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JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

VOL. XXV ur ee
$909 yi ~ gb
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ISSUED QUARTERLY

CHAPEL HILL, N. C.

Queen ‘City Printing Company, Charlotte, N. C.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.. I

THE FOUNDATIONS OF ScIENCE.—J. E&. Mills...........0...- 3
5-BroM-2-AMINOBENZOIC AcID, A NEw PREPARATION.—
PALI VI AMCCDEN Es satel nivel nts eisie Sar dots te aiavceyre tare 15
RAPID DETERMINATION OF OIL IN CoTTONSZED PRopucTs.—
Chas He Herty FB. Stempand MsOrr oo... ee. 2052 21
THE STABILITY OF ROSIN AT SLIGHTLY ELEVATED TEMPER-
ATURES.—Chas. H. Herty and W. S. Dickson........ 34
PROCEEDINGS OF THE NorRTH CAROLINA ACADEMY OF SCI-
ENCE. HIGHTH ANNUAL MEBTENGs 0G). 3s. ldin hoe oot 39

On THE NUMBER OF SPECIES OF Birps THat Can BE Ops-
SERVED IN One Day at RaAteicu, N. C.—C. S.

PAIPEMUL OMEN. Se Hs Mase atk obs Siete «pal ct onto led peiaane ss heae Mel eat 54
Some NoTES ON THE SONG PERIODS oF Brirps.—C. S.

SSH LUCA Mn Bake ety PIE ag Ear RRC TE aN hc st 59
THE PROBABLE ELECTRICAL NATURE OF CHEMICAL ENERGY.

Shs FOELONSOW sh. vig 6 eto dtcvaiateves earn OMe tehee Sata ak ee Rae 62
NEw OccurRRENCE OF MonozitE IN NortH CAroLina.—

MRE pee Fl VALE MOLE Me Ae 2. ch cha ae het R aaa aes at ehena: tate 74
Tue SENSES OF INsEcts—Franklin Sherman, Jr..........4. 78
NOTES ON THE PETOGRAPHY OF THE GRANITES OF CHAPEL

ii. Norte CAROLINA:—H. UN. Batons 225 sienna: 85
CONDENSATION OF CHLORAL WITH PRIMARY AROMATIC

AMINES IJI.—A. S. Wheeler and Stroud Jordan...... 92

A VIsIT TO THE YOSEMITE AND THE Bic TrREES.—W.C.Coker 131
THE Propuction oF Morpip CHANGES IN THE BLoop VEs-
SELS OF THE RABBIT BY ALCOHOL.—William de B.

RAL CIN TACT VENI > cre taconet Sear asu tarath na beparce stan Sp Sei eehGar ti © 144
AtcoHo..—William de B. Mac Nider, M.D..............+. 150
DRAINAGE OF NortTH CAROLINA Swamp LANps.—Joseph

WTR TC RGELS or ts 2) eta ates scl Utabat/ave: Suaverattere cateric.io)c, AM alee hase 158
Tue MiInerAL PropuctTion IN NortH CaAroLINA DURING

LOOG—NOSEDIECTAVOE PVE acs a. e chopsialeia ead leis «aim ecdeie 164

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF THE CAROLINAS.—IV. C. Coker. .168

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JOURNAL
Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

VOL. XXV NOW?

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC
SOCIETY, NOVEMBER 1907 TO MARCH 1909

173RpD Meetinc, NovEMBER 12, 1907

W.C. Coker: A Trip to Porto Rico. Illustrated with lantern
slides and many botanical specimens.

174TH MEETING, JANUARY 10, 1908.

Dr. Styles, of the U. S. Marine Hospital Service, lectured on
“The Condition of Cotton Mill Operatives in the South.’’

175TH MEETING, JANUARY 14, 1908.

H. V. Wilson: Some Phenomena of Coalescence and Regenera-
tion in Sponges.

Chas. H. Herty: The Volatile Oils of Pinus taeda and Pinus
echinata.

Chas. H. Herty: The Analytical Control of Cotton Seed Oil
Manufacture.

176TH Meetine, Fepruary 12, 1908.

Collier Cobb: The Cause of Karthquakes in the Light of Recent
Earthquake Action. Illustrated.

1909] 1

2 JoURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ April

177TH Meetine, Marcu 31, 1908.

Archibald Henderson: Photography as a Fine Art.
A. S. Wheeler: Color Photography.

178TH Mererine, Aprit 28, 1908.

William Cain: Stresses in Masonry.
Wm. DeB. MacNider: Patholological Effect of Alcohol upon
Animals.
BustnEss MEETING, SEPTEMBER, 22, 1908.

The meeting was called to order by President Coker. The fol-
lowing officers were elected to serve for the ensuing year.

President: Archibald Henderson.

Vice-President: A. H. Patterson.

Permanent Secretary: F. P. Venable.

Recording Secretary: A. S. Wheeler.

Editorial Committee: W. C. Coker, Chairman; J. E. Latta,
J. E. Mills.

179TH MretTING, OcTroBER 13, 1908.

H, N. Eaton: Results of the Microscopic Study of the Slate
near Chapel Hill.

J. HE. Mills: Chemical Energy.

H. V. Wilson: A Further Contribution on the Regenerative
Power of Sponge Cells.

180TH Meeting, NovEMBER 10, 1908.

Chas. H. Herty: Determination of Oil in Cotton Seed Pro-
ducts.

Collier Cobb: Geological Trip in Southern Europe in the Sum-
mer of 1908.

181sr Mretinc, Fepruary 9, 1909.

W. C. Coker: A Visit to Luther Burbank in California. Tllus-
trated with lantern slides and specimens of Burbank’s productions.

A.S. WHEELER,
Recording Secretary.

THE FOUNDATIONS OF SCIENCE*

BY J. E. MILLS

I have thought for years and the conviction has grown stronger
with each passing year, that much needless confusion existed
among scientists regarding those broad principles upon which all
science is founded. The student of science at first accepts the
various definitions, laws, theories, and explanations, with which
he is fed, with either an unquestioning obedience, or with a feeling
of utter helplessness. Later he finds that his first learned defini-
tions, laws, theories, and explanations, are incomplete or faulty
or open to question on various grounds. What guide has he
enabling him to climb above the confusion ?

Chemists, certainly, have provided the chemists with none.
There is an idea abroad among chemists that any discussions of
the first and deepest principles of science are bound to be fruit-
less. Some chemists both act and talk as though they believed it
a sin to look beyond and around the test tube which they hold in
their hand. They imagine that they are thereby enabled to con-
fine themselves to “‘facts’’ and they regard with more or less ill-
concealed scorn the Brother chemist who refuses to be content
with the fact but who insists on trying to obtain an explanation
of the fact.

This attitude on the part of chemists, and it is true, I think,
more particularly of American chemists, has to my mind been
productive of a simply vast and untold amount of harm. For
this attitude has discouraged the formal discussion, statement,
and development, of the broad and underlying principles of science
by scientists. We permit the philosopher to discuss these things
but the philosopher too often lacks the knowledge and insight of

*Address of the President before the North Carolina Section of the A mer-
ican Chemical Society, Raleigh, N. C., Jan. 9th, 1909.

1909) 3

4 JoURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ April

the scientist. We make a great mistake when we ignore, discour-
age, or ridicule the philosopher when he undertakes to consider
the foundations of science. We should help him. Or rather we
should absorb his knowledge. For the philosopher is trying to
state certain broad principles underlying science and our ignorance
of these first principles has led to a needless confusion, permitted
many false explanations to become fastened on our science, and
has turned many away from fruitful fields of investigation.

I have not overstated the case. I will give examples later of
some of the many absurdities that are of every day occurence
among us. But let us first consider briefly the origin of our
knowledge.

There is a reality. No matter from what standpoint viewed,
this much, we think, is admitted in all philosophies. There is,
it seems to me, no more certain, and in fact no other ground
upon which to rest such a conclusion than the ‘Cogito, ergo sum’’
of Descartes. I think, therefore ] am. Our consciousness of the
simplest mental act, of sensation, or of thought, or of volition, is
sufficient to establish the fact. Our first conclusion is, that there is
a reality. I think, therefore, at least J exist.

What more can we learn of this reality whose existence we are
compelled to acknowledge ?

Our sensations are often deceptive and they may be always
deceptive. Therefore we cannot trust them to give us any abso-
lutely certain evidence about reality. Even were another sensa-
tion to be discovered we could never be sure that it would not
likewise prove deceitful. The only thing of which I may be
absolutely certain is that I exist. I think, therefore I exist. All
else may be a dream. I may be the reality and the entire reality.
There may be nothing but ideas, impressions. Or I may be but
a part of one vast machine. We cannot with certainty condemn
either the idealist or the materialist from this standpoint.

It has been pointed out that we have an equal right to declare,
‘‘Cogito, ergo cogitatio est’’, “I think, therefore thought is’’,
which is true. But the conclusion that there is a non-ego as well
as an ego—a thought as well as athinker—does not necessarily
follow. For when we come to consider the bottom of the matter
the ‘‘thinker’’ and the “‘thought’’ may be one and the same thing.

1909 | THE FouNDATIONS OF SCIENCE 5

True we have a very strong conviction that they are not the same
thing, but this conviction is not absolute certainty. Since the
actual nature both of the ‘‘ego’’ and of the “‘thought’’ is
unknown, it becomes evident from the start that we cannot prove
either their identity or their difference.

There is a reality—there absolute certainty ends. Upon this
much all philosophers are practically agreed,

The second step in our search for knowledge is an assumption.
Mathematics, physics, chemistry, all human knowledge, even
reason itself, rests upon the following assumption :—

Likenesses and differences exist and can be recognized by us. Tf
likenesses and differences did not exist and if you could not recog-
nize these likenesses or differences you could not tell a friend
from an enemy, you could not tell a good reason from a bad one,
or a right conclusion from a wrong one.

Here science makes its start. The knowledge that we gain
from day to day, or the knowledge that has come down to us from
other laborers of other days, is derived mainly at least, and some
believe that it is entirely derived, from a comparison of one object
with another. We compare lengths, volumes, weights, colors,
sounds, temperatures, and in short every property which will
serve to distinguish two objects. If I wish to compare the lengths
of two rivers, I cannot move the rivers side by side for compari-
son and so I compare each river with the length of a certain chain
and draw my conclusion. But whether the comparison is direct
or indirect, its nature is the same. No conclusion can be drawn
where there is no common basis of comparison, where no common
measuring stick exists. Thus no conclusion can be drawn from
the comparison of a red light and a certain note of music.

The value of the comparison depends on the correctness of the
conclusion drawn when the two objects are compared, and the
correctness of the conclusion depends upon two things—the com-
parison and the mind. You must make the comparison carefully
and you must trust the testimony of your mind as to the existence
of the likeness or difference. I wish to emphasize the fact, that
when the comparison has been carefully made, you are obliged to
trust the testimony of your mind as to the existence of a likeness
or difference. If you cannot trust your mind to give you a true

6 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ April

conclusion when the facts are accurately presented you cannot do
business as a scientist or as a thinker.

The third point to which I wish to call your attention is the fact
that the human mind holds certain beliefs with a tenacity which
nothing can shake. Thus if I make the statement that “Two
straight lines cannot enclose a space’’, you will agree that it is
true. More than this you will agree that it is true of all straight
lines. And you will agree immediately, and without argument,
and with just as great a feeling of certainty after the first instant
of thought as you will ever subsequently possess. Thinking about
the matter, or seeing other straight lines, does not imerease the
first feeling of certainty which you had. Similarly you will agree
at once that ‘‘Through a given point only one line can be drawn
parallel to another given straight line’’. Also you wili agree that
‘‘Nothing can both be and not be’’. You will agree that the
‘‘Whole is always greater than any one of its parts’’, and also
that ‘‘The sums of equals are equal’’. Such statements are called
axioms. Euclid called them xkowat évvovaZ, or “‘common notions’’,
and that is, perhaps, a better name.

Now why are we so certain of the truth of these and similar state-
ments or axioms? Or as Sir J. S. Mill put the query “‘Why is a
single instance, in some cases, sufficient for a complete induction,
while in others, myriads of concurring instances, without a single
exception, known or presumed, go such a very little way towards
establishing a universal proposition ?’? Some believe that this
intuitive conviction of the truth of certain statements is simply in
the nature of a necessary condition of our thinking faculty.
Others that this intuitive knowledge is in the nature of a free gift
with our minds. Others that even such truths are the result of
experience. And yet others, recognizing that our conviction of
the truth of these statements cannot be wholly the result of our
own experience, would have us attribute our belief to the experi-
ence of our ancestors, and if we are evolutionists, we may trace
our feeling back to the monkey and the primordial germ.

Those philosophers who contend that all of our knowledge is
derived from experience really seem to have the best of the argument.
For we know that most of our knowledge is derived from experience.
As we make wider generalizations the laws seem to us to possess a

1909] THE FouNDATIONS oF SCIENCE ri

greater certainty. What then is the advantage of resting even our
most fundamental axioms on any other ground? Moreover incon-
ceivability cannot be made a criterion of impossibility for man’s
ability to conceive of a thing of which he has had no suggestion is
certainly very doubtful, if not admitted as an impossibility.
And this fact alone, perhaps, explains our feeling of complete
certainty when we give voice to fundamental axioms. [If to all
this Mr. Spencer’s evolution theory of an inherited experience be
added, there is an a priori conviction (feeling) that certain axioms
are true so far as any particular individual is concerned. It is
therefore impossible to dislodge by any argument these philoso-
phers from their position.

On the other hand so far as the individual himself is concerned,
it is certain, that there is a very great difference between the
knowledge which he derives from his own direct experience, and
the knowledge which he possesses apparently intuitively, and
after all, it may be, that this intuitive knowledge is not the result
of experience.

It is useless to follow the argument here. The scientist is not
concerned primarily with the dispute as to the origin of these
common notions which have been recognized and stated as axioms.
From the standpoint of science the primary question is “‘Are
these axioms true’’?? And if we say axioms are true then “‘What
test can be adopted which will enable us to decide upon what an
axiom really is?’’ We will define an axiom as a statement whose
truth our minds will not allow us to deny and of whose falsity our
minds cannot even conceive. If we accept the view of those who
believe in an intuitive source of knowledge, then all axioms are
equally true, and we must follow the intuition of our minds and
accept those truths declared by our minds to be self-evident and
impossible of contradiction. If on the other hand we agree with
those men who think that all of our knowledge is derived from
experience, or from the inherited experience of jour ancestors, we
cannot declare that any axioms are necessarily true. For accept-
ing this point of view we must recollect that there may have been
a mistake about the impressions all the way down the line from
the primordial germ through the monkey tothe man. And besides
there may be experiences in store for us of a kind which it was

8 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY April]

not the good fortune of our ancestors to have had. Thus each
axiom becomes separately a subject of doubt.

We would, however, point out that no matter what our view as
to the origin of our belief in the axioms, to deny the truth of
the axioms is to deny the testimony of our own consciousness.
And we must believe in the truth of the testimony of our minds
if we would reason at all. This we have already made clear.
You cannot deny the testimony of your consciousness and yet
continue to reason, for the belief that your mind will give you a
true judgement when the facts are accurately presented before it
constitutes the very foundation of the reasoning process. If you
agree with this idea then follow me to its conclusion.

Can you conceive of motion without something moved? Is not
the idea of motion necessarily connected with the idea of a ‘‘some-
thing’’ that is moved? If your minds tell you that this idea is true,
that it is necessarily true, and if you can not conceive of a contrary
condition, then put this idea down as an axiom of science.

Again, can you conceive of a body acting where it is not across
an absolutely empty intervening space? If you cannot, then let
us put down as another axiom of science the fact, that a body
cannot act where it is not, except through the intervention of
another body.

Other axioms of science might be stated. For instance it might
be stated that ‘‘The fundamental particle, or part, of matter can
not be elastic’. Many physicists would regard such a statement
as beneath their notice. Yet it is nevertheless true that the prop-
erty of elasticity implies a motion of certain portions of a body
with reference to other portions of the same body, and so long as
we have this relative motion of certain parts with reference to
other parts we have not yet reached the final division limit of the
body.

Personally I believe that the law of the conservation of matter
and the law of the conservation of energy would both appear as
axioms if we only understood more thoroughly the nature of
matter and of energy. Likewise Newton’s three laws of motion
would doubtless appear to be axioms.

This morning I am not attempting to make a list of the axioms
of science, nor shall I attempt here to trace out the consequences

1909 | THE FOUNDATIONS OF SCIENCE 9

that would follow from those already mentioned. The conse-
quences are, I may say in passing, I think, both important and
surprising. Ido wish to emphasize this morning that chem-
istry and physics have as much right to these axioms as a mathe-
matician has to the axioms of geometry. They rest upon precisely
the same ground. They are common notions in which we are
compelled to believe by the testimony of our minds. Moreover I
wish to emphasize that a clear statement of these fundamental
axioms and principles, and a clear understanding of them, would
prevent many absurdities which act continually asa drawback toa
greater advancement. I will give some concrete illustrations of
my meaning.

1. How often do we find a statement that such and such a thing
has been proved as a result of a mathematical investigation. Now
a mathematical investigation can obtain as a result absolutely
nothing that was not contained in the premises. The result may
be given ina vastly more digested and convenient form. But
nothing which was not contained, openly or concealed, in the
premises, can be obtained in the conclusion. You cannot get
more out of a mathematical process than you put in.

2. An investigation is often damned unjustly by a reviewer as
being theoretical merely because it contains mathematics. A paper
may be largely of a mathematical character and yet be in nosense
more theoretical than is many a simple laboratory measurement
or research.

3. Note the most advanced theory of our atom as given by the
most advanced physicist of the present time, Sir J. J. Thompson.
“‘Our atom therefore, we assume to be a sphere of positive electri-
fication enclosing a number of negatively electrified corpuscles.’’
If you look upon that idea as an assumption made to enable one
to treat mathematically two opposing forces capable of producing
equilibrium I have no fault to find. But if you-are led away to
worship that idea with a species of ancestor worship as represent-
ing the skeleton forefather of the ordinary atom your conscience
should trouble you whether it does or not. The idea of having a
shell or sphere made of nothing so that we may not be unduly
troubled with questions about it is ingenious we admit, but does
your mind consent to believe it true ?

10 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ Aprel

4. It is a known fact that if you pass an electric current through
a solution of copper sulphate the copper is given off at one elec-
trode and the SO, at the other, and one atom of copper is liberated
for each atom of SO, and both atoms are liberated at the same
time. Now to explain a certain change that takes place in the
concentration of the solution around the electrodes Prof. Ostwald
has attempted to show that the ions of Cu and of SO, can move
with different velocities across the same space and yet be given off at
the same time. And that very ingenious “‘explanation’’ has been
copied in nearly every physics, and physical-chemical, and electro-
chemical text-book of the last ten years with a faith that passeth
all understanding.

5. Another curious illustration of the absolute disregard of the
testimony of our consciousness is the attempt to do away alto-
gether with the idea of matter and to substitute energy as the
kernel of all things. I cannot stop to discuss the reasons advanced
for the change. I would only point out that whatever reasons
may be advanced the position is an unsound one unless your mind
can be made to give its consent. And neither your mind nor my
mind can conceive of a world in which things do not occupy space.

T have a text-book on physical chemistry written by Prof. C. L.
Speyers of Rutgers College in 1897 from this point of view. He
tries hard to get along without the use of the terms, atom, mole-
cule, and matter, I quote two paragraphs from his book: —

‘‘In ordinary chemical language we say chemical reaction takes
place between definite weights of matter. In our language we
should say the relation between the intensities of the distance
energies (gravity energies) of two or more collections reacting to
form another definite collection is fixed.

When two substances combine in more than one proportion to
form two or more bodies, in ordinary chemical language we should
say the ratio of the varying substance to the fixed substance is in
general more or less simple. In our language we should say when
two collections are capable of uniting to form more than one new
collection by their union, the ratio of the intensity of the gravity
energy in the varying collection to the intensity of the gravity
energy in the fixed collection is in general more or less simple.”’

The man is not crazy. Heis simply carrying to an extreme

[7909 THE FOUNDATIONS OF SCIENCE 11

just the same ideas possessed by a good many other leading
chemists.

6. Less curious, but perhaps even further wrong than the idea
just mentioned, is the idea that we can talk about energy scien-
tifically without making any assumptions regarding its nature.
Now it was early recognized by the Greek and Roman philoso-
phers, and I understand that much of their thought probably
came from a far earlier Eastern philosophy, that if we considered
matter to exist it could be divided. These parts could be divided
again, and soon, until the very interesting question was presented,
When, if ever, would the possibility of division stop? Chemists
recognize as steps in this division the molecule, the atom, and
perhaps the corpuscle or electron. Now many scientists seem to
possess the idea that no such question necessarily arises regarding
energy ? They say in effect, ‘“We know nothing of the nature of
energy and why therefore discuss its divisibility or indivisibility ?
We make no assumptions concerning it one way or the other’’. I
would answer this fallacy by an illustration. If I say one-third of the
people ina car were killed in a certain railroad wreck my statement
seems all right perhaps, but if there were ten people in the car then
my statement is seen to be absurd. Jf you make no assumption
about the nature of energy then you cannot treat energy mathe-
matically. Euclid overlooked a certain axiom concerning space
which modern geometricians recognize as being necessary, namely,
that ‘‘Space is continuous’’. Modern scientists should not over-
look the assumptions made regarding energy. The continuity or
the divisibility of energy is a problem exactly on a par with the
problem as to the continuity or divisibility of matter ?

7. Physicists and chemists do not stand alone in their attempts
to thrust aside the testimony of their minds as to one concept,
and to accept at the very same time the conclusions of the very
same mind regarding other things. Thus there are a good many
mathematicians who speak of the possibility of a space of ‘‘n’’
dimensions. Now we can conceive of a point, of a line, of a sur-
face, and of a solid. And we understand quite readily that one
unknown quantity might be used to fix the position of a point on
a line, that two might be used to define or to represent points on
a plane surface, and that similarly three would serve to indicate

12 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [| April

the points in a solid. We understand quite as readily that an
equation with four unknown quantities, or with five unknown
quantities, can be constructed, and that this equation would like-
wise represent certain relations between the unknown quantities.
But to declare that this equation also might represent space is as
meaningless as it would be to declare that it represents time.
Such a declaration is certainly contrary to the testimony of the
very same mind that we have used as our guide in the mathemat-
ical reasoning, and to accept its conclusions at one point and reject
them at another is an entirely indefensible position.

8. Non-Euclidean geometry is an illustration of the same method
of proceedure. Gauss undertook to investigate mathematically the
properties which a surface must possess in order to permit figures
to be moved about upon the surface without altering the shape or
the size of the figures. He found that there were three classes of
such surfaces. A plane surface, the surface of a sphere and the
surface of a figure which became known as the pseudo-sphere.
Lobatchewsky, a pupil of Gauss, undertook a similar investigation
regarding space. What properties must space possess in order
that bodies could be moved about in the space from one part of the
space to another without altering the shape or the size of the
bodies? He found similarly three classes of equations, one repre-
senting the ordinary Euclidean, or plane space, the others cor-
responding to the sphere and the pseudo-sphere of the inves-
tigation carried on by Gauss. Many wonderful results fol-
lowed from these investigations and [am not intending to detract
from the value of that work, or of similar work. But one of the
results arrived at was, that in ““plane’’ space only, was the follow-
ing axiom true: —‘ ‘Through a given point only one straight line can
be drawn parallel to a given straight line.’’ In both the ‘‘spherical’’
and the ““pseudo-spherical’’ space this axiom was untrue. NowI
do not question the correctness of the work or of the equations.
But I do question that we have a right, because of them, to cast
aside the unmistakably clear belief in the above axiom forced upon
us by our minds. Whatever the other equations may represent,
or whatever their meaning, we have no right to violate the testi-
mony of the mind that derived them, and declare that they repre-
sent space.

[7909 THE FOUNDATIONS OF SCIENCE 13

I have not time this morning to give further illustrations of my
statement that the lack of knowledge of the first principles of
science, as shown by scientists, is the cause of much needless con-
fusion. If I were to point out individual errors due to this cause
that have come to my attention I would occupy the entire day.
These errors are caused, not by any failure of our minds to give
usa true judgement, but by our own failure to read carefully
the answer which our mind has given. If in the last analysis the
testimony of consciousness cannot be trusted we had just as well
give up the search for truth. We cannot hope to attain to any
absolute knowledge or full conception of any of the more elemen-
tary ideas such as time, space, matter, motion, or energy. But
we may attain to a partial knowledge of these ideas and this par-
tial knowledge, we trust, may represent the reality truly, so far as
it represents it at all. And in attempting to attain this partial
knowledge, if one goes directly contrary to the testimony of one’s
mind as to the possibility or impossibility of a conception, one
should not forget that the process of denying the truth of the testi-
mony of consciousness once begun, can be as legitimately extended
to an absolute agnosticism. Must be so extended, if one is con-
sistent. Ifa scientist should wish to introduce into his science an
idea which is contrary to the conception of things imposed upon
him by his mind, let him do so. But he should himself under-
stand, and he should make clear to others, that he has not only
contradicted one particular ““necessary concept’’ of his mind, but
that in so doing he has inaugurated a process which could consistently
be extended so as to undermine his whole structure. A scientist may
state that matter may be but a center of force, and we have
no fault to find. But he has no right, in the next breath, to
swear by the result of a mathematical investigation which involves
axioms resting upon the same ground as the one that he has just
contradicted. If greater attention were given to the foundations
of science doubtless some phenomena would remain ‘‘unexplained’’
but some very confusing ideas would be banished from the domain
of science.

In conclusion I would ask those who are here today, if your
mind has agreed with the ideas presented, to endeavor so far as it
may be in your power, to bring about among chemists a clearer

14 Tue JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society [April

recognition of the service which a discussion of the first principles
of science would render to chemistry. The attitude of chemists
and of other scientists, is today so pronounced in opposition to
such discussion that it is exceedingly rare to find a text-book
which even alludes to the subject. Nowhere today, does a scien-
tific student, who has not read or studied philosophy as well,
obtain an idea of the basis of thought, or of mathematics, or even
of science itself. Disagree with me you may concerning some of
the particular statements that I have made this morning. But
your very disagreement itself speaks in favor of a discussion of
these first principles in order that we may the sooner clear away
the misunderstandings which exist. At present one can hardly
attempt their discussion without losing in some measure the
respect of his fellow scientists. My brethren these things ought
not so to be.

CuHapPeL Hitt, N. C.

5-BROM-2-AMINOBENZOIC ACID, A NEW PREPARATION

ALVIN S. WHEELER

The original object of this investigation was to convert trichlor-
ethylidene-o-aminobenzoic acid’ into a compound containing an
asymmetric carbon atom by means of bromine or hydrobromic
acid, thus CC],CH : NC,H,COOH=CCLCHBrNBrC,H,COOH. A gla-
cial acetic acid solution of the unsaturated compound absorbs bro-
mine instantly in the cold with'the immediate formation of a white
precipitate. A Carius determination showed a marked deficiency
of halogen and displacement of the bromine in the silver precipitate
proved the entire absence of chlorine in the substance. Further
proof that the chloral residue was split off was found in an exami-
nation of of the acetic acid filtrate. This was made alkaline, then
acid with tartaric acid and distilled in steam. A large quantity
of chloroform passed over with steam. The product was there-
fore a simpler derivative of anthranilic acid than the one looked
for. Since the break occurs at the double bond, it might be a
nitrogen bromide I or II, or the hydrobromide of a bromanthran-
ilic acid IIT.

I Ir I
NBr, NHBr NH..HBr
( ' COOH ; COOH ~ COOH
u/ PEN Ba

Difficulty was experienced in obtaining products of the same
melting point, different solvents giving slightly varying results.
While none of the reactions of the nitrogen halides as indicated
by Chattaway and Orton* could be obtained, it was thought this

1 Niementowski and Orzechowski, Ber. 28,2812; also Wheeler, Jr. Am.
Chem. Soe, 30,139.
* Chattaway and Orton, J. Chem. Soc. 75,1046.

1909] 15

16 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [April

might be due to the insolubility of the compound. But the idea
of a nitrogen bromide was abandoned when it was observed that
cold water immediately and completely removed one molecule of
hydrobromic acid, showing the substance to be the salt of broma-
minobenzoic acid. It is still hoped to isolate in some way the
nitrogen bromide which must certainly be the first product of the
reaction. The case is an especially interesting one because it is
quite unique in that the substance employed contains the group-
ing -N=X and so seems to offer an unusually good chance to form
a nitrogen halide.

Tt was next observed that direct bromination of anthranilic acid
in glacial acetic acid solution gave a similarly large yield of the
bromaminobenzoic acid hydrobromide. The reaction therefore
offers a new method of preparing this acid far superior in point of
time and convenience to the method of Alt which has been
recently used by Bogert and Hand.* This old method consists in
brominating o-acettoluide, oxidizing the brom-o-acettoluide with
permanganate and saponifying the bromacetanthranilic acid.
The method requires as many days as this new method requires
hours. A comparison of the bromination of the chloral-anthran-
ilic acid and of anthranilic acid shows that the chloral residue has
some influence on the course of the reaction.

Bromination of ‘chloral-anthranilic acid. 5-Brom-2-aminobenzoic
acid hydrobromide, CH,COOHBrNH,.HBr. A saturated solution
of chloral-anthranilic acid (m. 152°) was made by dissolving 13.3
grams in 100 cc glacial acetic acid by warming and then cooling
nearly to the room temperature. Bromine, 8 grams, was added
drop by drop with stirring. Crystals began to form before half
of the bromine was added. Finally a very thick pulp was obtain-
ed, the temperature having risen to about 45.° The proportions
of the materials were 1 molecule of acid and 2 atoms of bromine.
The precipitate was filtered off and washed several times with ben-
zene. The compound so obtained is snow white and nearly pure.
It gives a melting point of 238-40°, decomposing and becoming

1 Alt, Ber. 22, 1645, (1889).
2 Bogert and Hand, Jr. Amer. Chem. Soc. 27,1476 (1905).

1909) 5-BromM-2-AMINOBENZOIC ACID 17

an indigo blue liquid immediately above this temperature. The
yield was equal to the weight of the chloral-anthranilic acid used
or 91 per cent of the theoretical. Analysis: calculated for
C,H,O,NBr,, Br 53.86, found, Br 53.40, 54.16, 53.45.

The hydrobromide is broken down at once by cold water into
the free amine and hydrobromic acid which accounts for difficul-
ties arising in recrystallizing from solvents not especially dried.
It is insoluble in ether, benzene, ligroin, carbon tetrachloride and
chloroform, slightly soluble when these solvents are hot. It is
insoluble in cold glacial acetic acid but soluble in about 150 parts
when boiling, separating out in needles. It is rather soluble in
cold absolute alcohol, soluble in 6 parts when boiling, crystal-
lizing out in needles grouped in rosettes.

5-Brom-2-aminobenzore acid. C,H,COOHBrNH,. Although the
acid is set free from its hydrobromide by cold water, hot water
was used in order to effect a recrystallization of the acid simul-
taneously. The acid was found to agree in all its properties with
the acid as described by Alt and later by Bogert and Hand except
in one particular. Alt gives the melting point as 211-211.5°
(uneor) while Bogert and Hand give 219-220° (cor.). Our acid
melts at 215-216° (uncor) or 218-219° (cor), in practical agree-
ment with Bogert and Hand. We have observed further that a
partial decomposition takes place. As Alt has stated an aqueous
solution of the acid turns violet in the sunlight and a solution of
its ammonium salt gives colored precipitates with certain other
salts. Its acetyl derivative consists of splendid prisms, melting
at 218-220°. Alt gives 214-215°. Analysis: calculated for
C,H,O,NBr, Br 31.01: found, Br 31.62. The position of the bro-
mine atom was positively located by conversion of the acid into
m-brombenzoic acid by the diazo reaction.

Bromination of Chloral-di-anthranilic Acid. This acid is de-
scribed by Niementowski’ and by Wheeler and Dickson’. 2.0
grams of chloral-di-anthranilic acid (1 mol) were dissolved in 30
ce glacial acetic acid and treated with 1.6 grams (2 mols) bro-

1 Niementowski, Ber. 34,3898 (1902).
2 Wheeler aud Dickson, this Journal, 30,140 (1908).

is JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | April

mine. The abundant white precipitate was worked up as in the
previous case. The yield was 2.7 grams or 91.5 per cent of the
theoretical. The melting point was 238-239° with decomposition
to an indigo blue liquid. Cold water removed one molecule of
hydrobromic acid. The residue was recrystallized from water,
forming needles melting at 215-216° with partial decomposition.
The reaction is therefore identical with bromination of chloral-
mono-anthranilie acid.

Rapid Preparation of 5-Brom-2-aminobenzoic Acid. First Method,
with Use of Chloral. Since it is immaterial whether the chloral-
mono-anthranilic acid or the chloral-di-anthranilice acid is used in
the bromination, the products of the action of chloral upon
anthranilic acid need not be separated. 25 grams of anthranilic
acid are rubbed up in a mortar to a powder, 27.5 grams of chloral
are added and the mixture is rapidly triturated a few minutes.
The mass partially liquifies with the development of heat and then
becomes quite hard. It is at once dissolved in 350 ce glacial
acetic acid by warming and then cooled to 16°. Bromine,
29.4 grams, is added slowly enough to keep the temperature from
rising above 16°, the beaker being surrounded by cold water.
The precipitate is filtered off and washed with benzene. It melts
at 239-240° and weighs 51 grams or 94 per cent of the theoretical.
Its conversion into the free acid and its purification were effected
as follows. 5 grams of the hydrobromide were boiled up in 250
ce water three times, filtering hot with suction into a flask stand-
ing in boiling water. The filtrates were cooled by surrounding
with ice water and then filtered. Extract I, m. 215-216°, weight
1.35 gram; extract IT, m. 215-216°, weight, 0.95 gram; extract
Ill, m. 208-210,° weight, 0.35 gram. Insoluble residue none.
By adding 3 volumes of water to the glacial acetic acid filtrate, a
precipitate was obtained, melting at 185-200° and weighing 0.3
gram. Analysis of this product showed it to be a tribromamino-
benzoic acid. The bromine (29.4 g) is accounted for as follows:
2 g lost in the original preparation, 14.7 g are lostas HBr, 10.4 g
appear in the 5-brom-2-aminobenzoic acid, 1.9 g appear in the
tribromaminobenzoic acid. The balance, 1.4 g, disappear in the
mother liquors. Recrystallization of extract I from toluene effected
no rise In melting point. In some preparations the first extracts

1909 5-Brom-2-AMINOBENZOIC ACID 19

were not quite so pure and one recrystallization from toluene was
necessary. At no time was boneblack necessary as in the old
method. Analysis: calculated for C,H,O,NBr, Br 37.04; found,
Br 37.39.

Second Method. Direct Bromination of Anthranilic Acid. (With
W. M. Oates.) 25 grams anthranilic acid were dissolved in 250
ce glacial acetic acid and cooled to 15-16°. Bromine, 29.4 grams,
was added slowly enough to keep the temperature from rising.
Further procedure was the same as described above. The product
melted at 236-238° and weighed 51.5 grams which is 95.3 per
cent of the theoretical. Conversion and purification were carried
out as already described. 5 grams of the hydrobromide gave the
following results: extract I, m. 212-214°, weight, 1.4 g; extract
Il, m. 212-214°, weight, 0.8 g; extract III, m. 203-205°, weight,
0.3 g; extract IV, m. 226-232,° weight, 0.1 g. Undissolved resi-
due, m. 228-230°, weight, 0.4g. The first extract was recrystal-
lized from toluene and analyzed. Analysis: calculated for C,H,-
O,NBr, Br 37.04; found, Br 37.44, 37.65. The undissolved resi-
due, m. 228-230°, was also analyzed. Analysis: calculated for
C,H.O,NBr,, Br 54.24; found, Br 52.18. It was therefore a
dibrom derivative of anthranilic acid. The bromine, 29.4 grams,
is accounted for as follows: 1.7 g lost in the origina! preparation;
13.8 g lost as HBr, 9.5 g appear in the 5-brom-2-aminobenzoic
acid; 2.8 g appear in the dibrom anthranilic acid and the bal-
ance, 1.6 g,!are lost in the mother liquors. The acetic acid fil-
trate in this method of preparation did not yield any precipitate
on the addition of water. A comparison of results in the two
methods is as follows:

E iat
Mainly 5-brom-2-aminobenzoic acid = Similar amount
Small amount tribrom acid No tribrom acid
No dibrom acid Small amount dibrom acid

m-Brombenzoic Acid. This acid was prepared in order to locate
positively the bromine atom in the bromaminobenzoic acid
described in this paper. It proved to be a convenient method of
preparation because the product is so quickly purified, which can

20 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ April

not be said of the product of the action of bromine on benzoic
acid. 5.0 grams 5-brom-2-aminobenzoic acid were dissoved in 50
ec absolute aleohol. After the addition of 5 g H,SO,, con., the
solution was brought to boiling and 2.5 g NaNO, dissolved in a
very little water were added. The solution was filtered from the
sodium sulphate and added to a large volume of water. The
pinkish colored precipitate was filtered off and dried. It showed
a melting point of 145-147° and weighed 8.82 g or 82 per cent of
the theoretical. On recrystallizing from boiling water a very
small amount of a dark red substance was gotten rid of and the
m-brombenzoic acid was obtained in pure condition, m. 154°.
Analysis: calculated for C,H,O,Br, Br 39.80; found, Br 39.37.

University of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill, N. C.
February 25, 1909.

RAPID DETERMINATION OF OIL IN COTTONSEED
PRODUCTS*

BY CHAS. H. HERTY, F. B. STEM AND M. ORR
Received November 10, 1908.

In the manufacture of cottonseed oil the delinted seeds are cut
and the meats or kernels separated mechanically from the hulls.
The meats are then mashed between heavy rollers, cooked in
steam-jacketed vessels, and the oil expressed by hydraulic pres-
sure. The determination of oil in the hulls gives a measure of
the completeness of the separation of the meats from the hulls,
while the oil content of the meal affords a control of the charac-
ter of the press work. It would seem, therefore, that a prompt
and constant knowledge of the oil content of the hulls and meal
would be indispensable in the operation of a mill. Towever
desirable, this is by no means the case in actual practice. Two
explanations suggest themselves: first, the organization of the
industry; second, the method of analysis employed. The erec-
tion of many small mills is made necessary by the bulky charac-
ter of the cottonseed, with its consequent cost of transportation,
and by the impossibility of storing large quantities of seed for
any great length of time without marked deterioration. The out-
put of many of these small mills is not sufficient to justify the
employment of a trained chemist, and the time required for
obtaining an analysis from a distant laboratory largely discounts
the value of the knowledge gained, except in extreme cases. But
even if a laboratory is close at hand, or in the mill itself, five or
six hours must elapse before the result of the analysis reaches the
mill from the laboratory, this on account of the method of analy-
sis employed. A more general resort to chemical control could be

*Reprinted from the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry,
Vol. 1, No. 2, February. 1909.
1909| 21

22 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [April

expected, therefore, if a simple and rapid method of analysis
were available. The present investigation has been undertaken in
the hope of filling this need. Furthermore, the purchase of cot-
tonseed by the mills is conducted regardless of the oil content of
the seed. It is hoped that the rapid method here described may
be of some service in this important matter.

OBJECTIONS TO PRESENT METHOD

The method of analysis usually employed consists in extracting
the oil from a sample in a Soxhlet extractor with redistilled, low-
boiling petroleum ether, evaporating the extractive and weighing
the residual oil.

The objections to the method are:

First, the extraction must be conducted at a relatively low tem-
perature, this being determined by the temperature of the con-
densed extractive dropping upon the sample from the condenser
above.

Second, in the Soxhlet apparatus it is necessary not only to
completely extract the oil but to transfer it completely to the
flask below by repeated siphonings.

Third, considerable time is consumed in the complete evapora-
tion of the extractive.

Fourth, the limitation to a comparatively small sample of the
substance.

Fifth, the danger from fire.

Sixth, the necessity of using rather expensive apparatus and
the need of a supply of running water for the condensers.

Seventh, the necessity of employing a trained chemist to con-
duct the operations.

PROPOSED METHOD

It is believed that all of these objections are met in the method
here proposed. It consists in digesting a definite and relatively
large quantity of the substance with a definite volume of carbon
tetrachloride in a loosely stoppered Erlenmeyer flask for 15 min-
utes at a temperature of approximately 60° C., cooling to room
temperature, shaking thoroughly, filtering and determining the
specific gravity and temperature of the filtered extract. From

1909) Ort IN CoTronsEED Propuctrs 23

these observations the per cent. of oil is calculated. Detailed
directions for the analysis of the several products follow:

Meal.—Forty grams of the thoroughly mixed sample of meal
are transferred to a 250 cc. Erlenmeyer flask, which is then
placed in a water bath previously heated to approximately 60° C.
After heating the flask about 2 minutes 100 cc. of carbon tetra-
chloride are poured gently upon the meal through a funnel reach-
ing almost to the surface of the meal. The flask is lowered in the
water until the surface of the carbon tetrachloride is lower than
that of the water, a cork loosely inserted and the extraction
allowed to proceed. Slight variations in the temperature of the
water bath do not affect the accuracy of the determination. The
minimum time for the extraction is 15 minutes, it may be longer.
When the extraction is completed the flask is cooled to room tem-
perature, thoroughly shaken and the contents strained through
wire gauze on to a folded filter, the gauze being squeezed to insure
sufficient filtrate. The clear extract is caught in a specific grav-
ity tube (5 inches by 1 inch test-tube on foot). This is filled to
within one inch of the top, then tightly corked and placed in a
vessel containing water at room temperature. After standing at
least 10 minutes the tube containing the extract is placed in a 500
ee. plain beaker containing sufficient clear water, at room temper-
ature, to reach the level of the extract in the tube. By this means
too rapid change in the temperature of the extract is avoided.
The cork is then removed, the specific gravity of the extract deter-
mined by the Westphal balance, and the temperature accurately
noted from the thermometer placed within the plummet of the
balance. Add or subtract the constant for the carbon tetrachlo-
ride in use and subtract the corrected specific gravity of the ex-
tract from that of the carbon tetrachloride shown in Table 6 at
the same temperature. This difference is divided by 0.00286.
The result is the per cent. of oil.

Fulls.—After removing whole seed from the sample of hulls, 40
grams are placed in an Erlenmeyer flask and slightly packed with
a glass rod. This is necessary to insure complete covering of the
bulky hulls by the extractive. 100 cc. of carbon tetrachloride
are added. The rest of the determination is identical with that
for meal, except that the gauze strainer is not necessary in filtering.

24 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ April

Meats. The method is the same as for meal except that 10
grams of meats are used with 100 cc. of carbon tetrachloride. The
per cent. of oi] found is multiplied by four.

Seed.—The sample of seed is thoroughly pounded in an iron
mortar and the mass passed through a meat chopper. Forty
grams are used with 200 cc. of carbon tetrachloride. The method
is the same as for meal except that the per cent. of oil found is
multiplied by two.

Experimental

THE EXTRACTION

The well known solvent power of carbon tetrachloride for fats,
its relatively high boiling point, its low heat of vaporization and
its non-combustibility, naturally suggested this substance asa sub-
stitute for gasoline and ether as the extractive. A P. Bryant,’
using a Knorr extractor, demonstrated the rapidity of extraction
of fats in foods and feedstuffs by carbon tetrachloride. But he
proposed merely the substitution of carbon tetrachloride for ether
or carbon bisulphide in the usual method of extraction and evapo-
ration of the extractive.

In the following experiments the determinations were carried
out as follows: five grams of a substance whose oil content
had been determined by the Soxhlet method were transferred to
a 500 cc. Erlenmeyer flask, 50 cc. of gasoline or carbon tetrachlo-
ride added, and the extraction allowed to proceed at room tem-
perature and without shaking, in order to avoid the sticking of
the solid particles to the walls of the flask above the extractive.
After standing a definite time the flask was thoroughly shaken in
order to insure uniformity of the extract. This was then filtered
through a dry filter paper. The amount of dissolved oil was
determined in 25 cc. of the filtrate by distilling off the extract in
a hot air bath, the temperature being quickly raised to 140° C.
during the last stages of the evaporation. The last traces of the
extractive were removed from the distillation flask by blowing
quickly into it through a glass tube inserted almost to the oily layer.
From the weight of the oil the per cent. was calculated by multi-

1 J. Am. Chem. Soc., 26, 568.

1909) Oi, IN CoYTONSEED Propucrs 25

plying by one hundred and dividing the product by two and a
half.

Cottonseed Meal.—7.29 per cent. oil by Soxhlet extraction with
gasoline.

TABLE 1
Per cent. oil Per cent. oil with

Time of extraction. with gasoline. carbon tetrachloride.

746 minutes 6.72 2.84

15) re 1.32 7.10

30 oe 7.34 7.22

60 of 7.28 7.30
120 a 1.32 7.46

To determine the influence of temperature upon the rate of
extraction by carbon tetrachloride, a series of experiments was
carried out as above except that the Erlenmeyer flasks were
placed in a water bath heated to 50° C. The results follow:

TABLE 2
Time Per cent. of oil.
334 minutes 7.08
CS ees 7.44
15 $f 7.38

The marked increase in the extraction at 50° in 7% minutes as
compared with that at room temperature for the same time led to
the hope that the time for complete extraction could be still fur-
ther diminished by carrying out the determination near the boil-
ing out the determination near the boiling point of carbon tetra-
chloride. This hope was fully justified, for by making an extrac-
tion at 70° for 3% minutes, the percentage of oil was found to be

7.30.
Cottonseed Meats. —30.27 per cent. oil by Soxhlet extraction.

TABLE 3
Time. Temperature. Per cent. of oil.
30 minutes 250 29.22
oi 0) aed 35° 29.50
210) hae 50° 30.38

30.4" 70° 30.62

26 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ April

From these determinations it is evident that the time-consum-
ing extraction with the Soxhlet apparatus is unnecessary and that
an accurate determination of the oil in these products can be made
with simple apparatus, in a much shorter time and with no dan-
ger from fire.

RAPID DETERMINATION OF OIL IN EXTRACT

In order to simplify and hasten the determination of oil in the
extract experiments were begun on the lowering of the specific
gravity of the carbon tetrachloride by the dissolved oil. The
great difference in the specific gravity of carbon tetrachloride
(1.62) and of cottonseed oil (0.92) gave a reasonable hope of
success. In order to avoid possible difference in the specific gray-
ity of the crude oil obtained from the presses and that left in the
meal the experiments were carried out on the samples of meal
whose oil content was determined in the usual manner by the
Soxhlet extractor. The simplicity of the Westphal balance sug-
gested this method of determining the specific gravity. Compari-
son of the thermemeter on the plummet of the balance used in
the investigation with a standard thermometer showed it to be
accurate between 15° and 30°.

A preliminary test, using 5 grams of meal and 50 cc. of carbon
tetrachloride, as in the above experiments on the rate of extrac-
tion, showed that the method would probably be accurate to 1 per
cent. The first step, therefore, was to determine the minimum
time and temperature for extractions of larger proportions of
meal, the volume of carbon tetrachloride being kept constant. <A
sample of cottonseed meal was passed through a 20-mesh sieve,
and thoroughly mixed. In two portions of ten grams each the
oil was determined by the Soxhlet method, using redistilled gaso-
line as the extractive in one case and chemically pure carbon tet-
rachloride in the other. With the former the percentage was
found to be 8.68; with the latter 8.67.

With this meal extractions were made according to the method
outlined above. In each case allowance was made for the con-
stantly increasing volume of oil in the extract. The results fol-
low:

1909] Or, IN CorronsEED Propucts 27

TABLE 4
Grams
of ce. of carbon Time Temper- Per cent. of oil
No. meal. tetrachloride. (minutes). ature. I Ifa
i 10 50 5 70° 8.67
2 15 50 5 70° S58) Walk:
a 20 50 5 70° 8.60 8.63
4 25 50 5 70° A era
5 30 50 5 70° bc) Jo) OC eon

From the per cent. found in No. 5 it is evident that the low
result in No. 4 was due to analytical error.

The use of 30 or even 25 grams of meal was found to be imprac-
ticable, as it was found to be impossible to secure sufficient filtrate
for use with the Westphal balance. But with 20 grams sufficient
filtrate could be obtained by using a strainer of brass or iron
gauze and squeezing the extract on to a crimped filter. In order
to avoid possible error in the specific gravity determinations due
to the small amount of filtrate the proportions were increased to
30 grams of meal and 75 cc. of carbon tetrachloride. For the
specific gravity determination a test-tube-on-foot 5 inches long and
1 inch in diameter was used. A magnifying glass was used in
reading the thermometer on the plummet of the balance.

TABLE 5

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF CARBON TETRACHLORIDE.

Temperature. Specific gravity.
15° 1.6041
20° 1.5951
25° 1.5861
30° 1.5771

Since these figures show a regular variation of 0.0090 for each 5
degrees the figures for intermediate temperatures are interpolated
as follows:

TABLE 6

Temper- Temper- Temper-
ature. Sp. gr. ature. Sp. gr. ature. Sp. gr.
15.0° 1.6041 Wie2e 1.6001 19.4° 962
Like 037 A? 1.5998 [Gy 958
142 034 16m 994 18e 955
tO 030 ge 991 20.0° 951
8° 027 18.0° 987 ‘20 947
16.0° 023 ae: 983 ay 944
Loe 019 4° 980 6° 940
.4° 016 Gu 976 3S 937
iGo 012 oy 973 20? 933
8° 009 19.0° 969 22 929

17.0° 005 2° 965 4° 926

28 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [April

2A 6° 922 24.4° 872 27.2" 821
8° 919 6° 868 4° 818
22.0° 915 8° 865 ‘On 814
2° 911 25.0° 861 {3° 811
Me 908 2° 857 28.0° 807
(on 904 4° 854 U2 803
8° 901 6° 850 4° 800
23.0° 897 8° 847 :61; 796
aoe 893 26.0° 843 282 793
4° 890 ae 839 29.0° 789
167 886 AS 836 AS 785
8) 883 165 832 4° 782
24.0° 879 wet 829 {65 778
ae 875 PA iAU 825 ety 1.5775

Meal.—To determine the lowering of the specific gravity of the
carbon tetrachloride by increasing quantities of extracted oil a
meal of known oil content (8.82 per cent.) was used. Quantities
of this meal were used representing 30-gram portions each of 5.0,
7.5, and 10.0 per cent meals; thus for

5.0 per cent. used 17.0068 grams;

7.5 per cent. used 15.5102 grams;
10.0 per cent. used 34.0135 grams.

These portions were extracted, each with 75 cc. of carbon tetra-
chloride in Erlenmeyer flasks for 5 minutes at 70°. The filtered
extracts showed the following specific gravities:

TABLE 7
Temperatures. 5 per cent. 7.5 per cent. 10 per cent.
15 1.5900 1.5830 1.5758
20° 1.5810 1.5740 1.5668
D5, 1.5720 1.5650 1.5578

The same difference in specific gravity of 0.0018 for each degree
of temperature is observed here as was found with the carbon tet-
trachloride alone, but the decrease in specific gravity due to the
increasing quantities of oil is not quite so regular. Thus the
decrease due to the oil in 30 grams of a 5 per cent. meal is 0.0141,
but in a 10 per cent. meal 0.0283. To test this more carefully
anew and more delicate Westphal balance was obtained. The
meal used contained 8.20 per cent. of oil. Quantities of this
meal were used, representing 40 gram portions each of 5 and 10

1909] Ort In CoTTroNsEED Propucts 29

per cent. meals, the volume of carbon tetrachloride being increased
accordingly to 109 cc. In order to avoid too rapid change in the
temperature of the extract during the determination of the spe-
cific gravity, the tube containing the extract was placed in a 600
ec. plain beaker filled with clear water to the level of the extract.
Different specimens of carbon tetrachloride were used in the two
sets of experiments. Corrections for temperature were made on
the basis of 1°=0.0018 difference in specific gravity.

TABLE 8

Five Per Cent MEAL.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF CARBON TETRACHLORIDE AT 26.4°=1.5866.

Tempera- Specific Calculated
Extract ture. gravity. to 26.4°. Difference.
No. 1 26.7° 1.5718 1.5723 0.0143
No. 2 26.8° 1.5716 15423 0.0143

Tren Per Cent MEAL.

SpEecrFic GRAVITY OF CARBON TETRACHLORIDE AT 24°=1.5918

Tempera- Specific Calculated
Extract ture. gravity. to 24° Difference.
No. 1 24.0° 1.5632 1.5632 0.0286
No. 2 Ds 1.5628 1.5632 0.0286

The decrease in specific gravity is, therefore, regular and each
per cent. of oil lowers the specific gravity 0.00286 when 40 grams
of meal and 100 cc. of carbon tetrachloride are used. The per
cent. of oil in a meal is obtained, therefore, by determining at
the same temperature the difference between the specific gravity
of the carbon tetrachloride and the filtered extract from 40 grams
of the meal digested with 100 cc. of the carbon tetrachloride and
dividing this difference by 0.00286.

CONSTANT FOR CARBON TETRACHLORIDE.

The difficulty in securing different lots of commercial carbon
tetrachloride of exactly the same specific gravity led to experi-
ments with a grade differing widely from that used in the earlier
part of the investigation. The following results were obtained:

30 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocintTy [ April

TABLE 9
Sp. gr.
Sp. gr. original new carbon
Temperature. carbon tetrachloride. tetrachloride. Difference.
15° 1.6041 1.5903 0.0138
20° 1.5951 1.5813 0.0138
25° 1.5861 1.5723 0.0138

Having determined this difference, 0.0138, in all operations
with this new lot corrections should be made by adding the con-
stant to the observed specific gravity and immediate reference
could be made to the table of specific gravity of the criginal car-
bon tetrachloride. Such a procedure would obviate the necessity
of using a thermostat. To test this, 40 grams of meal containing
8.50 per cent. of oil were digested with 100 cc. of the new lot of
carbon tetrachloride for 5 minutes at 70°. The extract showed a
specific gravity of 1.5572 at 20°; adding the constant 0.0138 this
becomes 1.5710, a difference of 0.0241 from the original carbon
tetrachloride. Dividing by 0.00286 the per cent. was found to be
8.48.

TIME AND TEMPERATURE EXPERIMENTS.

Some specimens of commercial carbon tetrachloride boil at
lower temperatures than that of pure carbon tetrachloride (76.7°).
It was deemed advisable, therefore, to determine the rate and
completeness of extraction at lower temperatures. In the deter-
minations the per cents. were obtained by the specific gravity
method, using a meal whose oil content had previously been found
to be 8.82 per cent. The results follow:

TABLE 10
Standing
Temperature. 5 min. 10min. 15min. 20min. 30min. over night.
5 8.16
25 732 7.50 17.32 7.50 8.00 oan
#25° 7 50a eee oe it 7.93
40° dete, tla (P 7.88
50° Ost 8.35 8.72
60° 8.06 8.06 8.75

8.08 8.06 8.81 aK 5 st
From this table itis evidently impracticable to work at room

*Shaking at intervals.

1909] Or, IN COTTONSEED PropucTs 31

temperatures. The results show, however, that a complete
extraction is obtained in 15 minutes at temperatures 50°-60° C.
At such temperatures there is no risk of the commercial carbon
tetrachloride boiling.

Confirmation of the accuracy of the method for cottonseed meal
is furnished by the following check analyses, for many of which
we are indebted to Mr. Jas. B. Pratt, chemist of the Southern
Cotton Oil Co., Charlotte, N. C., and Mr. O. L. Spurlin, chemist
of the Georgia Cotton Oil Co., Atlanta, Ga.

TABLE 11
Specific gravity method.
No. Soxhlet extraction. if Il.
a 8.81 8.72
2 6.47 6.44 BY
3 6.49 6.59 6.56
4 Clee 7.25 C20
5 6.47 6.47 OM
6 fells 7.22 7.28
7 (ice, 7.19 (ee
8 6.69 6.78 6.69
9 6.27 6.31 6.22
10 6.47 6.56
11 7.17 7.06 BS
12 6.27 6.35 6.34
13 (n'a 7.06
14 6.69 6.59 Be
15 7.20 (paul 7.23
16 6.70 6.71
17 5.96 5.94
18 6.40 6.43

Meats—Since the per cent. of oil in meats is high and varies
between approximately 28 and 36 ver cent., it was decided to use
10 grams of meats, instead of 40 as in the case of meal, with 100
ec. of carbon tetrachloride, in order to bring the specific gravity
within the limit already worked out for meal, multiplying the
per cent. found by four for the actual per cent. of oil in the meats.
The use of a wire gauze strainer was unnecessary with meats.

32 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ April

TABLE 12

Per Cent. oF O11 In UNCOOKED MEatTs.

Temperature. Time. Ve ne
70° 5 27.12 27.40
70° 15 29.12 29.28
70° 30 29.44
60° 15 29.28

From these results it is evident that the standard time and tem-
perature of extraction of meal is suited also for extraction of the
one-fourth quantity of meats. Experiments using a larger pro-
portion of meats showed low results. Whether this was duc to
incomplete extraction or to a possible change of the specific grav-
ity curve for such high per cents. was not determined.

TABLE 13.
Per Cent. oF Orn IN CooKED MEats
Tempera-
ture 5 min 10 min 15 min.
I. Il. Ne IBE Te TI
50° 29.84 A 29.72 she 29.60 29.72
60° 29.60 ike 29.88 Ry 30.34
70° 29.40 29.88 30.22 30.76

Again the extraction at 60° for 15 minutes is sufficient.

That the presence of moisture does not affect the extraction was
demonstrated by extractions on both raw and cooked meats at 60°
C., for 15 minutes, thus:

TABLE 14.
Raw Meats (moisture 8.95) :

I. 1a
TBR ONROIUIS! LoacdoenqoooccoccoesconsosbodsecousoNbS 29.28
IADAY GTOUS cc.cse2 ence scedneraeepaeneseeeneche 29.40 29.12

CooxEeD Meats (moisture 5.73):

Te I.
AV TOUS <0 5:5. 0sencecesoomeeas coereseeeaseeares 30.84
AT YGNOUS ie scscececscesese deseecsesenaettenes 31.40 31.00

Hulls.— After transferring 40 grams of hulls to the Erlenmeyer
flask it was found necessary to pack the hulls with a glass rod in
order to insure complete covering with 100 cc, of carbon tetra-

1909 | O1L IN COTTONSEED Propucts

33
chloride. No wire gauze strainer was necessary in filtering the
extract.

TABLE 15
Time. Per cent. of oil.
Temperature. min. Soxhlet extraction. Sp. gr. method.
60° 5 0.30 C2500)
60° 10 z 0.32
60° 105) ni 0.25
60° 30 ue 0.2511.

It is proposed to extend the investigation to the determination
of oil in linseed products, and of fats in feedstuffs, tankage, etc.

University of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill, N. C., October 29, 1908.

THE STABILITY OF ROSIN AT SLIGHTLY EL&VATED
TEMPERATURES*

BY CHAS. H. HERTY AND W. S. DICKSON

On heating American rosin to 120°-140° C. in a current of air
freed from carbon dioxide, Schwalbe’ obtained a copious precip-
itate of barium carbonate by conducting the gases from the flask
in which the rosin was heated into a solution of barium hydrox-
ide. He interpreted this as evidence of the decomposition of the
abietic acid in the rosin with consequent formation of the hydro-
carbon abietene, and pointed out the effect such a decomposition
must have upon the melting point and saponification number of
rosin.

From evidence obtained during the course of another investiga-
tion we were inclined to doubt the accuracy of Schwalbe’s inter-
pretation. Accordingly the following investigation was under-
taken, the results of which show that rosin which has not been
long exposed to the oxygen of the atmosphere can be heated indef-
initely at 140° without showing any evidence of the formation of
earbon dioxide, provided oxygen and moisture are excluded from
the flask in which the rosin is heated.

EXPERIMENTAL

At the outset Schwalbe’s experiment was repeated. For heat-
ing the rosin a 200cc. Erlenmeyer flask was placed in a beaker
containing cottonseed oil. The air entering the flask was freed
from carbon dioxide by being drawn through three wash _ bottles
filled with a strong solution of sodium hydroxide. After leaving

*Reprinted from tne Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry,
Vol. I, No. 2. February, 1909.

1 Zeit. angew. Chem, 18, 1852.
34 [| April

1909| Rosin at SLIGHTLY ELEVATED TEMPERATURES 35

the flask the air was passed through a test tube half filled with
freshly filtered barium hydroxide solution. Another wash bottle
containing a solution of sodium hydroxide was placed between the
barium hydroxide tube and the aspirator, a suction pump. A
blank experiment with this apparatus showed no precipitation of
barium carbonate after drawing air through for one hour. A
repetition of Schwalbe’s experiment showed a copious precipitation
of barium carbonate.

The possibility that this evolution of carbon dioxide might be
due to the action of the air upon the heated rosin, aided by the
presence of slight traces of spirits of turpentine in the rosin, led
to a repetition of the experiment using spirits of turpentine alone
instead of rosin. With a specimen of old spirits of turpentine an
even heavier precipitation of barium carbonate occurred than with
rosin. No question of the splitting off of a carboxyl group could
arise here. A specimen of freshly distilled turpentine showed also
a precipitation of barium carbonate, but not so marked as with
the old specimen.

Having proved that the spirits of turpentine alone was capable
of giving the precipitation observed by Schwalbe, a current of
steam was passed through molten rosin for eight hours in order
to completely remove all spirits of turpentine. Repeating
Schwalbe’s experiment with this rosin the precipitation was still
observed. Evidently the presence of slight traces of spirits of
turpentine was not alone responsible for the precipitation
observed.

It remained therefore to determine the possible influence of
oxygen and of moisture on the formation of carbon dioxide from the
molten rosin. Accordingly, the current of air drawn through the
filask was freed first from carbon dioxide by sodium hydroxide,
then dried by passing through sulphuric acid. A marked precip-
itation of barium carbonate was again observed. Then moist
nitrogen was substituted for air. The nitrogen was prepared by
drawing air through three wash bottles filled with an alkaline
solution of pyrogallic acid. Again a precipitation of barium carbon-
ate occurred. Finally a current of dry nitrogen was drawn through
the flask and after all air had been expelled the rosin was heated

xf

36 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [April

to 140° and kept at this temperature for seven hours without the
slightest precipitation in the tube containing barium hydroxide.

The above experiments were carried out on a specimen of freshly
distilled rosin from the oleoresin of Pinus heterophylla (Cuban
Pine). This suggested the possibility that Schwalbe had used a
rosin from the oleoresin of Pinus Palustris (Longleaf Pine).
Accordingly a fresh specimen of rosin was prepared from the oleo-
resin collected from a single tree of this species. On heating the
rosin in dry nitrogen to 140°, again no trace of precipitation was
noticeable.

Finally Schwalbe states that his experiment was made upon a
sample of commercial American rosin. On heating such a sam-
ple in dry nitrogen we found an abundant precipitation of barium
carbonate.

Four factors therefore may have entered into the formation of
the carbon dioxide observed in Schwalbe’s experiment: first,
traces of spirits of turpentine in the rosin; second, moisture;
third, oxygen in the air conducted through the flask; and fourth,
oxygen absorbed either by the oleoresin previous to distillation or
by the rosin on standing in the air. The explanation of a proba-
ble splitting off of a carboxyl group is demonstrated to be errone-
ous by using a sample of rosin recently distilled from a fresh spec-
imen of the oleoresin and heating in a current of dry nitrogen.

And yet, paradoxical as it may at first appear, Schwalbe’s
explanation is even more than true: not in regard to ‘““American
rosin’’, but as applied to the acids of the oleoresin from which
rosin is prepared. In order to ayoid any elevation of temperature
in the preparation of these acids, freed from the other constitu-
ents of the oleoresin, a specimen of the oleoresin of Pinus hetero-
phylla was dissolved in ether. From this ethereal solution the
potassium salts of the acids were precipitated by addition of a
saturated water solution of potassium hydroxide. The crystal
broth was mixed with glass wool to render it more permeable to
an extractive, then thoroughly extracted with ether in a Soxhlet
extractor. After removal of the last traces of ether the salts were
dissolved in water, the solution acidified with dilute hydrochloric
acid, and the precipitated acids washed and dried. On heating a

1909| Rosin at SLIGHTLY ELEVATED TEMPERATURES 37

specimen of these acids in the apparatus described above in a cur-
rent of dry nitrogen the mass melted at 65°-70°, immediately
evolution of carbon dioxide began as shown by the escape of gas
bubbles from the molten mass, and the heavy precipitation of
barium carbonate.

UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA
CHAPEL HILL, N. C.

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a\

JOURNAL
Flisha Mitchell Scientific Society
JUNE, 1909
VOL. XXV NO. 2

PROCEEDINGS OF THE EIGHTH ANNUAL MEETING OF
THE NORTH CAROLINA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE,
HEED AT | TRINITY COLLEGE, 'DUR-

ELAM Ne eC.) ARE sree 0 AiND)

MANS er 1909)

The Executive Committee met at 3:30 P. M. Friday, April
s0no. Present Prof. W:. H., Pegram,. and. Vice Pres. J.J.
Wolfe and Secy. E. W. Gudger ez officio. Messrs. Franklin Sher-
man Jr. and T. G. Pearson were asked to become members pro
tem. The report of the Secretary-Treasurer was listened to and
commended to the Academy. The following persons were nomi-
nated and elected to membership in the Academy: Z. P. Met-
calf, Assistant Entomologist, Dept. Agriculture, Raleigh, N. C.;
8. C. Clapp, Inspector, Division of Entomology, Dept. Agriculture,
Raleigh, N.C.; C. A. Shore, Director, State Laboratory of Hygiene,
Raleigh, N. C.; Henry D. Aller, Director, Fisheries Laboratory,
Beaufort, N. C.; W. G. Chrisman, State Veterinarian, Dept.
Agriculture, Raleigh, N. C.; J. L. Burgess, Soil and Crop Spe-
cialist, Dept. Agriculture, Raleigh, N. C.

The following amendments, proposed by the Secretary, were
recommended to the favorable action of the Academy:

1909] 39

40 THE JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ June

Amendment I.
Art. IL. Sec. 1 be amended by the addition of the follow-
ing words after “‘privileges of the Academy’?:

The application for membership shall be accompanied
by the dues for the current year—the same to be returned
to the applicant should he not be elected.

Amendment IT.

Art. V. Sec. 1 be stricken out; the following be inserted
in its place: The official organ of the Academy shall be
the Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society pub-
lished at the University of North Carolina. The editor of
the Journal and the Secretary of the Academy shall com-
pose the editorial board for the Academy, subject to the
general contro! of the Executive Committee of the Acad-
emy.

The Committee, after explanation as to why it had not been
done sooner, authorized the Secretary, as soon as the list of active
members is perfected, to print and send to each member of the
Academy a copy of the revised constitution of the Academy
including the roll of members.

The Committtee recommended to the Academy that a commit-
tee on membership be appointed to work up a greater member-
ship for the Academy among the scientific men of the state, and
that the Secretary be ex officio chairman thereof.

At 4:30 Vice Pres. Wolfe, in the absence of President Tait But-
ler, called the Academy to order and the remainder of the
afternoon was devoted to the presentation of papers. Before
adjournment the chair appointed the following committees: to
audit Treasurer’s accounts, Charles H. Herty, W. N. Hutt, and
F. Sherman Jr.; on resolutions, Collier Cobb, J. F. Lanneau, and
S. B. Shaw; on nominations, H. V. Wilson, Franklin Sherman,
Jr., and A. S. Wheeler.

At 8:30 P. M. the Academy met in Memorial Hall and was
cordially weleomed to Trinity College by Dean W. P. Few. On
behalf of the Academy, response was made by retiring President
T. G. Pearson. Mr. Pearson then lectured on ““The Work of the
Audubon Society in Preserving Rare Forms of Bird Life in Amer-

1909] PRocEEDINGS oF ErcHTH ANNUAL MEETING 41

ica,’’ using lantern slide illustrations. At 9:30 P. M. the Fac-
ulty of Trinity College gave a reception to the members of the
Academy.

At the reassembling of the Academy at 9:45 A. M. Saturday,
May Ist, a short business meeting was held. The minutes of last
meeting were read and approved. The actions and recommenda-
tions of the Executive Committee as noted above were unani-
mously confirmed. The Auditing Committee reported that the
books of the Secretary-Treasurer showed a balance on hand of one
hundred five dollars and eleven cents ($105.11), agreeing with
his bank book. The Nominating Committee’s report was adopted
and officers elected for the ensuing year as follows:

President, Prof. W. C. Coker, University of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill, N. C.

Vice President, Prof. W. H. Pegram, Trinity College, Durham,
N. C.

Secretary-Treasurer, Dr. E. W. Gudger, State Normal College,
Greensboro, N. C.

Executive Committee: .

Mr. H. H. Brimley, State Museum, Raleigh, N. C.

Prof. C. W. Edwards, Trinity College, Durham, N. C.

Dr. W. 8S. Rankin, Wake Forest College, Wake Forest, N. C.

The Chair appointed as the Committee on Membership, the
Secretary ex officio, Mr. Franklin Sherman Jr., Dept. Agriculture,
Raleigh, N. C.; Prof. John F. Lanneau, Wake Forest College,
Wake Forest, N. C.; Prof. Collier Cobb, University of North Car-
olina, Chapel Hill, N. C.

Following the business meeting, the reading of papers was
resumed. At 1:45 the Academy adjourned for lunch. At 3:20
the Academy reconvened and the remainining papers on the pro-
gram were presented. Prof. Edwards’ paper on “‘College Entrance
Requirements in Science in North Carolina’’ provoked consider-
able discussion. On motion the Chair appointed the following
committee to collect data and report at our next meeting on
“Science Teaching in North Carolina High Schools Preparatory
to Entrance for College’’:

Prof. C. W. Edwards, Trinity College, Durham, N. C.

Prof. A. S. Wheeler, Chapel Hill, N. C.

42 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL SOCIETY [ June

Dr. H. V. Wilson, Chapel Hill, N. C.

Dr. W. C. Coker, Chapel Hill, N. C.

Prof. W. N. Hutt, Raleigh, N. C.

The committee on resolutions brought in a resolution of appre-
ciation and thanks for the many courtesies received at the hands
of the Faculty and Ladies of Trinity College.

At 4:20 the Academy adjourned.

The following members were present at the meeting:

H. U1. Brimley, W. C. Coker, Collier Cobb, R. O. EH. Davis,
H. N. Eaton, C. W. Edwards, E. W. Gudger, C. H. Herty,
W.N. Hutt, Archibald Henderson, J. F. Lanneau, Mrs. C. D.
McIver, J. E. Mills, T. G. Pearson, W. H. Pegram, J. H. Pratt,
F. L. Stevens, W. B. Streeter, Franklin Sherman, 8. B. Shaw,
H. V. Wilson, A. S. Wheeler, J.;J. Wolfe, G. M. MacNider,
Z. P. Metcalf, S. C. Clapp, G. A, Roberts—27.

The following papers were presented:

The Chemistry of Scrape Formation, Chas. H. Herty, University of
North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C.

‘“Scrape’’ is the hardened resinous mass which forms gradually
on the scarified surface of certain pines during the turpentine
season, March to November. Determination of the unsa-
ponifiable matter in various oleo-resins shows that the amount of
this material is relatively high in trees which do not form scrape
(Pinus Heterophylla) and low and variable in scrape forming
trees (Pinus Palustris). The explanation is offered that the
amount of scrape formed is approximately inversely proportionate
to the per cent of unsaponifiable matter present, this being a
honey-like, non-crystallisable substance which acts as a retardant
of crystallization in the oleo-resin after it exudes from the tree.
Confirmation of this idea is furnished by analyses of the oleo-
resins of Loblolly Pine (P. Taeda) and old Field Pine (P. Echi-
nata).

The Great Comet Next Spring, John F. Lanneau, Wake Forest
College, Wake Forest, N. C.

1909] PRocEEDINGS oF E1icHTH ANNUAL MEETING 43

A Study of Varieties, W. N. Hutt, Department of Agriculture,
Raleigh, N. C.

Plants of economic value being subject to domestication usually
give rise to numerous varieties.

Horticultural plants afford better material for study than agri-
cultural, because the latter are usually treated collectively while
the former are necessarily treated as individuals.

Varieties of a century ago as listed by Wm. Coxe, of Barling-
ton, N. J. in 1818 as compared with modern varieties.

No. listed by Coxe. Listed now.
JO, 0 SS Ba eae 133 2138
CATO e. tkcsands Asa: 65 2567
Reaches crs e8is 4, 38 449
LP LATA TC SRL eRe ean 18 522

Of the 133 apples listed by Coxe, 43 or 32 per cent of them are
of foreign origin. Now, exclusive of recent Russian importation,
but four are found in present variety lists. Variety lists are
becoming more and more native American.

Pear varieties are largely foreign, but most useful varieties for
American conditions are natives e. g. Seckel, Keifer.

Of early varieties of apples as listed by Coxe but nine are found
in the lists of today. Of 2138 varieties of apples in modern lists
only 85 are the result of seed planting and selection. All remain-
der are chance seedlings. The life of a chance seedling is a good
example of the “‘fortuitous law of chance.’’ One may survive,
millions are lost.

Reasons for varieties not ‘“coming true.”’

Reasons for “‘running out’’ of varieties.

The history of the corn is an example of variation. The toma-
to is in a state of evolution due to high feeding under domestica-
tion.

The impossibility of obtaining ideal varieties is because our
ideals advance with our knowledge and many of the characteris-
tics we would want in an ideal variety are incompatible in one
individual.

44 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | June

Tdeals are well illustrated by opposites.
We want—

Apples that will grow farther south.

Peaches that will grow farther north.

Pears that will not blight and that have no grit and sand in
them.

Oranges that are not bitter and pithy.

Quinces that are not wooden.

Grapes without seeds.

Berries that are not seedy, and the small boy wants the stom-
ach-acheless green apple. In short we want the rainbow, but as
we advance it ever recedes.

Social Science: Report on the White House Conference on Care of
Dependent Children, W. B. Streeter, Superintendent of the
North Carolina Children’s Home Society, Greensboro, N. C.

Syllabi of Conference Resolutions

1. Home Care: Children of worthy parents or deserving moth-
ers should, as a rule, be kept with their parents at home.

2. PREVENTIVE WorK: Society should endeavor to eradicate
causes of dependency like disease and to substitute compensation
and insurance for relief.

3. Home Frypinc: Homeless and neglected children, if nor-
mal, should be cared for in families, when practicable.

4. Corrace Sysrem: Institutions should be on the cottage
plan with smali units, as far as possible.

5. Incorporation: Agencies caring for dependent children
should be incorporated, on approval of a suitable State Board.

6. Srare Inspecrion: The State should inspect the work of all
agencies which care for dependent children.

7. INSPECTION oF EpucaTIoNAL Work: Educational work of
institutions and agencies caring for dependent children should be
supervised by State educational authorities.

8. Facrs anp REecorpds: Complete histories of dependent chil-
dren and their parents should be recorded for guidance of child-
caring agencies.

1909] ProckEepincs or Ericura ANNUAL MEETING 45

9. PuysicaL CARE: Every needy child should receive the best
medical and surgical attention, and be instructed in health and
hygiene.

10. Co-operation: Local child-caring agencies should co-op-
erate and establish joint bureaus of information.

11. UnprstraBLe Lecisiation: Prohibitive legislation against
transfer of dependent children between States should be repealed.

12. PrRMANENT ORGANIZATION: A permanent organization for
work along the lines of these resolutions is desirable.

13. FEDERAL CHILDREN’s BurEAv: Establishment of a Federal
Children’s Bureau is desirable, and enactment of pending Dill is
earnestly recommended.

The Planet Mars, John F. Lanneau, Wake Forest College, Wake
Forest, N.C.

The Photographic Equipment of a Biological Laboratory and Some
Microphotographs Useful in Teaching, H. V. Wilson, University
of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C.

The photographic equipment of the new Biological Laboratory
of the University of North Carolina was described. For life-size
photographs or reductions a Bausch and Lomb Tessar lens used in
a Century View camera mounted on a Folmer and Schwing tilting
laboratory stand, has proved useful. For low magnifications the
Zeiss microplanars 4 and 5 held in a Century View camera or in
a Zeiss horizontal-and-vertical camera are used, either with reflect-
ed or transmitted light. In the latter case the object (an entire
microscope slide, for instance, covered with growing organisms}
is placed on a wooden box over a very large aperture through
which the light is sent from a large plane mirror. For micropho-
tographs the Bausch and Lomb apparatus is used, either with a
Thompson automatic electric lamp or with an acetylene lamp so
made as to fit the same light box. For freshly mounted balsam
or for glycerine slides the vertical microscope with prism-arrange-
ment offers great advantage. For low magnifications of large
fields the Zeiss microplanars 1-3 without ocular, warrant the praise
that has been given them. The microphotographs exhibited were

46 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ June

of preparations illustrating points of general interest in the fields
of vertebrate embryology and histology.

New Occurrence of Monazite in North Carolina: Joseph Hyde Pratt,
State Geologist, Chapel Hill, N. C.

Published in full in this issue.

College Entrance Requirements in Science in North Carolina: C. W.
Edwards, Trinity College, Durham, N. C.

An Alteration in the Direction of Growth that may be induced in
Sponges: H. V. Wilson, University of North Carolina, Chapel
Halle aNy CG:

One of the common sponges in Beaufort harbor, Stylotella sp.,
develops oscular lobes which grow up toward the surface of the
water when the sponge rests on the bottom. Ifnow sucha sponge
with a set of well developed lobes be laid on its side in a large
aquarium, growth takes place at many points on the lobes and at
right angles to their long axis. This growth leads in the course
of a week to the development of a new set of oscular lobes which
again extend up towards the surface of the water but at right angles
to the former lobes, whose terminal oscula have now disappeared.

The Wistar Institute Journals and the Need for their Support: H. V.
Wilson.

It was pointed out that the growth in the biological depart
ments of colleges led to the need of suitable organs for publica-
tion, and that it was to the manifest interest of these departments
to lend financial support to such journals as those of the Wistar
Institute.

A New Species of Water Mold: W. C. Coker, University of North
Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C.

In Oct. 1908 a species of Leptolegnia was found at Chapel Hill,
N.C. and has been kept growing in the laboratory since. It
proves to be near the long lost Leptolegnia caudata DeBary of Ger-
many, but seems to be distinct enough to be considered a new
species.

1909| PROCEEDINGS OF KicgHtH ANNUAL MEETING 47

Delayed Opening of Cones in Certain Species of Pines: W. C. Coker.

Cones of Pinus tuberculata from California and Pinus serotina
from South Carolina were shown. Though mature for about
eight years they had not opened. This tendency is developed to
such an extent in P. tuberculata that the cones seem never to open
until the wood on which they are borne is dead.

Exhibit of a Double-flowered Sarracenia and a New Variety of Elli-
ott’?s Gentian: W. C. Coker.

Double flowers of Sarracenia rubra were shown from Hartsville,
S.C. They have not before been known in the genus. Other
specimens exhibited were a white variety of Gentiana Elliottii
from Society Hill, S. C. and leaves and fruits of Acer Floridana
from Chapel Hill, N. C.

Some Notes on the Song Periods of Birds: C. 8S. Brimley, Raleigh,
Nec.

The writer commenced taking notes on what species of birds
were in song at Raleigh, N. C., during the last week of June,
1908, and this paper gives the results obtained up to the end of
April, 1909.

On the Numher of Species of Birds that can be Observed in one Day at
Raleigh, N. C.: C. 8. Brimley.

Published in full in this issue.

Geology and the Lumber Market. Collier Cobb, University of
North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C.

ee in Soil Bacteriology IIT, Concerning Methods for Determina-
tion of Nitrifying and Amonifying Powers, by F. L. Stevens and

W. A. Withers, assisted by J. C. Temple, W. A. Syme, J. K.

Plummer and P. L. Gainey, North Carolina Experiment Sta-

tion, Raleigh, N. C.

Since nitrate nitrogen is generally believed to be the most read-
ily available and most valuable form of nitrogen for plants, means
of measuring the ability of various soils to produce nitrate nitro-
gen, to nitrify, are desirable. To determine nitrifying power; to
recognize deficiencies in nitrifying power; to ascertain the cause

48 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ June

of such deficiencies when they exist and to find means of correct-
ing them, all require quantitative studies of this factor of soil fer-
tility. To make quantitative determinations of nitrifying power
that shall be of broad utility and general value, methods must be
devised the trustworthiness of which can be recognized.

Three conditions to be recognized in considering the nitrifying
ability of a soil are:

1. The nitrifying organisms present.

2. The physical and chemical fitness of the soil for the proper
functioning of those organisms.

3. The nitrifying efficiency of the soil plus the organisms exist-
ing in it.

NITRIFICATION INOCULATING POWER (NIP)

The index may be called the Nitrification Inoculating Power
which may be abbreviated as NIP. It recognizes only the factor
of the live organisms present, taking no account of the fitness or
unfitness of the soil for their activity. It does not regard bacter-
ial species but merely the complex present in the soil at the time
it is tested.

Theoretically the NIP may be high in a soil in which, owing
to adverse chemical or physical conditions, no nitrifrication real-
ly occurs. Theoretically nitrifying bacteria may be present in
goodly number in a soil possessing physica! and chemical condi-
tions favorable to rapid nitrification yet no nitrate appear, Owing
to the presence of other species of the bacteria or of substances
which either inhibit the action. of the nitrifiers or destroy the
nitrate which they produce so that nitrate does not appear as a
final product. _ NIP considers only the efficiency of the organisms
present to give nitrate as a final product under circumstances fav-
orable to their growth.

NITRIFYING CAPACITY (Nc)

The second index, fitness of the soil as regards factors other
than its content of living things, i.e. its capacity to support nitri-
fication provided proper organisms be present, may be designated
as its Nitrifying Capacity, abbreviated as NC. NC regards only
the non living factors. Theoretically soil may be of high NC

1909| ProckEDINGS oF EicuTaH ANNUAL MEETING 49

but still fail to nitrify owing to lack of proper organisms, i.e., to
lack of proper NIP. Theoretically a soil may be of low NC yet
show high NIP. NC will on final analysis be found to depend
upon physical conditions and chemical composition including
water content.

NITRIFYING EFFICIENCY (NE)

The third index may be designated on the nitrifying efficiency
of the soil, abbreviated NE, which regards the efficiency of the soil
as a whole to produce nitrates as a final product. NE may be
low owing to lack of NIP or to lack of NC or both. NE will be
high if there be high NIP associated with high NC.

Proper determination of NE will show whether a given soil is in
normal vigorous nitrifying condition. If such is not the case,
determination of NC and NIP will show whether it is the bacte-
rial or non bacterial factors which are at fault and may lead to
correction of existing defects.

CONDITIONS FOR DETERMINING THESE INDICES

Directions for determining these three factors of Nitrification
are worked out on the basis of a large mass of experimental evi-
dence and the results of a large number of analyses made in
accordance with these methods are presented.

Observations on Bird Life of Great Lake in Craven County, North
Carolina: H. H. Brimley, Curator State Museum, Raleigh,
NEC.

[Read by title].

Senses of Insects. By Franklin Sherman, Jr., Entomologist,
Department of Agriculture, Raleigh, N.C.

Published in full in this issue.

Methods of Reproduction Among Insects: Z. P. Metcalf, Department
of Agriculture, Raleigh, N. C.

Some Unrecognized Factors Affecting the Potential Differences Devel-
oped in an Induction Coil: C. W. Edwards, Trinity College, Dur-
ham, N. C.

[Read by Title].

50 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ June

Oral Gestation Among Teleostean Fishes. E. W.Gudger, State Nor-
mal College, Greensboro, N. C.

Oral Gestation is not uncommonly practiced by Siluroid and
Cichlid Fishes. Many marine, estuarine, and freshwater Catfishes
of Central and South America, India, and Australia carry their
eges and young in their mouths. With one possible exception, it
is always the male who thus incubates the eggs.

Among the Cichlids of South America, Africa, and Syria this
habit is very prevalent. In these fishes it is generally the females
who thus care for their progeny.

Scattering cases of this habit among other Teleosts are occasion-
ally met with, especially among species belonging to the genera
Apogon and Cheilodipterus. It seems probable that further re-
search among these latter forms will extend our knowledge of this
curious habit which is invariably associated with unusually large
size of the eggs.

The writer has been engaged for fifteen months in working up
the literature of this extraordinary habit in fishes. This work is
being done for the Bureau of Fisheries, and will be issued in its
publications.

The Linear Classification of the Cubie Surface. Archibald Hender-
son, University of North Carclina, Chapel Hill, N. C.

The speaker considered the twenty-one different types of the cubic
surface (neglecting the two scrolls) reduced to canonical form
with reference to the straight lines lying wholly upon the surface.
By proper choice of constants, he succeeded in representing, in
each case, the lines in position with reference to the fundamental
tetrahedron. He exhibited diagrams, in color, of the lines, with
proper reference to each other and to the fundamental tetrahe-
dron, for all twenty-one types of the cubic surface.

The Terminal Bud of the Sweet Gum, Liquidambar Styraciflua.
E. W. Gudger, State Normal College, Greensboro, N. C.

This tree has on the ends of its lateral branches terminal buds of
two kinds. One is of ordinary size and contains only leaves and an
embryonic branch. The other kind is very large and swollen.

1909| PROCEEDINGS oF EicHtH ANNUAL MEETING 51

Dissection or subsequent development on the tree shows that this
contains a cone made up of the familiar sweet gum balls —it is
seemingly a terminal bud devoted solely to the production of flow-
ers. Later, the lowest ball (sometimes the two lowermost) devel-
ops an extraordinarily long pedicel, and the stem bearing the cone
breaks off just above the point of attachment of this pedicel leav-
ing but one ball of the six or eight to come to maturity. About
this time a very small leaf bud makes its appearance just below
the base of the cone and this lateral bud later becomes the terminal
bud which by its growth elongates the branch.

Social Science: The Work of the Woman’s Association for the Better-
ment of Schools. Mrs. Charles D. MelIver, Field Secretary
Woman’s Betterment Association of North Carolina, Greens-
boro, N. C.

Notes on the Petrography of the Granites of Chapel Hill, N.C. H.N.
Eaton, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C.

Some Results of Municipal Milk Inspection in Raleigh, N.C. F. L.
Stevens, North Carolina Experiment Station, Raleigh, N. C.

The results of three years analyses are cullated and compared.

During the period 1097 samples were analysed bacteriologically
and chemically.

The improvement in the milk bacterially during the cool
months, the warm months, and by entire years, is shown in the
following tables.

TABLE I SHowine IMPROVEMENT DuriInNG Coot Monts

Bacteria per cubic centimeter.

No. More than Move than More than

Year Analysed 500,000 1,000,000 5,000,000
No. % No. % No. %
OO 72 25 34 18 25 a
1906 1386 54 39 31 ae 10 fi
TOT) 176 32 18 18 10 0 0)
1908 1938 30 18 18 9) 2 1

52 JOURNAL OF THE MrTrcHELL SOCIETY [ June

TABLE II SHow1ne ImprRovEMENT DurING SUMMER MONTHS

Bacteria per cubic centimeter.

No. More than More than More than

Year Analysed 500,000 1,000,000 5,000,000

No. % No. % No. %,

1906 =136 78 57 ay | 41 23 17%
1007 =166 65 39 43 26 if 4
1908 160 51 32 23 14 1 i

TABLE III SHow1nGc IMPROVEMENT IN BACTERIAL CONTENT

Bacteria per cubic centimeter.

No. More than More than More than
Year analysed 500,000 1,000,000 5,000,000
No. Jf 0% No. % No? ee
1906 272 132°) °48 88 By 35 12
1907 342 97 28 61 17 7 :
1908 353 86 24 41 1 3 1

Watering and Skimming

While bacterial content 1s of most significance as regards health
of Raleigh citizens, the question of watering and skimming of miik
offered for sale is not without interest to the buyers. Similar
inspection of our records as shown in the two, following summar-
ies shows that milk of low fat content or of low content of “‘solids
not fat’’ occurred frequently three years ago while at present such
milk is very rarely found. Many reports were made during the
first years of the inspection of undoubted cases of watering or
skimming, or both together. Such practice is now rare.

A summary ofthe findings regarding the fat content for the
several years is as follows:

1909| PROCEEDINGS oF EicuTH ANNUAL MEETING 53

No. of No. of samples, Per cent of sampies
Year samples below legal below legal amount
analysed amount of fat. of fat.
1905 37 7 19
1906 286 33 11
1907 353 26 7
1908 353 14 4

Showing clearly the improvement wrought during these years.

SUMMARY OF THE Finpinas REGARDING ‘‘Sonrps nor Fart.’’

No. of samples contain- Per cent samples contain-
Year ing below 8 per cent. ing below 8 per cent
1905 12 28
1906 42 14
1907 54 12
1908 25 7

In light of the above facts it can be justly claimed that the
inspection has wrought much improvement in our milk supply.

EK. W. GubGeER,
Secretary.

ON THE NUMBER OF SPECIES OF BIRDS THAT CAN
BE OBSERVED IN ONE DAY AT RALEIGH, N. C.

BY C. S. BRIMLEY

Last fall while Mr. Sherman, Mr. Z. P. Metcalf and myself
were in conversation, Mr. Metcalf asked me how many species of
birds I had ever noted in one day here, adding that in Ohio in
January, he had seen as many as 33, excluding English Sparrow.
From this time Mr. Sherman and myself became also interested
in the subject, and have made many notes on the birds seen in a
single day.

A summary of our observations may be added before going into
any detail.

Nov. 1908. Total No. species observed 55. Most inaday 34
y

Dec. 1908. be 50 R 29
Jan. 1909. a 49 ss 34
Feb. 1909. “i 43 ae 30
Mar. 1909. a 60 ae 40
Apr. 1909. _ 95 ss 62

The species observed in November were:

1. American Woodcock 10. Southern Hairy Wood-
2. Killdeer pecker

3. Mourning Dove 11. Southern Downy Wood-
4, Bob-white pecker

5. Great Horned Owl 12. Pileated Woodpecker

6. Red-shouldered Hawk 13. Yellow-bellied Sapsucker
7. American Sparrowhawk 14. Red-headed Woodpecker
8. Turkey Vulture 15. Flicker

9

. Black Vulture 16. Phoebe

54 [June

1909) Brrps OBSERVED IN ONE Day AT RALEIGH et

17. Crow 37. Myrtle Warbler

18. Blue Jay 38. American Pipit

19. Redwinged Blackbird 39. Cedar Waxwing

20. Meadow Lark 40. Mocking Bird

21. Rusty Blackbird 41. Carolina Wren

22. Purple Grackle 42. Winter Wren

23. American Goldfinch 43. Tufted Tit

24. Purple Finch 44, Carolina Chickadee

25. English Sparrow 45. Brownheaded Nuthatch
26. Savanna Sparrow 46. Red-breasted Nuthatch
27. White throated Sparrow 47. White-breasted Nuthatch
28. Field Sparrow 48. Brown Creeper

29. Song Sparrow 49. Golderowned Kinglet
30. Swamp Sparrow 50. Rubycrowned Kinglet
31. Slate colored Junco 51. Hermit Thrush

32. Towhee 52. American Robin

33. Cardinal 53. Bluebird

34. Blueheaded Vireo 54. Fox Sparrow

35. Migrant Shrike 55. Unidentified Duck

36. Pine Warbler

The largest number of species observed in any one day was on
the 17th, when Messrs. F. Sherman, Z. P. Metcalf and myself
took a day’s tramp to the river (Neuse) and back. The species
observed on this day were woodcock, both vultures, hairy, downy,
and red-headed woodpeckers, and sapsucker, phoebe, crow,
meadow lark, cardinal, junco, towhee and six sparrows, (all ex-
cept fox), goldfinch, both warblers, pipit, mocker, both wrens,
both tits, two nuthatches (except redbreasted), gold crowned
kinglet, hermit thrush, robin, and bluebird.

The species observed in December were the same as those in
November, except that no duck, killdeer, bob-white, dove, owl,
sapsucker, rusty blackbird, purple grackle, blueheaded vireo, or
Wwaxwings were seen, while pine siskin, Wilson’s snipe, marsh,
and Cooper’s hawks and redtailed hawks were added to the winter’s
list, making a net loss of five species for the month.

In January the species observed were the same as those in
December, except that American woodcock, Wilson’s snipe, red-

56 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ June

tailed hawk, redheaded woodpecker, towhee, pipit and shrike,
were not observed, while in addition to the December birds, great
blue heron, dove, yellow palm warbler, bob-white, purple grackle
and Bewick’s wren were noted, a net loss of one.

The longest list of species seen in one day was by myself on
Jan. 12th, and the observations covered only halfaday. The
species were: red-shouldered hawk, dove, both vultures, 3 wood-
peckers, phoebe, crow, 6 sparrows, goldfinch, siskin, cardinal,
junco, pine and myrtle warblers, redwing blackbird, mocker, Caro-
]ina and winter wrens, brown creeper, tufted and Carolina tits,
both kinglets, brown headed nuthatch, bluebird, hermit thrush
and robin.

The February list dropped dove, Cooper’s and Marsh hawks,
pileated woodpecker, purple grackle, red breasted nuthatch, and
phoebe, and added only shrike, a net loss of six species.

The March list added chipping sparrow, bluegray gnatcatcher |
blue headed and white eyed vireos, black and white, and yellow
throated warblers, and Louisiana water thrush, all spring arrivals,
and also dove, killdeer, Wilson’s snipe, redtailed hawk, phoebe,
yellow bellied sapsucker, pileated woodpecker, purple grackle,
towhee, all observed before this winter, and vesper sparrow for-
merly a winter visitor at Raleigh but of late years only observed
very sparingly, also kingfisher and brown thrasher, which are
occasional in winter. Two species were dropped, Bewick’s wren
and pine siskin, making a net gain of 17 species.

The largest number of species were observed on the 31st during
a half day’s tramp, by Sherman and myself. The list of 40 species
was as follows: great blue heron, Wilson’s snipe, kingfisher, pile-
ated woodpecker, flicker, dove, phoebe, crow, redwing, blackbird,
7 sparrows, cardinal, junco, purple finch, pine, myrtle, yellow-
throated, and black and white warblers, white eyed vireo, Louis-
iana water thrush, Carolina and winter wrens, mocker,
thrasher, Carolina and tufted tits, ruby crowned kinglet, robin,
hermit thrush, bluebird, brown headed nuthatch, red shoul-
dered hawk, both vultures, and purple grackle.

The total April list far exceeded that of the previous months,
owing to the arrival of summer visitors and transients. The birds
noted up to and inclusive of the 27th were as follows:

1909)

x

Oo SI > on

ile)

x10.
a
5
13;
14.
xl:
X16.
svg
18.
143)
pDAUS
0.) I

bam
Mo:
moe
25.
x26.
Zhe
28.
2AS IE
x30.
OL,
Moa.
ROO.
x34.
35.
x36.
Kol.

Brrps OBSERVED IN ONE Day at RALEIGH 57

Pied-billed Grebe
Great Blue Heron
Green Heron
American Bittern
King Rail

American Coot
Wilson’s Snipe
Spotted Sandpiper
Lesser Yellowlegs
Bob-white

Mourning Dove
Turkey Vulture
Black Vulture
Screech Owl
Red-shouldered Hawk
Cooper’s Hawk
Red-tailed Hawk
Belted Kingfisher
Whippoorwill
Chimney Swift
Rubythroated
ming Bird
Downy Woodpecker
Red-headed Woodpecker
Flicker
Phoebe

Crested Flycatcher
Wood Pewee

Kingbird

Bobolink

Redwinged Blackbird
Meadow Lark

Blue Jay

American Crow
American Goldfinch
Pine Siskin

Purple Finch

English Sparrow

Hum-

Koo:
39.
x40.
ABS
x42.
XAG.
44,
x45.
46.

White-throated Sparrow
Vesper Sparrow
Savanna Sparrow
Henslow’s Sparrow

Field Sparrow

Chipping Sparrow

Song Sparrow

Swamp Sparrow
Bachman’s Sparrow

. Slate colored Junco
. Cardinal

. Towhee

. Rose-breasted

. Indigo Bunting
- Scarlet Tanager
. Summer Tanager

. Purple Martin

. Barn Swallow

. Roughwinged Swallow
. Red-eyed Vireo
. Blue-headed Vireo

. Yellowthroated Vireo

Grosbeak

White-eyed Vireo

. Black and White Warbler
2. Parula Warbler

3. Yellow Warbler

. Blackthroated Blue War-

bler

5. Myrtle Warbler

». Yellowthroated Warbler
. Pine Warbler

. Prairie Warbler

. Hooded Warbler

. Kentucky Warbler

. Ovenbird

2. La. Water Thrush.

3. Maryland Yellowthroat
4. Yellowbreasted Chat

58 JouURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ June

x75. American Redstart x87 Brown-headed Nuthatch

x76. Mockingbird 88 Brown Creeper
x/7. Catbird x89 Ruby-crowned Kinglet
x78. Brown Thrasher x90 Blue-gray Gnatcatcher
x79. Carolina Wren 91 Hermit Thrush

80 Winter Wren x92. Wood Thrush

81 Bewick’s Wren x93 American Robin
x82 House Wren x94 Bluebird
x83 Tufted Tit 95 Orchard Oriole
x84 Carolina Chickadee Several unidentified ducks
x85 White breasted Nuthatch also seen

86 Red breasted Nuthatch

The largest number seen in any one day was on the 22nd when
Mr. Sherman and myself took a whole day’s tramp for the express
purpose of looking for birds and succeeded in observing 62 species,
being those marked with an x in the list above.

The observations on which this paper was founded were fur-
nished mainly by myself but I am much indebted to Messrs.
Stephen C. Bruner, Franklin Sherman, Jr., and Z. P. Metcalf for
additional records, many of which were of great interest.

ee a

SOME NOTES ON THE SONG PERIODS OF BIRDS

BY C. 8S. BRIMLEY

The observations on which this paper is based were begun in
late June of last year, 1908, and have been carried on uninterrup-
tedly ever since. This it will be noticed leaves a gap of six or
seven weeks in May and part of June in which no data has as yet
been collected at Raleigh. JI have however some data from Lake
Ellis in late May of 1908, and it may also be assumed with reason
that any bird found in full song as late as the end of April and also
in late June, continued in song during the intervening period.

With these explanations I will now take up the different species,
beginning with those that are permanent residents.

Carolina Wren. ‘This bird justly heads the list by virtue of its
‘industry, its song period being the whole year, and the amount of
song it indulges in seeming to be about the same at all seasons.

Mockingbird. Has two song periods, one from early March to
early July, and from mid-September to mid-November.

Robin. Early March to early July, and occasionally as late as
early August.

Cardinal. Early March to early July, also heard twice in
November, and twice in January.

Field Sparrow. Late February to late August.

Pine Warbler. Commences singing during any warm spell in
January. and continues, interrupted by any cold spell, until March
at which period it may be said to be in full song. It continues in
song all March and April, has been heard also in late May at
Lake Ellis and once in late June at Raleigh. There is also a
second song period in September and one is occasionally heard in
late fall and winter.

1909 59

60 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | June

Taking up next the summer birds, we find the following facts:

Chipping Sparrow. Has about the same song period as its near
relative the Field Sparrow, viz: from its arrival in March till late
August, when it becomes silent though the species does not leave
us till October or November.

Yellow Throated Vireo. Continues in song from its arrival in
early April till its departure in mid-September.

White Eyed Vireo. Also sings during its whole stay from late
March to mid-October.

Red Kyed Vireo. Sings from its arrival in mid-April till mid-
July only, although it does not leave us till mid-October.

Of the summer residents among the warblers, all are in full song
on their arrival here, which varies in the case of the different
species from the last week in March to the last week in April.

The song of different species ends about as follows:

Yellow Warbler. Noted singing up to the last week in July,
which is the time the species seems to leave us for the south, the
few birds seen later in the season are apparently visitors from fur-_
ther north and are silent.

Yellow Breasted Chat. Heard up till mid-July only, but occurs
til] mid-September.

Maryland Yellow Throat. Heard up till mid-July only, but stays
as late as late October.

Hooded Warbler. Heard up till early July, but stays as late as
late September.

Parula Warbler. Heard as late as July 1, but stays as late as
mid-October, being very abundant in the fall migrations.

American Redstart. Heard till early July, occurs up to mid-
October.

Yellowthroated Warbler. Heard at Lake Ellis in late May, not
heard at Raleigh after observations were started on June 12, 1908.
Stays till the third week in September.

Other summer birds on which notes were taken are:

Summer Tanager. Heard up to June 21, also once each in July,
August, and September at intervals of almost exactly a month (on
the 13th, 13th, and 14th, respectively). Stays till late September.

Catbird. Heard till late July and once in August. Stays nor-
mally as late as the third week in October.

1909] Sone Prriops or Brrps 61

Wood Thrush. Heard till mid-July only, stays till mid-October.

Blue Grosbeak Heard till early July, and also once in August.
Stays till mid-September.

Indigo Bunting. WHeard till mid-July and once in August. Stays
till mid-October.

The remainder of my notes relate mainly to our winter visitors,
a considerable proportion of which do not sing at all during their
stay with us. I have data concerning the following:

Rubycrowned Kinglet. Arrives in mid-October, and leaves in
late April. Was heard singing on one very warm day in early
November, and not again till late March or early April, from
which time it continues in song until it leaves for the north, in
late April.

Hermit Thrush. Arrives in mid-October, stays till late April, so
far only heard singing on the same very warm day in November
alluded to above.

Song Sparrow. Arrives in mid-October, and has been observed
as late as April 11th. Heard singing sporadically throughout its
entire stay, except the first and last weeks.

White-throated Sparrow. Arrives atthe same time as the pre-
ceeding, but does not leave till a month later. Heard singing spo-
radically all its stay, and coming into full song in early April.

Fox Sparrow. Length of stay from about early November till
late March, but heard singing only on two occasions in November,
three in December, and three in January, but on some of these
dates the birds were singing a great deal.

Meadow Lark. Stays with us from early or mid-October till
mid or late April, but was only heard singing from mid-February
to early April.

The above notes are, I am aware, quite crude and meagre but
they seemed worth while presenting, as the subject has been very
little touched upon.

The times limiting the song periods or length of stay are in all
cases inclusive.

THE PROBABLE ELECTRICAL NATURE OF CHEMICAL
ENERGY*

BY A. H. PATTERSON

In a recent paper Dr. J. E. Mills has expressed some interest-
ing views on the nature and source of Chemical Energy. His
argument may be summarized as follows: When 16 grams of
oxygen are mixed with 2.016 grams of hydrogen at 0° C, nothing
happens, but if a minute spark (supplying a negligible amount of
heat) be applied, combination takes places, 18.016 grams of water
are formed, and 68,511 calories of heat are given out. Whence
comes this relatively enormous amount of heat energy? Suppose
we take 16 grams of oxygen and 2.016 grams of hydrogen at —273°
C, and add enough heat energy to bring them to 0° C. Dr. Mills
shows that the following amount will be needed: For the hydrogen:
Raising the temperature from —273° C, 1844.8 calories, supply-
ing heat of fusion and of vaporization, 280.4 calories; total 2125.2
calories. For the oxygen: Raising the temperature through the
same range, 1065.4 calories, supplying heat of fusion and of vapo-
rization, 906.7 calories; total, 1972.2 calories. So that 4097.5
calories would be added to the hydrogen and oxygen in bringing
them up from —273° to 0° C. Now the energy necessary to
raise 18.016 grams of water through the same range of tempera-
ture would be 2886.9 calories, divided as follows: For raising the
temperature, 1447.4 calories; for supplying heat of fusion, 1439.6
calories. The water at 0° C of’ course still retains this energy,
but since 4097.4 calories were given to the hydrogen and oxygen,

* A paper read at the Fifteenth General Meeting of the American Electro-
chemical Society, at Niagara Falls, Canada, May 8, 1909.

1 Transactions Am. Electrochem. Soc., 14, 35 (1908).

62 [ June

1909\| Evecrricar NATURE OF CHEMICAL ENERGY 63

and only 2886.9 calories are retained by the water, a balance of
1210.5 calories remains to be given out during combination. But
the amount given out in combination is 68,511 calories, leaving 67 ,300
calories unaccounted for. Whence comes this energy? In what form
did it previously exist? It was clearly possessed by the hydrogen
and oxygen in their solid form at —273° C. Dr. Mills conceives
that every atom of a substance possesses at —273° C a. specific
chemical energy (though he does not use this term), partly in the
potential form, due to “‘chemical attraction’’ between it and one
or more other atoms, and partly in the kinetic form, which latter
condition must be fulfilled if the system of which the atom is a
part is to be a stable one®. This chemical attraction, or force, or
affinity “‘is probably never directly affected by a rise in tempera-
ture,’’? and the 67,300 calories of energy above mentioned
‘“‘appears to have been held, intact as it were, neither increased
nor diminished, by the changes of temperature, pressure and vol-
ume necessary to raise the hydrogen and oxygen to their condition
at 0° C,”’ and “represents the total energy change of the three
reactions:
H,=H+H
220, = 72(0 +0)
Fes EL Or EO

when taking place at —273° C.”’

The reactions liberated this store of energy, but how they did
so, and in what form the energy previously existed, Dr. Mills does
not attempt to explain. Itis possible that some light may be
thrown upon this question by a recourse to the electron theory.

THE ELECTRICAL THEORY OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION

It may be well to give first a brief account of some of the fun-
damental ideas of this theory, as well as of some of its recent
developments. It is now a familiar story how the idea of electrons
arose. Helmholtz, in his Faraday lecture’, spoke of electricity

2 Meyer, Kinetic Theory of Gases, 2nd English Ed., p. 344.
3 See also Nernst, Theoretical Chemistry, 4th Eng. Ed., p. 688.
4 Journal Chemical Soc., 1881, p. 39.

64 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ June

being ““divided into definite elementary portions which behave like
atoms of electricity’? in the conduction of a current through a
liquid electrolyte. Maxwell had already proposed that ‘‘we call
this constant molecular charge’’ (in electrolysis) ‘‘for convenience
of description, one atom of electricity.’’> Lorentz in 1880, in
order to explain the phenomena of light, formulated a theory®
which regarded an atom of matter as a complex structure consist-
ing of these “‘atoms of electricity,’’ for which the name ‘‘electrons”’
had been suggested by Stoney, who as early as 1874 had succeeded
in calculating the value of the electric charge on one electron.
Various theories of the exact structure of an atom out of electrons
have been put forth’, but the most widely accepted view at present
is that of Sir J. J. Thomson, who regards an atom as being built
up of a sphere of positive electricity of uniform density, through-
out which the negative electrons (Thomson prefers to call them
‘“corpuscles’’) are distributed in various orbits, revolving about
the center of the sphere. The number of electrons in an atom is
proportional to the atomic weight.” The enclosing positive charge
acts as though it were concentrated at its center, and is supposed
to attract each electron with a force which varies as the direct dis-
tance of the electron from the center of the sphere. The “‘sphere
of positive electrification’’ occupies a vastly greater space than the
total volume of all the electrons. These latter, being similarly
charged, repel each other according to the inverse square of the
distance law.

The electrons are in extremely rapid orbital motion about the
center of the atom, the average number of revolutions being about
500 million million per second, and these give rise to light waves.
In a neutral atom, the sum of the negative charges on the electrons
is exactly equal to the positive charge of the enclosing sphere. In
this case the stability of the electron grouping inside the atom
depends upon the number of electrons, the way they are arranged
in the orbits, and the strength of the enclosing positive charge.

5 Electricity & Mag., Ist Ed., 1873, p. 312.

6 Propagation of Light, Wied. Ann., 1880, p. 9.

7 Lodge, Electrons, pp. 148-150.

8 Thomson, Corpuscular Theory of Matter, p. 164.

1909] Enxecrricar Nature oF CHEMICAL ENERGY 65

Some atoms easily lose electrons, on account of the instability
of their electron groupings. Other atoms have a tendency to
acquire electrons from outside, if such increase in number lends
greater stability to their electron groupings. The complete solu-
tion of the problem of the stability or instability of given electron
groupings seems to be beyond the power of mathematics at present,
as the electron orbits lie at all angles, but the analytical solution
of the case where the orbits of the electrons are supposed to be con-
fined to one plane has been given by Prof. Thomson,’? and shows
that very few groupings of electrons, comparatively speaking, are
at all stable. When an atom loses electrons, it thereby loses
negative electricity, and a residual positive charge remains. Such
an atom would in general belong to an electropositive element. If
an atom acquires electrons, its negative charge preponderates over
its positive, and the atom acts like an electronegative element.
Valeney depends on the number of electrons lost or gained. We
must not suppose, however, that all the atoms of, let us say, a diva-
lent electropositive element are at any given time in the same con-
dition of having lost two electrons each. In the hurly-burly of
atomic and molecular motions and encounters atoms will alter-
nately lose and gain electrons very rapidly, perhaps millions of
times per second, but if in the case of the supposed element the
atoms have a tendency to get into the condition represented by the loss
of two electrons per atom rather than into any other condition, the ele-
ment will have a positive valency of two, and will react with one
or more other substances of negative valency as rapidly as the
atoms get into the proper condition, owing to the loss or gain of
electrons, to go into combination. This requires more or less time,
of course, thus agreeing with the facts of chemistry, as no reaction
is instantaneous, but proceeds according to an exponential law.
Combination ensues when two or more atoms, carrying unlike charges,
and coming near enough for the purpose, are pulled more closely
together by the electrostatic lines of force between their charges, and
heid together tightly in a molecule. As Ramsay says: ‘‘Chemical
gemonis tie occasional result; of 9): °. . “eollisions, (200.0000.
but the process of combination is a comparatively slow one, and

9 Phil. Mag., March, 1904,

66 JOURNAL OF THE MrrcHELL SOcIRTY LJune

a collision followed by a combination is a comparatively
rare event.’

With the assumption that chemical affinity is simply electro-
static attraction between charges of electricity, Sir J. J. Thomson
has worked out with great ingenuity a series of model atoms, com-
posed of spheres of uniform positive electrification, with varying
numbers of electrons revolving in varying numbers of orbits inside
these spheres, and has shown that such a series of atoms would
show the same properties, periodically recurring, as are actually
observed in the elements arranged according to the periodic law.”
The theory explains more or less satisfactorily the recurring elec-
tropositive and electronegative character of the elements, and why
the same element acts sometimes electropositively, and at other
times electronegatively; the recurrence of corresponding groups of
lines in the spectra of elements of the same periodic-law group;
the valency of the elements, including the zero valency of the argon
group, and also the different valency of the same element under
different circumstances; the formation of molecules by the union
of atoms of the same element; the existence of unsaturated com-
pounds, such as PCl,; the formation, in solution of certain ele-
ments (for example, Br and I) of both positive and negative ions,
the element appearing at both anode and cathode during electroly-
sis; the apparent change in the properties of the carbon atom
when combined with different elements; the thermoelectric effects,
and in fact, nearly all of the phenomena of physics and chemistry.
Kspecially in the explanation of the phenomena of optics and
radioactivity has the new theory been of great advantage, and
without it the facts of radioactivity, at least, would seem to be
entirely inexplicable. Arrhenius has also extended the theory to
explain astronomical and meteorological phenomena, such as
auroras, the solar corona, magnetic storms, etc. But while the
electron theory provides us with the broadest working hypothesis
of modern times for the correlation and unification of physical,
chemical, and biological phenomena, it cannot be claimed that it

10 The Electron as an Element, Journal Chem. Soc., Apr., 1908, p. 777.
11 Electricity and Matter, p. 117 et seg.; Corpuscular Theory of Matter
Chapter VI. ’

1909] Exxecrrica, NATURE oF CHEMICAL ENERGY 67

is in any sense final. One of its founders, indeed, has quite recent-
ly pointed out the need for revision or modification of some of its
fundamental ideas.” Nevertheless, it has already proved to be
one of the strongest aids to research which physical science has
known.

THE SOURCE OF CHEMICAL ENERGY

Can we obtain, on the electrical theory, any information con-
cerning the source and nature of the energy liberated in chemical
reactions? Take the reaction

H+0+H=HO

for example. Before union’ we have two hydrogen atoms, each
carrying one positive electron charge, and one oxygen atom carry-
ing two negative electron charges. What amount of energy do
these charged atoms represent?

The potential of asphere bearing a charge is equal to Q/ 7 where
Q is the charge on the sphere (in electrostatic units) and 7 is the
radius of the sphere (in centimeters). The resultant potential is
given in electrostatic units, an electrostatic unit being equal to 300
volts.

The electron charge has been independently determined by dif-
ferent observers. H. A. Wilson found it tobe 3.1 X 10” elec-
trostatic units;” J. J. Thomson found by another method” the
value 3.4 X 10°°. Using the mean value of N (number of mole-
cules in 1 ¢.c. of a gas under normal conditions of pressure and
temperature) given by Meyer, ° viz., 6.1 X 10°, we find the cor-
responding value of the electron charge to be 3.7 * 107°.

The value obtained by J. Perrin” is 4.1 X 10°, and by Ruther-
ford and Geiger’ is 4.65 X 10°° electrostatic units. Max Planck
calculated the value, from theoretical considerations, to be

12 See article by H. A. Lorentz, Phys. Zeitschr., Sept. 1, 1908.
13 Phil. Mag., [VI], 5, 429 (1903).

14 Cond. of Elec. Thro. Gases, 2nd Ed., p. 158.

15 Kin. Th. of Gases, 2nd Ed., p. 333.

16 Comptes Rendus, 147, 594-596 (1908).

W Proceedings of the Royal Society, 81, A, 162-73.

68 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ June

4.69 x 10°, and Millikan and Begeman found the value
ALO GO) 32

These last values, being the latest determinations, are probably
more correct than former ones. In the following calculation
Rutherford’s value will be used.

As to the radius of a molecule, estimates vary widely. Meyer
gives values ranging from 2 X 10° cm. to about 16 X 10° em.,”*
but leans toward the lower figure.” The radius of an atom is
shrouded in equal doubt, but we may assume 10° cm. as approxi-
mately correct. Using these values we find that the potential,
V, of an atom carrying an electron charge is 4.65 X 10° E. S.
units, or about 14 volts. The energy of a charged body is %QV
ergs, or, applying our values, the energy of a charged hydrogen
atom. 18% X.4.65 « 100° XK 4-851x< 107 = 10:8" Ko eee
The energy of the charged divalent oxygen atom is twice this
amount. The energy of the charged atoms entering into combi-
nation to form one molecule of water is therefore about
4.38 X 10° ergs. Next comes the question of the number
of molecules in 1 e¢.c. of water. This is as uncertain as the
values of the electron charge, but it is probably about 3.4 XK 10”.
On this estimate the number of molecules in 18 grams of water is
6.2 X 10%, and the energy of the charged atoms of hydrogen and
oxygen would be, before combination, 6.2 X 10% X 4.38 K 10°=
2.7 & 10° ergs: = 2.7 K 10° joules, = 16.4. 10? wicaliomesaaan
640,000 calories. When the charged atoms rush together into com-
bination, this energy, which existed as potential energy of charge,
is partly given out, and 7¢t zs at least suggestive to note that this amount
of energy is quite sufficient to account for the 67,300 calories given out
in the formation of 18.016 grams of water, and is, moreover, of about
the magnitude we should expect, as we donot imagine the atoms to
come close enough in combination to release all their energy.

Too much importance, however, must not be given to the num-
ber found, 600,000 calories, for the energy of charge of the hydro-
gen and oxygen atoms may be much greater or much smaller than

18 Loc. cit., pp. 320, 331.

19 Perrin gives 2.6 x 10°§ cm. asthe diameter of a molecule of oxygen.
Loc. cit.

1909| Exvectrica, NaturE oF CHEMICAL ENERGY 69

this. I wish merely to make the point that whatever the potential
electrical energy of the hydrogen and oxygen atoms may be before
combination, it is less afterwards by the amount given out, viz.,
67,300 calories. Hf the charges on the hydrogen and oxygen
atoms “‘sparked into’’ each other, all of the electrical energy would
be given out, but this does not occur.” The hydrogen and oxygen
atoms (in a molecule of water) may be considered then as coming quite
near each other when in combination, near enough to render the mole-
cule electrically neutral, but not near enough to equalize the charges,
and not near enough to prevent stray lines of force from producing a
“residual attraction’’ between the molecules.

THE RESIDUAL ATTRACTION

Dr. Mills in his paper says: “It is possible . . . that the
molecular attraction is merely the residual chemical attraction.’’™
The electrical theory would simply substitute the word ‘‘electrical’’
for the word “‘chemical’’ above. For various reasons Dr. Mills
thinks that the ‘‘attractive forces . . . which proceed froma
particle are definite in amount. If this attraction is exerted upon
another particle the amount of the attraction remaining to be
exerted upon other particles is diminished.’’ If chemical attrac-
tion is electrostatic attraction, we have these conditions exactly
fulfilled, and also have an explanation why this force, and the
energy due to it, is independent of temperature changes, for the
number of “‘lines of force’’ proceeding from a given charge isa
perfectly definite quantity, unaffected by temperature. The
explanation of the ‘‘residual attraction’’ which the electrical theory
offers is given by Prof. Thomson as follows:* The attraction
between charged bodies is greater when these bodies are conductors,
in which electrons are able to move about freely, than between
non-conductors bearing the same charges, for the conductors allow
the corpuscles to move into the most advantageous positions, as it
were, and electrostatic induction comes into play. The residual

29 Lodge, Electrons. p. 154.
21 Loc. cit.
22 Corpuscular Theory of Matter, p. 135 ef seq.

70 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ June

attraction between saturated atoms and molecules will therefore be
a function of the mobility of the electrons inside the atoms.
‘‘This mobility may not be the same for the atoms of the different
elements, and may be different for the same atom according as it
is exerting positive or negative valency; in other words, the attrac-
tion of an atom may not be wholly exhausted when its valency is
satisfied, and the residual attraction may depend not only upon the
nature of the atom, but also upon whether it 1s exerting its posi-
tive or negative valencies.’? The interesting question arises
whether this residual attraction is greater or less when an atom
carries a positive charge than when the charge is negative. It
must be remembered that the theory supposes that the extra elec-
tron in a negative monovalent atom is united to a positive atom
by lines of force, and that these lines spring from the relatively
large surface of the positive atom and converge to the minute elec-
tron on the other atom, somewhat as the network of ropes from a
balloon converge to the basket beneath. The intensity of the elec-
trie field, therefore, at the surfaces of the two atoms is not the
same, and we may expect a difference in the residual attraction
which an atom exerts when negatively and when positively charged.
‘Tn the compound CH,,’’ says Professor Thomson,” “‘the carbon
is supposed to carry a charge of —4, and in CO (if the oxygen is
tetravalent) a charge of + 4; the value of a“ for CH, is 0.0379,
and that for CO is less, viz., 0.0284, although the residual attrac-
tion of oxygen is probably greater than that of hydrogen. This,
as far as it goes, is in favor of the view that the residual attraction
of carbon is greater when it is negatively than when it is positive-
ly charged.’’ The residual attraction also appears to exist between
molecules, and acts to form aggregates of molecules, especially
around negative ions, which seem to exert much more effect than
positive ions. “‘It has been found that in carefully dried gases the
velocity of the negative ion is considerably greater than that of the
positive when the electrical forces acting on them are equal. If,

23 Loc. cit.
24 The cohesion factor in Van der Waals’ formula.

1909] Execrrica, Nature oF CHEMICAL ENERGY vial

however, a little water vapor is added to the gas, it produces a
considerable diminution of the velocity of the negative ion, while
it hardly affects that of the positive. Jt seems quite possible that
this is due to the residual attraction of the OH radical in the
water for a negative charge, making the water molecules attract
the negative ions more strongly than they do the positive ones, so
that the water molecules will tend to attach themselves to the nega-
tive ions, and by loading them up diminish their velocity.’’*
Thomson showed years ago that negative electrification had a
decidedly greater effect in promoting condensation than positive,”
and C. T. R. Wilson found that negative ions require less cooling
by expansion te make them act as condensation nuclei in dust-free
air than positive ions.” It is quite probable that these phenome-
na are explained inthe same way. The electrical theory would
indicate that there must always be some residual attraction, even
in the inactive monatomic gases.

The hquefaction of helium shows this, though for helium the
value of a is the smallest known.

THEORY OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION

So far it is significant and interesting to note that the reasoning
of the chemist and the physicist, though from different points of
view, and expressed in different language, leads to practically the
same conclusions. In the case of electrical conduction the differ-
ence is rather pronounced between Dr. Mills’ ideas and those of
the electrical theory. Briefly stated, the electrical theory supposes
that in metals electrons are easily detached from the atoms, and
under the action of an electric force, as when a wire connects the
terminals of a voltaic cell, the electrons rapidly pass from atom to
atom through the wire in the direction of the positive terminal.
This stream of electrons is equivalent to a positive current flowing in
the opposite direction, wiz., along the wire from the positive to the
negative terminal. The kinetic energy of these moving electrons
smashing, as it were, into the atoms, causes increased atomic

20 J. J. Thomson, Loc. cit.
26 Phil. Mag., 36, 813 (1893).
27 Phil. Transactions, 193, 289 (1899),

72 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocIETy | June

motion, and the wire becomes heated. In the case of metals a
rise in temperature retards the motion of the electrons in some
way, and the conductivity decreases. In carbon, however, a rise
in temperature seems to give the electrons greater freedom of
motion, and so the “‘hot resistance’’ of a carbon filament is less
than the ‘‘cold resistance.’’ In the case of non-conductors, like
the rare earths, the electrons are only set free by strong heating.
In the Nernst glower, for example, conductivity begins only when
the temperature is about 1,200° C. The salts of the metals are
poor conductors, because the atoms of the metal have already lost
electrons, in going into chemical combination, and it is difficult to
loosen others and pull them away from the positively charged
atoms. In solution, however, the ions of salts are free to move,
and we have a double stream of positive and negative ions moving
in opposite directions under the electric stress. In gases also there
ean be no conduction without ionization. In the vacuum tube
discharge we have a peculiar case, for we get a stream of free elec-
trons, unassociated with atoms, going in one direction, and a stream
of positively charged atoms moving in the other. If this latter
stream is prevented from reaching the cathode the discharge is
stopped.*

Dr. Mills’ theory of conduction is somewhat ambiguous. He
says: ‘I havein my own mind connected the power to conduct
electricity, whether the substance is in the solid, liquid, or gaseous
condition, not primarily with molecules, nor with ions, nor even
perhaps with electrons. The essential requisite appears to me to
be a free, that is, an unabsorbed attraction.’’ It is difficult, on
this hypothesis, to see why mercury, for example, should not be a
better conductor than silver, as its atoms seem to be less firmly
bound together; nor why the resistance of selenium should change
so marvelously with the degree of illumination to which it is sub-
jected; nor why increase of temperature, which drives atoms fur-
ther apart, should not always increase conductivity; nor how the
vacuum tube discharges and the action of electric valves may be
explained; nor how the change of resistance of bismuth in a mag-
netic field may be accounted for.

*8 Lodge, Electrons, p. 39,

1909| ExxecrricaA, Nature or CuEmicaL ENERGY 73

However, the object of this paper is merely to emphasize the
fact that physicists and chemists, reasoning from different view-
points, often reach practically the same general conclusions, which
is evidence for the truth of these conclusions, and further that the
electrical theory, in spite of certain artificial features, seems to
offer the best and clearest idea of the source of chemical energy,
the mechanism of chemical combination, ionization, dissociation,
ete., and the most rational explanation of the various phenomena
of physical science.

Universiry or NortH CAROLINA,
CHuAaren Hit, N.C.
February 16, 1909.

NEW OCCURRENCE OF MONAZITE IN NORTH
CAROLINA

BY JOSEPH HYDE PRATT

In 1897 there was forwarded to the office of the North Carolina
Geological Survey a package containing a sample of mineral for
identification. No letter accompanied this package and the only
clue to the locality from which the mineral came was the post-
mark, which was Mars Hill. The mineral was turned over to the
writer for examination and was found to be monazite. There
were a number of fairly well developed crystals of unusual size;
but the majority of the pieces did not show any crystal faces
but were pseudo-crystalline, due to parting parallel to ¢ and
m. An attempt was made to locate the sender of the specimens
without success and although many inquiries have been made in
the vicinity of Mars Hill and the place has been visited a num-
ber of times, no clue to the occurrence of this monazite was
obtained until in the fall of 1908 another specimen of monazite was
seen by the writer while travelling in Madison County. <A sys-
tematic search was then begun for the mineral with the result that
the occurrence was definitely located.

Xeferences have been made to the occurrence of monazite at
Mars Hill, Madison County by F. A. Genth* who states that mon-
azite occurs in “‘large cleavable masses sometimes from 3 to 4
inches across and of a yellowish brown color from Mars Hill, Mad-
ison County.’’ He does not, however, give any further statement
regarding locality. In Dana’s Mineralogy? it is stated that mon-
azite occurs ‘‘in considerable quantities in Madison County, North
Carolina, yielding angular fragments due to parting.’’? Judging

*Bull. 74, U. 8S. Geological Survey, 1891, p. 77.
76th. ed., 1892, p. 752.

74 [June

1909] New OccurrENCE oF Monazire In N. C. 25

from these brief notices of monazite in Madison County, it is very
probable that the specimens found at that time were picked
up on top of ground by some of the farmers in the vicinity
of Mars Hill and no record was kept of where they were actually
obtained.

Judging from the occurrence of this mineral in the South Moun-
tain region of North Carolina where it was known to occur in the
gneissic rocks and especially in those portions that have been peg-
matized, instructions were given to the men trying to locate
the monazite to look for it in the gneissic or granitic rocks that
were more or less pegmatized. The occurrence of the monazite
was finally located on a hill to the west of Whiteoak Creek, a
branch of Ivy River approximately 3 miles southwest of Mars
Hill and 6 miles nearly due east of Marshall. It is on a tract of
land owned by Mr. N. P. M. Corn.

The country rocks of this section are Carolina gneiss and Cran-
berry granite named and described by Mr. Arthur Keith.*
The Carolina gneiss is of Archean age and consists chiefly of mica
gneiss and mica schist but includes other gneisses, granites and
diorites with small lenses of marble. The origin of this Carolina
gneiss is uncertain, but it is possible that most of the mass was
once a granite and that it has been metamorphosed into its pres-
ent condition. In this particular vicinity this Carolina gneiss
occurs as outliers from the main formation and is not inter-band-
ed with the Cranberry granite. Immediately to the east there is
a large mass of Roan gneiss and this is also observed further to
the west. The Cranberry granite as it occurs in this vicinity is
also in the form of outlers or apophyses from the main mass
lying to the north and west. As described by Mr. Keith, this
granite is an igneous rock composed of quartz and orthoclase
and plagioclase feldspar with biotite, muscovite, and, in places,
hornblende as additional minerals. There area number of acces-
sory minerals as magnetite, ilmenite, garnet and epidote, found in
this granite. This granite occasionally contains pegmatite areas
and, on the Whiteoak Creek, a great deal of the gneiss and gran-
ite was pegmatized.

*U.S. Geological Survey, Asheville Folio, No. 116, 1904, pp. 2 and 3.

76 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ June

There are no extensive areas of rocks outcropping on this hill-
side. Occasionally small boulders of the partially decomposed
granite were observed containing more or less epidote and ilmen-
ite forming a sort of a ledge running around the hill about a third
of the way to its top. About 100 feet up the hillside a shait has
been sunk to a depth of 45 feet. The rocks were decomposed
throughout this distance so that no blasting whatever was neces-
sary. On account of the excessive decomposition of the rocks, it
was difficult to determine what the rocks at this particular point
were. They had the appearance, however, of being decomposed
Cranberry granite. The section exposed by the shaft showed the
rocks to be more or less pegmatized and to carry monazite the
whole depth of the shaft. The mineral seemed to occur in the
pegmatized band of the rock which, in the shaft as exposed, had
a width of 24 to 4 feet and does not occur in any sense as a vein
formation.

The monazite, which was of a clove brown color, was found in
fragments or rough crystals varying from pieces the size of a pea
up to a large rough crystal that weighed almost exactly 60 pounds.
No attempt was made at this time to determine the percentage of
monazite that the rock would carry. One or two pans full of the
monazite-bearing portion of the rock were dug out, which gave
nearly a pound of monazite. The property is now being deyel-
oped and later a more detailed account will be given of the per-
centage of monazite in the rock and its commercial value.

As stated above, the monazite is in the form of irregular frag-
ments, rough crystals and cleavable masses. One of the best erys-
tals observed was a part of a mass that weighed 63 pounds,
which was made up of crystals in parallel position with some of
the faces very perfectly developed. Another crystal, which was
well terminated, weighed 12 ounces. It measured 2% inches in
the directiom of the 6 axis and 14 inches in the direction of the
a axis and was 24 inches long. The prismatic faces of the a pina-
coid were well developed as was also the unit pyramid w: The
lower end of the crystal showed no terminations. The faces
observed on these crystals were identified by means of the contact
goniometer and were as follows: a (100); m (011); w (101)

1909} New OccurRrENCE OF Mownazire IN N. C. cH

6
v (111).

The basal plane ¢ was not observed on any of the crystals but
was observed as one of the parting or cleavage planes. Parting
planes were also very prominently developed parallel to m.

The masses of the minerai were very pure and one analysis to
determine the percentage of monazite in the mass showed it to
contain 99.5 per cent monazite. No chemical analyses have been
made of the mineral beyond the determination of thoria. This
determination, which was made in the laboratory of the Welsbach
Light Company, showed this monazite to contain 5.06 per cent
thoria, which is equal to the percentage of thoria in the best com-
mercial monazite found in the South Mountain region.

The size of the crystals of monazite found in this deposit and
the possibility yf its developing into an occurrence of commercial
value make the discovery a most interesting one and its further
development will be watched with a great deal of interest not only
by those interested in this mineral from a commercial standpoint
but also by the mineralogist who will be interested in obtaining
large crystals of this mineral.

N. C. GEoLocicaL AND Economic SurvVEY.

THE SENSES OF INSECTS

BY FRANKLIN SHERMAN, JR., DEPT. AGR., RALEIGH, N. C.

The Five Senses. In the higher animals we are familiar with
the five senses, or means by which the animals learn concerning
the things around. These are (1) Touch, (2) Taste, (3) Sight,
(4) Hearing and (5) Smell. Tf we can imagine a person, or
animal, bereft of all of these, such an individual would be worse
than helpless—it would scarcely be more than merely organic. We
well know that many of the lower forms of life have one or more
of these senses imperfect or entirely lacking.

Within the great group of Insects, which stand high in the series
of invertebrated animals, we find all of these five senses present
in some degree,— some insects having more of them, or having
some more highly developed, than other insects.

1. The Sense of Touch in insects is not confined to any one
part of the body; and in this they are like other animals, But,
just as the hands and fingers are the principal organs of touch in
man, just so the antennae (the ‘horns’’ or “‘feelers’’? which are so
evident on the head of many insects) are the principal organs of
touch in most insects. Almost any insect when crawling about
will keep the antennae in constant motion, feeling about from side
to side as if to ascertain the nature of the objects around it. Many
insects, however, have the antennae so small that they are not
noticeable to our eyes, —but that they are very important
organs to the insect class as a whole is shown by the fact that all
insects have them in one or another of their stages of development.
Many insects have around the mouth-parts delicate organs known
as palpi which are very sensitive to touch, and which are used
more especially to feel of particles of food, etc.

78 { Jimne

1909] Tuer SENSES oF INSECTS 79

Insects have a quite well-developed nervous system, with fine
ramifications of sensitive nerves extending to all parts of the body.
Consequently the surface of the body at any point may act as a
center of touch, just as with us. But many insects have a firm
covering or armor of chitin (a substance resembling horn) through
which the nerves do not extend. This is especially the case with
the hard-shelled Beetles, some of which are so firm as to be
crushed with the fingers only with much effort. With such insects
the sense of touch must be confined largely to the antennae, deli-
cate parts of the legs, and the thin membrane between the seg-
ments of the body, ete. On the other hand caterpillars, grubs,
maggots and immature insects generally, have rather soft bodies
and the entire body-surface may be quite sensitive to touch. All
who have experimented with the common horn-worms on tobacco
are familiar with this fact. With regard to the Senses of Touch,
then, we may conclude that while it is not confined to any part
or parts, yet it is more developed in the extremities, and especial-
ly in those all-important organs, the antennae.

2. The Sense of Taste is not, so far as we know, very highly
developed in insects, or at least positive organs of taste are not
often discernible. There is in some insects (grasshoppers and
their relatives) a tongue-like organ in the mouth by means of
which they probably taste their food, but on the whole this sense
is not believed to be highly developed.

There is a fact in this connection, however, which may easily
(and perhaps rightly) be interpreted to indicate that the sense of
taste is well developed. An adult insect will almost invariably
deposit her eggs on the same kind of plant on which it was itself
reared and which its young requires though there may be hun-
dreds of other plants about. This may be due to an acute sense
of taste on the part of the adult, or it may be only acuteness of
some other sense, such as smell. The adult of the common Tent-
caterpillar in our orchards seldom makes a mistake in depositing
eggs on plants which will nourish the larva (more especially apple
and choke-cherry) yet the adult insect has only very imperfectly
developed mouth-parts and is thought not to take any food in the
adult state,—and here the adeptness at selecting proper plants
would not seem to be due to a senseof taste on the part of the adult,

80 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ June

A butterfly will invariably lay eggs on the proper food-plant of the
larva which eats the leaf, but the adult butterfly can only lap up
liquid, such as nectar,—in such a case the sense of taste can hard-
ly be responsible for the accurate choice by the adult egg-laying
female.

3. The Sense of Sight is evidently one of the most important
of the senses to insects, serving especially in the matter of self-
preservation from enemies. Some subterranean or caye-inhabit-
ing insects are wholly blind, or are only slightly responsive to ight
and darkness,—but with many other insects the sense is extreme-
ly acute. Whoever has attempted to collect the species of dragon-
flies (‘‘snake-doctors’’ or ‘‘devils darning-needles’’ or “‘mosquito-
hawks’’ as they are sometimes called) does not need to be told
that their sense of sight is remarkably keen, and that they can use
it to great effect either in eluding their enemies or in capturing
their prey. The organs of sight in insects are the eyes, and these
are always located on the head. There is an idea, quite preva-
lent in many places, that the horse-fly has eyes beneath the base
of its wings. The little organs found at this place in all true flies
are known as the halteres and have nothing to do with the sense
of sight. They seem to serve a more or less double purpose as
balancers and as rudders in maintaining and guiding the insect
while in flight. Some butterflies and moths have conspicuous
marks on the wings which are often called eye-spots, but they
have no connection with the sense of sight. Let us repeat, then,
that all of the organs of sight, so far as we know them, are locat-
ed on the head, and are the organs known as eyes. The eyes,
however, are of two kinds, (1) There are the large ““compound
eyes,’’ consisting of a great number of individual eyes massed
together like the cells of a honey-comb,—each one performing its
own separate individual part in making the completed picture
which the insect sees. (2) There are in some insects single, sep-
arate eyes, known as “‘ocelli.’’ These are usually two or three
in number and are well separated from one another. They are
so small as to pass unnoticed except by students, and their pres-
ence or absence, number and arrangement, form excellent char-
acters for classification. What difference there may be in
function between these two kinds of eyes, is yet a matter of con-

1909] THE SENSES OF INSECTS 81

jecture. Some believe that the compound eyes are adapted for
_ long-range vision and the simple eyes for more detailed study by
the insect at close range. It has also been suggested that per-
haps one set of eyes is adapted to viewing of objects in motion,
and the other for scrutinizing objects at a standstill. But as the
simple eyes (or ocelli) are not present in many whole groups of
insects which live an active life in the open air, it seems certain
that they are not nearly so important as the compound eyes, and
may indeed, be only remaining fragments that were not consoli-
dated into the compound eyes, when nature slowly moulded them
during the ages gone.

It is also a curious fact, worthy of mention in this connection,
that investigation indicates that insects ‘‘see things’’ in inverted
order from ourselves, that the refractive lenses in the eyes throw
an inverted image on the cornea. Photographs have been taken
through the compound eyes of insects, and when developed, show
an inverted image. If this inference is correct, the insect
Sees us standing, as it were, on our heads, — but as all other
objects would be likewise inverted, we would appear just as nat-
ural to them in that position, as they look to us in our method of
seeing.

4. The Sense of Hearing is in some insects located in distinct
organs while with others we do not know that the sense even
exists at all. But in those insects which ‘sing’? or give forth
voluntary sounds, it seems certain that the sense of hearing must
be developed, for we can conceive of no purpose which such sounds
could serve unless they are audible to others of the same kind, so
that they would serve to indicate danger, or the presence of mates,
etc. There is considerable variation in location of the sense of
hearing. In the common mosquitoes of the genus culex, we have
strong evidence that the antennae serve as organs of hearing.
The female when flying makes a shrill noise which is much loud-
er than the sound made by the male. We might therefore infer
that the sound produced by the female is audible to the male, and
that, as the males make little or no noise these insignificant sounds
would not be audible to the female. This Seems to be the case,
for the antennae of the male mosquito is very much more com-
plex and delicate than those of the female, —and it has been found

82 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ June

that when shrill sounds of the same pitch as those made by the
female mosquito are sounded close by a male mosquito, the anten-
nae vibrate In unison with the sound, indicating that through
them the sound is conveyed.

On the other hand certain moths, in which neither sex pro-
duces sound, have the antennae more developed in the males than
in the females, but here the explanation lies in the sense of smell,
and not in the sense of hearing.

With the crickets, katydids and those grass-hoppers in which
the antennae are longer than the body, the organs of hearing,
which we may liken unto ears, are located on the tibiae of the
front legs near where they join thefemur. (A more simple way
of expressing it is to say that the ear is on the fore-arm near the
elbow of the front leg). Each ‘‘ear’’ is, in appearance, merely
an opening into the leg covered with a thin membrane, similar
to the head of a drum, and this indeed does correspond to the
““drum’’ of our own ears. This opening may be round, oval, or
appear merely as a slit. In those grass-hoppers in which the
antennae are shorter than the body, the “‘ears’’ are situated on
the sides of the abdomen close up to the thorax, behind the hinder-
most (third) pair of legs,—and each appears as quite a larger
opening into the body, the opening being covered by a membrane
or “‘drum.”’

We must conclude, therefore, that with insects the sense of
hearing is quite variable in its development, and in the location
of its organs. With some theré seems to be no sense of hearing,
while with those which do hear, the auditory organ may be in
various positions, or the power to hear may be (apparently)
developed in only one sex.

Sounds Produced by Insects. Closely associated with the sense of
hearing is the power and inclination to produce voluntary sounds.
Those animals which produce voluntary sounds almost always
(perhaps invariably so) possess the power of hearing. The meth-
ods by which insects produce sounds are various. With katydids
and crickets the males chirp, while the females do not make
sounds,—-and the chirping is produced by chafing the front wings
together. The female mosquito makes a shrill note by the rapid
vibration of the wings in flight, while the males are silent. Cer-

1909) THE SENSES OF INSECTS 83

tain species of grass-hoppers make a crackling sound by striking
the hind legs and wings together while in the air. The Cicadas
(known by the common names of “‘Locusts,’’ ““Dry-flies,’’ etc.)
sing by means of rapid vibration of a special organ in the abdo-
men which is covered by a movable flap, plainly visible, but
which exists only in the males, the females being noiseless. It is
worthy of remark that all insect songs or sounds are instrumental
or mechanical, and we know of no such thing as real vocal sounds
in insects.

5. The Sense of Smell is evidently highly developed in some
insects while among others it seems to be poorly developed or en-
tirely absent. With many it is of extreme importance in finding
food. The organs of smell are the antennae. Insects which feed
upon carrion and like substances, or which deposit their eggs on
such matter seem to find these substances almost exclusively by
the sense of smell, finding it with evident ease evenif it isat some
distance and concealed from sight. On the other hand it their
antennae are removed many seem unable to find their food even
though it is quite near and in full view. This indicates that the
sense of sight is defective and that of smell very acute.

The sense of smell is also utilized in finding mates. The males
of the Cecropia, Luna and other moths have the antennae more
developed than the females, and this seems to enable them to
detect the presence of the other sex. In some moths, as those of
the Canker-worms and Tussock moths, the females are entirely
Wingless on reaching maturity and must consequently be found by
the males. In such cases the sense of smell must be the principal
factor.

Reviewing the matter up to this point we see plainly that the
antennae figure prominently among the senses with insects, and
that few insects could do without them, without being crippled in
one or more departments of their sensibilities.

Other Senses Possible. We have discussed the five senses that
are known to us. It is quite within reason that some insects may
possess other senses which we cannot comprehend. We can
scarcely imagine that the keenest sense of touch, taste, sight, hear-

84 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ June

ing or smell, could guide the honey-bee directly to its hive over
miles of woods, fields and meadows. Or (leaving the insect world
for the moment) we are at a loss to explain the wonderful flight
of the homing pigeons, or the regular migration of our native
birds, merely on the basis of the five senses which we pos-
sess. Some naturalists believe therefore that certain aninaals at
least, have an unerring sense of direction, and perhaps also of the
distance which they have already come. If we can imagine sucha
sense of direction and distance we can see that it would take the
place of the compass and log of the mariner, by means of which
he finds his way accurately across trackless seas.

Very much of what we call Instinct among insects (and other
animals) may be due to the possession of senses other than those
with which we are familiar. Just what these senses may be, and
how well they may be developed among different animals, are
matters of mere conjecture at present. Taking this view, the sub-
iect of Instinct takes on a different appearance. It loses its aspect
of marvel, but increases in interest.

4?
JOURNAL
Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society
NOVEMBER, 1909

VOL. XXV NO. 3

NOTES ON THE PETROGRAPHY OF THE GRANITES OF

CHAPEL HILL, NORTH CAROLINA’
BY H. N. EATON

Thd village of Chapel Hill, North Carolina, is located upon a
gently rounded knob of granite rocks within the “Carolina Met-
amorphiec Slate and Volcanic Belt,’’ bounded upon the east by
Triassic sandstone, and on the south and west by sedimentary and
pyro-clastic rocks of unknown age. Northward the granite
becomes rapidly more basic, reaching a quartz-mica-diorite, or
grano-diorite. Rocks resembling true diorites macroscopically
are adjacent on the north. Aplite dikes exist everywhere, and a
suite of specimens can be easily collected showing a gradation from
this binary type to rocks containing biotite and hornblende, The
range in color and texture varies from fine grained, white, acid
rocks, to those which are dark, medium, and coarse grained.

PREVIOUS WORK

No previous attempt has been made to study the rocks micro-
scopically. The cnly place in geological literature where reference
_has beed made to the area is in a recent publication of the North
Carolina Geological Survey.” This is merely a brief description of
the areal extent and field appearance of the more striking types of
granite and diorite in the neighborhood.

1 Presented in outline before the North Carolina Academy of Science,
Durham, N. C., May 1, 1909.

2 North Carolina Geological Survey, Bull. No. 2, ‘‘The Building and Orna-
mental Stones of North Carouss,’’? by Watson, Laney, and Merrill, Raleigh,
1906, pp. 45-57.

909] 85

86 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ November

While the present microscopic work was being done the writer®
published a description of micropegmatite in one of the binary
granites.

The following notes are based on the examination of thin sections
only, no chemical analyses having beed made. The numbers
refer to specimens in the Geological Laboratory of the University
of North Carolida.

No. 35. Binary GRANITE.

In handspecimen—fine grained, grayish white, much decom-
posed; showing only quartz and feldspar.

In thin section—contains quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase, and
some epidote.

The crystals aye not ali uniform in size, large and small being
mixed promiscuously. Plagioclase and quartz occur in the most
abundance, and the orthoclase in a relatively insignificant
amount.

Maximum albite twinning striations perpendicular to M on the
plagioclase gave +9 degrees, thus placing the mixture between oli-
goclase and andesine.

The orthoclase is in moderately large crystals.

Epidote occurs in several connected lines, probably filling veins.

No 10-A. MuscovirE GRANITE.

In handspecimen—a medium grained, pink rock, consisting
essentially of pink feldspar and quartz.

In thin section—composed of quartz, orthoclase, microcline, pla-
gioclase, muscovite. chlorite, and magnetite. It is mainly a feld-
spar rock with porphyritic crystals of plagioclase and alkali feld-
spar, surrounded by a rubble of small quartz and feldspar frag-
ments.

The plagioclase is the most abundant mineral, belonging to the
species oligoclase, and displaying albite twinning in very fine stri-
ations, also carlsbad twinning. The crystals are short and irreg-
ular in outline, and frequently exhibit slight bending as though
caused by strain.

2 This Journal, vol. 24, No. 3, Nov. 1908, pp. 104-105

1909) Petrography of Chapel Hill Granite 87

Microcline is quite abundant; orthoclase, less so.

Graphic intergrowths between plagioclase and the alkali feld-
spars are common.

Quartz is confined to the fine crystals of the groundmass.

Muscovite occurs in fine shreds bent in long string-like masses,
usually near grains of magnetite.

Chlorite was observed in a few small scales.

No. 10-B. Brorire GRANITE.

In handspecimen—a medium to fine grained, mottled rock
showing on fresh fracture quartz, feldspar, a colored silicate, and
a metallic looking mineral.

In thin section—contains quartz, orthoc!ase, plagioclase, biotite,
magnetite, and titanite.

The magnetite is disseminated thickly through the slide in’ erys-
tals of appreciable size. In one place a relatively large mas3 sur-
rounds an equally large mass of titanite.

Titanite is quite abundant.

Biotite occurs in short crystals. It is mainly altered to chlorite,
and is pleochroic, the range being from straw yellow to grass
green.

Plagioc'ase is of rather sparing occurrence and is near oligoclase
in composition, with maximum extincfion angles of 7 and 8
degrees.

Orthoc’ase occurs in many forms. The crystals are of various
sizes, frequently enclosing small particles of plagioclase.

The microcline grating structure can be observed in a number of
instances but is indistinct.

Quartz is found well crystallized in large forms.

No. 18. Brorrre Grantre.

In handspecimen—a medium to fine grained rock, much decom-
posed, showing quartz, feldspar, and a dark silicate, probably bio-
tite in an advanced stage cf cl lozitization.

In thin section—contains essential quartz, feldspar and biotite;
with accessory magnetite, titanite, and zircon. Epidote appeais
in a vein, and chlorite as a decomposition product.

88 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ November

Biotite is disseminated sparingly through the slide. It is the
only dark colored silicate present, and is universally altered to
ehiorite.

Oligoclase is quite abundant. The albite twin striations are
fine. Carlsbad twinning was noted.

Orthoclase and microcline are abundant, the latter somewhat
less so of the two. All of the feldspars are much kaolinized.

Quartz occurs in the usual manner, filling in the interstices
between the earlier formed minerals.

Magnetite occurs sparingly in a few small grains.

Titanite occurs in a few localities in large crystals.

Zircon was observed in one place.

No. 23. BrorirE GRANITE. ~

In handspecimen—a medium grained, mottled, pink rock;
showing quartz, pink feldspar, and green biotite.

In thin section—contains quartz, orthoclase, microcline, plagio-
clase, and biotite.

The biotite occurs in small crystals arranged in a number of
large clusters. It is of the green variety.

Plagioclase is isolated in a number of small, stout prisms, much
kaolinized. Many feldspar crystals, kaolinized beyond recogni-
tien, are probably plagioclase.

Orthoclase and microcline are very abundant in square and rec-
tangular prisms.

Quartz occurs in well defined crystals of uniform size.

The uniformity in size of the quartz and feldspar forms is the
feature of the slide.

No. 16. Brorire GRANITE.

In handspecimen—a coarse grained, mottled rock, with a pecul-
iar blending of dark green and pink on weathered surfaces. There
appears to be an abundance of quartz, feldspar (probably ortho-
clase), and a dark colored silicate arranged in clusters. Thi; last
is with difficulty resolved with the hand lens into fine flakes of
biotite.

In thin section—composed of quartz, orthoclase, microcline,

1909] Petrography of Chapel Hill Granite 89

Plagioclase, biotite, titanite, pyrite, and apatite.

The biotite is the only colored silicate, is green in color, and
only sparingly present.

The plagioclase is oligoclase, and not abundant. It occurs in
irregularly bounded crystals, much kaolinized. ,

Microcline is very abundant in relatively large crystals.

Orthoclase covers a total area about equa! to the microcline.

Quartz occurs in large irregular masses.

Pyrite is found in several large grains. Incident light shows an
individual mass to be composed of an unaltered core of pyrite sur-
rounded by steely hematite, the whole in turn, encased in a rim
of hematite.

Titanite occurs in a few scattered crystals.

Apatite occurs in small crystals near the biotite.

No. 13. BrorrreE—HORNBLENDE GRANITE.

In handspecimen—a coarse grained, mottled, pink rock, much
weathered. with much pink feldspar, some quartz, and horn-
blende.

In thin section—contains magnetite, titanite, biotite, horn-
blende, plagioclase, and quartz.

Biotite occurs in light green and brown to deep green colors.
The brown type is in the smallest crystals and is frequently chlo-
ritized. The green variety is found in larger erystals and is less
common.

Hornblende occurs in comparatively large amount in large
forms. Plecchroism, marked; yellow to deep grass green. Inter-
ference, high. Twinning observed.

The plagioclase crystals are large and much kaolinized. Twin
striations, very fine. Species, oligoclase.

Orthoclase occurs in large masses, with indistinct boundaries in
places.

A few large microcline crystals are present.

No 8. HorNBLENDE GRANITE.

In handspecimen medium to coarse grained, mottled rock;
showing flesh colored feldspar, quartz, and much hornblende. The
specimen is much weathered.

90 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ November

In thin section—composed of essential quartz, orthoclase, micro-
cline, plagioclase, and hornblende; with biotite, magnetite, and
apatite as accessories, and chlorite and kaolin as decomposition
products.

Hornblende is abundant in irregular crystals and masses of
crystal fragments, showing absorption by the later formed quartz
and feldspar. Color, green. Strongly pleochroiv, grass green to
straw yellow. Interference colors, high greensand browns. Some
crystals show twinning.

Biotite occurs sparingly. Color, grass green with marked pleo-
chroism.

The plagioclase is oligoclase, occuring in stout idiomorphic
crystals, often highly kaolinized.

Orthoclase oceurs abundantly in large allotriomorphic crystals.

Microcline is quite abundant, its period of crystallization being
between the orthoclase and quartz.

Quartz is very abundant.

Magnetite and apatite are found near the colored silicates.

Chlorite results from biotite decomposition.

No. 9. QuarRtz-mica DIoRITE.

In handspecimen—a medium grained, uniformly dark gray
rock, showing an abundance of feldspar and hornblende, and
some quartz.

In thin section—composed of quartz, plagioclase, biotite, horn-
blende, and magnetite.

The hornblende occurs in profusion in long erystals, commonly
twinned. Pleochroic; light straw yellow to light green. Inter-
ference colors, high. The majority of the crystals are uniform in
size, but many smaller ones occur in the groundmass.

Plagioclase, species oligoclase, comprises the larger part of the
rock and the crystals are of various sizes. the largest almost
amounting to phenocrysts. Smaller crystals are abundant in the
groundmass. Albite and carlsbad twinning, universal. Zoning,
common. All crystals are idiomorphic, and their boundaries are
distinct.

Biotite of the greenish brown variety, is quite common.

Quartz fills in the interstices between the other minerals.

1909] Petrography of Chapel Hill Granite 91

Magnetite is found in a few scattered grains.
The groundmass is composed of smaller crystals of quartz, feld-
spar, hornblende, and biotite.

University of North Carolina.

CONDENSATION OF CHLORAL WITH PRIMARY ARO-
MATIC AMINES. III"

A. S. WHEELER AND STROUD JORDAN

This research was undertaken, first, to establish the constitution
of derivatives of chloral-di-phenamine compounds obtained "by
the action of bromine and, second, to extend the limited work
already done on the condensation of chloral with primary aro-
matic amines, including a study of their behavior.

HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS

The first real condensation product of an aromatic amine with
chloral is tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-phenamine (C,,H,,N,Cl,), which
is prepared by the action of chloral upon aniline, one molecule of
chloral to two molecules of aniline. This reaction was carried out
by Schiff and Amato’ in the year 1875. O. Wallach also pre-
pared this same compound in the same year,* independently of the
first two workers and he also prepared the condensation products
of xylidene and paratoluidine. Later on this reaction was
extended to other unsubstituted aromatic amines by A. Hibner,*
who succeeded in preparing the condensation products of aniline
and para-toluidine. Still later, this reaction has been extended
to some of the remaining unsubstituted aromatic amines by
Wheeler and Jordan*,’ who succeeded in making the condensation
product of chloral and ortho-toluidine. These reactions have been
carried out in a very uniform manner, except for the solvent used,
for each product was made by the reaction of one molecule of
chloral upon two molecules of the unsubstituted aromatic amine,

IThis paper forms part of a thesis presented to the Faculty of the Univer-
sity of North Carolina in May 1909 by Stroud Jordan, candidate for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

2 Gazz. chim. ital. I: 376. 1871.

8Ber. d. Clem. Ges. 4: 668. 1871.

4Ann,. Chem. (Licbig) 802: 340. 1898.

SJournal American Chemical Society, 30: 141. 1908.

92 | November

1909] Condensation of Chloral 93

with or without the aid of a solvent. It has been possible to
obtain a product which will be very pure. by the action of chloral
hydrate with the free amine, as Alexander Eibner did, or by the
action of chloral upon the amine, as A. Fibner did and as we have
done, or still, by the action of chloral upon the unsubstituted pri-
mary aromatic amines in the presence of a solvent, as we have
done in the majority of our reactions.

The first substituted primary aromatic amines were condensed
with chloral by A. Eibner, when he succeeded in preparing tri-
chlor-ethylidene-di-metachlor-phenamine,* tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-
para-chlor-phenamine,“ and_ tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-para-nitro-
phenamine. He also extended his study of this condensation
reaction to the reaction oi chloral and di-chlor-aniline, which he
was able to get’ and to the reaction of chloral and tri-chlor-aniline
which he was not abie to carry out. Following this work of A.
Eibner we have the work of Wheeler and Weller*, who succeeded
in preparing the tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-ortho-phenamine, the
work of Wheeler and Miller’, upon para-brom-aniline and chloral
obtaining thus tri--chlor-ethylidene-di-para-brom-phenamine; the
work of Wheeler and Dickson? on para-anisidine and chloral, and
Niementowski and Orzechowski’s work* on chloral and anthranilic
acid. These reactions were all carried out in the same proportions
as were used in the unsubstituted primary aromatic amines, that
is, two molecules of the substituted primary aromatic amine and
one molecule of chloral with or without a solvent.

NITROGEN HALIDES

The most thorough study imade of nitrogen halides has been
made by Chattaway and Orton®. They succeeded in getting one
hydrogen in the aniline side chain,(NH,), replaced by a halogen
when the other hydrogen had been replaced by a negative group,

1 Ann. Chem. (Lichig), 302: 340. 1898.

* Journal American Chemical Society, 24: 1063. 1902.
8 Journal American Chemical Society, 80: 136. 1908.
+ Ber. d. Chem. Ges., 28: 2812. 1895.

3 Journal London Chemical Society, 75: 1046. 1899.

94 Journal of the Mitchell Society {November

as CHO or CH;CO. By this means they were able to prepare a
number of nitrogen halides, all of which were unstable and tend-
ed to isomerize, the halogen going to the para position, if it was
unoccupied, and when this position was filled going to the hydro-
gen ortho to the amino group.

CONDENSATIONS DESCRIBED IN THIS THESIS

Thirteen new compounds are described in this thesis. They
comprise the condensatisn products of chloral with the following
primary amines: meta-amino-benzoic acid, para-amino-benzoic
acid, 4-nitro-2-toluidine. 2-nitro-4-toluidine, 3-nitro-4-toluidine,
meta-chlor-para-toluidine, 5-brom-2-amino-benzoic acid, 4-brom-
2-nitraniline, 4-brom-8-nitraniline, para-iodo-aniline, 4-brom-I-
napthylamine, and para-amino-aceto-phenone. The behaviour of
tri-chlor-aniline and chloral was also studied, not only in high
boiling point solvents but also in a sealed tube.

THEOREVICAL CONSIDERATIONS

It will be seen from the results of this work as well as that of
previous workers, that chloral does not combine with all primary
aromatic amines. It is to be observed further that the condensa-
tions are not made with uniform readiness, for Eibner found that
when three negative groups are substituted in the benzene ring no
condensation takes place and we find that when two negative
groups are present, of unlike character, the reaction generally
requires the addition of much heat in order that it may take place
in the best possible manner. It is necessary to boil the mixture
of chloral and the amine for at least one hour and fifteen minutes,
in order that the reaction may be completed. We have also
observed that when the two negative groups in the benzene ring
are similar that the reaction proceeds easier than in the former
case but still requires the addition of heat. In the case of one
negative group, present in the benzene ring, reaction will take
place very slowly and in a very moderate manner, when chloral is
mixed with the amine in the presence of some good solvent. When
no negative groups are present in the benzene ring, the reaction
takes place immediately, with the liberation of a large amount of

1909} Condensation of Chloral 95

heat, either in the presence of a solvent or without it. Gener-
ally speaking, the condensation products containing the most nega-
tive groups are the most stable, and those containing no negative
groups the least stable. All these condensation products are
broken down on brominating in the presence of glacial acetic acid,
splilting off chloral and giving either a bromine derivative of the
free amine or an acid salt of the free amine or both. _ Strong min-
eral acids will break all these condensation products down into the
corresponding salt of the free amine, with the liberation of chloral.
In the case of the strongly negative products, alkalies yield an
hydroxy derivative. Such a compound is obtained most readily
by the action of alcoholic potash. In the case of the condensation
products containing no negative groups, in the benzene ring,
strong alkalies break them down into the free amine and chloral,
only with great difficulty and on prolonged heating, hence they
are very stable towards alkalies.

The behaviour of all these condensation products with bromine
seem to indicate a regular law for the position of the substituted
bromine atom. When they are treated with bromine and it enters
the ring it will enter in the position para to the amino group, if
this position is not alrealy filled or does not have the neighboring
meta position filled with an unlike negative group. When the
para position is filled. the bromine will go to the ortho position, if
it is not already filled or does not have the neighboring meta posi-
tion filled with an unlike negative group or the other ortho posi-
tion filled with an unlike negative group. In the majority of
cases, when one position, either meta or ortho, is filled with an
unlike negative group, the bromine seems to take the position,
whose corresponding position or whose neighboring position, is not
filled by an unlike negative group. This substitution does not
seem tO vary in our work but seems to follow out the general law
of isomerization, like the nitrogen halides of Chattaway and Orton.

The melting points and color, also the crystalline form, of some
series, like the nitro-toluidines, are very regular, The 2-nitro-4-
toluidine, when condensed with chloral, shows lemon-yellow
needles, melling at 108-9° C, the 4-nitro-2-toluidine shows golden-
yellow needles, melting at 142-3° C while the 3-nitro-4-toluidine

96 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ November

shows brownish-yellow needles and melts at 162-3° C. The
regular rise in melting point and similiarity in crystalline form
seem to fit the majority of cases where like compounds are studied
in aseries. It is not, however, a general law but will appear in
the majority of cases.

EXPERIMENTAL PART
DIVISION I

THE ACTION OF BROMINE AND HCL UPON CERTAIN DI-PHENAMINE
COMPOUNDS

(1) The action of Bromine upon Tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-phena--
mine

Action of two molecules of bromine

The tri-chlor- ethylidene-di-phenamine, made according to A.
Eibner’s method’ and purified by successive extractions with hot
benzol, leaving behind an insoluble body of which we find no
mention in Eibner’s work, melting at 190-1°, was dissolved in the
least amount of cold glacial acetic acid and bromine was added in
the proportion of two molecules of bromine for each molecule of
the condensation product. A white crystalline precipitate settled
out, on cooling, showing large, scale-like crystals under the micro-
scope and decomposing at 228-30°. It was easily soluble in alcohol,
soluble in glacial acetic acid and amyl alcohol and insoluble in
benzol, toluol, zylol, gasolene, carbon tetra-chloride and carbon di-
sulphide.

An analysis by the Carius method gave the following result:

No. (1) 0.2000 gram of substance gave 0.2980 grams of AgBr.

Now C2) 0022000. unas oh CA Ok rets VAM v sight Ne
Calculated for, Found,
C.H,NBr,, No. (1) 63.40 p. e.
63.24 p. c. of Br. No. (2)'63/52'p: ebm

This compound was then treated with sodium hydroxide to
remove the hydrobrémic acid and thus obtain the free amine,
which was found to melt at 68°C. This free amine gave an acet-

1Ann. d. Chem. Ges. 302: 340. 1890

1909) Condensation of Chloral 97

derivative, on boiling with acetic anhydride, which melted at 160-
3°. The formation of these two compounds from the free amine
proved that it was para-brom aniJine and that the original bromine
derivative was para-brom aniline-hydro-bromide.

On examining the glacial acetic acid filtrate from the bromine
reaction we were able to obtain oily drops of chloroform, when it
was neutralized with sodium hydroxide and distilled with steam,
showing that the chloral group had been split off by the action of
bromine and proving al! bromine to be in the ring or attached as
the hydro-bromide. The other possibility is substitution in the
NH, group.

The action of one molecule of bromine

When one molecule of tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-phenamine was
treated with one molecule of bromine, in the same manner as in
the previous experiment, the product had the same appearance
but it decomposed at 282°. It was soluble in water or alcohol,
insoluble in xylene, toluene, benzene, gasolene and carbon tetra-
chloride. Glacial acetic acid was the most promising crystallizing
medium for it was difficultly soluble in the cold solution but
readily soluble in the hot.

An analysis of this compound by the Stepanoff method gave the
following result:

No. (1) 0.2000 gram of substance gave 0.2167 grams of AgBr.

ie) 022000" ,, ,, A PUI 0 ELT nats el Oh Nba cones
Calculated for, Found,
CH,NBr, No. (1) 46.10 per cent.
45.97 per cent Br. INO! U2 eto Son en

The bromine derivative was then treated with a sodium hydrox-
ide solution and the hydrobromic acid group taken off, giving
back free aniline as the free amine. This was proved to be ani-
line by making the hydro-chloride and the acetate, each of which
gave the proper melting point.

Chloroform was also detected in the glacial acetic acid filtrate
from the bromination product.

From the foregoing experiments we would conclude:

First, that when tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-phenamine is treated

98 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ November

with bromine in a glacial acetic acid solution chloral is split off and
a hydrobromide of aniline or the hydrobromide of a brominated
aniline is formed, varying with the amount of bromine used in the
bromination. And this would suggest that Secondly, when any
amine condensation product is treated with bromine, the chloral
residue will split off and the bromine will enter the ring or attach
itself as a‘molecule of hydrobromic acid, according to the amount
of bromine used and the nature of the condensation product.

POSSIBLE FORMATION OF NITROGEN BROMIDES

When the tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-phenamine is acted upon by
bromine in glacial acetic acid solution or suspension, two com-
pounds are formed which seem to be aniline hydrobromide and
para brom aniline hydrobromide, but which show positive differ-
ences from them. They are, however, very unstable and change
into aniline hydrobromide and para-brom aniline hydrobromide,
on boiling with water, or tend to lose all halogens present and
form aniline hydrobromide alone, when acted on by direct sun-
light or on allowing the reaction product, obtained from the bro-
mination of the tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-phenamine, to stand for
twenty four hours in the original acetic acid solution, after bro-
mination. It would be well to state, just at this point, that we
have never been able to repeat all these results which follow, but
many have been repeated, which would justify the assumption
that a nitrogen bromide has been formed. ‘The first bromine
derivative that we shall take up will be the mono-brom derivative.

The mono-brom derivative of Tri-chlor-ethylidene-di--phenamine

In studying the eetion of one molecule of bromine on one mol-
ecule of tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-phenamine, we observed that, in
one instance, our product was not aniline hydrobromide, as we
formerly supposed, but differed from aniline hydrobromide, both
in solubility and in melting point, so we undertook a careful study
of its preparation and properties. The method of preparation
which was used was the addition of one molecule of bromine, dis-
solved in glacial acetic acid in the ratio of one cubic centimeter of
bromine to nine cubic centimeters of glacial acetic acid, to one

¥

;

1909) — Condensation of Chloral 99

molecule of tri-chior-ethylidene-di-phenamine, dissolved in the least
amount cf cold glacial acetic acid. After these two were mixed
and the temperature kept below fifteen degrees, a white scaly pre-
cipitate settled out, melting at 282°, with a deep violet decompo-
sition. The first point taken up was the solubility of this com-
pound as compared to that of aniline hydrobromide. The unknown
bromine derivative was found to be only partly soluble in water
while the aniline hydrobromide was easily soluble. On boiling the
unknown bromine derivative for one and one half hours, with
water, a complete solution resulted from which pure aniline hydro-
bromide erystallized out. The unknown bromine derivative was
not very easily soluble in concentrated hydrochloric acid, while
the aniline hydrobromide was.

It was shown that the unknown bromine derivative formed ani-
line hydrobromide on boiling with water by making a solution of
such a product alkaline with NaOH and obtaining the free amine,
which was proved to be aniline, both by the calcium-hypochlorite
and the iso-carbylamine tests.

Our next step was to compare the melting point of the unknown
bromine derivative with that of aniline hydrobromide. We found
that the unknown bromine derivative melted with a dark violet
decomposition at 275-7°, but after boiling with water, it melted at
282°C and gave a brown colored liquid, showing no appreciable
decomposition, which was exactly similiar to the original aniline
hydrobromide.

The action of sunlight on the unknown bromine derivative and
upon aniline hydrobromide showed a distinct difference, both in
color and behaviour. The aniline hydrobromide did not change
color during a day and a half exposure while the unknown bro-
mine derivative showed a very marked change, turning dark brown
and becoming a lumpy mass.

An analysis of this bromine derivative, made from the purest
material we had, gave the following result:

No. (1) 0.2000 gram of substance gave 0.2184 grams of AgBr.

Na.) C20: 2000), 6.5, ie AAU LOAD GWA AO OA UNA MH
Calculated for Found
C.H,NBr, No. (1) 46.46 p. c.

46.51 p. c. of Br. No. (2) 46.10 p. c.

100 Journal of the Mitchell Society [November

This would also be a very good analysis for aniline hydrobro-
mide since the two compounds differ only in the content of hydro-
gen and the aniline hydrobromide would give 45.97 per cent of
bromine.

Acids have no apparent effect upon this compound except to
form the corresponding salts, as the hydrochloride, hydrobromide
and sulphate.

Alkalies, either hot or cold, gave the free amine, which was ani-
line, proving that all the bromine was in the side chain.

Water caused a change from the unknown bromine derivative to
aniline hydrobromide, on boiling for one and one half hours.

We have not been able to get Chattaway and Orton’s reactions
for the nitrogen halides, which they claim to be general.

Probably this was due to the fact that we are dealing with an
unsubstituted nitrogen halide and they were dealing with a
substituted one.

Summary.

We have shown that we have a body which has all
its halogen in the side chain, not as the hydrobromide but as the
halide, connected directly to the nitrogen, because, First, water
does not dissolve our bromine derivative, while aniline hydrobro-
mide is very soluble. Second, sunlight does not affect aniline
hydrobromide while our compound is decomposed very rapidly.
Third, on boiling with dilute alkaline solutions the halogen is
removed, which would be impossible were the bromine in the ben-
zene ring. Fourth, the melting point of aniline hydrobromide is
clear and well defined while the unknown bromine derivative
decomposes with a violet or purple decomposition at from five to
seven degrees lower.

1 Journal London Chemical] Society 75: 1046. 1899.

1909] Condensation of Chloral 101

The reactions for this compound are represented thus:

C-Cl, |
Br;
C-H A |
Vax N
NH NH ars
xf oe be
| | | | -+ one molecule of N/E CCLeHO
A 4 bromine | je
MUP N275277C:
Bre Ly Hee HBr
rg suse
N N
~~ a.

|

| | ++ one molecule of water j
M.P 282°C

The di-brom derivative of Trt-chlor-ethylidene-di-phenamine

The di-nitrogen bromide is formed when two molecules of bro-
mine react with one molecule of tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-phenamine.
This compound was obtained when the pure tri-chlor-ethylidene
was suspended in glacial acetic acid and a 10 pereent glacial acetic
acid solution of bromine added, little by little, care being taken to
keep the temperature as low as fifteen degrees and the whole react-
ing mass well stirred. A fine white scaly precipitate was obtained,
much more insoluble than the original condensation product,
melting at 228-35°, with a violet or purple decomposition. This
compound was thought to be para-brom aniline hydrobromide,
both by its melting point and by its behaviour but a remarkable
change was noticed in its preparation, which led us to suspect a
di-nitrogen halide.

When one gram of the tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-phenamine was
brominated, in the manner described above, and filtered off imme-
diately, a compound melting at 228-235° with a purple decompo-
sition was obtained, but if a similar preparation was allowed to
stand for twenty-four hours, before filtering off the glacial acid, a
compound was obtained. weighing less by one-third than the

102 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ November

former and showing a decomposition point at 282°. The action of
this compound, which had been prepared in the former manner
and melted at 228-235° was studied in connection with para-brom
aniline hydrobromide and a comparison made of their several
properties:

’ Para-Brom-Aniline Hydrobromide
Gave a melting point of 225°, with a violet decomposition.

Dissolved easily in cold water. When boiled with water it did
not change its M. P.
Unknown Di-Bromide

Gave a similar melting point and decomposition. Not so easily
soluble in cold water. When boiled with water it changed its M. P.
to 235°.

he action of sunlight on the two compounds showed that the

unknown di-bromide was very unstable in the light. It changed
rapidly in color with a simultaneous rise in melting point, whi®
the para-brom aniline was unaffected. The unknown di-bromide
changed its melting point from 228-35° to 247-55°, on allowing
direct sunlight to act on it for four days, and it was completely
changed to aniline hydrobromide on standing for three months in
direct sunlight, giving a melting point of 280-2° and an analysis
for one bromine atom in the molecule. This compound also gave
free aniline on treating it with sodium hydroxide as proved by the
iso-carbylamine test. The calcium-hypo-chlorite test also showed
the presence of free aniline, thus giving direct proof that the com-
pound was aniline hydrobromide.

The action of water on the para-brom-aniline hydrobromide and
on our unknown bromine derivative was markedly different because
with the para-brom aniline hydrobromide no change took place

while with the unknown bromine derivative some para-brom ani-

line was formed which came out as an oil. This compound after
standing some time will give some aniline hydrobromide and some
para-brom aniline hydrobromide, on boiling with water, showing
that originally all bromine was attached to the nitrogen and that
it tends to break off on exposure to direct sunlight. On_ boiling

this bromine derivative, which had been exposed to direct sunlight,

1909] Condensation of Chloral 103

aniline hydrobromide is formed while in the case of the unexposed
bromine derivative isomerization takes place and para-brom ani-
line hydrobromide is formed.

On analysis one sample of the di-bromide showed the following >
remarkable result:

0.2000 gram of di-bromide gave 0.2914 grams of AgBr.

Calculated for Found
C,H,NBr, 62.00 per cent.
63.74 per cent of bromine.

This analysis was made by boiling a sample of the di-bromide
for fifteen minutes in a ten per cent sodium hydroxide solution,
neutralizing with nitric acid and adding enough more to make the
solution react strongly acid to litmus and then titrating the solu-
tion with AgNO,, titrating the excess of AgNO, with NH,SCN,
according to Volhard’s method. We were never able to repeat
this work. Our results on different samples have ranged from
46.10 per cent of Br to 70.89 per cent of Br for the halogen con-
tent. It will be noticed that these figures run all the way from a
mono-halogen derivative to a tri-halogen derivative, and that all
are decomposed by a weak alkaline solution.

SUMMARY

From the foregoing results we would conclude that we have a
nitrogen halide, in which the nitrogen of the amine is joined to
two bromine atoms, because:

First, when our di-brom derivative, formed by the action of two
molecules of bromine on one molecule of tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-
phenamine, was allowed to stand for twenty-four hours in the ori-
ginal brominated solution before filtering, we found a rise in melt-
ing point from 228-35° to 282°, and a compound formed which
was proved to be aniline hydrobromide, both by its melting point
and by the free amine which was aniline.

Second, when our unknown di-bromide is exposed to light for
three months, it changes melting point from 228°-35° to 282° and
a compound is formed which was proven to be aniline hydrobro-
mide. This could not happen in the case of para-brom aniline
hydrobromide.

104 Journal of the Mitchell Society { November

Third, On boiling with a dilute solution of an alkali, a per cent
of bromine is obtained which would indicate that two bromine
atoms were attached to the nitrogen for we find 62.00 per cent of
bromine and the theory for two bromine atoms in the molecule
would be 63.74 percent of bromine. This would indicate that we
have both of the bromine atoms attached to the nitrogen, because
dilute alkalies will not take the bromine out of the benzene ring.

Fourth. Para-brom aniline hydrobromide can never change
into aniline hydrobromide, by a simple exposure to sunlight, while
our bromine derivative does. Para-brom aniline hydrobromide
cannot give an analysis for two bromine atoms, on boiling with
water or dilute alkali, while the unknown di-bromide does.

The formula for our di-bromide would then be: Br Br

N
TANS
*
and the reactions by which it is made would be represented thus:
Uren C1
| { Br *|
C—H i ped
Vio Ay |
NH NH +2Br,= + CCI,CHO
ins aa. i pe
| etal 2
hal mf

(2) The Action of Bromine on Tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-para-

nitro-Phenamine.

The object of this research was to establish the constitution of
the compound obtained by brominating tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-
para-nitro-phenamine, in a glacial acetic acid solution. This
reaction was first carried out by A. S. Wheeler in this laboratory,
in 1903 and the first general study of it was made by the author
of this thesis, in the college year 1904-05. The study assumed
some importance because all the condensation products of chloral
with primary aromatic amines reacted smoothly with bromine in
glacial acetic acid. At first we thought that we had the conden-

1909) Condensation of Chloral 105

sation product with the hydrogen atom in the chloral residue sub-
stituted with bromine, although no decomposition product could
be obtained which would prove this. Work several years later on
the bromination of tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-phenamine threw a clear
light on this compound and analogous ones. It was found not to
contain any chlorine at all, by a displacement of all chlorine in the
compound by bromine and weighing the precipitate as silver bro-
mide. The chloral group is therefore split off in the bromination-
as shown by making the filtrate from the reaction product alka-
line and distilling, chloroform separating out in globules in the
distillate. The bromine derivative is 2-6-di-brom-4-nitranilin
with a melting point of 202-3°, that given for theabove compound
in Beilstein being 202.5°. The formula then is C,H,N,O,Br,, with
a theoretical percentage of bromine of 54.05 per cent. Our analy-
sis by the Carius method showed the following result:

0.1000 gram of the bromine derivative gave ().1286 grams AgBr.

Calculated for Found
C,H,C._N, Br, 53.95 per cent of bromine.

54.05 per cent of bromine.

These figures would also indicate a compound like our conden-
sation product in which one hydrogen had been substituted for by
one bromine atom, giving approximately the same theoretical per
cent.

The solubility of this bromine derivative was found to be as
foilows: easily soluble in alcohol, hot or cold; difficultly soluble
cold, easily soluble in hot glacial acetic acid; easily soluble in cold
or hot acetone; insoluble in gasolene, xylene, toluene, or benzole.

The Action of HCl

When this bromine derivative was treated with concentrated
hydrochloric acid no corresponding hydrochloride was formed
because of the ease with which it was decomposed in any solution
containing water, so we dissolved the 2-6-di-brom-4-nitranilin in
cold acetone and passed in dry hydrochloric acid gas until a beau-
tiful scaly, white precipitate came down, very similar in crystals
line form to acet-anilide. This hydrochloride was easily decom-
posed by the addition of water, liberating hydrochloric acid and
regenerating the original di-brom-nitranilin. An analysis of this

106 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ November

hydrochloride, by the Stepanoff method, showed the presence of
one chlorine and two bromine atoms.

The Action of HBr

The hydrobromide of 2-6-di-brom-4-nitranilin was made by the
addition of bromine to a hot solution of the di-brom nitranilin in
glacial acetic acid. The acid derivative showed the same erystal-
line form and the same behavior towards water as the hydrochlo-
ride. It gave an analysis by the Stepanoff method which showed
the correct percentage for three bromine atoms. This compound
was very unstable, even in the air, for on exposing it to theair for
a short time all the hydrobromic acid would be lost.

Chlorination of Tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-para-nitro-phenamine

On treating the tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-para-nitro-phenamine
with chlorine, the 2,6-di-chlor-4-nitranilin was obtained, melting
at 188°. It was a golden yellow compound ecrystalling out in long,
prismatic needles.

(3) The action of bromine upon Tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-para-
Tolamine

Para-toluidine and chloral were brought together in the proper
proportions with benzene as a solvent. The mixture was warmed
slightly and the excess of benzene wrs driven off, allowing the tol-
amine to crystallize out. It became a thick paste in a very shor
time and the mother-liquor, mechanically extracted, was dried
out on an unglazed porcelain plate. The solid, obtained thus, was
extracted several times with cold alcohol, by pouring alcohol] over
the product on a Buchner funnel and a pretty white, crystalline
body was obtained. The melting point of this product was Lia
which identified it ag A. Eibner’s condensation product, described
in the Annajlen.

Ten grams of this condensation product were dissolved in the
least amount of glacial acetic acid and two atoms of bromine were
added very slowly, keeping the mass well stirred. The product
obtained thus was filtered off and dried and found to represent an
85 per cent yield of para-toluidine hydrobromide. It was proved

1American Chemical Journal 22, 266. 1899.

1909 Condensotion of Chloral 107

to be para-toluidine hydrobromide by its decomposition point of
308-11°, its solubilities and its behaviour towards acids and alka-
lies. It was decomposed by water, made slightly alkaline with
sodium hydroxide, giving free para-toluidine which melted at 48°.
The free amine was also distilled and found to boil at 198-9°,
which is the correct boiling point for para-toluidine.

Ten grams of the condensation product were then treated with
four atoms of bromine in the manner just described. The result
was a 95 per cent yield of the bromination product. This product
was then treated with sodium hydroxide and shaken out with
ether which gave ten grams of the free amine. On distilling this
product, eight grams came over at 199-240°, five-tenths of a gram
came over from 210-50° and the residue, left in the flask decom-
posed. The first fraction gave crystals on standing, which melted
at 48°, showing that the majority of the product was para-tolui-
dine. It was further identified by its hydrochloride and hydro-
bromide. The fraction above 240° gave needle like crystals, melt-
ing at 72-3° which must be 3,5-di-brom-4-toluidine. Another
indication observed was its non-combining power with acids.

The mother-liquor after crystallization of the fraction
199-210°, and the fraction 240-50°, was an oi! which would
not crystallize, at room temperature, so the hydrobromide
and the hydrochloride were made from this. The hydrochloride
derivative decomposed at 212-22°, while the hydrobromide deriva-
tive gave a decomposition point at 252-5°, showing this oil to be
3-brom-4-toluidine, the bromine being ortho to the amino-group.
The melting point of this compound should be 26° and it was
found to be so.

This did not give us a preparation method for the brom-tolui-
dine as it gave too much of a mixture.

(4) The Action of Bromine on Tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-ortho-
Tolamine.

Ortho-toluidiné and chloral were brought together in the proper
proportions to make the condensation product, according to the
method of Wheeler and Jordan’. This was carried out by the
addition of four parts of ortho-toluidine to three parts of chloral
and then warming the mixture on a water bath for a short time.

108 Journal of the Mitchell Society [November

The oil obtained in this manner was allowed to stand for a day to
crystallize out. A hard solid mass was the result. We found that
alcohol was really a better solvent than ether, which was used in
the former method for recrystallizing the product. After two crys-
tallizations from aleohol, the condensation product was found to
be pure and gave a sharp melting point at 80°°

To this condensation product two atoms of bromine were added,
or approximately one gram of the condensation product to 0.50
gram of bromine. This reaction was carried out in aglacial acetic
acid solution and a very nearly 75 per cent yield was obtained.
The resulting bromination product melted with a decomposition
at 268°, but after recrystallization it came out in pearly, shining
plates, melting with decomposition at 280°. This product was
proven to be the 5-brom-2-toluidine-hydrobromide, both by its
melting point and the melting point of its nitrate, which melted
at 180-3°. The free amine melted at 58-60°.

This did not give a satisfactory method for the preparation of
5-brom-2-toluidine, as some ortho-tolifidine was left unchanged
and a little of the di-brom-toluidine was also formed, very similar
to the action of bromine on the para-toluidine.

DIVISION II

THE CONDENSATION OF SOME PRIMARY AROMATIC AMINES WITH
CHLORAL

Tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-meta-brom-phenamine

ne
CH Molecular weight, 483.
VEN
NH NH Melting point, 115-16°.
|
Ba Br 3 aoe

For this preparation twenty grams of meta brom-aniline were
dissolved in 50 ec. of benzol and to this mixture were added nine
grams of freshly distilled chloral. The reaction took place at once,
with the liberation of a small amount of heat, giving a theoretical

in ltl

Pere St ee

———

{1909 Condensation of Chloral 109

yield of the crude product. This crude product was composed of
two parts, a small by-product, which melted at 215-20° and the
condensation product. These two compounds were separated by
extracting the crude product with benzol thereby dissolving the
condensation product and leaving the by-product undissolved.
The benzole extract, which contained all the tri-chlor-ethylidene-
di-meta-brom-phenamine in solution, was evaporated down over a
steam bath to a sirupy constituency. Upon cooling and scratch-
ing the sirupy residue with a glass rod it yielded a substance melt-
ing at 98-101°, which crystallized from carbon tetrachloride in
beautiful white needle-like crystals. After two recrystallizations
from carbon tetra-chloride, the meltiag point was raised to 115-
16°. The crystalline form of this compound, when seen under
the microscope, appeared to be rhombic bi-pyramids, some crys-
tals truneated on the apeces, others regular. and still others having
one set of faces much larger than the other set.

Waier had no effect on this condensation product, either when
cold or when boiling hot. //ydrochloric acid gave the salt of the
original meta-brom-aniline, while bromine gave the hydrobromide
of the original meta-brom-aniline.

An analysis of this compound gave the following results, by the
Carius method;

No. (1) 0.2000 gram of substance gave 0.1817 grams of AgCl
and 0.1596 grams of AgBr.

No. (2) 0.2000 gram of substance gave 0.1802 grams of AgCl
and 0.1581 grams of AgBr.

Calculated for Found
C,.H,,N,Br,Cl, (1) 56.38 per cent, Total
22.43 per cent Cl. 33.95 per cent Br.
56.24 per cent of Br. andCl. (2) 55.89 per cent, Total

22.25 per cent Cl. 33.63 per cent Br.
ACTION OF BROMINE

In making a careful study of the action of bromine on tri-chlor-
ethylidene-di-meta-brom-phenamine, the method of Wheeler and
Valentine was followed’ for the separation of the several bromine
derivatives. We hoped to obtain a method for the production of

110 Journal of the Mitchell Soriety { November

3,4-di-brom-aniline which would give a better yield than the
methods used at present. For this work 29.7 grams of the con-
densation product, which melted at 115-16°, were dissolved in the
least possible amount of glacial acetic acid at room temperature.
To this solution were added twenty grams of bromine also dissol-
ved in glacial acetic acid, in the ration of one cubic centimeter of
bromine to nine cubic centimeters of glacial acetic acid. A beauti-
ful, scaly, white precipitate was obtained, which was filtered off
and which weighed twenty grams. To the filtrate from this pre-
cipitate water was added and the tetra-brom aniline was precipi-
tated. It weighed 2.6 grams. The bromine precipitate was treated
with water and the tri-brom aniline was leit undissolved while the
di-brom aniline and brom-aniline hydrobromides were dissolved.
This tri-brom aniline weighed 5.0 grams and the di-brom aniline
weighed 8.0 grams, while only a trace of the original meta-brom
aniline was obtained. We concluded from these results that this
method possessed no advantage over the direct bromination of
meta-brom aniline and so do not recommend it as a preparation
method for 3, 4-di-brom aniline.

(2) Tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-para-amino-benzoie Acid
COOH CCl, COOH
Poy | Vine
ANH prema Organy et MANNA! Molecular weight, 403.4.
SU GAR ee

BN} ENE Melting point, 215-20°.

For a study of the action of para-amino-benzoic acid with chlor-
al, we used two molecules of the acid, melting at 186-7°, to one
molecule of chloral or about 10 grams of the acid to 5.5 grams of
chloral. The aminobenzoic acid was suspended in 100 cc. of ben-
zol and the chloral was added to this suspension after which the
whole mass was warmed up on a water bath and then boiled for
three hours under a reflux condenser. Most of the benzol was
then evaporated off and the and the mixture was filtered while hot.
This gave a compound which began to char at 186° and turned
black at 220°, but which after recrystalling from glacial acetfe
acid, melted at 215-220° with much decomposition. This was as
pure as it was able to obtain the condensation product for further

1909) Condensation of Chloral 111

recrystallizations did not raise the melting point. The crystalline
form of this compound was not very well defined, the crystals
occurring in colorless masses.

This compound was easily soluble in ethyl or methyl alcohol,
difficultly soluble in glacial acetic acid and apparently insoluble in
benzene, tolueme, xylene, carbon tetra-chloride and carbon di-sul-
phide.

The yield was 87.74 per cent of the theoretical or 13.6 grams of
the condensation product from 10.0 grams of the para-amino-ben-
zoic acid and 5.5 grams of chloral.

On analysis, this compound gave the following results by the
Stepanoff method:

No. (1) 0.2000 gram of substance gave 0.05266 grams of chlo-
rine.

No.(2) 0.2000 gram of substance gave 0.05517 grams of chlo-
rine.

Calculated for Found
C,,H,,0,N.Cl, (1) 26.33 per cent Cl.

26.37 per cent Cl. (2) 27.58 per cent Cl.
THE ACTION OF BROMINE

For a study of the action of bromine upon this condensation
product we used 11.0 grams of the condensation product, 87
grams of bromine and mixed them together in 100 ec. of glacial
acetic acid. Action was allowed to take place in the cold and the
precipitate was filtered off. This precipitate was the hydrobro-
mide of 3, 5-di-brom-para-aminobenzoic acid, as shown by its
melting point, after treatment with water, which was 292-3°
decomposing to a black mass. The action of water was to break
off the hydrebromic acid and liberate the free amine. This free
amine, when diazotized by the action of NaNO, and strong sul-
phuric acid in boiling alcohol solution, gave 38, 5-di-brom-benzoic
acid, melting at 213-15°. This fully identified the bromine deriva-
tive.

When the condensation product is boiled with water no appar-
ent change is noticed either in melting point or in general beha-
vior.

When the condensation product is treated with concentrated

112 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ November

hydrochloric acid the corresponding para-aminobenzoic acid hydro-
chloride is formed, which when treated with sodium hydroxide
and neutralized, gave the alkaline salt of para-amino-benzoie acid
which could be acidified with acetic acid and precipitated with
water, giving para-aminobenzoic acid.

Tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-meta-aminobenzoic Acid.

Cl
COOH | COOH
VES ecole <a
| | Lara Molecular weight, 403.4
ead ate SwA

H

For this preparation 10.0 grams of the meta-aminobenzoic acid
were used, melting at 174°. This acid was dissolved in 100 ce.
of benzol and to it were added 5.5 grams of freshly distilled chlo-
ral. This solution was boiled for one and one-half hours over a
steam bath and a crude product of theoretical yield was obtained,
after the excess of benzol had been evaporated off. The crude
product was extracted for four or five successive times and the
several extracts were mixed and allowed to crystallize out very
slowly. This gave a white, crystalline mass which was soluble in
benzol, acetone, amyl alcohol, glacial acetic acid and alcohol,
insoluble in xylene, carbon-tetrachloride, ligroin, and cold or hot
chloroform, and difficulty soluble in ether.

An analysis was made from 0.2000 gram of this sample which
melted at 240° with a violet black decomposition and which had
been crystallized from benzol and heated in an air bath for one
and one-half hours to drive off the benzol. This analysis was car-
ried out by the Stepanoff method and gave the following results
for chlorine:

(1) 0.2000 gram of substance gave 0.2146 grams of AgCl.

(2) 0.2000 gram of substance gave 0.2104 grams of AgCl.

Calculated for Found
C,,H,,0,N,Cl, (1) 26.50 per cent Cl.
26.37 per cent Chlorine. (2) 25.93 per cent Cl.
The crystalline form of this compound resembled that of the

Melting point, 240°.

1909) Condensation of Chloral 113

para-amino-benzoic acid condensation product in that it was com-
posed of colorless crystal masses showing no definite form under
the microscope.

THE ACTION OF BROMINE

The condensation product was then treated with bromine by dis-
solving 5.5 grams in 100cc. of glacial aeetic acid and adding 4.3
grams of bromine, little by little. The yield from this was 7.0
grams of the bromine derivative, melting with a dark purple
decomposition at 279-82°. This bromine body was boiled with
water and a solution thus obtained. Free hydrobromic acid in the
solution showed the product to be a salt. The aqueous solution on
extraction with ether yielded a substance melting from 215-16°,
which is the melting point of 5-brom-3-aminobenzoie acid. The
proof was made more certain by the preparation of the sulphate
and the hydrochloride.

When the condensation product is treated with concentrated
hydrochloric acid, the acid salt of the free meta-aminobenzoic acid
is formed, giving the free amine on boiling with a dilute alkaline
solution and extracting with ether. This compound melts at 174°.
Boiling water has no apparent effect on this condensation product.

Tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-5-brom-2-aminobenzoie Acid

c—Cl,
COOH | COOH
a me — ai} Molecular weight, 562.
BrN / H NO BE Melting point, 174-5°.

For this preparation the 5-brom-2-aminobenzoic acid was made
by brominating anthranilic acid in glacial acetic acid solution and
decompessing the hydrobromide formed by boiling with water. It
was purified by recrystallization from hot water according to the
method of Wheeler and Oates.’ Five grams of the 5-brom-2-ami-
nobenzoic acid were dissolved in 100cc. of toluene and 1.8 grams
of chloral were added. ‘This solution was boiled for one and one
half hours under a reflux condenser and then allowed to cool
slowly. A white, crystalline precipitate, consisting of clusters of
needle-like prisms settled out, melting at 174-5°. Analysis by the
Stepanoff method gave the following results;

114 Journal of the Mitchell Society [November

Calculated for Found
C,,H0,N,Br,Cl, (1) 28.01 per cent Br.
18.62 per cent Cl.
28.52 per cent Br. 18.95 per cent Cl. (2) 28.63 per cent Br.
18.96 per cent Cl.

This compound was soluble in toluene, benzene, glacial acetic
acid and aleohoi. It was decomposed by water and all solvents
containing water. When it is boiled with water it breaks down
into chloral and 5-brom-2-aminobenzoic acid.

On treating this condensation product with concentrated hydro-
chloric acid, an effervescence is noticed, accompanied by the liber-
ation of chloral and the reforming of 5-brom-2-aminobenzoie acid
which melts at 216°. No hydrochloride of this compound ig
formed in aqueous solution, which is true of the original 5-brom-
2-aminobenzoie acid.

ACTION OF BROMINE

When this product is brominated in a glacial acetic acid solu-
tion adding bromine until a permanent red color is obtained, a
white, crystalline precipitate is formed, which melts at 234°
decomposing to a black mass. On boiling this bromine derivative
with water a solution is obtained, showing a blue fluorescence
which is characteristic of 5-brom-2-aminobenzoie acid In water.
On allowing this hot solution to crystallize out, yellowish-white
needles are obtained which melt at 213-15°. A residue is always
obtained which is insoluble in water, when the bromination pro-
duct is boiled with water, melting at 221-3°. This is very pro-
bably one of the di-brom anthranilic acids.

Tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-ortho-nitro-para-Tolamine

CH, | oo) CH
yi NNO, | NNO, Molecular weight, 433.35.
|

Ne | oe " A Melting point, 108-9°.
NH

For this preparation five grams of 2-nitro-4-toluidine were used,
melting at 77.5°. This compound was dissolved in 100cc. of tolu-
ene and 2.6 grama of freshly distilled chloral were added, after

1909] Condensation of Chloral 115

which the mixture was boiled for one and one-half hours. After
boiling, the solution was cooled down and enough gasolene was
added to precipitate out the compound, which had been formed
in the reaction, giving an oi! which solidified on standing on a
moderately warm water bath for a half hour. This compound
was soluble in alcohol, benzene, toluene, acetone and glacial ace-
tic acid, being insoluble in gasolene and only slightly soluble in
ether. After two crystallizations from a mixture of toluene and
gasolene, a melting point of 108-9° was obtained, the substance
melting down to a clear liquid.
An analysis of this compound was made by the Carius method
and the following results were obtained:
No. (1) 0.1000 gram of substance gave 0.1003 grams of AgCl.
No. (2) 0.1000 gram of substance gave 0.1013 grams of Ag(Cl.
Calculated for Found
C,.H,,0,N,CL, (1) 24.77 per cent Cl.
24.52 per cent Chlorine. (2) 25.02 per cent Cl.
This compound gave on boiling with concentrated hydrochloric
acid, a clear solution which on cooling gave long silvery-white
needles, melting at 230-40° with a blackish decomposition. <A
sample of the pure 2-nitro-4-toluidine was converted into the
hydrochloride by boiling with concentrated hydrochloric acid and
it gave the same silvery-white needles melting at the same point
with the same blackish decomposition. When the unknown hydro-
chloride wa: treated with ammonia and the free amine precipita-
ted out it melted at 78-80°, showing that hydrochloric acid decom-
posed the condensation product, liberating chloral and forming the
hydrochloride of 2-nitro-4-toluidine.
When this condensation product was boiled with water no
change was produced in the melting point or crystalline form.

ACTION OF BROMINE

0.20 gram of this condensation product was dissolved in the
least amount of acetic acid, in the cold, and to this bromine was
added also dissolved in glacial acetic acid. [his gave a white,
scaly, crystalline precipitate which melted at 240-50°, with a
blackish decomposition. Some of the 2-nitro-4-toluidine was then
taken and treated with hydrobromie acid, forming the hydrobro-

116 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ November

mide, which gave the same crystalline form and the same decom-
position point at 240-50° thus proving the unknown bromine
derivative to be the hydrobromide of 2-nitro-4-toluidine. The
free amine, formed by neutralizing the hydrobromide with
ammonia, gave a melting point of 75-80°, again proving the
unknown bromine derivative to be the 2-nitro-4-toluidine hydro-
bromide. The bromine had liberated chloral and formed the
bromide of the free amine with which the chloral had been con-
densed, no bromine entering the ring.
The Addition Product of 2-nitro-4-Toluidine and Chloral
CC);

pr Molecular weight, 299.35.
NH Melting point, 187-8°.

When the pure 2-nitro-4-toluidine was treated with chloral in
the proportion of one molecule of 2-nitro-4-toluidine to one mole-
cule of chloral, an addition product was obtained. For this prep-
aration, 2.5 grams of the 2-nitro-4-toluidine were used. This was
dissolved in benzol and two and one-half grams of chloral were
added after which it was boiled for one hour over a steam bath,
and then most of the benzo] was evaporated off. On cooling the
concentrated benzo! solution, a fine crop of beautiful yellow need-
les separated out, melting at 147-8° but which after dissolving in
benzol and precipitating out with gasolene, gave a melting point
of 187-8° This compound was easily soluble in alcohol, benzene,
glacial acetic acid and acetone, but it was insoluble in gasolene or
xylene.

An analysis of this compound was made by the Carius method
and gave the following results:

No. (1) 0.1000 gram of substance gave 0.1454 grams of AgCl..

No. (2) 0.1000 gram of substance gave 0.1457 grams of AgCl.

Calculated for Found
C,H,O,N,Cl, (1) 85.91 per cent Cl.

35.54 per cent Cl. {2) 35.98 per cent Cl.

1909] Condensation of Chloral E17

Tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-para-nitro-ortho-Tolamine

CH Gan)" er
| /™\. Molecular Weight, 433.35.
| | NH—CH--HN | | Melting point, 142°.
7 Dine
NO, NO,

3

For this preparation 2.5 grams of 4-nitro-2-toluidine, melting at
109°, were dissolved in 50ce of benzol and then 1.5 grams of fresh-
ly distilled chloral were added. This solution was boiled for one
and one-half hours over a steam bath, and a crude product of very
nearly theoretical yield was obtained, after evaporating off the
excess of benzol. This crude product wasthen dissolved in boil-
ing benzol and filtered, giving an insoluble substance which melt-
ed at 215-30° with a blackish decomposition, and a filtrate which
contained all the tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-para-nitro-ortho-tolamine.
When this solution of the condensation product was evaporated
down and the pure compound allowed to crystallize out, an 85
per cent yield was obtained which gave a melting point of 142-3°,
melting down to a clear liquid. It was readily soluble in carbon
tetra-chloride, benzol and glacial acetic acid but not so easily solu-
ble in alcohol. Glacial acetic acid was found to be the best. erys-
tallizing medium, as it dissolved a large quantity while hot and on
cooling a large amount of the compound crystallized out in long
golden-yellow needles.

An analysis of this compound by the Carius method gave the
following results:

0.2000 gram of substance gave 0.1961 grams of AgCl.

Calculated for Found
CON CL

54

24.52 per cent Chlorine. 24.26 per cent Chlorine.

ACTION OF BROMINE

This condensation product, dissolved in cold glacial acetic acid,
was treated with bromine also in glacial acetic acid solution (1-
10), using 5.0 grams of the condensation product and enough bro-
mine to produce a red color. A iaint yellow, crystalline precipi-
tate was obtained which melted, when recrystallized from glacial

118 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ November

acetic acid, at 215°, giving a blackish decomposition. When this
bromine derivative was boiled with a 10 per cent solution of
sodium hydroxide, it gave the free amine, which began to soften
at 103° and melted down at 110°, proving that we had the hyidro-
bromide of 4-nitro-2-toluidine formed and that when it was treat-
ed with sodium hydroxide the hydrobromic acid group was split
off and the 4-nitro-2-toluidine was regenerated. No bromine
entered the benzene nucleus.

When the condensation product was heated on a water bath
with concentrated hydrochloric acid, it gave the corresponding
hydrochloride. which when treated with ammonia, precipitated
out the free amine, melting at 107-9°. This proved that the
hydrochloride was the hydrochloride of 4-nitro-2-toluidine. The
condensation product is stable in boiling water.

Tri-chlor- ethylidene-di-meta-nitro-para-Tolamine

CH: CH

Vie Toes Molecular Weight, 433.35.
Paes CCl; | |. Melting point, 165-6°.

\ ZNO, | Se NO:

NH —CH NH

For this preparation 2.5 grams of the freshly prepared 3-nitro-
4-toluidine, melting at 114-16°, were used. This compound was
dissolved in 100cc. of toluene and to this solution were added 1.5
grams of freshly distilled chloral, after which the whole solution
was heated for three hours over steam. A brownish-yellow mass
of needles settling out on cooling which melted at 162-3°, but
which aiter recrystallization from toluene, melted at 165-7°. This
compound was easily soluble in toluene, benzene, gasolene, alco-
hol and glacial acetic acid.

An analysis by the Carius method showed the following result:

0.0644 grams of substance gave 0.0646 grams of Ag(Cl.

Calculated for Found
C,,H,,0,N,Cl,
24.52 per cent Chlorine. 24.77 per cent Chlorine.

On treating this condensation product with concentrated hydro-
chloric acid and boiling, a dirty-white, crystalline precipitate

1909] Condensation of Chloral 119

came out on allowing it to cool. This hydrochloride decomposed
at 187-9°, with a black decomposition. On treating this hydro-
chloride with ammonia, the free amine was obtained in a very
pure state, but which on reerystallization from a'cohol gave a
melting point of 114-16°, thus proving it to be the 3-nitro-4-tolui-_
dine hydrochloride. It will be noticed here that this hydrochlo-
ride is much more unstable than those formed from the other nitro
toluidines, because it is a meta-nitro compound, which contains
the nitro group in the most unstable position.

On boiling the condensation product with water it changed into
a black, gummy mass and seemed to decompose to a large extent,
for the melting point was lowered about twenty-five degrees.

On treating this condensation product with bromine, a brown-
ish-white crystalline precipitate was formed, melting at 225-7°,
with a blackish decomposition. When this bromine derivative is
treated with sodium hydroxide, the free amine is liberated and
precipitated out of solution, melting at 110-16°, thus proving it to
be the hydrobromide of 3-nitro-4-toluidine.

Tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-meta-chlor-para-Tolamine

CH,
7 by CCl, / Cl Molecular Weight, 412.25.
iy | | Melting point, 110°.
Uy,
15 rae O18 ee ND |

The meta-chlor-para-toluidine, used in this preparation was
made by chlorinating para-acettoluide according to the method of
Wroblewski’.

Five grams of the pure meta-chlor-para-toluidine, boiling at
218°, were dissolved in 100ce. of benzol and 3.5 grams of chloral
were added. This solution was boiled for one hour and fifteen
minutes and on cooling there separated out long. silvery-white
needles melting at 181°. The filtrate from this was evaporated
down to sirupy consistency over steam and allowed to erystallize
out. This gave fine white needles, shorter than those of the other

JAnn. 168: 196.

120 Journal of the Mitchell Sooiety [ November

crop and melting at 110°. The first crop of crystals proved to he
the addition product and will be taken up later in this paper,
while the second crop of crystals proved to be the condensation
product.

A sample of the second crop of crystals, melting at 110°, was
dissolved in 95 per cent alcohol and filtered off from any of the
addition product that might be present, since the addition pro-
duct was not soluble in alcohol while cold. By this means a pure
sample was obtained, melting sharply at 110°. An analysis by
the Carius method gave the following result:

0.1000 gram of substance gave 0.1745 grams of AgCl.
Calculated for Found
OE NECL
42.96 per cent Chlorine. 43.10 per cent Chlorine.

This compound was easily soluble in alcohol, benzol, toluene,
xylene, ether and glacial acetic acid. It was much more soluble
in alcohol than the addition product and by this means they were
separated from each other.

When this condensation product was treated with concentrated
hydrochloric acid and the solution heated over a steam bath until
the excess of hydrochloric acid was driven off, a white, crystalline
precipitate was obtained, melting to a black liquid at 230-35°, a
majority of the substance in the melting point tube subliming.
This compound was the hydrochloride of meta-chlor-para-tolui-
dine, for when this compound was treated wirh ammonia and the
hydrochloric acid group split off, an oil was obtained melting at
from 20 to 23° and giving the same reactions as the original meta-
chlor-para toluidine.

When the condensation product was dissolved in cold glacial
acetic acid and treated with bromine, also in glacial acetic acid
solution, (1-10), a white crystalline precipitate was obtained,
erystallizing out in long colorless prisms. This bromine compound
gave the melting point 78-80°. On treating this bromine deriva-
tive with ammonia, no change took place in the melting point, so
it was concluded that the product was a bromine derivative of
meta-chlor-para-toluidine which did not form a hydrobromide, but
had substituted bromine in the ring. No compound which cor-

1909] Condensation of Chloral 12%

responded to this was found in the literature. It is probably the
ortho-brom-meta-chlor-para-toluidine.

The addition product of chloral and meta-chlor-para-Toluidine

Cl
D eGhtiR Molecular Weight, 288.8
Oe /7NH.CHOHCC]I, Melting point, 182°.
ph Gud,

The first crop of crystals from the condensation of meta-chlor-
para-toluidine, melting at 182°, was washed thoroughly with aleo-
hol to remove all of the condensation product that might be pres-
ent. Then asharp melting point of 182-3° was obtained. A
sample of this product was analyzed by the Stepanoff method and
gave the following result:

0.1000 gram of substance gave 0.2001 grams of AgCl.

Calculated for Found
C,H,ONCI,
49.10 per cent Cl. 49.42 per cent Cl.

This compound was only slightly soluble in alcohol, easily solu-
ble in ether, benzol, gasolene, toluene, xylene and glacial acetic
acid. It will be noted that it was much less soluble in cold alco-
hol than the condensation product and was purified by this
method.

When this compound was treated with concentrated hydrochlo-
ric acid and bromine, the two reactions were similar to those for
the condensation product, in that chloral was liberated in each
case and the corresponding hydrochloride and the substituted bro-
mine derivative were obtained.

Tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-para-brom-ortho-nitro-Phenamine

NH ee ened
/ NO | YNNO. Molecular Weight, 563.35.
CCl, be] Melting point, 190-1°.
Sea eA
Br Br

-

The 4-brom-2-nitraniline, for this preparation, was made by
treating para-brom acetanilide with a mixture of concentrated

122 Journal of the Mit-hell Socicty [ November

sulphuric and nitric acids, according to the method of Hubner.’

Five grams of the pure 4-brom-2-nitraniline, melting at 110°,
were dissolved in 100ce of toluene and about 6.5 grams of chloral
were added, or about four times the amount of chloral required to
make the condensation product. This solution was boiled for six
hours, after which it was allowed to cool. Long, lemon-yellow
needles separated out, melting at 232-3°, with a brownish-black
decomposition. These crystals reacted with strong sodium
hydroxide, forming a red compound, probably the hydroxy body,
similar to the one made by Wheeler and Glenn.* This compound,
melting at 232-3°, was very probably the addition product and
was not investigated.

The filtrate from the Jemon-yellow needles, which melted at
232-3°, was evaporated down to a sirupy consistency and a crop
of smaller lemon-yellow crystals were obtained, melting at 190-1°
and showing needle-like prisms under the microscope. This pro-
duct was crystallized from toluene for two successive times but no
change in melting point was obtained. This compound was solu-
ble in benzene, toluene, xylene, alcohol and glacial acetie acid,
fairly soluble in dilute alcohol, ether and carbon tetra-chloride.

An analysis of this compourd showed the following result,
when analyzed by the Carius method:

0.1000 gram of substance gave 0.1411 grams of AgBr and AgCl.

Caleulated for Found
C,,H,0,N,Br,Cl, 18.60 per cent Chlorine

18.71 per cent Cl. 28.41 per cent Br. 28.13 per cent Bromine

On treating the condensation product with concentrated hydro-
chloric acid and evaporating off the excess of acid, an insoluble
yellow powder was obtained, which me!ted at 108°. When this
yellow powder was treated with ammonia, the melting point
remained at 108-9°, showing that the hydrochloride formed had
been decomposed by the moizt air, or that no hydrochloride had
been formed and that the condensation product had been split into
chloral and 4-brom 2-:itranilin, which me'ts at 108 9°. Wa‘er
had no apparent effect upon the condensa'ion product. On treat-

1Ber. der deutsch Chein. Ges. 6: 766.
2Jour, Elisha Mitchell Scientific Sucicty, 30, LI, 63.

1909] Condensation of Chloral 123

ing the condensation product with bromine, in a glacial acetic acid
solution, a yellow crystalline compound settled out when the ace-
tic acid solution was concentrated. This compound melted at
120-3° but rose in melting point to 130-1° when recrystallized
from glacial acetic acid. This compound is very probably the 3,
4, 5-tri-brom aniline and a mixture of the lower bromine deriva-
tives.

Tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-para-brom-meta-nitro-Phenamine

NH————_CH——_-—_NH.

eh | /~\ Molecular Weight, 563.35.
( | CCl, | | Melting point, 147-9°.
N7NO, Ni NO:

Br Br

For this preparation, five grams of the pure 4-brom-3-nitranilin
which melted at 129-30°, were dissolved in 100cc. of benzol and
to this were added 1.55 grams of chloral, after which the solution
was heated over a water bath for two hours. This solution was
allowed to cool and the by-product was filtered off. The filtrate
was then evaporated down nearly to dryness or to a good sirupy
consistency, and aleohol was then added, and the whole mass
stirred well. Yellow needles came out in the cold solution, which
were filtered off and dried. These crystals melted at 147-8° and
on analysis by the Carius method gave the following result:

0.1000 gram of substance gave 0.0659 grams of AgBr. and
0.0746 grams of AgCl.

Calculated for Found
C,,H,O,N ,Br,Cl, 18.55 per cent Chlorine
18.71 per cent Chlorine 28.41 per cent Br. 28.04 per cent Br.

When this condensation product was treated with concentrated
hydrochloric acid and boiled, a light brown solution was obtained
from which crystallized out long silvery white crystals, melting at
210-11° with a black decomposition. These crystals were not
stable in the air or in a water solution, since they turned yellow
and reformed the original 4-brom-3-nitraniline, similar to the
reaction of the condensation product of the 4-brom-2-nitraniline.
The free amine obtained by treating these crystals with water,

124 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ November

melted at 129-30°, showing this compound to be the hydrochlo-
ride of 4-brom-3-nitraniline.

When bromine was added to this condensation product, dissol-
ved in the Jeast amount of cold glacial acetic acid, a light yellow
or whitish yellow crystalline compound settled out, appearing as
fan shaped crystals under the microscope and melting at SSA pon
boiling the product with sodium hydroxide, a reddish brown oil
was obtained, which solidified on cooling and melted at/97°. This
melting point was raised to 98-101° by boiling with /hot water,
which gave an oil that crystallized out on standing. This bromine
derivative was the tri-brom-nitro-aniline (2,4, 6-tri-brom-nitrani-
line), proved by its melting point and its non-combining power
with acids.

Tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-para-iodo-Phenamine

NB —-O EN Molecular Weight, 567.35.
YAS vn
ii] CCl, aie Melting point, 123°.
Wf wa
at I

The para-iodo-aniline, used for this preparation, was made by
the action of iodine chloride upon acetanilide... The acet group
was eliminated by boiling with concentrated hydrochloric acid.
This gave long, silvery-white needles, melting at 63°.

For this preparation, 1.5 grams of the pure para-iodo-aniliue
were used and to it wasadded 0.6 grams of freshly distilled chloral,
after which 35cc. of benzol were added to the mixture and the
whole solution was warmed up on a water bath for one hour. The
by-product was then filtered off add the filtrate evaporated down
to a sirupy consistency. Alechol was then added to this sirupy
mass and a steel gray mass of crystals were formed immediately.
The crystal form of this compound was branching needles when
seen under a microscope. This compound gave a melting point
o1 123):

This iodo-condensation product was soluble in benzene, toluene,
xylene, alcohol, acetone and glacial acetic acid, while it was not so
soluble in dilute alcohol and gasolene.

1909] Condensation Chloral 125

An analysis of this compound by the Carius method gave the fol-
lowing results:
(1) 0.1000 gram of substance gave 0.1550 grams AgCl and Agl.
(2) 0.1000 gram of substance gave 0.0185 grams chlorine and
0.0471 grams of iodine.
Calculated for Found
CHN.CLI, (1) 48.72 per cent I.
TOES Oe hea ee ule Ole
41.74 per cent I. and 18.70 per cent Cl. (2) 44.71 ,, ,, fe:
US YP as
On treating this condensation product with concentrated hydro-
chloric acid, a hydrochloride is formed which decomposed at 206-
10°, with the liberation of iodine, as proved by the purple vapor
in the melting point tube. This hydrochloride yields, when treat-
ed with ammonia, para-iodo-aniline, melting at 63°. The hydro-
chloride of para-iodo-aniline also melted at 208-10°, with a pur-
ple colored vapor given off when it decomposed. These two
reactions prove that the unknown hydrochloric acid derivative is
the hydrochloride of para-iodo-aniline.

_ When this condensation product is treated with bromine, chlor-
al is liberated and some para-iodo-aniline is regenerated as the
hydrobromide, while still another part forms a brominated iodo-
aniline. The iodo-aniline was identified by its melting point of
63°, when the hydrobromide was treated with ammonia, while the
unchanged portion, from the treatment with ammonia, melted at
83-9°, which was possibly a brominated iodo-aniline.

Tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-4-brom-1-Napthylamine

NH Ne
é Rye o | ( mh \ Molecular Weight, 665.
CCl
wy pe ; anal Melting point. 135-300°.
Be Br

For this preparation, the 4-brom-i-napthylamine was prepared
by treating acet napthylamine with bromine, forming the 4-brom-
l-acet-napthylamine, and then removing the acet group by boil-
ing ior six hours with a saturated solution of caustic soda. This
gave the 4-b:om-i-napthylamine which melted at 102°.

126 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ November

2.5 grams of this 4-b:\om-1-napthylamine were treated with
enough chloral! to dissolve it and this mixture was heated over a
steam bath for two hours, stirring constantly. This mixture was
then treated with 100cc. of toluene and boiled for a few minutes,
after which it was allowed to cool. The addition of toluene was
accompanied by a decided change in color and bulk. Gasolene
was next added to this part solution and part suspension, precipi-
tating out the remainder of the product in light purple flakes.
This compound never melted but sublimed at 135-50°, leaving
behind a black charred mass, which decomposed at 300° with an
effervescence. This condensation product was soluble in toluene,
xylene, alcohol and glacial acetic acid, but it was very insoluble in
gasolene.
Three analyses, by the Carius method gave the following
results:
No. (1) 0.1000 gram of substance gave 0.1176 grams AgCl and
AgBr.

No. (2) 0.1000 gram of substance gave 0.1182 grams AgCl and
AgBr.

No. (3) 0.1000 gram of substance gave 0.1189 grams AgCl and
AgBr.

When these precipitates were treated with chlorine and all the
bromine in them displaced by chlorine the resulting weights were
less by 0.0126, 0.0128, and 0.0129 grams than the original preci-
pitates. Now taking the greatest loss in weight. 0.0129, and cal-
culating the amount of bromine we have:

0.0129 x 1.797 (factor to convert the loss in weight into bro-
mine) equals 0.0232 grams of bromine.

0.0232 divided by 0.4255 will give the amount of silver bro-
mide which is 0.0545 grams of AgBr.

0.1189 (weight of the original precipitate) minus 0.0515 will
give the amount of AgCl present in the original precipitate
which is 0.0644 grams of AgCl.

0.0644 grams of AgCl equals to 0.0159 grams of chlorine.

Calculated for Found
CEA NICLEr
15.99 per cent chlorine 15.90 per cent chlorine.

24.06 per cent bromine. § 23.20 per cent bromine.

i

1909) Condensation of Chloral 127

The reason that we have assumed that this compound has such
a formula, that is with one molecule of toluene of crystallization,
is because of the fact that three analyses from three samples made
at three different times show such a constant value for the halogen
content, and such a constant value for the loss is weight when the
bromine is replaced by chlorine. These values dv not indicate an
addition product nor a condensation product without toluene of
erystallization because the percentages of these two products are
very much larger than that obtained from our product, as to the
halogen content. We find however that when this compound is
treated with hydrochloric acid, the original £ Br-1-napthylamine
is regenerated and chloral is liberated. The first of these com-
pounds is detected by its melting point and by its behavior, while
chloral is obtained by distilling a mixture of this condensation
product and hydrochloric acil, after it has been made strongly
alkaline with sodium hykroxile. Chloroform can be detected by
a faint odor and by the iso-carbylamine odor, with aniline and
sodium hydroxide, thus proving the presence of the chloral group.
Now since this compound cannot be the simple condensation or
the simple addition product, which are the only two simple ch'oral
compounds, and since it does contain chloral it undoubtedly con-
tains toluene of crystallization. When the reaction product of
chloral and {-brom-1-napthylamine is treated with to'uene a _per-
ceptible change takes place and the compound becomes more bul-
ky, so this led us to the belief that one or more molceules of tolu-
ene were held mechanically as toluene of crystallization. When
these several values were calculated, for one, two and three mole-
cu'es of toluene, it was found that one molecule approximated our
result the closest. In order to prove this it was attempted to heat
an air dried sample to constant weight at 150°, but this failed for
the compound sublimed and gave a white erystalline compound
exactly similar to the original $-brom-1-napthy'amine when it was
heated. From this we saw that we had a dissociation of the
condensation product into chloral and the original 4-brom-1-nap-
thylamine, which would take place as low as 100°. It was pos-
sible to get a loss in weight which was equal to 7 83 per cent of the
total weight at 80°, but here also the decomposition stopped the

128 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ November

work for it began to decompose as low as 80° on prolonged heat-
ing. The theoretical for loss in weight for one molecule of tolu-
ene is 13.84 per cent.

Tri-chlor-ethylidene-di-para-A minoacetophenone

NH Big eS way
fj ‘ | ( \. Molecular Weight, 399.35.
CCl
oy) F \./ Melting point, 162°.
COCH, COCH,

For this preparation 2.0 grams of the para-aminoacetophenone’
melting at 106-8°, were used and to it was added one gram of
chloral. After this mixture had been triturated well in a beaker
with a stirring rod, 50c. ¢. of toluene were added and the whole
solution boiled which caused a floeculent whitish-yellow precipi-
tate to settle out. This bye-product was filtered off and the fil-
trate concentrated to about half of its bulk over steam. On cool-
ing large colorless crystals came out, showing thin rectangular
plates under the microscope, when recrystallized out from dilute
alcohol. Some of these rectangular plates showed a very uniform
rounding off of the corners, presenting an elliptic form. This
compound melted at 162° to a red liquid and gave on anal-
ysis, by the Carius method, the following result ;—

0.0700 gram of substance gave 0.0747 grams AgCl.
Calculated for, Found
CisH,,O,N,Cl,,
26.63 per cent chlorine. 26.36 per cent chlorine.

This compound was soluble in toluene, benzene, xylene, and al-
cohol. It was also soluble in hot, dilute aleohol, but very insolu-
ble when cooled down, so this gave a very good crystallizing me-
dium for purification.

When this condensation product was treated with concentrated
hydrochloric acid and warmed on a water bath, a yellowish-white,
crystalline compound settled out, melting at 180-1°, giving
a red colored decomposition. The action of hydrochloric acid up-
on the free aminoacetophenone gave a compound melting at the
same place and giving the same red colored decomposition, show-

1909] Condensation of Chloral 129

ing the unknown hydrochloride to be the hydrochloride of para-
aminoacetophenone.

The action of bromine upon this condensation product was
somewhat complicated, for jwe were not able to get back all the
onginal free amine as the hydrobromide. When a cold saturated
solution was treated with one molecule of bromine and allowed to
cool, a light, greenish-yellow crystal mass came out, melting at
180°, to a red liquid and giving a_ slight decomposition.
This bromine derivative, on treating with strong ammonia, gave
an oil and a red colored solid. The red colored solid was very
probably an hydroxy derivative of the bromine compound, which
decomposed with water, while the oil solidified and gave a melting
point of 108-10° when it was allowed to cool and erystal-
lizeout. This latter was very probably the original aminoaceto-
phenone, but the red colored Jiquid and the red colored oil could
not have been, since the aminoacetophenone gave no red color
when boiled with an alkali. The melting point of the red colored
compound was not determined for it decomposed into an oil so
fast that it was nearly impossible to get a pure sample with which
to work.

The action of Chloral upon Tri-chlor Aniline.

Alexander Einner, in the Annallen, says that it is impossi-
ble to condense with chloral an amine, in the benzene ring of
which there are three or more negative groups. Having been able
to condense some amines which had two unlike negative groups in
the benzene ring, it was thought that by the use of a higher boil-
ing point solvent it might be possible to get a condensation to
take place and if not by the higher boiling point solvent, why the
high pressure of the sealed tube might cause the tri-chlor aniline
and chloral to condense. The results of this work were not satis-
factory, since it was impossible to get the condensation reaction to
take place between the tri-chlor aniline and chloral. The results
of this work are given below:

(1). 1.0 gram of tri-chlor aniline was used and to it was add-
ed one gram of chloral. This mixture was dissolved in xylene

TAnnallen, 302: 340-380.

130 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ November

and boiled for six hours. At the end of this time the tri-chlor
aniline crystallized out as if no chloral had been present, melting
at 77-8°. No change had taken place.

(2). 1.0 gram of the tri-chlor aniline was used and to it was
added 1.0 gram of chloral. This mixture was dissolved in to-
luene and boiled for six hours At each two hour interval a small
amount of substance was taken out and allowed to crystallize, by
evaporating down over steam. No change had taken place for
the three samples each melted at 77-8°, showing that it was the
unchanged tri-chlor aniline.

(3). Tri-chlor aniline and an excess of chloral, without a sol-
vent, were heated up in a sealed tube and temperature kept at 100°
forfour hours. Two samples were taken out, one at the expira-
tion of two hours and the other at the expiration of four hours.

Neither sample showed a change, for each melted at 77-8° and
showed the long, silvery-white needles of tri-chlor aniline.

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

DECEMBER, 1909
VOL. XXV NO. 4

A VISIT TO THE YOSEMITE AND THE BIG TREES.

BY W. C. COKER.

Coming up the hot valley of the San Joaquin from Los Angeles
T arrived, July 5th, 1908, at Merced, a small town on the Southern
Pacific, where change is made to the short line of railroad that,
after a short run, strikes the Merced river and follows up its
canyon to El Portal, the gateway to the Yosemite. This stretch
of road, climbing hard all the way, passes entirely through the
chaparral covered foot hills and ends, at about three thousand
feet altitude, on almost the exact lower edge of the magnificent
coniferous belt that clothes the western flanks of the Sierras.
Leaving the expansive plains of the San Joaquin valley, where
there is little arborescent growth except along the rivers, the
train passes through a region of low, rolling hills, covered at
this season with dead and parched grass, and decorated with fine
“specimen” trees of the blue or Douglas oak (Quercus Doug-
lasii), that gives this region its peculiar park-like aspect not par-
alleled in any part of the east. This Douglas oak, with its bluish
foliage, contrasting finely with its light gray bark, its wide spread-
ing, rounded tops and isolated habit of growth, is one of the most
beautiful and decorative of American trees.* In addition to the

* The well known live oaks (Q. agrifolia) of the Pacific slope, which
may be seen at their best at Berkley, have much the same habit, but their
crowns are even more expanded and their lower limbs often flatten out
their branches on the ground.

1909 | 131

132 THE JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [Dec.

blue oak there is scattered through the lower and more fertile
valleys the California weeping or post oak (Q. lobata), a fine,
tall tree, often with pendant branches.

After a short while we leave behind the lower, grassy foothills
and enter the second or chaparral belt, of higher and more pre-
cipitous hills, where we follow the rugged canyon of the Merced.
Here the whole surface is covered with the characteristic shrub
or chaparral growth of low, harsh and intricate bush that is often
impenetrable except for the trails. Of the plants that make up this
inhospitable expanse the most abundant are chemisal or grease-
wood (Adenostoma fasciculatum), which often occupies many
acres to the exclusion of all else; Ceanthus cuneatus,
one of the most impenetrable of all; several species of Manzanita
(Arctostaphylos pungens, viscida, tomentosa); the two buck-
thorns, Rhamnus crocea with pretty red berries, and coffee berry
(Rhamnus Californica), with black berries; Christmas berry
(Heteromeles arbutifolia), also with fine red berries ; the dwarfed
ash (Fraxinus dipetala) ; and the curious yerba santa or mount-
ain balm (Eriodictyon Californicum), which has the leaves cov-
ered with an extremely sticky varnish. In July the yellow flowers
of the California buckeye (Aesculus Californica) make this
shrub a conspicuous part of the chaparral, particularly in the
higher parts.

The only trees that rise above the general level of this chaparral
are Quercus Douglasii, which is even more common than farther
down, Q. Wislizeni, one of the western live oaks which does not
enter the higher mountains, and the black oak or Kellogg’s oak
(Q. Californica), a common oak of higher altitudes which
chooses the more protected situations. All of these oaks may be
very much stunted in places and thus scarcely break the monot-
ony of the brush.

The only pines that can meet the murderous conditions of the
hills are the digger pine (Pinus Sabimiana) and the knob-cone
pine (Pinus attenuata). ‘The first is common on all the hills up
to three thousand feet elevation, but it is a small pine and is

T909|_ +A Visit TO THE YOSEMITE AND THE Bic TREES 133

so scattered, and so sparse of foliage, that it has little effect on
the general appearance of the country. Its cones are very large
and heavy, and its seeds plump and edible. It is from the Digger
Indians, who gather these seeds for food, that the tree takes its
common name. The knob-cone pine is not nearly so common,
and I did not see any of it from the train on my way up. It
forms close, but very much scattered groves, and one often misses
it in passing through the hills. This pine has the remarkable
habit, in common with several other American pines, of retain-
ing its cones unopened for many years. When fire kills the tree
the cones open and all the seeds formed through the life of the
tree are shed at once, thus planting a new grove at the time it is
needed.t. Pinus attenuata? is said to be more abundant north
of the Merced than south of it.

The vegetation on the edges of the Merced river offers,
of course, a striking contrast to that of the hills. Al-
ders (Alnus rhombifolia) twenty or thirty feet high, large
willows (Salix fluviatilis var. argyraphylla) very like our
Black willow, small willows (Salix lasiandra), ash (Fraxinus
biflora), and good sized poplars (Populus trichocarpa) make up
the larger growth. The most abundant shrubs are the button-
ball (Cephalanthus occidentalis), the sweet-shrub (Calycanthus
occidentalis) with fragrant brown flowers, syringa (Philadelphus
Lewesiti), most noticeable above El Portal, elder (Sambucus
glauca), and the buckeye (Aesculus Californica), which grows
also on the dry hills. Masses of the wild grape (Vites Califor-
nica) spread over the rocks and shrubs near the river.

Four or five miles below El Portal there appear along the
river’s edge a few small sentinels of yellow pine (Pinus ponder-
osa), sent down from the immense forest above, but giving little
promise of what is to come. The California laurel (Umbellularia
Californica) with strongly scented foliage also becomes notice-

t See John Muir’s “ Mountains of California,” and my article on “ Vital-
ity of Pine Seeds and the Delayed Opening of Cones” in American
Naturalist, 43: p. 677. Nov. Igog.

2 Pinus tuberculata of some authors.

134 THE JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ Dec.

able about this time and extends on up to the Yosemite Valley.
Of those great conifers that make so magnificent a display in
higher altitudes the next to appear is the incense cedar (Libo-
cedrus decurrens). It may be seen along the river just below El
Portal.

Arriving at El Portal about dark, the night was spent there.
An early start for Yosemite prevented much botanizing, but
time was found to make out the more conspicuous growth of
the place. The yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa) has here gotten
out from the river bed and taken its place as one of the dominant
trees of the hills. In fact, El Portal lies on the very edge of the
coniferous-forest belt, and the red pine being the hardiest species
of the belt is the only one represented here. The Digger pine
still holds on at El Portal, but its upper limit is reached and it
is lost almost immediately on starting for Yosemite.

Walking out from the hotel towards the east one passes small
trees of blue oak (Q. Douglasi), golden cup oak (Q. chrysolepis),
mostly low and scrubby, black oak (Q. Californica) ; and the
shrubs, coffee berry (Rhamnus Californica), manzanita (Arcto-
staphylos viscida), with deep red, polished branches, California
laurel (Umbellularia Californica), buckeye (Aesculus Califor-
nica)in flower in July, poison oak (Rhus diversiloba), dwarfed
ash (Fraxinus dipetala), and a little Rhamnus crocea, a low shrub
with red berries. A little way up the hill, behind the hotel, the
peculiar sticky plant Eriodictyon glutinoswm was found, and in
a slight depression in the rocks two species of small willows were
growing; one was Salix lasiandra and the other, S. Bakeri, a
recently recognized species. Near these was found a small tree
of the Oregon crab apple (Malus rivularis). The mountain
mahogany (Cercocarpus betulaefolius) probably grows near here
but was seen by me only once, on dry soil farther up the Merced.

Lower down the hill, in front of the hotel, the western red-
bud (Cercis occidentalis), an attractive small tree or shrub, and
the elder (Sambucus glauca) were plentiful.

Along the river grew the plants that have already been
described as occupying such a situation, and in wet places here
was collected the large fern Woodwardia spinulosa. Among the

1909] A Visit To THE YOSEMITE AND THE Bic TREES 135

bare rocks or flats by the river were the peculiar little ferns
Pellea andromedaefolia and Pellea ornithopus, the latter looking
more like a toy fir tree than a fern. Forming mats on the large
rocks on the lower hillside was Sclaginella rupestris, a relative of
the ferns, that is found in similar situations in the Eastern
States.

Along the rapidly ascending road that climbs through the Mer-
ced gorge for twelve miles to the Yosemite Valley there is noticed
a constant change in the vegetation with the gradually increasing
altitude. Immediately above El Portal there appears sparingly
along the river that peculiar evergreen tree, the California nut-
meg (Tumion Californicum), with fruit about the size and color
of a green gage plum. Inside the fruit? is a nutmeg-like seed
that gives the common name to the plant. The tree, as it appears
here, is small, scraggy and irregular in habit, and only a few
reached twenty-five feet in height and eighteen inches in diam-
eter near the base.

The California yew (Taxus brevifolia), an evergreen related
to Tumion, is said to grow along this road, but I missed seeing
it. Many of the plants mentioned at El Portal do not reach the
Yosemite. The Digger pine ends where Tumion begins, then, a
mile or so farther, and the red bud disappears, then in succession
the buckeye, the ash, the grape, the poison ivy,3 and Tumion
(about half way up). Calycanthus and Philadelphus extend to
within a mile or two of the valley floor.

A wax-myrtle (Myrica Hertwegi) is reported as growing along
the Merced below the Yosemite, but I did not find it.

The blue oak does not ascend for any distance above El Portal,
but the black oak and golden cup oak extend up through almost
the entire coniferous belt, and are much larger and finer in the
Yosemite than lower down.

In the dry wood along the road the strong scented tar-

3 Strictly speaking, as the plant is a Gymnosperm, the whole “ fruit” is
a seed.

4A few pieces of poison ivy have been found as high up as the valley
walls, but it is extremely rare there.

136 THE JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [Dec.

weed, or bear clover, (Chamaebatia foliolosa), with minutely
dissected leaves and white, strawberry-like flowers, is plenti-
ful. It is called “bear clover,’ says Mrs. Brandegee, “-be-
cause it bears not the least resemblance to clover, and the bear
will have nothing to do with it.”

The incense cedar (Libocedrus decurrens), already mentioned
as beginning down by the river near El Portal, and the red pine
(Pinus ponderosa) increase in size as they advance up the gorge
until they reach the magnificent proportions exhibited in the
Yosemite.

Entering the Yosemite Valley I drove through almost its en-
tire length and stopped at Camp Currie, which is stationed under
Glacier Point near the upper end. The camp was situated in a
fine grove of red pine and incense cedar, and in the immediate
vicinity are good specimens of silver fir (Abies concolor). A few
trees of the Douglas spruce (Pseudotsuga Douglas) grow on
the talus at the foot of the south wall, a few hundred yards from
the camp. There is none of the great sugar pine (P. Lambert-
tana) around this camp, and although it occurs sparingly farther
down, it does not reach its best proportions at any place in the
valley. ;

Other coniferous trees that occur in the valley and on the
heights are, according to Mrs. Brandegee,s Abies nobilis, “in
some places, as near the foot of the Yosemite fall,’ A. mag-
nifica, “along the whole line of the south side of the valley and
in great abundance near Glacier. Point,’ Tsuga Pattoniana,
“found on benches and mountain sides at Cathedral Peak,’ Pinus
monticola, “ Sentinel Dome, Cloud’s Rest, etc.”

The black oak (Q. Californica) and golden cup oak (Q. chrys-
olepis) become large trees here, thirty or forty feet high, and
make a conspicuous part of the woods around the camp. Nuttall’s
flowering dogwood (Cornus Nuttallit) is another attractive small
tree that is common here. Two good clumps of it stand just
in front of the Le Conte Memorial Building, a stone lodge erected

5 The Flora of Yo Semite. Zoe, 2: 155. 1801.

1909] A Visit To THE YOSEMITE AND THE Bic TREES 137

in memory of Prof. Joseph Le Conte, the famous geologist and
lover of these mountains, who died in the valley in July, Igor.

The shrubs of the dry and sandy valley floor around Camp
Currie are Ceanothus integerrimus, a rather tall plant with feath-
ery white flowers, Ceanothus cordulatus, a much lower and some-
what thorny spreading bush, coffee berry (Rhamnus Californica),
manzanita (Arctostaphylos viscida), California rose (Rosa
Californica), gooseberry (Ribes Menziesu), currant (ibes san-
guineum), wild cherry (Prunus demissa), and a little sage brush
(Artemizia tridentata), the shrub that is so common in the dry
deserts.

July is not the best time for flower display in the valley, as the
long summer dry spell is then at its worst, but a number of
attractive flowers still survive even in dry soil. Conspicuous
among these is Godetia quadrivulvera with its variable flowers of
purplish hues. The curious little low herb with pink and white
clusters of flowers called pussy paws (Spragua umbellata) is
common on the western side of Camp Currie and further down
the valley.

Other attractive flowers are milkweed (Asclepias speciosa),
yarrow (Achillea millefolium), the fragrant mint (Monardella
lanceolata), the tall Lopanthus urticifolius, with purplish-pink
flowers in spikes, Penstemon heterophyllus, the conspicuous lupine
(Lupinus parviflorus), and our old eastern friend Brunella vul-
garis.

Other less noticeable herbs of the dry flats are Erigeron folio-
sus, Apocynum cannabinum, Lessingia leptoclada, Epilobiwm pan-
iculatum, Eriogonum nudum, Lotus Nevadensis and Lotus crassi-
folius. "The Bracken fern (Pteris aquilina) is common. In
slightly damper places grow Geranium dissectum, heartleaf (As-
arum Hartwegi), wild strawberry (Fragaria Californica), colum-
bine (Aquilegia truncata), and a small willow (Salix lasiolepis).

Along the trail which leads for about one mile up the valley
to the Happy Isles grow nearly all the plants above mentioned,
and where the soil is low and damp, as it is in several places near
this trail, good sized trees of alder (Alnus rhombifolia), and
poplar (Populus trichocarpa) appear. With these grow the

138 THE JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL, SOCIETY [Dec.

flowering raspberry or salmon berry (Rubus parviflorus), very
like our eastern one, raspberry (Rubus leucoderme), the small
dogwood with inconspicuous flowers (Cornus occidentalis) resem-
bling our C. Amomum, and some of that most beautiful of all
Yosemite shrubs, the western azalea (Azalea occidentalis).

Before reaching Happy Isles the trail passes, near the pumping
station, through a wet marsh, where the alders and poplars grow
into good sized trees. Both the large and small dogwoods appear
on the edges of this marsh, and both raspberries also. Very con-
spicuous by the plank walk in the marsh were the cow parsnip
(Heracleum lanatum), a rank growing, umbelliferous plant, a
beautiful, tall lily with numerous small flowers (Lilium parvum),
large lady ferns (Asplenium felix-joemina), two species of horse-
tail (Equisetum robustum and Equisetum telmatcia), and the
orchid Habenaria leucostachys. In a dry spot across the river,
not far below the pumping station, was a colony of the mountain
snow berry (Symphoricarpus mollis).

Between Camp Currie and the river are some damp, open
meadows covered with fresh grass and flowers. Here were col-
lected Helenium Bigloviit, Oenothera biennis var. grandiflora,
Geranium incisum, and Brodiaea lactea. Crossing the river here
I found the june berry (Amelanchier alnifolia) as a low shrub
on the river’s edge, and in a sandy spot were a few trees of the
lodge pole pine (Pinus Murrayana) that I have not seen men-
tioned as occurring on the floor of the valley.

Following the trail from this place to Mirror Lake I found
growing on its banks Salix lasiandra and Salix lasiolepis. Cornus
occidentalis grew in a damp place near, and in a wet open marsh
a little way south of Mirror Lake, the following were collected:
Veronica sculettata, Stellaria longipes, Hypericum anegalloides,
Helenum Biglovii, Dodecatheon Henderson, Mimulus Langs-
dortit, Trifolium involucratum, Galium trifdum, Viola blanda,
Ranunculus alismaefolius, and, in a damp pasture near, Lotus
Torrey.

In the deep, rich wood, near the foot of Yosemite falls, were a
good number of pine drops (Plerospora Andromedea), a large
saprofhytic plant, one to three feet high, of a reddish brown color.

7909|_ +A Visit TO THE YOSEMITE AND THE BiG TREES 139

It is related to our indian pipe, and to the brilliant red snow plant
(Sarcodes sanguinea) that occurs abundantly a little higher up.

The trail to Nevada Falls as it winds above Vernal Falls passes
many attractive sun and rock loving species that are not found in
the level valley. All are protected by some means against the ex-
cessive heat and drought to which they are exposed, as by dense
hairs, succulent leaves, etc. A pretty little yellow composite coy-
ered with white wool (Eriophyllum confertiforum) was in full
bloom, as were also the succulent Sedum obtusatum, with yellow
flowers, Penstemon breviflorus, with yellowish flowers striped with
pink, and Penstemon Newberry, with red flowers. Gilia Hookeri,
with pretty pink and white flowers, formed low, dense mats, like
our Phlox subulata. Patentilla glandulosa, with yellow, and Scro-
phularia Californica, with purplish flowers, grew singly in the
crevices. Here also grew alum root (Heuchera micrantha) with
tall white panicles of minute white flowers of a delicate, mist-like
beauty.

The low spirea-like shrub (Holodiscus discolor), with leaves
densely hairy beneath and white flowers in corymbs, and a low
honeysuckle (Lonicera interrupta) were common.

The ferns that were able to survive the heat and dust of the
rocky slopes were Aspidium rigidum var. argutum, Pellea densa,
Pellea Bridgesu, Pellea brachyptera, Cystopteris fragilis, and
Cheilanthes gracillima. ‘The last has the leaves thickly clothed
beneath with a dense felt of salmon colored hairs.

A species of mistletoe (Phoradendron villosum), not very dif-
ferent from our eastern one, was growing abundantly on Quercus
chrysolepis along the trail.

Near the foot of Nevada Falls the trail passes a low place full
of springs and several extensive pools of shailow water. In a
damp spot here I found for the first time the silk-tassel tree (Gar-
rya Fremontii), a rather tall shrub with opposite leaves and black
juice. Other plants found here, and not seen before, were Veron-
ica serphyllifolia, Veronica Americana and a species of Podoscia-
dium.

Near the top of Nevada Falls grew Cotyledon Nevadensis, with
yellow flowers and thick leaves, another species of alum root

140 THE JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL, SOCIETY [ Dec.

(Heuchera rubescens), and the pretty red tipped paint brush
(Castilleia parviflora).

On the rocks at the top of Nevada Falls I saw my first cedar
(Juniperus occidentalis), a weather-worn old tree of great age.
This tree is always low but sometimes gets a large trunk diam-
eter, as much as ten feet according to Mrs. Brandegee (Flora of
Yo Semite: Zoe, vol. 2, page 160).

The golden cup oak is also abundant here, as it is at all points
at this elevation. It is hard at first to be convinced that the vari-
ous forms of leaves that this plant exhibits, some with edges as
smooth as our live oak, others as toothed and prickly as holly,
can all belong to the same species. The acorns are
equally variable.

Behind Camp Currie a steep and difficult trail leads up the
almost perpendicular cliff for three thousand three hundred feet
to Glacier Point above. The climb up this trail was a delightful
experience. On the way are passed, in dry places, yellow pine
(Pinus ponderosa), silver fir (Abies concolor), Douglas spruce
(Pseudotsuga Douglasii), golden cup oak (Quercus chrysolepis),
Holodiscus discolor, coffee berry (Rhamnus Californica), Cotyle-
don Nevadensis and most of the ferns that were seen on the rocks
above Vernal Falls.

Along the course of a little brook up which the trail climbed
for a good way near the top were growing Azalea occidentalis,
in full bloom, the little bush maple (Acer glabrum), California
laurel (Umbellularia Californica), small dogwood (Cornus occt-
dentalis), flowering raspberry (Rubus parviflorus), and the flow-
ers Aquilegia truncata, Saxifraga peltata and Smilacina amplex-
icaulis. Here also, to my surprise, were growing our own maiden
hair ferns of the East (Adiantum pedatum).

At Glacier Point Pinus Jeffreyi occurs. It looks very like P.
ponderosa and by some is considered only a variety of it. Under
the pines here are extensive masses of the low bush chinquepin
(Castanopsis sempervirens). Near the top of Sentinel Dome
which rises up another thousand feet above Glacier Point I found
a single tree of lodge pole pine (Pinus Murrayana), but did not
find any P. Monticola, which is said to grow near the summit.

1909| A Visit To THE YOSEMITE AND THE Bic TREES I4I

From Glacier Point the coach road winds over plateaus and
ridges at an elevation varying from five to seven thousand feet,
and passes the whole distance through as magnificent a forest
as the earth can show. Yellow pine (P. ponderosa), Jeffrey’s pine
(P. Jeffreyi), white fir (Abies concolor), Douglas spruce (Pseu-
dotsuga Douglasu), and incense cedar (Libocedrus decurrens)
—all trees that we had already met with—here reach the larg-
est proportions; but that grandest of all pines, the sugar pine
(P. Lambertiana), seen before in the valley, but scarce there, is
the most imposing spectacle of the forest. It often reaches a
diameter of ten or twelve feet and a height of over two hundred
feet. The small lodge pole pine is nowhere a conspicuous com-
ponent of the forest, but a few well developed trees occurred
along the road. They were shedding their pollen on July 7th.

On the floor of the forest through most of the distance were
large expanses of the odd little bear clover or tar weed (Cham-
aebatia foliosa), already mentioned. The whole plant gives off
a very penetrating aromatic odor (it can hardly be called a fra-
grance) that can be detected almost anywhere in the woods.

Open wet meadows were beautifully adorned with shooting
stars (Dodecatheon Jeffreyi) and azaleas (A. occidentalis).

Arriving at Wawona late in the afternoon, I spent the night
there and made an early start by the foot trail for the Mariposa
Grove of Big Trees, about seven miles away.

Along this trail grew black oak, sugar pine, yellow pine, incense
cedar, a great deal of Chamacbatia, Ceanothus inte gerrimus, Cean-
othus cordulatus and the beautiful blue-flowered Ceanothus parvi-
folius; a little manzanita (Arctostaphylos viscida) and goose-
berry (Ribes Menziesii), some currants (Ribes sanguineum),
hazel nuts (Corylus Californica), roses (Rosea Californica),
flowering raspberry (Rubus parviflorus), and in damp places
Cornus occidentalis. Flowers in bloom were mariposa lilies (Cal-
icortas venustus and its variety purpurascens), paint brush (Cas-
tilleia parviflora), iris (Iris Hertwegi), Aquilegia truncata, Bru-
nella vulgaris, Montia perfohata, Lupinus polyphyllus, and an-
other large lupine that I have not yet been able to determine. In

142 THE JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | Dec.

a meadow near Wawona were Godetia biloba, Mimulus Langs-
dorfiit and Brodiaea grandiflora. :

About four hours were spent in the upper and lower groves of
the Mariposa reservation of Big Trees (Sequoia gigantea). ‘The
two groves, containing together about five hundred of the sequo-
ias, lie close together in a depression at an elevation of about five
thousand five hundred feet.

Other coniferous trees associated with the sequoias are white
spruce (Abies concolor), Douglas spruce, yellow pine, sugar pine
and incense cedar. Very abundant on the ground was the low
white-flowered snow bush (Ceanothus cordulatus) and the spread-
ing blue or lilac-flowered Ceanothus parvifolius, one of the most
beautiful shrubs I ever saw. Chamaebatia was common in dryer
places, and roses (R. Californica), dogwood (Cornus occiden-
talis), azaleas (A. occidentalis), flowering raspberries (Rubus
parviflorus), hazel nuts (Corylus Californicus), and braken fern
were plentiful. Lilium parvum, Cypripedium montanum, iris, and
the conspicuous and curious blood-red snow plant (Sarcodes san-
quinium) added their bright colors to the forest floor.

The Mariposa grove of big trees is only one of a number of
scattered groves of these giants that occur “along the west slope
of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, from the middle fork of the
American River to the head of Deer Creek, a distance of 260
miles.’’© In massiveness the largest trees of the Mariposa grove
are equal to any, but as the tallest tree here is only 272 feet high
there are a number of trees in other groves that surpass them in
this respect, one for example in the Calaveras being 325 feet in
height.

“The Grizzly Giant” is the most impressive and probably the
oldest tree in the Mariposa grove. It is thirty feet in diameter at
the base, and twenty feet at ten feet from the ground. Its top has
been shortened and sadly battered by storm and_ lightning,
and its base deeply burnt by many fires, but the impression that it
gives of massive grandeur and venerable age has not been lessened

6A Short Account of the Big Trees of California: Bulletin No. 28:
U. S. Dept. of Agric. Division of Forestry.

1g09| A Visit To THE YOSEMITE AND THE Bic TREES 143

by its many vicissitudes. The age of this patriarch has been
variously estinated, but it is probable that it is not less than 4,000
or more than 5,000 years old.

From the exposed surface of a burn that had eaten deep into
the body of one old tree I cut away the charred wood for a space
at a distance of about a foot from the surface until I could count
the annual rings. There were twenty-five of them to the inch.
If this rate should be continued to the center of a tree twenty-five
feet in diameter it would establish its age as 3,750 years, and it is
not likely that many of the trees are older than this. However,
we cannot accurately estimate their ages by such a method, as it
is certain from the counting of rings in felled or burnt trees that
the rate of growth varies greatly in different situations and at
different ages. The greatest age that has been definitely estab-
lished for any of the Big Trees is something over 4,000 years, a
figure that was determined by John Muir by counting the rings
in one of the largest trees in the King’s River forest.

The impressiveness of the great sequoias surpassed even my
exalted expectations. As with all great objects and scenes, the
mind cannot conceive for a time the full report of the senses.
Indeed, the imagination can never fully grasp the fact that this
towering mass before us was in its prime in those forgotten days
when the psalmist asked, ““What is man, that thou art mindful of
him? and the son of man, that thou visitest him?” Gradually the
impression deepens until there falls upon us a sense of awe that
cannot be produced by any of the temples or monuments that
are built of hands.

“T am a part of all that I have met,’ says Ulysses, and, sur-
rounded by the majesty of these cavernous groves, one can not but
believe that had they stood guard over the history of man they
would have added a finer fibre to his heart, and to his spirit a
more noble aspiration.

CuHapeL Hit, N.C.

THE PRODUCTION OF MORBID CHANGES IN THE
BLOOD VESSELS OF THE RABBIT BY ALCOHOE*

BY WILLIAM DE B. MAC NIDER, M.D.

Introduction.

The production of morbid changes in the lower animals by the
use of drugs, various chemicals and, in some cases, by the employ-
ment of mechanical devices, has opened an instructive field for
medical investigation. The general aim of such investigation has
been, first, to determine whether definite and fairly constant
pathologic changes could be produced by the use of various
agents, and, second, after this has been determined, to arrest or
to modify these changes by the use of other agents of a remedial
nature.

In recent years there has been developed an extensive literature
through the work of various investigators on experimental arterio-
sclerosis. ‘The contributions of Josie, Kurt, Fischer, Klotz, Miller?
and others have demonstrated that degenerative arterial changes
follow the intravenous injection of adrenalin, digitalin and diph-
theria toxin. Boinet and Romany and Klotz, using the Bacillus
typhosus and streptococcus, have with the same animals produced
arterial changes primarily affecting the intima, which is greatly
thickened by endothelial proliferation.

Klotz,? in an interesting series of experiments, in which rabbits

* From the Laboratory of Experimental Therapeutics of the University
of Chicago, S. A. Matthews, M.D., Director. A preliminary report;
reprinted from The Archives of Internal Medicine, March, 19009.

t Miller (J. L.): Spontaneous Arterial Degeneration in Rabbits. Jour.
Am. Med. Assn., 1907, xlix, 1780.

2 Klotz: Centralbl. f. alig. Path. u. Physiol. 1908, xix, 535.

1909] 144

1909| CHANGES IN BLoop VESSELS BY UsE oF ALCOHOL 145

were suspended by their hind legs, demonstrated a rise in arterial
pressure by the mechanical aid of an excessive amount of blood
in the aorta and forelegs. Five animals thus treated developed
changes in the aorta, carotid, subclavian and brachial arteries.
No changes were demonstrated in the control animals. It has
also been shown by Klotz; that bacterial toxins are capable of
producing changes in the intima of the aorta and pulmonary
artery.

Undoubtedly spontaneous arterial disease occurs in the lower
animals, and perhaps more frequently in the rabbit, for this ani-
mal is peculiarly susceptible to surroundings and changes which
depart from the normal. The occurrence of spontaneous aortic
disease in rabbits has been demonstrated by Wells and also by
Amy B. Miles.4 The probability that such changes are not very
frequently encountered is, however, strengthened by the report of
Pearce,5 who examined sixty-two rabbits. Of these, fifty were
normal rabbits. Vascular lesions were found in but three, and
in each case consisted of a few minute patches of sclerosis at the
beginning of the aorta. In the remaining eleven animals degen-
erative changes were found in the aortas of four. These were
animals that had been subjected to the action of typhoid and
other sera.

The object of the present investigation was to determine
whether sclerotic changes could be produced in the vascular
system of a rabbit by the use of alcohol.

METHOD OF ADMINISTRATION, DOSAGE AND THE IMMEDIATE EFFECT
OF ALCOHOL

-At the commencement of this series of experiments the alcohol
in 30 per cent. solution was given intravenously. By such a
method of administration, changes, if any should develop in the

3 Klotz: Brit. Med. Jour., 1906, ii, 1767.

4 Miles (Amy B.): Spontaneous Aortic Diseases in Rabbits. Jour. Am,
Med. Assn., Oct. 5, 1907, xlix, 1173.

5 Pearce (R. M.): Occurrence of Spontaneous Arterial Degeneration
in the Rabbit. Jour. Am. Med. Assn., 1908, li, 1056.

146 THE JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [Dec.

vessels, could be logically ascribed to the direct action of the
alcohol, and thus there would be eliminated the many modifica-
tions to which the drug is subjected before it reaches the vessels
when it is introduced into the stomach. The intravenous injec-
tions were, however, rapidly followed by the formation of thrombi
in the neighboring vessels, necessitating the drug being given by
the stomach. For this purpose a small, soft rubber catheter was
used.

In each case for the first few days 25 c.c. of a 10 per cent.
solution was given once a day. After this the quantity was
increased to 50 c.c. and the strength of the solution to 20 per cent.

The immediate effect of the alcohol was greatly enhanced by
this method of administration, the excitement being marked.
In all the animals the respirations and heart were markedly accel-
erated. ‘This condition usually lasted about an hour. Then the
animal would become drowsy. At this stage voluntary move-
ments were slow and all muscular acts imperfectly coordinated,
Following an hour or more of drowsiness the animals would
usually fall asleep for two to six hours. Their return to the
normal was gradual, the effect of the alcohol lasting on an aver-
age of twelve hours. .

GROSS AND MICROSCOPIC CHANGES PRODUCED IN THE VESSELS OF
ANIMALS SUBJECTED TO THE ACTION OF ALCOHOL

In the following observations the aorta was the vessel selected
for study in determining the presence or absence of sclerosis.
The agents used were Zenker’s fluid, hematoxylin and eosin:

Experiment 1—The subject received 50 c.c. of 20 per cent. alcohol for
thirty-four days. The aorta at its origin and for a distance of I cm. was
visibly thickened. Just at its commencement and situated so as to en-
croach on one of the coronary openings there was a nodule the size of a
pin-head. The microscopic examination of the tissue taken from the
thickened portion of the arch showed very clearly, when compared with
sections of the thoracic portion of the aorta, a thickening of both the
inner and middle coats of the vessel. This change in the internal coat
was due to a proliferation of the connective-tissue cells in the subendo-
thelial layers. In the media small round cells and fibroblasts were
numerous between the muscle bundles. The muscular element was not
degenerative. There had been no transition of the connective-tissue

1909| CHANGES IN BLoop VESSELS By USE oF ALCOHOL 147

cells into true fibrous tissue. The change was an early one and apparently
as extensive in one coat as in the other. The nodule referred to was
situated in the intima and was formed principally of elongated cells,
which stained poorly and had undergone a granular, non-fatty degenera-
tion. ‘There were no adjacent changes in the media.

Experiment 2—The subject received 50 c.c. of 20 per cent. alcohol for
forty days. The aorta showed no evidence of atheromatous changes.
Sections through the vessel at various levels showed no evidence of
disease.

Experiment 3—The subject received 50 c.c. of 20 per cent. alcohol for
forty days. The thoracic aorta was the seat of a clearly defined athero-
matous ulcer. Elsewhere the vessel was normal. The ulcer in the thoracic
involved both the intima and media. Its floor was formed by the adven-
titia, and consisted of young connective tissue in the cellular and fibrous
stages. Calcification was not present.

Experiment 4——The subject received 50 c.c. of 20 per cent. alcohol for
thirty days. The aorta was normal in structure.

Experiment 5—The subject received 50 c.c. of 20 per cent. alcohol for
twenty days. The animal was accidentally killed. ‘The aorta presented
no evidence of disease.

Experiment 6—The subject received 50 c.c. of 20 per cent. alcohol for
forty-two days. ‘The aortic valves were thickened, and felt rough. The
aorta showed two calcareous patches, one in the arch and one in the
thoracic portion. There was a diffuse thickening of the inner and middle
coats, the histologic appearance bearing a close resemblance to the
changes seen in the aorta of the first animal. The areas of calcification
occupied chiefly the intima, but extended also to the media, having rup-
tured the inner elastic lamina. Here it may be interesting to note that the
hyperplastic changes which have been demonstrated in the inner coats
of the aorta were not preceded by localized degeneration and weakening
of the middle coat. The changes in the vessel were usually of a diffuse
character. There was evidently no pronounced localization in the action
of the substance or substances which induced changes in the vascular
system from the continuous use of alcohol.

Experiment 7—The subject received 50 c.c. of 20 per cent. alcohol for
fifty days. The aorta showed an atheromatous ulcer 1 cm. from the aortic
ring and a small warty growth on one of the aortic valves. The ulcer
involved the intima and a portion of the media. The amount of cell
infiltration in the media was less than in preceding cases.

Experiment 8—The subject received 50 c.c. of 20 per cent. alcohol for
forty-four days. There were no changes in the intima. Sections through
the aorta at various levels frequently showed in the middle coat, between
the muscle bundles, collections of small round cells. Other than this there
was no evidence of connective-tissue overgrowth.

148 THE JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [Dec.

Experiment 9.—The subject received 50 c.c. of 20 per cent. alcohol for
thirty-three days. The upper portion of the aorta showed several areas
that were visibly and palpably thicker than the surrounding vessel. Sec-
tions through these areas showed the thickening to be due to a prolifer-
ation of the subendothelial connective tissue. The cells and nuclei stained
well. There was no evidence from the staining reaction or from the
size of the cells or their nuclei that the degenerative changes existed.

Experiment to.—The subject received 50 c.c. of 20 per cent. alcohol for
twenty-four days. The aorta was normal.

Experiment 11.—The subject received 50 c.c. of 20 per cent. alcohol for
fifty days. The aorta showed a patch of thickening behind one of the
semilunar valves and in the thoracic aorta there were several deep ulcers.
Opposite the larger of the ulcers the vessel was bulged (early aneurism
formation). This area measured 1 cm. in its longest diameter. The
floors of the smaller ulcers, which were not so deep as the larger one,
were found in the middle coat. The floors did not consist of the his-
tologic elements of the media, but of young connective tissue fibres and
spindle-shaped cells. ‘This reparative fibrosis lessened as sections away
from the ulcer were examined. It did not come to a clear-cut termina-
tion, but the marked localized connective tissue overgrowth existed to
a less degree in a general thickening of the middle coat at some distance
from the ulcers.

Experiment t2—The subject received 50 c.c. of 20 per cent. alcohol for
fifty-four days. The aorta was the seat of several areas of nodular
sclerosis, the nodules being to a great extent confined to the intima, while
the media presented the usual diffuse connective-tissue hyperplasia.

Experiment 13—The subject received 50 c.c. of 20 per cent. alcohol for
fifty-four days. There was diffuse cell infiltration of the middle coat.

A STUDY OF THE AORTAS OF PRESUMABLY NORMAL ANIMALS

The animals used as controls were all full grown; eight of the
number were old. The aortas of the sixteen control animals wer
examined in the same way as the vessels of those animals sub-
jected to the action of alcohol.

The following is a summary of the changes found:

In thirteen of the animals the aorta was free from both general
and localized thickening. In the three remaining animals the
vascular changes were as follows: In one aorta there was a
sclerotic nodule in the arch; in the two remaining vessels atherom-
atous ulcers were found in the thoracic aorta. There was an
absence of diffuse thickening, especially in the media. ‘This
observation naturally suggests that the etiologic factor in the

1909] CHANGES IN BLoop VEssELS By UsE oF ALCOHOL 149

development of the vascular changes in the control animals was
of a localized nature. The frequency with which diffuse changes
are seen in the vessels of the alcoholic animals suggests some
diffusely acting agent.

PRELIMINARY DEDUCTIONS

The number of animals used in these experiments is too small
to permit the formulation of any permanent conclusions from the
results. Definite sclerotic changes developed in the aorta in a de-
cided majority of the animals that were subjected to the action of
alcohol. Such was the case in nine of the thirteen animals used.
These changes varied in intensity from a small round-cell infil-
tration of the media to the production of an atheromatous ulcer
I cm. in its longest diameter. The most constant change was a
diffuse thickening of the media. Similar changes were present
in the vessels of relatively few normal animals. The changes
which were present were localized and were not nearly so exten-
sive as those seen in the vessels of the alcohol animals, even
though the control animals were old, the other animals not being
full grown.

A continued study of this subject will consist in the following
measures: First, an attempt will be made to demonstrate morbid
changes in the vessels of a larger series of animals. Second, if
it can be definitely proved that such changes are produced fairly
constantly by the use of alcohol, an endeavor will be made to
determine whether the alcohol per se is capable of causing such
results, or whether the changes arise indirectly by the action of
alcohol inhibiting the activity of the various digestive enzymes
and predisposing to or directly leading to some type of
autointoxication.

Cuape, Hii, N.C.

AMLCOHOL*

BY WM. DE B. MAC NIDER, M.D.

(a) The Pharmacological Action of Alcohoi.

(b) Logical Indications for the Use of Alcohol as a Thera-
peutic Agent.

(c) Changes Produced Experimentally in the Blood Vessels
of Rabbits Subjected to the Action of Alcohol.

The subject under discussion may be approached and studied
with benefit from many points of view. At the present time a
consideration of alcohol from a sociological viewpoint would be
of interest, but for many reasons, this side of the subject will be
severely left alone.

Like many other questions of medical interest, the older they
are, the more they are subjected to discussion and criticism, the
more interesting they become; especially in these latter years
when they can be approached, studied, and in some cases solved
by scientific methods of investigation. Such a statement is cer-
tainly true concerning this old yet often discarded drug —
alcohol.

Occurring as it does, free in nature, or at least, the elements
which enter into its formation are free, namely, ferments and
starches, it was natural enough for the ancients to use the drug
as a remedial agent and a beverage. Judging from the older writ-
ings, the influence of alcohol upon the nervous system and the
circulatory system, both in a dilute and a concentrated form, was
well understood. The modern conception of the action of alcohol
upon the body both before and after absorption, and in dilute
and concentrated solutions, differs in some essentials and in many

* Reprinted from The Charlotte Medical Journal, Aug., 1909.

150 (Dec.

1909] i) AR GOROL, 151

details from the views regarding its action which were held some
years ago. This change has been largely due to the study of the
drug from an experimental laboratory side. Approached in
such a way, many of the confusing factors can be eliminated which
exist in a very pronounced and exaggerated form at the bed-
side, which may mask and overshadow the action of a drug and
render deductions which are seemingly logical fallacious. We
frequently hear the remark that conclusions arrived at when the
individual is eliminated from the equation must be of slight prac-
tical value. In this statement there is a pronounced element of
truth which can with ease be discerned when we think of the
influence the mind exerts over the various functions of the body
in health and in disease. This influence cannot be considered as
it should be and cannot be appreciated in most laboratory work.
The mental status of an individual usually plays but a feeble
part in determining the action of a drug and on this account the
pharmacological action of the vast majority of drugs can be
scientifically determined and logical deductions for their use
arrived at by laboratory experiments upon anesthetised animals.

THE PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTION OF ALCOHOL

The action of alcohol when used externally depends upon the
concentration of the solution employed. The stronger solutions,
80-95 per cent., are not so strongly germicidal as the weaker,
30-40 per cent., solutions. When the stronger solutions come in
contact with the bacterial cell they produce a superficial coagu-
lation of the albuminous material of the cell body which prevents
the penetration of the drug and lessens its germicidal power. In
addition to this direct germicidal action, alcohol indirectly acts
as a germicide by dissolving fatty material in and around
the hair follicles and allowing a deeper and more perfect action
of other germicides, such as the bichloride of mercury.

The influence of alcohol on digestion, and the role it plays
as a food are two questions which have been severely battered
by laboratory investigations and clinical observations.

When the drug is used in a concentrated form it undoubtedly

152 THE JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ Dec.

increases the amount of blood to the gastro-intestinal tube. This
increased vascularity persists, and as a result of its persistence
leads to an over-production of mucous and a connective-tissue
hyperplasia in the mucous and sub-mucous coats of the stomach
and intestines. "The mucous which results from an increased
blood supply to the mucous glands is readily decomposed by the
intestinal bacteria with the formation of acids or fermentation.
Just what part these acids play in chronic alcoholic auto-intoxica-
tion, and to what extent they inaugurate the diffuse connective-
tissue overgrowth in the body, which is most marked in the liver,
blood vessels, and kidneys, is an intensely live question, with
which we hope to do something experimentally.

When alcohol is used in small amounts and in a well diluted
form, before or during meals, it acts to a less degree as an irri-
tant, but simply this action increases the amount of blood to the
stomach and intestinal glands. As a result of the glands receiv-
ing more blood, their activity is increased and there is an in-
creased output of digestive juices.

When alcohol is given undiluted, with the idea in view of aid-
ing digestion, it undoubtedly does harm, as the stronger solutions
check the action of unorganized ferments.

Alcohol is readily absorbed from the intestines and is usually
quickly oxidized into its final endproducts, CO? and H?O.

The influence which this drug has after its absorption is the
part of the alcohol question which has been most severely dis-
cussed by the laboratory student and clinician. As a result of the
rapid combustion of the drug after its absorption it furnishes
heat and energy to the body, lessens the combustion of fats and
carbohydrates, and in this way indirectly acts as a food. This
point seems fairly well established and is generally accepted.
The point concerning the action of alcohol which is still the sub-
ject of a lively discussion is whether or not it can be considered
a circulatory stimulant. If alcohol be given to a healthy individ-
ual in a fairly strong solution it is the common observation that
the heart quickens its action, there is an increased output of
blood into the arterial system and the pulse tension is raised. A
similar effect upon the circulatory system can be produced by

1909 | ALCOHOL 95%}

other gastric irritants, such as ammonia, ether, and capsicum.
This stimulating action of the drug is very likely a gastric reflex.
To determine this point we have on several occasions anesthetised
a rabbit with chloral hydrate solution and connected the ani-
mal’s carotid artery to a mercury manometer, so as to accurately
record the arterial pressure. At intervals of fifteen minutes a
small soft rubber catheter was introduced into the animal’s stom-
ach and 30 c.c. of a 30 per cent. solution of ethyl alcohol admin-
istered. The heart’s rate and the animal’s blood pressure were
recorded every five minutes. There was no appreciable rise in
blood pressure and but a very slight acceleration of the heart.
These experiments certainly support the the belief that the accel-
ation of the heart after the use of alcohol is a gastric reflex from
irritation and that when the reflexes have been abolished as a
result of the anesthesia the quickening of the heart and the subse-
quent rise in pressure from alcohol does not occur.

I am firmly of the belief that there are certain infectious dis-
eases in which alcohol is of the greatest value as a circulatory
support. I do not say stimulant, for with the ordinary interpre-
tation of this term it would convey a false meaning. In pneu-
monia, typhoid fever and, more rarely, tuberculosis, we fre-
quently see patients with a fast heart, a soft, small pulse, rapid
respirations, and muttering or maniacal delirium. In short, these
are outward manifestations of an over-stimulated central nervous
system. The stimulus is the toxin, and it at first gives rise to
this picture of stimulation, and unless it is stopped leads to over-
stimulation, fatigue, and a state of inactivity of the central ner-
vous system which is manifested by a state of coma which fre-
quently precedes death.

In such cases following the use of alcohol, especially in pneu-
monia, it is a common observation to note that the delirium
lessens, sleep is induced, the heart’s action becoming slower and
stronger. The cells of the arterial nervous system are so de-
pressed that they no longer respond to the stimulus of the toxin,
the state of fatigue is prevented and the integrity of the cell is
maintained. It has been clearly demonstrated, experimentally,
by Dolly that as a result of over-stimulatior structural changes

154 THE JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ Dec.

of a degenerative nature develop in the cells of the central ner-
vous system, and furthermore that these changes frequently lead
to an actual rupture and death of the cells.

EXPERIMENTAL ARTERIO-SCLEROSIS BY THE USE OF ALCOHOL

As a result of the use of the higher animals for teaching and
experimental purposes, there has developed in this country an
enormous amount of literature along the line of experimental
pathology. Such work is not only essential to the proper teach-
ing of several of the rudimentary branches in the medical cur-
riculum, but it is the only way which many problems in pathology
and pathological physiology can be approached and solved.

The blood vessels of the lower animals were early used as a
field for such experimental work. Among the investigators who
have attempted to produce atheromatous changes in the vessels
are Josie, Fischer, Kurt, Klotz and Miller. Various drugs and
other agents have been employed, but the most satisfactory results
have been obtained by Miller, who used solutions of adrenalin and
physostigmine.

It is a well known fact that the majority of individuals who
use alcohol continuously, develop some type of arterio-sclerosis.
The severity of the process varies from a slight induration of the
aortic valves and a few atheromatous patches in the aortic arch
to a diffuse arterial sclerosis which exists in the peripheral ves-
sels as the classical “pipe stem” arteries.

It was the object of our investigations to determine, first, if
such changes could be produced experimentally by alcohol in the
vessels of the lower animals. Secondly, to determine, if possible,
if these changes were due, per se, to the alcohol, or if other sec-
ondary factors entered into their production; and thirdly, to
attempt to find some remedial agent which would have either a
direct or indirect influence upon the morbid process.

The rabbit was the animal chosen for this work, as they are
comparatively cheap and easy to handle. The alcohol was given
by the stomach through a soft rubber catheter. For the first few
days 25 c.c. of a 10 per cent. solution was given, and after this

1909 | ALCOHOL 155

the amount was increased to 50 c.c. and the strength of the solu-
tion to 20 per cent. A few of the animals died from accidental
causes. In those that lived the alcohol was continued for nearly
eight weeks. At the end of this time the rabbits were killed by
chloroform, complete post-mortems were held, and the heart,
aorta and iliac vessels were removed for microscopic study.

There were fourteen animals in this first series which were
subjected to the action of alcohol as described above. Of the
fourteen animals the vessels of ten showed distinct evidence of
some type of arterial degeneration. These changes varied greatly
as to the severity and location. In four of the animals the vas-
cular changes were evidently early and consisted chiefly in a dif-
fuse connective-tissue overgrowth in the cellular stage, which
affected principally the middle coat of the vessels, but which was
beginning to be more pronounced around the blood vessels of the
middle coat, e. g., the vasa vasorum. This localization of young
connective tissue around these nutrient vessels of the middle
coat is important. For when the connective tissue reaches its
fibrillary stage and contracts it will inevitably compress the lumen
of the vessel which it surrounds and prevent an adequate amount
of nutrition in the form of blood from reaching the media. This
will aid, if not directly cause, degenerative changes of the middle
coat.

In the vessels of three of the animals the most marked changes
were to be found in the inner coat. This consisted in a suben-
dothelial hyperplasia, which existed in patches, and which was
most marked in the aortic arch. A few of the patches were los-
ing their nuclei, failing to stain and beginning to develop into
atheromatous ulcers.

The aorta of the three remaining animals showed decided
evidence of late degenerative changes. These changes existed as
well defined punched out or scooped out atheromatous ulcers.
Their location, with one exception, was in the arch of the aorta.
The inner and middle coats of the vessel were always involved,
the floor of the ulcer usually being formed by the outer part of
the middle coat. In the aorta of one of the animals the ulceration
was very extensive. The ulcers were large, had a scooped out

156 THE JOURNAL OF THE MitTCHELL SocIEeTY [Dec.

appearance, and were found in the abdominal as well as the upper
aorta. The floor of one of these ulcers was formed by the outer
coat of the vessel, which was bulged out on the surface as a sac-
culated aneurism. A detailed account of this work has been pub-
lished in The Archives of Internal Medicine. We feel certain
that degenerative changes can be produced in the vessels of the
rabbit by the use of alcohol. On account of the small number
of animals used the report is preliminary in its character.

The question naturally arises, might not these changes which
were found in the vessels have developed spontaneously and not
be ascribable to the alcohol action.

To eliminate this possible source of error the vessels of eighteen
presumably normal rabbits were removed and studied micro-
scopically. In fifteen of the vessels there was no evidence of
general or localized sclerosis. In the remaining three vessels
there was in one a small round cell infiltration of the media. In
the other two there were a few patches of thickening of the in-
ternal coat, which were in the early stages of the formation of
atheromatous ulcers.

The second point of this work was to determine, if possible,
the cause of the vascular degeneration. The following observa-
tions, we hope, will have some weight and throw some light on
this side of the question. Those animals which did not develop
arterial changes, and those in which these changes were only
slight, gained in weight under the use of alcohol, had good appe-
tites, and showed no sign during life or at the post-mortem of
gastro-intestinal irritation; while those animals which developed
the most pronounced vascular changes, and those in which these
changes were fairly severe, lost in weight under the use of alco-
hol, had a poor appetite, and a diarrhoea during most of the time
the alcohol was being used. At the post-mortem such animals
showed an acute diffuse enteritis of moderate severity.

All of the animals were receiving the same amount and the
same strength of alcohol. Some developed gastro-enteritis and
in these arterial changes were most pronounced. Others did not
develop a gastro-enteritis and in these animals there was either
no arterio-sclerosis or the arterial changes were slight. Evidently

7909 | ALCOHOL . 157

some factor other than the alcohol per se has an influence in the
production of degenerations of the blood vessels. Just what this
is we are at present in no position to say. The apparent fact
certainly affords an interesting field for speculation and inves-
tigation. It is not unlikely that in some individuals as well as
in some animals alcohol causes an acute catarrhal state of the
stomach and intestines. As a result of this increased amount
of blood to the mucous glands of the stomach and intestine they
become hyperactive and produce an excessive amount of mucous
which is discharged into the intestine and here decomposes with
the liberation of organic acids and other bodies which are
absorbed and lead primarily to a chronic auto-intoxication, and
secondarily to vascular degeneration.

CONCLUSIONS

1. When used externally in weak solutions alcohol is directly
and indirectly a germicide.

2. When used in weak solutions, in the stomach and intestine,
it acts mildly as an irritant, increases the amount of blood to these
structures, and increases the functional activity of the gastric
and intestinal glands.

3. In strong solutions, by acting as a gastric irritant it reflexly
increases the rate and perhaps the force of the heart beat.

4. After absorption it has no direct effect upon the circulatory
system but through its sedative action on the central nervous
system it prevents the heart from being over stimulated and in
this way is of distinct value in some of the acute infectious dis-
eases.

5. Arterial degeneration may be produced in the lower ani-
mals by alcohol.

6. The degenerative vascular changes are likely not entirely
due, primarily to the alcohol acting as such, but to the absorption
of products from the intestine which the alcohol has indirectly
caused to be formed.

Cuape, Hitt, N.C.

DRAINAGE OF NORTH CAROLINA SWAMP LANDS *
BY JOSEPH HYDE PRATT.

For several years the North Carolina Geological and Economic
Survey has been making preliminary examinations of the swamp
lands of the State in order to determine:

1. The character of swamp; whether the soil is suitable for
agricultural purposes, or whether it is too peaty in character.

2. Whether the peat swamps contain a sufficient quantity of
peat and of such quality that it would be marketable.

3. Whether the swamps can profitably be drained for agricul-
tural purposes.

There are approximately 4,505 square miles of swamp lands

in eastern North Carolina, besides thousands of acres of “over-
flow” land, a great deal of which is susceptible of reclamation,

if properly drained.
The approximate amount of swamp land in twenty-eight of the
eastern counties in North Carolina is as follows:

County So. MI. CouNtY So. ML
Beawforts (Uli seen eae eis L777) Columbus’ (it Siar oan 300
Bladen host Behe ae 192))| ‘Cumberland: 2...) oun 30
Camden t( hots i iyeliey Lens yo2)') Dates vai. Nae ee 344
Chowan 2 252 § ea emesis Bol Gates (Sea hwehc) (oly ae 45
Craven (iV oelii1 . eer 228')) Jones 2s ee 139
Currituck: jo. lee ie 40)|) New! Tanover) 2a) Via 25
Darphin) eae 125). fe amilgco wry Dice oe 325
(0 (= Ua RE DZ 0) B87 Mi bender aoe ali 2 ius ee 370
lertint lil yO igs eee S60) Perqruimarns: Well 7 eee 92
resto jo ae £34) |tRobesom Jehe yy Liss Ea 130
Pasqi@tanicn = cae Be inmerelly Se Vez) 251
egienmee eS i) Lilie sy aie ea 1g ake Ra A RRM BORA 40
BctimiswiClc) 22) 8 aS 200 |) Sampson 28.26 ate Yee 118
Panera est) foe ui ak 126) 4/ Washineton, 452. aN awe 262

otal: aUea eh ec Lene 4,505

Or 2,883,200 acres.

*Reprinted from Journal of the American Peat Society, Vol. 2, No. 3.
Oct., 1909.

158 [ Dec.

1909] DrainacE oF NortTH Carolina Swamp LAnpbs 159

Several areas in Bladen, Carteret, Craven, Duplin, Onslow,
Pasquotank, Pender and Wilson Counties have been examined,
and in nearly all cases no engineering difficulty stands in the way
of draining these lands. In the early history of the state there
were three obstacles in the way of the practical drainage of these
swamp lands:

I. The cost of clearing the land, inasmuch as the timber had
little or no commercial value at that time.

2. The excessive cost and almost impossibility of digging ad-
equate canals and ditches to take care of the water.

3. The lack of adequate laws that would permit the carrying
out of a drainage proposition.

Fortunately, all these obstacles are now removed; the value
of the timber on nearly any swamp area is worth more than the
cost of clearing the areas for agricultural purposes; the great
advance made in the manufacture of dredges now makes it pos-
sible to dig canals of any size at comparatively low cost; and
the General Assembly of 1909 has passed an act which makes it
possible to carry out almost any drainage proposition.

It may be of interest to the readers of the Journal of the
American Peat Society to know something regarding this act.
The title of the act is as follows:

“An act to promote the public health, convenience and welfare
by leveeing, ditching and draining the wet, swamp and over-
flowed lands of the State, and providing for the establishment
of levee or drainage districts for the purpose of enlarging or
changing any natural water courses and for digging ditches or
canals for securing better drainage or providing better outlets
for drainage, for building levees or embankments and installing
tide gates or pumping plants for the reclamation of overflowed
lands, and prescribing a method of so doing; and providing for
the assessment and collecting of the cost and expense of the same,
and issuing and selling bonds therefor; and for the care and
maintenance of such improvements when constructed.”

Under the provisions of this act it is now possible for a ma-
jority of the resident land owners in any proposed drainage dis-
trict, or the owners of three-fifths of all the land which would be

160 THE JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [Dec.

included in the proposed district, to petition the clerk of the
superior court of the county in which the greater portion of the
swamp area is located that he declare such land a Drainage Dis-
trict. The petitioners file a bond with the clerk equal to $50.00
for each mile of canal that it is estimated would have to be con-
structed to carry out the drainage proposition, such money to be
used in paying the cost of the preliminary examination that the
clerk of the court has ordered made; provided, such examination
shows that the drainage of the land is not a feasible proposition.
For making this preliminary examination, the clerk appoints a
competent civil and drainage engineer and two resident free-
holders of the county, who shall determine:

1. Whether the proposed drainage is practicable or not.

2. Whether it will benefit the public health or any public high-
way, or be conducive to the general welfare of the community.

3. Whether the improvement proposed will benefit the land
sought to be benefited.

4. Whether or not all lands that are Mens tse! are included in
the proposed Drainage District.

On the filing of this preliminary report, if favorable, the clerk
appoints a certain day when the report shall be further heard and
considered, at which time any one interested in the drainage pro-
posed may appear before the court and give reasons why his lands
should not be included in the Drainage District, and why he
thinks the proposition is not feasible, or why he thinks the cost
will be greater than the benefit. If the court does not sustain
him in his objections, he has the right to appeal to the superior
court of the county in term time; provided he accompanies his
appeal with a bond acceptable to the clerk of the court. After
the objections to this preliminary survey have all been set-
tled, the clerk shall order that a complete survey and _ re-
port shall be made of the district, that plans and_ speci-
fications shall be drawn up showing the locations of the
canals and ditches, methods of construction and estimated cost.
The viewers shall determine the ratio of benefit that each acre
will receive by drainage, and, in making the assessment against
each acre this ratio shall be used. In classifying the lands to

I909| DratnacEe or NortH CAROLINA SwAMP LANDS 161

determine the ratio of benefits, consideration is given to the de-
gree of wetness of the land, its proximity to the ditch or a natural
outlet, and the fertility of the soil.

The land thus benefited shall be separated into five classes:
The land receiving the highest benefit shall be marked “Class A ;”
that receiving the next highest benefit, “Class B;” that receiving
the next highest benefit, “Class C;” that receiving the next high-
est benefit, “Class D;” and that receiving the smallest benefit,
“Class E.” The holdings of any one land owner need not necessa-
rily be all in one class, but the number of acres in each class shall
be ascertained, though their boundary need not be marked on the
ground or shown on the map. The total number of acres owned
by one person in each class and the total number of acres bene-
fited shall be determined. The total number of acres of each
class in the entire district shall be obtained and presented in
tabulated form. ‘The scale of assessment upon the several classes
of land returned by the engineer and viewers shall be in the
ratio of 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5— that is to say, as often as 5 mills per
acre is assessed against the land in Class A, 4 mills per acre shall
be assessed against the land in Class B, 3 mills per acre in Class
C, 2 mills per acre in Class D, and 1 mill per acre in Class E.
This shall form the basis of the assessment of benefits to the
lands for drainage purposes.

When this final report is handed in to the clerk of the court,
he shall notify all the land owners that upon a certain date there
will be a hearing of the said report at which any land owner may
appear in person, or by counsel, and file his objections in writing
to the report of the viewers. It shall be the duty of the court
to carefully review the report and the objections filed thereto.
If, in the opinion of the court, the cost of construction, together
with the amount of damage assessed, is not greater than the ben-
efits that will accrue to the land affected, and if the assessments
are just and equitable, the court shall confirm the report of the
viewers and declare the Drainage District established. If, how-
ever, the court does not confirm the report, the proceedings shall
be dismissed at the cost of the petitioners. During the hearing
of this court, any land owner has the privilege of appealing from

162 THE JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | Dec.

the decision of the court to the superior court in term time, and
the establishment of the Drainage District is delayed until such
appeal is settled.

As soon as the Drainage District is declared established, the
court shall appoint three disinterested persons, who are known as
the “Board of Drainage Commissioners,” and they are immedi-
ately created a body corporate under the name and style of “The
Board of Drainage Commissioners of District.” This
board of commissioners has the power to issue bonds of suffi-
cient amount to cover the cost of drainage, the land being collat-
eral for the bonds, none of which can be sold below par. The
bonds are thirteen-year bonds, payable in ten installments, the
first installment to be due at the end of three years from the
issuing of the bonds, the same to bear 6% interest. The money
necessary to pay the interest and bond issue is raised by assess-
ment on the land, according to the benefits derived, as men-
tioned above. ‘This assessment constitutes the first and para-
mount lien, second only to state and county taxes, upon the land
assessed, and is to be collected in the same manner and by the
same officer as state and county taxes.

Provisions are also made in the act for crossing land with a
ditch, for crossing highways and railroads, for notifying the
railroads of such crossings, and for assessments of damages upon
them and upon individuals. Provision is also made for the con-
trol and repair of the canals and ditches after they have been
once constructed. In order to protect the ditches, canals, levees,
etc., that have been constructed in carrying out the plans for the
Drainage Districts, the act makes it a misdemeanor for any per-
son to injure or damage or obstruct in any way these ditches
and canals.

As a result of the passage of this act, six drainage districts are
already in the course of formation: one in Currituck County,
known as the Moyock Drainage District; one in Hyde County,
which contemplates the drainage of Lake Mattamuskeet and
about 70,000 acres adjoining it, making a total of about 120,000
acres in the drainage district; another in Beaufort County, north
of Belhaven, containing approximately 25,000 acres; 4,000 acres

1909] DRAINAGE OF NorTH CAROLINA SWAMP LANDS 163

in Pender and Duplin Counties, known as Angola Bay Swamp,
containing possibly 47,000 acres; 5,000 acres in Pender and
Bladen Counties, which contemplates the reclamation of a large
and fertile area in Lion Swamp, and 6,000 acres near
Wilson, Wilson County.

Work has already been commenced in the Moyock District,
the Wilson, and one in Beaufort County. Plans and specifications
have been drawn up for the drainage of Lake Mattamuskeet,
Angola Bay and the Lion Swamp areas. An application has also
been received for the establishment of a Drainage District in
Chowan County.

The above will show the interest that has already begun to be
taken in the drainage of North Carolina swamp lands. It has
been known for a long time that many thousands of acres of
these swamp lands contain the most fertile soil to be found in
the state, and now that the General Assembly has made drainage
possible, there is plenty of capital ready to undertake the drainage
of these fertile swamp lands, realizing that they will be able to
dispose of the lands at a good profit after they have been thor-
oughly drained.

The drainage of the vast swamp areas of eastern North Caro-
lina means not only additional wealth to the state, in the form of
reclaimed agricultural lands, but it will mean improved roads
through large areas that are now practically impassable and
inaccessible. It will also mean better school facilities for the
children and it will greatly improve the healthfulness of this sec-
tion of the state.

Cuape, Hitr, N.C.

THE MINERAL, PRODUCTION IN NORTH CAROLINA
DURING 1908 *

BY JOSEPH HYDE PRATT

The financial stringency and general business depression that
swept over this country the latter part of 1907 and the greater
portion of 1908 had a decided effect upon the mineral production
of North Carolina during 1908. This was felt especially in the
building stone and clay product industries, which are largely
dependent upon building trades for their market. As these form
by far the larger portion of the mineral production of the state,
there was, consequently, a considerable falling off in the total
value. Its effect, however, was also noticed in the production of
practically all of the minerals of the state, there being but one
or two that showed any increase in production for 1908 over that
of 1907.

The total value of the mineral production for 1908 was $2, 307,-
116, as compared with $3,173,722, value of the 1907 production,
a decrease of $766,606. This mineral production can be readily
divided into four divisions:

1. The production of the metals, gold, silver, copper and iron;

2. The production of non-metallic minerals, as talc,
barytes, etc. ;

3. Structural materials, as building stone, brick, etc.; and

4. Pottery clays.

There is given in the table below the value of the 1908 produc-
tion divided up according to these divisions:

* Reprinted with slight changes from Press Bulletin No. 33, North Car-
olina Geological and Economic Survey, No. 26, 1909.

164 (Dec.

7909 | State GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY 165

INMeEpISU Poe tren tebe folate vale thaicta (S's! eh ahs oo so % $ 177,600
INon-mictallicnminerals 7% ).)26 schs02 6 siecle ce 258,902
SRM ELUT AIA CEIAlS)).0.c4 5 lsaalerats oksle eta/els ove a's 1,771,603
Pottery and pottery clays ............-...- 99,011

Moral vate ta nans We aa Stele wiekele sistas Are cs $2,307,116

In the production of the precious metals, North Carolina easily
maintains first place in the Eastern States, although its total pro-
duction is small. The gold production of 1908 was 4,716.32 fine
ounces, valued at $97,945, an increase of 740.24 fine ounces, and
of $15,302 in value over the production of 1907. The county
producing the largest amount of this production was Montgom-
ery, with Rowan second. The output of silver and copper, which
are very closely related to each other, was very greatly below the
production of 1907, the copper being valued at only $2,560, as
compared with $116,410, the value of the 1907 production. All
of the principal copper mines were idle during 1908.

In the non-metallic minerals there was a slight increase in the
production of millstones, but a decided decrease in the produc-
tion of all the others.

The value of the structural materials produced during 1908, of
$1,771,603, was a decrease of $389,415, as compared with $2,161,-
o18, the value of the production of 1907. The greatest decrease
was in the production of granite and common brick. In 1907 the
value of the granite production was $906,476, while in 1908 it
dropped to $802,927, a decrease of $103,549. The production of
common brick in 1907 was 174,750,000, valued at $1,150,185,
while the production of 1908 has fallen off to 144,192,000 brick,
valued at $900,611. There were slight gains in the production
of sand-stone, marble, and lime.

The value of the production of pottery and pottery clays in
1908 was $99,011, an increase of $3,284, as compared with $95,-
727, the value of the 1907 production. There is given in the
table, on page 167, the mineral production in North Carolina for
the years 1903-1908, inclusive. With the exception of gold, the
production of all the minerals was affected by the financial condi-

166 THE JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | Dec.

tion of the country, and in many cases the increase or decrease in
the production of a mineral is entirely due to increased prosperity
or financial depression of the country. With some of the minerals,
however, the decrease is due to other causes, such as excessive
cost of production or working out of deposits.

Comparing the production of the various minerals during 1908
with those of the five previous years it will be seen that up to
1908 there has been a gradual increase in the production of those
minerals which make up the larger proportion of the mineral pro-
duction of the State, such as clay products, stone, monazite, mica
and copper. The total value of the mineral products for 1908 is
the lowest recorded since 1904, and up to this year there had
been a steady increase in the total value of the products since
1900, when these statistics were first collected, with the exception
of the year 1902.

During the past year many new mining properties have been
opened up and developed and many inquiries have been received
relating to the occurrence of different minerals of the State, which
would indicate that the mineral production for 1909 would be
considerably in excess of that of the previous year (see table on
opposite page).

167

Srate GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY

1909 |

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ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF THE CAROLINAS *

BY W. C. COKER

Collections made at intervals at Chapel Hill, Orange County,
North Carolina, and in Darlington County, South Carolina, have
resulted in the addition of the following species to the known flora
of these states:

ACER FLORIDANUM (Chapman) Pax.

This tree is not uncommon on the sandy banks and alluvial
bottoms of Morgan’s Creek, near Chapel Hill, North Carolina. I
have found it at several places here; and there are a number of
medium-sized trees on the streets in the town of Chapel Hill that
have been brought in from the surrounding country. In the creek
bottoms the tree grows to a large size, forty feet or more high and
two or more feet in diameter. The species has not been reported
before from North Carolina, and the only South Carolina collec-
tion seems to be from “near Charleston” by J. H. Mellichamp,
1896 (herb. N. Y. Bot. Garden). It is possible that this collection
was made from a tree brought in from a distance and planted by
Michaux, but supposing it to be native at Charleston, the discovery
of this species at Chapel Hill extends its known range about 230

miles northward.
Acer floridanum seems to approach nearest to Acer leucoderme
Small, but according to Dr. Small the two are quite distinct, not
only in characters of foliage and fruit, but also in habit. I have
not seen A. leucoderme in the field, but it is said to be a shrub or
small tree, preferring rocky banks in the piedmont or middle dis-

*Reprinted from the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 36: 635-638.
1909.

168 [ Dec.

1909 | ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF THE CAROLINAS 169

tricts, while A. floridanum is a large tree of alluvial bottoms, and
confined principally to the coastal regions. That A. leucoderme
also is present in Orange County seems certain, as it has been col-
lected in the adjoining county of Durham to the east (herb. N. Y.
Bot. Garden, from Biltmore Herb.).

HABENARIA NUTTALLII Small.

Collected in wet soil on the south side of Paper Mill Lake,
Hartsville, South Carolina, August, 1908. This orchid has not
been collected before in the state of South Carolina, and only at
Wilmington in North Carolina (herb. N. Y. Bot. Garden, W. M.
Canby, 1867). ‘Towards the south it has not been found nearer
than Florida and southern Georgia.

SOLIDAGO VERNA M. A. Curtis.

Collected on earth dam opposite Paper Mill, Hartsville, South
Carolina, May, 1909. Hitherto this very rare plant has not been
found except in eastern North Carolina and no exact locality is
known except near Wilmington, where it was discovered by Rev.
M. A. Curtis.

In the Flora of North America, Torrey and Gray (2: 205.
1842), S. verna is given on authority of Curtis from “open sandy
pine woods near Wilmington, and Lenoir County, North Caro-
lina,’ to which is added “(Florida, Herb. Rafinesque!).’ But in
Gray’s Synoptical Flora of North America, Lenoir County, North
Carolina, and Florida are omitted from its habitat and it is given
only from “open and sandy pine woods near Wilmington, N.
Carolina, Curtis.” From this it would seem that its occurrence in
Florida has not been established; but as to Lenoir County, which
lies some seventy miles north of Wilmington, if Curtis said he
found it there, its occurrence there can scarcely be doubted. In
his “Catalogue of the Indigenous and Naturalized Plants” of
North Carolina (Geol. and Nat. History Survey of North Caro-
lina, Part III, Raleigh, 1867) Dr. Curtis himself gives S. verna
only from the low districts “(low dist.).”

So far as I have been able to discover, S. verna has been dis-
tributed only by Rev. M. A. Curtis, Dr. T. F. Wood, and Mr.

170 THE JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocIETY [ Dec.

Gerald McCarthy, all of whom seem to have collected their plants
around Wilmington. The species is listed in Wood and McCar-
thy’s Wilmington Flora (Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific
Society, 3: 77. 1886), and in McCarthy’s distribution list of
“Flora of Eastern North Carolina” of 1885.

The occurrence of the plant at Hartsville, South Carolina, ex-
tends its range about one hundred and ten miles to the westward.
JUNCUS ABORTIVUS Chapman.

Four plants were collected in a damp grassy meadow in Burnt
Bay about one-third of a mile behind the residence of Maj. J. L.
Coker, Hartsville, South Carolina. Comparison with a sheet from
Chapman’s own herbarium leaves no doubt that this determination
is correct. The species has heretofore been known only from
western Florida near the coast. The Hartsville station extends
its range over four hundred miles northward.

SCRIPUS SUBTERMINIALIS Torr.

A large quantity of this rush, hitherto supposed to be entirely
northern, was found in the stream just below the “race” at Kil-
gore’s Mill, about one mile from Hartsville. The species ranges
across the northern part of the United States and Canada and
has not been reported before south.of New Jersey. However, on
examining the sheets of this species at the New York Botanical
Garden, it was found that it had been collected at Morrisonville,
Mississippi, by S. M. Tracy in 1898. It is therefore probable that
the species will be found to extend over the Southeastern and
Gulf states.

Cyperus MartTInpDALE! Britton.

This small sedge is very common in the sand hills near Harts-
ville, South Carolina. It has not been known before except from
Florida and the Gulf Coast.

CROTALARIA Pursuit DC.

Reported in Small’s Flora from “Georgia and Florida to
Louisiana,’ and it does not seem to have been reported farther
to the northeast. It was collected by me at Hartsville, South
Carolina, in flat sandy pine-barrens and it has been collected by
House in Oconee County, South Carolina, in 1906, and by uae
in North Carolina (herb. N. Y. Bot. Garden).

7909 | ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF THE CAROLINAS L7 I

VACCININIUM FUSCATUM Ait.

Given in Small’s Flora from “Georgia to Florida, Arkansas
and Louisiana,” and supposed to be a Florida and Gulf Coast
plant. The species was collected in wet soil in “Burnt Bay,”
Hartsville, South Carolina, May 24, 1909. This extends its range
three hundred miles northward.

GENTIANA Extiorti Chapman [Dasytephana parvifolia (Chapm. )

Small].

In the fall of 1907 a pure white form of this species was col-
lected on the side of a ditch near the Pee Dee river at Society Hull,
Darlington County, South Carolina, and sent me by Mr. P. H.
Rogers.t The plant was again collected by Mr. Rogers at the
same place in October, 1908. The plants are said to have been
rather numerous in 1907, but the ditch was worked over soon
after and in 1908 there were only a few to be found. I now have
four specimens of this interesting form. Albinos seem not to
have been previously recorded for this species.

LimoporuMm TUBEROSUM L. (Calopogon pulchellus R. Br.).

Three plants of the white form were found among sphagnum
on the edge of a bay on the north side of Paper Mill Lake, Harts-
ville, South Carolina, May 23, 1909, and Mr. P. H. Rogers has
since collected it in the vicinity of Hartsville. This albino has
been reported from Moor’s Landing, New Jersey, by Dr. Britton
(Bull, Torrey Club 17: 125. 1890) and by Paine from Genesee
County, New York (Cat. Pl. Oneida County, 86. 1865), but I
can find no record of its occurrence in the Carolinas. The normal
form is plentiful at Hartsville.

In conclusion I wish to thank Dr. John K. Small and Dr. N. L.
Britton for assistance extended me in the preparation of this paper.

tIt is interesting to note that Society Hill was for several years the
home of the gifted botanist, Rev. M. A. Curtis.

“\

JOURNAL

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

VOL. XXVI
1910

ISSUED QUARTERLY

THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
CHAPEL HILL, N. O

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

THE CONSERVATION AND UTILIZATION OF OuR NATURAL REsouR-

Ei srl OSE INE TAYE OF TOs ees He dees casas ue tela hapiaee ticueosaeas
THE BROMINATION OF ANTHRANILIC ‘Acto>—Alvin aS Wheeler
BRYAN WY NL § CORDEED tai sie posto Sela bees Ma aseiete dee :

A Visit TO THE GRAVE OF THOMAS Watren—W, C. Coker...
VITALITY OF PINE SEEDS AND THE DELAYED OPENING OF CoNES

oe | SAW AUN 1) 7 nO Onn A NAPA BOs AAMT ME CSO
PROCEEDINGS OF THE NoRTH CAROLINA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Ninra ANNUAL MEETING.......... A OTE UN AE RNR Ae MENSA Nie
EXPERIMENTS ON THE CULTURE UF THE DIAMOND- Back TERRA-
RN ELCR TUE) ACAMER Oe scot ts Jcle aL Leet Weigle Padi ieis se eae 3
THE RELATION oF Birds TO FARM AND Garpen—S. C. Brim-
[LE SR A aA Mie Ree i BCs ce ROLLE Uo PRs oe
DEVELUPMENT OF SPONGES FROM “Tissue CrLis— H. V. Wi-
SEO GE EM RUT ROI SRS IOE ASN AILASRED a UTR CURD Aer ped id ELA TAU UE

PECULIARITIES IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF Birps—Franklin Sher-
TEES TRCET Fg RM PEGS REISE TOR AU Nae YENI ICN SAE A A Cr TLL
Nove oN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GaLL- Fry— J. D. Ives..
CoMPosITION oF SKA WATERS NEAR BEAvFort, N. C.—Alvin 8.
oh NUE GLE Se IRA BI AS ME ab CGR oa Stk SOR ARREST De er eman
THE LANDES AND Dunes oF Gascony— Collier Cobb...... PAR S!
THE ReLaTION OF PHARMACOLOGY TO CLINICAL MEDICINE—
ealian GeB MOC NGM 0.) sone) io ceubscdaneeacuvaetnenae
On SurracE ENERGY AND SurFACE TENsION—J. E. Mills aad
Duncan Machae...... eset, ee ein ne tars curt BEE ETE NYA
THE Rate or Extraction oF PLant Fuop ConstitvuENTS FROM
THE PHOSPHATES OF CALCIUM AND FROM A LOAM SolL

SS GIA ) Mag C12 LD ee OES NPN GN ee te A Liven
TOPOGRAPHY OF FAYETTEVILLE, Nort CAROLINA William
EL AGS SIA eS ULES AEN aa PREIS SCAND SW EA

Grear Damage From Recent Forest Fires! Waar SHALL
WE Do asout Ir?—Bulletin N. C. Geological Survey...
Goop Roaps AND ConsERVATION—Joseph Hyde Pratt..........
CoLLOIDAL CHEMISTRY—Duncan McRae... ..ccccccccccccccceces
A RECOLLECTION OF ProFEssor W. K. Brooks, WitH CritI-
cisMs OF SOME OF His Work—H. V. Wilson.............
ReEcENT Forest Reports oF THE N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND
Economic SurvEy—Joseph Hyde Pratt............ STO
JosEPH AUSTIN HotmMEs—Collier Cobb...........ccccccececcccccee
Harty EnciishH Survivats on Harreras ISLAND.......... oie
CORRECTIONS .......0....00. BAHT EN UPDRS WL 8 i i aia

116
123
127

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JOURNAL

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society
VOL. XXVI APRA 1930 NO. 1

THE CONSERVATION AND UTILIZATION OF OUR NAT-
URAL RESOURCES*

BY JOSEPH HYDE PRATT, STATE GEOLOGIST OF NORTH CAROLINA

INTRODUCTION

The two parts of this subject may at first glance seem to be con-
tradictions of each other, but as we stop to analyze the subject and
consider it in its broadest sense, we will find that the conservation
of our natural resources will mean not only their perpetuation but
also that we will be enabled to utilize them perpetually. This can
be accomplished by the aid of certain restraining laws which will
work little or no hardship on any person or community and the
final result will be of the greatest benefit to the State.

This question of the conservation of our natural resources has
not sprung up suddenly but has been receiving the serious consid-
eration of our greatest statesmen, scientists and manufacturers.
The first direct result of this agitation was the calling together by
the President of the United States of a Conference of the Govern-
ors of the States and Territories, which met at the White House,
May 13, 14 and 15, 1908. The main object of this Conference
was stated by the President in his letter of invitation to the Gov-
ernors:

“Tt seems to me the time has come for the country to take ac-
count of its natural resources and to inquire how long they are
likely to last. We are prosperous now; we should not forget that

*The illustrations used in this article Lave been loaned by the N. C. Geo-
logical and Economic Survey and haye been used in its various publications,

4 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ April

it will be just as important to our descendants to be prosperous in
their time.’’

That the members of this Conference were interested in this
great question is shown by the declaration which was unanimous-
ly adopted by them as embodying their conclusions on this ques-
tion of conservation. Let me quote briefly from this declaration,
which will show the attitude of the Governors of the States and
Territories of the United States:

““We, the Governors of the States and Territories of the United
States of America, in conference assembled, do hereby declare the
conyiction that the great prosperity of our country rests upon the
abundant resources of the land chosen by our forefathers for their
homes and where they laid the foundation of this great nation.

‘‘We look upon these resources as a heritage to be made use of
in establishing and promoting the comfort, prosperity and happi-
nes of the American people but not to be wasted, deteriorated or need-
lessly destroyed.

‘We agree that our country’s future is involved in this, that
the great natural resources supply the material basis upon which
our civilization must continue to depend, and upon which the
perpetuity of the nation itself rests.

‘“We declare our firm conviction that this conservation of our
natural resources is a subject of transcendent importance, which
should engage unremittingly the attention of the nation, the States
and the people in earnest cooperation.

“We declare the conviction that in the use of the natural re-
sources our independent States are interdependent and bound to-
gether by ties of mutual benefit, responsibility and duties.’’

This declaration was adopted unanimously by this conference of
governors, scientists, jurists and statesmen representing perhaps
the greatest body of men that has ever been gathered together in
the history of this country. They urged upon the nation and the
states to begin at once the conservation of their natural resources.
They urged cooperation between the nation and the states and the
closing words of the declaration, “‘and so conserve the foundations
of our prosperity’’ can only be carried out in their entirety by the
most liberal cooperation between the states and the nation; and
between the states themselves.

1910| The Conservation of Our Natural Resources 35

The problems relating to the conservation of our natural re-
sources are not local questions but national and state questions.
They are questions that are of interest not only to the individual
but also to the whole people. Thus, in adopting measures look-
ing toward the conservation of these natural resources, the nation
must be considered before the state and the whole people before
the individual. Applying this same principle to the state, in any
laws that are passed regulating conservation, the whole State must
be considered before any county.

As every state is interested in the development of all other
states forming the nation, so every part of a state is interested in
the development of every other section, for no advancement can
be made in one section or county without its being directly or in-
directly of benefit to all other sections. ;

We are all part of the State of North Carolina and we will have
to bear our share of whatever praise or disgrace may be meted out
to her as a whole or to any part of her. The State’s interests ex-
tend to the limits of her territory and as North Carolinians, we
are interested in her deriving all the benefit possible from
the development of her resources whether they be the forests, the
swamp lands, and the fish and oysters of eastern North Carolina;
the waterpowers, the forests, and minerals of the Piedmont sec-
tion; or the hardwood forests, minerals, and water powers of the
mountain section.

To obtain the most benefit, North Carolina must conserve and at
the same time utilize these great natural resources with which she
has been go abundantly supplied. To conserve them, they must,
as has been stated before, be considered from the standpoint of
the State and not from that of the county.

Let us see first what North Carolina’s natural resources are.
Given in the order of what I consider their importance they are:

1. Soils and products of the soil, as forests, etc.

2. Water Powers.

3. Mineral products, including coals, etc.

4. Products of the sea.

The development of the State is absolutely dependent upon
these natural resources. Some of them are of much more impor-

4 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ April

tance than the others and some could perhaps be entirely destroy-
ed (such as fish and oysters) without permanently checking the
industrial advancement of the State; but its best advancement is
dependent upon the conservation of them all.

When we stop to consider that the population of this country is
now increasing about one-fifth of its total number each ten years,
we begin to realize how many millions more of people must be fed
and clothed from the products of our soil. By the middle of the
present century, it is estimated that there will be about 150,000,-
000 in the United States. This increase is not confined to any
one section of the country but there is a decided and_ steady
increase in the population of all the States and Territories. In
North Carolina there are now approximately 2,250,000 people but
by the middle of this century this population will have increased
to approximately 4,600,000. This large growth in population
means a constantly increasing drain upon all our natural resources
and it is, therefore, time that we as aState and as part of the
greatest nation of the world, realize that our responsibility does
not rest with providing for the present generation but that we
must do our part towards providing for future generations by con-
serving and perpetuating for their use the great natural resources
which we are now ourselves enjoying.

The American people haye been called the most extravagant
people in the world and, considered from the standpoint of the
nation, we are the most extravagant inasmuch as we are extremely
wasteful in the production and utilization of our natural resources;
and take little thought toward creating a use for what are known
as ‘‘waste products.’’ It is perhaps not stating it too strongly to say
that the wealth of the nation could be nearly doubled if careful
consideration were given to the utilization of these waste products
and the prevention of waste of the products that are utilized.
This includes crops raised by our farmers, soils, forest products,
minerals, and fish and oysters.

While this question of conservation is a national one, I wish to
consider it principally in its relation to North Carolina and shall
take up a discussion of the conservation of the natural resources
already referred to and what their conservation will mean to this
State.

EAL

y fi a 14
MU Ails,

| COASTAL PLAIN RE
ue Te A RS SRO ee : -
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os

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COASTAL PLAIN FORMATIONS: JURATRIAS, SANDSTONE, GRANITE AND OTHER 6 R-U=N=S=WiGsKe) =
[=> SANDS, CLAYS, MARLS. SHALES AND COAL, bE IGNEOUS ROCKS, re 5 Scale of Miles

SSS ey

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LZ cowersiincruowne vovewies) ELIETT cenosacvr an VA. i cancsslanerec aantnena Cape Fear

(PROBABLY ARCHAEAN.) AND CONGLOMERATES (AGE UNKNOWN.)

PLATE 1, SKETCH MAP OF NORTH CAROLINA SHOWING THE THREE PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE PRINCIPAL GEOGRAPHICAL
FORMATION

~~ sow ee RU LUD

already referred to and what their conservation will mean to this
State.

1910) The Conservation of Our Natural Resources 5

Let us consider briefly the general geographical and geological
conditions of the State, as they greatly influence the methods that
must be used in conserving our resources. See Plate 1.

As one travels across the State from its eastern shores to its
western boundary, it will be noticed that when about half the dis-
tance has been passed there is left behind a region which is very
level or gently undulating, the surface of which is covered with
sand and loam soils from which hard rocks are almost entirely ab-
sent; and there is entered another region, the surface of which be-
comes more and more hilly until it culminates in the high moun-
tains in the western portion of the State, the soil being mingled
more or less with hard, granitic, slaty rocks. It will also be no-
ticed that the geological formations of the eastern half of the State
are radically different from those of the central portions of the
State, which are in turn different from the mountain region.

PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS OF NORTH CAROLINA

There are three great physiographic divisions in the State which
have been designated as the Coastal Plain, the Piedmont Plateau,
and the Mountain region, whose boundaries in a general way are
rather sharply defined.

These three physiographic divisions are indicated in a general
way on the map, Plate I.

The Coastal Plain region represents the most recent geologic for-
mations composed of gravels, sands, clays and marls arrranged in
nearly horizontal layers with the finer material nearer the coast.
Along its eastern borders this region contains the sounds and bays,
the sand dunes and ridges, the swamps and marshes, and other
characteristics of a seashore region. Further inland it is gently
undulating and has more of the upland and less of the marsh; to-
wards its western boundary the swamps disappear almost entirely,
the upland predominates and the surface becomes more undulat-
ing and even hilly in places. The soils toward the east are com-
posed of fine sand and silt, while nearer the western border of the
region they contain a larger proportion of coarse sand or gravel
mingled with clay. The extent of this region is from Raleigh
eastward to the coast, with its western boundaries roughly defined

6 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ April

as extending from the western part of Warren through Franklin,
Wake, Cumberland, Chatham, Moore, Montgomery and Anson
counties.

Along the western border of the Coastal Plain region there are
occasional outcrops of hard granites and slates exposed along the
beds of streams, where the once overlying sands and clays have
been washed away. In the southeastern counties of this region
limestone is exposed at the surface along the banks and streams
in a large number of localities. This rock is of such quality that
it can in many cases be used for the making of lime, macadamiz-
ing roads, and perhaps in some cases for building purposes.

Throughout the entire area of the Coastal Plain region, cotton,
corn, oats, sorghum, peas, peanuts, potatoes, especially sweet po-
tatoes, are the staple crops and the culture of tobacco has been
introduced with success. Wheat is grown to a considerable extent
on the broad lowlands of the Roanoke and in the counties on the
north shore of Albemarle Sound; rice has been for a long time a
staple crop on the lowlands of the lower Cape Fear; and the up-
land variety of rice has been introduced with entire success. All
the cultivated fruits and berries grow in this Coastal Plain region
in great perfection.

The Piedmont Plateau, extending westward from the Coastal
Plain region to the mountains, is about 125 miles in width and
has an average elevation approximating 900 feet. Crossing
the Piedmont Plateau obliquely, are a series of geologic formations
which are in general parallel to the mountains and seashore. This
section contains undulating lands with many broad valleys and
occasionally an isolated mountain ridge or peak. On account of
this character of the land, the conservation of the soil is one of
the problems of the Piedmont section.

There is a great variety of rocks in this section and consequent-
ly the soil of the Piedmont section is very much diversified. ‘This
together with favorable climatic conditions, causes this section to
have an exceedingly varied range of agricultural products. In
this region we find the largest area devoted to the cultivation of
the most profitable varieties of tobacco. It is here also that the
culture of cotton is more largely extended and pursued and it isin

1910| The Conservation of Our Natural Resources fi

this region that all the cereals and all the grasses are cultivated
to their highest perfection. The fruits of this section are unequal-
led in excellence, variety and abundance.

It is in this Piedmont Plateau region that the great waterpowers
of the State are located and their conservation and utilization will
be of the greatest benefit to the State in its general industrial ad-
vancement. In this region are also the richest and most valuable
of the mineral deposits of the State, the development of which,
especially of the clay products and building stones for structural
materials, should add very largely to the wealth of the State.

The Mountain region includes the Blue Ridge, Great Smokies,
and the country between, which is cut across by numerous
cross ranges separated by narrow valleys and deep gorges. The
average elevation of this region is about 2,700 feet above the sea
level, but the summits of many ridges and peaks are over 5,000
feet. A considerable number of peaks (43) reach a height of 6,-
OOO feet or over, the highest of which is Mount Mitchell with an
elevation of 6,711 feet. Over the larger part of this region are to
be found the older crystalline rocks, gneisses and granites, proba-
bly Archean, which are greatly folded and turned on their edges.
On the western and eastern borders of this Mountain region ap-
proximately along the line of the Blue Ridge and Great Smokies
there are two narrow belts of younger rocks consisting of lime-
stones, shales, and conglomerates and the metamorphosed mar-
bles, quartzites and slates. In this region, as in the Piedmont
Plateau, the rocks are decayed to a considerable extent ard thus
have produced deep soils which vary in character according to the
rocks from which they have been derived. The soils are for the
most part porous and fertile, affording a luxuriant vegetation, in
many places the slopes of the mountains being covered by heavy
virgin forests. Where the rocks that have decomposed contain a
large percentage of aluminous minerals, a large amount of clay
has been formed.

The mountains are covered with a rich soil and the forests ex-
tend to their tops. There is no area in any of the other states
that is covered with such a variety of timber trees and of such yal-
ue as are to be found in this mountain region of western North

8 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ April

Carolina. These forests formerly contained extensive areas of wal-
nut, poplar, cherry and tulip trees that had attained a size that
would hardly be credited by those who had not seen them. In-
stead of conserving and perpetuating these valuable trees, they
have been ruthlessly cut and logged and are now almost complete-
ly exterminated. In general, the cultivated products of this
mountain region are similar to those of the Piedmont Plateau re-
gion, with the exception of cotton and rice. Two products, how-
ever, the Irish potato and cabbage, are grown in this region to a
degree of perfection that is hardly excelled anywhere. Of fruits,
the apples of the mountain region are widely known for their
size and flavor. In the northwestern counties of Ashe, Alleghany,
Watauga, Mitchell and Yancey, the conditions are favorable for
perfect success in cattle raising.

SOILS

In discussing the conservation of our natural resources, the first
that will be taken up will be soils and products of the soil, as for-
ests.

The conservation of the soils and forests stands out preeminent-
ly as the most vital duty demanded.of us in respect to our natur-
al resources. The nation must be fed and no matter whatever else
is given up or destroyed, our food products still remain an abso-
lute necessity and, therefore agriculture really becomes the most
important of all human occupations. The worst panic that could
be conceived as happening to a nation would be caused by the far-
mers of the country stopping for but one year the planting and
raising of farm products.

Upon the quality and the depth of the soil depends the yield of
the farm. With a decrease in the productiveness of the soil, the
cost of raising a certain quantity of any kind of produce will in-
crease and this will mean an increase in the cost to the consumer.
Thus, both producer and cousumer are very materially affected by
the lack of foresight of the producer to keep up the productive-
ness of his soil to its highest efficiency.

In the early history of the State there may have been some ex-
cuse for this, for, with our vast expanse of territory, it was hard

ts we

PLATE 2, CHARACTERISTIC EROSION OF THE MICA RED CLAY AND SILT SOILS. VERTICAL |
WALL GORGES ARE QUICKLY FORMED IN SOILS OF THIS TYPE WHEN UNDERMINING |
ONCE BEGINS, AND THE FINAL RESULT IS THE COMPLETE DESTRUCTION OF THE ~
SOIL FOR FARMING PURPOSES. |

;

=

1910) The Conservation of Our Natural Resources )

for the people to see or realize the need of seriously considering
the question of soil preservation. But, as our population has in-
creased and the productiveness of the soil decreased, the question
of soil preservation has become acute.

The first settlers in North Carolina Saw in the eastern counties
what was apparently an unlimited amount of the most fertile
black soil. They considered it inexhaustible, and if the first por-
tion cleared was not perfectly satisfactory, another section would
be cleared and the first abandoned. This has also been the prin-
ciple pursued in respect to the wearing out of the soil. After a cer-
tain number of years of constant cultivation, without the addition of
any fertilizer, a soil begins to deteriorate and become poor, hay-
ing given up to the plant certain of its chemical constituents that
the plants required for their growth. The old custom has been to
abandon such lands and clean up others. This method has also
been carried on in the Piedmont and Mountain regions of the
State, even up to within the past ten or fifteen years. To-day we
are beginning to feel quite seriously the effect of this method of
the utilization of our goils.

We have thousands of acres of land scattered throughout North
Carolina that are known as ‘““wornout’’ lands. If is land upon
which it is now practically impossible to profitably raise any farm
_ product. These lands not on ly have had the plant food value al-
most entirely taken out of the soil but they are in many instances
badly eroded and cut into deep gullies, in some instances the en-
tire soil having been washed away (See Plate TE) hey
are really blights on the landscape and very seriously affect the
attractiveness of adjacent farms that are in many cases very pro-
ductive and prosperous.

As can readily be realized from the great variations in the soils
of North Carolina, and the great difference in the surface of the
land, there must be different methods employed to conserve the
soils. hus, the heavy, red, clayey soils of the undulating Pied-
mont section will require a decidedly different handling from the
heavy, black, loamy soils of eastern North Carolina. In every case
consideration must be given to the fact that it is necessary to add
to a soil certain chemical constituents in order for it to retain its

10 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ April

fertility. This can be accomplished partly by the rotation of crops
and partly by the addition of natural and artificial fertilizers. We
have not the time to go into a discussion of this phase of conserv-
ing the fertility of the soil, but we can simply state the fact that
this is absolutely necessary if the soil is to be kept to its greatest
efficiency.

Erosion of soils.*~—In the Coastal Plain region, especially the eas-
tern portion, there is but little difficulty in preventing the soils
from being eroded and washed away. This, however, becomes a
most serious question in the Piedmont and Mountain regions. To
prevent this total destruction of the soil is a serious problem and
one to which considerable attention has been given by those inter-
ested in the conservation of soils. The effect of this erosion and
washing away of our soils, is illustrated in nearly every section of
the Piedmont region in the form of gullied farms and areas where
the decomposed rocks are exposed and but very little of the soil
has been left (See Plate III). There are two methods by which
this loss of soil can be very materially lessened and in some in-
stances entirely prevented: First, deeper plowing; and second,
terracing. The first applies to all land in the Piedmont and
Mountain sections and the second to those steeper areas where it
is impossible to hold the soil from washing even by circular and
ditch plowing. By terracing (See Plate IV, A and B), however, these
steeper slopes can be very effectively kept from washing and the
soil preserved. This erosion of the hillside farms of the Piedmont
section is one of the greatest drawbacks to successful farming and,
while it is possible for one to have a good and productive farm on
level land, it requires a man of much greater capacity to operate
a farm properly under the adverse conditions which prevail in the
Piedmont section where hillside farming is practiced.

Let us consider for a few moments the extent of this erosion
and the amount of soil that is annually washed from our farm
lands. In this section it amounts to more than 4,000,000 tons
per year and this has a value based on the amount of plant food
and humus in it of approximately $2,000,000. In the heavy
floods of 1908, the estimate was made that 1,500,000 tons of soil

*See Bull. 17 N. C. G. S. Terracing of Farm Lands, by W. W. Ashe.

PLATE 3. EROSION ON A PIEDMONT HILLSIDE,

a pl CE ae ee A pO ie ep ac,

THE SOIL HAS BEEN REMOVED COMPLETELY IN SOME PLACES AND HAS STARTED
VERTICAL GULLIES IN OTHERS.

af

PLATE 4a. A STEEP SLOPE IN PIEDMONT NORTH CAROLINA THAT HAS BEEN WELL TER
RACED, ALTHOUGH THE TERRACES ARE NARROW THEY ARE NEARLY LEVEL ANI
THERE IS BUT SLIGHT EROSION.

PLATE 4b. THESE TERRACES, ALTHOUGH WELL LOCATED, ARE TOO FAR APART, THE
RISE BET WEEN THEM BEING TOO GREAT. AT 1 EAST ONE INTERVENING TERRACE
SHOULD HAVE BEEN CONSTRUCTED.

aac

1910] The Conservation of Our Natural Resources 11

were washed from the hills of the Piedmont during one week of
rain. These figures are based on actual measurements that have
been made at various times on some of our rivers as to the amount
of sediment carried down by the rivers in a given time. About
one-fifth of this solid matter, which causes the muddiness of the
waters during a flood, is humus which is washed chiefly from the
hillside farms. Estimating this at $2 per ton, which is probably
less than it will cost the farmers to replace it, the loss to them in
impoverishment of their soils exceeds $500,000. This is a loss
which is much underestimated or entirely overlooked by the far-
mer because it is a loss which takes place so constantly. In the
aggregate, however, it is so enormous that it is one of the chief, if
not the chief, reason of the poverty of so many of the red clay,
hill-side farms.

Lands which are too steep to be readily terraced are too steep to
be profitably cultivated and, therefore, should not be cleared, but
should be kept in forest. If they are already cleared, steps should
be taken to re-forest them.

It is possible, even after a land has become very badly eroded,
to reclaim it not for agricultural purposes but for forestry pur-
poses.

To be a successful agriculturist or farmer, requires study and
thought; and today all those who have taken up this occupation
for a livihood and who are making the most money are those who
give thought to seed sellection, rotation of crops, and the fertility
and preservation of the soil. There has been too great a tendency
to farm too much land; men not realizing that there is more
money in farming a small acreage very well than a large acreage
poorly. It costs little or no more to raise forty to seventy-five
bushels of corn to an acre than it does fifteen, but the profit is very
much greater.

FORESTS*

The preservation of our forests, which are one of the natural
products of our soils, is one of the most important problems that

*For more detailed information regarding the forests of North Carolina see
the following publications of the North Carolina Geological and Economie
Survey: Bull. 5, Forests, Lands and Forest Products of Eastern N.C., Bull,

12 Journal of the Mitchell Societu [ April

now confronts the State. Before taking up the question of the con-
servation of the forests, I wish to call attention to the character of
these forests and their importance to the State. North Carolina is
unequaled in the variety of its hardwoods and conifers by that of
any other State or territory. See Plate V. Throughout the
whole area of the State the great variety of soils and climate has
brought together trees from all parts of Eastern America. There
are altogether 153 kinds of woody plants which form a simple up-
right stem and attain arborescent proportions, growing naturally
within the State and of these over 70 are trees of the first size and
57 are trees of great economic value. Plates VI and VII give a good
idea of our hardwood and pine forests. Fourteen of these are known
to attain in this State a height of over one hundred feet; three of
them a height of over one hundred and forty feet; sixteen of them
reach diameters of five feet or over; and five, diameters of seven
feet or over. There are 24 kinds of oaks found in the State which
are three more than occur in any State to the North and two more
than are to be found in any State to the South; of the nine hicko-
ries known to occur in the United States, eight have been found in
North Carolina; here are found all six maples of the Eastern Unit-
ed States, all of the lindens, all six of the American magnolias,
three of the birches, eight of the eleven kinds of pines, both spe-
cies of the hemlock and balsam fir, and three out of the five elms.

The importance of the forests to North Carolina is strikingly
shown by the fact that the forests and the industries dependent
upon them produce material amounting in value to more than
$35,000,000 per year and give employment to 30,000 men. There
are but few States in this country where the importance of the for-
ests is relatively as great as in this State where one sixth of the en-
tire wealth-producing capital is invested in forest lands or in in-
dustries directly dependent upon the products obtained from the
forests. As a State we recognize that our furniture industry is ab-
solutely dependent upon a permanent supply of hardwood; that
the tanning industry, if it is to become a permanent one as it
should, is dependent upon a constant supply of tanning material,
6. The Timber Trees of N. C., Bull. 7. Forest Fires, Bull. 16. Shade
Trees for N. C.; Press Bulletins 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 22, 24, 25, 27, 28, 30,
34, 36 and 38, which discuss various questions relating to Forestry.

.>

- EN val ae, Pay
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PLATE 5. A MIXED PINE AND HARDWOOD FOREST IN THE PIEDMONT PLATEAU
REGION,

‘N OF NORTH CAROLINA.

PLATE 6. AHARDWOOD FOREST IN THT “OUNTAIN I

*

ae
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:
7
~

ee ES

’

A LOBLOLLY PINE FOREST IN EASTERN NORTH CAROLINA.

PEATE. 7:

1910] The Conservation of Our Natural Resources 13

as hemlock and chestnut oak bark; and that the paper industry,
which also should be a permanent one, is dependent npon a con-
stant supply of pulp wood. I believe that it is not only possible
to make these industries permanent in North Carolina and to give
them a constant supply of the various woods that they need, but
that it is also possible to develop these to a still greater extent.
To do this it is necessary that our forests be conserved and per-
petuated.

The forest area of North Carolina covers more than 10,000,000
acres, a very large part of which is steep, rough, or poor land un-
suitable for farming purposes. There are also about 2,000,000
acres of waste land in the State which have been lumbered and
burned or cleared and found unprofitable to cultivate on account
of roughness or erosion, which should be re-forested. With this
large area of timber land there was no thought given in the early
history of the State to the question of a diminishing supply of for-
est products. Similarly as in connection with the soils, the peo-
ple of the State considered they had an inexhaustible supply and
therefore gave no thought as to how much they wasted in obtain-
ing what they wanted or how much was destroyed by fire. No
care was taken in lumbering to preserve seed trees and make it
possible for the land to re-forest itself to the best advantage. In
lumbering no plan was considered with the end in view of the for-
ests reproducing themselves with varieties of trees as valuable as
the ones removed; or that they would maintain a density so that
the soil might produce its full capacity; or of even protecting the
timber that still remained. Such methods of lumbering have fi-
nally brought us to the place where, according to the State Fores-
ter, there are more woody materials used or cut each year in North
Carolina than the forests are replacing by the formation of new
wood. Then again, each year the forests become less capable of
producing what is required of them. Their area contracts, less
valuable trees take the place of the more valuable varieties which
are cut, the soil becomes more impoverished and less able to yield
large returns, and the demand for woody materials gradually in-
creases with the increase in population.

These existing conditions demand that some steps be taken im-
mediately to conserve and perpetuate our forests. This conserva-

14 The Conservation of Our Natural Resources [April

tion means for a great many of our citizens a profitable invest-
ment; and, in some instances, as the reforestation of abandoned
farm lands, it will mean a profitable investment on lands that are
now not producing anything of value.

What the great mass of forest lands now needs, however, more
than anything else is adequate protection for young growth, for,
unless there is young growth and an abundance of it, there can be
no trees to take the place of the old ones when they are cut. Ii
there are 200 mature trees on an acre, there should be, if the same
area were in young trees three to five years old, five thou-
sand or more trees. Not one-twentieth of the young trees
that start to grow can be expected to become large trees.
They are of invaluable service, however, in shading the ground
and so keeping it moist that the trees may not suffer from drought
in dry seasons; in protecting very young seedlings which may be
beneath them from excessive heat or sudden changes of tempera-
ture which the seedlings of some species cannot stand; and in
forcing those trees which do survive to clear their stems by rapid-
ly pushing their tops upward to get the light, leaving behind on
the stems only a few small limbs which soon die and drop off,
leaving no knots or knot-holes. The litter of their leaves also
forms a rich mould which, as it decays, enriches the soil and
stimulates the growth of the remaining trees.

In order to accomplish this, a forest must be protected from fire
and also from stock. These forest fires are the greatest menance to
the perpetuation of our forests. One of the worst effects of the
forest fires in eastern North Carolina has been the prevention of
the long-leaf pine from reproducing itself. Large areas that
were once covered with this valuable tree and which should now
be reproducing another growth of the same kind are instead coy-
ered with sand oak or blackjack, which are practically value-
less. The loss to the people of this section from the burn-
ings of these pine lands, taken in the aggregate, is enormous,
as, but for the burnings, thousands of acres which are now
denuded of all merchantable trees would either be covered with
mature forests or with thick growths of young trees.

The long- leaf pine (See Plate VIII) which was formerly very
abundant in the Coastal Plain region of North Carolina, has been

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A LONG-LEAF PINE FOREST IN EASTERN NORTH CAROLINA.

PLATE 8.

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1910) Journal of the Mitchell Society 15

entirely exterminated in certain sections, and the localities where
it now grows have been reduced to a very small area. The lands
formerly covered with beautiful forests of long-leaf pine are now
covered by small scrub oak, sand oak or blackjack oak which are
entirely valueless as timber trees. This failure of the long-leaf
pine to reproduce itself is due almost entirely to the frequent fires
which year after year in the winter and early spring have devasta-
ted the pine woods, killing the young pine seedlings. The long-
leaf pine only seeds infrequently, a large seed crop growing about
once in five to seven years. The seeds are large and nutritious,
and when they fall they are eaten in large quantities by hogs,
squirrels, and fowls. Then again after the seed has sprouted and
rooted, the seedling is of such slow growth that it is three or four
years before it begins to form any appreciable stem, all of its
energies being used in growing a deep tap root. This tap root is
not at all resinous, but is juicy and nutritious and is dug up and
eaten by hogs even when the trees are five or six yearsold. Thus,
even if an area escapes burning, practically all of the young trees
are eaten by hogs in those sections where there are no stock Jaws.

That the long-leaf pine will reseed and reproduce itself, if given
an opportunity, is well ilustrated in New Hanover county where
the stock law has been in force for a good many years, and also
some attempt has been made to prevent forest fires. In the vicin-
ity of Winter Park on the road from Wilmington to Wrightsville
is a good example of land that has been reseeded in long-leaf
pine. All along the track of the electric car line on land, whose
chief value at present is apparently in the production of timber,
there were long-leaf pine seedlings from one year old up, scattered
nearly universally through what was once a solid pine forest; but
which years ago was logged off and only a few scattered trees left,
which, however, have served for seed trees. This young growth
was from one inch to eight or ten feet high and in some places
dense enough to eventually form a good forest.

With adequate laws, properly enforced, it would be possible to
reforest large areas in the Coastal Plain region of North Carolina
in long-leaf pine.

In the counties in the middle part of the State fires have done
considerable damage in killing down young growth, but, as a gen-

.

16 The Conservation of Our Natural Resources [April

eral thing, except where there are large tracts of forest and the
country is poor, rugged or thinly settled, the lands are not regular-
ly burned and the damage that has been done to old trees is much
less than in other parts of the State. These occasional fires, how-
ever, kill much young growth that has been several years growing
and in this way keep the woods open.

In the mountains, although there is a great deal of excellent
hardwood timber, many of the trees which would otherwise be
merchantable have been badly damaged by fire. The woods have
been kept free from young growth by pasturage and frequent burn-
ings. In places they are exceedingly open and there are no young
trees at all to take the place of the old ones as they are removed.

WATERPOWERS

The destruction of our forests also has a very serious effect upon
the waterpowers of the State. There is, perhaps, no natural
resource so valuable to the State in connection with her industrial
development as her waterpowers. (Plate IX). In central
and western North Carolina there are abundant waterpowers,
many of which have been most advantageously developed, while
others are still unharnessed. Of all the Southern States, North —
Carolina stands first in the number and magnitude of her ayaila-
ble waterpower and when all factors regarding their development
and utilization are considered, there is perhaps no State in the
Union equal to North Carolina in this respect. The value of
these waterpowers cannot be over-estimated. This refers not
only to the very large ones but particularly to the great number
of small waterpowers from a few to several hundred horse power
each, which are to be found on all the small streams in many
parts of central and western North Carolina and which are sufficient
for the requirements of some local industry (Plate X). They can
usually be developed by an individual or company of moderate
means and their development and utilization will mean that many
small manufacturing establishments will be scattered throughout
the State whose operations are independent of any fuel. Many of
these waterpowers could not formerly be utilized on account of
their location, but now they can be developed and used to adyan-
tage by installing at the waterpower an electrical generator and

‘NOISHA NVALW Id LNOWGHId
AHL HO SYBMOd AALVA AADAVT AHL HAO ANO “d°H000‘0€ dOTHARA TIA HOIHMA ‘NINGVA AHL HO SMOMAVN AHL '6 ALW Id

FUME CI scAL AAS

‘d ‘H 001 OL 0S DNIGOTSHANG HO ATdVdVO ‘NOION2A NIVINOOW AHL SO SHYAMOd ANLVA AATIVINS AHL AO ANO ‘OL 3LV1d

—

1910] The Conservation of Our Natural Resources 17

transmitting electrical power to the point of consumption. There
are many towns in North Carolina that are now without electric
lights or power which could, at a comparatively small expense,
obtain the same by the development of waterpowers that are suf-
ficiently large for the purpose and conveniently located. All such
development means that a less amount of coal, wood, and other
fuels will be consumed for power purposes.

That these waterpowers should be protected, conserved, and
perpetuated is acknowledged by all who have investigated them.
One of the most vital influences in the preservation of these water
powers is the forests and their most noticeable influence is in
mountainous and hilly countries, for they, prevent the soil from be-
ing washed away and, by the decay of their leaves, form loam which
prevents the water from running off the surface too rapidly. By the
removal of the forests there is no longer a protection for the soil
on the slopes of the mountains and hills except that produced
artificially in the form of ditches, etc. There is no longer a layer
or bed of leaves to act as a conserver of the water by absorbing it and
preventing its too rapid evaporation and it runs off for the most
part as fast as it falls, causing high freshets and floods and periods of
extreme low water; causing the streams and rivers to be higher at
times of floods but very much lower the greater part of the time
than they were before the remoyal of the forests.

The defects in the water supply are not due to the lack of rain
but to the removal of the natural agencies that nature has pro-
vided for the storing of this water which has resulted from the
removal of the forests. Again, these defects are not due to any
considerable extent to the clearing of land for farming purposes
for the farmer must of necessity protect the soil from being
washed away, and the only loss to the water supply that he would
cause would be the greater evaporation to which it would be
exposed. They are, however, due to the wasteful and destruc-
tive removal of the forests by the lumber companies who leave
large tracts of land stript in some cases of every vestige of a tree.

It has been estimated that there are available in the United
States 50,000,000 water horsepower, but whether this be 50,000,-

18 Journal of the Mitchell Society [April

000 or 150,000,000, the fact that it exists today is no guarantee
that it will exist 20 years from now unless we as a State and a
Nation take the necessary steps to preserve this valuable asset.
Simply because we do not desire to avail ourselves of all this
water horsepower at the present time does not release us from the
obligation of preserving the balance of the waterpower for future
generations. There is probably no section in the country where
waterpower is not cheaper than steam power, although there are
certain places where coal is so cheap that the cost of steam power
exceeds little if any the cost of waterpower. In other places,
however, the waterpower may be as much as $60 per H.P. cheaper
than steam power.

We are using at the present time in the United States not less
than 26,000,000 steam horsepowers for manufacturing, lghting,
railways, etc. Some of this is so situated that it could not at
present be replaced by hydro-electric power; but it has been esti-
mated that ten per cent. would cover all the power that could not
be readily replaced with hydro-electric power. This would leave
23,400,000 steam horsepowers that could be replaced by hydro-
electric power. The average excess of cost of the steam power as
compared with hydro-electric power is at least $12 per H.P. This
would make a total of about $281,000,000 that the people of the
United States are spending annually for power that is in excess of
what is necessary to give them the same amount of power. It
also means that we are using up each year a very large amount of
our coal resources to develop this power which could just as well
be produced by waterpower.

Although at the present time our waterpowers are not being
developed to the extent that they should be, yet the amount of
hydro-electric power that is being used each year is constantly
increasing and the increase in the price of fuel which is bound to
come will cause the waterpower development to increase much
faster. In studying conservation and its relation to power develop-
ment, one thing should be taken into account and that is that by
proper conservation our waterpowers can be made perpetual and
give a constant supply of power: while, on the other hand, when
fuel is used to develop the power, it is a constant drain on our

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1910) The Conservation of Our Natural Resources 19

fuel resources and the power developed is limited to the amount
of fuel used. Thus, every water horsepower developed and utilized
means just so much conserving of our fuel resouress, which, when
once used, cannot be replaced.

MINERAL PRODUCTS

The conservation of the mineral resources of North Carolina is
not as serious a problem as it is in many of the States inasmuch
as we have no supplies of coal, oil or iron of any great commer-
cial importance at the present time. Of the metal iron, we have
deposits of considerable extent which will be available and of large
commercial value sometime in the future, but at the present time
their isolation from sources of fuel, flux and market are conserv-
ing them without any assistance from the State. (See Plate XI)
Our structural materials, such as building stones and clay pro-
ducts, as brick, terra cotta. ete., should be developed on a larger
scale than they are at the present time, for by their development
and utilization we will reduce the drain upon our timber building
products. While there is more or less waste in quarrying build-
ing stone (See Plate XI.), still many of our companies have
found uses for a great deal of what was formerly waste product.
Thus, a good deal of the stone that does not make good building
material is cut into curbing, into blocks for paving streets, and
crushed stone for reinforced cement work, and for macadamizing
roads. These products should, therefore, be utilized just as much
as possible, and, while we are not in one sense conserving them,
we are, as stated above, conserving one of our other natural
resources (timber), the drain upon which is now almost equal, if
not equal, to the growing capacity of the forests.

SWAMP LANDS

Another line of conservation that I wish to mention briefly is
the reclamation of swamp lands. In the western part of the
United States the reclamation of these waste lands comes under
the head of irrigation, while in the eastern portion of the country
it comes wader the head of drainage. Irrigation is bringing to
land the water that it requires to make it adapted to raising crops
while drainage is taking off and away from the land the excessive

20 Journal of the Mitchell Society | April

amount of water that prevents the land from growing a crop. The
Federal Government has already spent many millions of dollars
in the reclamation of the dry, arid lands of the West and have
been most successful in this work, causing large areas of the des-
ert lands to become flourishing farms. Attention now is being
called to the reclamation of our swamp lands and it is considered
just as important that such land should be reclaimed as that the
arid Jands should be watered. We have in North Carolina
approximately 4,505 square miles or 2,883,000 acres of swamp
lands, besides thousands of acres of overflowed lands, many of
which are susceptible to reclamation if properly drained. This
area of swamp land in North Carolina is nearly as great as that of
the Kingdom of Saxony, which has nearly 5,000,000 people.
Thus it is seen that the State has the opportunity of developing
an area which is capable of supporting a population that is con-
siderably larger than the population of the whole,State.

The approximate amount of swamp land in 28 of the eastern
counties in North Carolina is as follows:

County Square Miles County Square Miles
IBeatbarhs i hase acoceke eee 177 Hyde ee 387
Berwde yo eae Meena 57 JONES (e301. 139
Tae bie oe ali hae eae se 192 Martin soi .0/i0. 320. seeeee 86
Bramnswicks: uve aun 300 New Hanover:;:. Uaiivereere 25
RUATIGETN Clea uct ao Vee 162 Onslow: 2.) 0.55.25. 20) ae 134
(hz na Fo) gc) FAL Uae a BARES 126 Pamlico 252.4 chsous eee ys)
CO WAL Sass sect onnecat MA Zeh 80 Pasquotank: | :,.2:2.3-snisueas 80
Go luirat ss he are a ork al kee 300 Pender’ 2.0.2.0. e eee 370
24,07 2) 0 BRIN HA Uy le 238 Perquimans... 02720) eeee 92
Gurniberland creo Malu a) 30 Patel esicc ie cs pccc cee eee 40
Gon 2 oT HD bold Mae nM aR A GO 40 Robeson 2340) <jso ss)caso ee 130
AAEM IRE iithicatle sc ue 344 Salipson: 0. cee 118
1B Dy Sct Senne a 125 Tyrrell 20042 i ae 251
Cae oh 45 Washington (civo 7 ieee 262

Total, 4,505 square miles, or 2,883,200 acres.

“IVNVO
HOVNIVAd V ONILIND WAOM LV ADGHAd ONIAOHS ‘VNITIONVO HLYMON

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1910] The Conservation of Our Natural Resources 21

DRAINAGE OF SWAMP LANDS

Considerable work has been done by the Geological and Eco-
nomic Survey in cooperation with the Drainage Division of the
United States Department of Agriculture in investigating:

1. The character of the swamp, whether the soil is suitable for
agricultural purposes.

2. Whether the swamps and overflowed lands, where suitable
for agricultural purposes, could be profitably drained.

3. Whether the peat deposits contain sufficient quantity of
this material and of such quality that it could be marketed.

In making these examinations and in interviews with the people
living in this section of the State and interested in the reclama-
tion of these swamp lands, it was found that three obstacles had
formerly stood in the way of the drainage of these swamp lands:
(1) the cost of clearing the land; (2) the excessive cost of digging
adequate canals and ditches to take care of the water; (3) the
lack of an adequate law that would permit the carrying out of
drainage propositions.

Now, however, all these obstacles have been removed and,
wherever the Jand has sufficient agricultural value to warrant
drainage, the drainage propositions can be carried out suecess-
fully. Plate XII, shows a swamp in eastern North Carolina,
with dredge at work cutting a drainage canal.

The drainage of this vast swamp area would mean not only
additional wealth to the State, but it will mean improved roads
through large areas that are now almost impassible and inaccessi-
ble; the improved roads will mean better school facilities for the
children. The drainage of the swamps will also greatly improve
the heathfulness of this section of the State.

Of the 3,000,000 acres of swamp land, at least 1,225,000 acres
are of sufficient agricultural value to warrant their being drained
and are sufficiently elevated above the neighboring water courses
to make their drainage a feasible proposition.

The drainage act passed by the State Legislature of 1909 makes
it possible to carry out any large drainage proposition, and, as a
result of the passage of this aet, there are now 16 drainage dis-

22 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ April

tricts formed or in process of formation, which embrace approxi-
mately 350,000 acres.

The fertility of the soil of these swamp lands is unsurpassed,
and sufficient work has already been done by soil surveys and the
cultivation of the land that has been reclaimed to demonstrate
that taken as a whole it is preeminently a corn soil. At the pres-
ent time, North Carolina produces 2.7 per cent. of the entire corn
crop of the United States, but, if these swamp lands were thor-
oughly drained and properly cultivated, they alone could produce
a crop of corn that would be equal to 10 per cent. of that raised
in the United States during the past year.

As an illustration of the value of some of our swamp lands
after they have been drained, I would like to state what has
actually taken place during the past year at one locality in North
Carolina. About five miles southeast of Pinetown, Beaufort
County, a canal has been constructed through one of our large
swamp areas for a distance of five miles and has a width of 30 feet
and depth of 7 feet. Before this canal was begun the people living
in the vicinity of the swamp all claimed that it would be impossi-
ble to drain the swamp, as there was not sufficient fall to take
care of the water. The men who were interested in the project,
however, had had a survey made of the swamp and were confident
that there was sufficient fall along the line of the canal to take
care of all the water and drain theland. As the canal was being
constructed, it was found necessary at the end of a mile and a few
yards to construct a retaining dam six feet high in order to keep
sufficient water in the canal to float the dredge. After another
mile and a quarter of the canal had been constructed, it was
found necessary to build another dam six feet high. After the
five miles of canal had been constructed, the total fall in that
distance was found to be a little over 12 feet. The dredge
was then taken back down the canal and the dams removed.
During the extreme heavy rains of the summer of 1908 in eastern
North Carolina, this canal was able to take care of all the excess
of water, and, as far as I could ascertain, it never rose over 12
inches in the canal. In order to determine the actual agricultural
value of the land drained, 10 acres bordering on the canal were

1910) The Conservation of Our Natural Resources 23

cleared by cutting down the trees and underbrush and burning
them, but leaving the stumps. Corn was planted by means of a
hand-drill made out of a piece of hollow gum wood. There was
no opportunity for plowing the field, so the corn was planted by
simply running the drill into the ground and dropping the seed.
It was also impossible to cultivate the corn as it was growing, on
account of the stumps. ‘The fires, however, had destroyed all of
the undergrowth, so that there were no weeds to interfere with the
growth of the corn. This tract produced an average of 40 bushels
of corn to the acre, and this will give an idea of the great value of
this land for agricultural purposes. With the construction of
lateral canals this main canal will be capable of of draining from
6,000 to 7,000 acres.

Even the land that is now under cultivation also needs a certain
amount of drainage, principally due to'the fact that the swamps
becoming full of water overflow and saturate the cultivated land
with water, so that during the past eight or ten years the farmers
have not been able to secure but one good crop in three, with the
result that a great many have had to abandon farming. Hyde
County, which was formerly known as the granary of eastern
North Carolina, was for three years prior to 1909 literally drowned
out, but during the latter year there was just the right amount of
rain at the right time, so that the crops were excellent. With
drainage of the swamp lands of Hyde County, they could be prac-
tically assured of a good crop each year, which would mean that
this county would be capable of becoming one of the richest coun-
ties in the State. Nearly all the other counties in eastern North
Carolina have suffered in the same way from lack of drainage;
but, operating under the Drainage Act of 1909, these conditions
will in a few years be changed and eastern North Carolina will
become one of the most prosperous agricultural sections of the
country.

In certain portions of these swamps there are deposits of peat
which may become sources of a supply of fuel. A small amount
of work has been done towards testing these peat deposits, their
area and locality, and, while not enough information has thus far
been obtained to warrant a definite statement relating to these de-

24 Journal of the Mitchell Society [April

posits, yet, we do know that there are certain areas, as the peat
bog on the outskirts of Elizabeth City, which contain a good qual-
ity of peat which could be used as a fuel in the form of briquettes.
Some of these peat deposits are located in close proximity to
small towns, and it is very probable that it would be practicable
to erect an electric plant at the bog using the peat as a fuel, eith-
er in the form of briquettes under a boiler, or using the peat di-
rectly in a gas producer, and producing electric power which
could be transmitted to the town. The utilization of peat in this
way would be another means of conserving our other fuel supplies
of coal and wood.

FISHING INDUSTRIES

Usually, in discussing the subject of conservation, we are not
apt to realize, at first thought, that it applies to the protection
and perpetuation of our fish, oysters, and other products of the
sea just as much as to the protection of the natural resources of
the land.

There is no doubt but that the supply of edible fish, clams and
oysters in the waters of North Carolina is becoming less and less
each year. There are two facts that are responsible for this condi-
tion: (1) insufficient laws for the protection of fish and oysters;
(2) non-enforcement of the laws that have been passed.

The falling off in the catch of edible fish is not due to the use of
any particular kind of apparatus but to over fishing and the per-
mitting of the fishing of apparatus in places where it ought not to
be used. Hundreds and thousands of small fish have been caught,
which, if permitted to remain in the water, would in a year or
two have become valuable edible fish. The small fish caught in
this way are often dumped on the shore and used as fertilizer or
shipped to market, with a faint hope that they may be marketa-
ble, but often they are thrown out by the dealer. If the small
fish are destroyed (by whatever means), it is a self-evident fact
that there will soon be a scarcity of large ones, and finally certain
fish will become extinct in the waters of North Carolina.

It is possible to protect and perpetuate our fish and oyster in-
dustries by the enactment and enforcement of adequate laws. I

1910) The Conservation of Our Natural Resources 25

believe that the only adequate method of enforcing state laws and
fostering our fishing industries is through the operation of a Fish
Commission. The work of this commission should be not only to
see that the laws are enforced, but it should be able to carry on
investigations relating to the various fishing industries; to study
local conditions and be able to render a just decision regarding
what is the best thing to be done in relation to the perpetuation of
the oyster and any type of fish, to the best interests of the state.
Up to the present time these questions have been considered local-
ly, while they should be considered as state questions, and the
best results can only be obtained when they are thus considered.

The North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey has, and
is still, carrying on investigations relating to the protection of the
fish and oyster, and to the cultivation of the oyster and clam. The
result of this work has been the establishment of a fish commis-
sion, but whose jurisdiction, however, is only over a portion of
the state; and the passage of an act by the Legislature which
makes possible the cultivation of the oyster in North Carolina.

In the investigations relating to the cultivation of the oyster a
variety of bottoms as the waters of Pamlico Sound were tested by
plants, as at Cunning Harbor, Pains Bay, Long Shoal, Bight of
Royal Shoal, and the Junction of Pamlico and Core Sound.

The investigations of the Survey have proved rather conclu-
sively that the cultivation of the oyster is practicable and profi-
table; and further. that the future of the oyster industry in North
Carolina is dependent upon the development of the industry of
oyster culture.

THE BROMINATION OF ANTHRANILIC ACID*

BY ALVIN 8S. WHEELER AND W. M. OATES

The monobromaminnobenzoic acids have been prepared in most
cases by the reduction of the bromnitrobenzoic acids in acid solu-
tion with tin, zinc or stannous chloride. The 5-bromanthranilic
acid was obtained in two other weys by Alt viz., (1) by the oxi-
dation of 5-brom-acettoluide by potassium permanganate and (2)
by the bromination of acetanthranilic acid. The latter reaction
was conducted in aqueous and in acetic acid solution, the only
product isolated being the monobromanthranilic acid. We find
that in brominating anthranilic acid direct in acetic acid solution
at as low a temperature as possible that one third of the product
consists of the 8, 5-dibromanthranilic acid. We’ find it a most
excellent method for preparing both acids. Bogert and Hand?
employed Alt’s methods.

The dibromaminobenzoic acids have been prepared similarly.
In addition Wachendorff* heated o-nitrotoluene with bromine at
170°. Bogert and Hand?> prepared 3, 5-dibromanthranilic acid by
treating a dilute hydrochloric solution of anthranilic acid with a
mixture of potassium bromide and potassium bromate. No yield
is given. The few tri- and tetraaminobenzoic acids which have
been described were obtained by the action of bromine upon the
amines or anil.

We have studied the action of bromine upon anthranilic acid in
glacial acetic acid solution, (1) near the freezing point and (2)

*Contribution from the Chemical Laboratory of the University of North
Carolina.

1 Alt, Ber. d. Chem. Ges., 22: 1645. 1889.

2 Wheeler and Oates, Journal American Chemical Society, 31: 568. 1909.

3 Bogert and Hand, Journal American Chemical Society, 2'7: 1476. 1905.

4 Wachendorff, Ann. Chem. (Liebig), 185: 281.

5 Bogert and Hand, Journal American Chemical Society, 25: 935. 1903.
26 [April

1910| The Bromination of Anthranilie Acid 27

near the boiling point of acetic acid. In the first case two thirds
of the product consists of the 5-bromanthranilic acid and one
third of the 3, 5-dibromanthranilic acid. Under the other condi-
tions the results are reversed almost exactly. The two acids are
readily separated by boiling water in which the dibromanthran-
ilic acid is nearly insoluble. The separated acids may be brought
upon drying plates within an hour after the preparation is begun.

The monobromanthranilic acid is converted by short boiling
with acetic anhydride into the anil and the latter on treatment
with water is very rapidly hydrolyzed to bromacetanthranilic acid.
Bogert and Hand prepared the anil by boiling the bromacetan-
thranilic acid with acetic anhydride. | We found the barium salt
to contain four molecules of water asdid Alt. The salt obtained by
Bogert and Hand was anhydrous. We have prepared also the sil-
ver salt, ethyl ester, 2-chlor-5-brombenzoic acid and its barium
salt. The latter acid has only been described by Cohen’ but he
gave no analysis. Our preparation recrystallized from glacial
acetic acid gave the melting point stated by Cohen, 155-6°, but we
could get no satisfactory analysis. Then on recrystallizing from
water we raised the melting point ten degrees. In view of this dis-
crepancy we shall postpone the description until we have made the
acid by Cohen’s somewhat tedious method. In this paper we also
describe the anil and acetyl derivative of the dibromanthranilic
acid as well as the silver salt and ethyl ester.

5-Brom-2-aminobenzoic Acid

Brominatian of anthranilic acid below the freezing point of glacial
acetic acid. ‘Twenty grams of anthranilic acid were dissolved in
250 cc. glacial acetic acid and cooled below 16°. After 9.5 ec bro-
mine had been run in the reddish color of the liquid persisted.
Before this point was reached the mixture had been converted into
a thick mush of white glistening crystals, consisting of the hydro-
bromides of the mono- and dibromanthranilic acids. The product
was filtered off, washed with benzene and after drying was found
to weigh 54.7 grams. It was then boiled up with 500 cc. water
containing 25 cc. concentrated hydrochloric acid and filtered hot

1 Cohen, Journal London Chemical Society, 85: 1267. 1904.

28 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ April

with suction. The insoluble residue was extracted twice more
with 500 ce. boiling water. The filtrates upon cooling yielded
abundant precipitates of the monobromanthranilic acid. The in-
soluble residue consisted of the dibromanthranilic acid, amounting
to one third of the product. In the glacial acetic acid filtrate we
found a little tribromaniline. We also tried the bromination of
the hydrochloride of anthranilic acid in glacial acetic acid and
also a hydrochloric acid solution of anthranilic acid but the results
were less satisfactory.

Barium 5-brom-2-aminobenzoate. Alt who prepared this salt by
boiling the acid with barium carbonate states that it crystallizes
with four molecules of water. Bogert and Hand did not obtain
this salt but an anhydrous one crystallizing in prisms. We em-
ployed Alt’s method and obtained the same salt crystallizing in
needles and containing four molecules of water. It was impossible
to determine the water since the salt began to decompose before
the requisite amount of water was expelled. This occurs about
170°.

Calculated for C,,H,,0O,N,Br,Ba.,H,O Ba. 21.48
Found: 2118

Silver 5-brom-2-aminobenzoate. The neutral ammonium salt was
treated with silver nitrate which caused a dense white precipitate.
The salt is anhydrous.

Calculated for C,H,O,NBrAg: Ag. 33.43
Found: 33.69 33.51

Ethyl 5-brom-2-aminobenzoate. The silver salt was boiled with
an excess of ethyl iodide. After distilling off the excess the resi-
due was extracted with chloroform. The ester crystallizes from
alcohol in yellow needles which melt at 187°.

Calculated for C,H,,O,NBr: Br. 33.10

Found: By AaTS:
5-Bromacetanthranil. Bogert and Hand obtained this anil by
poiling the 5-bromacetanthranilic acid with acetic anhydride’. We
obtained it by boiling 4 grams 5-bromanthranilic acid with 40 ce
acetic anhydride for 15 minutes. On cooling the solution an
abundant crystallization of colorless scales took place. The filtrate
contained a mixture of the anil and the acetyl derivative. The

1910) The Bromination of Anthranilic Acid 29

anil is very soluble in hot benzene, alcohol and ligroin but diffi-
culty soluble when cold. It is not readily soluble in ether. It
melts at 134°. Bogert gives 131° (corr.). It is instantly hydro-
lyzed to the bromacetanthranilic acid by hot water. The same re-
sult is obtained by boiling with glacial acetic acid,99-100 per cent,
for two hours.

Calculated for C,H,O,N Br: C, 45.00 H, 2.50 Br, 33.36

Found: 45.00 2.62 33.40

8,5-Dibrom-2-aminobenzoic Acid.

Bromination of anthranilic acid in boiling glacial acetic acid. Fit-
ty grams of anthranilic acid were dissolved in 500 ce glacial acetic
acid and while boiling 27.5 cc bromine were run in. An abun-
dant separation of colorless crystals took place. After cooling the
product was filtered off, washed with glacial acetic acid and then
with benzene. The weight of the hydrobromides was 116 grams.
The mixture was boiled up five times successively with 500 ee wa-
ter, each filtration being made rapidly with suction. The insolu-
ble residue consisting of the dibromanthranilic acid constituted
two thirds of the product. The pure acid was obtained by recrys-
tallizing from alcohol. The melting point was 232° (uncorr.).
Bogert and Hand give 235-5.5° (corr.).

8,5-Dibromacetanthranil. Ten grams 3,5-dibromanthranilic acid
were boiled 15 minutes with 100 ce acetic anhydride. Upon cool-
ing an abundant mass of long colorless needles were deposited,
some being an inch long. The weight was nine grams and the
melting point 176°, the substance being pure. On concentrating
the filtrate another gram was obtained, melting at 173°.

Calculated for C,H,O,NBr,: Br 50:14

Found: 49.99, 49.99

The anil is easily soluble in benzene, glacial acetic acid, chloro-
form, toluene and fairly soluble in alcohol. It is insoluble in wa-
ter, cold or hot. Its conversion back to the dibromanthranilic
acid is effected by warming in 15 per cent. sodium hydroxide fur
15 minutes and neutralizing with acid. A one per cent solution

1, Bogert and Hand, Journal American Chemical Society, 277: 1484. 1905,

~

30 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ April

of sodium hydroxide introduces water into the anil giving the di-
bromacetanthraniliec acid.
3,5-Dibromacetanthranilic acid. The free acid was obtained by
boiling the anila moment in dilute sodium hydroxide and imme-
diately acidifying with hydrochloric acid. _Tt is also obtained by
long boiling with glacial acetic acid. |The crude product melts at
217°. On recrystallizing from alcohol-benzene the melting point
is raised to 218-9°. It crystallizes from glacial acetic acid in mi-
croscopic needles. It is easily soluble in alcohol and glacial acetic
acid. It is insoluble in ether, chloroform, benzene and toluene.
Calculated for C,H,O,NBr,; Br. 47.47
Found: 47.36, 47.42
Silver 3,5-dibrom-2.aminobenzoate. A neutral ammonium salt
solution of the acid was treated with silver nitrate. A dense
white precipitate was thrown down. This is anhydrous and de-
composes about 270°.
Calculated for C,H,0,NBr,Ag: Ag. 26.84
Found: 26.70
Ethyl 3,5-dibrom-2-aminobenzoate. |The ester was prepared by
boiling the silver salt with excess of ethyl iodide. After distilling
off the unused ethyl iodide the residue was extracted with cold
chloroform. The chloroform extract on evaporation to dryness
left a white but somewhat oily residue. This was recrystallized
from alcohol. It forms fan-shaped groups of needles which melt
at 74°
Calculated for C,H,O,NBr,: Br. 49.53
Found: 49.34 49.46
Chapel Hill, N. C.
March 19, 1910.

A VISIT TO THE GRAVE OF THOMAS WALTER*

BY W. C. COKER
With Plates 13 and 14
And Bahram, that great Hunter—the Wild Ass
Stamps o’er his head, but cannot break his Sleep.

It has been said that one man cannot make an atmosphere,
and this is true, but there will sometimes appear a man with so
great ‘a light within his own clear breast’’ that he looks out upon
the obscure world about him with a soul that is illumined.

Such an one was Thomas Walter, ‘‘Agricola,’’ and Botanist of
South Carolina.

The lack of the historical instinct which is so characteristic of
our people, is sadly evident when we look for the life story of this
remarkable student of nature. The little that is known of his life
has recently been published in one of the interesting series of
articles on South Carolina Botanists by Wilson P. Gee in the
News and Courier. It is but the barest outline that we have of
his career, and no portrait is extant to give us an idea of his per-
sonal appearance.

The fragmentary data we have is gathered from a very few
sources, the inscription on his grave; the pages of his book (the
Flora Caroliniana); the genealogical record of his descendants,
and the traditions of his home community. The pamphlet
entitled ‘“A Contribution to the History of the Hugenots of South
Carolina,’’ by Samuel DuBose and Frederick A. Porcher (being a
republication of several papers) contains most of what is known
of Walter’s life. From this source was obtained also most of the
information given below in regard to the history of the Santee
* section.

From all sources we learn that Walter was born in Hampshire,
England, came to South Carolina as a young man, married Miss
Sarah Peyre for his first wife and Miss Dolly Cooper for his sec-
ond, acquired a plantation on the banks of the Santee River, in
St. Steven’s Parish, and made it his home for the remainder of
his life. His house was built within a few feet of the southern

*Published in part in the Charleston News and Courier, Sunday, March

17, 1910.
1910} 31

32 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ April

edge of the wild swamp of the Santee river, and adjoining it he
marked out and planted with paternal care, one of the first
Botanical Gardens of America. John Bartram, of Philadelphia,
had established the first American Botanical Garden about 1730,
and Humphrey Marshall had begun his garden, also near Phila-
delphia, in 1773, about the time, presumably, that Walter was at
work on his. These three gardens were the first of their kind in
the United States.

But Walter did not confine his botanical interest to his garden.
In complete isolation from the scientific world and seeing, so
far as we know, no other person that was interested in science
except the itinerant collector John Fraser, of London, he began a
scientific study of the plants around him and completed, before
his untimely death at about forty-eight, one of the most complete
and accurate works on American Botany that appeared during
the 18th century. This book, the “‘Flora Caroliniana,’’ was
published in London in 1788, at the expense of John Fraser, the
collector and seedsman above mentioned, who had gotten the
manuscript from walter on one of his earlier visits to South Caro-
lina. The foot of the title page is inscribed as follows:

Londini:
Semptibus J. Fraser:

Prostant venales apud J. Wenman, in vico vulgo dicto
Fleet Street

M,DCC,LXXXVIII

The volume, which is written entirely in Latin, contains 263
pages exclusive of the preface of four pages, index, title page, and
dedication page. There are 435 genera, and many of the species
described were new to science. In spite of the vicissitudes of
botanical nomenclature the names that Walter gave his discover-
ies are still in large measure retained, and the designations of
many of the best known and most attractive of South Carolina
plants now honor his achievement and commemorate his name.

Such for example, are: Quercus pumila (dwarf oak), Quercus
lyrata (overcup oak), Carpinus caroliniana (hornbeam), Pinus
glabra (spruce pine), Nyssa biflora (black gum), Acer Carolinia-

1910| A Visit to the Grave of Thomas Walter 33

num (Carolina red maple), [lex myrtifolia (myrtle-leaved holly),
Tlex decidua (deciduous holly), Lilium Catesbaei (Catesby’s lily),
and Sarracenia minor (a pitcher plant).

Of the plants that have been named by others for Walter, in
appreciation of his scientific attainments, the best known, per-
haps, is the beautiful red-berried smilax or cat brier (Smilax
Walteri) that is abundant in the swamps of our coastal plain.
What more charming memorial could one desire than the lovely
wreaths of this cardinal of the woods that brighten the cold
Swamps with such a glowing flame? Every Christmas, at our
home in Hartsville, we go out into the swamp and bring in these
brilliant berries to add color to the day.

From the last paragraph of the preface we gather that the
plants described in the Flora Caroliniana were all collected within
a radius of fifty miles, presumably with Walter’s home as a cen-
ter. The paragraph is as follows:

Stirpes plus mille hoc opere comprehendi mirum fortasse vid-
eatur, quum cognitum fuerit vix non omnes collectas fuisse ex
area non ampliore quam quae linea bis duplicata quinquaginta
millium passum circumscribi potest. Etiam multae adhuc latent
ut quotitie docet experientia. Gramina et plantae classi Crypto-
gamiae appertinentes, plerumq., intacta remanent. Praeterea
plures omittuntur arbores, frutices et herbae, quorum fructificatio
auctori nondum satis patuit.

Carolinae Meridialis,
ad Ripas Fluvii Santee,
30 Dec. 1787.

After the death of Walter in 1780, his plantation became a part
of the estate called Mexico, and was for a long time owned by the
Porcher family. It is now the property of the Atlantic Coast
Lumber Co. of Georgetown.

The herbarium that Walter made was taken to England by
John Fraser and seems to have remained in the Fraser family for
along time. In 1849 it was given to the Linnaean Society and
was sold by it to the British Museum. It is now to be found in
the Natural History section of the British Museum, South Ken-
sington, London.

34 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ April

In an article on the ‘‘Identification of Walter’s grasses’? in the
Annual Report of the Missouri Botanical Garden for 1905, Dr.
A.S. Hitchcock says:

‘‘The herbarium suffered before it came into the possession of
the Museum and many of Walter’s types are missing, especially
among the grasses. The plants are mounted in a large book,
usually several specimens on a page, the labels being fastened to
each plant. The specimens are for the most part very fragmen-
tary, often consisting of a leaf or an inflorescence. When the
herbarium was obtained by the Museum, most of the plents were
mounted, but a few were loose and have been subsequently
mounted at the end, following the others. All the grasses appear
in this second part (pp. 112 et seq.). There are 18 specimens of
the grasses. In the following notes I have attempted to identify
the species of grasses published by Walter in his Flora, consider-
ing the specimens in his herbarium, the descriptions, which are
often meagre, and tradition as shown by the disposition made of
his species by Micheux, Pursh, and Elliott, who worked over
the same territory and must have been familiar with Walter’s
work.

“Walter seems to have followed in his identifications the second
edition of Linnaeus’ Species Plantarum or the twelfth edition of
the Systema, which is about the same. The use of italics for cer-
specific names is not clear. Those thus printed appear to be new
species, but many of those printed in Roman are also new names.
Many of Walter’s names as applied to grasses are yet doubtfully
identified or entirely unidentified and probably must remain
BOL?”

The numerous descendants of Thomas Walter are now repre-
sented in several prominent family names, but, as his only son
died unmarried, the name of Walter was not perpetuated.

He married first Miss Sarah Peyre, of St. Steven’s parish, and
one son, Thomas, and two daughters, Ann Peyre and Mary, were
born of this union. His second wife was Miss Dorothy Cooper
and to her another daughter, Emily, was born. The gifted
botanist and physician Dr. Erancis Peyre Porcher, well known as
the author of the “‘Resources of our Southern Fields and For-

1910 A Visit to the Grave of Thomas Walter 35

ests,’’? was a great grandson of Walter’s, and from Dr. Walter
Peyre Porcher, of Charleston, his son, and Judge Walter G.
Charlton, of Savannah, and Mr. John Peyre Thomas, Jr., of Col-
umbia, I have secured the following record of the descendants.

Thomas Walter, Jr., reached maturity, but did not marry, and
died before his father.

Mary Walter married Francis Peyre and had three children,
Isabella Sarah, Thomas Walter, and Hannah Ashby, the two lat-
ter dying unmarried.

Isabella Peyre married Dr. William Porcher and had six child-
ren, William E., Francis Peyre (Physician, and author of
‘Resources of our Southern Fields and Forests’’), Julian H..,
Louise, Mary, and Alexander.

Dr. Francis Peyre Porcher married Miss Virginia Leigh and
had three children, Walter Peyre (Physician, of Charleston),
Julia W. (Mrs. T. S. Wickham, of Henrico County, Virginia, )
and Virginia lL.

Alexander Porcher married Miss Margaret Faber and had one
son, Mr. J. Faber Porcher, of Charleston.

Ann Peyre Walter married Mr. Hazel Thomas, of Betaw plan-
tation on the Santee River, and they had issue as follows: Anna
Hazell, who died unmarried, John Peyre, Thomas Walter,
Edward, Thomas Hazell and Samuel Peyre. Of the sons, all
except Thomas Hazell married and left numerous descendants.
Colonel John Peyre Thomas, now seventy years old and one of
the most distinguished citizens of Columbia, is the son of John
Peyre.

Emily Walter married Judge Thomas Usher Pulaski Charlton
from the neighborhood of Camden, and had three children, two
of whom, Thomas Jackson and Robert Milledge, survived infancy.
Dr. Thomas Jackson Charlton married Sarah Waters and had two
children, Dr. Thomas Jackson and Ellen St. Leger. This Dr.
Thomas J. Charlton married and had several children, among
them the present Dr. Thomas J. Charlton of Savannah, who is
married and has ason, Thomas J. Jr.

Robert Milledge Charlton married Margaret Sheik, of Savannah
and had ten children, of those reaching maturity only the follow-
ing three have married: Mary Marshal to Julian Hartridge, Mar-

36 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ April

aret to C. P. Hansell, and Walter Glasco (now Judge of the Sup-
erior Court, Savannah) to Mary Walton, daughter of Richard
Malcom Johnston. All of these have children.

The only published records we have of visits to the home of
Thomas Walter, describing the condition of his garden and grave,
are by Mr. H. W. Ravenal, the famous botanist, in the Pro-
ceedings of the Elliott Society, Vol. I, page 53 (quoted by Mr.
Gee, in his article above mentioned), and by Prof. Ezra Brainerd
in the Bulletin of the Charleston Museum, Vol. 3, p. 33, April 1907.
Mr. Ravenal could find very little trace of the garden—
two clusters of the tallow tree of China, (Stillingia sebifera) and
‘fone or two other things, were the only memorials left of his
botanical garden.’’ Prof. Brainard found nothing at all that
seemed to have been planted by hand.

I had long felt a ““motion of love’’ to see the spot where Tho-
mas Walter lived and died, and as nothing had been heard of
the condition of the place for several years I took an opportun-
ity in August of last year and carried out the long planned
trip.

Arriving at St. Stevens from Charleston in the evening I made
arrangements with Mr. W. F. Boykin for a conveyance, and
made an early start with him the next morning for Pineville, six
miles away. The road passed through flat, sandy, pine woods,
an occasional low bog, and much good farming land. Close at
hand towards the north stretched the broad swamp of the Santee
river, five miles wide in places. In the old days before the Revo-
lution when the up country was still an untouched wilderness this
swamp was cleared and cultivated in corn and indigo for a dis-
tance of at least 10 miles west of St Stevens. Within this swamp
at that time were five thousand negro slaves, and on the low
bluffs along the southern edge of the swamp there were scattered
the comfortable dwellings of the planters. Here wealth and
refinement established themselves, and upper St. Stevens and St.
John’s became the seat of one of the most cultivated and pros-
perous societies of the state. Now all is changed. The dark
days began by the breaking upon the people of the frightful storm
of the reyolution, No other part of the country suffered more

1910] A Visit to the Grave of Thomas Walter 37

from the ravages of a destructive war. The internecine character
of the struggle is well illustrated by the fact that after the battle
of Black Mingo Charles and Thomas Peyre, the brothers of the
wife of Thomas Walter, were captured as tories by General Fran-
cis Marion—a near neighbor—and sent on foot to be jailed in
Philadelphia. The sufferings of Marion’s men are well known,
the misfortunes of the Tories were equally severe.

Impoverished by the war the planter’s families found little
hope before them. The loss of England’s bounty of sixpence a
pound on indigo put an end almort immediately to the planting
of that crop; and to add to the miseries of the people the Santee
river, about 1790, began to be subject to disastrous floods that
destroyed the magnificent crops of the rich swamps and drove the
planters to give them up once more to the wilderness. They
have never again been cleared.

The introduction of cotton as a profitable crop by the invention
of the saw gin in 1794 was a most timely and present help in
trouble, and saved the country from complete impoverishment.
A large number of fine plantations along the south side of the
Santee from St. Steven’s to Eutawville soon gained a fair measure
of prosperity. Until about, 1794 the propietors lived on their
plantations throughout the year, but after that they got together
and established the town of Pineville where they built their sum-
mer homes. At the time of its geatest prosperity the village con-
tained about 60 houses, supported a fine academy, and ivas the
center of a community that reflected all that was best of simplic-
ity, hospitality and culture in southern life before the war.

When I passed through the village on that Sunday morning
last August no trace was to be seen of the life of the old days.
But three or four houses remained—remained only to mark the
backward swing of the inconstant pendulum of time.

From Pineville we drove on to the club-house of the Oakland
Gun Club, where we ate our lunch and with fresh horses took to
the saddle for the remaining distance. After about a mile
through the barrens we came to Belle Isle, one of the old plan-
tations of the Marion family. Ina fine grove at the end of an
avenue stands the old house, with smoke house and kitchen of

38 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ April

substantial brick in the rear. It is difficult to imagine a more
depressing spectacle than the one that met us here. The house,
once the focus of the abounding life and hospitality of a famous
estate, is now fast falling into ruin. The steps are gone, the ceil-
ing of the piazza is down at one end, and the roof broken through
in several places. As I entered the house and picked my way
over the insecure floor to it’s dark central passages I was startled
by the sudden falling of clouds of bats that squeaked and circled
about me.

About one hundred feet west of the house is the old family
burying ground. Here are the graves of General Francis Marion
and his wife. Over the former the General assemply of South
Carolina has erected a substantial memorial of granite with a tablet
of bronze (see the accompanying photograph, Pl. XIII). Through
correspondence with Mr. John Henry Porcher of Bonneau, who
has an extensive knowledge of the history of this section, I learn
that, contrary to the impression of many, General Marion never
lived at Belle Isle. He was born on his father’s plantation, Pond
Biuff, near Eutaw Spings (now Eutawville), and lived there most
of his life. He did live for a time before the revolution at Burnt
Savanna Plantation, which immediately adjoined Belle Isle on the
west and is now a part of it.

Moving on to the west from Belle Isle we passed a few fields
cultivated by negroes and were soon in the heart of as wild a
country as is to be found in the state. Broad stretches of thick
pine woods, dense canebrakes and impenetrable bogs surrounded
us, and to the north extended for miles the great, deep swamp of
the Santee. Here is the paradise of the wild things. Hardly a
hundred yards was passed without fresh signs of deer. There are
said to be more of these and of bear, turkey and wild cat here
than in any other section of the state.

After covering about four miles more we arrived at the old San-
tee Canal, finished in 1800, at an immense cost, and once filled
with boats, lined with fine plantations, and resounding with the
songs of negroes—now passing through an almost trackless forest
and abandoned to decay. The massive masonry work of the locks
of this canal is of brick that is said to have been imported from

Plate 13—Grave of Gen, Frances Marion

: “ j
= ‘|. an
ca?
at ‘
‘
ert
sf
ae 7 :
tee. ft a j \~?
e" &
i : “ _
I b”
me r
‘ ? ’ v
vu
’
U *
a i
i
Ad '
'
4 Ss
? ‘ ri
W
1 t
q

aes

1910| A Visit to the Grave of Thomas Walte 39

England. The remarkable preservation of much of this masonry
after the ravages of over a century of neglect is an evidence of the
thoroughness and honest workmanship that was characteristic of
the times.

On examining one of the most perfect of these locks there
was noted on the east wall a thick fringe of the exotic-
looking fern, Pteris serrulata, a native of China that is

now naturalized in the extreme southern states. This is,
IT believe, the farthest north that it has been found. The
only other fern on the lock was the ebony spleenwort (Asplenium
platyneuron). On the west wall was an equally luxurient mass of
the very attractive southern vine, Decumaria barbara. This vine
is characteristic of the coastal region. It extends up as far as
Darlington County, but does not quite reach Hartsville.

The horses were urged through the water and sticky mud of
the canal with difficulty and passing on for a short distance we
came suddenly to a clearing where the trees had recently been
logged. The river current sweeping through the swamp towards
the south presses up here to the front of some high bluffs. At
this point is standing the base af a massive chimney and parts of
heavy machinery are lying around, said to be the remains of one
of the old pumping stations of the canal.

Mr. Boykin went off to the south to find an old neg:o, who
ffnally arrived and led me a half mile farther up the river which
had again bent away into the swamp. Here about one hundred
feet from the edge of the swamp are standing two fine old willow
oaks and at the foot of one of these is the grave of Thomas Wal-
ter. It is covered with a flat stone, now broken in two and
though dotted with lichens and stained and corroded by time the
inscription may still be deciphered. As there are several nustakes
in the inscription as published by Ravenel and republished by
Sargent and Gee I give it below just as it appears on the stone: *

*The best copy of the inscription is that accompanying Prof. Bainerd’s
article. In lettering and arrangement it is quite accurate, but I find that it
differs in three words from my copy as given above.

40 Journal of the Mitchell Society [April

In Memory
of
THOMAS WALTER

Native of Hampshire in England
and many years a resident of this
State. He died in the beginning of
the year 1788 aetatis cir. 48 ann.
To a mind liberally endowed
by nature and refined by a liberal
education he added a taste to
the study of Natural History
and in the department of
Botany science is much
indebted to his labors.

At his desire he was buried on
this spot once the garden in
which were cultivated most

of the plants of his
FLORA CAROLINIANA.

From motives of filial affection
his only surviving Children
ANN and MARY
have placed this memorial.

It was hard to believe that on this spot wis one of the first
Botanical gardens of America, planted and tended with loving
care by the man who lay at our feet; that in this deserted place
was kindled one of the first fires on the alter of Science in the
new world.

{ looked about me for those traces of the garden that Ravenel
had mentioned more than fifty years ago. Not one remained.
No Stellingia or any other thing except the wildest growth of the
forest. Leaning over the grave was the southern buckthorn,
(Bumelia lyciodes), deciduous holly (Mex decidua), arrow wood
(Viburnum dentatum) and red ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica).
From their branches hung Virginia Creeper (Ampelopsis quinque-
folia), poison ivy (Rhus radicans), Carolina moonseed (Cebatha
Carolina), Cat-brier (Smilax Bona-nox) and Trachelospermum

Plate 14—Grave of Thomas Walter

1910) A Visit to the Grave of Thomas Walter 4]

difforme, a vine that was discovered by Walter himself. The
only flowers that were immediately about the grave were Salvia
lyrata (in fruit), Oxalis colorea and a large false fox-glove (Dasy-
toma bignoniiflora) that does not seem to have been found in the
state before Isaw ithere. The ancient oak at the head of the stone
was heavily draped with the long grey moss(Tillandsia usneoides),
as fitting an emblem of graves as cypress or yew.

Two photographs were taken of the stone—one standing
close, the other at a distance of about fifty feet. The latter
(Plate XIV) shows well the sad desertion of the spot and the
complete encroachment of the forest growth.

Ontside the swamp in the immediate neighborhood of the
grave were Pinus taeda, Liquidambar styraciflua, Quercus stellata,
Rhus copalina, Myrica cerifera, Celtis crassifolia, Ulmus ameri-
cana, Hicoria aquatica, Ilex opaca and Cornus stricta.

At a distance not greater than a half mile were collected Malus
angustifolia, Styrax americana, Amorpha fruticosa, Azelea nudi-
flora, Vaccinium australe, Vaccinium fuscatum, Vitis aestivalis,
Gaylussacia frondosa, Strophostyles umbellata, Penstemon austra-
lis, Lespedeza angustifolia, Meibomia obtusa, Arundinaria tecta,
Uniola longifoha, Uniola laxa.

On the way from St. Steven’s to Walter’s grave the following
plants were noticed: Pinus australis, Pinus taeda, Pinus echinata,
Pinus serotina, Juniperus virginiana, Quercus virginiana (not
common here), Quercus aquatica, quercus tinctoria, Quercus fal-
cata, Quercus Catesbaei, Quercus cinnerea, Quercus marilandica,
Quercus pumila, Nyassa sylvatica, Castania pumila, Acer carioli-
nianum, Liquidambar styraciflua, Fraxinus pennsylvanica, [ex
opaca, [lex verticillata, [lex glabra, Ilex corriacea, Ilex myrtifolia,
Ulmus americana, Ulmus alata, Diospyros virginica, Platinus oc-
cidentalis, Hicoria tomentosa, Cornus florida, Cornus stricta, Tax-
edium distichum, Salix nigra, Sassafras sassafras, Magnolia glauca,
Myrica cerifera, Cyrilla racemiflora, Alnus rugosa, Cephalanthus
occidentalis, Callicarpa americana, Rhus toxicodendron, Viburnum
dentatum, Pyrus arbutifolia, Ceanothus americanus Clethra alni-
folia, Xolisma foliosiflora, Pieris mariana, Gaylussacia dumosa,Chio-
nanthus virginica, Euonimus americanus, Ascyrum stans, Smilax

42 Journal of the Mitchell Socicty [April

Walteri, Smilax glauca, Wistaria frutescens, Eupatorium semiser-
ratum, Eupatorium Mobhrii, Seriocarpus’ bifoliatus, Seriocar-
pus unifolia, Elephantopus tomentosus, Elephantopus carolinia-
nus, Gnaphalium obtusafolium, Hieracium Gronovii, Conoclin-
um coelestinum, Laciniaria spicata, Chaenolobus undulatus, Chry-
sopsis graminifolia, Meibomia Dillenii, Lespedeza repens, Lespedeza
japonica, Cracea virginiana, Crotolaria Purshii, Chamaecrista nicti-
tans, Apios apios, Rhexia virginica, Rhexia mariana, Rhexia
glauca, Breweria trichosanthes, Agrimonia pumila, Koellia hysso-
- pifolia, Sida Elliotti, Mesophaerum rugosum, Oenothera biennis,
Boehmeria scabra, Eryngium integrifolium, Septilia, caroliniana,
Lilium Catesbaei, Pontederia cordata, Sarracenia minor, Juncus
aristulatus, Habenaria Nuttallii (recently reported by me from
South Carolina for the first time), Osmuda cinnamomea, Osmunda
spectabilis, Woodwardia areolata, Pteris aquilina, Asplenium platy-
neuron, Eupatorium rotundifolium.

VITALITY OF PINE SEEDS AND THE DELAYED OPEN-
ING OF CONES*

BY W. C. COKER

On a visit to California in July, 1908, my curiosity was aroused
by the remarkable retention of the still unopened cones in Pinus
attenuata (P. tuberculata) the knob-cone pine, and to a somewhat
less conspicuous degree in the Monterey pine (Pinus radiata).
Trees of Pinus attenuata may frequently be seen several feet in
diameter and thirty or forty years old, still retaining unopened
all the cones they have produced during their lives, the lowest
cones circling the tree within hand’s reach from the ground. As
all cones are borne on new growth it is obvious that as the
branches increase in thickness the peduncles of the cones must be
broken loose from their connection with the wood, so as to allow
the cones to be pushed out by the annual growth, or the cones
will be covered as the tree develops and finally imbedded in the
wood. As the cones of P. attenuata are narrow at the base and
othus mre easily caught by the annual layers, the latter alterna-
tive sometimes occurs and the cones are covered by the growth of
the tree.

The cones that remain on the surface of the trunk and branches
have no organic connection with the tree, and their peduncles,
which are almost an inch long, may be twisted out like a cork
from a bottle. It is a well-known fact that in this case the cones
never shed their seeds until the tree or branch that bears them
dies.

This remarkable peculiarity is exhibited to almost as great a
degree by Pinus radiata (Monteoey Pine). Of this tree J. G.
Lemmon sayst:

*Reprinted from THE AMERICAN NaturAList, Vol. 43, Nov. 1909.
tSierra Club Bulletin, Vol. 2, p. 74, 1897.
1910) 43

44 Journal of the Mitchell Society [ April

““Tyees four and five inches in diameter may be seen on Point
Pinos, still retaining every cone they have produced, circling the
trunk and limbs from base to apex. Of course the lumber is per-
forated with holes, the channels formed by the cone-stems on
their many years’ journey from heart to bark.’’

Other species of western American pines whose cones are sero:
tinous to a greater or less degree are P. muricata, P. contorta, P.
contorta var. Murrayana (the lodge pole pine) and P. chihuahuana.
Of P. muricata Lemmon says*: ‘“‘The cones have been known to
remain unopened for twenty or thirty years, then to release good
seeds,’’ but he says in another place of the cones of the same
treet: “They usually open at the time the leaves at the same
point fall away from the stems’’. The Gardener’s Chronicle for
April 24, 1909 gives a good illustration of this pine showing old
unopened cones, and in the same number, Mr. J. W. Bean says:
‘‘Some of the trees at Kew bear cones which must have developed
more than a quarter of a century ago’’.

Of the eastern American pines the only ones to retain their
cones unopened after maturity are the jack pine (P. Banksiana)
of the north, the Table Mountain pine (P. pungens) of the Alle-
ghanies, the pond pine (P. serotina) of the southern states, and
P. clausa of the gulf coast and eastern Florida. In the case of
the last species the cones may become imbedded in the wood as in
P. attenuatat.

That this remarkable habit of cone retention is of use in the
struggle for existence, at least under the peculiar conditions that
exist in our western country, is believed by a number of observers.
The explanation that is usually offered is well expressed by John
Muir in “‘Our National Parks’’ page 104. Speaking of Pinus
attenuata (under the name of P. tuberculata) he says:

‘This admirable little tree grows on bushy, sun-beaten slopes,
which from their position and the inflamable character of the

* Handbook of West American Cone-bearers, 3d ed.
tErythea, Vol. 2, p. 160, 1894.

tIn Garden and Forest, Vol. 10, p. 232, Professor C. S. Sargeant remarks
that cones of P. muricata often become imbedded in the bark, but in a letter
to me he says that this ‘‘appears to be erroneous’ ’,

1910] Vitality of Pine Seeds 45

vegetation are most frequently fire-swept. These grounds it is
able to hold against all comers, however big and strong, by saving
its seeds until death, when all it has produced are scattered over
the bare cleared ground, and a new generation quickly springs
out of the ashes.’’

This statement of Mr: Muir’s implies that all or a large part of
the seeds produced. during the life of the tree are capable of germi-
nation when shed, and this seems to be the opinion of others (see
Lemmon, as quoted above, under P. muricata™).

Now it is a well-known fact that pine seeds asa rule are very
perishable (seeds of P. palustris will not germinate, according to
my experience, the second spring after their maturity) and it is
important to test by actual experiment to what extent seeds re-
tain their vitality under such conditions. In looking over the
literature I can find but one experiment that has been made_ to
enlighten us on this point.

In 1874 Dr. Engleman collected a branch of Piuns contorta from
Colorado (the plant being probably var. Murrayana, or lodge pole
pine) and arter keeping it four and a half years, he sent it to
Proressor C. S. Sargent, of the Harvard Arboretum, to test the
seeds. Professor Sargent planted the seeds in 1879, and his re-
sults, as reported in Bot. Gazette, Vol. 5, p, 54, 1880, were as
follows:

*The reference to Pinus radiata by Vernon Bailey on page 34 of C. Hart
Merriam’s ‘‘Results of a Biological Survey of Mount Shasta, California”’
(North American Fauna, 16, 1899) would indicate that its seeds have a hard
time on Mount Shasta. He says:

‘*The trees were loaded with cones, in whorls of three to seven around
the branches and down the trunks to 10 or 12 feet from the ground. Some
of the cones must have been 20 or 30 years old, and perhaps much older. I
ent off a lot of the old lower cones to see if the seed were good, and put
them on a boulder and cracked them with a few hard blows of the ax. All
of them were full of worm dust, with only now and then an _ undiscoved
seed or a fat white worm. Cones of medium age (5 or 6 years back from
the end of the branch) were invariably occupied by worms and worm dnst,
and usually contained few good seeds. Cones only lor 2 years old were
rarely wormy. A great many of the old cones had been dug into by wood-
peckers, either for seeds or, more likely, for the fat white grubs that live on
the seeds.’’

46 Journal of the Mitchell Society | April

Sceds of 1865 and 1868 did not germinate.
1SG9 eos 24 seeds planted, 4 germinated.

ASO en 25 seeds planted, 4 germinated.

LSTA eve 6 seeds planted, 2 germinated.

PST oo cee 19 seeds planted, 5 germinated.

I Re W/E MAE 9 seeds planted, none germinated (cones probably not
mature. )

This experiment shows that at least some of the seeds of P.
Contorta (var. Murrayana?) are capable of germination after re-
tention in the cones for nine or ten years.

My interest having been aroused in this subject while in Cali-
fornia, I was led to observe more closely the cones of our native
P. serotina on my return to South Carolina and it was scon found
that the cones of this species often remain attached and wunopen
for a much longer time than ever reported. In his ‘‘North
American Silva,’’ Vol. 3, p. 117, Michaux says: ‘‘The cones ar-
rive at maturity the second year, but do not release their seeds
before the third or fourth.”’

Sargent follows this statement in his ‘‘Silva’’ and Britton says
(in ‘‘North American Trees’’) that the cones “‘remain closed for
several years before dropping the seed.’’ In the neighborhood of
Hartsville, South Carolina, it was notat all uncommon to find
cones that had remained unopened for ten or even more years,
and the opportunity was taken to collect cones of different ages
for a test of the vitality of the seeds. The cones were taken to the
New York Botanical Garden and there the test was made in June
of this year. Seeds that were obviously blasted or dead (as shown
by floating in water) were discarded, and are recorded as “‘rejec-
ted’’; only apparently sound seed were planted. Theseeds were
first germinated between filter paper in Sphagnum moss for about
five days until the radicals appeared. A count was then made
and the results recorded in the columns of June 29 in the table
below.{ All the seeds, whether germinated or not, were then
planted in soil in pots, and the seedlings that appeared were coun-

Cone No. 1 was not included in this count becanse its seeds were by mis-
take planted in soil before the count was taken.

1910) Vitality of Pine Seeds AT

ted on July 12+ and July 22, with results as shown in the table
below.

Years Old. Rejected. Planted. June 29. July 12. July 22.

3 ol 32 ? 27 28
4 10 14 6 9 9
4 6 15 13 9 9
6 7 57 30 40 39
6 0 62 52 51 52
6 7 60 58 53 48
7 3 88 42 50 44
8 7 49 10 34 33
8 5 27 2 15 18
8 3 42 0 dl oo
9 5 34 5) 2 0
9 2 ol 10 16 7
14 32 61 30 24 21
14 2 67 7 11 11

Increasing numbers in the later readings are due to delayed
germinations: decreased numbers to failure to emerge or to damp-
ing off after emergence.

It should be noted that the conditions that exist in these sero-
tinous cones are almost ideal for the preservation of the vitality of
the seeds. While some exchange of gases is allowed, the spores
of fuugi and bacteria are effectually excluded; and most impor-
tant of all, a sufficient humidity is maintained to prevent a fatal
dehiscence. That this humidity is due to contact with the moist
wood of the live trees is shown by the mechanical opening of the
cone through drying when it is removed from the wood, or when
the tree dies. This opening, however, is not always either prompt
or complete.

Chapel Hill, N. C.

+This counting was, in my absence, kindly made by Mr. Fred. J. Seaver,

aM ye AM ;

AN

yey

JOURNAL 4

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society
JUNE, 1910
VOL. XXVI NO. 2

Proceedings of the North Carolina Academy
of Science.

The North Carolina Academy of Science held its ninth an-
nual meeting at Wake Forest College, Wake Forest, N. C., on
Friday and Saturday, April 29 and 30, 1910.

The Executive Committee met at 3:50 P. M., there being
present President W. C. Coker and Secretary E. W. Gudger,
ex officio, and C. W. Edwards. The Secretary-Treasurer made
his report, which was favorably recommended to the Academy
in the following items.

The following applicants for membership in the Academy
were elected: T. W. Addicks, Assistant Curator State Museum,
Raleigh; W. M. Allen, State Food Chemist, Raleigh; Bronson
Barlow, State Botanist, Raleigh; Julian Blanchard, Professor
of Engineering, Trinity College, Durham; Donald Boyer, In-
structor in Sciences, High School, Kinston; S. C. Bruner, stu-
dent A. & M. College, West Raleigh; R. W. Collett, Supt. State
Experimental Farms, Swannanoa; Eva L. Culbreth, Assistant
in Mathematics, State Normal College, Greensboro; P. W. Dag-
gett, Associate Professor of Physics, University of N. C., Chapel
Hill; L. A. Denson, Section Director Weather Bureau, Raleigh;
John W. Ferrell, Assistant Secretary for Hookworm, State
Board of Health, Raleigh; R. L. Flowers, Professor of Mathe-
matics, Trinity College, Durham; W. H. Fry, Instructor in
Geology, University of N. C., Chapel Hill; P. L. Gainey,
Assistant Bacteriologist, A. & M. College, West Raleigh; Anna
M. Gove, Physician to State Normal College, Greensboro; W.
C. A. Hammel, Professor of Physics, State Normal College,
Greensboro; B. B. Higgins, West Raleigh; Hampden Hill, In-
structor in Chemistry, University of N. C., Chapel Hill; J. C.

50 JOURNAL OF THE Mitcuett Socrety.. [April

Hines, Jr., Instructor in Mathematics, University of N. C.,
Chapel Hill; J. S. Holmes, Forester State Geological and Eeo-
nomic Survey, Chapel Hill; A. Wilson Hobbs, Assistant in
Mathematics, Guilford College; Mrs. W. N. Hutt, Chairman
Woman’s Branch Farmers’ Institutes of N. C., Raleigh; J. D.
Ives, Assistant in Biology, Wake Forest College; C. A. Julian,
Assistant Secretary for Tuberculosis, State Board of Health,
Thomasville; Rev. Geo. Wm. Lay, Rector St. Mary’s School,
Raleigh; I. F. Lewis, Professor of Biology, Randolph-Macon
College, Ashland, Va.; L. B. Lockhart, State Oil Chemist, Ra-
leigh; Alma J. Long, Professor of Domestic Art, State Normal
College, Greensboro; Jno. W. MacConnell, Professor of Biol-
ogy, Davidson College; C. B. Markham, Assistant Professor of
Mathematics, Trinity College, Durham; Gertrude W. Menden-
hall, Professor of Mathematics, State Normal Coilege, Greens-
boro; Mrs. Z. P. Metcalf, Raleigh; C. L. Newman, Professor
of Agriculture, A. & M. College, West Raleigh; Nettie L. Par-
ker, Assistant in Mathematics, State Normal College, Greens-
boro; A. H. Patterson, Professor of Physics, University of N.
C., Chapel Hill; Mary M. Petty, Professor of Chemistry, State
Normal College, Greensboro; John B. Powers, Professor of
Bacteriology and Pathology, Wake Forest College; Mary Rob-
inson, Assistant in Biology, State Normal College, Greens-
boro; F. W. Sherwood, Assistant Chemist, N. C. Agricultural
Experiment Sta., West Raleigh; C. A. Sprague, Instructor in
Physics, A. & M. College, West Raleigh; C. W. Stiles, Scientific
Secretary Rockefeller Sanitary Commission, Washington, D.
C.; Cora L. Strong, Associate Professor of Mathematics, State
Normal College, Greensboro; Opal I. Tillman, Scientifie As-
sistant, Bureau Plant Industry, Washington, D. C.; L. F. Wil-
liams, Assistant Professor of Chemistry, A. & M. College, West
Raleigh; E. L. Worthen, State Soil Expert, Raleigh; E. P.
Wood, Assistant State Veterinarian, Raleigh.

The following amendments to the Constitution proposed by
the Secretary, were endorsed for favorable action by the Acad-
emy. In Art. IT., Sec. 1, as amended May 1, 1910, strike out
the words “dues for the current year” and insert “initiation

1910] Procrrpines or Nintu AnnuaL MEETING 51

fee.” In Art. II., Sec. 2, before the words ‘The annual dues”
insert this sentence, “The initiation fee shall be two dollars,
payable in advance, and there shall be no annual dues for the
first year.”

The Committee requested the Secretary to explain to the
Academy that his action in deferring the printing of the Con-
stitution and list of members until autumn, 1910, in order to
include the new amendments and the enlarged lst of members,
had been authorized by it in March, 1910.

It was moved and carried that hereafter, in order to give
time for discussion, all papers be limited to 15 minutes unless
longer time has been allotted by previous permission of the
Executive Committee; that as far as possible, papers be placed
on the program as their authors wish, provided, however, that
all members have an opportunity to present one paper before
any member gives a second; that a paper not read when called
for shall go to the foot of the list.

At 4:15 P. M. the Academy was called to order, President
W. C. Coker in the chair. The following committees were ap-
pointed: To audit Treasurer’s accounts, W. A. Withers, Frank-
lin Sherman, Jr., J. J. Wolfe; to nominate officers for the en-
suing year, W. L. Poteat, G. W. Lay, Collier Cobb; on resolu-
tions, J. G. Hall, Franklin Sherman, Jr., Z. P. Metcalf.

The balance of the afternoon was spent in reading and discus-
sing papers.

At 8:30 P. M. the Academy reassembled in Wingate Me-
morial Hall, and was cordially weleomed to Wake Forest Col-
lege by President W. L. Poteat. President W. C. Coker, of
the Academy, fittingly responded and then gave the presiden-
tial address, “Science Teaching in the Schools and Colleges of
North Carolina.”

Because of their general interest, the following papers were
presented at this evening meeting, which was largely attended
by the college people: “Pellagra: A Preliminary Report,” by
J. J. Wolfe (with lantern slides) ; “Halley’s Comet,” by A. H.
Patterson (illustrated with lantern slides) ; “The Comet: What
Is It?” by John F. Lanneau (illustrated by chart).

52 JOURNAL OF THE Mitcnuety Socrery. [April

At 8:45 A. M. Saturday, the Academy reassembled for the
annual business meeting. The minutes of last meeting were
read and approved. ‘The recommendations of the Executive
Committee, as itemized above, were unanimously endorsed. The
names of the new members were read. The amendments as
proposed were carried. The recommendations about papers on
program were agreed to without dissent. On motion, the Secre-
tary was authorized to print the revised Constitution and mail
a copy to each member, securing a sufficient number of extra
copies to supply future demands.

The Auditing Committee reported that the Treasurer’s ac-
counts were found to be correct, there being an available bal-
ance of $167.29 less $50.00 due for publishing the proceedings
for 1909.

The Nominating Committee brought in the following nomi-
nations: President, W. H. Pegram, Professor of Chemistry,
Trinity College, Durham; Vice-President, W. S. Rankin, Sec-
retary State Board of Health, Raleigh; Secretary-Treasurer,
E. W. Gudger, Professor of Biology, State Normal College,
Greensboro ;

Executive Committee: F. L. Stevens, Professor of Biology,
A. & M. College, West Raleigh; H. H. Brimley, Curator State
Museum, Raleigh; H. V. Wilson, Professor of Zodlogy, Univer-
sity of N. C., Chapel Hill.

In the absence of the Chairman, Prof. C. W. Edwards, Presi-
dent Coker reported progress for the Committee on Science
Teaching in North Carolina High Schools and Colleges, saying
that they had found it impossible to collect and digest the data
in time to report at this meeting.

On motion the following committee was appointed to collect
data and plan courses of study in the sciences for the high
schools of the State, to be submitted for approval by the Acad-
emy at the next annual meeting: W. C. Coker, University of
North Carolina; C. W. Edwards, Trinity College; G. W. Lay,
St. Mary’s School; Donald Boyer, Kinston High School; H. V.
Wilson, University of North Carolina; F. L. Stevens, A. & M.
College; Collier Cobb, University of North Carolina; J. E.

1910| Procrrpines or Ninto Annuat Meesrine 53

Mills, University of North Carolina; E. W. Gudger, State Nor-
mal College.

The business meeting being over, the reading of papers was
resumed, and with a short interruption for lunch was concluded
at 3:00 P. M. The Committee on Resolutions brought in the
following report:

Resolved, That we, the North Carolina Academy of Science,
hereby extend our sincere thanks to Wake Forest College for
kindness in supplying for us a place of meeting, and for other
favors, and

Resolved, That we wish to express our especial appreciation
of the kindness of the members of the faculty and their families
and others who have so courteously entertained us, and

Resolved, That we wish to express our gratification for the
activity of our Secretary-Treasurer in the zealous discharge of
his duties.

The following members were in attendance: T. W. Addicks,
W. M. Allen, B. Barlow, J. Blanchard, J. G. Boomhour, W. G.
Chrisman, 8. C. Clapp, Collier Cobb, W. C. Coker, C. W. Ed-
wards, P. L. Gainey, E. W. Gudger, J. G. Hall, B. B. Higgins,
WN. Hutt, J. D. Ives, J. F. Lanneau, G. W. Lay, C. B:
Markham, Mrs. Z. P. Metcalf, A. H. Patterson, W. L. Poteat,
J. B. Powers, F. Sherman, Jr., F. W. Sherwood, R. I. Smith,
F., L. Stevens, Opal I. Tillman, W. A. Withers, J. J. Wolfe.

This meeting equalled any other in number of papers, and
excelled any in attendance, in discussion of papers, and in gen-
eral interest. The number of new members received is 46, of
old members enrolled, 43; total, 89.

Adjourned, 3 P. M.

The following papers were presented:

The Cause of Pellagra—A Preliminary Report, Jas. J. Wolfe,
Trinity College, Durham.

Believing that Pellagra must be an infectious disease, and
that, because of its generalized nature, the organism was most
likely to occur in the blood, the writer last September began a

54 JOURNAL OF THE MircueLt Society. [April

study of some specimens of pellagrous blood, with the hope of
throwing some light on the etiology of this disease.

The usual smear preparation was made, stained with methe-
lene blue and studied under a Zeiss apochromat. Bacteria were
seen in considerable numbers in most cases (especially severe
ones )—milder cases were more difficult and not as yet entirely
convincing. These are polymorphic, but generally spherical;
grouped often in doubles like a dumb-bell, or irregular clumps;
sometimes in chains, and usually between 14 and 1 micron in
diameter.

A culture derived from damaged corn shows an organism
quite similar in grouping, size, color, reactions and polymor-
ism. This is now being tested with animals.

Peculiarities in the Distribution of Some North Carolina Birds,
Franklin Sherman, Jr., State Entomologist, Raleigh.

This paper appears in full in the current number of this
par Py
journal. |

The Comet: What is It? John F. Lanneau, Wake Forest College.

The Resin of Pinus Sabiniana, Charles H. Herty and E. 8S. Til-
lett, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hull.

[Read by title. |

Medical Entomology, Z. P. Metcalf, Department of Agriculture,
Raleigh.

A short popular account of some of the more recent develop-
ments in the science of Medical Entomology, which was de-
fined as that branch of Entomology which treats of the relation
of insects and insect-like animals in the transfer of diseases
from man to man, man to animal, and animal to animal.

This relation was declared to be twofold. In the first case
the insect is a necessary intermediate host, and in the sec-
ond case the insect is merely an incidental or accidental factor
in the transfer of the disease. The work of the Board of Health
of the city of Asheville was cited as an example of applied
Medical Entomology.

1910| Procrxpines or NintH Annuat MEETING 55

The Ammoniafying of North Carolina Soils, F. L. Stevens and
W. A. Withers, assisted by P. L. Gainey and F. W. Sher-
wood, N. C. Agricultural Experiment Station, West Raleigh.

Remarks on the Relation of Our Birds to The Farm and Gar
den, C. S. Brimley, Raleigh. Read by F. Sherman, Jr.

[ Published in full in the current number of this journal. |

Where to Find Amebas, E. W. Gudger, State Normal College,
Greensboro.

The directions given in the books are very indefinite, as the
writer found to his sorrow in his early biological days. Acting
on a suggestion made by Dr. D. H. Tennent, now of Bryn Mawr
College, he at that time successfully sought them in the yellow-
ish-green diatom deposits on the bottom of stagnant ditches or
of quiet pools in brooks. In seven years these have never failed
to furnish abundant material. The writer’s classes are sup-
pled from a tiled drain at the foot of a bank less than 100 yards
from the laboratory. These amebas vary in size from quite
small to those so large that they cannot be seen in their entirety
under the ordinary high objective.

The Origin of Thermal Waters, with Special Reference to Hot
Springs, Ark., Collier Cobb, University of N. C., Chapel Hill.
Some Aids to Better Work in Science, C. W. Edwards, Trinity

College, Durham.

[Read by title. ]

A New Hybrid Habenaria of North Carolina, J. G. Hall, N. C.

Agricultural Experiment Station, West Raleigh.

A hybrid Habenaria was reported from the neighborhood of
Kinston, N. C. This natural hybrid seemed to be pretty well
intermediate between the two supposed parents, H. ciliaris and
H. blephariglottis. Photographs of the flowers were shown and
these presented some characters of the parents and the hybrid.

The Present Status of the Darwinian Hypothesis, W. L. Po-
teat, Wake Forest College.

56 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Soctery. [April

Some Experiments on Ionization by Impact: The Time Varia-
tion of the Current through a Gas Ionized by Radium, J.
Blanchard, Trinity College, Durham.

The ionization vessel was a glass tube with parallel plate
electrodes about 5 centimeters in diameter, both plates coated
(though unequally) with a thin layer of a very impure salt of
radium. With the plates about 1 centimeter apart and the
pressure about 1 millimeter, with a potential difference suffi-
cient to produce considerable ionization by impact, it was
found that the current decreased with the time the battery key
remained closed, reaching its minimum value in about an hour.
On opening the key the initial conductivity was almost totally
regained in about the same time. Upon reversing the potential
at the end of an hour the current was sometimes found to be
greater than it was initially in this reverse direction, but also
decreasing with the time as before.

The potential difference apparently causes an increased
amount of ionization near the positive plate, the effect being de-
tected only when the potential gradient is sufficient to cause
ionization by impact. Further experiments are in progress.

Is the Fusarium Which Causes Cowpea Wilt Genetically Con-
nected with Neocosmospora? B. B. Higgins, N. C. Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, West Raleigh.

In 1889 the wilt disease of cotton was studied by Prof. Geo.
F. Atkinson, and its causal fungus named Fusarium vasinfec-
tum. A few years later (1894-99) the wilt disease of cotton,
watermelon, and cowpea was studied by Erwin F. Smith. He
found no specific differences between the fungi upon any of the
three hosts. He found, however, upon some of the plants prev-
iously killed by the wilt fungus an acigerous fungus which he
considered the perfect stage of Fusarium vasinfectum. The
fungus was therefore renamed by him Neocosmospora vasin-
fecta, and this conclusion has been accepted by subsequent writ-
ers. The evidence upon which this conclusion was based was
very weak, however; and a recent study of the two forms by
the writer—the results of which will at an early date be pub-

1910| Procrrpines oF NintH AnNuAL MEETING 57

lished in bulletin form—has caused the writer to reopen this
question, which was considered closed.

Some Experiments in the Propagation of the Diamond-Back
Terrapin, Henry D. Aller, Director Laboratory of Fisheries,
Beaufort.

Read by the Secretary.

[This paper appears in full in the current number of this
journal. |

The Present Status of the Relativity Problem, C. W. Edwards,
Trinity College, Durham.

[Read by title.

The Locus of a Moving Point When the Sum of Its Distances
From Two Fixed Points, Their Difference, Their Product,
or Their Quotient, is Constant, John F. Lanneau, Wake For-
est College.

The loci determined by the first three conditions are the well
known Ellipse, Hyperbola, and Lemniseate.

Under the fourth condition: Take line through the fixed
points F and F” as x-axis; the point O, midway between them,
as origin; 2c for distance F to EF’; K for the constant quotient
when the moving point is on one side of the y-axis, and there-
fore = the quotient when it has the corresponding position on
the other side.

k2
4¥ pea wt axte 2=0
The locus, therefore, consists of two equal circles whose centers
are on the x-axis beyond F and F” at equal distances from O.

2. A discussion of the equation shows:

If k—1, the circles are of infinite radius, and are tangent at O;
If k is either O or OO, the circles reduce to the points F and F’ ;
If k has, in turn, any series of values between 1 and O, or be-
tween 1 and OO, the loci form a group of circles about F and a
similar group about F’—the number of circles in each group
limited only by the number of values given to k.

1. The equation of the locus is x

58 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHet. Soctrery. [April

3. None of the circles of the F and F’ groups pass through
either of the fixed points F and F’.

Any circles drawn through F and F” are extraneous to the
loci, but each such cirele is orthogonal to every circle in the loci
groups.

Notes on Fungi, F. L. Stevens and J. G. Hall, N. C. Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, West Raleigh.

Three new species of Claviceps were described. Two of them
are upon Paspalum and are thought to be the perfect stages of
the fungus usually known as Schlerotiwm Paspali S. Germina-
tion of the sclerotium was described and the characters of the
fungus were illustrated by photographs and specimens. The
third species grows upon Gama grass (T'ripsacum dactyloi-
des L.) Both sphacelia and ascosporic stages were exhibited.
Technical descriptions were given under the names Claviceps
Paspali (S.) n. comb.; C. Rolfsii n. sp.; and C. Tripsaci n. sp.
These will be published in full elsewhere, soon.

Specimens of a Cercospora upon persimmon, which was
thought to be new, were also shown.

Some Methods of Making Illustrations, Z. P. Metealf, Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Raleigh.

A brief consideration of the more important methods of mak-
ing illustrations. Drawings with their reproductions were
shown covering the following methods: pen and ink, pencil and
crayon, watercolor, oil color, photographs, lantern slides and
color photography.

Precautions Necessary in Estimating Climates of Geological
Time, Collier Cobb, University of N. C., Chapel Hiil.

The Jaws of the Spotted Sting Ray, Aetobatus Narinarz, EK. W.
Gudger, State Normal College, Greensboro.

This ray was discovered in Brazilian waters, described and
figured by George Marcgrave sometime between the years 1637
and 1644. His description of fish and jaws was published in
1648. This pavement-toothed ray has but one set of teeth—

1910| Procrrpines oF NintH AnNvuAL MEETING 59

the central one—in each jaw, the lateral teeth found in the
others of its kind having all disappeared. In the upper jaw
are found 14 I-shaped teeth, in the lower 17 broad V-shaped
grinders as noted by Maregrave. The lower jaw is the longer
and projects beyond the lips. With it and the fairly long snout,
the ray digs up the clams on which it feeds.

The paper was illustrated by photographs of dorsal, ventral,
and lateral views of the ray, and by a pair of dried jaws.

The writer has in preparation for the U. S. Bureau of Fisher-
ies a paper in which he hopes to bring together all the work
ever done on this fish, and in which will be included his observa-
tions and the photographs above mentioned.

The Cocoanut Crab, John F. Lanneau, Wake Forest College.

Called also the Robber Crab and the Pouch Crab. Shaped
more like a lobster than a crab. Found on islands of the South
Pacific. Weight usually 5 or 6 pounds, sometimes 20.

Feeds on fallen cocoanuts. Said to climb the trees. Is highly
esteemed as food, especially the rich fatty content of the pouch.

Ts found on our island of Guam. It and other singular forms
of life on that pleasant little island would repay a biologist’s in-
vestigation. His visit would likely be facilitated by our Secre-
tary of War or Secretary of Navy.

A Double Flowering Dogwood, F. L. Stevens and J. G. Hall,

N. C. Agricultural Experiment Station, West Raleigh.

A ease of “double-flower” of the common Flowering Dog-
wood (Cornus florida L.) due to the excessive development of
the small bracts that subtend the individual flowers of the ordi-
nary head, was reported. There was, as well, the suppression
of all the individual flowers except the central one, which ap-
peared entirely normal.

A Note on the Development of the Gall-Fly Diastrophus Nebu-
losus, O. S., J. D. Ives, Wake Forest College.
[This paper is published in full in this issue. |

Pecan Culture in North Carolina, W. N. Hutt, State Horticul-

turist, Raleigh.
E. W. GUDGER, Secretary.

SUMMARY OF RECENT EXPERIMENTS ON THE
CULTURE OF THE DIAMOND-BACK TERRAPIN
AT THE FISHERIES LABORATORY, BEAU-
FORT, N. C.

By Henry D. Auer,
Director Beaufort Laboratory.

It having been determined by the Bureau of Fisheries to re-
sume experimental work looking toward the culture of the dia-
mond-back terrapin at the Beaufort, N. C., laboratory, the con-
struction of a large concrete pound was begun at that place late
in the year of 1908. The concrete work consisted of one side
wall, 4514 feet long, running parallel to the shore, and two end
walls, each 2814 feet long, running at right angles to the other
wall. Plank extensions inshore gave a rectangular pound 4514
feet by 4414 feet. The location of the pound was such that dur-
ing a portion of each tide a part of the interior was flooded with
salt water. An opening about three feet wide in the offshore
wall, crossed by gratings to prevent the escape of terrapins, per-
mitted the tide to rise and fall freely within the pound. With
ordinary tides a considerable part of the interior of the pound
was above high water level.

The stock of terrapins consisted of about a dozen which had
been kept at the laboratory for a number of years, being a part
of those used for experimental work at Beaufort, twenty pur-
chased from a firm at Crisfield, Md., and a number secured from
local sources. In all between sixty and seventy were available
for the work, in the proportion of about two females to one male.
They were placed in the pound in the spring or early in the
summer of 1909. They were fed abundantly, mostly on crabs
and fresh fish. During the season there was no evidence of any
egg-laying. During December, 1909, while excavating a quan-
tity of earth from the pound, a number of young diamond-backs
were unexpectedly discovered. Twelve in all were found.
Eleven were in good condition, the twelfth having been injured
in the excavation work. They were of uniform size, measuring

1910] Cutrure oF Diamonp-Back TrErrapin 61

from 25 to 28 millimeters in length, the lengths being taken
along the median line of the plastron. The young were buried
in sand in various places, some in the laboratory and others
out of doors. No special care was given them, aside from keep-
ing the sand containing those in the laboratory moist and in
protecting all from freezing. No food was given them. They
remained buried until about the first or second week in April,
when they began to come to the surface, as if preparing for an
active existence.

The chief conclusions are: first, that diamond-back terrapins
will breed.in captivity with little attention, provided they have
plenty of food and free access to water; second, the young may
be easily cared for during the early part of their life. Appar-
ently all the young were hatched from eggs laid in ground which
had received no attention. So far as is known, none were
hatched in the sand-beds prepared for nests. It is not neces-
sary, and perhaps not possible to supply the young with food
prior to the spring following the year during which they were
hatched.

During June, 1909, a number of eggs were collected from
nests made under natural conditions in the vicinity of Beau-
fort. These eggs were buried in sand at the laboratory, but
the attempt to hatch them was not successful. Whether the
failure was due to improper handling of the eggs cannot be
said, but it is doubtful whether this method of raising terra-
pins would ever be of any economic value.

The work has been carried on under the general direction of
Prof. W. P. Hay, of ‘Washington, D. C.

REMARKS ON THE RELATION OF BIRDS TO OUR
FARMS AND GARDENS.

By C. S. Brimtey.

This paper is prompted by a letter that appeared some time
ago in the Progressive Farmer, in which the writer stated that
he wished there were one thousand beneficial birds to every one
we now have, and in which he advocated the stopping of all hunt-
ing and shooting as a means to secure that desired end, evident-
ly thinking that if birds were only let alone they would increase
indefinitely, which of course is uot the case. This leads me to
ask the question,—Why are not birds more numerous in our
farms and gardens, and why do they not eat up more of the in-
sect pests that destroy our crops? A good many persons would
answer that there were not enough of them, and would say that
the scarcity was caused by the recent wholesale destruction of
them for millinery purposes, being unaware that practically all
the birds killed for that purpose of late years have been shore and
sea birds which would only occur on cultivated land under ex-
ceptional circumstances. |

Now there is undoubtedly rather a scarcity of birds on the
average southern farm, and what we want to do is to find out the
reason for it, and see if a change cannot be brought about.

If then we consider the natural habits of our small land
birds, what do we find? Just this, that a very large majority of
them are naturally woodland birds, and what may I ask is there
in acre after acre of such clean culture crops as corn, cotton or
tobacco, to attract any forest loving species at all? Frequently
too we find the farm house standing unshaded with no trees
around it, often there is no orchard, and the only birds that will
frequent such a farm are those that can find patches of briars or
bushes to build their nests in. Mind you I am not saying there
may not be plenty of birds in the adjacent woods, but they would
feed and breed in the woods, and would hardly be seen on the
farm at all.

What is the remedy for this? Let the farmer plant some
shade trees, and an orchard, and when the trees get big enough

1910| Rewation or Birps tro Farms anp GarpENs 63

he will find birds will come and nest in them, and vice versa, if
he cuts his trees down the birds will leave also. I can give an
actual instance of the latter fact. There used to be a little way
from Raleigh, a large mulberry orchard, in which orioles, tan-
agers, yellow warblers, catbirds, cardinals, kingbirds and others
dwelt in numbers during the summers, in fact there were more
individual birds there than in almost any place I ever saw.
Now, however, that orchard has been entirely cut down, and
with the disappearance of the trees the birds have also disap-
peared.

Then again if he has a real pasture, not merely a fenced-in
piece of swamp or pine woods, he will find a few kinds will
sooner or later be attracted to it and will nest there. Mind you
I am not saying that we can get enough birds on any farm to be
a substitute for paris green or arsenate of lead as a remedy
against injurious insects ; in fact I am inclined to look upon that
as an iridescent dream, but still by paying some attention to the
needs of the birds we can get quite a number of kinds to make
their homes near our homes, and that without doing anything
that we ought not to do anyhow.

To take a concrete instance, I moved to my present residence,
some ten years ago, and at that time there were a lot of big
trees around the house, but nothing else. Since then, however,
I have planted a lot of bushes,and some fruit trees, so that there
is a great deal more growth on the lot than there was when I
came there, and there are also a good many more birds there
both winter and summer than at first.

Now, what are the birds that will be attracted by such meas-
ures to the neighborhood of our dwellings, and of course the an-
swer is only those that are able to adapt themselves to the
changed conditions brought about by man. The species that
will come around in summer under such conditions are the
robin, the bluebird (if there is a suitable hole or two for him
to nest in), the purple martin (if we hang up martin gourds),
the summer tanager, yellow warbler, red-eyed and yellow-
throated vireos, crested flycatcher—also dependent on a nice
hole for a nesting site, wood pewee, catbird, mockingbird, caro-

64 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHEL. Society [April

lina wren, (he is likely to come anyway) red-headed woodpecker
(if there are oaks to furnish him acorns) field sparrow, chip-
ping sparrow, English sparrow and others that I do not eall to
mind at present.

Sad to say, however, most of these birds, all of which, ex-
cept the martin, nest more or less on my lot, stay up in their
trees, and do not come into my garden at all, the exceptions
being the three kinds of sparrows mentioned, the catbird, caro-
lina wren, with an occasional summer tanager and wood pewee.
The two vireos never come there. This brings me to another
phase of the subject, which is that do what we will, we are not
going to get birds that are naturally arboreal to come down out
of their trees and feed on the ground, however much we may
want them to do so—and hence I believe that our birds must
inevitably be of much greater importance to the forester than
to the farmer. Some of the species mentioned above, however,
may be economically useful, and these are the two native spar-
rows and the catbird.

Passing now to our winter birds, we find these largely fre-
quent clumps of bushes and thickets, while other species are
found in open fields, and many of these latter undoubtedly are
beneficial on account of the cutworms, white grubs, and other
insects they destroy, the meadowlark and titlark being familiar
examples of such open field birds. Those species that inhabit
thickets, both great and small, undoubtedly also destroy large
numbers of hibernating insects that would otherwise come out
next spring to do damage, and which pass the winter in the
shelter of such places. In fact, offhand it looks as if the winter
birds might do more good than the summer species.

The principal winter birds that frequent thickets or clumps
of bushes in and around fields are the song, white-throated, and
field sparrows and the slate-colored junco (snowbird), all of
which, especially the first two, are common in my garden.

DEVELOPMENT OF SPONGES FROM TISSUE CELLS
OUTSIDE THE BODY OF THE PARENT™*.

By H. V. Witson.

About five years ago I suggested to the Bureau of Fisheries
that an investigation to cover the various ways in which sponges
reproduce might yield some results of value for scientific sponge
culture. I had in mind the high degree of reproductive (tech-
nically, regenerative) power possessed by at least certain body
cells, as distinguished from germ cells, in sponges.

This great regenerative power of somatic cells in sponges is
displayed, as has long been known, in the formation of asexual
masses which under proper conditions develop into new sponges.
The regenerative masses of this kind that are best known are the
gemmules of fresh-water sponges, but similar gemmules have
been discovered by Topsent and others in marine sponges. Ob-
servations of my own, dating as far back as 1889,+ indicated
that in some marine sponges such asexual masses not only
possess the power to transform into sponges, but in so doing pass
through a swimming stage not distinguishable from the ciliated
larva which typically develops from an egg. In a case of this
kind, as I have pointed out (op. cit., 1891), the nature of the
body cell as measured by its potentialities is fundamentally like
that of a germ cell—it has full regenerative power, including
the ability to recapitulate in some measure the ancestral history
of the protoplasm. Considerations of this kind led me to doubt
whether in all metazoa the protoplasm really did divide sharply
into somatic and germinal cells. Rather was the idea encour-
aged that in the lower metazoa, such as sponges, the cellular
elements all retained just so much of the nature of the germ cell
(just so much of the specific idioplasm, one might say) as
would enable them, under the influence of an appropriate stimu-

*Reprinted from Bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries, Vol. xxviii, p. 1265-1271,
May 1910.

+Wilson, H. V.: Notes on the development ofsome sponges, Journal of Morph-
ology, 1891; Observations on the gemmule and egg development of marine
sponges, ibid., 1894,

66 JOURNAL OF THE MircHett Socrety [April

lus, to develop either into ova or sperms, or into asexual repro-
ductive masses. Assuming that sponge protoplasm had this
eminently plastic character, I conceived that one might discover
ways in which to call into unusual activity the reproductive or
regenerative power, and so, as it were, to invent new methods of
growing sponges.

The results, at this time, of the investigation that I have been
conducting for the Bureau during the past five summers at the
Beautort laboratory justify, it seems to me, the point of view
above outlined. Two new methods by which sponges may be
grown have been discovered, and both of these methods attest
the remarkable regenerative power of the body cells of sponges.
That both methods are applicable to the commercial sponge
there can hardly be a doubt. Whether at the present time any
economic advantage would accrue from the practice of either is
perhaps doubtful, in view of the fact thas sponges may so suc-
cessfully be grown from cuttings—a method first practiced by
Oscar Schmidt, and further developed in this country by Rich-
ard Rathbun, while in recent years H. F. Moore has brought it
through a long series of admirable experiments to a high degree
of efficiency.

But while the methods which I shall presently describe may
not now be of practical utility, they add something to our knowl-
edge of the underlying scientific principles of sponge culture.
And it is a truism that such principles are the funds, so to
speak, on which the practice of succeeding generations draws in
the conduct of economic enterprises. I am convinced that our
knowledge of these scientific principles of sponge culture may be
vastly increased. Future researches will surely clear up, among
other points, the relation between the formation of sexual pro-
ducts (ova and sperms), of asexual masses which transform
directly without passing through the swimming stage (ciliated
larva), and of asexual masses which imitate the egg development
in passing through the stage of the ciliated larva. I may add
that such a relation is “cleared up” to the eye of science (in
contradistinction to metaphysics) only after the discovery of
the actual treatment to which, when the sponge tissue is sub-

1910] DEVELOPMENT OF SPONGES 67

-jected, it responds by the development of this or that reproduc-
tive body. In this instance, as in many such biological problems,
the most intimate knowledge of the structure and movements
of the cells concerned in the production of each kind of body is
necessary. But such knowledge of itself falls short, and remains
unsatisfactory until it leads up through experiment to an actual
control of the phenomena—to the power which can at will con-
pel the sponge to produce the one or the other kind of reproduc-
tive body.

The first of the two new methods to which I have alluded has
been described in Science.* It is briefly as follows:

If sponges are kept under appropriate conditions in aquaria,
the body dies in some regions, but in localities the cells remain
alive and congregate to form masses. In the production of such
masses the component cells lose their individuality, fusing with
one another to form a continuous mass of protoplasm studded
with nuclei (a syncytium). Such masses of syncytial proto-
plasm are easily seen with the unaided eye scattered through the
interior or over the surface of the remains of the original sponge.
They are frequently spheroidal, but often of an irregular shape,
and have the power of slow ameboid movement. In successful
cases of treatment these masses, varying from a fraction of a
millimeter to a few millimeters in diameter, are exceedingly
abundant. The smaller ones of more regular shape at once call
to mind the gemmules that are normally formed in such sponges
as Spongilla. Experiment shows them to be physiologically like
such gemmules in that they have the power to transform into
perfect sponges. To bring about this transformation it was
only necessary to remove the regenerative masses to the open
water of the harbor at Beaufort, where they were kept in small
bolting cloth bags suspended in a floating live box. The sponge

*Wilson, H. V.: Anew method by which sponges may be artificially reared.
Science, June 7, 1907.

68 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHeELt Sociery - [April

especially worked on was a silicious form, a species of Stylo-
tella.*

The second of the two methods, a description of which may be
found in the Journal of Experimental Zodlogy,+ is the more in-
teresting and important. It should be said that the method
succeeds best with sponges in which there is a considerable de-
velopment of horny skeletal fiber. The form especially used in
my work has been Microciona prolifera Verrill, and it has
proved practically necessary to use always the large bushy speci-
mens. The procedure is as follows:

Cut the sponge into small pieces and put them on a square of
bolting cloth. Gather the cloth round the sponge fragments in
the shape of a bag. Holding the upper end closed with the fin-
gers, compress the bag repeatedly with small dissecting forceps.
The bag meantime remains immersed in a little dish of sea
water. The sponge cells are squeezed free of the skeleton and
are strained through the pores of the bolting cloth. They fall
like a fine sediment on the bottom of the dish. Collect the sedi-
ment with a small pipette and strew it over glass plates or shells
immersed in sea water. The originally separate cells quickly
combine with one another, exhibiting amceboid phenomena. The
masses so formed go on fusing with one another through the for-
mation of peripheral pseudopodia, and thus the whole surface
of the glass slide (or other object used) may become covered with
a network of plasmodial masses and cords, which adhere to it
with some firmness. After perhaps half an hour the plate should
be lifted from the water and cautiously drained. The sponge
plasmodia are thus flattened out somewhat and their attachment
to the plate is strengthened. Return the plate at once to a dish
of fresh sea water, where it should be left with two or three
changes of water for a day. By this time the network of plas-
modia has probably transformed itself in whole or in great part
into a thin uniform incrustation. It is best now to transfer the

*Otto Maas has independently discovered that the cells of calcareous sponges
under the influence of reagents exhibit a behavior essentially like that above de-
scribed. See my account in Science, loc. cit.

+Wilson, H. V.: On some phenomena of coalescence and regeneration in
sponges. Journal of Experimental Zoology, vol. v. no. 2, December, 1907.

1910 | DEVELOPMENT OF SPONGES 69

plate to the open water. My practice has been to tie such plates
to the inside of galvanized-wire boxes, and to hang the boxes in
a large live-box.

In the course of a week it will be found that the incrustation
has transformed itself into a functional sponge with pores, os-
cula, well-developed canal system, and flagellated chambers.
The steps in this gradual differentiation may be followed by
examining the sponge at intervals under the microscope. The
differentiation goes on, but at a slower rate, in preparations
kept continuously in laboratory dishes or aquaria. While the
sponge incrustation is quite thin, the currents of water and
vibrations of the flagella in the flagellated chambers may be ob-
served with a high power. For this purpose small incrustations
grown on cover glasses are the best.

Until the past summer it was a question whether sponges pro-
duced in this way would continue to grow and would develop the
skeleton characteristic of the species. If they would not, it was
clear that the method had no value for economic sponge culture.
And so, early in July, I again visited the Beaufort laboratory
and with the help of my assistant, Mr. R. R. Bridgers, started
some Microciona plasmodia on glass slides and oyster shells. It
was possible for me to remain at the laboratory only two weeks,
but Mr. Bridgers took charge of the sponges and continued to
start other plasmodia at intervals during July and August, con-
ducting his experiments with great care and skill.

Mishap of course overtook some of the cultures; but scores of
them grew perceptibly during the summer and by the first of
September a large number had developed the skeleton of the
adult with the characteristic spicules and the horny columns pro-
jecting up from the basal skeletal plate. What was equally
gratifying was that the sponge in many cases had not only
spread and thickened and developed the species-skeleton, but
had also developed quantities of reproductive bodies. These lay
scattered in the deeper part of the incrustation, plainly visible
to the eye. I have not yet made a sufficiently pregise histologi-
eal examination of these bodies to determine whether they are
ege larvee or asexual masses. The whole appearance of the

70 JOURNAL OF THE Mircueti Sociery [April

sponges grown in this way, some six weeks old, is quite like
that of normal Microciona of incrusting habit.

Looking from the utilitarian standpoint at this latter method
of growing sponges, it is not at all inconceivable that it may at
some time be of direct economic value. The ease with which
quantities of sponge cells may be had and the opportunity af-
forded of attaching them to any desired object are considera-
tions which encourage such an idea. Going farther afield from
present-day practice and looking to the future, the method sug-
gests itself as one of the possible means of altering the specific
characteristics of sponges and improving races. In a paper
presented to the National Fishery Congress of 1898* I briefly
discussed the possibility of improving sponge races, suggesting
as means thereto the breeding of sponges from the egg with
accompanying selection, and also the practice of grafting. Now
if the cells of two closely allied races were mixed together it is
on the whole probable that a composite plasmodium would result
which would develop the characteristics of both races. Such a
form would be something comparable to a hybrid. I have in
fact carried on experiments of this character.;+ The results of
my experiments were negative—the cells of each species coal-
esced, but there was no permanent union between the cells or
cell masses of the different species. It should be said, however,
that the species used were so unlike that there was at the outset
but little chance of coalescence. In a more favorable locality,
where a great variety of horny sponges exist, such experiments
hold forth some promise.

Note.—In connection with the foregoing paper there was an exhibit of micro-
photographs illustrating some of the more important stages in the development of
sponges from cells forcibly removed from the parent body.

a

*Wilson, H. V.: On the feasibility of raising sponges from the egg. Proceed-
ings of the National Fishery Congress, 1898, in U. S. Fish Commission Bulletin,

vol. xvii, 1897.

+Journal of Experimental Zoology, loc. cit.

PECULIARITIES IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOME
NORTH CAROLINA BIRDS.

By Franxiin SHERMAN, JR.

In view of the fact that a volume on the birds of North Caro-
lina is already in preparation by Messrs. T. G. Pearson and C.
S. Brimley, which will include a few observations made by the
writer at various times, it seems desirable to present some of
them at this meeting.

A lost or startled bird may wander (or be carried by storm)
far out of its natural range. It is not to such accidental cir-
cumstances that we wish to refer, but rather to the oceurrence
of certain birds in nesting season in natural behavior, at locali-
ties not generally heretofore known to be within their breeding
range,

In the working out of areas of distribution and life-zones,
data on the places where a bird nests, are far more valuable than
records of its mere occurrence.

sonG sparROW (Melospiza fasciata, Gmel. )

The nesting range of the song sparrow is, in general, northern.
Chapman says: “breeds from northern Illinois and Virginia
north to Quebee and Manitoba.” Curiously enough, all but one
of the earliest breeding records for this State were from the
coast, indeed, on the very “‘banks”’ or fringe of low sandy islands
‘that separate our mainland from the ocean. Mr. Bishop re-
ports that a few breed on Pea Island. Dr. Coues, working
chiefly at Fort Macon on the banks at Beaufort, reports that
it is a resident (present all the year) though most of them pass
north to breed. Mr. Pearson once observed it singing at Cape
Hatteras on May 15th. In July, 1906, Mr. Pearson observed
it very common at Ocracoke, and he observed it there in other
years. These are the eastern records.

The first western North Carolina records are: Three seen
frequently in summer of 1892, by Philip Laurent at Cranberry
(Mitchell County). Common on Roan Mountain up to 3,500
ft., in June 1895 (S. N. Rhoads). A pair seeen at Asheville
July 26, 1902, by T. G. Pearson. Nevertheless, Cairns, who

72 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL Society [April

worked for years around Weaverville, in Buncombe County,
makes no mention of it, and Mr. Brewster, who gave some time
to ornithological study in Haywood, Jackson and Macon coun-
ties in May and June 1885, did not list it at all.

The writer is positive that he saw the song sparrow at High-
land (Macon County) in the summer of 1903 or 1904, when he
crept close to a singing specimen which was exposed to full front
view in the top of a small tree, but the fact was not positively
recorded, especially as there still existed some doubt of its being
in our mountain section in breeding season. The writer had
some discussion with our local ornithologists on the subject,
which led to a determination to find out the facts.

During the summer of 1907 the writer spent some days at
Hendersonville, where he recorded a number for mid-J une—
and a little later recorded the species at Highlands again. Dur-
ing the same season Mr. S. C. Bruner both saw and collected
specimens at Blowing Rock and recorded it as “common.” He
also found a nest. Immediately after the meeting of our Acad-
emy at Greensboro two years ago, Mr. C. S. Brimley and the
writer started on a tour of two weeks through the southwestern
counties. The species was recorded at Blantyre (Transylvania
County), and Highlands, and was collected at Aquone (Macon
County). During the same summer (1908) Mr. R. W. Collett
working in the Swannanoa Valley near Black Mountain, re-
ported it “as common as the field sparrow. Have never seen
but one breeding pair in Cherokee or Graham counties.” He
reported seeing birds feeding young. June 18 to 24, 1909, the
writer observed it to be common at Linville, Linville Falls,
Blowing Rock, Boone, Valle Crucis, and Patterson.

Why the status of this bird as a common breeder throughout
all the higher parts of our mountain region should have been so
long a matter of speculation, is difficult to explain. We con-
sider it common enough now—why did not Cairns or Brewster
record it? Possibly it has not always been a common breeder
in these sections.

Yet, all through the piedmont and western part of the coastal
plain the song sparrow is present only in winter, and goes north

1910] Distripurion oF Nortu Carorina Birps 73

in spring to breed. That it should breed in this State only
along the very verge of the ocean itself and in our higher moun-
tain localities is worthy of mention.

TOWHEE (Pipilo erythropthalmus, Linn. )

This bird is a member of the sparrow family, spends much
time on the ground, and is a vigorous scratcher, as might be
inferred from its large feet. It is the sort of bird that is apt
to be well known in localities where it remains for any length
of time. Locally it is sometimes called the “Joe-rigger.”

For sometime we have known that the towhee breeds in the
mountains in the western part of the State, where it is on record
from Hendersonville, Blowing Rock, Highlands, and Buncombe
County. On June 9, 1909, Mr. C. S. Bruner observed one at
Taylorsville, which is on the verge between the mountains and
the piedmont, as it is near the Brushy Mountains, an eastern
spur of the Blue Ridge. We have also known that it breeds
near the coast. Dr. Coues lists it as a common summer resi-
dent at Fort Macon. Dr. J. W. P. Smithwick says it is “or-
dinarily seen in summer in the east.” The writer recorded it
as common at White Lake in Bladen County May 18 to 22,
1909, and both Mr. C. S. Brimley and the writer have recorded
it at Lake Ellis, Craven County, in May and June in several
different years. But we have had no clear and definite records
of it in breeding season in the piedmont, unless the Taylorsville
record could be so considered.

On July 29, 1908 (midst of breeding season) the writer ob-
served both sexes of the Towhee common on a drive between
Stony Ridge, in Stokes County and Stoneville in Rockingham
County. So it does at least breed in some sections of piedmont
North Carolina.

BARN SWALLOow (Chelidon erythrogaster, Bodd.)

Until last year breeding records of the barn swallow were con-
fined to extreme eastern North Carolina, although the great
bulk go north of this State to breed. Dr. Bishop and Mr. Pear-
son record nests on Pea Island. Mr. Pearson reports two nests
found at Wrightsville in July, 1903, and the same observer re-
ports two birds seen 15 miles north of Southport in June, 1908.

74 JOURNAL OF THE MitTcHELL Soctery [April

On July, 20, 1909, the writer observed a pair nesting and in
perfectly natural behavior in a barn at Valle Crucis, Watauga
County. This locality is at an elevation of 2,500 to 2,700 feet.
It is probable that it breeds in other localities in at least the
northern part of our mountain region.

LOGGERHEAD SHRIKE (Lanius ludovicianus, Linn.)

This bird has been known to North Carolina ornithologists
chiefly as a winter visitor, arriving from the north in fall, and
departing to the northward in spring. Winter records are
from Raleigh, Durham, Chapel Hill, Greensboro, Warrenton
and Red Springs. Breeding has been recorded from the western
half of the State, at Morganton and Statesville. Dr. Smithwick
does record it as breeding at LaGrange, though more common as
a winter bird.

On April 27, 1909, the writer saw a shrike acting very much
at home in a yard at Laurinburg, apparently preparing to nest,
as it made frequent trips to the tangle of a seuppernong grape
arbor. On July 21, 1909, a pair were observed flying along
road and perching on telephone wires at Kelford, in Bertie
County, and on July 27 (only six days later) a pair, seemingly
mates, were seen at Kingsboro, in Edgecombe County. It
seems likely, therefore, that the shrike nests (sparingly per-
haps) throughout piedmont and eastern North Carolina.

roBIN (Merula migratoria, Linn.)

This bird is well known to all of us. Of its breeding range
Chapman says: “Breeds from near the southern border of the
United States northward to the Arctic coast.” Nevertheless, it
has not until recently been known to nest in eastern North Caro-
lina. Dr. Smithwick in August, 1908 wrote: “I have never
seen a robin nesting east of Chapel Hill.” His observations
were mainly from southeastern Bertie, southeastern Beaufort,
and Lenoir counties. At Belvidere, Perquimmans County, Mr.
Pearson recorded a pair building April 25, 1898, and in late
June, 1909, Mr. C. S. Brimley found the species abundant at
Southern Pines and they must have been nesting at that date.

On July, 18, 1909, the writer observed several at Gatesville
in the tall shade trees—and on July 30, 1909, observed. several

1910| Disrrinution oF NortH Carorina Birps 75

in like situation at Grimesland, Pitt County. Several pairs
of robins remained in Raleigh through the summer of 1909,
and Mr. Brimley has known the species there for many years,
in sparing numbers.

From a number of the foregoing records it will be noticed
that certain birds, notably song sparow, towhee and barn swal-
low, are of northern range so far as breeding is concerned, yet
they nest along our coast and in the mountains, while all
through the central part of the State they are hardly seen at all
in breeding season. Yet the mountains, generally speaking,
furnish the northern conditions, and the coast furnishes the
more southern conditions. Why should a bird of northern ten-
dencies show a preference for the northern and southern ex-
tremes of our State and yet seem to shun the great middle
ground? It may be noted in this connection that the same pecu-
liarity is shown by certain plants, of which the wild cranberry
is an example. This plant grows wild naturally in certain
swampy areas in Mitchell County in the west, at altitudes of
3,000 ft. and in the low swamps of Dare and Tyrrell counties in
the east, practically at sea-level, yet the plant is not known in
all the region between. The same peculiarity has been noted
in the distribution of certain mammals.

Mr. W. W. Ashe, who has long studied the plants of the State
and their distribution, says that the explanation of these phe-
nomena is that in the coast region the great humidity of the
atmosphere reduces the apparent heat to the plant or animal, so
that its needs are met as completely as in a more northern
latitude.

All of which shows more and more clearly that this State fur-
nishes a fine field for the student of geographical distribution,
and the few interesting facts thus far discovered are probably
only an indication of many more that are yet hidden.

J am under obligation to Mr. C. S. Brimley for the many rec-
ords with which mine are here compared. Even my own
records were sent direct to Mr. Brimley, who returned them
again to me, and at whose suggestion this paper has been pre-
pared.

A NOTE ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GALL-FLY
DIASTROPHUS NEBULOSUS, O. S.

Bx Gb. P. olvEs:

The average number of larve taken from blackberry knot
galls in January was about 85. But in most of the galls there
were places where some of the insects had evidently emerged.
In one gall there were as many as 39 such places, while in others
there were but few; making the average number of larve con-
tained in a gall about 100.

In certain of the galls the number of parasitic or inquilinus
larvee, namely those of Torymus sackeni, Ashm., and Hurytoma
sp. exceeded those of Diastrophus nebulosus, O. S. The para-
sitic larve being hairy, were quite easily distinguishable from
the hairless larvee of Diastrophus, though nearly the same size,
each being about 3 mm. long.

The larve of Diastrophus began to pupate February 26. A
day or so before the larvee pupated their eyes could be seen
through the skin. They appeared as light brownish-pink areas
on the second somite of larve.. The color was in fine pigment
spots which gradually enlarged and turned darker as the insect
matured. At 2 P. M. I observed a larva about to transform ;
at 5 P. M. the transformation was complete.

The larvee of Torymus and Eurytoma pupated March 5th.
At 11 A. M. I noted one larva about to transform. By 11:15
the somites were hardly distinguishable. At the posterior ex-
tremity there was a protuberance of the old skin. At 11:30
the size of the protuberance of skin had greatly increased and
the head and part of the thorax was free. At 12 the thorax
and part of the abdomen were free. By 1:30 the process was
complete, though the moulted skin clung to the abdomen for
several days. Throughout the process the larva was very active,
especially its posterior portion.

By March 11 Diastrophus transformed into the adult, while
the inquilinus insects transformed March 21.

COMPOSITION OF SEA WATERS NEAR BEAUFORT,
NORTH CAROLINA.*

By Atvin S. WHEELER.

Clarke in his “Data of Geochemistry” reports no analyses of
sea waters along the coasts of North America. Possibly no care-
ful analyses have been made. These analyses were undertaken
owing to the increasing interest which biologists are taking in
the chemical composition of sea water as a feature of the envir-
onment of sea life. The work was done during the summer of
1909 at the U. S. Biological Laboratory at Beaufort, N. C., and
for the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries. I wish to express here my
thanks to the Commissioner of Fisheries, Mr. George M. Bow-
ers, for his courtesy in permitting the publication of my report.

Sodium and Potassium. The most careful investigation of
sea water has been made by Dittmar, reported in the ‘Report
of the Scientific Results of the Exploring Voyage of H. M. S.
Challenger, 1873-1876,” Vol. I, Physics and Chemistry. This
work was not at hand when this investigation was undertaken
and the usual methods for determining sodium and potassium
were adopted. These are given in ‘“‘Mineral Waters of the
United States,” Bulletin 91, Bureau of Chemistry, by J. K.
Haywood and B. H. Smith. The determination of sodium
came out low, the total bases being insufficient for the total acids.
This experience is in agreement with the statement of Dittmar
that “the routine method adopted in mineral salt analysis, 1. e.,
the elimination of lime and magnesia and subsequent joint de-
termination of soda and potash as sulphates or muriates, would
never give sufficiently precise results.” My determinations
were therefore corrected by employing Dittmar’s method of
“total sulphates.” Ten cubic centimeters of water were
weighed out in a glass stoppered weighing bottle and evapor-
ated to dryness in a platinum dish with a small excess of sul-
phuric acid, a dilute solution of known strength being em-
ployed. After evaporation to dryness over steam, the residue

*Reprint from The Journal of The Am. Chem. So. May, 1910.

78 JOURNAL OF THE MircueLt Socrery. [A pril

was heated on a sand bath and finally ignited to dull redness to
constant weight. The following figures show the value of this
method. The values for sodium sulphate by the total sulphate
method and by calculation from the determinations of the other
constituents differed by two parts in a thousand. On the other
hand the values obtained experimentally after elimination of
sulphuric acid, lime and magnesia and by calculation from the
determinations of the other constituents differed anywhere
from thirteen to thirty in a thousand.

Calcium and Magnesium. Forty cubic centimeters of
water were weighed out and transferred to a beaker. One ce.
5N hydrochloric acid was added and the mixture boiled to ex-
pel carbon dioxide. After cooling, four cc. 5N ammonium hy-
droxide and five cc. N|2 ammonium oxalate solution were
added. The next day the supernatant liquid was decanted upon
a filter, the residue was redissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid
and precipitated with ammonium hydroxide, and a littie am-
monium oxalate solution. The following day the calcium oxa-
late was filtered upon the filter already used, washed with hot
water and ignited in a platinum crucible to constant weight.
The combined filtrates were concentrated to a volume of 150 cce.,
cooled, mixed with ten ce. normal disodium phosphate solutien
and ten ce. strong ammonium hydroxide. The next day the
precipitate was filtered off, washed with dilute ammonium hy-
droxide and finally water. It was ignited in an open platinum
crucible.

Chlorine. Eight ee. sea water were weighed out and trans-
ferred to a beaker. Titration was conducted with a standard
solution of silver nitrate (one cc.==0.003555 g Cl), using po-
tassium chromate as indicator. In order to better observe the
change of tint, a standard of comparison was made by precipi-
tating a sodium chloride solution with excess of silver nitrate
and re-establishing the yellow color with a little more salt. The
silver nitrate solution was standardized by means of two sam-
ples of sodium chloride 1. A sample labelled “Sodium Chlo-
ride ec. p., Eimer and Amend” was dissolved in pure water and
reprecipitated with hydrochlorie acid. It was filtered off,

1910 | Composirion OF SEA WaTER 79

washed with water and ignited. 2. A sample labelled “So-
dium Chloride ¢. p. Special. Baker’s Analyzed Chemicals.”
The impurities being CaO—0.001%, Fe—0.0001%,
SO?=0.001%.

Sulphuric Acid. To 25 ec. sea water which had been weigh-
ed, were added while hot 2 ee. dilute hydrochloric acid and 3 ce.
N barium chloride solution. The next day the barium sulphate
was filtered off, washed with hot water and ignited in a plati-
num crucible.

Carbon dioxide. The determination of carbon dioxide was
earried out by titrating 100 g. of water with 0.05 N hydro-
chloric acid, using phenol-phthalein as indicator for normal
carbonates and then methyl orange for bicarbonates. The re-
sults were checked by titrating with 0.05 N acid potassium sul-
phate as recommended by Cameron.

Specific gravities. The specific gravities were determined by
the use of a picnometer of U form. The temperature employed
was that of the laboratory, in order to avoid the usual condensa-
tion of moisture on the picnometer if lower temperatures were
used.

The waters. Five samples of water were analyzed. The lo-
ealities were marked upon a chart of Beaufort Harbor, which
accompanies my report to the Bureau of Fisheries. A. Taken
in Beaufort Inlet. B. At the Laboratory dock where water is
taken for the Laboratory aquaria. C. In Bogue Sound, oppo-
site Morehead, where Toxopneustes are abundant. D. At a
point between the eastern end of Beaufort and Bird Island
shoal. E. At Green Rock, in Newport River, near the entrance
to Core Creek.

The results are given below in four tables. Comparison is
made with Dittmar’s results. Challenger water No. 924, a
deep sea water, is given in three tables, because this is the
only water whose composition is reported in parts per thousand
of water. It does not, of course, represent the average. For
example, the value for chlorine is 55.396 per cent of the total
salts, whereas the average for the 76 analyses is 55.420. Com-
parison is also made with the analysis of a water mentioned in

JOURNAL OF THE MitrcHeLL Society

[April

an article by Curt Herbst in “Archiv fur Entwickelungsme-

chanik der Organismen, Vol. 5, page 651.

the Mediterranean Sea, below Naples, Italy.

TABLE I.
(Parts per 1,000 grams of sea water.)

Cl
SO,
CO,
Na
Kk

Ca
Mg
Total

NaCl
KCl
MeCl,

MgSO,
CaSO,
CaCO,

A
19.909
2.754
0.152
11.049
0.442
0.453
1.553
36.072

A

28.043 ¢

0.842
3.379
2.417
J bse br
0.220

B
£92635
2.681
0.129
10.968
0.390
0.429
1.301
35.539

TR
rm De Be Oo

bo ee Go bo
H CO MH Ot bo

=

Total, same as above.

Cl
SO,
CO,
Na

A
ay Fa LE
7.635
0.366
30.630

C
19.767
2.699
0.129
11.022
0.394
0.440
1.3138

35.767

D
19.810
2.730
0.129
11.056
0.394
0.456
1.332
35.867

TABLE II.
(Parts per 1,000 grams of sea water.)

D
28.006
0.751
D.000
2.312
1.188
0.215

TABLE III.

E 924
17.571 19.201
2.378 2.673
0.129 0.143
9.771 10.607
0.568 0.380
0.3892 0.483
LUC. A300
31.786 34.788

E 924
24.796 26.882
0.702 0.725
2.972 3.413
2.062 1.9387
1.039 1.591
0.215 0.240

(Percentage of total salts.)

18)
55.231
7.612
0.360
30.768

E Dittmar}
55.280 55.292

7.481 7.692
0.405 0.207
30.741 30.5938

*The residue insoluble in water after evaporation to dryness.

+Average of analysis of Challenger waters.

This water is from

Herbst
PLAST
5.238
*0.080
11.936
0.409
0.473
1.362
38.634

Herbst
30.292
0.779
3.240
2.638
1.605
*0.080

Herbst
54.710

8.380
#0207
30.894

1910] ComMposITION OF SEA WATER

4 1220 OFS eLtO2 1099 L117
Ca ee 20821230)" L216. 1.233
Mg 3.101 3.661 3.672 3.714 3.703
Total, 100 per cent.
TABLE IV.
(Percenage of total salts.)
Ja. B C D E
NaCl 77.743 78.340 78.229 78.083 78.010
KCl 2.334 2.088 208

8.22 ‘

2MOO 2093) 2:2
MgCl, J907 69,032 9.227 -.9:300- 9.350
MeSO, 6.700 6.551 6.487 6.612 6.487
Wa50,° 3.246 3.287 3.361. 3.313 3.269
CaCO, 0.610 0.602 0.596 0.599 0.676
Total, 100 per cent.

u

Specific gravities at 28.

81

1.106 1.059
1,19%- 1.224
3.725 3.526

924 Herbst
74 78.408
85) 2-016
1 8.386
9 6.828
2 4.154
9 *0.208

Spo

degrees (corr. )

A. 1.0227; B. 1.0222; C. 1.0226; D. 1.0227; E. 1.0193.

*TInsoluble residue.

~?

e.

oe
aia
-
4 »-
.
a *
A i
a) 1
9 €

oe a

we

OU OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY, beds 1910

ry 1F Longitude West,from Greenwich —

Ile d’Oleron

Pte. de Maumusson\#

Pte. d'Arvert

Pte.de la Coubre

We fea
‘ ye ABS :

(amie

arent; Giscarrosse
da ‘Aare silhan

tang
Labouheyre
* Mimizan
: Re ang de
St. Jylien
et de/ Lit

“Etang de ibs 207N

Etang de Sougtons__

SCALE OF MILES
10 20 80

THE M.-N. WORKS, BUFFALO. N.Y. |

Collier Cobb

The ie and Dieses of Gascony.

JOURNAL ra sf
Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

VOL. XXVI NOVEMBER, 1910 NO. 3

THE LANDES AND DUNES OF GASCONY
BY COLLIER COBB.

Closelky resembling our own \tlantic coastal plan in physio-
graphic feattres and in geologir al history as well, the region known
in France as ‘‘Les Landes de Gascogne’’ possesses a peculiar
fascination for the traveller who is more than a tourist, to him
who would learn how man gains the mastery over nature, instead
of remaining a mere creature of his environment and the slave of
circumstances.

The French Landes extend over the department which takes its
name from them, include half of La Gironde, and take in a cor-
ner of Lot-et-Garonne, occupying in all about five thousand four
hundred square miles, or something less than three and one half
million scres. They are bordered on the west by a line of sand-
dunes extending along the Bay of Biscay for a hundred and fifty
miles, from the river Gironde to the mouth of the Adour at the base
6 ~4e Pyrenees. This sandy moor isthus bounded by the ocean, the
Adour, the cultivated heights of Lot-et-Garonne, and the vine-
yards of Bordeaux lying along the Gironde.

The region is an old sea-floor, for a long time covered by the
waters of the Atlantic and receiving the waste of the land, which
was spread with evenness over its area. This has been lifted
above sea-level to a height averaging 160 to 190 feet, declining
gently on the northeast toward the Gironde and the Garonne, on
the west toward the sea-shore lagoons become fresh lakes, and on
the south toward the river Adour. The uniformity of this great
plain is so marked that highways and railways run prevailingly in
straight tangents, and from La Mothe to Labouheyre there isa,

(82)

83 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHELL Society [ November

stretch of the Bordeaux-Bayonne Railway without curve, excava-
tion, or embankment, for twenty-eight miles. The extraordinary
retilinear quality of the shore-line is due, first, to the smoothness
of The Landes and, second, to the mature action of a powerful sea.

The sands along the. coast, and the alluvium bordering the
Garonne-Gironde river and that along the Adour as well, are class-
ed by geologist as quaternary; though these sands, those brought
down by the rivers and those washed up by the sea, show from
their mineral composition that they are derived largely from the
pliocene deposits that cover so large a part of the interior. Inland
from this coast strip the surface is practically all pliocene, though
the streams nearly all cut down to miocene and oligocene; some
of them reach eocene, which is seen along the tributaries of the
Adour, and others cut down even into the cretaceous. We thus
have a heavy series of stratified deposits, clay, sands, and gravels,
and a calcareous mar] known locally as tufa, this last making a bed
even more impervious than the altos. Theclesn sands, greater in
thickness than any other member of the series, are between the im-
permeable strata, are water-bearing, and may be reached by deep
wells, but not every bed of sand bears water fit to be drunk.

The topographic features of The Landes may be described by
calling the region a vast savanna, using the word as itis found
today in popular use in the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida. This
extensive sand-flat is so poorly drained that it is nearly every-
where boggy in wet weather, though frequently dry and ‘‘erusty’’
in dry weather. Consequently, Schimper’s definition of savanna,
as xerophilous grass-land with insolated trees, is applicable to
even the greater part of this area, since, however hoggy it may be,
it bears xerophilous vegetation, indicating what the ecologist terms
physiological dryness. It is now well recognized by students of
soils that drainage may increase the available soil-moisture.
When the subsoil is too close and too fully saturated with water to
permit the roots of plants to penetrate it, as is the case in The
Landes, the rvots are forced to develop in so limited an amount of
soil, that in time in of drought, when plants demand much mois-
ture because of their rapid growth, capillary action is not able to
upply the moisture from below as fast as it is meeded, and the re-

Plate I.

Bergers Landais

Fig. 1. A View in The Landes.

16 Céte d’Argent
Bassin d ARCACHON — Vieux berger Landais et son troupeau

Fig. 2. An Old Shepherd With His Flock.

late IL.

P

Fig. 3.

Shepherdesses of The Landes.

The Landes.

-_

-

—

1910) LANDES AND DUNES oF GASCONY 84

sult is that the stratum of soil occupied by the roots becomes so dry
that plant growth is impeded,

The American of our own Southern Atlantic states would de-
scribe The Landes as an extensive savanna dotted over with po-
cosins of considerable size. The pocosins stand at a distinctly
higher level than the savanna, and are forested with pines (P.
Pineaster), though poorly drained. In the larger pocosins
there are low places where the water stands in ponds in wet
weather. The pocosins have little or no underbrush and are
relatively free from flowering plants, while the savanna is covered
with shrubs, ferns, the golden-flowered broom, and in spring and
autumn is bright with flowers of various hues. When viewed
from almost any point, The Landes present a dark horizon-line of
pines. There is not an oak, or a beech, ora popular, not a single
broad-leaved tree of any kind to be seen on the sandy wastes.

There is also a marked absence of animal life in the region of
The Landes.* There is rarely a bird to be seen, except as the sea-
birds seek the shelter of the marshes and brackish lakes behind
the dunes next the shore. And the quadrupeds are every bit as
scarce, except for sheep tended by shepherds and even shepherd-
esses. These sheepherders stand above the moor, giants in
height, but witches and warlocks for slenderness, being nearly as
high as their pole-and-mud huts whose roofs are thatched with
rushes. Buta second look shows that these tenders of sheep are
rather under-sized men and women perched upon stilts that in
many cases lift them five feet from the ground.

Besides sheep there are some cattle and an occasional herd of
marsh ponies, wild horses like the banker-ponies of the Carolina
coast, whose hunting is as much a public ceremonial as the pony-
pennings in the neighborhood of Beaufort. And those hunts are
now as rare in Gascony as in Carolina, though one may see the
little animals anywhere caught and tamed.

The marshy condition of The Landes, consequent upon im-

*This discription applies to the coastal plain portions of Mississippi and
Alabama. See Hilgard, Geol. and Agr. Miss., pp. 370-371; Harper, Torreya,
VI. 204 (Oct. 1906); Hearn and Carr, Soil Survey of Biloxi Area in Field
Operations of Bureau of Soils, 1904, pp. 353-374.

85 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Socrery [ November

perfect drainage, is due chiefly to an impervious layer of com-
pacted sand occuring but a short distance beneath the surface.
This agglutinated sand, generally of a rusty color and bearing a
close resemblance to ferruginous sandstone, is known as alios,t
and owes its color and firmness to the continual infiltration of
Yain-water. which ‘“carries into the ground various organic sub-
stances in a state of solution, and blends them intimately with
arenaceous particles. (Reclus).’? But in the more marshy dis-
tricts the alios is actually a sandstone, in which the cementing
material is iron oxide. This bed of alios is generally the hardest
where it is least thick; it underlies practically the entire area of
The Landes, and is completely impervious to water,

The free exit of water from The Landes to the sea is prevented
by the combined action of the southward-going shore current,
which forms a bar of sand running parallel with the coast from
north to south, and the great sand-waves and dunes, marching in-
ward before the prevailing. westerly winds, encroaching upon
Landes and swamps, and often overwhelming entire villages.

Now the region has been largely drained, and there are fewer
solitudes where the Landescot must use stilts to cross the swamps
and look after his flocks, this method being confined at the time
of my visit, in 1908, to the more remote districts. We are told
that before the reclamation of this vast area, ‘‘in summer it was
a bed of burning sand, in winter in a state of constant inundation,
while between the two was a period of pestilence. The country
was characterized by steritity and insalubrity.’’ (Gifford)

Then the miles of almost treeless wastes, covered with low dense
herbage, were sparsely inhabited. The few people who lived
there, depending entirely upon their flocks, were hardly greater in
number over the entire area of The Landes than at present in the
few insolated districts where the population still retains its primi-
tive character and pastoral occupation, and still speaks a romance
dialect more ancient than the langue d’oc of much of southern
France.

t+Like the hardpan of Florida. See Harper in 3d Ann. Rep. Fla. Geol, Sur-
yey, pp. 222, 294,295, (1911), Examined in proof.

‘g “BIy

Isoy

“STOTUL

cen |

“8

‘asnonbaieg ou

Plate III.

ay Tek a
eri Adm

au 4)

1910| LANDES AND Dunes or GAscony 86

Just as on Hatteras Island and along the Banks of the Carolina
coast, there are here in the Dunes of Gascony evidences that the
roving sands were centuries ago fixed by a natural forest growth.
But along both coasts thoughtlessness or vandalism destroyed the
forests, and the winds blew the sand inland for a time until grass-
es followed by woody plants bound the soil in such a way that the
winds were powerless to move it. “In the sand-dunes near Ar-
cachon, five superposed beds of soil are to be traced, containing
trunks of trees in situand other remains of vegetation.’ (Thoulet)

At one time the dunes threatened to destroy the entire region,
for following one destruction of the forests they advanced inland
at a rate varying from 60 to 80 feet a year. The village of Lege
twice retired before this invasion of sand. Mimizan retreated
likewise, and when measures were at length taken to stop the on-
ward march of the dunes they were already within a few yards of
its houses. (Reclus).

There are extensive ponds and lagoons in the rear of the dunes,
formerly estuaries and bays of the sea from which they became
separated by a bar of sand. The streams flowing into and
seeping out of them soon leached out the salt'and they became
living lakes of fresh water. Some of these lakes are rapidly closing
up by the growth of plants within their borders, just as Currituck
Sound in North Carolina is closing up with vegetation since it be-
came a body of fresh water through the closing of the inlets by
drifting sand and the leaching action of its inflowing streams.

The largest of these lakes, the Etang de Cazau, has an area of
15,000 acres, and its surface lies at a Jevel varying from 62 to 66
feet above the level of the sea, according to the season. This
feature is very different from our own coast. The rivers draining
The Landes and these lakes are turned to the southward on en-
tering the sea, through the action of the southward-going current
and the tongues of sand it tends to build across their mouths. It
has several times been suggested that the government of France
construct a canal running parallel with the coast, lowering the
level of this and other lakes, affording a safe waterway connecting
the Garonne with the Adour, and avoiding the dangers of the Bay
of Biscay with its high winds and violent currents, and several

87 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ November

such canals of smiall size have already been constructed.

Gascony cannot long be without such an inalnd waterway in a
country like Franee, whose rivers have been regulated and deep-
ened so as to render their currents more uniform and permanent.
The natural waterways of France have been so supplemented dur-
ing the last few years by an excellent system of canals that there
is hardly any part of the country today that is not reached by
water transportation, which has greatly facilitated the exchange
of heavy and bulky products, until 42 per cent of the mineral fuel
for Paris is now carried into the city by water.

The drainage of these border lakes andswamps has been effected
by direct engineering efforts to a much smaller extent than is usual-
ly supposed, the most important instance of such effort being that
of the Lake of Orx, near Bayonne, which was drained and re-
claimed in 1864. We are also told that the efforts of engineers to
remove the obstructions to the unimpeded discharge of the rivers
have not generally proved successful. The result has come largely
from an unforeseen effect of tree planting to be adverted to later.

While it is true that the sands are ever shifting and bars are
constantly forming, it is equally well recognized that the sea has
been encroaching extensively upon the land. Bremontier states
that the sea, in his day, wore away nearly seven feet of the beach
of Hourtin annually, and the inhabitants in this day point out
traces of man on the narrow edge of this eastern face of the dunes,
or on the beach over which the dunes have moved. These are
essentially similar to the evidences on the New Jersey coast, con-
sisting of alios, turf-pits, hoof-imprints, trunks of trees still bear-
ing the marks of axes, bricks, and bits of broken pottery.

The retreat of the land along this coast is by no means due
entirely to the gnawing of the sea, since there has been a marked
subsidence of the Jand, particularly in the region to the north of
the Gironde. The lighthouse of Cordouan, which stands as a
beacon for vessels entering this river, was erected by Louis de Foix
at the close of the sixteenth century. Then the rock on which it
stands was large enough to admit of several dwellings for the
workmen employed in its construction. It is now completely

Plate IV.

the

Oysterwoman of Arcachon.

Fig. 8. Une Pecheuse

de Crevettes.

: : -
~
' os
P 7 =
7
7 ‘a

: ss

. -

_.
y
;
is .
s -

+

a)

1910] LANDES AND DunEs oF GASCONY 88

covered at high water, and the distance between it and the Point
de Grave increased from 3.1 miles in 1630 to 4.3 miles in 1876,
according to Reclus, who also tells us of numerous villages, named
in old chronicles, that have been swallowed up by the sea or over-
whelmed by the inland march of the dunes. ‘‘Soulac was an
important town on the Gironde, below Bordeaux, whilst the
Euglish held the country, but the Gothic church and the few walls
which alone remain of it now stand upon the shore of the ocean,
the dunes having passed right over them.’’ (Reclus).

The Basin of Arcachon, about half-way between the Adour and
the Gironde, is the only estuary on this coast still open to the
sea. It isa large depression communicating with the ocean only
by a narrow channel, and separated elsewhere by sand-dunes.
It, too, will soon be cut off from the sea. Its ever-shifting sands
and violent currents are great obstacles to the conversion of this
basin into a harbor of refuge, so much needed on this dangerous
coast.

The basin is not completely covered, even at high water, but
is traversed by various and varying channels due to the violent
tidal currents which play such an important part in moulding its
features. Since the planting of the shore dunes with maritime
pines, this has become the chief center in France for the culture
of oysters. But still the Bay of Arcachon is being rapidly filled
with sediment, and recourse must be had to dredging if its oyster
beds are to be preserved, its neighboring lands saved for agricul-
tire, and its channel kept open to the sea.

When the tide is out this basin presents the appearance of an
extensive grass-land, slightly undulating, a vast field of tempting
turf. The carts drawn by oxen driven by women over the lawn
lend local color to the illusion: and the beholder is ready to be-
lieve himself completely bewitched when he sees upon this lawn
little schooners and other small sea-going vessels, which are really
lying at anchor in the narrow channels of the basin. The carts
are gathering the green sea-weed of the flats for manure, and the
vessels are waiting for their small cargoes of rosin, turpentine,
acid, oysters, shrimps, wool, wooden utensils, or even wines of

the finest kinds,

89 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Socrety [ November

The reclamation of this extensive area has been extremely slow
of accomplishment, but the results obtained have paid many fold
for the expenditure of time, labor, and money. In 1778, a talen-
ted engineer, Baron Charlevoix de Villers, was sent to Areachon
for the purpose of forming a military post. He saw at once the
necessity of fixing the sand, and was, according to Grandjean, the
first to establish the fact that the way to fix the dunes is by
means of plantations of pine. He met with troubles in his work,
and was finally sent to the Island of Santo Domingo.

In 1784, Bremontier set to work, and it is said that, by using
the results of de Villers’s labors, he finally succeeded in fixing the
moving sand. This he accomplished by the construction of a
littoral dune from the mouth of the Gironde to Bayonne, the
winds themselves doing the work under the control of brush fen-
ses planted by the skilled engineer.*

A protective dune was built up to the height of 33 feet, above
which height it was observed that the winds did not readily drive
the sand inland, provided the dune is at least 300 feet in-shore
from high-water mark. The windward slope of the dune is from
4 to 14 degrees, and its leeward slope about 30 degrees. This
dune is kept in shape by the growth of grasses upon it, stock is
carefully kept off of it, and even man is not allowed to wonder at
will over the dunes, lest the wind following in his footsteps set
the solid in motion. The French engineers hold firmily to the
opinion that the Sahara itself would soon have its oases united
and be largely grassed over if wandering Arabs and roaming cam-
els could be fenced out of it.

The dunes next the shore having been fixed, it was nearly fifty
years before any further effort was made to reclaim this region of
marshes and ““miasma.’?’ M. Chambrelent, a young engineer of
bridges and roads, was sent to the Gironde to study the drainage
of 8000,000 hectares{ of land in the districts of Gascony and The

*For details as to the methods the reader is referred to the writings of
Chambrelent, Grandjean, Poisson, Duffart, and to Dr. Joln Gifford,
especially ‘‘The Control of Shifting Sands,’’ in the Hngineering Magazine,
January, 1898.

+A hectare=2.471 acres,

Plate V.

-
i=]
oY
on

eI

~
3
cy)
~

Lo)

2]
©

Protective Dune.

lifes).

éte d’ Argent

La C

ry RS

Ra ite,
aa
ae
=
5G

a7

Forest with Fire Line.

Fig. 10.

Plate VI.

Fig. 11. A View on the Dunes.

Fig. 12. A View on the Dunes.

1910) LANDES AND DuNES OF GASCONY 90

Landes. His plans were not accepted, but he was so thoroughly
satisfied of their feasibility that he bought some land and applied
it to the measures he advocated. In 1855 the results of his ex-
periments were submitted to an international jury, ‘“‘The jury
was so favorably impressed that it recommended the application
of Chambrelent’s plans to the entire region, and in 1857 a law
was passed requiring the Communes to do this work. The Com-
munes paid for it by selling a part of this land [thus improved],
which increased in value after the completion of the work.’’

Drain ditches were dug and seeds of the Pinus Pinaster were
sown, all the drainage works having been completed in 1865, It
was at first feared that the inabilty of the tap-root to penetrate
the hardpan would arrest the growth of the trees, “‘but’’, says
Chambrelent, ‘‘the uselessness of the tap-root has already been
demonstrated.* It extends to inert soil which receives no atmos-
pheric influence. It really plays only a mechanical role for hold-
ing the tree in place, but in close growth is not necessary, because
the trees support one another.’’ In several cases, however, the
alios was pierced with apick, and wherever the tap-root gained a foot-
hold and went through the hard-pan it maintained underground
drainage into the sands beneath, which already drain themselves.
If organic substances have been the cementing material, the alios
is thus permanently broken up by the drainage which the tap-root
effects. Where the hard-pan has become a ferruginous sandstone,
the cracks in the rock have been extended by the slow growth of the
tap-root; oftentimes the cementing iron oxide has been changed
by contact with vegetation to an iron carbonate, which is readily
disolved out by the organic acids, and the same result is obtained
by a somewhat longer process. An interesting lesson for the forest
engineers.

The pines grew with great rapidity, their wood was of superior
quality and soon came in great demand in England for mine props
and later for telegraph poles, both props and poles being impre-
gnated with copper sulphate before using. In speaking of the

*Many pines on the Miami limestone of Southern Florida have roots
speading flat on top of the rock, and have no tap root, to which fact my at-
tention was called by Dr. Roland M. Harper.

91 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL SocrEeTy [ November

effects of the forests, Chambrelent says that ‘“The Landes, which
in 1865 were pestilential, are now as free from fever as the most
favored regions. The presence of so much wood enables every
household to have generous supplies for heating and drying in
cold end wet seasons. An investigation of the causes of agricul-
tural depression in other parts of France only too clearly indi-
cates the inestimable benefit of large wood supplies for domestic
purposes.’

This section is now one of the richest, most productive and
most healthful in France, the change having been brought about
by the intelligent cultivation of pine forests. Immense forests
now cover the country, dunes and marshes are but little in evi-
dence, and the wood, turpentine, rosin, and kindred industries
have brought wonderful prosperity to the entire department, which
was formerly the most barren district of France. “‘A
man,’ says Grandjean, ‘“‘was forced to take some of this land
for a debt. He became a millionaire later by selling it in small
parcels.”’

The region is now a famous health resort, combining the beau-
ties and pleasures of the sea-shore with those of the pine forests of
the sand-hills. The population of the country has increased in
proportion to its natural resources. The fecundity of the people
of Gascony is now as proverbial! as the alarming sterility of the
rest of the French people.

And the old customs are by no means completely destroyed by
the coming of the health-seeker and the tourist. The native of
The Landes may still be seen standing upon stilts watching his
sheep. He balances himself with a staff, whose top is like the
top of a crutch, and spends his spare time knitting stockings, even
when gossiping with the shepherd of a neighboring flock. The
country has improved and the land is ‘no longer desolate; cord-
wood is cut from the pocosins and the borders of the pasture-land ;
but a few of the people still cling to their stilts; in fact, in several
places of the back country mail-carriers use stilts today.

The women working in The Landes, the Echassiéres, wear skirts;
but the wife of the Résinier, the Parqueuse d’huttres, and the

i
Pr 1
=
;
‘
a as
” , —— a
j 2. e i 7 ’ 1 *
r . ai
ae t . i
» -. ‘ = x ri ~
1 e
i
i
‘ , ‘ 1 .
uN —_ , =
e ‘ J ¥
{) it ‘ ;
i ee
ep Lege “
> f oe
5 =
<n ; 1
| i i }
iy 'd 1
a , } _ al ¥
}
/
7 ‘i \ q
'
at y F
5
i f .
a

Plate VII.

Home.

A Resiner’s

15.

Shucking Oysters.

Fig. 14.

Plate VIII.

72. ~ ARCACHON. - Cote d'Arzent. - Un Chaland

Dézroquage des Huitres - BR ~ 575

Fig. 15. Oyster Boat Manned by Women.

Fig. 16. View of Arcachon, France.

is! Ke :
| * ( ra | 7 as ’ i
: Pp : i ' j
° ‘ j f Y
F f i
\ “| ’ ‘ 7 x
i * ‘
- 7
* , q
i a oh ‘
‘ ‘
; : 7 i)
, ely ae naar
i £ .
i : =
. i
A ee
7 d . x
‘¢ *
! ; i 4 - nt, z i
’ :
‘ i ‘ 6 !
=.)
' {
vy A :
’ ;
: /
" ' :
‘im

1910] LANDES AND DUNEs oF GASCONY 92

Pécheuse de creveties, women of the forested dunes and of the fish-
eries, wear trousers of various colors and picturesque patterns.

The revenue of the forests comes mainly from the resin indus-
try, which received a great impetus in its beginning, when sim-
ilar industries in our Southern States had been disorganized or
suspended on account of our Civil War and’ its blockade. The
Hugues cup-and-gutter method of terpentining was then intro-
duced and has been followed there with success ever since. In
1892, the United States Department of Agriculture undertook to
introduce the French method into this country, and for a few
years following one orchard in Bladen County, North Carolina,
was treated in this way. It. remained, however, for Dr. Chas. H.
Herty to apply the cup-and-gutter to our American pine forests
on a commercial scale an‘! with unprecedented financial success,
and today the Herty cup, which is used with a gutter specially
suited to our method of scarring the trees, is as well known to
foresters as the Arcachon method.

The manufacture of rosin, tar, turpentine, pitch, pyroligneous
acid, wood vinegar, telegraph poles, fertilizers, etc., are by no
means the only industries in this region. The raising of sheep,
of cattle, and of small stocky horses, is carried on in The
Landes; bees are kept for their delicious honey; the cultivation of
oysters, shrimps, and other sea foods, is an important industry
along the Bay of Arcachon; and there is some gunning around
the lakes. In the industries of the interior man and wife are
equal partners in work; but the business activities of the shore-
line are almost entirely in the hands of women. The inhabitant
of the once dune village is now a citizen of no mean city, Arcachon.

THE RELATION OF PHARMACOLOGY TO CLINICAL
MEDICINE*

BY WM. deB. MACNIDER.

In presenting this subject for your consideration I shall ap-
proach it primarily from the standpoint of a teacher, and secon-
darily from that of a medical man who is deeply interested in the
development of scientific clinical medicine in general, and espec-
ially interested in its development in the South.

Pharmacology taken in its modern interpretation should be of
distinct service to the undergraduate student for its value in
scientific training and for its real purpose in demonstrating the
mode of action of those drugs which possess such a quality, and
equally important for its value in demonstrating the fact that
inany drugs have no action.

In addition to these self-evident reasons concerning the value
of such a course, it may have a broader bearing upon the develop-
ment of the medical student and upon his future life as a clinician
than is usually attributed to it.

It has been my observation at the school with which I am con-
nected and at several other institutions, that when a student com-
pletes his first two years of medical work which have to deal with
the fundamental and more exact branches of the medical curricu-
lum, that there at once develops, and with some degree of wilful-
ness on his part, a spirit of forgetfulness for the things of the past
and a glowing anticipation for the so-called practical, and in the
mind of the student the really useful medical subjects. This at-
titude means imperfect development so far as the student is con-
cerned and a dwarfed conception of real clinical medicine.

This state of more or less divorce which exists between the first
two years of the medical curriculum and the last two, is painfully

*Read by invitation before the Seaboard Medical Society of Virginia wud
North Carolina,
(93)

1910 | PHARMACOLOGY AND CLINICAL MEDICINE 94

apparent when we consider the few medical men, comparatively
speaking, who approach the cure of disease from the standpoint
of structural change, e. g. pathology, and the bare handful in this
country. who with an understanding of physiology, attempt a
physiological interpretation of a morbidly reacting organism.

There should exist in the latter half of the second year and early
in the third year courses whose function it is to bridge this gap
and weld together in a fashion inseparable the fuudamental
branches of the medical curriculum with the more apparently
practical branches.

I am aware of the fact that there are perhaps one or more in-
stitutions in this country where the type of student is such that
this linking is not necessary, but, on the other hand, I believe at
those institutions whose prime function it is to turn out general
medical men that this union which I have referred to is a real
necessity.

At the outset [ would have it understood that I am not advo-
cating any system of medical training, or any course which tends
to impress the student of its importance by pointing out that the
facts learned have a practical value and therefore must be mas-
tered. The highest type of student learns a subject because it is
a bit of knowledge to master, and if it contains matter of practical
value he is thankful; while if it doesn’t he should be glad of his
knowledge for learning’s own sake. This is the ideal student
which happily we run across once in a while. The average stu-
dent has not such a thirst for knowledge, and for this type, in
order to make the most of him, we must lead, enthuse, and in
some measure show.

There are two subjects which could if properly handled best
fulfil this requirement. They are courses in Pathological Physi-
ology and in Experimental Pharmacology. The proper inter-
pretation and appreciation of symptoms which would be developed
in a student who had to think of physiology as a reaction of an
organism under morbid influences as contrasted with its reaction
under normal influences would be of lasting value to him.

The value of Pharmacology for the purpose mentioned above,

95 JOURNAL OF THE MIrcHELL SocleTy | November

depends entirely upon the type of course which is given and upon
the amount of expermental work which the student is allowed to
attempt.

The type of course in Pharmacology which I have reference to
has several characteristics.

In the first place, it should not be chiefly a didactic course.
Lectures and quizzes are certainly necessary, but the more lec-
tures can be substituted by observations on the part of the student
and the more the quizzes can be eliminated by informal talks and
conferences with the student, the better it will be for the course
and for the real information gained by the student.

In the second place, a detailed study of a few drugs should be
insisted upon and their mode of action and limitations thoroughly
mastered. The criterion which determines the efficiency of a
drug need not necessarily be its action on the lower animals,
though that is certainly the safest guide to rely upon. Some
drugs, undoubtedly, are of purely empirical value and have an
action which has been established by the careful observations of
clinical men. If this be the case, then this drug, and there may
be a few, should be learned in a dogmatic way until its value can
be determined by showing its mode of action or its inactivity in
the lower animals. |

On the other hand. it is wrong to use a medical student’s val-
uable time by burdening his intellect with a discussion of useless
drugs and trying to ‘‘bluff’? a mind that should he hunting the
truth by discoursing on the value of a substance which has been
proved experimentally and clinically to be worthless.

Under the heading of Materia Medica there are at the present
many such substances which should not he included in the type
of course described. In a measure they are included and have to
be, for the reason that examining boards persist in questioning
applicants for license concerning such inert substances. Here the
boards of Medical Examiners could he of distinct service to teach-
ers of pharmacology and indirectly of service to clinical medicine.

Having selected the drugs, a knowledge of which is the ultimate
aim of the course, it next has to be decided in what manner this

1910) PHARMACOLOGY AND CLINIcAl. MEDICINE 96

information is to be imparied. Two plans are available. The
subject may be presented in the usual way that such a group of
drugs or drug, such for instance as Digitalis is a “‘heart stimulant
and tonic’’, and by such a presentation simply suffocate any ele-
ment of inquisitiveness which may be smouldering in the mind of
the student. Or another plan of presentation may be used which
tends to make him think and reason. The statement may be
made that the drug in question influences the heart in two ways:
that it has an action on the endings of the vagus nerve in the
heart muscle which tends to slow the heart and prolong its di-
astole; that it has another action on the muscle of the heart,
which in part consists in rendering the muscle more irritable and
more receptive to outside stimuli. <As a result of this increased
irritability, a heart under Digitalis action would be faster and
more imperfect in its functional capacity were it not for the fact
that in the therapeutic stage of Digitalis action the vagus stimu-
lation predominates, slowing the heart and allowing its chambers
to more pertectly fill with blood, while with the muscular element
being more irritable the systole is prolonged and more perfect. A
student with this information will not asa clinician persist in giving
increasing doses of Digitalis when the drug which he is adminis-
tering to slow the heart is the direct cause of its increased rate
and imperfect action.

One of the chief aims of such a course is to stimulate inquis-
itiveness on the part of the student, to make him wonder how the
action comes about, with the belief that such a mental attitude
will not stop with his student days but will become such a part of
his intellectual self that he will carry it directly to the bedside and
to the operating room.

After having stimulated in the student this wholesome attitude
of doubt and a determination to know the reason for observed
facts. the next characteristic of the course is to give him an op-
portunity to make his own observations and to draw his own de-
ductions.

This is accomplished by allowing the student to work out the
action of the more important drugs on the lower animals. This

97 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society [ November

should be the strongest part of the course and should take a part
of the time allotted to didactic teaching, and should not be sub-
stituted by class demonistrations.

Here, the student administers to an etherized animal Digitalis
for instance, and obtains a record of slow heart, what is the cause
of the slowing? Is it an inhibitary action on the part of the
vagus, is it diminished activity on the part of the sympathetic or
is it a less irritable heart muscle? He likely knows from his
didactic study that Atropine depresses and finally paralyses the
endings of many nerves, he administers this drug or cuts the vagi
and the rate of the heart increases. He has observed the action
in this instance of a given substance, e. g. Digitalis; he has
wondered at its action and formulated certain possible conditions
which could have brought about the result; next, he has de-
termined which one of these possibilities really exists; finally, he
has found the truth.

The foregoing is a concrete example of the type of training
which experimental pharmacology offers. A student who has
such training, provided there is enough of it, is bound to develoy
a thinking, reasoring mind which will carry the more exact train-
ing of the elementary branches of the medical curriculum un-
consciously into the clinical branches and persistently ask the
reason why.

ON SURFACE ENERGY AND SURFACE TENSION*

BY J. E. MILLS AND DUNCAN MACRAE.

In an article by Whittaker’ ‘‘On the Theory of Capillarity,’’ it
was shown that the following empirical relation was apparently
true: The surface energy of a liquid in contact with its own vapor at
any temperature is proportional to the product of the internal latent
heat and the (absolute) temperature.’’

The proposed relation and further related applications and in-
ference have since been discussed by Kleeman in a number of
papers.”

Some explanation of the relation proposed is perhaps necessary.
Particles in the interior of a liquid are attracted by the surround-
ing molecules equally in every direction; but particles on, or near,
the surface are attracted only, or as a resultant, inward, in a di-
rection perpendicular to the surface. When the area of the sur-
face of the liquid is increased, work is therefore done against the
molecular forces in bringing additional molecules within the sur-
face layer. If the surface of a liquid is actually increased—as in
blowing a soap bubble—it will be found that as the surface in-
creases in size under the action of the externally supplied force
(the pressure of the air blown within the bubble), the surface
layer of the liquid becomes at the same time colder. Heat is ab-
sorbed from the surrounding bodies in order to raise the tempera-
ture of the surface film to the initial temperature. Therefore the
total energy necessary to increase the surface area is supplied
partly as mechanical (external) work and partly as heat energy.
If E represents the total energy per square centimeter of surface

*Reprinted from the Journal of The American Chemical Sotiety, Vol.
XXXII, No. 10. October, 1910.

1 Proc. Roy. Soc., 81, 21 (1908).
2 Phil. Mag., 18, 39, 491, 901 (1909); 19, 783 (1910).
98

99 JOURNAL OF THE MrTcHELL SoctreTy [ November

layer, y, the necessary mechanical work performed in making this
surface, and 7 the absolute temperature, we have from Helmholtz’s
free energy equation the relation first stated by Lord Kelvin,

dy

) dT

where—T dy / dT represents the amount of heat energy absorbed
from the surrounding bodies. The mechanically supplied surface
unergy, y,; in ergs per square centimeter, is numerically equal to
the surface tension per linear centimeter in dynes.

The heat of vaporization necessary to change a liquid into a
vapor is expended in two ways: first, in pushing back the external
pressure as the liquid expands, and second, in doing certain in-
ternal work within the liquid. The first ‘:amount of energy is
easily calculated and when substracted from the total leaves the
so-called “‘internal heat of vaporization.’’? This internal heat of
vaporization, 4, can be calculated from the thermodynamical re-
lation discovered by Clausius and Clapeyron,

dP
ae = (Tor
here P denotes the vapor pressure, and v and V denote the volume
of liquid and its saturated vapor, respectively.

The proposed relation of Whittaker states that

3. A = constant
where £ is obtained from equation 1 and A from equation 2.

Whitaker himself stated that the above empirical relation, being
yet without theoretical basis, and being based only on the behavior
of five substances over a limited range of temperature, must be
received with caution until further comparison with experimental
results was possible.

It seemed to the authors desirable, for the reasons mentioned
below, to re-examine the experimental basis for the proposed re-
lation.

First—The values of the internal heat of vaporization used by
Whittaker were taken from a paper by one of us" and these values

I Mills J. Phys. Chem., 8, 383 (1904); 10, 1 (1906).

a) Ay ne

1910 On Surrace EnerGy AND SuRFACE TENSION 100

have been lately revised. The revision was made necessary by
the changes made by Dr. Sidney Young in the orignal data used
for the calculation of these values. These changes were usually
small, but extensive, and affected principally the volumes of the
saturated vapor at the lower temperatures and the vapor pressure.”

Second—Whittaker, due to the increasing uncertainy in the
values for the internal heat of vaporization, and in dy/dT as the
critical temperature was approached, did not extend his study
of the relation given in equation 3 nearer the critical temperature
than 40 or 50°. While it is true that the data become increasingly
uncertain, it is also true that A, E,y and dy/dT, when plotted
against the temperature, give nearly straight lines over the range of
temperature investigated by Whittaker. It becomes of very greatly
increased importance therefore to carry the study of equation 3
nearer the critical temperature.

Third.—Whittaker obtained his values of dy / dT from the values
for y as given by Ramsey and Shields. Now they concluded from
an apparently sufficient experimental basis that the surface ten-
sion, y, could be expressed for non-associated liquids, as were
those investigated by Whittaker, by the equation

4, y(Mv) 4=k(7—d),

where 7 represents degrees counted from the critical temperature,
and & and d are constants, k being approximately 2.12, and d
varying with the different substances investigated from 5. 9 to 8.
5. Mv is the molecular volume of the liquid. Equation 4 is true
nearly to the critical temperature, and it is clear that the function
—dy/dT must therefore decrease continuously and consistently
with increase of temperature; that is, for non-associated liquids
—dy/dT, when plotted against the temperature, must neither
increase nor give a line of double curvature. An examination of
the values of dy / dT given by Whittaker for carbon tetrachloride,
benzene, and chlorobenzene show that his values do not strictly
obey the above statement and seem too greatly influenced by the

*Arrhenius number of Z. physik. Chem., '70, 620 (1910). Sctentific Proc,
Roy. Dublin Soc., 12, 374 (1910).
3Phil, Trans, Roy, Soc., 184A, 647 (1893).

101 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHELL Socrery [ November

individual errors of observation. We have changed, therefore, in
the tables below, usually very slightly, some of the values of
dy/dT as given by Whittaker for the above-mentioned sub-
stances.

Whittaker states on page 23 of the article cited that ““A point
is at length reached, about 180° below the critical point, at which
F# is stationary, and thenceforward E diminishes as the tempera-
ture decreases—a somewhat surprising result. These changes in
FE are identical with the changes of the function JA, which has
its stationary point at the same temperature as #.’’ We consider
this statement to be in error as regards the behavior of the sur-
face energy so far as non-associated liquids are concerned. The
remark seems true for associated liquids. For confirmation of
our point of view it is sufficient to cite the form ci the surface
tension curves as shown in the paper by Ramsay and Shields, and
the values of the internal heat of vaporization as given in the
papers by Mills already cited.

Fifth—We found data available for a study also of ethyl
acetate, and for the supposedly associated liquids, water, acetic
acid, and methyl and ethy! alcohols.

The data and the results obtained are given in the tables be-
low. The surface tension, y, was obtained from the measure,
ments of Ramsay and Shields.‘ The values of dy/dT were de-
rived from the measurements of y given, and were smoothed in
accordance with the observations ahove made. The values of
dy/ dT given by Whittaker were used for ethyl ether and methyl
formate at the lower temperatures, and his values were not greatly
changed for carbon tetrachloride and benzene, The values for
E were obtained from the data given by the use of equation 1.

TABLE 1.—ErHyL OXIDE.

t°C. 7: ay / GT) \) HE: A, 10H / TA.
20 16.49 Pay Beit 80.04 RAE
40 14.05 0.112 49.1 75.02 20.9
50 12.94 0.1115 48.9 72.66 20.8
60 11.80 0.110 48.4 70.40 20.6
70 10.72 0.108 47.8 67.81 20.6

1Phil. Tras., 184A, 647 (1893); Z, physik. Chem., 12, 433 (1893),

1910] On SurFACE ENERGY AND SuRFACE TENSION 102

80 9.67 0.106 47.1 65.40 20.4

90 8.63 0.1035 46.1 62.89 20.2
100 7.63 0.1015 45.5 60.40 20.2
110 6.63 0.0995 44.7 57.53 20.3
120 5.65 0.097 43.8 54.53 20.4
1380 4.69 0.094 42.6 51.43 20.6
140 Sead 0.0905 41.1 48.13 20.7
150 2.88 0.086 39.3 44.30 21.0
160 2.08 0.080 36.7 39.81 21.3*
170 133 0.071 32.8 34.31 21.6*
180 0.64 0.058 26.9 27.36 21.7*
185 0.38 0.0495 23.0 22.99 21.8*
190 0.16 0.040 18.7 16.59 24.,3*
193 0.04 ctovete aigiefs 9.71
193.8 0 Sisiehe Sia 0 sees
190 Mills Save sida 17.68 22.8*
190 Dieterici a ees hes 17.44 23.2*

values given for were calculated by Mills and have been partially
published.’ Details and references will be found in that paper.
The complete data will be publised later.

We have, except for the alcohols, averaged the values of the
constant 10*#/ TA for each substance down to the values marked
with an asterisk, and have marked with an asterisk all values
differing from the mean values so obtained by more than 8 per
cent. The mean values are given in Table XI.

Considering first the non-associated substance, it will be seen
that the “‘constant’’ decreases to the extent of 3 per cent. or
more from its value at the lowest temperature to a medium value,
and then rises in value until the critical temperature is reached.
This consistant behavior of the constant tends strongly to show
that it is not a true constant. A closer examination of the data
tends to confirm this belief.

For the divergence of the ‘‘constant’’? from constancy cannot be due
to the values used for the internal heats of vaporization. One of us
has made an extended and close study*® of the internal heat of
vaporization both of the substances at present under investigation
and of other substances. From the discussion and data given in

1 Tuts JouRNAL, 81, 1099 (1909).
2 Mills, Ibid., 31, 1099 (1909). J, Phys, Chem., 13, 512 (1909)

103

rant

SS8s

1
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
283.15
260
260

‘ac Gs
80
90

100

110

120

130

140

150

160

170

180

190

200

210

220

230

JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society

Fase I].—CarRBoN TETRACHLORIDE.

Y. —dy/ dT. E. r,
25.68 Soave Sates Peete
18.71 ee 41.64
17.60 0.1115 58.1 40.72
16.48 0.110 51.5 39.64
15.41 0.1085 57.0 38.53
14.32 0.107 56.4 37.48
13.27 0.105 55.6 36.35
12.22 0.103 54.8 35.20
11.21 0.1015 54.1 34.19
10.22 0.100 53.5 33.28
9.24 0.098 52.6 32.21
8.26 0.0965 52.0 30.83
7.28 0.095 Sie 29.52
6.34 0.093 50.3 28.22
5.40 0.0915 49.6 26.83
4.47 0.090 48.8 2500
3.56 0.0870 47.3 Zou
2.74 0.0825 45,1 21.91
1.93 0.076 41.7 19.85
1.20 0.067 36.9 17.15
0.59 13.62
0 0
Mills ‘ 16.78
Dieterici Nes 2 slave 16.97

TaBLe III.—BENZENE.

y. —dv/ aT. E. Ar,
20.28 0.116 61.2 86.70
19.16 0.116 61.3 84.69
18.02 0.116 61.3 82.37
16.86 0.115 60.9 79.98
EAL 0.1145 60.7 77.39
14.57 0.1125 59.9 75.45
13.45 0.1105 59.1 73.45
12.36 0.108 58.0 71.34
11.29 0.106 57.2 69.48
10.20 0.104 56.3 67.25

9.15 0.102 55.4 65.21

8.16 0.100 54.5 62.51

Aas 0.098 53.5 59.75

6.20 0.096 52.6 57.04

5.25 0.094 Eye) 53.76

4,32 0.091 49.9 50,30

[ November
10°E/ Tr.

39:3"
38.9
38.6
38.3
38.0
37.6
37.4
37.2
36.9
37.2
37.5
Shek
38.3
39.0
39.6*
40.1*
40.2*
40.4*

41.2*
40.8*

10E/ TA.
20.0
19.9
20.0
19.9
20.0
19.7
19.5
19.2
19.0
18.9
18.8
18.8
18.9
19.1
19.4
19.7

1910|

240
250
260
270
275
280
288.5
270

On SuRFACE ENEGY AND SURFACE TENSION

3.41
2.56
1.75
0.99
0.66
0.29
0
Mills

0.087
0.083.
0.0785
0.073

48.1
46.0
43.6
40.6

46.53
42.46
37.55
31.49
23.45
0
31.47

20.1*
20.7*
21.8°
23.7*

23.7

Dieterici not calculated at 270°, but at 260° = 37.52
and at 280° = 23.79.

T.
24.62
23.09
21.56
20.05
18.58
aly gals

TaBLE L[V.—CHLOROBENZENE.

—dv/ dT.
0.100
0.0995
0.0995

0.099
0.0985
0.0970
0.0960
0.0945
0.093
0.0915
0.090
0.0875
0.0855
0.0825
0.080
0.0765
0.073
0.069

E.

60.0
59,7
59.8

59.5
59.3
58.6
58.1

57.4
56.7
55.9

55.1
53.8
CyAat/

A,

65.45
64.14
62.87
61.67
60.06
58.50
56.87
55.55
53.90
52.25
50.37
48.17
45.80

TABLE Y.—MeEtTHYL FoRMATE.

—dr/ dT.
0.153
0.151
0.149

0.147
0.145

E.
69.4
68.8
68.2

67.5
66.9

r
104.38
101.16

98.18

94.74
91.43

10‘E / TA.

21.7
21.5
21.5
21.3
21.3
21.2
21.1
21.0
20.9
20.9
20.9
21.0
21.2

10°E / TA,
21.9
21.7
21.5

21.4
21.3

104

* Misprinted in the original paper by Ramsay and Shields,

105

80

90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
214.0
200
200

JouRNAL OF THE MiTcHELL SOCIETY

66.2
65.5
64.6
63.8
62.9
61.8
60.4

58.8
56.6
Elf
50.4
46.2
41.5

88.31
85.25
81.83
78.96
75.87
71.95
68.10
64.03
59.28
54.41
48.64
41.93
33.18
19.58
0
35.10
35.04

TABLE VI.—EtTHyYL ACETATE.

15.70 0.143
14.29 0.141
12.90 0.139
252, 0.1365
10.18 0.134
8.86 0.1315
7.54 0.128
6.30 0.124
5.06 0.119
3.90 0.1125
2.81 0.105
1.78 0.096
0.87 0.086
0.06
0
Mills
Dieterici
r. —dr / dT.
23.60 pe
16.32 0.1185
15.14 0.117
13.98 0.115
12.84 0.113
11¢5 0.111
10.66 0.109
9.57 0.107
8.52 0.1045
7.48 0.1025
6.47 0.100
5251 0.097
4.54 0.093
3.64 0.089
2.80 0.0835
1.96 0.077
1.18 0.069
0.49 0.060
0.21 ators
0
Mills
Dieterici

E.

58.1
57.6
56.9
56.1

5.4

54.6
53.8
52.7
51.9
50.8
49.4
47.6
45.7
43.1
Soyo)
35.9
31.3

r

78.25
76.40
74.36
72.13
69.64
66.84
64.42
61.38
58.36
D5
52.68
49.48
46.11
42.08

| November

21.2
21.2
21.2
21.1
21.1
21.3
21.5
21.7
22.0
22.3*
22.9%
23.8*
26.5*

25.08
25.0*

10°E / TA.

21.1
20.8
20.5
20.3
20.2
20.3
20.2
20.3
20.5
20.6
20.7
20.8
21.0
21.2
21.8*
22.8*
21a

1910] On SurFACE ENERGY AND SuRFACE TENSION 106

the papers cited we feel certain that the heats of vaporization
given are correct to within 2 per cent. except as the
critical temperature is approached. Nearly always they are
correct to within 1 per cent. Now as the critical tempera-
ture is approached, it is true, as shown in the papers cited, that
the internal heat of vaporization as usually calculated by the use
of equation 2, and as given in this paper, is too small. But the
error thus caused is not nearly so great enough to account for the
great increase in the value of the constant. For it was further

TABLE VII.— WATER.

‘hs OM r. dy / dT. E. r 10°*H / TA
0 73.21 0.122 106.5 565.0 6.90
10 71.94 0.131 109.0 559.3 6.89
20 70.60 0.1385 tTEZ 552.5 6.87
30 69.10 0.1475 113.8 545.8 6.88
40° 67.50 0.155 116.0 539.2 6.88
50 65.98 0.162 118.3 532.4 6.88
60 64.27 0.168 120.2 525.4 6.87
70 62.55 0.174 122.2 518.4 6.87
80 60.84 0.179 124.0 511.4 6.87
90 58.92 0.1835 12525 504.5 6.85
100 57.15 0.188 127.3 497.1 6.87
110 55.25 0.192 128.8 489.2 6.87
120 53.30 0.196 130.3 481.0 6.89
130 51.44 0.200 132.0 472.9 6.92
140 49.42 0.204 1S Bio 465.0 6.96

TasLE VIII.—Acertic Acip.

EC. r. —dy / dT E. A 10‘E / TA
20 23.46 ee share 79.17 Ales
130 16.18 0.083 49.6 85.09 14.5
140 15.32 0.085 50.4 83.62 14.6
150 14.46 0.0865 51.0 82.37 14.6
160 13.58 0.088 Shed 81.14 14.7
170 ivf al 0.089 52.1 81.85 14.4
180 va ley ie 0.090 52.5 79.01 14.7
190 10.93 0.091 53.1 77.97 14.7
200 10.05 0.092 53.6 76.72 14.8
210 9.11 0.0923 Lys iat f5e52, 14.8
220 8.22 0.0927 53.9 73.25 14.9

230 7,28 0,0930 54.1 71.44 15,0

107

240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320

321.65

iC:
20

JOURNAL OF THE MitrcHELL Society

6.36
5.40
4.48
3:59
2.71
1.92
1.16
0.49
0.32
0

0.0930
0.0930
0.0915
0.0885
0.084

0.0785

0.0710

54.1
54.0
53.2
51.6
49.2
46.1
41.8

69.54
67.05
64.00
60.37
55.97
50.32
42.97
33.06
18.27
0

TABLE [X.—MertTHyt ALCOHOL.

—dy / AT.

0.0905
0.093
0.0955
0.098
0.1005
0.103
0.1055
0.108
0.1105
0.113
0.1155
0.117
0.117
0.114
0.108
0.093

E.

48.6
49.5
50.4
51.4
52.4
53:3
54.4
55.4
56.5
57.6
58.7
59.4
59.4
58.0
55.0
47.5

rv
266.5
244.4
238.5
232.1
225.2
218.3
211.0
203.2
195.4
185.6
178.2
168.5
158.1
147.5
134.9
LETS
99.6
74.6
61.9
54.4
0

TABLE X.—ErHyYL ALCOHOL.

—dy / dT.
0.0873
0.091
0.0943
0.096

0.098
0,0995

E.

47.5
48.7
49.9
50.5

51.2
51.8

r
208.0
205.3
199.2
191.6
186.6
181.8
174,9

[ November

15.0

15.4*
15:6"
1S te
15.9%
16.3%
17.0*

10‘H/ TA

Sie
5.87
6.00
6.14
6.32
6.51
6.74
7.06
7.32
7.71
8.19
8.70
9°3L
10.05
11.21
12.67

10‘E/ Tr
7.39
7.35
7.38
7.45

7.55
7,73

1910] ON SurFACE ENERGY AND SURFACE TENSION 108

120 12.68 0.1015 52.6 168.8 0.92
130 11.63 0.103 53:L 162.1 8.14
140 10.59 0.105 Sa 15520 8.39
150 9.52 0.107 54.8 149.3 8.67
160 8.45 0.1085 55.4 141.7 9.03
170 7.34 0.1105 56.3 133.6 eioul
180 6.23 0.112 57.0 124.9 10.1
190 5.13 0.112 57.0 114.8 10.7
200 3199 0.1105 50.7 104.0 anes
210 2.91 0.1065 54.3 oor 12.3
220 1.87 0.100 51.2 78.3 13:3
230 0.91 0.089 45.0 62.5 14.5
234 0.59 0.082

236 0.43 0.077 Bi sysott

240 0.15 Seley Mite 35.6

243.1 0 S54 SuHS 0

shown that the true heat of vaporization, even in the immediate
neighborhood of the critical temperature, can be very closely ob-
tained by means of two equations, one proposed by Mills and the
other by Dieterici. Values thus obtained, designated by Mills
and Dieterici, respectively, are given in the tables for comparison,
and the constant shown as calculated from them. But one con-
clusion is possible when the papers cited and the results shown
have been studied: The increase in the value of the constant near
the critical temperature is not largely due to errors in the values of the
heats of vaporization used.

Are then the surface tension measurements in error? The surface
tensions used were calculated by Ramsey and Shields from the rise
of the liquid in a capillary tube by means of the formula

5. Nisa) range ge) (hi
where r is the radius of the tube, h is the height to which the
liquid is raised, g is the gravitation constant, and d and D are the
densities of the liquid and its saturated vapor at the temperature
of the experiment. Since errors in r and g could not thus affect
the res':lt, we have only to consider the probable size of the errors
inh and in d—D. There seems no good reason to suppose that
large and regular errors were made in the determinations of the
height of the rise of the liquid in the capillary tube. Regarding
the possibility of errors in d—D, it is clear that, since d approaches

109 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Socrety [ November

D in value as the critical temperature is approached, errors of
measurement of the densities will be greatly multiplied near the
critical temperature in their effect upon Y. But the well-known
form of the density curves and the law of “‘rectilinear diameters’’
aids greatly in smoothing out individual errors of observation.
The papers of Ramsey and Shields do not state from what source
the densities were obtained, but comparison makes it fairly certain
that the measurements of ethyl oxide and water (except the den-
sities for these two substances of the liquid to 100°), methyl and
ethyl alcohols, and acetic acid were by Ramsey and Young; for
methyl formate and ethyl acetate by Young and Thomas; for
benzene, chlorobenzene, and carbon tetrachloride by Young. The
measurements of these investigators, as is well known, are ex-
ceedingly accurate and would introduce only comparatively small
errors in ¥. (We would note a misprint in the density of methyl
formate, liquid at 140°, 0.7368 for 0.7638; also in accordance
with Young’s data, carbon tetrachloride vapor at 230° should be
0.1232; benzene at 280° should be 0.1660; and ethy] alcohol at °200
should be 0.1660; and ethyl alcohol at 200° should be 0.5568 for
the liquid. The values for acetic acid have been revised by Young,
the only changes of significance for our purpose being at 280°
where the density of the liquid shou'd be 0.6629 and of the vapor
0.0883; and at 320° for the vapor, which should be 0.2421. These
«hanges will not affect the character of the results shown in the
tables.) We conclude therefore that the surface tension movements
are fairly accurate and cannot directly cause the variation shown in
the constant.

A relatively very large error is wntroduced tn the determination
of ¢ /dT. For near the critical temperature—T' dy / dT’ becomes
very large compared to Y and errors in dy /dT affect the constant
almost proportionately. In determining 2y/dT we deal with the
difference of measurements of ¥ in themselves nearly equal and
subject to some individual error. We would be inclined to think
that with any one substance the error introduced into the con-
stant through the uncertainty of the factor 4¥/ dT might be quite
sufficient to explain the rise in the value of the constant at the
critical temperature, But there seems no reason to suppose that

1910 On SurFacE ENERGY AND SURFACE TENSION 110

the error thus introduced would always be large and in the same
direction, unless there is some undiscovered defect in the deter-
mination of the surface tension. Nor is it reasonable to suppose
that the consistently recurring decrease, even though it be small,
in the value of the constant at low temperature, is to be attributed
to chance errors in the measurements.

The authors therefore conclude that the variation of the constant
in the relation, E/ TA = constant, proposed by Whittaker, is not due
to the measurements used in testing the relation, but to the fact that the
relation is only approximately true.

With regard to the associated liquids, as was to be expected, the
constant makes no pretense of constancy for the alcohols. But
contrary to expectation, the constant remains as near a constant
for water and acetic acid as it does for the non-associated liquids.
We have no idea of the reason for this behavior.

It is seldom that any physica] relation holds exactly true
throughout a wide range of temperature. It is therefore quite
reasonable to study the further relation stated by Whittaker and
to seek a possible cause for the same. One of the authors in a
paper already cited has discussed theoretically, and carefully
tested by means of the extensive series of exact measurements
available, the three following equations for the internal heat of
vaporization :

dP dP
2. \ =(T——P) (V—v)=0.0,3183 (T— — P) (V—+) calories.
aT aT

6. A= % C/%d — 3D) calories.
d T d

qi A = CRT In— = 4.77 C — log — calories
D m D

Equation 2 is the thermodynamical equation already mentioned.
In obtaining the constant the pressure is expressed in millimeters
of mercury, and v and V are the volumes occupied by a gram of
the liquid and of its saturated vapor.

In equation 6 w% is a constant for any particular non-associated
liquid, d is the density of the liquid, and PD is the density of the
saturated vapor. The values of % for the substances studied in

111 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society [ November

this paper are given in Table XI. The equation was deduced
theoretically by Mills from assumptions regarding the molecular
attraction and has been extensively studied’ and would seem to be
exactly true for normal non-associated liquids.

In equation 7 Cis a constant for any particular substance, hav-
ing approximately the same value, 1.755, for all normal non-
associated liquids, R is the usual gas constant, and d and D rep-
resent densities as before. The values for C are given in Table XI.
The equation was first proposed as an empirical equation by
Dieterici® and has been further studied by Richter? and by Mills.‘

Inserting the values of # and A from equations 1 and 2 in equa-
tion 3, we get

dy

4 ier tg

Sen i eon sian:

dP
T(T an — PV — 2)

as the form of the relation already studied. Now if it were possi-
ble to get the limit of this equation at the critical temperature a
further test of its truth could be applied. This does not seem
possible with our present knowledge. +7 probably falls out and T
cancels, leaving

ay 7 dP

ey OR SP) AV iio)

ary aT
as the indigestible form of the equation. The combination of the
equations 1, 2 and 3 under approximations has been studied by
Kleeman in the papers cited.

Next combining the relation given in equation 6 with that of

Whittaker we obtain, calling the constant of Whittaker’s relation k,

9. E= kvTC/d —3*3VD)

*J. Phys. Chem., 6, 209 (1902) ; 8, 383 (1904) ; 8, 593 (1904); 9, 402 (1905);
10, 1 (1906) ; 11, 132 (1907) ; 11, 594 (1907) ; 18, 512 (1909). TutsJourRNAL,
31, 1099 (1909).

Ann. Physik, 12, 144 (1903).

3‘‘Ueber die innerer Verdampfungswarme, Rostock, 1908.

4TuIs JouRNAL, 31, 1099 (1903).

1910) On SuRFACE ENERGY AND SURFACE TENSION 112

The values of ku’ are given in Table XII, though we have as yet
been able to draw no conclusion from their product. That the
surface energy of a liquid should be proportional to the product of
the absolute temperature and the difference of the cube roots of
the densities of the liquid and vapor is very suggestive. For it has
heen shown in the papers by Mills already cited that equation 6
expresses a relation between the molecular attractive forces,
and that this relation leads to the conclusion that u #d is the en-
ergy necessary to overcome the molecular attraction in pulling
the molecules of a liquid apart to an infinite distance. Simularly
u 4D would represent the energy necessary to pull apart the
molecules of a vapor to an infinite distance, the temperature of the
vapor remaining constant. Now the so-called liquid surface is
really the resultant of two surface layers, the one of the liquid and
the other of its vapor, in contact, with oppositely directed forces.
Hence it would seem that the total surface energy of a liquid, as
usually so-called, can be divided into two parts, one part due to
the liquid 7, and the other part due to the vapor over the liquid E y,
the resultant forces being oppositely directed and the surface en-
ergy of opposite sign from the standpoint of a surface molecule.
We can then write the equations:

10. Ey, = KT3Vd
11. Ey = K'13*VD.
12. Ey, — Ey’ = E= K'T(?7"/'d—vD).

Perhaps equations 10, 11, and 12 do not express a point of view
entirely new so much as they serve merely to add emphasis and to
give quantitative expression to afact already well known, ‘namely,
that the nature of the surrounding gas influences the surface ten-
sion. It would seem from the suggested equations that perhaps
the amount of such influence has been greatly underestimated.

It would seem probable that if equations 10, 11 and 12 are true,
the surface tension as usually measured should similarly be
capable of division into two parts, one part due to the liquid sur-
face, the other part due to the gaseous surface over the liquid.

* See paper by Ramsey and Shields already cited, page 666, and similar
determinations by others.

113 JOURNAL OF THE MitTcHELL SovlETY [ November

Such a process of division might result in finding simpler and
more accurate relations between the surface tension and other
quantities. Search by one of us for the proper modification to be
applied to the liquid surface tension as usually measured in order
to eliminate the effect of the vapor has apparently met with
success, and if a full investigation confirms the results already
derived the investigation will shortly be published.

TABLE XI.
Molecular weight 10°*E / TA.
m. uw. CG. 10%. 10'wk. 10°O.
Ethyl oxide...... ... 74.08 103.76 1.724 20.56 2132 3544
Carbon tetrachloride... 153.8 44.01 1.667 38.00 1672 6335
BENZENC. fa csieecae oe sie 78.05 109.26 1.690 19.22 2122 3282
Chlorobenzene....... 112.49 81.66 1.714 21.19 1730 3631
Methyl formate...... 60.032 119.86 1.706 21.44 2570 3657
Ethyl acetate........ 88.064 98.88 1.812 20.61 2038 3735
AGORA Ferd ce cates. Stats 18.016 555.1* a Ae 6.85 3802 ‘
ACOHERACIG. ic =. Sass. 60032 4276 22 eee 14.74 ese P
Methyl] alcohol....... 32.032 305.0* Boas 5.88* 1794
Ethyl alcohol........ 46.048 240.9* eos 7.42* 1787

* Not constant.

Ti the value of A from equation 7 be used in the equation 3 pro-
posed by Whittaker we have

d
13. E = kCRT*In—.
D

The value of the product 10*Ck is given in Table XI, but we can
draw no conclusion of interest from the result. Equation 7, as.
has been shown in the papers cited, is not exactly true at very low
vapor pressures for the liquid, but the error is probably not so
great as one calorie for any of the non-associated substances over
the entire range of temperature covered by the present investiga-
tion. The errors introduced by equation 7 are therefore far less
than the errors of equation 2 with which it was combined.

Equation 13 is similar to equation 9 in its suggestion of a division
of the total surface energy into two parts, one due to the liquid and
the other due to the vapor. The resulting equations can be
written,

1910) On SurFAcE ENERGY AND SoRFACE TENSION 114

14. Ey, = K"RT Ind,
15. Ey = K" RT In D,

d
16. E,— Ey = E= K"RT in —

ID
where K’’ = Ck. These relations will also be further studied.

In conclusion, we differ from the arguments and conclusions
advanced in the papers by Kleeman already cited at many points,
but we would call particular attention to but two things: First.—
In the investigation of the inverse fifth power law of the molecular
attraction’ he uses data from the papers already cited on molecular
attraction by Mills. He ignores the fact that in those papers it
has been shown that the assumption of the inverse square law of
the distance gives a consistent agreement with the data over the
entire range of temperature, not only for the substances that he
investigates but for numerous others. Also when the results
within 20° of the critical temperature are left out of consideration
Kleeman obtains a consistent decrease of about 25 per cent. in his
results at different temperatures. If the attractive force did not
vary with the temperature, the greatest allowable variation from
the mean to be attributed to the usual errors in the data should be
2 per cent., and we have shown that the inverse square law gives re-
sults within this limit—and usually far within this limit—for
eight substances investigated gave no divergence from the mean
greater than 1 per cent.

Second.—To explain the variation he,obtains, Kleeman thinks
that the force of attraction may diminish with rise of temperature.
The papers by Mills as cited find that as regards the molecular
attraction all of the evidence disproves this position, and as re-
gards the chemical attraction, the possibility of a change of at-
traction with temperature was further especially considered in a
paper on chemical energy, and no evidence whatever for such
a belief was found in the case investigated.

* Phil. Mag., 19, 795 (1910).

115 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocIETY [ November

Summary

1. The relation proposed by Whittaker that ““The surface en-
ergy of a liquid in contact with its own vapor at a temperature is
proportionate to the product of the internal latent heat and the
(absolute) temperature’’ bas been investigated and the conclusion
drawn that the relation is only approximately true.

2. The relation is shown to suggest a division of the so-called
surface energy of a liquid into two parts, one part due to the liquid
surface and the other to the surface of the vapor over the liquid.
Further investigation of this suggestion is promised.

" Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc., 14, 35 (1908).

CHAPEL Hu, N. C.

THE RATE OF EXTRACTION OF..PLANT FOOD CON-
STITUENTS FROM THE PHOSPHATES OF CALCIUM
AND FROM A‘LOAM SOIL*

BY JAMES M. BELL.

In a recent_paper entitled: ‘‘Ein Beitrag ‘zur’ Diingemittel und
Bodenanalyse,’’ E. A. Mitscherlich, R. Kunze, K.Celichowski, and
E. Merres, have investigated the rate of solution: of two phosphates
of calcium and the rate of extraction of ‘lime from:a loam soil, by
water saturated with carbon dioxide. The conclusion was reached
that the usual equation expressing the rate of solution does not
accord with their data. In this equation, wiz.:

dy / dt =h(A —’y) ccecceccveseesssvese > (1)
which when integrated becomes
log (A — y) = log:A — ffj............ ae)

A represents the concentration ,of the solution | when’ final
equilibrium, is reached. In applying: these equations, -however,
the authors have mistaken the significance of A;., since the ,value
of A used by them was the total quantity of the salt which was
originally mixed with the carbonated. water,:and not that’ portion
of salt which the liquid was capable of dissolving. Only when the
quantity of salt added to the water is just sufficient for saturation
is the above procedure valid. Since in the experiments, two dif-
ferent original pie of dicalcium phosphate to water were
employed, viz.: 1 : 750 and 1: 1500, at least in one case. (and
probably in as a wrong value was assigned to.A. In the case

*Reprinted from the Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol.
XXXII. No.7. July, 1910.

* Landw. Jahrb., 39, 299 (1910).
116

117 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocIETY [ November

of tricalcium phosphate four different ratios of salt to water were
employed, viz.: 1 : 1500, 1 : 2000, 1 : 3000, and 1: 6000. So
that in three of the four series, and probably also in the fourth,
incorrect values were assigned io A.

As the above equations under these conditions failed to accord
well with the data, a modified form of equation (2) has been pro-
posed by the above authors,

LO CAS a A CRU os ae aN (3)

in which A represents the total quantity of the salt and ¢ and n
are constants. It seems to me proper, therefore, to recalculate
the results, in order to determine whether equations (1) and (2)
are really out of accord with the data.

Before discussing the recalculated results, several features of
solution phenomena should be recalled. It is obvious that the
rate of solution of any substance depends upon its exposed sur-
face. Where the substance is in grains of widely different sizes,
it is not possible to deduce any rationai equation representing the
rate of solution of such an aggregation of particles. And further,
if any empirical equation is found to conform with the data for
material in one mechanical condition, that equation will not, in
general, describe the rate of solution of material which is chem-
ically the same but mechanically different. Consequently experi-
ments on rate of solution have usually been carried out with large
crystals of low solubility, the surface changing but slightly during
the course of the experiment. It is apparent also that an
aggregation of crystals of uniform size and of low solubility may
be considered as of constant surface during the solution.

In the experiments of Mitscherlich, Kunze, Celichowski, and
Merres powdered material was probably used, but no statement is
made as to its mechanical condition. The data indicate that the
surface exposed must have altered considerably, for in the experi-
ments with dicalcium phosphate over half of the phosphoric
anhydride was extracted, and in the experiments with tricalcium
phosphate, at least 45 per cent of the phosphoric anhydride was
extracted. Consequently, even if the proper value of A (the total

1910| Rave or Exrraction oF PLant Foop ConstiTuENts 118

quantity of phosphoric anhydride in solution at equilibrium) had
been used in the calculations, the usual equation for rate of
solution might have failed because of the great changes in the
extent of surface.

In the tables the first figures give the concentration of the solu-
tion one hour after the salt and water were mixed. In my
recalculated results, this has been taken as the starting point of
the reaction, for the following reasons: In every case more
phosphoric anhydride passed into solution within the first hour
(within which no determinations were made) than in the re-
maining time of the reaction (23-47 hours). Thus, calculated on
the basis of 45.55 per cent. phosphoric anhydride in dicalcium
phosphate, in one case the increase was from 20.16 per cent. after
1 hour to only 23.03 per cent. after 47 hours more, and in the
other case the variation was between 35.09 per cent. and 39.67 per
cent. Similarly for tricalcium phosphate with 43.22 per cent.
_ phosphoric anhydride, the increases for four experiments were as
follows: From 14.92 per cent. after 1 hour to 19.83 per cent.
after 47 hours more; from 17.24 per cent. after 1 hour to 24.69
per cent. after 24 hours; from 20.99 per cent. after 1 hour to
34.55 per cent. after 48 hours; and from 21.46 per cent. after 1
hour to 42.14 per cent. after 24 hours. Thus, for most of the
cases, the solution has been very close to equilibrium, and the
extent of surface has probably changed but little. For the last
two cases given (Tables V and VI) however, the changes in sur-
face have been considerable. In the recalculated results this
surface factor has been assumed constant, a legitimate assumption
in all but two cages (Tables V and VI). Even in these two cases,
in spite of this objection to the application of the usual equation,
it will be seen that the equation describes the facts at least as well
as.the empirical equation proposed by the above authors.

119 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Society [ November

TABLE I.—RATE OF SOLUTION OF DICALCIUM PHOSPHATE IN WATER SATURATED
with CQ,. Ratio or Sart To WaTER, 1 : 750. Temp. 30° ©.

Original. Recalculated.
o_O vt ETT E bo. CO HS

y calc. = Y= Y cale. y cale.=
t. yfound. fromeqn. (4). ¢—1 y—20.16 fromeqn.(5) Y+20.16.
1 20.16 20.05 0 0 0 20.16
2 20.80 20.56 1 0.64 0.23 20.39
4 21.15 21.10 3 0.99 0.64 20.80
8 22.42 21.63 7 1.26 1.29 21.45
12 21.53 21.94 11 bay / 1.76 21.92
24 22.78 22.47 23 2.62 2.53 22.69
48 23.03 23.02 47 2.87 2.93 23.09

log (45.55—y) = 1.6585—0252 i ora atais alate eAicve terete Gio (eievelalemister Aeiere (4)

logz*(200—-Y) := log’ 3.00—0.035T. ct ou. ese eae cee eee (5)

Tas_e IT.—Rarts oF Soivtion or DicaLtciuM PHOSPHATE IN WATER SATURATED
witH ©O,. Ratio or Sarr ro Water, 1 : 1500. TeEmp. 30°C.

Original. Recalculated.
SSS SS SS SSS rea =
y eale. T= Y= Y eale. y cale.

t. yfound. fromegn. (6). t—1l. y—35.09 fromeqn. (7) Y +35.09
1 35.09 35.00 0 0 0 35.09

2 35.82 36.05 1 0.73 0.68 35.00

4 37.09 37.06 3 2.00 1.76 36.85

8 38.29 38.02 7 3.20 Sybil! 38.20
12 38.67 38.56 11 3.58 3.82 38.91
24 39.31 39.45 23 4.22 4.49 39.58
48 39.67 40.21 47 4.58 4.60 39.69
log} (G5-56--y) = 1 .6585=—PGs aps Lele cycle hes eae tee (6)
lor | (4:60—Y)) |= log) 4.608. 70T 525 22523 peste eit eee (7)

Tasreé III.—Rate oF SoLurion oF TRICALCIUM PHOSPHATE IN WATER
SATURATED WITH CO,. Ratio oF SALT ro Water, 1 : 1500.

Temp. 30°C.
Original. Recalculated.
iar = a aa er a Wrieeee om
y cale. T= Y= Y cale. y cale. =
t. yfound. fromegqn. (8). t—1. y—14.92. fromeqn. (9). Y+14.92.
1 14.92 17.29 0 0 0 14.92
2 16.31 17.78 1 1.39 1.03 15.95

4 18,15 18,23 3 3.23 2.49 17.41,

1910) Rate or Extraction or Piant Foop ConstiruvENts 120

8 18.92 18.71 7 4.00 4.00 18.92
12 18.96 18.99 pal 4.04 4.60 19.52
18 19.05 19.27 17 4.13 4.90 19.82
24 19.68 19.48 23 4.76 4.97 19.89
48 19.83 19.97 47 4.91 5.00 19.92

20

ie (45-299) —— 163570. DOF Ab. vais ccclacselvcpetsesccione (8)

log (5:00—Y ).— log 5.00—0. 100 Ti. lise eehelieee eee. (9)

TaBLE [IV.—RareE OF SOLUTION OF TRICALCIUM PHOSPHATE IN WATER
SATURATED witH CO,. Ratio oF Satt to Water, 1 : 2000.

Temp. 30° C.
Original. Reca!culated.
oo ray i Roe Sa ara | TaTY
y eale. a ee Y cale. y cale. =
t. yfound. fromeqn. (10. t—1l. y—17.24. fromegqn. (11). Y+17.24.
1 17.24 21.51 0 0 0 19.43
2 20.19 22.20 1 2.95 2.19 19.43
4 20.75 22.92 3 Besh 4.84 22.08
8 23.68 23.59 7 6.44 6.83 24.07
12 23.90 24.04 11 6.66 7.33 24.57
24 24.69 24.77 23 7.45 7.50 24.74
15
log (48.22—z) =1.6357—0.299 Vt.......... 2c cece cece (10)
fog (7.50—Y) = log 7.50—0.150T....... 054.23.) (I)

TABLE V.—RarTE OF SOLUTION OF TRICALCIUM PHOSPHATE IN WATER
SATURATED witH CO,. Ratio oF SAtr To Water, 1 : 3000.

Temp. 30° C.
Original. Recalculated.
——_—_—_*- Sea | (SS eee Peary a
y cale. = = Y cale: y cale. =
t. yfound fromegqn. (12) ¢t—1 y—20.99 fromegqn. (13) Y+20.99
1 20.99 24.78 0 0 0 20.99
2 24.35 26.60 1 3.36 3.19 24.18
4 28.55 28.44 3 7.56 5.60 26.59
8 30.66 30.28 7 9.67 9.67 30.56
12 31.30 31.34 11 10.31 11.46 32.45
24 33.71 33.06 23 12.72 13.01 34.00
48 34.15 34.70 47 13.16 13.20 34.19
6
log (43.22—y) = 1.6357—0370 Vt..........-....-.- (12)

log (13.20—Y) = log 13.20—0.080T..........+..+-+- (18)

121 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society [ November

TABLE VI.—RatTEe oF SoLuTIon oF TRICALCIUM PHOSPHATE IN WATER
SATURATED WITH CO,. Rarro oF Sat tro WarTsErR, 1 : 6000.

Temp. 30° C.
Original. Recalculated.
-_ r ais Ge ia aT Y
y cale. T= Y= Y cale. y cale. =
t. yfound fromegqn. (14) ¢t—1 y—21.48 fromeqn. (15) Y+21.48.
got Ag 28.31 0 0 0 21.48
2 30.30 32.59 1 8.82 6.40 27.88
4 36.71 36.44 3 15.23 13.85 35.33
8 39.67 39.48 ef 18.19 19.13 40.61
12 40.88 40.77 age 19.40 20.34 41.82
24 42.14 42.22 23 20.66 20.70 42.18
5

log (43.22—z) = 1.6357—0.462 /t?....-..-2-02-+0s20414)
log (20.70—Y) = log 20.70—0.160T.. . .5))2.4.2. oes (15)

TABLE XXI.—RarE oF SoLuTion oF Lime FROM A LoAm SoIL BY
WATER SATURATED WitH CO,. Rario oF Som ‘ro WartsEr, 1: 10.

Temp. 30° C.
Original. Recalculated.
Goat ae om —-————_ ——
y cale. T= Y= Y cale. y cale.=
t. yfound. fromegqn. (16) t—2 y—0.1087 fromeqn. (17) Y-+0.1087
2 0.1087 0.1069 0 0 0 0.1087
4 0.1199 0.1232 2 0.0112 0.0107 0.1194
8 0.1342 0.1378 6 0.0257 0.0264 0.1351
11.5 0.1461 0.1450 9.5 0.0374 0.0360 0.1447
16 0.1520 0.1511 14 0.0433 0.0436 0.1523
24 0.1572 0.1578 22 0.0485 0.0512 0.1599
32 0.1631 0.1620 30 0.0544 0.0544 0.1631
log (0.18—y) = (0.25583—1)—0.315 Vt..........--.. (16)
log (0.057—Y) = log 0.057—0.045T.........-..-.-- (17)

From the above tables it is evident that the results calculated
by the usual velocity equation are in as good accord with the ob-
served values, as are the results calculated by the empirical
equation (3) proposed by the above authors.

Finally it should be observed that A, which is the maximum
quantity of phosphoric anhydride which the liquid can extract, is
not identical in Tables II, or in Tables III to VI. If the

1910| Rare or Extraction oF PLant Foop ConstiruENts. oe

phenomenon being measured was one of solution only, this would
of course, be a legitimate objection to these calculations. But it
has been shown that when water acts on dicalcium phosphate or
tricalcium phosphate a decomposition results, the solution having
a higher ratio, P,O,:CaO, than the remaining solid." The same
sort of hydrolysis undoubtedly takes place when carbonated water
is used asasolvent. With an hydrolysis whose extent depends on
the original ratio of salt to water, the quantity of phosphoric
anhydride in solution at equilibrium depends on the quantity of
salt originally employed, and hence A will vary with the condi-
tions of experiments.

In this paper it has been shown that notwithstanding the con-
ditions militating against the use of the ordinary equation for
rate of solution, viz.: the variable extent of surface and the fact
that the phenomenon observed is not one of solution only but also
of hydrolysis, this equation describes the data at least as well as
the empirical equation proposed by Mitscherlich, Kunze,
Celichowski, and Merres.

The usual equation for rate of solution also describes very well
the extraction of lime from a loam soil by carbonated water.

“Cameron and Bell, Bull. 41, Bureau of Soils, U.S. Dept. Agr.

TOPOGRAPHY OF FAYETTEVILLE, NORTH CAROLINA

By Wruiam H. Fry.

The region directly around and in Fayetteville, N. C., ina gen-
eral way can be divided into three subdivisions, each of which is
topographically independent and distinct from the other two,
although not so geologically. The first of these subdivisions lies
to the west of the town and includes Haymount, Massey’s, and
Harrington’s hills. These hills, despite their different names, are
in reality all one, they being merely difierent portions of the
range running northeast and southwest through the State. In
fact, the line where one begins and the other ends is not a
definitely settled point. The names are simply broad designa-
tions of the particular parts of the hills to which the major streets
of the town run.

The sccond division borders the foot of this line of hills, and
and extends in breadth eastwardly somewhat slightly above a mile.
Ifere its border is marked by a steep but short incline which runs
parallel, with but few breaks, to the hills, the opposite border.
How far beyond the immediate vicinity of Fayetteville this may
be true cannot well be ascertained, owing to the fact that plowing
and erosion have rendered the incline indeterminable wherever
the earth has not been protected by vegetation. But, judging
from analogy, it should run parallel to the hills through the whole
breadth of the State. This second division includes the upper and
central portions of the town.

Bordering upon the second division and running indefinitely
eastward is the third division. It may include the whole eastward
section of the State; but detailed maps are too few to settle
this point. With but little error it may be said that this third
division takes its beginning at Dick, Green, Ramsey and North

123

1910] TOPOGRAPHY oF FayvEtrevitte Norry CAROLINA 124

streets and includes in Fayetteville, what is locally known as Frog-
town and Campbelltown, ending, as far as our present purpose
goes, at the Cape Fear River.

From the foregoing description it can be seen that Fayetteville
consists of three steps rising in a regular order of succession and
each at an increasing height above the former. This condition ig
of course most easily seen on the streets running eastwardly and
westwardly where the slopes have been protected from erosion
by boards placed transverse to the Streets, by layers of such
resistant materials ag cinders, and by the turfing of terraces in the
lots on either side. Fortunately such streets are numerous. But
even were this not so the line of demarcation would stil] be readily
visible inside the town and even at some points outside where the
land has not been cultivated. It may be remarked, by the way,

division being the business Section, and the upper or westward

The upper or westward division, as has been stated above, is
simply a part of the range of sand hills running through the State
ina northeasterly and southwesterly direction. The part con-
sidered here is about four miles long, extending from the Cochran
farm on the north to the Holt-Tolar-Hart Cotton Mill on the
south. This section is composed essentially of white sand, mainly
quartzose, overlain and in many places interstratified with a yel
lowish red clay. All of the materials are rather coarse. Only in

The natural vegetation of the area affords a true and typical
index of its sandy and desert character. Here are found pines,
scattered and thin bunches of rough grass, and an abundance of
the prickly pear cactus (Opuntia). The prickly pears are go
abundant that small barefooted boys invariably keep to the roads

125 JourNAL oF THE MrTcHELL SocIETY [ November

or well beaten paths, games on anything but much used places ©
being entirely out of the question.

This upper section or division can be called a topographical unit
only if viewed in a very general way. But in reality it is made
up of very marked hills and valleys. These are comparatively
close together and seem to be scattered about promiscuously.
The slopes of these, however, are all gradual, there being, with
one exception to be noted later, no steep or abrupt inclinations.
This condition is, of course, what might be expected in a range of
hills of the character of this where the material readily yields to
the action of both rain and wind.

Two main valleys cut through the hills and form the loci to
to which all the minor valleys tend. As usual in this area, these
two valleys are very wide compared with their depth and have
very gradual slopes both laterally and longitudinally. The
bottoms and broad plains which are occasionally flooded after
heavy rains. At one point, however, as noted above, near
Monticello Heights, the slope is exceedingly abrupt. But this
can be accounted for by the fact that here the stream has left the
hills and is flowing along the foot of one of them with the swifter
motion on the westward or hill-side of the stream, thus naturally
tending to encroach upon the hill. Besides, the rapid erosion of
the slope above the stream is prevented by a thick growth of tall
pines and underbrush, which has, so far as could be learned,
never been cut.

The second and third divisions have no distinctive character by
which they can be separated from each other save position. As |
has already been said, they lie parallel both with each other and
with the first division.

The material composing them is much finer in texture than that
of the hills, being in many cases simply a mixture of clay and —
organic mould, which extends to a considerable depth, as would :
be observed in recent excavations made for a sewerage system. —
Much of the organic material was undoubtedly deposited when the i
land stood at a lower level and swamp conditions prevailed, before
the uplift allowed the streams to cut deep enough to afford —
drainage for the area. The clay is probably derived from the

/

1910] Torograpuy or FAYETTEVILLE NortH CARTLINA 126

wash of the hills. Ata depth of about ten to fifteen feet below
the surface sand and gravel are encountered. This is pure enough
to be used for plastering after having been screened from the gravel
that occurs with it. The gravels are very much rounded, indi-
cating much exposure to running water.

As for the origin of this topography: it is probable that the
hills constitute the upper part of an old shore line from which the
waters receded in a very recent geological period, the exact time
not having been determined. The second division, as indicated
by the water-worn sand and gravel, was probably that part of the
shore between high and low tides. The clay and organic matter
were probably deposited after the emergence of the division. The
third division, which now slopes gradually eastward, was probably
covered by the sea. These explanations account for the present
rather unusually regular topography; while later erosion and
transportation of material account for all seeming irregularities
such as are found at many places near the creeks.

As for geological changes now going on: in the hill region the
sand is being cemented together by iron oxide, forming a coarse
red sandstone. This is found in lumpy aggregates, or more often
in thin, closely compacted layers or hardpans. Erosion, as has
already been mentioned, forms broad, gently sloping valleys in
the hills; but in the lower regions, where the first ten or fifteen
feet is clayey, narrow and deep valleys are cut reaching a depth
of thirty or more feet, where the streams debouch into the
river.

GREAT DAMAGE FROM RECENT FOREST FIRES!
WHAT SHALL WE DO ABOUT IT?*

During the latter part of March ,and‘ the first half of April,
eastern and central North Carolina have experienced one of the
severest periods of dry weather that has occurred ‘for many years.
Not only did little or no rain fall over the greater part of the State
for about five weeks, but there was almost continuous sunshine
during this period. Grass and leaves in the woods became as dry
as tinder, and forest fires were of almost daily occurrence over the
greater part of the State.

The Survey, anticipating the usual spring drought, issued about
the middle of March a statement to the newspapers, calling atten-
tion to the serious effects of such fires, in which it brought out the
fact that the greater number of these fires—at least the most de-
structive ones—at this season are caused by farmers carelessly
setting fire to brush, stumps, and other ‘rubbish, collected in
clearing up the ground for cultivation.”..This statement was
published at length, or in shortened form, by many. of the leading
State newspapers and was very favorably noticed,,by the leading
lumber journal of the country. Though this warning was timely,
and probably exerted some influence, it did not have a. very
marked effect. “o much damage was reported through the
various State papers that the North Carolina Geological and
Economic Survey determined to investigate the causes of these fires
and see if the damage done by them was as great as the dispatches
indicated, with tne purpose of working out some method of pre-
venting the almost annual occurrence of these destructive spring
fires.

About the middle of April the Forester to the Survey made a
trip into Moore and Cumberland counties with the special: pur-
pose of collecting data on fire causes and damage. At this time

*Press Bulletin No, 39, N. C,:Geological:Survey.
127

1910] GREAT DAMAGE FROM Recent Forest Fires 128

had been put out, though some stumps and logs were stil] smoking
on some of the more recently burned areas. Conditions were
found to be worse even than had been ‘Tepresented in the press.
During the dry spell, scores of fires had Started in these ‘counties
alone, many of them burning for days, traversing miles of country
and covering thousands of acres of woodland. At least half of the
area of the southern part of Moore County and by far the greater
part of the woodland of Cumberland County was found to have
been burnt over this past spring. Some areas had been burnt in
the winter, and on these, though the mature growth showed little
injury, the young growth was, of course, largely destroyed, In
every direction blackened woods, scorched and dead pines, dying
and dead hardwoods could be seen: even the resistant Scrub oaks
were absolutely killed on thousands of acres.

late spring than at any other season of the year. , The sap being
up in the trees and the new leaves coming out, make the treeg

forts to extinguish them seem to have been greater than usual,
many fires had to practically burn themselves out because it was
impossible to work near enough to the fires to stop them. In
many cases fire was carried from 50 to 100 yards, or even more,
through the air by the wind. So great was the heat and SO rapid
the spread of the fire, thatin many cases a thousand acres, Or n.ore,
burnt over in: two or three hours time.

In these two counties, not less than 250,000 acres of woodland
have been burnt over during the past winter and spring, and

the amount of dead vegetable matter on the ground, and with the
age, density and character of the growth on the area. Though

hill land, growing only smal] scrub oak and little or no pine,
still the damage is very serious. As this land is used only to grow
timber, the Prevention of a profitable growth on .it means

129 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL SoclETY [ November

destruction of the usefulness of the land. Fifty cents an acre is &
low average for the damage done by one fire to this class of land.
Near the towns, however, especially the towns that are chiefly de-
pendent for their prosperity on the winter resort business, the
injury by fire has been eight or ten times this amount. In many
cases, attempts have been made, with more or less success for
a number of years, to protect the pine growth, both for the value
of the trees for timber and more especially for their aesthetic
value. Where this was the case, the destruction of the young
growth on these areas can hardly be estimated in dollars and
cents. In several such cases the damage over considerable areas
amounts to from five to seven dollars per acre, not including the
destruction of buildings. To show that this 1s @ conservative
estimate and to illustrate in what way the amount of damage is
arrived at, a specific estimate is here given. On a large tract of
land near one of these resort towns, used, through the courtesy of
the owner by the general public as a park and pleasure ground,
about 900 acres was burned over early in April by two closely
zonsecutive fires. Of this 900 acres, 50 acres was round timber,
that is, mature, unboxed, long-leaf pine; 150 acres was old field
growing up to young pine; the balance of 700 acres was boxed
timber, or rather, scrub oak with scattered mature pines which
had been previously boxed for turpentine. The round timber is
worth approximately $50.00 per acre for the timber itself. It was
estimated that one-tenth of this timber was killed; probably half
of this can, however, be used for fire-wood. Thus, out of $5.00
worth of timber killed, half of it is a total loss, and the other half
a, partial loss, as the price for cord wood is less than for saw tim-
ber; this would make a total loss of $3.75 per acre. The loss to
this part of the property in appearance 1S roughly estimated at
fifty cents an acre, though a very much larger sum would not
compensate for the loss to the beauty of this tract of forest. The
estimated damage then is $4.25 per acre. The old field was
covered with a growth of pine averaging approximately 18 years
of age. This timber will be worth at least $50.00 per acre when
100 years old, so that one year’s growth would be worth fifty cents
an acre, or 18 years’ growth would amount to $9.00 per acre. As,

1910 | GREAT DAMAGE FROM ReEcENT Forest FIREs 130

however, some of the growth was not killed outright, though all
was severely injured, the damage to the young growth on this
tract was estimated at $5.00 per acre. The young pine was
growing in the most conspicuous part of the property, that sur-
rounding the golf links, and the injury to scenic beauty was
therefore much greater here than on any other part of the
property. $2.00 per acre isa low estimate for this damage. This,
together with the $5.00 for the destruction of the trees, makes
a total loss of $7.00 per acre for this 150 acres of old field. On
the area on which the boxed timber was the chief valuable growth
the damage consists (1) in the burning down and consequent de-
struction of half the stand of boxed timber, amounting to some
250 feet board measure, per acre, worth approximately $1.25 per
acre; (2) in the total destruction of a stand of seedlings and young
growth of pine approximately four years old, worth $2.00 per
acre; (8) in the injury to the beauty of the tract, fifty cents per
acre, or a total of $3.75.

The above estimate does not include fences, bridges, etc., ap-
proximately $200 worth of which were destroyed. An enormous
quantity also of lightwood was burned up, for which a nominal
estimate of twenty-five cents per acre is made. This gives a total
loss for the 900 acres burned over of something like $4,300, which
would be increased by $100 to $200 for the cost of fighting these
two and some other fires that threatened the property.

The above gives some idea how the loss through fire can be ap-
proximately arrived at, and also brings out the point that it is not
only the loss of salable material that should be counted, but all
other direct and indirect losses. Even in this estimate, however,
one very important item has been omitted, which is the impov-
erishment of the soil from the destruction of the humus. This is
very serious, and is very generally recognized, though it is
exceedingly hard to put it into dollars and cents. ;

These two fires under consideration were set by sparks from a
railroad train. So, also, was the one in Cumberland County, n
which, after burning over several miles of country, an old woman
lost her life. This woman, Mrs. Kate Howard, lived with her
sister not far from a well traveled road. The two of them made

131 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocreTy [ November

their living, at least through the spring and summer, by gathering
flowers and plants in the woods and shipping them North. The
fire which this woman went out to fight was threatening not only
her house but her livelihood, as wherever the fire went it destroyed
the flowers, so that even had she not lost her life, the fire was a
very serious thing to her.

Another very destructive fire in the loblolly pine country, near
Fayetteville, was set out by a tenant farmer who owned no land
of his own. This man set fire to half an acre of old field that he
wanted to plow, in the middle of the day. The wind quickly
carried the fire beyond control, and before it was stopped, two or
three hours later, it had swept through 1,200 acres of woodland
belonging to a dozen or more different men, causing an estimated
loss in timber and fences of nearly $5,000.

Another destructive fire in Cumberland County was caused by
setting fire to a brush pile on a dry, windy day. The fire was
carried from this pile by the wind 75 or 100 feet across a wide
road, setting fire to the woods and quickly doing a thousand dol-
lars worth of damage to the fences and young timber of one of the
neighbors.

Many people, when asked as to the cause of so many destructive
fires, attributed them entirely to the unprecedented dry weather,
forgetting that this alone could not cause the fires. Most people,
however, seemed to recognize the fact that during such a drought
the greatest care should be exercised to keep fires from getting out,
and that it was to the neglect of proper precautions in handling
fire that the greater part of this damage was due. This criminal
neglect, chiefly on the part of the railroads and of the small tenant
farmers, was brought out very clearly in the present investigation.
Out of over thirty fires taken note of, practically one-half resulted
' from sparks from railroad locomotives, and about one-third were
caused by fire getting away from farmers carelessly burning brush
and rubbish. It seems to be generally felt that the only way such
fires can be prevented is by the passage of a law for the purpose of
controlling or restraining those responsible for these two classes of
forest fires. The State Geological and Economic Survey is of the

1910] GREAT DAMAGE FROM RECENT Forest FIRES 132

same opinion, and suggests that legislation along these lines be
taken up next winter.

Railroad fires could in large part be prevented if the railway
companies kept their rights-of-way cleared of brush, grass, weeds
and other inflammable material. One substantial property owner
in Cumberland County says he asked the railroad two or three
times the past winter to clear off its right-of-way, apparently with-
out result. Very few roads keep the whole of their right-of-way
cleaned up, though some seem willing to codperate with property
owners by burning off each side of their track at some time during
the winter. The railroads have in most instances been given their
right-of-way by the property holders along the line, and they
ought to be compelled by the State to keep it cleaned up, so that
it does not become a menace to these adjacent owners. In many
States this is required, and it is found to work well where the law
is enforced.

Nearly half of the destructive fires occurring late in the season
were found to be due to the careless burning of rubbish, brush,
log piles, stumps, etc., by farmers clearing up their land for cul-
tivation. In most cases it was found that it was not the owner of
the land who was responsible for the fire, but some small tenant
farmer who had little interest in the property, and, in most cases,
had no land of his own. Even small fires, during the dry spring
weather, will be carried quite long distances by the wind—in-
stances of fire being carried 100 yards or more, across plowed land,
were cited by several different people. It ought to be made a
criminal offense for a man to set out fire, even on his own land,
during such dry weather, for a man who has no property, and
cannot pay a fine, cares little about being sued for damages.
Intelligent citizens and property owners all over the State would,
it is thought, support a law to this effect, and it seems the only
way to prevent fires resulting from such criminal carelessness.

To both of these proposed remedies, a very strong and. valid ob-
jection can be raised, namely, that the passage of laws is of little
value unless they are enforced. Even now the law requiring notice
to be given to adjacent land owners before a fire is set out is a dead
letter, because it is never enforced. A man very naturally objects

133 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Socrery [ November

to suing a relative or a near neighbor and perhaps landing him in
jail, for, besides the natural reluctance to make an enemy of one
who is possibly a good friend, there is always present the idea that
an offended neighbor may retaliate in some way at some future
time. An instance of this reluctance to sue was brought to the
attention of the Forester during this investigation. Two men had
set fire to the woods during the recent dry spell, on purpose to
prevent any possible fire getting to their fences. After securing
their own property, they had made no attempt to extinguish the
fire, and it had burned over a large extent of country, and done
very serious damage to several of the neighbors. ‘This was clearly
in violation of the present law. Witnesses could have been
procured to testify to the facts in this case, but no one would
prosecute, because every one who was injured was related more or
less to one or other of these men. This feeling has, all over the
State, practically nullified the law, so that, where it isno one’s duty
to enforce the law, it becomes useless. It is therefore suggested
that in addition to the two laws above outlined, the execution of
them be placed in the hands of a man specially appointed in each
county or township desiring it. This man, who might be termed
a fire warden, should be appointed by the Governor, on the
recommendation of the people of the county, and be given powers
similar to those of a deputy sheriff. His duties should be to in-
vestigate all forest fires which occur in his county, to find out who
the guilty parties are, and to report direct to some State official,
such as the State Geologist or the State Forester. This official
would then, through the fire warden on the ground, prosecute all
offenders against the forest laws. Thus the idea would be
eliminated that any such prosecutions were brought about from
personal motives. It is not recommended that county fire wardens
be appointed in every county in the State, but only in those in
which the fire danger warrantsit. In counties where there is over
50 per cent of woodland the costs for the maintenance of such an
official would quickly be much more than offset by the increased
value of the forests of the county through the prevention of fire.
If such laws had been in effect, and such men had been on duty
in Moore and Cumberland counties the past spring, there is no

1910) GREAT DAMAGE FROM REcENT Forest FIRES 134

doubt that a saving of many thousands of dollars would have re-
sulted to the people of these counties.

During the present summer, while members of the two branches
of the State Legislature are being nominated and elected, the
people should keep this question in mind. Every candidate
should be interrogated as to how he stands on the forest flre ques-
tion. It is really very much more important to determine what
a man intends to do in the Legislature, than what he thinks on a
question which does not affect this State at all. It is hoped that
the next Legislature will take up this question and push through
a law that will furnish the woodland owners of the State the pro-
tection that they require and demand.

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JOURNAL ls

ae
Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

VOL. XXVI DECEMBER, 1910 NO. 4

GOOD ROADS AND CONSERVATION*
By Joseph Hyde Pratt.

Mr. President and Members of the Southern Conservation Con-
vention:

I was very glad indeed to be invited to make an address at
the Southern Conservation Convention, and especially so when
it was suggested that I speak on the subject of Good Roads in
their Relation to Conservation.

It will be necessary for me at times, perhaps, to drift consid-
erably away from the actual subject, in order to make clear cer-
tain relations that I feel exist between good roads and conser-
vation.

There is a very close relation between good roads and the
successful carrying out of the principles of conservation; in
fact, the construction of good roads is one phase of
conservation. In the first place, conservation, as applied
to our natural resources, means not only their preservation and
conservation but means also that we will be able to utilize them
perpetually. The problems relating to the conservation of these
resources are not local but national and state questions; they
are questions that affect and are of interest not only to the indi-
vidual but to the whole people, and, therefore, in adopting meas-
ures looking toward the conservation of these natural resources,
the nation must be considered before the state and the whole peo-
ple before the individual. This does not mean necessarily that
the Federal Government should control and dominate all policies
relating to conservation; although, personally, I believe that this
- *An address delivered before the Southern Conservation Convention,
Atlanta, Ga., Oct. 8, 1910.

135 ;
Printed April 12, 1911.

136 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocIETY [ December

would be the very best step that could be taken for the most
successful accomplishment of all measures relating to conserva-
tion. It does mean, however, that the Federal Government should
have at least some supervision in the carrying out of these poli-
cies so that what is done shall react to the good of all the states
and not simply to the individual state and often to the disad-
vantage of adjoining states. There are so many questions com-
ing up relating to conservation that cannot be applied to the
individual state, and the accomplishment of the desired results
ean only be obtained when they are considered as interstate
problems. To illustrate, you might take the question of the
protection of forests from fires; one state may pass most rigid
laws relating to the protection of its forests from fire and yet
the adjoining state may give ao protection at all to its forests,
and forest fires, starting in this state, gather great headway
so that it is almost impossible to prevent their crossing the imagi-
nary state line and doing a great deal of destruction in the state
which has rigid fire laws that are being enforced as far as that
state itself is concerned. Such a condition can, and does, exist
in the Southern Appalachian reign; and, unless all the states
will take up the question of fire protection for their forests, there
will always be more or less destruction of the forests near the
borders of these states from fires that have originated in adjoin-
ing states.

Another illustration of the need of some Federal supervision
is in the protection of mountain trout from destruction on ac-
count of sawdust that is thrown into many of our streams.
Many of our mountain streams flow from one state to another
and from one county to another and in many instances the
counties within a state on the lower waters of a stream have
passed rigid laws regarding the throwing of sawdust in these
streams and yet the counties higher up on these streams have
no such laws, and their lumbermen are allowed to throw sawdust
in the streams, with the result that the counties lower down, who
have the rigid laws against throwing sawdust into the streams,
derive no benefit whatever from these laws as their streams are

1910| Goop Roaps AND CONSERVATION 137

filled with sawdust from the counties above. This can also be
true where the streams flow from one state to another; one
state, on the lower waters of a stream, may have laws against
throwing sawdust or other deleterious material into the stream,
while the state which contains the upper waters of the streams
may have no such laws whatever, and thus the first state looses
all of the benefit that its good laws should give.

This is also true in regard to the conservation of water-
powers. One state will pass laws for the conservation and
protection of its waterpowers, and yet the sources of the
streams are within another state which is doing nothing what-
ever to protect its water supply, and thus the waterpowers in
the other state are largely decreased in power on account
of the lack of protection in the state where the streams originate.

From the above it can readily be seen that there should be
Federal supervision for carrying out the principles of conserva-
tion that are interstate in their benefits, and decidedly state
supervision in connection with the conservation of the natural
resources of the various counties composing the state.

Every state should be interested in the development of every
other state, for no advancement can be made in any one without
its being directly or indirectly a benefit to all the others.

We should carry the question of conservation further than
its application to our natural resources and apply its principles
to the preservation of the health of our people and the conserva-
tion of their labor, time, and wealth, and this latter view, it will
be found, is fully as important as the first. We will find that
good roads play perhaps a more important part in the car-
rying out of this latter phase of conservation than in the
former.

Under the head of natural resources we would have: (1)
Soils, (2) Forests, (3) Water-Powers, (4) Products of the sea.

The development, and even the life, of this nation is de-
pendent upon these natural resources, and, while some of them
are of less importance than others, yet the best and healthiest
growth of the nation is dependent upon the conservation of all

138 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

of them. When one stops to consider that the population of
this country is now increasing at the rate of about one-fifth of
its total population each ten years, one begins to realize how
many more millions of people must be fed and clothed from the
products of the soii. By the middle of the present century it is
estimated that there will be about one-hundred and fifty million
people in the United States. This increase is not confined to any
one state or territory, but there is a decided and steady increase
in all of them. This large growth in population means a con-
stantly increasing call upon all our natural resources; and it
is time that we, as a nation, give very serious consideration to
their conservation, for we must realize that our responsibility
does not rest with providing for the present generation, but we
must also do our part toward providing for future generations
by conserving and perpetuating for their use the natural re-
sources that we ourselves now enjoy.

The conservation of our soils and forests stands out pre-
eminently as the most vital duty demanded of us, and the carry-
ing out of this to its fullest accomplishment falls principally upon
the farmer. The farmer is called the most independent of men,
and, in many sections of the country, he is; but in many others
he is not, and instead we often find him a very discouraged
citizen. If we expect our farmers to take an interest in the
conservation of our soils and forests, we must assist them by
providing adequate means of transportation for their products
and prevent combinations from being formed whose object is to
curtail the price received by the farmer for his products and
increase the price to the consumer. Upon the farmer rests al-
most entirely the problem of the conservation of the soil, and
his interest will inerease in the ratio that we improve the social
condition of farm or rural life, and it is in this connection that
we will find that good roads play a very important part in
improving their condition. Good roads will do more toward
improving the social condition of rural life than any other agency
that can be inaugurated. At the present time it is possible
for the people of our rural sections to have many of the econ-

1910] Goop Roaps AnD ConsERVATION 139

omic advantages and conveniences of the city,—such as hot and
cold water in their houses, lighting and heating systems equal
to any in the city, and telephone connections,—at little or
no more cost than these same conveniences would cost in the
city. Rural mail carriers now deliver mail to the citizens of our
rural sections from once to twice aday. Yet with all these con-
veniences, which many of us now deem absolutely essential and
necessary, the farmer, if his home igs connected with thai of his
neighbor and with town by a bad road, is handicapped in his
financial and social development, and these many conveniences
that have improved his home life lose a great deal of their value
in improving tle social conditions of the community. It is
surprising to note the wonderful] uplifting effect that good roads
have in a community that has been accustomed for generations
to bad roads. It means that houses will be painted, fences will
be repaired, flowers and shrubs planted in yards, and, in a num-
ber of instances where chicken coops and pig pens were in the
front yard, they have been removed to a legs unsightly place in the
rear of the yard, and it is due to the fact that a good road has
been constructed by that farm.

At the present time there is a great deal of thought being
given to the problem of keeping the young people, especially the
young men, on the farm. Personally, I believe that the con-
struction of good roads throughout the farming sections of our
country will do more than any other one thing to keep these
young men on the farm. I do not wish to give the impression
that I believe all young men who are raised in the country
should remain there, for there are many young men

if they do remain in the country and take up farming as a pro-
fession. Many of these young men are now leaving the farms

140 JourNAL oF THE MrtcHELy Socrery | December

men could, in many instances, have made a splendid success at
farming. It is not the work or life on a farm that many of them
have objected to, but it has been the isolation of farm or country
life. This can be remedied by the construction of good roads, and
I am confident that any community or county in many of our
Southern States that is now being troubled by its young people
leaving the country, can check this exodus very materially if they
will arrange for the construction of a system of good roads. It
will be one of the very best investments that the community can
make, for it will not only help to solve the problem under con-
sideration, but it will also assist in solving the labor problem
that is now confronting so many of our farmers.

Our farmers are also closely identified with our forest areas
and we will find that there is a decided relation between good
roads and the conservation of these forests. As has been stated
by Mr. J. S. Holmes, Forester of the North: Carolina Geological
and Economic Survey, ‘‘a forest cannot be managed to the best
advantage unless * the inferior species and lower grades of tim-
ber can be profitably marketed, and this is only possible where
the cost of transportation is low enough to warrant it. The dif-
ference between $1.00 and $2.00 per ton for hauling, or the dif-
ference between a bad and a good road, will often determine the
possibility of profit or loss in marketing timber’’.

In many of the counties of the Southern Appalachian region
the cost of hauling the timber to market is greater than what the
owner receives for the timber on the stump. As an illustration
of the amount of money that is being expended for the transpor-
tation of lumber over our public roads, I will give some figures
regarding the sixteen counties in North Carolina west of
the Blue Ridge. In this region three-quarters of the area is now
in forest, and, probably, the larger portion of this area is better
adapted for the production of forest than for any other purpose.
During the year 1909 it was estimated by the State Forester that
fifteen million cubic feet of timber were hauled to market or to
the railroad by wagon over the public roads of these counties. The

* Bull. 8. So. Appalachian Good Road Association, 1910, p. 13.

1910) Goop Roaps AND CoNSERVATION 141

estimated cost of hauling this timber was $750,000 and in this
particular instance it amounts to twice as muchas the timber
itself was worth on the stump. With this excessive cost of hauling,
it can readily be seen that only the most desirable types of timber
can be hauled and that the lower grades and the inferior species
must be left in the woods. With these conditions, it is only
natural that the lumberman should skin the forest of every single
desirable tree that he can afford to cut and haul to market, and
thus many of the forest areas of the Southern Appalachain
region have been almost entirely depleted of many of their most
valuable trees, such as black walnut, cherry, yellow poplar, and
white oak. ‘There is but little chance of decreasing the length
of haul in transporting these forest products, but there is a
splendid chance of increasing the load to be hauled by the
construction of good roads.

Our farmers are partially at fault for the wholesale waste
of our timber, but the states themselves are by far the most
to blame for not providing good roads through these forest
areas, which would have permitted the farmer to derive a good
income from his iarm and not be tempted to sell his timber for
a mere song. ‘Thus it will be seen that if the forests are to be
protected and perpetuated, we must construct throughout the
region a system of good roads. There is another way in which
good roads throughout these forest areas will play an important
part in the conservation of our timber resources, and that is,
they will enable automobilists, coaching parties and tourists to
travel through these forest areas, who will recognize the import-
ance of these areas to their respective states and it will then be
much easier to pass the laws necessary to conserve these forests.

The reclamation of cut-over and abandoned farm lands is
much more readily accomplished when these areas are traversed
by good roads. Although the farmer may not consider it a
profitable investment to reforest his eut-over lands or
that portion of his land which he has abandoned for farming pur-
poses, yet he will take up the question of the reforestation of
these areas if they are traversed by good roads, for he will

142 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society [ December

realize that it will improve the general appearance of the
country, making it look more profitable and so increase the value
of his cultivated farm, by having it surrounded by land that is
growing forests instead of land that is being cut into gulleys
and looks like wornout, abandoned farm land. With a system
of good roads it will be found that many of the farms that are
not now being cultivated will be worked and again become pros-
perous, and thus add to the material wealth of the state in which
they are located. lt has been said by the Governor of New
Hampshire, that since the construction of a system of good
roads throughout that state during the past five years, nearly all
of the abandoned farms in New Hampshire or at least the
majority of them are now again in a state of cultivation. If
this can be made true in one state it can be made just as true
in another:

From the commercial standpoint the question of the construc-
tion of good roads comes closer home to the farmer than to
any other class of people, as practically all agricultural products
have to be hauled for at least some distance over the public
roads, and such a system of roads will do more to conserve the
time, labor, and wealth of the farmer than any other one thing.
As we know, there is but little chance of reducing the railroad
transportation charge on these products, but there is a splendid
opportunity in nearly every county of every state in the South
to reduce the public road transportation charge. Over many of
the public roads of the South it is now impossible to haul a load
of more than half a ton. It may be that a considerable portion
of the road over which the load is to be hauled is a fairly good
one over which one or two tons could easily be hauled, but, on
account of the many heavy places and grades on this road, it
is impossible to haul over the whole distance more than the
half ton, as it is necessary to load the wagon for the rough,
heavy places and not for the good portion of the road.

There are many ways in which the farmer will be benefited
by a system of good roads besides improving his social condition,
and it may be advisable to enumerate these here, as they have

1910] Goop Roaps AND CONSERVATION 143

a direct bearing on the improvement in country life, which, in
the end, has a direct bearing on conservation, especially in its
relation to soils, and also in conserving the time, labor and
health of the farmer. A system of good roads connecting farm
with market will often permit the farmer to raise certain crops
that are more valuable than others, more easily handled, and
which will bring a much greater income than he could possibly
raise and market where he is on a bad road. I could give
numerous eases to illustrate this poimt, but it is sufficient to
state here that it will be found that good roads are a factor in
making a farmer realize the necessity of getting the most out
of his soil, realize the necessity of studying his soils and the
value of rotation of crops.

Another beneficial result that the farmer derives from good
roads is that he is able to economize time and force in the trans-
portation of produce between country and market. The distance
that the farmer lives from market is not a question of miles,
but of the roads that he must travel to reach the market, and
of how many hours and how many horses it requires to haul a
load to market. When thus measured, ten miles of good,
smooth highway is not as long as a few miles of mud and stone.
Our farmers are realizing more and more that the distance they
live from market is measured in time and not in miles.

Another advantage that improved roads will give to a farmer
is that it will permit him to take advantage of market fluctua-
tions in buying and selling, and to take advantage of any special
demand that may arise for any of his products. It will per-
mit him to do his hauling at any time of the year regardless
of the weather, and thus, when it is too wet to work his crops,
he can haul to and fro from town. At the present time in many
sections of the country the farmer can only haul to advantage
in dry weather, and frequently the dry weather comes just at
the time he most needs to work his crop; so that he either
loses the opportunity of a demand that has arisen for certain
of his products at a good price or has to neglect his erop. In
many sections the construction of a system of good roads has

144 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Socrery [ December

made it possible for farmers living eight or ten miles from
large communities to raise garden truck where formerly this
eould only be produced advantageously within a few miles of a
city. The railroads are also greatly affected by the conditions of
the public roads in regard to the transportation of farm pro-
ducts, for the reason that on account of bad roads many of our
farmers are only able to raise certain crops and are only able
to haul them at certain times of the year, which means conges-
tion of freight at the railroads during certain seasons and from
50 to 75 per cent less during the rest of the year. I believe that
these conditions in many sections of the country have a decided
effect upon the freight rates that the railroads can give for
hauling farm produce. Congested freight, which makes it neces-
sary for the railroads to go to extra expense to produce cars
with practically no freight at other times, when perhaps their
ears are going by these stations empty, causes the extra high
ireight rates.

A third beneficial result that the farmer derives from good
roads, and one regarding which most of our farmers have paid
little, or no attention, is the saving in the wear and tear on horses,
harness, and vehicles, when these are used over good roads as
compared with their cost over poor roads. Then, again, little
thought is given to how many days in the year we have to leave
our horses and mules standing in the stables on account of bad
roads. There is an enormous sum lost each year in this way by
nearly every Southern State that can be charged up directly
to bad roads. This amount is due to the wear and tear on harness
and wagon and the loss of time of those whose living is depend-
ent upon driving and teaming and the loss that a liveryman and
farmer sustains when he is unable to work his animals on
account of bad roads. This amount in many of the Southern
States is from twelve to fifteen million dollars a year, all of which
could be readily saved to the states by the construction of good
roads.

It will be impossible to carry out the principles of conser-
vation in their entirety until the people are more fully educated

1910] Goop Roaps AND CONSERVATION 145

as to the need of conservation, and there is no better place to
begin this educational work than in our public schools. Nature
studies are already beginning to take a strong hold in many of
the schools of some of the states and it will not be long before
the general subject of our natural resources will be taken up
in nearly all our public schools. The best results, however,
along this line can only be accomplished in the better graded
schools, and we will find that such schools are dependent upon
good roads. Although the one room schoolhouse that dotted
this country in its early history, has done a great deal of good
in its day, yet, we all realize that a six room schoolhouse, with
six teachers, ean do better work than six schoolhouses of one
room each, where the same teacher is obliged to teach scholars
of all ages and attainments. The development of the graded
school is dependent upon the construction of good roads, and,
although we may not realize it, yet every mile of good road that we
build we are increasing thereby the educational facilities of our
children.

In closing, I wish to emphasize one point, and that is that
while the construction of good roads is one phase of conserva-
tion, the maintenance of the road after it is once constructed is
a still more important phase of conservation, and one regarding
which we are often apt to give but little consideration. Any
county or state arranging to construct good roads should always
at the same time provide the revenue for the maintenance of
the roads after they have once been constructed.

COLLOIDAL CHEMISTRY*
By Duncan McRae

Although the first important work on colloidal chemistry
was done in 1861, by Sir Thomas Graham, it is within the last
few years that the most rapid advances in this field have been
made. Since 1900 not only have a number of chemists been
engaged in research on this subject, but the attention of chem-
ists generally has been turned in this direction. This is shown
in the number of reports and addresses that have been given on
colloidal chemistry. In 1905 A. A. Noyes delivered, as his presi-
dential address before the American Chemical Society, a paper on
‘*Colloidal Mixtures’’, and in 1908 H. R. Proctor delivered an ad-
dress on “‘Colloidal Chemistry’’ before the British Association for
the Advancement of Science.

There have also been a number of German monographs pub-
lished on the subject of colloids. The research work has been
so abundant that nearly every abstract journal contains one
or more articles on some phase of this subject. Now, there is a
special journal devoted entirely to Colloidal Chemistry, edited by
Wo. Ostwald: Zeitschrift fur Chemie und Industrie der Kolloide.

The class of bodies known as colloids is named from one
of its most representative substances—glue. Colloid means from
its derivation, “‘glue-lke’’. Some of the best known colloids
are: silicic acid, aluminum hydroxide, gelatin, glass, glue, starch,
albumen, resin, rubber and gum arabic. Some writers divide
colloids into two classes: the reversible and the irreversible.
The irreversible lose their colloidal properties on dessication,
and become insoluble, but the reversible colloids re-dissolve
after dessication. Gelatin is an example of the latter. After
drying, it can be dissolved again in water to form a jelly or

*Report before the North Carolina Section of American Chemical Society
at Raleigh, June 22nd, 1910.
146
[ December

1910] CoLLOIDAL CHEMISTRY 147

solution. Silicic acid is an irreversible colloid. This fact is
taken advantage of in the determination of silicic in minerals.
The gelatinous silicic acid is converted into the insoluble form
by heating to drive off all the water.

A. A. Noyes, in his paper, referred to above, classifies col-
loids in another way. He first defines colloidal mixtures as
*‘Liquids or solid mixtures of two or more substances, which
are not separated by the action of gravity, however long con-
tinued, nor by filtration through paper; but are separated when
the liquid is forced through animal membranes, the substance
then remaining behind, being designated the colloid’’. He di-
vides colloidal mixtures into ‘‘Colleidal Solutions’’ and Colloidal
Suspensions.’’ Solutions are viscous, gelatinizing, and not coagu-
lated by the addition of salts. Colloidal suspensions are non-
viscous, non-gelatinizing. but readily coagulable. Colloidal solu-
tions possess characteristics of true solutions: osmotie pressure,
diffusibility, and usually a limited solubility of the colloid at
some temperature. Colloidal suspensions do not have these prop-
erties of true solutions, and manifest many similarities to macro-
scopic and microscopic suspensions. Prof. Noyes says, in giving
this classification, that when more is known about the behavior
of colloids, it is probable that this classification may be found to
be one of degree rather than a distinction based on some very
fundamental difference.

It seems to the writer of this report that a better classifica-
tion than either of the above may be found when colloids have
been studied more extensively.

The distinction was originally made between colloids and
erystalliods. In recent years however. a number of erystalloids
like sodium and potassium chlorides and barium sulphate, have
been prepared in colloidal form. So that now the distinction
is made between two different states rather than between two
classes of substances.

The important properties of substances in the colloidal state
are: (1) When dry they are amorphous and show a conchoidal
fracture. (2) They form two classes of physical compounds, with

148 JOURNAL OF THE MitrcHE!L Socrety [ December

liquids: jellies, and colloidal solutions. These are technically
ealled ‘‘gels’’ and ‘‘sols’’. Gelatine furnishes an example of
each. If it is dissolved in hot water we have a colloidal solu-
tion. When this solution cools it forms the semi-solid mass
called a jelly or ‘‘gel’’. (3) When a colloid is heated with
water and it expands to form a jelly, it exerts a very great force.
This force has been calculated for starch by the use of Clausius’s
equation for bodies expanded by heat, and found to be 2073
kilos. per sq. em. The expansion of colloids by water is a revers-
ible and cyclical process, therefore Clausius’s equation is applic-
able to it. The great force exerted by swelling wooden wedges
used to split rock, has been explained as this colloidal expansion.
(4) Colloidal substances are permeable to crystalloids but are
more or less impermeable to other colloids. Dialysis is based on
this property. The mixture of colloids and erystals which it is
desired to separate, is placed in a bag made of an animal
membrane, which is a colloid. This bag is then placed in run-
ning water. The erystalloid then passes through the membrane
and is removed by the running water; the pure colloid remains
in the bag. (5) When an electric current is passed through
certain colloidal solutions the colloidal particles migrate towards
the anode; particles of other collodial solutions migrate towards
the cathode. It has been found that when solutions that migrate
to different electrodes are mixed, they precipitate each other;
while colloids migrating to the same electrode have no effect
on each other. Colloidal solutions also coagulate on the addi-
tion of a very small quantity of an electrolyte. Often, though, an
electrolyte which preciptates one colloid will have just the oppo-
site effect on another, causing its gel to go into solution. When a
colloidal solution is precipitated by an electrolyte, it is found
that a very small amount of one or the other ion of the electrolyte
is carried down with the coagulated colloid, and that on analysis
of the solution, a corresponding amount of the same ion is lack-
ing; (6) The property of colloids that has probably the widest
technical application is that of adsorption.. Colloids may take
up and hold acids, salts, ete., in such quantity that the result-

1910] CoLLoIpaL CHEMISTRY 149

ing products may be mistaken for chemical compounds. This
is the case with basic ferric arsenite 4 Fe,O, As,O, SH,O,
and a number of complex mineral silicates, which are now con-
sidered to be absorption compounds. The collodial solution of
palladium absorbs about three thousand times its volume of
hydrogen. Dyeing is largely .an adsorption process, the dye
being absorbed by the colloidal threads. (7) When observed with
the ultramicroscope the particles in colloidal solutions range in
size from very nearly that of the estimated size of the hydrogen
molecule to hundreds of times as large. They all exhibit the
Brownian movement which rapidly increases with decrease in
size of the particles. (8) If a small amount of a reversible
colloid (not enough to appreciably increase the viscocity of the
solution) be added to a colloidal solution of gold, it makes the
gold solution more stable, ie., less liable to coagulation. Also
hydrochloric acid produces only an opalescence in silver nitrate
solution containing a small amount of gelatin*

In general the addition of a small amount of a reversible
colloid seems to prevent coagulation or the growth of crystals.
It has a wide technical application.

The methods of preparation of colloidal solutions may be
of interest. There are four general methods: (1) by simple
solution as in the case of gelatin and albumen; (2) by electrical
subdivision ; Bredig prepared his colloidal solutions of the metals
by forming an electric are under water, between electrodes of
the metal, whose colloidal solutions he wished to prepare; (3)
by adding a small amount of an electrolyte to an insoluble jelly.
The proper electrolyte causes it to be dissolved. For instance:
stannic hydrate is rendered soluble by the addition of a drop
of ammonia; (4) by chemical reaction in a solvent in which the
resulting product is very insoluble.

Colloidal barium sulphate is prepared in this way by precipi-

*Experiment. Two portions of silver nitrate in one of which is dis-
solved an empty gelatin capsule obtained from a drug store, are precipitated
with HCl and filtered. Filtrate from the one containing gelatin is opalescent,
the_other‘is»clear.

150 JOURNAL OF THE MrrcHELL SocrEty [ December

tation in glycerol. The alkali halides are prepared in colloidal
form by precipitation in methyl] alcohol.

So far I have given the most importaut properties of substances
in the colloidal state and the general methods for their preparation.
As colloidal chemistry is still a very new field the different workers
are by no means agreed on the correct explanation of all the
phenomena, I will try to give one or two of the most generally ac-
cepted theories concerning colloidal solutions and gels. Any such
theory must offer an explanation of the electrical behavior of
colloids, the movement of the particles, and their coagulation.

Most of the writers on colloids, though they express the fact
in very different ways, agree that colloidal solutions form a
regular transition from suspensions to ordinary solutions. That
is to say, we can start with a suspension that settles out on
standing, and by taking other suspensions of smaller and small
particles, we can pass through colloidal solutions and finally
when the particles consist of one molecule, arrive at ordinary
solutions. The particles acquire an electric charge (by contact
in a manner similar to the acquisition of a charge by glass rubbed
with silk) by contact with the liquid, and as the particles become
smaller and smaller the influence of this charge becomes very
large in comparison with the influence of gravity, the Brownian
movement then appears as the result of the mutual repulsion of
similarly charged particles. As the particles become smaller and
smaller, this motion increases very rapidly and prevents the
settling of the suspension. When the particles approach the
size of molecules the rapidity of the motion is enormous and we
have erystalloidal solution.

The coagulation that takes place when two colloidal solutions
of opposite sign are mixed is supposed to be due to the neutral-
ization of the electric charges and the consequent cessation of
the movement of the particles. When the motion ceases the
attractive forces of the particles and gravity cause the settling.

The explanation of the character of the colloidal jellies is
that they have a cellular, sponge-cake structure, the solid part
of which is a solid solution of the liquid in the colloid. The

1910} CoLLoIDAL CHEMISTRY 151

spaces in between the solid part, corresponding to the pores
of the sponge, are filled with a liquid solution of the colloid in
the liquid. The tremendous force exerted by the swelling colloid
is generally ascribed to molecular forees. Different writers are
not agreed as to whether the mechanism of this force obeys
capillary, surface tension or osmotic laws. Adsorption is also
explained by this structure and these forces.

Some of the practical applications of colloidal chemistry will
now be mentioned. First of all, its application to the study of
physiology can be seen when we think that the whole body is made
of colloidal substances. The blood has been found to contain in
soluble form the same colloids that appear in the muscles and
tissues. Colloidal jellies are used as media in which bacteria are
studied. Nearly all foods are colloidal substances. From the num-
ber of references in the literature to medical journals I should
say that the physiological application of colloidal chemistry
was certainly one of its most important ones. Since this paper
was written, a very interesting article, ‘‘Some Colloid-chemical
Aspects of Digestion, with Ultramiscroseopic Observations’’ by
Jerome Alexander, has been published in the Journal of the
American Chemical Society.

The process of dyeing different kinds of fabries is, in most
eases, colloidal adsorption. A mordant is used to deposit a col-
loidal jelly in the thread and this absorbs the dye.

The artificial silk industry which now produces 50 per cent.
of the silks sold, depends largely on colloidal processes. The
cellulose is obtained in a soluble form and again coagulated in
the form of very fine threads.

Celluloid, rubber and starch are colloids and consequently
their manufacture is concerned with colloidal processes.

Photographie plates are coated with a colloidal solution of
a silver salt in nitro-cellulose. One kind of photographic paper
is simply a piece of paper coated with a mixture of potassium
dichromate, a pigment and gum arabic. Under the action of
light this mixture becomes insoluble.

Ice cream is given a smoother taste by the addition of a small

152 JOURNAL OF THE MItcHELL SoclEry [ December

amount of a protective colloid like gelatin. The gelatin prevents
the formation of large ice crystals. A small amount of gelatin,
albumen or gum arabic is added to candies to prevent the erys-
tallization of the sugar. This is done in making marshmallows
caramels, ete.

In the manufacture of pottery, tannin is added to the clay
to make it more workable. The tanning industry is concerned
with colloidal chemistry. In electroplating, a small amount of
protective colloid is often added to prevent the formation of
crystals and to give a smooth ccating to the plating. The
coloring of glass is a colloidal process. The colored glass being
a colloidal solution of a metal. Ruby glass is a solidified colloidal
solution of gold. These applications will serve to show the
importance of this field of chemistry.

In conclusion, | wish to thank this section for having made
me its reporter. It has been a pleasure to me to study this
subject, and I hope that some of you may be interested in this
new and interesting field of chemistry.

A RECOLLECTION OF PROFESSOR W. K. BROOKS WITH
CRITICISMS OF SOME OF HIS WORK*

By H. V. Wilson.

In going over my memories of Dr. Brooks I find that
my mind does not separate him from his environment. I
continually see him in the semi-communal life of the laboratory,
whether in Baltimore or Beaufort, Woods Hole or the islands
of the West Indian sea, which so stirred and charmed him. Even
his home life with its restful, satisfying beauty was but a
detached fragment of the other larger existence. I think of him
as the central figure, wise and kind, of a circle of young men
coming from many quarters, from New England, the Middle
States, the West. and the South, from Canada, England and
Japan, a society from which older members were always going
out to honorable careers and into which new were coming to
learn the ways and traditions of the school. Very different
were we, but knit together from the start by the strong bond
of a common interest. and presently by growing appreciation
of him who made the school. It took us but a short time to
learn that here was nc mere work-shop, well crganized and in
which we might acquire the requisite degree of skill in a profes-
sion, but that we were in the company of a master mind, wide
ranging in the fields of knowledge and inquiry, profound in
contemovlative thoneht, and with the aeuteness of the observer
who discovers what has beer hidden.

As I dwell on the man and try to single out mental habits
and attributes from the whole of his personality, I. come to
many that arrest and enchain my attention.

Tt is interesting to consider his practice and advice to begin-

*From the composite biographical sketch in the Memorial Volume
to William Keith Prooks (Journal Experimental Zoology, special
volume 9).

153

154 JOURNAL OF THE MIrcHELL SocIEry [| December

ners in the study of Nature. It was to start out, not from a
general principle, but from some phenomenon that had caught
the eye and become a nucleus for thought. Continued persistent
observation and reflection ¢ircling round such a center would
yield, he held, solid results in the shape of new facts and would
sooner or later lead one into living contact with great questions.
This method of work was eminently characteristic of his inde-
pendent, individualistic temperament.

The serenity of Dr. Brooks impressed every one. In a mind
so strong, active, and keen, calm temperateness was doubly
noticeable. This peace of mind must have been due in part to
the fact that his critical insight was unobscured by selfseeking.
A firm gaze fixed on the distant goal held the immediately
advantageous in its proper place, and gave him a confidence, a
quiet boldness that we all recognized.

_ Brooks frequently said that he tried always to be a reasonable
man. And in dealing with men and their ways I am convineed
that reasoning did guide him in a remarkable degree. His logi-
eal habit of thought came in, however, for more congenial exer-
cise in professional work. Do we not all remember the pleasure
he had in the skilful disengagement of the idea from the mass
of details, and in its portrayal, language and drawing mutually
contributing to clearness?

I recall also his strong and helpful faith in the value of
labor spent in searching out the order of the universe, the way
things happen in nature. For, as he often said, such knowledge
both makes the conscious life of man fuller and nobler, and is
the basis on which rests all our control of natural phenomena.

The machinery of Professor Brooks’ department, the lectures,
set tasks and routine, was simple. Experience has shown, how-
ever, that it was not inadequate, on the contrary, that it was
well adapted to the purpose in view. Brooks’ underlying as-
sumptions were that graduate students had come to stay some
time, would work as hard as they could, and that they had
enough independence of mind and enough elementary train-
ing to handle books and journals which record the actual state

1910] A REcOLLECTION OF ProrEssor W. K. Brooks 155

and progress of zoology. Of lectures there was one now and
then from Professor Brooks on any subject. A round of lec-
tures by older students in the department was given some years,
and this was excellent practice.

The journal club was serious. It met weekly and the arrange-
ment was such that each graduate student reported a number of
times during the year. A reading club met weekly in the even-
ing at Professor Brooks’ house. Some pleasant book of general
zoological interest, often one of travel, was read, after which
came tea. In the laboratory again once a week readings of a
more serious nature and with some discussion were held. The
““Origin of Species’’ was in this way gone through, and ‘‘Agas-
siz’s Essay on Classification.’’

Professor Brooks had compiled an elaborate list of the litera-
ture, with which it was supposed candidates for the doctor’s
degree were to make themselves familiar. It included the text-
books of the period and important memoirs on the various
subdivisions of zoology. The list was long. Perhaps some stud-
ents completed it. But we all read with considerable diligence
and it was the custom to make careful abstracts. On the basis
of this common reading a good deal of informal talk and discus-
sion was maintained among us.

We lived in the laboratory all day and the young men
learned much from the older, especially in matters of technique.
Brooks gave excellent suggestions on drawing and would occasion-
ally go through the form of taking a micro photograph. <A begin-
ner in my time was usually given some material, referred to a
paper or two on comparative anatomy or embryology, and told
to verify the research. At intervals, frequent enough, Brooks
looked at his figures, notes, and preparations and had something
to say about the matter. Frequently before the first testing
and forming exercise was completed, the man would be put at
another. Two or three filled the year. Then came the long
season at the seaside laboratory, in all probability the first for
the student and teeming with experience. There was daily col-
lecting, much study of living animals, much rearing of embryos

156 JUURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | December

and larvae. The pelagic fauna got in the tow net or at times
by dipping came in for a good deal of attention. Numerous
quick dissections were made, and quantities of notes and draw-
ings. Brooks exercised little or no supervision over such work,
but the older men were a great help to the younger. The larger
manuals such as Balfour’s Embryology, and later Korschelt and
Heider, were fairly thumbed. The industry and ‘‘go’’ of
Brooks’ summer laboratories were remarkable, the lamps lit in
the evening, and some one frequently sitting up all through
the night to ‘‘follow a development.’’ Toward the end of the
season, when a little perspective had been acquired and mere
mass and variety began to pall, a special form or two was
singled out as promising somcthing in the way of new results,
and the path of research was thus opened up. The material
so collected was studied in detail during the folllowing winter.
More intensive reading bearing on the problems as they became
defined was undertaken. Informal, short, but helpful talks about
the work were had with Brooks from time to time. He would
examine particular preparations, quickly to be sure, or would
criticise figures. There was never any leading or ‘‘nursing’’
on his part. By the end of the year, though, some grasp of the
methods of research had been acquired, and the following sum-
mer at the seaside usually found the student able to pursue the
line of inquiry on which he had started, or to strike off into an
associated field.

Studies on Heredity. As early as 1876 in a paper entitled,
‘‘A Provisional Hypothesis of Pangenesis’’ Brooks began to deal
with questions of heredity and variation. His thinking in this
direction took shape and led in 1883 to the publication of a
volume under the title of ‘‘The Liaw of Heredity.’’ The central
point in the theory he presented is the conviction that the repro-
ductive elements are, contrary to the usual opinion, not alike
in function. In support of this conclusion the author draws
arguments from the facts that hybrid offspring resulting from
reciprocal crossings are often very different; that the offspring
of a male hybrid and the female of a pure species is much more

1910| A RECOLLECTION OF ProFEssor W. K. Brooxs 150

variable than the offspring of a female hybrid and the male of
a pure species: that a structure which is more developed or of
more functional importance in the male parent than it is in the
female parent is very much more apt to vary in the offspring
than a part which is more developed or more important in the
mother than it is in the father. These and other facts convinced
Brooks that the ovum and sperm eell are not only different
morphologically, but that they differ profoundly in function
as well.

In developing this idea into an explanatory theory of the
way in which hereditary transmission is accomplished, Brooks
borrows from Darwin’s hypothesis of pangenesis, and assumes
the existance of material particles, ‘‘gemmules’’ which are thrown
off from the body cells. Unlike Darwin, however, he assumes
that such particles are only thrown off at particular periods,
when the body e¢ells are disturbed in funetion through some
change in their environment. The gemmules may penetrate an
ovum or a bud, but it is the male germ cell which has gradually
acquired during the evolution of the metazoa the peculiar power
to gather and store up gemmules. The ovum on the other hand
has acquired a very different nature. It contains material parti-
eles which correspond to the hereditary characteristics of the
species. Thus in the case of a fertilized egg, as in that of a
parthenogenetic egg, the great bulk of the development is due
to the properties of the ovum itself. The gemmules brought in
by the sperm cell unite with homologous particles in the ovum
and so composite particles are produced which, as the egg seg-
ments and develops, give rise to cells that are strictly hybrids
and which therefore exhibit variation. The ovum thus is the
conservative element which transmits the characteristics that
have already been acquired. The male cell is pecuharly that
which stores up the disturbing effects of a changing environ-
ment. It especially leads, therefore, to variability in the off-
spring, to the production of individual differences.

This ingenious hypothesis enables Brooks to explain a great
variety of inheritance phenomena and to overcome several serious

158 JoURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocIETY | December

objections to the unassisted selection theory. Whatever truth
there may or may not be in the special ideas of the book, it
remains today a stimulating and suggestive contribution, and
it is properly looked on as one of the factors that have in
recent years focussed the attention of the biological world on the
problems of heredity.

Minor papers dealing with heredity and evolution, the causes
of variation, and the determination of sex, appeared from time
to time. Sections of the ‘‘ Foundations of Zoology’’ (1899) show
too that Brooks’ interest in the questions discussed in the ‘Law
of Heredity’’ remained active during life. Two of his last ad-
dresses (1906, 1909) deal with our concepts of heredity and
variation. In these he emphasizes the fact that the nature of
an organism is not implicit in the egg, or in the organism indeed
at any time of its life, but that it depends on a continuous
reciprocal interaction between the organism and its environ-
ment. Such interaction leads in any particular case to a result
which could not be calculated from a knowledge, however com-
plete, of the egg itself since it is dependent not only on the
organism but on the action of the total environment. The out-
come of such interaction is the production of individuals which
are never quite alike, although they may resemble one another
closely. The occurrence of likenesses, or inheritance, and the
oceurrence of differences, variation, are thus not two processes
but two views of the single process of reciprocal interaction.
The idea that they are distinct is an error into which we fall
through concentrating our attention at one time on the resem-
blaneces, and again on the differences between individuals. These
considerations, he thinks, show the uselessness of theories which
postulate an inheritance substance and explain individual differ-
ences as the result of various combinations of its particles.

These addresses show that Brooks has in some measure shifted
his standpoint since the time of the ‘‘Law of Heredity’’. He
no longer is in a mood to employ evolution (determinant) hypoth-
eses to account for development. He now looks on the develop-
ment of the individual, and that of races also, as epigenetic

1910] A R&EcOLLECTION OF Proresson W. K. Brooxs 159

in nature. What will be the outcome of an individual egg
depends on the interaction between egg and environment, not
on a determinate mechanism in the egg. The pre-cambrian
fauna has given rise to the living beings of today. But the
latter were not implicit in the former, for with the same
ancestors the course of evolution might have been different had
the sum total of the environmental influences been different.

Writings on the Principles of Science. Brooks dwelt often
in conversation and in minor writings, and always with an
earnest pleasure, on the nature and intellectual value of what
we can learn. His thoughts in this field of the principles of
science were eventually embodied in his lectures on the ‘‘ Founda-
tions of Zoology’’ (1899). This remarkable book ‘‘belongs to
literature, as well as to science. It belongs to philosophy as
much as to either, for it is full of that fundamental wisdom
about realities which alone is worthy of the name of philosophy.’’

The ‘‘Foundations’’ is essentially a discussion of the nature
of scientific knowledge. It is the wise talk of an experienced,
reflective naturalist of ripe years addressed primarily to younger
fellow-workers in the fields of science. The argument which
makes its way through pages and sometimes whole chapters of
illustrations and digressions, interesting and suggestive in them-
selves, proceeds about as follows:

Our knowledge of nature comes through experience. Through
experience we learn that one sort of event follows another, and
this sequence, which we come to expect, constitutes for us the
order of nature. Nevertheless there is no reason to believe that
there is an inherent necessity in this order, for we never per-
ceive the presence of any intrinsic causal connection between
the preceeding event (cause) and the succeeding one (effect).

When our knowledge of any part of nature has so far devel-
oped that we know the order of events, and so can predict the
later steps in the series of occurrences, once the earlier have been
noted, we say that we understand and can mechanically explain
that particular set of phenomena. At present a gap separates
vital from non-vital phenomena—to say that life is the sum of

160 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [| December

the physical properties of protoplasm is to make a dogmatic
assertion, aithough to gainsay it is to make another. But with
the progress of science this gap may be bridged over at some
time. Should it be bridged over, and life in all its aspects be
found to be ‘‘protoplasmic’’, still we should not know why
synthesis of compounds results in an organism or why a vital
action is the outcome of protoplasmic changes. In respect to
organisms and vital actions we should still be where we are
now in respect to simple gravitation phenomena, for with respect
to them all that we can say is that the stone will fall (if the
future be like the past), but why it should fall we do not know.

This being the nature of our knowledge, present and future,
what should the biologist seek to discover, and what are the
problems that peculiarly concern him? Life is defined as a con-
tinuous adjustment of internal to external relations (Spencer),
and it is pointed out that synthesized protoplasm, even were it
eapable. of nutrition, growth, reproduction, and contraction,
would not be a living thing if it were not also able to maintain
persistent adjustment to the shifting world around it. The
essence of the living thing and that which distinguishes it from
other forms of matter is this very adjustment. Fitness, adaptive
response, is therefore what we. should seek to study in biology.
The mechanism itself is of subordinate importance. Study it as
we may, we cannot thus go far forwards, since our knowledge
of nature never includes a perception of any necessary causal
connection between events, such as would make it possible to dis-
eover vital phenomena by reasoning deductively from proto-
plasmic peculiarities. A corollary of practical import is that
the naturalist should endeavor to study living things in con-
nection with their environment.

Biology being thus defined as the study of adaptive response,
the nature and evolution of man’s reason and knowledge fall
within‘ its scope. For these are conceivably but the outcome of
adaptive responses in the beginning as simple as the geotropism
of a seedling’s radicle. The ability, for instance, to make a dis-
tinetion between what in practical life we eall a truth, a real
occurrence, and an error or illusion, is to be looked on as a

1910| A REcoLLEcTION OF Proressor W. K. Brooks 161

useful response that has been acquired through selection. Man’s
knowledge, then, is of the peculiar kind that is useful to him.
He may not yet know as much as is good for him, but he at
least has aequired a store of the kind of knowledge that pre-
serves him in the struggle for existence.

Viewing man thus from the biological standpoint Brooks
attempts to deal with two human characteristics, the conscious-
ness that the will is free and that the individual carries a moral
‘responsibility. These, like all other vital characteristics, he
thinks, may possibly sometime be shown to be a part of the order
of nature and in that sense mechanical. ‘‘ Rational action may
sometime prove to be reflex from beginning to end.’’ And
yet in the face of this possibility, Brooks would still maintain
that the will is free and moral responsibility real. To some this
will seem a difficult thesis.

Underlying the scientific inquiry as to the character of
our present knowledge and of that which possibly we may
acquire about nature, is the metaphysical question, ‘‘What is_
nature?’’ This question Brooks does not attack in the fashion
of constructive technical philosophy. He makes no attempt to
define reality. His purpose in dealing with the matter is plainly
the practical one of showing us what we need not believe. He
says in effect, if then our knowledge of all nature is and will
continue to be of one sort, that phenomena follow one another
regularly and (supposing the future to be like the past) in
predictable fashion, but without our ever learning why they
so follow one another, there is not now nor will there be in the
future any necessity drawn from science to believe in a fixed,
necessary, determinate nature. If in any quarter it is imagined
that the progress of science necessitates or may necessitate such
a belief, this is a grave error: in his own words, ‘‘The belief
that the establishment of scientific conceptions of nature shows
that after the first creative act, the Creator has remained sub-
ject, like a human legislator, to his own laws, is based upon utter
misapprehension of science, and upon absurd and irrational
notions of natural law.’’ In the second place we are in no
wise forced to believe by anything in science that protoplasm

162 JOURNAL OF THE MItTcHELL SocreTy [ December

and life are necessarily linked together: ‘‘* * * if it be
admitted that we find in nature no reason why events should
oceur together except the fact that they do, is it not clear that
we can give no reason why life and protoplasm should be
associated except the fact that they are? And is it not equally
clear that this is no reason why they may not exist separately ?’’

The next step in this survey and analysis of fundamental
aspects of nature brings us to positive belief itself. As so
often said, science quite fails to find in matter and motion any
intrinsic virtue which sustains and directs the sequence of
phenomena, and is absolutely restricted to the discovery of the
mere sequence which itself calls for (metaphysical) explanation.
Henee there is nothing in science which has any bearing on the
causal origin or on the reality of anything in nature, and we must
go elsewhere for the foundations of the belief that we may enter-
tain in respect to such matters. Brooks believes that ‘‘nature
is intended’’ to be as it is, and is a language which a rational
being may read. Since the rational being is perhaps himself
a part of nature’s mechanism, this is equivalent to saying that
one part of the mechanism is cognizant of the purpose that
animates the whole. This purpose is the effect of a power, a
sustaining and directing intelligence outside nature, to which
both the origin of nature and its maintenance from day to day
are due. It is not something which once for all set a determinate
cosmos spinning along the path of time with a full complement
of ‘‘eternal iron laws.’’ It is something which is at work now,
under every phenomenon. This is obviously Brooks’ belief,
although being no propagandist he is far from enforcing it,
indeed leaves it in a measure to be inferred. What he wishes
to make plain is that science does not tell us why events happen
as we learn they do, and so it tells us nothing of ultimate
reality. The question why the events we expect (from experi-
ence) should be those that come to pass, concerns not science
but ‘‘the natural theologian; for it is the same as the question,
What is the cause of Nature? To this all must seek an answer
for themselves; for each has at his command all the data within
the reach of any student of science.’’

RECENT FOREST REPORTS OF THE N. C. GEOLOGICAL
AND ECONOMIC SURVEY

By Joseph Hyde Pratt

Two reports have recently been issued by the North Carolina
Geological and Economic Survey relating to the forests of this
State. The first of these is a report on Forest Fires in North
Carolina during 1909, by J. S. Holmes, Forester of the Survey,
published as Economic Paper No. 19. The statistics given in
this report were collected in co-operation with the United States
Forest Service. This report has been issued on account of the
enormous loss North Carolina sustains each year as the result
of forest fires, and it gives the result of an investigation regard-
ing the number of forest fires, the amount of damage they did,
their causes, and whether it would have been possible to have
prevented any of them. Although the Survey was not able to
obtain as full information as was desired, yet the statistics given
are of considerable importance and show the need of some
legislation to prevent, as far as possible, this enormous waste
that is caused each year by forest fires.

Fire is undoubtedly the greatest enemy to the forest. It has
been estimated by the National Conservation Commission that
in the United States the loss by fire on standing timber for the
past thirty years has averaged $50,000,000 a year, and this takes
no account of the destruction of young growth. The statistics
for 1909 showed that North Carolina sustained a loss of over
$500,000 from forest fires. The fires which caused this damage
were chiefly due to carelessness. To overcome this careless atti-
tude on the part of the people and interest both private effort
and state co-operation in the fight against forest fires, public
opinion on this subject must be awakened.

The second report is on the Wood-Using Industries of North
Carolina and was prepared by the North Carolina Geological

163

164 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocreTy [ December

and Economic Survey in co-operation with the United States
Forest Service. It was prepared by Roger E. Simmons, under
the supervision of J. S. Holmes, of the North Carolina Geological
and Economie Survey, and H. 8. Sackett of the United States
Forest Service, and is published as Economic Paper No. 20.
This report deals with the Wood Using Industries of North
Carolina as follows:

(1) Those manufacturing directly from the log a finished
product, which cannot be changed by any further process of
manufacture, such as excelsior, handles, veneer boxes,
or mine rollers; (2) those using rough lumber and by the appli-
eation of skilled labor and wood-using machinery convert it
into such finished products as furniture, boxes, flooring, ete. The
various tables in this report show the sources of the wood used.
the kinds of lumber demanded by the wood-working factories,
the price paid for each species delivered, the quantity consumed,
and the purposes for which it was used.

An investigation of this character should be of value in a
number of ways. To the State of North Carolina it should
be of considerable assistance in forming an intelligent forest
policy, and in presenting the advantage the State offers to wood-
using industries to locate in it. The timber owner, and even
the farmer who has a few scattered trees to sell, can learn from
this report where a market can be found. To the sawmill opera-
tor it may suggest a use for wood which he previously considered
of little commercial value. To the manufacturer who is under
the necessity of looking beyond his own State for all, or part
of the lumber needed, it will furnish a source of fairly accurate
information concerning a region most likely to supply his needs.
The merchants throughout the country who handle wood products
can study to advantage the report of what North Carolina has to
sell or wishes to buy. For the people at large it has a statistical
value, and gives much general information.

It gives valuable information concerning the forms, uses,
and grades in which the factories desire the lumber, and also
the woods most suitable for specific uses. The chief purposes

1910| Recent Forest Reports oF THE N.C. SuRvEY 165

of this report are to give needed information regarding these
industries, to stimulate trade by bringing together buyer and
seller, and tc show the citizens of North Carolina the wisdom
of perpetuating her valuable weod-using industries by the adop-
tion of an intelligent forest pelicy. Two appendices have been
added to this report. The first gives a list of the different kinds
of woods that are found in North Carolina, together with the
various purposes for which they are used, and the second appen-
dix gives a list of the wood manufacturers of North Carolina
under the heads of the products which they manufacture.

The value of the timber crop in North Carolina is exceeded
only by that of the cotton and corn crops. According to the
United States Census Bureau, the value of the lumber eut in
this State amounted in 1908 to $15,000,000.

The foregoing report shows that half of this hamber was pur-
chased by firms in this State and manufactured by them into a
finished product. Fer this lumber. together with a small amount
of logs, billets, and timber in other forms which they used,
these firms paid something over $10,000,000.

This enormous industry has been dependent for its supply
of raw material almost entirely on timber that has grown up
under natural conditions, the present owners being in no way
responsible or assisting in its production, much of the timber
having been growing for 200 to 300 years. As the old timber
disappears, and it is rapidly doing so, the methods of the pro-
ducers will have to change; either this timber will have to be
procured outside the State or these large and valuable industries,
second only in importance to cotton manufacture, will have to
shut down.

As long as both the growing and manufacture of this timber
ean be earried on profitably in this State we cannot afford to
give up either part of this two fold industry. North Carolina
probably contains as large a proportion of mountain land
specially suitable for the growth of hardwoods, which is what
most of these industries require, as any other State. We can,
therefore, grow the raw material more cheaply, and furnish

162 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

it to these factories at a lower price.

This report is intended as an incentive to improvement and
as an aid in bringing about better conditions, partly in demon-
strating the value of our forests to the people of the State, but
chiefly by enlarging the market for the lower grades of wood
by letting other parts of the country know what North Caro-
lina can furnish them.

By protecting the forests from fire so that the annual rate
of growth can be continually increasing, and by closer utiliza-
tion, thus preventing waste in the woods and at the mill, there
is no reason why the annual yield of our forests cannot, after
a comparatively short time, be doubled.

If as much care and foresight were exercised in the grow-
ing, protection, harvesting, and marketing of the raw material
as is now given to the manufacture of the finished product,
there need be no fear of an impending timber famine on the
part of the wood-using industries of North Carolina.

JOSEPH AUSTIN HOLMES*
By Collier Cobb

The director of the recently established Federal bureau of
mines illustrates the helpfulness of a proper heredity by an
advantageous environment. But this environment has been one
that his heredity forced him to seek, and his own rigorous inter-
action with whatever environment he has made for himself, has
been effective in placing him in charge of one of the most import-
ant bureaus of our government. He has risen to the directorship
of this bureau, which his own energy has created, by sheer force
of merit, when all political odds and party expediency seemed
against his appointment. If that education is best which gives
one the power to select his own environment and then bring
about the adaptations, one has to look far afield before find-
ing a better educated man- than J oseph Austin Holmes.

Born at Laurens, S. C., November 23. 1859, son of Rev. Z. UL.
Holmes and his wife N. Catherine Holmes, born Nickles, Joseph
A. Holmes came of the best Southern stock. For generations he
had been well-born, his family on both sides having always been
people of character, means and position. Coming into the world
in South Carolina just before our civil war, his childhood and
youth were spent under circumstances well calculated to try the
mettle of a boy, and in the duties of the home he early came to
bear a man’s part.

The son of a Presbyterian preacher, who was himself a lover
of nature, the boy was reared in a home of culture and refine-
ment. The home was a large octagonal house made of rein-
forced concrete, occupying the center of ample grounds on the
outskirts of the village, and having every convenience that the
ingenuity and skill of its occupants could devise and supply.
The house was supplied with running water, which a hydraulic

*Reprinted from the Charlotte Observer.
167

168 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | December

ram brought up from the branch. This was true of the Holmes
home at a time when the trains that came into the sleepy little
village ran from Alston over wooden rails capped with strap-
iron. But the home had an excellent library, and one could see
in it here and there instruments and appliances for the study of
the realm of nature, most’of them made in the workshop of the
home. The writer recalls especially a high-grade telescope made
and mounted by the minister himself.

One son from this home became a lawyer, but later entered
the ministry of the Presbyterian Church. The children got the
best of their instruction at home from their parents, but they
also attended the Laurens Acadamy, famed in its day for the
thoroughness of its instruction. Joe, who was skilled with his
fingeres and handy with tools, went to Cornell, where he made
his own living and took his degree of Bachelor of Agriculture in
1881, with visions of rehabilitating the harren farms and mend-
ing the broken fortunes of his stricken State.

Immediately upon his graduation he was elected to the pro-
fessorship of geology and natural history in the University of
North Carolina, and entered upon the teaching of subjects that
now require the entire time of nine specially trained men. As
soon as he had acquainted himself with the geography and geology
of the State, he began an active campaign for the reorganization
of the North Carolina Geological Survey and for the building
of good roads throughout the State. In both endeavors he was
eminently suecessful. The State survey was established in 1891,
when Prfessor Holmes became State Geologist; and from 1885
to 1900 he increased the annual tax money for publie roads
from ten thousand dollars to three quarters of a million dollars,
thus adding more than a thousand miles of macadamized road-
way to the capital of the State.

Professor Holmes was the most public-spirited citizen of
Chapel Hill. He was a member of the board of aldermen, and
interested himself especially in the sanitary condition of the
town and in the grading and macadamizing of the streets. He
carried around with him less of himself and more of the work

1910| JosEPH AusTIN HotMEs 169

in hand than any other man I have ever known. He literally
lived in his work, without the least regard to its relation to
himself. So true was this that, while State Geologist, he more
than once spent su much of his annual appropriation in prose-
euting the work of the survey that he did not leave money
enough to pay his own salary.

While protessor in our University he secured the passage by
Congress of a bill appropriating money for the building of a
marine biological laboratory at Beaufort for the use of the
United States fish commission. By some oversight, the bill did
not carry an appropriation for the purchase of the ground on
which to erect the building. But Mr. Holmes invited a number
of universities to contribute to the purchase of an island in
Beaufort Harbor on which to build the laboratory, the place
affording exceptional opportunities for study as it is the meet-
ing-place of the Northern and Southern fauna and flora of the
sea. ‘The Universities of Virginia, North Carolina, South Caro-
lina, Georgia, and Johns fiopkins responded liberally. The
island was purchased and presented to the government, and now
each season sees a number of trained men carrying on at
Beaufort investigations of inestimable value to our fisheries
industries.

Professor Holmes organized and directed the Department
of Mines and Metallurgy of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition
in 1904. He was in charge of the United States Geological
Survey laboratories for testing fuels and structural materials,
at St. Louis from 1904 to 1907, and at Pittsburg since 1908.
For several years he has been chief of the technological branch
of the United States Geological Survey, in charge of the investi-
gation of mine accidents. Since his employment by the national
government he has not only continued his work for the improve-
ment of public roads, but has made a more than national repu-
tation through his enlightened efforts to prevent waste in utiliza-
tion of the country’s mineral and fuel resources, and to safe-
guard the lives of miners.

His investigation of fuel resources alone, began at the St.

170 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

Louis Exposition, gave him prompt international recognition,
and he was decorated by the governments of Germany, Belgium,
Italy:and Japan. In recognition of this work, the University
of Pittsburg conferred on him the degree of doctor of science,
and at the commencement of 1909 the University of North Caro-
lina made him a doctor of laws.

Dr. Holmes is a conservationist of the type of Garfield and
Pinchot and is an administrative officer of rare ability. He
has the rare gift of selecting the right man for a given piece of
work and leaving him to do it in his own way, under no cireum-
stances burdening himself with the details of tasks which the
men he chooses are fully competent to carry out. This was
admirably illustrated in his investigation of fuels at St. Louis,
at Pittsburg and at the Jamestown Exposition, as well as in
his survey of methods of ccenservation of resources and protec-
tion of human life in use in the older mining communities of
England, Germany, Austria and France. His work along these
lines was so thoroughly done that mine owners and employes
alike petitioned for the establishment of a permanent bureau of
mines, and no one of them ever imagined that anyone but Dr.
Holmes would be considered for chief of the bureau. When
the organization of the Bureau was intrusted to other hands,
such a ery of indignation arose throughout the mining districts
of the entire country that President Taft could hardly have done
otherwise than give the permanent appointment to Dr. Holmes.

He cannot be better described than in the words of Dr. C.
Alphonso Smith, when presenting him for the degree of doctor
of laws at our university commencement as ‘‘A man of seasoned
common sense, of winning personality, and of practical efficiency
in all that he undertakes. ’’

Chapel Hill, N. C., Sept. 22, 1910.

EARLY ENGLISH SURVIVALS ON HATTERAS ISLAND*

In the University of North Carolina Magazine for February last,
Mr. Collier Cobb gives some interesting examples of survivals of
old-time speech and manners in a corner of the United States
which has, to within the last few years, remained surprisingly un-
touched by modern influences, viz., the sand reefs of the North
Carolina coast, particularly Hatteras Island. Before the advent of
motor boats, just a decade ago, this formed a sort of World’s end,
three days’ journey from anywhere, and its mild-mannered people
were living under much the same conditions as three centuries ago.
Hatteras island is an elbow-shaped sand-spit, 40 miles in length
measured around the elbow, and from half a mile to 5 miles in
width. It lies along the very border of the continental shelf, 100
miles beyond the normal trend of the coast, between 35 degrees
and 36 degrees N. Lat. The everyday speech of the people con-
tains words and expressions familiar in old English usage, but, so
far as the writer is aware, hardly to be met with in any part of
the United States at the presentday. Suchare: the verb to travel
(in the sense of to walk as opposed to any other kind of locomo-
tion); acre (in the sense furlong); country (meaning the opposite
mainland, as opposed to the islands); and many others. The first
named is to be found'so in Hakluyt’s ‘Voyages,’ and is still to be
met with in various corners of the British Isles. Old English
melodies are still to be met with in Hatteras Island, though the
songs of the mothers and grandmothers are well-nigh forgotten by
the daughters. The writer holds that the lost colony of Roanoke
may have found refuge there, while the above survivals might also
bea ccounted for by wrecks known to have taken place in this locality
in 1558and 1590. It may be regretted that the levelling influences
of ‘“civilization’’ are already making even Hatteras like the rest of
the world.

*Reprinted from The Geographical Journal (London: The Royal Geograph-
ical Society), September, 1910.

1910|

171

CORRECTIONS.

Professor John F. Lanneau has requested us to publish the fol-
lowing correction: In Proceedings of the N. C. Acad. of Science,
Vol. 26, No. 2, p. 57 of this Journal, paper on ‘‘The Locus of a
Moving Point, etc.,’’ sentence ‘If K-1, the circles are of infinite
radius, and are tangent at O,’’ the clause should read, and pass
through O.

Insert map of The Landes and Dunes of Gascony to face p. 82.

P. 82, line 2: for feattres read features.

P. 88, line 27: for insolated read isolated; line 85, omit fifth
word; line 37, for upply read supply.

P. 84, line 2: for comma place period at end of sentence; line
7, for Pineaster read Pinaster; line 14, for popular read poplar.

P. 85, line 12: for comma place period at end of sentence; line
26, for steritity read sterility; line 31, for insolated read
isolated.

P. 87, line 2: for inalnd read inland; line 24, for eastern read
western.

P. 89, line 15: for ses read ces; line 24, for solid read sand.

P. 90, line 3: for zt to read to it.

P. 91, line 5: for end read and.

In sketch of Joseph Austin Holmes, p. 167, line 2, insert
influenced after heredity.

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

VOL. XXVII
1911

ISSUED QUARTERLY

THE UNIVERSITY PRESS,
CHAPEL HILL, N. C.

roa eet

aR erie. wet ee aK

TABLE OF CONTENTS

A Srupy or Some EpirHELioip MEMBRANES IN MoNAXONID
SPORE oa 5 VAN OUICT OR ear Re en ne Peete eh ee
Dr. JosepH Hinson MELLICHAMP~ W. C. Coker.........- Carees
Tue GARDEN oF ANDRE Micuaux—W. C. Coker...............
PROCEEDINGS OF THE TENTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE NorTH
CAROLINA: ACADEMY OF SCHENCK! 2.2 .).:5. 460000002 basesacce
Tur PkoBLeEM OF THE CONSTITUTION OF Mien, Hf:
| B25, NEN LDR BOR CN ay PER sat ss SENS Ue eS
CatcHinc Hawk Morus on FLroweErs at Dusk—C. S. Brimley
THE Turkey Buzzarp Must Go—George W. Lay...... Bee ake
PHysicAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SoLUTIONS CONTAINING
AMMONIA AND Citric Actp— Robert A. Hall and James

PREPARATION OF NEUTRAL AMMONIUM Gee SoLUTIONS BY

THE Conpuctiviry MetHop— Robert A. Hall............
THE DISTRIBUTION OF AMMONIA BETWEEN WATER AND CHLO-

kKOFORM—James M. Bell and Alexander L. Feild........
Some Piutonic Rocks or CHaPEL Hiti—Wiuiliam H. Fry....
MINERALS OF THE CHAPEL HILL Recion—William H. Fry...
ForMULAS Fok INVESTMENT CALCULATIONS— Thomas F. Hick-

FCT Tb ETA A ME ROC Fe oS AE EOC SYS :
WALDEN’s INveRsION— Alvin S. Wheeler......... .....00.0.eeeeee
THE CkEsT OF THE BLUE RIDGE Highway— Thomas F. Hick-
Cr8ON...... Se Sade: SO ES PR Ae Liat S Babb Ifa
Tar PiLant Lire oF Hartsvit1e, 8. C.—W. C. Coker........

eo

65

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f AG NRA,

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ie AM R

JOURNAL \

Hisha Mitchell Scientific Society

VOL. XXVII MAY, 1911 NO. |

MONAXONID SPONGES

H. V. Wison,
Professor of Zoology in the University of North Carolina

TWENTY-ON# FIGURES

In the course of some experiments dealing with the regenera-
tive power of the tissues in certain monaxonid sponges, it became
necessary to learn the histological peculiarities of the epidermis in
these forms It soon developed that the adult epidermis in these
species did not conform to the type usually thought of us as well
nigh universal in sponges. A study of the regenerationof the ep-
idermis in cuttings was then undertaken, rather with the idea of its
throwing light on the adult structure. During the study of the
epidermis some new facts as to the way in which pores close were
made out. Finally for the purpose of comparison with the epider-
mis, the canal epithelium in a suitable species was studied.’

THE EPIDERMIS IN STYLOTELLA.

The most abundant sponge in Beaufort harbor is Stylotella hel-
iophila, a form which L have described in a paper now in press for
the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries. The genus falls in the halichon-
drine monaxonida. The sponge has well marked ascending lobes

*Reprinted from The Journal of Experimental Zoology, Vol. 9, No. 3.

*The work was carried on during the summer of 1909 at the Beamnfort
Laboratory of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries. My thanks are due: to Hon.
Geo. M. Bowers, U. 8. Commissioner of Fisheries, for a place in the labora-
tory, and to the Director, Mr. H. D. Aller, for his kindly aid during my stay.

1

2 JOURNAL OF THR MITCHELL SocIETY [ May

of conical shape which bear terminal oscula. The pores are scat-
tered over the whole surface. Spaces of considerable size (sub-
dermal cavities) belonging to the afferent system lie close to the
surface, and as is customary in such sponges imperfectly separate
a thin superficial layer known as the dermal membrane from the
inner mass of the sponge body. The dermal membrane contains
no flagellated chambers, or only a very few scattered here and
there, and is made up of a thin sheet of mesenchyme containing
spicules, which is covered on the outer surface by the epidermis
and on the inner surface by the epithelioid membrane forming the
wall of the subcermal space (and of the canal in general) Ac-
cording to the current conceptions of the histological structure of
sponges we would expect to find the epidermis and canal walls
both to consist of a single layer of flat epithelium cells (pinacocy-
tes.)

Actually [ find that the epidermis of this sponge consists of a
thin protoplasmic sheet studded with nuclei and exhibiting abso-
lutely no cell boundaries. Itisasyneytium. Cell boundaries are
sometimes overlooked, but it seems to me that the variety of his
tological methods I have practiced makes it certain that cells do
not exist. '

-. Results with material fixed in alcohol.

Comparison with living tissues shows that strong alcohol, abso-
lute or 95 per cent, is an excellent fixative for sponge tissues I
use it in liberal quantities, and very shortly after the immersion
of the piece of sponge, change to fresh alcohol, changing again
after a few hours. The precipitate which alcohol unfortunately
causes in seawater has scarcely time to settle on the sponge if the
first change be made quickly. Moving the piece about in the al-
cohol also helps to keep the surfaces clear of the precipitate.
Suitable pieces were stained in toto with haemalum and were then
imbedded, some in celloidin, some in paraffine. On the whole
I recommend the celloidin, but the paraffin preparations were
satisfactory. After the xylol bath I add soft (40° melting point) -
paraffine to tne xylol, warm the mixture up gradually and imbed
30 minutes in soft and 30 minutes in harder (50°--55° melting

1911] EPITHELIOID MEMBRANES IN MONAXONID SPONGES 3

point) paraffine. Very thick tangential sections are made. Such
sections are far better than thin ones. They afford many places
where, owing to the transparency of the tissues underlying the ep-
idermis, the latter can be well seen. The sections were given an
after stain with congo red, or with Delafield’s haematoxlin fol-
lowed by congo, and were mounted in balsam. To obviate the
possible ill effects of imbedding, strips of the epidermis were torn
off with forceps from the alcvholic material, werk& stained in hae-
malum and congo red, and mounted in balsam. Most of the
pieces obtained in this way are too thick for study, but occasion-
¥lly very thin strips peel off.

As is well known the pores of sponges close and open. Prepar-
ations of the epidermis with the pores widely open were made
from sponges that had been kept in a live box. In a live box
placed where the tidal current is good, the sponge is usually
found with the oscula and pores fully open and the canals dilated.
If the sponge so expanded be suddenly plunged in the fixative,
the pores will not have time to contract. More useful prepara-
tions are those in which the pores are closed or half closed.
Sponges that bave been kept a short time in running aquaria are
found to be in this condition.

A part of the dermal membrane as seen in a thick tangential
section is shown in fig. 1 Some of the pores are completely op-
en and others nearly so. The wall of a small subdermal cavity
is indicated by the line s. ¢. w., and into this cavity the pores op-
en. Beyond s. c. w., we come toa thicker part of the body sep-
arating the subdermal space shown from neighboring ones. In
this part a few conspicuous mesenchyme cells, m. c., appear.
They come into view when the microscope is focussed Just below
the surface of the sponge. The canal wall shows some of the lin-
ing cells, ¢. c., as seen in optical section. They also appear of
course only at a focus below the surface of the sponge. Over the
subdermal cavity the figure shows the epidermis in focus. It ap-
pears as a continuous thin protoplasmic sheet without cell boun-
daries and studded with nuclei, ep. n. On focussing below the
epidermis the mesenchyme cells of the dermal membrane would

+ JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ May

come into view. Below the mesenchyme lies the inner covering
of the dermal membrane, an epithelioid Jayer continuous with the
canal lining in general. Round most of the epidermal nuclei the
protoplasm is aggregated, forming thickened more deeply stain-
ing areas which shade off into the internuclear portion. The
structures morked p. m., which I propose to call pore membranes,
and which so far as I know have not been described, are exten-
sions of the epidermal sheet over the pores. These extensions are
so thin that they afford an especially favorable opportunity for
studying the intimate structure of the epidermal layer. Their
nature is learned when the process of pore closure is studied, and
it will be well now to give a description of this process.

The dermal pores of the monaxonid sponges are customarily re-
ferred to as mere perforations of the dermal membrane. They
are in reality short canals leading from the exterior into the sub-
dermal chambers. Ordinarily the dermal membrane, while thin,
is of such thickness that the actual aperture at the surface of the
sponge is distinguishable, on focussing, from the canal itself.
Thus in fig. 1, the pore membrane, p. m. partially closes the ap-
erature and is distinctly seen when the epidermis is in focus.
On focussing a little lower the wall of the canal itself p. e.
comes into view as a distinct line which often exhibits a
nucleated thickening or two. The nucleated thickening may
as in the case of two of the pores shown in figure 1
extend out into the mesenchyme in the shape of aslender process.
I propose to restrict the use of the term pore (viz., dermal pore),
to the actual aperture, and to designate the short canal as the
pore canal.

When the pores are widely open as is the case with pore 1, in
fig. 1, there is no sign of a pore membrane. The epidermis is di-
rectly continuous at the edge of the pore with the lining of the
pore canal. But even when the sponges are fixed at once on be-
ing taken from the live box, some of the pores will be partially
closed and will show the pore membrane, p. m. This thin ex-
tension of the epidermal sheet in sponges so preserved will usual-
ly be found barely extending beyond the margin of the pore

1911| EPITHELIOID MEMBRANES IN MONAXONID SPONGES 3)

and it may or may not include a nucleus. It is a single thin
layer which yet is continuous with both epidermis and the lining
of the pore canal. Since it has the structure of the epidermis I
speak of it and regard it as an extension of that layer. If the
sponge has been kept in an aquarium a short time, preparations
show that the pores are for the most part about half closed. In
fig. 3 two such pores are shown as they appear in a thick tangen-
tial section similar to that from which fig. 1 was made. The
pore membrane, p. m., here extends well over the pore canal. If
the sponges have been kept some time in the aquarium, regions
will be found in which the pores are closed. Fig. 2 represents the
dermal service of a thick tangential section. The region shown
lies over a subdermal cavity and the pores are closed. The out-
lines of the pore canals, p. ¢., are visible on focussing just below
the surface. The thin sheet, p. m., covering in the pore canal is
the pore membrane. A comparison of such preparations shows
plainly that the pores are closed by a thin extension of the epi-
dermis over the pore canal.

Owing to the peculiarities of the species, especially unevenness
of surface, abundance» of spicules, and abundance of amoebocytes,
it is well nigh impossible to observe the closure of the pores in
living preparations of the dermal membrane as made from the
normal sponge. Free hand tangential sections of the living sponge
were sliced off, but these proved of no value. Pieces were
cut off from the upper part of the oscular lobes in very transpar-
ent regions and where the wall of the lobe is thin, but these again
were useless for the purpose. I did succeed, however, in observ-
ing the closure of the pores in life by practicing the following
method.

Free hand sections about one-eighth inch thick were made
transversely through an oscular lobe, and therefore directly across
two or three of the main efferent canals. Such a section when
cut is a circular piece of sponge tissue perforated by the segments
of these canals. The segments of the canals are of course open
above and below at each surface of the section. If such a section
be kept a day in an aquarium a new dermal membrane develops

6 JouRNaL OF THE MrrcHELiL Socrery | May

over both surfaces and over the open ends of the canals. The
new membrane closing in the canals is smooth and contains but
few spicules. If the section now be mounted in sea water under
a cover glass the new membrane over the canals may be studied
with a high objective. It will be found to contain pores and one
may actually see that these are closed through the creeping of the
most superficial layer of the dermal membrane (newly formed
epidermis) across the pore, 7. ¢., over the aperture of the pore
eanal, thus giving rise to a pore membrane.* As to the opening
of the pores after closure by the pore membranes, I have no actu-
al observations, but it is obvious that the pore must reappear as a
perforation in the membrane, which the recedes towards the mar-
gin of the pore canal.

The question may be asked, is the pore canal a permanent strue-
ture, or does it too close up? Since the pore canal perforates the
dermal membrane its closure obviously could only be brought
about through an extension of the mesenchyme of that membrane.
In Stylotella I always find the pore canals distinct even when the
pores are completely closed. Hence the pore canals must be re-
garded as structures that are permanent in ordinary conditions of
the sponge. My observations on Reniera and Lissodendoryx
(vide infra) nevertheless show that the pore canal itself may be
partially or completely obliterated in monaxonid sponges.

Another question may be asked before we leave this matter of the
pore and closure. Is there any one nucleus that is especially as-
s ciated with a pore membrane? An examinatian of figs. 1, 2
and 3 shows there is no such nucleus. The pore membrane may
spread to a considerable distance over the pore canal before any
of the epidermal nuclei enter it (fig. 3), and when the pore is
completely closed Cig. 2) the membrane may show a nucleus
somewhere near its center or again one or two nuclel near or at

2In the healing up of such a section a considerable rearrangement of the
canal system certainly takes place. A new osculum is established, and this
apparently may develop at any point on the surface of the piece, Pore
canals lead through the newly formed dermal menuibrane into what were
originally main efferent canals,

PLATE I.

a we
= birsv
Ped

— a 4 7 jy ¥ y
: wo ay . ih
- « % .
7 ” my T :
= i] it io i
. WM cal '
4 on ‘ ‘ f 2 y
. =! 4 >

} -
d i
- y 7
i] - \ a ; ‘ ,
a4 ‘ > 1 i@ +
- -) - ry * , i -
\ ,
S y p
i P ’ ij
' P
it 5
F : : : - > ee
J . ;
' t
; i
:
= ah
, i ; &
p '
— 3
wy

1911} EPITHELIOID MEMBKANES IN MONAXONID SPONGES it

its margin. The epidermal nuclei are irregularly distributed, in
some spots close together, in others farther apart. This is well
shown in fig. 2. These nuclei moreover are all alike. The facts
would seem to indicate that the epidermal sheet of protoplasm
spreads of its own initiative over the pore canal, and that the
nearest nucleus or nuclei are simply drawn intoit. In Reniera
on the other hand there is always one nucleus at the margin of the
pore and this nucleus is (perhaps only passively) associated with
the formation of the pore membrane.

Some details in the structure of the epidermal layer remain
to be mentioned. The irregular distribution of the nuclei has
been noted. They are small and uniformly exhibit only a nuclear
membrane and a few chiomatin granules in the nucleoplasm.
No cases of division were observed, although mitotic figures in
amoebocytes of the mesenchyme were noticed not infrequently.
Round each nucleus or group of two or three is a more deeply
staining area which appears finely granular or granular and reti-
eular. The rest of the membrane stretching between the nuclei
and over the pore canals exhibits a fine reticular structure. The
reticular structure is found everywhere, but is most distinet in
the thin pore membranes. Discreet granules are absent or nearly
absent in the epidermal sheet. It should be understood that the
reticular appearance of the epidermal! layer is perhaps only the
optical expression of an alveolar structure. To demonstrate the
reticular appearance a good immersion objective is necessary. I
have chiefly used Zeiss 2mm. ap. 1.30 but also Zeiss 2nm.ap. 1.40,
with comp. oculars 6 and 8. Very white clouds on sunny days
afford satisfactory light.

Results with other fixatives.
Material mixed by other methods confirms the account Just

given. |
Picro-sulphurie. Tangential sections and strips of epidermis
were prepared from material fixed in picro-sulphuric. The stain-
ing was as for the alcoholic material and the preparations gave
the same results. Absolutely no cell boundaries exist. The in-
ternuclear sheet more commonly appears finely granular rather

8 JOURNAL OF THE MrrcHeELL SocreTy [ May

than reticular. Possibly this is due to a deeper staining of the
nodal. points. But the fine reticular structure comes out well in
places; especially inthe pore membranes. Discrete granules sueh as
are found in mesenchyme cells are either entirely absent or are
found only in very «mall number here and there.

Acetic acid. Pieces were fixed in. glacial acetic for a few min-
utes. (5-10) and then transferred to water. The dermal mem-
brane was peeled and cut from the choanosome, and was then
cleaned of the underlying sponge parenchyma which was picked
away with forcep: and needles. The pieces were then stained,
some in methyl green, others in-acetic carmine or in haemalum,
wut were mounted in glycerine. Preparations so made give re-
sults similar to the foregoing. But they are not as transparent
as balsam preparations and do rot disclose the detailed structure
of the internuclear sheet.

Osmic acid. Pieces were fixed in one-half per cent osmie for
(10-15) minutes, washed in running water, and hardened.in Miil-
ler’s fluid 12 hours. They were run up very gradually through
the alcohols. Sections and strips were made, stained in haemaluna,
and mounted in balsam. ‘Che preparations very frequently exhib-
ited interesting artefacts. At first sight an epithelium seemed to
be marked out in the clearest way. Perfectly clear channels of
eonsiderable width cut up the surface layer into areas that were
often polygonal. Examination with an immersion ‘objective
showed that these areas were not cells. They sometimes have
nuelei and sometimes not, and the channels between the areas
exhibit peculiarities in their course which clearly indicate them
to be cracks. The while appearance must be due to the cracking
of the very delicate epidermal sheet. The fixative probably makes
the sheet brittle, and it later cracks perhaps duitng the washing.

Sublimate. Pieces were fixed for a few iiinutes in saturated
corrosive sublimate and washed in iodised 70 per cent alcohol in
the usual way. Tangential sections and = strips of epidermis
were prepared and stained in haemalum and congo red. Suehi
preparations frequently exhibit artefacts similar to those pro-
duced by ogsmic. The surface Jayer is broken up into thin and
irregularly polygonal pieces that are widely separated by perfect-

1911} EPITHELIOID MEMBRANES IN MONAXONID SPONGES 9

ly clear channels. The latter are crossed in some places by a few
slender protoplasmic filaments. Careful examination shows that
the pieces are certainly not cells. Some are without nuclei,
others with a nucleus or sometimes with two. They often include
one or more large clear vacuole-like spaces. This appearance
again is probably due to cracking of the epidermal layer, perhaps
coupled with a violent coagulation set up by the sublimate. The
appearance is certainly an artefact, although the pieces in many
places look at first sight like cells.

Silver nitrate. Thin pieces were sliced off from the surface of a
living sponge, and were fixed 5-10 minutes in one-twentieth per
cent osmic acid. After thorough washing in distilled water, they
were transfered to one per cent silver nitrate and exposed to
direct sunlight 5-10 minutes (Hertwig’s method). After washing
and running up through the alcohols, strips of epidermis were
peeled off and mounted in balsam. Tangenital sections were
also made and mounted in balsam. As a control small hydrome-
dusae were stained in the same way. The subumbrellar surface
of the latter showed the usual polygonal network of distinct brown
lines, marking out the epithelium cells. The method was em-
ployed several times on favorable days.

Stained in this way the surface of Stylotella frequently exhibits
no lines that in any way suggest cell boundaries. But in places
an appearance is got with a Zeiss D objective as if epithelium
cells were marked out. Examination with an immersion objec-
tive shows that the appearance (fig. 4) is due toartefacts and not
to the presence of epithelium cells. The facts may be summed
up as follows. The network of lines is below the thin surface layer.
The lines are no browner than other strands, viz., have the osmic
and not the silver stain. In the meshes are irregular masses that
are usually nucleated. The areas marked out by the lines may
vary greatly in size. It is plain that such areas cannot be epithe-
lium cells) The appearance is probably caused by violent coagu-
lation of mesenchyme cells and strands. Inter-cellular connectives
and parts of cell bodies remain as the network of brown strands,
while the cell bodies, contracted and torn loose from the con-
nectives, remain as the irregular masses that lie in the meshes,

10 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

REGENERATION OF THE EPIDERMIS IN STYLOTELLA

A dermal membrane with normal epidermis soon regenerates
over a cut surface. For the study of the process of regeneration,
sections vertical to the surface are of little use. The method I
have followed was to allow the regeneration to proceed a certain
time, then to fix and harden the piece of sponge, and to cut from
the superficial region a number of thick (1004) tangential sec.
tions. For the fixation alcohol, picro-sulphurie and sublimate
were employed. The piece was stained in toto with haemalum,
and the sections with congo red. Paraffine and celloidin sections
were chiefly used, but good preparations were sometimes made
by slicing off free-hand the regenerating surface from the piece
in aleohol, and at once staining and mounting the slices. Or the
piece was fixed in glacial acetic, washed in water, and the re-
generating surface sliced off. The sponge parenchyma was then
picked away with needles and forceps from the surface layer,
which was later stained and mounted in glycerine.

The original cut surface was made as smooth as possible, and
allof it is included in the first few sections. These are mounted
with the regenerating surface uppermost. Where the surface was
part of the choanosome such preparations are too opaque for
study. But where the surface was part of the transparent col-
lenchyma, the sections offer fairly clear pictures. Much the best
pictures of all are to be had from the new dermal membrane which
develops across the cut ends of the larger canals. To obtain
membrane of this kind I cut off oscular lobes about an inch be-
low the apex, thus cutting the main efferent canals transversely.
The open ends of the canals become closed in by the new mem-
brane which extends out from the surrounding collenchyma
across the aperture. The rate at which the canals become c'osed
in may be gathered from the following record. The lobes were
cut off at 9:30 a. m., the cut surface of each lobe showing several
widely open canals. At 1:30 p. m., most of the canals were
closed in by thin, collenchymatous membranes perforated in the
center, like diaphragms. In the case of a few canals the mem-
branes had completely closed the apertures. Within an hour or

1911| EPITHELIOID MEMBRANES IN MONAXONID SPONGES 11

two all of the membranes had completely formed and the canals
were entirely closed in. In fig. 5 one of the newly formed mem-
branes, ¢. m., with surrounding collenchyma and outlying cho-
anosome is shown.

When the cut is first made, the dermal membrane covering the
rest of the sponge ends at the exposed surface with a sharp edge.
On the cut surface itself are exposed in choanosomal regions,
flagellated chambers, mesenchyme, and spicules; in the regions
immediately round the larger canals, only collenchymatous mes-
enchyme. The mesenchyme everywhere includes branched cells
freely interconnected, and free amoebocytes. The latter are
scarce in the collenchyma. Collenchymatous mesenchyme is
especially characterized, it will be remembered, by the large
amount of watery intercellular substance and the considerable
length of the cell processes. A recognisable new dermal mem-
brane develops over the whole surface within a day. The edge
of the old membrane remains distinguishable for some hours, but
it applies itself closely to the more solid sponge tissue, sinking in
to meet the latter where it had covered subdermal spaces, and
after about 12 hours it is no longer recognisable. By this time it
is in perfect continuity with the layers of mesenchyme cells
stretching over the cut surface and which are developing into the
new dermal membrane.

We may now proceed to the detailed examination, by stages, of
the developing dermal membrane and epidermis, using for study
as explained above the membranes that develop across the open
ends of canals and over collenchymatous regions.

One hour after cutting. The cut surface is occupied by branched
cells containing abundant and conspicuous granules. Even in a
comparatively small area they exhibit slight differences of level.
These cells are interconnected so as to form a fairly close net-
work, Some very. smal! spheroidal cells, probably metamorphosed
collar cells, lie free here and there. Many of the superficial granu-
lar cells are thin and flattened. Below the superficial cells lie
several layers of essentially similar granular cells which are not
flattened. They are interconnected with one another and

12 JoURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocIETY {| May

with the superficial cells. The entire network formed by the
granular mesenchymal cells is closest at the cut surface and be-
comes more and open as we go deeper below the surface.

Two hours after cutting. The cells at the surface are now more
uniformly flattened than they were an hour earlier. A group of
the superficial cells isshown in fig. 6.

Five hours after Cutting. The surface is now occupied by a layer
of thin, flattened, coarsely granular cells or cell areas connected
by a complex network of fine intercellular strands (fig. 7). The
cells areas are mostly uninucleate but may include two or even
three nuclei. The areas have no precise boundaries but merge
gradually into the intercellular network. On focussing below the
surface layer, coarsely granular mesenchymal cells come into the
view. These have slender processes and are freely intercon-
nected forming a coarse open network (fig. 8, m.c.) This open
network of coarsely granular mesenchymal cells constitutes the
body of the developing dermal membrane. In it spaces which
doubtless represent pore canals have already appeared. One such
is skown in fig. 8 (p.c.) The mesenchyme cells bounding it,
and which doubtless become the lining epithelium, do not yet
form 2 continuous wall. Above the developing pore canal the
epidermal layer, p. m., is shown as it appears at the upper focus.

Twelve hours after cutting. The surface is now occupied by a
continuous epidermal membrane in which the cells that have
fused ate still distinguishable (fig. 9). The area around each
nucleus or group of two or three takes a deeper stain and appears
asa finely granular, vaguely delimited area containing a good many
of the coarse granules that characterise the fusing cells in earlier
stages. Between these areas the epidermal membrane is a thin
continuous sheet which in places appears reticular (alveolar] and
in other places more fibrillar. In this thin sheet one sees here
and there a few of the coarse granules which seem to be lodged,
in cages at least, at the nodes of the reticulum. The sheet ex-
hibits small perforations of varying size, sometimes twice as large
as that shown in fig. 9 (per.) Possibly these are the beginnings
of pores, although I was not able to observe that they always lay

PLATE II.

-*

we

1911) EPITHELIOID MEMBRANES IN MONAXONID SPONGES 13

over pore canals. In a regenerating dermal membrane at this
stage groups of well formed pore canals are found here and_ there
(fig. 9, p. c.) In the preparation shown in fig. 9, the pores are
open.

Later development. The epidermis 24 hours after cutting is like
that of the normal sponge. The course granules found in earlier
stages are absent or present only in scanty number here and there.
Pore canals that are open or closed in by pore membranes are abun-
dantly present. The ectosomal skeleton is scanty. Pieces of
sponge were kept in live boxes for a week and in these examina-
tion indicated that the ectosomal skeleton was practically like that
of the normal sponge. The color of the new surface at this time
was still like that of the interior, orange, while the old surface was
orange with a distinct tinge of green.

Summary. A comparison of the stages just described shows that
immediately after the cutting coarsely granular mesenchyme cells
approach the exposed surface in considerable number. Many of
the migrating cells are doubtless originally free amoebocytes.
The granular cells when they have reached the neighborhood of
the surface appear as branched bodies freely interconnected. This
layer of interconnected granular cells develops into the new dermal
membrane. The cells at the surface become flattened and more
closely set than the deeper elements from which they are no doubt
recruited during the first few hours The fuse to form the
epidermis. Union between the cells takes place not through
crowding so as to give rise to plane surfaces, but through the con-
tinued development of intercellular connectives. As these become
more numerous and branched they give rise to a complex reticulum
of protoplasmic strands. This intercellular reticulum becomes
transformed into what we would usually speak of as a continuous
sheet of protoplasm, although careful examination shows that
even in the adult it has a finely reticular, possibly alveolar struc-
ture. During the metamorphosis of the superficial granular cells
into the epidermis, the cells loose their characteristic granules.
The pore canals arise as excavations in the mesenchyme of the
developing dermal membrane, and are covered in by the new
epidermis which in such places constitutes pore membranes.

14 JOURNAL OF THE MrTCHELL SocrkTy [ May

THE EPIDERMIS IN RENIERA

The species used is an undescribed one fairly common in Beau-
fort harbor. The body, frequently about 100 mm. high, is a com-
plex system of anastomosing cylindrical branches, the diameter of
which varies from 3 mm. to 8 mm. The color is often pink but
varies to a brown. The oscula terminate short tubes arising ver-
tically from the branches. Such oscular tubes are frequently
1.5-3 mm. in diameter, 2-4 mm. high. The wall of the tube is
colorless, thin, and transparent. The sponge, like the other two
forms used for the observations recorded in this paper, falls in the
halichondrine monaxonida.

For the study of the epidermis pieces were fixed in absolute
alcohol, 95 per cent alcohol, sublimate, picro-sulphuric. Thick
tangential sections were made from the smoothest and most trans-
parent parts of the surface. Both celloidin and parafline were
employed. Useful preparations were also made directly from the
oscular tubes in the following way: The tube was cut off, split
lengthwise, the sponge tissue picked away from the canalar sur-
face, and the pieces mounted with the epidermal surface upper-
most. Forstaining I made use in general of haemalum and congo
red, staining the piece in toto with haemalum and the sections in
congo.

Results with material fixed in alcohol

Alcohol proved much the best fixative. The epidermis is so
delicate a membrane that during the treatment necessary with
other fixatives it cracks. In the alcoholic preparations clean
places must be looked for. These are abundant enough, and in
such places the structure of the layer may be successfully studied.
There are no cell boundaries. The layer is a syncytium as in
Stylotella, consisting of a thin, continuous sheet of protoplasm
containing abundant nuclei that are irregularly scattered (fig. 11).
Round each nucleus as a rule the protoplasmic sheet is thicker
than elsewhere, takes a deeper stain, and presents a finely granular
appearance. The rest of the sheet is minutely reticular. Granules
sufficiently large to be recognised individually and which are abun-
dantly present in mesenchyme cells, are not found in the epidermis

1911| FPITHELIOID MEMBRANES IN MONAXONID SPONGES 15

The recticular character of the sheet is very distinct in places
where the staining is both deep and clean. The meshes appear
to be actual spaces. They look clear and empty and are bounded
by the stained reticular lines. The thin pore membranes closing
in pore canals are especially favorable for such observations. The
epidermal sheet is certainly of surprising delicacy and thinness.
It may often be traced over the large spicules which lie horizon-
tally and form the superficial meshes of the skeletal network. In
such places it rests upon the white background of the spicule and
the reticular character comes out distinctly. There are places
where mexenchyme cells of the dermal membrane also lie on top
of the superficial spicules. But it is where the epidermis alone
crosses the spicule that the opportunity for study is so especially
good.

Results with other methods

Sublimate was given a good trial as a fixative. The epidermis
cracks a great deal. The fragments are sometimes fit for study.
They exhibit the reticular character of the sheet and an absence
of cell boundaries, as noted above.

Picro-sulphuric which is a good fixative for the epidermis in
Stylotella does not give good results on Reniera. The epidermis
cracks into pieces. When treated with this fluid the membrane
seems to have no stiffness. Thus it often drops down into the
pore canals and breaks away from the part left on the surface.
The fragments are sometimes fit for study. They are fre-
quently polynucleate but exhibit no cell boundaries. The reticular
character of the sheet could not be observed on this material.

Several trials of the silver nitrate method were made on favor-
able days. The silver entirely failed to show the presence of cell
boundaries in the epidermis. Where the stain is deep, the out-
lines of mesenchyme cells and processes sometimes appear. The
silver was used according to the method already described for
Stylotella. Oscular tubes that had been so stained were split and
mounted in water, glycerine, and balsam. Tangential sections
were also made. As a control pieces of an expanded Leptogorgia

16 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SociktTy { May

were used, and the epithelial cells on the surface of the polyps
were here outlined with great distinctness.

Pores, pore canals, and pore membranes

In the preparations made from preserved material, the pores are
sometimes wide open or partially, sometimes completely, closed by
pore membranes. The pore membrane as in Stylotella is simply
an extension of the epidermis. When it incompletely closes the
pore it has a single nucleus (fig. 11), and even when it is complete
it may have but one (fig. 11). Frequently, however, when it is
complete it exhibits more than one nucleus (fig. 11, 5). As Jong
as the pore membrane is imperfect the outline of the pore canal is
distinct. When the pores are cormpletely closed, however, it often
happens that the outline of the pore canal is vague or lacking at
some part of the circumference (fig. 11). The explanation of this
appearance must be that after the epidermis has extended over the
pore canal the mesenchyme of the dermal membrane also extends
in towards the middle of the canal, thus tending to obliterate it.

Fortunately in this sponge the behavior of the pores may easily
be watched during life. For this purpose an oscular tube is cut
off, split lengthwise, and the halves mounted with epidermal sur-
face uppermost in plenty of sea water under a coverglass. The
cover flattens the pieces sufficiently to permit the use of a one-sixth
inch objective. In such preparations made from a sponge just re-
moved from the live box, many of the pores will be found open
and their closure may be actually observed. I append the follow-
ing records of observations on the closure of selected pores.

Pore 1. At 9.45 a.m., the pore is open with one nucleus at
the margin (fig. 10). The nucleus shifts its position, traveling
back and forth along the margin, going sometimes half round the
pore and back again. The movements of the nucleus are quick
and easily observed. At 9.50 the epidermis extends a short distance
over the margin in the shape of a thin film. This gradually
spreads across the pore becoming a well marked pore membrane.
As it spreads the originally marginal nucleus passes into it. The
sketches (fig. 10) show successive stages in the passage of the

PLATE III.

pe

a

oe na S paca Fc 5
= le ¢. 9
B 3 G45 E>” e. 956
| : : yD

é) q55 9.58
0

1

ua

1911| EPITHELIOID MEMBRANES IN MONAXONID SPONGES 17

membrane across the pore, At 9.58 the pore canal is almost com-
pletely closed in. Its outline is still distinct at this time. Five
minutes later the pore is completely closed, and the outline of the
pore canal is no longer distinguishable.

Pore 2. The pore at 10 a. m., is partly closed by a few inter-
connected strands of protoplasm which include a nucleus (fig. 12).
The strands are thin and delicate, and are in continuity with
the surrounding epidermis. The protoplasmic strands change
form and arrangement, and the nucleus shifts its position, all
very quickly. Such amoeboid movements continue for some min-
utes. During their progress camera sketches were made, and
the conditions at 10.05 and 10.07 are shown in fig. 12. By 10.10
the protoplasmic strands have taken the shape of a marginal
film. This is drawn into the epidermis, the nucleus remaining
at the margin of the pore, and at 10.12 there is only the usual
appearance of an an open pore. The nucleus now shifts quickly
back and forth along the margin of the pore, narrow marginal
films appearing and disappearing as the nucleus changes position
(comp. sketches drawn at 10.15, 10.17, 10.20, fig. 12). The
narrow marginal film present at 10.20 begins to spread at 0.21
and rapidly covers the whole pore, becoming a pore membrane
into which the nucleus passes. Two stages in the completion of
the pore membrane are drawn as they appear at 10.23 and 10.25,
The pore is completely closed by 10.27. The wall of the pore
canal was distinet all round until 10.21. Shortly after that time
it began to grow indistinct round a part of the circumference
(right side). At 10.25 it was no longer distinguishable in this
region and was only vaguely outlined on the opposite side. The
pore canal was kept under observation until 10.40 a.m. At that
time its outline (p. ¢. in fig. 13) was still vaguely distinguishable,
although circumseribing a much smaller area than formerly.

Pore 3. When the observations began the pore canal (fig. 14,
1.45 p. m.) was far smaller than the normal. It had evidently
already contracted. It was partly covered by a pore membrane at
the margin of which lay a nucleus. The marginal pore mem-
brane was then largely drawn into the epidermis, the nycleus

18 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL Society [ May

shifting its position in what remained (comp. sketches drawn at
1.50 and 1.53). At 1.53 the marginal membrane began to spread
rapidly, closing in the pore by 1.57. After complete closure of
the pore the outline of the pore canal was still distinguishable.
The outline was distinguishable but smaller at 2 p.m. The wall
at this time was far from sharp and appeared rough and granular,
whereas before closure of the pore it was sharp and smooth. The
rough outline at 2 p. m., probably indicates how far the mesen-
chymal jelly has spread towards the middle of the original pore
canal.

Pore 4. The pore at 2.05 p. m., was wide open, and at the
margin two nuclei were distinguishable (fig. 15, 2.05 p.m.) One
nucleus, a, remains at rest, but the other nucleus, 6, shifts its
position back and forth in the usual way. It position at suc-
cessive moments is shown in the camera sketches made at 2.07
and 2.10. Nucleus > is the pore nucleus, the movements of
which are associated with the formation of the pore membrane.
The other nucleus @ is not especially concerned in the closure of
the pore. At2.12 the epidermis has just crept beyond the margin
of the pore, carrying with it the nucleus >. By 2.15 the pore
membrane has completely crossed the pore and the outline of the
pore canal is indistinguishable.

Pore 5. At the beginning of the observations (fig. 16, 3.15
p. m.) the pore which 1s somewhat constricted is crossed by a
single strand of protoplasm. The strand moves across the pore
and incorporates the nucleus (3.20). Thestrand with the nucleus
at its base now shifts its position across the pore back and forth,
finally passing to the edge and becoming a marginal film (3.30).
This quickly spreads over the pore in the usual way.

Pseudopodial activity at the pores

While making observations on the closure of pores, pseudopodial
activity was occasionally observed at the margin of the pore and at
the free margin of a partial pore membrane. In fig. 17 three pores

are represented in which such activity is goingon. In pore h the
pseudopodia extend out from the incomplete pore membrane, in
the other two cases from the margin of the pore itself. The fine

1911] EPITHELIOID MEMBRANES IN MONAXONID SPONGES 19

pseudopodia were thrown out, moved about quickly, often fused
more or less with one another, sometimes combining to form a
network (pore c). They then were partially or completely drawn
in, but reappeared after a short! interval. This remarkable
phenomenon was observed in the case of the three pores shown
during one-half hour, at the end of which period the pores were
still wide open and the pseudopodial activity going on. At several
other times I have noticed the formation of one or two flagellum-
like pseudopods at the margin of open pores. Such pseudopods
would quickly appear, move or wave from side to side, and
bedrawn in. There was nothing to indicate that this pseudopedial
activity at the margin of pores was a pathological phenomenon.
It is possible that it occurs commenly during life, and that the
pseudopodia are temporary, sensory processes which explore, so
to speak, the region of the open aperture. The facts afford a
further illustration of the widespread occurrence of ‘‘filose phenom-
ena,’’ to the importance of which as an expression of the funda-
mental nature of protoplasm, Professor and Mrs. E. A. Andrews
have repeatedly called attention (see especially, Andrews G. F.,
07).

Summary account of pore closure in Reniera

The pore canals may undoubtedly contract, viz., while still open
become smaller (comp. figs. 15 and 16). The entire thickness of
the dermal membrane shares in this process. Actual closure is,
however, brought about by an extension of the epidermal layer
across the pore. This extension of the epidermis may at once
constitute a simple and continuous pore membrane (fig. 10) sim-
ilar to that present in Stylotella. Or the epidermis may first ex-
tend across the pore in the shape of one or more strands of
protoplasm which shift about in amoeboid fashion (figs. 12 and
16) and are then withdrawn into the general layer before the
continuous pore membrane finally begins to extend across the
pore. A single nucleus not differing in appearance from other
epidermal nuclei is associated with the closure of a pore. It lies
at the margin round which it is shifted back and forth, in the
first stage of closure, probably by wave-like movements of the pro-

20 JOURNAL OF THK MrreHELL SocieTyY [ May

toplasm similar in some respects to those occurring in plant cells
(Nitella, e. g.) These movements of the nucleus are quick and
easily observed. For instance a nucleus made the complete cireuit
of a widely open pore in about one minute. After closure of the
pore, other nuclei beside the pore nucleus may pass into the area
which covers the pore canal (fig. 11). The constant presence of
a nucleus at the pore and its quick changes of position strongly
suggest that it is in some way physiologically concerned in pore
closure.

The extension of the epidermis to form a pore membrane does
not necessari'y involve the rest of the dermal membrane, and
hence after the epidermis has spread across the pore, the pore
canal may stiil remain open, in which case its outline is distin-
guishable on focussing below the surface. Usually after closure of
the pore, the outline of the canal is suddenly lost to view. This
must be due to centripetal streaming of the mesenchyme of the
dermal membrane, induced by scme local contraction in the
epithelial wall of the canal. Perhaps in nature the pores com-
monly remain in this condition until they reopen. At any rate
this is the state in which closed pores are usually found in pre-
served material (fig. 11). In excised pieces of sponge kept under
a cover glass the pore canal may completely or almost completely
disappear. In this latter case the area of the canal diminishes
greatly in size and its outline becomes rough and vague (figs. 13
and 14). This small and vaguely outlined area represents the
central region of a pore membrane, and indicates how far ‘the
mesenchyme of the dermal membrane has streamed inwards in its
obliteration of the pore canal.

The formation of a pore membrane is a contraction phenomenon
which involves only the epidermis. The closure ol the pore canal
is probably also primarily a contraction phenomenon, which in
this case involves the epithelial lining of the pore canal. The
epithelial Jining contracts, we may suppose, after the fashion of a
sphincter, locally or throughout the extent of the pore canal, and
so tends to obliterate the lumen. Such contraction brings with it
a centripetal streaming of the mesenchyme of the dermal mem-
brane. The closure of the canal is certainly not brought about by

PLATE IV.

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1911] EPITHELIOID MEMBRANES IN MONAXONID SPONGES 21

the contraction of surrounding fibre-like cells arranged in sphincter
fashion. There are none of these.

In the centripetal streaming of the dermal mesenchyme we
must distinguish active movements of cells and passive move-
ments of intercellular jelly. Both undoubtedly occur. On the
active movements of such cells I may record the following few
observations. The conspicuous cells in the mesenchyme of the
dermal membrane are coarsely granular amoebocytes (cells a, c¢,
in fig. 18) and pale cells either without coarse granules or with
only a few (cells d, b, in fig 13). Both varieties of cells may
appear in the spheroidal shape. When they are actively moving
they are irregular in shape, the body extending out into slender
prolongations. Cells of both varieties constantly shift their posi-
tion, and undergo changes of form, all very slowly. The granular
amoebocytes move more actively than the pale cells. The cells a
and ¢ crossed the space included between the spicules, passing
over b which they obscured for a time. In crossing the space, cell
a consumed five minutes.

CLOSURE OF PORES IN LISSOCENDORYX

The species used was Lissodendoryx carolinensis, a common
form in Beaufort harbor, and a deseription of which is contained
in a paper now in press for the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries. The
sponge falls in the halichondrine monaxonida. The whole sur-
face is abundantiy covered with tubular translucent papillae the
walls of which are perforated with numerous pores. These pore-
papillae which are often slightly branched are contractile and
may almost entirely disappear. When dilated they are about 3-5
mm. long and 1 mm. in diameter.

If such pore-papillae in the expanded state are cut off and
mounted in sea water, many pores are found to be open, and their
closure may be watched under the microscope. Each pore lies in
a field surrounded by long spicules (tylotes) and when expanded
is large. Asin the cases of the preceding species, I restrict the
term pore to the actual aperture of the surface, using the term
pore canal for the very short tube which perforates the wall of the

ae JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Soctrwry [May

pore-papilla. [ append the following record of observations on
the closure of selected pores.

Pore 1. When the observations began at 2.25 p. m., the pore
canal and pore were wide open. The pore canal steadily
contracts until 3.20 p.m. The diameter of the canal
at this time is about one-third of the original size. While
the pore canal is contracting, the surrounding spicules come
closer together (the whole papilla contracts). The mesenchyme
cells at 3.20 extend to the very wall of the pore canal. Imme-
diately after 3.20, a thin homogeneous looking membrane con-
taining no mesenchyme elements suddenly extends out across the
open aperture. This pore membrane (fig. 18, 3.25 p.m.) in a
few minutes time closes the pore completely.

Pore 2. The pore canal at 3.30 p.m. had already contracted
to about one-half the full size, and was in the same condition as
pore 1 at 8.20 The pore, however, closes in a different way from
pore 1. The canal steadily contracts until it disappears, at 3.40
p.m.

Pore 3. The pore canal contracts to about one-half its original
diameter. It then is found covered in near its margin by an ex-
tension of the dermal membrane. This extension constitutes zone
b of fig. 19. From this zone a further extension in the shape of
a very thin membrane, zone a, formed exclusively by the eni-
dermis, extends over the more central part of the canal. It seems
proper to designate zone @ as a pore membrane. My reeord for
this pore is not complete. Probably the pore membrane was first
formed, and the mesenchyme of the dermal membrane later
streamed inwards, forming zone b. The pore membrane soon
closes the pore completely. The distinction between zones > and
a is later Jost, since granular amoeboecytes and microscleres in-
vade zone a. Even after this has occurred, on focussing below
the surface, the wall of the pore canal may be seen.

Summary. In this sponge the pores do not always close in the
same way. (1) Often the whole pore canal closes up and disap-
pears by simple contraction. Pore 2 closesin this way. (2)
In other cases the pore canal shrinks as before, but actual closure

1911| EPITHELIOID MEMBRANES IN MONAXONID SPONGES 23

is brought about by a rapid extension of the epidermal layer
across the pore, forming a pore membrane (pore 1.) (3) In
still other cases the pore canal shrinks and closure is then ef-
fected through the formation of a pore membrane which is gradu-
ally reinforced by the dermal mesenchyme (pore 3).

COMPARISON OF THE METHODS OF PORE CLOSURE AS
OBSERVED IN STYLOTELLA, RENIERA AND LISSO-
DENDORYX

The various waysin which pores were observed to close in the
three species of sponges that were studied may be arranged in a
series expressing the successive physiological states that con-
ceivably may occur in the closure of a dermal pore in monaxonid
sponges generally. (1) A partial closure of the pore may be
brought about by the extension of the epidermis across the aper-
ure in the shape of one or more amoeboid strands of protoplasm
(figs. 12 earlier stages, and 16, for Reniera). Possibly this state
is sometimes preceded by the formation of fine pseudopodia at the
margin of the pore (fig. 17, for Reniera). Suchclosure is temporary.
The pore opens and then remains open or (2) is completely
closed by a continuous extension of the epidermis across it, form-
ing a pore membrane (fig. 12 later stages, for Reniera; figs 2 and
3 for Stylotella). (3) To bring about a more secure closure of
the pore, the pore membrane is reinforced by a centripetal ex-
tension of the dermal mesenchyme induced through contraction of
the epithelial lining of the pore canal. This reinforcement ex-
tends gradually from the margin across the whole pore (fig. 19
and pore 3, for Lissodendoryx). (4) Hitherto the lower part of
the pore canal, opening into the subdermal chamber, has re-
mained open. Contraction accompanied by centripetal stream-
ing of the dermal mesenchyme now affects this part of the canal
and almost obliterates it (fig. 13, for Reniera) or completely
obliterates it (pores 1 and 4, for Reniera).

The final result, complete closure and obliteration of the pore
canal, which may occur as the end of aseries of easily distin-
guished steps, is in other cases brought about simply through

24 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Soctnry | May

continued shrinking (pore 2, for Lissodendoryx). Or the pore
canal may shrink greatly, and then be closed in by the formation
of a pore membrane (fig. 18, for Lissodendoryx,) the complete
obliteration occurring later.

THE CANAL EPITHELIUM IN STYLOTELLA

Oscular lobes of sponges jn which the canals were well expand-
ed, were fixed in aleohol (absolute and 95° per cent,) sublimate,
and picro-sulphuric. After hardening pieces were excised which
included two or three of the main efferent canals, and these were
sectioned so as to cut the canals longitudinally. Celloidin was
used as an imbedding material, and the sections were cut. thick.
As the series of sections passes through a canal, the first and
last sections will of course cut the canal wall tangentially, and
these sections when mounted with the canalar face up give ex-
cellent surface views of the lining. For staining haemalum was
used ‘‘in toto,’? and the sections were stained in congo red. It
is only the main efferent canals that I have studied.

Pieces fixed in aleohol and picro-sulphuric yield essentially the
same results. A study of the details show further that the re-
sults are reliable. The main efferent canals are lined with the
epithelial membrane depicted in fig. 20. It may be seen that the
membrane consists of a single layer of flattened cells that are
separated by wide spaces across which abundant intercellular con-
nectives pass. The cells are in general elongated in a direction
transverse to the long axis of the canal, but polygonal cells also
oceur. The cytoplasm is granular and vacuolated, and quite with
out distinct boundaries. It passes insensibly into the intercellu-
lar connectives. The vacuoles vary in size and are irregularly
distributed. In many cells the granules are seattered more or
less uniformly through the cell, but quite commonly they are
distributed in dense and pretty straight tracts which often extend
along one margin. ‘he nuclei appear to be all alike. They uni-
formly show the membrane, nucleoplasm, and chromatin in the
shape of granules or short pieces (doubtless a reticulum exists).

The term ‘‘cell’?’? and the idea expressed by it are net alte-
gether appropriate to the nucleated areas present in this men.

1911) EPITHELIOID MEMBRANES IN MONAXONID SPONGES 25

brane. The areas are everywhere united by abundant intercellu-
lar connectives, and merge very gradually into these, the cyto-
plasm often thinning away into reticulated films which then
pass into the intercellular strands. Where the margin of the cell
area is densely granular, the distinction between cell and the con-
nective is sharper (a figure inevitably represents the contrast be-
tween cell body and connective as sharper than it exists in na-
ture). The nucleated areas are frequently directly confluent, so
that one and the same area may contain two nuclei (fig. 20). The
membrane is actually of course a syneytium, but it is one in
which the component cells permanently remain in a state of im-
perfect union. The regenerating epidermis passes through an es-
sentially similar stage (fig. 7). The canal lining thus remains in
a condition not so far removed from the mesenchyme as is the
epidermis. Like the epidermis it may be regenerated from the
mesenchyme, probably as Weltner (?07) maintains, largely from
the granular amoebocytes.

When the membrane is examined with a comparatively low
power, the nucleated cell areas appear to have distinct boundaries
and to be independent cells separated by wide spaces. Fixation
with sublimate may lead to the same erroneous conclusion. In
fig. 21 the canal epithelium is represented as it appears when
prepared from sublimate material. The cells are widely separated
and have good sharp boundaries. The cytoplasm is finely granu-
lar and fairly dense. Almost no intercellular connectives are pre-
sent. The absence of the connectives and the uniform dense
granular appearance of the cells when comparison is made with a
good alcoholic preparation such as that from which fig. 20 was
made, must be regarded as artefacts due to the sublimate treat-
ment.

There is good indication that the lining epithelial cells are
contractile and of themselves bring about the diminution in bore
of the canal. The canals certainly do diminish in bore, and
greatly at times. Round the canal there are no fibre-like mes-
enchyme cells arranged sphincter fashion. But the shape and
arrangement of the lining epithelial cells suggests plainly that

26 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ May

they are the closers of the canal. As I have said the cells lining
an expanded canal are in general elongated transversely to the
long axis of the canal. Very often the cell is so long and nar-
row that it is properly described as fibre-like (figs. 20 and 21).
Mingled with such one finds other cells that are not greatly
elongated and still others that are polygonal (fig. 21). I have
examined some canals in which contraction had very materially
diminished the size of the lumen. In these | found that a very
large number of cells were either only moderately elongated or
were polygonal. This is what one would expect to find if the
epithelial cells do by contraction shorten and so tend to close up
the canal.

In this connection it may be noted that in the case of con-
tracted canals, when seen in cross section, the surrounding mes-
enchyme (collenchyma) cells are found to be greatly elongated
and arranged in such fashion that they radiate outwards from the
canal wall. The appearances suggest that as the epithelial cells
are the closers of the canal, the surrounding collenchymal cells
act as openers.

COMPARISON

It is well known that in a large number of sponges the dermal
surface is covered and the canals lined with a single layer of cells
(pinacocytes of Sollas) forming an epithelium. It was F. KE.
Schulze who in 1875 first established this fact. After demon-
strating the presence of epithelia in Sycandra he showed in suc-
ceeding numbers of his classical “‘Untersuchungen’’ that the
same or very similar structural conditions are found in a great
variety of sponges. Schulze’s conclusions have been confirmed
and extended, for the same and other forms, by many observers.
A review of the literature shows, however, that both Schulze and
other observers have now and then, in this sponge or that, been
unable to demonstrate the presence of distinct cells in the epider-
mal membrane. Possibly in some of these forms the epidermis is
a continuous syncytium as in Stylotella and Reniera. With
regard to the canal lining a number of recorded facts suggest that
loose epithelioid membranes such as I have found in Stylotella
perhaps occur with some frequency in place of typical epithelia

1911| EPITHELIOID MEMBRANES IN MONAXONID SPONGES 27

composed of polygonal cells fitting together neatly by straight
edges. The covering layers of surfaces exposed to the water are
certainly less uniform in sponges than was supposed some years
ago to be the case. The hexactinellids in particular depart from
the common condition. In these sponges, as Ijima’s important
discoveries seem to show, the covering layers in question can not
be regarded as epithelia at all.

In the following sponges the occurrence of epithelia on the
surface of the body, or lining the canals, or in both situations, is
well established.

Calcarea. In Sycandra (Schulze ’75) the dermal and gastral
surfaces are covered with an epithelium composed of a single
layer of flat polygonal cells which fit together neatly. In Grantia
according to Dendy (’91 a) the epidermis is a simple flat epithe-
lium and theinhalent canal system is lined with a similar layer.
In Vosmaeropsis too, Dendy (’93) finds that the epidermis and
canalar lining are simple flat epithelia. In Clathrina, Minchin
(’00) finds the dermal surface covered with flat polygonal epithe-
lium cells, between which are intercalated the peculiar pore cells,
In Leucosolenia, Dendy (91 b) finds the dermal surface covered
with thin flat po'ygonal epithelium cells. The more recent in-
vestigations of Urban (’06) show that while the flat cell is the
common type, the epidermis also includes cells of other shapes,
some cylindrical, some flask-shaped, the later probably glandular.
Minchin ’08 confirms Urban’s account as to the variation in
shape of the epidermal! cells in this genus.

Carnosa. In Chondrosia and Chondrilla (Schulze ’77b) the
canals are lined with a simple flat epithelium. In Plakina
(Schulze ’80) the dermal surface and canals are covered with a
single layer of flat epithelium cells that are flagellated. In Plakor-
tis (Schulze, loc. cit.) the conditions are similar except that the
cells are probably not flagellated. In Corticium, Schulze (’81)
finds that the dermal surface is covered with flat epithelium cells.
The canals of this genus are lined in places, according to Len-
denfeld ((94, p. 74) with columnar epithelium.

Tetractinellida. In Craniella and some others of the ‘‘Chal-
lenger’’ tetractinellids Sollas was able to distinguish epithelial

28 JOURNAL OF THE MrrcHELL Sovrkery [ May

cells. He does not state whether the cells in these cases were
epidermal or canalar (’88, p. 36.) In Geodia and Ancorina Len-
denfeld finds [’94, p. 74| that the canals are lined in places with
massive cells.

Monaronida. Among the Clavulina Lendenfeld finds (?96) in
Tethya, Suberites, and Polymastia that the epidermis consists of
flat epithelium cells. In Vioa, Suberanthus, Astromimus, and
Papillella he finds the canals lined with epithelium cells which in
some cases are flat, in others high, the two varieties perhaps only
representing different physiological states of the same elements.
In Suberites, Thomson (’86) observed that the epidermis con-
sisted of a single layer of small, polygonal, and apparently un-
equal cells. Among the halichondrine monaxonida the Spongil-
lidae are perhaps the best known. In these sponges (Ephydatia)
Weltner (796, ’07) finds the epidermis and canal lining made up
of flat epithelium cells (pinacocytes). Delage and Hérouard
describe (99, p. 176) the same condition as obtaining in Spongilla.
According to Weltner the epidermal cells include the pores which
would therefore be intracellular.

Keratosa. In Aplysina (Schulze ’78 a) the dermal surface and
canals are covered with flat epithelium cells. In Spongelia
(Schulze ’78 b) the same condition occurs. In Euspongia and
Hireinia (Schulze ’79 a, b) the canals are lined with flat epithe-
lium. In Aplysilla (Schulze ’78 a, Lendenfeld ’89) the epidermis
and canalar lining are made up of flat cells. In Dendrilla and
Halme Lendenfeld (’89) finds that epidermis and canalar lining
are made up of flat epithelium cells that are flagellate. In Ianthella
(Lendenfeld ’89) the epidermis consists of flat cells.

Myxospongida. In Oscarella lobularis (Schulze ’77 a) the dermal
surface is covered wlth a single layer of fairly thick cells that are
flagellate, and the canals are lined with a similar layer. In
Halisarca Dujardini (Schulze ’77 a) the canals are lined with flat
simple epithelium.

In the Hevactinellida true epithelia appear not to be present
either on the surface or lining the canals. <A thin nucleated pro-
toplasmic layer, to be sure, has been known since F. E. Schulze’s
examination of the ‘‘Challenger’’ collections (787) to oceur on the

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1911| EPITHELIOID MEMBRANES IN MONAXONID SPONGES 29

dermal and canalar surfaces in many of these sponges. Schulze
regarded the layer as an epithelium, stating however, that he was
not able to detect the contours of the cells. Tjima (’01, ’04)
finds that such membranes do not consist of differentiated epithel-
ial cells distinct from the underlying trabecular tissue (essen-
tially a plexus-like syncytium of mesenchyme elements), but are
produced simply by the flattening out of the superficial trabecu-
lae. In some cases there is really no bounding membrane, since
the general syncytium preserves at the surface its character as a
reticulum. Schulze is inclined (’04, p. 202) to assent to [jima’s
position and remarks ‘‘Es ist also wohl anzunehmen dass hier’’
(in the hexactinellids) ‘‘die Differenzicrung der oberflaichlich lie-
genden Gewebszellen zu echten epithelialen Pinakocyten unter-
blieben ist.’? The permanent condition of a hexactinellid would
thus seem not to be far removed from that of a monactinellid
(Stylotella) which is in process of regenerating its epidermis.
Rarely it may happen that monactinellids linger permanently at
this low stage of histological development. Suberanthus as re-
corded by Lendenfield (96, p. 172) seems to be a case in point:

‘*‘Bei Suberanthus flavus ist die diusserste Gewebelage aus einer
dichten, vielschichtigen Lage von unregelmissigen, massigen,
multipolaren Zellen zusammengesetzed. Die fiussersten von diesen
sind auf der Aussenseite abgeflacht und bilden das diussere Epithel,
unterschieden sich aber sonst in keiner Hinsicht von den tiefer
liegenden.’’

In the following sponges the records leave it uncertain what is
the structure of the epidermis. In Chondrosia and Chondrilla
(Schulze ’77, pp. 18, 20, 23, 27) an epithelium does not occur on
the dermal surface, which is covered with a thin, finely fibrous
or homogenous cuticular layer that is possibly formed by the fus-
ion and metamorphosis of cells. In Euspongia (Schulze ’79 a, p.
626) it is uncertain whether the epidermis is composed of dis-
tinet cells. In Hircinia (Schulze 79 b, p. 16) the structure of
the epidermis is uncertain. Some observations would indicate
the presence of distinet cells, ovhers that no cell boundaries exist.
In Halisarca Dujardini (Schulze ’77 a, p. 38) the dermal surface
is covered with a peculiar layer, cuticular in appearance, probably

30 JOURNAL OF THE MIrtcHELL Socrery [May

formed by fusion of epithelial cells that undergo a gelatinizing
metamorphosis.

The case of Reniera. In Reniera aquaeductus Metschnikoff
(76) thought that he was able with silver nitrate to demonstrate
clearly cell contours in the epidermis. Keller a little later (778)
studied the histology of Reniera and found that the silver method
did give him a well marked system of dark lines forming poly-
gonal meshes. But in many meshes no nuclei were present, while
in others they lay in the extreme corner of the mesh, or again,
they often lay directly upon the lines. For these and other rea-
sons Keller believed that the meshes did not represent epithelial
cells but were to be looked on as artefacts. I agree with Keller in
this interpretation. Keller watched the closing of pores in living
preparations under the microscope, but does not mention any
structure such as the pore membranes of this paper He is per-
fectly right in discrediting the idea that the pores are closed by
the contraction of surrounding muscle-like cells, and is substan-
tially in the right in maintaining that the pores open and close
through the movements (contraction) of a superficial layer. As
to the nature of this layer Keller at that time followed Haeckel
and believed that the outer part of the sponge body (what is us-
ually called epidermis or ectoderm plus mesenchyme or meso-
derm) is composed of a soft living sareode (exoderm of Haeckel)
in which certain structures, spicules and some cells, are imbedded.
This conception became untenable with the publication of F. E.
Schulze’s ‘*Untersuchungen’’ (1875-81).

Natttre of pores. In the Calcarea specialized pore cells, poro-
cytes, are described, the pore being a perforation of such a cell
and therefore intracellular. The porocytes lie at the surface of the
simpler olynthus-like forms (Clathrina), but in the more com-
plex Heterocoela they are said to occupy a position in the walis
of the flagellated chambers. The apertures at the surface of the
Heterocoela, dermal pores, are usually thought of as intercellular
gaps, 7. €., as apertures each of which is bounded by numerous
cells of the epidermis (Minchin ’00, pp. 27, 48). In the Mon-
axonida and other Demospongiae we find as in the Heterocoela,
apertures at the surface of the body, dermal pores or ostia, and

1911| EPITH#LIOID MEMBRANES IN MONAXONID SPONGES 31

apertures in the walls of the flagellated chambers, chamber pores
or prosopyles. The accounts leave it uncertain as to whether the
latter always have the same character (Minchin, loc. cit.) The
assumption is usually made that the chamber pores are intercellu-
lar gaps. My own observations on this point are limited to the
the tetractinellid genus Poecillastra (Wilson, ’04, p. 107, pl. 15,
fig2). The material seemed to be well preserved and in sections
it could easily be seen that the collar cells were wide apart and
rested upon a bounding membrane which connected them, and
which itself showed no cell boundaries. The chamber pores ap-
peared as perforations in this membrane. If we look on the
membrane as formed of thin extensions from the bases of the col-
lar cells, the chamber pores here are equivalent to intercellular
gaps. On the other hand there are investigators who think the
chamber pores may be intracellular structures. Thus Evans (99,
p. 419, figs. 32, 33, 34) is inclined to believe from his observations
on Spongilla that true porocytes exist in the walls of the chambers
in this sponge.

In our ideas of the dermal pores too a certain vagueness prevails,
which can only be cleared up by further investigations. The dis-
tinction between the actual aperture and the pore canal should
it seems to me, be borne in mind, although where the dermal
membrane is excessively thin it may be that such distinction is in
practice impossible. Usually the dermal pores are thought of as
perforations of the dermal membrane, the two layers of epithe-
lium being continuous round the margin of the pore. Where
cell boundaries exist in the epidermis, such a pore, 7. e., the ac-
tual aperture, would have the nature of an intercellular gap and
would not differ in its fundamental structure from an osculum.
I conceive the pores in Stylotella and Reniera to be of this nature.
Were the epidermis in these sponges divided up into distinct cells,
Itake it that the pores (comp. figs. 1, 2, 3, 11) would each be
surrounded by several cells. The observations of several investi-
gators, however, have inclined them to believe that the dermal
pores are intracellular structures, perforations of cells that are com-
parable to the porocytes of Calcarea. In the very young, recently
metamorphosed Axinella, Maas (793, p. 350, pl. 21, fig. 37) finds

32 JouURNAL OF 'THE MITCHELL SoctETY [ May

that the surface views of all his preparations speak for this inter-
pretation. If this idea be true, the porocyte occupies the thick-
ness of the dermal membrane, extending from the outer surface
to the subdermal cavity. Delage in describing the recently met-
amorphosed Spongilla (92, p. 398, pl. 16), discusses whether the
pores be intercellular gaps or intracellular structures, and thinks
they are probably the latter. The relation of the porocyte, pro-
vided it exist, to the dermal membrane as a whole would here be
problematical, since according to Delage, when the pores appear
the mesenchyme and the inner epithelial layer of the dermal mem-
brane have not developed. Weltner (’07, p. 276) too is led by
his observations on Ephydatia to regard the dermal pores as in-
tracellular. He speaks of them as perforations of the pinacocytes
and mentions that the latter can change their shape. It is evi-
dent that a more extended, comparative study of the point is
needed. It is not impossible that beneath the appearances re-
corded by the above named authors will be found the structural
conditions described here for Styloteila and Reniera. In passing
it may be noted that both Delage and Maas figure the epidermis
as without cell boundaries.’ If cell boundaries really exist, it is
remarkable that they should not be visible in such thin mem-
branes at a magnification of 750, the magnification at which
Delage’s figures are drawn.

Canal epithelium. The loose epithelioid membrane which I
have found lining the canals of Stylotella cannot be an isolated
structure. Several facts recorded in the literature indicate that
it may possibly be a common type. From among these I may
mention the following: Sollas (’88, p. xxxv1) describes the epi-
thelium lining the cortical canals of Pachymatisma as “‘without
definite cell outlines, but the contained protoplasm, however, is
very admirably displayed, as a superficially extended film produced
into innumerable fine, sometimes branching threads.’’? Thethread-
like processes of adjacent cells seldom appear to unite, but termi-
nate abruptly.’’? The figure (pl. 34, fig. 22) given by Sollas in-
dicates plainly that the canal lining in Pachymatisma is similar to
that i in Stylotella. Dendy ( 93) finds that the cells of the canal

sDelage, loc. cit., pl. 16, fig. 9b, for Spongilla; pl. 21, fig. 5, for Aplysilla,
Maas, loc. cit., pl. 21, fig. 37, for Axinella.

1911] EPITHELIOID MEMBRANES IN MONAXONID SPONGES 33

epithelium in certain calcareous sponges, Grantessa, Sycon, Vos-
maeropsis are sometimes separated from one another by wide in-
tervals. He regards this appearance as due to contraction, the
cells having pulled away from one another. They may still re-
main connected, he says, in places by strands of protoplasm.
Some of Dendy’s figures (pl. 14, figs. 60, 62, 64) suggest that in
these sponges too the canal lining may be of the type found in
Stylotella.

NotrE—I am fortunately able to refer to a publication by Pro-
fessor G. H. Parker* that has appeared while the foregoing paper
has been passing through the press. Parker, in the course of an
interesting physiological study of Stylotella heliophila, one of the
forms on which my observations were made, touches incidentally
on the histology. Some of his conclusions differ from mine.

He thinks that the dermal epithelium is compo«ed of polygonal
cells. This conclusion rests on a study of sections which were ap-
parently vertical to the surface and made from osmic material.
The dermal layer is so thin that I do not believe it possible to learn
much of its structure from such preparations. Thesame criticism
applies to the conclusion that the dermal pores are surrounded by
elongated spindle-shaped cells, myocytes, which act as sphincters.
Surface preparations, such as those from which my figures were
made, show that the pores are not surrounded by cells of this kind.

Parker finds that the canals are lined with flat epithelium. In
addition an abundance of myocytes surround the canals (and
oscula) arranged like sphincters. ‘“In some places in my prepara-
tions they seem to lie directly on the exposed surfaces of the canals
and cavities that they bound as though they were merely elongated
epithelial cells’? (loc. cit., p. 7). It is clear from this quotation
that Parker has seen the same elongated epitheloid cells which I
have described as lining the efferent canals. My precise observa-
tions were limited to these canals, but I may say that I doubt if
both an epithelium and an outer sphincter-like layer of myocytes
bound any of the canals. Round the osculum the case must be
different. Parker here finds a well marked sphincter.

4+. H. Parker. The Reactions of Sponges, with a Consideration of the
Origin of the Nervous System. Journal Exp. Zool., Vol, 8, 1910,

o4 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Socrery [ May

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anprews, G. F. 1897. The living substance as snch: and as organism,
Jour. Morph., Vol. 12, No. 2, suppl.

Denny, A. 1891 a. Studies on comparative anatomy of sponges. 3. On
the anatomy of Grantia labyrinthica, etc. Quart. Journ, Mier.
Sci., Vol. 32.
1891 b. Monograph Victorian sponges. Part 1. Organization
and classification of the Calcarea homocoela, etc. Trans. Roy.
Soe. Victoria, Vol. 3.
1893. Studies on comparative anatomy of sponges. 5. Observa-
tions on the structure and classification of the Calcarea heterocoela,
ete. Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., Vol. 35.

DeELaGE, Y. 1892. Embryogénie des Eponges. Arch. de Zool. Exp., Sér.

2°) Viol 10:
DELAGE evr Herovarp. 1899. Traité de Zoologie Concre te. Spongiaires.
Paris.

Evans, R. 1899. The structure and metamorphosis of the larva of
Spongilla lacustris. Quart. Journ, Micr. Sci., Vol. 42.

Inmwa, I. 1901. Studies on the Hexactinellida. 1. (Euplectellidae.)
Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Tokyo.

1904. Idem. 4. (Rossellidae). Ibid.

KELLER, O. 1878. Ueber den Bau yon Reniera semitubulosa O.S. Zeitsch.
f. wiss. Zool., Bd. 30.

LENDENFELD, R. von. 1889. A monograph of the horny sponges. London.
1894. Die Tetractinelliden der Adria. Denkschr. d. math.-
naturwissensch. Classe d. kais. Akad. d. Wissensch., Bd. 61, Wien,
1896. Die Clavulina d. Adria. Abh. d. kaiserl. Leop.-Carol.
Deutsch. Akad. d. Naturforscher, Bd. 69, Halle.

Mincuin, E. A. 1900. Porifera. Treatise on zoology, ed. by E. Ray
Lankester. Part 2. London.

1908. Materials for a monograph of the Ascons. Quart. Journ.
Micr. Sci., Vol. 52.

Maas, O. 1893. Die Embryonal-Entwicklung u. Metamorphose d.
Cornacuspongien. Zool. Jahrb., Abth. f. Anat. u. Ontog., Bd. 7.

Merscunikorr, E. 1876. Beitrage zur Morphologie der Npongien. Zeitsch.
f. wiss. Zool., Bd. 27.

1879. Spongiologische Studien. Ibid, Bd. 32.

Rip_ey AND Denpy. 1887. Report on the Challenger monaxonida.

Scuutze, F. E. 1875. Ueber den Bau u. die Entwickelung von Sycandra
raphanus. Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., Bd. 25, Suppl.

Unters. uber den Bau u. die Entw. d. Spongien.

1877 a2. Die Gattung Halisarea. Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., Bd. 28.
1877 b 3. Die Familie der Chondrosidae. Ibid., Bd. 29.

1878 a 4. Die Familie der Aplysinidae. Ibid., Bd, 30,

1911] EPITHELIOID MEMBRANES IN MONAXONID SPONGES 35

1878 b 6. Die Gattung Spongelia. Ibid., Bd. 32.
1879 a7. Die Familie der Spongidae. Ibid., Bd. 32.
1879 b 8. Die Gattung Hircinia Nardo u. Oligoceras n. g. Ibid.,
Bd. 33.
1880 9. Die Plakiniden. Ihbid., Bd. 34.
1881 10. Corticium candelabrum. Ibid., Bd. 35.
1887. Report on the Challenger Hexactinellida.
1904. Wissensch. Ergebn. d. deutsch. Tiefsee-Exped. anf. d.
Dampter “‘Valdivia.’’ Bd. 4. Hexactinellida. Jena.

Sottas, W. J. 1888. Report on the Challenger Tetractinellida.

TuHomson, J. A. 1886. On the structure of Suberites domuncula, etc. Trans.
Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, Vol. 33.

Urpan, F. 1906. Kalifornische Kalkschwamme. Archiv. f. Naturg. Jahrg.
iZe, Ba, 2.

Weiner, W. 1886. Der Bau des Siisswasserschwammes. Blatter fir
Aquarien-und Terrarien-Freunde, Bd. 7.
1907. Spongilliden-Studien, 5. Zur Biologie von Ephydatia
fluviatilis und die Bedeutung der Amoebocyten ftir die Spongilli-
den. Archiv. f. Naturg., Jahrg. 73, Bd. 1.

Witsox, H. V. 1904. Reports of an exploration off the west coasts of Mex-
ico, etc. The sponges. Memoirs Mus. Comp. Zool. at Harvard
Coll., Vol. 30.

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES

1 Stylotella. Dermal membrane over subdermal cavity—from thick tan-
genital section. cc, cells lining subdermal cavity; ep.n., epidermal nuclei;
m.c., mesenchyme cells; p.c., wall of pore canal; p.m., pore membrane; s.c.w.
wall of subdermal cavity. (1200 Zeiss 2 mm., oc. 6).5

2 Stylotella. Dermal membrane perforated by pore canals—from thick
tangential section. Pores closed. References as before. >< 1200.

3 Stylotella. Dermal membrane perforated by pore canals—irom thick
tangential section. Pores partially closed. References as before. >< 1200.

4 Stylotella. Dermal membrane showing osmic-silver artefacts. From
thick tangential section. >< 1200.

5 Stylotella. An oscular lobe was cut transversely. Part of cut surface is
shown; canals have been closed in by newly formed membrane. ch.,
choanosome; col., collenchyma; c.w., wall of canal; c.m., newly formed
membrane closing in the canal. > 85.

6 Stylotella. Regenerating epidermis. Exposed surface twe hours after
cutting. x 1200.

7 Stylotella. Regenerating epidermis. Exposed surface five hours after
cutting. 1200.

8 Stylotella. Regenerating epidermis. From tangential section of new

36 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ May

dermal membrane that has closed in a canal. Five hours after cutting.
Body of figure is drawn at a focus below cut surface, and shows mesenchyme
cells, m.c.; p.c., Space in mesenchyme, probably representing pore canal.
At a different focus the epidermis, p.m., is drawn where it roofs in the space.
In such a position the epidermis presumably forms a (closed) pore
membrane. < 1200.

9 Stylotella. Regenerating epidermis... Exposed surface twelve hours after
cutting. Pore canals, p., now perforate the dermal membrane; small
perforations of the epidermis, per., occur. 1200.

10 Reniera. Successive stages in the closure of a pore. 600 (Zeiss D 4).

11 Reniera. Epidermis from an oscular tube. Walls of pore canals, p.c.,
shown at a lower focus. Pore canals partially or completely closed in by
pore membranes, p.m. > 1200. ‘

12 Reniera. Successive stages in the closure of a pore. >< 600.

13 Reniera. Dermal surface.—from an oscular tube. p.c., pore canal of
fig. 12, now closed in and contracted; a-d., cells in the mesenchyme.
<x 600.

14 Reniera. Successive stages in the closure of a pore. < 600.

15 Keniera. Successive stages in the closure of a pore. 600.

16 Reniera. Successive stages in the closure of a pore. > 600.

17 Reniera. Three pores showing pseudopodial activity, at margin (a, ¢),
or at margin of incomplete pore membrane (b). x 600.

18 Lissodendoryx. Late stage in the closure of a pore. p.c., wall of pore
canal; p.m., pore membrane. < 600.

19 Lissodendoryx. Stage in the closure of a pore. 600.

20 Stylotella. Epithelioid lining of main efferent canal. Alcohol fixation.
x 1200.

21 Stylotella. Epithelioid lining of mainefferent canal. Sublimate fixation.
< 600.

5All figures have beenfreduced in reproduction by one third.

- “
ied ay amt hy apa!

>
—~ ae oly
=

PLATE VI

JOSEPH HINSON MELLICHAMP

1829-1903.

DR. JOSEPH HINSON MELLICHAMP.

By W. C. Coxer.

Dr. Joseph LeConte in his charming autobiography refers to
the fact that while the civilization of the old South produced
many men of fine scholarship and great capacity they seemed
rarely to have any ambition for the notoriety that comes from
publication. Such aman was Langdon Chevis, to whom Dr.
LeConte refers, and such also was Joseph Hinson Mellichamp
of Bluffton, 8S. C.

The life that Dr. Mellichamp led was as simple and _ beautiful
as a child’s. Though I never saw him I know so well the type
to which he belonged—without ever a selfish thought or hope of
fame he opened his mind to the inexhaustible inspirations of
nature and transmuted them into a faith and love that warmed
the hearts of all who knew him. He was one of those who gave
the old South its real distinetion, a distinction that rested not so
much upon the material as upon the spiritual evidences of life,

Several little sketches have appeared that give the salient
facts and ‘‘superficial vestments’’ of his days. These are by Dr.
S.fC) Sargent of the Arnold Arboretum in his “‘Silva of North
America,’’ volume on Cupuliferae, page 144; by Mr. Yates
Snowden in the Charleston ‘‘News and Courier’? of July 20th,
1897; by Mr. W. H. Canby, a well known botanist and banker
of Wilmington, Delaware, in Torreya, Vol. 4. No. 1, Jan. 1904;
and by Mr. W. P. Gee in the Charleston ‘‘News and Courier’’.

The most important of these is the appreciation by Mr. Canby
who knew Dr. Mellichamp personally, and,is referred to by him
in one of the letters published herewith. I shall give this sketch
in full for the light it throws on the character of Dr. Mellichamp,
Mr. Canby says:

37

38 JOURNAL OF THE MITcHELL Socrery [May

“Dr. Mellichamp—an excellent botanist of South Carolina—
died on James Island in that State on the second of October last.

Joseph Hinson Mellichamp, the son of the Rev. Stiles and
Sarah Cromwell Mellichamp, was born in St. Luke’s Parish,
South Carolina, on the 9th of May 1829. His father was for
many years Preceptor of Beaufort College and afterwards was
pastor {rector} of St. Janes Church on James Island. Being a
lover of outdoor life and of natural objects, he gave his son a
taste for the same and especially for botany, which continued
throughout his life. In 1849 he graduated from South Carolina
College and in 1852 from the Medical College at Charleston. He
then spent some time in Europe, studying at the Hospitals of
Dublin and Paris. On his return he established himself as a phy-
sician at Bluffton, South Carolina, and he remained there the
most of his life—the exceptions being the time when he was
a surgeon in the army of the Confederate States and when,
during his last years, much of his time was spent with his
daughter and only child in New Orleans. It was during this
period that, to his great delight, he accomplished a visit to Cali-
fornia and its ‘big trees.’
1) Notwithstanding the diligence required to fulfil the responsi-
bilities of a large practice among the planters and their depend.
ents, he found time for much botanical research and collecting.
In the interesting floral region around him were many of the
rarer species described by Walter, Michaux, and Elliott. Speci-
mens of these were much prized by the botanical fraternity and,
through his correspondents, were largely and freely distributed
and are now valued samples in many of the best herbaria.
" His good judgment in making observations and clear. state-
ments of the results brought him the correspondence and esteem
of Doctors Gray, Engelmann, and other masters of the science.
For Dr. Engelmann he investigated the flowering and fruiting
of some species of Yucea, the peculiar oaks of his region, and
especially Pinus Elliottii, which he practically discovered and, in
the excellent notes he furnished, adequately described. Very
ucute observations on the insectivorous habits of Sarracenia vario-
laris were published in the Proceedings of the American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science, In this paper he recorded

1911| Dr. JosepH Hinson MELLICHAMP 39

his discovery of the lure by which insects are tempted to the
fatal pitcher of the leaf; of the fact that the secretion therein is
more or less an intoxicant; and the curious fact that the larva of
a certain insect was able to resist the secretion and to feed upon
the decaying mass. Dr. Sargent, in his \‘Silva of North America, \
acknowledged his services in the studies of the oaks and other
trees. Dr. Gray so esteemed his assistance that he named a
Mexican Asclepiad in his honor Mellichampia. Desirous of help-
ing others, he was one of those useful men who, diffident and re-
tiring, and not caring to advance their own fame, are always willing
to give to others the benefit of the knowledge they have acquired.
It is not too much to say that but for him, considerable of value
would have remained unknown of the flora of his district; grate-
ful acknowledgements of this have come from European as well
as American botanists.”

“\ Dr. Mellichamp was an ardent lover of nature, with a poetic
and artistic spirit, and his letters teem with fine descriptions of
the various objects which attracted him in his professional drives
about the country. Hewas wont, as the spring approached, to
speak of the exceeding beauty of the young tlowers of Pinus
Elliottii, as they expanded their cones over the trees, crowning
their robes of green with a haze of purple. His letters show the
keenest sense of tne loveliness and delicious warmth of a spring
in the pines with flowers opening everywhere, the fragrance of the
woods, of jessamine and of magnolias filling the air made vocal
with the songs of mocking-birds.

"But best of all, he wasa man to be loved for his qualities of heart
and mind. A magnetic and attractive man, his friends and
correspondents cannot forget his ready kindness and words of
cheer and will cherish his memory. He was beloved by the poor
people of his district who, in a touching way, mourned the loss
of their ‘‘old doctor’’ as his body was borne to the grave. As
might have been supposed he was intensely southern in his feel-
ings and in his love for his native State. He now rests in her
bosom, and the well-known lines, slightly altered, may well be
applied to him, ‘tittle he’ll reck if they let him sleep on in the
grave where a southern has laid him. “

40 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society [May

There are some omissions in this as in all other sketches of Dr.
Mellichamp’s life and in order to fill in some of these I have
sought further information from his relative and life-long friend,
Mr. W. G. Hinson, a prominent planter of James Island, South
Carolina. Letters from Mr. Hinson and avisit to his home have
enabled me to add somewhat to the published facts of Dr. Mel-
lichamp’s life. Ina letter of April 26, 1910, Mr. Hinson says that
when graduated from the Medical College of South Carolina Dr.
Mellichamp did not go at once to Europe but “‘was taken into
copartnership by Dr. Pope of Bluffton, S. C., who died shortly
after, leaving Dr. Mellichamp with a large, lucrative practice,
when he took a notion that his medical education was not com-
plete, and that he must spend a year at the hospitals in Europe.
His friends tried to dissuade him from such a course, being a
young man not well established the field would soon be oceupied
and he not able to regain what he had lost. The greatest difti-
eulty he had to face was want of means, (His father was
an Episcopal clergyman of very limited means, unable to
tender him any assistance) fortunately he had an old appre-
ciative friend who loaned him $500 which enabled him to
carry out his wish. Two years after his return to Bluffton
(which was a beautiful settlement on May River, surrounded by
wealthy and eultured planters) his practice was much larger
and more remunerative than his partner’s had ever been. After the
war he returned to his home, which had become almost a deserted
country and was so for many years. Many inducements were of-
fered him to go to a city, but his love of the forest and nature was
too strong. He had one daughter who married Mr. Woodward (son
of an Episcopal Clergyman) who is a dentist of note in New
Orleans; they have several children, grown up. When Dr. Mel-
lichamp’s health failed he went to his daughter’s to live, but re-
turned on a visit to his old home, was spending a few days with
me, had retired in the evening apparently well. I was aroused
in the next room by a call from him and found him breathing
with great difficulty. In fifteen minutes he had quietly passed
away.’

Dr, Mellichamp was the grandson of St. Lo Mellichamp who

1911| Dr. JosepH Hinson MeiiicHamp 41

“Died, on the 17th of August, 1827, at his residence, Independ-
ent Ridge, St. Paul’s Parish, inthe 70th year of his age—a sol-
dier of the revolution, and a man of integrity, unblemished
throughout life ?’ In his obituary of this soldier, from which the
above quotation is also taken, Hon. Henry Bailey, onetime At-
torney General of South Carolina,says:

‘In politics he was an undeviating Republican of the Jeffer-
sonian stamp, regarding the people as the only legitimate source
of power, and their representatives as servants, who are not at
liberty to make use of that service for their individual benefit.
Thus, when a member of the Legislature he refused a lucrative
office, the acceptance of which his friends were pressing upon
him, holding it to be a dangerous precedent that a representa-
tive should afford the slightest color for a suspicion of having
used the influence of his station for his private advancement.’’

St. Lo Mellichamp married a daughter of Captain Benjamin
Stiles who commanded the James Island Company during the
Revolutionary War. Another daughter of Capt. Stiles was the
grandmother of Mr. W. G. Hinson above mentioned. The Rev.
Stiles Mellichamp, son of St. Lo Mellichamp married Sarah Fow-
ler Cromwell, auyietow, and Dr. J. H Mellichamp was their son.
The following notice is copied from the old family bible:

‘Joseph Hinson Mellichamp, M. D., son of Rey. Stiles Melli-
champ and Sarah Fowler (Cromwell) his wife, born at Gillison-
ville, Beaufort District, South Carolina, 9th May, 1829; married
Sarah EK. Pope, daughter of James Pope, Esq., 26 November, 1858,
Bluffton, 8. C., and died at Stiles Point, James Island, S. C., Oct-
oher 2nd, 1903, at 7 a m., of heart disease.

‘Funeral services performed at (P. E.) Grace Church, Char-
leston, S. C., 3d October, 1903, by the Rev. William Way; and
buried at Saint Luke’s Church yard, Beaufort county, So. Carolina,
twelve miles from Bluffton, S.C., at 12 M., October 4th, 1908.

“After the Confederate war (1860-1865 A.D.) Bishop Howe,
of the Diocese of So. Carolina Protestant Episcopal Church,
sold the above Saint Luke’s Church, located on the Fording
Island road between New River and Okeetee River to the Metho-
dists and it is now known as ‘‘Bull’s Hill Church.”’

42 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ May

i

“The church is a quaint wooden structure on the edge of the
forest road where Dr. Mellichamp loved to roam in pursuit of his
favorite study of the trees and flowers.”’

Dr. Mellichamp’s contribution to a knowledge of southern bot-
any cannot be judged from his own publications. With the ex-
ception of occasional letters these seem to be confined to the fol-
lowing:

Ist. Insectivorous habits of Sarrecenia variolaris in Proceed-
ings of the American Association forthe Advancement of Science.

2nd. Notes from a South Carolina Naturalist I. Garden and
Forest, Jan. 2nd, 1889.

3rd. Notes from a South Carolina Naturalist II. Garden and
Forest, Jan. 9, 1889.

His principal contributions were in the form of collections, ob-
servations and notes that he was constantly sending to the prin-
cipal botanical scholars of the country. In his study of the Con-
iferae* Dr. Engelmann of St. Louis, one of the ablest botanists of
the times, says: °‘P. Elliottii was imperfectly known to Elliott
and was considered by him a form of P. Taeda. Later botanists
ignored it, till Dr. J. H. Mellichamp of Bluffton, S. C. redis-
covered it about ten years ago and directed my attention to it.
Without his diligent investigations; ample information and copi-
ous specimens, this paper could not have been written.”’

In 1893 Dr. Mellichamp found on a tree of Pinus Elliottii at
Bluffton some remarkable bisexual cones (androgynous cones)
and these appeared again in other years (see reference to this in
one of the following letters). These cones found their way to the
hands of Dr. H. Christ who published a technical description of
them in Le Bulletin de la Société Royale de Botanique de Belgique.
He there refers to Dr. Mellichamp as ‘‘our excellent friend,
Dr. Mellichamp, of Bluffton, S. C., known for his notable botani-
cal discoveries, and especially for his studies on the pines of his
country.’

The following observation was | written by Dr. Mellichamp in

*'The botanic a ue of ‘ne ie George nyalinenn?? , edited by Wm.
Trelease and Asa Gray, 1887.

1911| Dr. JoskpH Hinson MELLICHAMP 43

his copy* of Dr. George Engelmann’s ‘‘Revision of the Genus
Pinus.”’

“ During this season 1880 (the winter having been very mild)
Pinus Elliottii flowered from Ist to 10th of February;—P. Australis
and P. Taeda almost together about the first week in Marech—
the former a little in advance;—P. Glabra a little later,—and P.
Mitis and P. Serotina almost together from Ist. to 10th of Apri ,——
the former being a littlein advance.

1— 2— 3— 4—
P. Elliottii P. Australis and P, Taeda P. Glabra
1st-10th Feb. 1st-10th March. 10th-20th March.
— — iY

P. Mitis and P. Serotina
1st-10th April.

J. H. Mellichamp,
Bluffton, S. C.,
20 April, 1880.

In order to arrive at a clearer conception of Dr. Mellichamp’s
characteristics as a man and naturalist, | have examined a num-
ber of his letters that were kindly sent me by Mr. Hinson, who
says:

“T have sent you a number of letters with the package sent by
this mail, thinking they would give you a clearer understanding of
his nature than anything one could say. His being named after my
father would naturally cause an interest in him, but it only need-
ed contact with him to be won by his pure and lovely character.’

From these letters I have selected the following for publication
knowing that they will be more appreciated than any other part
of this contribution. The letters, unless otherwise stated, are ad-
dressed to Mr. W. G. Hinson, Stiles Point, James Island, 8. C.
Notes ee corrections are by ihe editor.

«Now in possession of Mr. NVIG: ingen:

44 JOURNAL OF THE MIrcHELL Socrery [ May

Bluffton, S. C.,
24 June, i892.
My dear William:

Thanks for the specimens of Tilia (Bass-wood,Linden) which
you sent me.

I take them both to be Tilia pubescens. It differs somewhat
from the tree in the mountains and northward—but not much.

Near New River I saw on the road a young tree 10-12 feet high
which is the only true poplar (I don’t mean the ‘Tulip tree’’—
but the “‘Cotton wood’’) which I have seen in the low country,
but which is a different species from your “‘Carolina Poplar’’
which is found higher up the country and at the north too, I be.
lieve.

This I enclose is therefore (so far as I know, and so stated by
Elliott) Populus Angulata* and is a Cotton wood. or poplar or as-
pen, and the only low-country poplar we have. The other poplar
(so called) is no cotton wood—or aspen but the ‘Tulip tree’’ or
‘‘White Poplar’’ and its scientific name is as you may know ‘‘ Lirio-
dendron Tulipifera.’’ Yours truly,

J. Ea

Bluffton, S. C., 29 March, 1895.
My dear William:

Robert tells me that you want to know where, or how you can
get a copy of Dr. Engelmann’s “‘Revision of the Genus Pinus’’
that contains my old friend ‘‘P. Elliottii?’—the one I rediscovered
and sent to the Doctor with my notes ete., from time to time.
Yes! a delightful correspondence [ had with that genial and kind-
ly man! Well! I don’t know where you can get a copy—un-
less indeed you were a Gould or a Vanderbilt and could bribe
some impecunious botanist to whom Dr. Engelmann may have
sent the book, for such things are not found in the book stores!
I am glad that I can help you and that too without hurting my-

closed) is the true ‘‘Carolina poplar’’ and is now properly known as Popu-
lus deltoides Marsh.

1911 Dr. JosePpH Hinson MELLICHAMP 45

son—Dr. George J. Engelmann, and Prof. Trelease of the Shaw’s
Gardens of St. Louis, and still more through the good Mr. Shaw
himself, (who published in one splendid volume all of Engel-
mann’s works), I have a copy which of course includes Dr. En-
gelmann’s P. Elliottti. So I have sent it on to you but with thes
agreement which you must promise immediately to carry out, viz:
that you will have it bound! It need not be bound expensively,
just in boards and tipped on the edges and back with calf or sheep.
It won’t cost much, but I owe that much to Dr. Engelmann’s
book. I was afraid I had lost my copy of the pamphlet in a vil-
lianous house-cleaning last year, but today I set to work and by
good luck found it. And so send on at once to you.

For certain reasons, chiefly to avoid the possibility of its get-
ting into some careless darkey’s hands, and its getting mashed up
or upset overboard in the Ashley when being carried over to
Stile’s Point, I have addressed tt—registered to Robert'at Chis-
olm’s Mill, and he is a careful man you know, and will put it in-
to your hands safely. What villianous paper these Jews have
sold me—the point of my pen actually goes through the paper.
Did the pines come all right?

Yours affectionately,
J. H. Mellichamp.

P.S. In 1893-Feb., [found a piece of P. Cubensis, P. Hlliotti,
(Engelmann) with most remarkable blooms—many of the aments
or catkins having the male or female flowers united, or bisexual or
androgynous which ever you please, and they again appeared in
1894 and 1895. I-send you a specimen pressed in the pamph-
let. It is not a very good specimen but will do to show.*

Bluffton, S. C., May—’95.
My Dear William:
I received a delightful letter last night from Robert,f in which
he told me with great sweetness and simplicity and abounding
sympathy, of the great success of the reunion which you inaug-

*The androgynous specimen still accompanies the letter,
+Robert Mellichamp, his brother,

46 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocreTy [ May

urated and carried out. Iam very glad of it, and I congratulate
you with heartiness.

What I chiefly write for now is to ask you, if it is convenient
for you to do so, to send to Dr. F. Peyre Porcher, Pinopolis, 8. C.
(Julian’s brother) the copy of Dr. Christ’s paper on the Andro-
gynous Catkined pine, which sometime ago I sent you. I sent a
small specimen to Dr. Porcher and he seemed interested in it and
asked him to send him any paper, etc., of mine, and this is
next kin to it. But do not send him my bungling translation,
send only the French. .Ask him to be sure and return it to you,
and don’t forget to give him your address. Also enclose him
stamp for the return of it, which I enclose. I who am so rarely
sick, had a pretty bad attack two days ago, bordering on inflama-
tion of the bowels—due I think to check of perspiration on the
bluff after being well heated by a walk. I am now well, but ex-
tremely weak.

Affectionately Yours,
J. Ee

Bluffton, 8. C., Feb. 28, 1896.
Rev. Jno. O. Wilson,
Greenville, S. C.
Dear Sir:

I have received the box containing the beautiful specimens of
the yellow-berried holly, and [ thank you very much for your
courtesy. Upon comparing your Greenville specimens with our
common holly on the sea coast, I can see no difference save in the
size, shape, and color of the berries which are, I think, almost
twice the size of ours here, besides being much rounder, and of a
bright yellow color. I think also the leaves which you send have
stronger and heavier spines than what we find on some trees, but
I have seen the spines equally as strong and numerous on different
trees with us. Undoubtedly your tree is the same as ours—TIlex
Opaca. I send you with this note two or three specimens from a
handsome tree growing near my house. You will observe that
some of the leaves are entirely free of spines, and that the berries

1911] Dr. Josep Hinson MELLICHAMP AT

are not as round as yours, and are very much smaller—still both
trees belong to Ilex Opaca.

The only holly with yellow berries, which I have seen, was Ilex
Myrtifolia, a so-called “‘variety’’? of the rare and beautiful Tex
Dahoon, which grows sparsely in swamps along the sea coast.
This ‘‘variety’’ I have never seen growing on salt water, but
higher up the country, so far up as Orangeburg county, around
pineland ponds. It has been seen with yellow berries about Wil-
mington, N. C , from which place the late Dr. Thomas F. Wood
sent me fine specimens: With thanks for your kindness, I am

Very respectfully yours,
J. H. Mellichamp.

This letter is copied from a newspaper clipping of date, March
19th, 1896, in possession of Mr. W. G. Hinson (probably from a
Greenville, 8S. C., paper). At the foot of the clipping Mr. Hinson
has written as follows:

“Dr. Mellichamp and myself found both growing in same
pond near Summerville in 1898.’’

Charleston, 8. C., August 14, 1897.
My dear William:

When I sent you P. card I forgot to send you also a copy of
“Garden and Forest’? of Aug. 4th, which I think you will find
interesting. I refer you to the articles marked. You can keep
them. Suppose you look for H. [Hicoria] pallida in your moun-
tain region, and be sure and save a good specimen of leaf and
fruit for me! You have the guide! Yours truly,

a A 3 eb) De

Chisolm’s Mill, Charleston, S. C., 2 Sept., [18977]
My dear William:

Robert hands me your post card so I reply at once. Am glad
to know that you looked for Mr. Ashe’s Hicoria pallida, and per-
haps have found it,—will be delighted to see it. Suppose you
received the copy of Garden and Forest-containing the plate and
etc, But you must try and bring also the nut in its present con-

48 JOURNAL OF THE MrrcHeLL Sovlety [ May

dition of growth, and anyone of last year’s growth also—if you
can!

Mr. Ashe has sent mea specimen of H. pallida nicely pressed
with nut also. Iam getting along and have not bothered to go
up to see the Dr. for I believe 3 weeks—-and have long since
thrown his “‘truck’’ to the dogs! R. [Robert Mellichamp] sends
regards. J. Hoos

Foot of Trade St., 16 Dec., 1897.

My dear William:

I thank you very much for the fine specimens of Holly whieh
you sent me, and I am curious to know where they came from.

It would not surprise me to find one of them (Ilex Dahoon) on
James Island—but the other two (Ilex Myrtifolia)t I have never
seen on salt water, though I have seen it near Hardeville both with
yellow berries and red. I refer to the small leaved varieties.

In the middle country they are found in, and around pine-land
ponds, and they become small trees with very white and smooth
bark. They are very beautiful. Let me know where they came
from,—if from James Island,—at what place,—and is the yellow
berried form abundant? The other tree with larger leaves and
pink berries is Ilex Dahoon, and becomes a small tree. It is the
arrow leaved form of Ilex Dahoon, Let me know. I sent these
specimens (they were so fine) to Dr. Wm. Trelease of the Mis-
sourl Botanical Garden at St. Louis, so if it be convenient for you
to get other specimens of Ilex Myrtifolia with yellow berries and
red also, ’'d be glad—but do not put yourself out or take any
special trouble. Yours truly,

J. H. Mellichamp.
P.S. This thing which I enclose (Illicium parviflorium)* IT found

up at Chicora Park much of it growing on the avenue just in the
rear of the old Turnbull brick house Jeading to Cooper river

+Mr. Peo writes me that he ee a got this from Summerville, S. C.
which is not on salt water.

*The leaves of Illicium are still with this letter,

1911] Dr. JosepH Hinson MELLICHAMP 49

Have you any of it? It is worthy of cultivation. Leaves when
brusied smell delightfully of sassafras, or heart snake root.*

Bas Ora Le
I saw one tree up there 35-40 feet high! Elliott says they
usually grow 6-10 feet high. Sisqo Mi

Charleston, S. C.,
Foot of Trade St.,
Friday, 14 Jan., ’98.
My dear William:

I have heard that you were back from your duck-hunting trip,
but whether you were over-laden with ducks or not—I did not
learn! But I hope you had a pleasant time—as pleasant as the
one | had in the same Waccamah region with my dear friend
Dan. Tuckert in the days long past—the days that are no more!
Please thank Mr. Ellis for sending me the medical books which I
leftat your house. I hate to leave, but [ must go, and expect to
start for Bluffton early on Monday morning. I shall remain there
a few days, then goon to Savannah, and after a day or so shall boom
on to New Orleans. What fate has in store for me there—God only
knows! Ihave heard from my friend, Mr. W. W. Ashe, Chapel
Hill, “*N. C. Geological Survey’? after he received my leaves of the
oak which you showed me on the Battery. He says I’m right,
that the ‘‘Darlington oak’’{ is our‘‘ Water Oak’’—Q. /aurifolia, but
if you do get specimens of the oak from your friend in D—n,
| Darlington, S. C.]$ [wish you’d send them on leaves, acorns
and all, and any “‘notes’’? you may have about the tree. Goodbye

my dear William if I don’t see you again.
Yours truly,
J. H. Mellichamp.

*This is Asarum arifolium Michx., often called ‘‘Heart Leaf.’’

+A wealthy rice planter of Georgetown, 8. C., and a class mate of Dr.
Mellichamp at the South Carolina College.

+More widely known as ‘‘Laurel Oak.’? The name ‘‘Darlington
Oak’’ comes from its use as a street tree in Darlington, 8S. C.

§6He refers here to Mr. W. D. Woods, of Darlington, 8. C., who has
heen interested for years in the trees of his section, He is still living,

50 JOURNAL OF THE MitrcHELL Soctety [ May

New Orleans, La.,
Cor. Fern and Elm Sts.,
18 Feb., ’98.
My dear William:

Tam sorry that I did not reply just as soon as I received your
letter with Mr. Ashe’s papers, but the fact is, I was not very well
and so put it off for a more convenient season!

And if a thing cannot be well, and properly, and faithfully
done, it seems to me it had better not be done at all, and so
stands the case about the queries as to the young live oak, and
the young magnolias! If I could only have received these
queries when I was last in Bluffton, I could have answered them
accurately bat now I cannot do so, and I do not wish to trust to
my memory of some years back when I not only planted the live
oak acorns, but examined the young roots after a year or two
and even reported the results to my dear friend Engelmann of St.
Louis who had been put on the track by Wim. St. J. Mazyek who
spent a pleasant morning with me at the mill, when I was last
in Charleston. The results are published in Dr. Engelmann’s
works I think. Should I ever get back to the low country in
S.C., I shall take the greatest pleasure in examining both the
live oak and the magnolia,—but now I’d prefer not to trust too
much to (perhaps) a treacherous memory! I am very sorry! I
enclose Mr. Ashe’s papers as perhaps you will need them. I
thank you very much for getting and sending the specimens of
the so called “Darlington oak’’ to Mr. Ashe.

When I was last in Bluffton I sent him quite a lot of speei-
mens of a curious oak which I had found on the roadside some
years before which seemed a hybrid between the ‘‘Water oak,’
our low country ‘‘ Quercus Caurifolia)’’?, and the “Q. Cinera’’,
and it had two sets of acorns. the one ‘‘annual,’’ the other “‘bien-
nial,’’ that is, the one set maturing in one year, like the “‘Live
oak,’’—the other in two seasons like the ““Water oak.’’ It was
very curious, and evidently all is not known yet as to the queer
ways of our oaks!

I like this old place very much, and everybody here is at this
present time talking and talking and talking about the ‘‘Mardi

1911| Dr. JoseEpH Hinson MELLICHAMP 5|

Gras’’ or whatever they call it. Iam sorry that such things do
not interest me now,—but thank God! the woods and fields and
trees and plants do interest me still.

Two of my grandchildren have been sick with grippal pneu-
monia and pleurisy, and Herbert from having been overdone by
a long bicycle ride away off to Lake Pontre-Chartrain (or however
these French people spell it) last Sunday.

Both thank Heaven are now well. Mary sends you much love,
—she can’t forget those very happy days you and yours gave
her long ago at Stile’s Landing! Well, I must have tired you
out my dear William. Yours truly,

Beale ea

I had one ‘bout’? the other day, waiting in the streets with Iva
for the street cars.—losing somewhat of speech and with a kind
ofa dull and stupid feeling in the head, and the effects I felt cer-
tainly for 2 days! Now [ feel quite well. When you see Elias
Rivers give him my love aud do William look after my dear
Robert* for me and let me know about him.

New Orleans, La.,
Cor. Fern and Elm Sts.
My dear William:

I received your letter enclosing one of Mr. Ashe’s last night and
reply at once about his pine. What he alludes to as the ‘‘Slash
Pine”’ is nothing but the same pine as the seedlings which I send
you from Bluffton—otherwise called the ““Cuban Pine’? (P. Cu-
bensis), or P. Eliottii, [P. Elliottii], or P. Heterophylla, which
Elliott first called it as « variety of the loblolly pine (P. Taeda)
but he never made a greater mistake in his life, as it is no ‘‘varie-
ty’? but a true and genuine species. It is the only pine on our
coast which has purple ‘‘catkins’’? or flowers except the long
leaved yellow pine (P. Australis) and it bears its leaves as I have
shown you by twos and threes. The scales or flakes of bark are
also thinner and longer usually than those of the long leaved pine
and of a kind of violet or bluish or pinkish color. You will hard-

*Robert Mellichamp, brother to Dr, Mellichamp.

~

52 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocleTy [ May.

ly find it in the Island. I only saw one tree there when I was a
boy in College, ané it grew on the bluff or edge of it, not far from
the Nartello tower. It was the first tree of the kind I ever saw,
and I was struck by the appearance of the cones—their beautiful
shape and color. I collected a good many of them for my dear
Sister, as she was (at the suggestion of Wm. M. Lawton) making
basket work of pine scales for the great exposition in London
at that time. She received her testimonials through Mr. Law-
ton. I never saw another of that species of pine on James Island
although I always kept my eyes open, but I did see the pollen
from similar trees wafted in immense clouds (earlier than that of
any other pine) when I was fishing or exploring in Great Creek or
about Black Island.* I once killed on Black Island an old eagle
and two grown young ones, and the nest was also on one of these
trees, (P. Elliottii). Pardon my dear William the garrulity of
age and my allusion to these delightful days, the happiest of my
life. Ishall never see the like again, and it is a delight to al-
lude to or think of them! I feel pretty sure that I saw the same
tree growing on Goat Island’’ in my trip with your father to
Bird Key, but I guess you won’t find it now on James Island. I
wrote to Mr. DuBois in Bluffton telling him that I’d be glad for
him to send specimens of the tree to Mr. Ashe and I’d_ send
stamps, but I do not know whether he had time or inclination.
I sent Mr. A. the same androgynous specimens which were just
commencing to bloom when I left Bluffton, and this is what he
alludes to in his letter to you. Had I known that Mr. Ashe want-
ed specimens of P. Elliottii when I was last in Bluffton, I would
have taken pleasure in getting them, or having them gotten by
somebody at the right time, if Mr. DuBois couldn’t get them—
but he may get them as I know him to be kind and obliging.

We are in the midst of all the row of Mardi Gras about which

*These observations on the occurrence of Pinus Flliottii at and near
Charleston (James Island lies right across the Bay from the Battery) are
very interesting. Mr. R. M. Harper who has carefuliy studied the distri-
bution of this pine says: ‘‘It perhaps does not grow within thirty miles of
Charleston.’’ (Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, Vol. 34, page 375,
1907).

1911| Dr. JosepH Hinson MeLLicHAmp 53

the French people go mad, but I did not go out last night with
John W. and his boys, as I find it impossible to feel any interest
(Alas! Alas!) insuch things. But I’ll try tonight unless I get too
‘‘stubbornt’’ as the Crackers say. If Mary was down stairs she
would, I know, send her love. John W. is in partnership with a
fine man and I may say he is doing well. I wrote you a few days
ago, returning Mr. Ashe’s letter and the Darlington man’s.
Yours very truly,
J. H. Mellichamp.

New Orleans, La.,
Cor. Fern and Elm Sts.,
April 18th, 1898.
My dear William:

I fear you are thinking me a troublesome customer, but I can’t
help it, as I greatly wish to oblige Prof. C. S. Sargent. A short
while ago Mr. Sargent wrote me, begging me to send him from
the sea-coast a good specimen of our common Red Cedur as there
were questions about it and the Bermuda Cedar which he was anx-
ious to settle. I immediately wrote my friend Mr. DuBois of
Bluffton, enclosing to him Mr. Sargent’s letter, and asking him to
send hima specimen with the berries (if possible) but I have since
heard from Mr. DuBois as to other matters, and as he did
not say a word as to my request (I sent stamps), I fear that my
letter miscarried in the mail. Now I’ve just heard again from
Professor Sargent and he thanks me for my attempt, but up to
that time the cedar has not arrived, so I conclude that Mr. Du-
Bois did not receive my letter. But Mr. Sargent wants speci-
mens from different places, so | write you, begging you to send him
a specimen or two with the berries, if possible, and on the parcel
putting on your name thus, ‘‘ Botanical specimens,’’? from Wm. G.
Hinson, James Island, S. C., then the address thus—Prof. C.
S. Sargent, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Mass.

That will keep the parcel from being torn to pieces by mail peo-
ple probably. Yours affectionately,

J. H. Mellichamp.

P.S, The Trillium I wanted was sent me by our old friend

54 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

from St. John’s, Mr. Porcher, so you need not think of it again.
IT sent Robert Mellichamp a specimen for you, so that you may
know it.

May sends her love to you. I am feeling very well, but I am
too dull and stupid—indeed that is now I fear a chronie contagion
with me!

‘Solemn before us, veiled the dark portal.’’

“Grave of all mortal’! J. He

New Orleans, La.,
Fern and Elm S8ts.,
26 May, 798.
My dear William:

I replied to your kind letter yesterday, but in reading it over
again this morning I find there were one or two queries which |
neglected to reply to. You ask if [ had seen Dr. Chas. Mohr’s
book on Forestry. Yes, I have it, sent me by Dr. M. a few years
ago. This was the edition of 796, but yours is IT suppose a later
and last edition.

The old Doctor paid me a visit in Bluffton some years ago, and
stayed a few days with us. We were all very much pleased with
him. Heis an accomplished man. He is a druggist in Mobile
and has sons and daughters too I think. His home is but a short
distance from this city, as you know, and he spent a day with us
the other day, dining with us, ete. I fear his health is not as good
as it was. He looks much older, and he is now an old man. I
may one of these days take a trip to Mobile, and perhaps go about
with him a little in the woods. He isa most pleasing man, and
has been all over the world.

That magnolia which you met within Mr. Middleton’s garden
may not really be the same as the “Umbrella tree’? in the C’h
woods. It may bethe “‘Magnolia Macrophylla’’, which is “‘found
in Tennessee and 10-12 miles to the S. East of Lineoln court
house, North Carolina.’’ Elliott. The leaves are very large
‘They have been found thirty-five inches long, and 9-12 inches
wide,’’ ete. I wish I could see it in its native haunts. The other

1911| Dr. JosePpH Hinson MELLICHAMP 55

day I was strolling (over a month ago), and I stumbled over a
water plant in “‘Audubon Park’’ which T had been looking for all
my life in our low country, but never could find. It was the
“Tawny Tris.’’ Irish Cuprea Pursh. I found a great many grow-
ing in a ditch in the park. I became as you may imagine very
much enthused. It was like meeting a very old friend. Elliott
says it ‘“grows in the marshes of the Altamahah’’ and cites Le-
Conte. I enclose a small specimen, and when the seeds are ma-
ture, I shall manage to get some and let you try them in some
bog near your house, if you have such a thing as a beg now, which
IT am afraid you haven’t!

And so the poor little Seabrook bey has gone or is going the way
of all flesh, except wise old fellows like W. G. H., but then its
doubtful, for you manage to take the cares of other people upon
you in addition to your own, so nothing is gained after all! I
shall in a few days send you a few acorns of the Texan Oak (Q.
Texana) which the people grow on their sidewalks, and you can
try and grow it at your place. Well, I believe that is all I have
to say Just now. Yours affectionately,

J. H. M. (Mellichamp.)

New Orleans, La.,
Fern and Elm Sts.
27 June, 1898.
My Dear William:

I received your letter some days ago, and thank you for the en-
closed specimen which you sent me. I examined that flower
some fifteen years or more ago and if I remember a-right could
not find it in any Southern Bot. work which I had, either Elli-
ott’s or Dr. Chapman’s and of these I have at present only Elli-
ott’s. IJ think it is no Southern plant, and don’t know why it
should have been planted by the Perronneau* people as I suppose
it was. I think I must have sent it to Dr. Gray, of Cambridge
but I have forgotten the name, but think it commenced with a C.

*An old Carolina family of James Island. Their place is now owned by
Mr, W. G, Hinson,

56 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Soormry | May

Today I sent it to Dr. Mohr* of Mobile, who lives near here, and
indeed came to see me the other day, spending the day with us,
and dining with us. Nice German gentlemen and accomplished
wants me to:go and see him. I’ll write you again when he gives
me the name.

Something I want you to do for me again. I want a specimen
of the Gonolobus Vine that bears yellow flowers aud grows on the
road near the gate to the right, where I got the pink Howered Eu-
patorum which you got for me on the /eft of the road. The vine
exudes milk when you pluck the flowers or leaves.

[Sketch] The petals are somewhat veined and the leaves are
generally large and heart-shaped [sketch] and rather hairy. The
specimen ought to have one or two clusters of pale-yellow (sometimes
brownish purple) flowers, 6-8 inches long and pressed, and keep
till dry, or flat. If troublesome don’t bother, and you can send
one little bit of the other, the pink Eupatorum, but if either of
these be gotten, you must carry with you a book, and on the road
press atonce before wilting occurs. The Gonolobus bears a round
capsule which is prickly. [sketch] The other kind has angled
capsules and very smooth and grows on the McLeod road and has
purple owers—dark purple [sketch] petals not veined and sharp
pointed. Yours very truly,

J. H. M. [Mellichamp. ]

New Orleans, La.,
Cor. Fern and Elm Sts.,
July 13, 1898.
My dear William:

I received your package of beautiful plants a mail or two after
your letter came, and I thank you very much. The plant Gonol-
obus hirsutus was just what I wanted, as I wished to compare
it with a vine which I found growing here occasionally in the gar-
dens, and even along the sidewalks.

*Dr. Chas. Mohr, a druggist and a botanist of distinction. His large work
on ‘‘The Plant Life of Alabama’’ is well known.

1911] Dr. Joseph Hrxson MELLICHAMP 57

If I ean find the right book which I pressed it in, I shall enclose
it in this letter. I was quite curious about it, especially as I had
left Dr. Chapman’s book at home and therefore could not satisty
myself about’ the name. However I sent a fragrant of it to my
good friend, old Dr. Chas. Mohr of Mobile (he came to see us the
other day and spent the day with us) and be gave me the name
stating that some weeks ago he had collected it himself in Central
Ala.

Tt is not found about our Sea-island country of South Carolina,
so it was quite a stranger to me. It has the yellow or straw col-
ored flowers of your Airsutus but not the shape of the petals, and
its leaves are exactly like the vine that grows along the McLeod
hedge, and the flowers are of the same shape only they are not
dark purple as they are but (as I said) yellow or straw color. Dr.
Mohr said it was gonolobus flavidulus. Here is an outline of the
petal of your hirsutus [sketch], here is one of flavidulus [sketch |
the one more rounded and blunt, the other more narrow, and
sharp pointed. The difference you may say, ‘‘twixt tweedledum
and tweedledee.’? But both your plant and mine of New Orleans
have their flowers straw colored.

Much ado I’m afraid you’ll say about nothing, and yet these
distinctions are absolutely necessary! As I told you, May and I
did not get to see your friends down town, for my own sickness
or indisposition with the downpour of rain prevented and we
could not go and now we see from the paper that they (at least
the ladies) had gone to Saluda, but we shall go again if there are
any left. We liked them all very much. It would give me an
immense amount of pleasure to come to your house and stay
while with you, but I don’t know if I can compass it. But |
must think it over.

[ heard yesterday—long letter—from Mr. Arthur Huger. He
is at Waynesville, N. C., at Pink E. Hyatt’s. That vine of yours
(:. hirsutus (hairy) that has the straw color or yellow flower—has
also sometimes flowers dark colored a kind of chocolate color, but dif-
ferent from the G. M. (Gonolobus Macrophyllus Michx.) at Me-
Leod’s fence. The fruit of the former as you must know, both

58 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SociETy [ May

the chocolate and yellow colored kind is round and prickly and
that of the other smooth and angled—not round.*
Yours affectionately,

J. H. M. | Mellichamp]

Fern and Elm Sts.,
New Orleans, La.,
26th Aug., 1898.
My dear William:

I received your card yesterday, and thank you
more than ever for your affectionate invitation. You are very
good to me, and I feel sure I would have a grand time with you
and Mr. Brewster in the woods and everywhere—but I cannot
come! Some other time perhaps if it suits you in the days to
come—I shall give myself that pleasure—but not now!

How curiously a man talks of the future—' “Days to come,’’ as
if I had the years of Methusaleh ahead of me, and had not
already almost hoed out my row of the three score years and ten!
Well! it’s no wonder we cling to the years we have known and
hope to have here,—for after all it is all we know, and we know
nothing ot the other world—the world to come! I hope it is a
good place and hope [ shall get there when I go—but it is doubt-
ful. I much prefer this present world with its uncertainties and
Deviltries—it being the only one I know!

But all of such talk is nonsense—let me talk of things more
pleasant. About two weeks ago John Woodward had a little
holiday of two weeks, and we agreed on taking ¢ a _ small ” ‘outing?’

*In Raeed to the two cone of ne inserted in the positon indi-
cated above there are two marginal sketches of the fruit of Gonolobus hirsu-
tus and G. Macrophyllus respectively.

Gonolobus flavidulus Chapm. is now generally considered only a variety
of G. hirsutus Michx. The earlier generic name of Vineetoxicum has been
adopted instead of Gonolobus for these species and they are now known as
Vincetoxicum hirsutum flayiduluam (Chapm.) Vail. and Vinecetoxiecum gon-
or Orpus Walt. Inclosed is a specimen of ‘““Gonolobus flavidulus’’ (leaf and
flowers).

1911| Dr. JosepH Hinson MELLICHAMP 59

with grandson Joe* at Covington, which is some 60 miles from
New Orleans. And so we went,—and a delightful time we had—
or rather I had, for it rained more or less the whole time we were
away. The hotel was full where we expected to be entertained,
so we went out into Pinelands, some three miles off, with a Ger-
man—or rather the son of a German, by name of Zeit Vogel, who
took care of us and did the best he could (which was not much)
for our comfort. His house was on the banks of a little stream
with an Indian name— Bougfalayah he called it, but I don’t know
what that means, but it sounded Indianlike and all right, so John
and Joe thought it would at least give them a few cat-fish, or a
perch (pache, the Savannah River niggers call it) or trout.
So they rigged up their lines and tried the most inviting looking
spots on the river—but not a bite did they have. John evidently
was in hopes of doing such fishing as that he used to do on the
“Rocks”? in May River—or about Dawfuskie, or Calebogie—but it
was no use—they did not have a bite, so they were just in the
humour to accept my invitation to other fields and ‘‘Pastures
New,’’ and that was into the beautiful Beech and Magn. lia woods
on the banks of the Bougfalayah, where it seemed likely I would
see some fine things. And so we did. I soon got John and Jve
into an enthusiastic humour, and in a little while I had them
showing me, or bringing me the finest or most wonderful speci-
mens of shrubs and plants. It is curious, isn’t it?—how you can
get people by a sort of contagious enthusiasm into exactly the
right mood which you would wish them to be in to help you!
The first thing I struck was JWicium parviflorum (or Floridanum)
of old Michaux who first found it I think on the St. John’s River
in Florida. I have searched our woods in Carolina in yain for it
—never could find it in the woods wild, and saw only one shrub on
the Okeetee which had been dug from poor Langdon Chevis’
garden on Savannah River when he was engineering at Batten
Wagner and losing his life too! Poor fellow! I liked him go
much, he seemed a very accomplished man when I met him at the
Hilton Head forts. I next met this shrub last year at ‘“‘Chicora’’
(Turnbull’s old place) where I saw one tree about 40 feet high,

*Joe Woodward, a grandson of Dr, Mellichamp.

60 _ JOURNAL OF THE MrrcHELL Socrety | May

but no tree there had either flower or fruit. But those on ‘the
Bougfalayah river were full of fruit, and Joe with a great air of
triumph brought me a single flower—growing out of all time and
season from a shrub. I guess this shrub is in the gardens. of
Sav. and Charleston, etc., but I never saw it wild and growing in
the woods but near Covington. I saw other things, but I weary
you, so stop, and I thank you very much, my dear William.
Yours affectionately,
J: H. iM:

P.S. If I can squeeze into this letter a specimen of the
Illicium Floridanum* with leaves and fruit I shall do so, and I’d
like you to keep on the lookout for it, but I don’t expect you to
find it. If Mr. Dill is up there will you please give my regards
to him.

New Orleans, La.,
2 April, 1900.

My dear Robert: Tf

I think I sent you a postal a day or two ago,
telling you that both Prof. Sargent and Mr. Canby had suddenly
burst in on us—asking me to pilot them through the Covington
swamps and show them the fine J/ictum which I had found there
a year or two ago.

I wish I could have had them to dinner, but my poor daughter
was badly fixed for it, being be-devilled by servants as she was
who might be termed of the Devil incarnate order. So after
my making an agreement to meet them next morning at the
Depot (Sunday) they bade me goodbye. I found Mr. Canby a
charming gentleman and brimful of humour—he and the Prof.
poking a great deal of fun at each other, to my great amusement.
For the last fifteen or twenty years they have been travelling more
or less together over the whole of the U. S., beth South and
North,—but Mr. Canby had never been in New Orleans before,

*Specimen enclosed of Ilicinm floridanum Ellis. Illictum parviflorum
Michx. is another species that is supposed to be confined to Florida and
Georgia.

+Robert Mellichamp, his brother,

1917) Dr. JoSepH Hinson MeELLIcHAMP 61

so everything was fresh and new to him The nextday they both
went to Miss. City (wherever that may be) but they did not. find
what they were after—(a haw, I think, Crateegus) and upon the
whole they didn’t seem to think Miss. City any very grand place
I suppose for lack of the: Haw!

So at four o’clock Sundayumorning I got up, fearing that I
might oversleep myself, and I guess it was perhaps a half or two
hours before Herbert* and I were off into the street cars bound down
town—but the two travellers were not to be seen. A great many
Franco-English Fishermen were crowding the platform with all
sorts of rods and reels and fanciful baskets—the former of which
I thought would have delighted the eye of Father.—( You remem-
ber what a taste he had in going up to ‘‘Stones”? on a fishing ex-
pedition.) But we saw no Mr. Sargent and no Mr. Canby with
their accoutrements to entrap their floral treasures and we had al-
most given them up, when almost at the last moment here they
were al! chip and cherry and not thinking they were too late—as
is the way with old travellers!

The cars were packed with all manner of people, all more or
less bent on fishing seemingly in the Pont Chartrain, Lake
County, »nd so packed were the cars that we could not get a seat
together,—but the whole scene was so new and strange and
pleasant with a kind of Frenchy air that I at least enjoyed it im-
mensely.

Pont Chartrain, on the edge of which we travelled for along dis-
tance through marshes and bogs, is I believe some 16 or 20 miles
wide and at last weseemed to cross it completely when eventually
we got over into a desolate pine-barren country and then we made
good speed. Prof.Sargent seemed very much interested when I told
him that I expected to meet with on our journey a good many
trees of the Sinooth Sprvvre (Pinus Glabra) which I promised to
point out to him. He seemed very much surprised, having ex-
pected to find them in a flat, clay like country, but I told him we
would come to cave-like drippings in the woods—unless I was
greatly mistaken where we see them. But on and on we went

*Herbert Woodward, a grandson_of Dr. Mellichamp.

62 JOURNAL OF THE MircHEeLL Socrery [ May

and no Pinus Glabra did we see and I commenced to feel a little
foolish, thinking that perhaps I had seen the trees in some other
region, maybe in Alabama or even inCarolina, but all of a suddent—
(as Crackers say) here was a low dip and here were the Pines first
discovered by the St. Tohn’s Berkley Englishman, Walter, who
settled and married in that Parish and who was buried on ‘‘The
banks of the Santee.’’ Dr. Peyre Porcher was his descendant and
ete d. heired his botanical tastes, and the Charlton family in Sav. Ga.,
are also his descendants. Walter married a Miss Peyre and I sup-
pose that it was from that family that Rush Gaillard’s brother,
Peyre Gaillard, took his name. Kinsfolk I know they were.
Mr. Sargent, I could see, was very much pleased to find
another station so far west asd for P. Glabra, as he maps
out the bounds and measures of the different species, and
evidently he was quite unprepared for this new place.

I told him I’d show him a good many along the Bugfallgah—or
whatever the name may be. That is the river which runs
through the swamp 3 miles from Covington, and I did show them to
him there and further on the R. R. SoI saved my bacon, as I may
say, for really I commenced to tremble in my shoes (as Squire
used to say) and feared that my Pinus Glabra was not ‘‘Come-
atibus in Swamps’’—but it was!

At last we reached Covington and I looked for the Dutchman
(Mr. Berg or Burg) to whom I had sent a postal to meet us with
his team, but no Mr. Berg was to be seen, so at last Mr. Canby
hired a buggy with a scary, balking horse—he and I taking
the back seat and Prof. Sargent and the driver in front and
away we went for the swamp three miles off.

A lovely and a most brilliant day and cold enough to make even
my heavy old overcoat comfortable and I commenced to feel even
still more happy than when I was travelling on Pont Chartrain and
almost as happy ason that never to be forgotten day which I spent
in the Church Woods with our dear Father in November—a year
or two before our war of ruin and disaster. Have I ever forgotten
the Beech trees and the sunlight in their green and_ yellowing
leaves or the towering pines of P. Glabrit or the long, deciduous,
banana like leaves of the beautiful Magnolia-~ the first which I

1911] Dr. JosepH Hinson MELLICHAMP 63

had ever seen—or Father’s enjoyment of the sceene—his enthusi-
asm, his lovableness? No, let my right hand forget its cunning
before I forget that day of all days—-or I forget that sweet day
which I spent with you—Xmas day, wasn’t it?—when we went
down May River together to Old Island and we saw many ofithe
wonders of the world there and eame back home brimful. No, I
won’t forget that day either—never. Well, such a day was yes-
terday with Prof. Sargent and Mr. Canby! They were as happy
as boys, and I not so far behind, and I won’t forget that day,
either. They were very courteous and good to me, and a grand
time did we have on the roadside, for at times we jumped out of
the buggy and we admired the splendid trees on the edge of the
Caves,——the early flowering shrubs, and all of a sudden here was
Ilicium Floridanum in full and bounteous bloom from top to bot-
tom. We never expected such a sight—the crimson flowers were
very beautiful to us and never had anv of us seen such a profusion
of flowers. Mr. Sargent was inclined to think that this shrub dif-
fered a great deal from the Floridanum and I would not be sur-
prised if he did not make even a new species of it. Such profusion
T never before saw, and the flowers in full and perfect bloom from
top to bottom, and almost everywhere—and strange to say, the
shrubs growing in whitish, sandy land, but still, near the waters
of the Caves. Never saw anything like it in my life before, or
such enthusiasm on the part of those Veterans, I may say.

Still, we were, I may say, just on the edge of the Swamp and
the perfect glories within had hardly been revealed to us. I had
promised to show Mr. Sargent a shrub like tree full 30 feet high
—measured at least it had been by John Woodward’s careful eye,
but that tree I could not find—greatly to my discomfiture!

I had given to Mr. Sargent John’s very good and accurate plot
of the swamp and his idea of the position of these one or two
largest trees, but although I found several or many which were 15
feet or perhaps 20 feet high, the 80 foot one I could not locate.
So we had to leave the swamp without finding it, yet I know it ts
there, and [ think John could find it if he too should come once
more into that beautiful region. Mr. Canby was always talking
about /unach, but I thought we could go on, so Mr. Sargent agreed

64. JoURNAL OF THE Mrrcse.y Socrery | May

with me to go on and on, for Iwas in that state of enthusement (such
a word?) that like Tennyson’s Brook, I felt as 1f I could go on
‘“forever,’’ and neither of my friends were at all far behind me!
but I must stop my too swiftly current and hilarious pen, is it?—
for the time flies as I’m writing an account of these delightful hours
spent yesterday and I must keep my engagement to meet Mr. Sar-
gent in an hour or so at the St. Charles Hotel to take lunch with
these ‘‘grands hommes,’’ as I must call them, and then I’m to
carry them to the City Park to show them some grand live oaks
and a hickory tree (C. Aquatica) of which I sent Prof. Sargent
some months ago, the finest he said as to fruit he had ever seen.

So time is flying and go I must and finish my letter another
time, so for the present goodbye, and I[’ll send you one or two of
the specimens of J/lictwm when I finish. J. Ee

Late in the afternoon and I’ve just returned from City Park,
where I spent a pleasant time, but not approaching the glorious
times of yesterday—such delights (from their novelty also) don’t
come to us every day—about 3 or 4 times in a whole life time!

Better so,—we will value them the more when they do come!
We are not apt to get a surfeit, that’s certain.

I showed Mr. Sargent the two grand oaks— Lowisiana oak and
the Mc Donough oak, but told him there was one at Caper’s Landing,
S. C., bigger still—but in my day even it had been mutilated
by hurricane and cyclonic storms. They gave mea grand lunch
of sheepshead and other fine things at Mr. Victor’s—a sort of
French Restaurant—where we were admirably served, also nice
Claret which I very much enjoyed, winding up with Café noir.

I could tell you more about the original trip and all the other
fine things we saw, and the fine things we did, but [’m a little bit
tired and I guess I have said enough for one time—only I must
allude to our balking horse d—1 that I almost feared he was going
to kill us, but we got off slick enough.

Love to Stiley. I dare say he got my love letters.

Affectionately,
J Ee

Puate I,

Francois André Michaux

JOURNAL

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society
VOL. XXVII JULY, 1911 No. 2

THE GARDEN OF ANDRE MICHAUX
By W. C. Coxer.

Among the earlier botanical explorers of America none pros-
ecuted his studies with more energy and enthusiasm, or met
with more courage and fortitude the hardships and dangers of
extensive travels in the wilderness than that restless and indom-
inable spirit, André Michaux, of France. The studies and
travels of this distinguished man are accessible to students
through the Journal of his travels, written in French, and
through his botanical works, but the extensive Southern garden
that was established by him, with the assistance of his son,
Francois André, who was then but a lad, cannot be definitely
located by referring to their works. So far as I know the only
account of the location, history and present condition of the
garden is contained in a letter by Judge Henry A. M. Smith, of
Charleston, to the Charleston News and Courier of August 23,
1905. This is, of course, not accessible to many, and as a result
there is very little known in regard to the garden by botanists
in general. To bring the facts within the reach of the student
is my excuse for this communication.

I shall first give a copy of Mr. Smith’s letter. He says:

“Tn the Sunday News of August 20 it was stated in your
Columbia correspondence that a letter of inquiry had been
received concerning the Bot. garden of André Michaux, near
Charleston.

“ The site of the garden is near the Ten Mile Station, on the
Southern Railway. It lies on the north side of the track,
about a half mile west of the station and some 400 or 500 yards
from the railway line, in full view of passing trains.

“André Michaux was sent out by the French Government
—the Royal Government — to investigate and introduce into
65 Printed June 26, 1911

66 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHEeLL SocrerTy. [July

France such trees and plants of North America as would be
acquisitions of value. In 1786 he purchased this tract of some
111 acres and there established his so-called garden.

“Tt was rather an entrepot or place where he planted the
seeds of promising trees, shrubs and plants, so as to have young
seedlings and fresh seeds in the best condition from time to
time to ship to France by the comparatively slow sailing ships
of the period. The garden was sold by order of the French
Republic in 1802. The deed of sale on behalf of the French
Republic was executed by André Michaux, the younger, the son
of the first, and himself an eminent botanist.

“The journal of the elder Michaux shows that he spent a
very considerable part of his stay in this country at this garden,
engaged in the cultivation and selection of the trees and plants
collected by him over the Eastern United States. The garden
was apparently kept up for some time after the sale, and was
for a period owned by the Agricultural Society.

‘Nothing now remains of the garden proper save the lines
of a few old drainage ditches and ponds long silted up. The
position of the old dwelling is marked by some broken bricks
and a grove of trees, oaks and magnolias, said to have been
planted by Michaux. When the writer first. visited the spot,
some fifteen years ago, there was a fine Salisburia or ginkgo
tree, but this has since disappeared.”

As the “Journal’’* of Michaux begins with his arrival in
Charleston in 1787, thus indicating an inconsistency of dates, I
wrote Judge Smith as follows:

‘“ T notice in your letter to the News and Courier of August
23rd, 1905, the statement that Michaux purchased the Garden
tract in 1786. In his introduction to the Journal of Michaux,
Dr. Sargent says that Michaux first visited Charleston in 1787,
and I notice that his Journal begins on his arrival in Charleston
April 19th, 1787. Had he been to Charleston before this, or
is 1786 in your article a typographical error ?

“J cannot find any mention of the Garden in the Journal

*Journal of André Michaux 1787-1796 with Introduction and Notes by C. S.
RAseeant: Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society Vol. 26, No. 126,

1911 | Tue GarpDEN oF AnprE Micuavux 67

before the page 22: does his reference here to securing land
for the king mean that this is a date of purchase (July 12th,
13, 14, 15, 1787) ? The deed will be the best evidence.”

To this Judge Smith gave the following reply:

“From the record it appears that the tract of 111 acres
near Charleston, afterwards known as the French Garden, was
conveyed by Lewis Besselieu to André Michaux by deed dated
3 November 1786, recorded in Book Y, No. 5, p. 1381. The
same tract was conveyed by Fr. André Michaux (Michaux fils)
to John J. Himely by deed dated 8 March 1802, recorded Bk.
G, No. 7, p. 102. There is also on record (Bk. F, No. 7, p.
333) an agreement between Fr. André Michaux and John J.
Himely dated 27 April 1802 setting out that this property had
been originally acquired for the French Government and that
the proper department of that government had authorized Fr.
André Michaux to make the sale but reserving to Michaux the
use of the property until 1 March 1803.”

It will be seen from this that there is still an unexplained
inconsistency between the Journal and the deed. Did Michaux
visit Charleston before 1787? Or did he buy the land through
other parties without having seen it? He came to America for
the first time in 1785, arriving in New York, and he is supposed
to have remained in the North until he sailed for Charleston in
1787. I know at present of no way of settling this point, but
other sources of information may yet appear.*

The old garden property has changed hands a number of
times recently, and is now owned by Mr. St. Julian Kestler,
ot Ten Mile Station.

Michaux remained in America for more than ten years,
and if he can be said to have had a home in America it was at
this garden, where he had a residence, and in his Journal he
makes frequent mention of the garden and of his work there.
It was from this point as a base that he made extensive travels
into the Alleghany Mountains, and into Kentucky, Georgia,
Florida, the Bahamas and other islands. On some of these
trips he was accompanied by his son, Francois André, who, on

y *In a recent letter Judge Smith suggests that the deed may have been ante-
ated.

68 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Socrery. [July

his first arrival in America in 1785, was a boy of but fifteen
years. The young Francois was also of great assistance to his
father in collecting and planting seeds, resetting and propagat-
ing plants, and other such exacting and laborious work of the
garden. This training was of great assistance to the younger
Michaux in his future career as botanical explorer and author.
There is no known portrait of the elder Michaux, but there is
a daguerreotype of Francois André, made in 1851, which we
reproduce as the frontispiece of this issue (Plate I).

In 1796 André Michaux returned to France and after
further travels died in Madagascar in November, 1802. The
younger Michaux, who had left America before his father, was
sent back in 1801 by the Minister of the Interior, of France,
with instructions to ship all available nursery stock from the
garden to France and then sell the place. Almost immediately
on his arrival in Charleston, in October, Michaux was attacked
by yellow fever, which disabled him for over a month. In his
“ Travels ”* he says:

“As soon as I recovered from my illness I left Charleston,
and went to reside in a small plantation about ten miles from
the town, where my father had formed a botanic garden. It
was there he collected and cultivated, with the greatest care,
the plants that he found in the long and painful travels that
his ardent love for science had urged him to make, almost every
year, in the different quarters of America. Ever animated
with a desire of serving the country he was in, he conceived
that the climate of South Carolina must be favorable to the
culture of several useful vegetables of ‘the old continent, and
made a memorial of them, which he read to the Agricultural
Society at Charleston. A few happy essays confirmed him in
his opinion, but his return to Europe did not permit him to
continue his former attempts. On my arrival at Carolina I
found in this garden a superb collection of trees and plants
that had survived almost a total neglect for nearly the space of
four years. I likewise found there a great number of trees be-

*Travels to the West of the Alleghany Mountains, in the States of Ohio, Ken-

tucky, and Tennesse, and back to Charleston by the Upper Carolinas. London,
1805.

1911] THE GarvDEeN oF AnpDré Micuaux 69

longing to the old continent, that my father had planted, some
of which were in the most flourishing state. I principally re-
marked two ginkgo bilobas, that had not been planted above
seven years, and which were then upward of thirty feet in
height; several sterculia platanifolia, which had yielded seed
upward of six years; in short, more than a hundred and fifty
mimosa illibrissin, the first plant of which came from Europe
about ten inches in diameter. I set several before my return
to France, this tree being at that time very much esteemed for
its magnificent flowers. The Agricultural Society at [sic] Caro-
lina are now in possession of this garden: they intend keeping
it in order, and cultivating the useful vegetables belonging to
the old continent, which, from the analogy of the climate, prom-
ise every success. I employed the remainder of the autumn in
making collections of seed, which I sent to Europe; and the
winter, in visiting the different parts of Low Carolina, and in
reconnoitering the places where, the year following, I might
make more abundant harvests, and procure the various sorts
that I had not been able to collect during the autumn.”

The “ginkgo bilobas” (Ginkgo biloba)* trees here mentioned
are undoubtedly the ones seen by Judge Smith on one of his first
visits, but they have now disappeared.

The Ginkgo is one of the most unique of living trees. The
leaves have the shape and texture of the leaflets of the maiden-
hair fern, and for this reason it is often called the ““Maidenhair
tree.” While the general effect of the Ginkgo is more like that
of the broad-leafed trees (Angiosperms), we know from botan-
ical evidence that it is even more primitive than the pines. It
is a native of China, but grows well in America and is often
planted for ornament.

The two other trees mentioned in the quotation above have
now become extensively cultivated in the Southern states. The
Sterculia or Varnish Tree is an exotic-looking species (native
of China), with very large leaves. It has the remarkable habit
of maturing its seeds on the exposed edges of the open carpels,
The “mimosa” (now known botaniecally as Albizzia Julibrissin)

*Or Salisburia adiantifolia, another name.

70 JOURNAL OF THE Mircuett Society. [July

is one of thc few hardy members of its group, and is the small
spreading tree with pretty pink flowers so often seen in Southern
lawns and parks. It is the only one of the three trees referred
to above that is still to be seen at the old garden.

In order to see the present condition of the garden I visited
Charleston early in June of last year (1910) and went out
to Ten Mile Station. On getting off the train the fine grove of
broad-leaved trees that marked the site of Michaux’s house was
in full view about one-half mile farther up the track, and about
400 yards north of it. The grove is bordered on the east by a
field, on the north by an even second growth forest of old-field
pine (Pinus Taeda), on the west by the narrow swamp of a
branch, and on the south by bushy cleared land through which
runs the branch. As I approached the place one of the first
things to attract my attention was a tree of the “mimosa” men-
tioned above. It was in full bloom and stood near the branch
about half way between the grove and the railroad. In the
field to the southeast of the grove is an immense old Magnolia
grandiflora which was almost certainly planted by Michaux
himself in what was then the nursery. A photograph was taken
of this tree, as shown in Plate II. It is unusually wide spread-
ing for a magnolia, and is one of the most impressive speci-
mens I have ever seen.

Approaching about one hundred yards nearer the edge of
the grove I took the photograph shown in Plate III. Magnolias
appear on each side and oaks in the center. Within the grove
the interwoven boughs cast a dense shade and all the trees are
densely hung with long gray “moss” (Tillandsia usnioides). A
picture was taken here under the trees and it shows well the
dense moss and the low hanging boughs of the live oaks (Plate
IV). Near the center of the grove, about 150 feet north of
where this photograph was taken, stood the old house, and its
position is still distinctly marked by several piles of broken
bricks. Immediately in front of the house are three very old
live oaks (Q. virens), one of which has recently been blown
down. The other two are apparently from the same root, and
are now on the decline.

1911] Tue Garpen oF Anpré Micuaux (a:

A few feet from the west side of the house stands a very fine
old specimen of the southern sugar maple (Acer floridanum),
which was undoubtedly planted here, as the tree does not grow
naturally in such situations around Charleston. So far as known
it does not approach nearer Charleston than the headwaters of
the Cooper River, thirty miles away (Elliott). About five
other good sized specimens of this species are grouped in the
grove to the southwest of the house, and a number of much
smaller ones are coming on as seedlings from the old trees.*

About sixty feet west of the house stand, close together, two
magnificent old cedars that certainly reach back to Michaux’s
time, if not earlier. Draped with “moss” and perfect in every
way, they are the most impressive specimens I have ever seen.
Other trees of the grove are a large number of fine magnolias,
live oaks, and water oaks (Quercus nigra L.), two very old red
birehes (Betula nigra), and a large number of smaller seed-
lings from them, a few post oaks (Quercus stellata), black oaks
(Quercus velutina), choke cherries (Prunus serotina), Caro-
lina laurel-cherries or ‘mock orange” (Prunus caroliniana),
white hickories (Hickoria alba), and sweet gums (Liquidambar
styraciflua). There was considerable undergrowth of dog-wood
(Cornus florida), holly (Ilex opaca), waxberry (Myrica ceri-
fera), possum-haw (Viburnum nudum), Jersey tea (Ceanothus
americanus), white-leaved blackberry (Rubus cuneifolius), dew-
berry (Rubus trivialis), red buckeye (Aesculus Pavia), and
bear grass (Yucca filamentosa). A rather extensive clump of
hazel nut (Corylus americana) was flourishing under the live
oaks. It was probably planted by Michaux. The vines, which
were quite abundant in the shrubbery, were four species of cat-
brier (Smilax glauca, S. bona-nox, 8. lanceolata, and S. rotundi-
folia), Summer grape (Vitis aestivalis), Virginia creeper (Am-
pelopsis quinquefolia), and poison ivy (Rhus Toxicodendron).
Near the two old cedars I was surprised to see two plants of
gladiolas, one in fine bloom. It is surprising that they should
have survived so long in utter neglect.

On the gentle sandy slope between the grove and the branch
was a fine carpet of ferns and flowers under some large

*This species is native as far up as Chapel Hill, N.C.

12 JOURNAL OF THE MircuHEeLtt Society. [July

trees of pines, oaks and gums. The ferns here were cinna-
mon fern (Osmunda cinnamomea), royal fern (Osmunda reg-
alis), bracken fern (Pteris aquilina), chain fern (Woodwardia
areolata), large chain fern (Woodwardia virginica), and
lady fern (Asplenium Felix-femina). In damper places
among the ferns were in bloom the pretty pink orchid
(Calapogon pulchellus) and the blue skull cap (Scutellaria in-
tegrifolia), and higher up among the bracken there were con-
spicuous purplish patches of Samson’s snakeroot (Psoralia pe-
dunculata) and the scattered white spikes of star grass (Aletris
farinosa). The white flowers of daisy fleabane (Erigeron ram-
osus) were abundant under the pines.

In the rich and more or less swampy soil along the branch
were Cypress (Taxodium distichum), black gum (Nyssa sylvat-
ica), Southern red maple (Acer carolinanum) ,* sweet gum (Lig-
uidamber styraciflua), old field pine (P. Taeda), long-leaf
pine (P. palustris), short-leaf pine (P. echinata), sweet bay
(Magnoha glauca), alder (Alnus rugosa), possum haw ( Vibur-
num nudum), pepper bush (Clethra alnifolia), candleberry
(Myrica cerifera), and swamp azalea (Azalea viscosa). Climb-
ing up the trees was the very attractive and interesting vine De-
cumaria barbata, belonging to the hydrangea family. It has
much the same habit as the English ivy, attaching itself to the
bark of the trees by adventitious roots and sending off horizon-
tal flowering branches at some distance from the ground. I have
tried to cultivate this vine in the arboretum of the University of
North Carolina at Chapel Hill, but have not sacceeded in get-
ting it to live for more than two or three years.

When we consider the number of times that Michaux’s gar-
den property has changed hands, it is surprising that the old
grove has remained so completely undisturbed. It is hardly
likely that this immunity has been due to sentiment, even though
the historic associations of the spot have not been forgotten en-
tirely, and unless acquired and protected by some interested
organization the grove may at any time be felled and the living
record of a great man lost forever.

Chapel Hill, N. C.

*Wrom my observation this form seems to intergrade imperceptibly into the
typical Acer rubrum.

Prats IT.

OLD MAGNOLIA

MICHAUX’S GARDEN

‘

PROCEEDINGS OF THE TENTH ANNUAL MEETING
OF THE NORTH CAROLINA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE.

Hep at THE AGRICULTURAL AND Mrecuanicat CoLuEcE,
Rateicu, N. C., Apri 28-29, 1911.

The Executive Committee met at 2:45 p. m., Friday, April
28, there being in attendance Pres. W. H. Pegram and Sec’y-
Treas. E. W. Gudger ex-officio, and F. L. Stevens. In addition,
C. S. Brimley and Franklin Sherman, Jr., were asked to act for
H. H. Brimley and H. V. Wilson, absent. The Sec’y-Treas. read
his report, which showed that in addition to the usual routine
work, the Constitution and By-Laws have been edited and
published with a list of the officers from date of organization
and the roster of members revised to Jan. 1, 1911. The mem-
bership for 1909 was 44; new members added in 1910, 46;
actual membership Jan. 1, 1911, 90. The following new mem-
bers were then elected:

Dr. W. T. Carstarphen, Prof. of Physiology Wake Forest
College.

Mr. W. T. Harding, 116 W. Jones St., Raleigh.

Prof. W. P. Jackson, Instr. in Science, High School,
Raleigh.

Dr. Wm. de B. MacNider, Prof. of Pharmacology, Univ. of
N. C., Chapel Hill.

Mr. W. C. Norton, Asst. in Botany, A. & M. Collge, W.
Raleigh.

Mr. G. W. Wilson, Asst. Plant Pathologist, A. & M. College,
W. Raleigh.

There was then laid before the Committee the offer of the
Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society with regard
to publishing the proceedings. Heretofore, when the Academy

73

74 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL SocrIETy. [July

numbered 40-50 members, the charge has been $50.00. Now
that the membership has doubled, the new offer is to publish
the proceedings and any papers presented at the annual meet-
ing, and furnish the Journal to each member of the Academy
(the number not to exceed 100) for $75.00 per year, to take
effect for the year 1910-11.

The Secy. offered a resolution that hereafter each member
when sending in his titles for the yearly meeting specify the
amount of time wished, and that this be printed in the pro-
gram. The following by-law was proposed by Franklin Sher-
man, Jr.:

BY-LAW 6,
The Secretary-Treasurer, during his term
of office, shall not be liakle for annual dues, and
his necessary expenses in attending the regular
meetings shall be defrayed from the Treasury of
the Academy.
All these matters were favorably recommended to the Acad-
emy.
The Treasurer’s report for 1910-11 showed:

RECEIPTS
Balance:trom last; audit. ©..5 v.00. Scityne ior ieee $167 29
Dues Paid sia .. s/c oid wists Ss ere cete melee men Nene 92 00
Interest on Savings Bank Deposit..............--- 4 93
T otal receiptsy arin sions eesier ice siete ait ei ee $264 22
Expenditunes™ cae penrie eer o -iechyien eee 80 64
Balance nce hee eae Bee Bate clea pictorial $183 58
Savings Bank balance ........----+++++-++-++0>- $133 29
Checking account .... 2.5.2 052++202 52 0eesseetees 50 29
otal. in Banko... /ojieeeiem sou: eee emer $183 58

ncolllected sdules. ac sco orca ease eee 29 00

Bstimiated TeEsSOUrCes ss sae ss elocie a etaieneie bel steer tener $212 58

1911 | ProcEeEpines oF THE N. C. Academy 15

EXPENDITURES

meet Sis iose eons haa sce se ee sole he wa’ 15°50

ieraceedings (Mitchell Journal) 2200.2 000. 0.0... 50 00

PRS NIE IS PIS SS Ne ee RS ie os we 8 00

Pementeraid Lxpreds non (tse shasta see See ce. 7 14
Moralexpendatinesaves +4 ue Se A RS Ts ent $ 80 64

OUTSTANDING DEBTS

Peeerec mints MONO IE, sO. sues css ners a sioe ences 4 $ 75 00

PRE erameniisr (CADOUL) <6 ost ss cc'tcie cc loc ewe ies 3 4s 8 00
eremraredn elit a. tases ey cic owe cea fon)s sete Sn4 6's, $ 83 00

At 3 p. m. Pres. Pegram called the Academy to order and
appointed the following committees:

Nominating —C. 8. Brimley, W. C. Coker and Julian
Blanchard.

Auditing — J. J. Wolfe, R. I. Smith and F. Sherman, Jr.

Resolutions — Collier Cobb, C. B. Markham and A. H.
Patterson.

Then followed the reading of papers in order as shown on
the following program, adjournment taking place at 5:45,
when twelve numbers had been called.

On reassembling at 8:30 p. m. the Academy was warmly
welcomed to the A. & M. College by Pres. D. H. Hill. After
making response to the address of welcome, Pres. Pegram de-
livered the Presidential Address on the subject, “ The Problem
of the Constitution of Matter.” Following him, Prof. John
F. Lanneau delivered a lecture on “Sirius, the Bright and
Morning Star.” After adjournment, the Committee on Sei-
ence Teaching in the Schools of North Carolina (W. C. Coker,
chairman) held a meeting.

At 9 a. m., Saturday, the Academy reconvened in annual
business meeting. The three recommendations of the Execu-
tive Committee were unanimously adopted. The Nominating
Committee reported as follows:

For officers for 1911-12 — Pres., Dr. H. V. Wilson, Prof.
of Zoology, Univ. of N. C., Chapel Hill; Vice-Pres., Prof. W.

76 JOURNAL OF THE Mitcuett Socrery. [July

A. Withers, Prof. of Chem., A. & M. College, W. Raleigh;
Secy-Treas., Dr. E. W. Gudger, Prof. of Biology and Geology,
State Normal College, Greensboro.

Executive Committee — Dr. J. J. Wolfe, Prof. of Biology,
Trinity College, Durham; Mr. F. Sherman, Jr., Entomologist,
Dept. of Agriculture, Raleigh; Prof. A. H. Patterson, Prof.
of Physics, Univ. of N. C., Chapel Hill.

The Committee on Resolutions reported as follows:

Resolved, That the North Carolina Academy of Science ex-
tend to President Hill and the Faculty of the N. C. College of
Agriculture and Mechanic Arts its appreciation of the hearty
welcome and hospitality extended to it.

That we express to the News and Observer and the Evening
Times our thanks for the publication of the program and for
the excellent reports of the proceedings of the Academy.

Prof. W. C. Coker, Chairman of the Committee on Science
Teaching, gave an outline report on Science teaching in the
State and discussed the situation. On motion the committee
was authorized to complete its report and publish it on the
authority of the Academy.*

At 10 a. m., by special invitation, Dr. R. A. Hall, of the
Univ. of N. C., read his report, ‘‘ The Chemical Researches of
Ehrlich Leading to ‘606’” before a joint meeting of the Acad-
emy and the N. C. Section of the American Chemical Society.
Next came the reading of the Chemistry papers on the program
of the Academy—these having been made a special order for
this hour—followed by the regular program. The reading of
papers having been concluded at 2 p. m., the Academy adjourned
to the dining hall of the College and was there entertained at
luncheon by the College and by the Raleigh members.

The following members were in attendance: Blanchard, J.;
Brimley, C. S.; Bruner, 8. C.; Chrisman, W. G.; Clapp,
S. C.; Cobb, Collier; Coker, W.. (C.; Edwards, Co 9W.;
Gudger, E. W.; Herty, C. H.; Hutt, W. N.; Hutt, Mrs.
W. N.; Ives; J. Di; dackson; W222; Kaleore see,
Lanneau, J. F.; ‘Lay, G. W.;-) Lockhart,” iL. Biggin

*This report will appear in full in the North Carolina High School Bulletin
for July, 1911.

1911} ProcEepines oF THE N. C. Acapremy ra

Nider, G. M.; Markham, C. B.; Metcalf, Z. P.; Metcalf,
Mrs. Z. P; Mills, J. E.; Newman, C. L.; Norton, W. C.; Pat-
ferson, A. H.; Pegram, W. H.; Pratt, J. H.; Shaw, S. B.;
Sherman, Franklin, Jr.; Shore, C. A.; Smith, R. I.; Stevens,
F, L.; Williams, L. F.; Wilson, G. W.; Wilson, H. V.; Wil-
son, R. N.; Withers, W. A.; Wolfe, J. J.

The total attendance was 40 out of a membership of 85.
There were 33 papers on the program, all of which were read
but two, and all when called for save two. In attendance, num-
ber of papers, range of discussion, and general interest, this ses-
sion exceeded any in the history of the Academy.

In addition to the presidential address (published in full in
this issue), and to the lecture on “Sirius,” the following papers
were presented : ,

Catching Hawk Moths on Flowers at Dusk, C. S. Brimley,
Raleigh.

| Published in full in this issue. |

Natural History Notes, E. W. Gudger, State Normal College,
Greensboro.

A. An Interesting Case of Symbiosis. (Specimens ex-
hibited. )

For six successive seasons, wood frogs, leopard frogs, toads,
and salamanders (species unknown, probably Amblystoma punc-
tatum), have been observed to lay their eggs in a small pool in
the college park. Each spring it has been noted that the eggs
of the salamanders only had a greenish color. Microscopic ex-
amination shows that this is due to great numbers of a very
small unicellular green alga found within the inner mass
of jelly. The green color grows more marked as the develop-
ment of the eggs takes place, due presumably to the larger
amount of CO: given off as the larvee become more active.
Since no algae have ever been found in the outer or general
mass of jelly, it seems possible that they may penetrate the
oviducts of the salamander and become enclosed in the inner
capsule of jelly as the eggs pass to the exterior.

78 JOURNAL OF THE MitTcHeLL Society. [July

B. Some Plant Abnormalities

A bifureated frond of the common Boston Fern was exhib-
ited. This was one of two growing on one plant in the writer’s
laboratory at the present time. Three years ago two others
were noticed on different plants.

A drawing was exhibited of a motile Haematococcus with
four flagella. This was found last fall in a lot of fresh material
from a cemetery urn.

Results of a Practical Attempt to Control Lettuce Sclerotiniose,

F. L. Stevens, A. & M. College, W. Raleigh.

Lettuce sclerotiniose has been the subject of investigation
for several years in the North Carolina Agricultural Experi-
ment Station. From the laboratory study it was concluded
that all structures except the sclerotium are short lived; there-
fore, that if the formation of new sclerotia could be prevented
diseased beds could eventually be restored to health. To test
this theory several experimental beds were very thoroughly
infected in April, 1908, by heavily inoculating a large number
of plants and allowing the sclerotia which were formed to re-
main in the beds. The following year 555 plants, or over 45
per cent., died of sclerotiniose. From this time on a course of
treatment designed to prevent the formation of sclerotia was
followed with the hope of lessening the disease. The following
year only seven plants, or one-half of one per cent., of the crop
died. A year later, that is, the present year, the results were
almost the same. This experiment seems to indicate that con-
trol of this disease can be obtained by the methods employed.

Some Points of Architectural Acoustics, Andrew H. Patterson,

University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.

An account of experiments made by the author and Mr.
A. L. Feild on the acoustics of Memorial Hall at the University
of North Carolina. The reverberation in this hall is very bad,
and the problem is complicated by bad echoes due to large flat
panels in the dome-shaped ceiling. Further experiments will
be undertaken in an attempt to find a complete solution of the
difficulty.

1911] PrRoceEepines oF THE N. C. Acaprmy Ue

Preliminary Report of the Regeneration of Nemerteans and
Amphitrite, Judson D. Ives, Wake Forest College, Wake
Forest.

Sections of Nemerteans were found to regenerate readily.
The anterior surfaces of the sections regenerated but a small
amount of new material compared to that formed by the poste-
rior surfaces. A small section, 1.2 em. long, regenerated 2.5
em. on its posterior surface in twenty-five days. Another sec-
tion, 0.8 cm. in length, regenerated 1.6 cm. in the same length
of time. A section 2.1 em. regenerated 1.5 em. in twenty-five
days. A section 8.3 em. long regenerated 0.6 cm. in twenty-nine
days. A worm with its posterior portion cut off, its head and
the remaining anterior portion measuring 10.2 cm., regenerated
1 cm. in twenty-nine days.

In Amphitrite the tentacles were found to regenerate read-
ily and rapidly. <A large per cent. of worms with the portion in
front of the branchiae removed, along with their tentacles, lived
for eleven to fourteen days when they were killed for preserva-
tion.

A worm with five branchiae cut off thereby leaving but one
branchia uninjured, lived for eleven days.

Worms with the portion in front of the second pair of bran-
chiae removed, thereby removing the tentacles and the first
pair of branchiae, lived for thirteen days, and were in good con-
dition when killed.

A very few worms which had their entire heads cut off back
of their branchiae lived for four days.

A large per cent. of worms which had about a third of their
posterior portion removed lived for fourteen or fifteen days,
and were in very good condition when they were killed.

A Dangerous Apple Disease, F. L. Stevens and Guy West Wil-
son, A. & M. College, West Raleigh.

This disease came to our notice in 1909, from Lincoln
County, where it appeared in 1908 on a single tree, and despite
the cutting out of all disease seen and spraying with lime-sul-
phur, it spread the next year to 13 trees. The same trouble

80 JOURNAL OF THE Mircuett Socrery. [July

appeared in Sampson County in 1909 with even more disas-
trous results. :

Whitish or pinkish pustules appear on the younger twigs
and about the crotches of the tree. These bear numerous spores
of the Fusarium or tubercularia type, but so far no ascigerous
form has been connected with them. The infection is in the
bark, the diseased areas shriveling and separating. The epider-
mis splits away exposing the browned surface beneath, or the
pustules merely break through the epidermis, especially near
the lenticels. Upon older twigs the bark cracks longitudinally,
exposing rows of pustules in the cracks. A pinkish mycelial
growth sometimes appears on the diseased twigs.

Condimental Feeds, Stock and Poultry Tonics and Conditioners,

G. M. MacNider, Department of Agriculture, Raleigh.

The legislature of 1909 passed an act requiring all manu-
facturers of condimental, patented, proprietary or trade-marked
stock or poultry tonics, regulators or conditioners to register
with the Commissioner of Agriculture each brand offered for
sale in the State and to pay an annual license fee of twenty
dollars for each brand.

This law covers such preparations as Pratt’s Conditioner,
Prussian Stock Tonic, Capitol Stock Remedy, International
Stock Food, Magic Poultry Tonic and many others.

During the year 1910 sixty-three brands were registered in
accordance with this law. Of this number forty were prepara-
tions claiming to be of medicinal value for stock, eighteen were
for poultry and five were preparations claiming to be of value
for stock and poultry.

Under the authority of this law the author has analyzed
chemically and microscopically sixty-four of these proprietary
remedies. The results of this work have recently been published
in a bulletin of the N. C. Department of Agriculture.

These preparations are usually composed, largely, of a base
material such as wheat bran, middlings, oil meal, cotton-seed
meal, corn meal, ete. To this are added a large variety of both
mineral and vegetable drugs. Some of the preparations contain
only two or three ingredients, while others contain twelve or

Piven Eel.

OLD GROVE

MICHAUX’S GARDEN

IN

P
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. owe wi ~
7 ¥
ind J
m ' F
- al ros?
;
\ a ra
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‘
pi
ant
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s a
i i
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i
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Ma

2917 | PRocEEDINGS oF THE N. C. Acapemy 81

fifteen drugs in addition to the base material. Salt, sulphur,
charcoal, fenugreek, Epsom salts, and ginger are the drugs most
frequently found. Thirty-four drugs were found in the prepa-
rations examined. The drugs which are used in any considera-
ble amount in the preparations are of practically no value in
veterinary medicine, while the drugs which are of value are
present in such small amount that they can have no effect.

A number of experiment stations, both in this country and
abroad, have conducted feeding experiments, with different
classes of animals and poultry, to determine the actual value
of these preparations. In no instance has the use of proprietary
remedies proved to be of value for either stock or poultry. As
before stated, the drugs are present in such small quantity that
they are useless in the treatment of disease.

It is safe to conclude that this class of preparations are high
priced fakes which should be carefully avoided by every one
interested in either stock or poultry.

The Turkey Buzzard Must Go, George W. Lay, St. Mary’s
School, Raleigh.
| Published in full in this issue. |

The Library of Congress as an Aid to Scientific Research, E. W.

Gudger, State Normal College, Greensboro.

The Library of Congress, with its vast aggregations of books
and journals, including the priceless Smithsonian collection,
is the greatest aid in America to the historical side of scientific
research. Through the system of inter-library loans, nearly
any and all of this enormous mass of literature is available to
the scientific researcher, provided that his college library bear
the cost of transportation. The writer has during the past five
years carried on three separate extensive historical researches
in ichthyological literature which would have been impossible
without access (at a distance) to this great library. It is a
pleasure to record the prompt and efficient service with which
every one of the many requests for books has been met, and to
call the attention of scientific men to this great adjunct to thetr
work.

82 JouRNAL oF THE Mircueit Sociery. [July

Occurrence of the Yellow Fever Mosquito at Raleigh, C. S.
Brimley, Raleigh.

Several years ago I noticed that occasionally mosquitoes
would bite in the afternoon, long before sundown, and caught
one of them, which on examination I concluded to be the Yellow-
fever Mosquito (Stegomyia calopus), but did not feel absolutely
certain.

Last year however during August and September, I noticed
a good many mosquitoes to be active and biting in the house
during all parts of the day, even at noon. I took occasion to
catch quite a number of them, and with the help of Mr. Z. P.
Metealf of the N. C. Dept. of Agriculture succeeded in con-
clusively identifying them as the Stegomyia calopus.

These mosquitoes were active during the greater part of the
day, except possibly the early morning, at which time I do not
remember noticing any, and would come around one even on
the hottest days at noon. Their hum seemed quite distinctive,
being to my mind more nervous and quicker than that of the
commoner species, giving one more the impression that the in-
sect had somewhat lost its temper. In appearance they are
rather small mosquitoes with the legs conspicuously banded
with several bands of white, there is also a silvery lyre shaped
mark on the upper part of the thorax, this latter however is
easily rubbed off in capturing the insect, which is a pity as it
is the most distinctive color mark of the species.

I did not succeed in finding out where the Stegomyia bred,
although I tried to find some place where the larvae might pos-
sibly be found.

Mosquitoes caught after dark during the same period were
usually, and if I remember correctly always, other species.

The species has not been noted by the few other entomolo-
gists, who live in other portions of Raleigh.

Proposed Reform in Our Calendar, Andrew H. Patterson, Uni-
versity of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.
A discussion of the various methods proposed in recent
years for the reform in our present calendar.

1911] Proceepines oF THE N. C. Acapremy 83.

Conjugating Yeasts, W. C. Coker, University of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill.

In the course of experiments by an advanced class in the
fall of 1910 the rare and peculiar wild yeast, Schizosaccharo-
myces octospora Beyerinck was found. It appeared in test
tubes that were filled with distilled water in which were a num-
ber of unbroken Delaware grapes that were bought in the local
market. A day or two after the tubes were prepared a slow
fermentation set up, and later a precipitate appeared. On ex-
amination of this precipitate after three weeks it was found to
contain the Schizosaccharomyces in process of conjugation. A
later experiment made with Tokay grapes gave a similar
result. Cultures were continued and the life history studied
in all stages, confirming in general the observations of Guillier-
mond. Four species of Schizosaccharomyces are known, all sup-
posed to be tropical or sub-tropical, and S. octospora has been
known heretofore only from Greece.

Some Interesting Water Molds, W. C. Coker, University of
North Carolina, Chapel Hill.

The occurrence in Chapel Hill of Thraustotheca clavata
(DeBary) Humphrey was reported. It seems to have been
found previously only at Strassburg, Germany. In this singu-
lar mold the sporangial wall dissolves away almost completely,
suggesting the method of spore liberation in Rhizopus, and
the encysted spores are allowed to fall apart in all directions.
The spores escape from their cysts in the laterally ciliated
form, showing that the first swimming stage is suppressed.

There also occurs in Chapel Hill a species of Dictyuchus
in which the entire sporangium breaks away from the hypha as
soon as the spores become distinct. After some time the spores
escape singly through individual tubes as is normal in the
genus.

Other points reported were the appearance of a variety of
Achlya americana with hypogynus tubes, the occurrence in
Chapel Hill of Achlya racemosa Hildeb, and the fact that Sap-
rolegma diclina Humphrey is at least not always dioecious.

84 JOURNAL OF THE MircHeiyt Socrery. [July

Rhizoctonia of Buckwheat, F. L. Stevens and G. W. Wilson,
A. & M. College, West Raleigh.

Mention was made of a serious outbreak of rhizoctoniose on
buckwheat in the western part of North Carolina.

The Finned-Tailed Larva of the Butterfly Ray, Pteroplatea
Maclura, E. W. Gudger, State Normal College, Greensboro.

The adult ray has a very short tail, in length about equal to
one-third of the body, with very faint traces of dorsal and ven-
tral finfolds. A photograph was exhibited of three young at-
tached to flattened yolks, showing each embryo with a profusion
of long external gills and a tail three-fourths as long as the
body. All three larvae have the hinder halves of their tails
distinctly finned above and belew, thus forming broad paddle-
like organs. The significance of this in the phylogenetic history
of this ray is very great.

More than half the material is at hand for the embryology
of the fish, and an effort will be made to collect the remaining
stages this season.

The Present Status of the Relativity Principle, C. W. Edwards,

Trinity College, Durham.

The Principle of Relativity as developed by Einstein is
expressed in the terms of two postulates—one introducing pri-
marily the idea of the relativity of motion and the other de-
pending rather more upon the relativity of time. The first
postulate has been accepted since the time of Newton and may
be formulated as follows: Absolutely uniform translatory mo-
tion can neither be measured nor detected. Another statement
is that any observed motion, when referred to a definite system
of coordinates, is dependent on the velocity of the origin of co-
ordinates.

The second postulate states that the velocity of light is in-
dependent both of the observer and of the source. This is a pure
assumption so far and is not in entire harmony with the first
postulate. In fact the experiments of Michelson and Morley,
as well as those of Trouton and Noble, seem best explained by

1911] PRocEEDINGS OF THE N. C. Acapremy 85

the opposite assumption that the velocity of light is not inde-
pendent of its source. These experiments may also be explained
on the basis of the assumption of Lorentz. The electro-magnetic
theory adapts itself wonderfully to the second postulate while
the electromagnetic emmission theory of J. J. Thomson adapts
itself to the opposite hypothesis. So long as we confine our-
selves to a consideration of uniform motion, the integrity of
our present system of mechanics is maintained. There is noth-
ing inconsistent in the ideas of kinetic length (Lorentz), and
kinetic mass (Kaufmann and Bucherer).

The battle is at present being waged around the second
postulate. Either the acceptance of a stationary ether, or of a
moving ether, or the entire denial of the existence of an ether
will be the outcome.

The Whistling Arc in the Study of Auditorium Acoustics, C. W.
Edwards, Trinity College, Durham.

Employing the well known device of using a sound emitting
light for a source of sound waves, a whistling are was used
for investigating confusion and distorsion in an auditorium.
The very large variety of sharp clear notes that the arc could be
made to emit by varying the inductance made it especially
useful in the study of the less practical problem of distorsion.
Small mirrors were used, following the method of F. R. Wat-
son of the Univ. of IIl., to trace the path of the sound waves
after reflection from various surfaces.

Survivals Along the Sea Islands From Hatteras to Key West,
Collier Cobb, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.

The Peat Deposits of North Carolina, Joseph H. Pratt, Chapel
Hill.

Isoetes in North Carolina, W. C. Norton, A. & M. College,
West Raleigh.

The Composition of Melted Kauri Copal, as Used in Varnish
Making, Charles H. Herty and C. 8. Venable, University of
North Carolina, Chapel Hill.

86 JOURNAL OF THE MitTcHELL Sociery. [July

A Bacteriological Soil Survey of North Carolina, F. L. Stevens
and W. A. Withers, A. & M. College. Presented by W. A.
Withers.

Results of Some Preliminary Studies in Wing Vein Homologies,
Homoptera Cicadina (Lantern), Z. P. Metealf, Department
of Agriculture, Raleigh.

Regressive Differentiation in Hydroids and Sponges, H. V. Wil-
son, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.

A Striking Class-Room Experiment After Otto Von Guericke
(by invitation), J. M. Pickel, Department of Agriculture,
Raleigh.

Recent Changes of Level from Cape Hatteras to Cape Sable
(Lantern), Collier Cobb, University of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill.

How to Discover the Solution of a Problem, John F. Lanneau,
Wake Forest College, Wake Forest.

Mineralogical Notes on Rutile, Prophyllite, Tale and Graphite,
J. H. Pratt, Chapel Hill.

Some Interesting Variations in the Flowers of a Local Vinca,
W. C. Norton, A. & M. College, West Raleigh.

Road Surfacing Materials, Joseph H. Pratt, Chapel Hill.

Some Seedlings of the Scuppernong Grape (by invitation), F.
C. Reimer, Department of Agriculture, Raleigh.

E. W. GUDGER, Secretary.

THE PROBLEM OF THE CONSTITUTION OF
MATTER.*

By W. H. Preeram,

What is matter? Is the world made of one substance, or of
many substances? Such questions have puzzled the minds of
men from the earliest times, and the quest for knowledge of
the ultimate has been a fundamental characteristic of all sys-
tems of philosophy and science. With Parmenides matter is
simply not being as opposed to being. Plato attributed to mat-
ter something more than mere negative existence. With him it
is the correlate of idea. Aristotle regarded it as pure poten-
tiality and utterly devoid of determination. Bishop Berkeley
denied the existence of matter altogether, as did Lotze of our
day. As opposed to the idea of the absolute continuity of mat-
ter as proposed by Anaxagoras, Democritus advanced the theory
of the atom, that has been held in some form to the present
time. The Democritan atom had many sizes, shapes and aggre-
gations, which differences constituted the differences of material
objects. The famous vortex rings of Helmholtz were imagined
by Lord Kelvin to be the true form of the atom—the vortices
being set up in the ether. Boscovitch held rather vaguely that
the atom is merely a center of force. All views of this type were
unprofitable and incapable of meeting the demands of experi-
mental science.

The modern scientific idea as to the structure of matter had
its origin in Dalton’s Atomic Theory. His conception that the
chemical elements are divisible into atoms is well crystallzed
in the mind of every student of science. But what scientific
evidence have we of the existence of atoms and molecules as
real and definite divisions of matter? The evidence is both
inferential and direct. The whole of chemistry, most of phys-
ics, and a large portion of the natural sciences may be regarded
as constituting a body of inferential evidence in support of the
Atomic Theory.

*Presidential Address before the North Carolina Academy of Science, April 28, 1911.
87

88 JOURNAL OF THE Mircuetnt Socrery. [July

Of direct evidence one of the most striking examples is the
Brownian movement, an adequate explanation of which has
been given in the last few years. A naturalist, Brown, in 1827,
observed with the microscope that fine particles of solid matter
suspended in a liquid exhibit a state of rapid and perfectly
irregular movement, reminding one of “‘a swarm of dancing
gnats in a sunbeam.” He proved that the movement was not
due to animalculae, and recognized that the smaller the parti-
cles the more rapid the movement. Recently, Zsigmondy and
Einstein have carefully investigated the whole matter with the
aid of the marvelous ultra-microscope, and have developed the
theory that a small particle shares in the molecular motion of
the surrounding liquid, and that except as to size there is no
essential difference, from the standpoint of the molecular theory
of heat, between a particle suspended in a liquid and a molecule
in solution. This Brownian movement varies with the tempera-
ture — the particles moving more rapidly as the temperature
increases — and varies in just the way that the kinetic molecu-
lar theory predicts. Moreover, the suspended particles exert
an osmotic pressure, as direct experiment has shown: so they
behave in this respect just as molecules in solution. The ultra-
microscope shows the exceedingly small particles as bright
specks in the otherwise dark field; just as we see dust particles
when looking across a beam of light in a darkened room. As
one looks upon the erratic movement of the particles he realizes
that he is seeing molecular motion —or at least the direct
result of it — at first hand.

Going further than this Rutherford in a classic experiment
actually counted the atoms, one by one. He not only proved that
the ballistic jump of the electrometer corresponds closely to
the flashes of light in the spinthariscope, not only that the gas
helium exists in extraordinarily small particles, but that these
particles which he counted were actually helium atoms. In a
recent experiment at the University of Chicago Prof. R. A.
Millikan succeeded in isolating the individual ion, moving it
about and examining it at will.

Now contemporaneously with the development of the modern

1911 | THe Constitution oF Marrer 89

idea of the atom there developed also the idea that the atom
does not represent the ultimate stage or limit in the subdivision
of matter. Dalton’s atomic theory was placed on record in
1803. Only twelve years later (1815) Dr. Prout published his
observation that the atomic weights of all the other elements are
approximately and in many cases exactly integral multiples of
the atomic weight of hydrogen, and on this observation based the
hypothesis that hydrogen alone is elementary — that it is the
primordial substance — and that the atoms of all the other so-
called elements are aggregations of hydrogen atoms. This hy-
pothesis persisted for fifty years with fluctuating fortune;
and though it was finally abandoned, its career was attended
by many collateral advantages to the scientific world. It had
accustomed men to think of the possible complex nature of
all atoms; it had prompted successive and more refined re-
determinations of the atomic weights; and it had stimulated
many distinguished chemists to inspect closely and persistently
the tables of atomic weights for the purpose of discovering (if
possible) numerical relations between these atomic weights
as evidence of relations between the elements themselves.
The result of this half century of work inspired by Prout was
erystallized by Mendeléef, who published in 1869 a crude form
of the Periodic arrangement of the Elements, and the announce-
ment of the celebrated Periodic Law, that the properties of the
elements are functions of their atomic weights. Scientists
claimed at once that this law, if true, represents only a super-
ficial truth. If the elements be thus related, they must be com-
posite, or in some deep-seated way have a common bond or a
common origin.

From 1870 to 1895 there was obtained no scientific evidence
in support of this conclusion. Men talked and wrote freely of
the possible genesis of the elements through a process of suc-
cessive condensation of some superheated primordial stuff, and
of the possible disintegration of the atoms of the Elements by
means of high temperatures. Sir Norman Lockyer’s ambitious
effort to obtain scientific proof of this hypothesis by means of
spectroscopic observation of the condition of the matter on the

90 JOURNAL OF THE MircueLt Soctery. [July

sun and stars promised much, but yielded nothing. Many mod-
ifications of Mendeléef’s arrangement of the atomic weights
were offered, and many revisions of the hypothesis as to the
genesis or evolution of the elements were advanced. The litera-
ture of the period shows great intellectual activity in this fasci-
nating field; but no clearer vision of the nature of the atom
and of the supposed sub-atom’s states of matter was attained.

Thus for twenty-five years the assault continued without any
material advancement of the firing line. The atom stood intact
and apparently impregnable. Suddenly, however, in a brief
period beginning with 1896, a perfect flood of light was thrown
on the question. Phenomena connected with the origin and
polarization of light waves, the investigation of the conduction
of electricity through gases, the properties of electric waves,
and the properties or radio-active matter and related facts, con-
stituted an epoch of conquest unparalleled in the history of
science. In this brief period a new branch of science has been
created, rich in phenomena of the most striking sort. A much
better interpretation of phenomena already known, a vastly
stronger theory as to the structure of matter and a firmer co-
ordination of all physical phenomena have been attained. The
character of this new knowledge and the methods by which it
has been obtained may be briefly stated as follows:

In 1896 Zeeman, by his celebrated experiments confirmed
in an astonishing degree the theory of Lorentz that light of
different wave lengths from an incandescent gas proceeds not
from vibrating atoms, but from electrified particles associ-
ated with the atoms. Subsequently by appropriate qualitative
and quantitative experiments these electrified particles were
found to carry a unit negative charge and to have a mass one-
thousandth that of the hydrogen atom.

The well known Cathode rays were re-investigated by
Thomson and others, who found that these rays consist of elec-
trified particles projected from the Cathode with a velocity of
1-20 to 1-10 that of light; that the charge carried by each par-
ticle is a unit of negative electricity ; that the mass of each par-
ticle is one-thousandth that of the hydrogen atom; and that the

1911 | Tue Constitution oF Marrer 91

particles derived from one substance are identical in mass and
charge with particles derived from any other substance.

In the experimental study of the conduction of electricity
through ionized gases it was found that the particles carrying
negative electricity are the same in all gases, and that they are
identical in mass and charge with the particles of the Cathode
rays.

In the field of radioactivity we are familiar with the fact
that radioactive bodies emit or discharge electrified particles of
two grades, known as the « rays and the 6 rays (the y rays are
of a different order, and need not be noticed further). Repeated
experiments show that a rays consist of positively charged parti-
cles, each having a mass not less than the hydrogen atom; and
that the @ rays consist of negatively charged particles, identical
in mass and charge with the particles of the Cathode rays.

Thus by unquestioned experimental evidence derived from
four fields of investigation, three facts of fundamental import-
ance have been established: (1) The existence of particles of
matter much less than the smallest atom; (2) These sub-atomic
particles, though derived from different kinds of matter, are
identical in mass; (3) Each particle invariably carries a unit
charge of negative electricity. Here then is the sub-atom, hav-
ing a mass one-thousandth that of the hydrogen atom, derivable
from the atoms of the various elements; a common ingredient
then of all atoms, a universal constituent of matter. At last
the atom —the late indivisible unit of matter —has been
divided, and the persistent mystery of 70 or 80 primordially
different kinds of matter has been solved. This new unit of
matter — the sub-atomic mass with its negative charge — takes
its place in the order of scientific truths. It is the ‘“‘ Corpuscle”
of Thomson, the ‘‘ Electron ” of other writers.

In the light of the above facts what shall be our conceptiou
of the structure of an atom? Making use of what is known,
and not incorporating hypothetical elements, we may think of
an atom as a number of electrons arranged about a central mass
charged with positive electricity. In the normal state of mat-
ter the positive and negative charges of electricity within the

92 JOURNAL OF THE MrrcHeit Socrerty. [July

atom are in a condition of equilibrium; but in an abnormal
state — a state of electrification — this equilibrium is disturbed
and both positive and negative electricity are manifested. This
view of the atom permits the explanation of phenomena in terms
of matter and electricity with emphasis on the former. Matter
with its inherent property of mass, or inertia, still retains its
primacy, with electricity as an attribute of matter.

We now pass from the region of verifiable facts to a
region where hypotheses and assumptions prevail, and where
scientific creed-building is the chief occupation of some very
eminent men. Sir J. J. Thompson, proceeding to develop and
clarify his model of atomic structure, introduced a new and revo-
lutionary factor which, in theoretical physics, has inverted
the order of things and has turned the world upside down.
Starting with the known fact that an electric charge has inertia,
which simulates mass. Kaufmann investigated experimentally
the mass of corpuscles moving with different velocities (a con-
dition found in the £-rays of radium), and discovered that the
mass of a moving particle varies with the velocity; therefore,
a part of the mass is of electrical origin. Thomson saw that he
could use this discovery to improve and extend his corpuscular
theory. If a part of the mass of a corpuscle is of electrical origin,
why not the whole of it? Assuming the whole mass to be electri-
cal mass he deduced from his model atom, made up of specified
arrangements of positive and negative electricity, many of the
properties of the real atom. By this process the corpuscle of
Thomson, the electron of others, becomes, to use a well-worn
metaphor, a disembodied unit of electricity. The material part
has been eliminated, only the electrical part remains. With
this new idea incorporated, Thomson’s theory may be stated
in this manner: An atom consists of a collection or system of
corpuscles revolving in orbits within a sphere of positive elec-
trification. Thus matter has been deposed from its position as
a fundamental substance. It is only a mode of electrical man-
ifestation; all the properties of matter are merely properties
of electricity. The revolution is complete. Electricity has been
substituted for matter, and electrodynamics for mechanics.

1911 | Tue Constitution or Marrer 93

But what is electricity, this wonderful substance of which
all matter is fabricated? Is it the ultimate substance? or is it,
in turn, derived from substance still more simple? The answer
to these questions is being sought in the supposed relations of
electricity to the ether. Since the days of Christian Huyghens
(1680) the existence of a medium for the transmission of light
through space has been assumed. No properties were assigned
to it except extreme thinness and the power to undulate. About
1830 Faraday, that prince of experimenters, balked at the idea
of action as a distance, and refused to believe that energy could
pass from one body to another without some medium to trans-
mit it. He definitely transferred electrical and magnetic energy
from matter to space, and laid the basis for the modern con-
ception of the ether and for Maxwell’s electro-magnetic theory
of light.

Since the ether is an indispensible postulate in the interest
of the mechanical theory and now also of the final extension
of the electrical theory of matter, many leaders in science have
essayed to contrive a mechanical model of the ether and to en-
dow it with properties in virtue of which it issues forth in the
form of electricity, and thence in the form of material sub-
stance. This last stage in the effort to solve the problem of
the constitution of matter is well set forth in the following
quotations:

Sir J. J. Thomson says: “ Now one view of the con-
stitution of matter is that the atoms of the various ele-
ments are collections of positive and negative charges held
together mainly by their electric attractions, and moreover,
that the negatively electrified particles in the atom (corpus-
cles I have termed them) are identical with the small neg-
atively electrified particles whose properties we have been
discussing. On this view of the constitution of matter,
part of the mass of any body would be the mass of the ether
dragged along by the Faraday tubes stretching across the atom
between the positively and negatively electrified constituents.
The view I wish to put before you is that it is not merely a
part of the mass of a body which arises in this way, but that the

94 JoURNAL OF THE MircHEeLi Society. [July

whole mass of any body is just the mass of ether surrounding
the body which is carried along by the Faraday tubes associated
with the atoms of the body. In fact, that all mass is mass of the
ether, all momentum, momentum of the ether, and all kinetic
energy, kinetic energy of the ether. This view, it should be
said, requires the density of the ether to be immensely greater
than that of any known substance.”

Sir Oliver Lodge says:—‘‘ Thus our hypothesis is as fol-
lows: Throughout the greater part of space we find simple un-
modified ether, elastic and massive, squirming and quivering
with energy, yet stationary as a whole. Here and there, how-
ever, we find specks of electrified ether, isolated yet connected
together by fields of force, and in a state of violent locomotion.

“These specks are what, in the form of prodigious aggregates,
we know as ‘matter’; and the greater numbers of sensible
phenomena, such as viscosity, heat, sound, electric conduction,
absorption and emission of light, belong to these differentiated
or individualized and disassociated or electrified specks, which
are ether flying alone, or are revolving with orbital motion in
groups. The ‘matter’ so constituted—built of these well sepa-
rated particles, with interstices enormous in proportion to the
size of the specks—must be an excessively porous or gossamer-
like structure, like a cobweb, a’ milky way, or a comet’s tail;
and the inertia of matter—that is, the combined inertia of a
group of electrified ether particles—must be a mere residual
fraction of the mass of the main bulk of undifferentiated contin-
uous fluid occupying the same space; of which fluid the par-
ticles are hypothetically composed, and in which they freely
move.”

Though we may decline to accept, even as a working
hypothesis, this extreme extension of the electron theory, there
are, at its foundation, certain facts that mark a distinct scien-
tific advancement, and that may justly be recalled and empha-
sized.

1. The atomic structure of Electricity, first suggested by
Helmholtz, has been completely verified by the processes of the
new science and this new natural unit—the atom of electricity—

1911} Tue Constitution oF Marrer 95

may now rank with the other fundamental units of nature. It
should not be overlooked that in all this advancement the nega-
tive unit exhibits a rare trait of character not possessed by the
positive unit. The latter—the positive unit—has never yet been
isolated from masses of atomic order; it is conservative and
uncommunicative; but the negative unit, when disintegration
of the atom occurs, leaves the grosser portions of the wreck,
and with swift motion carries or is carried by the finer products
of disintegration; and only by the presence of this negative
charge and by its responsiveness to electrical and magnetic in-
fluences, have investigators been able to recognize the presence
of these sub-atomic masses, and to make out some of their
characteristics.

2. The disintegration of atoms, long predicted, is now an
assured fact. The electron, as a new unit of matter, has been
accepted by the advocates of the Mechanical and the Relativity
theories and has virtually been, incorporated by Boltzmann into
his recent revision of pure Thermodynamics. The chemist,
to whom the atom has long rendered invaluable service, had al-
ready anticipated its disintegration, and though he will continue
to use the atom as the unit in all chemical reactions, he has no
objection to entertaining the electron as a new, sub-atomic and
even ultimate unit of matter.

3. The spontaneous disintegration of matter in the field
of radioactivity reveals the atom as a reservoir of energy. The
measurements of Curie and Labord show that the disinte-
gration of one gram of radium produces 300,000 times as much
energy as is produced by combustion of one gram of coal.
Thomson estimates that enough energy is stored in 1 gram of
hydrogen to raise a million tons through a hundred yards. This
enormous supply of energy found within the atom has been
used to account for the sun’s heat, and to greatly modify our
opinion as to the age of the earth. Probably the most import-
ant problem before the physicist today is that of making this
enormous energy available in the world’s work.

While the theory of the electronic structure of matter has
thrown much light on many perplexing problems, and while it

96 JOURNAL OF THE MitrcHeLi Soctery. [July

has been the tool of the engineer in his work with electric trans-
missions, sources of light, and related phenomena, it must not
be assumed that the problem of the ultimate nature of mat-
ter has been solved. Should we assent to all the speculations
that have been presented by the brilliant leaders in this field,
and should we ever come to know that matter is only a trans-
muted form of electricity, and that electricity is of ether origin,
the boundary between the known and the great unknown would
still exist — only pushed a little further away. Still unan-
swered would be the inevitable question, What is the ether?
Whatever may be the answer to this question, one may be well
assured that it is not unscientific to hold that our so-called
universal principles and laws have extension and application be-
yond that which is seen, and that our little systems are in some
way related to the Unseen Universe.

Trinity College, Durham.

MOSS”

OAKS AND
MICHAUX’S GARDEN

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CATCHING HAWK MOTHS ON FLOWERS AT DUSK*
By C. S. BriMtey.

The moths of the family Sphingidae, otherwise known as
Hawk Moths or Sphinx Moths, have always been favorites of
mine, ever since as a boy in England, I reared the privet hawk
moth from its larva.

In America however I had only picked up an occasional
specimen till 1899, when I caught several Lined Hawk Moths
(Deilephila lineata) on nasturtium flowers in the day time,
and tried with very poor success to rear the Pink-spotted Hawk
Moth (Phlegethontius cingulatus) from larvae of varied mark-
ings on Japanese morning glories which were growing on my
porch.

Next year however the fun began. I was living in another
part of town, and had an order for a dozen specimens of each
species to fill, which gave me an excuse to catch all I could get.
Somehow or other, I dont remember how now, I found or
thought that some species were attracted to the flowers of the
common jimsonweed (Datura stramonium) at dusk, and as
there were a good many of these plants in my yard, I com-
menced to watch them when they began to bloom, and soon
found that more or less hawk moths came round them. I
watched the jimsonweed flowers nearly all summer at dusk,
and soon found that it was hard to catch a moth on them, as
one seldom stayed long enough on one flower to be caught. I
then conceived the idea of gathering the flowers as soon as they
opened, (they open about dusk and wither next day), and tying
them in bunches on the plants or on other plants, and this
worked like a charm, as a moth now had enough flowers in one
place to keep him busy until I had caught or tried to catch him.

The large majority of the moths caught in this and other
years belonged to two species, the Northern Tobacco Hawk
Moth (Phlegethontius quinquemaculatus (celeus)), and the
Southern Tobacco Hawk Moth (P. sexta (carolina)), the next

*Read before the N. C. Academy of Science, April 28, 1911.
97

98 JoURNAL oF THE MitcHEeLt Society. [July

most common species was the Lined Hawk Moth (Deilephila
lineata), while other species caught less frequently 1n this and
other years were the Pink-spotted Hawk Moth (Phl. cingu-
latus), the Trumpet-vine Hawk Moth (Sphinx plebeius), the
Great Ash Hawk Moth (Phl. rusticus), the Pandorus Hawk
Moth (Pholus pandorus), the Tersa Hawk Moth (Theretra
tersa) and the Papaw Hawk Moth (Dolba hylaeus). Not a
single specimen of the Lesser Grape Hawk Moth (Ampelo-
phaga myron) was seen around the flowers in any year, al-
though it is one of the commonest species, and is commonly at-
tracted to sugar, nor did the Ash Hawk Month (Ceratomia
undulosa), which breeds commonly in my garden on privet
and Chionanthus ever appear among my list of captures.

Returning from this digression to the year 1900, I would
say that my captures consisted of six Tcbacco Hawks between
June 15 and 19, followed by a gap of 19 days in which
none were seen, then from July 9 to 31, 37 moths were taken,
all but seven of which were Northern Tobacco Hawks; in
August only 20 moths were taken, 12 of them being Southern
Tobaceo Hawks, three Northern ditto, and the rest scattering.
No moths were taken on flowers later than August 24.

Next year the two species of tobacco hawk moths simply
swarmed. Between June 11 and 28, 73 hawk moths were taken,
there being 36 each of the two tobacco moths and one other,
then followed a gap of 23 days in which none were taken, divid-
ing the moths into two flights as in the previous year. Note
that I say flights, not broods for whilst the first flight consists
wholly of moths from overwintering pupae, yet moths from
overwintering pupae also enter very largely into the composi-
tion of the second flight.

The second flight began on July 22, and reached its height
before the end of the month, continuing however until the
middle of August, after which time none were taken till Aug.
27 when they were found again in small numbers till Sep.
6, after which there was a third gap followed by a fourth small
flight from Sep. 23 to Oct. 7 on pink moonvine flowers.

During the second flight 79 Northern tobacco, 19 Southern

1911] Catrcuine Hawx Morus on Frowers at Dusk 99

tobacco, and 7 other hawk moths were caught between July 22
and 31; and 43 northern tobacco, 45 southern tobacco, and 4
other hawks from Aug. 1 to 15; in the third flight, Aug. 27
to Sep. 6, 11 northern tobacco, 11 southern tobacco, and 4
others; while the fourth flight, Sep. 23 to Oct. 7, gave me 7
lined hawks, two each of the two tobacco moths, and one pink-
spotted hawk.

Total number caught on flowers in 1901, 308, of which 173
were the northern tobacco, 111 southern tobacco and 24 scat-
tering.

Next year there were hardly any moths at all, the unusual
abundance of the previous year having presumably caused such
an increase of their parasites as to nearly wipe them out for
for the time being. Curiously enough while the northern
tobacco hawk moth was so common during 1900 and 1901, yet
I only came across two larvae of the species, while the larva of
the southern species, the common tomato worm, abounds on
tomato, jimsonweed and allied plants.

After 1901, I made no notes of any importance for several
years on hawk moths, although I still continued catching them
to a less extent. During this time however I abandoned the
unornamental jimson weeds, and adopted in their stead the
well known four o’clock (Mirabilis jalapa), in which the flow-
ers while substantially of the same character are smaller, more
numerous and in bunches.

In 1909 I conceived the idea that it would be interesting
to find out the proportion of sexes among the moths that visited
the flowers, and took notes of all I caught in 1909 and 1910,
showing that males visited the flowers much more frequently
than females. Thus of the southern tobacco hawk, 42 males
and 22 females were taken in 1909, and 31 males and 12 females
in 1910, of the northern tobacco hawk, 15 males and 10 females
in 1909, and 5 males and no females in 1910, of the lined hawk
moth 11 males and 1 female in 1909, and 2 males and no fe-
males in 1910, of other species, 7 males and 1 female in 1909,
6 males and no females in 1910, making a total of 119 males

100 JOURNAL OF THE MircHEett Society. [July

and 46 females of all kinds in both years, making the proportion
of the sexes about 5 males to 2 females.

On the other hand my friend George Lay, while catching
moths on jimsonweed Aug. 4-25, 1910, caught 1 male and 9 fe-
males of the southern tobacco moth. My specimens however
were all caught on four o’clocks.

Two other items of interest were discovered during these
two years, the first being that my neighbours’ cat or cats also
caught hawk moths on the four o’clock flowers after I had quit
for the night, the second was that the moths flew much later,
up to ten o’clock in fact on bright moonlight nights, whereas
on dark nights they quit as soon as it got really dark. I found
this out by going after them with an old bicycle lamp in one
hand and my net in the other, the first thing that my light fell
on when approaching the four o’clocks usually being the cat.
That cat or cats also devoured quantities of male polyphemus
moths attracted by newly emerged females in my breeding
cages, as many as 30 pairs of wings being found one morning.
I tried hard to poison that cat last year or to disgust him, using
arsenic, tartar emetic, and cyanide, but the latter he did not eat,
while the two former he disgorged.

Raleigh, N. C.

THF TURKEY BUZZARD MUST GO.*
By Gerorae W. Lay.

In Bible times we are told that dead bodies were left to the
birds of the air and the beasts of the field. In other words in old
times the work of these natsval scavengers was relied upon to
remove as quickly as possible dead bodies of all kinds. They
were relied upon to do all the scavenger work, since modern
scientific ideas of sanitation had not then besn perfected. These
primitive methods have been to a large extent continued even
to the present day.

In Oriental countries dogs are still expected to do the neces-
sary work in cleaning up from the streets, and the neighbor-
hoods of the dwellings of man, all refuse matter they are capa-
ble of devouring. But the end of dogs as scavengers has now
arrived. It was only within a short time that Constantinople
sent all the dogs from its streets away to an island and gave up
this primitive method of getting rid of disagreeable waste. It
is generally recognized in these days that we no longer depend
on dogs as public scavengers.

The time has now come when the turkey buzzard should also
be dispensed with as a scavenger. He is the means of spreading
disease, and on the other hand, if he has not sufficient food fur-
nished him, he is known to become a predatory bird, and to take
off chickens and young animals, such as pigs.

It is well established now that such diseases as hog cholera
are carried from place to place by turkey buzzards, and even
by English sparrows. The danger from small birds cannot
very well be avoided, but at least they are not likely to cover a
large radius, and people living in a neighborhood where care-
ful sanitary measures are taken can guard against danger of
infection from such birds as the sparrow. But the turkey buz-
zard flies to a great height, and may go from a hog pen where
there is hog cholera and the next time he lights be at a distance
of ten to forty miles. If therefore the turkey buzzard is pro-

*Read before the N. C. Academy of Science, April 28, 1911.
101

102 JOURNAL OF THE MircHeti Sociery. [July

tected, and one must take the risk of having one of them settle
on his land, there is no way of being sure that he has not brought
infection from hogs suffering with hog cholera from a very long
distance.

The turkey buzzard is a beautiful bird when seen at a great
distance soaring in the air. He is however a hideous and ob-
scene bird when seen close at hand. He has been protected
partly for sentimental reasons on account of the beauty and
wonder of his flight, and partly because in times past he was
relied upon to dispose of the dead bodies of animals that were
intentionally put in remote spots, in order that he might devour
and destroy them. Modern sanitary ideas demand that ali dead
animals should be buried since there is always a danger of dis-
case, even in thos ewho die without being suspected of it. There
fore, if the careless method of disposing of animals by putting
them on the surface of the earth is used, the turkey buzzard is
a source of danger because in the case of a diseased animal he
could carry the disease to far distant points. If on the other
hand sanitary methods are used, then the turkey buzzard is de-
prived of the means of subsistence, and he will do damage in
other ways. Many cases are already known in neighborhoods
where proper sanitary methods were used with regard to the
disposal of dead animals, and of other waste material, where
the turkey buzzard has seized, killed and eaten chickens, young
pigs, and other young animals. While perhaps public sentiment
does not justify the extermination of the turkey buzzard at the
present time, it seems reasonable to conclude that the protection
of the turkey buzzard ought now to be ended, and that it should
be allowable to kill them if they come on land whose owners
are sufficiently educated in sanitary matters and the transmis-
sion of disease, to wish to prevent turkey buzzards from putting
them in danger.

St. Mary’s School, Raleigh.

JOURNAL

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society A

Oe oe Oy EMeES 1911 NO. 3.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS CON-
TAINING AMMONIA AND CITRIC ACID *

BY ROBERT A. HALI. AND JAMES M. BELL.

In the analysis of commercial fertilizers for the so-called‘ ‘avail-
able’? phosphoric acid, it is usual to employ a solution of “‘exact-
ly neutral’? ammonium citrate, having a specific gravity of 1.09
at 20°. After extraction of the fertilizer with water, the residue
is treated with the citrate solution and the phosphoric acid which
remains undissolved is termed insoluble, or non-available; that
which the water dissolves is the water-soluble; and that dissolved
in the citrate solution is the reverted or citrate-soluble. Thesum
of the water-soluble and the citrate-soluble phosphoric acid consti- |
tutes the available. | Upon the results of these analyses depend
the valuation of the fertilizer material, and, if the guarantee ac-
companying the fertilizer claimsa higher percentage of phosphoric
acid than is shown in the analysis by the state chemist, the man-
ufacturer is liable to a fine.

In the preparation of the ‘‘exactly neutral’? ammonium citrate
solution, however, great difficulty is encountered, due to the lack
of sensitiveness of every color indicator. This lack of sensitive-
ness in the color indicator is general in the neutralization of a
weak base, such as ammonium hydroxide, by a weak acid,such as
citric acid.

The Association of Official Agricultural Chemists prescribes’ the
use of a saturated alcoholic solution of corallin as indicator in
testing for the neutrality of the citrate solution; also an ‘optional

*Reprinted from The Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol.
X XXIII, No.5. May, 1911.

1Bureau of Chemistry, Bull. 107 (revised), 1.

103

104 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY

method’’ wherein the citrate is precipitated by an alcoholic solu-
tion of calcium chloride, and the filtrate tested for acidity or al-
kalinity with cochineal as indicator. This method is employed
apparently with the object of avoiding the difficulty experienced
in determining the end point in the former method. That both
methods are unreliable and unsatisfactory is evidenced by the fact
that at almost every meeting of chemists engaged in fertilizer anal-
yses there is animated discussion of, and general protest against
both the ‘‘official method’’ and the ‘‘optional method’’ on ac-
count of the difficulty in getting a sharp end point with corallin,
or any other color indicator.

In the absence of any satisfactory color indicator of the end
point in the neutralization of a weak acid by a weak base, several
physical properties of mixtures of ammonia and citric acid have
been investigated with a view of applying these to the determina-
tion of the end point. The use of conductivity as an indicator of
neutrality has been demonstrated by Kiister and Griiters’ in the
titration of weak acids by strong bases, the conductivity being
measured after each addition of the base to the solution. By plot-
ting the quantity of alkali against the conductivity, a decided
break was found in the curve just at the neutral point. The So-
INtion consisted of a mixture of the acid and salt in varying pro-
portions up to the neutral point, after which it was composed of
the alkali and salt. ©The method of conductance has also been
employed to determine the acidity of colored liquids,* such as
wines, where the color of the liquid would mask the color change
of the indicator.

Another physical measurement has been used by Ostwald, viZ.,
density, as an indicator of the neutral point, a sharp break in the
composition-density curve being found at this point of neutrality.

The present paper contains the results of measurements of con-
ductivity and of density of a series of solutions containing constant
amounts of citric acid and varying amounts of ammonia in a fixed
volume of solution. The conductivity measurements were made

1. Bur. of Chem., Bull. 107 (revised), 1.
2. Z.anorg. Chem., 35, 454 (1903).
3, Kuster and Gurters, Loc. cit.; Geibel, Z. anorg. Chem., 42, 231 (1905),

PuystcaL Properties oF AMMONIA AND Citric ACID 105

with the usual Wheatstone apparatus, the conductivity cell used
being of the H. C. Jones type,designed for concentrated solutions.
In making up the solutions standardized (D. & R.)pipets, burets,
and flasks were used, and also, as a check, the flask and contents
were weighed after each addition This was deemed advizable on
account of the very concentrated solutions used and on account of
the volatility of the ammonia. In order to minimize the loss of
ammonia by evaporation, the stock solution was siphoned from a
bottle protected with a capillary opening. The flow of liquid into
the buret was controlled by a glass stopcock, and the top of the
buret was closed except for a capillary opening. The outflow from
the buret was made through a small tube, drawn to a capillary
opening, of sufficient length to pass nearly to the bottom of the
flask in which the solutions were mixed. This capillary tube was
coated on the outside with a high-melting paraffin to prevent the
solution in the flask clinging to the tube when the ammonia solu-
tion was led into the body of the citric acid solution. The escape
Of ammonia was thus minimized or prevented entirely, no ammo-

i ies

CC.Ammonia Solution

106 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocirtTy
nia being noticeable by odor or by a change of color of moist neu-
tral litmus paper.
Each solution in the first series of conductivity measurements
had a total volume of 200 ce. This contained 100 ce. of a solu-
tion of pure citric acid (Kahlbaum’s), 370 grams per liter, thus
approximating the citrate content of the solution employed in fer-
tilizer analysis.’ ‘l'o these solutions were added in the way de-
scribed above varying amounts of the ammonia solution, whose
exact strength was determined both by titration against standard-
ized acid aud also by density determinations. The 200 cc. meas-
uring flask was then cooled and filled up to the mark with distill-
ed water. After thorough mixing, the solutions were transferred
to glass-stoppered bottles and placed in the thermostat which was
electrically heated and controlled. |The temperature was main-

tained at 25°, within 0.01°. This temperature was chosen rather
than 20°. at which the fertilizer chemist makes this specific grav-
ity determination, because of the inconveniences of running a
thermostat ata temperature below that frequently existing in this
neighborhood.

In another series of measurements the above solutions were di-
luted one-half,100 cc.to 200 cc. ,and the conductivities ascertained.

In Table I are given the results of the conductivity measure-
ments of the concentrated solutions,made as described above. The
quantity of citric acid solution used was always 100 cc., weighing
113.00 + 0.02 grams. In figure I the conductivities are plotted
against the cc. of ammonia.

TABLE I.
Ammonia Ammonia
solution Conduc- solution Conduc-
Solution no. cc. tivity Solution no. ce: tivity
id. aa cetuaaaee 0.00 0.007791 A VAR esa AROS 32.00 0.097381
Ui valdciewaeaieceat 3.00 0.01292 1S Basoacrosscc 35.00 0.1052
Bic ese Ska aeone 5215 0.02113 145: 38.00 0.1124
4 cnsccawswseass 8.60 0.02943 ile 41.00 0.1145
Sh Bee Daas 11.55 0.03901 i Re aoc Roos 44.00 0.1132
Out ccceseccees 14.31 0.04629 1 fee ae 47.00 0.1124
ivesscantewosee 17.15 0.05500 UB veccccsscsat 50.00 0.1116
8 20.00 0.06401 19... 75.00 0.1032
Oi ci Sen seaceted 23 00 0.07271 20 See 85.00 0.09990
OS. 26.00 0.08187 DN veseossecece 100.00 0.09523
Hitt sesicsavecscees 29.00 0.08984

The, JLo (eh

PuysicaL PrRoperrirns OF AMMONIA AND Cirric AcID 107

It will be seen in Figure I that there is a sharp break in the
curve at the point representing 39 cc. of the ammonia solution.
The strength of the ammonia solution used in these experiments
was determined by density measurements and also by titration
against hydrochloric acid of known strength. This acid was com-
pared with a solution of caustic soda, which was standardized by
comparison with a normal solution of oxalic acid made by weigh-
ing the exact amount of oxalic acid. The titrations with oxalic
acid were made with phenolphthalein, and those with ammonia
with methyl orange as indicator. | By this method the ammonia
was found to be 13.51 normal. Therefore, the 39 cc. of ammonia
solution contains 0.5268 mols. NH,. Of citric acid in 100 co. of
acid solution there are 37 grams, equal to 0.156 mols. Now,
0.5268 /0.176=2.993; that is, the neutral solution, as determin-
ed by this method is at triammonium citrate. This suggests the
applicability of the conductivity method for determining the neu-
tral point of ammorium citrate solution.

Some of the above solutions were diluted one-half; that is, 100
ec. of the solution were diluted to 200 cc , and the conductivities

FG

| | | |
|

mh

Conductance
c=) S
e § 8
@ @ 8

—_}——_——-

ascertained. In Table II the measurements are given, and in Fig.
1. Van Itallie, Z. anorg. Chem., 60, 358 (1908).

108 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Socrrry

2 the conductivities are plotted againat the cc of ammonia solu-
tion as before. The break in the conductivity curve of the diluted
solutions agrees with that found for the more concentrated ones,
showing that a dilution of one-half has no influence on the neu-
tral point as found by this method.

TABLE IT.
Ammonia Ammonia
solution Conduc- solution Conduc-

Solution no. ce. tivity. Solution no. CE: tivity

MDiscecocese ass O2200 0.06360 OMS Sere 44.00 0.07440

See eee coe LOO 0.06841 oY fae oa AG 47.00 0.07418

4S, rencse eo LOO LOO 0.07330 OM. teehee. 50,00 0.07402

WO Ee es. Nee 41.00 0.07471

It will be noticed further in the curve of Fig. I that the first
point of the curve does not fall in the smooth curve with the other
points up to the neutral point. To investigate the failure of this
point to fall on the regular curve there was made a further series
of measurements in which the quantities of ammonia solution
added differed by smaller increments (0.5 ec.). This showed that
the curve has a minumum. In a further series of measurements
having a still smaller increment of ammonia solution (0.1 or 0.2
cc.) the region of this minimum was more carefully investigated.
In this series the original ammonia solution was diluted ten times
and so 0.1 or 0.2 ec. of the original solution correspond to 1 or 2
ec. of the diluted solution. In-Table III the measurements are
given and in Fig. 3 the conductivities are plotted against the num-
ber of cc. of the ciluted ammonia solution.

TABLE III.

Ammonia Ammonia
Solution no. cc. Conductivity Solution no. ce. Conductivity.
Lise seees sas 0.00 0.00768 Oude scecesees 5.50 0.00674
Ds cccsseeses 1.00 0.00730 Qi eeeteseeree 6.00 0.00674
St eee 2.00 0.00704 1022s 7.00 0.00678
Ban estcceee 3.00 0.00689 Lowers seeee 8.00 0.00689
SraocenGesa 4.00 0.00681 Zeer smias 9.00 0.00705
Gracvesesesse 4.50 0.00678 VO: Avswete es 10.00 0.00724
ies sees cones’ 5.00 0.00676
With a strong acid at great dilution successive additions of am-

monia (or any other base) would lower the conductivity, due to

PHysIcaAL PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA AND_CITRIC ACID 109

the displacement of the exceedingly mobil hydrogen ion by the
slower moving ammonium ion. With a weak acid, however, two

a

Que as ZS 4 SST 7 8 Sano
CC.Ammenia Solution

opposing factors enter, the hydrogen ion being being replaced, as
before, by the ammonium ion, and also the salt having a far high-
er degree of dissociation than the acid. The second factor is prob-
ably the predominant one and slight:additions of ammonia would
increase the conductivity. Should the citric acid contain a min-
ute amount of a strong acid, the strong acid would be neutralized
first, and thus give a minimum conductance. Whether this min-
imum be due to impurities,or whether other weak bases and weak
acids exhibit the same phenomenon is still under investigation in
this laboratory.

Another method of determining the neutral point of ammonium
citrate solution was suggested by the fact that chloroform dissolves
free ammonia’ but does not dissolve citric acid or ammonium ci-
trate and therefore may be used as an agency for removing NH,

1. Hantzsch and Sebaldt, Z. physik. Chem., 30, 266 (1899); Abbott and
Bray, J, Am, Chem. Soc., 31, 729 (1909).

110 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY

from its salts, if ammonia be present in excess. A series of nine
solutions, containing 35, 36, 37......... 43 ec. of ammonia solution,
respectively, was prepared, and each solution shaken with chloro-
form. The chloroform extracts from the solutions containing 35
to 39 ec. of ammonia solution showed no free ammonia on titra-
tion with dilute sulfuric acid, methyl orange being used as indica-
tor. The extracts from solutions containing 40 to 43 cc.of ammo-
nia solution contained increasing amounts of free ammonia. Thus
the presence of free ammonia in the citrate solution may be detect-
ed by shaking out with chloroform and testing the chloroform lay-
er for free ammonia. This offers another method for establishing
the end point when citric acid is being neutralized by ammonia.
A series of measurements of the densities of solutions containing
citric acid and ammonia offer further confirmation of the position
of the neutral point. In preparing these solutions 50 ce. of citric
acid solution were placed in a 100 ce. measuring flask and ammo-
nia was added. Water was then added to the mark and the flask
and contents weighed and the density computed in the usual way.
In Table 1V the data thus obtained are given, and in Fig. 4, the

ammenia

PuysicaL Proprerrirs oF AMMONIA AND CIrRic AcIp tit

number of cc.of ammonia solution is plotted against the densities.
It is seen that the neutral solution has the maximum density and
that this solution is the same as that indicated by the break in
the curve obtained by the conductivity method.

TABLE IV.
Ammonia Ammonia
solution solution
Solution no. ce. Density Solution no. ce. Density
dean hee. 0 1.0670 Uccbacnenete 30 1.0853
1 aie ee ae ae 5 1.0700 Bisecee cers 35 1.0883
Shee cogeeeeee 10 1.0731 Sia ieee 40 1.0903
aes es 15 1.0762 tO a aed 45 1.0874
eaace EEE 20 1.0792 iW baer ea 50 1.0864
(ORSEROREBEEAC 25 1.0822 Le ceseaesides 75 1.0702
SUMMARY

In this paper it has been shown that the neutral point for a
weak acid and a weak base, such as citric acid and ammonia may
be accurately determined by conductivity measurements; that the
presence of an excess of ammonia in the ammonium citrate solu-
tion may be ascertained by shaking out with an immiscible gol-
vent, as chloroform, which Cissolves a part of the excess of the
base but neither the free acid nor the salt; and that the neutral
point of the ammonium citrate solution may also be estallished
by density determinations.

CHAPEL Hitt, N. C.

PREPARATION OF NEUTRAL AMMONIUM CITRATE
SOLUTIONS BY THE CONDUCTIVITY METHOD*

BY ROBERT A. HALL.

In their investigations of the properties of aqueous solutions
containing ammonia and citric acid,’ Hall and Bel] found that
the neutral point of the solution could be detected by conductivity
measurements, and this suggested the application of the conduc-
tivity method as a possible means of preparing the neutral am-
monium citrate solution required in fertilizer analysis for the de-
termination of the citrate-insoluble phosphoric acid in a fertilizer.
In order to ascertain the possibility of readily and easily prepar-
ing neutralammonium citrate by the application of the conduc-
tivity method the following experiments were made by the author
of this article.

A citric acid solution was prepared of such a citrate content
that when neutralized by ammonia its specific gravity would be
greater than 1.09 at 20°; that is, 370 grams of pure citric acid’
were dissolved in ammonium hydroxyde of 0.90 sp. gr. and water,
until the solution was near the point of neutrality. yet leaving the
solution acid to litmus paper. Care was taken that tle volume
was not over one liter. The solution was allowed to stand over
night to cool. Tt was again tested with litmus paper to see that it
was distinctly acid. Also, small portions, one to two cc., were
withdrawn with pipettes and roughly titrated with a diluted am-
monia solution in order to ascertain the approximate amounts of
ammonia solution necessary to make the citrate solution distinctly
alkaline to litmus. The diluted ammonia solution used was pre-
pared by taking the concentrated ammonium hydroxide, sp. gr.
0.90, and diluting exactly exactly ten times, that is, 100 ce. were
diluted to one liter. A sufficient amount of this solution was pre-
pared to have enough for the making of the solution for the condue-

*Reprinted from the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry,
Vol. 3 No. 8. August, 1911.

1 J, Am. Chem. Soc., 38, 711.

2 Method of Analysis; Bull., 107, Bureau of Chemistry, p. 1,

112

PREPARATION OF NEUTRAL AMMONIUM CIrRATE SoLurions 113

tivity measurements and also for addition to the larger bulk of the
acid ammonium citrate solution, of the calculated amount of
ammonia solution as shown by the conductivity measurements,
for complete neutrality. 100-cce. lots of the nearly neutralized
ammonium citrate solution were withdrawn with pipettes and
put in 200 cc. volumetric flasks. Definite amounts of the diluted
ammonia solution were measured into these different flasks. Water
was then added to the mark, the solution thoroughly mixed, and
the flasks placed in an electrically controlled thermostat. The tem-
perature of this thermostat was maintained at 25°, plus or minus
0.01°. When these solutions had come to the temperature of the
bath their conductivities were determoned with a Wheatstone
bridge in the usual way. The conductivity cell used was the H.
C. Jones type for concentrated solutions. The conductances were
plotted against the cc. of the ammonia solution used. It was easy
to read from the curve thus obtained the number of ec. of the
ammonia solution needed to neutralize exactly 100 ec. of the acid
ammonium citrate solution used. This amount of the diluted
ammonia solution was then » easured into a 200 cc. flask contain-
ing 100 cc.of the citrate solution and water added to the mark.
After thorough mixing, the flask was placed in the bath and al-
lowed to come to bath temperature. Its conductivity was then
ascertained. Its conductance showed it to have the amount of
ammonia necessary for exact neutralization. The solution, when
tested with corallin, methyl orange, methyl red, and neutral lit-
mus paper (Squibb’s), gave no evidence of the presence of either
acid or base. Also, the solution was shaken out with chloroform,
the chloroform separated from the cilrate solution and shaken
with water and the water tested for ammonia.’ No ammonia was
found. Hence it was coneluded that a neutral ammonium citrate
solution had been prepared with accuracy and certainty.

Specific gravity determinations were also made of the solution
used in these conductivity determinations and the densities plotted
against the ec. of ammonia. The curve showed that the neutral
solution as prepared by the conductivity curve had the highest
specific gravity."

‘Hall and Bell, Loc, cit,

114 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL SocreTry

In Table I is given the data obtained in these measurements,
and in Fig. 1 the conductanees are plotted against the cc. of am-
monia solution used.

TABLE I,
Solution No. Ce, ammonia. Conductivity .
DiI x sgceancisee eed ia seer eateas | OO 0.004353
Spi esetyaie eet eas eee tae ee CRE Tue Tee ie aerate 18.00 0.004900
TEroCOI IC OU AUR AB OCU oes ho Uy EC OSE 24.00 0.004997
SS dduceaat ons eaaeeansrd cove pela gine eee OOOO 0.004991
GirloHasssiessensniiselsitasasecessecsorest 40 OU 0.004980
(he accor cbs LS DCOO Ieee SER eCec 20.30 0.004999

Saounjonpuoc)

(c-Ammenia

PREPARATION oF NEUTRAL AMMONIUM CITRATE Soxtutions 115

The neutral solution as prepared above had a specific gravity
greater than 1.09 at 20°. It was therefore an easy matter to di-
lute with distilled water and in the usual way bring to the requir-
ed density.

In order to investigate the possibility of the use of the corduc-
tivity method of preparing neutral ammonium citrate solution by
the chemist who has not the use of an electrically controlled ther-
mostat, or a thermostat regulated by any other method wherein a
constant temperature is secured, a series of experiments were made
in which the use of the regulated thermostat was dispensed with;
that is, the electrical control was cut off and the temperature of
the bath allowed to vary with that of the room. However, a time
of experimentation was chosen so that there was a minimum of
variation of room temperature. In brief, the experiments were
conducted under such conditions as can be had in any laboratory
where a room fairly well protected from the usual weather varia-
tions and from the presence of those entering and leaving the
room during the time of the experiment can be had. In the
place of the thermostat a tub of water could have been used for
the bath.

The solutions were prepared as above, placed in the bath and
allowed to come to the temperature of the bath. Erlenmeyer
flasks of suitable volume and of such sized mouth as to admit of
easy entrance of the electrodes of the cell were placed in the bath,
so that when the solutions were being changed in the cells the
electrodes could be placed in these flasks and be kept at the tem-
perature of the bath, thus preventing the slight lowering of tem-
perature due to the evaporation of the water on the electrodes.
The conductivity measurements were made as rapidly as possible
(each was run in less than one and one-half hours), the cells and
electrodes being carefully washed each time with the new solution.
This rinsing was repeated three times for each change of solutions.
During the short intervals of waiting necessary for the cell and its
solution to come to bath tempersture again after the handling the
conductances were computed and the curve plotted, so that as soon
as possible after the last point in the curve was located and the
curve completed. It was found further that by plotting the bridge

116 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocIrTY

readings against the ec. of ammonia solution used that the same
results were obtained ss by plotting the conductances against the
ec. of ammonia solution. In this way it was possible to make the
series of six measurements in a very short time, usually less than
one and ene-half hours being required, and thus minimize the
probability of any great change of room temperature. From the
curve was read the amount of ammonia solution needed to be ad-
ded to 100 ec. of the acid ammoninm citrate in order exactly to
neutralize it. This amount of ammonia was run into a 200 cc.
flask containing the solution previously measured out, water ad-
ded to the mark and the solution thoroughly mixed. The flask
was then placed in the bath and brought to the temperature of the
bath. The conductivity measurement was then made. It was
found that the bridge reading obtained corresponded exactly to
the bridge reading on the curve for neutral ammonium citrate so-
lution. The same amount of ammonia was then run into another
100 ce. lot of the ammonium cl]trate solntion and this solutien
made up a specific gravity of 1.09 at 20°. When these solutions
were tested with indicators and chloroform, as above, they gave
no evidence of containing either acid or free ammonia in access.

The bath was now brought again to a tempergture of 25° and
maintained their by the electrical control while the conductivity
measurements were repeated. These gave a curve showing the
neutral point to be the same as that found at room temperature.

In Table II are given the data of the measurements made at
room temperature. In Fig. 2 the bridge readings are plotted
against the ec. of ammonia solution used:

TABLE II,
Solution No. Cec. ammonia. Bridge-reading.
i Tes ek eee rete he HSS Soe 0.00 49.40
Dy bib tai Cea AAT ee aeian) 0:00, 52.01
BEE cre oudieveke Saeteterkepabin iby 18.00 54.09
LS REG EMC Bethe Meters <!- 24.00 54.80
(ia Naren ns Bey Ba oe 00 54.75
(Shy ‘ctl cp reiterate Sate Jehan a ia 36.00 54.70
7 20.80 54.84

PREPARATION OF NeurRaAL AMMontum Citrate Soturions 117

An effort was made to a-certain the possibility of preparing a
neutral citrate solution by adding an excess of ammonia and af-
terwards removing this excess by extractions with chloroform.’
Although repeated extractions were made, there was always free
ammonia remaining in the citrate solution. This was to be ex-
pected as the ammonia is so much more soluble in water than in
the chloroform. Moreover, had it been possible to extract all the
free ammonia from the solution the chloroform that would have
remained in solution in the citrate solution would have precluded
the use of this method for the preparation of neutral ammonium

\Hall and Bell, Loc, cit,

118 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY

citrate for the fertilizer analysis, as the chloroform would be de-
composed, forming free hydrochloric acid, which would interfere
with the determination of the citrate insoluble phosphoric acid.

CONCLUSION

It has been shown that the conductivity method of preparing
neutral solutions is applicable to the preparation of exactly neu-
tral ammonium citrate solutions of such a density that they can
after neutralization, be dilute! with distilled water and brought
to a density of 1.09 at 20°. This method can be applied under
conditions such as can be easily obtained in any laboratory and
therefore seems worthy of adoption as an ‘Official Method’? of
preparing the exactly neutral ammonium solution required in
fertilizer analysis for the determination of the citrate insoluble
phosphoric acid content of the fertilizer. For the regulated ther-
mostat there may be substituted a tub of water. However, a
thermostat of constant temperature is preferable, for then there is
no necessity of the measurements being carried out so quickly as
when the measurements are made in a bath at room temperature.

CHAPEL Hix, N, C.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF AMMONIA BETWEEN WATER
AND CHLOROFORM.*

BY JAMES M. BELL AND ALEXANDER L. FEILD.

The distribution of ammonia between water and chloroform
has been studied by several investigators. The results have been
employed to determine the concentration of free ammonia in an
aqueous solution, which contains also some compound of ammo-
nia, such as the blue cuprammonia compounds and the phos-
phates of ammonium. Until recently the distribution was deter-
mined only for dilute solutions, where the concentration of am-
monia in the water layer was not greater than normal.

Hantzsch and Sebaldt’ found that the ratio of the concentrations
of ammonia in water and chloroform is 25.1 at 25°, the mean of
five determinations in which the concentration in the water layer
varies from 0.00275 to 0.04425 normal. At 2° this ratio is 38:53.
Dawson and McCrae’ give the following values for the distribution
ratio: 26.3 at 20°, 24.9 at 25°, and 23.2 at 30°, the highest con-
centration in the water layer being 14.14 grams NH, per liter.
In a later paper Dawson and McCrae* repeated their determina-
tions at 20°, the extreme concentrations of ammonia in the water
layer being being 5.160 and 17.168 grams NH, per liter. Be-
tween these limits the distribution ratio is not quite independent
of the ammonia concentration. The ratio varies from 26.36 for
the most dilute solution to 25.32 for the most concentrated.

The following quotation is from a later paper by Dawson:* ‘‘In
reference to the distribution of ammonia between pure water and
chloroform, it has already been shown that the concentration
ratio Hx,0 / Ccxcl, decreases with increasing ammonia concentra-

*Reprinted from The Journal of The American Cnemical Society, Vol,
XXXII. No.6. June, 1911.

1Z. physik. Chem., 30, 258 (1899).
2J. Chem. Soc., 77, 1239 (1900).
8J. Chem. Soc., 79, 493 (1901).

47, Chem. Soc,, 89, 1668 (1986)
119

120 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Socrery

tion, but the relationship between these two7factors could not be
determined with a desirable degree of accuracy in the case of
dilute solutions containing less than 0.5 mol. of ammonia per
liter of aqueous solution.’’? Consequently ‘new determinations
were made at 19.5° by an improved method. Representing k
(the distribution rato) as a function of ¢ (the concentration in
the chloroform layer) the points so obtained lie »pproximately
on the straight line corresponding to the equation
k= 26.16 — 34.14c’.

Abbott and Bray’ have also found the distribution ratio with
the object of determining the degree of hydrolysis of several phos-
phates of ammonium in aqueous solution. At 18° the ratio is
27.45, where the aqueous layer has a concentration between 0.02
and 0.05 normal.

In more concentrated ammonia solution , Dawson? has found
that at 18° the distribution ratio decreases from 26.46 at 0.928
normal to 21.70 at 4.333 normal.

The present paper contaius the results of an investigation of
this distribution at 25° and over a much wider range of concen-
tration. Chloroform was added to aqueous solutions of am-
monia of varying strength. The bottles were placed in an elec-
trically heated and controlled thermostat at 25° and were fre-
quently shaken. When equilibrium had been reached, a known
volume of each layer was titrated against standard acid. The
following table contains the concentration of ammonia in each
layer expressed in gram molecules per liter and also the distribu-
tion ratio between the two layers.

It will be seen from the table that the distribution varies from
22 in dilute solution to about 10 in concentrated solution. The
limit to which the distribution tends at very great dilution ap
pears to be about 24.

TABLE [.
Normality NH, Normality NH, Distribution
in water layer. in CHCl, layer. ratio.
c + k
1.02 0.045 22.7

1J, Am. Chem. Soc., 31, 729 (1909).
2Z,, physik.“Chem., 69,110 (1909).

Distrreution oF AMMONIA BETWEEN WATER AND CHLOROFORM 121

2.08 0.095 21.9
3213 0.146 21.4
3.98 0.205 19.4
5.24 0.283 18.5
6.25 0.365 17.1
7.29 0.457 15.9
8.34 0.549 15.2
9.35 0.710 13:2

10.23 0.864 11.8

11.24 1.045 11.0

12.23 1.227 10.0

The following table contains the limiting values of the distri-
bution ratio for very dilute solutions as found at different tem-
peratures by the various workers in this field.

Taste II.

Temp. Dist. Ratio. Observer.

22 38.5 Hantzsch and Sebaldt.
18 27.45 Abbott and Bray.

18 27.5 approx. Dawson.

20 26.5 Dawson and McCrae, I.
20 2525 Dawson and McCrae, II.
25 PB ait Hantzsch and Sebaldt.
25 24.9 Dawson and McCrae, I.
25 24. approx. Bell and Feild.

30 232; Dawson and McCrae, I.

The accompanying table (II) shows clearly that the distribution
ratio falls as the temperature rises.

The points obtained by plotting the values of C and K in Table I
lie on a curve which deyiates rather far from a straight line, so
that the formula given by Dawson holds onty for the more dilute
solutions, and is of value in giving the limiting direction of the
curve. This result is confirmed by the later results of Dawson
where more concentrated solutions have been used.

The effect of other compounds on the distribution ratio has
been investigated by Hantzsch and Sebaldt’ and by Dawson and
McCrae.* As ammonia is a weak base it is but slightly ionized

1Z,, physik. Chem., 30, 258, (1899),
2J, Chem, Soc., 79, 493 (1901),

122 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society

even at great-dilutions, and consequently the addition of an am-
monium salt: would increase the number of undissociated mole-
cules very slightly, while the percentage decrease of ionization
would be greatly diminished. - If unionized ammonia is the sub-
stance distributed, then the presence of ammonium chioride
should affect the distribution very slightly and then only on ac-
count of the “‘salting out’’ effect. If, on the other hand, the
ionized portion were distributed, the presence of the highly ion-
ized salt would affect the distribution very greatly. In very dilute

°o

9
in

x Table I.
° Table TH.

Normality NH, in Chloroteorm Loyar >

Normality NH, in Water Layer—_y
10

ph

2 a ae a ee a |

solutions Hantzsch and Sebaldt have found that ammonium chlo-
ride has almost no effect. Dawson and McCrae have, . however,
shown that the effect is measurable, the distribution ratio at, 20°
deereasing by 0.88 for each mol. of salt per liter of solution. The
nitrate and sulfate also lower the distribution ratio, while the

. bromide increases it. The following table (III) gives the results
of experiments on the distribution of ammonia between chloro-
form anda solution of ammonium chloride containing about 3
mols. per liter. At each concentration of ammonia the distribu-
tion ratio is very close to that found in the absence of ammonium
chloride.

DISTRIBUTION OF AMMONIA BETWEEN WATER AND CHLOROFORM

TABLE III.

Normality NH, Normality NH,

in water layer in CHCl, layer
(N¥UCI-3N) cale.
0.84 0.037
4.32 0.226
0.02, 0.494
10.16 0.837

Normality NH
in CHCl, layer
ODE. oe!

0.037
0.228
0.512
0.820

123

In this paper it has been shown that at 25° the distribution
ratio for ammonia between water and chloroform varies with the
concentration, from about 24 in dilute solution to about:10 in con-
centrated solution. The presence of ammonium chloride affects

the distribution very slightly.

University oF NortH CAROLINA,
CHAPEL Hii, N. C.

SOME PLUTONIC ROCKS OF CHAPEL HILL

BY WILLIAM H. FRY

The Chapel Hill area is situated in the northern central part of
the state in the ‘‘Carolina Metamorphic Slate and Voleanic Belt.’’
The area here considered is bounded on the south by igneous
slates of unknown age generally spoken of as the Purefoy’s Mill
series; on the southeast, east, and northeast by Triassic sand-
stones; and on the north and west by very basic crystalline plu-
tonics and acid volcanics of comparatively recent age, probably
triassic, as bombs of the material are found embedded in the sand-
stone to the east. The rocks composing the area are mainly gran-
ites, the exceptions being small dikes of a diabasic nature. Wat-
son, Laney, and Merrill’, describe the field appearance and loca-
tions of the plutonics of the area as foliows:

‘*Boulders and ledge outcrops of granite are exposed along Bo-
lans creek where crosssed by the Durham road, one mile north-
east of Chapel Hill, near the contact of the crytalline rocks with
the Triassic sandstones. The rock indicates much variation in
texture from a very fine grained even granular granite of a decid-
ed pink color. Reddish pink feldspars, quartz and a small quan-
tity of biotite are apparent to the unaided eye. The rock is en-
tirely massive and is intersected by several sets of joints. No at-
tempt has been made to quarry the stone and its marked variable
texture would make it undesirable as a general building stone.

‘‘The outcrop on the Clayton place on the north side of Brock-
er’s creek, one and a half miles north of Chapel Hill, shows more
or less variation in texture and color, though the rock is usually
dark gray and of a very fine texture. No statement can be made
of the working qualities of the stone.

‘Pour miles north of Chapel Hill and 150 yards east of the
railroad is an exposure on the Brocker place, of pinkish gray
granite with porphyritic tendency, containing large laths of pink

1Bulletin 2, N. C. Geol. Survey, 1906.
124

Somer Priutontc Rocks oF CHAPEL HILu 125

feldspar. It lacks uniformity in both color and texture and for
this reason would not prove a very desirable stone for general
building purposes.’’

The only previous petrographic work done on the area consists
‘of two papers published by Mr. H. N. Eaton; one a description
of micropegmatite in a binary granite’, the other a few petrograph-
ic descriptions of some of the granites of the area’.

In the introduction to the latter paper he speaks of the area as
follows:

“The village of Chapel Hill, North Carolina, is located upon a
gently rounded knob of granite rocks................ Northward the
granite becomes rapidly more basic, reaching a quartz-mica-dio-
rite, or grano-diorite. Rocks resembling true diorites macroscop-
ically are adjacent on the north. Aplite dikes exist everywhere,
and a suite of specimens can be easily collected showing a grada-
tion from this binary type to rocks containing biotite and horn-
blend. The range in color varies from fine grained, white, acid
rocks, to those which are dark, medium, and coarse grained.”’
He then gives descriptions of a few specimens and their sections.

A large number of samples have been collected by the present
writer representing the area more thoroughly than did the speci
mens collected by Mr. Eaton. Thin sections were made from
representative types of these samples. Descriptions of these thin
sections and the specimens from which they were taken are given
below.

I.—This rock occurs under the railroad bridge about one and
a fourth miles north of the station, near the old iron mine. In
hand specimen it is rather fine grained; rather dark in color, and
weathers to a brownish dirty-looking soil belonging to the Iredell
series. It is mottled with greenish hornblende and light feldspar.

The thin section contains magnetite, feldspar, hornblende, and
quartz. The magnetite is abundantly present in comparatively
small scattered granules. The feldspar is very much decomposed.
The main mass of it is probably orthoclase, judging from its crys-

1Jour. Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, Vol. 24, No. 3, Nov. 1908.
2Jour. Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, Vol. 25, No. 3, Noy. 1909,

126 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY

talline outlines. Other weathered feldspars are present, most of
them probably one or more of the plagioclases. One plagioclase
crystal was fresh enough for determination as labradorite. The
hornblende is green in color, and is segregated into clusters mixed
with magnetite, and alone. Quartz is abundantly scattered
through the whole section. The rock was determined as horn-
blende granite.

II1.—In handspecimen the rock is very finely crystallized. The
color is a sort of white tinged with brown. The fracture is eon-
choidal althougn the rock is not so fine grained as to be crypto-
crystalline. Altogether the rock has a very pronounced quartzitic
appearance. It occurs about half a mile northeast of Piney Pros-
pect in Strowd’ field at the contact between the crystalline roek
and the Triassic sandstone.

The thin section contains hornblende, magnetite, quartz, ortho-
clase, and tourmaline. The hornblende occurs sparingly scatter-
ed through the section. The magnetite is present in occasional
grains. Quartz is the predominating mineral, and is intermixed
with a considerably less amount of orthoclase. The tourmaline is
present in small scattered grains. It doubtless owes its origin to
the action of magnetic gases near the periphery of the intrusion.

The rock was determined as a hornblende granite.

III.—Macroscopicolly the rock is fine grained, light with a tinge
of pink in color, and very closely jointed, breaking into rhombo-
hedra-like forms. It occurs near the Raleigh road about one
fourth of a mile out from the cemetery.

The thin section contains quartz, plagioclase, hornblende, and
magnetite. The quartz is abundantly present in comparatively
large granules. The plagioclase feldspar is sparingly scattered
throngh the section in very small granules. The orthoclase is
slightly weathered, and is present in large masses. The hornblende
is present only in a very slight amount. The magnetite is present
in medium sized and scattered granules. The rock was determin-
ed as hornblende granite, almost a binary type of granite.

IV.—This rock is very fine grained, almost cryptocrystalline.
It is slightly darker in color than usual and has a greenish ap-

Somer: PLutonitc Rocks oF CHAPEL HILb 124

pearance. It occurs on the Hillsboro road just north of Bolin’s
creek.

The thin section contains apatite, hornblende, quartz, plagio-
clase, and orthoclase. Apatite was located in only one place, and
oceurred in the form of an acicular crystal. The hornblende is
scattered through the section. In one case it is segregated into a
large nodule. _Laths of plagioclase feldspar are abundant; while
only a slightly smaller quantity of orthoclasc is present. The
quartz occurs mainly as the filling of a vein which traverses the
section. Outside of the vein quartz, while still present, does not
constitute the main mass of the rock. Along one plane of the
section a s'ight normal faulting has taken place. The rock was
determined as hornblende granite.

V.—This rock is of a light flesh-colored pink. The grains are
medium sized. The rock is splotched with a greenish mineral. It
occurs to the northwest of the hosiery mill about one half of a
mile.

The section contains quartz, plagioclase, feldspar, hornblende,
magnetite, and orthoclase. The quartz is present in large, irreg-
ular, and apparently stressed crystals. Some of them are filled
with minute cavities and inclusions of other minerals. The pla-
gioclase is oligoclase. Much slightly decomposed hornblende is
present, and is usually segregated into particular localities. The
magnetite is present only in very slight amounts. The orthoclase
is not predominant. The rock was determined as hornblende
granite.

VI.-—In handspecimen this rock is medium grained, light pink
in color, and breaks with a conchoidal fracture. It occurs on the
old Durham road near its junction with the new road on the south
side of Bolin’s creek.

The thin section contains quartz, hornblende, and oligoclase.
The quartz is present in predominating quantities. The ortho-
clase is abundant and is very much kaolinized. The hornblende
ovceurs in a seam running completely through the section, with a
little quartz intermixed with it. Outside the sear the hornblende
is present only in very meager amounts. The oligoclase occurs as

128 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY

a few scattered crystals. The rock was determined as hornblende -
granite.

VII.—This rock is very coarsely crystalline. It is dark green
in color mottled with white and pink feldspars. It occurs south
of the Raleigh road near the cemetery. The section contains
hornblende, magnetite, quartz, labradorite, orthoclase, and biotite.
The hornblende is present in large amounts as small scattered
crystals. The magnetite is present in very small quantities. The
quartz occurs filling the interstices between the other minerals.
Labradorite is present in small quantities. Orthoclase is the pre-
vailing feldspar, and occurs in large crystals, almost phenocrysts.
Biotite is present in very small amounts. It is brown in color.
The rock was determined as hornblende-biotite granite.

VIII.—This rock is medium grained in texture and light gray
in color. Macroscopically a flake or two of biotite were noticed.
but the mineral was in negligable quantities. None was located
in this section. The rock occurs on the campus of the University
of North Carolina near the athletic field.

The section contains orthoclase, hornblende, chlorite, quartz,
and magnetite. The quartz is the predominant mineral and oc-
curs in large, well defined crystals. The orthoclase oceurs as crys-
tals which are much kaolinized and are almost phenocrysts in cer-
tain cases. The hornblende is in small scattered crystals occupy-
ing a very inferior area of the section. It is greenish and brown-
ish in color. The chlorite is green and probably represents a de-
composition product. The magnetite occurs very sparingly in
small scattered masses. The rock was determined as hornblende
granite.

IX.—This rock is very fine grained macroscopically. The color
is very light gray. The rock occurs on the Pittsboro road about
a mile out from the Chapel Hill public school.

The thin section contains quartz, hornblende, feldspars, and
magnetite. The quartz occurs as phenocrysts scattered through a
groundmass composed of the other minerals present, and as small
crystals composing a part of the groundmass. The crystals are
studded with gas bubbles. A rather large veinlet is filled with
quattz. The hornblende occurs in rough, irregular patches and

Some Prutonic Rocks or CHapet Hit 129

stringers. The crystals individually are very small. Asmall vein
running nearly across the section has hornblende for its vein ma-
terial. The feldspar is probably a mixture of orthoclase and one
or more of the plagioclases. The crystals are very small, but show
good crystalline outlines between crossed nicols. The shapes are
rather elongate The magnetite occurs very sparsely as small
granules. The rock was determined as hornblende granite.

X.—This is a very fine grained and light colored rock. It oc-
curs on the Chatham road near its junction with Cameron Avenue.

The section contaihs quartz, hornblende, and feldspar. The
quartz occurs as large phenocrysts and occupies the larger portion
of the section. In several instances good hexagonal outlines were
observed. A large sized veinlet filled with quartz extends nearly
across the section with somewhat of a crank-shaped course. The
outline between the vein and the wall is very clearly drawn. In
some cases horses of the groundmass of the rock occur in the vein.
The vein was evidently formed by some mechanical disturbance
and filled by silica-bearing solutions. The hornblende occurs in
stringers and small scattered crystals. The stringers in one local-
ity are all sheared and drawn out in parallel directions, indicating
some mechanical disturbance. The feldspar is very fine grained
and is probably orthoclase. It forms the main groundmass ma-
terial of the section. The rock was determined as hornblende
granite.

XI.—This is a medium grained and quartzitic-appearing rock.
The color is a very light pink. Macrascopically the rock appears
to be almost a binary type. It occurs to the north of Chapel Hill
near the ‘‘Colorado Canon.’’

The thin section contains quartz, orthoclase, magnetite, horn-
blende, chlorite, plagioclase, and a negligible quantity of biotite.
The quartz occupies the major portion of the section. It occurs
in large, well developed, and apparently stressed masses. The
orthoclase occurs in masses somewhat larger than those of the
quartz. It is slightly kaolinized. Pieces showing good crystalline
outlines are rare. It is also apparently stressed. The magnetite
occurs in small scattered masses occupying a very inferior portion
of the section. The hornblende occurs scattered promiscuously

130 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocleTy

through the rock, seldom in large masses. Chlorite was observed
in one instance as a small, ill-defined mass. It is probably a de-
composition product. The plagioclase is probably labradorite. It
was observed in only one locality. The crystal was very small
and irregular. The rock was determined as hornblende granite.

XII.—This rock is very coarse grained and very dark in color,
mottled with green. It occurs to the north of Chapel Hill on the
the hill north of the Oxford road. 3

The thin section contains quartz, hornblende, orthoclase and
magnetite. The quartz occurs in well defined crystals often show-
ing hexagonal outlines The crystale show a tendency to segrega-
tion in small masses. The hornblende occurs in clearly marked
crystalline forms with well marked cleavage. It is greenish and
brownish in color. The orthoclase is slightly kaolinized and shows
no crystalline form. It occurs in large masses intermixed with
the hornblende. The magnetitite occurs in small scattered gran-
ules. The rock was determined as hornblende granite.

XII.—This rock is rather coarsely crystalline and of a deep
pink color. The fracture is sub-conchoidal. It occurs in Battle’s
Park south of the Dissecting Hall.

The section contains quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase, hornblende,
magnetite, and biotite. The quartz occurs in large irregularly
shaped masses seldom showing any distinct crystalline outlines.
The plagioclase is labradorite. It occurs sparingly scattered through
the section in well defined crystalline forms, and shows perfect
twinning. The hornblende occurs in small segregated masses and
fairly well defined crystals of medium size scattered promiscuous-
ly through the rock. In some instances the cleavage can be ob-
served, but not without difficulty. The magnetite occurs more
abundantly than usual as medium sized but scattered granules. It
occupies only an inferior portion of the rock section. Biotite oc-
curs sparingly in small scattered flakes. The cleavage can usual-
ly be made out. It is brownish in color. The rock was deter-
mined as hornblende-biotite granite. 7

XIV.—This is a very coarsely crytalline rock. The color is
light gray mottled with black. It occurs in the alley near the
residence of Mr. H. H. Patterson on Cameron Avenue. The rock

Some Prutonic Rocks or CHapet HInn 131

is very much decomposed.

The section contains quartz, orthoclase, hornblende, and mag-
netite. The quartz occupies the major portion of the section, and
eccurs in masses which are almost phenocrysts. The crystals are
intergrown with each other in a remarkably irregular manner.
The orthoclare occurs in large masses, and in some of these the
cleavage can be very well observed in spite of the decomposed
condition of the mineral. In one case a perfect crystal of ortho-
clase was found imbedded in an irregular mass of the same min-
eral. The hornblende shows a marked tendency to segregation
into large bunches. It is green in color, and in the individual
crystals, the cleavage can be made out fairly well. The magnet-
ite, as usual, occurs in small sized, scattered granules usually, but
not always, associated with the hornblende. The rock was deter-
mined as hornblende granite.

XV.—In handspecimen this rock is very coarsely granular. In
color it is light gray splotched with black. It occurs on Franklin
street near the residence of Prof. E. V. Howell. The sample was
collected from an excavation made for sewerage. When exposed
the rock is very much decomposed.

The thin section contains quartz, orthoclase, hornblende, and
magnetite. The quartz occurs in large grained, irregular masses
occupying probably half of the section. The orthoclase is very
much kaolinized, but shows good crystalline outlines. It occurs
in large crystals. The hornblende occurs in abundance. It is
greenish in color and shows practically absolutely perfect cleavage.
The magnetite occurs in irregularly scattered granules. The rock
was determined as hornblende granite.

Out of the nine granites described by Mr. Eaton in the papers
already referred to only one was a hornblende granite, two were
binary granites, one a muscovite granite, one a bietite-hornblende
granite, aud four were biotite granites. These cover pretty thor-
oughly the types of acid plutonics found in this area; but the pa-
pers give a wrong conception of the relative proportions of each
type. In the present paper, out of fifteen sections described,
thirteen were hornblende granites, while the other two were horn-

132 JOURNAL OF THE MrrcHELL Society

blende- biotite granites. It is thought, both from field evidence
and from the present work, that this latter proportion comes near-
er being representative of the acidic area than does the former.
The biotite granites undoubtedly exist here, but seldom without a
great deal of hornblende intermixed. The muscovite and binary
granites must be considered as rare exceptions.

MINERALS OF THE CHAPEL HILL REGION

BY WILLIAM H. FRY.

The following minerals are known to occur in the Chapel Hill
area: gold, pyrrhotite, pyrite, quartz, flint, hematite, magne-
tite, some manganese minerals, limonite, orthoclase, microcline,
oligoclase, andesine, labradorite, augite, hornblende, zircon, epi-
dote, tourmaline, muscovite, biotite, chlorite, prochlorite, serpen-
tine, talc, kaolinite, titanite, apatite. Many more are doubtless
present, but so far they have not been brought to light.

Gold occurs in a quartz vein about two and one half miles north
of the village of Chapel Hill. The vein runs in a north to north-
east and southwest direction. The material has been assayed and
was found not to be economically valuable.

Pyrrhotite has been determined by the writer from specimens
collected in the dump heaps of the old Chapel Hill iron mine. It
is of very rare occurrence in this locality.

Pyrite occurs rarely in material from the iron mine. In some
cases it carries a trace of copper. As a magmatic segregation it
is found rather abundantly in connection with the basic plutonics
of the area. As an accessory mineral it occurs in practically al]
the igneous rocks of the neighborhood.

Quartz, besides its occurrence as a rock constituent, is found in
numerous veins. These range in width froma_ fraction of an
inch to sometimes several feet. Here the mineral is undoubtedly
an aqueous precipitate. Beautifully formed crystals are occasion -
ally found in geodes of the country rock. The flint of the area is
‘of doubtful nature. It seems to bea very acid volcanic rock rather
than the true mineral.

Hematite is found abundantly at the Chapel Hill iron mine
where it was formerly worked. The ore has been considered as
the filling of an ordinary fissure vein. Analyses of some of the
ore from the mine are as follows :

Magnetite occurs admixed with the other iron ores of the Chape]

"Nitze, Bull. 1, N. C. G. S.
? Roberts, J. C., this Journal, 1883-’84, pp. 26-27.
133

134 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society

Hill mine, as an accessory rock constituent, and float ore. Writ-
ing of this float ore John L. Borden’ has the following:

‘“This magnetite is found on the farm of—Cheek, about three
miles south of Chapel Hill. Pieces ranging up to ten or fifteen
pounds in weight are found scattered over the field. One ofthese
was analyzed with the following result:

MaenetiGarOm OXTGC «22 1. teniteres Note tame cae acroge nite tetas 96.03
STC a. snes Fhe ioe Oe Ea eS es oraeels Sie toee ore nena 3.02
Wisiter 7 op. Leas Ey iy tad bits SiGe Sa ReaD A AI PERE OSES Oe RE 52
SOU 6) NEDO Pe NS Aor esa Ree ome Oo prea sm caotidts 7 Sen 6 19
PHOBPHOLUSC: sparc sie acon sie tector ek, Semin ns eee trace

99.76"’

Manganese minerals’ occur admixed with limonite in Strowd’s
field. ‘‘The formation is similar to the formation of bog iron ore.
There is only a small quantity of the ore, scattered on the sur-
face.’’ There is auother occurrence on the Cheek farm somewhat
similar to the above. Other small occurrences have been located.
The manganese minerals composing the deposits have not been
separately determined. They probably consist of the oxides and
hydrates.

Limonite occurs abundantly. The ore usually is found in the
shape of bog deposits.

Orthoclase, microcline, oligoclase, andesine, hornblende, zircon, epi-
dote, muscovite, biotite, chlorite, titanite, and apatite’ have been re-
ported as occurring in the granites of the area. In addition to
these the writer has found labradorite, augite, and tourmaline in
thin sections of the country rocks. The tourmaline occurs in the
granites near their contact with the Triassic sandstones.

Prochlorite* has been found about one-fourth of a mile from
Orange Church north-east of Chapel Hill. It occurs admixed
with decomposed muscovite.

Serpentine? has been reported from somewhere near Chapel Hill.

1~his Journal, 1883-’84: p. 87.

2Pratt, J. H., Unpublished Notes.

3Maton, H. N., This Journal, Vol. 25, No. 3, Nov., 1909.
4Pratt, J. H., loc. cit.

4Genth, F, A., ‘“‘Minerals of North Carolina,’’

MINERALS OF THE CHAPEL Hitt Reaion 135

The writer has not been able to verify this occurrence.

Tale occurs rather commonly in connection with the more basic
rocks of the area.

Kaolintte, almost pure, was found by the writerabout one fourth
of a mile to the rear of Mr. Patterson’s residence on Cameron Ay-
enue. The deposit covers about five or six square yards.

FORMULAS FOR INVESTMENT CALCULATIONS

BY THOMAS F. HICKERSON

This is an attempt to present clearly and logically all the
formulas needed for various interest and sinking fund computa-
tions that may come within the field of the engineer. Many of
these formulas, in a less general form than given in this paper,
have been found here and there in algebras, civil engineering
text books and journals, while others have never been seen in
print.

SIMPLE INTEREST.

Let P=Principal in dollars.
r—Rate of interest. [Interest on $1 for one year. |
n=Total time in years.
I=Interest on the principal at the end of n years.
A=Amount at end of n years.

Ui es El Bok ee nea PO PIERS 2S!2oc co. (1)
Solving for P, r, and n we have

P= /rn;3 1 eae n= Dy ee ielets/elelsleic oi crslatecrener stort (2)

Also, A=P-+1 =PoEPr n=P (1mm) 2-5. eee (3)
Solving for P, r, n and I, we have

p— A Ms (ASP) se A Nae 985 T= Arn

(1+ rn) Pao Peo ss (1+rn)
Lh MRAM Ma RE AIRE ECT US To (4)

COMPOUND INTEREST.

Interest is compounded when it is added to the principal and
becomes a part of the principal at specified intervals.
Let P=Principal in dollars.
r—Rate of interest (Interest on $1 for one year.)
n=Total time in years.
t=Time in years between two successive compoundings;
thus, if the interest is to be compounded quarterly, t="/ ,
A=Amount at end of n years.

136

ForRMULAS FOR INVESTMENT CALCULATIONS 137

It is evident that the total number of periods [compoundings]
equals 7 and the rate per period equals rt.

Amount at end of 1st period —=P-+Prt=P (1-+r1t)

ee tee end PC rt) 4 Pl tt) <r
PCr)

peer ierardin =P Prt) eP(i--rt)? <rt—
Plt):

Hence, the amount at the end of the last or (n/ t)' period, in
accordance with the above observed law, —P(1-+rt)"/ t.
Elenee we have A— PCC rt)) 7 tise. cc teceeccuesssnade (5)
If interest is compounded annually (t=1) ... A=P(1+r)”
“ae tee al semi-annually (t= /,) ... A=P(1+'/,)”2
quarterly (t{—"/ ,) .-. A=PG-+*7 ,)”

6 ce ee

etc.
Solving for P and n respectively, we have
A t< (log A—log P) ;
pes, pe AR EE Nvas Py eee 6)
: Geert)" 7 i 7 x log (1-+rt) (

No simple formulas can be derived for r and t.

If the interest is not compounded annually, we may use tables
made for the case when it is compounded annually, as follows:
Compute the number of periods (conversions) and the rate per
period and use the tables just as though the periods were years and
the rate per period were rate per year.

SINKING FUNDS.

A sinking fund is a sum of money which must be set aside at
the end or beginning of each successive interval of time (usually
at the end of each year) and placed at interest in order to amount
to a specified sum in n years.

To Find the Amount of a Sinking Fund.
a) Simple interest basis.
Let S = value of the sinking fund in dollars.
n = number of years.
r = rate of interest.
k = length of time (in years) between payments.
A = amount of sinking fund at end of n years,

138 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocrEry

Total number of payments = =
First, suppose payments to be made at the end of each period of
k years.

A, = amount of Ist S in (n—k) years = S+Sr (n—k)

A= ~~ “9nd Sim @-—2k) “ =S+Sr (n—2k)
| Oa ‘“ 83rd Sin (n—3k) “ =S+Sr Se
An/x = ‘' “* (=)thS in (n——> Xk) years = S+0

"A= JAP ALP AG CP. he Ane = 8+8rX = (n—k) ...(7)
if k fA Se = (n—1) ee (8)

Next, suppose thespayments to be made at the beginning of
each period of k years; then it follows similarly that

A= FF a Br XS (nk) ins. sedenes sce ee (9)
fk = 1, A= wSpisrx Soe) oe eee (10)

The difference between the amounts as given by formulas (7)
and (9) equals S rn, which is the interest on S dollars at r per
cent for n years.

Example.

$100 set aside at the end of every six months and placed at sim-
ple interest at 6 per cent for 10 years will amount to, using
formula (7), 210 100+ .06 109.5 = $2570.

If this amount is set aside at the beginning of every period of
six months, we have, using formula (9):

A = 2000+ 100 .06 1010.5 = $2680.

b) Compound interest basis.

Let S, n, r, k, and A represent the same notation as used
above. In addition, let t — time in years between successive
compoundings of interest.

First, suppose the payments to be made at the end of each period
of k years.

Amount of Ist S in (n—k) years = S (14+rt) —
ss 6 Qnd 66 66 (n—2k) cic = 5 (rt)
“grat! (a BK) = 8 Uracil

<=

CORO Ree EHH HEHEHE HEE EEE EEE EEEHEH OHHH EES HEHE

FORMULAS FOR INVESTMENT CALCULATIONS 139

te es (=) ths in (n— 2 xk) years=§

A=S(1+rt)=== + S(i+rt)2* + s(1trt)2S* + +5
Hence, summing up the geometric series, we have
SIS) e/a) cn
A= ~(C-Frt)*/1—1 =
EGS S77 "aed eae,

ee et (12)

Formula (12) gives the necessary sinking fund to accumulate an
amount A in n years, etc.

If k=1, t—1, then

A= slaty Pea ARB, aeonesin’ (13)
al aati hell a helenae meas eames (14)
(1+r)"—1

Next, suppose the payments to be made at the beginning of each
period, then
A= S[(1+rt)"/ ++ (1+rt) — + Rata Ae

sl@4rn)= = — G+n)*/:
Aaa iSong be (15)
(1+rt)*/:—1
If k=1, t=1, then
Fret Crete Bee ae (16)

r

The difference between the amounts as given by formulas (11)
and (15) equals S[(1+rt)"/+—1], which is the amount of S
dollars at r per cent. compound interest for n years.
Example.

$100 set aside at the end of every six months and placed on
interest, compounded semi-annually at 6 per cent. for 10 years will
amount to, using formula (11), with r=.06, k=4, t=+, n=10,
S=100;

| a= HOLE 08)" 1) — 90687 03

140 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocIETY

If this amount is set aside at the beginning of every period we
have, using formula (15),
‘4 1001 (1.03)"—(1.03)]

— $9767.64
03 peor

ANNUITY.

An annuity is a fixed sum of money payable at definite inter-
vals of time (not necessarily every year). Evidently an unpaid
annuity, with interest, will amount to the same sumas a sinking
fund set aside at the same intervals. Hence, the formulas al-
ready derived for the amount of a sinking fund are also applicable
for finding the amount of an annuity.

PRESENT VALUE OF FuTURE PAYMENTs.

The present value, P, of A dollars payable n years hence is
equal to that sum P which when' placed at interest for n years
will amount to A dollars.

mals 2 ie at TPE ;
Hence, Cun a [See formula (6)] ......... (17)
A
i t=1, Pe eee eee
(itr) “2
Also, on simple interest basis, we have
tel eels : BA
— Geena) [See formula (4) Ue eee (19)

The present value, P, of an annuity of S dollars payable at the
end of every interval of k years for a period of n years with inter-
est compounded at the end of each interval of t years is the same
as that sum P which, if placed at compound interest, would
amount to A dollars, where A equals the amount of the annuity
in n years.

SiG-bryr7 a

(1+rt)*/t—1
A= P(i+rt)"/+t [See formula (5) |

Hence, eee

A= [See formula (11) |

FORMULAS FOR INVESTMENT CALCULATIONS 141

‘See
(Fst)? «
(1+rt)*/ 1-1

If k=1, t=1,

The present value of a perpetual annuity (n =o ) equals

Ss Bas ee arte OS
Geet Cie —=6h ly AS eae (22)

Equating formulas (3) and (7) it follows that, on a simple in-
terest basis,

ne J1++@-k) |
Etak 2 (93)
p= Tau) ge A Re os:
nS [4 Uae)
7Jt k=1, P= cL MRD EE EPR eo He Pe ce (24)

(1 + nr)

The present value of an annuity of S dollars payable at the
beginning of every period of k years, etc., is

sf + rt)¥/e— (1 + ae
P= t
(1 + rt)¥/t—-1

Z 1
. [a+»— ca| (26)

r

ie —-l ¢ — 1-then P=

If the annuity is perpetual (n= ),

pee ete ree tb — 0) ne SUL RE). Gf k=t=1)...(27)
(1+rt) ®t x

142 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Socrery

Equating formulas (3) and (9) it follows that, on a simple in-
terest basis,

nS [ een, n+)
t 2

ees. ck y mT 2 (28)
(1-++nr)
ae
7 pad Weer Ll a (29)
If k=1, P=nS [ (ites)

The difference between the present values as given by formulas
(25) and (20) equals

Easter]
“ (1+ rt)" 7%

Example.

Find the present value of an annuity of $1 for 20 years with in-
terest at 4 per cent.

Payments at end of each year:

P (Compound interest basis) = $13.59 (Formula 21)

P (Simple om hi = $15.33 (Formula 24)

Payments at beginning of each year:

P (Compound interest basis) = $14.13 (Formula 26)

P (Simple '; ‘".) = $15.78 (Formula 29)

To find the present value of an annuity which is to begin (a)
years hence and continue at the end of each interval of time k (in
years) for b years, interest being compounded every t years.

The present value of such an annuity, were it to begin k years
hence and continue for (a+b) years, equals

I:
1), Se
S [ (4+1t) =| (See formula 20)
(1-++rt)¥/ + —1
‘The present value of such an annuity, were it to begin k years
hence and continue for (a) years, equals

i
sf a |

ji (A+rt)*/ 1 =="

(See formula 20)

FORMULAS FoR INVESTMENT CALCULATIONS 143

The present value required is evidently the difference between
the above expressions.
S aes eee — 1
Corey UTeey fa Ee Mss (30)

(1+rt)¥/:—1

1 1
i 5 (i+rt)?/ | s
Hb==,P= Feo =

se
iy tC) ae (31)

Hence, P=

If the annuity is to begin (a) years hence and continue at the
beginning of every interval of k years, etc., then it follows simi-
larly that

k—
sats t “(14 t)—_ |. iriswe (32)
Bey G--rt)®¥/i—1

i p= aiP= 8 [ate | s [ain |
(GAS ESS Eee r

(if k=t=1)......... (38)

To find the future value P', the value m years hence, of an an-
nuity of S dollars payable at the end of of every k years for n
years, interest compounded every t years.

P' is evidently equal to the amount of the annuity of S dollars for
m years plus the present value of the annuity of S dollars for
(n—m) years.

Hence, using formulas (11) and (20), we have

pa8 [eter] +s [1 ara
; (1+ rt)! “/t—1

riieeet ee et 1 |
eGeert)= 7; —1). a+r), (34)

=5

144 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocréTy
If k=1, t=1

on
S (1+r) ‘ 7 | RP ys Pe (35)
= mCi eae
If S is payable at the beginning of every period of k years, etc.,
then it follows similarly that

m+k k—n1—m_ (3
s[ (i-trt) 2 art) id |- 7
p= (1+rt)*/ t—1
If k=1, t=1:
‘ ; m+1 Pan
oe [ate sae | aes
ly

BONDS.

Bonds are written or printed obligations to pay a certain amount
of money at a specified future time, together with the interest as
at becomes due.

Let P=price of a bond in dollars.

n—time (in years) the bond has to run.
r—rate of interest on par value of bond.
—face of the bond (V=P, if bought at par value).
—current rate of interest, compounded every t years.
x—desired rate of interest on the investment.
P (1+tx)"/ t=value of the purchase money at the end of n
years. [See formula (5)].
kVr=interest on the bond, received at the end of each interval
of time k.

The total amount received from the bond in n years, if each

installment of interest is immediate'y put at compound interest at

100s per cent—
kVr(1-+te) +kVr(1 +t) = | taye+ y=

TSS) ae ote
(1+ts)*/ t—1

V+kvVrx

ForMuLAs For INVESTMENT CALCULATIONS 145
n =e. 1+ts)"/ t—1
Now, let P(1+tx =V+kVr xX ( as
( LN TEN (1+ts)*¥/i—1

Evrx[(1-+ta)"/e— tJ] =
eee) —— fT ..(38)

Hence, (1+tx)= [+

Example.

What interest will a purchaser receive on his investment if he
buys at 120 a 6 per cent bond, with interest payable semi-
annually, that has 25 years to run, money being worth 5 per cent.

=100, P=120, n=25, s=.05, t—"/,, k=’/,,.

(+2)= [30 43 nee / 0 =1 024 (Formula38)
200 120 X (.025)

. X= .048 = 4.807/..

FUTURE PROVISION FOR A BOND ISSUE.

Let it be desired to find what constant payment Q (including
interest) must be made at the end of each period of k years in
order to extinguish a principal A in n years, it being understood
that each payment shall apply first to the interest due at the date
of payment, and the remainder, after this is satistied, be deducted
from-the principal before the interest for the next period is cal-
culated.

It is evident that Q must be equivalent to the interest per period
plus the sinking fund per period necessary to amount to the prin-
cipal in n years. Hence, we have, using formula (12):

A[(1 riya ool + kAr

sepasecoy ace tenes 39
ent ert) 7 1 e
a —. —— Ar = =
If k=1, t=1; Q (Ee) OAL FAD igo eh oadgd (40)

If the payments are to be made at the beginning of each period
of k years, then we have, using formula (15):

A [ (pry 4

v= Ciprt) 2F*— (1+ rt)F/* Geeeyoe

146 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocrEeTy

Ar
If k=1, t=1; Q= (1+r)™!1—(it+r) + Aru... (42)

wa

To find the aggregate payment and the Loe payments, if

Y dollars and also the interest on the reduced principal are to be

paid at the end of every period of k years, so that the whole debt
will be cancelled in n years.

n
Let us assume —— — whole number.

k
A kA

Evidently, Y = aa = Tao

Total amount paid at end of first period of k

years =kAr+ a
n

Amount at end 2nd period=(4—*4 ) kr + aA

Amount at end 3rd period=( A= mA.) kr + A

kn
< Jer'-- oe
n
nA kA 2kA
Total= kr fake bad [o+ i fe as ot b/, ARiLS Ce
(eee *Ay] +A
n
=ar (BEE) 2 eee Se (43)
Difference between any two successive payments,
—=Ar XK:
n

Example:—$100,000 in bonds at 4 per cent for 20 years are is-
sued. In order to meet this by the end of 20 years, $5,000 and
whatever interest may be due, are paid at the end of each year.

FORMULAS FOR INVESTMENT CALCULATIONS 147

What will be the aggregate amount paid and how do the payments
vary?

A=100,000, n=20, k=1, r=.04, Y=5000.

Total = 4000 x (=) + 100,000=$142,000.

Difference between payments—4000 1 —$200; that is, the
20
annual payment would start at $9000 and decrease by $200 each
succeeding year.

RELATIVE ECONOMY.

There are several methods of comparing the costs of articles of
structures in order to decide which will be the most economical in
the long run. All of these methods of comparison lead to the
same relative result, as will be seen later. The following elements
must be considered: (1) first cost; (2) life of article or struc-
ture; (3) cost of replacement or renewal; (4) rate of interest;
(5) cost of maintenance; (6) salvage or scrap value of the article
at the close of its period of usefulness.

CAPITALIZATION.

Phe capitalized cost of an article is that sum which is suffi cien
to’pay the first cost and provide for future cost of maintenance and
renewals forever.

Let C = first cost of article.

C’ = cost of renewal.

M = cost of maintenance during each interval of k years.

n = life of article in years.

D = scrap value of article at end of n years.

r = rate of interest, compounded every t years.

X = required capitalized cost.

M' = the amount at compound interest necessary to pro-
duce at the end of every k years the cost of maintenance.

R = the amount which, when put at compound interest,
will provide asum at the expiration of the useful life of the article
sufficient to renew it and also to leave a sum equal to the
original amount (less the scrap value) for further future provision,

148 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society

Then X — C++ WB
M
Now, M' = (1+rt)*7:— 1 (See formula (22); the present
worth of a perpetual annuity. )
If R is placed at compound interest, as stated above, we must
have
R (i+rt)"?/: = (C'—D)+R
(CD)
Whence R = (1+rt)"/ 1-1
Substituting these values of M' and R, we have the general
formula for the capitalized sum:
M (C—D)

X=C+ (1+ rt) /1-1 eh Citrt)"/ mae (44)
if k—1) t—1, and i (C —D) — ©: then
M C
x=c+ aa 5 (+r)®—1 ab slo's vteictnehaitinn = teeta (45)

In permanent structures the term R reduces to zero and we have
the simple formula:

iE

xe S(O Se Seta <a oe ihe ee

If only a portion of the structure is permanent, then the
term C' represents the cost of renewal of the part which is not
permanent.

Example.

The construction cost of certain waterworks ofa city is estimated
at $500,000, one-half being considered permanent, one-quarter to
have a life of 20 years, and one-quarter a life of 50 years. Annual
cost of operation and repairs equals $20,000. The rate of interest
is assumed to be 4 per cent, compounded annually. What is the
capitalized cost?

First cost—=C=$500,000.

Repairs at end of 20 years=$125,000; renewal fund=

125,000 4
(Losjray «—8104,945.00

FORMULAS FOR INVESTMENT CALCULATIONS 149

Repairs at end of 50 years=$125,000; renewal fund=

125,000 s
—— =20,470.30
(1.04)°—1 ao
Maintenance fund= 20,000 = $500,000
04
Hence total capitalized cost=
500,000 + 125,000 125,000 Ha 500,000=

(1.04)”—1 (1.04)*°—
$1,125,415.30.

COMPARISON OF COST ON BASIS OF ANNUAL EXPENSE.

The annual expense will consist of: (1) the annual in-
terest on the first cost—I; (2) the amount that must be
spent annually for maintenance—M; (3) the amount that
must be set aside annually and placed at compound interest to
provide for renewal at the expiration of the life of the ar-

ticle = B = (C'—D)r See formula (14).
(1+r)"—1
~ Hence the total annual expense — I+ M+ B
z: (C'—D)r i
=—Cr+ M+ es eee (47)

~ It will be noticed that this is the same as Xr or the annual in-
terest on the capitalized sum previously found.

The Jast term in formula (47) may be called the annual deprecia-
tion. The annual depreciation per unit of cost equals r

(1+r)"—1

Example.

Two locations for a highway are under consideration. Route
No. 1 is 10 miles long, will cost $2,000 per mile to construct it,
and will require an outlay of $200 per year for maintenance. In
addition to this, provision must be made for a $3,000 steel bridge,
which probably must be renewed every 15 years (scrap value=
$500, say). Route No. 2 is 11.2 miles long, will cost $1,600 per
mile to build it and $325 per year for maintenance. A_ bridge
will also be needed, which should be made of reinforced concrete,
a permanent structure, costing $6,000.

150 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY

With compound interest at 49 , which route will be the more
economical?
Annual expense of route No. 1=

(20,000+8,000) x 04-+200+ GMO= a aE = $1,244.85

Annual expense of route No. 2=
(17,920+6,000) X .044+-325 = $1,281.80
Hence route No. 1 would be slightly cheaper.
EXAMPLE.
Suppose a city with a population of 15,000 persons invests in
a water supply system costing $600,000 and the annual operating
expenses are as follows:

Buel, ands oll osc ogee see caus Hee $20,000
Sa lartes «0211.5 eset Bios Vat ete 12,000
PUL DES « pcs ss chek ernceasen Capee ee te 3,000

$35,000

The annual renewal and depreciation fund will be taken as 89,
of the cost of the plant.

Bonds, redeemable in 20 years, are issued with interest at
59. The increase of population is likely to double in 20 years,
but it will be assumed that future needs can be provided for by
additional pumps and that their cost will have the same relation
to the increase in earnings as the original cost has to the present
income, hence provision for future enlargement of plant will not
be considered in the problem.

The water consumption will amount to 100 gallons per person
per day. It is required to determine the selling price of 1,000
cubic feet of water and the annual cost per capita.

The annual revenue necessary embraces the following:
Sinking fund to pay the bonds 20 years hence

— 600, DOO, OD rcs laepmertie. 0il baud. gle $18,145
(1.05)”—1

Interest on bonds=.05 X 600,000.................. 30,000

Operating ‘exipiewbed 0! 152 GT ccaweegeseee 35,000

Renewal and depreciation fund = .08X 600,000 48,000

$131,145

FoRMULAS FOR INVESTMENT CALCULATIONS 151

: 131,145
Annual cost per capita = —2—~—""- = 88 76
per Capita 15,000 $8.76.

Water consumption per year = oo

= 73,200,000 cubic feet.

1 dae 131,145
Cost 1,000 et =—__— =$]1.79
per cubic feet 73200 e719

COMPARISON OF COST OF TWO AKTICLES ON BASIS OF EQUIVALENT CAP-
ITALIZED COST.
val wee . . .
Let X capitalized cost of one article.
xX = + "other:

Assume the cost of renewal equal to the first cost, then, using
formula (45):

C gee My ce Claas

(1+r)"—1 r (1+r)"—l

1] WW’ AT!

Similarly, xe = aeanee 35 Bu

one article of life of n years and C’ is the cost of the other article
with life of n’ years.

X=C+ aoe

where C is the cost of

Letting X = X' and solving, we have:

es R (ier) Geb | nu

7 Geer) 1 Gir)?
M—M | (1+r)"—1
| r Car):

. “ Q ° . 1 i
Neglecting the cost of maintenance, that is, letting M—M=0,
we have

C= [ Clima. ae

(1tr)"—1 | (i-fr)*

Example.

How much may be paid for a crosstie lasting 16 years to show

the same merit as a tie lasting 7 years and costing 55 cents, inter-
est at 5%?

152 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SociEry

n=16, n.=7, C=0.55.
Using formula (49),

CRORE.) (05)
C= 0:8) ~ 4(05)—1 (1.05)* | = $1.08.

This shows that a railway company could afford to spend $0.48
per tie for treatment with some preservative oil in order to make
the ties last 16 years instead of 7 years.

JOURNAL \>

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society
VOLUME XXVIII _ - _ DECEMBER, 1911 4y NO. 4.

WALDEN’S INVERSION
BY ALVIN S. WHEKLER.

During the years 1896 to 1899 P. Walden? published observa-
tions upon the behavior of optically active substances which were
the most surprising in this field since the fundamental Tesearches
of Pasteur. The discoveries of Walden showed that it was not
necessary to pass from an optically active substance to its racemic
form in order to reach its antipode. He found that this inversion
may take place directly. After 1889 Walden published no further
work in this line nor did any one el-c pay attention to this unex-
plained phenomenon until 1905 when E. Fischer and O. Warburg*
showed that the process could be employed with amino acids.
The most important of Walden’s researches is exhibited in the
- scheme below which shows a cycle of changes. It is seen that the
sign of rotation of the active chlorosuccinic acid and malice acid
may be interchanged at will.

PCls
l-chlorosuecinie acid | d-malic acid
| KOH, NH: |
AgeO | AgeO
KOH , NH: |
V <—— —
l-malic acid d-chlorosuecinie acid
—_——__ >
PCls

The change of configuration was named by Fischer the Walden
Inversion. Ifa reagent causes no change in the configuration, it
1. Ber.d. deutsh. Chem. Ges. 29: 1896; 30: 2795, and 3246. 1897; 32:

1833 and 1855. 1899.
2. Ann, Chem. (Liebig), 340: 191. 1895.

153 Printed February 16, 1912

154 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIEry

is said to act normally, whereas if it causes a change it acts ab-
normally. Owing to the uncertainty at times of the real con-
figuration, it remains a matter of opinion whether a reagent acts
normally or abnormally. It appears however that a single reagent
may act in both ways, as Fischer has observed in the case of
nitrosyl bromide which acts differently upon «-amino acids and
their esters.
d-alanine + NOBr — > |-bromoepropionic acid
d-alanine ester + NOBr ————> d-bromopropicnic ester
He also observed’ a difference in the product with silver oxide.
l-bromopropionic acid + Ags O—— > l-lactice acid
l-bromopropionylglycine + AgzQ —-—— > d-lactie acid
McKenzie and Clough’ have noted recently that similar reagents
may act differently. They found that |-hydroxy-pheny!propionic
acid was converted by thiony!] chloride into |-cloro- phenyl! propionic

acid whereas phosphorus pentachloride gave the dextro form.

All observations until recently have been confined to @-substi-
tuted acids. Lately Fischer and Scheibler have studied 1-6-
hydroxybutyric acid but were unable to prove an inversion.
These authors announce the forthcoming publication of the ob-
servation that the hydroxyacid obtained from f$-aminobutryic
acid by the action of nitrous acid is optically different from that
obtained by way of the chlorbutyri¢ acid by the action of nitrosyl
chloride. So far as noted the Walden Inversion is dependent up-
on the presence of a carboxyl group and the reactions are limited
to the displacement of an amino group by means of a nitrosyl

halide and to the displacement of a halogen group by an hydroxyl
group or vice versa. Although there remain still many gaps to
be filled, Fischer’ has suggested an explanation of the phenomenon.
As may be seen from the statements above, a Walden Inversion
takes place when the configuration of the molecule changes as a
result of substitution on an asymmetric carbon atom. Fischer
believes that the inversion is a general phenomenon related very
intimately to the mechanism of substitution. Whether a substi-
tution is followed by a change in configuration depends upoi the
nature of the reaction and on that of the atoms linked to the
3. Ber. d. deutsch. Chem. Ges., 40: 494. 1907.

4. Jour. Londou Chem. Soc., 97%: 2546. 1910.
5. Ann. Chem. (Liebig) 381: 123. 1911.

W ALDEN’s INVERSION 156

asymmetric carbon atom. Since the antipodes possess a like
energy content and therefore a like stability, there is an equal
probability of either isomer being formed. The changes may be
readily comprehended by the use of a new type of model devised
by Fischer The carbon atom attached to an iron rod is entirely
covered with steel bristles. The substituents consist of variously
colored celluloid balls attached to corks which are covered on one
side with steel bristles. A special system of two corks joined
together and having three bristle surfaces is designed to represent
subsidiary valencies. The mechanism of the changes is illustrated
by employing the conversion of «-bromopropionic acid into the
corresponding active amino acid by means of liquid ammonia, re-
garding the addition compound as consisting of one molecule
ammonium @-bromopropionate and one molecule of ammonia. The
balls 1, 2, 3, and 4 (Fig. 1) represent the four groups H, Br,

rig). Fig. IL

156 JOURNAL OF THE MIrcHELL SocIery

CH:, and COONHs, which are attached to the asymmetric carbon
7. The balls 5 and 6 signify the two parts of ammonia, H and
NH? which are concerned in the substitution process. They are
combined with the carbon atom by subsidiary valencies. The
Figure II shows more clearly the arrangement of this group. If
the halogen atom is set free and goes into the ionic form, the
amino (NH2) group may occupy its place. In this case no change
has taken place in the configuration of the molecule. It may hap-
pen however that one of the other three substituents, 1, 5 or 4,
will occupy the place of the halogen, leaving its place for the
amino group. Here the configuration is changed and the Wal-
den Inversion has taken place. If however both processes go on,
then either a partial or a complete racemisation will occur.

The experimental part of this paper describes a Walden In-
version carried out by the author® in the chemical Inboratory of the
University of Berlin with E. Fischer and H. Scheibler. @-Bromo-
isocapronic acid was converted into the hydroxy acid, known al-
so as leucine acid. We were able to resolve this into its active
constituents with brucine, quinine and chinidine, the salt crystal-
lizing out in each case being the laevo form. Chinidine proved to
be the best agent. The |-leucine acid was also obtained, for com-
parison purposes, from I-ieucine, by the action of nitrous acid.
The ethy! ester of both the racemic and the laevo acid were pre-
pared. Attempts to substitute the OH group in the l-ester were
unsuccessful, PCls and SOClz being tried. However it was readily
substituted by Br by means of Br and red P. The bromoester
proved to be dextro rotatory. The action of NOBr upon J-leucine
gives l-bromoisocapronic acid which yields the l-ester. ‘Ihe fol-
lowing scheme of changes shows that a Walden Inversion has
taken place.

l-leucine + HNO2 ——— > |-leucine acid ——-— > ]-leucine ester
1
1-leucine ——— > | leucine ester + NOBr ———— > d-bromoisoea-

pronic ester

WALDEN’s INVERSION 157

l-leucine + NOBr

— > |-bromoisocapronic acid ——— > ]-
bromoisocapronic ester

Experimental Part

Preparation of dl-leucine Acid. One hundred grams of a-bromo-
isocapronyl bromide in 1357ce normal caustic soda were auto-
matically shaken at room temperature until complete solution
took place and then heated several hours upon a water bath until
all bromine was ionized. The solution was now neutralized with
194cc normal H2SOs, considerably concentrated upon the water
bath, supersaturated with 120ce 5N-H2SOs and repeatedly ex-
tracted with ether. After distillation of the ether a mass of
crystals mixed with a sirup remained. The acid was purified by
conversion into its diffiultly soluble barium salt. recrystallizing it,
decomposing it with H2SOs and extracting with ether. The yield
amounted to 39.8 grams or 78 per cent of the theory. It may be
recrystallized by dissolving in ether and precipitating with ligroin.
The acid erystallizes in rhombie tables which if slowly formed are
very large. The melting point is 76-7°. The purity was estab-
lished by analysis.

Resolution of dl-leucine acid into its optically active components,
Thirty grams of dl-leucine acid were dissolved in 500ce water and
mixed with a solution of 84g(1 Mol )chinidine, containing alcohol
of crystallization, in 299ce of aleohol. The solution was concen-
trated to about 500ce and kept 15 hours at room temperature after
impfing. The yield of the chinidine salt amounted to 45 gr, much
of which was racemic. After two recrystallizations from very
weak alcoho! the yield amounted to 39g or about one half of the
theoretical amount. Thisgave an acid of the rotation, (a)%—96 9°
(in NaOH solution). This salt was nearly pure and was used
for further work. The twice recrystallized, finely pulverized
chinidine salt was shaken 15 minutes with an excess of normal
NaOH. The filtrate from the separate chinidine was treated with
an excess of HeSOs and several times extracted with ether. After
distillation of the ether the acid is recrystallized from ether +
ligroin. It occurs in thin prisins and melts at 81-2°, with pre-

158 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY

vious softening. The rotatory power of the sodium salt is greater
than that of the free acid, the specific rotation being -27.8° as
against -10.4°. The details of the analyses are here omitted. A
pure dextro acid could not he obtained from the mother liquors,
although it formed salts with other alkaloids. The highest rota-
tion obtained was +11.9°.

Preparation of l-leucine acid from l-leucine. Five grams of 1-
leucine of rotation (a)$= + 15.8° (in a 5 per cent solution in a
20 per cent HCl) were dissolved in 57cc N-H2SOs and treated at
0° with a concentrated solution of NaNOz (4g or 1.5 Mol.). The
nitrite solution is added slowly during the course of a half hour.
After standing 2 hours at O° and three hours more at room
temperature, the solution is extracted with ether and the hydroxy
acid so obtained is converted into its barium salt. The acid thus
purified had a rotation of («)$= -27.7°. The yield amounted to
72 per cent of the theory. The action of nitrous acid is therefore
smooth and proceeds without essential racemisation. The acid
showed a melting point of 81-2°.

Optically pure d-léucine acid could not be obtained through reso-
lution of the racemic acid but could be readily obtained by the
action of nitrous acid upon d-leucine. The liydroxy acid so ob-
tained gave melting point of 80° and a rotation of (2)$=+26.3°

Ethyl! ester of dl-leucine acid. The method originated by Fischer
and Speier was employed. Five grams of dl-leucine acid, dis-
solved in 15g absolute alcohol containing 0.22g HCl, were boiled
4 hours under a reflux condenser. The solution was pured into
5 parts of water, extracted with ether and the ethereal solution
thouroughly dried over Na2SOs. After driving off the ether the
ester distilled at 80-1° under 16mm pressure. The yield amouted
to 4.85g or 80 per cent of the theory. The ester had a faint,
pleasant oder, was difficultly soluble in water but easily in alco-
hol or ether.

Ethyl ester of l-leucine acid. The preparation of this ester was
carried out exactly as that of the inactive ester. The properties
were also the same. The rotation was («)}= -11.07°. Theester
yielded an hydroxy acid of rotation (4)$= -26.9°.

Transformation of the ester of di-leucine acid into the ester of d-o

WALDEN’s INVERSION 159

bromisocapronic acid. Many attempts were made to substitute the
OH group by Cl by means of PCls and SOCl2 but without success.
The introduction of bromine however was readily carried out.
Two and one half grams of the dl-ester were well mixed with 0.5g
red P, cooled by a freezing mixture and 3.7g Br slowly introduced.
A vigorous evolution of HBr immediately took place. In order
to complete the reaction the mixture was allowed to stand at 0°
for three hours and then 15 hours at room temperature. The
product was treated with water and sodium bicarbonate with
simultaneous introduction of ice. The reaction mixture was ex-
tracted with ether and the ethereal solution dried with sodium
sulphate. After driving off the ether the ester was twice distilled.
It boiled at 86-7° under 11mm pressure. The yield amounted to
1.25g or 36 per cent of the theory. The same experiment car-
ried out with the l-ester yielded the dextro ester of a-bromisoca-
pronic acid. The boiling point was 91-2° at 18mm _ pressure.
Two grams of the l-ester gave 1.0g of the d-bromester or 3.6 per
cent of the theory. The estershowed a rotation of (2)?=+40.0°,
The rotation of the ethyl ester or l-4-bromisocapronic acid as given
by Fischer’ is (¢)—= -43.1°. This value however is too small
since the acid employed was 16 per cent racemic.

All determinatioms of the rotation of the free acids were carried
out in NaOH solution. and in sodium light. The experimental
details for l-leucine acid, for example, areas follows: 0.1321g
substance were dissolved in N-NaOH. The total weight of the
solution was 1.3307 g and density at 20°—1.0144. The rotation
at 20° and in sodium light in a 1dm tube was 2.88° (0.02) to
the left.

Chapel Hill, N. C.

7. Ber. d. deutsch. Chem. Ges., 40: 502. 1907.

THE CREST OF THE BLUE RIDGE HIGHWAY

BY THOMAS F. HICKERSON.

Highways built primarily for scenic purposes are common in
Switzerland, France, Germany, and many other countries of
Europe, but they exist only toa limited extent in America, the
most noted ones being the roads in Yellowstone Park, Yosemite
valley, Adirondacks, the Crawford Notch Road in Newhampshire,
and Vanderbilt’s Road to Mount Pisgsh.

The scheme for a scenic highway and a chain of hotels through
the mountains of Western North Carolina, where the scenery is
considered by many to be equal of any in the world, was thought
out and put into effect through the efforts and influence of Dr.
Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist. The proposed location of
this highway extends from Asheville to Boone, but the ultimate
plen is to extend it, from Boone northward by Whitetop Moun-
tain to Marion, Virginia, in order to connect with the Bristol-
Washington Highway which passes by Roanoke and through the
Shenandoah Valley, and Asheville southward by way of Hender-
sonville, Brevard, Toxaway, Highlands, Tallulah Falls, Ga.,
Cornelia, Ga., to a point on the National Highway, and thence to
Atlanta.

There will be approximately 353 miles of the highway between
Marion, Va. and Cornelia, Ga., nearly all of which lies in North
Carolina. The following table gives the portions which are al-
ready graded and constructed etc.,

a go Ee rds) por

& | 8q \bee | #2

= | gg Seb | 22

SECTION e- |\Seo | 32

3 Zs Fe am aS
% kS |UD = _8
= Ss 86 0d| eh

| A we moe ue
ie Ee rue) a oe. TERS S| gees
Marion; Va., to. Boone, NOC). oe |S re | 75 aes
Doone ito ASheville.c. 2c. 60c we aceee eee 134 52 6 76
Asheville ito Toxaway s..:2\<aict-esc0s eee 64 64). cckctos| Nee
Toxaway to Highlands... Sscauty welsh eeeRee ate 28 2853). 20 eo
Highlands to Tallulah F., Gat ee BOte. eee Ae 30

Tallulah F. to Cornelia, Ga. aisicistatelan bitte See Nee 5 PN Mee 22) eee
Potals 2) -2eene ese eee csesseceeeee | 353) 144 103 106

160

THE CREST OF THE BLUE RiIpGE HIGHWAY 161

The total length of the Highway from Boone to Asheville, the
part with which this paper deals, will beabout 134 miles. Several
sections have already been constructed, namely;

Boone to Blowing Rock............ 10 miles
Blowing Rock to Linville ......... 22 miles (Yonahlossee Road)
Linville— Pineola— Grassland...
BrusrysCreele Gap <i ice ce ise ces 13 miles
Mt. Mitchell Station to Little
SIMO AINE ed pod sac cine, «hs dels eid 3 miles
Bull Gap to Asheville ... ...... 10 miles
Mme Rebrey trhe BSG see 8 Scean fae 58 miles.

About six miles of the road between Linville and Brushy Creek
Gap needs to be revised, hence the total length of road to be con-
structed equals 82 miles.

Sixteen weeks of the last two summers have been spent in
making a survey of the territory between Linville and Asheville.
The part surveyed during ten weeks of the summer of 1910 under
the auspices of the North Carolina Geological and Economic Sur-
vey extends from Linville to Buck Creek Gap. There were ten
men in the party besides the cook and camp boy, the chief engi-
neer was Mr. W. L. Spoon, who was then State Highway Engineer.
The other members of the party were: T. F. Hickerson, Transit-
man; J. M. Costner, Levelman; N. C. Hughes, Levelman; R. T.
Brown, Front Rodman and Chainman; M. L. Lasitter, Rodman;
J. F. Speight, Stakesman; P. M. Smith, Level Rodman; Alex
Feild, Chainman; and C. C. Brown, Rodman. All of the party
were University of North Carolina men except Lasitter and
Speight, who were CE. graduates of the North Carolina A. and
M. College. The party lived eight weeks in tents and two weeks
in boarding houses. The two camp sites were near wagon roads
and only a few miles from the C. C. and O. Railway so that sup-
plies were easily obtainable.

The survey during six weeks of the summer of 1911, under the
auspices of the Appalachian Highway Co., of which Dr. J. H.
Pratt is president, starts at Bull Gap (a deep gap 10 niles east of
Asheville and 2 miles from Rattlesnake Lodge, Dr. C. P. Am-
bler’s summer home, where the party spent ten days very pleas-

162 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SoOcIETY

antly) and extends to Step’s Gap, near Mt. Mitchell. There
were eight in the party in addition to the cook and camp box, as
follows: TT. F. Hickerson, Chief Engineer; kt. T. Brown,
Transitman; P. M. Smith, Levelman; N.S. Mullican, Rodman;
S. E. Rarbour, Front Rodman; Geo. Strong, Level Rodman;
Arthur Ambler, Stakeman; McKinley Pritchard, Chainman. All
the members of the party were from the University of North Caro-
lina excepd the last two mentioned. This section of the moun-
tains embracing a portion of “‘Craggy’’ and the‘ ‘Blacks’’ averages
about 5000 feet in elevation and is wild, rough, and inaccessible.
There were no wagon roads and scarcely any trails that could be
travelled in safety with a horse. Moving from place to place the
camp equipment,consisting of seven terts, ten folding cots,clothes
and two double blankets for each person, a stove, cooking vessels,
table ware, rations, and numerous other things, was a problem of
transportation more difficult than any of the party had ever met
before, since everything had to be packed on mules or portaged a
distance of about seven miles over steep and rough trails. There
were three camps; the first at Carter’s Field near Craggy, the sec-
ond at Balsam Gap, the third at Toe River Gap.

This party also had in charge the location and constructien of a
horseback trail from Bull Gap to Step’s Gap. — It follows fairly
closely the site of the Highway, but for the most part lies nearer
the summit of the ridges and peaks. Mr. William Palmer and
his party built this trail two feet wide at a price of $50.00 per
mile.

Since the Highway is to be primarily a scenic road for tourists
it was located as near the summit of the mountains as the maxi-
mum allowable grade, directness, and feasibility of construction
would permit. No grades will exceed 41 1-2 per cent (which
means 41 1-2 feet per 100 feet or 238 feet per mile). The width
of the road will be at least 20 feet. The surface will be of earth
or gravel or macadam, the last being necessary at some places on
account of the scarcity of dirt and the abundance of loose rock.
Much of the located route lies on the north side of the mountain
because it was found that there is less declivity and far less rock
on northern than on southern exposures to the sun,

THe Crest oF THE Bi ve Ringe HigHway 163

The instruments used in making the survey were as follows:
Aneroid barometer, Pedometer, Abney hand level, Gurley transit,
and Engineer’s level. Topographic maps made by the United
States Geological Survey were very successful as a guide.

The first step in the preliminary survey was a walking trip over
a few miles of the territory for the purpose of getting a clear idea
of the topography with reference to the selection of the best route.
Barometer readings were taken at controlling points, such as low
gaps and summits of ridges where the scenery is especially good.
Hand level readings were taken here and there to determine rough-
ly the grades to various points. The next step was the exact lo-
cation, by means of the hand level, of the route outlined during
the reconnaissance. It often happened that several trial lines had
to be run before the most feasible route could be determined. Huge
solid rock cliffs with almost vertical faces were often encountered.
This necessitated either a raising or lowering of the grade line in
order to dodge tliem. Fortunately this was done in every case
without exceeding a 4 1-2 per cent grade. In several places nar-
row ledges of solid rock could not be avoided and hence consider-
able blasting will be necessary for short ‘distances.

Loops were resorted to as seldom as possible and were always
located so that the turn was made on comparatively flat ground
where excessive excavation would not be required. In about a
dozen places between Linville and Asheville loops were introduced
to reach a low gap, or cross a ridge, or surmounta rock precipice.

When the most suitable route was finally established after due
consideration had been given to directness, economy of construc-
tion, and scenic advantages; the transit, level, and cross section
parties came along with two or three axemen and made an accu-
rate instrumental survey of the located line, so that a map show-
ing the plan, longitudinal profile, and transverse profiles at inter-
vals of 100 feet can be drawn, from which an estimate of the cost
can be made. Notes were made of stream crossings, property
lines, character of the soil, amount of rock, extent of forest and
open ground, and all points of interest.

The average grade along the whole location is about 4 per cent.
This means that there are practically no level grades. If two

164 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY

gaps, one mile apart, had the same elevation it would make the
route more direct in most places to run up on 4 per cent. half
way and down on 4 per cent. half way instead of running on a
level the whole distance, on account of the fact that the spur
ridges and coves are much wider and deeper lower down on the
mountain.

The maximum and the average altitudes of the various sections
of the Highway between Boone and Asheville are as given be-

low:
- LeSaisc
SECTION Ee i =
Be | Beis
AS #e | <8
Boone to Blowing Rock..........20++-s2:ns0s-1e 10 .5s:|) 10-0)SS00 maED
Blowing Rock to Wuimillereerec cere soacer cacener een ttee eaee ae 22.0| 4000) 3800
Linville to Altapass.... Se 25.5| 4100) 3700
Altapass to Little Switzerland....... ESTE er eg Sree 6.5 3300; 3000
Little Switzerland to Buck Creek Gap ...................- : 12.5) 3800) 3500
Buck GreekiiGap ‘to Step’s'Gap. 34072 ee ee 22.0 6200, 4500
Step’s Gap to Craggy Fields . EPs ceo tee 13.0, 6200 5700
Graccy Pields to "Asheville. ie ene 22.5. 5500, 3500
134.0

Total .

The loeation from Asheville to Boone in detail is as follows:
beginning at Asheville, the proposed highway coincides with the
road to the top of Sunset Mt., for a distance of five miles. A de-
tailed description of this road, as seen in ‘“‘The Manufacturer’s
Record,’’ October 26, 1911, is as follows: ‘‘An exclusive automo-
bile road, nearly all of which is 3 per cent. grade, with none
greater than 5 per cent., beginning at the foot of Sunset Mt.,
near the end of Charlotte street, Asheville, and winding around
the face of the mountain to its summit, has just been opened to
the public ny Dr. E. W. Grove of Asheville and St. Louis. The
entire length of the road to the summit has been laid with ma-
cadam. There are signs at approaches to all curves to ‘Blow
Horn’’, wh'le at its intersection with the carriage road that also
leads to the suminit are signs giving notice that carriages are not
allowed on this road. The carriage road over a different course
also has signs advising the public that automobiles are not allowed

THE CREST OF THE BLuE Ripgk HicHway 165

on it. The distance from the center of the city to the summit of
Sunset Mt. over this road is five miles, and motoring over its
smooth surface presents to the eye views of rare sublimity and
grandeur. The consummation of the tourists enjoyment: is at-
tained when the summit of the mountain is reached. Here, at
an altitude of 3119 feet above sea level and nearly 1000 feet above
the ec ty, is a spread of vernal beauty that encompasses rare de-
lights of valleys and summits, and in the full look across the
Asheville plateau there is a world of grandeur and a loveliness of
setting that stretches away to the far off mountains in the west,
where the majestic peaks of Pisgah, Richland Balsam, Cold
Mountain and the Bald pierce the sky at altitudes of 5749, 6540,
6000, 5400 feet, respectively, with a dozen others ranging in
height from 3100 to 5000 feet This automobile road connects at
the Summit of Sunset with the Crest of the Blue Ridge Highway,
which is to extend from Asheville to Blowing Rock, along the
crest of the mountains, at elevations ranging from 3100 to 6200
feet above sea level.’’

Mr. E. W. Grove owns 700 acres of land including Sunset
Mountan and intends building a big hotel on the summit of this
mountain.

From Sunset Mountain the location extends to Bull Gap along
an existing road which needs revision only for 4 mile; thence,
around the north and west side of Richland Knob, Courthouse
Knob, Lanes Pinnacle crossing ridges and curving in and out of
coves to Potato Gap; thence, along the south side of Snowball
Mt., through Carter’s Field and onwards climbing a long loop on
the western side of Craggy Knob to the edge of Craggy Fields, the
favorite rendezvous for camping parties and the proposed site of a
hotel; thence, through Craggy Gap around the west and north
side of Craggy Pinnacle, the north side of Craggy Dome to the
gap between the Dome and Bull Head; thence, up grade following
near the summit of Bull Head Ridge for + mile reaching an ele-
vation of 5700 feet, and then down grade with a succession of
loops along another ridge, (locally known as Peach Orchard
Ridge) leading to Palsam Gap, the beginning of the Black Moun-
tain Range, and the dividing line betwean the Asheville water-

166 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Socrery

shed on the west containing 13,000 acres of magnificent timber
consisting mostly of balsam which still : ake hiding places for a
few bear and deer; thence, winding around the north side among
the beautiful balsams, and following along the east side of Black-
stock Knob in full view of Mt. Mitchell, the north side of Potato
Knob, Clingman’s Peak, Mt. Gibbs, to Step’s Gap at an elevation
of 6200 feet and about 14 miles from the summit of Mt. Mitchell.
This is the nearest point on the proposed highway to the Peak,
but during the past summer a survey was made by Messrs.
Chisholm and Osborne of Charlotte for a highway from Black
Mountain (on the Southern Railway) up Walkertown Ridge along
the east side of Graybéard and the Pinnacle of the Blue Ridge
through Toe River Gap and Step’s Gap to the west of Hallback
and around the west side of Mt. Mitchell upwards to its summit.

The Mitchell monument, which is a zine shell filled with loose
rock, is the first thing of interest on the top of the mountain. The
inscription on the monument is as follows: “Here lies in hope of
a blessed resurrection the body of the Rev. Elisha Mitchell, a Pro-
fessor in the University of North Carolina, who lost his life in the
scientific exploration of this mountain, in the 64th year of his
age, June 27, 1857.”’

The ownership of Mt. Mitchell is in dispute. The Connelly
heirs have probably the best claim. A log cabin with a kitchen
in one end and bunks in the other, was built on the top of this
mountain during the past summer.

The section from Step’s Gap by way of Toe River Gap to Buck
Creek Gap has not yet been surveyed, though it is certain that it
will follow somehow along the crest of the Blue Ridge from Toe
River Gap eastward, in fact, the Blue Ridge will be followed all
the way from here to Blowing Rock.

Beginning at Buck Creek Gap and running northeastward the
location lies on the north and west side of the mountain until the
summit is reached, it then follows along the crest of the ridge to
the Blue Ridge Meadows; thence, mostly along the north side,
around peaks, and across ridges to Gooch Gap; thence, through
Bear Wallow Gap and by Little Switzerland to Gillespie Gap;
thence, on a southern and eastern exposure partly along an old

THE CrEST OF THE BLUE RipGE Highway 167

tram road built by the C. C. & O. Railway to McKinney Gap,which
is + mile from Altapass, the highest point on the aforesaid rail-
road; thence, across a ridge along Rose Creek for a short distance
and then by the way of Hog Gap upwards by windings and loops
to the top of Hump Back Mountain; thence, alung the top of
Hump Back and down on the western side to Brushy Creek Gap,
about 2 miles from Linville Falls; thence, by tne way of Alta-
mont, Grassland, and Pineola to Linville; thence, along the
Yonahlossee Road over the southern and eastern slopes of Grand-
Father Mountain to Blowing Rock; thence, to the left of the
Blue Ridge, along a graded road, which is at present a toll road
to Boone.

Water is searce along the route over Craggy and the Blacks.
During the past summer, which was unusually dry in the moun-
tains, several springs became dry. Sign boards giving the loca-
tion of springs will be placed along the Highway.

Stone walls or wooden railings will be built along the edge of
the road where the ground is dangerously steep below, also at the
ends of loops.

The cost of building the 82 miles will amount to about $400,000
or roughly $5,000 per mile. The Yonahlossee road from Blowing
Rock to Linville cost $1,100 per mile, and the road from Mt.
Mitchell Station to Little Switzerland cost $3,300 per mile, but
neither of these is wide enough. There is every reason to believe
that this Highway will be completed within the next few years.
Several railroads are interested and have promised to contribute
liberally. Large amounts will be obtained from private subscrip-
tions. Several of those living in the neighborhood of the road
have already voluntarily offered to give as much as $500.

Every variety of scenery unsurpassed for its beauty and grandeur,
comprising, as it will, extensive views into the Piedmont region,
nearer views of deep valleys, and mountain tops, and ridges, with
here and there a most attractive and beautiful waterfall and
streams of clear crystal water penetrating the dense green
forests, together with the invigorating air and refreshing breezes
and other pleasures of local interest such as rhododendron, azalea,
ferns, galax leaves, balsam, spruce, an abundance of chestnuts

168 JOURNAL OF THE M1IrcHELL SocleTy

and huckleberries and wild strawberries, trout-fishing, etc., will
afford infinite enjoyment to the tourist.

The section of the Appalachian Mts. through which the crest of
the Blue Ridge Highway will pass contains the loftiest peaks east
of the Rocky Mts., with mountain slopes covered with a more
varied fauna and flora that is found in any other section of the
country.

In ordor to get an idea of the superiority of the scenery in
Western North Carolina over that in New England we may note
the following, from S. M. Dugger’s book on ‘“The Balsam Groves
of the Grandfather Mountain’’.

Highest summit east of the Mississippi, Mitchell’s Peak

incNorth | Carolamarc:.s..cose< ab Seren eee altitude, 6,711 feet,
Highest mountain in New England, Mount Washington
in New. Hamp SAIte.....cacqeetseacey) aeewadeenons ¢ .. altitude, 6,285 feet,

difference, 426 feet.
Among the peaks jointly possessed by North Carolina and East
Tennessee there are 23 which surpass Mt. Washington in height.
In addition to these, there are 23 other mountains which exceed
6000 feet, but fall short of Mt. Washington; and there are still
79 others which exceed 5000 feet, many of them closely approxi-
mating 6000.

The completion of this “‘Crest of the Blue Ridge Highway”’
will render possible wonderful developments in the agricultural,
mineral, forest, and water power resources of the mountains, be-
sides attracting thousands of pleasure-seeking tourists. As a pure-
ly scenic highway, it is destined to become one of national im-
portance.

Chapel Hill, N. C.

THE PLANT LIFE OF HARTSVILLE, S, C.
BY W. C. COKER

INTRODUCTION

South Carolina has been the home of several of the most prom-
inent botanists of America. Thomas Walter, an Englishman by
birth, who lived on the Santee River in the upper part of St.
John’s Parish; Stephen Elliott, of Charleston; H. W. Ravenel,
of Pinopolis and later of Aiken,—these are honored names in the
history of our science; nor are they by any means all who have
made valuable contributions to the botany of the State. Dr.
Francis Peyre Porcher, Dr. James McBryde, Dr. J. H. Melli-
champ, and Prof. Louis R. Gibbes were all native South
Carolinians and careful students of its flora. All of these men
lived and worked in the lower half of the State, in fact all but two
entirely below the Santee River. With the exceptions mentioned
below, the flora of the northern and northeastern parts of South
Carolina was left without any particular study, and knowledge
of its composition has been largely a deduction from what was re-
ported from similiar or adjoining areas. There is much work yet
to be done before the composition and distribution of even the
higher plants of the State can be said to be at all well known.
Mr. Ravenel and Dr. M. A. Curtis did considerable work in the
fungi, but with these exceptions the lower plants havejbeen studied
searcely at all.*

No catalog of the plants of South Carolina has ever been com-
piled. Elliott’s book was called “‘A Sketch of the Botany of South

*Observations on the vegetation of South: Carolina by the pioneering
botanists of the early days,—travellers like Catesby, Bartram and the two
Michauxs,—are of much interest and value, but they can be mentioned here
onlyin passing. See also my articlesin THe JouRNAL or THE ELisHA M1TCHELL
Screntiric Society, as follows: ‘‘A Visit to the Grave of Thomas Walter,”’
Vol. 26, April, 1910. ‘‘The Garden of Andre’ Michaux,’’ Vol. 27, July,
1911. ‘‘Dr, Joseph Hinson Mellichamp,’’ Vol. 27, May, 1911,

169

170 THE JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocIetTy

Carolina and Georgia,’’ but none realized more than the author
the necessary incompleteness of the work, especially for the upper
part of the State. The local lists that have been published are
those of Thomas Walter for the upper part of Berkeley County,
of Prof. Gibbes for Columbia and environs, of Mr. Ravenel for the
vicinity of the Santee Canal (being a part of Walter’s territory),
and of Dr. John Bachman for the neighborhood of Charleston.*
At the end of his list of the more noticeable native and naturalized
plants of South Carolina, in the volume on South Carolina pub-
lished by the State Board of Agriculture in 1883, Mr. Ravenel
gives the number of flowering plants known at that time in South
Carolina as 1,810. A considerable number have been added since,
and with a complete survey the total would probably reach over
2,100.

A history of the botanical work done in Darlington County can
be written in a few words. As it lies somewhat off the direct line
between Charleston and the North, or between Charleston and
Columbia, few itinerant botanists have stopped in the district.
Dr. Lester F. Ward passed through the county in 1895 and col-
lected a few plants near the town of Darlington; and it is pos-
sible that Prof. Louis R. Gibbes of Columbia or Mr. H. W.
Revenel may have picked up something,here. However, I have
not seen or heard of any specimens in their collections from this
section. The botanical exploration of the county has been con-
fined almost entirely to one man. Rey. M. A. Curtis, a gifted
botanist of wide reputation, was for nine years (1847-1856) rector
of the Episcopal church at Society Hill in the eastern part of
Darlingten County, about seventeen miles from Hartsville. He
gave his attention largely to fungi, and together with the Rev.
M. J. Berkeley of England published a large number of new
species in that group. However, he did not by any means neg-
lect the flowering plants. He published no list of Society Hill

*In addition to these Dr. F. P. Porcher has published as a thesis for the
degree of M. D., an extensive and valuable Medico-Botanical Catalogue of
the ‘‘Plants and Ferns of St. John’s, Berkeley, South Carolina;’’ and a paper
by me on the Flora of the Isle of Palins, appeargd in Torreya tor August, 1905,

‘STITH purg oy} UT oUt JBo[-suo'T Jo qiMoid plo puw sunoxX

Vegetation of Hartsville.

Plate I.

THe Piant LIFE oF HartsvIL_p, S. C. iG!

plants or any papers dealing exclusively with the flora of this re-
gion, but several new species of Angiosperms were described by
him from Society Hill, among them being Ilex Amelanchier and
Baptisia Serenae. Appreciation must also be expressed for the work
of Mr. W. D. Woods, of Darlington, who through newspaper articles,
correspondence and personal effort, has encouraged through a long
life the study and preservation of our native trees.

CLIMATE OF HARTSVILLE

The altitude of Hartsville is 214 feet, its latitude about 34° 4™
and 2sec., its distance from thesea about eighty miles. The town
has no station of the weatherbureau andjno records of consequence
are at hand. The climatological data may, however, be approxi-
mately guessed at from the records of nearby stations. For this
purpose I give below a table containing the more important rec-
ords for several of our nearest neighbors:

Altitude nee eee Highest Lowest An ean
in Feet perature Temp. Temp. cipitation
Society Hill. 192 For 18 years) In 18 years |In 18 years|For 17 years
61.8 100 0 49.31
Darlington . 155* t: In 6 years | In 6 years |For 13 years
101 8 47.26
Cheraw....... 144 |For 29 years| In 20 years | In 20 years For 21 years
| 61.6 104 | 9 47.66
Columbia...| 351 |For 22 years| In 22 years | In 22 years For 26 years
| 63.2 106 2 46.62
Camden .. 222 t In 4 years | In 4 years For 42 years
100 | 12 44.18
AKON, 252... 565 |For 25 years| In 25 years! In 25 years |For 26 years
63.9 107 | 3 46.43
Hartsville ..| | 214* | |

From the data in this table the conditions at Hartsville may be
very closely approximated. Darlington is about fourteen miles
from Hartsville, Society Hill about seventeen miles,Camden about
forty miles, but the temperature of the two last places is much
nearer that of Hartsville than is that of Darlington. I would

*Elevation at the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad station as given by their
survey. The weather bureau gives the altitude of Darlington as 175 feet.
All other altitudes in the table are taken from the Weather Bureau reports,

172 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHELL Society

guess that Hartsville is a littlecolder than Society Hill and the
least bit colder than Camden. It is considerably colder than Dar-
lington.. As expressed by the vegetation there is a difference of-
nearly ten days in the coming of spring in Darlington and Harts-
ville, and there are some remarkable differences in the native
vegetation. For example, the following coast plants are
found wild or naturalized at Darlington but not at Hartsville:
Carolina laurel cherry, or mock orange (Prunus caroliniana),t
Darlington oak or laurel oak (Quercus laurifolia), Decumaria
(Decumaria barbara) and Gray Moss (Tillandsia usneoides).~ One
small spray of the gray moss has been found hanging over Black
Creek at Hartsville.

As the nearest available information in regard to the rainfall of
Hartsville there are given below diagrams of the data for Society
Hill and Darlington:

SOCIETY HILL "DARLINGTON

Diagrams showing the mean annual rainfall for each month at Society Hill (for the
seventeen years preceding 1909) and for Darlington (for the thirteen years preceding
1909). From the U. 8. Weather Bureau reports.

+I know of about six trees of this species ‘i that owe appeared spontane-

ously in or near the swamps and bays at Hartsville. In Darlington it has
escaped abundantly.

+The non-occurrence of these plants at Hartsville is supposed to be due to
a difference in climate. There are a number of others whose absence is due
to soil characters, e. g., certain shrubs and trees of the Pee DeeSwamp,

Tue Prant Lire or Harrsvin1e, 8. C. 173:

There is no doubt that one of the principal factors influencing
the distribution of species is the length of the growing season;
and this may be determined by the mean occurence of the last:
killing frost in spring and the first killing frost in fall. The
nearest stations to Hartsville for which this data is available are
Cheraw and Florence. For Cheraw the average date of the first
killing frost in fall is November Ist, and for the last killing frost
in spring is April 5th. For Florence the dates are November 7th
and March 31st. This would give a growing season of 209 days
for Cheraw and 220 days for Florence. Hartsville’s growing’sea-
son would be nearer that of Cheraw’s, say about 212 days.

There are no humidity records for this section of South Caro-
lina, but I think there is no doubt that the humidity is less in the
vicinity of the Sand Hills than in any other part of the State. Itis
almost certainly atmospheric dryness that accounts for the absence
of the red cedar from this section, and that halts the gray moss at
Darlington. The very rare occurrence, say once in twenty years,
of cold waves that drop the temperature for a night or so to the
neighborhood of zero seems to have little effect in determining the
constitution of the flora. Length of growing season, atmospheric
humidity, and mean lowest temperature are much more impor-
tant.

The climatic position of Hartsville may be understood best,
perhaps, when we consider the success or failure there of certain
well known cultivated plants. A number of half hardy sub-
trophical species such as camellia (Camellia japonica), tea (Camel-
lia Thea), camphor tree (Cinnamomum camphora), oleander
(Neriwm oleander), Cape jessamine (Gardenia jasminoides) may be
successfully grown in the open, but our rarely occurring zero
weather will injure them if unprotected. Oranges and other
citrus fruits cannot withstand the average winters, but the new
citrus hybrids, called Citranges, such as Morton, Willits, and
Rusk, thrive and bear well.

TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY.

Hartsville is situated on the exact inner edge of the upper drier
part of the coastal plain, marking, therefore, the northern boun-

174 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocreTy

dary of this great geographical division of the State. Just to the
north of the town proper is the rapid descent of about 50 feet into
the valley of Black Creek. This valley, with certain irregularities,
extends for approximately one-half mile and is terminated on its
northern edge by the outposts of the Sand Hills, which, gradually
rising in gentle undulations, extend their barren prospect for
miles to the northward. These Sand Hills are on the line that
separates the Piedmont plateau from the coastal plain, and are a
transition from one to the other. In their vegetation and geo-
logical origin they approach more closely to the character of the
coastal plain. They were once much _ higher than they are at
present, as is evidenced by the occurrence among them of a consid-
erable hill, called Sugar-loaf Mountain, which rises to an eleva-
tion of 150 feet above the surrounding country and is capped by
a layer of sandstone of sufficient strength to resist the extensive
erosion that has elsewhere taken place. These hills mark the
coast line of a Pleistocene sea that, shortly before the Glacial
Epoch, halted here for thousands of years. An elevation then
took place and the sea receded southward, exposing its level floor
as our fertile and extensive coastal plain.

A cross section of the coastal plain in the neighborhood of
Hartsville would show the following geological formations:

Ist. Recent. A surface layer of a few inches to a foot or more
in thickness composed of a rather coarse gray, sandy loam, known
as the Columbia sands.

2nd. PLetoceENE? LArayETTe Formation, About 20 or 25
feet of variegated clays and sands, often highly and attractively
colored. These may be seen at the big water cut across Home
Avenue above Mr. McNair’s place.

3rd. Mrppie Fresa Water Cretaceous: Macoruy ForMATION:
Drab or black clays only a few feet in thickness, containing
much lignite and vegetable matter. Many pieces of wood occur
in this stratum, perfect in shape but very soft.

4th. Lower Fresh Water CRETACEOUS: Poromac FoRMATION.
This is the oldest of the coastal plain deposits, resting uncon-
formably on the crystalline, igneous rocks below. It is character-
ized by absence of fossils, distinct banding, and the thickness of

‘STITH PUBS 90} BY oUTq Jeel-SuoTy Jo 4}M0I3 puodag

Vegetation of Hartsville . Plate IT.

SF gigs 3: 5: : ee
~<a Ss pre ee

i ger a
a

THE PLANT LIFE oF HartTsvit_e, S. C. 175

its component layers of sands, clays, arkoses, gravels, etc. It is
often stained with iron or other pigments, and mica is plentiful.
It is from the sands of this formation that the artesian water that
supplies the town is obtained. This water is as nearly pure as
ground water can be, and its remarkable clearness and sparkle
make it unsurpassed as a table water.

In the lower part of the county there is unterpolated between
the Lafayette and the Magothy a deposit of Miocene marls of
marine origin, and at places there are outcrops of this
formation that have been worked for agricultural lime.

The general surface configuration of the country south of Black
Creek valley is that of a remarkably level plain, with gentle eleva-
tions and depressions and occasional erosion cuts by the streams.
As a result of this topography the surface drainage is often not
good and open ditches are much used to empty pockets and lower
the water surface in cultivated land. Except on a very few sandy
knolls on the southern rim of the creek valley, that are really
outposts of the Sand Hills, the nature of the vegetation on the level
plain is determined very largely by the position of the water sur-
face in the soil, and it is easily seen that the main ecological plant
formations are dependent chiefly on this factor.

According to the United States Soil Survey of Darlington
County there are in the immediate neighborhood of Hartsville
five types of soils. The town itself is shown in their map as
situated on the Orangeburg sandy loam, but there is evidently
some mistake here* as this type is described in the text as con-
taining ‘‘from 10 to 40 per cent. of water-worn pebbles, which
rarely exceed the size of a man’s thumb.’’ As every one who
lives in Hartsville knows, the soil does not contain such pebbles.
Even the boy with the slingshot never found them out. This type
is shown as extending to the foot of the hill towards the lake, and
there being replaced by the Norfolk sand, which composes the
flat valley, and with some interruptions extends up into the sand
hills a mile or more, where it merges into the ‘‘Sandhill’’ type.

. *The town really stands, I think, on the Norfolk sandy soil and the
Goldsboro compact sandy loam.

176 JOURNAL OF THE MITcHELL Society

The plantation immediately south of the town is of the Golds-
boro compact loam type (according to the above-mentioned
report), which may be said to correspond roughly to the flat-
woods.

The plant formation that I describe as Well Drained Upland
Forest, which should include, I think, most of the area covered
by the town and the hill slope to the north, seems to be typically
characterized by the type of soil called Norfolk sandy soil by the
Survey.

In describing the vegetation of the region it will be best to dis-
tinguish the principal plant formations and then to take up each
in turn. Including the sand hills, streams and swamps, as well as
the various distinctive areas of the level uplands, we may distin-
guish in the vicinity of Hartsville as many as six ecological di-
visions or areas, as follows:

{st —THE Sanp HItts, or Pink BARRENS.

The soils are extremely porous and composed very largely of
sand, the surface specimen analyzed by the U. S. Soil Survey
showed 94.78 per cent. coarse and fine sands and only 0.77 per
cent. cf organic matter. The subsoil is a yellow sand of the same
texture, and of slightly higher clay content. In lower spots the
proportion of humus is much greater and the soil is denser and
damper.

2nd—THE WELL-DRAINED UPLAND FoREstT.

The soil is that of the Norfolk sandy loam which is described
as follows by the Survey:

It ‘“‘consists of from 12 to 24 inches of a gray sandy loam, not
unlike the soil of the Goldsboro compact sandy loam. A super-
ficial examination might not suffice to distinguish the two types,
but the subsoil gives rise to a variation in crop production which
is quite evident. This subsoil is a sticky yellow loam or clay,
which contains enough medium and fine sand, however, to render
it much more friable than the subsoil of the Goldsboro compact
sandy loam.

‘“There are a few areas of this type bordering large sand tracts,
but its normal occurrence is as a narrow border, varying in width

THE Prant LiFe oF Hartsvit_p, §. C. 177

from one-half mile to two miles along the smaller streams. As
the stream is approached the sandy soil becomes deeper and the
subsoil lighter in texture.

“On account of the position of this soil the drainage is gen-
erally good. The uncleared areas support a heavy growth of pine
and the various hard woods common to the uplands of this
section.’’

When cleared it makes an excellent type of farm land, but on
account of the rather coarse texture it is somewhat inferior to
certain of the more compact soils.

3rd—TuHE PoorRLy-DRAINED FLAT-woobDs.

These areas are somewhat lower than the preceding ones and are
so extremely flat that the drainage is poor. Thesoil is Goldsboro
compact sandy loam, and is thus designated by the Survey:

‘‘The surface soil is an ashy-gray sandy loam, 10 to 20 inches
in depth. There is usually a slight stickiness and coherency in
this sand which distinguishes it from the [s]oil of the Norfolk
sand. The subsoil is a tenacious and rather impervious clay loam,
varying in color from yellow to dark gray. At lower depths the
snbsoil becomes lighter in texture. The line of contract between
soil and subsoil is well defined.’’

4th— THE SavaANNAs.

These conspicuous and interesting formations are undrained
depressions in the flatwoods where the water stands at or above
the surface for a considerable period of the year. The surface
soil is a heavy, peaty, sandy loam and the subsoil is generally a
dark gray sticky pipe clay that is almost impervious to water.
In colder climates the savanna would probably be a Sphagnum
bog.

5th—SwamMps.

These may be devided into two sorts: the Shallow Swamps or
Bays (often called ‘‘Galls’’ or “‘Gall Bays’’), and the Deeper
Swamps; and the Bays may be further divided into the alluvial
or typical Bays and the non-alluvial or Flat-woods Bays. The
typical Bay is a low, wet, alluvial area of deep, fertile, more or
less muddy soil, rich in humus, with a pervious subsoil and some

178 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Socrery

surface drainage. In the lower areas slowly moving surface water
is generally present in pockets and runs between the tussocks.
The non-alluvial or Flat-woods Bay is a formation that occupies
an intermediate condition between the Flat-woods and the Savanna.
There is no drainage and the distinction is one of water content
of the soil. The surface of the ground is almost saturated in
rainy seasons, and damp and dry seasons, and the vegetation is
quite different from either the Savanna or the Flat-woods. This
is the formation that is called a ““pocosin’’ in eastern North Car-
lina, although the term is used sometimes, it appears, to include
the alluvial Bay (see Harper, Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, Vol. 34,
page 361). The Deeper Swamp is like the alluvial Bay except
that the surface is under water for a good part of the year. The
bays are not subject to inundation and scouring from stream fresh-
ets and the deeper swamps are, and in its effect on the vegetation
this is perhaps the most significant difference between them.
6th—STREAMS AND Ponps.

Here the vegetation is aquatic and is either free floating or
attached to the muddy or sandy bottom.

It will be best to take up the plant covering of each of these
types in turn.

VEGETATION.
THE SAND Hits.

The covering of these hills is a thin open forest of two stories—
the upper one of long-leaf pine (Pinus palustris) towering high
below the scrubby growth below. In the original condition the
pines were moderately close, but not enough so as to cast a dense
shade. The magnificent trees extend their spreading crowns at
an altitude of 75 to 100 feet and seem more sure of themselves and
more in character here than in anyother place. And in reality it
is only in these barren hills that the long-leaf pine is holding its
own against the constant encroachment of the old-field pine that
now seriously threatens its supremacy tn all other parts of the
coastal plain. For many years all the destructive powers of man
have been waged against this most admirable natural product of
the Southern States, until now there is scarcely anywhere to be
found in an undisturbed fragment of the original sand hill forest.

Plate III.

Vegetation of Hartsville.

ame

> "
avzte

.

Catesbaei).

(Quercus

A large specimen of Turkey Oak

THE Puanr LIFE oF HarrsviL1p, S. C. 179

The pines have been boxed and burned and cut for sawing until
they are now only thinly scatteredfover the “hills. — But fortun-
ately they are reseeding themselves quite well in many places, and
with the observance of the most clementary principles of forestry
they could be renewed and increased indefinitely.

The frequent woods fires are still more or less destructive to the
young plants, but after close observation for a number of years lam
now convinced that the idea expressed by W.W. Ashe in several of his
bulletins*,that this species is more susceptible to in jury by fire than
theold-field pine is entirely erroneous. It is true that its growth is
so slow that when five years old the bud is usually but a few inches
above the ground, but the very dense and abundant protective scales
of the bud are wonderfully efticient in keeping out the heat from
the delicate growing point. Moreover, the widely spreading mat
of long, succulent, mature leaves that rest on the ground prevents
the accumulation of inflammable material near the bud and thus
greatly reduce the intensity of the heat. Early in the spring of
this year, when all buds were dormant, a severe fire in eG
the woods between Burnt Bay and Prestwood’s Lake. During the
first week in June the ground was looked over carefully for evidence
on this point. The woods are rather open and a large number of
young long-leaf pine had gotten started. The mature leaves were
killed back almost or entirely to the bud, and were largely burned
off, but I could not find a single plant even though an inch high
that was not putting out its fresh young leaves from the unhurt
growing point. On the other hand, nearly all of the young:plants
of the old-field pine were killed and many of them were four to
six feet high. It is of course true that year old seedlings of long-
leaf pine cannot resist hot fires, and the destruction of very young
plants in the way is doubtless a:great deterrent at present to the
reforestation of the sand hills.

Gifford Pinchot was the first to call attention to
superior adaptations of the long-leaf pine to fire resistance.
National Geographic Magazine for October, 1

the
In the
ate ct 899, page 298, hesays:
*See: Bulletins N. C. Geol. Survey, No. 5, page 58: No. 6,: pages 157-165,
and No.7, page16. In these bulletins Mr. Ashe gives an excellent discussion
of;the long-lenf pine problem and of the methods necessary to secure the
continued propagation of the forests.

180 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY

“Almost all trees yield readily to slight surface fires during the
first ten or fifteen years of their life. To this statement the long-
leaf pine is a conspicuous and rare exception. Not only do the
young trees protect themselves in early youth by bark which is
not uncommonly as thick as the wood (the whole diameter being
thus two-thirds bark and one-third wood), but they add to this

_unusual armor a device specially adapted for their safety when
growing amid long grass, usually a most fatal neighbor to young
trees in case of fire. It is to be noted that the vast majority of
long-leaf pines are associated with grass from the beginning to the
end of their lives. During the first four or five years the long-
leaf seedling reaches a height of but four or five inches above the
ground. It has generally been erroneously assumed that this
slow growth makes it specially susceptible to injury from fire; but
while the stem during these early years makes little progress,
the long needles shoot up and bend over in a green cascade
which falls to the ground in acircle about the seedling. Not’ only
does the barrier of green needles itself burn only with difficulty,
but it shades out the grass around the young stem, and so pre-
pares 2 durable fire-resisting shield about the vitals of the young
tree.’’

In his little book on ‘‘The Long-Leaf Pine in Virgin Forest,’’
published in 1907, G. Frederick Schwarz discusses this
point and calls attention to the exceptional fire-resistance of
the long-leaf pine after the first two or three years of growth.
On page 71 he says: ‘‘Without attempting to minimize the
immediate and serious harm done to young growth, it may
be asserted that the destruction of long-leaf pine seedlings by
surface fires has been somewhat exaggerated and misun-
derstood; at any rate, so far as concerns seedlings over two
or three years of age.’? And which admitting that one or two
year old seedlings are destroyed as a rule by fires he says
(page 72): that ‘After the seedlings have attained several years’
growth they begin to offer wonderful resistance to surface fires.’’
In the Bulletin of the Torrey Bot. Club, Vol. 38, p. 523, 1911, R.
M. Harper says: ‘‘It is pretty well known that long-leaf pine,
after it is four or five years old, is less affected by fire than almost

Plate IV.

Vegetation of Hartsville.

Upland Willow Oak (Quercus Cinerea) in the Sand Hills.

-
-

in +< Faddgaliey

Tue Puant Lire oF HarrsviLte, S. C. 181

any other tree we have, and in Southern forests periodically
swept by fire little else can grow but this pine and a great variety
of more or less xerophytic, mostly perennial, herbs, among which
various grasses are usually most abundant.”’

In the original condition of our forests the old-field pine was
largely confined to the boundaries of swamps, bays and water
courses. Over the remainder of the country the long-leaf pine was
supreme. I think it probable that this condition was due principally
to the fact that the long-leaf pine was able to endure the fires of
the uplands, while the old-field pine was not. ‘The latter was
pushed aside to protected places. The present preponderance of
second growth old-field pine in most thrown out land, outside of
the sand hills, is probably due to two factors—Ist, the infrequency
of fires in cleared old fields, and 2nd, the insufficient seed pro-
duction and limited seed distribution of the long-leaf pine. Given
an equal chance and protection from fire and the old-field pine
seems able to supplant the long-leaf pine from most of the good
lands that it once occupied. It is different in the Sand Hills.
There the soil is too poor to support the old-field pine and the long-
leaf pine is given a free hand. Its present slow propagation there
seems to be due as much to the scarcity and infrequent seed pro-
duction of old trees as to fires, though these certainly do great dam-
age,as mentioned above, inthe destruction of young seedlings. The
fact that the long-leaf pine can reproduce itself in the Sand Hi'ls
and is doing so abundantly in places is evidenced by the growth
shown in Plates I and I.

Below the pines the rather low growth of the hills is composed
most largely of several species of scrub oak. Among these the
turkey oak, or fork-leaved black-jack, as it is more often called,
(Quercus Catesbaei), is by far the most abundant, especially in the
most barren places. It is almost always associated with broad-
leaved black-jack (Q. marilandica), upland willow oak (Q. cinerea)
and post oak (Q. stellata). The turkey oak and upland willow
oak are typical sand hill species, but the other two occur also in
more genial soils, where the latter reaches a much greater size.
Though characteristically very small and scrubby the turkey oak
may in the most favorable situations become a tree of considerable

182 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocretTy

proportions—say 40 feet high and 2 feet indiamater. One of the
largest I know of is that shown in Plate III near the Baptist Church
building.

The upland willow oak is the smallest of all our species. The
largest specimen I ever saw is shown in Plate [IV (a winter
view). It is about 25 feet high and 14 inches in diameter. The
association of this oak as shown in the picture will give a good
idea of what is characteristic of sand hill conditions. Tall long-
leaf pines are scattered in the back ground, and in middle
ground are small trees of turkey oak, black jack oak, post
oak, a few stunted persimmons, choke cherries ( Prunus serotina) ,
and sassafras bushes. Poison oak ( Rhus quercifolia) and summer
grape (Vitis aestivalis) were the only other woody plants. In
August, 1910, the flowers in bloom around this tree were Vernonia
graminifolia, Liatris pauciflora, Chrysopsis graminifolia, Dasystoma
pedicularia (fly poison) and Ascyrum hypericotdes.

In the most barren knolls of the hills, where the sand is purest,
about the only trees that can stand the conditions are the long-leaf
pine and the turkey oak. And there is no shrub that can be said
to be tolerant of such places. But where the slightest advantage
in moisture is to be had the trees already mentioned can establish
themselves, and a number of shrubs become characteristic com-
ponents of the cover. Horse sugar (Symplocus tinctoria), stagger-
bush (Lyonia mariana), sumach (Rhus copalina), and the sum-
mer grape (Vitis aestivalis) are frequent. The Carolina holly
(Ilex caroliniana), a small shrub with large deep red, shiny ber-
ries, is also a member of this community, but it is rare, in fact
one of the rarest Hartsville shrubs. It will grow in much damper
soil, as for example in front of the Upper Farm Place on Home
Avenue.

Bear grass ( Yucca filamentosa) and rattlesnake master (Eryngium
aquaticum) require slightly damper soil than the preceding group.
They are usually to be found near the foot of slopes that descend
to water courses and bays. But I have found the rattlesnake
master in very dry places at times, and also in almost saturated
soil. Another little shrub that can endure almost the extremes
of poth drought and moisture is the low black huckleberry

Plate V.

Vegetation of Hartsville.

Pine and Oak woods below Captain Cannon’s Residence.

THE PiantT Lire oF HaAxtsvILye, S. C. 183

(Gaylussacia dumosa). This plant can flourish under a remark-
able range of conditions. It is as much at home on the damp
edges of savannas, associated with Lycopodium adpressum and L.
carolinianum as it is in the sand hills in company with the serub
oaks. Next to the pines and oaks there is nothing so at home in
the sand hills as the wire grass (Aristida stricta). Its grayish-
green, terete, wiry, recurved leaves form large tussocks thinly
scattered in the sand. Frequently there is so little other growth
that the pure white sand may be seen from a long distance shining
under the trees.

The sand hills are not without their share of attractive flowers;
in fact, with the exception of the savannas they are the most color-
full of the floristic regions of our section. In early spring all
except the most barren places support a good display of violets
and bluets ( Houstonia caerulea), shoe strings (Cracca virginiana),
and the dainty little dwarf iris (/ris verna). Arbutus (Epigaea
repens) is also very frequent here, and lovely in early spring.
Wild phlox (Phlox Hentzii) and the blue flowered lupine (Lupinus
diffusus) are very conspicuous, but occur only rather sparingly in
scattered patches. At severa! spots in the hills there have been
discovered in recent years a number of colonies of that most
eharming little carpet plant, Pycidanthera barbulata, called flower-
ing moss. It has been known before only from the pine barrens
of New Jersey and North Carolina.* In summer there is a con-
tinuous series of bioom that reaches its height in August, with a
number of conspicuous composits, such as Chrysopsis graminifolia,
Chrusopsis aspera, Chriysopsis pilosa, Vernonia augustifolia, Aster
concolor, Silphium compositum, Coreopsis delphinifolia and species of
goldenrod.

Other characteristic herbs of the hills are Stillingia sylvatica
(queen’s delight), Cracca ambigua, Cracca spiccata, Amorpha
herbacea (lead plant), Indigofera caroliniana (wild indigo),
Astragalus apilosus, Hieracium Gronovii, Carduus repandus (thistle),
Breweria trichosanthes, Baptisia tinctoria, Asclepias tuberosa (butter-
fly weed) Tragia wrens, Euphorbia Ipecacuana, Euphorbia Curtisii

?

*See my article in Torreya, Vol. Il, page 9, Jan., 1911.

184 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY

Euphorbia maculata, Penstemon laevigatus, Onosmodium virginianun,
Paspalum setaceum and Stenophyllus capillaris. There is a small
sedge (Cyperus Martindalei) that is also abundant here, but it had
not before been reported from the State.

THE UPLAND ForEstTs

The vegetation of the well drained upland forests of this sec-
tion has been largely cleared away, but certain areas still remain
that exhibit to some extent the primitive conditions. Originally
it was as in the Sand Hills, a two storied forest with long-leaf
pine as the dominant, but not the most abundant tree. Most
of the pines have now been felled, but the vigorous and luxuriant
growth of broad leaved trees that reached almost to the lower
limbs of the pine crowns has been scarcely changed. The oaks
are the dominant factor now, as they are in the Sand Hills, but
are of different species. The Spanish oak (Quercus falcata) and
black oak (Q. velutina) are the largest and by far the most
numerous trees. Both of these oaks are of fine proportions,
often reaching a height of seventy feet and a diameter of 3% or 4
feet. Next in abundance come the post oak (Q. stellata) and
white hickory (Carya alba). The former, which in the Sand
Hills is scrubby or even bushy, is here a large tree, second
only to the black, scarlet, and Spanish oaks. The scarlet oak
(Q. coccinea) is a rare but beautiful member of this com-
munity. There is a very large old tree of this species on the
lawn of the old Law Place (now the residence of Mr. A. M.
McNair).

Among the smaller trees dogwood is abundant, and pignut
hickory (C. glabra), persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), sassafras,
and choke cherry (Prunus serotina) are frequent. There are few
shrubs except im open places, wheresumach (Rhus copalina), red-
haws (Crataegus uniflora), cow itch (Tecoma radicans), and Jersey
tea (Caenothus americana) are common. The slope of the hill
towards the creek supports a fine forest which exhibits well the
transition from the dryer to the damper well-drained soil. Its
crown is covered with the growth just described, but on the slope
there appear a few scattered trees of short-leaf pine and old-field

‘(epevL snuig) eld Piel PIO sapun (WNesoqie wINIMIDIBA) AIJaqaTyirdg

Vegetation of Hartsville.

“

ee

me

me

pig tee

ee a5

v2

“
om

THE Piant LIFE oF HarRTsvIL_e, S. C. 185

pine, and there is more dogwood (Cornus florida), choke cherry
(Prunus serotina), sumach (Rhus copalina), and Jersey tea (Cean-
othus americana). There were once a number of chinquapin bushes
(Castanea pumila) on this hillside opposite Burnt Bay, but they
are now nearly all gone.

At the foot of the hill behind the residence of Capt. E. W. Cannon
there are several acres of well-drained fertile land that slopes gently
toward the lake, and supports an untouched forest that exhibits well
aslight modification of the conditions just described. In Plate V is
shown a photograph of this spot. The old-field pines are very
tall and fine and rise far above the hard-wood growth of oak,
hickory, etc., with gums and holly near the lake. In the center
of the photograph is shown a fine post oak with wide spreading
branches. The lower woody growth is most conspicuous for its
very fine dogwood (Cornus florida) and sparkleberry (Vaccinium
arboreum). The latter is as luxuriant and abundant as [I have
ever seen it, andin places almost forms thickets, as shown in Plate
VI. It here composes about all the undergrowth and is twelve to
fifteen feet high.

Where the two paper mill roads go down the hill there are scat-
tered specimens of the pretty little dwarf flowering locust (Robinia
nana), one of our rarest shrubs. On newly deposited soil near
gully washes, etc., one may occasionally find catalpa trees (Catalpa
bignonioides) and red mulberry (Morus rubra), both probably in-
troduced and not native. The bullace grape (Vitis rotundifolia)
and the summer grape (Vitis aestivalis) are quite plentiful in these
woods, as they are in most places that are not too wet. Wild
“‘honeysuckle’’ (Azalea nudiflora) is also found here but is more
at home in the flatwoods. As the foot of the hill is reached and
the soil becomes more moist the appearance of holly, (Jlex opaca),
yellow jessamine (Gelsemium sempervirens), horse sugar (Symvplocus
tinctoria), etc., indicates the transition zone to bay-margin con-
ditions.

Beginning a little way above Captain Cannon’s Place the swamp
margin is bordered on the south side by more or less abrupt bluffs
which may reach the entire height of the valley, as at the old
Bacot Place. The vegetation of these bluffs represents the most

186 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Socirry

northern element of our flora. Here is Mountain laurel (Kalmia
latifolia) in profusion, and the rare combination may be seen of
kalmia trees adorned with luxuriant vines of yellow jessamine.
Perhaps the most interesting plant of these blufis is colt’s foot
(Galax aphylla), which occurs in plenty in several places, and
reaches here its seaward limit so far as I can ascertain. Spotted
wintergreen (Chimaphala maculata), heart leaf (Asarum arifolium),
partridge berry (Mitchella repens), arbutus (Epigaea repens), snake
root (Aristolochia serpentaria), calamint (Clinopodium carolin-
ianum), witch hazel (Hamamelis virginica), and sourwood (Ozay-
dendrum arboreum) are attractive plants that occur here at their
best. At two or three places along these bluffs, as at Laurel Land
and below the paper mill, the remarkable little trailing huckle-
berry (Vaccinium crassifoliam) , with firm, oval, evergreen leaves is
found.

In Plate VII is shown the vegetation of these bluffs as it ap-
pears at Laurel Land. Mountain Laurel (Kalmia latifolia) is in
the foreground, holly (lea opaca) and white oak (Quercus alba)
in the background.

At the top of the high bluff behind the Bacot place there are
a few escaped trees of mock orange (Prunus caroliniana) and
Chinaberry tree (Melia Azedarach). As in the case of the peach,
such occasional escapes as this do not entitle these trees to a place
among the naturalized flora of the section.

To one accustomed to more northern conditions the most
striking peculiarity of our rich woods is the almost entire absence
of the conspicuous early spring flowers that show their attractive
colors before the sun is cut off from them by the ieafing of the
trees. We bave no anemones, hepaticas, or bloodroot, or giant
chickweed, or spring beauty, or dogtooth violets (which are not
violets at all). The hills and savannas have considerable color
from herbaceous plants, but the deeper woods get most of their
spring charm from the woody plants, as kalmia, yellow Jessamine,
dogwood, and azalea.

THE FLATWOODS.

A transition from the well-drained forest to the more pronounced
flatwoods may be noticed in the pine grove to the right of Home

ate VIII.

I]

artsville.

ation of H

t

Vege

Young Long-leaf Pine in dense shade,

gi
Suid.

ee a

Tue PLANT Lire or Hartsvit1e, §. C. 187

Avenue, in front of the Upper Farm Place. Here for the first
time we find a considerable amount of the short-leaf pine (Pinus
echinata), and with it are associated long-leaf pine and old-field
pine. Among these I was surprised to find a large tree of pond
pine which is here in as dry a situation as I know of for the
species (see Pond Pine under Hartsville trees). This is the only
bit of level ground I have seen where these four coastal plain
pines are to be found within a few yards of each other. Below
the pines is a rather complete covering of shrubs and small trees.
In addition to black oak and spanish oak there is water oak
(Quercus nigra), willow oak (P. Phellos) and some black jack (Q.
marylandica). One of the most conspicuous things about the
grove is the large number of young holly (Jlex opaca) trees which
are more abundant here than in any place I know of near Harts-
ville. The other trees are dogwood, white hickory, sassafras,
choke cherry and persimmon. The shrubs are sparkleberry
(Vaccinium arboreum), which is in great abundance, Carolina holly
(Ilex caroliniana) , red haw (Crataegus uniflora) , and another species
of Crataegus not yet determined. The perennial and almost shrubby
little calamint (Clinopodinum carolinianum) is abundant. Yellow
jessamine, bullace grspe and summer grape are the only vines.

The re-seeding of the three species of pine in this grove
is a point of considerable interest. There is abundant
reproduction of the short-leaf pine, less of the old-field pine and a
little of the long-leaf pine. Most of the young growth is in the
more open places, but even in quite shady spots among the
shrubs there are a large number of slender, delicate and struggling
little short-leaf pine plants that grow about three inches a year
and when ten years old are often not thicker than a lead pencil.
Among the young long-leaf pines that were scattered here and
there were some that were withstanding a shade so dense as to
seem quite prohibitive to such sun-loving plants. One of these
young trees is shown in Plate VIII. It is growing in a dense
clump of sparkleberry bushes and short-leaf pine saplings. over
which is a canopy of bullace grape vines. The extent of the shade
is indicated by the occurrence around the foot of the pine of
clumps of moss and of a number of plants of pipsissewa (Chi-

188 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY

maphila maculata). This little pine is at least twelve years old and
is only three feet three inches high, but it is far more stocky and
vigorous than a number of young short-leaf pines near it, several of
which had been killed by the shade. Another surprise was the find-
ing in the same grove ofa young long-leaf pine closely surrounded by
hollys (Ilex opaca). In fact all one’s previous experience in re-
gard to the associations and requirements of the long-leaf pine
seems controverted here.

Among the herbaceous plants in the grove are Aster concola,
Vernonia angustifolia, Lespedeza repens, Dolicholus erecta, Crotalaria
Purshii, Lespedeza virginica, Lespedeza Nuttalii, Galactia volubilis,
Stylosanthes riparia, Zornia bracteata, Baptisia tinctoria, Schrankia
angustata, Polygala grandiflora, Euphorbia Curtisti, Dasystoma
pedicularia (fly poison), Helianthemum majus, Lechea villosa,
Lechea racemulosa, Lechea Torreyi, Chimaphila maculata, Hypoxis
hirsuta, Erigeron ramosus, Hieracium venosum, Solidago odora,
Vernonia angustifolia, Chrysopis graminifolia, and Sertcocarpus
bifoliatus. On a ditch bank through an open field near here are
a good lot of honey locust trees (Gleditsia triacanthus) , a few hack-
berries (Celtis crassifolia), and a single small ash tree (Fraxinus
Darlingtoniana), the only one I have found in the neighborhood
of Hartsville.

For the typical low flatwoods I shall select for description that
area lying directly south of the residence of Mr. J. E.
Miller. Here the long-leaf pine is still present in consider-
able quantity in mixture with the old-field pine, which
is the dominant tree of the flatwoods. The relative abun-
dance of these two pines fluctuates very rapidly according to the
slight dips and elevations of the surface, the long-leaf pine prefer-
ring the higher ground.

Originally the pines stood pretty close in the flatwoods, but in
most places they have been so culled as to be now considerably scat-
tered. The general effect isratheropen. The willow oak is abun-
dant, and is perhaps the most characteristic tree. The other ar-
borescent growth consists of water oak, Spanish oak, black jack oak,
post oak (a little), black gum, sweet gum, and persimmon. Be-
neath the trees the shrubbery is more or less clumped, with open

THE PLANT LIFE or HarrsvitiA, S. C. 189

spaces between. The small gallberry (Ilex glabra) and the wax
myrtle (Myrica cerifera) are the most abundant shrubs. The
former is evergreen and in such open positions is rarely over three
feet in height. On May 24th, 190%, it was in full bloom and its
black berries of the preceding season were still hanging on in
abundance. The wax myrtle is of two forms, a large shrub three
or four feet high, that often stands close against the boles of the
pines, and a small dwarf variety, one foot high or less, that runs
extensively in open places. To this latter form Dr. J. K. Small
has given the name of Myrica pumila. As there has been some
doubt as to whether M. pumila is a species or merely a growth form
of M. cerifera dependent on environmental influences, [ undertook to
settle the point by planting the two forms side by side both at Harts-
ville and at Chapel Hill, N.C. After several years each retains
its character completely, thus proving at least a varietal dis-
tinction.

There is a good deal of the little stagger bush (Lyonia mariana)
around the edges of the other shrubbery. It is very pretty when
covered with its large, white, bell-shaped flowers. The only other
shrubs noticed in this area were high blackberries (Rubus An-
drewsianus) and sumach (Rhus copalina). Plate IX is a photo-
graph of these woods.

As we pass through these flat woods in a southerly direc-
tion the surface gradually becomes more depressed and the
soil damper until we enter a typical flatwoods bay, called a
‘‘pocosin’’ in North Carolina.* Its vicinity is marked by an in-
crease in the number of gall-berry and wax myrtle bushes, and
the appearance of Azalea nudiflora and clumps of cat-
brier (Smilax rotundifolia). In general aspect the flatwoods bay
is much like the alluvial bay, but the tiers of vegetation are
generally more sharply marked, there being fewer broad leaved
trees of medium height to fill in between the pines and the shrubs.
But there is considerable variation in this respect. So tar as I
know there are no bays around Hartsville where the growth is
confined to the tall pines and a dense low undergrowth of mostly

*There is some difference of opinion as to exactly what a pocosin is. See
Harper in Bull. Torrey Botanical Club, Vol. 34, page 361. 1907.

190 THE JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocIETY

evergreen shrubs such as I have seen farther down the State near
Lane’s. The pines in our flatwoods bays are always old-field in-
stead of pond pine, but with the exceptions mentioned below the
appearance and constitution of the shrubby undergrowth is
almost the same as in the alluvial bays. In addition to the pine
the following trees, mentioned in order of abundance, are always
present: black gum, sweet gum, red maple, sweet bay, and a little
holly (Ilex opaca). Among the shrubs the two gall-berries (Ilex
glabra and Ilex lucida) are by far the most plentiful, and next to
these in quantity come the high-bush huckleberry (Vaccinium
corymbosus) and cat-brier (Smilax rotundifolia). Choke-berry
(Aronia arbutifolia) is also present in moderate amount and there
is some bamboo-briar (Smilax laurifolia), though it is nothing
like so plentiful here as in the alluvial bays. Blackberry (Rubus
Andrewsiana) occurs on the ditch banks, but not in the body of
the bay. Zenobia pulverulenta and Zenobia cassinifolia are two
beautiful shrubs of the heath family that are partial to the flat-
woods bays, but they are very erratic in their occurrence. They
prefer the wet, undrained soil of these bays and are rarely
found in alluvial bays,* but all flat woods bays do not contain them.
They multiply by underground shoots and frequently from
rather extensive patches, to the exclusion of other growth.
In Plate X is shown a large clump of each of these species.
Zenobia pulverulenta is at the right and Zenobia cassinifolia is at
the left. Both are in flower, and a charming display they make.
The point where this photograph was taken is not in the area just
described, but in a somewhat similar flat across Black Creek about
half mile below the paper mill. In the photograph there is
shown some Lyonia nitida under the front edge of the large
bushes, a slender plant of Jlex lucida projecting through the
center of the right hand clump and Jlex glabra standing behind
and to the left. In the immediate neighborhood were Cyrilla
racemiflora, Viburnum nudum, Aronia arbutifolia, and small
trees of pond pine, red bay, black gum, red maple, and sweet bay.

A comparison of the flatwoods bay or ‘‘Pocosin’’ and the alluvial
or well drained bay will show the presence in the latter and

*See, however, page 195 for reference to their occurrence in alluvial bays,

Plate IX.

Vegetation of Hartsville.

eo

athe

Kner Nae

4

Flatwoods showing Old-field Pines and a few Long-leaf Pines; undergrowth of Candle-berry
Gall-berry (Ilex glabra).

(Myrica

cerifera )

and

THe Pruant Lire or Harrsvittes, S. C. 191

absence in the former of bamboo-brier (Smilax laurifolia), juniper
(Chamacyparis thyoides), loblolly bay (Gordonia lasianthus),
swamp azalea (Azalea viscosa), swamp wax myrtle (Myrica
carolinensis). On the other hand the two Zenobias and cat-briar
(Smilax rotundifolia) are found in the flatwoods, but are absent
from the alluvial bay. There is the further difference in the
Hartsville area of the dcminance of the pond pine in the drained
bay and of the loblolly pine in the flatwoods bay.

In the bay north-east of the old Lucas place through which the
road passes there may be seen a beautiful example of transition
from bay to savanna conditions. On the south side of the road
near the center of this area the vegetation of the bay circles about
and encloses a pretty little savanna of about a quarter acre in ex-
tent, where four or five cypress trees are standing on a grassy
floor. This sudden change from the bay vegetation is due to a de-
pression in the surface and an increase in the dampness of the soil
in consequence.

THE SAVANNAS.

There are all gradations between the level flatwoods and the
savanna formations, and there are savannas of every size from an
acre or less to a number of square miles.

The savanna is a wet, undrained prairie or meadow with a
scattered open cover of cypress and pond pine trees. There is
practically no shrubby growth. In late spring and summer these
Savannas show the most conspicuous display of attractive
flowers of any of ouv plant societies. In May and June the two
species of swamp iris or blue flag Iris versicola and Iris prismatica
are conspicuous and beautiful with flowers showing all shades of
color from deep blue and lilac to light blue.

The most extensive savanna in Darlington County is the Big
Savanna, east of Auburn, about six miles from Hartsville. The
Atlantic Coast Line road runs directly across it. I have not had
an opportunity to study this particular savanna, but from the
train it seems to have the same sort of vegetation as the others
I am more familiar with. However, on account of its large size,
it is quite probable that it will show some peculiarities on closer
acquaintance and I hope some day to make it a more extended

192 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocIETY

visit. The savanna most-studied was the one on the back part of
Major J. L. Coker’s plantation, called “‘Plantation Savanna’’ in
the herbarium labels. It is a small one, only about three acres
in extent, and recent drainage has begun to change it a little.
There is here, in addition to the cypress and pond pine, some
black gum and sweet gum. The herbaceous cover is made up
largely of grasses and sedges. Juncus aristulatus and Rynchospora
glomerata when in fruit give a decided reddish color to considerable
areas.

Among the most noticeable flowers of the savanna are Pluchea
bifrons, Ludwigia capitata, Stachys hyssopfolia, Polygala mariana,
Polygala ramosa, Ludwigia hirtella, Eupatorium Mohrii, Diodia
virginiana, Gerardia linifolia, Rhexia lanceolata, Rhexia mariana,
Linum medium, Sabatia lanceolata, Oxypolis filiformis, Linaria
canadensis, Dasystoma fiava, Gratiola pilosa, Eupatorium semiser-
ratum, Hypericum virgatum, and Boltonia asteroides. In the flat-
woods not far from here was found a little Baccharis halimifolia.
It also occurs sparingly near Prestwood’s Lake and the paper mill
and seems to be getting more plentiful.

Just to the north of the dam at the paper mill are some low
flats, that show almost the same herbaceous growth as a typical
savanna. In the wettest spots grow Typha latifolia, a few trees of
Salix nigra, the decorative Scirpus Eriophorum, Juncus scirpoides,
Juncus trigonocarpus and Mikania scandens. Mingling with these
and running out into slightly dryer places were Rynchospora
glomerata, Juncus aristulatus (these two giving a red effect to the
meadow with their fruits), Fuirena squarosa (very abundant),
Boemerea scabra, Hypericum virginicum, Eriocaulon decangulare,
Lachnocaulon anceps, Limodorum tuberosum, Rhexia mariana,
Linum medium, Linum striatum, and Eupatorium rotundtfolium.
The somewhat less wet portions of the flats were covered with the
following: Cynoctonum sessilifolium, Gratiola pilosa, Buchnera
elongata, Aletris farinosa, Spiranthes praecoz, Hypericum setosum,
Lobelia Nuttalii, Ludwigia hirtella, Burmannia capitata, and Rhexia
lanceolata. With these flourished large quantities of Lycopodium
adpressum, and Lycopodium alopecuroides, and in the firmer, more
sandy spots Lycopodium carolinianum. In the dryer parts were

ate X.

Pl

of Hartsville.

ation

Veget

Zenobia pulverulenta and Zenobia cassinifolia in flower.

THE Piant Lire oF Hartsvitxe, 8. C. 193

Chrysopsis graminifolta, Crotalaria rotundifolia, Gnaphalium pur-
pureum, Rumex hastatulus,' Psoralea pedunculata, Asclepias amplexi-
caule and Hypericum gentianoides. On a ditch bank through this
flat grew a good quantity of Amelanchier Botraypium, here not over
two feet in height.

THe Bays AND SWAMPS.

As the typical ““Bay’’ of this section we may select the one
called Burnt Bay, which runs along the southern side of Black
Creek valley west of the novelty mill. It is covered with a dense
growth of trees and shrubs of which so many are evergreen as to
give a general effect of verdure at all seasons. On the edges there
is old-field pine and a little long-leaf pine, but the typical pine of
the bay, and the only one that extends through most of the
deeper parts, is the pond pine. This grows much larger here
than in the savannas, reaching a height of over seventy-five feet
and a diameter of two and a half feet.

On the edges of the bay there is an attractive fringe of low
shrubs that leads up gradually to the taller growth behind.
Among these the two gall-berries (Jlex glabra and Ilex lucida)
and the fetter bush (Lyonia nitida) are evergreen and so numerous
are they proportionally as to give their hopeful winter color to the
whole border. Abundant among these are the following deciduous
shrubs: swamp azalea (Azalea viscosa), Lyonia ligustrina var.
foliosiflora, sweet pepper bush (Clethra alnifolia), he-huckleberry
or myrtle (Cyrilla racemiflora), Virginia willow (Itea virginica),
swamp sumach (Rhus Vernix), swamp waxberry (Myrica caro-
lintiana), the two ’possum haws (Viburnum nudum and Viburnum
cassinoides), choke-berry (Aronia arbutifolia), the two high bush
huckleberries (Vaccinium fuscatum, tall, berries black, and Vac-
cinium corybosum, tall, berries blue), high blackberry (Rubus
Andrewsiana), and a little of the shad bush (Amelanchier Botry-
apium), called “‘wild currant’’ here. Yellow jessamine (Gelsemium
sempervirens), climbs over this border in abundance, and just
just behind it are great masses of the bamboo brier (Smilax
laurifolia), one of the most beautiful evergreen vines in the world.
Poison ivy (Rhus Toxicodendron), Virginia creeper (Psedera quin-

194 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY

quefolia), and cross vine (Bignonia capreolata) extend through-
out the bay, but the bullace (Vitis rotundifolia) is confined to the
borders.

Next to the pine the largest trees of the bay are black gum
(Nyssa sylvatica), janiper (Chamaecyparis thyoides) and red maple
(Acer carolinianum). Water oak (Quercus nigra) is plentiful in
the borders and shallower parts, and Willow oak (Quercus Phellos) ,
while not a typical bay tree, is found in Burnt Bay where it edges
off into the low sandy woods on the south side.

The most common evergreen trees of the bay are sweet bay
(Magnolia glauca) and red bay (Persea pubescens). They are
both extremely abundant and characteristic. The sweet bay is
not entirely evergreen with us. There are specimens in Burnt
Bay that reach the unusual height of 35 feet. The loblolly
bay (Gordonia lasianthus) is not nearly so common as the two pre-
ceding, but is found scattered near the edges of nearly all bays. It
is quite evergreen, and when covered with its fine white flowers it
is one of our handsomest trees. Around the edges of Burnt Bay
cinnamon fern (Osmunda cinnamomea) is plentiful, and there
is alittle bracken fern (Pteris aquilina) and royal fern (Osmunda
regalis). In the deeper and more shady inner parts are scattered
beds of chain fern ( Woodwardia areolata), and in shallow standing
water or mud is thelarge, coarse ““‘poor man’s soap’? ( Woodwardia
virginica).

In the low damp woods along the north side of the bay grow
old-field pine (Pinus Taeda), long-leaf pine (Pinus palustris),
white hickory (Carya alba), dogwood (Cornus florida), sassafras
(Sassafras variifolium), Spanish oak (Quereus falcata), willow oak
(Quercus Phellos), water oak (Quercus nigra), and the following
shrubs: sparkleberry (Vaccinium arboreum), Vaccinium tenellum,
Gaylussacia frondosa, Myrica cerifera, Lyonia mariana, <Ascyrum
stans, and Ascyrum hypericoides. The pretty herbaceous vine
called carrion-flower (Smilax herbacea) and the wild yam (Disos-
corea villosa) are to be found in these woods. In an open damp
meadow here (savanna conditions) was found Juncus abortivus for
the first time in South Carolina. With it were Rhexia virginica,

THe PLANT Lire of Hartsvitte, S. C. 195

Gratiola pilosa, Gratiola virginiana, Bacopa acuminata, Ludwigia
linearis, Xyris caroliniana, and Lobelia Nuttalit.

The edges of Burnt Bay are in most places either too abrupt or
too shady to admit of the best development of many of the at-
tractive flowers that are often associated with bay conditions,
although most of them may be sparingly found at places around
its margin. For the study of such flowers it is best to cross over
Prestwood’s Lake to edges of the bays surrounding the savanna-
like open area in Captain Cannon’s sheep pasture (referred to in
the list as ‘“Sheep Pasture Savanna’’). The meadow-like area of
a couple of acres is low, moist, and sandy, but too well drained to
show typical savanna vegetation. It is bounded on both sides by
low bays and the transition between the bays and meadow show
some interesting plants. Through the open area are scattered a
few large trees of the pond pine (Pinus serotina) and long-leaf
pine (Pinus palustris), which is the only aborescent growth except
a few small plants of black-jack oak (Quercus marylandica), up-
land willow oak ( Qnercus cinerea), Spanish oak (Quercus falcata),
and post oak ( Quercus stellata). The open space was also dotted
with scattered clumps of Myrica pumila, Ilex glabra, Alnus rugosa,
Vaccinium frondosum, Lyonia mariana, Lyonia ligustrina var.
foliosiflora, and Clethra alnifolia. Along the wetter edges of the
bays the following shrubs made a dense and attractive border:
Zenobia pulverulenta, Zenobia cassinifolia (a little), Kalmia cuneata,*
Vaccinium australe, Leucothoe racemosa, Leucothoe axillaris (a rare
and interesting evergreen), Azalea vicosa, Ilex glabra, Ilex lucida,
Aronia arbutifolia, Myrica cerifera, Myrica caroliniana, Lyonta
ligustrina var. foliosiflora, Fothergilla carolina, and Lyonia nitida.
Just back of these the taller bay vegetation began with Viburnum

*This interesting little Kalmia seems to be represented in American her-
baria only from southeastern North Carolina, and it is generaliy considered
as confined to that State; but Mr. R. M. Harper has called my atten-
tion to the fact that F. A. Michaux (in his Journal for July 18, 1794), and
Thomas Nuttall (in his ‘“Genera of North America Plants,’’? Vol. I, page
268, 1818) both mention its occurrence at Camden, 8. C. See my ‘‘Addi-
tions to the Flora of the Carolinas. II.’’ Torreya, Vol, II, page 9, January,
1911.

196 JOURNAL OF THE MITcHELL SociETY

nudum, Viburnum cassinoides and Magnolia glauca conspicuous on
the border. The trees of the bays were red bay ( Persea pubescens) ,
black gum (Nyssa sylvatica), Carolina red maple (Acer car-
olinianum), and pond pine (Pinus serotina), and a little juniper
(Chamaecyparis thyoides). Bamboo briar (Smilax laurifolia) and
red-berried bamboo (S. Waltert) were plentiful. Partially sub-
merged in an open piece of water in the bay were found Juncus
repens and Eleocharis Torreyana.

In certain places on the east side the shrubby borders were re-
placed by a wet Sphagnum bog in which were masses of cinnamon
fern (Osmunda cinnamomea) and fine conspicuous clumps of
pitcher plants (Sarracenia flava). Sarracenia purpurea is also plen-
tiful here in the Sphagnum, and S. rubra grows abundantly where
the Sphagnum is less deep. Along this border five species of
Orchids were found,—Pogonia ophioglossoides and P. divaricata
(blooming on May 24th), Limodroum graminifolium (July 8),*
Habenaria blephariglottis and Habenaria cilaris (August 20th). In
July Rhexia mariana, R. lanceolata, R. ciliosa, and R. glabella
make a very bright effect with their handsome flowers, while in
May the white flowered Zyadenus angustifolius and Chamaelirium
luteum were conspicuous in the same place.

In the main body of the savanna where the soil was moist but
not boggy grew Rynchospora glomerata, Juncus aristulatus, J.
trigonocarpus, Laecnocaulon anceps (small “‘hat pin’’), Buchnera
elongata, Marshallia obovata, Bartonia lanceolata, Tofieldia glabra
(blooming about Sept. Ist), Xyris arenicola, Aletris farinosa [a yel-
low Alestris, supposed to be Aletris aurea, was collected but lost],
Spiranthes praecox, Polygala lutea, Linum medium, Eupatorium
rotundifolium, Kupatorium verbenaefolium, Ascyrum stans, and Aster
squarrosus (not seen in bloom). Towards the outer edge of the
savanna where thesoil was dryer grew Seriococarpus asteroides (said
by Small to grow in rocky woods), Lespedeza repens, Indigophora

*Timodorum tuberrosum also will no doubt be found here, but I did not
happen to see it. It is rather plentiful in such situations in our re-
gion. A white flowered form of the species was found on the edge of
another bay not far from this spot and we have seen it since in several
places.

Vegetation of Hartsville. Plate XI.

Upper part of Prestwood’s Lake showing large dead
Cypress trees.

THe Puant Lire oF HARTSVILLE, S. C. 197

caroliniana, Vaccinium tenellum, Gaylussacia dumosa, and Iyonia
mariana. Farther up:still, in the: flat sandy pasture, Stipulicida
setacea was collected.

THE DEEPER SWAMPs.

We have at Hartsville no swamps of the type found by the larger
muddy rivers that are subject to frequent floods, as the Pee. Dee
and Santee, and many plants that affect such swamps are absent
at Hartsville. Such, for example, are overeup oak. (Quercus
lyrata), elm (Ulmus alata and Ulmus americana), water hickory
(Carya aquatica), tupelo gum (Nyssa aquatica), swamp chestnut
oak (Quercus Michauaii), planer tree (Planera aquatica), and de-
ciduous holly (Ilex decidua).

Our swamps and bays grade insensibly into each other, and the
edges of all our swamps are bays. The typical bay would have a
scattering cover of large trees with a dense tangle of undergrowth
of shrubs and vines, largely evergreen. The typical swamp has a
heavy cover of large trees (among which is always cypress) and a
more or less open floor beneath. However, there are to be found
on the tussocks and tree bases in the swamps nearly all the shrubs
that have been described as making up the marginal growth of
Burnt Bay.

As a good example of the typical creek swamp I shall choose
that part of Black Creek swamp lying just behind the old Bacot
Place. Here the tall, flat-crowned cypress trees reach high above
all else, and give an impressive dignity to the place Reaching
nearly to their lower branches are fine specimens of black gum
and tulip tree, and beneath these are smaller trees of red maple,
juniper and sweet bay.

The undergrowth, which is rather dense, consists of fetter bush
(Lyonia nitida), Virginia willow (Itea virginica), large gall-berry
(Ilex lucida), a little of the small gall-berry (Jlex glabra), both
’possum haws (Viburnum nudum and Viburnum cassinoides) ,
swamp azalea ( Azalea vicosa), poison sumach (Rhus Verniz), male
berry (Lyonia ligustrina var. foliosifiora), high blackberry (Rubus
Andrewsianus), and Alder {Alnus rugosa). It was a little surprising
to: find here on the highest: tussocks a: little holly (lex opaca),

198 THE JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocretTy

myrtle (Cyrilla racemiflora) and French mulberry (Callicarpa
americana). The two last are at their best in a sunny exposure,
and are not noticeable constituents of swamps. Mikania scandens
clambered about among the shrubs, and cross vine (Bignonia
capreolata) and poison ivy (Rhus Toxicodendron) ascended high into
the trees.

In the shallow water or saturated soil there was a considerable
herbaceous growth of marsh St. John’s-wort (Hypericum vir-
ginicum), lizard’s tail (Saururus cernuus), joe-pye weed (Eupa-
torium maculatum), Mayaca Aubletit, some cinnamon fern (Os-
munda cinnamomea), and chain fern (Woodwardia areolata) in
abundance. Near the large spring on the edge of the swamp at
this place were lady fern (Aspleniwm Filiz-femina), and several
plants of the grape fern (Botrychium virginianum), which were the
only specimens of this interesting species that I have found in
Hartsville.

Three of the most attractive and interesting of our swamp
plants were not noted in the immediate spot just described, but
all three of them are conspicuous in that bit of swamp lying be-
tween the dam and the creek crossing at the paper mill. They
are wild wistaria (Wistaria frutescens), Walter’s smilax or red-
berried bamboo (Smilax Walteri) and Storax (Styrax americana).
The wistaria is very like the Chinese one that, in two shades
—purple and white—is grown for ornament. It blooms about
three weeks later than the Chinese, and its flowers are borne in
smaller clusters and are deeper colored than in that species. Our
vine is offered for sale by nurserymen and there is an improved
form (variety magnifica) that is more floriferous in cultivation
than the wild plant.

Walter’s smilax climbs up as high as twelve feet or more into
the trees, and in winter it makes a beautiful show with its bright
scarlet berries. It was named for one of the best known early
botanists of America, Thomas Walter, of South Carolina.

The storax generally grows along the creek margins or other
open spots where it can get some sunlight. It is a good sized bush
that bears a profusion of pretty bell-shaped white flowers in mid-

Plate XII.

Vegetation of Hartsville.

of

a collar

with

Lake

Prestwood's

in

Cypress tree

Dead

shrubs.

Tue Piant Lire or HartTsvILie, S. C. 199

dle April. It, too, is sold by dealers and is well worthy of cul-
tivation.

The tall cane (Arundinara macrocarpa) grows plentifully in the
deep, rich soil of swamps, preferring the better lighted edges of
the streams, and the dwarf cane (Arundinaria tecta) is abundant
on the edges of bays and ponds. I have never known either species
to fruit at Hartsville, though they probably do so at long intervals.

In the open swampy places below the dam there is in July a
handsome display of the white flowers of Sabatia lanceolata and
the greenish yellow flat-topped cymes of Polygala cymosa. Earlier
in the season the small white flowers of the swamp fleabane
(Erigeron vernus) are numerous enough to be quite conspicuous.

Tue LAKES AND Ponpbs.

In many respects the margins of the more extensive bodies of
water duplicate certain of the conditions already described, but it
is not so at all points, and it is best to include the marginal
growth in any discussion of their vegetation. I shall first con-
sider the flora of

PREstTWoopD’s LAKE.

This artificial lake was formed by the damming of Black Creek
by the Carolina Fiber Company about eighteen years ago. The
lake itself may be said to extend for a little over a mile, but there
is back water in the creek run for nearly a mile and a half. The
width of the lake is about a quarter of a mile across at its broadest
part.

When the swamp was cleared in preparation for the lake it was
decided as an experiment to leave several very large cypress trees
in the deeper part near the dam and test the effect of the altered
conditions. Standing in about twelve feet of water they con-
tinued to live for three or four years, but got weaker all the time
and at last gave up the struggle. In the upper end of the lake a
considerable section of the swamp was left uncut, and although
the depth there is only about five or six feet, the results have been
the same so far as the larger trees are concerned. The small
cypress trees have for some reason shown greater adaptability.

200 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocIETY

and many of them are left in apparrently good health. : They grow
very slowly but bear fruit abundantly. The only plants of. the
original growth that have remained alive with their roots under
five feet or more of water are. cypress, red maple (Aver carolinian-
um), myrtle (Cyrilla recemiflora), storax (Styrax americana), bam-
boo briar (Smilax laurifolia), and Walters’ smilax (Smilax Wal-
teri).

In Plate XI is shown this. part of the lake. The large dead
cypresses are seen in the background, and a number of small live
ones are seen in the front. In the middle foreground is a large
bush ot alder (Alnus ruyosa), growing on a stump. The mossy-
looking growth hanging from the tops of some of the dead trees in
the lichen Usnea barbata.

The stumps, floating logs and standing dead trees support a
large population of shrubs and herbs. The dead cypress shown
in Plate XII has a dense collar of shrubs and young trees sur-
rounding it at water level. Here are growing Carolina red maple
(Acer carolinianum), juniper (Chamaecyparis thyoides), fetter
bush (Lyonia nitida), myrtle (Cyrilla racemiflora), sweet pepper
bush (Clethra alnifolia), Zenobia pulverulenta and Lyonia ligustrina
var. foliosiflora. These plants were all rooted’ to the decaying
bark of the cypress, five and a half. feet above the lake bottom.

Some of the floating: logs carry. such a profusion of gay flowers
as to look like miniature gardens. On one of these I have noted
the following: juniper (Chamaecyparis thyoides), Carolina .red
maple (Acer carolinianum) ,.alder (Alnus rugosa), fetter bush (Ly-
onia nitida), Zenobia pulverulenta, Leucothoe racemosa, myrtle
(Cyrilla racemiflora) , Hypericum verginicum, Hypericum canadense,
sundew. (Drosera intermedia), Utricularia juncae, Xyrus caroliniana,
and species of Rynchospora.

The aquatic, plants of the lake are: Brasenia Schreberi (water
shield), Nymphoides aquaticum (floating heart) , Potamogeton diver-
sifolius, Potamogeton heterophyllus, Nymphaea advena (yellow pond
lily), Utricularia fibrosa (bladderwort), Utricularia _ biflora
(bladderwort), and Mayaca flwiatilis.

The Mayaca is new to South Carolina, not having been reported
before north of the Gulf. States. It is.a very delicate plant,

NOUBG )

Plate

Vegetation of Hartsville.

A dense colony of Water Shield (Brasenia Schreberi) covering the
Prestwood’s Lake.

water

on the

south side of

Tor Prant Lirk of HARTSVILLE, S. C. 201

growing in considerable masses, entirely submerged in rather
shallow water* The yellow pond lily has made an entrance in
the last few years. About four years ago I noticed one plant at
about the spot shown in Plate XI. Now there are a dozen or
more colonies in that part of the lake.

Water shield is now the most conspicuous aquatic plant of the
lake. Its small floating leaves coated on the under side with a
beautiful clear jelly cover the water in large areas near the edges.
A dense colony of it is shown in Plate XIII.

Nymphoides aquaticum (Limnanthemum), with large floating
leaves that look much like those of the water lily, is not abun-
dant: in fact, it appears to be much less so than it was several
years ago.

It is rather surprising that the water lily (Castalia odorata) and
the small floating heart (Nymphoides lacunosum) have not vet
made an entrance into the lake. They are plentiful in Kilgore’s
Mill Pond, only about a mile away.

Over a considerable area of the lake near the edge behind
Captain Cannon’s Place the water is only a few inches deep,
forming a bog. The swamp had been cleared off here just before
the water was raised, but it is now covered with a rather dense
second-growth of the following plants: Zaxodium distichum (cy-
press), Salix nigra (black willow), Alnus rugosa (alder), Cephalan-
thus occidentalis (button bush), Callicarpa americana (French mul-
berry), Viburnum nudum (possum haw), Nussa sylvatica (black
gum), Itea virginica (Virginia f[willow), Boemeria scabra, Typha
latifolia (cat-tail), Saururus cernuus (lizard’s tail), and Peltandra vir-
ginica (moccasin corn). Climbing over the shrubs in great
abundance was Mikania scandens.

On the muddy shore, not covered with water, there is a good
colony of young Pinus Taeda (old-field pine). Near them, in ad-
dition to most of the above, were Magnolia glauca, Clethra alnifolia
Cyrilla racemifilora, Liquidamber Styraciflua, Lyriodendron tulipifera,
Tlex glabra, Rubus Andrewsianus, Decodon verticillatus, and the

*There issome doubt as to distinctness of Mayaca fluviatilis. It may be
nothing more than a submerged form of M, Aubleti,

202 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY

ferns Osmunda cinnamomea and Woodwardia areolata.

Where the border of the lake is a gentle sandy slope, as it is on
the south side above Prestwood’s Bridge, the first vegetation con-
sists of large patches of the grass Panicum hemitomum in shallow
water; behind this in shallow water and on the muddy edge is
the larger grass Panicum scabriusculum; then handsome clumps of
the tall yellow-flowered Xyris fimbriata and large pipewort, or ‘“hat
pins’? as we call it (Hriocaulon decangulare), with flowers in
compact white balls. Mixed with the last two or just behind
them are Iris versicola, Iris prismatica, Hypericum verginicum
(Klodea), Proserpinaca pectinata, Sclerolepis unifiora (a pretty little
pink-flowered composite), Utricularia juncea, Xyris caroliniana,
Drosera intermedia, Mayaca Aubleti, Lycopus pubens, Ludwigia
linearis, Stachys hyssopifolia, Rotala ramosior, and Polygala lutea.
Here also was discovered a fine colony of the orchid Hebenarea Nut-
talii, with greenish flowers, a species not before found in the State
of South Carolina.

A little behind these as a rule were Carphephorus bellidifolius,
Diodia virginiana, Ascyrum hypericoides, Spiranthes praecox, Limodo-
rum tuberosum, Rhexia ciliosa, Bartonia lanceolata. The large ferns
Osmunda cinnamomea and Woodwardia virginica were conspicuous
here, and the smaller Woodwardia areolata and Lycopodium alopec-
uroides were abundant. Lycopodium adpressum occupied slightly less
wet situations.* Mingled with these herbs were scattered clumps
of sweet pepper bush (Clethra alnifolia) , swamp azalea (Azalea vis-
cosa), low gallberry (Ilex glabra), fetter bush (Lyonia nitida),
Zenobia pulverulenta, alder (Alnus rugosa), button bush (Cephalan-
thus occidentalis) , myrtle (Cyrilla racemiflora), groundsell tree ( Bac-
charis halimifolia) and yellow jessamine (Gelsemima senvpervirens) ;
also small young trees of cypress (Taxodium distichum), Carolina
red maple (Acer carolinianum), black willow (Salix nigra), and

juniper (Chamaecyparis thyoides). Still farther up where the soil
was damp but not soaked, where the white goldenrod (Solidago
sp.), Galactia regularis, meadow beauty (Rhexia lanceolatat, nearly
white), Rubus Andrewsianus, Vaccinium vaccillans, Gaylussacia fron-
dosa, Gaylussacia dumosa, Rhus copalina, Pteris aquilina, Vitis ro-
tundifolia and Diospyros virginica.

#*S +e notes by me on these two species of Lycopodium in THE FERN BULLETIN,
Vol, 17, July, 1910.

XIV.

Plate

Vegetation of Hartsville.

the lake.

opaca) near

(Ilex

large Holly tree

A

THE Puant Lirk or Harrsvit1e, 8. C. 203

On the upper edge of this society was a large clump of male
plants of Ilex carolinana. A little farther back a low sandy ridge
supported almost the typical growth of the sand hills, with long-
leaf pine (Pinus palustris), turkey oak (Quercus Catesbaei), black-
jack oak (Quercus marylandica), upland willow oak (Quercus
cinerea), post oak (Quercus stellata), sparkleberry (Viburnum
arboreum), poison oak (Rhus quercifolia), and wire grass (Aristida
stricta) as the most conspicuous vegetation.

On the more or less wet edges of the lake at other points were
collected the following: Lysimachia terrestris, Radbeckia hirta,
Sabatia brachiata, Hypericum fasciculatum (a good sized heath-
like bush), Bradburia viryinica, Ludwigia alternifolia, ’ Apios-
tuberosa (known as ‘“‘ground nut’? on account of its numerous
edible underground tubers), Jussiaea decurrens, Myrica cerifera,
Wistaria frutescens, Carex macrokolea and Scirpus Eriophorum.
The last is one of the handsomest herbaceous plants of the lake
edge.

Just above the dam on thenorthern side there is in late summer
a conspicuous show of the large white plumes of the very tall
grass Erianthus saccharoides. I have not noticed golden club
(Orontium aquaticum) in the lake, but in the run of Crowley’s
branch just above the old broken dam there is a fine lot of this
interesting plant. It is a member of the same family as the calla
lily, but has no spathe around its fleshy, yellow spike of flowers.
It may be seen at many of the branch crossings in our section.
The moccasin corn (Peltandra virginica), which is so plentiful in
the shallow water of the lake edge, is a member of the same
family.

On the low earth dam across the lake from the paper mill was
collected Solidago verna (spring goldenrod) for the first time in
South Carolina.* Other plants collected on this dam were
Smilax glauca, Rhynchosia simplicifolia, Penstemon laevigatus,
Apocynum pubescens, Lactuca graminifolia, and Erigeron ramosus.

*See my ‘“‘Additions to the Flora of the Carolinas,’’ in BULLETIN TorREY
Bor. Crus. Vol. 36, page 635, 1909. I have since found this species to be
plentiful in the low woods near the lake. By June 1st of this year (1911)
its blooming period was nearly over.

204 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society

KiLGoreE’s Mitu Ponp.

This is a small body of water, much older than Prestwood’s
Lake, that lies in the low sand hills about one mile northeast from
Hartsville. A study of the vegetation and its surroundings
resulted in the collection of a considerable number of plants not
seen around Prestwood’s Lake. Nymphoides lacunosum, not
found in the lake, was abundant here with Nymphoides
aquaticum, and submerged in the stream just below the mill race
was Scirpus subterminalis, not before reported south of New
Jersey (but I find a collection of it in the N. Y. Bot. Garden
from Mississippi) .*

On the west side of the pond is a flat marsh, inundated gener-
ally with several inches of water, which is covered almost all over
with a pure growth of Eleocharis melanocarpa. In deeper spots
this is replaced by Hleocharis quadrangulata. On the edges of
this marsh grew abundantly Rynchospora glomerata and Futrena
squarosa. Juncus repens grew in dense patches in the shallow
water, while Rynchospora corniculata and Juncus scirpoides
were scattered on the margins. Utricularia juncea also
grew sparingly here, but on the other side of the pond it was so
plentiful in the shallow water as to give a marked yellow color to
the margin. In the same situation on the east side was the little
Eleocharis Torreyana, partly submerged and mixed with Mayaca
Aubleti and some Nymphoides lacunosum. Behind these was a zone
containing clumps of the large, handsome Xyris fimbriata mixed
with thesmaller Xyris elata and with Ascyrwm hapericoides, Proser-
pinaca pectinata, Schlerolepis unifiora and some large “hat pins’’
(Eriocaulon decangulare). Back of this zone is a dense growth of
the large grass Piniewm scabriusculum, with some of the attractive
tall sedge Scirpus Eriophorum. With these were a few small scat-
tered individuals of Alnus rugosa, Nyssa biflera and Acer caro-
linianum. In about this situation were found a number of speci-
mens of the greenish white orchid Habenaria clavellata, one of the
rarest of our plants.

This zone passes beyond into a flat moist bay of poor soil

*See my ‘‘Additions to the Flora of the Carolinas,’’ in BuLLeTin TORREY
Bor. Cius. Vol 36, pape 635, 1909.

Vegetation of Hartsville. Plate XV.

A large tree of Sparkleberry (Vaccinium arboreum) near Black Creek

<3!

THE Puant Lire or Hartsvitze, S. C. 205

covered with an open growth of stunted trees and shrubs. Nyssa
biflora and Acer carolinianum were the largest growth, and among
them were Alnus rugosa, Magnolia glauca, Rhus copalina, Rhus Ver-
nix, Myrica pumila, Ilex glabra, Ilex lucida, Cyrilla racemiflora,
Lyona nitida, Prunus serotina, Viburnum nudum, Viburnum cassi-
noides, Rhus Toxicodendron, Rubus Andrewsianus. Scattered here and
there were a few small trees of Pinus palustris, Pinus serotina and
Chamaecyparis thyoides. It was rather surprising to find in such a
place large quantities of broom sedge (Andropogon virginicus).
The smaller growth was Pluchae foetida, Eupatorium maculatum,
Kupatorium rotundifolium, Rhexta mariana, Centella repanda, Osmun-
da cinnamomea, Woodwardia areolata and Lycopodium alopecuroides.

In a small wet meadow to the east of the pond were collected
Polygonumhydropiperoides, Scutellaria integrifolia, Oldenlandia Boscii,
Bacopa acuminata, Viola lanceolata, Gratiola pilosa, Diodia virgin-
tana, Aster cordifolius, Linum striatum, and Hypericum virgatum.

Along the wet crossing below the mill Verbena polystachya was
picked up; and in slightly damp soil near here were Hieracium
Gronovit, Kneiffia arenicola, Crotalaria rotundifolia and Helianthemum
majus.

On the dam grew Wistaria frutescens, and in the damp woods on
the west side were a number of plants of Berchemia scandens
(supple jack), a vigorous high-climbing vine, and one of the
rarest woody pants of Hartsville. There is a good specimen of it
at the Snake Branch crossing, just above the paper mill.*

*This article is the first part of a larger pamplet, containing a systematic
list and other information in regard to Hartsville plants, that is soon to be
published by the Pee Dee Historical Society, Hartsville, 8S. C.

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Q Elisha Mitchell Scientific
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