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AN 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


FusHAa MircHent Scientiric Society 


VOLUME XXVIII 
1912 


ISSUED QUARTERLY 


i 
\ A: } 


HH SHHBMAN PRINTERY 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


PAGE 


A Study of the Action of Various Diuretics in Uranium 
Nephritis—Wm. deB. MacNider.............. 


Notes on the Birds of Chapel Hill, N. C., With Particu- 
lar Reference to Their Migration—Alexander L. 
ALON MRR eee Taree ia oy PaaS oleate deden ims wd ca Sta stare 
ORCC rate ei ane ce Ns sd acach ey A SENS BOE A ar eh sheayar 


An Experimental Proof of Inverted Retinal Images— 
APP M TOUS CTSODs a cots ere age ets ak org eae) Saks: 


Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Meeting of the 
North Carolina Academy of Science............ 


Zoology in America before the Present Period—H. V. 
UIST ere SR Rar Pc 2 SN Aces se ESCO OR aa SR 


Note on the Fundamental Bases of Dynamics—Wm. 
Oi AR AS 0 aie, Sais oe CI wars oe OD woe ns Ney RS 


Notes on the Distribution of the More Common Bivalves 
of Beaufort, N. C—Henry D. Aller........... 


The Gloomy Seale, an Enemy of Shade Trees—Z. P. 
Wer COL fetes ates ne ee reo chia Sls DOSS Ses 


Capture of Raleigh by the Wharf Rat—C. 8. Brimley 


Viable Bermuda Grass Seed Produced in the Locality 
of Raleigh, N. C.—O. I. Tillman...........0.. 


16 


34 


68 


PAGE 


Malarial Pigment (Hematin) As a Factor in the Pro- 
duction of the Malarial Paroxysm— Wade H. 
Brow. oes tance Sandee tee ee ee eee 


The Past, Present, and Future of the Naval Stores In- 
dusiry—Chas. HH. Heriy 22 ce ee eee hee ee ee 


The Resenes of Resins and Oleoresins—Chas. H. Herty 
and W. 8. Dickson — 720 asa ae ee 


The Value of Commercial Starches for Cotton Mill Pur- 
poses—-G.. M.. MacNaders: 2-227 se eee 


Note on the Transformation of Ammonium Cyanate 
into: Urea—A. S.. Wheeler... <.Gisie =e eee 


New Thermometers for Melting Point Determination— 
A. 8. Wheeler: 5.4 0). een ike eee ee ee 


Proceedings of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society 
from ‘March, 1909; te. Dee, 1912... 2.0 eee 


New Occurrences of Monazite in North Carolina— 
Joseph Hyde Pratt + xvas Sans ies. so eee 


Natural History Notes on Some Beaufort, N. C., 
Fishes—.. W:. Gudger 2s Si wile ae. Se eee 


Recent Views on the Chemistry of Diet — Isaac F. 
ROIS rd Fa ens Pode bees) C4 ae 


97 


ge Di 


131 


135 


146 


148 


149 


JOURNAL 


Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society 


VOLUME XXVIII MAY, 1912 No. | 


A STUDY OF THE ACTION OF VARIOUS DIURETICS 
IN URANIUM NEPHRITIS! 


By Wo. vEB. MacN«iper. 


IEEE SVCHICELON aes costae at erect area ease ehapere arece siete: so 6, Slocea Sie! are 'ee's 0s 1 
Femme WAG Cel ALCFALUTON 15.2 falcttascieta siace icicle < sclcaee cieeiele ss! saleld ole. 3 
Discussion of the technique employed in the experiments. ....... 4 
Sourse et tne Experiments 32. < hse Seles sen ce ie ee Gera sasis lonctevers « if 
The effect of diuretics in uranium nephritis ................... 9 
BRE eRCR A PALH OLOGY; oo) cicinisysieiclsiaie eis a Share eevee |e: aw r@ie ar eises) «! Sivsve's.cle 12 
REREAD CEP et Sie cc ye nea cis cinch oarega ee ayer re tet 3 as 6c SSeS my Bee! lc Bislo.s 13 
EMDEI AT OE AA PANE payer. Chetan ais rn cr otavatal shale eats csr Oke trdlateterasda'e esas ce es « 15 


In a recent anatomical study (1) of the nephritis produced in 
the dog by the use of various nephrotoxic substances it has been 
shown that these substances vary to some extent in the degree 
of their selective affinity for the different kidney tissues. Arse- 
nic, for example, has a striking affinity for the blood vessel 
tissue of the kidney; while potassium dichromate catses an 
involvement of the epithelial element of the kidney much earlier 
than does any of the usually employed nephrotesie substances. 

Uranium nitrate, a substance which has frequently been 
employed to produce experimentally a nephritis, in its avidity 
for the different tissues of the kidney, is not so selective in its 
action as are the poisons just mentioned. 

If uranium be given in large doses subcutaneously, or if 
smaller quantities be used and the nephritis be allowed to per- 
sist for some days, the nephritis which it induces with such a 
technique is more tubular than vascular. If, on the other hand, 
small quantities are employed, 5 to 10 mgs. per animal, and if 
the nephritis be terminated early, the reaction on the part of the 


1 Presented in abstract before the Society for Pharmacology and Experimental 
Therapeutics, Baltimore, December 27, 1911. Reprinted from The Journal of 
Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Vol. III, No. 4, March, 1912. 


2 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Society [May 


kidney is largely vascular. We possess, therefore, in uranium 
a nephrotoxic substance which, when appropriately adminis- 
tered, is competent to produce the two main types of nephritis. 
For this reason uranium was the nephrotoxic substance selected 
to use in the production of nephritides of different severity, in 
which one or both elements of the kidney concerned in the for- 
mation of urine were functionating pathologically. 

By the use of such a substance which produces primarily a 
vascular, and later a tubular nephritis, it was hoped that by 
studying the physiological response of the kidney at these 
stages of its pathological reaction, it might be determined which 
element of the kidney in a nephritis was most concerned in 
determining the quantitative output of urine. With this object 
in view in this study diuretics have been employed which effect 
both the vascular and the epithelial elements of the kidney. 

In the anatomical study of experimental nephritis which has 
been previously referred to, the nephrotoxic substances em- 
ployed were potassium dichromate, sodium arsenate, canthari- 
din and uranium nitrate. During the course of this investiga- 
tion it was noted that there existed a fairly clear cut correllation 
between the degree of epithelial involvement in a given nephritis 
and the total output of urine; whereas, on the other hand, no 
such histological correllation could be made, within certain lim- 
itations, between the severity of the vascular pathology and the 
output of urine. For example, a nephritic animal with a normal 
urine flow, or a polyuria, would show a vascular reaction which 
histologically would be similar to the vascular pathology in an 
anuric animal. The associated epithelial reaction in such stages 
of a nephritis differed very widely. In the early nephritides 
with a normal output of urine, or a polyuria, the epithelial 
involvement was slight or absent. In some of the experiments, 
especially those conducted with uranium, the epithelium ap- 
peared to have undergone a shrinkage. In the later stages of 
the nephritis when the output of urine had been reduced or an 
anuria had developed, the epithelium, and especially that of 
the convoluted tubules invariably showed marked alterations. 
The epithelial changes varied with the severity of the nephritis. 


1912] A Srupy or tue Action or Diuretics 3 


The earlier degenerations consisted in cloudy swelling and 
vacuolation, while the later changes were principally an epithe- 
lial desquamation, usually preceded by necrosis. 

In these late nephritides the swelling of the epithelium was 
frequently decidedly noticeable and was sufficient either greatly 
to encroach upon or completely occlude the lumen of the tubules. 

The present physiological study of the nephritic kidney has 
been undertaken to determine, if possible, the part played by the 
vascular and by the epithelial pathology of the kidney in influ- 
encing the output of urine, and to determine whether or not the 
vascular mechanism of the kidney is physiologically responsive 
in a nephritis in which there is evidence of epithelial involve- 
ment and but little histological evidence of vascular injury. 


REVIEW OF LITERATURE 


The two most important recent contributions to the study of 
acute experimental nephritis are those by Schlayer (2) and 
Hedinger and by Pearce (3), Hill and Eisenbrey. 

These investigations were conducted with the same general 
object in view and are principally concerned with the physio- 
logical response of the nephritic kidney. 

Schlayer and Hedinger studied the vascular reaction of the 
kidney in both the glomerular and the tubular types of nephritis. 
For their studies in the vascular type of nephritis they em- 
ployed as kidney poisons, cantharidin, arsenic and diphtheria 
toxin, and for the tubular type potassium chromate and corro- 
sive sublimate. 

The investigation by Pearce, Hill and Eisenbrey was also 
principally concerned with the vascular reaction in acute 
nephritis. The authors were able to distinguish types of 
nephritis in which either the tubular or the vascular changes 
predominated. They were not able to conclude, however, that 
a given poison produced an exclusively tubular or vascular 
injury. Potassium chromate, corrosive sublimate and uranium 
nitrate, caused extensive tubular injury and in the early stages 
of the nephritis showed no evidence of vascular injury except 
physiologically. When physiological methods were employed 
they were able to demonstrate in the early stages of the nephritis 


4 JOURNAL OF THE MiTCHELL Society [May 


an exaggerated contraction and dilatation of the vessels and 
also an increased diuresis. Arsenic and cantharidin acted as 
vascular poisons and produced but little injury to the tubules. 
Both of these poisons tended to cause an anuria which was char- 
acterized by minimal contraction and dilatation of the renal 
vessels and little or no flow of urine. Finally, in this investiga- 
tion two types of late tubular nephritis are described: one 
anurie and accompanied by gastro-intestinal symptoms; and 
the other polyuric until the time of anesthesia. 

In addition to these two investigations which are principally 
concerned with the physiological response of the kidney, patho- 
logical studies of the kidney in a uranium nephritis have been 
made by several investigators. 

Heineke and Myerstein (4) were able to demonstrate a 
marked vascular disturbance in the kidney from uranium in 
addition to a pronounced action on the renal epithelium; while 
Dickson (5) in an extensive series of experiments in which the 
guinea pig was the animal employed came to the same conclu- 
sions. 

Christian (6) in his work on uranium nephritis in which the 
vascular pathology was studied, described as developing in the 
capillaries of the glomerulus, oval or irregular homogeneous 
droplets 0.5 to 4 microns in diameter. Similar structures have 
been observed in several of the experiments in the series of 
animals which will be presented in this study. 

The work of Schirokauer (7) on the uranium nephritis of 
rabbits is of special interest on account of the associated 
anasarca. 

DISCUSSION OF THE TECHNIQUE EMPLOYED IN THE EXPERIMENTS 

In conducting the experiments the dog was the animal con- 
stantly employed. A total of twenty-three animals were used. 
The animals were free from disease and their general nutrition 
was apparently normal. 

For three days prior to the experiments the animals were 
kept in metabolism cages, fed on beef and hard bread and given 
once a day by stomach tube a known and constant quantity of 
water. The quantity of water varied with the size of the ani- 


1912 | A Srupy oF THE Action oF DruReTIcs 5 


mal. - During the period of preliminary observation the urine 
was collected daily, measured and studied qualitatively and 
microscopically. The existence of a naturally acquired nephritis 
was excluded. Two of the animals showed the presence of 
albumen and erythrocytes in the urine but no casts. 

At the end of three or four days, after the preliminary data 
had been obtained, the animals were given from 5 to 10 mgs. of 
uranium nitrate subcutaneously. The frequency with which 
the injections were repeated was determined by the severity of 
the nephritis produced by a given injection and by the stage of 
the nephritis that was desired in which to study the action 
of the different diuretic substances. Such a method of regulat- 
ing the quantity of nephrotoxic substance is more accurate, so 
far as the reaction on the part of the kidney is concerned, than 
can be obtained by using a constant quantity of the kidney 
poison per kilogram of body weight, since different animals 
vary very greatly in their response to the same quantity of the 
poison. 

Usually within twelve or twenty-four hours after the initial 
injection of uranium the animals had developed a well-marked 
nephritis. 

Occasionally on the first day of the nephritis, and almost 
invariably by the second day, the animals developed a pro- 
nounced glycosuria. The quantitative output of albumen was 
not determined. Quantitative sugar determinations were made 
with both Fehling’s and Purdy’s quantitative reagents. These 
determinations showed that the output of sugar in a twenty-four 
hour specimen of urine varied from 0.25 to 3.22 per cent. 


After the production of the nephritis the animals were 
anesthetized with either morphine-ether or Gréhant’s anes- 
thetic." 

The following operative technique was constantly employed. 

A tracheal canula was tied in place and connected with the 
ether bottle to be used in case additional anesthetic was neces- 
sary during the experiment. 


1Gréhant’s Anesthetic. The animal is given 4 ec. per kilogram of a 4 per 
cent solution of morphine. This is followed in half an hour by 10 ce. per kilo- 
ae of the following mixture: Chloroform, 50 cc.; alcohol and water, each 
ee. 


6 JouRNAL OF THE MircHELL SOCIETY [May 


The carotid pressure was recorded in the usual way, and a 
relative idea of the heart volume was obtained along with the 
pressure tracing by means of a Hiirthle manometer. 

The left kidney was surrounded by a rubber bag filled with 
water, and the kidney with its surrounding water cushion placed 
in a copper oncometer. The oncometer communicated by means 
of a rubber tube with a water manometer which registered on an 
arbitrary scale graduated in millimeters the increase or the 
decrease in the volume of the organ. 

Into each ureter was placed a ureter canula. Observations 
of the urine flow were made only from the right kidney, on ac- 
count of the fact that the flow from the left kidney was possibly 
influenced by the mechanical disturbance necessarily associated 
with the use of the oncometer. 

The various diuretic solutions were given intravaenously 
through the femoral vein, due care being taken of their tempera- 
ture. 

The experiments were of such a nature that they would 
necessarily require considerable time for consecutive observa- 
tions of the action of the different diuretics. On this account 
it seemed advisable to employ some method to maintain a 
fairly constant body temperature. For this purpose a cop- 
per water box was used, similar to the ones employed in Soll- 
mann’s laboratory. The upper surface of the box is concave 
and holds a wooden rack in which the animal is placed. With 
such an apparatus the animal’s body temperature can be fairly 
accurately maintained. 

At the termination of the experiments, the kidneys were at 
once removed and tissue fixed for microscopic study in both 
corrosive-acetic and in formaline. 

Five of the twenty-three animals employed in this investiga- 
tion were either purposely or accidentally killed before or at 
the commencement of the anesthetic. Kidney tissue from these 
animals was fixed for histological study. 

In the remaining eighteen animals the physiological response. 
of the nephritic kidney was studied under the influence of : 


1912] A Srupy or tue Action or Diuretics 7 


Caffeine........ 1-2 cc. of a 1 per cent solution per kilogram 
Theobromine. ...1-2 ec. of a 1 per cent solution per kilogram 
Disitalinh ease ce eis. es ck co eal 1 mg. per kilogram 


Sodium chloride solution....0.9 per cent, 10 ce. per kilogram 


COURSE OF THE EXPERIMENTS 


The average daily output of urine of each animal was deter- 
mined at the end of the third day, during which time the pre- 
liminary observations were being made. Following the injec- 
tion of uranium the daily output of urine was ascertained and 
compared with the average daily output by the animal prior 
to the use of uranium. 

Three of the animals were used experimentally after they had 
developed a nephritis but before the development of a gly- 
closuria. The daily output of urine by these nephritic and non- 
glycosuric animals showed a moderate increase as follows. The: 
urine from the different animals increased respectively from 
278 to 318 ce., from 392 to 440 ce. and from 386 to 358 ce. 
The urine showed qualitatively a pronounced reaction for albu- 
men, and microscopically hyaline and granular casts and ery- 
throcytes. 

The remaining animals were used experimentally after the 
development of a glycosuria. In each instance, with the devel- 
opment of a glycosuria the output of urine at once enormously 
increased. For example, in experiment 1, in which the animal 
was receiving daily 350 ce. of water, the average daily output 
of urine for three days prior to the uranium was 385 ce., while 
with the development of a nephritis and an accompanying gly- 
cosuria the urine increased on the first day to 620 ce. and on 
the second day to 750 ce. 

Again, in experiment 8, in which the animal was recelving 
500 ce. of water daily, the average output of urine prior to the 
uranium was 513 ce., while following the uranium with the 
development of a nephritis and a glycosuria the output of 
urine increased to 1310 ee. 

This increase in the output of urine was not an occasional 
occurrence, but it developed in each animal that was allowed a 
sufficient time to develop a glycosuria. These polyurie and 
nephritic animals were anesthetized by one of the methods pre- 


8 JouRNAL OF THE MitTcHEeLi Society [May 


viously mentioned. Within thirty-four minutes to an hour and 
a half after the commencement of the anesthetic, the output of 
urine from these excessively diuretic animals was either very 
greatly reduced, reduced to a condition bordering on an anuria, 
or an anuria had developed, which in six of the animals per- 
sisted throughout the experiment, uninfluenced by the diuretics 
which were employed. 

This pronounced reduction in the output of urine after the 
anesthetic is equally as striking as is the increase in the output 
of urine after the animals have developed a glycosuria. 

Experiment 20 is used to illustrate these observations. The 
animal was receiving 500 cc. of water daily. The average 
output of urine for the three days prior to the uranium was 
464 ec. The animal was given subcutaneously one injection of 
uranium of 10 mgs. The animal rapidly developed a nephritis 
and a glycosuria, and the urine increased to 1018 cc. At the 
time of the experiment 294 cc. of this urine was found in the 
bladder, which shows quite clearly that the animal was diuretic 
until the time of anesthesia. The experiment lasted four hours 
and during this time the animal was in a perfectly satisfactory 
physiological condition. The general blood pressure varied 
between 93 and 108 mm. of mercury and the renal vessels were 
physiologically responsive to caffeine, theobromine and 0.9 per 
cent salt. Not a drop of urine was voided. 

This experiment, associated as it is with others which give 
identically the same results, shows a definite relation between 
the polyuria and the development of glycosuria. Secondly, it 
shows an equally intimate connection between the use of an 
anesthetic and the development of an anuria. The polyuria in 
uranium nephritis and the influence of the anesthetic in reduc- 
ing the output of urine has been observed by both Schlayer (2) 
and Pearce (3). Pearce attributes the anuria to a “decreased 
glomerular permeability” and makes a similar suggestion to 
interpret the results obtained by Schlayer. So far as I have 
been able to learn these authors make no note of the association 
of the polyuria with the onset of the glycosuria. 


1912 | A Srupy oF THE Action oF Diuretics 9 


. THE EFFECT OF DIURETICS IN URANIUM NEPHRITIS 


To facilitate the study of the effect of the different diuretics 
the experiments have been classified into groups, e. g., the 
Anuric, Practically Anurie and Diuretic Groups. 

Anuric group 

Six experiments are included in this group. In all six of the 
animals caffeine, theobromine, and digitalin were employed as 
diuretics and in four of the animals 0.9 per cent salt was also 
used. None of these agents had any effect in reéstablishing a 
flow of urine. This failure cannot be attributed to either a 
failure on the part of the diuretics to increase and maintain an 
adequately high general blood pressure for urine secretion, or to 
a failure in the vascular response of the kidney. The following 
experiment will serve well to illustrate these points: 

Experiment 23. The animal’s general blood pressure at the 
commencement of the experiment was 104 mm. of mercury and 
at the termination 107 mm. Caffeine produced a rise in arterial 
pressure of 4 mm. of mercury and a rise in the oncometer of 27 
mm. (water manometer). Theobromine produced a rise of 7 
mm. in general pressure, and a rise in oncometer pressure of 
59 mm., digitalin a rise of 18 mm. in arterial pressure and 20 
mm. in oncometer pressure, while 0.9 per cent salt caused no 
rise in general blood pressure, but a rise of 15 mm. in oncome- 
ter pressure. The animal remained anuric throughout the ex- 
periment. 

Practically Anuric group 


Falling in this group are experiments 6 and 11. They rep- 
resent animals which are not absolutely anurie but which show 
a gradual decline in the flow of urine which is but slightly influ- 
enced by the diuretics. 

The first animal of this series, experiment 6, prior to the 
anesthetic had an output of urine of 810 ec. Following the an- 
esthetic an anuria developed for two hours, although during 
this time a rise of blood pressure of 14 mm. of mereury and of 
oncometer pressure of 12 mm. of water was obtained from 
caffeine and a rise of 10 mm. in general pressure and of 12 mm. 


10 JOURNAL OF THE MircHEeLy Society [May 


in oncometer pressure from theobromine. During the last half 
hour of the experiment, under the effect of 0.9 per cent salt 
the arterial pressure rose 17 mm. and the oncometer pressure 
20 mm. The urine filled the ureter canula and a few drops 
were discharged into the receiving flask. 

Experiment 11 followed the same general course. Prior to 
the anesthetic the animal was highly polyurice. Following the 
anesthetic the output of urine for the first half hour period was 
2 cc. The urine flow then decreased, although the animal 
showed the usual physiological response to caffeine and theo- 
bromine. During the final half hour period of the experiment 
the flow of urine had been reduced to two drops. The experi- 
ment demonstrates a continuance of those changes, whatever 
they may be, which lead to an anuria, and which commence with 
the administration of the anesthetic, and in this instance have 
progressed, uninfluenced by the employment of diuretics. 


Diuretic group 


In the animals classified as diuretic, the term is used rela- 
tively. With few exceptions these experiments were terminated 
artificially during a period of diuresis. Such a termination 
does not exclude the possibility of the animal later becoming 
anuric as was illustrated in the previously described experiment. 

The following experiments are representative of this group: 

Experiment 16. The animal had a pronounced nephritis, 
was polyuric and had developed a glycosuria. Following 
Gréhant’s anesthetic the animal became anuric for fotry-five 
minutes. Following the use of caffeine, with a rise of arterial 
pressure of 5 mm. of mercury and of oncometer pressure of 8 
mm. the urine flow was reéstablished and during the half hour 
period following the use of caffeine the flow of urine was 1.5 ce. 
Under theobromine without a rise in arterial pressure but with 
a rise in oncometer pressure of 4 mm., the flow of urine in- 
creased to 3 cc. in a half hour period. With digitalin which 
produced a rise in arterial pressure of 10 mm. and in oncometer 
pressure of 8 mm. the urine flow increased to 3.3 ce. in a half 
hour interval. 


1912] A Srupy or tHe Action oF Drvretics ila 


In three of the experiments of this series 0.9 per cent salt 
was tised. With the salt solution the greatest degree of diuresis 
was produced and this diuretic effect from the salt was more 
constant than that from the other diuretics in this type of 
nephritis. 

In experiment 19, the flow of urine in the half hour period 
prior to the use of salt solution was 0.9 cc. Following the salt 
with a rise in arterial pressure of 14 mm. and in oncometer 
pressure of 49 mm. the urine increased 1.7 ec. 

In experiment ¥ with a flow of urine of 1.6 cc.—prior to 
the use of salt solution, following its use the urine increased to 
4.6 cc. The oncometer pressure rose 18 mm. and the general 
pressure 6 mm. 

The following deductions concerning the diuretic value of the 
different substances employed in these groups of experiments 
are as follows: 


1. In the anuric group, caffeine, theobromine, digitalin and 
0.9 per cent salt solution have no effect in reéstablishing the 
flow of urine. Their failure does not depend upon their inabil- 
ity to raise and maintain a sufficiently high general blood pres- 
sure to produce diuresis. 

2. The inactivity of these substances is not due to their in- 
ability to influence the local renal circulation, for the physio- 
logical vascular response of the renal vessels as indicated by 
the oncometer readings is normal or hyperactive. 

3. In the group of experiments classified as practically 
anurie the same deductions concerning the inefficiency of the 
diuretics are allowable. 

4. In addition to these deductions relative to the effect of 
the diuretics, this group also shows that the quantity of urine 
may not only not be increased by the diuretics, but that the out- 
put of urine may progressively decrease, even though the general 
blood pressure readings and oncometer readings show the usual 
response. 

5. In the diuretic group in which the animals show the same 
physiological response to the diuretics as was shown by the 
animals in the anuric and practically anuric groups—the sub- 


12 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHEeLL Society [| May 


stances effect a diuretic action. Salt solution, 0.9 per cent, 
shows a more constant diuretic effect, and the increase in the 
flow of urine from the salt is more pronounced than it is from 
the other substances. 


THE RENAL PATHOLOGY 


Five of the animals used in this investgiation were killed 
either prior to the anesthetic or during its administration. 
Four of these animals had an early uranium nephritis, were 
markedly polyuric and had a glycosuria. The fifth animal had 
a late uranium nephritis, was glycosuric but was not polyuric. 
The output of urine was reduced below the normal. 

In the four early nephritides the vascular pathology of the 
kidney was much more pronounced than was the epithelial 
pathology, while in the fifth animal with a late uranium nephri- 
tis in which the output of urine had been reduced below the 
normal, the epithelial pathology predominated. The vascular 
pathology in the early nephritides consisted primarily of an 
acute engorgement of the glomerular capillaries. The hyper- 
aemic capillary tufts usually filled the space enclosed by Bow- 
man’s membrane and frequently this structure gave the appear- 
ance of being distended by the enclosed capillaries. The endo- 
thelial nuclei of the capillaries and of the capsular membrane 
showed no degeneration but were unusually prominent. Within 
the capilliaries the vacuoles first described by Christian (6) 
were observed in two of the kidneys. 

The intertubular vessels showed the same engorgement with 
an occasional intertubular exudate containing a few erythro- 
cytes. 

With this pronounced vascular reaction on the part of the 
kidney the epithelial pathology was remarkably slight. The 
epithelium had not degenerated, it stained well and showed no 
encroachment upon the lumen of the tubules. (Figs. I and IL.) 

A comparison of the epithelial changes in these animals, with 
the epithelial changes in those animals having a complete 
anuria is as striking as is the difference in the output of urine 
by the two groups of animals before and after the administra- 
tion of an anesthetic. 


1912 | A Stupy or tHE Action or Diuretics 13 


Four of the anuric animals were in an early stage of uranium 
nephritis, the stage which has just been described as existing in 
the animals killed before the administration of an anesthetic. 
In these animals with an early uranium nephritis which were 
polyurie and glycosuric, and which following the anesthetic 
became anuric, the vascular pathology was histologically sim- 
ilar to the vascular pathology noted in those animals that had 
not been subjected to the effect of an anesthetic. The epithelial 
pathology imthese two groups of animals shows, however, a well 
marked difference. The epithelium in the anuric animals is 
very greatly swollen and is usually vacuolated. As a result of 
the swelling the lumen of the tubules has either been very 
greatly encroached upon or the lumen has become obliterated 
by an apposition of the opposing faces of the tubular epithelium. 
The epithelial changes are most pronounced in the convoluted 
tubules. (Figs. III and IV.) 

In the animals grouped as practically anuric, the renal path- 
ology is so nearly similar to the pathology of the kidney in the 
anuric group that the two allow no histological differentiation. 

In the animals grouped as diuretic, the vascular pathology is 
similar histologically to the vascular pathology which has been 
described for those animals in the anurie group and also for 
those animals which were killed prior to the use of the anes- 
thetic. The epithelial pathology, however, differes very much 
from the epithelial pathology of the anuric group but resembles 
in its appearance the epithelial reaction seen in those diuretic 
animals obtained before the use of an anesthetic. (Figs. V 


and VI.) 
SUMMARY 


1. Early in a uranium nephritis, usually within the first 
twenty-four hours, the animals develop a glycosuria and _ be- 
come markedly polyurie. 

2. Following an anesthetic, morphine-ether, or Gréhant’s, 
these animals either become completely anurie or the output of 
urine is greatly reduced. 

3. Such animals under the effect of caffeine, theobromine, 
digitalin and 0.9 per cent salt solution, show a normal response 


14 JoURNAL OF THE MitTcHELL Society [May 


in the general blood pressure rise and in the vascular response 
of the kidney. 

4, In certain of these animals the flow of urine is increased 
by these diuretics while in other animals the urine flow is unin- 
fluenced. 

5. Histologically the vascular pathology of the kidney is 
similar in those animals which show a diuretic effect and in 
those animals which remain anuric. 

6. Those animals which remain anuric show a physiological 
vascular response on the part of the kidney vessels similar to 
the response which is obtained in the diuretic animals. The 
physiological and the pathological reaction of the kidney ves- 
sels in the anuric and in the diuretic animals are, there- 
fore, similar. 

7. The two groups of animals differ, however, in the degree 
of involvement of the epithelial element of the kidney. The 
anuric animals show an epithelial involvement which is severe 
and which results anatomically in an encroachment upon, or 
occlusion of, the lumen of the tubules, while in the diuretic 
animals the epithelial changes are less marked and are insuffi- 
cient to produce a mechanical obstruction of the tubular lumen. 

8. The pathology of the kidney of those animals with an 
early uranium nephritis which were examined prior to the use 
of an anesthetic showed a vascular pathology which in general 
was similar to the vascular pathology of the anuric, practically 
anuric and diuretic animals. The tubular epithelium of these 
animals which were polyuric, showed but slight changes, and in 
their epithelial reaction the kidneys of these animals were more 
nearly comparable to the kidneys of the diuretic animals than 
they were to the kidneys of the anuric animals. 

The physiological and anatomical observations which have 
been made in this investigation indicate that in a uranium 
nephritis the epithelial changes are more responsible for a re- 
duction in the output of urine or an anuria than are the vascu- 
lar changes. The way in which these changes influence the 
output of urine will furnish the basis for a subsequent investi- 
gation. 


Plate I 


1912] A Stupy or THE Action or Drvuretics 15 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


(1) Mac Nider: Journal of Medical Research, vol. xxvi, no. 1 (to be 
published). 

(2) Schlayer and Hedinger: Deutsch. Arch. f. klin. med., 1907, xe, 1. 

(3) Pearce, Hill and Eisenbrey: Jour. Exp. Med., vol. xii, no. 2, 1910. 

(4) Heineke and Myerstein: Deutsch. Arch. f. klin. med., 1907, vol. 
xe; LOL. 

(5) Dickson: Arch. Int. Med., 1909, vol. iii, p. 375. 

(6) Christian: Boston Med. and Surg. Jour., 1908, clix, 8. 

(7) Schirokauer: Ztsch. f. klin. Med., 1908, Ixvi, 182. 


Figs. I and II 


The figures represent the kidneys of a nephritic, glycosuric and 
polyuric animal before the use of an anesthetic. The glomerular ves- 
sels fill and distend the surrounding capsule and show the presence of 
vacuoles in the capillary walls. The tubular epithelium shows oc- 
casion vacuolation, is but slightly swollen and has not encroached 
upon or occluded the lumen of the tubules. The tubules contain gran- 
ular detritus. B. and L. obj. 3, oc. 1. 


Figs. III and IV 


The figures represent the kidneys of two animals which were ex- 
cessively polyuric before the administration of an anesthetic. Follow- 
ing the anesthetic the animals became anuric. The anuria remained 
uninfluenced by the diuretics. The vascular pathology is histological- 
ly similar to the pathology described in the polyuric animals illus- 
trated by Figs. I and II. The epithelial pathology, however, is strik- 
ingly different. The epithelium shows an acute swelling resulting in 
a nearly complete occlusion of the lumen of the tubules. The acute 
nature of the swelling of the epithelium is well shown in Fig. III. The 
anuria was uninfluenced by the diuretics. B. and L. obj. 3, oc. 1. 


Figs. V and VI 


The figures represent the kidneys of two animals which were re- 
sponsive to the diuretics. The vascular pathology is similar to that 
described in the anuric animals. The epithelium shows but slight 
swelling and no material encroachment upon the lumen of the tubules. 
B. and L. obj. 3, oc. 1. 


Chapel Hill, N. C. 


NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF CHAPEL HILL, N. C., 
WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO 
THEIR MIGRATIONS. 


By ALexanver L. FEILp. 


The material from which these notes are derived was gath- 
ered during my four undergraduate years at the University of 
North Carolina at Chapel Hill,—Sept. 1907 to June 1911. 
Since the migrating birds occur in the spring and autumn 
months, I was able to obtain tolerably complete records for the 
entire time. I made no observations during the three vacation 
months of June, July and August. A considerable amount of 
my spare time, however, during the school year was devoted 
to a study of the birds found in this region. The total number 
of species positively identified was one hundred and seven. Of 
this number twenty-nine are known to remain here all through 
the year and are therefore called permanent residents. Eleven 
are transient visitors,—birds which during the spring and fall 
migrations remain here for only a few days or weeks. Twenty 
are winter residents, which are birds that breed further north- 
ward but spend the winter in this locality. Thirty-three occur 
only in the summer, coming here to breed after their winter 
residence in the southern United States or the tropics. The 
remaining fourteen species are of doubtful classification. 

I have added five new species to the hitherto catalogued 
species of Chapel Hill. They are the Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo 
borealis borealis), Red-cockaded Woodpecker (Dryobates bore- 
alis), Pine Siskin (Spinus pinus), Cape May Warbler (Den- 
droica tigrina), Kentucky Warbler (Oporornis formosus). 

In 1899 Mr. T. G. Pearson published in this Journal (Vol. 
XVI, Part I) a “ Preliminary Catalogue of the Birds of 
Chapel Hill, N. C., with Brief Notes on Some of the Species.” 
One hundred and thirty-four species are included in this cata- 
logue, one hundred and nineteen of which actually came under 
his notice. About all of the remaining seventeen species had 
been recorded previously by Prof. G. F. Atkinson. The latter 

16 


1912] Nores on Tur Birps or Cuarer Hanns C i 


published in 1887 in the Raleigh News and Observer a “Prelim- 
inary List of Birds Collected in the Vicinity of Chapel Hill.” 
Ninety-two species were listed. In an article entitled “A Pre- 
liminary Catalogue of the Birds of North Carolina,” published 
in this Journal (Part 2 for 1887), Prof. Atkinson states that 
he identified about one hundred and twenty species at Chapel 
Hill, but does not enumerate them. No attempt was made by 
either of these observers to give any systematic record of bird 
migration at Chapel Hill. 

Following my notes on the one hundred and seven species I 
met with, I have given a supplementary list of the thirty-three 
other species that have been previously listed for Chapel Hill, 
making a total of one hundred and forty. For further informa- 
tion concerning this last list, the reader is referred to Mr. Pear- 
son’s article, above mentioned. 

The nomenclature used is that of the third edition of the 
A. O. U. Check List of North American Birds. 


1. Green Heron (Butorides virescens virescens). 

This heron is a summer resident. I did not find it as com- 
mon as might be expected for this locality. In 1909 the first 
bird was seen on April 18, 


2. Spotted Sandpiper (Actitis macularia). 
I obtained only one record for this species. This was on 
April 18, 1909. It is not known to breed here. 


3. Killdeer (Oxyechus vociferus). 

I have seen this bird in December, February, March and 
April, the latest record being April 18, on which date one indi- 
vidual was seen. They are most abundant in March. No 
breeding record has been yet secured, although it is probable 
that they do breed. It is a tolerably common resident in the 
middle section of the state. 


4. Bob-white (Colinus virginianus virginianus. ) 
A common resident throughout the year. I have observed 
numerous coveys on the campus. 


5. Mourning Dove (Zenaidura macroura carolinensis). 
This bird is common at all times of the year. It is classed 


18 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHELL Society | May 


as a game-bird. In 1909 I first heard the Dove’s call on Feb- 
ruary 14; in 1908, on March 8. 


6. Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura septentrionalis). 
This vulture, commonly called “Turkey Buzzard,’ may be 
seen every month of the year. It breeds in this region. 


7. Black Vulture (Catharista urubu). 

A flock of these vultures was seen on January 22, 1909. 
It may breed in this region, as it has been recorded as a resident 
in the eastern and middle portions of the state. 


8. Sharp-shinned Hawk (Accipiter velox). 

The only time recorded was on February 9, 1909. There 
seems to be a scarcity of hawks of all kinds in the region 
around Chapel Hill. 


9. Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo borealis borealis). 
This hawk was noted only once, April 24, 1909. It has not 
been recorded by any earlier observer at Chapel Hill. 


10. Red-shouldered Hawk (Buteo lineatus lineatus). 

This is apparently the commonest member of the family in 
this locality. I have only observed it in December, February, 
March and April, however. 

11. Sparrow Hawk (Falco sparverius sparverius). 

Next to the Red-shouldered Hawk, the Sparrow Hawk is 
most often seen. One pair evidently nested in the oaks back of 
the South Building. 

12. Barred Owl (Strix varia varia). 

In the winter and spring months these birds were heard call- 
ing night after night in the forest south of the campus and in 
Battle’s Park. Sometimes several would be heard at once. 


13. Screech Owl (Otus asio asio). 

This little owl is often heard on the campus. I never actually 
saw but one individual here. 
14. Yellow-billed Cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus americanus). 


This ‘“Rain-Crow” was first seen on May 17 in 1908, and on 
April 28 in 1911, It is a not uncommon summer resident. 


1912|  Nores on 18 Brrbs or Cuaper Hit, N. C. 19 


15. Belted Kingfisher (Ceryle aleyon). 

I have observed this species only in March, April and May, 
the earliest record being March 25, and the latest May 2. It 
probably breeds. No record of it has yet been obtained. 


16. Hairy Woodpecker (Dryobates villosus audubont). 
This bird is not at all uncommon around Chapel Hill. I 
have seen it in November, December, J anuary, April, and May. 


ky 


The latest spring record was May 27. It breeds here without 
doubt. 


17. Downy Woodpecker (Dryobates pubescens). 

This is the smallest and most abundant woodpecker at 
Chapel Hill. It was seen in all months of the year. I met with 
it most frequently in February. In the middle of this month 
it starts its loud drumming, which is the mating-call 


18. Red-cockaded Woodpecker (Dryobates borealis). 

The woodpecker has not been recorded for Chapel Hill by 
earlier observers. I found it a not uncommon bird in Battle’s 
Park and other neighboring woods. This species was seen by 
me five times in the months of March and April, 1909, the 
latest being on April 17. The Red-cocaded Woodpecker was 
usually observed in numbers ranging from two to six. 


19. Yellow-bellied Sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius varius). 

This common migrant woodpecker occurs here. The average 
date of its arrival was October 16. The earliest were on Octo- 
11 in 1907 and 1911. The latest time at which it was seen in 
the spring was on April 26 in 1911. It was noted in all the 
intervening months except November, but was most abundant 
from January 15 to February 15. 


20. Pileated Woodpecker (Phloeotomus pileatus pileatus). 

This large bird was seen on four occasions, the dates being 
November 28, 1907, January 9, January 22, February 20, 
1909. On three of these occasions it was found in the forest 
several miles south-east of the campus. Only one individual 
was seen at any one time. 


20 JOURNAL OF THE MiTCHELL SOCIETY [May 


21. Red-headed Woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus). 
This handsome bird is a very conspicuous inhabitant of the 
campus. It is not so abundant in the surrounding region. It 
seemed most numerous in May. I have no records for Decem- 
ber, nor for the first three weeks in January. In 1909 the loud 
drumming mating-call was first heard on February 5. 


22. Red-bellied Woodpecker (Centurus carolinus). 

One of the anomalies of Chapel Hill ornithology is the abund- 
ance of this woodpecker, which is rare in very similar local- 
ities. I observed one pair nesting in a hole in an elm in the 
back-yard of the old Archer place. The time was April. I 
have also seen this bird during the fall and winter months, ex- 
cept February. 


23. Flicker (Colaptes auratus auratus). 
Next to the Downy the commonest woodpecker. I found it 
most conspicuous in March, It is a resident species. 


24, Whippoorwill (Antrostomus vociferous vociferous). 

The average date of arrival of this migrant was April 5. 
The earliest arrival was noted on March 31, 1910. These birds 
during the spring migrations may be heard calling in large num- 
bers in Battle’s Park and the woods south of the campus. Those 
individuals that remain to breed continue their calling through 
the first week in May. 


25. Nighthawk (Chordeiles virginianus virgimanus). 

This bird breeds at Chapel Hill. I saw one bird perform for 
several successive evenings the sky-coasting performance, for 
which the species is famous, over the cemetery and adjoining 
woods. This was about May 1, 1911. The earliest record I 
obtained was April 11, in 1908. In 1911 I saw it as late as 
October 7. 


26. Chimney Swift (Chaetura pelagica). 

My records for the arrival of this well-known summer visitor 
are as follows: March 31, 1908, April 4, 1909, April 4, 1910, 
April 5, 1911. In 1908 and 1909 it was last seen on October 
10; in 1907, on October 9. In the fall, just before they leave, 


on ™ 


1912] Nores on THE Birps oF Cuaper Hi, N.C. 21 


these swifts gather in great numbers in the chimneys of the 
South Building. 


27. Ruby-throated Hummingbird (Archilochus colubris). 

Arrived on April 16 in 1908, and on April 15 In 1909. A 
common summer resident. 

28. Kingbird (Tyrannus tyrannus). 

I found the Kingbird not very common at Chapel Hill. The 
earliest spring arrival was on April 26, 1908. In 1907 it was 
seen as late in the fall as September 3. This flycatcher is not 
as abundant as in many similar sections of the state. 


29. Crested Flycatcher (Myiarchus crinitus). 

Earliest spring arrival, April 16, 1908 and 1910; average 
arrival, April 18. Last seen in the fall of 1907 on September 
17. This is a very common bird at Chapel Hill, breeding on 
the campus. 


30. Phoebe (Sayornis phoebe). 

A nest containing three eggs and one young was found by me 
on April 24, 1909, under the eaves of a mill near Chapel Hill. 
I have teed ne Phoebe during all the nine months of the 
school year. It was most abundant in February. 


31. Wood Pewee (Myiochanes virens). 

A very common summer resident. Average time of arrival 
was April 27; earliest arrival was on April 24, 1907. The 
‘Wood Pewee was last seen in 1907 on October 14. 

32. Acadian Flycatcher (Hmpidonax virescens). 

A rather common summer resident. It usually appeared 
about May 4. Earliest arrival on May 1, 1910. 

33. Blue Jay (Cyanocitta cristata cristata). 

An abundant resident of the campus. It is not so numerous, 
however, in the surrounding region. 

34. Crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos brachyrhynchos). 
A common permanent resident. 
35. Bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus). 
Small flocks of these migrants were seen April 3-7, 1908, 


22 JOURNAL OF THE MitrcHEeLt Society [May 


April 7, 1909, April 5, 1911, on the campus. The males were 
in song on each occasion. 


36. Red-winged Blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus phoeniceus). 

This bird is perhaps a rare summer resident. I have it re- 
corded only during November, however. The scarcity of this 
and other species of similar breeding habits may be due to the 
absence of much swamp-land or many ponds near Chapel Hill. 


37. Meadowlark (Sturnella magna magna). 

It may be that these birds breed occasionally here. No 
record, however, has been obtained. I have observed them from 
October 22 to April 22. The Meadowlark begins to sing about 
January 8 and continues until March 30. They are common 
birds on the campus in the winter and spring months. 


38. Orchard Oriole (Icterus spurius). 

A summer resident on the campus. Is a tolerably common 
species. Average appearance in spring, April 28; earliest, 
April 22, 1909. 


39. Baltimore Oriole (Icterus galbula). 

One individual was observed on April 27, 1908, in the arbor- 
etum. There is only one other record for this species at Chapel 
Hill, this being May 2, 1901. 

40. Purple Grackle (Quiscalus quiscula quiscula). 

Only seen on March 5, 1908, and February 12, 1911. 


41. Purple Finch (Carpodacus purpureus purpureus). 

This winter visitor is abundant at Chapel Hill during March 
and part of April. The latest records I obtained were on April 
23 in 1909 and 1911. I did not see it at all in the fall; nor 
earlier in the winter than February 2. The Purple Finch sings. 
continually from about Februtry 14 until it leaves in the spring. 


42, English Sparrow (Passer domesticus). 
Abundant in town and spreading into the country. 


43. Goldfinch (Astragalinus tristis tristis). 

A common permanent resident, abundant during March and 
April. Begins to sing about March 19. Found associated 
largely with the Purple Finch. 


1912| Nores on THE Birps or Cuaper Hirt, N.C. 23 


44, Pine Siskin (Spinus pinus). 

This uncommon transient visitor was noted in abundance on 
the campus from April 23 to May 6, 1911. These are the first 
recorded at Chapel Hill. 


45. Vesper Sparrow (Pooecetes gramineus gramineus ). 
First seen in 1908, on October 30; was seen in December ; 
and on April 3, 1909. A rather uncommon winter visitor. 


46. Savannah Sparrow (Passerculus sandwichensis savanna). 

I only saw this bird in the spring of 1909. It occurs probably 
as a regular winter bird. I found it common in the arboretum 
from April 2 to April 23. One individual was heard to sing on 
April 18. 


47. Grasshopper Sparraw (Ammodramus savannarum dus- 
tralis). 
Observed only on May 30, 1908, and April 10, 1911. It is 
not known to breed here, but probably does. 


48. White-throated Sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis). 

An abundant winter visitor. Length of stay: October 14, 
1907, to April 11, 1908; October 16, 1908, to May 7, 1909; 
— — — to May 5, 1910; October 13, 1910, to May 7, 1911. 
Sings during its entire stay, but most frequently in April. 


49, Chipping Sparrow (Spizella passerina passerina). 

Abundant as a summer resident. Spring arrivals are as fol- 
lows: March 6, 1908, February 28, 1909, March 9, 1910. It 
usually leaves about November 10. On December 10, 1907, 
however, quite a number were seen on the campus. 


50. Field Sparrow (Spizella pusilla pusilla). 

This common permanent resident begins to sing regularly 
about February 14. One individual was heard as early, how- 
ever, as January 22. 


51. Slate-colored Junco (Junco hyemalis hyemalis). 

The “Snow-bird” is a very common winter visitor. The av- 
erage date of arrival was November 10; the earliest, October 
25, 1908. In the spring it was seen until April 15 in 1909. 


24 JOURNAL oF THE MitcHELL Society [May 


The Junco begins to sing about February 17 and continues until 
its departure in April. 


52. Bachmans Sparrow (Peucaea aestivalis bachmant). 

A not uncommon bird at Chapel Hill. It arrived in 1908 on 
April 26, and in 1909 on April 17. I am of the opinion that 
one pair of these birds usually breeds in the neighborhood of the 
cemetery. 


54. Song Sparrow (Melospiza melodia melodia). 

My records of the length of stay of this common winter visitor 
are: October 22, 1907, to March 29, 1908; October 20, 1908, 
to April 8, 1909; October 21, 1910, to Its song is heard 
throughout its residence here, but it is most frequently heard 
during March. 


55. Swamp Sparrow (Melospiza georgiana). 
Observed on only one occasion in the winter (date not 
known). By no means a common bird in this locality. 


56. Fox Sparrow (Passerella iliaca iliaca). 

This winter visitor arrived in 1907 on November 28. I 
found it much commoner in the first three months of the year 
than in November or December. It was last seen in 1909, on 


March 18. Its song was heard in January, February, and 
March. 


57. Towhee (Poplio erythrophthalmus erythrophthalmus). 

This bird finds a very congenial winter home in the valleys of 
Chapel Hill. I found the usual date of arrival to be October 16 
(earliest, October 11, 1907). This bird lingers in the spring as 
late as May 6, which is the average of three years’ observations. 
The last bird seen in 1909 was on May 9. The Towhee begins 
to sing in the middle of February and continues until about 
April 6. 


58. Cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis cardinalis). 
A common resident all the year. Begins to sing in January, 
but is not in full voice until February 15. 


— 


1912] Norers on THE Birps oF Cuaret Hitt, N.C. 25 


59. .Rose-breasted Grosbeak (Zamelodia ludoviciana). 
One male observed on April 28, 1908, in the village. A rare 
transient visitor. 


60. Blue Grosbeak (Guiraca caerulea caerulea). 

A not uncommon bird during the spring migration. Arrived 
on the following days: May 9, 1908, May 9, 1909, May 1, 1910, 
May 24, 1911. It is without doubt a summer resident here. 


61. Indigo Bunting (Passerina cyanea). 

A very common summer resident, the bird’s average arrival 
for three years being April 24 (earliest record, April 23, 1909, 
1911). The Indigo is a persistent singer from the time of its 
arrival until late summer. 


62. Scarlet Tanager (Piranga erythromelas). 

In 1910 this was a rather common bird on the campus from 
May 10 to 16. It was not seen at any other time. A rather un- 
common transient visitor at Chapel Hill. 


63. Summer Tanager (Piranga rubra rubra). 

This Tanager is the common form at Chapel Hill. It is a 
resident in the summer. The extreme length of stay was from 
April 15 (1909) to September 26 (1907). I found it to arrive 
usually about April 20. 


64. Purple Martin (Progne subis subis). 

In 1908 this swallow, which is rather uncommon at Chapel 
Hill, arrived on April 22. In 1907 one individual was seen on 
September 7. I do not know of any that nest here. 


65. Barn Swallow (Hirundo eythrogastra). 

Observed only in the spring of 1908, May 6 to 8, and in the 
fall of 1909, September 17. On both occasions the birds were 
migrating in flocks of eight or ten individuals. 


66. Rough-winged Swallow (Stelgidopteryx serripennis). 

The earliest appearance of this bird was on April 10, 1910. 
It is perhaps a rather uncommon summer resident. In the 
migration season, however, it is more numerous, being seen reg- 
ularly every year. 


26 JOURNAL OF THE MitTcHEeLt Society [May 


67. Cedar Waxwing (Bombycilla cedrorum). 

I have seen the Cedar-bird from October 29 to November 8, 
and from January 4 to May 30. It probably occurs also in 
December. It is not certain whether it breeds in this locality 
or not. There are no records of its nesting here. It is very 
common in the late winter and spring. 


68. Loggerhead Shrike (Lanius ludovicianus ludovicianus). 

My only record for this bird was on October 15, 1907, when 
one individual was seen in the village. It is a rare winter vis- 
itor. 


69. Red-eyed Vireo ( Vireosylva oliwacea). 

This is the commonest Vireo at Chapel Hill, arriving from 
the south about April 22 (earliest record, April 18, 1908). It 
breeds abundantly. 


70. Yellow-throated Vireo (Lanivireo flavifrons). 

A summer resident, almost as abundant as the Red-eyed 
Vireo, and fully as persistent a songster. It arrives about April 
15. (Earliest record, April 8.) In 1907 it was seen in autumn 
as late as September 21. 


71. Blue-headed Vireo (Lanivireo solitarius solitarius). 
Two birds were observed in the fall of 1907 in the village 
(date not exactly known). 


72. White-eyed Vireo (Vireo griseus griseus). 

Not as common as would be expected for this locality. A 
summer resident. Arrived in 1908 on March 29, the average 
appearance being on April 6. 


73. Black and White Warbler (Mniotilta varia). 

This warbler usually arrived on the first of April (earliest 
record, March 28, 1909). It breeds here and is tolerably com- 
mon. 


74. Parula Warbler (Compsothlypis americana americana). 

Usually arrives about April 8. In 1910 the Parula Warbler 
appeared on April 3, which was my earliest observation. It is 
very common during the migration season and until May 15. 
It probably breeds at Chapel Hill. I have an entry for this 


1912] Nores on THE Birps or Cuaper Hirt, N. C. 27 


species on September 2, 1907, which was as late as I found it 
in the fall. 


75. Cape May Warbler (Dendroica tigrina). 

In the spring of 1909 this rare bird was tolerably common in 
the oaks on the campus from April 26 to May 3. These are 
the first recorded at Chapel Hill, and must be regarded as very 
rare transient visitors. 


76. Yellow Warbler (Dendroica aestiva aestiva). 

Spring arrivals were: April 20, 1908, April 19, 1909, April 
16, 1910, April 18, 1911. Last bird seen in 1907 on September 
20. <A tolerably common breeding bird. 


77. Black-throated Blue Warbler (Dendroica caerulescens 
caerulescens ). 
Observed only once, on April 25, 1909, in the arboretum. 


78. Myrtle Warbler (Dendroica coronata). 

This warbler is a common winter visitor, reaching Chapel 
Hill as follows: October 14, 1907, October 25, 1908, October 
22, 1909, October 21, 1910. It becomes extremely abundant in 
March, is less abundant in April, and leaves early in May. 
(Latest observed, May 15, 1910.) 


79. Blaek-poll Warbler (Dendroica striata). 

I found this warbler a regular transient visitor, which, during 
its stay, was almost abundant. It was recorded each year, the 
earliest arrival being April 29, 1911, the latest May 7, 1908. 
In 1910 it remained until May 22. Its song was heard during 
its short residence very often. It was not seen in the fall. 


80. Yellow-throated Warbler (Dendroica dominica dominica). 

An early spring migrant, whose coming was noted as follows: 
April 7, 1908, March 28, 1909, March 29, 1910, April 7, 1911. 
In 1907 it was seen until September 14. It breeds and is tol- 
erably common,—very common during the migrations. 


81. Pine Warbler (Dendroica vigorsi). 
A resident all the year and is very common at Chapel Hill. 
It begins to sing regularly about February 15, although on 


28 JOURNAL OF THE MitTcHELL Society [May 


warm days in December and January it occasionally bursts 
into song. It continues to sing until October. 


82. Prairie Warbler (Dendroica discolor). 

A common summer resident in the thickety hill-sides around 
Chapel Hill. My records for spring arrivals for four years all 
lie between April 14 and April 18. In 1907 it was noted on 
September 15. 


83. Oven-bird (Seiwrus aurocapillus). 

This bird appeared in the spring during my four years stay 
from April 10 to April 21. It is without doubt a summer resi- 
dent; during the migration it is common, becoming only toler- 
ably common later in the year. 


84. Louisiana Water-thrush (Seirus motacilla). 

This warbler is a resident at Chapel Hill. It appeared in 
the spring as follows: March 29, 1908, April 15, 1909, March 
24,1910. In 1907 it was seen on September 6. 


85. Kentucky Warbler (Oporornis formosus). 

This bird, which is a rather uncommon summer resident, was 
first observed in 1909 on May 18. It was noted quite frequently 
in the woods south of the campus. It has not been hitherto listed 
as occurring at Chapel Hill. 


86. Maryland Yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas trichas). 

The first migrants were noted as follows: April 4, 1908, 
March 29, 1909, April 2, 1910, April 23, 1911. In 1907 it 
was last seen on October 14, in 1908 on October 19. I found 
it not very common at Chapel Hill. It breeds here. 


87. Yellow-breasted Chat (Icteria virens virens). 

A very common species, resident in summer. Its appearance 
was as follows: April 21, 1908, May 9, 1909, May 1, 1910. 
In 1911 I saw none of these birds, although I looked for them 
carefully until my departure on May 30. 


88. Hooded Warbler (Wilsonia citrina). 
Observed only on April 24, 1908, in Battle’s Park. 


89. Redstart (Setophaga ruticilla). 
Recorded in the spring on April 24, 1908, May 4, 1910: in 


—_— ~~. 


1912] Norers on THE Birps oF Cuarer Hir1, N.C. 29 


the fall, on September 14, 1907, and September 18, 1908. A 
rather uncommon transient visitor. 


90. Puipit (Anthus rubescens). 

Regularly observed in the winter, being very common at 
times. Arrived on November 2 in 1908, on October 17 in 
1910, and October 22 in 1911. Isaw them as late as March 7 
(1910). They were often seen near the railroad station and 
in the athletic field. 


91. Mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos polyglottos). 

This common, permanent resident was heard to sing in every 
month except September. Its song, however, was heard most 
in March and April. Often in the spring this peerless songster 
would sing for hours at night on the campus. 


92. Catbird (Dumetella carolinensis). 
A common summer form, making his appearance in the 
spring on April 16 to 20. Last seen in 1907 on October 14. 


93. Brown Thrasher (Toxostoma rufum). 

I did not see these birds earlier in the winter than February 
14, although it is probable that they stay here in small numbers 
all through the year. They begin to sing immediately on ap- 
pearing,—the song being usually mistaken for that of the Mock- 
ingbird. They become abundant during March, but fall off in 
numbers after the wave of migrating birds has passed over. 


94, Carolina Wren (Thryothorus ludovicianus ludovicianus). 
A very common resident all the year. Sings more or less 
during the whole twelve months. 


95. Winter Wren (Nannus hyemalis hyemalis). 

A rather common winter bird. Arrived in 1907 on October 
14, Remained in 1909 until April 15. Have not heard it sing 
at Chapel Hill. 


96. Brown Creeper (Certhia familiaris americana). 

This bird was seen only in December, February and March. 
Only in March does it become at all common. In 1909 it was 
seen until March 23. 


30 JOURNAL OF THE MircueLt Society [May 


97. White-breasted Nuthatch (Sitta carolinensis carolinensis). 

A very common permanent resident. The prolonged nasal 
song of this Nuthatch begins to be heard frequently about the 
middle of January. The song period reaches its maximum in 
March or April. 


98. Brown-headed Nuthatch (Sitta pusilla. ) 
A not uncommon permanent resident. I have seen immature 
birds of the year. 


99. Tufted Titmouse (Baeolophus bicolor). 
This is a very common resident species. 


100. Carolina Chickadee ( Penthestes carolinensis carolinensis). 
Like the Titmouse, a very common permanent resident. 


101. Golden-crowned Kinglet (Regulus satrapa satrapa). 

Arrived in the fall on the following dates: October 15, 1907, 
October 16, 1908, October 21, 1909, October 12, 1911. This 
species remains in the pine forests around the village until near 
the middle of April (April 11, 1908, April 14, 1910). 


102. Ruby-crowned Kinglet (Regulus calendula calendula). 

More of a transient visitor than a winter resident, being 
rather common in October and March. In 1907 it arrived on 
October 24, in 1908 on October 25. It arrived for its spring 
stay on March 18 and was seen until April 21 in 1909. Again, 
in 1911, this Kinglet was noted until April 23. Its song is 
often heard during the spring. 


103. Blue-gray Gnateatcher (Polioptila caerulea caerulea). 

This tiny bird comes usually from the south in the last part 
of March. The average date of its appearance was March 30 
(earliest, March 22, 1908). It is a common summer bird. In 
1907 it was seen as late as September 23. 


104. Wood Thrush (Hylocichla mustelina). 

This handsome bird and its sweet song are characteristic of 
the campus in spring and summer. The extreme length of its 
stay was from April 8 (1909) to September 23 (1907). The 
average time of its appearance in spring was April 13. 


1912] Nors on Tux Birps or Cuarer Hirt, N. C. 31 


105. Hermit Thrush (Hylocichla guttata pallasi). 

This Thrush takes the place of the Wood Thrush when winter 
approaches. It came on October 15 in 1907, and on November 
2 in 1908. In 1909 the Hermit stayed until April 8. It is a 
common winter bird but does not sing while here. 


106. Robin (Planesticus migratorius). 

A conspicuous resident on the campus, where it breeds. A 
few remain at Chapel Hill all the year. In February and 
March , however, the migrating birds reach here and their num- 
bers increase very much. The Robin begins to sing toward the 
end of January. 

107. Bluebird (Sialis sialis sialis). 

I found this bird common at Chapel Hill at all seasons of 

the year. In February and March it is abundant on the campus. 


The thirty-three species which follow have been previously 
recorded at Chapel Hill. 


1. Holboells Grebe (Colymbus holboelli). One specimen 
taken by Prof. Atkinson in 1877. 

2. Pied-billed Grebe (Podilymbus podiceps). Recorded by 
Mr. Pearson. 

3. Loon (Gavia immer). There are two specimens in the 
University collection with no date attached. 

4. Wood Duck (Aix sponsa). Recorded by Mr. Pearson. 

5. Bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus). Recorded by Prof. At- 
kinson, 

6. Great Blue Heron (Ardea herodias herodias). Cata- 
logued by Mr. Pearson. 

7. Egret (Herodias egretta). One specimen shot by Mr. 
Dedrick in 1894. 

8. Sora (Porzana carolina). One taken in November, 1887, 
now in the University collection. 

9. Coot (Fulica americana). One recorded by Prof, Atkin- 
son on April 8, 1887, 

10. Woodcock (Philohela minor). Catalogued by Mr. Pear- 

son. 


32 


11. 


JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society | May 


Wilsons Snipe (Gallinago delicata). Catalogued by Mr. 
Pearson. 

Solitary Sandpiper (Helodramas solitarius solitarius). 
Listed by Prof. Atkinson, _ 

Wild Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris). Recorded 
by Mr. Pearson. 

Marsh Hawk (Circus hudsonius). Catalogued by Mr. 
Pearson, one specimen being secured on April 5, 1899. 

Coopers Hawk (Accipiter coopert). Catalogued by Mr. 
Pearson. 

Broad-winged Hawk (Buteo platypterus). One specimen 
recorded by Mr. Pearson. 

Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus leucocephalus). 
One observed by Mr. Pearson. 

Great Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus virginianus). Cat- 
alogued by Mr. Pearson. 

Chuck-wills-widow (Antrostomus carolinensis). One indi- 
vidual heard by Mr. Pearson on May 20, 1899. 

Horned Lark (Otocoris alpestris alpestris). Recorded by 
Mr. Pearson on November 23, 1898. 

Rusty Blackbird (Huphagus carolinus). Catalogued by 
Mr. Pearson. Two killed by Mr. Ivy Lewis on Febru- 
ary 3, 1899. 

Tree Sparrow (Spizella monticola monticola). Listed by 
Prof. Atkinson. 

Tree Swallow (Iridoprocne bicolor). Catalogued by Mr. 
Pearson. 

Worm-eating Warbler (Helmitheros vermivorus). Cat- 
alogued by Prof. Atkinson. 

Magnolia Warbler (Dendroica magnolia). Two speci- 
mens taken by Mr. Pearson in September, 1897. 

Chestnut-sided Warbler (Dendroica pensylvanica). One 
bird taken by Mr. Pearson on September 21, 1897. 

Bay-breasted Warbler (Dendroica castanea). One taken 
by Mr. Pearson on October 2, another on October 8, 
1897. 


1912] Norves on Tue Birps oF Cuaper Hix1, N. C. 33 


28. - Blackburnian Warbler (Dendroica fusca). One bird 
killed by Mr. Pearson on October 16, 1897. 

29. Black-throated Green Warbler (Dendroica virens). Cat- 
alogued by Mr. Pearson. 

30. Water thrush (Seiurus noveboracensis noveboracensis). 
Seen by Mr. Pearson. . 

31. House Wren (Troglodytes aedon aedon). Listed by Prof. 
Atkinson. 

32. Veery (Hylocichla fuscescens fuscescens). Listed by 
Prof. Atkinson. 

383. Olive-backed Thrush (Hylocichla ustulata swainsont ). 
One specimen secured by Mr. Pearson on September 26, 
another on October 9, 1897. 


There are a number of species which probably occur at 
Chapel Hill but have not been observed up to this time. Some 
of these are Little Blue Heron (Florida caerulea), King Rail 
(Rallus elegans), Black-billed Cuckoo (Coccyzus erythrophthal- 
mus), Cowbird (Molothrus ater ater), Bank Swallow (Riparia 
riparia), and Red-breasted Nuthatch (Sitta canadensis). 


Raleigh, N. C. 


THE SEEDLINGS OF THE LIVE OAK AND 
WHITE OAK. 


By W. C. Coxer. 


In the Plant World for May, 1911, Mr. Isaac Louis has an 
interesting article on the germination of the acorn of Quercus 
virguuana. So far as I know his figures of the live oak seed- 
ling are the first published, but he overlooks the previous publi- 
cation of most of the facts by others. 

The appearance of a tuberous swelling on the root of the 
seedling of this species was first discovered by Mr. William 
St. J. Mazyck, of Georgetown, South Carolina, who, by letters 
and specimens, called the attention of several botanists to the 
fact. Among those he communicated with were Dr. George 
Engelmann, of St. Louis, and Mr. Thomas Meehan, of Ger- 
mantown, Pennsylvania. In the Transactions of the Academy 
of Science of St. Louis, Vol. IV, 1880, Dr. Engelmann has an 
article on “The Acorns and their Germination,” which opens as 
follows: 

“The structure of the acorns and the germination of the 
oaks seem to be so well known, that I did not pay much further 
attention to it until my interest was excited by the information 
that the germinating live-oak developed little tubers, well known 
to the negro children, and greedily eaten by them. The notes 
and specimens obtained from my South Carolina correspond- 
ents, Messrs. H. W. Ravenel, W. St. J. Mazyck (who was the 
first to notice this), and Dr. J. H. Mellichamp, enabled me to 
examine the germinating live-oak and to compare it with other 
oaks in this condition.” 

After describing the usual process of sprouting in oaks he 
says: 

“The process in Q. virens' is essentially the same; it differs 
somewhat in that the connate stalk of the cotyledons remains 
more slender, but elongates more, mostly to the extent of one 
inch or even more; the cuticle and the upper part of the root 


1Quercus virens Ait is another nau Ae the live oak, Quercus virginiana Mill. 
4 


1912] Live Oak AnD WHITE Oak SEEDLINGS 35 


swells up at once, while the developing plumule forces its way up 
through a slit in the base of the stalk. It seems that the danger 
of losing connection with the storehouse of the cotyledonous 
mass through the long and slender passage of the stalk, necessi- 
tates the transfer of the food-matter to a nearer and safer place 
of deposit. But why, it may be asked, is the connection so 
much longer and more slender than in the other oaks? At all 
events it suffices, so long as it is fresh and unimpaired, to carry 
over in a very short time the starchy and sweet contents from 
the cotyledons to the tuber; and before the ascending axis is 
an inch high and bears as yet only a few minute bracts, the 
tuber is already forming and it soon reaches the size of the 
cotyledons themselves; it is, however, longer and more slender, 
of a fusiform shape, about three or four lines thick and one or 
two inches long, attenuated below into the long tap-root.”’ 

“The whole process is similar to the germination of the 
cucurbitaceous Magarrhiza of California, so beautifully illus- 
trated by Gray in his structural Botany; with this difference, 
that the cotyledons in that plant are raised above the ground,? 
while in ours they remain hypogaeous, and that the stalk is 
even longer, and is, together with the cotyledons, readily sep- 
arable into its two component parts. In both plants a tuber 
forms at once by the transfer of the food-matter from the coty- 
ledons to the radical; in the herbaceous Megarrhiza the tuber 
becomes a permanent organ of immense size, while in the ar- 
boreous live-oak it is finally merged into the root.” 

It may be of interest, also, to give two of Dr. Engelmann’s 
letters to Mr. Mazyck (not before published), in which this 
subject is referred to. On March 10th, 1880, he writes: 


“Wa. St. J. Mazycx, Esq, 

Dear Sir:—You will find from a little paper which I pub- 
lished in the St. Louis Academy Transactions, and which I 
will send in a few days, that I studied not only the germination 
but also the structure of the acorn itself and find in it an inter- 
esting character. 


?“But only exceptionally” is the foot note at this point by the editors of 
Dr. Engelmann’s collected works. 


36 JOURNAL OF THE MitTcHELL Socrety [May 


I forget how far I entered into this matter in my last, of Feb. 
21st, but if I should repeat myself here you will forgive me. 

You know how a bean and a pea germinate: both with thick 
fleshy cotyledons which do not expand into leaves, as many 
plants do. The difference between them is that the cotyledons 
of the pea remain under ground, while the bean’s are elevated 
on the stem above it. 

Well, the acorns behave like the pea, but the cotyledons re- 
main enclosed in the shell while their stems or stalks, or peti- 
oles come out and enclose between them the stem which grows 
up. If you pick up any seedling oak, you will find it so, and 
removing the shell, you can separate the cotyledons from one an- 
other and examine the whole arrangement. 

In most white-oaks the stems are longer, in the black-oaks 
shorter, and that is already seen in the acorn itself. In the 
live-oak it is longest already within the acorn, and in all of them 
it lengthens in germination more or less. 

The question with me now is, how soon does the tuber in the 
live-oak swell and how long does it last. 

I suppose that it begins to swell immediately when formed, 
attaining its full size, perhaps, in the fall, or it may grow for 
several years. I have a young live-oak, apparently three years 
old, with the biggest tuber I have ever seen. 

And I suspect that the tuber is ee absorbed but gradually 
merged into the root. 


On April 7th, 1880, he writes again: 


“Wa. St. J. Mazycr, Esgq., 


Dear Sir:—Enclosed please find the results of my studying 
of the germination of acorns and of their structure. 

In regard to the germinating Q. virens we ought to know yet: 

1st. How soon the tuber forms: from your many accounts I 
judge that it forms before any leaves are developed. 

2nd. When the cotyledons are exhausted and what relation 
their increase bears to the increase of the tuber. 

How long the tuber continues to grow larger, and at what age 
of the plant it becomes merged in the root or base of the trunk. 

I have a specimen about four or five years old, in which the 
tuber is the largest of any I have ever seen, but, of course, hard 
and ligneous. 


II 


late 


Oak, 


Seedlings of Live 


1912] Live Oax anp Wuite Oax SrEpiinas 37 


By examining other acorns but those of the live-oak you will 
be able to find out what by my description is meant.” 


Mr. Thomas Meehan, a well known horticulturist of that 
time, also gave an account of the live-oak seedling, before the 
Philadelphia Academy of Natural Science. In the Society’s 
Transactions for the year 1880, pages 128 and 129, we find 
the following: 


“Mr. Thomas Meehan referred to some interesting facts in 
the germination of Quercus virens, as brought to his attention 
by W. St. J. Mazyck, of Georgetown, S. C. It was generally 
known that in this species the cotyledons did not divide into 
two lobes as usual in acorns, but seemed to be one solid mass, 
without any trace of division. In germination, however, two 
petioles were developed as in other acorns, but instead of these 
being very short, indeed nearly sessile, as in the ordinary white- 
oak, they were produced apparently in the much advanced 
specimen sent by Mr. Mazyck to one and one-half inches in 
length before the plumule and hypocotyledenary portions of 
the embryo commenced their growth. In respect to the latter, 
a small ovate striate tuber, apparently, as one might judge from 
the shrivelled specimens on hand, nearly one-fourth the size 
of the acorn, was formed, and from the tuber the rad- 
icle proceeded, and, afterwards the plumule on its upward 
growth. Nice oe MRSS 

“Mr. Edward Potts, at the request of Mr. Meehan, had made 
sections of both the acorns and the spindle-shaped radicle, 
with the results of finding the cell structure of the latter an 
almost exact counterpart of that of the nut: 7. e., sub-spherical 
cells of uniform size, gorged with starch grains. So similar 
were they that it would be nearly impossible for an observer 
to say which he was examining but for the cortical tissue sur- 
rounding the root. It seemed that the food supply of the young 
plant had been thus withdrawn from a portion exposed to hot 
sun and drying winds to be protected by the earth and in the 
direct line of growth. No line of specialized cells could be 
discovered in the sections of the nut, indicating the possibility 
of separation as in other species into two cotyledons; so that 
to all intents and purposes it might be called monocotyledon- 
ous.” 


38 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL Society [ May 


In an unpublished letter, of February 6, 1880, to Mr. 
Mazyck, Mr. Meehan says: 


“T am very much obliged by your letter and samples of live- 
oak. I knew before that this species is monocotyledonous, and 
that the development of the radicle and ultimately plumule, is 
as you describe. Other oaks have somewhat the same character, 
but not the same degree. But I did not know of the swelling 
of the radicle. I shall call the attention of the Academy of 
Science to this interesting fact at its next meeting. . . . ” 


In a later letter (February 29, 1880) we find the following: 


z The acorn matter was very interesting to the 


members. Some examinations of other species have since been 
made, and it is found that so far as the lengthening of the 
petioles of the cotyledon is concerned, many have it to a greater 
or less degree, and the discovery of yours will be of very great 
value in the determination of the species. Drawings will be 
made and published of many species, but I made a formal ad- 
dress before the Academy at its meeting on last Tuesday even- 
ing, so that the discovery may be placed on record to your 
credit. It may be some months before this is published officially 
by the Academy, but as soon as it is I will send you a copy. 

One of the tubers was examined microscopically by Mr. 
Potts of the Microscopical Section, and found to contain starch 
granules of precisely the same character as those of the original 
cotyledon. 

Thanking you for your interesting facts, I am, 

Very truly yours, 
Tuomas Merrnan, 
2nd Vice-President Academy of 
Natural Science of Philadelphia 


In my article on Dr. Mellichamp (Journal of the Elisha 
Mitchell Scientific Society, May, 1911), I published, on page 
50, a letter of Dr. Mellichamp’s which is concerned in part with 
this matter. He says: 


“Tf I could only have received these queries when I was last 
in Bluffton I could have answered them accurately, but now 
I cannot do so, and I do not wish to trust to my memory of some 
years back when I not only planted the live-oak acorns, but 


1912] Live Oak anp Wuitr Oax SrEpiines 39 


examined the young roots after a year or two and even reported 
the results to my dear friend Engelmann, of St. Louis, who 
had been put on the track by Wm. St. J. Mazyck, who spent a 
pleasant morning with me at the mill, when I was last at 
Charleston. 2 


As Mr. Lewis did not publish any late stages of the seedlings, 
it may be of interest to show the accompanying photograph 
(Plate II), of three seedlings about fifteen months old taken 
by me last fall. The plant in the center shows the interesting 
peculiarity of having a cluster of small tubers instead of a 
single large one. 

In one of the above quotations from Dr. Engelmann he asks 
why the petiole of the cotyledons should be so much longer in the 
live-oak than in the other oaks. The answer is probably to be 
found, as suggested in the Proceedings of the Philadelphia 
Academy, and as expressed by Mr. Lewis, in the “advantages 
to the plant in establishing itself in the semi-arid situations 
in which it is often found.” In the South-Eastern States at 
least the live-oak is partial to very sandy soils near the shore, 
and such soils are necessarily subject to rapid surface desicea- 
tion. Retention of the food stuff in the cotyledons for a long 
time would be dangerous, as the cotyledons might be prema- 
turely dried and killed. 

In regard to the association of fused cotyledons and the 
tuberous habit, there is a very interesting analogy, that does 
not seem to have been noticed before, between the live-oak and 
a number of other dicotyledons. In the development of her 
theory of the origin of monocotyledons, Miss Ethel Sargant has 
clearly brought out the existence of a close correlation between 
the geophilous’ habit and a fusion of the cotyledons. In the Bo- 
tanical Gazette, for May, 1904, Miss Sargant? has an article on 
“The Evolution of the Monocotyledons,” in which she writes as 
follows in regard to dicots with fused cotyledons: 

+The live oak does not, technically, come under Prof. Areschong’s definition 


of a_ geophilous plant, as it does not periodically lose its above-ground parts; 
but it is, nevertheless, a geophilous plant in its youth. 


2See, also, Miss Sargant’s more recent article in Annals of Botany, Vol. 
XXII, p. 121, 1908, where the literature is given. 


40 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHeLt Society [May 


“They belong to eight genera which are systematically scat- 
tered, for they represent six families, Ranunclaceae, Fumar- 
iacea, Umbelliferae, Primulacae, Lentibularieae [sic], Nyctag- 
ineae. Clearly these species cannot have inherited the peculiar 
form of their seedling from a common ancestor. It must be due 
to similar external conditions affecting certain species of very 
different descent in the same way. 

“One feature is common to all of the pseudo-monocotyledons 
in my list—they all possess some underground member which 
is thickened into a tuber. In Ranunculus Ficaria one of the 
earlier cauline roots became tuberous; in the other species the 
hypocotyl is more or less thickened. 

“Moreover, the most complete list I can make of dicotyledons 
with their cotyledons partially united for some distance from 
the base upwards included twenty genera. It contains but one 
genus—Rhizophora—in which the hypocotyl is not very much 
shortened, if not actually thickened. In the great majority the 
hypocotyl becomes a conspicuous tuber. The seeds of the 
single exception germinate under peculiar conditions, which 
would account for most any amount of modification in the 
structure of the seedling. “4 


And a little further on, she says: 


“The formation of assimilating organs in the seedling of a 
geophilous plant is, however, very greatly limited by the short- 
ness of the growing season and the necessary formation of sub- 
terranean organs. Here lies the explanation we are seeking: 
the reduction of the cotyledons and the formation of a tuber 
are both adaptations to the geophilous habit. y 

Is it not remarkable that these observations should apply so 
exactly to Quercus virginiana, the oak which shows the strong- 
est tendency’ to the geophilous habit ? 


In the Botanical Gazette, Vol. XX XVII, p. 62, I published 
a drawing of an acorn Quercus Prinus L. from which three 
healthy young plants were sprouting. Most of the acorns from 
the same tree were also multiseeded. There is in Chapel Hill, 


7 All oaks show a slight tendency towards the geophilous habit in the con- 
centration of the early growth in the root, and Englemann mentions the oc- 
Se ae of the cotyledons in Quercus pungens, a shrub of dry regions 

e West. 


Plate III 


Seedlings of White Oak. 


ie, 


; 
’ 


1912] Live Oak anp WHITE Oak SEEDLINGS 41 


N.C., a magnificent tree of Quercus alba L. that shows the 
same peculiarity. Through a number of years I have watched 
this tree and there are always a large proportion of its acorns 
that contain two or three young plants. A further point of in- 
terest is that the seedlings from these acorns show a strong ten- 
dency to put out branches from the axils of the cotyledons. 
Three of these young plants, all from multiseeded acorns, are 
shown in plate III. Each has an additional shoot springing from 
one cotyledonary bud. Usually only one of the two auxillary 
buds grows, but there is frequently an effort to put out both 
buds, the second rarely reaching more than a centimeter in 
length. As a result of this combination of peculiarities it 
might happen that if there were three embryos and each pro- 
duced a bud from its cotyledon, as many as nine shoots would 
appear above the ground from a single acorn. It is probable, 
however, that this never occurs, and the largest number I have 
ever seen is five, consisting of three primary shoots and a bud 
from one cotyledon of two of them. 

There is evidently a correlation between this tendency to 
multiseeded acorns and the formation of buds at the cotyledons, 
both being the result of an unusual tendency towards fecundity 
or proliferation that is inherent in the nature of this tree. 

Among the three seedlings shown in the photograph, the one 
to the right exhibits a still further peculiarity. Several latteral 
roots have appeared on the hipicotyl—a most unusual occur- 
rence for the oak. These roots may be seen coming from the 
stem as far up as three-quarters of a centimeter above the at- 
tachment of the cotyledons. 


Chapel Hill, N. C. 


AN EXPERIMENTAL PROOF OF INVERTED 
RETINAL IMAGES* 


By A. H. Patterson 


It is usually somewhat mystifying to be told that all up- 
right objects, such as trees, men walking, etc., form inverted 
or upside-down images on the retina of the eye. However, 
it is easy to construct a simple bit of apparatus which will 
prove the point in question. But first we must understand 
clearly one or two principles of the action of light rays. 

Take a sheet of cardboard S and pierce in it a small hole 
about one-tenth of an inch in diameter. In front of it place 
a lighted candle, and behind it a cardboard screen S’. On 
this latter screen will be seen an inverted image of the candle 
—a so-called “‘pin-hole image.” Now place the candle quite 
close to the screen S and let its light shine through the small 
hole upon the screen S°. Then take a third cardboard screen 
S”’, from the middle of which is cut a hole 1 inch in 
diameter, and place it between the two screens S and S’. 
The divergent pencil of rays coming through the hole 
in S and the inch hole in S” will illuminate a 
circular area on the screen S’ slightly more than an inch in 
diameter. Take some object, say a small cross, and hold it 
upright before the hole in 8S’. It will cast a shadow in the 
circular lighted area on screen S’, and this shadow will be 
upright. There is no reason why it should be otherwise. If, 
now, a double convex lens is held behind the hole in screen 8”, 
the size of the lighted area and the cruciform shadow on S’ 
will be altered, but the shadow will still be upright. 

Now for our experiment. Construct of thin pieces of wood 
a frame like that shown in the drawing. The distance AB 
is about 7 inches; the hole C is about one-tenth of an inch in 
diameter, and DE is piece of white letter paper about 
4 inches square, pasted over the wooden upright at the 
left. At F a tiny hole is pierced through the paper with an 


*Reprinted from the Scientific American, June 3, 1911. 
"42 


1912] Proor oF InverTED IMAGES 43 


ordinary pin. Now stick a pin upright in the block G and 
adjust the position of the block so that the head of the pin is 
exactly in line between the holes C and F, and three-fourths 
of an inch from the hole C. Fix the block G in this position. 
This completes our apparatus. Placing the eye close to the 
hole C and looking through hole Ff at the sky, we see a lighted 


circular area with the shadow of the pinhead in its center, 
but this shadow is mverted. We are ready to declare that 
the pin is upside down, for it certainly looks so. When we 
reflect a moment, however, we see that we have now exactly 
the same arrangement as in the middle diagram. The hole FP 
represents the hole in the screen S, the pinhead represents 
the cross, the pupil of the eye represents the hole in screen 
S”, and the retina of the eye takes the place of screen S’ and 
receives the upright shadow of the pinhead upon it. The 
crystalline lens of the eye acts precisely like the lens in Fig. 
2, altering the size of the retinal shadow, but not its upright 


44 JouRNAL OF THE MircHEeLt Socrety [May 


position. This upright shadow on the retina, however, makes 
us think that the object throwing it is inverted, for the shadow 
certainly “looks” inverted to us. But we know that the object 
throwing the shadow is upright, and it follows in consequence 
that the retinal images of upright objects are inverted. In using 
this apparatus the eye must not be focussed on the pin, or the 
hole F', but on something distant, like the clouds or the twigs 
of trees between the observer and the sky. 


Chapel Hill, N. C. 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 
Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society 
VOLUME XXVIII AUGUST, 1912 No. 2 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ELEVENTH ANNUAL 
MEETING OF THE NORTH CAROLINA 
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. 


Hep at THE University oF Nortru Caroiina; CHaret Hitt, 
N. C., Frrpay anp Saturpay, Aprit 26-27, 1912. 


The Executive Committee met at 2.30 p. m., Friday, April 
26, there being present Pres. H. V. Wilson and Sec’y E. W. 
Gudger ex officio, and Prof. A. H. Patterson, Dr. J. J. Wolfe, 
and Mr. F. Sherman, Jr. The Secretary reported that during 
1911 ten members had withdrawn or been dropped for non- 
payment of dues, six new members had been added, and one 
old member reinstated on payment of back dues, making a 
total membership of 85 on Jan. 1, 1912. The Secretary also 
read his financial statement. 

The following new members were then unanimously elected: 


(1) E. E. Baleomb, professor of Agriculture, State Normal 
College. 

(2) T. A. Bendrat, Instructor in Geology, University of 
North Carolina. 

(3) W. H. Booker, Assistant Secretary State Board of 
Health. 

(4) Dr. H. R. Fulton, Professor of Botany and Plant Pa- 
thology, Agricultural and Mechanical College. 

(5) D. R. A. Hall, Associate Professor of Chemistry, Uni- 
versity of North Carolina. 


At 3 p. m. President Wilson Called the Academy to order 


and appointed the following committees: 
45 


46 JOURNAL OF THE MircuHett Society [August 


Nominating — Collier Cobb, Z. P. Metealf, and C. A. Shore. 

Auditing — J. J. Wolfe, A. H. Patterson, and C. S. Brimley. 

Resolutions — F. Sherman, Jr., E. W. Gudger, and W. A. 
Withers. 


The reading of papers was then begun and continued until 
adjournment at 5:30 p. m., at which time eleven had been 
finished, 

At 8 p. m. the Academy reassembled in Chemistry Hall and 
was cordially welcomed to Chapel Hill by President F. P. Ven- 
able, of the University of North Carolina. President Wilson, 
of the Academy, after responding to the address of welcome, 
then delivered the Presidential Address: ‘ Zoology in America 
Before the Present Period.” The hall then being darkened, 
Prof. A. H. Patterson gave a beautiful demonstration of lumi- 
nous electric waves. Next, by special invitation, Dr. Thomas 
W. Pritchard gave his paper on “Wood Distillation.” This 
being a new and important industry for our state was of much 
general interest to the members of the North Carolina Section 
of the American Chemical Society. At the same hour, Dr. W. 
S. Rankin, Secretary State Board of Health, delivered a lecture 
on “ Hygiene and Sanitation” before the student body of the 
University, in Gerrard Hall. 

The Academy then adjourned to attend the smoker given by 
the local members at the hospitable home of Dr. Isaac H. Man- 
ning, while the ladies in attendance were entertained at a recep- 
tion by Mrs. Dr. Lawson. 

The Academy reconvened at 9:10 a. m., Saturday morning, 
in annual business meeting. The minutes of the last meeting 
were read and approved. 

The Nominating Committee reported for officers for 1912-13: 
President, Mr. C. 8. Brimley, Naturalist, Raleigh; Vice-Pres- 
ident, Prof. John F. Lanneau, Professor of Astronomy, Wake 
Forest College; Secretary-Treasurer, Dr. E. W. Gudger, Pro- 
fessor of Biology and Geology, State Normal College. Addi- 
tional members of the Executive Committee: Prof. Julian 
Blanchard, Professor of Engineering, Trinity College, Dur- 
ham; Mr. S. C. Clapp, Orchard and Nursery Inspector, State 


1912] Proceepines N. C. Acaprmy or Science 47 


Department of Agriculture, Raleigh; Dr. John A. F errell, 
Secretary for Hookworm, State Board of Health, Raleigh. The 
nominations were adopted unanimously. 

The Auditing Committee reported the Treasurer’s statement 
correct, and it was ordered printed in the minutes. 


RECEIPTS 
iBelteom ast anit. ye. ood sera sd Soo an ores ocho. $183.58 
TSS, 100 051 ea 99.00 
Imterest Savings Bank Deposit........0...0.++2+<.. 5.39 

Deo TLE SGC ake EA ea er a $287.97 

1 TT DIL SISI gt G ae ae e l aoee 94.97 

IES PIE COcgete cs Sra cede C9 ko ade ty rie Tack a eG $193.00 
EXPENDITURES 

TIDE RS eve a er ars oe eee pa BERN ae $ 5.50 

Retemeecelimeain a 314 Sm V aa analy Tee tales 4. he 75.00 

peel Mman tau ete ee Le kok geet lh d 2.35 

BeampedHrvelopes. %'j1. 92. Plone. $620 2D. Baek 12.12 

$ 94.97 

RESOURCES 
mapnied Wank Balance. 2. 5. a5 265 on sis « dea horses $138.68 
Sieccne: Bank Balane@y 3.20: 05 i. ded ue oe vies ve 54,32 

LLG VEN, eacsiee ara Wining aged ae ara ey ae $193.00 

iibee mumupaidee LOUIE Wat ese 5 ese oh ees 25.00 
Stamped Envelopes on hand................2..00 7.50 
$225.50 

ess Chitsinndine: Mabie: nein e439 6 soo oeas a octane 82.00 
apm ated: aluneg ys. ge soo... Saeko een $143.50 

OUTSTANDING DEBTS 

Pecoceod trips. (1 OU TPO ro Skansen coats, a $ 75.00 
Mince Mincattss Cabeubye sch -t. e850... oases bo 7.00 


$ 82.00 


48 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Soctrety [August 


The Committee on Resolutions moved: That we hereby ex- 
press our sincere thanks to the University for granting us the 
use of appropriate rooms for our meetings; to the Faculty and 
ladies for their kindly attentions; and to Dr. Isaac Manning 
for the pleasant smoker of last evening. And this was carried 
unanimously. 

At the suggestion of Professor Edwards, and on motion of 
Professor Patterson, the President appointed a committee to 
work up and bring before the Academy, at its next annual meet- 
ing, a report on ventilation of school houses, churches, court- 
houses, theatres, and other public buildings in our state. After 
consideration by the Academy, it is hoped that we may be able 
to make recommendations to the State Legislature with regard 
to laws on ventilation. The committee consists of Prof. C. W. 
Edwards, Professor of Physics, Trinity College; Prof. A. H. 
Patterson, Professor of Physics, University of North Carolina; 
and Dr. C. A. Shore, Director State Laboratory of Hygiene. 

At 9:30, by special arrangement between the Secretaries of 
the two bodies, there was held a joint meeting of the Academy 
and the North Carolina Section of the American Chemical 
Society, at which Dr. J. E. Mills gave his “ Report on Molecu- 
lar Attraction and Gravitation,” and the chemical papers on the 
program of the Academy were read. The Chemists then ad- 
journed to hold their stated meeting, and the reading of papers 
was continued in the Academy until adjournment for luncheon 
at 1:30, at which time twenty-five papers had been read. On 
reconvening after luncheon the consideration of papers was 
completed, and adjournment had at 3:20 p. m. 

The following members were in attendance: Bendrat, T. A.; 
Blanchard, Julian; Booker, W. H.; Brimley, C. S.; Cain, 
William; Clapp, 8S. C.; Cobb, Collier; Daggett, P. H.; Ed- 
wards, C. W.; Ferrell, J. W.; Gudger, E. W.; Hall, R. A.; 
Herty, C. H.; Hutt, W. N.; Ives, J. D.; Lay, G. W.; Lock- 
hart, L. B.; Metcalf, Z. P.; Metcalf, Mrs. Z. P.; Mills, J. E.; 
Patterson, A. H.; Rankin, W. S.; Sherman, Franklin, Jr: 
Shore, C. A.; Tillman, Miss O. I.; Venable, F. P.; Wheeler, 


1912 | Proceepinas N. C. AcADEMY oF SCIENCE 49 


A. S.; Wilson, G. W.; Wilson, H. V.; Withers, W. A.; Wolfe, 
J. J.—31 out of a total membership of 90. 

In addition to the Presidential Address, and the demonstra- 
tion of electric waves, the papers on the Academy’s program 
numbered twenty-nine. Of these four were read by title, one 
was reported on by President Wilson in the absence of the mem- 
ber, and the others were all read in order as shown on the pro- 
gram. Two things characterized the meeting: First, the num- 
ber of papers dealing with hygiene, sanitation, and public 
health; and second, the discussions which followed the presen- 
tation of nearly every paper on the program. 


In addition to the Presidential Address and the demonstra- 
tion of electric waves, the following papers were presented : 


Notes on the Distribution of the More Common Bivalves of 
Beaufort, N. C., Henry D. Aller. 
[ Published in full in this issue. | 


The Relation of Vital Statistics to Public Health Work, Warren 
H. Booker. 


Further Notes on the Yellow Fever Mosquito at Raleigh, C. 8S. 
Brimley. 


Although this species was common in my vicinity in 1910, it 
was ten times more abundant last year (1911). 

In the early part of the season it appeared to be mostly con- 
fined to the southern half of the city, and mainly to the eastern 
half of that; later on, it spread practically all over Raleigh, 
having reached the city limits on Hillsboro street in the west, 
and nearly as far on Glenwood avenue in the northwest. At 
both these places, however, it only occurred in small numbers. 
Over the major portion, however, of Raleigh it was very abund- 
ant and annoying from August to October inclusive, while at 
my house it was noted from late July to mid-November. 

Unlike other mosquitoes, it bites in the daytime, even during 
the period of brightest sunshine, and appeared to show a decided 
inclination to bite people on the ankles, so that the wearers of 


50 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Society [August 


low-cut shoes suffered more than other people. Only the females 
were observed to bite, but the males were also noted to come 
around a sleeping child when protected with mosquito netting, 
and to perch on the netting as if they also wished to bite. None 
of this sex, however, was found with the bodies distended with 
blood. The sexes were present in about equal numbers. 

Occasional specimens of this species have been taken in the 
past, and in 1910 they were common, increasing vastly in 
numbers in 1911. Now, what was the cause of this? I sur- 
mise that the series of mild winters preceding 1911 was one 
cause why this southern species got such a foothold. Another 
reason, I believe, was that owing to the drought, the rain-water 
barrels used by negroes stayed undisturbed for several weeks 
with just enough water in them to keep them from falling 
apart, and as, of course, no water was drawn from them and 
none ran in, the mosquitoes had an excellent opportunity to 
breed undisturbed, and it takes a very little water to supply 
breeding places for thousands of these little pests. 


Some Records of Incipient Fern Growth wm Carboniferous 
Time, Collier Cobb. 


Race Preservation, Geo. W. Lay. 
Notes on the Larvae of the Marbled Salamander, E. W. Gudger. 


Larvae 114 to 21% inches long, with external gills, have been 
taken in brooks in the college park for several years past. This 
spring some thirty or forty were taken in a muddy pool in the 
same park. When caught these were nearly colorless, but when 
exposed to the light in aquaria set before windows in the lab- 
oratory they very quickly became pigmented. These were first 
thought to be the young of the common salamander, which had 
retained their gills over winter, but discussion of the paper 
elicited the interesting information from Mr. C. S. Brimley 
that the Marbled Salamander lays its eggs in the fall, these 
are hatched and the larvae retain their gills over winter, losing 
them in the late spring. Some kept by the writer for a month 
now show only stumps of these structures. 


1912 | Proceepines N. C. Acapremy oF SCIENCE al 


The Seedling of the Live Oak, W. C. Coker. 
[ Published in full in this Journal for May, 1912.] 


Notes on Mutation, W. N. Hutt. 


The Effect of Temperature on the Contact Resistance of Car- 
bon, P. H. Daggett. 


The Gloomy Scale, an Important Enemy of Shade Maples im 
North Carolina, Z. P. Metcalf. 
[Published in full in this issue. ] 


The Dispensary as a Factor in the Prevention and Cure of 
Hookworm Disease, John W. Ferrell. 
{Published in full in this issue. ] 


Two Parasitic Hymenomycetes, Guy West Wilson. 


Attention is called to the attacks on apples in the Piedmont 
section of the state by Septobasidium pedicellatum (Schw.) Pat. 
which also occurs over a considerable area of the Southern 
states on various hosts. Fomes roseus (Albert & Schw.) Cooke, 
is also noted as causing a disease of the red cedar, locally very 
destructive in Eastern North Carolina. 


The Toxicity of Cotton Seed Meal, W. A. Withers and B. J. 
Ray, with the co-operation of R. 8. Curtis and G, A. Roberts. 


The Walden Inversion, Alvin S. Wheeler. 
Note on the Fundamental Basis of Dynamics, William Cain. 
[ Published in full in this issue. | 


Discovery of some new petroglyphs Near Caicara on the Ori-; 
noco, T. A. Bendrat. 


In the winter of 1908 and ’09, while surveying the region 
about Caicara, Venezuela, the writer discovered some new pet- 
roglyphs which belong, geographically and genetically, to the 


52 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Society [August 


same large group of stone-carvings found scattered over a wide 
area which is bounded by the Orinoco, the Atabapo, the Rio 
Negro, and the Cassiquiare. While Alexander von Humboldt 
mentions only two petroglyphs from the region of Caicara, 
“el sol” and “la luna,” of which the writer saw only “el sol,” 
neither he nor any other traveler who ever touched that point 
seem to have known any of the stone-carvings found by the 
writer. These newly discovered petroglyphs occur on the banks 
of the Orinoco and in the adjacent forest. They may be divided 
up into three distinct groups, one representing the simplest type 
and consisting of almost geometrical circles, one in the other, 
the center of the most inner one being hollowed out; another 
group of a more complicated type and of more fantastic 
design, of which only one figure was found; and a third group 
that evedently represents the highest type in the development 
of this art of petroglyphy and that comprises “el sol,” that was 
already known to Humboldt, and the new petroglyph that was 
discovered by the writer, namely “el tigre.” All these petro- 
glyphs are supposed to have been produced in prehistoric times. 
As to their meaning there exists quite a number of theories. 
The writer holds the view, on the base of extended studies in 
fetichism, that they represent records of earlier and later fetich- 
ism, while they have served, at the same time, as an indirect 
means to develop the art of sculpture that grew out of the art 
of petroglyphy. 


The Work of the State Laboratory of Hygiene, C. A. Shore. 
Some Reduction Phenomena in Hydroids, H. V. Wilson. 
Some New Questions Concerning Ventilation, C. W. Edwards. 


Solution of the Draftsman’s Difficulty, John F. Lanneau. 


George Marcgrave, the First Student of American Natural 
History, E. W. Gudger. 


George Marcgrave was a member of the Dutch expedition 
to Brazil under Johann Moritz, Count of Nassau-Siegen, during 
the first half of the seventeenth century. He assiduously 


i ae 


1912 | Proceepines N. C. AcapemMy oF SCIENCE 53 


studied the animals and plants of Brazil during the years1638- 
1644. In 1648 his drawings and observations, under the title 
Historiae Rerum Naturalium Brasiliae were published jointly 
with the De Mericina Brasiliensi of William Piso under the 
general title Historia Naturalais Brasiliae. Maregrave’s part 
of this work covers 303 folio pages, in which he describes 301 
plants, with 200 figures and 367 animals, of which 222 were 
figured. Of these 668 forms practically all were new to science 
and probably none of the 422 figured had ever been drawn 
before. 

Marcgrave knew nothing of the classification of flowers based 
on stamens and pistils, or of fishes by the count of fin rays, but 
his descriptions are, for the times, remarkably clear and his 
drawings sufficiently exact for the plant or animal to be unmis- 
takably recognized. No country in its early exploration has 
ever had such a great work published on its natural history. 

A complete biography of Marcgrave is nearly finished and 
will shortly be offered for publication. 


The Electrical Resistance of a Flowing Conductor, A. H. Pat- 
terson and V. L. Shrisler. 


Capture of Raleigh, N. C., by the Wharf Rat, C. S. Brimley. 
| Published in full in this issue. | 


The Water Molds of Chapel Hill, N. C., W. C. Coker. 


Further Notes on the Geology of the Carolina Coast Inne, 
Collier Cobb. 


Transient Electrical Phenomena and their Relations to Modern 
Problems in Electrical Engineering, P. H. Daggett. 


The Toxic Action of Haematin and Bile, W. H. Brown. 


Notes on the Maturing of Bermuda Grass Seed, O. J. Tillman. 
[ Published in full in this issue. | 


Studies of Cotton Seed Meal Intoxication as to Pyrophosphorie 
Acid, W. A. Withers and B. J. Ray. 


E. W. Gupeer, Secretary. 


ZOOLOGY IN AMERICA BEFORE THE PRESENT 
PERIOD.* 


By H. V. Witson. 


Zoology deals with the phenomena of animal life. A neces- 
sary and usually early step in the progress of this science in 
any quarter of the world is to discover and distinguish the 
kinds of animals—the species, as we say—there found. 
These in time become the objects of more and more intense and 
analytical study. 

The earliest extant record of our fauna, as far as I know, 
consists of a series of water-color sketches made by John White, 
a member of the expedition which made the first settlement on 
Roanoke Island (1585), and governor of the second Roanoke 
Island colony. White’s pictures, now preserved in the British 
Museum, show a number of our birds, fishes, insects, also plants 
and the appearance of the native inhabitants. Even before this, 
descriptions of some of our native forms, with specimens, had 
reached learned Europeans interested in science. 

In the seventeenth century the French missionaries gave 
further information of this kind, included in the accounts of 
their travels. A few of the settlers, too, were sufficiently 
informed to deal with such matters. Thus John Winthrop, son 
of the first governor of Massachusetts, and himself governor of 
Connecticut, was a regular correspondent of the Royal Society. 
We owe an early record entitled “New England’s Rarities” 
(1672) to an English traveller, John Josselyn, who mentions a 
good many of our vertebrates, some mollusks and crustacea, 
also some lower forms such as the star-fish and sea-nettle (jelly 
fish). Another Englishman, John Lawson, in his History of 
North Carolina (1714), mentions a number of our animals. 
His remarks concerning them are often interesting. Buffaloes, 
he says, he has known to be killed on the hilly part of the Cape 
Fear river. Beavers were numerous in North Carolina at that 
time, and whales were abundant off the coast. He lists under 


*Presidential address before the North Carolina Academy of Science, April 26, 1912. 
54 


oe 


1912] ZooLoaey IN AMERICA 55 


the insects (!) alligators, some lizards, several snakes and tur- 
tles. -He mentions the bull-frog and remarks on the character 
of his voice. Lawson also mentions some invertebrates: craw- 
fishes, “muscles,” the stone crab, the common edible crab, clams, 
the conch, and the peculiar egg cases of the latter. 

Much the most comprehensive and valuable of the early ac- 
counts of our fauna is to be found in Mark Catesby’s Natural 
History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands. This 
great work was republished twice. The first volume of the first 
edition came out in 1732. Catesby, an Englishman, spent sev- 
eral years in this country, and in his beautiful folio plates we 
find faithful pictures of many of our present wild neighbors. 

The eighteenth century, which saw Franklin’s remarkable 
inquiries into the nature of electricity, brought out a few con- 
tributions to zoology from native Americans. John Bartram, 
more specially known as a botanist, should not be forgotten. 
Bartram, who was a Quaker farmer in Pennsylvania, made 
good observations on our plants, animals, and fossils. These are 
described in a long series of letters (1734-1810) and in a jour- 
nal. Most of Bartram’s letters and his journal were sent to 
Peter Collinson, an English naturalist, who communicated 
selections to the Royal Society. Bartram was made King’s 
Botanist in 1765 with an annual salary of fifty pounds. It is 
worthy of note that he was using a microscope in his study of 
plants in 1754. John Bartram’s son, William Bartram, was 
a well known naturalist in his time. He published a volume 
of Travels in the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida in 1791, and 
is said to have assisted Wilson in the production of his Amer- 
ican Ornithology. At the close of the eighteenth century we 
also find natural history publications of some importance by 
B. S. Barton. 

In the early years of the nineteenth century (1808-14) ap- 
peared an important work, important even today, on our birds: 
Wilson’s Ornithology. Wilson was born and bred in Scotland. 
Another foreigner, Prince Charles Lucien Bonaparte, is the 
author of an Ornithology supplementary to Wilson’s. This 
was published with some supervision from Americans, Say and 


56 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society [August 


Godman, 1825-33, in this country. One of the earliest techni- 
cal papers of any considerable importance by a native Amer- 
ican is Thomas Say’s Crustacea of the United States (1817-18). 
The first comprehensive work on natural history by a native 
born American is Dr. Richard Harlan’s Fauna Americana, 
bearing the date 1825. This was followed by a valuable work 
on insects, Thomas Say’s American Entomology (1824-28), and 
by Dr. John D. Godman’s three volumes on North American 
mammals, (1826-28). Barton, Harlan, and Say were na- 
tives of Philadelphia, and the two former taught in 
medical schools in that city. Say’s father was a physician 
and apothecary. He himself was engaged in _ business, 
unsuccessfully, in Philadelphia, and later in one of the 
several attempts made to establish an ideal community — in 
this case, in New Harmony, Indiana. Godman was born in 
Annapolis, Maryland, and taught in several medical schools. 
These early naturalists have the personal interest attaching to 
pioneers, and it will be seen that in America, as elsewhere, 
zoology in its beginnings was frequently linked with the pro- 
fession of medicine. The prominence of Philadelphia as an 
early zoological centre should be noted. The Academy of Nat- 
ural Sciences of that city, which has since become so famous, 
was founded in 1812, Say joining the society in that year. 
With the appearance of the works just mentioned, the study 
of natural history, viz., the description of species with accounts 
of habits and local distribution, was well under way. In 1827 
Audubon began to publish his famous and beautifully illus- 
trated volumes on the “Birds of America.” Isaac Lea 
started a long series of contributions on the classification, anat- 
omy, and embryology of fresh water mussels in 1829. Say’s 
Shells of North America appeared in 1830, Conrad’s American 
Marine Conchology in 1831. Nuttall’s Manual of Ornithology 
of the United States and Canada came out in 1832-34. The 
four volumes of the first edition of Holbrook’s North American 
Herpetology were published 1836-40. This work, a well known 
classic dealing with the amphibia and reptiles, and ranking 
with Audubon’s Birds among the early achievements of Amer- 


1912 | ZooLoay IN AMERICA 57 


can science, had for its author a South Carolinian, John Ed- 
wards Holbrook, Professor of Anatomy in the Medical College 
of the State of South Carolina. Holbrook was an excellent 
naturalist, a man of eminence. We learn from his list of honors 
that he was a member of the Royal Medical Society of Edin- 
burgh, of the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, and of the 
Lyceums of Natural History in New York, Boston, and Balti- 
more. It is noteworthy that in Philadelphia, New York, and 
Boston the local lyceum or academy of that early time has 
become a strong institution, supporting and publishing investi- 
gations and serving as an instrumentality for the cultivation 
of the public. 

In the.decade of 1840-50 a number of works of importance 
appeared. Much the most imposing is De Kay’s Zoology of 
New York in five large, well illustrated volumes. This widely 
used work contains descriptions of all the animals known at the 
time to occur within the state of New York, together with brief 
descriptions of those occasionally found near the border of the 
state. These volumes form a part of a general Natural History 
of New York descriptive of minerals, geological formations, 
soils, and of the plants and animals of the state. The publica- 
tion was the outcome of the passage of a bill in 1836 calling for 
a complete geological survey of the state. For the purposes of 
this survey the sum of $130,000 was appropriated. The first 
volume of the report was published in 1842. It includes a 
description of the mammals, together with a long and histor- 
ically interesting introduction which embodies a geographical 
and political history of the state, together with sketches of its 
colleges and schools, its press, its learned professions, laws, ma- 
terial improvements, ete. The introduction includes also (I 
quote) “an account of the studies and productions of our citi- 
zens in the departments of history, classical learning, mathe- 
matical science, pure and mixed biography, travels, romance 
and general literature, poetry and the fine arts; and of re- 
searches in our zoology, botany, meteorology, chemistry and 
mineralogy; with an account of the inception, progress, and 
consummation of the survey, to which those researches gave 


58 JOURNAL oF THE MircHeEeLt Society [August 


birth.” The result is a picture of a strong, ambitious state, 
moving rapidly along the path of progress.) Wm. H. Seward is 
the author of the introduction and he remarks that “This re- 
view, although circumscribed and imperfect, furnishes gratify- 
ing proof that a republican government is not unfavorable to 
intellectual improvement.” Seward, in speaking of the history 
of geology and geological surveys in this country, calls to mind 
(I quote) that “North Carolina has the honor of having been 
the first to send geologists into the field. Professor Olmstead’s 
report upon the economic geology of that state was published in 
1825.” I may add that the work of our State Survey in mak- 
ing known the natural resources of North Carolina has kept 
step with the general progress of the state since Olmstead’s 
time. It never was so efficient as under the direction of its 
present head, Dr. J. H. Pratt, and his immediate predecessor, 
Dr. J. A. Holmes. As a pleasing piece of testimony, I call to 
mind the beautiful volume on the Fishes of North Carolina, from 
the pen of Dr. H. M. Smith, published in recent years as a state 
document by the Survey. In leaving De Kay’s Zoology, which 
reflects such credit on a great state, let me mention that New 
York at that time (U. S. Census 1840), contained only 2,428,- 
921 inhabitants. 

Shortly after De Kay’s work, appeared (1846-49) J. D. 
Dana’s report on the Zoophytes of the Wilkes Exploring Expe- 
dition which the U. S. Government had sent out into the 
Pacific ocean, 1838-42. Dana’s descriptions of these simple 
marine forms made a volume which took place along with the 
best European work of its sort. In the same decade appeared 
Gould’s Invertebrata of Massachusetts (1841), Haldeman’s 
Monograph of the Pond-snails of the U. S. (1841-44), Audubon 
and Bachman’s Quadrupeds of America (three volumes, 1846- 
54), Storer’s Synopsis of the Fishes of North America (1846). 

Up to this date the work of zoologists in America had been 
almost completely restricted to the field of systematic zoology, 
viz., they had been engaged in the description and classification 
of species and, more incidentally, with habits and distribution. 
In 1846 came the already famous Swiss naturalist, Louis 


1912] ZooLoay IN AMERICA 59 


Agassiz, to this country. He came primarily to deliver some 
lectures in Boston. Agassiz’s personality captivated the coun- 
try and, although he freely criticised it, the country evidently 
captivated him, for he remained here until his death in 1873, 
refusing offers, of the most attractive kind, of posts in European 
institutions. Agassiz himself was a systematic zoologist, a 
describer and classifier of high rank, but he was much more. 
He brought with him a practical familiarity with the problems 
and points of view of morphological zoology which had been 
engaging the attention of the great European naturalists for 
decades. His mind and methods were comparative, and he 
emphasized the importance of looking not so much at species, 
as at the fundamental points of structure in the anatomy of 
groups, the changes of form undergone during embryonic devel- 
opment, and the structure of extinct forms. Moreover, he laid 
stress on the importance of looking at these three sets of phe- 
nomena together. He maintained more definitely than any of 
his predecessors that the embryo passes through a series of 
changes during which it resembles successively the lower mem- 
bers of the great group or type to which it belongs; and that 
the fossils in any group as we proceed from the oldest to the 
more recent, show a similar progress from simplicity to com- 
plexity of structure. How like an argument for evolution all 
this sounds! But Louis Agassiz to the last held out against 
evolution, and refused to see that the parallelisms or funda- 
mental similarities between the series of fossils, of existing 
forms, and of embryonic stages, were to be explained as the 
result of kinship. Following Cuvier he looked on the history 
of the world as divisible into a series of distinct epochs, each 
of which was inaugurated by a special act of creation. The 
several epochs with their living organisms were brought to a 
close by tremendous, supernaturally induced disasters styled 
cataclysms. Between the species of two epochs there could be, 
he maintained, no kinship, no material or genetic connection. 
Whatever resemblances existed between species were, to his 
mind, purely ideal and due to the fact that organisms represent 
the embodied thoughts of a superior power. This way of look- 


60 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [August 


ing at the living world seems strangely archaic, poetic, to us 
who have every reason to believe that all material phenomena 
are due to material causes, and that resemblances between nat- 
ural species, living and fossil are material phenomena and of the 
same kind as resemblances between such races as have been pro- 
duced from a common stock through man’s selective breeding. 
Agassiz’s interpretation of the parallelism between anatomical, 
paleontological, and embryological facts, obviously must be 
classed in that group of hypotheses which make immediate 
appeal to hyperphysical powers in order to explain natural phe- 
nomena. 

But although today we can only look on Agassiz’s theorizing 
as we look on poetry, we see beneath this cloudy mantle a great 
man and a master in science, one who exercised a strong and ben- 
eficial influence on American zoology and American science in 
general through his constant injunction to compare and so learn 
what is general, what is fundamental. 

As new ideas come into a science, new fields of investigation 
are opened, but the old ones are not necessarily closed. And, 
as we very well know, the study of systematic zoology did not 
come to an end with the advent of the Agassiz period of com- 
parison and transcendental interpretation, nor later with the 
advent of the evolution idea, nor later still with the oncome of 
the present era of analysis and experiment. On the contrary, 
along with the rise and development of the many comparative 
and experimental branches of modern zoology, the description 
and tabulation of the earth’s fauna has gone steadily on, and is 
today progressing as actively as ever. It is pleasant to think 
that members of our own society are helping in this piece of 
the world’s work. When we come to think how imperfect is our 
knowledge, even today after so much labor, as to the kinds of 
animals that live with us in garden and orchard, in wood and 
meadow, in pond and stream, and above all in the sea, natural- 
ists realize what a vast deal of work stands before the describers 
and classifiers. Everywhere search reveals new forms. As to 
the place of these in classification how difficult it often is to de- 
cide. We know that species are not the immutable things Lin- 


1912] ZooLogy IN AMERICA 61 


naeus had in mind. They are only groups of individuals sub- 
ject to the transforming influence of many factors. Ideally 
the systematist when he lists his form should not only be able 
to pick out its characteristic points, but through comparison of 
many live individuals from different localities and through 
experiment he should know whether such characteristics are 
produced and maintained through the continuous action of 
food, climate, or other environmental influences; or whether 
they are ingrained in the constitution of the race, viz., hered- 
itary, and so in some degree independent of the environment. 
Should the characteristics prove hereditary, the relation of the 
new form to other closely similar “kinds” should be determined, 
before the form in question is listed as species, subspecies, mu- 
tation, or what not. If the systematist should carry out this 
ambitious program for all the kinds of animals he encounters, 
his task would indeed be stupendous. For the most part he 
must be content with listing his kinds in such wise as to make 
it a known and accessible fact that a form of definite anatomical 
peculiarities occurs in such and such a region. This done, he 
has advanced science measurably, and may leave it to others, or 
to himself in another capacity, to select from the vast mass of 
species certain ones for intensive study of a comparative and 
experimental character. 

Many of the ablest and most highly praised pieces of zoolog- 
ical work emanating from America have been memoirs in sys- 
tematic zoology. But it should be added that such memoirs 
show us that great success in classification requires a wide and 
deep knowledge of the group to be handled. The classifier 
should, above all, be familiar with the comparative anatomy 
and embryology of the group, and with the periodic or other 
modifications of structure incidental to function, habit, or 
nature of the home. And this means that he must be familiar 
with his forms as living animals, and that the size of the group 
be not too large. As representative classics in American system- 
atic zoology I may pick out for mention Audubon’s Birds (1827- 
38), Holbrook’s Herpetology (1836-40), Dana’s Crustacea of the 
Wilkes Exploring Expedition (1852), Louis Agassiz’s Memoirs 


62 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHELL Socrety [August 


on jelly fish and hydroids (1860-62), Leidy’s Monograph on 
the amoeboid protozoa or Rhizopods (1870), Alexander Agas- 
siz’s Revision of the sea-urchins (1872), and the three reports 
by A. Agassiz, Lyman, and Brooks (1882-86), on the sea-ur- 
chins, ophiuroids, and stomatopod crustacea, collected by the 
British ship “Challenger” on her famous voyage of scientific 
exploration. 

One of Louis Agassiz’s strong predilections was for the study 
of embryology. The influence of his example and teaching in 
Cambridge and in Charleston, during his winter visits to that 
city, is apparent when we run through the list of American pub- 
lications in zoology. Up to the time of Agassiz’s arrival, practi- 
cally no embryological investigations had been carried on in this 
country. But now we find during the period 1846-73 a very 
considerable number of investigations of this character going 
on, emanating from Agassiz himself, his associates, students, 
and ex-students. Agassiz studied the development of jelly fish, 
hydroids, and turtles. McCrady made important observations 
on the development of the jelly fish found in Charleston harbor. 
Alexander Agassiz, the son of Louis, a great naturalist who has 
but recently died, studied the development of ctenophores, star- 
fishes, and annelid worms. Morse investigated the embryology 
of the brachiopods. Packard made known striking facts in the 
development of Limulus, the kingerab or horse-shoe crab. 

As it was with the study of embryology, so it was with the 
study of fossils. Agassiz’s comparisons awakened interest and 
led to investigations. The most celebrated of these came from 
Leidy, Professor of Anatomy in the University of Pennsyl- 
vania, and dealt with the fossil vertebrates found imbedded 
beneath our western plains. These studies of Leidy were the 
precursors of a long series of discoveries made in later years, 
especially by Cope, Marsh, and Osborn, which have told us 
much about the ancient history of our western states. 

When the study of embryology and the simpler animals be- 
came occupations of intellectual interest in Europe, some of 
the great naturalists like Johannes Miiller, Professor in Berlin, 
began to make pilgrimages to the sea shore to study, especially 


1912 | ZooLogy IN AMERICA 63 


with the microscope, the wonderful phenomena of marine life. 
Agassiz brought with him to this country the interest in the 
sea and its organisms. This he spread, and in the last years 
of his life brought to a focus in the establishment of his famous 
summer school on the island of Penikese, the first of the marine 
laboratories now to be found scattered along our Atlantic and 
Pacific coasts. The Penikese laboratory exerted an immense 
influence, but served its purpose and ceased to be, unlike that 
other magnificent institution founded by Agassiz and developed 
by his great son, the “Museum of Comparative Zoology at Har- 
vard College.” 

In the midst of Agassiz’s career in this country came the 
publication of Darwin’s Origin of Species (1859), and the 
speedy adoption by the great bulk of the thinking world of the 
theory of evolution. The ferment of the evolution idea shook 
America as it did other countries. Similarities such as Agassiz 
had been interpreting in poetic, transcendental fashion, became 
matters of more practical concern. The past history of the 
living world was opened to investigation, and with all the enthu- 
siasm of explorers, ardent spirits on many sides began with 
fresh energy to dig for fossils, to trace the changes of form 
undergone by the egg in its course of development, to look for 
transitional types filling up the gaps between groups, and to 
study in detail the tissues and organs and plan of body of all 
animals, low and high, that could tell us anything of general 
interest about the kinship of groups. It takes an idea to make 
men work, and evolution was the new idea, more stimulating, 
more strengthening, as results came in, to the searcher than any 
of its predecessors. The ancestral history or phylogeny of each 
group was constructed and reconstructed, and reconstructed 
again, as new data became available. The data were in kind 
not different from the discoveries of fundamental similarities 
of structure, familiar to biologists in the pre-evolutionary epoch, 
but now they were discovered in places where the earlier nat- 
uralists had not looked for them, and even between the great 
groups or phyla sharp lines were wiped out. Above all the 
volume of discovery streaming in soon became far greater than 


64 JOURNAL OF THE MitTcHELL Society [August 


in previous epochs. This remarkably intense interest in the 
facts of structure, resulting in evolutionary interpretations in 
the shape of race-histories or phylogenies, was the most dom- 
inant force at work throughout the whole range of biology until 
about 1890. In zoology especially most of the strong, keen 
minds were active in such investigations. 

Science consists primarily of demonstrable facts, arranged in 
generalizations of more and more comprehensive scope, in such 
wise as to expose the time relation between the antecedent 
facts or cause and the sequent facts or effect. These generaliza- 
tions glued together with theory make up in any age the con- 
temporaneous body of science, which the members of that gen- 
eration see in the mind’s eye when they piece together all they 
know or have some reason to believe in concerning material 
phenomena. Naturally as generalizations widen, and theories are 
verified, disproved, or changed, our mental picture of that 
stately building of science (to borrow a favorite Germanism) 
changes too. And so the picture drawn by those of a preceding 
generation may look in many particulars strangely unlike that 
which we see today, but if they were and we are good workers, 
the next generation will see in the two pictures beneath the 
superficial dissimilarities much the same basic framework of 
lines. It is this well known use of theory which exposes us 
sometimes to the dashing onset of the clever tongued and light 
minded, who allege that we are no better than others, that we 
too muddle up fact and fancy. Peace to the satirist and thanks, 
if only he have humor and not mere impudence! We do 
not muddle, or at any rate (for we are only men) we try not to 
muddle fact and fancy. Nevertheless we certainly eke out fact 
with fancy, in the shape of hypotheses. But these we must 
continually try out in the daily round of experience. Do obser- 
vation and experiment confirm the fancy? we ask. And then 
we find, or others find, that most of the hypotheses prove untrue 
and are to be discarded. Some quickly prove true, and if for 
these we continue to use the term “theory,” we do so from habit. 
So it is with the “cell theory,” long ago demonstrated to be 
fact. Others deal with phenomena of such a kind that we can 


1912] ZooLoay IN AMERICA 65 


not experimentally demonstrate or disprove the theory in its 
entirety. We then ask if any of the facts of observation and 
experiment contradict the theory, or do they corroborate it in 
that they prove explicable by it. And are there many such facts 
and of diverse kinds? In other words, have we worked with the 
theory a long time and found it to hold good? If so, after a 
time we practically cease to question it directly, and it comes 
into a use that is habitual and almost reflex. So it is with the 
theory of universal gravitation and so it is with the theory of 
organic evolution. 

A gulf separates Agassiz’s theory from that of evolution, 
and yet we must recognize that the actual investigations of the 
earlier school, the solid discovery of demonstrable facts and 
their formulation into generalizations, went on along much the 
same lines as in the later period. We may therefore with justice 
say that in America from about 1850 to 1890 it was the interest 
in fundamental form that dominated zoology. This was the 
great period of morphology to which zoology owes so much, 
and which began in Europe in the early years of the nineteenth 
century. Many of the most substantial results of biological 
inquiry have resulted from this intense comparative study of 
structure, adult and embryonic. That the body of all but the 
simplest animals, the protozoa, is composed of tissues, and these 
of microscopic units, the cells, each of which is comparable with 
a protozoan; that the egg from which a metazoan animal starts is 
but a single cell, and that this by division produces many cells 
which differentiate into the nerve, muscle, gland, and other 
tissues; that the cells early become arranged into two primary 
layers, which as such make up the body of low metazoa (coe- 
lenterates), but which in higher forms become infolded and out- 
folded so as to give rise to many internal organs: these are fun- 
damental discoveries which, as Oscar Hertwig has said, are the 
answers to questions that baffled the most acute biologists and 
philosophers of earlier ages. 

The bulk of the discoveries of morphologists are, of course, 
such as require for their comprehension some technical train- 
ing. All I can say here is that this wealth of knowledge, so 


66 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL Society [August 


comprehensive and detailed, forms an immense part of the 
safe, secure basis on which rest all the biological inquiries of 
today. As to the part that American zoologists have played in 
the development of morphology, while it cannot be claimed that 
they brought to light any of the very greatest generalizations, 
comparable with those of von Baer, Rathke, Haeckel, and Kow- 
alevsky, the world owes to them a large number of acute and 
important investigations. In addition to the names I have 
already mentioned in speaking of the progress of embryology, 
two great Americans, who have recently died, should be referred 
to here, W. K. Brooks and C. O. Whitman. 

It must not be supposed that the work in descriptive mor- 
phology is at an end. By no means! There is so much to be 
done that it will doubtless occupy many zoologists for centuries. 
But as was the case earlier with systematic zoology, so later 
with pure morphology: it no longer occupies the centre of 
the stage. 

In dealing with evolution I have spoken as if the effort had 
been solely to reconstruct in the imagination the past world 
and so to discover the kinship between groups and their place 
in a natural classification. But along with this inquiry went 
always the question, What were the agencies that have been at 
work in the transformation of species? This is perhaps the 
question of more practical concern to us, for the agencies that 
have been at work in the past are doubtless at work today. It 
has been easier, however, to learn something fairly definite about 
the course of evolution than it has been to determine the factors 
at work. Moreover, it is doubtless true that a knowledge of 
lines of ancestry will aid us in the inquiry into the nature of 
these factors. It is not difficult then to understand why atten- 
tion was concentrated so long on the data of comparative 
morphology. 

Zoologists and paleontologists have nevertheless speculated 
abundantly on the causes of transformation, making use of such 
knowledge as has been available. So in this country Cope, 
Hyatt, and others have developed theories dealing with these 
problems. The theories of Cope and Hyatt proceed in part 


1912 | ZooLoagy IN AMERICA 67 


along the lines laid down by the great French zoologist, Lam- 
arck, and assume that the changes induced in an individual by 
habit and by the direct action of the environment are inherited. 
Little, even today, is known on this head, and however suggestive 
and valuable such theories are, it would seem that nothing cer- 
tain can be learned from comparison alone. Darwin’s theory 
of natural selection, of the selective influence of the environ- 
ment, helps us to understand one great, universal attribute of 
organisms, viz., that structure in general is useful, is adaptive, 
and again why the descendents of a species should tend to split 
up into divergent races. But as to the underlying physiolog- 
ical processes concerned in the production of the initial differ- 
ences between individuals, on which selection operates, it tells 
us nothing. Nor does it give us information which would enable 
us even to pick out with certainty the kinds of initial differences 
on which selection can operate. Lamarck, Darwin, and evolu- 
tionists in general have all along seen clearly that such prob- 
lems can only be answered with the aid of experiment. 

This word, “experiment,” is the master-word to the under- 
standing of the present era in zoology, but with the oncome of 
this era my sketch must come to an end. Wherever we look 
today, whether to studies revolving round the idea of species, 
or to those dealing with habit, or with anatomy, or with the tis- 
sues, or with the cell, everywhere we find that along with obser- 
vation and comparison, experiment has entered in. In some 
fields the new method is easy to practise and is dominant, in 
others it is difficult and therefore only accessory. With the 
introduction of experiment it would seem that many questions 
which have been raised should find an answer. Certainly the 
outlook is hopeful. 


CuHarrL, Hitz, N.C. 


NOTE ON THE FUNDAMENTAL BASES OF 
DYNAMICS. 


By Wo. Carn. 


For some years there has been increasing dissatisfaction with 
the manner of presentation of the fundamental principles of 
dynamics, as given by text books, particularly for the use of 
engineering students. From the time of Newton down, mass 
of a body has been defined as “the quantity of matter in the 
body”—an admittedly ambiguous term. 

Mass is likewise said to equal density times volume, or density 
equals mass divided by volume, which gives no precise concep- 
tion of density until the idea of mass is made clear and precise. 

Next in order comes the definition, foree == mass X accelera- 
tion, which is likewise obscure until mass is quantitatively 
defined. 

However, as an illustration, if a body of mass m is supposed 
to fall in vacuo under the force of the attraction of gravitation, 
whose measure is the weight W in pounds (say), the accelera- 
tion being g ft. per second per second, then the above equation 
takes the well known form, 

Wi mgs 


whence m == W/g 

so that finally it is seen that mass is directly proportional to 
weight and inversely proportional to the acceleration of gravity. 
Also, since W varies directly as g, the ratio W/g is constant for 
the same body for all points on or in the earth, and it is now 
realized clearly that mass is something pertaining to a body that 
does not alter with its position. 

Now it has always seemed to the writer that it would be more 
logical to start with this precise conception of mass; in other 
words, define m as W/g, so that there will be no ambiguity, from 
the start, in ideas of mass, density and force. If this is done, 
however, it is very important to explain how W is to be found; 
for the weight of a body, as estimated by an equal armed bal- 


ance is not usually the same as that given by a spring balance, 
68 


1912 | FunpAMENTAL BasrEs oF Dynamics 69 


and it is well as a preliminary to the subject of dynamics to 
precisely describe the two methods of weighing and under what 
conditions they differ. 

In what follows, the writer desires to acknowledge his indebt- 
edness to an article by Prof. William Kent in “ Science” for 
May 5th, 1911, entitled, “ Notes on the Preliminary Report of 
the Committee on the Teaching of Mathematics to Students of 
Engineering.” The present article might very well bear the 
same title, for its inspiration has come through reading the 
parts of the report given by Professor Kent and his valuable 
criticism thereon. The great value of the Report and Notes in 
outlining a method of presenting the first principles of dynam- 
ics, is acknowledged. But the writer believes the matter can be 
east into a simpler and more logical form and he will endeavor, 
in what follows, to carry out this idea by suggesting such an out- 
line of parts of the subject where amendment seems desirable. 

(1) Mechanics treats of matter, at rest or in motion, under 
the action of force. 

(2) The phrase, “weight of a body,” is unfortunately used 
in two senses (1) to indicate the quantity of matter in the body, 
(2) to mean the force of attraction of the earth at the place on 
the body. To avoid confusion it is often advisable to specify the 
meaning intended. Thus a piece of matter weighing a pound 
may be called a pound of matter or a pound mass, whereas the 
force of attraction of the earth on it will be called a pound force. 
Similarly we can speak of a ton of matter and a ton force. 

(3) The “British Unit” of weight is the quantity of matter 
in a certain piece of platinum and is called a pound. The 
“French Unit” is called the kilogram. 

Copies of either standard, together with multiples and frac- 
tional parts of the same, will be called “a set of standard 
weights.” 

(4) To weigh a body on an equal armed balance, the body is 
put in one scale pan and is balanced by a certain number of 
standard weights (metal pieces) in the other scale pan. By this 
method, it is seen that the body will “weigh” the same at any 
latitude or altitude. Since the attraction of the earth on a 


70 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL Society [August 


body varies both with the latitude and altitude, it is evident 
that the equal armed balance does not indicate, everywhere, the 
attractive force of the earth on the body. 

The same remark applies to any lever balance or platform 
scales. 

(5) Suppose a spring balance to be graduated with a set of 
standard British weights at sea level at latitude 45° where 
g = 32.174 ft. pr. see. pr. sec. is the acceleration due to gravity. 
Now suppose a certain body there, when hung from the spring 
balance, to depress the pointer until it reads W lbs., then the 
attraction of the earth, at this point, for the body is exactly 
W pounds force. 

Similarly, if the body is hung from this same “standard” 
spring balance at any other point on the earth, although the 
pointer may not read the same as before, still it indicates ex- 
actly the force with which the body is attracted by the earth at 
the place. This is the true weight of, or the pull of the earth 
on, the body and is the only one to be considered where great 
scientific accuracy is required. 

(6) Call the weight of the body at the second place W, and 
the acceleration due to gravity g, ft. pr. sec. pr. sec.; then since 
it is an Experimental Fact that weight varies with acceleration, 


Gig 
This simple equation gives the solution to a number of prob- 
lems involving weights at different latitudes. 
(7) Thus, if the standard spring balance has been graduated 
at sea level at latitude 45° and a body weighs there W pounds, 
it will weigh at the equator, at sea level, where g = 32.0894, 


32.0894 


W, ———W= 0.99787 W (1hs.) 
32.174 


If W = 10000 lbs., W,= 9973.7 lbs., a difference of only 26.3 
Ibs. in 10000; so that for ordinary commercial or engineering 
purposes the difference is negligible. It is to be noted that the 


ee ae _. 


1912 | FunpAMENTAL Bases oF Dynamics ffi 


body which weighs 10000 lbs. at 45° latitude, will weigh, on an 
equal armed balance, 10000 lbs. anywhere. Such a balance, or 
any lever balance, will thus give approximate results, which are 
usually near enough for commercial or most engineering pur- 
poses. 

(8) To find the difference in weights as measured on “the 
standard spring balance” at any two points, let W, and g, repre- 
sent the weight and gravity acceleration at one point, W, and gs 
similar quantities for the other point; then, 


ae 
Thus if a quantity of tea weighs W.—1 Ib. at the equator, 
where g.—= 32.09, it will weigh at London where g,— 32.19 


32.19 
W,= —— (1) — 1.008 lb. 
32.09 
(9) Similarly, if any heavy body suspended from a wire, 
stretches it an amount e at the equator, it will stretch it 1.003e 
at London. 


(10) The steam pressure that will just lift a certain body at 
London, will be 1.003 times the steam pressure, at the same 
temperature, that will lift the same body at the equator. Other- 
wise, by proportion, the same steam pressure will lift a body at 
the equator weighing 1.003 times as much as at London, if the 
weighing, in this instance, is done on an equal armed balance 
or its equivalent at both places. In fact, adopting the notation 
of (8), if the steam can just lift a body weighing W lbs. on the 
spring balance at London, by assumption, it exerts the same 
pressure, 

91 32.19 
W,=— W,.= 
Jo 32.09 


Wo= 1.003 W, 


at the equator. 
Here W, is the spring balance weight of the same body at 
the equator. Hence a second body weighing 1.003 times the 


72 JOURNAL oF THE MitrcHELL Society [August 


first will just be lifted by the same steam pressure at the equator. 

(11) Another simple illustration will be given. The work 
of raising a body of weight W lbs. at sea level, at latitude 45°, 
h feet, is (Wh) ft. lbs. At this place, call the acceleration due 
to gravity g, at a second place g,; whence the attraction of the 
earth on the same body at the second place is by (1) 


91 
i e— — 
g 
Hence the work of lifting it, at the second place, is, in ft. lbs., 
91 
W,h=— (Wh) 
g 


(12) MASS. Mass of a body means the quantity of matter 
in the body, which is not supposed to alter in amount by chang- 
ing the position of the body relative to the earth or to be affected 
by the expansion or contraction of the body. Body here refers 
to a limited portion of a gas or liquid or any solid body. 

Now by the experimental law, eq. (1) the ratio W/g of the 
weight of the body, as given by a spring balance, to the 
acceleration due to gravity at any point within the sphere of 
the earth’s attraction, 7s constant. Hence mass, which is like- 
wise unalterable by a change of place, is proportioned to W/g. 

In the engineers’ system it is usual to write for the mass m, 
the equality, 


so that, in this system, W/g can be regarded as the measure of 
the mass. For the same place, it varies directly with the 
weight. 

We have now a precise measure of mass and can appreciate 
what properties of matter the word mass includes. 

(13) The term “density” can now be defined as the quotient 
of mass by volume. 


1912 | FunpAMENTAL Bases oF Dynamics 73 


(14) The word “force” may be simply defined as a push or a 
pull. - 

(15) From sq. (3), we have, W = mg. 

The fundamental formula of mechanics is, 

Et Seis NS SRS a dear nae eit weal (4) 
where F is the force acting on the body whose mass is m and 
acceleration a, the force and acceleration being in the same di- 
rection. 

In the engineers’ system of units, when gravity is the force, 
acting (of course, vertically) FW lbs., ag, giving the 
previous formula as a special case of (4). 

(4) can likewise be written, 


where F and W are expressed in pounds, a and g, in feet per sec- 
ond per second. 

(16) From (4) other well known formulas as, F t= m v; 
F s= 14 m v”, can at once be derived. 

(17) Newton’s three laws may be stated and commented on 
at this stage. Formula (4) is the symbolical expression of one 
law. Let us make an immediate application of the third law, 
“to every action, there is always an equal and contrary reaction.” 

Thus let a perfectly smooth particle of mass m strike a sec- 
ond similar particle of mass m, both moving in the same direc- 
tion along the lines of the centers of the particles. In the infin- 
itesimal time dt, call the accelerations of the particles a and a, 
respectively, since they act in opposite directions, a and a, have 
opposite signs. When by Newton’s law of action and reaction 

m ay 

— mM6=m,4,; —=—— 

m4 a 
Tn a recent work on Analytic Mechanics by Barton, p. 196, the 
author follows Mach in giving the last equation as a definition 
of mass. It is submitted that it is simpler to define mass as in 
(12), then force as in (15), whence the above formula is seen 
to be a derived one. 


74 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELy Society [August 


(18) In formula (5) above, W is supposed to be the weight 
of the body in pounds as determined by a standard spring bal- 
ance, used at the place of the body. By formula (1), W can be 
taken as the weight by spring balance at 45° latitude, provided 
g is put = 32.174. But W will be the same if the body is 
weighed on an equal armed balance anywhere (4); hence, sup- 
posing the body weighed in the usual way on a lever balance, 
formula (5) can be written in the exact form, 

WwW 
Pe ae. OP ee (6) 
32.174 
This is evidently the most practical form of equation (5). 

(19) BRITISH ABSOLUTE SYSTEM. In the British 
engineers’ system, with which we have dealt so far, the pound 
weight at sea level at latitude 45° has been taken as the unit of 
force and the unit mass is derived from the equation 

W: 


= 


=i1 
32.174 

whence the unit mass is the mass of a body weighing 32.174 lbs, 
on a standard spring balance at sea level, at 45° latitude, or on 
a lever balance anywhere. In the British absolute system the 
mass of the piece of metal, called a pound weight, is taken as the 
unit of mass, and the unit of force is defined as that force which, 
acting for one second on the mass of the pound piece of metal 
generates in it a velocity of one foot per second. 

From numerous experiments it is known that if a body weigh- 
ing one pound, on a lever balance, fall freely for one second, 
at sea level, at latitude 45°, it will acquire a velocity of 
g = 32.174 feet per second. The force acting on the body is 


1 

1 pound. If this foree was — of a pound, the body at the end 
g 

of one second, would have a velocity of one foot per second. 


1 
Hence the unit of force, at the place, is — of a pound (force) 


J 


1 scr 


1912] FunpaMeEntalL Bases or Dynamics T5 


or slightly less than half an ounce avoirdupois. Such a force 
has been called a poundal. 


By equation (1) putting W —1, g = 32.174, we have 
i W, 1 


b 
g, 82.174 


In this equation, W, represents the attraction of the earth on 
the metal piece, called a pound weight, at any place where the 
acceleration is g,;. Reasoning as before, the foree W, acting 
freely on the metal piece will cause it to acquire in one second 
a velocity of g, feet per second; hence the force 


—= pound = 0.031081 pound, 
g, 32.174 


will produce in the body a velocity of one foot per second at the 
place considered. The unit of force, the poundal, in the absolute 
system, is thus constant and it may be thought of as a pull or a 
push of a little less than 14 ounce. Let the student realize that 
in the absolute system, in connection with the formula F = ma, 
that m is expressed by the same number that represents the 
weight in pounds of the body as found (anywhere) by an equal- 
armed balance, and that F is expressed in poundals, where a 
poundal is 0.031081 pound force. 

An answer in poundals can be readily expressed in pounds 
of force by dividing by 32.174 or multiplying by 0.031081. In 
Technical Mechanics, it is well to give the absolute system in 
an Appendix, for although the engineer student will not use it 
in his ordinary work, still a shght study of the absolute system 
will enable one to read valuable works that otherwise might 
offer difficulties. 

The same remarks apply to the French C. G. S. system, which 
may be analyzed as above. It is well to bear in mind that in any 
absolute system, the lever balance always measures mass, 
whereas in the engineers’ system the spring balance measures 
the attraction of the earth (weight). 

CuHaper, Hitt, N.C. 


NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE MORE 
COMMON BIVALVES OF BEAUFORT, N. C. 


(Published by permission of the U. S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries) 


By Henry D. Auer. 


Director U. S. Bureau of Fisheries Laboratory, Beaufort, N. C. 


While studying for systematic purposes the approximately 
ninety species of bivalve molluses which are found in the vicin- 
ity of the Fisheries Laboratory at Beaufort, N. C., it seemed 
desirable to consider which were available for scientific work 
involving the use of living animals. A species represented at 
the laboratory by a few specimens dredged in the deeper water 
offshore, or by valves secured on the beaches, would be useless 
for such research. Also species which might be abundant in 
the vicinity but of which the habitat is not sufficiently well 
known to permit of their being collected when wanted would be 
equally useless. It is the purpose of this paper to indicate 
which species are available in a living condition, specific loeal- 
ities where they may be found, and when possible something 
in reference to their abundance. <A paper of this kind cannot 
be complete, for further work will necessarily extend such infor- 
mation. It can only include what is known at the time by the 
writer. It is hoped that it may be of service to prospective 
investigators by pointing out what material they would have 
at their service under ordinary conditions. 

For the identification of the species and for assistance with 
the literature I am very largely indebted to Doctors Dall and 
Bartsch of the U. S. National Museum. 


FAMILY SOLENOMYACIDZ2. 
Genus Solemya Lamarck, 1818. 

Solemya velum Say. J 
Solemya velum Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 2, p. 317, 1822. 

Solenomya velum, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 46, fig. 3, 1880. 
Abundant on the sandy shoals west of the laboratory. Early 
records indicate that it is found on Bird Shoal. It has been 

76 


1912| Distrrreurion or Bivatves or Beaurort, N. C. Tt 


found recently near Gallants Point across the channel leading 
from the inland waterway to Beaufort, and it probably occurs 
on sandy shoals throughout the vicinity. It is easily obtained 
at low water, living in sand near the surface. Collected on 
Shark Shoal, 1912. 


FAMILY NUCULIDZ. 
Genus Nucula Lamarck, 1799. 
Nucula proxima Say. 

Nucula proxima Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 2, p. 270, 1822; 
Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 42, pl. 56, fig. 4, 1889; Dall, Trans. 
Wagner Inst- Sci., vol. 3, pt. 4, p. 574, 1808. 

Little attention has been given to the collection of living speci- 
mens. Live animals have been dredged, during 1912, near the 
eastern end of Bogue Sound, and dead valves are found in other 
localities. It is believed that careful search would yield abund- 
ant material. 


FAMILY ARCIDA. 


Genus Arca (Linnzeus) Lamarck, 1799. 
Subgenus Noétia Gray, 1840. 
Arca (Noétia) ponderosa Say. 
Arca ponderosa Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 2, p. 267, 1822. 
Arca (Noétia) ponderosa, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 40, 18890; 
Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 4, p. 633, 1808. 


Of the several species of this genus which belong to the Beau- 
fort fauna this is the most abundant. It is a large form and may 
be readily obtained at any time. It lives a few inches below the 
surface of the ground, in firm sand or mud. One specific col- 
lecting ground is the shoals west of the laboratory. 


Subgenus Scapharea (Gray) Dall. 
Arca (Scapharea) transversa Say. 


Arca transversa Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 2, p. 269, 1822; 
Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 40, pl. 56, fig. 2, 1889. 


Scapharca (Scapharca) transversa, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., 
vol. 3, pt. 4, p. 645, 1808. 


78 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELt Society [August 


Several specimens in the laboratory collection are recorded 
as having been collected above Horse Island on mud bottom. 
The animal, immature, is recorded from Pivers Island and 
from Bogue Sound. A few other specimens have been taken in 
the dredge in the vicinity of Beaufort. Valves are found rather 
commonly. 


Area (Scapharea) campechensis Dillwyn. 


Arca campechensis Dillwyn, Descr. Cat. Rec. Sh., L., p. 288, 1817 (Syn. 
partim exclus.), Jamaica and Carolina. 


Arca pexata Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 2, p. 268, 1822; 
Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 40, 1880. 


Scapharca (Argina) campechensis, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., 
vol. 3, pt. 4, p. 650, 1898. 

Small examples have been dredged in Bogue Sound; one 
specimen in channel south of Green Rock. As many valves are 
in the laboratory collection, further search will probably reveal 
good collecting grounds. 


FAMILY PINNIDZ. 
Genus Atrina Gray. 
Atrina rigida (Dillwyn). 

Pinna rigida (Solander MSS.) Dillwyn, Cat., p. 327, 1817. 

Atrina rigida, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 4, p. 663, 1808; 
Grave, B. H., Bull. Bur. Fish., vol. 29, p. 411, 1911. 

The species is fairly abundant. The usual collecting ground 
is in the vicinity of Pivers Island. The form may be found at 
about low water mark. The valves usually project a short dis- 
tance above the surface of the ground. 

The anatomy and physiology of this species have been made 
the subject of a report by Grave, loc. cit. 


FAMILY PTERIIDZ. 
Genus Pteria Scopoli, 1777. 
Pteria colymbus (Bolten). 


Pinctada colymbus Bolten, Mus. Boltenian., p. 167, 1708. 
Avicula atlantica, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 36, 1889. 
Pteria colymbus, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 4, p. 670, 1898. 


1912] Disrrispurion or Bivatves or Beavrort, N. C. 79 


Living animals are occasionally found. Systematic search 
would probably reveal a moderate number. It is found attached 
to suitable objects in the water. 


FAMILY OSTREID2. 
Genus Ostrea (Linnzeus) Lamarck. 
Ostrea virginica Gmelin. 
Ostrea virginica Gmelin, Syst. Nat., p. 3336, 1792; Dall, Trans. Wagner 
Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 4, p. 687, 1808. 


This abundant species needs only inclusion in this list. 


FAMILY PECTINIDZX 
Genus Pecten Miiller. 
Pecten (Plagioctenium) gibbus (Linnzus). 


Ostrea gibba Linnzus, Syst. Nat., Ed. 10, No. 172, p. 698, 1758. 

Pecten dislocatus Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 2, p. 260, 1822. 

Pecten (Plagioctenium) gibbus, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, 
pt. 4, D. 745, 1808. 


This species is found in sufficient quantities to form a local 
food supply of considerable value. The adult form is free- 
swimming and may be found at various times in different local- 
ities. Some observations on the habits of the varietal form 
Pecten dislocatus Say have been published by Grave, B. H., 
Biol. Bull, vol. 16, No. 5, April, 1909. 


FAMILY ANOMIIDZ. 


Genus Anomia (Linnzus) Miller. 
Anomia simplex Orbigny. 
Anomia simplex Orbigny, Moll. Cubana, vol. 2, p. 367, pl. 38, figs. 31-33, 


(1845 Spanish edition), 1853; Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 32, pl. 53, 
figs. 1-2, 1889; Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 4, p. 784, 1808. 


The animal is common in the vicinity. One collecting 
ground is the shoals west of the laboratory. It is found attached 
to other shells, as Ostrea, Tagelus, Macrocallista. 


80 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Society [August 


FAMILY MYTILIDA. 
Genus Mytilus (Linnzus) Bolten. 
Mytilus (Hormomya) exustus Linnzus. 
Mytilus exustus Linnezus, Syst. Nat., Ed. 10, p. 705, 1758; Dall, Bull. 


37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 38, 1880. 
Mytilus (Hormomya) exustus, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, 


Pt. 4, p- 788, 1808. 

This comparatively small species is found in fairly large 
numbers on the breakwater at Pivers Island, associated with 
Modiolus demissus (Dillwyn). It can probably be found on 
any of the several breakwaters in the vicinity of Beaufort. 


Genus Modiolus Lamarck, 1799. 
Modiolus (Brachydontes) demissus (Dillwyn). 
Mytilus demissus (Solander MSS.) Dillwyn, Descr. Cat. Rec. Shells, 


vol. I, p. 314, 1817. 
Modiola plicatula, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 38, pl. 54, fig. 1, 


1880. 
Modiolus (Brachydontes) demissus, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., 


vol. 3, pt. 4, p. 704, 1808. 

Very abundant on the breakwater and on muddy ground be- 
tween tide marks at Pivers Island. Abundant about the west- 
ern end of Town Marsh. Its natural habitat at Beaufort seems 
to be between tide marks among the roots of vegetation along 
the edges of salt marshes. It is the common mussel at Beaufort. 

Modiolus tulipus Lamarck, 

Modiola tulipa Lamarck, An. sans Vert., vol. 6, p. 111, 1819; Dall, 
Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 38, 1880. 

Modiolus tulipus, Dall & Simpson, Bull. U. S. Fish Com. for 1900, 
vol, 20, pt. I, p- 470. 

The species has been found at the railroad pier at Morehead 
City and in the vicinity of Pivers Island. So far living ma- 
trial has not been found abundantly. 


Genus Lithophaga Bolten, 1798. 
Lithophaga bisuleata (Orbigny). 
Lithodomus bisulcatus Orbigny, Moll. Cubana, vol. 2, p. 333, pl. 28, 
figs. 14-16, 1847 (Spanish edition and atlas, 1845). 
Lithophagus bisulcatus, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 38, 1880. 
Lithophaga (Diberus) bisulcata, Dall, Trans, Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, 
pt. 4, p. 801, 1808. 


1912] DisrrrpuTion or Brvatves or Beaurorrt, N. C. 81 


Living animals are abundant near the Norfolk Southern rail- 
road pier at Morehead City. Their occurrence is not known 
elsewhere about Beaufort Harbor. The species is found bur- 
rowing into pieces of coral and soft rock. The scarcity of suit- 
able material into which the individuals may burrow accounts 
for the limited distribution about Beaufort. The maximum 
length noted is 46 mm. 


FAMILY TEREDINIDZE. 
Genus Xylotrya Leach. 
Xylotrya gouldi Bartsch. 


Xylotrya gouldi Bartsch, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., vol. 21, p. 211, 1908; 
Sigerfoos, Bull. Bur. Fish., vol. 27, p. 194, 1908. 


This species is found abundantly in wood such as piling, ex- 
posed to the action of sea water. 


FAMILY PHOLADIDZ. 
Genus Martesia Leach, 1825. 


Martesia (Section Diplothyra) smithii (Tryon). 


Diplothyra smithii Tryon, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 14, p. 201, 
1862. 

Martesia (Section Diplothyra) smithii, Dall, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 
P. 72, 1889. 

A small molluse, which has been found abundantly at the rail- 
road pier at Morehead City. 


FAMILY MACTRIDZ2. 
cenus Spisula Gray, 1838. 


Spisula similis (Say). 


Mactra similis Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 2, p. 309, 1822. 

Mactra solidissima var. similis, Dall, Bull, 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 62, 
1880. 

The living animal is taken in the dredge, but specific local- 
ities are not recorded. It has been found, 1912, on the sea- 
shore near Fort Macon. 


82 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Society [August 


Genus Mulinia Gray. 
Mulinia lateralis (Say). 

Mactra lateralis Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 2, p. 309, 1822; 
Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 62, pl. 60, fig. 8, 1880. 

Mulinia lateralis, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 4, p. 901, 
1808. 

The species is found at Pivers Island and on a shoal west of 
that island. Fairly abundant. 


FAMILY SOLENIDZ2. 
Genus Solen (Linnzus) Scopoli, 1777. 
Solen viridis Say. 
Solen viridis Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 2, p. 316, 1822. 
Solen (Ensis) viridis, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 72, 1889. 
Solen viridis, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 5, p. 952, 1900. 
A few animals have been collected at Beaufort. One specific 
collecting ground is the shoals west of the laboratory. 


FAMILY DONACIDZ. 
Genus Donax (Linnzus). 
Donax variabilis Say. 

Donax variabilis Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 2, p. 305, 1822; 
Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 58, 1889; Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. 
Sci., vol. 3, pt. 5, p. 969, 1900. 

The specific collecting ground is the seashore at Fort Macon. 
At times small areas near the water’s edge may be found where 
the animals occur in large numbers. 


FAMILY PSAMMOBIIDZ. 
Genus Tagelus Gray. 
Tagelus gibbus (Spengler). 
Solen gibbus Spengler, Skrivt. Nat. Selsk., vol. 3, p. 104, 1794. 
Tagelus gibbus, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 58, pl. 55, fig. 3, pl. 
56, fig. 3, 1880; Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 5, p. 983, 1900. 
Collecting grounds: In muddy sand just south of railroad 
pier at Morehead City, Pivers Island, shoals west of Pivers 
Island. The animal may be found buried at a depth of a foot 
or more in the ground between tide marks. Shells are common 


on Shark Shoal. 


1912] DusrrieuTion oF Bivatves or Beavrort, N. C. 83 


Tagelus divisus (Spengler). 

Solen divisus Spengler, Skrivt. Nat. Selsk., vol. 3, p. 96, 1794. 

Tagelus divisus, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p- 58, pl. 56, fig 5, 1889 ; 
Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 5, p. 984, 1900. 

Collecting grounds: Dredging in Bogue Sound, vicinity of 
Pivers Island, near Gallants Point across the channel leading 
from inland waterway to Beaufort, south of railroad pier at 
Morehead City, muddy sand about western end of Town Marsh. 
Abundant. 


FAMILY SEMELID2. 
Genus Semele Schumacher. 
Semele proficua (Pulteney). 

Tellina proficua Pulteney, Hutchin’s Dorset, p. 29, pl. 5, fig. 4, 1799. 
Semele proficua, Dall & Simpson, Bull. U. S. Fish Com. for 1900, vol. 
20, pt. I, p. 477; Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 5, p. 991, 1900. 

The species is common on Pivers Island, and it is also ob- 
tained by dredging in Bogue Sound. 


Genus Abra (Leach) Lamarck, 1818. 
Abra zqualis (Say). 


Amphidesma equalis Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 2, p. 307, 
1822. 

Abra exqualis, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 62, 1889; Dall, Trans. 
Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 5, p. 998, 1900. 


It may be obtained by dredging in Bogue Sound. Live ma- 
terial is not recorded as common. Valves of the species appear 
to be abundant throughout the vicinity of the laboratory. 


FAMILY TELLINIDZ. 
Genus Tellina (Linnzeus) Lamarck, 1799. 
Tellina alternata Say. 


Tellina alternata Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 2, p. 275, 1822; 
Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 60, 1880. 

Tellina (Eurytellina) alternata, Dall, Trans Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, 
pt. 5, p. 1029, 1900. 


The live animal is found in Beaufort Harbor but specific lo- 
calities are not recorded. 


84 JOURNAL OF THE MrtrcHELL Society [August 


Genus Macoma Leach, 1819. 
Macoma tenta (Say). 


? Psammobia lusoria Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 2, p. 304, 
1822; not of Conrad, 1840. 
Tellina tenta Say, Am. Conch., pl. 65, fig. 3, 1834. 
Macoma tenta, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 60, pl. 56, fig. 10, 1880; 
Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 5, p. 1049, 1900. 


Collecting ground: Dredging in Bogue Sound. Material not 
known to be abundant. 


FAMILY PETRICOLIDA. 


Genus Petricola Lamarck, 1801. 


Petricola (Rupellaria) typica (Jonas). 


Choristodon typicum Jonas, Zeitschr. Mal. i., p. 185; Beitr. Molluskol., 
p. I, pl. 7, fig. 3, 1844. 

Petricola (Choristodon) robusta, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 58, 
1889; not of Sowerby. 

Petricola (Rupellaria) typica, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, 


pt. 5, p- 1059, 1900. 
Collecting ground at railroad pier, Morehead City. 


Petricola (Petricolaria) pholadiformis Lamarck. 


Petricola pholadiformis Lamarck, An. sans Vert., v., p. 505, 1818; 
Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 58, pl. 50, fig. 15, pl. 64, fig. r40a, 1889. 

Petricola (Petricolaria) pholadiformis, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., 
vol. 3, pt. 5, p. 1061, 1900. 


The animal is found in the mud (or turf) in the vicinity of 
the jetties at Fort Macon; also about the western end of Town 
Marsh. It lives near the surface between tide marks. It is also 
found in rocks at the railroad pier at Morehead City. 


Petricola dactylus Sowerby. 


Petricola dactylus Sowerby, Genera, Petricola, fig. 3, 1823. 

Petricola pholadiformis var. dactylus, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., 
p. 58, 1880. 

Specimens are found at the railroad pier at Morehead City. 
The species is probably more widely distributed in the vicinity. 


1912] Dusrrreution or Brvatves or Breavrort, N.C. 85 


FAMILY VENERID. 
Genus Dosinia Scopoli, 1777. 
Dosinia discus (Reeve). 

Artemis discus Reeve, Conch. Icon., vol. 6, Artemis, pl. 2, fig. 9, 1850. 

Dosinia (Dosinidia) discus, Dall, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 1312, 
p. 379, pl. 12, fig. 1, pl. 13, fig. 1, 1902; Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 
3, pt 6, p. 1232, 1903. 

Material very abundant in the sand flats about Pivers Island. 
It is found buried in sand nearly a foot below the surface, near 
the low water mark. It could probably be found on sandy shoals 
generally in the vicinity. 


Genus Macrocallista Meek, 1876. 
Macrocallista nimbosa (Solander). 

Venus nimbosa Solander, Portland Cat., p. 175, No. 3761, 1786. 

Cytherea (Callista) gigantea, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 56, 
1880. 

esate nimbosa, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 6, 
p. 1254, 1903. 

One specific collecting ground is the shoals west of Pivers 
Island. It is also found on Shark Shoal. Charles Hatsel states 
that it is common on Bird Shoal and that it lives three or four 
inches below the surface in sand between tide marks. 


Genus Chione Megerle von Muhlfeld, 1811. 
Chione cancellata (Linnzus). 

Venus cancellata Linnzus, Syst. Nat., Ed. 12, p. 1130, 1767; Dall, 
Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 54, 1880. 

Chione cancellata, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 6, p. 1290, 
1903. 

Specifie collecting grounds are about the laboratory pier at 
Pivers Island and on the old oyster reef across the channel from 
the east side of Pivers Island. It is a very abundant species, 
living on muddy or shelly bottom, near or on the surface, at 
about low water mark. 


Genus Venus (Linnzus) Lamarck. 
Venus mercenaria (Linnzus). 


< Venus mercenaria Linnzus, Syst. Nat., Ed. 10, p. 686, 1758. 
Venus mercenaria, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 54, pl. 55, fig. 7, 


86 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL Society [August 


pl. 71, figs. 1, 3, 1889; Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt. 6, p. 1311, 
1903. 

The species may be easily obtained at or near the surface on 
muddy or shelly bottom between tide marks almost anywhere in 
the vicinity. Very abundant. 


FAMILY CARDIIDZ. 


Genus Cardium (Linnzus) Lamarck. 
Subgenus Trachycardium Morch, 1853. 
Cardium (Trachycardium) isocardia Linnzus. 
<Cardium isocardia Linneus, Syst. Nat., Ed. 10, p. 679, 1758; Dall, 


Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 52, 1880. 
Cardium (Trachycardium) isocardia, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci. 


vol. 3, pt. 5, p. 1085, 1900. 


The living animal has been dredged, during 1912, near the 
eastern end of Bogue Sound. 


Cardium (Trachycardium) muricatum Linnzus. 


Cardium muricatum Linnzus, Syst. Nat., Ed. 10, p. 680, 1758; Dall, 
Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 52, 1880. 
Cardium (Trachycardium) muricatum, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., 


vol. 3, pt. 5, p. 1089, 1900. 


The species has been collected in the vicinity of Pivers 
Island, at the railroad pier at Morehead City, and dredged near 
the eastern end of Bogue Sound. 


Subgenus Dinocardium Dall, 1900. 


Cardium (Dinocardium) robustum Solander. 

Cardium robustum Solander, Portland Catalogue, p. 58, 1786, after 
Lister, Hist. Conch., pl. 328, fig. 165, 1770. 

Cardium magnum, Dall, Bull 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 52, 1880. 

Cardium (Cerastoderma) robustum, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., 
vol. 3, pt. 5, p. 1099, 1900. 

Living animals have been found on Bird Shoal in Beaufort 
Harbor. The valves of this species are the most conspicuous 
ones on the seashore at Fort Macon. 


Subgenus Levicardium Swainson, 1840. 
Cardium (Levicardium) mortoni Conrad. 
Cardium mortoni Conrad, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 6, p. 259, 
pl. 10, figs. 5, 6, 7, 1830. 


Cy ae ee 


1912] Duisrrrpution or Brvatves or Breavurort, N. C. 87 


Cardium (Liocardium) mortoni, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 54, 
pl. 58, fig. 8, 1880. 

Cardium (Levicardium) mortoni, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., 
vol. 3, pt. 5, p. IIII, 1900. 


The live animal may be obtained on Pivers Island, on the 


shoals west of that island, and in the dredge in the vicinity of 
Beaufort. 


Family Lucinide. 
Genus Phacoides Blainville, 1825. 
Phacoides (Parvilucina) crenella Dall. 

Phacoides (Parvilucina) crenella, Dall, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 
1237, Synopsis Lucinacea, pp. 810, 825, pl. 30, fig. 2, I90T. 

Lucina crenulata, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 50, 1889. 

Living material could probably be found abundantly, but the 
laboratory records are not sufficient to verify the assumption. 
A rather small species. 


Genus Divaricella von Martens. 
Divaricella quadrisuleata (Orbigny). 

Lucina quadrisulcata Orbigny, Voy. Am. Mer., Moll., p. 584, 1846. 

Lucina (Divaricella) quadrisulcata, Dall, Bull. 37, U. S. Nat. Mus., p. 
50, 1880. 

Divaricella quadrisulcata, Dall, Trans. Wagner Inst. Sci., vol. 3, pt- 6, 
p. 1380, pl. 51, fig. 1, 1903. 

Valves are abundant and some entire animals have been col- 
lected at Beaufort. This species should not be confused with 
D. dentata Wood, which the writer has not found at Beaufort. 


April, 1912. 


THE GLOOMY SCALE, AN IMPORTANT ENEMY OF 
SHADE TREES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 


By Z. P. Metcatr. 


The gloomy scale is the most important insect enemy of shade 
trees in North Carolina. We are led to make this statement for 
two reasons: First, because it increases far more rapidly than 
any other insect attacking shade trees, and in the second place 
it is all but confined to the maples which have been so largely 
used for shade purposes along the streets of our cities and towns. 
The gloomy scale is rather closely related to the famous San 
Jose scale, which is so destructive to our fruit trees. Unlike 
the San Jose scale it is a native insect. We are led to believe 
this because the gloomy scale is very heavily parasitized, indi- 
cating that it has been established in this country for a long 
period of time. Then the fact that the scale has been found on 
a willow along a stream in Lincoln County is another very strong 
indication of its nativity. 

The gloomy scale differs from the San Jose scale in another 
very vital respect, and that is that it is very much more difficult 
to control. We believe that this is due to the fact that the 
gloomy scale lives over the winter as a mature insect, while the 
San Jose scale lives over the winter as a half grown young. The 
latter condition enables us to apply very caustic insecticides at 
a time when the insect is weakest, and at the same time the tree 
is in a dormant condition so that it is not injured in the least. 
Then, too, the dorsal scale of the gloomy scale is much thicker 
and more closely applied to the ventral scale than is the case 
with the San Jose scale, so that the gloomy scale is especially 
well protected against any contact insecticide. 

These facts forced themselves upon our attention soon after 
we commenced experiments for the control of this insect four 
years ago. We soon discovered that the remedies usually recom- 
mended for the San Jose scale would be of little or no use 
against this insect. As a matter of fact the mortality of the 
scale on some unsprayed trees was less than that of some trees 

88 


1912] Ture Gioomy ScaLe 89 


sprayed with the ordinary lime-sulphur, due perhaps to the 
fungicidal action of the lime-sulphur killing out the winter form 
of the red headed fungus, a rather common fungus disease of 
this insect. 

The following winter we tried an extensive series of experi- 
ments with all of the manufactured insecticides at our com- 
mand. These insecticides may be divided roughly into two 
classes,—the lime-sulphurs and the soluable oils. The lme- 
sulphurs are highly concentrated mixtures of various compounds 
of lime and sulphur, which are diluted with water to make 
mixtures of various strengths for different plants and for differ- 
ent seasons of the year. The soluable oils are essentially the 
heavier oils of the petroleum series together with a vegetable 
oil. When mixed with water they make a beautiful emulsion 
that may be used for spraying with perfect safety. The very 
day that the mixtures were applied it was evident that the 
lime-sulphurs would not be as effective as the soluable oils. The 
former dried on the bark in a very short time, while the latter 
remained moist for several hours. Thus the soluable oils were 
enabled to creep in around and under the thick closely-applied 
dorsal seale and suffocate the insect. While the lime-sulphurs 
were not able to penetrate the thick dorsal scale, and they dried 
so quickly that they could not creep under, so that they killed 
very few insects. 

Examinations of the sprayed trees every three or four months 
until last fall showed that all of the soluable oils had been 
effective, killing at least 95 per cent. of the scale, while none of 
the lime-sulphurs had killed over 75 per cent. This represents 
the difference between an effective and a non-effective spray 
mixture. 

Another point that has been brought out in the course of our 
investigations is the fact that the soft maples, red and silver, 
are injured more by this insect than the hard maples like the 
sugar and Norway. Careful inspection usually shows as high 
as 90 per cent of the soft maples infested, whereas it is very 
unusual to find as high as one per cent. of the hard maples in- 
fested. In this connection the following host plant list shows 


90 JOURNAL OF THE MircHett Society [August 


what trees we may reasonably expect to suffer from the attacks 
of this insect, although it is probable that not all of the trees 
given will be seriously troubled. 


Apple, (Pyrus malus L.) Several young trees growing under 
the overhanging branches of badly infested red maples found 
slightly infested. 

Red Maple. (Acer rubrum L.) Generally infested. 

Silver Maple. (Acer saccharinum L.) Uniformly and badly 
infested. 

Sugar Maple. (Acer saccharum Marsh.) A few scattering 
individuals found infested, mostly very slightly. 

Box Elder. (Acer negundo L.) <A few infested. 

Buckeye.. (Aisculus glabra Willd.) Slightly infested. 

Japanese Chestnut. (Castanea sativa.) Badly infested . 

Sycamore. (Platanus occidentalis L.) Slightly infested. 

Water Oak. (Quercus nigra L.) A single tree slightly in- 
fested. 

White Oak. (Quercus alba L.) A few trees slightly infested. 

Iron-wood. (Carpinus ecaroliniana Walt.) <A single badly 
infested tree. 

Willow. (Salix sp.) A small badly infested tree found 
along a stream in Lincoln County. 

Cottonwood. (Populus deltoidea Marsh.) Slightly infested 
tree. 

American Elm. (Ulmus americana L.) Slightly infested. 

Mulberry.. (Morus rubra L.) Badly infested. 


The complete life history of this insect is yet to be worked 
out, and it is our intention to work this out this summer. We 
have determined, however, that the females give birth to living 
young, the first young from overwintering adults being born 
about the 10th of May. These young molt twice and reach ma- 
turity in summer and then give birth to living young. The 
exact number of generations each year is not known. Neither 
is the male insect known save for a brief description of two 
“male” dorsal scales given by Comstock in the original descrip- 
tion of this insect. Comstock states that the insects beneath 
these scales were dead and much shrivelled. Strange to say, 


a 


1912] Tue Gioomy Scare 91 


we have never discovered any males, although we have inspected 
hundreds of trees, most of which were very badly infested, and 
certainly if males occurred in anyways normal proportions we 
would have discovered them. At other times we have examined 
and counted hundreds of scales on selected twigs, and found them 
all females. Of course parthenogenesis is a possibility, but it 
does not occur normally in nearly related species; and that 
leads us to believe that it does not occur here. Although we 
are almost forced to believe that fertilization, if it occurs at all, 
occurs in only one generation out of the several generations 
each year. 


CAPTURE OF RALEIGH BY THE WHARE RAT. 
By C. S. Brimiry. 


Three species of rats are commonly known as house rats; 
these are the Black Rat (Mus rattus), the Brown Rat or Wharf 
Rat (Mus norvegicus), and the Roof Rat (Mus alexandrinus). 
Of these, the black rat, formerly the common house rat of 
Europe, was introduced by the earliest settlers into North 
America, and in both countries has been practically extermi- 
nated by the wharf rat, a late comer. The roof rat, an inhab- 
itant of the Mediterranean regions, has been introduced into the 
Southern States, as well as into most warm countries, and ap- 
pears to hold its own against the wharf rat better than the 
black rat, which it resembles in all but color. In the tropics, 
however, all three species exist side by side. 

In characteristics the three differ as follows: the black rat 
is sooty black above, somewhat lighter below, and the tail is 
usually longer than the head and body; the roof rat is brownish 
gray above, yellowish white below, and has the tail also longer 
than the head and body; the wharf rat is browner than the 
roof rat above, and much less white below, (the white being more 
ashy), while the tail is usually decidedly shorter than the head 
and body. It is also a considerably heavier animal than the two 
others. An extra large roof rat will measure 17 inches in total 
length, of which about 914 inches would be tail, while an aver- 
age wharf rat of the same total length would have the tail only 
about 7 inches, or less. 

Up to 1909 the only house rats I had seen in Raleigh were 
the roof rats, but in that year a wharf rat was brought up to 
the State Museum some time late in March, the first I had 
seen since I left England in 1880. During the next year I 
occasionally saw a dead one that had been thrown on the street, 
but during 1911 they leaped into prominence. In that year the 
old cotton platform near the Seaboard freight depot was torn 
up, and it was the general opinion that multitudes of rats that 
had been dwelling beneath were then scattered abroad. At any 

92 


1912)  Caprure or RALEIGH BY THE WHARF Rat 93 


rate, complaints began to come in to the newspapers about a 
strange kind of rat that was overrunning Raleigh, and slaugh- 
tering young chickens ad libitum, and most wonderful stories 
became current about them. They were as big as cats; large 
ones weighed three pounds; whenever a hen and chickens were 
placed in a rat-proof coop resting on the ground, the rats care- 
fully surveyed the coop, and then dug tunnels underneath it, 
always coming up exactly underneath the old hen, and killing 
all her chickens without ever showing themselves. Wild as these 
stories were, they had a foundation in fact, this species being 
a most inveterate destroyer of small chickens. One of the 
neighbors, for instance, only a few days ago left a chicken coop 
open one night and the rats got no less than twenty-six of the 
thirty chickens in the coop. 

They reached my vicinity, a mile from the Seaboard depot, 
last August, and I have been catching specimens off and on ever 
since. So far I have not lost any chickens by them, but there 
is no doubt they are a most serious factor in chicken raising in 
Raleigh at present. 

In habits they are strongly inclined to burrow, while the other 
two species are climbers, a roof rat when disturbed preferring 
to seek safety upwards, a wharf rat downwards. The largest 
specimen I have weighed did not exceed a pound, and several 
other big ones only reached 14 ounces. 

Why they have not overrun Raleigh before it is hard to say, 
as they are known to have been at Beaufort as far off as 1870 
(Coues), and at Newbern in 1885 (H. H. Brimley), while they 
have been doubtless plentiful at Norfolk and Baltimore ever 
since Raleigh has been in existence, and specimens have almost 
certainly been brought in on freight cars every year. We hear 
that they overran Kinston in a similar manner some years ago. 

So far as my premises were concerned, the roof rats had ap- 
parently left before the wharf rats came in. It is known how- 
ever that the roof rat interbreeds with the black rat, and it is 
claimed that it also does with the wharf rat. However that may 
be, I have caught several specimens since last fall that were ap- 


94 JouRNAL oF THE MitcHELi SocreTy [August 


parently wharf rats, but had tails longer than the head and body 
as in the roof rat. 

Whether the wharf rat will continue to be the house rat of 
Raleigh in future, or whether local conditions which must cer- 
tainly have been favorable to the roof rat in the past, will ena- 
ble the latter species to regain its hold on the town again and 
drive the wharf rat out, I do not know, but my hopes are for the 


roof rats’ success and my expectations are against it. 
RareicH, N.C. 


VIABLE BERMUDA GRASS SEED PRODUCED IN 
THE LOCALITY OF RALEIGH, N. C. 


By O. I. TizrMan. 
Cynodon Dactylon (L.) Pers. (Capriola Ktze.) Bermuda 


grass, also known as Wire grass, Bahama grass, Indian couch 
grass, Scotch grass, and Dog’s-tooth grass, is of great economic 
value throughout the Southern states and is also a noxious pest 
in certain instances as the very qualities which make it valuable 
also render it objectionable. It is supposed that this grass will 
not develop germinable seed in the United States except in the 
arid Southwest, but it was found that in the vicinity of Raleigh, 
N.C., this grass produced such seed. 

September 8, 1910, flowering stalks were gathered from a 
grass plot along the city streets. The glumes were stript from 
these and it was found that 76 per cent. were empty and that 
there were 24 per cent of pure seed which germinated 82 per 
cent. Another sample was collected October 11, 1910, along 
the roadside, a few miles from Raleigh, which was found to 
produce 4 per cent pure seed, which germinated 60 per cent. 
The seeds of both samples were kept until June of the following 
spring before being tested. The tests were made in a standard 
germinating chamber at an alternating temperature of 20-35 
degrees C. The seeds were placed on top of moist blotting pa- 
per. The sprouts were strong and some were grown in the lab- 
oratory into good-sized plantlets. 

Two samples of Bermuda grass seed from the trade, retailing 
at $1.25 per pound, were tested under the same conditions as 
the locally grown seed and germinated 27 per cent. and 17 per 
cent. respectively. This is a striking comparison of the superior 
germinating value of the locally produced seed and that of the 
trade, at least in this instance. 

Since it has been found that Bermuda grass produces seed of 
so high a germination in a locality where it was not supposed 
to produce seed, it might be well if this fact were given consid- 
eration both in the cultivation and eradication of the grass. 

State DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Raleigh, N.C. 

95 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 
Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society 
VOLUME XXVIII DECEMBER, 1912 No. 3 


MALARIAL PIGMENT (HEMATIN) AS A FACTOR 
IN THE PRODUCTION OF THE MALARIAL 
PAROXYSM.* 


By Wane H. Brown, M. D. 


It is remarkable that, from the enormous amount of inves- 
tigation that has centered about the malarial parasite and its 
relation to malarial fevers, there has come no clear exposition 
of the mode of production of the various phenomena of the 
malarial paroxysm. It is true that these phenomena have been 
ascribed to the presence in the circulation of some toxic sub- 
stance, or substances, elaborated by the malarial parasite, and 
that the blood at the time of the segmentation of the parasite 
has been shown to possess toxic properties. Still, as far as I 
know, the nature of these toxic agents remains unknown, as 
no one has clearly demonstrated the presence of any definite 
substance, which, when introduced into the circulation, could 
reproduce the symptom complex of the malarial paroxysm. 
The observations embodied in this report are offered, therefore, 
with the hope of shedding some light upon the question. 

In the course of some work on hematin metabolism, it was 
noted that a rabbit that had received an intravenous injection 
of alkaline hematin developed a very pronounced shaking chill, 
strikingly like that of malaria. As the author has attempted 
to show in a previous paper,’ the pigment elaborated from the 
hemoglobin of the red blood corpuscle by the malarial parasite 


Reprinted from the Journal of Experimental Medicine, Vol. XV, No. 6, 1912. 

* Aided by a grant from The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research. Re- 
ceived for publication, March 29, 1912 

The first seven experiments of this investigation were done in the Pathological 
Laboratory of the University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. 


1W. H. Brown, Jour. Exper. Med., 1911, xiii, 290. 


98 JOURNAL OF THE Mitcuett Society [December 


and liberated into the circulation of the host at the time of 
segmentation of the parasite is undoubtedly hematin. It at 
once appeared possible, therefore, that we might find in this 
substance one of the hypothetical toxins operative in malaria. 
The investigation of this question now embraces a series of 
ninety observations upon the effect of the intravenous injection 
of alkaline hematin, eighteen rabbits having been used for 
test purposes. 
TECHNIQUE. 


Materials Used and Their Preparation.—The hematin used 
was derived from three sources, rabbit blood, dog blood, and 
ox blood, but in all cases it was prepared by the Schalfijew 
process. The solutions for injection were made in 0.85 per 
cent. salt solution containing 1.5 or 2 per cent. bicarbonate 
of sodium. The strength of the hematin employed has varied 
from 1.5 to 5 milligrams per cubic centimeter. The hematin 
was added to the sterile solvent and heated to 100° C. for five 
to ten minutes, and was then allowed to stand for twelve to 
twenty-four hours, when it was again heated and, while still 
hot, filtered into sterile flasks. The subsequent treatment of 
these solutions has varied somewhat. Solutions prepared thus, 
and again heated to 100° C. for five to ten minutes have appa- 
rently remained sterile. In a few instances, however, the 
filtered solution has been autoclaved to insure sterility. 

It has been found extremely difficult to prepare hematin 
solutions of absolutely uniform character. With a given prep- 
aration of hematin and with the same technique in the prepara- 
tion of the solutions, two distinct types of solution may be 
obtained: one, a perfectly clear, deeply colored solution that 
even under the microscope shows very few particles of pigment 
suspension, and on standing shows no precipitation in the 
flask; the other, a turbid solution that appears chocolate brown 
in thin layers and under the microscope shows myriads of 
pigmented particles and droplets floating in an only faintly 
colored fluid. Much of this pigment is precipitated on allow- 
ing the solution to stand. This latter “colloidal” type of 
solution or suspension, manifests all the optical properties of 


a 


1912] Mavariat Piement 1n Mararrat ParoxysM 99 


an alkaline hematin solution and the suspended pigment readily 
passes through Schleicher and Schiill filter paper No. 597 
which has been used as the routine filter. With different prep- 
arations of hematin these variations in solubility are contin- 
ually appearing. Reference is made to this feature of the 
hematin solution to indicate the difficulty in maintaining abso- 
lutely uniform experimental conditions and accurate dosage. 

Experimental Procedure.— Briefly, the experiments have 
been conducted according to the following plan: The animals 
were accustomed to laboratory surroundings by being kept in 
cages from one to two days before any observations were made. 
The normal temperature curve of each animal was then estab- 
lished by rectal temperature, taken every half hour from 8 or 
9 a. M. until 3 or 4 Pp. M., the time to be covered by subsequent 
experiments. As it seemed probable that the sodium bicar- 
bonate salt solution used as the solvent for hematin might pro- 
duce some toxic manifestations when injected intravenously, 
the action of this solution was determined in a number of in- 
stances, usually in such doses as were subsequently to be admin- 
istered with the hematin. While these control tests were 
usually made prior to the injection of hematin, some such tests 
followed the administration of hematin. The animals were 
next given intravenous injections of alkaline hematin at 8 or 
9 a. M., and the resulting phenomena were noted, the tempera- 
ture being taken as previously, although fifteen-minute obser- 
vations were frequently made. 

Dose of Hematin.—It is evident that the question of dosage 
in such a series of experiments is one of prime importance. To 
carry out the object of these experiments it is quite essential 
that the dose of hematin employed be somewhat comparable 
to that liberated into the human circulation at the time of seg- 
mentation of a generation of parasites. While there is no evi- 
dence to show that all the hemoglobin of the infected red cor- 
puscles is decomposed to form hematin, if we may assume 
that such is the case, and, further, that a 1 to 5 per cent. 
infection of red blood corpuscles is not uncommon, we have 
sufficient data upon which to base a calculation of the approx- 


100 JourNAL oF THE Mircuett Society [December 


imate amount of hematin liberated into the human host with 
the segmentation of a given generation of parasites. Basing 
our calculations on the presence of 8.5 grams of hemoglobin 
per kilo of body weight, and 4.47 per cent. of hematin in hem- 
oglobin,? we find that in a 1 per cent. infection of the red blood 
paepuscles approximately 3.7 milligrams of hematin per kilo 
of body weight would be erated In my experiments the 
dosage has paved from 1.3 milligrams to 28 milligrams per 
kilo of body weight, given in single or in divided doses, corres- 
ponding roughly to an infection of 0.3 to 7.5 per cent. of the 
red blood corpuscles. 

Normal Temperature of the Rabbit—In undertaking an 
investigation which must necessarily deal so largely with varia- 
tions a the temperature of the experimental animal, it is im- 


PABST 
ne ee let ge 
CREE. ARSASRrare cane 


Bt BS a ee 
ris Ita lalla let elt ee 
Li | [Nbrimat freinderatbre | TT TT TT | 
ERERERG RE ORES 


Text-Fic. 1. Normal temperature of four rabbits during the period of 
the experiments. 

perative that the basis of comparison between normal and 

abnormal fluctuations of temperature be as free from objection 

as possible. Unfortunately, the temperature of different rabbits 


2Olof Hammarsten, A Text Book of Physiological Chemistry, translated by 
Mandel, New York, 1901, p. 139. These figures are probably high. 


1912] Mavarrat Piement 1n Mararrat Paroxysm 101 


varies widely, even when kept under exactly the same condi- 
tions. In apparently normal animals I have found the individ- 
ual extremes between 98° and 103° F. Likewise, the fluctua- 
tions of temperature in a given animal may be quite consid- 
erable, but usually follow a fairly definite course. 

The course and fluctuations of temperature of the normal 
rabbit under experimental conditions, as well as the individual 
difference in temperatures, are shown in text-figure 1. This 
chart shows the normal temperatures recorded for rabbits 15, 
16, 17, and 18. The first three animals were from the same 
litter, about three-quarters grown, and weighed 1,600 to 1,700 
grams. Number 18 was full grown and weighed 1,840 grams. 
All the records were taken at the same time and all conditions 
were as nearly alike as possible. While three of these curves 
coincide closely, the fourth shows an extremely low and irreg- 
ular curve of temperature. It should be noted that the temper- 
ature in all instances has a downward trend during the morning 
hours, and does not show an upward tendency until about noon, 
when there is a gradual rise, which ultimately reaches as high 
as the temperature at the first observation or even higher. This 
temperature curve has been fairly constant in my entire series 
of experiments. 

Effect of Hematin upon Temperature.—lIf, for purposes of 
comparison, we adopt the classical division of the malarial par- 
oxysm into a cold stage, a hot stage, and a stage of sweating, 
with the concomitant symptoms belonging to each, certain of 
these manifestations are capable of accurate measurements in 
an experimental animal, while others may be determined with 
a fair degree of accuracy by close observations, and still others 
are wholly indeterminable. Of prime importance among these 
phenomena of the malarial paroxysm is the question of fever. 

In estimating the temperature effects, in all instances at least 
three facts are to be taken into consideration: the nature of 
the effect, the degree of the effect, and the duration of the 
effect. While it has been possible to assemble much of the data 
concerning the effects of hematin upon the temperature in an 
appended table which shows the abbreviated protocols of the 


102 JOURNAL OF THE MircHett Sociery [December 


entire series of experiments, it must be fully appreciated that 
such tabulations of statistics are wholly inadequate to present 
many features of the experiments that are equally as important 
as those thus presented, and attention will be especially directed 
to such features. Further, as can be seen from these tables, it 
has been the object of the author to study effects in individual 
animals with a variety of doses, as occasion suggested, rather 
than to mould all the experiments to a single type or plan, for 
it became evident early in this investigation that individual 
peculiarities of the animals played a prominent réle in the re- 
sults obtained. 

Without exception, every dose of hematin administered has 
elicited a definite temperature response. With but three excep- 
tions, this response has been characterized by a sharp rise in 
temperature, reaching the fastigium in about an hour and a 


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TrxT-Fic. 2. The usual types of temperature curve following injections 
of hematin. 

quarter. The further course was somewhat variable, although 

in most cases with a dose of 15 milligrams, or less, per kilo, 

there was a rather sharp fall of temperature for thirty minutes 


1912| Mavarrat Piement 1x Mararran ParoxysM 103 


to one hour, followed by a secondary rise of variable extent and 
duration or a very gradual decline requiring several hours to 
reach normal again. Two such temperature curves are shown 
in text-figure 2. 

These curves are subject to innumerable variations depending 
upon the dose, the stage of the experiment, and upon the indi- 
vidual peculiarities of animals. Some of the more important 
variations are an accentuation and prolongation of the secon- 
dary rise, usually shown with initial and large doses, or a 
defervesence that is almost as sharp as the rise in temperature. 
A third variation, which includes the three exceptions previ- 
ously noted, is met with in instances of marked intoxication 
and is characterized by an initial drop in temperature with a 
subsequent rise. All three of these modifications are illus- 
trated in text-figure 3. 


i! 
oat | fait | TV TTT Tt 
. S2 SRR RRR RENAE 
Jy 2S GEM RES BEAR ee a 
SSE LUTE 


ECO PLAE | 
PPA PSPS Ts eee ode oN iBeaD sc BU 
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Siete (CCE iectop fe inject te 


TExt-Fic. 3. Variations in the temperature curve following large doses 
of hematin or repeated injections of hematin. 


104 JOURNAL OF THE Mircuett Society [December 


The extent of the temperature elevation is, within certain 
limits, proportional to the amount of hematin injected. The 
temperature effect, being very slight with small doses, increases 
with the dose, until we begin to obtain signs of an over-intox- 
ication when the elevation may be much less than with smaller 
doses, the optimum dose usually being between 10 and 15 
milligrams per kilo of body weight. The elevation of temper- 
ature obtained with such optimum doses is from 3° to 3.5° F., 
and it is exceptional that a greater rise is reached. Occasion- 
ally, however, the temperature may rise 4° F. or even higher 
in highly susceptible animals. The greatest elevation recorded 
in my series of experiments was 4.9° F. in animal No. 9, with 
a dose of 18 milligrams of hematin per kilo. 

In well-marked reactions, the temperature usually returns 
to within the normal range in the course of three to five hours. 
With large or initial injections of hematin, the period of 
elevated temperature is more prolonged than under other 
circumstances and seldom reaches normal in less than four 
hours, occasionally requiring as much as six hours. Excep- 
tionally, the return to normal may be rapid (text-figure 3). 


The method of administration also plays an important part 
in the results. A given dose of hematin injected in two or three 
fractional doses at intervals of fifteen to thirty minutes produces 
a much more marked elevation of temperature than when given 
at a single injection, an effect that is well shown in rabbit 13. 
This is particularly true of the smaller, or optimum doses, 
while with larger doses the increased potency may be man- 
ifested by a slowing of the rise of temperature, a cessation of 
the rise, or even a fall upon the injection of the second fraction, 
as illustrated in rabbit 12. 

Neither the source of the hematin nor the type of solution 
seems to play an important part in the results that I have ob- 
tained. That is, there has been but slight difference between 
the action of rabbit, dog, or ox hematin, or between the action 
of the perfectly clear hematin solution and that containing 
much finely divided hematin in suspension. 

However, a few tests seem to indicate that solutions of hem- 


1912] Mavariat Piement 1n Marariat ParoxysM 105 


atin gradually lose their pyrogenic properties with age or when 
subjected to high and prolonged temperature. This apparent 
decrease may be seen by comparing the results obtained in 
rabbit 7, injection 8, and rabbits 8, 10, and 11. Further, it 
can readily be imagined that all animals will not be found 
equally susceptible to the toxic action of hematin. A few will 
exhibit a marked sensitiveness and a few will be found ex- 
tremely resistant, the optimum dose in the one producing but 
slight effect in the other. This variation in susceptibility was 
strikingly illustrated by animals 13 and 14 which were under 
observation at the same time. Rabbit 13 was a typically resist- 
ant animal, and rabbit 14 was highly sensitive. 

Effect of Sodium Bicarbonate Salt Solution upon the Tem- 
perature.—Animals injected with the bicarbonate salt solution 
alone, for purposes of control, almost invariably showed an 
elevation of temperature in proportion to the size of the dose, 
and about one-third to one-half the elevation produced with an 
equal amount of hematin solution, depending somewhat upon 
the concentration of the hematin in the solution. With small 
doses of the control medium, the fluctuations of temperature 
were usually within what might be termed the normal range 
and were such that it is difficult to say whether they are more 
than incidental to the process of injection. Large doses may 
produce a rise in temperature corresponding approximately 
to the over-intoxicating effect of large doses of hematin. In 
such instances, however, other features of the clinical picture 
will distinguish sharply between the two cases. In all instances, 
therefore, there were distinct differences between the action 
of the sodium bicarbonate salt solution and the action of the 
hematin solution, such that there can be no question as to the 
part played by the hematin in these experiments. 

Other Phenomena of the Hematin Paroxysm.—Apart from 
the elevation of temperature in the experimental animal, the 
paroxysm of hematin intoxication’ presents other features 
which are of equal importance and show a strong resemblance 
to corresponding phenomena of the malarial paroxysm. For 
the first fifteen to twenty minutes following the injection of 


106 JOURNAL OF THE Mitcuett Society [December 


hematin, the rabbit usually manifests a slight degree of rest- 
lessness, then crouches in a corner of the cage. In the second 
stage of the paroxysm the vessels of the ears contract giving to 
the shaved ears a pale and cyanotic hue, while at the same time 
the ears become decidedly cold. In pronounced cases the surface 
temperature (temperature of the ears) may be more than 30° 
F. below the rectal temperature. The lowest temperature re- 
corded in this series of experiments was 63.5° F. with 
a room temperature of 62.5° F., and a rectal temperature 
of 105° F. During this stage the animal’s ears usually 
lie on its back, and the hair tends to become erect, pre- 
senting the picture of an animal that is cold. Meanwhile, the 
rabbit shows convulsive tremors or shivering, but rarely any 
continued or pronounced shaking. ‘This stage of chill lasts 
from forty-five minutes to one hour, and is terminated rather 
abruptly by a dilation of the superficial vessels, the ears rapidly 
becoming flushed and hot. The animal now moves about the 
cage or stretches out and remains quiet. Further than this, 
the third or hot stage of the paroxysm possesses no especial 
symptoms and its limit can be fixed only by the course of the 
temperature, which may remain well above normal for several 
hours, or sink to normal within an hour. During the third 
stage and the latter part of the second stage of the paroxysm 
the animal shows a pronounced thirst which is undoubtedly 
referable to the febrile condition. 

The most striking and at the same time the most constant 
of all these symptoms are the contraction and dilatation of the 
superficial vessels associated with the corresponding lowering 
and elevation of the surface temperature. 

The contrast between the symptoms of the animal injected 
with hematin and those of control animals is quite as sharp as 
in the instance of the temperatures. With doses of hematin 
sufficiently large to produce pronounced symptoms of the type 
described, corresponding doses of sodium bicarbonate salt solu- 
tion produce practically no recognizable effect. There may be 
a suggestive or very transient change in the surface vessels and 
the temperature, but nothing that is definite or constant. When, 


1912| Mavarrat Prement 1n Mararrat Paroxysm 107 


however, larger doses, e. g., ten cubic centimeters per kilo, are 
given, phenomena simulating the picture of hematin intoxica- 
tion may be elicited, but the changes are not so definite or con- 
stant. 

If now we correlate these symptoms with the temperature 
curve, we find that the elevation of temperature during the first 
stage is slight, and that the second stage of the paroxysm cor- 
responds closely with the period of rising temperature, the in- 
itial drop coinciding sharply with the vascular dilatation and 
flushing of the ears and the elevation of the surface temper- 
ature. The third or hot stage, as previously noted, corresponds 
to the duration of the temperature above normal. 

As in the case of the temperature, all other phenomena of 
hematin intoxication seem to be exaggerated when a given dose 
of hematin is divided into several fractional doses, the cycle 
of phenomena following closely consequent changes in the tem- 
perature curve. 

It must be pointed out, however, that the prominence of 
these paroxysmal phenomena and the degree of elevation of the 
temperature are by no means always parallel. The toxic par- 
oxysmal phenomena may be present to a high degree in an ani- 
mal that shows only a slight elevation of temperature, and in 
most instances such a condition is to be regarded as evidence 
of over-intoxication. 

Acquired Resistance.—Early in the course of these experi- 
ments it became evident that repeated injections of a given dose 
of hematin in the same animal did not give uniform results. 
The results, however, were of such a nature as to suggest that 
the animal acquired a certain degree of tolerance which, in 
turn, might be broken when the intoxication was pushed suffi- 
ciently. ‘To determine this point the following experiment was 
carried out. 


Experiment——Four rabbits, weighing respectively 1,600, 1,650, 1,790, and 
1,840 grams, were injected on ten successive days with a solution of ox 
hematin containing 5 mg. of hematin to I cc. The first two animals 
received 10 mg. of hematin per kilo of body weight, and the other two 
received 15 mg. per kilo. Rectal temperatures were recorded every half 
hour. 


The results are shown in text-figure 4. In a is shown the 


108 JOURNAL OF THE Mircuett Socrety [December 


differences of elevation of temperature on successive days 
of the two animals receiving ten milligrams per kilo, and in b 
those receiving fifteen milligrams per kilo. 


| [Day [1 [21 3]4| 5/6] 7] 8|9lio} i [2131 4] 5/6) 7/ 8/9 h19) 
Ene Sea = 


E 
mo] | tRabyit] [te] [et (Rabbit Tiber | 
SSRERRRSESE SERRE Sane 


TEXT-FIG. 4. Variations in the elevation of the temperature with repeated 
injections of a given does of hematin. 


While the curve of temperature reaction in each case is 
extremely irregular, it is in general characterized by a tend- 
ency towards a decrease, which in the instance of animals 16 
and 17 persists throughout the experiment. With animals 15 
and 18, however, a second phase of increased reaction is devel- 
oped. These animals also exhibited the most marked sympto- 
matic effects throughout the experiment. If the temperature 
curve alone be considered, it is certain that the tendency is 
toward a decreasing response to successive injections of hem- 
atin, and this I have found to be true in other experiments. If 
we take into consideration other evidence of intoxication, 
however, as in animals 15 and 18, this decrease seems referable 
not so much to a tolerance as to over-intoxication. Again, as 
these symptoms of intoxication decrease and the fluctuations 
of temperature increase correspondingly, there may be devel- 
oped a certain degree of tolerance. On the other hand, as 
shown in animals 16 and 17, there may be an increasing resist- 
ance to the hematin from the start as the toxic symptoms as 
well as the temperature decrease proportionally. 


1912] Mavariat Piement in Mararrat Paroxysm 109 


This subject of acquired tolerance has been taken up largely 
to emphasize the importance to be attached to results obtained 
from properly adjusted initial doses of hematin, but also to 
explain the apparent discrepancies in the results from any 
series of hematin injections. It is the initial injection, with 
but few exceptions, that gives the maximum temperature reac- 
tion obtainable with a given dose of hematin until the series 
of injections has been extended to such a degree as to permit 
of the acquirement of a tolerance in highly susceptible animals 
or to cause a break in the early acquired tolerance of more 
resistant animals. When such conditions supervene, the tem- 
perature reaction may again increase and show an even greater 
response than with the initial injection (table I, animals 9 
and 18). 


SUMMARY. 


The paroxysm of hematin intoxication in the rabbit un- 
doubtedly presents many features of striking similarity to the 
paroxysm of human malaria; still one must hesitate to apply 
such results unreservedly in an attempt to identify the causative 
agent of the malarial paroxysm. When, in addition to the 
character of the paroxysm, we consider the sequence of events 
in the two instances, the analogy becomes so close that it seems 
impossible to regard the matter as a mere coincidence. The 
injection of hematin, especially in fractional doses, is in a 
measure comparable to the liberation of hematin into the 
human circulation by the malarial parasite. In these experi- 
ments, both solution and finely divided suspensions of hematin 
have been found equally effective in eliciting the phenomena 
of the paroxysm, and while it seems possible that a portion of 
the malarial pigment might be dissolved in the alkaline human 
serum, such an assumption is probably not essential. 

It might be objected that the toxic action of foreign hematin 
thus injected into the circulation would probably be greater 
than that of hematin derived from an animal’s own blood, but 
as far as I have been able to determine, this objection does not 
seem valid, as rabbit hematin, dog hematin, and ox hematin 


JOURNAL OF THE MitcHett Society [December 


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116 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHett Society [December 


produce in the rabbit effects that are alike in both character 
and degree. 

The dose of hematin remains as the one factor to which it 
is possible to attach some degree of uncertainty, but even here 
the author feels that the range of experimental conditions has 
been kept within the bounds of legitimate analogy with condi- 
tions existing in the human subject of malarial infection. 

Finally, the most conservative estimate of the value of such 
experiments points strongly to the fact that we have at least a 
potentially toxic substance in the pigment hematin as liberated 
by the malarial parasite into the circulation of the human host. 

There is also abundant evidence to show that the action of 
hematin is not confined to the paroxysmal phenomena of ma- 
laria, but that other features of the disease may find their ex- 
planation in the action of this pigment. For the present, how- 
ever, it seems advisable to confine the discussion to this one 
phase of the question. 

CONCLUSIONS. 


1. Alkaline hematin in doses commensurate with the 
amounts of hematin liberated in the human circulation by the 
segmentation of the malarial parasite, produces, when injected 
intravenously into the rabbit, a paroxysm which is character- 
ized by a short prodromal stage, a stage of chill and rising tem- 
perature, and a hot stage. In their details the phases of this 
paroxysm are practically identical with the corresponding ones 
in the paroxysm of human malaria. 

2. The phenomena in human beings infected with malaria 
are, at least in part, directly referable to the toxic action of 
this malarial pigment. 

University oF NortH CAROLINA. 


hr, vogh 


THE PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF THE 
NAVAL STORES INDUSTRY.* 


By Cuas. H. Herry. 


The limited use of the oleoresinous exudate of pine trees 
dates back many centuries, but the real beginning of an indus- 
try on a large scale is closely associated with the discovery of 
the vast pine forests which extend along the southeastern and 
southern coasts of the United States from North Carolina to 
Texas. 

These forests lie chiefly in the coastal plain and in the slightly 
hilly country between the Piedmont plateau and the coastal 
plain, a strip varying in width from one hundred to two hun- 
dred miles and characterized by a sandy soil, covered for the 
most part with “ wire-grass,” this furnishing a beautiful carpet 
of green in spring and summer, but making a serious fire risk in 
winter. The longleaf pine readily sheds its lower limbs, espe- 
cially in close stands, so that the forests are remarkably open 
and free from that undergrowth, which, in the northwest, leads 
to such destructive forest fires. 

The early settlers in eastern North Carolina began the exploi- 
tation of their forests of longleaf pine for the purpose of pro- 
viding tar and pitch for use in the construction of wooden ships, 
and gradually extended their operations to the collection of crude 
turpentine which was shipped to northern cities or England for 
distillation. The forests covered the entire territory and, as 
clearings for farms were needed, destructive methods of opera- 
tion were welcomed and encouraged. 

At the same time limited operations were being conducted 
upon the maritime pine in southwestern France between Bor- 
deaux and Bayonne. To receive the crude turpentine the 
French made use of a hole dug in the sand at the base of the 
tree. The oleoresin flowing from the wound on the trunk above 
was collected in these holes. Necessarily by this method much 
of the material was wasted and rendered impure. 


* Reprinted from Original Communications, Eighth International Congress of 
Applied Chemistry. Vol. XII, p. 101. 


118 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHett Society [December 


AMERICAN METHOD OF COLLECTION. 


In North Carolina the method of collection was improved, 
or thought to be improved, by cutting a large opening, the 
“ box,” in the base of the tree. Into this box the crude turpen- 
tine flowed and was collected at regular intervals. The con- 
servative character of the men engaged in this industry led to 
the continuance of this wasteful and destructive method of 
“ boxing ”’ until the very recent past. 

Briefly, the method of operating so long in use in the United 
States is as follows: In the winter the laborers are engaged in 
cutting “ boxes.” Each box is then “ cornered,” a wide chip 
being removed from each half of the box to provide a surface 
suitable for directing the flow of crude turpentine to the box. 
Meanwhile, other laborers are employed in clearing all com- 
bustible material from around each tree, “raking.” Ground 
fires are then started to consume the dead wire grass, chips, 
etc. With the opening of spring “chipping” begins. This 
consists in scarifying each week the trunk of the tree above the 
“cornered” surface by means of a “ hack,” a U shaped steel 
tool set in a wooden handle. Attached to this handle is a heavy 
iron weight to give momentum to the free arm swing used in 
chipping. After four or five weeks the “ boxes” average a good 
filling and the crude turpentine, “dip,” is then transferred to 
buckets by flat, iron paddles, and from the buckets it is col- 
lected in barrels conveniently placed in the woods. In the fall, 
at the end of the chipping season, the hardened oleoresin, which 
which has gradually collected during the chipping season on the 
scarified surface of the tree, is removed by scraping, giving thus 
the name “scrape” to this product, which is sold as “ Gum 
Thus,” or distilled. In the following winter the trees are again 
raked and the grass fired, and in the spring chipping is resumed 
at the point on the trunk of each tree where it ceased the pre- 
vious year. This cycle is usually continued from three to four 
years, although in early days it was often continued ten or 
twelve years, the scarified surface extending high on the trunks. 
Necessarily the yield from such high chipping was largely de- 
creased, owing to the increased distance of flow to the receptacle. 


1912 | Ture Navat Stores [npustry 119 


In the early days of the North Carolina industry, no effort 
was made to distill the product, but gradually it became clear 
that it would be better to separate the crude turpentine into 
spirits of turpentine and rosin by distillation in the woods. 
For this purpose iron stills were used at first, but results were 
unsatisfactory until the introduction of copper stills, which 
were less liable to crack and could be heated with greater uni- 
formity and better control. 

The industry now began to grow rapidly and before many 
years it was found that the supply of available timber in North 
Carolina was rapidly decreasing. This led many of the opera- 
tors to transfer their operations to the virgin forests of the ad- 
joining state of South Carolina, where the same destructive 
methods were applied by the same men or their descendants. In 
this way, and for these reasons, the center of the industry has 
gradually moved southward and then westward as evidenced by 
the relative prominence of the ports for exports of the pro- 
ducts; first Wilmington, N.C., then Charleston, S.C., then 
Savannah, Ga., and now the latter, together with Jacksonville, 
Fla., and the gulf ports, Tampa, Fla., Pensacola, Fla., Mobile, 
Ala., Gulfport, Miss., New Orleans, La., and others. 


FRENCH IMPROVEMENTS. 


The steady growth of the American industry received a seri- 
ous check during the Civil War. The consequent scarcity of 
the products was accompanied by an abnormal increase in their 
value. This enhanced valuation led Hugues, a Frenchman, to 
propose a less wasteful method for the French forests than the 
hole dug in the sand. He proposed as a substitute a clay pot, 
holding about one pint. The pot was supported on its bottom 
by a large nail driven into the tree and on one side of its upper 
rim by a strip of sheet zinc, approximately 2” x 4”, slightly 
curved and driven into a correspondingly upwardly inclined cut 
in the wood. This spout served to direct the oleoresin into the 
pot. At first his proposition was scoffed at and the peasants 
amused themselves by breaking the little pots. It is a pitiful 


120 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHett Society [December 


commentary that Hugues died in poverty; but his ideas lived 
and gradually became adopted in France. 


AMERICAN IMPROVEMENTS. 


As the knowledge of the new method in France spread to this 
country, numerous efforts were made to apply similar forms of 
apparatus to the American system of chipping, but for many 
years such efforts failed. No less than fifteen patents were 
issued in the United States on this subject, but no one of them 
proved a commercial success. 

Eleven years ago the writer began a series of field experi- 
ments on a small scale in the turpentine forests of South Geor- 
gia. One feature of these experiments was the use of a mod- 
_ ification of the Hugues system, consisting of two separate metal- 
lic gutters, inserted in upwardly inclined cuts in the tree, along 
which the oleoresin flows. The upper and shorter gutter is 
separated at its lower end about one inch from the lower gutter 
and empties into it. The lower gutter extends from two to three 
inches beyond the center of the angular scarified surface formed 
in chipping, and serves as a spout to convey the oleoresin to a 
cup suspended from a nail just below the end of the gutter. 
These cups are made either of well burned clay or galvanized 
iron, and have a capacity of one quart. 

Attracted by the promising character of these preliminary 
experiments, the U. S. Bureau of Forestry began a series of 
field tests of the apparatus on a large scale, the work being 
under the immediate supervision of the writer. Before the end 
of the first season of testing it was evident that the apparatus 
was a practical success, and the results attained, both as to 
quantity and quality of oleoresin, justified the hope of immedi- 
ate commercial introduction of the system. But the habits of 
long years made difficult the adoption of such ‘an innovation. 
This ultra-conservatism was slowly overcome and the adoption 
of the new system spread rapidly. Only a few more years will 
be required to witness the complete replacement of the “ box ” 
by the “ cup ” system in American forests. A detailed account 


a ae 


1912] Tue Nava Srores Inpustry 121 


of these experiments is given in Bulletin No. 40 and Circular 
No. 34 of the U. S. Bureau of Forestry. 

With the main points at issue settled, namely—improved 
yields both in quantity and quality of the products and preser- 
vation of the trees, other forms of apparatus were devised to 
meet the objections of some of the operators to certain points in 
the cup and gutter system. Many of these have never proved 
practical, but some have been introduced on a considerable com- 
mercial scale. 

The successful outcome of the experiments on the relative 
yields from the “box” and the “cup” system led the United 
States Forest Service to further experiments in more conserva- 
tive treatment of the trees in chipping. Comparative studies 
were made of the yield from deep and shallow chipping and the 
latter found to give the greater yield during a period of four 
years of operation. Other experiments showed that a less rapid 
rate of ascent of the trunk also gave larger yields, and experi- 
ments combining these several modifications of present practices 
showed a largely increased yield. A final set of experiments 
pointed clearly the rational way to a perpetuation of the naval 
stores industry in America. The details of this investigation 
are given in Bulletin No. 90 of the United States Forest 
Service. 

DISTILLATION. 


In the matter of distillation, only slight advances have been 
made in America. The uniform process consists in the use of a 
large copper kettle and condensing worm. The charge for a 
distillation averages nine to ten barrels of crude turpentine. 
The kettle is heated by free fiame and during the distillation a 
small stream of hot water from the top of the condenser tub is 
admitted through an opening in the upper part of the kettle, 
thus facilitating the removal of the volatile oil. The condensed 
spirits of turpentine and water separate in the receiver, owing 
to difference in specific gravity, and the lighter spirits of tur- 
pentine is transferred to oak barrels, well coated with glue on 
the inside. No effort is made to redistill this product, and it 
always comes upon the market contaminated by a small amount 


122 JOURNAL OF THE Mitcuett Society [December 


of resin carried over mechanically during distillation. After 
most of the volatile oil has passed off, the still cap is removed, 
excess water in the kettle boiled off, and the molten rosin drawn 
off through a tap in the bottom of the kettle onto a coarse wire 
filter, then through a second filter of fine mesh wire overlaid 
with cotton batting. The molten rosin is then dipped into 
wooden barrels luted with clay and solidifies on cooling. In 
this condition it is shipped to market. 

The usual method of controlling the distillation is by the 
sound heard at the mouth of the condenser worm. Within the 
past three years a number of American operators have substi- 
tuted for this method that of thermometer control with very 
excellent results. 

In France, much more progress has been made in the art of 
distillation. Among the French distilleries there are three dis- 
tinct types: first, a system closely resembling the American; 
second, distillation solely by steam in steam jacketed vessels; 
and third, a mixed system in which there is direct contact of 
fire with the kettle during the first stage of the distillation, then 
replacement of this by mixed injection of steam and hot water. 
By this means, a constant temperature is maintained, enabling 
the complete removal of all spirits of turpentine without danger 
of scorching the rosin. 

It can be readily understood that in France, under proper 
methods of forestry, with conservative tapping of the trees and 
provision for systematic reforestration, a distillery can look 
forward to a permanent supply of raw material. Hence there is 
justification for the more costly plants and more efficient meth- 
ods of distillation; but in America, where under past methods 
the industry shifts so rapidly, so great an outlay of capital for 
this purpose would not be justified. There is no doubt that with 
an excellent “ stiller” very good results can be obtained under 
the American system, but the personal element of the stiller 
enters into the question and this could be easily avoided without 
any great outlay of capital by adopting the French system of 
mixed injection. 

Quite recently M. Castets has erected near Dax, France, a 


1912] Tue Navau Srores [npustry 123 


distillery which combines the features of continuous distillation 
in a partial vacuum and condensation by pressure of the waste 
spirits of turpentine vapors from the ordinary condenser in a 
second condenser attached to the first, thus increasing notably 
the yield of volatile oil and improving the quality of the rosin. 


THE INDUSTRY IN OTHER COUNTRIES. 


There is no need of any especial consideration of the Spanish 
industry, which has developed considerably during the past 
decade. The operations are essentially the same as the French, 
and the same species of pine, Pinus Maritima, is exploited. 

In Austria the industry is more limited and is even more de- 
structive than by the old American system; a “ box” being cut 
in the base of the tree, Pinus Laricio, and the trunk of the tree 
scarified for at least fifty per cent. of its circumference, the 
oleoresin being directed towards the center of the scarified sur- 
face by thin wooden strips inserted in downward cuts in 
the tree. 

In Russia the chief tree exploited is Pinus Sylvestris. Cli- 
matic conditions do not admit of the usual process of collecting 
the crude turpentine at regular intervals. Instead, the trees 
are scarified in the spring over a space about three feet high 
and almost encircling the tree. During the year a mass of hard- 
ened rosin collects on this surface. In the winter it is scraped 
from the tree and distilled for its volatile oil and resin. This 
process is repeated for five years. The tree is then felled and 
the rosinous portion of the tree subjected to destructive distilla- 
tion. In other districts no effort is made to collect the rosin 
from the trees annually, but this is allowed to remain until the 
end of the fifth year of scarification. The tree is then felled 
and that part containing the rosin distilled first at a low tem- 
perature to obtain the volatile oil, then at a more elevated tem- 
perature to obtain tar and charcoal by destructive distillation 
of the wood. 

The spirits of turpentine from Germany, Sweden, and Fin- 
land, seems to be a product solely of the destructive distillation 
of resinous wood. 


124 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHett Society [December 


The production of naval stores in India and other tropical 
countries is at present on too small a commercial scale to call 
for any detailed discussion here. 


WOOD SPIRITS OF TURPENTINE. 


Among the various departments of the naval stores industry 
in America none has had a more varied and interesting career 
_ than that of the production of ‘‘ wood spirits of turpentine” by 
destructive distillation of resinous wood. Years ago consider- 
able capital was invested in plants for utilizing the by-products 
formed during the destructive distillation of “ fat lightwood.” 
None of the plants were commercially successful and for awhile 
nothing was heard of the industry. But with the increase in 
price of spirits of turpentine resulting from the formation of 
the Turpentine Operators Association in 1902 a fresh impetus 
was given to the “ wood spirits of turpentine” industry. At 
first. somewhat crude methods of destructive distillation were 
advocated, and as the promoters of this industry appealed 
largely to local interest in having stumps for distillation re- 
moved from fields suitable for cultivation, a double impetus was 
received. Much enthusiasm was aroused, and a number of 
plants constructed. But the industry received a serious blow in 
the refusal of the varnish makers to use the impure “ wood 
spirits of turpentine” manufactured, by the failure to find a 
market for many of the heavier oils and the coke, and by the 
destruction by fire of many of the improperly constructed 
plants. 

The price of spirits of turpentine continued to rise and led to 
the development of the steam extraction process for manufac- 
ture of wood spirits of turpentine. After thorough grinding, 
the wood is treated in iron retorts with steam, and the volatile 
oil distilled, no effort being made to obtain any other product. 
By one redistillation of the product a very high grade spirits of 
turpentine is obtained, equal, if not superior, to that from the 
living tree. Unfortunately, the yield is not sufficiently large to 
make the process remunerative. 

Quite a different process is employed by those plants which 


LOR Oe 


** woh eet =,” -,. 


omme IM « 


1912| Tue Nava Stores [npusTRY 125 


utilize a bath of molten rosin for removal of the spirits of tur- 
pentine from the wood, with subsequent distillation of the vola- 
tile oil from this bath. Such plants seem to have met with a 
fair measure of success. 

More recently extraction processes have been developed 
which employ low boiling petroleum products as the extractive. 
Such plants recover both the spirits of turpentine and the rosin 
from the ground wood, and have a great advantage in the pres- 
ent very high value of rosin. These plants are also utilizing the 
refuse from the straining of rosin at the distilleries in the woods, 
a product formerly burned on the waste piles, but now bringing 
nineteen dollars per ton. This method is adding a considerable 
amount to the annual output of rosin. 

The most recent development is a plant for destructive dis- 
tillation of wood in retorts heated by jackets filled with high 
boiling petroleum fractions. By this means a fire risk is prac- 
tically completely eliminated and the results indicate that by 
means of the complete and ready temperature control of the oil 
jacket larger yields of better products can be obtained. 


ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF NAVAL STORES. 


No subject connected with the naval stores industry admits 
of so little accuracy of statement as does that of statistics on 
the total annual production. The most careful estimates are at 
best only approximations. This is unfortunate, for in the past 
it has frequently led to speculative manipulations of the market 
and the temporary establishment of values which had no legiti- 
mate basis depending on supply and demand. 

The following table of annual production is given therefore, 
as an approximation only, but it is believed to be a reasonably 
accurate approximation: 


126 JOURNAL OF THE MircHett Socrety [December 


Spirits of Turpentine 


Rosin 
(barrels 52 gallons)| (barrels 500 lbs.) 


JATNIETACA A eA). fae a thos abioone 600,000 2,100,000 
ETAnGerry re: see PSs a eee 100,000 350,000 
DANS oes. week ee aa% 25,000 87,500 
JRUSUTID «cee ere oe . 3,000 10,500 
Other countries ok 50,000 (?) (?) 


Total estimated production . . 778,000 2,548,000 


PRODUCTION OF CRUDE TURPENTINE PER TREE. 


Here again definite figures are difficult to give, for there is 
no reliable information concerning the number of trees in opera- 
tion. Furthermore, there is often very wide variation in the 
producing power of adjacent trees of the same species, size, and 
crown. But from the data in the publications of the United 
States Forest Service, an average American pine, worked under 
the cup system, will produce, during four years of operation, an 
annual average of ten pounds of crude turpentine and two and 
a half pounds of “scrape,” the proportionate yield being con- 
siderably greater during the first and second than during the 
third and fourth years of operation. 

The average daily flow of crude turpentine during one week 
from a freshly chipped surface on such pines is shown in the 
following table, the results having been obtained during the 
summer of 1901 on trees near Statesboro, Georgia: 


Yield per tree (grams) Average Per eeu 
—— avera ee 
Day 1 2 3 (grams) ? 
1 113.0 46.5 89.0 82.8 62.9 
2 22.5 7.5 16.0 15.3 11.6 
3 13.5 6.5 16.0 12.0 9.1 
4 9.0 5.0 17.0 7.0 5.3 
5&6 9.0 5.0 23.0 12.3 9.3 
i 1.0 2.0 4.0 2.3 1.8 
Total 168.0 (GD 165.0 1S 100.0 


1912] Tue Navat Stores Inpustry 127 


Tscuircu’s Views on Resin Fitow 


As to the seat of resin production and cause of resin flow, 
most valuable and important views have been advanced by 
Prof. A. Tschirch in his book “ Die Harze und die Harzbehal- 
ter,” 2nd edition. Tschirch has shown that the seat of resin 
production is a mucilaginous layer lining the inner walls of 
the resin ducts. These ducts he divides into two classes: First 
—primary ducts, whose resin is to be considered a true physio- 
logical product. Such ducts oceur irregularly and in varying 
number in any pine. They play only an insignificant role as 
producers of commerical crude turpentine. Second—secondary 
resin ducts which form in large numbers in the outer layers of 
the new wood after a tree is wounded, both above and below the 
wound. Their oleoresinous exudate is, therefore, a patho- 
logical product. It is from such pathological ducts that the 
great bulk of crude turpentine is obtained. 

The application of these views to practical problems in the 
turpentine forests has already yielded important and fruitful 
results. 


FuTURE OF THE INDUSTRY 


During the past few years the statement has frequently been 
made that from present indications the naval stores industry 
must cease to exist, at least as a large industry, within the next 
twenty years. While it is true that there are danger signals 
which must be heeded, such pessimistic views do not seem to be 
well grounded. 

Certainly in France and consequently in Spain, where the 
same system is in operation, the industry has been placed upon 
a self-perpetuating basis. 

In America we have been prodigal with our wealth of virgin 
forest. 

But it must be remembered that until the last decade these 
forests have had a very low commercial valuation. The average 
price for well timbered lands in our southern states not many 
years ago was approximately one dollar per acre, land, timber, 
and all. Indeed, the popular term applied to all holders of 


128 JOURNAL OF THE Mitcuett Society [December 


large tracts of such lands was “land poor,” as expense of taxa- 
tion, protection, ete., exceeded any hope of probable profit. 
This condition was largely due to lack of transportation facili- 
ties, insecurity of title, low price of naval stores and lumber, 
lack of knowledge of the farming value of much of the land on 
which these forests stood, and the belief that the forests were 
inexhaustible. 

Now conditions have entirely changed. Railroads penetrate 
every portion of the territory, titles have been cleared, prices of 
naval stores have brought wealth to the operators, the lumber- 
men from Michigan, Wisconsin, and other northern states 
have turned from the rapidly disappearing white pine forests of 
the north to those of the southern yellow pine; where forests 
once stood farms have been developed which surpass in fertility 
any other portion of the southern states, and a clear knowledge 
has been gained that the forests are by no means inexhaustible. 
Furthermore, the spirit of conservation of natural resources has 
made itself felt in this field as well as in those of minerals, 
water power, etc. 

The consequence of these changes has been a very rapid en- 
hancement in the value of such holdings. And with increased 
valuation comes naturally the desire to protect and use con- 
servatively. Unquestionably, the stand of virgin forest will still 
further diminish, for the demand for farm lands is active, the 
call for lumber imperative, and the danger of tropical storms 
along the Gulf Coast ever present. With such diminution in 
supply will come still further enhancement in values and still 
more conservative methods of operation. 

So much for the present stand of virgin forest. If the situa- 
tion were limited to this alone, the outlook might be considered 
gloomy. But it must be remembered that there are vast tracts 
of cut-over lands in portions of the southern states whose clay 
sub-soil lies so deep that the lands are not suited to agriculture. 
On such lands the longleaf pine, with its long tap root, prospers. 
Magnificent forests once covered every acre of such lands and 
fortunately tree planting is not required to reproduce such 
forests. Nature alone will again cover this territory with a 


| 
. 


1912] Tue Navat Stores Inpustry 129 


wealth of forest, provided Nature is given an opportunity; for 
the most. superficial observer who travels through this territory 
will testify that where conditions have been favorable natural 
reproduction has brought again splendid, though small, young 
forests. 

Against this willingness of Nature to restore this rich heritage 
to us, stand three agencies: 

First, and of least importance, the consumption by hogs of 
the delicately flavored and nutritious seed of the longleaf pine. 
This is a real factor in certain somewhat restricted districts. 
The constantly spreading sentiment for “stock laws” will 
check this evil. 

Second, and of the very greatest importance, the destructive 
action of the ground fires, Fig. 7, which annually sweep over the 
entire turpentine belt. Such fires destroy the myriads of young 
seedlings which can readily be seen springing up in the wire 
grass which surrounds them on every side. The seedling de- 
votes the greater part of its early energies to sending down its 
long tap root through the deep sands rather than to strengthen- 
ing its stalk above ground; hence, in most cases, it is not able 
to withstand the constantly recurring ground fires. The doc- 
trinaire may rail against the evils of such firing of the woods, 
but from one who has lived among the turpentine camps there 
comes no word of reproach against the turpentine operator who 
“burns the woods.” His all is invested on the outer surface of 
his trees. A serious outbreak of fire during midseason means 
financial ruin. The carelessness and sometimes viciousness of 
laborers is too serious a risk to run with a mass of dead wire 
grass covering every foot of his territory. Naturally he protects 
himself by burning this grass when he is prepared for it, after 
“raking season.” 

Where then is the hope for reforestration? In the realization 
of the value of the waste cut-over lands where turpentine opera- 
tions cannot be carried on for lack of timber. Such lands have 
now but little value, but the lesson of France shows that even 
there a reasonable income begins from artificial reproduction 
within a period of twenty years and then rapidly increases. 

a 


130 JOURNAL OF THE Mitcuett Society [December 


With our warm southern climate the prospect for rich returns 
from such investments should be even greater than in France. 

Third, the greed of man. If we are to have a self-perpetuating 
industry, even stock laws and the reforestration of waste lands 
will not avail if a practice on the part of turpentine operators 
during the past two years continues. The abnormally high 
price of spirits of turpentine two years ago led to a wild seram- 
ble for timber for increased operations. At the same time the 
efficiency of the cup system was just gaining wide recognition. 
Realizing that a tree too small to have a “box” cut in it could 
be worked with a cup hung upon it, the operators throughout 
the whole region proceeded to cup every small tree to which 
access could be gained. In many cases new farms were opened 
on old abandoned territory where natural reproduction had fur- 
nished thrifty young forests. The result was over-production 
of crude turpentine. The temporary benefit to the consumers 
in the drop in values following this over-production was dearly 
bought, for the price was the destruction of young forests which 
in time should have produced their full share of the world’s 
need of spirits of turpentine and rosin. Common sense must 
and will govern in this matter. It is only necessary for the 
operators to realize that the yield from such saplings does not 
meet the cost of production, then the practice will cease. 

Surely the above considerations justify an optimistic view of 
the future of the naval stores industry. But experiment, dem- 
onstration, statistics, and knowledge of progress made in other 


lands, must lead the way for the man in the woods. 
University oF NortTH CAROLINA. 


. ——— 
ee fe ee 


eS! 


THE RESENES OF RESINS AND OLEORESINS* 
By Cuas. H. Herry anp W. S. Dickson 


The oleoresinous exudate of pine trees, commonly called 
“ crude turpentine,” consists of a mixture of a volatile oil, acids 
and unsaponifiable matter. On distillation with steam the 
volatile oil, “spirits of turpentine,’ passes off; the residual 
resin, freed from excess of water by heating, solidifies on cooling 
and constitutes commercial “ rosin.” The name “ resene” has 


been applied by Tschirch' to the non-volatile, unsaponifiable 
1Tschirch, ‘‘ Die Harze und die Harzbehieter,’’ Second Stele: p. 1079. 
constituent of such resins and oleoresins. 


Though the composition of crude turpentine varies consider- 
ably in different specimens, an average analysis of specimens 
collected by the usual commercial methods would show approx- 
imately : 


Per cent. 
Spiniisn GFecurOchtines)i. tunes actsacs stews yeaa sees. 20 
LNCIG SSS SOS Ob DEO COE BS EOE Cee IEEE 74 
RESET G is Sorbo SoU ER SIRE CE SRI CRUG Cone CoInS or 6 


Resenes, according to their origin, show varying physical 
states, some being colorless solids while many are very viscous 
liquids, extremely sticky and non-crystallizable. They are com- 
posed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but the per cent. of 
oxygen is usually smaller than in the accompanying acids. 
Toward reagents they are very resistant, especially toward alka- 
lies. Although containing oxygen, they show, according to 
Tschirch,” none of the usual reactions indicating the presence 
of hydroxyl, carboxyl, aldehyde or ketone oxygen, nor are they 
ethereal salts or lactones. ‘Tschirch inclines to the view that 
they belong to the class of exyterpenes or oxypolyterpenes. 

While much work has been done upon the volatile oils and the 
acids of oleoresins, little attention has been paid to the resenes, 
except ultimate analyses and approximate statements of the pro- 
portion present in isolated specimens studied. In connection 


* Reprinted from the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. IV, 
No. 7, July, 1912. 


2 Loc. cit. 


132 JOURNAL OF THE Mitcoue tt Society [December 


with an investigation carried out in this laboratory in collabora- 
tion with the United States Forest Service, there remained a 
large number of specimens of resin from well identified individ- 
ual trees growing in Florida. It seemed desirable, therefore, to 
study more closely the question of the proportions of resene in 
these specimens. The investigation was extended to the resins 
of conifers growing near this laboratory, and to specimens col- 
lected in other countries. Finally the amount of resene was 
determined in several oleoresins obtained in perfectly fresh 
condition from individual trees in Florida. These specimens 
were collected from the two species of pines from which crude 
turpentine is commercially obtained in this country, Pinus 
Palustris (Longleaf Pine), and Pinus Hetrophylla (Cuban or 
Slash Pine). 

The resins were obtained by distilling the oleoresins in a cur- 
rent of steam slightly superheated, the temperature being raised 
to 140° C. toward the end of the distillation. After complete 
removal of the volatile oil, the residue was kept at 140° C. in 
the oil bath surrounding the distillation flask until all water was 
driven off. The molten resin was then filtered through absorbent 
cotton and cooled to solidification in glass or iron molds. 

The determination of resene in the resins was carried out in 
the usual manner. The weighed specimen, about two grams, 
was dissolved in a considerable excess of N/2 alcoholic potas- 
sium hydroxide, allowed to stand at room temperature eighteen 
hours, diluted with water until separation of the resene began 
and the solution cleared by the addition of a small quantity of 
ninety-five per cent. alcohol. This solution was then extracted 
three times with petroleum ether, boiling below 40°c. The com- 
bined extracts were shaken out with fifty per cent. alcohol to 
remove slight amounts of dissolved potassium salts of resin 
acids. After drawing off the petroleum ether extract into a 
weighed glass evaporating dish, it was allowed to evaporate 
spontaneously to constant weight. 

In the case of the oleoresins, after spontaneous evaporation. 
of most of the petroleum ether, the residue was heated for five 
hours on a steam bath in order to remove completely the petro- 


1912] ReEsENES OF Resins AND OLEORESINS 133 


leum ether and the volatile oil. Considerable difficulty was ex- 
perienced at the outset in these evaporations due to the tendency 
of the material to “ crawl” over the rim of the vessel. This 
was entirely overcome by using a thin coating of vaseline on the 
rim of the vessel. 

The following results were obtained: 


TABLE I.—PER CENT. oF RESENE IN RESINS FROM DIFFERENT SPECIES 


Per cent. 

Species. Local name. Origin. resene. 
Pinus Taeda Loblolly Pine North Carolina 4.10 
“ Palustris Longleaf Pine Florida 5.67 
“  Maritima Maritime Pine France 7:37, 
“  Heterophylla Cuban or Slash Pine Florida 7.38 
“ — Serotina Pond Pine Florida 7.65 
“  Echinata Old Field Pine North Carolina 8.71 
“Species unknown Central America 8.94 
“ Sabiniana Digger Pine California 9.66 
“~~ Laricio Schwarzkiefer Austria 14.05 


In order to test the variation of the amount of resene in trees 
of the same species two sets of determinations were carried out 
on trees of different diameters. The results follow: 


Taste I].—Pinus Patustris (LONGLEAF PINE). 


Diameter Per cent. resene 
Tree No. (inches). in resin. 

I 7 5.26 
2 15.0 5-95 
3 21.0 OQ. 

4 13.0 7-45 
5 8.7 5-67 
6 9.0 5-45 
7 13.5 6.22 


Taste IIJ.—Pinus HeEtTEROPHYLLA (CUBAN OR SLASH PINE). 
Diameter Per cent. resene 


Tree No. (inches). in resin. 
I 7.0 7.87 
2 14.5 7.30 
3 24.5 7.20 
4 1283 7.25 
5 8.2 6.58 
6 13.0 7.84 
7 9.0 7.00 


To determine possible variations in the per cent. of the resene 
in different seasons of the same year two trees were selected, 
one each, Pinus Palustris, tree No. 2, Table II, and Pinus Het- 
erophylla, tree No. 2, Table III. Beginning in the early spring 


134 JOURNAL OF THE Mitrcuett Society [December 


the oleoresins were collected from these at regular periods of 
four weeks until the close of the season in the fall. From ine 
resins prepared from these specimens the following results were 
obtained : 


Tasie IV. 
Per cent. resene in resin from 
Collection No. Pinus Palustris. Pinus Heterophylla. 
I 5.31 7.36 
2 5-44 7.67 
3 5-95 7-23 
4 6.02 8.17 
5 6.09 7.38 
6 6.53 7-43 
7 5-24 7:77 


It is scarcely probable that in the case of Pinus Palustris any 
significance is to be attached to the gradual increase in the per 
cent. of resene as the season advanced until the last collection. 

Further determinations were made of the per cent. of resene 
in specimens of oleoresin collected with great care in Florida 
and promptly analyzed. The following results were obtained: 

TABLE V. 


Per cent resene in oleoresin of 


Tre Pinus Pinus 
No. Palustris Heterophylla 
I 7.10 6.83 
2 3.84 6.76 
3 7-33 6.96 


Finally, a specimen of “ scrape” (Gum Thus) was obtained 
from a Longleaf pine (Pinus Palustris). This serape is the 
hardened mass which gradually collects on the scarified surface 
of the tree as a result of the crystallization of the resin acids of 
the oleoresin. It receives its name from the fact that at the end 
of the season it is scraped from the surface of the trees by means 
of a sharp tool. It contains approximately one-half as much 
spirits of turpentine as the ordinary oleoresin collected from the 
receptacles. The resin was prepared from this scrape by distil- 
lation with steam as above. On analysis it showed 3.14 per 
cent. of resene. 

In continuation of this work, there is now being carried out 
in this laboratory an investigation of the composition of the 
resene of Pinus Heterophylla. 


UNIveRSItY oF NortH CAROLINA. 


THE VALUE OF COMMERCIAL STARCHES FOR 
COTTON MILL PURPOSES. 


By G. M. MacNuiper. 


Large quantities of starch are used annually by the cotton 
mills in the processes of sizing and finishing. The yarn is pre- 
pared for weaving by a process known as sizing, in which it is 
treated with a solution of starch to give it certain properties 
essential to good weaving. When the cloth comes from the 
loom it is put through a process known as finishing to produce 
a certain “ finish ” before it is ready for the market. It is essen- 
tial to good weaving that the yarn be properly sized before going 
to the loom and with many grades of cloth the finish produced 
by the starch largely determines the market price of the goods. 
It is therefore seen that starch plays a very important part in 
the manufacture of cotton goods, and hence the purchase of the 
kind of starch best adapted to the purpose in hand is a very 
important matter. 

The object of sizing is to make the yarn stiffer, increase the 
strength and put it into proper condition for weaving. To ac- 
complish this the size must penetrate the yarn to some extent 
and also form a coating on the surface of the thread, which 
prevents wear of the thread in the loom. The size is prepared 
by boiling the starch (and other ingredients) with water in an 
iron kettle known as the size-kettle. When the mixture has 
been boiled for a sufficient length of time it is run out into the 
size-box of the sizing machine and kept hot while the yarn is 
passed through it. Two systems of sizing are in use: the short 
chain system, or old system, in which the yarn is sized in hanks, 
and the long chain or slasher system in which the yarn is sized 
from the beam. The same results are obtained by both systems, 
the slasher system being faster than the short chain system. 
In both systems the yarn is dried as soon as it comes from the 
starch solution. 

The object of finishing is to increase the stiffness of the cloth 
and produce a finish and feel on the cloth which are very import- 


136 JOURNAL OF THE Mitcuett Society [December 


ant factors in marketing cotton goods. The finish mixture is 
prepared in a manner similar to the size mixture and is applied 
to the cloth while hot. When the cloth is dry it is calendered 
to bring out the finish. The use of a starch solution alone in 
these operations would make the goods too stiff and produce a 
harshness which is not desirable. To modify this effect many 
softening agents are used, such as tallow, oils, soaps, glycerine, 
etc. As finishing is the final operation it is very important that 
it should be properly carried out and the best effect obtained 
from the starch. If it is desired to increase the weight of the 
goods this can best be done in the finishing process. For this 
purpose the finishing mixture is made very thick, or where this 
would produce too much stiffness in the cloth thin boiling 
starches may be used to give the weight without undue stiffness. 

The principal starches used in the textile industry are corn, 
potato, cassava, sago, and to a small extent wheat and rice. 
Wheat and rice starches are, however, more largely used as 
laundry starches. 

The value of starch for cotton mill purposes depends on its 
property of swelling and forming a viscous solution when 
treated with hot water. It is well known in practice that the 
different starches produce different effects in sizing and finish- 
ing. One kind of starch will penetrate the goods better than 
another. This variation is due to a difference in the thickness 
of the solutions formed by the different starches when boiled 
with water, that is, one starch forms a more viscous solution 
than another. The thickness or viscosity of the solution formed 
by starch is the most important point to be known in determin- 
ing the value of a starch for textile purposes, for on this de- 
pends the penetration of the starch solution into the yarn or 
cloth, and hence the stiffness which will be given to the goods 
when sized or finished. As the viscosity of the starch solution 
is such a valuable indication of the value of the starch it is very 
important to have a method for determining the viscosity which 
will give results comparable to actual practice. The following 
method has been devised for this purpose: 

Twelve grams of the starch are weighed into a 600 cc. beaker, 


1912] Tur VaLvur or CoMMERCIAL STARCHES 137 


300 ce. distilled water added (thus making a 4 per cent. solu- 
tion) and heated with constant stirring to the boiling point and 
boiled for ten minutes; 200 cc. of this solution are then poured 
into the cup of a Scott viscosimeter, the temperature allowed to 
become constant, usually 94° C., and 50 cc. run out into a grad- 
uate, the time being accurately measured with a stop watch. 
The number of seconds required to deliver 50 cc. of the solution 
divided by the number of seconds required to deliver 50 ce. of 
boiling water gives the viscosity.’ 

It will be noticed from this that the starch solution is pre- 
pared by boiling with water as is done in sizing and finishing 
and the viscosity is measured at very near the boiling point of 
the solution, so that the figures obtained show the effect of boil- 
ing on the different starches. 

The viscosities of the principal commercial starches are 
shown in the following table. 


TasLE I.—VISCOSITIES OF COMMERCIAL STARCHES. 
(12 grams starch in 300 cc. water, boiled ten minutes.) 


Starch Viscosity 
ON eee eerie he eae aaralelate al etate sueteveyelarene 3.05 
IBOEAL Oma meriaiietiskoaroricic sure occ eisieiasiote cto avtalsissiel heise 14.31 
(CASSAKAIE S Bidders Gee do Gee One On ee ODE emai cic 3.92 
UNS ON ERE rR On CEL HEE Seon BSE r Ent on Sore. 1.57 
\ WHEE be: Bn Sek Oe rd mano eR oom eU DC bconcmtoramoarnlo: 1.25 
TESTED Snell ee BE SRR COORG DORR OTIOR ERED Maa. 1.00 


From the above table it is seen that there is a wide variation 
in the viscosities of the different starches and hence a wide 
variation in their value for mill purposes. The viscosity of 
potato starch is much higher than that of any other starch, but 
there is also a considerable variation between the viscosities of 
the other starches. The importance of the viscosity will be seen 
more fully in the next section in showing the effect of boiling 
on the viscosity of starch solutions. It has been found that 
there is frequently considerable variation in the viscosities of 
different lots of the same kind of starch. It would be very ad- 
vantageous to the mills for each lot of the same kind of starch 
to have a uniform viscosity. This would make it possible to 


1A detail description of this method was published in the Journal of Indus- 
trial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. IV, No. 6, 1912. 


138 JOURNAL OF THE Mircuett Society [December 


obtain the same results in sizing and finishing without changing 
the formula for each lot of starch. 

In practice the starch solution is boiled from thirty minutes 
to one hour before being used. It is therefore very important 
to know the effect produced by boiling on the viscosity of the 
starch solution. This is shown in the following table. 


TaslE I].—SHOWING THE EFFECT OF BOILING ON THE VISCOSITIES OF 
CoMMERCIAL STARCHES. 


(12 grams starch in 300 cc. water.) 


Starch Minutes Boiled Viscosity 
Carn is fae ae fe lee ekes Bae at boil 2.15 
=) Obed ars ers elon tite see eee 10 272 
lige A Dis Med Dia ce) i Rett 20 4.26 
SALE AEv alae etaatlaecte se eee eeetetont 30 7.00 
Potate..te Seece Rtas bene eee at boil 16.37 
Metra eel tae thakoha: ohetaina aic¥e semi utere 5 19.51 
EE IAG Reh ean eae Tee ee SOE 10 14.31 
Seas CEOE vas ints cptea some re erenaats Sor, s 6.33 
Cassavarninnc nines cukeceon eons at boil 9.93 
hice PAPE Dic Mot TNR ae ic 5 4.53 
ei Saat Seber Wenenyskatei sees arava anette sla 10 3.88 
debe ISAS OME D eee he tale wists ste orale 20 3.91 
SE eee NEG ae na Reeane a0 2: 4.17 
Awe ewe bees osha ack eele es at boil 1.88 
SR RS ee area aaron ea Oe aes ep 5 1.62 
Sew o iaa 2 BEG Sis eae avetd talanat aeotoke 10 1.57 
pedhis MemINAT Dit roa chs 1 ORR es es 30 1.66 
Wihteatesec fom nt omathan eae oe eee at boil 1.20 
Pets Ie sees SoU e ee eee eee 5 1.22 
Scie etacaf sp eneweaa ia cto ne asad teks areas 10 1.26 
Sete Ae lp sainvuieustaiuske tens varstele autis keaekeraiees 20 1.24 
BOE Lins eR ees RRC REECE fe) 1.33 
RICE 2. ead week piosieis bite eS Se Eee at boil 1.00 
SIL DEIR SEES Saale, stake natn 10 1.00 
LE ARN TARE AA Atty sh 3 30 1.08 


From the above table it will be seen that the viscosity of 
corn starch increases uniformly with the length of time of 
boiling. This increase is about what would be expected with 
the concentration of the solution when there is no change in 
the starch. This is a very valuable property of corn starch as 
compared with other starches and gives corn starch a much 
wider application in the textile industry than any other starch. 
The value of this property will be seen more clearly by com- 
parison with potato starch. 

Potato starch reaches its maximum viscosity after being 
boiled five minutes. From this point the viscosity decreases 


1912] Tue VaLvure or CoMMERCIAL STARCHES 139 


rapidly with the increase in time of boiling, the concentra- 
tion of the solution apparently having no effect on the viscosity. 
After boiling ten minutes potato starch has a viscosity slightly 
more than five times as great as corn starch, while after boiling 
thirty minutes the viscosity of potato starch is less than that 
of corn starch which has been boiled the same length of time. 
This property of potato starch of liquefying on boiling is a 
very important point to be considered in using this starch. In 
sizing the starch is boiled from thirty minutes to one hour be- 
fore being used, hence, as will be seen from the table, a size 
mixture made of potato starch will have a viscosity less than that 
of a similar size made of corn starch at the time it is ready to 
be applied to the yarn. In other words, the potato starch size 
will not be as valuable for sizing as the corn starch size, but 
it will cost approximately twice as much as the size made from 
corn starch. 

Cassava starch attains its maximum viscosity at the boiling 
point. The solution apparently has a higher viscosity shortly 
after complete gelatinization takes place, but no measurements 
were made of this as the starch is not used until it has been 
boiled. After reaching the boiling point the viscosity decreases 
uniformly with the length of time of boiling. After boiling 
thirty minutes there is an increase in the viscosity over that of 
the solution boiled twenty minutes. This increase is probably 
due to increase in concentration. As will be seen from the 
table, cassava starch behaves in a manner very similar to potato 
starch as regards liquefaction of the solution, but not to the 
same extent. Cassava starch therefore has a much broader 
application in sizing and finishing than potato starch. 

Sago starch has a much lower viscosity than any of the 
starches so far considered. Like cassava starch it apparently 
has a higher viscosity at the time of complete gelatinization, 
but no measurements were made of this. The viscosity is high- 
est at the boiling point and decreases uniformly on boiling, 
though not to the same extent as the other starches. After boil- 
ing thirty minutes there is a slight increase in viscosity due 
to the concentration of the solution. While having a consider- 


140 JOURNAL OF THE Mitcuett Society [December 


able lower viscosity sago starch is quite similar to cassava 
starch as regards the effect of boiling on the solution. 

Wheat starch shows a gradual increase in viscosity with the 
time of boiling, similar to corn starch, though the total increase 
is small, the viscosity of the thirty minute determination being 
only slightly higher than the determination made at the boiling 
point. 

Rice starch has the same viscosity as water when measured 
under these conditions. At the end of thirty minutes boiling 
it shows only a very slight increase in viscosity. 

The marked differences in the effect of boiling on the vis- 
cosities of the different starches is due to the fact that some 
starches form soluble starch products more readily than others. 
The data given in the preceding table shows very plainly the 
importance of the viscosity in determining the value of a starch 
for mill purposes. 


SPECIAL OR TREATED STARCHES. 


A number of special starches are now used which have been 
treated so as to make them “ thin: boiling starches,” that is, 
when boiled the solution has a lower viscosity than the natural 
starches. These usually consist of corn starch which has been 
treated in some way to reduce the viscosity. The viscosities of 
several such starches are shown in the following table: 


TasiLe II].—ViscositiEs oF SPECIAL OR TREATED STARCHES.” 
(12 grams starch in 300 cc. water, boiled ten minutes. ) 


Starch Viscosity 
Hagle Finishing: ic. .055 5h =» bob eee ack aes Be 1.15 
Ni; Starch alkalines. 4 sano soae sop cheatin 2.13 
Famous! N satiank, Paosd aii orn qaeeaaee soe Tl 
ErkenbrechersmModified = in.45-)9 2 ateclocke seie e e 1.13 
T> B: Crystal tle; 976.208 2. on coe a cones I.II 
T. B. Crystal -Nos 0072. Ate. ove ties Pee eee 1.04 
special “Warpy ote meio achat tne eee 3.48 


There are quite a number of processes for treating starches 
to reduce the viscosity or make them thin boiling starches. In 
the table above the Eagle Finishing Starch is a treated starch 


?The samples of treated starches were very kindly furnished the author by 
the Corn Products Refining Co., of New York. 


1912 | Tue VaLue or CoMMERCIAL STARCHES 141 


containing a small amount of borax and is slightly alkaline. 
The viscosity of the alkaline N starch has been reduced by the 
addition of a small amount of alkali. The other starches given 
in the table have been treated to reduce the viscosity and are 
neutral in reaction. The effect of several reagents on the vis- 
cosity of starches has been shown in a previous paper.® 

It will be seen from this table that the viscosities of the 
treated starches cover quite a wide range, from a viscosity 
shghtly less than that of corn starch to a viscosity only slightly 
higher than water. The Special Warp Sizing Starch is a pul- 
verized corn starch. It is frequently claimed that pulverized 
starch makes a smoother size mixture than the ordinary gran- 
ular starch. These treated starches, on account of having lower 
viscosities than untreated starches, are of value in sizing and 
finishing to obtain more penetration of the starch into the yarn 
or cloth and to increase the amount of starch which is put into 
the goods. This may be accomplished by using the treated 
starch in place of the untreated and increasing the amount used 
or by mixing the treated starch with the untreated starch in 
such proportion as to secure the desired results. For instance, 
in sizing or finishing if the mixture contains 50 lbs. of corn 
starch to 100 gallons of water and it is desired to increase the 
amount of starch put into the goods nearly double this amount 
of a thin boiling starch could be used which has a viscosity of 
half of that of corn starch and still obtain a size mixture with 
the same thickness or viscosity as with the 50 lbs. of corn starch. 
In other words nearly twice as much starch would be put into 
the yarn, thereby increasing the weight of the yarn, by using 
the thin boiling starch than by using the untreated corn starch. 
This is shown in the following formulae for sizing No. 26 yarns 
which are taken from actual practice: 


100 gallons water 
50 lbs. corn starch. 


100 gallons water 
95 lbs. Eagle Finishing Starch. 


8 Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. IV, No. 6, 1912. 


142 JOURNAL OF THE MitcuHett Society [December 


It will be noted from the table of viscosities that Eagle Fin- 
ishing Starch has a viscosity slightly less than half of that of 
untreated corn starch and hence when this starch is used the 
amount can be nearly doubled without effecting the penetration. 

By comparing the following formula for sizing No. 26 yarns 
with the first formula given it will be seen how the amount of 
starch may be increased and at the same time obtain greater 
penetration and more weight than with untreated corn starch. 


100 gallons water 
80 lbs. Eagle Finishing Starch. 


The following formula for sizing No. 26 yarns shows the 
use of another treated starch: 


100 gallons water 
65 lbs. Alkaline N Starch. 


It will be noted from the table of viscosities that this starch 
has a viscosity of 2.13 or slightly lower than corn starch and 
hence a larger amount of it can be used. 

In making investigations on the value of the different com- 
mercial starches for cotton mill purposes the author has re- 
ceived very valuable assistance from many of the cotton mills in 
the State. A large number of mills have very kindly sent in 
reports showing the kind of starch which they use and the 
method of preparing the starch for sizing and finishing. Below 
are given a number of typical formule for sizing by the long 
chain or slasher system which are in actual use by the mills. 
For convenience of comparison the formule have been caleu- 
lated to a basis of 100 gallons of water. As there is such a great 
variety of softening agents in general use by the mills the 
amount of softener has not been included in the formule. The 
average amount of softener used in sizing is approximately 15 
lbs. of tallow, or its equivalent, to 100 lbs. of starch or 1.5 lbs. 
to each 10 Ibs. of starch. The amount used varies, of course, 
with the yarn numbers and the method of sizing. 

For yarn Nos. 14s and 20s. 


100 gallons water 
66 lbs. Eagle Finishing Starch. 


i PT 


1912} Tur VALuE oF COMMERCIAL STARCHES 143 


For yarn Nos. 14s and 22s. 


100 gallons water 
71 lbs. Eagle Finishing Starch. 


These formule are used on practically the same yarn num- 
bers. The first one, using 66 lbs. of starch will give greater pen- 
etration than the second, but the second formula will give more 
weight to the yarn. 


For yarn No. 16. 


100 gallons of water 
63 lbs. corn starch. 


In this formula, using an untreated starch, a smaller quantity 
of starch is used than in the other formule where treated 
starch is used. 


For yarn No. 21. 


100 gallons of water 
62 lbs. corn starch. 


For yarn No. 23. 
100 gallons of water 
60 lbs. corn starch. 
For yarn No. 26. 
100 gallons of water 
50 Ibs. corn starch. 


100 gallons of water 
95 lbs. Eagle Finishing Starch. 


100 gallons of water 
80 lbs. Eagle Finishing Starch. 


100 gallons of water 
65 lbs. Alkaline N Starch. 


These formulee for 26s show how different starches may be 
used to increase the penetration and vary the amount of starch 
put into the yarn, thereby increasing the weight of the yarn. 


144 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHett Socrety [December 


For yarn Nos. 28s and 36s. 


100 gallons water 
65 lbs. Potato starch. 


For yarn No. 2814. 


100 gallons water 
80 lbs.. Famous N Starch. 


For yarn No. 30. 
100 gallons water 
65 lbs. Famous N Starch. 


100 gallons water 
65 lbs. corn starch. 


These formulae for 30s show how more penetration and 
hence more weight may be obtained by using a thin boiling 
starch in place of an untreated starch. 


For yarn No. 36. 


100 gallons water 
.48 lbs. potato starch. 


For yarn No. 40. 


100 gallons water 
65 lbs. Eagle Finishing Starch. 


100 gallons water 
70 lbs. potato starch. 


In comparing the amounts of starch used in the different 
formule the viscosity of the different starches should be kept 
in mind as it will be noted that when large amounts of starch 
are used the treated or thin boiling starches are used in place 
of the untreated starch which has a higher viscosity. 

In sizing by the short chain system more starch is required 
and a thicker solution is used than in sizing by the long chain 
or slasher system. This is due to the fact that the yarn is not 
stretched as much in short chain sizing as it is on the slashing 
machine and hence the starch solution penetrates the yarn more 
readily. For example, a size mixture composed of 120 gallons 


1912] Tue VaLurE oF COMMERCIAL STARCHES 145 


of water, 65 lbs. starch and 8 lbs. of tallow will size about 720 
Ibs. of No. 1414 yarn by the short chain system, while by the 
slasher system the same amount of size will be sufficient for 
about 950 lbs. of the same yarn. 

In preparing the starch for use it is very important that the 
size be thoroughly boiled before being used. In the reports 
which the author has received from the cotton mills it is always 
recommended to boil the size mixture from thirty minutes to 
one hour before using. From this it is safe to say that the size 
mixture should be boiled for not less than forty-five minutes 
before being used. 

From the data which has been presented in this article it is 
seen that the viscosity of the starch solution is the important 
point to be considered in determining the value of a starch for 
textile purposes. There is another property of starch which 
is of value in the textile industry which is not shown by the 
viscosity, that is the finish which is imparted to the goods by 
the starch. Potato and cassava starch are said to produce a 
smooth finish, while corn and rice starch are said to produce a 
harsh finish. While this property may be of value in sizing 
and finishing some grades of goods, still no matter which one 
of the starches is used some softening agent must be used with 
it to modify the effect of the starch and it is therefore best in 
the majority of cases to use a cheap starch and control the finish 
by the use of softeners than to control the finish by varying 
the kind of starch used. 

Sufficient data has been given to show the value of the differ- 
ent starches for textile purposes. There is a wide variation in 
the viscosity of the different starches and in the effect of boil- 
ing on the viscosities and as this is such an important factor 
in sizing and finishing it must be taken into consideration in 
selecting the starch to be used in cotton mills. As starch plays 
such an important part in the manufacture of cotton goods 
it is very important for the manufacturer to use the kind of 
starch which will produce the desired results most economically. 


FEED AND MICROCHEMICAL LABORATORY, 
N. C. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Raleigh, N. C. 


NOTE ON THE TRANSFORMATION OF AMMONIUM 
CYANATE INTO UREA.* 


Chattaway’ says, “ The course of the reaction which takes 
place when ammonium cyanate is transformed into carbamide 
has never been satisfactorily explained. Up to a few years 
ago it was universally regarded as a peculiar case of isomeric 
change and no consideration was given to the process by which 
the conversion was effected.” He then states that various spe- 
cified reactions of carbamide, cyanic acid, isocyanic acid and 
their esters may be simply explained “ by regarding them as 
instances of the well known tendency of the carbonyl group to 
add groups such as R,NH and ROH, followed by a subsequent 
atomic rearrangement involving only the transference of a hy- 
drogen atom from an oxygen atom to a nitrogen atom connected 
with it through the doubly linked carbon atom, thus: 


N:C:O = SINE C<e => NE -CO-N- 


The conversion of ammonium cyanate into carbamide should 
therefore be formulated as follows :” 


NHN :CORH -N:C:04+ NICH NK —H.N ‘CO:'NH: 
The three stages, then, in the transformation are (1) the break- 
ing up of ammonium cyanate into cyanic acid and ammonia, 
(2) the formation of an addition compound, and (3) a re- 
arrangement of this compound. 

A simpler explanation eliminates this addition compound and 
its rearrangement. I find in my note book on the lectures in 
Organic Chemistry by Professor H. B. Hill at Harvard Univer- 
sity in 1896, this statement: Ammonium cyanate breaks up 
with heat into HNCO and NH, and then the NH, adds itself 
as follows: 

H.N:C:0 
PoE 
H NH: 


* Reprinted from The Journal of the American. Chemical Society, Vol. XXXIV, 
No. 9, September, 1912. 


= H.N :CO-'NH: 


1912 AMMONIUM CYANATE INTO UREA 147 


T have used this explanation in my own lectures since that time. 
Essentially the same explanation is given by Willstitter in his 
lectures in Ziirich. By introducing the idea of partial valence 
the mechanism is more readily conceived. The reaction is for- 
mulated thus: 


H—N++C=0 H—N—C=O 


H — NH: H NH: 


The partial valences of the nitrogen and carbon atoms are rep- 
resented by a number of very short lines, not dots, which should 
be reserved for ordinary valences. (The practise of writers in 
this matter is not uniform, but uniformity would be very desir- 
able.) When the partial valences come into play in the pres- 
ence of H.NH,, one of the double bonds between nitrogen and 
carbon is broken, as represented in lecture practise by a double 
stroke across the bond and the partial valences resolve them- 
selves into ordinary valences. 
Arvin S. WHEELER. 


University oF NortH CAROLINA. 


Ux> 


NEW THERMOMETERS FOR MELTING POINT 
DETERMINATION.* 


Uniformity in practise in making melting point determina- 
tions would be very desirable, for even to-day there are too many 
cases where different observers disagree. The failure to agree 
is not always due to the quality of the material if we may have 
confidence in the analytical data given. Many forms of appara- 
tus are in use as well as various kinds of thermometers. Other 
factors also enter in. The practise of reporting the corrected 
reading is a step in the right direction and its extension should 
be constantly urged. 

In order to avoid the necessity of making corrections for the 
exposure of the mercury column I have devised a thermometer 
with a short scale, so that it may be completely immersed in 
the bath. The method of construction may be readily seen from 
the accompanying sketch. Owing to the compact form of the 
scale it was necessary to construct a set of seven thermometers, 
each with a milk glass scale of 50° with divisions in degrees. 
The length of the scale is 35 mm. The thermometer jacket is 
lengthened so that the total length is 20 em. This permits of its 
suspension by means of a cork as in the Thiele apparatus which 
is a particularly good form to be used with this thermometer. 
The mercury bulb is small and compact and above it is a con- 
striction to enable one to attach the capillary tube if that is 
desired. For the protection of the manufacture of the thermom- 
eters patent No. 507,320 has been entered in the German Patent 
Office. The thermometers may be obtained from C. Richter, 30 
Lehrterstrasse, Berlin, N. W. 5. 

Arvin S. WHEELER. 


University oF NortH CAROLINA. 


* Reprinted from The Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. XXXIV, 
No. 9, September, 1912. 


ee 


Deo jg os 


JOURNAL \° 


OF THE 
Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society 
VOLUME XXVIII FEBRUARY, 1913 No. 4 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ELISHA MITCHELL SCIEN- 
TIFIC SOCIETY FROM MARCH, 1909, TO DEC., 1912. 


182nd Meeting—March 9, 1909. 

D. H. Dotizy. The Pathological Cytology of Surgical 
Shock. I. Preliminary Communication: The Alterations Oc- 
curring in the Purkinge Cells of the Cerebellum. 

A. H. Parrerson. Exhibit of Some New Vacuum Tubes 
Recently Received by the Physics Department. 


183rd Meeting—April 12, 1909. 
ARCHIBALD Henperson. The Linear Classification of the 
Cubic. Surface. 
Auvin 8. Wueeter. Trichlorethylidenediphenamine Com- 
pounds. 


Business Meeting—September 14, 1909. 
ELECTION oF OFFICERS: 


President—Prof. A. H. Patterson. 

Vice-President—Dr. J. E. Mills. 

Corresponding Secretary—Dr. F. P. Venable. 

Recording Secretary—Dr. A. S. Wheeler. 

Editorial Committee—Dr. W. C. Coker, Chairman, Dr. 
H. V. Wilson, Dr. A. Henderson. 


184th Meeting—October 20, 1909. 
W. C. Coxer. The Yosemite Valley and the Big Trees. II- 
lustrated. 
D. H. Dottry. The Anatomical Reaction of Nerve Cells in 


Normal and Excessive Muscular Exertion. 
149 


150 JOURNAL oF THE Mircne tt Society [February 


185th Meeting—November 9, 1909. 
H. V. Wirson. The Structure and Regeneration of the Skin 
in Sponges. 
A. S. Wureter. A New Study of Oceanic Salts. 
A. H. Parrerson. The Personal Equation in Judgment of 
Length, Mass and Time. 


186th Meeting—December 14, 1909. 
J. E. Larra. Notes on the Static Transformer. 
W. B. MacNiwer. The Part Played by the Kidney Cells in 
Determining the Quantity of Urine. 


187th Meeting—February 8, 1910. 


Wm. Cary. The Pressure of Coal in Bins (by title). 
A. H. Parrerson. The Comets of 1910. Illustrated. 


188th Meeting—March 8, 1910. 
Wm. Carn. The Influence of Cohesion in the Pressure of 
Earth against Walls. 
J. H. Prarr. The Conservation and Utilization of our Nat- 
ural Resources. 


189th Meeting—April 12, 1910. 
ArcuiIBALD HenpEerson. Some Configurations on the Cubic 
Surface. 
J.S. Hotmes. A Sketch of the Forestry Work of the Several 
Geological Surveys of North Carolina. 


Business Meeting—October 17, 1910 
ELECTION OF OFFICERS: 


President—Prof. M. H. Stacy. 

Vice-President—Prof. P. H. Daggett. 

Corresponding Secretary—Dr. F. P. Venable. 

Recording Secretary—Dr. R. A. Hall. 

Editorial Committee—Dr. W. C. Coker, Chairman, Dr. J. 
M. Bell, Prof. A. H. Patterson. 


— UCU eee 


a oe ee 


LN the SN Att ta 


ea ee 


1913| PRocerpines or Evisna Mircuery Society 151 


190th Meeting—November 1, 1910. 


F. P. Venaste. The Meteor-Crater of Arizona. 
J. M. Berx., Indirect Methods of Chemical Analysis. 


191st Meeting—December, 1910. 
H. V. Witson. Development of Sponges from Isolated Cells. 
A. H. Patrerson. Revision of the Calendar. 


192nd Meeting—February 14, 1911. 
W. C. Coxrr. Some Peculiar Forms of Yeast. 
W. B. MacNiver. Kidney Regeneration. 


193rd Meeting—March 21, 1911. 
EK. V. Howerzt. Opium. 


194th Meeting—April, 1911 
Wm. Cain. Pressures on Tunnel Linings. 


Business Meeting—October, 1911. 
ELECTION OF OFFICERS: 
President—Dr. W. B. MacNider. 
Vice-President—Dr. A. Henderson. 
Corresponding Secretary—Dr. F. P. Venable. 
Recording Secretary—Dr. R. A. Hall. 
Editorial Committee—Dr. W. C. Coker, Chairman, Dr. J. 
M. Bell, Prof. A. H. Patterson. 


195th Meeting—November 14, 1911. 


A. S. Wurrter. The Walden Inversion. 

T. F. Hicxerson. The Crest-of-the-Blue-Ridge Highway. 
196th Meeting—December 12, 1911. 

W. C. Coxer. The Rothamsted Experiment Station. 

C, H. Herry. Chemical Analyses of Chapel Hill Waters. 


197th Meeting—February 13, 1912. 


Coxtier Coss. The Meaning of the Fall Line in the At- 
lantic and Gulf Coastal Plain. 


152 JOURNAL OF THE MircHett Society [February 


J. M. Bett. Solubility Studies. 
A. Henperson. Cubic Surfaces, A Report. 


198th Meeting—March 12, 1912. 


A. H. Parrerson. The Acoustics of Memorial Hall. 
A. T. Benprat. A Scientific Expedition to Venezuela. 


199th Meeting—April 9, 1912. 
W. B. MacNwer. The Relation of the Epithelial Changes 
of the Kidney to the Total Output of Urine. 
R. A. Hatit. Ammonium Citrate Solutions. 


Business Meeting—September 27, 1912. 
Erection oF OFFICERS: 
President—Prof. E. V. Howell. 
Vice-President—Prof. P. H. Daggett. 
Corresponding Secretary—Dr. F. P. Venable. 
Recording Secretary—Dr. J. M. Bell. 
Editorial Committee—Dr. W. C. Coker, Chairman, Prof. 
A. H. Patterson, Dr. J. M. Bell. 


200th Meeting—October 15, 1912. 
C. H. Herry. Chemical Control of Industrial Plants. 
W. C. Coxrer. The Water Molds of Chapel Hill. 
201st Meeting—November 12, 1912 

W. H. Brown. The Physiological Action of Hematin. I1- 
lustrated. 

J. S. Hormes. Forestry for Eastern North Carolina Lum- 
bermen. 


202nd Meeting—December 10, 1912. 
T. F. Hicxerson. Notes on the Construction of the Crest- 
of-the-Blue-Ridge Highway. Illustrated. 
CoLiier Coss. Zonation in the Chapel Hill Stock. 
James M. Bett, 
Recording Secretary. 


NEW OCCURRENCES OF MONAZITE IN NORTH 
; CAROLINA 


By Josrrpu Hypr Prarr 


In 1897 there was forwarded to the office of the North Car- 
olina Geological Survey a package containing a sample of min- 
eral for identification. No letter accompanied this package 
and the only clue to the locality from which the mineral came 
was the postmark, which was Mars Hill. The mineral was 
turned over to the writer for examination and was found to 
be monazite. There were a number of fairly well developed 
erystals of unusual size; but the majority of the pieces of mona- 
zite did not show any crystal facies but were pseudo-crystalline, 
due to parting parallel to c and m. An attempt was made to 
locate the sender of the specimens without success and although 
many inquiries were made in and around Mars Hill, and the 
vicinity had been visited a number of times, no clue to the oc- 
currence of this monazite was obtained until in the fall of 
1908 when another specimen of monazite was seen by the writer 
while travelling in Madison County. <A systematic search was 
then begun for the mineral with the result that the occurrence 
was definitely located. 

References have been made to the occurrence of monazite at 
Mars Hill, Madison County, by F. A. Genth,* who states that 
monazite occurs in “large cleavable masses sometimes from 3 to 
4 inches across and of a yellowish brown color from Mars Hill, 
Madison County.” He does not, however, give any further 
statement regarding locality. In Dana’s Mineralogy} it is 
stated that monazite occurs ‘in considerable quantities in Madi- 
son County, North Carolina, yielding angular fragments due 
to parting.” Judging from these brief notices of monazite in 
Madison County, it is very probable that the specimens of mona- 
zite found at that time were picked up on top of the ground by 
some of the farmers in the vicinity of Mars Hill and no record 
was kept as to where they were actually obtained. 


* Bull. 74 U. S. Geological Survey, 1891, p. 77. 
7 6th ed., 1892, p. 752. 


153 


154 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELt Society [February 


Judging from the occurrence of monazite in the South Moun- 
tain region of North Carolina where it was known to occur in 
the gneissic rocks and especially in those portions that have been 
pegmatized, instructions were given to the men assisting in lo- 
cating the monazite of Madison County to look for it in the 
eneissic or granitic rocks that were more or less pegmatized. The 
occurrence of this monazite was finally located on a hill to the 
west of Whiteoak Creek, a branch of Ivy River approximately 3 
miles southwest of Mars Hill and 6 miles nearly due east of 
Marshall, on a tract of land owned by Mr. N. P. M. Corn. 


The country rocks of this section are Carolina gneiss and 
Cranberry granite named and described by Mr. Arthur Keith.* 
The Carolina gneiss is of Archean age and consists chiefly of 
mica gneiss and mica schist but includes other gneisses, gran- 
ites and diorites with small lenses of marble. The origin of this 
Carolina gneiss is uncertain, but it is possible that most of the 
mass was once a granite and that it has been metamorphosed 
into its present condition. In this particular vicinity this Caro- 
lina gneiss occurs as outliers from the main formation and is 
not inter-banded with the Cranberry granite. Immediately to 
the east there is a large mass of Roan gneiss and this is also 
observed further to the west. The Cranberry granite as it oc- 
curs in this vicinity is also in the form of outliers or apophyses 
from the main mass lying to the north and west. As described 
by Mr. Keith, this granite is an igneous rock composed of 
quartz and orthoclase and plagioclase feldspar with biotite, 
muscovite and, in places, hornblende as additional minerals. 
There are a number of accessory minerals as magnetite, ilmen- 
ite, garnet and epidote. This granite occasionally contains 
pegmatite areas and, on the Whiteoak Creek, a great deal of 
the gneiss and granite was pegmatized. 

There are no extensive areas of rocks outcropping on this 
hillside. Occasionally small boulders of the partially decom- 
posed granite were observed containing more or less epidote and 
ilmenite forming a sort of a ledge running around the hill about 
a third of the way to the top. About 100 feet up the hillside a 


*U. 8. Geological Survey, Asheville Folio, No. 116, 1904, pp. 2 and 3. 


1913 | Mownazitre in Nortu CaroLina 155 


shaft has been sunk to a depth of 45 feet. The rocks were de- 
composed throughout this distance so that no blasting whatever 
was necessary. On account of the excessive decomposition of 
the rocks, it was difficult to determine what the rocks at this 
particular point were. They had the appearance, however, of 
being decomposed Cranberry granite. The section exposed by 
the shaft showed the rocks to be more or less pegmatized and to 
carry monazite the whole depth of the shaft. The monazite 
seemed to occur in the pegmatized band of the rock, which, in 
the shaft as exposed, had a width of 21% to 4 feet. 


The monazite, which is of a clove brown color, was found in 
fragments of rough crystals varying from pieces the size of a 
pea up to a large rough crystal that weighed almost exactly 60 
pounds. No attempt was made at this time to determine the 
percentage of monazite that the rock would carry. One or two 
pans full of the monazite-bearing portion of the rock were taken 
out, which gave nearly a pound of monazite. 


As stated above, the monazite is in the form of irregular 
fragments, rouch crystals and cleavable masses. One of the 
best crystals observed was a part of a mass that weighed 614 
pounds, which was made up of crystals in parallel position with 
some of the facies very perfectly developed. Another crystal, 
which was well terminated, weighed 12 ounces. It was 234 
inches long in the direction of the b axis; 114 inches in the di- 
rection of the a axis and 214 inches long in the direction of the 
¢ axis. The prismatic facies of the a pinacoid were well de- 
veloped as was also the unit pyramid w. The lower end of the 
erystal showed no terminations. The facies observed on these 
crystals were identified by means of the contact goniometer and 
were as follows: a (100); m (011); w (101) v (111). 

The basal plane ¢ was not observed on any of the erystals but 
was observed as one of the parting or cleavage planes. Parting 
planes were also very prominently developed parallel to m. 

The masses of the monazite were very pure and one analysis 
to determine the percentage of monazite in the masses shows it 
to contain 99.5 per cent. monazite. No chemical analyses have 
been made of the mineral beyond the determination of thoria. 


156 JOURNAL OF THE MircHett Society [February 


This determination, which was made in the laboratory of the 
Welsbach Light Company, showed this monazite to contain 5.06 
per cent. thoria, which is equal to the percentage of thoria in 
the best commercial monazite found in the South Mountain 
region. 

The size of the crystals of monazite found in this deposit, 
which are perhaps the largest on record, make this discovery a 
most interesting one. 


Caper Hi, N. C. 


NATURAL HISTORY NOTES ON SOME BEAUFORT, 
N. C., FISHES, 1910-11. 


No. III. Fishes New or Little Known on the Coast of North Carolina. 
Collected by Mr. Russell J. Coles* 


By E. W. GupGer 


The ichthyological events of the years 1910 and 1911 in the 
Beaufort region were the expeditions of Mr. Russell J. Coles, 
of Danville, Va., to Cape Lookout. As previously stated (Gud- 
ger, 1912) Mr. Coles has been fishing in the waters of Beaufort 
and surrounding parts for many years. In July, 1909, seeking 
especially for rare forms, he fished extensively and eftectively 
at the Cape, so effectively (he added Narcine brasiliensis to our 
fauna) that he came back in 1910 as volunteer collector of 
fishes for the American Museum of Natural History. With a 
larger force of men and a fuller equipment of boats, nets, and 
other apparatus, he was extraordinarily successful, taking dur- 
ing the season (1910) a total of 77 species, of which 5 were new 
and a larger number but sparingly recorded in the literature as 
found on our coast. In 1911, Mr. Coles sought not to take a 
large number of species, but rather to collect new forms or those 
but little known to the coast of North Carolina. As to the 
former, he was successful in adding 8 new species, of the latter 
fishes he took quite a number. Im all his additions to our fauna 
number no fewer than 14. 

A brief statement of the data collected by Mr. Coles will now 
be given. It is in part taken from his paper published by the 
American Museum (1910), but mainly it was communicated 
by him to the writer personally. Some of these data have al- 
ready been given in the preceding papers of this series (Gud- 
ger, 1912, 1912a), in connection with the writer’s own obser- 
vations. The fishes named, which were taken in 1910, were 
presented to the American Museum of Natural History, while 


* Parts I and II of this series, bearing sub-titles ‘‘Elasmobranchii—with 
Special Reference to Utero-gestation”’ and “‘Teleostomi’” respectively, have been 
published in the Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, Vol. 25, 
1912. See under literature cited at the end of this article. 

157 


158 JOURNAL OF THE MitrcHE Lt Society [February 


the collection of 1911 was divided between that institution and 
the United States National Museum. The identifications are 
by Messrs. John T. Nichols and Barton A. Bean, curators of 
fishes in these two great museums. 


SPECIES NEW TO NORTH CAROLINA. 


Carcharhinus acronotus (Poey). 
Sharp-backed Shark. 


About the middle of July, 1911, Coles took in the bight of 
Cape Lookout a small greenish shark about 3 feet long. The 
identification of this fish being in doubt, it was referred to that 
veteran student of the Elasmobranchs. Dr, Samuel Garman, 
who pronounced it to be Carcharhinus acronotus, heretofore 
only described from Havana by Poey. Not only is it new to 
North Carolina waters but so far as the writer knows to the 
coast of the United States. 


Carcharhinus limbatus (Miiller and Henle). 
Caconetta. 


In July, 1910, Coles collected at the Cape a shark which was 
afterwards identified as Carcharhinus limbatus. This is the 
first reported capture of this fish in our waters and, so far as the 
writer knows, the second for the Atlantic coast—according to 
Jordan and Evermann (1896) a single specimen having been 
taken at Woods Hole in the early ’80s. 

Whether the unknown shark referred to on page 141 of the 
first paper of this series (Gudger 1912) is identical with either 
of the above fishes cannot of course be said. If it should be, 
then the writer by a faulty diagnosis lost the opportunity to 
add it to the list of North Carolina fishes. But, as stated pre- 
viously, sharks are so variable that the classification was not 
pushed farther and the fish was thrown aside as a variation. 


Narcine brasiliensis (Olfers). 
Numb-fish. 


During his trip to Cape Lookout, in 1909, Mr. Coles, 
added to our fish fauna by collecting and bringing to the 
laboratory of the United States Bureau of Fisheries (sub- 


a een a ey ee ee ee ee 


we 


1913] Some Bravrort, N. C., Fisues 159 


sequent to the writer’s departure therefrom) two fine speci- 
mens of Narcine brasiliensis, variety corallina, a fish hitherto 
unknown in our waters. Director H. D. Aller has already 
ealled attention to this interesting find (1910), but it seems not 
out of place here to make mention of this fact and to note cer- 
tain details of the structure of this fish. 

When examined by the present writer, these specimens had 
been in formalin in a copper tank for 11 months, but were in 
perfect condition save that they had been dyed a beautiful green 
by the copper salts. The male was 11 inches long over all, 
514 inches to the end of the ventrals, and the greatest width of 
the disk was 614 inches. The claspers were short, barely pro- 
jecting beyond the ventrals, but the grooves for the transmis- 
sion of the milt were quite plain. The female was 1314 inches 
long, balf of that distance being the length of the tail clear of 
the ventrals. The greatest width was 73 inches, and the widths 
(inside measurements) between spiracles and eyes were 15-16 
of an inch and 1 7-16 inches respectively. In both, the tails 
were fringed with side fins, like the bilge keels of a vessel, from 
the middle of the anterior dorsal to well beyond the base of the 
eaudal. The spiracles were placed immediately behind the 
eyes. The jaws were set on a short peduncle in the mouth and 
were surrounded by a fossa. This indicates that they are 
probably protrusible. Through the kindness of Director Aller, 
both specimens were examined for reproductive organs. Un- 
fortunately, however, these were either immature or so out of 
season that nothing could be made out. However, the fish is 
known to be viviparous. Concerning this attention is called to 
Bean and Weed’s interesting paper (1911). 

In July, 1910, Coles (1910) captured in the same locality 
and preserved for the American Museum of Natural History 
11 specimens of these interesting animals, while at least a 
dozen more were taken by the fishermen. These were all caught 
within one week, and after that time none could be found. 
Coles reports that they bury themselves up to the eyes in sand, 
and that he saw barefoot fishermen knocked down by stepping 
on them while wading about in the shallow water. 


160 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHEtLy Society [February 


In 1911, Coles took only 5 of these interesting rays. One he 
gave to the writer, three were presented to the U. S. National 
Museum, and one sent to the Museum d’Histoire Naturelle at 
Paris. These rays were caught on precisely the same days as 
those in 1909 and 1910, viz., from June 29 to July 4, after 
which none were taken in any of these three years either by Mr. 
Coles or by the fishermen. 

The specimen presented to the writer was 714 inches wide, 
7 inches long, 914 to end of ventrals, and 1334 over all. The 
width between its eyes was 144 inches and the width of its 
mouth % inch. The electric organs were each 3% inches long 
by 2144 wide. The reproductive organs were immature or at 
any rate non-functional. The stomach and intestine were filled 
with common red annelid worms. The other structures were 
as in those previously described. 

This is the first time that this interesting fish has been taken 
in the waters of North Carolina. Jordan and Evermann 
(1896) say of it (vol. I, p. 78): “West Indies and Brazil, oc- 
casionally northward to Key West and Pensacola.” 


Urolophus jamaicensis (Cuvier). 

In addition to Narcine brasiliensis, Coles has added two other 
new rays to our North Carolina fauna. The first of these is 
Urolophus jamaicensis, a West Indian form of which Jordan 
and Evermann (1896) say . . . “once (perhaps erron- 
eously) recorded from New Jersey.” Coles’ specimen, measur- 
ing about 314 inches across the disk, was taken at Cape Look- 
out the last week in June, 1911. It was presented to the Amer- 
ican Museum of Natural History. 


Dasyatis hastata (De Kay). 
Sting Ray. 

The other new ray referred to is Dasyatis hastata, a female 
specimen of which weighing 64 pounds Coles took at the Cape 
in July, 1910. While being killed, she gave birth to five young 
about 6 inches wide and 15 long (including tail). In the ova- 
ries were found a number of small eggs. With this discovery 


tee... 


1913 | Some Bravurort, N. C., Fisuzs 161 


this ray falls into line with all other Beaufort forms known to 
the writer in being viviparous. 

In July, 1908, the writer took at the Narrows of Newport 
River a brown ray whose length was 39 inches from the tip of 
nose to root of tail, the total length (the tail had plainly suffered 
amputation near the tip) 75 inches. Because of the presence 
of long horny prickles on the hinder part of the median line of 
the body and on the base of the tail, and of the structure and 
length of the tail, this ray was provisionally identified as 
Dasyatis sabina. This identification needs confirmation. The 
ray may have been Dasyatis hastata as above. No other speci- 
men has since been seen. 


Mobula olfersi (Miiller & Henle). 
Small Devil-Fish. 


Of all Coles’ captures, however, none has aroused so much in- 
terest as that of the Mantid ray, Mobula olfersi. This all at first 
mistook for Manta birostris. Coles brought to the laboratory, 
on the last day of the writer’s stay at Beaufort in 1910, a head 
preserved in formalin. It was examined hastily and pronounced 
Manta birostris. So said all the other students of fishes to 
whom it was submitted. Mr. Coles, however, contended all 
the time that it was not Manta. At the meeting of the Ameri- 
can Fisheries Society in New York, Sept. 27-29, 1910, 2 speci- 
mens, a male and a female, now in the American Museum, were 
submitted to the inspection of that Nestor among ichthyologists, 
Dr. Theodore Gill, who at once unhesitatingly said that they 
were not Manta birostris, and suggested that they were Mobula 
élfersi as first described by Miiller and Henle. This diagnosis 
was confirmed and they were so named in Coles’ paper. This 
is indeed a great find. Jordan and Evermann say of the iden- 
tical or closely related form, Aodon hypostomus, “This species, 
described from Jamica, is very imperfectly known, and may be 
the same as Aodon élfersi (M. & H.), afterwards described 
from Brazil.’ Coles’ specimens are the first taken in North 
American waters. 

The teeth of Mobula* are very small and somewhat shark-like 


* The teeth of Coles’ specimens have been studied and reported on by Pelle- 
grin (1912). See literature cited. 


162 JOURNAL OF THE MircHety Society [February 


and utterly negative the commonly accepted idea that the devil- 
fishes, as the Mantid rays are commonly called, live on shell- 
fish. Coles watched them fishing in small schools for minnows, 
using their cephalic fins to form funnels for scooping the min- 
nows into their wide mouths. On dissection he found only 
small fishes in their stomachs. 

Coles captured 9 of these rays in 1910 and saw a school vari- 
ously estimated to contain 30 to 50. Their favorite sport con- 
sists in leaping into the air, and this of course makes it very 
hard to estimate the number in a school. None of these rays ex- 
ceeded 5 feet in width. The color of the fresh specimens is 
black but after death this changes to a dark blue. The com- 
monly accepted idea is that the horns of the Mantids are mov- 
able and that they are used to grasp objects and transfer these 
to their mouths. Coles by experiment proved that this is not 
true of Mobula. The horns have little if any movement but the 
cephalic fins, which are ordinarily carried tightly wrapped 
around the horns, may be distended and used as indicated 
above. 

Coles had the good fortune to see these rays in sexual union, 
belly to belly, the female underneath on her back, her pectorals 
curved upward closely embracing the pectorals of the male 
which were also curved upward. Copulation lasted for some 
time but was not continuous, being interrupted by separations 
during which the fish leaped into the air or swam in graceful 
curves. 

By an interesting coincidence, Coles first three captures of 
this ray in 1911 were made on the same days as those in 1910, 
viz., July 6, 7, and 8. On these days he took 7 specimens, 6 
males and one female. No others were then seen in the bight of 
the Cape until the night of Aug. 3, when the fishermen reported 
a leaping devil-fish on the eastern side of the Cape breakers. 
Daylight found Coles on the spot where he saw one leap and a 
school pass under his boat. He surrounded this school in 10- 
foot water, and captured 7 specimens (1 male and 6 females) 
while one escaped over the cork-line and 2 under the lead-line. 

Of the 14 specimens taken, Coles has retained 3 and has pre- 


lt ae oi 


1913] Some Beravurort, N. C., Fisurs 163 


sented 4 to the United States National Museum, 2 to the Ameri- 
can Museum of Natural History (in addition to the 2 sent in 
1910), 2 to the British Museum (Natural History), 2 to Mu- 
seum D’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, and one to the writer. 

Jordan and Evermann (1896) say that the Mantid rays are 
ovoviparous, but Coles on July 14, 1911, brought to the 
writer at the Beaufort laboratory a preserved uterus with the 
attached ovary (together with a yellow yolk which had escaped 
during the operation of excision) taken from a female Mobula 
a week previous. The egg on examination unfortunately, as has 
often been the writer’s experience in dealing with such, had lost 
its embryo. The greatly swollen uterus measured externally 
81, inches around, and 1084 long while the length of the tube 
connecting it with the cloaca was 3% inches. The walls of the 
uterus at their thickest part measured 14, and at the thinnest 
14, inch, and were very villous, as much so as any other ray here- 
tofore examined. The villi measured from 14 to 34 of an inch 
long and the wall of the uterus to which they were attached was 
composed of long palisade-like structures of which they seemed 
to be outgrowths. 


Ophichthus ocellatus (LeSueur). 
Spotted Snake Eel. 

The first reported capture of this eel in North Carolina 
waters was that by Coles at Cape Lookout in April of the year 
1910 while down on a short expedition. He reports that this 
fish has the interesting habit of swimming or rather drifting in 
a vertical position. So far as the writer knows this West Indian 
eel has never before been caught north of Florida. 


Lycodontis moringa (Cuvier). 
Common Spotted Moray; Hamlet. 

The first moray ever recorded at Beaufort was Lycodontis 
ocellatus taken off the inner north-west corner of Bird Shoal in 
eel-grass by George Bean and the writer on August 20, 1903. 
Another one was caught by other parties the following year. 
Since this latter time no moray had been taken in Beaufort 
waters until July, 1911, when Coles procured a small one from 


164 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELt Society [February 


a bed of eel-grass in Bogue Sound near Morehead City. It was 
presented by him to the U. S. National Museum and identified 
by Mr. Bean as Lycodontis moringa, a West Indian eel, not only 
new to North Carolina but not before taken so far north. 


Polydactylus octonemus (Girard). 
Threadfin. 


Another fish heretofore unknown in our waters, which Coles 
had the good fortune to add to our ichthyological fauna, is the 
threadfin, Polydactylus octonemus. While this fish, according 
to Jordan and Evermann, (1896) is known to occur on sandy 
shores along the Atlantic Coast as far north as New York, it is 
nevertheless an extremely rare fish. Coles took his specimen at 
Cape Lookout in July, 1910. 


Monacanthus ciliatus (Mitchill). 
Leather-fish. 

While 3 species of the family Monacanthide have been taken 
at Beaufort, namely Monacanthus hispidus, Ceratacanthus 
schoepfi and C. punctatus, Monacanthus ciliatus is now record- 
ed for the first time. In July, 1911, Coles took a small speci- 
men about 3 inches long in company with M. hispidus in the 
bight of Cape Lookout. This is a form common in Florida, 
but, so far as the writer knows, it has not been taken so high up 
the coast before. 


Lactophrys tricornis (Linnaeus). 
Cow-fish; Trunk-fish. 

Of the 2 trunk-fishes recorded for Beaufort, Lactophrys trig- 
onus, and L, triqueter, the writer collected a specimen of the 
latter in 1902 and for some weeks kept it as an aquarium pet. 
As such it was a very unique and interesting specimen, especi- 
ally so in its feeding. In July, 1911, Mr. Coles, by taking 
2 specimens about 4 inches long, added Lactophrys tricornis to 
our local fauna, and in so doing has verified Dr. Smith’s pre- 
diction (page 344) that it “will no doubt in time be detected 
on the North Carolina coast.” These specimens are on deposit 
in the National and American Museums. 


1913 | Some Bravurort, N. C., Fisuxs 165 


Lyosphaera globosa Evermann and Kendall. 

This fish, heretofore recorded from the mouth of the Rappa- 
hannock River in Chesapeake Bay and from Biscayne Bay, 
Florida, is now to be catalogued from an intermediate point 
since Coles took two small ones in eel-grass at Cape Lookout in 
July, 1911. His specimens, about the size of a man’s thumb, 
were kept for a half day in a bucket of salt water. He noted 
that they are poor swimmers since they retain their globular 
form while swimming. 


Gebius glaucofrenum (Gill). 

Another fish new to the fauna of North Carolina is Gobius 
glaucofraenum, which Coles took in 1911 in eel-grass in the 
bight of Cape Lookout. His specimen, which is now in the 
American Museum, is small and is presumably the first ever 
taken north of the Florida Keys. 


Porichthys porissimus (Cuvier & Valenciennes). 
Bagre Sapo. 

The last (14th) fish, which by the indefatigable energy of 
Mr. Coles, has been added to the ichthyological fauna of North 
Carolina, is the interesting toad-fish, Porichthys porissimus. 
This fine 8 or 9 inch specimen was taken at Wreck Point in 
the bight of Cape Lookout early in July, 1911. Heretofore, 
so far as the writer is informed, this southern form has not been 
taken north of the South Carolina coast. 


SPECIES RARE ON THE NORTH CAROLINA COAST. 


Tn addition to these new species, Coles caught a number of 
fishes not now in the Beaufort collection or at any rate but little 
known, and it does not seem out of place to list them here that 
record may be made of their occurrence in North Carolina 
waters. Some of these are described in his paper elsewhere 
referred to, but the data concerning the greater number were 
communicated to the writer by Mr. Coles personally. 


166 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Society [| February 


Sphyrna zygena (Linnaeus). 
Hammer-head Shark. 

The writer (1907) has described the capture and given full 
and careful measurements of a female hammer-head Shark, 
Sphyrna zygaena, 12 feet 6 inches long. This has for some 
years remained the record shark in the Beaufort region not 
merely for hammerheads but for all species. A new record 
however was established during 1910 by Coles’ capture of a 
hammer-head 14 feet 3 inches long. This was also a female 
which while being hauled up gave birth to 5 young averaging 
29 inches in length. That this fish is more plentiful than is 
commonly thought is attested by the fact that during June 
and July, 1910, the writer took more than a dozen young ones 
averaging 18 to 24 inches long at various fishing grounds in 
Newport River. Fewer were taken in 1911. 


Squatina squatina (Linnaeus). 
Angel-fish; Monk-fish. 


The only published record of the capture of this curious 
shark is by Smith in his Fishes of North Carolina (1907). 
This was in April, 1904, while in the same month in 1910 Coles 
took another at the same place, Cape Lookout. He reports that 
several were taken there in 1911. 


Raja eglanteria Bosc. 
Clear-nose; Brier Ray. 


The present writer has elsewhere (1910) recorded the finding 
of a dead and half dried specimen of the clear-nose ray, on 
Fort Macon Beach and its deposit in the museum of the labora- 
tory. Dr. Smith (1907) writes that he saw numerous rays of 
this species on the beach at Cape Lookout in April, 1904. Coles 
says that he found them abundant there in April, 1910, but saw 
none in July. From this we may conclude that they are possi- 
bly only winter migrants to our coast. 


Albula vulpes (Linnaeus). 
Lady-fish; Wolf-fish. 
The lady-fish, or wolf-fish, Albula vulpes, has been recorded 
from Beaufort by Yarrow (1877), but has not since been taken 


Sew De ed a 


; 


1913] Some Bravrort, N. C., Fisurs 167 


until Coles caught one at Cape Lookout in July, 1910, the only 
one in 9 years’ fishing there. The food value of this clupeoid is 
slight because of the great number of its bones. 


Athlennes hians (Cuvier and Valenciennes). 
Gar-fish. 

The flat-sided gar is comparatively rare, none being recorded 
at Beaufort between 1885 and 1905, probably because they are 
ordinarily confounded with other gars, especially Tylosurus 
marinus. In this later year quite a number were taken. Coles 
caught several at Cape Lookout during 1910, and a number in 
1 a 


Auxis thazard Lacepede. 
Frigate Mackerel. 

This frigate mackerel has been only sparingly reported from 
Beaufort being called “bonito” and not carefully distinguished 
from the fish properly somamed. Coles reports large schools of 
them at Cape Lookout in July, 1909, and 1910, but none were 
found in 1911. 


Sarda sarda (Blech). 
Bonito. 

The bonito is not very uncommon at Beaufort, but does not 
reach the size attained elsewhere. Smith (1907) gives its 
average weight as 5 to 6 pounds, and that of the largest hitherto 
recorded at 12 pounds. Coles, however, reports the capture of 
several at the Cape in 1910 weighing slightly over 25 pounds 
each. He caught only a few in 1911, and these of smaller size. 


Oligoplites saurus (Bloch and Schneider). 
Leather-jacket. 

The leather-jacket has been recorded from Beaufort but one 
time despite the fact that it has been taken as far north as 
New York. According to Dr. Smith, on May 17, 1904, a 
fisherman brought a 10 inch specimen to the Beaufort labora- 
tory. Late in June, 1911, Coles collected a 10-inch specimen 
at Cape Lookout. 


168 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Society [February 


Seriola lalandi (Cuvier and Valenciennes). 
Amber-fish. 

According to Smith (1907, p. 203), “There appear to be no 
published records of its capture in North Carolina, but it un- 
doubtedly occurs there every year and could be found if sought 
for with proper apparatus on the outer shores.” This pro- 
phecy was verified by Coles, who, at Cape Lookout in July, 
1910, took several specimens. 


Caranx bartholomezi (Cuvier and Valenciennes). 
Yellow Jack. 


Of the genus Caranx, Coles took the following species in 
July, 1910, bartolomaet, crysos, and latus. Of the former but 
one specimen has been taken at the laboratory since 1885, and 
that in August, 1905. Of the second and third a number have 
been taken of late years, mainly in the pound net operated by 
the laboratory. In 1911, Coles collected and forwarded to the 
American Museum several specimens of C. bartholomaet. 


Vomer setipinnis (Mitchill). 
Horse-fish. 


The horse-fish, while not rare at Beaufort, is so far as is known 
not taken in any quantity, hence it is somewhat surprising to 
read that in July, 1910, Coles took about 100 pounds of this 
fish at the Cape in a single haul. He reports it as excellent 
eating. 


Chloroscombrus chrysurus (Linnaeus). 
Bumper. 


Of the related Chloroscombrus chrysurus but few captures are 
noted on the laboratory cards and these at wide intervals. 
However, Coles found them in fairly large numbers at Cape 
Lookout in July, 1910, and again in 1911. 


Trachinotus glaucus (Bloch). 
Gaff-topsail Pompano. 


The gaff-topsail pompano is at present a rare fish at Beau- 
fort, although it is reported to have been fairly abundant some 
15 years ago. In 1903 a 9-inch specimen was taken, and in 


a 


; 


7? 5 (ae 


Pesan - 


1913] Somre Bravrort, N. C., Fisuxzs 169 


July, 1911 Coles took a number of young while seining for 
blue-fish at Cape Lookout. 


Trachinotus faleatus (Linnaeus). 
Round Pompano. 


Only young specimens of the round pompano seem to have been 
taken at Beaufort. Likewise Coles’ specimens collected at Cape 
Lookout in July 1911 were young. They were taken in com- 
pany with 7’. glaucus and T. carolinus. 


Lutianus griseus (Linnaeus). 
Gray Snapper; Mangrove Snapper. 


Our only record of this West Indian snapper is contained in 
Smith’s Fishes (p. 287) where it is stated that 4 small speci- 
mens were seined in Beaufort harbor in 1902. Coles’ capture 
of one small specimen in eel-grass at Cape Lookout in July, 
1911 will constitute a second record. 


Haemulon plumieri (Lacepede). 
Black Grunt. 

Heretofore the “snapper banks” off Cape Fear have been 
constituted the northern limit of the black grunt, Haemulon 
plumeert. This however must now be moved to the “rocks” of 
New River Inlet, since Coles finds them there in great numbers. 
He caught them running up to 114 pounds in weight in 1911. 


Bathystoma rimator (Jordan and Swain). 
Tom Tate; Red-mouthed Grunt. 

The Cape Fear “banks” have also been heretofore the north- 
ern limit for the adult “tom-tate grunt”, but Mr. Coles found 
them likewise common at the New River Inlet “rocks” in 1911. 
However they are small, averaging less than 14 pound in 
weight. At Beaufort numbers of young have been taken but 
no adults. 


Otrynter caprinus (Bean). 
Long-spined Porgy. 
This porgy was not known at Beaufort prior to 1904 when a 
number were taken in the laboratory pound net. In 9 years’ 


170 JOURNAL OF THE MircHe Ly Society [February 


fishing at Cape Lookout, Coles has caught but 7, 6 of which 
were taken in 1910 and one in 1911. 


Cynoscicn nothus (Holbrook). 
Silver Squeteague. 


While the gray and spotted sea trouts, Cynoscion regalis 
and nebulosus, are among the most common and valuable food 
fishes at Beaufort, the rare form C. nothus, the silver sque- 
teague, is known from but one specimen taken just outside the 
Inlet in 1899, Coles, however, took one at New River Inlet in 
January and another at the Cape in April, 1910, and in 1911 
at the same place a young one which he presented to the United 
States National Museum. It seems to be either a solitary fish 
or else a straggler in the Beaufort region. 


Larimus fasciatus (Holbreok). 
Banded Drum. 


The banded drum is a fish so little known at Beaufort that its 
capture at Cape Lookout by Coles in 1910 seems worthy of 
record. Only a few were taken in this year, but in 1911 Mr. 
Coles relates that he made a catch of such size that his net 
threatened to break. Although it was “‘backed” from around the 
school, even then it took hours to clear it of the gilled fish, A 
number of these were sent to the National Museum. 


Iridio bivittatus (Bloch). 
Slippery Dick. 

This beautiful little tropical fish is seldom taken at Beaufort, 
in fact the specimens dredged by the steamer Fish-Hawk in 
1902 are the last recorded until Coles collected several in July, 
1910, in eel-grass growing in shallow water in the bight of the 
Cape. He writes that the name is well bestowed, the little fish 
being harder to hold than a small eel would be. None were 
taken in 1911. 


Prionotus evolans (Linnaeus). 
Striped Sea-robin. 


This interesting gurnard has not been taken at Beaufort in 
over 25 years though it is known only from the coast of the 


1913] Some Bravrort, N. C., Fisuzs 171 


Carolinas. However, at Cape Lookout Coles captured a dozen 
specimens during July, 1910. These are all deposited in the 
American Museum of Natural History. A few were taken in 
1911. 


Astroscopus y-grecum (Cuvier and Valenciennes). 
Electric Star-gazer. 


The electric star-gazer, the “electric toad” of the fishermen, 
is occasionally taken at Beaufort and the laboratory museum 
has several specimens. None however reach the size of the 15- 
inch individual taken with the spear by Coles in July, 1910. 
Two other small ones were also captured by him. The present 
writer on July 14, 1904, in the inner harbor at Beaufort col- 
lected a young one only 214 inches long. This was much 
darker in color than the adults and lacked the spots. 

The writer has seen the star-gazer, by convulsive movements 
of its body, bury itself in the sand at the bottom of an aquarium 
until only its mouth and eyes were visible. The water pumped 
through the mouth and over the gills escaped on each side 
through a conical depression in the sand above the hinder edge 
of each opercle. Since the fish he thus imbedded in the sand, 
the lead lines of the seines pass over them readily and few are 
taken. Consequently but little idea of their relative abundance 
can be formed. 

The electric organs are in the head back of and between the 
eyes. These are said to give shocks more powerful in propor- 
tion to their size than those of any other electric fish, but Coles 
reports that he found their power much weaker than that of 
the corresponding organs of Narcine brasiliensis. 


State Norma CoLiecre, Greensboro, N. C. 


LITERATURE CITED 


1910—Aller, Henry D. The Work of the Marine Biological Station of 
the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries at Beaufort, N. C., during the 
year 1909. Science, May 6, 1910. 

1911—Bean, B. A. and Weed, A. C. An Electric Ray and its Young 
from the West Coast of Florida. Proceedings U. S. Nation- 
al Museum, vol. XL, pp. 231-32, plates 10-11. 


172 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELy Society [ February 


1910—Coles, Russell J. Observations on the Habits and Distribution 
of Certain Fishes taken on the Coast of North Carolina. 
Bulletin American Museum of Natural History, vol. XXVIII 
art. 28, Nov., 1910. 


1907—Gudger, E. W. A Note on the Hammer-head Shark and its 
Food. Science, n. s., vol. XXV., pp. 1005-1006. 


1910—Gudger, E. W. Notes on Some Beaufort Fishes—1909. Ameri- 
can Naturalist, vol. XLIV, pp. 395-403. 


1912—Gudger, E. W. Natural History Notes on Some Beaufort, N. C., 
Fishes, 1910-11. No. I. Elasmobranchii—with Special Ref- 
erence to Utero-Gestation. Proceedings Biological Society 
of Washington, vol. XXV, pp. 141-156. 


1912a—Gudger, E. W. Natural History Notes on Some Beaufort, N. C. 
C., Fishes, 1910-11. No. II. Teleostomi. Proceedings 
Biological Society of Washington, vol. XXV, pp. 165-176. 


1896-1900—Jordan, D. S., and Evermann, B. W. The Fishes of North 
and Middle America. Pts. I, II, III], and IV. Washington. 

1912—-Pellegrin, Jacques. Sur le Dentition des Diables de Mer. 
Bulletin de la Societe Philomathique de Paris. Series 10, 
Tome IV, pp. 1-8. 

1907—Smith, H. M. The Fishes of North Carolina. North Carolina 
Geological and Economic Survey. Raleigh. 

1877—Yarrow, H. C. Notes on the Natural History of Ft. Macon, N. 


C., and Vicinity; no. 3, Fishes. Proceedings Academy of 
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, vol. XXIX, p. 215. 


Rl ees 


RECENT VIEWS ON THE CHEMISTRY OF DIET* 
By Isaac F. Harris 


Under the subject of diet we include all chemical substances 
which have to do with the nutrition of man. Hall has defined 
it as the physiological process of supplying the material needs 
of the body. In a broad sense, it means food, drink and oxy- 
genation. A mixed diet consists of non-diffusible proteins, car- 
bo-hydrates and fats, and the function of the digestive process 
is to break up these complex molecules into smaller, simpler, 
soluble and diffusible ones, which are capable of absorption and 
utilization by the body processes. The science of dietics in- 
volves the knowledge of the chemical composition of the human 
body and of the foods with which it is proposed to maintain and 
repair it, and the sequence of chemical changes which the body 
undergoes during the multiple processes of digestion and assim- 
uation. 

The nutrition of man is comparable to the fertilization of 
a vegatable form. In the latter case we first observe the 
chemical make-up of the plant and then look for a fertilizing 
material which will best supply these elements. If the plant 
has a high content of potassium, like the tubers, then we supply 
potassium to the soil. If the case in point be man, with a high 
content of nitrogenous, albumin-like tissue, then we must sup- 
ply nitrogen in the diet. Furthermore, the supply of chemical 
elements in the food must be in such combination or molecular 
arrangement as to be available to the metabolic processes of the 
individual to be fed. While plant life in general can derive 
its nitrogen supply from the inorganic nitrates of the soil, man 
ean obtain his nitrogen requirement from protein or albumin- 
like sources, only. McCollum says regarding a mixed, balanced 
diet, “ Unquestionably the physiological value of a ration is 
largely dependent upon its chemical constituents, but the usual 
determinations made on feeding materials do not reveal the 
character or manner of combination of many of the constituents. 


ch oinata before the Jenkins Medical Association, Yonkers, N. Y., December 12th, 
2. 173 


174 JOURNAL OF THE MitTcHELL Society [February 


Consequently, the physiological value can be determined in 
the present state of our knowledge only by long continued ob- 
servations of the reactions of the feed on animals.” 

In designing a complete ration for man one finds that the 
food elements fall naturally into three great groups, or classes: 
The proteins, carbo-hydrates and fats, and inseparably asso- 
ciated with them, the inorganic salts or ash of the food. Of 
these various constituents, the only dispensible one is the 
fats. One cannot indefinitely omit the carbo-hydrates por- 
tion without serious pathological consequences, and, even- 
tually, death. Though the fats are a normal and 
important portion of the daily food intake of all classes 
of men, they are, theoretically, dispensible and _ practi- 
cally, can be less regarded than any other constituent. 
As regards the mineral portion, or the inorganic elements, there 
are certain chemical elements like sodium, potassium, chlorine, 
sulphuric acid, the phosphates, etc., which could be considerably 
reduced, but as a whole class of bodies they are fundamentally 
and absolutely indispensable. 

Generally speaking, there are as many dietaries as there 
are kinds and races of men. For example: There is the 
diet of the Japanese coolie, the peasant of Europe, 
the soldiers of the various armies, the American col- 
lege man, the American athletes, European and American vege- 
tarians, California fruitarians, et cetra, to infinity. All are 
living, all are active and healthy, and no one of them has fallen 
into any special classification of greater activity of mind or 
body, nor of greater life period. Each of these classes has been 
the subject of special study during long periods and more or less 
standards of diet have been the results. The standards of the 
various armies and classes of people of the world, have con- 
tained a fuel value ranging from 3000 to 5000 calories, and 
a protein allotment of from 30 to 180 grams, daily. Dr. Arnold, 
in his recent Atlantic City address, suggested the establishment 
of four standard diets for hospitals. He recommended the 
proportion of 100 grams protein, 80 grams fats and 300 grams 
of carbo-hydrates, and that these be arranged in such quantity 


ai 


1913 | Cuermistry or Drier 175 


that diets Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4 should contain 1500, 2000, 2500 
and 3000 calories, respectively. Personally, I would think 
his protein per cent. for a sick man very high. However, this 
is a matter of opinion, after all, and depends altogether upon 
what is indicated. Of all the conspicuous and far reaching 
dietaries of this kind, the most recent were, probably, those of 
Professor Chittenden and associates, at Yale, upon United 
States soldiers. These men were under military discipline all 
the while, and their diet and activity were capable of accurate 
measurement during a relatively long period. The results of 
these experiments, familiar to you all, was to lower the protein 
standard or requirement to about 40 to 50 grams, per day, or, 
one-third the usual practice for an average healthy man per- 
forming a normal daily routine of active life. The protein part 
of the diet has always been the subject of chief interest on 
account of its great complexity and its relation to the repair 
of tissue wastes and the association of its end-products of 
digestion with pathological conditions. 

It has been very valuable to establish upon an experimental 
basis these various standards of the past. However, 


they must be looked upon as maximum and minimum 


guides between which we may select with discretion 
and not as rules to follow. There can be no satis- 
factory diet for all classes of men or any individual for 
all time. No two of us will get the same results from a fixed 
diet, neither will any one of us continue indefinitely to derive 
the same results from a fixed diet for all times of life. You 
have doubtless been asked many times, “Doctor, what shall I 
eat?” If you take it seriously, it is one of the hardest questions 
you receive in your practice and calls for many in return from 
you. You must first know the conditions for which you are to 
prescribe. It all depends upon the age, bodily activity, health, 
environment of climate, state of mind, ete., and, last of all, 
what you can find out about the personal idiosyneracies. It 
may be reasonable for you to inquire in return, “ Are your 
habits, proportions and physiological processes normal, in your 
best knowledge?” “Do you suffer from anemia, or surplus 


176 JOURNAL OF THE. MircHELL Society [February 


adipose?’ “Are you worried or happy?’ “Married or single?” 
“How is your peristaltic wave?” “Is your indican high?’ 
“What are your bacterial flora?’ “Is the alcoholic proportion 
of your diet excessive?” ‘What is your average opsonic in- 
dex?” “Do you ‘Fletcherize’ or bolt your food?’ ‘‘Are you a 
commuter?’ These questions may seem slightly fanciful, but 
each and every one has a relation to what the ration should be 
and the fate of such food products in the twelve yards of the 
digestive tract. More seriously, Dr. Benedict, in his recent 
studies of metabolism of man has said, ‘When we consider the 
chemical complexity of man’s organism, the considerable differ- 
ences in size, weight and temperament and the marked changes 
in diet and physical activity in the course of his daily life, it is 
difficult to imagine him having a normal metabolism to which 
all metabolism measurements can be referred. No two people 
may be said to be alike, even in physical appearance, and it is 
reasonable to suppose that when all the factors of life are taken 
into consideration this lack of similarity will be even more ap- 
parent. Different people, would, therefore, be expected, a 
priori, to show marked differences in metabolism, and yet the 
collection of statistics regarding the metabolic functions of in- 
dividuals approximating uniformity in size, weight, physical 
activity and general development will give results of distinct 
value and interest.” Observation of the results of Benedict in 
the experiments of metabolism of man by the calorimeter meth- 
od shows what a wide range of conditions the dietitian has to 
deal with. 

There cannot be, of course, a fixed standard of food 
in regard to either calorific or tissue-building functions without 
noting all the data and specific idiosyneracies of the individual 
under consideration. However, general laws may be laid down 
under specific conditions of age, body weight, etc., as constants, 
which may be applicable to new individual cases with remark- 
able physiological accuracy. Benedict, in a striking series of 
experiments has demonstrated very clearly that a change from 
a diet poor in carbo-hydrates to one rich in carbo-hydrate is 
accompanied by a considerable retention of water by the tissues 


ee 


~I 
~I 


1913 | Cuemistry oF Drer 1 


of the body. Conversely, he has shown that when a change is 
made from the rich carbo-hydrate diet and a fat diet is sub- 
stituted, there is a considerable loss of water to the body. It is 
obvious, therefore, that if a change is made from a normal diet 
to one containing an excessive proportion of carbo-hydrates, 
even though the total nutrients in the food may be insufficient 
for the maintenance of the body, the excess carbo-hydrates may 
cause the retention of a sufficient amount of water to more than 
make up for the loss in the body material resulting from the 
decrease in the total body food supply. 

A typical experiment follows: Diet for three days 
largely carbo-hydrate, suddenly changed to one of equi- 
valent energy, which, however, was derived in _ large 
part from fat. The changes in body weight during 
the series was remarkable and interesting. During the 
three days carbo-hydrate period, there was a total gain of 61 
grams (2 ounces). On the fourth day the diet was so changed 
that the greater part of the energy came from the fat rather 
than from the carbo-hydrates. Although the total amount of 
food and drink ingested during the fat period was somewhat 
greater, there was a very material loss to the body, averaging 
914 grams (30 ounces) per day. The gain and loss above had 
to do with water only. Benedict says this rapid loss of water 
under specific diet should be interesting to continue with vari- 
ous inorganic salts and is significant in such pathological condi- 
tions as dropsy. What factors in the diet determine the gain 
of water are of great importance. 

Generally speaking, it matters not what the source of the 
earbo-hydrate may be. Of course, we must recognize the fact 
that the new starches, surrounded by a mass of indigestible 
tissue, is the most of all likely to escape the digestive 
juices, and, therefore, the one which is lable to pass 
through the body unused to the greatest extent; that 
is, considering that the raw starch must be disintegrated 
and prepared for digestion by the grinding action of the teeth 
during an era of rush and bolting of food, it is very probable 
that much of it will escape grinding and imbedded in the sur- 


178 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHeELt Society [February 


rounding tissue of indigestible cellulose, will escape conversion 
into soluble food products. Therefore, if the starch be fed 
wholly uncooked it must be allowed more freely in the diet 
because a greater part will never become available as food ma- 
terial. This is strikingly shown in a vegetarian or fruitarian 
diet where the uncooked carbo-hydrate proportion is allowed in 
such quantities. To offset this condition we must bear in mind 
that this kind of starch or carbo-hydrate food will assist in fill- 
ing the intestine with an indigestible mass of fibre which 
plays an important function in stimulating peristaltic action 
and giving character to the feces. If the carbo-hydrate be fed 
in the form of cooked starch, the hard granules have been rup- 
tured and the first stage of starch digestion has begun. The 
swelling and hydration has taken place and a certain amount 
of soluble starch and dextrin have already been formed. 

Such a carbo-hydrate mass is capable of very rapid conversion 
into soluble sugars under the influence of deliberate mastication 
in the presence of an active saliva. Those of us who have many 
times witnessed the action of such diastatic enzymes as ptyalin, 
pancreatic, lipase, or maltase upon a well cooked and partly 
dextrinized starch at body temperature have been impressed 
with the rapidity of this enzyme action in comparison with 
the slower action of pepsin and trypsin upon the proteins. It 
has been shown that the three pancreatic enzymes capable of 
digesting proteins, carbo-hydrates and fats are found in the 
intestine of the new-born infant from the very first. There- 
fore, we may expect a co-operation between the saliva and the 
pancreatic juice in the breaking up of starches, even in early 
life. Where it is of interest to spare the diastatic digestion any 
extra work, or where the individual does not “handle” his 
carbo-hydrate well, we naturally turn to the soluble sugars and 
it matters not greatly which one we may select. In some recent 
experimental work in animal feeding, lactose has indicated 
some superiority to the other sugars of the diet, but at present 
that information is incomplete and is not available. 

Just what the amount of this carbo-hydrate portion should be, 
depends upon the proportion of protein and fats. You will recall 


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JONG EM, aay 


1913] CurMistry oF Diet 179 


that the carbo-hydrate oxydizes in the body to form water and 
carbon dioxide, while the protein substances gives such end pro- 
ducts as urea and uric acid. Therefore, the body has eventually 
from a high carbo-hydrate diet, simple chemical end-products, 
which are not associated with trouble in elimination. It is impor- 
tant to supply ample fuel value in readily digestible carbo-hy- 
drate in order to spare the protein. It is more justifiable to deal 
out the carbo-hydrate in excess in the diet than any other consti- 
tuent. It is “handled” by the body with the least effort and 
saves any protein which should go into forming new body tis- 
sues from having to act as a fuel on account of shortage else- 
where of either fat or carbo-hydrate. This sparing action of 
the carbo-hydrate upon the fuel protein or tissue protein is no- 
where better shown than in the case of the Southern negro in 
the fields during the sugar cane season. He quite largely exists 
upon the thick syrup of the sugar cane, and naturally conserves 
in this way his limited amount of protein, and thus meets the 
“high cost of living.” 

Referring again to the fat portion, I may say that 
the theory of transmigration of fat globules seems 
untenable. There is great doubt if any neutral fat passes to 
epithelial cells of the intestines as such. It must be split up by 
the combined action of the alkaline pancreatic juice and bile 
into its simpler constituents, the fatty acids and glycerine. To 
be sure, the fat soluble dyes, such as Sudan 3 and Biebrich 
Scarlet, when fed dissolved in such fat as olive oil, do appear 
in the laid-on adipose tissue and in the lipoid layers in the 
yolk of the egg. But this does not prove the transmigration of 
neutral, undigested fat, which may be explained by the ab- 
sorbtive action of the circulating bile upon the split fatty acids 
and dye at the same time. In other words, the transport of 
fat-soluble dye may be done by the bile and finally deposited 
with the adipose tissue, where we find it in post-mortem. If 
glycerine and fatty acids are fed, fat will be formed and de- 
posited the same as from a diet of neutral fat. Also, if the 
soaps of the fatty acids are fed the corresponding fats will be 
deposited. Furthermore, if fatty acids alone are fed, fat will 


180 JOURNAL OF THE MircHE ty Society [February 


be formed and deposited just the same as on a diet of neutral 
fat. In other words, during a fat-free diet containing the fatty 
acid radicals only, the corresponding fats will appear in the 
intestinal epithelial cells all the while, showing that the body 
has the power of immediately synthesizing the glycerine and 
combining the two to form a circulating fat. Not only has the 
body the power of synthesizing the glycerol portion, but also 
the fatty acid radicle. In summary, it can synthesize its own fat 
from other non-fat constituents or “building stones” of the 
diet. Long time experiments with chemically fat-free rations 
show an increase maintenance of body fat tissue. Besides, we 
have the old well-used example of the milk and butter fat pro- 
duction in large quantity on a practically fat-free diet, that is, 
from a largely carbo-hydrate and protein diet, where the intake 
of fat elements is very far out of proportion to the fat pro- 
duction and secretion. 

Are the proteins, carbo-hydrates and fats of the 
diet specific for the synthesis of specific tissue? No. 
Does it require absolutely and exclusively the casein and 
lactalbumin of mother’s milk to produce the infant tissue and 
infant metabolic exchanges? No. Does it require the Gliadin 
and associated proteins of the endospern of the wheat kernel 
to produce the wheat plantlet? We do not know. And why 
did Nature “happen” to place a crystalline albumin in the egg 
and the protein edestin in the kernel of the hemp seed? Ten 
years ago I recall hearing my associate and teacher, Dr. Thomas 
B. Osborne, of New Haven, say: “Suppose the reserve pro- 
teins are specific for each biological kind. What would happen 
if we could aseptically replace the albumin of the egg with the 
protein gliadin of the wheat and incubate the resulting product ? 
Would we produce a chick of normal proportions, or would he 
take on vegetative characteristics, develop chlorophyl, multiple 
wings, and keep cool in summer under the shade of his own 
green leaves?’ Of course, this was an indulgence of the imagi- 
nation to the production of a monstrosity. 

But, seriously again, we are just now in the dawn 
of a newer and broader chemistry whereby some of 


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| 
| 


1913 | Cuemistry or Drer 181 


these complicated processes associated with the  intri- 
eate protein molecules are beginning to clear up. It has 
been the good fortune of Dr. Osborne, whom I mentioned above, 
to play a leading part in the solution of these problems. Quite 
within this decade the protein molecule has begun to yield its 
great store of secrets and we are now in possession of practically 
all the decomposition products of the most familiar proteins 
and the gross molecular composition of the most important con- 
stituent of the dietary is quite well known. The average pro- 
tein has a molecular weight of approximately 2000, and consists 
of practically 24 distinct chemical substances, linked together 
to form the complete protein. The simplest protein molecule 
consists of about 15 distinct and different amino acids and 
about three more basic substances, and when the protein ma- 
terial is such a one as nucleoprotein, it contains phosphorus 
in that complicated organic body, nucleic acid. When the chem- 
istry of it becomes even more complicated, though the compo- 
sition of the nucleic acids also is quite well understood today. 

It is through just such careful feeding experiments as those 
conducter by Osborne and Mendel today that these questions of 
specificity of the diet are being answered. Such feedings for 
long periods on a single protein substance, while all other con- 
stituents of the diet are satisfied, has shown for long time that 
when that protein substance is gelatine, wheat gliadin, zein 
from the maize, ete., that the animal cannot live beyond a rea- 
sonable wasting period. Why? Because those proteins do not 
contain all the elements necessary for tissue synthesis. Gelatin 
or wheat gliadin have little or no tryptophane, little glycocoll, 
and are short in other respects of certain food groups which the 
body must get from the alimentation to manufacture blood 
serum-albumin, muscle-myosin, hematin, haemoglobin and the 
like tissues of the body. It is simply a problem of chemical con- 
struction. The building materials must be supplied. If you 
wish to build a brick house you buy brick, lime, sand and water. 
Therefore, if you wish to build a human body, you must sup- 
ply the chemical building stones or “Bausteine.” 

In regard to the proteins, they are apparently not strictly spe- 

3 


182 JOURNAL oF THE: MircHELL Society [February 


cific, but are to a degree. Only recently experimental animals 
have been nourished into the second and third generation upon a 
rounded diet containing a single protein. But, that protein had 
to be relatively complete in its chemical make-up. In the present 
state of our knowledge in regard to the protein portion of the 
diet, it is well to select a variety so that we may be reasonably 
sure to include all the chemical groups or “‘Bausteine,” which 
must be present in the nitrogenous part of the food. 

Regarding the specificity of the carbo-hydrates, they are of a 
much simpler composition, are only one substance and may be 
looked upon chiefly as a carbonaceous fuel for the great metabo- 
lic furnace. In a normal individual the carbo-hydrate portion of 
the ration is soon converted into the dextrose or cireulating sugar 
which is readily oxidized to carbon dioxide and water. It matters 
not whether that carbo-hydrate is a soluble starch or a soluble 
sugar, the processes of a normal digestion can handle it. Of 
course, we are assuming that the carbo-hydrate in question is a 
common food starch or sugar and not a complicated cellulose of 
indigestible structure and composition, such as the alge, wheat 
straw or hay. Bear in mind, at this point, we are only bring- 
ing out the point of specificity of the various elements of the 
diet, and the carbo-hydrates are not such. The whole carbo- 
hydrate, from a pure dietary standpoint, may be lactose or 
cane sugar through the whole of a long life time with perfect 
nutritive results. 

How about the fats? Are they specifie for specific 
adipose tissue formation? No, they are not. We are 
quite positive about this matter recently. This may be modified 
by abnormalities, but under the well and healthy conditions of 
the oxidative, fermentative and absorbtive processes of the body, 
any suitable fat may be fed, and may be fed continuously. 
Why? What is the function of it? It is first, a great fuel 
food of twice the calorific value of carbo-hydrate and twice that 
of the protein. Then, it acts to spare the protein oxydation 
and takes the place of the carbo-hydrate when it is not sufficient 
calorific amount. Possibly the hyrolytic products of fat di- 
gestion, glycerine and the corresponding fatty acids, leads to a 


crise tall ke im ti a it Mri ie el Re Gi |, 


= 


1913] Curmistry oF Diet 183 


more ready formation of the fatty tissues of the body than 
were they not supplied. However, we know recently that the 
fat of the body surplus may be synthesized from the carbo-hy- 
drate or protein of the diet and, further than that, we have 
animal experiments where they have been fed into the second 
generation and have given milk to their young on a fat-free 
diet. When the fat is omitted from the dietary, the correspond- 
ing calories must be supplied by the carbo-hydrate in order to 
spare the protein. 

In the summary, the proteins are to a slight degree, 
specifie foods, but the carbo-hydrates and fats are not at 
all so. Regarding protein specificially: Osborne and Mendel 
say today, ‘““Whatever may be the source or chemical make-up 
of the protein previous to its involvement in the nutritive pro- 
cesses, the resulting tissue cells and fluids remain characteristic 
and specific for the species.” 

It is well known that by limiting the food supply of an un- 
grown individual, its development may be retarded. If the 
underfeeding is prolonged through the cycle of growth, 
the full stature limited by heredity may not be 
attained. The Sub-normal growth of immature animals 
on such a typical experiment as wheat-gliadin—stunting 
of albino rats suggests a chemical explanation of beneficial ef- 
fects observed from a “change of environment, vacation, coun- 
try air, mineral springs, and the like” when the individual in 
his or her daily routine at home, may have been suffering from 
a deficiency of some special chemical element or group, which 
he required in greater amount. These specific substances which 
we do not always get in sufficient quantity are typified in iodine 
and its relation to the thyroid, growth and control; and a phos- 
phorus deficiency, as shown in beri-beri. Certain individuals 
have wasteful idiosyneracies, whereby they do not conserve all 
the chemical elements and groups which reach the ailmentary 
tract in the food, and, consequently, they must be fed these 
same substances in greater quantity or in more assimilable 
form. McCrudden, (Rockefeller Institute) has recently shown 
that in certain cases of retarded growth there is faulty skeletal 


184 JOURNAL OF THE MitTcHELL Society | February 


development and disturbance of calcium metabolism. The 
bones are frail and easily fractured. Large quantities of 
calcium are lost through the feces, while the urine is almost 
free from calcium. He says it seems possible that the retarded 
skeletal development is due to the lack of calcium salts available 
for bone growth. Likewise, most of us receive sufficient metal- 
lic iron in our dietary, but if abnormal amounts are discarded 
in the intestinal waste, symptoms of anemia may follow and 
assimilable iron feeding may be indicated. 

I have discussed the minimum protein of the diet, but what of 
excessive amounts ? One interesting observation is the relation of 
forced feeding (by this I mean excessive feeding) to the content 
of inorganic salts. Quoting Osborne and Mendel again, “In 
forced protein and forced fat feeding, we must look out for the 
inorganic bases, or the acid digestion products of the food will 
drain the skeleton of sodium, potassium, magnesium and like 
bases, and the net result may be a gain in adipose and muscular 
tissue at a sacrifice of skeleton. This is particularly the result 
of the acid end-products of the carbo-hydrate portion. You 
recall a typical abnormal illustration of this type in acid or 
Ketonuria, associated with sugar combustion. Such individ- 
uals must have the common bases to neutralize these acid pro- 
ducts or the sacrifice of these elements by the body must follow. 

Just at this point I feel justified in a few remarks regarding 
bacterial flora. Though bacteriological, it cannot be omitted 
from dietary studies any longer. The organisms common to 
the intestinal tract when feeding upon a rich protein diet pro- 
duce basic or alkaline end-products, while on a carbo-hydrate 
surplus the local conditions become acid. Whether this chem- 
ical condition be alkaline or acid determines to a large extent 
the permanent bacterial flora. Quoting Kendall: ‘A most 
fundamental principle of bacterial metabolism may be ex- 
pressed thus: Fermentation takes precedence over putrefac- 
tion.” That is to say, bacteria in general which can use both 
carbo-hydrate and protein act upon the former in preference 
to the latter, though both are present in the same food. It must 
be remembered that all true toxins are nitrogenous, while acids 


1913] Curmistry oF Drier 185 


as produced by fermentation are at worst but irritants and are 
for the most part non-nitrogenous. It would appear, therefore, 
that the production of toxic substances of bacterial origin must 
be the result of proteolytic putrefactive activity rather than of 
fermentative activity. 

The importance of the saving action of carbo-hydrate 
for protein in the light of toxin production must be 
apparent. In this connection again, Osborne and Men- 
del have attributed great importance to the bacterial flora in 
their success in maintaining animals on what we might call 
insufficient food. In the first place, they have reported what 
has many times been observed, i. e., that their caged animals, 
living on an artificial and under-nourishing diet, will eat of their 
own feces. Furthermore, they report the interesting observa- 
tion that their animals fed on a stunting diet, will eat the feces 
of other rats rather than their own, when the opportunity is 
offered. In a number of such cases, they have observed an im- 
mediate improvement in the rate of growth, while the diet 
remained constant. This gain in utilization of the food, they 
have attributed in such cases to a new acquisition of bacteria. 
By way of illustration: Their maintenance diets for the albino 
rats, were purine-free and they advance the hypothesis that prob- 
ably the bacterial flora played an important part in such synthe- 
sis as the purines. Quoting Herter: ‘The number of bacteria 
in the daily excreta of man has been estimated as approximate- 
ly 126 billion.” Such an amount of bacterial activity cannot 
be overlooked in the chemical production or synthesis of definite 
compounds. Osborne and Mendel suggest that probably the 
bacteria are able to synthesize some of these necessary com- 
pounds which, without them, would be unavailable for epithelial 
absorbtion. In other words, when the animal under dietary 
study is observed to exist on a purine and lipoid-free diet, 
possibly those substances become available for absorbtion in 
the intestinal tract from the disintegration of bacterial bodies. 
McCollum has recently demonstrated the long maintenance 
of hens on a chemically fat-free and lipoid-free diet. Under 
these conditions, pounds of eggs, during successive weeks, were 


186 JOURNAL oF THE MircuEeLyt Society [February 


collected with the normal content of lecithin and fats in the 
yolks. Was that due to bacterial flora or can the hen synthesize 
lecithin? Another interesting aspect of the widely recognized 
importance of the bacterial flora has been the mushroom-like 
growth of the ideas of Metchinkoff and Massol upon the lactic 
acid bacillus and cultures. 

The fundamental principles of fighting one bacterium 
with another harmless culture and the resulting cleans- 
ing of the intestinal tract of putrefactive, poisonous, 
substances is to you a familiar problem. Quoting Her- 
ter again: “The work of Baumann and others has taught us 
that although the putrefactive decomposition of the protein in 
the intestine is a consequence of micro-organisms which regular- 
ly inhabit the gut, this decomposition often exceeds the limits 
of health.” 

In dealing with these putrefactive conditions we have 
various methods at our disposal. Besides the cleansing of 
the intestinal tract with acid-producing cultures, we have the 
wide variety of medicinal laxatives and antiseptic drugs. There 
is one other more recent method to which I would eall your 
attention. In cases of intestinal activity caused by a too high 
purity of food intake, possibly with too little indigestible fibrous 
material, or from sluggish peristalsis, or any other cause, the 
result is the condition of common constipation which means a 
chapter of typical toxic conditions, most of which can be readily 
produced experimentally by doses per os of the products of pro- 
tein putrefaction, that is, indol, skatol, putrescine, phenol, 
kresol, ete. It has become a rather recent practice to feed to 
such individuals the polysaccharide, hemicellulose, agar agar, 
to produce filling of the gut, or what is called in feeding ex- 
periments, “roughage.” This is supposed to act by hydrating 
to an enormous degree and bringing about a stimulation of 
peristaltic movements. 

I have been particularly interested in these proper- 
ties of agar agar because a great deal of the original 
and best work on the indigestibility of this and other related 
marine forms has been done at the Yale Physicological Labo- 


1913 | Curmistry oF Drier 187 


ratories, and part of it was in progress while I was there. It 
was a common sight in those days to see the Japanese investiga- 
tor, T. Saiki, eating great hands full of these dry celluloses, 
without accompaniment. His published results are doubtless 
familiar to you. In conducting some of these experiments 
upon myself during recent weeks, I happened to observe that 
my formerly always low indican coefficient was now alarming- 
ly high. Naturally I looked for the cause, and think I have 
found it in the agar feeding. On discontinuing the agar agar 
my indicanuria dropped. On taking up the diet again it re- 
eurred. Furthermore, I have confirmed this fact with a half 
dozen to a dozen cases. Though this is not a large number 
I am convinced of the observation because I have had a hun- 
dred per cent. positive results. I am giving you this as a new 
set of facts. It is to me extremely interesting that a substance 
that has been fed for the purpose of removal of putrefactive 
products has caused a high absorbtion of the chief of these, 
indol. I wish you to regard this as a preliminary statement, 
only. I cannot explain it yet. 

I have here for your interest a set of indican 
tubes taken from a typical case such as I have men- 
tioned. The tubes begin with normal days and end with normal 
days, including in the series one or two days following only one 
day of feeding ten grams of agar agar with a common break- 
fast cereal and milk. I might say that I have in progress a set 
of experiments to show the effect of feeding various agar prep- 
arations and “agar bread.” The absorbtion of indoxyl has al- 
ways been prompt and its elimination equally so. Certain 
eases, however, have led me to expect that the condition of 
indicanuria may persist for many days. I solicit your criti- 
cisms, suggestions and explanations of this phenomenon. 

There is yet another relationship between the protein of the 
diet and indicanuria to which I would call your attention. Aside 
from all other considerations, the formation of indol must come 
from the protein. Several years ago, Dr. Osborne and myself 
have shown that certain proteins, like gliadin, do not give the 
tryptophane reaction. That is, they do not contain it, or only in 


188 JOURNAL oF THE MircHEeLyt Society [February 


traces. Underhill has shown that tryptophane is the direct 
precursor of indol or indican in the urine. Furthermore he 
has demonstrated, experimentally, that the output of indican 
in the urine falls immediately, when the individual is fed on a 
tryptophane-free protein exclusively. When the individual 
was returned to a meat diet, the increase in indol formation 
promptly appeared. This is suggestive in the treatment of ex- 
cessive putrefaction cases, where the practice is often to reduce 
the protein of the diet to a partial starvation basis. Why starve 
the body cells of all the food constituents of the protein mole- 
cule when only one is the offender? Why not increase the 
protein intake with gliadin, gelatine or Zein ? 

In conclusion, each constituent of the diet performs its speci- 
fic function and must be seriously considered. The carbo- 
hydrates are necessary. The fats are valuable. The inorganic 
salts are indispensable; but the newer advance in chemistry of 
the diet must come from the proteins. 


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JOURNAL 


ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE TWELFTH ANNUAL MERT- 
ING OF THE NORTH CAROLINA ACADEMY OF 
SCIENCE HELD AT. THE STATE NORMAL AND 
INDUSTRIAL COLLEGE, GREENSBORO, N. C.,, 
FRIDAY AND SATURDAY, APRIL 25-26, 1913. 


The Executive Committee met at 2:40 P. M. Friday, April 
26. There were present C. S. Brimley, President, and E. W. 
Gudger, Secretary ex officio, and by appointment in the ab- 
sence of the other regular members, Dr. H. V. Wilson and Prof. 
C. W. Edwards. The Secretary made his report as to the state 
of finances and membership which was referred to the academy. 
An invitation of the faculty of Trinity College, Durham, to 
hold the next annual meeting there, was accepted. The follow- 
ing were elected to membership: 


Briggs, R. W., Professor of Engineering, Trinity College. 
Cunningham, Bert, Instructor in Sciences, High School, Durham. 
Dixon, Alfred A., Professor of Physics, Guilford College. 

Downing, John S., Professor of Chemistry, Guilford College. 
George, W. C., Instructor in Zoology, University of North Carolina. 
Metcalf, C. L., State Department of Agriculture, Raleigh. 


Radcliffe, Lewis, Director, Laboratory of United States Bureau of 
Fisheries, Beaufort. 


Ragsdale, Virginia, Associate Professor of Mathematics, StateNormal 
College. 


Rosenkrans, D. B., Instructor in Botany, Agriculture and Mechanical Col- 
lege, West Raleigh. 


Smith, John E., Instructor in Geology, University of North Carolina. 
Swarthout, G. E., Professor of Natural Science, Atlantic Christian Col- 
lege, Wilson. 
Se: R. Y., Plant Breeder, North Carolina Agriculture Experiment 
tation. 


2 JOURNAL OF THE Mircuery Society [July 


The Secretary then read the following letters together with 
his reply thereto: 


Dr. E. W. Gudger, 
Secretary, North Carolina Academy of Science, 
Greensboro, N. C. 
DEAR SIR:— 

You are doubtless aware that the Ninth International Zoological Con- 
gress is to be held in Monaco, March 25th to 29th 1913. I am to attend 
the Congress as an official delegate and will sail from New York on 
March Ist. 

If the North Carolina Academy wishes to be represented at this Con- 
gress without expense to the Academy, I can act in this capacity should 


you so desire. 
Respectfully, 


C. W. STILES. 
Dr. C. W. Stiles, 
United States Public Health Service, 
Washington, D. C. 
DEAR SIR:— 

You are hereby appointed the official representative of the North 
Carolina Academy of Science at the Ninth International Zoological 
Congress to be held at Monaco, March 25-20, 1913. This letter will con- 
stitute your credentials to the authorities of the Congress. 

Very truly yours, 
E. W. GUDGER, Secretary. 


These were ordered transmitted to the Academy that they 
might be recorded in the proceedings. There being no further 
business, the Committee adjourned. 

President Brimley called the Academy to order at 3 P. M., 
14 members being present, and appointed the following com- 
mittees: 

Auditing—Coker, W. C., Wolfe, J. J., Metcalf, Z. P. 

Resolutions—Hutt, W. N., George, W. C., Swarthout, G. E. 

Nominations—Edwards, C. W., Wilson, H. V., Binford, 
Raymond. 

The reading and discussion of papers was then begun and 
continued until adjournment at 5:45 when eight had been read. 

At 8:30 P, M. the Academy reassembled in the Physics Lece- 
ture Room of the McIver Memorial Building, when, after a 
cordial address of weleome to the College by President J. I. 
Foust, President C. S. Brimley of the Academy, delivered his 


CT a 


ee 


1913] Procrrpines or N. C. Acapemy or ScreNCcE 3 


presidential address on “Zoo-Geography.” The Academy then 
adjourned to the reception hall of the Students’ Building, where 
a reception in their honor was given by the Faculty of the 
College. 


The Academy met in annual business session at 9:20 A. M. 
Saturday with President Brimley in the chair. The minutes 
of last meeting were read and approved, and reports of the 
Secretary and of committees were called for. 


The Secretary read an invitation from the Greensboro Coun- 
try Club, extending to the members of the Academy the cour- 
tesies of the Club during their stay in Greensboro. He then 
reported that on Jan. 1, 1912, the membership of the Academy 
was 85, that 10 members were lost through resignation, re- 
moval from the State, or non-payment of dues, but that 5 new 
members were elected at the 1912 meeting, making a total for 
1912 of 80. By vote of the Academy the Secretary was in- 
structed to confer with the Editor of the Mircnrern JourNaAL 
to see if it would not be possible to publish in the Proceedings 
every May a list of the members for the current year. 


The Secretary then reported for the Executive Committee 
its action of yesterday as to membership and place of next meet- 
ing. The Nominating Committee offered for officers for 
1913-14: President, Franklin Sherman, Jr., State Entomolo- 
gist; Vice-president, Z. P. Metcalf, Professor of Entomology, 
Agricultural and Mechanical College; Secretary-Treasurer, E. 
W. Gudger, Professor of Biology and Geology State Normal 
College; for additional members of Executive Committee, W. 
C. Coker, Professor of Botany, University of N. C.; J. J. 
Wolfe, Professor of Biology and Geology, Trinity College; C. 
S. Brimley, Naturalist, Raleigh. 


The Auditing Committee announced that the Treasurer’s 
report as given below is correct. It was read and ordered 
printed in the Proceedings: 


4 JoURNAL OF THE MircHEett Society [July 


REPORT OF E. W. GUDGER, TREASURER, 1912-13, 
APRIL 21, 1913 


RECEIPTS 
Balance last audit ...... sg Sawin ce Rak Sear ra sok tee ree $193.00 
Dues since Jast. atidit: -.5-2.5.4 aescke sc sien d eseee camer rece eee 84.00 
Interest Savings Bank? S2o7io 2/5022 seam ak Va eee eee 5.08 
Receipts total; =... soso ca sere oe we eimai tda tye Gk esi eee $282.08 
Expenses total 5222 0235 hee once e pan bees ts Goce ate cee ie eee 91.96 
Balance stotal Piaccchn «oe eee saten och Oa eee eC Eee $190.12 
RESOURCES 
Savines patik "balance. - o.. 20cc5 eet ee diane + ca sewe qom en ewe e ree $130.76 
Wheckine’ bank Halatce-.. sc). airs. «st ors Gree eee Oa ee ee 59.36 
A bay 2 RO Se ee a NS ae RE tlre SAR dio RR LS IE es Re anc $190.12 
DireseitipaidinApOUb) ies te eerie cece were eee ere ne ene 25.00 
Stampea maaivelopes On shane soc..va co ec fa tok oes sesame aes eee 1.50 
$216.12 
Peess omtstaniing Gents 6 -2-..6 dss occ sep oc ece set se eds soe eee 83.00 
estimated: Balance, — souks bts ae bas Fsbo ee ee eee ee ee $133.12 
EXPENSES 
eNO ies Ooi e ax do aein= Cn oe sn 2s ee eee ee $ 8.87 
IPSS Un. cas dd spe ee ts ce oi pte pe ee eerie Tee oe 3.14 
TyPEWriting: |... ss).'«- JAG se ft Anse oer antec eee Lee eee eee 1.15 
Secretary's expenses (19i2 meeting: 2... 5.8), 2442s ee eee 3.80 
Proceedings O12 sist on dere eee Oe ee eee eee eee eee eee 75.00 
Expenses. total ¢3s/S.b2 beep bance cooks ene eee $ 91.96 
OUTSTANDING DEBTS 
Proceedings | 1otg Piss. Bee bd. Fee Oe ates Soe a hie ae ance or eee $ 75.00 
Miscellaneous: (about) gees lae Dy eta scitiees bh ticeid Saloons Gee eee 8.00 
Total : 2 21. fee PRR eee ee chee ook ee ate nee ee $ 83.00 


Note transfer of $13.00 from Savings Bank to Checking Account. 


The Committee on Resolutions moved a vote of thanks to 
the Faculty of the State Normal College for the use of rooms, 
and for the reception tendered its members; to the press of the 
city for the excellent manner in which the meeting had been 
reported, and to the Country Club for its invitation. 

The Committee appointed in 1912 to bring in a report with 
recommendations for laws on ventilation of churches, school 


Or 


1913] Procrreprnes or N. C. Acapemy or Science 


houses, theaters, and other public buildings, was called for. 
Chairman Edwards reported progress and asked for further 
time, and on motion was instructed to bring in a report at the 
1914 meeting. 


At 9:40 A. M., the reading and discussion of papers was 
resumed and continued until the program was finished when 
adjournment was had at 1:15 P. M. There were 22 papers on 
the program, four of which were read by title, one by another 
member in the absence of its author, and 17 by their authors in 
the order as shown on the program. The attendance was 28 
out of a membership of 76. 


The following is a roster of the members of the Academy for 
1913-14. The names of those in attendance at the meeting are 
marked with a star: 


Addickes, T. W., Assistant Curator, State Museum, Raleigh. 
Allen, W. M., State Feed Chemist, Department Agriculture, Raleigh. 


pericom, E. E., Professor of Agriculture, State Normal College, Greens- 
oro. 


*Binford, Raymond, Professor of Biology, Guilford College. 
Blanchard, Julian, Professor Elect. Eng., Trinity College, Durham. 
Booker, Warren H., Assistant Secretary State Board Health, Raleigh. 


a ont, i G., Professor Mathematics, Science, Meredith College, 
aleigh. 


Briggs, R. W., Professor Engineering, Trinity College, Durham. 
*Brimley, C. S., Naturalist, Raleigh. 

Brimley, H. H., Curator State Museum, Raleigh. 

*Bruner, S. C., A and M. College, W. Raleigh. 


Cain, William, Professor Mathematics, University of North Carolina, 
Chapel Hill. 


Chrisman, W. G., State Veterinarian, Department Agriculture, Raleigh. 


*Clapp, 5S. Orchard and Nursery Inspector, Department Agriculture, 
Raleigh. 


Cobb, Collier, Professor of Geology, University of North Carolina, 
Chapel Hill. 


Coker, R. E., Director U. S. Fisheries Station, Fairport, La. 
*Coker, W. C., Prof. of Botany, Univ. of N. C., Chapel Hill. 
Collett, R. W., Supt. State Exper. Farms, Swanannoa. 
*Cunningham, Bert, Instructor in Sciences, High School, Durham. 
*Dixon, A. A., Prof. of Physics, Guilford College. 

*Downing, J. S., Prof. of Chemistry, Guilford College. 
*Edwards, C. W., Prof. of Physics, Trinity College, Durham. 
Ferrell, J. A., Assistant State Board Health, Raleigh. 


6 JOURNAL OF THE MircHEeLt Socrety [July 


Fulton, H. R., Professor Botany and Plant Pathology, A. and M. Col- 
lege, W. Raleigh. 


*George, W. C., Instructor in Zoology, University of North Carolina, 
Chapel Hill. 


*Gove, Anna M., Resident Physician, State Normal College, Greensboro. 


*Gudger, E. W., Professor Biology and Geology, State Normal College, 
Greensboro. 


*Hammel, W. C. A., Professor Physics and Manual Arts, State Normal 
College, Greensboro. 


Harding, W. T., 116 W. Jones St., Raleigh. 


*Herty, C. H., Professor of Chemistry, University of North Carolina, 
Chapel Hill. 


Hobbs, A. Wilson, Graduate Student Johns Hopkins University, Balti- 
more. 


Holmes, J. S., State Forester, Geology Survey, Chapel Hill. 

*Hutt, W. N., State Horticulturist, Department Agriculture, Raleigh. 
Ives, J. D., Assistant in Biology, Wake Forest College, Wake Forest. 
*Julian, C. A., Assistant Secretary State Board Health, Thomasville. 
Kilgore, B. W., State Chemist, Department Agriculture, Raleigh. 


Lanneau, J. F., Professor Applied Math. and Astronomy, Wake Forest 
College, Wake Forest. 


Lay, George W., Rector St. Mary’s School, Raleigh. 


Lewis, R. H., President North Carolina Association Prevent. Tubercu- 
losis, Raleigh. 


MacConnell, J. W., Professor Biology, Davidson College, Davidson. 
McIver, Mrs. Chas. D., Spring Garden St., Greensboro. 
MacNider, G M., Feed Chemist Department Agriculture, Raleigh. 


MacNider, W. deB., Professor Pharmacology, University of North 
Carolina, Chapel Hill. 


Markham, C. B., Assistant Professor Mathematics, Trinity College, 
Durham. 


*Mendenhall, Gertrude W., Professor Mathematics, State Normal College, 
Greensboro. 


*Metcalf, C. L., Entomologist, Department Agriculture, Raleigh. 
*Metcalf, Z. P., Professor Entomologist, A. and M. College, W. Raleigh. 
Mills, J. E., Consult. and Analyt. Chemist, Columbia, S. C. 
Newman, C. L., Professor Agriculture, A. and M. College, W. Raleigh. 
Norton, W. C., Asst. in Botany A. and M. College, W. Raleigh. 


Patterson, A. H., Professor of Physics, University of North Carolina, 
Chapel Hill. 


Pegram, W. H., Professor of Chemistry, Trinity College, Durham. 

ae Mary M., Professor of Chemistry, State Normal College, Greens- 
oro. 

Poteat, W. L., President and Professor of Biology, Wake Forest Col- 
lege, Wake Forest. 

*Pratt, J. H., State Geologist, Chapel Hill. 

Radcliffe, Lewis, Director Laboratory U. S. Bureau Fisheries, Beaufort. 


1913] Procrrpines or N. C, Acapemy or Scrence if 


Ragsdale, Virginia, Associate Professor of Mathematics, State Normal 
College, Greensboro. 


Rankin, W. S., Secretary State Board Health, Raleigh. 

Robinson, Mary, Assistant in Biology State Normal College, Greensboro. 
Rosenkrans, D. B., Instructor Botany, A. and M. College, W. Raleigh. 
Shaw, S. B., Department Agriculture, Raleigh. 


Sherman, Franklin Jr., State Entomologist, Department Agriculture, 
Raleigh. 


Shore, C. A., Director State Laboratory Hygiene, Raleigh. 
Smith, J. E., Instructor in Geology, University N. C., Chapel Hill. 
Stiles, C. W., Director Marine Hospital, Wilmington. 


*Strong, Cora, Associate Professor of Mathematics, State Normal Col- 
lege, Greensboro. 


*Swarthout, G. E., Professor Nat. Science, Atlantic Christian College, 
Wilson. 


Tillman, Opal I., Scientific Assistant Department Agriculture, Raleigh. 
Venable, F. P., President University of N. C., Chapel Hill. 


*Wheeler, A. S., Associate Professor Organic Chemistry, University N. 
C., Chapel Hill. 


Williams, L. F., Associate Professor Chemistry, A. & M. College, W. 
Raleigh. 


eon, H. V., Professor Zoology, University of North Carolina, Chapel 
ill. 


Wilson, R. N., Professor Chemistry, Trinity College, Durham. 
*Winters, R. Y., Plant Breeder, N. C. Agr. Experiment Station, W. 
Raleigh. 
*Withers, W. A., Professor of Chemistry, A. & M. College, W. Raleigh. 
*Wolfe, J. J., Professor of Biology and Geology, Trinity College, Durham. 


In addition to the presidential address on “Zoo-geography,” 
which is published in the current number of this Journat, the 
following papers were presented: 


WILL CELLS OF THE EMBRYO SEA URCHIN, WHEN REINTRO- 
DUCED INTO THE BODY OF THE ADULT, BECOME 
TISSUE, CELLS OF THE LATTER 


H. V. WILSON 


Plasmodia formed by union of lymph cells were allowed to engulf 
blastule, and were grafted on the wound membranes which close in 
apertures made in the test of the urchin. The blastule after certain 
changes broke up into their constituent cells. In this way disssociated 
embryonic cells were brought into the midst of a developing membrane, 
having a very simple histological character. In the actual experiments a 
very large proportion of the embryonic cells underwent degeneration. 
There was some evidence, though by no means convincing, that groups 
of the smaller cells became part of the developing membrane. 


8 JOURNAL OF THE MitTcuELL Society [July 


ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS IN PADINA 
JAS. J. WOLFE 


While at work on the life history of Padina at the Fisheries Laboratory 
at Beaufort it seemed worth while to test the theory of alternation of gen- 
erations in such plants by the cultural methods devised by Hoyt (Bot. Gaz., 
Jan., 1910). Numerous cultures were made during the summer of I9I0 
and the next—all having but indifferent success. They were repeated in 
1912 with somewhat better results. The cultures of Tetraspores produced a 
total of 134 male, 154 female, and no tetrasporic plants. Those from 
fertilized eggs were somewhat less conclusive. Nevertheless, the evidence 
from cultures strongly supports the view that in Padina there is a real 
alternation of sporophyte with gametophyte. 


GESTATION IN THE NURSE SHARK, GINGLYMOSTOMA 
CIRRATUM 


E. W. GUDGER 


A brief description was given of the breeding habits and of some points 
in the embryology of this shark, which was studied at the laboratory of 
the Carnegie Institution at Tortugas, Florida, in June and July, 1912. 
A brief account has been published in the Year Book for 1912 of the 
Carnegie Institution of Washington, Department of Marine Biology, 
pages 148-150. 


HYBRIDIZATION EXPERIMENTS ON FROGS 
W. C. GEORGE 


Chorophilus n. feriarum was crossed with Acris gryllus. About half 
of the egg segmented. (In the pure Chorophilus control practically all 
the eggs segmented). The development was markedly retarded and was 
abnormal. The conspicuous abnormalities concerned the behavior of the 
yolk pole. Thus segmentation at this pole was not perfect, and the 
closure of the blastopore was interferred with in such wise that there 
developed the well known abnormal type produced in so many ways, 
characterized by a large blastopore area and the differentiation of the 
neural plate. 


THE TOXICITY OF COTTONSEED MEAL 


W. A. WITHERS, J. F. BREWSTER, L. F. WILLIAMS, AND J. W. NOWELL 
WITH THE COLLABORATION OF R. S. CURTIS AND G. A. ROBERTS 


The authors conclude from experiments, some of which have been 


published:* that the toxicity of cottonseed meal is due to a constituent 
and Journal of Biological Chemitry, Volume XIV (1913), pp. 53-58. 


group of the proteins, probably one containing loosely bound sulphur. 
They suggest some form of iron as an antidote having found with Bel- 
gian hares that citrate of iron and ammonia (0.7 gms. daily) is effective 


*Proceedings Society for Promotion Agricultural Science, 1912, pp. 19-21, 


1913] Procrreprnes or N. C. Acapemy or Screncr 9 


in overcoming and in preventing cottonseed meal intoxication. Further 
experiments are in progress with small animals and with swine. [Efforts 
to isolate the toxic substance will be continued. 


FISHING FOR SHARKS IN KEY WEST HARBOR 
BE. W. GUDGER 

In this paper the capture was described of a 7-foot, 10-inch male speci- 
men of Hypoprion brevirotris and a to-foot, 10-inch female specimen of 
the tiger shark, Galeocerdo tigrinus, in Key West Harbor, in July, 1912. 
These two fishes not being very well known, it is proposed later to pub- 
lish careful descriptions with exact measurements. 

The jaws of the tiger shark, which were exhibited, measured 1 foot 4 
inches straight across, and around the curve of the jaws I foot 9 inches. 
Its stomach contained more than a half barrel of miscellaneous material, 
including a cow’s head (dehorned) minus the lower jaws, the vertebral 
column of a sheep, the scutes of a green turtle, the bones and feathers 
of two birds, and a lot of tin cans and sea weed. The uteri were dis- 
sected, but unfortunately the fish was not in breeding condition. 


A SECOND CAPTURE OF THE WHALE SHARK, RHINEODON 
TYPUS, IN FLORIA WATERS 
E. W. GUDGER 
This paper will be published in full in Science. 


For the following papers no abstracts have been received : 


Some Possible Effects of Solar Rays, (read by title), George W. Lay. 
Seasonal Periodicity in the Water Moulds, W. C. Coker. 

Vaccination Against Tuberculosis, C. A. Julian. 

The Geological History of Western North Carolina, J. H. Pratt. 
Action of Ammonia upon Arsenic Iodide, C. H. Herty, & J. T. Dobbins. 
A List of the Known Homoptera in North Carolina, Z. P. Metcalf. 

The Chestnut Bark Disease, S. C. Bruner. 


Serum-Simultaneous Method of Immunizing Hogs Against Cholera. 
W. C. Chrisman. 


Behavior of the Spermatozoa of the Crab, Raymond Binford. 


The Granville Tobacco Wilt Problem, (read by S. C. Bruner), H. R. 
Fulton. 


The Swamp Lands of Eastern North Carolina, J. H. Pratt. 
The Influence of Environment on Reproductive Processes, W. C. Coker. 


Survivals and Adaptions along the South Atlantic Coast: A Study in 
Anthropegeography, (read by title), Collier Cobb. 


A New Interference Apparatus (with a demonstration), C. W. Edwards. 


The Closing Up of Lake Basins in Massachusetts, Michigan, and North 
Carolina (read by title), Collier Cobb. 


E. W. Guperr, Secretary. 


ZOO-GEOGRAPHY* 


A Study of Life Zones 
BY C. S. BRIMLEY 


The intention of this paper is to discuss briefly, first, the 
primary life areas of the world, second, the life zones of North 
America, and thirdly the zoo-geographical divisions of our own 
state, North Carolina. 

The primary life areas of the world appear to me to be five 
in number, namely: 

An Australian Realm, consisting of Australia proper, New 
Guinea and the adjacent islands as far west as Celebes and Lom- 
bok. To these are also added New Zealand and the islands of 
Oceania. 

A Neo-tropical Realm, comprising South America, Central 
America, the West Indies, and the coasts of Mexico. 

An Ethiopian Realm, consisting of Africa south of the Sahara 
Desert, southern Arabia, and the island of Madagascar. 

An Indian or Oriental Realm, including India, Further In- 
dia, part of southern China, and the neighboring islands of the 
Malay Archipelago as far east as Borneo and Java. 

A Northern Realm, comprising North America, Europe, 
northern and central Asia, and northern Africa, being equiva- 
lent to the combined Nearctic and Palearctic Realms of Sclater 
and later writers. 

This is practically the first system ever proposed, that of 
Sclater, 1858, with only one alteration, the combining of his 
Palaearctic and Neartic Realms into a single Northern Realm. 
Many systems have been suggested since, these consisting largely 
of different groupings of Sclater’s original six realms, with or 
without the addition of certain others, constructed either of 
single islands as in the case of Madagascar, or of groups, as in 
the case of Oceania. The Arctic regions have also been set off 
as a distinct realm but this does not seem to be a tenable po- 
sition as all the Arctic animals belong to families attaining their 
full development further south. An Antarctic realm has also 


*Presidential address before the North Carolina Academy of Science, Greens- 
boro, N. C., April 25, 1913. 
10 


1913 | Zoo0-GEOGRAPHY 11 


been proposed but that would be characterised only by a single 
family of birds, the penguins, and it seems most advisable in 
this paper to look upon it as a region of secondary rank, or else 
to ignore it altogether. It seems to me also better to treat islands 
having a decidedly distinctive fauna as portions of the realm to 
which they most nearly approach, rather than to consider them 
as distinct, as there are all grades of such islands, and to recog- 
nize one opens the way to an almost endless list of meager in- 
sular realms. 

In this paper the distribution of land vertebrates only will 
as a rule be taken into account, and greater weight will be given 
to the occurrence of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians, than 
to that of birds, as the latter, owing to their powers of flight 
and migratory habits are less reliable indications of the zoolog- 
ical character of a region than the former. Both fishes and 
birds will however be used whenever it seems advisable. 

As the Northern Realm is distinguished from the group of 
four southern realms, more by the lack of the groups peculiar 
to them than by the presence of distinctive forms of its own, I 
will leave the discussion of its animals to the last, and take up 
the southern realms first, in the order in which they have been 
previously named. A further reason for this lies in the fact 
that after discussing the realms in general, I shall treat the life 
zones of North America, a portion of the Northern Realm, and 
this arrangement allows me to approach this second part of my 
subject in a natural and convenient way. 

The Australian Realm comprises not only Australia, New 
Guinea, and the neighboring islands as far west as Celebes and 
Lombok, but also New Zealand and the islands of Oceania, 
which two last may be looked upon as outlying provinces and 
taken up later. 

It is one of the most sharply characterised of the realms, its 
main features being the presence here, and here only, of the egg- 
laying mammalia, and the great development of marsupial mam- 
mals and elapid serpents to the exclusion of other forms of 
these groups, these being represented in Australia only by a few 
rodents and bats on the one hand and a few harmless snakes on 


12 JouRNAL oF THE MitcHetyi Society [July 


the other. Its marsupials and other distinctive forms become 
mingled with Asiatic species in the islands westward of New 
Guinea, but both marsupials and ostrich-like birds (which here 
attain their greatest development) extend up to and including 
the islands of Lombok and Celebes, but not across the straits to 
Borneo or Java. Side-necked turtles, and lung fishes are also 
represented here, as well as in the Neo-tropical and Ethiopian 
realms, but no cecilian amphibians. 

New Zealand lacks most of the Australian forms, but is re- 
markable for the possession of the only living representative of 
the reptilian order Rhynchocephalia, while the islands of 
Oceania possess a fauna which, as we might naturally expect, 
is so largely composed of birds that they have sometimes been 
erected into a zoo-geographical realm under the name of Orni- 
thogzea or the bird world. 

The Neo-tropical Realm includes South and Central Amer- 
ica, the coast lands of Mexico and also the West Indian islands. 
The presence of high mountains whose peaks reach above the 
snowline and the southward extension of the continent into 
cooler latitudes combined with tropical conditions over most of 
the realm make a homogeneous fauna impossible, still the whole 
realm shows marked distinctions from any other. 

New-world monkeys, mormosets, sloths, ant-eaters, arma- 
dillos, and true opossums, the only family of pouched mam- 
mals found outside Australia, are all peculiar types characteris- 
tic of this realm only, while its rodent family Caviide contains 
the largest of all the order, one species, the capybara, reaching 
a weight of 100 pounds. Leaf-nosed or vampire bats are found 
exclusively here while the fruit bats of the other three southern 
realms are absent, as are also terrestrial insectivores. Hollow- 
horned ruminants are wholly absent, the hoofed mammals being 
represented by deer, tapirs, lamas, and peccaries. 

Among birds members of the ostrich family occur, as well as 
many peculiar forms, such as the tinamous, toucans, and hum- 
ming birds, the last being a highly characteristic and widespread 
family. 

Crotalid, elapid, and boid snakes are represented in its fauna, 


1913] Zo00-GEOGRAPHY 13 


as well as side-necked turtles, lungfishes, and cecilian amphi- 
bians. Salamanders are practically absent. 

The islands of the Greater Antilles deserve mention as lack- 
ing the terrestrial mammals of the neighboring mainlands, its 
only prominent forms being the rodent genus, Capromys, and 
the insectivorous genus Solenodon. 

The Ethiopian Realm includes not only Africa south of the 
Sahara Desert, but also the island of Madagascar and southern 
Arabia. As the two latter, however, can only be considered 
as outlying provinces, and do not exhibit the more prominent 
features of the main portion of the realm they will be treated 
of separately, and are not included in the statements that im- 
mediately follow. 

Its characteristic animals are the hippopotamus, giraffe, hyrax 
or coney, zebra, rhinoceros, elephant, old world monkeys, great 
apes (gorilla and chimpanzee), lemurs, scaly ant-eaters, aard 
vark, several families of insectivorous mammals (golden moles, 
jumping shrews, and some others), hyenas, ostrich-like birds, 
elapid, and boid snakes, side-necked turtles, cecilians or worm- 
like amphibians, and lung fishes. The greater number of these 
forms are represented in other realms as well, but the first four 
mentioned, as well as the aard vark, golden moles and jumping 
shrews do not occur elsewhere. No bears, deer, nor salamand- 
ers of any kind oceur. Its main feature, however, is the great 
abundance of hoofed mammals, particularly those of the hollow- 
horned or antelope family which here attains by far its highest 
point, both in number of species and number of individuals. 

Of its outlying portions the presence of conies and ostriches 
in southern Arabia would seem to indicate Ethiopian affinities, 
though most of the continental African forms are lacking. 

The island of Madagascar on the other hand has a very pe- 
culiar fauna of its own, more than one-half of its mammals be- 
longing to the lemur family, while the remainder are largely in- 
sectivora not found elsewhere, the large hoofed mammals, and 
the carnivora of the mainland being lacking. 

The Indian or Oriental Realm comprises southeastern Asia, 


14 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHety Society ‘[July 


south of the Himalaya Mountains, as well as the islands of the 
Malay Archipelago as far east as Borneo and Java. 

It has been combined by some with the Palearctic and Ne- 
arctic realms to form a single Arctogzean Realm, but it appears 
to me to have too many southern forms to justify such an ar- 
rangement, while others have combined it with the Ethiopian 
to form an Indo-African realm but here the lack of too many 
of the Ethiopian forms seems to be a sufficient bar to any such 
proceeding. 

It possesses few peculiar groups of animals, the families 
Tupaiide (tree shrews), Galeopithecide (flying lemurs), 
and Tarsiide being the most noteworthy among the mammals, 
but the majority of its characteristic groups are shared with oth- 
er realms, thus its elephants, hyzenas, rhinoceros, scaly ant-eaters, 
lemurs, old world monkeys, and great apes are represented also 
in Africa, though by other species. Its boid snakes, and cecilian 
amphibians are similarly found also in both the Ethiopian and 
Neo-tropical realms. Its bear and deer and most of its in- 
sectivorous mammals are otherwise mainly northern groups, 
while it possesses in common with the Neo-tropical realm repre- 
sentatives of the tapir family. Lung fishes, side-necked turtles, 
and ostrich-like birds are absent, while elapid serpents are 
present, as they are also in all the other southern realms, being 
one of the very few groups found in all four tropical realms, 
and not elsewhere, the parrots being the only other vertebrate 
group which I can remember as having a similar range. 

The Northern Realm comprises all the earth’s land surface 
lying north of the boundaries of the four southern realms. 

It is characterised more by what it lacks than by what it 
possesses, few groups of animals being confined exclusively 
within its borders. 

No elephants, tapirs, rhinoceros, hippopatamus, giraffes, 
conies, no lemurs, monkeys of any kind, nor great apes, no 
edentates or marsupials, no egg-laying mammals, hyzenas or 
cavies, no ostrich-like birds, no alligators, no boid nor elapid 
serpents, no side-necked turtles, no cecilian amphibians nor lung 
fishes occur, except that in the case of some of these groups a 
single species or two intrudes more or less into its limits. 


—_— 


1913] Zoo-GroGgRaAPHy 15 


Bears, deer, and insectivorous mammalia occur throughout 
practically its entire extent, tailed amphibians (salamanders) 
are found throughout its temperate regions and here alone. 

It appears to me to fall into three natural divisions: 


1. An Arctic Region, comprising the cireumpolar regions 
as far south as the northern limit of the growth of trees. 


2. An Hurasian Region, (equivalent to Sclater’s Palzearctia 
Realm, with its Arctic portion deducted), comprising Europe, 
north Africa, and Asia, north of the Indian Realm. 

3. A North American Region (equivalent to Sclater’s Ne- 
arctic Realm less Arctic North America), comprising all North 
America south of the Arctic regions and north of the Neo-trop- 
ical realm. 


The Arctic Region is characterized by the scantiness of its 
fauna which is circumpolar for the most part, its most promi- 
nent mammalian components being the polar bear, Arctic fox, 
Arctie wolf, Arctic hares, reindeer, and musk ox, the last being 
American only. 

The Hurasian Region possesses the following forms not found 
in North America, though mainly in other regions, in Insecti- 
vora, the hedgehogs, in Ungulata, the true oxen and buffaloes, 
the pigs, wild goats, and several species of antelopes. In reptiles 
it possesses true viperine serpents, and in birds, true flycatchers 
(Muscicapide), bustards (Otidz), old-world warblers (Sylvii- 
de), true larks (Alaudide) and wagtails (Motacillide), the 
last three families being also very sparingly represented in 
America. 

The North American Region lacks the above mentioned Eu- 
rasian forms and possesses the following peculiar ones: prong- 
horn antelope, skunks, o’possum, raccoon, star-nosed mole, mole 
shrews, and perhaps a few other mammals. Hoofed animals 
are comparatively poorly represented, there being, except 
the various deer, only the prong-horn, rocky mountain sheep, 
rocky mountain goat, and American bison, the last now nearly 
extinct. Among birds the wood warblers, tanagers, mocking 
thrushes, new world vultures, tyrant fly catchers and humming- 
birds distinguish it from the Eurasian region, but all of them 


16 JOURNAL OF THE MircHEety Society [July 


occur more or less abundantly in the Neo-tropical realm to the 
southward. In reptiles it possesses pit vipers but no true vipers, 
and among the former the rattlesnakes are exclusively Ameri- 
can and predominantly North American. In the Amphibia 
its characteristic species belong to the tailed forms among which 
the large family Plethodontide is exclusively North American 
while the smaller families of Sirenide, and Amphiumide con- 
taining the large eel-shaped salamanders are not found else- 
where. 


THE LIFE ZONES OF NORTH AMERICA 


These are more or less parallel belts running across the con- 
tinent from east to west, and are limited mainly by the mean 
temperature of the region, which in its turn is determined by 
the two factors of latitude and elevation. Of course other fac- 
tors play a large part in determining the life of these regions, 
the most important being the comparative humidity, in fact 
this last element splits three of our southerly life zones into two 
distinet portions, an eastern or humid division and a western or 
arid division. 

These life zones are seven in number, the three northern 
being cold or boreal in character, while the four southern are 
warm or austral. Of course each zone grades into both the one 
above and the one below, so that there is never a hard and fast 
dividing line between any two contiguous ones, still in spite of 
this each zone is fairly well characterized by the forms of life 
or by the combination of forms occurring in it. 

The transcontinental zones are,— 


1. An Arctic Zone, forming the American portion of the 
Arctic region, including all the country north of the northern 
limit of trees. 

2. A Hudsonian Zone, including the northern half of the 
boreal forest region. 

3. A Canadian Zone, including the southern half of the 
boreal forests. These three zones cover by far the greater part 
of Canada and enter the United States, mainly along its chief 
mountain ranges at high elevations. 


1913 | Zo00-GEOGRAPHY if 


4, An Alleghanian Zone, which includes, roughly speaking, 
the northern United States. 

5. An Upper Austral Zone, covering the middle portion of 
the United States, and divided into an eastern or humid portion 
(the Carolinian district), and a western or arid portion (Upper 
Sonoran). 

6. A Lower Austral Zone, comprising the southern United 
States and the central plateau of Mexico, likewise divided into 
an eastern (Louisianian) or humid region, and a western 
(Lower Sonoran), or arid region. 

7. A Tropical Zone, comprising all south of the Lower 
Austral. 


The main characteristics of these zones are as follows: 


1. The Arctic Zone is distinguished by an entire absence of 
trees, the vegetation consisting of stunted shrubs, low flowering 
plants, and lichens. Among the vertebrates, reptiles and amphi- 
bians are wholly lacking, while mammals are represented by the 
musk-ox, barren ground caribou, arctic hare, several species of 
lemmings, arctic fox, and near salt water and on the islands of 
the Arctic sea, by the polar bear. On the summits of the Rocky 
Mountains and of the Sierras where isolated patches of this 
zone occur at high altitudes these are all absent, but pikas, 
mountain sheep, and marmots occur at least in summer. Among 
the breeding birds of the Arctic zone are the snow geese and 
gyrfaleons and quite a number of shore birds. The mean tem- 
perature of the six warmest months at the lower edge of this 
zone is said to be about 50 F. 


2. The Hudsonian Zone is a belt of more or less stunted 
timber lying due south of the preceding. Like it, it lacks all 
reptiles and amphibians, and also all the characteristic Arctic 
mammals as well, this being due not alone to the higher tem- 
perature but largely also to the forested character of the coun- 
try, which prevents it being congenial to the animals which in- 
habit the treeless country further north. For the same reason the 
forest loving forms of the north, such as the wolverine, fisher, 


marten, Canada lynx, woodland caribou, moose, and black bear 
2 


18 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHeLyt Society [July 


do not range further northward. There seem to be no mammals 
peculiar to it and it is chiefly distinguished from the Canadian 
zone by what it lacks. Most of its characteristic mammals oc- 
cur also on the isolated patches of it which lie on the sides of 
the western mountains below timber line. The mean tempera- 
ture of the lower edge of this zone during the six warmest 
months in the year is said to be about 57 F. From its forested 
area, largely consisting of spruces, it is often known as the 
Spruce Zone. 

3. The Canadian Zone includes the forested region con- 
sisting largely of balsams and firs which lies south of the Hud- 
sonian, and does not differ from it greatly in character. It, 
however, is the most northern zone in which cultivated crops, 
such as potatoes, barley, etc., can be raised, and also is the most 
northerly zone in which any mammals of presumably southern 
origin occur. Thus chipmunks, white-footed mice and wood rats 
do not extend their range northward beyond it. Practically all 
the mammals mentioned above as belonging to the Hudsonian 
zone belong here also and these do not range southward below it 
(except the black bear). It possesses a few amphibians, such as 
frogs of the genus Rana, and salamanders of the genera Desmog- 
nathus and Amblystoma as well as a number of peculiar moun- 
tain forms. The temperature of the six warmest months of the 
year is estimated to be about 60 F. 

4. The Alleghanian Zone includes the white pine forests of 
the north and the contiguous regions, and is the most northerly 
region having any reptilian fauna. The blue-tailed and fence 
lizards, the water, garter, chicken, ground, and green snakes as 
well as the copperhead, banded rattlesnake and massasauga do 
not extend north of it, nor in mammals do the cottontail rabbit, 
common mole, and raccoon, while the starnosed and Brewer’s 
moles are confined to this zone and the Canadian. Salamanders 
attain their highest degree of development in this zone and the 
succeeding one. 

5. The Upper Austral Zone is a tract of country in which 
the trees are mainly deciduous, thus forming a contrast to the 
coniferous forests of the north and south, between which it lies. 
Among mammals the gray fox, and opossum do not occur above 


. aor 


BNW ho = 


1913] Zoo-GEOGRAPHY 19 


its northern boundary while the woodchuck, red fox, weasel, and 
chipmunk do not extend below its southern border. Its reptiles 
are much more numerous than those of the Alleghanian, but 
far less so than those of the Lower Austral. It divides natur- 
ally into an eastern or humid division and a western or arid 
one, the former being characterized by an abundance of turtles, 
and a scarcity of lizards while the latter has an abundance of 
lizards and very few turtles. 

6. The Lower Austral Zone comprises roughly speaking the 
southern third of the United States and a large part of Mexico. 
It is characterized by a great abundance of reptiles and a com- 
parative lack of salamanders though certain highly specialized 
forms of the latter belong exclusively here. Its distinctive 
mammals are the marsh and water rabbits, the cotton rats, and 
ricefield rats, and a few others. Its peculiar reptiles are many 
and will be mainly listed in the part on the life zones of North 
Carolina. The alligator, diamond rattlesnake, and coral snake 
are among its more striking representatives in the reptiles. 


THE LIFE ZONES OF NORTH CAROLINA 


Four of the life zones of North America enter the confines 
of our states, these are: 


1. The Canadian Zone. 

2. The Alleghanian or Transition Zone. 

3. The Upper Austral or Carolinian Zone. 

4. The Lower Austral or Louisianian Zone. 

1. The Canadian Zone occupies the summits of the higher 
mountains from about 4,500 feet up, though some of its char- 
acteristic forms occur lower down still. 


Its mammals are 


Cloudland Deer Mouse, above 5,000 feet. 
Carolina Red-backed Mouse, above 4,000 feet. 


And there seem to be no other species of general distribution 
in the mountains which are confined to this zone, but its breed- 
ing birds are more distinctive, these being: 


20 JOURNAL OF THE MircHett Society [July 


Pine Siskin, above 5,000 feet. 

American Crossbill, above 5,000 feet. 
Winter Wren, above 4,000 feet. 

Brown Creeper, above 4,000 feet. 
Redbreasted Nuthatch, above 5,000 feet. 
Chickadee, above 5,000 feet. 

Gold crowned Kinglet, above 5,000 feet. 
Olive-sided Flycatcher, above 4,000 feet. 
Yellow-bellied Sapsucker, above 4,000 feet. 


The zone has not peculiar reptiles, those entering it, if any, 
being species occurring in the Alleghanian zone below. Its dis- 
tinctive amphibians are also few, the most characteristic being 
Plethodon metcalfi; which however, ranges as far down as 
3,500 feet, Plethodon shermani and Gyrinophilus porphyriticus 
also seem to belong to this zone, though the first seems to be a 
local form of very limited range, and of the latter we have only 
two records, one of them quite unsatisfactory. 


The specific points which we are able to include in this zone 
from a more or less complete knowledge of their fauna are, 
the Black Mountains in Yancey and Buncombe Counties; Roan 
Mountain, in Mitchell County; Grandfather Mountain in Wa- 
tauga County, Pisgah Ridge, and the Balsam Mountains in 
Haywood County, the high mountains near Highlands, in Ma- 
con County, Tuskwitty Mountain and Wayah Bald, also in Ma- 
con County. Besides these the mountains along the state line 
north of Cherokee County, as far as Roan Mountain, must 
possess a Canadian fauna on their summits owing to their ele- 
vation and the same is also true of all our mountains not named, 
which reach 5,000 feet elevation and over. 


2. The Alleghanian Zone occupies the greater part of the 
mountain region, its limits extending from about 2,500 feet to 
4,500 feet, though many of its characteristic species extend up- 
wards into the Canadian, or downwards into the Upper Austral 
as well. 

The following mammals do not appear to range below this _ 
zone: red squirrel, woodchuck, starnosed and Brewer’s moles, _ 
mole-shrew, masked and smoky shrews, while the opossum, ~ 


1913] Zo0-GrOGRAPHY 21 


woodchuck, gray squirrel, common deer mouse and common 
mole do not oceur above it. 

With birds the case is quite similar. The scarlet tanager, 
rosebreasted grosbeak, vesper sparrow, Carolina junco, song 
sparrow, Baltimore oriole, Cairns, Canadian, blackthroated 
green, blackburnian, golden-winged, and chestnut-sided war- 
blers, Bewick’s wren, warbling vireo, Wilson’s thrush, least fly- 
catcher and ruffed grouse not ranging below it, while the Caro- 
lina wren, crow, tufted tit, bluegray snatcatcher brown thrasher, 
yallowiiteated vireo, eae warbler, summer tanager, ead 
sparrow, acadian flycatcher, and redbellied ai eee Big not 
pass beyond its upper limits. Not all of either class however 
ranges throughout its whole extent, a noteworthy exception 
being the Carolina junco, which is essentially a bird of. the 
edie, zone, but ranges in diminished numbers down to 3,000 
feet, or about half way through the Alleghanian zone, and dias 
are many similar instances. 

In reptiles the milk snake alone appears to be confined to 
this zone, but the ring-necked snake, banded rattlesnake, garter 
snake, northern water snake, black chicken snake, ede snake, 
fence lizard, blue-tailed Tart and perhaps sek also occur 
here as All as in the warmer zones below, and some of them 
may enter the Canadian zone above. 

Its characteristic amphibians are wholly salamanders, the 
most widely distributed being the mountain triton (Desmog- 
nathus 4-maculatus) which occur in small streams throughout its 
whole extent. Another species is the round-tailed triton (Des- 
mognathus achrophea) which though ranging in diminished 
numbers down to 3,000 ft. reaches its greatest abundance in 
the Canadian zone above. Daniel’s triton (Spelerpes danielsv) 
and Schenck’s triton (Speler pes schenckt), the former a rare, 
the latter a common, species seem to be confined to this zone. 
The viscid salamander extends upwards through this zone to 
about 3,500 ft. at which elevation it is replaced by Metealt’s 
polearrder. 

3. The Upper Austral or Carolinian Zone. This includes the 
central portion of the state, West and North of a line drawn 


22 JOURNAL OF THE MitcuHeLyt Society [July 


from a little West of Weldon, and thence through Raleigh to 
Charlotte. Its general western ‘boundaries are the western 
limits of Surry, Wilkes, Caldwell, and Burke counties, some 
of all of which lie outside its limits. McDowell lies half in 
and half out of the zone, while Henderson is almost wholly 
outside and Polk almost wholly inside. Besides this it includes 
the mountain valleys below about 2,500 ft. the principal of them 
being those of the Hiwasee in Cherokee County, of the Little 
Tennessee in Graham, Swain, and Macon Counties, of Pigeon 
River in Haywood, and last but not least of the French Broad 
in Madison, Buncombe, Henderson, and Transylvania Counties. 

Less collecting, especially if we exclude birds, has been done 
in our state in this zone than in any other, but fortunately what 
has been done has been largely near its edges and shows toler- 
ably well how it differs from the zones above and below. Its 
faunal characteristics are furthermore much influenced by the 
comparative low latitude in which our portion of it lies so that 
we have an intrusion of certain Lower Austral forms and an 
exclusion of others which further north are characteristic of 
this zone. 

We can define this zone but little by its mammalian fauna, 
still the golden mouse ranges throughout it but not above it, 
while the chipmunk, weasel, meadow mouse, jumping mouse, 
common deer mouse and muskrat, are also widely distributed 
forms whose range is largely defined by its southern border. 

In birds the mocking bird, prairie warbler, pine warbler, 
yellowthroated warbler, blue grosbeak, brownheaded nut-hatch 
and Bachman’s sparrow all occur more or less commonly up to 
its upper edge, the last four being normally Lower Austral 
species, while on the other hand the whippoorwill, robin, gold- 
finch, and yellow warbler do not range to any extent below its 
southern limits. 

In reptiles it possesses one peculiar species, the brown king 
snake, a serpent of very limited distribution, but several do 
not range above it, these being the southern green snake, com- 
mon king snake, Valeria’s snake, ground lizard, and sand lizard. 
The black chicken snake, queen snake, and painted turtle do 


2 il ae 


—E— 


1913 | Zoo-GEOGRAPHY 23 


not seem to extend their range much if any beyond its southern 
limits, while the northern water snake, although normally not 
occurring below this zone, ranges in this state throughout the 
Lower Austral also. 

Among amphibians, the spotted salamander, marbled sala- 
mander and Holbrook’s triton occur throughout it but not 
above its upper boundary, while the range of the pickerel frog 
does not extend below its southern limits. 

From the Lower Austral it is mainly distinguished by the 
absence of the long list of reptiles and amphibians occurring in 
that zone and not above it. Some of these however enter the 
Upper Austral along its southern border, thus we have the 
green lizard recorded from Tryon in Polk County, and Albe- 
marle in Stanley County, while the glass snake has been taken 
at Statesville. Other records of Lower Austral forms possibly 
still more surprising are of the lubber grasshopper near Con- 
cord in Cabarrus County, and a true scorpion at Tryon in 
Polk County. 

4. Lower Austral Zone, includes the remainder of the state, 
namely all lying south and east of a line drawn from near Wel- 
don to Raleigh, and thence to Charlotte, and it may be as well 
to give some idea of how we came to locate the line. In the 
first place, Raleigh, where the fauna is known in its entirety 
for all practical purposes, has a thoroughly mixed fauna and 
can hardly be placed in either zone, thus both the whippoorwill 
and chuckwillswidow, one typically Upper, and the other typi- 
cally Lower Austral, both occur and breed. Other Upper 
Austral breeding birds are the robin, goldfinch, mountain 
vireo, and yellow warbler, while the prothonotary warbler, a 
Lower Austral form, barely reaches Raleigh. In reptiles we 
have here the following Upper Austral species: brown king 
snake, queen snake, black chicken snake, northern water snake, 
and painted terrapin, and these Lower Austral forms: glass 
snake, corn snake, southern water snake, cottonmouth, red- 
bellied water snake, crowned tantilla, red king snake, scarlet 
snake, and two species of terrapin (Pseudemys concinna and 
P. scripta). In amphibians the balance also turns to the Lower 


24 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHELL Society [July 


Austral as the ditch eel (Amphiuma means), dwarf salamander 
and narrow-mouthed toad are all common, while the Upper 
Austral pickerel frog is only tolerably so. In mammals its 
Lower Austral forms are the cotton rat and Carolina mole- 
shrew, both of which may very likely range considerably into 
the Upper Austral in this state, while of Upper Austral forms, 
the chipmunk is common a few miles west of Raleigh, but not 
at Raleigh, while the meadow mouse, common deer mouse, 
muskrat, jumping mouse and weasel are all common except the 
last two. 

Hence we see Raleigh rather leans to the Upper Austral on 
birds and mammals, and to the Lower on reptiles and amphi- 
bians, and is plainly an intermediate point so we draw the line 
right through it, then knowing that the line must necessarily 
slant northward towards the coast, we draw it straight to Wel- 
don, having records of the occurrence of typical Lower Austral 
forms just east of that place. To the south we find that South- 
ern Pines with records of the scarlet snake, coachwhip, corn 
snake, narrowmouthed toad, crowned tantilla, and red-cockaded 
woodpecker ought to be placed well within the line, which is 
confirmed by the occurrence of the green lizard at Carthage a lit- 
tle to the north, and of the coral snake at Montrose to the south. 
So we draw the line above Southern Pines, and then finding 
records of such species as the green lizard in Stanly County, 
and the Iubber grasshopper in Cabarrus County which latter 
record is offset by the presence of the chipmunk, at the same 
place, indicating a mixed fauna, we continue it through these 
counties to Charlotte and thence to the state line in the same 
general direction. 

The animals which we have considered as characterising the 
Lower Austral Zone in this state are as follows: 


1. Mammals 
Marsh Rabbit (Lepus palustris). 
Southern Fox Squirrel. 
Cotton Rat (Sigmodon hispidus). 
Ricefield Rat (Oryzomys palustris). 
Cotton Mouse (Peromyscus gossypinus). 


1913 } Zoo-GroGgRAPHY 25 


Carolina Mole Shrew (Blarina carolinensis). 
Southern Shrew (Sorex longirostris ). 
Big-eared Bat (Corinorhinus macrotis). 


2. Birds (occurrence in the breeding season only taken into con- 
sideration) .* 


a Land Species. 
(Chuck-wills-widow. 
Red-cockaded Woodpecker. 
Prothonotary Warbler. 
Swainsons Warbler. 
Nonpareil or Painted Bunting. 

b Shore and Water Birds. 
American Egret. 

Snowy Egret. 
Florida Cormorant. 
Louisiana Heron. 
Little Blue Heron. 
Boat-tailed Grackle. 


3. Reptiles. 
Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis ). 
Florida Terrapin (Pseudemys floridana). 
Mobile Terrapin (Pseudemys mobilensis). 
Yellow-bellied Terrapin (Pseudemys scripta). 
Smooth. Terrapin (Pseudemys concinna). 
Diamond Rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus). 
Ground Rattlesnake (Sistrurus miliarius). 
Cottonmouth Moeassin (Ancistrodon piscivorus). 
Coral Adder (Elaps fulvius). 
Crowned Tantilla (Tantilla coronata). 
Rainbow Snake (Abastor erythrogrammus). 
Horn Snake (Farancia abacura). 
Southern Hog-nosed Snake (Heterodon simus). 
Striped Chicken Snake (Coluber quadrivittatus). 


*The following birds usuallly considered as typically Lower Austral forms 
range in this state throughout the Upper Austral also and help to define it 
as opposed to the next more northern zone, the Alleghanian: blue grosbeak, 
Bachman’s sparrow, brown-headed nuthatch and yellow-throated warbler. 


26 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHEtt Society [July 


Corn Snake (Coluber guttatus). 

Red King Snake (Ophibolus doliatus cocoineus). 

Scarlet Snake (Cemophora coccinea). 

Pied Water Snake (Natrix taxispilota). 

Southern Water Snake (Natrix fasciata fasciata). 
Red-bellied Water Snake (Natrix fasciata erythrogastra). 
Coachwhip (Bascanium flagellum). 

Brown-headed Snake (Rhadinaea flavilata). 

Glass Snake (Ophisaurus ventralis). 

Green Lizard (Anolis carolinensis). 


4, Amphibians. 
Mud Eel (Siren lacertina). 
Southern Water Dog (Necturus punctatus). 
Ditch Eel (Amphiuma means). 
Dwarf Salamander (Manculus quadridigitatus). 
Margined Salamander (Stereochilus marginatus). 
Narrow-mouthed Toad (Engystoma carolinense). 
Dwarf Toad (Bufo quercicus). 
Pine-woods Tree Frog (Hyla femoralis). 
Squirrel Tree Frog (Hyla squirrella). 
Carolina Tree Frog (Hyla cinerea). 


57ash: 
A Top Minnow (Heterandria formoso). 
Ditch Fish (Chologaster cornutus). 
Everglade Perch (Elassoma evergladei). 
Swamp Darter (\Copelandellus quiescens). 


Not all of these species range throughout the whole zone, a 
great many of them not appearing to occur further north than 
Neuse River, while others again seem to be confined to the 
coastal region though ranging throughout the whole extent of 
that, in fact, there are all sorts of irregularities in the distribu- 
tion of these species. Those confined to the coastal region are 
the following: rainbow snake, horn snake, striped chicken 
snake, diamond rattlesnake, pied water snake, mud eel, all 
the three tree frogs mentioned, all four fishes, probably the cot- 
ton mouse, and the water and shore birds mentioned. Those ap- 


ah Mos erry 


1913 } Zoo-GroGRAPHY oY 


parently extending their ranges north of Neuse River are coach- 
whip snake, ground and diamond rattlesnakes, nonpareil, Flori- 
da cormorant, coral snake, and some others, but our data with 
regard to many of the species is so meager that we cannot draw 
any definite conclusions from it. 

In part of the zone lying north of Neuse River there appears 
to be a much greater admixture of Upper Austral forms than 
further south; in fact, south of that line we meet with only scat- 
tering examples of species belonging to the more northern zone. 
Thus the localities lying on or above Neuse River (excluding 
Raleigh) give a total of 49 Lower Austral records, to 18 Upper 
Austral, while those localities southward give only 5 Upper 
Austral records to a total of 95 Lower Austral, thus showing a 
much greater intermingling as we go northward which is just 
what we ought to expect, as no life area is ever homogenous, 
but gradually blends on the borders with the adjoining ones 
or areas, consequently the boundaries we draw between 
any two contiguous zones are largely arbitrary, and if we drew 
maps to record things exactly as they are we would cause the 
colors of adjoining zones to gradually blend the one into the 
other just as their fauna actually blends. 


RateicH, N. C. 


METHODS FOR THE PREPARATION OF NEUTRAL 
SOLUTIONS OF AMMONIUM CITRATE? 


BY JAMES M,. BELL AND CHARLES F. COWELL 


The method at present approved by the Association of Official © 
Agricultural Chemists’ for the preparation of neutral solutions 
ae ammonium citrate requires the use of an alcoholic solution of — 
corallin as indicator. It is common knowledge that this method 
is not accurate. The method proposed by Hand,* using purified ~ - 
litmus solution, has been thoroughly tried by Patten and Robin- 
son* and like the corallin method has proven much less satis- 
factory than the conductivity method proposed by Hall and 
Bell. By this conductivity method a series of solutions is 
prepared containing constant quantities of citric acid and vari- 
able quantities of ammonia in a constant volume. It was found 
that the solution just neutral has the highest electrical con- 
ductivity, the plot for conductivity and quantity of ammonia 
consisting of two curves intersecting at the neutral point. Up 
to that point the solutions consist of mixtures of ammonium 
citrate and free citric acid, and beyond the break the solutions 
consist of mixtures of ammonium citrate and free ammonia. 

The conductivity method requires some temperature control, 
for the temperature coefficient of conductivity is large enough 
to cause serious errors in the final result unless the maximum 
variations in temperature are but very slight. Two further 
methods are here presented for the determination of the neutral 
point, neither of which requires careful temperature regulation. 
In one method there is an indirect determination of the excess 
of ammonia just past the neutral point by the use of chloroform 
as solvent. This method is called the “extraction method.” The 
second method like the conductivity method is a physical method 
depending on the great heat evolution when ammonia and citric 
acid solutions are mixed, This has been called the “‘tempera- 
ture method.” as ans 


Reprinted from The Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. XXXV. 
No. 1. January,~1913 

2Bureau of Chemistry, Bull. 107 (revised), 1 

*Bureau of Chemistry, Bull. 132, 11. 

4J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 443 (1912). 

5J. Am. Chem. Boc., 33, LS, (LOS) 


28 


1913] SoLutions or AmMMoNIUM CITRATE 29 


1. Extraction Method.—Ammonia is soluble to a slight extent 
in chloroform; citric acid and ammonium citrate are insoluble 
in chloroform. This fact affords an accurate method of esti- 
mating the excess of ammonia in an aqueous solution of these 
substances. The distribution ratio of ammonia between chloro- 
form and water has been shown by Bell and Feild® to be about 
1:25 at ordinary temperatures; that is, between equal volumes 
of water and chloroform, free ammonia will distribute itself 
about ’/* in the chloroform layer and “/* in the water layer. 

A citric acid solution containing 370 grams per liter was pre- 
pared. To 100 ce. lots of this solution varying amounts of strong 
ammonia were added and the resulting solutions diluted to200ce. 
This addition was made through a narrow tube leading into the 
acid so as to avoid losses of ammonia by volatilization. Of this 
solution 100ce. were shaken out with 125ce. of chloroform and 
50ce. of this chloroform layer to which about 50ce. of water 
were added was titrated against 0.1 N hydrochloric acid solution 
using methyl red as indicator. During this titration all the 
ammonia passed from the chloroform layer to the water layer as 
it was neutralized by the acid. In these determinations only 
a part of the total excess of ammonia is estimated, but knowing 
what fraction is taken, the total excess of ammonia may be esti- 
mated. For each gram of free ammonia left in 100 ce. of the 
water layer after shaking out, there is 0.04 gram in 100 ce. of 
the chloroform layer or 0.05 gram in 125 ce. of the chloroform 
layer. Hence, of the total excess of ammonia in the sample ‘/= 
is in the 125 ce. of chloroform. In 50 ce. there are 5 of the 
portion shaken out and as only half of the total is shaken out 
there is ‘/ of the total excess of ammonia actually titrated. 


TABLE I 
o.t N HCl: required to 
Ammonia solution used. neutralize 50 cc. chloroform extract. 
Ce Ce 
40.5 1.50 
40.2 0.97 
40.0 0.47 
30.8 0.22 
30.5 0.00 


6&7, Am. Chem. Soc., 33, 940 (1911). 


30 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHetyi Society [July 


The proportion in which the citric acid and ammonia solu- 
tions must be mixed to give a solution exactly neutral may be 
found by a graphic method, 
In Fig. 1 the number of 
ec. of ammonia added is 


fe abscissa and the number 
of ce. of acid required to 

neutralize the excess of 

Agi ammonia in 50 cc. of the 
% chloroform layer is ordi- 


nate. By extrapolating it 
vee. is seen that 39.7 ec. of 
ammonia solution would 
just neutralize the amount 
of the citric acid solution 
employed. No trace of 
free ammonia was found 
in any of the solutions to 
which 39.5 ce. or less of the ammonia solution had been added. 
When as much as 40.0 ec. had been added, the free ammonia 
could be detected by odor and these solutions showed increasing 
amounts of ammonia in the titrations. The solution containing 
39.8 cc. of ammonia contained very little free ammonia, for 50 
ec. of the chloroform extract required only 0.22 ce. of the acid. It 
will be seen that this method will indicate the proportions in 
which the solutions of ammonia and citric acid must be mixed 
with at least the accuracy which is possible in the ordinary com- 
parison of an acid and base by buret readings. 


39.5 40.0 40.5 
Total cc, ammonia added. 


No. cc. 0.1 N acid to neutralize 50 cc, chloroform 


‘Fig. 2. 


IT, Temperature Method.—The second method here present- 
ed for the preparation of a neutral solution of ammonium 
citrate, like the conductivity method, is a physical method. It 
was suggested by the fact that, during the addition of the first 
35 ec. of ammonia to the citric acid in the former method, so 
much heat was developed that the solution had to be cooled at 
least twice during the mixing. After the neutral point is reach- 
ed, there is no appreciable heat effect due to further additions 
of ammonia. 


1913] Sotutions or AmMonruM CITRATE 31 


The experiments were carried out in a Dewar flask of about 
200 ce. capacity, provided with a platinum stirrer and a ther- 
mometer graduated to tenths of degrees. The citric acid and 
ammonia solutions were the same as those used in the former 
method. Again, 100 ce. of citric acid solution was partially 
neutralized with 36 cc. of ammonia solution in an ordinary 
beaker. The cooled solution was then poured into the Dewar 
flask. The beaker was washed several times with water and 
the washings poured into the Dewar flask, so that the final vol- 
ume of solution was about 150 cc. Just as in the previous 


TABLE II 

Total ammonia added. 
Ce Temperature. 
36.0 21.50° 
36.5 21.88 
37.0 22.25 
37.5 22.62 
38.0 23.04 
38.5 23.40 
39.0 23.70 
30.5 24.12 
40.0 24.28 
40.5 24.30 
41.0 24.30 
42.0 24.32 
45.0 24.32 


method, the ammonia solution was added from.a buret provided 
with a small delivery tube, which extended to the bottom of the 
flask. Ammonia was now added in portions of 0.5 ec. and the 
mixture stirred for about 4% minute. Afte 114 minutes no 
further rise of temperature was noticed. After each addi- 
tion of 0.5 ce. of ammonia there was a constant rise of 
temperature of about 0.40° until the buret reading was 
39.50 ce. of ammonia. For the next 0.5 ec. of ammonia 
the rise of temperature was only 0.16°. Beyond 40 
ee. practically no change in temperature occurred. The 
neutral point is therefore between 39.5 ec. and 40 ce. of am- 
monia. The exact neutral point is found by plotting tie 
curve, using the number of ce. of ammonia as abscissa and the 


32 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHELL Society [July 


rise of temperature as ordinate. This point is found to be 
39.7 cc, the same reading as was found by the extraction 
method. 

The “temperature method” was further confirmed by its use 
with solutions of sulphuric acid and ammonia, both about twice 
normal. The rise of temperature, taken with the same thermo- 


24.5 
24.0, 
23.5 


23.0 


Temperature. 


22.5 


36.0 38.0° 40.0 42.9 44.9 
Total ce. ammonia added, 


Fig. 2. 


meter, as before, was constant until the neutral point was 
reached. The results obtained are given in Table III and the 
neutral point agrees exactly with that found by the direct 
titration of the ammonia against the acid. 


TABLE III 
Cc. Ammonia added to 40 cc. acid. 
Temperature. 
38.5 27.62° 
39.0 27.70 
39.5 27.79 
40.0 27.88 
40.5 27.96 
40.1 28.05 
41.5 28.05 
42.0 28.01 
42.5 27.98 


43.0 27.95 


1913 | SoLurions oF AMMONIUM CITRATE 39 


Both methods here presented are for the determination of the 
proportion in which ammonia and citric acid must be mixed to 
arrive at a neutral solution. These proportions vary of course 
with the strength of the separate solutions. From the proportion 
found large quantities of neutral ammonia citrate may be pre- 
pared, after which the solution may be diluted to the required 
density. 

SUMMARY 


In this paper two methods are proposed for the determination 
of the end point in the titration of a weak acid by a weak base, 
where the ordinary indicators fail. In the first method an index 
of the excess of ammonia is obtained by shaking out with chloro- 
form and by titrating the chloroform with a dilute acid. In 
the second method the rise in temperature due to the heat of 
neutralization is observed as the titration proceeds, the end 
point being at the break in the heating curve. Both these me- 
thods are simpler than the method formerly proposed where the 
conductivities of solutions must be determined at constant tem- 
perature. 


CuHaApeEr, Hitt, N. C. 


ra ae™ 
on pte, OL 


JOURNAL 


FLISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIG SOCIETY 


GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF WESTERN NORTH 
CAROLINA 


BY JOSEPH HYDE PRATT 


The State of North Carolina is divided into three physio- 
eraphie divisions, which have been designated as the Coastal 
Plain, the Piedmont Plateau, and Mountain region. That 
part of the state lying to the west of the Blue Ridge is in the 
Mountain Region. This includes the Blue Ridge and the Great 
Smokies and the country between, which is cut across by numer- 
ous cross ranges separated by narrow valleys and deep gorges. 
The average elevation of this region is about 2,700 feet above 
the sea level, but the summits of a great many ridges and 
peaks are over 5,000 feet, while a considerable number of 
peaks have a height of over 6,000, the highest of which is Mount 
Mitchell with an elevation of 6,711 feet. Over the larger part 
of this region are to be found the older crystalline rocks, 
gneisses, granites, schists and diorites that are pre-Cambrian age 
which are greatly folded and turned on their edges. On the 
western and eastern borders of this mountain region, approxi- 
mately along the line of the Blue Ridge and Great Smokies, 
there are two narrow belts of younger sedimentary rocks, con- 
sisting of limestones, shales, and conglomerates, and their meta- 
morphosed equivalents, marbles, quartzites, and slates of Cam- 
brian age. 

The sedimentary rocks have been formed from sand, gravel, 
and mud which have been deposited as the result of alteration 
and erosion of the older rocks. 

By the present position of the rocks we are able to obtain 
records regarding the order in which the rocks of western North 

35 


36 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHEeti Society [ October 


Carolina were formed, and thus obtain a geological history of 
the mountain section. All the rocks of western North Carolina 
are amongst the oldest geologic formations, although there is 
considerable variation in the time at which the various rocks 
encountered were formed. The oldest rock formation is known 
as the Carolina gneiss, which consists of large areas of mica 
and granite schists; and mica, granite, and cyanite gneisses. 
The exact origin of this rock has not been definitely determined ; 
it may have resulted from the metamorphism of a granite rock. 
Mount Mitchell and the other mountain peaks of the Black 
Mountains ‘are of Carolina gneiss, as are also Grey Beard, The 
Craggies, Sunset Mountain, Pisgah, Great Hogback (Toxa- 
way), and Standing Indian (Clay County). 

The next oldest rock formation of western North Carolina is 
known as the Roan gneiss, which is not as extensive as the Car- 
olina gneiss, but forms much smaller areas and, as a rule, forms 
long narrow bands cutting the Carolina gneiss. They are also 
much less altered and are undoubtedly younger. Roan, High 
Knob, Big Yellow Mountain, Cocks Knob, the eastern slope of 
Craggy Dome and Bull Head Mountain, Nofat Mountain, and 
part of Cesar’s Head, are all of Roan gneiss. These mountains 
are, therefore, younger formations than those mountains com- 
posed of Carolina gneiss. 

Another granite formation has been intruded into the Caro- 
lina and Roan gneisses, forming rather small areas in the north- 
western portions of the mountains. These granites, known as 
the Cranberry and Beech granites, are observed in the vicinity of 
Blowing Rock, Beech Mountain, Rich Mountain, and part of 
Pumpkin Patch Mountain. A similar granite, known as the 
Henderson granite and of approximately the same age, is found 
over a considerable area of southeastern portion of Transyl- 
vania and Henderson counties and southwestern portions of 
Buncombe County. 

All these rocks referred to above are of deep-seated origin 
and the lapse of time between the formation of the different 
ones was undoubtedly very great. They formed mountain 
ranges that were much higher than now observed, but these have 


1918] Groxtogican History or Western N. C. 37 


been subject to erosion which has brought them to their present 
outline. 

The next formation was the lava rocks, which were poured 
forth upon the surface of the Archean rocks. These lava flows 
are of considerably later period than the granites and gneisses 
and are older than the overlying Cambrian sedimentary rocks, 
and they may belong to the Algonkian age. Some of these rocks 
were undoubtedly of voleanic nature, the intrusions coming to 
the surface as flows of lava and spreading out over the Carolina 
and Roan gneisses and the Cranberry and Beech granites. There 
was a very long interval between the formation of the last of 
the Archean rocks before the voleanie activity; and during this 
period these old Plutonic rocks were subject to very excessive 
erosion. This voleanie activity probably extended into the 
Cambrian time, and many of the lava flows were probably at 
the surface when the Cambrian strata were laid down. The 
indication of this is the finding of sheets of basalt conglomerate 
interstratified with the lower strata of the Cambrian. Rocks of 
this period include meta-diabase, found just north of Linville 
and to the east in Grandmother Gap and crossing the Yonah- 
lossee road at several places; blue and green epidotic schists, 
which have been probably altered from basalt, such as are to be 
seen in the vicinity of Pineola and Montezuma, Avery County, 
and Hanging Rock, Caldwell County; a gray and black schist 
probably formed by the alteration of an andesitic rock, which is 
to be observed on Flat Top Mountain and Pine Ridge, Watau- 
ga County; and metarhyolite, such as is found on the slopes of 
Dugger Mountain, Sampson Mountain, and in Cook’s Gap, Wa- 
tauga County. 

These Archean rocks, with the voleanic formations, were then 
subjected to a long period of erosion, and the sea at the same 
time encroached upon large areas of the dry land. The sedi- 
ments deposited formed the rocks which are known as the Cam- 
brian. Portions of the Archean rocks were submerged and at 
times uplifted, and there was not a continuous series of these 
sedimentary deposits. 

These sedimentary rocks, formed from the erosion of the 
Archean and Algonkian rocks and from siliceous and calcareous 


38 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHeit Society [ October 


material deposited from animal life found in the sea, consist of 
conglomerates, sandstones, shale, limestone, and their metamor- 
phic equivalents, quartzite, slate, and marble. These are ob- 
served very extensively over considerable areas of western North 
Carolina, but principally, as stated above, near the western and 
eastern sections of the mountain region. Grandfather Mountain 
is composed of one of these conglomerates of Cambrian age, as is 
also Grandmother Mountain, a large part of the area around 
Linville, and just to the east of Pineola. A narrow strip of these 
rocks is to be found extending across the extreme western part 
of Buncombe County, across Henderson and Transylvania 
counties. Brevard is situated in an area of these rocks, as is 
also Boylston, Mills River, and Fletcher, Henderson County. 
Practically all of Cherokee and Graham counties is composed 
of Cambrian rocks and the western parts of Clay, Macon, and 
Haywood counties. Swain County is composed largely of these 
Cambrian rocks, with the exception of an area of Archean rock 
that is exposed around Bryson and for some distance to the 
northeast. West of Asheville these Cambrian rocks are ob- 
served in the vicinity of Stackhouse, Hot Springs, and Paint 
Rock. They include all the limestones, such as are being mined 
at Fletchers, Mills River, and other places in Henderson and 
Transylvania counties; the limestones of Madison County; 
and the marbles of Cherokee, Graham, and Swain counties. 

From the above it will be seen that the larger part of the area 
of western North Carolina is composed of the Archean rocks, 
representing the oldest rock formations. 

Associated with the rocks described above are various min- 
erals of economic importance, the history of which may be of 
interest in connection with the geological history of western 
North Carolina. The precious metals occur very sparingly in 
nearly all the counties of this section of the state, and in only a 
very few places has any attempt been made to systematically 
produce them, and this has been largely by placer mining. 
Both the rocks of the Archean and Cambrian age apparently 
contain minute quantities of gold, but in none of these have de- 
posits been found of sufficient richness to be profitably mined. 
In the early history of western North Carolina it was customary 


Sa! ee 


1913] Grorocicat History or Western N. C. 39 


for many of the inhabitants to pan the various streams for gold 
and to pay their taxes in native gold. Just how much gold has 
been taken from western North Carolina in this way is not 
known; but it evidently runs up into several hundred thousands 
of dollars. 

Tron was discovered in western North Carolina almost as soon 
as the country began to be settled, and the manufacture of iron 
dates back before the Revolutionary War. These early iron 
works consisted of the primitive Catalan forge blown by the 
water trompe. Such forges were in operation in Ashe, Mitchell, 
and Cherokee counties, and as late as 1893 one of these, the 
Pasley forge on Helton Creek in Ashe County, was in operation. 
These early forges supplied iron for all local uses and the forges 
in Cherokee County shipped a good deal into Tennessee. The 
most celebrated iron mine of western North Carolina is the 
Cranberry, and this iron was worked in Catalan forges as early 
as 1820. The following facts regarding the Cranberry iron may 
be of interest: 


*“Cranberry Bloomery Forge, on Cranberry Creek; built in 1820; rebuilt 
in 1856; two fires and one hammer; made 17 tons of bars in 1857. 

“Toe River Bloomery Forge, situated 5 miles south of Cranberry 
forge; built in 1843; two fires and one hammer; made about 4 tons of 
bars in 1856. 

“Johnson’s Bloomery Forge, 6 miles east of south from Cranberry; 
built in 1841; had two fires and one hammer; made 1% tons of bars 
in 1856.” 


This ore made an excellent quality of iron and soon became 
known and attracted a great deal of attention throughout the 
United States. Since 1882 the mine has been worked almost 
continuously. Similar grades of iron ore are found in Ashe 
County, and the following is a summary of the history of the 
Catalan forges that were operated on these Ashe County mag- 
netic ores: 


“The Pasley forge was built by John Ballou at the mouth of Helton 
Creek in 1850; in 1871 it was rebuilt by the present owner, W. J. Pasley, 
and is now sadly in need of repairs. 

“Helton Bloomery Forge, on Helton Creek, 12 miles N. N. W. of Jef- 


*From “The Iron Manufacturer’s Guide,” 1859, by J. P. Leslie. 


40 JOURNAL OF THE MircHeEeit Society [| October 


ferson; built in 1829; two fires and one hammer; made in 1856 about 15 
tons of bars. Washed away in 1858. Another forge was built 11%4 miles 
lower down on the creek in 1802, but did not stand long. 

“Harbard’s Bloomery Forge was situated near the mouth of Helton 
Creek; built in 1807 and washed away in 1817. 

“Ballou’s Bloomery Forge was situated 12 miles N. E. of Jefferson, at 
the falls of North Fork of New River; built in 1817; washed away in 
1832 by an ice freshet. 

“North Fork Bloomery Forge was situated on North Fork of New 
River, 8 miles N. W. of Jefferson; built in 1825; abandoned in 1829; 
washed away in 1840. 

“Laurel Bloomery Forge, on Laurel Creek, 15 miles west of Jefferson; 
built in 1847; abandoned in 1853. 

“New River Forge, on South Fork of New River, % mile above its 
junction with North Fork; built in 1871; washed away in 1878.” 


The brown hematite ores of Cherokee County which occur in 
the Cambrian rocks were worked in forges as early as 1840, 
supplying the surrounding country with bar iron. We have 
record of the following forges: 


“Lovingood Bloomery Forge, situated on Hanging Dog creek, 2 miles 
above Fain forge; built from 1845 to 1853; two fires and one hammer; 
made in 1856 about 13 tons of bars. 

“Lower Hanging Dog Bloomery Forge, on Hanging Dog Creek, 5 miles 
northwest from Murphy; built in 1840; two fires and one hammer; made 
in 1856 about 4 tons of bars. 

“Killian Bloomery Forge, situated %4 mile below the Lower Hanging 
Dog forge; built in 1843; abandoned in 1849. 

“Fain Bloomery Forge, on Owl Creek, 2 miles below the Lovingood 
forge; built in 1854, two fires and one hammer; made in 1856 about 24 
tons of bars. 

“Persimmon Creek Bloomery Forge, situated on Persimmon Creek, 12 
miles southwest from Murphy; built in 1848; two fires and one hammer; 
made in 1855 about 45 tons of bars. 

“Shoal Creek Bloomery Forge, situated on Shoal Creek, 5 miles west 
of the Persimmon Creek forge; built about 1854; one fire and one 
hammer; made in 1854 about % ton of bars.” 


With the exception of the blast furnace at Cranberry which 
uses the magnetic iron ore from the Cranberry mine, no other 
furnace has been erected in western North Carolina for the 
treatment of iron ores; and when the Pasley forge on Helton 
Creek went out of commission, there was no other point in west- 


1913] Gronogicat History or Western N. C. 41 


ern North Carolina, except the Cranberry, where iron was being 
made, <A small amount of ore has been shipped from time to 
time from various localities. 

Copper mining at one time was a prominent industry of 
western North Carolina; and while I have no definite data as 
to when copper mines were first operated in western North Car- 
olina, we do know that copper properties were worked before 
the Civil War, principally in Ashe and Alleghany counties. The 
most noted mine was the Ore Knob, which is in the southeast 
corner of Ashe County near the top of the Blue Ridge and about 
two miles from New River. This mine was first opened some- 
time before the War, but it was not until some years after the 
war that it was developed to any great extent. The ore deposit 
was worked to a depth of 400 feet by means of numerous shafts 
and drifts. The mine was equipped with a smelter for produc- 
ing a high grade of copper. The amount of copper produced and 
shipped from January, 1879, to April, 1880, which was the time 
the mine was fully operated, was something over 1,640 tons. 
The cost to produce and market this copper was $.1039 a pound. 
The mine has not been worked since about 1882. Other copper 
properties that were worked were the Copper Knob or Gap 
Creek mine in the southeast part of Ashe County; the Peach 
Bottom mine on Elk Creek, Alleghany County; the Cullowhee 
mine on Cullowhee Mountain, and Savannah mine on Savannah 
Creek, Jackson County. 

Another mineral for which western North Carolina is noted 
is corundum. In 1870, Mr. Hiram Crisp found the first corun- 
dum that attracted attention to the present mining region of 
North Carolina, at what is now the Corundum Hill mine. A 
specimen was sent to Prof. Kerr, then State Geologist, for 
identification, and considerable interest was aroused when it 
was discovered that it was corundum. In the same year, Mr. 
J. H. Adams found corundum in a similar occurrence at Pel- 
ham, Massachusetts. 

In 1870-71, much activity was displayed in the search for 
corundum in the peridotite regions of the southwestern coun- 
ties of North Carolina, and new localities were soon brought to 


42 JOURNAL OF THE Mircuetyt Society [ October 


light in Macon, Jackson, Buncombe, and Yancey counties. In 
1871, Dr. Genth discovered the emery of Guilford County. 
About this time, Mr. Crisp and Dr. C. D. Smith began active 
work on the Corundum Hill property, and obtained about a 
thousand pounds of corundum, part of which was sold to col- 
lectors for cabinet specimens. Some of the masses that were 
found weighed as much as 40 pounds. 

Systematic mining for corundum did not begin until the fall 
of 1871, when the Corundum Hill property was purchased by 
Col. Chas. W. Jenks, of St. Louis, Missouri, and Mr. E. B. 
Ward, of Detroit, Michigan, and work was soon begun under 
the superintendence of Col. Jenks. This was the first systematic 
mining of common corundum, as distinguished from emery and 
the gem varieties, ever undertaken, while the first mining of the 
emery variety of corundum in America was at Chester, Massa- 
chusetts. The Corundum Hill mine produced corundum almost 
continuously from 1872 to 1901. Other mines that have pro- 
duced corundum are the Buck Creek mine in Clay County; the 
Ellijay mine in Macon County; the Carter mine in Madison 
County; and the Higden mine and Behr mine in Clay County. 

Mica mining in North Carolina began about 1870, and for the 
first 5 years practically all the mica mined was handled by Heap 
and Clapp, and was obtained from the mines of Mitchell and 
Yancey counties. Mica has continued to be mined almost con- 
stantly since that time not only in Yancey and Mitchell counties, 
but in Ashe, Buncombe, Haywood, Jackson, and Macon coun- 
ties. There are a great many old workings on these mica deposits 
and before they had been investigated and the mica discovered 
they were supposed to be old workings of the Spaniards who were 
hunting for silver. It is now supposed that these old workings 
were made by the Indians for these sheets of mica; and it is 
known that mica has been found in Indian mounds and was 
used by the Indians who inhabited what is now Ohio in the 
manufacture of their beads. North Carolina mica is still known 
as standard mica, as it was reckoned from the beginning. 

Several other minerals should be mentioned in connection with 
the descriptions given above as they were first identified in North 


1913] Grortogican History or Western N. C. 43 
Carolina. The mineral that stands out most strikingly is the 
rhodolite, a gem mineral which was discovered in Macon County 
about 1894 and was given its name from the resemblance of its 
color to that of certain rhododendron. 

Mitchellite, a variety of chromite, was discovered near Web- 
ster, Jackson County, 1895, and was named in honor of the late 
Prof. Elisha Mitchell of North Carolina. 

Wellsite, one of the minerals of the zeolite group, was dis- 
covered in 1892 at the Buck Creek mine, Clay County, and was 
named in honor of Prof. H. L. Wells, of Yale University. 

The following, belonging to the vermiculite group of min- 
erals, have been found associated with corundum, and were de- 
scribed by Doctor Genth; they were all discovered about the 
same time in 1872 or ’73: culsageeite, a variety of jefferisite, 
found at the Corundum Hill mine and named for a postoftice 
near that place; kerrite, found at Corundum Hill mine, and 
named in honor of Mr. W. C. Kerr, former State Geologist of 
North Carolina; maconite, found at the Corundum Hill mine 
and named after Macon County; lucasite, found at the Corun- 
dum Hill mine and named after Dr. H. S. Lucas, who owned the 
Corundum Hill mine; and willecoxite, found at the Buck Creek 
(Cullakenee) mine, Clay County, and named after Jos- 
eph Wilcox of Philadelphia. Auerlite, found at the Freeman 
mine, Green River, Henderson County, about 1888, it is a thor- 
ium mineral, and was named for Dr. Car] Auer von Welsbach; 
hatchettolite, a tantlum-uranium mineral, was found at the 
Wiseman Mica mine, Mitchell County, about 1877, and was 
named after the English chemist, Charles Hatchett; phosphur- 
anylite, a uranium mineral, found at the Flat Rock mine, 
Mitchell County, about 1879, and named from the chemical 
composition of the mineral; and rogersite, a niobium mineral, 
found at the Wiseman Mica mine, Mitchell County, about 1877, 
named after Prof. W. B. Rogers. 


Rererences :—N.C . Geol. Survey, Vol. II, Pt. 1, Ores of 
North Carolina, 1887. N.C. Geol. and Economic Survey, Bull. 
1, Iron Ores of North Carolina, 1893; Vol. I, Corundum and 
the Periodotites of North Carolina, 1905; Economic Papers 6, 


44 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHELt Society [ October 


8 and 9 on the Mining Industry in North Carolina, 1901, 1904, 
1905. U.S. G. 8. Geologic Folios, Cranberry, 1903; Asheville, 
1904; Mount Mitchell, 1905; Pisgah, 1907; Roan Mountain, 
1907; Nantahala, 1907. 


CuHape, Hint, N. C. 


ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE OF SILVER NITRATE 
CONCENTRATION CELLS* 


BY JAMES M. BELL AND ALEXANDER L. FEILD 


The electromotive forces of concentration cells — two 
aqueous solutions of silver nitrate between silver electrodes, 
Ag/AgNO,/AgNO;/Ag—have been measured by Miesler,’ by 
Nernst,” by Negbaur,*? by Cumming and 
Abegg,* and by Cybulski and Dunin- 
Borkowski.’ Non-aqueous — solutions 
have been employed in similar measure- 
ments by Bodlander and Eberlein,® by 
Neustadt and Abegg,’ and by Roshdest- 
wensky and Lewis,* the non-aqueous 
solvents being ethylamine, methylamine, 
methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol, acetone | 
and pyridine, 

The present paper contains results 
of measurements of the electromotive | 
force in aqueous solutions and in ethyl 
alcohol solutions over a wider range of 
concentrations than heretofore used. 

The water used in making up the so- 
lutions was distilled several times and 
had a low conductivity. The ethyl alco- 
hol stood several days over quicklime 
and was then distilled from barium ox- 
ide. Baker’s analyzed silver nitrate 
was used, the impurities present being 
negligible in amount. 

The cell is shown in the figure, and 
consists of a U-tube with outlet tube and 


* Reprinted from the Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. XXXYV. 
No. 6. June, 1913. 

Fe ere a he 8, 193, 365. (1887); J. Chem. Soc., 52, 1073 (1887); 54, 13 
(1888). 

2Z. physik. Chem., 4, 155 (1889). 

8 Wied. Ann., 44, 737 (1891). 

*Z. Blektrochem., 13, 18 (1907). 

> Anz. Akad. Wiss. Kraukau, 1909, 660. Chem. Zentr., 1909, II, 1295. 

6 Ber., 36, 3945 (1903). 

™Z. physik. Chem., 69, 486 (1909). 

SJ. Chem. Soc., 99, 2138 (1911). 

45 


46 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society [ October 


three way stock-cock. While the cell was in the thermostat, the 
outlet tube was capped. The three-way stopcock permitted the 
removal of either solution, and permitted the separation of the 
solutions in the limbs of the tube until the measurement was 
about to be made. The electrodes were of platinum foil about 
1 cm. square, welded to platinum wire which was fused through 
a glass tube containing mercury. Frequently during the course 
of the experiments, the platinum foil and wire were plated with 
silver from silver nitrate solutions acidified with nitric acid. 
When the two solutions were at the same level in the two limbs 
of the U-tube, connection between them was made by opening 
the stop-cock, and the E. M. F. was determined by the ordinary 
potentiometer method. The galvanometer was sensitive to 
0.00005 volt even with a large resistance in the circuit. An 
electrically heated and electrically controlled thermostat was 
run at 25° constant to 0.01°. The measurements were irregular 
until the metal coating of the thermostat tank was grounded. 

Measurements of the electromotive force of such combinations 
were constant within 0.0001 volt for at least 20 minutes after 
putting the solutions in contact. The table below gives the 
mean of two values obtained when different solutions and fresh- 
ly plated electrodes were used. These duplicate measurements 
differed at most by 0.0003 volt and in the majority of cases by 
not more than 0.0001 volt. 


TABLE I 
Mols/liter Mols/liter H.M.F. obs. —___ E 
C, C, Millivolts. K=“qog,, ¢,/e, 

(1) 1.0 0.1 47.2 0.0560 
(2) 1.0 0.01 103.6 0.0584 
(3) 0.3 0.03 53.6 fe) 

(4) 0.3 0.003 113.8 0.0616 
(5) 0.1 0.01 56.6 0.0608 
(6) 0.03 0.003 60.1 0.0623 
(7) 0.01 0.001 60.2" 0.0623 


These readings show satisfactory agreement among them- 
selves, for the sum of (1) and (5) should equal (2), and the 
sum of (8) and (6) should equal (4). The differences are 
0.0002 and 0.0001 volt respectively. 


1Cumming finds 59.0 millivolts. 
2 Cumming finds 61.8 millivolts. 


itt Ler i 


1913] Sirver Nitrate Concentration CELLs 47 
The Nernst formula for cells of this type is 


2U [Pu hs C1 
— loge — 
utv nF Ce 


E= 


where ¢, and ¢, refer to the concentration of silver ions and not 
to the concentration of silver nitrate. It is necessary to know 
the values of w and v, the migration ratios of Ag* and NO,. 
With solutions for which uw and v are constant, values propor- 
tional to the ionic concentrations are given by the conductivities 
of tle solutions, and these are inversely proportional to the re- 
sistance of the solutions. Cumming and Abegg conclude “that 


TABLE II 
Concentration. Resistance. 

1.0 3.486 
0.3 9.646 
0.1 24.25 
0.03 73.80 
0.01 206.49 
0.003 679.32 
0.001 1907.0 


conductivity seems to be an exact measure of ion concentration.” 
The preceding table contains the results of measurements of 
the resistances of the above solutions. 

Measurements of the migration ratios at each concentration 
were not made. The table given by Lehfeldt' indicates that 
the migration ratio for silver nitrate is fairly constant up to a 
concentration of 0.2 mols per liter. Assuming this value to be 
constant the above becomes 


1D 2ut ORT 
—————— = .—.loge 10 = K, 
logo C1/C2 utv ne 
E 
The values of _ K= ———— are given in the last column of 
logy 9¢1/¢2 


Table I and with the exception of cells 1 and 2, where normal 
solutions were used, they are fairly constant. This confirms 
the results of previous investigations, which show that the 


48 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHEeLL Society [ October 


Nernst formula holds for dilute solutions of silver nitrate. From 
the value of K found above the values of w and v may be ealeu- 
lated by substitution of the proper values of the other quantities 
in the equation 


RT 2v 
K = — loge 10 
nE uty 


Taking K=0.0623 the value of v is 0.523 while the observed 
value, given by Lehfeldt’ is 0.528. 

The table compiled by Lehfeldt indicates that the value of v 
is less for concentrated solutions and this would make the value 
of K smaller in proportion. The present results are in harmony 
with this fact, although it is impossible as yet to calculate the 
electromotive force between two solutions of silver nitrate of 
such concentrations that the migration ratio of the two are dif- 
ferent. 

The following table gives the results of measurements of the 
electromotive forces of three combinations where ethyl alcohol 
was used as solvent. 


TABLE III 
Mols/liter Mols/liter E.M.F. obs. es ee 
Cc, Co Millivolts. ~~ log,, ¢,/¢, 
(1) 0.1 0.01 47.0 0.068 
(2) 0.1 0.001 100.6 0.071 
(3) 0.01 0.001 50.7 0.074 


The experimental values are consistent among themselves as the 
sum of (1) and (3) is 106.7 against 106.6 for (2). 

The relative ionic concentration of silver ions was determined 
by conductivity measurements the results being given in the 
next table. 


TABLE IV 
Concentration. Resistance. 
0.1 208.5 
0.01 1024.0 
0.001 6420.0 


Again assuming that at all the concentrations employed the 
values of the migration ratios remain constant, the value of K 


1 Blectrochemistry, p. 256 (1904). 


ee ee 


1913] Sitver Nitrate Concentration CELLS 49 


was determined by the same formula as for aqueous solutions. 
As these values vary somewhat (see Table III), it seems prob- 
able that the migration ratios of Ag* and NO,” are not constant 
even for concentrations below 0.1N. Taking K=0.074, the 
value of v is 0.62. 


SUMMARY 


The electromotive forces of concentration cells containing 
solutions of silver nitrate in water at 25° are in accord with the 
Nernst formula for dilute solutions. Where higher concentra- 
tions were employed the calculated value of the electromotive 
force is greater than the observed because the migration ratio v 
is smaller at the higher concentrations. This affects two factors 
in the Nernst equation, viz., 2v/u-++v and log ¢,/c,. The latter 
factor is affected because the ratio of the ion concentrations 
¢,/Cy is determined from conductivity measurements and this 
method of determination is valid only when the migration ve- 
locity remains constant. The value of migration ratio for 
dilute solutions calculated from the above results agrees closely 
with the values found by direct experiment. 

For ethyl alcohol solutions the migration ratio apparently 
varies even at concentrations below 0.1 VN. The value of v cal- 
culated from the most dilute solution was 0.62. 


Cuaper Hinn, N. C. 


ANNUAL ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT OF THE 
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SHELLFISH 
COMMISSIONERS, NORFOLK, VA., 

APRIL 23, 1913 


BY JOSEPH HYDE PRATT 


It is with a great deal of pleasure that I, as President of the 
National Association of Shellfish Commissioners, respond for 
the members of the Association and delegates to this convention 
to this most cordial welcome that has been extended to us. I 
can assure the good people of the city of Norfolk and of the 
State of Virginia that it is very gratifying to us to be able to 
hold this fifth annual convention of our Association in the old 
historic State of Virginia, which has always stood in the fore- 
ground of progress, and has played such a vital and important 
part along all lines in the development of our great nation. The 
warm, sincere, and open-hearted hospitality for which Virginia 
has always been noted, is now being extended to us. There are 
but very few instances in the history of this great State where 
this warm and open-hearted hospitality has not been shown to 
those who desired to come within her borders, such as: the re- 
fusal of the State to accept certain governors that England 
wished to force upon her; the warm but inhospitable reception 
that was extended so effectively to Cornwallis and his followers 
during the Revolutionary War; and the polite and energetic 
request that was given to certain visitors who insisted on coming 
into the State during the sixties that their room was preferable 
to their company. I believe, outside of such instances as I 
have mentioned, that Virginia has at all times extended the 
right hand of fellowship and free hospitality to all who wish to 
come and visit or dwell within her borders. Even those whom 
she turned away on account of certain differences have, when 
the differences became adjusted, been and are now being re- 
ceived with the same sincere cordiality as if these differences 
had never existed. 

We cannot, as we meet together in this State, prevent ourselves 
from reminiscing regarding the early history of Virginia; from 

50 


a 


— ee 


1913 | Appress oF Presrpent N. A. S. Com. 51 


the spring of 1607, when the first permanent English colony 
was established at Jamestown, Va.; and, as we do this, we 
realize that to the men who assisted in the building up of this 
eolony and to all Virginians who have followed, even to perhaps 
the greatest of all, who now occupies the highest office in the 
gift of the people,—President Woodrow Wilson,—that to these 
men the nation is indebted for much of its success and its rise 
to the greatest nation in the world. 

It can be truthfully said that not only in the United States 
but also in our own States individualism and sectionalism, as 
opposed to a national or state community spirit, has reached in 
the past few years a point that is of positive detriment to the 
best growth and development of our country. We believe, how- 
ever, that we now have at the head of our national government 
a broad-minded, conscientious man whose attention is directed 
to measures of nation-wide importance, which he will endeavor 
to see are considered in a manner that will be for the best in- 
terest of the country at large, and not for the benefit of any 
particular local section or community or interest at the expense 
of the country as a whole. I believe that the influence of this 
man is going to be wide-spread throughout the nation, so that 
various measures that are coming up in the states will be con- 
sidered from the standpoint of the State, and not from the 
standpoint of the county or township. It is undoubtedly true 
that questions that come up relating to the conservation and 
perpetuation of our natural resources of whatever character 
they may be, must be considered from at least a state, and in 
some cases a national standpoint, if the best results or even any 
good results are to be obtained; and this is very true in connec- 
tion with the shellfish industries. 

Virginia is one of the few South Atlantic States that has 
taken a decided practical step looking toward the conservation 
and perpetuation of her shellfish industry, and through the con- 
scientious work of her able commissioner, Hon. W. McDonald 
Lee, she has reached the place where she can point with pride 
to what the State is accomplishing in the oyster industry. Her 
Lynnhaven and James River oysters are famous not only in the 


2 


52 JoURNAL OF THE MircHety Society [ October 


State but throughout the country, and she has made them 
abundant so that she can supply the greatest demand that may 
arise for them. I have used the words “made them abundant” 
advisedly, inasmuch as the results accomplished have been due 
to the actual work of man in the cultivation and planting of 
the oyster as well as assisting by adequate statutes the growth 
and reproduction of the oyster on the natural rock. The oyster 
industry is on a paying basis, and each year is enabled to pay 
into the General Treasury of the State a very satisfactory fund, 
after all expenses have been met. This could only have been 
accomplished as a state-wide measure. 

Man himself is one of the most important factors in decreas- 
ing the supply of oysters and other shellfish in the waters of 
the several states, due largely to his selfish interest and to his 
idea that anything that comes out of the sea is his by a God- 
given right, and that the State has no authority over it whatever. 
Many of the natural oyster rocks or reefs may have been par- 
tially or wholly destroyed by becoming muddied or sanded, due 
to very severe storms, thus smothering the oysters; or the beds 
may have been destroyed by some parasite; or, because of the 
certain changes of the coast line, waters may have become too 
fresh; and thus the natural rocks have been destroyed. Not- 
withstanding the fact that these causes may account for the 
destruction of many natural rocks, it is undoubtedly true that 
the most important influence is the one that has to do with the 
actual taking of the oysters themselves. This is especially true 
of the lobster, which in many sections has been almost entirely 
exterminated by overfishing. The oyster and the clam have 
practically no chance whatever to protect themselves or to 
escape their worst enemy, man; but, though an enemy, 1% is 
also through the efforts of man that the destruction wrought 
in many places must be and has been remedied. If it had not 
been for the conservationist or perhaps I might say in connes- 
tion with the oyster industry, the man who appreciated the 
oyster as a delicious food, realizing that unless some steps wer2 
taken by the State or National governments to protect it and 
prevent over-oystering of the natural rocks, the oyster would 
be exterminated; we would be today in many, if not all of the 


1913 | ApprEss oF Presipent N. A. S. Com. 53 
states, without this form of food. There were such men who 
came to the assistance not only of the oyster but of other shell- 
fish. In many instances, however, it would have been too late 
with the oyster if it had not been previously demonstrated that 
its cultivation was a commercial proposition, and this had been 
taken up very extensively in those states where the natural rock 
had been very nearly depleted. Besides producing oysters on 
the made rock, another result of the cultivation of the oyster 
has been that the natural rocks have in several states begun to 
increase and become again very productive, which is undoubted- 
ly due to the great quantity of spat that was produced by the 
cultivated beds, and which settled on the natural rocks. 

Such recommendations as are made for the perpetuation and 
cultivation of the oyster and the protection and perpetuation 
of other shellfish can only be carried out by a state’s taking the 
problem and considering it as a state proposition. Where this 
has been done the results have been most beneficial and gratify- 
ing, and the oyster industry of these states has been revived and 
become a very profitable one. There are, however, still many 
states where the problem has not yet been successfully solved; 
and it is found, upon investigation, that the reason for this 
is that state legislators have not and are not now considering the 
question as a state problem, but are permitting the local com- 
munities to have enacted laws relative to the oyster industry, 
and are not taking any steps from the standpoint of the state for 
the protection of these shellfish. The result is, that in several 
of the states, as: North Carolina and Georgia, oystering has 
reached a very low ebb, so low in fact that it is scarcely to be 
reckoned with in considering the oyster industry of this country. 

The work of this Association is to consider and assist in the 
solving of all problems that may come up in regard to the per- 
petuation of the various shellfish; and it has tried and is still 
trying to bring every state that has shell fisheries to a realiza- 
tion of the absolute necessity of the state taking up the problem 
and passing adequate legislation covering the whole industry in 
the state. The Association has had the hearty co-operation of 
the United States Bureau of Fisheries in this work, and we 
believe that the considerable progress that has been made in the 


54 JOURNAL OF THE MitTcHELL Society [| October 


shellfish industry can be directly traced to the work of this As- 
sociation. 

With the passage of adequate laws regulating the fishing of 
the oyster, and its cultivation, problems immediately come up 
that must be considered and solved, such as: 


What are natural rocks? 

What areas shall be open for cultivation of the oyster ? 

Shall such areas be leased or sold ? 

How much area shall each individual be permitted to take up ? 

How shall the oyster bottoms be taxed ? 

What regulation shall be made in regard to the production 
and shipment of seed oysters ? 

What measures shall the State take to protect the beds that 
are being cultivated; for the protection of the natural rock ? 

Pollution of oyster rocks and its prevention. 

Effect of dumping all waste material into our harbors and 
bays which may result in the pollution of oyster rocks and clam 
beds, or may cover the oyster rock and thus smother the oysters. 

Shall the areas of the natural rock be mapped or the areas 
that are leased or sold for cultivation ? 

Uniform seasons for catching oysters in adjoining states. 


The solution of these problems is now being taken up by the 
various states and also the Federal Government; and they are 
slowly but surely being solved, and we believe in the interest of 
the shellfish industries. 

As can readily be seen from these problems, it will be abso- 
lutely impossible to solve them unless it is done by the states 
as state propositions. The problems vary in the different states 
and in some that relating to the oyster has been almost entirely 
solved, but there still remains a great deal to be done in con- 
nection with the perpetuation of other forms of shellfish. The 
necessary measures that are required to better the various shell- 
fish industries will be accomplished just so fast as we are able 
to educate those who make a livelihood out of these industries, 
as to the need of conservation; bring the rest of the people of 
that particular state to a realization that they too have a decided 
personal interest in the conservation of these industries; and 


ee ae ee eR ee 


1913 | Avpress oF Presipent N. A. S. Com. 55 


cause each of these classes of people to realize that the shellfish 
do not belong to the individual but to the state, and, therefore, 
the state has a right to insist upon their protection and perpetu- 
ation. 

The National Association of Shellfish Commissioners is try- 
ing to bring together the best information obtainable regarding 
the problems suggested above; and they are holding conventions 
to discuss these problems and work out, if possible, a plan 
which will eventually solve them. The information at our con- 
ventions has been of very great assistance to the commissioners 
of the various state, and is being utilized by them for the good 
of the industry. 

Some states are better equipped than others for carrying on 
experimental work in connection with certain problems, and, al- 
though the results of their experiments are of peculiar value to 
that state, yet they are of great value to all who are interested 
in the same or similar problems to those that have been investi- 
gated. Our Association should be and is a clearing house 
through which each State Commission can obtain the benefit of 
the results obtained by the others. 

The discussions that have taken place at our previous con- 
ventions on such subjects as: 

The leasing vs. the sale of sea bottoms for oyster and clam 
cultivation ; 

The method and rate of taxation of oyster and clam bottoms; 

The pollution of oyster bottoms ; 
have all been of very great interest, and the fervor and earnest- 
ness with which the delegates to the convntion entered into the 
discussion resulted in the co-ordination of our ideas and theories, 
and emphasized the value of co-operation. 

We sometimes become impatient at the length of time re- 
quired to have our ideas, suggestions and recommendations put 
into practice by our state legislators, and we wonder why they 
can be so ignorant on such an important subject, as the ‘“Shell- 
fish Industry.” Yet we cannot expect them to be very familiar 
with a subject that has taken us years to understand and realize 
its great value. What we do, however, have a right to become 
impatient over is the often apparent unwillingness of our legis- 


56 JOURNAL OF THE MircHEeLt Socrety [| October 


lators to accept the recommendations of the Shellfish Commis- 
sions regarding the industry or that their ideas are of any par- 
ticular value; and instead pass legislation regarding the in- 
dustry that is almost diametrically opposite to our suggestions. 
This is frequently done for political reasons, and the interests 
of the state have been sacrificed for self advancement. I believe, 
however, the tide is turning and that we are entering upon an 
era when man’s love of country and his true patriotism will 
outweigh the thought of self; and in deciding questions of state 
his query will be: What effect will this measure have upon 
the country and upon my state, and not what will be the po- 
litical effect upon me. When we have broadened and developed 
to such an extent that we consider in these great questions first, 
our country’s interest, then our state, then our county, and last 
our own individual community, then and then only, will we be 
able to obtain the best solutions to these problems. 

Our co-operation should not only be between the states but 
between the states and the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries. There 
should be a more adequate appropriation made by Congress to 
the Bureau of Fisheries for investigations relating to the shell- 
fish industry. There is a wide field for work which should be 
done largely by the Federal Government, and in co-operation 
with the several states. The importance and value of the in- 
dustry warrant our making a vigorous demand upon Congress 
for such an appropriation. 

The oyster, clam, scallop, the lobster, the crab and the terra- 
pin must all receive the attention of the Shellfish Commissions. 

The sessions of our convention are open to the public and we 
will gladly weleome any who are interested enough in the sub- 
ject to attend; and we may in this way impress upon laymen 
the value and importance of the industry we represent. 

In closing, I wish to express to you Virginians our extreme 
regret that illness has kept Governor Mann from meeting with 
us. We miss his word of cheer and guidance, and voice with 


you the prayer that his illness may not be for long, and that he 


will soon be restored to his State in full vigor and health. 


CHapEeL, Hint, N. C. 


Re a ee the eek 


— ees 


LIME ON SOILS 
BY JOHN E, SMITH 


The various operations of tillage are performed for the pur- 
pose of enabling the plant to obtain the food necessary in the 
process of growth. Certain substances are sometimes added to 
the soil to increase its productivity; these are known as soil 
amendments and lime is one of the most useful of them. 


CORRECTS THE ACIDITY 


An acid condition results from the decay of organic matter, 
is brought to the top soil from the subsoil by capillary water, 
is produced by nitrifying bacteria, and is formed in other ways. 
All forms of lime (except gypsum) readily counteract or 
neutralize this condition, one ton per acre in most cases being 
sufficient to keep the soil neutral for two or three years. 


AIDS NITRIFICATION 


The acidity of soils is somewhat injurious to the growth of 
many plants and in many instances is fatal to the legumes 
(clover, vetch, alfalfa, ete.), whose power to assimilate and 
store nitrogen is dependent on the activity of bacteria that thrive 
in a neutral or slightly alkaline soil but cannot live in the pres- 
ence of much of the acidity which in part is the product of their 
own work. <A supply of lime in the soil neutralizes the acid as 
rapidly as it is formed and thus prevents its accumulation and 
maintains a condition favorable to the rapid growth of nitrify- 
ing bacteria. Lime is therefore essential to the successful 
growth of leguminous plants sooner or later. 


IMPROVES THE STRUCTURE 


By structure of the soil is meant the arrangement or grouping 
of the soil particles. This is very intimately related to pore 
space, water holding capacity, and to the movements of soil 
moisture. 

The addition of lime to clay soils is a strong factor in pre- 
venting cloddiness and in producing that most desirable granu- 
lar, crumb-like structure which constitutes “good tilth,” so 

37 


58 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHEeLL Society [ October 


necessary in retaining the moisture in the soil during dry 
weather. It also increases the permeability of the soil for air. 
Nearly all forms of lime readily improve the soil structure. 
For sandy soils a small amount of lime carbonate will serve 
to make the structure slightly more compact by cementing some 
of the particles together, thereby improving the power of the 
soil to hold capillary water and preventing its drying so readily. 


FORMS OF LIME 


In nature the chief source of “lime” is the common mineral 
calcite which occurs extensively as beds of fossils shells, often 
not distinguishable, and these beds according to their purity, 
the degree of consolidation, method of deposition, subsequent 
changes, and to the kind and nature of the contributing organ- 
isms, are classified as limestones, marls, chalk, marble, ete. 

This material is applied to the soil in three forms; decayed 
limestone, marl, etc., these substances (CaCO,) ground, and 
that which has been burned at a high temperature. In the 
process of burning, a gas (carbon dioxide, CO,) is given off 
and calcium oxide (CaO), quicklime, remains. When quick- 
lime is allowed to slack slowly in dry air, it again assumes the 
form of a carbonate and is called air-slaked lime. If water be 
added to the quicklime, the mixture forms calcium hydrate, 
Ca(OH)., and is known as water-slaked or hydrated (caustic) 
lime. If the slaking take place in damp air, the quicklime 
absorbs from the air some moisture and some carbon dioxide 
the result being a mixture of lime carbonate and hydrated lime. 

Related Forms.—Dolomite is a calcium magnesium carbon- 
ate (CaCO,, MgCO.), sometimes incorrectly called magnesian 
limestone. It occurs extensively in the Appalachian Mountains 
and is found in Virginia, Tennessee, North Carolina, Georgia, 
and Alabama, where it is frequently called “marble.” 

Gypsum, the hydrated sulfate of calcium (CaSO,, 2H,O), is 
ground and sold on the market as ‘“‘Land Plaster.” 


1913 | Lime on Sorts 59 


TABLE OF EQUIVALENTS 


Quicklime | Hydrated Dolomite Pure, ground Marl Marl Marl 
ime CaCos, limestone 85% 75% 60% 
Cad Ca(OH) 2 MgC0s CaC0a CaC0s CaC0s CaC03 
Ror lp 74. 1b, —= o2. lb. =" roo Ib. = 108 1b) — 33. 1b. = 167 Ie, 
wee tOni== i ton = 1.24 ton = 1.35 ton=1.59 ton=1.8 ton=2.26 ton 
ton — 1.35 ton = 1.64 ton = 1:78 ton =21t ton —2:36 ton—=3. ton 
$1.78 = $1.35 = $109 = $100 = $.85 = $,75 = $§ .60 


100 lbs. of pure limestone will produce when burned, 56 
Ibs. of quicklime which, when air-slaked, becomes 100 lbs. of 
finely powdered lime carbonate. If the 56 lbs. of quicklime be 
water-slaked, it unites with 18 lbs. of water to form 74 lbs. of 
hydrated lime. 100 lbs. of ground limestone contains the same 
amount of lime as 167 lbs. of 60% marl; one ton of hydrated 
lime is equal to three-quarters of a ton of quicklime and to two 
and one-fourth tons of 60% marl. If a given amount of ground 
limestone (one ton for example) is worth $1.00, the same quant- 
ity of 75% marl is worth (by weight) $.75, and of hydrated 
lime, $1.35. This however does not indicate the relative values 
of their effects on the soil. 


ADAPTATION OF FORMS 


Gypsum.—This form of calcium does not neutralize the 
acidity of the soil but on the other hand tends to increase it 
and should not therefore be used except on neutral or alkaline 
soils and then only in small quantities. It frequently changes 
some of the potash of the soil to the soluble form and sometimes 
makes more phosphorus available for the use of the plant. 

In its effects on soil structure it decreases the rate of move- 
ment of capillary water and consequently reduces evaporation 
from the surface (in sandy soils 27%, King, The Soil, p. 177). 

Gypsum accelerates the process of nitrification more than any 
other known substance. Its relation to lime in this respect may 
be seen in the following figures: lime carbonate, 13.3; gypsum, 
100 (Hilgard, Soils, p. 147). It should be used on soils for 
this purpose only. 

Dolomite.—This rock when ground very fine and monned to 
the soil has much the same fies as the lime carbonate especial- 
ly on the first two or three crops following its application. 


60 JOURNAL OF THE MircHEeLt Society [ October 


Later by successive additions of it to a field, the magnesia might 
be increased to an injurious extent, but this could be avoided 
by the occasional use of lime carbonate. Companies quarrying 
this material might utilize some of their wasted stone dust by 
selling it for this purpose. The burned dolomite is strongly 
caustic and should not be put on the land. 

Hydrated Lime.—This form greatly hastens vegetable decay 
and often causes waste leading toward exhaustion of the organic 
content of the soil. When it is applied therefore, more organic 
matter such as barnyard compost, legume crops, etc., must be 
added except on soils containing peat, etc. 

It corrects the acidity of the soil more quickly than other 
forms of lime and may produce a better increase in the yield 
during the first two or three years. For this reason it is fre- 
quently used by tenants. 

On heavy clay soils this form is the most effective in pro- 
ducing a good granular, crumb-like structure and thus aids in 
the retention of moisture near the surface. 

Lime Carbonate-—Ground limestone readily corrects the 
acidity of the soil, assists greatly in producing a condition fay- 
orable to the growth of nitrifying bacteria, and directly or indi- 
rectly renders available other plant foods such as phosphoric 
acid and potash. It changes vegetable materials into neutral 
humus at once and concentrates their nitrogen. 

A liberal supply of lime carbonate added to orchard lands 
will increase the sweetness of the fruit (grapes included) if the 
lime was previously deficient in amount. 

Lime carbonate greatly increases the flocculation of soil parti- 
cles into granules and thus improves the texture of the soil. 

Lime carbonate is useful in nearly every way in which lime 
is valuable as a soil amendment. 


SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 


Under average conditions plants use annually nearly half a 
ton of lime carbonate per acre. 

The effectiveness of lime added to the soil depends very 
largely on its fineness of grain (texture) and on its being 
thoroly mixed with the soil. 


1913 | Live on Sorts 61 


The finest grained limes are the air-slaked and the hydrated 
forms. . 

Unground limes and marls should be extremely well decayed. 

The degree of acidity present and the amount of plant food 
in the soil determine the amount of lime to be used. 

One or two tons per acre applied every two or three years is 
much better than larger amounts added at longer intervals. 

Lime should be shipped in its most condensed form (quick- 
lime) and hydrated on the farm where it is used. 

Ground lime should be applied in the summer or fall to be 
available for the next spring crop. Hydrated lime is put on 
(do not mix it with phosphates) about a month before seeding. 

The limestones and most of the marls of the Atlantic and 
Gulf Coastal Plains are desirable for use as ground material. 

In Europe and America nearly all of the experiments con- 
ducted to test the relative value of ground limestone and the 
hydrated lime as amendments to soils deficient in lime, have 
produced results favorable to the lime carbonate. 


CHAPEL Hitt, N. C. 


Hal Om 
ety ie: 
, 


he | 
rs ae: 


LAS Ae 
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIG SOCIETY 


VOLUME XXIX JANUARY, 1914 No. 3 


DETAILS OF ARRANGEMENTS AND ORGANIZA- 
TION FOR THE USE OF CONVICT LABOR 
IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION 


BY JOSEPH HYDE PRATT 


Before taking up a discussion of the details of arrangements 
or organization for the use of convict labor in the construction 
of public roads, I wish to state briefly certain phases of the 
convict labor problem that are pertinent to the economic use of 
such labor. There are certain fundamental principles that 
must be borne in mind in considering this problem and in the 
handling of convict labor: 


First: The convict is a human being and must be treated as 
such; he has a sense of responsibility, honor and discipline, 
and this sense can be quickened and developed. 

Second: That perhaps with few exceptions, there is some 
good in every convict, which can be developed and made para- 
mount in the character of the man. 

Third: The convict in serving his sentence is simply paying 
a debt that he owes to the State for certain infringements of 
the laws of that State; and, when he has served this sentence, 
he has paid his debt and should be in a position to become a 
good and valuable citizen of the State. Most convicts are serv- 
ing a first sentence and often for a crime committed on the spur 
of the moment, and with many of them this one crime com- 
mitted represents the only black spot in their lives. 

Fourth: Hard work is a good reformer, and idleness begets 
melancholia. 

Fifth: The State on her part owes it to the convict to assist 
him in every way to pay his debt as speedily and economically 

63 


64 JourNAL OF THE Mircuett Socrery [January 


as possible, and in such a way that he is a better man when his 
debt is paid than when he was convicted. 

Sixth: The attitude of the State toward the convict should 
be corrective and not vindictive; to uplift and not degrade 
him. 

Seventh: To put a man in stripes often so degrades and 
humiliates him that it is extremely hard, and sometimes im- 
possible, for him to reform. 


Eighth: Outdoor work is much more conducive to good 
health and cheerful dispositions than confinement in prisons 
or factories with no outdoor exercises but what can be obtained 
in a limited area of a penitentiary yard or court. 

Ninth: There must be an incentive before good work can 
be expected from most convicts. 

Tenth: There is a great variation in the character and work- 
ing ability of different convicts. 

Hleventh: In many cases families were dependent upon the 
convict before his sentence and are, during his sentence, de- 
prived of that support. 


The first question that presents itself is whether the attitude 
of the State toward the convict should be to impress upon 
him that he has committed a wrong and therefore there is no 
good in him, and that this idea must be impressed upon him 
continually during the serving of his sentence; or whether the 
attitude of the State shall be that the convicted man in serving 
out his sentence is paying a just debt to the State, and that, 
while she insists the debt shall be paid and that in paying it the 
convict shall not forget that he is a debtor to the State, yet he 
may be able to eliminate as far as possible the fact that crime 
has been committed. Is it possible for the State to have this 
latter attitude toward the convict when they compel him to 
wear stripes—which in America universally denote the felon 
—have their heads shaved, and always walk in lock step when 
going from one part of the prison ground to another? These 


phases of a convict’s life were formerly considered necessary — 


in order to prevent his escape and were also considered as part 
of his punishment. They are degrading, and will wear out the 


Ee ee 


1914 | Convicr Lasor 1n Roap Construction 65 


soul of many a man; and, to my mind, should only be used as 
a last resort and not as a first resort. I believe depriving a 
man of his liberty and requiring him to work for the State for 
a certain length of time according to the gravity of his crime 
is sufficient punishment for a very large majority of the men 
who are convicted. 

At present, without going into the question as to what is the 
best work for the convict to do, I wish simply to make the 
general proposition that in any group of convicts it will always 
be found that some will do a great deal more and better work 
than others, that some will work very willingly and industri- 
ously; while others are lazy and only work the minimum 
amount that is required of them. This is especially true of a 
certain class, when they feel that they have got nothing what- 
ever to gain by more energetic endeavors. Would it not then 
be the proper thing for the State to allow the convict a certain 
percentage of the value of his labor, which could be forwarded 
to his family, if he has one dependent upon him; or become 
accumulative and be given to him at the end of his sentence 
as a fund with which to start life anew. 

The State is the guardian of every convict and she can make 
or break him according to the treatment she measures out to 
him. Her rules and regulations must be just, and then she 
must insist upon their strict obedience. On the other hand she 
must be just as strict to see that those she places in charge of 
the convict, whether it be Prison Warden, Superintendent, or 
Foreman, all keep faith with the convict and that all promises 
made to them of whatever character are kept. A promise to the 
convict is an obligation that the State must keep, and upon the 
strict carrying out of such promises and the strict enforcement 
of just rules and regulations will depend the success of the use 
of convict labor not only in road construction but for any other 
purpose. 

Keeping in mind the suggestions and statements made above, 
I would submit for your consideration as a logical plan for the 
treatment and organization for work of the convict the follow- 
ing: 

That the men who have been convicted and sentenced for the 


66 JouRNAL OF THE Mircuetyt Socrery [January 


first time all be considered as men capable of being treated in 
the most lenient way by the prison authorities. That they shall 
not be required to wear stripes or have their heads shaved, 
reserving this form of prison garb for those whom it is found 
cannot be trusted, and who will not live up to the rules and 
regulations of the prison authorities. 

There could be three classes of convicts: Those in the First 
Class who are not required to wear startling or very noticeable 
uniforms; those in the Second Class who are required to wear 
a distinctive uniform but not stripes; and those in the Third 
Class who are required to wear stripes and, if necessary, have 
their heads shaved. 

To the Third Class would be assigned those who have been 
convicted and sentenced more than once for some crime against 
the State, and those who, while serving out their sentence, are 
constantly breaking rules and regulations of the prison au- 
thorities. 

To the Second Class would be assigned those who have start- 
ed in the First Class but have shown that they will not obey 
all the rules and regulations or do good or efficient work and 
are not to be trusted; and for further infringement of the rules 
and regulations, they would be assigned to the Third Class. 
To this Second Class would come men from the Third Class 
who have shown by their work and their deportment that they 
are trying to live up to the rules and regulations and become 
better men. They in time might be able to be transferred 
to the First Class. 

To the First Class would be assigned those who have been 
convicted for the first time, and they would remain in this 
Class until they have shown by their behavior that they are not 
to be trusted or will not do good and efficient work, when they 
will be assigned to the Second Class. In this First Class would 
be the men who would be known as “ honor men.” 

In the South where a very large proportion of the men con- 
victed of crime are negroes, it may not be possible to carry out 
exactly the above classification, as it may be necessary to assign 
the negro convict to the Second Class and make him show by his 
work and deportment that he is entitled to a place amongst the 


ee 


et i ei 6 | ny 


1914 | Convict Lazor 1n Roap Construction 67 


“honor men.” In the West and probably in the North where 
the negro convict is in the minority, it is possible to assign them 
at once to the First Class. To some it may seem that guns are 
necessary to control the negro convict, yet I believe it will be 
found possible to create in his mind the idea and realization 
that the serving out of his sentence is simply paying a just debt 
that he owes to the State, and that the State is really trying 
to better his condition and give him a chance to make something 
of himself again; and that this will develop in him a loyalty to 
the superintendent of the camp and the foreman under whom 
he works. 

The convict force will be divided into the above classes re- 
gardless of the work that they are to do. The present paper, 
however, takes up the question of the use of this labor in the 
construction of public roads, which means the erection at vari- 
ous points of convict camps. 


ORGANIZATION OF THE CONVICTS 


The organization of this convict labor for road construction 
will be of two distinct methods depending upon the classes of 
convicts used: 


First, would be the convicts that would be worked without 
guards and without stripes, representing the men of the First 
Class or “ honor men.” 

Second, would be those over whom it is necessary to have 
armed guards while they are working, and would be convicts of 
the Second and Third classes. 

The men of the Third Class would wear stripes and work 
under guards with guns, and the worst men of this class might 
have to be worked in stockades in breaking rock or doing sim- 
ilar work. Those of Class II would be worked under guards 
with or without exposed firearms, as the case might be. At 
night the convicts of Class III would be on chains and under 
armed guards, while those of Class II would be not on chains 
but under armed guards. 


i a a. 2 rie 


68 JouRNAL oF THE Mircuett Society [January 


FIRST METHOD OF ORGANIZATION 


The convicts in the first method of organization representing 
Class I or “ honor men” would be divided into three groups, 
if the camp is of sufficient size, according to the work that the 
men are capable of doing. In the first group would be the 
most efficient men of the camp of whom would be expected a 
certain definite amount of work. The rest of the convicts of 
the camp would be graded into second and third groups. Know- 
ing then what each group of men is capable of doing on an 
average as a day’s work, the foreman of the road work could 
estimate what each group should easily be able to do in a certain 
time; and then, if the group were able by especially energetic 
work to accomplish more than ‘the required amount, the men of 
that group should be allowed as a bonus a certain percentage 
of the value of the extra work that the group accomplishes, 
this to be paid in money and divided equally amongst them. 
The first group should be allowed 50 per cent; ‘the second group, 
40 per cent; and the third group, 30 per cent of the values of 
the extra work. The men should be permitted to spend this 
money at any time for things they wish that, of course, are not 
under the ban of the authorities. 

As I have already stated, I believe that the convicts should 
be allowed a certain per cent of the value of ‘the time that they 
are obliged to work for the State, the money thus earned to be- 
come accumulative and to be turned over to them at the ex- 
piration of their sentence; or to be turned over, if requested by 
the convict, at stated intervals to his family, provided that at 
all times there shall be a certain percentage of that earned by 
the convict to his credit in the Penitentiary Treasury. These 
two opportunities of actually earning money will be a very 
great incentive for the men to do better and more consci- 
entious work and will also be an incentive for each man 
to see to it that each member of the group to which 
he is assigned does his part toward keeping up _ the 
record and reputation of the group. The amount allowed 
to convicts for their labor will vary according: to the Class to 
which the convict is assigned. Those of the First Class should 


t 
J 


1914 | Convict Lasor 1n Roap Construction 69 


receive a greater amount per day than that received by either 
of the other two classes; but each group of Class I should 
receive the same percentage. This would be a fair proposition 
inasmuch as the cost to the State of the men in the First Class 
is considerably less than those in the other two classes inasmuch 
as no guards are required and the men are on their honor. 
My idea is that no matter what the rate allowed per man be, 
the man of the First Class should receive one-third again as 
much as those in Class IT; he, in turn, should receive one-third 
again as much as those in Class III. It will cause the men of 
‘the First Class to do their best to remain there, as they are able 
to earn more money; and it will be an incentive for the men of 
the third group to try to get into the second group, and for the 
men of the second group to get into the first group. 

Those men of the First Class should also be receiving a com- 
mutation of their time. This varies in the different states, 
amounting to as much as ten days in one month in some states. 
If any man in Class I does not live up to what is expected of 
the “ honor men” and breaks the rules and regulations of the 
camp, he may be reduced to a lower group; or, if his offense is 
very great, he may be reduced to Class II, and in the latter 
case he would lose what time has been commuted. If he at- 
tempts to escape he is to be reduced at once to Class III and 
will lose not only the time commuted but what money has 
been credited to him. Thus it will be seen that there is every 
incentive for the men in Class I to remain in that class; and I 
believe the men of that class will try and do their part to see 
that each one of the class lives up to what is expected of them. 
Those in Class IT and IIT will see the great benefits that come 
to those in Class I, and will begin to do what they can to be 
transferred to Class I. 

The accumulation of money that the convict has earned and 
the accumulation of time commuted from his sentence, which 
he knows will be lost if he attempts to escape or if he con- 
stantly breaks the rules and regulations of the camp, will be 
one of the strong motives that will prevent him from trying to 
escape ; and, as will be seen later, this will also apply to the men 
of the Second and Third Classes. To my mind, however, one of 


70 JouRNAL oF THE Mircuertt Socrery [January 


the strongest motives that will keep the men in Class I is the 
fact that confidence has been placed in them and they are trust- 
ed. It might be well at this point to state that any community 
‘that undertakes the working of convicts along the lines I am 
outlining must make it a point that “honor men” must be 
“honor men” in every sense of the word. There must be no 
guards of any sort. They must be housed, treated, worked, and 
fed similarly as in a military camp or perhaps in a railroad con- 
struction camp; differing from the latter, however, inasmuch 
as there would have to be certain rules and regulations similar to 
a military camp that the men must live up to; such as, retiring 
and getting up at certain specific times, being regular at meals, 
and other regulations that would be laid down by the Warden 
or Superintendent of the convicts. It is in this way that the 
convict realizes to the fullest extent the confidence that the 
State is placing in him and is believing that he will respect 
this confidence and pay his just debt by serving out his sentence. 


SECOND METHOD OF ORGANIZATION 


In this second method of organization where it is necessary to 
have the convicts guarded, the organization is somewhat differ- 
ent than in the first. In the first place we have two classes of 
convicts, one of which (Class III) are the men that have shown 
for the time being at best that they cannot be trusted in any 
way and have to be worked in stripes under armed guards and 
have to be chained at night. 

Class II also has to be worked under guards, but it will be 
found that in some instances, as will be noted later, it will not 
be necessary that these guards carry exposed firearms. The men 
of Class II can be divided into two groups. Those of Group 1 
would be considered men who are on probation before being 
transferred to Class I; and, while they are still worked under 
guards, it will not be necessary for these guards to carry exposed 
firearms. Group 2 would be worked under guards carrying 
exposed firearms but without chains. At night all the men of 
Class II would be in camp under armed guards. Those of 
group 1 would not be on a chain while those of group 2 would 
be. These men of Class II would wear some distinctive uni- 


1914 | Convict Lasor 1x Roap Construction 71 


form, but not stripes. The men of Class II should be allowed 
a certain percentage in money of the value of their labor which, 
however, would be one-third less than that received by the men 
of Class I, and there would be no bonuses allowed for any 
extra work. The men in Group 1 of Class FL would have the 
advantages over group 2 of not being under guards with ex- 
posed firearms, not being on the chain at night and being in 
direct line for transfer to Class I. This, I believe, would be 
incentive enough to keep these men from breaking the rules 
and regulations of the camp. Group 2 of Class II would know 
that by good behavior and good work they would be able to get 
transferred to Group 1 of the same class and in the end to 
Class I. 

For infringements of the rules and regulations and for any 
attempt to escape, they would be punished similarly as stated 
for the men of Class I. 

The men of Class III would be divided into two groups. 
Group 1 would be worked on the public roads but under guards 
and if necessary with chains. At night they would be under 
strict armed guards and on the chain. Those of Group 2 would 
be men whom it is not considered advisable to work on the 
publie roads, and would be worked in stockades under armed 
guards and, if necessary with ball and chain. Those men could 
break rock for macadam, make cement drain tile, or other 
work that could be done in a stockade. With good behavior 
the men in Class III would be transferred from Group 2 to 
Group 1, and then from Group 1 to Class II, and so on to 
Class I. They would also be allowed for good behavior a com- 
mutation of their time and a certain per cent of the value of 
their labor in money. This, however, would be considerably less 
than that received by the men in Class II. 

The one idea embodied in the above suggestions is that the 
rules and regulations of the camp and penitentiary authorities 
must be obeyed, but in obeying these the convict becomes entitled 
to and receives special consideration by the State. 

The commutation of time would be the same for all classes of 
convicts provided, of course, that they are living up to the rules 
and regulations of the camp to which they are assigned, 


72 JouRNAL OF THE Mircnetyt Socrery [January 


The organization of the men who are to handle the convicts is 
of two-fold character: First, the men who take charge of the 
physical body of the convict; and Second, those who have charge 
of the labor of the convict. 

The superintendent of the camp should have charge of the 
feeding, clothing, and guarding, when necessary, of the convict. 
He shall also be responsible for sanitary conditions of the camp 
and for the care of the sick. He shall provide the guards, when 
necessary, but these in no case should be permitted to act as 
foremen of the road work. 

The superintendent of the construction work will have charge 
of the labor of the convicts, and he shall through his foreman 
direct such labor, and it shall be performed as he wishes it. He 
and the Engineer of road work of the State shall decide the 
amount of work that should be required of the convicts and 
determine what men shall be in the three groups of Class I. 
The division of the men into classes shall rest with the peni- 
tentiary authorities, but the superintendent of the work who 
comes in close contact with the convict may from time to time 
recommend changes, and shall report the refusal of any men to 
work as directed, which would constitute an infringement of 
the regulations of the camp. 

It would not be necessary to work all the “ honor men” of 
Class I in one camp, but certain numbers of these can be trans- 
ferred to other camps where they would have special sleeping 
quarters, and would do such work as blacksmithing, bridge and 
culvert work, and other work where only one to three men are 
required and where it would be very expensive to provide a 
special guard for such a small number. 

The question comes up and is often asked: Can long-term 
men be put on their honor and, as in the suggested organization, 
be placed in Class I; Can they resist the temptation to escape ? 
I believe many long-term convicts can be worked as “ honor 
men” and in Class I of the suggested organization. I believe 
that with a large percentage of them there would be less yield- 
ing to the temptation to escape if they were in Class I than if 
they were in Class II or III under armed guards. 

These questions, however, of classification are settled by the 


1914 | Convicr Lasor 1x Roap Construction 73 


warden or superintendent, and they can usually determine 
pretty accurately who should be trusted. As I have already 
stated, except in extreme cases, I believe men sentenced for the 
first time can be started in Class I (with perhaps the exception 
of the negro convict). By personal contact, the prison and jail 
wardens come to know the prisoner and to know something of 
his character. I beleve another good plan is for the superin- 
tendent and warden to get in touch with the prisoner’s kinsfolk 
and get them in sympathy with the work of the prisoner and in 
having him serve out his sentence. 

The prisoner’s family should be encouraged to keep in touch 
with him, and should be permitted to visit him at stated inter- 
vals, and thus encourage him in every way to pay as rapidly as 
possible his debt to the State and encourage him in the feeling 
that there is a place for him when his sentence expires. 


CONVICT CAMP 


The convict camp will vary in its construction according as it 
is to be occupied by men of Class I or by men of Class IT or 
Class III. If the camp is to be occupied entirely by men of 
Class I it can be established very similarly to a railroad con- 
struction camp. And there is no need of my going into any de- 
scription for such a camp, except to state that it must be 
sanitary. 

Wherever the camp is located and by whatever class of con- 
victs it is occupied, it must be kept in a sanitary condition, 
supplied with pure water, and facilities provided for the men 
to bathe. All camps should be under the supervision or in- 
spection of the State Board of Health. 

Where camps are to be occupied by men of Class II, there are 
many plans that are in use for accommodating and taking care 
of the men. One camp I might describe used by State convicts 
in North Carolina, who are working a road in Henderson 
County, would be descriptive of one type of camp. 

This camp, which is located near Bat Cave on the hank of 
Broad River, Henderson County, consists of a bunk house, or, 
as it is sometimes called, a “ cell house” 30x60 feet, in the 
center of which is a double deck platform called the cell, upon 


74 JouRNAL OF THE Mitcuett Society [January 


which are arranged the beds of the convicts. There is a clear 
space of 12 feet between each end of the building and double 
platform, and 6 or 8 feet clear between the cell and side walls. 
The space between the two platforms is approximately 5 feet. 
Each man is allowed a single mattress, so that he has plenty 
of room for sleeping purposes. Four chains run the length 
of the platform cell: one each side for the lower tier and one 
each side for the upper tier. To these chains the convict is 
fastened by a light weight ankle chain at night. This is so 
arranged that there is little or no weight on the ankle and he 
can turn in any position he wishes while sleeping. The con- 
struction of such a bunk house depends on the time of the year 
and length of time it is to be occupied; but it is always built 
so that there is plenty of air circulating through the building 
and that it may be kept warm and comfortable in cold weather. 
Guards are on duty in this building at night, one at each end. 

Near to this building is the dining hall, kitchen, and store 
house. Surrounding these two buildings and enclosing an area 
of about one-fifth of an acre is a six-strand barbed wire fence. 
Just outside of this fence at opposite corners armed guards 
are stationed during the day. At night the only guards are 
within the bunk house. The sleeping houses for the superin- 
tendent, steward, and guards are a little distant from the en- 
closed area. The food suppled to the prisoners is the same 
quality as that supplied the guards and the steward. It is neces- 
sary that pure, wholesome food, clean and well-cooked should 
be furnished the prisoners, and that is what this camp tries to do, 

In a camp of this sort, the men of Class II would have free 
run of the building and of the area within the fence during the 
daytime, but at night those of Group 2 would be fastened to the 
chain, while those of Group 1 would not. Cots could be substi- 
tuted for the platform but in that case only one-half of the 
number could be accommodated, increasing the amount of floor 
space required and the number of guards. 

Another type of camp is of tents with one platform along 
each side of the ‘tent with a cleared space of about 10 feet be- 
tween the two platforms. Where a camp is to be moved fre- 


~ 


1914 | Convict Lasor 1n Roap Construction 75 


quently, the tents are very convenient as they are easily taken 
down, transported and set up again. 

The bunk house or sleeping quarters of the Virginia con- 
victs consists of a canvas tent or tent shaped building of sheet 
iron. ‘Two rows of cots are placed in the center of the tent, and 
the men sleep with their feet toward the center. Along the line 
of cots is a long chain to which the convict is fastened by light 
weight chains. 

As these road camps have to be moved at frequent intervals, 
it is economy to have them constructed in such a manner that 
they can readily be taken down, moved, and set up again. 

Although the convict camps are to be under the supervision 
of the State Board of Health and certain definite rules regard- 
ing sanitation, cleanliness, ete., will be enforced; yet there 
should be a physician who would visit 'the camps every so often 
and examine the men to observe their physical condition. Where 
no such physician is employed by the State, for this purpose, 
arrangements should be made with a physician living in the 
vicinity of the camps to do this work. Every effort should be 
made to keep ‘the men in good health and no pains should be 
spared to thisend. The men, realizing that their health is being 
looked after by the State, will be more and more impressed with 
the idea that the State is trying to make men out of them, and 
will do more themselves to carry out the policy of the State in 
regard to its treatment of its convicts. 

There should also be a Chaplain to look after the spiritual 
welfare of the convicts, and it is a good plan for the State to 
employ a regular Chaplain for this purpose. It will, of course, 
be impossible for one man ‘to visit all the camps or convicts 
each week, but he could readily arrange with clergymen in the 
vicinity of the camps to hold religious services every Sunday. 
I do not believe in making attendance on these meetings com- 
pulsory, but am confident that a very large majority of the 
men would attend such Sunday services. 

As stated above, the sanitary conditions of the camps-of all 
the classes should be very carefully looked after, and the mat- 
tresses, bedding and clothing kept clean. But in addition to 
this the convict should be encouraged in every way possible to 


76 JouRNAL OF THE Mircneti Society [January 


keep himself neat and his individual part of the bunk house 
neat and trim. ‘Chairs and benches should be provided around 
the bunk house. 

Reading matter should be provided, and it will be found that 
a considerable proportion of the convicts will appreciate this 
very greatly. Donations of magazines can readily be obtained, 
to be sent regularly to the camps. Circulating libraries can, at 
little expense, be secured. 

Colorado is a State that is using convicts of Class I in public 
road construction, but as yet is not using convicts that will 
correspond to Class II. 

Virginia is working her convicts as Class II with the two 
groups. At nearly all the Virginia convict camps, there are a 
certain number of “ trusties ” that are trusted absolutely, repre- 
senting Group 1, and the balance of the convicts represent 
Class IT. 

The difference in the cost of the work is all in favor of 
Colorado, 


CHapr, Hit, N. C. 


THE CONDENSATION OF VANILLIN AND PIPER- 
ONAL WITH CERTAIN AROMATIC AMINES* 


BY ALVIN 8. WHEELER 


In extension of the work done in this laboratory upon the con- 
densation of chloral with aromatic amines,+ we have carried out 
the condensation of the aldehydes, vanillin and piperonal, with 
p-aminobenzoic acid, its ethyl ester, and also with p-anisidine. 
Pawlewskit has described the product obtained by the condensa- 
tion of anthranilic acid with vanillin, stating it to be an amor- 
phous substance. We find that the para acid yields with vanillin 
a crystallin product with a melting point 40° higher. The con- 
densation of anthranilic acid with piperonal was carried out by 
H. Wolf.§. Our product with the para acid melts 44° higher. 
The products with the ethyl ester have very much lower melting 
points. The work with the ester was undertaken with the hope 
of discovering more cases of isomerism, a few cases having 
already been observed in similar reactions. No indications of 
isomerism, however, were noted in handling the two ester de- 
rivatives. 

The condensations take place readily in a boiling solvent with 
the loss of one molecule of water, one molecule of each con- 
stituent taking part in the reaction. By working at low tem- 
peratures it is sometimes possible to bring two molecules of the 
amine into combination with one of the aldehyde. In the re- 
action between, the free para acid and piperonal a small quantity 
of a low melting substance, m. 171—3°, was isolated and the 
amount was greatly increased by using two molecules of the acid. 
Notwithstanding many analyses, no satisfactory figures could 
be obtained for a dibenzylidene derivative. 


The condensation product of p-aminobenzoie acid with va- 
nillin is unique among the benzylidene derivatives in that it is 
the only one that takes up a molecule of water of crystallization. 
Exposed to a moist atmosphere it gradually assumes a reddish 


* Reprinted from the Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. XXXV. 
No. 8. August, 1913. 

+ Wheeler and Weller, THIS JOURNAL, 24, 1063 (1902). Wheeler, ibid., 30, 136 
(1908). Wheeler and Jordan, Jbid., 31, 937 (1909). 

+ Ber., 37, 596 (1904). 

§ Monatsh., 31, 903. 77 


78 JOURNAL OF THE Mircnett Society [January 


color. If it is recrystallized from water, it becomes brilliant 
red. It is not a case of isomerism, for it loses one molecule of 
water at 100° and regains its yellow color. 


EXPERIMENTAL PART 


3-Methoxy-4-hydroxybenzal-p-aminobenzoic Acid, CH,0.- 
OH.C,H,;CH : NC,H,CO.H, is prepared by boiling 1.37 grams 
(one mol) p-aminobenzoic acid and 1.52 grams (one mol) va- 
nillin in 100 ce. toluene with the addition of 5 ce. aleohol. A 
little alcohol greatly diminishes the amount of toluene required. 
After boiling five hours under a reflux condenser, the solution is 
allowed to cool, the condensation product erystallizing out 
abundantly. A second crop of crystals from the mother liquor 
increased the yield to a total of 2.6 grams or 96% of the theo- 
retical. The crude product, which melts at 204°6° was reerys- 
tallized from 200 ce. of toluene. The pure substance is deep 
yellow, consists of thin plates and melts at 211—2°. 


Calculated for CisHis0.N: C, 66.42; H, 4.80; N, 5.15 
Found: C, 66.44; H, 5.12; N, 5.60 
It was noticed that the rich, yellow crystals were often mixed 
with red ones. The first thought was that an isomeric com- 
pound was present, since some cases among analogous com- 
pounds are known, as the o-hydroxybenzalanthranilie acid 
described by Wolf. The whole mass turned red however in 
water and upon recrystallizing from boiling water a brilliant 
red substance, m. 104—6°, was obtained. After complete drying 
in the air, the product was heated to constant weight at 100°. 


1.7860 g. lost at 100° 0.1150 g. H,O. 
Calculated for CisHis0:N.H2-O: HO, 6.22; found: H.O, 6.44. 


3-Methoxy-4-hydroxybenzalethyl-p-aminobenzoate, CH,0.- 
OH.C,H,CH :NC,H,CO.C.H,, is prepared by boiling 1 gram- 
molecule of ethyl-p-aminobenzoate with 1 gram-molecule vanil- 
lin in 10 ec. benzene for six hours under a reflux condenser. 
The solvent was then evaporated off and the residue recrystal- 
lized three times from alcohol. The crystals, which are thin 
yellow plates, melt at 145° (cor.). 


1914] Tur CONDENSATION OF VANILLIN 79 


Calculated for CuHwOs.N: C, 68.18; H, 5.73 
Found: C, 68.53; H, 5.79 
3-Methoxy-4-hydroxybenzal-p-amisidine, CH,0.0H.C,H.,CH :- 
NC,H,.O0CH.,, is prepared by boiling 1 gram-molecule of p-anis- 
idine with 1 gram-molecule vanillin in 10 ce. benzene for six 
hours. Then after evaporation of the solvent, the product is 
recrystallized from ligroin. The pale yellow crystals deposit 
in radiating clusters, are easily soluble in most organic solvents 
and melt at 133.5° (cor.). 


Calculated for CisHi:0O3N: G; 70.00; H, 5.88 
Found: C, 69.96 ; H, 6.09 


3,4-Methyleneoxybenzal-p-aminobenzoic Acid, CH, : O, + 
C,H;CH : NC,H,CO,H, is prepared by boiling 1.50 
gram (one mol) piperonal and 1.57 grams (one mol) p-amino- 
benzoic acid in 100 ce. toluene for nine hours under a reflux 
condenser. The time was increased in this case to reduce the 
amount of a by-product melting at 171—3°. The chief product, 
which erystallized out on cooling, consisted of pale yellow 
prisms and could be recrystallized from toluene or water. The 
pure substance melts at 233—4°. 


Calculated for CisHuO.sN: C, 66.90; H, 4.08 
Found: C, 67.14; H, 4.64 


If in the preparation of this compound the boiling was in- 
terrupted after two or three hours, a small amount of a substance 
melting at 171—3° could be readily islated. The amount could 
be greatly increased by employing two molecules of the acid for 
one of the aldehyde, but no satisfactory analytical figures could 
be obtained for a product containing two acid residues, in spite 
of many analyses. 

8,4-Methyleneoxybenzalethyl-p-aminobenzoate, CH, : Og + 
O,H3;CH :NC,H,CO,C.H;, is prepared by boiling 1.50 grams 
piperonal and 1.65 grams ethyl-p-aminobenzoate in 10 ce. ben- 
zene for six hours. The product crystallizes poorly from ben- 
zene so the latter is evaporated off. Out of ligroin the compound 
erystallizes readily in long, pale yellow, glistening needles which 
melt at 109° (cor.). 

2 


80 JOURNAL OF THE Mitcuett Society [January 


Calculated for CisHisOsN: C, 68.66; H, 5.08 
Found: C, 68.96; H, 5.04 


3,4-Methyleneoxybenzal-p-anisidine, CH, : O. : CsH,CH :- 
NC,H,OCH;. The condensation of piperonal with p-anisidine 
is carried out exactly as that of vanillin with p-anisidine. The 
product crystallizes well from ligroin or benzene. The crystals 
are very pale yellow needles, which separate in feathery groups. 
Melting point, 117.5° (cor.). 

The experimental work here described was carried out by Mr. 
L. E. Stacy, Jr., and Mr. L. B. Rhodes and I wish to thank 
them for their careful work. 


CuHaper, Hinz, N. C. 


COLOR AND STRUCTURE IN ORGANIC 
COMPOUNDS* 


BY W. L. JEFFRIES 


The very large number of organic compounds which are 
colored and the important place the dye stuffs occupy in modern 
industry have naturally caused chemists to seek some explana- 
tion of the color in compounds and just what relation the color 
bears to the structure. 

In 1876 O. N. Witt offered the theory that color in organic 
compounds is due to the presence of certain unsaturated groups 
which are termed chromophores. The most important of these 


groups are the following: 
O 


VA 
C=C C—O; C—S;, C=N; N=N, N=O; a . The ortho- and para- 


O 
quoinoid radicals, 


Pe oe te Som. 
~ > <a, 


ortho-quinoid para-quinoid 


which may be regarded as a compact arrangement of the C=C 
group, were later added to the list. 

A carbon complex containing such a group or chromophore is 
termed a chromogen. The chromogen may or may not be col- 
ored. If colorless it is necessary to introduce some salt-forming 
group such as NH, or OH. A group of this character is termed 
an auxochrome. For example, benzophenone, C,H,.CO.C,H., al- 
though colorless is a chromogen since it contains the C—O 
group. On the introduction of the auxochrome, NH,, to form 
aminobenzophenone, the compound becomes yellow. Similarly 
the nitro group is the chromophore of the chromogen nitroben- 
zene which forms the coloring matter of nitraniline. 

Color, depending on the chromophore, is intensified by its 


* A report read at the January meeting of the N. C. Section of the American 
Chemical Society. 81 


= Es 
eS 


82 JouRNAL OF THE Mircnuertt Socrety [January 


reduplication. For example hydrocarbons of the ethylene series, 
diphenyl- and tetraphenylethylene are colorless but diphenyl- 
hexatriene, C,H;.CH:CH.CH:CH.CH:CH.C,H,, is yellow. 
Absorption of color in the visible spectrum and the production 
of color seems to be promoted by the compact arrangement of 
double linkages in the ring structure. An example of this is the 
series of colored hydrocarbons discovered by Thiele and known 
as fulvenes. 


CHC CH=CH CH; 

| >C—CE: | ~C=0< 

a H CH— CEH CeHs 
Fulvene—yellow liquid Methylphenylfulvene—orange liquid 


Being isomeric with fulvene and containing the same number 
of double linkages, it might be expected that benzene would be 
colored. That it is not may be accounted for by the difference 
of the grouping of the double bonds which cause the absorption 
bands to shift within the ultra violet region of the spectrum. It 


= 
seems certain that the > C= group is an important factor 


in color production. The influence of ring structure in deepen- 
ing color is shown in flourenone, 
C.H.-CcH: 


C 


which is red while benzophenone is colorless. Reduction or 
replacement by chlorine and sometimes hydration of the CO 
group destroys color. 

Although the color effect of the C—O group is not apparent 
in the simple aldehydes or ketones or even in compounds where 
the C=O groups are separated such as acetylacetone, CH,.CO.- 
CH,.CO.CH,, a continuity of these groups does produce color. 
To illustrate, diacetyl, CH,.CO.CO.CHs, is yellow and the an- 
hydrous triketone CH,.CO.CO.CO.CH:s, is orange. The color 
appears to deepen with the increase in the number of C=O 
groups. 

The C:S group appears to have greater effect as a chromo- 
phore than the C:O group as instanced by comparing tetra- 
methyldiaminothiobenzophenone, CS[C,H,N(CH;).]:, which 


is yellow while the corresponding ketone is colorless. 


1914 | Organic Compounps 83 


The chromophore effect of the N—=N group is illustrated in the 
numerous azo dyes. It is peculiar to note that in the case of the 
azo group, ring structure seems to diminish rather than to im 
tensify color. The blue or green effect which most of the nitroso 
compounds exhibit may be attributed to the NO group. The 
absence of color in certain compounds containing this chromo- 
phore may be explained by the bimolecular structure and con- 
sequent saturation of valencies. 

From a study of compounds containing the chromophores it 
seems that they may be divided into two classes, those such as 
N=N and N=O which produce color independent of the na- 
ture of their environment and are therefore called independent 
chromophores, and those such as C=O and HC==CH which 
act only in conjunction with other groups and hence are called 
dependent chromophores. 

That a slight difference may have a marked effect on the 
color of a compound is shown by certain stereoisomers such as 
the two dibenzoyl ethylenes, C,H;.CO.CH:CH.CO.C,H;, one 
of which is colorless and the other yellow. 

As has been stated above, a compound containing a chromo- 
phore may not be colored and the introduction of an auxochrome 
may be necessary to produce color. The introduction of an auxo- 
chrome into a compound already colored serves to intensify the 
color. Of the two chief auxochromes, OH and NH.,, the latter 
seems the stronger as shown by a comparison of para-nitrophenol 
and para-nitraniline, Itisworthyof note that both groups possess 
residual affinity and like the chromophores are highly reactive. 
It has been suggested that there may be an interaction of the two 
kinds of groups to produce a banded spectrum when light is 
absorbed. 

The color of a compound is deepened or intensified by the 
replacement of hydrogen in the NH, by alkyl or aryl radicals, 
and as the molecular weight of the radical is increased the ab- 
sorption is shifted towards the red. If the hydrogen of the OH 
group is replaced by a radical, it may either intensify or dim- 
inish color. It might be expected that the relative position of 
the auxochrome to the chromophore would have marked effect 
on the color. But the fact is that the closeness of the auxo- 


84 JOURNAL OF THE MitrcHetyt Society [January 


chrome to the chromophore as frequently destroys color as in- 
tensifies it but Kauffmann concludes that when the auxochrome 
is attached indirectly to the chromophore by an aromatic nucleus 
which can function as a chromophore, the color is intensified. 
Kauffmann, in a variation of the foregoing, offers what is 
sometimes called the auxochrome theory. He considers that 
those substances which at atmospheric pressure have the prop- 
erty of luminescence possess certain characteristics in common 
which form the basis of color. Luminescent compounds are 
mainly benzene derivatives and contain certain groups which 
Kauffmann terms luminophores. Benzene is regarded as the 
seat of luminescence. Benzene itself is only feebly luminescent 
but the effect may be intensified by the introduction of an auxo- 
chrome, by the multiplication of aromatic nuclei, or by linking 
nuclei with unsaturated carbon chains. Benzene is optically 
colored for it produces in the ultraviolet a banded spectrum. 
The effect produced by the introduction of auxochromes is to 
shift the absorption toward the red and thus produce color. 
Some of the absorption bands of nitrobenzene lie just within the 
visible spectrum so a weak auxochrome produces visible color. 
Hantzsch has advanced a theory of color in compounds which 
has become known as the theory of chromoisomerism. His 
theory has been developed principally from observations con- 
cerning the nitrophenols in which the chromophore, NO,, is 
alone too weak to produce color until reinforced by the auxo- 
chrome, OH, the chromogenic character of which is intensified 
by conversion into the salt. Hantzsch holds that all true nitro- 
phenols and their derivatives are colorless. For instance dini- 
troethane CH,CH(NO,)., is colorless but on the formation of 
the sodium salt, which is deep yellow, there is a change in the 
form to CH,C(NO,)NO.ONa ealled the aci—form corres- 
ponding to the pseudo acid and acid forms of phenylnitro- 
methane. He expresses his general idea thus: ‘‘ Every appear- 
ance of color or change of color in salt formation with a color- 
less metallic ion is due to isomeric change.” The process of 
isomeric change he terms chromotropism. The attempt to 
extend the theory by further experimental observation has only 


a 


1914 | Oraanic Compounps 85 


rendered the issues more complex and the explanations more 
involved, 

Hartley offers a theory in explanation of color which is 
markedly different from any of those discussed above. In a 
discussion of his theory he says, “ color may be visible or in- 
visible, but a visible color is one which causes absorption of any 
rays with wave lengths not less than 3933, the more refrangible 
rays in the violet H, and H,, and not greater than 7951, the 
deep red rays of rubidium.” 

As stated earlier benzene shows a series of narrow absorption 
bands in the ultra-violet and these bands become displaced 
towards the visible region of the spectrum by the introduction 
of certain groups. Hartley contends that when two or more 
benzene nuclei are fused or an auxochrome such as OH or NH, 
is introduced into the nuclei there is a displacement of the bands 
towards the visible region of the spectrum. Hartley’s theory is 
that the fusion of the nuclei or the introduction of an auxo- 
chrome brings about a retardation of the period of molecular 
vibration or damping of their oscillation; that is the absorption 
bands are shifted towards the red. A chromogen is regarded as 
an invisibly colored substance and a chromophore as an atom or 
group which reduces the speed of vibration so that there is an 
absorption of rays within the region of visibility. While the 
linking of benzene nuclei may not produce color, it does reduce 
vibration and bring therefore the absorption bands nearer color. 
For example, triphenylmethane, though colorless or pale yellow 
when fused, produces a broad band of the same general char- 
acter as benzene but of greater intensity and much nearer the 
margin of the visible spectrum. It is therefore a chromogen. 
Para-nitrophenol absorbs faintly in the violet and possesses a 
green tint though apparently colorless. When it is converted 
into its sodium salt, the absorption shifts towards the visible 
spectrum. There is not, as Hantzsch’s theory would require, 
any change of structure. Formanek has studied a large num- 
ber of dye stuffs and the relation of color to structure in them. 
He concludes that coloring matters which have analogous struc- 
ture possess similar absorption spectra and the same is true of 
those which have the same chromogen and the same number of 


86 JOURNAL OF THE Mircueryt Society [January 


auxochromes, C,H;NR, or C,H,OH groups. If the chromo- 
phore is different or if, with the same chromophore the number 
of C,H;NR, groups vary, or if the position of the auxochrome 
varies in its relation to the fundamental element, the absorp- 
tion curve is different. 

Hartley states as a rule, “ all open chain hydrocarbons exert 
a continuous absorption, the extent of which is dependent upon 
the number of atoms in the molecule.” Hydrogen is the most 
colorless substance known, which fact Hartley explains by say- 
ing that the rate of vibration of its atom or its molecule is the 
most rapid of all elements. This may be attributed to the fact 
that its mass it much less than that of any other element— 
perhaps its rapid vibration may be due to the large amount of 
energy associated with the molecule. That hydrocarbons are 
the least colored of all carbon compounds is due to the energy 
of the hydrogenatoms beingcommuniecated to the whole molecule. 
This may account for hydrogenized matters becoming colorless. 
The greater the proportion of hydrogen the faster the vibration. 
Naturally the introduction of a heavier atom or group in place 
of the hydrogen will lower the rate of vibration and bring the 
absorption nearer the visible spectrum; sufficient damping will 
produce color. 

Armstrong has advanced the theory that the production of 
color is dependent upon special modes of atomic arrangement, 
and particularly on such modes as involve the existence of a 
condition of strain in the resulting system due probably to the 
peculiarities in the affinity relationships of the different con- 
stituent elements of the system which prevent mutual neutrali- 
tation of the affinities. The occurrence of color would then 
more frequently than not be concomitant with a high degree of 
reactivity, the colored compound being one of high potential 
or slight stability. The dominant feature of the arrangement 
is a comparison of the unsaturated hydrocarbons with the para- 
fins. The paraffins, which are singularly inert and all but col- 
orless, contain carbon atoms united by single bonds. The un- 
saturated hydrocarbons begin to manifest color in the regions 
above and below the visible spectrum. These compounds are 


1914 | Oraanitc CompouNnbs 87 


represented by formula in which the carbon atoms are united 
by double or triple bonds. 

Wm. J. Hale explains color as being due in both aromatic 
and aliphatic compounds to the oscillations of the bonds within 
the molecule and this he calls isorropesis. His theory is that a 
change in linkage produces the absorption bands. This he 
illustrates by diacetyl in which the make and break may be 
shown thus: 

CH;-C-C-CHs CH;-C=C-CHs 
( 6 O-O 


The make and break contact between the oxygen atoms would 
give marked activity to these atoms. The color in quinoid 
compounds is due to isorrepsis in this manner: 


i 
C C 
NS VE ARNG 
a an ae 
; HC CH FCO CH 
ete YZ 
C 
i 


Tsorropesis occurs between adjacent carbon atoms possessing 
residual affinity and the para carbon atoms are considered as 
possessing the relationship as indicated by their chemical be- 
havior which is as if the atoms lay next each other. Isorropesis 
need not always occur between oxygen atoms possessing residual 
affinity but other atoms may show similar reactions. For ex- 
ample the nitranilines, H,N-C,;H,-NO,, given an absorption 
curve similar to that of para-benzoquinone. Here the residual 
affinities of the N atoms are disturbed by the motion of the 
benzene molecule. In compounds of the benzene structure, 
the cause of the color begins with the vibration of the molecule 
itself. 

The presence of other groups may augment or retard the 
influence of unsaturated atoms undergoing isorropesis and con- 
sequently the corresponding variations in the oscillation fre- 
quency will be indicated by similar variation in the nature of 


88 JOURNAL OF THE MircHEett Socrery [January 


the color. Hale concludes that isorropesis is the cause of color 
in the aromatic as well as the aliphatic series. In both series 
he considers the two modifications that must always be “in statu 
nascendi” to have actually been shown to exist. “The change 
of linking therefore, that must accompany the transformation 
of one into the other is certainly to be considered as the source 
of the oscillations which give rise to the vibrations in the ether 
of a free period corresponding to those in the visible region of 
the spectrum and hence the development of color in the sub- 
stance.” 

The foregoing is in brief the most important of the theories 
advanced in regard to color and its relation to structure. As 
indicated by the great difference in the essential as well as in the 
minor details of the theories, the subject is far from closed. 
The field is intensely interesting and promises important 
developments. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Berichte, 1876, 9, 522; 1888, 21, 325. 

Berichte, 1900, 33, 666, 851, 3895. 

Annalen, 1906, 349, 333. 

Berichte, 1906, 39, 1073. 

Trans. Chem. Soc., 1887, 51, 152. 

Die Auxochrome, Ahrens’ Vortrage, 1908, 12, 1. 
Popular Science Monthly, 1908, 72, 116. 
Cohens’, Organic Chemistry, Vol. 2, 346. 


CuHaprr, Hitt, N. C. 


TIMBER RESOURCES OF ORANGE COUNTY, N. C.* 
BY J. S. HOLMES 


Orange, with an area of 247,040 acres, is one of the middle 
eastern Piedmont counties. It lies between Durham on the east 
and Alamance on the west, both of which were originally part of 
this county. 


Lying on the eastern edge of the granite formation and on the 
western border of the old “ Triassic Sea,” the topography of 
Orange is rougher and more broken than most of the other 
counties in this part of the State. Several low rocky ridges 
run part way across the county in an easterly and westerly direec- 
tion, and close to Hillsboro are some hills, which rise several 
hundred feet above the town. The northeastern part of the 
county is drained principally by Eno and Little rivers, which 
uniting in Durham County with Flat River, form the head of 
the Neuse. The western part is drained by several creeks 
which flow southwesterly into Haw River, which when aug- 
mented by the waters of New Hope Creek, which drains the 
southeasterly part of the county, becomes the Cape Fear River. 
The streams are too small to form water powers of any size, 
though two or three small saw and grist mills are run by water 
power. 

The soil varies from sandy and gravelly to a stiff red clay. 
An area of sandy loam varying in width from two to five miles 
crosses the northern part of the county. On this land tobacco 
is being grown in increasing quantities. A small area of sandy 
land also occurs near the southwestern corner of the county. 
Except along the southeastern border, where much of the soil 
is a yellowish gravelly clay, most of the rest of the county has 
a heavy red clay soil. Cotton and the cereals are the chief crops. 

Approximately 40 per cent of the land area is now cleared. 
Of this cleared land nearly one-fifth is neglected and unused, 
and is gradually reverting to forest growth. There are no large 
timber tracts, and only seven per cent of the land is held by 
parties who own over 500 acres. An average assessed value for 


* Reprinted from Press Bulletin No. 116 of the N. C. Geol. and Econ. Survey. 
89 


90 JouRNAL oF THE Mircnett Socrety [January 


land is from $5 to $6 per acre. Its sale value runs from $10 
to $20 per acre, and in the tobacco growing section considerably 
higher. 

The North Carolina division of the Southern Railway runs 
through the county from east to west, while a ten-mile branch 
runs south to connect Chapel Hill with the main line. The 
wagon roads are at present very inadequate, though with the 
money secured by the recent issuance of bonds, a system of 
graded and surfaced main roads is now being constructed. 
There is, at present, little attempt, either amongst the popu- 
lation or on the part of the county authorities, to keep up the 
small crossroads; and these are ina serious condition. At pres- 
ent Orange County’s best markets are at Mebane and Graham to 
the west and at Durham to the east. There is, as yet, no cash 
market at Hillsboro. Outside of the cotton mills at Hillsboro 
and Carrboro, little manufacturing is done. A factory at Ef- 
land makes excelsior from pine wood; while one or two small 
firms manufacture hickory handles and shuttle blocks. An 
attempt is also being made to produce cedar oil from the saw- 
dust and twigs of the cedar. 

The forests of Orange, which oceupy 58 per cent of the 
county, are divided ARAS equally between hardwood and the 
old field pine types. It is estimated that these forests support 
an average stand of 620 feet of timber per acre, or a total stand 
of nearly 90,000,000 feet. Of this amount approximately 51 
per cent is second-growth pine; 46 per cent oak; one per cent 
cedar; about one-half per cent each of poplar and “ forest” 
pine; and the balance chiefly hickory. There is also thought to 
be as much as 3,000 cords of merchantable dogwood in the 
county. 

The hardwood forests occupy the rougher and poorer areas, 
such as the hills, ridges, and broken country in the middle and 
southern parts of the county. There are also considerable areas 
of what are commonly called post oak flats. Most of the hard- 
wood forest has been cut-over, some of it very closely, but here 
and there are found small tracts of merchantable oak, running 
from 2,000 to 5,000 feet to the acre, or even more. White oak 
and post oak are the principal merchantable trees, forming 80 


1914 | TIMBER OF ORANGE CouNTY 91 


per cent of the hardwood stand. The greater part of the oak 
timber is best adapted for the production of eross-ties; and this 
is the use to which it is being largely put. The red oaks, chiefly 
Spanish, black and scarlet oaks, form perhaps 15 per cent of 
the stand, while most of the remainder is hickory. There is 
very little poplar in Orange County, and less sweet gum. 
Though cedar oceurs mostly in the old field pine type, some 
good merchantable cedar is found on some of the hardwood 
areas. It is said that no pine was originally mixed with the 
hardwoods in this county south of the sandy areas in north 
Orange. There is now, however, some merchantable pine in 
many hardwood areas, and pine seedlings and saplings are 
found coming in over perhaps the greater part of the hardwood 
forest. 

The old field pine type occupies land which had at one time 
‘been cleared for agriculture, but which was subsequently aban- 
doned. Asa rule, therefore, it is more level and ‘better adapted 
to farming than the hardwood land. It is estimated that about 
15 per cent of this ‘type contains merchantable timber, with an 
average stand of about 4,000 feet per acre. Practically all of 
this timber is second-growth pine, though many areas contain 
a percentage of cedar. Probably 60 per cent. of the pine forests 
are pole stands, the trees being below merchantable size. 

Three species of pine occur in commercial quantities in 
Orange County. Shortleaf forms from 50 to 100 per cent of 
the pine stand throughout the county and in all but three town- 
ships—Chapel Hill, Eno, and Hillsboro—more than 95 per 
cent of it. In these three townships, constituting the south- 
eastern third of the county, loblolly pine occurs plentifully; 
in the former township, between 30 and 40 per cent of the pine 
being of this species, while in the two latter about 15 per cent 
is loblolly. In the southern part of Bingham Township also 
about 10 per cent of the pine is of this species. The proportion 
of loblolly pine in the young growth is usually greater than it 
is in the merchantable timber, showing that this species is gain- 
ing ground in Orange. Scrub or “ spruce” pine only occurs 
in any quantity in the northwestern quarter of the county where 
in two townships it forms about 5 per cent of the pine stand. 


92 JouRNAL oF THE Mircuett Society [January 


A few isolated patches are found also in the other northern 
townships. 

The stumpage value of timber varies according to the dis- 
tance from the railroad. Pine is worth from $2 to $2.50 per 
‘thousand, while cedar brings about $5. Oak stumpage varies 
from $2 to $3.50 per thousand. Some sales of mixed pine and 
hardwood have been made at as low a price as $1 per thousand 
for both pine and oak. 

Lumbering on a large scale has ceased in Orange County. 
Though the total cut last year exceeded eight and three-quarter 
million feet, not more than one-half dozen mills exceeded a cut 
of 500,000, and no mill cut as much as a million feet. Fifty- 
four sawmills, of which thirty are small stationary mills cutting 
chiefly for local customers, operated last year. These cut ap- 
proximately 4,000,000 feet of oak over one-half of which went 
into ties, 3,300,000 feet of old field pine, 1,000,000 feet of 
cedar, and 350,000 feet of “forest” pine. This makes an 
average annual cut of about 160,000 feet per mill. 

For the past two years, and especially since the fall of 1912, 
when the failure of the crops made it necessary for the farmers 
to earn some extra money, the production of cross-ties has been 
an important industry. During 1913 it is estimated that at 
least 200,000 ties were cut and marketed, probably 75 per cent 
of them being hewn. This means a cut of about three ties 
per acre from all the hardwood land in the county and a money 
yield to the farmers exceeding their receipts for the cotton crop. 
Cross-ties delivered at the railroad have been selling at from 
50 to 55 cents each for first class ties and 35 to 40 cents for 
second class ties. 

It costs 10 cents per tie to have them sawn by a local mill, or 
12% cents each to get them hewed, while 2 cents per tie per 
mile will cover the cost of hauling. Stumpage prices range from 
7% cents to 10 cents per tie. It can be seen then that where the 
roads are good and the distances not too great, owners of tie 
timber can market it profitably at present prices. And they are 
certainly doing it. 

Though landowners oppose burning the woods, yet through 
carelessnes or indifference a good many fires of greater or less 


1914 | TimBer oF ORANGE County 93 


extent do occur nearly every year. As a rule, little timber is 
injured, though sometimes a good deal of cedar is killed. The 
chief damage, however, is to the young pine growth, which ought 
to be encouraged, not only in the pine type, but even more so 
in the hardwoods. In eutting timber, owners should endeavor 
to leave seed trees of pine, in order to increase the percentage 
of pine in the next crop. The spread of the loblolly pine should 
be assisted in every way possible, while, in the northeastern part 
of the county, the scrub pine should be cut in order to give the 
other species an opportunity to fill up the ground, At the pres- 
ent rate of cutting the old growth timber will soon be gone and 
the pine, because of its rapid growth, must be the main de- 
pendence for the future. 


CHArenetinn. N.C 


WORK AT THE BEAUFORT LABORATORY 
BY W. C. GEORGE 


The work carried on annually at the Bureau of Fisheries 
laboratory at Beaufort, North Carolina, is of interest not only 
to scientific men generally but is of especial interest to biologists 
and others in North Carolina who are concerned in any way 
with the natural history of the State. And so it seems fitting 
to give in this place some account of the work carried on at the 
laboratory during the past season. There is no intention on 
the part of the writer to announce results or to encroach in any 
way upon the special reports on this work; but to give only such 
an account as might be given by a scientifically trained visitor 
of the laboratory. 

The abundance and variety of the fauna and flora of the 
Beaufort region, together with the laboratory facilities pro- 
vided by the Bureau of Fisheries, afford opportunity for a 
great diversity of biological work there, and every season there 
are a number of investigators at the Beaufort station carrying 
on varied and important researches. Only a brief reference 
will be made to the work of each of those who worked at the 
laboratory during the summer of 1913. 

Professor S. O. Mast, of Johns Hopkins University, carried on 
an extensive investigation on the behavior of fishes with respect 
to conditions of light. It was already known that the back- 
ground on which fishes lie greatly affects the arrangements of 
the pigment cells in the skin, and thus fish assume a very dif- 
ferent appearance on one background from that which they have 
on another. For Dr. Mast’s experiments the flounders proved 
very good subjects with which to work; and with some very 
ingeniously devised aquarium arrangements he has already 
reached interesting results and has learned something further in 
regard to the responses of animals to light. 


Dr. W. P. Hay, Professor of Biology in the Washington 
City High School, was engaged in a study of the decapod erust- 
acea of the region. Some years ago Dr. C. A. Shore, of Raleigh, 
collected during several summers the larger crustacea, particu- 

94 


1914] Work at tHe Beaurorr LABORATORY 95 


larly crabs and shrimps, of Beaufort harbor; but through press 
of other work he was not able to complete his study of these 
forms. Dy. Hay is carrying on this investigation and will before 
long have an amply illustrated paper, which will enable any one 
to identify the crabs and shrimps of the region. These forms are 
of such general interest to fishermen and amateur collectors 
and naturalists that the paper will be extensively used by visi- 
tors to our coast. 

Dr. J. J. Wolfe, Professor of Biology in Trinity College, 
was engaged in botanical work for the Bureau. Few people 
except naturalists are aware of the immense number of minute 
plants and animals that float at or near the surface of the sea. 
This flora and fauna, known as the plankton, constitute the food 
of most young fishes, and in every quarter of the world some 
effort is ‘being made to determine just what forms are present, 
and to learn something about their movements and propagation. 
Dr. Wolfe is occupied in a study of the microscopic plants, 
especially the diatoms. Another investigator, Dr. Edmund- 
son, of the University of Oregon, was engaged in a study of the 
microscopic fauna, the protozoa. These are groups which have 
practically never ‘been studied along the South Atlantic coast 
and so their study should yield fruitful results. 

Dr. H. V. Wilson, Professor of Zoology in the University 
of North Carolina, was engaged in a study of the Philippine 
sponges. Some years ago the Bureau of Fisheries undertook 
an extensive survey of the waters in the neighborhood of the 
Philippine Islands. Large collections of the various zoological 
groups were made, and the collections of these groups were 
handed out to numerous specialists to be reported on. The 
collection of sponges is very large and contains representatives 
of all the sub-divisions of the group. It was upon a study of 
these forms that Professor Wilson was engaged. 

The work of Mr. L. F. Shackel, of the St. Louis School of 
Medicine, was with the ship-worms. Among the animals that 
are destructive of property along our coast none is more trouble- 
some than the ship-worm. This is really not a worm at all but 
a bivalve molluse. In very young stages they begin to burrow 

3 


96 JouRNAL OF THE Mircuett Society [January 


into wood. They excavate wharf piles, boat timbers, ete., and 
do very great damage. Mr. Shackel is carrying on investiga- 
tions which have for their object the determination or inven- 
tion of new ways for preventing these animals from entering 
wood, 

In addition to this more general biological work the Bureau is 
carrying on detailed work on the fishes. Considerable attention 
has already been paid to the fishes, but the group is so im- 
portant that the most detailed knowledge of it is desirable. 
And so the director of the laboratory, Mr. Lewis Radcliffe, with 
the help of a number of assistants, is constantly making col- 
lections and observations on the group. A few years ago a book 
on the North Carolina fishes, by Dr. H. M. Smith, now chief 
of the Fisheries Bureau, was published by the North Carolina 
Survey. Mr. Radcliffe and others have been able to add a 
number of forms to those already recorded. And what is of 
even greater importance, they are learning more about the life 
histories of the Beaufort fishes. Dr. Albert Kunz, of the Uni- 
versity of Iowa, studied the development of a number of the 
more abundant forms. This is a field not only of scientifie but 
of great economic interest and importance. The eggs of these 
fish are very small and float at the surface of the water, and may 
be captured in fine meshed nets. With the aid of an accom- 
plished artist, Mrs. Decker, of Washington, D. C., some very 
beautiful figures of the stages in the development of these 
forms have been made. 

Mr. H. F. Taylor, of the Tarboro City Schools, was engaged 
in work on fish seales to discover if the age of fishes might be 
determined thereby. 

Besides a general study of a number of forms, my own work 
was mostly in following the phenomena of reduction in the 
medusee of Pennaria. Every evening just at dusk during the 
breeding season the mature meduse of Pennaria come off from 
the colony. They swim about in the water for a time casting 
the eggs and sperm, and then they settle down to the bottom 
and begin to degenerate. In this process of reduction the 
medusz pass through some interesting stages which it was my 
purpose to follow. The work has not yet been completed. 


EL att ee 


1914 | Work at THE Beaurort LaBoratory 97 


Aside from the more purely scientific work, the laboratory is 
engaged in breeding Diamond Back Terrapins, an enterprise of 
direct economic importance. The object of this work is the 
elaboration of methods for artificially rearing the Diamond Back 
Terrapin. The success of the work is already such that it is 
now possible to ‘breed these terrapins for the market, and private 
parties in Beaufort have built breeding pens and have started 
the work on a commercial basis. The breeding experiments, 
which are under the supervision of Dr. W. P. Hay, are still 
being continued, 


CuHaper Hit, N. C. 


Ye oe | 
rea es 
je 


+4 


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eet 


JOURNAL : 


ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOGIETY 


VOLUME XXIX APRIL, 1914 No. 4 


THE REDUCTION OF NAPHTAZARINE 
BY ALVIN S. WHEELER AND CHAS. S, VENABLE 


The reduction of naphtazarine was first carried out by Zincke 
and Schmidt (Ann., 286,27 (1910)). The more descriptive 
name of this compound is, 1, 2-dihydroxy-5, 8-naphthoquinone, 
formerly called 5, 6-dihydroxy-1,4-napthoquinone. The au- 
thors mentioned employed stannous chloride and hydrochloric 
acid, stating that the reaction did not go to completion if zine 
dust was used. The reddish brown quinone is converted into 
the dull yellow tetrahydroxynaphthalene, designated by them 
as 1,4,5, 6-tetraoxynaphthalene, now more properly described as 
the 1, 2, 5, 8-tetrahydroxynapthalene. This compound is a pe- 
culiarly interesting one on account of the ready change which 
it undergoes in solutions. In the solid state it consists of yel- 
low needles which turn red as they melt at 154°. All solutions 
in organic solvents turn red on standing, and a product more or 
less red is recovered therefrom. When pure this substance also 
melts at 154°. According to Zincke and Schmidt it has the 
same composition as the yellow reduction product. In view of 
the ready oxidation of the yellow tetrahydroxnaphthalene to the 
reddish brown naptazarine, the authors came to the conclusion 
that the red product melting at 154° was in reality the yellow 
compound mixed with a small amount of oxidation products. 
They obtained the same acetyl derivative from the yellow and 
the red compounds. We are unable to concur in this view, 
knowing what a marked effect in lowering the melting point 
only slight quantities of impurities have. We propose another 
explanation which lies in the theory that we have here a case of 
desmotropy in which a labile hydrogen is causing a keto-enol 


isomerism. 
99 


100 JOURNAL OF THE MircHe yi Society [April 


=C208 —C=0 
(A) | = | (B) 
—C—H —C=H, 

A represents the enol form and B the keto form. The first 
type is a phenol or if in the aliphatic series an alcohol while the 
second type is a ketone. New cases of this sort have been 
coming to light in recent years. It is clearing up some doubtful 
questions of constitution. For instance Meyer (Ann., 379,37 
(1910) ) has lately shown that anthranol is in reality anthrone, 
the keto-form. As a rule when these isomeric forms are separate 
and in the dry state they are stable but in solution they are 
unstable and pass readily into each other. The reaction is re- 
versible and incomplete. The direction of the reaction depends 
upon the temperature and the nature of the catalysor. Since 
both forms exist in the same solution, the solution will respond 
to the reaction of the hydroxyl group and of the carbonyl group. 
The relative amounts of the two forms in solution is difficult to 
determine, since the equilibrium is very readily disturbed. A 
number of methods have been employed. Meyer (Ann., 379,37 
(1910), 396,141 (1912) ) has proposed a titration method with 
bromine at a low temperature. The enol-form, e. g., anthranol, 
gives a strong blue fluorescent solution whereas the solution of 
anthrone is non-fluorescent. Since bromine acts quickly upon 
the enol-form and not upon the keto-form, the end point or dis- 
appearance of the fluorescence is readily seen if the solution is 
illuminated by ultraviolet light given by iron electrodes. This 
method we were unable to use in our case though we made a 
number of attempts to do so. We found that the action of 
bromine upon the tetrahydroxynaphthalene was not smooth and 
sufficiently well defined. 


An alkaline solution of the yellow compound shows a strong 
greenish fluorescence, indicating the presence of at least some 
of the enol-form. The reaction with acetic anhydride, which 
yields a tetracety] derivative, also points to the enol-form but 
Zincke and Schmidt give no indication of the yield obtained. 
Reactions in strongly alkaline solutions applicable to the car- 
bonyl group can not be made owing to the ready oxidation to 
naphtazarine. For this reason we are employing phenylsemi- 


1914] Tur Repuctrion or NapuTazARINEe ae 


earbazine which is weakly basic and propose to follow with 
semicarbazine which is not so weak a base. Conclusive state- 
ments can not yet be made as to the constitution of the yellow 
and red forms but the question is being actively studied in our 
laboratory. 
EXPERIMENTAL PART 
Purification of Naphtazarine 

We were presented with one-half kilogram of naphtazarine 
by the Badische Anilin u. Soda Fabrik in Ludwigshafen am 
Rhein and wish to express here our sincere thanks for the same. 
In order to bring the material to a higher state of purity 
we tried to recrystallize it from various solvents but could find 
no suitable solvent. So we resorted to the sublimation process, 
employingalarge sublimation apparatus similar to one described 
by Morey (Journ. Amer. ‘Chem. Soc., 34,550 (1912)). The 
copper or platinum vessel containing the substance rested upon 
a resistance coil of nichrome wire carrying 1.5 amperes of 
current. This was placed upon a very tall inverted beaker which 
stood in a large flat crystallizing dish. Over the whole was 
inverted a bell jar and a still larger one over this. The whole 
rested upon a metallic plate, the bottom of an old vacuum pump 
with a hole in the center. This hole gave insertion to the tube 
leading to the May-Nelson electric vacuum pump. <A vacuum 
of 2 to 10 mm. was maintained 5 to 8 hours for each 15 gram lot. 
One-third of the material was non-sublimable. The sublimed 
product consists of glistening green needles which upon being 
powdered formed a dark red mass. Naphtazarine possesses no 
melting point but sublimes above 140°. 

Reduction of Naphtazarine 

The naphtazarine was reduced by suspending 20 grams in 
95 per cent. alcohol, adding 100 grams stannous chloride dis- 
solved in 50 ec. concentrated hydrochloric acid and_ boiling 
the mixture on the water bath under a reflux condenser for 
thirty minutes. This produced a clear greenish red solution 
containing only a few insoluble particles. An odor of hydrogen 
sulfide was quite pronounced. In order to isolate the product it 
is very unsatisfactory merely to pour the solution into water or 


102 JOURNAL OF THE MircHe.t Society [April 


dilute hydrochloric acid and filter. After many experiments 
we proceeeded as follows. The alcoholic solution is poured 
into 5000 ce. 12 per cent. hydrochloric acid and heated to 
boiling till practically all of the precipitated product has redis- 
solved. Small insoluble impurities were filtered off on a Buch- 
ner funnel with suction while the solution was hot. On allow- 
ing the filtrate to stand over night, a mass of yellow needles had 
separated. These were filtered off, washed with water and 
dried. The yield was 9 grams. The product melted at 153°. 
The crystals are a dull yellow but powder to a bright yellow 
mass. The compound is easily soluble in alcohol and chloro- 
form, fairly soluble in carbon tetrachloride and only slightly 
soluble in gasolene. The solutions turn red on standing even 
when air is displaced by nitrogen. Solutions in alkalies are blue 
with a brilliant fluorescence. The sodium or potassium salt 
which separates out however is that of naphtazarine. This 
oxidation we found will take place even at 0° and in an at- 
mosphere of carbon dioxide. The tetrahydroxynaphthalene is 
therefore very sensitive to alkalies. 


Preparation of Phenylsemicarbazine 

Phenylsemicarbazine was prepared by first making pheny- 
lurea from aniline by the action of potassium cyanate and then 
treating this with hydrazine hydrate. In order to make the 
phenylurea the method of W. Weith (Ber., 9,820) was fol- 
lowed. One molecule (25g) aniline was mixed slowly with one 
molecule (25ce. sp. gr. 1.17) hydrochloric acid. The mass was 
cooled and one molecule (21.8g) of potassium cyanate was 
added slowly. The nearly solid mass was filtered, washed and 
dried on a porous plate. Yield, 26g. The melting point was 
147°. The formula of phenylurea is NH,.CO.NHC,H;. To 
convert the phenylurea into phenylsemicarbazine the method of 
Curtius and Burkhardt (Journ. f. prakt. Chem., (2) 58,220) 
was followed. Ten grams of phenylurea were placed in a small 
round bottom flask with 5g absolute alcohol and 8g hydrazine 
hydrate. The flask was attached to a reflux condenser with a 
ground glass joint and the mixture was boiled fifteen hours. On 
cooling the mass solidified. This was rinsed out into a porcelain 


~~ 


1914 | Tue Repuction or NAPHTAZARINE 103 


dish with water and heated upon a water bath until the odor of 
ammonia could no longer be detected. The product was impure 
and remained so after extraction with ether. It was therefore 
converted into its hydrochloride by adding 5 parts of alcohol 
and 5 parts of concentrated hydrochloric acid. The result- 
ing emulsion was filtered with suction and washed with 
very little water. The residue was dissolved in 5 parts of 
water, filtered from slight impurities and finally neutralized 
with pure sodium hydroxide. The resulting solution 
was allowed to crystallize slowly. The product obtained 
thus was pure, melting at 122°. This is a very efficient addi- 
tion to the purification process of Curtius and Burkhardt. 
The formula is NH,NH.CO.NHC,H;. The melting point of 
the hydrochloride is 216°. 


Action of Phenylsemicarbazine on Tetrahydroxynaphthalene 


The action of phenylsemicarbazine on the yellow and the red 
forms of tetrahydroxynaphthalene was studied simultaneously. 
The amounts used were in the proportion of one molecule to one 
molecule. Saturated solutions of each were mixed and two 
series were carried out, one in alcohol solution, the other in 
chloroform solution. The solutions were kept in beakers placed 
in desiceators. In the alcoholic solutions precipitation began 
about the fourth day and gradually increased, a slow evaporation 
of the solvent taking place simultaneously. The precipitates 
were dark colored, the solutions being dark red. Reerystallized 
from alcohol the products became lighter brown and behaved 
similarly on heating in a capillary tube, darkening at 205° and 
decomposing at 214°. 

In the chloroform series the yellow form made a yellow solu- 
tion and the red form a red solution. On the third day the 
precipitation began in the yellow solution but none took place in 
the red solution until the seventh day. Precipitation continued 
in each case until the weight of the precipitate was equal to 
55 per cent. of the total weight of the reacting substances. The 
erystals in both cases were light yellow in color and behaved 
upon heating like the products from the alcoholic solutions. The 
analytical work was interrupted before entirely satisfactory 


104 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHett Society [April 


figures were obtained for a pure phenylsemicarbazone, although 
a good figure was obtained for carbon. The hydrogen persisted 
in being 0.6 to 0.8 per cent too high. It is not surprising that 
phenylsemicarbazine should cause a reaction in solutions of 
both the yellow and the red forms since in solution both enol and 
keto-forms exist simultaneously. A further study of this ques- 
tion is under way. 


Bromination of Tetrahydroxynaphthalene 


According to Meyer enol forms react instantaneously with 
bromine whereas saturated keto-forms do not. The constitution 
of tetrahydroxynaphthalenecomplicates this reaction because the 
bromine may not only act upon the four hydroxyl groups present 
but also upon the four hydrogen atoms in the nuclei. We made 
four comparative experiments using 1, 2, 3 and 4 molecules of 
bromine respectively for one molecule of the tetrahydroxynah- 
thalene. Saturated glacial acetic acid solutions of both sub- 
stances were used and the reactions were started at 10°. No 
reaction was apparent at first in any case but on standing at 
room temperature over night masses of crystals appeared in 
every case. The results are briefly stated as follows: I. 0. 5g 
substance + 0.47g Br. Product, black crystalline mass, 0.46g. 
Sublimes at 260° without melting. II. 0.5g substance + 0.94¢ 
Br. Product, red crystals, 0.63g. ‘Sublimes at 160-200°. III. 
0.5g substance + 1.41g Br. Product, reddish orange crystals, 
0.78¢. Sublimes at 150-240°. Melts at 240-252°. IV. 0.5g 
substance + 1.88¢ Br. Product, yellowish orange crystals, 
0.56g. Melt at 168-174° and decompose above 174° to a dark 
red liquid. The last product appears to be the purest but there 
is a decided falling off in the yield. The reaction will be studied 
further in this laboratory. 


CuHaper Hint, N. C. 


| 


CONVOCATION WEEK MEETINGS OF THE SCIEN- 
TIFIC SOCIETIES 


THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION 


For the first time since the New Orleans meeting in 1906 
the American Association for the Advancement of Science came 
south during the Christmas holidays for its regular winter meet- 
ing—from December 29, 1913, to January 3, 1914. Atlanta 
was the city chosen, and it lived up to its reputation by giving 
the scientists a cordial and hospitable weleome. The affiliated 
societies that followed the Association this year (somewhat 
fewer than usual, as was to be expected) were the following: 


Astronomical and Astrophysical Society of America. 
Botanical Society of America. 

American Association of Economic Entomologists. 
Entomological Society of America. 

American Microscopical Society. 

American Physical Society. 

American Phytopathological Association. 

School Garden Association of America. 

Southern Society for Philosophy and Psychology. 


The total number of scientists that took part in these meetings 
can only be estimated, as the members of the affiliated and other 
societies often neglect to register at the desk of the American 
Association. The number was probably over 500. 

There were 428 papers on the program, distributed as fol- 
lows: 


Miatinemabicswand) PAStEON OMY sacs .os cree cto niccrars cere aelcheieetere roel ere terets 30 
HHI SCHR arse: NE SR aaa So ccgmel neste: scence cle cuevetanein ee anelny Seats hncye te eterna aan 20 
(CINGRNGIin Pea Nee Ree ae Ree OTS eA A eRe RE aS. He rata cls 3 16 
MEARS RIT enact hat = a «¥- si 's'u foie sib dG Ciera sree ae Se Lea SN acne 31 
Sag Lae? | coe a MOA Se Pe Py eens Ree rae NO ey ae te sce LD 34 
Aomlocvencinchidingg Entomology )\ a2). > 1c sdeecaete tease cierto cea TU 
Borainvencneludines mhytopathology)<: cys sce eiociteiesa soe ie cee eee 108 
Anthropology, Psychology, and Education .:22 cc: --+-e-se- sce ees 36 
ean Onncsman Ge SOCIal a SCLeNCE .-kacesicac sale eee ee see ee 29 
Pbysialosy. and Kxperimental. Medicine . 3... ..:2)..<5s67. ma eae 2 oales ments 13 

428 


105 


106 JOURNAL OF THE MircHEeLy Society [April 


The address of the retiring president, Dr. E. C. Pickering, 
Director of the Harvard College Observatory, on The Study of 
the Stars was full of interest to every one. I take space to 
make the following quotation :* 


The first catalogue of the stars was made by Hipparchus about B. C. 
128, and was inserted by Ptolemy in the “Almagest,” for fourteen cen- 
turies the authority in Astronomy for the world. This catalogue which 
contained more than a thousand stars, gave both their position and bright- 
ness. The earliest copy that is known of the “Almagest” is in the Biblio- 
theque National in Paris. It is a beautiful manuscript in unical charac- 
ters of the ninth century. The other later manuscripts unfortunately 
differ from it and from each other, so that there is some uncertainty 
regarding two thirds of the stars, owing to errors of copying. A careful 
study of these discrepancies has been “made by Dr. Peters, of Clinton, 
and Mr. Knobel, of London. Each spent several years on this work, and 
all the papers are in the hands of Mr. Knobel. He is now preparing the 
whole for publication and it is hoped that it will be in the hands of the 
printer in a few months. 

A manuscript of nearly the same age is in the library of the Vatican 
and this year a revised edition of it has been published. If we had a 
correct copy of the original work, it would have a great value at the 
present time. Half a century ago it would probably have given the best 
existing values of the proper motions of the stars which it contained, but 
recent “observations enable us to compute their position in the time of 
Hipparchus, more accurately than he could observe them, assuming that 
the motion was rectilinear. This work might, however, ‘throw light on 
a possible curviture of the motions. The observations by Hipparchus of 
the light of the stars have a value that will be considered later. . . . 

There are several kinds of variable stars. Variables of long period under- 
go changes which repeat themselves somewhat irregularly in a period 
of several months, and at a maximum are often several thousand times 
as bright as at minimum. 

Variables of short period “complete their changes in a few days, or hours. 
Professor Bailey has found five hundred such objects in the globular 
clusters. In one of these clusters, Messier 3, out of a thousand stars 
one seventh are variable, all have a period of about half a day, and their 
periods are known within a fraction of a second. Their light changes 
so rapidly that in one case it doubles in seven minutes. It is a strange 
thought that out of a thousand stars, looking exactly alike, there should 
be a hundred little chronometers keeping perfect time, and whose rate is 
known with such accuracy. 


Of the many interesting points brought out in the vice-presi- 
dential addresses before the sections we can here mention only 
a few. Professor J. McKeen Cattell, of Columbia University, 
spoke on Science, Education, and Domperdgy, The following 
paragraphs are worth attention :* 


The average salary paid to teachers in the public schools of North 
Carolina is = of Pennsylvania $440, of California $817. The state of 


1Science N. S. 39: 2 and 7. Jan. 2, 1914. 
2 Science NS . 39: 161 and 164. Jan. 1914. 


1914] Convocation Week Mererrinas 107 


Pennsylvania spends on its entire educational system less than one tenth 
of the value of the coal it mines. When a state consumes its natural 
resources it should reinvest their entire value in education, scientific 
research and the public welfare. In 1880 forty per cent. of the teachers 
in our public schools were men; now the percentage is under twenty; 
in New England and in New York it is under ten. In Germany four 
fifths of the teachers are men. ; 

It is for the honor and ultimate welfare of Georgia that twenty-five 
per cent. of its population are children of school age, whereas only seven- 
teen per cent. of the population of New England and New York—proba- 
bly less than twelve per cent of their native population—are of this age. 
Since 1880 Georgia has increased per-capita payment for public school 
education sixfold; New York and New England have only doubled theirs. 
In the past twenty years New York and New England have not increased 
their expenditure enough to make up for the depreciation in the value 
of money. Georgia spends each year 6.3 mills on the assessed valuation 
of its real and personal property on public-school education, New York 
state 4.7 mills.” [*Real estate is under assessed in Georgia. In New York 
personal property is scandalously understated, owing to the tax. Personal 
property in Massachusetts is valued at more than two thirds of the real 
estate, and in New York at less than one twentieth.] The south is bent 
under the inherited burden of slavery and the Civil War. But if it 
maintains its birth rate and cares properly for its children and its health, 
the center of wealth and civilization will return southward. 

The progress of the physical sciences in the nineteenth century will 
in the coming century be paralleled by advances in the psychological 
sciences. Science and education have given us democracy; it is the 
duty and privilege of democracy to repay its debt by forwarding science 
and education to an extent not hitherto known in the world’s history. 


Before the Botanical Section Dr. D. S. Johnson, of Johns 
Hopkins University, spoke on The History of the Discovery of 
Sexuality in Plants. He gave a concise and useful review of 
the development of this problem and of its baffling nature for 
over 2,000 years to “ philosophers” who time and again vainly 
settled it to their own satisfaction by an appeal to the “ nature ” 
of things. Only when philosophy was laid aside and its place 
taken by direct and accurate observations on plants themselves 
was progress made. From Dr. Johnson’s conclusion we quote 
the following : 

The sexuality which was first suspected, and first experimentally proven, 
in the seed plants, has now been demonstrated in all groups of plants 
save the bacteria and their allies. The primary feature of the process, 
the union of the two parental nuclei, is the same in all. The method of 
bringing together the two nuclei varies widely, this variation sometimes 
involving even the complete disappearance of externally recognizable sexual 
organs. During the evolution of plants old methods of accomplishing the 
approximation of the nuclei have been discarded, and new methods have 


arisen. In the latter case a fusion of nuclei of closer kinship has often 
been submitted for the primitive one of more distantly related nuclei. 


3Science N. S. 39: 317. Feb. 27, 1914. 


108 JOURNAL OF THE MircHe ty Society [April 


This seems evidently the case, for example in the apogamous ascomycetes, 
perhaps also in the basidiomycetes, and surely so in the cases of nuclear 
fusion in the prothalia and in the sporangia of apogamous ferns. 


The persistent delusion widely current in regard to the 
scientific value of certain mystical realms of thought and feeling, 
together with a general misconception of their relation to other 
phenomena, gives a timely interest to the address of Professor 
Arthur Gordon Webster on The Methods of the Physical Sci- 
ences, to What are They Applicable? In discussing “ thought 


transference ” he says :* 


\ 

How easy it is for the layman to say, “We know that electromagnetic 
waves are transmitted in the ether, which we cannot perceive by the senses, 
why should not waves be emitted by the brain, and be similarly trans- 
mitted through the ether?” Why indeed! We may answer him that 
even if we know nothing more of the ether than the speed of waves 
through it we know that extremely well, and that whether or not we know 
the mechanism of the waves (as I conceive that we do) we at least know 
their differential equations, that is, the mode of their transference. More- 
over we have many instruments that are affected by these waves, whereas 
no one has ever managed, by means of thought waves, to affect the most 
sensitive instrument, whether torsion balance, quatzfiber, electrometer or 
galvonemeter. When by taking thought, a mind in this world or the next, 
shall produce the smallest deflection in an instrument at a distance, then 
we shall be within the means of a physical investigation. But says the 
enthusiast, perhaps these waves being not of physical but of mental 
origin, may be receivable not by physical, but only mental apparatus, and 
may work only directly on the resonators of the brain. Very well, let 
us begin with the phenomena that we can control. It is easy to emit 
brain waves, if such there be. The method described above is then ap- 
plicable. But if we are in the region of seismic mental waves, there is 
nothing to do but have our mental resonators always in adjustment and 
attuned. Then will come the difficulty of discriminating between “strays” 
and real receptions. How great this difficulty is is shown by the almost 
vanishingly small results of the societies for physical research so called, 
and by the delusions from which reputable scientists have suffered. We 
may here mention the investigations on the celebrated Eusapia Paladino, 
who certainly secured good indorsements in Europe, but when brought here 
and examined by a committee including psychologists, physicists, and 
other detectives, was found to be explicable by purely physical hypotheses. 


Among the most important matters of business transacted 
by the Association was the adoption of the following resolutions: 


Resolved, That the council looks with favor upon the organization of a 
Brazilian division of the Association, and that a committee on organiza- 
tion be appointed for this work with Senator Eduardo Braga as chairman. 

Resolved, That the Society of American Forestry be formally accepted 
as an affiliated society. 


*Science N. S. 39: 50. Jan. 9, 1914. 


1914 | Convocation Week MEETINGS 109 


Resolved, That the Council of the American Association for the Ad- 
vancement of Science authorizes the establishment of local branches of the 
association in places where the members are prepared to conduct branches 
which will forward the objects of the association. , 

Resolved, That the standing committee on organization and membership 
be instructed to promote the establishment of such local branches. 

The president elected for the coming year was Dr, Charles 
Wm. Eliot, president emeritus of Harvard University. 

The next meeting will be held in Philadelphia during convo- 
cation week, 1914-1915. 

W. C. Coxer. 


THE ZOOLOGISTS AND NATURALISTS 


The American Society of Zoologists and the American Society 
of Naturalists met with various other biological societies in 
Philadelphia, December 29 to January 1. The Zoologists and 
Naturalists held their meeting in the new zoological laboratory 
of the University of Pennsylvania, a large and handsome build- 
ing. It may be noted in passing how many universities have 
recently erected, or are about to erect, elaborate zoological labo- 
ratories costing from about $150,000 to $500,000. Princeton, 
Pennsylvania, Yale, in the East, and the state universities of 
Ohio, Missouri, and Minnesota, in the West, are in this class. 

Important changes in the constitution of the Society of Zoolo- 
gists, long considered, were fortunately carried through, result- 
ing in the union of eastern and central (middle west) branches 
of the society. The opportunity still remains for the formation 
of local sections, wherever ten or more members of the general 
society can foregather. 

The papers read before the Zoologists showed the usual di- 
versity, falling under the heads of comparative anatomy, em- 
bryology, cytology, genetics, comparative physiology, ecology. 
Still other papers were grouped together as ‘‘ miscellaneous.” 
There were some exhibits, among which may be mentioned 
photographs of changes in color and pattern undergone by floun- 
ders (by Dr. S. O. Mast, of Johns Hopkins, reporting on an 
investigation carried out at the Beaufort Laboratory) and speci- 
mens of several generations of butterflies exhibiting Mendelian 
inheritance (by Dr. J. H. Gerould, of Dartmouth). Among the 


110 JOURNAL OF THE MircHett Society [April 


papers which aroused most interest and discussion was one by 
Dr. Oscar Riddle, of the Carnegie Institution, dealing with the 
determination of sex through agencies apparently not connected 
with the chromosomes. 

The meeting of the Naturalists included a morning and an 
afternoon session on December 31 and a dinner at night with the 
presidential address (by Prof. R. G. Harrison, of Yale). At 
the morning session several addresses, by invitation of the so- 
ciety, were given dealing with heredity and development. Among 
these Prof. F. R. Lillie’s (University of Chicago) excited 
especial interest. Professor Lillie described experiments show- 
ing that the egg and sperm secrete substances intimately con- 
cerned in the process of fertilization. The afternoon was de- 
voted to a discussion of teaching methods. It was brought out 
that a widespread desire exists to curtail the amount of time 
given to the study of structure (morphology) and to introduce 
more experimentation. This is a natural result of the progress 
of biological science during the past twenty years, and admirably 
illustrates the close connection between teaching and research, 
the latter, as it opens up new fields, influencing those con- 
spectuses of phenomena which we call courses of instruction. 


H. V. Wison. 


THE FEDERATION OF AMERICAN SOCIETIES FOR EXPERIMENTAL 
BIOLOGY 


For a number of years it has been the feeling of the members 
of the several scientific societies that are interested in closely 
related biological problems, that a closer cooperation of these 
societies was highly desirable. 

At the Cleveland meeting in 1912 of the Physiological, Bio- 
chemical and Pharmacological societies, committees from these 
organizations were appointed to consider a plan for the affilia- 
tion of the different societies. 

The committee consisted of three members from each or- 
ganization. This committee submitted a plan of affiliation 


which was adopted at the meeting of the various societies in 
Philadelphia in December. 


1914] Convocation Werk Mererines 1 | 


The plan as proposed by the committee consists in the forma- 
tion of an organization composed of the American Physiological, 
the American Biochemical and American Society for Pharma- 
cology and Experimental Theraupeutics. The organization of 
the affiliated societies is to be known as The Federation of 
American Societies for Experimental Biology. 

At the December meeting the Federation was strengthened 
by admitting to membership the recently formed Society for 
Experimental Pathology. 

As a result of this union an organization has been founded 
which has about 450 members. 

It is hoped that the Naturalists, Zoologists, and Anatomists 
will meet with the Federation. Such was the case at the recent 
Philadelphia meeting. 

It is not the object of the Federation that the several so- 
cieties should in any way lose their identity, the different so- 
cieties composing the Federation elect officers and conduct their 
meetings as usual. It is hoped, however, that by having joint 
meetings and that by the members of the different societies 
coming to know personally their co-workers that the efficiency of 
the various organizations will be increased and that the mem- 
bers of the different societies will find in the Federation a wide 
usefulness for the “ promotion of research and the dissemination 
of truth.” 

The meeting in Philadelphia was notable for the number of 
members attending, the number and general excellence of the 
communications presented, and for the very enjoyable social 
gatherings in the form of the “ dinners.” In addition to these 
features the program committee very wisely allotted an after- 
noon session to be used for demonstrations. 

The physiological and other demonstrations were given in 
the Pharmacological Laboratory of the University of Pennsyl- 
vania. ‘The experiments were well planned, were unusually 
successful and constituted one of the most enjoyable and in- 
structive features of the meeting. 

The two demonstrations which likely aroused the most inter- 
est were conducted by Professor Abel and his associates and by 
Dr. Meltzer and Dr. Gates. 


112 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELt Society [A pril 


Professor Abel, Dr. Rountree and Dr. Turner demonstrated 
an apparatus for “ Vividiffusion.” 

The apparatus consists in a large glass cylinder in which is a 
series of celloidin tubes. Surrounding the celloidin tubes dif- 
ferent diffusion fluids may be used; salt solutions of different 
strength or glucose solutions. The celloidin tubes which are 
dialyzing tubes are attached at their ends to glass tubes. The 
latter are connected by rubber tubing with the animal used in 
the experiment. 

An animal, preferably a dog, is anesthetized and glass canulas 
are placed in the caroted artery and jugular vein. The canula 
from the artery is connected with the intake tube of the dif- 
fusion apparatus and the canula in the vein is connected with 
the remaining glass tube which leads from the diffusion ap- 
paratus. By such a scheme blood passes from the animal 
through the arterial canula into the celloidin dialyzing tubes, 
through these tubes and back into the animal through the 
canula in the jugular vein. 

In order to prevent the blood from clotting during the time 
it is in the celloidin tubes a solution of hirudin (leech extract) 
is injected into the arterial canula. 

The use of such an apparatus opens a new field in the study 
of metabolism of the body in general, in the study of the meta- 
bolism of isolated organs, and in the removal from the body of 
a living animal of various toxic bodies. Used in the latter 
sense the apparatus will likely serve as a valuable therapeutic 
agent. 

The demonstration by Dr. Meltzer and Dr. Gates consisted 
in showing the antagonism which exists between the salts of 
magnesium and calcium. 

A rabbit was anesthetized by injecting a solution of mag- 
nesium salts. The anesthesia was profound. An injection of 
calcium salts was then made into the lateral ear vein of the 
animal. Within a very few seconds following the injection, 
consciousness had completely returned, the animal appearing in 
all respects normal. 

The scientific communications presented at the meetings of 


1914] Convocation Wrrx Merertines 113 


the various societies forming the Federation were of unusual 
interest and of very high grade. 

The meetings came to a close on December 31st, 1913, at 
which time the first executive session of the Federation was 
held. At this meeting the feeling of the Federation concerning 
animal experimentation was expressed and adopted in the fe!- 
lowing form: 


1. We, the members of the Federation of American Societies for Ex- 
perimental Biology—comprising the American Physiological Society, the 
American Society of Biological Chemists, the American Society for Phar- 
macology and Experimental Therapeutics and the American Society for 
Experimental Pathology,—in convention assembled hereby express our 
accord with the declaration of the recent International Medical Congress, 
and other authoritative medical organizations, in favor of the scientific 
method designated properly animal experimentation but sometimes vivi- 
section. 

2. We point to the remarkable and numerable achievements by animal 
experimentation in the past in advancing the knowledge of biological 
laws and devising methods of procedure for the cure of disease and the 
prevention of suffering in human beings and lower animals. We em- 
phasize the necessity of animal experimentation in continuing similar 
beneficient work in the future. 

3. We are firmly opposed to cruelty to animals. We heartily support 
all humane efforts to prevent the wanton infliction of pain. The vast ma- 
jority of experiments on animals need not be, and in fact, are not accom- 
panied by any pain whatsoever. Under the regulations already in force, 
which reduce discomfort to the least possible amount and which require 
the decision of doubtful cases by the responsible laboratory director the 
performance of those rare experiments which involve pain, is we believe, 
justifiable. 

4. We regret the widespread lack of information regarding the aims, 
achievements and procedures of animal experimentation. We deplore 
the persistent misrepresentation of these aims, achievements and procedure 
by those who are opposed to this scientific method. We protest against 
the frequent denunciations of self-sacrificing, high-minded men of science 
who are devoting their lives to the welfare of mankind in efforts to solve 
the complicated problems of living beings and their diseases. 


Won. veEB. MacNiper 


THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 


The Botanical Society of America met in Ailanta, in affilia- 
tion with the American Association for the Advancement of 
Science. About ninety members were present and a large pro- 
gram of fifty-five papers was offered. Among these we have 
space to mention only a few. Discussing the trend and influ- 


114 JOURNAL OF THE MircHEeLt Society [April 


ence of certain Phases of Taxonomy, Professor Aven Nelson 
said :° 

We are on the eve of a new era of reconstruction. Already the pendu- 
lum is swinging back toward greater conservatism. The dismemberment 
of genera and the multiplication of species proceed more cautiously. 


This grows out of the revitalized aim, “Make it easier for others to 
know plants.” 


The perplexity of the systematist may be understood when we 
consider the increasing evidence of numerous distinct strains 
within “ species” whose characteristics are inherited and ap- 
parently well fixed. Such strains were reported by Mr. Chas. 
A. Shull in the cockle-burr, Xanthiwm canadense, and Profes- 
sor A. F,. Blakeslee showed that in cultures from a single spore 
of a species of Mucor variation occurred that retained their 
characters for some time. Of their variation he says “ Many of 
them would undoubtedly be described as distinct species in the 
group.” 

Experiments by Mr. Jacob R. Schramer with seven species 
of green alge gave no evidence of any power to fix free nitro- 
gen. 
Professor W. J. V. Osterhout reported as follows :® 


Van’t Hoff’s formulation of the laws of chemical dynamics has proved 
so stimulating to various fields of chemistry that it may be expected to be 
similarly useful if it can be applied to the activities of living protoplasm. 
The writer finds that by measuring the electrical resistance of living tissues 
it is possible to follow the progress of reaction in protoplasm in the 
same way that Van’t Hoff followed the progress of reactions in vitro. It 
therefore becomes possible to apply Van’t Hoff’s methods and formulae 
directly to protoplasm in its living and active condition. 

Professor Osterhout also finds that by means of electrical 
measurements of living tisues it is possible to predict which 
salts will antagonize each other when allowed to act upon these 
tissues. 

Dr. R. H. True advocated the use of “ normal physiological 
solution’ for experimental purposes, rather than distilled 
water, which cannot, in practice, be obtained pure, and which 
moreover has been found to be injurious to certain plants, prob- 
ably by absorbing from their roots some of the constituents 


necessary to the maintainance of life activities. 


5 Science N. S. 39: 255. Feb. 13, 1914. 
6 Science N. S. 39: 292. Feb. 20, 1914. 


1914] Convocation Werk Mererrinas 115 


The most important matter of business that came before the 
Society was the report of the committee on the new botanical 
journal. This provides for a co-operative arrangement with 
the Brooklyn Botanie Garden which has made possible the im- 
mediate publication of the journal. This publication is known 
as the American Journal of Botany and it will be sent to all 
members of the Society. The first issue for January 1914 has 
already appeared. It will do a great deal to relieve the con- 
gestion of material that now exists in the sources of publica- 
tion in this country. 

Mr. A. 8. Hitchcock, the well known agrostologist of the 
U. S. Department of Agriculture was elected president for the 
ensuing year. 


W. C. Coxer. 


ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS 


THE TWENTY-SEVEN LINES UPON THE CUBIC SURFACE 


The contributions which Dr. Henderson has, from time to 
time, made to the study of the cubic surface, were some time ago 
embodied in this able work.’ The following review, though be- 
lated, purports to give a brief sketch of Dr. Henderson’s work. 
The mere fact that it enjoys the distinction of being the second 
work by an American professor in this series of Cambridge Uni- 
versity Memoirs bespeaks its quality. The other American 
professor to be thus honored was Dr. Maxine Bocher, of Har- 
vard University. 

In his Introduction, Dr. Henderson says: “ In this memoir 
is given a general survey of the problem of the twenty-seven 
lines, from the geometric standpoint, with special attention to 
salient features: the concept of trihedral pairs, the configuration 
of the double six, the solution of the problem of constructing 
models of the double six configuration and of the configurations 
of the straight lines upon the twenty-one types of the cubic 
surface, the derivation of the Pascalian configuration from that 
of the lines upon the cubic surface with one conical point, and 
certain allied problems.” Some of the principal results of the 
author’s researches have been presented in papers read before 
the American Mathematical Society, the North Carolina Acad- 
emy of Science, and the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society. 
Furthermore, some conclusions have been incorporated by the 
author in the following papers, published within recent years: 
“On the Brianchon Configuration,’ American Mathematical 
Monthly, 36-41; “On the graphic representation of the pro- 
jection of two triads of planes into the mystic hexagon,” 
Journal El. Mitch. Sci. Soc., 20:124-133, 1904; “ A Memoir 
on the twenty-seven lines on the cubic surface,” Journ. El. 
Mitch. Sci. Soc., 21:76-87, 120-133, 105. 

As Dr. A. ©. Dixon has pointed out in the Mathematical 


1The twenty-seven lines upon the cubic surface by Archibald Henderson. 
Published by the University of Cambridge, at the Cambridge University Press, 
London. 
116 


1914] Asstracts AND Revrews AVG 


Gazette, the central problem attacked by Dr. Henderson is a 
fascinating one; and the author has solved the problem in a 
completely satisfactory and exhaustive way. The beautiful 
plates, thirteen in number, showing in perspective representa- 
tion the lines on all twenty-one different types of the eubic 
surface, express the solution in concrete form. Noteworthy is 
the author’s analytical investigation of the double-six theorem, 
which is both simple and self-contained. 

It is to be noted that the author does not refer to Cremona’s 
well-known form of the cubic, nor to the parametric represen- 
tation of a variable point on the surface. To do so would doubt- 
less have carried him too far afield, since this is not a treatise 
on the cubic surface, but the study of a particular configuration 
associated with it. The listing of the trihedral pairs seems to 
be carried out at needless length, until it is observed that they 
serve as the basis for subsequent conclusions. Especially note- 
worthy is chapter VII, dealing in an elegant manner, both 
analytically and geometrically with certain configurations as- 
sociated with the configurations of the lines upon the cubie 
surface. 

There is a long and valuable bibliography of the general 
literature in all languages in regard to the lines upon the cubie 
surface. It is all the more valuable in that it is, strangely 
enough, in view of the importance of the subject, the only one 
which has ever been compiled. The following title might profit- 
ably be added to this biblography: ‘‘ Beziehungen der allgem- 
einen Fliche dritter Ordnung zu einer covarienten Fliche drit- 
ter Classe,” by Th. Reye, Math. Annalen, Bd. Ly.; “ Ueber 
einige Eigenschaften der allgemeinen Fliche dritter Ordnung,” 
G. Kohn, Wiener Sitzungsberichte, Bd. exvii; and Professor W. 
W. Burnside’s recent paper in the Cambridge Philosophical 
Proceedings on double-sixes with projective transformations. 

The two great English geometers, C. Salmon and A. Cayley, 
first studied the theory of straight lines upon a cubic surface 
in correspondence, subsequently published in 1849. In 1873, 
Cayley devised a method for constructing a double-six, but 
achieved only theoretical success in his effort to construct a 
model of the configuration. The significance of Dr. Hender- 


118 JOURNAL OF THE MircHEeLyi Society [April 


son’s work is that he has satisfactorily completed this work left 
unfinished by Cayley, and generalized it so as to apply to the 
complete configuration of all the lines upon each of the types 
of the cubic surface. This volume, as expressed in a recent 
review in Nature, is “ carried through with great earnestness, 
and so far as possible with the simplest materials; its obvious 
sincerity cannot fail to be inspiring to anyone who will be at 
pains to understand it. The author’s assembling of his ma- 
terials for the constructions which follow, and the very want 
of useless elaboration is a proof of the independence with 
which the author has carried out his research.” 
WitiraM Carn. 


DEVELOPMENT OF SPONGES FROM DISSOCIATED TISSUE CELLS 


In this paper” the author, Dr. H. V. Wilson, presents in 
full detail the facts in his study of the restitution of sponges 
from dissociated cells. Precise information as to methods is 
also given. The larger part of the illustrations are photographs, 
chiefly at low magnification. The latter show the sponges as 
grown on slips of glass. As the writer mentions the sponges 
present many points of superficial similarity to myxomycete 
plasmodia. It is noteworthy that the method employed has 
proved to be one by which large numbers of sponges may be 
easily grown. Mr. R. R. Bridgers, at the time a student of this 
University, served as Professor Wilson’s assistant and during 
one summer carried more than a hundred sponges to a stage 
where they were quite similar to normal sponges as one collects 
them in Beaufort harbor. <A point of particular interest is that 
a number of Mr. Bridgers’ sponges went so far as to produce 
embryos at the end of the season. From this standpoint the 
method seems promising for the study of the general question 
of embryo formation in sponges and quite possibly for the ex- 
perimental determination of the conditions under which the sex 
elements are produced. 

It is of interest to know that other investigators have shown 
that Professor Wilson’s methods are applicable to fresh-water 


2Bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries, Volume XXX, 1910. 


1914] ABSTRACTS AND ReEvinws 119 


sponges and calcareous sponges. Karl Muller has succeeded in 
growing Spongillas from dissociated cells. And Julian S. Hux- 
ley,” working at Naples, also succeeded in developing Sycon 
raphanus in the same way. 

W. C. Georce. 


ON THE BEHAVIOR OF THE DISSOCIATED CELLS IN HYDROIDS 


In this paper* Dr. H. V. Wilson shows that hydroids may like- 
wise be grownfrom dissociated cells. The methods practiced were 
essentially the same as those used for sponges. The hydroids, 
however, proved far more difficult objects to handle. Neverthe- 
less, hydropolypes (Eudendrium, Pennaria) were developed 
with the characteristics of the species. Here again the methods 
may prove of use in studies of the origin of sex. In this paper 
Professor Wilson considers his observations more directly than 
in preceding papers from the standpoint of the reduction theory. 
He points out that in sponges this question is complicated by 
the presence in the sponges of large numbers of undifferentiated 
cells (amoebocytes). But in hydroids, such cells are present 
in a negligible quantity, and the restitution masses, therefore, 
undoubtedly are derived from the differentiated ectoderm and 
entoderm cells. These cells after dissociation lose their dis- 
tinctive histological characteristics and combine to form a solid 
mass which again differentiates like a coelenterate embryo into 
ectoderm, entoderm, and a central yolk. These facts then cer- 
tainly lend great weight to the idea that differentiated somatic 
cells may undergo a process of regressive differentiation (re- 
duction), and pass into a generalized state physiologically sim- 
ilar to embryonic tissue. 


W. C. Grorce. 


1Das Regenerationsvermégen der Suswasserschwamme, insbesondere Unter- 
suchungen uber die bei ihnen vorkommende Regeneration nach Dissociation und 
Reunition. Archiv F. Entwicklungsmechanik der Organismen, 32: 397-446. 1911. 

2Some Phenomena of Regeneration in Sycon; with a Note on the Structure 
of Its Collar-cells. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 
Series B, 202: 165-189. 1911. 

’The Journal of Experimental Zoology 11: 281-338. 1911. 


INDEX TO THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE ELISHA 
MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 


DATE MEETING NOS. VoL. PAGE 
Nov., 1883-May, 1884 I- 7 I 6 
Oct., 1884-Apr., 1885 8-12 2 6 
Sept., 1885-May, 1886 13-19 3 6 
Sept., 1886-May, 1887 20-28 4,1 8 
Sept., 1887-Nov., 1887 29-31 As 107 
Jan., 1888-May, 1888 32-36 5 43 
Sept., 1888-Dec., 1888 37-40 5 131 
Jan., 1889-May, 1889 41-45 6 40 
Sept., 1889-Dec., 1889 46-49 6 147 
Jan., 1890-Dec., 1890 50-58 7 118 
Jan., 1891-April, 1891 59-62 8 26 
Sept., 1891-Dec., 1891 63-66 8 130 
Jan., 1892-April, 1892 67-69 9 49 
Sept., 1892-Dec., 1892 70-73 9 107 
* 

Oct., 1903-April, 1904 150-154 20 65 
Oct., 1904-April, 1905 155-160 21 ; 103 
Oct., 1905-Nov., 1906 161-168 22 95 
Jan., 1907-April, 1907 169-172 23 89 
Nov., 1907-Feb., 1909 173-181 25 I 
Mar., 1909-Dec., 1912 182-202 28 149 


INDEX TO THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE NORTH 
CAROLINA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 


NO. DATE PLACE VOL. PAGE 
I Nov., 1912 Durham, N. C. 20 3 
2 Nov., 1903 Chapel Hill, N. C. 20 7 
3 May, 1904 Wake Forest, N. C. 20 II5 
4 May, 1905 Raleigh, N. C. 21 57 
5 May, 1906 Raleigh, N. C. 22 57 
6 May, 1907 Chapel Hill, N. C. 23 43 
7 May, 1908 Greensboro, N. C. 24 44 
8 April, 1909 Durham, N. C. 25 39 
g April, 1910 Wake Forest, N. C. 26 49 - 
10 April, 1911 Raleigh, N. C. oF 73 
Ir April, 1912 Chapel Hill, N. C. 28 45 
12 April, 1913 Greensboro, N. C. 29 I 


*The Proceedings between December, 1892, and October, 1903, were not published. 
120 


7} 


hn 


AUTHORS INDEX OF THE JOURNAL OF THE 
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 
VOLUMES 1-29 
ALLER, Henry Day, VoL. PAGE 


Summary of recent experiments on the culture of the 
diamond-back terrapin at the Fisheries Laboratory, 


Saino tene Nps Ces hssay oe hae ayes Saas cence cicero ete ae 26 60 
Notes on the distribution of the more common bi- 

TAC EShO tes eatirOnts Nia Gri sic cose nn ctec tenets aa 28 76 

ASHE, William Willard, VOL, PAGE 
Notes on the forest resources of North Carolina.... 10 5 
The long leaf pine and its struggle for existence.... II I 
ASnewa post oak, and» hybridvoaksscn224.-1s ces cee II 87 
The glabrous-leaved species of Asarum of the south- 

Cire Umm e dp tates) eoerec9 to ay cteve aicles Sts. 51 oh) toh yeas 14 31 
Notes: on Marbya and” Buckleya «. 5 x. soo ccec cae nc ncan 14 46 
ROD BOYNtONM. SPs MOVa =e ces sc oe es see cre em cee 14 51 
The dichotomous groups of Panicum in the eastern 

MILCOPR SOCAL CS Iam nety Sits car cere ce.c os yc le tislain eee 15 22 
IN@LESTONAGRASSESMe man canes eA atsdeta ciety sti e steer ere 15 112 
New east American species of Crataegus ............ 16 70 
Some dichotomous species of Panicum .............. 16 84 
Some east American species of Crataegus ........... 171 4 
Some east American species of Crataegus, I] ....... 17 II 6 
INewaeastsAumentcanl thOrns, «.:aers cere cc ne cle c.ciers oc epsisies 18 I 17 
Strdiesmomebnambl esi cr secs as, crz/srctolc arelsicicie.s Seisteiers erecs 19 8 
INewarNontne Ataenican: EhOnisrs.c.cie-dionc cee oclee cere 19 10 
EISEe ELI CAGTNOEGMS) cc sais te ce ses crc custs os ace are 20 47 

ATKINSON, George Francis, 
SepCMCIpAetEC DEELIey sek .tiels f srraticciin sree Sew eee be’ 3 68 
Notessonuthe orchard! SCO IS) voc-nce 8 ter eee ee er 3 74 
A sketch and biography of Nicholas Marcellus Hentz 41 13 
NSE Wrthap=COOb Spider tecpitie ts s sc aac is a widiele oma tets 4I 16 
A family of young trap-door spiders .............. 4I 26 
Descriptions of some new trap-door spiders; their 

mestsrand: food: habits ~htonee se wena cesta oe ae 4l 33 
Preliminary catalogue of the birds of North Carolina, 

with totes on some of the species.<..... 2% ss. Ail 44 
Singular adaption in nest-making by an ant, Cre- 

MUSLOOMStEIa GE INCOIGIG SAY 2.2 esis ela oe Sei cioe haere 4il 88 
A remarkable case of phosphorescence in an earth- 

TCI ee ae OC BO ORCS AO he OOo etna seks Pee oe 4lil 89 
Observations on the female form of Phengodes Lati- 

EGOLLUSALIO GIMME ernie. Pattee Meee Rieger oe eee eee 4IlI g2 
New instances of protective resemblance in spiders... 5 28 
Note on the tube-inhabiting spider, Lycosa Fatifera 

ENGR aise cademe ee eek ty Sartaro tee ats coco weet nad hae eer eteeaee 5 30 
Soaring of the turkey vulture, Cathartes Aura....... 5 59 
Nematode-rooti-ealls 6 iny.r.n nnn oe ee owe a ee 6 81 
Some Erysipheae from Carolina and Alabama...... 7 61 
Some Cercosporae from Alabama .................. 8 33 
Some fungi of Blowing Rock, N. C., (with H. 

BCHGEMh A Pack wees ots Raley s Ponder weue aay 9 95 


122 JOURNAL OF THE MircHett Society 


Additions to the Erysipheae of Alabama ............ 
Some Septoriae irom Alabatia.... .....52-05.. eee Oe 
Additional note on the fungi of Blowing Rock, N. C. 


BAILEY, Stratford C. H., 
The Alexander County meteoric iron............... 


BANCROFT, Wilder Dwight, 
Inorganic chemistry and the phase rule .............. 


BANDY, James Marcus, 
To set slope stakes when the surface is steep but 
slopes minitonmly: 562 oa eee erect Oech ee 


BASKERVILLE, Charles, 

An example of river adjustment (with R. H. Mitchell) 
A comparison of the methods of separation and esti- 

Mation ot -zircouiiim: sso sre ncn tore see eRe ee 
Improvement in the method of preparing pure zir- 

conium ichisrides 000. 255 (Re CO a eee 
Reactions between copper and concentrated sulphuric 

acd ore) SEs as Pe SO ee Oe, RO 
Zirconium sulphite (with F. P. Venable)........... 
Reduction of concentrated sulphuric acid by copper.. 
The oxalates of zirconium (with F. P Venable).... 
The halogen salts of zirconium (with F. P. Venable) 
On the universal distribution of titanium............ 
The occurrence of vanadium, chromium and titanium 

AD WPCALS [At SI 4 ok hie NASA Sn) eee GO ge ee 
Note-oa a qualitative test ‘for tin. >. st.e.e cores 
Note on a case of spontaneous combustion........ 
On the Adie and Wood method for the determina- 

tion of potassium (with I. F. Harris)... ...0.2:... 
On the existence of a new element associated with 

CNOTIING. Yes o5 bee SEE Ree Rete aE eRe ee ot 
Arsenic pentachloride (with H. H. Bennett)........ 
Mercarous, sulphide sscuc< cxaet cone een eee ee 
Scietice and the people ¢:+<2) 8.04 wcte ee skeee ae eee 


BATTLE, Gaston, 
The action of phosphorus upon certain metallic salts 


BATTLE, Herbert Bemberton, 
The effect of pulverization on fertilizer samples..... 
On the loss of moisture in bottled samples.......... 
An improved wash-bottle for chemical laboratories. . 
A comparison between the Washington and Atlanta 
methods for the estimation of reverted phosphoric 
acid in commercial fertilizers... sean eee on 
Analyses comparing the bituminous coals of North 
Carolisa and Tranessee oo: jeickwo s settee eee Cee 
On the effect of using different amounts of acid 
phosphate in the determination of soluble phos- 
PHOTIC (BCE tie ese Shes been cee Ee cine ce ae 
ae the determination of moisture in commercial ferti- 
IZOTSisteits Sse a SOE SAE ah eee 
On the neutrality of standard ammonium citrate for 
the determination of reverted phosphoric acid.... 


VOL. 


10 


3 
3 


1914] Avutuor’s Inprx 


On the change in superphosphates when they are 
FAP EOMENCESOM a gs arxias vin's bse p oo uv a ediotiatlene vies 


BATTLE, Kemp Plummer, 
Dates of the flowering of plants (with J. Phillips 
Arie Ele AtELE Vie sssy citer ts ha cystet leis ints, cota ia eer ae ees 
Dates of the foliation of plants (with J. Phillips and 
Repo hans UEELE) I ms crs atotsr <r ctcvelev at <n: ale) svete esd ya cate enere a 


BATTLE, Richard Henry, 
Dates of the flowering of plants (with J. Phillips 
avoral IRAE RRS Vel op le eee a ae Se a ea a 
Dates of the foliation of plants (with J. Phillips and 


GMMR ALES) Marys citer Sie i teron cman cian oi cecal alnrctohopae aoe 
BEARDSLEE, Henry Curtis, 
shherAmanitas OL Nottie Garolinawt jasce.2 os cesses 


BELL, James Munsie, 

The rate of extraction of plant food constituents 
i the phosphates of calcium and from a loam 
GON ee Sect cect Masi car CIES ere nS 

Physical properties of aqueous solutions containing 
ammonia and citric acid (with R. A. Hall) ...... 

The distribution of ammonia between water and 
chloroformey GwithPALcIy Berl d)) pcre so ote olee-2'< ae 

Methods for the preparation of neutral solutions of 
ammonium citrate (with C. F. Cowell) .......... 

Electromotive force of silver nitrate concentration 
cells Gwithe Aw Ey Beil) sous on vses Rees Poke ok 


BENNETT, Hugh Hammond, 
Arsenic pentachloride (with C. Baskerville)........ 


BORDEN, John Lemuel, 
INGHON OL ammonia on lead iodides.) 5.2 a+. so -e.  - 
Solubility of North Carolina phosphate rock........ 
Maocnetites front Orangve: County) sao. eines ee eee 


BRASWELL, Archibald, 
List of the butterflies collected at Chapel Hill, N. C. 


BRIMLEY, Clement Samuel, 
The box tortoises of southeastern North America.... 
Working up the entomological fauna of North Caro- 
linan(GwathebseShermat)) ..)acae <ts:eeictee caver casie shears 
INS CASCTOP SIAC y DICE! cyorceeyaiciare etantareis'o Sale hs eloler aeons 
Further notes on the reproduction of reptiles........ 
A descriptive catalogue of the mammals of North 
Carolina, exclusive of the Cetacea ................ 
Notes on the scutellation of the red king snake, 
Ophibolus Doliatus Coccineus, Schlegel........... 
Notes on the food and feeding habits of some 
UST (SENTY IASI Ck CEE Oe Cee EE OCC ROC OCOC ET ie 
Notes on some turtles of the genus Pseudemys..... 
Artificial key to the species of snakes and lizards 
which ares toundsins North. Carolina: 4-6 4s c0ces 
The salamanders of North Carolina................ 


VOL, 


123 


PAGE 


124 


JOURNAL OF THE MircHELyi Society 


A key to the species of frogs and toads liable to occur 
in “North Carolina. sven cree ahd one ee Ge eee 
Notes on the life-zones in North Carolina (with F. 
phetmaan) ore cck ces coe eae ae Cee EE 
On the number of species of birds that can be ob- 
served in one day at Raleigh, N. C............... 
Some notes on the song periods of birds............ 
Remarks on the relation of birds to our farms and 
Pardens. 2 shee oe ons ioes ce Oe ea eee SERIE eee 
Catching hawk moths on flowers at dusk........... 
Capture of Raleigh by the wharf rat................ 
Zoo-geography, a study of life zones.............. 


BROWN, Wade Hampton, 


Malarial pigment (hematin) as a factor in the pro- 
ductionsof the malarial) paroxysm-- <2... arene 


BRYANT, Victor Silas, 


List of fishes in the museum of the University of 
North Carolina, with description of a new species.. 


CAIN, William, 


Demonstration of the method of least work........ 
(hetransition Cunve: /Sc.cc echt on Po acne eit aie aioe 
On the fundamental principles of the differential 

reel (ebb Gee eee ek pee es Stara AW Ae epee oe brie 
hhe stone acen eee ke Ot cts. Sue ite eee 
Notes on the exact computation of the queen post 

ET UISS+ eee oe a Aes Serr Be ASB eo ne Aer 
A method of laying out grades for sewers by aid 

OLSiINE SELANSIb tee toe floes te oe aren eral omen 
Notes: onthe alecbraic Sort 7/os sec 2 Seni waren 
Note on imaginary roots Ora CuDIGs.4.-c- eect 
Note on the fundamental bases of dynamics........ 
REVIEW Fs ido aon Hota te oA a ROU cea etokns 


CALLISON, James Scott, 


The distribution of boracic acid among plants...... ' 
On the occurrence of boracic acid as an impurity in 
caustic alkalies (with F. P. Venable) ..........<: 


CLARKE, Thomas, 


Some of the properties of calcium carbide (with 
FP Menable)s 2 Fc Saree Poche oreo oR ee 
A study of the zirconates (with F. P. Venable)..... 


COBB, Collier, 


Notes on the deflective effect of the earth’s rotation 

aS Showin im streams. seen cece ee eee 
On the geological history of certain topographical 

features east Of the blue Ridge-sevos seen 
Do ‘snakes ichatmibirdstavek sue ace aeeeice 
Sulphur from pyrite in nature’s laboratory........ 
Recently discovered mineral localities in North Caro- 

Linka t 2s 2 ee a eae sh eee notin een ee ieee 
Notes on the geology of Currituck Banks .......... 
Where the’ wind does’ the’ work... 2s<.3; S808 67a 


VoL. 


T2200 


[April 


PAGE 


157 


1914 | Avruor’s InpDEx 


Notes on the geology of Core Bank: Ni Gik.2teaesss 
The garden, field and forest of the nation........++> 
Salisbury’s Physiography ......--.--+++sssrcrrerrt ts 
The landes and dunes of Gascony ....---+++++++7> 
Joseph Austin Piatines) Meee calc cone ese oe mee 
Early English survivals on Hatteras Island........- 


COKER, David Robert, 
Field for economic plant breeding in the cotton belt.. 


COKER, William Chambers, 

The woody plants of Chapel Hill, N. Car aes 
Chapel Hill liverworts ......--.-+eeersecrreeteet 
Chapel Hill ferns and Eheite alliesteocs acs steers el 
A visit to the Yosemite and the Bic ‘Treesis...5:-<e- 
Additions to the flora of the @arolinass.nes ce seer 
A visit to the grave of Thomas WEIS a roc de oneal 
Vitality of pine seeds and the delayed opening of 

ee a on as Se an mn satel ae ees 
Dr. Joseph Hinson Mellichamp......-----+--+-e2*: 
The garden of André Michaux,...----+++++++000+7: 
The plant life of Hartsville, CH Cone Hateeraa asta shore cole 
The seedlings of the live oak and white oak........ 


COWELL, Charles Fowler, 
Methods for the preparation of neutral solutions of 
ammonium citrate (with J. M. Beni awe cee erie a= 


DABNEY, Charles William, Jr., 
North Carolina phosphates ...-.----sesserserageees 
Note on cassiterite from King’s Mountain, N. C..... 


DANCY, Frank Battle, 
On the determination of “total” phosphoric acid in 
POEEEARES) Oi dad SOR eT Nee oN eA S 
Experiments to determine the effect of a solution 
of common: salt (NaCl) as a wash in determina- 
tions of “citrate insoluble” phosphoric acid to re- 
place pure water RUeRS IER ae a aicods Sloe react anls ees 
On the determination of potash J2......-2-ses-+--+- 
Effect of freezing on standard SOlUutONS ese. eee 
Effect of decomposing organic matter on insoluble 
phosphate of lime ....---:---+erertt yet 
On the determination of available phosphoric acid in 
fertilizers containing cotton seed meal.......----- 
DANIELS, Virgil Clayton, 
Chloral-g-naphthylamine and__ choloral-@-naphthyl- 
amine (with A. S. Wheeler) ....-.---eceeeeeeree 


DAVIS, Royall Oscar Eugene, 
The atomic weight of thorium ....------+++eeert ees 
The character of the compound formed by the addi- 
tion of ammonia to ethyl-phospho-platino-chloride 


(with C. H. Elertyht se amte tras seme aeese 
DICKSON, William Samuel, 

The volatile oil of Pinus Serotina (with C. H. Herty) 

The stability of rosin at slightly elevated tempera- 

tures (with C. H. Fherty ji ia: ates v2 sels areenes sie ao 


bo 


126 JOURNAL OF THE MiTCHELL Society 


The resenes of resins and oleoresins (with C. H. 
FLELty )) .0:55crc sib onic oe} Stes bhi BE REE neers 


DILLER, Joseph Silas, 
Oripin of Paleotracnss osc ea secu eee eee eRe eee ee 


DOLLY, David Hough, 
A bacteriologic study of the blank cartridge......... 


DUERDEN, James Edwin, 
A ee of studying the septal sequence in Paleozoic 
COTAIS, sock. 3; eee Pe eee een ee een oe eee ee 


EATON, Henry Nelson, 
Micro-structure and probable origin of flint-like slate 
neat-ChapelbillssNorth Carolina ses0- eee tee 
Micropesmatiteat Chapel sullen a eee eee ee 
Notes on the petrography of the granites of Chapel 
Full SNorthe¢Cacolinaiie. oes oe, Cee eee 


EDWARDS, George Walter, 
Some new Salts of camphoric acid............<.<..- 


FEILD, Alexander Littlejohn, 
The distribution of ammonia between water and 
Renlorotonn sGwith. |e lbell) cee eee ee eee eee 
Notes on the birds of Chapel Hill, N. C. with parti- 
cular reference to their migrations ............... 
Electromotive force of silver nitrate concentration 
cells (with Jz Mes Bell)... ccs renee toes eee 


FRY, William Henry, 
Topography of Fayetteville, North Carolina......... 
Some plutonic tocks'or Chapel Hill) .2243-se ese eee 
Minerals! otethe: Chapel illirecion== ese eee eres 


GEORGE, Wesley Critz, 
Work atithesBeautort Waboratony tees eee eters 


GLENN, Marshall Renfro, 
Certain derivatives of trichlorethylidene-di-p-nitro- 
phenamine (with A. §.; Wheeler) ....6.2.0...<00% 


GORE, Joshua Walker, 

Astheory ofstoriadoeso. ccs eee eee ee eee 
Hlévation of ‘Chapel Bill Se. oe eee eee eee 
Report of the resident vice-president for the year 

TOSAR OR. loi eee eee lion oat eo eee 
Latitude of }Chapelbimoee.. eect eee eee eee 
Report of the resident vice-president for the year 

TBSS—86. ib cep a-ceesspen ek: wes eer eee RR eeeen ee 
Note on electrical ageing of flour:...:....0.0025 0c 


GRADY, Benjamin Franklin, 
Cyclones Sion essa eee ee een eee CL Eee rrEee 


GRAVES, Ralph Henry, 
On the chord common to a parabola and the circle of 
Cirvaturesatyvany polntiete eee tee ee eee eee eeEee 
Onithe=focalichord sora parapolaseee eee eee eee 


VOL. 


[A pril 


PAGE 


131 


59 


23 


32 


123 


133 


14 
15 


1914] Autuor’s InpEx 


A method of finding the evolute of the four-cusped 
INSP CO GW,C] Ol OM etey 9 Says, sre ciciecd eras's) scevaisnw hn wero ee ee ee 


GRISSOM, Robert Gilliam, 
Wead-chlor-sulpho-cyanide) 2.5... s/- selele ses srortere 
Solubility of alumina in sulphuric acid ............. 
Action of chlorous acid upon heptylen............... 


GUDGER, Eugene Willis, 
Natural history notes on some Beaufort, N. C. fishes 
TOMO IM? 2 Goon One COREE OMe CO eA Ono athe 


HALL, Joseph Gaither, 
Three little known species of North Carolina fungi. . 


HALL, Robert Anderson, 
Physical properties of aqueous solutions containing 
ammonia and citric acid (with J. M. Bell)........ 
Preparation of neutral ammonium citrate solutions 
bysthesconductivity, method! .....0 sc... sce- ce os oc 


HARRIS, Hunter Lee, 
A North Carolina catalan or blomary forge......... 
iElistory.om theaAtlantic= shore lines... ...2..scss. 


HARRIS, Isaac Foust, 
On the Adie and Wood method for the determination 
of potassium (with C. Baskerville) .............. 
Nucleic acid of the wheat embryo ...............08: 
Recent views on the chemistry of diet.............. 


HARRIS, James Robert, 
Some attempts at the formation of ethyl glucoside.. 
INITIEETIGBOLTD 5 Bi percents Gacimere ne Gok oe ae On ole eer 


HARRIS, Thomas William, ; 
Notes on a “petrified human body” (with J. A. 
IRIGINES)) Feo See ena hie one Etec He rice Gee 


HAYWOOD, William Grimes, 
AVstudy of certain, double chromates ..-.s..s..-se- 


HENDERSON, Archibald, 
The cone of the normals and an allied cone for 
central surfaces of the second degree............ 
On the graphic representation of the projection of 
two triads of planes into the mystic hexagram.... 
A memoir on the twenty-seven lines upon a cubic 
SUT CMe He Heya tra avee al coat rere maboat eae) Nate eS TOL Sete enone eee 
Lhemroundations Oh geOmethy 144. ce aeiteee eer 
The twenty-seven lines upon the cubic surface 
EC VIG WCE in co sccshlecictntvicie dalole cbanut tals ot hos slelel erates 


HERTY, Charles Holmes, 
Experiments on the production of crude turpentine 
yates! onoal cake piney sale e-yap.ecxe « ssaicle) eel oeancteleoetate d= 
The New Orleans meeting of the American Associa- 
tion for the Advancement of Science and the Ameri- 
Gang Chemicals SOCICLY; /)..a/s cis ec ctatee ote o evelotereretene toma 


28 


115 


20 


128 JOURNAL OF THE MitTcHEeLy Society 


Industrial and scientific aspects of the pine and its 
PTOMUCES: wcs ck own eS eRee ele cole wees BEEeE eee 
The optical rotation of spirits of turpentine.......... 
The character of the compound formed by the addi- 
tion of ammonia to ethyl-phospho-platino-chloride 


Cwith Fe 40.5 avis) 0 ice ob oe ohne ee eee 
The ae oil of Pinus Serotina (with W. S. Dick- 
SON) ) s.wdeenecee ve deeo Meee case ee ee eee eee 
Rapid determination of oil in cottonseed products 
(with TB. Stear and Me Orr oe. eeeee beeen eee 
The stability of rosin at slightly elevated temperatures 
Cwith!*W.3S Dickson) in ao fee eee eee 
The past, present and future of the naval stores in- 
GUS {iy Wao aa as seek oe GE Rie ORL 
The resenes of resins and oleoresins (with W. S. 
Dickson) Po: Soe ee sees oe LES eee 
HICKERSON, Thomas Felix, 
Formulas for investment calculations .............. 
The crest of the Blue Ridge highway ............... 


HIDDEN, William Earl, 
Addendum to the minerals and mineral localities of 
NOt (Carolina <2 Ore ee eo eee 


HINSDALE, Samuel Johnston, 
New and improved methods of analysis ............ 
Adulterated spiritssof turpentine: > 2-2 s.ee.iosts eee 


HOLMES, Joseph Austin, 


Notes on the tornado which occurred in Richmond 


County, NaC. Pebriany. fot eiSS4eeccee eee ee 
Notes on the Indian burial mounds of eastern North 
Caroling. a joace cafes pee ele cee eee ee ee ee 
Occurrence of Abies Canadensis and Pinus Strobus 
in central North Carolinase sees eee eet Teena 
Notes on a “petrified human body” (with T. W. 
El arris) 3 .s.c3 38.00 ea ee ee ee Ee eee 
Taxodium (cypress) in North Carolina quaternary.. 
The twisting of ‘trees. 2is5. vores aaa seer eee 
Report of the resident vice-president for the year 
TSB0~'S7 « a: agen big ads ants Stee se See ee en ae 
A sketch of Professor Washington Caruthers Kerr 
M, A.D: SPR oie ete te teed ate eee eee 
Temperature and rainfall at various stations in North 
Carolina! 1¢u a.) ete cacy <6 eee eee races Cree 
Historical notes concerning the North Carolina geo- 
logical surveyS, <2 oc ecuee se. os Gap ameeee aoe ees 
Mineralogical, geological and agricultural surveys of 
South, Carolitan. oosseceeeree eter eee ere 
Character and distribution of road materials........ 
Notes on the underground supplies of potable waters 
in the South Atlantic Piedmont plateau........... 
Notes on the kaolin and clay deposits of North 
Cafolinal i242 5.22 He ee oe See 
Distribution of waterpower in North Carolina...... 


The deep well at Wilmington, N. C................- 


VOL. 
23 
= 
24 
24 
25 
25 
28 
28 


27 
27 


1914] Avruor’s INDEX 


HOLMES, JOHN SIMCOX, 
WMamare TOM TOUESE ALES sca. + oo ofc dons aw owe ameee 
Timber resources of Orange County, N. C........... 


HOWE, James Lewis, 
On the practical quantitative determination of sugar 
Nia) (GORE Loe Gees Bee eee ea oer fee caries tr 
rcp peetse CLO, Mentiecley,.. . sy... ic visi «indies wermateate 
Eathoetaphic stone from. Tennessee. . .....<5,.i0 + .oiaer« 


HYAMS, Mordecai Elijah, 

A preliminary list of additions to Curtis’s catalogue 
of indigenous and naturalized plants of North 
Carolina-—fowerno plantsuse samedi cree eere 

A sport in the leaf of Blephilia Ciliata, Raf......... 


IVES, Judson Dunbar, 
A note on the development of the gall-fly, Diastro- 
BHUS NN ERMLOSUSS Ol Oi 2 ta ateres eSeaie aly codec aclerasiee 


JACKSON, Max, 
AalysisuOl SPIeCel-CISCN w.'c «to cnes sles coe sss scccee ee 
ATTIO MIAME SAUL via ee et eet oad Oa ote clot claret ove ei Gictonels 
JEFFRIES, William Lewis, 


Color and structure in organic compounds.......... 


JORDAN, Stroud, 
Condensation of chloral with primary aromatic 
ares Die Cyyitin Assos: WHEELEE) ios. scrs.5 sees oe 


KERR, James Phillips, 
Experiments as to the amount of butter from weigh- 
CU ATMTOUMIMESM OMmeITL Kates snae ay eyelelo) aire ole, eleroreiaye acuerenee.= 


KERR, Washington Caruthers, 
Distribution and character of the Eocene deposits in 
CacicnaaiNiGimin (Chinolliit sagem ucooebosndcuennecdcr 
Notes on the geology of the region about Tampa, 
TEI OTAG Ey Oh Lo Oo Be ate rioco GE One ERED OO GO GIO ce CIGD oC 


KIRBY, George Hughes, 
A description of some of the muscles of the cat 
Genfeieeble P Vie WWAISOID ie ays tuyay line oro ees lanes 


KUNZ, George Frederick, 

On three new masses of meteoric iron............. 
LANNEAU, John Francis, 

Approaching sunspot maximum...........eseeeeeees 

‘Nhressouncerotother Suns) hedte eam seice eae -ieleaers erties 
LAY, George Washington, 

iMhettarkey. buzzard Must; PO. «1755s de sated: 


LEWIS, Joseph Volney, 
Origin of the peridotites of the southern Appalachians 
Corundum and the peridotites of western North 
Carolina’ areview (with J. H.. Pratt) 2. s325...-- 


McCARTHY, Gerald, 
Wilmington flora: a list of plants growing about 
Wilmington, N. C., with date of flowering, with 
a map of New Hanover County (with T. F. Wood) 


129 

VOL. PAGE 
26 127 
29 89 
2 69 
3 143 
3 144 
2 72 
2 904 
26 76 
2 46 
2 85 
29 SI 
25 92 
I 68 
2 79 
2 86 
12II 10 
Zi 27 
20 21 
22 45 
27 IOI 
12 II 24 
22 8 
3 77 


130 JOURNAL OF THE MircHEeLyt Society 


The study.of localfloras; occ cc tlw ee ee ake 
‘Botany. as, a disciplinary ‘studyas.saeces ee een cee 


MacNIDER, George Mallett, 
The value of commercial starches for cotton mill 
DPUTPOSES © 2) ALR ER EE CS LA gee 


MacNIDER, William deBerniere, 
Streptococcus infections of the tonsils, their diagnosis 
and relationship to acute articular rheumatism.... 
The production of morbid changes in the blood 
vessels:of the rabbit, by, alcohol: aces eee 
AICohol (aioe oe ee Sok SOE EEE 
The relation of pharmacology to clinical medicine... 
A study of the action of various diuretics in uranium 
MSPMEIS LAr cis oo, Os sete wee oe aie eee 


MACRAE, Duncan, 
On surface energy and surface tension (with J. E. 
MS) ee coerce io oes ae iis te cr ee eee 
Collordalgchemistry ey. oe cee ae ee eee eee 


MANNING, Isaac Hall, 
ATALYSIS TOT MAOlIN cas tote 3 ee Eee ee ee ee 
Analysisyorsspectilar ton: Oreas. berets fon ccm 
Sone new salts of camphoric acids. 2... 6. ocas26shees 
Decomposition of potassium cyanide ................ 
The preservation of wood with wood creosote oil.... 
“Physiological Economy in Nutrition”—Chittenden. . 


METCALF, Zeno Payne, 
The gloomy scale, an important enemy of shade trees 
ine INorti iCarolina: 2h). eee eee ee 


MILLER, Frank Wharton, 
The nature of the change from violet to green in 
solutions of chromium salts (with F. P. Venable).. 


MILLER, Hugh Lee, 
lseadMbromo-nittatest: eee eee ene RE eee enter eee 


MILLS, James Edward, 
Some energy changes caused by a rise in temperature 
Molecular attraction (Second Paper) ............... 
Molecular attraction (thirds Paper eae eee 
Molecular attraction, IV on Biot’s formula for vapor 
pressure and some relations at the critical tempera- 
TUTE n.. sols 3 cee eu eeece eens oboe eee nereee ee 
Molecular attraction, VI on the mutual neutralization 
of the attraction by the attracted particles and on 
the ‘nature of attfactive POrces) Giy.e. <1 es so v0 
The foundations.of Sciences) 4 .asn heres ans 
On surface energy and surface tension (with Duncan 
MacRae) sv eciee 2 eh ea aes eee. Cee eee 


MITCHELL, Robert Henry, 
An example of river adjustment (with C. Baskerville) 


28 


-- 


21 


135 


RF & woh & 


1914] Avutuor’s Inprx 


MOREHEAD, John Motley, 
Occurrence of gold in Montgomery County, North 
Carolinawes wit aioe Seas Sots aos ee 
Otjantitativeranalysis,of zircon... ..... ..2s seasons 


NITZE, Henry Benjamin Charles, 
The magnetic iron ores of Ashe County, N. C........ 
Statistics of the mineral products of North Carolina 


HGP. Sloe he A ne Rear rr pao tic crc 
IM IGTREZATIS un ae at wa Se BA een Den orcbonaee 
Some late views of the so-called Taconic and Huro- 

Niaierocks im central North Carolina’ s..ce252. 


OATES, William Mercer, 
The bromination of anthranilic acid (with A. S. 
AWWiltvee lets) Fas arson Vale saval seer ot navatoxetstovvar Pols: dial e/ageien ys'o) 2: <8 


ORR, Manlius, 
Rapid determination of oil in cottonseed products 
Gwiths@= Hey rerty and: P.-By Stent) 2+. oe 2<e05- 


PATTERSON, Andrew Henry, 
The “pinch-effect” in unidirectional electric sparks.. 
The probable electrical nature of chemical energy.... 
An experimental proof of inverted retinal images.... 
PEARSON, Thomas Gilbert, 
Nesting habits of some southern birds in eastern 
Not thie Canolitiaet Ac. kore Decisren vaca cae betes 
Preliminary catalogue of the birds of Chapel Hill, 
N. C., with brief notes on some of the species...... 
Ornithological work in North Carolina.............. 


PEGRAM, William Howell, 
The problem of the constitution of matter.......... 


PHILLIPS, Charles, 
Nesketcheois bE lishasMatchellas asco se ccs cece 


PHILLIPS, James, 
Meteorological record at Chapel Hill, 1844-1859...... 
Dates of the flowering of plants (with K. P. Battle 
AIC w IME att le! ei staraen eek evet cha cl Sclo a eis ashes coolers eters 
Dates of the foliation of plants (with K. P. Battle 
Saal Py dale Shae). BGienons COOOED SOU RORMOnGE DOr HO Our 


PHILLIPS, William Battle, 

Reversion of phosphoric acid by heat, together with 
some observations on the fine grinding of analytical 
SAMPLE SHS Nears va seha Ace chiens mice ne haere een Kermerets 

Rate of reversion in superphosphates prepared from 
GedeNiawassas LOCenasa rave cere terse iets syeasietee 

North Carolinas phosphates saa q-iecre sores saieiaciertelers 

The manufacture of “acid” phosphate .............. 

Analysis of a deposit from salt-making............. 

Analysis of crystals of dog-tooth spar from Gander 
Hall, New Hanover County, N. C., E. side Cape 
Fear River, 15 miles below Wilmington........... 

The fertilizer trade in North Carolina in 1886...... 

Analyses of North Carolina wines (with F. P. Ven- 
EMC POM eS N Pe iarain) nia saie'sin. sie ise Noid erteeia seat aie 


38 


145 


132 


JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY 


Changes in bottled samples of acid phosphate with 
constant percentage of water and ordinary tem- 
DECLALINEG | jaa se oars ve sles ae See eee eee eis aa 

Report of resident vice-president ................0.- 

The erection of the monument to Elisha Mitchell on 
Mitchélts: High (Peale on. ete ccc pee ares oie 

Of the three crystallographic axes ................- 

Mica mining in’ North’ Carolina’. ) ioc hissed ici seck 

Turpentiseagtt Tosis’ 45.420 fs fee eee ee meee ree 


PICKEL, James Marion, 


Propenyl-iso-toluylen-amidine ..............eceeee 


POTEAT, William Louis, 


North Carolina desmids—a preliminary list.......... 
Antube-budldine spider 22... oes. cease cere ot eee eee 
Notes on the fertility of Physa Heterostropha Say.. 


PRATT, Joseph Hyde, 


Notes on North ‘Carolina minerals, :+-- .+ oes eeee 
A review of the chemical constitution of tourmaline 
as interpreted by Penfield, Foote and Clarke....... 
A peculiar iron of supposed meteoric origin from 
Dayidson County, Nortn Carolinas spoos ese. eeeee 
The southern Appalachian forest reserve............ 
Corundum and the peridotites of western North 
Carolina, a review (with J. V. Lewis) .......... 
The cement gold ores of Deadwood, Black Hills, 
SouthaDakotayssacte acee tema os ieee Eee 
The building and ornamental stones of North Caro- 
linia: (a, TEVIEW, . «53h ds ke bate beeen be nee Phe ee eeeee 
Recent changes in gold mining in North Carolina 
that have favorably affected this industry (with 
ASA aSteel)y sas Sotho ee die eee nee Eee eee 
Pushes ot NottnnCarolina sasteWewaeeeee eee ree 
Monazite and monazite mining in the Carolinas (with 
DB: Sterreth) iceeno sen ce he eee eee a eiaeeme 
Investigations of the N. C. Geological and Economic 
Survey relating to forestry problems along the 
North’ Catolina banks” 22 ee toon cee ceeenie 
New occurrence of monazite in North Carolina...... 
Drainage of North Carolina swamp lands............ 
The ae production in North Carolina during 
TOUS +c hus cs ELeeeuLesh toe ee ce res SLES TEebE EE ere 
The conservation and utilization of our natural re- 
SOULCES : © .L cL UL nece eeu RULE Ree ee eee mele SOEUR 
Good roads: and: conservation. .... 22215205 hae te 
Recent forest reports of the N. C. Geological and 
Eeonomics Survey.i ee cese eee coe he eee eee 
New occurrences of monazite in North Carolina.... 
Geological history of western North Carolina....... 
Annual address of the president of the National Asso- 
ciation of Shellfish Commissioners, Norfolk, Va, 
April-2> frog...) IAS ee, SHG De Bae Rakes 


1914] Avutuor’s InpDEx 133 


vol, PAGE 
Details of arrangements and organization for the 
use of convict labor in road construction.......... 29 63 
RADCLIFFE, Thomas, 
Analysis of rock-salt from Saltville, Va. ........... I 83 
Analysis/of a-deposit of zinc oxide ........+--csecee. I 84 
ROBERTS, James Cole, 
Examination of iron ores from Chapel Hill mine.... 1 26 
Alterability of amorphous phosphorus.............. I 37 
An attempt at forming copper and barium acetate.... I 50 
SCHRENK, Hermann, 
Some fungi of Blowing Rock, N. C., (with G. F. 
LNTSTASCS OW snceraee SATE Ty BRE ICES ORT A oe nee 9 95 
deSCHWEINITZ, Emil Alexander, 
Analysis of Chapel Hill well-waters ................ I 23 
Coiton=secdmatlalysesy a7 cece ace ee os se eho I 54 
Occurrence of citric and malic acids in peanuts 
(CArachismly POGACO) yaaa ode ne oka ee nee oe 2 47 
Attempts to form mercurous hypophosphite......... 2 78 
@chylbenzolieer. me rracs a actie eee New nee ate ccs agate 3 60 
SHERMAN, Franklin, Jr., 
Working up the entomological fauna of North Caro- 
lana wath Cx Ste Brimley Vee sa scinet shaves cert stele detsie 20 134 
Some! interesting insect captures) .).-./.j..!. 0+. e+-see- 20 I4I 
Some interesting grasshoppers (and relatives) of 
INOrtbne Garolinias sherad os apace necro Sicusie S coe ere 23 71 
Notes on the life-zones in North Carolina (with 
CeSSiBrimil cys) eeyan sce aoe aioe ae ee sees 24 14 
siptvemSctimOScusCal eve acter nuts a ele Nees pie shee os 22 52 
PRIVeUSETISE STO ly 1NSECESRe ce Sie te his Se AG ok aed beealalak 25 78 
Peculiarities in the distribution of some North Caro- 
ina pha ites Cato CROCE UOC CO SDE TEE oot rent: ieee 26 71 
SMITH, John Eliphalet, 
EATER OMS OMI SMaeree se Ntats tN te NEED Pe ie een oh aA 29 57 


SMITHWICK, John Washington Pierce, 
Additions to the avifauna of North Carolina since 
the publication of Prof. Atkinson’s catalogue...... 8 16 
Additions to the breeding avifauna in North Carolina 
since the publication of Prof. G. F. Atkinson’s 


CAPASSO SIN EOS? 91st loa. ata oe Doe aa ee 9 61 
SPAINHOUR, James Mason, 
Indian antiquities of Caldwell County .............. 3 45 
SPOON, William Luther, 
Aquatic respiration in. the musk-rat........ccecsees> 5 aI 


STEDMAN, John Moore, 
On the development and a supposed new method of 
reproduction in the sun-animalcule, Actinosphaerium 
Pe EI tee or ile a ata's oss Se ee 9 83 


134 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Society [April 


voL. PAGE 
STEEL, Alvin Arthur, 
Recent changes in gold mining in North Carolina that 
have favorably affected this industry (with J. H. 
Pratt), 42 Scie ce cien lege ston niet oer tise eee eee 23 108 


STEM, Frederick Boothe, 
Rapid determination of oil in cottonseed products 
Gwith ‘CAH: PlertysandiMe Onn) )eo-. -co ce eeeer eee 25 2I 
STEPHENSON, John Adlai Don, 
Notes on the phenomena accompanying the tornado 


and hail storm which passed across Catawba and 
Iredell Counties, N. C., March 25th, 1884......... I 40 


STERRETT, Douglas Bovard, 
Monazite and monazite mining in the Carolinas (with 


Jeg; ce ratt) ees eee weenie cteh Ee eee Eee eee 24 61 
STEVENS, Frank Lincoln, 
The science of. plant-pathology):z.:. 2... s0e8eeeee ook 21 61 
THIES, Ernest August, 
Chlorination of auriferous sulphides................ 5 68 
THORP, Benoni, 
New halogen compounds of lead (with F. P. Venable) 5 10 


TILLMAN, Opal Ione, 
Viable Bermuda grass seed produced in the locality 


of eRaleiehNy Cyn ana bt eee ne chore er ee ere 28 95 
VENABLE, Charles Scott, 
The reduction of naphtazarine (with A. S. Wheeler) 29 99 
VENABLE, Francis Preston, 

President-Spreport efor ood esse ts cesece a eee ree I 3 
Hallvoi. plood-siny Chatham Countyseseceeeeee oeeere I 38 
Aine inedrinkine water eae er oe eee teen eee I 47 
Elydratedi carbon wbisulphide’-Meeee ees eee eee eee I 69 
Temperature of well waters in Chapel Hill......... I 82 
he istorm or Aprlieznd 1883 een eneic cee eerie I 83 
Caftein ini -vyeopon leaviess see rere obec oct I 85 
Filters washed with hydrofluoric acid .............. I 86 
Actionvor easoline on Coppenie ace eee eer Eee eres I 88 
Analysis of the leaves of Ilex Cassine.............. 2 39 
Meteorological record at Chapel Hill for the five 

VeaTss TSSO=1GOAs shee AA Scene Moe eee eee 2 48 
Certain) ceactionsvot mhospbhoruse- meee eect cee ere 2 57 
Some notes’on! plant transpiration ...- eee eens eee 2 63 
Some attempts at forming heptyl-benzol ............ 2 7 
A sketch of the life and scientific work of Lewis 

David :-von Schweinitz i. ee.r2k race tes eee 3 9 
Meteorological record at Chapel Hill for the year 

1OG5: .cbbe eeen thee crepe eins Pane eee eee = 34 
A thermometer for class illustration ................ 3 142 
Analysis of water from the artesian well at Durham, 

North ‘Carolina’ (sicko sce ceenicet oeeaecree meee 4l 57 
The linnitstot the senses. ee acces che eee rer errs All 31 


i 
«| 
“d 
‘ 


1914] Avutuor’s InpEex 135 


VOL PAGE 
Analyses of North Carolina wines (with W. B. 

ESMLIDS wees Rove a Sa ors cats c'eraclae Paka cL ee 411 96 
Aenew toenm. of Bunsen) burner”. s...s5. 2. scenes Ail 103 
Mare oOnraiew test for Iron. .% .ii.0 2.2 ee eee e ee 4lil 105 
PARCECONVSIS TOL: WALETY ysis vv chic s u's aoee eo eoulwmcen en 4il 105 
On the bromination of heptane. ..:...... 22ide dk eden 5 5 
New halogen compounds of lead (with B. Thorpe).. 5 10 
Recalculations of the atomic weights................ 5 98 
A partial chemical examination of some species of 

RECM RE INEISM NLC oe ER Ais enc Soln oats cae 5 128 
On the occurrence of boracic acid as an impurity in 

caustic alkalies (with, J.:S. Callison), ......-... Y; 2I 
AWo MEW SMETEOTIC. IFONS, 428 wind wale arcs ck eMeaion 7 31 
A list and description of the meteorites of North 

CarolinagRenirero rr 6 Dee eee ek ome cree 7 33 
The proper standard for the atomic weights.......... 7 75 
Reade chloro-hromidesp thc Asc ke bows oc ald Powe ee eas 7 83 
Treatment of zircons in preparing pure zirconium 

CPV EMIOMIGEM CS Sys. a ee ioe tae Tara ats tk Seed 8 20 
WECUERENES OF ZIFCONIUME .  .o.55 iz dic. siaic cei cee onic cee 8 74 
The occurrence of platinum in North Carolina ....... 8 123 
An examination of the chlorides of zirconium....... 10 79 
ihevexhaustion of the coal supply: 54... .ss-50525- II 25 
The atomic weights and their natural arrangement... 11 67 
Some of the properties of calcium carbide (with T. 

CLIENT EEE) "a saree Naa An ia ed in ata ee 12I 10 
Zirconium sulphite (with C. Baskerville) ........... 121 16 
hherchlonrides) Ofe2ieC Omi 2.5 <icix;< hs oes eid staal Saree So 121 22 
Hbhen arid sery” Of SCLENCE <5. o:05 0 -0'0.0 «ice oisteoye erated Saree 121 23 
A study of the zirconates (with T. Clarke).......... 13 I 
The use of the periodic law in teaching ............. 13 30 
The present position of the periodic system.......... 13 34 
The oxalates of zirconium (with C. Baskerville)..... 14 4 
The halogen salts of zirconium (with C. Baskerville) 14 I2 
A revision of the atomic weight of zirconium........ 14 37 
The nature of the change from violet to green in 

solutions of chromiun salts (with F. W. Miller)... 15 I 
Natural science of the ancients as interpreted by 

IETS Top cars ROSS MOL OROS BoG Me eae ee ee 15 62 
ihe dehnition-of the element : 1.2.2.5. 3.1 200 «geek ens 16 I 
sineenatiige: Ol Valence) 2 F-40045). bao nai s nea dake 16 15 
The nature of valence (second paper)...........:... 16 23 
iRichterand thes periodicsvstemi- ancien <a tae eee 171 19 
Chemical) researehv in America) . sje ce ke eat eee 22 29 

WEAVER, William Jackson, 
River adjustments in North Carolina ............... 13 13 
WHEELER, Alvin Sawyer, 
Note on the bromination of heptane ................ 19 34 
Certain derivatives of trichlorethylidene-di-p-nitro- 

phenamine (with M. R. Glenn)................... 19 63 
The methoxyl group in certain lignocelluloses....... 2I 33 
Some problems in the cellulose field................. 21 106 


PUIClee AE IEGEAULOI) (SPA 7 "stat ahar al ste/cla'a''a)al sin hak eee oer 21 135 


136 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY 


Chloral-g-naphthylamine and _ chloral-@-naphthyl- 
amine «Cwith Via G Daniels)... pe eee eee 
A new color test for the lignocelluloses............. 
The condensation of chloral with primary aromatic 
ANUNES LU phiec cote emesis odie len bee Ba io EERO ee ee 
5-brom-2-aminobenzoic acid, a new preparation...... 
Condensation of chloral with primary aromatic amines 
IIL: (with S, Jordan) - cs utecne. sel. ate eee 
The bromination of anthranilic acid (with W. M. 
Oates’): yte Aue oes RIOR ie os Re Tee eee 
Composition of sea waters near Beaufort, North 
Carolina, 72.2. son oo be eben ae Boeke eter 
Walden'sinversion\ 2. a.sesriscces: Soe eee 
Note on the transformation of ammonium cyanate in- 
Oe BINGE eoricesndnapoccrsqdpe sancnons dot achgossc: 
New thermometers for melting point determination.. 
The condensation of vanillin and piperonal with 
certain jaromaticnamines seas be eee rier ee ie 
The reduction of naphtazarine (with C. S. Venable) 


WHITE, Charles Henry, 
An examination into the nature of the Palaeotrochis.. 


WILKES, John Frank, 
Decomposition of potassium cyanide................. 
Solubilitysol baritim, chromate! 3.24. csee sceeoeee. 


WILSON, Alexander Erwin, 
Analysis of red hematite from Forsyth County...... 
WILSON, Henry VanPeters, 
Notes on the development of some sponges.......... 
Remarks on the general morphology of sponges...... 
Primitive streak and blastopore of the bird embryo... 
A description of some of the muscles of the cat (with 


GH Kathy)? 0.225325 eee eae ee eee 
Notes on the natural history of the Wilmington re- 
gion 23. Pee Ae A ee ee ee ite ee 
On the origin of the vertebrate sense organs........ 


On the feasibility of raising sponges from the egg... 
A review of Conant’s memoir on the Cubomedusae.. 
The laboratory of the U. S. Fish Commission at 


Beaufort: sNecG 5. foes shares teen «© tie cee ier ere 
The sponges of the “Albatross” 1891 expedition...... 
The coral Siderastrea Radians and its postlarval de- 

velopment rite stgsc sess sien ce Meme ee en ane mittee 
A new method by which sponges may be artificially 

peared i. oad s ce eee tee COD Ee eeniae eer 
On some phenomena of coalescence and regeneration 
int. ‘Spoges’ 2. Sac patie oes ood See Sane ete 
Development of sponges from tissue cells outside the 
body: of -the: parent? te ta. 24ers eer 
A recollection of Professor W. K. Brooks, with criti- 

CiSms Of SOmMe, Ol fiisewOLkseriact ia eeeeee acer ale 
A study of some epitheloid membranes in mona- 

ZONIG ‘SPONGES 2 aac setae aoe oe eve ne eee oiae 


Zoology in America before the present period........ 


VOL. 


22 
23 


23 
25 


[April 


PAGE 


go 
24 


98 
15 


92 
26 


1914] Avutuor’s InpEx 


Development of sponges from dissociated tissue cells 
(Cabs tics) es ar rateeseehs sca on dio. chcusle od uieltastabo a ater eto 
On the behavior of the dissociated cells in Hydroids, 
Alayonaria and Asterias (abstract)...........06. 


WITHERS, William Alphonso, 
(The-determination of crude fiber .........000cee0er 
Some modifications of the method of determining 
OHTA In OSs cy LIE So he RO nn aR A ARAL oe Case eh eae 


WOOD, Julian, 


Action of ammonia hydrate upon lead chloride...... 


WOOD, Thomas Fanning, 
A sketch of the botanical work of the Rev. Moses 
ANShileyve Crmtige ID Sain hw tN a en Pa ee a 
Wilmington flora; a list of plants growing about Wil- 
mington, N. C., with date of flowering, with a map 
of New Hanover County (with G. McCarthy) .... 


ZERBAN, Fritz, 


IMActivertMOBIUin casei s hotyn es stars Seles cee eevee 


3 


77 


57 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 


VOLUME XXX 
1914 


ISSUED QUARTERLY 


THH SEEMAN PRINTERY 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


The Occurrence and Utilization of Certain Mineral Re- 
sources of the Southern States—Joseph Hyde Pratt 


Geology of Chapel Hill and Vicinity—John EF. Smith... 


A Study of the Action of Various Diuretics in Uranium 
Nephritis, with Special Reference to the Part Play- 
ed by the Anesthetic in Determining the Efficiency 
of the Diuretic—Wm. deB. MacNider........... 


Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual Meeting of the 
North Carolina Academy of Science............. 


Studies of the Animal Life of North Carolina with Sug- 
gestions for a Biological Survey—Franklin Sher- 
REDD IOR EE Tn, Sess Ps helat  eIated Oe Se Crise pti a ete MRR RSAC os es 


The Occurrence and Utilization of Certain Mineral Re- 
sources of the Southern States—/oseph Hyde Pratt 


Recent Conceptions of the Atom—F’, P. Venable....... 


A List of Plants Growing Spontaneously in Henderson 
County, N. C—Hdward Read Memminger....... 


The Stability of Resin Acids at Slightly Elevated Tem- 
peratures— A Correction — Chas. H. Herty and 
J ye J Lila ies Ree PRU tan OMe ay SP eee A ROE y Me MeN As 


Tsoprene from Commercial Turpentine—Chas. H. Herty 
BENE is OCH ROMA inte wen vid a ss eaten ee RAE es 


PAGE 


69 


90 


iG 


150 


" Flisha Mitchell, D. D—Kemp P. Battle.....:.+..... 


The Coggins (Appalachian) Gold Mine—Joseph Hyde 
Pratt . os <6 ii ah de ae Sad TRE aoa ot eee oe ee 


Certain Magnetic Iron Ores of Ashe County—Joseph 
Hydé Pratt’) 2250 ic 33 Fae wa ose see ee 


The Isomerism of the Hydrojuglons—Richard Willstaet- 
ter and Alvin 8... Wheeler. cnr. cok sine 6 ve oe 


List of Reptiles and Amphibians of North Carolina— 
C..3s Brey a). Jet wee +e Rok ee eae 


157 


165 


179 


188 


JOURNAL 
ELISHA MITCHELL SGIENTIFIG SOCIETY 


THE OCCURRENCE AND UTILIZATION OF CERTAIN 
MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE SOUTHERN 
SA ES 


BY JOSEPH HYDE PRATT 


There are many minerals being mined in the Southern States, 
the individual production of which is comparatively small, but 
whose total production is several millions of dollars. The min- 
erals of this group with which this paper briefly deals are: 
Gold and silver, graphite, tale (soapstone), barytes, chromite, 
corundum, rutile, and a group of minerals that are directly as- 
sociated with pegmatite, as mica, feldspar, kaolin, quartz, beryl, 
uranium minerals, monazite, zircon, gadolinite, samarskite, 
and cassiterite. 

There are a number of the nonmetallic minerals that have 
played an important part in the commercial history~of the 
South, and certain of the Southern States now have such a repu- 
tation that if a commercial demand arises for a certain mineral 
that has formerly been considered rare in its occurrence, pros- 
pecting is at once begun for it in certain of these States. 

Among the minerals that were at one time considered rather 
rare in their occurrence, but upon a demand arising for them in 
the arts have been found in commercial quantity in one or more 
of the Southern States are: Corundum, monazite, zircon, 
gadolinite, and bauxite. There are several more of the non- 
metallic minerals that are closely connected with the economic 
history of the South, principally mica, salt, and sulphur, but 
only the first one will be considered in this paper. 


* Paper read before Section E, Geology and Mineralogy of the American As- 
sociation for the Advancement of Science, at the Annual Meeting held in At- 
lanta, December, 1913. 


bo 


JOURNAL OF THE MircHett Society [June 


Some of these minerals are peculiar to the states in which they 
are being mined, as monazite in North Carolina and South 
Carolina, rutile in Virginia, zircon in North Carolina, gadol- 
inite in Texas, samarskite in North Carolina. 


GOLD ! 


The first authentic account of gold having been found in the 
Southern States was in 1797 when a 17-pound nugget was found 
on the Reed plantation in Cabarrus County, North Carolina. 
This caused a systematic search to be made for this metal not 
only in North Carolina but in the adjoining States, which re- 
sulted in the finding of a large number of nuggets and was the 
beginning of gold mining in the South. By 1825 gold mining 
was being very vigorously carried on along the eastern slopes of 
the Blue Ridge from Virginia to Alabama. The discovery, how- 
ever, of gold in California in 1849 and the exhaustion of the 
easily worked placer deposits had a decidedly retarding influence 
on gold mining in these states, and, with the breaking out of the 
Civil War in 1861, it practically came to a standstill. Stories 
and reports of the value of the gold that was obtained continued 
to be spread abroad and, as the years went by, they lost nothing 
in the telling, and the unsuspecting hearer was given an idea of 
untold wealth left in these mines. The results were that un- 
scrupulous promoters made the most of these old stories and 
reports for furthering schemes for the disposal of stock in min- 
ing properties that had little or no merit; and that many in- 
vestors have expected all mining properties to be bonanzas. 
Failure to realize what had been expected caused a rather gen- 
eral condemnation of all mining propositions throughout the 
South, and it is only within the past few years that a reaction 
has set in and the general public has been able to look squarely 
and impartially at conditions as they really exist. 

The successful development of one or two good properties 
and the publication of reliable reports regarding the general 
mineral resources have finally awakened a confidence not only 
in the gold mines of the South but in all kinds of mines. 


1Bulls. 38 and 10, North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey. 1896 and 
1897. Bull. 4-A Georgia Geological Survey. 1896. 


1914 | Crrtarxn Minerat ResourRcES 3 


There is a large area in the South Atlantic States throughout 
which gold has been found in more or less quantity. The greatest 
width of this area as a whole is attained in North Carolina, 
South Carolina and Georgia, where it is from 100 to 150 miles, 
narrowing down in Virginia and Maryland on the northeast and 
in Alabama on the southwest. This area includes a large por- 
tion of the mountain and piedmont regions and their crystalline 
rocks consisting of gneisses, argillaceous, hydromicaceous, chlo- 
ritic, siliceous and other schists and slates; limestone, granite, 
diorite, diabase, and other eruptives as well as certain volcanic 
porphyries. This area extends practically to the coastal plain 
region and is bordered on the west by the Paleozoic rocks. 

The gold deposits that are distributed throughout this area 
can readily be divided into three general classes according to 
their occurrence : 

1. Placer deposits. 

2. Quartz veins, either true fissure or replacements, carry- 
ing either free gold or gold-bearing sulphurets. 

3. Impregnations of free gold or finely divided sulphurets 
in the country schists and slates, or replacement portions of 
these. 

The gold found in the placer deposits is free gold and has 
been derived by the alteration and erosion of the other two 
types of ore deposits. These placer deposits represent a natural 
concentration of the gold that was formerly in the vein or 
country rock and, therefore, these deposits are relatively richer 
or of higher value than the veins or ore deposits from which they 
have been derived. There are but very few streams flowing 
through this area but the gravels of these would pan from one 
or two to several colors of gold. In many instances, by following 
up the placer deposits the veins have been encountered and, 
where these carried free gold, they have been extensively work- 
ed. Often it has been found that the veins themselves were too 
low grade to be worked profitably, although the placer deposits 
were remunerative. . 

The richer portions of the first type of ore deposits have been 
pretty thoroughly worked out, but there are still areas of gravel 


+ JOURNAL OF THE MircHeLt Socrery [June 


deposits that can be worked profitably with proper management. 
There are many good deposits of the other two types that carry 
sufficient values to make mining profitable. 

The gold area of the Southern Appalachian Region has been 
divided into the following belts: 

Virginia belt. 

Southern Carolina belt. 

Carolina belt. 

South Mountain belt. 

Georgia belt. 

Alabama belt. 
Of these the Carolina and Georgia belts are by far the most 
important. 

In the Carolina belt of North Carolina and South Carolina 
the area is about equally divided between igneous and sediment- 
ary rocks. The eastern portion comprises the great series of 
sedimentary slates, interbedded in which are irregular bands 
and long lenses of voleanic rocks, representing tuffs, breccias and 
flows, of which there are two types, rhyolitic and andesitic. The 
western portion is made up wholly of igneous rocks. These are 
of three general types—greenstone, diorite, and granite—to- 
gether with numerous dikes of both acid and basic character, 
each type showing more or less variation and local differences. 
In a general way, it may be said, taking the rocks in order of 
their relative ages, that the greenstone with its local tuffaceous 
phases, is the oldest and most highly metamorphosed rock in the 
area, the diorite next in order and the granite least of all. There 
are at least four types of rock occurring as dikes. The oldest 
dikes are of diorite, which cut the greenstone only. Following 
this series, are the granite and quartz-porphyry dikes, which cut 
both the greenstone and the diorite; next in order are the fine- 
grained diorite dikes, which cut both the granite and the diorite ; 
and last is the series of diabase dikes, probably of Triassic age. 

The region has suffered a period of severe dynamic meta- 
morphism or mashing, consequent upon a great compressive 
force which squeezed the beds into enormous folds; followed 
by a time of chemical alteration and mineralization; which in 


Or 


1914 | Certain Minerat Resources 


turn was succeeded by a long period of erosion and weathering. 
The rocks have suffered to a variable degree from all these 
factors. In general, each formation has a massive and a mashed 
or schistose phase, with every gradation between the two. The 
passage of heated solutions has affected all formations, as evi- 
denced by the mineralized zones, the abundance of quartz veins, 
and the high degree of silicification in many belts of rocks, and 
the universal occurrence of infiltrated iron ores. Finally, 
erosion has planed off all the upper portion of the folded series; 
but weathering has proceeded in excess of erosion to such an 
extent that the region is now deeply decayed, so that only here 
and there do the rocks project through a thick mantle of decom- 
posed rock or soil. 

In the Georgia belt ? the rocks are of Archzean micaceous and 
hornblendic gneisses and schists and probably represent the 
sheared granitic and dioritic rocks. These gneisses and schists 
are banded in narrow lenticular-shaped layers, from two to 
twenty feet wide. A dark-colored schistose hornblende rock, 
locally known as “ brick-bat,” is of frequent occurrence. Its 
structural relations are very difficult to determine; at times it 
is conformably interlaminated with the other schists (as at the 
Hedwig mine, near Auraria); again, it appears to have no 
regular relation in its position to the adjoining schists, which 
are cut off by it or very markedly disturbed in their strike, 
bending around the “ brick-bat ” mass, and developing a crum- 
pled or folded structure in the schistose lamine (as at the Single- 
ton and Lockhartmines, near Dahlonego). It is possible that these 
“ brick-bat ”’ masses, which appear to be dioritic in origin, are 
magmatic segregations or blebs, similar to the pyroxenic and 
hornblendic blebs of the South Mountain region of North Caro- 
lina, though, as a rule, larger. The prevailing strike of the 
gneisses and schists is north 20°-30° east, and the dip 
30°-60° southeast. Locally, however, in the presence of the 
dioritic masses, this changes to northwest strikes with northeast 
dips. The rocks are often garnetiferous and contain rarer 
accessory minerals, such as monazite, though to a much lesser 


* Bull. 10, North Carolina Geological Survey, 1897, pp. 21-22. 


6 JouRNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society [| June 


degree than in the South Mountain rocks. The depth of the 
saprolites in the Georgia belt reaches a maximum of about 100 
feet. 

Diabase dikes, such as are common in the Carolina belt, are 
not found in the Georgia belt. Granitic dikes are, however, 
not uncommon in the Nacoochee region. 


SILVER 


There is very little silver alloyed with the gold that is mined 
in the Southern States, but there are in the Carolina belt a few 
deposits which contain a definite silver ore. This is represented 
by what is known as the Silver Hill type of Ore Deposits, in 
which the ores consist of a complex mixture of gadolinite, sphal- 
erite, pyrite, chalcedony, and quartzose gangue, or as narrow 
stringers in the schists with little or no gangue. 

Most of the silver credited to the Southern States is obtained 
from copper ores, and therefore its production varies, as the 
production of copper changes. It is obtained principally from 
Tennessee with smaller amounts from North Carolina and 
Virginia. 

GRAPHITE 


Graphite has been produced in Alabama, Georgia, and North 
Carolina; but it is only in the former state that the production 
has been of any very large commercial value. That produced in 
Georgia is not used for the ordinary purposes for which graphite 
is desired. This graphite, which only contains a comparatively 
small per cent of carbon, is used as a filler in the manufacture 
of fertilizer. 

In a number of the states, as in the North Carolina deposits 
of Wake and McDowell counties, the graphite occurs in schistose 
rocks, constituting from a small quantity up to 25 per cent or 
more of the rock. The occurrence of mica and some silica in 
these schistose rocks makes it difficult to separate a pure graphite 
from them. The Georgia graphite deposits, which have been 
producing rather extensively for the last year or two, are in the 
nature of a graphite shale or slate, containing approximately 
13 per cent of graphite. These deposits are located near Emer- 


1914 | Certain Mrnerat Resources 7 


son, Bartow County, and the product mined is used as a colorer 
in the fertilizer trade. The material is not cleaned in any way, 
being simply pulverized so that 60 per cent of it will pass 
through a 24-mesh screen and all through an 8-mesh screen. The 
value of this material is, of course, very low, and in the total 
production of graphite in the United States it has increased the 
tonnage material without adding very largely to the value. 

The graphite produced in Alabama is the crystalline variety. 
As described by Mr. E. S. Bastin:* “ The graphite is widely 
distributed among the metamorphic rocks of Alabama, in which 
it occurs in two forms: (1) In the feebly crystalline schists 
which have been called the Talladega slates, and which in part 
at least are Paleozoic sediments of as late age as the “Coal 
Measures,” graphite is often found as a black graphite clay free 
from grit. In this condition the graphite is difficult to separate 
from the other matter with which it is mixed and the material 
has not as yet been utilized commercially to any important 
extent. Examples of this mode of occurrence may be seen near 
Millerville, in Clay County, and about Blue Hill in Tallapoose 
County. (2) In the mica schists and other highly crystalline 
rocks graphite is found in the form of thin crystalline flakes 
which may be separated from the associated minerals. Graphi- 
tic schists of this type are now being worked at three localities 
and have in the past been worked at several others.” 

One of the most interesting graphite deposits in North Caro- 
lina is one in Alexander County, about 5 miles from Taylors- 
ville.* The properties upon which this graphite has been found 
are first encountered about 5 miles a little south of west from 
Taylorsville on the eastern and northeastern slopes of Barretts 
Mountain, and graphite has been observed at intervals for a dis- 
tance of over two miles in a direction a few degrees west of 
South. 

The country rocks are schists and gneisses, cutting through 
which are pegmatitic dikes varying from a few inches to five 
(5) feet or more in thickness. The graphite occurs in these 


® United States Geological Survey. Mineral Resources 1910, p. 903. 
*Economiec Paper 6, North Carolina Geological Survey, 1902, pp. 71-72. 


8 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELt Society [ June 


pegmatitic dikes and is in the form of small particles and 
nodules from a fraction of an inch to six or more inches in 
diameter. Wherever these pegmatitic dikes have been observed, 
they have been badly decomposed and but very little fresh feld- 
spar has been observed in them. The graphite is of good quality, 
some being of a nearly crystalline character. In the deeper 
working there was but little of the graphite stained with iron 
oxide. On breaking open the nodules of this mineral, they were 
found to be nearly pure, and on testing them, no grit was ob- 
served. The quality of the graphite seems to be uniform where- 
ever encountered along this belt, although, of course, some varia- 
tion was noted in the percentage of that stained with iron oxide, 
according as it was found near the surface, or at some distance 
below. There is considerable variation in the percentage of 
graphite in these pegmatitic dikes, and it will not average over 
a few per cent. In some places, however, where the large 
nodules of graphite were found, the percentage was as high as 
50 or 60 per cent. The graphite is readily separated from the 
decomposed dikes, and where it occurs in nodules of an inch or 
over in size, a product can be obtained by hand-cobbing that is 
composed of 90 per cent or over of graphite. No work has been 
done of sufficient depth so that the unaltered pegmatitic dikes 
were observed, but in one opening the dikes were observed that 
were but partially decomposed. If in depth the graphite re- 
mains a constant constituent of these pegmatitic dikes, it should 
be found in a very pure condition as the solid dike is encounter- 
ed and it should not be a difficult problem at all to make a clean 
separation of the graphite from the associated minerals of the 
dike. These pegmatitic dikes are dipping from 30 to 50 degrees 
northwest and have a general strike a few degrees east of north. 
They follow for the most part the lamination of the rocks, but 
sometimes are cutting across them. They vary considerably in 
width, widening and contracting in short distances. 


TALC © 


Commercial deposits of tale have been found in Virginia, 


5 Mineral Resources United States Geological Survey, 1900-1905 inclusive ; 
Economic Paper 3. North Carolina Geological Survey, 1900. 


1914 | Certain Mrnerar Resources i) 


North Carolina, and Georgia. The better and more valuable 
variety has been found in North Carolina. 

The Virginia deposits are for the most part the stealtite 
variety of tale, and this State is the most important producer of 
soapstone in the United States. Seventy-eight per cent of the 
product that is mined is manufactured into laundry tubs and 
similar objects. 


In North Carolina and Georgia, especially in the mountain 
areas of these states, there are large areas of soapstone; but on 
account of their distance from railroads, they have not been de- 
veloped. Recently a deposit of compact tale was found in Ashe 
County which gives promise of producing a tale that can be used 
for talcum powders and other purposes that require a ground 
tale. 


The Georgia and North Carolina deposits of tale are some- 
what similar in their occurrence. Those in the latter state fur- 
nish the finest grade of tale produced in the United States. The 
formation in North Carolina in which this tale is found begins 
in Swain County, about 6 miles east of the Valley River Moun- 
tain, follows up the valley of the Nantahala River to near the 
Macon County line, thence ascends the Nelson Creek ravine 
and crosses the mountains at an altitude of 2,800 feet at Red 
Marble Gap. Entering Cherokee County, it follows Valley 
River, broadening out near Andrews to a width of about one- 
half of a mile; then crosses the Valley River and the Hiwassee 
River and Valley in the vicinity of Murphy, and follows the 
Nottely River Valley, crossing the State line into Georgia. 

All the deposits are located either alongside the railroad or in 
close proximity to it. The Murphy branch of the Southern 
Railway passes over the formation for almost the entire distance 
from its eastern end to Murphy. To the west of Murphy the 
Atlanta, Knoxville and Northern Railroad follows close to the 
tale and marble outcrops. Facilities for railway transportation 
at nearly all the deposits are of the best and but little hauling 
by wagon is necessary, 2 miles being the longest distance from a 
shipping point on the railroad. 

The rocks of the tale-bearing region in these southwestern 


10 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocIETy [| June 


counties are for the most part marble and quartzite, bordered 
by gneiss and crystalline schists. Repeated dynamic movements 
have twisted and folded the strata to such an extent that their 
original structure has been almost wholly obliterated, and in 
many cases it has changed considerably their mineralogical char- 
acter. Part of the limestone has been metamorphosed and re- 
crystallized into compact marbles of the finest quality, while the 
sandstone has been converted into a quartzite which at times is 
almost without perceptible granular structure. 


So far as these beds of marble have been examined, they are 
for the most part free from layers of silicates or quartz, except, 
of course, those in proximity to the contact with the quartzite. 
Near the contact, but in the marble, nearly pure white tremolite 
in prismatic crystals as large as a quarter of an inch in diameter 
has been found. The limestones which were first laid down and 
which were subsequently covered by the sandstone can be traced 
from about a mile east of Hewitts, Swain County, in a south- 
west direction across Swain, Macon, and Cherokee counties into 
Georgia. The width of this marble belt varies from a few hun- 
dred yards to over half a mile along Valley River, near An- 
drews, Cherokee County. The Valley River mountain ridge, 
the boundary between Macon and Cherokee counties, is an anti- 
clinal fold, with a northwest-southeast trend which marks rather 
sharply in some respects the character of certain formations to 
the northeast from those to the southwest. East of this ridge 
the marble quartzite formation is bounded on the north and 
south by a slate, while west of this ridge this formation is bound- 
ed on the south by crystalline schists and slates, on top of which 
are numerous beds of limonite. The depth of the stratum of 
marble has not been determined, but it is known to be over 
100 feet. 

The strata dip at all angles, due to their being repeatedly 
folded, but have a general trend of about N. 35° E. 

It is in connection with this marble formation that the de- 
posits of tale occur. What was formerly supposed to be a 
regular vein of the tale was probably a series or pocket of this 
mineral of varying thickness, lying for the most part directly 


 —<£ 


=a “Oe 


i ek 


a 
4 
f 

7 


1914 | Certain Minerat Resources Le 


between the marble and the quartzite, although at times entirely 
enclosed by the marble. No pockets, however, have been ob- 
served that were inclosed by the quartzite. These pockets, which 
resemble in shape flattened lenses, always follow the dip of the 
strata in which they occur, and are therefore encountered in all 
positions from horizontal to vertical. 

These pockets of tale were once much more abundant than 
now. At the present time the only evidence as to the former 
existence of many of these is the occurrence of a bluish clay con- 
taining a few scattered flakes of tale. Wherever the quartzite 
capping of the pocket of tale has remained the tale is in a good 
state of preservation, but, on the other hand, wherever the 
quartzite has been removed by disintegration and erosion the 
tale has been either partially or wholly decomposed into the 
bluish clay. In places the tale is found wholly surrounded by 
the marble, as at the Kinsey mine where small pockets or lenses 
of it are in the marble, but still close to the contact. 


The beds of limonite iron ore are found closely associated 
with the marble and tale deposits between the Valley River 
mountains and the Nottely Valley. The iron ore, which always 
lies to the south of the talc, is sometimes almost in direct con- 
tact with it. The yellow stains observed upon so much of the 
talc in this region are undoubtedly due to its proximity to the 
iron ore. Although there are a number of iron-ore deposits in 
the Nottely River Valley, they are not in close proximity to the 
tale and marble, and have exerted but little influence upon the 
character of the tale. It is in this valley that the most beautiful 
tale has been found. 

Folding and subsequent erosion of the strata have brought 
the marble and tale to the surface at a number of points along 
the valleys of the Nottely and Valley rivers and on the slopes 
of some of the adjacent ridges. In the broader portions of the 
valleys the marble and tale are often covered by an alluvial soil 
which in places reaches a depth of from 20 to 30 feet. 

In Georgia the tale deposits are practically limited to Mur- 
ray, Fannin, Gilmer, and Cherokee counties. In all, except 
Murray, the deposits are associated with Murphy marble. Soap- 


12 JOURNAL OF THE MitrcHett Society | June 


stone of varying grades of purity is found in almost every 
county in the Piedmont area of the State. 

Pyrophyllite, a hydrous aluminum silicate, which has many 
of the physical properties of talc, is being mined in North Caro- 
lina and is used for many of the purposes for which tale is pro- 
duced. 

The pyrophyllite (agalmatolite) deposits are located in the 
extreme north central portion of Moore and the south central 
part of Chatham counties, and can be traced across the country 
for a distance of eight miles. The principal mining that has 
been done is near the boundary between the two counties in the 
vicinity of Glendon, Moore County. They are associated with 
the slates of this region but are not in direct contact with them, 
being usually separated by bands of siliceous and iron breccia, 
which are probably 100 to 150 feet thick. These bands of bree- 
cia contain more or less pyrophyllite, and they merge into a 
stratum of a pyrophyllite schist. Between this and the mas- 
sive beds of pure pyrophyllite there are very often small seams 
of quartz and larger lenticular quartz masses, several feet thick. 

The strike of this formation is approximately N. 55°-60° E. 
and dipping 60°-70° to the northwest. It is first encountered 
about three and three-fourth miles southwest of C. H. Womble’s 
house, and three and one-fourth miles beyond Deep River. 
Where the formation crosses the river there is a good outcrop 
of pyrophyllite, and then at a point 100 yards to the northeast 
and extending for about half a mile, the mineral has been mined 
at intervals. Beyond this point, which is near Rogers Creek, 
there has been no mining, but the formation can be followed for 
another three miles to the northeast. In this distance there are 
many promising outcrops of the pyrophyllite. 

The beds of this mineral are not entirely of commercial qual- 
ity, but there are bands of the pyrophyllite that are highly sil- 
iceous alongside of those that are entirely free from grit. Al- 
though the general appearance of the waste and good material is 
very similar, they can readily be distinguished by the touch, 
and can therefore be readily kept separate by hand cobbing. 

Small seams of quartz often penetrate into the beds of pyro- 


a) 


1914 | Certain Minerat Resources J 


phyllite, cutting across the bedding of the formation, while those 
between this and the brecciated rock or schistose rock are paral- 
lel with the strike. 

Besides the quartz as an impurity, portions of the deposit 
are filled with small particles, some of which are chlorite, and 
others hematite, giving them a decided speckled appearance. 
These portions vary from seams a few inches in width to lenses 
several feet thick. 

A cross section of these beds will probably not show an aver- 
age of over twenty-five to thirty per cent of commercial pyro- 
phyllite. 

The pyrophyllite rocks have a width of about 500 feet, but 
not over 100 feet of this would constitute the workable deposits, 
and of this but twenty-five per cent would be of commercial 
pyrophyllite. This, however, is so located that not over fifty 
feet would have to be mined to obtain the twenty-five feet of 
good number-one material. 

While the tale deposits of Cherokee and Swain counties are 
pockety in nature and of limited depth, the pyrophyllite forma- 
tion is continuous and of considerable, though of unknown 
depth. 


BARYTES 


This mineral, which is mined somewhat extensively in Vir- 
gimia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee and 
Missouri is usually associated with limestone. There are, how- 
ever, in North Carolina and South Carolina deposits that are 
interesting on account of a decidedly different occurrence. 

These barytes deposits that occur in a line running N. E. 
and S. W. from Kings Creek, York County, South Carolina, to 
the North Carolina line, and near Crowders Mountain, Gaston 
County, North Carolina, are very similar in their occurrence. 
The barytes occurs in lenticular masses whose strike and dip 
conform approximately to the strike and dip of the schistosity 
of the schists in which they are found. The barytes very prob- 
ably represents the filling of fissures and crevices in the schist 
which may have been caused by the faulting and tearing apart 
of the schist. These are lenticular in outline, pinching or nar- 


14 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHett Society [ June 


rowing to minute seams along the strike and also in depth. These 
lenticular veins, however, may be found to be 100 or more feet 
in depth and then be connected by a narrow seam with still 
another. They are known also to occur from 100 to 400 feet 
in length and then be connected by narrow seams, or be adjacent 
to other lenses of barytes. The deposit does not always 
represent a solid vein, but is more apt to contain a main seam 
of barytes with smaller seams on either side and approximately 
parallel to them, the different seams of barytes being separated 
by bands of the schist rock. The general strike of the schist and 
also of the barytes veins is in a general N. E. and S. W. direc- 
tion and they are pitching at very steep angles. There is usually 
accompanying the barytes more or less quartz, which, however, 
is found either on one side or the other of the seam of barytes. 
Occasionally it is intermixed with the barytes; then again, the 
fissures and crevices may be filled almost entirely with quartz 
with little or no barytes, but the quartz can usually be traced 
almost continuously for long distances in the direction of the 
strike of the schists and seams. ‘Thus, at nearly every open- 
ing in which barytes has been found, quartz was the mineral 
that outcropped on the surface, the barytes being encountered a 
few feet below and to one side of the quartz. 


RU TILE 


The only rutile that is mined in this country is at Roseland, 
Virginia.® The rutile occurs in irregular bunches in a gneiss 
that rises in a bluff 40 to 50 feet above the Tye River and has 
been mined in four open quarries for a length of about 300 feet. 
Along this bluff the ore occurs in very irregular masses, some of 
it being nearly pure dense white feldspar with streaks and 
patches of rutile, and at other times in the form of small grains 
about the size of wheat. This ore yields about 5 per cent of rutile. 
Occuring in both the ore and the gneiss are seams and specks of 
opalescent blue quartz about one-half an inch across. At the 
lower or southeast end of these workings the ore contains about 
10 per cent of rutile, but it also contains manaccanite which 
cannot be removed by the present method of concentration; but 


° Virginia Geological Survey, Bulletin III-A, 1913. 


ee oe 


1914 | Certain Mrnerat Resources 15 


with the introduction of a magnetic concentrator, can be elimi- 
nated. Mining was begun at this locality in 1900, and has con- 
tinued to the present time. 

Rutile has also been found in North Carolina, South Caro- 
lina, Georgia, Alabama, and Arkansas but not in commercial 
quantity. It has been obtained in a limited amount both in 
North Carolina and Georgia and used for gem purposes. North 
Carolina rutile of gem quality has been found at the smoky 
quartz and hiddenite localities of Alexander County; near 
Efland, Orange County, where it is associated with beautifully 
radiated pyrophyllite. Large rough black rutile crystals in con- 
siderable quantity have been found loose in the soil near Elf 
Post Office, on Shooting Creek, Clay County. It has also been 
found in more or less quantity as fine grains and crystals in the 
concentrates obtained from monazite mining. 

In South Carolina the principal occurrence of rutile is in the 
monazite sands. 

In Georgia rutile of gem variety occurs at Grave’s Mountain, 
Lincoln County, and is one of the most noted rutile localities of 
the country on account of the beautiful specimens of this min- 
eral it has produced. 

The rutile of Arkansas has been known for a great many 
years and is of scientific interest. The principal locality being 
near Magnet Cove. 

CORUNDUM 


The Southern States were formerly the producers of all the 
corundum (with the exception of the emery variety) that was 
used in the United States. The first deposits of corundum (not 
including the emery variety) to be mined in the world were in 
North Carolina,‘ in 1871, followed in 1872, by the opening of 
the mines in Georgia.* The two mines that have made the 
South famous for its corundum are the Corundum Hill Mine, at 
Cullasaja, Macon County, North Carolina, and the Laurel Creek 
Mine, at Pine Mountain, Rabun County, Georgia. The corun- 
dum from the latter mine is still known as standard corundum, 


T North Carolina Geological Survey, Vol. I, p. 361, 1905. (Pratt and Lewis). 
S Ibid. p. 561, and Georgia Geological Survey, Bulletin 2, p. 77, 1894. (King). 


16 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society [June 


and is considered the best corundum ever put on the market. 
There has been no production of corundum from the Southern 
States since 1904. The credit for the development of the cor- 
undum mined in North Carolina and Georgia, which resulted 
in the building up of the corundum industry in this country is 
due principally to Col. C. W. Jenks and Dr. H. S. Lucas, 
the former having begun the work at the Corundum Hill Mine 
in 1871. 

There are many interesting occurrences of corundum in the 
South and at the present time it is known to occur in the fol- 
lowing rocks: 

{ Peridotite 
Igneous { Pyroxnite } Granite 


) Amphibolite Pegmatite 
| Anorthosite 


Serpentine { Quartz-schist 
Metamorphic Gneiss {4 Amphibole-schist 
Mica-schist | Chlorite-schist 
Alluvial { Gravel deposits 
Undetermined {4 Emery 


The principal commercial deposits of corundum were asso- 
ciated with the peridotite rocks and other closely allied basic 
magnesian rocks, which form a narrow belt extending from 
Tallapoosa County, in east central Alabama, into the Gaspe 
Peninsula on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, a distance of more than 
1,600 miles. 

Corundum in Peridotite:—Throughout nearly the entire 
southern portion of the belt, in North Carolina, Georgia, and 
Alabama, the peridotite rocks show a freshness almost to the 
surface of the exposures, and there are few localities where there 
is any considerable area of peridotite entirely altered to serpen- 
tine. Under the microscope thin sections of the dunite show 
an alteration to serpentine between the particles of olivine. 

The peridotites and associated basic rocks occur as oval, 
lenticular, and irregular masses and sheets in a region of meta- 
morphic rocks composed chiefly of biotite-gneiss. As subordi- 
nate facies of this normal gneiss, however, more or less extensive 


es ee . —— 


=< pus 


Powe Stans» 


"he ot A bgp ahh ins Yegeraenyy ps 


1914 | Certain Mrnerat Resources 17 


areas of hornblende-gneiss, mica-schist, and quartz-schist are 
developed. Peridotites are found inclosed by or in contact with 
all of these various types. On account of greater resistance to 
weathering it often happens that hornblende-gneiss is most con- 
Spicuous in outcrops, even where relatively unimportant in 
extent. Hence it has often been reported that the peridotites 
are always, or at least in most cases, associated with hornblende- 
schist. 


The corundum found in these peridotites does not occur as 
accessory mineral or a rock constituent, but is concentrated 
either near the contact of the peridotite and the inclosing 
gneissic rocks or in pockets within the mass of the peridotite. 
A series of secondary minerals, however, has been developed 
both along the contacts and with the corundum masses within 
the peridotite, so that the corundum is not found in direct con- 
tact with either the peridotite or the gneiss, nor are these rocks in 
contact with each other. The secondary minerals are chiefly chlo- 
rites, vermiculites, enstatite, and talc, and are not in any sense 
the results of contact metamorphism. It is customary to refer 
to these corundum-bearing zones as “ veins,” and that term is 
used here merely for convenience, without implying any par- 
ticular character or origin. Those occurrences about the borders 
of the peridotites are designated as “ border veins,” and those 
wholly within the peridotite as “interior veins.” Corundum 
has been found in such deposits in North Carolina, Georgia, and 
Alabama. 

At all of the corundum localities examined a careful search 
has been made to find corundum directly surrounded by the 
peridotite, but this has been cbserved at only one locality—the 
Egypt Mine, on the western slope of Sampson Mountain, in 
Yancey County, N. C. The few specimens obtained were col- 
lected by Mr. U. S. Hayes, who developed the corundum prop- 
erty in that section. One specimen shows a prismatic crystal of 
the corundum surrounded by a granular peridotite (dunite), 
but with none of the chlorite minerals which usually intervene. 
The dunite is not quite fresh, but is stained a yellowish brown 
by iron oxide and is rather friable. On the basal surfaces of the 


18 JOURNAL OF THE MitrcHett Society [June 


corundum a little muscovite is developed. This has been ob- 
served on corundum from other localities. 


Corundum in Pyroxenite:—At many of the corundum-bear- 
ing peridotite localities in North Carolina, such as those of 
Macon, Jackson, and Transylvania counties, a pyroxenite com- 
posed of interlocking, coarse-bladed, gray enstatite constitutes 
an important part of the outcrop; and at a number of places 
the pyroxenite alone forms oval and lenticular masses in every 
way similar to those composed of peridotite. In both cases cor- 
undum-bearing zones of secondary minerals are frequently 
formed along the borders of the pyroxenite and intersect the 
mass of the rock in exactly the same manner as described above 
for peridotite. Enstatite rocks are somewhat common in North 
Carolina, but accessory minerals in them are rare, and the most 
common one observed is chromite, in small grains. In a few 
instances corundum has been found in them. 


Corundum in Amphibolite :—Associated with the peridotite 
rocks of Clay County, N. C., and of the adjoining Towns 
County, Ga., are dikes of amphibolite, which are for the most 
part between the peridotite and the gneiss, although in some 
places they cut the peridotite formation close to the contact of 
that rock with the gneiss. These dikes vary in width from 25 
to over 300 feet, their average width being from 75 to 100 feet. 


Corundum in Anorthosite:—The amphibole, with its pre- 
vailing light-green amphibole and small amount of feldspar, 
that so frequently accompanies and intersects the peridotites of 
Clay County, N. C., and of Towns County, Ga., becomes in 
places highly feldspathic, and by the dwindling and disappear- 
ance of the amphibole it passes into the anorthosite facies at 
several localities. 


Anorthosites of this character, with more or less corundum 
in grains and irregular masses distributed through the rock, are 
found on the western slopes of Chunky Gal Mountain, Clay 
County, N. C., and in association with some of the amphibolites 
of the Buck Creek area in the same county. These rocks are 
always greatly subordinate in quantity to the associated amphi- 


Bee 


1914] Crerratn Mrnerat Resources 19 


bolites and peridotites, and never constitute more than an in- 
significant part of the outcrops. 

Corundum in Pegmatite:—Occurrences of corundum in 
pegmatite are extremely rare, but it has been found in this rock 
in two localities in Haywood County, North Carolina. One is 
at Retreat, on Pigeon River, 6 miles southeast of Waynesville, 
where corundum occurs in small pegmatite dikes, cutting the 
saprolitic, garnetiferous gneisses or schists. Accompanying these 
dikes are thin seams of vermiculites that also carry corundum. 
The other locality is three miles northeast of Canton, at the 
Presley mine, where corundum occurs in a pegmatite which 
intersects a mass of dark-green amphibolite. The corundum is 
found surrounded by both feldspar and mica. 

Corundum in Serpentine:—At a number of peridotite lo- 
ealities in North Carolina and Georgia crystals and fragments 
of corundum have been found that were surrounded by serpen- 
tine, but nowhere in the Southern Appalachian region has corun- 
dum been found associated with the larger masses of serpentine 
that have been derived from the alteration of the peridotites, as 
at several localities in Buncombe County, North Carolina. 

Corundum in Gneiss:—Corundum is found in North Caro- 
lina in the ordinary gneiss of the same belt of crystalline rocks 
in which the peridotites occur. It is also found in garnetifer- 
ous gneiss in Clay County, North Carolina. In several other 
places in Clay County attempts have been made to mine corun- 
dum that occurred in the hornblende gneiss. 

Corundum im Mica-Schist:—Corundum in mica-schist has 
been observed at a number of widely separate localities in Vir- 
ginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina; but in none of 
them has corundum been found in large quantities. 

Corundum in Quartz-Schist: —It has recently been ob- 
served that portions or bands of the crystalline rocks of the 
southeastern part of Clay County, North Carolina, and the 
northeastern part of Towns County, Georgia, are corundum 
bearing. These rocks vary in composition from those that are a 
normal gneiss to those that contain no feldspar and can best be 
described as quartz-schist composed of quartz and biotite mica. 


20 JOURNAL OF THE MircHety Society [June 


Some portions of the rock are rich in garnet, others are almost 
entirely free from this mineral, and occasionally there are 
also small bands of white quartzite. 

Corundum in Amphibole-Schist :—At the Sheffield mine, in 
Cowee Township, Macon County, North Carolina, corundum 
has been found in a saprolitic rock which is apparently altered 
amphibole-schist, which was originally a rock belonging to the 
gabbroid family. 

The corundum does not occur in crystals, but in small frag- 
ments and in elongated nodules, which are cracked and seamed 
and appear to have been drawn out by the shearing processes. 
The general character and shape of the fragments of corundum 
would indicate that they were original constituents of the 
igneous rock and were not formed during its metamorphism. 

Corundum in Chlorite-Schist :—Besides being associated with 
chlorites in the peridotites and pyroxenites, already mentioned, 
corundum is found in the long belts of chlorite-schist that tra- 
verse the country 10 or 12 miles southeast of Webster, Jackson 
County, North Carolina. These chlorite rocks, which some- 
times attain a width of several hundred feet, are traceable for 
miles across the country. Almost the only constituent of these 
rocks is a green, scaly chlorite, though sometimes there are 
present small grains of feldspar, and occasionally needles of 
amphibole. The chlorite is in small scales, never very coarse, 
as is sometimes the case in the zones about the peridotite, and 
often these scales are so minute as to give the rock a very com- 
pact appearance. 

The best corundum for abrasive purposes that was ever found 
was obtained from the Great Laurel Creek mine, Rabun County, 
Georgia. This corundum will bring the highest price on the 
market, and there was and always has been a demand for this 
variety of corundum. 

CHROMITE® 


With the exception of alluvial deposits, chromite has been 
found only in the peridotites and allied igeneous basic magnesian 


® United States Geological Survey, Miners Resources, rg pp. 841-948. Ibid. 
North Carolina Geological Survey, Vol. I, 1905, pp. 369-384 


1914] Crerrain Mrnerat Resources 21 


rocks, or in the serpentines which have resulted from the alter- 
ation of these rocks. In the North Carolina peridotites, chro- 
mite occurs more commonly in grains or crystals, and also in 
embedded masses, near the boundary of the lenticular bodies of 
these rocks. 


The mineral does not occur in well-defined veins, but is often 
in masses or pockets which apparently have no relation what- 
ever to one another. 


But few authors writing upon the occurrence of chromite 
have described the relation of the chromite deposit to the rocks 
in which it is found. One or two have mentioned the chromite 
as being found near the eastern boundary or at the northern 
border of the serpentine belt; but in no case has the writer been 
able to find any definite description. The large deposits of chro- 
mite in North Carolina occur in the peridotite rock, and near the 
contact of this rock with the inclosing gneiss; and where there is 
but a small amount of the chromite, either in pockets or in 
grains or crystals, these are more abundant near the contact and 
diminish in number toward the center of the mass of peridotite. 

Mention has been made above of deposits of corundum that 
occur in peridotite rocks, but where we find these large deposits 
there is a scarcity of chromite, and where the larger deposits of 
chromite occur there has been little or no corundum found. 

Crystallized chromite has been found only in small, isolated 
erystals scattered through the peridotite, or where these crystals 
have been concentrated in alluvial deposits. The masses of 
chromite show little or no crystalline structure. 

The constant occurrence of the chromite in rounded masses 
of varying proportions near the contact of the peridotite, with 
the gneiss, and its occurrence in the fresh as well as the altered 
peridotite indicate that the chromite has been held in solution in 
the molten mass of the peridotite when it was intruded into the 
country rock, and that it separated out among the first minerals 
as this mass began to cool. 

The peridotite (dunite) magma, holding in solution the 
chemical elements of the different minerals, would be like a 
saturated liquid, and as it began to cool the minerals would 


22 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHett Socrety [June 


separate or crystallize out, not according to their fusibility but 
their solubility in the molten magma. The more basic por- 
tions being, according to the general law of cooling and ecrystal- 
lizing magmas, the less soluble would be the first to separate out. 
These would be the oxides containing no silica; in the present 
case the chromite, spinel, and corundum. These minerals would 
solidify or crystallize out where the molten magma first began 
to cool, which would be at the contact of the mass with the coun- 
try rock; convection currents would tend to bring new supplies 
of material to the outer boundary, which would deposit its 
chromic oxide as chromite. 


The more fluid a molten mass of rock becomes the more favor- 
able will be the movements and other conditions in this molten 
mass to the bringing about of these changes, and it is in these 
very basic magnesian rocks that we find the best illustrations of 
the separation and concentration of the more basic minerals. 


This would account for all the irregularities of the chromite 
deposits—their pockety nature, the shooting off of apophyses 
from the main masses of the chromite into the peridotite, the 
widening and pinching of the chromite “odes,” and the ap- 
parent non-relation or non-connection of one pocket of chromite 
with another. There has not been sufficient work done in the 
North Carolina chrome mines to demonstrate exactly the po- 
sition and relation of the chromite deposits to the gneiss or 
other country rock, and in the description of other chrome 
mines but little light has been thrown on this point. The chro- 
mite would be concentrated near the borders of the peridotite in 
rounded masses, with offshoots penetrating into the peridotite. 
The lines of contact near the gneiss would be sharp and nearly 
regular, while with the peridotite the contact would be very 
irregular. The pockets of chromite found in the midst of a 
peridotite formation, which at the present time are isolated 
and have no connection with each other, were at the time of 
their formation part of the chromite concentrated near the 
border of the peridotite, but the rapid erosion to which the 
rocks has been subjected has worn them down to their present 


1914 | Certain Minera Resources 23 


condition. Again, there would be a somewhat gradual passage 
from the chromite to the pure peridotite. 

In prospecting for either chromite or corundum the largest 
and richest deposits may be expected near the contact of the 
peridotite with the gneiss or other country rock. 

Chromite has been found only in peridotite and serpentine, 
and the presence of this mineral in these rocks would at once 
indicate that the rocks were of igneous origin. 

The large deposits of chromite in the serpentine rocks of 
Pennsylvania and Maryland show that the primary rock was of 
igneous origin and that the mineral solidified out from the 
molten magma, as described above. 

A natural corollary to be drawn from this proposition is that 
the occurrence of chromite in an alluvial deposit indicates the 
proximity of a peridotite rock of igneous origin, which was the 
original source of the chromite. 

The association of platinum with chromite and serpentine, 
in various parts of the world where platinum has been found in 
alluvial deposits, indicates that the origin of the platinum is a 
peridotite or allied rock of igneous origin. On the eastern slope 
of the Urals platinum has been found associated with chromite, 
which is disseminated through an olivine rock. It is not un- 
reasonable to suppose that platinum would be found in the per- 
idotite areas of the Southern States. 

The mining of chromite in this country has always been at- 
tended with considerable uncertainty on account of the pockety 
nature of the deposits, and for this reason chromite properties 
are more apt to be leased than bought outright. Usually no 
estimate can be made regarding the amount of chromite on a 
property beyond that which is exposed by the actual work done. 
Yet, considering the theory advanced for the origin of chromite, 
if a deposit of this mineral is found near the contact of the 
peridotite and other country rocks, and if this peridotite forma- 
tion is very extensive and the chromite is found in considerable 
quantity, there is good probability that it will develop into a 
large deposit. 

Maryland was one of the first states in which chromite was 


24 JOURNAL OF THE MitcuHeEu Society [June 


discovered and mined in this country. The first chromite found 
was in 1827 on the Reed farm in Harford County, about 27 
miles northeast from Baltimore. There has been no mining of 
chromite in Maryland for twenty years. 

The only other Southern State that offers any probability of 
being a producer of chromite is North Carolina. Extending 
from Ashe County to Clay County, North Carolina, there is a 
series of disconnected peridotite outcrops; and, as has been ob- 
served above, chromite is associated with all these peridotite 
rocks. It is, however, in few localities only that the mineral 
has been found in considerable quantity. Although prospecting 
for chrome ore in this State was first undertaken over thirty 
-years ago and has been continued spasmodically ever since, there 
fas never been any systematic development of the localities. 

In the alluvial deposits at the base of the peridotite outcrops 
there is usually a considerable amount of chromite crystals and 
particles, but nowhere have they been observed in sufficient 
quantity to constitute a chrome sand ore. 

The general character of the chromite ore is nearly uniform 
throughout the entire area, being very hard and compact, though 
often of a fine granular appearance, and there is but little that is 
at all friable. The masses of chromite are usually very free 
from seams of peridotite or its alteration product. This simpli- 
fies the concentration, and a high grade ore can usually be ob- 
tained by cobbing and hand picking. 

The more important deposits of chromite in North Carolina 
are in Yancey and Jackson counties, and in the former the de- 
posits occur at Mine Hill, about five miles north of Burnsville 
and within a few miles of the Clinchfield Railroad. The de- 
posits of Jackson County are near Webster and a few miles 
southwest of Balsam Gap on Dark Ridge Creek. These de- 
posits are on the Southern Railway. 

As yet the existence of large deposits of chromite in North 
Carolina has not been conclusively shown, but the work done 
points to the possibility of large deposits in that State, those 
described above being the most promising ones known. 

The standard chrome ore contains 50 per cent of Cr,0,, and 


> RO Meghann 


~ 


1914 | Crerrain Minrrat Resources 25 


the vulue of the ore increases with each unit over this. Ores as 
low as 45 per cent Cr.0, find a ready market if they are low 
in silica. The North Carolina ores are high grade and usually 
low in silica. 
Cuare, Hu, N. C. 
(Continued in next issue) 


GEOLOGY OF CHAPEL HILL AND VICINITY 
An Outline 


BY JOHN E. SMITH 


The circular area having a radius of about five miles with 
Chapel Hill near its center is located chiefly on the eastern mar- 
gin of the Piedmont Belt, but includes a small portion of the 
arm of the Coastal Plain that extends northward beyond Oxford 
and whose western border is less than two miles east of the vil- 
lage. 

TOPOGRAPHY 


The area is traversed by New Hope Creek in its northern 
part, by Bolin’s Creek near the middle, and by Morgan’s Creek 
on the south. Its drainage is therefore excellent. These streams 
flow eastward to the plain where they join and flow south- 
ward until they reach the waters of the Cape Fear. The 
general elevation of the upland is 500 to 540 feet and that of 
the creek bottoms and the plain is about 200 to 250 feet lower. 
This gives the area the rugged topography typical of the eastern 
margin of the Piedmont Plateau. 

Into this plateau the streams have cut their valleys by erosion ; 
this work is still in progress and can be observed in every stage 
of advancement in each of the larger streams of the area, from 
the smallest gulley to the broad mature valley. The small deep, 
steep sided valleys show youthful stages of development. As 
one proceeds down stream, a point is reached where the current 
is checked to such an extent that the cutting is confined to one 
level; here the valley begins to grow in width, a floodplain 
forms, and from this place down the valley, the various stages 
of maturity, Increasing in age with the distance, are illustrated. 
This side cutting or lateral planation proceeds very slowly on 
the outer curve of a meander where it touches the valley wall, 
and in time, by crossing from one valley wall to the other, de- 
velops a broad floodplain. The region as a whole is one of ma- 


26 


Coie . 


=a 


— 


1914 | Grotoagy or Cuapen Hirtr 27 


ture topography because its surface lies chiefly in slopes with 
but little reduction of the summit level of the divides. 

There are a few hills rising from the Coastal Plain near its 
margin almost to the elevation of the upland plateau and on this 
plateau several hills reach an elevation of 100 to 200 feet above 
it. Among these are Nunn’s Mountain, Blackwood Mountain, 
Mount Collier, and others. 


CYCLES OF EROSION 


Before the streams began to cut the valleys now forming, the 
plateau was nearly continuous and unbroken save for a few 
hills, that at Hillsboro for example, rising from it. As the pres- 
ent stream work proceeds, the floodplains gradually work head- 
ward along the streams thus developing a longer and broader 
plain at the new level. On this floodplain, though sometimes 
covered, are sand, gravel, and waterworn rocks brought by the 
current during freshets or left when migrations of the channel 
occurred. When the new level cut by each stream meets, in 
places, that formed by the other streams, the result is a very 
broad plain with hills rising from it. These hills are called 
monadnocks and the level formed is a peneplain. A base level 
is completed when all of the monadnocks have been removed by 
erosion. 

The changes made in the young valleys can be observed after 
each hard shower or from year to year. A lifetime, however, 
reveals very little if any increase in width of the mature valleys 
by lateral planation. The period between the time when the 
streams begin to erode the upper plain, and the completion of the 
one at the lower level, constitutes a cycle of erosion. The dura- 
tion of such a period is very, very great and a cycle of erosion 
is one of the longest definite intervals of geologic time. 

Numerous specimens of waterworn (smooth and rounded) 
pebbles of quartz and its varieties up to four inches in diameter 
have been collected by the writer and others from various places 
on the upland and hill tops both east and west of Chapel Hill. 
These can be none other than the surviving ones from the 
gravels of a river floodplain as it was being developed at the 


28 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL Society [June 


temporary base level of that time. Similarly rounded smooth 
pebbles in similar positions are found throughout the Piedmont 
Belt. Also the folded layers of stratified and metamorphic 
rocks of this region are truncated at the elevation of the upland. 
The plateau level of the area about Chapel Hill and elsewhere in 
the Piedmont is therefore a peneplain. 

On this peneplain several monadnocks occur, the hill at Hills- 
boro for example, also numerous hills of igneous origin that are 
in all probability monadnocks. Among these are Nunn’s 
Mountain and Blackwood Mountain, each about five miles north 
of Chapel Hill, and Mount Collier’ about the same distance to 
the west. 

Two cycles of erosion are therefore evident in this vicinity, 
one nearly completed, during which the peneplain was 
formed, the other now in progress, during which the valleys are 
being excavated and the new temporary base level developed. 
When the Piedmont as a whole is considered, strong evidence of 
earlier cycles of erosion is found. 


ARCHEOZOIC ERA 


The rocks of this system consist of gneisses, schists, slates, 
ete., with granites and other igneous rocks intruded into them. 
The metamorphic rocks are complexly folded and have been 
truncated by erosion. All are disintegrated to a depth of 20 
to 50 feet. They occur throughout the vicinity except in a 
circular area near its center and are closely related in age with 
the oldest rocks of the American continent.? 


PROTEROZOIC ERA 


The rocks of this system are conglomerates, both basal and 
intraformational, sandstone, porcellanite, slates, schist, etc., 
interstratified with numerous acidic lava flows, chiefly trachytes 
and rhyolites. The outcrops are along the right (south) valley 
slope of Morgan’s Creek, and are best exposed at the old site of 


1Mount Collier is so called in honor of Professor Collier Cobb, Head of the 
Department of Geology in the University of North Carolina, who in 1892 was the 
first to recognize its volcanic origin. 

2Pre-Cambrian Geology of North America, 1909, Van Hise and Leith. Bul. 
360, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 677 ff. and 695 ff. Gives a summary of Pre-Cam- 
brian Geology of North Carolina and lists references for the State. 


Se ee ee ee ee er ee, ee 


1914 | GroLocy or CuapreLt Hitn 29 


Purefoy’s mill about two miles south of Chapel Hill. An out- 
crop occurs also at McCauley’s Quarry about seven miles to the 
west. 

Before the close of the era, great intrusions and uplifts oc- 
curred tilting the stratified rocks to an angle of 65 degrees. The 
Chapel Hill stock may have had its origin at this time. It con- 
sists chiefly of granitoid rocks,® (granites,* etc.) but is 
believed to be in part composed of basic igneous rocks derived 
by magmatic segregation. It is cut by numerous dikes, both 
acidic and basic, ranging from granitoid to felsitic textures. The 
dikes occupy the joint planes which extend approximately N. 
30 E. and N. 60 W. 


PALEOZOIC ERA 


That this region was an area of high land during the earlier 
part of this era, is shown by the great volumes of sediment 
derived from it. These are the sedimentary rocks of western 
North Carolina, eastern Tennessee and Kentucky and have a 
total thickness of nearly 20,000 feet. This continent, known as 
Appalachia, sloped to the west or northwest and probably ex- 
tended eastward into the area now covered by the Atlantic 
Ocean. The Paleozoic seas covered most of what is now the 
Mississippi Valley and extended east to the present position of 
the Blue Ridge Mountains or farther.° 

Near the close of the era, great stresses produced the Ap- 
palachian Mountains by very slow folding which also affected 
our area causing a relative uplift in western North Carolina. 
This changed the slope of the land and our streams flowed east- 
ward or northeastward over a lower area. 


MESOZOIC ERA 


After the tilting of the surface and the erosion that followed, 
an incursion of the sea came from the northeast. During this 


3 Baton, H. N., Notes on the Petrography of the Granites of Chapel Hill, N. C. 
Jour. E. Mitchell Sci. Soc. 25:85. 1909. Also, Flint-Like Slate near Chapel 
Hill, N. C., ibid 24, 1908. 

4Fry, W. H., Some Plutonic Rocks of Chapel Hill. Jour. E. Mitchell Sci. Soc., 
ake. 19172 
se aaa Dr. J. H., Geology of Western N. C. Jour. E. Mitchell Sci. Soc., 29: 


30 JouRNAL oF THE MitcHett Society [June 


time the location of the present site of Chapel Hill with respect 
to the sea was somewhat like that of Annapolis, Md. This long, 
narrow body of water extended northward into New England 
and is known as the Triassic sea. The rocks formed by disposi- 
tion in it and near it are conglomerates, sandstone, quartzite, 
arkose (contains orthoclase and muscovite). They occur on the 
plain, also as outliers resting unconformably on the flank of the 
eroded granite of the stock. 

The sea was a shallow one as it receded. This is shown by 
the fossil deltas, sand dunes, mud cracks, ete., left above the 
deeper water deposits. Arms of the sea were cut off as it with- 
drew, and evaporation left among the sediments, its salts, which 
give salinity to the water of the wells and springs of this part 
of the area. The swamps of these low areas were the feeding 
places of very large lizard-like animals whose tracks and fossil 
remains are found in these beds. These rocks carry also the 
petrified forest of North Carolina, part of which is about two 
miles east of Chapel Hill. 

Near the end of the Triassic period, its rocks were folded® and 
faulted and some intrusions of igneous dikes, sheets, etc., prob- 
ably occurred. A very long interval of erosion took place before 
the close of the era and the elevation again became low. 


CENOZOIC ERA 


Several changes in elevation occurred during this era as the 
sea twice advanced from the east nearly as far as the present site 
of Raleigh. The most striking thing in the geological history of 
this vicinity is the fact that most of it has remained a land area 
almost continuously since Pre-Cambrian times. As a result of 
this very long interval of weathering and erosion the bedrock is 
covered by a residual mantle rock described in the following: 


GENERALIZED SECTION 


1. Soil, “Top soil,” red to gray and black (humus),............ 1 to Att. 
2:  Subsoil,: fine, red to yellow clay: 24.022 haat este de one ee eee 3 to 10 it. 
3; Clay; coarse lumpyssomersand..2> +555 see eee eee eee 5 to 20 ft. 


® Miss Florence Bascom, Historical Geology of the Piedmont Area. U. 8. 
Geol. Survey, Trenton, N. J. Folio No. 167, p. 19. 


a ee 


1914] GroLtoay or Cuapet Hrnn 31 


4. “Gravel,” “ Natural Sand-Clay,” fragments of orthoclase and 


Resta) Wale, SatiGy atic: CLAYs....<\.:<:x . aims 0/51 ca ofdie ate. ayaly ot wide 10 to 20 ft. 
5. Fragmental rock, partly decomposed angular fragments 2 to 

APINGHeSPlil CAT CLGE ss L's’. .'cacrc.c frais siee oo alele:a biecary Sreperemeiets 10 to 15 ft. 
6. Fragmental rock, angular, much coarser and less decayed 

ine yar ital IN Opt Seeds pean se er en Pe oar Apert hen 8 Stole a tt 


7. Solid rock, “ Bedrock,” “ Country rock.” 
THE PROBLEM OF ZONATION 


That some zonation exists in the igneous rocks of this vicinity 
has been shown by Professor Collier Cobb.‘ This problem, 
however, has not been fully solved and there are several factors 
which make its complete solution extremely difficult. 

The mantle rock in this area is twenty to fifty feet thick which 
prevents the occurrence of many exposures of the solid rock. 
This makes it very difficult to determine accurately the relations 
and boundaries of the probable zones beneath. If wide dikes 
of various igneous rocks, deeply covered, cross each other nearly 
at right angles, the result would closely simulate zonation in 
which the zones are somewhat circular. Such a resemblance 
would be especially strong in this vicinity where half or more 
of the zone circle is concealed beneath sedimentary and metamor- 
phic rocks. These conditions, however, do not disprove the pres- 
ence of zonation; they have not been fully confirmed by observa- 
tion in the field but are suggested by the occurrence of acidic 
and basic dikes throughout the stock. 


ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 


Zone No. 1 of the generalized section given above is the true 
surface soil of the upland and No. 2 contains the brick clay of 
the area. Some of the clay used in the old brickyards of Chapel 
Hill was taken from zone 3 and therefore unsatisfactory results 
were obtained. Zones 1 and 2 have been largely removed by the 
long continued erosion and neither now occurs in very large 
areas in the vicinity. 

This leaves zone 3 at the surface over a large part of the area, 
especially on the valley slopes, and No. 4 and its decomposition 


*™Zonation in the Chapel Hill Stock. An address (unpublished) before the 
Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, December, 1912. 


32 JOURNAL OF THE MitTcHELL Society [June 


products at the surface on the lower part of the slopes. These 
produce sandy or gravelly soils that are, as a rule, inferior in 
quality. They respond readily, however, to the influences of 
modern methods in agriculture: crop rotations, diversified farm- 
ing, the growing of fertilizing crops, etc. 

The rugged topography with its east-west valleys and divides 
retards the development of railway transportation, thus depriv- 
ing the area of ready access to market. This, with the above 
mentioned factors, accounts for the low value of land in a tier 
of counties® along the eastern margin of the Piedmont Belt from 
Granville and Person to Montgomery and Moore inclusive, 
Orange being one of the number.® 

Zone 4 of the generalized section provides a natural sand-clay 
suitable for use in road building.*® The material used on Frank- 
lin Street was taken from a pit opened in this zone, the upper 
part of this zone should not be used without the addition of 
stream sand. Numerous other places in this area would yield 
material of the same quality. The stream sand is used also in 
making mortar, ete. 

Cuapre, Hu, N. C. 


8 North Carolina Supplement, Tirteenth Census Report. 

® Holmes, J. S., Timber Resources of Orange County, N. C. Jour. EB. Mit- 
chell Sci. Soc. 39:89, 1914. 

10 Smith, John E., Natural Sand-Clay in the Piedmont, Southern Good Roads, 
current number. 


A STUDY OF THE ACTION OF VARIOUS DIURETICS 
IN URANIUM NEPHRITIS, WITH SPECIAL REF- 
ERENCE TO THE PART PLAYED BY THE 
ANESTHETIC IN DETERMINING THE 
EFFICIENCY OF THE DIURETIC! 


Wan. vEB. MacNiper 


From the Laboratory of Pharmacology of the University 
of North Carolina, 


Received for publication, May 8, 1913 


“TUL SLE + ce eae clea tne fe GSE EE ae re Tee a or 491 
MMPI EI GBM lec. Sarss Stim cae ot ck tas Oa eke Oo cou vile Calas wale Wa coe dae or 492 
ewiew OF PEEVIOUS EXPELIMENtS) .. oo vee cee se ce ccs eva cnccsecseas 492 
Discussion of the technique employed in the experiments............ 494 
The effect of uranium nitrate on the output and composition of the 

upine in young and full-grown animals. .......2...:- 0.000005 496 
The effect of Gréhant’s anesthetic on the output and composition of 

the urine in young and in adult dogs, nephritic from uranium.... 499 
The effect of morphine-ether on the output and compostion of the 

urine in young and in adult dogs, nephritic from uranium....... 502 


The efficiency of various diuretics in uranium nephritis in animals 
anesthetized with Gréhant’s anesthetic and with morphine-ether.. 504 
The difference in the renal pathology of animals or diuretic following 


PSGHATE Sil ANESLHEHIG) 2). Soom a sled so cen s cee oate cas Doe tac cata te tee 506 
The difference in the renal pathology of animals anuric or diuretic 

FoOlowInes MmORphine-CEHER.. daiesic con cass  oie.0'd Ge ters viakaia weitere nace 509 
General discussion of the experimental data...............+-22eeees 509 
ROE REREN TSN EMEP er fare tra i etiate Sat sre ie Gate eles PE aT ole oc wits wie) eluksrelalicrsl etcetera 513 
PMBIMETPEI YS © od ora aa Seles ea Ne cass Sane tis ae caw Spa oddwwnadaemece eae Gus 


In a previous number of this journal (1), a report was made 
on the action of various diuretic substances in animals rendered 
nephritic by uranium nitrate. The animals employed in this 
series of experiments could be classified, on a basis of their re- 


1 Presented in abstract before the Society for Pharmacology and Experimental 
Therapeutics, Cleveland, December 80, 1912. Aided by a grant from the fund 
for Scientific Research of the American Medical Association. 

2 Reprinted from The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 
Vol. IV, No. 6, July, 1913 


33 


34 JOURNAL OF THE MitTcHELL Society [ June 


sponse to diuretics, into three groups: an anuric, a practically 
anuric, and a diuretic group. 


In the present invesitgation, which is a direct continuation of 
the previously mentioned experiments, the same general group- 
ing of the animals can be established. It has been experiment- 
ally demonstrated, however, that the practically anuric group 
is an unnnecessary refinement in the classification, for the con- 
dition of partial anuria should be interpreted as a forerunner of 
the anuric state which sooner or later develops, provided the ex- 
periment be continued. Therefore, in the present report the 
observations will be confined to two groups of nephritic animals: 
a diuretic group and an anuric group. 


The present investigation shows, also, that whether or not the 
animals are diuretic or anuric following the anesthetic depends 
very largely upon the anesthetic employed and upon the age of 
the animals. As a result of this observation, in addition to a 
continuation of the study of the response of the pathological 
kidney to diuretics, it becomes especially necessary to consider 
the response of the pathological kidney to different anesthetics. 


REVIEW OF PREVIOUS EXPERIMENTS 


In the experimental work previously published it was shown 
that when dogs were given uranium nitrate subcutaneously in 
the dose of from 5 to 10 mgs. the animals developed an albu- 
minuria, which was followed within twelve to forty-eight hours 
by a glycosuria. The output of sugar in the twenty-four hour 
specimen of urine varied within wide limits: 0.25 to 3.22 per 
cent. No determination of acetone or acetone bodies was made. 


It was also shown that either just prior to the development of 
the alubuminuria, or associated with its development the output 
of urine increased, and that with the development of the gly- 
cosuria the animal became highly polyuric. For instance, in 
experiment 8, of the previously mentioned series the animal was 
receiving 500 cc. of water daily; the average output of urine 
prior to the uranium was 513 ce.; while following the uranium 
and with the development of a nephritis and a glycosuria the 
urine increased to 1310 ce. 


wn 


1914] Action oF Various Diuretics 35 


The microscopic examination of the urine constantly showed 
the presence of erythrocytes, usually few in number, and tube 
casts. Early in the nephritis, with the first appearance of al- 
bumin, the hyaline cast predominated, but later when the 
alubuminuria had become more marked, granular casts predomi- 
nated over the hyaline type. 

When such animals which were nephritic, glycosuric, and 
polyurice were anesthetized by either Gréhant’s anesthetic or by 
morphine-ether, they grouped themselves, so far as their re- 
sponse to diuretics was concerned, into two mains groups: an 
anuric group and a diuretic group. 

The physiological study of these two types of animals with 
special reference to their response to diuretics, showed, in the 
first place, that no change had been induced in the height of 
general blood pressure to account for the difference in the out- 
put of urine in the two groups. Secondly, oncometric deter- 
minations of the local renal circulation showed that the response 
of the renal vessels in both groups was either normal or hyper- 
active. This was true for substances such as caffeine and theo- 
bromine which are supposed to influence the renal circulation 
principally through a local vascular effect, as well as for such a 
substance as digitalin, whose local effect on the blood supply 
of the kidney is induced through its general effect upon the 
circulation. 

As a result of the above mentioned study of the general and 
local vascular response of the nephritic animals, the cause of 
the stoppage of the urine flow in the anuric group was thought 
not to be due to any vascular change. 

The histological study of the kidneys from the diuretic and 
from the anuric groups showed a marked difference in the degree 
of epithelial involvement, whereas the vascular pathology in the 
two groups was practically identical. 

In those animals that remained diuretic following the anes- 
thetic, the epithelial involvement was slight or absent. The cells 
were not only not increased in size, but frequently they showed 
an undoubted shrinkage with an associated increase in the size 
of the lumen of the tubules. The cells stained well, the nucleus 


36 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHeEtt Socrety [ June 


was not pyknotie, and the cytoplasm of the cells showed but 
slight or no vacuolation. 

On the other hand, in those animals which became anuric fol- 
lowing the anesthetic the epithelium of the tubules of the laby- 
rinth, and especially of the proximal convoluted tubules, showed 
an acute swelling, which was remarkable for the rapidity with 
which it developed. Asa result of the swelling, the lumen of the 
tubules was either greatly encroached upon or completely oc- 
cluded. In some animals the swelling was so acute that the 
cells had not had time to undergo any marked degenerative 
change, while in other animals the epithelium was severely 
vacuolated, staining was imperfect, the nuclei pyknotic, and the 
cytoplasm in various stages of necrosis. 

As a result of these observations, I was inclined to the belief 
that in a unranium nephritis the epithelial changes were more 
responsible for the reduction in the output of urine than were 
the vascular changes. 

The continuation of these experiments, which will now be re- 
ported, serves in great measure to confirm this belief, and also 
brings into consideration the part played by different anesthetics 
and by the age of the animals in precipitating these epithelial 
changes. 


DISCUSSION OF THE TECHNIQUE EMPLOYED IN THE EXPERIMENTS 


The operative technique employed in the following experi- 
ments has been identical in every particular with that employed 
in the experiments of the previous investigation. There have, 
however, been made, for the sake of accuracy, slight changes in 
the quantity of the nephrotoxic substance employed; and also 
additional diuretic fluids have been used. In place of giving 
from 5 to 10 mgs. of uranium nitrate to the animals without re- 
gard to their weight, there was a determination made of the 
dose of uranium which was competent to induce a nephritis and 
a glycosuria without rendering the animals in the least toxic and 
without inducing gastro-enteric changes, which are usually man- 
ifested by vomiting and a diarrhoea. 

The dose of uranium nitrate when given subcutaneously in 


1914 | Action or Various Diuretics 37 


the dog which is suflicient to induce the desired changes in the 
kidney without the undesirable gastro-intestinal complications 
has been found to be 6.7 mgs. per kilogram. This is the dose 
of uranium which has been constantly employed in all of the 
experiments. 

Only animals in apparently perfect health were selected for 
the experiments. They were placed in metabolism cages and 
given daily by a stomach tube a known and constant quantity 
of water. The diet consisted of bread and uncooked meat. 

The urine was collected at 4.30 p. m. each day and examined 
qualitatively for albumen, sugar and acetone, and quantitatively 
for sugar. In making both the qualitative and quantitative 
sugar determinations, Benedict’s (2) reagents were uniformly 
employed, for the reason that these solutions allow of more 
delicate determinations and do not deteriorate upon standing. 
No preservative was used in the urine. 

These observations were made for three days prior to the ad- 
ministration of the uranium. On the third day the first uranium 
injection was made and repeated at the same time on the fourth 
day, the experiment being performed on the fifth day that the 
animal had been under observation. Such a routine is neces- 
sary, for the changes in the urine, especially the output of glu- 
cose, are influenced to some extent by the time which has elapsed 
following the uranium injections. 

As a result of the foregoing study of the urine the use of an 
animal with a naturally acquired nephritis was excluded. None 
of the animals prior to the use of the uranium showed the pres- 
ence in the urine of either glucose or acetone. 

The diuretic substances which have been employed in these 
experiments include those which were used with the first series 
of animals; and, in addition, various salts which were used 
in solutions isotonic with 0.9 per cent and 2 per cent sodium 
chloride. 

The osmotic pressure of some of the salts which have been 
employed has never been accurately measure. This, therefore, 
introduces an element of error into the calculations, which were 
conducted in order to obtain solutions of these salts isotonic 


= 


38 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHEeLt Society [June 


with 0.9 per cent and 2 per cent sodium chloride. The caleu- 
lations were made for solutions at 37.5°C. and at this tempera- 
ture the solutions were introduced into the animals. For these 
calculations, I am indebted to Dr. J. E. Mills, of the University 
of South Carolina. 

The following solutions have been employed in the study of 
the response of the nephritic kidney to diuretic substances: 


Cafieineie trae eae: Rees eee 1 to 2 of al per cent soution per kilogram 
Theobromine: + Uses age bisa 1 to 2 of a 1 per cent solution per kilogram 
Digwaline 2 Bek. cites Paes ees eee Be 0.5 to Img. per kilogram 
Sodium chloride solution, 0.9 per cent............ 5 to 10 cc. per kilogram 
Sodium chloride solution, 2 per cent.............. 5 to 10 cc. per kilogram 
Sodrum-carbonate, (0:9 percent: ..-22 sce esses eee 5 to 10 cc. per kilogram 
Sodium carbonate, 2 per cent............c0ccee- 5 to 10 cc. per kilogram 
Sodium sulphates OO per icent. we iaeeki cine cients 5 to 10 cc. per kilogram 
Lithnimichloriden0'9) pericent s:.6 ssscceiste stecelate isles 5 to 10 cc. per kilogram 


THE EFFECT OF URANIUM NITRATE ON THE OUTPUT AND COMPO- 
SITION OF THE URINE IN YOUNG AND IN FULL 
GROWN ANIMALS 


As has been previously stated, the present series of experi- 
ments serve not only for a study of the efficiency of various diu- 
retic substances, but they also serve to demonstrate the differ- 
ence in the response of animals of different ages to the same 
quantity of a toxic substance, such as uranium. The differences 
here referred to are those which are manifested in the total out- 
put of urine and in the composition of the urine. 

During the course of this paper the animals referred to as 
“ young,’ are animals not over one and a half years old; the 
“adult” animals are those varying in age between one and a 
half and six years; while the old animals are certainly over six 
years old. The classification is, of course, a more or less arbi- 
trary one, though it is based to some extent upon a knowledge of 
the average life of the dog. 

Falling in the group of young animals are eight dogs. Four 
of these animals were from the same litter, and at the time of 
the experiments were between four and a half and five months 
old. Two other animals were three months and three weeks old; 


> sy <_< oro... — 


ee 


1914 | Action or Various Diuretics 39 


while the remaining two dogs, young adults, as accurately as 
could be ascertained, were about one year and two months old. 

The animals were given daily a known and constant quantity 
of water and allowed a mixed diet of bread and raw meat. Fol- 
lowing the preliminary period of observation of three days, they 
were given subcutaneously on two successive days 6.7 mgs. of 
uranium nitrate per kilogram. The two young adult animals re- 
ceived 500 ce. of water daily, while the other members of the 
group received 400 ce. 

On the second day of the uranium injections these animals 
showed the following changes in output and in composition of 
the urine: 

As will be seen from table 1, these animals, following the 
development of a glycosuria, became polyuric. The output of 
glucose, especially by the puppies, is remarkably constant for the 
different animals, while the presence of acetone varies. The 


TABLE I 
Age Water Urine Albumen; Sugar acetone 
Ge: ee. per cent 

Young adult___ 500 830 Present 1.06 Trace 
Young adult___ 500 1015 Present 0.701 | Trace 
IPEDD Ye eee 400 790 Present 0.202 | None 
ul re 400 780 Present 0.446 | None 
[PUpDYe 2=-==5-* 400 740 Present 0.077 None 
uppy. ———-_-.-| 400 605 Present 0.35 Trace 
i) 400 910 Present 0.484 | Trace 
uppy. —---—--- 400 910 Present 0.86 Trace 


quantity of acetone in the urine of these young animals is ex- 
ceedingly small and its detection would frequently have been 
missed without a microscopic examination of the tested distillate 
for the presence of crystals of iodoform. 

The group of animals referred to as “ adult” animals were 
kept on the same diet as the younger animals, and lke the 
younger animals were given 6.7 mgs. of uranium nitrate per 
kilogram on two successive days. The changes in the output of 
urine and in the composition of the urine are indicated in table 
2, which represents the course of eight characteristic experi- 
ments following the uranium injections and prior to the use of 
an anesthetic. 


40 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELt Society [June 


TABLE II 
Age Water Urine Albumen | Sugar | Acetone 
cee. ee. | per cent | 

Adult -- 500 1240 Abundant | 2.17 Pronounced 
Adult --| 300 645 Abundant 2.56 + | Pronounced 
Adult -- 500 980 Present | 2.17 | Present 
Adult -- 500 1180 Present 3.625 | Present 
Adult —__| 500 | 1025 Present | 2.08 Present 
Adult  __| 500 1515 Present 2.08 Present 
Adult _-| 500 | 1130 Present 1.06 | Present 
Adult -_! 500 885 Present 3.03 | Present 


A comparison of the two tables showing the results obtained 
in these groups of animals, representing different age limits, 
shows in the first place, that the polyuria which, as has been pre- 
viously stated, becomes pronounced with the development of the 
glycosuria. The animals of the adult group show a higher de- 
gree of polyuria than do the younger animals; and they also 
show, with one exception, a uniformly higher percentage of 
glucose. 


Although quantitative determinations of acetone were not 
made, we feel reasonably certain that the acetone output in 
the adult animals was dictinctly in excess of that of the younger 
animals. Judging from the density of the precipitate of albu- 
men the same statement may be made for this element of the 
urine. 

The microscopic examination of the centrifugalized urines in- 
variably showed that in the adult animals casts were far more 
numerous that in the young animals. The increase in the num- 
ber of fatty casts was especially noticeable. 

From the foregoing observations, the following deductions ap- 
pear allowable: 

1. Uranium nitrate when given subcutaneously in the dose of 
6.7 mgs. per kilogram induces in the dog a series of changes 
which vary in their degree of severity. 

2. The severity of these changes is determined by the age of 
the animal, the changes being more pronounced in adult animals 
and less pronounced in young animals. 

3. The factors which determine these differences in the 


1914 | Action oF Various Diuretics 41 


response of animals of different ages to the same quantity of 
uranium are at present undetermined. 


THE EFFECT OF GREHANT'S ANESTHETIC? ON THE OUTPUT AND 
COMPOSITION OF THE URINE IN YOUNG 
AND IN ADULT ANIMALS 


In the experiments that have been previously reported (1) in 
which this anesthetic was employed, the anesthetic was used in 
the full strength advised by its originator. In order to exclude 
the possibility of the anesthetic unduly depressing the circula- 
tion, in the present experiments the quantity of the anesthetic 
has been reduced to 60 per cent strength. In this strength the 
anesthetic was given to ten adult animals and eight young ani- 
mals after they had been rendered nephritic by uranium. 

The ten adult animals following the development of an anes- 
thesia which was not profound became anuric and remained 
anuric throughout the experiments. The anuria was uninflu- 
enced by the various diuretic substances which have been pre- 
viously enumerated. 

The rapidity with which the anuria develops has varied slight- 
ly in the different animals and is apparently dependent to some 
extent upon the depth of the anesthesia. 

The following experiments illustrate this point: 

Experiment 4. The animal was receiving 500 cc. of water daily. On the 
day of the experiment the animal had an output of urine of 1130 cc. 
Within forty minutes after the commencement of the anesthetic, which 
resulted in a complete anesthesia, the animal became anuric. During the 
course of the experiment no urine was obtained. At the commencement 
of the experiment the animal had a blood pressure of 95 mm. of mercury, 
and at its termination a blood pressure of 115 mm. of mercury. 

Following the injection of 1 cc. of a 1 per cent solution of caffeine per 
kilogram, the general blood pressure was raised from 105 to 115 mm. of 
mercury and the oncometer pressure as indicated by a water manometer, 
showed a rise of 16 mm. of water. 

Experiment 7. In the following experiment the animal was imperfectly 


anesthetized. During the operation he was constantly struggling. On the 
day of the experiment the output of urine was 1025 cc. For the first 


8 Grébant’s Anesthetic: The animal is given 0.25 ce. per kilogram of a 4 per 
cent. solution of morphine. This is followed in_half an hour by 10ce. per kilo- 
gram of the following mixture: chloroform, 50ce.; alcohol and water, each 
500ce. , 


42 JOURNAL OF THE MircHeEett Society [June 


half hour period that the animal was under observation after the com- 
pletion of the operation the output of urine was 2.7 cc. Following this 
period of diuresis the animal became completely anuric, and with the de- 
velopment of the anuria the struggling and other evidences of an imper- 
fect anesthesia ceased. , : 

At the commencement of the experiment the animal had a blood pres- 
sure of 105 mm. of mercury, and at its termination a blood pressure of 
165 mm. of mercury. At no time during the experiment was there evi- 
dence of any over action of the anesthetic. The animal remained com- 
pletely anuric to caffeine, theobromine, digitalin, 0.9 per cent sodium chlo- 
ride and 2 per cent sodium chloride. The experiment shows that even 


though an adult animal may not be completely anuric at the commence- 
ment of an experiment, the changes in the kidney which are inaugurated 


by the anesthetic, progress with the anesthesia, and that with the develop- 
ment of a state of satisfactory surgical anesthesia an adult animal which 
has been anesthetized by Gréhant’s anesthetic becomes anuric. 


The young animals and puppies that had been rendered ne- 
phritic, glycosuric, and polyuric by the same quantity of uran- 
ium per kilogram that was employed for the adult animals, 
showed after the administration of Gréhant’s anesthetic in 60 
per cent strength a distinct difference in the effect of the anes- 
thetic on the output and composition of the urine. 

Although this group of young animals received the same 
quantity of Gréhant’s anesthetic and although they were allowed 
the same time in which to develop the anesthesia, they were not 
so completely anesthetized at the expiration of this period as 
were the adult animals. It was usually necessary to give these 
animals a small quantity of ether to complete the anesthesia. 
After a satisfactory state of anesthesia had been established, it 
was rarely necessary to administer the ether again. The ani- 
mals remained satisfactorily anesthetized throughout the ex- 
periment, which usually lasted several hours. 

The animals of this group show a distinct difference in the 
effect of the anesthetic on the urine flow. None of the members 
of the group were rendered anuric by the anesthetic, but, on the 
other hand, they were distinctly diuretic before and after the 
introduction of various diuretic substances. 

The urine of this group of diuretic animals showed after 
the anesthetic an increase in the quantity of glucose and in 
those animals in which acetone was not present in the urine 


1914 | Action oF Various DivurRETICcs 43 


prior to the anesthetic, after the anesthetic, acetone was in- 
variably present. 

The observation that has been made relative to the increase 
in the quantity of glucose in the urine after the anesthetic might 
be questioned on the ground that the increase in glucose was a 
relative rather than an absolute increase, e. g., that with the 
animals not so diuretic after the anesthetic as they were before 
the fact that the urine became more concentrated would show a 
rise in the percentage of glucose. 

To eliminate this possibility a series of normal animals were 
given Gréhant’s anesthetic, and the changes induced in the com- 
position of the urine were noted. (3) Following the anesthetic 
these animals developed a glycosuria, the percentage of glucose 
varying with the age of the animals. It seems therefore allow- 
able to conclude that when Gréhant’s anesthetic is given to a 
glycosuric animal the increase in the percentage of glucose in the 
urine is an absolute rather than a relative increase. 

The following experiment will serve to show the difference in 
the output and composition of the urine in a young animal from 


that of the previously discussed adult animals. 

Experiment 18. The animal was receiving 400 cc. of water daily. 
On the day of the experiment the output of urine was 780 cc. The urine 
contained 0.446 per cent glucose but no acetone. Following the anesthetic, 
the gluecose increased to 0.99 per cent and an acetonuria developed. At 
the completion of the operation this animal had a blood pressure of 111 
mm. of mercury and a urine flow of 1.4 cc. per ten minute interval. 

During the course of the experiment, which lasted for three and a 
a half hours, the animal was completely anesthetized and was freely 
diuretic to caffeine, digitalin and 0.9 per cent sodium chloride. At the 
termination of the experiment the animal had a blood pressure of 118 mm. 
of mercury and a urine flow of 4.5 per ten minute interval. 


THE EFFECT OF MORPHINE-ETHER ON THE OUTPUT AND COMPOSI- 
TION OF THE URINE IN YOUNG AND ADULT ANIMALS 

The young animals which received this type of anesthetic 
showed but slight differences in the output and composition of 
the urine and in their response to diuretics from the young ani- 
mals receiving Gréhant’s anesthetic. The following experiment 
shows the similarity in the response of these animals to mor- 
phine-ether. 


tt JOURNAL OF THE MircHELt Society [June 


Experiment 17. The animal was completely anesthetized. Prior to 
the anesthetic the animal was receiving 400 cc. of water. On the day 
of the experiment the animal had an output of urine of 790 cc. The urine 
contained 0.202 per cent of glucose and was free from acetone. Fol- 
lowing the anesthetic the animal remained diuretic and had an output 
of urine of 2 cc. per ten minute interval before the use of any diuretic sub- 
stance. During the course of the experiment the animal remained diuretic 
to caffeine and digitalin. The urine collected showed an increase in 
glucose to 0.501 per cent. The urine contained acetone. 


The adult animals which were given morphine-ether differed 
from the adult animals receiving Gréhant’s anesthetic in that 
they did not become anuric, but remained responsive to the 
same diuretic substances which when employed in animals anes- 
thetized by Gréhant’s anesthetic were found to have no diuretic 
value. 

Two very old animals that were nephritic from uranium 
which were given morphine-ether, became anuric and the anuria 
was uninfluenced by caffeine, digitalin and 0.9 per cent sodium 
sulphate. These animals showed a pathological response on the 
part of the kidney which was similar to the pathology which 
develops in adult animals following Gréhant’s anesthetic and 
which renders the animal anuric. 

The following experiment shows the usual effect of morphine- 


ether as an anesthetic in adult animals: 

Experiment 16. The animal was receiving 500 cc. of water daily. On 
the day of the experiment the output of the urine was 1015 cc. The urine 
contained 1.22 per cent of glucose. Acetone was present. 

Following morphine-ether, which resulted in a complete anesthesia, the 
animal’ remained diuretic. During the first ten minute period, before the 
use of any diuretic substance, the output of urine was 3.4 cc. The animal 
was diuretic to both caffeine and digitalin. The urine obtained during the 
experiment showed an increase in glucose to 2.77 per cent. 


CONCLUSIONS CONCERNING THE EFFECT OF GREHANTS ANES- 
THETIC OF MORPHINE-ETHER UPON THE OUTPUT AND THE 
COMPOSITION OF THE URINE IN YOUNG AND IN ADULT 
DOGS NEPHRITIC FROM URANIUM 

1. When given to adult animals, Gréhant’s anesthetic pro- 
duces a state of anuria which is uninfluenced by any of the 
diuretic substances that have been employed in ‘this investi- 
gation. 


a 


~ 


1914 | Action or Various Drurerics 45 


2. When Gréhant’s anesthetic is given to young animals, the 
animals remain diuretic and responsive to the various diu- 
retic substances. The urine collected during the anesthesia 
shows an increase in glucose over that induced by the injections 
of uranium before the anesthetic. 

3. Adult animals when given morphine-ether have only occa- 
sionally developed an anuria. The animals in our series which 
have developed this condition have been old animals. In the 
animals anuric from morphine-ether the changes in the kidney 
are similar to those found in the kidneys of the animals anuric 
from Gréhant’s anesthetic. 

In general, the adult animals anesthetized with morphine- 
ether remain diuretic and are responsive to the different diuretic 
substances. The urine shows an increase in the percentage of 
glucose. 

4, The young animals anesthetized with morphine-ether have 
without exception remained freely diuretic throughout the ex- 
periments. The urine collected during the experiments has 
shown a slight increase in the percentage of glucose. This in- 
crease, however, is less than the increase observed in the adult 
animals under the influence of the same anesthetic. 

5. In conclusion, the age of the animal apparently exerts some 
influence over the toxicity of the anesthetic as did the same 
factor influence the toxicity of the uranium prior to the anes- 
thetic. 


THE EFFICIENCY OF VARIOUS DIURETICS IN URANIUM NEPHRITIS 
IN ANIMALS ANESTHETIZED WITH GREHANT’S ANESTHETIC 
AND WITH MORPHINE-ETHER 


The efficiency of various diuretics in animals anesthetized with 
Gréhant’s anesthetic 


In considering the efficiency of these different diuretic sub- 
stances in animals anesthetized with Gréhant’s anesthetic, the 
nephritic animals, so far as their response to the diuretics is 
concerned, are found to arrange themselves into two groups: a 
diuretic group which is represented by the young animals; and 
an anuric group which consists of adult animals which had re- 


46 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHett Socrery [June 


ceived the same quantity of the nephrotoxic substance per kilo- 
gram and the same amount of the anesthetic per kilogram as was 
received by the young animals. 

In these animals the following diuretic substances were em- 
ployed: caffeine, theobromine, digitalin, 0.9 per cent and 2 per 
cent sodium chloride, 0.9 per cent and 2 per cent sodium car- 
bonate, 0.9 per cent sodium sulphate, and 0.9 per cent lithium 
chloride. 

When these substances were employed in adult animals ne- 
phritic from uranium and anuric from Gréhant’s anesthetic, 
they had no diuretic value. After having once become anuric 
these animals remained anuric. 

The following experiments are representative of this group 
and demonstrate the inefficiency of substances as diuretics which 
in a normal animal or in a nephritic animal which has not be- 
come anuric, usually induce a distinct diuresis. 


Experiment 12. On the day of the experiment this animal had an 
output of urine of 980 cc. Following Gréhant’s anesthetic the animal be- 
came completely anuric and remained anuric throughout the experiment. 


Caffeine induced a rise in general blood pressure of from 125 to 140 mm, 
of mercury without any change in kidney blood pressure. Digitalin in- 


duced a rise in general blood pressure of from 130 to 140 mm. of mercury 
with a rise in kidney blood pressure of 6 mm. of water. Sodium carbonate 
in 2 per cent solution, given in the quantity of 10 cc. per kilogram, caused 
a rise in general blood pressure of 13 mm. of mercury and a rise in kidney 
blood pressure of 16 mm. of water. The animal received 175 cc. of salt 
solution. 

Experiment 7. This animal during the first half hour period of ob- 
servation was diuretic. Following this initial stage of diuresis the animal 
became completely anuric and remained anuric, uninfluenced by the 
diuretics. 

The animal’s general blood pressure varied between 105 mm. of mer- 
cury at the commencement of the experiment to 165 mm. of mercury 
at its termination. At the commencement of the experiment the oncometer 
showed a kidney pressure of 25.3 cm. of water and at the termination a 
pressure of 32 cm. Caffeine induced a rise in blood pressure of 32 mm. 
of mercury and a rise in oncometer pressure of 16 mm. of water. Digitalin 
increased the general blood pressure of 30 mm. of mercury, and the on- 
cometer pressure 27 mm. of water, 0.9 per cent sodium chloride, 10 cc. 
per kilogram gave a rise in general blood pressure of only 5 mm. of 
mercury, while the oncometer showed an increase in pressure of 48 mm. 
of water, 2 per cent sodium chloride in the quantity of 10 cc. per kilogram 


1914] Action or Various Diuretics 47 


caused a rise in general blood pressure of 17 mm. of mercury and a rise 
in kidney blood pressure of 27 mm. of water. The animal received 248 cc. 
of salt solution. 


With the employment of other diuretic solutions in this group 
of anuric animals, such for instance as sodium sulphate and 
lithium chloride in 0.9 per cent solution, the same type of re- 
sponse was obtained in general blood pressure changes and in 
the local vascular changes in the kidney as were obtained from 
the salt solutions just described. Neither the type of salt nor 
the difference in the tonicity of the solutions which were em- 
ployed induced any diuretic effect. 

The following series of animals which did not became anuric 
from Gréhant’s anesthetic were young animals. Prior to the 
anesthetic they had been rendered nephritic by the same 
quantity of uranium per kilogram as was received by the adult 
animals; and later they received the same quantity of the anes- 
thetic per kilogram as was received by the adult animals. 

With this group of animals the experiments were conducted 
in a manner identical with the group just discussed; the same 
diuretic substances were employed; and they were given to the 
animals in this same quantity per kilogram. 

The following series of animals which did not become anuric 
retic response of the two groups. 

Experiment 18. The animal before the use of a diuretic had a flow of 
urine of 1.4 cc. per ten minute interval. Following caffeine, which in- 
duced a rise in general blood pressure of 6 mm. of mercury and in on- 
cometer pressure of only 6 mm. of water, the urine flow increased to 2.5 
ce., digitalin produced a rise in general pressure of 6 mm. of mercury 
and in oncometer pressure of 15 mm. of water. The urine flow was in- 
creased from 1.1 to 1.7 cc. per ten minute interval, following 0.9 per cent 
sodium chloride, which induced practically no change in general blood 
pressure but a rise in kidney blood pressure of 23 mm. of water; the urine 
flow increased from 2 to 4.5 cc. 

A comparative study of these two groups of experiments in 
which the animals received Gréhant’s anesthetic and in which 
one group becomes anuric and fails to respond to diuretics, while 
the other group does not become anuric and does respond to 
diuretics, fails to show any variations in the changes in general 
blood pressure which could account for the difference in the out- 
put of urine. 


48 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHELt Socrety [ June 


The changes in the oncometer pressure in the two groups show 
that the kidney vessels are responsive to substances acting 
peripherally on these vessels and that they also respond to 
changes in the general circulation. A general analysis, how- 
ever, of the pressure changes in the kidney induced by the dif- 
ferent diuretics in the two groups of animals shows that in the 
diuretic animals the changes in the kidney pressure are usually 
more pronounced than they are in the anuric animals. At the 
present time experiments are being conducted with the object in 
view of determining whether or not there is any constant differ- 
ence in the vascular response of the kidney vessels in the two 
types of animals. 


The difference in the renal pathology of animals anuric and 
diuretic following Gréhant’s anesthetic 

In conducting the pathological study of the kidneys from 
these two types of animals every precaution was employed to 
eliminate sources of error by using several fixing fluids for the 
tissue from each experiment and by adhering to a uniform stain- 
ing technique. 

Tissue was fixed in 10 per cent formaline, Zenker’s fluid, and 
in corrosive-acetic. The formaline and Zenker fixed tissue was 
imbedded in cellodin, while the corrosive-acetic fixed tissue was 
imbedded in paraffin. Cellodin sections were cut varying be- 
tween 10 to 15 micra while the paraffin sections used for the 
comparative study were 6 to 8 micra in thickness. The stains 
employed were haematoxylin and erosin. In addition to this, 
frozen sections were made and stained for fat by Herxheimer’s 
Scharlach R. method. As has been clearly shown by Bullard 
(4) fat proplets in considerable number may be demonstrated by 
this stain, when Herxheimer’s modification is used, which would 
be missed by the simple alcoholic solutions of Scharlach R. and 
of Sudan. III. 

The following pathological report should be considered as a 
summary of the essential differences in the kidneys of these two 
two types of animals. A detailed discussion of the pathology 
will be published elsewhere. 

In adult animals which had been rendered nephritic by uran- 


ee ee eee 


1914 | Action or Various Diuretics 49 


ium and killed by shooting, so as to eliminate the effect of the 
anesthetic, the kidney shows in the gross a severe congestion of 
the outer cortex and of the medulla. Between the cortico- 
medullary boundary zone and the superficial portion of the cor- 
tex there is a mid zone which appears distinctly pale as con- 
trasted with other portions of the kidney. 


In young animals which have been subjected to a similar ex- 
perimental technique, this pale zone of the cortex is either ab- 
sent, or is much less pronounced, while in general the cut sur- 
face of the kidney appears uniformly and severely congested. 

The histological study of tissue from the kidneys of these two 
groups of animals which have not received an anesthetic shows a 
vascular reaction which is manifested by an engorgement of the 
glomerular vessels, but without any intro-glomerular or inter- 
tubular exudate. The epithelium of the tubules shows a shrink- 
age which gives to the lumen of the tubules an unusual promi- 
nence (figure 1 and 2). Thus far the grosser pathological 
changes in the two groups of animals are similar. The changes, 
however, differ very strikingly in this respect. The adult ani- 
mals show a high degree of fatty degeneration in the tubules of 
the medullary rays and in the distal convoluted tubules, while 
tissue from the kidneys of the young animals show this fatty 
change to a much less extent, though when it develops the same 
tubules are involved. This is one of the striking differences in 
the pathological response of these two groups of animals. 

When adult animals and young animals are anesthetized by 
the same quantity of Gréhant’s anesthetic per kilogram, the 
gross and microscopic pathology of the kidneys shows the fol- 
lowing differences. 


In the adult animals the cut surface of the kidney does not 
show such a severe congestion and the mid-cortical zone of pale- 
ness has perceptibly increased in distinctness and extent. The 
microscopic study shows that the fatty changes which have 
been induced by the uranium have been very greatly increased 
by the anesthetic and that the pale zone of the cortex is, in part, 
due to these changes. As a result of the effect of the enesthetic 
the epithelium of the tubules of the labyrinth, especially the 


50 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocIeTy [ June 


proximal convoluted tubules, has become acutely swollen, with 
a part or complete occlusion of the tubular lumen. The epi- 
thelium is in various stages of degeneration and necrosis (fig. 
3). The rapidity with which this swelling develops is remark- 


able. 


Tn the kidneys of the young animals following Gréhant’s anes- 
thetic, the same type of changes are induced, but to a much less 
extent. Thus there develops in the cortex a pale zone which is 
much less extensive than in adult animals and microscopically 
the fatty changes in this zone are found to be less pronounced. 
Equally noticeable as the difference in the fat content (micro- 
scopically demonstrable) is the difference in the degree of 
involvement of the tubules of the labyrinth. In the young ani- 
mals which have remained diuretic the severe grade of swelling 
of the epithelium which was so noticeable in the adult animals 
is comparatively slight or absent (fig. 4). 


The difference in the renal pathology of animals anuric and diu- 
retic following morphine-ether 


With two exceptions these animals following morphine-ether 
remained diuretic. 


The diuretic group was composed of both young and adult 
animals. In this group uranium induced the same type of 
changes as have been described in the animals which were given 
Gréhant’s anesthetic. When, however, morphine-ether was em- 
ployed as the anesthetic, the fatty changes which had been in- 
duced by the uranium were not increased to a degree comparable 
to the increase in these changes which followed Gréhant’s anes- 
thetic, and also the acute swelling of the epithelium of the 
tubules of the labyrinth was either absent or much less marked 
(fig. 5). 

The exceptions to this statement are found in two animals 
which were very old; and these animals following morphine- 
ether showed a pathological response on the part of the kidney 
which was comparable to the pathology seen in the kidneys of 
the adult animals which received Gréhant’s anesthetic, and like 
these animals they were rendered anuric. 


bo 


' 
j 
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ly 
y 
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oe A TI RE I I a ee a Po etn _ 


1914 | Acrion or Various Diuretics 51 


GENERAL DISCUSSION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL DATA 


The metabolic disturbance which is induced by uranium and 
which in part is characterized by the development of a glyco- 
suria is usually explained by assuming that this substance like 
hydroeyanic acid induces the glycosuria by lessening internal 
respiration. 

In the experiments conducted by Chittenden and Hutchinson 
(5) on the influence of uranium salts upon the activity of cer- 
tain ferments they were able to show that the nitrate exerted an 
inhibitory effect upon the ferment action of saliva and of pepsin. 
This inhibition was induced by the nitrate in very high dilu- 
tions. An inhibitory effect on the ferment action of saliva was 
brought about with dilutions of the salt in 0.0001 to 0.003 per 
cent. strength while the inhibition of the protelytic action of 
pepsin required the use of the salt in stronger solutions. The 
action of this ferment was inhibited when uranium nitrate 
was used in the strength of 0.01 per cent, and all action 
ceased when the strength of the solution increased to 0.5 
per cent. 

It is possible that uranium nitrate exerts a similar inhibi- 
tory effect upon the action of the oxidative enzymes of the 
eell, and that through this action internal respiration, even in 
the presence of abundant oxygen, is interfered with. The 
lessened oxidation so induced would explain the glycosuria 
that is constantly seen following uranium injections. 

Granting that such a hypothetical explanation for the uran- 


ium glycosuria be true, the experiments which have been con- 


ducted in this investigation would tend to show that the oxi- 
dative capacity of the young animals is greater than that of 
the adult animals, for when these two groups of animals have 
received uranium nitrate in the same quantity per kilogram 
the percentage of glucose in the urine of the young animals is 
much less than is the percentage in the urine of the adult 
animals. | 
When we consider the unusual demand for activated oxy- 
gen which likely exists in the tissues of rapidly growing 
young animals, we see that such an assumption concerning 


| 
| 
| 


Or 


52 JOURNAL OF THE MircHett Society [ June 


the relative oxidative capacity of young and adult animals is 
not especially visionary. 

In addition to the evidence of a disturbed metabolism that 
is manifested by the appearance of glucose in the urine, the 
use of uranium also induces fatty changes in the kidney and 
in the liver. So far as their severity is concerned these 
changes bear the same relation to the age of the animal as 
was seen to exist for the percentage of glucose in the urine. 
The fatty changes in the liver and in the kidney are much 
more pronounced in the adult animals than they are in the 
young animals. 

When these nephritic and glycosuric animals are given an 
anesthetic, those changes, of whatever origin they may be, 
which have been induced by the uranium injections become 
greatly augmented. The percentage of glucose in the urine is 
increased, the fatty changes in the kidney and in the liver are 
more marked, and the nephritis is so increased in severity that 
certain of the animals rapidly develop an anuria. 

These changes which are induced by the anesthetic are also 
influenced by the age of the animal, and they are found to be 
more pronounced in the adult animals than they are in the 
young animals. An observation similar to this has been made 
by Whipple (6), who was able to show that chloroform in- 
duced but slight fatty degeneration and liver necrosis in young 
pups, while in adults a marked central hyaline necrosis of 
the liver was induced. 

Not only does the age of the animals influence the severity 
of the action of the anesthetic, but the type of anesthetic em- 
ployed also aids in determining the severity of its effect. 

Of the two anesthetics which were used in the experiments, 
Gréhant’s anesthetic gave more evidence of being toxic and 
had more effect in increasing the severity of the nephritis 
and in establishing a condition of anuria. 

The active anesthetic ingredients in Gréhant’s anesthetic 
are chloroform and alcohol, and from the observation which 
has just been made, it would appear that of the two anes- 
thetics, Gréhant’s and morphine-ether, Gréhant’s which con- 


1914| Action or Various Diuretics 53 


tains choloform and alcohol is far more toxic in a nephritis 
than ether. This would be especially true in those nephri- 
tides in which the parenchymatous element of the kidney is 
principally involved. 

A study of the response of the nephritic kidney to diuretics, 
shows that the efficiency of a given diuretic very largely de- 
pends upon the age of the animal, and upon the anesthetic 
which has been employed. Thus young and adult animals 
nephritic from uranium, when anesthetized with morphine- 
ether, remain diuretic to the substances which have been used 
in the experiments. The same statement holds true for the 
young animals which were anesthetized with Gréhant’s anes- 
thetic. When, however, an adult animal nephritic from uran- 
ium is anesthetized with Gréhant’s anesthetic the animal be- 
comes anuric and remains refractory to the diuretic substances 
which have induced a free diuresis in the other animals. A 
similar condition of anuria with a failure to respond to the 
diuretics has been observed in two old animals anesthetized with 
morphine-ether. 

The renal pathology which is characteristic of this anuric 
group consists in a rapid swelling and necrosis of the epi- 
thelium, especially of the proximal convoluted tubules. 

A physiological study of this anuric group shows that the 
anuria is not dependent upon a general condition of low blood 
pressure. The degree of response of the renal vessels to sub- 
stances acting locally in the kidney and through changes in 
the general blood pressure is certainly sufficient to influence 
diuresis in a normal kidney. When compared with the de- 
gree of response on the part of the renal vessels in the diuretic 
animals, it would appear that it was sutticient to induce diuresis 
in these anuric animals. In the anuric group however, with the 
pronounced swelling of the epithelium which is constantly 
present, the quantity of blood reaching the glomeruli and the 
rate of blood flow through the kidney must be to some extent 
interfered with. This is likely a part of the explanation for 
the anuria. 

With this cause for the anuria in mind, in these animals 


54 JOURNAL OF THE MitTcHELt Society [June 


which had remained anuric to diuretics, such as caffeine and 
0.9 per cent sodium chloride, hypertonic salt solutions were 
employed with the object in view of inducing a shrinkage of 
the swollen cells and by removing any obstruction to the renal 
circulation and at the same time by removing any mechanical 
obstruction to the flow of the urine through the partly or com- 
pletely occluded tubules to induce a diuresis. 


When such hypertonic solutions were used, it was found pos- 
sible to induce a shrinkage of the epithelium (fig. 6). With 
such a change in the size of the epithelial cells which would 
tend to decrease the volume of the kidney, the oncometer 
showed an increase in kidney volume. ~This rise in kidney 
pressure is likely due to the dilator effect of the hypertonic 
solutions on the renal vessels. With this change in the ves- 
sels, increasing the quantity of blood reaching the kidney and 
with the epithelium shrunken the circulation through the 
kidney should be distinctly, improved. Even through such a 
change in the renal circulation had apparently been induced, 
the animals remained anuric. Whether or not we have in 
this anuric type of nephritis, as suggested by Pearce (7), a 
condition of the vessels which allows dilatation, but in which 
the vessels are so influenced by the anesthetic as to cause de- 
creased glomerular permeability, it 1s difficult to say. 

In three animals of this anuric group the use of salt solu- 
tion caused a well marked inter-tubular exudate to be pro- 
duced. ‘This observation would tend to decrease the proba- 
bility of Pearce’s explanation for the anuria, for it shows 
that some of the vessels are permeable to salt solution. 

The salt solutions were also employed as diuretics for the 
purpose of renderering the blood more hydremic and at the 
same time of decreasing its viscidity. These changes in the 
blood had no effect in re-establishing a urine flow. 


In conclusion, it would appear that in a uranium nephritis 
when following an anesthetic the epithelium becomes severely 
damaged, the animal develops an anuria uninfluenced by diu- 
retics which increase the efficiency of the vascular mechanism 


1914] Action oF Vartous Diuretics 55 


of the kidney, and which so alter the composition of the blood 
as to favor diuresis. 

The investigation would, therefore, tend to favor the con- 
ception of the kidney’s activity being more dependent upon 
the secretory capacity of its cells than upon any mechanical 
conception of the action of the vascular mechanism of the 
kidney. 

CONCLUSIONS 

1. Im dogs in which an acute nephritis has resulted from 
the subcutaneous administration of uravium nitrate in the 
dose of 6.7 mes. per kilogram the severity of the nepritis, of the 
elycosuria, and of the polyuria is influenced by the age of the 
animal. ‘The changes in the kidney and in the urine are more 
marked in adult animals than they are in young animals and in 
puppies. 

2. When such nephritic, glycosuric, and polyuric animals are 
anesthetized by Gréhant’s anesthetic or by morphine-ether, the 
severity of the nephritis is increased, and the output and compo- 
sition of the urine is changed. 

8. The increase in the severity of the nephritis is more 
marked from the use of Gréhant’s anesthetic, the active anes- 
thetic ingredients of which are chloroform and alcohol, than 
from morphine-ether. 

4. In addition to the fact that the type of anesthetic influ- 
ences the renal pathology the age of the animal also aids in 
determining the severity of the changes. The changes are more 
pronouncel in adult and old animals than in young animals and 
puppies. 

5. Following the anesthetic these nephritic animals either be- 
come anuric or remain diuretic. 

6. In the anuric group, which is principally represented by 
the adult animals which have received Gréhant’s anesthetic, the 
condition of anuria is influenced by various diuretics. 

7. The failure of this group to respond to diuretics is: more 
likely due to the destruction of the epithelium of the kidney 
than to any physiological or anatomical change in the vascular 
element of the kidney. 


56 JOURNAL OF THE MitrcHett Society [ June 


8. Those animals that following the anesthetic are not ren- 
dered anuric are responsive to the same diuretic substances 
which in the anuric group have been shown to have no diuretic 
value. 

9. In this diuretic group of animals, regardless of whether the 
anesthesia has been induced by Gréhant’s anesthetic or by mor- 
phine-ether, the epithelial involvement of the kidney is much 
less severe than in the anuric group. 

In conclusion I desire to acknowledge my indebtedness to Dr. 


J. P. Jones for his valuable aid in conducting the experiments. 
Cuare, Hut, N. C. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


(1) MacNider: Jour. of Pharm. and Exper. Ther., iii, 4, March, 1912. 

(2) Benedict: Journ. of Amer. Med. Assoc., lvii, 15, October 7, 1911. 

(3) MacNider: Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. and Med., x, 3, 1913. 

(4) Bullard: Journ. of Med. Research, xxvii, 1, 1912. 

(5) Chittenden and Hutchinson: Trans. Conn. Acad. of Arts and Sci. 
vii, p. 261. 

(6) Whipple: Journ. of Exper. Med., xv, 3, 1912. 

(7) Pearce, Hill and Eisenbrey: Journ. of Exper. Med., xii, 2, 1910. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE 


1. Kidney of an adult animal, nephritic, glycosuric and polyuric from 
uranium. The epithelium is shrunken and gives to the lumen of the tu- 
bules undue prominence. The epithelium shows an early vacuolation. 
The glomerular vessels fill the capsular space. The tubules contain granu- 
lar detritus. 

2. Kidney of a puppy, nephritic, glycosuric and polyuric from uranium. 
The changes in general are similar to those seen in figure 1. 

3. Kidney of an adult animal following Gréhant’s anesthetic given in 60 
per cent strength. Prior to the anesthetic the animal was excessively poly- 
uric. Following the anesthetic, within forty minutes, the animal became 
completely anuric. The figure shows the acute swelling of the epithelium 
with an occlusion of the lumen of the tubules. The epithelium of the be- 
ginning of the collecting tubules is spared. These tubules remain open. 
The glomerular vessels do not fill the capsular space. This figure should 
be compared with figs. 1 and 4. 

4. Kidney of a puppy following Gréhant’s anesthetic. The animal had 
been rendered nephritic with the same quantity of uranium per kilogram 
as had been used for the adult animal, figure 3. The puppy was anes- 
thetized with the same quantity of Gréhant’s anesthetic per kilogram as 
was the adult animal. The figure shows the absence of epithelial involve- 


1914 | Action oF Vartrous Diuretics 57 


ment. The tubules are not occluded. The glomerular vessels fill the 
capsular space. The animal was freely diuretic. 

5. Kidney of an adult animal following morphine-ether as an anesthetic, 
nephritic from uranium. The animal remained freely diuretic. 


The figure shows the absence of the acute swelling of the epithelium, which 
was the most characteristic change in the figure from the adult animal 


anesthetized with Gréhant’s anesthetic. 

6. Partial shrinkage of the epithelium in an adult anuric animal from 
the use of hypertonic salt solution. The epithelium is in an advanced 
stage of degeneration. The glomerular vessels fill and distend the capsule 
and are histologically well preserved. The animal remained anuric. 


CuHaper Hirt, N. C. 


JOURNAL 


ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIG SOCIETY 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE THIRTEENTH ANNUAL 
MEETING OF THE NORTH CAROLINA - 
ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 


Held at Trinity College, Durham, N. C., Friday 
and Saturday, May 1 and 2, 1914 


The Executive Committee, President Sherman and Secre- 
tary Gudger, ex officio, and Messrs. C. S. Brimley, W. C. Coker, 
and J. J. Wolfe present, met at 2:30 P. M. Friday, May 1. The 
secretary made his annual report of the finances and membership 
of the Academy and this was recommended favorably to the 
Academy at its annual business meeting. The following were 
elected to membership: 


(1) Wm. Battle Cobb, Soil Scientist, U. S. Department of 
Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

(2) OC. M. Farmer, Professor of Natural Science, Atlantic 
Christian College, Wilson. 

(3) E. Osear Randolph, Assistant in Geology, University 
of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. 

(4) Henry Roland Totten, Assistant in Botany, Univer- 
sity of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. 


The invitation of the President and Faculty of Wake Forest 
College that the Academy hold its fourteenth annual meeting 
as the guest of that institution was unanimously accepted. 

An amendment to the constitution adding the vice-president 
to the list of ea officio members of the Executive Committee 
was offered by C. S. Brimley, discussed by the Committee, and 
recommended to the favorable consideration of the Academy. 
The Committee then adjourned. 


60 JouRNAL oF THE MitrcHety Society [August 


At 3 P. M. President Sherman called the Academy to order 
and appointed the following committees: Nominating, H. V. 
Wilson, W. C. Coker, W. H. Pegram; Auditing, C. W. Ed- 
wards, J. D. Ives, and R. W. Collett; Resolutions, C. S. Brim- 
ley, Z. P. Metcalf, and W. N. Hutt. 

The reading and discussion of papers was then begun and 
continued until adjournment was had at 6 P. M., when 11 num- 
bers had been disposed of. In attendance were 23 members and 
a number of visitors. 

The academy reconvened at 8 P. M. in the Y. M. C. A. 
Hall, when, after a hearty welcome to Trinity College from 
Dean W. I. Cranford, President Franklin Sherman, Jr., of the 
Academy, gave his presidential address on the subject “‘ Studies 
of the Animal Life of our State with Suggestions for a Biolog- 
ical Survey (illustrated by numerous charts). 

Next, Professor A. H. Patterson delivered a lecture ‘‘The 
Gyroscope and Its Modern Applications,” illustrated with some 
fine apparatus. Then Mr. Bert Cunningham gave a striking 
demonstration of the new Nitrogen Tungsten lamp, showing it 
in comparison with the ordinary Tungsten and Carbon lamps 
consuming the same amount of current. 

Following this the faculty of Trinity College entertained the 
Academy at a much enjoyed smoker. 


At 9 A. M. Saturday the Academy met in annual business 
meeting, with the President in the chair, and some 20 members 
present. The proceedings of last meeting were read and ap- 
proved, and the report of the Secretary and Executive Com- 
mittee were called for. Mr. Brimley’s amendment to the con- 
stitution, Art. III, Sec. 1, was adopted. This now reads: 
“|. . and an Executive Committee of s7x, including the Pres- 
ident, Vice-President, Secretary,” the italicized words indicat- 
ing the change and the addition. 

The Auditing Committee reported the books and accounts, 
and the financial statement of the Secretary-Treasurer to be 
correct. The Secretary-Treasurer then read his itemized finan- 
cial statement which is included herewith and showed that the 
current dues are insufficient to carry the current expenses of the 


1914 | Procrepines N. C. AcapEMY oF SCIENCE 61 


Academy and that it is now necessary to draw every year on the 
savings bank account. ‘There was some discussion with regard to 
an amendment to the Constitution increasing the dues but it was 
finally decided to let the matter go over until next year. 
Chairman Brimley of the Resolutions Committee, reported 
the following resolutions which were unanimously adopted: 


Resolved; (1). That we express our sincere appreciation of the many 
courtesies and generous hospitality extended to us by the Faculty of 
Trinity College; (2). That we commend our efficient Secretary for his 
zeal and assiduity in the performance of his duties; (3). That we ex- 
press our approval of the recommendations of our President for a Bio- 
logical Survey of the State and suggest that all our members co-operate 
in gathering data to further that end. 


The Nominating Committee submitted its report and officers 
were unanimously elected as follows: 


President, J. J. Wolfe, Professor of Biology, Trinity College, Durham. 

Vice-President, A. H. Patterson, Professor of Physics, University of 
North Carolina, Chapel Hill. 

Secretary-Treasurer, E. W. Gudger, Professor of Biology, State 
Normal College, Greensboro. 

Executive Committee: W. N. Hutt, Horticulturist, State Department 
of Agriculture, Raleigh; J. H. Pratt, State Geologist, Chapel Hill; W. A. 
Withers, Chief Chemist, North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, 
West Raleigh. 


Chairman Edwards, of the committee appointed in 1912 and 
continued last year, brought forward the following report on 
ventilation of public buildings: “ Resolved, that the North 
Carolina Academy of Science recommends that legislation be 
enacted specifying the minimum standard of ventilation in 
schools, public auditoriums, and penal institutions in North 
Carolina and that this committee be authorized to submit to the 
proper legislative committee all data accumulated by it concern- 
ing this matter.” This was so ordered. 

The question of changing the time of the annual meeting was 
raised and discussed. Some of the members thought it better to 
have it earlier in the spring, increasing the time between the 
meetings and the commencements of the colleges; others advo- 


62 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHELL Society [August 


cated having it in the fall about Thanksgiving. Finally, how- 
ever, the matter was left in abeyance until the next meeting. 

The Secretary reported that on January 1st, 1913, there 
were 81 members; that during the year 15 were lost by with- 
drawals, removals from the state, and non-payment of dues; 
and that 12 new members were elected; the number at the be- 
ginning of the year 1914 being 78. 

At 9:45 the reading of papers was resumed and continued 
until all were finished and adjournment was had at 12:30. 
There were 30 papers on the program, of which only two were 
read by title, the others being given by their authors. 

The membership of the Academy at the present time is as 
follows—those present at the meeting being indicated by a *: 


Allen, W. M.; Balcomb, E. E.; Booker, Warren H.; Boomhour, J. G.; 
*Brimley, C. S.; Brimley, H. H.; Bruner, S. C.; Cain, William; Clapp, 
S. C.; *Cobb, Collier: Cobb; Wim., B.; ‘Coker; R:-H,; *#@oker, Wee 
*Collett, R. W.; *Cunningham, Bert; Dixon, A. A.; Downing, J. S.; 
*Edwards, C. W.; *Farmer, C. M.; *Fulton, H. R.; *George, W. C.; 
Gove, Anna M.; *Gudger, E. W.; Hammel, W. C. A.; Harding, W. T.; 
Herty, C. H.; Hobbs, A. Wilson; Hoffmann, S. W.; Holmes, J. S.; 
Holmes, J. A.; *Hutt, W. N.; *Ives, J. D.; Kilgore, B. W.; Lanneau, 
J. F.; *Lay, George W.; Lewis, R. H.; McIver, Mrs. Chas. D.; MacNider, 
W. de B.; *Markham, C. B.; Mendenhall, Gertrude W.; *Metcalf, C. L.; 
*Metcalf, Z. P.; Mills, J. E.; Newman, C. L.; *Norton, W. C.; *Patterson, 
A. H.; *Pegram, W. H.; Poteat, W. L.; *Pratt, J. H.; Radcliffe, Lewis; 
Ragsdale, Virginia; *Randolph, E. Oscar; Rankin, W. S.; Robinson, 
Mary; *Sherman, Franklin, Jr.; Shore, C. A.; *Smith, J. E.; Stiles, C. 
W.; Strong, Cora; *Totten, Henry R.; Venable, F. P.; Wheeler, A. S.; 
Williams, I, F.; *Wilson, H. V.; *Wilson, R. N.; Winters; Rees. 
Withers, W. A.; *Wolfe, J. J. 


In addition to the presidential address, which is published 
in full in this number, the following papers were presented : 


a 


1914 | Procrrepines N. C. AcapEMY oF SCIENCE 63 


ECONOMIC GEOLOGY OF CHAPEL HILL, N. C. AND VICINITY. 


Joun E. Smiru 


GENERALIZED SECTION oF MANTLE Rock, 


MSO hop soil, ted to'gray or black........2...cc+s ces I to 3 feet 
2. Subsoil, fine, somewhat compact, red to yellow clay...... 3 to 10 feet 
au@lay, coarse and lumpy, with some sand................- 5 to 20 feet 
4. “Natural Sand-Clay,” feldspar, quartz, sand and clay....10 to 20 feet 
5. Fragmental Rock, angular, decayed, size 2 to 4 inches....10 to 20 feet 
6. Fragmental Rock, coarser and fresher than that in 5.... 5 to 15 feet 
7. Granite, “Bed Rock,” “Country Rock.” 


This region serves as a type for Piedmont areas in which granite is 
the underlying rock—about one-third of the Piedmont Belt. 

Zone No. I is the surface soil of the upland and is used in agriculture 
and in road building. No. 2 provides clay suitable for brick and tile. 
As the topography is mature and these zones have been removed by ero- 
sion from much of the area, the value of the land is low. The material 
of zone 4 makes good sand-clay roads. This is approximately horizontal 
and outcrops on the slopes where valleys have been cut below its depth. 
Stream sand is used in making mortar and in road construction. 

This mantle rock forms an excellent filter and most wells in it are 
free from contamination. Excepting the mountain region, these are the 
most healthful areas in the South. 


AN ACHLYA OF HYBRID (?) ORIGIN 
W. C. Coxer. 


An Achlya was described from Chapel Hill, N. C. with pecularities 
that suggest a hybrid origin. The tips of the hyphae often die and the 
growth is then extended as a side branch below the dead tip. The 
spores show a strong tendency to poor organization, the protoplasm often 
segregating only imperfectly, and producing irregular masses of various 
sizes. The same is true of the eggs, which are of any size and almost 
never become perfectly organized, and die quickly. The plant seems most 
like Achlya polyandra Hildeband, but differs from it in the walls of the 
oogonia being pitted and in the abnormal behavior of the eggs. 

It is suggested that the plant may be a hybrid between A. DeBaryana 
Humphrey and A. apiculata DeBary. 


THE NURSE SHARKS OF BOCA GRANDE CAY, FLORIDA. 
E. W. Gupcer. 
Boca Grande Cay is an island of coral sand and mangroves lying about 


20 miles west of Key West. Situated on a shallow submarine platform, 
about 120° of its circumference is surrounded by sand flats inhabited 


64 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHEty Society [August 


largely by sting rays. Another 140° of its circumference is bounded 
by a shallow gently sloping rock bottom on which the water a half mile 
from shore will not be over a man’s shoulders. On this rocky bottom, 
the nurse sharks, Ginglymostoma cirratum, come out to bask in the sun, 
to play, to breed, and possibly to feed. Here they are found in large 
numbers. A dozen can be seen at almost any time, and 33 have been 
counted in the sweep of the eye. 

These sharks in looks and habits much remind one of well fed pigs 
in a barnyard. They are much broader in the pectoral region than 
ordinary sharks, are sluggish in their movements, and are comparatively 
unafraid of man. They frequently lie in water so shallow that their 
dorsals project above the surface, and a number of times they allowed 
the boat to drift down over them and strike their fins before they would 
move. 

They lie with heads on each others pectorals or tails, or one will have 
his snout elevated on another’s flank, or they will lie heads and tails 
together or in a confused herd. Here again this similarity in habits to 
barnyard pigs is very noticeable. Further they often swim one after 
another to the number of three or four in an aimless fashion, each one 
following the purposeless turnings of its leader. 

They are perfectly harmless. Their mouths are small and filled with 
small pointed teeth. They are omniverous in feeding, like most sharks, 
but their food seems chiefly to be crustacean, probably consisting of 
the large spiny “crawfish” common on the reef and on rocky bottom of 
any kind. 

Under the circumstances noted above, there is, of course, no difficulty 
in killing these sharks. Ordinarily shark fishing is good sport, but kill- 
ing nurse sharks is no more exciting than sticking pigs in a barnyard. 
Indeed the Key West fishermen contemptuously speak of them as 
“Nurses”, and of the other sharks as “sharks”. 

Work on the habits and embryology of this shark is being carried on 
under the auspices of the Marine Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution 
of Washington situated at Tortugas and will be continued this summer. 


FLOWERS AND SEED DEVELOPMENT OF SPECULARIA 
PERFOLIATA. 


H. R. Torren anv J. A. McKay. 


There are two kinds of flowers, conspicuous open ones with normal 
corollas and small bud-like flowers that never open. The last or cleist- 
ogamic flowers were described carefully by von Mohl, as long ago as 
1863. 

It is the object of this paper to give the development of the seeds in 
the cleistogamic flowers. The seeds are of the same size and appearance 
as those borne in the open flowers. Four megaspores are formed and 


1914 | Procrepines N. C. AcapemMy or ScrENCcE 65 


the embryo-sac develops from the lower one. It is surrounded by a 
single nucellar layer and one thick integument. The endosperm nucleus 
forms a cellular endosperm from the first division. The young endosperm 
sends out a knob-like haustorium of one or two cells at each end. The 
suspensor of the embryo grows up into the micropylar haustorium, to 
some extent, forming a small enlarged knob there. As the seed grows 
the haustoria are encroached upon and destroyed. 


STUDIES IN THE TOXICITY OF COTTONSEED MEAL 
W. A. Wirue_rs, R. S. Curtis anp G. A. Roperts 


About one-hundred and seventy-five hogs were fed upon cottonseed 
meal or some fraction of it. The swine died in every case after eat- 
ing the meal for periods ranging on average from 59 to 96 days. Twenty- 
two rabbits fed on cottonseed meal died on average of 13 days. 

With different solvents used, the extract was usually nontoxic and the 
residue usually toxic. 

Green feed, liberal exercise and ashes seemed to be of some aid to 
pigs in overcoming the toxic effect of Cottonseed meal. Treatment of 
the meal with an alcoholic alkali rendered the meal non-toxic to rabbits. 

Citrate of iron and ammonia was effective with rabbits and ferrous 
sulphate was effective with swine as an antidote to the toxicity of cotton- 
seed meal. 


THE LOCUST TREE CARPENTER MOTH, A FORMIDABLE 
PARASITE OF THE OAK. 


J. J. Wore. 


In February, 1911, a white oak about fourteen inches in diameter, 
on the campus of Trinity College was seen to be severely injured as a 
result of the boring habits of what proved to be the larvae of Pryonoxys- 
tus robiniae, commonly known as the locust tree carpenter moth. The 
tree was cut and sections of the trunk split into two pieces. Numerous 
winding tunnels were found throughout the heart and sap wood of the 
trunk and larger limbs. From these were collected fourteen larvae of 
three distinct sizes—a fact supporting the view that the insect requires 
three years for its development. A portion of the trunk near the ground 
was riddled with holes—points of exit—in which wood destroying fungi 
had established themselves and threatened the destruction of the tree. 

The insect attacks several trees of the street, park and forest. Its 
habits render it a formidable pest. Means for its control on any large 
scale are at present wanting, but sporadic occurrences in trees of 
streets and parks might possibly be held in check by injecting into these 
tunnels a volatile poison and then plugging them with some waxy sub- 
stance. 


66 JOURNAL oF THE MircHetyi Society [August 


THE PECAN TWIG GIRDLER. 
C. L. METCALF. 


A detailed account of the egg-laying habits of Oncideres cingulata Say. 
The preliminary and supplementary maneuvers habitually performed 
(which result in the severing of numerous twigs from the tree in which 
the eggs are laid); with a brief account of the life-history, economic 
importance and methods of control of the pest in commercial pecan 
orchards. 


A ROUGH METHOD OF RECORDING SEASONAL 
DISTRIBUTION. 


C. S. BRIMLEY. 


The method I am about to describe is not meant to take the place of 
full records or complete data with regard to any group of living things 
in which one is particularly interested, but rather to provide a conven- 
ient means of summarising such records and also to record data con- 
cerning animals or plants in which one is less interested and therefore 
is not likely to take much trouble about. 

The method is briefly this, rule the left-hand pages of a blank book 
into 12 vertical columns, leaving enough space on the left for the names 
of the species to be recorded, and leaving the right hand page blank for 
any additional data. At the head of these twelve columns write the 
abbreviations, Jan., Feb., Mar., Apl., May., Jun., Jly., Aug., Sep , Oct., 
Noy., Dec., and when you have a record to make of a species, record it 
by the appropriate letter of the month in the column for that month, J. 
standing for early January, a for middle January, n for late January 
and so on, “early” signifying from the first to tenth inclusive, middle for 
from eleventh to twentieth, late from twenty-first to end of month. 

I have hundreds of species of insects recorded in this way and the rec- 
ords are both easy of access and very serviceable when one wishes to 
find at what period of the year any particular insect is likely to occur. 
Of course, separate records could be kept for each year and should, of 
course, be kept for different localities, but as a matter of course such a 
system would necessarily come into use mainly for the locality in which 
one spends the greater part of one’s time. 


SOME RARE PLANTS AND SINGULAR DISTRIBUTIONS IN 
NORTH CAROLINA. 


W. C. CoKEr. 
Announcement was made of the addition of a new tree to the flora 
of North Carolina. The Pin Oak (Quercus palustris DuRoi.) was found 


near Chapel Hill by Mr. J. S. Holmes, State Forester, in the fall of 1913. 
Rhododendron catawbiense Michx., supposed to be confined in this 


1914, | Procrrepines N. C. AcapEMY oF SCIENCE 67 


state to the tops of the highest mountains, was reported as growing at 
Chapel Hill, Hillsboro, and other places in Orange county, and stranger 
still at Cary (near Raleigh), and even at Selma which is well within the 
coastal plain. 

Venus’ Fly Trap (\Dionaea muscipula Ellis.). Evidence as to distri- 
bution of this remarkable plant was reviewed and it was concluded that 
that species is distributed from Buckville, S. C., to New Bern, N. C., and 
westward along the Cape Fear River to Fayetteville. 

The tuberous variety of Tall Meadow Oat grass (Arrhenatherum ela- 
tius (L,) Beauv., var. bulbosum) was exhibited from Chapel Hill. This 
is a recent introduction from Europe where it is known as a trouble- 
some weed. Within the last three years the U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture has received it occasionally from Virginia to Georgia. 

Blessed Thistle (Cnicus benedictus L,.) was shown to be a troublesome 
weed in Chapel Hill grain fields. 

Euonymus atropurpureus Jacq. This is found to be one of the rar- 
est shrubs in North Carolina, and known with certainty only from 
Chapel Hill. 


THE LAWN PROBLEM IN THE SOUTH. 
W. C. Coker AND FE. O. RANDOLPH. 


This paper attempts to find some way of solving the hard problem of 
lawn making in the South. Observations were made on many lawns, 
with various conditions of soil, exposure and care, to determine the 
grasses and weeds actually present. About six of the most promising 
grasses were carefully studied to determine their value and use as lawn 
cover. 

Exhibits were made in trays of good sods formed by these six grasses, 
and also of some of the worst lawn weeds. 


No abstracts have been received for the following papers: 


Movements of Plants—J. D. Ives. 

A Report on Local Protozoa—Z. P. Metcalf. 

By Raft and Portage—A Study in Early Transportation in North Caro- 
lina—Collier Cobb. 

The Case of the Riparian Owner—R. N. Wilson. 

Some Philippine Sponges—H. V. Wilson. 

Economic Minerals in the Pegmatite Dikes of Western North Carolina 
—J. H. Pratt. 

The Sclerotinia Disease of Clovers and Alfalfa—H. R. Fulton. 


The Use of Home-made Models as an Aid in Teaching Embryology— 
W. C. George. 


— 


68 JOURNAL oF THE MitcHeELy Society [August 


Electrical Conduction of Flowing Mercury—V. L. Chrisler, presented 
by A. H. Patterson. 

Microscopic Demonstration of Protozoan Spores, Used as Proof of 
Contamination of Food with Human Excrement—C. W. Stiles. 

Some Recent Developments in the Theory of X-Rays—C. W. Edwards. 

The Gyroscope and its Modern Applications (with a demonstration)— 
A. H. Petterson. 

The Coggins Gold Mine—J. H. Pratt. 

Geology in Relation to the Location of Highways in North Carolina— 
Collier Cobb. 

The Corn Bill Bug—Z. P. Metcalf. 

A Peculiar Case of Freezing—R. N. Wilson. 

The Nitrogen Tungsten Lamp—Bert Cunningham. 


E. W. Guncer. 
Secretary 


STUDIES OF THE ANIMAL LIFE OF NORTH CARO- 
LINA WITH SUGGESTIONS FOR A 
BIOLOGICAL SURVEY* 


FRANKLIN SHERMAN, JR. 


When it became known to me that the North Carolina Acad- 
emy of Science, at its last meeting (which I did not attend) had 
made the mistake of thrusting upon me the presidential honors 
for this session,—one of the first questions that arose in my 
mind was as to the topic, subject-matter and method of presenta- 
tion of the annual address. I have had special misgivings upon 
this subject because of the fact that my immediate predecessor, 
Mr. ©. S. Brimley, has tastes and views so similar to my own, 
that I feared that the thoughts which I might present would 
bear almost too close a resemblance to his. It is already known 
to some of you that Mr. Brimley and myself have been for some 
years accumulating records, data, and specimens bearing upon 
the occurrence and distribution of the native animals of the 
state. At our meeting in Greensboro in 1908 we presented a 
joint paper on the Life Zones of the state. Both of us have (both 
at these meetings and in technical journals) presented lists and 
data bearing on this topic, and Mr. Brimley’s Presidential Ad- 
dress a year ago upon the subject of ‘ Zoo-geography ” laid 
further emphasis upon this subject. 

In the hope that through the activities of the Academy, the 
individuals thereof, and the institutions represented in its mem- 
bership, we may be able to place these and related studies on a 
better footing, and in the further hope that the topic may carry 
some measure of interest to our visitors on this occasion, I now 
venture to open the subject of this address. 

When any person, scientist or layman, has his interest 
aroused by any new, strange or interesting plant or animal, 
among the first and most natural questions are these: What is 
its name? Does it normally live and thrive in this locality ? 
Where else does it occur? At what seasons are its activities evi- 


* Presidential Address before the North Carolina Academy of Science, Durham, N. C., 
May 1, 1914. (69) 
6 


70 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHELL SocretTy [August 


dent? Is it really rare? What are its economic relations, that 
is, is 1t beneficial, or harmful, or merely neutral? And if is 
neutral, or practically so, on which side of the balance would its 
weight be felt if it should in future increase to excessive num- 
bers ? 


These are logical and reasonable questions, and such as the 
public might expect biologists to be able to answer. Yet at 
present this information in any detail at least, is lacking for the 
majority of our native animals. North Carolina is not poorer 
in this respect than most other states, but it wuold seem to be a 
reasonable ambition to assemble and publish such facts and 
data, as would give us some reliable source for reference on 
such matters. 

A very little sincere study will show any student that the 
general public has little or no really definite knowledge to 
offer on these questions. For example, among our native ani- 
mals no group is more appreciated than the birds, yet if we ask 
even an intelligent layman to name the birds which he positively 
knows at sight, we will find that his list is pitifully scant, and 
his knowledge of these few indefinite. Even our favorite Mock- 
ing-bird is often confused with the Logger-head Shrike, a bird 
whose habits are totally different and which resembles the 
Mocker only in superficial appearance. A single female of the 
Rusty Blackbird would certainly often pass as a “ Catbird,” the 
whole group of dull-colored but interesting and important Spar- 
rows pass by such indefinite and misleading names as “ bush 
sparrows” and “ field birds,’ and the large family of Wood- 
warblers, which is the most gaily colored group of all and one of 
the most abundant in individuals and species,—is scarcely 
known at all except to bird students. 


And if this is true in the field of Ornithology, which is one 
of the most popular of all the branches of Biology, how much 
more is it true of the other branches, especially those which deal 
with the so-called “lower” and more obscure groups of ani- 
mals, and of plants? Even the most intelligent farmers have 
very little really definite knowledge of the weeds which annoy 
them, or of the insects which attack their crops. 


1914] Anima Lirn or Norru Caroma 71 


We can never expect that the general public will become 
really well informed on the subjects, but it is certainly in line 
with our duty as specialists in the study of these problems that 
we should aim to make this definite and exact information avail- 
able not only to ourselves but to our co-workers and to such other 
persons as may be sufficiently interested to study these subjects 
as amateurs. 

As soon as a group of animals (or plants) is proven or 
suspected to be of economic importance it becomes a fit subject 
for study by our recognized institutions, and results of such 
study usually find a ready means of publication in the bulletins 
and reports of agricultural or educational institutions. But data 
upon subjects the economic application of which is or seems to 
be remote, cannot so easily find a place for publication, especially 
if they deal with strictly state or local matters. Yet every stu- 
dent knows how ditticult it is to draw the line clearly between 
what is, and what is not, of economic bearing. Even an incon- 
spicuous form of life with apparently no economic relations, 
may on occasion prove to be important, hence if our studies are 
really to be broad we must include forms which for the present 
appear to be of no account. Recent developments in the field of 
Medical Entomology will make this clear. Only a very few 
years ago the common House-fly was regarded merely as an 
insect which annoyed us at times, but which was popularly be- 
lieved to ‘“‘keep the air pure”; but now we know that its life is 
associated with filth and is fraught with almost endless possibil- 
ities in the spread of serious diseases of mankind. The Mosqui- 
toes comprise another group of insects which we formerly re- 
garded merely as annoying, but which we now know to be con- 
cerned in the spread of both malaria and yellow fever, and much 
of the sanitary work now being done in Cuba, Panama and other 
tropical and sub-tropical localities is aimed at mosquito control. 
A few years ago an exhaustive study of the mosquito fauna of a 
state (North Carolina for instance) would have aroused skep- 
ticism and ridicule so far as its economic aspects were con- 
cerned,—now it appears highly desirable. Several states have 
made more or less exhaustive studies of the subject, notably 


72 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHEett Socrety [August 


New Jersey, and even in North Carolina, both the State Board 
of Health and the Public Health Service at Washington are 
making studies. 

Fortunately for the present day scientist, the public is rapid- 
ly coming to realize that an exhaustive study of what at first 
seem to be even the most abstruse subjects may ultimately yield 
results of far-reaching import, especially if they have to do with 
natural laws or principles upon which all of our life and our 
activities are dependent. The microscopist studying forms in- 
visible to the naked eye may appear to be interested in matters 
which are of literally small concern, but it was just such studies 
that laid the foundations for all of our present knowledge of 
bacteriology and verified the existence of bacteria themselves. 

Broadly speaking, the students of American fauna are di- 
vided into two great schools: (1) Those who are interested 
primarily in the study of principles of life, death, reproduction 
and development,—experimental biology and morphology, and 
(2) Those who are interested primarily in knowing the numer- 
ous species themselves, their classification, distribution over the 
earth, and the seasons during which they may be found. It is 
more especially this latter phase of the subject to which I now 
invite your attention: 


Parker and Haswell (1897) have divided our animal king- 
dom into 12 branches or phyla. All of what we popularly know 
as the “ higher ” animals, fishes, batrachians, reptiles, birds and 
mammals (including man) fall into one of these 12 phyla. Were 
I preparing this discussion for an audience of strictly technical 
zoologists, scientific accuracy would demand that I discuss them 
in proper scientific order, but as it is the function of this ad- 
dress to put ideas into shape so that they may be understood by 
persons not technically interested, I shall for the purposes of 
this discussion, divide our fauna (animal life) into seven groups 
as follows: 


Invertebrates 


2. Fresh-water and Land Invertebrates—not insects. 
(no backbone) 


1. Marine Invertebrates. 
3. Insects. 


1914| Anima Lire or Norru Carorrna 73 
4. Fishes. 
Vertebrates 5. Reptiles and Batrachians. 
(with backbone) ) 6. Birds. 
7. Mammals. 


Thus all the invertebrated animals, which are technically di- 
vided into eleven groups, are here put into three, and the verte- 
brated animals which technically comprise only one group, are 
here for easier understanding, divided into four. 

In this division we must remember that there is much over- 
lapping of forms, especially in the water-inhabiting inverte- 
brates, for a single zoological group may contain some species 
living in fresh water, and others which are strictly marine. 

What progress has been made in the study of what our state 
affords in these several groups? Remembering that several of 
these groups contain thousands of species, my hearers will ex- 
cuse me if I fail to discuss all the groups in full detail. 


I. MARINE INVERTEBRATES 


This group includes thousands of small, little-known forms 
of life, along with a host of larger and better-known forms. Such 
work as has been done in listing and making known our species 
has been chiefly at the government Biological Laboratory at 
Beaufort where there are special facilities for work. Dr. H. V. 
Wilson, of the State University, informs me that the sub-groups 
of this group which are best known from the systematic stand- 
point are: 


The Coelenterates (Jelly-fishes, Sea-anemones, Corals, etc.) 
Echinoderms (Star-fishes, Sea-urchins, Brittle-stars, Feath- 
er-stars, Sea-cucumbers. ) 
Crustacea (Crabs, Lobsters, Shrimp, etc.) 
Mollusca (Bivalved shells, Conchs, snails, etc.) 


Dr. Wilson informs me that the larger forms of Crustacea 
will be thoroughly listed in a paper soon to be published by Dr. 
Hay, of Washington, and Dr. Shore, of Raleigh. This list in- 
cludes parts of several of the most important zoological groups, 
but leaves the whole group of one-celled animals largely unex- 


74 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHEt. Socrety [August 


plored, except that the marine forms have been partially studied 
at Beaufort by Professor Edmundson of the University of 
Oregon. Comparatively few of the marine worms appear to 
have been recorded, much less has the geographical range of 
these on our coast been worked out. 

Our three prominent capes, Fear, Lookout, and Hatteras, 
each presumably mark the northern or southern distribution of 
certain species of marine and coast-inhabiting animals. Perhaps 
no other one locality on our coast offers so good a field for system- 
matic collecting as Beaufort, but the thorough student of the 
distribution of our coast forms would wish to explore both sides 
of each of these three capes. 

Studies from the morphological side of the subject have been 
conducted among the Porifera (sponges), the leader in this 
being Dr. Wilson, of our State University, also in the Coelenter- 
ates, Echinoderms, and larger species of Crustacea. 


II LAND AND FRESH-WATER INVERTEBRATES ,—NOT INSECTS 


Such common forms as earth-worms, snails, crayfish, centi- 
pedes, millipedes, spiders, ticks and mites are here included. 
Entimologists incidentally accumulate some knowledge of milli- 
pedes, spiders and ticks on account of their obvious affinities 
to, or association with, insects,—but the true worms and snails 
have been very little studied, though every person in this au- 
dience has known them from childhood. Verily, it is often the 
commonest things of which we know the least. If I could adver- 
‘tise, and here place on exhibit even the smallest bit of entirely 
lifeless matter genuinely known to have come from the planet 
Mars, I doubt not that this hall would be crowded with persons 
eager to quench their thirst for knowledge by gazing at the 
specimen, yet many of those same persons would not know that 
some of the common snails in our gardens naturally have a 
shell, while other common snails naturally never have a shell. 

Mr. C. S. Brimley has studied the spiders and millipedes 
of Raleigh to some extent, and Mr. Nathan Banks, of the Na- 
tional Museum at Washington, has collected spiders quite assidu- 
ously for several weeks in the vicinity of Black Mountain, but 


ae oe 


Res a 


1914 | ANIMAL Lire or Nortu Caroiina 15 


here our knowledge of the state fauna in this group comes prac- 
tically to a standstill, save for some earlier accounts and descerip- 
tions of our spiders published by Mr. Hentz, and by Prof. At- 
kinson. 

II. INSECTS 


We now come to a group which in numbers of species far 
out-ranks all others, indeed, it far out-ranks all others combined. 
Aproximately four-fifths of all known species of animals are 
insects. Furthermore in their economic aspects they are ex- 
tremely important, not only as pests to crops, domestic animals 
and to man, but also as carriers of important diseases. A few 
have been domesticated to form distinct commercial assets, 
such as the silk-worm and the honey-bee, while others are useful 
as natural enemies of the destructive sorts. 

It is but natural that so important a group as this should 
attract students, and not only are there amateur entomologists 
(though very few in North Carolina), but both Federal and 
State governments have seen fit to employ persons in the study 
of this group,—mostly on the purely economic questions in- 
volved,—but to some extent on the systematic and morpholo- 
gical sides as well. And it is essential that a student in ento- 
mology should have some knowledge of insect classification, 
else he will surely become entangled, confused and seriously 
misled among the innumerable closely related species. It has 
been an ambition of the speaker ‘to contribute in some degree 
toward making known the insect fauna of the state, and in this 
effort he had help not only from those officially associated with 
him, but from Mr. C. S. Brimley, of Raleigh, Rev. A. H. 
Manee, of Southern Pines, and from specialists in other states 
who have identified many specimens and who in some instances 
have taken an actual part in exploring our rich and varied in- 
sect fauna. 

For our purposes we may consider our Insects as falling 
into seven principal groups, though there are several other 
smaller groups, some of which fall readily into one or another 
of the seven, and some of which do not. 


The seven main groups are: 
2 


a 


76 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHEti Society [August 


1. Roaches, Crickets, Katydids, Grasshoppers, etc., Orthoptera. 
Cicadas, Scales, Plant-lice, Squash-bug, Electric-light bug, and re- 
latives, Hemiptera. 

Dragon-flies, May-flies, Stone-flies, etc., Neuroptera. 

Moths and Butterflies, Lepidoptera. 

House-fly, Mosquitoes, Gnats, and relatives, Diptera. 

Beetles, hard-shelled, with wing-covers meeting straight down 
back, Coleoptera. 

Ants, Bees and Wasps, Hymenoptera. 


AML YW 


a 


(1) The first group is decidedly the smallest in number 
of species and is one of the easiest to collect and study owing 
to the average large size of the insects, and the ease with which 
many of them can be collected. The group is of some active, 
and great potential, economic importance. Owing to ‘the fact 
that few if any of our species ever indulge in long sustained 
flight or migrations, they are good subjects for the study of 
distribution. For all these reasons the group has received some 
special attention. 

The recorded state fauna in this group, includes approxi- 
mately 160 species. Analyzing our card-catalogue data, we find 
that these records are drawn from exactly 102 post office locali- 
ties, counting distinct mountain peaks as localities. But that 
many of these are merely isolated, scattering records is shown 
by the fact that only eighteen localities are credited with 15 or 
more species, only nine show more than 25, while only two 
show more than 50 species. Raleigh, with 115 species is the 
only locality whose species are at all fully recorded. Asheville 
comes next with about half of its probable forms listed. South- 
ern Pines, Waynesville, Blowing Rock and Wilmington have 
enough records to give a fair idea of their characteristic forms, 
but in all of these, save possibly Raleigh, a large share of the 
smaller and rarer forms still awaits discovery by the careful 
student of distribution. So while the list of species for the state 
as a whole is fairly complete we are much lacking in data as 
to the exact range of the species within the state as well as the 
exact seasons during which they may be found. And to my 
mind the listing of our fauna, to be at all complete, should not 
only include the species occurring but also show ‘their geogra- 
phical and seasonal distribution. A list of species if at all com- 


1914 | Anima Lire or Norte Caroiina Te 


plete is enlightening, but it becomes vastly more useful if it 
also shows where and when the species are to be found. 

Let us see to what extent the geographical range of this 
group as a whole has been determined for our state. On this 
point we can indicate the recorded distribution of 155 species. 


Records indicating distribution over whole state............ 28 species. 
Records indicating distribution on coast only................. I species 
Records indicating distribution in eastern half............... 22 species. 
Records indicating distribution in central portion........... II species, 
Records indicating distribution western half................. 16 species. 
Records indicating distribution mountains only............. 20 species. 
Recorded from few scattered localities.................... IQ species. 
mecoreed irom only one locality... .............0ccceccsees 38 species. 


Remembering that we are now discussing a group of insects 
which has immense latent powers for evil, it can readily be seen 
that ‘this kind of data, the more complete the better, can be 
drawn upon in defining the area where damage is likely to be 
serious when any species threatens. If a grasshopper suddenly 
becomes a pest in any locality we have a valuable clue to the 
possible ultimate meaning of the outbreak if we know the dis- 
tribution of the species. If thorough records were available 
for all we might say of any one species: 

“This insect occurs only in such and such an area, hence 
persons outside of this area are free from danger by it except by 
its possible migration or artificial spread.” Without such defi- 
nite and comprehensive data we must wait for each outbreak to 
show us, after the fact, just where each species is capable of 
damage. This same kind of definite information as to the dis- 
tribution of all other groups of animals could be drawn upon 
in the same way. This group merely serves as a type to illus- 
trate the point. Every man engaged in scientific work knows 
how dangerous is the policy of off-handed and unguarded dec- 
laration, but when one has his opinions backed by ample evi- 
dence secured by painstaking study of the facts, even his guess 
is of value. 

(2) In the second group of insects, including the true bugs, 
a very considerable body of data has been accummulated, though 


78 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHELL Society [August 


up to the present, only a portion has been published. <A very 
consederable portion of the group is under study by Prof. Z. 
P. Metcalf, and other portions are well represented in the col- 
lections of Mr. C. S. Brimley, and the State Department of 
Agriculture. 

(3) The third group, including the Dragon flies (also known 
as Mosquito hawks), May-flies, Stone-flies and related forms, is 
of relatively little economic importance, though many of them 
are of extreme biological interest. Mr. Nathan Banks, of the 
National Museum at Washington, found enough of interest in 
the North Carolina material submitted to him, so that he pub- 
lished a list of the state species known to him. In the intro- 
duction to his paper he says: 

“North Carolina has a large and interesting Neuropterid 
fauna, and of particular interest is the Panorpodes, a genus 
elsewhere known only from Oregon and Japan.” Mr. Banks 
has since done considerable collecting in vicinity of Black Moun- 
tain. 

Of ‘the sub-groups here represented our Dragon-flies (also 
appropriately known as “Mosquito Hawks”) are perhaps best 
known. As these insects are water-breeders the species are 
more abundant in the east. Our approximately 100 species are 
recorded from nearly 50 localities, and certainly include the 
majority of species, yet the real Dragon-fly fauna of only one 
locality (Raleigh) it at all thoroughly known (67 species), 
Southern Pines and Havelock have a record of 32 to 39 species 
each, Lumberton shows 20 on record, while all the other locali- 
ties show only a few each. 

(4) The Moths and Butterflies comprise the most popular 
of all the groups of insects, on account of both the beauty and 
harmlessness of the adults. The Moths especially are of econo- 
mic importance as the caterpillars of many are very destructive. 
The larger Moths occurring at Raleigh have been collected by 
Mr. Brimley and some have been published, but there are a 
host of smaller, hard-to-identify species which have been by no 
means thoroughly worked up. The day-flying Butterflies 
are better known though some additions are yet to be made in 
the “skipper” group of Butterflies. 


ee eee ee ee eee 


1914 | ANIMAL Lire or Nortu CaroLina 79 


Of Butterflies our list records about 115 species, and the 
records are from numerous localities over the state. Raleigh 
and Tryon lead with from 80 to 89 species. Cranberry and 
Southern Pines show 58 to 65 species. Localities showing from 
20 to 32 species are: Beaufort, Lumberton, Goldsboro, Blowing 
Rock, Hendersonville and Andrews. These localities are suffi- 
ciently scattered and include a sufficiency of species to give us 
a reasonably satisfactory knowledge of the distribution (both 
geographical and seasonal) of most of the species. With the 
Butterflies our knowledge is if anything more nearly complete 
than for any other group of insects, though it is a relatively 
small group of relatively conspicuous insects, hence the data does 
not involve as laborious work as with some of the other groups. 


ccanded ssnrome Whole sStates on. les come sis crete css sates een 38 species. 
Miorimtains, -Onlyat 2 oe. .c secs iG CAB O OCC OROON ECO aE nT Ee I2 species. 
Westward but not confined to mountains.................. 13 species. 
Coast: tines opp Gurney Oeninc on Eco Soe boac et coco Ono UROeEren 2 species. 
Basiwardeupitt snOt il mountains.s..c..cc0 cess ose esce sees ce I4 species. 
Mee PME TEC OLRETING: 40.00 a se fess erste cavciehs celine Saree Gost oe eae 28 species. 


Here, as in the group containing the grasshoppers, we find 
that a very considerable portion of our species show a more or 
less definitely marked area over which they may occur. 

(5) The True Flies comprise another very extensive group, 
many of which are small and delicate, hence their study presents 
special difficulties. But they are of much economic importance, 
especially in the light of recent discoveries of the part which the 
blood-sucking and house-inhabiting species play in the spread 
of human diseases. From the standpoint of Medical Entomo- 
logy this is the most important group of all, so far as present 
knowledge goes. The group is quite well divided into a large 
number of families, a few of which have been studied to some 
extent, the Horse-fly family perhaps the most thoroughly of all. 
Of this family 41 species are on record for Raleigh, and about 
28 each for Southern Pines and Havelock, with lesser numbers 
from a host of other localities. 

The Mosquito fauna of the state is not yet well known, 
though there are indications that the present activities in health 
work will sooner or later give us some substantial knowledge of 
our forms and their distribution. Out of a fauna probably 


80 JOURNAL OF THE MircHett Society [August 


numbering 35 species we only have positive record of a little 
over half that number. But as showing what striking facts even 
a little study of a state fauna may reveal, I may say that when 
Mr. Brimley began to collect the mosquitoes of Raleigh he soon 
found that the genuine yellow fever mosquito is one of our 
very commonest late summer varieties, in fact at times out- 
numbers any other. How widely is it distributed over the 
state? That we do not know, but it is just such information 
that a comprehensive biological survey of the state might fur- 
nish. Wherever that species of mosquito occurs, yellow fever 
might become epidemic if a victim of the disease should come 
into the locality, where it does not occur the disease could not 
become epidemic, according to present knowledge. Nor is the 
distribution of our malaria-carrying mosquitoes by any means 
fully known. Hence the need of more study on this group, 
as with ‘the others also. 

The large and beneficial family known as Syrphus-flies is 
being studied by Mr. C. L. Metcalf, and already our state list 
will compare favorably with that published for any other state. 

(6) The Beetles comprise several thousand North Caro- 
lina species, only partially known as yet. Southern Pines and 
Raleigh have more species recorded than any other localities. 
The good showing of Southern Pines is due to the activities of 
Rey. A. H. Manee, who has collected upward of 900 species of 
beetles in that one locality. Many of the Southern Pines records 
in other groups are based on material collected by him. Working 
alone except for the help of specialists far from his locality, with- 
out access to large libraries or collections, Mr. Manee has never- 
theless contributed a large number of interesting records. 

I have said that this group has many species. As proof of 
this I may say that our card-catalogue now has credited to 
Southern Pines 845 species of beetles, to Raleigh 697 species, 
to vicinity of Waynesville 284 species, while very material con- 
tributions have come from Cape Hatteras, Beaufort, Chapel 
Hill, Greensboro, Hendersonville, Asheville, Lake Toxaway, 
Round Knob, Highlands, and Blowing Rock, and lesser num- 
bers from other localities too numerous to mention. Much 
material in the group has never yet been identified nor recorded. 


a 


1914] Antmau Lire or Norru Caroiina 81 


Considerable unrecorded collections have been made by Mr. 
Fiske at Tryon and by Mr. Beutenmuller among the Black 
Mountains. So it can be truly said that while our records may 
look formidable to the layman they in reality represent only 
a fair start on the list of beetles for the state. 

(7) In the group comprising the Ants, Bees and Wasps 
very little thorough work has been done, and still less has been 
published. A paper on the “Ants of North Carolina” by Dr. 
W. M. Wheeler has been published, based largely on material 
collected by Mr. Beutenmuller in the Black Mountains. This 
group as a whole is beneficial and only a small proportion of 
the species are even potentially threatening to agriculture, and 
as many of ‘them can sting, the collecting of them is attended by 
a certain degree of difficulty. Hence it happens that up to the 
present no resident collector of the state has become especially 
interested in the group, and many hundreds of our native forms 
are yet unrecorded. 

Aside from the records from specified localities, our records 
show many species of insects which are credited merely to 
“North Carolina,” with no indication of the locality where, or 
season when, they were collected. Such records are for the most 
part relics of the earlier days when collectors had not yet 
realized the value of locality and season records. But we now 
fully realize that to say that a specimen came from “North 
Carolina” means very little, for a considerable number of our 
eastern insects show affinities with the fauna of Florida, while 
many from the mountains suggest the fauna of Canada or the 
White Mountains of New England. 

It would not be fair to leave this consideration of our insect 
fauna without naming some of those whose labors have added 
most to our knowledge. Of persons from outside the state who 
have collected here may be mentioned Prof. Morse of Wellesley 
College, Mr. C. W. Johnson of Boston, Mrs. Slosson of Staten 
Island, Mr. Beutenmuller of New York, Messrs. Laurent, Rehn 
and Hebard of Philadelphia, and Messrs. Hubbard, Schwarz, 
Banks and Fiske of Washington. Of outsiders who have iden- 
tified a material portion of our difficult species may be men- 
tioned Messrs. Schwarz, Heideman, Banks, Dyar, Coquillett, 


82 JOURNAL OF THE MrrcHeLi Socrery | August 


Caudell, Crawford and Barber of Washington, and Professors 
Osborn and Hine of Ohio State University. Helpful lists of 
North Carolina material in their collections have been received 
from Cornell University, and from Messrs. Englehardt, of 
Brooklyn, Nason of Illinois, and Fenyes of California. Of 
persons now or in the past resident in the state and from whose 
work valuable help has come are: Mr. H. K. Morrison, formerly 
resident at Morganton; Prof. G. F. Atkinson of Cornell, form- 
erly at our State University; Rev. A. H. Manee at Southern 
Pines, Mr. C. S. Brimley of Raleigh, and several men who 
have been associated with the speaker in the State Department 
of Agriculture, notably Messrs. Bentley, Woglum, Z. P. Met- 
calf and more recently his brother C. L. Metcalf. Doubtless 
there are others whom I have not mentioned but this is enough 
to show that the work upon our insect fauna has been by no 
means a one-man task. Merely a good start has been made upon 
this enormous, complex and yet highly important group. 


We now come to the vertebrated animals, forms with which 
we are more familiar, but in which each group contains, as com- 
pared with the insects, only a small number of species. First 
of these is the fishes. 


Iv. THE FISHES 


While North Carolina is well supplied with streams and 
these streams are inhabited by a representative variety of native 
fishes, yet the vast majority of species which can be claimed as 
belonging to the fauna of the state, are found in our coastal 
waters. Fresh-water forms have been collected in the past by 
Messrs. H. H. and C. 8. Brimley, and by such world authori- 
ties as Jordan and Everman, but it was not until after the estab- 
lishment of the Biological Laboratory at Beaufort, that com- 
prehensive data began to accumulate in regard to our marine 
forms, and it remained for Dr. Hugh M. Smith, U. S. Commis- 
sioner of Fish and Fisheries, to bring ‘the data together in the 
“Fishes of North Carolina,’ published by our Geological and 
Economic Survey in 1907. It is indeed a splendid volume, 
and sets a high standard for works of this kind, and places our 


a 


1914 | AniMat Lire or Norru Carorrna 83 


recorded fish fauna upon a plane where it will compare most 
favorably with any other state. Dr. Smith acknowledges help 
from many co-workers, among them the Messrs. Brimley, and 
Prof. Gudger and Dr. Wilson of our Academy of Science. 


V. REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS 


The species of this group furnish a most excellent basis for 
studies in geographical distribution as they do not migrate to 
any considerable extent. While the number of species is not 
great many of them are of secretative habits, and as the group 
as a whole bears a rather unfavorable reputation, few persons 
have undertaken the serious study of our native forms. In no 
other group of animals is there so much of popular misunder- 
standing, superstition, unfounded tradition and fear. 


A few specialists from outside have taken an interest in our 
fauna in this group, but the bulk of our data, which is now con- 
siderable, has been both secured and preserved by our fellow- 
member and proficient herpetologist, Mr. C. S. Brimley. Our 
reptile fauna is richest in the east, the batrachians are more 
evenly distributed over the whole state with many species con- 
fined to the mountain springs and rills. The forms occurring at 
Raleigh and Havelock are reasonably well known, and of those 
at Wilmington, Kinston, Black Mountain, Blantyre (Transyl- 
vania Co.), Andrews (Cherokee) and Sunburst (Haywood), 
the study is well advanced, while lesser but material contribu- 
tions to what is known come from a number of other well-dis- 
tributed and significant localities, including Beaufort, Cape 
Hatteras, White Lake (Bladen), Southern Pines, Greensboro, 
Winston, Highlands, Blowing Rock, Roan Mountain and Burns- 
ville. 

Here again I may call attention to a gap in our knowledge 
of an important animal. The Coral Snake, which is a poisonous 
species, is generally reputed to range from about Charleston, 
S. C., to the southward. There is one recent, authoritative rec- 
ord of its occurrence at Southern Pines. Presumably it oc- 
curs sparingly in other parts of our south-eastern area, but 
exactly where it does occur, no one knows. The distribution of 


84 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHELL Society [August 


our other poisonous snakes is only partially known in detail, 
though the general regions inhabited by them can be defined. 


VI. BIRDS 


Of all the native animals undoubtedly the Birds hold first 
place in popular favor and we have had more resident observers 
of birds ‘than of any other group. <A very large body of records 
has been compiled and is now in course of being published by 
the Geological Survey. The authors are the Messrs. Brimley 
and T, G. Pearson, formerly a resident of the state and member 
of our organization. The Volume will, we hope, be a fitting 
companion to the one on Fishes, already referred to. In this 
group, fairly complete data is at hand from four localities 
which well represent the chief sections of the state, they are: 
Beaufort, Raleigh, Chapel Hill and vicinity of Asheville. Tri- 
bute should here be paid to the pioneer work of Mr. C. W. 
Cairns (now deceased), of Weaverville. Working single-handed 
in his leisure hours, he made known a large part of the bird-life 
of the Asheville region, and made material contributions to what 
we know of other groups in that section. 

But even in this relatively well-known group we find some 
curious and awkward gaps in our definitely recorded data. Thus» 
Currituck County has a record of 37 species of water-fowl and 
shore birds, but the Sharp-shinned Hawk is the only land bird 
on positive record. Another case in point is found in the group of 
owls. The Barred Owl is probably our most common and wide- 
ly distributed owl, but has found its way into our records of 
only four localities, while the Barn Owl, which is one of our 
least common owls is recorded from no less than thirteen dis- 
tinct localities. As with many other things the explanation is 
easy when you know it. The Barred Owl is not especially con- 
spicuous and creates no striking impression when seen, hence 
the hundreds that are doubtless killed every year excite no curi- 
osity and only the bird student who is interested in placing every 
species on exact record, takes actual note of its presence. But 
the much scarcer Barn Owl, is of striking and ludicrous appear- 
ance, and so seldom seen that when one is captured the captor 
is apt to think that he has discovered a new species of bird, and 


Si a Pm cic as 


; 


1914 | Anima Lire or Nortu Carorina 85 


not infrequently gets his name in the local paper with a sufti- 
ciently accurate description of the bird, so that it can be posi- 
tively recorded. 

In this connection I may call your attention to two more in- 
teresting facts brought to light in the study of our bird fauna. 
Until about 1900 the Song Sparrow, which is a delightful singer 
and a favorite in regions where it nests, was known in this state 
only as a winter resident, leaving for the north at the approach 
of the nesting season. Neither Cairns, or other very competent 
observers ever recorded it as nesting in our mountains, though 
their observations were comprehensive and reliable. We have 
every reason to believe that this fine little bird did not stay in 
our state at all through the summer during that period of time. 
But about 1900 records of its occurrence in our mountains in 
summer began to creep in, and in 1908 Mr .C. S. Brimley and 
the speaker confirmed its presence during the nesting season in 
a number of our mountain localities and data has since accu- 
mulated to show that it is now one of our commonest nesting 
birds throughout our mountain region. Another interesting 
fact is that in 1908 observations showed that the pestiferous 
English-sparrow was not established in the town of Highlands 
(Macon County) and the most common bird of the street and 
door-yards was the native Carolina Junco or “snow bird”. 


It is an interesting fact that Raleigh and Asheville (vicini- 
ty) which are the two best studied localities, have exactly ‘the 
same number of species (207) on record. In water and shore 
birds, Raleigh has the greater number by three, while with the 
land birds the case is reversed. Only three other localities, 
namely Beaufort, Havelock and Chapel Hill, have over 100 
species on record. Reasonably creditable records are avail- 
able from Pea Island, Durham, Highlands, and Andrews, and 
material contributions have come from quite a number of other 
localities. 

Merely to observe and record the birds seen, is not especially 
difficult, for even an amateur can soon become fairly proficient 
in recognizing the species, but to obtain exact data on migra- 
tions, especially the fall migrations to the southward, and on the 
regions where each species nests, is far more difficult. Hence 


86 JOURNAL OF THE MitrcHeny Socrery [| August 


although much data has been secured from many persons in 
many localities, much of the more detailed work still remains 
unfinished, 

VII. MAMMALS 


This is the only group in which any considerable reliance 
can be placed on common report, and even here it must be ac- 
cepted with discrimination. If one can secure the positive 
statement from a reputable resident, that deer or bear occur in 
that locality the record can be accepted because the species are 
distinctive and cannot possibly be confused with other kinds. 
But when it comes to recording the different species of smaller 
mammals, like mice and bats, only careful collecting will re- 
veal the truth. In addition to what is known of the marine 
mammals of our coast, the land forms occurring at Raleigh and 
Asheville are quite well known, 36 at Raleigh and 27 at Ashe- 
ville. From 15 to 20 species are known from Bertie County im 
the east and Roan Mountain in the west. From 7 to 12 species 
are on record for eight other localities. 

Such is the condition of our recorded knowledge of the fauna 
of the state. I have not attempted to discuss the flora, though a 
study of it would be included in any attempt at comprehensive 
Biological Survey work, but I doubt not that in the flora as 
with the fauna, much is already known, with many equally 
important gaps in ‘the record. Upon this point our botanical 
members may, if they wish, enlighten us at other times. But 
we know they have not been negligent in the study of our varied 
forms of plant life, and we may hope that their ambitions will 
not be satisfied until they thresh out the questions of occurrence 
and distribution upon a reasonably comprehensive scale. 

The collection of such data as I have been attempting to dis- 
cuss is what we may properly term Biological Survey work. I 
have attempted to show that it means more than the mere listing 
and description of species. Of equal or even greater importance 
is the mapping out of the regions where the species occur, and in 
the case of those whose activities are seasonal, of defining the sea- 
sons when their important activities are evident. The need of 


ee 


a 


Je ee 


1914 | ANIMAL LirE or Nortu Carolina 87 


this is obvious for all forms which are of immediate economic 
importance. It is also apparent for all that host of forms which 
have potential powers for good or evil, while with the many 
forms which for the present seem to be of no direct importance 
we need the same data not only to strengthen and complete the 
chain of information, but because we never can tell when some 
unsuspected relationship between them and our welfare may be 
discovered. 

The accumulation of data of this kind and its publication, 
could but supplement and strengthen the work of those who are 
chiefly interested in the study of that other branch of biology,— 
morphology. And it would furnish a safer ground-work for 
such directly economic studies as the life-histories of destruc- 
tive insects, the spread of weeds and of fungous diseases of 
plants. Closely allied to it would be studies on the interplay 
of biological forces; influence of parasites on host of birds and 
insects, of birds in spread of weeds, of insects on spread of 
plant and animal diseases, ete. 

In state Biological Survey work, Illinois seems to be in the 
lead with a state Laboratory of Natural History established by 
law and supported by legislative appropriation since 1885. 

Certainly for the present I do not believe that North Caro- 
lina could be expected to appropriate of its public funds for 
work of ‘this kind, but I cherish the hope that those of our insti- 
tutions and individuals who are interested in biological work, 
may find some way to so correlate their efforts that more help 
may be given from one to another. Might we not hope by such an 
united effort to prepare and publish, as time goes on, volumes on 
the other groups of animals, as has already been done for the 
fishes? Can we not hope for similar work on the plants? The 
question of means for publication may appear serious, but the 
speaker is persuaded that when any worker or body of workers 
has secured and carefully assembled the data, that some means 
of publication and of illustration also, can be found. Our Geo- 
logical Survey has made a splendid start in this, and surely 
some way can be found for its continuance. 

During the past year, in Ohio, some twelve or more educa- 
tional institutions have united their efforts to establish the 


oe 


i 


88 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHELt SoctetTy [August 


work of a State Biological Survey in which all may take part 
and share in the benefits of the data and material collect2i. 
This plan had its origin in the Ohio Academy of Science. 
From the introduction to the first Bulletin of the Ohio Biolo- 
gical Survey the following is quoted: 


“The object of the Survey will be to secure accurate and detailed in- 
formation as to the occurrence, distribution and ecology of the animals 
and plants of Ohio, for the benefit of the people in general and particu- 
larly for those engaged in school instruction, and to collect, identify and 
distribute material that may be of service in educational work.” 

“The co-operative board is planned to consist of a representative from 
each institution and organization agreeing to the plan of co-operation and 
contributing a membership fee of $25.00, such representative to be ap- 
pointed by the executive officer in the institution or organization.” 


It seems to me that some similar method might be adopted 
by interested institutions in our state, making provision also for 
individuals who are not connected with institutions. Additionai 
funds might be needed as the work progressed, but some correla- 
tion of effort and interest would seem to be the first essential 
step. 

Notice that the Ohio plan involves the idea of making this 
work of benefit not only ‘to the workers themselves, but also to 
“the people in general.” This implies a popularization of the 
knowledge acquired by the Survey. In our own state I do not 
think the conditions were ever better nor the need more urgent 
for the popularization of all kinds of scientific knowledge than 
at present. Witness the extension work of our Agricultural 
College and State University, and the farm demonstration work 
conducted from Washington. North Carolina is still essentially 
a rural state. We have no large cities. Any able-bodied citizen 
can in a half hour walk from his residence into the woods and 


fields where Nature’s innumerable forms of life surround him - 


on every side. Man is himself an animal and derives his physi- 
cal sustenance from Nature’s substances, hence I am much in- 
clined to accept the remark I once heard from the lips of a dis- 
tinguished zoologist to the effect that “every person is by nature 
a potential naturalist.” Mr. Brimley tells me that in Eng- 
land a much larger proportion of the birds, flowers, and 


ppt tag 


1914 | Anta Lire or Nortu Carorina 89 


insects are called by familiar names by country children, than is 
the case here. In America we have thus far tended less toward 
the popular study of scientific subjects and this is ‘to be regret- 
ted. We need all over the state a popular awakening to the 
beauty, variety and importance of the forms of life around us. 
We need students who shall know our animals and who can 
instill an interest in them into the lay mind. We need other 
students to do the same for our flora. Both furnish delightful 
fields for recreation among persons who may be ordinarily en- 
gaged in commercial pursuits. 

What has thus far been accomplished in making known our 
plant and animal life has been done chiefly out of pure fondness 
for the subject itself, the material and data being gathered quite 
incidental to the performance of other duties. The accumula- 
tion of the data which I have here attempted to summarize, has 
been going on for many years. And if perchance it should 
seem to anyone that it is extensive, we may humble ourselves 
by remembering that what little is now known is but a meagre 
suggestion of what yet remains to be learned. 

RatricuH, N. C. 


THE OCCURRENCE AND UTILIZATION OF CER- 
TAIN MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE 
SOUTHERN STATES. 


(Continued from June Number) 
By JosepuH Hyper Prart. 


PLATINUM. 


A very systematic search has been made throughout a num- 
ber of the Southern States for platinum and grains of plati- 
num have been reported to have been found in the sands from 
placer gold washings in Rutherford and Burke counties, North 
Carolina’. Mr. W. E. Hidden made a very thorough search 
for platinum: at these reported localities but failed to dis- 
cover any, and the present writer has examined very carefully 
many of the reported localities without having discovered any 
native platinum. This metal has also been reported from a 

umber of localities in Georgia but they are no more authentic 
than those of North Carolina. Mr. Hidden said in regard to 
his exploration for platinum in the South: “I will state that 
at the many places where I operated I did not succeed in find- 
ing any traces of its existence.’ The southern states of Vir- 
ginia, North Carolina, Georgia and Kentucky have always 
attracted considerable interest from those who have been search- 
ing for platinum inasmuch as in these states are found large 
deposits of peridotite and serpentine, associated with which is 
more or less chromite. In many parts of the world where 
platinum has been found in alluvial deposits, it has been 
associated with chromite and serpentine. It has also been 
found directly associated with chromite, and as chromite ori- 
ginated in the serpentine, or rather in the primary rock, peri- 
dotite, it would seem to indicate that the original source of 
the platinum was also the peridotite or an allied igneous rock. 
Although no platinum has yet been found associated with these 
rocks in the South, it is not unreasonable to expect that some 
day it will be found ”. 


1U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 74, 1891, p. 14. 
2Pratt and Lewis: N. C. Geol. soared vol. 1, 1905, p. 373. 
90 


ee aye’ ce 9 © cml ela 


pee 


1914] Certain Minerat Resources 91 


Platinum in the form of arsenide (PtAs,), known as a 
mineral sperrylite, has been found very sparingly at the ruby 
mines in Cowee Valley, Macon County, North Carolina.* 


PRECIOUS STONES. 


The production of precious stones has never been very large 
in the Southern States but these states have produced some of 
the most unique and exquisite gems that have been found in 
the United States. Two of these gems, hiddenite * and rho- 
dolite ® were first identified in North Carolina and thus far 
have not been found in any other State. The first of these 
was discovered in 1881, at Hiddenite, Alexander County, and 
ranks near the diamond in price on account of its great rarity. 
The rhodolite was discovered in 1895 on Masons Branch of 
Cowee Creek, and has been quite extensively mined. North 
Carolina, Kentucky and Arkansas have been favorite fields 
of exploration for the diamond as all three of these states con- 
tain a rock that is very similar to the rock in which the dia- 
monds are found in South Africa. Diamonds have been fonud 
in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia 
in placer mining, but none have thus far been found in 
place. Very recently, diamonds have been found in Arkansas 
and the locality seems to give promise of developing into a 
genuine deposit of these gems. The Southern States of 
Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia have produced some 
of the finest amethysts that are on the market, and North 
Carolina has produced some of the most beautiful blue and 
golden beryls that have been found in the United States. 
Two other gems that have attracted a great deal of attention 
in the Southern States are the ruby and sapphire. As has 
been stated above, corundum occurs quite abundantly in the 
Southern States and in a great many of the mines blue and red 
corundum were discovered. This caused considerable interest in 
these deposits as a probable source of the ruby and sapphire, and 
although in many of these mines a few sapphires and an occa- 

%Am. Jour. Sci. Vol. V, pp. 294-296. 


*Am. Jour. Sci. Jbid. 
5Am. Jour. Sci. Ibid. 


92 JoURNAL oF THE MircHett Society [August 


sional ruby were found, none of them produced a great amount 
of material. A ruby deposit, however, was discovered in 1893, in 
Cowee Valley, Macon County, North Carolina, that has produc- 
ed some remarkably fine rubies equal in color and lustre to any 
of the Burma stones. Although these ruby deposits have been 
developed for a great many years, only a very small amount 
of material obtained has thus far found its way on the market. 


COMMERCIAL MINERALS ASSOCIATED WITH PEGMATITE.° 


Many of the minerals that were assigned to the author for 
discussion are associated with pegmatite. The mining of some 
of these has not proved profitable until some of the associated 
minerals could be produced and marketed. From some of the 
pegmatitic dikes in the Southern States several minerals are 
now being mined. Mica stands out prominently as the prin- 
cipal mineral obtained from these dikes, with kaolin a close 
second. The potash feldspars, which occur quite abundantly 
in some localities, have only recently been mined on account 
of their former distance from the railroad. 

These pegmatites are not all of the same origin, some being 
true dikes of igneous origin and others having an aqueo-igneous 
origin. I shall not try to take up here any discussion regarding 
the origin of the pegmatites. 

The three principal minerals of the pegmatitic dikes are 
quartz, feldspar, and muscovite mica, and these probably con- 
stitute about 95 to 99 per cent. of the dike. Besides these, 
there are a large number of minerals that have been found in 
these dikes, some occurring sparingly and others abundantly. 
There is given below a list of those minerals that are known 
to have been found in the pegmatitic dikes of the Southern 
States, and those which have been obtained in sufficient quanti- 
ty to be of value commercially are marked with an asterisk. 


LIST OF MINERALS FOUND IN THE PEGMATITIC DIKES OF THE 
SOUTHERN STATES 


Actinolite 
Albite* (Feldspar) 


®N. C. Geol. Survey. Economic Paper 3, 1900 p. U. S. Geol. Survey Min. Res. 


Bt = 


1914 | Certain Mrnerat Resources 


Allanite 

Almandite* (Garnet) 
Andradite (Garnet) 
Apatite 

Auerlite* 

Autunite 


Beryl* (emerald, yellow, blue and aquamarine) 
Biotite* (Mica) 
Brookite 


Cassiterite* 
Chabazite 
Columbite* 
Corundum* 
Cyanite 


Enstatite 
Epidote | 
Eucryptite 


= 
d igoclase 
Feldspar ( Orthoclase* 


Microline* 
Fergusonite 
Fluorite 
Gadolinite* 
Almandite 
Andradite 
Garnet Pyrope | 
Spessartite 
Graphite : : 
Gummite* (Uranium mineral) 
Hatchettolite 
Hematite 


Hiddenite (var. of Spodumene) 
Hyalite (var. of Opal) 


Ilmenite (Menaccanite) 
Tolite 


Kaolin* 
Limonite 


Magnetite 

= ; (Iimenite) 
: iotite 

Mica =a 

Microline (Feldspar) 

Microlite 

Molybdenite 

Monazite* 

Muscovite* (Mica) 


Nivenite 


93 


94 JOURNAL oF THE MircHEeLt Society [ August 


Oligoclase* (Feldspar) 
Opal (var. Hyalite) 
Orthoclase* (Feldspar) 


Phosphuranytile (Uranium mineral) 
Pyrite 

Pyrope (Garnet) 

Pyrophyllite 

Pyrrhotite 


Quartz* (Massive, crystallized and smoky) 


Rogersite 
Rutile 


Samarskite* 

Spessartite (Garnet) 

Sphene (Titanite) 
Spodumene* (var. Hiddenite) 


Tantalite 
Thulite (var. of Zoisite) 
Titanite (Sphene) 


opaz 
Tourmaline (Black) 
Uraninite* 
Gummite 
. . Phosphuranytile 
Uranium Minerals Uraninite 
Uranotil 
Uranotil 
Xenotime 
Yttrialite 
Zircon* 


Zoisite (var. Thulite) 


A number of the minerals in the above list are described 
below in considerable detail while others are but briefly 
mentioned, 

KAOLIN, FELDSPAR AND QUARTZ. 


One of the alteration products of the feldspar of the peg- 
miatitic dikes is kaolin. Some of the finest kaolin produced in 
the United States is obtained from the decomposed pegmatites 
in North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia. These kao- 
lins usually burn to pure white and are used in the manufac- 
ture of some of ‘the finest china ware, enameled brick, ete. 

In some of the dikes the feldspar is not altered at all and 
such dikes in Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia are being 


1914 | Certain Minerat Resources 95 


investigated for potash feldspar for use in the manufacture of 
pottery. Formerly this feldspar was too far from transporta- 
tion to be profitably mined, but now since the railroads have 
penetrated into these districts, these deposits are available; 
and several are now being worked in North Carolina. These 
feldspars contain from 12 to 14 per cent. of potash. 

Masses of quartz which are very pure are found in many 
of the pegmatitic dikes. It has two possible values: one for use 
in the manufacture of glass and the other in the manufacture 
of pottery. At the present time no quartz is being produced 
from these pegmatitic dikes for commercial purposes, but its 
prospective value is being investigated. 

With these three raw products that are used in the manu- 
facture of pottery—occurring abundantly in the Southern 
States—it is only a question of a little time when pottery 
manufacturing plants will be established somewhere in the 
South, and we will stop shipping all our raw products north 
and buying them back again in various forms of clay manu- 
factured products, thus paying double freight rates. In the 
vicinity of many of the pegmatitice dikes are water powers which 
would be available for grinding the quartz or feldspar in prep- 
aration for use in pottery works. 


RARE EARTH MINERALS. 


Several of the rare earth minerals have been found asso- 
ciated with the pegmatites in the Southern States in commer- 
cial quantity. A commercial demand having arisen for cer- 
tain chemical elements or compounds, mineralogical investiga- 
tions were begun to determine a probable source of these ele- 
ments, and in many instances the minerals containing them 
have been discovered in the South. Many of these elements 
have been required for use in the manufacture of certain light- 
ing apparatus, as thoria in the manufacture of the mantles 
for the incandescent lamps; zirconia and yttria in the manufac- 
ture of the glower for the Nernst lamp; tantalum for use in 
the electric bulb; uranium (only experimentally) in the elec- 
tric bulb; and tungsten in the manufacture of the tungsten elec- 
tric bulb. With the exception of tungsten, minerals contain- 


96 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELi Society [August 


ing all the other elements have been found in commercial 
quantity in the Southern States. Monazite, a source of thoria, 
and zircon, a source of zirconia, are described in considerable 
detail beyond. 

Uranium Minerals :—At several of the pegmatitic dikes in 
Mitchell and Yancey counties, North Carolina, the uranium 
mineral, uraninite and gummite, one of its alteration products, 
have been found in some quantity The amount of these miner- 
als found in the pegmatitic dikes does not warrant mining for 
them only, but as a by-product in mica mining they will add 
considerably to the profit of the mine. It is of interest to know 
that the uraninite obtained from the Flat Rock mine, near 
Spruce Pine, Mitchell County, has shown the highest radio- 
activity of any uranium mineral thus far found. 

Samarskite:—This mineral is one of the more abundant 
minerals containing the rare earth oxides, and large quantities 
of it have been found at the Wiseman mica mine in Mitchell 
County, North Carolina It is essentially a niobate and tan- 
talate of iron and calcium with the cerium and yttrium metals, 
together with uranium oxide The yttrium oxides vary from 
6 to 15 per cent., and the cerium oxides from about 2 to 6 
per cent. The color of samarskite is velvet black, and its lus- 
tre varies from vitreous to resinous and splendent. It is com- 
monly found massive or in flattened embedded grains, but oc- 
easionally in fairly well-developed prismatic rhombohedral 
crystals. Its usual occurrence is in pegmatitic dikes, and at 
the Wiseman mica mine, it has been found in masses over 
20 pounds in weight. At other mica mines in North Carolina 
it has been found more sparingly. 

Tantalum Minerals:—Columbite and tantalite, the two 
minerals that contain tantalum, are found to some extent in 
the pegmatites of the Southern States. Of these two the colum- 
bite is by far the commoner and occurs in greater abun- 
dance It has been found in some quantity near Amelia Court 
House, Amelia County, Virginia; the Wiseman and Deake 
mines, Mitchell County, and the Ray Mine, Yancey County, 
North Carolina; ‘tantalite has been found in Yancey County, 
North Carolina, and Coosa County, Alabama. Thus far, how- 


1914] Certain Mrnerat Resources 97 


ever, there has been no mining of either of these minerals for 
commercial purposes. 


MICA. 


The first micz mining in the Secuth was very evidently 
done by the Indians as old underground workings have been 
encountered, in some of which Indian implements have been 
found. That the Indians were attracted by the transparency 
of mica, probably for ornamental purposes, is shown by the old 
workings on mica veins that exist in western North Carolina. 
In a number of old workings which have been discovered and 
re-opened, stone Indian relics have been found. An interest 
ing discovery has recently been made in Ohio in some of the 
old Indian mounds, which have been opened, of beads which 
closely resemble pearls. The outer covering of these beads is 
minute scales of a partially altered mica. As no mica oc- 
eurs in Ohio, it must have been brought from some of the east- 
ern states and perhaps from the mines of this section. Just 
what use the North Carolina Indians made of the mica they 
obtained is unknown, but as it could be readily cut and made 
into all sorts of shapes and was transparent, it would natural- 
ly attract the Indian. 

The mining of mica for commercial purposes was first com- 
menced in 1867, in North Carolina, and the mica obtained 
was superior to any mica that had ever been put on the market, 
and immediately became the standard mica by which other 
micas were judged. Since that date mica mining has been 
carried on in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and 
Alabama, but with considerable variation in the production of 
the mineral. About 1885 there began the importation of mica 
(duty free) from India and a little later from Canada. This 
at once began to affect the Southern production, which con- 
tinued to decrease until the McKinley tariff bill became effec- 
tive in 1892-93, which placed a duty on mica. As one of the 
principal uses of mica was in stoves that were used for heating 
houses, there was a large falling off in the demand for the min- 
eral with the decrease in the use of stoves for this purpose fol- 
lowing the introduction of other methods for heating houses. 


98 JOURNAL OF THE MircHeti Society [| August 


Up to this time there was no use made of the scrap mica nor 
for the small sheets, and it was not until about 1890 that a 
demand arose for the small sheets and punched mica for elec- 
trical apparatus. This demand for the waste mica together 
with the duty caused a revival of the mica industry of the 
South. A use was also found for scrap mica, to be used in manu- 
facture of axle grease, wall paper, etc., which added greatly to 
the income of mica mining and greatly increased the produc- 
tion of the Southern mines. There has always been a strong 
competition between the Southern and the imported mica. The 
Southern mica was always able to easily compete with the for- 
eign when there was a large demand for it for stoves, but with 
the smaller demand for this purpose and the much larger de- 
mand for use in electrical purposes, for which the foreign mica 
gives equal satisfaction with the Sonthern mica the competition 
has been greater, and often to the disadvantage of the Southern 
mica. 


OCCURRENCE. 


The muscovite represents the most common mica and is 
very widely distributed, being a component of many of the 
erystalline and sedimentary rocks. In many of these it occurs 
in but small scales or crystals which have no commercial value. 
When, however, it occurs in blocks or masses which can be 
split into sheets an inch or more in diameter, it has a commer- 
cial value which increases with the size of the cut sheets, and 
these vary from 1 by 1 to 8 by 10 inches. These commercial 
deposits of mica are found for the most part in pegmatitie dikes 
or veins, which occur as intrusives in granite and in hornblende 
and mica gneisses and schists, and have been mined in Virginia, 
North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Alabama. These 
dikes or veins vary in thickness from a few inches to several 
hundred feet and are often very irregular, having arms or ap- 
ophyses branching off from them and extending out into the 
country rock in many directions. Sometimes these dikes are 
parallel to the bedding or schistosity of the gneiss or schist, and 
then again they break across it at varying angles. Both of 
these phenomena are often observed in the same dike. The 


1914] Certain Minerat Resources 99 


principal mineral constituents of these dikes are quartz, feld- 
spar, and muscovite mica, which occur in varying proportions. 
In examining these dikes it will be found that sometimes the 
quartz and feldspar are nearly equally distributed throughout 
a certain part of the vein, while in other parts sometimes one 
and again the other will predominate. Feldspar has been ob- 
served that has crystallized out in enormous masses of more 
than a ton in weight, and in one instance, at the Irby mine, 
near Spruce Pine, Mitchell County, North Carolina, a well- 
developed crystal of feldspar was observed that measured 3 
by 111-2 feet. Occasionally feldspar, quartz, and miica have 
separated out in rather small masses, giving the vein the ap- 
pearance of containing an equal quantity of each. In such 
eases the three minerals are so intimately associated with each 
other that the mica is of little or no commercial value and the 
feldspar is also of no commercial value. Judging from obser- 
vations made at a great many mica mines the pegmatitic dikes 
that yield the best commercial mica are those in which the 
three minerals have had a tendency to crystallize out in large 
masses. Thus, where feldspar and quartz are in small crystals 
or fragments, the mica is also apt to be small. Those dikes 
that are two feet or less in width very seldom contain miea hay- 
ing any commercial value beyond what could be obtained for 
if as scrap mica, and hence little or no attention should be 
paid to such dikes as a source of mica. Not all of the wide 
dikes carry mica of ‘the right quality or in sufficient quantity 
to afford profitable mining, for in some the mica has been 
observed to occur in such small crystals and blocks that no 
sheets could be obtained over an inch or two in diameter. 

The muscovite mica occurs in these dikes usually in rough 
erystals (called blocks or books), which are sometimes distrib- 
uted nearly evenly throughout the dike and at other times 
nearer the contact of the dike with the country rock. These 
blocks of mica are occasionally nearly perfect in their crystal- 
line form, which is monoclinic, but imitating rhombic or hex- 
agonal symmetry. The commercial blocks of mica usually 
vary in thickness from 6 to 18 inches and from 3 to 15 inches 
in diameter, although some blocks have been found as much as 


100 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Society [August 


4 feet in diameter and from 2 1-2 to 3 feet in thickness. All 
of the large blocks of mica are not of sufficient quality to cut 
into sheets as large as would be expected from the size of the 
erystal, on account of much of the mica having been converted 
into what is called “ruled mica”, the mica being divided into 
narrow strips whose edges are parallel to the intersection of the 
prism and base edges of the crystal, or into “A” mica, in which 
the sheets are cut or striated parallel to two adjacent edges. 


PERCENTAGE OF MICA IN THE DIKES. 


There is considerable variation to be noted in the per- 
centage of mica that occurs in these dikes and in different parts 
of the same dike. It is usually found, however, that in any 
considerable distance in the same dike the mica will average 
for that distance approximately the same per cent. It is sel- 
dom that the mica in a dike will average over 10 per cent. 
of the contents of the dike for any considerable distance, and 
it will sometimes average as low as 1 per cent. Portions of 
certain dikes have been observed that had the appearance of 
containing a very large percentage of Mica on account of a 
number of blocks of mica being clustered together in bunches 
almost touching one another, while in other portions of the 
same dike there would be almost a complete absence of mica 
for a distance of from 5 to 20 feet; but even in such a dike 
the general average of the mica to the other minerals corres- 
ponded to about 10 per cent. The general limits of the per- 
centage of mica in various dikes is probably, therefore, from 
1 to 10 per cent. 

Of the mica that is obtained in these dikes, there is prob- 
ably an average of not over 10 to 15 per cent. that can be 
cut into sheet mica, the rest being waste or scrap mica. Select- 
ed masses or blocks of mica, however, have been mined that 
have averaged from 30 to 40 per cent. and occasionally as 
high as 75 per cent. of sheet or plate mica. On the other hand, 
there will be certain portions of the dike in which none of the 
mica mined can be cut into sheets or plates, and is all of value 
only as scrap mica. These variations have been observed where 


ens i we? See’ = Die Geer ete 


— 


i i aaa a a ee at ed ae ee ee ee 


7's 


1914 | Certain Minera Resources 101 


they have taken place within the space of a few feet. As far 
as can be ascertained from observations in the field and from the 
results of mining, the North Carolina mines will average the 
highest percentage of cut mica of any in the United States. 


There are a number of reasons for this large percentage of 
waste mica—the irregularity of the blocks of mica and of the 
individual sheets; the ruled mica and the “A” mica, which re- 
duce the sizes of sheets that can be cut or prevent entirely any 
sheets being cut from the block; the mica miay be specked or 
stained, or may contain a great deal of magnetite in thin crys- 
tallized films between the foliae of the mica; and many blocks 
of mica may be destroyed by having garnet, tourmaline, or 
quartz crystallized out between the foliae. It will be observed 
from what has been said that in mining mica there must ne- 
cessarily be a very large amount of waste rock or gangue re- 
moved, and, as in nearly all mica mining it is necessary to 
operate by blasting, it makes the cost of production of the 
erude mica somewhat expensive. Hence, if any of the other 
minerals that must be removed in mining can be utilized com- 
mercially, they will make valuable by-products and will help 
to pay the cost of mining the mica. 


One of these minerals, feldspar, has already become of 
commercial importance and is now being produced in North 
Carolina. Pure quartz, free from oxides that would discolor 
any glass made from it, occurs associated with the mica in 
many of the deposits, and investigations are now being made 
to determine the commercial value of this quartz as a source 
of raw material for the manufacture of glass. 

The production of mica from the Southern States in re- 
cent years has been principally from North Carolina with much 
smaller amounts from Alabama and Virginia. North Caro- 
lina produces two-thirds of the value of the total production 
of mica in the United States. 

Other minerals occurring in these pegmatitie dikes which 
are being mined for mica that will make valuable by-products 
are kaolin, uranium minerals, samarskite, beryl, and other gem 
minerals. 


102 JOURNAL OF THE MitrcHELL Socrety [August 


MONAZITE 


The discovery that thoria would make a much better in- 
candescent mantle for lighting purposes than zirconia made 
it necessary to discover commercial deposits of some mineral 
containing a considerable percentage of this compound. The 
mineral that offered the best chance of furnishing this salt 
was mionazite, which had been discovered in 1879 by W. S. 
Hidden‘. Prospecting was carried on quite vigorously for 
this mineral, chiefly in North Carolina, with the result that it 
was found in considerable quantity. Since this first discovery 
the North Carolina areas containing this mineral in quantity 
have been very largely extended and it has also been found in 
South Carolina. 

The first commercial shipment of monazite was in 1887, 
and the production was continued each year until 1910, but 
since then no production. 

Monazite also furnishes ceria (CeO), another salt that is 
used in very small amount in the manufacture of incandescent 
mantles; and is also used by pharmacists. 


OCCURRENCE 


Monazite is found very widely distributed as an accessory 
constituent in varying proportions of many granites and their 
derived gneisses. Thus it has been found in the porphyritic, 
granulitic, and schistose gneisses of the Maritime Mountains 
of Brazil, extending for a distance of 300 miles through the 
provinces of Bahia, Minas-Geraes, Rio de Janeiro, and Sao 
Paulo; and in the granitic mica-gneisses and hornblende-gneis- 
ses of the South Mountain region of North Carolina, cover- 
ing an area of some 3,000 square miles in McDowell, Burke, 
Caldwell, Rutherford, Cleveland, Polk, Catawba, Iredell, Alex- 
ander, Lincoln, and Gaston counties, and extending into Spar- 
tanburg, Lawrence, Greenville, Pickens, Anderson, Oconee, 
South Carolina. Although occurring in but small quantity it has 
been identified in the granites or gneisses of Maine, New Hamp- 
shire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, 


™Am. Jour. Sci., (3) vol. 21, 1881, p. 159, and (8) vol. 32, 1886, p. 207. 


1914 | Certain Mrnerat Resources 103 


North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. In North Car- 
olina there are a number of mica-schists that carry monazite, 
as that near the Deake mica mine, Mitchell County, and at 
Milholland’s mill, Alexander County, 


The rocks of this monazite area are for the most part 
eneisses, schists and granites. These vary considerably and are 
grouped under the following heads: 


1. Carolina gneiss.§ 
2. Roan gneiss.® 

3. Granites. 

4. Pegmatites. 


The Carolina gneiss is the oldest formation and is of Ar- 
chean age. Its structure varies considerably, the more com- 
mon types being mica, garnet, cyanite and graphite gneisses 
and schists. Associated with this Carolina to such an extent 
that it is a rather characteristic feature is pegmatite and, as 
will be seen later, this pegmatite is common throughout the 
portions of the area that carry monazite in commercial quan- 
tity. 

The Roan gneiss, which is the next oldest formation in 
the monazite region, consists almost entirely of hornblende 
gneiss and schist. The granites of the area are gneissoid, por- 
phyritic and massive in structure and while of uncertain age, 
they are probably Archean. 

The pegmatite occurs in two distinct phases; one in which 
it forms distinct masses or bodies with the typical composi- 
tion and texture of pegmatite, while the other phase is a peg- 
matized gneiss which represents the addition ot the pegmatite 
minerals to the gneisses which has caused a partial recrystalli- 
zation of portions of the gneiss. ‘The structure of the pegmatite 
is irregular, occuring in some places in sheets or lenses 
interbedded and folded with the enclosing gneisses and schists, 
while in other places it oceurs in dikes, veins or lenses either 
conformable with the enclosing rocks through part of its extent 
and cutting across them in other parts, or in irregular masses 


SU. S. Geological Survey, Asheville Folio, No. 116, 1904; pp. 2 and 3. 


104 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHEtyi Society [August 


having no definite orientation with respect to the accompany- 
ing formations. All the rocks in this area are more or less 
weathered and decomposed and a clue to the nature of the rock 
formations themselves is often obtained by a study of the char- 
acter of the gravels in the bottom lands and streams draining 
a particular region. Thus, a very light colored gravel with 
quartz debris indicates a granite or a very highly pegmatized 
country rock. Garnet and hematite, with fragments of mica or 
eyanite gneiss, indicate Carolina gneiss. When quantities of 
black sands containing magnetite, ilmenite, hornblende, etc., 
are found in the stream gravels, it is an indication of the Roan 
gneiss. Monazite occurs for the most part in the pegmatized 
gneiss and schist bodies which are phases of the Carolina gneiss. 
The texture developed during the pegmatization is generally 
porphyritic and there may be a gradation from the porphyritie 
gneiss into more or less highly pegmatized gneiss and from 
this into regular pegmatite. 

In those beds or portions of beds where there has been lit- 
tle pegmatization, there is but a small amount of monazite. It 
is also true that where pegmatization has been complete and 
but little of the original gneiss remains, there is but little mona- 
zite. The chief occurrences of the monazite are in those por- 
tions of the gneisses and schists which have been highly pegma- 
tized and are rich in secondary quartz and contain numerous 
small masses of feldspar with some biotite, graphite and other 
accessory minerals. The monazite is nearly always well erys- 
tallized, although the crystals are extremely small. The per- 
centage of the monazite in the rock is very small and will not 
average over .75 of one per cent. An attempt has been made 
to work the rock itself, but it was found impossible to do so at 
a profit on account of the low percentage of monazite. 

The origin of the monazite in the pegmatized gneisses and 
schists was either by the bringing together of the elements ne- 
cessary for its formation from the original rock during re- 
crystallization, or by the introduction of these elements into 
the pegmatizing materials from external sources. This form 
of pegmatization is usually in close proximity to granite mas- 


———— 


1914] Certain Mrnerat Resources 105 


ses which gives evidence of its formation through magmatic 
agencies. . 

Associated with the Carolina and Roan gneisses of Madison 
County, North Carolina, about 4 1-2 miles southwest of Mars 
Hill, there is an unusual occurrence of monazite. 

The principal country rocks of this area are Carolina and 
Roan gneiss and Cranberry granite, 

In this particular vicinity the Carolina gneiss occurs as out- 
liers from the main formation and is not interbanded with the 
Cranberry granite. Immediately to the east there is a large 
mass of Roan gneiss and this is also observed farther to the 
west. The Cranberry granite as it occurs in this vicinity is 
also in the form of outliers or apophyses from the main mass ly- 
ing to the north and west. It is an igneous rock composed of 
quartz and orthoclase and plagioclase feldspar with biotite, 
muscovite, and, in places, hornblende as additional minerais. 
There are a number of accessory minerals as magnetite, il- 
menite, garnet and epidote, found in this granite. This granite 
occasionally contains pegmatite areas and, on the ,Whiteoak 
Creek, a great deal of the gneiss and granite was pegmatized. 

There are no extensive areas of rocks outcropping on this 
hillside. Occasionally small boulders of the partially decom- 
posed granite were observed containing more or less epidote 
and ilmenite forming a sort of ledge running around a hill 
about a third of the way to the top. About 100 feet up the hill- 
side a shaft has been sunk to a depth of 45 feet. The rocks 
were decomposed throughout this distance so that no blasting 
whatever was necessary. On account of the excessive decom- 
position of the rocks, it was difficult to determine what the rocks 
at this particular point were. They had the appearance, how- 
ever, of being decomposed Cranberry granite. The section 
exposed by the shaft showed the rocks to be more or less peg- 
matized and to carry monazite the whole depth of the shaft. 
The monazite seemed to occur in the pegmatized band of the 
rock which, in the shaft as exposed, had a width of 2 1-2 to 4 
feet and does not occur in any sense in a vein formation. 

The monazite, which is of a clove brown color, was found 
in fragments or rough crystals varying from pieces the size of 


106 JOURNAL OF THE MircHety Socrery [August 


a pea up to a large rough crystal that weighed almost exact- 
ly 60 pounds. Nio attempt was made at this time to deter- 
mine the percentage of monazite that the rock would carry. 
One or two pans full of the monazite-bearing portion of the 
rock were dug out, which gave nearly a pound of monazite. 

As stated above, the monazite is in the form of irregular 
fragments, rough crystals and cleavable masses. One of the 
best crystals observed was a part of a mass that weighed 6 1-2 
pounds, which was made up of crystals in parallel position 
with some of the facies very perfectly developed. Another 
crystal, which was well terminated, weighed 12 ounces. It 
was 2 3-4 inches long in the direction of the b axis and 1 1-2 
inches in the direction of the a axis and 2 1-4 inches long in the 
direction of the ¢ axis. The prismatic facies of the a pinacoid 
were well developed as was also the unit pyramid w. The low- 
er end of the crystal showed no terminations. The facies ob- 
served on these crystals were indentified by means of the con- 
tact goniometer and were as follows: a (100); m (011); w 
(101 jie (111); 

The basal plane ¢ was not observed on any of the crystals but 
was observed as one of the parting or cleavage planes. Part- 
ing planes were also very prominently developed parallel to m. 

The masses of monazite were very pure and one analysis 
made to determine the percentage of monazite in the masses 
showed it to contain 99.5 per cent. monazite. No chemical 
analyses have been made of the mineral beyond the determina- 
tion of the thoria. This determination, which was made in the 
laboratory of the Welsbach Light Company, showed this mona- 
zite to contain 5.06 per cent. thoria, which is equal to the per- 
centage of thoria in the best commercial monazite found in 
the South Mountain region. 

The size of the crystals of monazite found in this deposit 
and the possibility of its developing into an occurrence of 
commercial value make the discovery a most interesting one. 

With any new or increasing demand for Carolina monazite, 
this property will undoubtedly be further developed with a 
good prospect of its becoming a commercial source of thoria. 

During the past three years the monazite industry of the 


1914] Certain Minerat Resources 107 


Southern States has practically ceased. In 1905 there was 1,- 
350,000 pounds of monazite produced in the Carolinas, but in 
the past few years it has dropped to hardly 10,000 pounds. 


ZIRCON 


Zircon is commonly found sparingly in the crystalline rocks, 
especially gneisses, syenites, granites, in granular limestones, 
and in chloritic and other schists. Occasionally it is found as- 
sociated with some of the iron ores. Occurrences of this miner- 
al in quantity are not common, and there is but one locality in 
the United States where it has thus far been found in commer- 
cial quantity and that is in the vicinity of Zirconia, Hender- 
son County, North Carolina. The zircons occur in a pegmatitic 
dike which is about 100 feet wide and has a strike of N. 50° 
E. It cuts up through the pre-Cambrian gneisses, and can be 
traced for a distance of about 1 1-2 miles. The upper portions 
of the pegmatitic dikes are badly decomposed and kaolinized 
to a depth of 40 feet or more. The zircons occurring in these 
dikes are of a grayish color and well crystallized, prismatic 
erystals terminated by the unit pyramid predominating. They 
occur for the most part in the feldspar, and where this is kao- 
linized it permits of an easy separation of the zircon crystals 
by hydraulic processes. As the feldspar becomes more solid 
and unaltered, the separation of the zircon is more difficult. 
In crushing the feldspar, however, the zircons readily free 
themselves from the gangue. 

There are two deposits of these zircon erystals that have been 
worked; one near the southwestern end of the dike, which is 
known as the Freeman mine, and the other near the northeast 
end, which is known as the Jones mine. Owing to the slight 
demand for this mineral, there has been but little systematic 
mining carried on. Men and children are paid a certain price 
per pound for the zircon crystals, some of which they wash out 
of the soil, others out of the kaolinized gangue, and still others 
they break out by hand from the harder feldspar. The result- 
ant product contains practically 100 per cent. of zircon. 

The discovery of this commercial deposit, which was later 
developed as the Jones and Freeman mines, located near Zir- 


| 


108 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHELL Socrety [August 


conia, a station on the Southern Railroad, was largely due to 
the efforts of Mr. W. E. Hidden. Zircon was first discovered 
here in 1869 but no special importance was attached to it; and 
the first shipment was in 1888. Although the shipments of 
the zircon from this locality were never very large, yet they sup- 
plied the necessary material for use in the manufacture of the 
mantles for incandescent lights. Experiments regarding the 
most suitable material for the manufacture of these mantles 
were continued in the laboratories of the different companies, 
and in a few years it was discovered that thoria made a better 
mantle than zirconia, and therefore the demand for zircon be- 
gan to decrease, until finally its production entirely ceased. 

A new use, however, ‘arose for zirconia—to be used in the 
manufacture of the glower of the Nernst electric lamp, and in 
1902, mining for zircon on a small scale was again commenced 
at the Jones mine and has continued to the present time. In 
1911 the Freeman mine, adjoining the Jones mine, also became 
a producer. 

Associated with the zircon in these mines is auerlite °, 
a mineral that contains approximately 70 per cent. of thorium 
oxide. It has been considered a hydrous silico-phosphate of 
thorium. 


A special search will be made for auerlite while mining 
for zircon, and several kilograms have already been obtained. 

Near Niew Sterling, Iredell County, a great many brownish, 
pyramidal crystals of zircon have been found in the soil, some 
of which were 1 to 3 inches in diameter. One crystal weighed 
about 6 ounces. The exact occurrence of these crystals has not 
as yet been definitely determined, but thus far there has been 
observed no indication of a commercial quantity. 

There are small quantities of zircon found in all the mona- 
zite sands, which could probably be saved as a by-product. 
These crystals are very minute, and are transparent. 

Gadolinite 1°:—There is also used in the manufacture of 
the glower for the Nernst lamp, yttria, which is found in some 


® Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. XXXVI, 1888, p. 46. 
22 U. S. Geol. Survey, Mineral Resources, pt. Ti, 1911. pp! ai95= 


1914] Certain Minrrat Resources 109 


quantity in the mineral gadolinite. This is another rare min- 
eral, but the commercial demand for it was met by its discov- 
ery in quantity near Llano, Llano County, Texas. 


Tin 11 


Tin ore in the form of cassiterite has been found in Vir- 
ginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Texas. 

What may be called the Carolina tin belt extends from 
Gaffney, Cherokee County, South Carolina, in a general north- 
easterly direction across this county; the southeastern corner of 
Cleveland County, North Carolina, and across Gaston and Lin- 
coln counties, North Carolina. The tin deposits found in 
Rockbridge County, Virginia, may be a continuation of the 
Carolina tin belt across Catawba, Iredell, Yadkin and Surry 
counties, North Carolina. The general direction of the rocks 
carrying the tin ore is the same as that in Virginia, and the 
continuation of this direction from the Carolina deposits would 
approximately cross those places in Rockbridge County, Virgin- 
la, where tin ore has been found. The same rocks that are 
outcropping in Surry County, North Carolina, are also in this 
same line and have the same general direction. The principal 
locality in South Carolina where tin ore has been found is 
about one mile north of Gaffney on land which belonged to 
Captain S. S. Ross. For a distance of 13 miles from a point 
about a mile northeast of the Ross mine no tin minerals have 
as yet been found. The next place in the belt where tin is 
known to occur is a short distance northeast of Grover, North 
Carolina, a station on the Southern Railroad. From this 
point tin ore has been found almost continuously for over 14 
miles to within a few miles of Lincolnton. No tin has thus far 
been found in North Carolina northeast of the Lincolnton lo- 
eality, nor in Virginia until the Rockbridge County deposits 
are reached. 

The section of North Carolina and South Carolina in which 
the tin belt occurs is close to the border of the large area of 
Archean gneisses which extend over a large portion of the west- 


11N. C. Geological Survey Bull. 19, 1904 pp. 


110 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHELL Society [August 


ern part of North Carolina and the northwestern portion of 
South Carolina. Bordering these gneisses on the east, there is 
a series of granites and other igneous rocks extending from 
Cherokee County, South Carolina, across Mecklenburg, Ca- 
barrus, Rowan, Davidson, Guilford, Caswell and Person coun- 
ties, North Carolina, which have a general north to northeast 
direction. At the extreme southern portion of North Carolina, 
and extending into South Carolina, there is between these 
granites and gneisses a band of metamorphic rocks consisting 
of slates, schists, limestones, quartzites, and conglomerates 
whose age is unknown. These occur quite extensively developed 
in Cherokee County, South Carolina, and in Gaston, Lincoln 
and Catawba counties, North Carolina, and extend for a very 
short distance into Iredell County, North Carolina. No more of 
these rocks are observed in this northeast direction until they 
again outcrop in the northeastern portion of Yadkin County, 
extending nearly across Stokes County and almost to the Vir- 
ginia line. They are in every way identical with those found 
further South and represent the same geological formation. 
Penetrating up into these rocks in Gaston and Lincoln 
counties, North Carolina, there is a mass of granite which is 
from five to ten miles wide. The schists vary considerably in 
character, sometimes being very siliceous and having a gneis- 
solid structure. The general strike of these metamorphic rocks 
is northeast; and it is in this belt of rocks in North Carolina 
that the tin ore is found. The general strike of the pegmatitic 
dikes and veins carrying the tin is approximately the same 
as that of the metamorphic rocks, N. 25° E., but near the 
South Carolina line there is a rather sharp bend to the west- 
ward, so that from there to Gaffney, South Carolina, the di- 
rection of the tin belt is about N. 55° E., and it leaves the 
schists to the east and passes through the Archean gneisses. 
The rocks in the vicinity of Gaffney, South Carolina, are al- 
most entirely gneisses, similar to those found in North Carolina 
to the west of the metamorphic rocks and which have been re- 
ferred to as the Archean. There are, then, rocks of two dis- 
tinct geological periods in which the tin veins have been found: 
(1) Those associated with the Archean gneisses, which are found 


1914] Crrrain Minerat Resources 111 


in the vicinity of Gaffney, South Carolina; and (2) those as- 
sociated with the schists, which are of a later period, and with 
which most of the North Carolina tin is found. The ore at 
the Jones mine, 7 miles northeast of King’s Mountain, is in 
greisen veins that occur in a gneissic rock, which may be a 
portion of the Archean gneisses to the west. 

As has been stated above, the main country rocks are for the 
most part crystalline schists and gneisses, the former being 
micacecus, chloritic and argillaceous, and the latter micaceous 
and hornblendic. The strike of the schistosity of these rocks is 
usually in a general northeast direction and they dip for the 
most part at very steep angles to the westward. The veins in 
the gneisses are dipping toward the east at very steep angles. 

The King’s Mountain region of North Carolina is geo- 
logically situated in a band of metamorphic rocks composed of 
slates, schists, limestones, quartzites and conglomerates whose 
age up to the present time has not been definitely determined. 
The width of this belt near King’s Mountain is about 10 miles 
and extends in a direction about N. 10° to 20° E. Just east 
of Lincolnton, Lincoln County, it joins another band of simi- 
lar rock, the two being separated east of King’s Mountain by 
a mass of granite. To the west of these metamorphic rocks are 
the Archean gneisses, with which the tin veins of Gaffney, 
South Carolina, are associated. The strata of these metamor- 
phic rocks are tilted at very high angles to nearly vertical, and 
in the resultant alteration and erosion to which they have 
been subjected, the quartzites have resisted these influences 
the most, so that they now form the top of the peaks and ridges 
such as King’s, Crowders and Anderson mountains, which rise 
500 to 1,000 feet above the average elevation. It is undoubted- 
ly the mass of granite which is to the east that has tilted these 
metamorphic rocks and thrown them into their present position. 

There are a number of amphibole dikes that have been ob- 
served cutting these metamorphic rocks, but they have made 
very little change in the position of the schists through which 
they penetrated beyond a metamorphic action. These sedimen- 
tary rocks were tilted into their present position before the in- 
trusion of these dikes, which are following partly the lamina- 


ld A A AAS. NE Ll il Ee Rn a  «— ————— - 


— 


112 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHELL Society [August 


tion of the schists and their general trend; but in a few in- 
stances are cutting across the schist. In two or three instances 
where these dikes are cutting across the schists, there are ap- 
proximately parallel to them veins of tin ore. Pegmatitic dikes 
are also common throughout this belt of metamorphic rocks in 
North Carolina and in the gneisses further to the west in South 
Carolina. They could be followed almost continuously from 
three miles above Grover, North Carolina, to the Jones mine, 
7 miles northeast of King’s Mountain. Im one place, a short 
distance below King’s Mountain, North Carolina, the pegma- 
titic dike was all of 200 feet wide. They follow in many cases 
the planes of lamination of the schist which represent lines of 
least resistance. Where the pegmatitic dikes are cutting across 
the schists, they may be following old fractures that were pro- 
duced at the time of the intrusion of the amphibole dikes. 

About one-half mile below King’s Mountain the pegmati- 
tic rocks begin to outcrop very boldly and continue in this way 
nearly to Grover, North Carolina, a distance of 7 miles. This 
mass of pegmatite varies a good deal in width in this distance, 
from twenty-five to six hundred feet. Just in the northern 
edges of the town of King’s Mountain there is another strong 
outcrop of the pegmatite, but from this point there is but little 
seen of the pegmatite northeast until Ramseur’s mill is reached. 
Here the pegmatite has a width of about 200 feet. 

A cross-section of the tin belt in the vicinity of King’s Moun- 
tain would show the following sequence: hornblende-gneiss 
on the western boundary, followed on the east by schists which 
are in many places very badly decomposed; then a narrow bed 
of limestone, which is more or less siliceous; then quartzite; an- 
other bed of limestone; quartzite; schist; to the granite on 
the extreme eastern portion of the belt, having a total width 
of about 10 miles. 

Perhaps the most extensive development work has been ear- 
ried on near Lincolnton, Lincoln County, by the Piedmont Tin 
Mining Company. The property of this company, begins about 
2 miles southwest of Lincolnton and extends in a general south- 
west direction for 2 miles, to the Little Catawba River, about 
midway between Long Shoal and South Side, two stations on 


1914 | Certain Minerat Resources 113 


the Carolina and Northwestern Railroad. Tin-bearing pegma- 
tite has been exposed at a number of places throughout this 
area, and has shown the existence of two or more approxi- 
mately parallel pegmatitic dikes, which are also following the 
laminations of the schists and gneisses. There were other peg- 
matitic dikes also observed that were cutting the dikes referred 
to above and the lamination of the country rock. The company 
has acquired by purchase and lease control of a property 
about 2 miles long and 1 mile wide, which has been prospected 
more or less over its entire area, 

The country rock of this section consists of hornblende and 
mica gneisses and schists that are intersected by the pegma- 
titic dikes, which sometimes are cutting across the strike of 
the schists and then again following it and at other times have 
sent off apophyses which have forced their way between the 
laminations of the schist and gneiss. Occasionally, a mass of 
the pegmatite is encountered that has all the appearance of a 
boss. These dikes are very variable in width from a few feet 
up to 30 or more. They have the usual mineralogical character 
of ordinary pegmatitic dikes, except that for the most part they 
are tin-bearing. The position of the tin in these dikes was 
carefully noted, and in nearly all cases it was observed that the 
main portion of the dike carried little or no cassiterite (tin 
oxide), but that this mineral was confined to restricted portions 
of the dike, which, in nearly all cases, was near the contact, 
of the pegmatitic dike and country rock. In these areas there 
was usually but little feldspar, and the dike was made up large- 
ly of quartz and mica. Occasionally, where the pegmatitic 
dike was narrow, tin oxide was found scattered sparingly 
throughout the whole mass. 

The work done by this company has made this section the 
most favorable one for studying the occurences of these pegma- 
titic dikes and of the tin mineral which they contain. Begin- 
ning at the southwest end of the property, on a hill, just above 
the Little Catawba River, the company has sunk shafts and 
pits and made open cuts at various intervals from this point 
for a distance of 2 miles in a northeast direction to what is 
known as the Main Shaft mine, where the greater amount of 


114 JOURNAL oF THE MitcHEti Society [August 


underground work has been done. Wherever any pegmatitic 
dikes have been encountered in this prospecting, they have con- 
tained more or less tin oxide, but in very varying percentages. 
The work has also shown that the pegmatitic dikes are extreme- 
ly variable in width, both on the strike and dip. There are 
two points, one known as the Henry shaft and the other the 
Main shaft, where considerable underground work has been 
done. 

It is the author’s idea regarding the origin of the tin ore 
found in the Carolina belt, that it is due principally to the di- 
rect separation or recrystallization of the cassiterite from the 
molten pegmatite magma, with perhaps a little also due to a 
fumarole action, resulting from the escaping vapors during 
the crystallization of the molten magma of pegmatite intruded 
into the schists and gneisses in the form of dikes, which in 
turn had been subjected to the same reactions as the main mass 
of pegmatite. 

None of the Southern tin deposits have thus far proved to 
be profitable producers of tin ore, although several tons of tin 
concentrates have been shipped from the Ross mine in South 
Carolina and from the mines in the vicinity of King’s Moun- 
tain, and Lincolnton, North Carolina. The Lincolnton deposits 
referred to above have been developed to the greatest ex- 
tent and have offered the greatest probability of developing a 
commercial source of tin. A large proportion of the pegmatitic 
dike which carries the tin has been decomposed and the feldspar 
been changed to kaolin. There is a possibility of this property 
becoming a producer of kaolin with the tin ore as a by-product. 

Virginia:—The occurrence of tin in Virginia was describ- 
ed by Mr. Arthur Winslow in 1885, and later by Mr. Titus 
Ulke in 1893. This tin area extends along the eastern edge 
of Rockbridge County in the line of the Blue Ridge Mountains 
from a few miles north of the James River Gap to about the 
north line of the county. Cassiterite has been found at a num- 
ber of places in this area, but the greatest amount of ore was 
found along the upper waters of Irish Creek in the northeastern 
corner of the county. There is one property that has been de- 
veloped to some extent, and this is known as the Cash mine. 


1914] Certain Minerat Resources 115 


The greisen veins in which the tin occurs traverse the granite 
in all directions and are dipping at very steep angles. The 
width of these veins is usually from 8 to 12 inches, though 
some were observed that were several feet in thickness. The 
eassiterite is occasionally concentrated into seams from 1 to 
2 inches wide and is associated with pyrite and arsenopyrite, 
the rest of the gangue of the veins being composed of quartz 
and mica. The principal work was done here about twenty 
years ago, and a concentrating mill was erected on the property 
and about 290 tons of rock were tested. It is reported that 
about 2,400 pounds of tin concentrates were shipped to Boston, 
but that they only averaged about 43 per cent. of metallic tin, 
due to the concentrates being contaminated with arsenopyrite 
and ilmenite. There was not sufficient work done on the prop- 
erty to definitely determine whether or not there existed a com- 
mercial deposit of cassiterite. 

Texas :—Cassiterite has been found in Texas on the east 
flank of the Franklin Mountains, the southern extension of the 
Organ or San Andreas Range, about 10 miles north of El 
Paso. These deposits were discovered in 1899 and had been 
prospected to a depth of about 50 feet. The ore occurs in well- 
defined veins, which have a strike approximately east and 
west, which is nearly at right angles to the directiun of the range 
and are dipping toward the north at very steep angles. There 
have been three veins discovered here, which have been exposed 
by pits and open cuts for several hundred feet along the strike. 
The veins occur in the granite and are considered by Mr. .W. 
H. Weed to be the result of deep-seated agencies and that fur- 
ther exploration will develop well-defined tin veins. 


CHape, Hit, N. C. 


JOURNAL 
ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 


RECENT CONCEPTIONS OF THE ATOM 


BY F. P. VENABLE 


The original conception of the atom arose from the discus- 
sion among the early Greek thinkers as to the indefinite divisi- 
bility or ultimate indivisibility of matter. They were divided 
into two schools of thought—the plenists and anti-plenists, 
or vacuists. It was the belief of the latter school that all matter 
was composed of indivisible particles or atoms, and vacua. 

These atoms are not mathematical points but are too small to 
impress themselves upon the senses and are indivisible. They 
differ in size, shape and weight; are in continuous motion (hence 
the necessity for voids) ; and are endowed with some inclination 
or force which causes them to meet in a selective way and by 
their union form the various kinds of matter known to us. This 
theory was the high achievement of pure reasoning with little 
basis of experimental evidence. We accept the atoms but for the 
vacua substitute the very original conception of Aristotle of a 
quinta essentia or ether, of whose existence we still have no 
tangible proof. 

Through the centuries this theory of atoms has come down 
to us without important change or experimental support until 
Dalton made use of it to explain the great underlying laws of 
chemistry and attempted for the first time to determine me rela- 
tive weights of these ultimate particles or atoms. 

Dalton’ s conception of the atom becomes of greater interest 
in view of the modern speculations. In his New System of 
Chemical Philosophy (p. 147) he writes: “‘A vessel full of any 


117 


118 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Society [ Jan. 


pure elastic fluid presents to the imagination a picture like one 
full of small shot. The globules are all of the same size, but the 
particles of the fluid differ from those of the shot in that they 
are constituted of an exceedingly small central atom of solid 
matter, which is surrounded by an atmosphere of heat, of great 
density next the atoms but gradually growing rarer according to 
some power of the distance: whereas those of the shot are glo- 
bules uniformly hard throughout and surrounded with atmos- 
pheres of heat of no comparative magnitude.” 


How stubbornly the notion of the material nature of heat 
was held to may be realized from an examination of Lavoi- 
sier’s explanation of the expansion and contraction of matter 
and from the fact that it was included by some in the list of 
elements for years after the time of Dalton. 


According to Dalton’s hypothesis these atoms of definite and 
distinctive weight combined under certain fundamental laws 
to form the various substances that make up the material world. 
As to the size and form, the chemist gave himself no concern, 
but took up the task of finding out the exact, relative weight of 
every different atom known to him. These atoms he believed to 
be unchangeable and thus made possible a mathematical basis 
for his science. 


But the physicist is necessarily concerned with the atom also, 
and at the same time that Dalton reaffirmed the atomic theory, 
Young gave his reasons for regarding the atom as a perfect 
elastic sphere in the place of the conceptions that had grown up 
of mathematical points, various other geometric forms and 
rigid particles. 

The Daltonian atomic theory was slow of acceptance because 
of the confusion arising between the divisible ultimate particles 
of compounds and those which so far as was known were unde- 
composable. A clear distinction had to be drawn between atom 
and molecule and this was not easy until many facts had been 
accumulated. Chemists came to know many different kinds of 
atoms representing as many different elements. These elements 
were at first called simple bodies, but to accurately define an 


1916 | Recent Conceptions oF THE ATOM 119 


element has proved very difficult and one definition after an- 
other has been given up as knowledge has grown. 

The atomic theory must stand until a better theory is form- 
ulated explaining the laws of combination. This theory in its 
simple form is independent of speculation as to the nature of the 
atom. Of course the views as to this nature have greatly changed 
with the growth of knowledge and the chemist has learned to be 
cautious in his attempts at definition. It is enough for him to 
know that the supposedly unchanging atom is at least unchanged 
by the forces and the conditions with which he works and that 
he can safely count upon it to act in the future as it has in the 
past. It cannot be decomposed so far as is known by any means 
at his command and even if such decomposition were effected the 
laws of combination would remain the same. 

It may not be simple or a unit in itself. In fact, both 
chemist and physicist have long known multiplied reasons for 
believing in its complexity, but under the influences of forces 
that bring about combination and decomposition it behaves as a 
simple unit. And so, while the study of this complexity is most 
fascinating, the discovery of the nature and constitution of the 
atom can make no change in the part it has played in the up- 
building of chemical science. 

But this science is deeply concerned with the constitution of 
matter. It is the prime object of its striving and we can no 
longer look upon the atom as the ultimate particle. The num- 
erous light waves of different length revealed in the spectra, the 
intimate relationship shown in the periodic system, and other 
facts forbid this. We must go deeper, if possible, and find out 
how the atom itself is built up. 

Prout, in 1814, thought of the atom as built up of hydrogen. 
Graham in 1863, conceived of one ultimate, common atom in 
different conditions of movement. In 1887, Crookes suggested 
a hypothetical primal atom, protyle, which, under the influence 
of electricity, gave rise to the various elemental atoms. These 
were, of course, speculations without basis of experiment and 
serve mainly to show the trend of thought. In fact, being be- 


120 JOURNAL OF THE MitrcHELL Society [ Jan. 


yond the range of experimentation, they were unproductive of 
useful results. 

And so the chemist became cautious in his definition of 
atoms, regarding them as a series of related bodies, complex in 
nature and hence probably divisible but indivisible by any means 
known to him, each remaining as a unit under the influence of 
the ordinary forces which might be applied to them. Each one 
made itself known as a group of associated properties, or as 
Patterson-Muir put it: “ The name copper is used to distinguish 
a certain group of properties that we always find associated to- 
gether from other groups of associated properties, and if we do 
not find the group of properties connoted by the term copper, we 
do not find copper.” 

The discovery by Sir William Ramsay in 1894 of argon, 
followed in 1898 by that of neon, krypton, xenon and helium, 
brought a new phase into the discussion. Here were atoms 
destitute of all power of combination, even with similar atoms, 
hence existing as monatomic gases and presenting no so-called 
chemical properties for comparison. They formed a new group 
in the periodic system and had to be accounted for in some way. 

It is interesting to me personally that as sectional chairman, 
I delivered an address in 1899 before the section of chemistry 
of the A. A. A. S. in which I spoke as follows: “ Is it not fair 
to assume that argon, helium and their companion gases, having 
no affinity, are without electrical charge? Were they without 
affinity from the beginning or did they start out as ordinary 
atoms and somehow lose this property and with it the power of 
entering into union of any kind, even of forming molecules? 
Can these be the changed atoms of some of our well-known ele- 
ments, a step nearer to the primal elements and with the elec- 
trical charge lost? Perhaps the coming century will unfold the 
answer.” 

The answer came much sooner than was expected. In 1903, 
Rutherford and Soddy from the presence of helium in minerals 
and its inability to enter into combination, suggested that it was 
probably the product of radio-active changes. Sir William 
Ramsay had drawn attention to the fact that helium is only 


1915 | Recent Conceptrions oF THE ATOM 121 


found in minerals which are radio-active, and in the same year, 
1903, Ramsay and Soddy established by direct experiment that 
there is a continuous production of helium from radium. May I 
not then reaffirm the belief that these monatomic, uncharged 
gases are all the products of disintegration changes and that the 
proof will be forthcoming? In fact, the results obtained already 
by J. J. Thomson, Ramsay, Winchester, Collie, Patterson and 
Masson, though disputed, and still in doubt, would seem to 
prove this for neon and argon in addition to the conclusive eyi- 
dence for helium. 

Let us next see something of the relations of the atom to 
electricity. Dalton’s picture of the atom, as we have seen, was 
that of an exceedingly small central particle of solid matter 
surrounded by an atmosphere of heat. Davy, in 1807, supposed 
that these particles were in different electrical states and so ac- 
counted for chemical affinity—a theory which was later vari- 
ously elaborated by Berzelius and others. Faraday’s law, ac- 
cording to Helmholtz, tells us that the same definite quantity of 
either positive or negative electricity moves always with each 
univalent atom, or with every unit of affinity of a multivalent 
atom, and accompanies it in all its motions. This quantity we 
may call the electric charge of the atoms. 

In this same Faraday lecture in 1881, Helmholtz added: 
“The most startling result of Faraday’s law is perhaps this. 
If we accept the hypothesis that the elementary substances are 
composed of atoms, we cannot avoid concluding that electricity 
also, positive as well as negative, is divided into definite ele- 
mentary portions which behave like atoms of electricity.” 

From the earliest stages of the atomic hypothesis in the ef- 
forts at accounting for affinity and valence, phenomena of com- 
bination, the vision of the atom became associated with electric- 
ity and more or less material conceptions grew up as to this in- 
dispensable and equally indivisible accompaniment. 

This brings us then to the atom of Sir J. J. Thomson, which, 
as first stated, was simply made up of corpuscles of negative 
electricity or electrons. Of course, there are two steps in the 
evolution of this idea. First, it must be established that nega- 


122 JOURNAL OF THE MircHEL.L Socrery [ Jan. 


tive electricity consists of particles or corpuscles. The prepond- 
erance of evidence seems to be in favor of this view, though it 
is still rejected by some of the foremost men in electrical science. 

The second step is to connect this with the atom. The 
electro-chemical theory, Faraday’s law, complexity of spectra, 
etc., lend their support, but the strongest confirmation comes 
from the production of streams of electrons in the disintegra- 
tion of radio-active atoms. 

The electron, according to the calculations of Thomson, has a 
diameter of 10°; that assigned the atom and the mass of the 
electron would be about one-thousandth that of a hydrogen atom. 
The original theory of Thomson held that the hydrogen atom 
with a diameter of 108 cm. was entirely made up of electrons. 
In the production of an atom the rotating electrons arrange 
themselves in a number of concentric shells. The number of 
electrons in such ring and the number of rings necessary to 
insure the stability of the atom have been calculated. The 
radiation of energy by the electrons must be small if the atom is 
to remain stable. The radiation diminishes rapidly with the 
number of electrons in the ring and with their velocity. With 
a velocity one-hundreth that of light, the amount of radiation 
of a symmetrical group of six electrons is one 10—1® that of a 
single electron moving with the same velocity in the same orbit. 
And yet this continuous drain must end either in a rearrange- 
ment or in an expulsion of electrons from the atom. 

At first the whole mass of the atom was supposed to be made 
up of electrons and the number of these to be large. Later 
Thomson showed that the number of electrons was about three 
times the atomic weight. In such case only a minute fraction 
of the mass could be made up of electrons. 

In summing up the account of the hypothesis, it is sufficient 
to state, as Rutherford does, that the evidence for the existence 
of electrons and that these are a universal constituent of atoms 
is strong, but that the atoms are entirely composed of electrons 
has little positive evidence for and much against it. 

In 1904 (Phil. Mag. [6]-7-237), Thomson states his view 
that the atoms of the elements consist of a number of negatively 


1915 | Recent Conceptions or tue Atom 123 


electrified corpuscles enclosed in a sphere of uniform positive 
electrification, such a model atom having been worked out by 
Lord Kelvin. This recalls Dalton’s atom with its enveloping 
“sphere of heat.” 

The Rutherford atom is the last stage in the evolution of the 
modern conception of this one time indivisible, ultimate particle. 
This has the advantage over the Thomson atom of an experi- 
mental as well as a mathematical basis. 

Study of radio-activity phenomena lead Rutherford to an- 
nounce his Disintegration, or Successive Transformation hypo- 
thesis. This has been well worked out and is based upon a large 
number of observations and experiments. As Rutherford says: 
“The processes occurring in the radio-active elements are of a 
character quite distinct from any previously observed in chem- 
istry.” 

“ One of the most powerful methods of obtaining informa- 
tion on the internal structure of the atom,” writes Rutherford, 
“lies in the scattering of high speed particles, for example, of 
a and # particles, in their passage through matter. In conse- 
quence of this great energy of motion, a high-speed a or 6 par- 
ticle must pass through the atom which lies in its path. The 
deflection of the charged particle from its rectilinear path as the 
result of an atomic encounter throws light on the intensity and 
distribution of the electrical forces within the atom to which 
these deflections are due. One of the most noticeable features 
of the scattering of a particles by thin films of matter is that a 
small fraction of the a particles is deflected through angles of 
more than 90°. If, for instance, the « particles are allowed to 
strike upon a thin film of gold, some 8,000 pass through, as 
may be seen by the scintillations given on a zinc sulphide screen. 
These suffer a certain amount of deflection or scattering, but one 
is so much deflected as to return to its source.” 

There appears to be no doubt that the large deflection some- 
times suffered by an a particle is the result of a close encounter 
with only one atom of matter. The type of atom devised by 
Kelvin and Thomson, says Rutherford, in which the positive 
electricity is distributed throughout a sphere of radius com- 


124 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Socretry [ Jan. 


parable with the diameter of the atom, does not seem capable, 
without modification, of producing the large deviations of an a 
particle which are observed. 

“ The single large scattering of « particles, however, could be 
explained by supposing that the atom consisted of a concentrated 
positive charge at its centre and surrounded by a distribution 
of electrons to render it electrically neutral. It was necessary to 
suppose that the greater part of the mass of the atom was asso- 
ciated with the positive charge which for distances up to 
3x 10—) em. behaved as if it were concentrated at a point. 


“ The large angle scattering of the a particles is then almost 
entirely due to the passage of the a particle through the intense 
electric field surrounding the central charge. Supposing the 
electrical force to vary as the inverse square of the distance from 
the central charge, the positively charged «a particle, in passing 
close to the centre of the atom describes a hyperbolic orbit, the 
angle of deflection being greater the nearer the a particle passes 
the centre of the atom.” 

The laws of scattering to be expected on this hypothesis have 
been worked out and verified experimentally. The angle of 
deflection has been found to depend upon the atomic weight and 
from examination of the metals from gold to aluminum the 
positive charge of the nucleus was deduced as 14 Ae. 

If the a particles are allowed to bombard the light atoms of 
hydrogen the smaller nucleus of the hydrogen atom will be 
projected and this has been proved by experiment. The hydro- 
gen nuclei produce scintillations at a range four times as 
great as that of the a particles. As calculated by G. C. Dar- 
win, the a@ particle or helium nucleus must have approached 
the hydrogen nucleus so that their centres were not more than 
1.7x10—1% em. distant from one another. The hydrogen 
atom is taken as composed of one unit charge of negative. 
electrons and one unit charge of positive electrons. 

The Rutherford atom then is made up of a nuclear mass 
associated with positive electrons (1 unit charge to 2 units mass 
form a central nucleus which is .0001 of the diameter of the 
atom). A number of negative electrons in value equal to the 


* te - 


BY 


— 


1915] Recent Conceptions or tur Atom 125 


positive nuclear charge circulate around this as an outer shell. 
The magnitude of the nuclear positive charge in terms of the 
hydrogen ion charge is probably the same as the atomic number 
or number of place occupied by the element in the periodic 
table. 

Such an atom as that of Rutherford is, as Soddy observes, 
not stable according to ordinary electro-dynamical laws since 
there is nothing to prevent the dispersion of the extremely con- 
centrated central positive charge but, he adds, it is now recog- 
nized that these laws require modifications. The model has been 
used with very considerable success in conjunction with Planck’s 
theory of quanta and leads to results in connection, for example, 
with the series relationships of the hydrogen and helium spec- 
tra in striking accord with experimental determinations. 


126 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Society [Jan. 


A LIST OF PLANTS GROWING SPONTANEOUSLY 
IN HENDERSON COUNTY, N. C. 


BY EDWARD READ MEMMINGER 


The following list summarizes the results of years of study 
of the Flora of Henderson County, but being the work of but one 
collector is necessarily incomplete. I have entered herein only 
plants which I have myself seen. Specimens of most of the 
plants listed are in my private collection and many in Colum- 
bia University, N. Y., herbarium. 

Henderson County is situated in the western Alpine section 
of the State; most of the county lying west of the Blue Ridge, 
and includes in its boundary all sorts of topographic conforma- 
tions, from the level meadow lands of the French Broad River 
and its tributaries to mountains of 3,000—4,000 feet in altitude. 
Most of the level lands of the county are at an elevation of 
2,000 feet above sea level. From its altitude its flora approaches 
greatly the flora of more northern latitudes, so much so that 
Gray’s Flora of the Northern U. S. is nearly of as much use in 
the study of this flora as Chapman’s Southern Flora. 

Though this list adds but few new species to the Flora of 
the State as heretofore published by Curtis and Hyams, yet it 
extends the ranges of many plants beyond the limits set forth 
in those lists, and so tends to give us a more accurate knowledge 
of the distribution of the plants of the State. 

The question of nomenclature being in such an unsettled 
state I have generally adhered to that of Britton and Brown’s 
Illustrated Flora of the Northern States and Canada rather 
than to the new, radical nomenclature of Dr. Small’s Southern 
Flora. 

As the Graminae and Cyperaceae have not been duly studied 
many species that grow in this country are wanting from this 
list. 

I desire herein to acknowledge the assistance kindly given 
me in the identification of many species by Dr. Small, Mr. W. 
W. Ashe and Mr. Biddle of the Biltmore Herbarium. 

The list follows: 


1915] Henverson County Pranvs 127 


PTERIDOPHYTES 
Polypodiaceae 


Polypodium vulgare L. 

Phegopteris hexagonoptera (Michx.) Fee. 
Pteris aquilina L. 

Pteris aquilina caudata (L.) Hook. 
Adiantum pedatum L. 
Woodwardia areolata (L.) Moore. 
Camptosorus rhizophyllus (L.) Link. 

Asplenium Triochomanes L. 

Asplenium Felix-femina (L.) Bernh. 

Asplenium platyneuron (L.) Oakes. 

Asplenium acrostichoides Sw. 

Dryopteris acrostichoides (Michx.) Kuntze. 

Dryopteris noveboracensis (L.) A. Gray. 

Dryopteris marginalis (L.) A. Gray. 

Dicksonia punctilobula (Michx.) A. Gray. 

Onoclea sensibilis L. 

Lygodium palmatum (Bernh.) Sw. 

Osmunda regalis L. 

Osmunda cinnamomea L. 


O phioglossaceae 
Botrychium ternatum (Thunb.) Sw. 
Botrychium virginianum (L.) Sw. 


Lycopodiaceae 
Lycopodium lucidulum Michx. 
Lycopodium obscurum L. 
Lycopodium complanatum L. 


GYMNOSPERMS 
Coniferae 
Pinus virginiana Mill. 
Pinus echinata Mill. 
Pinus rigida Mill. 
Pinus strobus L. 


128 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELt Socrety [Jan. 


Abies Fraseri (Pursh) Lindl. 

Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr. 

Tsuga caroliniana Engelm. Found only east of the 
Blue Ridge. 


Juniperus virginiana L. 


MONOCOTYLEDONS 
T'yphaceae 
Typha latifolia L. 


Sparganium americanum Nutt. 


Alismaceae 
Sagittaria latifolia pubescens (Muhl.) Smith. 
Sagittaria graminea Michx. 

Graminae 
Syntherisma sanguinalis (L.) Nash. 
Panicum capillare L. 
Panicum viscidum Ell. 
Panicum clandestinum L. 
Ixophorus glaucus (L.) Nash. 
Homalocenchrus oryzoides (L.) Poll. 
Andropogon scoparius Michx. 
Andropogon virginicus L. 
Andropogon glomeratus ( Walt.) B.S. P. 
Sorghum nutans Gray. 
Anthoxanthum odoratum L. 
Agrostis alba L. 
Agrostis perennans (Walt.) Tuck. 
Stipa avenacea L. 
Deschampsia flexuosa (L.) Trin. 
Trisetum pennsylvanicum (L.) Beauv. 
Holeus lanatus L. 
Gymnopogon ambigua (Michx.) B. 8. P. 
Festuca nutans Willd. 
Poa pratensis L. 
Eragrostis secundiflora Presl. 
Uniola laxa (L.) B.S. P. 
Elymus canadensis L. 


19165] Henverson Country Prants 129 


Cyperaceae 
Scirpus cyperinus Eriophorum (Michx.) Britt. 
Eriophorum virginicum L. i} 
Carex crinita Lam. 

Carex straminea mirabilis Tuck. 

Carex vulpinoidea Michx. 

Carex lurida Wahl. 

Carex folliculata L. 

Carex stricta Lam. 

Carex laxiflora patuliflora (Dewey) Carey. 


Araceae 
Arisaema triphyllum (L.) Torr. 
Arisaema quinatum (Nutt.) Schott. 
Peltandra virginica (L.) Kunth. 
Orontium aquaticum L. 
Friocaulaceae 
Eriocaulon decangulare L. 


Commelinaceae 
Tradescantia virginiana L. 
Tradescantia montana Shuttlw. 
Commelina virginica L. 
Pontederiaceae 
Pontederia cordata L. 


J uncaceae 
Juncoidea campestris (L.) Kuntze. 
Juncus effusis L. 


Inliaceae 
Tofieldia glutinosa (Michx.) Pers. 
Chamaelirium luteum (L.) A. Gray. 
Stenanthium gramineum (Ker.) Morong. 
Melanthium virginicum L. 
Melanthium latifolium Desr. 
Uvularia perfoliata L. 
Uvularia sessilifolia L. 
Uvularia puberula Michx. 


130 


JOURNAL OF THE MitcHett Society [Jan. 


Chrosperma muscaetoxicum (Walt.) Kuntze. 
Lilium earolinianum Michx. 

Lilium canadense L. 

Lilium superbum L. 

Aletris farinosa L. 

Erythronium americanum Ker. 

Trillium erectum L. 

Trillium grandiflorum (Michx.) Salisb. 
Trillium stylosum Nutt. 

Trillium cernuum L. 

Medeola virginiana L. 

Polygonatum biflorum (Walt.) EI. 
Polygonatum commutatum (R. & S.) Dietr. 
Disporum lanuginosum (Michx.) Nichols. 
Vagnera racemosa (L.) Morong. 
Convallaria majalis L. 

Clintonia umbellulata (Michx.) Torr. 
Smilax ecirrhata (Engelm.) Wats. 

Smilax glauca Walt. 


Dioscoreaceae 
Dioscorea villosa L. 


Amaryllidaceae 
Hypoxis hirsuta (L.) Coville. 


Iridaceae 
Tris versicolor L. 
Iris cristata Ait. 
Tris verna L. 
Sisyrinchium graminoides Bicknell. 
Sisyrinchium augustifolium Mill. 
Orchidaceae 
Achroanthes unifolia (Michx.) Raf. 
Leptorchis liliifolia (L.) Kuntze. 
Corallorrhiza Corallorrhiza (L.) Kars. 
Corallorrhiza odontorhiza (Willd.) Nutt. 
Corallorrhiza multiflora Nutt. 
Aplectrum spicatum (Walt.) B.S. P. 


1915 | Henprerson County Priants 131 


Tripularia unifolia (Muhl.) B. 8. P. 
Limodorum tuberosum L. 

Pogonia ophioglossoides (L.) Ker. 

* Pogonia trianthophora (Sw.) B.S. P. 
Pogonia divaricata (L.) R. Br. 
Arethusa bulbosa L. 

Orchis spectabilis L. 

Habenaria ciliaris (L.) R. Br. 


Habenaria lacera (Michx.) R. Br. Ma 
Habenaria cristata (Michx.) R. Br. i 
Habenaria peramoena Gray. Ma 
Habenaria blephariglottis ( Willd.) Torr. | 
Habenaria integra (Nutt.) Spreng. it 
Habenaria clavellata Spreng. ; 
Gyrostachys cernua (L.) Kuntze. Hh 
Gyrostachys gracilis (Bigel.) Kuntze. i 
Gyrostachys odorata (Nutt.) Kuntze. ! 
Peramium pubescens (Willd.) Mac M. 


Cypripedium acaule Ait. 
Cypripedium hirsutum Mill. 
Cypripedium parviflorum Salisb. 


DICOTYLEDONS 


Salicaceae 
Salix nigra Marsh. 
Salix tristis Ait. 


J uglandaceae 
Hicoria alba (L.) Britton 
Hicoria glabra (Mill.) Britton. 
Hicoria ovata (Mill.) Britton 
Juglans nigra L. 
Juglans cinerea L. 


1 The illustration of this plant in Britton & Brown's Illustrated Flora, Ist 
edition does not well represent our plant. The lip of our plant is decidedly 
‘three lobed with the lateral lobes connivent above the central lobe, which 
latter is longer than the others. AL 

Moreover it is certainly crested with a green crest, beginning as two green 
ridges which coalesce toward the end of the lip. The crest consists of separate, 
elevated ridges which would seem to come under the definition of “crested” as 
given in Gray’s Glossary. 


132 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Socrety 


Betulaceae 
Carpinus caroliniana Walt. 
Corylus americana Walt. 
Corylus rostrata Ait. 
Betula nigra L. 
Betula lenta L. 
Betula lutea Michx. f. 
Alnus rugosa (Du Roi.) K. Koch. 


Fagaceae. 
Fagus americana Sweet. 
Quercus rubra L. 
Quercus coccinea Wang. 
Quercus velutina Lam. 
Quercus digitata (Marsh.) Sudw. 
Quercus marylandica Michx. 
Quercus imbricaria Michx. 
Quercus alba L. 
Quercus minor (Marsh.) Sarg. 
Quercus Prinus L. 
Castanea dentata (Marsh.) Borkh. 
Castanea pumila (L.) Mill. 


Urticaceae 


Urticastrum divaricatum (L.) Kuntze. 
Boehmeria cylindrica (L.) Willd. 


Santalaceae 

Pyrularia pubera Michx. 

Comandra umbellata (L.) Nutt. 
Loranthaceae 

Phoradendron flavescens (Pursh.) Nutt. 


Aristolochiaceae 
Asarum Memmingeri Ashe. 


Polygonaceae 
Rumex acetosella L. 
Rumex crispus L. 
Polygonum Persicaria L. 


1915] Henperson County Priants 133 


Polygonum orientale L,. 
Polygonum tenue Michx. 
Polygonum ramosissimum Michx, 
Polygonum sagittatum L. 
Polygonum dumetorum L. 
Polygonum virginiana L. 


Chenopodiaceae 
Chenopodium album L. 


Amaranthaceae 
Amaranthus hybridus L. 


Phytolaccaceae 
Phytolacea decandra L. 


Caryophyllaceae 
Silene virginica L. 
Silene stellata Ait. 
Saponaria officinalis L. 
Arenaria glabra Michx. 
Alsine pubera (Michx.) Britton. 
Alsine media L. 
Cerastium vulgatum L. 
Anychia dichotoma Michx. 
Anychia canadensis L. 


Portulacaceae 
Talinum teretifolium Pursh. 


Nymphaeaceae 
Nymphaea advena Soland. 


Ranunculaceae 
Clematis virginiana L. 
Anemone quinquefolia L. 
Anemone trifolia L. 
Anemone virginiana L. 
Syndesmon thalictroides (L.) Hoffing. 
Thalictrum dioicum L. 
Thalictrum clavatum DC. 
Thalictrum polygamum Muhl. 


134 


JOURNAL OF THE MitcHELL Society [Jan. 


Thalictrum macrostylum (Shultt.) Small and 
Heller. Rare, growing in dry woods. 

Thalictrum purpurascens L. 

Thalictrum revolutum DC. 

Trautvetteria carolinensis (Walt.) Vail. 

Ranunculus abortivus L. 

Ranunculus recurvatus Poir. 

Ranunculus septentrionalis Poir. 

Ranunculus hispidus Michx. 

Aquilegia canadensis L. 

Aconitum uncinatum L. 

Aconitum uncinatum var. alpinum. This variety 
grows on Sugar Loaf Mountain and is per- 
fectly erect, 4% to 2 feet high, with leaves 
smaller and more deeply and more shapely di- 
vided than the common form. In this it ap- 
proaches Aconitum noveboracense Gray. 

Xanthorrhiza apiifolia L’ Her. 

Cimicifuga racemosa (L.) Nutt. 


Magnoliaceae 
Magnolia Fraseri Walt. 
Liriodendron Tulipifera L. 


Calycanthaceae 
Butneria florida (L.) Kearney. 
Butneria fertilis (Walt.) Kearney. 


Berberidaceae 
Caulophyllum thalictroides Michx. In mountain 
coves. 


Podophyllum peltatum L. 


Lauraceae 
Sassafras Sassafras (L.) Karst. 
Benzoin Benzoin (L.) Coulter. 


Papaveraceae . 
Capnoides sempervirens (L.) Borck. 
Sanguinaria canadensis L. 


) 
; 


1915] 


Henprerson County Priants 135 


Cruciferae 
Arabis canadensis L. 
Sisymbrium thalianum (L.) J. Gay. 
Bursa Bursa-pastoris (L.) Britton. 
Cardamine hirsuta L. 
Draba verna L. 
Sarraceniaceae 
Sarracenia purpurea L. 
Sarracenia rubra Walt. This plant has a delight- 
ful odor of violets not mentioned in books. 
Droseraceae 
Drosera rotundifolia L. 
Saxifragaceae 
-Heuchera americana L. 
Heuchera hispida Pursh. 
Heuchera villosa Michx. 
Heuchera pubescens Pursh. 
Saxifraga Michauxii Britton. 
Hydrangea radiata Walt. 


Hamamelidaceae 
Hamamelis virginica L. 
Itea virginica L. 
Platanaceae 
Platanus occidentalis L. 


Rosaceae 
Opulaster opulifolius (L.) Kuntze. 
Spiraea salicifolia L. 
Spiraea tomentosa L. 
Aruncus Aruncus (L.) Karst. 
Porteranthus trifoliatus (L.) Britt. 
Porteranthus stipulatus (Muhl.) Britt. 
Agrimonia striata Michx. 
Agrimonia pumila Muhl. 
Agrimonia parviflora Soland. 
Sanguisorba canadensis L. 
Geum virginianum L. 


136 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHELt Society [Jan. 


Geum flavum (Porter) Bicknell. 
Potentilla monspeliensis L. 
Potentilla canadensis L. 

Potentilla canadensis var. simplex (Michx.) T.&G. 
Fragaria virginiana Duchesne. 
Rubus hispidus L. 

Rubus trivialis Michx. 

Rubus occidentalis L. 

Rubus villosus Ait. 

Rosa carolina L. 

Rosa rubiginosa L. 

Rosa pumilis Marsh. 

Crataegus uniflora Muench. 
Crataegus flava Ait. 

Crataegus cordata (Mill.) Ait. 
Crataegus Crus-galli L. 
Amelanchier canadensis (L.) Medic. 
Amelanchier Botryapium (L.) DC. 
Malus augustifolia (Ait.) Michx. 
Malus coronaria (L.) Nutt. 

Aronia arbutifolia (L.} Ell. 

Aronia nigra (Walld.) Britt. 
Prunus cuneata Raf. 

Prunus umbellata Ell. 

Prunus serotina Ehrh. 


Leguminosae 
Morongia uncinata (Walld.) Britton. 
Cassia nictitans L. 
Cassia chamaecrista L. 
Cassia marylandica L. 
Trifolium agrarium L. 
Trifolium pratense L. 
Trifolium repens L. 
Trifolium procumbens L. 
Amorpha fruticosa L. 
Amorpha virgata Small. 


1915] 


Henperson County PLants 


Robinia pseudacacia L. 

Robinia hispida L. 

Robinia Boyntonii Ashe. 

Robinia nana (Ell) Sharp. 

Cracca virginana L. 

Phaseolus polystachyus (L.) B. S. P. 
Vicia sativa L. 

Vicia caroliniana Walt. 

Stylosanthes biflora (L.) B. S. P. 


Lespedeza 
Lespedeza 
Lespedeza 
Lespedeza 
Lespedeza 
Lespedeza 
Lespedeza 
Lespedeza 


repens (L.) Bart. 
procumbens Michx. 
Nuttalii Darl. 

Stuvei Nutt. 

hirta (L.) Ell. 
virginica (L.) Britton. 
eapitata Michx. 

striata (Thunb.) H. & A. 


Apios Apios (L.) Mac M. 

Chitoria mariana L. 

Faleata comosa (L.) Kuntze. 
Faleata Pitcheri (F. & G.) Kuntze. 
Baptisia tinctoria (L.) R. Brown. 


Thermopsis caroliniana (Nutt.) M. A. C. 


Thermopsis fraxinifolia M. A. C. 
Thermopsis mollis (Michx.) M. A. C. 


Meibomia 
Meibomia 
Meibomia 
Meibomia 
Meibomia 
Meibomia 
Meibomia 
Meibomia 
Meibomia 
Meibomia 
Meibomia 
Meibomia 


nudiflorum (L.) Kuntze. 
paniculata (L.) Kuntze. 


paniculata Chapmani Britton. 


bracteosa (Michx.) Kuntze. 
Michauxii Vail. 

laevigata (Nutt.) Kuntze. 
grandiflora (Walt.) Kuntze. 
stricta (Pursh) Kuntze. 
arenicola Vail. 

obtusa (Muhl.) Vail. 
Dillenii (Darl.) Kuntze. 
canescens (L.) Kuntze. 


137 


= = —.- 


138 


JOURNAL OF THE MitTcHELL SocIrEeTY 


Meibomia rigida (Ell.) Kuntze. 
Meibomia rhombifolia (Ell) Vail. 
Galactia volubilis (L.) Britton. 


TInnaceae 
Linum medium (Planc) Britton. 
Linum striatum Walt. 
Linum virginianum L. 
Oxalidaceae 
Oxalis stricta L. 
Oxalis cymosa Small. 


Geraniaceae 
Geranium maculatum L. 
Geranium carolinianum Muhl. 


Polygalaceae 
Polygala cruciata L. 
Polygala Curtisii forma albiflora. 
Polygala senega L. 
Polygala ambigua Nutt. 
Polygala mariana Mill. 
Polygala viridescens L. 


Euphorbiaceae 
Euphorbia maculata L. 
Euphorbia corollata L. 
Acalypha virginica L. 
Acalypha gracilens A. Gray. 
Crotonopsis linearis Michx. 


Anacardiaceae 

Rhus glabra L. 

Rhus copalina L. 

Rhus radicans L. 

Rhus Toxicodendron L. 

Rhus vernix L. 
Aquifoliaceae 

Tlex opaca Ait. 

Tlex ambigua Chapm. 

Tlex verticillata (L.) Gray. 


[Jan. 


Henverson Country Prants 139 


Sapindaceae 
Acer saccharinum L. 
Acer carolinianum Walt. 
Acer rubrum L. 
Balsaminaceae 
Impatiens biflora Walt. 
_ Impatiens aurea Muhl. 
Rhamnaceae 
Ceanothus americanus L. 
Celastraceae 
Euonymus americanus L. 
Euonymus obovatus Nutt. 
Vitaceae 
Vitis Labrusea L. 
Vitis aestivalis Michx. 
Ampelopsis quinquefolia Michx. 
Tiliaceae 
Tilia heterophylla Vent. 


Malvaceae 
Abutilon Abutilon L. 


Hypericaceae 
Hypercium maculatum Walt. 
Hypericum canadense L. 
Hypericum virgatum. Lam. 
Sarothra gentianoides L. 
Ascyrum stans Michx. 
Ascyrum hypericoides L. 


Cistaceae 
Helianthemum canadense (L.) Michx. 
Lechea racemulosa Michx. 


Violaceae 
Viola palmata L. 
Viola villosa Walt. 
Viola ovata Nutt. 
Viola obliqua Hill. 


——>- 


140 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELt Society [Jan. 


Viola pedata L. 
Viola rotundifolia Michx. 
Viola blanda Willd. 
Viola primulaefolia L. 
Viola hastata Michx. 
Viola pubescenes Ait. 
Viola scabriuscula (T. & G.) Schwein. 
Viola canadensis L. 
Viola rostrata Pursh. Only found Hast of the 
Blue Ridge. 
Viola tripartita Ell. 
Passifloraceae 
Passiflora incarnata L. 
Lythraceae 
Parsonsia petiolata (L.) Rusby. 
Melastomaceae 
Rhexia mariana L. 
Rhexia virginica L. 
Onagraceae 
Ludvigia alternifolia L. 
Ludvigia hirtella Raf. 
Epilobium coloratum Muhl. 
Kneiffia fruticosa (L.) Raimann. 
Kneiffia fruticosa pilosella (Raf.) Britton, 
Kneiffia glauca (Michx.) Spach. 
Oenothera laciniata Hill. 
Onagra biennis (L.) Scop. 
Araliaceae 
Aralia spinosa L. 


Umbellifereae 
Sanicula gregaria Bick. 
Sanicula canadensis L. 
Eryngium aquaticum L. 
Eryngium intergrifolium Walt. 
Cicuta maculata L. 
Zizia aurea (L.) Koch. 


1915] Henpverson Country Priants 141 


Zizia Bebbii (Coult. & Rose) Britton. 
Zizia cordata (Walt.) DC. 
Ligusticum canadense (L.) Britton. 
Oxypolis rigidus (L.) Britton. 
Angelica villosa (Walt.) B.S. P. 
Cornaceae 
Cornus florida L. 
Cornus amomum Mill. 
Nyssa sylvatica Marsh. | 


Ericaceae 
Clethra acuminata Michx. 
Chimaphila maculata (L.) Pursh. 
Monotropa uniflora L. 
Hypopitys Hypopitys (L.) Small. 
Monotropsis odorata Ell. 
2 Epigaea repens L. 
Gaultheria procumbens L. ) 
Leucothoe Catesbaei (Walt.) A. Gray. 
Leucothoe racemosa (L.) A. Gray. 
Leucothoe recurva (Buckl.) A. Gray. 
Chamaedaphne calyculata (L.) Moench. 
Xolisma ligustrina (L.) Britton. 
Oxydendrum arboreum (L.) DC. 
Kalmia latifolia L. 
Kalmia augustifolia L. 
Rhodondron maximum L. 
Rhodondron catawbiense Michx. 
Rhodondron punctatum Andr. 
Azalea nudiflora L. 
Azalea lutea L. 
Azalea arborescens Pursh. 
Azalea viscosa L. 
Azalea viscosa nitida (Pursh.) Britton. 


2A form of this plant grows on Wolf mountain near Lake Kanuga which 
differs from the usual form in having larger and more hairy leaves, being robust 
and ascending, not lying so flat on the ground and having the flowers slightly 
different in outline and not clustered, but distributed in a longer inflorescense. 
It was submitted to Dr. Small, but he regarded it only as a form, and much like 
specimens he had from South Carolina. 


~ re 


142 


JOURNAL OF THE MircHett Society [Jan. 


Gaylussacia resinosa (Ait.) T. & G. 
Gaylussacia dumosa (Andr.) T. & G. 
Vaccinium corymbosum L. 
Vaccinium vacillans Kalm. 
Vaccinium pallidum Ait. 

Vaccinium stamineum L. 


Diapensiaceae 
Galax aphylla L. 


Primulaceae 
Lysimachia quadrifolia L. 
Lysimachia terrestris (L.) B.S. P. 
Steironema lanceolatum (Walt.) A. Gray. 
Steironema ciliatum (L.) Raf. 
Lbenaceae 
Diospyros virginiana L. 
Styracaceae 
Mohrodendron carolinum (L.) Britton. 
Oleaceae 
Fraxinus americanna L. 
Chionanthus virginica L. 


Gentianaceae 
Sabbatia angularis (L.) Pursh. 
Sabbatia campanulata (L.) Torr. 
Gentiana Saponaria L. 
Gentiana villosa L. 
Gentiana quinquefolia L. 
Bartonia virginica (L.) B.S. P. 
Obolaria virginica L. 


A pocynaceae 
Apocynum androsaemifolium L. 


Asclepiadaceae 
Asclepias quadrifolia Jacq. 
Asclepias obtusifolia Michx. 
Asclepias tuberosa L. 
Asclepias incarnata L. 


1915] 


Hrnperson Country Prants 


Asclepias variegata L. 
Asclepias exaltata (L.) Muhl. 


Convolvulaceae 


Quamoclit Quamoclit (L.) Britton. 


Ipomoea pandurata (L.) Meyer. 
Convolvulus Spithamacus L. 
Cuscuta Gronovii Willd. 
Cuscuta compacta Juss. 


Polemoniaceae 
Phlox paniculata L. 
Phlox glaberrima L. 
Phlox amoena Sims. 
Phlox divaricata L. 


Verbenaceae 
Verbena urticifolia L. 


Labiatae 
Lycopus virginicus L. 
Lycopus sessilifolius A. Gray. 
Cunila origanoides (L.) Britt. 
Koellia flexuosa (Walt.) Mac M. 
Koellia incana (L.) Kuntze. 
Koellia montana (Michx.) Kuntze. 


Koellia pyenanthemoides (Lavenw) Kuntze. 
Koellia clinopodioides (T. & G.) Kuntze. 


Collinsonia canadensis L. 
Hedeoma pulegioides (L.) Pers. 
Glecoma hederacea L. 
Salvia lyrata L. 
Monarda didyma L. 
Monarda punctata L. 
Monarda fistulosa L. 
Monarda Clinopodia L. 
Prunella vulgaris L. 
Seutellaria lateriflora L. 
Scutellaria incana Muhl. 
Scutellaria pilosa Michx. 


143 


144 JouRNAL oF THE MircHetty Society [Jan. 


Scutellaria integrifolia L. 
Scutellaria cordifolia Muhl. 
Physostegia virginiana (L.) Benth. 
Lamium amplexicaule L. 

Stachys aspera Michx. 

Trichostema dichotomum L. 
Trichostema lneare Nutt. 


Solonaceae 
Solanum nigrum L. 
Solanum carolinense L. 
Datura stramonium L. 


Serophulariaceae 
Verbascum Thapsus L. 
Chelone glabra L. 
Chelone Lyoni Pursh. 
Chelone Cuthbertii Small. 
Penstemon hirsutus (L.) Wid. 
Penstemon Penstemon (L.) Wlid. 
Linaria Linaria (L.) Karst. 
Mimulus ringens L. 
Gratiola viscosa Schwein. 
Veronica officinalis L. 
Veronica serpyllifolia L. 
Dasystoma Pedicularia (L.) Benth. 
Dasystoma flava (L.) Wood. 
Dasystoma virginica (L.) Britton. 
Gerardia tenuifolia Vahl. 
Gerardia Skinneriana Wood. 
Gerardia purpurea L. 
Pedicularis canadensis L. 
Melampyrum lineare Lam. 


Lentibulariaceae 
Utricularia subulata L. 


Orbobanchaceae 
Thalesia uniflora (L.) Britton. 


1915 | Henperson County Pants 145 


Phrymaceae 
Phryma Leptostachya L. 
Plantaginaceae 
Plantago major L. 
Plantago lanceolata L. 


Rubiaceae 
Galium triflorum Michx. 
Galium tinctorium filifolium Wiegand. 
Galium cireaezans Michx. 
Galium pilosum Ait. 
Galium trifidum L. 
Galium latifolium Michx. 
Houstonia caerulea L. 
Houstonia serpyllifolia Michx. 
Cephalanthus occidentalis L. 
Diodea teres Walt. 
Mitchella repens L. 


Caprifoliaceae 

Lonicera sempervirens L. 
Lonicera flava Sims. 
Viburnum dentatum L. 
Viburnum acerifolium L. 
Viburnum nudum L. 
Viburnum prunifolium L. 
Viburnum Lentago. L. 
Sambucus canadensis L. 


Campanulaceae 
Campanula aparinoides Pursh. 
Campanula divaricata Michx. 
Legouzia perfoliata (L.) Britton. 


Lobeliaceae 
Lobelia puberula Michx. 
Lobelia Canbyi A. Gray. 
Lobelia Nuttallii R. & S. 
Lobelia leptostachys A. D. C. 
Lobelia inflata L. 


146 


JOURNAL oF THE MircHEett Society [Jan. 


Lobelia glandulifera (A. Gray) Small. 
Lobelia cardinalis L. 

Lobelia amoena Michx. 

Lobelia syphilitica L. 

Lobelia spicata Lam. 


Compositae 
Vernonia noveboracensis (L.) Willd. 
Elephantopus tomentosus L. 
Lacinaria scariosa (L.) Hill. 
Lacinaria spicata (L.) Kuntze. 
Eupatorium aromaticum L. 
Eupatorium ageratoides L. f. 
Eupatorium perfoliatum L. 
Eupatorium sessilifolium L. 
Eupatorium album L. 
Eupatorium purpureum L. 
Eupatorium trifolium L. 
Eupatorium serotinum Michx. 
Eupatorium semiserratum DC. 
Eupatorium incarnatum Walt. 
Aster macrophyllus L. 
Aster Curtisi T. & G. 
Aster patens Ait. 
Aster undulatus L. 
Aster ericoides pilosus ( Willd.) Porter. 
Aster dumosus cordifolius (Michx.) T. & G. 
Aster puniceus L. 
Aster tenuifolius L. 
Aster lateriflorus (L.) Britton. 
Aster concolor L. 
Aster Tradescanti L. 
Aster acuminatus Michx. 
Aster divaricatus L. 
Aster junceus Ait. 
Doellingeria unbellata (Mill.) Nees. 
Doellingeria infirma (Michx.) Greene. 


ae Fea 


1915] Henperson Country Pranvs 147 


Tonactis linariifolius (L.) Green. 

Seriococarpus asteroides (1h. (Be Sak: 

Erigeron pulchellus Michx. 

Erigeron annuus (L.) Pers. 

Leptilon canadense (L.) Britton. 

Solidago patula Muhl. 

Solidago hispida Muhl. 

Solidago Boottii Hook. 

Solidago erecta Pursh. 

Solidago odora Ait. 

Solidago serotina Ait. 

Solidago rugosa Mill. 

Solidago monticola T. & G. 

Solidago lancifolia T. & G. 

Solidago Buckleyi T. & G. 

Solidago canadensis L. 

Solidago puberula Nutt. 

Solidago nemoralis Ait. 

Solidago Curtisii T. & G. 

Brachychaeta sphacelata (Raf.) Britt. Sugarloaf 
Mountain. 

Chrysopsis mariana L. 

Chrysopsis graminofolia (Michx.) Nutt. 

Antennaria plantaginifolia (L.) Richards. 

Gnaphalium obtusifolium L. 

Silphium compositum Michx. 

Parthenium integrifolium L. 

Ambrosia artemisaefolia L. 

Xanthium strumarium L. 

Rudbeckia laciniata L. 

Rudbeckia hirta L. 

Rudbeckia spathulata Michx. 

Rudbeckia fulgida Ait. 

Helianthus atrorubens L. 

Helianthus strumosus L. 

Helianthus microcephalus T. & G. 

Verbesina occidentalis (L.) Walt. 


Se - 


148 


JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL Society [Jan. 


Coreopsis major Walt. 

Coreopsis pubescens Ell. 

Coreopsis crassifolia Ait. 

Bidens trichosperma (Michx.) Britt. 

Bidens trichosperma var. tenuiloba (A. Gray) 
Britton. 


Bidens bipinnata L. 
Bidens bipinnata var. minor. Very delicate, small 
10 em. high, in dense shade on rocks. 


Bidens frondosa L. 

Bidens connata Muhl. 

Galinsoga parviflora Cay. Introduced, a nuisance 
in gardens. 


Helenium autumnale L. 

Achillea millefolium L. 

Anthemis cotula L. 
Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum L. 
Senecio aureus L. 

Senecio Smallii Britton. 

Senecio Balsamitae Muhl. 

Senecio millefolium T. & G. 
Senecio Memmingeri Britton. 
Erechtites hieracifolia (L.) Raf. 
Mesadenia atriplicifolia (L.) Raf. 
Synosma suaveolens (L.) Raf. 
Carduus muticus (Michx.) Pers. 
Carduus altissimus L. 

Adopogon carolinianum ( Walt.) Britton. 
Hieracium paniculatum L. 
Hieracium venosum L. 

Hieracium Gronovii L. 

Hieracium scabrum Michx. 
Nabalus altissimus (L.) Hook. 
Nabalus serpentarius (Pursh) Hook. 
Nabalus albus (L.) Hook. 


Henperson County Piants 


Nabalus integrifolius Cap. 
Nabalus trifoliolatus Cap. 
Lactuca canadensis L. 
Sonchus oleraceus L. 
Sonchus asper (L.) All. 


149 


150 JOURNAL OF THE Mircuett Sociery [ Jan. 


THE STABILITY OF RESIN ACIDS AT SLIGHTLY 
ELEVATED TEMPERATURES—A CORRECTION * 


BY CHAS. H. HERTY AND H. L. COX 


Schwalbe,’ noting the evolution of carbon dioxide when 
rosin was heated to 140° C. in air freed from carbon dioxide, 
interpreted this result as the breaking down of the carboxyl 
groups of the acids contained in the rosin. 

Herty and Dickson ? showed that the carbon dioxide obtain- 
ed by Schwalbe was due to one or more of the following factors: 
traces of spirits of turpentine in the rosin, moisture, oxygen of 
the air conducted through the heating flask and oxygen absorbed 
by the rosin previous to the experiment. Rosin, prepared from 
fresh oleoresin, freed completely from spirits of turpentine dur- 
ing distillation, and heated in a current of dry nitrogen, showed 
no signs of decomposition at 140°, even after seven hours’ 
heating at this temperature. 

But they further stated that if the resin acids were prepared 
cold and freed from the other constituents of the fresh oleoresin, 
such acids heated in dry nitrogen melted at 65°-70° C. and im- 
mediately evolved carbon dioxide in quantity. No explanation 
was offered of this seeming paradox, the results, however, in- 
dicating a probable decomposition of some of the acid con- 
stituents of the oleoresin during its separation by distillation, 
in the woods, into rosin and spirits of turpentine. 

Later, in seeking an explanation, two possibilities suggested 
themselves: J irst, that during the preparation of the acids 
some oxygen might have been absorbed from the air, in spite 
of the precautions taken; second, that the drying of the acids 
in a desiccator over phosphorus pentoxide may have been im- 
perfect. This last idea was suggested during the course of an- 
other investigation in this laboratory, in whieh great difficulty 
was experienced in drying ee resin ace precipitated 


* Reprinted from the Journal a Industrial and Engineering Chemisty, Volume 
6, No. 9, page 782. September, 

Presented af pte 49th eaters of the American Chemical Society, Cincinnati, 
April 6-10, 1914 

1 Zeit. angew, Ohem., 18, 1825. 


2 THIS JOURNAL, 1, 68. 


| 
: 


19165 | Restn Acrps—A Correction 151 


from water solutions of their potassium salts by acidifying with 
hydrochloric acid. 

To test these ideas, a perfectly fresh specimen of the oleo- 
resin of Pinus Heterophylla (Cuban or slash pine) was obtained 
from Florida. ive grams of this specimen were dissolved in 
50 cc. of ether, the solution filtered and the potassium salts of 
the acids immediately precipitated by slowly adding 10 ce. of 
a very concentrated water solution of potassium hydroxide, ap- 
proximately 15 normal, a salting-out process. This precipitate, 
freed as far as possible from the potassium hydroxide solution 
by draining, was thoroughly mixed with glass wool to make the 
mass more permeable to the extractive, and extracted with ether 
one hundred hours in a Soxhlet extractor until no further traces 
of spirits of turpentine or resene could be detected in the fresh 
extract. The extracted mass was treated with cold water and 
the solution of the potassium salts filtered from the glass wool. 
The free acids were precipitated by slow addition of dilute 
hydrochloric acid, just to acidity, filtered upon a Buchner fun- 
nel, washed with water until free from chlorides, and rapidly 
dried as far as possible with the suction pump. ‘The partly 
dried acids were dissolved in ether and the removal of water 
completed by addition of freshly ignited sodium sulfate. This 
solution was rapidly filtered into the heating flask in which the 
experiment was to be conducted. 

This flask had been previously filled with nitrogen obtained 
by drawing air successively through a water solution of am- 
monia; over heated copper; through dilute sulfuric acid; two 
wash bottles containing alkaline pyrogallic acid solution; con- 
centrated sulfuric acid and two drying tubes—one containing 
calcium chloride and soda lime, the other phosphorus pentoxide 
mixed with pumice. The heating flask, surrounded by a bath of 
cottonseed oil in a beaker, contained a thermometer, and its 
outlet tube, during the heating experiment, dipped below the 
surface of freshly filtered barium hydroxide solution in the 
precipitating flask. A tube of soda-lime was placed between the 
precipitating flask and the aspirator. 

The ether solution of the resin acids was evaporated to 


152 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHELy Soctety . [ Jan. 


dryness in the heating flask in a current of dry nitrogen under 
reduced pressure, barium hydroxide solution was then filtered 
into the precipitating flask and the temperature of the heating 
flask slowly raised, nitrogen being drawn through the flask 
throughout the experiment. 

The acids melted at about 73°C., but no gas evolution could 
be detected in the melted mass, even while the temperature 
was being raised to 140° C. and so maintained for an hour, nor 
was there the slightest precipitation of barium carbonate in the 
precipitating flask. It is evident, therefore, that these resin 
acids, if protected from oxygen and thoroughly freed from 
water, are perfectly stable at 140° C. 


CuHaper, Hi, N. C. 


1915] Isoprenr rrom ComMeErcIAL TURPENTINES 153 


ISOPRENE FROM COMMERCIAL TURPENTINES * 


BY CUAS. H. HERTY AND J. O. GRAHAM 


Jn connection with the studies of rubber made by polymeri- 
zation of isoprene, Harries and Gottlob ' described a method for 
the preparation of isoprene from spirits of turpentine by means 
of the “isoprene lamp.” In this method the spirits of turpen- 
tine is boiled in a flask, in which, just below the neck, is suspend- 
ed an electrically heated platinum wire coiled somewhat like the 
filament of a tantalum incandescent bulb. A part of the vapors 
are decomposed as they pass upward across the heated wire. The 
flask is attached to an upright condenser maintained at a temper- 
ature of 50° C., for condensing the unchanged vapors of spirits 
of turpentine. The upright condenser is connected with an in- 
clined condenser fed with tap water and this in turn is connected 
with a receiver surrounded by a freezing mixture. The crude 
product collected in this receiver is fractionated and the isoprene 
collected as the fraction boiling between 35° and 37° C. 

With this apparatus, Harries and Gottlob obtained a yield of 
only 1 per cent of isoprene from commercial pinene as against 
30 to 50 per cent from commercial limonene. They, therefore, 
concluded that the yield of isoprene from spirits of turpentine 
is due chiefly to the presence of dipentene (limonene). 

In view of the general interest in the production of rubber 
from isoprene, it seemed desirable to extend these studies to 
commercial products closely related to spirits of turpen- 
tine and to test further the point mentioned above as to 
the origin of the isoprene from spirits of turpentine, accord- 
ingly, studies have been made using commercial spirits of tur- 
pentine, fractions of the same, pine oil, the volatile oil of Pinus 
serotina (pond pine) and refined spruce pine teurpentine. 

The apparatus used closely resembled that of Harries and 
Gottlob, short-circuiting of the sections of red hot platinum wire 
being prevented by winding the wire on a pipe stem triangular 
__* Reprinted from the Journal of EecaeLelal and Engineering Chemisty, Volume 
6, No. 10, page 803. October, 1914 


Presented at the 48th Meeting of ‘the American Chemical Society, Rochester, 
September 8-12, 1913. 


1Ann., 383, 228, 


154 JOURNAL OF THE MitrcHEett Society [ Jan. 


prism. A constant current of 2.25 amperes maintained an even 
temperature of the wires at a red glow. The flask containing 
the turpentine was heated by means of a bath of cottonseed oil 
containing a thermometer. The receiving vessel in the freezing 
mixture, salt and ice, was a small sulfurous acid condenser. The 
crude products were refined by distillation through a Hempel 
column filled with glass beads. The yield of pure isoprene in 
each of the experiments which follow represents the fraction 
collected between 35° and 37° C. 


SPIRITS OF TURPENTINE 

200 ec. of spirits of turpentine were boiled in the isoprene 
lamp until condensation ceased in the inclined condenser. At 
two-hour intervals the crude product was removed from the 
receiver and fractionated. Following this experiment, similar 
experiments were conducted with 200 cc. fractions of spirits of 
turpentine obtained by fractionation by means of a Young’s 
still head. The first fraction was collected between 155° and 
156° C., the pinene fraction; the second, between 169° and 
175° C.; the third fraction from 175° C. up. These two last 
fractions should include the dipentene content of the original 
spirits of turpentine. 

The heating of the two last fractions was continued only two 
hours, as after that time no further condensation could be ob- 
served in the inclined condenser. 

The results of the three experiments are shown in Table I: 


TABLE I Volume 
Volume of of res- 
Time distillate idue in 
of Temper- -—_~_———_Per cent heat’g 
Substance heating ature of Crude Refined of flask 
used Hrs. oilbath Ce. Ce. isoprene Ce. 
2 As} 17 6.5 3.25 
Spirits of stuepentine.. ics. Za trSe 12 3.9. A375 ee 
2 185° 8 1.0 0.50 103 
Popaisetee kat a eee 6 37 11.0 5.50 103 
Braction s155s——l5one eee 
2 175 10 6 3.00 
Z 175° 7 5 2.50 
2 157 6 4 2.00 
2 VAY 4 1 0.50 ete 
TLotals ere tee Bis es ag 16 800° “950 
Bractione69:—=|7 oe eeee 2 180° 6.5 1 0.50 192 
BPACHOn: da occ teu eulcor ene 2 185° 3.25 0 0.00 195 


5 


1915| Isoprenr rromM CoMMERCIAL TURPENTINES 15 
From the direct proof thus obtained it is evident that the 

yield of isoprene from spirits of turpentine is due to pinene, 

rather than to dipentene as claimed by Harries and Gottlob. 


THE VOLATILE OIL OF PINUS SEROTINA 


This substance has been studied by Herty and Dickson ? and 
was found to be particularly rich in limonene. Since Harries 
and Gottlob obtained 30 to 50 per cent of isoprene from com- 
mercial limonene with the isoprene lamp, it seemed desirable to 
study this volatile oil and compare its yield with that from 
ordinary spirits of turpentine. 

In preparing the material from the oleoresin the difficulties 
formerly met with in distillation by a current of superheated 
steam were easily overcome by heating the oleoresin at a pressure 
of one millimeter, the volatile oil readily passing off without any 
tendency to froth in the flask and with largely decreased op- 
portunity for polymerization during distillation. Table IT 
gives the results with the isoprene lamp. 


TABLE II 
Volume 
Volume of Peniate 
Time Temper- distillate in 
of ature ~——~_~——__ Percent heat’g 
Substance heating of Crude Refined of ask 
used Hrs. oilbath Ce. Ce. isoprene ce: 
Z2O0n 175~ 6.50 BO 25 
200 cc. of volatile oil of Pinus 2.0 175° 4.75 SO ae 1S 
STADE. 6b Soiss ae Ee 25) a185 11.00 8.0 4.0 ae 
2:52 1655 11.00 8.0 4.0 25.0 
Talc Lee Siete sis 280 oes 


No further condensate could be obtained by continued 
heating of the residue. As was to be expected the yield of 
isoprene from this volatile oil, rich in limonene, shows a largely 
increased yield, practically doubled, as compared with ordinary 
spirits of turpentine. 


2J. Am. Ohem. Soe., 80, 872. 


156 JOURNAL OF THE MitTcHELL Society [Jan. 


PINE OIL 


When resinous pine wood is finely divided and treated with 
steam a crude oil distils off which on fractionation yields wood 
spirits of turpentine and pine oil. Teeple * has found that pine 
oil consists chiefly of a-terpineol. The specimen used in this 
work showed at 15° C. a specific gravity of 0.9403 and an index 
of refraction of 1.4901. The results with the isoprene lamp are 
given in Table IIT. 


Taste III 
Volume of 

Time Temper- distillate Volume 

9) ature  ~-——_~=——_ Percent of 
Substance heating of Crude Refined of residue 
used Hrs. oilbath Ce. Ce. isoprene Cc. 

2 210° 15 4 2.0 

200 ce. OF pine one! o-o cee. 2 210° 10 3 15 coe 
2 210° 7 1 0.5 125 
Totalsssctt oe cate ceaenen 6 eee: 32 8 4.0 125 


REFINED SPRUCE PINE TURPENTINE 


This substance, consisting chiefly of cymene, is collected as 
a by-product in blowing off the digesters in the manufacture of 
wood pulp from spruce pine. The specimen was furnished by 
the A. D. Little Laboratory of Boston. It showed at 15° C. a 
specific gravity of 0.8639 and an index of refraction of 1.4916; 
80 per cent distilled between 171.3° and 174.9°C. 200 ee. of 
this substance were boiled three hours in the isoprene lamp but 
no crude distillate could be observed. 


CuHape, Hinz, N. C. 


®J. Am. Ohem. Soc., 80, 413. 


JOURNAL 


ELISHA MITCHELL SGIENTIFIG SOGIETY 


No. 4 


ELISHA MITCHELL, D. D. 


BY EX-PRESIDENT KEMP P. BATTLE, LL. D., 
The last survivor of the Faculty of June, 1857 


Elisha Mitchell was born in Washington, Litchfield County, 
Connecticut, August 19th, 1793. His father was a respected 
farmer, content to live a farmer’s life. His mother, Phoebe 
Eliot, was a descendant of Rev. John Eliot, the “Apostle to the 
Indians,” a learned man, who translated the Bible into the lan- 
guage of the Indians of Massachusetts. Her grandfather was 
also eminent as a divine and a scientist,—Rev. Jared Eliot, 
M. D., and D. D. who was honored by the Royal Society of Lon- 
don with a gold medal for a discovery in the manufacture of 
iron. 

Young Mitchell showed from boyhood the talents of the 
Eliot family. He graduated in Yale University, then College, 
with high honor in 1813, along with President Longstreet, the 
author of Georgia Scenes, Dr. Denison Olmstead, author and 
professor at the University of North Carolina and Yale, and 
Thomas P. Devereux, Reporter of the Supreme Court of North 
Carolina. Senator George E. Badger was a classmate but left 
before graduation. 


After graduation he taught in a school for boys at Jamaica, 
Long Island. In the spring of 1815 he took charge of a school 
for girls in New London, where he married Maria S.—the 
Daughter of Dr. Erasmus North, a physician of the City. In the 
next year on the recommendation of the Chaplain of the Senate, 
Rev. Sereno E. Dwight, through an active Trustee of this insti- 
tution, Wm. Gaston, a representative in Congress, he was elect- 


157 


158 JOURNAL OF THE MitTcHELL Society [ March 


ed Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in this 
University in place of Dr. Caldwell, made President a second 
time after the resignation of Dr. Robert H. Chapman. Pro- 
fessor Mitchell reported for duty January 31st, 1818. 


He applied himself to his duties with great diligence. To 
him is the honor of introducing into the curriculum the study 
of Differential and Integral Calculus, then called Fluxions. 
His favorite study however was Nature, and in 1825, on the 
departure of Professor Olmstead to Yale, he was at his own 
request transferred to the Chair of Chemistry, Geology and 
Mineralogy, Mr. James Phillips taking his former chair. Bota- 
ny was also under his charge. 


It was at this time that the General Assembly made a small 
appropriation for a Geologic Survey of the State. For about 
six months Olmstead was director and then Mitchell succeeded. 
Each published a short preliminary Report. The appropriation 
was not renewed. 


In 1835 Professor Mitchell made tours through the counties 
of Johnston, Wayne, Onslow, Craven and Beaufort, and then 
through Alamance, Guilford, and the counties west, as far as 
Buncombe, for the study of the Geology, Mineralogy and Botany 
of the State. He embodied is observations in closely written 
letters to his wife. These were shortly before her death given 
to the University by his unmarried daughter Margaret, and 
were published as one of the James Sprunt Historical Mono- 
graphs, with annotations by Dr. Battle, the Professor of His- 
tory. He made subsequent tours in our mountain counties in 
1838, 1844 and 1856, discovering in 1844 the highest peak east 
of the Rocky Mountains, now called in his honor Mount 
Mitchell. 

After the death of President Caldwell in January of this 
year he was Chairman of the Faculty for a year, until the ar- 
rival of President Swain in January 1836, and was an efficient 
executive officer. 

While Dr. Mitchell lived in Connecticut he was a member of 
the Congregational Church. After his removal to Chapel Hill 
he joined that of the Presbyterian and was ordained to the 


ms > Py 


19165 | ExisHa Mircuettz, D. D. 159 


Christian Ministry in 1821. For many years he preached in 
the University Chapel every alternate Sunday, and often at 
night in the Union, or Village, Chapel, which in 1848 gave place 
to the Presbyterian Church edifice. 

As a preacher I cannot say that he was eloquent, or inspiring. 
His manner of delivery was tame and awkward. His eyes were 
fixed on his manuscript and he never raised his voice, but his 
sermons were always sound and sensible. He did not follow 
the old school in claiming that every word of the Holy Scrip- 
tures was inspired by God, but thought that mistakes in merely 
historical matters had occurred by errors of copyists or other- 
wise, 

I recall only one sentence of his sermons. The subject was 
“Moral Courage” and was ably handled. He began “The man 
who is on a sidewalk and sees an angry bull approaching with 
horns lowered ready to gore him, and does not jump over the 
fence, he is not a brave man, he is a fool.” Then he showed the 
nature of true courage. 

For years he was Bursar of the University, in charge of 
the collecting of tuition fees and other sums and attending to 
the repair of College Buildings and similar work. The sub- 
stantial stone walls around the campus were built under his 
direction. He was also a Justice of the Peace and acting Mayor, 
building and repairing streets, roads and culverts. 

As he grew older, he studied in a room in the South Build- 
ing to a late hour, and was much relied on in the suppression of 
disorders. Although he was vigilant in the performance of this 
duty, the Professors and Tutors in his day being expected to act 
as police-officers, he always was on the side of leniency in 
punishment. 


As a teacher, in the studies under his charge, and in the 
Old Testament taught to the Junior classes Sunday afternoons, 
he was inspiring and interesting. He did not confine his at- 
tention to the text-books but often gave facts and incidents 
gathered from his reading and experience. He did not require 
laboratory work of his classes, but often performed experiments 
himself in presence of the class. He indulged occasionally in 


160 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHEeLt Society | March 


humorous anecdotes, which the College critics alleged were 
handed down from class to class. For instruction in the Geo- 
logy of North Carolina he published a thin Octavo with that title 
embodying his researches. He prepared a treatise on Chemis- 
try. He printed a few pages in pamphlet on Botany, and 
“Statistics, Facts and Dates.” 


If Dr. Mitchell had used his great brain and uncommonly 
sound health and strength of body in the study and development 
of one branch of science he would have been world-famous. 
But his eager curiosity urged him to more or less partial dipping 
into many subjects. He read voluminous theological works. 
He devoured Blackstone and other legal literature in order to 
qualify himself for the office of Justice of the Peace. He learn- 
ed the use of theodolites and other instruments, and was a skill- 
ful engineer. He was theoretically versed in Astronomy, and 
Political Economy, Agriculture, Horticulture, Mining. 


He was learned in Higher Mathematics. He was a vast 
reader of the history, poetry, political problems, philosophy, in 
truth of the several literatures of ancient and modern times. 
The learned and unlearned of the University and of the 
village called him with undoubting faith “a walking En- 
cyclopedia.” And it was a laudable peculiarity of his that 
he was always willing to impart information to any questioner 
however humble. Another peculiarity was entire self-reliance. 
He formed and executed his plans without consultation with 
any one. Sometimes those plans failed, as when, for instance 
he undertook to change the front of the University to the South, 
running the Raleigh road through the Southern part of the 
campus, and building a useless massive porch on the same side 
of Gerrard Hall. He was never heard to explain or excuse the 
project. He was employed to build two miles of the Raleigh 
road ascending the Chapel Hill promontory on the South of the 
Piney Prospect Hill, and when Professor afterwards Bishop 
Green, being made Road-overseer improved the road by a more 
easy ascent, the good doctor took it as a personal insult, and 
never forgave him. Shortly before his death, without consul- 
tation with any one he began the construction of a rock wall 


1915] Exisoa Mircuet., D. D. 161 


into University lands, leaving the Trustees, Faculty and the 
public to guess at his motives. The favorite conjecture was 
that he designed a Botanical Garden, but there was no authority 
for the guess. 


Let me not be understood to imply that his labors were often 
in vain. As Bursar, besides receiving and disbursing University 
moneys, he had charge of the University grounds and buildings, 
His success is still evident in the picturesque rock walls around 
_ the campus, the roads he built and other improvements. 


Dr. Mitchell published no great book but he was active with 
his pen. I have heretofore mentioned his Geology of North 
Carolina, his Chemistry, his notes on Botany, and Facts and 
Dates. Without attempting minute descriptions I give a list 
of his contributions to journals and newspapers and of his pam- 
phlets, not heretofore mentioned. 


1. Contributions on scientific subjects to Silliman’s and 
other journals. I suggest that some student search for these 
and describe them. 

2. Pamphlet in defence of Presbyterian tenets, in answer 
to Bishop Ravenscroft, the first Bishop of North Carolina. 


3. Pamphlet, proving that Slavery is righteous according 
to Holy Scripture and sound reason. 

After publishing this Dr. Mitchell revisited his birth-town 
and was mortified that the authorities of his Church refused to 
invite him to occupy its pulpit. 


4, A series of letters in the Raleigh Register attacking the 
Report of Dr. Ebenezer Emmons on the Deep river deposits of 
coal. Dr. Emmons claimed that there was a valuable coal basin. 
Dr. Mitchell contended that the indications were only of a 
four feet seam, with inclinations of about 18 degrees to the 
surface of the earth, and that there was no evidence of a diminu- 
tion of this incline. Actual working sustains Dr. Mitchell. 

5. Address before the North Carolina Agricultural Society 
at the Fair in 1856, in which he gave much valuable informa- 
tion on Agricultural Chemistry. 


6. Letters to the Raleigh Register in reply to General 


162 JoURNAL OF THE MircHELi Society | March 


Thomas L. Clingman, who claimed that Dr. Mitchell was never 
on the highest peak of the Black Mountains, but that he Cling- 
man was the true discoverer. He caused W. D. Cooke to desig- 
nate on his wall-map the highest peak as Mt. Clingman. On 
the death of the Doctor he gracefully surrendered his claim. 
It is now conceded that Dr. Mitchell was right. He is con- 
firmed by the United States Geologic Survey of 1881~2, the 
highest and final authority. 

The claim of General Clingman, on account of the lapse 
of time since Dr. Mitchell ascended the High Peak, his ability 
as a controversalist, and his influence as Senator with the depart- 
ments at Washington, threatened to be formidable. Dr. Mit- 
chell determined in June 1857, to revisit the mountain, to make 
instrumental measurements of its highest peak and to obtain 
the evidence of those who had accompanied him when he made 
his first ascent. With charasteristic self-reliance on the 27th 
of June, he left his party at the Patton House on the Southern 
flank of the mountains intending to journey to the top, and then 
go down to the settlement on Caney river in order to interview 
Big Tom Wilson and others, who knew about his former visits. 
A heavy rain detained him on the Peak and alone and in dark- 
ness the brave but rash old man attempted to descend the slip- 
pery banks of the Cat-tail fork of Caney river, along which 
there was no path, through thick laurels and over steep and slip- 
pery rocks. In attempting to pass around a waterfall, he slip- 
ped down a cliff forty-five feet and then fell over a precipice 
fifteen feet into the pool below. His watch was stopped at nine- 
teen minutes past eight on the 27th of June, 1857. The body 
was found after a lengthened search 8th July, mainly by the 
wooderaft of Big Tom Wilson. Zebulon B. Vance, afterwards 
Governor and Senator, was one of the most active of the search- 
ing party. The body was not bruised and it was evident that 
being stunned by the fall he died painlessly by drowning. 

At the request of the family he was buried in Asheville on 
the 10th of July, a touching sermon being preached by Rev. 
Robert Hett Chapman, D. D., a son of the second President of 
the University of the same name. 


1915] Exisua Mrrcuet., D. D. 163 


On the 14th June, 1858, at the request of many of his 
friends the body was exhumed and reburied on the highest peak 
of the Black Mountains on the 16th of the same month. A 
sermon was delivered by the Episcopal Bishop of Tennessee, a 
graduate and Tutor of the University in 1820/21, Rev. James 
Hervey Otey, D. D. After him President D. L. Swain made a 
“Vindication of the propriety of giving the name of Mitchell to 
the Peak.” Both sermon and address were repeated in Asheville 
two days afterwards. 


For years the grave was marked by a cairn of stones 
gathered in its neighborhood. The title of the acre of land 
around it was vested in the University of North Carolina. On 
August 18, 1888 by means of a bequest of the youngest daughter 
of Dr. Mitchell, Mrs. Eliza North, widow of Richard S. Grant, 
supplemented by minor donations, the present monument of 
white bronze was erected on the summit. It is universally re- 
gretted that within a few weeks this monument was blown down 
and ruined by a tornado. 


The trail to the summit, including ten miles, was in such 
condition that it required the labor of fourteen men thirty nine 
days to make it passable. The sections of the monument were 
transported on men’s shoulders, the whole weighing about nine 
hundred pounds. The base is formed of two blocks of gneiss 
bedded together with Portland cement. The work was accom- 
plished at the request of the University Faculty by the un- 
parallelled energy and labor of Dr. Wm. B. Phillips, once Pro- 
fessor of eAGHE an dMetallurgy in the University of North 
Carolina, now Professor of Geology i in the University of Texas. 


I have given my opinion of Dr. Mitchell as a preacher and 
teacher. As a man, in social life and as a citizen, he had con- 
spicuous virtues. He was charitable in deed and in speech. He 
seldom spoke harshly of anyone, even under provocation. His 
advice and his purse were open to the humblest. His acts of 
charity, very frequent, were known only from the recipients. 
In his controversies, he refrained from angry words and at- 
tacking motives. Notwithstanding his superiority in learning 
there was no ostentation. Although he preferred to be alone 


0 Oe ee 


164 JOURNAL OF THE Mitcuertt Society [March 


with his books, his pen, or his thoughts, when in company he 
was agreeable and jovial—some of his jokes, according to the 
fashion of his youth, more coarse than suits modern taste. He 
was eminently kind to his family and slaves, often teaching his 
children, so that they were unusually well grounded in literature 
and science. On the whole he was looked up to and beloved by 
all who met him, whether casually or intimately. No one who 
shook his hand but thought a great man! In the world centers 
of science and scholarship he would have been among the great- 
est. 


Cuapey Hi, N. C. 


THE COGGINS (APPALACHIAN) GOLD MINE* 


BY JOSEPH HYDE PRATT 


The Coggins Mine is located in the northeastern part of 
Montgomery County, North Carolina, 114 miles north of Eldo- 
rado, the nearest postottice, and 12 miles northeast of Troy, the 
county-seat. The nearest railroad point is Whitney, on a branch 
of the Southern Railway, running from Salisbury to Norwood, 
a distance of about 7 miles nearly west. 

A description of this mine will indicate or give the salient 
features of several other mines in this general district. 


GEOLOGY 


The country rocks of this area are composed of argillaceous 
slates or schists, which have probably been derived from land 
detritus or waste, and varying amounts of tuffaceous material. 
Cutting these rocks at sharp angles to their schistosity are dia- 
base dikes, which vary from a few to 6 feet in width. The strike 
of the schistosity of the slates is approximately N. 42° E., 
and they are dipping from 75° to 80° northwest. The slates are 
both soft and silicified and carry quartz lenses or stringers from 
very small narrow ones to some that are 10 or more feet in 
width. These slates have very evidently been faulted, and the 
resulting fault line has followed pretty much the schistosity of 
the slates; but in some instances it has cut across this at a very 
sharp angle. The result of this faulting has been the formation 
of quartz veins referred to, and also to a general silicification of 
the slates. The width of the slates which have been subjected 
to this mineralization and silicification varies up to as much as 
50 to 60 feet. Another result of the mineralization has been the 
introduction of considerable gold-bearing pyrite into the hands 
of schists or slate. Some of this pyrite occurs in minute cubes up 
to one-eighth of an inch in diameter. There is a decided differ- 
ence in the origin of the free gold in the quartz seams or slate3 
and that which occurs in the oie bearing pyrite. I believe it 
will be found that ieedccable of the gold in the pyrite occurs 


* Reprinted from Heonomte Paper No. 34, of the North Carolina Geological 
and Economic Survey, pp. Aes 
0 


166 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Socrety [ March 


as free gold, and not in chemical combination with the iron sul- 
phide or as a gold sulphide. Specimens were found in which 
free gold occurred in perfectly fresh pyrite. The gold runs out 
into very minute cracks in the pyrite, so that it is impossible to 
crush the ore fine enough to liberate all this gold without caus- 
ing slimes. For this reason all the free gold cannot be saved 
by amalgamation. 

The veins have a lenticular structure, as observed in hori- 
zontal and vertical planes, varying very widely in width, both 
along the strike and dip, and are separated by bands of schists or 
slates from other similar quartz veins. The ore body of this 
band of mineralized slate can readily be divided into two types: 
one consisting of numerous very narrow stringers of quartz, 
lying along the planes of schistosity of the rock, and which are 
separated from each other by narrow bands of slate which con- 
tain more or less pyrite, but which are not very silicified; and 
the other type containing larger masses of quartz occurring in 
veins or seams, and the slates inclosing them are silicified to a 
much greater extent. 

There is great variation in the values carried by these ore 
deposits, and there seem to be well-defined ore shoots which also 
have a lenticular structure and which are richer than the balance 
of the vein. In some instances the foot and hanging walls are 
well defined, but in many eases the walls of the vein could only 
be determined by assaying the ore to determine to what extent 
the vein could be profitably worked. To one who is unfamiliar 
with this formation it is often very difficult to distinguish be- 
tween the rich and lean portions of the vein. It is absolutely 
necessary in working this type of deposit to constantly sample 
the ore to determine its value, and the position of the vein 
for ore seams. 

Diabase dikes have been observed cutting the schists and ore 
deposits, but they have been intruded subsequent to the forma- 
tion of the ore, and it must have faulted or displaced the ore 
deposits but very little. 

Three diabase dikes have been observed, two of which were 
exposed in the underground workings and the third at the ex- 
treme end of the ‘‘mine tract” in an open pit. 


1915 | Tue Coaeins Gop Mine 167 


- MINERALOGICAL CHARACTER OF THE ORE 


The ore consists principally of free gold, with some pyrite 
and a gangue of white quartz or silicified slate, or both. The 
pyrite seems to be more or less disseminated through the schists 
and carries some gold, which it is believed is largely in the free 
state. The seams of slate that occur in the vein are also impreg- 
nated with small particles and crystals of pyrite, although their 
gold content is often very low. These barren portions vary in 
width from a few inches to several feet. 

A small amount of calcite has been observed in the quartz 
seams, and a very small amount of arsenopyrite. 

The veins are altered usually to a depth of 50 to 70 feet, 
but in some instances they are partly altered to a still greater 


depth. 


Vrrns.—There are two so-called veins that have been de- 
veloped: one known as the “East Vein” and the other known as 
the ‘““West Vein”; but as far as can be determined, these two 
are parts of one general ore formation and do not represent two 
distinct depositions of ore. The two bands of slate impregnated 
with the quartz veins and seams were supposed to be separated 
by a band of barren slate, but it was found upon sampling this 
that it carried a certain amount of gold. 


DrevetopMEeNtT Worx.—The property has been developed 
principally by one shaft, with its drifts and cross-cuts. <A cer- 
tain amount of prospecting has been done at other points along 
the strike of the slates. At the southwest end of the property 
in a line S. 42° W. from the shaft, a pit (A) about 8 feet deep 
was sunk along the edge of a diabase dike. At several points 
between this pit and the shaft, several crosseuts were made, ex- 
posing the slates, but it did not show any mineral of value. To 
the northeast of the shaft, several pits have been made, the prin- 
cipal one being about 400 feet from the shaft, where a pit (B) 
was sunk 12 or 15 feet, that exposed the slates. This pit was ap- 
proximately N. 42° E. from the shaft. 

The main shaft was sunk vertically for a distance of about 
8 feet, and then was turned, following approximately the dip of 
the slates; and is continued on this incline to the lowest level, 


168 


JOURNAL OF THE Mi1TCHELL SOCIETY 


ra 
S 
Nn 
> 
«= 
= 
2 
a) 


[March 


TINTIT OF 


Figure 1 


# 


aan 


1915] Ture Coaetns Gotp Mine 169 


approximately 260 feet. Four levels have been developed from 
the shaft: one known as the ‘50-foot Level,” which is approxi- 
mately 57 feet from the collar of the shaft. Another level known 
as the ‘100-foot Level,” a third known as the “200-foot Level,” 
and a fourth known as “250-foot Level.” 


50-foot Level.—On the 50-foot level development work has 
been extended for a distance of 142 feet to the southwest of the 
shaft and 172 feet to the northeast of the shaft. At a point 
60 feet southwest of the shaft, a diabase dike was encountered; 
and 130 feet northwest of the shaft another diabase dike was 
encountered. (Fig. 1, p. 168.) Most of the work on the 50-foot 
level has been stoping of ore that existed between these two 
dikes; and the ore has been taken out very largely from this 
level to the 100-foot level, also to a considerable extent from 
this level toward the surface. (Fig. 2, p. 171.) Blocks and pillars 
of ore have been left, some of which carry good values, but have 
not been reckoned as a part of the ore in sight. There seem to 
be two veins of ore, separated by a block of slate that carries 
considerably less value than the veins; but, as tested in certain 
places, carry pay values. At the extreme northeast of the drift 
of this 50-foot level the slates were tested, which show no free 
gold; and this indicates that beyond the diabase dike on the 
northeast there is but little ore, unless it should be found that 
the ore-bearing portion of this slate has been faulted. To the 
southwest of the southwest dike ore was encountered and stoped 
for a distance of about 30 to 40 feet. The extreme southwest 
end of the drift was tested, which showed a certain amount of 
free gold; indication that the ore body was continuous in this 
direction. The 50-foot level is connected with the surface by 
an upraise of 50 feet to the southwest of the shaft, and with 
another of 60 feet to the northeast. It is also connected with the 
100-foot level by a winze from the stope to the southwest and a 
stope to the northeast of the shaft. (See plan of level, Fig. 2, 
pelt.) 


100-foot Level.—On the 100-foot level development work has 
been extended for a distance of 60 feet to the southwest of the 
shaft and 102 feet to the northeast. Besides the stoping that 


eer ead 6 eine - — eet 


170 JOURNAL OF THE MitrcHeEtty Society [ March 


was done from this level toward the 50-foot level, considerable 
underhand stoping has been done to the northeast of the shaft; 
and a winze has been sunk from this stope to the 200-foot level. 
The ore as exposed on this level was very carefully sampled, so 
that a comprehensive idea can be obtained of the occurrence of 
the ore bodies. There seems to be two ore shoots to the north- 
east of the shaft, separated from each other by a band of slate, 
which, however, is gold-bearing, as indicated by the two samples 
assayed, which showed $2.11 and $2.51 value in gold. The 
southwest ore body has been developed by a drift and cross-cut, 
and the ore as exposed was carefully sampled. This gave a value 
of approximately $9 per ton, for a width of approximately 20 
feet. The work to the southwest of the shaft is apparently in 
the barren or partially barren band of slates, separating the two 
ore shoots, which accounts for the low values obtained from the 
assaying of the slates in the vicinity of the shaft. The south- 
west stope of this 100-foot level, which comes within 12 feet of 
this level, encountered on the southwest the diabase dike, which 
accounts for the stoping being stopped in that direction. The 
cross-cut was extended to the southwest from the winze connect- 
ing this stope with the 100-foot level for a distance of 45 feet; 
and then another drift was extended for about 30 feet to the 
southwest, cutting through the diabase dike. A sample was 
taken of the supposed ore just beyond the dike, but this showed 
but very little value. (See plan of level, Fig. 3, p. 172.) 


200-foot Level.—On the 200-foot level development work 
has been extended for a distance of 90 feet to the southwest and 
120 feet to the northeast, and the ores have been stoped at two 
points: one at the extreme southwestern portion of the level 
and the other about 20 feet from the extreme northeastern por- 
tion of the level. Both overhead and underhand stoping have 
been done. Neither of these stopes connect with the 100-foot 
level; but a connection with the 100-foot level is had by the 
winze sunk from the northeast stope of the 100-foot level to a 
cross-cut on the 200-foot level, which is to the southeast of the 
stope. The development work on this 200-foot level indicates 
that the so-called ‘“‘two-ore bodies” of the 50- and 100-foot levels 


cae 


171 


Tur Coagins Gotp MINE 


@ PINT 


100 LEVEL 
COGG/N MINE 


[March 


JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Society 


200 LEVEL 


COGG/IN MINE 


€ ans 


y 
. 
9 
r 
% 
< 
q 
= 
q 
! 
| 


1915 | Tue Coeerns Gorp Mine 173 


have come together on this 200-foot level. As assayed, an ore 
body is developed on this level 42 feet wide at the northeast por- 
tion of the level, which carries values of approximately $6 per 
ton for the whole width. The northeast stope is on the richer 
ore shoot that occurs in the vein, and has been stoped for a width 
of about 15 feet. The assays made of this ore shoot showed 
values varying from $5.82 to $21.54 per ton. The southwest 
stope of this level is on the richer portion of the ore body, just 
southwest of the diabase dike, and showed values of $17.82 and 
$32.52 per ton. This stope is about 12 feet wide. Between 
these two stopes, a distance of approximately 90 feet, there is a 
block of ore that has been developed by means of cross-cuts, that 
gave values varying from $3.38 to $8.30. There is apparently 
a seam of slate in this ore body that carries very low values. 
The whole body of ore, approximately 40 feet in width, will be 
found to carry approximately $5.50 to $6 per ton. The ore 
shoot to the southwest undoubtedly extends further to the south- 
west than has been developed. 

It was impossible to get down into certain of the stopes in 
order to take samples at the bottom of the stopes between the 
100- and 200-foot levels, and also the upper portions of the 
stopes from the 200-foot level. Two sides, however, of the block 
of ore between these two levels have been sampled and assayed, 
which will give an approximate value of the ore body; and this 
value has been used in reckoning the ore body. 

250-foot Level.—At the 250-foot level a drift has been run 
a distance of 47 feet, N. 50° W. Ata distance of 37 feet drifts 
were started northeast.and southwest on a rich vein or seam of 
ore. As assayed, this seam carried from $170 to $232 in gold. 
Portions of it were rich, one 2-foot sample assaying $677 per 
ton. The material taken out of this cross-cut and the drifts 
show ore delivered to the mill on my last visit to the mine, 
January, 1914. The drifts from this cross-cut had only been 
extended a distance of 6 or 8 feet. A winze was started from 
the northeast stope of the 200-foot level to connect with the 
northeast drift on the 250-foot level. On account, however, of 
the difficulty in keeping good air in the winze, work was stopped 
on this, and an upraise will be made from the 200-foot level to 
connect with this winze. 


Z 


[March 


JourRNAL oF THE MitTcHELL SOCIETY 


174 


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TBAT, 002 
“oes 


TTIATDT,OO/ 


ergs ay 


QNIWN NIDIOD NOILIZPOGd IWPILY IA 


1915] Tur Coeerns Gorp Mine 175 


The percentage of free gold in the ore at the 250-foot level 
is approximately the same as at the 200- and 100-foot levels. 
It is very interesting to note, and indicates that this type of ore 
is carrying free gold to considerably greater depth than had 
been expected. 

Northeast Pit.—This pit, which is about 400 feet N. 42° 
E. from the main shaft, is 13 x 13 feet, and has been sunk to a 
depth of approximately 15 feet. This pit exposed the slates 
which, for a width of 6 feet, contained numerous seams and 
veins of quartz. The strike of the slates was approximately the 
same as that at the shaft, and their dipping, if anything, a little 
more vertical. All the slates were badly decomposed to the 
depth of the pit. A sample was taken from across the width of 
this open pit, and upon panning showed considerable free gold. 

Southwest Pit.—This pit, which is at the extreme southwest 
portion of the 62-acre tract, has been sunk to a depth of about 
6 to 8 feet alongside of a diabase dike. The strike of the schists 
that were exposed is approximately N. 43° E., and the strike of 
the dike approximately N. 20 to 30° E. A sample was taken 
of the slates as exposed in the pit just to the northeast of the 
dike; but, upon panning, this did not show any free gold, al- 
though some pyrite. 


176 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHeLt Society [March 


ASSAYS OF GOLD ORE, COGGINS MINE 


Value 
Sample} Level Description Width in 
Gold 
A....-| 200 ft. |Southwest stope ——— | 6 ft. 6in, |$ 33.48 
j oe? ee 200 ft. |Southwest stope opposite end from AW... 5 ft. 10in. 17.78 
Cie 200 ft. |Just east stope, supposed wall rock... eee fae Bk i meh .62 
pas 200 ft.|Just northeast of dike. All slate_......../10 ft. 1.03 
E..............| 200 ft.| West cross-cut from shaft. Mostly slate 
with seams of quartz). eat. 5.37 
F.| 200 ft. |Last 12 ft. cross-cut. Northeast side ae IE a 5.79 
}.............| 200 ft. |Cross-cut to northeast stope. Section east 
ANE SIRE UE ee 11 f& Gane 827 
|3 Pee 200 ft. | Extreme southwest end of northeast stope.__| 4 ft. Tin 3.31 
ss 100 ft.|Extreme end. Almost western to the north- 
east, drifts: 22 J | 2 Ge 10.75 
K_.......| 100 ft. | Extreme end of the easterly “hortheast drift..| 5 ft. 10 in. 455 
L.........| 100 ft.|Extreme southwest end just beyond diabase 
dikes a ee eee ee ea ey CF 2 ij 83 
M..........|_ 100 ft. |Southwest cross-cut. Slate 3ft. 3in........| 3 ft. 3 in. 2.07 
WN. -_ 3! 100 £t: |Next 5 ft. 8 in. beyond M.S | 0 see 4.55 
O........| 100 ft. |Northeast cross-cut. Northeast side... 9 ft. 8.27 
[pee 100 ft. |Southwest end of northeast stope._.__........ 6f -2i0- 2.48 
Q.......... | 100 ft.|Junction of two northeast drifts.—._._.__ 8ft. 5 in. 2.07 
R__....| 100 ft.|Just east of main shaft. Northeast side of 
chamber —. _ eS Pott Gite: 2.07 
Se =) 100 ft | Nine it, tothe east of i ie extending partly 
beyond shatt« 4s ee Fe te 2.07 
T____| 100 ft.|2 ft. seam of quartz of REE EES Co fis 1.65 
U2 200 ft.|5 ft. above bottom northeast oe north- 
east end ........ = sonal) HO te 21 50 
\ Vp Se Bead, 200 ft. |Just southwest i. 3 ft. to 4 ft. above bot- 
tom of stope 2... 22 eS | ieee 11.57 
Wes 200 ft. |Southwest end of stope. “3 ft. above bottom| S8ft. 11 in. 5.78 
Y_.......| 100 ft. |Southwest cross-cut. Northeast side of first 
S-ft:.. of slate: ee 8 ft. 291 
AA........| 200 ft.|Westwardly northeast drift. 31 ft. 6 in. 
from face. Sample across roof -...........|12 ft. 10 in. 10.33 
CC..........| 200 ft.|Extreme northeast cross-cut. East section..}14 ft. 8 in. 7.03 
pps) 200 ft.|Same as CC. Next 10 ft. 10 in. to west-—..|10 ft, 10 in. 7.03 
pes 900. ft: |Next 16 ft. 10 in: to DD _ to west__.___._____ 10 ff 10 in: 4.13 
A-27......| 250 ft.|North side of cross-cut, 33 ft. from shaft...| 8 ft. 232.68 
B-2......| 250 ft.|South side of cross-cut, beginning 33 ft. 
from) shot 8 ft. 171.51 
C-2_......| 250 ft.|South side of cross- “cut, “beginning 3a ote 
from) shatt .--  S eS UE a 12.64 
Do hy Dh te | Newer! TE ie Ce ea ee a 218.99 
ees 250: ft: | Next2. ft. *to), D-2- > ate a Ee Ps a 677.59 
WO 950 ft, | Nextua- ft:7t0 2 eS SS 3 ft. 70.38 
G-2._.....-| 250 ft.|North side cross-cut, beginning 3» ft. from 
SHARE Ss ee eee eee 3 ft. 258.90 
H-2 2RO ft.|Next 2 ft. to Gn oH a 73.79 
J-2 250. ft.|Next 2 ft. to H2 De ee epee 10 02 
ap. 950 ft: |Next 2 ft. “to 1-2 ee ee ee oo 3.08 
K-2 250 ft.|South side of cross-cut, last 3 ft. 2 in. of 
cross-cut) 2 6 ee ae ae 1.26 
1-24 250° ft.) Next. ott. 16> im: to Kid ee ee 1.44 
—— OO 


* Assays A to EE were made by Mr. Frank Drane, Charlotte, N. C. 
+ Assays A-2 to L-2 were made by Mr. Henry McCoy, Ophir, N. C. 


tIt was considered when these two samples were taken that they were 
beyond the ore-bearing seam, and the assays indicate this. 


1915] 


Tuer Coagarins Goutp MINE 


177 


The ore bodies exposed in the Coggins Mine were carefully 
sampled and the location from which the samples were taken 


indicated by letters on the maps. 


172.) 


(Figs. 2 and 3, pp. 171 and 


In addition to the above samples, several other samples were 
taken, which were panned to determine whether or not the ore 
tested was carrying free gold, and the relative amounts. The 
panning samples were quartered and the amount panned usually 


weighed from 1 to 3 pounds. 


follows: 


These samples were taken as 


Sample Level Description Width Value in Gold 

facet ears 200 ft. |Quartz seam in drift from] 2 ft, Showed several nuggets 
cross-cut in front of of gold 4 dwt. to 1 
shaft. dwt. and many colors 

1 55) Se eee tes 100 ft.)Southwest end of southwest} 2 ft, Showed 3 good colors 
stope, Material next to and many minute 
diabase dike. ones. 

CGe 100 ft.|;Overhead southwest stope.| 9 ft. Showed one good color, 
Sample taken next to several minute ones. 
diabase dike, Several pyrite. 

.|Northeast portion of south-| 2 ft, Showed two fair colors 
west stope to quartz and considerable fine 
seams. gold 

-|Extreme southwest end......... pe cectoesattcaets Showed several small 

colors, some pyrite. 

-|&xtreme northeast end be- Showed no free gold. 
yond diabase dike. 4ft.10in Some pyrite, 

-|Jnst southwest of diabas2 Showed fair colors and 
dike of southwest drift.| 6ft. Tin. many minute ones. 
Siliceous slate. Some pyrite. 

12) eases SUES |IBih is: Se ee ns ite Many colors. 

MI SUEEACe DP ItEs Awe eee ee ee |) Seas No gold. 
200 ft.|Northeast stope sample Nine fair colors. Many 
taken from material left|10 ft minute ones. Some 
a supposed hanging pyrite. 
all. 


A 10-stamp mill with four sets of amalgamation plates and 


two Wilfley concentrating tables has been erected. 


The ore as 


it is brought from the mine is raised to a hopper, from which it 
is fed to a Gates crusher, which feeds it onto an endless belt. 
This conveys the ore to the hopper, which feeds to the stamp 
mill. The capacity of the mill is approximately 30 tons per 
day. 

There seems to be but very little tendency for the ore to 
slime, and a very good separation is obtained. One run of ore 


——— 


178 JOURNAL OF THE MitTcHELL Society [March 


from the winze that was being sunk from the 200-foot to the 
250-foot level, which gave $19.75 on assaying, gave tailings as- 
saying 90 cents. The ore from the 200-foot level, as it was 
delivered to the mill, asayed $53.20. Tailings from this ore 
assayed $4.35 on the first run. On the second run, where the 
ore assayed $54.02, the value of the tailings had been cut down 
to $2.88. The concentrates from the first run gave values of 
$133.03, and on the second run, $81.57. This, of course, is 
accounted for by the fact that the concentrates were not as 
clean as in the first run. The concentrates were carefully tested 
by panning, but showed no free gold. This was also true of the 
tailings, which indicates that there is a very complete amalga- 
mation of free gold on the plates. The fineness of the Coggins. 
gold, as determined in the Laboratory, was 904. 


Cuaper, Hix, N. C. 


CERTAIN MAGNETIC IRON ORES OF ASHE 
COUNTY* 


BY JOSEPH HYDE PRATT 


During the past six months the author has had the oppor- 
tunity of examining several of the magnetic iron ore deposits 
of Ashe County, and to study in considerable detail their oc- 
currence and the geology of the districts. 

The deposits examined are located in the northeastern por- 
tion of Ashe County, principally along the north fork of New 
River and its tributaries that flow into it from the north. The 
deposits can readily be divided into three belts: one known as 
the “River Belt,” another the “Poison Branch Belt,” and the 
third, “The Helton Creek Belt.” 

While formerly these deposits were twenty or more miles 
from the railroad, the one now being built across Ashe County 
will bring the Ballou-Piney Creek, the Joseph Graybeal and 
Waughbank properties within a very short distance of the rail- 
road. 

These ores are all magnetic iron ores, occurring in erystal- 
line rocks which consist principally of hornblende gneisses and 
schists and micaceous schists. The deposits of ore are undoubt- 
edly lenticular or lens-shaped, and are pinching and widening 
in all dimensions. These lenses may continue for long distances 
along the strike and on the dip; then, again, there may be a 
series of smaller lenses separated from each other by country 
rock or connected with each other by a thin seam of ore. Some- 
times they may be so small as to be of no commercial value; 
while at other times they attain enormous size, both in length 
and depth. Usually these ore deposits are comformable to the 
enclosing country rock. Each ore locality has to be investigated 
as a separate unit, inasmuch as there is great variation in them, 
and it does not follow that because one ore deposit is well de- 
veloped that another one, even in the same belt, will be equally 
as good. These lenses have a general northeast-southwest trend. 

The deposits examined include the Calloway and W. H. 


* Reprinted from Economic Paper No. 34, of the North Carolina Geological 
and Economic Survey, pp. 65-73. ne 
‘ 


180 JOURNAL oF THE MitrcHetu Socrety [ March 


Brown properties of the “River Belt”; the Wanghbank, the 
Graybeal, the Ballou-Piney Creek, Francis, McClure, Poison 
Branch, Falls, and Red Hill properties of the “Poison Branch 
Belt”; and the Kirby and Sturgill properties of the “Helton 
Creek Belt.” 
River Beit 

The principal property examined in this belt is known as 
the Calloway property, the mineral interest of which is owned 
by Mr. Uriah Ballou. It adjoins a portion of the old N. B. 
Ballou property, the mineral interest of which is now owned by 
the Virginia Iron, Coal and Coke Company. The iron ore out- 
crops at the top of the hill, and has been developed by means 
of cuts and tunnels, so that the ore is exposed at various points 
from the top of the hill to the creek, 150 feet or more below. 
The principal development work on the Calloway property is a 
tunnel that was started about 140 feet below the top of the hill. 
This tunnel was extended in a N. 35° E. direction for a distance 
of 103 feet, when it encountered the iron ore. A cross-cut was 
made in order to determine the width of the ore, and it 
exposed a width along the cross-cut of 27 feet 8 inches, which 
would give a width across the vein of about 20 feet. The strike 
of the vein is approximately N. 45° E. The cross-cut, after 
penetrating the ore, was turned N. 70° E., and then 60° west, 
following the hanging wall until it again encountered the ore, 
which it followed for a distance of 17 feet 8 inches without pene- 
trating the ore body. This gave a horizontal distance of about 
30 feet along the vein. This same ore body outcrops at the sur- 
face at several places between this level and the top of the hill. 
By means of float and a few cross-cuts this ore belt can be traced 
in a southwesterly direction for a distance of about a mile across 
what is known as the Davis property and the Neaves property, 
when it crosses the north fork of New River. The deposit nar- 
rowed considerably, but where it crosses the river it is reported 
to have a width of 12 feet. On the Calloway property it is esti- 
mated that there is a distance of 450 feet of the vein from the 
tunnel to where it crosses onto the property owned by the Vir- 
ginia Iron, Coal and Coke Company. Average samples of the 
ore as exposed in the tunnel were taken across the vein, where 


OPP te PROG PR COE Ar at 


—_— — 
sora heey Raor 


Sly on ee 


1915 | Maaenetic Iron Ores 181 


cut by the cross-cuts. Results are given in analyses I and II 
of Table of Analyses. 

The ore is very much mixed with gangue, but the magnetite 
van readily be separated from the gangue and largely concen- 
trated by hand cobbing. 

On the side of the hill controlled by the Virginia Iron, Coal 
and Coke Company sufficient crosscuts and tunnels have been 
made to show that the vein is continuous across the property. 


POISON BRANCH BELT 


The first property examined in this belt is known as the 
Poison Branch mine, the mineral interest of which is owned by 
Mr. Uriah Ballou and Mrs. Davis. The ore was encountered 
near the summit of a hill dividing the waters of Old Field and 
Silas creeks. Considerable work has been done on this proper- 
ty, part of which was to obtain ore for an old Catalan forge. 
This ore was obtained from two open cuts on the northeast side 
of the road, one on each side of the divide. Fifty feet below the 
summit a tunnel 181 feet in length was run into the hill, from 
which crosscuts were made: one at the extreme end of the tun- 
nel; another 45 feet towards its mouth; and a third 114 feet 
from the end. The strike of the vein is approximately N. 40° 
E., and the dip about 45° S. E. Both the first two cuts cut 
across the vein for a distance of a little over 9 feet, which would 
give a vein of an actual width of 414 to 5 feet. A third cross- 
eut was run for a distance of over 33 feet, but this was as far 
as it could be entered at the present time, as it had been filled 
up with waste material from some other part of the mine. No 
ore could be seen in this crosseut. Average samples of this ore 
were taken, and the results are given under III in the Table 
of Analyses beyond. 

The foot wall of this deposit is a mica schist, while the 
hanging wall is a hornblende gneiss. 

This ore belt has been traced in a southwest direction from 
the Poison Branch property for a distance of about 314 miles 
crossing the McClure, Blevins or Falls, Uriah and Graybeal 
properties. It is questionable whether the deposit itself is con- 
tinuous, and it is more than apt to be made up of lenses of 


182 JoURNAL oF THE Mitcuett Sociery | March 


magnetite, which may or may not be connected with each other. 
With the exception of the McClure property, the ore was ob- 
served in place on all of the properties. On this property, how- 
ever, the cuts had become filled up so that no ore at all was ex- 
posed. Previous investigations, however, made by Mr. H. B. C. 
Nitze of the State Geological Survey showed conclusively the 
continuation of the magnetic iron ore belt across this property. 

The Falls or Blevins Property.—This property, which was 
formerly known as G. Douglas Blevins property, is now owned 
and controlled by B. G. Falls and Charles Blevins, and is about 
3 to 4 miles southwest of the McClure. The ore is exposed in a 
vein which outcrops in a ledge above Mr. Falls’ house. The ore 
is a hard magnetite occurring in an epidote gneiss. There is 
also considerable of the epidote occurring as a gangue with the 
magnetite. An assay of this ore gave 43.29 per cent of iron. 
The vein as exposed on the outcrop of the ridge is about 8 
feet wide. The strike is approximately N. 50° E., and the dip 
about 45° to the southeast. About 60 feet below the summit of 
the ridge a tunnel was run 60 feet into the hill, which cut but 
did not penetrate the vein. To the northeast of the vein on the 
same property there is another occurrence of magnetite that 
outcrops on the W. Jones property. 

Ballou-Piney Creek Property.—About half a mile south, a 
little west of the Falls property, there is an occurrence of man- 
ganiferous magnetite on the Uriah Ballou land just above the 
waters of Piney Creek, about 114 miles from it mouth. An 
open cut has been made here just below the road, which exposed 
18 feet of ore, which would make the vein 12 feet across. The 
ore is very coarse grained, very free from gangue, but containing 
near its center a 15-inch seam or vein of soft brownish-black 
manganese-iron oxide. This ore was sampled and the analysis 
showed 64.56 per cent of metallic iron. For complete analysis 
see VI of table below. The soft brown ore was also analyzed, 
showing 42.80 per cent of metallic iron. See analysis VII in 
Table of Analyses. 

About 85 feet above the cut described above the ore was 
exposed in a cut 4 to 5 feet deep. A granular ore, similar to 
the above, was found. The full width of the vein was not ex- 


1915 | Maanetic Iron Ores 183 


posed. A sample of this ore gave 65.50 per cent of metallic 
iron. See analysis V of table. About 40 feet still higher on 
the hill another cut 3 feet deep also exposed the same kind of 
ore. The lateral distance represented by the exposures made in 
the three cuts mentioned above is approximately 350 feet. The 
lead has been traced by means of float for a considerable dis- 
tance beyond that exposed in the upper cut. The above all 
indicates that there is a lens of very large size on this property. 

Ballou's Horse Creek, or Waughbank Property.—This prop- 
erty is about 114 miles southwest of the Ballou-Piney Creek 
property on the north bank of Horse Creek. About 100 yards 
from the creek a tunnel was run by the Pennsylvania Steel 
Company. The tunnel has a direction of N. 40° E., and at a 
distance of 100 feet a crosscut was made extending 46 feet 
S. 40° W. 

This crosscut showed ore for its whole distance, making the 
width of the ore deposit ever 30 feet. This ore is composed of 
coarse granular magnetite in a matrix composed of micaceous 
material and manganese oxide. A rough estimate indicates 
that about 70 per cent of the ore body would represent the iron 
ore. This material was sampled and the results of the analysis 
are given in VIII-A in the table beyond. This mineral can 
readily be cobbed, which will raise the iron content. A sample 
was also analyzed of the magnetic iron portions of the vein, 
which gave 67.25 per cent of iron. The results of this analysis 
are given in VIII of the Table of Analyses. 

Seventy-five to one hundred feet above the tunnel the vein 
was exposed in an open cut; but, on account of the cut having 
eaved in, nothing definite could be determined in regard to the 
width of the vein. 

Graybeal Property.—About one-half a mile northeast of the 
Waughbank property begins what is known as the Graybeal 
properties. The first property encountered is the Calvin Gray- 
beal. Only a very little development work has been done on 
this property, but float ore has been encountered, which would 
indicate the continuation of the ore formation across the prop- 
erty. 

A short distance north from the top of the hill on the Cal- 


184 JOURNAL OF THE MitTcHELL Society | March 


vin Graybeal property on lands owned by the Patton family 
and Calvin Graybeal, a cut exposed magnetic iron ore mixed 
somewhat with the country schist. This may be part of an ore 
deposit that is known in that section as the “North vein,” which 
extends approximately parallel with the regular ore formation, 
and approximately 200 to 300 yards north of the larger vein. 

It is about one-fourth mile from the top of the Calvin Gray- 
beal hill to the Joseph Graybeal property in a general northeast 
direction. The vein has a strike across this property of an ap- 
proximately northeast direction, and it is dipping toward the 
southeast. The ore deposit has been prospected and developed 
by means of open cuts, pits, and tunnels for a lateral distance of 
at least 800 feet and a vertical distance of over 100 feet. A 
drill hole was made by the Pulaski Iron Company at a point 
about 700’ to the southeast of the first open cut, and 75’ below. 
It is reported to have encountered the ore at a depth of about 
200’. The dip of the vein would bring the ore body to this 
point. The width of the ore body as encountered varied from 
4 to 15 feet. 

The first cut examined was partially filled, so that the extent 
of the vein could not be determined. Good ore is exposed in 
the cut, thus showing the continuance of the ore body. This 
work was done by the Virginia Iron, Coal and Coke Company 
in 1907. Three hundred feet to the northeast another cut ex- 
posed the vein, which had a width of at least 15 feet of nearly 
solid ore, there being a little of the ore mixed with finely divided 
gangue rock. An analysis of this ore showed 63.50 per cent 
metallic iron. At the mouth of the ent, about 30 feet from the 
vein, another small seam of ore 12 to 15 inches thick was ex- 
posed. Most of this work was done about 1890 or 1892. Part 
of it was done in the early days of iron mining in the county, 
when the ore was obtained for Catalan forges. 

Still further to the northeast a long open cut or trench was 
made by Mr. Sturgill in 1903 across the ore deposit. At the 
time of my visit, however, it was nearly all filled up, and the 
ore was only exposed at the east end of the cut. 

Float ore has been found between all the cuts referred to. 

On the opposite side of the hill several cuts and tunnels have 


1915 | Maaenetic Iron Ores 185 


been run which penetrated the ore body, showing that the ore 
was continuous through this hill. Most of the work was done by 
the Virginia Iron, Coal and Coke Company in 1907. The first 
cut is about 300 yards northeast of the Sturgill cut referred to 
above. The first work done at this cut was in the early days 
to obtain ore for Catalan forges. Near the mouth of the cut 
an iron manganese seam of ore was encountered 6 feet wide, 
the distance between the two veins being about 30 feet. This 
ore was analyzed, and the results are given in XIV of the 
Table of Analyses. Its iron content was 63.15 per cent. 

Thirty feet below this cut a tunnel was run into the hill. 
This was partially caved, so that it could not be examined ex- 
cept near its mouth, where a manganese iron vein was observed. 
Judging from the material found on the dump, the ore encoun- 
tered in the tunnel was very similar to that in the cut referred 
to above. 

Two hundred and fifty feet northeast of this tunnel another 
open cut was made by Dr. Tom Jones in 1905, and work was 
continued by the Virginia Iron, Coal and Coke Company in 
1907. This cut exposed a seam of magnetite about 4 feet wide, 
which it penetrated. In the uper end of the cut there was ex- 
posed a mixture of pyrite and hornblende. Thirty feet below 
and 30 feet northeast of this cut a tunnel was run by the Vir- 
ginia Iron, Coal and Coke Company, and later continued by 
Dr. Jones. This penetrated the ore body. There was exposed 
near the mouth of the tunnel a manganese iron seam of ore. 

From this point it is 300 yards northeast to the Joseph 
Graybeal line. Beyond this property is the Dr. Thomas Jones 
land which has been prospected for the whole distance along the 
course of the ore by means of shallow cuts and pits. Only at 
one or two places was the ore exposed in place. 

Henninger Property.—Adjoining the Dr. Jones property on 
the northeast and east are the Francis and Henninger proper- 
ties. About 500 feet from the Dr. Jones line a small open eut 
was made, which showed granular magnetic ore. Six hundred 
feet northeast of the first opening another open cut shows similar 
ore. These two cuts were made by Mr. E. Sturgill about 1903 
or 1904. These openings are near the barn of Mr. Eugene 
Ballou, who now owns the property. 


‘tn i i i ee 


ae 


186 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHett Society [ March 


Francis Property.—This property, which is between the 
Henninger and the Ballou-Piney Creek properties, has been 
developed to some extent by means of open cuts and tunnels, but 
at the time of my visit no ore could be observed in place. This 
ore was observed in place by Mr. H. B. C. Nitze of the North 
Carolina Geological Survey when he made an investigation of 
the Ashe County iron ores. 

Red Hull Property—The Red Hill property is near the 
northeast extension of the Poison Branch ore belt. The Red 
Hill rises about 170 feet above the level of the creek, and a 
trench over 200 feet in length has been made from one side of 
the hill to the other near its summit. While it did not expose 
a vein of solid magnetite ore, it did show a decomposed schistose 
rock, which carried almost throughout its entire extent masses 
and particles of magnetite scattered through it. There have 
been many openings made at various points on the hill which 
encountered magnetic iron ore. In some of the cuts more or less 
pyrite was observed, which will have a tendency to increase the 
sulphur content of the ore. 


HELTON CREEK BELT 


Kirby Mine.—This mine is located on the upper waters of 
Helton Creek, about one-half mile north of Sturgill postoffice 
and one-fourth of a mile from Helton Creek. The ore body on 
this property was exposed by a series of cuts made by the 
Pennsylvania Steel Company in 1902. One cut about 55 feet 
above a small branch showed ore exposed for a distance of 17 
feet. Another cut 25 feet still higher on the hill showed 
a similar exposure of ore. This ore was in a gangue of epidote 
and hornblende. On the opposite side of the branch a long open 
cut was made by Mr. Sturgill in 1892. The mineral interest 
is owned by Mr. J. L. White and Sheriff Sturgill. Analysis of 
the ore is given in XVI of the Table of Analyses. The iron 
content of 43.10 per cent can easily be increased by hand cobb- 
ing. 

There is given in the table below analyses of the ores from 
the various properties mentioned above. 


1915] Maenetic Iron Ores 187 


TABLE OF ANALYSES 


n 
Locality No. Iron Silica 8 3 = 3 £8 | Analyst 
A, nal oo 
Calloway Property + I 31.26 17.37| .028 10 amine |) Drane® 
Calloway Property nc... If 38.36 = Pe eee sossspecaceavs | anecopgectonee = ao Drane 
Poison Branch Property...... II 45.25 20.65| .052| 1,58| trace] C. & M.f 
TENEBIIS 183 no) oS) 01 Fh ere Ys BS I25 Paeee ele ISS | ee ee | IC. & M. 
Ballou-Piney Creek Prop- | | | | | 
OTE Gig LUE CL =CUG eons ccccnescoonsecennse Vi 65250) e260 [ee (eens (ees (eee C. & M. 
Ballou-Piney Creek Prop- _ | | | 
ELEY, MCAT CTCCK cezcecseseccccccoens Vii 64.56] 2.59| 2.06| .014|trace| none| Drane 
Ballou-Piney Creek Prop- s | | | 
erty, Mn-Fe vein ................. VII ADM SO At-48 2 |e week! bare a C.&™M. 
Waughbank Property ............ VIII yee) Teele: Sees no | ere | eee | De Cc. & M. 
Waughbank Property, Mag- | | | 
TELE) Ot 1(E poe ne er ea VITI-A | 46.25[ 4.34]... -026| .027| trace |C. & M. 
Graybeal Property, first | | | | 
OLE: | es nea ee XI 67-40 = | 1.15] .005] .060] none|C. & M. 
Graybeal Property, second | | | | 
CUSTER XII 62:50 |S |e eee as eee | On cae 
Graybeal Property, large | | | | | 
CEisattop) hill) 2 XIV 62.05 3:58)... pee [eee ( iC. & M. 
Rin iiyaen line. eee XVI Ae) en 21.76| .057| .036|trace|C. & M. 
| | | | 


* Frank Drane, Chemist, Charlotte, N. C. 
7 Crowell & Murray, Chemists, Cleveland, Ohio. 


As will be seen from the above analyses, there is considerable 
variation in the metallic contents of the ore, but the iron con- 
tent is good, and as they are all comparatively low in sulphur, 
phosphorus, and titanium, they will, therefore, make iron ores 
of high value. 

Analyses I and II of ore from the Calloway property are 
low in iron, but they represent samples taken across the full 
width of the ore deposit, including gangue and waste. By hand 
cobbing this ore can readily be raised to a 55 to 60 per cent 
iron ore. The magnetite portion of the vein gives as high as 
65 per cent metallic iron. 

The ores represented by analysis III, IV, and VIII-A can 
also be easily concentrated by hand cobbing. 

All the ores tested are a splendid grade of magnetite, and 
should make a pig iron of exceptional quality. 


Cuaprert Hixz, N. C. 


THE ISOMERISM OF THE HYDROJUGLONS* 


RICHARD WILLSTAETTER AND ALVIN S. WHEELER 


Thanks to the splendid researches of A. Bernthsen! and F. 
Mylius,? the uncertainties of the constitution of juglone have 
been fully cleared up. The decomposition of juglone into B- 
hydroxyphthalic acid and its synthesis from 1, 5-dihydoxy- 
naphthalene indicates that its structural formula is that of 8- 
hydroxy-1, 4-naphthoquinone: 


The study of the two hydrojuglones however remained in- 
complete in certain important points, especially in regard to 
their isomerism. 

Mylius isolated two isomeric compounds, a- and f-hydro- 
juglone, from green walnut shells. The first, which possesses 
the higher melting point, is a true hydroquinone and oxidizes 
easily to juglone. The @-compound however does not pass di- 
rectly into juglone. According to Mylius the two hydrojuglones 
ean be converted into each other in different ways. For ex- 
ample, the a-form can be changed into the B-form by distillation 
or by the hydrolysis of its acetyl derivative. The 8-form may 
be turned back into its isomer by heating a solution of it in 
alcoholic dilute hydrochloric acid. Mylius explained the rela- 
tions between the two isomers as position isomerism. He stated 
that one of the para hydroxyl groups in the a-hydrojuglone 
changed its location in the nucleus of the disubstituted benzene 
ring. This explantion was plausible for nearly thirty years 
but the easy mutual transformations of the isomers are in our 
view opposed to this theory. 

We find it is not necessary to distill the a-hydrojuglone in 


* Translated from Ber. der deutsch. chem. Gesell., 47,2796 (1914). 
1Ber. der deutsch. chem. Gesell., 17.1945 (1884); Bernthsen and Semper, 
ibid, 18.203 (1885) ; 19,164 (1886), 20.934 (1887). 
2Ber. der deutsch. chem. Gesell., 17.2411 (1884) ; 18,463,2567 (1885) ; also 
Habilitationsschrift, Freiburg i. B., 1885. 
188 


OE 


1915 | IsomErisM oF THE HyprosuaLtons 189 


order to isomerize it. One needs only to heat wotil it melts in 
order to obtain an equilibrium out of which one can readily 
isolate nearly three-fourths as the B-compound. In order to 
convert this into the «-form it is sufficient to dissolve it in alkali 
with the exclusion of air and then to acidify. This is not a case 
of the wandering of an hydroxyl group but rather a case of 
keto-enol isomerism. 
a-Hydrojuglone is a true trihydroxynaphthalene (1, 4, 8). 
Its solutions are distinguished by a very strong fluorescence. 
B-Hydrojuglone is the keto form of it in which one of the two 
hydroxyl groups in the para positions has experienced a trans- 
formation into a carbonyl group, according to one of the follow- 
ing formulas: 
OH 2 on O 
ee 
OR Hw 


H OW OW 


We are able to support this view since we have obtained 
well crystallized semicarbazones of B-hydrojuglone with semi- 
earbazine and with phenylsemicarbazine while analogous deri- 
vatives of a-hydrojuglone could not be obtained. An oxime of 
B-hydrojuglone was also observed but a closer study of it has 
not been undertaken. That the two isomers yield the same 
triacetyl and tribenzoyl derivatives is in agreement with this 
conception. But it does not well explain the behavior of these 
derivatives on hydrolysis. The acetyl compounds yield 6-hydro- 
juglone by the action of strong sulfuric acid, while a-hydrojug- 
olne according to Mylius is not transformed into its isomer by 
sulfuric acid. 

The isomerism of the hydrojuglones is the first case if keto- 
enol isomerism of a phenol in the naphthalene series. It ranges 
itself alongside the desmotropic phenomena of the meso-phenols 
of the anthracene series (dianthranol, anthranol and anthra- 
hydroquinone) which Hans Meyer* and especially Kurt H. 
Meyer* have described in their important investigations. 

8 Ber. der deutsch. chem. Gesell., 42,143 (1909) ; Monatsk., 30,165 (1909). 
¢Ann., 379,37 (1910-11) ; Meyer and Sander, Ann., 396,133 (1913). 
3 


190 JOURNAL OF THE MitrcHEett Society [ March 


PREPARATION OF JUGLONE 


We found that the oxidation of 1, 5-dihydroxynaphthalene 
according to Bernthsen and Semper® was the best method for 
the preparation of juglone although we were unable to secure a 
higher yield of the pure quinone than sixteen per cent. 1, 5- 
Dihydroxynaphthalene was purified by dissolving in ether and 
reprecipitating in petroleum ether. It forms colorless prisms 
which melt at 254°. 50g 1, 5-Dihydroxynaphthalene, after 
rubbing up with a small quantity of water, are introduced in 
small portions into a chromic acid mixture consisting of 240g 
sodium bichromate, 340g concentrated sulfuric acid and 3400ce 
water. The temperature is not allowed to rise above 10°. On 
the following day the brownish yellow precipitate is filtered off, 
dried and boiled up with ligroin, 70-80°. The impurities re- 
main undissolved and the extracts upon concentration yield 
8.8¢ juglone in the form of deep yellow needles, They show a 
melting point of 149-50°, when the substance is introduced into 
a bath previously warmed to 140°. 


We found that juglone could also be obtained from 1, 5- 
dihydroxynaphthalene by oxidation with lead peroxide. The 
yield is somewhat higher but the process is not practical. It is 
noteworthy how much the yield here depends upon the quantity 
of the solvent and of the oxidant on the surface of which the 
oxidation takes place. 100g Lead peroxide in one liter of ben- 
zene yields the same quantity of juglone whether 5g or 0.5 
g dihydroxynaphthalene are used. 0.5g 1, 5-Dihydroxynaph- 
thalene are boiled five hours in one liter of benzene with 100g 
good lead peroxide. The beautiful yellow solution is concentra- 
ted in vacuum to 10ce and mixed with petroleum ether. 0.15g 
Juglone crystallizes out in pure yellow needles. 


0.1252¢ Substance gave 0.31432¢CO,; 0.0402g H,0 
Calculated for C,,H,O,: C, 68.95; H, 3.47 
Found CO, 68.46- ~” Hi, ’aoe 


1, 8-Dihydroxynaphthalene does not yield juglone on oxida- 


5 Ber. der deutsch. chem. Gesell., 20,938 (1887). 


1915] ISOMERISM OF THE HyproguGLONS 191 


tion. The statements of H. Erdmann® on its formation by 
means of chromic acid are erroneous. P. Friedlaender and S, 
Silberstern’ obtained juglone by coupling 1, 8-aminonaphthol 
with diazobenzenesulfonic acid, followed by reduction and oxi- 
dation. It was suggested that 1, 8-dihydroxynaphthalene might 
serve as the raw material. 

The formation of monoazo dyestuffs from it proceeds most 
smoothly in aqueous alcohol solution if less than the theoretical 
quantity of the diazo compound is employed. 5g Dihydroxy- 
naphthalene are dissolved in 300ce alcohol and coupled with 
2.5g diazobenzenesulfonic acid at a low temperature. After 
twelve hours the alcohol is boiled off and the dyestuff is salted 
out with a little salt. To remove any dihydroxynaphthalene it 
is washed with alcohol. It crystallizes from dilute alcohol in 
garnet red quadratic plates. It dissolves considerably in water 
but is difficulty soluble in alcohol. 


0.2060g Substance gave 0.1398¢ BaSO, 
Caleulated for C,H,,0O;N.S: S, 9.32 
Found S, 9.32 


The dyestuff is stirred up with much excess of sulfuric acid 
and zine dust is added until it is decolorized. The filtrate which 
is still strongly acid is cooled and treated with an excess of 
ferric chloride in one portion. Juglone crystallizes out, 1.4¢g 
being obtained from 3.0g dyestuff. The product, however, was 
seldom pure. After recrystallization the yield usually dropped 
to 0.5g to 0.6g. 

a- AND B-HYDROJUGLONE 


a-Hydrojuglone, whether it is obtained from green walnut 
shells, or by the reduction of juglone or by the transformation 
of B-hydrojuglone, differs in one point from the statements of 
Mylius, for we find that the melting point of all our preparations 
is 148° whereas Mylius found it to be 168-70°. We do not 
doubt but that a satisfactory explanation of this difference will 
yet be found. 

6 Ann., 247,358 (1888). Also the statement in Beilstein, III, 380, that jug- 
lone according to M. Kawalski is formed from g-naphthol in alkaline solution 
by means of atmospheric oxygen, is incorrect. This author, Ber. 25, 1660 


(1892) is describing here the ordinary hydroxynaphthoquinone. 
™Monatsh., 23,513 (1902). 


4 


192 JOURNAL oF THE MircHery Society [ March 


We could not confirm the statements in the literature® that 
juglone is reduced by sulfurous acid. The best method of re- 
duction is with zine and sulfuric acid in the following way. 
5g Juglone are suspended in a separatory funnel with about 
50ce ether and an under layer of 2N- sulfuric acid. Zine dust 
is added in small portions, followed by vigorous shaking, until 
the ether layer becomes colorless, though exhibiting a strong 
greenish fluorescence. After removal of the ether solution, the 
aqueous layer and zine dust are shaken out twice with ether. 
The etheral solution is dried with sodium sulfate, concentrated 
under diminished pressure and mixed with considerable petro- 
leum ether. The precipitated substance did not change its melt- 
ing point of 148° after reprecipitation from ether by petroleum 
ether or after recrystallization from water. It corresponded in 
its other properties to the careful description of Mylius. 


0.1993g Substance gave 0.4956g CO, and 0.0825g H,0 
Calculated for C,,H,0,: OC, 68.16; H, 4.58 
Found C, 67.82; H, 4.63 


Mylius transformed it into its lower melting isomer by dis- 
tillation in an atmosphere of hydrogen. It is sufficent however, 
as we found, to simply melt the a-compound in an evacuated 
flask. After keeping it in a melted condition 10 minutes in a 
bath at 160-70°, a yield of 70 per cent of B-hydrojuglone was 
obtained. It was found best to extract the cooled product with 
earbon tetrachloride in which the e-compound is much more 
completely insoluble than in chloroform. The carbon tetrach- 
loride solution was concentrated in vacuum and the B-hydro- 
juglone recrystallized from aleohol or petroleum ether. It 
forms six sided plates, melting at 96-7°. 

The transformation into the a-compound is readily carried 
out, as Mylius stated, by heating with alcoholic aqueous hydro- 
chloric acid. It is also successfully obtained by dissolving the 
B-compound in dilute sodium hydroxide, containing a little 
stannous chloride, and acidfying. 


’ Ber. der deutsch. chem. Gesell., 17,1946 (1884). 


Seen Cee TT ae 


SEVILLE eA Oa 


fe ee enc sgh? LE Oe 


1915] IsomMERISM oF THE HyprosuGLoNs 193 


SEMICARBAZONE OF B-1 YDROJUGLONE 


C,,.H;0,: N. NH. CO. NH, 


Warm alcoholic solutions of B-hydrojuglone (3g in 65cc) 
and of semicarbazine (1.5g in 35cc) are mixed and a bottle is 
filled to the stopper with the solution and closed. After four 
days dark yellow hard globular crystals, weighing 3.8g, have 
erystallized out. They are washed with alcohol and reerystal- 
lized from.much boiling benzene. Only one half of the product 
could be brought into solution, an insoluble amorphous substance 
remaining behind. The semicarbazone forms beautiful feather 
like groups of needles or sharply truncated prisms of pale yel- 
low color which melt at 197-8° with decomposition. The com- 
pound is easily soluble in hot acetic acid, difficulty soluble in 
alcohol and in benzene, insoluble in ether and in ligroin. 


0.1460g Substance gave 0.3062g¢ CO, and 0.0650g H,0 
0.1307g Substance gave 21.4ec N at 18° and 713mm 
Caleulated for C,,H,,O,N,: C, 56.65; H, 4.72; N, 18.03 
Found Cee pik 19 E98. N= 1786 


PHENYLSEMICARBAZONE OF B-HYDROJUGLONE 


©7,n.05: N-NH. CO. NHO,H, 


We mixed cold saturated solutions of B-hydrojuglone (1g) 
and phenylsemicarbazine (1.1g) in absolute alcohol. The re- 
action product began to separate within a half an hour and 
the separation was complete in 24 hours. The phenylsemicar- 
bazone formed a pulpy mass of bright yellow needles in star 
shaped groups. The yield amounted to 1.7g. By recrystalli- 
zation from considerable boiling acetone (350ce required by 
1g) or from xylene long thin er edlice were OnE which ear- 
bonized at 243° ont melting. 


0.1687¢ Substance gave 0.4090g Co, and 0.0744g H.O 

0.1046g 12.9cee N, dry, at 25° and 721mm 

Calculated for C,,H,,0,N;: OC, 66.03; H, 4.85; N, 13.59 
| C, 66.12; H, 4.90; N, 13.40 


The phenylsemicarbazone is insoluble in ether, in alcohol 


194 JOURNAL OF THE MitTcHELL Society [ March 


and in benzene, difficulty soluble in hot benzene. It is resolved 
into its components by boiling with sulfuric acid. 


Notrre:—The work described in this paper was carried out 
in the Organic Laboratory of the Federal Polytechnic Institute, 
Zurich, Switzerland. 


LIST OF REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS OF NORTH 
CAROLINA 


BY C. S. BRIMLEY 


The following list is a brief summary of the records of 
reptiles and amphibians from North Carolina, contained in a 
eard catalogue of the same which I have kept for a number of 
years. The records are drawn from the following sources: 

1. Published Records. (See Bibliography at end of this 
paper. ) 

2. Specimens received by the State Museum at Raleigh, 
for which I am indebted to my brother, H. H. Brimley, Curator. 

3. Specimens collected at various points in North Caro- 
lina by Messrs F. Sherman, H. H. Brimley, Z. P. Metcalf and 
myself. 

4, Specimens in the Biological Laboratory of the Univer- 
sity of North Carolina, for the pleasure of examining which I 
am indebted to Dr. W. C. Coker, and Dr. H. V. Wilson. 

Those species of which I have not seen North Carolina speci- 
mens are marked with a star (*). 


I. TAILED AMPHIBIANS (SALAMANDERS) 


1. Stren lacertina (Great Siren). New Bern and Lake 
Ellis in Craven County, Edenton, Collington’s Island (just 
north of Roanoke), apparently not common. 

2. Necturus maculatus (Water Dog). Raleigh, Kinston, 
Tarboro, Chapel Hill, not common. 

*3. Necturus punctatus (Southern Water Dog). Wilming- 
ton, two specimens sent to U. S. National Museum in March, 
1882 by Donald MacRae. 

4, Amphiuma means (Ditch Fel). Raleigh, Halifax, Clay- 
ton, Cape Hatteras, Bertie Co., Tarboro, Bladen Co., Lake 
Ellis, common in lowland swamps. 

5. Cryptobranchus alleghaniensis (Hellbender). Found in 
the mountain streams. IJ have seen specimens from Cherokee 
and Yancey counties. 

*6. Amblystoma jeffersonianuum (Jefferson’s Salamander). 

195 


196 JOURNAL OF THE MircuHEty Society [March 


“Very numerous under logs below the fir belt on Roan Mt.” 
S. N. Rhoads in Proceedings of Academy of Natural Sciences 
of Philadelphia, 1895, p. 402. 

7. Amblystoma opacum (Marbled Salamander). Raleigh, 
Kinston, Tarboro, Salem, Greensboro, Chapel Hill, Lake Wac- 
camaw, not uncommon. 

8. Amblystoma punctatum (Spotted Salamander). Raleigh, 
Greensboro, Chapel Hill, and Andrews (Cherokee County). 

*9. Amblystoma talpoideum (Mole Salamander). ‘“Abun- 
dant in the high valley in southwestern North Carolina, in which 
the French Broad river takes its origin from mountain streams.” 
Cope, Batrachia of North America, page 53. 

10. Amblystoma tigrinum (Tiger Triton). About twenty- 
five received from Sanford in mid-January, 1893. A specimen 
without data in Biological Laboratory of State University. 

11. Diemyctylus viridescens (American Newt). Raleigh, 
Chapel Hill, Kinston, Blantyre (Transylvania Co.), Highlands, 
Grandfather Mt., and Sunburst (Haywood Co.), Common. 

*11a. Diemyctylus viridescens vittatus (Wilmington Newt). 
Wilmington (type locality), H. Garman, Journal Cincinnati 
Society of Natural History, 1897, pp. 49-51. 

12. Desmognathus fusca (Brown Triton). Raleigh, Lake 
Ellis, Chapel Hill, Salem, Kinston, abundant. 

*13. Desmagnathus nigra (Black Tritcn). Roan Mt., two 
adults taken by Rhoads. ; 

14. Desmagnathus ochrophea (Round-tailed Triton). 
Abundant in the mountains mostly above 3,500 feet. Taken in 
Haywood, Macon, Transylvania, Buncombe, and Yancey coun- 
ties and on Grandfather Mt., occuring up to at least 6,500 feet. 
In streams and rotten logs, 

15. Desmognathus quadrimaculatus (Mountain Triton). 
Abundant in the mountains from about 3,500 feet up, in 
streams. Taken in Haywood, Buncombe, Yancey, Transyl- 
vania, Macon, Cherokee and on Grandfather Mountain. 

#16. Leurognathus marmoratus (Moore’s Triton). Grand- 
father Mountain (type locality), three taken by Dr. Moore 
in pool in stream on south side of mountain in July 1898. 
(Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Phila. 1899, p. 316. 


¥ 


SA Gea ere eae 


“ 


paket Pd Ree PO ee a 8 


eee oy Tf POL pre ae ee 


<2 haa 


LA 


<.ey > 


a 
ares 


ERA ERNE SS EO 


1915] List oF Reprites ann AMPHIBIANS 197 


17. Plethodon erythronotus (Red-backed Salamander). 
Taken by Sherman at Greenville in Pitt County, April 4, 
1902. Also recorded from four mountain localities, Roan Mt., 
Black Mt., Andrews (Cherokee Co.), and Sunburst (Haywood 
Co.) Apparently not common. 

18. Plethodon glutinosus (Viscid Salamander). Common 
in all parts of the state, but not apparently ranging above 3,500 
feet in the mountains. Recorded from Littleton, Greenville, 
Raleigh, Chapel Hill, Lake Ellis, and Lumberton jin the east 
and from the counties of Haywood, Transylvania, Buncombe, 
and Yancey and from Grandfather Mountain in the west. 

19. Plethodon metcalfi (Unspotted Salamander), Common 
above 3,500 feet at Sunburst in Haywood County (type locali- 
ty), and also on Grandfather Mountain. Two taken at High- 
lands and two more on the Tuskwitty Range between Andrews 
and Aquone in May, 1908. Occurs up to 6,000 feet at least. 

20. Plethodon shermani (Red-legged Salamander). Taken 
only on the Wayah Bald Mountain, between Franklin and 
Aquone, (type locality). See Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., XXV, 
P35. 

21. Manculus quadridigitatus (Dwarf Salamander). Ra- 
leigh and Kinston, not uncommon. Terrestrial, except in the 
breeding season which is in January. 

22. Stereochilus marginatus (Margined Salamander). 
Lake Ellis, common. 

23. Spelerpes bilineatus (Striped Salamander). Raleigh, 
Salem, and in the mountains up to 5,500 feet. (Yancey, Bun- 
combe, Haywood, Cherokee, Mitchell, Macon, and Transyl- 
vania counties and on Grandfather Mountain.) 

24, Spelerpes guttolineatus (Holbrook’s Triton). Raleigh, 
Salem, Andrews (Cherokee Co.), and Weaverville (Buncombe 
Co.) Not noted over 2,500 feet. 

25. Spelerpes danielst (Daniel’s Triton). Blantyre (Tran- 
sylvania Co.), Sunburst (Haywood Co.), and Cane -River 
Yancey Co.), Eleven in all taken, none above 3,500 feet. 

26. WSpelerpes ruber (Red Triton). Raleigh, Goldsboro, 
Beaufort, Salem, Chapel Hill, Hillsboro and Summerville. 
Also recorded from some mountain localities, but these probably 


198 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHELt Society [ March 


refer to the next. Specimens from Cane River and Burnsville 
in Yancey county are apparently this form. 

27. Spelerpes schencki (Black-lipped Triton). Sunburst, 
Blantyre, Highlands, Andrews, Wayah, Bald Mountain, and 
Aquone. Apparently replaces S. ruber in the mountains. Not 
observed above 4,000 feet elevation. 

28. Gyrinophilus porphyriticus (Purplish Salamander). 
Roan Mt. (Rhoads), and Black Mt. (Sherman, larvae). 


II. TAIL-LESS AMPHIBIANS (FROGS AND TOADS) 


29. Aeris gryllus (Cricket Frog). Raleigh, Lake Ellis, 
Chapel Hill, Greensboro, Southern Pines. Abundant. 

30. Chorophilus feriarum (Chorus Frog). Raleigh, Greens- 
boro, Chapel Hill, abundant. Normally commences breeding 
in February. 

31. Huyla cinerea (Carolina Tree Frog). Cape Hatteras, 
July, 1905, (H. H. Brimley). Kinston (Cope). 

32. Hyla femoralis (Pine woods Tree Frog). Wilmington, 
December 1901, Lake Ellis, May 1907 (Sherman). 

33. Hyla pickeringi (Peeper). Occurs from Lake Ellis 
to the mountains. Lake Ellis, Dover, Goldsboro, Raleigh, 
Chapel Hill, Greensboro, Andrews, Blantyre, Toxoway, Aquone, 
Highlands, Black Mountain, and Roan Mt. Highest recorded 
elevation 6,300 feet on Roan Mountain (Rhoads). 

34. Hyla squirella (Squirrel Tree Frog). Cape Hatteras, 
January 1903 (F. Sherman), Lake Ellis, July 10, 1905, (C. 
S. B.), and Southport, October 1906 (Sherman). 

35. Hyla versicolor (Common Tree Frog). Raleigh, 
Greenville, Chapel Hill, Goldsboro, Summerville and Tarboro, 
common. 

36. Scaphiopus holbrooki (Solitary Spadefoot). Raleigh, 
common, but seldom seen except when breeding, which happens 
some time in spring or summer, usually when a warm rain is 
falling. Have been noted breeding in March, April, May, 
June, and August. 

37. Bufo americanus (Common Toad). Our only positive 
records are from Sunburst (Haywood Co.) and Black Moun- 
tain. Apparently the common toad of the state is the next. 


a, 


1915] List or Reprines anp AMPHIBIANS 199 


38. Bufo fowlert (Fowler’s Toad). According to Miss M. 
C. Dickerson, author of the “Frog Book”, our Raleigh toads are 
this species as are also two out of three specimens from Black 
Mt. Chapel Hill, University collections. 

39. Bufo quercicus (Dwarf Toad). Kinston (Cope), 
Beaufort (Sherman), and Lake Ellis (C. S. B.) Not common. 

40. Engystoma carolinense (Narrow-mouthed Toad). Ra- 
leigh, Dover, Goldsboro, and Southern Pines. Breeds from 
May to August, common, but nocturnal and subterranean, and 
hence seldom seen. 

41. Rana catesbiana (Bullfrog). Raleigh, Lake Ellis, 
Tarboro, Cape Hatteras, Chapel Hill, and Hendersonville. 

42. Rana clamata (Spring Frog). Lake Ellis, Raleigh, 
Chapel Hill, Greensboro, Salem, Blantyre (Transylvania Co), 
Black Mt., Roan Mt., and Sunburst (Haywood Co). 

43, Pane nalieens (Pickerel Frog). Raleigh, Roan Mt., 
and Kinston. Apparently increasing in numbers at Raleigh, 
though not common. 

44, Rana sphenocephala (Southern Leopard Frog). Ra- 
leigh, Lake Ellis, Cape Hatteras and Tarboro. This and cla- 
mata are the two commonest Ranae at Raleigh. 

*45. Rana sylvatica (Wood Frog). Kinston (Cope). 

46. Rana virgatipes (Carpenter Frog). Lake Ellis, Wil- 
mington, the latter locality added on the authority of Mr. 
W. T. Davis who heard them near here in the spring of 1914. 


III. LIZARDS 


47. Anolis carolinensis (Green Lizard, “Chameleon’’). Ap- 
parently common throughout the whole region east and south 
of Raleigh, but does not occur at Raleigh. Wilmington, Lum- 
berton, Carthage, Southport, Smith’s Id., Lake Ellis, Beaufort, 
Kinston, Willard (Pender Co.), Wakefield (Wake Co.), Sum- 
te (Harnett Co.), White Lake (Bladen Co.), Albemarle 
(Stanly Co.), and Tryon (Polk Co.). 

48. Sceloporus undulatus (Fence Lizard). Common, Ra- 
leigh, Chapel Hill, Lumberton, Summerville, Tarboro, Wil- 
mington, Kinston, Salem, Blantyre (Transylvania Co.), Hen- 
dersonville, Toxoway, Franklin (Macon Co.), Andrews (Chero- 


200 JOURNAL OF THE MitrcHEeLt Society [ March 


kee Co.), Black Mt., Sunburst (Haywood Co.). Does not ap- 
pear to range over 3,000 feet in the mountains. 

49. Cnemidophorus sexlineatus (Sand Lizard). Common, 
ranging in the mountains up to about 2,500 feet. Raleigh, 
Chapel Hill, Kinston, Brunswick Co., Southern Pines, Black 
Mt., and Andrews. 

50. Ophisaurus ventralis (Glass Snake). Chapel Hill, 
Raleigh, Garner (Wake Co.), Southport, Beaufort, Wilming- 
ton, New Bern, Washington, White Lake (Bladen Co.), and 
Statesville. Confined mainly to the eastern part of the state, 
not common. 

51. Leiolepisma laterale (Ground Lizard). Raleigh, Lake 
Ellis, Chapel Hill, Kinston, Salem, not uncommon, but secre- 
tive in habits. 

52. Humeces quinquelineatus (Bluetailed Lizard, “Scor- 
pion’). Raleigh, Chapel Hill, Lumberton, Lake Ellis, Kin- 
ston, New Bern, Blantyre, Andrews, Franklin, ranging up to 
3,000 feet at least. 


IV. HARMLESS SNAKES 


53. Abastor erythrogrammus (Rainbow Snake). New 
Bern, Wilmington, Kinston, Lake Ellis, Edenton, not common. 

54, Bascanium constrictor (Black Snake). Raleigh, Cha- 
pel Hill, Lake Ellis, Washington, Statesville, Blantyre and 
Black Mountain. Common. 

55. Bascanium flagellum (Coach whip). Southern Pines, 
Lake Ellis, White Lake (Bladen Co.), and Pender Co., one 
specimen from each locality. 

56. Carphophiops amoenus (Worm Snake). Lake Ellis, 
Raleigh, Chapel Hill, Washington, Kinston, Blantyre, Andrews, 
and Sunburst. Common in rotten stumps and logs. 

57. Cemophora coccinea (Scarlet Snake), Raleigh, South- 
ern Pines, Washington, not common, in the eastern part of the 
state only. 

58. Coluber guttatus (Spotted Racer; Corn Snake). Eas*- 
ern part of state, not common. Raleigh, Washington, Lake 
Ellis, Southern Pines. 

59. Coluber obsoletus (Black Chicken Snake). Western 


i i i? 7 te. = yo 
Ce ay 7 


1915] List or Rertites anp AMPHIBIANS 201 


two thirds of state, not uncommon. Raleigh, Chapel Hill, Kin- 
ston, Taylorsville, Andrews (Cherokee Co.), Sunburst (Hay- 
wood Co.) 

60. Coluber quadrivittatus (Stripped Chicken Snake). 
Eastern part of state. New Bern, Cape Hatteras, Lake Ellis, 
Pender Co., Maysville (Jones Co.), White Lake (Bladen Co.) 

61. Cyclophis aestivus (Southern Green Saxe ), Connnon, 
arboreal, on low bushes and coarse herbage. Bertie Co., Tar- 
boro, Kinston, Beaufort, Cape Hatteras, Southern Pines and 
Chapel Hill. 

62. Diadophis punctatus (Ring-necked Snake). Appa- 
rently whole state, common. Lake Ellis, Raleigh, Chapel Hill, 
Summerville, Blantyre (Transylvania Co.), and Sunburst. 

63. Hutaenia saurita (Ribbon Snake). Wilmington, Ra- 
leigh, Avoca, Summerville, and Toxoway. 

64. Hutaenia sirtalis (Garter Snake). Raleigh, Chapel 
Hill, Kinston, Jackson, (Northampton Co.), Cane River (Yan- 


cey Co.), and Sunburst. Common. 


65. Farancia abacura (Horn Snake). Eastern section on- 
ly. New Bern, Wilmington, Whiteville (Columbus Co.), Cur- 
rituck, White Lake, and Lake Ellis. 

66. Haldea striatula (Ground Snake). Raleigh, Sum- 
merville, Lumberton, Bertie Co., Lake Ellis. Common. 

67. Heterodon platyrhinus (Spreading Adder). Wilming- 
ton, Goldsboro, Kinston, Beaufort, Chapel Hill, Raleigh, Sum- 
merville, Southern Pines, Washington, and Black Mountain, 
also Statesville. Common. Black specimens are occasional. 

68. Heterodon simus (Hog-nosed Snake). Goldsboro, 
Lake Ellis, and Wake Co., not common. 

69a. Natrix fasciata fasciata (Southern Water Snake). 
Eastern section, less common than the next. New Bern, Wil- 
mington, Lake Ellis, and Raleigh. 

69b. Natrix fasciata sipedon (Northern Water Snake). 
The common water snake of the whole state. Wilmington, Kin- 
ston, Cape Hatteras, Goldsboro, Royal Shoals (Pamlico Sound) 
White Lake, Washington, Salem, Black Mountain, Cane River, 


- Sunburst, Andrews, Raleigh and Chapel Hill. 


69ce. Natrix fasciata erythrogastra (Red-bellied Water 


202 JOURNAL oF THE MitcHELL Society [March 


Snake, “Copperbelly’”). Not common, Kinston, Lake Ellis, 
Raleigh, White Lake, Jackson (Northampton Co.). 

70. Natrix taxispilota (Pied Water Snake), Kinston, Avo- 
ca, Lake Ellis, White Lake, New Bern, Cape Hatteras, and 
Pender Co. Common in the east. 

71. Natrix leberis (Willow Snake, Queen Snake). Raleigh, 
Chapel Hill, Kinston, Waynesville, Blantyre, Cane River. Not 
common. 

72. Ophibolus doliatus coccineus (Red King Snake) Sum- 
merville, Chapel Hill, Raleigh, not uncommon. 

73. Ophibolus doliatus triangulus (Milk Snake). Sun 
burst (Haywood Co.), two specimens. 

74. Ophibolus getulus (King Snake). Raleigh, Chapel 
Hill, Lake Ellis, New Bern, Kinston, Washington, Brunswick 
Co., Homestead (Graham Co.), Patterson (Caldwell Co.), 
Blantyre (Transylvania Co.) Common. 

75. Ophibolus rhombomaculatus (Brown King Snake). 
Raleigh, Chapel Hill, Jackson, Washington, Statesville. Not 
common. 

76. Pityophis melanoleucus (Pine Snake, Bull Snake). 
Two received alive by State Museum from Bushnell, Swain Co., 
in August 1909. 

*77, Rhadinaea flavilata (Brown-headed Snake). Fort 
Macon (Cope). 

78. Storeria dekayi (DeKay’s Snake). Raleigh, Chapel 
Hill, Kinston, and Cherokee. Common. 

79. Storeria occipitomaculata (Red-bellied Storeria). Ra- 
leigh, Southern Pines, Chapel Hill, Cranberry. Less common 
than preceding. 

80. Virginia valeriae (Valeria’s Snake). Raleigh, Chapel 
Hill, Statesville, and Andrews. Not common. 


V. POISONOUS SNAKES 


81. Tantilla coronata (Crowned Tantilla). Raleigh, May 
6, 1906, Southern Pines, May, 1909, also a specimen in the 
Zoological Laboratory of the University of North Carolina 
without data, possibly from Beaufort. Our only Dipsadine 
snake. 


1916] List oF Reprines anp AMPHIBIANS 203 


82. - Elaps fulvius (Coral Snake) Montrose, Hoke Co., 
July 29, 1912, specimen killed and sent to State Museum by 
Dr. M. E. Street. 

83. Ancistrodon contortrix (Copperhead). Wilmington, 
Lake Ellis, Raleigh, Chapel Hill, Jackson Co., Montreat. Not 
uncommon, 

84. Ancistrodon piscivorus (Cottonmouth). Eastern See- 
tion. New Bern, Lake Ellis, Wilmington, Cape Hatteras, 
Washington, Beaufort, Whiteville, Raleigh. 

85. Crotalus adamanteus (Diamond Rattlesnake). Jack- 
son (Cope), Havelock (Craven Co.), and Pender Co. (J. A. 
Holmes), near the coast only. 

86. Crotalus horridus (Banded Rattlesnake). Wilming- 
ton, New Bern, Dare Co., Lake Ellis, Beaufort, and in the 
mountains from Cherokee, Macon, Buncombe, Haywood, and 
Alexander counties. 

*87. Sistrurus miliarius (Ground Rattlesnake). Wilming- 
ton, (Cope), Bogue and Shackleford’s Banks (Coues 1871). 


VI. TURTLES 


88. Terrapene carolina (Box Tortoise, Highland Terra- 
pin). Raleigh, Chapel Hill, Beaufort, Lake Ellis, Greensboro. 

89. Chelopus guttatus (Speckled Terrapin). Raleigh, 
Beaufort, Lake Ellis, Southern Pines. 

*90. Chelopus muhlenbergi (Muhlenberg’s Terrapin). Three 
specimens taken October 1879, by A. L. Barringer at States- 
ville, (Yarrow in Check List). 

91. Malaclemmys centrata (Diamond-back Terrapin). 
Salt marshes along the coast only. Beaufort, Brunswick, Car- 
teret, Dare, New Hanover, Onslow, Pasquotank, Pamlico, Pen- 
der, Craven, and Hyde counties. 

*92. Deirochelys reticulata (Chicken Turtle). ‘““North Caro- 
lina to Florida inclusive” Ditmars in Reptile Book. 

93. Chrysemys picta (Painted Terrapin). Raleigh, Chapel 
Hill, Greensboro, the most abundant turtle at the former place. 

94. Pseudemys concinna (River Terrapin). Raleigh, and 
Tarboro, less common than in previous years at the former 


204 JOURNAL OF THE MitTcHELL Society [March 


place. Also two nearly hatched specimens, without data, in the 
Zoological Laboratory of University of North Carolina. 

95. Pseudemys floridana (Florida Terrapin). Lake Ellis, 
also Richardson’s Pond in Johnston Co. 

96. Pseudemys mobilensis (Mobile Terrapin). A specimen 
13 inches long in shell from White Lake, Bladen Co., doubt- 
fully referred here. 

*97. Pseudemys rubriventris (Red-bellied Terrapin). Spe- 
cimens in U. S. National Museum from Kinston and Wilming- 
ton according to Yarrows Check List of North American Rep- 
tiles and Batrachians, 1883. 

98. Pseudemys scripta (Yellow-bellied Terrapin). Raleigh 
and Lake Ellis, common, also recorded from Beaufort and 
Greensboro. Has apparently much increased in numbers at 
Raleigh of late years. 

99. Pseudemys troostii (Troost’s Terrapin). Raleigh, 
November 1914, one speciment 8 inches in shell. 

100. Cinosternum pennsylvanicum (Mud Turtle). Tarboro, 
Raleigh, Chapel Hill, and Beaufort. Abundant. 

101. Aromochelys odoratus (Musk Turtle). Raleigh, Lake 
Ellis, Greensboro. Less common and much more aquatic than 
the preceding. 

102. Chelydra serpentina (Snapping Turtle). Raleigh, 
Chapel Hill, Lake Ellis, Beaufort. 

*103. Colpochelys kempi (Kemp’s Loggerhead, “Hawks- 
bill”). Beaufort and Cape Hatteras. 

104. Thalassochelys caretta (Loggerhead Sea Turtle), 
Beaufort and Pamlico Sound. 

*105. Chelone mydas (Green Sea Turtle) Beaufort, rare. 

106. Dermochelys coriacea (Leatherback Sea Turtle). 
Beaufort, May 27, 1897. 


VII. CROCODILIANS 


107. Alligator mississippiensis (Alligator). Brunswick, 
Craven, Carteret, Bladen, New Hanover, Onslow, and Robeson 
counties. 


wg i cal as al 


1915] List or Reprites anp AMPHIBIANS 20 


Or 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


1871. Coues, Elliot. Natural History of Fort Macon, N. 
C. pt. I, Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, and Batrachians. (Proce. 
Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. May 2, 1871, pp. 12-49). 

1882. Yarrow, H.C. Check List of North American Rep- 
tiles and Betrachians. (Bull. U. S. N. M. No. 24, 1882.) 

1889. Cope, E. D. Batrachia of North America. (Bull. 
U. S. N. M. No. 34, 1889.) . 

1895. Brimley, C. 8. List of Snakes observed at Raleigh, 
N. C. (American Naturalist, January, 1895.) 

1895. Rhoads, Samuel N. Contributions to Zoology of 
Tennessee, No. 1, Reptiles and Amphibians. (Proc. Acad. 
Nat. Sci. Phila., 1895, pp. 376-407.) (Contains some records 
of Amphibians from Roan Mountain.) 

1896. Brimley, C. S. Batrachia found at Raleigh, N. C. 
(American Naturalist, June, 1896, pp. 500-501.) 

1897. Garman, H. Diemyctylus viridescens var. vittatus, 
a new variety of the Red-Spotted Triton. (Journal of Cincin- 
nati Society of Natural History, Vol. XIX, No. 2, March 24, 


1897, pp. 49-51.) Described from Wilmington, N. C. 


1898. Cope, E. D. Crocodilians, Lizards and Snakes of 
North America. (Report of U.S. N. M., 1898, pp. 153-1270.) 
1899. Moore, J. Perey. Leurognathus marmoratus, a 
new Genus and species of salamander of the family Desmog- 
mathidae. (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1899, pp. 316-323.) 
Described from Grandfather Mountain, N. C. 
1902. Stejneger, L. Re-discovery of one of Holbrook’s 
‘salamanders, (Desmognathus quadrimaculatus). (Proc. U. 
S. N. M., Vol. XXVI, pp. 557-8.) From Grandfather Moun- 
tain, N.C. 

1906. Stejneger, I. A new salamander from North Caro- 
lina. (Proc. U.S. N. M., Vol. XXX, pp. 559-562). Describes 
Plethodon shermani. 

1907. Coker, R. E. Cultivation of the Diamond-back 
Terrapin. (N. C. Geological Survey, Bull. No. 14, 1906.) 


206 JOURNAL oF THE MitcHett Socrery [ March 


1907. Brimley, C. S. Notes on some Turtles of the genus 
Pseudemys, (Journal Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. June, 1907, 
pp. 76-84.) 

1909. Brimley, C. S. Some Notes on the Zoology of Lake 
Ellis, N. C., with special reference to Herpetology. (Proce. 
Biol. Soc. Wash., Vol. XXII, pp. 129-138.) 

1912. Brimley, C. S. Notes on the Salamanders of the 
North Carolina mountains with descriptions of two new forms. 
(Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., Vol. XXV, pp. 135-140.) 


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