. 66) PANICUM ANNULUM Ashe, sp. nov. Stems erect, generally single, 18’—30’ high, below pilose, above gen- erally glabrous, purple. Sheaths shorter than the inter- nodes, at least the lower soft-pilose, nodes barbed ; lig- ule very short, pubescent. Leaves lanceolate, 3’—4’ long, 4’°_6’’ wide, narrowed to the rounded base, the lower pilose on the lower surface, the upper generally glab- ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 59 rous, purplish, spreading. Panicle 2’—3’ long, oval, the fascicled branches spreading or reflexed ; spikelets about * long, narrowly obovate, pubescent; the axis of the panicle generally viscid. The later stage much branch- ed. Dry rocky woods. Maryland to North Carolina and Georgia. Near Washington, D. C. Ward; 1892. North Carolina: Ashe; Chapel Hill, 1898. Georgia: Ashe; Stone Mt., 1896. Related to P. barbu- latum, but has a smaller panicle, and is pubescent. 67) PANICUM MERIDIONALE Ashe, sp. nov. Stems 4’—8’ hieh, densely tufted, erect or ascending, villous with ascending hairs, purplish, very leafy. Sheaths striate, villous with ascending hairs, generally shorter than the internodes; ligule pilose. Leaves numerous, erect or ascending, 1’—14’ long, about 2’ wide, lanceolate, rounded at the base, beneath pubescent with short as- cending hairs, above with a few scattered long hairs, or towards the base of the leaf villous. Panicle glabrous 1’—2’ long, the branches single or a few together, as- cending ; spikelets elliptical or obovate, nearly 7°’ long, the first scale about one third the length of the glabrous second and third. I have collected this species at two localities in North Carolina, Chapel Hill in June, 1898; and Jonas Ridge, Burke Co., June, 1893. As these two stations are far apart the plant probably occurs in other States to the north and south of North Carolina. Dry rocky woods. Very different from either P. filiculme, P. implicatum or P. pubescens. 68) PANICUM FILICULME Ashe, sp. nov. Stems tufted, or single, at first simple, later fasciculately branched bove, erect, very slender, 6’—10’ high, more or less vil- lous with ascending hairs. Sheaths villous with ascend-~- ine hairs, shorter than the internodes; ligule of very short pubescence or of long hair. Leaves narrowly ian- ceolate, 15’ long or less, 1’’—2”’ wide, rounded at the base, the lower surface papillose, appressed pubescent, the upper nearly glabrous, hirsute, or merely the mar- 60 JOURNAL OF THE gins fringed with long erect hairs, the upper leaves reduced in size; secondary leaves smaller, longer than the panicles. Panicle long-peduncled, small, about 3’ long, the rather short branches, erect or ascending ; spike- lets broadly obovate, obtuse, about }”’ long. Dry soil, middle North Carolina to Georgia in the Piedmont plateau region. Related to P. implicatum and P. pubescens. North Carolina: Ashe ; Chapel Hill, 1898. Georgia: Small; Stone Mt., Aug. 1895. 69) PANICUM CILIATUM. Ell. Sk. 1:426 (1817). P. ciliatifolium Kth. Stems erect, 8’—16’ high, smooth, slender. Sheaths smooth ; ligule not hairy. Stem leaves, one to three, lanceolate, 1’—2’ long,2’’--3’’ wide, smooth ex- cept for the ciliate margins ; basal leaves very numerous, broader and longer than the stem leaves, the entire mar- gin ciliate with long hairs, otherwise glabrous. Panicle rather small, 1’—2’ long, nearly as wide, the fascicled branches ascending or spreading ; peduncles 4 to 5 times the length of the panicle, smooth, spikelets on very slen- der pedicels, 3 or more times their length, nearly 2” long, obovate, acute, the first scale nearly one-half as long as the smooth 7-nerved second and third. Color pale green. Rather uncommon. Ditch banks and sandy swamps, eastern North Carolina to Florida. A beautiful species. North Carolina: Ashe; near Wilmington. 1897. Florida: Biltmore Herbarium ; Apalachicola, No. 6022 a. 70) PANICUM POLYCAULON Nash. Torr. Bul. 24:200, (1897.) Stems densely tufted, 6’—10’ tall, simple, nearly naked, at length somewhat branched, sheaths loose, glabrous, the margins ciliate, upper longest; lig- ule pubescent. Stem leaves ascending, lanceolate, t longest about 3’ long, 4’’ wide, ciliate on the margins 79-nerved ; basal leaves numerous, ciliate. Panicle about 1’ long, its axis somewhat pilose; spikelets about 3”? long, obovate, first scale abont 3’ long, as the 7- nerved, glabrous second and third. ‘The narrower leaves more slender culms, and smaller and glabrous —— ss ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 61 spikelets well distinguish this from P. ci/iatum Ell., to which it is most nearly allied.”’ Florida and Cuba. 71) PANICUM LONGIPEDUNCULATUM Scribn. Stems erect, somewhat clustered, 6’—10’ high ; sheaths villous with spreading hairs, or nearly glabrous inflated; ligule hairy. Stem leaves few, distant, ascending, 2”’—3” wide, lanceolate, narrowed to the somewhat rounded base, soft pubescent on both sides, the margin ciliate ; basal leaves rather numerous, as long and as wide as those of the stem, pubescent on both sides, ciliate on the margins. Panicle about 2’ long, oval, the axis pubes- cent, branches fascicled, spreading, slender ; spikelets obovate, barely }’’ long, obtuse, the first scale one-half the length of the smooth 7-nerved second and third, ped- icels 3 to 4 times the length of the spikelets. Color pale green. Ditch banks and wet sandy places, eastern North Carolina to Florida. North Carolina: Ashe; Roanoke Island, June, 1898, Florida: Curtiss ; Jacksonville. The basalleaves of this spe- cies, like those of P. ciliatum, are much more prominent than the stem leaves, and the stems, having rather few leaves, appear rather naked. The autumnal stage is not fasciculately branched. 72) PANICUM MICROPHYLLUM Ashe, sp. nov. Some- what tufted, 8’—20’ high, slender, ascending or reclin- ing, glabrous or pubescent with long white ascending hairs. Sheaths glabrous or pubescent, very much short- er than the internodes; ligule pilose. Stem leaves dis- tant, ascending, linear-lanceolate, 1’ long or less, 1’’—2” wide, generally more or less villous. Basal leaves crowd- ed, 1’ or more long, 3’’—4’’ wide. Late forms somewhat fasciculately branched above. Panicle long-peduncled, about 1’ long, the slender branches ascending ; spikelets, + —% long very broadly obovate, the minute first scale acute, one-fourth the length of the 7-nerved second and third. Related to P. angustifolium. Collected by the writer June, 1898, at Chapel Hill, N. C.,in moist sunny woods. 62 JOURNAL OF THE 73) Panicum Brirtoni Nash, Torr. Bul. 24:084 (1897). Stems tufted, glabrous, very slender, erect, stiff. Sheaths, glabrous, very short; ligule pubescent. Leaves longer than the sheaths, few in number, the mid- die leaves longest, 14 long or less, less than 13’’ wide. Panicle 1’ long or less, branches rather few, spreading ; spikelets obovate, obtuse, {’’ long, pubescent. Moist sand, in pine woods. Southern New Jersey. 74) PANICUM GLABRISSIMUM Ashe, sp. nov. Culms very slender, 12’’—20’’ high, tufted, erect smooth and glabrous throughout. Sheaths much shorter than the internodes, glabrous ; no ligule. Stem leaves very short, distant, less than 1’ long, less than 13”’ wide, narrowed to the base, erect or ascending, glabrous or sometimes with the narrowed base sparingly ciliate. Basal leaves 13’ long or less, 2’’—3”’ wide, ascending, glabrous. Panicle, peduncled, about 1’ long, quite as wide, branches wide- spreading; spikelets, broadly oval or spheroid, about 2”’ long, glabrous or nearly so, purple. The type material was collected by me June 1898, at Manteo, Dare Co,, Ne. NATURAL SCIENCE OF THE ANCIENTS AS INTERPRETED BY LUCRETIUS. F. P. VENABLE. There isno work, coming from an ancient author, which gives so full a picture of the beliefs and theories of an- cient times as to the physical side of nature as Lucretius’ ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 63 poem De Rerum Natura. It is by reading this that one may get.the best insight into the ancient habit of thought concerning natural phenomena and the poem can be rec- commended to all who are fond of tracing over again an- cient by-paths and half-lost tracks. I do not purpose in this review to deal critically with the philosophy of the poem but rather to note the expla- nations offered of the various natural phenomena observ- ed. We need not boast of our great knowledge of to-day but it becomes more precious to us when we realize how painfully and slowly it has been won for us, and how through centuries of darkness we have come to clearer light. A word or two concerning the poem itself and its au- thor may not beamiss. Lucretius lived somewhere in the last century preceding the birth of Christ and the poem was published about the middle of that century. An Epicurean in philosophy, and a follower of the atomic school of Demokritos, his poem was written as an exposi- tion of their systems and in their defence. It was in- tended to explain to the minds of men the true nature of things and free them from ignorance and superstition. _Perhaps the most striking feature of Lucretius’ poem is the deep reverence shown in it for the majesty of nature. ‘The greatesi minds were those which interpre- ted nature ana the divinest faculty possessed by man was that through which truth was discovered. Homer was to him preeminent among the poets because he was near to nature and her great interpreter. Prof. Sellars has said of him: “Tt is, however, in his devotion to truth that Lucretius more than in any other quality rises clearly above the level of his countrymen and his age. He thus combines what is greatest in the Greek and Roman mind, the Greek order of inquiry and the Roman manliness of 64 JOURNAL OF THE heart. ‘s ba y He unites the specu- lative passionof the dawn of ancient inquiry with the real observation of its meridian; and he has brought the imaginative conception of nature that gave birth to the earliest philosophy into harmony with the Italian love of the living beauty of the world.” This poem is, as Constant Martha calls it, the most an- cient monument of the science of Rome. Lucretius had the difficult task of transcribing the concise, dry philosophy of Epicurus into the language of a people who knew little of science and cared less for it, except in the form of some useful application, and it re- quired great ingenuity to succeed in conveying the desired ideas in a language so deficient in the needed terms. There is perhaps no great originality shown by Lucretius in the subject-matter of the poem but his enthusiasm and intense admiration for his master made him throw his whole poetic spirit into the task and so to give life and vivacity to the dry bones of the system. With a truly Roman simplicity,as Martha says, he believed that he and his master had said the last word of science, He was confident that his theories had solved all the mysteries of the universe, many of which were after all but the crea- tions of superstition and trembling ignorance. A similar statement is made triumphantly nearly twenty centuries later by Berthelot. In the preface to his les Orig- ines de l’ Alchimie he too maintains thatscience has done away with mystery. ‘‘Le monde est aujourd hut sans mystere.”’ Wesmile at the solutions which Epicurus, through his devoted follower, offered of the phenom- ena of nature. Who can feel assured that some future eweneration shall not smile, with the same pitying superi- ority, over the ignorance and folly of Berthelot. ‘‘But the old problems that have defied the thought of the ages still wait for a solution. When men inquire for ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 65 the origin of matter and how it is constituted, or for the origin of force and low it operates, the sphinx is dumb. When they attempt to get behind the phenomena of heat, electricity, magnetism, they are chailenged by a sentinel they can not bribe nor force.’’ * On an examination of this poem the essential difference between the ancient scientific method and the present is revealed and with it the reason for much failure and little progress. Lucretius first announced his theory and then proceeded to fit it, forcibly if need be, to every fact that came within his observation. ‘This process is reversed by the modern man of science. He first gathers his facts and from their study develops his theory. A mind al- ready full. cannot receive new truth. The emptied ves- sel is the only one which is ready for filling. To the mind of Lucretius the ‘‘Universe is a real exist- istence and absoiutely dual in nature. Body and space, or matter and vacuum, are the two essential elements ad- mitting nothird. Bodies, are therefore, made up of atoms and pores. Neither can exist where the other is. The atoms are composite, yet, paradoxical as it may seem, are solid, single, indivisible and indestructible.”’ Know, then, the entire of Nature sole consists Of Space and Body: this the substance moved And that the area of its motive power. Know, too that bodies, in their frame consist, Part of primordial atoms uncombined, And part combined and biending: these alone Previous and rare; while those so solid formed No force create can sever, or dissolve. Now the task which Lucretius sets himself is to take this theory and by means of it explain the formation of the material world without the introduction of any cre- ative intelligence, the genius of man and animals; the causative forces in all the natural phenomena and even * Harrington. Meth. Quart. Rev. 1876. LVIII. 64, 5 66 JOURNAL OF THE the nature of such things as heat and light and of thought itself. In fact it is concerning the ‘‘nature of things’’ that he writes. Let us see first how Lucretius reasons away the diff- culty that his atoms cannot be detected by the sight and so brought within the reach of examination. Learn now of bodies which you must confess Exist in things, but yet nowhere can see. First when incited winds o’er ocean sweep, Dispersing clouds, o’er whelming mighty ships, + * * * Thus secret bodies sure exist in winds Which sweep the sea, the land, the clouds of heaven. * * * * * So various odors we perceive in things, Yet naught material see the organ strike. Nor heat, nor cold, nor sounds, can eye discern, Though all of corpor’al rature must consist, Since they the senses strike; for know, bodies Alone can bodies touch or touched be. Book 5 p. 46. Again he very beautifully impresses the lesson, which he himself so imperfectly learned, that we must reason as to causes from their yisible working. Caverns deeply worn, Where rocks impend o’er the corroding sea, Show not the gnawing Of each breaking wave: For Nature acts on atoms hid from sight, In secret working, but results reveals. Book I p. 47. See what proof he offers as to the existence of voids in matter. This wasa very essential part of his theory and if is easy to see how convincing the phenomena must have seemed to such a materalist as Lucretius: A void exists in things. However solid bodies may appear, Void spaces they contain, since water drips In caves and grots, and drops ooze out from rocks, And all around with trickling moisture weeps Sound traverses closed doors and solid walls While stiffening cold strikes piercing through the limbs. But were no void how could such bodies pass? You needs must see it were impossible. Book 1 p. 48. MLISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 67 His explanation of the difference in the specific gravity of various bodies is based upon this theory of voids. Why do some things excel in weight others Of greater size? If equal matter be In globe of wool and lead, why equal not In what to matter most essential is— Weight? Downward pressing to the void unknown, The greater lighter than the less, thus prove Existence of a void, the heavier still Embracing less than light of spaces void. Book I p. 49. From his standpoint the weight was dependent upon density or compactness. From this is it might be inferr- ed that all atoms had the same weight. The beautiful phenomenon of the condensation of moist- ure upon a cold surface is correctly explained if we dis- regard the description of a material nature and separate existence to cold. Cold permeates the silver cup or gold, With water filled, held brimming in the hand, And dew-like moisture gathers on without. Thus naught in nature solid seems to be. Book I p. 53. The doctrine of the indestructibility of matter has been commonly accredited to Lavoisier but a recent writ- er has shown that the saying attributed to him ‘‘/zez ne se perd et rien ne se crée’’ does not occur in his works and that at best he tacitly assumed this which had long been believed by others. Kahlbaum traces it to P. Mersenne the friend of Descartes but, it iseasy to go many centuries back of this and to find the doctrine clearly stated in Lucretius. He writes of his atoms: Nature reserving these as seeds of things, s Permits in them no minish nor decay; They can’t be fewer and they can’t be less. Book 1 p. 47. 68 JOURNAL OF THE Or again: Decay of some leaves others free to grow And thus the sum of things rests unimpaired Book II p. 79, And again: The store of elements material, Admits no diminution, no increase; Book II p. 86. No modern scientific man could state more clearly than Lucretius does, the ideas which prevail at present as to the motions of the atoms, Says Tyndall of the pa-ti- cles in a mass of iron: ‘‘There is space between them, they collide, recoil, they oscillate.” The poet states it thus: No place of rest is found To primal bodies through the vast profound, And, finding none, they cease not ceaseless rounds. Part forced together, wide asunder leap; From eloser blow part, grappling with their kind, In close affinities unite and form Bodies of various figure—varied forms diverse. Book I p. 80. Again: For infinite atoms, in a boundless void, By endless motions build the frame of things. Book II p. 82 All things are made up of these atoms: The same elements constitute the air, The sun, the earth and animals and plants, And other things by union various. Book I p. 63. Lucretius makes much use of what he calls the ‘‘seeds of heat,”’ that is, the atoms which by their concurrence form heat. Q}hus he explains the heat resulting from friction. The neighbor top of trees swayed by the wind Are creaking rubbed, till by attrition they Burst into flower of flame; not that the fire Dwells in the wood but rather seeds of heat f ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 69 By friction forced to flow, together run, Aud bursting barriers fire the leafy tops. For sure, if latent lay the flames in wood, Not long could they be hid, but, bursting forth, Would ravage forests, burning every shrub Book I p. 63, He is an avowed opponent of the ordinary view of grav itation. In common with his countrymen, he thought lightly of mathematics. Guard agaist belief Of what some say, ‘‘that to the centre tend All things, and thus the world can stand Without external impulses and shocks.’’— Bookl, p 71. Are we to look upon the following passage as a_ pre- diction of the discovery of argon and its strange compan- ions? Speaking of his atoms he says : And some there are wide wandering in space, That all affinities reject, nor can unite With any body in a common bond.—Book II p. 81. He puzzles over one of our deep problems, the co-exist- ence of sovereign law and the free will of the creature. Again, if all motion in a chain were bound, If new from old in fixed order flowed, Cause linked to cause in an eternal round; If atoms no concealed clinamen had Cause to create, and break the bond of fate, How could free-will in animals exist? In speaking of the dissimilarity in *tatoms he discusses the nature of fire and cold. Hisconclusions are some- what startling : How different is fire from piercing frost! Yet both composed of atoms toothed and sharp As proved by touch. Touch, O ye sacred powers! Touch is the organ whence all knowledge flows: Book II p. 90 His theory as to the three physical states is that solids are made ‘‘of atoms hooked like branches deep entwined’’; liquids, ‘‘of bodies round and smooth must be composed”’; 70 JOURNAL OF THE ‘‘while those that inan instant are dispersed, and flee away, as smoke, or clouds, or flame,” are formed of ‘‘sharp and not of atoms hooked sincé pores they pene- Liabe. The dependence of color upon light is well recognized ‘“‘witheut light no color can exist.”’ Atoms are colorless and not subject to the rays of light, He has noted that The more minutely things divided are The more their colors fade. He has observed that light traverses space more rapid- ly than sound, Far quicker comes the impulse to the eye Than to the ear: Book VI p. 263. There is an interesting passage in the works of Van Helmont in which he describes the artificial generation of mice from a soiled shirt placed along with some flour in a barrel or other vessel. The method sounds plausible and doubtless an experiment along that line would result in mice in the barrel. But too much credit must not be ascribed to Van Helmont as the original discoverer for after all his ingenious idea was not original. Our poet of the last of the old centuries says; Facts manifest Confute not but confirm and force belief, That all the living from the lifeless springs ; For see live worms creep from the putrid clod, When the warm earth is wet with timely showers. Book II p. 106. Darwin might have gotten an idea or two from our an- cient philesepher for his ‘‘Observations upon Earth- worms”’. Lucretius’ ideas as to life, disease and deathare also instructive. Men of deeper learning than he have wres- tled with this problem of Life and Death with equal ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 41 failure. ‘The best of modern thought agrees with him in one sense at least when he says: “And life itself is but a part of death.”’ Death he believes comes from some shock which shat- ters and destroys the union of the atoms. The shock theory of fermentation and decay was vigorously main- tained and defended during the first half of this century. Then when some greater shock a life assails Than Nature can support, sudden all sense Of mind and body is confused and stunned. The ordering of elements dissolved, Their bond of union snapped, the silver cord Is loosed, the vital tide turned back, and life With all its elements dispersed. But what Can blows do more than shatter and dissolve What once was joined? Book II p. 108 Liebig in 1852 reasoned that contagion was due to gaseous matter in a state of decomposition. Disease is excited by contagion. According to the ‘‘law of La Place and Berthollet: A molecule set in motion by any power can impart its own motion to another molecule with which it may be in contact. The motion of these decomposing molecules is transmitted to the blood and if decomposition there is not overcome it proceeds over the entire body.’’ ‘This reads almost as strangely as the words of Lucretius. It is only just to Liebig to add that he acknowledged his errers afterwards and accept- ed the theories of Pasteur and Schtitzenberger. Lucretius’ theory of contagion would sound very much like the modern germ theory if only his seeds were en- dowed with life. First, then the air teems, as I’ve taught, with seeds Diverse, some favoring life, but many more Fraught with disease and death; chance gathered, these Infect the sky, malignant make the air. Lucretius has anticipated the recent address of Sir WZ JOURNAL OF THE William Crookes, the learned President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, by more than nineteen centuries in the prediction of the exhaust- ion of ‘‘the worn-out EKarth.’’ True he did not fix upon 1931 as the date of complete exhaustion still he evidently did not think it very far off. Like all sturdy conserva- tives he praised the good old times. K’en now the worn-out earth with age effete, a that in her early prime 9 < ra To children of her care Spontaneous gave In rich abundance gave the shining grain, Which now with labor huge she scant supplies In niggard pittance to more pressing wants, With weary steps we urge the weary ox, And turn exhausted fields, that scarce return Decreasing harvests to increasing toil. The aged ploughman shakes his weary head So oft his labor unavailing proves: How oft doth he then repining chide his lot Comparing present times with past, exalt The fortune of his sires. Book. II p. 114. He gives a remarkable explanation of the nature of re- flected images. These are made up of Thin effigies and forms Which singly are unseen; but when outpoured In a continuous andimpulsive flow, Give by reflection, images of things. These effigies ‘‘wander not alone.’’ They ‘‘fill the embracing air with floating forms.’’ ‘This is proved by the fact that in whatever direction the mirror is turned, “straight in its silent depths the scene responds.”” The reversal of the image in the mirror is explained at some length. The image itself suffers change on turning back from the mirror. As when the plastic mask of wax, or clay, Dashed sudden ’gainst a wall, backward reverts, The well-recognized law that the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence comes from Lucretius thus: ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC: SOCIETY. 12 For with what slope They fall, Nature compels them to revert again. Peter Schlemih]l, the famous shadowless man of Chamisso would have been wondrously relieved if he could have read Lucretius and learned, The obsequious shadow that attends our steps, When walking in the sun seems of itseif To walk with us and every gesture mock Yet nothing is but space, deprived of light Book IV p. 169. If we accept Lucretius’ theory that ‘‘all sounds cor- poreal are,’’ then it is easy to account for prevalent sore throats: And voice escaping to the sphery air, Roughens the throat, abrades the passages, ‘‘Whence come our mental images’’ is surely a most important question to settle but one before which the boldest is apt to hesitate. There is no such hesitancy about Lucretius, however. ‘‘Junumerable idols float in space.’’ These are many sub- tleand of finer texture than the ‘‘attenuate thread of spid- er or the roof of filmy gold.’’ These Through rarer pores can penetrate. And sentient make the mind in inmost seats. Book IV p. 181 Any one inclined toward materialism can read with in- terest the intense materialsm of this old Epicurean. His cosmogeny is brilliantly fanciful. As to thesunit is neither ereater nor less than it appears and this is true alsoof moon and stars. Whether thesun returis by a course beneath the earth or whether it is exhausted by its day’s course and its place is taken by a new one, formed by the col- lection of ‘‘dispersed seeds of heat’’ he does not venture to decide. [Eclipses and the moon’s phases are also dis- cussed. The struggle for existence is pictured and something very similar to the doctrine of the survi- 74 JOURNAL OF THE val of the fittest is announced. Thunder is the rushing to- gether of several clouds ‘‘driven by warring winds.” The nature of clouds he discusses at greatlength. Some of these phenomena have puzzled men all through the ages and it is not nccessary to point out how imperfect our knowledge still is. The interior of the earth is constituted as the surface and hence contains caves. lakes etc. The falling in of such caverned depths cause the earthquakes. In these caverns the air in motion ‘‘makes glow the rocks around.” Winged flames then ‘‘vomit from wide open jaws’’ hurl rocks, and send out cinders and smoke, and so volcanoes are formed. ‘The constancy of the volume of the sea was observed by Lucretius and correctly accounted for. Astrangely mistaken observation as to the temperature of wells is mentioned and of course his theory is made to cover and explain it. Such waters were thought to be cold in summer and warmin winter. This was, of course because what we mav call the personal thermometer reg- istered largely the relation to the temperature of the atmosphere. I have not been able to exhaust all of the observations recorded by this early philosopher, nor to properly show his ingenuity in fitting his theory as to atoms and the ‘‘seeds of things’’ to every case. Nor has it been possible to give a just idea of the grace and poetic beauty of this the first and only attempt to bring all of natural science within the limits of a single poem. WORKS CONSULTED IN THE PREPARATION OF THIS ARTICLE. 1 T. Lucretii Cari, De rerum natura, ex editione Gibb., Wakefieldi, Valpey’s auctores classici. 2 Lucretius, On the Nature of Things. A philosophical poem, trans- lated by Rev. John L. Watson, with the metrical version by John M. Good. ¢ 6 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. 75 Lucretius, On the Nature of Things. Translated into English Verse by Charles Frederick Johnson. ‘The passages quoted are taken from this work. Le Poéme de Lucréce, Morale, Religion, Science par Constant Martha. The Atomie Theory of Lucretius contrasted with Modern Doctrines of Atoms and Evolution, by John Masson. Lucretius, by Prof. Harrington, Methodist Quarterly Review- 1876, p, 64. Es Pater “ ay ot! oa? aay ek Ae Wes ¢ JOURNAL Ba OF THE Elisha Mitchell Scientific Socety. FIFTEENTH YEAR——PART SECOND. 1898. ON THE FEASIBILITY OF RAISING SPONGES FROM THE EGG* H. V. WILSON. Fer the purposes of scientific investigation the problem suggested in the title of this paper presents no difficulties to the zoologist. Whether, on theother hand, it is prac- ticable or even desirable to rear sponges from the egg for the purposes of the sponge-grower, is a question which can only be decided by experiments carried on contin- uously for some years. From the standpoint of the scientific breeder such experiments seem eminently aesirable, and the probability that they would result in economic discoveries of importance is very great. It is my purpose to point out, toward the end of this paper, some of the advantages attainable, as I believe, by this method of breeding. I shall preface my remarks on the rearing of sponges with a brief account of the manner in which the egg Cee e eae goes on. *Extracted from See aeeea ioe and Baers of the National Fishery Congress held at Tampa, Fla., Jas. 1898,” published in Bulletin of U. S. Fish Commission, Washington, 1898. Ja 77 JOURNAL OF THE Some sponges are known to be hermaphrodite, others have. been described as of separate sexes. The proba- bility is that sponges are in general hermaphrodite, but that the individual at one period produces chiefly male elements, and later chiefly female elements. Fer tiliza- tion takes place in the body of the mother and the egg here undergoes early development. The embryo even- tually bursts the maternal tissue, and, passing into one of the canals, is caught by the current sweeping through the canal system and is discharged into the sur- rounding water through one of the large apertures (oscula) on the surface of the sponge. In the great majority of sponges (horny and silicious forms) the embryo, or larva as it now should properly be called since it leads a free life, is an oval, solid body, covered with slender hair-like processes of protoplasm, the so-called cilia. The cilia strike rythmically to and fro, like so many minute and flexible paddles, and the sponge larva is by their means whirled through the water. Svonge larvae, of course, vary in size, but _ frequently have a length in the neighborhood of 1 mm, (.04 inch). The surtace layer contains more or less pig- ment. Thusin the commercial sponge, Awspongia, the larva is whitish, with a brown spot at one end. In Tedant brucet, a large red sponge, growing especially oz the mangroves in parts of the Bahamas, the larva isa beautiful red. The free swimming lite of the sponge larva is short last- ing, when bred in the iaboratory,only a day or two. During this period the larvais moved not only by its own relative- ly feeble motion, but, being subject to the action of the currents, it may be carried a considerable distance from the spot where it was born. It eventually settles down on some firm basis and transforms. ‘The cilia are lost, and the oval body flattens out into a disk so thin that it ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 78 has the appearance of a minute incrustation. The circu- lar outline of the disk is soon lost, the little sponge spreading in an ‘irregular fashion over the surface to which it is now firmly attached. In two or three days the metamorphosis is complete, and we have a sponge, very small to be sure, and without reproductive elements, but like the adult in fundamental structure. Its surface is perforated by minute apertures, the pores, through which the water enters the body, and by a few larger apertures, the oscula, through which the water leaves the body. Ramifying through the interior is a system of spaces or canals which connect the pores with the-oscula. Portions of this canalsystem form spheroidal chambers, the walls of which are studded with cilia. It is owing to the motion of these internal unseen cilia that a current of water is constantly circulating through the sponge body, carrying to its tissues the oxygen and food (minute particles of animal and vegetable organisms) necessary for their life. How long it takes for a sponge developed in this way to reach adult size and begin breeding is unknown. I have kept young sponges that have transformed and attached to the walls of mv laboratery aquaria for days and weeks. After the first few days the increase in size has generally been imperceptible. But the untavorable conditions incidental to such an unnatural habitat were doubtless responsible for this lack of success. PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS ON REARING SPONGES More species of sponges breed during the warm season than at other times. Yet in the Mediterranean (Naples) some sponges are found breeding at all times of the year. Ib the Bahama Islands and on our own coast, I have found the breeding time of many sponges to fall within the _ period from midsummer on through early autumn. For 79 JOURNAL OF THE the inauguration of experiments I should reccommend the months of July, August, and September. It is easy to determine when one of the horny or silicious sponges is breeding. On cutting out a piece of the sponge, the developing eggs scattered theugh the tissues can be seen without the help of a lens, They are minute, rounded bodies, often very numerous, and suf- ficiently conspicuous to catch an observant eye. The means employed for getting young sponges must always be different from those made use of in the case of animals like fish, oysters, etc., in which artificial fer- tilization is practicable. Since the sponge egg 1s fertilized and undergoes its early development in the body of the mother, artificial fertilization is here of course out of the question. The young in numbers ample for study can, however, be obtained in the following easy manner. Thesponge being raised to near the surface of the water is then dip- ped up ina glass aquarium or bucket, in such a way as not to expose the animal to the air, In a few minutes time the ciliated larvae will begin to be discharged. In the study of some Bahama sponges I found it convenient to take to the sponge-grounds, ina boat, a couple of good sized tubs. In one of these some sponges would be placed for about half an hour. At the end of that time they were transferred to the second tub. The water of the first tub was meanwhile examined for the sponge larvae. In this I was aided by negro boys, who soon became expert. We bailed out the water in 2-gallon glass vessels in which the little larvae could readily be seen, The latter were then picked out with glass tubes and placed in aspecial dish. By the time the examination of the frst tub was completed, the second would be found to contain numbers of larvae. ‘These were collected in the same way, the sponges being thrown overboard. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 80 It would seem in the case of sponges, as witi so many marine animals,that the stimuli arising from confienment in a limited volume of water lead to the rather sudden discharge of those embryos (or in certain forms, eggs) that have reached the proper stage for birth. I have no doubt thatif the sponge were handled care- fully, it would be possible to get from the same individual, day after day dnring the breeding season, numbers of larvae, precisely as several batches of eggs are got from one codfish, for example. The swimming larvae thus obtained may be made to attach, during the next day or two, to the walls of the dishes in which they are kept, or to pieces of wood or small stones. After attachment the young, or, as we might say, the sponge ‘‘spat,’’ are easy to handle, In this connection, however, it will be well to bear in mind that the circulating pipe water of aquaria, even large and elaborate ones such as those at Naples and Woods Holl, has been found to be unsatisfactory for the rearing of young sponges, as indeed it is forthe young stages of many marine organism. The sponges become covered with sediment, and bacteria develop. Changing the water in the dishes twice a day is, on the whole, a better method. But this is far from an ideal environment. It will probably be much better, after the attachment of the spat to pieces, of wood,shells,etc., at once to transfer the latter tosome natural site known to be adapted to the growth of sponges. I hardly think the method of getting young sponges which I have just described can ever be adaptedto the needs of the sponge-grower. And yet for the pur- poses of experiment, where a few hundreds or a thousand young sponges would suffice, the method is adequate. I believe, however, that live-boxes may be devised in which the sponge may be kept imprisoned in its natural home, 81 JOURNAL OF THE though at some convenient depth, and in which the dis- charge of larvae may go on normally day after day. Such a box must have fine metal gauze windows on the sides and above, through which water may pass freely, and yet with meshes sufficiently fine at any rate to hinder the’ passage of the larvae through them. Projecting shelves, which must be easily removable, might be arranged one above the other. Thesidesand bottom of the box should, moreover, be covered with removable pieces—tiles, for instance. The larvae settling down on the removable shel- ves or other pieces would attach to them, and might from time to time be taken out with as much ease as the honey stored up in the modern manufactured comb; is removed from the hive. The precise form of live-box to be used will naturally only be determined after preper experiments. To pre- vent as far as possible the settling of the larvae on the body of the mother, a phenomenon very apt to occur, it will perhaps be found well to piace the adult ona per- forated tray near the top of the box, and a series of such trays, one above the other, may be found a good device. In planning experimental boxes of this sort,the character of the motion ‘of the sponge larva should be borne in mirc. The larva not only swims, frequently making long,shallow dives, but also creeps about over the sides and bottom of the vessel in which it is kept. The live-box has proved itself of great use to the naturalist desirous of obtaining the young stages of animals,which are difficult to keep or breed in the labor- atory. In this connection I well remember the experience of acompaninn (Prof. C. L. Edwards), engaged in the study of the development of the large holothurian or sea- cucumber (Miilleria), so common in parts of the Bahama Islands. It was with the greatest difficulty that a few embryos of this form could be got in the laboratory. ELISHA MITCHELL SIENTIEIC SOCIETY 82 When, however, the animals were confined in a large boxy anchored in about a fathom of water, quantities of devel- oping eggs could be had by drawing up with a tube some of the sediment in the bottom of the box. The ‘‘spat’’ ouce obtained in abundance, success will next depend largely on the selection of the locality in which the young sponges are to be set out. A careful study of the Florida grounds should be undertaken, with the view of investigating, among other points, this very matter of the kinds of locality best adapted to the growth of the various grades of sponges. Quiet water,a firm bettom, and an absence of muddy sediment seem essential desiderata. The question of enemies is probably of minor importance, and yet the well-known student of sponges, Vosmaer, mentions that he has several times seen the Kuro- pean hermit-crab(Pagurus)greedily eat a common silicious sponge (Swberites), certainly quite as unappetizing a morsel as the commercial sponge. When it has once been accurately determined what are the physical and biological characteristics of the Florida grounds, which produce the finest sponges—and it may be mentioned here that sponges are among the most varia- ble of animals and seem to be peculiarly affected by their surroundings—a detailed comparison should be made be- tween these grounds and those parts of the Mediterra- nean producing the finest grades. The purpose ofsuch a comparison would be to discover whether we really lack any of the natural advantages necessary for the production of the finest sponges, and if so whether these can be artificially reproduced —whether for instance it would be possible or desirable to imitate on this side a particular kind of bottom found in the Medi- terranean. Following on the investigation of the sponge-grounds, 83 JOURNAL OF THE ‘I believe it to be eminently desirable to start a series of of experiments, the purpose of which shall be to discover how far, along what lines, and by what means sponges may be artificially altered by breeding. The great vari- ability of sponges in nature leads one to believe that they would quickly respond as individuals to a change in the environment, and thus, simply by growing the animals in a superior locality, an improved variety, constant, as long as the sponges continue to grow in that locality, might be produced. It is quite likely that such improve- ments could be carried out on sponges propagated by cuttings as well as on'those grown from eggs. In improving races, however,it has always been found that the two important means are sexual breeding from selected specimens, and grafting, the latter method being commonly regarded as only applicable to plants. In the case of sponges, as in that of other organisms, increase of knowledge will in all probability con- firm the belief already fairly well grounded, that individuals developed from the fertilized eggs vary more, 1. e., exhibit more differences one from the other, than individuals grown from buds or cut- tings. Herein, to my mind, lies the advisability of erowing sponges from eggs as well as from cuttings. The latter method, being quick, sure, and simple, can at once be made of great practical use. Breeding from the egg is more complex, and must be carefully tried by com- petent experimenters. In the end, however, I believe that it will lead to great improvements in the quality of our sponges. I would suggest that,after selection of a proper locality. a small plantation of sponges developed from eggs be started and carefully watched. As the sponges grow, it would be a simple matter to pick out those individuals in which the fiber varied in the desired direction. A small ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 84 piece cut out would not seriously injure the sponge, and would-show the quality of fiber as well as the entire body. Selected individuals might be removed from the general ground and during the breeding season placed together in large live boxes. The ‘‘spat’’ collected from such individuals would doubtless develop into. superior sponges. I do not know any marine animals which would seem to be so adapted to continuous rearing, with'constant improvement of breed,as sponges. Their plant-like habit of growth make it easy ‘o handle and experiment upon them. Their variability, especially in the matter of the skeleton. would seem toinsure success to selective breed- ing; and the very simplicity of what is desired, namely, improvement in the quality of the skeletal fiber, would at once leuda directness to the cultivator, which should lead to comparatively early results. In closing, I may direct your attention to a methed of race improvement, so tar practiced only in the cultiva- tion of plants, but to which the vegetative character of sponges will readily lend itself. I refer to the method of grafting. The ease with which two or more individuals of the same species of sponge, irrespective of age, may be made to fuse, and become henceforth a single individual, is well known. Dr. Grant records observations on this head as far back as 1826. Among later experimenters I will only mention Vosmaer. ‘This fusion of individuals goes on commonly in nature. An interesting account of a number of cases may be read in Johnston’s British Sponges and Corallines, published 1842, page 11. The natural tendency of sponges to grow together, coupled with the ease with which they may be propagated by cuttings, would\make artificialgrafting in these animals a simple matter. With asmall plantation of very super- ior sponges at hand, the result of careful breeding from selected individuals, and other plantations consisting fo 85 JOURNAL OF THE sponges grown from cuttings,grafting ought to be not on- ly a scientific but an economic success. Atslight expense large numbers of common sponges might be improved, simply by pinning to the common cutting a piece of the improved variety. A REVIEW OF CONANT’S MEMOIR ON THE CUBOMEDUSAq* H. V. WILSON. Memoirs from the Biological Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University, 1V., 1. The Cubomedus@. A Dissertation presented for the Degree of Doctor of Phi- losophy, in the Johns Hopkins University, 1897. By FRANKLIN STorY Conant. A Memorial Volume. Baltimore, 1898. The late Dr. Conant, it will be recalled by many, was a member of the marine laborators of the Johns Hopkins University, stationed during the summer of 1897 at Port Antonio, Jamaica. ‘Toward the end of the season’s work fever broke out. The director of the expedition, Dr. J. E. Humphrey, died in a sudden and alarming manner. Dr. Conant assumed charge of the laboratory, and, though aware of his own great danger, remained in Port Antonio, devoting himself to the service of others who needed his help. This generous subordination of self cost him his life, for he contracted the fever, and, though able to reach this country, he died a few days after his ar- rival in Boston. *Reprinted from Science, Vol. VII., No. 197. 1898. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 86 Dr. Conant’s many friends, well aware of his candid, judicial -mind, his keenness and persistency in observing and in reasoning from observations to a conclusion, have entertained the highest expectations of the work he was to do for science. Cut off at the beginning of his career, he leaves behind him several smaller papers and the dis- sertation before us. On closing this volume the author’s friends will feel confirmed in their high opinion of his abilities, and those who did not know Dr.- Conant will realize withYegret that an able and conscientious natp- ralist has been removed from our midst. Dr. Conant’s dissertation. published as a memorial vol- ume by his friends, fellow students and instructors, with the aid of the university in which he had recently taken his doctor's degree, deals with the anatomy and classifi- cation of one of the most interesting groups of jelly-fish, the Cubomeduse. In this group, embracing but a small number of species, the scyphomedusan structure, with which most of us arechiefly familiar through the study of Aurelia, Cyanea or Dactylometra, is in general presented as destitute of the complications which characterize the more common forms. This simplicity in general struct- nre places the groupclose to the stem-forms, 7essera and Lucernaria, themselves scarcely more than sexually ripe Scyphistomas, and makes a comparison with existing Actinozoa an easy matter. Curiously enough, the mem- bers of this primitive group possess the most highly de- veloped sense-organs as yet described among coelente- rates, the nervous system being correspondingly differ- entiated. In one other respect the Cubomeduse are unique, in that they alone among the Scyphomeduse pos- sess avelum. The phylogenetic origin of this velum (velarium) has been the subject of some discussion, the balance of opinion inclining to the belief that it has arisen through the fusion of marginal lobes similar to those 87 JOURNAL OF THE found in the Peromeduse and the Ephyropside (Vausz- thoé), and is merely analogous to, not homologous with, the velum of the Hydromeduse. That this is the case is borne out by tke presence in the velum of gastrovascu- lar diverticula. This resemblance to the Hydromeduse is regarded by most naturalists as one of the numerous cases of convergent evolution exhibited by the twogroups . of jelly-fish (Hydro- and Scyphomedusz), due to similari- ty in environment and toa certain similarity in the an- cestral polyps from which the two groups have been de- rived. The Cubomeduse are so rare that in spite of their in- teresting features, interesting alike to the student of phylogeny and nerve-physiology, few naturalists have had the opportunity of studying them. Our knowledge of the group has rested mainly on Claus’s description of Charybdea marsupialis (Wien. Arb. 1878). This very valuable paper, as Conant remarks, is written in a style difficult of comprehension, and many students who read with pleasure and profit the lucid treatises on medusan’ structure by the Hertwigsand Haeckel have turned away discouraged from Claus’s work. To Claus’s account, Haeckel in his ‘‘System’’ has added but little. The only other investigator of the group is Schewiakoff (1889), who has studied the remarkable sense organs. Through Conant’s discovery in 1896 of two new species (Charybdea Xaymacana and Trifedalia cystophora), which are present in abundance in Jamaican waters, the Marine Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University has once again made accessible to students, material for the pursuit of investigations of wide interest. It was for the purpose of continuing his study of this group that Conant, in the summer of 1897, revisited Jamaica, and, as we learn from Professor Brooks’s introduction, he succeeded in making many observations on the physiology of the ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 88 sense-organs and on the embryology. His notes and ma- terial, weare told, are in such shape that they can be handed over to some else, and it may be safely predicted that a valuabie contribution to science will be the out- come of the last summer’s work of this talented young naturalist. The account of the cubomedusan structure given by Dr. Conant is succinct, but comprehensive. The deep, four-sided bell bears a tentacle (or in some species a bunch of tentacles) at each angle. On each lateral surface, at a higher level than the tentacles, is situated a niche into which projects asense-organ. The primitively undivided (Scyphistoma condition) gastrovascular space is here dif- ferentiated into a central stomach and a peripheral por- tion lying in the lateral wall of the bell. The peripheral portion is subdivided into four stomach pockets by linear partitions, lying in the plane of the tentacles and there- fore interradial. These partitions (cathamme) are mere strips of entodermal lamella, produced by the fusion be- tween the entodermal lining of ex- and sub-umbrella. The cathammal lines stop short of the tentacles, leaving an undivided peripheral portion of the primitive space, by means of which the four stomach pockets communicate with one another. As Conant points out, the arrange- ment recalls the gastrovascular system of many Hydro- -medusz, with the difference that in the Cubomeduse the radial canals are wide ‘stomach pockets’ and the catham- mal plates are narrow lines. When we come, however, to the extreme peripheral portion ol the gastrovascular system, we find that the likeness is not with the Hydro- medusez, but with the lobed Scyphomeduse. The gas- trovascular space, to be brief, does not end with an even circular edge at the bell margin, asis the rule in the for- mer group, but is divided into separate lobes (marginal 89 JOURNAL OF THE pockets) extending into the velum (as velar canals). Co- nant does not dwell on phylogenetic inferences, but evi- dently inclines to the belief that the ancestors of the Cu- bomedusz possessed a margin divided into sixteen lobes. The present position of the four sense organs indicates the site of the original margin, *““which elsewhere has grown down and away from its former level, leaving the sensory Clubs like floatage stranded at high-water mark.” Fusion between adjacent lobes, involving the ectoderm and jelly, gave to the medusa a continuous margin anda ‘velum’, but, owing to the incompleteness in the fusion of the extodermal linings of the several lobes, the latter still retain in the adult Cubomedusa enough of their in- dividuality to indicate their formercondition. In a word, the marginal pockets of the existing Cubomeduse are to be construed as entedermal linings of once separate lobes. This conclusion as to the morphology of the marginal pockets derives much support from the behavior of a puzz- ling structure, called by Conant the marginal lamella. Unlike the true vascular lamella, which simply connects one entodermal cavity with another, the marginal lamella extends from the entoderm of the gastrovascular space to the ectoderm of the bell margin. It is a narrow strip which follows the outline of the marginal pockets, trav- eling in the radii of the sense organs far away from the actual edge of the bell, and surrounding the sense organs in such a way as to indicate clearly that they were once at the bell margin. The marginal lamella seems to be a functionless, rudimentary organ. Claus, whose imper- fect description of the structure did not bring to light its morphological interest, as indicating the site of the an- cestral bell margin, suggested that it was perhaps the vestige of a ring canal. Conant naturally is skeptical of this explanation of a lamella connecting ento- and ecto- derm. The true meaning of this peculiar lamellaisa ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 90) point well worth working up, more especially as it is not confined to the Cubomeduse, but has been observed in the ephyra lobes of discophores (/?hizostoma). Before leaving this subject of the general body-plan, it may be mentioned that while the probability is that the Cubomeduse are descended from stalked ancestors (Lu- cernaria-like forms), and hence that the apex of the ex- umbrella was ence drawn out into a peduncle, there is in the adult Cubomedusa no trace externally or internally of this hypothetical stalked condition. Light on this very interesting point can only be expected from a study of the development. Unlike the other Scyphomedusz studied, the Cubome- dus possess a nerve ring. In their study of the nervous system Claus and Conant both depended on sections, and naturally the results are not so satisfactory as those reached by the Hertwigs on the Hydromeduse mainly with the aid of macerations. Claus describes the neuro- epithelium as consisting of alternating supporting cells and sensory cells, the inner ends of the latter becoming continuous with the nerve fibres. Conant makes it doubtful whether this is the actual condition, since he does not find the sensory cells. He offers, however, no observations on the origin of the ‘nerve fibres.’ Macera- tions will probably show the connection of these fibres with at least some of the neuro-epithelium cells. The possession of a nerve ring has been regarded (Claus) as a point of essential similarity between the Cubomedu- sae and the Craspedota. The main ring in the former group is obviously a differentiation of the subumbrellar epithelium, and Claus, therefore, intetprets it as homelo- gous with the inner Craspedote ring. In the immediate neighborhood of each sense organ there are given off from the main ring two roots which ceasing to be superficial bands pass through the jelly, and emerge on the outer wall 91 JOURNAL OF THE of the bell (on the floor of the sensory niche). They con- verge and unite, forming a superficial nerve tract which crosses the base of the sense-club. These four isolated tracts are regarded by Claus as the remnants of a once con- tinuous exumbrellar ring, such as is found in the Hydro- medusae. and which‘here, as in the Hydromedusae, stands in connection with the subumbrellar ring through the medium of fibres that perforate the jelly. Conant, on the other hand, regards the tracts lying across the bases of the sense organs as portions of the primitive subumbrel- lar ring which were shut off from the main ring, when the marginal lobes grew together. With the Hertwigs and Haeckel he thus looks on the ring as not homologous with that of the Craspedota, but as a special differentia- tion of the subumbrellar plexus found throughout the Scyphomedusae. The sense organs of the Cubomedusae are ‘sense-clubs’ or modified tentacles. In addition to the crystalline sac, the expanded head of the club bears six eyes. Four of these are simple, but two are complex organs provided witha cellular lens and cornea, a vitreous body behind the lens, anda retina. These eyes look into the bell cav- ity. Itis especially in reference to the structure of the retina and vitreous body of the complex eyes, that Co- naut’s conclusions differ from those of Schewiakoff. The vitreous body Conant finds is not a homogeneous struct- ure, bucis composed of prisms of refracting substance. The retina does not show the two types of cells (sensory and pigmented) distinguished by Schewiakoff. Conant’s results in this matter of the retinal structure are in some respects negative. The points still to be cleared up are as in the case of the nerve cord, such as will require the free use of macerations and surface preparations of fresh - tissue. DISTRIBUTION OF WATERPOWER IN NORTH CAROLINA.* BY J.A. HOLMES. The two conditions essential to the development of a waterpower of any considerable magnitude are a large and fairly constant stream of water anda suitable amount of fall within a reasonable distance. In the eastern counties of North Carolina we have numerous large streams of water, but, except along the western border of the region, asa rule they have sluggish currents and are lacking in the necessary fall. In the mountain counties the streams are small, but the fall available in many cases is sufficiently great to make possible water- power of considerable magnitude. It is in the middle counties, however, that we find the most satisfactory com- bination of the two essential conditions, viz. volume of water and fall; and hence it is in these counties that we may expect the largest waterpower. developments and the greatestand most substantial growth of manufactur- ing enterprises. | It is intended in the present paper to discuss briefly the distribution of these water powers in the State in their relation to geologic features, and the accom- panyiny map (Plate I) will prove of service in this connection. WATERPOWER IN THE COASTAL PLAIN REGION. Along the western border of the coastal plain region there are a number of important waterpowers, like those at Weldon on the Roanoke, Rocky Mount on the Tar, *In part, reprinted in full from Bulletin 8, N. C. Geological Survey. 2 93 JOURNAL OF THE and those on the Cape Fear as far east as Averasboro. These, though they lie within the limits of this region, yet structurally do not belong to it, and can best be con- sidered under the next heading below, in which will be discussed the waterpowers which belong rather to the border zone between the coastal plain and the Piedmont plateau regions,and which can perhaps be best desig- nated as the fall line zone. With the exception of the waterpowers just referred to, it may be said of the coastal plain region as a whole, that its waterpowers are of no great importance. The water supply is ample but the fall is lacking. And yet there exist at many different points in this region con- ditions which are favorable te the development of water- power which, though small, have considerable local value. Until a comparatively recent date, practically all of the grist mills in this section were operated by small water- powers, and a considerable number of these grist mills are still inoperation. But such water waterpowers were confined to the smaller streams, and in many cases the development of power consisted simply in the construction of a dam across the deep, narrow channe] of the stream without the existence of a natural shoal, and the amount of fall is approximately the height of the dam. The most striking feature about the waterpower de- veloped on the majority of these smaller streams is the slight extent to which the volume of water is effected either by the rains or dry seasons. The most widely known illustrations of this condition are Rockfish creek in Cumberland county, and Hitchcocks creek in Rich- mond county, both of which though small are indus- trially important streams. The former with a drainage basin of 280 square miles, running five cotton mills, and the latter with a drainage basin of 102 square miles running six cotton mills. The explanation of ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 94 this phenomenon is to be found in the fact that the deep, porous sands of the region serve as a sponge in soaking up the rains as they fall, turning loose this water gradually during the dry season through numer- ous spring's. In the case of many others of the small powers in this region, as that on Colly creek in Bladen county and others in the different eastern counties, the uni- formity of the flow throughout the year is favored by the further condition that the tributaries of these Streams pass through extensive swamp areas which also Serve to store the water for useduring dry weather. WATERPOWERS IN THE FALL LINE ZONE. Along the ‘‘fall line’? or the fall line zone in North Carolina there are conditions favorable for the de- velopmeut of waterpowersof considerable magnitude on our larger streams. And since the exact position of this fall line is not clearly defined, and as the conditions favor- ing waterpower development extend across a considerable belt or zone where this lineis crossed by the larger streams, itis better in this connection te consider together these conditions asthey exist at and for a few miles on both sides of this boundary line between the coastal plain and Piedmont plateau regions. ON THE ROANOKE RIVER. The conditions favoring waterpower development on the Roanoke river in this zone, which at this point has a width of about 9 miles, extending up the river from Wel- don, may be considered as typical of those existing other points. Waterpower developments of considerable mag- nitude are now in progress on the Roanoke and are being planned on the Cape Fear and Yadkin. 95 JOURNAL OF THE In portions of the coastal plain region, however, where the streams are cutting their way down across the hori- zontal and soft strata such as alternate beds of clay and sand, we have conditions somewhat similar to those de- Fic. 1.—Interbedded sands and clays favoring the development of rapids in river channels. P and P’—Finely laminated and in places cross- bedded, black laminated clay below, and bedded but cross-laminated clayey arkose above, the strata of both clay and arkose being separated by layers of sand varying in thickness from a small part of an inch to several feet, The strata marked P’ above rr represent the same strata as P’ below the rr. s= Sand hills back from the stream border. f#—River terraces of recent loams, gravel at their base. +rr= Surface of the stream showing that asit washes away the laminated arkose and clay, irregular rapids are produced in the stream, owing to the more rapid re- moval of the interbedded sand. scribed above except that in these cases the strata, instead of being alternate lay- ers of hard and soft rocks, are of altogeth- er unconsolidated materials which have not yet turned to stone. Such a condition of things may be illustrated by fig, 1, which represents somewhat the conditions existing on Rockfish creek in Cumberland county. In the lower portion of its course the waters of this creek have cut their way through the overlying sands and loaiis and are now cutting through the lower interbed- ded sands, clays and arkose, and the still lower more finely laminated sands and greenish-black clays. Near the mouth of Rockfish these materials in its bed have been worn away to the level.of the Cape Fear river ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 96 which it joins. Further back from the Cape Fear the cutting down through alternate layers of loose sand and tough clay has resulted in producing a rapid but irregu- lar current with occasional small shoals, at several of which waterpowers have been developed by the construc- tion of dams and factories erected. Figure 2 may be considered as illustrating fairly well Fic. 2.—Conditions favoring the develop- ment of cascades and rapids in stream beds crossing geologic contacts. g+—Granite and gneiss. sch—Crystalline schists, in which the harder places (shaded more heavily) wear away less rapidly than the intervening softer places. The result is a series of cascades and rapids in the stream. p= Coastal plain deposits—gravel, sand and loam. a generalized section across the fall line where crossed by the Roanoke river at Weldon. The crystalline schists exposed along the river bed between Gaston and Weldon (G and W ot fig. 2) are much harder and more obdurate than the unconsoli- dated coastal plain deposits below, and even harder than the granite and eneissic rocks above it; and hence the latter rocks have been eroded to ereater depths, and at the line of junction between the two (1 in fig. the schists form a sort of barrier or natural dam, for many miles above which the river is deep and the cur- rent sluggish. But from this point EG. 2. down to Weldon the schists vary in hardness, and are intersected by joints, seams, fissures and probably sev- 97 JOURNAL OF THE eral faults; this succession of variations giving rise toa succession of rapids and shoals, with an aggregate fall of 85 feet in a distance of 9 miles. For this distance the river flows through a deep and open gorge flanked by hills which, near Gaston and a short distance westward, are capped with unconsolidated gravels, presumably of Potomac age, and bordered by terraces of more recent age, probably post-tertiary (Columbia). In the neigh- borhood of Weldon and eastward the rocky hills give places to the terraces and plains of the coastal region, composed of gravels, sand, loams and clays, varying in age from Potomac at the bottom to Columbia at the top. ON THE TAR RIVER. On the Tar river there is but one large waterpower, that at Rocky Mount, which may be considered as being at the eastern margin of this zone and some 20 miles eastward of the western border of the coastal plain region. The Tar rises nearly 100 miles to the northwest of this point and crosses successively several granitic, schistose and slaty belts of rock, but owing to the slight elevation of this upper part of its basin above that of the coastal plain, the long period during which the rocks of this upper basin have been undergoing suiface decay, and the long period during which this stream, with no ereat volume of water, has been slowly carving out its channel, its freedom at the present rime from conditions favorable to waterpower is easily understood. At Lonis- burg there is a fall of several feet owing toa change in the character of the granitic rocks. At Rocky Mount it turns eastward and crosses a ledge of hard granitic rock, on the eastern slopes of which there is a vatural fall of about 15 feet in the course of 100 yards. It is on the top of this granite ledge that the dam has been built which serves for the full development of this waterpower tor operating the Rocky Mount cotton-mill. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 98 ON THE NEUSE RIVER. On the Neuse river, as on the Tar, there is rather a remarkable absence of conditions favorable the develop- ment of large waterpowers. Of the two powers worthy of mention, both lie within the granite area, one to the north and the other to the north-east of Raleigh, and are due to local changes in the character of the granitic rock. ON THE CAPE FEAR RIVER. The fall-line zone on the Cape Fear river may be said to begin where this river is former by the junction of tie Deep and Haw rivers, and to extend from that point toa short distance below Smileys falls, near Averasboro. In this distance of about 35 miles there is a succession of shoals beginning just above with Buckhorn falls, 9 miles below the junction of the two rivers, where there is a fall of 20 feet ina distance of one and one-half miles, while the lowest of the prominent shoals, ‘‘Smileys falls,’? 30 miles below the junction, has a fall of 27 feet in a distance of three and one-half miles. The total fall from the junction of the two rivers to just below Smileys falls is about 100 feet. Within 17 miles below Smileys falls, by river, there are at least three different shoals, the last of which is only 8 miles above Fayetteville ; but none of them are of any importance, and they need hard- ly be considered in this connection. The outlying gravels of the coastal plain deposits are to be found on the hills two miles to the west of the junction of the Haw and Deep rivers, so that all the shoals just mentioned lie within this region, and the sands and loains and gravels characteristic of the border deposits are exposed here and there in the river bluffs, though in the river channel these have been removed and the waters rush along over the upturned and irregular 99 JOURNAL OF THE eroded edges of granites and crystalline schists. With- ina few miles above the junction of the Haw and Deep rivers both of these streams pass from the slates of the Piedmont plateau region to and across a narrow strip of Jura-trias sandstone, which latter is made up of mater- ials far more easily eroded than the slates, and as might be expected there are shoals on both streams at this junction. The rivers join within this sandstone area, and for a few miles below the junction the Cape Fear is a sluggish stream. ON THE YADKIN-—PEE DEE RIVER. On the Yadkin-Pee Dee river a condition of things exists somewhat similar to that on the Cape Fear just mentioned. The course of the Yadkin river as it crosses the slates, for some 15 miles above its junction with the Uharie, is briefly described further on. Below its junc- tion with the Uharie the river flows for a distance of some 20 miles in a southerly course obliquely across and in places paralleling the upturned edges of the argilla- ceous slates. In this distance there are only two promi- nent shoals, but neither of great importance as compared with those at the narrows above. These are $wift Island shoal, 42 to 443 miles above the state line, and Gunsmith shoal, 13 miles further up the river. Further down, the river flows easterly as a somewhat sluggish stream across a few miles of red sandstone rocks, simi- lar to those crossed by the Cape Fear at the junction of its two tributary streams. It then euters the coastal plain region, near where it is joined by Little river and follows a southerly course via. Cheraw, 35 miles below. Throughout this distance there is a succession of shoals due to the fact that the river crosses the upturned and irregularly eroded edges of alternate beds of slaty and granitic rocks. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 100 The river crosses the lower limit of tke fall line zone a little above Cheraw. ‘The shoals in the river at that point and for some distance above are not large, but they are sufficient to mark the passage of the river from its characteristics in the Piedmont plateau region to its typical coastal plain condition, that of a sluggish stream. GEOLOGIC CONDITIONS FAVORING WATERPOWER DEVELOPMENT AT THE FALL LINE. (1). The eastward tilting of the surface of these older crystalline rocks, and (2) the partial removal of the loose and easily eroded loams and gravels from the channel on the eastern slope of these rocks, have given this result- iug descent in the river surface at the fall line, which, in the Roanoke at Weldon, aggregates 85 feet in 9 miles. (3) The variation in the character of the rock, being harder and more obdurate at certain points, and softer, more jointed, more crushed, and hence more easily eroded at the intervening arcas, results in concentrating this fall of the stream at certain places; and (4) the existence of terraces along the river banks facilitates the con- struction of canals which still further concentrate the fall of the water. These are the more important geo- logic conditions that favor the development of important waterpowers on the Roanoke at the fall line in the Wel- don region. Other striking cases illustrating the conditions favor- ing waterpower development on streams crossing geolog- ical contacts will be found mentioned on pp. — and — of this report. WATERPOWER IN THE SLATE BELTS. One of the most common types of geological structure affecting -waterpower development in North Carolina 101 JOURNAL OF THE and other seuth Atlantic states is that to be found in the great belts of slates and crystalline schists lying in the eastern part of the Piedmont plateau region. (See map). Here, as in structural type shown in fig. 3 below, layers or sheets of rocks are nearly vertical, and are composed of material varying in hardness and dura- bility ; but throughout much of this belt, and especially along its western border, the variations are less well de- fined and ona smaller scale, the thin, hard layers being so numerous and so generally distributed that in the streams like the Haw and Deep rivers, which cross the larger portions of these belts nearly at a right angle, there is almost a continuous series of small rapids or shoals with an aggregate fall of from 5 to 20 feet to the mile. The possibility of waterpower development on the Haw, Deep and Yadkin, as they cross the central and most extensive of these slate belts in Alamance, Ran- dolph, Davidson, Stanly and Montgomery counties, is greater than on any other portion of these rivers. ON THE HAW AND DEEP RIVERS. Both the Haw and Deep rivers rise in the granitic and eneissic area, the former to the northwest and the latter to the southwest of Greensboro, and are sufficiently large in volume to be available for small powers by the time they reach the western border of the slate belt. Throughout their course of about 50 miles across it each river is a succession of shoals or rapids, many of which have already been developed, while a number of others are capable of being developed on a considerable scale. The slates and schists of this region have a general northeasterly course, and, as a rule, dip steeply toward the northwest, so that these streams with a southeaster- ly course have cut their beds directly across the upturned i . ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 102 edges of the slates, which vary in hardness and obduracy from point to point, the harder sheets projecting upward as ledges, and the intervening softer sheets being wash- ed out as depressions, which thus give rise to the shoals and rapids. ON THE YADKIN RIVER. The Yadkin river strikes the slate belt some 12 or 15 miles below the Southern railroad crossing near Salis- bury, and fora distance of 20 miles below this point the geologic conditions in this slate have resulted in a suc- cession of shoals and rapids which promise to be of great value in connection with the development of manufact- uring enterprises. Where the Yadkin river crosses the larger of these belts of slates and schists there is a greater concentra- tion of the hard and soft material, and consequently a greater concentration of fall in the river at certain points, than 1s described above as occurring on Haw and Deep rivers; yet on the whole this Yadkin river section, illus- trated with approximate accuracy in fig. 3, may be con- sidered as fairly typical for sections of country where these belts of rock exist. The space between 1 and 2 in the diagram represents the ‘‘narrows”’ section, a distance of nearly 5 miles. The rock is eruptive in character, though an obscurely bedded conglomerate at the upper (N.W.) side. It is all hard, but not uniformly so, being harder and more obdurate at certain places, arranged at intervals, producing the narrows rapids at the upper end (just below 1) and the ‘little falls” and ‘‘big falls”? near the lower end (just above 2). The total fall from 1 to 2 is nearly 100 feet. 103 JCURNAL OF THE Below the narrows (between:2 and S.E. in fig. 3) the FIG. Fic, 3.—Conditions favoring the develop- ment of cascades and rapids in river channels crossing belts of inclined slates and crystalline schists. a=—Argillaceous slates dipping northwest, with hard2r and more durable layers at inter- vals (as at 3). 4—Crystalline schists, mainly of volcanic origin, obscurely schistose, more massive and obdurate in places, as where the shading is heavier. c—Finely laminated and uniform argillaceous slate. rock is mainly an argillaceous slate of fairly uniform character and easily eroded by water action; and the ex- istence of this softer material beside the belt of hard, obdurate rock which itself is not uniform, but has harder and softer belts, affords just the con- ditions favorable for the development of rapids and cascades in the stream that crosses both belts. As might be expected, these harder rocks (6 in fig. 3) cross the country in a high, irreg- ular ridge, while the surface of the region to the southeast, occupied by the slaty and sandstone rocks, is less hilly and less elevated. The Yadkin crosses the harder ridge as a rushing torrent in a deep, narrow gorge—the ‘‘Narrows’’—but as soon as it reaches the softer slaty reck (at 2 in fig. 3) the current slackens, the stream widens and flows on for several miles as a smooth and relatively sluggish current. For several miles up-stream from the Narrows the rocks are mainly clay slates having a southwest-north- east course, and dipping steeply toward the northwest ; = =. ELISHA MITCHFL1, SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 104 and so the sheets or beds of rock stand on edge and lean down-stream (S.K.). These rock beds are for the most part fairly soft and more easily washed away than other more massive and more durable layers which occur at ir- regular intervals, and consequently below these more massive sheets of rock are the shoals and rapids as indi- cated in figs. 2 and 3 above and as described further on. WATERPOWER IN THE GRANITIC AND GNEISSIC AREAS. The larger granitic and gneissic areas occupy the re- gion trom the western border of the slate belt just men- tioned westward to the foot of the Blue Ridge, the typical Piedmont plateau section of the state. In granitic and gneissic rock, the materials not being arranged in definite strata or layers, the exact conditions which cause the production of cascades and rapids in streams are less apparent than in the slaty and schistose rocks just described. The accompanying sketch (fig. 4) illustrates a few of the conditions favor- able to the development of waterpowers in a region Where these rocks prevail, as in portions of central and western North Carolina. 1. One often finds in such regions breaks, such as faults or joints in the rock, the material on one side of the break being somewhat crushed or sheared and hence easily removed. Of course the streams of water in cross- ing the section of country where these breaks or faults occur, and especially where the crushed or sheared side of the break is the lower side on a sloping surface, re- move this lower side more rapidly than the upper and thus form a cascade from the higher to the lower level as seen at 1 in fig. 4. It is in that way that some of the beautiful falls of the southern Appalachian mountain re- 105 JOURNAL OF THE gion have been produced. Other cascades and shoals are developed under the following conditions: FIG. 4. Fic. 4.—Conditions favoring the develop- ment of cascades and rapids in river channels crossing areas of granitic and gneissic rock, gv.—Granite. 1—Fault or break in the rock, the right side having moved down or the left side moved up. 2—A schistose zone in the granite resulting from the shearing or move- ment of the rock along a line of weakness. gn—Gneiss, in which there are alternately harder and softer portions, the harder and more obdurate places being more heavily shaded (as at 4). 5—Dike of diabase or other material harder and more obdurate than the gneiss, and never producing a cascade or rapid in the stream channel. 2. In portions of the granitic area there are lines of structural weakness where, under great strain or pressure, the materials of which the rock is composed give way and are flattened out by a process kuown as shearing, so as to give there a rather gneissic or schistese structure, as at 2 in fig. 4. ‘The rock in this condition is often more rapidly attacked by the weath- ering and eroding forces of the atmos- phere, aad, consequently, as the streams cross the surface of the couutry where such conditions exist, they carve out their channels more rapidly, thus producing shoals or rapids, and, in extreme cases, cascades or falls. 3. Conditions somewhat similar to the above and fav- orable to the formation of shoals and rapids in streams are sometimes found along the line of contact between areas of granites and gneisses, as at 3 in fig. 4; and ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 106 again in g@neissic areas in places the rocks are harder and more obdurate, as indicated by heavier shading at 4 in fig. 4; and in the beds of streams crossing such areas the rocks wear away irregularly, the harder portions standing out as projections while the intervening softer materials are hollowed out. In this way we have pro- duced a succession of shoals, a few hundred yards or several miles apart ; and between these are to be found the quiet reaches of the streams where the current moves along more smoothly and quietly. 4. Another structural feature in granitic and eneissic areas, and also in slaty and sandstone areas, which oc- casionlly results in the production of the shoals and rapids, is the occurrence of dikes, where cracks in the earth’s crust have been subsequently filled with various materials in a plastic and usually a molten condition and which materials have subsequently hardened. If the material of the dike is softer than that of the granitic or gneissic rock on one or both sides of it, then there will be a drop in GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS AND WATER-POWER IN NORTH CAROLINA 1898. COASTAL PLAIN FORMATIONS? Ea JURATRIAS! SANDSTONE, TTS] «GRANITE AND OTHER ' BANDS, CLAYS, MARLA, SHALES AND COAL. RA IGNEOUS ROCKS. a METAMORPHOSED SLATES AND GNeiss SLATES, SCHISTS, LIMESTONES, QUARTZITES CZ SOHIBTS CINCLUDING VOLCANICS) HAHAH (PRODADLY ARCHAEAN,) Axo CONGLOMERATES (AGE UNKNOWN.) COASTAL PLAIN REGION T ip A ys wit Sa S vw 5 — % (BRUNSWICK y Scale of Miles > +4444 1S Water-Power 6 Cape Fear ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 108 easterly and southerly direction for a distance of but little more than 25 miles; but in this distance it crosses the course or strike of the rocks at right angles. The changes in the character of the rocks are numerous, the rocks even being schistose and slaty in places and the stream is literally a succession of shoals, the aggregate fall being not less than 175 feet. At a point some 10 miles south of Statesville, as will be seen on the small map, the river reaches the typical granite belt of this region and flows thence southward for a distance of approximately 40 miles, where it crosses the state line into South Carolina. In this part of its course the rocks of the region are again more nearly uniform, and though there are several shoals of importance, as those at Cowans ford, Mountain Island, and Tuckaseegee, yet the number of these shoals in proportion: to the distance is much smaller than in the 25-mile section next above. ON THE TRIBUTARIES OF BROAD RIVER. Among the tributaries of the Broad in Cleveland and Rutherford counties,the streams descend rapidly from the South Mountains along the upper border of these counties down to the general plain of the Piedmont plateau, flowing in a southerly and southeasterly di- rection nearly at right angles to the general strike of the rock, and in this way encountering the great- est number of changes in the character of these rocks, which results in conditions most favorable for the develop- ment of waterpower. Henceit is that we have in this region a large number of valuable waterpowers, some half dozen of which are already operating cotton-mills, while others are soon to be utilized in the same way. CONDITIONS IN THE SLATY AND GNEISSIC AREAS COMPARED. In any study of the streams and waterpowers of the 3 109 JOURNAL OF THE Piedmont plateau region it should be borne in mind that while the slaty belts present more favorable conditions for developing waterpowers, as shown in the case of the Yadkin and the other streams which cross the several belts, owing to the fact that in these belts the sheets of rock stand more on edge and vary more in hard- ness and durability, yet the streams which draw their supplies from the granitic and gneissic areas are more uniform in their flow for the reason that while the rain- fall in the different belts is approximately the same, the soils in the granitic and gneissic areas are deeper and more porous and serve more as a sponge for storing up the surplus water of rainy seasons than does the more shallow and compact clayev soils resulting from the decay of the slates. This is one of the principal causes why the flow is less uniform in the case of the Haw and Deep rivers (see imap), which lie largely in the slaty belt, than in the case of the Yadkin and Catawba, which le almost wholly in the granitic and gneissic areas. For- tunate it is then, that these two larger rivers have their headwatersi. the granitic and gneissic areas, with gravel- ly, porous soils; and flow across the great slate belt after they have attained their larger proportions. WATERPOWER IN THE MOUNTAIN REGION. A glance at the accompanying small geologic map will show that the larger part of this region is occu- pied by gneissic rocks. These have for the most part a characteristic northeast and southwest strike, and the irregular sheets of rock dip beneath the surface at vary- ing but generally steep angles. The southern half of the region has along its western border an irregu- lar belt of bedded slates, limestones, quartzites and con- glomerates ; and these rocks, which make up the bulk of the Great Smoky mountains, have a general north- ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 110 easterly strike and dip at steep and varying angles. Near the eastern border of the region there is another but more narrow and irregular belt of rock of a some- what similar character, following approximately the gen- eral position of the Blue Ridge mountains. The general physiographic features of the region are those mountains and hills with narrow valleys. It may be restated here that the rivers’ of this region have their sources mainly along the western slope of the Blue Ridge, and that with the exception of New river, near the north- ern boundary, they flow in a general northwesterly di- rection across the upturned edges of both the eneissic and the more recent bedded rocks. The elevation of the country is so great and the descent of the streams so rapid that the general courses of the principal rivers have been but little modified by geologic structure, though their courses lie directly across the strike of the rock ; and the resulting conditions are such as to produce along the streams occasional rapids and cascades. Especially would this be the case in the western counties, where the Pigeon, the Tuckasevee, the Little Tennessee and the Hiwassee break through the Great Smoky mountains, and in doing so cross a variety of limestone, quartzite and con- glomerate beds which go to make up the geologic forma- tion of that area, but for the fact that during the lone period of time that these streams have occupied their pres- ent channels, owing to the rapidity of their flow and the large quantities of abrading materials, such as sand, gray- el and bowlders, carried down in their currents, the va- riations in the obduracy of the rocks, crossing these stream beds seldom result in cascades of large propor- tions, for the reason that the would-be projecting ledges of rock across the stream bed are kept down near the general level by these eroding agencies. A number of the smaller tributary streams flow in either 111 JOURNAL OF THE a southwesterly or a northeasterly direction along the line of the strike of the rocks and thus develop-the con- ditions favorable for waterpower, mainly where they vary their courses and cross from rock of one character to one of a different character. In the extreme northern portion of the region the tributaries of New river rise both on the western slopes of the Blue Ridge and the eastern slopes of the Iron mountains, and flow ina general northeasterly or northerly direction, sometimes following the line of the strike, and sometimes crossing the latter at sharp angles. Along New river and its tributaries are a number of shoals which can be developed into valu- able waterpowers, occuring mainly at points where the streams cross the strike of the gneissic rock of the region. In connection with the development of these water- powers, the river gorges are se narrow and the streams so rapid that while the construction of large dams isa matter attended with no insurmountable difficulties, yet it is often difficult to find suitable space for buildings, and it has been found more advisable in a number of cases to construct small dams and to convey the water from these in open ditches or flumes along the banks of the stream to suitable points where the power may be utilized. The chief difficulty which is met in storing water on these streams is that the ponds or storage reservoirs become rapidly filled with sand, gravel and bowlders brought down in time of flood. Probably the future develop- ment of these powers will be largely in connection with electrical transmission. GEOLOGICAIT, CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE FLOW OF STREAMS, The yearly discharge of a stream depends primarily on the amount of rainfall in the region from which the stream draws its supply, but ina measure this volume, and especially the uniformity of flow, are largely in- ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 112 fluenced by the slope of the surface, the depth and poros- ity of thé soil, and the character of the underlying rock. In connection with this study of the geologic conditions ‘influencing the possibilities of waterpower development, it should be noted that the occurrence of lakes, swamps or marshes and poorly-drained level areas, deep and porous soils, such as the sandy and gravelly soils from 10 to 100 feet deep, which occur in the larger part of the Piedmont plateau and mountain regions of the Carolinas, the great sand hills of the southern coastal plain region, and the porous sands and gravels of the glaciated regions of the Northern states, all facilitate the uniformity of the flow of the streams in these several regions ; and 1n some regions the jointed, fissured and crushed condition of the underlying rock exerts a favorable influence in the same direction. NOTES ON GRASSES. 1) CONTRIBUTIONS FROM MY HERBARIUM. NO. Iv. W. W. ASHE. Since the publication of a paper on the Dichotomous Group of Panicum in the Eastern United States (in this Journal, vol. xv, Nov., 1898) I have found among some duplicates additional material of a plant, a single speci- men of which [ had at that time, but such scanty mate- rial that I did not care to base a species on it, though it 1) Issued April 20, 1899. 113 JOURNAL OF THE showed excellent specific characters. I find that I have collected the plant at two stations, both in Orange county, Nov: PANICUM ORANGENSIS, sp. nov. Stems 12 to 24 inches long, ascending from a geniculate base, pubescent with long, soft, white, matted hairs, but more or less elabrate towards the top. Lower sheaths crowded and overlapping, pubescent with soft matted hairs; the upper distantand nearly glabrous. Leaves soft-pubescent like the sheaths, the largest 3 to 4 inches long and 3” to 5”’ wide, lanceolate, long taper-pointed, largest near the base of the stem ; the upper much reduced and often glabrous. Ligule pilose with long hairs. Panicle long-peduncied, oblong, the very numerous, slender fascicled branches ascending ; spikelets scarcely {~’’ long, obovate, apiculate, the first scale about one-third as long as the glabrous 7- nerved second and third. Related to Panicum lanuginosum Ell., and separated from it by hay- ing a longer, softer pubescence and its leaves not being ciliate. Col- lected in June, 1898. As the name Panicum commelinaefolium proposed by me (Mitchell Journ. 15, part 1; 29) fora Georgia plant has already been used by Kunth for another grass, I propose the name Panicum Currani for my plant; and for Panicum Georgianum Ashe (ibid, 36) I propose the name Panicum Cahoonianun., since Sprengel has made use of the nearly sim- ilar P. Georgicum for a different plant. ANDROPOGON GYRANS sp. nov. Stem very slender, 18 to 24 inches high, glabrous or merely bearded at the up- per joints. Basal leaves 10 to 14 inches iong, 1’’ wide or less, glabrous, often involute and twisted, those of the stem much shorter. Sheaths glabrous. Branches very few, scarcely protruding from the closely wrapped sheaths. Spikes 2 or 4, generally 4, very slender, 6 to 12 flowered, spikelets 13’’ long, shorter than the copious, white, basal hairs ; sterile spikelets of single scale, cov- ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 114 ered with long spreading hairs, as well as its slender pedicel. © Distinguished from A. Ad/iotit and all the slender forms of that species, by the much smaller spikelets, scattered branches and narrow sheaths, which do not enlarge. Collected by the writer in pine woods in Durham county, N, C., Oct. 1896. ANDROPOGON MoxHrit PUNGENSIS, var. nov. Less tomentose than the type. Spikes generally more aumer- ous, 4 to 12, and shorter, enclosed in the sheaths or pro- truding. Collected by the writer in grassy swamps at the head of Pungo river, Washington county, N. C., Oct. and Nov., 1898. P JOURNAL OF THE Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society VOL. XVI 1899 CHAPEL HILL, N. OC. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY Journal of the Mitchell Society. Ky CONTENTS. VOL. XVI. 1899. The Definition of the Element.—F. P. Venable................................... 1 iRhepNature of Valence:—F. P: Venable niseeo ci oecccoceieesececcel etsece. 15 Preliminary Catalogue of the Birds of Chapel Hill, N. C., With Brief Notes on Some of the Species. —T. G. Pearson...........0.0c.00c0000 On the Universal Distribution of Titanium.—Chas. Baskerville............ 52 The Occurrence of Vanadiums, Chromium, and Titanium in Peats. SOE RTS 25 0 ORE 2k ot Oc eee me Lae 54 A Study of Certain Double Chromates.—W. G. Haywood................. SOO. Meeinjot Paleotrochis.— J. S.. Lier) eee, oo vnccec coassesdisdanieostee 59 The Deep Well at Wilmington, N. C.—J. A Holimes...........c0ccccccccecees os 67 New East American Species of Crataegus.—W. W. Ashe......ccccccccccceeees 70 Note on Qualitative Test for Tin.—Chas. Baskerville ......... cccccccccceeceeee 81 Some Dichotomous Species of Panicam.—W. W. Ashe ..ccccceccccecccceceseee 86 eee nis JOURNAL OF THE Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society SIXTEENTH YEAR—PART FIRST 1899 THE DEFINITION OF THE ELEMENT. F. P. VENABLE. It is with hesitation that I enter upon so speculative a dis- cussion as the nature of the elements, and yet there are rea- sons why it should prove of great profit to draw the attention of this representative gathering of the chemists of America to this subject. We have nearly reached the close of the first century in which these elements have been the subject of ex- perimental research. The ingenuity and the patient labor of an army of workers have been directed toward the solution of the many problems connected with these elementary substances, and the ultimate aim, the goal, of all their striving has been the discovery of the properties and the nature of the atom. It is eminently fitting that, as we stand at the threshold of the new century, we glance back along the road we have al- ready come and take some account of the progress we have made. The quicksands of mere speculation must be avoided, and yet the mental vision, the ‘scientific imagination,’ must be called into service in considering that which so far tran- scends our cruder actual vision as the incomparable atom it- self. There is another reason for considering the nature of + An address delivered as Vice President before the Chemical Section American Association for the Advancement of Science—Columbus, O., 1899, 2 JOURNAL OF THE the elements. At several times during the century a wider vision has made it necessary to recast the definition of the elements to accord with increasing knowledge. It would seem as if another such period of change were approaching. There may be need of a truer definition, and how shall this be realized or the new definition properly fitted unless the knowledge gained be summed up and appreciated? The conception of an element among’ the Greek philoso- phers and the earlier alchemists was very different from the modern idea. This conception sprang from the theories as to the formation of the material universe. The elements were the primal forms of matter seen only combined, impure, im- perfect. ‘They were the essences or principles out of which all things were evolved. In the four-element theory, which was so widely spread among the ancients, the fire, air, earth and water were not the ordinary substances known under these names, but the pure essences bestowing upon fire and water their peculiar properties. These essences were not thought of as actual substances capable of aseparate materi- al existence, and gradually the belief that a transmutation was possible between them sprang up. Thus they themselves might be derived from some one of them, as fire or water. The Thalesian theory deriving all things from water was es- pecially popular and was not completely overthrown until the modern era. When, later on, the alchemists conceived of all metals as composed of sulphur and mercury it was an essence or spirit of mercury that was meant. Certain common characteristics as luster, malleability, fusibility, combustibility, etc.,natural- ly led them to think of the metals as belonging to the same order of substances containing the same _ princi- ples, the relative proportions and purity of which deter- mined the variations in the observed properties. Thus the properties of the metals depended upon the purity of the mer- cury and sulphur in them, the quantities of them and their degree of fixation. The more easily a metal was oxidized on being heated, the more sulphur it contained, and this sulphur also determined its changeability. The more malleable it ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 3 was, the more mercury entered into its composition. If only something could be found which would remove the grossness from these essences, some unchanging, all-powerful essence, which, because of their search for it, gradually became known as the ‘philosophers’ stone,’ then the baser metals might be transmuted into the noble gold when the sulphur and mercury were perfectly balanced and free from all dis- tempers. As has been said, these principles entering, all or some of them, into every known substance, were supposed to be not necessarily capable of individual existence themselves. This was the view held by the followers of Aristotle. With the reaction against the domination of the scholiasts, other views began to be held. It was Boyle who first gave voice to these changed views in his ‘Sceptical Chymist’ (1661). He defined elements as ‘‘certain primitive bodies, which, not being made of any other bodies, or of one another, are the in gredients of which all those called perfectly mixed bodies are immediately compounded, and into which they are ultimately resolved.” He, however, did not believe himself warranied, from the knowledge then possessed, in claiming the positive existence of such elements. But little attention was paid to the subject by the subse- quent chemists. The phlogistics were too much occupied with their theory of combustion, and none could see the bear- ing of this question and its importance to exact science. Macquer, in his ‘Dictionary of Chemistry’ (1777), words his definition as follows: ‘‘Those bodies are called elements which are so simple that they cannot by any known means be decomposed or even altered and which also enter as principles or constituent parts, into the combination of other bodies,” To this he adds: ‘“The bodies in which this simplicity has been observed are fire, air and purest earth.” In all of this may be observed the resolution of observed forms of matter into primal principles following the dream of Lucretius and the early Epicurean philosophers, a dream abandoned by the atomic school following, though largely holding to the same definition. 4 JOURNAL OF THE It was only when chemists began to realize that mere obser- vation of properties, chiefly physical, was not sufficient that the subject began to clear up and lose its vagueness. Black proved that certain substances were possessed of a constant and definite composition and fixed properties, unalterable and hence simple bodies or elements. Lavoisier finally cleared the way for the work of the nineteenth century by his defini- tion that ‘‘an element is a substance from which no simpler body has yet been obtained; a body in which no change éauses a diminution of weight. Every substance is to be re- garded asan element until it is proved to be otherwise.” With this clear definition to build upon, a rational system of chemistry became, for the first time, a possibility. Thus the elements were recognized as simple bodies be- cause there were no simpler. They were not complex or com- pound. This distinction was clearly drawn between bodies simple and bodies compound, and the name simple body has been frequently used as a synonym for element through a large part of this century. Naturally the question of simplic- ity was first settled by an appeal to that great arbiter of chemical questions, the balance. And, quite as naturally, many blunders were made and the list of bodies erroneously supposed to be simple was very large. All whose weight could not be reduced were considered elementary. When, however, from such a body, something of lesser weight could be produced, its supposed simplicity was, of course, dis- proved. This test for the elemental character has been clung to per- sistently, and is perhaps still taught,although it was long ago recognized that many of the elements existed in different forms, a phenomenon to which Berzelius gave the name a/lo- tropism. One only of these could be the simplest, and the others could be reduced to this one and rendered specifically lighter. With the discovery of this relation it should have been quite apparent that the old definition would no longer hold good. But many years passed before chemists were made to feel that a new definition was necessary, and adapted one to the newer knowledge. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 5 The insight into what Lucretius would call ‘the nature of things’ was becoming clearer; the mental grasp upon these elusive atoms about which the old Epicurean reasoned so shrewdly was becoming firmer. Through what one must re- gard as the veil interposed by the earlier idea of the element, the chemist began to grope after the constituent particle or atom. It must be borne in mind that the definition of the element was largely formulated before the resuscitation of the atomic theory by Dalton, and the mental picture of the one has perhaps retarded the clearing up of the ideas concerning the other. From the atomic point of view the element was next defined as one in which the molecules or divisible particles were made up of similar indivisible particles. This afforded an easy explanation of allotropism as achange in the num- ber of atoms in a molecule. As Remsen says: ‘‘An element is a Substance made up of atoms of the same kind; a com- pound is a substance made up of atoms of unlike kind,” Laying aside, then, all vaguely formulated ideas of essen- ces, or principles, or simple bodies, or elemental forms, we found our present building upon the conception of the ulti- mate particle, be this molecule or atom. As to this atom some clear conception is needed, and here we come to the crux of the modern theories. The chemist re- gards this atom as a particle of matter and is unwilling to ac- cept the theory of Boscovich that is infinitely small, and hence a mathematical point,nor can he admit that it is mere- ly a resisting point, and hence that all matter is but a system of forces. And yet it seems as though some authorities would lead up to such a conclusion. While we need not consider these atoms as mere centers of forces, we are compelled to study them by the operation of forces upon them. What are called their properties have been studied and recorded with great care: These proper- ties are evinced in the action of the forces upon matter, and the exhibition of force without matter cannot be admitted. This study of the properties has been the especial occupation of the century now closing, and so the elemental atom has come to be regarded as a collection of properties. As Pat- terson-Muir puts it (Alchemical Essence and the Chemical 6 JOURNAL OF THE Elements, p. 31): ‘“The name copper is used to distinguish a certain group of properties, that we always find associated together, from other groups of associated properties, and if we do not find the group of properties connoted by the term copper we do not find copper.” These properties are exhibited by the action of a small group of forces. Perhaps we do not know all of the forces; certain it is that we do not accurately know all of the proper- ties, but, to quote Patterson-Muir again: ‘‘The discovery of new properties always associated with a group of properties we call copper would not invalidate the statement that cop- per is always copper.” The properties of an atom are either primary, inherent and as unchanging as the atom itself, or they are secondary and dependent upon the influence of the other atoms, or varying with the change of conditions. To the first class belong such properties as the atomic weight, atomic heat, specific grav- ity, etc.; to the second, chemical affinity, valence, etc. Inall the study of the atom the distinction between these should be carefully maintained in order that there may be clear think- ing. There is no field of mental activity requiring more faith than that of the chemist. He is dealing with the ‘evidences of things unseen.’ He must not be content with the mere gathering of facts, but divine what he can of their deeper meaning. Few chemists have had such insight as Graham into the significance of even the simplest changes. He was not content with mere surface observation. Even the com- monest phenomena were to him full of meaning as to the atoms and their ‘eternal motion.’ Thorpe (Essays in Histor- ical Chemistry, p. 219) has drewn afresh the attention of the chemists to the thoughtful words of this great thinker. His mind was filled with the fascinating dream of the unity of matter. ‘‘In all his work,” says Adam Smith, ‘‘we find him steadily thinking on the ultimate composition of bodies. He searches after it in following the molecules of gases when diffusing; these he watches as they flow into a vacuum or in- to other gases, and observes carefully as they pass through ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 7 tubes, noting the effect of weight, of composition, upon them in transpiration. He follows them as they enter into liquids and pass out, and as they are absorbed or dissolved by colloid bodies; he attentively inquires if they are absorbed by metals in a similar manner, and finds remotest analogies which, by their boldness, compel one to stop reading and to think if they really be possible.” In his paper entitled ‘Speculative Ideas respecting the Con- stitution of Matter,’ published in the Proceedings of the Roy- al Society in 1863, which Thorpe calls his ‘Confession of Faith,’he tells of his conception that these supposed elements of ours may possess one and the same ultimate or atomic molecule existing in different conditions of movement. It is not possible for me, in the limits of this address, to array before you all of the various evidence which leads to the belief that our so-called elementary atoms are after all but compounds of an intimate, peculiar nature whose dissocia- tion we have as yet been unable to accomplish. When prop- erly marshalled, it gives a very staggering blow to the old faith. Thorpe speaks of the ‘told metaphysical quibble con- cerning the divisibility or indivisibility of the atom.” To Graham ‘‘the atom meant something which is not divided, not something which cannot be divided.” The original indi- visible atom may be something far down in the make-up of the molecule. How shall the question as to the composite nature of the elements be approached? The problem has been attacked from the experimental side several times during the last half cen- tury, but the work seems to have been carried on after a de- sultory fashion and was Soon dropped, as if the workers were convinced of its uselessness. The results, being negative, simply serve to show that no method was hit upon for decomposing the elements upon which the experiments were performed. ‘Thus, for instance,Despretz performed a number of experiments to combat Dumas’ views as to the composite nature of the elements. Despretz made use of the well- known laboratory methods for the separation and purification of substances. Such were distillation, electrolysis, fractional 8 JOURNAL OF THE precipitation, etc. Such work was quite inadequate to settle the question, as Dumas had pointed out that unusual methods must be used, or, he might have added, the old methods car- ried out to an unusual or exhaustive extent. Certainly, if a moderate application of the usual methods was sufficient for this decomposition, evidences of it would have been obtained long ago by the host of careful workers who have occupied themselves over these substances. Crookes has busied him- self with the method of fractional precipitation (though not with special view to the testing of this question), and applied it most patiently and exhaustively to such substances as the rare earths, without obtaining results from which anything conclusive could be drawn, Victor Meyer seems to have be- lieved that the decomposition could be effected by high tem- peratures, and was very hopeful of experiments which he had planned before his untimely death. Others have spasmodic- ally given a little time to the problem, but no one has thought highly enough of it to attack it with all of his en- ergy. Let us stop a moment and ask ourselves what would be at- tained if any one should succeed in decomposing an element by one of the usual methods. Has not this been done repeat- edly in the past and merely served to add to the list of the elements? Didymium has been made to yield praseo-and neo- dymium. That which was first called yttrium has been di- vided into erbium, terbium and ytterbium, and according to Crookes may possibly be still further decomposed. But these and similar decompositions are not generally accepted as of- fering any evidence that elements can be decomposed. It is merely the discovery of one or more new substances which have remained hidden in constant association with known bodies which were supposed to be simple. It would be nec- essary to prove that a single individual element had, by the process adopted, been actually decomposed and not some pre- existing impurity discovered. This, of course, would be ex- ceedingly difficult, and all such attempts as those mentioned can have little bearing upon the general question, and can hold out slight hope of reward beyond the fame springing from the discovery of a new element. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 9 Successful decomposition should meam much more. It Should mean the discovery of a method which will decompose not one, but many or indeed, all of the elements, and the de composition of these must not yield a larger number of sup- posedly simple bodies, but a small group of one or two or three which are common constituents of all. It is quite idle to venture upon any prediction whether such a method will ever be discovered. Setting aside, then, the direct experi- mental proot of the composite nature of the elements as unat- tainable at present, let us next examine the indirect evidence. It would seem wisest for the present to introduce under that heading the spectroscopic work of Lockyer. The results, while highly interesting, are too indefinite as yet to speak of as having a direct bearing, Yet a careful study of the spec- tra of the elements leads us to a strong suspicion that the less plausible assumption is the one that the particles which give rise to such varied vibrations are simple and unitary in nature. Lockyer’s most recent work, following up the line of his ‘Working Hypothesis’ of twenty years ago,is very sug- gestive and may lead to important results (Chemistry of the Hottest Stars, Roy. Soc. Proc., LXI., 148; Onthe Order of Appearance of Chemical Substances at Different Tempera- tures, Chem. News, 79, 145). Still too much must be assum- ed yet for such work to be very conclusive. He writes of ‘proto-magnesium and proto-calcium,’ and Pickering discuss- es a ‘new hydrogen,’ all with an assurance and confidence which proves at least how deeply these changes in the spec- tra have impressed some of those who have most carefully studied them. But a more important method of indirectly testing the question is through a comparison of the properties of the atoms. Such a comparison has been made as to the atomic weights. In other words, the idea of the compos- ite nature of the elements followed very close upon the adop- tion of a stricter definition of them as simple bodies. Dal- ton, Prout, Débereiner, Dumas, Cooke and many others have aided in developing the idea, sometimes faultily and harmful- ly, at other times helpfully. Some fell into the common er- ror of going too far, but all were struck by the fact that 10 JOURNAL OF THE when these combining numbers, or atomic weights, were compared strange and interesting symmetries appeared. The times were not ripe for an explanation of their meaning, and such crude assumptions as that of Prout, that the elements were composed of hydrogen, or that of Low, that they were made up of carbon and hydrogen, were too baseless to com- mand much genuine support or to withstand much careful analysis. The important feature of agreement between such theories was the belief that the elements were composite and had one or more common constituents. From the comparison of one property, the atomic weights, the next step was to the comparison of all the properties. This comparison is brought out clearest and best for us in the Periodic System. Hereall the properties are very care- fully tabulated for us. The study of the system leads indis- putably to the conviction that this is not an arbitrary, but a natural arrangement, exceedingly simple in its groundwork, but embodying most fascinating symmetries, which hint of great underlying laws. He who looks upon it as a mere table of atomic weights has lost its meaning. It tells, with no un- certain note, of the kinship of the elements and ieads to a search after the secret of their interdependence and of their common factor or factors. here is so much which is made clearer if we assume a composite nature for the elements that many do not hesitate to make the assumption. Still another indirect method of approaching that problem is by analogy with bodies whose nature and composition are known. A very striking symmetry is observed between the hydrocarbons, and these in the form of compound radicals show a strong resemblance to certain of the elements. This analogy need not be dwelt upon here. It has been recog- nized for a long time and tables of hydrocarbons have been constructed after the manner of the Periodic System. Now these bodies are simply built up of carbon and hydrogen in varying proportions, and in any one homologous series the increments are regular. We know that they .are composite and that they have but two common factors, carbon and hy- drogen. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY ia Again,-the fact that certain groups of associated atoms be- have as one element and closely resemble known elements may be taken as a clue to the nature of the elements. Thus carbon and nitrogen, in the form of cyanogen, behave very much like the halogens; and nitrogen and hydrogen in the form of ammonia so closely resemble the group of elements known as the alkalies that this ‘‘volatile alkali” was classed with them before the era of our elements and the analogy lead to a vain search for an ‘‘alkalizing principle” and later to an equally futile pursuit of the metal ammonium. A further clue to this nature is afforded in the remarkable changes of properties which can be brought about in some elements by ordinary means, and one might mention the equally remarkable veiling of properties induced by the com- bining of two or more atoms. Thus copper exists in a cu- prous and a cupric condition, and the change from one to the other can be readily brought about. And this is true of many other elements. This has doubtless been a tedious enumeration to you of well-known facts and arguments, but it has been necessary, for I wish to lead you to the summing-up of these arguments and io induce you to draw boldly the necessary deductions. It is high time for chemists to formulate their opinions in this matter. It would seem as if we were shut up to one or two conclusions. Either these imagined simple bodies are after all compounds, built up of two or more common constit- uents, or they are but varying forms of one and the same kind of matter subjected to different influences and conditions. The supposition that they are distinct and unrelated simple bodies is, of course, a third alternative, but to my mind this is no longer tenable. The second hypothesis is the one put forth by Graham. It was his cherished vision of the gaseous particles about which he thought so deeply, and in many ways so truly. Thorpe has written of this as follows (loc. cit. 222): **He conceives that the various kinds of matter, now rec- ognized as different elementary substances, may possess one and the same ultimate or atomic molecule existing in differ- ent conditions of movement. Graham traces the harmony 12 JOURNAL OF THE this hypothesis of the essential unity of matter with the equal action of gravity upon all bodies, He recognizes that the numerous and varying properties of the solid and liquid, no less than the few grand and simple features of the gas, may all be dependent upon atomic and molecular mobility. Let us imagine, he says, one kind of substance only to exist —ponderable matter; and, further, that matter is divisible into ultimate atoms, uniform in size and weight. We shall have one substance and a common atom. With the atom at rest the uniformity of matter would be perfect. But the atom possesses always more or less motion, due, it must be assumed, to a primordial impulse. This motion gives rise to volume. The more rapid the movement, the greater the space occupied by the atom, somewhat as the orbit of a plan- et widens with the degree of projectile velocity. Matter is thus made to differ only in being lighter or denser matter. The specific motion of an atom being inalienable, light mat- ter is no longer convertible into heavy matter. In short, matter of different density forms different substances—differ- ent inconvertible elements, as they have been considered.” The hypothesis that the elements are built up of two or more common constituents has a larger number of supporters and would seem more plausible. Some have supposed one such primal element by the condensation or polymerization of which the others were formed. Thus we have the hydrogen theory of Prout, modified to the one-half atom by Dumas, and finally by Zangerle to the one-thousandth hydrogen atom. The suggestion of Crookes as to the genesis of the elements from the hypothetical fvoty/e, under the influence of electrici- ty, may also be mentioned here. Others have adopted the supposition of two elements, Rey- nolds making one of these an element with a negative atomic weight, whatever that may mean. Low and others have fixed upon carbon and hydrogen as the two elements. There are many practical difficulties in the way of these suppositions ; the lack of uniformity in the differences be- tween the atomic weights, the sudden change of electro-chem- ical character, and the impossibility, so far, of discovering HRLISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 13 any law underlying the gradation in the properties of the elements with the increase of atomic weights, are some of the difficulties. In comparing these two hypotheses that of Graham seems to me very improbable. I have thought of valence as dependent upon the character of the motion of the atom, but cannot well conceive of a similar dependence of atomic weight and all the other properties. There remains, then, the hypotheses of primal elements by the combination of which our elements have been formed. These molecules are probably distinguished from the ordinary molecules by the actual contact and absolute union of the component atoms without the intervention of ether. Since these elemental molecules cannot as yet be divided, we may retain the name atom for them, but the idea of sim- plicity and homogeneity no longer belongs to them. The definition of an element as a body made up of similar atoms is equally lacking in fidelity to latest thought and belief, but chemists would scarcely consent to change it, and, indeed, it may well be retained provided the modified meaning is given to the word atom, But, after all, an element is best defined by means of its properties, It 1s by close study of these that we decide upon its elemental nature, and through them it is tested. Complete reliance can no longer be placed upon the balance and the supposed atomic weight. All elements are acted upon by gravity and chemical force and other physical forces, but within the last few years cer- tain gaseous elements have been discovered which are not in- fluenced by chemical force or affinity. According to some (Piccini, Zezts. An. Chem. XIX, 295) this necessitates a divis- ion of the elements into two classes. Manifestly, since it is chiefly by the action of chemical force that we study the ele- ments, the absence of such action cuts us off from our chief means of finding out anything about them, and it is equally clear that bodies so diverse cannot well be classified together. If all attempts at bringing about the chemical union of these gaseous elements with other bodies fail, I believe that we should insist upon the existence of two classes of elements and keep them distinct in all comparisons. 14 JOURNAL OF THE Of course, we are quite at a loss to say just what chemical force is, but it is believed to be determined by the electrical condition of the atom. ‘Thus we have the elements which show the action of chemical affinity varying from strongly electro-positive to strongly negative. This electrical charge of the atom seems to be a primitive, inherent property, and so beyond our control or power tochange. At least no change of the kind has ever been recognized and recorded. Sodium remains positive and chlorine negative in spite of all that may be done to them. We can, by uniting the two tempo- rarily, cloak and neutralize their opposite natures, but the original condition returns on their release, Is it not fair to assume that argon, helium and their com- panion gases, having no affinity, are without electrical charge —atoms from which the electrical charge has been with- drawn; the deadest forms of inanimate matter? Were they thus without electro-chemical properties and affinity from the beginning, or did they start out as ordinary atoms (if I may so call them), and somehow, somewhere lose these properties, and with them the power of entering into union of any kind, even of forming molecules, doomed to unending single ex- istence? Can these be changed atoms of some of our well- known elements, a step nearer to the primal elements and with the electrical charge lost? Is it possible for us to bring about these changes? May we not unwittingly have done so at some time or other in the past? Is it possible to restore the electrical charge to such atoms, and so to place them once more ou a footing of equality with elements of the conven- tional type? ‘These and many other questions surge through the mind as one thinks of these wonderful gases. Perhaps the coming century will unfold the answers. THE NATURE OF VALENCE. By F. P. VENABLE. 1 The term ‘‘ valence” is variously defined as the ‘‘combining capacity,” or ‘‘capacity of saturation,” ‘‘quantitative com- bining power,” or ‘‘chemical value of the atom.” It is well known that the introduction of this idea into chemistry was due to the development of the type theory, a system which had at first purely empirical basis. Sixty years ago there was still some hesitation as to the acceptance of the atomic theory or the need for such a theory. Much use was made of the term equivalent, which had been Wollaston’s expedient for avoiding the difficulties arising from the full adoption of the theory of atoms. Wollaston had been himself very far from consistent in the use of the term. ‘The numbers called by him ‘equivalent weights’ were not infrequently atomic and molecular weights and fully as hypothetical as the so-called atomic weights of Dalton. In the later use of the term it signified solely the numbers obtained by analysis without the introduction of any theoretical considerations. Thus, on analyzing ammonia, the ratio N?2 Hs? 26Re is gotten, and therefore the equivalent of nitrogen is 4.6. Strange to say the equivalent given by Wollaston corresponds with the present atomic weight, whereas the atomic weight given by Dalton corresponds with what would be the equiva- lent. It is manifest that the idea of equivalents needed some- thing more than the simple theory of atoms to make it clear and tenable. It embodied two distinct conceptions and if we hold to an atomic theory we must introduce a further explan- atory theory of the saturation capicity of these atoms. This 1 Address, as chairman, delivered before the North Carolina Section. 16 JOURNAL OF THE is the theory of valence or quantivalence or atomicity, and without it the equivalents are purely empirical, and it is most difficult if not impossible to clear up the confusion connected with their use. Returning now to the derivation of this idea of valence from the type theory, according to Wurtz' the conception of valence was introduced into the science in three steps. First there was the discovery of polyatomic compounds. This term was first used by Berzelius in 1827°, he applying it to such elements as chlorine or fluorine where he thought sever- al atoms of these elements united with a single atom of an- other element. The term was later applied by Graham, Wil- liamson, and others to compounds. The second step was the reference of this polyatomicity to what was called the state of saturation of the radicals con- tained in these compounds. This was largely through the work of Williamson and Gerhardt. Thirdly, this conception of saturation was extended to the elements themselves. This was chiefly due to the work of Frankland upon the organo-metallic compounds. And so valence has come to refer to the number of atoms with which a single atom of any element will combine. This conception has then been one of slow growth, gradu- ally incorporating itself into the science as the necessity arose of devising a suitable explanation for accumulated observa- tions. It was a logical outcome of and was evolved from knowledge acquired step by step. It was no mere speculation or hypothesis, such as that of Prout, evolved by the fancy or imagination of one man and suddenly appearing with scarcely a claim to foundation upon observed fact. This conception enters into the chemical theory of to-day almost as fundamentally as the atomic theory itself. Its ap- plication is of every-day occurrence and of tne most varied character, and yet chemists admit that the nature of valence is one of their chief puzzles and they have advanced but little towards its solution during the past half century. It is quite 1 Historie des doctrines chimiques, p. 69. 2]sb. d. Chem., 7, 89. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 17 possible that the ideas to be advanced in the further discus- sion of this subject in this paper will meet with opposition. Certainly they should be fully and freely discussed if they are worthy of it. I believe that they form a step toward the clearing up of the mystery of valence. It is necessary, however, first to trace somewhat further the development of the original conception. One of its ear- liest and most important applications was to the study of the constitution of the compounds of carbon. Here Kekulé as- sumed for carbon a constant valence of four, and this idea is still dominant in theories relating to the constitution of these bodies, It was quite natural then that the first belief should have been in a constant valence. It was speedily found, however, that in certain cases, as in the compounds of nitro- gen and phosphorus, this belief was scarcely tenable. There were efforts at making it hold good, as, for instance, a dis- tinction was drawn between atomic and molecular com- pounds, but all of these suggestions have been proved unsat- isfactory. We unquestionably have to account for the existence of a compound with three atoms and another with five atoms in the cases of nitrogen and phosphorus and there are many sim- ilar anomalies. Here the valence seems to vary toward one and the same element. Cases might be multiplied to show also that it varies often towards different elements. Thus it frequently happens that the valence of an element towards hydrogen seems to be quite different from that exhibited to- ward oxygen. For along time there was much straining to consider the valence of an element always the same but this effort is, in large measure, abandoned now as unavailing and chemists admit that valence is not constant but variable and may even vary towards one and the same element. The doctrine of valence has had much added to it about bonds, affinities, and linkage, the necessity for which one may well question. Certainly the misuse of the word affinity, see- ing its other and greater use, should be earnestly discounten- anced. Jam inclined to think that the other terms bring in false and misleading ideas which should be carefully guarded 2 18 JOURNAL OF THE against. At any rate all hypothetical talk about strong bonds, and weak bonds, double bonds and triple is to be avoided. If then valence varies, can it be an inherent property of the unchanging atoms? Experiments have shown that it varies with the nature of the combining element, that it varies with the temperature and with other conditions. It is not depend- ent upon the atomic weight in the same sense as other prop- erties are dependent upon it. ‘Thus in the same group the valence remains the same whether the atoms weigh nine times as much as hydrogen or two hundred times as much. We seem shut up to the conclusion that valence is not one of the primitive inherent properties of the atom but is rela tive. It is rather to be regarded as the resultant of the mutu- al influence of the atoms of the combining elements, The clear grasping of this idea is an importhant step forward. Unfortunately the distinction is not always made nor consist- ently adhered to. It may not be amiss to cite here the utterance of Lothar Meyer in regard to the question of a constant or variable va- lence.' ‘Since the aim of all scientific investigation is to exhibit the most variable phenomena as dependent upon certain active invariable factors taking part in them and in such a manner that each phenomenon appears to be the necessary result of the properties and reciprocal action of these factors, then it is clear that chemical investigation would be considerably ad- vaticed were it possible to prove that the composition of chem- ical compounds is essentially determined by the valency of the atoms and the external conditions under which these atoms react upon one another. The first necessary step in this di- rection has been made in the attempt to explain the regulari- ties observed in the composition of chemical compounds, by the assumption of a constant power of saturation or an invaria- ble valency of the atom. The opposite and equally hypothet- ical assumption that the valency is variable leads to no ad- vancement. ‘‘The first step towards progress in this matter would be 1 Modern Theories of Chemistry, Eng, Trans., p, 303. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 19 made if some hypothesis as to the cause of this variability were proposed. This difference between the two attitudes has seldom been properly realized. While some chemists, accept- ing the constant valency of atoms, have attempted to deduce the varying atomic linking from one distinct point of view, others have considered it sufficient to have assigned to the atom of a particular element in one compound one valency, and in another compound a different valency, according as this or that value appeared the most suitable, and thus to have given a so-called explanation of the composition of the compounds in question. In this way the fact has been over- looked, that an arbitrary interpretation carried out by means of chosen hypotheses, cannot be regarded as an attempt ata scientific explanation, but is nothing more than an expression of our ignorance of the causal connection of the phenomena. An explanation would require that the different valencies as- signed to one and the same element in different compounds, should be traced to a different cause. If, for instance, it is stated that carbon in carbon dioxide possesses double the val- ency which it possesses in carbon monoxide, such a statement is no explanation of the fact that an atom of carbon in the former compound is combined with twice as much oxygen as in the latter, for such a statement is merely a paraphrase which hides its incompetency by assuming the form of an ex- planation. Although this may be perceived without further remark, still it has frequently occurred during the past few years that similar paraphrases have not only been proposed but also accepted as real explanations of such phenomena. Just as it was formerly supposed that the assumption of a vi- tal force dispensed with a complete investigation of the phe- nomena of animal life, so many chemists have of late thought that they possessed in ‘ variable valency,’ a means of explain- ing the varying stoichiometric relationships which would sat- isfy all claims. Such deceptions can only retard the advance of the science, since they prevent an earnest and thorough in- vestigation of the question, whether each atom is endowed with a property determining and limiting the number of atoms with which it can combine, dependent upon the intrinsic na- 20 JOURNAL OF THE ture of the atom and like it invariable ; or whether this ability is variable and with it the nature of the atom itself.” It is not strange that this line: of reasoning should lead Lothar Meyer to doubt the unvarying nature of the atom it- self, and thus losing his grasp upon one invariable to make sure of another. He says: ‘‘It is by no means impossible that the magnitudes which we now style atoms, may be va- riable in their nature.” It will be an unfortunate day for chemists when the belief in the unchanging atom is given up. Chaos will indeed enter into all of our theories when this, the foundation rock, is left at the mercy of every shifting tide of opinion and can be shaken by all manner of unfounded hypotheses. The case cannot be so hopeless as to necessitate calling to our aid so dangerous a doctrine. Before turning to such an expedient let us first make all possible use of our atomic the- ory as it stands. The extension of this theoiy teaches that the atoms are endowed with motion and this motion probably varies in velocity and phases with the different ele- ments. So too when the atoms unite the resulting molecule has a certain motion peculiar to it while the atoms composing it have an intra-molecular motion in which their original mo- tions are probably modified by their influence upon one an- other, It is quite manifest then that a molecule, in order to exist, must maintain a certain equilibrium and harmony be- tween these various motions, and that there can be all degrees of equilibrium from the very stable to that which may be up- set by the least disturbing influence from without. It seems to me that herein we have a full and satisfactory means of explaining the various problems connected with the conception of valence. ‘The question as to whether the atoms of two elements will unite is decided by affinity, which is in some way connected with the electrical condition of these atoms. ‘There is no apparent connection between this and va- lence. The number of atoms which enter into combination forming one molecule is purely a matter of equilibrium and is dependent upon the motion of those atoms. Thus a phospho- rus atom unites with chlorine atoms because of a certain affin- ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 21 ity between them. The number of chlorine atoms with which it will unite depends upon the possibility of harmonizing the respective motions, As the temperature may affect these motions and also impart a more rapid molecular motion, it is evident that the harmony, or equilibrium, will depend upon the temperature and that a temperature may be reached at which no harmony is possible and hence no compound can be formed. The phosphorus atom mentioned can, as we know, form a stable molecule with five atoms of chlorine, On in- creasing the temperature this becomes unstable and only three atoms can be retained. Neither with four atoms nor with two is there harmony of motion. A sufficiently high temper- ature may prevent any harmony of motion whatever being at- tained and hence union may become impossible. As to other influences than those of temperature, we can see that the equilibrium between the atom of phosphorus and the five atoms af chlorine may be upset by such a molecule coming within the influence, electrical or vibratory, of a mol- ecule of water. The atoms must rearrange themselves for a new State of equilibrium and so an atom of oxygen takes the place of two atoms of chlorine, giving again a condition of harmony. In other cases the motion of the molecule of water may be of such a character as to directly harmonize with that of the original molecule and so to enter into equilibrium with it, a definite number of such molecules of water affording a condition of maximum stability. This we call water of crys- ‘tallization. Such molecules would be more or less easily sep- arated by at increase of temperature and where several mole- cules of water were attached the highest temperature would be necessary for freeing the original molecule from the last water molecule. A carbon atom finds its most perfect state of equilibrium where four atoms of hydrogen or their equivalent move in har- mony with it. But there is a second state of equilibrium where only half that number of atoms are moving with it. This state does not seem to be a possibility where there are hydrogen atoms but is readily possible where the equivalent number of oxygen atoms is concerned. Such a molecule, how- 22 JOURNAL OF THE ever, is always in a condition to take up additional atoms until its highest equilibrium is reached and in doing this it proceeds by the regular steps needed for bringing about a harmony of motion. A molecule in a lower state of equilibrium we have become accustomed to call unsaturated, calling that one satu- rated which is in its highest state of equilibrium. The fur- ther application of this hypothesis is easily ‘made and need not be dwelt upon here, It will be helpful in many ways. This theory of valence makes it clear why it should vary toward the same element under different conditions. It is also clear. that it might vary towards different elements as these are very possibly possessed of different motions. It is further evident that it is in accord with the conclusion that valence is not an inherent property of the individual atom but is the re- sultant of the influence upon each other of the combining atoms, Only one point remains to be considered: Why do the ele- ments of the same group have practically the same valence? The nearest answer to this, and it seems satisfactory, is that they are all possessed of the same phase or kind of motion. In other words the natural division into periods gives us seven or eight more or less different phases. These are, in large meas- ure, independent of the atomic weight. And so the elements in any given group have the same tendency towards similar states of equilibrium in forming compounds with any other ele- ment, as hydrogen or oxygen. Some elements, as copper, mercury, tin, etc., are peculiar in that they may change their phase of motion under certain influences, acting then as if they belonged to different groups and entering into totally different states of equilibrium in forming their compounds, ° Lastly it is possible for a combination of atoms of different elements, as NH‘ or CN, to have such molecular and intra- molecular motion that, although not in a state of equilibrium themselves, they are capable of entering into such states just as the single atoms of elements do, having apparently similar valence. I might develop this theory much further but it is unneces- sary now. Enough has been said to show that such an appli- ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 23 cation of the atomic theory is most highly important as a step towards the clearing up of the problems springing from the conception of valence and from the periodic system. NVote.—Since certain points in this paper require treatment at greater length than was practicable in an address, it will be followed by a second paper elaborating such portions. THE NATURE OF VALENCE. [SECOND PAPER ] As the preceding paper upon this subject was in the form of an address before one of the local sections of the society, the hypothesis as to the cause of valence there suggested was given in outline only and could not be enlarged upon as far as may have been necessary. In the present paper it is proposed to elaborate certain points and to test, as far as possible, the reasonable nature of the hypothesis. While the whole subject of valence has been much confused, and the use of some of the terms connected with it unfortun- ate, no part of it has given greater trouble than its variabil- ity. This is the very point, however, which affords the best clew to its solution and should therefore be treated at some length. The most instructive cases of varying valence are those where the variation is shown towards the same element, as in the compounds PCl, and PCl,, FeCl, and FeCl, Hg,O and HgO, CQ and CO,, and many other similar compounds. There are two possible views regarding these. Either the valence varies or the valence remains the same and the differences are explained by some such assumption as that of a state of saturation of the atom and of various unsaturated states. 24 JOURNAL OF THE The terms ‘saturated’ and ‘unsaturated’ present a number of anomalies as commonly used. In the first place the term saturated is not always used for that con- dition of the atom in which it is united with the largest number of other atoms. Thus, ferrous oxide (FeO) is called unsaturated, and ferric oxide (Fe,O,) saturated, though there is a larger proportion still of oxygen in fer- ric acid and the ferrates. The same is true of the three series of manganese and chromium compounds. Again the term saturated does not carry with it any defin- ite relation to the stability of the compound. Sometimes the compound called unsaturated, and containing the least num- ber of atoms is the most stable, sometimes that with the larg- est number. Phosphorus trichloride is more stable than the pentachloride, but the pentoxide is more stable than the tri- oxide. ‘The most stable of the manganese compounds are the so-called unsaturated manganous salts; in the case of chrom- ium it would appear to be the chromic salts. In the case of carbon the saturated compounds are the most stable. It is manifest that these two terms cannot cover all cases of com- bination for a number of elements. It would seem wiser and simpler then to speak of the valence directly when discussing the elements, as bivalent carbon or quadrivalent carbon; bi-. valent or trivalent iron, etc. In the case of carbon com- pounds the terms have acquired a somewhat different mean- ing and are too thoroughly incorporated in the literature for a change to be suggested. Saturated here means a com- pound which can take on no further atoms by addition, while an unsaturated compound can have such atoms add- ed. Certain cases of change of valence, as in cuprous and cup- ric compounds, mercurous and mercuric, ferrous and ferric, etc., have been looked upon as presenting some peculiar rela- tionships, Such cases are spoken of by some as if they oc- curred among positive elements only. It is not clear how any distinction can be drawn between these and the classes phosphorus and phosphoric, sulphurous and sulphuric, ni- ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 25 trous and nitric, chlorous and chloric, etc. A possible dis- tinction might be made that the more negative the element the greater the number of changes of valence; the more pos- itive the element the less variation in valence is observed. This would be an approximation only. So great is the difference caused by this variation in the valence that some have even thought it best to arrange what have been called the lower and higher stages under different groups. Thus Mendeléeff placed cuprous copper in Group I, and cupric copper in Group VIII; aurous gold in Group I and auric gold in Group VIII. Such an arrangement would, how- ever, greatly confuse the periodic system. Mercury, thallium, chromium. manganese, phosphorus, arsenic, sulphur, selen- ium, and others would have to be similarly provided for. I¢ is better to retain them in the positions to which their atomic weights would assign them and to study them more thorough- ly, so that we may understand why certain elements, as cop- per, gold, and mercury show this peculiarity while others closely akin to them, as silver, zinc, and cadmium, do not. In studying the nature of valence from the standpoint of its variability, the means by which these variations can be brought about must have an important bearing upon the sub- ject. There are a number of these agencies. Light.—\t is a matter of common observation that light can bring about physical, and the most varied chemical, transformations. In some cases it is apparent that the trans- formation is one from a higher to a lower valence or vice ver- sa. ‘Thus, certain mercurous compounds can be changed to mercuric. Hg,O = HgO+Heg. An alcoholic solution of ferric chloride is changed by light to ferrous chloride. 2HeCl,+-C.H,O = 2FeCh eH. O-F 2HCt. Ferric oxalate under the influence of light gives off carbon dioxide and becomes ferrous oxalate. Fe, (€,0,),=2F e(C,@))--2€0:. An alcoholic solution of cupric chloride becomes cuprous 26 JOURNAL OF THE chloride. Mercuric chloride in aqueous solution is slowly changed to mercurous when exposed to the light. 2H¢Cil, + H,O—=2HgCl+2HC1+0. Gold chloride (AuCl,), in contact with organic substances, when exposed to light, is changed first to aurous chloride (AuCl) and then to metallic gold. It is quite well known that aray of light falling upon a piece of selenium changes its conducting power for electric- ity. This is not a change of valence but has, it would seem, its bearing upon the problem as a possible change in vibra- tion. ‘The chemical action of light is generally attributed to the vibrations set up among the molecules. Rays having the shortest wave-lengths and the greatest frequency are most active in this respect though all the rays of the visible spec- trum have been shown to exert some action. So far as this variation in valence is caused by light then the hypothesis of a change in vibration necessitating a change in equilibrium may well serve as an explanation. Heat.—Again these variations are often easily brought about by changes of temperature. Thus cupric chloride be- comes cuprous chloride. CuCl, =CuCl+Cl. Mercurous chloride is temporarily changed into mercuric, the mercurous re-forming npon cooling. 2H¢eCli—Hg + HgCl,. Phosphorus pentachloride becomes the trichloride. PC1,=PCl, + Cl,. Arsenic pentoxide becomes trioxide. As,O,— As,O,+O,. An interesting series of changes are those in the sulphur chlorides. Thus sulphur tetrachloride (SCl,) becomes sul- phur dichlorine (SCI,), if warmed above —22’, and this be- comes sulphur monochloride (S,Cl,), if heated above 64°. This last can be boiled without change. These instances might be multiplied but it is not necessary. The most plausible explanation offered as to the effect of ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 27 heat is a change in the velocity of vibration, and it may well serve to explain the variations caused in valence. Electricity.—Changes of valence due to electricity are prob- ably not unusual but few observations concerning them have been recorded. One of the most noteworthy is the produc- tion of carbon monoxide from carbon dioxide by the passage of the electric spark. CO,=CO-=20: Chemical Action.—The most usual method of bringing about a change of valence is by chemical action. When the change is from a higher proportion of the negative element to a lower it is commonly called reduction, and the reverse change is spoken of as ox7dation. ‘These terms are apparent- ly relics of an older theory, and are confusing, cspecially to a student beginning the study of chemistry. They should be limited to cases of the actual removal or addition of oxygen. Thus, to speak of the change of ferrous to ferric chloride by the action of chlorine as an oxidation is careless and incor- FECt. HeCl.--Ciheel It is pushing the type theory rather far to speak of the salts of one valence as being derived from the oxide of that val- ence and yet this is frequently done. When we take ferric chloride and let sulphurous acid act upon it, it is called a reduction of the ferric chloride to fer- rous chloride, although certainly no oxygen is removed from the ferric chloride nor is oxygen added when the ferrous chloride is changed again to ferric chloride by the action of nitric acid, and still this is called an oxidation. The use of terms for these reactions is evidentiy in need of revision. What shall we call the following reaction, cited by Drechsel as an ‘‘oxidizing action?” 2K MnO,+10FeSO,+8H,SO,= 5Fe,(SO,).+K,SO,+2MnS0,+8H,0. Some hydrogen is oxidized with the formation of water but that is not what is meant. The manganese is changed from its highest valency to its lowest and tie iron from its low- 28 JOURNAL OF THE est to a higher. The permanganate is of course deoxidiz- ed. It seems that chemical action may induce change when to an existing molecule a third substance is offered capable of combining with one or more of its constituent atoms, thus re- leasing the former equilibrium. Thus when sulphurous acid takes the oxygen of water setting hydrogen free the hydro- gen then takes one of the chlorine atoms held by the iron. FeCl,+H,SO,+H,O=H,SO,.2HC1+-2FeC],. But the presence of all three of these molecules is needed for the reaction to take place. So too, potassium perman- ganate is stable in the presence of sulphuric acid, unless the ferrous sulphate or some such molecules are present. When molecules of these three substances come together there is immediate rearrangement of molecules with change of equil- ibrium. Whether we are dealing here with a play of affinity which causes the tumbling down of certain molecules and building up of others, or whether it is a question of vibra- tory equilibrium between these molecules, cannot yet be told. The only certain thing seems to be that a molecule contain- ing bivalent iron and another containing septivalent man- ganese cannot exist in the presence of one another but must change, when possible, to trivalent iron and bivalent man- ganese. As meagre as our present knowledge is, it does not seem to be a very hopeful task to enter the maze of changes of val- ence through chemical reactions with a view to clearing up the ideas as to the nature of valence. Explanations Offered.—Victor Meyer and Riecke have sup- posed that a solution of the problem could be arrived at best by studying the phenomena of frictional electricity, contact electricity, pyro-electricity, and electrolytic conductivity. Most of those who have suggested hypotheses have based them upon a study of the carbon atom and its compounds and in particular its space relations. I have gathered together such of these hypotheses as have come to my notice. The first in point of time is the hypothesis of van’t Hoff’. 1 Ansichten tiber die organische Chemie I. 3. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 29 His idea is that valence is dependent upon the form of the atom. He says; ‘‘The simplest observation teaches that every change from the spherical form must lead to greater changes in the attraction in certain directions, since the atom at these points can, so to say, be more closely approached. Each form of that kind therefore determines a certain num- ber of capacities for attraction or valences.”’ Ostwald' comments upon this hypothesis as follows: “Tf we think of valence as a question of a property of the atom, whose action can be modified by the difference in -the condition of the atom, especially in its motion, then it is thinkable that although the cause of the valence is un- changeable, the workings of this cause, that is the valence itself seems to differ from case to case. An hypothesis of this kind has in fact been suggested by van’t Hoff. In that he assumed that the chemical attraction between the atoms was a consequence of gravitation, he showed that if an atom possessed a form differing from the spherical the intensity of the attraction on its surface must possess a definite number of Maxima. The Maxima can be of.varying value. If the motion of the atom from heat is en- ergetic only the greatest Maxima will be able to hold their atoms and the valence shows itself to be smaller by higher temperatnres than by lower which corresponds with observa- tion. Lossen’s’ idea as to valence, deduced from the considera- tion of the theories of van’t Hoff and Wislicenus as to the Space relations of the atom, seem to be condensed into the simple sentence: ‘“This conception leads, in my opinion, necessarily to the assumption that the polyvalent atom cannot be regarded as a material point but that rather parts of it are to be distin- guished from which the influence goes out to other atoms.” Wislicenus*® expressed his ideas as to valence as follows: ‘‘T consider it not impossible that the carbon atom more or 1 Lehrbuch der allg. Chemie I ed. I, 830. 2Ber. d. Chem. Ges. 20, 3309. 3 Ber. d. Chem. Ges. 21, 581. 30 JOURNAL OF THE less, perhaps right closely, resembles in its form a regular tetrahedron; and further that the cause of those influences which reveal themselves as units of affinity concentrate them- selves in the corners of this tetrahedron herhaps, and from analogous grounds, just as the electric influences would do from an electrically charged metallic tetrahedron. The real carriers of this energy would be the primitive atoms as the chemical energy of a compound radical is undoubtedly the re- sultant inherent energy of the elementary atoms. Victor Meyer and Riecke’ advanced the hypothesis that the atom is surrounded with a spherical shell of ether: the atom is the seat of chemical affinity, the surface of the ether shell that of valence. Hach valence is determined by the presence of two oppositely electrified poles which form the ends of a line short in comparison with the thickness of the shell. The hypothesis of Knorr’ may also be given in brief. He assumes in each atom the presence of Valenzk6érper which have the power oi attracting other Valenzkérper. The quantivalence of any atom is determined by the number of these present. Flawitzky® takes as a basis for his hypothesis the sugges- tion of N. Beketoff that the cause of the chemical interaction of the elements lay in the interference or coincidence of the motions of the atoms. The chief assumption is that the atoms of each element described closed curves which lie in planes, which ere parallel to one another and have a con- stant absolute position in space. The atoms of different ele- ments move in planes which made definite constant angles with one another. According to Flawitzky, thus, ‘‘the val- ences of the elements can be refered to the differences in the angles between the planes of the paths of the different atoms.” It is quite possible that other hypotheses as to valence have been formulated but have escaped my notice. These 1 Ber. d. Chem, Ges. 21, 951. 2 Ann. Chem. (Liegbig) 279, 202. 3Ztchr. Amorg. Chem. 12, 182, ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 31 will suffice to give the more recent trend of thought upon the subject. I may state that none of these were known to me when the first paper was sent on for publication’ as I had not deemed it necessary to look beyond the usual text-books in examining into the literature upon the subject. This state- ment is not made for personal reasons as that is a matter of small moment, but that there may attach to my hypothesis whatever of value there is in the independent reaching of a conclusion. It is not pertinent to this paper to discuss at any length the citations just given. But a few words are needed to bring out certain differences and distinctions. In most of them we have the assumption of some peculiar form of en- ergy—an ‘‘Anziehungskraft.” Flawitzky alone makes no explicit assumption of the kind. Besides this assumed force, which is the point of contention after all, we have various other assumptions of a remarkable character; e. 9., as to the forms of atoms, envelopes, primal atoms, and Valenzkirper. Flawitzky’s hypothesis is based upon the angles made be- tween the planes in which the atoms move. Now in the place of all this I wish to substitute that which seems to me to be the simpler hypothesis of vibratory equil- ibrium. ‘There is only one attractive force to be considered and this is called chemical affinity and causes the union of the atoms, binding them together. These atoms may unite atom with atom,or one atom with two or three or more atoms of the other element or other elements, While we speak of union there is no actual contact to be assumed. he indi- vidual atoms have their own motion and at the same time the aggregation of atoms, or molecule, has a motion proper to it. The conditions of equilibrium in such a system deter- mine the number of atoms which can enter it: as one to one, one to two, etc. There is no distinct force of valence deter- mining this. The form of the atoms can scarcely be taken into consideration because the distance between the atoms is too great, compared with the mass of the atom, for the form 1In the Journal of the American Chemical Society, 32 JOURNAL OF THE to exert much influence, unless it influences the character of the motion. The atomic weight also has little influence in determining the number of atoms needed to satisfy the condi- tions of equilibrium except that there seems to be a general rule that with increase in the atomic weight in any one group more stable equilibrium is brought about with the smaller number of atoms and in a choice between several the lesser valence is preferred. (Compare nitrogen and bismuth; sul- phur and tellurium.) There would then appear to be seven, possibly eight,differ- ent kinds of motion among tke atoms. Different velocities of vibration are not meant, but different phases of motion. For instance, all may have elliptical orbits with different focal distances; or circular, with different radii, etc. In any group of elements the motion of the atoms would have one common characteristic but there would be differences in velocity. In the first and seventh group, showing, for the most part, a tendency towards the same equilibrium, or having the same valence, the motion must be closely analogous. So too for the second and sixth groups, the third and fifth. There may then be a necessity for four distinct phases only, unless we suppose a fifth for the eighth group. If the motion of an atom can be changed from one character to another its val- ence is changed and in such general properties as are depen- dent upon motion and not upon atomic weight it is equivalent to changing its group, Electricity, light, heat, and chemical action can cause this change of motion. Insofar the prop- erties of the element are subject to change and within our control. But the other factor, atomic weight, with the prop- erties of the element determined by it, is not subject to change nor within our control, so far as our knowledge goes. While it is freely granted that there is so much of the spec- ulative in what has been said as to make us touch the whole subject with extreme caution, aad while it is further admitt- ed that it is quite beyond the reach of present experimental research, yet it is believed that the use of the imagination is legitimate and tends toward the advancement of the science ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 33 so long as the true value is set upon it and fancy is not allow- ed to obscure fact nor to be mistaken for it. The hypothesis proposed is simple and if true will be very helpful. It will be a great step forward if it can be shown that the doctrine of valence is a doctrine of vibratory equilibrium. PRELIMINARY CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF CHAPEL HILL, N..C., WITH BRIEF NOTES ON SOME OF THE SPECIES. T. GILBERT PEARSON. INTRODUCTION. In this catalogue are enumerated the species of birds, known to have been observed and positively identified at Chapel Hill. While the list is incomplete, and is presented only as a preliminary catalogue, the author expresses the hope that it may prove of use to those interested in the orni- thology of the region, and that it may serve asa basis for more extended observations. In addition to the enumeration of the species, the paper contains some brief notes on the mi- gration and nesting habits of such forms as have come under the writer’s observation at Chapel Hill. The difficulty of preparing a complete catalogue of the birds may be readily understood when we recall the fact that the bird population is constantly changing, The great wave of the autumnal migration carrying large numbers of north- ern birds past us, at the same time taking many of our sum- mer forms, scarcely subsides, before the swell sets back from the south, sweeping hosts of birds of passage to us on their northern journey. Some migrants found to be numerous during the fall migration may be extremely rare in the spring, and vice versa. Birds which normally do not occur in a 3 34 JOURNAL OF THE region are sometimes taken, having wandered, or having been driven by storms far out of their natural range. In cer- tain species some individuals are always migratory, while others are permanent residents. Again it is well known that a form which is abundant some years, may be seen but rarely or not at all in after years. The changing area of the food products for birds naturally brings about a change in the area of their habitat. Hence it may easily be seen that continual observation during a num- ber of years is absolutely necessary before anything like a complete list of the avz-fauna of a particular region can be hoped for. Data.—My observations on the bird life of Chapel Hill be- gan in September 1897, and were continued up to the follow- ing April; then again from September 1898 until June 1899. With the exception of ten days in the latter part of June 1898, I had no opportunity for studying the region in summer. During the fall migration in 1897, the main part of which extended over the month from September 15 to October 15, a portion of twenty-one days was spent in the field in a special study of the warblers. Sixteen species of warblers were se- cured during this period. In gathering material for the catalogue much assistance was rendered by members of my ornithology class at the Uni- versity of North Carolina, in 1898, and again during the spring of 1899. Of those whose aid has been especially valua- ble, I would mention Mr. George McNider, Mr, E. H. Hartley and Mr. Ivy Lewis. Iam indebted also to Dr. Kemp P. Bat- tle, whose close observations on the birds of the neighbor- hood, extending over a period of many years, I found very valuable. In the Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, Part 2 for 1887, Prof. George F. Atkinson published a ‘‘ Pre- liminary Catalogue of the Birds of North Carolina,” in the preface of which he remarks, ‘‘In all, about 120 species have been observed and absolutely identified by myself at Chapel Hill.” In his catalogue, however, Professor Atkinson omits ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 35 to indicate the species which he had there noted. A clipping from the ‘‘ Raleigh News and Observer,” presumably printed about this time has been kindly loaned me by Mrs. R. W. McRae. The clipping contains a ‘‘Preliminary list of birds collected in the vicinity of Chapel Hill,” by Professor Atkin- son. In this communication are enumerated ninety-two Species. ‘Two of the forms there mentioned have not been in- cluded in the present list. The first of these, the tame pigeon (Columbia livia domesticata), is excluded as not being a native wild bird. The other form, the clay-colored sparrow (Spzzella pallida), was listed by Professor Atkinson on the strength of asingle specimen. This specimen is still pre- served in the Biological Laboratory, and is a fair type of the swamp sparrow (Melospiza georgiana). In the case of all other birds, included in the News and Observer list, and with which I have not myself met, mention is made of Professor Atkinson as the observer. My own observation in the field, specimens brought in by others from time to time for identification, and Professor At- kinson’s two papers, constitute the data, from which the pres- ent list has been compiled. In all one hundred and nineteen species of birds at Chapel! Hill have actually come under my notice. It may be of use to mention here some of the collections of birds now in North Carojina, which are accessible to the public. Inthe Biologic! Laboratory at the State University, in Chapel Hill, there is a collection of some 350 skins and mounted specimens, ‘!he State Agricultural Museum at Raleigh contains a bevutiful collection of several hundred mounted birds. The collection of birds in the Museum of Natural History at Gui'iford College is numerically nearly as great. All of these celiections are constantly growing. The Field.—The field for the study of bird life about Chapel Hill is in man* respects a good one. The woods, open fields, small streams, and underbrush make a varied en- vironment which tends to bring together large numbers of forms. On the other hand the absence, in the immediate 36 JOURNAL OF THE neighborhood, of large streams and ponds, keeps away many varieties of ducks, sandpipers, and birds of similar habits. Terms used.—The nomenclature adopted by the American Ornithologists’ Union is followed, and the vernacular name succeeds the scientific. In some cases well known local names are also added. The terms ‘‘common,” ‘‘rare,” ‘‘ abundant,” etc., which are used in speaking of the occurrence of birds, are of course relative and not altogether satisfactory, but they may convey something of the original idea intended. Family Podicipidae. 1. COLYMBUS HOLBOELLII (Reinh.) MHolboell’s Grebe. One specimen recorded by Prof. Atkiuson, taken at Chapel Hill in 1877. The skin is now preserved in the university collection. 2. PopILyMBUS PODICEPS (Linn.) Pied-billed Grebe; Die- dapper; Water-witch. One was shot near town and brought me on November 3, 1897. Others have been taken but the bird probably occurs only in winter. Family Urinatoridae. 3. URINATOR IMBER (Gunn.) Loon; Great Northern Diver. Occurs only as a migrant or winter visitor. the two specimens in the university collection bear no date of capture. Family Anatidae. 4. Srx sponsa (Linn.) Wood Duck; Summer Ruck. A male in fine plumage was killed in ‘‘{3trowd’s low-grounds” from a small flock by Mr. H. EK. Mechling on January 3, 1898. Others have been reported at various times. Possibly breeds. Family Ardeidae. 5. BoTauRUS LENTIGINOSUS (Montag.) American Bittern; Thunder Pumper. Recorded by Prof, Atkinson as occurring at Chapel Hill. 6. ARDEA HERODIAS (Linn.) Great Blue Heron; Blue Crane. ‘‘ These birds used to fly over here years ago but I have not noticed one, I am sure, for the past twenty years.” —Dr. Kemp P. Battle. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 37 7. ARDEA EGRETTA (Gmel.) American Egret. A_ speci- men was shot north of the village by the late Mr. Dedrick in 1894. Doubtless a rare summer straggler. 8. ARDEA VIRESCENS (Linn.) Green Heron. A common summer resident about the mill-ponds and along the creeks. A nest containing fresh eggs was found near the village by Mr. George McNider during the first week of May 1899. Family Rallidae. 9. PORZANA CAROLINA (Linn.) Sora. One in the univer- sity collection was taken in November 1887, at Chapel Hill. 10. FuLIcCA AMERICANA (Gmel.) American Coot; Blue Peter. The only record is by Prof. Atkinson. ‘‘One walked into Mr. McCauley’s store at Chapel Hill on the night of April 8, 1887, at 8 o’clock, and was captured. A heavy wind and storm was prevailing, and had continued all day.” Family Scolopacidae. 11. PHILOHELA MINOR (Gmel.) American Woodcock. A rather common resident, but owing to its very retiring habits is not often seen. Noticed one on the University campus November 10, 1898. 12. GALLINAGO DELICATA (Ord.) Wilson’s Snipe; English Snipe. Not uncommon in winter and during migration. 13. Toranus soxirartus (Wils.) Solitary Sandpiper. Listed by Prof. Atkinson. This bird probably appears at Chapel Hill only as a migrant or occasional winter visitor. 14. ACTITIS MACULARIA (Linn.) Spotted Sandpiper. Cat- alogued by Prof. Atkinson. its habits are quite similar to those of the Solitary. Family Charidriidae. 15. AKGIALITIS VOCIFERA (Linn.) Killdeer. The killdeer is commonly met with during the fall and winter months. It is highly probable, however, that it is a regular resident, nesting in favorable localities in the surrounding country. Family Tetraonidae. 16. COLINUS VIRGINIANUS (Linn.) Bob-white; Quail; Par- tridge. An abundant resident at all times of the year. 38 JOURNAL OF THE Family Phasianidae. 17. MELEAGRIS GALLOPAVO (Linn.) Wild Turkey. A resi- dent at Chapel Hill. Have seen seven specimens. Four of these were shot near town, and three I observed alive. In November, 1898, one flew across the campus from the southern side and pitched near the Episcopal church building. They haunt at all seasons the large tract of woodland just south of the University, and quite likely construct their nests in some of the sedge fields near by. Family Columbae. 18. ZENAIDURA MACROURA (Linn.) Mourning Dove. Of common occurrence at all seasons. Its frail nest containing two pure white eggs may often be found on the boughs of the apple-tree or the horizontal limbs of the pine. Family Cathartidae. 19. CATHARTES AURA (Linn.) Turkey Vulture; Turkey Buzzard. A very common bird at all seasons of the year, rearing its young usually in hollow logs or stumps in the deep woods. 20. CATHARISTA ATRATA (Bartr.) Black Vulture; South Carolina Buzzard. Watched a flock of Black Vultures flying northward over the campus November 1, 1897. On November 10 others were seen. During the winter of 1898-99 these birds again appeared in the neighborhood. It is doubtful if they ever breed in this region. ; Family Falconidae. 21. Circus HuUDSONIUS (Linn.) March Hawk. An adult male was shot one mile east of town and brought to me on April 5, 1899. This is the only record for Chapel Hill. 22. ACCIPITER VELOX (Wils.) Sharp-shinned Hawk. A rather rare winter visitor. The mounted specimen in the University collection was shot by Mr. George McNider on January 23, 1898. 23. ACCIPITER COOPERI (Bonap.) Cooper’s Hawk. A com- monresident. A nest of fresh eggs was taken by Mr. George ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 39 McNider on April 29, 1898, ‘This is the hawk whose inroads on the poultry yard are most destructive. 24. BUTEO LINEATUR (Gmel.) Red-shouldered Hawk. While it seems reasonable to think this would be a common bird here only one pair have come to my notice. During the spring of 1898 a pair were often watched as they circled through the air above the grove south of the University campus. On May 9, 1899, I took from their nest in a pine tree, thirty feet from the ground, a clutch of two handsomely marked eggs. Incubation was well advanced at this date. 25. BuTKo LaATisstmus (Wils.) Broad-winged Hawk. The only one of this species known to have been taken at Chapel Hill is the one brought to me for identification by Mr. George MeNider on April 15, 1899, which specimen is still retained in his private collection. It was a female and was shot a few miles south of here. Its stomach contained the remains of a frog and a quantity of bird feathers. 26. HALIARERUS LEUCOCEPHALUS (Linn.) Bald Eagle; Amer- ican Kagle. On March 27, 1898, I watched an adult bald ea- gle circling about in the air near the northwestern entrance of Battle’s Park. As the bird was not over one hundred yards above the earth at the time, its white head, neck and tail could be easily seen. It must be regarded as a very rare bird in this section, 27. FaLco SPARVERIUS (Linn.) American Sparrow Hawk, A moderately common resident hawk. Three fresh eggs were found in a nest located in the cavity of a dead pine tree in May, 1898, by Mr. E. H. Hartley. For the past two years a pair of these birds have spent the winter months on the University campus. Theit favorite roost was under the eaves of the New East Building. Family Beronidae. 28. SYRNIUM NEBULOSUM (Forst.) Barred Owl; Hoot Owl. Have frequently heard them calling in Battle’s Park, and Jan- uary 18, 1899, a male, which had been wounded, was brought into the Biological Laboratory. 29. Macascors asio (Linn.) Little Screech Owl. The 40 JOURNAL OF THE shivering notes of this little owl may be heard about the groves and campus during all seasons of the year. Especially is this true in the late summer when the young of the year, then about grown, join with their parents in the nightly ser- enade, Their nests are placed in the hollows of trees. 30. BuLo VirGINIANus (Gmel.) Great Horned Owl. For a large bird the horned owl is a fairly common resident in this region. Its domicile is usually located in the natural cavity of some tree or in an old hawk or crow’s nest. The eggs are deposited early in the year. A female shot on January 21, 1899, contained two well developed ovarian eggs. Family Cuculidae. 31. Coccyzus AMERICANUS (Linn.) Yellow-billed Cuckoo ; Rain Crow. A well known plaintive cry from orchard and forest is the note of the rain crow in summer. It retires to the south on the approach of autumn. Family Alcedinidae. 32, CERYLE ALCyoN (Linn.) Belted Kigfisher, Observed occurring along the creeks in autumn, winter and spring. May possibly breed. Family Picidae. 33. DRYOBATES VILLOSUS AUDUBONII (Var?) Hairy Wood- pecker. Two specimens were taken during the winter of 18- 97-98. It is probably a rare resident. 34, DRYOBATES PUBESCENS (Linn,) Downy Woodpecker, An abundant resident, associating often with the Titmouse and Chicadee. The downy spends the long winter nights in holes which it hollows out of the dead limbs of trees for this purpose. 35. SPHYRAPICUS VARIUS (Linn.) Yellow-bellied Sapsucker. A common winter form. It often girdles trees with numer- ous small holes which it drills for the purpose of drinking the sap. The apple, spruce pine and maple are among the trees which thus suffer. 36. CEOPHLOEUS PILEATUS (Linn.) Pileated Woodpecker. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 41 This large handsome woodpecker is not an uncommon bird in Battle’s Park and adjoining woods. On November 8, 1897, I watched one for many minutes pecking about on the trees in the college campus. Without doubt the bird breeds in the large timber near by. 37. MELANERPES ERYTHROCEPHALUS (Linn.) Red-headed Woodpecker. A resident. Locally and occasionally com- mon. 38. MELANERPES CAROLINUS (Linn.) Red-bellied Wood- pecker. This large spotted ‘‘ sapsucker” is a not abundant resident with us at all seasons. 39. COLAPTES AURATUS (Linn,) Flicker; Yellow Hammer. An abundant resident. This woodpecker has acquired the habit of procuring its food so largely by digging it out of the earth that it may now be regarded as more of a ground bird than a dweller in trees. Family Caprimulgidae. 40. ANTROSTOMUS CAROLINENSIS (Gmel.) Chuck-will’s- widow. On the night of May 20, 1899, I listened to one of these birds calling for over half an hour. It seems to be in the neighborhood of the campus wall near the south-east cor- ner. So far as I am aware this is the only record of its occur- rence in Chapel Hill. It may possibly be found to be a rare summer resident in Orange county. 41. ANTROSTOMUS VOCIFERUS (Wils.) Whip-poor-will. A common summer visitor, depositing its two marble looking eggs on the ground in the woods, with only a few dead leaves between them and the earth. The first one noted in the spring of 1899 announced its arrival from the south by its loud cry on the night of April 20. 42. CHORDEILES VIRGINIANUS (Gmel.) Nighthawk; Bull- bat. A common spring and autumn transient. A few may linger through the summer to breed. First one seen in 1899 was in the afternoon of April 27. : Family Micropodidae. 43, CHAETURA PELAGICA (Linn.) Chimney Swift; Chimney 4 42 JOURNAL OF THE Swallow. A common summer resident, arriving from the south early in April, First one noted for 1899 was on April 12. Before the white man came with his chimneys the swift built its nest in hollow trees. Family Trochilidae. 44. TrocHILus coLusris (Linn.) Ruby-throated Hum- mingbird. Of the four hundred species of hummingbird known to occur in America, the ruby-throat is the only one found east of the Mississippi. It is a common summer resi- dent at Chapel Hill, arriving during the latter half of April. Family Tyrannidae. 45. TYRANNUS TYRANNUS (Linn.) Kingbird; Bee Martin. This little pugilist, which does not hesitate to attack any in- truder which comes near its nest, is a common summer resi- dent about Chapel Hill. : 46. Myrarcuus crinitus (Linn.) Crested Flycatcher. An abundant summer resident, building its nest in cavities of trees or stumps seldom more than twenty feet from the ground, The bird has the habit of using among its other nesting ma- terials a cast snake skin. First arrival for 1899 noted April 21. 47. SAYORNIS PHOEBE (Lath.) Phoebe; Pewee. Summer resident. First noted in 1899 on April 30. Eggs have been taken by Mr. McNider. 48. CONTOPUS VIRENS (Linn.) Wood Pewee. Common summer visitor. 49. EMPIDONAX VERESCENS (Vieill.) Acadian Flycatcher. Listed for Chapel Hill by Prof. Atkinson. Probably a com- mon summer bird. Family Aladidae. 50. OrocorIS ALPESTRIS (Linn,) Horned Lark; Shore Lark. Two specimens were brought me on November 23, 1898. They were said to have been shot from a flock of about twenty in- dividuals. ‘This bird can be expected only as an irregular winter visitor. a oe — \ ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY Family Corvidae. 51. CYANOCITTA CRISTATA (Linn.) Blue Jay. An abundanz resident, nesting in large numbers in the trees about the cam- pus and village. A set of five eggs taken from a nest on May 11, 1899, were slightly incubated. 52. Corvus AmERICANUS (Aud.) American Crow. Com- mon bird. Breeds in numbers. 53. DoLIcCHONYXx oRyzIoruS (Linn,) Bobolink; Reedbird; Ricebird. Occurs as a fall and spring migrant, but not acom- mon species at any time. I noticed a flock of six individuals consisting of two males and iour females on the campus May 20, 1899. 54. AGELAIUS PHOENICEUS (Linn.) Red-winged Blackbird, A resident, but nevera very abundant bird. It builds its nest in the bushes and trees along creeks. 55. STURNELLA MAGNA. Meadowlark; Old Field Lark. Of common occurrence in autumn and winter. During the winter months of 1898-99 a flock of about forty individuals remained constantly on the college campus. The birds may possibly breed in limited numbers in this region. 56. IcreruS spuRIUS (Linn.) Orchard Oriole. Not an un- common spring visitor, and very probably remains through the summer to nest. 57. SCOLECOPHAGUS CAROLINUS (Muli.) Rusty Blackbird. Two were shot by Mr. Ivy Lewis on Februrary 3, 1899, from a small flock, which was feeding along the branch. in the grove just south of the campus. Later in the month several others were seen. 58. QUISCULUS QUISCULA (Linn.) Purple Grakle. Mr. Mc- Nider noted a small flock of these on Easter Monday, 1898. On December 28, 1898, I saw one on the college campus. They probably do not spend the summer in Orange county, Family Fringillidae. 59. CARPODACUS PURPUREUS(Gmel.) Purple Finch. An abun- dant winter resident. They appear to have a great relish for the buds of the wahoo or winged elm (U/mus alata) and may often be seen in large numbers feeding on these trees. 44 JOURNAL OF THE 60. PAssER DomeEsticus (Linn.) House Sparrow; English Sparrow. An abundant resident. They multiply rapidly, each pair of birds raising several broods in a season. 61. Sprnus TRISTIS (Linn.) American Goldfinch; Yellow- bird; Lettuce bird. A familiar bird throughout the year. 62. PoOCAETES GRAMINEUS (Gmel.) Vesper Sparrow ; Bay- winged Bunting. Winter visitor, rather rare. 63. AMMODMRAMUS SANDWICHENSIS SAVANNA (Wils.) Savan- na Sparrow. Common winter visitor. 64. AMMODRAMUS SAVANNARUM PASSERINUS (Wils.) Grass- hopper Sparrow. Seen in winter and spring. A few may breed. 65, ZONOTRICHIA ALBICOLLIS(Gmel.) White-throated Spar- row. An abundant winter sojourner, associating in flocks of- ten in company with the snowbird (/uzco). Tarliest arrival noted in 1897 was on October 4. 66. SPIZELLA MONTICOLA (Gmel.) Tree Sparrow. Listed by Prof. Atkinson probably as a winter occurence. 67. SPIZELLA SOCIALIS (Wils.) Cnipping Sparrow. One of our most abundant summer birds, building its nest in the trees and bushes about the campus. First spring arrival for 1899 was seen on April 11. 68. SPIZELLA PUSILLA (Wils.) Field Sparrow. Common summer resident. It nests in low bushes or on the ground. 69. JuNCoO HYEMALIS (Linn.) Slate-colored Junco; Snow- bird. This is one of our best known winter friends, and is met with in numbers from the time of its arrival late in the autumn until the warm April days. It then leaves for its summer home in the north. There is a common saying about the country that this bird in thespring turns to a sparrow, and in the fall of the year again assumes the dark coat and hood of the snowbird. My first record of its arrival in the fall of 1897 is October 30. 70. PEUCAE AESTIVALIS BACHMANII (Aud.) Bachman’s Sparrow. ‘‘One taken froma breeding pair by myself at Chapel Hill. The nest was found by Willie Gullick; eggs 4, size .63x.70, dull whitish; nest a bulky structure on the ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 45 ground made of coarse grasses.” —A¢kinson’s Catalogue. Itis probably a regular summer resident. 71. MELOSPIzA FASCIATA (Gmel.) Song Sparrow. A com- mon winter visitor. Its strong clear song is one of the char- acteristic notes of a winter’s evening in the fields about Chapel Hill. 72. MELOSPIZA GEORGIANA (Lath.) Swamp Sparrow. A common winter visitor. 73, PASSERELLA ILIACA (Merr.) Fox Sparrow. This handsome brown fellow, the largest of all our sparrows, is a common though not an abundant winter bird. It avoids the open fields and may be found along the borders of thickets and in shrubbery. The first one seen by myself in the fall of 1897 was on November 17. 74. PIPILO ERYTHROPHTHALMUS (Linn.) ‘Towhee; Che- wink; Swamp Robin. This isa common bird during the migrations, haunting the thickets and the border of wooded streams. 75. CARDINALIS CARDINALIS (Linn.) Cardinal; Redbird. These beautiful and interesting birds are constant residents in this region. Their nests, composed mainly of twigs and leaves and lined with rootlets are generally situated in small trees. Three or four is the number of eggs deposited. May is the usual month for breeding. 76. HaBIA LUDOVICIANA (Linn.) Rose-breasted Grosbeak. A rare spring transient. 77. GUIRACA CAERULEA (Linn.) Blue Grosbeak. Recorded by Prof. Atkinson. Found to occur only in the summer. 78. PASSERINA CYANEA (Linn.) Indigo Bunting; Indigo- bird. An abundant summer resident, building its nest in small trees and bushes a few feet from the ground, Family Tanagridae. 79. PIRANGA ERYTHROMELAS (Vieill.) Scarlet Tanager. Rather a rare spring transient. Have seen them in April and May. 80. PIrRANGA RUBRA (Linn.) Summer Tanager; Summer 4* 46 JOURNAL OF THE Red-bird. An abundant and conspicuous denizen of the groves and orchards insummer. It constructs a nest of leaves, small strips of bark, and grass, situated usually on a hori- zontal limb from ten to twenty feet from the ground. Family Hirundinidae. 81. ProGNeE supis (Linn.) Purple Martin. Have seen only a few. These came as spring migrants. They would likely spend the summer and breed, if suitable nesting places, such as bird boxes on poles, were furnished them. I know of none that nest here, nearer than eight miles from town. Dr. Kemp P. Battle informs me that forty years ago these birds were common summer residents. 82. CHELIDON ERYTHROGASTER (Bodd.) Barn Swallow. Common transient. 83. TACHYCINETA BICOLOR (Vieill.) ‘Tree Swallow; White- bellied Swallow. A common spring migrant. 84. STELGIDOPTERYX SERRIPENNIS (Oud.) Rough-winged Swallow. A summer visitor. Eggs secured by Mr. McNider from a hole in a clay bank in June 1899, I believe to be of this species, Family Ampelidae. 85, AMPELIS CEDRORUM (Vieill.) Cedax Waxwing : Cedar- bird. ‘The sad lisping notes of the cedar-bird is one of the most common sounds in the winter forest. The birds at this season usually associate in flocks of a few dozen individuals, and are often found clinging to the boughs of cedar trees, the berries of which they are very fond of eating. It probably nests here. Family Laniidae. 86. LANIUS LUDOVICIANUS (Linn.) Loggerhead Shrike. Rather a rare winter visitor. I have observed six individuals at Chapel Hill. Family Vireonidae. 87. VIREO OLIVACEUS (Linn.) Red-eyed Vireo; ‘‘Hanging bird.”” A common summer form. ELISHA MITCHELL, SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 47 88. VirEO FLAVIFRONS (Nieill.) Yellow-throated Vireo. One taken by myself May 20, 1899. Willi doubtless be found to be of regular summer occurrence. 89, VIREO SoLITARIUS (Wils.) Blue-headed Vireo. I se- cured a specimen on October 8, 1897, and within a week three other birds were seen. It may be looked for with success only during the spring and autumn migrations. 90. VIREO NOVEBORACENSIS (Gmel.) White-eyed Vireo. Prof. Atkinson records it as a ‘‘rare summer visitor.” Family Mniotiltidae. 91. Mnrorinra vasta (Linn.) Black-and-White Creeping- Warbler. Common summer resident, nesting on the ground in the woods. Have found it more numerous during the fall migration, This attractive little white and black striped acrobat is apparently equally at home while searching for food along the under side of a limb, or clinging head down- ward on the huge bole of some forest tree. 92. HELMITHERUS VERMIVORUS (Gmel,) Worm-eating Warbler. Listed by Prof. Atkinson. 93. COMPSOTHLYPIS AMERICANA (Linn.) Parula Warbler. An abundant species in the spring and autumn, Js doubtless a summer resident also. 94. DENDROICA AESTIVA (Gmel.) Yellow Warbler. Sum- mer resident. 95. DENDROICA CAERULESCEUS (Gmel.) Black-throated Blue Warbler. Common migrants. I have usually found them haunting thickets bordering woodland streams. 96. DENDROICA CoRONATA (Linn.) Myrtle Warbler; Yel- low-rumped Warbler. Plentiful in fall and spring, some re- maining through the winter months. 97. DENDROICA MACULOSA (Gmel.) Magnolta Warbler. I have found this a rare bird at Chapel Hill. Have taken only two specimens, one a male on September 24, 1897, the other a female five days later. 98. DENDROICA PENNSYLVANICA (Linn.) Chestnut-sided Warbler. Found only in transit. Have seen but one bird, it being a male taken on September 21, 1897. 48 JOURNAL OF THE 99. DENDROICA CASTANEA (Wils.) Bay-breasted Warbler. On October 2, 1897, about six o’clock in the morning I shot a female DY. castanea and on October 8, another, a male. They are extremely rare birds, these being not only the first taken at Chapel Hill but are the first recorded in North Carolina. The skins of both specimens are preserved in the university collection. 100. DENDROICA STRIATA (Forst.) Black-poll Warbler. Rather rare transient. Took a female on October 9, 1897. 101. DENDROICA BLACKBURNIAE (Gmel.) Blackburnian War- bler. Have found this only as a rare bird of of passage. Secured a female on October 16, 1897. 102. DeNpDROICA DOMINICA (Linn.) Yellow-throated War- bler. Spring migrant. Have observed but few. 103. DENROICA VIRENS (Gmel.) SGlack-throated Green Warbler. I found this not an uncommon fall migrant. Took a female October 2, 1897. 104. DeNDROICA vicorsir:Aud.) Pine Warbler. A com- mon resident. Have not found the nest. The bird is said to build on horizontal limbs of pine trees from twenty to sixty feet from the earth. 105. DENDROICA PALMARUM (Gmel.) Palm Warbler, (more probably the var. D. p. hypochrysea, (Ridgw.).) Listed by Prof. Atkinson. 106. DENDROICA DISCOLOR (Vieill.) Prairie Warplee Sum- mer resident, not uncommon. 107. SErURUS AUROCAPILLUS (Linn.) Oven-bird; Golden- crowned Thrush. A migrant, First one seen in spring of 1899 was on April 14. 108. SEIURUS NOVEBORA CENSIS (Gmel.) Water-thrush. Not a very common transient. Have only seen a few speci- mens. 109. SEIURUSMOTA CELLA (Vieill.) Louisiana Water- thrush. Common summer resident. Observed as late in the fall of 1897 as September 21. First one seen in 1899 was on April 12. 110. GEOTHLYPIS TRICHAS (Linn.) Maryland Yellow-throat. A summer bird doubtless breeding here. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 49 111. IcTerIA visens (Linn.) Yellow-breasted Chat. An abundant summer resident. Found usually along the border of woods or haunting the growths of bushes in open fields along streams. 112. HoopEp WARBLER, Catalogued by Prof. Atkinson, Is probably a rare summer resident. 113. SETOPHAGA RUTICULLA (Linn.) American Redstart. A common migrant and a rather rare sojourner in summer. Family Motacillidae. 114. ANTHUS PENNSILVANICUS (Lath.) American Pipit; Tit- lark. About nine o’clock on the morning of January 4, 1899 I saw a flock of fully one* hundred titlarks in the open piece of ground at the eastern side of the university campus. Have on two other occasions observed flocks of these birds at a dis- tance, but always during the coldest parts of the winter. Family Troglodytidae. 115. Mimus potyGLorros (Linn.) Mockingbird. Several pairs of these birds are constant residents at Chapel Hill. There is a great difference in the musical power of different birds of this species. An especially fine singer, has for the past two years or more dwelt among the shade trees of the lawns in the neighborhood of the Episcopal church. 116. GALEOSCOPTES CAROLINENSIS (Linn.) Catbird. An abundant species in summer. The first ones arrive from the south near the middle of April. 117, HarporHyYNcHUS RUFUS (Linn.) Brown ‘Thrasher; Brown Thrush. These fine songsters come regularly to spend the summer in the thickets and groves about the village. Rarely also they spend the winter here. On January 2, 1899, I observed one on the lawn surrounding the home of Prof. Harrington. Itwas in company with a number of snowbirds and sparrows, and had apparently taken up its winter abode among them. 118. THyvOTHORUS LUDOVICIANUS (Lath.) This is one of the few species of birds which sing for us in the winter. It 50 JOURNAL OF THE remains here through the summer, breeding abundantly, The nest is made of a great quantity of dried grass, strings, leaves and other materials, and is placed in a wide variety of posi- tions ; such as in old tin cans hung up in trees, in knot holes, or under the eaves of houses, and under brush heaps in the woods. On May 17, 1899, I was shown a nest containing six eggs, which was built in a man’s cap hung against the slat- ted side of an out-house. 119. TROGLODYTES AEDON (Vieill.) House Wren. Listed by Prof. Atkinson. Probably a rare transient. 120. TROGLODYTES HIEMALIS (Vieill.) Winter Wren. Com- mon in winter. 121. CERTHIA FAMILIARIS AMERICANA (Bonop.) Brown Creeper. Common in winter, but not abundant. Family Paridae. 122. Srrra CAROLINENSIS (Lath.) White-breasted Nut- hatch. Common resident. Nests in holes in tall trees, early in April. 123. SITTA PUSILLA (Lath.) Brown-headed Nuthatch. Have frequently found them in the pine groves in April and May. 124. Parus BricoLor (Linn.) Tufted Titmouse. Common resident. Eggs number from four to six, and are depos- ited in the cavities of trees. 125. PARUS CAROLINENSIS (Aud.) Carolina Chicadee, A common and noisy resident ; often associating in small flocks in company with the titmouse. The nest is made in holes in small trees or posts, from five to light eggs being deposi- ted. Family Sylvavudae. 126. REGULUS SATRAPA (Litcht.) Golden-crowned Knight A winter resident. It is worth a search in the winter forest to get a glimpe of this most exquisite gem of diminutive bird life, with his olive-green coat and bright orange and yellow crest. His summer home is among the evergreens of the mountains, and of the far north. tS, ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY Ss), 127. REGULUS CALENDULA (Linn.) Ruby-crowned Knight. Have found it to be a less abundant species than the forego- ing. More common during the migration period. 128. PoLIOPTILA CAERULEA (Linn.) Blue-gray Gnatcatcher. Very abundant summer resident, breeding in April and May. Eggs four to six. Family Turdidae. 129. TuRDUS MUSTELINUS(Gmel.) Wood-Thrush; Wood Rob- in. Thisis the most abundant and characteristic summer bird of Chapel Hill, building the nest for its four greenish- blue eggs in the shade trees of the lawns and streets. The first arrival noted from the south in the spring of 1899 was .one heard singing.on April 22. 130. TURDUS FUSCESCENS (Steph.) Wilson’s Thrush. No- ted by Prof. Atkinson, Probably seen in transit. 131. TuRDUS USTULALUS SWANISONU (Cal.) Olive-backed Thrush, Occurs only as a migrant. One specimen taken Sep- tember 26, another October 9, 1897. 132. TurDUS AONALASCHKAE PALLASII (Cab.) Hermit Thrush. The common winter thrush. 133. MERULA MIGRATORIA (Linn.) American Robin. A well known resident. Breed, building their nests in shade and orchard trees. 134. SIALIA sIALIs (Linn.) Bluebird. Since the severe cold weather early in the year 1893, which proved so destructive to bird life in the Eastern States, the bluebird has been scarce. Of late, however, the species is beginning to assume more nearly its former numbers. Oct. 1, 7899. Guilford College, N.C, hea Ce a pet Ny Fi Lae a ry oe ‘ Par, Twin ly v4), a ‘ Jide Sha t) Jame Tt eile | ; ; watt at neh ; i JOURNAL oe OF THE Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society SLYERE ENP YEAR = Pak L ot CcOND 1899 ON THE UNIVERSAL DISTRIBUTION OF TITANIUM." BY CHARLES BASKERVILLE. The universal distribution of titanium in the mineral and plant world is practically acknowledged. V. Roussel’ found it in basalt; Aleksiejew’ in certain clays. Holland‘ found it in certain igneousrocks. Dunnington’ observed its occurrence in. the soil of Albemarle County, Va.; later the same writer with McCaleb* found it in sixteen specimens of soil collected from different sections of the United States. Subsequently after having examined a large number of samples of soil col- lected from all parts of the globe Professor Dunnington’ as- serted its universal occurrence in the soils of the world. W. A. Noyes® found it in a number of Arkansas minerals. Hillebrand has shown its presence in a large number of rocks and minerals collected by the United States Geological Survey. Wait’ found it in the ashes of several plants and different 1 J. Am. Chem. Soc., X XT, 1099. 2 Ber. d. chem. Ges., 6, 1417, 6. 3 Chem. Ztschr., Rep. 1896, 261. 4 Chem. News, 59, 27. IGA LA As Ss) 345 IGS: 6 Am. Chem. /., 10, 36. 1 Am. J. Sci., Dec., 1891; Chem. News, 65, 65. 8 J. Anal. Appl. Chem., 5, 39. 9 J. Am. Chem. Soc., 18, 402. 1 5S JOURNAL, OF THE kinds of wood, also in coals, bituminous and anthracite. Haywood! found traces in domestic strawberries and 0.1088 per cent. in the ash of wild strawberry (/vagaria Virginiana). Langenbeck speaks frequently of its occurrence in clays. It has been found by the writer rather widely distributed in the clays of this state.” While Roscoe and Schorlemmer state that ‘‘It does not appear to forma part of the animal and veg- etable kingdom,” Wait® assumes that it is assimilated by plants. The writer! shows its presence in peat. As the clay substance therein is comparatively small its presence can scarcely be attributed to that. F. Garrigon found traces in mineral waters. No statement in the literature has been found of its pres- ence being noted in the ashes obtained from the animal king- dom. ‘Theash from incinerated fresh beef, beef bone, human flesh, and bone free from dirt, have been examined in this laboratory with the following results: Beef bone 0.0195 per cent.; beef flesh 0.013 per cent.; human bone’ a trace; human flesh’ 0.0325 per cent. titanic oxide. A private communication from Dr. J. L. Howe concerning the work of some of his students states that ‘“Toole found titanium in abundance in dead bones, but only traces in fresh bone and muscular tissue, though traces were undoubtedly there.” Dr. C. E. Wait in a letter of recent date writes: ‘Since my note on titanium was published a year or so ago, I have made an examination of a large number of bodies and I believe that the element was found in nearly all of them. I have made a large number of estimations of titanium in vegetable bodies, and later took up the examination of animal 1 This laboratory. Work unpublished. : 2 See ‘‘Clay Deposits and Clay Industry in N. C.”’ Bulletin 13, N.C. Geological Survey, by Dr. H. Ries. 3 Vide supra. 4]. Am. Chem. Soc., 21, 706. 5 A true rib and clavicle. 6 Pectoral muscles, /atissimns dorsi and gluteus maximus. | am in- debted to Dr. C. S. Mangum, of this University, for kindly dissecting out these samples. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 54 flesh and bone, and the last piece of work along that line was the examination of human excretory products.” The universal distribution of titanium in all forms of living and dead matter may now be regarded as settled. While no Opinion is hazarded by the writer upon the role played by titanium in animal and vegetable growth, it is hoped that Dr. Wait’s work will throw some light upon the subject. Doubtless had we as delicate and convenient tests for the other less common elements we should find their occurrence as widespread. ‘Thus the asseverated belief of Hillebrand in the universal occurrence of the elements in the earth’s crust 1s extended. Titanium was determined by Weller’s well-known method as modified by W. A. Noyes, Dunnington, and Hillebrand.* THE OCCURENCE OF VANADIUM, CHROMIUM, AND TITANIUM IN PEATS.’ BY CHARLES BASKERVILLE. Attention has been called by Dr. W. F. Hillebrand® to the comparatively wide-spread occurrence of vanadium in a large number of minerals and rocks. He states that ‘‘Hayes in 1875 reported its occurrence in a great variety of rocks and ores, Quoting from Thorpe’s ‘Dictionary of Chemistry,’ ‘it is said to be diffused with titanium through all primitive granite 1 Method ascribed to Noyes was previously published by F. W. Clark in Silliman’s Journal, 7868. (Letter to writer.) 2 Read before the North Carolina Section of the American Chemical Society at the midwinter meeting. Publ. /. dm. Chem. Soc. 41, 706. 3 Am. J. Sct., 6, 209 (1898), 55 JOURNAL OF .THE rocks (Dieulafait) and has been found by Deville in bauxite. rutile, and many other minerals, and by Bechi and others in the ashes of plants and in argillaceous limestones, schists, and sands........’ It is further reported to comprise as V,O, 0.02-0.07 per cent. of many French clays, 0.02—0.03 per cent. of some basalts, 0.24 per cent. of a coal of unknown ori- gin, and 0.45 per cent. of one from Peru, amounting to 38.5 per cent. and 38.0 per cent. of the ash, and noted respective- ly by Mourlot and Torrico y Meca.” Roussel’ states that a basalt with a content of 0.707—2.378 per cent. of titanium contained 0.006—0.023 per cent. of vana- dium. Gladstone,” however, states that it does not occur in the volcanic dust of Vesuvius. ‘Terreil*’ found it in iron ores. Stolba*‘ also mentions its occurrence. From the above the presence of vanadium could with reason be suspected in peat. In the hands of the writer were sam- ples of peats from Hyde Swamps, one mile south of Pungo Lake near the Northern Junction of Beaufort and Hyde Counties, N. C. The approximate analysis of these peats gave: Volatile Fixed Sample. Water. matter. carbon. Ash, Peace ren os 23)s.0'2 73.67 16.16 9.72 0.45 1th ee eee ore 71.58 17.42 10.31 0.69 1eteshe Dl ooado eaeiee 76.01 14.19 9.32 0.48 The water was determined by taking a cube measuring about eight cm. each way (from 700 to 800 grams) and bring- ing to a constant weight by heating for a number of hours not: higher than 105 C. An analysis, approximate, of this dried peat gave the following results: Sample. Volatile matter. Fixed carbon, Ash. Peat Meret tra > 3/53: 61.38 36.90 1.72 Pea tle itaetee ciciete ies =~ 61.35 36.20 2.45 leteehe JUULS secagsaennn de 59:13 38.85 2.02 It was convenient to examine the ash of a large number of 1 Ber. d. chem. GeS., 6, 1417 6. 2 [bid., 5, 815 6. 3 [bid., 10, 731 a. 4 Chem, Centrbl, (1897), 722. ELISHA MITCHELI, SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 56 peats from this and other localities to ascertain the presence of titanium. We have found no statements regarding the presence of this element in these ashes, although such a sur- mise was logical. Neither does chemical literature, as far as we have been able to examine, give any mention of the occur- rence of chromium in peats. Appended are the results of seeking for these elements in the samples mentioned above. Titanic Chromium Vanadium Saniple. oxide. sesquioxide. pentoxide. Percentages in ash. 1 EYE 3] Ck ae Sane 0.490 0.0283 0.00107 FG a@telel. Ses eee Severe 0.340 0.0343 0.0026 ate I 08 oh 5 hie a 0.491 0.0355 0.0031. In determining titanium the ash was decomposed according to the method of W. A. Noyes,’ namely, by fusion with sodium fluoride and potassium pyrosulphate. The melt was brought into solution with Dunnington’s’ necessary precaution in mind: vzz., having from five to ten per cent. of sulphuric acid present. Hydrogen dioxide was added according to Weller’s’ well-known method and the titanium determined colorimetrically. All hydrofluoric acid was driven off in the fusion and the hydrogen dioxide was free from that acid as well. «Hillebrand‘ has shown the necessity for this. Chromium’ and vanadium’ were estimated according to the latest method of Hillebrand. A STUDY OF CERTAIN DOUBLE CHROMATES. BY W. G. HAYWOOD. Zehenter has stated (Monatshefte f. chemie 18. 48-55 Cen- tJ, Anal. Appl. Chem., 5, 39. 2 J. Am. Chem. Soc., 73, 270. 3 Ber. d chem. GeS., 15, 2592. 4 J. Am. Chem. Soc., 17, 718; Chem. News, 72, 158. 5 J. Am. Chem. Soc., 20, 454» 6 Jbid., 20, 461; Am. J. Sct., 6, 209. 57 JOURNAL OF THE tral Blatt. 97.1.857) that when a boiling solution of potas- sium bichromate is neutralized with sodium carbonate accord- ing to this equation, K,Cr30, + Na,Co,= K,CrO,+ Na,CrO,+ CO, ; then concentrated over the direct flame and over sulphu- ric acid, first the doubie salt 3K,CrO,.Na,CrO, will crys- tallize out in the form of flat or column-shaped crystals, then a salt of the same composition with one half mol- ecule of water and finaily yellow crystals of the salt Na,CrO,.4H,O. The sodium chromate prepared by Johnson which crystallized with ten volumes of water was not obtained. Zehenter also prepared the salts 3K,CrO,.2(NH,),CrO, and NaNH,CrO,.2H,O by precipi- tation with alcohol from the appropriate solutions. For my experiments the following solutions were pre- pared : . 1. 100 grams of potassium bichromate were dissolved in water and neutralized with sodium carbonate. 2. 100 grams of sodium bichromate were dissolved in water and neutralized with potassium carbonate, 3. 100 grams of ammonium bichromate were dissolved in water and neutralized with sodium carbonate. : 4. 100 grams of sodium bichromate were dissolved in water and neutralized with ammonium carbonate. 5. 200 grams of potassium bichromate were dissolved and neutralized with sodium carbonate (repeating No. 1). 6. 110 grams of potassium bichromate and 98 grams of so- dium bichromate were dissolved in hot water and evaporated. 7. 67 grams of potassium chromate and 60 grams of potas- sium carbonate were dissolved and evaporated. 8. 100 grams of potassium bicarbonate were dissolved and neutralized with magnesium carbonate. 9, 100 grams of potassium chromate and 55 grams of sodi- um carbonate were dissolved in hot water. All of these solutions were concentrated and then placed over sulphuric acid for crystalization. The crops of crystals were carefully separated, washed, dried between filter paper and analyzed. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 58 In the case of this solution (1) the crystals which first form- ed were found to contain a good deal of carbon dioxide. It was evident that the solution had not been exactly neutralized by the sodium carbonate but that an excess had been used. With successive crops the amount of carbon dioxide decreased and of chromium increased. Although the analysis of the third and fourth crops approached nearly to that of the double chromate reported by Zehenter, traces of carbon doxide were found throughout, and so another solution was prepared and more carefully neutralized. But the evident crystallizing to- gether of the chromate and carbonate raised the question as to the possible formation of a body of exact composition con- taining these two. In the case of solution (1) the first crop of crystals was practically all chromate and the seventh and later crops again strongly carbonate. In solution (7) when potas- sium chromate and potassium carbonate were mixed several crops of crystals were gotten, the first being almost pure chro- mate and the latter carbonate, the two showing little tendency to crystallize together. In solution (2) the 3rd crop of crystals gave 27.45 percent. Cr’; 4th crop, 28.10; 5th crop, 27:15; 6th crop, 28:03. There was a failure in this case also to prepare crystals of defi- nite composition. From solution (3) three crops of very deliquescent brown crystals were gotten which corresponded in com- position to the formulas 2Na,CrO,.(NH,).CrO,.4H,O. From solution (4) crop (a) cacaed to be a mixture, yielding nothing definite ; crop (b) consisted of crystals of NaNH,CrO,.2H,O ; crops (c) and (d) gave sodium chro- mate, Na,CrO,,+H.O, differing from the ordinary chromate with ten molecules of water. Solution (5) yielded first potassium bichromate and then a large number of crops of large flat hexagonal crys- tals which had the composition 3K,CrO,.Na,CrO, Solution (6) yielded no new compound, the two bichro- mates crystallizing out separately. Selution (8) yielded a large number of crops of the double chromate of potassium and magnesium K,CrO,. MgCrO,.2H,0. 59 JOURNAL OF THE Solution (9) gave crystals of carbonate containing no chromium and also crystals of the salt 3K,CrO,. Na,CrQ,. This work in the main confirms that of Zehenter though it introduces some new modes of formation of the double salts. It gave rise to some interesting questions though the time was too brief to answer them. ORIGIN OF PALEOTROCHIS.' BY Jz. Ss DELDERS Prof. Ebenezer Emmons,* while State Geologist of North Carolina, discovered among the so-called Taconic rocks of Montgomery County, in that State, a number of more or less regularly striated bi-conical forms to which he gave the names Paleotrochis major and minor, and regarded them as siliceous corals as well as the oldest representatives of animal life upon the globe. According to Emmons, Paleotrochis varies in size up to two inches in diameter, and occurs with many almond shaped concretions, often within concretions, in a series of beds over 1,000 feet in thickness interstratified with beds of granular quartz, conglomerate and quartzite. 1 This paper is reprinted here from the American Journal of Science (May, 1899, page 337) as a substitute for an article which the present writer had intended publishing, setting forth the same general data and conclusions. Mr. Diller’s work has removed all doubt as to the min- eral origin of Paleatrochis; and the republicition of his paper in the Mitchell Journal is considered advisable owing to the intimate asso- ciation of the Paleotrochis with local North Carolina geology, and the previous publication in this journal of Mr. White’s paper (see note be- low) which argued in favor of the organic origin of this interesting form. 2 Geological Report of the Midland Counties of North Carolina, 1856, page 62; also Am. Jour. Sci., II, vol. xxii, page 390, and vol, xxiv, page 151. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 60 Both species of Paleotrochis have the form of ‘‘a flattish double cone applied base to base” with the surfaces grooved somewhat irregularly from near the apex to the basal edge. The smaller form, P. minor, has the ‘‘apex of the inferior side excavated or provided with a small roundish cavity” and the other apex ‘‘supplied with a small rounded knob, from the base of which the radiated grooves begin.” The larger form, P. major, ‘‘differs from the foregoing (P. minor) in the absence of the roundish apical depression of the lower side and the knob of the opposite side.” Prof. Emmons regarded Paleotrochis not only as originally siliceous but also gemmiferous, thus accounting for knobs as well as irregular adhering groups, and it is important to note that he reports ‘‘these fossils also occur in a variety of quartz or quartzite which I have described as a buhrstone, and which is often porphyrized.” Prof. James Hall,' after an examination of many specimens, regarded the Paleotrochis of Emmons as nothing but concre- tions in quartz rock. Prof. O. C. Marsh’ examined the forms microscopically and found them composed of fine-grained quartz, but no trace of organic structure could be detected. While maintaining its inorganic nature he regarded it as dif- ficult to explain, and considered it as having some analogy with cone-in-cone, which he thinks is probably due to the action of pressure on concretionary structure when forming. The most extensive paper on this preplexing form is that of Mr. C. H. White,* who strongly advocates the organic nature of Paleotrochis. The specimens he examined were those obtained by Prof. Emmons, as well as a number col- lected by Prof. J. A. Holmes, the present State Geologist of North Carolina. Mr. White describes in detail not only the peculiarities of the weathered surface of the rock but also the features exhibited upon a fresh fracture, and called attention 1 Am. Jour. Sci., II, vol. xxiii, page 278. 2 Am, Jour. Sci., I, vol. xlv, page 218. 3 This Journal 1894. Pt. 2, 50-66. 61 JOURNAL OF THE for the first time to the radial fibrous mineral which he re- garded as impure chalcedony. According to Mr. White, the fossil forms are enveloped in chalcedony and the small con- cretions are made of the same material. In 1887, Prof. J. A. Holmes! visited the Sam Christian Gold Mine of Montgomery County, N. C., and studied the Paleotrochis-bearing rock in the field. Although he had not then seen any of the acid volcanic rocks from New England, described by Dr. M. E. Wadsworth, or from the South Moun- tain region of Maryland and Pennsylvania, subsequently de- scribed by Dr. G. H. Williams and Miss Florence Bascom, he was of the opinion that the rocks in the neighborhood of the Sam Christian Gold Mine were of eruptive origin. Later ob- servations have convinced him of the correctness of this view. The same opinion is entertained by Messrs. H. B. C. Nitze and George B. Hanna,” who consider the Paleotrochis-bearing rocks at the Sam Christian and Moratock Mines as ancient acid volcanics, and state that ‘‘it appears highly probable that at least some of these siliceous pebbly concretions are spherulites.” Unfortunately in the preparation of their re- port time did not permit the authors to study thin sections. The specimens which, at the request of Mr, C. D. Walcott, the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey, the present writer has had an opportuntity to study, consist of a small collection® from Mexico sent by Prof. H. S. Williams, besides three fragments about nine inches in diameter sent by Prof. J. A. Holmes, who collected them in 1887 at the Sam Chris-_ tian Gold Mine, North Carolina, and from the same place several dozen of the original specimens of Paleotrochis major and minor collected by Prof. Emmons. Specimens of the rock and isolated fossils, excepting those from Mexico, have been cut and polished and thin sections prepared for micro- scopical study. The rock from North Carolina which contains Paleotrochis 1 Letter to the author Feb. 6, 1899. 2 North Carolina Geological Survey, Bul. No. 3, pages 37 and 39. 3 See Prof. Williams’ article, Am. J. Sct., 335, 1899. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 62 is full of nodules of various shapes and sizes, ranging from that of a pin’s head to nearly two inches in diameter. These are the supposed concretions and fossils, Upon a fresh frac- ture the rock appears to be composed chiefly of quartz, but when weathered most of the nodules become white as if kaol- inized, while the other nodules and the matrix remain quart- zose in appearance. ‘The nodules form at least two-thirds of the mass of the rock and are arranged with their longer diameters parallel, rendering the rock rather easily split in one direction. With a lens, it may be seen that the small kaolinized nodules exposed in section upon the surface of a hand speci- “men have a radial fibrous structure. The same structure may be seen in some of the larger ones, and in addition to this feature some of the nodules possess a more or less dis- tinct concentric shell-like structure. These structures are usually best displayed upon or close to a weathered surface. Portions of the nodules or spaces between them are in a few cases cellular, and the walls of the openings are rarely lined with minute crystals. The supposed fossil forms usually appear conical or discoidal upon a weathered surface. They often show a small cup in the apex and are surrounded bya narrow depression from which the radial fibrous envelope, pointed out by Mr. White, has been removed by weathering. A careful comparative study of the nodules in the hand specimens tends to convince one that however different in form and size the supposed fossils and concretions may ap- pear, all belong to one series and have essentially the same origin. A microscopical study of thin sections of the rock reveals the fact that the nodules are spherulites, a common feature of acid igneous rocks. They «re composed in most cases chiefly of fibrous feldspar with quartz or tridymite. As seen in the thin section of the Paleotrochis-bearing rock, the fibres are grouped radially with more or less irregularity in tufts, Sheaves, sectors, hemispheres or spheres. When they form a complete sphere, which is rarely the case, they are most 63 JOURNAL OF THE coarsely fibrous or granophytic at the center and usually show between cross nicols an indefinite black cross. Occa- sionally also the concentric structure is well marked. The rays are too minute to permit of an accurate determination of their mineral composition by optical methods, but microchem- ical tests with hydrofluosilicic acid yield the small cubic crys- tals, characteristic of potassium fluosilicate as well as the hexagonal prisms of sodium fluosilicate. Judging from the greater abundance of prisms than cubes the fibrous feldspar is richer in sodium than potassium. That feldspar, instead of chalcedony, is the most prominent constituent of the spheru- lites, is fully borne out also by its kaolinizing under the in- fluence of the weather. The spherulites are embedded in a matrix composed chiefly of granular quartz. The grains are occasionally so large that the uniaxial positive character can be readily determined. Untwinned feldspar in small grains may be present in consid- erable amount but yet be easily overlooked. The quartzose character of the weathered matrix, however, shows that at least where most coarsely granular there cannot be much if any feldspar present in it. In places the matrix contains numerous minute parallel scales of what appears to be sericite. Associated with the most coarsely crystalline areas are a few scales of brown biotite and occasionally considerable green biotite, which in places is so abundant as to make quite prom- inent dark green spots. Both matrix and spherulites are traversed in a few cases by small veins of granular quartz, showing that there is a considerable amount of secondary quartz present. Both spherulites and matrix are rendered slightly microporphyritic by containing occasional crystals of plagioclase feldspar and quartz. The plagioclase, which, on account of its small angle of symmetric extinction, must be an acid one, in some cases forms the center from which the spherulitic fibres radiate. An isolated specimen of Paleotrochis was cut through the apices and found to be composed of granular quartz. The quartz was fine-grained upon the outside where the grains ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 64 were set with their longest axes perpendicular to the adjoin- ing surface. ‘The middle portion contained an irregular iron- stained cavity possibly due to the disappearance of some iron-bearing mineral. Several of the half embedded forms of Paleotrochis were cut in a hand specimen to discover its relations to the enclosing rock, and in each case it formed the interior portion of a spherulite. Most of them contained a dark green patch. The exposed conical surface of one was well striated and there was an irregular depression in the apex. The form was composed chiefly of granular quartz with a yellowish brown to dark green, strongly pleochroic, biotite. Near the center isa small spherulite which is not only bordered by finer-grained quartz but is cut by a small vein of it, showing that the deposition of the quartz is subse- quent to the development of the spherulite. The embedded portion of Paleotrochis is bordered by spherulitic fibres which run approximately parallel to the slope of the conical surface, and it is evident that the casts of these fibers produce the ir- regular strie or grooves upon the surface of the supposed fossil. The embedded portion terminated with an irregular- ly-pointed apex below. The whole form is fine-grained near the border and sends small veins into the adjoining spheru- litic shell. ‘These veins are so small as not to be visible upon a polished surface of a hand specimen even with the aid of a pocket lens, but come out distinctly in the thin section. The spherulitic shell by which Paleotrochis is enveloped is com- posed of fibers belonging to a number of centers or lines and yet combined they appear to form one nodule. The biconical form of Paleotrochis suggests that it originated as two spher- ulite sectors of which the apices were the centers from which the fibres radiated. ‘This would seem to be the simplest way to account for the most regular as well as many of the irreg- ular forms, but of the specimens examified I have not been able to find one that certainly originated in that way. A number of the fossil forms with a well-marked cup in the exposed apex turned out to be flat hemispherical or thin lenti- cular in section, and are composed wholly of spherulitic fibers. 65 JOURNAL OF THE Although admitting much irregularity, especially on ac- count of the supposed gemmiferous character of Paleotrochis, the ones which have been considered the most characteristic of the fossil are the distinctly biconical forms. These, so far as seen, are chiefly granular quartz with more or less green biotite. It is important to note also that the dark groups of green biotite occur in the interior of very irregular nodules which have no suggestion in them of Paleotrochis. Irregular flat- tened lenticular masses of granular quartz with green biotite occur within the spherulites as well as about them. The green mica is found only in the most coarsely granular groups of quartz. The following chemical analysis, made by W, F. Hille- brand, shows that the rock has the composition of a rhyolite and accords closely with the results of the microscopical study. Analysis of the Paleotrochis-bearing rock of Sam Christian Mine.’ ees. 2 6 soy sel (Om AUACAS Se saa eae 2 gm! Al,O, ........... 1141 with a very little mae Ee 0 ae ne *20 WeOUe ie... eee ‘70 Niners. . ..... se none CaO 3 so | 21 Ba Oeie oo. eee NOT) ioe). ee eerie hie BOE yreciit). «Seka ah noeee MO) a2... ice eon H.O below 105°.. 18 mamaDOvVe..“y yiae ‘61 (ignition) 100°02 Recognizing the Paleotrochis rock as an acid volcanic, full of spherulites, it is easy to understand the great variation in 1 No other constituents looked for. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 66 the form of the nodules. Such rocks are in many places dis- tinctly banded and were long considered siliceous sediments, but by the investigations of Wadsworth, Williams, Bascom and others it has been definitely settled that they are all acid volcanics. ‘These rocks in North Carolina are regarded by Mr. Holmes as pre-Cambrian and since their eruption may have undergone great changes like those of the South Moun- tain described by Miss Bascom. Some of the supposed fossils are certainly spherulites, and all of them may have been orig- inally. Some broken forms show motion in the mass after the spherulites were developed. That Paleotrochis, where most perfectly developed and composed of granular quartz, 1s the result of deposition, after the spherulitic growths about it and within it had developed, there can be no question, but whether this deposition followed soon after that of the spher- liutes in the course of solidification or took place in hollow spherulites (lithophyse), or resulted perhaps long subse- quently at the time of rock alterations, is not so clear. All this and much more will doubtless be cleared up by the mem- bers of the Geological Survey of North Carolina, who were the first to correctly identify the rock and the character of the supposed fossil. None of the Mexican specimens received from Prof. Wil- liams were cut for microscopical examination. Some of them were clearly of igneous origin, and contained amygdules. The Paleotrochis-like forms with radial markings appeared to be composed of secondary Quartz and probably originated as those of North Carolina. About a year ago bi-conical forms like Paleotrochis were presented by Mr. Kochibi, Director of the of the Geological Survey of Japan to the U. S, Geological Survey. These spec- imens are now in the National Museum, and are much more regular in form, size, and general appearance than the Paleo- throchis of North Carolina. They are of a pale pink color with regular bi-conical, striated forms, and in some cases have shallow pits of the apices, They are known in Japanas ‘* Sorobanishi” or abacus stones, One of these specimens con- 67 JOURNAL OF THE tains a small fragment of the rock from which these curious specimens were obtained, and it appears to be spherulitic. According to Mr. Willis, who obtained the information di- rectly from Mr. Kochibi, ‘‘ these stones are found only in rhy- olitic tufts. They not infrequently occur much larger than these specimens, possibly up to two inches in diameter or more, and are more frequently associated in groups of two or three overlapping or coalescing. They are generally white, the rosy tint of these specimens being a rare characteristic.” A thin section of one of these ‘‘ abacus-stones ” shows it to be an agate of which the outer layers are pink and the inner white. There can be no doubt in this case that the form resulted from the filling of the cavity long after the solidifi- cation of the igneous material. THE DEEP WELL AT WILMINGTON, N. C.? BY J. A. HOLMES. The deep well which is now being bored at Wilmington, N. C., is of especial interest to geologists: (1) That in reach- ing granite, as it does at about 1109 feet, it shows the absence at this point of the formation between the upper Cretaceous and the old crystalline floor underlying the coastal plain deposits ; (2) it shows the existence there of an unfortunately and unusu- ally thick series of salt-water-bearing strata, from 350 to 1100 feet below the surface; (3) it may throw some light on the re- lations between the deposits of the sand hill regions (gener- ally classed as Potomac) and the upper Cretaceous beds pene- trated by this well. The well is located on the bank of the northeast Cape Fear 1 Science, N. S. XI., 265, Jan. 26, 1900, p. 128. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 68 River, at Hilton Park, one mile north of Wilmington. The river border at this point exhibits two terraces; one only a few feet above tide water, extending back a distance of 30 or more feet from the river; and the other rising 30 to 40 feet higher, extending back for a considerable distance, and in- deed representing the general surface of the region. The difference in elevation between these two terraces represents the thickness of the remnants of the Tertiary fossiliferous clays and limestone and the overlying recent sands. The lower terrace represents the upper surface of the Cretaceous ; so that the well starts in the Cretaceous clays and sands, and continues in them toa depth of some 1109 feet. In these sands and clays there are occasional beds of shell-rock and calcareous sandstone, varying in thickness from a few inches to 30 feet, and occasional thin beds of clay containing small nodules or concretions. The sands are mostly micaceous and are usually quite fine grained, with a prevailing gray color. From about 700 4-6cm. long brown-purple thorns. Leaves thin but firm, glabrous beneath, pubescent when young on the upper surface es- pecially on the midrib with short appressed hairs, soon becoming @iabrous; the blades ovate or broadly ovate in outline, 3-6cm. long, 2.5-5cm. wide, acute at the azex, rounded or obtuse at base, very sharply and doubly @landular serrate except at the veay base, with 3-5 pairs of sharp but short regular lateral lobes, 4-5 pairs of prominent veins;petiole slender, 1.7-2.5cm.long,very deep- ly grooved above. — Inflorescence, a generally simple sev- eral-flowered cyme, 3-5cm wide, the glabrous erect pedi- cels 1-2cm. Jong; styles 3-5, usually 4; stamens 20, large and erect; calyx hemispherical, broad and shallow, the lobes narrowly triangular er lanceolate, finely serrate, appressed pubescent, reflexed after anthesis. The fruit, borne in several-fruited clusters, or solitary, on erect or ascending pedicles 1-2 cm. long, in subglobose, or vlobular-pyriform, nearly 1.3cm. long and about as thick, dark red, sometimes capped by the appressed calyx-'obes when mature; seed vencrally 4 or 5, about 6 cm. long, somewhat ridged on the narrow back. 8 JOURNAL OF THE Green Bay, Wisconsin, where collected by Mr. J. H. Schuette, with whose name I associate the species. While closely related to Crataegus lutisepala, itcan be seperated from it by having narrower serrate pubescent calyx-lobes, which are reflexed after anthesis, and thin- ner, more sharply serrate leaves, shorter pedicels, and smaller seed. CRATAEGUS DEPRESSA. A small tree or large bush with spreading or ascending branches, and dark gray rough bark on the trunk, that on the branches being smooth and light gray; twig of the season glabrous, lust- rous brown, sometimes sparingly glaucous when young, marked with numerous pale lenticels, becoming light gray the second year, armed with a few dark purple- brown thorns; buds subglobose, bright red-brown. Leaves thick, firm, glabrous, very dark green above, much paler beneath, the blades broadly ovate, or nearly orbicular on vigorous shoots, 6-9em. long, 4-7cem. wide, rounded or subcordate at the base, abruptly acuminate at the apex, coarsely, often doubly serrate nearly to the base with acuminate gland-tipped teeth, slightly and ir- recularly notched; petiole slender, 2-3cm. long, finely channelled above, roughened with a few inconspicuous elands, narrowly winged at the apex by the decurrent blade. Inflorescence a few-flowered glabrous simple cyme; the bractlets few, inconspicuous and early decid- uous; pedicels 1.5-2.5 cm. long, spreading in fruit; calyx cup-shaped, broad, glabrous without, pilose within at the base, the lobes short, broad, soon deciduous; styles 4-5; stamens 10, early deciduous. Fruit depressed-globose, 12-14mm. broad, 6-12mm. lony. borne in clusturs of 2-4 or solitary, dark red, sparingly elaucous, the cavity broad and shallow, pilose within; seed 4-5, 6-7mm. long, the lateral faces smooth, the dorsal with a deep median g@roove. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 9 Crataegus depressa belongs to a group of which C. haemacarpa is the type, and most closely resembles that species, though easily separated from it’ by having larger and differently shaped leaves. North- ern Missouri, where collected by me in 1899. [I al- so refer here, No. 226; B. F. Bush, Dodson, Mo, July, 1899. CRATAEGUS GRANDIS. A small tree 4-6m. in height, with dark gray scaly bark on the trunk, and long hori- zontal or ascending branches forming an oval or flat-top- ped crown; twigs glavrous, slender, those of the season light brewn or russet, marked with few small incon- spicuous lenticels, becoming bright gray the second year, sparingly armed with slender 4-6cm. long thorns; buds ovate, bright brown. eaves thick and firm, dark green and shining above paler beneath, at first slightly pubes- cent above, especially on the midrib. soon glabrous, 5-6 pairs of prominent impressed parallel veins; the blades obovate or spathulate in outline, rounded, obtuse or ad- ruptly acute at the apex, cuneate at the entire base, 3-5 em. long, 2.5-3cm. wide. finely but sharply doubly ser- rate,seldom notched; petiole.5-2cm.lone winged by the de- current blade. Inflorescent a many-flowered glabrous co- rymb,sometimes minutely pubescent, especially on the calyx lobes; flowers 12-l4mm. wide; calyx narrowly obconic, the entire or sparingly serrulate lobes verv narrow, re- flexed after anthesis; stamens uormally 20, small and slender, anthers small purplish;styles, 2-3 usually 2. The fruit, borne in compound wide-spreading clusters on spread ing or pendant pedicels, is globular, 11-14mm._ thick bright crimson, sometimes sparingly pruinose, marked with few inconspicuous lenticels, often capped by the persistent spreading or erect, calyx-lobes;' the cavity 10 JOURNAL OF THE broad and deep; seed 2-3, more or less prominently ridged on the back, 6-8mm. long. Illinoi : collected by me along the Wabash river, July, 1899; C. F. Johnson: Freeport; J. H. Ferriss: near Chic- ago. Cralaegus grandis is related to C. punctata from which it is separated by having a more glabrous inflorescence, smaller calyx, smaller and more lustrous foliage, and @lobular bright red fruit. CRATAEGUS ALBEMARLENSIS. A small tree 3-7m. in height with rather smooth dark gray bark on the trunk, and horizontal or ascending branches forming an oval crown; twig of the season glabrous, chestnut-brown, marked with numerous small pale lenticels, becoming steel-gray the second year, armed with few 4-5cm.-long thorns, or unarmed. Leaves glabrous, thin but firm, dark green above, much paler beneath; the blades ovate or broadly ovate in outline, 3-5cm. long, 2.5-4cm. wide, rounded or truncate at the base, acute at the apex, fine- ly and sharply doubly serrate nearly to the base, gener- ally with several pairs of irregular but shallow notches, with 3-5 pairs of very slender primary veins, petioles very slender, 1.5-3cm. long, finely grooved on the upper surface. Inflorescence a nearly simple glabrous few- flowered cyme 3-4cm. wide, the very slender pedicels 1.5- 2cm. long, the slender glandular bractlets very early de- ciduous; stamens normally 10, stout; styles 4-5; calyx broad and shallow, glabrous without, villous within at the base, the lobes narrowly triangular, entire. Fruit globose or somewhat oblong, 9-12mm. thick, dark red when ripe, capped by the erect connivent calyx-lobes; the cavity small and narrow; seed 4-5, smali, 5-6mm. long. Crataegus Albemarlensis is not uncommon on the moist lands bordering swamps and streams in Hyde and Pam- ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 11 lico counties, North Carolina, where it is found growing in the shade of oaks and gums or along the roadsides. Crataegus Holmestana VILLIPES. This differs from the type in the stouter, and longer pedicels which are more or less villous. ‘The petioles are often pubescent also. Ea: tern Pennsvivania and New York. CRATAEGUS Frrrissit. A large shrub or generallya small tree 4-7m. in height with ascending or spreading branches forming an oblong or oval crown, the bark on the trunk dark gray and roughened, that on the branch- es smooth and light gray. Twigs rather stout, glabrous, sometimes sparingly glaucous, those of the season dull brown or purplish, becoming hght gray the second year, armed with rather few short 2-3cm.-long thorns. Leaves dark green above, much paler beneath, thick and firm, the blades ovate in outline, 4-6cm. long, 2-5cm. wide. ac- uminate at the apex, rounded, truncate or subcordate at the base, with 3 4 pairs of prominent acuminate lobes, the points of the lower pair reHlexed, the sinuses acute at base, finely and acuminately glandular serrate nearly to the base; petioles slender, terete, sometimes roughened with a few small glands, 1.5-2cm. long, sometimes slight- ly winged at the apex, purple at base; buds ovate, brown or red-brown. Inflorescence a many-flowered corymb; calyx obconic, the narrow triangular lobes glandular ser- rulate; stamens 20, small; styles 4-5, usually 5. The fruit, borne in several-fruited mostly compound pendant clusters, is glabrous, crimson, oblong or pyriform, 1-1.6 em. long, .8-1.3cm. thick, and after ripening in October persists on the trees until after the leaves have fallen; flesh thick, yellow, sweet and mealy; seed 4-5, sometimes ridged on the back, 5-7mm. long; cavitv obconic, 4-5mm. broad, about as deep, the persistent calyx-tube project- ing beyond the fruit, the lobes deciduous or appressed. Northern Illinois: J. H. Ferriss; W. C. Egan. 12 JOURNAL OF THE CRATAEGUS BICOLOR. A small tree with spreading or ascending gray branches forming an oblong crown, and dark gray nearly black bark on the thorny trunk. Twigs glabrous, slender, chestnut-brown when young, armed with slender, 4-5cm.-longe thorns. Leaves thin but firm, glabrous dark green above, paler beneath, the blades ovate or nearly orbicular in outline, 4-7cm. long, 3-6cm. wide, sharply but finely glandular, usually doubly serrate nearly to the base. generally with 2-3 pairs of shallow notches, acute at apex, acute or trun- eate at base, 3-5 pairs of principal veins; petiole 1.5-3cm. long, slender, channelled above, narrowly winged for half its length by the decurrent blade, roughened on the upper surface by several glands. Inflorescence a sev- eral-flowered compound glabrous cyme, 3-4cm. wide, the brauches 1-3cm. long; calyx broad and short, glabrous, the serrate triangular lobes rising from a broul brse; stamens 20; stvles 4-5. The fruit, on strict or spread- ing .8-1.8cm.-long pedicels, disposed singly or generally simple clusters of 2-4, is subglobose, generally slightly oblong 11-13mm. long, green or greenish mottled with red; calyx lobes generally sessile on the mature fruit, their base only persistent; flesh firm, white; cavity bread, very shallow, obconic; seed 4-5, small, 5-omm. long, deeply grooved ou the back, apical in the fruit. Crataegus bicolor is found abundantly in sunny oak woods, especially on well-drained southern slopes, in the vicinity of Micaville and Spruce Pine, Mitchell County, North Carolina. It is frequently associated with C. crau- enta which it resembles in habit and foliage, and from which it is seperated by having more numerouss seed and greenish fruit. CRATAEGUS ATRO-PURPUREA. A small tree 4-7m, in height with dark gray or blackish scaly bark on the ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 13 trunk, and long spreading or ascending branches form- ing an ovalcrown. ‘Twig of the season glabrous, chest- nut-brown, becoming gray the second year, sparingly armed with 4-5cm-long thorns. Leaves glabrous, thin but firm, dark green and shining above, somewhat paler beneath, blades ovate or deltoid in outline, or on vigor- ous shoots nearly orbicular, 4-7cm. long, 3-7cm. wide, acute or obtuse at the apex, obtuse or truncate at the base, sharply doubly serrate, the teeth gland-tipped, Sometimes with 2-4 pairs of very shallow notches, us- ually 4 pairs of primary veins; petiole slender, 2 3cm. long, grooved on the upper surface, winged at the apex by the decurrent blade. Inflorescence cymose, glabrous, sparingly glaucous, few-flowered, 3-5cm. wide, bractlets few, early deciduous; pedicels ascending, 1-2cm. long; calyx glabrous, short and broad, the lobes narrowly tri- angular; stamens 20, small; styles 3 exceptionally 4. The fruit, ripening late in October or in November after the leaves have fallen, and long persistent, in clusters of 2-5 on strict .7-2cm‘-long pedicels, is oblong, 1-1.5cm.- long, 8-1lmm. thick, rounded at the ends, dark red or purplish, scantily glaucous, capped by the nearly sessile persistent reflexed calyx-lobes; cavity obconic, broad and shallow; seed generally 3, somewhat apical in the fruit, 6-8mm, long, white, with shallow grooves on the rounded back, somewhat attenuate at the base; flesh firm, white, sweet. The foliage turns a dull yellow or brown and falls soon after the first severe frost. Crataegus atro-purpurea frequents fields, roadsides and dry sunny woods in Yancy county, North Carolina, at an elevation of about 800m., but is not common. It belongs to a group of which C. macrosperma and C. haemacarpa can be regarded as the types. From the former it is seperated by the different outline of the 14 JOURNAL OF THE foliage, smaller fruit and fewer and smaller seeds; from the latter by having an oblong fruit with white flesh and fewer seed. CRATAEGUS CARNOSA. A_ small bushy tree or a shrub with numerous ascending branches from near the base. Twigs glabrous, chestnut-brown, rather thick, straight or somewhat flexuous, armed with very numer- ous 4-6cm.-long thorns. Leaves glabrous, membrana- ceous, the blades ovate or elliptic in outline, 4-6cm. long, 2-4cm. wide, obtuse or acuminate at the apex, obtuse or acute at base, sharply serrate, 3-5 pairs of lobes from near the base, with 4-5 pairs of ascending primary veins; petiole 1.5-3cm. long, grooved on upper surface, narrow- ly winged for half its length or more by the decurrent blade. Inflorescence a glabrous several-flowered com- pound cyme, 3-4cm. wide; pedicels very short .8-1.5em. long, erect; stamens 20, small; styles 2-3; calyx small, glabrous, the triangular lobes usually entire. Fruiting pedicels solitary or in clusturs, sometimes compound, of 2-5, spreading or ascending, .8-1.4cm. long. Fruit glob- ose-pyriform, flattened at the apex, concave at base, gen- erally broader than long, 1.2-2cm. broad, 1-1.8cm long, bright orange-red when ripe in October and persistent for sometime after the fall of the foliage (in 1899 persist- ent until late in December); flesh orange-yellow, thick and juicy; the sessile, reflexed calyx-lobes often persist- ent; cavity obconic, shallow; seed 2, exceptionally 3 or 4, deeply gooved on the back, 9-7mm. long. The leaves turn a dull yellow or brown and fall early, after the first severe frost. I have seen Crataegus carnosa only in Yancey county, North Carolina, where it grows on roadsides and in sun- ny upland woods, often associated with C. atro-purpurea but is by no means common. It is easily seperated from ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 15 the other 20-stamened spec es of this region by its very narrow, Sharply lobed leaves. CRATAEGUS PRISMATICA. A small tree 3-5m. in height, or sumetimes a large shrub, with short spread- ine branches forming a small oval or flattened crown, and dark, nearly black scaly bark on the trunk. Twigs of the season slender, flexuous or nearly straight, red- brown, becoming gray the second year, glabrous, armed with few 4-5cm.-long thorns. The glabrous, rather pale green leaves are thin but firm in texture, the blades el- liptic, ovate, obovate or even spathulate in outline, 3-4.5 em. long, 1.5-4cm. wide, rounded or obtuse at apex, rounded or cuneate at the serrate base, sharply gland- ular serrate, doubly serrate above the middle or with 1-3 pairs of shallow notches, 3-4 pairs of impressed primary veins; petiole 1.5-2cm. long, stender, channelled above, winged at the apex by the decurrent blade, roughened by 2-3 pairs of stalked glands; winter-buds globose, bright red-brown. The inflorescence is a nearly simple, glabrous few-flowered cyme, the short pedicels bracteate with 2-3 lanceolate glandular-margined bracts; calyx glab- rous, the tube short and broad; stamens small, generally 10; styles 3, seldom 4; fruiting clusters 1-4-fruited, the bright red erect pedicels 1-1.5cm long, about the iength of the fruit. Fruit globular-pyriform, somewhat thick- er than long, 12-15mm. thick, 11-15mm. long, 3-angled in cross section, bright red; calyx-lobes lanceolate, ‘sharply glandular-serrate above the middle, on the mature fruit slightly stalked, reflexed, bright red; the broad shallow cavity obconic; flesh firm. yellow, mealy; seed usually 3, seldom 4, apical in the fruit, about 6mm. long, 3-4mm. thick laterally, deeply dorsally groovod. The fruit falls with or soon after the fall of the foliage, late in October or the first half of November. The 16 JOURNAL OF THE foliage becomes bright red, mottled with orange and yel- low early in October and is tardily deciduous after the first heavy frost. Crataegus prismatica resemble in habit and foliage C. fiavo-carnis from which it can be seperated by having smaller and more obtuse leaves, pyriform fruit, fewer styles and seed. Banks of streams Madison county, North Carolina, especially along the French Broad river. CRATAEGUS CRUENTA. A slender tree 5-7m. high with short ascending or spreading branches forming an oval or oblong crown, and dark gray or blackish rough bark on the trunk. ‘Twigs of the season glabrous, slender, light brown, becoming steel-gray the second year, armed with very slender 2-4cm.-long chestnut-brown or purp- lish thorns. Leaves thin, bright green, glabrous, the blades broadly ovate, deltoid or nearly round in outline, 3-5cm. long, 2.6-5cm. wide, obtuse rounded or truncate at the entire base, acute at the apex, sharply and finely doubly serrate, with 2-3 pairs of shallow notches, 3-4 pairs of primary veins; petiole slender, 1.5-2.5cm. long, nearly terete, on vigorous shoots roughened with glands. Inflorescence a few-flowered compound cyme 5-6cm. wide, glabrous, somewhat glaucous; calyx glabrous, the tube broad and short, the entire triangular lobes rising from a broad base. reflexed after anthesis; stamens 20, small; styles generally 3. The fruit, solitary or in clusters of 2-4, on strict slender pedicels .8-1.8cm. long, is globose or somewhat attenuate at base, 9-13mm. long, about as thick, bright red, sparingly glaucous, capped by the short-stalked generally persistent reflexed calyx-lobes; flesh yellowish white, rather thin,firm, sweet; seed usual- ly 3, generally slightly grooved on the rounded back, 6- 7mm. long. The foliage, which is long persistent ac- ELISHA MITCHELL, SCIENIFIC SOCIETY 17 quires after frost many shades of yellow, red and pur- ple and falls before the fruit which often persists until late in winter. art Crataegus cruenta is frequent in Yancey county, North Carolina, between Spruce Ptne and °Micaville, growing in sunny upland woods beneath oaks and_hick- ories. It can be separated from the other 20-stamened forms of this region with which it is associated, by its smaller and broader leaves, and the small, bright red, usually 3-seeded fruit. . | CRATAEGUS TRISPERMA. A tree 5-81. in height with ascending or spreading branches forming an oblong crown, and a slender trunk with dark gray nearly black bark, armed with fewthorns. Twig of season slender, glabrous, bright brown, becoming dull gray the second year,marked with pale lenticels,straight or nearly so,arm- ed with few slender 4-5cm.-long thorns. Leaves elabrous, thin, bright green above, somewhat paler beneath, the ‘blades ovate or broadly ovate iu outline, 4-7cm. long, 3.5-6cem, wide obtuse or truncate at the base, acute er obtuse at the apex, sharply and coarsely doubly serrate, with 3-4 pairs of shallow lobes; petiole 1.5-2.5cm. long, grooved above, margined at the apex by the decurrent blade, roughened with several pairs of red glands, purp- | lish at base. The inflorescence isa glabrous, generally simple cyme, 3-5cm. wide; pedicels .6-2cm. long; calyx | obconic, the short broadly triangular lobes entire; styles 3-4, generally 3; stamens small, 10. The fruit,'on erect - or spreading .6-2cm. long pedicels, usually in clusters of 3-5, is globose, 10-13mm. thick, bright yellow or orange | when ripe in October, capped by the short, sessile calyx- lobes; flesh rather thick and firm, white or. pale yellow; seed generally 3, nearly central in the fruit, 5-7mm. long, deeply grooved on the rounded back, The Jeaves turn a ; See 18 JOURNAL OF THE dull yellow or brown and fall soon after frost, before the fruit which is largely persistent until December. The species above proposed is abundant in Yancey County. North Carolina. between the North aud Sonth forks of Toe river, at an elevation of about 800m, grow- ing en roadsides and on sunny wooded slopes. It is sep- arated from the other 10-stamened species with which it is associated by its globular fruit. It is most closely re- lated to C. riparta of the Little Tennessee river basin, which differs from it in having larger fruit, more numer- ous nttlets, and a differently shaped leaf. CRATAEGUS CRASSA. A small tree 4-6m. in height with slender bright red-brown twigs armed with numer- ous slender 3-4cm.-long thorns. Leaves dark green, thick and fitm, pubescent above along the midrib, pubes- ceut beneath when young, at length nearly glabrous, ex- cept for small tufts of hairs in the axils of the primary veius, Obovate or nearly orbicular, obtuse or rounded at the apex, rownded or abruptly contracted at the entire base, glandular crenate or serrate, sometimes doubly so, with 1-3 pairs of shallow obtuse notches above the mid- dle, 2-3 pairs of prominent ascending deeply impressed primary veins; petiole 1-2cm. long, slender, nearly terete pubescent above, broadly winged atthe apex. _Inflores- cence a compound many-flowered*:cyme 4-5cm. wide; flowers about 1.5cm. wide, on slender e-ect glabrate ped- icels; calyx small, about 3mm. long, pubescent, as well as the narrowly triangular acute glandular serrate lobes; styles 4-5;stamens 20. persistent; fruit eblong, 9-12mm. long, dark red, capped by the nearly sessile rersistent calyx-lobes; flesh thin, sweet; seed usually 5; 4-5mm. long, smooth on the back and sides; cavity nearly 5mm. wide. Kastern Pennsplvania. C. crassa belongs to the flava group. It is separated from C. flava, however, by its smaller fruit, which is not pyriform, and its more numer- ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 19 ous flowers. Crataegus deltoides. A straggling shrub, or occa- sionally a small tree, with spreading sparingly armed branches, and slender glossy brown iwigs which do not become gray until the third year. Leaves thick, firm, glabrous, dark green above, much paler beneath, deltoid or nearly orbicnlar in outline, 3-5cm. in diameter, trun- cate or subcordate at the base, sharply doubly glandular serrate, with sever] pairs of shallow notches, 3-5 pairs of prominent divergent lateral veins: petiole 1.5-2cm. long, nearly terete, glaucous. Inflorescence a 3-6-flowered nearly simple cyme, 3-5cm. wide; pedicels stout, erect, glabrous, glaucous; flowers 15-17mm. wide; calyx cup- shaped, very broad, the very prominent oblong or lig- ulate lobes glabrous, serrate or entire, erect or spread- ing soon after anthesis; stamens normally 10; styles 3-4; fruit large, 15-17mm. thick, globular or somewnat de- pressed, concave at the base, dark red, sparingly prui- nose; seed 3-4, ridged on the back, the lateral faces plane; cavity 6-7mm. wide. Crataegus deltoides is frequent in southeastern Penn- sylvania, and the adjoining parts of Maryland. It is re- lated to C. prutnosa from which it is separated by its larger fruit and foliage, and fewer stamens. CRATAEGUS PORRACEA. A tree 5-7m. high with spreading or ascending branches. forming an oval or rounded crown. Twig of the season glabrous, red- brown, becomig gray the second yeay, armed with short 2-3cm.-long thorns. Inflorescence a small, 3-4mm.-wide glabrous corymb, 6-10-flowered; flowers 15-17mm. wide; calyx obconic, the lebes narrowly triangular, entire or nearly so, reflexed after anthesis, generally deciduous before autumn: stamens 10; styles 3-5; fruit oblong, 10- 13mm. long, dark red, sparingly glaucous; seed 3-5, fur- rowed on the back, the lateral faces plane; fruiting pedi- ascending or spreading .8-15cm. long; fruit persistent 20 JOURNAL OF THE after the leaves have fallen. Leaves thin, glabrous, bright green above, somewhat paler beneath, the blades small, 3-4.5cm. long, ovate, acute at apex, rounded or truncate at base, very finely and sharply doubly serrate ail around, 4-5 pairs of sharp lateral lobes, the tips of the lower usually reflexed, 4-6 pairs of straight parallel veins; petiole slender, nearly terete, 1-1.8cm. long. The species above proposed is related to C. tenutfolia from which it is separated by the smaller foliage and smaller fruit and corymbs. Northeastern Pennsylvania and the adjacent part of New York. ‘The type material was collected by C. F. Saunders, near Susqnehanna, Pa. CRATAEGUS ALBICANS. A large skrub or a small tree, 4-7m. in height with spreading or ascending branches. Twig of the season glabrous, bright 1ed- brown, sparingly glaucous, at length dull gray, armed with few 3-5cm.-long therns. Leaves glabrous below, rough above, at least when young, with scattered very short hairs, especially along the midrib, firm in texture, the blades ovate in outline, 5-8cm. long, rounded or trun- cate at base, acute at apex, sharply and.finely doubly serrate, with 4-6 pairs of shallow acute lobes; petiole slender, terete or nearly so, 2-3cm. long. Inflorescencea nearly simple cyme, 5-6cm. wide, 5-10;flowered, glab- rous except the calyx-lobes; flowers about 17mm. wide; stamens normally 10; styles 4-5; fruit globular, 1-1.3cm. thick, dark red, glau-ous, capped by the nearly sessile, spreading calyx-lobes, which are broadly triangular, usually entire, and pubescent on the upper surface; seed 4-5, 5-6mm. long, grooved on the back, the lateral faces plane; flesh thick, firm, yellowish, very sweet. The tips of the calyx-lobes often break off and the edges of the persistent base become involute, Crataegus albicans has been collected in eastern Mich- igan by Mr. O. A. Farwell. It is related to C. pruz- nosa. Issued July 1, 1901. WN. C. Nat. Hist. Survey. A PECULIAR IRON OF SUPPOSED METEORIC OR- IGIN, FROM DAVIDSON COUNTY, NORTH CAROLINA. JOSEPH HYDE PRATT. The iron to be described was found six or seven years ago by Mr. W. R. Harris on a hill-side that rises just east of the Lexington-Troy road about half a mile south of Cid P. O., Davidson County, N. C. The iron originally weighed 13 lbs. 14 ozs., and its shape was somewhat oblong, 9 inches long by 6% inches in its widest part, and 2 inches thick in the center, but becoming much thinner than this around its outer edge. Surrounding the iron is a more or less oxidized surface which in some places extends into the iron for a quarter to nearly half an inch. Its surface is more or less pitted and it has very evi- dently lain in the earth for some time. The iron has been cut and polished and the surfaces tested by etching but they showed neither the Widmannstatten fig- ures nor the Neumann lines. Mr. Tassin of the United States National Nuseum who has also experimented with this iron states that ‘“‘the etched surface peresents a granular or stip- pled appearance overlaid with a network of fine lines. These lines are apparently without orientation and are so numerous as to give the iron a decidely fibrous appearance.” He also states that the ‘‘fractured surface shows traces of what is ap- parently an octahedral cleavage.” This etched surface is dissimilar to the other so-called structureless meteorites that have been tested in the National Museum except the Scriba iron* which was found at Scriba, Oswego County, New York, in 1895, whose etched surface is very similar. This dissimi- larity is of course against the meteoric nature of this iron as these tests are the unquestionable ones for a meteoric iron, but at the same time some irons that are known meteorites have not given them. *Am. J. Sci. Vol. XL, 1841, p. 366. 22 JOURNAL OF THE In comparing the etched surface of this iron with those of a series of wood burned, coke and bloomery irons, Mr. Tassin, who has made a great many etching tests on irons of this sort, states that it is radically different in appearance from any of these manufactured irons that he has tested. Of course it must be taken into consideration that these manu- factured irons that were tested were for the most part man- ufactured by established methods and for special purposes. What the effect of etching would be on a polished surface of some of the old charcoal irons which have been obtained by crude processes is not known. That a mass of cast iron of this weight and shape should have been carried and left in this section which is 15 to 29 miles from any railroad and 50 or a 100 miles from any known furnace is rather improbable. This iron has been examined by a number men who are thoroughly familiar with all kinds of manufactured irons and they state that it is entirely different from any iron that they have ever seen. Mr. Kerr, a foundrymanof Durham, North Carolina, who cut off a piece of this iron, stated that it was unlike any that he had ever seen and did not cut like any iron known tohim. It is tough and a piece can only be chipped. off of the main mass with difficulty; and it is not brittle like cast iron, but on the contrary is somewhat malleable. There is considerable free carbon in the iron which is very apparent on a fresh fracture, and it leaves a black stain on auy thing touching it. This interferes to some extent with the etching and partly explains the stippled appearance of the etched surface. In its chemical composition it is different from the majori- ty of the meteoric irons in having a small amount of nickel and containing some free carbon. Material was obtained for analysis from the interior of the iron where it showed no alt- eration,the turnings from this portion of the iron having been carefully selected at the time the iron was cut It has been analyzed by Dr. Baskerville,* who used the method of analy- sis described below. *University of North Carolina. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 23 METHOD OF ANALYSIS. A weighed portion of the iron turnings were treated with aqua regia, and brought to a syrup by direct heat, the nitric acid being driven off ny addition of concentrated hydrochloric acid aud evaporating several times to dryness on the water bath. The silica was finally rendered insoluble by heating at 110°C until alt hydrochloric acid fumes were removed. It was then treated with dilute hydrochloric acid and. boiling water and filtered. The filtrate was made up to 500 c. c. and reserved for furthur use. The precipitate after thoreugh washing was burned in a platinumcrucible. After decarbon- ization it was fused with five parts sodium carbonate aud one part potassium nitrate, taken up iu dilute hydrochloric acid, evaporated to dryness and heated at 110° C, as above to rend- er silica insoluble. The residue was then treated with hydro- chloric acid and hot water, filtered and washed. Fhe filtrate was made up to 250 c.. ¢. The precipitate was burned and the silica driven off by hydrofluoric acid. The residue was tested for titanium ac- cording to method of Weller* as modified by Hillebrand? and Dunnington,} after tusion with potassium disulphate, but none was detected. The filtrates were tested for sulphur and phosphorus ac- cording to the ordinary methods of testing for the oxidized compounds of those elements, but not a trace of either was observed. An aliquot part of the first filtrate (500 c. c.) was. precipi- tated with ammonium hydroxide, filtered, aud the precipitate washed, burned and weighed as Fe,O.. The irom in anotoer portion was precipitated as before, and then re~isseived in di- lute sulphuric acid, passed through a granulated zine column reductor and titrated with standard potassium permanganate solution ‘This method gave the same results as were ob- tained by the gravimetric, thus showing the absence of alum- *Ber. D. Chem. Ges, 15,2592 tJ. Am. Chem. Soc. 17, 718. , tJ. Anal. and Appi. Chem. 5, 39. 24 VOD JOURNAL OF THE jnum., As the ammoniacal filtrate possessed no blue color, copper was reported absent. The'sevond filtrate (250 c. c.) was similarly treated and the iron combined ‘with carbon and silicon determined which amounted to 1.81 per cent, this with the metallic iron.gave the total iron present. After calculating the silicon (0.62 per cent) asiron silicide FeSi,, that amount of iron (0.62 per cent) was taken from 1.81 per cent and the difference (1.17 per cent):was regarded as iron combined with carbon. This was subsequently checked as noted below. Manganese was determined from an aliquot part of the two filtrates ‘by the basic acetate method and long boiling of fil- trate with‘dn excess of bromine. The precipitate was burn- ed and Weighed as Mn.O.. Nickel and cobalt were separated from the filtrates which had been thoroughly oxidized and changed to chlorides by re- peatedly extracting the ferric chloride by means of pure ether in a Rothe’s pipette*. The Nickel and cobalt chlorides were then separated according to Blair} viz: by precipitation of the cobalt as the potassium cobaltinitrite, K,Co,(NO,)... For total carbon two grams were dissolved in the double potassium and copper chloride. The undissolved graphite and carbide were caught on asbestos in a platinum Gooch crucible, dried and weighed.{ The total carbon was deter- mined by combustion in the Shimer§ apparatus. The difference in the weight of the carbon found and iia total undissolved residue was 1.17 per cent, which is the same as the combined iron not reported as combined with the sil- icon. (see above). Every effort was made to determine the combined carbon, but the material was not attacked by nitric acid, even after digestion at 100°C. for twelve hours. ‘The colorimetric method failed entirely. *Mitt. a. den Konig. Tch. Vers. zu Berlin, 1892, part iii-Blair, 3rd. edit. p. 315. j tLbid. p. 185. {Blair. ibid. p. 162. ¢J. Am, Chem. Soe. 21, p. 557: ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 25 No effort was made to determine occluded gases. The results of the analysis are given below: | feo MICUALIIE® atin Haves « « 92.10 Iron ....93.894 Iron combined with carbon 1,17 Iron combined with silicon .62 Mati aBEBe sf. larlem (3) = SSS a a uy. Ve = Vie \ ; =: &? b? z Z, = es Ga Ga Transforming to parallel axes through the _ point P(x, y,, Z,) as origin by the substitution v—x =x, y—y=y, z—z,—=z and employiny form (1) above we obtain | x, | a 0. = > = (4) 1, —, a x Vo il —, & a &, i, —, Cc 36 JOURNAL OF THE Xs as Z, or (—2)— + (e—7)— + ie x y Zz or 4 (F—C)yz + y(C—a@)zx + 2(e—P)xy = 0. - (6) which is the equation of a cone of the second degree, having its vertex at the new origin, P. 4. The cone of the normals contains as generators the new axes, that is, the lines from P(¥,, y,, z,) parallel to the former axes. To prove this we must note that the equation of a cone of the second degree referred to three of its generators as axes of coordinates is fyez+ gex + hxy =0. - . - (1) by Example 4, p. 65 of C. Smith’s Solid Geometry. Since equation (6) of the preceding article is of the form (1), the theorem is proved. 5. The cone of the normais C contains as a generator the line from P(x, y,, Z,)to O, the old origin, The equations of the line OP one are - - . This line OP lies on the cone given by equation (3) of Ar- ticle 3, since equations (1) satisfy equation (3). It is plain that the origin is a point on the cone C, ; 6. It is a well known fact proved later on that the cone of the normals, vertex at P(x, y,, z,), contains the axes of the section obtained by drawing, though the point P, the plane conjugate to the diameter OP which passes through the point P. This fact has served as the point of departure for my succeeding investigations and has enabled me to deduce gen- eral formulas for the cone of the normals and also for an allied cone, for the most general central surfaces of the second degree. ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 37 7. Lemma. Find the equations for the axes of the section of the ellipsoid x ay we —+—+—-=1 - - - @ a b G made by the plane Ix + my + nz=0. - - - (2) Let (, y, 2) be the extremity of an axis. If the length of this axis be 7, we must make «* + yy 2 —7 a Maxima on a minimum, subject to the conditions (1) and (2) above. Differentiating we have xdx + ydy + zdz = 0. - - - (3) x y Zi —dx + -—dy + -dz= 0. : . : (4) a 6? é ldx + mdy + ndz = 0. - - - (5) Hence Xs Ys Z| = 0:5 C= - (6) x, Ys, z ei a (oa i m, n or / m n (C—6°) + (a’—c*) + (6°—a’) =0. - (7) Bex Cay bz This is the equation of a cone having its vertex at the origin. The equations of the axes are then equations (2) and (7). The geometrical interpretation is that the axes are the intersections of the cone given by (7) with the plane given by equation (2). 8. To prove the cone of the normals C, vertex at P(x,, y.. %,), contains the axes of the section obtained by 38 JOURNAL OF THE drawing, through the point P, the plane conjugate to the diameter OP which passes through the point P. It must be borne in mind that P is the center of the section. This is a well known fact and needs no proof in this thesis. The plane through the point P(x, y,, z,), having this point as the center of the section, is le + my + nz = p. . - - (1) with the condition be, -+ my+ z= p- - - . (2) Also the diameter conjugate to plane (1), that is, passing through the origin and the point P(x,, y,, z,) the center of the section is a y z See at Om” Eg Since (3) passes through P(%,, y,, 2), we have the condi- tions =—=—. - - - @ From equations (1) and (2) the plane through P may be written L(a—x,) + m(y—y,) + n(z—z,) = 0, which becomes on employing the conditions (4) XX, VY ZZ, x, ye ie +—=—+—+- a & G G b Co : (5) If we take a plane parallel to plane (5), through the center of the ellipsoid, it will have for its equation NX, BAL Zz, + —— a bP =0. +. = 7 ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 39 The axes of the section of the ellipsoid by the plane (6) are given by the intersection of plane (6) with the cone x, y; zg|/=90 - = (7) x y z oe hee a a &° Co x, Ws &, ks aes yaaa a b° (os from equation (6), Article 7, Lemma. A cone parallel to this, having its vertex at the point P(x, ¥., 2,) for origin, will have for its equation the equation (7). But the co-ordinates will be referred to the new axes through P, parallel to the former axes. Transferring back to the original axes by the transformation «= «—wx,, y=y—y,, z= z—Z,, equation (7) becomes X—X,, Y—y., 2—z, | = 0. xX—x, Y—Y, 2—Z, a &° Ee &, a b? e or X—Xy Y—Y 2-2, |=9 - - (8) x y z Ps ae x, Yo %, ee ap 40 JOURNAL OF THE which is the equation of the cone of the normals C by equa- tion (3), Article 3. The conclusion may be stated as follows: All parallel sections of an ellipsoid are similar and simi- larly situated conics. The axes of plane (5) through P are parallel to the axes of plane (6) through the origin. The cones (7) and (8) are parallel. But the cone (7) contains the axes of the section of the ellipsoid by the plane (6). Hence the cone (8) contains the axes of the section of the ellipsoid by plane (5). But the cone (8) is the cone of the normals for the point P. Hence the cone of the normals C, vertex at P, contains the axes of the section obtained by drawing, through the point P, the plane conjugate to the diameter OP, which passes through the point P. 8. A very interesting conclusion follows from this. We have proved in Article 4 that the cone C contains a trirect- angular trihedral. If acone contain one set of three gener- ators mutually at right angles, it contains an infinity of such sets (C. Smith’s Solid Geometry, §109.) Since the cone C con- tains the axes of the section through P (these axes are at right angles), it must also contain the normal through P to the plane of section. 10. By means of the facts so far known we are able to de- duce the cone C in a very simple way. The equation of C referred to axes through its vertex P(x,, y, Z,), parallel to the original axes, is of the form Sy2z + gan + hey = 0. since it contains the new axes as generators. Transforming to the original axes by the transformation «= w«—w,, y=y—y). 2=2-—~,, this equation becomes I (y— Io) (2@—@,) + B(%—Z,)(A—%,) Fh(x—x,)(V—I.)=0. C1) Also, since C passes through the origin, x= y = z= 0, and equation (1) becomes Vie fae ~4+=+4+—-=0 - - - @® x, y, ° Zz, ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 41 Since finally it contains the normal ——— x, uy. oo a eg: &, = us [Art. 8, Eq. (5)] Bok) © to the plane having P(,, y,, z,) for its center, oe, | ees e Eliminating f, g and 4 between (1), (2) and (3), (y—y.)—z,) (—z)(~—~,) (x—~)(y—y,) |= 0. (4) iL 1 1 ze, %. 2 Vo% Zé, Xo ic zs = ebce This equation, on multiplying the third row by - , and Xoo dividing the first row by the expression (x—.,)(y— y,)(2—Z,), becomes 1 1 i [=i eae ——— aa’ a 1 1 fees at Sat a b° e ss RA 42 JOURNAL OF THE or Ce Ree 4, e, —{(); = (6 X—X, 1 Vy, ££, il £ 1 a b? e on multiplying the first column by x,, the second column by y,, the third column by z,. Equation (6) is the cone of the normals C [See eqation (1), Article 3]. 11. I shall next show that the cone of the normals C may be discovered from the equations concerned in finding the axes of the non-central section of an ellipsoid. I was led to this consideration by the fact that the cone C contains the axes of a non-central section, if its vertex is the center of the section. : The center of the section of the ellipsoid x BA a — eee ees | a’ b? e made by the plane Ix + my + nz=—p = = = (1) is given by the equations x, 8 Z, p = S = Ss = —— = (2) al bm Cn al? + bm? + Cn’? where P(x., y,, Z,) is the center of the section. [See C,Smith’s Solid Geometry, Ex. 2, pp. 43-4.] Now transforming the origin to P(~, y,, 2), with axes through it parallel to the former, by the transformation *—x-+ 4%, y= y¥+ Yo z=z-+ z, we see that the equation of the ellipsoid becomes deh: Silas Ss HX, VV. Zz, Bo eee a ete eo ae ae ee ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 43 Equation (1) has become, by the transformation above and the condition /v, + my, + nz, =p, le + my + nz = 0. Hence from equations (2), zz, (e+ my-+ nz) p- — == (Ip aan VY, qe SSS = a & ce CP A Pm? + cn It follows that x Sr 2 eae, aU Th I 2 5 a Gb? Ga - - (4) le -+- my +. nz =.0 the section referred to the new axes, are the equations of where x Vig Z, jp= + — + — 4, ae 6? pe The cone with vertex P(x, y,, z,) and passing through the intersection of the sphere Cia Ae See. == 2" and the ellipsoid Xx ve Ga == Sr = aoe 0 a oO CG is given by —~(7 + ke) =0. (5) Nie We =P AS A NG br er er [See C. Smith’s Solid Geometry, Ex. 5, p. 55.] Kvery semi-diameter of the surface, whose length is 7, is a This cone will, for all values of gencrating line of this cone. 44 JOURNAL OF THE r, be cut by the plane (4) in two straight lines which lie along equal diameters of the section; and, when 7 is equal to ezther semi-axis of the section, these equal diameters will coincide. That is, the plane (4) will touch the cone (5) when 7 is equal to ezther semi-axes of the section of the ellipsoid by the plane. Hence, to find the equations of the axes, that is, the equations of the lines of contact, we must identify the plane (4) wifh the tangent plane to (5) at some point (,, y,, 2). This tan- gent plane may be written Ps 6 I 2. VY, it (7? + ka’) + e (7? + kb) + — (+ ke“) = 0. 2402 = ; a Ge which, when compared with (4), gives the equations x, iF 4, —(r + ka’) —(r +h) —(r+ ke) or Br a Z m n Putting each of these fractions equal to —A, we have, on dropping accents, x k —+t+xe«—+rM=0. @ v2 k a4 — + y— +Am— 0. b? 7? z k —+ z2—-+ rAu=0. Ga Ta k Eliminating — and A, we obtain v? ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 45 x == {)}- — x l a J —— y m 6? eZ, _ Zz n Ga Transforming to the original axes by the transformation X= XK— KX, VH=V—-)y Z=—2— 4, we have x — x, = 0 ee eee a i ie a 8 ; >V—IV Mm : 2 Z— &, 5 2 25 2 G which becomes on applying equations (2) |a— x, ao) — a —_—_, *- x, a Qa 8 Seen Mo | ’ Fao pra | & Z— Z, ee 2-2, — e e | which is the cone of the normals for the point P(x, y,, 2.) by equation (2), Article 3. 46 JOURNAL OF THE The geometrical interpretation is that the axes are obtained by the intersection of the cone of the normals for P(x, y,, z,) with the plane le + my + nz = p. 12. To prove geometrically that the cone of the normals for P contains the line OP from P to the origin. By Article 7, Lemma, the cone having its vertex at the origin, parallel to the cone of the normals, and containing the 5 ae a a axes of the section of 4x + my+ nz=0, and —+4+—+—=1, ac” OF at is given by | x y Zz 1/=0: = - (1) x y z a 6° G | Z m n | Since this cone is of the form Syz+ genx + hxy = 0, it contains as generators three conjugate diameters of the ellipsoid. [C. Smith’s Solid Geometry, Ex. 5, p.90.] Since the diameter conjugate to the plane /v + my + nz=0 - (2) forms, with the axesof thesection, three conjugate diameters, therefore the cone (1) contains the diameter conjugate to plane (2), that is the line OP. Hence the cone of the normals for P(x,,y,,2Z,), parallel to and exactly like cone (1), having one point in common with a gen- erator of (1) must contain that generator, which is OP (Com- pare Article 5). 13. Iam seeking the general equation of the cone of the normals for central surfaces of the second degree, given in their most general form. Since the method of Article 11 is ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 47 perfectly general in its application, I shall apply it to the general equation of the second degree. The general equation of the second degree having its center at the origin is S(&,, 2) = ax? + by? + cz*+ yet Agent 2hey+d’ =$(%y2)td=0. - - [See C. Smith’s Solid Geometry, Article 75.] Transform to parallel axes through the center P(x, y,, z,) of the section of /(x, y, 7) = 0 by the plane le + my + nz=p - . - (2) by means of the transformation equations x =x+w4,, y=y+y, 2=2z+ 2. We must note, however, that the center P(x, ¥.» 2,) of the section is given by IOP ROT Sea fe — — = — — = — — = — 2Qdsay. . (3) TRS On| 1002 [Compare C. Smith’s Solid Geometry, Ex. 2, pages 43 and 44.] That is ax, + hy, + gz, + M=0, } hx, + by, + fz, + m= 0, gx, + fy, + €z, + \u = 0, Ix, + my, + nz,— p=0. By the transformation mentioned above /(x, y, z) = 0 be- comes P(x, Ys 2) ee. Vo Z,) 5 2axx, + 2byy, + 262Z, + 2f (¥Z,+ ¥.%) + 2" (2x, + 2,0) + 2h (xy, + «,y) = 0. (5) or $(x, ¥, 2) + f(%s Vor %) + 20 (ax, + hy, + 22) + 2y (hx, + by, + £2.) + 22 (gx, +f¥.+ %)=0. (6) 48 JOURNAL OF THE On applying formulas (4), equation (6) becomes } (x, 9, 2) +f (Xp Yoo 2) — 20x + my + ne) = 0 But since /x + my + nz= p and /x,4 my,+ nz= p, where x, y, z are referred to old origin, L(x — x.) +m(y—y,) +u(z—2z)=0 and since too x =ax+ 4%, y=y+ yn 2=2+ 2, we have Ix + my + nz=0, - - . (8) the equation of the plane through P(w,, y,, z,), the new origin. Hence, from (7), o(*,y,2+k=0. lx + my+ nz= 0. are the equations of the section, where k= f (%5 Vor 2): The cone with vertex at P and passing through the inter- section of the sphere e+y+ ear and the surface (x,y,z) + k=0 is given by r*o(x,y,zZ) + 4(# + 7°+ 2) =0 - (9) which is obtained by forming a homogeneons equation from these two equations. Every semi-diameter of the surface, whose length is 7 is a generating line of cone (9). This cone will, for all values of r, be cut by the plane 7x + my + nmz=0 in two straight lines which lie along equal diameters of the section, and, ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 49 when 7 is equal to either semi-axis of the section, these equal diameters will coincide. That is, the plane /x + my+ nz=0 will touch the cone when 7 is equal to ezthey semi-axis of the section of the surface by the plane. Hence, to find the equa- tions of the axes, that is, the equations of the lines of contact, we must identify the plane /v + my + nz —0 with the tan- gent plane to the cone at some point (¥,, y,, Z,). This tangent plane is ee + 2x.) «+ ae + 2ky,) y + (r$! ery 2 =O: Hence ae + 2kx, as + 2ky, Os + 2khz. / m n Then k k k Geet Peete a ee Pe i222 x, r? Yy, r? a, ? == = —— = N Say l m n Clearing out and dropping accents, 2k ¢ + —x—2drA/7 = 0 * Te 2k @ +—y—2Xm=0 Ye r 2k ¢ +—z—2An=0 « Ue Hence ’ x Z |= 0 | x | | y m | 7] > a n 50 JOURNAL OF THE Transform back to the original axes by the substitution K=K— HK, Y=Y=—IJy Z=—2—Z2Z, and note that oi = 2(ax+ a if alae ° = 2 [lax + hy + gz) — (ax, + hy, + §%,)] ed = 5 + 2AZ from equations (4). We have then 8 — | || —+2Al x — x, 1 bx of —+2rAm 7, m by of — 2An zZ— Zz, n bz or | of —— Ae - (10) _— v— x, / | ox of | \_ re y—Y, m by 3f = Z— Z, n | 62 which becomes by virtue of the equations DOS NOL ee Deel oe LO \ th BY. Woz ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 51] af Df-* | ==40: - (11) — (2.4 — x, — bx bx. ay Y | = 4y — “ys. 2 by by a iy —_ z— Z, bz bz The equation (11), by analogy with the result of Article 11, should prove to be the cone of the normals for the point P. We shall now apply the tests, which are of the following nature: I. Itshould contain the normal to the plane /v+ my nz— Pp, drawn through the point P(,, ,, 2,). II. It should pass through the origin. III. It should be capable of containing three generators at right angles. Since equation (10) is satisfied for ec — 2 = a b) / m n the equations of the normal to the plane ix + my + nz=p through the point P(x, y,, z,), condition I is satisfied. Test II is verified since equation (11) is satisfied for x=y=—z=—0. Test III is verified since the cone (11) contains the normal, to the plane /v + my nz= p, drawn through the point P(x,, y,, 2) and also, by the method of derivation, con- tains the axes of the section of the conicoid by the plane le + my + nz = p. Hence equation (11) is the equation of the cone of the nor- eV JOURNAL OF THE mals for the point P(¥,, y,, 2,) for the most general central surface of the second degree. 14. A second proof may be obtained as follows: The equa- tions (x, V; Z) + E—0 | -* lx + yn of the preceding article suffice to define the section whose axes we are seeking. Let (, v, 2) be the co-ordinates of the extremity of an axis whose length is 7 Hence x _ ¥ - Ze — ea must be a maximum or a minimum, subject to the condi- tions (1). Therefore ¢ dx + ¢ dy+ ¢' dz=0 dy y z xnax+ ydy + zdz=0 ldx+mdy+ ndz=0 Hence | ¢’ ¢' ¢’ = 0 4 Y Zz | | x \ z | / m n | This is the same as equation deduced in Article 13. The remainder of the proof follows precisely as in Article 13. 15, Equation (11) when applied to the equation of the ellipsoid a ba Z REPENS Cor ere hy a ‘ad Ce ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 53 gives the result already found in Article 3, which is a further demonstration that it is the true equation desired. It may also be applied to the equation of the hyberboloid of one sheet 6 6? G Equation (11), Article 13, is the equation of the cone of the normals for the following reasons: There are three central surfaces of the second degree—the ellipsoid and the hyperbo- loids of one and twosheets. The three tests applied in Article 13 are properties belonging to any central surface of the sec- ond degree, since the cone of the normals for the ellipsoid may be immediately transformed into the corresponding equations for the hyperboloids of one and two sheets by changing ¢ into —c’, and 0° into —0*, c into —c’ respectively. Hence the properties proved for the ellipsoid hold also for the hyperbo- loids and hence for all central surfaces of the second degree. 16. The feet of the normals from a point P(.%,, y,, 2) to the ellipsoid lie upon a cone of the second degree whose ver- tex is at the origin. The equations of the normal to the ellipsoid at the point (f, g, h) are x—f y—-g z-h ae ——TAESaiye 2). Ge Since this normal passes through the point P(x, y,, 2), we have 54 JOURNAL OF THE MT eA Te ae = = WN’ say. a & og fa ax, Hence x, — f= — NX’, ora’ +r = —. x Then Ca. By, C2, (a + X') el ee | (6° + r’) ay hee X’) == Ses x y Zz where (x, y, 2) as current co-ordinates replace (jf, g, 4). Multiplying these equations respectively by (4° — c’), (c? — a’), (a — 6’) and adding we obtain ax(6—c) by, (ce — a’) Cz, (a? — 6) pe =0. (C) x y z This is the equation of a cone, vertex at the origin, and passing through the feet of the normals from P (x,, y,, 2,) to the ellipsoid. This cone passes through P (%,, y,, z,), since it is satisfied for += %,, y=Yy,, 2= 2, and hence the line joinite ae origin to the point P is a generator of this cone. The intersection of the two cones C and C’ is composed:— (7) of the straight line OP, (77) of a twisted curve which we shall designate by the letter K. The intersection of K with the ellipsoid gives the six points which are the feet of the six normals from the point P (%,, y,, 2,) to the ellipsoid. Since the cone C’ is of the form Ayz + Bex + Cry = 0 it contains three perpendicular generators. [This property ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 55 holds for any central surface of the second degree, since C’ re- tains the same form when 0’ and c’ are changed into —dé* and —c.] [Compare C. Smith’s Solid Geometry, Article 109, p. 85.] If it contains one set, it sontains an infinity of such sets, A new method at once suggests itself for deducing the equa- tion of cone C’. As my purpose has been to deduce the equa- tion of the cone C’ for the most general equation of a central surface of thesecond degree, I was foiled up to this point since the method of solution above given is not general in its appli- cation. The new method which I shall presently give is per- fectly general in its application and has enabled me to deduce the equation of the cone C’ for the most general equation of central surfaces of the second degree. 17. The line from the origin to the point P is the normal to the central plane eo ye 20, = se Since the cone C’ contains any set of three perpendicular generators, it contains the normal to the plane (1) and should contain the axes of the section of the ellipsoid by the plane (1). Now, by Article 7 above, the cone giving by its inter- section with (1) the axes of the section is x, 3 ° &, (Cc — 67) + (@—c)+ (= ay — 6! BCx Ca’y abz passing through O and P, or ax, by, Oe — (8 — ¢) + — (e€-—a@)+ (a — 8) = 0, 2 By z which is the cone C’ as found in Article 16. I shall next apply this method to the general equation of the second degree having its center at the origin. 18. Find the equations for the axes of the section of the surface 56 JOURNAL OF THE f (x, ¥y 2) = ax?+ by’ + c2+2fyz+2gex+ 2hey+d'=90 (1) made by the plane lx + my+nz= 0. - - - (2) Let (x, y, 2) be the co-ordinates of the extremity of an axis. If the length of this axis be 7, we must make ety Z4=Fr a maximum or a minimum, subject to the conditions (1) and (2). Hence 8 37 8 | —dx + —dy+ Sif 0 8x r xdx+ ydy+ zdz=0 | ldx + mdy+ ndz=0) Then | of 57 "fie eet US - (3) bx dy bz x y e 7 m n | is the equation of the cone which gives by its intersection with /x + my + nz=0 the equation of the axes of the sec- tion. 19. Find the equation of a cone whose vertex is at the origin and which passes through the feet of the normals from P(x, ¥.» Z,) to the surface f(x, y, 2) =ax?+by4c2+2fyz+2gzx+2hxy+d' = 0. (1) We know by Article 17 that this cone determines by its in- ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 57 tersection with the plane through the origin perpendicular to OP? ax tyyte2¢=0 - - - (2) the axes of the section of (1) by (2). By equation (3), Article 18, this cone has for ‘ts equation sf 7 7 ie a - (3) ae ye x y a | | A! ee Is this the required coneC’? Two tests will now be applied. In order that equation (3) should represent the equation of Cone C’, it should contain as a generator the line OP. This is true, since equation (3) is satisfied for r=+, y= y,, eee It should also be capable of containing three generators at right angles. Now the condition that a cone ax + by? + c2°4+ 2 fyz+ 2gzex+ 2hxy = 0 shall contain three generators mutually at right angles is a+6b+c=0. - - - (4) [C. Smith’s Solid Geometry, §109, page 85. ] Now the cone (3), when cleared out, becomes ey he.) a + (kz, — fear + ( fa, — gy.) at... =. Applying condition (4) we have (ey, — hz.) + (hz, — fx.) + (fx, — gy.) = which is identically true, 6 58 JOURNAL OF THE A further verification of the truth of this result is made as follows: The equation (3) when applied to the ellipsoid x y en ee 1 9) a 6? ce. | x y Zz Y, e or ] 1 1 rn () a > Ga 1 1 V z } Zz OT WX, Oy. ce — (6#—c) | —(c?—a’)+-——-(@— &#)=0. x y S The last equation written is identical with equation (C) of Article 16, thus completing our verification of this equa- tion (3). In like manner the cone C’ for the hyperboloid of one sheet ee ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY may be written down V y en el Hee b —C \ y Z | x “ve &, or 1 1 1 =%/=0o0 a@ b —C 1 1 fm x, By z, x oy z or ax, by, Cz, — (#6 + ¢)—-—-(+@)4+—(€-—-*#*=6. ae y ie Lastly, the cone C’ for the hyperboloid of two sheets x yy” oe eleyes pe ae = j| a & ec is given by the equation x y z = 0 a —-f —-—¢ ye "OF: A ) y or ax, : Wee Pe RY —(e¢-&#)4+—(€+¢7)—-—@+ &)=¢ ; x y z iz ; ih , A ; Ni | i ie { 1 if ink PPh eC VP i) aN a Ai f Mi ‘ iN a aM nh Ra at iy ' Funan : Ha i! ‘i " aie i han ane ‘Da ‘ai ms i i ae i le | ay Wa cay Wn NV i " nyt i hah al Bi hy i yy) Ay AY { t q Oi Ot un te ue A ei HOON area 3 s Ses! , . dl i : : ' , K oa fh bt < a co ee + = (Fees See : rid stubaar Aree ‘a ae . “T US ke) | ‘ Ne, Na ‘ { Sik : hie aie arly AOR halt rt “ short vs 4 +f My hi’ i es be rob AS yy Nh A aye ih aps 5° ¥ high. yt ay Pil mH i 4 pre ryy ¥ Wh ey y Lb aaa s/h re en ery ‘ iN We + 7 + ieee ve y eS wee ~ ty fl ivy vf fi , ’ \ ‘ i Q Elisha Mitchell Scientific il Society, Chapel Hill, N.c. 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