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JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

VOLUME XXXVI
1920-1921

ISSUED QUARTERLY

Published for the Society
by the

University of North Carolina

CONLENTS

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY,

MeereHEr, 19616, TOUMARCH, 1920: ....2...2.-.....2.5 005.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE NORTH CAROLINA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. .
THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY. Andrew H. Patterson

A New MeEtTHOopD For LAYING OuT CIRCULAR CURVES BY DE-
SeEeTONsS ERoM THE P.1f. 7. F. Aickerson...............

A REMARKABLE FORM OF SKELETAL ELEMENT IN THE LITHISTID
Sponces (A Case of Analogical Resemblance). H. VY.
OE ee Sr a

THE TURTLES OF NorTH CAROLINA. C. S. Brimley

A LitTLE-KNowWN VETCH DISEASE. Frederick A. Wolf

NOTES ON THE Mosouito FAUNA OF NORTH CAROLINA. Frank-

Ee DS NS ok
AN INTERESTING FERTILIZER PROBLEM. JH. B. Arbuckle

AZALEA ATLANTICA ASHE AND ITS VARIETY LUTEO-ALBA N. VAR.

Me EI tS AE a hse ee et ee
A New SPECIES oF AcHLYA. -W. C. Coker and J. N. Couch

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY,
Pee eooe TOUUECE MBER, 1920. .......5.-..---..--. 000%

Peer PAGOH VOLPE. 13975-1020...........55........-.0000e-
THE CHEMICAL BEHAVIOR OF ZIRCONIUM. F. P. Venable.......
A PuRE CULTURE METHOD FOR DiaToms. Bert Cunningham...

THE OCCURENCE OF UNLIKE ENDS OF THE CELLS OF A SINGLE
FILAMENT OF-SPIROGYRA. Bert Cunningham..............

SoME MARINE MOLLUSCAN SHELLS OF BEAUFORT AND VICINITY.
8 Ie gid

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PLATE 1

AZALEA ATLANTICA. (left)
AZALEA ATLANTICA VAR. LUTEO-ALBA. (right)
+ Natural Size

JOURNAL

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society
| Volume XXXVI SEPTEMBER, 1920 Nos. 1 and 2

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC
SOCIETY, DECEMBER, 1916, TO MARCH, 1920.

225TH MEETING—DECEMBER 12, 1916

A. H. Parrerson—Shrapnel in the Making.
J. M. Bett—Some Recent Work in Crystal Structure.

226TH MrretiInc—Frpruary 20, 1917

H. H. Wmu1ams—The Logic of Science.
Cottier Copsp—Recent Changes in Currituck Sound (Illustrated).

227TH MretiInc—Marcu 13, 1917

H. R. Torren—Growing Mushrooms in Pure Culture.
J. S. Houmes—Some Notes on the Occurrence of Landslides,

Business MEETING—SEPTEMBER 26, 1917
ELECTION OF OFFICERS :

President—J. G. Beard.

Vice-President—J. M. Bell.

Permanent Secretary—F. P. Venable.

Recording Secretary—W. W. Rankin, Jr.

Editorial Committee—W. C. Coker, chairman; Collier Cobb, M.
H. Stacy.

228TH MrEetTINGc—OcToBER 9, 1917

P. H. Daceert—Modern Tendencies in Engineering Education.
F. P. Venaste—The Luminosity of Insects—A Chemical Phenom-
enon.
[1]

to

JOURNAL OF THE MiItCHELL SOCIETY [ September

229TH MEETING—NOVEMBER 13, 1917
Cottier Copsp—Cave Dwellings and their Relation to Geology.

230TH MretiInc—DeEcEeMBER 11, 1917.
W. pEB. MacNiwer—The Stabidity of the Acid-Base Equilibrium of the
Blood in Animals of Different Ages.
ArcuipaLp HENpERSON—The Role of Pascal’s Theorem in Modern
Geometry.
231st MEETINGc—FeEBRuUARY 26, 1918
H. V. Wirson—Contributions of French Scientists as Brought out at
the San Francisco Exposition.
H. W. Cuase—Some Modern Tendencies in Psychological Thought.

232p Mretinc—Marcu 12, 1918
W. C. Coker—Corn (Illustrated).
A. S. WHEELER—The Production of Toluol.

233p Mretinc—Apriu 9, 1918
J. W. Lasupey—Some Everyday Probiems.
F. P. VenaBLe—Luminescence and Radioactivity of the Zircons.
P. H. Daccert—Demonstration of a New Telephone Signaling System.

Business Meetinec—OctToper, 1918

The old officers were re-elected for the year 1918-19, during which
period the regular meetings were suspended.

234TH MrEETING—APRIL 15, 1919
ARCHIBALD HENDERSON—Some Points in Gunnery for Heavy Ar-
tillery.
F. P. Venaste—TVhe North Carolina Academy of Science.

230TH Merretinc—May 13, 1919
W. veB. MacNiper—Influence of the Age of an Organism on Regen-
eration.

A. 8. WHEELER—New Napthalene Dyes.
J. M. Bett—Investigations on the Nitrotoluenes.

1920] Proceeprnes or EvisHa MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC Society 3

ELECTION OF OFFICERS:
President—W. C. Coker.
Vice-President—J. M. Bell.
Permanent Secretary—F¥. P. Venable.
Recording Secretary—A. W. Hobbs.
Editorial Committee—W. C. Coker, chairman; J. M. Bell, Collier
Cobb.
236TH MrETING—NOvVEMBER 11, 1919.
H: V. Witson—Some Crustacea of the North Carolina Coast.
F. P. Venasie and D. H. Jackson—Reactions of Hydrochloric and
Hydrobromic Acids with Potassium Permanganate.

237TH MEETING—DECEMBER 9, 1919
J. N. Couco—A New Species of Water Mold with Observations on
Fertilization,
T. F. Hickerson—A New Method For Laying Out Curves in Road
Location.

238TH MEETING—JANUARY 13, 1920.
J. J. Wotre—The Plankton of Chesapeake Bay.

The speaker presented in brief form the results obtained in a
plankton survey of these waters, made by the speaker in collaboration
with Prof. Bert Cunningham, the object of which was to throw some
light on the kind and abundance of organisms that may serve as fish
food. The collections on which the work was based were made by
the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries.

The details of collection and the methods employed in the study
were explained at some length. Charts and tables compiled from the
data gathered were presented and the conclusions drawn which may
be summarized as follows:

1. The volume of matter suspended in the water bears little or
no relation to the number of organisms present.

2. There is a gradual increase in volume with increasing depth
due in part to detritus and in part to an increase in organisms.

3. There is a great variation in number of organisms in different
parts of the Bay on the same day and at the same depths, the cause of
which is not determined. Locations and temperature are ruled out as
causes. The data, too meagre as yet, point to the tides as a possible
explanation.

+ JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

4. There are two erests during the year, April-May and Sep-
tember-October, due to.a tremendous increase of individuals belonging
to only one or two species rather than as might be expected to a gen-
eral increase in all species represented.

5. There seems to be a definite relation between temperature and
number of organisms, the optimum lying between 46° and 55° F.

6. There is a noteworthy absence of Copepods certainly due to
some error in the method of collection.

7. Neither ‘‘count’’ nor ‘‘volume’’ gives an absolutely true in-
dication of food available, These two in connection with ‘‘incinera-
tion’? would probably give a more correct idea.

239TH MerretiInc—Fersruary 10, 1920
F. P. VenarteE—The Chemistry of Zircomum. ~
This paper will be published in full in this Journal in a later
number.
W. F. Proury—Notes on the Geology of a Portion of Clay County,
Alabama.

The fundamental or metamorphic rocks of Clay County, Alabama,
have been generally considered of Precambrian age. There is nothing
published concerning the age of the associated intrusives. Dr. Smith,
of the University of Alabama, has demonstrated the Carboniferous
age of a small area in the phyllites of western Clay County. The
speaker has recently widely extended, in the phyllite belt, the area
of known Carboniferous rocks and has demonstrated the post Car-
boniferous age of the belt of green schists which everywhere separate
the phyllites on the west from the mica schists on the east.

The workable flake graphite ores or the mica schist belt are shown
to be of epigenetic origin and the association of the ores with the more
quartzitic and coarse-grained, originally sedimentary beds, leads to
the conclusion that the graphitie ores resulted from the metamorphism
of petroliferous strata,

240TH MrETING—MarcuH 9, 1920 .
J. F. Dasuitett—-Double Habit Formation by Animals, Children, and
Adults.

The problem approached was that as to the relative efficiency of
learning two habits by practicing them alternately (the Alternate

1220| PROCEEDINGS OF EvisHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY

ca |

Method) or by getting one to some extent fixed before practicing the
other (the Complete Method). Data were obtained by the study of the
learning of mazes by rats, of mazes by children, and of mazes by adults;
then the scope was extended to include the formation of another pair
of perceptual-motor habits, card sorting, and further still to include a
pair of habits involving very. little of the motor element, addition.

The particular technique of the different experiments was inten-
tionally varied considerably: (a) in temporal distribution of trials;
(b) in stage at which shift was made from one to the other habit
by the Complete Method; (c) in arrangement of controls—division of
subject into groups; (d) in methods of scoring; (e) in incentives used,
(f) in subjects’ previous familiarity with the habits to be learned;
(gz) in their knowledge of the number and order of the habits to be
learned; (h) in their knowledge of the nature of the problem inves-
tigated. Thus, the general results found may be considered as inde-
pendent of particular details of technique and to be of general bearing.

For results, it was found that in all the forms of double habit for-
mation studied, learning by the Complete Method was more economical
than learning by the Alternate Method. This was indicated in the
different sets of experiments in terms of the different criteria of effici-
eney respectively applicable, They included: (a) number of trials
necessary to fix a habit; (b) degree of regularity in improvement; (c)
average amounts of scores on individual trials; (d) rate of accelera-
tion of improvement.

The complete paper will appear in an early number of The Psy-
chological Review.

J. B. Butuirtr—Report on Autopsies on 25 Cases of Influenza Pneu-
monia.

Extensive cutaneous emphysema was encountered in one ease.
Firm, fibrous pleural adhesions existed in six cases, in four of which
the lungs showed old scars of apparently healed tuberculosis while
one showed fibrinous exudate on the pleura, four of these exudates
being thick and shaggy. In three of these there was serous effusion ;
in two, purulent effusion. All cases exhibited the lobular type of
pneumonia. In seven there was also distinct lobar consolidation,
the lobular process in these being but slightly evident. Numerous
bronchiectatic abscesses occurred in four cases, while’in four others
(three of them associated with labor consolidation) there was massive

6 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

neerosis involving the whole or the greater part of a lobe. Meningitis
existed in five cases—two due to the meningoccocus, one to the menin-
gococcus and pneumococeus together, while in two the organism was
not discovered. In all cases of more than one week duration more or
less extensive organization has occurred. Two men who lived about
five weeks died suddenly during apparent convalescence. The lungs
showed little evidence of active inflammation, but organization has
obliterated the greater part of the pulmonary tissue. These seem
enalogous to those cases of nephritis in which the repair process
strangles the glomeruli and kills a patient who may have survived the
original toxemia.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE NINETEENTH MEETING OF THE
NORTH CAROLINA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, HELD AT
STATE COLLEGE, WEST RALEIGH, N. C., APRIL 30-MAY
1, 1920.

The executive committee met in the offices of Prof. Z. P. Metcalf
April 30, at 12:00 M., with the following members present: President
A. H. Patterson, Secretary R. W. Leiby and member Z. P. Metealf.
The secretary made a preliminary report on finances, membership,
ete., following which the policies of the Academy and other questions
were discussed. A total of 28 new members were elected as follows:

JostaH S. Bass, Asst. in Geology, U. N. C., Chapel Hill.
Dr. H. P. Barret, Physician, Charlotte.
Wma. Hanve Browne, Prof. Elec. Engr., State College, West
Raleigh.
Deo. 6. Bousrr, Prot. Path., U: N. C., Chapel Hill.
J. N. Coucu, Asst. in Botany, U. N. C., Chapel Hill. |
Dr. J. B. Derteux, Dept. Physics, State College, W. Raleigh.
A. A. Drxon, Dept. Physics, State College, W. Raleigh.
Pau Gross, Ph. D., Chemist, Trinity College, Durham.
Miss Partie J. Groves, Instr. Science, Durham High School, Dur-
ham.
V. R. Haser, Asst. Investigations, Ent., State Dept. Agr., Raleigh.
Dr. J. O. Hatverson, Expert Animal Nutrition, State Dept. Agr.,
Raleigh.
C. M. Hecx, Dept. Physics, State College, W. Raleigh.
Miss Atma Hoxuanp, Asst. in Botany, U. N. C., Chapel Hill.
J. E. Ivey, Poultry Path., State College, W. Raleigh.
S. G. Lenman, Asst. Plant Path., State College, W. Raleigh.
A. L. Luen, Prof. Physics and Chemistry, Lenoir College, Hickory.
Dr. Wm. F. Prouty, Stratigraphic Geol., U. N. C., Chapel Hill.
R, F. Revson, Chemist, 210 S. Tryon St., Charlotte.
G. H. SaTrerFIELD, Trinity College, Durham.
Pror. M. E. SHERWIN, Prof. Soils, State College, W. Raleigh.
I. V. SHuNK, Asst. Prof. Botany, State College, W. Raleigh.
M. R. Smiru, Extension Ent., State Dept. Agr., Raleigh.
Tra W. Smituey, U. N. C., Chapel Hill.
aa

19 a)

JOURNAL OF THE MitcHELL Society | September

Haywoop M. Taytor, U. N. C., Chapel Hill.

Dr. Water F. Taytor, Asso. Prof. Bacter. and Hygiene, W. F.
C., Wake Forest.

Dr. B. W. We tts, Prof. Botany, State College, W. Raleigh.

C. B, Wiuurams, Dean, State College, W. Raleigh.

J. H. Wiuuiams, Instr. Zool. & Ent., State College, W. Raleigh.

The executive committee then adjourned.

At 2:15 P.M. the first session of the annual meeting was called
to order by Pres. A. H. Patterson, who made some remarks chiefly
concerning the time allowance for presentation of papers. The fol-
lowing committees were then appointed: Auditing—C. 8. Brimley,
T. F. Hickerson, F. A. Wolf; Nominations—J. J. Wolfe, W. C, Coker,
W. A. Withers; Resolutions—C. W. Edwards, H. B. Arbuckle, Miss
Mary Petty. a

Papers were then called for, the reading and discussion of which
was carried on until 5:00 P.M. when the session was adjourned.

The Academy reconvened at 8:15 P. M. to listen to the Presidential
address by A. H. Patterson on ‘‘The Einstein Theory of Relativity.’
Previous to the presidential address, the Academy was formally wel-
comed by Dr. W. C. Riddick, President of the College, the response
being made by Professor Patterson.

The Academy was again called to order on Saturday morning at
nine o’clock for a business session. The Secretary read the minutes
of the previous meeting, which were approved. The Treasurer’s re-
port was read and referred to the Auditing Committee. The matter
of increasing dues was discussed. Professor Metealf presented the pro-
position of the Academy affiliating with the American Association
for the Advancement of Science. This was freely discussed and re-
ferred by motion to the Executive Committee with power to act.
The question of securing State support for the Academy in the sum
of $500.00 to $1,000.00 was discussed and motion was adopted to refer
to Executive Committee to look into matter and if found practicable
to authorize the President to appoint a committee to present the matter
to the next Legislature. The committee on Science Instruction in
the High Schools as related to the College, was continued with one
change in personnel, the substitution of Mr. Bert Cunningham for Dr.
J. J. Wolfe. Motion was then adopted, following pro and
con discussion, that the Secretary be allowed ten per cent of all
moneys collected by him for the Academy, effective next year.

1920] PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 2)

Motion adopted that we accept the invitation of Wake Forest Col-
lege to meet there next year.

The nominating committee then made its report as follows:

President—Z. P. Metcalf, W. Raleigh.

Vice-President—J. M. Bell, Chapel Hill.

Secretary-Treasurer—R. W. Leiby, Raleigh.

Additional members Executive Committee: H. R. Totten, R. N.
Wilson, F. A. Wolfe.

Report was adopted and Secretary authorized to cast the ballot.

Motion was then adopted that the following telegram be sent past
President and Secretary, E. W. Gudger:

‘*The North Carolina Academy of Science in annual session assembled, deeply
appreciating the splendid constructive service which you rendered her through
SO many years, sends you greeting and begs that you accept her thanks for this
most devoted service which we well know was a labor of love, and sincerely hopes
that events may so shape themselves that you may at an early date again actively
share in her work and achievement.’’

Following the business session the presentation of papers was con-
tinued before the joint session of the Academy and Chemists until
12 :30.

At 1:30 the Academy reconvened for the further presentation of
papers. During this session the report of the Auditing Committee
was adopted which found the books correct and suggested the payment
of the nominal sum of $5.00 to the Seeretary’s stenographer. for
clerical work. The report of the Resolutions Committee was then read
and adopted as follows:

Resolved, That we, the members of the North Carolina Academy of Science,
sorrow because of the demise of our member and fellow worker, Mrs. Fannie
Carr Bivins, head of the Science Department of the Durham City Schools, and
express our recognition of her unselfish and enthusiastic work as student and
teacher which made her life such a notable contribution to the advancement of
science in her community.

That we express our hearty appreciation of the kindness, courtesy, and co-
operation of the President and Faculty of the N. C. State College of Agriculture
and Engineering on the occasion of the nineteenth annual meeting of the Academy
and especially of the generous and hospitable manner in which we have indi-
vidually been entertained.

Following the completion of the program the Academy adjourned
sine die at 3:15 P.M.

10 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

Report OF TREASURER, July 1, 1919-April 28, 1920

RECEIPTS EXPENDITURES
From former treasurer ..............6 128.67 Rubber stamp ............:..cesccseceses $ 1.00
Dues (DaCK)) Setetecasscaresszeeccsoreesene 5.00 Postage and envelopes ............. 13.72
PES ((CUEREMT) Pace catenetgeacer tec cess 56.00. Stationery <..2....2::2.cscsvssocsssteroosesce 5.25
Dunes: (advanced!) vitere.cesrescese- 16.00 Multigraph letters (3) ............ 3.00
Enitiation) +» -f6GS a. i ecvs.<<susseesecnsee- 28.00 Printing programs ...........: Sseesaeks 16.50
WAVINOS! ACC MNibaeeesercceencneenees 3.32 ‘Incidentals: ....4.20.. ee 1.20
Total receipts: -0.c02:.1.cs.---+- $ 236.99 $ 40.67
Total expenditures ............ 40.67
$ 196.32
Balance April 28; 1920) i.-...cc.isscscssetsosssarsecosessienescensush Socepess@eee eterna $ 196.32
Balance May 31, 1920 (all bills paid) .................c.:ccerreesseee ilausntieee $ 156.09

Following is present membership of the Academy. Those marked

with asterisk were in attendance at meeting:

Amide ws) Whe Eley cisssi-cssscccscoscecsessucerancenseecaonecoreee tees tanesenemranenen Chapel Hill
Arches Hay (B.: s:2s.0ccecsereacesssacessousessccderstassscenaapecestaasnentse™ temomene Davidson
Babb, Josiah S. ................ seiessngaetasessessbocilsasdiedosdesseatetnc eareeeeeee Chapel Hill
BSS OR NS) Rs ccc seces Paces deco nonace cssvaseaet rear ener anata gene eee Winston-Salem
Balderston, (Mark ..:.cicc.::.:<cercesoos-sscseuevacseesesesscesususeeese Guilford College
Barret, (Hi. De ciccesscessctesessesssccussoisssecesesssoes coseects soeteren te apeenaaeme Charlotte
Beardslee; He. Cy. ssccsssscccseecccsessoaceosesstesssotcacdegrescoes see peereeteeeeeeee Asheville
* Belly, Jie) Mi. sees ssesesescccsscevessevacteaseresctvceas eee tee Chapel Hill
Bimford, (Raymond) ..2...2scteeccesence-scceresonssnces cere eee Guilford College
Bonney, ) Miss: BoC: «.sccccccssncscsecescscossensesce-vers-eese eee Hartsville, S. C.
Bottum, Miss 2B. Ru. cicccscsecccsecsscenscrssaeeescesesees tesco ete ee eee Raleigh
Brewer, Cs. Be cccsceccasesoascsetssecescstvcssoussseseseesencvesee oe eco eer Raleigh
* Brimley: (Cis Sic cisssssecccsseccoocvesenssesacsesoccssous soaees sorte ea Raleigh
‘Brimley, SH» JE.) & ccctc-cccest sateen ern eee sevedaguasesseengumacrasoseee Raleigh
*Browne, Wm. Hand. sisiacs::...sesesexsctsoszee2t. see W. Raleigh
Brumen gS 1 Cen cess cerecucesccaetese rere eevee Santiago de las Vesgas, Cuba
Bullitt, Ve Be. sciscesossseeveerssceocsunzies cusspeevan arse peeeeecs ee eee Chapel Hill
By mums Js) Cs © sscscccsesetsvcastassecstcossesv nese ee ee Chapel Hill
CAI, OWI, cosdo5- cece rescncracnesss «/satesssanaeivtonicate eee eet ee Chapel Hill
Clapp 22 Ge. scscetesecssesceseaosspsaeoscvastaceseee eciecsdei ee) oe Swannanoa
*Cobb, “Coliter: iis.ccscsassisnsadessocconevaeve-ounsassuerety ee seee Chapel Hill
Cobb, Wim. 0B. csssesetssissadsivenetsetiecscas iain ee Columbia
“Coker WWiet' OC. \cccurs cessvenatpanctdsehcexssipacccaciaseiasieveeen ts ee Chapel Hill
Colletti, Tis We s.suissrutccvescecdasiecsacedevsecssssacedss.cs22.9/ Willard
Comanis “Wat TAs wctiecnscchavatandstvesa-coderleses hacesscset eee Durham

eh OC ae) Pa en eee a ee EN Chapel Hill

1920] PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

SINR NIN oon sccss canon scene mane tase acnennnBonnacnnsne- Madison, Wis.
cc ee cecnconnnmn gn ssnconchasina ommacurtennanssannes Chapel Hill
SUA Re nent ieneslc ning non nansnansnacaensucsenendetsicesetoseesacee- W. Raleigh
eee Nene nanar asncanccsc <cooseouassacorennathosnssnnc-e> W. Raleigh
DiKON, Li. Be ...c.ensn.sa-scsce-ncnnsecnnsscsnnsorsnnsoeeseecenesorseeseceeeneearsseerens Weaverville
MNNNNRENRES, NCL TN sy oo nstcncacnneeettanas=*Renencgansssnarsene PR ee ee a Chapel Hill
RIN Rees arate og inatagncupnvacsxcanectegassatracsnearrene Elsmere, Del.
NIE OS IW 2) ch seg cect pap aap skainstnapsacnetnannpennnngsnnaerapi canséseeaseanes Durham
Bidgerton;. ©.) Nz, drs. -........-7 BRA Sat ec ct hee tt caeea Su Athens, Ga.
IPRS FON ree ces Uancetitnarnavetaatnanantnsnaataesscase +See Troy, Ala.
ReMi ocn acca ocsch sce secs snzen en aveocca vouaccosssanasancareasesePiasshee Durham, N. C.
Seems aa IN Ate Ea Bn CO ola sees cecacepnes=ceneanceas=-ncasvanccesencaper-canece~enaass Durham
UR TN cas cece dete eeekin etc ove gsi onSicinancsshtabetepivacecssonte Greensboro
PEMD ire DE coisas cote ocr asian ea an an ccnecoct sons isnssuncunsseaaveseciyescssneteas Raleigh
OE MCMC ERAT MSE CO) ces ee atone acne aseaocestas¢doncdsvanisecctnacetsaccedasesuteesees Raleigh
a ouster eeepc etc ceee fcveuapsuarrachacede-nanduceheveneches Durham
TEs C01 ee Fone e eRe a ade ssentetossansetseeaocsae iostvesesse West Raleigh
eee EET MOE CHUAN 02 oc con sasregs-cnceeanvscaceeesncest7ossaannescdescareeneees- Chapel Hill
BEETLE iy, LAW pecs ee Spo ee rn Greensboro
Ne SERRA sos esta go seep tans tas e<ovdadsovacdessaoacisdecssaaneseesceves Chapel Hill
RETR DIN foto 3.05 Sova casein nonuvccenionsiesitdeaastaiussttecsonscvesssiens Chapel Hill
NEMA TA NEES ped WV Moo su oase3s os acd wees = dacsicensesaueieesveeevcex+tanead sesesse- Statesville
Se pecdi UL DERE IVINS PNUITIA © fore ec <aececccor<ssscescosedeccesocvevscusseJcs#escsstensnae- Chapel Hill
NEMA EYEE Cty MESS alc va soso nasties c asec icenawenc ost sovncoestserosssopserssadécacesessaoee Chapel Hill
MS eNO ese a sanny oc 6siccncdaccsstexetesi Tt sresdesecevevueeasseeses Charleston, S. C.
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11

12 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

Pratt, J. Hi. .cccceccccccsssccssccssscccsesonscccncccecesesocsconstecssscsneresensesens Chapel Hill
*Prouty, Wm. Py. .ceeseseeceeesseeeeees sapesnetsssessecentecisneaeestancece tet Chapel Hill.
Randolph, E. O. cseseseseseseeseesessseeeceeterseeesnenesnenees College Station, Texas
Randolph, Mrs. EB. O. ...cescsssssessssesssteesseeeeseeteeees College Station, Texas
Rankin, W. GS. ccccccoocceccceccersrcsccsbacssecssnssnesercconsernarscaceocssonssoveecennerns Raleigh
*Revson, RB. Br. ......ccceccssccsecsescceesseecennceecooes sossssssecnssessdeceoanesteseeaaeen Charlotte
*RHodES, Li. Bu. .cccccsccectserconscsesccotsesnssecccracvenscsercsscsnetesessnsassseseonsesanen Raleigh
FRIAGIcK, W. C.. ...cccccsssessooccessseceececscscssnsccecserenscossccesesccenessnnees West Raleigh
*Robinson, Miss Mary .....cscccsscescesseeseeteeeensesseerssssseserseetseenees Greensboro
Mot tertield, (Ge Eley cccsecoscceecersssssstescecesaceucontssseseccodeentcensen ce West Raleigh
*Saville, Thorndyke ......ccccscescesecesceseesecseensttereseseetttetterseaneeees Chapel Hill
Seymore, Miss Mary Py ...secsccsssesesecseessserssseesscenessetserseseneesees Greensboro
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Smithey, Lira Wi. sccnssscccs: <cessccessstesecoustacecossssteccumecta nee eeeeeeees Chapel Hill
Spencer; Herbert .ss..1.0:ccseccssccusescscavssssecsssoneoecsecceeessuseeoearee West Raleigh
Stiles. CL Woe cs sesscdsdacassasasenssaevasdesscassoqeessouseeseereceacsteteemermententes Wilmington
Taylor, Haywood M.. ..cccssceisccsessssssecoscscosstsesceseetacse eee Chapel Hill
Taylor, Walter! WB... ccccccscsezccdesaseseacosuceseceecassersocsseeasemenaereeas Wake Forest
*Motten,: Ele Ra, ccccssssccasesgesesezsccssenssstecucscacsavesecessonssentes comeeeeeerere Chapel Hill
Wann, Miss Mannie By. ......::.:cssccsoesesesecssssosscacsesceeo scooter atten Durham
Wenable, Bi. Pi. cccssscecseatsceicssensicasastoeses eutenon ancestee eee Chapel Hill
* Wells; IB: W.. .ccccavssessccseccdcosssssvcsecestesesusesdcseressussnesoeoetenteeaee West Raleigh
* Wheeler, As (Ss, sscscéccssssocsd cvccivalesencceuseacsonsecsesteeescee eco eee Chapel Hill
Walliams; (Gl TBs.) <sevscsccss-cocsssesscacssbecceteserctccvssstsset ee neater West Raleigh
PWalliamss vdi., Ts. vessccadecensscocssonsois eussuterttasesomees tet eee West Raleigh
* Walliams, Lis E. o.csecds.sspseceseoscvastecvesecasvactes soo etree eo West Raleigh
*Walson, EL. Wis scscicecssneclsovessvossinccscncessecvatcenaes. ses sevecceenee eee Chapel Hill
*Wealsom, JR.) IN... ..:cecseosceocescecasnstessectsccueassoonet Spel eee ee Durham
MWAmGerSs ORS No s-..ssdecs.ocstetsonsdsecestevidsnesseeroes tear eee West Raleigh
*Withers, W. A. .... fscaseuussvesescesstvegsdessetebaes eoetetiee nero oO West Raleigh
POWVIOLE, Ng As. oc- 25 tin sonsdecnsasnntacetesvontuereoctsisnesteee cece ae ee West Raleigh
PIWWQUEG, sel iaaic ce) \occvcscnasusstedncsecccnenececas scent cee ete Durham, N. C.

Total membership, 113.

The following papers were presented at the meeting:

The Einstein Theory of Relativity. A. H. Parrerson. (Presidential
address).

Appears in full in this issue.

1920 | PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 13

A New Method for Laying out Circular Curves. TT. F. Hickerson.

Appears in full in this issue as a new method for laying out
cireular curves by deflections from the P. I.

A Remarkable Form of Skeletal Element in the Lithistid Sponges (A
Case of Analogical Resemblance. H. V. Wison.

Appears in full in this issue.

Animal Locomotion. H. H. BriM ey.

This paper treats of the means used in moving from place to place
by the fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. The species
- in each class are artificially grouped according to their main locomotion
characteristics.

Together with what may be called their normal methods of pro-
gression, the paper treats of fish that can walk and mammals that
cannot; of mammals that can fly and birds without such powers; of
reptiles that possess the power of volplaning through the air; of fish
that travel while lying on the side; of mammals that use three or
five members in their movements; of others that spend their lives
upside down; of fish that possess the power of movement through the
air; of birds that swim and dive while young and lose such powers on
becoming adult; of mammals possessing exceptional locomotive powers
both on land and in the water, and of birds that walk, fly, swim, dive
and climb.

Single Spore Cultures of Coprinus radiatus. H. R. Tortren.

Reports the growth to maturity of Coprinus radiatus Fr. from a
single spore. Mycelia from a spore germinated in broth of horse
manure, and transferred to the following media, formed mature
plants: Horse manure, cow manure, horse manure agar, corn meal
agar, and peas. A review was given of Mlle. Bensaude’s thesis on
““Sexualité chez les Pasidomycete,’’ Paris, 1918, in which she proves
that Coprinus fimetarius is a dioecious fungus. Coprinus radiatus was
compared with Coprinus fimetarius and was shown to be monoecious.
The hyphae of Coprinus radiatus also lacks the clamped connections
so commonly seen on hyphae and always seen on the hyphae of Co-
prinus fimetarius before the formation of mature plants. F

14 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

Genera of Lower Basidiomycetes not Before Reported from North
America. W. C: COKER.

Reports the occurrence in Chapel Hill of three Genera; all grow-
ing on wood as saprophytes, and forming small pustules or expanded,
resupinate layers. They are as follows:

Saccoblastia Moller, A remarkable genus with elongated basidia
divided across into four cells as in the rusts; and arising in a peculiar
way from the tip of a pendant pear-shaped sae. Three species have
been reported, two from South Brazil and one from Poland. Our
plant is considered a variety of S. ovispora Moller from South Brazil.

Platygloea Schroeter. Two species were found on Crepe Myrtle,
both of which seem new. About nine others haye been deseribed from
Europe and the tropics, Our plants seem nearest Helicogloea Lager-
heimi Pat. which is usually considered as not generically distinet from
Platygloea. Our species have small, crowded basidia borne in corymbs
and two-celled by a cross partition.

Sirobasidium Moller. In this genus the basidia are borne in chains
and are divided into two eells by an oblique wall or into four cells
by longitudinal walls. Three species have been described, all from
South America (one from Brazil, two from Equador). Our plant
agrees well with the one from Brazil, S. Brefeldianum Moller.

Attention was also called to the Genus Septobasidium, which is well
represented in America, but in which the basidia have been misunder-
stood.

The Turtles of North Carolina. C.S. Brimuery.

Appears in full in this issue.

The Life History of a Gall-Making Psyllid (Pachypsylla mamma
Riley). Lantern. Dr. B. W. WELLS.

Oviposition on under side of young hackberry leaf. Nymph mi-
grates to upper side of leaf where galls are initiated near the principal
veins. Nymph grows very slowly at first while gall on the other
hand grows very rapidly. Usually but one insertion of the mouth-
parts into the leaf tissue is made, the insect keeping its position for
an extended period. The nymph escapes from the gall in the fall, the
adults appearing immediately afterward. These overwinter in bark
crevices or ground debris.

1920] PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 15

Dreams and their Causes. C. 8S. BRIMLEY.

Paper gives concisely the author’s opinion as to the causes of
dreams, and illustrates the same by examples from his own personal
experiences.

A Little-Known Vetch Disease. FREDERICK A. WOLF.

Appears in full in this issue.

Notes on the Mosquito Fauna of North Carolina. FRANKLIN SHERMAN.

Appears in full in this issue.

The Larger Corn Stalk-Borer (Diatrae zeacolella Dyar). Lantern.
R. W. Lersy.

Brief references to life-history as determined over a period of 5
years in North Carolina. Discussion of control measures which in-
cluded late planting of corn and destruction of overwintering larvae
by plowing out corn stubble in fall.

An Interesting Fertilizer Problem. H. B. ARBUCKLE.

Appears in full in this issue.

A Phenomenal Shoot. Dr. B. W. WELLS.

A shoot found by Mrs. B. W. Wells near Raleigh, N. C., which
measures 19 feet, 5 inches in length, was exhibited. It had grown
from the stump of a beheaded tree of Paulownia tomentosa during the
season of 1919. The base is 7.75 inches in circumference 2.50 inches
diameter. The shoot possessed 20 internodes, the longest of which
measures 19 inches.

A Peculiar Mycorhiza-forming Rhipzopogon on the Roots of Pine.
H. R. Torren.

Specimens of a species of Rhizopogon were shown on the roots of
Pinus Taeda and Pinus echinata. This fungus attacks the young
rootlets, forming a mycorhizal covering about each rootlet in a cluster.
The fungal coats of several rootlets soon coalesce into a light creamy

16 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

mass of various forms and sizes. The fungus attacks the pine tissue,
completely destroys the mass of enclosed rootlets, and remains lightly
attached to the root. Many irregular cavities lined with basidia and
spores are formed. The interior becomes a dark jelly mass, and the
tougher coat later also breaks down.

Effect of Fertilizers on Germination and Seedling Growth of Corn
and Cotton. M. E. SHERWIN.

This paper shows the effect of fertilizers on time required for
germination and on rate of seedling growth of corn and cotton grown
in galvanized pans 314 inches each way. These results are in part
in confirmation of field observations.

Heavy applications of soluble mineral fertilizers cause the greater
delay in germination. Organic fertilizers cause the greater injury to
the seedlings. Where germination seems to be poor as determined by
the per cent of seeds which have ‘‘come up’’ the trouble will usually
be found to be due to root injury where organic fertilizers are used
and to inability of the seed to absorb sufficient water where mineral
fertilizers are used.

To obviate the difficulty in germination and the root injury from
organic fertilizers no fungicidal treatment has availed. Injury is less
severe when the fertilizer is well mixed with the soil but to wholly
obviate these troubles the fertilizer should be applied to the soil a week
in advance of planting the seed. The injury appears to be much less
in soil containing abundance of acid organic matter than in ordinary
sand clay soils. The injury appears worse at high temperatures than
at low temperatures.

The viability of the seed does not seem to have been impaired by
contact with the soil solution containing sufficient nitrate of soda to
prevent germination in two weeks’ time.

Increasing the quantity of nitrate of soda has the same effect on
rate of germination as decreasing the amount of soil moisture.

Borax, either alone or in trona-potash, is decidedly harmful to

germination. Very small amounts of borax cause almost complete
chlorosis of corn seedlings.

1920] PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 17

Some Investigations on the Compounds Isolated from the Polypores.
JosEPH T. Mappox and RayMOND BINForD.

There has been little or no investigation done on the chemical
analysis and isolation of the various compounds present and obtainable
from any Polyporus. An investigation was made this past winter
towards isolating under various conditions as many compounds as
possible. Some eleven different compounds were obtained, which,
owing to the lack of proper laboratory equipment, are as yet uniden-
tified. This paper is only intended to give an account of the methods
used and a study of the physical properties of each compound isolated.

New Ethers. A. S, WHEELER and S. C. SMITH.

A new group of ethers has been derived from chloral. The addition
product obtained by the action of one mole of chloral upon one mole
of m-nitroaniline is boiled with an alcohol. A molecule of water splits
off and an ether of strong crystallizing power is obtained. These
ethers are sensitive to acids but stable towards alkalies. The reaction
with p-nitroaniline is best carried out by first making the chloral alco-
holate and then treating this with the amine. The series of ethers
under preparation include the three nitroanilines and methyl, ethyl,
n-propyl, n-butyl and isoamy] alcohols.

p-Cymene, A New Solvent. A. S. WHEELER.

p-Cymene is now produced on a much larger scale than formerly
since it is so easily obtained from spruce turpentine. It becomes,
therefore, a useful solvent for high temperatures, its boiling point
being 176.5°. It is a colorless hydrocarbon of the benzene series and
is to be preferred where possible to such colored solvents as aniline and
nitrobenzene and ill-smelling ones as pyridin. The solubility of a num-
ber of compounds of a wide range of types has been determined.

A Color Reaction for p-Cymene. A. S. WHEELER.

In p-cymene obtained from spruce turpentine are one or more
impurities which give a color reaction with p-anisidine. The solid
p-anisidine may be used or a solution in pure cymene. In samples
where the cymene is still yellowish the coloration is very pronounced
and is’ really not needed. The immediate coloration is pale yellow,
deep yellow, brown or red depending on the degree of impurity.

to

18 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

Further in all cases the color deepens very noticeably in succeeding
hours. If no coloration occurs in the diffused light of the laboratory
within two hours the cymene is pure.

The following papers were read but no copies or abstracts fur-

nished :

Some Biological Aspects of the Tidal Zone Region of the North Car-
olina Coast. Z. P. Metrcar.

Recent Growth and Depletion of Sea-beaches on the North Carolina
Coast. COLLIER Coss. ‘

Electro-endosmosis of Clays. THORNDYKE SAVILLE.

Effect of Borax on Plant Growth and Notes on a Method for its Quan-
titatwe Determination in Fertilizers. Oscar J, THEIs, JR., and
H. B. ARBUCKLE.

' Dyestuff Situation in the United States. R. F. Revson.

Agricultural Geology (Read by title). Joun E. Smurru.

The Wing Venation of the Heteroptera. HrBertT SPENCER,

Vitamines—A Review. W. A. WITHERS.

Further Studies on the Melting Points of the Nitrotoluenes. J. M.
BELL.

A List of the Cicadellidae Taken at Swannanoa, North Carolina. Z.
P. Mercaur and HERBERT OSBORN.

The Conductwity of Nonaqueous Solutions. Paut Gross.

Behind the Barrier Beaches from Boston to Beaufort. Couturier Coss.

Some New Types of Distillation Apparatus. Pauw Gross.

R. W. Letsy, Secretary.

THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY*

By ANDREW H. PATTERSON

.

The idea of Relativity is not new. It was presented by the old
philosophers, and has been a constant part of philosophical doctrine to
this day. All of our knowledge is relative. Especially is this true of
our knowledge of time and space. We know time only at a certain
place; we observe the position of a point only at a certain time. To
say that an observation or measurement was made at a given time is
useless and meaningless until we have stated the place,—Greenwich or
Washington or Tokio,—to which the time is referred. Places of stars
in the Nautical Almanae are given only for the epoch, or time, stated
at the head of the page, and corrections must be applhed for later
dates. It is quite true to say that we do not know the exact place of a
star unless we know the exact time. Important dates in Assyrian
history have been fixed because of the record of a total eclipse of the
sun which was seen in the streets of the city of Nineveh at half-past
nine on a certain morning of a certain month of a certain year in the
reign of Jeroboam the Second. By calculating when this eclipse must
have occurred at that particular place at that time of the morning,
we at once link up the Assyrian era to our own, and can translate their
time into ours. Time without position in space has no more inde-
pendent existence than the direction ‘‘vertically upwards’’, for ex-
ample, which changes with every point on the earth’s surface.

But to fix the place of a point we need a system of axes to which
we can refer its position by means of co-ordinates. The latitude and
longitude of a ship are the two co-ordinates which fix its position on
the surface of the ocean. If the point is to be fixed in space, three
co-ordinates are needed, and if we can conceive of a four-dimensional
space, four co-ordinates will be necessary to specify the position of any
point therein.

It is immaterial whether we choose rectangular axes, or oblique
axes, or whether we use polar co-ordinates or some other system, pro-
vided that the position of the point arrived at by any system is the
same. Again, we can transform the co-ordinates of a point in one sys-
tem of axes into its co-ordinates in another system of axes by appro-
priate mathematical operations, and since a line is a series of points,

* Presidential Address, delivered before the North Carolina Academy of Science, at the
North Carolina State College of Agriculture and Engineering, Raleigh, April 30, 1920.

[19 ]

20 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

we ean also transform the equation of a line with reference to one
set of axes into another equation representing the same line referred
to another set of axes, The only criterion for the validity ef such a
transformation is that the length, curvature and position of the lne
as given by the two equations, each referred to its own set of axes,
shall be the same. And this point is to be emphasized: while we
may not be able to conceive of a four-dimensional space, the mathema-
ticians find no difficulty in getting the appropriate equations referred
to four rectangular axes, and of course containing four co-ordinates,
and these equations are as mathematically. true and consistent as
though we habitually used four dimensions in ordinary life.

But in using a set of axes, they must either be fixed, or else their
position and motion must in turn be referred to some so-called ‘‘ frame
of reference’’ that is fixed, and the attempt to find such a frame of
reference led to the modern theory of Relativity. Of course the earli-
est use of co-ordinate systems was in connection with Astronomy, and
the first frame of reference was the supposedly fixed Earth, which
Ptolemy, the Alexandrian astronomer who lived in the second century
A. D., believed to be the center of a universe of planets and stars which
revolved about it, and he referred their positions and motions to the
stationary earth as his frame of reference. It is true that four hun-
dred years earlier Aristotle and Aristarchus pointed out that by the
laws of relative motion the movements of the celestial bodies could be
equally well explained by a stationary sphere of stars and a revolving
earth, but the learned men of the succeeding centuries followed Ptol-
emy, and it was not until the middle of the sixteenth century that
Copernicus put forth again the theory that the starry sky, or ‘‘eighth
sphere’’, should be considered at rest, and the sun also as its motion-
less center, while to this fixed frame of reference should be referred
the motions of planets, comets, earth and moon. But since this trans-
formation of axes—this change in the frame of referenece—involved
the demotion of the earth from its former proud position of center of
the universe to a modest place among the minor planets, Copernicus’
theory was bitterly opposed by theologians, both Protestant and Ro-
man, on the idea that the new order involved great danger to the teach-
ines of the chureh. Martin Luther denounced Copernicus roundly
‘upstart astrologer’’ who showed a lack of ‘‘ public deeeney”’
in maintaining that neither the sun nor the ‘‘eighth sphere’’ revolved
about the earth. But the new theory had come to stay, for it explained

‘

as an

1920] THe THEORY OF RELATIVITY 21

clearly and simply the cause of the loops in the paths of the planets,
the phases of Venus and the Moon, and the motions of planets, satel-
lites and comets.

It led very soon to the discovery of Kepler’s laws and the epoch-
making work of Newton, including the development of the Newtonian
mechanics and the differential and integral calculus. Two hundred years
after Copernicus, Herschel again upset our frame of reference, for he
showed that the whole Solar System is moving through space with a
velocity of something like fifteen miles a second in the approximate
direction of the star Vega, and that in addition the ‘‘fixed stars’’ are
anything but fixed. All of them seem to be travelling in different
directions through space with enormous velocities, One of them, in-
deed, No. 1830 in Groombridge’s catalogue, has such a large proper
motion that it is called the ‘‘ runaway star.’’

So our fixed frame of reference again fails us, and in our attempt
to find another we adopted the theory of a stationary ether filling all
space, and affording the medium in which light waves are propagated.
Such a medium seemed necessary to explain the experiments in optics,
electrostatics, magnetism and electromagnetism, and since the same
kind of medium with the same properties was needed for the explana-
tion of phenomena in each of the branches of physics just named,
Maxwell pointed out that this fact constituted strong evidence for the
existence of the ether. .

Now if it does exist, and 7f it is stationary in space, and if we can
determine the absolute motion of the earth with respect to it, then
we shall have found our much-desired frame of reference fixed in
space.

The early experiments seemed to show that the ether is really at
rest in space. In 1727 Bradley discovered the aberration of light, and
the velocity of light as calculated from his formula agreed well with
that found fifty years earlier by Roemer from observations of the
eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites. Now since the fact of aberration seems
inexpheable on any other basis than a fixed or stationary ether, be-
cause if the ether in the telescope tube travels with it there would
be no reason for any aberration, it was considered that the aberration
of light clearly indicated that the ether is at rest in space, and that the
material composing the earth moves through the ether just as a tennis
racquet moves through air, allowing it to flow through the holes in the
stringing. But it seemed incredible that any medium could stream

22 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

through the interstices in and between molecules in the solid earth at
a rate sometimes of more than thirty miles per second without showing
the least sign of friction or binding of any kind, and so further experi-
ments were made. Airy tried the aberration experiment with a tele-
scope tube filled with water, and expected to see an increased aberra-
tion, because the velocity of light in water is only three-fourths of
what it is in air, and according to the aberration formula the less
the velocity of light in the telescope tube the greater the angle of
aberration should be. -

But when Airy measured the angle through which the water-slowed
light was deflected, he found it exactly the same as Bradley had found
for full-speed light! This was a puzzling thing, to be explained only
on the theory that the water dragged the ether along with it, with a
velocity sufficient to compensate exactly for the change expected in the
angle from the diminished velocity of light. Time is wanting to detail
the experiments of Fizeau, Fresnel, and others to settle this point, but
they showed apparently that something of the kind does take place,
—a sort of entrainment or cling or viscous drag of the ether,—and
they strengthened enormously the conviction that the ether does exist,
is a substantial medium, and can be affected by matter,—that is,
dragged along.

This brings us to the celebrated experiment of Michelson and Mor-
ley, which was an attempt made in 1881, and subsequently repeated,
to measure the absolute speed of the earth with respect to the station-
ary ether of space, They certainly had a right to expect success, for
they took every precaution to ensure it. The experiment consisted in
splitting a ray of light, sending one-half in the direction of the earth’s
motion through space, then reflecting it by a mirror back to the source,
while the other half of the ray is sent at right angles to the line of
motion of the earth, and is then similarly reflected back, the two
reflected rays interfering to produce interference bands in an inter-
ferometer, invented by Michelson.

The distance from the source to each mirror is exactly the same,
but the distance the light travels to and fro between the mirrors and
the source is not the same when the earth is in motion, being greater
in the line-of-motion direction than in the direction at right angles to
it. The mirrors and other instruments were mounted on a heavy stone
slab floated in mercury, and they expected that when the apparatus
was turned through a right angle so that what was before the longer

1920] THe THEORY OF RELATIVITY : 23

line-of-motion system became the shorter thwartwise system, they
would see the interference fringes in the interferometer move to the
right or left. But nothing of the kind happened, and the inevitable
conclusion was that there is no appreciable relative motion between the
earth and the ether,—that is, that the earth drags the ether in its
vicinity along with it at full earth-velocity!

But if so, how can we explain the Airy experiment with the water-
filled telescope, where the ether seemed to be dragged with a velocity
less than half that of the earth? And especially should be asked,
how shall we explain the aberration of light, which seemed to show that
the ether isn’t dragged along at all? Yet undoubtedly the Michelson-
Morley experiment seems to indicate that the whole earth is sur-
rounded by an envelope of stagnant ether, at rest with respect to the
earth. This is absolutely contradictory, and physicists lost no time
in making further tests.

Lodge spun a huge double disk of steel with tremendous velocity,
and sent a split ray of light around in a groove between the two
disks, half in one direction, half in the other. If the dises dragged
the ether in the narrow groove around with them, the two half rays,
one going with the dragged ether, the other against it, ought to inter-
fere and produce fringes. Again no effect. Mascart and others de-
vised most beautiful and accurate tests, but all of them gave negative
results. In short, as Lodge says: ‘‘Interference methods all fail to
display any trace of relative motion between earth and ether.’’ Wood
sums it up as follows: ‘‘Every experiment, with the exception of
the one performed by Michelson and Morley, is in accord with the
hypothesis of a stationary ether,’’—that is, an ether perfectly station-
ary in space.

But how then can we explain the negative result of the Michelson-
Morley experiment? Certainly interference methods are the most
accurate and sensitive we have in the science of optics, and if they fail
to detect relative motion between the moving earth and the fixed
ether how can we believe that it exists? Lorentz and Fitzgerald then
came independently to the conclusion that a moving piece of matter
contracts in the direction of its motion. While this contraction is
small,—less than three inches in the case of the earth’s diameter in
the direction of its orbital motion,—yet it would account exactly for
the negative result of the Michelson-Morley experiment, because the
longer path of the light parallel to the line of motion of the earth

24 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

might, by contraction of the stone slab, become exactly equal to the
thwartwise path, and if so, no displacement of the interference fringes
would result, Besides, this contraction is to be expected, anyhow, on
the basis of the electron theory of matter, and in just the amount nec-
essary to explain the negative result of the Michelson-Morley ex-
periment. Tests were then made with wood and steel beams, in place
of the stone slab, and it was found that they apparently contracted
in the same manner and to the same extent, so we conclude that all
matter behaves in the same way. But if such a contraction takes place
in erystals, it looks as though double refraction should take place in
them. This was tried by Lord Rayleigh and by Brace, but again
with a negative result.

It seemed as though all the forces of nature were in a conspiracy
to defeat our efforts to find a fixed frame of reference, and the deter-
mination of the absolute velocity of the earth with reference thereto,
so that after all our work and experimentation it must be admitted
that we have but the shghtest real idea of either the magnitude or
direction of our motion through space, though it would be of the first
importance to us in astronomy and physies if we could only know it.

Now we come to the Einstein Theory of Relativity, which was at
first an attempt simply to explain the negative results of the Michel-
son-Morley experiment. We must clearly distinguish three steps or
stages in the development of this theory: (1) the Special Relativity
theory; (2) the General Relativity theory; and (38) the latter theory
as appled to gravitation, or the Hinstein Theory of Gravitation.

To aid us in understanding the theory of Relativity, let us recall
a few of the results attained in the development of Newtonian mechan-
ics, on which we have built confidently the entire structure of modern
physical science. (Of course the Newtonian mechanics, in its turn,
is founded on Euclidean geometry, with its dozen axioms and postu-
lates and its three-dimensional space.) In our search for the funda-
mental, bedrock conceptions, we have adopted, following the lead of
Newton, those of Length, Mass and Time, as separate and distinet
ideas, independent of each other, and perhaps capable of absolute
measurement. Hor these we have adopted as our fundamental units
the centimeter for length, the gram for mass, and the second for time,
giving us the centimeter-gram-second or ¢.g.s. system of units. We
have attempted to base all other ideas, such as force, work, energy,
ete., on these as derived ideas, and we call their units derived units.

1920] THe THEORY OF RELATIVITY DE

|

For example, the notion of velocity implies that a certain length of
path is traversed in a certain time, and so by dividing the length by
the time we get the rate of motion, which is the derived quantity we
call velocity. Hence the dimensional formula, so-called, of velocity,
is L/T. In the same way we can express every physical quantity in
terms of a dimensional formula involving L, M, and T, except a few
which we have been obliged to express partly in quantities just as
fundamental as any others,—namely, temperature, magnetic perme-
ability and specific inductive capacity.

In addition we have grown accustomed to accept without question
Newton’s laws of motion, and his inverse square law of gravitation,
and we never doubted the unchangeable character of mass. We be-
lieved that a quantity of matter had the same mass and inertia under
any and all conditions of place, time and velocity. We could change
its weight, but not its mass, and this is the law of Conservation of
Mass.

It is true that in 1881 J. J. Thomson, a rising young physicist,
newly appointed head of the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge,
showed mathematically that an electric charge in motion took on
additional mass, but as its velocity had to be very great,—twenty
thousand miles per second and upwards,—before this extra mass, or
quasi-mass, became appreciable, his work had only a theoretical in-
terest, because up to 1897 the highest velocity ever reached by mat-
ter, so far as we knew, was that of the great comet of 1882, and that
was only four hundred miles per second at the perihelion point of
its orbit. In 1897, however, Thomson’s theory of the dependence of
mass upon velocity suddenly became of ‘the highest interest, because
he not only found a way to measure the enormous velocity of flying
electrons in a vacuum tube, but also of measuring their charge and
their mass, and by developing this method Kaufmann, Bucherer and
others proved by measuring the mass of electrons at various speeds
that Thomson was quite right in his theory, and that mass does de-
pend upon velocity. It follows, therefore, that the mass of a body in
the direction of its motion is different from its mass in a transverse
direction, and hence arose the idea of longitudinal and transverse
mass. Thus a body may have two values of its mass at the same time,
—truly a wide departure from the old Newtonian idea.

The whole mass of any body at rest is now supposed to be due
to the motion and the energy content of its component parts,—elec-

26 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

trons, atoms and moleeules,—while if the body itself is in motion an
additional mass is given to it in the direction of motion. A shell
weighing one ton will have an additional mass of one-millionth of a
eram when fired with a muzzle velocity of 2,500 feet per second. For
small speeds, therefore, the increase of mass is inappreciable, but for
speeds of more than 100,000 miles per second the mass rapidly in-
creases until at the velocity of light, which is 186.000 miles per sec-
ond, the mass of a body would be infinite. The electrons inside an
atom, and the rays fired off from radium, do actually reach prodigious
velocities,—more than 100,000 miles per second.

But if mass is a function of velocity it is not a fundamental quan-
tity, and cannot have an independent existence, so it must be given
up as one of the pillars of the temple of science. Now comes Rela-
tivity and shows that determinations of both length and time also de-
pend upon velocity, so they do not have an independent existence
either, and two more pillars of the temple fall, irretrievably, because
the determination of absolute velocity is forever beyond our reach,

Thus we have our first experience with the realm of Relativity,—
the land of Topsyturvydom. We have our three fundamental concep-
tions of Length, Mass and Time all depending upon a derived concep-
tion, Velocity, which we formerly held to be dependent upon them!
And then, having pointed this out, the relativist quietly states that
all such experiments as that of Michelson and Morley are bound to
fail, because it is impossible to determine the absolute velocity of the
earth through the ether by experiments made on the earth, and _ be-
sides, there isn’t any ether anyhow! To the first statement we reply
that we are on the earth, and can’t get anywhere else, so if we cannot
determine the velocity of the earth by experiments made here we
can never know its velocity, and never be able to fix a unit of absolute
motion. To which the relativist retorts, ‘‘Quite right,—we never can,”’
and this is the First Postulate of Relativity.

To the second statement, that there is no ethereal medium, we can
only ask what takes its place, to which the relativist replies, ‘‘No
medium at all; electromagnetic energy, including light, is propagated
through space somewhat as water is thrown from a hose. It is self-
existent, and needs no medium.’’ When we examine this remarkable
statement, we should have as the background of our thinking the facts
concerning the ether theory, which are, briefly, these: When the as-
sumption of the existence of the ether was made, to explain the phe-

1920] THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY 27

nomena of optics, electrostatics, ete., attempts were made to measure
its properties. Newton thought its density was something like 700,000
times less than that of water; Lord Kelvin thought the ether so attenu-
ated that it had a density of only one-quintillionth that of water, and
many other scientists agreed with them as to the extreme tenuity of
the ether. On the other hand, Sir J. J. Thomson says that ‘‘all mass
is mass of the ether; all momentum, momentum of the ether; and all
Kimetic energy, kinetic energy of the ether,’’ which shows the confi-
dence of the foremost English physicist in the reality of the ether,
but he goes on to say that this view ‘‘requires the density of the ether
to be immensely greater than that of any known substanee.’’ Other
leading physicists take this view also, and Sir Oliver Lodge insists
that the ether has a mass of one quadrillion grams per cubic centi-
meter, and that ‘‘compared to ether the densest matter, such as lead
or gold, is a filmy gossamer structure like a comet’s tail’’!

Now we all agree, I am sure, that when Kelvin claimed that one
eubie centimeter of the ether weighs one-quintillionth of a gram, and
Lodge says it weighs one quadrillion grams, (which is one million
tons), there is a serious discrepancy, to say the least, in the estimates
of physicists as to the properties of the ether, and we are not sur-
prised to learn that there are a multitude of ether theories,—solid,
liquid, elastic, labile, irrotational, gyrostatic, adynamic, ete., so no
wonder Relativity wants to get rid of the whole thing by turning the
ether out of doors.

And yet there comes, in protest, the cool reasoning of one of our
very foremost American physicists, Millikan, who says that the ether
‘““was called into being solely for the sake of furnishing a carrier for
electromagnetic waves, and it obviously stands or falls with the exist-
ence of such waves in vacuo, and this has never been questioned by
anyone, so far as I am aware.’’ Other leading physicists protest also
against giving up the notion of the ether for what Newton called ‘‘the
forlorn idea’’ of empty space, among them being Lorentz, the great
Dutch mathematician and physicist.

But Planck, the originator of the Quantum Theory, gives up the
ether, and Einstein of course does the same, for his first postulate
implies this very thing. But his second postulate states that hght in
a vacuum is propagated with a constant velocity quite mdependent
of the velocity of its source, and queerly enough, this postulate seems
to assume the existence of the ether, which the first postulate denies,

28 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

or as Stewart says, ‘‘we have the Principle of Relativity destroying
a concept which is used in one of its postulates,’’—another instance
of Topsyturvydom.

Einstein admits this, but cannot get away from the confidence he,
and all other physicists, have always had in Maxwell’s great theory
of electrodynamics, and the equations in which it is expressed, and
so Einstein states in his London ‘‘Times’’ article that for this reason
he was led to achieve the logical reconciliation of his two postulates
by making a change in the doctrine of the physical laws of time and
space. In doing so, however, he was obliged to overthrow some of the
time-honored ideas of Galileo and Newton, and deal with four-dimen-
sional, instead of three-dimensional space. Of course that also meant
using non-Euclidean mathematics, and the difficulties pressing upon
him from every side seemed insuperable. But he was immensely
helped by the work of Minkowski, who developed a system of four
dimensions,—using time for the fourth dimension,—involving four
rectangular axes, of which three are for the three space dimensions,
and the fourth is the time axis. Space and time are thus bound to-
eether, and no mathematical difference is made between them, the axes
being mterchangeable.

It is of course impossible for us to conceive of four dimensions all
at right angles to each other, but let us take this example: When we
20 to the moving-picture show, we see the screen picture in only two
dimensions, of course. But we supply a third dimension in our minds
by seeing the perspective of the picture. We see a horseman coming
in the distance apparently straight towards us, along the third axis
which our mind supphes perpendicular to the screen. But there is
another element in the picture, the time element. Time is always
of the essence in melodrama. The interest centers in the question as
to whether the hero, beset with difficulties and dangers, as he always
is, will be in time to rescue the fair heroine, This time element,
measured along an imaginary time axis, is also mentally present, and
the picture is not complete without it. And moreover, as stated before,
while we cannot visualize this axis at right angles to the others, the
mathematician can make his equations behave exactly as though we
could.

What Tennyson calls our ‘‘bourne of time and place,’’ therefore,
Minkowski calls a four-dimensional ‘‘space-time continuum,’’ and by
using four-dimensional geometry he showed how events in nature may

1920] Tue THEORY OF RELATIVITY 29

be represented mathematically, and how any equation referred to these
four axes could be transformed to any other set of axes provided the
second set is at rest or moving uniformly with respect to the first.
Einstein used many of Minkowski’s ideas, and developed what he calls
his Special Relativity Theory, which he describes as follows: The
Special Relativity theory is the application to any natural process of
the following propositions :

1. Every law of nature which holds good with respect to a co-
ordinate system K must also hold good for any other system K’ pro-
vided that K and K’ are in uniform motion of translation.

2. The second proposition is that light has a constant velocity in
a vacuum, quite independent of the velocity of its source.

There is much experimental evidence for the truth of this second
postulate, and the special theory, resting only on the two postulates
just given, was eagerly studied by physicists.

It was immediately seen that the most important fields of study
were those of acceleration and energy. The conception that inert mass
is nothing but latent energy was developed, the law of conservation
of mass lost its independence and became merged with the law of
conservation of energy, and new laws of motion, differing from New-
ton’s, were worked out for masses moving with great velocity. Many
startling and unexpected results were found, and Einstein pushed his
investigations vigorously. Please remember that his special theory
dealt only with axes in wniform motion, and he next tried to find a
more generalized theory dealing with axes in any kind of motion.
Again the obstacles in his path seemed to defy his highest skill. But
he persisted, for he asked himself, why must the independence of
physical laws with regard to a system of co-ordinates be limited to
a system of co-ordinates in wniform motion of translation with regard
to one another? What has Nature to do with the co-ordinate systems
which we propose, or with their motions? We must, of course, use
arbitrarily chosen systems to describe Nature’s operations, but they
ought not to be limited as to their ‘state of motion. So he worked on
until he found the necessary transformation formulae for any kind
of motion of the axes, and this is what he calls his General Theory
of Relativity, the single postulate of which may be stated as follows:
The laws of nature must remain invariant for all transformations of
co-ordinates, But he further says that ‘‘a generalized theory of

30 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

Relativity must include the laws of gravitation, and actual pursuit of
the conception has justified the hope.’’ So his third achievement is
his new theory of gravitation, which differs widely in some respects
from that of Newton. To understand it is not easy.

First, let me remind you that gravitation has always been a phys-
ical mystery, and numerous theories to account for it have been de-
veloped without success. For one thing the speed of gravitation
seems to be infinite, the only thing in nature which has a speed greater
than light. Again, we say the sun ‘‘attracts’’ the earth and holds it
in its orbit, but when we find that this so-called attraction is a force
sufficient to break a million millon rods of the best tensile steel, each
seventeen feet in diameter, we are amazed that any ethereal medium
can transmit it. And if we let the ether go, we are still more perplexed.
Let us, however, start with the conception that all pulls are really
pushes. When lemonade is sucked or pulled through a straw, it is
really the pressure of the atmosphere which pushes it through the
straw from the other end. Perhaps gravitation is a push, rather than
a pull.

When a baseball curves, we do not imagine something pulling it
around in a curve, but we think of the bank of air in front and on the
side of it, due to its twisting motion, as pushing it around. In like
manner a railroad train is pushed by the reaction of the outer rail
around the curve in the track. So we may imagine gravitation as
pushing the earth around in its curved orbit, From this conception
let us proceed to another,—the principle of Least Action. It may
be familiarly expressed in this way; every moving body holds to the
line of least resistance. That is what the curving baseball does; per-
haps that is what the curving earth does. If so, the first thing to
ascertain is what the line of least resistance is in space, and why it
is so, if we can; at any rate, find out what a body will do, and how
it will move under certain conditions.

This Einstein has done, and as he worked he came more and more
to the conclusion that the idea of gravitation, like the ideas of time
and space, is only part of the mental scaffolding we have erected to
explain the phenomena of nature, and has no existence apart from
our brains. To understand this let us imagine ourselves in an elevator
high up in the Woolworth building. We feel the weight of our bodies
pressing the soles of our feet; we feel the weight of the package we
are carrying; perhaps a pendulum is swinging in the elevator. Then

1920] THe THEORY OF RELATIVITY ail

suppose the wire rope breaks; the elevator with its contents falls ver-
tically with the gravitational acceleration of thirty-two feet per sec-
ond per second.

If we could keep our mental equilibrium under the circum-
stances, we would notice that our weight appeared to vanish; that the
package we carried also lost its weight, and if we removed our hand
from it, it would remain suspended in mid-air; the pendulum, if at
the end of its swing when the rope broke, would remain there motion-
less and would not swing back. In other words, so far as we are
concerned, and so long as the elevator is falling, gravity has been anni-
hilated by giving the appropriate acceleration to the elevator. In
reality, an observer inside a closed windowless box could not by any
means decide whether the box is in a statie gravitational field, or is
endowed with accelerated motion in a space free from gravitation.
We seem to weigh more while in an elevator ascending with acceler-
ated motion, so that acceleration simulates gravitation and may be
substituted for it. Now imagine two sets of four-dimensional axes, one
set stationary in the Woolworth building, and the other set fixed in
the falling elevator, Let x, y, z, and t be the co-ordinates of a point
with reference to the second, or falling-elevator set of axes. Then,
since we have no gravitation in the elevator to complicate matters, an
element of length ds with reference to this set would be given by
the equation

ds: = dx -+- dy* -- dz + dt*

Now let the same point mentioned above have at the same instant
the co-ordinates x’, y’, z’ and t’ with reference to the first, or fixed-in-

the-building set of axes. Then the transformation equation for ds
will be

ds* = gy,dx'2 4 g,,dy” + g,,dz* + g,,dt + 2¢,.d x’dy’ + 2g,,dx dz’ + ete.

There are ten of these g coefficients, and their value depends on
the nature of the transformation, and specifies it. They can be used,
therefore, not only to specify it, but they also define the original grav-
itational field, because they specify how it was got rid of.

Now in Einstein’s theory these ten g’s, used in ten differential
equations, are regarded as ten values of the gravitational potential
specifying the field, and one of them, g,,, is approximately the same
as the Newtonian potential, except for a factor.

32 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

Einstein, after long investigation, has so chosen his equations that
they remain unaltered by any change of co-ordinates, and these ten
are the only ones which do satisfy all conditions. What has just been
said illustrates Einstein’s famous ‘‘ Principle of Equivalence,’’ which
states that for any particle at any instant it is possible to replace the
effect of a gravitational field upon it by a mathematical transforma-
tion of axes.

If, therefore, gravitation can be annihilated mathematically by
a transformation to an accelerated set of axes, and if its very existence
depends upon a choice of axes, which is contrary to the General Rela-
tivity Postulate, then gravitation, in the words of deSitter, ‘‘becomes
almost a property of space.”’

Of course a first approximation from Einstein’s equations, neg-
lecting terms of higher orders, gives the old Newtonian law for com-
paratively small velocities. Please notice, however, that Einstein’s
theory only shows how gravitation acts, not what causes it to act thus.
It is in no sense an explanation of gravitation, which remains as
much of a mystery as before. Now a new theory, like a tree, is known
by its fruits, and when Einstein was asked to make his theory do
things to prove its truth he was at first perplexed to find cases in
which the actual differences between his theory and that of Newton
could be subjected to observation.

But he was not long at a loss, and presented three cases which
would test the correctness of his theory. The first case was the long
outstanding discrepancy between theory and observation shown in the
displacement of the perihelion point of Mereury’s orbit, This poimt
shifts around toward the east at the rate of 574 seconds of are per
century. The Newtonian mechanics, allowing for the effect of the other
planets on Merecury’s orbit, accounts for a shift of only 532 seconds,
thus leaving an unexplained shift of 42 seconds of are per century.
Einstein’s theory calls for a difference of 43 seconds,—an almost
startling agreement. But of course Einstein might have started with
this answer, and worked backwards, as it were, to his equations, so
a great deal more interest was taken in his second case: a prediction
that at the eclipse of the sun on May 29, 1917, the light of certain
stars which just grazed the sun on its way to the earth would be found
to have a deviation from a straight path because of the sun’s gravita-
tional field which he estimated would amount to 1.75 seconds of are.

19:0 | THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY 33

This prediction was made in 1917, two years before the eclipse,
and Einstein was a professor in a German university, shut in by the
war, and so helpless to test the observation himself, but the English
promptly began to make plans for sending out not one but two eclipse
expeditions to test the theory. Let us examine the point in question.
For years it has been customary to regard light as having mass, for
we reasoned as follows: Light is a form of energy; being of the
kinetic type it is expressed mathematically in terms of its velocity
and its mass, or at least something that takes the place of mass and
acts like it. Now if light possesses mass and velocity it must possess
momentum, and ought to exert a push when it falls on a body. This
light pressure, or radiation pressure, was predicted by Maxwell, and
its value caleulated by him, but it was only experimentally confirmed
forty years later by Nichols and Hull and Lebedew. It is the radia-
tion pressure from the sun which causes a comet’s tail to stream behind
the comet when approaching the sun, and to stream ahead of the
comet when receding from the sun.

The question next arises, does light possess weight? Is the mass
of light the kind which is acted on by gravitation? If so, we can
consider a beam of light passing near the sun as a comet, and using
the regular comet formula we can regard the speed of light as the
speed of the comet, and as usual insert the proper value of nearest
approach to the sun. From this formula we can find the angle be-
tween the asymptotes of the cometary orbit, and hence find the angle
of deviation of the ray which we should expect on the basis of New-
tonian mechanics. The result is an angle of .82 seconds of arc. Now
in the case of ordinary comets we have always found that their speed
increases while they are approaching the sun, and decreases after they
have swung round it on their long journey back into the depths of
space, so Newton’s idea was that this acceleration should be expected
of any comet moving with any speed, and acted on by the sun’s gravi-
tation, because force always produces acceleration in a mass free to
move.

And just here is one of the most interesting of Einstein’s dis-
coveries. It is shown from his formulas that if a body is approaching
the sun with a velocity less than about 100,000 miles a second, it will
be accelerated in its motion, but if it has a velocity greater than this
amount it will actually be retarded as it moves toward the sun. Such
a thing is inconceivable on the basis of Newtonian mechanics. Incon-

34 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society | September

ceivable, yes, but is it true? Einstein worked out his predicted devia-
tion of a ray of hght grazing the sun on the idea that it 7s true,—
that the ray does really suffer a retardation on its way toward the
sun proportional to the increasing gravitational field of the sun.
This would of course make the part of the wave front closest to the
sun move more slowly than the remoter portion, and hence the ray
would be swung round through an angle of 1.75 seconds of are, as
already mentioned, and this is more than twice the angle expected
from Newton’s laws. So here is a clear-cut test;—Newton or Ein-
stein,—a deviation of .82 seconds of are, or a deviation of 1.75 see-
onds. Which would it be? The two British eclipse expeditions sent
out last summer, one to Sobral, in Brazil, and the other to Prince’s
Island, west coast of Africa, both detected the deviation, and in the
required amount to show the correctness of Einstein’s views.

This was the triumph which put Einstein’s name on the front
page of every newspaper, and made every physicist in the world prick
up his mental ears and begin to study Einstein’s work more closely.

The third test set by Einstein for his theory was this :—his formu-
las show that the inside mechanism of an atom moves more slowly
in a gravitational field than in free space. Perhaps this is due to the
retardation suffered by a particle moving with a prodigious velocity
through a gravitational field, as considered above. At any rate,
Einstein predicted that ght waves coming from a source located
in an intense gravitational field would make a spectrum in which the
lines would be shifted toward the longer-wave end of the spectrum,
which is the red end.

This effect was looked for without success, but Einstein remained
serene in his conviction that it would be found, and offered to rest the
validity of his entire theory upon it.

Now comes his third triumph, for quite recently two young physi-
cists at Bonn not only detected the shift towards the red end of the
spectrum, but also discovered the reasons why previous attempts to
find it, at Mt. Wilson and elsewhere, were unsuccessful.

These three triumphant verifications of the Einstein ideas about
gravitation have focussed the eyes of the world upon this modest
scholar in Berlin. Born a German Jew, he moved to Switzerland
during his boyhood, was educated there, became a Swiss citizen and
served for some years in the Swiss patent office. During this time he
pursued his mathematical studies, and later taught in the Zurich Poly-

vl

1920 | THe THEORY OF RELATIVITY a

technikum, from which he went to the University of Prague. Just
before the war he was called to the University of Berlin, at the
age of forty. He did not sympathize with the militarists and pro-
tested vehemently against the famous, or rather infamous, manifesto
of the German professors in 1915. His frank statement expressing
his thanks to the English government and to his ‘‘ English colleagues”’
for going to so much trouble and expense to verify his predictions,
when he was himself helpless to do so, shows a fine spirit, and has
gained for him both admiration and respect. It was, in part, as
follows: ‘‘It was in accordance with the high and proud tradition
of English science that English scientific men should have given their
time and labor, and that English institutions should have provided the
material means, to test a theory that had been completed and published
in the country of their enemies in the midst of war.’’

Some of the more mathematical and theoretical conclusions drawn
from his equations may be interesting. If a circle be imagined in
empty space, its circumference bears to its diameter the usual ratio
of 3.14159 to 1, but if a heavy mass be placed at its center, the ratio
of circumference to diameter is changed, because of a ‘‘ warp in space’’
produced by the mass. Again, suppose a wheel is rotating in space.
The rim of the wheel, because it is at every point moving in the direc-
tion of its length, suffers the contraction already explained in connec-
tion with the Michelson-Morley experiment, but the spokes of the
wheel are not moving in the direction of their length, and hence do
not suffer contraction. Here again the circumference of the wheel
changes length while the diameter does not, so the ratio is again not
the usual one. This same contraction in the direction of motion is
suffered by electrical, optical and gravitational fields. If a system
is moving with respect to us, the unit of time in the moving system
seems longer to us than to an observer on that system, and
when the system is moving with respect to ours with the velocity of
light, their second would seem infinitely long to us. That is, if we
could watch a clock face on a system receding from us with the
velocity of light, although an observer on the system with the clock
would see it running as usual, we would forever see the clock hand
at exactly the same point.

This sounds as crazy as anything in ‘‘ Alice in Wonderland,”’ and
in fact the Mad Hatter must have been the originator of Relativity,
and to have had this very point in mind when he claimed that ‘for

36 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

him it was always six o’clock and always tea-time. Einstein goes
even farther than this; let me quote his own words: ‘‘We could sub-
stitute for the clock a living organism enclosed in a box. Were it
hurled through space like the clock it would be possible for the organ-
ism, after a flight of whatever distance, to return to its starting point
practically unchanged, while an exactly similar organism which re-
mained motionless at the starting point might have given place to
new generations. For the organism in motion, time was but a moment,
if its speed approached the velocity of light.’’ This statement implies
that not only does time depend on velocity, but that the rapidity of
chemical and biological processes is also a function of velocity.

Rosalind’s remark is therefore doubly true, that ‘‘Time travels
in divers paces with divers persons,’’ and until the velocity
of each system is known (that is, the relative velocity, for we
can never find the absolute velocity of any system,) we cannot know
with whom the swift foot of Time ambles, trots, gallops, or even
stands still withal. One observer’s now may be another observer’s
future and a third observer’s past, all at the some cosmical moment
of time, Two actions quite simultaneous to one observer may not be
simultaneous to another observer located in a different system. Again,
what to a stationary observer is an electrostatic field is to a moving
observer an electromagnetic field.

According to Einstein and Minkowski any point relatively at rest
in space really traces a ‘‘world-line”’ or ‘‘path of adventure”’ parallel
to the time axis. The locus of a point in relative motion is a line mak-
ing an angle with the time axis. An observation is the crossing of
two or more world-lines, and we know nothing of these world-lines
between the points of crossing with other world-lines. The axes of
our four-dimensional space-time continuum have been aptly ealled
the to-and-fro axis, the forward-and-backward axis, the up-and-down
axis and the sooner-and-later axis, the last, of course, being the time
axis. On one side of the origin the time axis represents the past, on
the other side the future. Events do not happen,—they are coinci-
dences of world-lines, and are simply there, to be met or happened
upon, as it were. A few years ago Anderson’s new star burst forth.
Whatever caused it is supposed to have occurred about the year of
George. Washington’s birth, but we only happened upon a crossing
of its world-lines with ours one hundred and seventy years later. If
a change is made in an element of our system, it alters the whole past,

1920 | THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY 37

mathematically speaking, as well as the future. This seems absurd,
and corresponds to nothing real in our experience, so far as we
know, but these equations we are discussing have proved true in so
many ways that we eagerly anticipate their further interpretation.
New tests for straightness of lines, for simultaneity of events,
ete., have been adopted, and everything seems queer and unfamiliar.
Straight lines, according to Relativity, appear crooked to us, and vice
versa. Spheres in motion become oblate spheroids, and we feel like
the prisoner in Gilbert and Sullivan’s opera, condemned always to
play on a warped table, ‘‘on a cloth untrue, with a twisted cue,
and elliptical billiard balls.’’

According to this theory, also, the greatest possible velocity in
space is that of lght,—186,000 miles per second. Even if a shell
were fired with a velocity of 100,000 miles per second directly for-
ward from a gun mounted on a car moving with the same velocity of
100,000 miles per second, the resultant velocity of the shell would
not be 200,000 miles per second, as we should expect, but only 150,000.
No combination of any number of velocities impressed upon a body
can exceed the velocity of light. The new definitions of physical terms
are equally puzzling, as for example: ‘‘Matter does not cause the
curvature of space,—it is the curvature.’’ Again, Einstein has prac-
tically ignored in his theory the idea of force as the condition for
change of motion, which was possibly the greatest contribution made
by Galileo to the science of dynamics, and in spite of the fact that
some physicists hold force to be perhaps the most basic of all the ideas
of mechanics. As already said, the ether, which Planck calls a ‘‘child
of sorrow,’’ is, in the eyes of relativists, hopelessly discredited.

The work of Einstein is epoch-making. Just as for sixty years
everything in physics has had to square with Maxwell’s equations,—
even Hinstein’s theory,—so now there is already seen a tendency to
make our thinking square with Einstein’s equations. Just what results
will come out of the new theory it is impossible to say. The Einstein
mechanics have shown at least some power of exploration of intra-
atomic space, which Newtonian mechanics could not do, and this may
assist us in the development of a rational theory of atomic structure
better than any theory we now have.

But we are not to stop here. The English are actively preparing
to make even more accurate observations in Australia during the

38 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [| September

eclipse of 21st September, 1922, when we may hope to have much
additional light thrown upon the whole subject, which now presents,
it must be confessed, many difficulties. For example, according to
the new quantum theory energy is radiated in a discontinuous fashion
in very small amounts called quanta. The value of a quantum has
been determined, but according to the Relativity theory, since it trav-
els with the speed of light, every quantum should appear infinite,
which it doesn’t.

Then, too, by no means all physicists agree with the theory, and
Abraham, for instance, has opposed it vigorously, warning us against.
the ‘‘Sirenenklaenge dieser Theorie.’’ Many others, such as Sir Jo-
seph Larmor, while not hostile, are lukewarm. Trouton says that Rela-
tivity is merely trying to remove the lion in the path by laying down
the general proposition that the existence of lions is an impossibility.

The truth is that the theory is so new, so revolutionary, and so
difficult to understand, that the natural conservatism of science forces
it to make its way slowly. Then, too, the language in which it is
expressed in the articles scattered through the literature of the
subject is not easily ‘‘understanded of the people.’’ As an example,
Larmor complains in one of his articles that a certain expression is
only ‘‘ wrapping up in abstractions the simple statement that when at
any place the quadratic characteristic of the spatial extension in-
volves the differential of the co-ordinate specially related to time in
its product terms, then there is latent in it a specification of its own
mode of change at that place with respect to uniform space-time.”’
You see what a ‘‘simple statement’? in non-Euclidean Relativity
sounds like, and this may throw lght on Einstein’s reported saying
that he did not suppose there were more than twelve men on the earth
at present who can understand his theory fully. The surprising
thing about this statement is that he should have put the number
so high as twelve.

In conclusion, let us sum up the situation: Conservatives in sci-
ence claim that at best Einstein has merely introduced some refine-
ments in our mathematical weapons of attack; but the radicals claim
that he has overthrown much of the older mechanics, has given the
coup de grace to the ether, and has started an entirely new chapter
in the development of human thought comparable only to that begun
by Galileo and Newton; furthermore, that the Relativity point of

1920] THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY 39

view will color everything in the future, and that we have now two and
only two foundations on which we can build with confidence,—the
Electromagnetic Theory of Clerk Maxwell and the General Relativity
Theory of Albert Einstein.

CHAPEL Hitt, N. C.

A PARTIAL LIST OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES CONSULTED

Physical Opties. 2d. Edition. R. W. Wood, Chapters 24 and 25,

The Progress of Physics. A. Schuster.

Electrons. Oliver Lodge.

History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity. E. T. Whittaker.

Aether and Matter. J. Larmor. Chapter 2, Appendix D.

Electricity and Matter. J. J. Thomson.

The Ether of Space. O. Lodge.
Modern Electrical Theory. 2d Edition. N. R. Campbell

The Electron. R. A. Millikan.

Resume of Observations Concerning the Solar Eclipse of May 29, 1919, and the
Einstein Effect. L. A. Bauer, Science, March 26, 1920.

Euclid, Newton and Einstein. ‘‘W. G.’’, Nature, Feb. 12, 1920.

The Theory of Relativity. A. C. D. Crommelin, Nature, Feb. 12, 1920.

Einstein’s Theory of Gravitation. E. Cunningham, Nature, Dec. 4, Dee. 11,
and Dee. 18, 1919.

The Recent Eclipse .Results, and the Stokes-Planck Ether. lL. Silberstein, Phil.
Mag., February, 1920.

Gravitational Deflection of High-Speed Particles. Leigh Page. Nature, Feb.
26, 1920.

The Ether vs. Relativity. Oliver Lodge. Fortnightly Review, January, 1920.

Gravitation and Light. J. Larmor. Nature, Dec. 25, 1919, and Jan. 22, 1920.

A New Conception of the Universe. A. J. Lotka. MHarper’s Mag., Feb., 1920.

Time, Space and Gravitation. A. Einstein. Educational Review, Feb. 1920.

Gravitation and the Principle of Relativity. - A. S. Eddington. Nature, Dec.
28, 1916.

Elementarquantum der Energie. J. Stark. Physik. Zeitschr., Dee. 1, 1907.

Relativity in Astronomy. W. C. Rufus. Popular Astronomy, March, 1918.

Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Koerper. A. Einstein. Ann. der Physik, 17, 1905,
p- 891.

Relativitaet und Gravitation. A. Einstein. Ann. der Phys., 38, 1912, p. 1059.

Lichtgeschwindigkeit und Statik des Gravitationsfeldes. A. Einstein. Ann. der
Phys., 38, 1912, p. 355.

40) - JouRNAL oF THE MircHELL Society | September

Raum und Zeit. H. Minkowski. Phy. Zeitschr., 10, 1909.
The Principle of Relativity. E. Cunningham. Nature, June 11 and 18, 1914.

The Second Postulate of the Theory of Relativity. Q. Majorana. Phys. Rev.,
May, 1918.

Relativity. A. S. Eddington. Nature, March 7 and 14, 1918.

Presidential Address, Section A, British Association, 1914. KF. T. Trouton,
Nature, August 20, 1914.

Einstein’s Theory of Relativity. Morris R. Cohen. New Republic, January
21 and February 18, 1920.

Applications of the Lorentz-FitzGerald Hypothesis to Dynamical and Gravita-
tional Problems. H. A. Bumstead. Am. Jour. Sci., 26, 1908.

Relativity. D. F. Comstock. Science, May 20, 1910.

On the Theory of Relativity. KR. D. Carmichael. Phys. Rev., Sept., 1912; Feb.
and March, 1913.

The Second Postulate of Relativity and the Electromagnetic Emission Theory
of Light. R. C. Tolman. Phys. Rev., 32, 1911, p. 148.

The Second Postulate of Relativity. R. C. Tolman. Phys. Rev., 31, 1910, p. 26.

On the Essence of Physical Relativity. J. Larmor. Sci. Am. Supp., No. 2253.

Relation of Mass to Energy. D. F. Comstock. Phil. Mag., 15, 1908, p. 1.

Fundamental Laws of Matter and Electricity. G. N. Lewis, Phil. Mag., 16,
1908, p. 705.

New Concepts of Time and Space. Claude Bragdon. Dial, Feb., 1920.

Acht Vorlesungen ueber Theoretische Physik. Max Planck, 1909.

Relativitaet und Gravitation. M. Abraham. Ann. der Phys., 38, 1912, p. 1056.

Relativity and Ether. Leigh Page. Ann. Jour. Sci., Aug., 1914.

Aether and Matter. Oliver Lodge. Nature, Sept. 4 and Sept. 25, 1919.

Physical Relativity. G. W. deTunzelmann. Sci. Am. Suppl., May 31, 1919.

Einstein’s Law of Gravitation. J. S. Ames. Science, March 12, 1920.

Results of the Total Solar Eclipse of May 29. A. C. D. Crommelin. Nature,
Nov. 13, 19319.

Relativity and Gravitation. O. Lodge and A. 8. Eddington. Nature, Sept. 13,
1917.

EKinstein’s Third Victory. R. D. Carmichael. N. Y. Times, March 28, 1920.

Gravitational Deflection of High Speed Particles. A. 8. Eddington. Nature,
Mareh 11, 1920.

Gravitational Shift of Spectral Lines. H. Jeffreys. Nature, March 11, 1920.

The New Relativity in Physics. R. A. Wetzel. Science, Oct. 3, 1913.

Attitude of the Newer Physics toward the Mechanical View of Nature. G.
B. Pegram. Ed. Rev., March, 1911.

1920 | THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY 41

The Theory of Relativity. L. T. M. Nation, Apr. 11, 1912.
The Principal Concepts of Physics. W. F. Magie. Science, Feb. 23, 1912.

The Principle of Equivalence and the Notion of Foree. CC. A. Richardson.
Nature, March 18, 1920.

A NEW METHOD FOR LAYING OUT CIRCULAR CURVES
BY DEFLECTIONS FROM THE P. I.
By T. F. HickERson

With THREE TEXT FIGURES

The writer hopes that the tables based upon formulas given be-
low will fill the long-felt need of a simple and time-saving method
for laying out cireular curves by deflections from the point of inter-
section of the tangents (the P. I.), thus avoiding the trouble of
moving the instrument and resetting the vernier,

Referring to Fig. 1, P is any point on the circular are CB and A
is the point of intersection of the tangents. Also C is the point of
curve (P. C.), and B is the point of tangent (P. T.). Lines from
points A and O to point P makes angles of © and @ with the line AO,
these angles being plus when measured above AO and minus when
below it. PN is drawn perpendicular to AO. The deflection angle is
called A,

PN R sin a R sin a
Tan @ == as = — a eee
AN E + R — R cosa R (see HWA — 1) + R— R cosa
sin a
lence. ta (O) (1)..
sec 4A —- cosa

Formula (1) shows that for a given value of A, the angle © is
independent of the radius of the curve or the length of curve.

Imagine the curve divided into ten equal parts, then formula (1)
gives the deflections to these points of division as follows:

sin 409A

a= oA, tan 9, = ———_________,,
see 144A — cos oA
sin 340A
a= %40A, tan 92, = —_______,
see 4A — cos %40A
sin 340A
a= AoA. tan oe; = ——_—___—_—______,
see %A — cos 40 A
sin 490A
a= 149A, tan 9, = ———_________,
see 4A — cos 4oA
— OCl— Z
= SW, Oo — On
a=— AoA, 0, =— G,,
2 = VA, Ong = — Os
ae 4a, Oe ==] Os, .
a) = = HHA, Oa = — YEO — /\))c
[ 42 ]

1920| New MetruHop For LAayInG Out CIRCULAR CURVES 43

Values of 0,, O,, ©, ete., computed by means of the above for-
mulas for different values of A show that they change wniformly
with 4; so that interpolation gives results as closely as 1 minute for
ranges of 1° in A.

Saree gl!

For convenience in laying out curves without resetting the vernier,
these directions to points on the curve are referred to the first tangent,
the line CA produced.

Instrument at the P. I., and vernier reading A° on the P. T.,
we have:

44 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

90°
90°
180°.

S
>
+4+4++

Deflection to point ( 1) = A + %(180 — A) — 0, = 90° + HA — Oy

(2) as 0 eel AL toa:

( 3) S902 —ate A — 65,

(4) = 90° + HA — O,

(5) = 90° + %A

( 6) = 90° + %A 6,

Cal) =90°"-— Gr

( = - 6

It should be noted that the following pairs of deflections add up
to 180° + A°; (1) 4+ (9), (2) + (@), (3) + (7) andere

Using the above formulas, tables have been computed for all values
of the deflection angle 4 varying by 1° from 38° to 128°. This covers
all cases that are likely to occur in locating curves for roads and
streets.

Fig. 2 is a graphical verification of the fact that for a fixed A,
the deflections to the points of equal division on a curve remain con-
stant for any length of the curve. This makes the method perfectly
general.

The order of procedure in laying out a curve is as follows: (1)
set up the instrument at the P. I., backsight on the first tangent with
vernier reading O°, transit the telescope, unclamp the vernier and fix
the line of sight on the second tangent, the vernier giving the de-
flection angle A°; (2) decide what length of curve to use (deter-
mined usually either by the desired external distance E or the tan-
gent length T); (8) compute T and E, using either the well-known
table of tangents and externals for a 1° curve, or preferably the tan-
gents and externals for a 100-ft. curve (Table II); (4) lay off the
tangent length locating the end of the eurve (the P. T.); (5) di-
vide the length of curve by 10 and locate each of the ten points, or
every other one, or every third one, ete., depending upon how many
are needed to properly define the curve, by starting at the P. T., and
getting the intersection of the end of the chord with the line of sight
from the P. I., according to deflections read directly from the tables
(Table I).

The middle point, or the 5th point of the curve, cannot be located
very precisely by intersections, since the end of the chord would be
moved in an are tangent to the line of sight. This point ean be lo-
cated exactly by measuring the external distance EK from the P. L.,
and this serves as a check. If only the 2d, 4th, 6th, 8th, and 10th
points are located, then it is not necessary to know E.

1920] New Meruop For Laying Our CrrcuLar Curves 45

Fie. 2

The beginning of the curve (the P. C.) is located as the 10th
point by a deflection which is always 180°. The station number of
the P. C. is known, hence its location can be checked by measuring

46 JOURNAL OF THE MiTrcHELL Society | September

the plus distance back to the preceding station. This method avoids
measuring the tangent distance from the P. I., in order to locate the
Pa,

It should be noted that the curve can be located by starting at
the P. C. instead of the P. T., the deflection to the first point being
the same as that to the 9th point as given by Table 1, ete.

If part of the curve is not visible from the P. I., say that beyond
point 6, then the instrument may be moved to point 6 and the remain-
ing points located by deflections from a preceding chord. Suppose a
backsight is taken to point 2, vernier reading O°, then after reversing

5A° Ae
the telescope the proper deflection to locate point 7 is ———— = —,
ete. 2 10 4

For very long curves in woods and at places where the P. I. is
not accessible, the well-known deflection method should be used, that
is, the instrument is moved to the P. C., and intermediate points on
the curve.

During the past summer the writer was in charge of a party that
surveyed 22 miles of federal-aid highways in hilly and mountainous
country, and the following facts were observed: (1) not a single case
of inaccessible P. I. occurred; (2) along 86 per cent of the curves the
P. I. was visible throughout; (3) in only 42 per cent of the curves
was the P. T. visible from the P. C. This means that 86 per cent of
the curves could have been laid out completely with the instrument
set only once (at the P. I.), whereas 58 per cent of them actually re-
quired the instrument to be set up three times. The first 11 miles was
in fairly open country along the general direction of an old road.
Here 96 per cent of the curves were visible throughout from the P. L.,
but 70 per cent of the P. T. points were not visible from the P. C. ~
The other 11 miles of the survey was partly in a dense forest and not
along an old road.

Aside from the time saved in not having to move the instrument,
another step in the usual operation of laying out a curve is avoided,
and that is, the tangent distance is not measured from the P. I., in
order to locate the P. C. Curves laid out by the usual method begin
and end with subchords of unequal length. This makes the deflections
rather tedious to compute. The errors are cumulative, and the writer
has seen the best of transitmen waste time in trying to find the little
error that prevented the final check.

1920] New MeruHop For Layine Our Circunar Curves 47

The resident engineer can more easily pick up the P. I., than any
other point and he would find it convenient to realign the curve by
deflections from this position while construction is going on, since it
is apt to be beyond the grade stakes and not disturbed.

The points on the curve established by deflections according to
the proposed new method are at equal and integral distances apart,
but they are not full stations. The writer believes the advantages
of full station points are largely imaginative. However, the chain-
men can easily locate full station points on their return trip from
the P. C. to the P. T., as is explained in Example 1. The middle or-
dinate of the equal chords can be found in Table III which has been
compiled by the writer for the purpose. In this connection, it should
be remembered that middle ordinates vary practically as the square of
the chords; and for any chord, the ordinates vary practically as those
of a parabola. See Fig. 3. Thus if the middle ordinate is 1 ft. the ordi-
nate (or offset) at a point 2/5th of the chord-length from the end of
the chord is 0.6 ft. The middle ordinate in practice is usually less
than 1 ft. as will be seen later.

Before proceeding with an illustration, Table II will be explained.
This table gives the Externals, Tangents, Radii, and Degrees of Curve
for circular Arcs of 100 feet in length according to values of the deflec-
tion angle ranging from 1° to 128°, It is offered as a substitute for
the tables giving the functions of a 1° curve. The following formulas
were used in computing the values in Table II:

100A 100A
iDi = =e aN

L 100

5729.578
a
D
5729.578
TY = Rk tan KA => —— tan 4A,
A
5729.578

i= R tan 2A =

exsec 144A,

A

48 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

For curves longer than 100 feet, the tabular values. of the external,
tangent, and radius must be multiplied, and the degree of curve di-
vided, by the ratio of the given curve length to 100. For example,
suppose A is 24° and the length of curve to be used is 400 feet, then

24
E — 5.3834 & 4 = 21.8, T — 50.744 « 4 = 203.0, D = — = 6°,
4
— 238.8 « 4— 955.2. This tables gives conveniently a length of
curve that will always be a multiple of ten. The chords therefore
will always be an integral number of feet in length.

Example 1.

Given A = 40°00’; P. I at Sta. 62 + 11.8
From Table II, L = 100, E = 9.193, T = 52.135, D = 40°.

Suppose local conditions are such that E should equal 46 feet

46
approximately. Hence, ratio — — = 5.
9.2
Lh = 500, H = 46.0, T = 260.7, D—s°.
500
= 50 = length of each chord to be applied 10 times.
10
Py ih = 6252-8
T. = 2 - 60.7
P. C. = 59 + 51.1
L. = 5

P. T. = 64 + 51.1

For A — 40°00’, the deflections are given directly in Table I as
follows:
Points Deflections
gel Ne A
Ist 40°29’
2d 42°29!
3d 47°58
4th 63°41’
5th (E = 46.0) 110°00'
6th 156°19'
7th NOY
Sth WHOS
9th 179°31'

Oth Eanes 180°00'

1920] New MetxHop For Laying Out CIRCULAR CURVES 49

As a check in taking deflections from the table, it should be noted
that the Ist + 9th — 2d + 8th — 3d+ 7th — 4th + 6th — 180
+ A — 220°00'.

The above points on the curve are not at full stations; but the
chainmen, on their way back from the P. C., can very easily set stakes
at full station and + 50 foot poimts as follows: the rear chainman
holds the + 51.1 division of the tape at the P. C., and aligns the front
chainman by sighting to the 9th poimt of the curve; then a right
angle offset on the P. I. side of the curve, at a certain fraction (see
Fig. 3) of the middle ordinate for a chord of 50 feet (see Table III),
locates Sta. 60 (in this ease the middle ordinate is 0.44 ft. and the
offset is less than 0.1 ft.) ; next the rear chainman holds the zero end
of the tape at Sta. 60 and aligns the front chainman by sighting from
the 9th point to the 8th point, in order to locate Sta. 60 + 50 which is
so near the 8th point it does not have to be shifted. The other stations
are established in a similar manner.

Example 2.

Given A = 20°20’; PB. fat Sta. 37 -+- 18.2.

T = 50.532, H = 4.5 (Table I).

Suppose T = 100 = approx. desired length of tangent.
aioe —2 ehences le —.200.. i —— 10120, D = 10°10".
P. I. = 37 + 18.2 :

0. =F 01.0
Bea. —— 36 -- 17.2
L = 2
Pam = 38 =- 17.2
200
= 20. Use 40-ft. chords applied five times.
10
Points Deflections
PET: KS
2d 21°40’
4th So ley
6th 165°07’
Sth 178°40’
Othe ke: 180°00'

2d + Sth = 4th + 6th = 200°20’. Check.

The quantities in Tables II and III are based on the definition
that the ‘‘degree of curve’’ is the central angle subtended by an are
of 100 feet instead of a chord of 100 feet. The radius of a one-
degree curve is found by means of the following proportion:

36000 36000

1° : 360° = 100 feet : 24R feet, hence R = ——— = —————- >= 5729.578
2A 2(3.14159)

feet.

50 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL Society [September

The middle ordinate (M) of an are whose central angle is 4° and
whose chord is e feet, is given by the formula:

MR) Vers a (4).

€

Also M =

EDD TIN O Noguera ee ete eeeneens (CSS) e

Formula (5) shows that for any radius, the middle ordinates vary
as the square of the chords. The above formulas were used in com-
puting Table III.

Assuming the are to be parabolic, we have a convenient relation
between ordinates at any point along the chord and the middle ordi-
nate. See Fig. 3. For example, an ordinate at 8/10 of the chord-
length from one end of the chord is 6/10 of the middle ordinate.

In practice, the middle ordinate is usually less than 1.0 foot, pro-
vided the chords do not exceed the limit where they vary more than
.05 ft. from the are. Table III shows these limits to be as follows:

100 ft. chords up to 6° curves; middle ordinates up to 1.31 ft.
50 iE fe ce ce ce 16° ce ce ce ce 66 0.87 Te
40 if Ee ce “ce oe 95° ce ce ce 66 66 0.87 EE.
30 rte ce ce ce 37° ce ce c¢ Cre Cte: OFZ hte
95 EP ce ce ce AGS) ce ce ce (5S a $15 0.64 £t.
20 ft. ce ce ce 67° ce ce oe cc 66 0.58 fairs
yet ce ce 66 100° 3 ce ce cc 66 0.49 inte

a1

1v1sion

IRCULAR CURVES
D

of Equal

Curves.

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1920]

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JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September
TABLE II.
Externals, Tangents, Radii and Degrees of Curve to a 100 Ft. Circular Arc.

Diff. Diff. Defi.
A | E 10’ ue 10' R | per Ft
I’ | 0.218 | ..036 | 50.001 , .001 | 5730 nels 0.3’
2° | 0.436 | ~.026 | 50.005 | .001 | 2865 2° 0.6’
3° | 0.655 | .036'| 50.012 | .001 | 1910 | 3° 0.9/
4° | 0.873 | .036 | 50.020 | .002 | 1432 | 4° 1.2’
5° | 1.092 | .036 | 50.032 | .002 | 1146 | 5° 1.5/
6° | 1.310 | .036 | 50.046 | .003 | 955.0 6 1.8’
7° | 1.530 | .036 | 50.062 | .003 | 818.6 7 2.1!
sc | 1.749 | .036 | 50.081 | .004 | 716.2 mp 2.4!
9° 1.969 .036 50.103 | .004 636.6 9° 2.7!
10° 2.189 | .086 | 50.127 | .005 | 573.0 | 10° 3.0’
1° 2.409 037 | 50.155 | .005 | 520.9 | 11° 3.3
12° | 2.630 | .087 | 50.184 | .005 | 477.5 12° 3.6’
13° 2.851 | .037 | 50.216 | .006 | 440.8 vase 3.9"
14° | 3.073 | .0387 | 50.251 | .006 | 409.3 14° | Ae
15° | 3.996 | (03% | 50°88 | (007 | 3820 | 15° | ‘Bt,
16° | -3.519 | .087 | 50.328 | .007 | 358.1 16° | 4.8"
17° | 3.743 | «0387 1 50/870 | .008 | 337.0 ze 5.1!
18° | 3!968 | (037 | 50/416 | ‘00g | 3183)" |) ase 5.4!
19° | 4.198 | .038 | 50.463 | .009 | 301.6 | 19° | 5.7’
90)° 4.419 | .038 | 50.514 | .009 | 286.5 20°. |" 60"
21° | 4.646 | .038 | 50.567 | .010 | 272.9 me.) 6°
99° | 4.875 | .038 | 50.624 | .010 | 260.4 22° | 6.6
23° 5.104 | .088 | 50.688 | .010 | 249.1 25° =|) 619%
94° | 5.934 | .039 | 50.744 | .011 | 238.8 PE | oe
95° | 5.565 | .039 | 50.809 | .011 | 229.2 95° |) 75!
96° | 5.797 | .039 | 50.276 | .012 | 290.4 Oe | cay
o7° | 6.030 | .0389 | 50.916 | .012 | 212.2 D7 Wi sale
28°) 612645) 1089) |) 51.020: | 1013) | 20416 28° | 8.4’
20° | 6.500 | .040 | 51.096 | .013 | 197.6 29° 8.7
30° 6.737 .040 51.175 (014) 1) 19109) eers0e 9.0'
gic | 6.976 | .040 | 51.257 | .014 | 184.8 Sie 9.3
30° | 7.216 | .040 | 51.342 | .015 | 179.1 2° | ote!
33° | 7.457 |. 040 | 61.430 | 015! | 17816) |) a8?) eeeial
34° | 7.700 | .041 | 51.521 | .016 | 1685 | 34° | 10:97
35° | 7.944 | .041 | 51.615 | .016 | 163.7 35° | 10.5!
36° .| S190 Ose |) 512719! || fo1’n |) 1502s aesGanlores
37°) | (8.488004) | 61.818 | <.017 || ab ee ree ete
gs° | 8.688 | 042°) 51.917 | .018 | 150.8 |~ sect) emna
39° | 8.930 | .042 | 52.024 | 019 | 1469 | 39° | 11.7
40° | 9.193 | .043 | 52.135 | .019 | 143.2 40° | 12.0
41° | 9.448 | .043 | 52.249 | .020 | 189.8 41° | 12.3
42° | 9.706 | .043 | 52.366 | .020 | 136.4 42° | 12.6’
43° | 9.965 | .044 | 52.487 | .021 | 183.8 43° | 12.9"
44° | 10.207 | .044 | 52.611 | 1021 | 130.2 44° | 13.97
45° | 10.491 | .044 | 52.730 | .022 | 127.3 45° | 13.5/
46° | 10.757 | .045 | 52.871 | .093 | 124.6 46° | 13.8
47° | 11.025 | .045 | 53.006 | .023 | 121.9 27? || Wate
48° | 11.996 | .046 | 53.145 | .024 | 119.4 4g° | 14.4"
49° | 11.570 | .046 | 58.288 | .025 | 117.0 49° | 14.77
50° | 11.846 | .047 | 58.495 | .025 | 114.6 50° | 15.0’
51° | 19.125 | .047 | 53.586 | .026 | 112.3 51° | 15.87
52° | 19.407 | .047 | 53.740 | .027 | 1102 | 59° | 15.67
53° | 12.691 | .048 | 53.899 | .027 | 1081 | 532 | 15.9%
54° | 19.979 | .049 | 54.062 | .028 | 1061 | 54° | 16.2!
55° «| 13.270 | .050 | 54.230 | 029 | 104.1 | 55° | 16.57
56° | 13.564 | .050 | 54.402 | .029 | 102.1 56° (| 16,8’
57° | 13.861 | .050 | 54.577 | .030 | 100.5 Bro) yal?
58° | 14.161 | .051 | 54.753 | .031 | 98,79 58° | 17.4!
59° | 14.465 | .051 | 54.943 | .032 97.11 59° «| (17.7/
GO° | 14.773 | .052 | 55.133 | [033 | 95.49 60° | 18.0/
61° | 15.084 | .058 | 55.328 | .033 | 98.98 Ps Ka a CoH
62° 15.399 | .053 | 55.527 | .034 92.41 62° | 18.6’
63° | 15.718 | .054 | 55.732 | .035 | 90.95 63° | 18.9’
64° 16.041 | 055 | 55.941 036 | 89.52 64° | 19.97

1920]

New MetuHop ror Layine Out Crrcutar CurRVES

TABLE III.

MIDDLE ORDINATES
For Chords of

CHORDS

————————__ es

For Ares of

100 Ft. SOFt. GOFt. SOFt. 40Ft. 100 Ft. SOFt GOFt 5OFt 40Ft.
1° 5730 Oe Oat 021s 100)" 0:05] 100 80 60 50 640
2° 2865 0:4980:3 | 0:2) 05 0:1) 100 80 60 50 40
3° 1910 0.677 0.4 |,0.2'| 0.2 0.1 | 100 80 60 50 40
4° 1432 0.9 | 0.6 | 0.3 | 0.2 0.1 | 100 80 60 50 = 40
5° 1146 TS Osan |. 023; 028) 100 80 60 50 | 40
G> + -955:0).| 3-3.) 028: |10:5. |, 0:3; 0:2} 100 80 60 50 | 40
7° | 818.6 | 1.5! 1.0 | 0.6) 0.4 0.3 99.94 | 80 60 50 | 40
8° | 716.2 | 1.8 | 1.1 | 0.6 | 0.4 0.8 99.92 | 80 60 50 40
9° 636.6 2.0 12/07 0.5 0.3] 99.90 79.95 60 50 40
10° 573.0 2.2 141/08 0.5 0.3| 99.88 79.93 | 60 50 40
For Chords of For Arcs of
SOFt. 60Ft. SOF! 40Ft. 30Ft.) SOFt GOFt. SOFt 40Ft. 30Ft.
11° |; 520.9 | 1.5 ; 0.9 ; 0.6) 014 2 79.92 60 50 40 | 30.
12%, 477.5 | 1.4 | 0:9'| 0.7 | 0:4 2 79.91 60 50 40 30
13° | 440.8 | 1.8 | 1.0 | 0.7 | 0.4 2 79.89 60 50 40 30
74° | 409.3 | 2.0 | 1.1 | 0.8 | 0.5 3 79.87 | 59.95 | 50 40 30
15° | 382.0'} 2.1 | 1.2 | 0.8 | 0.6 3 79.85 | 59.94 | 50 40 30
16° |. 358: | 2.2 |. 1.8] 0.9) | 0:6 & 79.83 | 59.938 49.95 | 40 | 30
17° | 337.0 |_2.4 | 1.3 | 0.9 | 0.6 8 79.81 | 59.92 | 49.95 | 40 | 30
For Chords of For Arcs of
6OFt. SOFt 40Ft. 30Ft. 25Ft| GOFt SOF. 4)Ft. 307: 25 Fi
18° | 318.3 | 1.4; 1.0 | 0.6 ; 0.3 ; 0:2 59.91 | 49.94 40 SOEs)
OFF SOG LO 220) OFF) 1 Ola Ors 59.90 | 49.94 | 40 30 25
20° | 286:5.| 1.6} 1.1 | 0:7 | 0:4. | 0.3 99.89 | 49.94 40 S30) ) 25
Plc atoroiwlen i ek | O9%8 | Ola? ORS 59.88 | 49.93 40 30) | 25
22° | 260.4 | 1.7 | 1.2 | 0.8 | 0:4 | 0:3 59.87 | 49.93 40 oO) peeD.
250 4 eagle | 1S for3 | 0.8) (0.6) OS 59.84 | 49.91 | 40 30: | 25
24° | 238:8 | 1.9 | 1.3 | 0.8 | 0.5 | 0:3 59.84 | 49.91 40 30 25
BP 22921210 | 1.4 | 0:9 | 0:5 | O83 59.82 | 49.90 39.95 30 25
26° | 220.4 | 2.0 | 1.4 | 0.9 | 0.5 | 0.3 99.81 | 49.90 | 39.95 30 25
Din Vote? | 2.1 | 1-5) ) 019 | 0.5-| 04 59.79 | 49.89 | 39.94 30 25
Daa oOsO 22> | 325: | 1.0-).0:5-) 024 59.78 | 49.88 | 39.94 30 ° 25
Doe 1 197.6: | 2:3 | 1:6.| 1.0 | 0:6 |°04 59.77 | 49.87 | 39.938 30 25
80° | 191.0'| 2.3 |. 1.6 | 1.0 | 0.6 | 0.4 59.76 | 49.87 | 39.93 | 30 25
le eisaes | 247 | tal | 016) 04 59.74 | 49.85 | 39.92 | 30 25
Peco WAS wheel Del sl Ose) 204 59.73 | 49.84 | 39.92 | 30 25
For Chords of For Arcs of
SOFt. 30Ft. 25 Ft. 20Ft. 10Ft.) 50 Ft. 30Ft. 25Ft. 20Ft. 10Ft.
oo, | 1738.6 |) 128 |) 06) | 0:4 7 O83) OF 49.83 , 30 25 20 ; 10
S44 | 4168-5. | 1-8 10.7. | 0.5: | 053) | 01 49.82 30 25 20 | 10
saa lesen | 1:91 027 } (0:5: 1 0:3 Ot 49.81 | 30 25 20 | 10
BOn 0922920) |) O27) | 05) | (0:3) 7051 49.80 30 25 20 10
ots | 164:9 | 2.0) |)'0:7 | 0:5 | 0:3 : 021 49.79 | 29.95 25 20 | 10
Soe Pools | 20 Ol 10:5) 1 Ols.4 01 49.78 | 29.95 25 20 | 10
aor | 146:9. | 2:1 | 0.8 | 0:5 | 0:3 | 0.1 49.77 | 29.95 2a 20 10
AQ?) 143:9 | 2:2 | 0:8 | 0:5 | 0.387] 0.1 49.75 | 29.94 25 20 10
41> | 139:8 | 2:2) 0:8 | 0.6 | 0.4 | 0.1 49.74 | 29.94 25 20 10
42° | 136.4 | 2.3 | 0.8 | 0.6 | 0.4 | 0.1 49:73 | 29.94 | 25 20 10
Bowe lte.o |e 223. 028910.) O:4e 1 Oak 49.71 | 29.93 25 20 ; 10
44° | 130.2 | 2.4 | 0.9 | 0.6 | 0.4 |! 0.1 49.69 | 29.93 25 20 | 10
Ame Dead. 0-9) | (OL6) | Ol4, aOrd 49.67 | 29.92 25 20 | 10
AGE |) AZEG. 1225) 1029) 026) | Ol. FO 49.65 | 29.92 25 20 10
47> | 121.9 | 2.6 | 0.9 | 0:6) ‘0:4 | 01 49.63 | 29.92 24.95 20 | 10
48° | 119.4 | 2.6} 0.9 | 0.6:0.4 O04 49.62 | 29.92 | 24.95 | 20 | 10
AOE ALO) | 2ET 1) 0) 1027) (OPE. 7 OF 49.60 | 29.91 24.95 20 10
SOF | 114.6 | 24!) 1.0! 0:7 | 0:41 01 | 49.59 } 29.91 | 24.94-| 20 | 10

Norre—Tables I, II and III complete for values of
A up to 128° in convenient form for use in the field
may be obtained from the author at a price of 25 cents

per copy.

3

A REMARKABLE FORM OF SKELETAL ELEMENT IN THE
LITHISTID SPONGES

(A Case of Analogical Resemblance)
By H. V. WILSON
Wir Four Text FIcures

Sponges, like other groups, are rich in the structural resemblances
which are due to common descent, resemblances which involve nu-
merous organs in the individual animal and which are of such a com-
plex intricate character, striking so deeply into the constitutional
make-up, that it is impossible to think of them as due to any natural
cause save kinship. But as we study these infinitely variable animals,
we encounter resemblances which fall in another category, resem-
blances which involve only some special detail of structure or at most
a few features, which in their actual functioning are correlated in
physiological-mechanical function. Such resemblances are certainly,
in many eases at least, not inheritances from a common ancestor. We
eroup them together as analogical but they fall in two subdivisions:
(1) those involving features which are called out in each individual
organism by the stimulus of an environment, and which do not appear
when that environment is changed; and (2) those involving features
which are racial characteristies, viz., characteristics that have arisen
and become fixed, in some way, during the course of evolution and
which continue to appear under different sets of environmental con-
ditions.

Analogical resemblanees of this latter class are due to the inde-
pendent occurrence of the same variation (or cumulative series of
variations), in different idioplasms. How such germinal changes,
mutations as we often call them, are brought about physiologically, is
a question that is being actively asked by many students of heredity,
especially by the experimental evolutionists, of today. Along with
the directly experimental attacks, descriptive work has its use in
locating facts which at some time it may be worth while to put under
the fire of experiment.

Partly, at least, in pursuance of this idea I wish to record a case
of resemblance which is certainly analogical, and which, it is practi-
cally certain, is racial. It involves the shape of the fundamental
spicule on which the characteristic skeletal element, the desma, of the

lithistid sponges is built up.
[ 54 |

hI

1) |

1920 | SKELETAL ELEMENT IN LITHISTID SPONGES

The desma is a silicious body, in most species of a complexly
branched shape (Figs. 3, +), formed by the continued deposition of
silicious material on a silicious spicule which we may eall the basic
spicule, technically crepis (Fig. 1). The basic spicules, which are
especially present in growing parts of the sponge, are free bodies,
that is, they lie in the living tissues of the sponge unconnected with
one another or with other skeletal elements. The desmas on the con-
trary as they assume the final shape, become articulated with one an-
other, and in most species become firmly united to form a coherent
skeleton which presents the appearance of a network of silicious beams.

Now the basic spicule of the desma is in some lithistida a four-
rayed spicule (tetraxial or tetractinellid spicule), in others a simple
rod-shaped spicule (monaxial). Different as are the basic spicules in
these two groups of species, the complete desmas are not always easy
to distinguish, for in both cases they may become complexly branched
bodies. This superficial similarity of the two kinds of desmas, those
built on tetraxial, and those built on monaxial spicules, is in itself
significant, but when we find, as we do in some species, desmas of the
latter class varying toward desmas of the former class, it becomes
clear that the desma built on a four-rayed spicule (tetracrepid
desma) is the original or ancestral type, while the desma built on a
monaxial spicule (monocrepid desma) is a derived type. These in-
teresting and important variations were first described by O. Schmidt
in Discodernua clavatella (O. Schmidt, 1879, pp. 12, 24). Sollas
(1888, p. 341) confirmed the facts and convinced himself ‘‘that a com-
plete series of transitional forms connect the monocrepid and the tetra-
crepid desmas.’’ Topsent (1904, p. 60) has discovered the same state
of affairs in another lithistid sponge, Macandrewia azorica.

The four-rayed shape may thus be regarded as the original, actual
or ancestral, shape of the spicule which is transformed by the depo-
sition of silicious matter into the desma, This spicule in the case of
tetracrepid desmas in general is what is called a calthrops, viz., a
spicule in which the four rays are similar, making the same angle
with one another and having the same length. But in at least one
species, Desmanthus incrustans Topsent, an evolutionary change has
occurred, whereby one of the rays of the basic spicule has become
longer than the others, the spicule thus being converted from a
calthrops into a triaene. In the triaene, a very common form of spic-
ule in the non-lithistid tetraxial sponges, we distinguish, then, one

56 JOURNAL OF THE MiTrcHELL SOCIETY [| September

long ray, the shaft (technically rhabdome), and three shorter rays
(the cladi, forming together the cladome), which are given off from
the end of the shaft. In the sponge which I shall now describe, a
further evolutionary change has cecurred, and rays are given off at
both ends of the shaft of the basic spicule, the spicule thus becoming
what is called an amphitriaene (Fig. 1).

The sponge referred to is a Philippine form, a new species, Jere-
opsis fruticosa mihi, dredged by the U. 8. Fisheries Steamer Albatross
in 80 fathoms in the region of the Sulu Archipelago, and which will
be deseribed in detail in a forthcoming report on Philippine sponges.
It is a stony sponge of branching-cylindrieal, or shrubby, habitus,
55 mm. high, and with the free spicules of the genus (dichotriaenes,
oxeas, and streptasters including amphiasters and spirasters). In
the two other recorded species of the genus, Jereopsis schmidti (Sol-
las) from the tropical Atlantic and Jereopsis (Neosiphonia) superstes
(Sollas) from the tropical Pacific (ef. Sollas 1888, Lendenfeld 1903),
the desma is, perhaps, the usual type of tetraerepid desma, built up
on a ecalthrops. Sechmidt’s figure (1879, Taf, II, Fig. 10) suggests
however that this is not the case. I hope at some time to have the
opportunity of making a critical examination of the desma, from this
point of view, in the type specimens of these two species.

The facts concerning the development and structure of the desma
in this sponge (Jereopsis fruticosa) are as follows:

Small, perfectly free amphitriaenes (Fig. 1) occur in the super-
ficial (ectosomal) region of the sponge. The spicules are about one-
sixth mm. long, and consist of a straight shaft with three rays (eladi)
at each end. The streak of peculiar substance, known as the ‘‘axial
eanal,’’ which is found in each of the axes of a tetraxial spicule, here
extends, as the figure shows, along the axis of the shaft and to the tip
of each ray.

Early stages in the transformation of such spicules into desmas
may be found near the surface of the sponge. One is shown in figure
2. Such young desmas are free or only slightly connected with the
body of the skeleton. In them the shaft continues to be of about the
same length as in the basic spicule (Fig. 1), although it is thicker,
but the rays have greatly increased in length. They measure now
from one-half to the full length of the shaft or indeed slightly over.
They are simple, viz., not branched, and when not corroded their ends
bear rounded tubercles for articulation with other desmas. The axial

1920 | SKELETAL ELEMENT IN LITHISTID SPONGES

Or
ba |

substanee, ‘‘axial canal’’, retains its former size (ef. Figs. 1, 2), thus
extending only into the basal part of each ray. This is the character-
istic behavior of the axial canal in the growth of the lithistid desma
in general.

As such desmas develop their final shape, they become firmly united
to the skeletal framework already formed. If one wishes to study
accurately their fundamental shape after union, the spicules must be
isolated through the appleation of hydrofluoric acid to rough slices
of the framework. When the framework is so treated the desmas
fall apart. They are however corroded.

Figs. 1-4. Jereopsis fruticosa. Fig. 1, a free and uncorroded amphitriaene
from the ectosome. Fig. 2, a young desma, slightly corroded by hydrofluoric
acid, from the ectosome. Figs. 3 and 4, adult desmas somewhat corroded by the
hydrofluoric acid used to dissociate them from the skeletal framework. Al] x 150.

Desmas (Figs. 3, 4) obtained in this way show the unchanged
axial canal system which indicates the shape of the basic spicule on
which the desma has been built up. The shaft is now about three
times as thick as in the original spicule but no longer. The rays,
better designated now as branches (technically cladi), vary a great
deal not only in different spicules but in the same spicule, In some
cases they have not advanced over the condition described for the inter-
mediate stage (Fig. 2), either in size or complexity. More often, the
branch is itself branched, a condition which is produced, of course, not

58 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

by the division of the first branch but by the continued deposition of
silicious matter along lines which make angles with the first branch.
In this way secondary or even tertiary branches are formed. There
is apparently some law of growth which brings it about that no
branch shall materially exceed the shaft in length. When or before
that point is reached, new branches are formed. The articular tu-
bercles are developed on the ends of the branches, whether the latter
be primary, secondary, or tertiary. In many eases, as in Fig. 2,
where the branches are about equally developed at the two ends of the
shaft, the axial canal system of the basic amphitriaene is conspicuous,
but it may be overlooked in cases where, as in Fig. 4, the branches at
one end of the shaft are much more extensively developed than-at the
other end.

The point of importance for this paper is that the basic spicule,
on which the adult desma is built, is an amphitriaene, that is a
spicule consisting of a shaft and three rays at each end of the shaft.
I can find no similar ease recorded for the Lithistida.

In the non-hthistid tetraxial sponges, amphitriaenes are recorded
only for Samus Gray and Amphitethya Lendenfeld (1906). Samus
(one species) is a boring sponge occurring in the South Atlantie,
Indian, and South Pacific Oceans, The only megascleres are amphi-
trianes, which are not all alike. In the larger of these spicules, the
shaft, 80u long, bears at each end three rays, each of which is trifid.
In the smaller ones, the shaft, 20” long, bears at one end three simple
rays, and at the other end three trifid rays. While the sponge falls
in the Sigmataphora beeause of its microscleres, which are sigmata
(rods curved somewhat in ¢-shape, but with a spiral twist), its pecu-
liar megascleres give it an isolated position, setting it off as a family
(Samidae). The ontogeny of the amphitriaenes is not known, and
we have no data on their variation to indicate their origin. It is
highly probable however that the spicules have been derived from
triaenes, although Sollas (1888, p. 59) has suggested two other con-
ceivable origins.

In Amphitethya (Lendenfeld 1906, p. 126) there is no doubt that
the amphitriaenes, which characterize the genus, are derivatives of
the triaene. In Amphitethya microsigma Lendenfeld, a stalked species
with globular body dredged off the west coast of Australia, the facts
of variation which demonstrate this are as follows. Triaenes of sev-
eral kinds occur abundantly in the sponge, those in the more axial

1920 | SKELETAL ELEMENT IN LITHISTID SPONGES 59

part of the stalk having an especially long shaft, as is often the case
in such sponges. In the superficial part of the stalk there are abun-
dant triaenes with short shaft, and mingled with these are the likewise
abundant amphitriaenes. The latter spicules, in which the length of
the shaft is 160-540, are exceedingly variable, scarcely two alike, and
they form a close series grading over from amphitriaenes, quite like
the spicules I have described above, to the short-shafted triaenes.
These observations of the late Professor Lendenfeld securely establish
the origin of the amphitriaene. Amphitriaenes were already known
in the two other species of the genus, Amphitethya stipitata (Carter)
and in the sponge from Amboina designated by Topsent Tetilla mer-
guiensis Carter (Topsent 1897, p. 487). In the former Sollas
noted (1888, p. 49) that ‘‘the amphitriaenes sometimes are reduced
to simple triaenes.’’ In the latter, the detailed facts, such as similar-
ities in size and precise shape, convinced Topsent that the amphi-
triaenes are modified triaenes. Amphitethya is a genus with sigmata,
and thus falls in the Sigmatophora.

There is still another non-lithistid tetraxonid sponge in which at
least a step has been made toward the transformation of the triaene
into the amphitriaene. This is Ancorelia paulini Lendenfeld (Len-
denfeld 1906, p. 248) from the Indian Ocean. The spicules referred
to consist of a shaft, one millimetre or less in length, which bears at
one end three cladi, projecting slightly downward as in an anatriaene,
and at the other end a similar single cladus, extending out from the
shaft at an angle in the same general direction as the cladi at the op-
posite end. The sponge is classed in the Astrophora by Lendenfeld,
who regards its microscleres (microxeas) as derived from streptasters.

It may be regarded as certain that the presence of the amphitriaene
in these several cases is not due to inheritance. The distance of the
sponges from one another in the classification, expressing their general
dissimilarity, negatives this idea, The comparison of Amphitethya
with Jereopsis is especially instructive. Each has plenty of close rela-
tives without amphitriaenes, and the two sponges fall in different
suborders of the Tetraxonida. To be sure the Lithistida may not be
a natural suborder but a polyphyletic group, some members of which
have been derived from non-lithistid tetraxonia with astrose -
microscleres (Astrophora), and others from non-lithistid tetraxonida
with sigmata for microscleres (Sigmatophora).. Even in this ease

60 JOURNAL OF THE MiItcHELL SOCIETY | September

Jereopsis would be related to the Astrophora, Amphitethya to the
Sigmatophora.’

The only conclusion that is possible is that the triaene has varied
and become an amphitriaene, independently, in several groups. The
resemblance is analogical, one of ‘convergent evolution’, a rubric under
which we group likenesses that are due to similar responses on the
part of related, but not necessarily closely related (witness the simi-
larities between the hydro- and scyphomedusae), organisms to the en-
vironment. We classify it, then, as due to a heritable change that may
occur in triaenes independently of inheritance, that is, reversion plays
no part in its appearance. We would like to know how to evoke it.

If this and similar cases_in the sponges should ever be approached
experimentally, through the alteration of the external or internal en-
vironment, the series of known spicule forms connecting perfect amphi-
triaenes with perfect triaenes, in Amphitethya microsigma, would lead
us to expect that the change induced would be more or less cumu-
lative. Also our general knowledge of variation in sponge spicules
(cf. Wilson 1904, pp. 9-10) would lead us to expect that the heritable
change would probably at first affect comparatively few spicules.

That analogical similarities are common in sponges is generaly rec-
ognized, although there is not much that is definite in our knowledge.
Nowhere is more emphasis laid on their occurrence than in O. Schmidt’s
writings. As illustrating Schmidt’s standpoint, the following cita-

1The remarkable character of the lithistid desma makes a strong argument for the
monophyletic origin of the group, weakened in no degree by the fact that some desmas are
built on four-rayed, others on rod-shaped, basic spicules. For (see above) the variation
yhenomena in several species show that the latter kind of basic spicule is reducible to
the former. Sollas (1888, p. CXIX) has laid weight on this argument for the monophyletic
origin of the group, which he derives from the Astrophora. The derivation from the
Astrophora in particular is based on the fact that the most frequently-occurring type of
microsclere in the Lithistida is astrose. The fairly numerous Lithistida without microscleres
offer no difficulty to this theory, for comparative study shows’ that microscleres
have been independently lost during the evolution of various sponges. But the few forms
with sigmata (Scleritoderma, Taprobane) do offer a difficulty, if we continue to lay such
stress, as now, on differences in the matter of microscleres. The whole question (cf. Dendy
1905, p. 99) can only be raised, but not answered until our critical knowledge is much
greater. Alternative hypotheses may be formulated as follows: (1) We may assume a
monophyletic origin of the group and trace it back along with the Astrophora and Sigma-
tophora to Tetraxonida with both kinds of microscleres, asters and sigmata, in which case
it would certainly be astonishing that the two kinds of microscieres had mutually repelled
one another during the evolution of the Astrophora and Sigmatophora, and again within
the Lithistida during the evolution of the existing families. (2) If we assume first the
evolution of the Astrophora and Sigmatophora from Tetraxonida with both kinds of micro-
scleres, and then the origin of the Lithistida from the former, it is at least conceivable,
as Sollas has noted (loc. cit. p. CXX) that the occurrence of sigmata in some Lithistida is
a case of reversion. Following out this idea, the reversion to sigmata might conceivably
occur in Lithistids that had lost their microscleres. If we assume it to have occurred in
forms with microscleres (asters), then again we meet the strange conclusion that sigmata
and asters repel one another, the reversional variation which brings back sigmata driving
out the asters. (3) If we lay stress in the first degree on the difference in microscleres,
we are driven to conclude that the Lithistida have had a double origin, some from the Astro-
phora, some from the Sigmatophora, and that the habit of forming a complex body, the
desma, on a free basic spicule, has been twice acquired. Doubtless the number of hypothe-
ses that are logically sustainable, might be increased.

1920 | SKELETAL ELEMENT IN LITHISTID SPONGES 61

tions from his ‘‘Sponges of the Gulf of Mexico’’ (1879) may be made.
‘*In the Sponge-fauna of the Atlantic Region, I have shown what a
great role within the sponges is played by the phenomenon of conver-
gence in the production of pseudo-homologies. These fall under the
general concept of adaptations in so far as one is justified in speaking
of adaptations to general mechanical laws’’ (loc. cit., p. 4). Schmidt
goes on to say that his entire criticism of characters, in the work of
comparing organisms with one another, aims at distinguishing what is
the result of inheritance and what the effect of the environment, the
latter ‘‘only drawn into the stock of hereditary characters in the
course of a gradual process of fixation’’ (an abstract statement into
which more than one meaning may be read). He continues and notes
that in most contributions of the time, especially those dealing with
embryology, the possibility that morphological agreement is not always
based on common descent and heredity, is far too lightly passed over
(a habit of mind which the progress of physiological-mechanical
studies has greatly changed since Schmidt’s time).

CHAPEL Hi, N. C.

LITERATURE CITED

Denpy, A. 1905. Report on the sponges collected by Prof. Herdman, at Ceylon,
in 1902. In: Herdman Rep. Pearl Oyster Fisheries, Part III, London.
LENDENFELD, R. von. 1903. Das Tierreich, 19 Lieferung. Tetraxonia. Berlin.
1906. Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der deutschen Tiefsee-Expedition, Bd.

XI. Die Tetraxonia. Jena.

Scummr, O. 1879. Die Spongien des Meerbusen von Mexico (und des Carai-
bischen Meeres). Erstes Heft. Jena.

Sottas, W. J. 1888. Report on the Tetractinellida collected by H. M. S. Chal-
lenger. Edinburgh.

TopsENT, E. 1897. Spongiaires de la Baie d’Amboine. Revue suisse de zoologie,
i EV:

TorpseNT, E. 1904. Spongiaires des Acores. Résultats des campagnes scien-
tifiques accomplies sur son yacht par Albert ler Prince Souverain de Monaco.
Fase. XXV. Monaco.

Witson, H. V. 1904. Reports on an exploration off the west coasts of Mexico,
Central and South America, etc. The Sponges, Memoirs Mus. Comp. Zodlogy,
Vol. XXX.

THE TURTLES OF NORTH CAROLINA; WITH A KEY TO THE
TURTLES OF THE EASTERN UNITED STATES

By C. S. BrimLey

The animals known as tortoises, turtles or terrapins, no one of which
names by the way has an exact application to any particular group
of the order, are distinguished from all other living reptiles by having
the body enclosed in a bony shell, leaving only the head, neck and
limbs free. This shell consists of two portions, an upper more or less
arched portion known as the carapace and a lower, smaller, flattened
part known as the plastron. These two are united on each side by
a bony bridge or cartilaginous suture.

The majority of existing turtles have the shell covered with horny
plates, which do not agree, either in size, number or position with the
bony plates beneath (though on the carapace the general arrangement
of both is similar), but in two small groups the shell is covered with
a leathery skin instead.

The classification of turtles seems somewhat unsettled, but we can
distinguish without much trouble a few main groups, whatever may
be their exact relation to one another.

1. Athecae. Marine turtles with the shell composed of a mosaic
of small hexagonal plates which are free from the ribs and vertebrae,
and covered with a leathery black skin, and with seven longitudinal
ridges down the back. This group includes only the leatherback
turtles, the largest of all existing forms. ;

2. Thecaphora. In which the shell is composed of a number of
bony plates, agreeing in number with and attached to or composed of
the expanded ribs and upper processes of the vertebrae. These are.
attached to a row of marginal bony plates forming the edge of the
shell, and these at the sides to another series of plates forming the
plastron.

The Thecaphora comprise the majority of existing turtles and dl-
vide into:

(A) The soft-shelled turtles (Trionychoidea) in which the shell
is flattened, orbicular and imperfectly ossified around the edges, and
covered with a leathery skin. The species occur in most parts of the

world.
[ 62 ]

1920 | TURTLES OF NortTH CAROLINA 63

(B) The side-necked turtles (Pleurodira) in which the shell is
covered with horny plates and the neck bends sideways (in a hori-
zontal plane) when drawn back. The species are all south tropical.

(C) The S-necked turtles (Cryptodira) in which the shell is
covered with horny plates and the neck bends in a vertical plane
when drawn back, The majority of existing turtles belong here, in-
eluding all the marine species except the leatherbacks.

All of these groups except the Pleurodira are represented in this
State or off our coasts, so that at present the turtles are known to
be represented in our State by four marine and fourteen inland species.

Of the marine turtles, which. however they may differ in struc-
* ture, all agree in having the limbs developed as flattened paddles for
swimming and in having the front limbs much larger than the hind
ones, we get the leatherback, green turtle, loggerhead and bastard
turtle.

The leatherback is only occasional on our coast, but one caught
near Beaufort is now preserved as a mounted specimen in the State
Museum at Raleigh and weighed about 800 pounds. The species is
sometimes used as a source of oil.

The green turtle used to be common on our coast but has been
hunted so much for food, and its eggs collected for the same reason
that it is now very scarce.

The loggerhead and bastard turtle are still quite common in sum-
mer and the former breeds but the latter does not, its breeding season
being reported to be in the winter on the Florida coast.

These marine species all feed on both marine plants and animals.

Of the land and fresh water forms we get species belonging to
three families, while members of a fourth, the Trionychidae or soft-
shelled turtles should enter our State from either the south or west
or both, but as yet we have no satisfactory records of them.

The three families referred to above are the Chelydridae or snap-
ping turtles with a narrow cross-shaped plastron, large head and long
tail; the Kinostermidae, or mud turtles, in which the plastron has ten
or eleven plates and is divided into three parts, a fixed middle portion
and a front and hind portion, both of the latter, or at least the front
part being capable of being moved so as to partially close the shell,
and the Testudinidae or terrapins, in which the plastron has twelve
plates and is either wholly fixed or divided into only two portions,
which are movable on a central hinge.

64 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Society | September

Only one species of snapping turtle occurs in our State, and this
usually goes simply by the name of ‘‘turtle,’’ all our other species being
known as terrapins in this State. The snapper is the largest and the
ughest of our species reaching a weight of 25 pounds, and is also the
one most frequently locally eaten, being in fact quite palatable. It
is a voracious and vicious reptile, wholly carnivorous, and capable of
inflicting a painful wound if carelessly handled. Its eggs are white,
soft-shelled and spherical.

The second family includes two of our species, which much re-
semble the snapping turtles in habits, but differ in the broad plastron
and smaller size, neither reaching a length of more than about four
inches in the shell. The mud turtle has the head unstriped, and the
plastron nearly as large as the shell opening, while the musk turtle has
the head with yellow stripes and the plastron considerably smaller
than the shell opening. The latter is more of a deep water animal,
the former more of a shallow water form, preferring to hunt for its
prey with its shell half in, half out of the water. The eggs are
elongated, hard-shelled and white.

The balance of our turtles belong to the Testudinidae and all ex-
cept one are aquatic and have wholly fixed plastrons.

The exception is the Box Turtle, commonly called Highland Terra-
pin in this State, which is mainly an inhabitant of damp woods, though
I have found specimens buried in the wet mud of a swamp in a
place where in a wet season they would have been fifty yards from
shore. The short high arched shell and the moveable plastron which
closes the shell completely when the animal has withdrawn its head
and limbs within, distinguishes this from all our other species. Its
food consists of fruit, succulent leaves of plants, and living or dead
animals of any kind it can capture.

The remainder of our species differ but little in habits, all being
aquatic inhabitants of pools and streams seldom leaving the water
except to deposit their eges, which are elongate and soft-shelled.

Roughly speaking, they divide into two groups, the smaller pond
turtles with a smooth shell without variegated markings, and the
larger terrapins, collectively often known as river terrapins, yellow-
bellies, sliders or cooters, which have the shell almost invariably wrin-
kled or keeled or both. The former rarely attain a length of over
five inches, the latter are from eight inches to a foot or more long
when adult.

1920] TURTLES OF NorTH CAROLINA 65

The small pond terrapins include only three of our species, the
speckled terrapin in which the head and shell are marked with round,
yellow dots, the mountain terrapin with the yellow markings confined
to a yellowish patch on each side of the head just behind the eye, and
finally the painted turtle in which the shell has red markings around
the edges of the shell. The latter is the larger, attaining a length of
five inches when adult, the other two not reaching more than four.
The first and last are present in the greater part of our State, the
mountain terrapin, in or near the mountain region only.

Of the larger terrapins we get five species of sliders proper, the
long-necked chicken turtle and the diamond-back terrapin, the last
being a salt marsh species.

The sliders are the largest of the group, some of them attaining a
length of over a foot in the shell and a weight of ten pounds. The
various species inhabit ponds and large streams and are most plentiful
in the Mississippi Valley and the southeastern States.

I cannot say much as to the habits of this group, but of the two
species which formerly constituted our Raleigh representatives, one
(Pseudemys concinna) seemed to be more herbivorous in its habits,
and the other (P. scripta), more omnivorous, eating flesh as well as
plants.

The species are keeled when quite young, and the known young of
all species with which I am acquainted are beautifully variegated with
yellow and brown or green. Older specimens lose the keel and much
of the color pattern disappears, so that many species look totally dif-
ferent when young than when adult.

_ The chicken turtle enters our list on account of its being recorded
from Beaufort in Barbour and Stegneger’s Cheek List. Of the habits
of the animal in nature I know nothing but it differs in some respects
from all our other turtles. The neck is very long, awkwardly long
in fact, the shell is high and narrow, but rounded above, not keeled
and the color pattern is a large meshed net work of narrow yellow lines
on a brown ground. On dissecting out a specimen another marked dif-
ference appears, the free portion of the ribs (between the vertebrae
and the costal plates) is long, slender and rounded instead of being
short, broad and flat as in all our other turtles.

The diamond-back terrapin, the terrapin of the restaurants, 1s a
salt marsh species, found only along the coast and may be recognized
by the keeled shelis and by the concentric lines on each plate from

on

66 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

which it gets its name. While the article of diet known as terrapin
should come from this species, yet as a matter of fact the sliders are
also to a large extent shipped to market, though, so far I know,
not from this State,

One more group of turtles may be alluded to, namely, the soft-
shells, which occur in the Mississippi Valley and the Southeastern
States, but have not as yet been recorded from North Carolina.

They have flat, orbicular bodies, a long neck, and a long pig-
shaped snout, and though the edges of the lips are fleshy, yet within are
sharp-cutting edges which can inflict a painful wound. The species
grow to a larger size than any of our inland turtles except the snap-
per, and are wholly carnivorous in diet.

Little has been said about the recorded distribution of our species
and actually but little is known.

Raleigh, as usual, furnishes the best records, with 7 species, Beau-
fort comes next with 4 marine and 7 inland forms, while no other
locality (except Lake Ellis with 6 and Greensboro and Chapel Hill
with 4 each) gives us records of more than one or two species.

Yet we may reasonably infer that excepting the mountain terrapin,
which is confined to the mountains, and the diamond-back, which is a
salt-marsh species of the coast, our prevailing forms must range from
the edge of the mountains to the coast, though some of the sliders
probably are only found in the eastern half of the State and the status
of a few is quite problematical.

A key to practically all eastern turtles follows, by eastern, I mean
forms that are found east of the Mississippi, excluding the strictly
Mississippi Valley species. The key will probably enable a tolerably
intelligent person to identify most of the forms included with rea-
sonable accuracy.

Species already recorded from North Carolina are preceded by a
serial number, the rest are in italics and unnumbered, and the name
is followedby the name of State nearest to North Carolina in which
the species has been taken.

KEY TO THE TURTLES OF THE EASTERN UNITED STATES

1. Limbs long, flat and paddle like: front lmbs with not more
than two claws each. Marine turtles. See 2.

1. Limbs not paddle like, front limbs with three or more claws
on each. Land and Freshwater Turtles. See 6.

1920] TURTLES OF NORTH CAROLINA 67

2. Shell without horny plates, covered with a black leathery skin,
and with seven longitudinal ridges down back. (1) Leatherback Sea
Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea),.

2. Shell with horny plates without longitudinal ridges. See 3.

3. Carapace mottled with yellow, and covered with loosely over-
lapping plates. Hawksbill Sea Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata).
Tropical and subtropical seas.

3. Carapace with smooth, not overlapping, plates. See 4.

4. Claws on front limbs one each, carapace mottled with yellow.
(2) Green Sea Turtle (Chelonia mydas).

4. Claws on front limbs two each, carapace without yellow mot-
tling. See 5d.

5. Plates on under side of bridge three. (3) Loggerhead Sea Turtle
(Ca etta caretta).

5. Plates on under side of bridge four. (4) Bastard Turtle (Ca-
retta kempi).

6. Shell covered with horny plates. See 7.

6. Shell covered with a leathery skin, form flattened and orbicular.
Soft-shelled Turtles (Family Trionychidae). See 37.

7. Plastron narrow, cross-shaped, the plates of its central portion
nine. Snapping Turtles (Family Chelydridae). See 8.

7. Plastron not narrow and cross shaped, its plates more than
nine, See 9.

8. Under surface of tail with small scales: carapace with three
strong keels at all ages. Alligator Snapper (Macrohelys temminckii),
Georgia.

8. Under surface of tail with rather large plates, carapace with-
out strong keels in adult. (5) Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpen-
tina).

9. Plastron with ten or eleven plates: front and hind portions
of plastron hinged on fixed central portion and capable of partially
closing the shell. Mud Turtles (Family Kinosternidae). See 10.

9. Plastron with twelve plates: plastron not as in the mud turtles.
(Family Testudinidae). See 15.

10. Plastron comparatively small, hind portion capable of little
movement, pectoral plate trapezoidal. Musk Turtles. See 11.

68 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

10. Plastron comparatively large, both hind and front parts
moveable, pectoral plate subtriangular. Mud Turtles proper. See 12.

11. Head without yellow stripes: shell strongly keeled at all ages.
Keeled Musk Turtle (Winosternon carinatum), Georgia.

11. Head with yellow stripes, at least when young, shell not
keeled in adult. (6) Musk Turtle (Ainosternon odoratum).

12. Carapace with three longitudinal yellow stripes: head with
yellow stripes. Baur’s Mud Turtle (Hinosternon bauri), Florida.

12. Carapace without stripes. See 13.

13. Head with yellow stripes. Louisiana Mud Turtle (Kinoster-
non subrubrum hippocrepis), Georgia.

13. Neither carapace nor head with stripes. See 14.

14. Plastron rather small, bridge very narrow, nasal shield deeply
notched behind. Florida Mud Turtle (Atinosternon steindachnert),
Florida.

14. Plastron and bridge of normal size, nasal shield not notched
behind. (7) Common Mud Turtle (Ainosternon subrubrum | pensil-
vanicum |).

15. Plastron in two pieces, both movable on a transverse hinge,
and joined to the carapace by a cartilaginous suture. See 16.

15. Plastron in one solid piece, joined to the carapace by a bony
bridge. See 19.

16. Hind feet fully webbed; shell rather long and narrow, eara-
pace with small yellow dots. Blanding’s Turtle (Hmys blandingz),
Ohio.

16. Shell short and high, hind feet little or not at all webbed.
Terrestrial species, Box Turtles. See 17.

17. Quadratojugal arch present. Shell usually with narrow ra-
diating lines on each plate. Hind feet somewhat webbed. Gulf Box
(Terrapene major), Georgia.

17. Quadratojugal arch absent. Carapace with large yellow
spots, or broad radiating stripes, or unmarked. See 18.

18. Claws on hind feet three each. Three-Toed Box Turtle
(Terrapene carolina triunguis), Georgia.

18. Claws on hind feet four each. (8) Common Box Turtle (Ter-
rapene carolina).

1920] TurRTLES OF NorTH CAROLINA 69

19. Limbs thick and club-shaped, hind limbs the smallest. Shell
with concentric striae on the plates, but not keeled. Terrestrial and
burrowing in habits. Gopher Turtle (Gopherus polyphemus), South
Carolina.

19. Limbs not eclub-shaped, hind limbs usually the largest. See 20.

20. Masticating surface of jaws narrow. See 21.

20. Masticating surface of jaws broad. See 23.

21. Shell with concentric striae on the plates, giving each plate a
lumpy appearance. Shell keeled. Terrestrial. Wood Terrapin
(Clemmys insculptus), New Jersey.

21. Shell smooth without striae or keel. Shell four inches or
less. See 22.

22. Head and carapace with smail round yellow spots. (9)
Spotted Terrapin (Clemmys guttatus).

22. Carapace and head without round yellow spots, a yellow
patch on each side of neck.

(10) Mountain Terrapin (Clemmys nuchalis),
Muhlenberg’s Terrapin (Clemmys muhlenberg), N. J.

23. Masticating surface of jaws with longitudinal ridge down
middle. See 24.

23. Masticating surface of jaws without longitudinal ridge; shell
keeled. See 34.

24. Head and neck when extended about two-thirds length of
shell, shell high and narrow, with a reticulated pattern of narrow
yellow lines in large mesh. (11) Chicken Turtle (Deirochelys «eticu-
laria). 5

24. Head and neck not more than half leneth of shell. See 25.

25. Size comparatively small, usually not more than five inches
in length of shell, shell smooth, no variegated markings on large
plates of carapace, Shell with red markings around the edge. See 26.

25. Size comparatively large, adults from five inches to a foot
or more in length of shell. Large plates of carapace usually with
variegated markings. Plates of shell usually with longitudinal
wrinkles. See 27.

26. Costal plates in line with the vertebrals so that the plates are
in straight rows across the shell. (12) Painted Turtle (Chrysemys
picta).

70 JOURNAL OF THE MitTcHELL Society | September

26. Costal plates altering with vertebrals. Western Painted
Turtle (Chrysemys cinerea), New York.

27. Edge of one or both jaws serrated. See 28.

27. Both jaws with smooth edges. Plastron with more or less
black. See 32.

28. Both jaws serrated, with a notch at the symphisis of upper
jaw and a strong tooth or cusp on each side of it. See 29.

28. Lower jaw only serrated, no notch or tooth at tip of upper
jaw. Plastron wholly yellow. See 30.

29. Carapace red and black, plastron red. (13) Redbelled Ter-
rapin (Pseudemys rubriventris).

29. Carapace as above, plastron yellow and brown. Alabama
Terrapin (Pseudemys aiabamensis), Alabama.

30. Carapace smooth, head very small. Hieroglyphic Terrapin
(Pseudemys hieroglyphica), Tennessee.

30. Carapace with wrinkles on the costal plates. See 31.

p

31. Shell comparatively short and high, markings on costal plates
mainly transverse. (14) Florida Terrapin (Pseudemys floridanus).

31. Shell comparatively long and flat, markings on costal plates
confused or reticulated. (15) River Terrapin (Pseudemys concinna).

31. Shell with an evident keel at all ages. An upright yellow
bar behind eye. Black markings of plastron consisting of a roundish
black spot on each of the two front plates (sometimes on all or nearly
of the plates). (16) Yellow-belliied Terrapin (Pseudemys scripta).

32. Shell usually not keeled except in the very young. Black
markings of plastron usually more extensive and elongate. See 33.

33. An oval red spot behind eye, and conspicuous yellow lines on
head, neck and limbs. Red-Necked Terrapin (Pseudemys elegans),
Tennessee.

33. No red spot behind eye, markings on head neck and limbs
obscure or lacking. (17) Troost’s Terrapin (Pseudemys troosti).

34. Shell with concentric striae on the plates. Salt marsh species.
See 35.

30. Keel of each vertebral plate knobbed at tip. Southern Dia-
mond-Back Terrapin (Malaclemmys pileata), and subspecies, Florida.

1920] TurTLES OF NorTH CAROLINA 71

35. Keels of the vertebrals not knobbed. (18) Diamond-Back
Terrapin (Malaclemmys centrata) and subspecies.

36. Keel of shell even, not tuberculate. A triangular yellow spot
behind each eye. Map Terrapin (Graptemys geographicus), Virginia.

36. Keels of vertebrals rising into knobs or tubercles on each
plate, an L-shaped yellow spot behind eye. Lesueur’s Terrapin
(Graptemys pseudo-geographicus), Virginia.

37. Shell with tubercles in front in adult. See 38.

37. Shell without tubercles in front in adult. Brown Soft-
Shelled Turtle (Amyda mutica), Ohio.

38. Pale lines on top of head united just in front of eyes.
Southern Soft-Shelled Turtle (Amyda ferox), South Carolina.

38. Pale lines on top of head united near tip of snout. Spiny
Soft-Shelled Turtle (Amyda spinifera), Ohio.

RaLeicH, N. C.

A LITTLE-KNOWN VETCH DISEASE.
By FREDERICK A. WOLF.
PLATES 2-6
INTRODUCTION

In the spring of 1918, a diseased condition of vetch was noted to
be quite abundantly present upon the several species growing in the
vicinity of West Raleigh, N. C., and in the following season, it was
so destructive to hairy vetch, Vicia villosa, that the plants were practi-
eally all killed before they had reached the flowering stage. Since
hairy vetch is the species most widely grown within the State as a
winter cover crop and as a feed crop to be utilized either for grazing or
for hay, this disease is to be regarded as of considerable economie im-
portance. All parts of the plant above ground were affected in a
manner quite characteristically different from any of the several dis-
eases which had previously come under the writer’s observation. It
soon became apparent, from microscopic examination, however, that
the disease was identical with one which had first been collected in the
summer of 1907 on the horticultural grounds of Cornell University,
Ithaca, N. Y. Since two concise mycological notes’ containing brief
descriptions of the appearance of the disease and of the structure
of the casual organism, comprise the only publications dealing with
this malady, investigations were forthwith begun, It is the present
purpose, therefore, to report upon these studies, which have been
conducted during the past three seasons, as a contribution to our
knowledge of the distribution, symptomatology and dissemination of
this disease and of the life history and structure of the pathogen.

DISTRIBUTION

It has thus far not been possible to secure any considerable body
of data on the distribution of the disease either within the State or
within other States where species of vetch are cultivated. It has been
collected in North Carolina, however, within the counties of Forsythe,
Rowan, Montgomery, Granville, Wayne, and Wake and has been
observed’ by Mr. Roland McKee, Bureau of Plant Industry, Office of

1 Atkinson, G. F., and Egerton, C. W. Protocoronospora, a new genus of fungi. Jour.
Mycol. 13; p. 185-186, 1907. Preliminary note on a new disease of the cultivated
vetch. Sci. N. S. 26; No. 664, p. 385-386, 1907.

2From a letter to the writer, dated May 23, 1919.

[ 72 ]

1920] A Littte Known VetcH Disease 73

Forage Crop Investigations, Washington, D. C., to oceur in South
Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Tennessee.
Even though the disease was first collected in New York as long ago
as 1907, plant pathologists generally are not familiar with it and speci-
mens have, for this reason, not found their way into the several large
herbaria. Since the disease has not received a common name, and has
the appearance of an anthracnose, it is, in this account, designated as
false anthracnose.

APPEARANCE OF THE DISEASE

False anthracnose can first be noticed during November and De-
cember when the plants are still smal]. A brownish discoloration
which completely girdles the stems of the seedlings is at this time
manifest. This discoloration begins near the surface of the soil and
extends upward. The main stem becomes dwarfed in consequence
and is soon surpassed in size by other shoots which develop below
the lesions. In other cases, the main stem is so severely involved that
it dies or the entire plant may succumb. The disease may be observed
at any time during winter but makes little progress until spring. It
then spreads rapidly upward upon the stem, producing characteristic,
short, dark-brown to blackish streaks, Fig. 25, which may remain
isolated or become so abundant as to quite uniformly discolor all of
the invaded portions. Young stem lesions are at first grayish in color
and their change through light brown to dark brown or black is due
to the pigmentation of the mycelium within the cortical cells. Young
stems are killed early in the season whereas older woody ones may live
to maturity. The leaves, including stipules, petioles and leaflets, are
successively involved, beginning with the lowermost. The lesions,
except upon the leaflets, are entirely similar in outline to those upon
the stems and pass progressively through the same changes in color.
Those upon the leaflets may remain minute and circular with a
tendency toward being most numerous along the principal veins or
may appear as elongated, dark streaks. Affected leaflets are pale
green in color, especially when several hundred spots develop upon
a single leaflet, and become markedly chlorotic before the lesions
attain their mature depth of color, Fig. 24. They eventually become
dry and fall off.

The mature spots on the legumes or pods are so strikingly dis-
tinctive that there is no difficulty in distinguishing false anthracnose

74 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [| September

of vetch from any other of the diseases of this plant. Young lesions
are at first manifest as irregular purplish discolorations. The middle
line of these discolored areas becomes whitish following the rupture
of the epidermis by the acervulus or fruit-body of the fungus, Fig. 27.
The mass of spores which comes out may give to the center of the
spot a pale pink or salmon color. With age, the whitish portions of
the lesions become black and the purplish halo disappears as the
pods become dry. Mature lesions appear as black, elliptical or elon-
gated oblique spots, Fig. 28, their direction being no doubt due to
the oblique fibrous structure of the pod.

ETIOLOGY

False anthracnose is caused by an organism, Protocoronospora
nigricans, which was described, in 1907, by Atkinson and Edgerton
as the type of a new genus. Since, during the writer’s studies, this
fungus was found to possess certain characters, to be described later
in this report, which are common to the true anthracnoses, compari-
son was made with the several species of Gloeosporium occurring on
vetch, Specimens of the two American species, Gloeosporium Daviswi
E. et E. and G. Everhartii Sace. et Syd., which occur on the legumes
and on the leaves respectively of Vicia americana were loaned through
the courtesy of Dr, J. J. Davis, Madison, Wisconsin, by whom they
were first collected. The latter species was first described as G. ameri-
canum E, et E*., a combination which had been earlier employed for
a fungus occurring on Arauja albens (deseribed from Argentina by
Spegazzini in Fungi Arg. Pug. II,, p. 36). Even though these two
species differ in size of conidia, they will probably be found to be iden-
tical when submitted to cultural and inoculation tests. Certainly
they are distinct from the organism under consideration.

A form which oceurs on stems of Vicia cracca in France and was
described! as G. viciae Fautrey et Roum. is also very different and
beyond doubt is identical with Myrosporium viciae Fautrey. There
is furthermore no chance of confusing Protocoronospora mgricans
with G. tricolor Lind which produces a ‘‘frog-eye’’ leafspot disease of
Vicia cracca in Denmark.’

3 Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1893, p. 167. :

4Fungi exsiccati precipue Gallici Centurie LV. Revue Mycologique annee 12, 1890,
p. 168.

5 Annales Mycol. 5: p. 277, 1907.

~]
or

1920] A Lirtne Known VetcuH DISEASE

MorpHo.oGy oF Protocoronospora nigricans

As was indicated in the preliminary accounts by Atkinson and
Edgerton, this fungus presents some very interesting structural fea-
tures. They call attention, furthermore, to the fact that the gross
appearance of the disease, the character of the fruit body, the pale
pink or flesh color of the spores in mass, and their appearance when
hastily examined under the microscope suggest the genus Gloespor-
ium. Since, however, they found that the spores are borne at the
apices of the conidiophores not singly, but in whorls and that these
spores on germination bud in yeast-like fashion, characters not pos-
sessed by anthracnoses, they believed that the fungus resembled most
nearly, the thelephoraceous genus, Corticium, and consequently placed
it there in their provisional diagnosis. They did not find opportunity,
however, to make a critical study of its morphology.

Methods—In the present investigation, use was made of cultures,
of fresh material and of appropriately fixed and stained microtome
sections. For the latter purpose, portions of stems, pods, and leaves
were fixed in medium strength chromo-acetie acid solution and stained
with Flemming’s triple stain according to the shortened method rec-
ommended by Harper. The most satisfactory preparations showing
the cytological features were secured when safranin was allowed to
act 1-2 minutes, gentian violet 10-20 minutes and orange G. 20-30 see-
onds. Many of the details of the manner of penetration of the host
and of the development and structure of the acervuli could be sat-
isfactorily studied by microscopic examination of the epidermis
stripped from fresh material.

The germination of the conidia and their development into colonies
could be followed by repeated examinations of marked conidia planted
upon the surface of hardened agar plate cultures. For this purpose,
conidia were transferred from a lesion to a drop of sterile water on
a microsepoie slide. A loopful of this suspension of conidia was trans-
ferred to one edge of the agar plate and spread over its surface with
a zigzag stroke toward the opposite edge. No effort was made to
sterilize the surface of the lesion and in consequence mixed cultures
containing bacteria were always secured. The bacteria and conidia
were sufficiently well separated toward the ultimate end of the stroke,
however, to permit the isolation of single spore cultures or their de-
velopment and study in situ. .

76 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society [ September

Acervulus—The acervuli are either isolated or variously grouped
and are always subepidermal in origin, Fig. 21. They open to the
surface by the rupture of the epidermis in the form of a slit through
which the conidia escape, or by an irregularly lacerate opening.

The stroma upon which the acervulus is seated usually extends
5 to 4 host cell layers in depth and is made up of compact pseudopar-
anchyma which is at first colorless and becomes with age brown to
blackish, Fig. 13. This stroma completely occupies the interior of the
host cells without apparent modification of their cell walls. The
nourishing mycelium extends radiately from the periphery of the
stroma, Fig. 21, and is confined for the most part to the epidermal
and hypodermal cells. It has never been observed to be intercellular
and cells whose cavities are practically filled with mycelium contain
apparently normal intact nuclei. The hyphae composing this
mycelium are also hyaline at first, but darken at maturity.
Since the mycelium does not penetrate the xylem tissues there is in-
sufficient interference with the conduction of water to prevent the
tips of the plant from growing, even when the stems are involved for
the greater part of their length.

The conidiophores arise within the epidermal cells and by their
elongation rupture the cuticle which persists for a time as a frayed
border at the margin of the acervulus. They are compactly arranged
and in section appear palisade-like. They are cylindrical to clavate.
in shape and quite variable in size, averaging 20-30 x 6-84. Those
which are more slender are believed to be the structures which were
interpreted by Atkinson and Edgerton as conidiophores intermingled
with the basidia.

The conidia are borne in a whorl or crown at the apex of the
conidiophore, Fig. 1, 6, 9, 10 and 17. They are not formed on sterig-
mata, but arise as protrusions from the apical wall of the conidio-
phore. As they are abstricted, others are formed in their places, re-
sulting in the formation of a mass of conidia which may ooze out
of the mouth of the acervulus. The conidia are oklong to subelliptiecal,
straight or curved, continuous, hyaline, granular and measure 12-20
x 3-3.5p, Fig. 2.

The setae are irregularly disposed through the acervul, Fig. 13.
They are very abundantly present on young vetch stems and can
readily be distinguished with a hand lens. They are only sparingly
present on old stems, however, and one may not be able to determine

1920] A LirtLeE Known Vetcu DisrAse We

their presence without access to serial sections of material embedded in
paraffin. Setae on leaf lesions can best be demonstrated by stripping
off the epidermis and making examination with the microscope, Fig.
21. Here acervuli will be found which have as few as a single seta or
even none, whereas adjacent acervuli bear as many as six to eight.
Setae have not been observed on affected pods, aithough many serial
microtome sections of young and mature lesions have been studied.
Since the setae do not stand perpendicular to the leaf surface, it
would be difficult to get an entire seta in vertical section and they may,
for this reason, have escaped detection. Furthermore, their presence
in the genus Colletotrichum is known to be so variable that it is entirely
possible that they are never formed in pod lesions. These seta are
from two to three times the length of the conidiophores, are brown in
color, either one-celled or at most, one-septate and gradually taper to
a blunt point.

NUCLEAR PHENOMENA

Since Protocoronospora was provisionally placed in the Thelepho-
raceae, a family in the order Hymenomycetineae whose members pos-
sess basidia which are binucleate in the young condition and which
arise from binucleate cells in-the subhymenium, it was believed that
a study of the nuclear conditions in this parasite would be of prime im-
portance in determining its systematic position. Certain hymeno-
mycetes have, of course, been described the cells of whose carpophores,
except the hymenial portions, and the nutritive mycelium were either
uninucleate or multinucleate.”

Accordingly lesions on stems, which were found to be more favor-
able for study than those on other parts of the plant, were sectioned
and stained with Flemming’s triple stain in a manner previously
stated. The nuclei were found to vary greatly in size, a condition
which has been noted in many other fungi. The largest nuclei measure
about 3p in diameter and are most easily observed in the cells at the
periphery of the acervulus, either within the epidermis or within
the more deeply lying host tissue. Here the hyphal cells are found to
contain one to five nuclei (Figs. 14 and 16), The conidiophores and
stromatic cells directly beneath them are found to possess consider-
ably smaller, more numerous nuclei, since as many as twelve is not

®An excellent review of this situation with a bibliography of all of the-important con-
tributions to the subject is contained in a recent paper by Fitzpatrick, H. M. Crytology
of Eocronartium musicola. Am. Jour. Bot. 5: No. 8, pp. 399-419, Pls. 30-33, 1918.

78 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHELL Society | September

an unusual number (Fig, 17). The conidia were likewise multinu-
cleate but none with more than three nuclei have been observed (Fig.
15). Whether the nuclei in conidia containing more than one nucleus
had arisen by mitosis following abstriction of the conidium from the
conidiophore or had migrated into the conidium before it had become
separated, could not be determined. It is entirely lkely, however.

that multinucleate conidia arise from both conditions.

GERMINATION OF CONIDIA AND GROWTH IN CULTURE.

The organism causing false anthracnose has been isolated several
times in each of the three seasons during which it has been studied.
It has been cultivated on plain agar, dextrose agar, and vetch decoc-
tion agar, on sterilized vetch stems, steamed vetch seed meal, corn meal
and tapioca. On each of these media, the isolated colonies remain
small and black and are of the type shown in Figs. 22 and 23. When
the cultures are heavily seeded with conidia, a compact black mycelial
erust is formed over the surface. ‘

The conidia are extremely variable in their method of germina-
tion. The most common method is budding in a yeast-like fashion,
Figs. 1 and 4, so that the tertiary sporidia may be observed to be
still connected seriatim with the parent conidia. These buds arise
terminally or more rarely as lateral projections, The conidia may be-
come once septate early in germination (Figs. 3 and 5) and may de-
velop one or more germ tubes similar to the anthracnoses.

The cells of the parent conidium may become enlarged and brown
walled within 48 hours and develop a rudimentary mycelium, Figs. 6
and 11. This mycelium may be so reduced that the original parent
cells function both as mycelium and conidiophores, Figs. 6 and .9,
in which case new conidia are formed as terminal buds. Quite an
extensive, thick, closely septate, brown mycelium forms in other cases
which may remain sterile, bud sparingly from lateral conidiophores,
Fig. 10, or produce masses of conidia, Fig. 9. All the types of germina-
tion and growth illustrated in Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10 and 11 have been
observed in the same vetch decoction agar plate, made by sowing the
conidia on the surface of the agar. Conidia taken directly from
acervuli have been found to be budding. In old eultures, abnormal
conidia of the types shown in Fig. 7 may occur,

When the conidia are sown on the leaves of hairy vetch, they will
within 48 hours, have become once septate, formed a slender tube

1920] A Littte Known VetcH DISEASE 79

leading to a brown ovoid appresorium and penetration will have been
accomplished, Figs. 18, 19, and 20. The infection tube arises from
the lower side of the appresorium and effects entrance into the ep
dermis by dissolution of the cell wall. This process was observed
several times in 1919 and confirmed during the present season. The
mycelium then grows rapidly into adjacent cells and forms a new
acervulus at the locus of infection. Within three to four days after
infection has occurred, new acervuli have matured and are shedding
their conidia, Fig. 21.

Lire HIstTory oF THE CAUSAL ORGANISM

The false anthracnose fungus possesses only one type of repro-
ductive structure which in the vicinity of Raleigh, N. C., may be
produced at any time during the life of its host, or from early in
November until the first of July. The organism bearing mature acer-
vuli and conidia has been collected during each month of this eight-
month period. It is first evident upon the seedling plants and may
cause the outer cortical portions of the stems to be blackened to a
height of several inches above the surface of the ground, without,
however, invading the xylem portions. The disease makes little prog-
ress during winter, however, and only develops rapidly with the ad-
vent of favorable conditions which appear usually about the middle of
April, It then spreads upward and involves all of the above-ground
parts including the pods. Here it usually does not extend more
deeply than the skeletal or supportive tissue of the pod wall, Fig. 8,
but it may penetrate into the young seed. In case of severe infections
such as occurred in 1919, the seed are prevented from developing. Le-
sions on young seeds show as discolored areas which are not noticeable,
however, when the seed have matured. If mature seed taken from
directly beneath lesions on the pod wall, are soaked in equal parts of
alcohol and glycerin for several months to permit them to soften, and
are sectioned, the hyphae or Protocoronospora will be found to have
permeated all parts of the seed. Such an infected seed is shown in
section in Fig. 12. The palisade-like cells of the young seed repre-
sented in Fig. 8-d, have become the Malphigian layer, Fig. 12-a,
whose outer cell walls are thickened and show a highly refractive
“‘light line.”*” Beneath is the scleroid layer subjacent to which is the

7An illuminating account of the structure of legume seeds to which the reader is
referred was prepared by Pammel, L. H. Anatomical characters of the seeds of Legu-
minoseae, chiefly genera of Gray’s Manual. Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 9; No. 6, pp.
91-273, pls. 7-35. 1899.

80 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

vestigal nucellar tissue. The hyphae will be noted to be present in all
of these tissues which make up the seed coat and to extend into the
storage tissues of the cotyledons beneath, Fig. 12-e.

The initiation of the disease in fields not previously seeded to vetch
is due to the planting of infected seed. This is supported by field
observations during the past two seasons and by an experiment
planned to determine this point. Seed from affected pods were col-
lected by the writer in the spring of 1918, and were sown in a new
field. By April 15th of the following spring, the plants were abun-
dantly diseased.

The organism can remain alive during summer on old affected
parts which undoubtedly serve as a source of infection where vetch
is permitted to reseed itself. No evidence has been secured that the
organism possesses any other than the conidal stage although repeated
examination has been made throughout the entire year of material
kept out of doors in wire baskets. Were an ascigerous stage formed,
it is not believed that it could have escaped detection. Furthermore,
reproduction by conidia alone has occurred in cultures on the various
media previously mentioned. Some of these cultures have been main-
tained for an entire year without transfer but with the addition of
sterile water to replace that lost to evaporation.

INFECTION EXPERIMENTS

The organism is such a virulent parasite, as indicated by field
observations, that little attention has been given to infection experi-
ments except to study the manner of infection. Three series of inocu-
lations were effected, however, upon plants grown in the greenhouse.
Two were made with a crude inoculum consisting of the water in which
diseased plants had been washed. This water was atomized upon
healthy plants and characteristic lesions developed within ten days.
The other was made with pure cultures of the organism grown on
agar. A watery suspension of conidia was in this case applied with
an atomizer to healthy plants on May 19. The plants were then
shaded for 24 hours with a sheet of paper. By May 29 acervuli had
matured on the stems and leaves of these inoculated plants.

Host PLANTS

Protocoronospora nigricans appears to be limited to species of
Vicia. It has been observed to be very destructive to Vicia sativa

1920] A Lirtte Known VetcH DISEASE 81

and V. villosa although V. angustifolia and V. dasycarpa are very re-
sistant to attack. This last-named species has been observed, for two
seasons, to grow to maturity practically free from disease although
it was intertwined with hairy vetch so severely affected that it failed
to form pods. The growing of Vicia dasycarpa, a species with appar-
ently all of the good characteristics of hairy vetch but which matures
a little earlier, instead of V. villosa, gives promise, therefore, of being
the most satisfactory way of combatting this disease.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Attention was called, as has been stated, by Atkinson and Edger-
ton in their preliminary report, to two characters possessed by the
vetch organism which inclined them to believe that it was related to
Corticium. These characters were the simultaneous formation of
several spores from a basidium and the germination of these spores
by budding. No special significance was attached by these investiga-
tors to the observation that the spores were sessile and that new spores
were formed in place of those which had fallen away, although the
presence of sterigmata and of a definite number of spores are known
to be characters commonly present among the Basidiomycetes. Germ-
ination by budding appears to be not uncommon however, in both
Hemibasidii and Eubasidii. Whatever may be said of these diagnostic
characters, they should not be regarded as of as much importance in
determining whether or not the organism is an Hymenomycete as the
multinucleate character of the mycelium, conidia and conidiophores,
a phenomenon not known among the basidium-bearing fungi. Because
of this multinucleate condition, the organism is certainly not to be re-
garded as a member of the great group of fungi, Basidiomycetes.

Several characters, including the gross appearance of the spots,
the pale pink color of the spores in mass, the structure and type of
development of the acervulus, the presence of setae, the formation of
appresoria when conidia germinate on the host, and germination of
the type shown in Figs. 3 and 5, suggest its relationship to the form
genus Colletotrichum. The conidia in the anthracnoses are borne
singly at the end of the conidiophore whereas the vetch organism
forms a number simultaneously. Some of the anthracnoses in eul-
ture, because of the more or less glutinous nature of the conidia, are
known to give the hyphomycetous appearance shown in Figs. 6, 9,
and 10. Furthermore, none of the anthracnoses normally bud, as

82 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

does the vetch fungus. Viala and Pacottet” claim to have observed
budding in Gloeosporium nervisequum on sycamore but an examina-
tion of their figures indicates that they must have been working with
contaminated cultures. Such a criticism has, in fact, been offered by
several investigators, including Shear.” These last two characters are
sufficiently distinetive to leave no reason for regarding the vetch
fungus as an anthracnose.

In the writer’s opinion the genus, Protocoronospora, with its
single species, nigricans, should properly be transferred to the Melan-
coniales, It is realized that the various genera in the Fungi Imperfecti
are arranged artificially and not phyllogenetically and that it is, there-
fore, difficult to properly relate the vetch organism. Under this arti-
ficial scheme, Protocoronospora should probably be placed near Colle-
totrichum. Perhaps some other student of this interesting organism
will be able to find an ascigerous stage and thus to know its true
relationship.

The following brief Latin description is given and involves the
changes necessary in the transfer from the Thelephoraceae to the
Melanconiaceae.

Protocoronospora Emend.

Acervulis innato-erumpentibus, in stromate pseudoparenchymatico,
ex 2-5 stratis cellularum constituto insidientibus, ramuli myeelici ul-
timi conidiphora efformatibus; setulis atro brunneis; conidia ses-
siles, hyalina incolora, continua, leves, plures (plurumque 4-8), ex
germinatione conidia conformia efformantes.

Protocoronospora Nigricans Atk. et Edg. Emend.

Plagulis angustis in legumibus foliis caulibusque, 2-5 mm. long.,
1-2 mm. latis; primum irregulariter purpurascentibus, centro albi-
cantibus v. purpureo cinctis, deinde nigricantibus; stromate sub-
epidermatico e cellularis 6-9 diam, constituto; setulis paucis v. numer-
osis, continuis v. uniseptatis atro-brunneis, 60-90 x 5-7; conidiophoris
ex clavato subeylindraceis, 20-30 x 5-6, plurisporis; conidiis sessil-
ibus ex conidiophoris conidia nova continuo gignentibus; conidiis
in massa roseolis, ex oblongo ellipsoideis, granulosis, rectis vel eury-
ulis, 12-20 x 3-5.5p.

8 Viala, P. and Pacottet, P., Levures et Kystes des Gloeosporium. Ann. Inst. Nat.
Agron. V. 5: Fasc. 1, p. 31-73, Figs. 32, Paris, 1906.

®Shear, C. L. and Wood, Anna Kk. Studies of fungous parasites belonging to the
genus Glomerella. U. S. D. A. Bur. Plant Ind. Bul. 252, pp. 11-110, Figs. 4, Pls. 1-18, 1913.

1920] A Lirrtte Known Vetcu DIsEAse 83

Hab. parasitice in Vicia sativa, V. villosa, V. angustifolia et V.
dasycarpa. Amer. bor.

An abundant supply of diseased material has been deposited in
the herbaria of the Missouri Botanical Garden and the Office of Myeco-
logical Collections, Bureau of Plant Industry.

In conelusion, the writer wishes to express his appreciation and
thanks to Dr. C. L. Shear, Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington,
D. C., and Dr. E. A. Burt, Missouri Botanical Gardens, St. Louis,
Mo., for their opinions and suggestions, given after examination of
material, as to the taxonomy of this interesting fungus.

SUMMARY

A vetch disease previously little known has been under investiga-
tion during the past three years.

It was first collected at Ithaca, New York, in 1907 and is now
known to occur also in North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia,
Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Tennessee.

The disease is caused by Protocoronospora nigricans and since its
eross appearance suggests an anthracnose, it may be appropriately
called false anthracnose.

Dark brown to black, elongated lesions may appear upon any of
the above-ground parts of the plant. Pod lesions are especially char-
acteristic since they are oblique to the margin of the pod.

The disease is initiated in new fields by the planting of infected
seed. This is demonstrated by the occurrence of hyphae within the
seed and by the appearance of the disease on seedling plants in fields
not previously seeded to vetch.

The fruit bodies of the parasite are subepidermal in origin and
possess setae, and a number of conidia are borne simultaneously at the
apices of the conidiophores. As these conidia fall away, new ones form
in their places. The conidia germinate in a yeast-like fashion, by sep-
tation and the formation of germ tubes, by developing a thickened,
short mycelium from which conidia are budded, and by the formation
of appresoria from which the infection tubes arise.

It has not been possible to develop an ascigerous stage either in
culture or upon affected plant parts kept out of doors.

All parts of the organism are multinucleate and primarily for this
reason, it is not believed to be related to Corticium, a thelephoraceous
fungus. It is believed to be more nearly like Colletotrichum, one of

84 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

the Melanconiceae and is accordingly transferred to this family of
imperfect fungi.

Vicia sativa and V, villosa become severely affected under condi-
tions in which V. angustifolia and V. dasycarpa remain practically
free from disease.

WEstT RaeicH, N. C.

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES
PLATE 2

Figs 1-7 and 9-11 inclusive, are drawn to the same scale.

Fig. 1. Copy of unpublished camera lucida drawings of Protocoronospora nigri-
cans, made by Dr. C. W. Edgerton in 1907. The conidiophores show several
stages of conidial formation in whorls at the apex. The formation of
yeast-like buds upon germination of conidia is also illustrated.

Fie. 2. Normal conidia of Protocoronospora nigricans taken from diseased
vetch.

Fic. 3. Germination of conidia in hanging drops of tap water in which vetch
stems have been macerated. Septation and the formation of one or more
germ tubes is shown.

Fic. 4. The usual type of germination by budding as occurs in tap water,
plain agar or various kinds of nutrient agar, 24 to 48 hours old.

Fie. 5. A type of germination not uncommon on a variety of nutrient agar.

Fic. 6. In agar cultures in which certain conidia germinate as in Figs. 4 and
5, others form a thickened, short mycelium which sporulates terminally or
from lateral branches.

Fic. 7. Abnormal conidia as appear in old cultures on corn meal.

Fic. 8. Vertical section through a lesion on young vetch pod.

(a) Conidia, conidiophores and fungous stroma;

(b) Hypodermal parenchyma occupied by intracellular mycelium;

(ec) Selerenchyma tissue of pod wall;

(d) Embryonic cells of the younger seed. The palisade-like cells be-
come the Malphigan layer in the mature seed.

Fic. 9. Characteristic short mycelium in agar cultures four days old, showing
abundant conidial formation.

Fic. 10. Much branched mycelium with few or no conidia found in the same
cultures as the condition represented in Figs. 6 and 9.

Fic. 11. Sterile mycelium from four day old nutrient agar plates.

Fic. 12. Section of mature infected vetch seed, showing the mycelium of Pro-
tocoronospora in the various tissues;

(a) Malphigian layer, the outer wall of whose cells is very much
thickened and shows the characteristic ‘‘light line’? so common in
seeds of eguminoseae ;

(b) Seleroid layer;

(ec) Vestigal nucellar tissue ;

(d) Epidermis of the cotyledon;

(e) Cotyledonary tissue abundantly filled with starch.

2

PLATE

a

c Ne

Wy

ee,

Y

i

se .

0), flee ea Ye ,
=a —_ ‘ane iar se Py Oe
. of 7 { a Ge Th “rn 1
, ms 7
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ytd i : } ; .
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= 16. = . ‘ i
e * —
, : Pj
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2s , :
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e all {
P \ - > '
ie = 7 ‘

PLATE 3

BRS
= hy
Ca

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= Jt Mine ATSB rare

:
Ay

mn one Mm oe ) os

FEAR 2 AE 2s; wy,

PLATE 4

PLATE 5

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:
:
i
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ss j
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i
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PLATE 6

1920] A Lirtte Known Vetcu Disease 85

PLATE 3
Figs. 13, 18, 19, and 20, are drawn to the same scale; the magnification of Figs.
14-17, inclusive, is alike.
Fic. 13. Acervulus in cross section of Protocoronospora on vetch stem. The
stroma extends 3 to 4 host cell layers in depth.
Fig. 14. Multinucleate mycelium taken from the margin of an acervulus.
Fic. 15. Variation in size and shape of conidia and in the number of nuclei.
Fic. 16. Multinucleate cells from beneath the stroma.
Fic. 17. Multinucleate conidiophores and cells of the stroma.
Fic. 18. Germination of conidium on upper ieaf surface of hairy vetch. The
formation of the appresorium is followed by infection within 36 to 48 hours.
Fie. 19. Infection through the epidermis on the lower surface of the leaf.
Fic. 20. Penetration by conidia lodged on the upper leaf surface.
Fig. 21. A surface view of an acervulus six days after inoculation.

PLATE 4
Fie. 22. Colonies of Protocoronospora nigricans, one week old, on vetch de-
coction agar.
Fie. 23. Two week’s old cultures on the same medium.

PLATE 5
Fic. 24. Lesions on leaves of hairy vetch.
Fig. 25. Stones with elongated, dark brown to black lesions.

PLATE 6
Fic. 26. Pods showing the oblique oblong lesions typical of false anthracnose.
Fic. 27. Young lesions with whitish centers on young pods. The pod at the
extreme left of the series had purplish discolored areas but fruit bodies
of the causal organism have not yet been formed.
Fic. 28. The dark oblique areas are lesions on mature pods.

NOTES ON THE MOSQUITO FAUNA OF NORTH CAROLINA

By FRANKLIN SHERMAN
Yi

For many years the Division of Entomology, State Department of
Agriculture at Raleigh, has been accumulating records of the differ-
ent species of mosquitoes known in the State, the localities where
found, the months when present, ete. Recently this subject has been
assumed as one of our regular projects of work. The data included in
this paper were not gathered by the author alone,—Mr. R. W. Leiby, of
our Division, gave a paper on mosquito control before this body a
‘year ago, and is actively contributing to our records,—so also is Mr.
C. S. Brimley, Mr. G. M. Bentley, formerly with the Division, con-
tributed a number of records. Dr. Harvey P. Barrett, of Charlotte,
has furnished a large number of records based chiefly on rearing
from the larvae, and further work with him is contemplated for this
year. Mr. Max Kisluik of the U. S. Bureau of Entomology, stationed
at Wilmington, has furnished records from that locality. Many of
our determinations have been made by authorities at Washington,
notably Dr. H. G. Dyar and the late Messrs, Coquillet and Knab.

The interest in mosquito control was accentuated in the State dur-
ing the recent war by the work done under the Public Health Service,
notably around the camps at Charlotte and Raleigh and shipyards at
Wilmington. Since hostilities ceased a number of other communities
in the State are undertaking control work in co-operation with the
Public Health Service.

The importance of mosquitoes as pests of man need be only briefly
mentioned :—it has been abundantly proven that malaria and yellow
fever are transmitted by them. There are large areas, even in this
State, where land values and crop production are lower than should
be on account of malaria. We have had yellow fever cases in past
years,—the particular species of mosquito which transmits yellow
fever is a fully-established member of our fauna. The irritation,
vexation and unrest caused by our many species which merely bite.
are known to all.

The main outstanding features of mosquito biology may be sketched
as follows: The adult female mosquitoes lay their eggs or or near
water. The larvae, called ‘‘wrigelers’’, which hatch from these eges
live in the water, coming to the surface for air. As they are frail

[ 86 |

1920] Notes oN THE Mosquito Fauna oF NorTH CAROLINA 87

little creatures quiet waters not violently agitated by storms and rapid
currents, are most favorable to them. This often means stagnant
water, but not necessarily so. Completing its larval life within a
week or longer, it changes to a pupa, which stage lasts for a day or
longer, when it emerges as an adult, winged mosquito, The length
of life of the adult is indefinite—some live over winter, some species
have been kept alive in summer for two months or more. Adult mos-
quitoes usually fly for distances of less than a mile,—but some species
are more migratory, and with favorable ight winds may travel much
longer distances.

The chief features of mosquito control can be briefly outlined as
follows: (1) Drainage of stagnant or standing. water when practi-
cable; (2) straightening and clearing of drains to secure prompt
disposal of the flow; (3) oiling of such waters as may still serve as
breeding places; (4) stocking with small insect-eating fishes of such
waters as cannot be guarded by other means; (5) screening of houses ;
(6) use of smudges, lotions, perfumes, ete. Accepting one mile as the.
general limit of flight, the Public Health Service extends the drainage
work for one mile beyond the limits.of the camp, yard, town or other
particular area to be guarded.

Most rules have exceptions,—and although mosquitoes adhere
quite closely to the general principles just laid down, yet there are
certain species which are exceptional in certain particulars and unless
we know something about these exceptions, and how to allow for
them,—we are lable to unpleasant and disappointing surprises,—and
the public, often inclined to snap judgment, may criticise and even
abandon control work which is really well done, because of the inter-
vention of exceptional circumstances. Thus the control work in vicin-
ity of Wilmington might be ever so well done,—it might almost, it
might entirely eliminate malaria,—yet a favoring breeze might bring
into that city countless thousands of mosqutoes of the species Aedes
sollicitans which breed in the salt marshes of the coast ten to twenty
miles away, and which is known to migrate for long distances. Such
an invasion, temporary though it may be, might arouse much criti-
cism. A house may be ‘‘screened,’’ yet small species of mosquitoes
may easily crawl through the meshes of an ordinary fly-screen. A
pool may be oiled and yet the mosquito Mansonia perturbans may
breed from it, because the larva of this species does not come to the
surface for air but lives in the saturated mud about the roots of
aquatic plants.

88 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Society | September

There are many variations in exact habits,—certain species are
especially prone to enter houses for human victims, others seldom or
never do this,—the larvae of certain species predominate in rain-bar-
rels or cisterns, while others are seldom found there,—certain species
are active chiefly after sundown, others are equally or more active
during the day,—certain species are very averse to flying in a breeze,
others take advantage of it to cover long distances. The importance
of ascertaining which, if any, of the disease-bearing mosquitoes occur
in any locality, is self-evident. This cannot be done by disease-records,
for we have no yellow-fever records at present, but we do have the
yellow--fever mosquito—so far as we know, it would only require the
in-coming of a sufferer from this disease, at the opportune season, to
start an epidemic. Hence, it requires the study of the mosquitoes
themselves, the study of the mosquito-breeding waters, and the record-
ing of all possible data on each separate species before we can claim to
have adequate scientific data bearing upon the mosquito problem as
a whole. And this phase of the subject, being the strictly entomolo-
gical part of it, is the one which claims our chief attention in this

The entire list of species for the State, so far as ascertained, in-
cludes 32 species, while it is probable that from 10 to 15 more yet
await discovery.

It so happens that we have no positive record of any adult mos-
quito being taken in February, but we have records for every other
month of the year.

The localities whose mosquito fauna is best known are: Charlotte,
with a list of 23 species; Wilmington, with 15 species; Raleigh, 13
species; Blowing Rock, 5; Henderson County, 5; Havelock (Craven
County), 5. Twenty-three other localities have from 1 to 4 species
on record.

Let us now adopt the convenient division of the State into three
main regions: eastern, central and western.

1. Eastern. This we will consider to include all from the coast
to Raleigh and Southern Pines but not including either of those two
localities. Twenty-one distinct species of mosquitoes have been taken
in this region,—of these, five species have not been taken in either of
the other regions, so far as our present records indicate, they are
exclusively eastern,—nine of the species have been taken in both the
eastern and central regions but not in western,—while the remaining
seven species have been taken in all three regions.

1920] Novres on THE Mosquiro Fauna or NortH Caronina 89

2. Central. We will consider this region to inelude Raleigh and
Southern Pines and westward to the foot of the Blue Ridge, including
Tryon. This reckoning places Raleigh and Charlotte (comparatively
well-worked localities) in this area, and gives it a predominance, for
the present, in the number of species on record. Twenty-seven species
of mosquitos have been taken in this Central region,—eight of which
have not yet been taken in the other areas,—nine (as before men-
tioned) have been taken in central and eastern regions but not in the
west,—three have been taken in both central and western areas but
not in the east,—the remaining seven have been taken in all three
regions.

3. Western. We will consider this region to include the strictly
mountain area of the Blue Ridge and west of it. Ten species of
mosquitoes have been taken in this region, none of which are confined
to it,—three of them having been taken in the western and central
areas only,—the other seven being ones which have been taken in all
three regions.

It is probable that further studies will show some of the species
which are now known only in our central area to occur in the
eastern area also. Dr. Barrett has taken one or more southerly species
at Charlotte, which is further north than they were before known to
occur, and such species are very likely to occur in our eastern region
whose general fauna appears to be more southerly than at Charlotte.
Indeed, the general showing would no doubt be considerably altered
in its details, if our knowledge of our mosquito fauna, and its distri-
bution, were as complete as we hope eventually to make it.

Already enough is known to indicate that in number of species
the central section of the State will compare with the eastern, what-
ever disparity there may be in numbers of individuals,—even if all
of the species now known in the central region are eventually found
in the east, and if no more were found in the central region, its present
list of twenty-seven species is sufficient to show that it has a mosquito
fauna worthy of consideration. Owing to the presence of larger un-
drained areas it is undoubtedly true that the total mosquito popula-
tion is the greatest in the east, and for the opposite reason, least in
the mountains. As yet the mosquito fauna of the mountains has been
least explored. A complete list from that region would probably show
a surprising variety, but the areas for breeding are more restricted.

90 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

Adult mosquitoes have been found in our State virtually through-
out the year. The number of species which have been taken in each
of the several months is as follows: January 2; February none, it
so happens; March 38; April 5; May 18; June 14; July 13; August
21; September 9; October 10; November 5; December 3. Of the ma-
larial group two species have been taken at all seasons, these winter-
ing in the adult stage,—the third species of the malarial group he*
been taken from March to September, inclusive. The yellow-feve.
mosquito has been taken June to November, inclusive, The species
which perhaps breeds more abundantly than any other in eaves-troughs,
cisterns and rainbarrels and which is our most common house mos-
quito, has been taken April to November, inclusive. The exceptional
species whose larva lives in mud at the roots of water plants and
which, therefore, would not be wholly eliminated by the usual means
of control, has been taken in all three regions of the State in the
months of June, July and August.

With so many species of mosquitoes in every section (and every
other State in this part of the country has a comparable list if
worked up and put on record), and with many of them presenting ex-
ceptions to the usual rules of mosquito lfe,—the intelligent and in-
formed citizen will not expect perfect, absolute, complete results from
any system of control work. There will be occasions when mosquitoes
become abundant, by local breeding or by invasion from outside, in the
best-protected areas,—they may even develop in unsuspected places
inside the house itself.

It has not been our purpose to here discuss the details of control
further than already mentioned,—rather it has been our purpose to
give an idea of the mosquito life of the State as a whole, so far as now
known.

NOTES ON THE SPECIES

Arrangement is alphabetical. Many of the notes are from Smith
‘“Report of Mosquitoes of New Jersey,’’ or Howard, Dyar and Knab
‘*Mosquitoes of North and Central America.”’

1. Aedes atlanticus, Dyar and Knab. An inhabitant of swamps and woods.
Not known to invade houses. Taken in east part of State——May, June and
August.

2. Aedes atropalpus, (Coq.) D. and K. A small species, rather northern.
Taken in central and west parts of State,—no record as to month.

1920| Notes on THE Mosquito Fauna or NortH CaRouina OW

3. Aedes bimaculatus, (Coq.) D. and K. A southerly species. Life and
habits not fully known. Larvae taken at Charlotte in July.

4. Aedes calopus, (Meigen) D. and K. This is the species which trans-
mits yellow fever. Flies and bites in day. Invades houses. Taken in east and
central parts of State—June, July, August, September, October and November.

5. Aedes canadensis, (Theobald) D. and K. Larvae in woodland pools.
Adults seldom leave woods. Of wide range, but as yet taken only in east and
central parts of State,—April, May, June, July and August.

6. Aedes mitchellae, (Dyar) D. and K. A southeastern species. Taken at
Wilmington in December.

7. Aedes sollicitans, (Walker) D. and K. A coastwise species, the larvae
living chiefly in salt marshes, but also in brackish or fresh water. Known to
fly as much as 40 miles inland. Taken at Wilmington and Beaufort on our coast,
and recorded at Charlotte where perhaps carried by train,—June and August.

8. Aedes sylvestris, (Theobald) D. and K. One of the species which fre-
quents porches and sometimes enters houses. A common species of wide range.
Taken in east and central parts of the State—May, June, July and August.

9. Aedes taeniorhynchus, (Wied) Busck. <A coast-wise species of rather
small size which migrates, but not so far as sollicitans. Bites in daytime. Does
not seem to enter houses, but has been taken on porches. Taken at Wilmington
and Beaufort on our coast,—May, June and August.

10. Aedes tormentor, D. and K. A southern species taken as far north as
Arkansas and recorded for Charlotte in our State,—without record as to month.

11. Aedes triseriatus, (Say) D. and K. A species whose larvae live chiefly
in water caught in holes in trees,—the adult being a ready biter in the woods, but
not entering houses. Taken in all three regions (east, central and west) in our
State,—May, June, August, September and October.

12. Anopheles crucians, Wied. This is one of the malarial group and
known to be a earrier of the ‘‘aestivo-autumnal’’ form of malaria, but not of
other forms. It bites late in day and early morning as well as at night, and
readily enters houses. Taken in east, central and west parts of our State,—
March, May, June, August and September. As with others of this group the
body is usually tilted at an angle while biting. Wings spotted.

13. Anopheles quadrimaculatus, Say. This species is believed to be the most
frequent carrier of malaria. Winters as adult. Taken in east and central parts
of the State, not yet in the west —January, April, July, August, September, Octo-
ber, November and December. Body tilted when biting. Wings spotted.

14. Anopheles pwnctipennis, Say. Has been apparently proven to transmit
malaria, but not believed to do so as freely as the preceeding. Winters as
adult. In our State this seems to be the most common of the three species of
the malarial group. Taken in east, central and west parts of State in every
month with one exception (Feb.) Body tilted when biting. Wings spotted.

15. Coelodiazesis barberi, (Coquillet) D. and K. Breeds in water in holes
in trees, and sometimes present in woods when country is so dry than few other
kinds are present. A small species. Our only State record is from Tryon at
foot of mountains, without mention of the month.

92 JOURNAL OF THE MrvcHELL SOCIETY | September

16. Culex floridanus, D. and K. A very small southern species, recorded
from Charlotte for July and August.

17. Culex melanurus, Coquillett. A dark-colored species of wide range

which apparently does not bite. Our only record is from White Lake (Bladen
County) in May.

18. Culex peccator, D. and K. A rather small southern species, recorded
from Arkansas, and from Charlotte in our State in August. Apparently a fre-
quenter of caves and tree-holes. Not known whether it bites.

19. Culex quinquefasciatus, Say. This is probably our most abundant and
universally-present house-frequenting mosquito. Larvae abundant in rainbarrels,
cisterns, troughs, temporary pools, sluggish and foul water, ete. Corresponds to
the common C. pipiens of the northern States. Taken in east, central and west

parts of the State,—April, May, June, July, August, September, October and
November.

20. Culex restuans, Theobald. In general character like the preceeding,
but not so abundant, nor breeding in so foul water. Our records are from the
central and west parts of the State,—June and October.

21. Culex salinarius, Coquillett. A species of wide range, though also occur-
ring close to coast, hence the name. Enters houses. Taken in east and central
parts of the State——May, August, September, October and November.

22. Culex territans, Walker. A rather small, dark species which perhaps

does not bite persons. Our only records are for Charlotte and Blowing Kock,
—August.

23. Culiseta inornatus, (Will.) Dyar. A rather large species which freely
bites cattle and horses, perhaps in preference to man. Of wide range but our
few records are from Wilmington and Charlotte,—March.

24. Mansonia perturbans, (Walk.) Dyar. The larva lives in mud at roots
of aquatic plants, not coming to surface for air. <A species of wide range.
Enters houses. A fierce biter. Taken in east, central and west parts of the
State——June, July and August.

25. Megarhinus septentrionalis, Dyar and Knab. A very large mosquito
with metallic blue lustre, often found on flowers. Taken east, central and west
in the State,—July, August, September and October.

26. Orthopodomyia signifier, Coquillet. A wide-spread species not positively
known to bite. Our only records are from Raleigh and Charlotte,—October.

27. Psorophora ciliata, (Fab.) Rob.—Des. A large species with erect scales
on the legs giving fringed appearance. Ready biter and goes indoors, but not
usually abundant in houses. Taken in eastern and central parts of State,—May,
June, August, October.

28. Psorophora columbae, Dyar and Knab. A day as well as evening biter.
Seldom indoors. East and central parts of State—May, July, August.

29. Psorophora discolor, Coquillett. Our only record is from Charlotte,—
July and August.

30. Psorophora howardi, Coquillet. A large species, of which our only
record is Charlotte,—without indication of month.

1920| Nores on THE Mosquito Fauna or NortTH CAROLINA 95

31, Psorophora sayi, Dyar and Knab. A species of wide range, a severe day
biter, but apparently not usual in houses. Our records are from east, central
and west parts of the State-——May, June, July, August and September.

32. Wyeomyia smithii, (Coq.) Felt. The larva of this species is known to
live normally in the water contained in the stems of pitcher-plants. The adult
is not known to bite. Our only record is from Boardman (Columbus County )—
larvae in pitcher-plant in April.

Raeieu, N. C.

AN INTERESTING FERTILIZER PROBLEM

By H. B. ARBUCKLE

Last summer a large number of farmers in Rockingham county suf-
fered almost total loss of their tobacco crop. It so happened that one
of these farmers used two bags of fertilizer that he had kept over from
the previous year. He observed that the rows of tobacco upon which
he used this old fertilizer to the very plant in the row where he
changed to the new fertilizer grew off well and produced well. All the
rest of his tobacco was stunted and never showed any growth except in
very rainy weather.

This was sufficient to fix suspicion upon the new fertilizer. This
led to my investigation, The fertilizer was marked ‘‘For Tobacco’’
and the tag showed a guaranteed analysis, 8-2-2. On analysis the
fertilizer checked up very well as 8-2-2. The nitrogen was a little low
as determined by Kjeldahl, showing approximately 1.5. It is inter-
esting to note that when the nitrogen was determined by Dumas, it
ran distinctly higher.

The fertilizer was at once tried out on boxes of clover and rye at
the rate of 1,000 lbs. per acre and compared with a fertilizer prepared
in the laboratory to yield 8-2-2, the potash being supplied as potassium
sulphate and the nitrogen as sodium nitrate. In these experiments the
fertilizer under investigation showed up to fine advantage, showing
distinct advantage over the prepared fertilizer. Having no tobacco
plants at this time, the fertilizer was reported as good, but
the farmers insisted that it be tried out on tobacco. After
crowing a lot of tobacco plants a set of boxes was prepared to test
this fertilizer in varying amounts and other fertilizers prepared with
potash and nitrogen from different sources. Having discovered that
the fertilizer under test contained over 1% of chlorides and knowing
that chlorides were not good for tobacco, the chlorine was removed
from the fertilizer. It was found that the tobacco plants in the boxes
in which 600 lbs. was used in the row or 1,000 Ibs. mixed with the soil
were nearly all killed. The few plants remaining were pale and sickly
and produced no growth in two months time. The plants in those
boxes fertilized with 1,000 lbs. of the fertilizer with the chlorine re-
moved grew nicely, comparing favorably with the best fertilizers pre-

pared for tobacco.
[94]

1920] AN INTERESTING FERTILIZER PROBLEM 95

Knowing that one per cent of chlorine could not kill tobacco, boxes
were prepared in which we used as much as 200 lbs. of sodium chloride
per acre. As was expected this did not injure the plants. The chlo-
rides do not affect the growth, but only the burning quality of the
tobacco.

We next tried the fertilizer on tomato plants and found that these
were injured, but not as much as the tobacco plants. Then we investi-
gated various solutions of the fertilizer. We found it was the water
solution alone that injured the tobacco. A small plant in a beaker was
killed in twenty-four hours by the application of a solution that repre-
sented 2,000 lbs. per acre. Next we removed the organic matter by
prolonged heating, taking up the ash with hydrochloric, sulphuric
and nitric acids. The plants were injured not at all by the water
solution of these salts, but little growth was shown, because the organic
matter unquestionably stimulates plant growth, as could be shown in
the study of stable manures. It was noted with interest that the nitric
acid solution gave after a time a most vigorous growth. This might
have been expected. We then tried water solution of the fertilizer
under investigation after heating for an hour at 120° for thirty min-
utes. We found that this solution when applied in quantities repre-
senting 1,000 lbs. per acre gave excellent results.

The toxie substance or substances present seemed to be removed
or changed by heat. We repeatedly demonstrated the good results
with the fertilizer thus treated. We now had the explanation of the
puzzling fact about the chlorine. In removing the chlorides with silver
sulphate, heat was employed to avoid the loss of the phosphates. The
heat had destroyed the toxic substances in this case as in the case
of the straight samples.

By accident we discovered that the toxic substances are also re-
moved by leaving the fertilizer exposed to the sunlight in a warm
place, as a bottle containing the fertilizer was left for one week in
the balance room where it was exposed to strong light from the south.
Water solution of this exposed fertilizer had no effect whatsoever on
tobacco plants.

Thus it appears that there is an organic substance present in this
fertilizer, which is toxic to tobacco plants and tomato plants, while it
has no effect upon rye and clover. This toxie substance is made harm-
less by heating or by exposure to sunlight. What the substance is still
remains a puzzle. Thinking it might be a nitrogen compound, prob-

96 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

ably an amido compound derived from decomposition of tankage or
some form of animal nitrogen, we determined the nitrgen in samples
of the fertilizer after it had been rendered harmless. The percentage
was higher than in the original sample. This, however, may be due
fact that the water content had been changed. Unfortunately, we had
not determined this in the original samples. We earried through a
set of experiments to see how many organic substances containing
nitrogen were toxic to tobacco plants.

These experiments showed several substances that were quite toxic,
notably the nitro phenols, pyridine and piperidine. This was but a
confirmation of experiments conducted by Cameron. Here is an in-
teresting problem that deserves the attention of the fertilizer manu-
facturer, especially in this day, when he is ransacking the world to
find sourees of potash and nitrogen. In the future will it not leave the
manufacturer lable if he sells a fertilizer with a guarantee that it will
erow a particular crop and it is found to injure it?

In this particular case the tobacco fertilizer did enormous damage.

It can be rendered harmless in a very simple way, but it is the
manufacturer’s job to discover this and not the farmer’s, This should
lead to the testing out of samples of every fertilizer sold for a par-
ticular crop.

Davipson, N. C.

AZALEA ATLANTICA ASHE AND ITS VARIETY LUTEO-
ALBA N. VAR.

By W. C. CoKER

PLATES 1 AND 7

For about eight years I have had under observation a striking spe-
cies of Azalea, a typical and abundant constituent of low, damp, pine
barrens of the coastal plain. My brother, James L. Coker, Jr., first
called my attention to the distinction between this species and A.
nudiflora, which blooms at the same time and with which it is often
confused by careless observers. The species is not included in the
treatment of the genus in the North American Flora by Dr. Small,
but in April, 1917, Mr. W. W. Ashe published in the Bulletin of the
Charleston Museum (13: 26. 1917) a new species, Azalea atlantica, the
deseription of which agrees well with our plants except that the color
was said to be rose-purple or reddish, As our plant has essentially
white flowers throughout its range it seemed improbable that they
could be the same. However, on talking with Mr. Ashe he admitted
that the flowers were nearly pure white when open, thus removing the
principal point of difference. I have also now at hand a specimen in
flower from the type locality (Georgetown, 8. C.) sent me by Mr.
T. G. Harbison on April 26, 1918, and find it the same as Hartsville
specimens in all essentials. I now have the plant (from Hartsville)
in cultivation in the Arboretum of the University of North Carolina,
where it flowered this year.

Azalea atlantica Ashe.

The typical form of the species, as I have observed it, may be
described as follows:

Shoots low, slender, strict, hairy or glandular when young, smooth
later, sparingly branched, about 15-55 ecm. (6-18 in.) high, springing
from underground runners and thus forming extensive colonies; leaves up to
about 4 em. long and 1.7 em. broad, elliptic to obovate, the base pointed at the
very short petiole, the tip with a short mucro, margin not recurved or slightly so,
ciliate with curved tooth-like hairs, upper surface smooth or sparingly pubescent,
the lower nearly smooth or moderately pubescent, grayish-green, the midrib not
ciliate (or ciliate, at least when young, in the Georgetown plants). Flowers
appearing during the whole of April, 3-4.5 em. long, glandular and sparingly
pubescent or only glandular, not hairy, very fragrant, unfolding before the
leaves or in part lagging and simultaneous; corolla tube 2-3 cm. long, expanding

[ 97 ]

98 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society [| September

into the open throat, the acute petals with a spread of 3-4 em., color pure white
when open except for a blush of pink or purple on outside near base of tube;
the buds more pink. Calyx two-thirds to three-fourths as long as the ovary,
varying (in the North Carolina plant) to nearly as long, the strap-shaped lobes
blunt, unequal, and upright (recurved or revolute on drying at times), separate
to near or below the middle, glandular only or both glandular and with the
margin hairy; ovary about 4 mm. long ahd 3 mm. thick, style about 4-6 em.
long, pale pink to greenish white, hairy (not glandular) over lower half or two-

thirds, the knob-like stigma greenish brown; stamens well exserted (about

2 em.), but not nearly so much so as in A. nudiflora, whitish or pale green; pedi-

cels about 7-13 mm. long, pink or greenish. Mature pods about 2 em. long and
6-7 mm. thick, pointed, somewhat curved, nearly glabrous, dark. Floral glands
reddish, very short-stalked, present on pedicels, calyx, ovary and on the outside
of the corolla tube and along the central keels of the spreading lobes. Odor
strong and very pleasant.

Azalea atlantica var. luteo-alba n. var.

Flowers smaller, white when open, the buds and opening fiowers with a de-
cided yellowish tint; not pinkish. Otherwise as in the type. Occurring in sim-
ilar habitats as the type but in separate colonies, and not intermixed. We have
found it only at Hartsville, S. C.

A well-marked species that is easily distinguished from A. nudi-
flora, which occurs plentifully in the same territory, though rarely
intermixed. It differs in the white, very fragrant, and viseid-glandu-
lar (not hairy) flowers with longer tubes, more open throats, much
larger calyx, shorter and stouter ovary, and less exserted stamens;
by the dwarf size and extensive underground runners; and by the
absence of cilia on the midrib. The habitat is also not the same, A.
atlantica being found in low, damp, undrained pine flats of the coastal
plain, while A. nudiflora prefers the better-drained soil by ditches,
branches or bluffs and extends far beyond the range of the former.
Azalea viscosa, which is really nearest, is, of course easily distinguished
by large size, late flowering (late May to July), and different habitat
and habit. It is the only other Azalea of the region occupied by
A. atlantica and A. nudiflora, with the possible exception of the next.
Azalea canescens, which has the leaves whitish-pubescent below, occurs
on better-drained soil, is rose-flowered, is not viscid, and has the same
size and habit as A. nudiflora, which is very near. Compared with
specimens of A. canescens at the New York Botanical Garden our
plants were easily seen to be different. One plant from Orangeburg,
S. C., in the New York Botanical Garden Herbarium, labelled A.

—
~
i
—

IA ATLA

A ZALE

uc

1920| AZALEA ATLANTICA ASHE 99

canescens but different from the others, may be our species. Azalea
glauca, which seems a small form of A. viscosa occurs from New Eng-
land to Virginia and blooms from June to July.

Azalea atlantica is one of the most conspicuous flowers of the damp,
flat woods of the low country, often covering acres under old field or
long-leaf pine, and scenting the air for a long distance with a frag-
rance that is far more pleasant than the much less obvious odor of
A. nudiflora. We have the plant from Georgetown, 8. C., Hartsville,
S. C., and Brunswick County, N. C., and have seen it in New Hanover
County, N. C. It is probably distributed over most of the coastal
plain of North Carolina and South Carolina. The plants from Bruns-
wick County are a shghtly different form from the South Carolina
plants. The calyx is not hairy, the leaves are smooth on both sides,
and the flowers are glandular only. In the Georgetown and Harts-
ville plants the calyx lobes are a little shorter and less fused, and are
quite hairy on the margin in addition to being glandular; further-
more, the flowers are slightly tomentose as well as glandular.

Plate I was painted by my niece, Dorothy Coker, from Hartsville
plants on April 25, 1915. It is 4/7 natural size. The photograph
(Plate 7) was made by me in Brunswick County, N. C., about half
way between Wilmington and Southport on April 6, 1918.

CHaPeL Hii, N. C.

A NEW SPECIES OF ACHLYA

By W. C. Coker and J. N. Coucu

Achlya Orion n. sp.

Hyphal threads long, reaching a length of 1.5 ems. on house-flies,
more slender than in most Achlyas, from 10-40, thick close to base,
rarely up to 85» thick, often wavy; usually little branched and
pointed at tips when young; becoming considerably branched with
age. Sporangia abundant, cylindrical, usually borne singly on the
tips of the main hyphae in young cultures, renewed by eymose branch-
ing, often forming several clusters at regular intervals on the same
hypha, irregular and wavy in old cultures, 12-37 x 36-600u (rarely
up to 900). Spores 9-10» thick, emerging as usual in Achlya, but
often falling to the bottom in an open group instead of forming a
sphere at the sporangium mouth. Oogonia abundant on flies, grubs
and vegetable media, spread over the entire culture from bases of
hyphae to tips, giving the culture a lacy interwoven or net-work ap-
pearance; the diameter 30-60, commonly 32-484; usually borne singly
on long, crooked, recurved stalks which arise racemosely from main
hyphae and which vary in length from 2-10 times the diameter of
the oogonia; often oogonial stalks may branch bearing two
oogonia and rarely oogonia may be borne on a stalk which arises
directly from another oogonial wall; very rarely interecalary ; oogonial
wall usually without pits (except where the antheridial tubes enter)
when grown on flies or grubs, but as a rule with pits when grown on
boiled corn. Eggs 1-8, usually 1 or 2 in each oogonium; 25-45 in
diameter, most 33-36, eccentric when ripe with one large oil drop;
usually spherical, but often elliptical from pressure. Antheridial
branches almost always androgynous, usually arising from the oogon-
ial stalk itself, less often from the main hyphae; rarely diclinous; an-
theridia on about 75% of the oogonia, one or two on an oogonium,
tuberous; antheridial tubes obvious penetrating the oogonia and
reaching the eggs.

The species seems to be quite rare, having been recognized only
twice in considerably over a thousand collections, made by the senior
author and his students. It was found in some water and trash
collected from the west branch above the Meeting of the Waters

[ 100 ]

1920] A New SpEcIEs or ACHLYA 101

(No. 6 of September 26, 1919), and in the same kind of material
from the branch in Battle’s Park behind Dr. Pratt’s residence (No. 4,
June 10, 1920). The description has been made from cultures de-
scended from a single spore. .

Our plant can be distinguished (with the unaided eye) from most
other Chapel Hill Achlyas by the network appearance given it by
the oogonia being scattered over the entire culture from the bases
of the hyphae to the tips. Achlya racemosa approaches this network
appearance more than any other species of Achlya but in the latter
the oogonia are not nearly so abundant nor do they extend entirely
to the tips of the hyphae. In some species, such as Achlya oblongata,
the oogonia are borne in a definite zone near the substratum and
from half to two-thirds of the length of the hyphae from the tips
backwards are without oogonia. In the Prolifera group the oogonia
are scattered more or less over the entire culture but the big hyphae
and long sporangia dissipate the net work appearance.

If we ignore the egg structure, the present species seems to be
closest to Achlya polyandia Hildb. The two plants resemble each
other in the long, racemose oogonial branches which are recurved at
the tip; in the often branched antheridial stalks which arise chiefly
from the oogonial branches; and in the smooth oogonial walls which
are normally without pits except where the antheridia touch. The two
species are readily distinguished, however, by the difference in the
number of eggs in the oogonia, and in the size and structure of the
eggs. In Achlya polyandra the number of eggs varies from five to
- twenty-five, the usual number being ten to fifteen, their average
diameter is 27 and they are said to be centric; in A. orion the usual
number of eggs is one to two, the diameter of most 33-36, with an
eccentric structure. In Achlya polyandra the sporangia are reported
as often not abundant, and secondary ones rare; while in our plant
both primary and secondary sporangia are abundant. This species
is named for the nebula in Orion, which a photograph of the magnified
culture somewhat resembles. This photograph, together with draw-
ings by J. N. Couch will appear in a volume by W. C. Coker on the
Saprolegniaceae of the United States to be published soon.

.
14

Ws

JAMES JACOB WOLFE
1875-1920

JOURNAL

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society
Volume XXXVI FEBRUARY Nos. 3 and 4

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC
SOCIETY, MAY, 1920, TO DECEMBER, 1920

241st MrETInNc—May 4, 1920

W. pEB. MacNiper—-On the Relation of the Amount of Stainable Fat
in the Renal Epithelium to the Susceptibility of the Kidney to the
Toxic Effect of the General Anesthetics.

Frozen sections were made from fresh kidney tissue and stained
for fat with Scharlach R by Herxheimer’s method. Such tissue
when obtained from puppies and young dogs shows fat as minute
dust-like particles in the epithelium of the ascending limb of Henle’s
loop. Kidney tissue obtained from old and very senile animals
shows a marked increase in the amount of fat in the ascending limb
of Henle’s loop and fine dust-like particles of stainable fat in the
convoluted tubule epithelium. Kidney tissue obtained from natur-
ally nephropathic animals shows a large amount of stainable fat not
only in the ascending limb of Henle’s loop but also in the convoluted
tubule epithelium. When such animals of different age periods and
naturally nephropathic animals are anesthetized by ether, the relative
toxicity of the anesthetic for the kidney is shown in the following
manner:

1. The puppies and young dogs continue to form urine during
the course of the anesthesia and remain responsive to diuretic solu-
tions.

2. A certain number of the adult and senile normal animals
become anuric and fail to respond to diuretic solutions. Other
animals in this group remain diuretic for the earlier part of the experi-
ment and later become anuric. |

[ 103 ]

104 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

3. All the naturally nephropathic animals become anuric in the
early stages of the experiment and remain anuric and non-responsive
to diuretic solutions throughout the experiment.

A. W. Hosss—Einstein’s Special Relativity Theory.

The laws of Nature must be invariantive, that is they must be
so stated as not to depend upon any particular frame of reference.
All attempts to discover different values for the velocity of propaga-
tion of light in different directions have failed. We then assume the
constancy of the velocity of light. This leads to the conclusion that
x?+ y*+ z2— c*t? must be changed into the same expression when we
refer to another system (i. e.) x?-++-y?-+z?—c*t? = x’2+- y’2-+-2/2— ¢t/2,
The Lorentz transformation accomplishes this and is at the same
time consistent with experience. It is given by

ee
x’ = B (x — vt) where B = (1— 4) ‘
yy
z= 42

Ge Be
t=6 4 — <2)
Applying these equations we find that a length x2—x: is shortened in
2
the directions of motion by the factor (1 - = 2

The paralellogram law for the addition of velocities is no longer
u+v
1 + uv

Ce

u + v but

These results would have very little interest to most of us if they
did no more than add very small corrections to our already compli-
cated system. The interest les in the fact that they point to an
almost organic relation between space and time, so that we must
not consider space and time as being distinct concepts.

242np MEETING—May 25, 1920

Dr. C. E. McCuune, Professor of Zoology, University of Pennsyl-
vania—The Material Basis of Heredity.

The lecturer, covering the chromosome theory of heredity, in-
troduced the principal facts, including the speaker’s own well known
discoveries showing a correlation between the presence in germ cells
of particular chromosome masses and sex. (H. V. W.)

1921] ProckEDINGS oF ExvisHa MITCHELL ScrentiFic Society 105

ELECTION OF OFFICERS:

President—A. H. Patterson.

Vice-President—A. W. Hobbs.

Permanent Secretary—J. M. Bell.

Recording Secretary—H. R. Totten.

Editorial Committee—W. C. Coker, chairman; J. M. Bell, Collier
Cobb.

243RD MEETING—OCcTOBER 19, 1920

H. V. Witson—The Mode of Origin of the Nervous System in the
Vertebrate Embryo.

Some recent operative experiments made by Professor Hans
Spemann on the salamander embryo were described. These experi-
ments showed that a patch of embryonic tissue might be developed
into spinal cord, brain, eye, or ordinary epidermis, according to the
locality in which it is placed, and seem to constitute decisive evidence
against the view that the organs of the body are represented in the
egg by localized peculiar substances.

ELECTION OF MEMBERS:

The following members of the faculty were elected to active
membership in the Society: Dr. Otto Stuhlman, Dr. E. A. Abernathy,
Capt. Frederick W. Boye, Mr. H. M. Taylor, Mr. H. G. Baity, Mr.
W. E. Walke, Mr. Walter B. Jones. The following advanced students
and assistants were elected to associate membership: C. P. Savage,
Eleanor Hoffmann, P. R. Dawson, T. P. Dawson, R. A. Lineberry,
S. C. Smith, A. M. Wolfson, H. L. Cavaness, B. Naiman, R. O. Deitz,
S. C. Ogburn, A. B. Owens, F. P. Brooks, J. W. Guard, C. R. Harris,
nee avior 1). M. Carroll, C. B. Ridge, C. J. Bryan, D.. St. P.
DuBose, W. F. Foote, T. E. Hinson, E. J. Mecum, L. V. Milton,
J. D. Morris, P. C. Smith, A. B. Wright, R. M. Casper, M. E. Lake.
T. B. Smiley, W. H. Butt, H. S. Boyce, S. B. Lee, J. B. Miller, B. E.
Lohr, Roy J. Morton, I. J. Stephenson, Clayton Edwards, 8. C.
Alston, J. B. Noe, F. R. Bacon, J. B. Broach, S. M. Crisp, A. L.
Miner, J. W. Harrell, Jr., J. L. Cobb, M. L. Jacobs, J. M. Alexander,
Wm. F. Alston, P. M. Grey, A. H. Merritt, J. G. Tucker, C. D. Beers,
H. 8. Everett, Ernest Atkins.

244TH MEETING—NOVEMBER 9, 1920

The Society passed the following Resolution:

Whereas, the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society was organized for the purpose of
encouraging scientific investigations in North Carolina; and

106 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

Whereas, European Forestry has depended upon and reaped much benefit from
the Forest Experiment Stations of the various countries; and
Whereas, several such experiment stations have been established in the western
part of the United States and none in the eastern states; and
Whereas, we realize the importance of securing more accurate knowledge con-
cerning methods of management for the perpetuation of the valuable forests of
the Southern Appalachian region; therefore be it
Resolved, that we go on record as strongly favoring the establishment of a For-
est Experiment Station by the United States in the vicinity of Asheville and do
hereby respectfully urge Congress to pass the bill providing for such station.
C. 8. Goodwin and C. R. Monroe were elected to associate member-

ship in the society.

J. M. Bett—Further Studies on the Nitrotoluenes.

This paper was the result of a continuation of work begun at the
request of the National Research Council on the freezing points and
thermal properties of the nitrotoluenes. The particular nitro-
toluenes investigated are those formed in largest amounts during the
nitration of toluene to TNT: viz., orthonitrotoluene (ONT); para-
nitrotoluene (MNT); 1, 2, 4-nitrotoluene (DNT); and 1, 2, 4, 6-
trinitrotoluene (TNT). There are two melting points for ONT,
corresponding to the two crystal forms of this compound; the stable
form (m. p.—4.5°) and the metastable form (m.p.—10.5°). The follow-
ing systems were investigated: ONT-DNT and ONT-MNT-DNT
(with E. B. Cordon); ONT-MNT and ONT-MNT-TNT (with F.
H. Spry); ONT-TNT and ONT-DNT-TNT (with Woodford White).
A formal presentation of the results is to be made in early issues of
the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry.

A. H. Parrerson—Recent Work on Spiral Nebulae.

A review of the recent work done at Mt. Wilson and elsewhere
on the Nebulae, Wolf-Rayet Stars and Stars of Classes B and A; the
theory of the origin of Spiral Nebulae was outlined, and lantern
slides shown of various types of spiral and quiescent nebulae; the
relation between velocity and temperature of the stars and nebulae
was touched upon, and the significance of the Spiral Nebulae some-
times occurring In pairs was pointed out.

245TH MEETING—DECEMBER 14, 1920

J. W. Lastey, Jr.—Some Developments in Modern Geometry.

Einstein’s results resolve the problem of understanding the laws
of the universe into the problem of understanding geometry. It was

1921] ProcrEpines oF EvisHaA MITCHELL ScIENTIFIC SocrETy 107

a contribution of Klein to see in group theory a logical classification
of geometry. Classified from the viewpoint of groups of transform-
ations, geometry falls into projective geometry, metric geometry,
etc. Some investigations require a knowledge of a geometric figure
only in a limited region; others require a knowledge of the figure as
a whole. We are thus led to a sub-classification: differential and in-
tegral geometry. Four kinds of geometry thus arise: the projective
differential geometry of Halphen, Wilezynski and Green, the pro-
jective integral (known as projective) geometry of Desargues, the
metric differential (known as differential) geometry of Gauss, and
the metric integral (known as geometry) geometry of Euclid. The
developments in geometry to which this paper calls attention are those
in the field of projective differential geometry.

C. 8. Mancum—A Review of the Public Health Work in North Carol-
ina.

Progress in health work is indicated by a reduction in death rates.
For the whole United States the death rate is 12.9 per thousand of
population. In North Carolina it is 12.4. This is lower than the
known death rate in any other of the old states from Maine to Texas.

This record is all the more creditable when one considers the fact
that North Carolina’s birth rate is the highest of all the states in the
Union, and is steadily increasing.

The State Board of Health, in conjunction with allied associations,
has for years conducted a well organized and energetic campaign
which has shown most encouraging results in a number of fields.

In 1914 there were 8,390 cases of typhoid fever and 839 deaths.

In the last twelve months there have been 2,750 cases with 275
deaths. A reduction of two-thirds.

Within the same period the death rate from diphtheria has been
cut in half. In 1914: deaths 525. In 1920: deaths 242.

The deaths from tuberculosis have decreased from 3,710 in 1914,
to 3,005 in 1920. A gain of 705.

The work of the Board may be classified under three heads:

(1) Educational. Through the wide distribution of the “ Bulle-
tin” and thousands of special pamphlets, public lectures and publicity
campaigns; using the County as a unit.

(2) Prophylactic. Supervision of the care of expectant mothers
and of infants; Intensive campaigns against preventable diseases,
distribution free or at a nominal cost of vaccines and antitoxins,

108 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

supervision of public water supply, sewage and sanitation, and the
making of water analyses and many other laboratory tests.

(3) Directly Remedial. Free clinics for the treatment of venereal
diseases; Medical inspection of the public school children followed
by free dental clinics and the removal of diseased tonsils and adenoids.

The Public Health Work is under the direction of a general staff,
the State Laboratory of Hygiene and eight special bureaus.

1. Laboratory of Hygiene:

Supplies Vaccines, Antitoxins and Pasteur treatments; makes
water analyses and Wasserman and other tests.

2. Bureau of Vital Statistics:

Collects information which insures the efficient direction of the
work.

3. Bureau of Tuberculosis:

The State Sanatorium treats an average of 135 cases each year,
examines and advises over 1000 others, and conducts intensive
County Campaigns.

4. Bureau of Medical Inspection of Schools:

In the past two years 150,000 public school children have been
examined; 25,587 have been given free dental treatment and 2500
have had diseased tonsils or adenoids removed.

5. Bureau of County Health Work;

Forty counties have full time health officers and 22 have full
time public health nurses. Within the past two years 40,000 insani-
tary privies have been eliminated, principally in rural communities
and in small towns.

6. Bureau of Engineering and Inspection:

For supervision of public water supply and sewage disposal.

7. Bureau of Venereal Diseases:

Sixty thousand persons have received treatment in the last 2
years at the free clinics.

Educational campaigns are being conducted in the counties by:
(1) A physician who goes into the county to arrange dates and arouse
interest. He is followed by: (2) The ‘‘educational truck” carrying
a physician to lecture to the men, a woman to lecture to the women,
a moving picture machine and a negro physician to lecture to the
negroes.

8. Bureau of Epidemiology:

Conducts the fight against infectious diseases. In the last 2
years 165,000 people have been given the free protective treatment
against typhoid fever.

1921] PRrocrEepiInes or ExisHa MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC Society 109

9. Bureau of Public Health Nursing and Infant Hygiene:

In 2 years has given aid and instruction to 11,000 expectant or
new mothers, who needed intelligent care for themselves and their
babies, that they were unable to secure.

The economic value of this work is tremendous when computed
in terms of the economic value of a human life, which is about $3500.00,
but the intangible values based upon better health, greater efficiency
and longer life are beyond computation.

JAMES JACOB WOLFE
1875-1920
PLATE 8

The North Carolina Academy of Science has lost in Dr. Wolfe
one of its most active, influential and useful members, and desires
to put on record a sincere and affectionate appraisal of his character,
his personality, his work and his service to the Academy, to Trinity
College and to the State.

He was born on September 14, 1875, at Sandy Run, Calhoun
County, South Carolina, the son of John Archie Wolfe and Frederica
A. (Geiger) Wolfe, was educated at Wofford College, and pursued
graduate training at University of Chicago, and at Harvard, receiving
the degree of Doctor of Philosophy from the latter University in 1904.
He was at once elected Professor of Biology in Trinity College, and
filled this position with marked ability and distinction as teacher,
investigator and administrator until his death, after only a short
illness, on the morning of the College Commencement Day, June 9,
1920.

On June 28, 1904, he was married to Cornelia Wilhelmina Lehr-
mann, of Montclair, N. J., who survives him. There are no children.

Dr. E. W. Gudger, for many years head of the Biological Depart-
ment at the State College for Women, and now of the American
Museum of Natural History, New York, writes as follows:

‘‘T knew Professor Wolfe for some twelve years, and for ten years
of that time intimately. He was an unusual man in every way.
Some years after we became friends, he came down to the U. 8.
Fisheries laboratory at Beaufort to take up the study of certain
marine algae, and it was my good fortune to introduce him to the
life of a marine biological laboratory. From that time on our friend-
oan ee and our intimacy was terminated only by his all too early
death.

“Tn his scientific work, Professor Wolfe was careful, painstaking,
and thorough, testing every observation and phenomenon to the far-
thest limit before committing his observations and conclusions to
writing. In his work on the alternation of generations in one of
the marine algae, his observations and results were at variance with
those of previous workers. Here, instead of rushing into print with
something startling, he patiently reviewed his work year after year
until he was absolutely sure of his results. At the time of his death
Professor Wolfe was engaged, with the assistance of Mr. Bert Cun-

[110 ]

1921] JAMES JACOB WOLFE 111

ningham, in an extensive and far-reaching investigation for the U. 8S.
Bureau of Fisheries on our marine diatoms, and had he been spared
to finish this it would have been the authoritative monograph on
these plants in our waters.

““As a teacher, Professor Wolfe was one of the most successful
instructors in his subject in North Carolina. Under him the depart-
ment of Biology in Trinity College grew steadily in numbers of stu-
dents and in influence, and at the time of his death he had plans on
foot for a very great enlargement and development of his depart-
ment.

“In the North Carolina Academy of Science, Professor Wolfe
was one of the most influential and valuable members. Never ab-
sent from a meeting, he could always be counted on for any needed
work. During my eleven years’ incumbency as Secretary I called
on him scores of times for advice and help, and it was always his
pleasure, and, as he put it, his ‘privilege,’ to serve the Academy.
This ready devotion of his was appreciated by all the members, and
was signalized in 1914 by his unanimous election to the office of
President.

“Professor Wolfe’s life was as square and straightforward and
honest as was his scientific work. I who knew him intimately knew
him always four-square to the world. Generous and whole-souled
himself, he always looked for these qualities in others. He was one
of the most delightful hosts I have ever known, and no one ever
visited him and Mrs. Wolfe in their delightful home at Trinity Col-
lege without bringing away recollections of the very finest hospitality.
He was a man of the most genial and lovable personality.

““Of what Professor Wolfe’s death has meant to me personally it
is hard for me to speak. For more than ten years I have had in him
an intimate friend on whom I could rely to the limit, and his going
has made the world much poorer for me.”

This impression of fine-souled solidity of character was shared
by all who knew him. A co-worker with Dr. Wolfe along certain
lines, who saw him often and was able to judge him fairly, is Dr. W.
C. Coker, head of the Department of Botany in the University of
North Carolina, who bears this testimony:

“T have been asked to give my impression of Dr. Wolfe as a
man, aS an investigator and as a member of the North Carolina
Academy of Science.

“Tt is significant that as I recall him as a man and as a friend
my thoughts have no element of uncertainty or complexity, but rest
quietly as though carried on a tranquil stream. Wolfe was a simple
man, as all good men are, or rather one might say the impression
was that of simplicity, and always the same. It could not be other-
wise with one who so fully combined the few great and essential
qualities of goodness, to which little need be added, and without

112 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

which all additions or embellishments are as naught. A big-hearted
humanity, transparent honesty, quiet and sustained industry—these
are the immortal three; but let us also add the salt that never loses
its savor, the disposition to enjoy life and to get some fun out of
it. It is needless to add that he did not know the meaning of the
word vanity, as he had no trace of it in himself. While I was at
Johns Hopkins one of the strongest and best young professors in that
University died. Dr. Brooks, our great teacher of Biology, who
loved this man deeply, said to me: ‘He was as simple.as a child,’
as summing up all that was best in his friend. These words return
to me as I think of Wolfe. Such is the simplicity of serenity and
harmony, the absence of a jarring note.

‘‘Men of this type, and they are not so numerous, remind us of
natural phenomena. They are like the pine woods in winter—un-
shaken and sustaining in their perennial verdure. When others
change, their colors do not fade. They are like the hills, from whence
cometh our help. There was no uncertainty about Wolfe and no
futility. He was radiant with humanity. There was a glow about
his friendship and his sympathy that did not admit of question.
He was not a casual benefactor, but was full of a sustained gener-
osity. Those who were with him daily in his community will testify
to his work as a member of the Board of Directors of Watts Hos-
pital and of his personal service in cases of sickness and distress.
He was willing to give himself, and not merely his means, a most
rare and excellent thing in a man.

“As a student and investigator, Wolfe was intelligent and faith-
ful. His mind.was intensely interested in ideas as well as facts,
and he was constantly thinking. I always looked forward to his
visits with interest. With his full share of jovial conversation, we
were never long together before he started a serious discussion of
some interesting biological problem of the day. He liked to talk
about evolution and heredity, their new problems and phases. This -
interest was reflected in his choice of a subject for his presidential
address before the North Carolina Academy of Science at its 14th
annual meeting at Wake Forest (see this JouRNAL, 31: 12. 1915).
He was not dogmatic and could change with the times. When a
cherished position was undercut by new discoveries he could step
off at the right moment.

‘Among American biologists his position was more than respect-
able. He stood high as a producer of sound and timely work. He
was not wordy, never published for bulk, and was not anxious to
appear prolific. His papers were of the kind that required hard
and patient labor, and he kept right on until he got the results. His
training at Harvard under Farlow and Thaxter gave him a clear
conception of what is true scholarship and he never for a moment
lowered his standards. ‘True to the best traditions of his profession,
he did not loaf his summers away under the plausible pretense of a
needed rest, but spent most of them in hard work at the Marine

1921] JAMES JACOB WOLFE 113

Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, Massachusetts (1901-1906),
and at Beaufort, North Carolina, in the laboratory of the U. S. Bu-
reau of Fisheries (1909-1916). There he collected and prepared the
material for his excellent papers on the biology and reproduction
of the seaweeds that brought him his greatest reputation. His work
on the algae Nemalion (Annals of Botany 18: 607. 1904) and Padina
(see this JouRNAL 34: 78. 1918) would alone place him as an investi
gator of fine abilities. Recently he had been engaged in investiga-
tions on the plankton of Chesapeake Bay for the U. 8. Fish Com-
mission, a considerable part of this work having been completed at
the time of his death. In recognition of the importance of this work
the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society invited him to give an address
on the subject at its meeting of January 13, 1920. (For abstract

see this JoURNAL 36: 3, 1920.)

“Wolfe was elected to membership in the North Carolina Acad-
emy of Science at its 6th Annual Meeting in 1907 and was an active
and enthusiastic member during the whole of its subsequent record.
So far as I recall, he never missed a meeting and he nearly always
presented a paper—and a good one. As a member of the Executive
Committee at various times, as Vice-President (1908-1909) and as
President (1914-1915) he gave freely of his time and judgment. In
his death the Society has sustained a heavy and irremediable loss.
We shall miss him as a friend and as a strong support.”

“Below is a list of the published papers and addresses of Dr.
Wolfe so far as I have been able to find them:

Cytological Studies in Nemalion. Annals of Botany 18: 607-630, pls. 40-41, with
1 text fig. 1904.

The Cause of Pellagra: a Preliminary Report. Paper presented before the 9th
Annual Meeting of the N. C. Academy of Science. Abstract in Journ. E. M.
Scientific Soc. 24: 53. 1910.

Alternation of Generations in Padina. Paper read before the 12th Annual Meeting
of the N. C. Academy of Science. Abstract in Journ. E. M. Scientific Soc.
29:8. 1913.

The Locust Tree Carpenter Moth, a Formidable Parasite of the Oak. Paper read
at the 13th Annual Meeting of the N. C. Academy of Science. Abstract in
Journ. E. M. Sci. Soc. 30: 65. 1914.

An Outline of Modern Work Bearing on the Theory of Descent. Presidential address
before the N. C. Academy of Science. In full in Journ. E. M. Sci. Soc. 31:
12-26. 1915.

Alternation and Parthenogenesis in Padina. Paper read at 15th Annual Meeting
of the N. C. Academy of Science. Abstract in Journ. E. M. Sci. Soc. 32: 51.
1916.

Some Methods and Results of a Plankton Investigation of Chesapeake Bay. With
Bert Cunningham. Paper read at the 17th Annual Meeting of the N. C. Acad-
emy of Science. Abstract in Journ. E. M. Sci. Soc. 34: 70. 1918.

Alternation and Parthenogenesis in Padina. In full in Journ. E. M. § i. Soc. 34:
78-109, pl. 1. 1918. (Contribution from the Laboratory of the Bureau of
Fisheries, Beaufort, N. C. This paper, in somewhat shortened form, was read

114 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

before a joint sé$sion of the Botanical Society of America and the Botanical
Section of the A. A. A. S. at their 1918 meeting in Pittsburgh.)

New and Little-Known Diatoms from Beaufort, N. C. Paper read before 18th An-
nual Meeting of the N. C. Academy of Science. By title in Journ. E. M. Sci.
Soc. 35:11. 1919.

The Plankton of Chesapeake Bay. Invitation address before the Elisha Mitchell
Scientific Society, January 13, 1920. Abstract in Journ. E. M. Sci. Soc. 36:
3. 1920¥2
His younger colleague in the Biological department of Trinity

College, Professor Bert Cunningham, is able because of an intimate

acquaintance of several years, to render an opinion based upon the

sure ground of daily intercourse, and a consequent thorough knowl-
edge of Dr. Wolfe’s character as a man, a scholar and a gentleman.

“He was a perfectly frank, straightforward man, always avoiding,
if possible, the hurting of another; kind, patient, considering the
other man more than himself, and never in any way seeking retalia-
tion for wrongs done him; interested in civic welfare, and especially
devoted to the relief of suffering.

‘“As a teacher, he was exceptionally well-grounded by knowledge
much broader than his field; accurate and exacting in the classroom
and laboratory; a leader and stimulator of thought on the part of
his students; a personal friend and adviser to them.

“As an investigator he was exceedingly accurate and painstaking,
endeavoring to get the ‘last word’ of a subject before laying it down;
keen in seeing methods for the attack of problems and in recognizing
the relations of a problem to the whole problem of life; and excep-
tionally careful in his writing that there might be no ambiguity.

‘‘T am incompetent to write a eulogy for this splendid man. Words
fail when I try to express my appreciation. To have lived with him
and worked with him has been a great opportunity that I shall ever
appreciate. To be without his judgment, guidance and friendly
counsel is an irreparable loss.”

His fellow-members of the Academy of Science, recognizing the
justice and truth of the testimony quoted, desire to express their
concurrence with it, and to render respectful homage to the fine
qualities of mind and heart possessed by Dr. Wolfe, together with a
keen and sorrowful regret that his useful life should have been so
untimely cut off.

Integer vitae scelerisque purus
Non eget Mauris jaculis neque arcu

Nee venenatis gravida sagittis,
Fusce, pharetra.

W. H. PEcRam,
R. U. Witson,
A. H. PATTERSON,

Commattee.

THE CHEMICAL BEHAVIOR OF ZIRCONIUM
By F. P. VENABLE

Any discussion of the chemical relations and behavior of an ele-
ment forms necessarily an unfinished chapter in the present state of
knowledge. This is particularly true of zirconium, which has been
so imperfectly studied, where complications are many and _ their
unraveling presents unusual difficulties. It is only by the applica-
tion of the most modern chemical and physical methods that a solu-
tion can be hoped for; hence it is not strange that many of the earlier
observations were faulty and misleading, and that only partial knowl-
edge has been attained as yet.

Since there is no positive evidence that the valence of zirconium
is ever other than four, there is at least a helpful simplicity in this
regard. In the ionization of its compounds two varieties of ions are
definitely known, namely, the quadrivalent zirconium Zr and the bi-
valent zirconium monoxide ZrO, which has no independent existence.
It has been reported that the sesquioxide ion (also bivalent), Zr2O3, has
been found under certain conditions, but this has been brought into
question by later work. Recently it has been suggested that both
the quadrivalent elementary ion and the bivalent zirconyl ion may
be present in the same compound. While this is not impossible, it
does not appear to be the only explanation of the results obtained.
The complex ions have been found by various investigators to migrate
with the negative stream as well as with the positive. This, of
course, is to be expected in true chemical compounds where one is
dealing with an amphoteric element. Sometimes it is doubtless to
be attributed to the colloidal nature of the product under examina-
tion.

Zirconium forms binary compounds with a number of the ele-
ments. The evidence is against the existence of a hydride ZrHg.
The hydride reported as ZrH2 may contain only absorbed hydrogen.
This hydrogen is lost at a higher temperature. Nitrogen combines
with the heated element, forming various compounds. This nitrogen
is also driven off below 1000°. Compounds with the halogens are
stable up to high temperatures and the oxide is dissociated only at
the temperature reached in an electric furnace.

The oxide ZrOz forms at least two hydroxides. The normal hy-
droxide, or zirconium hydroxide Zr(OH),, is easily hydrolyzed in the

(4d54

116 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February
presence of water. When water is excluded normal zirconium salts
can be formed from it. When hydrolyzed, zirconyl hydroxide ZrO
(OH)2 is formed. This hydroxide is amphoteric, behaving as a base
towards strong acids and as an acid towards strong bases. It shows
little tendency to form definite compounds with weak acids or bases.
As a base it gives zirconyl salts, and these may be hydrolyzed into
basic zirconyl salts. As an acid, called zirconic acid H2ZrOs, it forms
zirconates, chiefly with the alkalies and alkaline earths. These are
very slightly soluble in water and are decomposed by mineral acids.

Zirconium shows many and close analogies to the other elements
in the fourth group, both as to the compounds formed and their
chemical behavior. This analogy is especially close in the cases of
titanium and tin when they are quadrivalent. In limitation of val-
ence it is more like carbon and silicon. Its occurrence as the dioxide
is also characteristic of the group. The ease of hydrolysis and the
amphoteric character of the hydroxide are also group characteristics.

The outstanding characteristics of the compounds in which tetra-
valent zirconium is directly united with an acid radical is their marked
tendency to react with water. Ignorance of this or failure to consider
it has led to many mistakes on the part of earlier investigators.
Older statements represent such salts as the tetrachloride, the sul-
phate, the fluoride, and others as crystallizing unchanged from aqueous
solutions, but later investigators have shown that none of these
salts can exist in water solutions and most of them are unstable in
the presence of the slightest moisture.

Hydrolysis takes place not merely with readiness, the water pro-
duced in a gas burner hydrolyzing normal zirconium sulphate which
is being heated by it, but also to a far-reaching extent. The velocity
of the reaction and the extent depend upon the dilution, the tempera-
ture, and the time. The content of such a solution then is determined
by its previous history. The hydrolysis is progressive and the acid
radical may be gradually liberated until very little is left in combina-
tion, the small remaining portion being held probably by adsorption.
In the case of the chloride, for instance, the amount of chlorine left
has been found to be about 3 p.c. of the amount originally present,
and this is no longer precipitated by silver nitrate unless first treated
with nitric acid. When dialyzed this chlorine is found with the
colloidal hydroxide in the hydrogel. This hydrogel consists in the
main of zirconyl hydroxide. Experiments with the sulphate yield
similar results. The normal hydroxide is unstable in the presence of

1921) THE CHEMICAL BEHAVIOR OF ZIRCONIUM 117

water, losing one molecule of water and changing to zirconyl hydroxide.
It is more easily soluble in acids than zirconyl hydroxide. At various
stages in the hydrolysis the addition of ammonium hydroxide will
give precipitates of different composition. These have been con-
sidered by some as new hydroxides, but there is little proof that they
are not mere mixtures. It has been suggested that there are two
hydroxides with the formula ZrO(OH)2, ordinary zirconyl hydroxide,
which is amphoteric, and a metazirconic acid. No salts of the latter
are definitely known and its existence has been disputed.

While in all cases the hydrolysis is progressive, it is almost certain
that all the molecules do not react with water at the same time, and
hence at any one time various stages of hydrolysis may be present
in a solution. It is common, however, for one of the stages to pre-
ponderate. It may therefore be possible to observe definite steps in
the progression when there are formed basic zirconyl compounds
which either separate by precipitation because of their insolubility
or by crystallizing with molecules of water, forming difficultly-sol-
uble salts, or otherwise afford indications of their presence through
physical tests such as electrical conductivity, thermo-chemical data, *
cryoscopic determinations, etc. One of the most frequently occuring
of these basic compounds is Zr,O;C],., known as Endemann’s chloride.
Its analogues are Zr.0;.S0., Zr.O;(NOs:)2, Zr.0;(SCN)., and others.
These have always been obtained in the hydrated condition, and it
has been observed that the last portion of the water is removed with
considerably greater difficulty. This fact, combined with that of
leaving the colloidal hydroxide on dialysis, leads to the suggestion
that the formulas be written ZrO(OH)..ZrOC1., ZrO(OH)>».ZrOSO,,
etc. These indicate the degree and order of the hydrolysis. Thus
the steps are ZrCl.+H.O=ZrOCl.+2HCl; 2ZrOCl.+H.O0= ZrO
(OH)..ZrOCl.+2HCIl. In the first stage all of the tetrachloride is
hydrolyzed. In the second, one-half of the zirconyl chloride is hy-
drolyzed and the colloidal hydroxide formed either combines chemi-
cally with the zirconyl chloride or forms an adsorption compound
with it. It is difficult in this and a number of similar cases to con-
ceive of these substances where the composition is definite and the
conditions of formation are accurately known as other than definite
chemical compounds. Thus at a temperature of 39.5° between the
dilutions 1: 4 and 1: 120 the sulphate Zr(SO.). is hydrolyzed with
the production of a crystalline substance having the composition
4ZrO0..3504.14H.0, which may also be written ZrO(OH)..3ZrO.

118 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February
SO,.13H.O. This indicates a hydrolysis in the second stage of one
out of four molecules of ZrO.SO,. The velocity of this reaction
diminishes with decreasing temperature, and it has been found that
only 67 p.c. of the sulphate originally used go to the formation of
this product. The condition of the remainder in this case is unknown.
The crystalline basic sulphate just mentioned and other compounds
of like character show partly colloidal properties and have therefore
been classed by Hauser as half-colloids.

Again, the existence of an equilibrium reached in the hydrolysis
is indicated sometimes in measuring conductivity changes. Thus
in the case of the hydrolysis of a one-fourth normal solution of ZrOC1..
8H.O at 18° the change for the first sixty minutes is at an average
rate of 67 x 10-*° ohms per ce. per minute. For the next 168 hours
it averages only 0.014x10—> ohms per minute, indicating the slow
breaking down of a more stable compound or the retarding effect of
the liberated acid. This retarding effect of free acid is well known.
It can be inhibitory or even cause a reversal of the reaction. Thus
the addition of sulphuric acid to a partially hydrolyzed zirconyl sul-
phate solution when it reaches a certain concentration will bring about
the separation as crystals of the original zirconyl sulphate. Normal
zirconium sulphate crystallizes unhydrolyzed from sulphuric acid
containing only a few per cent of water. This inhibitory and reversal
effect is produced also by the presence of the salts of strong bases
like the alkalies. Anhydrous zirconium fluoride, for instance, is very
slowly and difficultly soluble in water. In solution it is hydrolyzed,
ZrF.= ZrOF..H.F.,.3H.O. This recrystallizes from water unchanged.
If considerably diluted, an amorphous basic zirconyl fluoride is pre-
cipitated. This formation of an acid salt with the liberated acid has
been noticed in a number of cases. If the water present is in small
amount, the hydrolysis is checked. If a salt of a strong base is added
(usually in excess) there is formed a double salt or complex which
does not hydrolyze. With potassium fluoride three complexes are
formed. First, we have KF.ZrF,.H.O, which can be formed only in
the presence of a large excess of zirconium fluoride and is decomposed
on re-solution in water. It should probably be written KF.ZrOF,.
H.F., lacking enough potassium fluoride to inhibit hydrolysis when
much water is added. The second salt, 2KF.ZrF,, crystallizes with-
out water of crystallization. It is very stable, giving off hydrofluoric
acid only at a red heat, and can be repeatedly recrystallized from
water. It is regarded as a salt of fluozirconic acid and, under that

1921] THE CHEMICAL BEHAVIOR OF ZIRCONIUM 119

supposition, its formula may be written K.ZrF,. It is formed when
the potassium fluoride and zirconium fluoride are mixed in equivalent
proportions.

Zirconium sulphate also affords a very instructive example of
hydrolysis. So complicated are the different directions which this
hydrolysis takes and so varied are the products formed that it has
been the subject of skilled investigation for the past two decades,
and many mistakes have been made from the earliest time up to the
present. Some of the problems involved still lack a satisfactory
solution. The normal sulphate was long supposed to exist in two
crystalline forms—the anhydrous, Zr(SO,)2, and the tetrahydrated,
Zr(SO,).4H.O. The first crystallized from concentrated sulphuric
acid and its formula is correctly given. The second crystallized from
aqueous solutions, presumably without change. It has been shown
since that the latter is really an hydrolysis product. The hydrolysis
proceeds as follows: Zr(SO,)..4H.O=Zr(SO,).+H,0+3H.0 = ZrOSO,.
H.S0,.3H.O. Of course, such hydrolysis would not be revealed by
analysis. A solution of this acid compound reacts with certain
reagents in a manner different from a freshly-prepared solution of
Zr(SO,). and which is only slightly hydrolyzed. If sulphuric acid is
added to this fresh solution of zirconium sulphate the same reactions
are shown. The mere presence of free acid might serve as an explana-
tion without the assumption of an acid compound but would leave
the inhibitory effect upon hydrolysis unexplained. Observations
based on physical methods also corroborate the view that an acid
compound is present. There seems to be no inherent obstacle to

H
so,

writing this formula as a hydrogen zircony! sulphate, BROS
SO
Hy Arete

Similar acid complexes are given with the nitrate, perchlorate, and
compounds with certain organic acids.

One of the other possible series of hydrolytic changes has also
been traced analytically. Zr(SO,).+H,O=ZrO(SO,).H,. 2ZrO(SO,);
H.+H.0=Zr.0;(SO.).H.+H.SO,. Electrolytic dissociation yields
respectively the anions ZrO(SO,). and Zr.0;(SO,).. These compounds
occur in solution along with strongly hydrolyzed basic zirconyl
products, as is evidenced by the composition of the precipitates ob-
tained from these solutions on the addition of alcohol. . Such preci-
pitates are usually poorly defined and seemingly amorphous. It

~

120 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February
has been found possible, however, to obtain by other means a well-
defined, crystalline product whose composition is represented by the
formula 8ZrO,.5SO;.14H,.O, and a potassium compound, 4ZrQ..
5SO;.K.0. The following additional scheme of hydrolysis has been
proposed:
A4Zr(SOxu)2 + 8H:O = Zry(SOxu)sHa + 2H2SO,
Zr4(SOu)e. (OH)s. Hy + 2H20 = Zra(SO,)s. (OH)s. He + 2H2SO,
Zr4(SO,)s. (OH)6. He + 2H20 = Zry(SO,)3(OH)10 + 2H2SO,
Zr4(SOx)2(OH) 1
2Zr4(SO4)3(OH)10 + 2H2O = SO, + H:SO,
Zr, (SO,)2(OH)n
The compounds Zr,(SO,).(OH);.H,.10H.O and 4H,O have been ob-
tained as crystals, and also the compounds Zr,(SO,);(OH):. and
(Zr.(SOs) (OH) 1:)280,.8H.0, but the compound Zr,(SO,);(OH)..H;
only in the form of an alkali salt. In preparing these the colloid is
removed by dialysis and these half-colloids crystallized from the
concentrated solutions.
The complex and varying products obtained by mixing a solution
of zirconyl sulphate with one of potassium sulphate have long been a
puzzle. In part, at least, mixtures of hydrolyzed substances are
formed. Recently it has been shown that if the mixed solutions are
concentrated over sulphuric acid definite compounds _ crystallize.
These show very well the influence of such a salt as potassium sul-
phate upon a progressing hydrolysis. When potassium sulphate is
used micro-crystalline needles with the composition K,Zr,(OH).
(SO,);.8H.O are obtained. In a solution strongly acid with sulphuric
acid the first crystals formed are K,Zr(SO,),; in weakly acid solutions
the composition is that of potassium-zirconium hydroxysulphate of
varying composition. These products hydrolyze on being treated
with water. If boiled with water, they become opalescent with
colloidal zirconium hydroxide. Following the crystallizations in
detail, the above-mentioned potassium-zirconium hydroxysulphate
K.Zr,(OH),(SO,);.8H.O forms a crystalline crust of needles. A
second crop of prismatic crystals is formed and this has the composi-
tion K,Zr(SO,)..5H,O. The first crystals in hydrolyzing increase
the free acid and bring about an equilibrium. The formation of the
second then begins and decreases the amount of free acid. The reac-
tion is thereupon reversed and the hydroxysulphate crystals form
once more.

1921] THE CHEMICAL BEHAVIOR OF ZIRCONIUM 121

In the preparation of certain compounds by precipitation methods
it has been found that the precipitate forms sometimes only after a
considerable lapse of time or upon heating the solution. This is
especially the case where weak acids, such as the organic acids, are
concerned. The compounds thus formed are found to be more or
less highly basic zirconyl salts or mixtures of such. It seems reason-
able to infer that the acid radical of the precipitant used formed only
soluble compounds with the less hydrolyzed salts and insoluble ones
with the more basic. It is possible also that in some cases these are
not true chemical compounds but adsorption compounds in which
the acid radical has been absorbed by the colloidal hydroxide. Some
of these products are distinctly gelatinous and can be washed and
filtered with difficulty. On the other hand, some are granular and
‘some distinctly crystalline. The hypothesis of colloidal compounds
is especially probable wherever the acid radical can be practically
removed or greatly reduced in amount by repeated washings of the
precipitate, as is true with iodic acid and some organic acids. When,
however, analysis reveals the same basic compound as being formed
under varied conditions of dilution, etc., as is the case with the basic
chromate, it may fairly be assumed that a definite chemical compound
has been formed.

There has been little system in the assignment of formulas to the
basic zirconyl compounds. Some have written them simply in the
ratio of the zirconia to the acid anhydride as 2ZrO..SO;. Others
report this basie zirconyl sulphate as ZrO..ZrOSO,.. Perhaps the
most common formula is Zr.0;.SO,. Such formulas fail to make
clear the known facts. These substances are often gelatinous and,
when hydrolysis is far advanced, the solutions become opalescent.
On dialyzing the solutions leave zirconyl hydroxide as a hydrogel.
Even the crystalline basic salts dialyze with difficulty and show partly
colloidal properties. They have been called half-colloids. Elec-
trolytic dissociation shows often a migration of the zirconyl radical
as an anion or a partition of the zirconium between the anions and
cations. It is well known that the migration of a colloid is largely
influenced by the medium. Furthermore, there is practically always
water of hydration or crystallization present. Considering these
facts, it is suggested that the most suitable formula for these basic
salts would have to include the zirconyl hydroxide. Thus ZrO,.
ZrOSO, becomes ZrO(OH)..ZrOSO, and Zr.0;Cl. becomes ZrO(OH)..
ZrOCl,. This reveals at a glance the stepwise formation of the

~

122 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

colloid and the liberation of the acid, e. g., ZrCl+H.,0=ZrOCl.+
QHC]; 2ZrOCl.+2H.,0=ZrO(OH):.ZrOCl.+2HCl. Where several
molecules of ZrOCl, are hydrolyzed at one step more complex prod-
ucts will result. This method of writing the formulas has therefore
been adopted throughout this text wherever accurate knowledge of
the composition of the substance was available.

The tetrahalides of zirconium, especially the tetrachloride, form
a number of substitution compounds with organic substances. In
these all or half of the chlorine may be substituted. Thus acetic
acid and its homologues of the aliphatic series give compounds Zr
(C.H,0.)., or in general, ZrR, whereas benzoic acid and its homol-
ogues give ZrCl.(C.Hs.CO.), or ZrCl.R:». With the esters, ketones,
and aldehydes addition compounds are formed. Thus for the ben-
zoic ethyl ester compound the formula is ZrCl,(C.H;.CO..C.Hs)s.
Similar direct addition compounds are formed between ZrCl, and the
amines, the pyridin bases, etc. The tetrachloride has been suggested
as a catalyzing agent in organic synthesis by Fridel and Crafts.

CuapeE.t Hitt, N. C.

A PURE CULTURE METHOD FOR DIATOMS*

By Bert CUNNINGHAM
PLATE 9

At the suggestion of Dr. G. M. Smith of the Botany Department
of the University of Wisconsin the writer undertook the pure culture
of Algae. Among others, the Diatoms proved most abundant, and
therefore they were selected as the subject of further work.

Beyerinck (1890) seems to have been the first to apply the idea
of Koch (1882), i. e., the use of a solid media to the culture of Algae.
He succeeded in securing a culture of a protoccoid in a mixture of
gelatine and sterile pond water. Miquel (1892) was the first to
secure a Diatom in pure culture. He made an artificial nutrient
with sterile sea water and inoculated it with a couple of drops of
plankton material and then started cultures by fractional subdivision.
In 1900 Allen and Nelson used the same method but with a variation
of nutrient. West (1916) thought the method of Allen and Nelson
to be good but suggested that the materials should be poured into
Petrie dishes and, after a few days, the colonies should be pipetted
out. Richter (1903-11) secured Nitzschia palea and Navicula minus-
cula by the use of synthetic agar plates. His technique will be dis-
cussed later. Pringsheim (1912-13) used the agar method for grow-
ing and separating of Oscillaria and Nostoc. He mentioned the
occurrence of Diatoms but apparently did not follow them up.

Returning now to the technique of Richter. This is given in his
Zur Physiologie der Diatomeen, published in 1909. In 1906 he started
a culture of Diatoms with Fucus serratus and placed them in an
atmosphere of hydrogen-sulfid. This reagent killed the bacteria but
seemed to have no serious effect upon the Diatoms. This had been
previously shown by Molisch. The Diatoms secured in this man-
ner were colorless and identified as Nitzschia putrida Benecke. Later,
in 1906, he secured pure cultures by dipping a tube in raw cultures,
holding it for a minute and then dipping it into sterile sea water.
The cultures secured in this way were placed on agar plates. At
this time he used also another method. A small piece of agar was
suspended in sterile sea water which had been inoculated with a few
drops of plankton material. In the course of a few days the diatoms
had reached the agar and attached themselves to it. Practically

* Presented at the Botany Seminar., Univ. Wis., Feb. 1920.
[ 123 }

124 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

pure cultures were thus secured. These colonies also were trans-
planted to Petrie dishes.

Such methods might serve well where the great majority of the
Diatoms are of one species and where there is no great contamination
of other forms, but would hardly be successful when used with the
ordinary fresh water plankton. The method which we propose here
is based upon these previous methods but has a number of variations.
In the first place we used artificial media. It was made after the
formula suggested by Moore (as given by Kiister) for the culture of
Algae, as follows:

AmmoniumEeNitrate::). o.se. a6 eee oe oO) Os
Dipotassiumy Phosphates. .-2- pe ese a eee $2078
CaleumyChlondls ..... isi soccer ail, fe.
Maenesiumstliate. 5:5 02.5 caret eierere Ce .2 gr.
RerniGiSUliaterc cs... 2s. sates « acl Choe ele erate trace
Distilled’ water?2: = ...... 0.2. soo. 3s a ee 1000 ce.

(Special low conductivity)

This differs from the formulae usually given for Diatoms in that
it contains no added Silicon compound. Chemical analysis of our
agar, however, showed Silicon to be present and an examination of
the agar filtered through cotton showed the presence of some marine
Diatom shells. A 2% solution was now made up with this nutrient
and washed agar. The material was sterilized in test tubes and
retained in them until needed. It was then melted and poured into
Petrie dishes. When it had cooled somewhat, but not hardened, a
drop of pond water was placed on it and washed around. The plate
was then hardened and was turned up-side-down upon the cover and
placed under a bell jar in the green house. After from three to four
weeks, there were colonies of various organisms, large enough to be
spaded out. This was accomplished by the use of a platinum needle.
The colony thus dissected out was examined under the microscope
and if not too badly contaminated, it was stirred up in sterile water
and replated on new agar plates. These plates were likewise placed
under culture conditions and in a few weeks had well formed colonies.
In case all the colonies were not of the same species, colonies were
dissected out and replated. Thus far this second plating in all our
cases, has given us pure cultures. In this manner we have secured
four species of Diatoms.*
tha latter of Whit has beeeaiorously worked onb by tue care eta ae
ee eee The four species of diatoms thus secured have been identified by Dr. J. J.

Noscuie mania ines

Nitzschia amphioxys (Ehr.) Grun.
Nitzschia palea Wm. Smith.

1921) A PurE CuLtuRE METHOD FoR DIATOMS 125

Diatoms, as well as bacteria, have, in some cases, well defined
contour of colony. Each of the species we have cultured shows a
decided difference. The first type is that of a spreading form. It
soon comes to cover the entire plate with a film of individuals. A
plate of this form is shown in fig. 1. A colony of this type is easy to
secure since one has but to dip down between the colonies in an old
plate and make cultures from this “dip.’’ Another form of colony
is shown in fig. 2. Here we find the colony margin to be restricted
and the form more or less radiate, with the organisms rather evenly
distributed over the area. A third form of colony is somewhat
similar to the latter, but differs in that the central area is much more
thickly settled than the margin. This thickened area occurs before
the gradual spread as is easily seen from fig. 3. Perhaps the more
characteristic form ‘is that assumed by the last type which we call
the sheaf type. Fig. 4 is of this type.

We are satisfied that we have not in any degree studied all the
forms that may be cultured in this manner, since a number of forms
were found in the first plates which we did not have time to follow
up, and further, our original pond water did not contain a great
number of forms.

Diatoms cultured in this manner are easily cleaned and prepared
for examination. The various colonies are spaded out, placed in a
test tube and the agar dissolved in boiling water. The solution is
centrifuged with a small centrifuge and the precipitate is washed
several times with hot water, the centrifuge being used each time
for concentration. After all the agar has been removed the Diatoms
may be either burned upon the cover glass or cleaned with sulfuric
acid and bichromate. After thorough washing they are kept in 50%
alcohol.

The pure culture methods open up several fields of work. First,
the physiology of a species may be studied as was done by Richter.
Second, the classification of the groups may be studied. We think
this last point one of great interest. It is fairly well known that
species have been made upon the description of a single valve. By
this method, if the species will grow on agar, both shells would be
available for study and any differences could be noted. Rare forms
may be secured. Again, there is probably great variation among
the Diatoms, as elsewhere, and probably the majority of these variants
would show up in these cultures, thus species could be minimized.
If there should be any doubt as to the common ancestry of all the

126 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [| February

species on a plate, the Barber pipette could be used to isolate a single
specimen as the progenitor.

While we do not believe that this method will be available for all
species of Diatoms, yet we feel sure that if it is applied to the forms
which will grow upon agar, a number of interesting results will follow.

Duruaw, N. C.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 9.

Fig. 1. Photograph of an agar plate of Nitzschia amphiorys. Reduced one-half.

Fig. 2. Photograph of a portion of an agar plate of Navicula atomus. X20.

Fic. 3. Photograph of a portion of a colony on an agar plate of Navicula minus-
cula. X50.

Fic. 4. Photograph of a portion of an agar plate of Nitzschia palea X20.

LITERATURE CITED

Beyerinck. 1890. Kultureversuche mit Zoochlorellen, uns. Bot. Zeit., Vol. 48,
pp. 725-785.

MiquEL. 1892, 1893, 1898. Recherches experimentales sur la physiologie, la
morphologie, et la pathologie des Diatomees. Annales de Micrographie. Dates
as above.

Miquel 1903, 1904. Le Microg. Preparateur.

ALLEN AND Neuson. 1900. On the artificial culture of marine plankton. Journal
Marine Biol., Vol. 8, No. 5.

Kisrer. 1907. Kulture der Microorganism.

Ricuter. 1909. Physiologie der Diatomeen. II Mitteilung.

PrINGSHEIM. 1912. Kultureversuche mit Chlorophyllfiihrenden Mikro-organ-

ismen. Zeit. z. Biol. der Pflanzen. Vol. XI, 305-332.
1913. Pt. II of above. Vol. XII, 1-108.
West. 1916. Algae, Vol. I.

Be

THE OCCURRENCE OF UNLIKE ENDS OF THE CELLS OF
A SINGLE FILAMENT OF SPIROGYRA

By Bert CUNNINGHAM
PuaTE 10

Wolle in his Fresh Water Algae of the United States first divides

the genus Spirogyra into two groups, based upon the condition of
the ends of the cells. In case they are replicate as represented in
figure 5 they are placed in one group, while if they are plane as in-
dicated in figure 6 they are placed in the other. DeToni! makes the
same distinction. West? also uses this character as a means of classifi-
cation, but, adds concerning the former “‘it (i. e., the replicate ends)
is a character which is constant for the species for which it is found,
although the ingrowths are not necessarily present at the extremity
of every cell in the filament.”
Since there are no specific cases cited by West, and since the
occurrence is not described by Wolle or DeToni, and since the writer
has found such a phenomenon occurring, it was thought to be worth
noting.

The material was collected in the spring of 1917 in an intermittent
pool along with considerable Vaucheria. The species may be de-
scribed as follows:

Cell membrane replicate at the ends in at least half of the cases
examined; chlorophyll band single, usually about four turns; con-
jugation scalariform; vegetative cell length about 200 mu, width
about 25 mu; zygote cell length about 175 mu, width about 40 mu;
zygote somewhat spindle-shaped; length 70 mu, width about 35 mu.
This follows so closely the description for S. spreeiana Rahb., that
the writer places it in this species.

The accompanying figures illustrate more clearly than words
the phenomenon. Figure 1 is a diagrammatic drawing (in which no
effort has been made to represent the shape of the cell or zygote)
of a pair of conjugating filaments. Each cell is indicated as it
occurred in the filament. Those marked with double arrows are
replicate while the others are plane. Those in which we were unable to
determine the nature of the end we have indicated by?. Cells preparing
to conjugate are indicated bya P. Figure 2 is a diagrammatic drawing

1Svlloge Algarum.
2 British Fresh Water Algae. (1904).
27)

128 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

of another pair of conjugating filaments, in which the points are in-
dicated as in figure 1. Figure 3 is a microphotograph of the pair
of filaments diagrammed in figure 1. This isa water mount. Figure
4 is a microphotograph showing the differences between the ends of
the cells.

The phenomenon occurs freely in the «ollected material and
seems to be natural. The writer has made no attempt at explanation
of the cause. However, efforts were made to germinate the spores
formed but they were unsuccessful. The failure to germinate was
most probably due to laboratory conditions. )

DuruaM, N.C.

PLATE 10

Lae t
as ?

Snare

r@to|

Aa

la

leloloist
See eiceieian aa

ols iMmMiel-’ @el¢

i Se Re a RZ.)

aiid

SOME MARINE MOLLUSCAN SHELLS OF BEAUFORT AND
VICINITY

By Artuur P. Jacor
PuaTeEs 11-13.

While at Beaufort, N. C., during the summers of 1915 and 1916,
the writer took the opportunity to collect what marine molluscan
shells were procurable by beach picking. A study of the material
thus gathered and of the fragmentary and scattered condition of the
literature on the mollusca of this region have led me to present this
summary for what possible short cuts it might give future workers on
this subject.

Four papers on the shells of this region have come to my notice.
In 1860 W. Stimpson published a paper, Mollusca of Beaufort, N. C.,
in the Am. Jour. Sci., ser. II, vol. X XIX, p. 442. When reading
his article it should be born in mind that he confounds Cape Lookout
with Cape Hatteras. Eleven years later E. Coues included in his
Notes on the Natural History of Fort Macon and Vicinity in the Proc.
Phil. Acad. Sci., vol. XXIII, p. 120 (131), 1871, a list of the shells
of this region. Again eleven years later H. L. Osburn published
in the Studies from Biol. Lab. John Hopkins Uni., vol. IV, p. 64,
1887, some interesting Notes on Mollusca Observed at Beaufort, N. C.
Then in 1912, H. D. Aller’s Notes on Distribution of the More Common
Bivalves of Beaufort, N. C. appeared in this Journal, vol. XXVIII,
p. 76. Kurtz, Catalogue of the Shells of N. & S. Carolina, 1860, is
a list without localities. Thus this locality is no new field and prom-
ises to be one of importance.

Beaufort is the mid-most of North Carolina’s harbors or outlets
to the sea. Situated 10 miles northwest of Cape Lookout and 95 miles
northeast of Cape Fear, it is the only outlet for the waters of the ex-
tensive sounds lying back of and between these two Capes. Thus
two distinct faunal areas are brought in direct contact and an outside
or deep-water silt fauna added.

The Molluscan fauna of this region is typical of the east coast
of the United States and yet is so situated as to receive West Indian
as well as northern species. Two distinct faunas are represented,
that of the outer beach or sea and that of the sounds or quiet water.
The sea fauna is one characteristic of the whole coast of the state,
i. e., a hard sand bottom with mud opposite the inlets. The only

[ 129 ]

130 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

exception to this is the rock breakwaters at the inlet and at Cape
Lookout. The sound fauna may be much divided and classified as
to depth, salinity, character of bottom, plant association and current.
This would form an interesting study once the shell fauna is better
known. See also Coues.

The following list is a composite of the above mentioned lists
and my collecting. The initials (S C O A J) following the name of
the species refer to the names of those reporting the presence of that
species. The reference below the name of the species is to a good
illustration or description. Some of the material collected may be
fossil, as indicated. Some of these fossil looking shells are greenish
to bluish-black and of a dead to chalky appearance. This may be
due to having lived in mud of that color. Shells are similarly dis-
colored from Massachusetts southward, especially such species as
Anomia simplex, Pecten gibbus, Ostrea virginica, etc. The smaller
Gastropods recorded as fossil (not discolored) were thrown on the
beaches by a channel dredge which dumped excavated material on
the sand bars and grassy flats.

AMPHINEURA
Chaetopleura apiculata Say. SCOJ
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 51, fig. 10.
Uncommon, inside, about break-waters.

PELECYPODA

Solemya velum Say. SCOAJ

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 37, fig. 3.

Locally abundant, sand flats, Town Marsh behind draw. (See Aller.)
Nucula proxima proxima Say. SC AJ

Md. Geo. Sur., Plio.-Pleistocene, pl. 65, figs. 1-4.

Fairly common, in the channels.
Leda acuta (Conrad). SCJ

Md. Geo. Sur., Plio.-Pleistocene, pl. 65, figs. 5-8.

Fairly common, sand flats, Bird Island.
Yoldia limatula (Say). SCJ

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 49, fig. 5 and pl. 56, fig. 1.

Uncommon, sand, dredged (Coues); only fragments found.
Glycymeris americana (Defrance). S? J

Outline regular, ribs radially striate.

Occasional outside, much worn.
Glycymeris pectinata (Gmelin). SCJ

Figure 45.

Uncommon to rare, outside, my specimens all fossil-looking.
Arca occidentalis Philippi. SC J

Figures 48 and 17646.

1921) MarInE Mo.LuuscaNn SHELLS OF BEAUFORT 131

Less common than the next (Coues), vice versa J, outer beach.

This is the American variety of Linné’s A. noae.

Three or four smaller ribs between the large ones.

Arca umbonata Lamarck. C J
Figure 56.
Occasional, outer beach.
This is the American variety of the European A. imbricata.
Large and small ribs alternating, somewhat reticulate.
Arca (Barbatia) reticulata Gmelin. J

Figure 13.

Two fragments of posterior portion of valve; inside.
Arca (Noetia) ponderosa Say. SCAJ

Md. Geo. Sur., Plio.-Pleistocene, pl. 64, figs. 1-6, and figures 51 and 1019.

Common, inside and out (see Aller).

Specimens very much elongated posteriorly are rarely met. They approach
the ancestral form A. limaula Conrad. I have figured one of these speci-
mens, figure 54. (See also Coues.)

Arca (Scapharca) secticostata Reeve. SCJ

Figures 55 and 119.

Occasional, outer beach.

My specimens are worn but do not look fossil.

Arca (Scapharca) incongrua Say. SCJ

Figures 52, 53 and 1021.

The most abundant of the genus, outside.

Arca (Scapharca) transversa Say. COA J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 56, fig. 2; and figs. 50 and 076a.

Fairly common inside.

Could some of Coues’ A. lienosa have been this species? The name has often
been applied to A. secticostata.

Arca (Scapharca) campechiensis Dillwyn. SC AJ

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 56, fig. 16; and figs. 49 and 181.

Common, inside.

Specimens approaching the elongate South Carolina variety A. americana
(with 35 ribs), are seldom found.

Atrina rigida (Dillwyn). SAJ

Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, p. 432, fig. 1.

Uncommon outside, occasional inside. (See also Aller.)

This is the long-spined form.

Atrina serrata (Sowerby). S C? J
Rogers, Shell Book, p. 410, fig. 1.
Fairly common on mud flats, commoner outside.
Pteria radiata Leach.
Reeve, Conch. Icon., Avicula, pl. 6, fig. 10; and pl. 7, fig. 14.
One pair of attached valves, 11 mm. along hinge line.
Pteria eximia Reeve.

Reeve, Conch. Icon., Avicula, pl. 16, fig. 62, and figures 7 and §.

Common on sea fan (Leptogorgia virgulata) in shallow water. Found on parts
of the sea-fan which are black and bare of zooids, with the long wing di-

132 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

rected upward and outward so that they look like a dead stump or part of
the fan.

Although Stimpson and Coues report Pteria colymbus (Dillwyn), I was unable
to find a trace of it. The material which I have called P. eximia agrees
perfectly with Reeve’s A. eximia and the specimens were quite common
on the fans. I have been unable to find any mention of this form. If
Reeve’s name should be preoccupied or subsequently taken, I would call
the species P. eximioides. Some of my material has been deposited in the
American Museum under Cat. No. 4998.

Ostrea virginica Gmelin. SCOAJ
Md. Geo. Sur., Plio.-Pleistocene, pls. 61-63.
Abundant inside, mostly on mud flats, forming extensive banks locally called

“Tocks.”’
Ostrea equestris Say. SC
See Coues.

“ Abundant; adhering to rocks with Modiola and Mytilus.”
Pecten (Plagioctenium) gibbus irradians Lamarck. SC J
Rogers, Shell Book, p. 411, fig. J.
Abundant, outside, inside on sand in the deeper water.
Normal number of ribs is 18-20, most common number is 19; rarely brilliant
as P. gibbus; prefers open, clear water, and usually a greater depth than
P. gibbus.
Pecten (Plagioctenium) gibbus gibbus Linné. SCOAJ
Common, inside on quiet mud flats, west of Piver’s Island.
Normal number of ribs is 19-22, most common number is 20, usually brightly
colored, shows preference to quiet water.
Pecten nodosus Linné. SC J
Rogers, Shell Book, p. 418, fig. 1.
Coues reports a beach worn valve; half a fresh valve was picked up on Shackle-
ford Bank in August, 1916.
Plicatula gibbosa Lamarck. S C J
Figures 85.
Occasional inside.
Lima inflata Lamarck. S C J
Rare, inside, largest have a vertical height of 14 mm., the riblets are obsolete
through the center of the dise. Live specimens found by Dr. Hyman
differ in being relatively stouter, more inflated, broader, and in being cov-
ered by rounded, unequal, radial wrinkles. Vertical height, 13 mm.
Anomia simplex Orbigny. SCOAJ
Rogers, Shell Book, p. 419, figs. 4 and 6.
Abundant inside.
Mytilus (Hormomya) exustus Linné. A J
Figures 1, 2 and 3.
Common, on breakwaters.
Stimpson and Coues report Mytilus cubitus Say (Modiolus citrinus Bolten)
probably for this species.
They also report Mytilus edulis.
Mytilus recurvus Rafinesque. C J

PLATE 11

23 24.

a

1921] MariInE MOo.LuuscaNn SHELLS OF BEAUFORT 133

Rogers, Shell Book, p. 388, fig. 2.

Occasional inside.

Modiolus (Brachydontes) demissus demissus (Dillwyn). SCOAJ

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 54, fig. 1.

Abundant, inside on the grassy tidal flats.

Modiolus tulipus Lamarck. SC AJ
Dall, U. &. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 54, fig. 4.
Rogers, Shell Book, p. 396, fig. 6.
Fragments (rarely entire valves) occasional on outer beach. (See Aller.)
Coues also reports a live specimen of Modiola castanea Say from the channel.
Modiolaria lateralis (Say). SJ

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 6, figs. 7 and 8.

One young pair of valves from Piver’s Island has been referred to this species.
Lithophaga bisulcata (Orbigny). A

“Railroad pier at Morehead City, burrowing into pieces of coral and soft rock.
Maximum length is 46 mm.”

Osborn records Lithodomus lithophagus Linné, stating that: ‘‘ Numerous speci-
mens are found boring into the surface of wharf-piles beneath the bark.”

Rocellaria stimpsoni Tryon. SCO ;
“Shells of Venus mercenaria riddled with holes” of this species.
Pandora trilineata Say. SCJ

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Proc., vol. 24, pl. 31, fig. 4, ef. pl. 32, fig. 7.

Uncommon, inside, mud flats.

Some of my material approaches P. trilineata gouldiana Dall. Stimpson and
Coues report Lyonsia hyalina (Conrad).

Crassatellites mactracea (Linsley). SC J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 58, figs. 11 and 18.

Occasional, inside.

Unworn individuals are well striated.

Venericardia (Pleuromeris) tridentata Say. SCJ

Figures 9 and 10.

Occasional, inside.

Chama congregata Conrad.
Md. Geo. Sur., Miocene, pl. 41, figs. 1-3.
Occasional, upper valve fairly common, inside.
Chama macerophylla Gmelin. SCO

Reeve, Conch. Icon., vol. 4, pl. 2, fig. 6; and pl. 8, fig. 6b.

Reported abundant by Coues and rare by Osborn, I was unable to find any-
thing that I would refer to this species. The largest of my Chamas s. s.
have a greatest length of 24 mm. and have no foliaceous scales.

Echinochama arcinella (Linné). SC J
Rogers, Shell Book, pl. 357, fig. 3.
Uncommon (two specimens), outer beach.

Lucina chrysostoma Philippi. SCOJ

Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, p. 444, fig. 5.

Common, ovter beach.

Phacoides (Callucina) radians (Conrad).

Dall, U.S. Nat. Mus. Proc., vol. 23, pp. 809 and 824, pl. 42, fig. 8.

.

134 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

One worn right valve.

Phacoides (Parvilucina) multilineatus (Tuomey & Holmes). A J
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Proc., vol. 23, p. 825, pl. 39, fig. 2.
Common, inside.

Divaricella quadrisulcata (Orbigny). SCOAJ
Dall, U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 58, fig. 6.

Common, both inside and out.
Called Lucina strigillia by Stimpson and Coues.
No specimens of D. dentata were found, ditto Aller.

Diplodonta soror (C. B. Adams). S C J

Figure 172.
Five valves, inside.

“This well-characterized species is notable for its microscopic shagreening
on the posterior slope and the compression of that part of the valve”

(Dall).

Aligena elevata (Stimpson).

Dall, U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 68, fig. 6.
Two left valves, inside.

Montacuta (Orobitella) floridana Dall.

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Proc., vol. 21, pl. 87, fig. 10.
Two right valves, inside.

Cardium (Trachycardium) isocardia Linné. SC A J
Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, p. 454, fig. 2.
Occasional, both inside and out.

Cardium (Trachycardium) muricatum Linné. SC AJ
Rogers, Shell Book, p. 356, fig. 3.

Oceasional, inside and out. (See Aller.)

Cardium (Cerastoderma) robustum Solander. SCOAJ
Rogers, Shell Book, p. 356, fig. 2.

Very abundant on outer beach.

Cardium (Laevicardium) serratum Linné. SC J
Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, p. 454, fig. 3.
Occasional, mostly inside.

Cardium (Laevicardium) mortoni Conrad. SC AJ
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 58, fig. 8.
Fairly common, inside.

Dosinia (Dosinidia) discus (Reeve). SCOAJS
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Proc., vol. 26, pl. 12, fig. 1; and pl. 13, fig. 1.
Common, inside and out. (See Aller.)

D. elegans Conrad is undoubtedly present but I am unable to report it.

Macrocallista nimbosa (Solander). SCOAJ
Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, p. 450, fig. 2.

Common on the sandy beaches a few inches deep between tide lines.

Coues for general notes.)

Macrocallista (Chionella) maculata (Linné). S J
Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, p. 450, fig. 3.
One valve, inside.

Callocardia (Agriopoma) morrhuana (Linsley). C J

(See

1921] MarRINE MOLLUscAN SHELLS OF BEAUFORT 135

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 56, fig. 15.

Abundant on outer beach, generally discolored as mentioned by Coues. If
the habitat of this species is the mud opposite the inlet tbe coloration
would be accounted for, as the valves do not look fossil and have the color
of the fine, blue mud just outside the inlet.

Chione cancellata (Linné). SCOAJ
Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, p. 450, fig. 1.
Abundant, inside on mud at low water. (See Aller.)
Osborn uses Dillwyn’s name C. cingenda.

Chione (Lirophora) latilirata (Conrad). SJ
Dall, Trans. Wagner Free Inst., vol. 3, pl. 42, fig. 3.
One valve on outer beach.

Chione (Timoclea) grus (Holmes). S J
Figures 4, 5 and 6.

Fairly common, inside.

Called C. pygmaea by Stimpson.

Venus mercenaria Linné. SCOAJ
Rogers, Shell Book, p. 322, figs. 4 and 6.

Abundant, inside in mud near surface between tides.

Venus mercenaria notata Say.

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 57, fig. 1.

Recorded by Coues.

Venus campechiensis Gmelin. SCJ
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Proc., vol. 26, p. 377.
Common inside. (See Coues.)

Venus campechiensis quadrata Dall.

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Proc., vol. 26, p. 377.

One specimen, inside.

Gemma gemma purpurea (H. C. Lea). CJ
Dall, Trans. Wagner Free Inst., vol. 3, pl. 24, figs. 2, 4 and 4b.
Occasional, at least inside.

Petricola (Petricolaria) pholadiformis Lamarck. SC AJ
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 59, fig. 15.
Rogers, Shell Book, p. 322, fig. 3.

Fairly common, inside. (See Aller.)

Petricola (Petricolaria) dactylus Sowerby. A
Figures 42 and 306.

“Railroad pier at Morehead City.”

Petricola (Rupellaria) typica (Jonas). A
Figure 46.

“Railroad pier at Morehead City.”

Tellina (Merisca) lintea Conrad.

Figure 41.

Fairly common, inside.

Tellina (Eurytellina) alternata Say. SCOAJ
Figure 38.

Fairly common, inside. (See Osborn.)

136 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

Tellina (Angulus) tenera Say. SCJ
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 56, fig. 13.
Occasional, inside.
Tellina (Angulus) versicolor DeKay. S J
Shape as 7’. tenera but rayed with pink.
Less common than preceding, inside.
Tellina (Angulus) sayi Deshayes. SC J
Thick; with a raised rib running from under the beaks inside.
The commonest Tellina, inside.
Called T. polita by Stimpson and Coues.
Tellina (Scissula) iris Say. SCO
Surface obliquely grooved; with radiating pink rays.
Rare, inside, sand.
Tellidora cristata Récluz. SJ
Figure 47.
Three valves, inside.
Strigilla flecuosa (Say). SCJ
Dall, U. S. Bur. Fish. Bull., vol. 20, pt. 1, p. 482, 1901.
Occasional, inside.
Macoma tenta (Say). SCAJ
Dall, U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 56, fig. 10.
Two right valves, uncommon, inside.
Macoma (Psammacoma) brevifrons (Say).
Dall, U. S. Bur. Fish. Bull., vol. 20, pt. 1, p. 481, pl. 55, figs. 3, 12 and 18.
One right valve, inside.
Semele bellastriata (Conrad). 8? J
Dal], U. S. Bur. Fish. Bull., vol. 20, pt. 1, p. 477, 1901.
One worn right valve, inside.
Stimpson’s record is S. reticulata.
Semele proficua (Pulteney). SC AJ
Figure 126.
Fairly common, inside.
Called S. orbiculata by Stimpson and Coues.
Abra aequalis (Say). SCAJ
Figure 127.
Fairly common, inside.
Abra lioica Dall.
Figure 650.
Five valves, inside.
Cumingia tellinoides Conrad. SC J
Md. Geo. Surv., Plio.-Pleisto., pl. 56, figs. 1-5.
Uncommon, inside.
Tagelus gibbus (Spengler). SCOAJ
Md. Geo. Surv., Plio.-Pleisto., pl. 57, figs. 1-4.
Fairly common, inside. (See Aller.)
The young have no median ray, short nymphs and a longer pallial sinus than
T. divisus.

PLATE 12

1921] MarRINE MoLiuuscAN SHELLS OF BEAUFORT Sz

Tagelus (Mesopleura) divisus (Spengler). SC AJ
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 56, fig. 5.
Common, inside. (See Aller.)
Donax fossor Say.
Figures 16 and 17 (figure 16 is from Long Island, N. Y.).
Occasional, inside.
Osborn’s record, though under this name, is for the other species.
Donaz variabilis Say. SCOAJ
Figures 14 and 15 (figure 15 is from Long Island, N. Y.).
Abundant on sandy outer beaches, especially where somewhat protected. (See
Aller and Coues.)
Ensis directus (Conrad). SCOAJ
Dall, U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 53, fig. 4.
Occasional, inside. (See Aller.)
Ensis minor Dall.
Common on sandy shallow flats, inside.
Differs constantly from the previous in being smaller and more slender and
in having a tendency to be wider at posterior than anterior end.
Spisula (Hemimactra) solidissima (Dillwyn). SCOJ
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 57, fig. 2.
Common on outer beach.
Spisula (Hemimactra) solidissima raveneli Conrad.
Short, high form.
Coues’ record under this name undoubtedly refers to the previous.
Spisula (Hemimactra) solidissima similis (Say). SCA J
Smaller, thinner, finer form.
Fairly common, inside.
Mulinia lateralis (Say). SCAJ
Figure 12.
Abundant, inside.
Mulinia lateralis corbuloides (Deshayes).
Figure 11 (144).
Fairly common to occasional.
Labiosa lineata (Say). SCJ
Figure 44.
Uncommon, on ends of the banks. (See Coues.)
Labiosa (Raeta) canaliculata (Say). SCOJ
Rogers, Shell Book, p. 337, fig. 3.
Common, outside.
Mya arenaria Linné. SCJ
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 69, fig. 2.
Rogers, Shell Book, p. 323, fig. 7.
Uncommon, inside. I found three broken valves, one 214’ long, the others
under one inch, all fresh.
Paramya subovata Conrad. SC J
Md. Geo. Sur., Miocene, pl. 68, figs. 7 and 8.
Uncommon, aids. four valves.

138 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

Corbula (Cuneocorbula) contracta Say. SCJ
Md. Geo. Surv., Plio.-Pleisto., pl. 53, figs. 1-4.
Uncommon, inside.
The largest and commonest Corbula.
Corbula (Cuneocorbula) dietziana C. B. Adams.
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 2, figs. 7a—c.
Four young valves, inside.
Corbula (Cuneocorbula) swiftiana C. B. Adams.
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 2, figs. 5a and 5b.
A few valves, inside.
Panopea floridana Heilprin. SC J
Dall, Trans. Wagner Free Inst., vol. 3, pl. 10, fig. 21.
Rare, outside, one right valve.
Barnea (Scobina) costata Linné. S CO J
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 68, fig. 9.
Fairly common, outside.
Barnea truncata Say. SCJ
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 59, fig. 12.
Uncommon, inside.
Martesia cuneiformis Say. SO J
Johnson, Nautilus, vol. 18, p. 102, fig. 2.
“Found in dead shells of Venus.’’ One valve on Piver’s Island.
Martesia (Diplothyra) smithii (Tryon). A J
Johnson, Nautilus, vol. 18, p. 102, fig. 3.
“ Abundant, railroad pier at Morehead City.’’ Several in oyster shells.
Xylotrya gouldi Bartsch. O? A J
Sigerfoos, U. 8. Bur. Fish. Bull., vol. 27, pl. 11.
Abundant, boring in submerged wood.

GASTROPODA

Fissuridea alternata Say. SCOJ
Rogers, Shell Book, p. 227, fig. 2.
Occasional, inside. (See Osborn.)
Diadora sp.?
Probably new.
Two specimens.
Turbo castaneus Gmelin. SCJ
Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, pl. 67, fig. 4.
Rare, inside; two specimens.
Calliostoma comtum (Philippi). S C? O? J
Figure 43.
Occasional on jetties, especially of Shakleford Banks.
Cochliolepis striata Stimpson.
Dall, Trans. Wagner Free Inst., vol. 3, pl. 23, figs. 16 and 17.
Two specimens (8.5 mm. and 10.5 mm. long), inside.
Molleria costulata Moller.
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 72, fig. 9.
Three specimens, inside.

1921) MaRINE MOoLuLuscAN SHELLS OF BEAUFORT 139

Teinostoma floridana Dall.
Dall, Trans. Wagner Free Inst., vol. 3, p. 922, pl. 27, figs. 5, 6 and 9.
Two specimens, inside.
Teinostoma bartschi Vanatta.
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 65, pl. 2, figs. 9 and 11, 1913.
One specimen, inside.
Circulus trilix (Bush).
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 41, figs. 7 and 7a.
One specimen, inside.
Eulima conoidea Kurtz and Stimpson.
Dall, Trans. Wagner Free Inst., vol. 3, pl. 5, fig. 1).
Occasional, inside; three specimens.
Pyramidella crenulata Holmes. SC J
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 60, pl. 18, fig. 4.
Common, inside, on eel-grass beds.
Pyramidella candida MOrch.

“P. crenulata is larger, wider, with less sharply cut and less distinctly crenu-
lated suture; it is rarely light colored, the brown columella and anterior
plaits remaining dark even in pale specimens which are usually pinkish
and delicately maculated with brown. P. candida is pure white, sometimes
with an opaque white spiral line on middle of whorl, and generally one
fewer lirae on throat than preceding species.” Dall.

Turbonillas are common on the eel-grass beds. Among the commoner species
recognized are:
Turbonilla (Pyrgiscus) areolata Verrill.
ee se interrupta (Totten).
= 5 powhatani Henderson & Bartsch.
pseudointerrupta Bush, and varieties.
punicea Dall.
vineae Bartsch.
For further information see Bartsch, forthcoming monograph.
Odostomia (Odostomia) modesta (Stimpson).
Bartsch, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 34, pl. 13, fig. 50.
One specimen, inside.
Odostomia (Menestho) trifida (Totten).
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 52, fig. 8.
Three or four specimens, inside.
Odostomia (Menestho) impressa (Say). SCJ
Dall, U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 52, fig. 11.
Abundant, inside, on eel-grass beds.
Odostomia (Menestho) beauforti n. sp.

Similar to O. seminuda but averaging longer and more slender, with five raised
spiral bands, the fourth and fifth being more closely spaced than the other
three, the sutural band as prominent as the others on the last three whorls,
giving the whorls the appearance of having six raised spiral bands on the
last three whorls, translucent, bluish-white. Type No. 15728, Am. Mus.
Nat. Hist.

140 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

One specimen found on Piver’s Island. The writer suspects that this is a mu-
tation of O. seminuda but must suspend judgment until more extensive
collecting has been done in this region.

Odostomia (Chrysallida) seminuda C. B. Adams. SCJ
Bartsch, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 34, pl. 13, fig. 48.
Common, inside, eel-grass beds.

Odostomia (Chrysallida) toyatani Henderson & Bartsch.
Henderson & Bartsch, U. 8S. Nat. Mus. Proc., vol. 47, pl. 13, fig. 2.
Several specimens, inside, eel-grass beds.

Odostomia (Chrysallida) sp.?

Two specimens of what seems to be an undescribed species were found with the
others of this group. They are stouter than the last, and have eight
spiral cords which are alternately larger and smaller, and joined by very
prominent raised threads tending to give the base a reticulated appear-
ance. In the other species of this group these connecting radial threads
are rather inconspicuous.

Odostomia engonia teres Bush?
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 41, fig. 9.
Three specimens have been provisionally referred to this form.
Peristichia toreta Dall.
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 42, fig. 10.
Several, inside.
Epitonewm novemcostata (Morch).
Figure 22.
One specimen, inside.
Epitoneum humphreysii (Miener).

Figures 23 and 24.

Four specimens (two with 8 varices, one with 7, and one with 8 except last
whorl which has 10 varices), inside. (See Coues.)

Epitoneum angulata (Say). SJ
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 50, fig. 10.
Two specimens, inside.
Epitoneum multistriatum (Say). S$ J
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 50, fig. 5, and figure 28.
One specimen, inside.
Epitoneum novangliae (Couthouy). §S
Like above but slightly umbilicate.
Epitoneum lineata (Say). SCJ
Figures 26 and 27.
Occasional, inside. One specimen perforate.
Polynices (Neverita) duplicata (Say). SCOJ
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 51, fig. 12.
Fairly common, sand flats, inside. (See Osborn.)
Polynices (Neverita) duplicata campechiensis (Reeve).
Shell very depressed, umbilicus open.
Two typical individuals out of eleven and three intermediate ones.
Polynices (Euspira) heros (Say).
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 51, fig. 11.
Fragment of a four-inch specimen.

1921] MartIngE Mo.Luuscan SHELLS OF BEAUFORT 141

Natica (Cryptonatica) pusilla Say. C

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 50, fig. 21.

“Not common. ‘Two or three specimens dredged.”
Sigaretus perspectivus Say. SCOJT

Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, pl. 68, figs. 4 and 5.

Fairly common, inside and out. (See Coues or Osborn.)
Calyptraea centralis (Conrad).

Dall, Trans. Wagner Free Inst., vol. 3, p. 353.

One specimen, inside.
Crepidula fornicata Say. SCOJ

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 50, fig. 23.

Common, inside (see Osborn). Occasionally heavily ribbed by Pecien.
Crepidula glauca Say.

Gould, Invertebrata of Massachusetts, fig. 535, 1870.

Three specimens, inside.
Crepidula glauca convera Say. SCOJ

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 50, fig. 25.

Fairly common, inside.
Crepidula aculeata Gmelin.

Figures 39 and 40.

One specimen, inside, bluish and broken, possibly fossil.
Crepidula plana Say. SCOJ

Gould, Invertebrata of Massachusetts, fig. 533, 1870.

Fairly common. (See Osborn.)
Litiopa bombix Kiener.

Adams, Genera of Recent Shells, pl. 34, fig. 5a.

The protoconch is decussated with minute riblets.

One specimen among a lot of Sargasum weed.
Litorina irrorata Say. SCOJ

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 69, fig. 6.

Abundant on culms of marsh grass that is partially submerged at high tide.
Serpulorbis (Vermicularia) spirata (Philippi). SCOJ

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 51, fig. 4.

Two specimens, inside.
Caecum pulchellum Stimpson.

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 50, fig. 22.

Fairly common in sand.
Triphoris perversum nigrocinctum C. B. Adams. SCJ

Gould, Invertebrata of Massachusetts, fig. 522, 1870.

Occasional inside. }

The apex is not smooth in unworn specimens of this species but finely can-

cellated by radial riblets which cross two spiral threads.

Cerithiopsis (Eumeta) subulata Montagu.

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 52, fig. 1; and pl. 20, fig. 4

- Uncommon, inside.

For other species of this and the preceding, see forthcoming paper by Bartsch.
Seila adamsii H. C. Lea. SCOJ

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 52, fig. 5.

Common inside. (See Osborn.)

142 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

Cerithium floridanum Morch.

Dall, Trans. Wagner Free Inst., vol. 3, pl. 14, fig. 10.

Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, p. 326, fig. 4.

Four specimens.

Bittium (Diastoma) virginicum Henderson and Bartsch. § C OJ
Henderson and Bartsch, U. 8. Nat. Mus. Proc., vol. 47, p. 419, pl. 14, fig. 3.
Common, inside, on eel-grass beds.

Strombus pugilis Linné. SCO J

Rogers, Shell Book, p. 118, fig. 3.

Occasional outside, common in Lookout bight. (See Osborn.)

Called S. alatus by Stimpson and Osborn, none of this form was found by me.

Cypraea exanthema Linné. C J
Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, pl. 70, fig. 2.
Rare, outside; one only, ditto Coues.
Ovulum uniplicata Sowerby. S OJ

Rogers, Shell Book, p. 135, fig. 2.

Fairly common on sea fans (Leptogorgia virgulata). I have found both the
yellow and orange Leptogorgias under one wharf, each with Ovulum of its
own color. In company with them were Pteria eximia.

Dolium galea Linné. SCOJ
Rogers, Shell Book, p. 139, fig. 1.
Occasional on outer beach.

Cassis inflata Shaw. SCJ
Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, pl. 71, fig. 5.
Common on outer beach.

Cassis tuberosa Linné.
Rogers, Shell Book, p. 138, fig. 1; and p. 139, fig. 4.
Common on outer beach.

Eupleura caudata Say. SC OJ

Dall, U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 50, fig. 11.

Md. Geo. Sur., Plio.-Pleisto., pl. 49, figs. 7 and 8.

Occasional, inside and out.

Urosalpinz cinereus Say. CO J

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 50, fig. 6.

Md. Geo. Surv., Plio.-Pleisto., pl. 49, figs. 9 and 10.

Common, inside and out. (See Osborn.)

Purpura haemastoma Linné. SCO J
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 46, figs. 2a and 2b.
Common on the jetties.

Columbella (Anachis) avara Say. SCOJ

Figures 33 and 34.

Fairly common, inside and out. Out of 22 one has 10 ribs, eight have 11 ribs,
six have 12 ribs, five have 13 ribs, one has 14 ribs, and one has 15 ribs.

Columbella (Anachis) translirata Ravenel.
Figures 35 and 36.
Fairly common, inside and out.
Columbella (Anachis) translirata similis Ravenel.
Figure 32. Same as C. translirata but about half its size when adult.
One specimen, inside.

1921] MARINE MOLLUSCAN SHELLS OF BEAUFORT 143

Columbella (Anachis) obesa C. B. Adams. SCJ
Dall, U. S. Bur. Fish. Bull., vol. 20, pt. 1, p. 404, 1900.
Occasional, inside.

Columbella (Astyris) lunata Say. SCJ
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 50, fig. 16.
Common, inside.

Alectrion acuta Say.
Figures 30 and 31.
Two specimens, inside.

Alectrion (Hima) ambigua (Montagu). SJ

Figures 18, 19 and 20.

Three specimens, inside. These specimens differ from Haitian specimens by
having nine instead of thirteen or fourteen ribs and in being slightly less
shouldered.

Alectrion (Hima) vibex (Say). SCOJ

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 50, fig. 8.

Abundant, “‘on the grassy sand-flats at the edges of the salt marshes, where
it replaces A. obsoleta, found also, but less frequently, upon exposed mud-
flats.” Osborn.

Alectrion (Ilyanassa) obsoleta (Say). SCOJ

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 50, fig. 9.

Md. Geo. Surv., Plio.-Pleisto., pl. 49, figs. 3 and 4.

Very abundant, inside. (See Coues and Osborn.)

Figure 37 is a carinated form of this species.

Alectrion (Tritia) trivittata (Say). SCJ
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 48, fig. 13; and pl. 50, fig. 7.
Uncommon, inside.
Busycon carica (Gmelin). SCOJ
Rogers, Shel] Book, p. 70, fig. 2.
Common, especially inside on sand flats. (See Coues and Osborn.)
Busycon perversum (Linné). SCJ
Rogers, Shell Book, p. 71, fig. 1.
Occasional, chiefly outside. (See Coues.)
Busycon (Sycotypus) canaliculatum (Linné). SCOJ
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 13, fig. 1.
Occasional, inside.
Stimpson also records Busycon pyrum.
Fasciolaria distans Lam. SCOJ

Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, p. 86, fig. 3.

Fairly common, inside on mud flats. (See Osborn.)
Fasciolaria tulipa Linné. S C

Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, p. 86, fig. 2.

“One mutilated specimen.”’ Coues.
Fasciolaria gigantea Kiener. SCJ

Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, p. 86, fig. 1.

Occasional, outer beach, rarely entire.
Marginella apicina Menke.

Figure 21.

Several, inside, bluish and fossil-looking.

144 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

Oliva sayana Ravenel. SCOJ
Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, p. 400, fig. 2.
Common, especially outside.

Olivella mutica Say. SCOT
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 34, fig. 1.
Common, inside.

Olivella mutica nitidula Dillwyn.

Larger and less slender.
One specimen, inside.

Mangilia (Kurtziella) cerina Kurtz & Stimpson. SCJ
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 44, fig. 16.
Océasional, inside and out.

Mangilia plicosa C. B. Adams. SCJ
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 50, fig. 14.
Fairly common, inside and out.

Terebra (Acus) dislocata Say. SCOJ
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 90, pl. 5, fig. 2.
Abundant, inside.

Terebra (Acus) concava Say. SJ
Dall, Trans. Wagner Free Inst., vol. 3, p. 24.
Fairly common, inside.

Tornatina canaliculata Say. SCJ
Md. Geo. Surv., Plio.-Pleisto., pl. 42, figs. 5 and 6.
Abundant, inside.

Bulla amygdala Dillwyn. SCJ
Arnold, Sea-beach at Ebb-tide, p. 350, fig. 1.
One small specimen, inside, fossil-looking.
Stimpson and Coues also record B. solitaria.

Cavolina tridentata Forskil.

Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 66, fig. 113.
One specimen, inside in tow.

Melampus lineatus Say. SCJ
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 47, figs. 9 and 12.
Abundant, especially in brackish water.

SCAPHAPODA

Cadulus (Polyschides) tetraschistus quadridentatus (Dall).
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 27, fig. 5.
One specimen, inside.
Cadulus (Polyschides) carolinensis Bush.
Dall, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 37, pl. 41, fig. 19.
Two specimens, inside.
Dentalium gouldi Dall.
Dall, U.S. Bur. Fish. Bull., vol. 20, pt. 1, p. 455, 1901.
Five specimens, inside.
Besides these five specimens, I have four which have six longitudinal ribs
throughout, with no finer threads between them, They are too small
for identification and look fossil. Still four other specimens bave seven

PLATE 13

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1921] MariInE Mo.Luuscan SHELLS OF BEAUFORT 145

longitudinal ribs throughout with no finer threads between them. The
largest has a diameter of 1.25 mm. They are very thick, and look fossil.
They may be D. disparile Orbigny.
Dentalium agile M. Sars.?
Sars, Remarkable Forms of Animal Life, p. 34, pl. 3, figs. 4 and 5.
Occasional, inside.
Dentalium matara Dall.
Smooth, very slightly arched, slightly notched above and below with a short,
wide notch, on convex side prolonged as a wide slit.
Occasional, inside.
Dentalium eboreum Conrad.
Conrad, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 3, p. 27, 1846.
Fairly common, inside.
Dentalium leptum Bush.
Slender, with fine posterior striations.
Occasional, inside.
Dentalium filum Sowerby.
Straightish and slender, sculptured by regular anulations.
Occasional, inside.

The following also are reported by Stimpson:

Arca adamsi, Lucina crenulatus Conrad (known as a fossil), Lepton lepidum,
Tellina fausta (a West Indian species), Macoma constricta (Brug.), Strig-
illa carnaria, Sportella constricta (Conrad) (known as a fossil), Solen viridis
Say (also reported by Aller), Sazicava arctica Linné, Clypidella pustula,
Mangelia rubella, Mangelia filiformis Holmes, Murex spinicostatus, Can-
cellaria reticulata, Actaeon punclostriata Adams.

Osborn records Bela plicata.

NOTES ON THE THELEPHORACEAE OF NORTH CAROLINA
By W. C. CokER
PuaTes 14-35

Plants (the fruiting body) of this family varying from fibrous and
tough and leathery to waxy when wet, in some species hard and
brittle; form various, upright and fan-shaped to funnel-shaped (and
simple or branched) or shell-shaped to bracket-shaped and laterally
attached, or partially to completely spread out on the substratum
(resupinate); the hymenium borne only on one surface, or rarely
all over the fruit-body (amphigeneous), smooth (without teeth, pores
or gills) or nodulated or wrinkled; basidia simple and club-shaped,
usually with four spores (2-8). The great majority grow on dead
wood, some grow on the ground, and some are parasitic.

Most of the genera of this family are composed of very insignifi-
cant species of slight popular or economic interest, except where
involved in the rotting of timber. We have tried to treat fully only
a few of the genera, in others we include only a few species as rep-
resentative. All of the North American genera of this family are
being carefully monographed by Dr. Burt, and his work, if published,
is referred to under each genus. See also Massee: A Monograph of
the Thelephoraceae. Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 25: 107. 1889; 27: 95.
1890, and Wakefield: Some Notes on the Genera of the Thelephoraceae.
Trans. Brit. Mye. Soc. 4: 301. 1914. See also Bourdot and Galzin
as cited under the genera. Interested students can turn to these
papers for a fuller treatment.

Many of the drawings of Corticium, Peniophora, Hypochnus, and
Coniophora were made by Mr. J. N. Couch, recently assistant in
Botany. Miss Alma Holland, assistant in Botany, has inked in most
of the drawings and made most of the spore drawings. The photo-
graphs and a good many of the drawings were made by the author.

KryY TO THE GENERA TREATED

* Parasitic on members of the Heath Family, causing galls or
other abnormalities; spore-bearing surface forming a thin,
adherenticoationsuheshost.)..... ..<2xtes=aae ooo Exobasidium (p. 147)

ADDENDA

Add to the literature list given on page 146 the following:
Hohnel and Litschauer, Beitrdge z. Kenntnis d. Corticieen. Sitzungsb.
K. Akad. Wiss. Wien 115: 1549, with 10 text figs. 1906; 116:
739, pls. 1-4 and 20 text figs. 1907; 117: 1081, with 10 text figs.
1908. This series treats many species of most of the genera in-
cluded by us.

1921] Tur THELEPHORACEAE OF NORTH CAROLINA 147

Entirely resupinate on rotten wood; the context filled’ with

brown stellate bodies (cystidia) ..... < . . ec ce ees eed A sterostroma (p. 164)

Not as above in all respects.

Plant entirely resupinate, forming a crustaceous layer on
wood with no shelving margin, or if with a narrow
shelving margin then with dark spines in the hymenium;
in one species of Alewrcdiscus forming small cup-shaped,
centrally attached plants with the margin upturned all
around and in Corticium lilacino-fuscum and Peniophora
albomarginata there may be a very narrow shelving
margin.

Spores and basidia large to very large, the spores plump
with the surface spiny or minutely rough; plant
small, chalk-white or in one species the hymenium

000 Ls TESTE se SEE RS ee Aleurodiscus (p. 152)
Spores smaller, elongated to subspherical.
Spores rough or echinulate, colored................... Hypochnus (p. 165)
Spores smooth, ochraceous or rusty or brown.......... Coniophora (p. 157)

Spores smooth, white.
Hymenium with smooth, spine-like, dark setae pro-
ieewinemnoyve the DAasidig: {.c2c 2.025. ho cc esse. Hymenochaete (p.166)
Hymenium with specialized pale cystidia (club-
shaped cells, which are usually warted) mixed with
Hine OOo rns a8 An Ss Sines eee eee Peniophora (p. 158)
Hymenium without setae or cystidia............... Corticium (p. 168)
Plants growing on wood (in all here treated), shelf-like or
petal-like, usually imbricated; spores white or pale,
HOUPTHE. space 3b Geiger Re tne A ea Stereum (p. 175)
Plant growing on wood or herbs or moss, very small, cup-
shaped or saucer-shaped and centrally attached, often
pendulous by a little stalk (compare also Alewrodiscus
. UNS. isos boo eee Cyphella (p. 148)
Much like Cyphella, but more crowded and the fruiting
bodies either more cylindrical or arising from a re-
SCTE, DCT SEs 85 2 ea ne Solenia (p. 150)
Plant upright, fan- or funnel-shaped, or branched like
a tree, or in a few species bracketed like a Stereum
when growing on wood; leathery; usually on earth,
at times on wood; spores dark, warted.............. Thelephora (p. 185)
Plant tough and elastic, but fleshy, repeatedly branched
into a thick mass of flat, contorted-anastomosing
branches; growing from rotting roots or stump bases.
Sparassis (p. 193)

EXOBASIDIUM
Parasitic on leaves, shoots and flowers of woody plants, mostly
if not entirely confined to the Ericaceae, and forming on the surface
of the host, which is usually hypertrophied or deformed into galls, a

148 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

layer composed rarely of basidia alone, or more rarely of a thin felted
layer of interwoven hyphae which bears basidia and conidiospores.
Basidia clavate, simple. Spores white, smooth, simple or septate.

The galls and other abnormalities produced vary so much, depend-
ing on what host or what part of the host is attacked, that many so-
called species names have been published depending on the kinds of
galls formed. Burt, who has studied the subject thoroughly, has
concluded that almost all of these belong to one species, EL. Vaccinii
(Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 2: 627. 1915). He recognizes only two other
species or varieties, one FH. Vaccinii uliginosi Boud., the other EL.
Symploci Ell. & Martin. The latter is parasitic on Symplocos tinc-
toria, but in it the basidia and basidiospores have not been found.
For an excellent article on the morphology of this group see Woronin,
Naturforsch, Ges. Freiburg, Verhandl. 4: 397. 1867.

Exobasidium Vaccinii (Fuckel) Woronin.
PLATE 14

Characters of the genus: Basidia four-spored; basiospores 2. 5-5
x 10-20u. (Burt). Occurring on many genera and species of the
Heath Family.

The most conspicuous and best known gall caused by E. Vaccinii
in North Carolina is the one called honeysuckle apples, which are
large, hollow, pale, sweetish, juicy formations often an inch or more
thick that many children know and eat. They are found on Azalea
nudiflora and A. atlantica and seem most abundant in the Coastal
Plain. Another remarkable hypertrophy occurs on Andromeda
Mariana, causing the flowers which are normally white and waxy
subcylindrical bells, to become changed into larger, greenish, more
open flowers with the petals more or less separated or quite free and
spreading. This is shown in our illustration, together with the nor-
mal flowers. This is the form that has been named E. Peckit.
lla. On Andromeda Mariana near east gate of campus, May 6, 1909. Photo.

CYPHELLA

Very small, cup-shaped or beaker-shaped or saucer-shaped, at-
tached by the center with a short stalk usually, and often hanging
downward, the lower, concave surface covered by the hymenium;
texture submembranaceous; basidia simple. The species grow on

PLATE 14

EXOBASIDIUM VACCINII on ANDROMEDA MARIANA.
Normal flowers above; hypertrophied ones below.

‘ ‘ ' ‘
: foam
Tt ' ’ \ A
‘ 13 , is ry ; \
‘ * ' j
j é i . .
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‘ ) ry) *
‘ , nal " !
Z
, i? = an ‘) 7 : :

1921] THE THELEPHORACEAE OF NORTH CAROLINA 149

live mosses, dead stems and leaves of herbs, fallen twigs, branches
and bark of trees, etc. Two of the species recognized by Burt have
been reported from North Carolina by Curtis, and we are adding two
others. See Burt, Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 1: 358. 1914; Bourdot and
Galzin, Bull. Soc. Myc. Fr. 26: 223. 1910.

KEY TO THE SPECIES

On living mosses; saucer- or petal-shaped, up to 1 em. broad. ..C. muscigena (1)

On alder bark; small, cup-shaped, reddish-tawny............. C. fasciculata (2)
On bark of red cedar; very small, whitish, cup-shaped, spores

TASES CSS C. cupulaeformis (3)
On dead stems of herbs; cup-shaped, whitish................. C. capula (4)

1. Cyphella muscigena (Pers.) Fr.
PLATE 30

This is the plant treated by me as Cantharellus retirugis (No.
3224) in an earlier paper (Journ. E. Mit. Sci. Soc. 35: 38. 1919).
Since then we have made three other collections of the plant, one
from the same spot a year later and two from other places. The two
last mentioned showed spores (from good spore prints) that averaged
longer than the two others, but otherwise there is no difference in the
plants. The basidia of all are small, club-shaped, rather abruptly
enlarged at the end, 7—7.5 v. thick, 4-spored. I cannot make out any
difference of importance between descriptions and illustrations of
Cantharellus retirugis and Cyphella muscigena.

3224. See above.

3931. On living moss (Catharinia), below Cobb’s Terrace, January 8, 1920. Spores
pip-shaped, 3-4.2 X 7-9.7u.

4010. Same spot and one on same kind of moss as No. 3224. Spores the same,
3.7-4.5 X 6-8.5y.

4018. Near No. 3931, but on different moss, January 24, 1920. Spores 3-4.5 X
7.5-9.7u.

2. Cyphella fasciculata (Schw.) B. & C.
C. fulva B. & Rav.
PLATE 30

Cups gregarious in good numbers, and often in part densely fas-
cicled in groups or lines, about 0.6-3 mm. broad and same length,
attached in center by a short stalk about 0.3-0.8 mm. long; outer
surface of cup reddish-tawny, usually with one or two circular zones,

150 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

finely tomentose with curled hairs. Hymenium smooth, pale straw
or light buff, lining the inside of the cup, the mouth of which is whitish
and contracted or, when wet and fully mature, open.

Spores (of No. 4001, spore print) cylindric, curved, smooth, white,
2-3 x 7.5-llu. Basidia 5-6.5u thick, flat at end, with four very
small and short sterigmata.

4001. On dead Alnus twigs, January 22, 1920. Not fascicled in this collection.
4017. On dead Alnus twigs, January 24, 1920. Many densely fascicled groups in
this lot, also many single ones.

Common on branches of alder (as C. fulva). Curtis.

3. Cyphella cupulaeformis Berk. & Rav.
PLATE 30

Centrally attached by a very short stalk; plant up to 1.5 mm.
long by 2.5 mm. broad, cup-shaped or goblet-shaped, the outside
minutely scurfy and paie gray-brown, the hymenium inside the cup
smooth and about the color of the outside; the mouth open when
wet, collapsed and practically closed when dry.

Spores white, very remarkable in being set with six or more spines
which are about 3.7 long, body of spore 4.5-5.5 x 5.5-6y. The
spines do not appear until the spores are nearly grown, the spores
up to that time being smooth and oval; as the spines begin to develop
the spores appear simply angular for a while. Basidia club-shaped,
8u. in diameter.

4019. On decaying cedar limb, January 24, 1920.

4, Cyphella capula (Holmsk) Fr.

We have not yet found this and adapt the following from Burt
(I. ¢., p. 366).

Growing on dead stems of herbs and forming little whitish, pendu-
lous cups drawn out to a stalk, the entire plant about 1-3 mm. long
and 0.5-2 mm. broad; hymenium on the inside of the cup; outside
of the cup and stem glabrous; the cup margin irregular.

Spores white, flat on one side, 3-3.5 x 4.5-6u.

Common on stems of herbs. Curtis.

SOLENIA

Fruit bodies in the form of small to very small cups or tubes
which are commonly so closely set as to appear almost as a continu-
ous stratum to the naked eye. The cups are somewhat contracted

1921] THE THELEPHORACEAE OF NORTH CAROLINA 151

at the mouths and are seated directly on the substratum or are sur-
rounded at base by a very delicate weft of threads, the subiculum.
The smooth hymenium covers the inside of the cups. Basidia club-
shaped with usually 4 sterigmata. Spores smooth, white (at least in
S. poriaeformis). Distinguished from Cyphella by the more densely
crowded cups which often arise from a superficial weft, and in some
species by the more elongated, cylindrical cups.

A peculiar genus that has been placed usually in the Polyporaceae,
but is probably better treated in the Thelephoraceae as its relation-
ship to Cyphella seems obvious. It is placed next to Cyphella in
Engler and Prantl’s system (Hennings), and also by Bourdot and
Galzin (Bull. Soc. Myce. Fr. 26: 225. 1910), which see for a good
treatment of the French species. See also Rabenhorst, Krypt.
Flora Deutschland, etc. 11: 390. 1884.

To represent this genus we are including only one species. In
American herbaria are represented commonly about ten other species
among which the most widely distributed are S. anomala, S. candida,
S. ochracea, S. stipitata and S. villosa. All or nearly all known species
grow on dead wood and branches or dead herbs (one is said to grow
on dung).

Solenia poriaeformis (DC.) Fuckel.
PLaATEs 15 AND 30

Plant forming encrusting, non-removable patches quite variable
in size and irregular in outline, which often fuse to make much elon-
gated areas with rather definite margin; composed of a layer next
_ the bark made up of extremely delicate, interwoven, white threads,
about 1.2—2.5u thick, in which are imbedded for about 144—'% their
depth, minute, circular, or somewhat flattened cups, about 4 or 5
to a millimeter, which usually cover the entire surface and nearly
touch when expanded, are about 90-110 deep and are covered all
over the outside with white, granular, easily removable powder, while
the inside is covered with the smooth hymenium. Under moderate
power the cups look like citron covered with sugar powder, and when
the powder is rubbed off they are seen to be deep brown, contrasting
strongly in section view with the white felt in which they are sitting.
Wall of cups about 30-40u thick, brown, the hymenium occupying
a little less than half of this thickness and less dark than the closely
woven outer part; margin incurved and partly closing the cups even

152 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

when wet. The color of the plant in the fresh state a dull white,
which is a little darkened by the small openings of the cups and is
almost entirely due to the fine white powder covering the exposed
parts of the matrix as well as the outside of the cups. When very
young the plant is thin and sterile, with a minutely granular appear-
ance. The cups first appear as very small openings extending to
within 144 mm. of the margin; later, when expansion ceases, they
are formed almost to the marginal line.

Spores (of No. 4686) white, smooth, oval, 3.5-4.5 x 5-7.5u.
Basidia clavate, 4-spored, 6.5y thick. A most peculiar plant differ-
ing from other species of Solenia in the short, partly embedded cups.
We have compared our plants with several collections from America
and one from Bresadola at the New York Botanical Garden and find
them similar in all essentials. Most. other collections have the cups
less crowded and in some they are broader. Our plant seems to be
a dense, small-cupped form Bourdot and Galzin give microscopic
characters which agree with ours, as spores 4-5x 4.5-6.5u, basidia
5-8 x 18-24y, 2-4 sterigmata; and Dr. Burt writes me that a col-
lection made by him in Sweden has spores 4.5-5 x 5-6u. Hennings,
in the Pflanzenfamilien, gives the spores as 3-3.5 x 11-14u, which
is probably an error.
4275. On dead bark of old live grapevine (V. aestivalis), April 15, 1920. Spores

pure white, short, oval.
4317. On bark of Vitis, May 28, 1920.
4686. On dead bark of live, wild grapevines, November 13, 1920.

4700. On bark of live grapevine, December 4, 1920. Poorly developed specimens
with few cups.

ALEURODISCUS

Plants in the species here treated growing on the bark of living
trees or dead shoots and forming entirely resupinate, white, small,
thin or thickish crusts with well-defined margins (the margin at times
is vague in A. botryosus) and hard, brittle flesh; or in one case form-
ing small cups with the margin free all around. Basidia and spores
large to very large; spores white, minutely punctate or spiny; no
cystidia or setae present, but paraphyses often of peculiar form occur
in the hymenium or throughout.

Other groups of species included by Burt in this genus, but not
treated by us, have other characters separating them from the Ster-
eums. See Burt, Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 5: 177. 1918; Bourdot and

PLATE 15

ALEURODISCUS MACRODENS. No. 4734 Above
SOLENIA PORIAEFORMIS. No. 4686. |Below.]

1921] THE THELEPHORACEAE OF NORTH CAROLINA 153

Galzin, Bull. Soc..- Myc. Fr. 28: 349. 1912; Lloyd, Mycological
Notes No. 62: 926, Pl. 147, figs. 1666-1681 and Pl. 148, figs. 1682-
1688, and PI. 145, fig. 1652. 1920. Tor morphology and cytology of A.
amorphus see Am. Journ. Bot. 7: 445, Pls. 31-33. 1920.

KEY TO THE SPECIES INCLUDED

On bark of living trees.
Spores very large, not smaller than 12 X 15x.
Flesh pliable and Jeathery when wet, margin free and up-
SE SILAS nh ee eee A. Oakesii (1)
Flesh hard and woody even when damp, margin not free or
scarcely so.
On post oak or white oak; spores oval-elliptic, minutely

PRM Ree oS aie as wink ELS eek oe we A. candidus (2)
On elm; spores subspherical to short-oval, very minutely
punctate (some appearing smooth).................. A. candidus var.

sphaerosporus (3)
On ash; spores subrectangular, set with a few large,

DUDE Tin cS 2 eee le D8 ee Se A. macrodens (4)
On cedars; spores subspherical to short-oval, covered with
MME CROCE SPICUICS « . 2 212 {old sista oleisid oie «6 oleic ore oo d A. nivosus (5)

Spores not larger than 7 X 12u..
On maples (said also to grow on ash, elm and white oak);

thinner and smaller than any of the above, irregular..... A. acerinus (6)
On dead shoots of blackberry, lilac, ete. Spores 7.5-11 X
eat een ete a Fy ss By cS a SiS INS f0.'e)aild Aveo dieav'e «0» A. botryosus (7)

1. Aleurodiscus Oakesii (B. & C.) Cooke.
PLATE 30

Small, saucer-shaped or shallow cup-shaped, rather broadly
attached by the center, the margin quite free all around and curved
up when damp, incurved over the hymenium when dry, the exposed
outer (lower) surface white and fibrous, especially on margin and near
attachment so as to appear tomentose; hymenium even or a little
wavy, minutely pulverulent, pale avellaneous (light fawn brown)
both when wet and dry. Flesh about 0.5 mm. thick, leathery and
pliable when wet, rigid when dry.

Spores ovoid, white, minutely papillate-warted, 12-16 x 15-20u.
Basidia very large, 15-16. thick with 4 large sterigmata. Para-
physes often moniliform by constrictions mostly with prong-like
short branches at the tip or lower down.

The plant resembles in form a small Stereum attached by the
center. Single plants are about 3-5 mm. broad when damp and ex-
panded, but they fuse more or less completely when they touch, so

154 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

that elongated or irregular groups are produced which may be a cm.

or more long and broad. When two plants meet and fuse a low ridge

is left on the hymenium. This plant is easily distinguished from the

other species of the genus here treated by the saucer-shaped form

and pliable, leathery texture when wet.

3937. On bark of Ulmus near upper end of Scott’s Hole, January 11, 1920. Photo.
Upper district. Bark of white oak. Curtis (as Corticium).

2. Aleurodiscus candidus (Schw.) Burt.
Stereum candidum Schw.
PLATES 16 AND 30

A small, entirely resupinate plant, growing on the bark of trees
and forming hard, crustaceous, chalk-white patches of irregular shape
and definite outline, usually under 2 cm. in diameter vith the margin
free so as to show its under side which is blackish. Surface smooth,
minutely pulverulent under a lens, showing irregularities of the bark
over which it is spread. Flesh thick for so small a plant, about 0.5-
1 mm. thick, white or pale creamy, quite hard and brittle. Under a
lens the flesh shows a rather faint stratification with as many as 5 or
6 layers, each probably representing a period of fruiting, but the
time required to form each layer is not yet known.

Spores white, subspherical to short-oval, minutely papillate,
12.5-16.7 x 16.6—-22u, most about 15 x 20.4u. Basidia large, club-
shaped, 11-14 thick, with four very long sterigmata. Mixed with
the basidia are delicate, dense, hyphal paraphyses branched like a
bush above and much encrusted with granular crystals.

The plant is very common in Chapel Hill on bark of post oak and
white oak, and is very easily recognized by its color, habit and place
of growth. Burt describes the spores as smooth, but suggests that
they may prove to be minutely rough walled. We find them min-
utely papillate.

1377a. On bark of post oak trees, November 28, 1913.
1517. On bark of a post oak tree, December 14, 1914.
3827. On living post oak, December 6, 1919.

Salem. Schweinitz.

Low and middle districts, bark of trees. Curtis.

1921] THE THELEPHORACEAE OF NORTH CAROLINA 155

3. Aleurodiscus candidus var. sphaerosporus n. var.
PLATE 30

Plant exactly like A. candidus except for smaller average size of
the crusts and for the more spherical spores. The chalk-like, min-
utely pulverulent surface and hard, friable, pale flesh are the same
in both. The smaller, more broken up pads seem to be the result
of the more fragmented and mossy bark of the elm. The spore differ-
ence is constant here and taken with the different host furnishes about
the right grounds for establishing a variety.

Spores (of No. 3902) nearly spherical, white, very faintly rough,
13-20 x 15.5-24u, most about 16.3 x 19.2u. Basidia large, about
13u thick. The spores are even more faintly rough than in A. can-
didus.

To be found on most elm trees in Chapel Hill.

2021. On elm (Ulmus alata), March 10, 1916.

3902. On elm (U. alata), December 16, 1919.
3907. On elm (U. alata), December 18, 1919. Spores exactly as in No. 3902.

4. Aleurodiscus macrodens n. sp.
PLaTEs 15 AND 31

Forming irregular, often somewhat elongated patches about 2 mm.
to 2 cm. long with well-defined margins and with much the aspect of
A. candidus; surface minutely pulverulent, pure white or when old
and weathered pale cream; entire thickness only about 150-190u,
the structure in section much obscured by very small crystals and the
densely branched paraphyses.

Basidia entirely embedded, 12-15y thick, irregular and bent, with
four long, stout sterigmata, which only reach the surface by their
tips. Spores (of No. 4734, print) commonly rectangular in outline,
the surface set with a few large, irregularly placed, bluntly pointed
spines which are up to 4u long; body of spore 11.5-15 x 18.5-27u.

In passing the plant would be taken for A. candidus, but when
examined is seen to be much thinner with the closely pressed margin
not showing a dark underside. The spores are remarkable and
unlike any others in the genus.

4734. On bark of a living tree of Fraxinus, December 14, 1920. Type.

°
156 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [Febritiary

5. Aleurodiscus nivosus (B. & C.) H. & Litsch. -
Stereum acerinum var nivosum B. & C.
PuaTEs 16 AND 31

Plant forming crust-like elongated patches of definite outline,
about 1-23 mm. long by 1-4 mm. broad, the elongated axis vertical,
at first thin like a streak of whitewash, then thickening into a mat-
tress-like patch about 0.5-0.7 mm. thick with a free margin that is
black below; in age cracking across to make smaller areas as in
Stereum frustulosum. Surface always chalk-white. Flesh brown be-
low a thin surface layer; hard, dry and rather friable.

Spores (of No. 3897) white, oval, with a small, distinct mucro and
short, sharp, delicate spines, 12.9-15.9 x 15.9-21.5u. A few spores
show a remarkable variation in having small blunt warts like a Hyd-
num.

Very common, and to be found on almost every cedar tree.
Differs from A. candidus in more spiny spores, proportionately
narrower, longer and thinner fruiting bodies, and in growth on cedar.
Burt’s description of the spores as smooth is incorrect for our speci-
mens. The close-set, slender spicules distinguish the plant at once.
Burt also describes the plant as thin with margin not free as in A.
candidus. This is true only for the young condition. As growth
continues the flesh becomes thicker and cracks across and the margin
becomes free and shows the blackish outer (under) side.

3897. On bark of living cedar, December 14, 1919.
3920. On living cedar tree, December 22, 1919.

6. Aleurodiscus acerinus (Pers.) H. & Litsch.

A smaller and thinner species than the others treated; crustaceous,
irregular to subcircular or rarely elongated, up to about 3 mm. wide
or when elongated up to a em. long; chalk-white, minutely pulver-
ulent, the abrupt margin definitely outlined. Hymenium contain-
ing slender branched paraphyses that are much encrusted with crys-
tals.

Basidia clavate, about half as large as in A. candidus, sterigmata
four, elongated. Spores (according to Burt) white, smooth, 6-7 x
10—12u..

2020. On bark of living deciduous tree, December, 1915. We have misplaced

this collection which was seen and determined by Burt, and so have not
been able to make original observations on the spores.

Common on bark of trees. Curtis (as Stereum).

beloy

3897

QO.

N

ODISCUS NIVOSUS.

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1921] THE THELEPHORACEAE OF NORTH CAROLINA 157

7. Aleurodiscus botryosus Burt.
PLATE 31

Entirely effused to form elongated patches up to 5-6 ecm. or
smaller, more scattered patches. Surface under a lens more or less
lacunose and granular-looking except in the thickest places where
it is continuous; pure white or creamy, smooth, and removable as a
soft, flexible membrane when wet; thickness in our collection only
45-65u, nearly all of which consists of the hymenium, in which are
embedded a large number of subspherical, amorphous, irregular
bodies, probably of a proteid nature. Many bottle brush paraphyses
present in hymenium.

Basidia 11-12y thick, with four long, curved sterigmata 14-16u.
long. Spores white, minutely rough, oval with an abrupt mucro,
flattish on one side, very granular when shed, sprouting freely over
night in a damp chamber, 7.5-10.5 x 14-19u.

Except for its thinness, amounting to scarcely more than a hy-
menium on the substratum, our plant agrees well with Burt’s species
and our determination has been confirmed by him.

4710. On dead blackberry in low place, Glen Burnie Farm, December 5, 1920.

4724. On standing dead shoot of lilac, December 12, 1920. Spores white, surface
minutely warted, 8.5-11 x 14.8-18.5n.

4740. On dead vine of Vitis (aestivalis ?) December 18, 1920. Spores white, sur-
face minutely rough, 8.5-11 X 14.8-18.5yu.

CONIOPHORA

Entirely resupinate, fleshy, subcoriaceous or membranaceous;
hymenium undulate, tubercular, granular or even; basidia simple;
spores smooth or slightly angular, ochraceous or at times nearly color-
less. Saprophytic on dead wood, often causing serious decay of
structural timber. Burt reports three species from North Carolina
and nineteen from North America. See Burt, Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard.
4: 237. 1917. Also see Massee in Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.) 25: 128.
1889. We are including but one species.

Coniophora arida (Fr.) Karsten.
Poarn 3?

Trregularly effused, membranaceous when wet, forming long,
thin, narrow patches about 1-3 cm. broad by several cms. long and
about 175y thick on average, with indeterminate margins. Color

158 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

when dry a warm buff to buffy brown, usually darker in center.
Surface even, pulverulent, sparingly cracked in places; context made
up of loosely packed, thin-walled, hyaline hyphae 2-3.7y thick;
hymenium closely packed. No cystidia and no crystals present.

Spores fuscous in a good spore-print, smooth, elliptic with a dis-
tinct mucro, 6.6-7.2 x 9.3-11.ly. Basidia club-shaped, swollen
considerably at the distal end; extending out above the hymenium
up to 20y. (counting the sterigmata); 8.5u thick, sterigmata 4, prong-
like, curved.

4219. On bark and wood of dead pine, March 23, 1920.
4235. On bark of pine log, April] 15, 1920.

PENIOPHORA

Entirely resupinate as a thin encrusting layer, as in Corticium,
but differing from the latter in having specialized cystidia included
in the hymenium and usually projecting as far as the basidia or
beyond them. We are including one (P. albomarginata) which often
has a narrowly reflexed margin. The cystidia are commonly warted
on the distal half, in which case they are easily distinguished. Spores
smooth, white or (when fresh) pink. Hymenochaete differs in having
dark, smooth, spine-like setae projecting far above the basidia. The
pink color shown by a fresh spore print in several species we have
studied fades out after a few months in the herbarium. We have in-
cluded six species to represent the genus, which is a large one and
often difficult to distinguish from Corticium. See Massee in Journ.
Linn. Soc. (Bot.) 25: 140. 1889; Bourdot and Galzin, Bull. Soe. Myc.
Fr. 28: 372. 1912; Cooke, Grevillea 8: 17. 1879; Bresadola, Ann. Myc.
1: 100. 1903 (as Kneiffia). See also Gleocystidium as treated by
Bourdot and Galzin in Bull. Soe. Mye. Fr. 28: 354. 1912. This last
genus includes species usually treated under Peniophora, but its rec-
ognition, as Burt has well said, would lead to difficulties without com-
pensating advantages. Other proposed genera as Peniophorella and
Gloeopeniophora have similar objections. For a species parasitic on
chrysanthemum (Corticiwm (Peniophora) Chrysanthemi Plowr.) see
Trans. Brit. Myce. Soc. for 1904, p. 90. 1905.

KEY TO THE SPECIES TREATED

On pine wood, making an extensive, pale, sub-translucent,
parchment-like membrane when dry; sub-waxy when
WEE... ok adele RRP iia oll > el ss, «\« oles Gia ote P. gigantea (1)

1921] THE THELEPHORACEAE OF NORTH CAROLINA 159

On deciduous woods, mostly with bark on.
Margin distinct and often uplifted a little in places.
Deep brown with a conspicuous whitish border; sur-

fabe velvety, nOb. cracking... 20. cece eee. P. albomarginata (2)
Brownish purple; finely cracked superficially when
IEE i en ee = Ane P. violaceo-lividum (8)

Margin very thin and indistinct, closely adnate;
Light gray to white with creamy areas, texture loose
and velvety-looking; spores very long and narrow,
ee Oe NN ARE Ao cin oo ce ainials ows a ee ss P. longispora (4)
Not as above.
Deep blackish brown when wet, a much lighter gray-
brown when dry; only 55-75, thick; surface glab-
rous, nodulated, cracked to the wood when dry. P. cinerea (6)
Whitish to ochraceous buff; thick (200-250), sur-
face glabrous, cracking when dry to show the pure
white tissue beneath; margin thin and fading away. P. mutata (7)
Margin distinct but irregular and byssoid when growing,
in places connected with extensive ropy strands; color
eemeaetasiers Wifin $0 CHAIIOIS Jo. <.- oic' ose - =) 5 nfsisieia nies © - P. filamentosa (5)

1. Peniophora gigantea (Fr.) Massee.
PuaTE 31

Patches up to 8 em. wide by 14 em. long, adnate, sub-waxy; when
old smooth and even, when young slightly hypochnoid; color varies
with age, grayish white or light cream to vinaceous buff when old;
surface minutely granular under a lens; margin indeterminate when
young, later determinate. Structure, in section, up to 1 mm. thick,
made up of two distinct layers (apparently three before the applica-
tion of KOH) of about equal thickness; lower layer consisting of
closely packed, septate, considerably branched, clamp-connected
hyphae (clamp connections are difficult to make out) 4.2y. thick which
are more loosely packed at surface of substratum and become very
closely packed toward the center of the plant; upper layer made up
of closely packed, almost vertical hyphae with many faintly encrusted
cystidia scattered throughout, which are 9.3-11.ly thick. Basidia
club-shaped with the end swollen, 4 x 11-18.

Spores oval, hyaline, smooth, 2-3.5 x 3.7—5.5u.

Our plant agrees completely with plants of this species from
Bresadola at the New York Botanical Garden Herbarium. The
dried plant has a subtranslucent, parchment-like appearance.

4306. On ground side of new pine sills and leaves which had been.on ground four
months, Clark’s Sawmill, May 10, 1920.

Common. Curtis (as Corticium).

160 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

2. Peniophora albomarginata (Schw.) Massee.
Stereum albobadium (Schw.) Fr.
PuaTEs 18 AND 31

Entirely resupinate or, when on the sides of branches, with a
free shelving margin which is rarely over 7 mm. wide, beginning as
subcircular or oblong patches which may later fuse into an extensive
membrane, color of hymenium when damp a rich deep brown (about
bister brown of Ridgway) with a conspicuous white margin which is
sharply delimited and not byssoid; when dry the brown lightens to
about avellaneous with a darker ring just behind the white margin;
shelving part brown on back, inherently fibrous and roughish, not
tomentose, obscurely zoned. The resupinate part can be removed
from the wood without much difficulty as a pliable thickish membrane
like chamois skin, which in cross section is concolorous, fibrous and
about 0.6-0.8 mm. thick. The hymenium is not shining but has a
velvety, glaucous appearance. When drying the plant does not
crack, but remains a complete membrane.

Spores (of No. 3849) smooth, white, elliptic, some bent, 3-4 x
6.5-9.3u. Basidia clavate, 7.24 thick; sterigmata four. Cystidia
pointed, encrusted with crystals.

This is treated as Stereum albobadium by Burt. We are not
using the name albobadiwm because we do not want to make a new
combination.

3849. Dead limbs of peach or cherry in a brush heap, December 9, 1919.

3873. On fallen branch of ironwood (Carpinus) in Arboretum, December 12, 1919.
3932. On dead sycamore limb, January 10, 1920.

Hartsville, 8. C. Several collections, December, 1919. Coker.
Low and middle districts on trunks and branches. Curtis.

3. Peniophora violaceo-livida (Somm.) Bres. in Bourdot and Galzin,
Bull. Soc. Myc. Fr. 28: 405. 1912.

Corticium violaceo-lividum (Somm.) Fr.
PLATES!

Entirely resupinate and crustaceous or rarely the margin curled
up for 1-2 mm., thin and pliable and leathery when growing, the
margin appressed and rather definite but extending with short fibers;
the very margin whitish purple, then a handsome brownish purple,
the older surface losing most of the purple and becoming dry and

PLATE 17

PENIOPHORA MUTATA. No. 3993 [top
PENIOPHORA LONGISPORA. No. 4242 [cente1
CORTICIUM ARACHNOIDEUM. No. 4235a [below

1921] THE THELEPHORACEAE.OF NORTH CAROLINA 161

thinner and finely cracked, the cracks involving only the surface
layer. Flesh brown, fibrous, about a quarter mm. thick near margin.
The plant appears first as small, scattered patches with a plush-like
surface which rapidly extend and coalesce to form large patches up
to 6 cm. broad and 15 em. long, perhaps larger at times. If protected
in a Petri dish the growing margin becomes densely tomentose with
short fibers of the same handsome purplish color. At full maturity
the surface becomes glabrous.

Basidia club-shaped, 5.54 thick, with four sterigmata. Spores
(of No. 3914) white, elliptic, smooth, 3.6-4.4 x 6-8.5u, rarely up to 10u.
Cystidia long, pointed, often crooked or constricted below, extending
beyond the surface (at times twice as far as in the drawing), set with
crystals. Bourdot and Galzin give the spores as 9-12 x 3-4.5u;
the basidia as 6-8 x 20-26u
3914. On a dead stem of privet, December 20, 1919.

3946. On twig of Chinese privet (Ligustrum Chinense) in Arboretum, January 16,

1920.
3964. On Baccharis in Arboretum, January 17, 1920.

4. Peniophora longispora (Pat.)
PLATES 17 AND 32

Plant entirely resupinate, in patches up to 5 em. long by 3 cm.
wide and up to 148y thick; open, hypochnoid, finely pubescent and
somewhat resembling a mold; color light gray to white with small
creamy areas, color depending upon age, margin indeterminate.
Context made up of very loosely packed, much branched, clamp-
connected, unencrusted hyphae 2.6u thick. Hymenium of very
inconspicuous basidia, mostly about 4.54 thick, and many cystidia
which are about 3.7 x 40u, more or less pointed and encrusted with
crystals and projecting far beyond the basidia. In untreated sec-
tions there is a distinctly darker region in the hymenium indicating
the presence of numerous crystals.

Spores pure white, very long and peculiar, 2-2.6 x 13-16.6y,
pointed at both ends, straight or slightly bent and with two or three
conspicuous droplets.

Bresadola’s measurements in this species (as Kneiffia, |. ¢., p. 105)
are: spores 2.5 <x 12-l5yu; basidia 5-6 x 30-32y; cystidia 3-4.5 x
70—-90u, encrusted with granules.

4242. On bark of rotten oak limb, near Meeting of the Waters.
4250. On decorticated sycamore (?) wood, April 15, 1920.

162 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

4302. On rotten, decorticated oak wood, May 9, 1920. Spores white, smooth,
very long-elliptic, some bent, 2.5-3.7 X 12-16u. Cystidia thickly en-
crusted, slender, 4u thick and up to 60y long.

5. Peniophora filamentosa (B. & C.) Burt. Ms.

PLATE 32

Entirely effused and creeping irregularly over rotting bark or
wood; margin distinct but irregular and byssoid when growing, in
places connected with extensive ropy strands; surface when mature
varying from dull buffy tan to chamois or even a deeper cinnamon
buff at times, often with an olive tint, especially in youth; surface
even, but responding to the substratum, having the appearance of
chamois skin. Structure in section up to 350. thick, composed of
loosely woven, rather delicate, brownish hyphae, 3-4.5u thick, with-
out clamp connections, most of them heavily encrusted with crystals,
some not; cystidia brownish, encrusted throughout or in places,
about 6.5 thick including crystals and projecting 11-30u. They are
hardly more than protruding hyphae and intergrade with them com-
pletely.

Basidia 4—spored, 5-6y. thick. Spores not found in our collection,
said by Massee to be oblong-ellipsoid, 3 x 6u.

4245. On decorticated, rotten frondose wood, April 15, 1920.
4264. On rotten deciduous wood, April 17, 1920.
4607. On living and dead dogwood, July 31, 1920.

6. Peniophora cinerea (Pers.) Cooke.

PLATE 32

Extensively effused and combining into elongated irregular
patches up to 10 or more cm. long at times, closely adnate and not
removable, the rather definite margin not byssoid; in some fully
developed specimens becoming thicker, almost as in Aleurodiscus;
when damp a deep blackish brown with faint purplish tint, the sub-
stance rather waxy; when dry a much lighter grayish-brown, about
ash color and cracking imperfectly into small irregular areas, the
crack extending to the substratum. Surface glabrous, moderately
nodulated both when wet and dry, nodules structural and not due
to irregularities of the wood, although any irregularities also show.
Entire thickness about 55-75v..

PLATE 18

STEREUM FRUSTULOSUM. No. 1042 [left].
PENIOPHORA ALBOMARGINATA. No. 3849 [right].

1921] THe THELEPHORACEAE OF NORTH CAROLINA 163

Basidia 4.8—5.5u thick, 4-spored, sterigmata very delicate. Cys-
tidia oval to club-shaped, set with crystals, imbedded. Spores a
clear salmon color, sausage-shaped, 2.5-3.4 x 7.4—9.5u.

Our No. 4045 when compared with plants in the Curtis Herbar-
ium and with others in the New York Botanical Garden Herbarium
labelled C. cinerewm agreed exactly. Bresadola (l.c., p. 104) gives the
spores as 2.5-3 x 8-1ly, cylindrical and curved.

4045. On bark of dead branch of Crepe Myrtle, January 28, 1920. (Described
above.)

4299. On bark of fallen oak limb, May 9, 1920. Spores curved-elliptic, 2.8-3.5 X
7-8.5u.
Common on bark of limbs. Curtis (as Corticium).

7. Peniophora mutata (Pk.) Bres. In Bourdot and Galzin, Bull-
Soc. Mye. Fr. 28: 399. 1912.

PuatTes 17 AND 32

Extensively encrusting the bark, forming large, thickish patches
up to 20 cm. or more long and 6 cm. broad; white, then buff or
ochraceous-buff, when wet nodulated and veined, but shrinking on
drying and becoming plain, the smooth hymenium cracking to show
the pure white, fibrous layer below which rarely cracks all the way
through. Margin very thin and fading away to a film. Plant about
0.2-0.25 mm. thick, of which about half is the hymenium, the other
half the white fibrous layer.

Spores white, rod-elliptic, 3.4-4.2 x 10-13.7u. Basidia 7.7—-8u
thick. Cystidia very few and scattered, mostly deep in the hymen-
ium, a very few at the surface, club-shaped and covered with crystals.

This agrees in all respects with Peck’s Corticium mutatum. Plants
so determined at the New York Botanical Garden are the same as
ours, and the careful description of Bourdot and Galzin agrees in all
important particulars. They give the spores as averaging slightly
longer, 3-5 x 8-l6y. There is also little doubt that this is P. sub-
gigantea (Berk.) Massee, which was described by Berkeley from a
collection of Ravenel on Magnolia glauca. Our plants are exactly
like those distributed by Ellis on bark of Magnolia (N. Am. Fungi,
No.-717). Another specimen on beech from Pennsylvania (at the
New York Botanical Garden), which looks the same, was determined
by Cooke as this. He says it is near Corticiwm laeve. A collec-
tion labelled C. laeve Fr. from Society Hill, S. C., on Magnolia glauca
by Curtis is identical as is also a plant that Ellis distributed in his

164 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

North American Flora (No. 719 as C. laeve on Magnolia). Another
from England (Berkeley) has the same appearance. They do not,
however, agree with the description of that species by Wakefield
(Trans. Brit. Nyc. Soc. 4: 115. 1912).

3993. On bark of dead Magnolia tripetala, January 21, 1920.

ASTEROSTROMA

Effused on rotting wood; soft and spongy; particularly charac-
terized by deep brown, stellate cells (cystidia) included in the con-
text and making up its greatest bulk; pale, simple, protruding cystidia
also present in our species. We include the only species we have
found.

Asterostroma cervicolor (B. & C.) Massee
PLATE 34

Extensively effused on very rotten deciduous wood, forming
irregular patches up to 8-10 cm. or more wide and long; surface
dull, minutely pruinose, pale fawn color when dry, deep dull brown
when wet; margin fading out, indistinct, nearly concolorous. Tex-
ture soft and spongy except for a crust-like upper layer which may
crack a little when dry, the thick, softer context not cracking. Dis-
tinctly but slowly bibulous, and soggy when wet.

Plant up to nearly 1 mm. thick. Hymenium 30-35y. thick, fol-
lowed immediately by a very dense layer of stellate cells mixed with
much granular material; below this a thick, much more open tissue,
composed most conspicuously of the large stellate cells which char-
acterize the genus. Mixed with these are bits of imperfect, frag-
mentary, very slender, hyaline hyphae and granular detritus. In
the more open layer there may be a thin, much denser layer just
like that beneath the hymenium. Many fat droplets are present
in the cells of the hymenium.

Basidia projecting about 7-10y, irregularly pole-shaped, about
4-6. thick, with four slender, straight sterigmata about 4y long.
Cystidia broadly spike-shaped, almost colorless, with moderately thick
walls, not encrusted, projecting a little farther than the basidia.
Stellate cells deep brown, with about 4-12 spine-like arms which
radiate from a central point and may be branched but are usually
simple; their walls thick to very thick; arms variable in length, run-
ning from very short to 82y long. These stellate bodies are evi-

1921] THE THELEPHORACEAE OF NORTH CAROLINA 165

dently of cellular origin and are formed apparently through the
development of a single cell. Spores cream with a faint fawn tint
in a heavy print, subspherical, angled or slightly tuberculate, 5—-6yu
thick.

4507. On very rotten oak wood and bark, south of athletic field, July 25, 1920.

HYPOCHNUS

Entirely resupinate, dry and coriaceous, felt-like or hypochnoid,
that is, with the hyphae loosely woven throughout; hymenium even
or papillose; basidia simple, four-spored; the spores rough or echinu-
late, distinctly colored in most species. The plants are saprophytic
on rotten wood, and usually grow on the under-side of logs. Burt
records 30 species from North America (Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 3: 203.
1916) of which several are mentioned from North Carolina. We are
including two species to represent the genus. See also Wakefield,
in Trans. Brit. Myc. Soc. 5: 476. 1917; Bourdot and Galzin, Bull.
Soe. Myce. Fr. 28: 354. 1912 (as Gleocystidium in part).

KEY TO THE SPECIES TREATED

Color deep red-brown; surface very granular..................... H. atroruber (1)
Color rusty brown with margin paler; surface felted...............H. fuscus (2)

1. Hypochnus atroruber (Pk.) Burt.
Zygodesmus atroruber Pk.

Entirely effused, thin, of a granular appearance, color a deep
red-brown, about argus brown of Ridgway on the surface, the lower
interior and the very thin, indefinite, hypochnoid margin a much
lighter, honey color. Context of loosely interwoven, frequently
branched, clamp-connected hyphae, paler and more delicate in the
lower regions, about 4.5u thick, reddish and coarser above, about
6-7.5y. thick; a few large strands next the substratum 15-18y thick.

Spores brown under microscope, subspherical, echinulate, 5.5-7 x
6-7.7p..

Our plants agree with Ellis No. 1390 of his North American Flora
(on cedar) and with other collections on pine bark by Underwood,
etc., at the New York Botanical Garden. They also agree well with
Burt’s description (I. ¢., p. 230). Peck found the type on poplar
and Burt does not mention conifers, but all collections we have seen
were on pine or cedar.

4692. On pine bark, spring of 1920.

166 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

2. Hypochnus fuscus Pers.
PLATE 32

Plant entirely resupinate and not removable as a membrane
(Burt says separable), 300-500» thick, more felted than hypochnoid,
ferruginous-brown (dark cinnamon brown with brighter areas of
Sudan brown) in center to light gray on the indeterminate margin, a
slight vinaceous tint observable throughout or in places. Sections
show such a packing of crystals as to make the structure unintelli-
gible without the application of KOH (which dissolves the crystals) ;
after such treatment the context is found to be composed of loosely
packed, much septate and much branched hyphae 3.7—7.5y thick,
with clamp connections and bladder-like swellings up to 10.8y thick.
Hymenium composed of basidia 7.7—-25.9u, with four curved sterig-
mata and a few pointed structures which arise from the bases of
the basidia. Spores smoky brown, irregularly angled and spiny,
5-7.4 xX 7.4-9.3u..

4267. On very rotten deciduous wood, April 18, 1920.

HYMENOCHAETE

Habit like that of a Corticium or small Stereum, that is, forming
on dead wood an entirely resupinate crust or with the margin free
and projecting like a bracket. Differing from these in the presence
in the hymenium of elongated, smooth, dark, spine-like projections
(setae) which extend beyond the basidia. Peniophora differs in the
colorless cystidia which are usually set with warts and crystals, and
which may or may not project beyond the basidia. We include but
three species to represent the genus. For a full treatment, see Burt,
in Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 5: 301. 1918. Also see Massee, in Journ.
Linn. Soc. 27: 95. 1890.

KEY TO THE SPECIES TREATED

Hymenial surface not tomentose-felted

Color a deep rich brown; the margin usually free............. H. Curtisii (1)
Color slate-brown when wet, clay-brown when dry; margin not
free 42.) See eke. os 2 oe eee eee eee H. corrugata (2)

Hymenial surface tomentose-felted, at least on the margin; usu-
ally rusty or brownish red, the margin paler................. H. agglutinans (3)

=

PLATE 19

ay omaagaer ee ee x Pages
a ES ata et ee

No. 3830.

SII.

OCHAETE CURTI

N

HYME

1921] THe THELEPHORACEAE OF NoRTH CAROLINA 167

1. Hymenochaete Curtisii (Berk.) Morg.
Stereum Curtisti Berk.
PLaTEs 19 AND 32

Extensively resupinate on the underside of oak branches and
twigs, the free shelving margins extending about 4-8 mm. and form-
ing extensive wings on both sides of the branch; dorsal surface of
the caps zoned by ridges and colors, inherently fibrous, but not to-
mentose, rough, exactly the color of the oak bark (deep gray) except
for a pale cinnamon marginal zone. Flesh very thin and cloth-like,
quite pliable, not very strong, cinnamon color; distinctly stratified
under the microscope. Hymenium a deep rich cinnamon brown
(about argus brown of Ridgway) at all ages unless much weather-
worn, then paler; velvety from the close-set, short, curled and looped
hairs among which are scattered longer and stouter, straight, taper-
ing, red spines which project up to 60u. These last are very scattered
and are apt to be missed unless several sections are studied. They are
dark internally and most show a sheath-like hyaline thickening of
the wall, which is most conspicuous below.

Spores (of No. 3830) white, smooth, curved, 1.5-2.8 x 6-8.2u.

Not rare on post oak limbs, where it extends as a complete cover
over the underside of dead branches for a considerable distance,
often several feet. This habit, with the deep, rich color and narrow
wings, will easily determine it.

3805. On an oak twig, November 29, 1919. Young plants.

3830. On post oak twigs, December 6, 1919. Photo.

3842. On a fallen oak limb, December 7, 1919.

3843. On a fallen post oak branch on campus, December 7, 1919.

3875. On a fallen oak limb, December 11, 1919.
3899. Ona branch of white oak, December 14, 1919.

Common on the bark of white and post oaks. Curtis.

2. Hymenochaete corrugata (Fr.) Lév.
PrLatTE 32

Extensively effused and entirely adnate and not removable; sur-
face tuberculate, dull but not pulverulent, much cracked when dry,
color when wet slate-brown with a tint of clay, when dry a lighter
clay-brown except for the abrupt margin which is black on its very
edge; thickness of entire fructification about 225u, the cystidia
pointed, brown, with a colorless sheath, projecting about 75u from the
surface.

168 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

Spores white, elliptic, smooth, 3 x 7 .3-8.1u; basidia about 4.8u
thick, projecting (including the 4 sterigmata) about 7.54 beyond the
surface.

When put in water the hymenium is not wetted, but is finely
silvered by a film of air.

4076. Ona corticated branch of a deciduous tree, February 4, 1920.
Common on bark and wood. Curtis (as Corticium).

3. Hymenochaete agglutinans Ellis

Forming circular or elongated patches up to 2 or more cm. across
which fuse on touching and also firmly bind together any two branches
in contact in its course; growing margin thick and definite, pure white,
tomentose, older surface distinctly zoned with brown and brownish
red, covered entirely or in all except the older parts with a thin,
felted whitish or tan or drab or rich brown superficial coat. Sub-
stance firmly leathery, tough, solid, about 500—700y thick; yellow-
ish, except for the red upper layer which is about 75y. thick, and which
is at first covered with the looser, felted, tomentose, paler coat in
which are the strong, red, pointed cystidia which project about
37-70. above the felt. These are lost as the felt wears away and are
absent in the older, smoother parts. Threads of the context about
2.5-3u thick, much branched. Context very compact and _ solid,
resembling a real tissue, but bibulous, at least in the surface layer.

No spores or basidia could be found in our collections, and they
are not mentioned by Ellis (Bull. Tor. Bot. Club 5: 46. 1874).

On drying the margin may become elevated in places, pulling up
the upper layer of the bark with it. It does not become truly free as
in H. Curtisitz. The species is certainly parasitic, at least after get-
ting started.

4694. On living branch of buckeye, New Hope Swamp, December 4, 1920.
4743. On living branch of hornbeam, University Station, N. C., January 7, 1921.

CORTICIUM

Plants forming an entirely resupinate, encrusting, thin layer
which is usually leathery and fibrous or hard and brittle, in some
cases waxy when damp; hymenium without specialized cells project-
ing or included. Spores smooth, or rarely angled, white, or (when
fresh) pink. When pink the color of the spores fades soon in the
herbarium. Most of the species are saprophytic on wood or bark

1921] Tor THELEPHORACEAE OF NORTH CAROLINA 169

or more rarely on the ground and over mosses, etc., but a few are
parasitic as e. g., C. Stevensii and C. vagum (see below). We are
including C. hlacino-fuscum in Corticium for convenience, as it has
only a very narrow reflexed margin, if any. Burt treats it as a
Stereum. We include only a few of the numerous North Carolina
species. Burt has treated three parasitic species in Ann. Mo. Bot.
Gard. 5: 119. 1918. For important papers on the genus see Massee
in Journ. Linn. Soc. 27: 117. 1890; Wakefield, Trans. Brit. Myc.
Soc. 4: 113. 1913; Bourdot and Galzin, Bull. Soc. Myc. Fr. 27: 223.
1911 (this gives microscopic characters of the French species);
Bresadola, Ann. Mye. 1: 93. 1903; Bresadola, Fungi Tridentini 2:
36 & 57.

KEY TO THE SPECIES TREATED

Not parasitic on leaves and twigs of fruit trees.
Color deep blackish indigo blue when damp............... C. caeruleum (1)
Color creamy gray with a lilac tint.................-.+..- C. lilacino-fuscum (2)
Color sordid whitish or cream to pallid yellowish or och-
raceous; surface cracking when dry into easily removable,

(PLUTO (CLR SINC ee C. scutellare (3)
Color pale flesh both when wet and when dry, cracked when

ey fonimecrmMOus WOOUS) 2... .. sacs. <tc eee ne eee ene C. roseum (4)
Color of mycelium and context deep orange, of hymenium

pale sulphur; growing on grapevines................-2-.. C. Viticola (5)
Color pure white, margin pulverulent or hypochnoid....... C. arachnoideum (6)
Color light slate when wet, yellowish gray when dry; tex-

ture wefty and resembling a mold...................... C. vagum (7)
Much like C. vagum in color and texture, but spores smaller

and hyphae with clamp connections.................... C. subcoronatum (8)

Parasitic on apple, pear, or quince and forming a pinkish buff
felt on the lower surface of the leaf and also brown sclerotia
UN ES CUTE. + ob bec b pta Oe One eC Ote oee A e C. Stevensii (9)

1. Corticium caeruleum (Schrad.) Fr.
Thelephora indigo Schw.
PLATE 33

Forming small or large patches up to 9 cm. long on twigs and
small branches of deciduous woods with the bark on; closely applied
to the bark, dull, when damp deep blackish indigo blue with more or
less gray tint, when dry blackish gray with often only a faint tint of
blue; the margin whitish, well defined, irregular. When well grown
the surface cracks into many small, unequal areas and has a thickish,

170 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

somewhat tuberculate look. Flesh 180—260y thick, a beautiful clear
indigo in thin sections except for the outer part of the hymenium,
which is suddenly colorless.

Spores white, elliptic, smooth, 4.3-5.2 x 8.5-1ly. Basidia
6.5-7.5u thick, irregular. The spores sprout very soon in a damp
chamber, the filaments coming usually from one side of the distal
end.

Easily recognized by the color and finely cracked surface. Mas-
see’s colored figure (Pl. 33, fig. 3) does not represent well the color
of our plant, but there seems to be no doubt of its identity. Plants
in the Curtis Herbarium from South Carolina, Alabama and England
are the same. The miscroscopic characters as given by Bourdot and
Galzin also agree.

3997. On California privet by President’s house, January 21, 1920.

4018. On standing branches of privet and crepe myrtle, January 24, 1920.
4722. On privet in President’s yard, December 10, 1920.

Common on wood and bark. Curtis.

2. Corticium lilacino-fuscum B. & C.
Stereum roseo-carneum (Schw.) Fr.
PLATE 33

Extensively effused; margin definite, not fimbriate; not remoy-
able. When wet membranous and soft, pale creamy gray with dis-
tinct tint of lilac; when dry slightly duller and cracking through
the hymenium into numerous, rather small areas, showing the whiter
context beneath, not tuberculate except over the inequalities of
the bark. Entire thickness about 185y; the context composed of
rather loosely woven, clear threads, 2.4—3.5y. thick, with clamp con-
nections and many crystals. In the hymenium are numerous slender
paraphyses with short branches near their ends. Unfortunately our
figure shows only one and that not branched. Basidia 6.3-7.5y.
thick; up to 30u long, 4-spored.

Spores white or pale cream, smooth, elliptic, 3.8-5.5 x 7—9.3u,
easily collapsing.

Our plants agree with plants so named from Ellis (N. Am. Fungi,
No. 515), and with Burt’s description and figure of Sterewm roseo-
carneum. In treating this as a Stereum, Burt is no doubt right,
but for convenience we retain it for the present in Corticium.

4071. On bark and wood of an oak limb, February 4, 1920.

1921) Tur THELEPHORACEAE OF NORTH CAROLINA 171

3. Corticium scutellare B. & C.
PLATE 34

Extensively effused on corticated or decorticated wood, cracked
into innumerable small areas, inseparable as a whole, but when dry
the upper, rather friable and chalky part is easily removed from a thin
white layer covering the wood; color varying from sordid white
through cream or clay to pallid yellowish or ochraceous; obscurely
nodulose; margin fading quickly out to a thin granular-looking edge,
not byssoid. Entire plant about 148—-260y thick; hymenium about
65-75u, no cystidia. Clearing with potash shows a dark, dense
layer of about the same or greater thickness beneath the hymenium,
and a thinner, more delicate, pale layer next the wood; hyphae
delicate, 2.5-3.5u thick.

Spores long-elliptic, 4 x 7.5-9.3u. Basidia slender, long-clavate,
about 7.4u thick, with four long sterigmata.

This matches well with a collection from Bresadola so named
at the New York Botanical Garden, and agrees well with the original
description (Grevillea 2: 4. 1873).

4043. On a very rotten but partly corticated branch of Aesculus octandra, Janu-
ary 21, 1920.

4223. On bark of oak wood, March 27, 1920. Spores subelliptic, 4.4-5.1 X 9.3-
10x.

4696. On bark of limb from a deciduous tree (birch or cherry), December 4, 1920.
Spores (print) subelliptic, some slightly curved at mucro end, hyaline,
3.7-4.5 X 7-9p.

Common on bark of limbs. Curtis.

4. Corticium roseum Pers.
PLATE 33

Plant effused, arising as small patches which fuse on meeting
without leaving a trace of the line of junction; margin definite and
at times a little uplifted, furnished with a very narrow white fringe
of fine fibers when growing; surface smooth, dull with the appear-
ance of fine felt, pale flesh color both when wet and dry, cracked
when dry, the cracks reaching nearly to the substratum, but usually
showing at the bottom the white fibers of the subiculum; 140-280u
thick; threads of context not densely packed, 2.8-3.8u thick, with
clamp connections. Hymenium dense, about 50u thick, composed,
in addition to the basidia, of crowded, much-branched, more or less
contorted threads, the tips of which extend above the general sur-
face and help to give the pruiinose appearance.

172 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

Basidia 4-spored, long club-shaped, about 7.5u thick and project-
ing about 40—50u,; sterile cells of much the same appearance are
scattered among them and may be young basidia. Spores (of No.
4703) clear salmon, smooth, elliptic, 5.5-7.5 x 9.3-13y, granular,
sprouting over night in a damp chamber. .

Our plants agree perfectly with a collection of C. roseum from
Bresadola at the New York Botanical Garden and with collections
so named at Washington. Dr. Burt has seen our No. 3981 and de-
termined it as C. roseum.

3981. On decaying hickory tree, January 18, 1920. Hyphae delicate, clamp-
connected, 3—4u thick. Spores smooth, subelliptic, 4.5-6 & 10-15y.

4703. On bark and wood of branches of Salix sericea, Glen Burnie Farm, Decem-
ber 5, 1920.

5. Corticium Viticola (Schw.) Fr.
PLATE 33

Plants appearing as small, irregular patches with deep orange-
red centers and paler byssoid margins which extend and fuse to form
elongated crusts up to 2 or more cm. long and 1 em. wide. Hymen-
ium forming irregularly and at times in seattered patches, again
continuous, pale sulphur yellow, with the appearance of fine leather,
about 45-50y. thick; the substance below about 185—250y. thick and
composed of very loosely woven, rather even threads about 3—-4u
thick, without clamp connections, which are usually a deeper, more
orange color.

Spores white, smooth, elliptic, with one side flattish, 5-5.5 x
8.5-9.4u.

Among the layers of the bark run deep orange rhizomorphic
strands with byssoid fringes which connect with the superficial part.
4693. On dead bark of a live grapevine, New Hope Swamp, December 4, 1920.

Middle and upper districts on bark of grapevines. Curtis.

6. Corticium arachnoideum Berk.
PLATES 17 AND 33

Effused irregularly over area of several centimeters, closely ad-
herent, color pure white; margin indistinct and pulverulent or hypoch-
noid, in center thicker and smooth, and in most places minutely
powdery, having the appearance of a thin white-wash. In section
about 1lly thick; context made up of very loosely packed, clamp-

1921] Tur THELEPHORACEAE OF NORTH CAROLINA 173

connected, incrusted (so as to look very rough-walled) hyphae, 4.2u.
thick; hymenium about 18 thick, made up entirely of young and
old basidia, which are clavate, 4.84 thick, with four minute sterig-
mata; no cystidia, but at base of the hymenium is a layer of crys-
tals which KOH does not dissolve entirely.

Spores white, short-elliptic, hyaline, 2.5-3.5 x 3.8—-5u.

When compared with specimens of C. arachnoideum from New
Jersey (Ellis and Everhart, Fungi Columbiana No. 309) at New York
Botanical Garden, our plants agreed exactly and Dr. Burt has kindly
confirmed the determination.
4235a. On very rotten, decaying, deciduous wood, March 25, 1920.

Common on wood and bark. Curtis.

7. Corticium vagum B. &. C.
Cortic.um botryosum Bres. Ann. Mye. 1: 99. 1903.
PLATE 33

Entirely resupinate, pulverulent-looking, margin indeterminate;
easily separable from the substratum when wet, and with an open
wefty structure that resembles a mold; color when wet, light slate,
drying to a yellowish gray. Structure in section about 240y thick,
consisting of very loosely packed, very large (7.4y thick,) consider-
ably branched, frequently septate hyphae without clamp connections
which are yellowish towards the substratum.

Spores subelliptic (flat on one side, curved on the other), pointed
at each end, 3.8-5.5 x 7.5-lly. Basidia simple, very peculiar,
hardly distinguishable from the hyphae and not forming a distinct
hymenial layer, 7.4-9 x 18-25y, with two, four or six curved sterig-
mata. No cystidia.

The small group of Corticiums to which this species belongs is
peculiar in the undifferentiated condition of the fruiting surface.
There can scarcely be said to be a hymenium any more than in a
mold. The plant is at times parasitic, again saprophytic. Burt
(1. c.) has studied it along with two other related species and his
description agrees substantially with ours. Hypochnus Solani,
Corticium Solani and Rhizoctonia Solani are the same as this. Our
plant also agrees in all important particulars with Bresadola’s de-
scription of his species and with the more detailed description by Miss
Wakefield (Trans. Brit. Myc. Soc. 4: 117. 1913).

174 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

4230. On bark of a dead poplar limb, April 4, 1920.

4236. On inside of decaying poplar log, April 15, 1920. Spores pointed, sub-
elliptic, 3.7-4.5 & 8.5-11.5p.

4259. On bark and wood of dead pine, April 15, 1920.

4276. On dead pine wood, April 20, 1920.

8. Corticium subcoronatum v. Hoehn. and Litsch.

Adnate, thin, pulverulent-looking, so loosely woven as to be
lacunate under a hand lens, when wet slate colored, drying to whitish
gray; margin indeterminate. Structure in section after application
of KOH about 90u thick, made up of extremely loosely packed, much
branched, clamp-connected, hyaline hyphae 5.5—-7.4y thick; no de-
finite hymenial layer present but basidia are borne on the tips of
much branched hyphae at outer surface and the large number of
collapsed basidia give the appearance of a layer of crystals; basidia
6.6-7.4 x 12.5, with four sterigmata and not distinguishable from
hyphae except for the presence of sterigmata.

Microscopic appearance like C. botryoswm, but differing in sec-
tion in that the present plant has more delicate hyphae which are
not yellowish at base as in C. botryosum, and has clamp connections
at septae and smaller spores than the latter. See Wakefield in
Trans. Brit. Myce. Soc. 4: 118. 1918.

4271. On bark of very rotten oak log, near Meeting of the Waters, April 18, 1920.

9. Corticium Stevensii Burt.

While we have not found this in Chapel Hill, its frequent presence
in the mountain region of this state and its importance as a parasite
of apples, pears, and quinces leads us to include it here. We adapt
the following condensed description from Stevens and Hall (Ann.
Myce. 7: 49. 1909, as Hypochnus ochroleucus) and from Burt (1. ¢.,
p. 125):

Fructification forming a felty, dull pinkish buff, easily removable
membrane on the under side of the leaf; hyphae 4.5—7.5yu thick, not
nodose septate, bearing the basidia scattered along them on short
lateral branches; basidia 7-8 x Ily, with 4 sterigmata; spores
hyaline, flattened or slightly concave on one side, 3-4 x 8—llu.

The vegetative mycelium lives on the twigs and forms there
chestnut-brown Sclerotia from which rhizomorphiec strands run to
the leaves and are dissipated into the fructifying hyphae.

1921] THE THELEPHORACEAE OF NORTH CAROLINA 5

Stevens and Hall report the fungus from numerous places in west-
ern North Carolina where it does much damage to neglected orchards.
The species is evidently related to C. vagum, and a true hymenium
is absent.

STEREUM

Plants growing on wood in all species here treated; thin, flat,
tough and leathery, or more woody and rigid; petal- or bracket-
shaped; in our species usually growing horizontally with a broad
attachment directly from the wood or from a more or less extensive
resupinate portion; dorsal surface often velvety or hairy, concen-
trically zoned and radiately strigose or rugose; hymenium quite
smooth and not furnished with sterile spines (setae) projecting among
the basidia, but cystidia or paraphyses may be present; basidia simple,
spores smooth in our species,.nearly white to pale smoky flesh color
ina good print. Some species exude a colored juice from the wounded
hymenium when in a growing condition. Burt has recently pub-
lished his monograph on the American species in Ann. Mo. Bot.
Gard. 7: 81. 1920. He records twenty species from North Carolina
(including S. fuscwm), two of which we are treating under Peniophora
and Corticium. Two of these North Carolina species grow on the
ground, both reported from the mountains. See also Massee, Journ.
Linn. Soc. 27: 158. 1890. I am under obligation to Dr. Burt for
having determined a number of my plants. For interesting remarks
on S. abietinwm Pers. see N. Y. Sta. Mus. Bull. 219, 220, p. 54, con-
taining Report of Director for 1918. 1920.

KEY TO THE SPECIES TREATED

‘Plant forming small tuberculate bodies like crowded molar
teeth; hymenium with many warted cystidia............ S. frustulosum (4)
Not as above.
Hymenium becoming reddish when bruised.

Growing on frondose wood; surface tawny..............S. gausapatum (1)
Growing on frondose wood; surface blackish with rusty
margin; texture hard and woody when dry........... S. subpileatum (3)
Growing on pine; surface pallid.................. pee S. sanguinolentum (2)
Hymenium turning dark brown when bruised............ .S. fuscwm (10)

Hymenium not becoming red or brown when bruised (S.
subpileatum and S. fuscum, in which the hymenium
changes color when bruised are included below, as this
character is obscure except when quite fresh.)

176 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

Dorsal surface grayish, zoned, coarsely hairy............ S. fasciatum (5)
Dorsal surface grayish, zoned, tomentose; plant small,
REECE PROMI CEE Pe hese co das sa x wed ». 4 susie spielen S. rameale a form (7a)

Dorsal surface in large part smooth and shining; chest-
nut or lighter reddish-brown, tomentose at base and

at times on some of the zoneS................000e00: S. rameale (7)
Dorsal surface satiny-tomentose, with zones of tan, cin-

NAMOBWTEAIISN-COWD CC ss. . cnc occ eee s oe estes ema S. lobatum (6)
Dorsal surface smooth, silky-shining, pale tan to whit-

ASE A ceo OI ce es org Be cs he th ea S. sericeum (8)

Dorsal surface white when dry and densely woolly hairy
all over; hymenium golden yellow when dry; plant

S101 il ee PE estoy ects enirs si saaveuen a Sosre ach soci hc tea aaca eee S. ochraceoflavum (9)
Dorsal surface dull brown, subtomentose on the whitish
MALO MESRIEPOLEY) o.... ed oc a beaks a eee S. fuscum (10)

Dorsal surface smoothish or more or less scurfy-tomen-
tose, particularly towards the margin; deep purplish
brown or blackish, margin tawny when growing...... .S. subpileatum (3)

1. Stereum gausapatum Fr.

S. spadiceum Fr.
PuaTEs 20 anpD 35

Plant laterally sessile forming a complicated mass of branched,
wavy, imbricated, horizontal caps which project a distance of about
1.5-5 em.; a compound group at times extending laterally up to
8-9 cm. Dorsal surface zoned frequently with ridges and prolifera-
tions, densely matted tomentose all over; color when damp dull
tawny with brownish zones, the margin reddish brown (where the
reddish flesh shows through the thinner tomentum), when dry all
parts are a clearer tawny or buffy tawny except for a narrow reddish
margin. Hymenium wavy and undulating to form radial ridges,
when damp dull dark brown with a tint of bay, the marginal part
for about a em. being reddish ochraceous; all parts of the hymenium
turn instantly dull red when bruised and emit a little reddish latex.
When dry the hymenium becomes a somewhat lighter dull smoky
buff or tan with a faint fleshy tint. Flesh when wet very tough and
plable, about 0.5 mm. thick, deep reddish brown, the hymenium
about 0.4 mm. thick (unusually thick for a Stereum) and the tomen-
tose coat about 0.6-1.4 mm. thick; tasteless and odorless. When
dry the caps are rigid and rather brittle.

Spores (of No. 4110) pale creamy flesh, smooth, elliptic, 2.5-3.7 x
6-8.5u..

3o21.

No.

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1921] Tue THELEPHORACEAE OF NORTH CAROLINA ibrer

Not rare on rotting oak stumps and logs. The species is easily
recognized by its good size, complicated structure, tawny and tomen-
tose surface and dark hymenium which turns red at once when
bruised. It differs from S. sanguinolentum in tawny color and growth
on oak. The latter is pallid and grows on pine.

334. On the base of a rotten oak stump, October 4, 1908.
3821. On oak log at “Long Bridge,” December 5, 1919. Spores 3-3.8 X 6-8.2u.
3912. On dead oak log by Battle’s Branch, November 5, 1919.
4110. Oak limb by Battle’s Branch, February 13, 1920.

Common on trunks and stumps. Curtis
Blowing Rock. Atkinson.
South Carolina, Hartsville. Coker.

2. Stereum sanguinolentum (A. &. B.) Fr.
PuatEe 35

Largely resupinate, the upper margin reflexed and bracket-like,
in our plants extending only about 4-5 mm.; surface of the free caps
inherently fibrous, radiately striate, zoned lengthwise by thin brown
lines, the remainder nearly white or brown, the thin margin white;
flesh leathery, tough, elastic, thin. Hymenium more or less wrinkled
and ridged, when young whitish (very pale fawn) sooner darker
through light fawn to dusky fawn; when bruised in the fresh state
immediately exuding a deep red juice which stains the surface, later
the stained parts becoming dark dusky brown with only a tint of red.

Spores (of No. 3967) white, sausage-shaped, 2-3 x 6-8.5u..

Easily distinguished from others that turn red by growth on pine
and different color. Our plants form patches about 1.5-2 x 1.54
em., some with and some without the narrow reflexed margin. If
soaked again after drying the hymenium turns red almost all over
and on drying again darkens to a very deep brown, the margin only
remaining white.

3967. On a pine log, January 17, 1920. Photo.
Low and middle districts on pine trunks. Curtis.

3. Stereum subpileatum B. &«. C.

PLATES 21 anpD 35
Plants bracketed from a resupinate layer, extending about 1.5-5
em. or more, often anastomosing and contorted; dorsal surface vel-
vety-scurfy when young and more or less persistently so, the older

178 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

part often quite smooth; multizonate, the more conspicuous zones
with obscure ones between; usually crimped and waved to form
radiating ridges like an oyster or pecten shell; color on younger grow-
ing margin buff-tawny, then dull tawny-brown or at times abruptly
blackish-brown, with dull purple zones and often deep gray zones
near the margin. Flesh about 0.5-0.8 mm. thick, very hard and
woody, not at all pliable when dry, composed of four distinct layers,
the lower, just under the pale hymenium, thickest, ochraceous buff
color, with vertical fibers and distinctly stratified in old plants (this rep-
resenting the different layers of old hymenium); the next layer thinner
(unless plant is young) and lighter with horizontal fibers; the next
thinner still and black or nearly so and hard and shining like rosin;
the upper brownish and densely spongy; threads of flesh densely
packed, 3-4u. thick, without clamp connections. Hymenium smooth,
pale creamy flesh color, cracking in age, often wrinkled and nodu-
lated and obscurely zoned, becoming dull brownish red when bruised
in the fresh state.

Spores (of No. 3828) smooth, white, oval, 2.5-3.7 x 3.8—5.5u.
Cystidia numerous, encrusted, blunt, about 5.2-7.5u thick, pro-
jecting about 7.5-1lu—a few bottle-brush paraphyses were seen in
our preparations.

The caps are perennial, the new growth arising from the lower
layer of flesh only, and forming a new hymenium over the old one.
Old plants may be practically black and the old hymenium may
become straw color or dull creamy yellow with discolorations due to
black or green molds. It is not often that one finds plants in so
fresh a condition as to show the change to reddish in the hymenium,
but the plant is easily determined by its other characters. Rare
at Chapel Hill; apparently more common in the Coastal Plain. Our
plant is just like S. subpileatum B. & C., as represented by No. 219
in the Ravenel Exsiccati. Stereum sepium is very near, but is
separated by Burt on account of the abundance of bottle-brush
paraphyses. Sterewm insigne also differs in having many such para-
physes and in the absence of cystidia. Stereum rugosum has been
considered in a different section on account of the red juice in its
hymenium, but in our collections of S. subpileatum the hymenium
also turns red when bruised, a fact which has not been mentioned by
others. There is, however, no obvious juice in the latter.

2837. On an oak log, September 23, 1917.
3828. On the same log as No. 2837, December 6, 1919.

PLATE 21

STEREUM SUBPILEATUM. Nos. 1522 and 2837 [abovel.
STEREUM FUSCUM. No. 689 [center].
STEREUM RAMEALE. Nos. 3813 and 3825 [below].

1921] Tur THELEPHORACEAE OF NORTH CAROLINA 179

3955. Ona standing dead white oak, January 17, 1920.
Common on logs and stumps. Curtis.
Blowing Rock. Atkinson.
South Carolina. Hartsville (No. 1522.) Coker.

4. Stereum frustulosum (Pers.) Fr.
PuatTEs 18 AND 35

Plant forming small flat, tuberculate, usually crowded bodies
which are somewhat expanded at the top. The upper, spore-bearing
surface is usually grooved and uneven like a molar tooth, is brownish-
gray in color and nearly glabrous. The sides are blackish brown
and rugosely zoned. Flesh brown, very hard and woody, about
1.5-3 mm. thick, zoned, each zone representing a renewed growth
added over the hymenium of the preceding growing season as in
Fomes.

Spores white, smooth, oval, 2.5-3.5 x 4-5.lu. Basidia club-
shaped, 5.5-7u thick, with four very long sterigmata. Cystidia
numerous, club-shaped, covered over the distal half with close-set
short spines like a giant’s club. These spines are not so long in our
preparations as in figures by Burt (1. ¢., p. 227). (See also Lloyd,
Letter 51, fig. 565; and Myc. Notes No. 49, p. 696, fig. 1041. 1917.)
These peculiar cystidia, together with the perennial habit, indicates
a relationship with S. subpileatum which is, I think, related to S.
rugosum.

The plant is common on decorticated, but still sound and hard
oak stumps and logs. Plants in cavities and unexposed to weather
may be buffy brown in color, and some of these at least are sterile.
As they grow older the plants expand slowly above and if on ver-
tical wood may become slightly shelving above, in such case looking
very like a miniature Fomes.

332. On hard dead wood of white oak, October 4, 1908.
389. On hard dead oak trunk, October 20, 1911.
1042. On stump of Liriodendron tulipifera, December 6, 1913. Photo.
3814. On oak stump, December 3, 1919.
4127. On oak stump, February 15, 1920. Plants up to 3 mm. thick, with as many
as ten layers.
Low and middle districts on wood and stumps. Curtis.
Blowing Rock. Atkinson.

180 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

5. Stereum fasciatum (Schw.) Fr.
PLATE 22

Plants very thin, tough and pliable when fresh, rather brittle
when dry, sessile, and attached by a narrowed base, often imbri-
cated, individuals reaching a width of about 8 cm., the upper surface
covered densely with a rather harsh, fibrous tomentum; color light
creamy gray or grayish tan, with distinct, rather closely set zones.
After maturity the upper surface soon becomes green from the growth
there of the alga Plewrococcus. Hymenium smooth, faintly zoned
and of a light fleshy-cream color. Spores (of No. 3815) smooth,
elliptic, 2.1-2.9 x 5.1-6.5u, just like those of S. lobatum.

The plant is very common on logs and stumps and may occur
in such abundance as almost to cover a large log. It is not rarely
intermixed with Coriolus versicolor. The caps are only about a quar-
ter toa half mm. thick. The plant is easily recognized by the strigose-
hairy cap, light hymenium and comparatively large size. It is often
referred in American herbaria to S. hirsutum.

938. On an old rotting log by Fern Walk, September 14, 1913.
3815. On dead, deciduous twigs and bark, December 3, 1919.
3820. On rotting oak, December 5, 1919.

Common on trunks and limbs. Curtis.

6. Stereum lobatum Kunze.
PLATES 22 AND 35 ;

Plants about 1.3-5 cm. broad, sessile and attached by a narrowed
base, petal-shaped and often fused laterally, surface conspicuously
zonate with varying shades of light tan, cream, deep reddish brown,
cinnamon, etc. Most of the surface is covered with a thick, close
interwoven tomentum of satiny texture, but narrow zones on or
near the margin may be free from it. Texture pliable when fresh,
- less pliable and rather brittle when dry, very thin. Hymenium
smooth, faintly zoned; color a light fleshy salmon or fleshy tan.

Spores (of No. 3816) smooth, white, elliptic, 2.2-3 x 5-6.5u,
like those of S. fasciatum.

This species is about as common as S. fasciatum which it resembles
closely in shape, colors and texture. It averages smaller than that
species and may be distinguished best by the interwoven, feltish

PLATE 22

STEREUM LOBATUM. No. 3816 [top].
STEREUM FASCIATUM. No. 3815 [center and below].

7 ‘ Fi
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1921] THE THELEPHORACEAE OF NORTH CAROLINA 181

surface layer, which is not strigose hairy. Stereum versicolor Swartz,
to which authors have referred this species, was collected in Jamaica
and has a smooth surface (Lloyd, Myce. Notes 33: 429. 1909). My
plants have been seen by Burt, who determines them as above.

33). On dead wood, September 25, 1908.
3816. On dead deciduous twigs and bark, December 3, 1919.

Common on trunks and limbs. Curtis.
Hartsville, South Carolina. Coker.

7. Stereum rameale Schw.

S. complicatum Fr.
PLATES 21, 23 AND 35

Caps small, shelving from a more or less resupinate base, petal-
shaped or shell-shaped, often fused laterally, usually projecting 3-17
mm.; surface zoned, smooth and silky-shining except near the base
where it is covered with white, gray or tawny fibers, or the hairs
may occur on some of the zones more than half-way to the margin,
or very rarely all over; color when quite fresh and damp a light och-
raceous on margin, passing through ochraceous to reddish ochraceous
at base, when dry a deep chestnut brown with paler zones, or when
old and weathered the color may fade to much lighter. Hymenium
smooth, strong, uniform ochraceous when fresh and damp, changing
to a creamy flesh color when dry. When on horizontal branches the
under side of the branch may be completely covered by the resupinate
part, which gives rise on the sides to a long fringe of the projecting
caps. On drying the plant contracts so much that the resupinate
portion is often split and torn.

Spores (of No. 3863) faint smoky flesh-color in a good print,
smooth, rod-elliptic, 2-2.8 x 5-7u. Hymenium (of No. 3802) about
35u. thick.

When damp the hymenium also is faintly zoned but when dry
it is not zoned. The dorsal surface is on the contrary more con-
spicuously zoned in the dry state. A very pretty little plant which
often occurs on small twigs and wings them on both sides if they
are horizontal, also appearing in large numbers on larger branches.

333. On a dead oak branch, January 14, 1909.

362. On branches and small twigs, October 11, 1911. Tawny tomentose all over.
3813. On a dead oak limb, December 3, 1919. Spores 2-2.8 X 5-7.2u.

3825. On deciduous twigs, December 3, 1919. Hymenium strong orange salmon.
4106. On an oak twig, February 13, 1920.

182 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

4174. Ona corticated oak branch, February 23, 1920. Color of damp hymenium
about gold; grayish flesh when dry.
Also many other collections on oak, sumac, ironwood, privet and peach.

Blowing Rock. Atkinson.
Common on dead limbs (as S. complicatwm). Curtis.

7a. Stereum rameale. Form on cedar.

We have in Chapel Hill a form on Juniperous poles which differs
from the typical in the much grayer and more tomentose surface
in the smoky hymenium, and in never reaching the larger sizes often
found in the latter. These differences remain constant from year to
year, but as the spores and other microscopic characters are the
same, I agree with Dr. Burt, who has seen my plants, that it is best
to refer them to S. rameale. <A description follows:

Shape and size as in smaller examples of the typical form, mostly
petal-shaped and attached by a constricted base, projecting about
4-8 mm., at times largely resupinate, often in rows; dorsal surface
light brown when damp with narrow zones of blackish brown, the
margin white or black; scurfy tomentose nearly all over (a few nar-
row glabrous zones are present at times); radially channelled; when
dry pale gray with narrow blackish zones and an obscure cinnamon
tint towards the margin. Hymenium uneven, smoky brown to
smoky buff when damp, when dry smoky gray, the marginal part
darker.

Spores exactly like those of S. rameale, smoky flesh color, 1.8-
2.8 xX 5-6.6u..

Stereum radiatum Pk. which also grows on conifers (hemlock and
spruce) in the northern states is very different.

4026. On cedar poles with bark on, January 24, 1920.
4318. Same spot as No. 4026, June 20, 1920.

8. Stereum sericeum (Schw.) Sacc.

PuaTE 35

Plant arising from a little tubercle and, if beneath a branch,
largely resupinate by fusions, reaching a length of 6 or 7 cm., the
free and shelving margins not continuous but discrete and forming
separate petal-like brackets which vary from very small up to 2 em.
broad and extending 1.5 cm.; often not resupinate and attached
directly to the wood by a point. Dorsal surface smooth, silky-

PLATE 23

STEREUM RAMEALE. No. 4106.

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1921] THE THELEPHORACEAE OF NoRTH CAROLINA 183

shining, pale straw or whitish gray, radially striate, transversely
zoned by narrow lines of brown. Hymenium pale fleshy-straw color
to whitish, faintly ridged radially. Flesh very thin, hardly a fifth
of a em. thick, when damp very soft and pliable like softest leather,
when dry subrigid and elastic.

Spores (of No. 3962, Hartsville, S$. C.) pale flesh color in a good
print, rod-elliptic, 2.2-3.4 x 7-10u, a few up to 1lu.

The plants arise from points and if resupinate spread out and
fuse when touching, forming a faint line on the hymenium to show the
line of union just as in Hichleriella Leveilliana. The point of origin
is indicated by a small central nipple in the center of each component
part. The species is easily distinguished by the quite smooth, silky,
pale caps, small size, and thin, papery structure. In age the plants
often become split radially into narrow frayed strips. Rather com-
mon.

1043. On dead branch of Carpinus, December 6, 1913.
4040. On blackgum twig in Arboretum, January 26, 1920.

Hartsville, South Carolina. Several collections on black gum (Nyssa),
December, 1919. Coker.

9. Stereum ochraceoflavum (Schw.) Curtis
PLATE 35

Plants typically cup-shaped or elongated cup-shaped, if hanging
then attached by a broad base or if on small twigs by an elongated
line; if on upright branches then broadly attached by a resupinate
side of the cup, size varying from quite small up to about 1.5 cm.
broad, or several may be fused to make a length up to 3 cm. Dorsal
surface densely woolly-hairy all over, when damp dull white with
narrow straw-colored zones towards margin and deeper reddish och-
raceous zones near the base, when dry white all over (due to the
colored flesh not showing through the white hairs). Hymenium
somewhat uneven, of a beautiful golden-yellow color when dry, a
more ochraceous yellow when wet; not changing when cut; after
some exposure the color may fade to a paler buff. Texture tough
and very pliable, like soft leather when wet, sub-rigid when dry;
flesh about the color of the hymenium, both together hardly a half
mm. thick.

Spores (of No. 4033) white, elliptic, smooth, 2-3 x 5.5-7.4u.

A striking and unique plant, easily recognized by the small size,
golden-yellow hymenium and woolly-white cap. This is certainly

184 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

S. ochraceoflavum. I have compared a good collection of that spe-
cies from the Schweinitz Herbarium and another from Schweinitz
in the Curtis Herbarium, and find them identical. It is also like
plants under this name in the Curtis Herbarium from Massachusetts,
New York and Mississippi. The same thing from Alabama, South
Carolina and Cuba in the Curtis Herbarium was labelled S. hir-
sutum. Specimens of the latter from Europe are quite different.
Our plant is also like S. ochraceoflavum as represented in the Kew
Herbarium, where I sent some of my plants for comparison. Sterewm
sulphuratum B. & Ray. (Journ. Linn. Soe. 10: 331. 1868) seems very
near. From the description the species would hardly be connected,
but the type of S. sulphuratum in the Curtis Herbarium from Cuba,
as well as a collection from Georgia, can scarcely be distinguished from
our plants with a hand lens. Burt finds the microscopic characters
of the two species to differ in several respects.

2941. On dead twig of Rhus copalina, October 8, 1917.

4033. On twigs of a deciduous wood, January 25, 1920.

4738. Ona dead vine of Vitis, December 16, 1920.
Common on limbs. Curtis.

Hartsville, S. C. On twigs of various deciduous woods as black gum,
Ilex glabra, etc., December 25-26, 1919. Coker.

10. Stereum fuscum Schrad.

S. bicolor Pers.
PLATE 21

Caps from 1-2.5 em. wide, much fused and folded and rising
from a common resupinate stratum; surface grayish snuff color, the
margin abruptly pallid; tomentose when young, the tomentum col-
lapsing on exposure to weather, the growing margin remaining tomen-
tose; obscurely marked with structural zones, especially near the
margin, where there may appear an interrupted blackish zone. Flesh
about 1 mm. thick, color of surface, fibrous and rather spongy. Hy-
menium thin, about 55—65y. thick, white when young, then approach-
ing the cap color, becoming dark brown when bruised in the growing
state; texture much more firm and brittle than the flesh; furnished
with thick, refractive, embedded gleocystidia; cystidia also present,
encrusted, blunt or pointed, 3.5-4y. thick, projecting about 9—22u.

Spores oval, smooth, 2.3-2.5 x 3.5—4u.

Burt makes an error in not crediting this from North Carolina,
putting Salem, under South Carolina.

1921] Tur THELEPHORACEAE OF NORTH CAROLINA 185

689. On dead sweetgum, December 3, 1912. Photo.

Blowing Rock. On rotting wood. Atkinson.
Common, on logs and limbs. Curtis.

THELEPHORA

Plants tough, leathery, fan-shaped, or funnel-shaped, or much
branched; hymenium smooth or somewhat wrinkled, covering only
the interior (or outer) surface in most species, but. clothing all but
the stalk in a few branched forms; basidia simple; spores colored,
rough or spiny. A few branched kinds as T.. palmata and T. antho-
cephala have the form of Clavarias but are distinguished from these
by the tough, leathery texture and very dark spores. Lachnocladium
forms of Clavaria approach these in texture, but have light spores.
(See Burt, Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 1: 199. 1914, for a full treatment of
the genus in North America.)

Key To THE NortTH CAROLINA SPECIES

Plants stalked and upright, growing on the ground
Branched like a tree or shrub and rather stout, 3-6.5 cm.

high.
Maenwety sttdne and foctid.-.. 2... oc eee es T. palmata (1)
UIP IDTDE 4 T. multipartita (2)
Branched like a tree or shrub, slender, 1.5—-2.7 cm. high..... T. caespitulans*
Simple, small, flattened and broadened upward.......... T. regularis (4)

Simple, or lobed, expanded above into more or less com-
plete shallow, thin and pliable cups. In pine or cedar
woods or open fields.
Cap not zoned, fibrous-squamulose, margin fimbriate...7’. terrestris (5)
Cap zoned, inherently squamulose, margin even at ma-

SOUPS lA. SOS SRS ee T. intybacea (6)
Cap zoned, silky fibrous, margin fimbriate............. T. griseozonata (7)
Expanding above into a complicated mass of concen-

tric plates, lobes or tubercles, thick and firm......... T. vialis (3)

Plants laterally sessile, bracketed, growing on wood or up
from the ground onto bases of stems. Sometimes cen-
trally stalked and expanded into a cup above when grow-
ing upright.

* Thelephora caespitulans has not been found in North Carolina, but should be looked for
as it occurs both north and south of us. We take the following from Burt (1. c. 1: 204.
1914): “Fructification erect, coriaceous, dusky drab to olive-brown below, paler above,
very much branched, forming clusters 214 cm. high by 214 cm. broad; pileus with numerous
divisions joined together into a solid base but assurgent above and pressed together closely
compressed, subcanaliculate, frequently obtuse and whitish at the apex; hymenium amphi-
genous: spores umbrinous under the microscope, sparingly tuberculate, 7-8 X 5-64. On the
ground in mixed woods, Vermont to South Carolina, and in dense coniferous woods, Wash-
ington. September. Rare. This species is related to T. palmata but is more olivaceous,
and it is probably inodorous,—at least no odor has been noted.”’

186 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

Blackish when fresh, with white margin when dry, brownish

above with a gray-drab hymenium..................... T. cuticularis (8)
Dull cinnamon or chestnut, margin paler when growing,
Soni aridisman meee Hen. o.oo es ek o's «eee ae eee T. albido-brunnea (9)
Vellowish, aren RennGny. ou. c/n... 25. «oa are eee T. lutosa (10)
Plants incrusting and ascending small plants or twigs from the
PRO UNG g ae eee EEE cov’... . Sic 6 sa as Oe T. fimbriata (11)

1. Thelephora palmata (Scop.) Fr.

This species, which is sharply marked by its upright branched
habit, dark color and very foetid odor, has not yet been found in
Chapel Hill, and in the following description of the fresh plant I
have made use of notes by Miss M. McKenney, of Olympia, Wash-
ington. The species is northern in its range and descends to our
state only in the mountains, so far as known with certainty. Curtis
reports it as common in woods in this state, but he may have had
some other plant in mind.

Gregarious or tufted, 3-6 em. high, 2.5-4 em. broad, trunk thin,
flattened, black. Branches numerous, flattened, black; these branch
again into slender branchlets which are round, flexible, tough, simple
or occasionally flattened, divided, narrowing at the tip, which is
white or gray. Odor most disagreeable, something like decayed
cabbage combined with iodoform. Spores (of a plant from Olym-
pia, Wash.) blackish brown, irregularly warted or spiny, 7.4-9.3 x
8-11. to

In the dried state the plants are deep brown on the surface, the
central flesh remaining black. They are rather brittle with nearly
as much the appearance of a Clavaria as of a Thelephora, entirely
smooth with a surface of velvet-like appearance all over. Odor
retained, taste similar, bad, a good deal like that of Hygrophorus
Peckit. Burt gives the color of fresh plants as fuscous purple. The
plant is found under conifers or in grassy fields.

Asheville. Beardslee.
Common on earth in woods. . Curtis.

2. Thelephora multipartita (Schw.) Fr.*
PLATES 24 AND 35

Plants about 2.5-3.5 cm. high, and 1.5-2.5 cm. broad above,
distinctly stalked and dividing above into rather narrow, flattened

* Thelephora anthocephala (Bull.) Fr. is reported from North Carolina by Burt (from
Beardslee) and by Curtis. We have 10t found a plant that we can separate from T. multi-
partita as this, and as we cannot work out any difference from descriptions that will make
a clear distinction between the two species we refrain from copying a description (see Burt,
«Cz, D5 20d):

PLATE 24

Deeg mee
~l = “? ~
° wy
a ‘A eS)

ee

THELEPHORA MULTIPARTITA. No. 3468.

——

af

‘aa Teh
span

(s y 4 i ‘
‘ i uy . _ ie pa : s ms ,
eis ser ae =

1921] THE THELEPHORACEAE OF NORTH CAROLINA 187

and channelled branches with white or whitish, finely tomentose,
sterile tips; hymenium deep brown when fresh and moist, about
warm sepia of Ridgway, in drying becoming lighter, between fawn
and wood-brown of Ridgway. Stem rough, irregular, usually more
or less flattened, surface felt-like. Texture tough, pliable; tasteless
and odorless.

Spores (of No. 2590) deep smoky sepia, a large mucro, irregu-
larly set with blunt spines, 5.5-7.4 x 7.4—-9.3u.

The tomentose tips, densely spinulose spores and particularly
the lack of odor separate this from T. palmata. Dr. Burt has seen
our plants and refers them as above. The stem is said to be villose,
but this is not the case in our plants and ours are at times much
larger than the maximum dimensions given by Burt.

2590. On earth, upland rocky woods (mixed oak and pine), Battle’s Park, July 5,
1917. Photo.

2641. Low, damp woods by Meeting of the Waters branch, July 11, 1917.

2695. Low, damp woods by Creek at Upper Laurel Hill, July 17, 1917.

3468. In rich humus near base of oak near Meeting of the Waters, August 16,
1919. Photo. Deep brown with tint of purple; tips lighter. On dry-
ing colors become lighter. Spores deep smoky brown, irregularly warted
or with blunt spines, 4.5-7 X 6.5-8.5u.

4610. Damp, sandy soil below Meeting of Waters, July 31, 1920. Plants 2-3 cm.
high.

North Carolina. Schweinitz.

3. Thelephora vialis Schw.
T. tephroleuca B. & C.
PLATE 26

Plant about 3-5 cm. high, and about 3-6 cm. broad, expanding
and branching upward from a contracted base. The branchlets are
broad and flat and fuse at any point, usually so consolidated as to
form one complicated mass with the upper surface deeply lobed and
nodulated. Flesh firm, coriaceous, very hard on drying and then
giving off a distinct, rather sharp, aromatic odor that is hardly dis-
agreeable. Hymenium inferior, rugose or smoothish, pale yellowish
when young, becoming brown.

Spores said by Burt to be olive buff under the microscope, bluntly
angular, 4.5-5 x 4.5-7u.

Burt notices a ‘disagreeable’ odor in drying; others do not men-
tion an odor. We have found the plant to be rare here. When

188 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

Curtis speaks of it as common he probably included the very common
Tremellodendron candidum.
1059. On ground in woods near campus, fall of 1913.

Asheville. Beardslee.

North Carolina. Atkinson.

North Carolina. Schweinitz.
Common, woods and roadsides. Curtis.

4. Thelephora regularis Schw.
PLATE 25

Small plants growing on damp mossy earth; at times spathulate
in form, flat or the margins rolled back so as to be half infundibuli-
form, again infundibuliform with the margin divided and multiple
(as in No. 4435), height about 2-3 em., the base narrowed gradually
into a cylindrical stalk about 1-2 mm. thick. Flattened portion
about 5-15 mm. wide. Dorsal surface nearly smooth or roughish
tomentose with light channels, and sometimes tubercles, a buffy
flesh color; spore-bearing surface a dark fleshy gray or purplish fawn,
with a glaucous bloom. Flesh tough, elastic, about color of the
dorsal surface, with a bitterish harsh taste. In drying the plants
become grayish brown, losing their flesh tints. Young parts of both
hymenium and dorsal surface turn a dark wine brown when rubbed.

Spores when fully mature, angular, about honey color under
the microscope, subspherical, smooth, 5—6y. in diameter. The spores
are slow to take their color and to become rough, still appearing
white and smooth until nearly full grown. Basidia club-shaped,
four-spored, sterigmata about 4u long; no cystidia.

According to descriptions the plants may assume a regular in-
fundibuliform shape like a perfect cup, and Burt thinks (1. ¢., p. 206)
that T. multipartita, which is reported by Schweinitz from this state,
is only a branched form of this species.

1597. In damp mossy earth by branch southwest of graded school, July 10, 1915.
1622. Same spot as No. 1597, July 21, 1915. Photo.
4435. Damp, sandy soil by Battle’s Branch, July 17, 1920.

Salem. Schweinitz.
North Carolina. Atkinson.

PLATE 25

THELEPHORA REGULARIS. No. 1622.

PLATE 26

ibove].

ls
40

8

59

No. 10.

TALIS.
A TERRESTRIS.

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AV

THELEPHOR
THELEPHOR

[below].

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1921] THe THELEPHORACEAE OF NORTH CAROLINA 189

5. Thelephora terrestris Ehrh.
T. laciniata Pers.
PLATE 26

Caps scattered to densely imbricated, in part incrusting, more
or less fused, bracketed and broadly attached by the side, projecting
about 1-2 cm., upper surface deep brown, fibrous-squamulose and
ridged all over, not zonate; hymenium brown, paler on margin, un-
even; margin thin, fimbriate. Flesh thin, very soft, pliable and
spongy-fibrous, color of surface, absorbing water immediately.

Spores not to be obtained from our plants when found. Burt
gives them as pale fuscous, irregular, angular, sometimes slightly
tuberculate, 6-9 x 6u.

Recognized by the squamulose cap, dark color, very soft and
spongy, bibulous flesh and shelving growth on coniferous substrata,
upon which it climbs from the ground. According to Burt the spe-
cies also grows in sandy fields. For further interesting observations
by Burt see Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 1: 219. 1914.

3840. Running up the base of a cedar from the ground, south of athletic field,
December 7, 1919. Photo.

Asheville. Beardslee.
Salem. Schweinitz.
Common on earth and trunks. Curtis.

6. Thelephora intybacea (Pers.) Fr.
PLaTE 35

Plant 5.5 em. high, 4.5 em. broad, compound from a solid amor-
phous base, the flabelliform, petaloid or infundibuliform blades aris-
ing on more or less distinct stalks and gradually expanding upwards;
margins thin, expanded, more or less lobed and cut, but not fimbri-
ated; dorsal (interior) surface inherently fibrous and ridged but not
squamulose, dark brown, about Prout’s brown to bister of Ridgway;
when dry the margins black; hymenial (outer) surface a lighter gray-
brown (buffy-drab), the younger parts paler. Texture when dry
rigid and hard above, very firmly spongy below; when wet pliable
and elastic and quite bibulous; odor none when dry, but when wet it
has a strong rank smell, something like freshly cut black oak. When
wet the hymenium is much darker and approaches the dorsal surface
in color.

190 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

Spores (of No. 4672) irregularly angled, strongly papillate-warted,
5-7 X 6-7.5u..

Distinguished from T. terrestris by the absence of free squamules
and the non-fimbriate margin. Both are found on coniferous sub-
strata. In our only specimen there has been proliferation on the
dorsal surface which has obscured the color by adding a spongy
whitish layer over much of the middle and lower region.

4672. Mixed woods by Battle’s Branch, among pine needles and a few oak leaves,
October 9, 1920.

Asheville. Beardslee.

7. Thelephora griseozonata Cooke
PLATES 27 AND 35

Plants up to 5.5 em. wide, usually about 2.5-3 em., stalked and
upright, the thin, pliable, tough cap spreading upward like an irregu-
lar dish with deep lobes or only shallow cuts, very fibrous and radi-
ately ridged, the margin fimbriated in all cases; color deep brownish-
purple all over, the upper side with rather conspicuous zones of dif-
ferent tints. Hymenium rugose with low veins, disappearing grad-
ually into the stalk Stalk 3-7 mm. thick and 1-1.8 em. long, tough,
color of cap.

Spores purplish brown, irregularly lobed and warted, oblong,
about 5.5 x 7.5u.

The plants are gregarious but usually single or lightly clustered.
They occur in colonies under pines.

975. In pines, hillside pasture, west side of Glen Burnie Farm, November 11,
1913. Photo and drawings. It also ocevrs in a similar situation on
the east side of Glen Burnie Farm.

2426. Under young pine on Three Pine Hill, Glen Burnie Farm, July 26, 1936.
Photo.

8. Thelephora cuticularis Berk.
PLATE 35

Plants shelving, laterally sessile by a more or less resupinate
base, often confluent laterally, projecting about 2-4 cm. Dorsal
surface radially wrinkled, inherently fibrous and felted, the margin
felted pubescent when quite fresh; in the wet, growing state nearly
jet black, the wrinkled margin pure white; hymenium drab with a
tint of purple when dry, nearly black when wet. Flesh rather thin,

‘9676 ON + “VLVNOZOUSIUD VUOHdATHHL

46 ULV Id

1921] THE THELEPHORACEAE OF NORTH CAROLINA 191

about 1-1.5 mm. thick, pliable, easily water-soaked, color of the
surface both when wet and when dry. In our plants there was no
noticeable odor in the fresh state, but the dried plants have a faint,
not unpleasant drug-like odor. The species is said by Berkeley to
have a foetid odor, and Burt noticed such an odor in the dried state.

Spores (of No. 34382) smoky brown, subspherical, flattened on
one side, covered with sharp spines, 7.4-9 x 7.4—Ilu.

The black color of the plants (both dorsal surface and hymenium)
in the damp growing state is not mentioned in the descriptions. It
is the most conspicuous field character. If dropped in water after
drying the dorsal surface and context absorb water and change color
instantly as in 7. terrestris and T. albido-brunnea, but unlike those
the hymenium absorbs water much more slowly and becomes black
only after several minutes. This, with the blacker color (when wet),
furnishes an easy mark of distinction.

3432. On bark of oak tree, Batile’s Park, and some from below Meeting of the
Waters, August 15, 1919.

9. Thelephora albido-brunnea Schw.
PLATES 28 AND 39

Caps tough and elastic, horizontal and irregularly bracketed or
sometimes centrally stipitate from an amorphous, resupinate, often
spore-bearing base, extensively fused together, the individual caps
not often more than 3.5 cm. wide, or extending more than 1.8 cm.;
often encircling and climbing up sticks or shrubs or small saplings
for several inches and in such case thicker and more amorphous;
surface fibrous-spongy, tomentose when young, distinctly or obscurely
zonate, dull cinnamon or buffy cinnamon, or when young pale brown
to whitish, becoming paler when washed out in age by the weather,
margin blunt, white in growing stage, later concolorous. Flesh
about 1-2.5 mm. thick in the distinct caps, thicker in the amorphous
masses; felty and soft, the fibers extensively furnished with clamp
connections at the joints, color of surface or a darker rust color.
' Hymenium when fresh brownish drab to wood brown, fleshy-looking,
when old and dry very light fleshy brown, smooth, no setae, easily
wearing off and exposing the rust-colored flesh below.

Spores (print of No. 4409) smoky brown, irregularly angled,
echinulate, 7-10 x 7.4—1lup. :

192 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

When dropped in water after drying the entire plant, including
the hymenium, becomes water-soaked immediately.

1328. On soil and sticks, just above path by Battle’s Branch, east of Dr. Battle’s,
October 9, 1914. Spores rusty, tuberculate-spiny, subspberical, about
7.6u in diameter.

4409. Around bases of young living trees and shrubs, July 14, 1920. Photo.

4467. Base of tree near Meeting of the Waters, July 27, 1920. Spores dark smoky
purple, spiny, 6-7.5 & 7.5-10y.

4470. Around a rotten twig on damp soil, July 30, 1920.

10. Thelephora lutosa Schw.

This is known only from the type collection which is from Salem,
N. C. Burt describes the plant as follows (Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 1:
216):

‘“‘Pilei cespitose, densely imbricated, at first somewhat fleshy
but at length hard, undulate-plicate, yellowish, almost subtomen-
tose with pulverulence, somewhat horizontally attenuated behind,
margin sublobate, at length inflexed; pileus less than 2 mm. thick,
with hyphae 3u in diameter; hymenium becoming yellowish, even;
spores olive-buff under the microscope, angular, 5-6 x 3144-4u.

“Cluster about 114% em. high and broad.

“On the ground in roads and in woods. North Carolina.

“The type is distinct from TJ. albido-brunnea, having thinner
pileus, finer hyphae, and smaller and paler spores. The pilei were
crowded together into a small buff-colored cluster about 1144 cm.
high and broad, somewhat as in Tremellodendron pallidum (Schw.);
I failed to find stems at their bases.”’

11. Thelephora fimbriata Schw.

The only record from this state seems the original one by Schwein-
itz (as Merisma). We have examined two collections of this from
Andros, Bahamas (determined by Burt), and find that there are dense
clusters of branches, simple to sparingly branched which reach a
length of 1.3 em. They are a buffy ochraceous when dry and are
densely felted with intricately branched hairs. As we have not
found the plant in the fresh state we take the following from Burt
(Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 1: 222. 1914):

‘“Fructification coriaceous-soft, incrusting and ascending small
plants (mosses, etc.) here and there emitting fascicles of branches
united below, subterete, acuminate or fimbriately incised, at first

1921] THE THELEPHORACEAE OF NORTH CAROLINA 193

pale or whitish, soon ferruginous brown, drying Rood’s brown; hy-
menium even, pruinose-pubescent; spores umbrinous, tuberculate,
7-11 x 6-9u.

“Incrusting and ascending upward 1-3 em.; free branches 5-10
mm. long, 1 mm. thick, sweep of fascicle about 5-10 mm.

“In moist places. New York to South Carolina, and west to
Illinois. July and August.

“The type is an incrusting specimen, covering as its main axis
a small twig in one specimen and a moss in the other, and sending
out a few lateral branches which are flattened towards the free ends
and subfimbriate; main trunk is cylindric, latericius (of ‘Chromo-
taxia’), ends of branches paler; spores umbrinous under the micro-
scope, tuberculate, 7-8 x 6y. Schweinitz described the species as
becoming hard and cartilaginous, but this is an error probably due
to the foreign matter surrounded by the main trunk. Several other
specimens are present in his herbarium under various names.”

Salem. Schweinitz.

SPARASSIS

Tough and elastic but fleshy, repeatedly branched into a semi-
globose mass of flat, contorted, anastomosing branches, the hy-
menium covering only the outer (morphologically under) surfaces,
except at times on the innermost vertical branches (see Cotton,
Trans. Brit. Myc. Soc. 5: 333. 1911). This fact requires the re-
moval of Sparassis from the Clavariaceae, where it has usually been
referred.

We have found only one species in Chapel Hill, which we refer
to S. Herbstii Pk., without conviction that it is different from S.
spathulata Schw. Sparassis crispa is found in our mountains.

All species are edible, and are credited with being delicious. For
parasitism of Sparassis see Hedwigia 54: 328. 1914; and Journ.
Royal Myc. Soc. for 1914, page 386.

KEY TO THE SPECIES

S. Herbstii (1
nebenrhick blunt, not crisped........5..-:...+-+.+-6.+s00: 1 shee

S. spathulata (2)
USES GUS TG NPC ae) e's _S. crispa (3)

194 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY February

1. Sparassis Herbstii Pk.
Puates 29 AND 35

A large and very pretty plant of a complicated growth, that occurs
on wood that is usually under or at the surface of the ground. It is
composed of many upright and spreading, flat, rather thick, anas-
tomosing branches with blunt ends that spring from a single large
fleshy base. The entire plant is approximately globose or flattened-
globose and is of variable size, in No. 1363 being about 14 em. high
and 15 cm. broad. The apices of the branches are whitish and tomen-
tose, the lower parts cream colored, water-soaked, and smooth. The
texture of the whole is very tough and elastic. The plate-like branches
bear spores only on the outer surface, and in fresh specimens the
texture of the two surfaces can be seen to be different.

Spores (of No. 1363) white, nearly spherical to short-elliptic,
smooth, one large oil drop, 3.4-4.2 x 4.6-6.8u.

This is possibly not different from the next.

524. In pine woods northwest of Mr. Weaver’s house across railroad, October 6,
1912. Photo.
787. Woods south of athletic field, September 17, 1913.
1363. Growing from between the bark at foot of a pine stump in the new road
to Piney Prospect, October 16, 1914.

2. Sparassis spathulata (Schw.) Fr.
Stereum carolinense Cooke and Rav.

This is possibly not different from S. Herbstii Pk. but I give below
the original description (translation):

‘‘Erect, coriaceous, pallid brown, concrescent from upright blades,
with spathulate branches wavy at the apex and rounded zones.
Rare in grassy places, also sent from Georgia; reaching six inches
in height, growing in large groups, with concentric horizontal zones.
Of doubtful genus and said to be uncertain as to whether it is more
nearly related to Clavaria crispa or Spathularia.”’

To this scanty diagnosis I add the original description of Sterewm
carolinense Cooke and Ravenel (Journ. Myce. 1: 130. 1885), which
Cotton has shown to be almost certainly Sparassis spathulata. (Trans.
Brit. Myce. Soc. 5: 336. 1911.)

‘“Pileus multiplex, infundibuliform, deeply incised, forming lobes
variable in size, all confluent at the base in a common stem. Whole
plant six inches high, 4-5 inches broad, ochraceous, with faint zones

PLATE 29

SPARASSIS HERBSTII.

1921] THE THELEPHORACEAE OF NORTH CAROLINA 195

of darker color, margin of lobes entire, surface smooth. Hymenium
even, ochraceous-white; stem minutely velvety.”
Wilmington, N. C. (As Slereum caroliniense Cke. and Rav.) Dr.
Thomas F. Wood.
Low and middle districts on earth. Curtis.

3. Sparassis crispa (Wulf.) Fr.

This fine species is rare in North Carolina. It has not been
found in Chapel Hill, but I have seen it at Kanuga, and Beardslee
has it from Asheville. It is much more crisped and irregular than
S. Herbstii, with thinner and more intricate branches that do not
form the rather obvious labyrinths that are characteristic of the
latter species. Its diameter is usually about 10-20 cm., but it has
been reported larger. The color is a soaked, translucent, yellowish-
white, becoming brownish in age. Like S. Herbstii, it also grows
from the wood of conifers that is on or under the ground. Edible
and very good.

Asheville. Beardslee.

Kanuga. Coker.
Upper district, on earth. Curtis.

CuaPet Hitt, N. C.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES

PLATE 30

Cyphella muscigena. No. 3931. Fig. 1.

Cyphella fasciculata. No. 4001. Fig. 2.

Cyphella cupulaeformis. No. 4019. Fig. 3.

Solenia poriaeformis. No. 4686. Figs. 4-6.

Aleurodiscus Oakesii. No. 3937. Figs. 7-11.

Aleurodiscus candidus. No. 3827. Figs. 12-14.

Aleurodiscus candidus var. sphaerosporus. No. 3902. Figs. 15-17.
Figs. 1, 2, 5, 11, 13, 15, X 1440; fig. 6 X 108; others 720.

PLATE 31

- Aleurodiscus nivosus. No. 3897. Fig. 1; No. 3920. Figs. 2 and 3.
Aleurodiscus botryosus. No. 4710. Figs. 4-6 (fig. 5, paraphysis and proteid body).
Aleurodiscus macrodens. No. 4734. Figs. 7-9.
Coniophora arida. No. 4219. Figs. 10 and 11.
Peniophora gigantea. No. 4306. Fig. 12.
Peniophora violaceo-lividum. No. 3914. Fig. 13.
Peniophora albomarginata. No. 3849. Figs. 14 and 15.
Figs. 1, 4, 11, 14, «1440; others <720.

196 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [February

PLATE 32

Peniophora cinerea. No. 4299. Fig. 1; No. 4045. Fig. 2.
Peniophora longispora. No. 4250. Fig. 3.
Peniophora mutata. No. 3993. Fig. 4.
Peniophora filamentosa. No. 4264. Fig. 5; No. 4607. Fig. 6 (in fig. 5 erystals
dissolved off by KOH).
Hypochnus fuscus. No. 4267. Figs. 7-9.
Hymenochaete corrugata. No. 4076. Fig. 10.
Hymenochaete Curtisii. No. 3830. Fig. 11; No. 3875. Fig. 12.
Figs. 1, 8, 1), «1440; others 720.

PLATE 33

Corticium caeruleum. No. 4018. Fig. 1.

Corticium lilacino-fuscum. No. 4071. Fig. 2. (This fails to show paraphyses
well.)

Corticium roseum. No. 4703. Figs. 3 and 4 (basidium and contorted thread of
hymenium); No. 3981. Fig. 5.

Corticium Viticola. No. 4693. Fig. 6.

Corticium arachnoideum. No. 4235a. Figs. 7 and 8.

Corticium vagum. No. 4259. Fig. 9; No. 4230. Fig. 10.
Figs. 5, 6, 8, 9, 1440; others «720.

PLATE 34

Corticium scutellare. No. 4223. Fig. 1; No. 4696. Fig. 2.
Asterostroma cervicolor. No. 4507. Figs. 7=+0 (Fig. +6; fragmentary hyphae of
lower region). 3-6 6
Figs. 2, ses 1440; 1, X 720;+et07; others X att

PLATE 35

Stereum gausapatum. No. 3821. Fig. 1.
Stereum sanguinolentum. No. 3967. Fig. 2.
Stereum subpileatum. No. 3955. Fig. 3.
Stereum lobatum. No. 3816. Fig. 4.
Stereum rameale. No. 3863. Fig. 5. Form on cedar. No. 4818. Fig. 6.
Stereum sericeum. No. 3962. Fig. 7.
Stereum ochraceoflaaum. No. 4033. Fig. 8.
Stereum frustulosum. No. 3814. Figs. 9 and 10.
Thelephora multipartita. No. 3468. Fig. 11.
Thelephora intybacea. No. 4672. Fig. 12.
Thelephora griseo-zonata. No. 975. Figs. 13-15.
Thelephora cuticularis. No. 3432. Fig. 16.
Thelephora albido-brunnea. No. 4467. Fig. 17.
Sparassis Herbstii. No. 1363. Fig. 18.

Figs. 1-8, 10-12, 16-18, 1440; others 720.

PLATE 28

THELEPHORA ALBIDO-BRUNNEA.
No. 4470 [top left]; No. 4467 [top right]; No. 4409 [below].

i ‘

PLATE 30

PLATE 31

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PLATE 32

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PLATE 35

JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

VOLUME XXXVII
1921-1922

ISSUED QUARTERLY
Published for the Society

by the

University of North Carolina

CONTENTS

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ELiIsHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY,

_ UAE 2 DO Ee E
PROCEEDINGS OF THE TWENTIETH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE
Norra CAROLINA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE................... 6
eer aaNOis SANNEAU, 1836-1921... eee 17
oer inererm: FP. Metcalf :. .. ccs. ee ee ee 19
THe GENus RASPAILIA AND THE INDEPENDENT VARIABILITY OF
Mecnostmo WMeArores. H. V. Wilson....:........-.-...- 54
AN INTERESTING Maximat Case. Archibald Henderson and
LT a ES Re 61
Key To THE BUTTERFLIES OF NortTH Carouina. C. 8. Brimley... 73

A THEOREM ON DovuBLE Pornts In INvouuTiIon. J. W. Lasley, Jr. 80
THE Coutuypias oF NortH Carouina. W. S. Coker and H. C.

TBE ae At SE SE ea 83
urmnaTCN SINE HRPM! 0 oe oc cn eee ee ee ete et nee 108
ERS GE 2) 115
SoME CONSIDERATIONS IN DEFENSE OF THE GENERAL BIOLOGY

uepenn EE te OOM ec se se ee ee ee wn ee 123
NoTES ON THE OECOLOGY AND Lire-HistorY OF THE TEXAS

Hornep Lizarp, PHryNosoma Cornutum. J. P. Givler.... 130
A MaenetitTe-Marsie Ore at Lansine, N.C. W. 8S. Bayley.... 138
A BoTanicaAL BoNANZA IN TuscaLoosA County, ALABAMA.

ee DE 153
FIsHES IN RELATION TO Mosquito Controu. Samuel F.

re 161
NoTES ON THE MorPHOLOGY AND SYSTEMATIC RELATIONSHIP

or ScuERoTIUM Routrsu Sacc. B. B. Higgins.............. 167
AN INTERESTING ANOMALY IN THE PuLtMoNARY VEINS oF MAN.

Wee Grorge.....:..'.. 26 2k Oe ere 173
THe EASTERN SHRUBBY SPECIES OF Roprnta. W. W. Ashe...... 175
A New Oak FROM THE GuLF States. W. D. Sterrett:......... 178
A New Genus or Water Moup Renatep To BLASTOCLADIA.

mee aices and W.-A. Gront......-2-......... 00.000 180
Forest TYPES OF THE APPALACHIANS AND WHITE MouNTAINS.

Eg Re eis Te Ce ree 183

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PLATE 1

liver, th
Fic. 2. COLLYBIA CIRRATA. No. 3743
3)

COLLYBIA LILACINAn. sp. No. 3290

Fie COLLYBIA PLATYPHYLLA. No. 1263

JOURNAL

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society
Volume XXXVII DECEMBER Nos. 1 and 2

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC
SOCIETY, FEBRUARY,-1921, TO MAY, 1921

246th MEETING—FEBRUARY 8, 1921

Dr. Epwarp J. Woop (Class of 1899), of Wilmington, N. C.—Our
Debt in Medicine to the British.

The speaker mentioned briefly a few of the outstanding contribu-
tions to the making of modern medicine by the British. The pioneer
worker was William Harvey who described the circulation of the
blood and must be accredited with the discovery. Special reference
was made to that little group of nineteenth century physicians in
London who, at Guy’s Hospital, made such a remarkable contribu-
tion within a few years. There was Addison who first described Ad-
- dison’s disease, Bright who first described Bright’s disease, Hodgkin
who first described Hodgkin’s disease and finally Sir Ashley Cooper,
a great surgeon and a pioneer in medical education.

The real burden of the address was the contribution in parasitol-
ogy. The remarkable achievements of Sir Patrick Manson were
mentioned briefly, the genius of Louis W. Sambon applying his great
knowledge of medical zoology, the discovery of the mosquito in its
role in malaria transmission by Sir Ronald Ross, the work of Sir
David Bruse and others in determining the relation of the trypano-
some to sleeping sickness of Africa and the relation of the tse-tse fly
to its transmission. The work of Sir William Leishman in the dis-
covery (with division of honor to Donovan) of the protozoal cause of
dum-dum fever of India.

The need of a medical zoological survey in North Carolina was
mentioned. It was hinted that schistosomiasis had been recently
found in the state and at least one case of kala-azar. The educational
need along these lines was also emphasized.

[1]

2 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | December

247th Mrrtinc—Marcu 8, 1921

W. C. GEorGE.—Comparative Anatomy of the Brain.

The principal morphological subdivisions and connections of the
human brain were described and their probable phylogeny outlined.
The relation of the environmental conditions and habits of life of
animals to the degree of development of special parts of the brain
was indicated. Dissections of brains of an elasmobranch fish, a frog,
reptile, bird, rat, mole, cat and man were exhibited to show homolo-
gous parts of the brain and the degree of development under different
conditions of life.

Orro STUHLMAN, Jr.—Some Unsolved Problems of Modern Physics.

No science has gone through a more stormy period of develop-
ment than physics during the last decade. Our most cherished
theories have undergone most violent upheavals, the result of which
no one at this time can predict with certainty. These discoveries
have forced us to adopt new and contradictory explanations, which
in general may be divided into three groups: (a) X-rays and the
emissions from radio-active substances; (b) The theory of radiation;
(c) The so-called theory of relativity.

Of these the ‘‘Theory of Radiation’? was discussed and some of
the outstanding problems that require solution were explained in
detail.

Amongst those mentioned was Wien’s Displacement Law and the
contributions made by Planck. The classical theory of specific heat
and entropy and its quantum modifications were discussed. The
quantum theory as applied to the emission of electrons from bodies
was mentioned and some of the outstanding problems were discussed
in detail. The unsolved problems in the photo-electic field were next
enumerated and their possible bearing on the structure of matter
was sketched. Series spectra and the numerous problems confron-
ting the physicist in this field were finally enumerated. The paper
closed with a review of the Lewis-Langmuier theory of the structure
and physical properties of nitrogen and carbon monoxide.

)

248th Mrrtinc—Aprit 12, 1921

THORNDIKE SAVILLE—The Water Power Situation in North Carolina.
This paper presents the results of a statistical study of the devel-

1921] Proceepincs oF ExvisHa MircHewt Screntiric Society 3

oped hydro-electric power in North Carolina. It is shown that there
is at present a total installed capacity of about 356,000 H. P. in plants
producing hydro-electric power. Of this, 80,000 H. P. or 22 per cent
is transmitted for use outside the state; 113,000 H. P. or 32 per cent
is used at Badin in the local reduction of aluminum; while only 164,-
000 H. P. or 46 per cent is available for general industrial and public
use. Of the latter 98,500 H. P. or 28 per cent of the total (60 per
cent of the 164,000 generally available) is developed by two large
public service corporations.

The total output of electrical energy by public service plants has
increased 25 per cent from 1919 to 1920, and over 6000 per cent from
1907 to 1920. If the output increases at 12 per cent per year (one
half the present annual rate) there will be a demand in 1925 for
1,434,000 kw. hr. and in 1930 for 2,528,000 kw. hr. To meet this de-
mand, if the present proportion of output by water power is to be
maintained (85 per cent) there will be needed additional develop-
ment of 200,000 H. P. by water power in 1925 and of 624,000 H. P.
by 1930. To develop this amount of water power will mean many
new hydro-electric installations in the state, and the utilization of
most of the economically available water power sites. It is estimated
that about 1,500,000 H. P. is still undeveloped at sites in this state,
but only a portion of this amount can be economically developed
under present conditions.

Frep F. BaHNnson (Class of 1896), of Winston Salem, N. C.—The
Science of Humidification, with Demonstration of a New Humidifier.
Entirely too little attention has been paid to humidification in ali

manufacturing processes except those where the advantages are very
plainly apparent, such as textiles. All materials of animal or vege-
table origin and a number of mineral origin are affected by the humid-
ity of the air in which they are stored or used, and this effect is pro-
portional to the relative humidity or percentage of saturation, rather
than the actual humidity or pounds of water per thousand cubic feet
of space.

Since the weight of a cubic foot of saturated aqueous vapor just
about doubles for each twenty degrees rise in temperature, it is ob-
vious that even if the out-door humidity is sufficiently high, the in-
door humidity will always be too low whenever artificial heat is used.
This simply means that artificial means of supplying moisture must
be used practically every day in the year, because even in summer

4 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Sociery [December

weather out-door humidity is apt to be below what it should be for
satisfactory manufacture.

With exception of textile fibres, the curves for moisture content
of various materials with reference to atmospheric conditions have
not been determined.

The various commercial methods of humidification were men-
tioned and briefly described, and the Bahnson Humidifier was dem-
onstrated under actual operating conditions.

249th Mrrtinc—May 10, 1921

ARCHIBALD HENDERSON—The Lorentz Transformation in Einstein

Relativity.

Dr. Henderson attempted to give in the simplest possible mathe-
matical terms the explanation of the Principle of Relativity (in the
restricted sense), following the lines worked out by Einstein himself.
After deriving the equations of the Lorentz transformations, Dr. Hen-
derson gave their mathematical interpretation (1) The systems are en-
tirely symmetrical; (2) A beam of light must have the same velocity,
when viewed in the variables of either system; (3) The equations for
low velocities reduce to the Newtonian equations; (4) A meter-stick
perpendicular to the direction of motion remains constant. Analyz-
ing these equations further, Dr. Henderson showed the interdepen-
dence of time and space which they present, so that the phrase
‘‘noints”’ in ‘‘space”’ is replaced by the expression ‘‘events”’ in ‘‘the
world.”’ The invariance function was interpreted as indicating a
‘“‘rotation”’ in four-dimension Euclidian space with imaginary time-
axis; or else, a ‘‘rotation”’ in four-dimension non-Euclidian space
with real time-axis. It was pointed out that the Einstein theory of
Relativity raises the deepest questions regarding space, time, gravi-
tation, and the essential characteristics of the physical universe.

W. C. Coxer—Effect of Length of Day on Growth and Reproduction of
Plants.

A review was given, illustrated by lantern slides, of the highly
significant work of Garner and Allard on this subject. Mr. Allard
was assistant in botany in this University sixteen years ago and went
from here to the Department of Agriculture in Washington, where he
is still working. In an extended series of experiments with growing
plants the authors have shown that the length of day, that is the time

1921] Procrepincs or ExisHa MiIrcuEeLy Scientiric Society 5

of exposure to light, is by far the most important factor in initiating
or retarding the production of flowers and fruit. For example, a
certain variety of soy-beans when exposed to light for only seven
hours a day blossomed on June 15th, while those exposed to full day-
light did not bloom until September 4th. The majority of the plants
experimented with showed similar hastening of flowering when ex-
posed to short day, but several plants responded in the opposite man-
ner and were much retarded in blooming by a short day. The au-
thors believe that their work will have a considerable practical effect
on agriculture, as it shows that the time of seeding for best results
will depend on the lengths of day to which the crops will be exposed.
They also believe that the natural distribution of plants on the earth
is governed more or less directly by the seasonal length of day which
obtains for the different latitudes from the equator to the poles.

Election of Officers:

President—W. DeB. MacNider.

Vice-President—W. F. Prouty.

Permanent Secretary—J. M. Bell.

Recording Secretary and Treasurer—H. R. Totten.

E:litorial Committee—W. C. Coker, chairman; J. M. Bell, Collier
Cobb.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE TWENTIETH ANNUAL MEETING
OF THE NORTH CAROLINA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

HELD aT WAKE Forest CoLLEGE, WAKE Forest, N. C.
b ?
Aprit 29-30, 1921

The Executive Committee met at 2.00 P. M. on April 29th in the
Lecture Room of the Alumni Building with the following present:
Z. P. Metcalf, President, and C. 8. Brimley, Acting Secretary, other
members, R. N. Wilson, F. A. Wolf, and A. H. Patterson, the latter
acting for H. R. Totten, who was absent.

President Metcalf stated that the Legislative Committee author-
ized at the last meeting of the Academy to solicit funds from the
legislature had not been appointed, owing to the financial stringency
existing in the state at the time of the session of that body. He also
stated that affiliation with the American Association had been com-
pleted except for the official notice from the permanent secretary of
that organization.

The Executive Committee then passed resolutions recommending
the following measures to the Academy for favorable action:

1. Increasing the annual dues to $2.00 per member.

2. That the terms of the officers of the Academy should begin
with the adjournment of the meeting at which they are elected, and
should expire with the adjournment of the next regular annual meet-
ing.

3. That the 10 per cent allowed the Secretary-Treasurer should
be only on the Academy dues collected by him, and not on the Ameri-
can Association dues collected by him for that body in future.

4. Appointment of a Publicity Committee.

5. Appointment of a Committee on Preservation of our Natural
Resources.

The Executive Committee then received and accepted the offer
of the University of North Carolina to hold the 1922 meeting at
Chapel Hill.

President Metcalf then announced that he had appointed Messrs.
W. H. Pegram, R. N. Wilson, and A. H. Patterson to draw up suitable
resolutions on the death of past-President of the Academy J. J.
Wolfe, and that the same had been prepared and published in the
Mitchell Journal, and that he had also appointed Messrs. W. L.
Poteat and C. E. Brewer to do the same with regard to the death of
past-President J. S. Lanneau.

6}

1921] PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 7

Thirty-six new members were elected as follows:* W. J. Andrews,
Miss Lucretia Baker, Miss E. E. Barrow, H. L. Blomquist, J. T.
Barnes, Wayne Burch, Miss E. G. Campbell, L. A. Denson, R. T.
Farrington, W. C. George, J. P. Givler, H. N. Gould, E. P. Jones, J.
W. Lasley, Jr.,. W. Bruce Mabee, T. B. Mitchell, W. deB. MacNider,
N. M. Paull, Charles Phillips, T. E. Powell, Jr., R. H. Ruffner, E. E.
Randolph, A. F. Roller, Miss Mildred Sherrill, 8. C. Smith, William
E. Speas, Otto Stuhlman, Jr., R. W. Sullivan, C. C. Taylor, O. J.
Thies, Jr., H. M. Vann, R. B. Wilson, Mrs. B. W. Wells, Miss Lula
G. Winston, Miss E. K. Wright, D. B. Wilson.

The Executive Committee then adjourned.

The Academy met at 2:30 P. M., when papers were read and dis-
cussed. The following committees were then announced by Pres-
ident Metcalf: Nominating—W. L. Poteat, A. S. Wheeler, and
C. W. Edwards. Resolutions—Messrs. Bert Cunningham, J. B.
Derieux and A. H. Patterson. Auditing—Messrs. R. N. Wilson, J. W.
Nowell and W. C. Coker.

The Academy then rose to accept the invitation of the Ladies’
Community Club to take tea with them-at the Golf Cabin.

At 8.00 P. M. the Academy re-assembled in Wingate Memorial
Hall to hear the Presidential Address of President Z. P. Metcalf on
the ‘‘ Age of Insects,’’ which subject he handled in a highly instruc-
tive and scientific manner. A very interesting paper on Judgments
of Length, Mass, and Time by Dr. A. H. Patterson, of the University
of North Carolina, followed, after which the Academy adjourned for
the night.

On Saturday morning, April 30th, the Academy held its business
meeting at 9.00 A. M., President Metcalf in the chair.

The Secretary then read the report and recommendations of the
Executive Committee, all of which were adopted by the Academy.

The Nominating Committee then reported the following names
for officers of the Academy for the year beginning May 1, 1921.

President—James L. Lake, Professor of Physics, Wake Forest Col-
lege.

Vice-President—Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist.

Secretary-Treasurer—Bert Cunningham, Professor of Biology,
Trinity College.

Additional Members of the Executive Committee—Messrs. H. R.

* For addresses see full list of Academy membership.

8 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL SOCIETY [December

Totten, University of North Carolina; R. N. Wilson, Trinity College;
F. A. Wolf, State College.

The Secretary then on motion cast the vote of the Academy for
these gentlemen and they were declared elected.

The Resolutions Committee reported the following resolutions
which were adopted by a rising vote of the Academy:

1. That the North Carolina Academy of Science extend to the Fac-
ulty and President of Wake Forest College most hearty thanks for
and appreciation of their courtesy in tendering the use of the build-
ings and equipment of the college for the meeting of the Academy,
and in opening their homes to its members. This is the fourth meet-
ing to be held here and our memory of Wake Forest, both of the
town and of the college, has been one of consistent and generous hos-
pitality.

2. That the North Carolina Academy of Science extend its thanks
to the Ladies’ Community Club of Wake Forest for the pleasant social
courtesies extended to the members of the Academy at the Golf Club
on yesterday afternoon and its hearty appreciation of the spirit of
kindly hospitality which prompted the giving of the tea at the Club
House.

The Auditing Committee then reported that they had examined
the accounts of Secretary R. W. Leiby and Acting Secretary C. 8.
Brimley and found them correct and in good condition.

Reports follow:

Report of R. W. Lerpy, SECRETARY

Balance on hand Apmll 29th, 1920 (audited)... .......soc0see eee $196.32
Receipts April’ 29 to Sepists 1920... . 2... 6... ac se ee 43.00
Interest April29, 1920;to April], 1921........ 2... 250s peer 5.77
Total: 28 oes eee ee bees bebe s ee eee $245.09
DisBURSEMENTS
Expenses Secretary at 1920 meeting................... nee .28
Telegram to Bin We WeOSetereie 2... se. as ooo oe ee ee .95
Stenographic Services (Miss Hinsdale)..................cene008 5.00
Collectton*enkeneeke meee Eiri = 2.6. a tae oe 06 bee .10
Blisha, Mitchelljoummallemeeie 2... < 50 s0.2 3 ci «2 cee 75.00
81.33

Balanee on hand Aprmlda, 1920... . 2. ees cee e oe 2 $163.76

1921] PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 9

Report of C. S. Brimiey, AcTING SECRETARY, Marcu 25 to APRIL

29, 1921
eee dies arid. CALrAnCe teed. = y 5.4 2. 2 22 es eae ee ee ee $105.00
Disbursements—
On ER EDP eo ee es Ae $17.00
(EO PUID EDT ht Abas AD gS aie san sere on er 6.00
IDENECeERVElOpeS 9.9) 51. <2. Sats k seis b ee sas feee es 12.31
Pe ursin es eT ICES. (fo... 5. 2A05 teen PaaS ae ee eee 3.00
RUSBEEIGEH A OMMhLOS OO oat kn een clec ee aaiee ose a ciere es es 10.50
48.81
eC AMEE APTI eid aoe ake hc ook e eee eee $56. 19
Estimated Financial Condition of Academy—
emer mere ot oo a iaic he code acts e oe ene ss a. «163.76
“2 REEL E Es) SSE oe Age ae 56.19
Pepieedties andres (O8b.) 2... ccc ee ce ea te ce ene ese. 50.00
Pemprapiams trom Chemists... .. 2. 6o.-ce- we ee eee 5.00
ee a te es te ees es $274.95
Expenses—
pecteiary, s xpenses at meeting... 2... 2.0.2... .2.- ++. 5.00
IG) jaerr (@eLne, Gin OL eS be apo ee oo e 66 Gone ee 5. 00
OUST DWI ch cS FO tar | ne ee ee 75.00
85.00
Pimanecoainnce Janel WO2 ie onc oa se ee ee oes $189.95

President Metcalf then announced the appointment of the follow-
ing committees:

Publicity—Bert Cunningham, Chairman; A. H. Patterson, W. A.
Withers.

Preservation of Natural Resources.—Z. P. Metcalf, Chairman; J. 8.
Holmes, W. C. Coker, J. P. Givler, H. L. Blomquist, B. W. Wells.

On motion the Academy resolved to request the Mitchell Journal
to publish the names of the officers and standing committees on the
back of the Journal.

The Committee on Science Teaching in the High Schools was after
some discussion continued and the business session ended.

The Academy then met in joint meeting with the North Carolina
Section of the American Chemical Society and heard several papers,
after which the chemists and physicists held a joint session separate
from the remainder of the Academy.

After the reading of the last paper the Secretary reported that he
had received a letter from Dr. E. W. Gudger, stating how much he had

10 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

appreciated the Academy meetings in the past and how much he
missed them now that it was impossible for him to attend. He further-
more stated that he would retain his membership, and extend his best
wishes for a successful meeting. On motion the Secretary was in-
structed to write Dr. Gudger, thanking him for his continued interest
and good will.

The Academy adjourned at 3 P. M. to meet at Chapel Hill in 1922.

Following is the present membership of the Academy. Those
marked with an asterisk were present at the meeting.

Andrews, William .)., Civil Mingineer......°/:. 25.5450 see eee Raleigh, N. C.
Arbuckle, H. B., Professor of Chemistry, Davidson College....... Davidson, N. C.
Babb, Josiah 8., Dept. of Geology, University of North Carolina...... Chapel Hill
Bahnson he he 2sisalsbury Road. : 2... 0i..da. see Winston-Salem, N. C.
Baker, Miss Lucretia, Meredith College..:....................:- Raleigh, N. C.
*Balderstony Wiarko 2%. 20s... +... oss. oe er Guilford College, N. C.
*Barnes, J. £:, Dept. of Biology, Trinity College.........2:--.-.. .WurhamiN. GC:
Barret. Dre e 2 blVail Ave... ....2 0... . oe eee Charlotte, N. C.
Barrow, Miss Elva E., North Carolina College for Women......Greensboro, N. C.
*Bell, J. M., Smith Professor of Chemistry, University of North Car....Chapel Hill
Binford, Raymond, President Guilford College............ Guilford Collese. INS CG:
Bonney, Miss E: C., 1421 Fourteenth Ave:........: . >. age Hickory, N. C.
Bottum) Massek Risot Viary’s School... eee Raleigh, N. C.
*Blomquist, H. L., Dept. of Biology, Trinity College.............. Durham, N. C.
Brewer, C. E., President Meredith College...................... Raleigh, N. C.
*Brimley, C.S., Division of Entomology, N. C., Dept. of Agriculture, Raleigh, N. C.
Brimley, H. ie Curator State Museum... ..- ss. 5see eee Raleigh, N. C.
Browne, Wm. Manse Dept. of Electrical Engineering, State College, Raleigh, N. C.
Bruner, ‘St C:, Estacion Agronomica...............- Santiago de las Vegas, Cuba
*Bullitt, d B., Professor of Pathology, Univ. of North Carolina........Chapel Hill
*Burch, Wayne, drinity College:............2..4 0.3 Durham, N. C.
Cain, William, Kenan Prof. Emeritus of Math., Univ. of N.C......... Chapel Hill
*Campbell, Miss Eva G., Dept. of Biology, North Car. Coll. for Women, Greensboro
Clapp, S. C., Superintendent State Test Farm................ Swannanoa, N. C.
Cobb, Collier, Professor of Geology, University of North Carolina... .Chapel Hill
Cobb, William B., Louisiana State University................. Baton Rouge, La.
*Coker, W. C., Kenan Prof. of Botany, Univ. of North Carolina........ Chapel Hill
Collett: sRaiWeeeeeatereeee Hiss... bh. See White Hall, 8. C.
Couch, J. N., Biology Teacher, Charlotte High School,......... Charlotte, N. C.
*Cunningham, Bert, Professor of Biology, Trinity College ......... Durham, N. C.
Davis, Harry T., Assistant Curator State Museum................Raleigh, N. C.
Denson, Lee Ae, Was. Weather Bureau......5..-.... oe eee Raleigh, N. C.
*Derieux; J. B., State College... .5.%..2..06:..!).. 32) ae Raleigh, N. C.
*Dixon, A.) Av} 7iStace Wollesers: ws .. ao. bik. ok oe Raleigh, N. C.

Downing; J.Ss aac eee tet ce... ok ok Y eee Elsmere, Del.

1921] PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCF 11

*Edwards, C. W., Professor of Physics, Trinity College............Durham, N. C.
Soreet DS Ra CS PSS |e es Troy, Ala.
SRMiMCRe un SCP rimiby COUERe. ois cies oui cee eee es Durham, N. C.

George, W. C.,Assoc.Prof. of Histology and Embryology, Univ. of N. C., Chapel Hill
*Givler, J. P., Professor of Biology, North Carolina College for Women, Greensboro

*Gould, H. N., Dept. Biology, Wake Forest College............ Wake Forest, N.C.
*Gross, Paul, Dept. of Chemistry, Trinity College, 1001 Trinity Ave... Durham, N. C.
eames ais Pattie J... S02 Watts Sb... 2 cf. ae ele eee... Durham, N. C.
Gudger, E. W., American Museum of Natural History..........New York City
*Haber, V. R., Division of Entomology, N. C. Dept. of Agriculture. . Raleigh, N. C.
*Hatyerson, JO. N.C: Dept. of Agriculture..................... Raleigh, N. C.
DT EO DLE as ee Durham, N. C.
Pee eats siate College. s: 2s55.00coes 20 2.6 tase ee ee Raleigh, N. C.
Henderson, Archibald, Prof. of Mathematics, Univ. of North Car....Chapel Hill
Hickerson, T. F., Prof. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of North Car....... Chapel Hill
Hobbs, A. W., Associate Prof. of Mathematics, Univ. of North Car...Chapel Hill
JE pin, [OTe PSS Ae ee ener ae ees afd ie en Statesville, N. C.
Holland, Miss Alma, Dept. of Botany, Univ. of North Carolina...... Chapel Hill
CET OLD ES, 17. SS S027 ESS) ee ae ee ae Chapel Hill
Pe Stetson University, Deland, Fla,.................. Pine Bluff, N. C.
Dee ilbe COUCH... in Ae ns seis eae se ee eee Raleigh, N. C.
emmeeemee MIG Y MOOQMCEE.. ./.. 25.022 0- 22a. en bosses eee eee te Durham, N. C.
Kilgore, B. W., Director of Experiment Station.................. Raleigh, N. C.
ere EM rt ee os As Re es bee ee ee Raleigh, N. C.
*Lake, J. L., Prof. of Physics, Wake Forest College............ Wake Forest, N. C.
Lasley, J. W., Jr., Assoc. Prof. of Mathematics, Univ. of North Car... .Chapel Hill
Desa EME COOUCEC. 002 8 ee ee ee ee eee Balch. N. C.
Leiby, R. W., Division of Entomology, N. C. Dept. of Agriculture. . Raleigh, N. C.
eS ny LA. LEIP SE ere en Raleigh, N. C.
Lugn, A. L., Dept. of Chemistry and Physics, Lenoir College........ Hickory, N.C.

Mabee, W. Bruce, Div. of Entomology, N. C. Dept. Agriculture... Raleigh, N. C.
Mac Nider, W. DeB., Kenan Prof. of Pharmacology, Univ. of N. Car., Chapel Hill

Marion, S. J., Dept. of Chemistry, State College................. Raleigh, N. C.
Markhanrerlackwell 92 Noxtech St--...5:2.-.......----4--- Brookline, Mass.
Mendenhall, Miss Gertrude, 1023 Spring Garden St........-.. Greensboro, N. C.

*Metcalf, Z. P., Prof. of Zoology and Entomology, State College. .Raleigh, N. C.
*Mitchell, T. B., Div. of Entomology, N. C. Dept. Agriculture... .Raleigh, N. C.

Sewers. Ww. Wake Porest College 7. 5.-............-.5--- Wake Forest, N. C.
*Patterson, A. H., Professor of Physics, Univ. of North Carolina...... Chapel Hill
Paull, N. M., Assistant Professor of Drawing, Univ. of North Car...Chapel Hill
Peper os buchanan hoad....-s20-0.-2.-- 08... eee Durham, N. C.
Petty, Miss Mary, North Carolina College for Women........ Greensboro, N. C.
*Phillips, Charles, Dept. of Pathology, Wake Forest College... . Wake Forest, N. C.
enue site College: > 22.25. e ee ee eee Raleigh, N. C.
re AsO Courhland Sts..-...-.-...-.-.2.-.-.--+-- eet Atlanta, Ga.
*Poteat, W. L., President Wake Forest College.............- Wake Forest, N. C.
Powell, T. E., Jr., Professor of Biology, Elon College............-.-- Elon, N. C.

inp een Site Gealorister sn... sors .cc. sees e ec eee eee eee Chapel Hill

12 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

Prouty, W. F., Prof. of Stratigraphic Geology, Univ. of North Car...Chapel Hill

*Randolph, E. E., Dept. of Chemistry, State College............. Raleigh, N. C.
Fearne alysis on nies es 2 oa ee College Station, Tex.
Randal plverytte a thee eb on a woe a cls eee MER College Station, Tex.
Rankin, W. casstatersoara of Health. ....:-...4.c..tesemee eae Raleigh, N. C.
*Rhodes, L. B., Div. of Chemistry, N. C. Dept. Agriculture....... Raleigh, N. C.
Robinson, Miss Mary, North Carolina College for Women.......... Greensboro
*Roller, A. F., Science Teacher, Raleigh High School............. Raleigh, N. C.
Riviiner, Une disstare Gollege 5.5 icc... . .san deel aa Raleigh, N. C.
*Satterheld. Gein. Mninity College... ... 2 «+0. sess aa oe eee Durham, N. C.
Saville, Thorndike, Assoc. Prof. of Engineering, Univ. of North Car., Chapel Hill
Seymour, Miss Mary F., North Carolina College for Women........ Greensboro
Shaffer, Miss Blanche E., North Carolina College for Women........ Greensboro
Sherrill, Miss Mary L., North Carolina College for Women.......... Greensboro
Sherrill, Miss Mildred, Science Teacher, Henderson High School, Henderson, N. C.
Sherwins) MEE tatecCollere. ..... 0... -/:t0 sos eee eee Raleigh, N. C.
Sherman, Franklin, Entomologist, N. C. Dept. Agriculture........ Raleigh, N. C.
Shore, C. A., State Laboratory of Hygiene..............2.....005- Raleigh, N.C.
*Shunk, EV. 222 West Morgan St.........-...0. .5 eee Raleigh, N. C.
smith, JAE elowa State College. .......;...< .0ee Gee Ames, Iowa
Smith, M. R., Science Teacher, High School..................+ Fort Mill, S. C.
Smith, 8. C., Dept. of Chemistry, University of North Carolina...... Chapel Hill
Smithey, Ira W., Dept. of Chemistry, Univ. of North Carolina...... Chapel Hill
*Speas, William E., Dept. of Physics, Wake Forest College... ... Wake Forest, N. C.
*Spencer, Hs, state College... .......... ou sos ode eee Raleigh, N. C.
Silas re Ca Wie eee es ks eke eee eee Wilmington, N.C.
*Stuhlman, Otto, Jr., Assoc. Prof. of Physics, Univ. of North Car. ....Chapel Hill
*Sullivan, R. W., Dept. of Chemistry, Wake Forest College...... Wake Forest, N. C.
Taylor, ~Ca@e State College... .:.......: oc. cs 16 eee Raleigh, N. C.
Taylor, Haywood M., Dept. of Chemistry, Univ. of North Carolina.. .Chapel Hill
*Taylor,.WE. 0 amesorest (ollege... ... ...< «ssc Wake Forest, N. C.
'*Thies, O. J., Jr., Dept. of Chemistry, Davidson College........ Davidson, N. C.
Totten, H. R., Dept. of Botany, University of North Carolina....... Chapel Hill
*Vann, H. M., Dept of Anatomy, Wake Forest College........ Wake Forest, N. C.
Venable, F. P., Kenan Prof. of Chemistry, Univ. of North Carolina. .Chapel Hill
*Wells, B. W., Dept. of Botany, State College..................-- Raleigh, N. C.
*Wells, Mrs. B. Wiustate: College Sta... ......: +. o.25 eee Raleigh, N. C.
*Wheeler, A. S., Professor of Organic Chemistry, Univ. of North Car...Chapel Hill
Williams; "CB. tare Olegens. . sa... on cn oe ee Raleigh, N. C.
*Williams: J. Hy Seareneallepe... .. os... 6s... sas in ee eee Raleigh, N. C.
Williams, dF State @ollege...:...........: . «ss... 7c eee Raleigh, N. C.
Wilson, Donald B., Dept. of Farm Crops, State College........... Raleigh, N. C.
*Wilson, Henry V., Kenan Professor of Zoology, Univ. of North Car., Chapel Hill
*Wilson, R. B., Dept. of Biology, Wake Forest College......... Wake Forest, N. C.
*Wilson, Rie N., Drie aemee cco. = o's. ove 2 a's Mahdi ee eee Durham, N. C.
Winston, Dr. Lula G., Meredith College, 124 E. Edenton St....... Raleigh, N. C.
Winters, /R. Y., StatetCotlememeeeet c\62 skid oe 2 so ee Raleigh, N. C.

Withers, W. A., Dept. of Chemistry, State College............... Raleigh, N. C.

1921] PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 13

?Wol. Pf. A., Plant Pathology, State,College..................... Raleigh, N. C.
*Wright, Miss Eva K., North Carolina College for Women.......... Greensboro
Total 133.

The following papers were presented at the meeting:
Age of Insects. Z. P. Metcalf. (Presidential address.) Appears
in full in this issue.

The Genus Raspailia and the Independent Variability of Diagnostic
Features. H. V. WILSON.
Appears in full in this issue.

Current Research in Organic Chemistry at the University of North Caro-
lina. Atvin 8S. WHEELER.

Active work is being done upon six research problems. First, the
nature of kelp oil from the distillation of kelp, a seaweed in the Pacific
Ocean, is being investigated. Nothing whatever about it is known.
Second, the bromination of 2-Amino-p-cymene yields a mono-bromo
derivative and new compounds derived from it have been prepared.
Third, the chlorination of 2-Amino-p-cymene also yields a chlorine
derivative. The constitution of the two halogen compounds presents
a fine puzzle in orientation. Fourth, further work is being done with
Tribromojuglone as raw material. Fifth, the chlorination of juglone
proceeds differently from the bromination and good results are being
obtained. Sixth, a shorter process of obtaining bromo-amino-cymene
is being sought, by brominating nitrocymene and then reducing. My
assistants in these studies in the same order as the problems above are:
H. M. Taylor, I. W. Smithey, I. V. Giles, T. M. Andrews, P. R. Daw-
son, 8. C. Smith.

Some Fungi New to North America or the South. W. C. Coker.

Sirobasidium sanguineum, another species of a rare genus of gelat-
inous fungi which has been known before only from South America,
has been found here. The author has previously reported S. Brefeldi-
anum from Chapel Hill.

A remarkable form of a well known edible mushroom, the early
Pholiota (P. praecox), occurs in Chapel Hill and Raleigh. It is dis-
tinguished by the absence of any visible trace of a veil. This would
entirely mislead one as to its real place in classification, as the veil is
supposed to be a generic character.

The only species of the mushroom genus Tricholoma (T. venenata)
that is known to be poisonous was collected at Chapel Hill in the fall

14 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

of 1919. This has been known before only from Michigan, where it
made seriously ill seven people who ate it.

A peculiar little mushroom of the genus Lepiota (L. caerulescens)
which turns a deep indigo blue all over when it dries has been found
here. It has been known before only from Missouri and Ohio.

Apodachlya brachynema, a minute but interesting and very rare
mold growing on dead insects in water, has recently been found in
Chapel Hill. It has been reported only once before from America, in
Massachusetts.

Notes on the Oecology and Life History of the Texas Horned Lizard.
J. P. GIVER.
To appear in full in a later issue.

Artificial Incubation of Turtle Eggs. Brrr CUNNINGHAM.

Chrysemys picta Herm. is recognized as a good species. C. mar-
ginata Agassiz, C. cinerea Bonnaterre, and C. bellii Gray are all includ-
ed under the specific name of C. cinerea. Chrysemys oregonensis Nut-
tall, is also provisionally included under C. cinerea.

In some of the experiments eggs laid in the usual manner were used,
but the majority of eggs were taken from the uterus. The latter
showed a higher developmental rate. The fundamental requirements
are proper moisture and temperature, and in the case of laid eggs they
must be secured within a few hours of laying. Development may be
stopped by low temperatures for a period of a month at least, and de-
velopment of such eggs seems to proceed in a natural manner when
brought back to a normal temperature.

The artificial incubation allows one to keep a record of the ineuba-
tion time and thus secure a more graded series than is possible under
natural conditions. It also makes possible much experimental work
on the rate of development, inhibitors and activators.

Some Considerations in Defense of the General Biology Course. J. P.
GIVLER.
To appear in full in a later issue.

An Interesting Anomaly in the Pulmonary Veins of Man. W. C.
GEORGE.
In one of the anomalies found this spring in the anatomical labora-
tory at Chapel Hill the biood from the upper left lobe of the lung was
drained not into the left atrium but into the systemic circulation. <A

1921] PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 15

vein about a centimeter in diameter emerges from near the middle of
the ventral surface of the upper left lobe and courses directly cephalad
to empty into the left innominate vein. A short distance before it
empties into the innominate this vein receives the accessory hemi-azy-
gos vein. The right pulmonary veins and the pulmonary vein from
the lower left lobe communicate with the left atrium as usual.

Alfred Brown (Anatomical Record, 1913) has shown that the pul-
monary system in the cat arises from an indifferent splanchnic plexus
in the region of the lung bud. This plexus has venous connections on
the one hand with the sinus venosus and on the other with neighboring
systemic veins (cardinals, segmentals, and others). Conditions simi-
lar to those shown in the anomaly cited apparently arise as a result of
some interference with the return of blood through the pulmonary
portion of the embryonic plexus thus causing both pulmonary and
bronchial blood to enter the bronchial veins and causing their great
enlargement. In this particular case then the large vein draining the
upper left lobe seems to represent the enlarged left bronchial vein and
that portion of the accessory hemi-azygos between the innominate and
the junction of the left bronchial with the accessory hemi-azygos.
Due to the enlargement of the bronchial vein the accessory hemi-
azygos appears to be a side branch of it.

A More Phenomenal Shoot. Wiiuiam F. Proury.

At the last meeting of the North Carolina Academy of Science Dr.
B. W. Wells described ‘‘A Phenomenal Shoot”? which grew near Ra-
leigh during the season of 1919. This shoot ‘‘grew from the stump of
a beheaded tree of Paulownia tomentosa.”’ The shoot described by
Dr. Wells was 7.75 inches in circumference at the base, had 20 inter-
nodes and was 191% feet in length. This shoot was supposed to have
grown in one season, though this fact was not definitely known.

During the past season the writer has witnessed the development
of a shoot from a tree of the same species cited by Dr. Wells which
surpasses in its dimensions the one above referred to. This shoot
grew during this past season to a height of 211% feet. It has a cireum-
ference at base of 10 inches and has 24 internodes. One of the leaves,
measured in the latter part of July, was 38 inches in largest dimension.
This shoot grew in a clay-loam soil, residual from granite, on property
adjoining the Campus, in Chapel Hill.

The following papers were read but no copies or abstracts fur-
nished:

16 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

A Photometric Study of the Fluorescence of Iodine Vapor. W.. Spas.

Breeding Results from Overwintering Cocoons of the Polyphemus Moth.
C. 8S. BRIMuey.

New North Carolina Gall Types. B. W. WELLS.

Solid Culture Media with a Wide Range of Hydrogen and Hydroxyl Ion
Concentration. F. A. Wour and I. V. SHUNK.

Judgments of Length, Mass, and Time. A. H. PATTERSON.

Effects of Desiccation on Cotton Seeds and on the Seed-borne Element of
Cotton Anthracnose. S. G. LEHMAN.

Chlorination with the Silent Electrical Discharge. Pau. Gross.

The Electron, its Measurements and Applications. J. B. Derteux.

Some Questions Concerning the Teaching of Physics in North Carolina.
C. W. Epwarps.

Questions Arising from the Discovery of Occasional Vertebrate Herm-
aphrodites with a Demonstration of a Case in a Pig. Haruny N.
GOuLD.

The Anatomy of Angiopteris. H. L. Buomauist.

Further Studies on the Pure Culture of Diatoms. Brrr CUNNINGHAM
and J. T. BARNEs.

Aphidius, a Parasite of the Cotton Louse. H. SPENCER.

Notes on the Salamanders of the Cayuga Lake Basin, N. Y., with Refer-
ence to Eggs and Larvae. JvuLia MoEsEL HABER.

A Method of Differentiating Mucous and Serous Cells. Eva GAL-
BRAITH CAMPBELL.

Recent Views on the Nutritive Qualities of Milk. J. O. HAtvERsoN.

Relationship of Temperature and Relative Humidity to the Distribution
of Cockroaches. VERNON R. HABER.

From Egg to Frog in two Months. H. V. Wison.

The following papers were read by title only, in the absence of
their authors:
On the Polyembryonic Development of the Parasite, Copidosoma gelechiae.
R. W. Lersy.
The Lorentz Transformation in Einstein Relativity. ARCHIBALD HEN-
DERSON.
The Inheritance of Economic Qualities in Cotton. R. Y. WINTERS.
Notes on Recently Discovered Miocene Whale. WuiuutaM F. Provuty.

The following paper was transferrred to the Chemical and Physical
program:
Ionizing Potentials of Gases by Negative Electrons. A. A. Drxon.
C. S. Brimiey, Acting Secretary.

JOHN FRANCIS LANNEAU
1836-1921

A long and variously distinguished career came to a close when
John Francis Lanneau died in Wake Forest, March 5, 1921. He was
born of Huguenot parentage in Charleston, South Carolina, February
7, 1836. His father was Charles Henry Lanneau, his mother, Sophia
Lanneau. He was graduated from the South Carolina Military
Academy in 1856. His teaching career began at once in 1857 as tutor
in mathematics, and from 1858 to 1861 as professor of physics and
chemistry, in Furman University, Greenville, 8S. C. Then came the
Civil War in which he served four years first as Captain of cavalry in
Hampton’s brigade, later as Lieutenant and Captain of engineers.
At the conclusion of the war he resumed his connection with the Fur-
man faculty, being professor of mathematics and astronomy from 1866
through 1868. For the next four years he was professor of mathe-
matics in William Jewell College of Missouri. In 1873 he accepted
the presidency of the Alabama Central Female College, Tuscaloosa,
holding that position for six years. From 1879 to 1888 he was pres-
ident of the Baptist Female College, Lexington, Missouri. The next
two years he was president of the Pierce City Baptist College of the
same state. In 1890 he accepted the professorship of physics and ap-
plied mathematics in Wake Forest College. From 1899 to his death
he was professor of applied mathematics and astronomy.

The honorary degree of M. A. was conferred upon him in 1869 by
Baylor University, LL. D. in 1915 by Furman University.

Of striking physique and courtly bearing Dr. Lanneau won at-
tention and respect wherever he appeared. He was of the finest type
of the Christian gentleman and up to the day of his death was chair-
man of the board of deacons and treasurer of the Wake Forest Bap-
tist Church.

Apart from the immediate tasks of the class room, Dr. Lanneau
showed his deep scientific interest in several ways. He was probably
the first man in North Carolina to give demonstrations and public
lectures on the X-rays. In 1907 he invented the Cosmoid manu-
factured by Wm. Gaertner & Co., of Chicago, and described by him
in “Popular Astronomy,’”? December 1913. It is an ingenious ap-
paratus for illustrating many astronomical conceptions and motions.

[17]

18 Joun Francis LANNEAU [ December

It is capable of numerous and easy adjustments. He was an active
member of the North Carolina Academy of Science and of the Astro-
nomical Society of the Pacific.
A list of his scientific papers is appended:
The Source of the Sun’s Heat. Popular Astronomy 14: 410. 1906. Also pub-
lished in Journ. E. M. Sci. Soc. 22: 45. 1906.
The Sparsity of The Stars. Popular Astronomy 15: 390. 1907.
Sirius, the Bright and Morning Star. Popular Astronomy 19: 393. 1911.
The Cosmoid. Popular Astronomy 21: 613. 1913.
The Sun’s Eclipse of June 8,1918: Question. Popular Astronomy 26: 299. 1918.
Also published in Journ. E. M. Sci. Soc. 34: 76. 1918.
Sunspots in July, 1903. Popular Astronomy 11: 372. 1903.
Physics of Shooting Stars. Popular Astronomy 13: 434. 1905.
Approaching Sun-Spot Maximum. Journ. E. M. Sci. Soe. 20: 21. 1903.

Wn. Louis Porrat

CHARLES E. BREWER,
H. V. WILson.

JOHN FRANCIS LANNEAU
1836-1921

i
s
-

=

THE AGE OF INSECTS.
By Z. P. METCALF

Geologists are in the habit of speaking of this as the “age of man”’
or the Psycozoic era. From this stated opinion I wish to dissent, for
this evening at least, and call your attention to the fact that while we
as humans may speak of this egotistically as the “age of man” it is
not the age of man but the age of insects in which we are living. Man
may try to dominate this age but on every hand he finds his efforts
thwarted and at every point he must give way to numerous hordes of
insects whose chief aim seems to be to overthrow the kingdom of man
on this world. The late unpleasantness in Europe is remembered
by our soldiers, not so much as a war on the Boche, as a war on in-
numerable insect pests denominated cooties. And even those of us
who had no chance at first-hand knowledge can sympathize with
the young Canadian who, when he was decorated with some medal or
other for outstripping his fellows in a charge, remarked that his in-
terest in the matter was not in the charge but in the hope that he could
run fast enough and far enough to escape the cooties.

As in war so in peace, on every hand we find our lives cireum-
scribed and our efforts limited because of the presence of numerous
insect pests. Our crops, our domesticated animals are increasingly
subjected to their attacks. Our forests are devastated by them. Our
houses and our stores are destroyed by them. Our books and our
paintings are marred by them. Whole regions of the world are prac-
tically unfit for human habitation because of the diseases they carry,
and human want and human suffering abound in all quarters because
of these troublesome little pests. In fact, they have so adapted them-
selves that it is impossible to think of any relation of human life and
human culture that is not colored in some way by insects, yea even
as pointed out below our very existence is dependent upon them.

It would seem logical, therefore, that anything that touches us so
vitally ought to be pretty well understood. Yet, I believe I am safe
in saying that there is no group of animals so little known, to zoolo-
gists even, asinsects. This in spite of the fact that more of our zoolo-
gical literature, each year, is devoted to insects than all other animals
combined. Whole regions of the insect kingdom are still unsurveyed
and, while we know a little about the external anatomy of a few forms,
our knowledge of the internal anatomy is still largely based on the

[19]

20 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

work of Swammerdam in the seventeenth century, who worked with-
out a compound microscope or a microtome. Our knowledge of the
ecological relations is largely based on superficial studies of the life
histories of isolated species and all the rest is sweeping generalizations
that are almost certain to fail in the acid test of real ecological experi-
ments. Our knowledge of insect vectors of human, animal, and plant
diseases are equally poorly grounded on the knowledge that the tsetse
fly carries sleeping sickness, that the malarial mosquito carries ma-
laria, that the cattle tick (not an insect) carries Texas fever, and a
few other cases from which we generalize often wisely, if not too well.

We are often guilty of orating, sometimes rather loudly, I am
afraid, about the damage done by the gypsy moth, or the boll weevil
or what not, but do we even stop to ask ourselves about the remarkable
interplay of physiological processes between plant and insect or the
ecological relations between the insect and the host of conditions that
surround it? And the echoes answer, ‘‘Do we?”

If this then is the condition among our professional zoologists
(I beheve entomologists are still regarded as zoologists by the layman,
if not so regarded by his fellow zoologists), what is the condition among
other scientists, and other folks in general,—that great class to which
we scientists refer frequently, and not without condescension, as the
lay minds, as something separate and entirely distinct from our minds
which are denoted as academic minds. It isin the hope that I may
be able to educate the lay mind that this paper has been prepared.
And for fear that some of you may miss the drift of my remarks, I
hasten to remind you that you are the lay mind, and to add that I am
not exactly clear as to just why you are the lay mind or just what
makes my mind, entomologically speaking, an academic mind, while
from the standpoint of the chemist or the physicist or the botanist or
what not my mind is removed from its temporary and somewhat in-
secure pedestal and is laid at the base and becomes perforce a lay mind.
Perhaps I would feel just as well and you would have more respect for
what I have to say if I did not inquire too closely into this phase of the
subject but hasten on to tell you something about bugs, as I see that
you are all sitting somewhat breathlessly with open mouths, if not
with open minds, to learn something about this field that we call en-
tomology and about this age that we call the age of insects.

Before I proceed, however, I must warn you that I am not an en-
tomologist, let alone a zoologist, although I believe that is the title

1921] THE AGE oF INSECTS ai

that is conferred upon me by powers vested in the State of North
Carolina and the government of these United States, but a specialist
in an obscure group of insects. I tell you this to defend myself against
the hordes of specialists in other groups who may hold up their hands
in holy horror at some of the generalizations that I may make. Now
the specialist is a sort of rare bird whose words are a law unto himself,
at least, and who knows so much about his own pet field that he knows
nothing about anything else and his final defense in all arguments
about his field is, ‘‘ Well, I am the specialist in this group.”’ To which
some of you, who are broadly academically minded if not lay minded,
must feel like exclaiming, ‘‘ We are thankful for that much at least.”
The difference in those things is of course one of degree. For instance
a student of insects is, naturally, an entomologist but a student of
fleas is a Professor of Suctoria, the student of the hind leg of a flea is a
pulicidid morphologist and the student of the hairs on the second joint
of the hind leg of a flea is a specialist and I say it reverently, “May
the Lord help him!”’

With this rambling and somewhat generalized introduction, you
will pardon me if I turn your attention to some of the various aspects of
the insect world in order that we may examine them more closely.
Emerson said something to the effect that fools are amazed at the ex-
traordinary and wise men wonder at the ordinary. I shall presume
therefore on your wisdom and use only ordinary examples with which
to paint my picture of the insect world.

THe NuMBER OF INSECTS IN THE WORLD

The possible number of insects in the world has always been a sub-
ject of very great interest to me. I, of course, refer to the number
of kinds or species not to the number of individuals. No one has been
foolhardy enough to make a personal census of insect individuals as yet,
I believe. The nearest approach to this are the statements that mis-
guided sanitarians and others make, sometimes, to the effect that
starting with a single pair of houseflies we would have, by the end of
summer, so many quintillions of flies. We all know this is not true,
save perhaps on a summer afternoon when we are trying vainly to get
our allotted forty winks and all but succeeding because of several of
the above mentioned quintillions that persist in lighting Just to the
windward of an upturned nose. Or there is the statement that start-
ing with a single plant louse, with all of her descendants surviving, we

22 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | December

would have, in a year or two, a mass of plant lice equal in volume to
our earth. This may or may not be true, but if true a large proportion
of the descendants must fly away to other worlds than ours because
any species is lucky indeed if it ends its fiscal year and balances its
books with a definite increase in numbers over the previous year.

The question of the number of species of insects is, however, an-
other matter. We see, in our text books, estimates of the number of
species of insects in the world, at anywhere from 250,000 to 500,000
and 1,000,000 and recently some one ventured to estimate that there
must be at least 10,000,000 kinds of insects in the world, at the pres-
ent time.

Obviously, in trying to generalize about a group of animals with
such an enormous number of species, one finds himself handicapped
not from lack of material but from its very superabundance.

GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY.

Typically, an insect is an arthropodous animal with its body di-
vided into three parts; head, thorax and abdomen, and with three
pairs of legs and usually two pairs of wings. Being an arthropod, an
insect carries his skeleton on the outside of his body and as he grows
this skin which is hard and chitinous must be cast off and a new skin
produced to accommodate the larger sized individual. This skeleton
is segmented to provide free movements. Thus various parts have
been separated and since these parts are fairly constant they have
been much used in taxonomy. But their phylogenetic relations are
not always clear and thus a special nomenclature has grown up around
each group which has served to discourage all but the most highly
specialized of the specialists and has acted as a sort of natural selec-
tion, thus cutting down materially the crop of specialists, much to the
general benefit of the world at large. With these special parts we
need not concern ourselves here but the generalized parts will bear
closer inspection. The head is largely sensory in function and bears
the compound eyes, simple eyes and antennae. These will be dis-
cussed more in detail under sense organs. The head also bears the
mouth parts which are among the most complicated structures found
in the animal kingdom. Primitively, they consist of no less than
three paired and three unpaired structures. We cannot inquire into
the various morphological variations but the following classification
of the mouth parts of insects based largely on functional grounds will

1921] THE AGE oF INSECTS 23

perhaps aid in conveying the complexity of the subject. We have,
as our most generalized, the chewing insects which are fitted with a
pair of mandibles which tear and masticate food.

A scraping type which lacerates the epidermis of plants and sucks
up the exuding sap.

A piercing type in which the mouth parts are fitted for piercing
the skin of an animal or the epidermis of a plant and sucking the blood
or sap.

A rasping type fitted for rasping off solid particles and dissolving
them in saliva and then sucking up the resultant liquid.

A sponging type in which the mouth parts are fitted for sponging
up exposed liquids.

A siphoning type in which the mouth parts are formed into a long
hollow tube which is usually used to suck up exposed nectar.

A lapping type in which the mandibles are well developed for work-
ing wax and paper or for portage and the other mouth parts are modi-
fied into a tongue which is used to lap up exposed liquids.

The thorax is largely given over to locomotion, which is carried on
by the wings and legs. The insects were without doubt the first ani-
mals to conquer the air and of all animals, birds not even excepted, their
mastery of the air is the most complete. The legs are fitted chiefly
for walking, running, leaping and grasping. The speed of certain of
our insects is indeed remarkable, as is their ability to make surprising
leaps. The world’s record for the broad jump is not held by a man
but undoubtedly belongs to the flea. A leap of a hundred times his
length would be no astounding feat for a flea, whereas for man five or
six times his length would be wonderful indeed. In the same way the
muscular strength of insects is almost beyond belief. The weakest
insects according to Plateau can pull five times their own weight, while
the average is more than twenty times, and one of the leaf beetles can
pull forty-two times its own weight. In contrast man cannot pull
his own weight and under the same conditions a horse could pull but
three-quarters of hisweight. Some of the insects are able to push one
hundred times their own weight, while the honey bee can carry a load
equal to three-fourths of its bodily weight. These remarkable feats
are accounted for by the small size of the insects and by the greater
advantage in leverage from an external skeleton.

Passing to the internal organs we find time for the discussion o
two systems of organs only. The first of these is the respiratory or

24 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY { December

gans or trachea. The insects differ from man in that their circulatory
organs are very poorly developed and their respiratory organs are well
developed to counterbalance this. The insects have no lungs but a
system of trachea or tubes which open to the exterior through minute
pores called spiracles. From the spiracles the trachea branch and re-
branch until they reach all parts of the body. The oxygen is carried
to the cells through these tubes and the carbon dioxide carried away
through the same set.

The nervous system and sense organs of insects are so different from
those of man that we are often at a loss to account for the sensory life
of insects. There is in the insects no brain as we find it in the verte-
brates but the nervous functions are distributed to a chain of ganglia
along the ventral wall of the body. There is therefore more or less of
local control for each region of the body. The psychic life of such
animals is therefore rather low and in no way to be compared with
that of man.

The sense organs of insects may be grouped into three classes
(Comstock) :

Mechanical sense organs.—Touch and hearing.

Chemical sense organs.—Taste and smell.

Organs of sight.

Touch organs are generally distributed over the body and need no
special discussion. Organs of hearing are apparently not universally
present. They occur among the singing orthoptera and in mosquitoes
and perhaps in bees, but whether they occur in other forms is by no
means clear. In the grasshopper the ears are located on the first seg-
ment of the abdomen, but in the katydids and crickets they occur on
the tibia of the fore legs. In the mosquitoes they undoubtedly occur
on the antennae, as the antennae are provided with whorls of setae
which gradually decrease in length from the base of the antennae out-
ward. It has been demonstrated that these setae vibrate to notes of
different pitch and it is believed that the vibrations are transferred to
the nerve endings. Most beekeepers believe that bees can hear be-
cause they make such different hums under different circumstances,
and even an amateur can tell the difference between the busy hum,
the swarming hum, and the angry hum of an outraged bee.

The chemical senses of insects are very poorly understood. This
is due in part to the wide distribution of these organs over the body
and to the fact that several different types of sense organs are fre-
quently closely associated. We say that insects taste because we

1921\_ THE AGE oF INSECTS 25

know they make selections in foods, and we say bees smell because
they seem to be able to distinguish members of their own colony from
- other bees, and they seem to be able to recognize their queen and to
distinguish drones.

The sense of sight in insects is taken care of by two distinct types
of eyes, the simple eyes and the compound eyes. The former we be-
lieve is used chiefly to distinguish light from darkness while the latter
is used to give animage. The compound eyes of insects are composed
of from a few to many hundreds of hexagonal prisms, called ommatid-
ia. It is believed that each ommatidium forms a portion of the
image just as tiles are put together to form a mosaic. Or, since the
ommatidia are hexagonal in shape, perhaps we can best compare the
image that insects receive to the image our eyes receive when we look
through a piece of glass which has been laid down on poultry netting.
Each mesh of the poultry netting would contribute its portion to the
image just as each ommatidium of the insect’s compound eye does.
Obviously such an eye is better adapted to seeing motion than it is
to seeing distinct images.

InsEcT PsyYCHOLOGY.

I wish I had the agile mind and the facile pen of a Fabre so that I
would be able to unfold for you some of the beauties of the instincts
of insects. We may see striking illustrations on every hand. Why
do certain insects always lay their eggs in such situations that their
young will find an abundance of food at hand? This question is of
course easy to answer in the cases of those insects whose adults feed
on the same plants as the young. It is simply a matter of placing
them in the most convenient place; but we are confronted with the
query, why do some of these insects take such elaborate pains to con-
ceal their eggs by placing them in the stems of plants or imbedding
them in the tissues of the leaves? On the other hand we are confronted
by that vast host of adult insects which lay their eggs on food plants or
animal hosts upon which they themselves do not feed. Or we are con-
fronted by that complicated set of reactions, so well illustrated by our
solitary wasp, where a nest is constructed and prey is searched out and
stung in the precise spot to paralyze the individual but not cause its
death. Then the prey is dragged back to the nest and stored with
an egg and the nest closed and concealed. Or we see an insect like the
cornfield ant taking the eggs of the corn and cotton root louse into its

26 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | December

nest and storing them through the winter, shifting their position in its
tunnels with the changes of the temperature so that it will not be in-
jured, then hatching the egg in the sun in the spring and placing the
young nymph on the proper food plant. All this in order that the
ants’ descendants may have an abundant supply of honey dew for
their nourishment. What are the mental processes of the eumenes
wasp as it fashions the clay into pottery of the most charming design—
a design so artistic that man has copied it as his very own. What are
the mental processes of the tiny caterpillars as they weave their mar-
velous gossamer threads and become the earth’s first aeronauts?
What are the fungus ants thinking about as they prepare a fertile field
and sow upon it the spores of a certain species of fungus in order that
their children may have an abundance of food? What of the mental
processes of the scarab as it rolls its ball of dung often many weary in-
sect miles in order to provision its nest for its larva? Why does each
species of scarab store its nest with the dung of certain animals only?
What is the psychological process of the queen bee that causes her to
lay only unfertilized eggs in drone cells? What are the slave-making
ants “thinking about”? when they make a raid on the nest of another
species, kill the adults, kidnap the larvae and pupae, carrying them
away to their nests where they are raised to adults to serve their cap-
tors?

We see these questions about us every day and we ask the question
“Why?” and we reply very wisely with the magical word “instincts.”
Which is a very learned and very scientific way of saying that we
know nothing about it.

In ordinary speech, the word “instinct” stands for all the heredi-
tary and automatic revelations of activity, from simple tropisms to the
most complicated outward manifestations of individual memory. In-
stinctive acts are stereotyped, being ever the same when responding
to stimuli of the same nature, and almost always adapted to their ob-
ject, although not resulting from previous experience on the part of the
individual. To define them more precisely is impossible for they are
varied and complex, overlapping one another and often becoming so
confused as to render difficult the tracing of their limits. Neverthe-
less, we should not place them all on the same level and attribute to
them all a common origin. ‘Tropic reactions are due to the properties
of living matter, rhythms presuppose an organic memory and hence
a period of education, ancient or recent; but this apprenticeship is
purely mechanical and dependent upon the stimuli that produce it.

1921] THe AGE OF INSECTS 27

Apprenticeship has its part also in those manifestations of mem-
ory belonging to the species which play such an important part in the
behavior of arthropods. This kind of memory presents a character
of distinct superiority, inasmuch as it was made effective for the
race by the distant ancestors of the individual in the guise of a choice
between the various possible responses of differential susceptibility.
Choice, of a remarkably intellectual nature, is even more noticeable

in the instinctive manifestations of individual memory. The animal,

endowed with well-developed senses and nervous system, not only re-
acts to new necessities by new acts, but associates the stored impres-
sions of new sensations and thereby appropriately directs its further
activities. Thus, by an intelligent process, new habits are established
which by heredity become part of the patrimony of instinct modifying
the latter and constituting elements essential to its evolution. Of
these instincts acquired through an intelligent apprenticeship Forel
was led to say that they are reasoning made automatic and it is to
them particularly that we may apply the idea of certain biologists
that instincts are habits which have become hereditary and automatic.
Probably all superior instincts at first had this intellectual quality.
This certainly is true of all such as originated from more or less slowly
acquired. habits; it seems to be the rule as well with instincts due to
mutations. It stands to reason that, whether they result from a sud-
den psychic change or from a sudden organic modification, these in-
stincts must always be preceded by some intelligent period of educa-
tion, during which they become perfected, in order to be handed on to
posterity and to assume the character of true instincts.

Here, then, we are confronted with several classes of instinctive
acts, which differ not only in origin but also in intellectual characteris-
tics. No doubt they are linked together by many intermediate mani-
festations, and in the animals with which we are now concerned they
often blend the one with the other or even with the reflexes, on ac-
count of the profound differentiation of nervous and sensorial centers.
It is, nevertheless, very difficult to consider them as manifestations of
a special faculty which we would fain place on the level of intelligence
by calling it instinct. The name instinct justly applies to certain
forms of activity which are innate and automatic, but these forms pro-
ceeded in diverse ways from the vital energy which is the source of all
organic activity, and the highest of them, which are at the same time
the most striking ones in the animals here studied, were originally acts
more or less requiring the exercise of true intelligence on the part of

28 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

species and individuals. Intelligence has no part in the development
of the instinct that draws nocturnal Lepidoptera toward the light,
nor has it doubtless anything to do with the rhythms through which
organic memory manifests itself. But intelligence it is that regulates
by appropriate selection all manifestations of race memory; intelli-
gence again in the sundry forms of association and individual memory,
that puts together the most complicated mechanisms of instinct.

Instincts are of various kinds. If, by the word instinct we under-
stand not any one special faculty but the complex of all the instincts,
namely, the innate automatism regardless of its origin, we can say
with Bergson that instinct and intelligence ‘‘are not things belonging
to one and the same order,” that they “diverge in direct ratio of their
development,” but that ‘‘they never become completely separate. ’’
They are both “opposites and complements” and they assist one
another. ‘On the one hand, indeed, the most perfect instincts of the
insects are accompanied by certain gleams of intelligence, be it only
in the choice of place, time or material of construction. When by ex-
ception bees build their nest in the open they invent arrangements
which are new and in the true sense intelligent to meet the new con-
ditions. On the other hand, intelligence has still more use for instinct
than instinct has for intelligence, since the ability to work up raw
material presupposes in the animal a superior grade of organization, to
which it could have arisen on the wings of instinct only.” Before
such evidence as this Fabre was forced to modify his theory of immu-
table instinct. ‘By itself, mere instinct,’’ says he, ‘‘ would leave the
insect disarmed in the perpetual conflict of circumstances. A guide
is needed in the midst of this bewildering mélée. That the insect has
such a guide is evident to a high degree. This is the second domain
of its psychic powers. Here it is conscious and susceptible of perfect-
ing by experience. As I dare not designate this rudimentary aptitude
by the name of intelligence, a title too noble for it, I shall call it dis-
cernment.’’ But is discernment in this sense not really a form of in-
telligence?

Such is the measure in which instinct and intelligence are com-
bined in animals. If, following Bergson, we admit that consciousness
“is proportional to the power of selection at the animal’s disposal,”’
it will be quite evident that consciousness must be particularly ob-
scured in all purely instinctive acts, but that on the contrary it must
accompany all intelligent acts. Bergson, however, regards con-
sciousness in a peculiar light, since he considers it as “life projected

1921] THE AGE OF INSECTS 29

through matter,” as the common source from which sprang in different
directions both instinct and intelligence. This view leads us away
from the commonly accepted theory that consciousness must be con-
sidered as that inmost luminary which enlightens our actions. It is
possible, even probable, that this kind of consciousness exists to a
greater or lesser extent in the animals. However, we can not know
anything about it, and we believe with Ed. Claparede that “the science
of animal psychology may and must scrutinize the problem of the
greater or less intelligence of animals without being concerned about
their consciousness.”

We discern intelligence in its simplest expression wherever we
notice a choice between the various alternatives offered by circum-
stances, and in one of its highest forms wherever we observe that pow-
er of invention which, according to Bergson, enables the human race
to “‘manufacture artificial objects, more particularly to make tools
with which to make other tools and to vary their fabrication indefi-
nitely.”” These two extreme forms are naturally connected by a
series of links, and we know that the one as well as the other plays a
part in the behavior of arthropods. The latter of the two seems, how-
ever, to be rather exceptional in our group, showing itself only in the
primitive state consisting of the use of foreign bodies as implements.
Thetool used by Ammophila isasmall stone with which the female rams
and packs the dirt that closes her burrow. With certain ants of
India (Oecophylla smaragdina) and of Brazil (Camponotus texter) the
instrument consists of the larva of the species itself. Held between
the mandibles of the workers, these larvae, by means of their thread,
glue and fasten edge to edge the leaves of which the nest is constructed.
The implement of the crabs, of the genus Melia, in the Indo-Pacific
seas, is supplied by a delicate sea-anemone. This is held between the
pincers of the animal, which probably uses the nettling exudations to
paralyze its prey.

Facts of this nature are rare in the world of arthropods, but they
have an important significance. The use of the little stone is not yet
a fixed habit with Ammophila, it belongs only to certain individuals
more highly endowed than others and is perhaps only accidental even
with them. Maybe it will finally pass into the instinctive habits of
the species; for the present it belongs to the domain of individual in-
telligent acts. The crabs of the genus Melia are already farther ad-
vanced, all the species carry anemones and all exhibit a curious modi-
fication of the pincers, the fine teeth having become elongated and

30 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [Decembe

needlelike so as to give them a better hold on their guest and tool.
That they are adapted to the latter is evident, yet this adaptation is
not such that the crab is likely to be in serious danger when it has not
its Actinia. Many of the Melias brought back by explorers are not
provided with anemones, and we may believe that the presence of
this implement guest is not yet of vital importance to the species of
this peculiar genus. The case of the ants which use their larvae as
needles is quite different. With them this singular habit is innate
and specific. Though probably acquired through intelligent acts, it
now belongs entirely to the domain of instinct in the species among
which it prevails. And thus we always come back to that predominat-
ing fact of the psychological history of arthropods, namely, the trans-
formation of intelligent acts into instinctive acts. The following con-
siderations formulated by Bergson eminently apply to this group:

Among animals, invention is never more than a variation on the
theme of routine. Locked up as it is within the habits of its species,
the animal succeeds no doubt in broadening these by individual ini-
tiative; but its escape from automatism is momentary only, just long
enough to create a new automatism; the gates of its prison close as
soon as they are opened; dragging the chain merely lengthens it.
Only with man does consciousness break the chain.

Man occupies the topmost place in the scale of vertebrates, for,
breaking the bonds of instinct he insures thereby the complete expan-
sion of his intellect. Insects especially Hymenoptera hold the same
dominating position in the scale of arthropods where they are the
highest achievement of instinctive life. These two groups represent
the actual extremes of the two paths followed by psychie evolution in
the Animal Kingdom; the arthropods are going toward instinct, the
vertebrates toward intelligence. These two courses are quite op-
posite, but why have they diverged? At the beginning of their evolu-
tion, during that far distant epoch when they were differentiating
along four main lines (echinoderms, mollusks, arthropods, and verte-
brates), animals were threatened by a great danger—‘‘an obstacle”
says Bergson, “that doubtless almost checked the progress of animal
life. There is a peculiarity which we can not help being struck by
when we glance at the Paleozoic fauna. The mollusks at that time
were more universally provided with shells than those of today. The
arthropods in general were provided with a carapace. The oldest
fishes had a bony covering of extreme hardness.’ But ‘‘the animal
which is shut in a fortressor in a coat of mail is condemned to an exist-

1921] THE AGE oF INSECTS 31

ence of half-sleep. It is in this torpor that the echinoderms and even
the mollusks are living today. The arthropods and vertebrates
escaped from it and on this happy circumstance depends the present
development of the highest forms of life.

“In two directions, indeed, do we see the impulse of active life re-
gaining the upper hand. The fishes exchange their ganoid armor for
scales. Long before them the insects had made their appearance,
having also rid themselves (of most) of the armor that once protected
their ancestors. In both groups the inefficiency of the protective en-
velope was compensated for by a nimbleness that enabled them to
escape their enemies and also to take the offensive and to select the
place and time of the encounter.”’

These remarks rest on a solid foundation but they should be mod-
ified in one particular which is of paramount importance in the ex-
planation of the structure and the special psychology of the arthro-
pods. These animals have never lost the chitinous armor that pro-
tected their primitive ancestors. They have preserved it in its en-
tirety and with greater or less thickness. Coleoptera, crabs, scor-
pions, and thousand-legs of our times are by no means inferior in this
regard to the ancient forms from which they are descended.

As a matter of fact they are covered today, as in times of yore,
with an external skeleton of chitin. That is why Edmund Perrier, in
his desire to emphasize their dominant character, has called them
Chitinophores. To escape imprisonment within their protective en-
velope, to acquire the flexibility and mobility necessary to their evolu-
tion, they underwent certain superficial modifications. These con-
sisted in the division of the armor into several pieces by means of artic-
ular lines, along which the chitin is less thick than elsewhere, thus
allowing the pieces to move one upon the other. This is the very way
in which they became arthropods, at once acquiring agility without
losing their protective cover. Naturally such joints were formed
wherever the several segments, arranged in a row and constituting the
body of the animal, came together. As a result, these segments ac-
quire a certain independence and their uniformity is to a certain ex-
tent preserved. Indeed, we see that many arthropods possess a pair
of appendages on each segment (Myriapods and the majority of Crus-
taceans) and that the insects most remote in this regard from the
primitive types are still provided with seven pairs of appendages (one
pair of antennae, three pairs of buccal appendages and three pairs of
legs) not to speak of the modified or rudimentary organs to be seen on

32 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

the different parts of the abdomen. And the chitinous envelope of
these appendages has broken into joints in the same manner in which
the body itself became annulated. Hence the name of arthropods
which is given to these animals.

What a difference from the vertebrates. Their skeleton becomes
an internal framework. The organism is thus allowed to attain great-
er dimensions; the segments are able to fuse to a greater degree and
to lose more or less their independence; all of which results in the re-
duction of the number of limbs to only two pairs.

Now, the relative independence of the segments and the multi-
plicity of the appendages have as a corollary the differentiation of
these structures, each of which plays a special part in the organism.
As Bergson remarks, the various appendages of arthropods are as it
were natural implements, which differ from each other in structure as
well as in function. Their specialization may be carried so far as to
have each part of a single organ perform a separate function. This
is clearly seen in the bee, in which the first tarsal joint of the hind legs
is transformed into a brush, the tibia into a pollen basket, while the
two joints, by the contact of their edges, act as pincers which take up
the flakes of wax secreted under the abdomen. It is an admirable
instrument wonderfully adapted to the performance of its particular
tasks. As a general rule, apart from the changes which they may
undergo in the course of specific evolution, the appendages of arthro-
pods are unchangeable in the individual and are narrowly adapted to
certain purposes; they are the tools for instinctive work, and in this
they differ from the less specialized but more generally useful limbs
which serve as implements to the vertebrates, at least to the higher
vertebrates. With these latter, as Bergson expressed it, the two pairs
of limbs “perform functions much less strictly dependent upon their
forins,”’ acquiring complete independence in man, whose hand can do
any kind of work.

“Tt seems, then, that the extraordinary preponderance of instinc-
tive activity among the arthropods has as its essential reason the dif-
ferentiation and the multiplicity of the appendages, in other words,
the chitinization of the integument and the formation of joint lines
which results from it. From the beginning these animals were doomed
to use organic instruments, and they made the best use possible of
these. Their main psychical task consisted in engraving upon their
memory and in instinctively repeating the acts to which these organs
were adaptable.”’ (Bouvier.)

1921] THE AGB oF INSECTS 33

Or we follow a bee as it leaves its hive and visits flower after flower
and when it has gathered its load of sweets it takes a ‘‘bee line’”’ for
the apiary and when it gets there it goes directly to its own home with-
out any mistakes and we talk very wisely and knowingly about the
“homing instincts of the bee,’’ but do not be led into believing that we
really know anything about it. Because I am afraid that about all
we know is to laugh at the poor Swiss peasant who paints the fronts
of his hives in fantastic design so that his bees will find the right hive.
Perhaps he laughs best who laughs last and the Swiss beekeeper may
be right after all. Who knows?

When we contemplate the marvels of colonial life among the in-
sects and the paucity of our knowledge of the warp and the woof of
the intricate pattern that they make, we are filled with admiration
of the blind Huber who taught us so much of the psychology of the
bee. The intricacy of the problem is appalling but when we consider
the benefits that might accrue to the beekeeper by their solution we
are more inclined to buckle down to work and renew our efforts to
solve them.

No wonder we feel like exclaiming with Maeterlinck: ‘The in-
sect does not belong to our world.”’ The other animals, even the plants,
notwithstanding their mute existence and the great secrets which they
jealously guard, do not seem wholly strangers to us. In spite of
everything we have a certain feeling of terrestrial kinship with them.
They may surprise, nay, astonish us, but they fail to upset the very
foundations of our concepts. The insect, on the other hand, displays
something that seems incongruous with the habits, the morals, the
psychology of our globe. Apparently it comes from another planet,
more monstrous, more vigorous, more demented, more atrocious,
more infernal than ours. Vainly does it seize upon life with an au-
thority and a fecundity unequaled here below; we can not accustom
ourselves to the idea that it is part of the scheme of that nature of
which we fondly believe ourselves to be the favorite children. With
this amazement and this failure to understand is mingled, no doubt, a
certain instinctive and profound feeling of dread imparted by these
beings so incomparably better armed and equipped than ourselves,
these containers as it were of compressed energy and activity which we
vaguely feel to be our most mysterious enemies, our final competitors,
and perhaps our survivors.

34 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

Lire HISTORIES.

The general phases of the life histories of insects are usually well
known but even here we find that there are many popular misconcep-
tions. McCormack tells of a physician who laughed at the notion
that house flies are but one stage of maggots for said he, “Have I not
often seen little flies coming out of the ground in the spring.’”? One
of our largest potato growers believed that I was trying to fool him
when I told him the “soft shelled potato bug” is but the grub of the
‘hard shelled potato bug”? and he was not convinced until he had
tried the thing out and carried the grubs through their changes to
pupae and then to adults. Afterwards he said to me, ‘‘That is the
most valuable lesson I have ever learned on the farm, for it has
taught me that I have not seen what is about me every day.”

We are inclined to smile at the ignorance of people in general as
outlined by such examples as those quoted above but before we allow
our smiles to become too broad perhaps it would be better to inquire
into our own knowledge. We know or think we know the life his-
tories of a few insects scattered from one end of the insect kingdom
to the other but this knowledge is based chiefly on the study of a few
economic forms. And too frequently these life histories have been -
worked out in our more northern states and apply only imperfectly or
not at all to our southern conditions.

The wonders in the adaptations for carrying on the life cycle of in-
sects are almost beyond belief and I wish that I had the space to re-
count many of them but time will permit citing only a very limited
number. The time involved in completing a life cycle is apparently
as varied as the species of insects themselves. I need only remind you
of the cicada on the one hand, whose cycle covers seventeen years,
while on the other hand we have the house fly with a complete cycle
every nine to fourteen days, in the warmer parts of the year.

The complexity of the cycle is also very much involved. We have
insects like the fish moth with no changes or metamorphosis on the
one hand while on the other we have forms like the blister beetles with
no less than eight distinct stages in its cycle. Between these two ex-
tremes are all grades of forms with almost every conceivable relation.

The following table will make these relations clearer than they
would otherwise be:

THe AGE or INSECTS

192

‘soroods uoArs Auw ur sures oy} AT[B

-nsn ysnoy} sormoeds yuotoyip Ur A[ssoypuo sonmea pomod YIMOIS oYY BuLMp sypnour so doquinu oy} yey} pozisvyduro oq prnoys IT y

4OopVv z vdng BAIV'T O30, SoTpoy Ng (stsoydaoueyour ajo[duroour YUM)
5 BlOGBIOULO]OF]
a — — - — —_ = ——a
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4 B[OGBJOUITUL F]
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. —
4ynpy SUIYUG A x ydurd Ny 2 S357 snq umbopreyy (stsoydiowe your ht es Uae)
=] O laddoysstary BLOQBJOULOING |
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a lant a =
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SaOIua

SLOUSNI TO SHOVLS-HATT GAL

36 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCiETY [December

Yet Iam sure that these dry as dust facts cannot impress you with
the wonders of insects’ life cycles. Neither do they answer the thou-
sand and one questions that you might ask in regard to this subject.
In the first place we might ask why is there any metamorphosis at all?
And our answer is of course an indirect one as all that we can do is to
point out its all but universal occurrence among insects and to call at-
tention to the fact that the groups without metamorphosis are simply
a small remnant of what was perhaps a mighty race,— a race not in
the direct line of the ancestry of the higher insects but a branch from
that ancient worm-like tracheated ancestor of the insects. The ad-
vantages of such a metamorphosis are many. It leaves the nymph,
naiad or larva, the growing period free to assimilate food and store
up energy while the adult is given excellent powers of locomotion so
that it may roam far and wide searching for suitable feeding grounds
for the next generation.

But why weary you further by recounting these thrice told tales
when a few minutes spent in watching a butterfly emerge from its
chrysalis or a larva change to a pupa will bring you closer to nature
and impress you more with the wonders of metamorphosis than any-
thing I might say.

THE Tax To INSECTs.

Entomologists, especially economic entomologists, In our experi-
ment stations and departments of agriculture, appreciate, in a vague
way at least, the annual loss occasioned by insects but the figures are
so startling and so beyond the realm of our ordinary everyday finan-
cial dealings that they make little or no impression. For instance I
made recently a rather careful estimate of the loss to the farmers
in North Carolina last year caused by insects and was somewhat
startled myself to find that it totalled no less than $84,750,000.00, as
shown by the following table:

1921] THE AGE oF INSECTS 37

Crop 1920 VALUE PER CENT. INSECT

in N.C. Loss DaMAGE
NSS... 0 Re eS ee eee $110,480,000 10 $11,050,000
TIN ARRET: oS ee ee eee 97,130,000 20 19,425,000
JR wee ee eae 68,750,000 10 6,875,000
3. soa Oh ee eee Sacer 35,000,000 10 3,500,000
Truck garden and crop............-. 77,500,000 20 15,500,000
VES oan 3 ee er 20,000,000 5 1,000,000
nih. 0. 7 oe 50,000,000 20 10,000,000
Mee a oie syncs 2 cies Apnea 48,000,000 5 2,400,000
Animal and Animal Products........ 200,000,000 5 10,000,000
DGrestyet coe eee he tees cae sss | 201000,000 5 1,000,000
pumred treducts. 5..20..05.......... » 40;000,000 10 4,000,000

$84,750,000

Enough to pay our $50,000,000 road bill and have enough left in one
year to pay the ill fated $20,000,000 six year program for our institu-
tions of higher education with a paltry $14,750,000 left. But I fear
that most of us are not in the habit of dealing in millions of dollars and
that these figures make very little impression on us. Perhaps it would
be easier if we look at this as a tax. As a tax this means more than
$40 for every man, woman and child in our state annually. Certainly
more than the average tax for all purposes, state, city, county and
town. Or let us look at it in another way. An observant entomolo-
gist will tell you that in the average year our crops suffer anywhere
from 5 per cent to 30 per cent depreciation from the attacks of insects.
Some crops suffering much more than others. This means that our
farmers pay a tax each year of from five cents to thirty cents on each
dollar’s worth of crop value, a tax that would not be tolerated if it
were levied by any political unit, national, state or county or for any
purpose be it good roads, better schools or what not.

Yet this tax is levied so insidiously that we in the experiment sta-
tion never hear about it and never know anything about it except by
direct personal observation, save when insects destroy 75 per cent,
95 per cent or 100 per cent of the crop which happens time and time
again sometimes to isolated farmers, sometimes to practically all of the
farmers growing any given crop. I have frequently had tobacco far-
mers tell me that the flea beetle did no damage, while at the same time
we were standing in the midst of tobacco beds covering three times
the area that he would have had to have under cloth if it had not been
for the flea beetle. .

38 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

What of the labor of preparing the soil? What of the fertilizer
used? What of the extra yards of tobacco cloth that he was required
to purchase? What of the fact that he was raising here a hoard of flea
beetles that would follow the plants when they were transplanted to
the fields and seriously check their growth when they could least af-
ford to have their growth checked? What of the fact that these in-
sects continued to eat holes in the leaves throughout the growing sea-
son so that when the crop was placed on the market he was forced to
sell at a lower price than he would otherwise have had to sell? What
of the fact that careful experiments show that a flea beetle will eat
more than fifty times its own weight in green tobacco every twenty
four hours? ‘Translate that into hay for an average cow or horse and
think what it would mean if you had to feed them from two to three
tons every day. I happen to be interested in a group of insects called
leaf hoppers and in their efforts on pasture lands. Doesit mean any-
thing that we find as high as one hundred of these tiny insects per
square foot? Our mountain farmer might answer no because the
chances are that he has never seen a leaf hopper but is this the correct
answer? Careful experiments show that these insects actually get
more from our pastures than the animals that are being pastured on
them.

With such enormous losses due to insects it might seem that en-
tomologists were not keeping pace with the insects but I do not believe
that this is true. A brief summary of some of the more important re-
sults of economic entomology might not be amiss. When we stop to
consider the tons of arsenical poisons used in this country and reflect
that this whole industry was initiated by the work of entomologists we
get a glimpse of the importance of this phase of entomology.

In 1888 the fluted scale, which had been introduced into California
from Australia, had practically ruined the citrus industry. However,
the Department of Agriculture sent a representative to Australia
where he found that the fluted scale was kept in check by a lady beetle.
This lady beetle was introduced into California and in nine months
time it had so checked the ravages of the fluted scale that the scale
ceased to be a menace and the citrus industry of California was saved.

As you open your packages of predigested breakfast food, I wonder
how many of you have noticed that they are carefully wrapped in oiled
paper and I wonder how many people have tried to find the real reason
for this. It is all done to control the grain weevils and was worked
out by an entomologist who has by this simple means saved a great
and growing industry.

1921] THE AGE oF INSECTS 39

These are but a few of the many illustrations that I might have
drawn from the great field of applied entomology but they will perhaps
serve to illustrate its many phases.

INSECT FRIENDS.

Entomologists lay so much stress upon the damage caused by in-
sects that it is small wonder that the public is inclined to look upon
insects as pests and nothing else. It was that eminent British Ento-
mologist, Sir John Lubbock, I believe, who brought the opposite point
of view to our attention forcibly by reminding us that he could make
the world a place unfit for human habitation in less than a year’s time
if he had the power to remove certain insects from the world. Which
is simply another way of saying that while we suffer much from the
attacks of injurious insects we owe much to insects which are our
friends and help to keep injurious insects in control.

Entomologists are having these matters forced upon their atten-
tion but apparently the general public misses the significance of the
outbreaks of certain species of insects. The army worm is a case in
point. Normally this insect is present every year but not in sufficient
numbers to cause any appreciable loss to the farmer. Occasionally,
‘-however, the army worm becomes locally or generally abundant and
causes wide spread destruction and alarm. Even a better illustration
is offered by the soy bean worm. A year or two ago this insect
threatened the destruction of the soy bean crop of this and adjoining
states causing hundreds of thousands of dollar’s worth of damage.
Yet this insect is not even mentioned in standard textbooks of ento-
mology and had never been a serious pest before. Why these sudden
outbreaks of insect pests? The reply is that these destructive out-
breaks represent what happens when the control exercised by their
enemies is for any reason released. In other words it represents the
condition that would prevail but for our insect friends.

“The following analysis of a typical outbreak of the army worm
will show what usually happens. As is usual during such outbreaks,
large numbers of Tachina flies were to be found in the fields laying
eggs on the worms. With the intention of making a more careful
study of these parasites 491 larvae were brought back and placed in
cages. The following data gleaned from the records of these cages are
presented as being of some interest. Of the 491 larvae, 442 were in-
fested with the eggs of the dipterous parasite, leaving only 49 larvae,

40 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | December

or 10 per cent of the whole number, uninfested, yet 61 larvae were able
to pupate. From these 61 pupae, however, only 7 adult moths
emerged, showing a total mortality among the Army Worm from larva
to adult of 98.6 per cent. And since 90 per cent of the larvae were in-
fested with the eggs of this parasite, it would seem to indicate that, in
this case at least, the parasitic fly was decidedly the most important
factor in causing the high mortality of the Army Worm. In a few
cases it was found that where only a single parasitic egg was attached
to a larva, that the host was able to complete its transformations.

“The greatest number of parasitic eggs observed on a single larva
was 12, with an average of 3 for the entire number (442) infested. The
442 infested larvae yielded 709 parasitic puparia, or an average of
nearly two for each infested larva. The 709 puparia yielded 556
adult parasites. The greatest number of adult flies from a single
Army Worm was four. These figures show that the mortality of the
parasitic fly from egg to puparium was 52 per cent, and from puparium
to adult 22 per cent, making a total mortality from egg to adult of 73
per cent.

“This shows that the tendency would be for the fly to continually
gain in relative numbers, owing to the lighter mortality, and easily ac-
counts for the complete subjugation of the Army Worm in normal
years by this one natural enemy. No other parasites were found in
the course of these experiments. ”’

Since we are so dependent upon these insect friends perhaps it
would not be amiss to inquire a little more closely into their life econ-
omy. For convenience we may divide the friends of man into two
groups, predacious insects and parasitic insects but this is merely a
matter of convenience and the line separating the two is by no means
asharp one. For example we might inquire whether the larvae of the
solitary wasps mentioned in another connection were parasitic or pre-
dacious and while in general their behavior is that of a predacious in-
sect there is little doubt that this is simply a further development of a
strictly parasitic habit. Likewise the line separating the predacious
insects from the plant feeding forms is not great. Some species seem
to feed predaciously if insect hosts are abundant, but if not available
they turn their attention to plants. Hence we feel safe in saying that
the evolution of these habits have been from plant feeding to pre-
dacious insects and thence to parasitic insects.

Predacious insects are many and they have varied habits. Some
are active and search far and wide for their prey like the ground bee:

1921] THE AGE oF INSECTS 41

tles and tiger beetles. Others are quiescent and construct traps for
their prey like the ant lions. These curious fellows usually called
doodle bugs construct funnel like traps in loose sandy soil and then
take up their position at the neck of the funnel and wait for a luckless
ant to tumble in. The ant thus starts a miniature land slide which
the ant lion aids by throwing loose sand above the ant. Some are pre-
dacious only in the larval stage like the aphis lion or the aphis maggot,
while others are predacious both in larval and adult condition like the
lady beetles. The amount of food that these predacious insects will
consume is often beyond belief.

“In order to determine something of the capacity of these insects
for devouring plant lice and hence their degree of economic impor-
tance, I tried feeding the larvae of Syrphus americanus on cabbage
aphids (A phis brassicae Linn.) The aphids were touched to the mouth
of a larva which had not been kept from food. A four-day-old larva
devoured the first aphid in 4.5 minutes, a second, third, fourth and
fifth, smaller than the first, in 2, 1, 1, and 0.5 minutes, respectively.
The sixth, a larger one, was retained for 3.25 minutes. These were
very thoroughly eaten, all the viscera and body fluids being picked
and sucked out. After this the lice tendered were not eaten so closely,
but killed, a seventh in 2 minutes, an eight in 1.75 minutes, and a
ninth in 1.5 minutes.”’ An average of less than 2 minutes for each
plant louse or 240 per eight hour union day.

“Tt is, of course, not probable that any larva would ever normally
devour aphids so rapidly. Yet when plenty are at hand the number
eaten by a larva during its life of eight days to two weeks or more
must be very considerable. It should be kept in mind also that it is
not the actual individuals eaten, alone, that determine the amount of
benefit from these insects; but the fact that in this way the production
of enormous number of aphids is prevented. If, as Reaumour has
calculated, and others have substantiated, one aphid may be the pro-
genitor of over 5,000,000,000 individuals during her existence of a
month or six weeks, we can see at once the important benefit that must
arise from the destruction of one or two of these aphids early in the
establishment of the colony. It is a fact that the eggs of Syrphidae
are often deposited on the host-plant very early or even in anticipa-
tion of the arrival of the aphids.” (C. L. Metcalf.)

On the other hand the small amount of food on which these insects
seem to be able to survive is almost beyond belief. I shall. never for-
get a deserted wagon road below Carolina Beech where both tracks

42 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

were crowded with the funnels of the aphis lion. These funnels aver-
aged more than four to the foot in an open space about 150 feet long
between a woods and aswamp. The chances of an ant traveling that
road were certainly slim, but the chances of an ant lion getting very
many full meals must have been correspondingly slim. . Yet each one
of these little fellows had moved nearly a cubic inch of earth in con-
structing his funnel.

As important as these predacious insects are, they are by no means
as important as the parasitic insects. Allusion has been made to the
Tachina fly and the army worm. In addition to these parasitic flies
there is a large group of parasitic wasps which are among the most im-
portant of the parasitic insects. Many of these forms are so small
that very little is known about them. And I think I would be justified
in saying that they are perhaps the least known of all of the insects.
Yet we are gradually accumulating knowledge of these forms and some
of the more important points are perhaps worth reporting here. We
have among the parasitic wasps many parasites of the egg, larval and
pupal stages of insects, but cases of adult parasites are not so common.
Sometimes the egg of the parasite is laid in one stage but does not
emerge as a perfect insect until a later stage. Usually the parasitic
stage is confined to the larva which feeds upon its host while living
within the appropriate stage of the host, but sometimes the parasite
really lives externally as is the case with certain parasites of the gloomy
scale which we have under investigation. Here the adult parasite
lays her egg or eggs under the scale covering of the host. The larval
parasite attaches itself to the host and sucks it dry just as a predacious
aphis maggot devours a plant louse. When it has completely de-
stroyed the scale it changes to a pupa and thence to an adult. The
adult cuts a neat circular hole through the scale covering and makes
its escape. One of the most interesting points about this parasite is
the apparent ability of the female to tell the scale insects that have
been parasitized. Although I have watched upwards of 150 of these
parasites under the high power binocular I have yet to find a case
where one has made the mistake of ovipositing upon a scale insect
that is parasitized. It is exceedingly interesting to watch the business-
like way that these little fellows have as they pass from scale to scale
tapping each one with their antennae until they find a suitable host,
then slipping the delicate ovipositor under the scale covering deposit-
ing one or two or three eggs and passing on to the next victim.

Among the many interesting things about these parasites not the

1921] Tue AGE oF INSECTS 43

least interesting is the small size of many of the forms. This is especi-
ally true of some of the egg parasites which are among the smallest
known insects. Imagine an insect small enough to pass all of its
stages in an insect egg not much larger than the period in ordinary
newspaper print and you will have a proper conception of their size.
Then when you remember that each adult is furnished with a pair of
eyes and a pair of antennae, three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings,
with mouth parts and a digestive system, with a nervous system and
sense organs and is endowed with instincts enough to feed on the nec-
tar of flowers and to mate and to lay eggs in the proper host at the
proper time; and all this in an insect not over 14 mm. long or so small
that one hundred of them placed end to end just equal an inch; with
these facts all before you you will have a proper conception of the
marvelous ability of nature.

I cannot pass the subject of parasitism without mentioning two
special phases of insect parasitism, polyembryony and hyperparasi-
tism. Polyembryony is that condition in which one egg gives rise to
more than one adult individual. It is known to occur in many groups
of the animal kingdom, for example, the identical twins of man and
other mammals, the quadruplets of the armadillo and others. But
this condition reaches its greatest development among insects where
Patterson reports not less than 395 individuals from a single parasitic
egg.

Hyperparasitism is even more wonderful than this for here we have
the case of one parasite preying upon another. We have not.only the
primary parasite which preys upon the host but a secondary parasite
preying upon the primary parasite and a tertiary parasite upon the
secondary parasite and apparently in rare cases a quarternary parasite
preying upon the tertiary. Can anything more involved be imagined?
And can man ever hope to unravel the intricacies of the relations that
must exist in such elaborate cases of hyperparasitism?

EcoLoGicaL RELATIONS.

The realm of ecology is as broad as the sum total of all of the factors
that touch an insect during its life. It is therefore not surprising that
we know so little about the ecological relations of insects. The tem-
perature relations are perhaps the only ones that have been investi-
gated with any degree of thoroughness and here our firm ground con-
sists of a series of critical high and low temperatures for a few economic

44 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | December

forms. These critical temperatures are of great economic importance
in the control of insects of stored products and hundreds of thousands
of dollars worth of furs are now held at low temperatures during the
summer months thus avoiding attacks of moths. While, at the other
end of the temperature scale, we find many of our largest flour mills
provided with special heating apparatus so that the temperature of
the mill may be raised beyond the critical point for mill insects. When
it is remembered that temperature is intimately related to humidity
and other factors it is perceived that the problem is an exceedingly
complex one and one that will have to await better facilities for con-
trolling these factors than any as yet available. Perhaps the most
interesting single bit of information as yet gleaned from the many im-
portant ones relative to the temperature factor is the knowledge that
certain species of plant lice will withstand a much lower temperature
than their parasites. Hence they are able to survive and continue to
breed in cool weather whereas the development of the parasites is
checked, thus the plant lice gains the upperhand of their parasites and
do widespread damage to crops during cool weather, but if the weather
is warm the parasites gain the upper hand and keep the plant lice in
check.

Humidity is perhaps next to temperature, the most important
single factor in the ecological relations of insects. Here again we have
practically an unexplored field and outside of the knowledge that many
insects require a relatively high humidity for their best development,
our knowledge is rather limited. The fact that air passed through
certain strengths of various salt solutions and solutions of certain acids
can be given almost any percentage of humidity required is of great
service to the entomologist and opens up a fertile but practically un-
touched field.

In addition to the above problems of the ecological factors, which
may be called laboratory ecology, there is another realm to which I
desired to call your attention namely, field ecology. In field ecology
we are not concerned with the individual factors but with the environ-
ment asa whole. In other words we take our selected area as we find
it in nature and try to analyze it by determining the dominant species
and then determine the reasons for their dominance. The whole of
economic entomology may be said to belong to the field ecology of in-
sects but field ecology of insects is broader than economic entomology
for it is concerned not only with economic forms but with others as
well.

1921] THE AGE OF INSECTS 45

For the past few years I have been giving some attention to a prob-
lem in field ecology that is very interesting to me and perhaps a
statement of this problem will do more than anything else that I might
say to make the whole matter clear. We have along our ocean front,
our sounds, bays and rivers a narrow strip of land that is flooded twice
each day by the rising tide. This strip of land may be known as the
tidal zone. The part of the tidal zone lying along the ocean front
where it is affected also by the direct action of the waves may be known
as the strand. While that portion of the tidal zone along the sounds,
rivers and bays where it is not much subjected to wave action may be
known as tidal belt. While these two areas may be generically re-
lated yet they are very distinct. The strand is usually devoid of vege-
tation and is frequented by a group of animals that we will call beach
combers. All of them are scavengers and they feed upon whatever the
ocean may cast up before them. Their existence would seem to be a
precarious one but when we note the abundance of beach fleas, sand
scabs, ghost crabs and beach tiger beetles we are inclined to believe
that nature must be very lavish with them after all.

The tidal belt is far more interesting to us, however, chiefly be-
cause it usually supports a luxuriant growth of sedges and grasses
which in turn support a wealth of leaf hoppers and plant hoppers
which are my special interest in all of the groups of insects. The
ecological relations of some of these insects are most interesting. Here
we have strictly terrestrial air-breathing arthropods living in an en-
vironment that is strictly aquatic for longer or shorter periods twice
each day. Here we have strictly terrestrial forms living in close prox-
imity to strictly aquatic forms like the sea snails and fiddler crabs.
Naturally we wonder why these insects have adopted this habitat.
Perhaps we can explain it by stating that these insects attached them-
selves to their host plant when it was a xerophyte and simply followed
it into its half hydrophytic environment. This may be historically
correct, but whatever is the past history of this peculiar relation we
know that it is not simply a strict host relation at the present time but
it seems rather a matter of fixity of environmental factors. This is
borne out by the fact that one of the most abundant species of plant
hoppers in the tidal belt region lives on no less than three species of
grasses and one sedge. Another species was described originally from
Long Island where it was secured from a species of the genus Spartina
but on our coast where Spartina is replaced by the sea oats (Uniola)
the same species of the plant hopper occurs on the Uniola and occupies

46 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

the same situations. So much we know but there remains a vast deal
more to be found out. Are these species limited in their zones by the
amount of submergence that they can withstand? What are the
physiological characters that make it possible for these species to sur-
vive such an environment whereas their generic relatives are confined
to xerophytic habitats? These and many other questions we might
ask but only time and an unlimited amount of field work can give the
answer.

There is another ecological relation that it seems to me would be
worth pausing to consider and that is the relation of insects to their
hosts. The relation of insects to their animal hosts I have discussed
in another connection under parasitism so that there is left for our con-
sideration at this point the relation between insects and their plant
hosts. This is a broad subject in itself and one deserving of more con-
sideration than I am able to give it here.

Some insects are so limited in the selection of their hosts that it is
safe to identify the insect from the host on which you find it; while
other insects apparently will eat anything that is green. We have in
some cases whole families of insects limited to a narrow group of plants
in their host relations, for example the Coleopterous family Bruchidae
confines its attacks to the seeds of the Leguminosae. On the other
hand we have species that are structurally closely related feeding on
widely diverse plants. In fact these relations are so marked that they
have been used to correct our phylogenetic notions. Thus the botanist
may use insect species in determining the relationships of his plant
forms and the entomologist frequently corrects his taxonomic concepts
on a purely botanical basis. Naturally such relations cannot fail to
impress the serious student and leave him with a vague feeling of dis-
satisfaction at his failure to answer them. Thus I have puzzled my
mind for many hours in the hope that I might be able to answer the
question, why does the gloomy scale occur on soft maples in destruc-
tive numbers yet be practically absent from hard maples? Is it
simply a difference in the thickness of the bark in the two groups of
maples, or is it a difference in the chemical composition of the sap?
Whatever the answer, the selection is remarkably clear cut because
we frequently see rows of hard maples with a few soft maples inter-
spersed in which the hard maples are free from scale and thrifty where-
as the soft maples are dead or dying.

There is another series of ecological relations that is deserving of
more than passing attention. I have already referred to that com-

1921] THe AGE oF INSECTS 47

plex chain reflex which causes the adult female insect to deposit her
eggs so that the newly hatched young will find an abundance of food
close at hand for its sustenance. These relations are easy to under-
stand in those insects where the young and the adults feed upon the
same host but they become increasingly difficult to understand as we
pass to those adults which either do not feed or feed upon an entirely
different substance. For example the adults of the order Lepidoptera,
the butterflies and moths, feed on the nectar of plants for the most
part yet their larvae feed upon roots, stems, leaves or seeds of plants or
on animal products. The eggs must be laid in close proximity to such
food or the larvae would perish and the species would vanish from the
earth. What is the mechanics that brings this very desirable conclu-
sion? We may answer that this series has become hereditarily in-
stinctive but when we do so we are merely clothing our ignorance in a
mass of verbiage.

The climax in this series of complex reflexes is reached among the
solitary wasps to which I have alluded in another connection. This
complex may be pictured briefly and in a somewhat generalized way
as follows. The female wasp digs a burrow in the soil. She goes
away and searches until she finds the proper prey, be it cicada, horsefly,
caterpillar or spider. She pounces upon it and stings it in the thoracic
ganglia so that the prey will be paralyzed but not killed, for if the prey
were killed it would decay before the egg hatched and the young larva
would starve to death. She drags or carries the prey back to the bur-
row, often a considerable distance, and by means of some sense that is
beyond human understanding she locates the burrow and deposits her
prey; lays heregg; closes the burrow and, wonder of wonders, has the
time and the patience to conceal the entrance of the burrow by making
it look like the surrounding territory. If in hard ground she seeks out
a small pebble and pounds the loose dirt down until it blends in with
the surrounding territory, or if in a tidal flat with a crust of salt she
finds a bit of crust to cover the entrance. Such in brief is the story,
but who has the insight to unravel the maze of ecological factors that
are woven into such a complex?

Another series of ecological adaptations that is so common that
it causes no comment is the relation between pollination and insects.
Here we are confronted with a case of parallel development that if it
were not so common or if it existed only in the South Sea Islands would
be one of the wonders of the age, but because we see it everywhere
about us, because it is the rule rather than the exception, it arouses

48 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

no more comment than the rising of the sun. Yet the elaborate floral
devices, the presence of artfully concealed nectaries on the one hand
and the presence of long tongues and pollen baskets among the insects
show an evolution that must have been carried on for untold ages.
And how dependent one group is on the other and any failure of the
one group must necessarily mean the extinction of the other. I won-
der how many such cases of sad wrecks we might find if we could re-
construct the past geological ages.

The highest form of interdependence is found perhaps in the case
of the Yucca and the Yucca moth.

“The flowers of the species of Yucca are absolutely incapable of
self-or-wind-pollination, and the stigma is so situated that no ordinary
insect visitor can reach it in a casual search for food. In some locali-
ties, it was observed that the common Yucca never produced seed and
that wherever seed was produced, almost every pod was infested by a
little caterpillar that destroyed a greater or less percentage of the seeds.
The parent of this caterpillar is a small white moth, the Yucca moth,
in which the mouth-parts are curiously modified and utterly unlike
those of any other moth species that we know. At the sides of the
ordinary tongue there are developed a pair of flexible processes set
with little pegs and spines, and capable of being coiled like the tongue
itself. When the female, which alone has these processes, is ready to
lay-an egg she enters a Yucca blossom, gathers a little mass of pollen,
rolls it into a ball, carries it by means of the processes to the pistil, and
rams it down so as to bring it into direct contact with the receptive
surface. Not until this has been completed does she turn and then
into the ovary or embryo seed pod, she forces an egg by means of a
slender, sharp-pointed ovipositor. She is now ready to repeat the
process on another flower and she does repeat it until her stock of eggs
isexhausted. Here we have a deliberate pollination preceding oviposi-
tion, as if the insect knew that it would be useless to lay an egg until —
the possibility of development in the seed pod was assured.

“This peculiarity, though confined so far as we know to the genus
Pronuba, is not confined to one species only. There are a number of
Yuccas in the country, including the giant or tree Yuceas of the south-
west, and for every species of Yucca there is a species of Pronuba.
Surely a most wonderful adaptation of insect and plant, neither of
which can exist without the other.

‘And yet, while the adaptation is not so specific, nor the evidence
of design so apparent, the dependence of red clover upon long-tongued

1921] THE AGE oF INSECTS 49

bees is not less absolute. Australia has no native bumble-bee, and
red clover was unknown there until the colonists began to cultivate it.
There was no difficulty in making crops of forage; but it would not
seed. Importing seed annually was expensive, and, naturally, the
Australians were anxious to raise their own. This led to a study of
the reasons for the failure, in the course of which the dependence of the
plant upon bumble-bees was established. The remedy was obvious,
and now European bumble-bees disport themselves among the Aus-
tralian red clover, seed is plentiful, and interference with bumble-bees
is a crime—as it should be rated everywhere.

“There are many others among the Hymenoptera that are useful
in the work of pollination because of their habit of feeding among the
flowers, even if not on them; but all this is based on the same visits
which the flower encourages and of which it takes advantage; but no
account of this sort of relationship could be considered even passably
complete without some reference to the complicated relationship
existing between the Smyrna fig and the minute little Blastophaga, a
species whose life relations have been beautifully worked out.

“The Smyrna fig of commerce depends for its edible quality upon
the ripened seeds that it contains. The fig is not really a true fruit as
that term is generally defined, but is a thick fleshy envelope within
which the flowers are contained. In the Smyrna fig these flowers are
all female and no pollen is produced anywhere on the tree. Left to
themselves, such trees could never produce ripe fruit, and that was the
condition of the Smyrna fig orchards in California, prior to 1900. In
the Mediterrenean countries, whence our commercial supply is de-
rived, there are found beside the cultivated also several varieties of
wild or caprifigs, which produce three crops of fruit during the season.
These fruits contain male flowers, producing an abundance of pollen;
but this pollen is never naturally discharged from the envelope con-
taining the florets.

“Yet it was recognized by the fig-growers in the Orient that to ob-
tain fruit of the commercial edible varieties, it was necessary to bring
to them when in bloom, branches containing fruit of the caprifig, which
were usually hung up in the tree which it was intended to fructify.
This work of pollination is accomplished by the Blastophaga already
referred to, although, far from benefiting itself in the process, the in-
sect dies without even being able to continue its kind.

“In the caprifigs the female flowers are replaced by little gall-like
swellings in which the larvae of the Blastophaga develop. One gene

50 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

ration of figs, the so-called ‘mammae,’ remain on the trees during the
winter and by the time they are ready to drop, there is already on the
trees a new or spring crop of fruit, known as the ‘profichi.’ By the
time that this crop is in proper condition, the insects that have hiber-
nated in the ‘mammae,’ are fully developed, the wingless and almost
blind male Blastophaga has fertilized the female before she is even out
of her cell, and the latter, leaving the dried-up fig by the small anterior
opening, makes its way into the new figs, to provide for a new genera-
tion. In the ‘profichi’ this generation matures at the time the com-
mercial Smyrna fig is in proper condition and the females, emerging
pollen covered from the ‘ profichi,’ enter the small opening of this true
female flower receptacle if they find themselves in a tree bearing them.
But in this Smyrna covering all the female florets are fully developed,
and the gall-like swellings that replace them in the caprifigs are absent.
The insect therefore moves about over the entire interior surface of
the pouch, seeking a place to oviposit, and in the process distributes
its load of pollen everywhere. It eventually dies without reproducing,
and usually without even being able to make its way out again. But
though the insect has lost its life, the tree has gained; and the seed
pouch that we know as the fig, comes to maturity and ripens seed.

“At the same time that the Smyrna fig which produces the edible
commercial fruit is in bloom, there is also another crop developing on
the caprifigs, and these are known as ‘mammoni.’ The Blastophaga
issuing from the ‘profichi’ on the same tree, naturally enter these
fruits which are of the same character as the preceding crops, and are
able to continue their kind, coming to maturity when the third crop
is ready for their reception. This third crop represents the ‘mammae’
or over-wintering form, from which the ‘profichi’ of the following
season are again entered by the Blastophaga.

“Here we have an extremely complicated relationship which, re-
duced to its simplest terms, means that in order to produce the com-
mercial Smyrna fig there must be suitable caprifigs producing ‘pro-
fichi’ infested by Blastophaga, at a period corresponding to the devel-
opment of the female flower capsule. And as the insects are very
small and very frail, the caprifigs must be either well distributed among
the Smyrna trees, or the infested ‘profichi’ must be gathered and dis-
tributed among the trees to be pollenized.

“This account makes interesting reading and shows how, after
many trials and much painstaking investigation, the Blastophaga and
the necessary caprifigs were finally introduced into the fig-growing

1921] Tue AGE oF INSECTS 51

districts of California, and how a new industry, absolutely depending
for its continuance upon a minute hymenopterous insect, was finally
established upon a firm and scientific basis.

“How many cases of this kind exist among plants having no pre-
sent economic value it would be difficult to estimate, and how so com-
plicated a relationship ever became established is not yet explainable
even by a theory.”’ (Smith).

Fearing that I may weary you I am nevertheless impelled to point
out another ecological relation that borders upon the marvelous. I
refer to the relation between gall insects and their galls. We have here
another case of parallelism in evolution. The galls range from simple
folds of the leaf or simple enlargements of the stem to most elaborate
and wonderful structures and the insects themselves are scattered in
many orders. The most wonderful phase of the whole subject of galls
and gall makers is the fact that the galls are absolutely specific. It is
much easier to determine the gall maker by the gall that it makes than
it is by the insect itself. Just what are the factors that cause any
given cynipid gall, for example, to have the same form regardless of
what species of oak it is found on? Just what is the stimulus that
causes some galls to develop their form completely before the egg
hatches? In addition to these perplexing questions we have the whole
problem overlaid with the problem of parthenogenesis and alternation
of hosts we can appreciate that we have here a problem that demands
the best that any biologist can give. And the biologist who tackles
these problems may rest assured that the field is broad enough to de-
mand the best efforts that he can put forth.

CONCLUSION

Having considered briefly the past accomplishments in entomology
it may be worth our while to turn our attention in another direction
and ask ourselves what of the future. I do this because we are some-
what prone to think that all that is good, all that is worth while lies be-
hind us. Having lived through an age that has seen the development
of the automobile, the telephone, the aeroplane, wireless and half a
dozen other world astounding inventions we are inclined to think that
all the great inventions and discoveries have been made and that there
is little left to do. Which reminds me of a personal experience that
will perhaps make the matter clearer than anything else that I might
say. WhenIwasasenior in high school I was told that for good and suf-

52 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | December

ficient political reasons I could have an appointment to West Point if
I could pass the examinations. I was persuaded not to do this by the
Superintendent because, said he, ‘‘ All the great wars have been fought,
and you are not the type of young man that would care to hang around
an army barracks all your days.’’ Needless to say I agree that I am
hardly that type of man but I also imagine that very few of the grad-
uates of West Point in the class of 1907 spent many days hanging
around army barracks from April 1917 to November 1919. I remem-
ber telling this story to my old teacher of Zoology and he said that
when he told his Professor of Natural Sciences that he expected to go
into Zoology his teacher tried to discourage him. ‘‘For,”’ said he,
“now that Darwin has announced his theory of Natural Selection there
is nothing left for the zoologist to do.”’

I cite these two instances because they illustrate so well an all too
prevalent opinion in all fields, a feeling that is far too prevalent in a
new field like entomology where the pioneers have been over the
ground and harvested the first rich harvest not realizing that these
same pioneers have left many corners untouched and have left abun-
dant harvests yet to be garnered. That such a feeling should be
still prevalent in applied entomology in the face of such enormous
losses as have been pointed out above or in the face of the fact that
tons of honey go to waste each year and bees are needed to gather it,
is indeed hard to realize. That such a feeling should be prevalent in
pure entomology when we realize how Morgan has advanced the
science of genetics by breeding fruit flies, or when we consider what
there is yet to learn about the anatomy, the physiology or the ecology
of even our most common species is hard to understand. Except per-
haps there is the notion that the pioneers had an easy time when we
think that, no matter which way they turned, they were almost cer-
tain to stumble into unexplored fields. While if we want to be sure
that our work is not simply a repetition of something that someone
else has done much better we must wade through a mass of literature
often mountain high to discover nothing at the bottom. Forgetting
for the time being that they had no great laboratories fitted with the
finest of microscopes, microtomes, ovens, cameras and utensils of all
kinds, that they had no libraries, no collections and very little apprecia-
tion. While we have all of these things. Forgetting that most of the
pioneers had to steal their time for research from their families or from
their sleep. While all that it is necessary for us to do is to steal the
time from our classes or other official duties.

1921] THe AGE oF INSECTS 53

With all of these things in mind, I cannot help but feel that in spite
of the past brilliant record of entomology there are better things just
ahead of us. That undiscovered laws of life are awaiting the searching
eye of the worker in entomology. That as yet unheard of methods of
control are about to be discovered, making it possible for us to reduce
the tax we pay to insects to a negligible minimum, thus making pos-
sible an expansion in food production as yet undreamed. Feeling this
way, I cannot help wondering if the world will be ready for these dis-
coveries when they are made or will they lie buried as Mendel’s work
remained forgotten for nearly half a century? Will we accept them at
their true value or will we cast them aside as worthless? The Hindoos
have a legend that illustrates our present tendencies very well indeed.
A young man had an iron bracelet placed on his wrist one morning and
was told that on a certain beach there was a stone that would turn the
bracelet into gold. So he hastened out in the morning light and com-
menced to pick up the pebbles one by one and touched them rapidly
to the bracelet and observed the results with a critical eye. Thus he
labored all through the long morning of his youth but as the sun
climbed higher and higher, as the day got hotter and hotter, his speed
slackened and he commenced to ask himself if it was really worth
while. Wasn’t the whole thing a hoax any way? Certainly no one
but a fool would believe that you could turn an iron bracelet into gold.
Thus he labored through the noon-time half persuaded to stop but as
the day advanced and his shadow got longer to the east and as he
realized that the day was fast slipping away, he commenced to work
with renewed energy that gradually changed to frenzy as the shadows
of evening began to creep up from the valleys. And then as he looked
down in the half light he noticed that the bracelet had indeed turned
to gold. But he also realized that in his haste and in his carelessness
he did not know which was the magical stone.

Rateteu, N. C.

THE GENUS RASPAILIA AND THE INDEPENDENT VARI-
ABILITY OF DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES

By H. V. WiLson

The genus Raspailia (Nardo, 1833, 1847; O. Schmidt, 1862, p. 59)
was classed by Ridley and Dendy, 1887, p. 188, in the Axinellidae but
transferred by Topsent, 1894, to the Ectyoninae. In this Topsent has
been generally followed, including Dendy, 1895 (p. 46), who here re-
gards the genus as intermediate between the two groups. Dendy
later (1905, p. 172) departs from this view and regards the resemblance
of Raspailia to the Axinellidae as strong but superficial. Hentschel
(1912, p. 413) brings out the skeletal resemblance between the Ecty-
onine genera centering round Raspailia and certain Axinellidae, and
inclines to regard it as due to kinship and not to convergent evolution,
thus maintaining the position of Dendy in 1895. Vosmaer, 1912, keeps
Raspailia alongside of Axinella, Phakellia, Acanthella, and Phacanth-
ina, thus indicating his belief in a relationship to these genera. George
and Wilson, 1919, pp. 160-161, in describing Axinella acanthifera re-
gard it as intermediate between typical Raspailias and Axinellas. In
this species there are some acanthostyles and the dermal brushes in-
clude a few long slender styles, but the habitus is lamellate, and the
skeletal framework of the same type as in Avinella verrucosa (Vosmaer,
1912).

In delimiting Raspailia more precisely, Vosmaer, 1912, p. 313,
takes the Mediterranean R. viminalis (O. Schmidt, 1862, p. 59) as
embodying the characteristics of the genus. The characters empha-~
sized are: the axial skeleton is a funis (a reticular bundle composed of
elementary fibres or funiculi) with wide meshes, component funiculi
thin, spicules wholly or almost wholly imbedded in spongin; from this,
slender and short extra-axial funiculi (radial fibres), composed of one,
two, or three spicules cemented together by spongin, radiate to the
surface, where each terminates in a single large style or subtylostyle,
projecting far beyond the surface, surrounded at its base by a tuft of
diverging small spicules, generally styles, sometimes oxea. Acantho-
styles occur, dispersed in the parenchyma and echinating the funiculi.
Skeletal megascleres, chiefly long, slender styles, occasionally tylo-

[54]

-

1921) THE GeENus RASPAILIA 55

styles and strongyles, also generally oxea. Habitus cylindrical, long
and slender, branching or not branching.

The long, slender, cylindrical habitus, with skeletal framework on
the general axinellid plan, and the presence of acanthostyles have been
regarded by many (Ridley, Ridley and Dendy, Dendy,) as the chief
distinguishing characteristics of the genus. The acanthostyles may
entirely disappear but the other characteristics remain, as in subgenus
Syringella Ridley (1884, p. 460). Examples are: Raspailia syringella
O. Schmidt (1868, p. 10) and the two species described by Ridley, loc.
cit. In R.[Syringella] falcifera Topsent (1890, p. 12; 1892, p. 124) the
habitus is fairly typical, and the dermal skeleton adheres to the R.
viminalis type. In R. (Syringella) rhaphidophora Hentschel (1912, p.
371), the habitus is typical, save that the branches are generally com-
pressed; instead of radial fibres, there are radial partitions (lamellae) ;
dermal skeleton of* the R. viminalis type; megascleres, styles, oxea,
strongyles; microscleres present in shape of bundles of rhaphides. In
R. (Syringella) nuda Hentschel (1911, p. 383) the habitus is typical;
axial skeleton with radial fibres; dermal skeleton as in R. viminalis.
All these forms make it plain that the general practice with respect to
Syringella is correct and that such sponges are really members of the
Raspailia group in which the acanthostyles have been lost, and should
not be relegated on a technicality to the Axinellidae while Raspailia
is referred to the Ectyonidae. Nevertheless Topsent (1904, p. 138)
takes this position. Pick’s position (1905, pp. 18-19) is different and
is not opposed to the argumentation of this paper, for while assigning
to the Syringella forms the dignity of a genus, he keeps the latter
alongside of Raspailia.

A consideration of a number of the species usually assigned to Ras-
pailia makes it plain that Vosmaer’s generic concept cannot be applied
in all of its details, especially in the matter of the dermal skeleton and
the greatly reduced radial fibres. On the other hand the slender,
elongated, cylindrical shape of body, sometimes branching, sometimes
not, on which Ridley and Dendy (1887) laid chief emphasis, while
common, is by no means constant. In fact, in this group of forms, as
elsewhere, the characters have varied independently during the course
of evolution, thus giving rise to several combinations. A generic con-
cept of Raspailia, to be useful, must take into account the existence
of these combinations, and cannot insist absolutely on the slender
cylindrical habitus, dermal bunches of spicules such as occur in R.
viminalis, monactinal character of the megascleres, or on the acantho-

56 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | December

styles. And yet this is what the recent definitions of the genus do,
with the result that Dendy’s definition (1905, p. 172) would exclude
forms that are admissible on the definition of Vosmaer (loc. cit.) or of
Hentschel (1911, p. 381), and vice versa. Of course the difficulty is
well known. It is a difficulty offered everywhere by nature.

A considerable number of species, over thirty, have been referred
to this genus. A good many of them are excluded by Pick in his essay
on Raspailia (1905). He would delimit the genus somewhat more
narrowly than is intended in this paper. Taking R. viminalis as a
standard, some of the chief divergencies within the genus may be
enumerated. It is to be regretted that in a number of the old species
the data given do not permit a decision with regard to several of the
features.

Habitus.

The long, slender, cylindrical habitus, ‘‘whip-like’”’ in Ridley and
Dendy’s terminology, branching or not, is common. But it is de-
parted from in a number of species. For example, while the habitus
is branching and subcylindrical, the branches are comparatively short
and stout in several of the Dictyocylindrus (Raspailia) species de-
scribed in Bowerbank’s British Sponges, in R. ramosa and R. pumila
e.g. In R. paradoxa Hentschel (1911, p.°381), the habitus departs
widely from the typical, the sponge consisting of several somewhat
flattened lobe-like divisions, which arise together from a common base
and expand above. Again in R. zrregularis Hentschel (1914, p. 121)
the habitus deviates markedly from the typical, the sponge being club-
shaped.

Skeleton.

The axinellid type of skeletal framework consisting of an axial
column and radiating fibres may be thought of as constant in Ras-
pailia. Deviations from the precise form of skeletal framework found
in R. viminalis are however common among the species that have been
referred to this genus. Some of them may be enumerated as follows:
In R. (Syringella) clathrata Ridley (1884, p. 461) the radial fibres are
thick, not reduced as in R. viminalis. In R. (Syringella) australiensis
Ridley (loc. cit. p. 460) also the radial fibres are thick and project at
the surface, but the surface tufts are not said to be of the R. viminalis
type. In R. (Syringella) rhaphidophora Hentschel (1912, p. 371), the
radial fibres are represented by lamellae. In R. bifurcata Ridley (loc.
cit. p. 459) a radial fibre and dermal tuft are together represented by a
long style or a tuft of long styles which project at the surface (a more

1921] THE GENUS RASPAILIA 57

reduced condition than in R. viminalis). In R. hornelli Dendy (1905,
p. 172), the dermal tufts in which the radial fibres terminate include a
few long styles, instead of one, surrounded by shorter ones; another
deviation is made in the presence of connectives between the radial
fibres. In R. irregularis Hentschel (1914, p. 121) the large dermal pro-
jecting spicules are in bunches and not singly as in R. viminalis.

In R. flagelliformis Ridley and Dendy (1887, p. 190), the radial
fibres, apparently not especially slender, terminate in projecting tufts
of small spicules; habitus is typical but if we lay stress on the dermal
skeleton the species must be removed to Axinella. In R. cacticutis
Carter (Dendy, 1895, p. 48), there areno surface tufts of spicules, and
the species would best be assigned to some other genus, as Pick (loc.
cit.) has done.

The R. viminalis type of dermal skeleton is known to occur in a
number of species, and it may also occur in some of the older species
for which the data are imperfectly given.

Spicules.

The skeletal spicules in the genus are smooth and in general styles,
varying to tylostyles, but oxea and strongyles may occur intermingled
with the styles (R. viminalis Schmidt, R. bifurcata Ridley, R. (Syrin-
gella) rhaphidophora Hentschel). A marked deviation is afforded by
R. vestigifera Dendy (1895, p. 47; assigned by Pick, loc. cit., to the
closely related genus, Echinodictyum), in which the skeletal spicules
are oxea, except the small spicules of the dermal tufts which are inequi-
ended and more or less stylote; in this species the radial fibres are
stout, but the dermal tufts adhere in plan to the type of R. viminalis;
acanthostyles are very rare and in this sense vestigial.

The acanthostyles may be almost (R. vestigifera) or quite absent,
the species in which this loss has occurred being grouped together as a
subgenus (Syringella). Microscleres in the form of bundles of rha-
phides, may occur as in R. (Syringella) rhaphidophora; in general,
absent.

The facts being so, it would seem advisable to recognize Raspailia
as a comprehensive, heterogeneous genus, and to include in the diagno-
sis the chief lines of variation, about as follows:

Raspailia Nardo

Habitus often slender and cylindrical, branching or not; but the
branches or unbranched stem may be comparatively short and stout,
or the branches may even appear as flattened lobe-like divisions. The

58 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY {December

skeleton is on the axinellid plan, including an axial dense aggregation
of spiculo-fibres from which radial fibres pass outward. The radial
fibres may be comparatively stout, sometimes expanded and forming
lamellae, or may be reduced to one or a few spicules, or may even dis-
appear as structures distinct from the dermal brushes in which they
terminate. Connectives between the radial fibres generally absent,
occurring only in a few species. The dermal brushes characteristically
include one or a few long megascleres surrounded by numerous shorter
ones, but the entire brush may be represented by one or a bunch of
long megascleres, whereas in Axinella the radial fibres terminate ‘‘in
tufts of diverging spicules slightly smaller than the bulk of the spi-
cules’? (Vosmaer). Skeletal spicules smooth and characteristically
monactinal, but diactinal forms (to be looked on as variants of the
type) are frequently intermingled, and in rare cases most of the
spicules are diactinal. Acanthostyles characteristically occur, echi-
nating the skeletal fibres and scattered, but in some species they are
greatly reduced in number, in others absent (subgenus Syringella).
Microscleres generally absent but may occur as bundles of rhaphides.

In considering a generic concept such as that just formulated one
must remember that classification is no mere mechanical assorting, a
putting of like with ike. That much of it is easy and delightful, but
the fact that the features used in the classification of a group are or
may be independent variables, that is, may occur together or some may
be absent or greatly modified, makes classification more dependent on
argument than is generally recognized. Often, to be sure, no argu-
ment is conclusive, in the end there being several options about equally
good. In such a case some consensus of opinion as to the best, most
useful, practice is desirable. All this applies to the delimitation of such
genera as Raspailia.

One other consideration must be kept in mind in considering such
generic concepts, and that is that variation may have proceeded in
such a way as to make it quite impossible, in the present state of our
knowledge of diagnostic points, to recognize the relationship of a given
species to the genus. If, for instance, the acanthostyles are lost, a
typical habitus and dermal skeleton would still show the relationship,
or even the peculiar dermal skeleton might be accepted, in the absence
of acanthostyles and typical habitus, as a safe index. But the dermal
bunches, as we have seen, may also vary from the type, and if habitus,
peculiar dermal skeleton, and acanthostyles all go, nothing remains to
show the relationship. I take it that such eventualities may have

1921) THE GENUS RasPAILIA 59

actually happened, since, it would seem, we must recognize as a real
i. e. natural, process the independent varying of characters. This
consideration brings with it the conviction that classification in its de-
tails cannot be a completely satisfactory guide to relationship. Minor
uncertainties will occur everywhere.

The only species of Raspailia recorded for our waters (North Amer-
ica and West Indies), are the following:

R. hamata O. Schmidt (1870, p. 62), West Indies. The diagnosis
is very incomplete and Schmidt puts a query as to the genus. But
the species, which is of typical habitus, is probably to be referred here.
(R. tenuis Ridley and Dendy, 1887, p. 188, occurs off the Brazilian
coast in shallow water to twenty fathoms).

R. acanthifera (George and Wilson), North Carolina coast (Fort
Macon Beach). Somewhat reluctantly I conclude that this species
originally referred to Axinella shoud be transferred to Raspailia, be-
cause of the presence of acanthostyles and the character of the der-
mal brushes, which consist of a bunch of ordinary styles together with
one to a few long ones projecting far beyond the others. The species
is to be regarded (cf. George and Wilson, 1919, p. 160), as a connecting
link between Raspailia and Axinella.

When one speaks, as in this paper, of the independent variability
of structures, it is not meant to imply that any part of a body is really
an independent variable. It would rather seem from all that is known
concerning ‘racial differences, that where a race has varied from the
ancestral type in one feature which is conspicuous from our present
view-point, it has probably come to differ from the type in a great
many other features, although these may become known to us only
gradually as we become intimately familiar with the race in question.
It is possible and convenient to refer, as I and others have pointed out,
all this kind of variation in natural races to the gene theory, since in
contemporary speculation a gene is a germinal unit which, like a
molecule in a radical, may influence the organism (compound) in
many different directions.

A good case of close correlation between specific characters in the
matter of variability has been pointed out in recent years by Hent-
schel (1913 a, b), who has shown that in the silicious sponge Mycale
(Esperella) a large number of characters (‘‘character values” as Hent-
schel calls them, representing the concrete realizations of a schematic
character, itself an abstraction drawn from a survey of the several

60 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

realizations) are co-dependent, all varying, or rather having varied in
the same direction. They are, as Hentschel says, ‘functions of one
another or of the same variable,”’ the latter an environmental factor.
We must of course suppose, since presumably we are dealing with
germinal and not with somatogenic characters, that the environmental
(external or internal) factor, as it increases in force, continues to modi-
fy the germ in the same detail of its constitution (same gene or gene
complex) and in the same direction. This brings us well into the field
of speculation, but without speculation no rational experimentation.
CHarEL Hitz, N. C.

LITERATURE REFERENCES

Denpvy, A. 1895. Catalogue of noncaleareous sponges, ete. Part 2. Proc.
Roy. Soc. Victoria, Vol. 8.

1905. Report on the sponges collected by Professor Herdman, at Ceylon,
in 1902. In: Herdman Report Pearl Oyster Fisheries, Part 3. London.
GEORGE, W. C. anp Witson, H. V. 1919. Sponges of Beaufort (N. C.) Harbor

and Vicinity. Bull. U. 8. Bureau of Fisheries, Vol. XXXVI.
HENTSCHEL, E. 1911. Die Fauna Siidwest-Australiens. Tetraxonida, 2 Teil.
Fischer, Jena.
1912. Kiesel- und Hornschwimme der Aru- und Kei-Inseln. Abhdl. Senckb.
naturf. Gesellsch., Bd. XXXIV.
1913 a. Ueber einen Fall von Orthogenese bei den Spongien. Zool. Anzei-
ger, Bd. XLII, Nr. 6.
1913 b. Ueber die Anwendung der funktionalen Betrachtungsweise auf die
biologische Systematik. Biol. Centralbl., Bd. XX XIII, Nr. II. ,
1914. Monaxone Kieselschwamme und Hornschwimme d. deutschen Siid-
polar-Expedition 1901-03. Reimer, Berlin.
Pick, K. F. 1905. Die Gattung Raspailia. Archiv. f. Naturgesch., 71, I.
Ripiey, 8. O. 1884. Spongiida. In: Report on the zoological collections of
H. M.S Alert. British Museum.
Riwwiey, 8. O. anp Denpy, A. 1887. Report on the Monaxonida collected by
H. M.S. Challenger.
Schmidt, O. 1862. Die Spongien des Adriatischen Meeres.
1868. Die Spongien der Kiiste von Algier.
1870. Grudziige einer Spongien-fauna des Atlant. Gebietes.
Toprsent, E. 1890. Notice prélim. sur les spongiaires * * * de I’Hiron-
delle. Bull. de la Société Zoologique de France pour |’anneé 1890.
1892. Contribution 4 l’étude des spongiaires de |’Atlantique nord. Ré-
sultats des campagnes scientifiques accomplies par Albert I, Prince Souv erain
de Monaco. Fasc. 2.
-1894. Une réforme dans la classification des Halichondrina. Mémoires de
la Société Zoologique de France, T. VII.
1904. Spongiaires des Acores. Resultats des campagnes scientifiques accom-
plies par Albert I, Prince Souverain de Monaco. Fase. 25.
Vosmakrr, G.C. J. 1912. On the distinction between the genera Axinella, Phakel-
lia, Acanthella a. 0. Zool. Jahrb., Suppl. XV, Bd. I.

AN INTERESTING MAXIMAL CASE*
By ARCHIBALD HENDERSON AND H. G. Barry

PLATE 3

In lists of problems dealing with maxima and minima may com-
monly be encountered the following:

To find the dimensions of the rectangle of maximum area that can
be inscribed in an ellipse of semi-axes a and b.

Various methods may be employed for the solution of this prob-
lem; but these ordinarily suffice to veil the characteristic features
of the solution, as viewed in the present paper. An enumeration of
the methods usually employed will bring this into prominence. The
interesting feature of the problem, under the method here stressed,
is the introduction of an auxiliary curve which plays a dominant role
in the solution.

Metuop I

If we represent a critical value by A and Ax by h, the customary
conditions for a maximum are
f (A — h) —f (a) = positive quantity
f (A) —f (A + h) = positive quantity
If we represent the sides of the rectangle, inscribed in the ellipse

2 2
= == at 1 by 2x and 2y, the area of the rectangle is given by
U = 4xy.

: : : b
Since, from the equation of the ellipse, y = 5 Vat,

°.U= — V 2—x?= = V a?x?—x!.
a a
Let
f (x) = (a2x2—x‘)14 = x(a2—-x’) 4.
To find the critical value, set f’(x) = 0
*. % (a®x? — xt) —]l4 (2a?x — 4x*) = 0.
Hence
2x (a? — ay = 0;
which gives x = 0, + ——= 3 =

* This investigation, which had been directed by Dr. Henderson, was presented by
Mr. Baity before the Mathematics Club, University of North Carolina.

(61)

62 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

We exclude the value x = 0, since it obviously gives the minimum

rectangle, of zero area. For the present, we may omit the value
a ° ' A ° :

x= — TF yirom consideration — primarily because a negative length

would ordinarily be excluded in seeking a positive area. We shall

revert to this case, however, in the latter part of the paper. Con-

. ° a
fining our attention to the value + va we have:

_a a? a2
eva (#- :)- 2
a a? =e 1
ra—w =(Fy-4 a 58 5 oe
1 ; 1
= Z a” i) 2 2 Ante - | a ae ol2

bo|

= —— — h: —— — eS SSS Se
\ I a
a i
SS = _ 11
oe ae
2 a
wa”
a
——_— h
. . £(A) —f(A—h) = + h? + ae h?
~ h
ay
a |
—— _h |
= h? eae |
ea
| ameter |

This is a positive quantity, since as h approaches zero, h? remains
positive, the first two terms are positive, and the remaining terms
approach zero, since they all involve powers of h, and indeed h?.

Proceeding in similar fashion, we derive
\%

a) 1a +8) = 5 (SE +2) (e—

1921] An INTERESTING MAXIMAL CASE 63

a? a a h
ee)
2 en") 7 a ae Saas >
ea \
a
— +h
a? a? P J/ 2
pee gk = ans —-
ee,
—— |
2 eee === 5= |
a |

This is likewise a positive quantity, by similar reasoning to that given

a : ; :
above. Hence x = + V5 8 critical value, which gives rise toa

maximum. From the equation of the ellipse, the corresponding
b
value of y is + ar Rejecting the negative value as giving rise to

a negative area, we have for the value of the maximum area
a b

es

Metuop II
Representing a critical value by A and Ax by h, the customary
conditions for a maximum are
f’ (A —h) = positive quantity;
f’ (A + h) = negative quantity.
As before, let
f(x) = (a’x? — x!)

2a’x — 4x3 a? — 2x?
a
2(a2x2 — x*) i o/ a2 — x?

ei x) e—

Since A = + = we have

[December

JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY

9
, a a_i
eS 5 ; a 2a

N atl wae,
4ah
as — 2h

7 a? 2a

\ iy at
2h (a2 —h)

a 2 >
VGerty-
which is a positive quantity

Also
=h + h*)

(G1) ee

— 2h (ay/2 +h)
a 2 .
IG)»

which is a negative quantity
is a critical value, which gives rise to a maximum

a
H = =
ence x a. V3
As before, we find for the value of the maximum area, 2ab

Mertuop III

We may deal with the function as an implicit function in the
variables x and y, subject to the condition that the given point lie

upon the required ellipse

1921] AN INTERESTING MAXIMAL CaAsE 65

Thus
Gey) axe wee ow (1)

subject to the condition

The critical values for maxima and minima are to be found by

equating to zero the first derivative of U, and replacing = by its
dx

specific value as derived from (2).

Thus
dU d
— =4y 445 — = 0 from (1),
dx dx
and
2x 2y dy
— eee eeeetid = 2
32 be dx 0, from (2)
Hence
dy bts
dx a*’y

which on substitution in the equation = = I)

gives

— 2y
4y + 4x( a, ="0
and therefore
aty? = b2x?2
Combining with (2), we have
2b?2x? = a?b?
giving

a tee _ ae
aaa ereiore y = 1/2

The criterion for a maximum value is

aU i
ag? > Leeative quantity.
Now

@2U

dy dy . dy.
dx2 eee me * ax

66 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ December

But
dy _ = b2x
dx azy
and
dy — ad b?y — a2b2x ey = | See re ee)
bx?
aes b?(a?b2) — b4
= ee :
Hence
d?U — 8b*x 4b!
Se

which is negative certainly for the values

x= + —_; =i Z
a) ea

Consideration of the other combinations of signs will be deferred
until the last method is reached.

Metuop IV

We may deal with the problem by expressing U as an explicit
function in either x or y. Thus, solving (2) for y, we have

a,
a

1921] AN INTERESTING Maxima Case 67

and hence
a
a

U = 4xv = az— x?

since we reject here the consideration of a negative area, a being
fo)
always greater than x.

Let
f(x) = xvV/a? — x? = (a?x? — x4)/2
Then
BC) a (a? 2x?) ah 2x?
: (a2x2 — x)14 (a? — x) 4
and
7) 4 % aS 4 ae i 2 F 2x
; 7 (a ee) aria x) (a 2x?) i — x): Ser
(x) = (a? aay x?)
__ x(2x? — 3a?)
(a? — x2)8

Setting f’(x) = 0, and solving we obtain
26 Se ae
v2
Since we have assumed that +/a? — x is to have the positive sign,
in order to reject the consideration of negative areas, we obtain, on

substituting x = + ——in f’’(x)

V/ 2

a
Ven (a? 3a) Qa?
{ igo. a a2
\o 2

which proves that x = + Way gives a maximum value, as the con-

=—4

dition for a maximum is that
f(A) = negative quantity.
The same conclusion would have been reached had we expressed
U as an explicit function of y, and followed a similar course of reason-

68 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | December

5 b
ing. In that case we would have found that y = + Gy . In either

case, the final value of U would have been’ the same, namely 2ab.

METHOD V

By employing the parametric representation for an ellipse, we
readily obtain a very elegant solution of the problem. Any point

2 2
on the ellipse = + = = 1 may be represented by
x =acos®
y =bsingo

when © is the eccentric angle of the point on the ellipse, namely the
angle between the x —axis and the line joining the origin to the
point of intersection of the line y = b sin > with the circle x? +y?

= 2

1921] AN INTERESTING MAXIMAL CASE 69

Substituting the parametric values of x and y into the equation
U = Axy, we have
U = 4acosd.bsing = 2absin2d. . . . (1)

To find the critical value of 6 for a maximum value of U, set the
first derivative of U with respect to 6 equal to zero:

aU
7 = 4ab cos 26 = 0;
whence
26 = 90° or 270°
= 45- or 135°
Accordingly
a b
Sea
Now
2U
a = —8absin 2 9,

giving a negative value for 6 = 45°, but a positive value for 9 =
135°. Hence 9 = 45° is the critical value for a maximum. Hence
the only admissible values for giving a maximum are

a a
eS fas

b
ir:

Substituting these values in (1), we have

U = 4xy = 2ab,
from which
37 = a ae. ga)
2

The form in which this result presents itself, namely that of a
rectangular hyperbole xy = K, excites interest at once, and prompts
a further investigation. The introduction into the problem of an
apparently extraneous curve, not invoked in the original statement,
suggests that this locus must play a crucial role in connection with
the ellipse in the solution of the problem.

The co-ordinates + _ az and — : it of two of the

eee? 2

<

<

70 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

four corners of the maximum rectangle inscribed the ellipse satisfy

; I :
the equation of the rectangular hyperbola xy = >: Accordingly

the ellipse and the rectangular hyperbola, having two points in com-
mon, must either intersect each other or be tangential at the given
points.

The tangent to the ellipse at the point (x, y;) has the form

eek V0 Yok

ee ach nes
and hence we have for the tangent to the ellipse at the point ~= as 5?
Bic
V2

ax = by aS

arr/ 2 b/2
or
et V2) ee

The tangent to the rectangular hyperbola at the point (x,, y:)
has the form

yix + X1y = ab;

and hence we have for the tangent to the rectangular hyperbola at

the pont
he point 7-55 in
bx ay
Vem
that is
—. 4 2 .\/o5 ne
a b

As equations (3) and (4) are identical, it is clear that theellipse and
the rectangular hyperbola have a common tangent at the point
+a +b

Nf Dae
consists of two branches lying respectively in the first and third
quadrants, the ellipse and the rectangular hyperbola cannot intersect

It may be noted that, since the rectangular hyperbola

QD =Axz

qo=Axz

A

6 ALV Id

1921] An INTERESTING Maxima Case ya!

each other in either quadrant, since only one corner of the maximum
rectangle inscribed in the ellipse lies in either quadrant.
Since the ellipse and the rectangular hyperbola have a pair of

common tangents at two corners of the maximum rectangle, it is
clear that the critical values may be arrived at by solving the two

; : one be. :
equations simultaneously. Thus substituting y = oe in the equation

ot the ellipse we have

bx? + — = ab’,
or
4x! — 4a?x? + af = 0,
Le.
(2x? — a2)? = 0,
giving
a
| aes
_ and accordingly
ab b
iE
APD:

At this point, or at an earlier point, in the investigation, the in-
quiry may be raised why both rectangular hyperbolas:

ab
xy = + cain
and
ab

do not enter into the problem.

Although the question has virtually been answered in the course of

the treatment in Method V, in the rejection of the solution 6 =
—a ——p

A 2

135°, it may be pointed out that while x =

formally satisfy the equation

caer

72 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | December

and give a rectangle of positive area, they derive from the rejected
value ? = 135°. The two points

meee
coe > / 2
and
m= ae
wie 4/2
neither formally satisfy the fundamental function
ab
xy = ica

nor derive together from either ? = 45° on 9 = 135°.

The association of the ellipse and the rectangular hyperbola in
this problem suggests the query whether the maximum rectangle
inscribed in the ellipse is at the same time the maximum rectangle
which may be inscribed in the rectangular hyperbola. This question
must obviously be answered in the negative, since the rectangular

hyperbola xy = = at once furnishes the result

U = 4xy = 2ab;

which shows the invariance of the rectangle area for the rectangular
hyperbola, as indicated by the nomenclature.

The superiority of Method V over those which precede is con-
spicuous in two respects—the brevity and elegance of the treatment,
and the immediate identification of the critical values which give
rise to a maximum value.

Cuape. Hitt, N. C.

KEY TO THE BUTTERFLIES OF NORTH CAROLINA

By C. 8. BrIMLEY
(Div. of Entomology N. C. Dept. of Agr.)

Butterflies may be distinguished from all other insects except the
moths by the wings being covered with powdery scales which easily
rub off, while from the moths they can be separated by having the
antennae or feelers simple, and knobbed at tip, never hair-like, plume-
like, comb-like, or even serrated. Furthermore all butterflies fly in
the daytime, and most, but not all, moths at night.

The following key to the families of butterflies includes only six
such, all the Nymphaline families or subfamilies, except the meadow
browns, being lumped together, while our single species of the Ery-
cinidae, or metal marks, is included in the Lycaenidae, which group
it much resembles.

KEY TO THE FAMILIES OF BUTTERFLIES

1. Body stout, antennae hooked at tip (except in Ancyloxipha), species of med-
ium or small size, mainly under two inches in spread of wings.

Family VI. The Skippers (Hesperidae).

9

Pe PrenMendeT anichnue Hob MOOked Ab bIp......-... 2... 260.6 see ee ee ee obs

2. Front legs normal, fitted for walking, outer edge of forewing always evenly
SE TO RESLUPS a) oo Bh es A 23 3.

Seetranistessprusn-like, not tited for walking...................-.22.5006% oe

3. Spread of wings 2% to 5 inches, hind wings with tail-like projections which
are never thread-like... Family I. The Swallowtail Butterflies (Papilionidae)
ee eeeMMRI WO MHCReS OF IESS... 52.24 5--2--- +22 eee ce cee ene 4,
4. Ground color of wings white or yellow, hind wings never tailed.
Family II. The Whites and Yellows (Pieridae).
4. Ground color of wings never white or yellow, hind wings often with thread-
like tails..Family V. The Gossamer—winged Butterflies (Lycaenidae).
- 5. Size medium or large, colors usually bright, the prevailing shade being reddish
oD Family III. The Nymphs (Nymphalidae)
5. Size medium or rather small, ground color of wings some shade of dull brown,
with eye—like spots almost always present on one or both sides of one or
both pairs of wings. ....Family IV. The Meadow Browns (Agapetidae)

Famity I. THe SwALLowTAILs

Peron color light, striped with black................--.-2--c2seeee rene cade
i Ground .color black, spotted with lighter................--------eeeeees 3.

[73]

1

“J

=I

(Je)

at ENGR

JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Socrery [December

Black andivwiite tshtiped. ack oer; ccs « ores c cogs Zebra Swallowtail (Papilio ajax)
Black and yellow, striped............... Tiger Swallowtail (P. glaucus turnus)
Underside mainly yellow, spread about 5 inches.

Giant Swallowtail (P. thoas). Hast.

Underside “miaiiily placed... oe. oes cas . . sss 2010 00-0 a0 Fee ee 4.
Body striped with yellow, hind wings crossed above by an uninterrupted yel-
lowsbancd Maier mentees Aces cols ss: Palamedes Swallowtail (P. palamedes). East.
Body not striped with yellow, hind wings not crossed by an uninterrupted
yellow band......... Gaietoualits bias 6 660 2 34» Ga eRe ee oF
Underside of hind wings with two rows of yellow spots.................+. 6.
Underside of hind wings with one row of yellow spots...................-. te

Upper side of wings with usually two rows of light spots, inner row of yellow
spots on under side of hind wings complete... Black Swallowtail (P. polyxenes).

Upper side of wings usually with only one row of light spots, fifth spot of inner
row on under side of hind wings missing, and replaced by a comet like

re NG( SWIG STEPS es or ri Green-clouded Swallowtail (P. troilus).
Wings glossy above, yellow spots on underside of hind wings enclosed in a
plossy ANG MRE oc... oo ao eee Blue Swallowtail (P. philenor).

Wings not glossy, upper side of hind wings with a row of blue spots, under
side of wings rather faintly striped with black.
Tiger Swallowtail (P. glaucus), melanistic female.

Famity II. Tue Wuires anp YELLOWS

Ground color of wings white............,.. «=. «sc «pee einen 2.
Ground color of wings orange or yellow............ «2 as40s2 ee eee 6.
Forewings falcate, sharp pointed at tip, underside of hind wings marbled
with greenish, an orange patch at tip of forewing in male.
Falcate Orange-tip (Anthocaris genutia). Central Section, early spring.
Not asain geniid. oom. bw. . oes oss ve ato w a Oe 3.
Forewings broadly bordered outwardly with black, albinistic females of some
species of Terias and Colias. See under 6.
Forewings not broadly bordered with black............2 a5. 45s ase 4,
Wings unmarked, hind wings not buffy beneath.
Gray-veined White (Pontia oleracea). Mountains, rare.
Wings with some dark markings above............:- -% see pee Ds
Black markings on upper side of wings consisting of the tip, one or two spots
on forewing and one on hind wing, these sometimes wanting in spring speci-
mens, hind wings buffy beneath....... Cabbage Butterfly (Pontia rapae).
Forewings with more than two black spots, hind wings unmarked (male), or
extensively marbled with dusky and white (female).
Checkered White (Pontia protodice).
Wings almost wholly yellow, except a row of brown spots along the outer edge

in ‘the female; ieee 2 kas ss. Cloudless Sulphur (Catopsilia eubule).
Wings broadly bordered outwardly with black....................-+-++-- Uf
With one or two pearly spots on underside of hind wings................. 8.

With no pearly spots on underside of hind wings.................e0++e2: 10.

1921) BUTTERFLIES OF NORTH CAROLINA

8.

a

oo 9

ee wo

Noa

=]

or

Forewings coming to a sharp angle at tip, yellow on upper side of forewings
bearing a rough resemblance to an animal’s head.
Yellow Dogface (Colias caesonia).
TE ES EN SGP SS Se ee 9.
Ground color of wings sulphur yellow...Clouded Sulphur (Colias philodice).
Ground color of wings orange............ Clouded Orange (Colias eurytheme)

; Ground color of wings orange, spread over 1% inches.

Bordered Orange (Terias nicippe).

. Ground color of wings yellow, spread under 11% inches.................... ie
. A black band across fore wings near the posterior border....... peti 8 f313 ie
Beane HE ACEOSS EGLO WINGS: ..... ccc ssid Sas. - sce 2 ese eee eee eee 14.
. Under side of hind wings white........ Banded Sulphur (Verias jucunda). East
Sa eet see MinA wanes HUISG Ye ase i joe secs. ee ee eee 13.
. Upper side of hind wings yellow............ Delia Sulphur (Terias delia}. East
. Upper side of hind wings white........... Elathea Sulphur (7. elathea). East.
. Under side of hind wings yellow with brown spots.. Little Sulphur (Terias lisa).
minder side of hind wings TUsby....:c jc. «ie. --.--. Delia Sulphur, female.

Famizy III]. THe Nympus

Outer edge of both fore and hind wings strongly angled or jJagged...........2.
Outer edge of hind wings evenly rounded or nearly so...............-..--. 6.
Wings dark brown with cream colored borders.

Mourning Cloak (Euvanessa antiopa).
imrredainnbeawe, tne border Garker......>..........-...-.2.--0s20es Sy
Silvery mark on under side of hind wings divided into a curved mark and

a dot, round black spots on upper side of forewings normally six.
Question-mark (Grapta interrogationis)
Silvery mark on under side of hindwings undivided, round black spots on
Bummerimce GluGrewiles NOmmally five:.o:.....---..-.- 2.22.2 .eee ee seee 4,
Silvery mark on under side of hind wings tapered at both ends, under side of
wings with grayish markings...Gray Comma (Grapta progne). Mountains.
Silvery mark on under side of hind wings expanded at both ends...........¢ 5.
Under side of hind wings with greenish markings, wings very much jagged
on the outer edges..Green Comma Butterfly (Grapta faunus). Mountains.
Under side of hind wings without greenish markings, wings only moderately
[REET Ss an 5 SOO REG Oo Oe ne eee eee Comma Butterfly (Grapta comma).
Wings with numerous silvery spots on the underside.........--...-++++++-- ve
Wings without silvery spots on the underside................--++--+++-+ 10.
Forewings long and narrow, silvery spots on under side of hind wings elongate.
Gulf Fritillary (Agraulis vanillae).
Fore wings broad, silvery spots on under side of wings round.............-. 8.
Spread of wings 114 inches... Myrina Fritillary (Argynnis myrina). Mountains.
Coe) oP Ses te So Syed crea 9.
Under side of hind wings with a broad yellowish band.
Great Spangled Fritillary (Argynnis cybele). Mountains.
ee side of hind wings with a narrow yellowish band.
Silver Spotted Fritillary (Argynnis aphrodiie). Mountains.

JOURNAL OF THB MITCHELL SOCIETY | December

. Ground color of upper side of wings black or blackish, usually with some white

TAT KINGS ree ETE ip sc leek cl ais a wa ecid a seas ee Thal

. Ground color of upper side of wings some shade of brown or reddish brown. ..14.
. Wings black, transversely banded with white, forewings long and narrow.

Zebra Butterfly (Heliconia charitonia). South-east.

11. Wings not transversely banded with white........:..:.....025--. eee 12.

. Upper side of forewings crossed by a bright red band.

Red Admiral (Pyrameis atalanta).

12.. Upper side. of forewings without red band.. «....... 2250.3. se eee eee 13.
13. Under side with numerous red spots....Red-spotted Purple (Limenitis ursula).
13. Under side of wings without red spots.
Diana Fritillary (Argynnis diana), female. Mountains.
14. Upper side of wings without white markings..................-.-s++005 15.
14. Upper side of wings with more or less white markings................... 19.
15. Spread 3 to 4 inches, inner half of wings dark, the outer half orange in strong
CODEEAS Gea aero ws oe os Se Oe ne Diana Fritillary, male.
15. Spread 2% inches or less, colors not as in diand............200.eee+eece: 16.
16. Upper side of wings with 8 to 10 rounded black spots on each wing, spread

about 1% inches........Bellona Fritillary (Argynnis bellona). Mountains.

. Upper side of wings with not more than 4 or 5 rounded black spots on each

wing, if more are present on the hind wings, there are none on the forewings. 17.

7. Black spots as well as other markings present on upper side of forewings,

color of wings mainly fulyvous. Spread 2 to 2% inches.
Variegated Fritillary (Huptoieta claudia).

. No round black spots on upper side of forewings, spread of wings under 2

. The dark color predominating on upper side of forewings.

Silver Crescent (Phyciodes nycteis). Mountains.

. The fulvous color predominating on upper side of forewings.

Pearl Crescent (Phyciodes tharos).

. Palpi very long, snout-—like; outer edge of forewing strongly angled, wings

fulvous centrally, black externally...Beaked Butterfly (Libythea bachmani).

. Palpi short as usual, outer edge of forewing not strongly angled, if at all... .20.
. Wing veins all edged with black, ground color of wings reddish brown or

OTANGECS «se kya srevalre esonewieieeie, =) se 5 oie os iw s\n 0 ie one Sa G rere a ae ene 21.

1. Wing veins notiedged with black... ........5..¢.0« 4-255 Toe eee D2
. Spread 3% inches or more, no black line across middle of hind wings, two

rows of white spots near the outer edge of both pairs of wings.
Monarch Butterfly (Danais plexippus).

. Spread under 3% inches, a black band across middle of hind wings, one row

of white dots near edge of wings... . . Viceroy Butterfly (Limenitis archippus).

. Wings with numerous white spots on the undersides of all wings, and at

least on the upper side of the forewings also, but without any ringed eye-
like spots. 5 2 foe asspeie lee aa sisi s Se oe ws du olla chal er 23

. Wings with few white spots on any one wing, but with eye-like spots on at

least ‘the under sidevor thevhind wings... ........... eee eee 25).

. Spread about 3% inches, the hind wings with very few, if any white spots on

the upper sides. 2504s The Queen (Danais berenice). Eastern Section.

1921] BUTTERFLIES OF NorTH CAROLINA iW

23.

24.

24.

25.

25.
26.

26.

os

Sgr

eo

Spread 2 inches. Dark brown, the spots about equally numerous on all
wings, above and below...The Baltimore (Melitaea phaeton). Mountains.
With one large eye-like spot on upper side of forewings, and two on the hind
wings, the one on the forewings enclosed in the lower end of a whitish
band, and repeated on the under side....... The Buckeye (Junonia coenia).
With no large eye-like spot on upper side of forewings...................25.
With two large eye-like spots on under side of hind wings.
Painted Beauty (Pyrameis huntera).
With not less than four small eye-like spots on under side of hind wings.. . 26.
Ground color reddish brown, four or five small eye spots on under side of hind
wings, spread 214 inches or more.. . Painted Lady (Pyrameis cardui). Local.
Ground color of wings dull brown, six or seven small eye spots on under side
of hind wings, spread 27% inches or less.
Gray Emperor (A patura celtis). Central Section.

Famity 1V. THe Mrapow Browns (Agapetidae)

Parewines with a larze white or yellow patch.......................0000 Ze
Pa wiMeRWwILNOlt amy SUCH PAbCH...o5 cae ccccee se ee ete ete ee ee Oe
Two eye-like spots in white patch on forewings, spread of wings about 2.

TCI See a Blue-eyed Grayling (Satyrus alope}. Mountains.

-

Often only one eye-like spot in patch on forewings, spread about 2% inches.

Southern Grayling (Satyrus pegala).

Outer border of hind wings scalloped, spread about 2 inches............... 4.

Sines order or hind wines not sealloped..:.................. 2. cece eens 5:
Veins of outer part of forewings of male are noticeably pale and the round
black spots between them have light wedge-shaped marks on their inner
side, female with only two well developed black spots on upper side of

forewings, 22... .i..... Southern Pearly-wing (Debis creola). Wake county
Veins on forewings not pale and without wedge-shaped light spots on their
inner side. Three or four well developed black spots on upper side of

ferewings im-both sexes. ......... 60.08. a. Pearly-wing (Debis portlandia).
Mppaeritie Grewittpa WAtH CVE SPOtS.-.-sa5s 16.6.6 --. 5... ee eee eee ee ees 6.
Upper side of wings without eye-spots, spread less than 1% inches......... ff

Forewings with two eye-spots above, spread about 1% inches.
Little Wood Satyr (Neonympha eurytus).
Forewings with a row of black spots above, spread about 2 inches.
Eyed Brown (Neonympha canthus). Mountains.
Hind wings with a pearly or metallic patch on under side of hind wings but
with no eye like spots...........3... Gemmed Brown (Neonympha gemma).
Hind wings with eye—like spots on under side...................0220000005 8.
Eye spots on under side of hind wings round.
Carolinian Satyr (Neonympha sosybius).
Eye spots on under side of hind wings elliptical.
Georgian Satyr (Neonympha phocion).

Famity V. THE GOssSAMER-WINGED BUTTERFLIES (Lycaenidae)

Wings reddish brown above with black spots or many fine black lines... ... .2.

78 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | December

1. Wings not spotted above with black, nor with many fine black lines on the
Udo OYSIMISIG (sb oem So alo GO nn Sen io Nolacoccboes< 4,

2. Wings with four or five irregular black lines, extending across both pairs of
wings on both surfaces.
Little Metal-mark (Calephelis caenius). Cumberland Co.
2.. Wings spotted aboverwithblack.:: ... 5 ....253. es... 2 Strain eee eee 3.
3. Under side of hind wings with many small crescentic and circular fine white
MDGS us su Ado oo bs 1 See The Wanderer (Feniseca tarquinius).

3. Under side of hind wings with small black dots.
American Copper (Chrysophanus hypophleas).

4. Wings with more or less blue on the upper side... ...... 3. des0 qeeeeene 5.
4. Wingsitwithoutibluess 0h... ce... 6 oc oie ee Sethe ee 10.
5. Hind wings evenly rounded, without thread-—like tails...................... 6.
5: .Hind ‘wings with thread—hke tails............. 0... «2.8 see ie
6. Under side of hind wings with a row of orange crescents near the outer bor-

0 01 Riles ia Sa thd ian Scudder’s Blue (Lycaena scudderi). Mountains.

6. Under side of hind wings without any orange markings.
Spring Azure (Lycaena pseudargiolus).
7. Hind wings evenly rounded with a single thread—lke tail, color of upper sur-

face of wings not bordered with black....... Tailed Blue (Lycaena comyntas).
7. Hind wings with two tails or at least a second projection.................. 8.
8. Blue little if at all evident on upper side of forewings, a red band on under

RNG GDR TITSER D8 ye Least Purple Hairstreak (Thecla cecrops).
8. Blue largely present on both pairs of wings above, no red band on under side

Of (WINGS ss sos oe bcc ee ee cw ee we Feo ene OR 9.

9. Under side of abdomen orange, no white line on under side of wings.
Great Purple Hairstreak (Thecla halesus).
9. Under side of abdomen not orange, a white line on under side of wings.
White M Hairstreak (Thecla M-album).
10: Hind wings withthread—like tails... ......:....:.. +s os lesen eee eee il
10. Hind wings without tails, but often scalloped or uneven.................-- 15:
11. Under side of wings bright green, marked with brown and white.
Green Hairstreak (Thecla damon).
11., Under sidevofewingsinot green... <2... 2.0... 22 see eee 12.
12. Under side of wings with a red band near outer edge.
Least Purple Hairstreak (Thecla cecrops), female.
12, Under side‘of wings without red band............-. .-see eee eee Eee 13:
13. Under side of wings pearly gray with a single irregular white line on under
GMO minoliin as: |e Se Gray Hairstreak (Thecla melinus).
13. Under side of wings dark brown with two or more series of broken white lines
OF Series Oflines sere e clese eshte eesie as cid levsvs sienas 0 9 oon eee eee mY ovtee bon
14. Outer white lines on under side of hind wings continuous.
Banded Hairstreak (Thecla calanus).
14. Outer white lines on under side of hind wings broken.
Edward’s Hairstreak (Thecla edwardsi). Polk Co.
15. Underside of hind wings with a row of orange spots.
Coral-banded Elfin (Thecla titus). Wake and Polk Cos.
15. Under side of wings without orange spots......:...........7. 0 eee 16.

1921) BUTTERFLIES OF NORTH CAROLINA 79

16. Under side of wings with numerous irregular black cross bars.
Banded Elfin (Thecla niphon).
Penrice side Of WINPA NOL AS IN NEMRON. > +... es. ee ee ee eee Lf.
17. Under side of wings uniform rust red on its outer half.
Brown Elfin (Thecla augustus). Polk Co.
17. Under side of hind wings with pale scales on its outer half giving it a hoary

SPIPBTIICE sae RR Be Aes Ae ng Oe eee 18.
18. Upper side of forewings grayish brown, under side of hind wings fairly uni-
FORMING COOLS es oo oc he stasis foe x Hoary Elfin (Thecla irus). Mountains.

18. Upper side of forewings reddish brown on its outer portion, under side of hind
wings with a pale outer portion and a dark inner portion, these sharply
defined from one another. -

Henry’s Elfin (Thecla henrici). Polk and Wake Counties.

Note. In the preceding keys no distribution is given except of those species
which are apparently confined to a part of the state, the others are known to be
at least fairly well distributed throughout the state.

The sixth family of butterflies, the Hesperidae or Skippers, is left for another
paper, the species being both numerous and hard to discriminate.

RateiGH, N. C.

A THEOREM ON DOUBLE POINTS IN INVOLUTION
By J. W. LASLeEy, JR.

A bilinear relation

seep er d= Ol ne: s costes (1)
between x and 2’, in which a, b, c, d are known, may be regarded as a _
projective transformation of the points « of a line into the points
x’ of that line. Thus

Gy Ory eR Ye ON Oia 0 Re Saori eon tats a 2 (2)
sends the point x = 1 into the point x’ = —1 and the point « = — 1
into the point x = 2.

We ask ourselves can it happen that if x = h is sent into 2’ = k,
that « = kis sent into x’ = h. Such transformations are said to be
of period two. They are called involutions. For example

Tieton to) —« = 00 eeeoeeroee (3)
sends x = — 2 into ¢ — 13 and x’ = 13 mto2. ——-2

One can convince himself that the noticeable difference between
(3) and (2), namely that in (8) the coefficients of x and 2’ are alike,
is a property which characterizes an involution. From this point
of view an involution is given analytically by

anve-\-10(% 2) +- d= 0 Ae eee (4)

When for x = h the relation (1) demands 2’ = k, k is said to cor-
respond to h. Ordinarily to k will not correspond h again. This
will be so when, and only when, the projective transformation is an
involution. In this event we may say that h and k correspond.
The points —2 and 138 are seen to correspond in (8).

Consider now the involution

Cite £)) do =O)... .. see (5)
different from (3). Let us see whether (3) and (5) have a common
pair of corresponding points. If so, x and 2’ must satisfy both (3)
and (5). We have, then, xz’, — (x + x’), 1 proportional to the two-
rowed determinants obtained from the matrix

| | Lie (6)
by deleting in turn the first, second and third columns, that is
oa! oe a ee (7)
Consequently x and 2’ are given by
g? — 47 — 5 = 0........2.5. (8)

1921] A THEOREM ON DOUBLE PoInts IN INVOLUTION 81

and are —1 and 5. We find upon testing these in (3) and (5) that
they correspond in both involutions.

Let us inquire whether in an involution, like (3), there are points
which correspond to themselves. If so, these are given by

BS 65 he ON bt ee (9)
obtained from (3) by putting x = 2’. These are here —7 and 1,
and are called the double points of the involution. Similarly the
double points of (5) are 3 and 11.

The question naturally arises as to what extent a choice, of cor-
responding points determines an involution. Equation (4) appears
to have three arbitrary constants, but it will become evident upon
reflection that only the ratios of these are important. Clearly, if
we knew two pairs of corresponding points, they would by (4) give
us two homogeneous linear equations, which are usually just ade-
quate for determining the ratios a:b:d. For instance, let us arbi-
trarily assign — 7, 1 and 3, 11 as two pairs of corresponding points,
and ask for the involution determined by them. The pair —7, 1
in (4) gives

7a + 6b —d =0............ (10);
the pair 3, 11 in (4) gives

350 Aa ed 02... ese: (11).
From (10) and (11) we have a : —b:d as the second order determin-
ants obtained from the matrix

7 6 —l

| oS a

by deleting in turn the first, second and third columns. In this way
we obtain a:b:d = 1: 2: —5. Consequently, the involution de-
termined is

erin! =A (irs oe) nar) (13).

whose double points are — 1 and 5.

We have seen that the involutions (3) and (5) have just one pair
of corresponding points in common, the pair — 1, 5 given by (8).
The double points of (3), namely —7, 1 and of (5), namely 3, 11,
taken as two pairs of corresponding points determined (13), and in-
volution different from (3) or (5). The common pair — 1, 5 of cor-
responding points in (3) and (5) turned out to be the same as the
double points of (13). We shall now show that this is not an acci-
dent of the particular involutions chosen, but follows from the nature
of involutions.

82 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

In the two involutions (4) and
was bi (a + o') +d! = 0. 5253 (14).
the common pair of corresponding points are such that wx’, x + 2’:
1 are proportional to their cofactors in

xo z+’ 1
a b d |. ae (15),
a’ b/ d’

that is,
xv’: x +2':1 = (bd’ — b’d) : (a’d — ad’) : (ab’ —’b).
Consequently 2 and 2’ are given by

(ab’ — a’b) x? + (ad’ —a’d)x + (bd’ — b’d) = 0........ (16).
The double points of (4) are given by

Coe 207 0. =O 2. eee (17),
those of (14) by

ax? +. Ob'n +d! =0......0.005. (18).

The involution determined by the two pairs of points in (17) and
(18) is

anne! xt’ 1
d =F a. | =i0). Se ee (19)
d’ — 20’ a’

Its double points are given by
an x 1
d £3 d\= 0}. »a aaa (20),
d’ iy a’

or

(ab’ — a’b)a? + (ad’ — a’d)x + (bd’ — b’d) = 0............ (21)

which is identical with (16). We have, then, established the theorem
that the common corresponding points in two involutions is the pair
of double points in the involution determined by the double points of the
given involutions.

CuHapreL Hunn, N. C.

THE COLLYBIAS OF NORTH CAROLINA

By W. C. Coker ann H. C. BEARDSLEE

PLATES 1 AND 4-23

Cap slightly fleshy and in most species drooping soon after matur-
ity, often thin, expanded or rounded at maturity; margin even, at
first incurved. Gills sinuate, adnate, adnexed, or free. Stem hollow
or stuffed, cartilaginous, rooting. Spores white when fresh, smooth,
in most species small. Volva and veil lacking. None is known to be
poisonous and all the best known larger ones are valued edibles.

The Genus Collybia will be found fairly easy to distinguish among
the white spored agarics. It is a little difficult to understand at first
what is meant by “‘cartilaginous stem,”’ and as is usual, some species
referred to this genus are not clearly typical and might easily be re-
ferred to other genera. These will trouble the beginner. The largest
of the genus, C. platyphylla, for example, has a thick fleshy stem and
may well be looked for in Tricholoma. Collybia confluens, C. stipitaria
and C. zonata might easily be referred to Marasmius at the start and
they have in fact been transferred to that genus by some authors (see
Atkinson, in N. Y. State Mus. Bull. 205-206: 61. 1919). Kauffman,
in his Agaricaceae of Michigan, retains them in Collybia.

The key which has been arranged has purposely been made as
simple as possible, and will, it is hoped, be found practical. It covers
the common species of the state, though more will probably be found
as our fungous flora is better known. One species which is common in
northern woods may be looked for in the mountains. It is Collybia
succosa Pk. (C. nigrescens Quél., C. atramentosa Kalch., and C. fuligi-
naria Weinm.). It will be at once recognized from the watery drops
which exude from the lamellae when cut and from the black hues which
the flesh assumes when injured. Collybia tenacella (Pers.) Quél., C.
ventricosa and C. clavus (L.) Quél., were reported from this state by
Schweinitz or by Curtis. They are noted as doubtfully American by
Murrill (N. Am. Flora 9: 374-6. 1916). Collybia detersibilis B. & C.,
also reported by Curtis, is probably the same as Clitocybe compressipes
Pk.

It will be noted that two species have been referred to European
species not before reported from America. It may be said that this

[83]

84 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | December

has been done only after careful comparisons and correspondence
with the best European authorities.

Unless otherwise stated all numbered collections are from Chapel
Hill, N. C.

IMPORTANT AMERICAN LITERATURE:

Peck. N. Y. St. Cab. Rept. 23: 78. 1872. Bot. ed.; also N. Y. St. Mus. Rept.
49:32. 1896. Bot. ed.

Morrity. N. Am. Flora 9: 352. 1916 (as Gymnopus); and 9: 287. 1915 (as
crinipellis).

Luoyp. Collybias of Cincinnati. Mycological Notes No. 5. Dee., 1900.

KaurrmMan, C. H. Collybia. Mich. Geol. and Biol. Survey Publication, Bio-
logical Series 5. 1918; also Agaricaceae of Michigan, p. 749. 1918.

Morean. Journ. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist. 6:70. 1883.

Besides the well known works of the older mycologists see the re-
cent important monograph by Sartory and Maire, Synopsis du genre
Collybia, Paris, 1918. Also see Ricken, Die Blatterpilze 2: 400, pls.
106-9. 1915; Lange, Studies in the Agarics of Denmark--III. Dansk
Bot. Ark: 2) Now710; 3:pls. 1917.

KEY TO THE SPECIES

Stem stout, striate, in a few cases stuffed, not velvety..............++-0-+00-: 1
Stem more slender, glabrous or pruinose, not distinctly striate or velvety...... 5
Stem distinctly velvety........ 02.6005. 0 ood da sw Oe eee 11
1.. Capawhite or neatlyss0 sm... ss ds oe oe oe eee C’.. maculata (1)
1. Cap red or chestnut brown, or reddish ochraceous..............0.+0eeee0:: 2
1. Cap gray, grayish brown or olive................ 05.0 ee 3
2. Gills pure white; stem stout and enlarging downwards........ C. butyracea (2)
2. Gills pure white; stem not stout and nearly equal............... C. dryophila (3)
2. Gills, spotted! with! red 5 4.....5%..5.. .04... 0000 cee C. distorta (7)
3. Cap viscid; stem with a long root. :.........:: .:e eee C. radicata (8)
3. Cap not VISCIG..c 2c... cn cee ee ete tee eet eee 4
4.-Gills. blackening when injured. ...........'......: Seeeeeeeeee C. semitalis (9)
4. Gills not blackening when injured.................:...598 C. platyphylla (10)
5. Growing on decaying fungi, small, buffy tan................... C. cirrata (12)
5. Growing on pine cones, small, threads at base white........ C. conigena (13)
5. Growing on magnolia cones, threads at base buff!....... C’.. conigenoides (14)
5. Growing on thick beds of moss, small, brown................. C. clusilis (22)
5. Not growing on conesior fungi...................... eee 6
6. Cap less than 12 mm. broad; plant white all over................. C. alba (15)
6. Cap larger; plant not pare white.../...............¢. -2 ee 7
7. Gills. white or nearly S000. 6 esas... os... eds ee 8
7. Gills: distinetiysyellow eer: << oats oc: sss os ee C. exsculpta (11)
7. Gills buff color inorimmmom ulate .r cu. sco. ose e C. exsculpta (a form) (11a)
7. Gills brownish-lilac, or tan with tints of brownish-lilaec ................+-+- 9
8. Growing on damp earth; plant small, the stem base with a mat of tawny

4

PLATE

1298.

No.

COLLYBIA MACULATA.

{5

fe:

1921] THE COLLYBIAS OF NORTH CAROLINA 85

nae colar ollenp dark DTOWR. 9 20.2526... ce ee C. Earleae (4)
NN ALG OM WET OO WOENE oe 2 = se Pe ee we ee ee eek 10
Pacrowing on logs: gills crowded.........-:-.-.-......... C. myriadophylla (6)
. Growing on earth; gills not crowded and with spiny cystidia. .C. lilacina (21)
. Usually on leaves; cap center often rugose and always rugose on drying, color

yellowish tan with center reddish; spores pip-shaped, about 3.5 — 4.5 x

OS SEAS AER SS. Cae Rs a C. nummularia (5)
10. On earth, wood or leaves; cap center smooth and usually drying smooth;

color pinkish tan or yellowish brown, the center darker; spores elliptic,

oo 6 HO

LITO PSS S/T eee te C. dryophila (3)
Wo) 2 2 CEE SUSE USERS en C. velutipes (16)
Maem rougn-pubescent or squamulose. -........ 222.2222 2.2. cee eee eee eee 12
2 LE LTTE. Looe Senses oo Se 13
12. Cap gray or brownish-gray, not zonate.................... C. stipitaria (20)
Beagrie inwhy color, zonate. 2.2... 2.2... eee eee eee. C. zonata (19)
J 220 DUDS ELS Ta ee ee a C. confluens (18)
ment apemat NYPTOPRANOUS. <2. . 22-5262 s.-92- 0s sede sss---- C. hariolorum (17)

1. Collybia maculata A. & 8.
PLATES 4 AND 23

Cap up to 8.5 em. wide, usually 4-6 cm., convex, slightly viscid,
smooth, even, dull or faintly shining, not at all striate, color nearly
white or a light flesh-pink with darker areas and stains of pinkish-
brick color which seem to be the result of rubbing. Center usually
not darker than the margin. Flesh white or slightly pinkish, 1 cm.
thick in center, thinner towards margin, dense and pliable, odor de-
cidedly woody, taste bitterish and distinctly astringent, sometimes
tardily so.

Gills colored like the cap and staining pinkish-brick on bruising;
crowded, sinuate attached, narrow, 2-3.5 mm. deep, many short ones,
none branched, margin eroded.

Stem 5-10 cm. long usually rather deeply rooted, white, even or
slightly larger at either end, tough, elastic, fibrous, with a central cyl-
inder that is lightly stuffed or hollow; surface minutely tomentose ex-
cept at base where it is decidedly hairy; the hairs white or a very light
cream color.

Spores (of No. 1298) cream color, elliptic, 2.9-3.8 x 4.2-5yu. Eas-
ily distinguished from C. dryophila (which is nearest) by the brick-
colored stains.

131. Low dense woods, Glen Burnie Farm, October 4, 1908.

594. Along branch below Howell’s Spring, October 18, 1912. ‘Spores cream
color, elliptic, smooth, 3-3.7 X 4.7u.

86 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

1298. On rotting pine log in woods south of athletic field, October 1, 1914. Photo.

1884. Under pines near old iron mine, October 3, 1915.

1939. In damp pine woods just south of athletic field, October 27, 1915. Spores
smooth, subspherical, 3.6—4 thick.

2370. Woods near Meeting of the Waters branch, June 5, 1916. Spores 3-4 x
4.5-Tu.

3011. Battle’s Park just below Outdoor Theatre, April 19, 1918.

3187. Under pines by branch toward Meeting of Waters, October 5, 1918.

Asheville, on or around well decayed wood in mountain woods; rather
rare. Beardslee.
Middle district (Schw.), woods. Curtis.

2. Collybia butyracea Bull.
PuaTEs 5, 6, AND 23

Cap up to 6 em. wide, convex, sometimes umbonate, smooth,
shining, color pinkish-buff, darkest in center. Flesh 2. 5 mm. thick
at stem, very thin towards margin, soft.

Gills deeply depressed and angled at stem, nearly free, close, none
forked, many short, up to 5.56 mm. wide near stem; white, margin
strongly eroded.

Stem up to 6 em. long, usually flattened and channelled, up to 5mm.
thick at cap, enlarging downward, smooth except near base which is
incrassated with white mycelium, more or less obviously marked all
over with longitudinal striations, color of cap, darkest below, flesh
firm, elastic, fibro-cartilaginous, quite hollow.

Spores (of No. 1902) not white, exactly light buff of Ridgway,
subpip-shaped, smooth, 3-8.7 x 5-6 uw.

On earth in woods, rare. There is a greasy look to the cap, which
gives the plant its name.

I cannot find any quality that will hold good between this and ail
the forms of C. dryophila. In Chapel Hill forms occur with greasy-
looking caps and slender equal stems, and Beardslee’s photo. of C.
dryophila on earth shows the stem enlarged below just as in C. butyra-
cea. Also the slender stemmed plants of C. dryophila often show the
stem distinctly lined when a lens is used. The spores of the two
species as we have distinguished them here are identical.

1902. In pine and oak woods near Brockwell’s, Battle’s Park, October 17, 1915.
2431. Under shrubs in Mr. Woollen’s yard, July 25, 1916. Spores elliptic,
smooth, pointed at one end, 3-3.7 X 5.5-7.4u.

PLATE 5

COLLYBIA BUTYRACEA. No. 1902.

PLATE 6

Photo by B.

COLLYBIA BUTYRACEA.

1921] THE CoLLyBiAs OF NORTH CAROLINA 87

Asheville, rather rare. Beardslee.
Middle district, rotten trunks. Curtis.

3. Collybia dryophila Fr.
Collybia subdryophila Atk.

PLATES 7, 8, AND 23

Plants solitary, gregarious or cespitose with the enlarged bases
densely crowded.

Cap about 2.5-5.3 em. broad, convex then expanded and uneven,
usually a little depressed in or around the center, smooth, hygrophan-
ous; in damp weather translucent and greasy looking, in dry weather
opaque and dull or faintly shining, not greasy; color pinkish-tan or
dull yellowish-brown, the center darker or with a lighter ‘‘eye.’”’ Flesh
thin, 1.5-2 mm. thick near center, soft, color of cap or whitish, taste
and odor like rotten wood (fungoid), not farinaceous.

Gills very thin, nearly or quite free, crowded, sinuate, the edges
uneven, pure white or in age faintly creamy or pinkish-creamy; when
bruised turning slowly to ochraceous. Looking at gills when fresh the
color of the pileus showing through in some forms gives the effect of
wine color.

Stem 4-7.5 cm. long, 2-4 mm. thick, equal (typically) except for
a sudden enlargement at the very base, but often varying towards the
enlarged base of C. butyracea, damp, smooth, white-tomentose near
base, and with several string-like rhizomorphs; color like that of cap
or lighter, pithy then hollow. If examined with a lens the stem may
be seen to be distinctly striate with inherent lines of color, especially
below.

Spores (of No. 80) deep cream, elliptic, smooth, 3-3.7 x 4.8-7 u..,
most about 3.3 x 5.5 u.

I can find no character that will sharply separate this from C.
butyracea, and plants combining the characters of the two are often
found. I am satisfied that these supposed species are forms of only
one.

This is the commonest and most variable of our Collybias. In
old plants the pileus is often pale, and it presents many variations in
size and habit. It is, however, soon learned and recognized in all its

* Thereisa peculiar growth that has been often found on the cap and stem surface in America
(not in Europe) that was named by Peck Tremella mycetophila. It is in the form of rather
small pale globules or cushions of various size, that are plicate and soft. They are not, how-
ever, a Tremella as the basidia are club-shaped as in an agaric. Burt now thinks it an abnor-
mal growth of the Collybia itself, but Miss Hone thinks it a true parasite. See Mycological
Notes No. 47, p. 662. 1917.

88 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | December

disguises. One photograph is of the cespitose form on old wood, but

it should be noted that it is often solitary or gregarious.

Collybia subdryophila was described by Dr. Atkinson from plants
sent him from Chapel Hill by us. It seems to me to be one of the
numerous forms of this variable species. His description is as follows
(Ann. Myc. 7: 367. 1909):

“Plants dry, 5-9 cm. high, pileus 2-3 cm. broad, stem 5 mm.,
stout. Pileus smooth, purplish or pinkish-brown. Gills white, ad-
nexed. Spores oval to subglobose, granular, then usually with a small
oil drop, 3-4 u, in diameter, rarely 5 py, long. Stem cartilaginous,
tough, hollow, equal. Belongs to Levipedes section, resembles some-
what C. dryophila, but differs especially in the spores. C. U. herb.,
No. 22634, mixed woods on hillside by Fern Walk near Sparrow’s
Pond, Chapel Hill, N. C., W. C. Coker, October 2, 1908.”

For good illustrations see Mycologia 3: 101, pl. 40, fig. 8, 1911, and
4: 164, pl. 68, fig. 3. 1912.

80. On side of hill east of Tenney’s, October 23, 1911.

1012. Among leaves in woods in Battle’s Park, October 28, 1912. Spores cream
color, 3.3-3.8 X 5-7.5n.

1745. On trunk of red maple among growth of Porella, at foot of Lone Pine Hill,
September 12, 1915. A depauperate form. Spores about 3.7 X 7y.

2493. Gregarious to subcespitose in humus, grove at “The Rocks,’”’ May 9, 1917.
Photo. Intermediate in character between C. butyracea and C. dryophila.
Spores white at first, 3-3.3 < 5.5-6.7y, exactly like those of C. buty-
racea No. 1902.

3049. Dense deciduous and also pine and deciduous woods, foot of Lone Pine
Hill, May 18, 1918. Spores ovate-elliptic, white, smooth, 2.8-3.9
5.2-6.5p.

3066. Strowd’s lowground woods, on decaying stump, May 22, 1918.

3310. On a black gum log, June 7, 1919. One plant has on it a specimen of the
growth called by Peck Tremella mycocephala. Painting.

3542. Mixed woods, Battle’s Park, October 28, 1919. Cap very pale buff, cen-
ter slightly darker. Gills and top of stem pale yellow, darker buff be-
low.

Blowing Rock. Atkinson.

Asheville, “In scattered colonies on old leaf mould and old wood. Often
in dense clusters.’”’ Beardslee.

Middle district, in woods. Curtis.

3a, Collybia dryophila Bull. A form.

We have a small, squat form of bare soil in shade that would
hardly at first sight be referred to this species. It is single or cespitose;

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COLLYBIA DRYOPHILA.

1921] THE Couiysias oF NortH CaRouina 89

the cap up to 2.5 em., usually about 1.5 cm. broad, nearly plane or
irregular, glabrous, not viscid, hygrophanous, brownish-leather color
when wet, leather color or buffy leather when dry. Flesh concolorous;
taste oily-woody, strong, odor same or slight. Gills rather close, sin-
uate, color of cap, 1-2 mm. wide. Stem 1.5-2.4 cm. long, 1-2 mm.
thick, smooth, concolorous, tough, solid, firmly attached in the soil
and bringing up a ball of earth. Spores (of No. 3237) white, elliptic,
2.9-3.7 x 4.1-5.5 u, identical with those of the typical form.

2500. In humus soil under shrubs in Arboretum, May 11, 1917.

3237. In sparse weeds and grass under oaks, roadside home near Mebane, N. C.
May 20, 1919.

3236. Bare soil, road in front of Dr. Battle’s, May 15, 1919. This is Just like
No. 3237, except that it is abnormally squat and irregular and more
cespitose; cap margin strongly recurved in most; odor and taste the
same.

3240. On nearly bare soil under oak, hillside on Glen Burnie farm, May 21, 1919.
Spores 3 X 4.2-5.5y.

4. Collybia Earleae (Murrill) n. comb.
Gymnopus Earleae Murrill.

PuatTEs 9 AND 23

Cap 6 mm. to 3.3 cm. broad, convex, then plane or concave,
smooth, dull, margin incurved until near maturity, sometimes striate;
color pinkish buff or dark brown then wood brown; surface minutely
puberulent all over when young. Flesh concolorous, tough; taste
rankly moldy; odor faintly similar.

Gills not crowded, notched at stem, narrowly adnexed, becoming
practically free at full maturity, narrow, 1-3 mm. wide, pale then
nearly color of cap, with tint of pink.

Stem 1.5-3.3 em. long, 14 mm. thick, tough and cartilaginous,
hollow, granular-pulverulent, then smooth, color of cap or a darker
reddish buff; attached to soil by a decided clump of tangled, tawny
hairs which come up with it, bringing a ball of earth.

Spores (of No. 3052) white, smooth, pip-shaped, 2.3-3 x 5.2-6u.

This seems certainly C. Earleae, which is known only from the
type locality—a creek bottom near Auburn, Alabama. The small
size, dark color, growth on damp earth, pinkish-brown gills and par-
ticularly the dense clump of tawny hairs easily distinguish it.

90 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

3046. On damp ground, Strowd’s lowground woods, May 5, 1918.

3052. Same locality as No. 3046, May 7, 1918.

3128. Same locality as No. 3046, May 18, 1918. Spores 3-3.8 X 5.8-7p.
3130. Same locality as No. 3046, May 22, 1918.

5. Collybia nummularia Fr.
Collybia strictipes Pk.

Puates 10 anpD 23

This medium-sized plant grows generally in small tufts on rotting
leaves in low woods. Cap up to 5.5 em. broad, convex, then expand-
ed, sometimes slightly depressed on one side, somewhat striate on
margin, barely umbonate, yellowish-tan in color, often with tint of
pink, the center almost brick red and usually a little rugose, often ap-
pearing water-soaked. The pileus sometimes shows concentric circles
near the margin, evidently due to the plants being water soaked and
drying in stages.

Gills close, and not very narrow, white or light flesh-colored, sin-
uate-attached, or sometimes free, not quite reaching the outer edge
of the cap, many short ones.

Stem 3.5-7 em. long, 3-7 mm. thick, cartilaginous, hollow, smooth,
flesh-colored or whitish, darker at base, nearly equal, connected with
extensive cream-colored mycelium that runs among the leaves.

Spores long, pip-shaped, white, smooth, 3.7 x 7.4-8 p, character-
istically pointed and bent at the mucro end.

Peck says of C. strictipes (Rep. 49: 44. 1896): ‘From small un-
spotted forms of C. maculata this species may be distinguished by its
even stem, less crowded lamellae and by the shape of its spores.”
From C. dryophila it is distinguished by the more yellowish cap with
reddish, more or less rugose center, the more equal, paler, and more
translucent stem, and by the longer, more pip-shaped spores. It is a
common species and easily recognized. Kauffman has developed
this species (as C. strictipes) from mycelium in leaf-mold brought into
the laboratory and kept in a partially covered dish (Mich. Acad. Sci.
Rept. 22: 203. 1920).

82. On leaves near Howell’s Branch, October 4, 1911.
83. Among leaves, Battle’s Park, October 28, 1911.
354. On rotting leaves near Howell’s Branch, October 11, 1911. Spores pip-

shaped, mostly pointed and slightly bent at one end, 4 X 9u.
584. Near Howell’s Branch, October 18, 1912. Spores 3.5-4.5 X 6-9.5p.

AVATAVH VIGATIOO

PLATE

COLLYBIA NUMMULARIA.

i

: ae a7 s

ay eae

-
~
. —_ -
a
> PIC, eae eo - :
‘ ie on
Ter i —- ie ; y
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oy, j 5

1921] THE CouiyBias OF NORTH CAROLINA 91

589. On leaves, below Howell’s Spring, October 18,1912. Spores 3.3-4 & 6-8.5y,
with mucro end pointed and bent.
628. On leaves near Battle’s Branch back of Dr. Wilson’s house, October 24, 1912.

Blowing Rock, Atkinson.
Asheville, abundant. Beardslee.

6. Collybia myriadophylla Peck.

Cap 2-5 em. broad, thin and tough, broadly convex to plane and
slightly depressed at the center, hygrophanous, brownish or grayish
brown with a distinct lilac tinge when moist, paler when dry, minutely
fibrillose.

Gills very crowded and narrow, adnexed, brownish lilac.

Stem slender, tough, 2-4 em. long 1-2 mm. thick, colored like the
cap, often compressed silky pruinose especially toward the rooting
base.

Spores ellipsoid, 2 3-4 uw.

Growing on old logs. Rare.

This seems more common farther to the north. It is quite com-
mon in the coniferous woods of upper Canada. It is very distinct in
its very crowded and narrow lilac gills. The texture of the plant is
suggestive of Marasmius.

Asheville. Beardslee.

7. Collybia distorta A. & S.
PuatE 11

Cap 2.6-8 cm. broad, campanulate, then expanded, and in age
with the irregular and contorted margin upturned; glabrous, hygroph-
anous, deep reddish brown, paler when dry, not viscid. Flesh
toughish, pale-concolorous; taste of rotten wood; odor none.

Gills crowded, up to 6 mm. wide, mostly narrower, several times
bra nched toward the margin; edges pubescent, thick; color a dilute
tan, then strongly stained and blotched with reddish brown.

Stem short in ours, 2-4 em. long, 5-10 mm. thick, often flattened;
strongly channelled, inherently fibrous, the base whitish with myce-
lium and connected with stout white strands which run in the rotten
wood.

Spores white, smooth, oval, 3.3-4.2 x 4.4-6u. (rather few in
this collection).

3519. On a rotten log, October 26, 1919.

92 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

8. Collybia radicata Rehl.
PLATES 12 and 23

Cap 3-10 em. broad, expanded, usually umbonate and rugose, in
center sometimes nearly plane; surface viscid, glabrous, varying from
pale yellowish-brown or gray to deep blackish-brown, the margin
lighter. Flesh thin, white, toughish, taste pleasant.

Gills white, rather distant, broad, adnexed to nearly free.

Stem very variable in length and thickness, often most slender
when longest, 5-20 em. long above ground, 3-13 mm. thick at stem,
tapering upward, and extending deeply into the earth with a smaller
root; surface glabrous or furfuraceous, striated and often grooved,
about color of cap or lighter, darkest below; texture firm, stuffed.

Spores (of No. 1844) white, smooth, elliptic, 8-10.8 x 14.4-19 up.

A very variable plant both in size and color, but always easily
recognized by the long rooting extension of the stem. It is common
in open woods, groves and shrubby borders through the summer and
fall, and is edible. Mcllvaine says it is sweet, pleasing in texture and
delicately flavored. Fora good illustration see Krieger in Nat. Geog.
Mag. 37: 398, 1920.

130. Campus in front of Alumni Building, September 21, 1908.

372. Open place west of athletic field, October 18, 1911.

472. Steep hillside on ground and on rotting tree roots in Battle’s Park, Septem-
ber 30, 1912. Spores 11.8 X 15.2u.

478. In open space back of South Building, October 2, 1912. Spores 11 X
18.5.

495. On steep hillside around rotting tree in Battle’s Park, October 4, 1912.

1844. Battle’s Park, north of Piney Prospect, September 20, 1915.

Asheville. Beardslee.
Blowing Rock. Atkinson.
Common in woods. Curtis.

9. Collybia semitalis Fr.
PuatTes 14 anp 23

Cap convex, 2.5-5.5 em. broad, convex except for a low umbo
or nearly plane, hygrophanous, not viscid, rather silky-shining, in-
herently fibrous radially, at times minutely squamulose between
center and margin, dark brown with a tawny tint, the center blackish
and the margin soon so on withering or touching. Flesh 1.5 mm.

OTS6 ON VLWMOLSIG VIFTATTIOO

[tl ALV Id

PLATE 12

COLLYBIA RADICATA. No. 478.

1921) THE CoLiyBias OF NORTH CAROLINA 93

thick near stem, pale brown, toughish, fibrous, taste and odor of raw
meal.

Gills crowded, 4-5 mm. wide, broadly adnate and a little decurrent,
not notched; brownish drab, the margins soon darker, black when
bruised.

Stem 1.5-3 em. long, 5-6 mm. thick, subequal, color and surface
of the cap but rather darker; flesh concolorous, tough, firm, fibrous,
stuffed and paler in center.

Spores (of No. 3869) white, smooth, oval, slightly pointed at each
end, 3.7-4.2 x 7.4-8.5 u.

Recognized by the rather small size; dark, smooth, inherently
fibrous cap; dark, crowded, slightly decurrent gills, which change color
when bruised, and by the farinaceous taste and odor.

Added below is Beardslee’s description of this plant from Asheville:

Cap 1.5-6 em. broad, hygrophanous, gray to deep smoky gray
when moist, dingy gray to isabelline when dry, surface with darker
fibrils giving it a streaked appearance, convex with the thinner margin
incurved, then expanded and plane, flesh white, thin at the margin.

Gills white, quickly becoming yellow and then black when bruised,
moderately close.

Stem 2-4 em. long, 5-15 mm. thick, tough, white, changing color
like the gills, stuffed but often hollow with age.

Odor rancid and unpleasant.

Spores usually ellipsoid, 7-9 x 5-6 u.

Growing along paths, in bare ground in woods. This is a curious
but altogether unattractive plant. I have found it only in wet
weather after rains. Usually the plants are short stemmed and close
to the ground, and dirty and sordid in appearance. They agree well
with Bresadola’s figure and description of C. semitalis to which I refer
them. All my specimens agree in the quick change to yellow and then
black, and all of them have the same disagreeable odor. Both of these
characters are brought out in Bresadola’s diagnosis.

It will be remembered that Bresadola has separated his plants into
three closely related species, all of which were included by Fries under
the one name. The spores of the Asheville plants are typically like
those of his C. semitalis and the change of color and odor are as he
describes. It is interesting, however, that some specimens had a few
spores which were triangular as in his variety trigonospora, and in one
plant they showed a tendency to become spindle shaped. In none was

94 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

there a change to blue, and then black. Some specimens were more
like Tricholoma than Collybia.

It is hoped that more work can be done on these forms and their
status definitely determined.

887. In pine and oak woods east of graded school house, October 4, 1913. Spores
3.7-4.6 X 7.4-9n.
890. In pine and oak woods, sandy soil by edge of road, about 250 yards south-
east of cemetery in woods, October 6, 1913.
3869. Mixed woods, back of athletic field, December 11, 1919.
3880. Mixed woods, Strowd’s lowgrounds, December 13, 1919.

Asheville. Beardslee.

10. Collybia platyphylla Fr.
PLates 1, 13, anp 23

Cap large, up to 12.5 em. broad, plane and regular or considerably
crimped, lobed and uneven, sometimes depressed in center; surface
smooth, finely punctate under a lens, not viscid, a rich bay brown
(about warm sepia, Ridgway) in center, fading to snuff brown on the
margin. Flesh white, extraordinarily thin for the size of the plant,
only 3 mm. thick near the cap, and fading to a mere transparent
membrane near the margin.

Gills deeply sinuate, barely reaching the stem at top, distant,
sometimes much crumpled and ridged on faces, varying greatly in
width in the same plant, some 2 cm. wide in the center, while other
narrow ones running between are only a few mm. wide; color nearly
white or with a slight flesh tint.

Stem stout, about 5-10 cm. long, 1.5 to 2.3 em. thick at top, some-
what larger below, stuffed, then usually hollow; surface even and
smooth, striate, white at top, brownish below; flesh white, firm.

Spores white, smooth, oval to short-elliptic, 6.8-7.6 x 7.6-8.5 wu.

Edible, but not so good as many others.

1263. In grass just east of Old West Building, campus, U. N. C., September 25,
1914. Painting.

1833. In humus, woods by branch southwest of Rocky Ridge Farm, April 20, 1915.
Spores creamy in bulk, subspherical to ovate, smooth, 4. 3-5. 8 X 6.3-S8u.
Surface of cap brownish-gray, with whitish flecks from the cracking
superficial layer.

2045. In grass near oak tree north of Alumni Building, June 9, 1916. Also occurs
near stump north of President’s house.

2509. In same spot as No. 2045, June 8, 1917.

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1921] THE CoLuyBIAS OF NorRTH CAROLINA 95

3276. Ona rotting oak stump in Battle’s Park, June 1, 1919. A remarkable form
of C. platyphylla. Cap drooping with the margin crimped inward,
about 11 cm. across below, and hanging down about 10 cm., glabrous,
but cracked into inherent scales over all but margined half or third.
Stem very long, 24 em., 1.7 em. thick; fibrous, tough. Spores smooth,
ovate, 5.9-6.6 X 7.7-8.1z.

Blowing Rock. Atkinson.
Asheville. Beardslee.
Low and middle districts, on rotten wood. Curtis.

11. Collybia exsculpta Fr.
Collybia colorea Pk.

PuatTeE 14.

Cap 2-4 em. broad, rounded convex to broadly campanulate, with
the center a little prominent; hygrophanous, yellow, with the disk
often reddish or brownish, minutely fibrillose; margin thin, exceeding
the gills, even.

Gills yellow, close, narrow, sinuate adnexed, usually turning red in
drying.

Stem slender, 2-4 cm. long, 3-5 mm. thick, colored like the cap,
hollow, glabrous.

Spores ellipsoid,4—6 x 3-3.5 uy.

On old logs; not rare.

This is without question Peck’s C. colorea. Our specimens have
been submitted to Bresadola and approved as C. exsculpta, which is
said to be rare in Europe. The gills usually change to red in drying,
but I have had undoubted specimens in which this is not the case.
Occasionally I have found specimens in which the growing plant were
red. This,I take it, is Peck’s var. rubescentifolia. Fromthe peculiar
color and its habit of growing on logs this species would be taken at
first sight for Flammula.

Asheville. Beardslee.

lla. Collybia exculpta (a form)
PuaTEs 15 AND 23

Cap 1. 6-2. 6 cm. broad, convex with a depressed center, then ex-
panded with depressed center, glabrous, hygrophanous, not viscid,
very faintly striatulate near the margin when soaked, color about
ochraceous tawny when soaked, a paler cream-buff to chamois when

96 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

not soaked, the center at times a little darker, the thin margin soon
withering to nearly black. Flesh very thin, about 0.6 mm. thick
near stem, taste woody and a little bitter, odorless, concolorous.

Gills crowded, color of unsoaked cap, in places becoming distinctly
lilae in drying, sinuate, about 2-3 mm. wide.

Stem concolorous, 2.3-3 cm. long, 1.3-3.5 mm. thick, nearly
equal, base with white mycelium; mostly glabrous, a large hollow,
toughish (cap rather tender).

Spores (of No. 4543) white, smooth, subspheriecal, 3.5-4 x 3.7-
5.5 u, no cystidia. Basidia long-clavate, about 6 u, thick, 4-spored.
Hymenium about 29-33 uw, thick. Threads of the gill trama parallel,
narrow toward the margin, more swollen toward the cap.

I am considering this a form of C. exsculpta, but the color is buff,
not yellow or reddish-yellow and the gills are not bright suphur yellow.
Also it does not grow on decaying wood but on the ground.

1735. In earth by path west of Meeting of Waters, September 10, 1915.

4543. On very rotten pine log, Strowd’s lowgrounds, July 26, 1920.

4597. On rotting oak wood, swamp of Bowlin’s Creek, July 30, 1920. Spores
3.7-4.5 X 4.5-7.4u.

12. Collybia cirrata Fr.
Agaricus cirratus Pers. Abs. Myc. 2: 53. 1799.

PuaTEs 1, 16, AND 23

Cap 7-15 mm. broad, slightly umbonate, depressed-umbonate, or
only depressed, expanded; the margin curved; glabrous, hygrophanous,
not viscid, buffy tan, the margin pale, and center darker. Flesh
about 0.5 mm. thick, toughish, concolorous, almost odorless, taste-
less.

Gills crowded, less than 1 mm. wide, linear, slightly notched at
stem, nearly white or concolorous.

Stem 0.8 -2.5 em. longand up to 2 mm. thick, narrowed above,
or equal, about color of cap or darker, covered below with a con-
spicuous dense mat of long, cottony, white or whitish, more or less
radicating fibers which may extend with reduced length nearly to the
top if well protected; usually only scurfy above.

Spores (of No. 3491) white, smooth, oblong-ovate, 2.2-2.5 x 3.7
—4 u.

This is certainly C. cirrata, agreeing in all respects with Persoon’s
original description which is as follows (translation) :

PLATE 14

COLLYBIA EXSCULPTA. Photo by B. [upper left]
COLLYBIA ALBA. Photo by B. [upper right].

COLLYBIA SEMITALIS. Nos. 3869 & 3880 [below].

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PLATE 15

A form.

COLLYBIA EXCULPTA,

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PLATE 16

COLLYBIA HARIOLORUM. Photo by B. [above]
COLLYBIA CIRRATA No. 394i [below|.

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1921] THE CoLLyBIAS OF NORTH CAROLINA 97

“Small, gregarious, cap subpapillate, plane, whitish; disk sub-
rufescent, gills crowded, white; stem rather long, slender, rufescent
covered with long fibrillose rootlets.

“Habitat. Among dead leaves in autumn, truly a parasite, es-
pecially on dying Agarics.

“Stems 114 inches long, % line thick at base and sending out
sparingly from the sides fibrillose rootlets sometimes 114 inches long.
Gills narrow, even, subdecurrent. Cap about 2-3 lines broad, plane
to convex, subumbilicate, 14 line thick.”

Murrill thinks this the same as C. tuberosa (N. Am. Flora 9: 374.
1916) and he may very well be right. This form, however, has no
tuber and the dense mat of hairs is not mentioned for C. tuberosa.
Agaricus (Collybia) tuberigenus B. & C. is probably this. There is a
collection from Hillsboro, N. C.,in the Curtis Herbarium. It is hairy
at the base like our plants and also has small tubers. It seems to be
growing from earth rich in humus “under cedars.”’

Beardslee’s notes on the Asheville plant are as follows:

This species and its close relative C. tuberosa seem to need further
study. True C. cirrata was found at Asheville answering well to the
common description. The more common form, however, grew in
masses from old decaying fungi arising in almost every case from
yellowish sclerotia, but also having a dense mass of white fibrillose
roots. If the presence of a sclerotium is decisive our plant is C.
tuberosa. Bresadola considers this plant C. cirrata and writes that the
differences are “exactly as shown in Cooke.”’ The main difference in
Cooke’s figure is in the sclerotia which are deep brown or black in C.
tuberosa and yellow in C. cirrata. According to this view our Asheville
plants are the latter species. It seemed possible that the color of the
sclerotia might depend upon their age, the yellow color being charac-
teristic of the newly formed sclerotia and the dark brown or black
indicating older ones. Some attempts were made to test this theory
but no decisive results secured.

3491. On a dead and black, but still firm and tough, Thelephora, on earth near
north branch of Meeting of the Waters, October 16, 1919.

3743. On a dead agaric in pine woods north of Meeting of Waters, November 12,
1919.

Asheville. Beardslee.

98 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | December

13. Collybia conigena Fr.
PLATES 17 AND 23

Cap about 1.5-20 mm. broad, about 270 y thick, very nearly plane,
but with a slight depression in the center, fhe edge turned up slightly
in older specimens, surface glabrous, light brownish-tan, or the center
pinkish, minutely pubescent. Threads of flesh very irregular and
knotty.

Gills almost white with a brownish tinge, nearly or quite free, some
branched, quite narrow toward the margin. Threads of gill flesh 3.7 w
thick.

Stem about 2.5-5 em. long, very pale, lighter in color than the
cap or gills, minutely pubescent (velvety) at maturity above and with
long white hairs at the base which attach it to the cone. These
threads are very long and conspicuous rhizomorphs that look like
stiff cotton threads and are very peculiar. They may extend from
as much as the lower third of the stem.

Spores (of No. 3503) white, extremely minute, oblong, about 1.5—2
x 3-4u. Basidia about 3.7 thick and 13 yu long. Cystidia only on
margin of gills, 6.6—9.3 ». at thickest part, about 15-25 yu long.

Easily recognized from its habit of growth on pine cones. While
C. esculenta and C. conigena are said by Bresadola to have much larger
spores, this is not borne out by the more recent European monographs.
Lange (I. c. p. 18), Ricken (1. ¢. p. 414), and Sartory and Maire (I. ¢. p.
176) all describe the spores to be substantially as in our American
plants. Their creeping stems which are hairy on the rooting portion
could not separate our plants. Itis only in the spores that a marked
difference appears. Collybia esculenta is listed by Schweinitz from this
state. For comparison of thisand C. conigenoides, see the latter species.

84. On pine cone, October 20, 1911.

2948. On cone of Pinus echinata, October 15, 1917.
3503. On decaying pine cones, October 25, 1919.

Asheville. Beardslee.
Low district, rotting pine cones. Curtis.

14. Collybia conigenoides Ellis.
PLATES 18 AND 23

Cap 3-15 mm. broad, convex then nearly plane, at times depressed
in center, striatulate, very finely pubescent, a little viscid, buff in
center, paler toward margin; the cap surface composed of large
swollen cells through which project the short hairs which are about

PLATE 18

New

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No. 3:

NOIDES.

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1
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COLLYBIA CONIC

1921] THE COLLYBIAS OF NORTH CAROLINA 99

6-7.5 uw thick at base and of variable length up to 55 u. Flesh less
than 0.5 mm. thick, nearly tasteless and odorless, toughish; threads
of flesh about 3.7 u thick.

Gills white or palely concolorous, rather close, ventricose, 1.5 mm.
wide in center, rounded at stem and slightly adnexed, not veined or
branched.

Stem 1.5—4 em. long, 0.5-0.9 mm. thick, finely puberulent all over
like the cap, except in the basal region which is covered for some
distance by long, woven, fine buff hairs which bind the stems together;
color a clear ochraceous buff all over except for the abruptly whitish
tip; tough, hollow.

Spores minute, smooth, elliptic, pointed at one end, 2.2-2.9 x
5-6.3 1. Basidia 4-spored, about 4.4 thick and18 uwlong. Cystidia
present, contracted above the swollen body.

Mostly cespitose, but some single. It approaches very closely to
Marasmius, reviving quite well in water.

This is certainly C. conigenoides, every character agreeing with the
original description (Bull. T. B. C. 6: 76. 1876). We have examined
a collection determined by Ellis and distributed as No. 3503 in Ellis
and Everhart North American Fungi on cone of Magnolia Fraseri
from Nuttallburg, W. Va. (Herb. Dept. Agr., Washington). Although
in bad condition this specimen is without doubt the same as ours,
with the long buff hairs conspicuous around the stem. The species
is different from our plant on pine cones which we are calling C.
conigena. The latter has smaller spores and basidia, gills branched
in part, a paler stem, with white, not buff threads below, and no
bladder-like cells on the cap surface.

The plant from Michigan on pine cones referred by Kauffman to
C. conigenoides cannot be our species on magnolia cones as the former
has a white stem with white hairs at the base and shorter spores.

3945. By path in Arboretum on fallen magnolia cones, October 28, 1919. Photo.

15. Collybia alba Pk.
PLATE. 14

Cap 6.5-11 mm. broad, rounded-convex, white, glabrous.

Stem 1.7—2.6 cm. long, 2 mm. thick, pure white, glabrous.

Gills broad, ventricose, nearly free.

Spores 4-5 x 3 u.

Growing on old mossy logs and stumps. This small white species

100 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | December

is found frequently in the summer, and has been referred to Peck’s
species with which it seems to agree. The dried plants become dingy
as they dry, as noted by Peck.

Asheville. Beardslee.

16. Collybia velutipes (Curt.) Ir.
Puates 19 AND 23

Plants densely crowded and imbricated or somewhat scattered,
growing on logs.

Cap up to 4.5 em. broad, very irregular in shape and surface,
ridged and often deeply pitted, general outline rounded or nearly
plane; surface very glutinous and viscid, smooth, color a strong dull
red (about burnt sienna) in center, shading out to a yellowish-red on
margin; in old wet plants a deeper blackish-red. Flesh light reddish-
yellow (about color of gills), about 3 mm. thick near stem, quickly
thinning to less than 1 mm., tasteless or sweetish.

Gills moderately close, sinuate attached, with a broad, deep tooth
near stem, about 8 mm. wide at the tooth and 4 mm. wide beyond;
color a light reddish-yellow, about pale yellow-orange of Ridgway,
lighter when young.

Stem central or somewhat lateral, about 2. 5 to 5 em. long, usually
strongly flattened at top or to full extent, about 5 to 8 mm. wide at
cap, tapering downwards, and usually fused with others at base into
a dense clump, surface densely short-tomentose, almost velvety; color
of gills at top, dark reddish-brown elsewhere, texture tough, almost
cartilaginous at surface, more fibrous inside; solid or partly hollow.

Spores (of No. 1507) white, very abundant, elliptic, smooth, 3.4 x
5.1-8.5 p. |

This is one of the good edible mushrooms and it may be had often
in any of the winter months. We find it in Chapel Hill only in cool
weather. For an elaborate account of the plant with ten plates see
Stewart in Bull. No. 448, N. Y. Ag. Exp. Sta., Geneva, Feb.1918;
also Biffen in Journ. Linn. Soc. 34: 147. 1899.

For other illustrations see Mycologia 1: 39, pl 3. 1909; Krieger.
Nat. Geog, Mag. 37: 398. 1920.

1507. On end of hickory log in grove behind Memorial Hall, December 9, 1914.

2013. On a charred oak stump, southwest of athletic field, December 18, 1915.
Spores elliptic, smooth, 3.2-4 X 5.5-8p.

COLLYBIA VELUTIPES. Photo by B.

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1921] . THe Coutuysias OF NortTH CAROLINA 101

Asheville. Beardslee.
Middle and upper districts, on rotting logs. Curtis.

17. Collybia hariolorum Fr.
PLaTE 16

Cap 2-5 em. broad, broadly campanulate, becoming expanded,
and at length nearly plane with the center a little prominent, pale tan
or pale rufescent at first, becoming white with age, glabrous, striate
on the margin when moist; flesh white, thin, especially on the margin;
odor when crushed strong and unpleasant. Taste disagreeable.

Gills white, narrow, closely crowded, adnate with a distinct sinus.

Stem 2-4 em. long, 2-4 mm. thick, hollow, slightly enlarged at the
base, everywhere covered with white villous down, which is longer and
inore marked at the base, the extreme base usually curved and
attached by an abundant white mycelium to the leaves in which it
grows.

Spores 4-6 x 2.5-3 u.

Somewhat gregarious, on old leaves in woods.

This species appeared quite frequently in late summer at Asheville.
It is suggestive of C. conflwens, and may easily be taken for it. As
found at Asheville it is more nearly white than C. confluens, has a
shorter stem, and is not inclined to occur in the dense clusters which
are characteristic of C. confluens. The rather disagreeable odor is
also a mark of distinction.

Asheville. Beardslee.

18. Collybia confluens Fr.
Marasmius confluens in N. Am. Flora 9: 269. 1915.

PuatTEs 20 anp 23

Cap 1.3-4.6 em. broad, convex then expanded, the center broadly
compressed, the margin curved and _ striatulate when moist;
hygrophanous, reddish-brown and viscid when wet, leather color when
dry. Flesh toughish, concolorous, about 1 mm. thick in center; taste
and odor slight.

Gills moderately close, up to 4 mm. broad, rounded at stem and
adnexed, color of dry cap.

Stem 4-6 cm. long, finely white pubescent above, the threads
longer and more cottony below and often binding several together,

102 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | December

color of cap when shown through the pubescence; tough, often com-
pressed; hollow.
Spores white, smooth, elliptic, pointed, 2.5-3.7 x 6.2-7.4 u.

3933. Mixed woods back of cemetery, October 26, 1919.

Blowing Rock. Atkinson.
Asheville. Beardslee.
Middle and upper districts, among rotten leaves. Curtis.

19. Collybia zonata Pk.
PLATES 21 AND 23

Cap up to 3. 6 em. broad, convex, or nearly flat with a broad umbo,
a sharp depression in the center (umbilicate) at all ages, flatly ae
spheric when young, with the margin strongly incurved; surface con-
spicuously clothed with roughish hairs of a rich tawny color, the hairs
usually pinched into groups and flattened. Flesh thin, tough, white,
taste sweetish, of a disagreeable, fishy nature, odor strong and of the
same nature, and persisting long after drying. Occasionally the odor
is absent, as in No. 2658.

Gills white, rather close, narrow, about 1.5 mm. wide, quik ly
rounded at the stem and barely reaching it at the upper angle.

Stem slender, even, up to 5 em. long, about 1.5 to 2 mm. thick,
tough and strong, with a small irregular hollow about the size of a
needle; surface covered with similar hairs as the cap and of the same
color. |

Spores white, elliptic, smooth, 4.5-5.4 x 6.4-7.2 u.

The plants are cespitose from decaying bits of twigs, etc., on the
ground and are remarkable for their penetrating odor, somewhat re-
sembling the fishy smell around old wharves, only more acid. This
is not mentioned by others.

Not found at Asheville by Beardslee and apparently new to the
state. For a discussion of this and related species see Atkinson N. Y.
State Mus. Bull. 205-206: 61. 1919. For other illustration see
Mycologia 4: pl. 56, fig. 8. 1912.

1577. From twigs, rootlets, old beech fruits, ete., on ground, New Hope Swamp?
June 26, 1915.

1899. On a rotten root, woods at foot of Lone Pine Hill, October 17, 1915.

2241. On hull of Hicoria ovata, swamp of New Hope Creek, June 24, 1916.

2568. By path in woods along Battle’s branch, July 2, 1917.

PLATE 20

COLLYBIA CONFLUENS. No. 3533.

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1921] THE COLLYBIAS OF NORTH CAROLINA 103

2658. On rotten oak log, low damp woods by Battle’s branch, July 12, 1917.
The characteristic odor of the type was absent when fresh, but was slightly
noticeable when dry. Taste faint, but unmistakably that of type.
Other plants with very strong characteristic taste and odor were grow-
ing on the same log with this, but several feet away.

3112. New Hope Swamp on decaying bark, June 23, 1918.

20. Collybia stipitaria Fr.
Marasmius stipitarius (Fr.) Atk. and House.
Agaricus scabellus Alb. and Schw.

PLATE 23

Cap 5-12 mm. broad, convex, depressed a little around the center
which is itself concave, roughly fibrous, that is, the inherent fibers
forming irregular elevated ridges and near the margin pinched into
squamules, pale tan to gray or brownish-gray, the center (in No. 3370)
abruptly a much deeper gray-brown; texture of cap and stem tough
and persistent; taste and odor none.

Gills rather distant, about 1 mm. broad, abruptly sinuate at the
stem and nearly or quite free, pale-creamy white, the margins toothed.

Stem 2-5 em. long, 0.5-1 em. thick, equal, spongy-scurfy all
over, inserted, i. e. disappearing into the substratum and not aris-
ing from superficial mycelium; about color of cap center, the tip shad-
ing to tawny. .

Spores smooth, oval to elliptic, 5.1-6.2 x 8.9-10.4 uy. Cystidia
acute to mucronate, simple.

Easily recognized by the fibrous-squamulose cap, dark center,
nearly free gills and spongy stem surface. It is distinguished from
C. zonata, which is near, by the smaller size, absence of fishy smell and
longer spores. For discussion of this and related species see Atkinson
in Bull. N. Y. St. Mus. 205-206: 61. 1919. Massee gives measure-
ments of C. stipitaria as: cap 4-11 mm. across and stem 1-2 in. long.
For other illustration see Lloyd, Mycological Notes 1, No. 5: 42, fig.
15, 1900.

3370. On herbaceous debris, grove in front of Gimghoul Lodge, June 26, 1919.

Asheville. Beardslee.
Middle and upper districts, on decaying trunks. Curtis.

104 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | December

21. Collybia lilacina n. sp.
PuaTses 1, 22, anpD 23

Solitary or gregarious and at times subcespitose, rather often with
little undeveloped ones attached to the stem bases of mature ones.
Cap up to 7.5 em. usually about 4-5.5 em. wide, hygrophanous, de-
cidedly or very slightly umbonate, somewhat uneven, expanded,
margin striatulate when moist, even or nearly so when dry, flat or
bent down; surface smooth, like fine leather in appearance, the mar-
ginal third often rugose in youth, the wrinkles disappearing; color tan
with the center decidedly deeper and usually with a tint of lilac at
maturity. Flesh thin, only 1. 8 mm. thick at stem, whitish except at
center, which is brownish-lilac, tough, almost tasteless.

Gills rather distant, variable in attachment just as in Clitocybe
compressipes, sometimes deeply sinuate, most of them barely attached
and not at all decurrent, again squarely adnate in part and sinuate in
part and some slightly decurrent by a tooth, very easily separating
from the stem when attached, about 5-8.5 mm. wide, broadest near
stem, color a pallid tan or bright tan, then darker with brownish-lilac
tints and smoky on drying, many short, none branched. The surface
of the gills is set with spiny cystidia which project about 20-25 u.

Stem very variable in length even in plants of the same size, up to
11 em. long and 6.5 mm. thick at cap, nearly equal, usually twisting
in drying and becoming lined from top to bottom, tough and semi-
cartilaginous, firm, elastic; surface pruinose and often lined above,
smooth below, the very base enlarged and tomentose with the fine
white mycelium; color of cap, lilac tinted at maturity especially above
white at base; flesh strongly brownish-lilac, deepest colored within, a
large hollow cylinder in center from top to bottom.

Spores (of No. 1818) white, elliptic, smooth, 5.2 x 7.8 u.

Very young plants are nearly black, but soon become paler. The
lilac tints do not appear until maturity and deepen afterwards. This
change is peculiar and constant. Smaller specimens of the species
have very much the general appearance of Marasmius oreades, but
differ in the smooth hollow stem, tendency to lilae tints in all parts
at and after maturity, in not reviving well when moistened and in the
much larger size attained at times. The habit also is different, our
plants being solitary or sparsely gregarious, and growing in woods
and shrubbery and on bare earth, not in open grassy places. It also

PLATE 22

COLLYBIA LILACINA. No. 3288. Photo of drawing, to show size,

4

1921] THe CoLuyBiAs OF NorTH CAROLINA 105

seems near C. nigrodiscus Pk. I am inclined to think this is the plant
listed by Curtis as M. plancus, Fr., which has a similar habit and size
and has a hollow stem, but M. plancus differs in its narrower gills and
downy stem, and in absence of lilac tints. In size, shape, and thick-
ness of flesh, Mycena Zamurensis Pat. and Gail. from Venezuela (Bull.
Soc. Myc. Fr. 3: pl. 8. 1887) recalls our plant, but is excluded by the
absence of lilac tints and differently shaped spores. I have looked
through the Curtis herbarium under Marasmius and Collybia but could
find nothing like this.

1752. In damp shaded spot in soil among weeds and grass, woods at foot of Lone
Pine Hill, September 12, 1915.

1818. One plant. On dry shaded path in Arboretum, northeast side, September
17,1915. Stem eccentric; gills almost triangular, wide in center, pointed
at stem and just reaching it, distant, veined at cap, rather light brown-
ish-drab with a tint of lilac. Stem granular-pruinose above, smooth
elsewhere, tough, 2.5 em. long, hollow; cap 3.5 em. wide.

2193. Woods below rock wall, south of Peabody building, June 21, 1916. Cap
about 3 cm. broad, strongly convex, umbonate, smooth, appearing
slightly tomentose under a lens, hygrophanous, fleshy-buff color, darker
in center; margin thin, even, becoming brownish-lilac. Spores white,
smooth, elliptic, pointed at one end, 3.7-4.4 5.5-Su.

2810. Among shrubs near wall, east side of Arboretum.

3288. Under Magnolia in Arboretum, June 4, 1919.

3290. Under Magnolia soulangeana in Arboretum, June 4, 1919. Fine plants, up
to 6.5 em. in diameter. Painting.

4331. Under shrubs in Arboretum, June 24, 1920. Spores variable, smooth, el-
liptic, 4-5.5 X 6-94,

22. Collybia clusilis Fr. (sense of Schroeter)
Mycena palustris (Pk.) Sace.

Cap up to 1 em. broad, very smooth, convex, not umbonate or
umbilicate, brownish-olive or buffy-brown (Ridgway), paler when
young, very thin and delicate but not striate.

Gills pale yellowish-brown, distant, slightly decurrent, not sinuate,
less than 1 mm. wide, only about 20 to 25 in number and a few short
ones.

Stem slender, about 3 cm. long, color of gills, smooth, hollow,
extending deeply into the moss and there covered with mycelial
strands.

Spores white, subspherical to elliptic, smooth, 3.5-6 x 4-9 u.

This very pretty little plant seems to be confined to thick- beds of
moss.

106 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | December

Notes by Beardslee follow:

Cap 0.5 em. to 2 em. broad, rounded convex, at times slightly raised
at the center, becoming more expanded with age and somewhat de-
pressed, hygrophanous, pale brown or brownish-olive, paler when dry,
and becoming opaque, and with a slight silky luster, margin thin,
striatulate when moist, even when dry; flesh thin.

Stem slender, weak, 3-6 cm. long, a little lighter in color than the
cap, attached by abundant white mycelium to the mosses in which
the plant grows, smooth, and hollow.

Gills grayish brown, rather distant, adnate, rather narrow, venous
connected.

Spores elliptic, 7-9 by 4-5 uw.

Odorless when fresh, but developing a slight disagreeable odor.
Growing in beds of sphagnum.

This interesting plant was found in abundance in Sweden in 1905.
I have since seen it in similar places in Maine. When first found it
could not be determined with certainty, though its abundance in one
of Fries’ collecting grounds indicated that it could not have escaped
him, especially as it is more than usually striking. Lange’s excellent
notes on Collybia made it possible to identify it as above. Schroeter
has an excellent description as Lange points out in Pilze Schlesiens,
page 642, which exactly fits our plant. Fries’ description does not
fit as well. Cooke’s figure is not a good representation of our plant.
Ricken’s description presents some difficulties. There seems little
doubt that our plant is C. clusilis in the sen8e of Lange and Schroeter.

As it occurred in Sweden good opportunities for studying it were
given. Successive crops of specimens appeared after rains in the same
moss patches and its variations could be observed. The shape of the
cap seemed to vary considerably. What seemed to be the typical form
uniiormly showed a slight umbo, or papilla. Other plants were
rouaded or even depressed at the center, though scarcely so as to be
called umbilicate. The type material of Mycena palustris (Pk.) Sacce.
has been carefully compared with our specimens and found to be iden—
tical, though the description seems to indicate a discrepancy in regard
to the gills.

1532. In a thick, dense bed of a large moss (Dicranum scoparium), woods south of
cemetery, December 4, 1913. It has also appeared in a similar bed of
the same moss near the sphagnum bed east of athletic field.

Chapel Hill, N. C.
Perry, Ohio.

PLATE 23

1921] THE CoLLyBIAs OF NORTH CAROLINA 107

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 23.

Collybia maculata. No. 594. Fig. 1.

Collybia butyracea. No. 1902. Fig. 2.

Collybia dryophila. No. 3049. Fig. 3.

Collybia Earleae. No. 3052. Fig. 4.

Collybia nummularia. No. 584. Fig. 5.

Collybia radicata. No. 372. Fig. 6.

Collybia semitalis. No. 3869. Fig. 7.

Collybia platyphilla. No. 3276. Fig. 8.

Collybia exsculpta. No. 4543. Fig. 9.

Collybia cirrata. No. 3491. Fig. 10.

Collybia conigena No. 3503. Fig. 11, spores; fig. 12, hair on cap; fig. 13, cystidia
on gill margin; fig. 14, basidium.

Collybia conigenoides. No. 3545. Fig. 15, basidium and cystidium; fig. 16, hairs
and swollen cells on cap surface; fig. 17, spores.

Collybia velutipes. No. 2013. Fig. 18.

Collybia confluens. No. 3533. Fig. 19.

Collybia zonatas No. 1577. Fig. 20.

Collybia stipitaria. No. 3370. Fig. 21.

Collybia lilacina. No. 3290. Fig. 22.

Figs. 12-16 x 670; others x 2160.

ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS

EFFECT OF THE RELATIVE LENGTH OF Day AND NIGHT AND
OTHER Factors OF THE ENVIRONMENT ON GROWTH AND RE-
PRODUCTION IN Piants. By W. W. Garner and H. A. Allard.

(Note: The authors have furnished by request the following ab-
stract of their work. Mr. Allard was assistant in Botany in the Uni-
versity of North Carolina in 1904-05. Both authors are now in the
Department of Agriculture, Washington. Their paper under the above
title was published in Journ. Agr. Research 18, No. 11, 1920.)

Although the intensity of the light and the quality as regards wave-
length of radiation are recognized as important factors in the develop-
ment of plants, the present paper deals mainly with the behavior of the
plant in response to the daily duration of the period of light. This
phase of the subject of light effects upon plants appears to have re-
ceived little attention in the past but in the present paper sufficient
evidence has been accumulated to show that it has an extremely im-
portant bearing on the expression of plants as regards growth, stature,
and specialization in the direction of sexual reproduction.

The main feature of the present paper is a demonstration of the
fact that with many plants, sexual reproduction in some manner is a
function of the relative length of the day and night. In other words,
by artificially shortening the summer daily illumination period
by keeping certain plants in a dark house for suitable periods of the
day, sexual reproduction or flowering is initiated. Thus, the plants
may be made to bloom at will, weeks or months in advance of controls
responding to the normal seasonal length of day. Thus, certain late
varieties of soy beans, namely Biloxi and Tokio, in particular, and the
variety of tobacco known as Maryland Mammoth, have shown them-
selves very responsive to such conditions. The wild aster, Aster
linariifolius, and other species also blossomed precociously, so to
speak, when the length of day was reduced to 12 hours or 7 hours, re-
spectively. Plants of this class may be considered short day plants,
since sexual reproduction has been initiated by a length of day con-
siderably shorter than the normal summer day which tends to promote
vegetative growth, until the shorter days of late summer and autumn
intervene to initiate flower and seed production.

On the other hand, certain plants have consistently shown a dif-
ferent behavior, and have failed to bloom in response to a day length
of 7 hours, as obtained by the use of the dark house. Climbing Hemp

[108]

| Se

1921] ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS 109

weed (Mikania scandens), wild Hibiscus (Hibiscus Moscheutos) and
the common garden variety of radish (Scarlet Globe) are members of
this class. For the sake of convenience these plants have been termed
long day plants, indicating that they attain sexual reproduction suc-
cessfully when the days are relatively long.

By the use of electric light of low intensity to increase the relatively
short duration of illumination of the winter days, results in line with
those obtained when the summer day has been shortened, were secured.
Thus, soy beans and cosmos blossomed weeks and months after the
controls enjoying the normal duration of illumination of the winter
days.

It is evident that the duration of the daily illumination in itself is
of primary significance in controlling the course of development to-
ward or away from the flowering stage or sexual reproduction.

Experiments with several so-called late varieties of soy beans in the
field, planted at intervals from April to August, have shown that the
shortening of the period from planting till the first appearance of
blossoms, is dependent upon the seasonal length of day to which the
successive plantings have been subjected.

In the light of these results it is believed that the natural distribu-
tion of plants is governed more or less directly by the seasonal length
of day which obtains for the different latitudes of the earth from the
equator to the poles.

From the evidence at hand it will be seen that the stature and
season of flowering of certain plants is dependent upon a favorable
length of day, and this may actually be a most important limiting fac-
tor in determining crop yields in many instances. In other words, the
time for propitious seeding to obtain maximum yields may be governed
very largely by the length of day to which the crop will be exposed.

Since it has been shown that certain plants respond with a definite
behavior to certain day lengths, the term ‘‘photoperiodism”’ is sug-
gested to designate this response.

TEAcHING or Geometry. By Archibald Henderson, Professor of Pure
- Mathematics, University of North Carolina.

If this paper (a pamphlet of 49 pages, Univ. N. C. Extension Series
No. 33) simply followed the usual treatment of books on “The Teach-
ing of Geometry,” it would not call for special mention; but, as it
strikes a distinct note, and gives many fresh discussions not found

110 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | December

in our geometries, it seems appropriate to call attention to it as an
original work of high scientific value that should prove not only help-
ful, but stimulating to teachers and students in geometry.

In the Introduction, Dr. Henderson properly calls attention to
the lessons of the world war as to the prime necessity of Mathematics
relative to the scientific progress, welfare and preservation of a nation,
which naturally recalls the saying of Napoleon that, ‘‘The advance-
ment, the perfecting of mathematics, are bound up with the pros-
perity of the state.”’

In discussing “‘The Aims and Results of Geometrical Study,” the
author emphasizes the fact that the true purpose of instruction in
geometry is to develop the faculty of independent thinking in geome-
try, to acquire facility in working problems—“originals,’’ as they are
happily called—in other words, to train the student as an investigator
—a research worker. There can be no question as to the correctness
of this point of view. Students so trained, take an increasing interest
in the study—they ‘‘make good—” whereas, those neglecting this
discipline, soon lose their mental self-reliance and intellectual courage
to tackle new problems and difficulties, become discouraged, resort to
mere memorizing, and thus, ultimately fail.

The author next takes up ‘‘The Problem of Instruction,” and ad-
vocates the natural method of instruction, even when it is longer than
the usual synthetic method. The usual text-books, following almost
exclusively the synthetic method, are models of ‘Compression, ele-
gance and rigor;”’ but they, too often, leave the student puzzled as to
what the author is driving at, until the end is reached; when, presto,
a conclusion is reached which comes as a distinct surprise to the reader,
who has not been prepared for the denouement by being given the
reasons for the successive steps of the demonstration.

By the synthetical method, whether for the demonstration of
theorems or the solution of problems, we start from known theorems
or problems and endeavor to effect a solution; but, as it is often dif-
ficult to know from what known theorems or problems to start, a series
of fruitless essays may be made before hitting upon the proper solu-
tion.

On the contrary, by the natural method—that of the ‘old an-
alysis”’ of Plato—we have the advantage of a starting point, the thing
to be proved; and from that, an endeavor is made, by logical processes,
to reacha known result. When this is attained, then if the successive

1921] ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS i Pala

results are reciprocal, or each can be obtained from the one that fol-
lows, the theorems or problem posited in the beginning is true; since it
ean be proved by the synthetical method, by reversing the steps and
working from the first conclusion or known results.*

The method of analysis is generally that of research and discovery;
and because of its importance to the investigator and because of the
slight attention accorded it in existing texts, Dr. Henderson has, pur-
posely, given a number of ijlustrations of its working in solutions of
theorems and problems. In fact, the treatment by the analytical
method of problems and theorems is one distinctive feature of the
paper, which should appeal particularly to the eager student who
aims at any research in geometry.

“The Basic Problems of Construction”’ are treated by the author
in an interesting manner. Most of the constructions are simple;
some are complex, and are given as stimulating problems, since one
object of the paper is to give new and instructive points of view.

This is especially noted in the section entitled ‘‘The Problem of
Research,’’ where the various modes of approach to the solution of
geometrical problems are indicated, and numbers of illustrations are
given with a completeness and elegance of demonstration that causes
one to regard this section as the most interesting part of the essay.

The scope of this section can be judged from the following sub-
headings:

. The Method of Analysis,

. The Method of Successive Substitutions,

. The Method of Reductis Ad Absurdum,

The Method of Intersection of Loci,

. The Method of Construction of Loci by Points,

. The Method of Transformation; Construction of Auxiliary Figures,
. The Method of Parallel Translation,

. The Method of Rotation Symmetry,

The Algebraic Method,

. The Method of Similarity.

SOMNAaARWNH

=

The final sections on “‘Procedure in Attacking Geometrical Prob-
lems” and a Biographical Note complete the subject.

The paper is illustrated with 26 figures, and is written in the at-
tractive style one has come to associate with the author. _ It is plain-
ly intended for teachers and research workers, for the author is a firm

* See Duhausel’s ‘‘ Des Méthodes dans les Science de Raisonnement,”’ vols. 1 and
2; also, Cain's ‘‘Symbolic Algebra and Notes on Geometry’’ (D. Van Nostrand Co., New
York) for a full discussion of the analytic method, including the cases of ‘‘lost’’ solutions
and of those ‘‘strange’’ to the questions.

112 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

believer in that method of instruction which constantly calls for the

working of “originals”, and this brochure should prove especially help-

ful and inspiring to both teacher and student in pursuing this plan.
Wo. CaINn

The following three abstracts were published in the University of
North Carolina Record No. 179, Graduate School Series No. 2, August
1920.

In REGARD TO SPECIES AND Sponces. By H.V. Wilson. The Scien-
tific Monthly, October, 1919.

A comparative study of sponge species indicates that hereditary
characters are independently subject to variation such that in respect
to any one of them individuals and races occur which form close series

between far distant extremes. Such series are doubtless in many ,

cases phylogenetic ones in which the terms bear to one another the re-
lation of ancestral species and descendant. In other cases it would
seem that the terms of the series represent only different degrees in the
environmental stimuli which related protoplasms have made inde-
pendently of one another.

It is recognized that the gene theory which assumes the existence
inthe germ cell of minute units, representative of the hereditary char-
acters, is applicable to the facts stated above, as well as to the facts of
Mendelian inheritance in particular, if only we assume enough units
in the germ cell. In thus extending the theory to cover all forms of
heritable differences between organisms, 1t may be questioned whether
it retains any practical (pragmatic) value. Nevertheless it would
seem that symbolism of this sort does contribute to precision of think-
ing, if it be recognized for what it is, viz., conceptual symbolism.

It is called to mind that many today would remove the gene from
the conceptual world and give it a perceptible body, that is, they would
identify it with a chromatin granule. The known facts however do
not necessitate, according to some even contradict, this view as to the
nature of chromatin and chromosomes.

SponGcEs oF BeAuFortT(N.C.) HARBorR AND Vicinity. By W. C. George
and H. V. Wilson. Bulletin U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, XXXVI,
Document 876. 1919. (Body of the paper accepted as a thesis for
the Ph. D. degree awarded to W. C. George, 1918).

The paper includes a description of sponges present and in any de-

ib

1921] ABSTRACTS AND REVIEWS 113

gree conspicuous in the Beaufort area. Seventeen species are de-
scribed, most of them new. Of these the ‘Fishing Bank,” a bank of
coralline nature with a West Indian fauna, to seaward of Beaufort In-
let, has yielded four. Collecting on the sea-beaches was incidental,
most material so collected being unfit for precise study. The bulk of
the sponges are harbor forms, at least eight sufficiently abundant to be
available for investigations of an experimental nature. The occur-
rence of a minute horny sponge of very simple character, designated
Pleraplysilla latens, is noteworthy, both because horny sponges as a
group inhabit more southern waters and because of the morphological
simplicity of the form.

The families, subfamilies, and genera represented are defined, and
the paper may thus be used for purposes of identification. A con-
siderable amount of comparative data falling under the general head
of variation is recorded, and in the case of a number of the genera there
is discussion of the facts on which they rest. The illustrations, of en-
tire sponges and microscopic preparations, are for the most part photo-
graphic.

ASYMMETRICAL REGULATION IN ANURAN EmBryos WITH Spina bifida
Derect. By H. V. Wilson and Blackwell Markham. Journal Ex-
perimental Zoology, XXX. 1920. (Body of the paper accepted as a
thesis for the M. A. degree awarded to Blackwell Markham,
1918.)

Abnormal embryos and larvae of the frog and toad are described,
the developmental processes in which add to our knowledge of what is
called the regulatory power of organisms. This is the power which
enables an organism, lower adult or embryo of higher form, to restore
or develop the typical form of body, after the destruction or amputa-
tion of a part of the whole, or after some interference in development
which blocks the normal course of differentiation. In the particular
cases described the normal backward growth of the axial structures of
the embryonic body, such as notochord and spinal cord, is prevented.
In a well-known type of embryo of this sort the tissue of the blastopore
lips, two stripes which diverge from the posterior end of the embryonic
body, becomes organized, each stripe forming a half spinal cord, half
notochord, etc., the half structures gradually coming together (process
of ‘concrescence’) in the median line to form a complete spinal cord,
complete notochord, ete. But in the embryos here described a dif-
ferent and asymmetrical kind of regulation is employed. Instead of
both streaks (blastopore lips) organizing and fusing, only one streak

114 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [December

organizes. It organizes however in such a way as to produce not a
half but the whole, that is, both right and left halves of the trunk of
the body. Thus the end result, the production of a typical form, may
be reached by very different paths. This variety in the fundamental
formative processes of which an embryo is capable makes it impossible
to think of development as at bottom a deterministic process, viz., as
one in which the embryo is a machine composed of (self-propagative)
parts each the material cause and origin of a particular portion of the
body.

1? in

\ \
JOURNAL
Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society
Volume XXXVII MARCH Nos. 3 and 4
ISOTOPES

By FRANCIS P. VENABLE

The fundamental conception in chemistry is that of the atom. The
atomic theory is the basis of all explanations offered as to the consti-
tution of matter and such reactions and other changes as may cecur
in matter. The atom is possessed of certain characteristics or proper-
ties that distinguish it. It has even been suggested that an atom is
a bundle of properties. The mass or weight of the atom has been as-
sumed to be an unvarying property and hence to be classed as a con-
stant of nature.

The determination of one of these constants, which after all means
an attempt at measuring the attraction exerted by other masses of
matter upon it, is of course relative in its results and beset by many
difficulties and chances for error. At first the methods used were too
erude and the results obtained too inaccurate to justify any conelu-
sions as to the unvarying nature of these so-called constants, but with
the improvements in apparatus, methods, and manipulation there was
reached a degree of confidence which caused some investigators to
question the constancy of the atomic weights. Schiitzenberger, Bout-
lerow, and others raised this question but no satisfactory conclusion
could be reached so long as the possibility of error in such determi-
nations was unavoidable. There was, however, a persistent suspicion
that changes in the atomic weights might occur in the course of chemi-
cal reactions. To refute this we have the well-known experiment of
Landolt which proved that within the limits of experimental accuracy
no change in the sum of the total interacting weights of matter can
be detected when chemical action takes place. For the usual routine
work of the chemist, then, it can be taken for granted that the weight

[115]

116 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society [March

of the atom is an inyariable or constant quantity. It is to be noted
however, that the proof is not absolute, and furthermore that while
the sum total weight might have been found to be the same the pos-
sibility of change in single atoms was not excluded.

As explanatory of some of his results Crookes, in his classical in-
vestigation of the rare earths, threw out the suggestion that in the
course of reactions, and such have taken place throughout untold
periods of time, changes might be wrought in certain of the atoms
under the stresses to which they had been subjected. These he called
‘‘worn atoms.’’ If this were so, then the determinations, in which vast
numbers of atoms are dealt with, could give only the average of all
atoms concerned as the weight of one. It is manifest that chemical
methods alone could not give a satisfactory answer to such a question
as this, but after nearly half a century the same conclusion has been
practically reached through the use of modern methods, largely phy-
sical. It would seem that in a number of cases at least our accepted
atomic weights represent an average weight only.

The announcement of the Periodic System by Mendeleeff induced
a renewed and increased interest in the atomic weights and their de-
termination. This system showed that when the elements were ar-
ranged in an ascending series according to the increase in their atomic
weights they fell into certain periods and groupings which brought
out remarkable relations as to chemical and physical properties. By
means of this system Mendeleeff was enabled to predict the existence
of certain elements at that time unknown, and to give a fairly accurate
description of them and their properties. These predictions were, for
the most part, confirmed soon afterwards and the system took its place
in science as a natural system.

It is important to note, however, that in drawing up his ascending
series Mendeleeff relied more upon the properties of the elements than
upon the atomic weights. His boldness in pointing out places to be
filled by yet undiscovered elements testifies to this, and still more the
fact that in certain cases where there was conflict between the phys-
ical properties and the atomic weight in deciding the position of an
element in the series he unhesitatingly adopted the properties as the
deciding factor so that so far as these elements are concerned it is not
a Strictly ascending series of atomic weights. This transposition was
quite allowable at a time when most of the atomic weights had been
only inadequately investigated. In the cases where this liberty was

1922] ISOTOPES EF.

taken the atomic weights fell very close together and it was within
reason to think that the probable error lay there. The two chief in-
stances were those of Te and I; Co and Ni. During the following
years many determinations were made to settle this discrepancy. The
differences between them were under one-half of a unit but they were
real and persistent. Some suggested the existence of companion ele-
ments which could not be separated. Indeed Kritiss announced the
discovery and separation of such a companion element with nickel
which, if removed, would leave the atomic weight of nickel greater
than that of cobalt and thus justify Mendeleeff in so placing it in the
series. Kriiss died shortly afterwards and his supposed discovery has
never been confirmed. The proof that Mendeleeff was right in placing
these elements as he did was finally brought about through the reve-
lations of radioactivity. This much was evident from the first, how-
ever, namely, that each element had its definite position in a series,
or place in a system not artificially arranged but forming a natural
order. In this orderly arrangement two factors decide the position
of the element. These are the mass and the electrical content. That
the elements were electrically charged was recognized by Davy within
a few years after the announcement of the atomic theory.

The clear exposition of the inter-relationship of the elements and
their arrangement in a definite order practically placed their com-
posite nature beyond question and their genesis became a subject of
speculation. Of course Prout had been the first to enter this field,
but so far as he was concerned it was a sheer guess without foundation
in fact or logic and should never have received the attention given it.
So, too, the later hypotheses lacked fundamental data, though some
of the guesses were shrewdly near the developments of these latter
- years.

While it was definitely settled that each known element had its
definite place in the series, no especial import was placed upon the
relative number of this position. This is now known as the atomic
number and can be determined accurately by physical means. It was
first accomplished by radioactive methods but Moseley’s marvelous
application of the defining power of quartz crystal to the definition
of the x-rays emitted by each element under a bombardment by nega-
tive elections has superseded all other methods. The spectra so ob-
tained reveal an orderly shifting of certain groups of lines. Begin-
ning with any one element, the position of all others in the series can

118 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | March

be determined. In other words, the atomic number of any element can
be found in this way.

Radioactivity has solved the constitution of the atom. Ruther-
ford’s disintegration theory and his demonstration of the building
up of the helium atom have finally settled that problem. We now
know that the atom is built up of positive and negative electricity
according to Rutherford’s conception, a positive nucleus of alpha par-
ticles surrounded by a field of negative electrons. The discussion of
this or other atomic models is apart from the object of this paper.

The Periodic System represented the place occupied by an element
in the series as primarily a function of its mass, but in reality. mass
is secondary and the electrical content is the chief factor. As already
stated there are two variables in the structure of each atom—mass and
electrical content. The former decides the position of the element in
the vertical columns of the Periodic Table and the latter decides the
position in the horizontal columns. In consequence of the influence
of the electrical content, Soddy reasons that a chemical element is not
necessarily homogeneous and its atomic weight may be, and possibly
is generally, a mean value rather than a natural constant. The fact
that some elements are known to be radio-active—that is, with some
of their atoms undergoing disintegration—that even such elements as
potassium and rubidium are subject to a slow disintegration of their
atoms which involves the formation of atoms of lesser mass, brings
the thought near that possibly all elements are subject to the same
process of change except that the rate is too slow to admit of detection
by such instrumentalities as have hitherto been used. Quite recently
the statement has been made that by means of a new device it has been
found possible to detect and register the expulsion of one alpha par-
ticle from zine in every nine and a half hours. So far as I know, this -
has not been confirmed. But enough is definitely known to bring us
back to the worn atoms of Crookes.

The addition of some thirty or forty new elements known as radio-
active elements but having valid claims to recognition as real elements
puts too severe a strain upon the Periodic Table as conceived and con-
structed. This is far in excess of the number of vacant places, espe-
cially when one reflects that the rare earths which have been shifted
from place to place are still dissatisfied with their accommodations.
Making use of the two variables named above, it was found that a few
of these radioactive -elements—as, for instance, radium emanation,

1922] ISOTOPES 119

which belongs to the group of the monatomic gases—found lodgment
in some of these vacant places; but the great majority fall in places
already occupied by well-known elements. Thus seven fall in the place
occupied by lead. This necessitates the use of the same atomic number
for eight elements. These radioactive elements possess identical chem-
ical characteristics with lead and can not be separated by chemical
means. The minute amount of the radioactive elements available ren-
ders a comparison of the spectra difficult. In a number of cases they
are known to be identical and according to Soddy’s theory should be,
but certain generalizations (as that of Hicks) are opposed to this
view.

The name isotope was adopted by Soddy to designate these ele-
ments. The word means same place. Thus RaG is an isotope of lead;
RaC is an isotope of bismuth. No strictly chemical means for separat-
ing these elements is known. In the same way ionium and thorium
are isotopes and there are three other isotopes in that place in the
Periodie System.

As these isotopes have different physical properties, they can be
separated sometimes by means of these. The question then arises as
to whether in case the atoms of an element are not homogeneous they
can be separated or detected by physical methods. J. J. Thompson in
1913 devised a method involving the use of the deflecting influence
upon the trajectory of an ion by the simultaneous application of elec-
trie and magnetic fields and thus obtained evidence of the existence
of heterogeneous particles. In some eases further examinations show
these to be different molecular aggregations rather than new elements.
Thus in hydrogen besides Hy the presence of Hz was proved and
there was a possibility of other hydrogen molecules being there. The
atomic weight of hydrogen is 1.008. The fractional portion can now
be safely regarded as due to an admixture of these heavier molecules.
To call such molecular aggregations isotopes would be a serious de-
parture from the original definition of the term. They are not dis-
tinet and different elements. The term is sometimes carelessly used
in the case of molecular aggregations of hydrogen, and other elements
and this must lead to needless confusion of ideas.

An examination of the monatomic gas neon, whose atomic weight
is given as 20.2 reveals the presence of a companion gas having an
atomic weight of 22. This corresponds with no known element and
the new element is called meta-neon. A physical investigation of at-

120 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [March

mospheric neon was then undertaken by Aston. Fractionations by
charcoal absorption yielded no results, but fractional diffusion resulted
in a partial separation of the two gases. They showed the same
properties and gave identical spectra, differing only in atomic weight.
More recently the possible existence of another isotope with the atomic
weight 21 has been shown.

It would seem that heterogeneity has been proved in more than
twenty of the common non-radioactive elements. The investigations
have been carried on chiefly by the method of Thomson in which the
negative electrons were separated and differentiated, and that of Aston
in which the positive particles were examined by the application of
similar means to the canal rays. Diffusion methods have also been
applied with partial success. From the results obtained by either
the Thomson or the Aston method the atomic weights can be accurately
ealeulated. It is interesting to note that the results from the Aston
method give as whole numbers the atomic weights of all the elements
examined.

From the examination of chlorine it was found that there were
present two distinct elements having the atomic weights of 35 and 37
respectively. There was a possibility of another in much smaller
amount with the weight 39. The atomic weight of ordinary chlorine is
35.47 and this is correct to the second decimal place. It is composed
mainly of chlorine 35 plus chlorine 37. The relative amounts of these
present have been determined and the atomic weight confirmed.

In argon a companion element was found in very small amount
and this had the atomic weight 36. Krypton gives definite evidence
of being a mixture of five isotopes and possibly six. The atomic
weights are 84, 86, 82, 83, 80, 78. Xenon also shows the presence
of five isotopes with possibilities of two more.

The remaining ten in the list of Aston are homogeneous as to atoms
but heterogeneous as to molecules. These are H, He, C, N, O, F, P,
S, As, and I. In these cases only two variants were found in each
mixture.

There is a very striking fact regarding the isotope of helium which
was discovered by Rutherford and found to have the mass 3. jAston
gives it the atomic weight 4, the same as helium, and that means from
his calculations some multiple of 4. It is proper to state that Ruther-
ford has questioned the correctness of Aston’s deductions. If Ruther-
ford is right, this coincides with the mass of the hydrogen isotope

1922] IsoTOPES 121

Hz, which was discovered by Thomson, confirmed by Aston, and di-
rectly prepared by the activation of H by Wendt and Landauer
(Amer. Chem. Soe. 1920. 42: 920). Thus we have the two with the
same mass—one an isotope of helium and the other a molecular aggre-
gation of hydrogen. They are entirely different in properties.

Soddy (Lond. Chem. Soc. Ann. Rep. XVII. 221) writes as fol-
lows concerning the Aston methods:

The methods depend on the same general principles as those (of Thomson)
which sufficed to detect the presence of meta-neon, of atomic mass 22, in
atmospheric neon but the electromagnetic and electrostatic deviating fields are
rearranged in such a way as to secure an effect precisely analogous to focus-
sing in optics. The trajectories of the positive ions in a slightly divergent beam
are brought to a focus in a plane containing the photographic plate. All those
for which the mass divided by the charge is the same are brought to the same
point in the plane, those with greater or less values, respectively, being on
either side. The complex pencil is resolved into a ‘‘mass spectrum’’ in every
respect analogous to a light spectrum produced by a prism or grating. The terms
‘first-order and second-order mass spectrum’’ are used to denote spectra pro-
duced by ions singly and doubly charged respectively. The existence of ions
with more than one unit of charge introduces a complication but fortunately
these are experimental peculiarities which enable the two orders usually*to be
distinguished without uncertainty. The relative mass of the ion causing any line
in the spectrum can so be evaluated to an accuracy of one part in a thousand
and the atomic mass determined to a degree of accuracy comparable with that
attained in the best determinations of the atomic weight by chemical means.
Incidentally, the complete agreement between the two in many cases affords
much the most important evidence of the constancy between mass and weight
for different elements. :

Apart from a possible uncertainty, already alluded to, as to the orders of
spectrum to which any line belongs, the photographs published reveal the great
power and accuracy of the new method. Unfortunately, only non-metallic ele-
ments have so far been included. The difficulties in the way of examining
metallic elements by this means have not yet been overcome. In every case,
except hydrogen, the atomic mass of each homogeneous component proves to be
an exact integer in terms of that of oxygen as 16, within the error of meas-
urement already stated. For hydrogen, however, the chemical value 1.008 is ex-
actly confirmed and its homogeneity proved.

In the year or two that have elapsed since the above citation was
written by Soddy several new isotopic elements have been discovered,
among them those accompanying certain metals as K, Rb, Mg, and Zn,
so some of the difficulties which impeded progress have been overcome.
Likewise certain of the atomic weights as determined by. chemical
means have been very exactly confirmed. Furthermore, Harkins has

122 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | March

recently drawn attention to the inadequacy of the designation ‘‘atomie
number.’’ He suggests as a substitute ‘‘element number’’ but this
seems equally inadequate. The truth is, it is merely a position number
and no longer represents either single atoms or simple elements.

In his address as president before the recent meeting of the British
Association, Thorpe says:

The term atomic weight has thus acquired for the chemist an altogether new
and much wider significance. It has long been recognized that it has a much
deeper import than as a constant useful in chemical arithmetic. For the ordinary
purposes of quantitative analysis, of technology, and of trade these constants
may be said to be now known with sufficient accuracy. But in view of their
bearing on the great problem of the essential nature of matter and on the super-
latively grand question, ‘‘What is the inner mechanism of the atom?’’ they
become of supreme importance. Their determination and study must now be
approached from entirely new standpoints and by the conjoint action of chemists
and physicists.

In conelusion, I ask you and myself the question: How shall we
now define the element in the light of these new and wonderful reve-
lations? Years ago in an address before the American Association I
pointed out how often in the history of science we had been forced
to change the definition because of new developments and how shifting
were the sands upon which it was based. The homogeneity so fer-
vently relied upon in our textbooks must be abandoned as the hetero-
geneity of their component particles has been made manifest. One
stand is left to us and it has the appearance of permanence. However
heterogeneous physically, these component particles are homogeneous
chemically. In fact, the sole difference seems to be that of mass. For
the present, then, the definition may safely run: The masses of all
elements are composed of chemically similar particles. So long as this
is true the chemist at least need not disturb himself. Of course, there
always looms before us the fact of atomic disintegration.

CHAPEL HILL, N. C.

SOME CONSIDERATIONS IN DEFENSE OF THE GENERAL
BIOLOGY COURSE
By J. P. GIvLErR

In the teaching of elementary courses in the biological sciences in
America two main policies have been developed during the past half
century. In one, the beginning student is introduced to plant biology
or animal biology through the medium of a course in Botany or Zo-
ology as a distinct entity. The other method, originating. with Huxley,
is to organize into a single elementary course forms from both plant
and animal ‘‘kingdoms’”’ to show their essential agreements or to bring
out their contrasts.

The history of the two policies is well known. The separate course
system had its origin in systematic Botany and Zoology since Linnaeus
and before his time, through Cuvier and others in Europe and into
America principally through the elder Agassiz and Asa Gray at Har-
vard. The animus of the General Biology Course, on the other hand,
came up from Greek thought, with the viewpoint of the naturalist,
out of which the selection theory gained expression through Darwin
and Wallace.

Parallel with this naturalistic expression developed the general-
izations based upon the discovery of the meaning of the cell and of
protoplasm which generalizations have become incorporated with the
Doctrine of Organic Evolution.

About sixty years ago Huxley seized the essential features of this
eell-protoplasm-evolution complex and, with rare educational genius,
framed it in clear outline for the beginner and layman. In this he
doubtless secured assistance from Foster and Dyer and inspiration
from Darwin.

Each of these systems of elementary instruction has its peculiar
virtues. That involving separate courses has the advantage of a more
restricted field and, further, clings mainly to fact through the dis-
ciplines of morphology and taxonomy, while the General Biology
Course is animated mainly by ideas and principles from the spirit of
the generalizations which gave it birth.

As is commonly known the teaching of General Biology entered
this country with H. Newell Martin, the physiologist, an early student
of Huxley’s, and radiated out from Johns Hopkins into a great many
institutions in the East and West. During the forty-odd years which

[123]

124 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [March

have elapsed since that time many changes have taken place. The
number of colleges and universities including some kind of Biology in
their curricula, then small, has multiplied into the hundreds. With
this has come about a vast increase in the number and viewpoints of
teachers, their leaders primarily interested, as investigators, in ex-
tending our knowledge into new fields of an ever broadening and deep-
ening science.

Along with this must also be reckoned the profound influence of
German science upon that of America. As complained of by Professor
Carmichael* our science has become practically an appendage of that
of Europe (and especially of Germany) as witnessed by the character
of the research in most departments of American universities. These
various exhaustive and extensive research programs pursued by lead-
ing professors and the ‘‘schools’’ which they represent demand dis-
tinct limitation in the scientific interests of the workers which, unfor-
tunately, spells the extinction of the general point of view.

The General Biology Course, on the other hand, was born out of
a more generalized condition and in a day of more limited knowledge.
Uniting the genius of interpreter with that of investigator, Huxley
was able to organize out of simple materials a course of great suggest-
iveness and value which undoubtedly stimulated many students. The
pedagogical theory underlying the course was that each type is both
broadly suggestive in itself and also that, through their sequence,
evolutionary progress is epitomized. The inclusion of both plant and
animal types was defended on the ground ‘‘that the study of living
bodies is really one discipline, which is divided into Zoology and
Botany simply as a matter of convenience.”’

In the second edition of their textbook Huxley and Martin re-
versed the order of animal forms, beginning with the frog, running
down to the Protozoa and then up on the plant side to the Anwiosperm.

From that day to this we have had an unending series of experi-
ments in the pedagogy of General Biology among writers in English
recalled by the names of Parker, Gibson, Dodge, Boyer, Wells, Need-
ham, Hamaker, Sedgwick and Wilson, Abbott, Conn, Calkins and
others. Each of these books seems to be the embodiment of a sincere
attempt to frame ‘‘a general biology’’ for the beginner in somewhat
the spirit of one writing an introduction to philosophy.

They disclose many influences. The book by Sedgwick and Wilson,

* Carmichael, R. D., Science, Apr. 1, 1921.

1922] DEFENSE OF THE GENERAL BioLoGy COURSE 125

really an unfinished task, apparently attempts to combine the Hux-
leyan unified view of nature with a strong leaning toward the typi-
cally German love of multitudinous details in its rather exhaustive
treatment of the fern and the earthworm. Continual experimentation
in the order or sequence of presentation of types characterizes these
many elementary textbooks.

The earlier, and we believe the better, of these works developed
directly out of Huxley’s influence and, like that of their master, were
based solidly on the idea of comparative general morphology and phys-
iology. An example of these, and in our judgment, the best that
has ever been written, both from a biological as well as from a literary
standpoint, is Jeffrey Parker’s ‘‘Lessons in Elementary Biology.’’
This book embodies the virtuous realization that the student knows
only the types presented which must serve as the tangible and material
embodiment of the principles drawn therefrom.

Unfortunately this fine common sense is nearly absent from many
later works in which both author and reader seem to struggle vainly
to get feet on solid ground. Many such works embody the results of
recent and unconfirmed research, talk much about enzyme action or
accessory chromosomes, and give the student the notion that he must
reach up and pluck general principles out of thin air.

Much poor teaching has been done in the name of ‘‘General Biol-
ogy,’’ and I revoice some of the criticisms of Professor Nichols* of
the Yale Sheffield Scientific School, who not long ago published a de-
tailed attack upon the value of this type of course. While believing
that his views result, in the main, from bias, many of his points are
well taken.

Many courses, printed and unprinted, have been futile primarily
because their builders fail to recognize the basic principle of any type
course—tlat the types presented embody the realities from which both
wider knowledge must spring and on which principles must rest. If
this be true for distinct courses in Zoology and Botany, where subject-
matter is more limited, it is much more the case in General Biology
where the student’s thinking may range over a wider field.

In our view the essential principle of a course in General Biology
is that it be a series of elementary lessons upon a logically arranged
series of suggestive type forms. The course should be conducted by
a broadly-trained biologist with a view to developing in the student

* Nichols, G. E., Science, Dec. 5, 1919.

126 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | March

the attitude of the appeal to nature for facts, upon which accurate
thinking is based, as well as that liberation of the spirit which comes
from reflection upon their broader meaning.

From the standpoint of the student there are two considerations
of importance. First, which method will give him the best scientific
training in Biology while providing a single view of the entire field
of living things, granted that he may find time for no further work
in Biology? Second, which method would be preferable in case he
decides to go further or finally become a specialist? These complex
questions are, in a measure, bound up with the nature of the eurricu-
lum for, after all, a college exists largely for the purpose of sampling
the stock knowledges which have come down to us with our social in-
heritance. Biology purports to give an interpretation of the hving
world. This is a large order, so the student rightfully expects a clear
panorama and a guide thereto. In our judgment this is best sup-
plied by a course in General Biology whether he elects to go farther
or not.

The study of plants and animals together in their agreements and
contrasts seems to us especially desirable. In our daily lives we deal
with complex situations which have little in common beside the fact
of their complexity. We learn more about these situations by econ-
trasting them, the learning process, in life, progressing with the ability
to drop out unessential factors. For this the training offered by work
in General Biology may afford some practice. Moreover, biologically,
the essential characters of organisms as plants, on the one hand, or as
animals, on the other, are best brought out by comparison and con-
trast. As, in a course in General Biology, this is done on material
common to the several biological fields, it seems to us that a course
of this character forms the best possible introduction for either the
future botanist or zoologist.

But we are not usually teaching for the benefit of the future spe-
cialist. Our task, mainly, is to feed the prospective citizen with food
meet for his symmetrical development. For him, especially, do we
see in the well-organized course in General Biology the best possible
introduction to a balanced view of the facts of life as it not only
epitomizes living nature but also the nature of things throughout time
out of which man was evolved. Here we do not find plants by them-
selves nor animal life apart but rather that symbiotic relationship for
the appreciation of which, in one balanced view, General Biology
should stand.

1922] DEFENSE OF THE GENERAL BIOLOGY COURSE 127

That this is not more often satisfactorily done seems to us to be
due both to lack of pedagogical sense and judgment and also to the
restrictions imposed by too special an early training. Sometimes, also,
a very conscientious instructor makes the mistake of being too thor-
ough, overloads his types with too many lessons, or chooses the wrong
ones for them, reasonably, to illustrate. For example, on visiting a
very good college some time ago, I found the notion manifest that, in
presenting Amoeba in General Biology, every possible aspect and
viewpoint should be stressed,—occurrence, distribution in time and in
geographical range, morphology, taxonomy, habits, behavior, oecology,
ete. This would, in our judgment, be a proper method for excluding
normal students from the course. Moreover, each of the disciplines
referred to above was visited upon all succeeding types, seriatim.
This is mechanical thoroughness at the expense of both common and
artistic sense, and course-making worth the name demands both.

In another highly-esteemed college the biologist incorporates in a
similar course the notion that it makes no difference at all what par-
ticular specimen the student works upon. To begin with one studies
an amoeba, another an infusorian, another an alga or diatom or ento-
mostracan or annelid. ‘‘Why worry?’’ They each and all embody
the principles of Biology! Moreover, the lectures seem to have nothing
to do with the work done in the laboratory.

j/Among many such teachers is the idea prevalent that “‘it is per-
sonality that educates.’’ All true, but in this case admirable person-
ality survived in spite of handicaps. As well say ‘‘let us away with
mere educational disciplines and converse with our students about
what-not.’’

Nor can one justify the hodge-podge of throwing in now a few
animal forms, now a few plants to insure variety. The brighter stu-
dents soon get the idea that Biology is a sort of potpourri, a ‘‘footless
science,’’ as a physician once expressed it to me. However, a reason-
able sense of the spirit and educational philosophy back of good Gen-
eral Biology teaching demands that each type be bulwarked with two
sets of defenses, one for its individual] justification, the other for its
right to its place in the sequence in which it stands. In this inheres
what might be called ‘‘the dramatic unities,’’ a good course needing
to resemble a drama to have human and intellectual appeal. Let us
reiterate, also, that there is no such thing in science or literature as
a continued climax. The plot must be broken up into divisions which
are climactic in their sequence.

2

128 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [March

With these considerations bearing on the nature and econduet of
courses in General Biology it remains to be stated that an elementary
course of this character appears to become increasingly justified by
each new large development in Biology. The essential agreements in
ultimate structure between animals and plants brought out by Sehlei-
den and Sehwann, by Max Schultze, by the selection theory and other
hypotheses of evolution have been extended by more recent studies
on chromosomes and on the mechanism of hereditary transmission.
For the justification of the already strategic position of General Biol-
ogy in the middle-ground between the two great ‘‘kingdoms’’ it is im-
portant to realize that none of these great developments, above named,
sprang solely from Botany or Zoology as such but always from laws
inherent in the nature of both. If we can judge of the future from
the past it seems reasonable to predict that the biological generaliza-
tions of the twentieth century, like those of the nineteenth, must
emerge from similar common sources.

The General Biology Course gives also a peculiar advantage for
the presentation of the facts of symbiosis and of interdependence be-
tween plants and animals. This aspect has been developed extensively
in the textbook by J. G. Needham, and the emphasis is legitimate, for
in nature living forms have not evolved alone but as factors of an
interdependent symbiogenetic complex of processes. Further, from
a broader physico-chemical world view, in the light of Professor Hen-
derson’s work on ‘‘The Fitness of the Environment,’’ we gain even
a fuller confidence, that as an introduction to the principles of the
science and as the most rational type of course for the beginner, Gen-
eral Biology is beyond all question superior to distinct courses in
Zoology and Botany.

If it be urged that this type of course is too dependent upon the
ability and personality of the teacher the answer is that the success
of any course is likewise largely thus dependent. No subject will
teach itself.

Although biological principles in education are not always to be
taken literally, as shown by the misuse of the biogenetic law as ap-
plied to primary education, there are here applicable suggestive evolu-
tionary principles which are of interest. The principal lesson of evolu-
tion is not that man is an unfolded amoeba but that all life is one.
Further, no evolutionary principle is more important than that the
ereat groups of living forms, surcharged with capacity for adaptive

1922 | DEFENSE OF THE GENERAL BIoLOGY COURSE 129

radiation, have sprung from generalized ancestors low down on the
main stem of the evolutionary tree. In the organization of scientific
courses the analogy seems justified that the more generalized the ap-
proach the wider its suggestiveness, the greater the possibilities of
future adaptation on a firm substructure into a widely-ranging gamut
of specialized possibilities.

It is further our belief that General Biology should be prerequisite
to beginning courses in Zoology and Botany as such, as well as for
special work in Bacteriology and Physiology in which courses pro-
grams of laboratory work and lectures may be organized of much
greater strength and thoroughness than would be possible with stu-
dents having no such general background. A further advantage in-
heres in the fact that such courses in Botany, Zoology, or other special
fields, attract mainly only those who feel some beginnings of a special
interest and fitness for work in these specialized directions. An econ-
omy of both equipment and effort is thus effected.

THE NortH CAROLINA COLLEGE FOR WOMEN.
GREENSBORO, N. C.

NOTES ON THE OECOLOGY AND LIFE-HISTORY OF THE
TEXAS HORNED LIZARD, PHRYNOSOMA CORNUTUM
y By J. BP. Givinr

It was my privilege during two summers spent in a study of Phry-
nosoma in southern Kansas* to observe and record many facts of
bionomie interest in relation to this well-known creature. The region
named also made available for study directly in the field, in comparison
with Phrynosoma, representatives of several other genera and four
families of Lacertilia. In the laboratory comparative studies were
made of general morphology, reproductive organs, eggs and embryos.

The following account is intended to serve as a record of some of
these observations and to present in one view a brief account of the
bionomics of reproduction of this reptile.

EMERGENCE FROM HIBERNATION

In southern Kansas the Texas Horned Lizard comes forth about
May first. When the ‘‘toads’’ first appear in the spring they are
thin and emaciated, sluggish, and very dark in color. jAt first the
males greatly preponderate over the females in numbers, being in the
ratio of three or four males to one female. Later the females emerge
in greater numbers, tending to equalize the sexes.

From the beginning of their life, ex-hiberna, their activity is de-
pendent, principally, upon the sun’s light and heat. In the morning
they are very sluggish and, when touched, will scarcely move. Later,
as they become warmed by the sun, they run about, seek ants and
other insects as food and move with a sudden characteristic impetu-
osity. They are warned at the slightest sound or movement and fre-
quently stop to raise and lower themselves by their front legs, an
amusing habit to be appreciated fully only by those who have seen it.

During these early days of spring the Phrynosomas mate freely,
the preponderance of males at the outstart, as well as the gradual
emergence of the females, insuring the insemination of all of the latter.
This is attested to by the fact that, among hundreds of eggs studied,
only one was found infertile.

SEXUAL DIMORPHISM

Winton (714) states for this species observed farther south that,
especially in early spring, the yellow cervical crescents are much

* Winfield and vicinity.
[130]

1922] NoTEes ON THE TEXAS HorNep Lizarp 131

brighter in the females than in the males. This we were never able
to find true of our Kansas specimens. Also, while Bryant (’11) states
for the entire genus Phrynosoma, that ‘‘the presence of enlarged post-
anal scales in the male is a dependable character for determining
sex,’’ we have not been able to observe such difference in P. cornutum
from southern Kansas and northern Oklahoma. In my experience
positive separation of the sexes may be made in this species on the
following criteria of body form.

The torso of the males, between axilla and groin, is short and cir-
cular; of the females long and elliptical. The tail in the males is
longer and distinctly swollen at the root, both laterally and ventrally,
due to the contained hemipenes. The tail in the female is shorter and
tapers more rapidly from its base backward. It also lacks the basal
swellings. The sex of juveniles may likewise be determined on these
criteria while that of advanced embrycs is apparent from the presence
or absence of hemipenes.

THE OVARIES

In females opened early in May and prior to ovulation the ovaries
present an interesting picture. Most conspicuous in each is a collection
of about sixteen large eggs, yellow in color, at first about 7 mm. in
diameter but later swelling to 8 or 9 mm. at the time of ovulation,
surrounded by delicate follicles and globular in form except for flat-
tening due to mutual pressure.

While the number in each group is not constant there tend to be
sixteen, making a total for the two ovaries of about thirty-two large
eggs ready for ovulation. In some cases there are but ten or twelve
eggs in each large group, in others, and but rarely, seventeen or
eighteen.

Examined separately, each egg displays a germinal disc clearly
visible through the follicle and directed toward the point of attach-
ment in the mesovarium. The dise is white, circular and about 14%
mm. in diameter. The borders, although fairly distinct, shade into
the surrounding yolk. At the center of the dise is a small, yet dis-
tinet, nucleus, about 0.5 mm. in diameter, and clearly discernible in
good light to the unaided eye.

Dorsad of these groups of large eggs ready for laying are to be
found, in each ovary, eggs of smaller size, two to three mm. in diam-
eter, and provided, each, with a small amount of yolk. These smaller

132 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | March

eges are, in each ovary, divided into two groups, one placed laterally,
the other mesially in relation to the mesovarium.

Still further dorsad, or lying among, this second group of eggs,
are ova of a third order as to size, as yet clear and apparently alecithal.

The condition here observed obtains, doubtless, in many other
vertebrates which show a strictly annual periodicity in their egg-lay-
ing. So far as we know ovulation in this species takes place rather
suddenly, the thirty-two-odd ripe follicles undergoing dehiscence
within a few hours, leaving the empty follicles to be resorbed and al-
lowing the next order, or half-grown eggs, to develop to full size during
the year following. Meantime the third, or smallest group, from
among the remaining od6gonia, acquires yolk in its turn. Thus, in
Phrynosoma, we observe, in correlation with an annual periodicity in
egg-group ovulation, an annual initiation of yolk-secretion by the
follicles of groups of undeveloped odcytes against the layings of future
years. According to the terms of this hypothesis the secretion of the
yolk of any egg requires two years.

THE OVIDUCTS

In birds the ova are treated seriatim by the oviduct in the laying
down upon them of the albumen, shell-membranes, and shell. The ovi-
duct of the Horned Lizard, on the contrary, is adapted to the simul-
taneous investment with albumen and shell of sixteen or more eggs
carried tandem in its coils. A seriation in this process along the two
ege-strings is practically absent, the albumen, which is serous in con-
sistency and very smal] in amount, as well as the shell, being evidently
secreted by the same region of the duct in situ rather than by suc-
cessive regions traversed by the egg in its course.

OVULATION AND EARLY DEVELOPMENT

From a number of observations it is evident that, in Phrynosoma,
maturation occurs immediately prior to ovulation and that fertiliza-
tion ensues immediately upon the entrance of the egg into the ostium.
In studies of lacertilian embryology the securing of segmentation
stages 1s, however, very difficult. The writer was able to confirm the
statement of Peter (’04) that there is no relation between the time
of copulation and that of ovulation. Further, the same female may
copulate more than once.

Having no way to tell the exact hour of ovulation no method has,

1922] Notes ON THE Texas HorNep Lizarp 133

to date, been published whereby the early segmentation stages might be
found except by accident. Thus the series of embryos of Lacerta
agilis, described and figured by Peter in his Normentafel, required
six summers to complete.

In my work on Phrynosoma, after much practice in external palpa-
tion as well as in dissection of apparently gravid females, it became
possible, in many eases, by palpation only, to distinguish between
ovarian eggs and those which had passed into the ducts. The mass
of large ovarian eggs is always smaller in area and more dense, that
of the ovidueal eggs more diffuse and softer. I found, however, that
the two conditions, unfortunately, merge at just the critical time, 7. e.,
with approaching ovulation the ovarian eggs become larger, softer,
and less well-defined, which condition merges with that of the early
ovidueal ova.

After much vexation caused by the sacrificing of females in which
ovulation had not yet occurred and others in which the embryos were
too far advanced, and after seeking, in vain, aid through use of the
flouroscope, I discovered that exploratory operations do the creatures
practically no harm and hold out much promise for future success
in this field of embryology. The animals recover and may be opened
and sewed up again several times. If seeking segmentation stages one
may thus await ovulation. If the eggs have passed into the ducts one
of the latter may be dissected loose, ligatured at base and removed
with its eggs, the other being left to develop further.

It is interesting to observe that, whereas we are unable to explain
the cause of ovulation the dehiscence of about thirty-two large folli-
cles takes place, so far as we know, almost simultaneously. A change
sO momentous requires an adequate cause. Up to the time of ovulation
the ova are held firmly in their follicles. (There are no visible cica-
trices in Phrynosoma.) Then, suddenly, the ova are all shelled out and
rapidly engulfed by the ostia.

The time-relation between copulation and ovulation has been much
studied by vertebrate embryologists with two main results. In some
vertebrates, as in the rabbit, a definite interval (nine or ten hours)
has been found to exist. In others, as the lizards, there is no known
time-relation.

Although we have no evidence to that effect it is our belief that
ovulation in Phrynosoma must depend upon the liberation of a hor-

134 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [March

mone,—where, and under what circumstances secreted we are now un-
able to state.

GENERAL FEATURES OF EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

In the correlation of stages in lacertilian embryology we are greatly
aided by the Normentafel of Peter (’04), on Lacerta agilis, in the
Keibel series. But while in general parallel, the ontogenetic develop-
ment of Phrynosoma is more extended and, in the later or foetal stages,
much more specialized than that of Lacerta. These later differences
depend but little on any diversities inherent in the two families rep-
resented but rather on the emergence of highly specialized generic
characters, such as the shortened and broadened body, horns, and
rosettes of scales, the appearance of which overpowers the more fun-
damental iguanid characters.

We are here, however, concerned with the oecology of this reptile
in relation to reproduction. As one species of Phrynosoma is vivip-
arous and others oviparous an interesting problem exists in the re-
lation of the period of egg-laying to the stage of development attained
at that time. In the common fowl the egg is laid while the embryo
is undergoing later segmentation. In lizards the eggs are usually re-
tained much longer, the coelomic cavity of the mother serving as an
incubation chamber for the eggs lying within the convoluted oviduets.
The precise stage at which laying takes place seems to be a matter of
no consequence, lending itself easily to the development of the ovo-
viviparous habit of P. douglassi, in which species the eggs hatch while
or immediately after being laid. There is reason, also, for the belief
that captivity extends the pre-laying period, in reptiles, by several
stages.

In P. cornutum I found little constancy in this matter, some laid
egos being as early as Peter’s stage 22, others as late as stage 28 or 30.
Lizards being poikilothermal much must depend on the temperature
of soil and air as well as on the time necessary for the gravid female
to find a situation suitable for a nest. Specialized generic and specific
characters also here tend to prolong the ontogenetic period within the
egg and to extend it beyond the range of Peter’s series, his final stage
(36) being comparable to Phrynosoma embryos several days and
stages removed from the laying period.

As above stated the coelomic cavity serves, during the breeding
season, as a brood-pouch, the 30 or 35 eggs packing it so full that

a =.

~~ een ae

1922] NotrEes ON THE TEXAS HORNED LizarpD 135

gravid females present a ‘‘stuffed’’ appearance. Within their leathery
shells the eggs float in a sero-albuminous liquid and so easily that the
blastoderms, after the shells are formed, invariably float upward, as
in the laid eggs of the fowl, directed toward the back of the mother
on which the rays cf the sun fall. During the first few hours after
the ova are received by the ostia, and before the shells are formed, the
germinal dises are directed cephalad, a circumstance which seems to
spell suction by the ostium, the dises of the ovarian eggs being invari-
ably directed dorsad and away from the point of dehiscence of the
follicles. j|As the body of the mother is much flattened the eggs lie
usually in but one layer and never far from the dorsal surface. The
utility of this form of body as an incubator is thus evident.

THE ROLE OF WANDERING MESENCHYME CELLS

As shown by Jarvis (08) the germ-cells of Phrynosoma arise out-
side the embryo upon the yolk-sae and migrate along the yolk-stalk to
the germinal ridges. Stockard (715), more recently, has made an
elaborate study of the rdle of wandering mesenchyme, showing its
importance in the development of Fundulus.

It was my privilege, in the examination of embryos of many stages
in Phrynosoma, under the binocular, both to observe the development
of the circulation and its course in the embryonic vessels, and also to
witness the importance of extra-embryonic amoeboid cells (wandering
mesenchyme?) which appear in large numbers in the yolk beneath
the embryo in this lizard.

Very soon after embryonic development begins these amoeboid cells
may be found, first in a thin layer and later in a disec-shaped mass, in
the thin yolk under the embryo. The mass referred to is of a yellow-
ish-green color. The individual cells are hyaline or faintly granular
and show active amoeboid movement. That these cells are important
in many ways in histogenesis seems certain. They warrant a thorough
study in this or a related reptile in the spirit of Stockard’s work on
Fundulus.

EGG-LAYING AND INCUBATION IN THE NESTS
The nest-building and egg-laying habits of this species have been
studied by Strecker (’08) in Texas and my observations are in essen-
tial agreement with his. The female digs out a slanting burrow
several inches in depth on a sloping hillside and prefers ‘a site just

136 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | March

under a projecting ledge of rock. While it may be unwarranted to
state as a general principle, all nests that I have observed faced the
east.

The burrow exeavated to such depth that the female is about hid-
den from view, she lays therein the cream-white, leathery-skinned
egos. The eggs are elliptical in form and measure 15 mm. in
length by 10 to 11 mm. in diameter. They are dropped into the
burrow one at a time. Each ege is covered over with a thin layer
of dirt, seraped down by the hind legs of the mother, before the next
egg is laid. Finally, the eggs all laid, the female packs the nest with
the remaining dirt, smoothes it off and seurries away. After a day
or two, the site is indistinguishable.

So far as known to the writer egg-laying may occur, in Kansas,
anywhere between the end of May and sometime late in July. I have
no facts to offer regarding the duration of the incubation period which

- Strecker states to be from 35 to 40 days in Texas, except that it must
vary with the stage reached at laying and the temperature.

During this entire study no aspect was more interesting than that
of the mutual fitness of the developing eggs in their envelopes with that
of their earth-nest environment, which serves as a temperature and
moisture-controlling brood-pouch. Through some inherited complex
of instincts the female selects a site combining the advantage of drain-
age, roofing, exposure to heating by the sun, and ventilation. Under
certain conditions they become turgid and swell, but shrivel like a
raisin when allowed to dry. When the latter occurs the eggs are
vulnerable to the attacks of ants, the mandibles of the insects cutting
through the folds of the shell. When the shell is turgid and smooth
the ants can do nothing of the kind.

Daily observing the creatures in their environment the realization
is born in upon one that they are literally autochthones, born of the
careful regulation of conditions in which they have evolved.

DEVELOPMENT OF CHARACTERISTIC EXTERNAL FEATURES
OF THE EMBRYO

In so brief an account but little may be said upon this subject
except to state that the early stages, as shown by the figures here
demonstrated, are characteristically reptilian. About stage 32, how-
ever, phrynosoman characters put in their appearance, the rosettes
of large dorsal scales being heralded by single rounded protuberances.

1922] Notes ON THE TEXAS HorNeED Lizarp 137

At the same time the Iguanid tail shrivels distally to the more abbre-
viated condition of Phrynosoma. Later, stage 33, the surrounding
eirclet of scales, appearing in the adult around the large dorsal scales,
is laid down as an annular anlage, later to be pinched off into its
separate scalar elements.

Pigmentation first appears in the cervical bilateral patches as black
markings about stage 35. Rapidly thereafter the pigment appears in
the large scalar rosettes caudad. It is interesting to observe that, in
the spread of this fundamental scheme of pigmentation, two gradients
are to he observed, one spreading caudad, the other laterad.

As might be expected the horns, characteristic of these lizards, are
late in appearing, being seen first with stage 36.

The newly-hatched young are pale in color, precocial, and may be
found within a very few days, seeking insect food in the manner of
their elders.

THe NortTH CAROLINA COLLEGE FOR WOMEN.
GREENSBORO, N. C.

LITERATURE CITED

Bryant, H. C.: The Horned Lizards of California and Nevada of the Genera
Prynosoma and Anota. Univ. of Cal. Pub. in Zool., 9, No. 1: 1. 1911.
Jarvis, May M.: The Segregation of the Germ-cells of Phrynosoma cornutum:

Preliminary Note. Biol. Bulletin, 15. 1908.

Peter, K.: Normentafel zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Zauneidechse (Lacerta
agilis); (Normentafeln zur Entw. der Wirbeltiere von F. Keibel, Heft 4).
Jena, Gust. Fischer, p. 165. 1904.

Stockard, C. R.: An Experimental Analysis of the Origin of Blood and Vascular
Endothelium. II. A study of wandering mesenchymal cells on the living
yolk-sac and their developmental products: chromatophores, vascular en-
dothelium, and blood-cells. Amer. Jour. of Anat. 18, Nos. 2 and 3, Sepi,
and Noy., 1915.

Strecker, J. K.: Notes on the Breeding Habits of Phrynosoma cornutum and
Other Texas Lizards. Proc. Soc. Washington, 21:165, 1908.

Winton, W. M.: A Note On Distinction of the Sexes in Phrynosoma. Science,
Ww. ©. 10262311. 1914.

A MAGNETITE-MARBLE ORE AT LANSING, N. C.*
By W. S. BAyLEy
Puates 24-27

INTRODUCTION

Near the village of Lansing in Ashe County, N. C., is an iron mine
from which is being taken an ore which differs materially from all
other iron ores in the State and which resembles in some respects the
iron ores obtained from the Franklin limestone in New Jersey. The
mine which is the property of the Ashe Mining Co., is on the Virginia-
Carolina Railroad alongside Horse Creek, and about half a mile south-
east of Lansing Station. (See map, pl. 24.)

Pratt! refers to the locality under the name of the Waughbank
property as follows:

‘*About 100 yards from the creek a tunnel was run by the Penna.
Steel Co. The tunnel has a direction of N. 40° E., and at a distance
of 100 feet a crosscut was made extending 46 feet S. 40° W.

‘*This crosscut showed ore for its whole distance, making the width
of the ore deposit over 30 feet. This ore is composed of coarse granular
magnetite in a matrix composed of micaceous material and manganese
oxide.’’ The vein was estimated by Pratt to be 70% ore. Analyses
of a fair sample of the vein (I) and of a selected sample of the mag-
netite (II) gave:

Fe Mn 12 Ss Ti
Tt | csdsgeceestocvesseceerores 46.25 4.34 .026 .027 tr
UD.“ cctcckssencssecareteeesses 67.25 1.68

This is evidently the same deposit as that deseribed by Nitze?
as ‘‘Ballou’s Horse Creek ore bank.’’ At the time Nitze wrote the
opening was in the ‘‘shape of an undercut in the side of the hill into
which it extends perhaps 50’ as a slope.’’ The seam, the dip of which
‘“is apparently towards the northeast,’’ is at least six feet wide, the
lower two feet being the harder. Nitze’s analyses correspond closely
with those furnished by Pratt. They are as follows:

sid, Fe Mn Ss 12 P ratio
1.96 62.48 3.66 072 019 -030
4.58 54.02 6.85 007 O11 017

* Published with the permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey and the
Director of the N. C. Geological and Economic Survey.

1Pratt, J. H., The Mining Industry in North Carolina during 1911 and 1912. N. C.
Geol. and Econ. Survey, Economic Paper No. 34, p. 68. 1914.

2 Nitze, H. B. C., Iron Ores of North Carolina. N. C. Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 1, p. 156.
1°93.

[138]

PLATE 24

e Pit

Scale in feet
oO

Too 1000

Contour interval 20 feet

Portions of Cranberry, Abingdon, Wytheville, and Wilkesboro quadrangles, showing
position of mine at Lansing, N. C,

2

es

1922] A MAGNETITE-MARBLE ORE AT Lansina, N. C. 139

Capt. Geo. W. Cooke, who is operating the mine for the company,
declares that the present mine is on the Waughbank property but that
the original opening which dates back as early as 1828 was on top of
the hill about 50 feet above the present tunnel and was in an entirely
different kind of ore. The tunnel of the Penna. Steel Co. was opened
about 15 years ago into the lower portion of,the Waughbank deposit.
It is parallel to the present tunnel, about 40 feet above it and about
100 feet further west. It is frequently referred to as the upper level.
‘At its end, at the bottom of the Waughbank pit, a little limestone ore
was encountered, but most of the ore developed by it was of the sili-
ceous type lke that at Cranberry. The relations of the two tunnels
to one another and the mutual relationships of the siliceous ore and
that now being worked are shown in the sketch, pl. 25.

THE ASHE MINING COMPANY’S MINE

Mineral Composition of the Ore:—The ore of the deposit now
being worked is essentially a coarsely granular intermixture of mag-
nesian marble and magnetite (pl. 26). Here and there are particles
of quartz but they are rare. The carbonates are in large grains with
perfect cleavage constituting a white marble. The magnetite is in
irregular though shghtly elongated grains scattered through the
marble, producing an ill-defined schistosity, which is emphasized by
the occasional accumulation of the magnetite grains in lenses with their
long axes parallel to the obscure schistosity of the matrix of carbonates
and magnetite in which they lhe. (See pl. 26.) In a few places the
rock is markedly schistose. This is brought about either by the oce-
currence of many of the magnetite grains in plates, suggesting the
plates of hematite in specular ores, or by its occurrence in numerous
small lenses elongate in parallel directions. Many of the elongate
erains are sheared and drawn out into lines or rows of sharp-edged
particles. The carbonate grains associated with the magnetite show
no similar elongation, but the schistosity is often accentuated by the
presence of calcite veins or layers running in the same direction as
the lines of magnetite plates. Evidently the carbonates have been en-
tirely recrystallized since the rock’s deformation. Here and there
through the mass are embedded small garnets, which in many cases
are altered so as to give rise to light brown stains.

A typical lean ore in thin section shows coarse-grained aggregates
of two colorless carbonates, of which one is calcite and the other prob-

140 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | March

ably dolomite, a few plates of phlogopite and large irregular masses
of magnetite. The mica is in streaks of plates extending in nearly
straight lines through the section with the individual plates lying be-
tween adjoining carbonate grains and more frequently than otherwise
near the magnetite. This mineral is often in large areas with very
ragged boundaries, the salients of which project considerable distances
between the grains of carbonate, or between contiguous twinning
lamellae. Occasionally a smaller grain appears to be enclosed in grains
of what is regarded as dolomite, and in other instances the larger
masses appear to enclose small grains of the carbonate. From the fact
that the carbonate inclusions polarize uniformly with the large ear-
bonate grains surrounding the magnetite it 1s thought that the ap-
parent inclusions are merely portions of projections that extend into
the embayments of the magnetite and that their appearance as inclu-
sions surrounded by magnetite is due to the fact that the section was
eut through the boundary between magnetite and carbonate.

The richer ore differs from the poorer ore mainly in the larger
sizes of the distributed magnetite grains and especially in the much
greater sizes of the magnetite lenses. Some of the latter are a foot
or more in length and five or six inches in diameter. A photograph
showing the contact of one of the lenses with the surrounding marble
is reproduced in pl. 26.

The greater portion of the ore, as has been related, is mainly a
coarsely crystalline marble containing grains and lenses of magnetite.
In many places, however, it contains dike-like masses of a bright
green color, which proves to be a fine-grained aggregate, mainly of
granular actinolite which, where shearing occurs, is changed to a mass
of fibres of bright green actinolite. Often magnetite is present in the
eranular aggregate, and this is noticeably more abundant near the
contact of the green layer with the marble. Indeed it not infrequently
happens that there are distinct lenses of magnetite at the contacts of
the two rocks even though magnetite may not be present elsewhere
in association with the green rock, and occasionally a continuous thin
layer of magnetite separates the two for considerable distances. The
actinolite layer passes into the carbonate rock by a very gradual tran-
sition—the actinolite becoming less and less abundant until it forms
a very small portion of the mass.

In this section the actinolite mass is discovered in reality to be
complex. It consists of an aggregate of thin layers and flat lenses

PLATE 25

Vertical Section
Nov 2 1920

Vertical Section

Ma gnetite-Marble

Ore

[| Siliceous Ore
F 4 Rock

Schrists and ayrcte

Plan

Nov. 7, (720
The dips are of contact s

4) 4-0 b:Ke)

Plan and sections of Ashe Mining Company’s mine, Lansing, N. C. (Map furnished
by Geo. W. Cooke, Manager.)

“1

1922] A MAGNETITE-MARBLE ORE aT Lansina, N. C. 141

made up mainly of equi-dimensional prisms of actinolite that are
pleochroie in very light yellowish green and emerald-green tints.
These alternate with equally thin layers of carbonates. The maximum
extinction of the actinolite is about 20°. Among the actinolite prisms
are scattered a few large grains of carbonate, a very few large plates
of a colorless mica, perhaps phlogopite, and large irregular masses of
magnetite. The actinolite appears as though in crush zones, and its
individual prisms have a general parallel elongation in the direction
of the layers. In many cases the magnetite masses are crossed by tiny
eracks filled with ealcite. It is noticeable that the major portion of
the magnetite within the layer characterized by the actinolite is usu-
ally associated with the carbonates that are always present in it,
In some places, however, the magnetite and actinolite are so free from
earbonates that the rock is locally a magnetite-actinolite schist.

Around the lenses of magnetite in the marble are often envelopes
of actinolite and often there are veins of actinolite cutting through
them. In these cases the magnetite is cleaved so that the lenses appear
to be granular masses composed of elongate grains of the magnetite.
The long dimensions of the magnetite and the long directions of the
actinolite fibers in the veins are parallel, but there is no definite re-
lation between the elongation of the fibers and the directions of the
veins. The fibrosity may be parallel to the walls of the veins, per-
pendicular thereto, or inclined to them at any angle. Whatever their
direction with respect to the veins, they are all parallel within the
mass of a single hand-specimen.

In other specimens veins of actinolite traverse masses of magnetite
and marble, and sporadic garnets appear in the mass.

The suggestion furnished by the sections is that a mass of marble
and magnetite, with some actinolite, became shattered as the result
of movements, and the cracks between the fragments of magnetite were
filled with actinolite formed from magnetite and some of the constit-
uents of the marble by metamorphosing processes during the course
of this movement. In some eases ealcite which was undergoing recrys-
tallization at the time was also forced into the fractures.

There was evidently motion in the rock-mass also after the actino-
lite was formed and after the magnetite was shattered, since there
are present in the rock slickensides coated with acicular actinolite, in
many cases to a thickness of one-half aninchor more. Inthese cases there

142 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | March

are usually layers of magnetite next to the actinolite, and in the mag-
netite are frequently small streaks of pyrite. That these various de-
formations produced little effect upon the structure of the carbonates
is due no doubt to the fact that these have reerystallized since the
action of the forces producing the deformations ceased.

Here and there through the ore there is also considerable dark
hornblende. It occurs in large quantity in some fragments on the
mine dump. It apparently is in fairly large dikes in which horn-
blende, magnetite and frequently garnet are intermingled. Where
the hornblende is in dikes a foot or more wide their interiors are
coarse black hornblende free of garnet. In the smaller dikes, on the
other hand, the hornblende masses often enclosed small lenses of lime-
stone, which have been nearly completely changed to pink garnet. In
some instances garnet and hornblende are in equal quantities. The
limestone in contact with the hornblende is often banded and it fre-
quently contains lenses of magnetite. In contact with the hornblende-
garnet is a narrow layer of fine-grained hornblende, carbonates and
pyrite with the latter usually in very thin seams parallel to the bound-
ary. Beyond this are bands of carbonates and magnetite and of
earbonates and black mica. The banding is thus the result of con-
secutive layers of coarse black hornblende, aggregates of black horn-
blende and red garnet, aggregates of fine-grained dark and light horn-
blende, thin seams of pyrite and of carbonates, streaks of magnetite
and finally layers of carbonate and black mica. There is no common
elongation of the carbonate grains in the limestone, but the rock in
the neighborhood of the dikes has a distinet schistosity due to the
parallel arrangement of the layers.

Often near the borders of the ore deposit and occasionally within
its mass are also irregular aggregates of red garnet, black hornblende,
magnetite and carbonates in which the garnet is predominant. The
hornblende on the whole looks as though it were intrusive and the
garnet as though it were a contact product between hornblende and
the carbonates. These aggregates are traversed by little veins of white
calcite and colorless quartz and contain here and there nests of these
minerals, which are unquestionably secondary.

Pyrite is not common anywhere in the ore. It occasionally occurs
as thin layers between the layers of granular, light green hornblende
and the marble, and in a few places seattered through the magnetite-

PLATE 26

(Above) PHOTOGRAPH OF ORE FROM MINE AT LANSING, N. C. NAT. SIZE.

(Below) PHOTOGRAPH SHOWING CONTACT OF ORE LENS WITH MARBLE IN ORE FROM
MINE AT LANSING, N. C.

j

1922] A MagenetitE-MArBLE ORE at Lansing, N. C. 143

marble rock in large masses that enclose particles of the other com-
ponents. Some of the particles are plainly large skeleton cubes, poiki-
litically developed. In other words, they possess the sieve structure
which is characteristic of minerals formed later than the rock in which
they are found. In some eases the pyrite apparently replaces calcite
and in other cases magnetite. It is believed that it was not a part of
the original rock but was subsequently introduced.

Veins in the Ore :—In places fine-grained feldspar-quartz veins eut
the hornblende-magnetite masses. In thin section the vein rock
is seen to be badly crushed—the quartz areas are aggregates of small
quartz grains and the former feldspar grains are now aggregates of
small, very light yellow epidote grains. There are, however, no sharp
boundaries between the feldspar and the quartz areas. These have
been obliterated by the crushing. The quartz areas near their borders
are full of epidote grains and the epidote areas contain nests of quartz
grains and, further within their interiors, individual grains of quartz.
Moreover there are little veins of epidote in the quartz, and vein-like
lenses of quartz in the epidote aggregates.

The contacts of the veins and the hornblende masses are also far
- from sharp. Occasionally there is a streak of smal! pink garnets sepa-
rating the two, but for most of the distance the epidote aggregate pen-
etrates the hornblende mass, and hornblende grains are embedded in
the epidote. The hornblende mass consists mainly of large crystalloids
of hornblende—yellow-green—with large nuclei composed mainly of
partly amphibolized light yellowish augite. Often the partially al-
tered pyroxene comprises three-fourths of the area of the grain, and
around it is a zone of compact green-yellow bornblende with sharp
fibrous projections extending from the more compact portion. Ex-
tinctions of 24° against the cleavage in the surrounding zone and of
45° in the nucleus are characteristic. In the spaces between neighbor-
ing pieces of hornblende are small nests of quartz and calcite and often
in pieces of the amphibole that are not so compact are enclosures of
quartz and many more of calcite. Often the areas between the large
amphibole grains are filled with quartz and carbonate grains and
spicules of green hornblende, but in no case seen do the spicules
actually cut through the carbonate and quartz. These minerals appar-
ently simply fill in the spaces between the spicules.

These fine-grained veins are believed to be small veins of pegmatite

3

144 JOURNAL OF THE MrircHELL SOCIETY | March

that have been completely granulitized, and thus have lost all traces
of their granular structure. It is significant that few garnets occur
at their contacts with the hornblende through which they pass, but
that, on the other hand, garnets are frequently found between the
hornblende masses and the marble surrounding them. Where peg-
matites cut the country gneiss in the vicinity of the mine large garnets
occur in the gneisses near the contact. It may be fair to assume there-
fore that the hornblende masses are a part of the pegmatite, since
upon this assumption the presence of garnets between them and the
marble is easily explained as due to contact action. Moreover, the
hornblende is an altered augite—and in the Cranberry area in Avery
County the pegmatites associated with the ore were originally an
augitic variety.

The relations of the pegmatite, hornblende and carbonates, to-
gether with the presence of garnets and of streaks of magnetite near
the borders of the hornblende are suggestive of contact action. In the
old Waughbank Mine the ore was of the same character as that in
the Cranberry Mine. If the views of Mr. Cooke are correct the
Waughbank ore gradually passed into the hmestone ore now charac-
terizing the Ashe Mining Company’s Mine. There is very little definite
pegmatite in the present mine unless it is represented by the horn-
blende streaks and the fine-grained veins described above, but there is
pegmatite in abundance in the old Waughbank openings. The horn-
blende streaks in the mine now operating may very well have been
very basic phases of augitie pegmatite, which added iron and perhaps
silica to the limestone and brought about contact action by which gar-
nets, phlogopite and actinolite were produced.

Chemical Composition of the Ore :—A selected sample of the rich-
est ore freed from adhering limestone was analyzed by J. G. Fairchild
of the U. S. Geological Survey, with the result shown below. The anal-
ysis? of the magnetite separated from the ore of the Ahles Mine
in New Jersey is given in If for comparison. The Ahles ore is in
limestone.

2 Bayley, W. S. Iron Mines and Mining in New Jersey. Vol. VII of Final Report
Series of State Geologist, Trenton, N. J., 1910, p. 111.

1922] A MaGnetitre-Marsie OrE at Lansine, N. C. 145

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MAGNETITE FROM THE LANSING
MINE, N. C., AND THE AHLES MINE, N. J.

if II

LEAS. poeedeo aes eee ee noe eee ee 60.42 48.44
UTES O Ais jeo8h oe USER aR Es oR aE oe ce 00
TEND, OY ps Seba ee ee nas Oa ee ee eee 7: OST UY 29.32
ETE) oO SR et = eee 3.01 MnO, — 4.19
“lid Wee elise Ue eee 3.37 62
Ne IANO ec ooo ERN oe ee ea Sane cok oven oivabavescvsessousten 1.14 .29
ISDS ccs SoS sedetitoenae ota eae ete eee 26 4p
LENA O pian ti setae aes ie elie A tn Pee tr
Oe ee a eee et br tr
(ETDS La ce Ree LEO T,
ae eaten as ecco 3s can od Oss Ete ceheogidansswecsiektest-s tr tr
fo. 2 eee eee 1 06
T Lee hehe a ed eee eee ee 04 1.36
ee che rcacchuysine deca ctaxaniudeasnserecntet odsadkeasoecase .83 2.59
SS Re re ree 22 Bove isaeeocdeessteeeeecasens 00
ye SE re ree ree: eee 00
DERN) 1 steee eee Sta a .00 Al
SOD casa 00
Mae seria Sanat sn vockssnceacactie cc vescsvesaecascosscesesoceoasses .00

100.66 99.81

The analysis of the Lansing ore is that of a very pure magnetic
ore. A calculation indicates the presence in it of the following com-

ponents:

CALCULATED MINERAL COMPOSITION OF LANSING ORE
eR ee ceva doe ecu as eecasiebaisesiaenaktencecussteccseseeeee0000050 LeO
TLEPOTERNG) -hapkthase Oe Oe i 5.6
LESARTIISTEAD |S o-pkb shee sceerere cee coe eS ee 2.6
BOON GEN Aa eee soc mene ste ce esaee ss ohazisacscccesnaceccassacccecsessace 4.5
ESI me ree ce Re eee dees een sates vuereondschacstnscsassessneosessscsees zl
Nie ea Pe cane oclncdincsanecanccbeecoscnsennevees 6.2

100.0

The magnetite is remarkably pure. It evidently contains a little
manganese, but is free from titanium. In these respects it closely
resembles the magnetites in the Franklin limestone in New Jersey.*

The percentage of Fe indicated by the analysis is 61.58% and of

* Bayley. W. S. Fina! Report Series of the State Geologist (New Jersey), 7: 111. 1910.

146 JOURNAL OF THE MiTrcHELL SOCIETY | March

Mn 2.33%, but this analysis is of a selected sample from which ma-
terial other than magnetite has been removed as thoroughly as possible
by careful hand-picking. The ore furnished to the Cranberry Furnace
is shipped as taken from the mine, without crushing and careful se-
lection. This, therefore, is much lower in iron, and indeed consider-
ably lower than the minimum limit for ordinary magnetic ore; but
because of its extremely low phosphorus and high calcium is acceptable.

Some of the marble-magnetite is too poor in iron to be regarded
as an ore, but by rejecting this the balance -passes as an ore which
though possibly low grade with respect to iron is available to the
furnace because practically all the material that is not iron is a mix-
ture of calcite and dolomite which serves as a flux. An analysis of an
average specimen of the marble made in the laboratory of the U. 8.
Geol. Survey by Mr. Fairchild gave: MgO = 9.17%, CaO = 26.32%,
and CO, = 34.28%, corresponding to a mixture of MgCO, and CaCO,
in the proportions 1:2, and an excess of 314% CO,, a large part of
which is in MnCO,.

Analyses of many earload lots of ore made at the Cranberry Fur-
nace at Johnson City prior to the summer of 1919 showed limits of
36.43-52.93 for Fe and .0094-.0114 for P. A series of analyses of 7
ears received during the summer of 1919 gave :®
TOM “a ccrecsccececcectecteeeseeonece 40.65 42.76 46.46 39.07 40.65 35.11 38.54
OS PHOTIS | ewessessesrseecne 0062 8.0052 .0052 .0052 .0042 .0062 .0057

One analysis® of a car of ore very low in iron yielded Fe = 30.52,
P — .0052 and CaO = 17.84. This is equivalent to 42.14% inagnetite
and 31.86% CaCO,, or a total of 76%. There was no record made of
the other 24%.

The Ore Body :—The ore body of the mine is reached by a tunnel
running 150 feet into the base of the hill just above the level of Horse
Creek in a direction N. 40° E. It is in the foot wall, which is a ght
gray hornblendic gneiss that may belong with Keith’s Cranberry
eranite, which is archean in age. Between this gneiss and the ore-
body is a thin layer of gray mica schist, that may readily be a result
of shearing of the gneiss along the contact. Immediately above the
ore is another thin sheet of a similar schist and above this a hght gray
fine-grained gneiss that may be a part of the Cranberry granite.

5 Furnished by Pres. F. P. Howe, Cranberry Furnace Co., Johnson City, Tenn.
° Made by Cranberry Furnace Co. Furnished by Mr. Cooke.

1922] A MaGnetite-MaArBiE ORE at Lansina, N. C. 147

The greater part of the country rock is a coarse gray banded gneiss
that looks very much like a squeezed porphyritic hornblende granite,
perhaps a phase of the Blowing Rock gneiss, also placed by Keith in
the archean. This is interlayered with light-colored gneiss which was
originally an augitie syenite. It now consists of large anhedrons of a
microperthitie feldspar, large light green masses of amphibole, con-
taining here and there nuclei of pyroxene, and surrounded by a border
of tiny epidote erystals lying in all azimuths. There are also present
a small quantity of brown biotite and a few large grains of quartz.
The feldspars are crushed around their edges into a fine-grained mass
which now consists of quartz, epidote and pale green amphibole.
These gneisses are intersected by veins of pegmatite that is almost
devoid of dark components, and on the borders of which are large
garnets. In many instances the feldspar of the pegmatites is partially
changed to epidote as at Cranberry. In a cut on the railroad layers
of hornblende schist are in the gneisses, and along these shearing took
place with the production of actinolite-asbestos.

The ore body is sharply marked off from the country rock by the
layers of schist below and above. In shape it appears to be irregular.
In general it strikes a few degrees E. of North and dips about 36°
S. E. In a portion of its course the dip and strike are regular, indi-
cating a width of only four feet and in some places the ore is cut out
entirely by what appear to be great fragments of the country rock or
by small faults. Near the present end of the tunnel the ore body
was apparently chimney-like. It was encountered in an old hole on
the surface above the tunnel and was followed downward in a small
steeply pitching shoot into the present ore body, where it expands into
a sheet with the dip and strike of the surrounding gneisses. At the
foot wall is a narrow seam of calcite that appears to. be secondary as
it sends veinlets into the contiguous ore and gneisses.

In mass the ore appears distinctly schistose. On its borders are
selvages of garnet and hornblende, several feet thick. Within these
the ore is fairly uniform in character, varying only in the proportions
of magnetite and carbonates present. Here and theré near its edges
are pockets of loose magnetite, especially near the foot wall, where
the sparse carbonate cement in lenses of granular magnetite may have
been dissolved by percolating water. The pyrite that has already
been referred to is confined almost exclusively to the borders of the ore

i148 JOURNAL OF THE MiItCHELL SOCIETY | March

body and to the vicinity of little veins of hornblende cutting through
it. It is apparently most abundant where shearing has taken place.
From the main mass of the ore body the mineral is entirely absent, so
that it has no bad effect upon the ore. Through the ore are small
vein-like masses of coarse black hornblende or of hornblende and mag-
netite all running parallel to the schistosity of the ore, which is paral-
lel to the general strike of the ore body, thus accentuating the struc-
ture. In some cases there are also present in the limestone streaks of
magnetite that suggest very strongly little dikes. These are rarely
more than 114 inches wide. Their walls are nowhere sharp, but on
the contrary on their margins the magnetite layers pass into the
marble by gradations, the carbonate grains becoming more and more
abundant toward the marble side of the contact until finally the rock
becomes essentially a nearly pure marble. The thin section shows the
magnetite streak to be an aggregate of carbonates, actinolite and mag-
netite, with the last named of course predominating.

The mine has been operating for only a short time. About 500
carloads of ore had been shipped to Aug., 1919. At present the ex-
posed faces of ore suggest the existence of two sheets parallel to the
foliation of the country rocks. The explorations are not sufficiently
extended to show how far the sheets are continuous, consequently
there is no means of estimating the magnitude of the reserve. The
lower sheet is believed to pinch out just beneath the floor of the tun-
nel, as is indicated in the cross section on pl. 25, but its extension in
other directions is entirely unknown. The upper sheet has been shown
by a raise to extend from the tunnel level to near the surface but there
is no evidence to show how far it extends beneath the tunnel or beyond
the sides of the raise. Although the vein looks more regular at its
present depth than it was nearer the surface, nevertheless there is no
certainty that it will not suddenly become broken and irregular.

Origin of the Ore :—If the theory* with regard to the origin of the
Cranberry ore is correct, and the magnetite in this deposit is due to
deposition from ascending hot liquids and gases brought upward by
augitic pegmatites, then it seems probable that the marble ores are
likewise the result of pegmatitic solutions. Old limestones were meta-
morphosed by soluticns depositing magnetite and producing horn-
blende and aiding in the development of garnet and actinolite from

7 Bayley, W. S., The Magnetites of North Carolina—Their Origin. Econ. Geol. v. 16,
no. 2, March, 1921, pp. 142-152.

1922] A MAGNETITE-MARBLE ORE AT LaAnsING, N. C. 149

the constituents of the limestone. That the actinolite is in more or
less distinct layers may well be due to the presence of argillaceous lay-
ers in the original limestone. The production of the actinolite in part
at least seems to have been subsequent to the deposition of the mag-
netite, but that its production was promoted by pegmatite solutions
seems to admit of little doubt. The distribution of the components of
the ore is such as would occur if they were produced, by pneumato-
thermal contact action, emanating from dikes of pegmatite. No dis-
tinct dikes of pegmatite are to be seen cutting the limestone ores, but
they are believed to be represented by the small veins of quartz and
epidote that traverse it, by the aggregates of epidote and magnetite
and those of hornblende and magnetite that appear as streaks in it
and by the lenses of dark hornblende that occur here and there. The
epidote is believed to represent the feldspar of the pegmatites. All
gradations between pegmatites in which the feldspar is only slightly
epidotized and those in which all the feldspar has been replaced by
epidote are common in the Cranberry area. At Lansing very little
of the pegmatite magma reached the position of that portion of the ore
body now being worked, but the gases and liquids travelled along the
contacts between the limestone and the gneiss, penetrated the lime-
stone near the contacts and caused the deposition of magnetite and
the production of garnet which have been described as forming a sel-
vage on the borders of the ore body.

Similar Ores Elsewhere :—The only other point in the state at which
similar magnetite-marble ore is known to exist is a few yards north
of Dr. Jones’s residence, about a third of a mile northeast of the rail-
road station at Lansing and three-quarters of a mile north of Capt.
Cooke’s mine. Here a hole was put down at a place where there was
much magnetite in the soil. At the depth of 25 feet. a big piece of
limestone was encountered in the midst of the gneisses, with man-
ganese ore on opposite sides. The hole is now filled but on the old
dump, which has almost entirely disappeared, a fragment of antinolitic
rock was found that is unquestionably a metamorphosed limestone
consisting of calcite, actinolite and tremolite.

Since returning from the field the study of the specimens collected
suggests that possibly the Red Rock Mine about 114 miles southeast
of Shell Creek in Carter County, Tenn., and one mile from the North
Carolina State line is another similar deposit, but information of the

150 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL SOCIETY | March

character of its ore is furnished only by the fragments on the dumps.

Marble in the pre-Cambrian near Toecane :—The rarity of marble-
magnetite ores in western North Carolina may be due to the fact that
the limestone beds themselves are rare. Their best known occurrence
is in a cut on the C. C. & O. R. R. at Intermont, which is about four
miles south of Toecane in Mitchell County. The limestone is a coarse
white marble associated with gneisses and pegmatite. It is mapped by
Keith as being in the Carolina gneiss—a series of micaceous and gar-
netiferous schists and micaceous, garnetiferous and cyanitie gneisses,
which are believed to be the oldest rocks in the region. Keith® de-
scribes the marble as occurring in two bands alternating with mica-
eneiss and dipping 50° 8S. E. The rocks are cut by a pegmatite vein,
which passes in places across the beds and in other places along them.
The upper layer is said to be 70 ft. thick and the lower layer 8 ft.
with a 10 ft. thick layer of mica gneiss between them. The marble is
white and coarsely crystalline. It consists of 55% CaCO, and 45%
MgCoO,. The contacts of the marble with the contiguous gneiss are
said to be sharp. Contacts with the pegmatite are equally sharp, but
in some places between the marble and pegmatite is a thin contact
vein of actinolite which grades into the marble. Inclosed in the lower
marble is also a small mass of actinolite and serpentine. The marble
is supposed to be a metamorphosed sediment interbedded with silicious
sediments now represented by gneisses and schists.

A sketch of the exposure is reproduced in pl. 27. Instead of being
in two distinct layers as might be inferred from Keith’s description
the section now displayed on the railroad shows the marble to be -in
fragments separated by gneiss and pegmatite. It is possible that the
three masses visible in the section may originally have been parts of
a single bed or parts of two beds, but it is certain that their present
distribution is due to fracturing and intrusion by pegmatite. At the
south end of the section near its bottom the limestone is in contact
with the pegmatite and with gneiss. For half an inch from the eon-
tact with the gneiss the limestone is bordered by a light gray zone in
which are many plates of a light mica resembling phlogopite, a few
plates of biotite and an occasional garnet. At the immediate contact
is a seam of light brown mica.

Under the microscope a section cut across the contact zone reveals
the presence in it of many plates of an almost colorless mica with a

8 Mount Mitchell Folio. Geol. Atlas of the U. S. Folio 124, p. 2-3, 1905.

‘ON ‘4jun0D [PUI ‘Yoourp epoyyurg jo yNow yw ap “y Pleyyouyy wo “‘yuowWo,Uy 7B Saansodxo vjqavut Jo Yo ays

QVPIAL RASA ay your ba) peeel gs1auh wv o}f AY gs12uh DUIYo4D>) AX\Y

oe

—_

SUS,
WOe ae a - = -
Za
me

BS

Yj

LZ

=
“DP
)

thy
ZS

e \\ \
sae mae oe \ \ \\
= rea AY

ce

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Be

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if

Mad

1922] A MAGNETITE-MARBLE ORE AT Lansina, N. C. 151

slight pleochroism in lhght yellow tones. These are arranged about
parallel to the contact plane. A few erystals of pyrite are the only
other components present except, of course, the predominant, com-
paratively large grains of carbonate, most of which are polysynthet-
ically twinned. The carbonate is free from inclusions except for tiny
particles of what appears to be pyrite dust, but between the grains
is often a stain of limonite. Immediately at the contact there had been
slight movement with the development of a thin layer of light colored
mica.

At the contact with the pegmatite the contact zone is about 114
inches wide, and is composed of two layers, the inner one of which
is characterized by the presence of plates of tremolite and more scanty
plates of wollastonite scattered through the limestone, but mainly in
such a way as to constitute bands running parallel to the contact.
The tremolite is generally fresh and colorless but the wollastonite is
traversed by many cracks in which have been deposited fibers of a
light green micaceous mineral, with a slight pleochroism in greenish
and yellowish tones. Occasional tremolite flakes are tinged with green.
These are very slightly pleochroic, thus approaching actinolite in char-
acter. The outer zone next to the pegmatite consists exclusively of
a light-gray platy tremolite arranged with its long directions perpen-
dicular to the contact. The tremolite strongly resembles the mineral
at the Lansing Mine that has been called actinolite. Whether the two
minerals are actually the same or are different is of little importance.
Their presence indicates that the pegmatite added material to the
limestone in both cases. The irregular distribution of the limestone,
parts being almost completely surrounded by silicate rocks, suggests
an explanation of the irregular distribution of the ore at Lansing.
The limestone bed was broken into fragments as at the occurrence on
the railroad and the limestone ore naturally possesses a similar dis-
tribution.

Reserves :—Because of the irregular manner of distribution of the
limestone in the schists at the Lansing locality and the small amount
of prospecting that has been done in the mine, it is impossible to esti-
mate with any probability of correctness the quantity of ore that may
be expected. If the limestone is shattered as it is near Toecane it may
terminate within a few feet of the present workings, or it may extend
beyond them for a long distance. In either event it is probable that

152 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL SOCIETY | March

the limestone ore may be replaced by silicate ore such as was found
in the old Waughbank opening above the present mine, in which case
it may be valuable or worthless, depending upon the width of the vein.
The limestone ore is merchantable even when its iron content is as low
as 35%. The silicate ore must carry much more iron before it will be
accepted at the furnace, and most of it therefore must be concen-
trated.

URBANA, ILL., JuLy, 1921.

A BOTANICAL BONANZA IN TUSCALOOSA COUNTY,
ALABAMA

By Routanp M. HARPER
PLATE 28

Tuscaloosa, on the Warrior River, is one of the typical fall-line
cities of the South. Above the city the river and all its tributaries,
with a few exceptions, fiow their whole length through the Warrior
coal field, characterized by essentially horizontal strata of sandstone
and shale, which make many picturesque bluffs and cliffs along the
river, some of them over 150 feet high, interrupted every half mile
or so by wooded ravines, containing small streams which may dry up
in summer, and at longer intervals by creek valleys. A few tributaries
take their rise in limestone valleys about 100 miles northeastward,
but it is not likely that this fact has any perceptible bearing on the
richness of the cliff flora to be discussed presently. Below Tuscaloosa
the river cuts through Cretaceous and Eocene strata, with no cliffs of
hard rock, and conditions are unfavorable for most of the plants
herein mentioned.

Above Tuscaloosa the river runs in a general southwesterly direct-
ion, so that the left bank is usually shaded, the bluffs on that side
facing in various directions between north and west. On this left side
a few miles above the city there is a remarkable assemblage of rare
and otherwise interesting plants, on exposed cliffs and shaded bluffs
and in nearby ravines. For some unknown reason, the greatest con-
centration of rarities seems to be about eight miles above the city,
their numbers diminishing up and down stream from that point. They
gradually disappear also away from the river, as one ascends any of
the tributary creeks. The writer has had few opportunities to explore
the right bank, which is relatively inacessible, but as most of the bluffs
on that side are exposed to the sun in the middle of the day, the shade-
loving plants listed below can hardly be expected to thrive there.

At Squaw Shoals, about thirty miles above Tuscaloosa, there were
many interesting aquatic plants in the rocky bed of the river until
they were drowned out by the completion of a 63-foot dam in 1915?,
but apparently no cliff plants of special interest, except Heuchera

1For an account of the river-bank vegetation for a distance of about 250 miles below
gcc Teen are ee aie x vepoar tes: iG 199-201. 1919. .

[153]

154 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | March

macrorhiza. And quite recently (May, 1921) the writer has traversed
over 100 miles of the river above Tuscaloosa in a canoe, with frequent
landings, without materially extending the known distribution of any
of the plants mentioned below, not even those which have their
southernmost outposts near the fall line.

Before listing the rare plants some additional] features of the en-
vironment may be mentioned. At the point where they are most num-
erous and for a few miles farther upstream, the hilltops are capped
with sand and pebbles of Cretaceous or later age, belonging to the
coastal plain, and characterized by forests of Pinus palustris and its
common associates, subject to frequent fires, as is usual throughout
the range of that tree. In the same neighborhood the lowlands on the
inner sides of bends are covered with ‘‘second bottom’’ or terrace de-
posits, which extend all the way to the coast but are very slightly
represented upstream; and Acer saccharinum (formerly A. dasycar-
pum), which is perhaps more nearly confined to river-banks than any
other tree in the eastern United States, and seems to require twenty
feet or more of seasonal fluctuation of water, extends up the river
just about to the point under consideration. Qwercus laurifolia, which
is almost confined to the coastal plain, extends a few miles farther
upstream.

But all this perhaps has as little to do with the peculiarities of
the cliff flora as the fact that some of the river water comes from a
limestone valley. It may be a little more significant that there are
among these cliffs several ‘‘ hanging valleys,’’? with mouths high above
the river, presumably indicating that the streams which made them
are dry most of the time, and therefore have not cut down their chan-
nels as fast as the river has. Springs too are scarce along the river,
as the canoeist discovers to his discomfort in hot weather. This indi-
eates that there must be little leaching out of the elements of fertility
from the rocks.

Some of the plants under consideration are of species commonly
supposed to be partial to limestone, although the rock is not notice-
ably ecaleareous. A partial analysis of a specimen of the shale made
for the writer some years ago showed only 0.42% of lime (CaO), but
nearly ten times as much potash (K,O), namely, 3.95% ?; and it is
quite likely that these and many other supposed ealciphiles are really

>See Geol. Surv. Ala. Monog. 8: 54. 1913.

PLATE 28

Rich ravine

near Warrior
in full bloom,

River a little
and trunk of

below mouth of Hurricane
Liquidambar at r

Creek, with Aesculus
June 28, 1911

parviflora

Pye
“

ER
a eo
wy

aa
4

=’

ey or
“

’

Looking
and 100 feet
Pinus

down Hanging Valley
above the
Virginiana. Dec. 2,

on left bank of Warrior R
water. View taken about 50

4S ja ta Ue

iver about

nine miles
feet back

above
from mouth

Tuscaloosa
7 valley

Trees mosth

1922] A Botanical BoNANZA IN TuscaLoosa CouNTY 155

potash-loving species.t Some of the species are noteworthy for being
confined to Alabama, or more abundant in this state than anywhere
else. Others here reach their southern limits or nearly so, and were
not recorded from this part of the state by Dr. Charles Mohr in his
magnum opus, the Plant Life of Alabama (published shortly after his
death in 1901).

Comparatively little botanical work of permanent value has been
done in the vicinity of Tuscaloosa. Sir Charles Lyell, the eminent
English geologist, visited the town in 1846, and published a few botan-
ical observations in his ‘‘Second Visit to the United States.’’ A few
years later Drs. R. D. Nevius and W. S. Wyman botanized in this
vicinity in spare moments, but the only recorded result of their work
seems to be the discovery of Neviusia Alabamensis and Sedum Nevin.
Dr. Eugene A. Smith, state geologist from 1873 to the present time,
devoted considerable attention to plants in the first few years of his
service at the University of Alabama, and collected many specimens,
quite a number of which are cited in Mohr’s Plant Life of Alabama.
Dr. Mohr, although he visited Tuscaloosa occasionally, seems to have
done very little field work in this neighborhood, having depended
mainly on Dr. Smith for information about the flora of Tuscaloosa
County. Messrs. C. L. Pollard and W. R. Maxon of the U. 8S. Na-
tional Herbarium visited Tuscaloosa in the summer of 1900, mainly for
the purpose of finding Neviusia, in which however they were not suc-
cessful.®

The localities described below seem to have been entirely unknown
to Dr. Mohr, but with good reason, for they were very inaccessible
during his lifetime. The locks which now make navigation possible
on the Warrior River for about 75 miles above the fall-line did not
exist then, nor did the railroad which now skirts the bluffs on the left
side of the river for eight or nine miles; consequently it would have
been very difficult to go up the river either by boat or on foot.‘ The
main highway from Tuscaloosa to Birmingham indeed passes within
a mile or two of some of the most interesting cliffs, but any one not

4See Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 40:398. 1913.

5 The writer had the pleasure of meeting both of these gentlemen toward the close of
their lives, the former on his last visit to Tuscaloosa in 1913, and the latter a year or
two earlier.

6 See Plant World 3:136. 1900; 9:105. 1906.

7Since these lines were written Dr. Smith has informed me that about 25 years ago
he went with Dr. Mohr and John Muir in a small steamer a few miles up the river, probably
to the first shoal above Tuscaloosa, which must have brought them pretty close to some of
the cliffs here described; but they did not land there, and thus a wonderful opportunity was
missed. (Pinus Virginiana, which abounds on top of the bluffs down to within about four
miles of the city, is not reported from this or any adjoining county in Mohr’s Plant Life
of Alabama.)

156 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | March

knowing of the existence of anything unusual along there would not
have been likely to walk out from the road to the river through the
almost pathless forest, or even if he did so, to walk along the river
very far if he happened to strike it at one of the less interesting
spots.

My acquaintanee with the botanical treasures under consideration
began during the first month of my connection with the Geological
Survey of Alabama. On Dee. 5, 1905, I walked up the railroad above-
mentioned (a branch of the Mobile & Ohio) to a point about ten miles
above Tuscaloosa, primarily to study the vegetation of the Paleozoic
area where it approaches the fall-line.8 The results were so interesting
that I have since made similar trips at all seasons of the year, and
taken several visiting scientists along the same route.

In this brief paper no detailed discussion of the vegetation by
habitats or associations is attempted. The plants observed along and
near the left bank of the river from the southernmost cliffs to the
mouth of Daniels Creek (where the railroad leaves the river) are put
in a single list, divided into trees, shrubs, ete., and arranged as nearly
as possible in order of abundance in each group. No definite lateral
limit can be set for the area treated, but the plants growing in dry
woods on the coastal plain material a little back from the top of the
bluffs, where fire is frequent, are excluded as far as possible. There
are however all gradations between that type of vegetation and the
‘‘lithophile’’ vegetation of the cliffs and the ‘‘mesophile’’ (or more
correctly speaking pyrophobic®) vegetation of the ravines, affording
problems enough to keep ecologists and successionists busy for many
years.

In this list the names of evergreens are printed in italics. The
letter A after a name indicates that the species is believed to be
more abundant in Alabama than anywhere else, S means near its
southern limit or farther south than Dr. Mohr reported it, and L
indicates species which are commonly supposed to be partial to lime-
stone. The usual habitat of each species in this locality is given in
a word or two.

ce

5 Some of the interesting finds were described in the Plant World for May, 1906, but
the narrative was marred by the insertion of several essentially fictitious common names
by the editors without my consent, with the avowed purpose of making the article more
“popular.”

® For an earlier use of this term see Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 45:33. 1918.

1922] A BoranicaL BoNANZA IN TUSCALOOSA CouNTY 157

TIMBER TREES

RNIN NS MMIMUECTUTENULTACE N()) sce tana t oe ce sete tote ck ce coves cvescnssencesascusesssnese gee Tops of bluffs

Pagus grandifolia ...............cccccessccssesecseeesseteesseseeenenscsssecceseseees Ravines

BIMTIRIEINLS EPR T.GUIRLTIO: (LI) 2) -.cnccansacesconccatsnecsesaccsacecccessanvesssntesee Exposed cliffs

SEEN PU EPA ANCE CTT CUT coe ce cc nescence acer coce=cseacessebsesranvdedaasecacacessee'se Rayvines

Quercus Muhlenbergii (L, S)..........cseseeeessseeeteesseeeeneneeteetes Rocky ravines

Roemer AMEC UY (A> 11)... 2c 20eeeancencaccene-cennencsncvecvaseceseeees eee: Ravines and cliffs

IE REGEN ENTISE 1 (155) casa 2 ou sitccowssnanni ancwnevasecesnsenedvaseousesitecesses Dry bluffs

mRNA AE SW EA GEC... 0000. <nonnena-noxconss<ocvnsseeveszenessanntenoesce- Ravines and_ river-banks

Peat TR REGU) OU GIS econo Pe cecceagac acne vonnosvescoveasdssnoncesersuntasveroesavss Ravines and river-banks

SPP reve Catan Oia Rete MET le car. ne cee -cwceces sn sanvonsecssacncstnonscaceguaeuse voce Ravines

MERTEN EO LIN cn PACT) 2 occ ssstc de cccenwastsreusncecoseseasesstcrssssvesedeases Ravines

REET OTN PAM so xcneos sasacwsnocyscewucs naewsecvascunarandesseasdoree Ravines

RR rn saASUE SMMC) Lepesant 2 2 cena snc cdscoewe seen at svertesuccseieeseccsuaestas Ravines

PRA eA PNT RGA 8 oo concen cans svsxsnsesnseontsdensiccnenspacecasesqeconducseecuevs*** Ravines

EM UBANIDES MOGI G GIG AUIUG 220s .5<ccersceesssescsesccssceosntreeseanseenseceseseascooes- River-banks

PATIL SEGRE CA Lasts ca ose canon -vauscce sisaodiosdecssiebesesesusieecesssvececesesesissueoess Ravines, etc.

(Se yEnc an River-banks

esterase LVN GF ATE RCID oye stew eca<cn-conncooseeocencscexsacecestndocasonaaesossseeses River-banks

REMIT EIR ee es Benois cdoraSa sca sinonavsivedigd vabiveddituasdesseszsnceees- River-banks

NEA SPU AT eemeL CUTOUT ALA oe 55 ankacc<c vac Jacsveecncaxscausntsdsesctiesnsossisescsssess Ravines
SMALLER TREES

Closes” (GRIME VCeTeSIISE (1G) \ae-teieees a eee eae cee eee Ravines and bluffs

cubby [tine abersreye,, \((S)) eecethcot a eee eee ERe eee Ravines and bluffs

VIC en Nae Umm A(CLO [Uy Li \(AG) a. cece --az-cecnccs-ses-s-cecs-npas-sdenct+vesseccss Ravines

Eadie UM Nea CLIN) ))ccens atseensvsescsonsvateesssadesouaceseatsisecensieaesees Bluffs

ia ara NEN UPON SUET CE Ue ce cre xtc ose fn duncacesoseoseon> cwseinadeactsessevdsusessortse Ravines

PID STUD RY LGA eect scone ae eocccekvcsceisesscetss-csssereses¥oe=acsedssescesseseseess Ravines

RUN Papa PL HATMME IT ELC LL UTI ansnc noacs.s0ecesncesecocesecoscevace-Jssssasuceeseceosveecsss Bluffs

eps Ae NACA, (LU; OS) -sevsocecesence>oaczecoesececesssense-osee Cliffs

MUU gad SHMMPLTUIN Nia teseeeesacesuseiess.vacch 0c 7) seareecceeses ots szsavernoserstuecssqaacocee®™ Ravines and banks

lecnenglia, LAV enm hey (CQ) eee iacnssseeeae aco et eceae eee ee eee Cliffs

Mires rap Mitta ACO NIGAM) <2 ozce ote se =. <.xzeeoescsie.sesucesevsseaesseesisssoncteosen Ravines and banks

Set HU ABO Acl meer Eee a a occ eee ci cece slo Seuessdecseniired sxvcancns ss ssieanee River-banks, ete.

SHRUBS AND VINES

TGP AMACIISUS: (CAG Li) sia rssncceascsoseccacestsesesscsseszsssceteoeseved Cliffs

fEteyahteen OO TEC EGITOlT am (WAS) so2ccss-250n0+<+e2esezaceeeessseceerosisqsroseeseos. Ravines and bluffs
eC REN EMOTES TA)! o 0 52..sgnskecicceacsaciadesecsocsecvoctsrsrovenses ...Ravines and bluffs
Pes seticeal TS my ext Vile (WAU) eewees coat senascsqccvececeusssvonessnoss¥adcesasetascasecseoes, Ravines and bluffs
py OCA DOLCSCCUS .22-..-20--c0ccesce+eocceesnerscnse<sncesuobescaceousee Ravines and bluffs
ARMM AUVATAD TMACTOSP CT ING? ..2.c.c:.socsssacccsnccsosssvensestscosensesaseaserd Cliffs

Beemer ame nsIs! (AY SS) ......cscvs-ncsessncessscssorensssescessceseesee Shaded bluffs
SRR Rr Re Bah SN ae er eae o sa sos ca cekndaciUeozersicarvsesensceesosescceceeoes Shaded bluffs
RRRMIS INNER HANISS OED 0e oecteees hoc nzses soceessceisecésctvsstsdacddeccassesécsssscesceeseee Cliffs

19 See Torreya 12:147. 1912.

158 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL SOCIETY | March

BiGnOnid CLUCEGCTA ..essscesccssesrecesseesccesecenccenseenecessseseeeneenneaeaes Various habitats

TFA S ese i Gn Soe eer epee etaaever ss corsacs-serussacsccesenneersetm™=ca--sscsnccercseancn Various habitats

Rhamnus Carolimiana (Li)..-..ccscessccsscencesessscenesesrssseeeeseeeetes Bluffs

Rhus aromatica (Li)... ccecsecescccseenreesesesteetseeeseseeseseeeeseoees Bluffs

Hy pericwm Urewm (Ly S) ceccccccscesseeneereereeseeeseeeseresseseeeteteeenes Bluffs

Aralia SPiMOSA........sssccessessesscerceneceeseencenssrenesesonsenseeneseesansens Ravines

Adelia Ligustrima (Li) ...cccccscccsercereerseenseerensseseettetereneensenes Cliffs

Parthenocissus Quinquefolia .......cescesceesceseereerseseeseeseeerseeneees Ravines, ete.

Ptelea trifoliata (Li) .........scssscsssscccsesssesscscescesrsensossscanesseessron Bluffs

JASN ETM Oy eleseeeeeeeseeceeees eeeseesc-<oocece=-s-reoneees-eonccsessnasswonsaumunc Ravines

Vaccinium vacillans? ............cssscsccesscsnessecesseonsceseseteonseee .-Tops of bluffs

Rhus Qladra .......csscesessessssesscenssesenceeesccsscsseecseseeescensensessensanserenss Various habitats

ELWONYMUS A METICANUS.....cccccccercerrenereetereseeeettaneeseteeeeennaaseeeenes Ravines

Hamamelis Virginian’, ...............c.scsccesncsceeccsseecssecseoessoseesset ans Ravines and bluffs

Tilicium FUOridanwm (A) ...........cccecesscsccessenssnnceeeseeeenecncesececcees Damp ravines

Batodendron ArDOPCUM veseceeeccecssecsereecereesrneenescetnecesesseenenecenass Dry bluffs
HERBS

GiGilanites UCMOS Camraeete octets ses cncccesccsancescsespocetcasncatsmnanesnemeey Cliffs

Adiantum PedAatUM ............cccsseersseccenrccecccerceneesecessssessssonsesnees Ravines

Heuchera mMmacrorhiza (S)......sccssscceescessecesseeneteetseeecnseeeened Cliffs

Dryopteris marginalis (S) cc cccceeeeseeseseeeeseseeeseseseeneenseees Cliffs

TU OGASTGIAO DEALS Cer erro aes chews vecanucasssscavece scuencrdenasceremenene Cliffs

SA@ifragd Vir GimienstS...cr.ccerccvecrsccssreererserscesseeeerreecseesensserns Cliffs

ISG CUT INIC TIN (CAG) ee eeetcncscnvoss-ocese+s sncostacevsncoscucscess==sve-esmecerence Cliffs

POlyStichwM GACTOSTICNOIGES .........00ccccseececessnrccssenasccosenssessosooore Ravines

Hupatorium aromaticum............cscccccecessessereersssseeeeecsesssensseneses Ravines

ASQ TUN GMA OLIALNUenten sates ceteaaecss +: sorscccacesessaaccacncrsseeeecn-ncccensetenettes Ravines

Solidago CACS IAN Neer arte at ccetcaesccccscccasccccerdccestccecctcseensesenestenmers Ravines and bluffs

MT ACESGAM ba) MUN SU DUC AMIS)? sere. cece---cece-eecoeoe-cestuosseseeaceceeneserco=s Cliffs

V UCCOs PUATUCTILOSG treetrtestcedseciace)avess0seets++nacsnsessnsvevaccunsenteueemeente Bluffs

Phacelia sp. (A?) .sccccccsesceseresrscseetsstssesscssenssssssssseesessenss Lee -Oliffs

DIOSCOLES. ISP. <eesenensssccscnconvsnseneeeceseseonesuesvooeaecosencrsarn=vencresesmansueay Ravines

Oplismenus SEtATIUS............cecceececrcererereceececsseeceeneesececnsnsens Ravines

Wilolay (Gameard Onis Gsi)eeccscsetssscesssceena-c+-c--esenaceva>esenreess-ccunenceures Bluffs

Aspleniwm Trichomanes (S) crccrcccscsessesccesssesseereseresenneetseeseees Cliffs

Alsine PUDETA ......csseccsrssrscerccsersscssetccsecesceeseensssenersasessconesetenen Ravines

Croomia pauciflora (A) ccescesceeeseeseseeeeseesseeteeceetenseesenees Ravines

Campanula Americana (GID) eesececsssqssccsncrsncsesseossenctcccecenesreea™m Cliffs

Isopyrum biternatum (Ly S?)....ceeessssteeessseessseceeeeneeees Cliffs

Asplenimm plat yNUrOn cescesreersereerrrrersetistererssenseeserreeteetteteres Ravines

Phegopteris hexagonoptera.......sseececcsesereeseeerereenenerseneesees Ravines

Aster CamptOSOrus ..ceccsccscscerersecsrerssesssersessesseeees nprcparennocbocacece Bluffs

TORRONE, Wer TIEO LINE). 5.205 sccosss: quoee tne soacuer Hoc unO ROC HAacoRE ope sueocudocd 3610500 Bluffs

Arabis Canadensis (Li, §)...sccccceseeseseseessetsssseresereseesteseneees Bluffs

MaArella COLGILO]IA ...-..-rccceescoescccencsceserccserscenerccsncccescccoescsssnesees Ravines

SCAU CEPNAFUIM i... .saceeccncccccrscvcesececcceetccececenscecccsessascesseneeeanenees Cliffs

1922] A Botanical BONANZA IN TUSCALOOSA COUNTY 159

wa DE EG) 7 PTRTTILG 1 or BEER ce sone e SREY BEB nG CELE ARE AS CGU-EE EE OSE eee Damp ravines
0 a SE ee oe eee Cliffs
RaleppreaeeetetePe ANGATH AGE. (0) ce ncencc-tnoncnaccavesescesceeseseoecssnce oud Bluffs

SPE IORE Re PATSIIN CET OQUOGCE sconce once escarsnesescccoaranacasnncesecaneeenseestanss Ravines
SUI IMPUI NEE N oe ect oct ocaida adn absent eat ance cactsnanesacsanagecnecececece .Ravines
RESIERSPS EE UNOS) le sok vs vase ok cence aceseaadasee<wsecteseecbscecedsbecsecocesdesevests Ravines
Bigpuroninm Americanum (8) S-....0:....5..0:...+s-ssoccessersscsosiess -Ravines
eee bean Bile erl: (AL)... <..c.c.c-scessvcdeesnnssvacsta-castctsacsnacessosees: Ravines and bluffs
MirinmrOnt ey LONMISTVIIS (1S))\:..-.:-cccencesesseeancsectossccsseecesseeseseee Ravines

UU Tush IRDELTEDTED 1 0S) aston see cee ere eee -Ravines

UD DESEO. AVG ROC oe Bluffs
SPEEA Ty 0 (oe (2 pe ee ee Rayvines
PTLGILGT UE DUANCA GUS OULD «.05s0.00csccescnessvesoeseteccsvecssaceoastsnenses Dry bluffs
BMI PEMRCH MIAN LOUD en cok cc cancascsessansnassraoceonasteasioessesranwscncssusesosesescen Ravines

PUMINIE FISELCRMECTENUIESUSC . cocceccccecexsoesstenifensencsiinedcscscsissessdiceesevsiecese Ravines

Taxonomically there is nothing remarkable about this list, unless
it is that ferns, oaks, Magnoliacew, Saxifragaceew, Sapindacee and
other Polypetalous families are rather numerous, and grasses, sedges,
and other monocotyledons, Rosacew, Leguminose, Umbellifere, Eri-
cacee and Composite rather few (using all these family names in
their older and broader sense). As in the interior hardwood region
of the eastern United States, there are more flowers in spring than at
any other season, evergreens are in the minority, especially among the
trees, and fleshy fruits are scarce.

For rare plants this locality compares favorably with the more
or less celebrated bluffs on the east side of the Apalachicola River in
Middle Florida.‘ The two places have several species in common,
such as Fagus, Juniperus, Liriodendron, Liquidambar, Pinus Taeda,
Quercus alba, Cercis, Ilex opaca, Ostrya, Aesculus Pavia, Bignonia,
Aralia spinosa, Hypericum aureum, Adelia ligustrina, Ptelea, and even
Croomia and ‘Alsine pubera. And the two endemic trees of the Florida
bluffs (representing two genera of Taxaceae) are no more remarkable
than the shrubs Croton Alabamensis and Neviusia, which are not
known outside of Alabama. (The former is known from two counties
and the latter from three.) It is rather singular that the Croomia,
unlike nearly all the other species listed, has its northernmost known
limit in the area under discussion.

Unfortunately civilization is making inroads on these bluffs and
ravines, aS on many other beauty spots the world over. The smoke

4 See Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 31:26. 1904.
72 See Torrey 19:119-122. 1919.

4

160 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | March

from the trains that pass four or five times a day does not benefit the
cliff vegetation any, and whenever a new coal mine is opened or a
sawmill located near the river, houses are built nearby, necessitating
clearing away some of the forest. The best long-leaf pines on the
adjacent hills were cut by lumbermen about seven years ago, and in
some places the logs are rolled down the bluffs to the river or some
creek, necessitating cutting a swath through the vegetation. A de-
velopment which may be looked for almost any day is the building
of summer homes on the bluffs by some of Tuscaloosa’s ‘‘idle rich,’’
with a consequent scattering of tin cans and other rubbish in the
adjacent ravines. But at any rate, the topography is so broken that
little of the area is likely to be molested in the near future by farmers,
and there will probably be some interesting vegetation there to study
for a generation or two yet.

FISHES IN RELATION TO MOSQUITO CONTROL

By SaMuEL F. HILDEBRAND

It has been known for many years that various species of fishes
prevented mosquito production when placed in small inclosures, such
as cisterns, fountains and pools, but only comparatively recent studies
and experiments have led to a fairly definite determination of the
species and the conditions most favorable for mosquito control in
larger bodies of water. Some of the species which are used for mos-
quito control in small artificial waters are wholly unreliable in large
bodies of water where a greater variety of foods is available, showing
that in confinement fish take foods which ordinarily are not eaten. The
variegated minnow. (Cyprinodon variegatus), a strictly herbaceous
fish, for example, may be confined in an aquarium and fed on a diet
of wiggle tails and minced beef or fish and kept alive for several
months. It may also be placed in a pool comparatively free from vege-
tation, but infested with mosquito larve, and it will live indefinitely
and provide mosquito control. Experiments and observations relative
to Mollienisia latipinna, a minnow structurally rather close to Gam-
busia affinis and usually found with the latter in great abundance in
potential mosquito breeding areas in the lowland swamps and slug-
gish ditches of our coastal plains from South Carolina to Mexico,
have led to the conclusion, however, that the food of this species con-
sists almost wholly of plants and that it is worthless as an agent
for the control of mosquito production.

It, therefore, is necessary, for the purpose of mosquito contrel in
nature, to find fishes that not only choose a habitat suitable for mos-
quito production but which by preference feed upon live animals.
They also must seek ‘‘bait’’ of the proper size and they furthermore
must feed at the surface, for that is where the mosquito spends most
of its life in the aquatic stages. It likewise is very desirable to use a
fish which will reproduce under a wide range of conditions, 2. e., Mm
almost any water in which mosquitoes breed, also one which multiplies
very rapidly.

Gambusia affinis, a species in which the female reaches a maximum
length of about 60 mm. (23% in.), the male being much smaller, very
admirably meets all of the requirements mentioned in the preceding
paragraph. It is common almost everywhere throughout the mala-

[161]

162 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | March

rious sections of the South where it inhabits potential mosquito-breed-
ing areas. It is not limited for food entirely to live animals, but it
undoubtedly prefers that kind of a diet, and a wiggle tail certainly
is a ‘“‘bait’’ of suitable size for this fish and one which appears to
‘‘tickle the palate.’’ The habit of surface swimming which is corre-
lated with surface feeding in Gambusia is highly developed, the fish
having received its common name, ‘‘Top Minnow,’’ because of its
almost constant appearance at the surface of the water.

Gambusia is viviparous, 7. e., the eggs are fertilized and hatched
within the body of the parent fish, and the young when born are from
8 to 10 mm. (%.6 to % in.) long and come into the world well
developed, being much better able to take care of themselves than most
fishes hatched from eggs in the more usual way. This fish, unlike
most others, therefore, requires no special environment for depositing
and hatching eggs, the young being born as the female moves about in
the water. The species, for this reason, is able to reproduce under a
very wide range of conditions. The young come in broods, numbering
from a few to one hundred or more, throughout the summer and at
intervals of from three to several weeks each. The young when born
are so well developed and so thoroughly capable of beginning an inde-
pendent existence that their chances for survival are excellent. They
grow rapidly and the early broods of the season become sexually ma-
ture and themselves have young before the end of the summer during
which they are born. Multiplication therefore is very rapid.

Gambusia, as already indicated, is common in most of the mala-
rious sections of the South and in many localities it has become dis-
tributed to the sluggish ditches and standing bodies of water, as far
as natural waterways have from time to time been open. In other
localities the fish is not so universally distributed and in nearly every
vicinity there are present some waters which the fish is unable to
reach because there are no channels connecting them with other bodies
of water. It is here where aid in distribution by man is needed.

It is not claimed that Gambusia, when present in a body of water,
will eliminate all mosquito production under all conditions. Some-
times, when conditions are proper and_ sufficient top minnows are
present, mosquito production is completely eliminated. In many
cases it is not eliminated but very greatly reduced.

The value of Gambusia as an eradicator of the immature mosquito

1922] FISHES IN RELATION TO Mosquito ConTROL 163

may be determined by the inspection and comparison of quiet waters
which support top minnows with those in the same locality which do
not support top minnows, in order to determine which waters produce
the most mosquitoes. Ponds heavily infested with mosquito larvee
and pupz2 may be stocked with Gambusia and results awaited and
observed. One of two similar, neighboring bodies of water both
infested with immature mosquito, may be stocked with Gambusia.
The water which is not stocked with top minnows will serve as
a ‘‘control’’ which will furnish a fair comparison. Occasionally
it is possible to demonstrate the destruction of mosquito larve
which Gambusia accomplishes by connecting by means of a ditch one
pond or pool heavily infested with mosquito larve with another sup-
porting top minnows. All of the foregoing experiments and obser-
vations have been made within recent years and in every instance
either a great reduction in mosquito production resulted or, as in
many cases, complete control followed. Wherever mosquito produc-
tion was not eliminated, if sufficient minnows were used, complete con-
trol was prevented by the presence of places of protection for the
immature mosquito against fish.

Places of refuge for mosquito larve and pupe in the presence
of fish are furnished by such types of plants and floatage which are
slightly or partly submerged, causing a mere film of water to stand
above them. Anopheles larve are particularly keen in seeking these
places of refuge where they cannot be reached by the minnows.
The low aquatic grasses, particularly Hydrochloa carolinensis, are
a souree of much difficulty in securing mosquito control by the use of
fish. Mats of floating algw with a film of water over them also form
excellent hiding places for the immature mosquito. Many other
plants, some of them strictly aquatic, others of the shore variety, often
cause imperfect control when they are partly or slightly submerged.
‘Plants which are wholly submerged do not appear to hinder mosquito
control by the use of fish. Certain plants, such as the floating prim-
rose willows and the tall wire grasses, sometimes develop dense masses
of roots near the surface of the water which provide a limited amount
of protection. The tall plants with straight stalks and with few or no
leaves, and without dense roots near the surface, like the cat-tails, the
rushes, ete., provide little cr no protection for mosquito larve and
pupe. The duck weeds not only furnish no refuge but.whenever

164 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [March

a pond is largely covered with them they appear to prevent mosquito
production. The leaves of these plants are wholly above the surface
of the water, they do not have a dense root system, and furthermore
it is possible that the more or less constant shifting of the weed masses
with the winds or currents may drown the eggs.

Since there are many conditions under which plants furnish pro-
tection for the immature mosquito against fish, it is very essential in
the conduct of anti-malaria campaigns to make frequent and careful
inspections of all waters in the area under control. If it is found that
certain plants are preventing mosquito control, then it is time to aid
the minnows. The indiscriminate cutting and clearing of vegetation
from water deposits certainly is not an economical practice, as such
work frequently is not necessary. The biological condition existing in
each pond must determine whether or not top minnows will require
assistance from man to furnish control of mosquito production. The
abundance of top minnows must be carefully considered, and certainly
the amount of food available for them in each body of water is of
oreat importance. The writer has shown by experiment that when
food is scarce better mosquito control will result than when it is plen-
tiful even though much vegetation of the ‘‘ protective type’’ is present,
and he knows of no other way to explain why mosauito production in
certain ponds is much more nearly eliminated than in others when
minnows and plants appear to be identical and present in equal abun-
dance.

It is evident then that top minnows are of much value in control-
ling mosquito production in permanent standing bodies of water and
that they also render excellent service in sluggish ditches. Their value
as eradicators of mosquito larve has been recognized by health officers,
and minnows are used very widely in the South where anti-malaria
campaigns are conducted, having in a large measure replaced the use
of oil. A definite use for oil in anti-malaria work remains; for places
exist in nearly every locality where mosquitoes breed and where fish
cannot be used, as, for example, in a film of seepage water, in hoof
prints, in temporary pools, ete. It is well known that in order to
secure mosquito control by the use of oil a continuous film must cover
the entire surface of the water and that during hot weather a new
coat of oil must be applied about once a week. It is quite impossible
to obtain a continuous film on ponds and lakes, because the oil is

1922] FisHES IN RELATION TO Mosquito ConTROL 165

driven to one side or to a corner, leaving the remainder of the water
exposed. Furthermore, if oiling is discontinued after it has been ap-
plied for some time, the natural enemies of the mosquito have usually
either been driven away or killed and thereafter the mosquitoes can
reproduce more successfully than before the natural conditions were
disturbed. Since fish control is much more permanent in its results
and much less expensive, it seems advisable to use fish wherever pos-
sible and to apply the oil treatment only where fish cannot be suc-
cessfully used.

Drainage undoubtedly deserves first place among the measures of
mosquito control because of its permanent character, but it is a recog-
nized fact that all water deposits cannot be eliminated and further-
more, it is undesirable to eliminate all of them. The cost of drainage
usually is high and therefore often prohibitive. Fish control can
usually be substituted in part for drainage, and is especially recom-
mended for rural sections and for other localities where funds for the
more expensive measure are not available.

A number of species of fishes besides Gambusia affinis have been
recommended for mosquito control, but none has been as extensively
used as Gambusia. Only one other species in the South, viz., Heter-
andria formosa, a viviparous species, belonging to the same family
as Gambusia, but of much more limited distribution, ranging from
North Carolina to Florida, has given results comparable with those
obtained with Gambusia. Several species of the genus Fundulus, also
belonging to the top minnow family, probably are of limited value.
Some of the sunfishes have been mentioned in connection with mos-
quito control, but their usefulness in the South is not well established.
They certainly are much less efficient than Gambusia.

Gambusia affinis, as already noted, is common almost everywhere
throughout the malarious sections of the South. What the conditions
without these faithful servants would be is difficult to conceive, but
it is quite probable that sections which are prosperous would be in a
very backward state and that others would be entirely undeveloped.
Doctor H. R. Carfer, assistant surgeon general, U. S. Public Health
Service, who is well qualified to speak as an authority on the subject,
positively asserts* that prosperity is not compatible with the preva-
lence of malaria and he declares that no prosperous community exists

* Public Health Bulletin, U. S. Public Service, No. 105; 40. 1920.

166 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | March

where malaria seriously prevails. If a community cannot prosper
when malaria prevails, the importance of combatting such a disease
by every known means is evident. The use of top minnows for this
purpose, although comparatively new, as already stated, has been
adopted by many health officers in nearly all of the southern states
wherever practical anti-malaria work is being conducted. Much wider
use, however, should be made of this comparatively inexpensive agent.
Nature has been kind in the distribution of the top minnow, as al-
ready shown, but still natural bodies of water remain in some local-
ities which have not become stocked with Gambusia. The artificial
waters usually are inaccessable to the minnows and, since they nearly
always are near residences, it is especially important to prevent mos-
quito production in them. Certainly much good can be accomplished
by the judicious distribution of the top minnow, and the results will
be doubly effective if it is given aid by clearing vegetation from
the water wherever necessary.

BUREAU OF FISHERIES,
WASHINGTON, D. C.

NOTES ON THE MORPHOLOGY AND SYSTEMATIC RELA-
TIONSHIP OF SCLEROTIUM ROLFSITI SACC.*

By B. B. Hieeins

PLATE 29

In spite of the proved parasitism and general occurrence of Scle-
rotium rolfsii in the warmer portions of the United States, very little
is known in regard to the structure of the mycelium and of the scle-
rotia of the fungus. The few data that have been published on the
subject have contained so many errors as to be confusing rather than
clarifying. It, therefore, seems desirable to publish, at this time, a
few notes that may be helpful to others who come into contact with
this fungus.

The reputed appearance and disappearence of the fungus in fields,
and its other peculiarities, have led to investigations with the hope that
some fruiting stage would be discovered. So far no spores have been
found; but certain characteristics of the mycelium have been noted,
which are of considerable help in distinguishing the mycelium of this
fungus from that of several others that attack plants in a somewhat
similar manner. These characters also suggest, in a general way, the
spore forms that one should expect to find associated with this myee-
lium.

On fleshy plants and on fruits, such as cantaloupe, where food and
moisture are abundantly available, the growth of S. rolfsii is very
vigorous and characteristic. The mycelium usually forms broad white
sheets and a profusion of sclerotia develops; but on small or more
woody stems, such as those of sweet potato slips or of pepper plants,
the growth is often very scanty and impossible to distinguish macro-
seopically from any one of several other fungi that may attack these
plants. Even when such plants are placed in a moist chamber, scle-
rotia often fail to develop.

MYCELIUM

The mycelium is rather coarse, with large cells (2-9 x 150-250,).
The feeding branches which enter the medium or the host tissue
and those which enter into the formation of the sclerotia are of the
more slender type (about 2u in diameter). In the broader threads
clamp connections occur characteristically, two at each division (figs.

* Paper number 15, Journal Series, Georgia Agricultural Experiment Station.
[167]

168 JOURNAL OF THE MiITcHELL SOCIETY | March

5-8). Often, however, a branch arises just back of the cross wall in
the place of one of the clamp connections (fig. 6). In the larger
threads this is the only type of branching that is at all common; but
from the more slender threads clamp connections are often wanting
and branches may arise from any point, without regard to the cross °
wall.

The clamp connections often develop abnormally, extending the
full length of the cell (fig. 7) or even joining a neighboring hypha or
a branch with the main hypha (fig. 8). The peculiar appearance of
these clamp connections is evidently what gave Taubenhaus* the im-
pression of budding in the mycelium.

The branches, especially those of the more slender type, often an-
astomose (fig. 10) and hold the hyphe together in sheets or ocea-
sionally in strands.

The cells of the mycelium are binucleate, at least when young.

SCLEROTIA

The sclerotia first appear as small white tufts of loosely inter-
twined small branches (fig. 1). Stained sections of such tufts show
an actively growing region near the periphery, which is about %o
of a millimeter thick, rich in protoplasm, and showing a much greater
affinity for stains than the center of the mass or the looser downy
covering which surrounds the growing region. Within a very short
time, 24 to 48 hours in rapidly growing material, all the cells of the
mass, except those of the downy covering, begin to enlarge (fig. 2)
and swell to about three times their former size. At the same time
they become vacuolate and, usually, multinucleate. The cell walls of
the cells in the growing region seem to gelatinize and coalesce, form-
ing a pseudo-parenchymatous tissue (fig. 2) about % millimeter thick.
The cells of an outer layer, two or three cells thick, now lose their
protoplasm; and the cell walls turn dark, collapse to a certain extent,
and form a corky appearing covering over the entire surface of the
now mature sclerotium (fig. 3). The outer downy covering has be-
come separated by the formation of this ecrtical layer and it now
sloughs off, leaving the surface dark brown, smooth, and somewhat
shiny. The cells of the pseudo-parenchyma are broad, and more or
less angled, with thick colorless walls and no air spaces between;

* Taubenhaus, J. J. Recent Studies on Sclerotium rolfsii Sace. Jour. Agr. Res. 18: 127.
pls: 3-6, fizy 1, Lolo:

1922] NoTEes oN ScLEROTIUM Ro.urFsit Sacc. 169

while those of the center of the sclerotium retain their hyphal char-
acter and are separated by large air spaces (fig. 4). The mature
sclerotia are dark brown in color, globose to elliptical, and 14 to
114 millimeters in diameter.

Taubenhaus* suggests the existence of plus and minus strains of
the fungus and the necessity of a ‘‘sexual act’’ in the formation of
the sclerotia. If preved, this would indeed be an interesting con-
dition, entirely new among fungi, and well worthy of serious study.

The absence of any spore form made the task of separating pure
strains for the study unusually difficult. If an ordinary branched
filament were used, one could hardly be positive that parts of other
filaments were not included as anastomosed branches.

In pursuance of the plan finally hit upon several sclerotia from
an old culture, obtained originally from a wilted pepper plant, were
planted on agar plates which were then inverted and placed in a eul-
ture room until considerable aerial growth had formed under the
sclerotium. A few filaments from this growth were picked up on the
point of a flamed needle which was then dragged across a sterile agar
plate. The plate was then inverted on the stage of the microscope;
and, with the low power objective, single unbranched threads were
located and their position indicated by ink marks on the bottom of
the plate. Blocks of the agar, each containing a single thread, were
then cut out with a flamed scalpel and transferred to another plate
of sterile agar.

In this way fifty short filaments were isolated and planted. The
plates were placed in an ineubator and examined under the micro-
scope at least once every twenty-four hours for evidence of growth
or of contamination. Most of the number either died or showed con-
tamination within a few days, but five lived and produced new
growth. In these five cases the torn ends of the threads died and the
new growth developed from two or three cells remaining alive in the
center.

After growth was well started all five were transferred to tubes
of steamed bean pods where, after a few days, each had produced
sclerotia in great abundance. Transfers were then planted on plates
of peptone beef extract agar—three colonies to each plate, two of A
and one of B, ete., throughout the series; so that colonies of each strain

Planbenhads,. J. 0. 1. cp: 136;

170 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL SOCIETY | March

would come into contact with colonies of the same strain and of each
of the other four strains.

The production of sclerotia was somewhat irregular in these plates,
but no sign of ‘‘mixing’’ was noted. Sometimes they were most
abundant where two colonies, either of the same or of different strains,
met; but this was not at all constant. Often they began developing
abundantly at the center of the colony before it had come in contact
with the other colonies on the plate. The most abundant develop-
ment noted in any case was found where a colony of bacteria was over-
grown by the fungus. The variation seemed to be due to irregular
food supply and to any irregularity in the surface of the medium
which inereased the aerial growth of the mycelium.

While this experiment does not prove the non-existence of plus
and minus strains, it does show that mixing of such strains is not
necessary for the production of sclerotia.

GERMINATION OF THE SCLEROTIA

When mature sclerotia are placed in contact with a suitable me-
dium they send out hyphe from all over the surface without forming
any apparent break or crack in the tissues. Each thread arises and
pushes out to the surface separately. In new sclerotia such new
growth may, probably, arise from any living cell; but in very old
sclerotia the cells of the pseudo-parenchyma appear to be dead, and
the new growth arises from the cells of the more loose hyphal weft
in the center (fig. 4). The new hyphe are slender and pass between
the old cells and finally push or dissolve an opening between the cells
of the compact outer tissues. ,

The cells of the new hyphe are binucleate. Whether they arise
only from cells that have remained binucleate, or otherwise, has not
been determined.

LONGEVITY OF THE SCLEROTIA

If kept dry, the sclerotia remain viable for a long time. Some
produced in cultures and kept in the culture tubes grew off readily
when they were finally transferred to fresh media, when more than
two years old. It is not likely that they last very long in contact
with moist soil under field conditions. They seem to be very suscep-
tible to freezing when wet.

N nS 1M Roursi SaAcc. 7
1922 NoTEes ON ScLeEROTIUM R Ss 171

SYSTEMATIC RELATIONSHIP

The presence of clamp connections and of the binucleate condition
in the mycelium shows the relation of the fungus to the Basidiomy-
cetes; but these characters are common to practically all the families
of this group. Sclerotia are also produced by members of nearly all
families of Basidiomycetes. It does not seem possible, therefore, to
determine with certainty any closer relationship until spore formation
has been observed.

SUMMARY

1. The presence of clamp connections and a peculiar method of
branching is a valuable aid in distinguishing the mycelium of S.
rolfsi from that of other fungi producing similar lesions on plants

2. The affinity of S. rolfsii to the class Basidiomycetes is indicated
by the septate, binucleate mycelium and by the presence of clamp
connections at the septa.

3. The mixing of plus and minus strains is not necessary for the
production of sclerotia.

EXPERIMENT, GA.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 29

Fig. 1. Part of a sector from section of a very young sclerotium of S. rolfsii,
showing interwining of the slender hyphe; a, the loose hairy covering; b,
darker stained growing region; and ¢, paler hyphe in the center of the
weft. x 367.

Fig. 2. Part of a sector from section of a slightly older sclerotium; a, the
loose hyphal covering of the sclerotium; b, the pseudo-parenchyma with its
large cells and thick colorless walls; and c¢, looser growth and large air
spaces in the center of the sclerotium. x 367.

Fig. 3. Portion of the outer tissues from a section of a mature sclerotium; a,
remains of the loose hyphal coverings, partly dead and sloughing off; b,
pseudo-parenchyma, the outer layers of which have formed the brown cor-
tical coverings. x 367.

Fig. 4. Section from near the center of a germinating sclerotium, showing two
slender new hyphe (d) pushing between the partly dead cells of the
sclerotial tissue; from a scerotium more than a year old. x 367.

Fig. 5. Septum and double clamp connections in vegetative mycelium of S.
rolfsit. x 154.

Fig. 6. Portion of a hypha in which a branch has grown out in the place of
one of the clamp connections. x 154.

172 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocIETY | March

Fig. 7. An abnormality in which the branch taking the place of a clamp con-
nection has grown out and connected with the second cell beyond its
place of origin. x 154.

Fig. 8. Another common abnormality in which the clamp connection growing
out from a braneh connects with the mother hypha. x 154.

Fig. 9. Hypha of the more slender type with a branch arising from near the
center of a) cell, x 154.

Fig. 10. Anastomosing branches in the vegetative mycelium. x 154.

All drawings made with the aid of a camera lucida.

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AN INTERESTING ANOMALY IN THE PULMONARY
VEINS OF MAN

By W. C. GEORGE
Puates 30 anp 31

Anomalies in the venous system are so common that most of them
arouse no very great interest in the anatomist. One of the anomalies
(pl. 30, fig. A) found last spring in the anatomical laboratory at
Chapel Hill and ealled to my attention by Dr. C. 8. Mangum is so
unusual and of such embryological interest as to seem worthy of
a brief report. In this case the blood from the upper left lobe
of the lung was drained not into the atrium but into the systemic
circulation. A fairly large vein, about one-half inch in diameter,
emerged from near the middle of the ventral surface of the upper left
lobe of the lung and coursed directly cephalad to empty into the left
innominate vein about two and one-half inches lateral to the union
of the two innominates to form the superior vena cava. The right
pulmonary veins and the pulmonary vein from the lower left lobe
communicate with the left atrium as usual.

Somewhat similar connections between the veins of the pulmonary
and systemic circulations have been recorded previously. With ref:
erence to this sort of anomaly Bailey and Miller (1) make the state-
ment that ‘‘The upper (more cephalic) [pulmonary] vein on the right
side may open into the superior vena cava; or the upper vein on the
left side may open into the left innomonate vein. A possible explana-
tion of this is that the pulmonary veins are formed after the heart
and other vessels have developed to a considerable degree, and some
of them may unite with the other vessels instead of with the atrium.”’
This explanation is apparently based on an erroneous conception of
the pulmonary veins being sprouts that grow out from the sinus ven-
osus into the lungs, and does not seem to be a satisfactory explanation
in view of the relations existing between the pulmonary and bron-
chial veins in the adult and their embryonic origin as shown by Alfred
Brown (2). Brown has shown that the pulmonary system in the cat
arises from an indifferent splanchnic plexus in the region of the lung
bud (pl. 31, fig. C). This plexus communicates on the one hand
with the sinus venosus and on the other with the neighboring sys-
temic veins (cardinals, segmentals, et al.). This plexus around the lung
bud differentiates into two systems, the pulmonary and the bronchial.

In the adult the lungs receive their blood supply from two sources,

[173]

174 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | March

the pulmonary arteries from the right ventricle and the bronchial
arteries from the aorta. Typically the pulmonary veins drain the
lungs of the blood brought in by the pulmonary arteries and, through
connecting capillaries, a small amount of the blood brought in by the
bronchial arteries reaches the pulmonary veins. Most of the blood
brought in by the bronchial arteries, however, is carried away from
the capillary plexuses around the bronchi by small bronchial veins
which empty into the azygos and accessory hemi-azygos veins, repre-
sentatives of persisting portions of the embryonic cardinals. Condi-
tions similar to that shown in the anomaly that I have cited appar-
ently arise as a result of some interference with the return of the
blood through the pulmonary portion of the embryonic splanchnic
plexus, thus causing both pulmonary and bronchial blood to enter the
bronchial veins and resulting according to the laws of Thoma (8)
in the enlargement of the bronchial system and an atrophy and dis-
appearance of that part of the splanchnic plexus which would have
formed the left pulmonary vein.

Laws of Thoma (4):

(1) An acceleration of the current leads to an enlargement of the lumen of a
vessel, and a slowing of the current leads to its narrowing and final
disappearance.

(2) An inerease in the blood pressure is the cause for new formation of
capillaries.

(3) The growth in thickness of the vessel wall depends on the tension of the
wall, which in turn is dependent upon the blood pressure and the diameter
of the vessel.

In this particular case then the large vein passing from the upper
left lobe of the lung to the left innominate vein would be composed
of the left bronchial vein and that portion of the accessory hemi-
azygos between the innominate and the junction of the bronchial with
the accessory hemi-azygos. On account of the great enlargement of
this vein the distal portion of the accessory hemi-azygos appears as
a side branch of the ‘‘anomalous pulmonary.’’

CHAPEL HILL, N. C.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Bailey and Miller: Text-book of Embryology, p. 258, 4th ed., 1921.
(2) Alfred Brown: The Development of the Pulmonary Veins in the Domes-

tic Cat. Anat. Record 7:299. 1913. i
(3) R. Thoma: Untersuchungen ueber die Histogenese und Histomechanik

des Gefiass-systems. S. 1-91. Stuttgart, 1893.
(4) Quoted from Keibel and Mall’s Textbook of Embryology 2:421. 112.

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THE EASTERN SHRUBBY SPECIES OF ROBINIA
By W. W. ASHE

The eastern shrubby species of Robinia are separated from Rob-
inia pseudo-acacia L. (which has a smooth flat pod and white fragrant
flowers) by having pods prickly, hispid, bristly or glandular and
pink or purplish flowers.

Key To EasteRN SHRUBBY SPECIES OF ROBINIA

Al. =alleghanian; C.=carolinian. Au. = austroriparian.

Twigs, petioles and pedicels viscid, pod flat, margined (Al. and C.).
Twigs (often petioles, ete.) covered with viscid secretion....(1) R. viscosa Vent.
Twigs (often petioles, ete.) with short gland-tipped viscid bristles
(2) BR. viscosa var. hardwegii (Koeh.) Ashe
Twigs never viscid.
Peduneles, twigs and shoots not hispid, rarely hispidulose.
Leaves, twigs and peduncles eventually glabrous or nearly so.
Flowers rose-purple, never fragrant; pods thick.
Flowers about 15 mm. long, leaflets lance ovate (Al.)
(3) R. kelseyt Cr.
Flowers more than 17 mm. long, leaflets elliptic (Al.) _
(4) Rk. boyntonii Ashe
Flowers pale lilac or pinkish, fragrant; pods flat (Au.)
(5) R. margaretta Ashe
Leaves and inflorescence canescent (Au.)...... (6) R. elliottii (Chapm.) Ashe
Pedunecles and vigorous shoots usually hispid (in 8 sometimes pubescent),
pods thick.
Flowers more than 20 mm. long, racemes few-flowered (Al.)
EWAN MBN. MIST 052-0 cctecesecscesadacudeecueeneevoosvencsesseeeseassess (7) R. hispida L.
Twigs sparingly hispid, often merely appressed pubescent.
(8) R. grandiflora Ashe
Flowers less than 20 mm. long, twigs never densely bristly
Bristles on twigs short, gland-tipped; 6-18 flowered (C.)
(9) R. longiloba Ashe
Twigs usually glabrate; racemes 3-6 flowered (Au. & C.)
(10) R. nana (Ell.) Spach.

R. viscosa var. hardwegii (Koeh.) n. e—R. hardwegii Koeh.

This plant is frequent around Highlands, North Carolina, associ-
ated with the form which has viscid twigs. A few short gland-
tipped hairs are to be found on nearly every plant with viscid secre-
tion and as the pubescence becomes more dense there seems to be
less of the viscid secretion, so that the form with the viscid secretion
gradually passes into the form having viscid pubescence. _

[175]

176 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | March

Robinia margaretta sp. nov.

A shrub sometimes propagating by root suckers as well as by seed,
1-1.4 m. in height or in cultivation becoming 3 m. high and with a
single tree-like stem. Leaves, with linear acuminate herbaceous stip-
ules, rarely with slender thorns, formed of 15 to 19 (to 23 in eul-
tivation), elliptical rather thick firm leaflets, rounded or subeordate at
base and rounded or retuse at the mucronate apex, green and some-
times appressed canescent as they unfold, becoming essentially glab-
rous with age, rachis sparingly hispidulose, petiolule 2-3 mm. long,
canescent. Twigs slender glabrous or hispidulose, tan or light chest-
nut. Racemes spreading 7-13 flowered; flowers faintly fragrant, pale
lilac or with the vexellum slightly pinkish, and with a yellowish spot
in the center, often with nearly white edges, 16-20 mm. long, the
short broad calyx 7-10 mm. long, minutely glandular puberulent, the
lobes abruptly acute about two-thirds the length of the tube; pedicels
8-10 mm. long, puberulent and sparingly glandular hispidulose as
well as the peduncles. The fruit in spreading elusters of 3-7, is linear
7-10 em. long and about 1 em. wide, tipped by the slender curved style,
very thin and sparingly hispid with short spreading bristles. Common
on sand hills around Augusta, Ga., growing with longleaf pine and
Carya pallida var. arenicola Ashe and near Greenwood, S. C., on red
clay uplands with rosemary pine, southern red oak, and white hickory.
A specimen from the latter place was cultivated at Washington for five
years, fruiting freely, and stock from it distributed. In its small
pale fragrant flowers, long racemes, flat pods, and numerous leaflets,
this plant is allied to R. pseudo-acacia. It is possible that Tab. 19,
Abbott’s Insects of Georgia, is intended to represent this species.

Robinia grandiflora sp. nov.

k. Hispida var. rosea Pursh, Fl. Am. Sept. (1814). Not R. rosea
Loisel in Duham. Arb. Ed. nov. ¢ 17.

A slender shrub 1-3 mm. in height or in eultivation reaching 5
m., propagating extensively by root suckers as well as by seeds. Shoots
and twigs mostly soft appressed silky pubescent or also sparingly
setulose with weak spreading pale colored bristles; or vigorous shoots
densely hispid near the tips. Leaves 15-30 em. long, the rachis
mostly appressed pubescent, at least when young; leaflets 9-13 (to 17
in cultivation), broadly elliptic or broadly ovate 4-6 em. long, mostly
rounded at both ends and tipped with a very short muero, bronze on

1922] THe EASTERN SHRUBBY SPECIES OF RoBINIA Vist

the upper surface and white satiny canescent on the lower surface as
they unfold and permanently more or less appressed pubescent. Ra-
cemes 6-9 em. long, 3-7 flowered; flowers large 20-23 mm. long, rose-
purple or purple and white with a large pale spot on the vexellum;
the calyx 12-15 mm. long, the lobes, gradually acuminate and much
longer than the tube, purplish or whitish silky canescent, as well as
the pedicels or often with short weak bristles intermixed. The fruit
mostly solitary at the ends of the short pubescent and often some-
what hispid peduncles is dark brown, 4.5-6.5 cm. long, tipped by the
stout slightly curved style, the slightly margined body about 1 em.,
wide and rough bristly where distended by the seeds, but the intervals
often much constricted and nearly free from bristles.

This plant was first collected by me on the south slopes of Grand-
father Mountain in 1900 and a seed-bearing plant which attained a
height of more than 4.5 m. was cultivated for many years. An in-
fertile plant less hispid and more pubescent, the stock of which was
collected by me on Grandmother Mountain, in 1915, has been in ecul-
tivation since that date and numerous plants from it distributed.
This species is evidently closely related to R. hispida L., but is readily
separated by its larger size, by its pubescence, paler flowers and the
fact that it is less hispid. Type, W. W. A., Grandfather Mountain,
N. C., July, 1900.

Many plants of this species, of R. hispida and of R. longiloba,
although having perfect flowers do not set fruit. Meehan apparently
first called attention to this in the case of R. hispida in cultivation.
Large patches of R. longiloba have been examined, all evidently from
the same stock by vegetative propagation without signs of fruit—
and it is possible that certain patches may not fruit, just as the plant
of R. grandiflora which I now have in cultivation has never set fruit
—hbut this I have attributed possibly to the lack of cross fertilization.
L have recently obtained fruit of what seems to be typical hispida and
have a plant from the seed now growing.

ForEST SERVICE,
WASHINGTON, D. C.

A NEW OAK FROM THE GULF STATES
By W. D. STERRETT

There was recently brought to my attention by W. W. Ashe, of the
U.S. Forest Service, material of an oak he collected in Louisiana and
eastern Texas, and which he seemed to regard as possibly an unde-
scribed species. This material he suggested might represent the same
form as a tree which I found in South Carclina in March, 1921, and
which I discussed with him: a tree of wet flat woods with leaves some-
what resembling post oak, but locally regarded as a timber tree much
superior to the post oak. It was not possible, however, to secure at
that season adequate material for study. Information regarding this
tree he thought might be of service to me in connection with the prep-
aration of a bulletin on which I worked for the United States Forest
Service on the distribution and economic importance of the oaks of
eastern United States and on which Mr. Ashe freely gave me assist-
ance and suggestions. The description of this tree based on Mr.
Ashe’s material and notes is as follows:

Quercus ashei, sp. nov.

The lower leaves, broadly obovate in outline, are 8-12 em. long, 5-9
em. broad, deeply 5-lobed, the terminal lobe and upper pair of lateral
lobes very broad at the obtuse or even square ends which are usually
slightly 3-notched, the lower pair much shorter and more rounded;
usually rounded at the very narrow base; thin but firm in texture,
dark green and lucid above, and at first more or less stellate pubes-
cent, especially on the midrib; much paler beneath, and clothed at
least at first with scattered short stellate pubescence, but often glab-
rate with age; midrib slender with one pair of prominent lateral veins
at or above the middle; petiole short, 3-6 mm. long, slender, more or
less permanently stellate pubescent. The upper, sun leaves, resem-
bling those of white oak, thicker, and with thickened margin, pinnated
into 3-7 ascending entire lobes, rounded or cuneate base and much
longer petiole. Buds small, obtuse, dark chestnut, at first with the
outer scales stellate pubescent, at length nearly glabrous. Twigs very
slender, 2-3 mm. thick, grooved and covered when young with loose
brown or brownish-gray pubescence which is usually more or less
persistent until autumn. The fruit often in clusters of 2 or 3 is ses-
sile or sometimes on a stalk as long as the nut, 12-18 mm. long, in-

[178]

1922] A New Oak From THE GULF STATES 179

eluding the cup; the cup from 9-12 mm. wide and not quite as Ieng
is almost top-shaped or with slightly rounded sides, the margins thin
and closely appressed against the nut, closely gray-canescent and coy-
ering about one-third of the ovate nut.

A tree 20-30 m. in height growing on better drained alluvial lands
from the Sabine River in Wood County, Texas, eastward to Winn
Parish in Louisiana (type, No. 1128W, from near Hinton, Winn Par-
ish, La., in Mr. Ashe’s herbarium), with a decidedly tapering usually
excurrent trunk 9-12 dm. in diameter, a short bole and rather short
spreading branches which form an oblong crown. Bark on trunk steel
gray, broken by deep furrows into narrow, flat-topped ridges, rarely
exfoliating in thin flakes; that on the angled limbs and on the branch-
lets gray and smoother.

Common in willow oak flats and also in association with water
oak, Quercus obtusa, Q. prinus, Q. shumardii, and white ash. This
tree has the general aspect of a post oak of large size, but the crown
is prevailingly much narrower and its slender twiggage is very char-
acteristic. From Q. stellata it differs in its slender twigs, smaller and
thinner foliage, and small dark red-brown and not large tan buds;
from Q. marga:etta in its shorter and more rusty pubescence, which
largely persists on the twigs; and from both in the far smaller nut
and cup and shorter petiole of the shade leaves. It resembles in sev-
eral particulars Q. stellata paludosa Sarg. (Bot. Gaz. May, 1918, 441)
but that is described as having the fruit similar to the fruit of the
post oak, whereas according to Ashe’s notes, T. J. Gough, of Hinton,
La., woods foreman of the Urania Lumber Company, and others, re-
gard the smaller acorns as being one character which separates the
two trees; the very slender twigs and white oak-like upper leaves being
other distinctive characters. The local name in Texas is water post
oak or swamp post oak; at Hinton, La., it is water oak, Q. nigra there
being called pin oak. Louisiana State Forest Ranger C. N. Bilbray
regarded the larger trees in Middle Creek swamp, Natchitoches Parish,
La., as white oaks.

WASHINGTON, D. C.

A NEW GENUS OF WATER MOLD RELATED TO
BLASTOCLADIA

By W. C. Coker AND F. A. GRANT

PuaTE 32
Septocladia n. genus.

Plant small, slender, the short or long stalk not conspicuously dif-
ferentiated ; branches usually dichotomous, often verticellate in groups
of 3-5, separated from the nodes by distinct and complete septa, not
constricted at intervals; in vigorous cultures repeating the branching
in the same way to form a complex plant. Sporangia oval, terminal,
sympodially arranged, not rarely in chains of several, often clustered
by the shortening of the branches, which continue the stem by one or
more lateral buds beneath. Spores biciliate at times, but the two cilia
so closely approximated or fused as usually to appear as one. Resting
bodies (unfertilized eggs), borne in the same way as the sporangia and
of the same size and shape, at maturity enclosed in a thin, hyaline
sheath out of which they finally fall through an apical slit; the wall
brown and conspicuously pitted as in Blastocladia: the whole probably
representing a thin-walled odgonium completely filled with a thick-
walled parthenogenetic egg.

A saprophytic aquatic of anomalous structure and differing from
all other Phycomyecetes in the regular and normal septation of the
plant body. To be placed in the Family Blastocladiaceae.

Septocladia dichotoma n. sp.

Characters of the genus. Threads extending about 3 mm. from
the substratum on a termite ant, about 10-73» thick, growing grad-
ually more slender distally at each joint, basal joints 35-130, long,
those of central region up to about 6754 lone; tips blunt, hyaline.
Sporangia oval, 28-46 x 55-764; spores escaping singly through one
or two usually apical holes or short papillae, biciliate (or uniciliate
by fusion of the two cilia?) oval when swimming with the cilia apical,
monoplanetie, amoeboid before encysting 10 thick when at rest;
sprouting by a slender thread. Resting bodies appearing later than the
sporangia but of the same shape, 25-39.2 x 36.3-49.2u, the conspicuous
pits apparently sunken from the outside in regular fashion as in
Blastocladia Pringsheimii, at maturity slipping from the thin, clasp-
ing sheath; their sprouting not observed.

[180]

1922] Water Moup RELATED TO BLASTOCLADIA 181

Found only once, October 20, 1921, on a knuckle bone of beef
partly covered with water, in Sparrow’s pasture, Chapel Hill, N. C.
(F. A. Grant col.).

There is no doubt of the close relationship of this plant to Blasto-
cladia of which four species are now known, and which was made the
type of a new family, Blastocladiaceae, by Minden (Crypt. Flora,
Mark Brand. 5:506. 1912). The four known species of Blastocladia
are as follows:

Blastocladia Pringsheimii Reinsch (Jahrb. f. Wiss. Bot. 11:291. 1876). Sporan-
gia much elongated, resting bodies with thick and pitted wall, not slipping
from a sheath at maturity; sterile, slender filaments often present among
the reproductive bodies.

Blastocladia rostrata Minden (1. ¢., p. 604). Much like B. Pringsheimii, but
resting bodies slipping from sheath at maturity.

Blastocladia ramosa Thaxter (Bot. Gaz. 21:50. 1896). Sporangia shorter;
resting bodies with thin and scarcely pitted wall; sterile filaments absent.

Blastocladia prolifera Minden (1. ¢. p. 606). Much like B. ramosa, but
sporangia proliferating internally, as in Saprolegnia: the only species
with this habit. Resting bodies slipping from a sheath at maturity.

In the form of the sporangia and resting cells and in the absence of
sterile filaments among them our plant resembles most closely B. ram-
osa and B. prolifera. The remarkable resting bodies with their thick
brown, strongly pitted walls and peculiar habit of slipping at maturity
from the closely fitting sheath are so strikingly similar in structure
and habit to those of B. rostrata and B. prolifera and in structure to
those of B. Pringsheimii that one is immediately convinced of their
close relationship. The diagnosis of the family will have to be ex-
tended to include septate as well as non-septate forms.

On an agar plate the plant does not do well. A few root-like
threads grow out, branched and with cross-walls in the older portions,
and in these older portions are found resting bodies or sporangia,
sometimes fifteen or twenty of the latter may be in a row. The re-
productive bodies are sometimes found in clusters or single on short
lateral stalks.

On boiled corn grain the growth is good. The threads are about
the same size as on an ant but average longer, as much as 5mm. The
protoplasm in threads is not as dense as when grown on ant.

Threads at substratum as large as 102» in diameter. Sporangia
are produced better than on ants, and resting bodies are so abundant
that with the unaided eye they give a brick dust color to the entire

182 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [March

eulture. The resting bodies are at first dark and have numerous large
oil droplets. As they get older the walls assume a yellowish-brown
color and the contents become homogeneous. They appear singly along
the branches in sympodial arrangement.

In a discharging sporangium a few spores that failed to get out
were observed to crawl about actively in an amoeboid fashion for a
good while. After an hour they had eneysted and one had sprouted.

The spores are of a peculiar internal structure, resembling closely
those of B. Pringsheimii as shown by Thaxter (1. ¢. pl. 3, fig. 11).
Most of the protoplasm is at the end opposite the cilia, the center is
almost clear and the cilia seem to extend down through the clear tip
to a protoplasmic mass below, as shown in our fig. 5.

CuHaAPren Hi, N. C.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 32

Septocladia dichotoma

Fig. 1. Empty sporangia in chains. x 154.

Fig. 2. Three sporangia, one discharging spores, two empty. x 420.

Fig. 3. Vegetative branch, showing short joints and young resting bodies. x 59.

Fig. 4. Optical section of resting body and empty sporangium with two aper-
tures. x 420.

Fig. 5. Two spores showing cilia. x 1296.

Fig. 6. Spores showing amoeboid movement before encysting. x 810.

Fig. 7. Sprouting spores. x 1008.

Fig. 8. Habit sketch, showing empty sporangia and resting bodies. x 96.

Fig. 9. Vegetative tips, showing refractive bodies and clear blunt tips. x 150.

Fig. 10. Optical section of mature resting body with empty sporangium below.
x 420.

Fig. 11. Long, slender thread on corn grain, showing sympodial arrangement
of resting bodies. x 96.

Fig. 12. Surface view of resting body, showing pits. x 420.

Fig. 13. Part of branch, showing thin sheath out of which the resting body
(Fig. 12) has slipped. x 420.

Fig. 14. Section of thick wall of the resting body, showing the pits and the
sheath outside. x 1296.

Fig. 15. Mature sporangium just before discharge of spores. x 420.

Fig. 16. Group showing some sporangia before maturity and some after empty-
ing. x 96.

PLATE 32

vr
: a c wie

FOREST TYPES OF THE APPALACHIANS AND
WHITE MOUNTAINS

By W. W. ASHE

I. DEFINITIONS AND ENUMERATIONS OF TYPES*

Within the White Mountains of New England and in the Appa-
lachians+ from Pennsylvania southward more than 50 distinct forests

types or tree societies occur. Of these, more than 30 are within
the .Alleghanian area (Castanea and Betula lutea-Pinus strobus
phases) of the Transition life zone; about 10 are in the Canadian
life zone, and about the same number in the Carolinian area of the
upper Austral zone, which extends well up into the mountains towards
their southern end (Appendix 1).

DEFINITION OF FOREST TYPE

The forest type is that arborescent species or admixture of species
with the accompanying subordinate vegetation (which taken together
constitute the vert) which nature has developed as best adapted to a
given site. For this reason an understanding of the distribution
of the forest types, their composition, and the determining environ-
mental factors are a necessary basis for the best silvicultural prac-
tice. Unfortunately, site and type have been confused: The site is
the sum of the ecological (7. e., edaphic, topographic, and meteorologi-
eal) factors; the forest type with its accompanying life is the biotic
corollary as it exists.

TYPE CHANGES

The type does not necessarily, even in the absence of stress,
replace itself in all its elements without change. There are (1)
changes in composition due to replacement (oscillations); and (2)
changes due to modification of the accompanying flora, especially the

* The detailed composition of the forest types, their relationship and local distribution,
especially their altitudinal distribution will be presented in subsequent papers, as well as
the grouping of the White Mountain forest types.

7 There was submitted at the meeting of the Society of American Foresters held at
Toronto, Canada, December 28, 1921, a paper with the title ‘“‘Reserved Areas of Forest
Types as a Guide in Developing an American Silviculture.’ That paper records the most
accessible location of areas in an unmodified or little modified condition of each of the
upland Appalachian types noted in the tabulation herewith presented. The suggestion
was made in that paper that the Society of American Foresters consider the subject of
recommending that these areas or similar areas of forst types be withdrawn from exploita-
tion and be held primarily for demonstration purposes. That paper, however, was read
by title only but will appear in the February, 1922, issue of the Journal of Forestry.

[183]

184 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | March

micro-organisms which promote nitrification. Type replacement may
be effected

(1) By direct self-replacement under cover, as spruce beneath
spruce, or hemlock beneath hemlock.

(2) By direct self-replacement without cover, as southern) jack
pine or mountain pine in openings caused by the death of old trees
of the same species.

(3) By alternation: Yellow poplar, for example, replacing chest-
nut when it windfalls or dies; and chestnut establishing itself be-
neath the cover of the poplar; rosemary pine appearing in oak wind-
falls; and oak appearing beneath the cover of the pine.

(4) By succession (often following fire or resulting from wind-
falls, ete.), as a nurse stand (temporary type) of aspen, birch, and
popple followed by a stand (permanent type) of spruce.

PERMANENCE OF TYPE

While the type is essentially permanent, oscillation in its ecomposi-
tion from time to time or intermission in the continuity of its perma-
nent form may occur. In addition to such oscillations within the
type, the site may be subject at least to slight or temporary modifi-
cation by the type (edaphic changes). For example, there is evidence
for believing that the accumulation of humus beneath the oak-yellow
poplar mixture on certain situations due to retarded nitrification may
result in accumulation of raw humus and the development of a
subpeaty site and thus favor a change to a chestnut site and chestnut
type; or a chestnut type quality 1 may with increase in peaty accumu-
lations and greater acidity become highly favorable for invasion by
laurel, and the site decline to chestnut quality 2 with laurel. On
swampy sites there may eventually be better drainage as a result of
accumulation of humus, resulting in a drying of the site (Appen-
dix 2). For instance, an alder and red maple site may become suit-
able for red maple and white oak. The type also is subject to change
by natural stresses within itself (Appendix 3). The killing of
chestnut by Endothia parasitica on large areas is resulting in pro-
found changes in the forest types on what originally were chestnut
sites; and undoubtedly this must be regarded as constituting an
organic change in the forest types in the region which is affected,
until or unless a resistant strain is developed from individual trees.
Such resistant individuals are often noted.

1922] Forest TYPES 185

SEPARATION OF TYPES

In deciding what shall be regarded as constituting a permanent
forest type or tree society in such a complex as obtains at the southern
end of the Appalachians, only such societies have been considered
as are most sharply defined and well marked either by composition
or, in the ease of pure stands (at least 66% pure), by marked differ-
ences in the height of the dominant trees and in the volume of wood
(quality of stand). The intergrading or transitional stages have
been neglected, as well as temporary types. In such societies the
quality of the stand, which is an expression of the possibility of yield
of the tree society, is considered as important a concept as is varying
proportion of species: for example, practically pure stands of chest-
nut occur and are widely distributed from Connecticut to north-
eastern Alabama, but the chestnut in the pure stands of this species
on different sites may vary greatly in height from not to exceed 40
feet along dry and wind-swept upper slopes and crests of ridges, to
exceeding 110 feet on sites most favorable for its growth. The same
condition is observed in other species, and for this reason to obtain
an adequate expression of the forest site the height of the trees in the
mixture should be considered as a feature as well as the intermixture
of species. With this variation in the height of the overwood there
is a concomitant change in the character of the undershrubs and her-
baceous associates.

In the division of pure stands into types, the height of the domi-
nant trees (Appendix 4) in the mature forest has been regarded as
the criterion, with an interval of 25 feet (Appendix 5) between the
different types. It has been suggested (Appendix 6) that this inter-
val be standardized on the basis of 20 feet at 100 years for Appa-
lachian species, which for stands of old timber practically conforms to
the interval of 25 feet which is being employed. This interval in
height results in a difference exceeding 2,000 cubic feet of wood
per acre in stands of average height (100 feet), and indicates a great
difference in the average amount of available soil moisture in the
root zone on soils having the same mechanical condition and depth
(Appendix 7), 7. e., a difference in the number of critical (dryest)
periods and a corresponding difference in the maximum depth of the
water table; or a marked difference in transpiration and evaporation
of soil moisture.

186 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY ’ [March

The passage from one forest type to another is seldom abrupt,
but usually there is a gradual transition, as that which accompanies
(1) difference in altitude; (2) variation in drainage, as when the
mountain slopes are ascended; or (3) change in the physical texture
of the soils, where the soils are residual and have been more or less
transported and difference in available moisture results. The most
abrupt transition from type to type within a short distance is usually
that which is due to difference in insolation, between north and south
slopes (Appendix 8), especially when the slopes are steep, or that
which results from marked differences in soil composition, especially
that between residual soils from the weathering in situ of caleareous
rocks (and still containing enough lime to render them alkaline or
neutral) (Appendix 9), and contiguous soils derived from a country
rock deficient in lime or potash.

In the eastern prevailingly gneissic, metamorphosed and foliated
division of the Appalachians, there is no definite stratification of the
country rock, and the forest types occur characteristically in patches.
In the Alleghanies, on the other hand, where there is not only definite
stratification but great difference in the character of the country
rock—soft limestone, cherty limestone, clay shale, sandy shale, sand-
stone and quartzite alternating and the extremes often being in juxta-
position—the types are prevailingly in horizontal zones along the
slopes of the long ridges trending northeast and southwest which
characterize the Alleghanian structure, the zonation of the types
due to stratification of soils being interrupted by surface configura-
tion, where minor valleys and hollows indent the slopes.

The facies of the mixed type (society) can often be separated into
two groups of species: That portion of it which is formed of species
each of which constitutes more than 20 per cent of the stand, con-
trolling species, and the minor species each of which forms less than
20 per cent though more than 5 per cent of the mixture. Locals
are species of limited distribution and while within a limited area
they may be abundant in a type, they do not form a general feature
in it throughout its entire distribution (Cladrastis tinctoria, Robinia
viscosa, Magnolia macrophylla, Tsuga caroliniana). Locals may be
species in the formative stage or they may be relics of species possi-
bly once of wide distribution which have become nearly extinct.
Vagrants are species of wide distribution entering possibly many

1922] Forest TYPEs 187

forest types but seldom sufficiently abundant in any locality to form
a distinctive feature in a type (Sassafras, Magnolia acuminata).
A certain species or several species within the facies of the accom-
panying vegetation may be so indicative of the type as to be index
species. These may be of particular importance in the under shrubs
and herbaceous concomitants and have significant value in indicating
the character of the superior association after it has been destroyed
(Appendix 10). A knowledge of the shrubby and herbaceous index
species, especially such as are not affected by the removal of the
superior stand (sun species), is economically of paramount impor-
tance as a guide in the determination of the quality site in cases
where the superior stand has been cut, especially in the case of
pure stands. The vert in the Appalachian forests usually may be
separated into (1) the swperior stand overwood or sun stand of
designated species, a portion of the trees in which may be dominant,
a portion intermediate and codominant, and a portion suppressed
(Appendix 11); (2) beneath the superior stand there may be an
inferior stand or underwood of trees or shrubs tolerant of shade
(such as dogwood, witchhazel, sourwood, laurel, or Kalmia), and
below this a ground cover or mat of small shrubs (Vaccinium
Leucothoé, Xolisma) as well as an herbaceous flora, each a more or
less distinctive and varying concomitant of the forest type.

Some of the important features of the forest associations of the
Appalachians have been considered in connection with its general
phytogeography. Kearney, in an excellent article, discusses some
of the forest types as developed at the extreme southern end of the
region. Harshberger considered the central portion of the region in
two articles published in 1903 (Appendix 12), and later, 1911
(Appendix 13), covered the subject in a broader manner; while
Schimper (Appendix 14) also discussed the forests of this region in
their local distribution. The forest types in which chestnut occurs
have been briefly considered in ‘‘Chestnut in Tennessee,’’ and there
are a number of other references in forest literature of the Appa-
lachians to the forest types of the region.

TABULATIONS OF FOREST TYPES

In the tabulations below the following common names are em-
ployed (see Journal of Forestry 14: 233. 1916):

188 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL Socrmery | March

Mountain pine for Pinus pungens; Black pine for P. rigida; Rosemary pine
for P. echinata; Small shagbark hickory for Hicoria carolinae septentrionalis ;
Sand hickory for H. pallida; Spanish oak for Quercus coccinea; Spotted oak
for Q. shumardii Buck. (See Bull. Charleston Museum 14: 2, 9, 1918); Southern
red oak for Q. rubra L. (Q. falcata Mx.); Mountain lin for Tilia heterophylla
of Authors.

APPALACHIAN ForEST FORMATION
Associations Societies or Forest Types
SPLU CO sec eacez-coneesenecseessascnsvesesi Spruce, qualities 2, 3, 4, 5, sub 5.
Spruce with southern balsam.

ElemloGhkes te. ac scetrestescreseredives Hemlock and spruce.
Hemlock—hirch, qualities 1, 2, 3.

NAP lOsretcesstersccessetecertersecette Beech—hbirch—sugar maple, quality 3.
Beech pure, qualities 4, 5.
Yellow buckeye—sugar maple—yellow birch, quali-
ties 2, 3.
Mountain lin—black birch:
ash, quality 2.
Black cherry—sugar maple—birch—mountain lin,

yellow buckeye—white

quality 2.
CHEStiMtess-caserseoceesssteeeessreessoee Qualities 2, 3, 4, 5.

Wiellow; oplaitencsserce-scsese-0e-0: With red oak—chestnut—hemlock, qualities 1, 2.
With white oak—sugar maple, quality 1.
With white oak—black oak—white hickory, quali-
ties 3, 4.
With black gum—red maple—white oak, quality 3.

Red) Oakey eee csccsseecssscenenes ocess oe Qualities 4, 5, sub 5.
Chestnut (OBK ee rvssscssee-sesceess:s Qualities 3, 4. 5.
White; Oalkvetesescsttsascessrscsoss.s* White oak, qualities 2, 3.
Mixed oaks (southern red oak and sand hickory).
SHORT CL ccoonaancercoenoscncen noe Quality 3. :
Serub: OAK eek ..cersnsescerscssosses sScrub oak barrens, quality sub 5.
iT Onl ctceeseccesestensceacennetnersectace) With red maple—black gum—alder, quality, 3.
Pim e shyWeStamsenescesseeente eacea- White pine, qualities super 1, 1, 2.

White pine, white oak, and chestnut.
Black pine and Spanish oak.
Rosemary pine and black oak.
Rosemary pine and post oak.
Rosemary pine and blackjack oak.
Spruce pine.

Mountain pine.

1922] Forest TYPEs 189

PHYSIOGRAPHIC AREAS AND CHIEF ASSOCIATED FOREST TYPES
IN APPALACHIANS
Canadian Life Zone
Highest crests (over 6,000 feet, in North Carolina and Tennessee).
Red spruce (subalpine).
Alnus viridis.
Rhododendron catawbiense.

High crests and thin-soiled upper slopes (5,500 to 6,000 feet, in North
Carolina and Tennessee; over 3,500 feet in northern West Virginia.
Red spruce, qualities 4 and 5.
Southern balsam, qualities 4 and 5.
Medium slopes.
Red spruce, qualities 3 and 4.

Lower slopes and valleys (within the Canadian zone) (4,000 to 5,500 feet,
in North Carolina and Tennessee; over 3,000 feet in northern West
Virginia).

Red spruce, quality 2.

(Spruce and yellow birch, intergrading).

(Spruce and hemlock, intergrading).
Swamps.

Black spruce and southern balsam.
Alleghanian Area of Transition Life Zone

Very high crests (over 5,000 feet, in North Carolina and Tennessee; over
2,500 feet in northern West Virginia).
Beech pure, quality 4.
Red oak pure, quality sub 5.
Chestnut pure, quality 5.
High crests.

Chestnut pure, quality 5.

Chestnut oak pure, quality 5.

Serub oak, quality sub 5.

Red oak pure, qualities 4 and 5.
Lower crests.

Spruce pine—chestnut oak, quality 4.
Mountain pine—black oak, quality 4.
Chestnut oak pure, qualities 4 and 5.
Serub oak, quality sub 5.
Yellow poplar—black oak—white hickory, quality 4.
High slopes, north and west aspects.
Yellow buckeye—sugar maple—yellow birch, qualities 2 and 3.

Beech—yellow birch—sugar maple, quality 3.
Hemlock—hbireh, qualities 2 and 3.

190 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [March

High benches.
Black cherry—sugar maple—mountain lin—black birch, quality 2.
Red oak pure, qualities 4 and 5.
Beech pure, qualities 4 and 5.
High slopes, south aspects.
Chestnut pure, qualities 4 and 5.
Slopes (middle altitudes), northern and western aspects.

Chestnut pure, qualities 3 and 4.

White oak pure, quality 3.

Hemlock—birch, qualities 1 and 2.

Black pine—chestnut oak—Spanish oak, quality 4.
Slopes (middle altitudes), southern aspects.

Chestnut pure, qualities 3 and 4.

Chestnut oak pure, qualities 3 and 4.

White oak pure, quality 3.
Slopes (lower) northern aspects.

Chestnut pure, qualities 2 and 3.

White oak pure, qualities 2 and 3.

Spanish oak pure, quality 3.

Yellow poplar—white oak—black oak—white hickory, qualities 3 and 4.

Slopes (lower) southern aspects.
Chestnut pure, qualities 2 and 3.
Chestnut oak pure, quality 3.
White oak pure, qualities 2 and 3.
Hollows, ravines, coves.
Chestnut pure, quality 2.
Mountain lin—buckeye—ash, quality 2.
Yellow poplar—chestnut—red oak—hemlock, qualities 1 and 2.
Yellow poplar—white oak—sugar maple, quality 1.

Alluvials (drained) and valleys.

Yellow poplar—white oak—black gum—red maple, quality 3.
Beech pure, quality 4.
White pine, qualities super 1, 1 and 2.
Hemlock, qualities 1 and 2.
Swamps.
Red maple—pin oak—alder—green ash—black gum.
Carolinian Area of Upper Austral Life Zone
Crests and dry flats (under 2,500 feet, in North Carolina; under 1,500 feet
in Augusta County, Virginia).
Rosemary pine and post oak, quality 3.
Rosemary pine and blackjack oak, quality 4.

Slopes and flats.
Rosemary pine—black oak—white hickory, quality 2.

1922] Forest Types 191

Black oak—southern red oak—white oak—sand hickory, quality 2.

Spotted oak—black oak—northern red oak—chinquapin oak—southern
sugar maple—Biltmore ash, quality 3.

Chinquapin oak—small shagbark hickory—northern red oak—post oak—
red cedar, quality 4.

Alluvials and riparian.

Sweet gum—swamp southern red oak—spotted oak—black gum—Acer
tridens—green ash—Celtis laevigata, quality 2.

Sweet gum—white oak—black gum—shagbark hickory—sycamore, quality 2.

River birch—sycamore—red maple—black willow, quality 3.

MOST IMPORTANT VEGETATION TYPES (APPALACHIANS )
Mesophytic associations
Deep soils.
White oak societies.
Yellow poplar societies.
Chestnut societies.
Black oak—southern red oak society.
Medium soils.

Black cherry—birch, quality 2.

Spanish oak, quality 3.

Yellow buckeye—white ash—mountain lin societies.
Shallow soils.

Red oak societies, qualities 4, 5 and sub 5,

Beech, qualities 4 and 5.

Xerophytic associations

Mountain pine.

Spruce pine.

Black pine.

Yellow pine.

White pine.

Serub oak, quality sub 5.
Lithophytic associations.

Chestnut oak societies.

Red spruce societies.

Hemlock—yellow birch, quality 3.
Psychrophytic associations.

Red oak, quality sub 5.

Alnus viridis.

Rhododendron catawbiense.

Hemlock—yellow birch (to southward).

Yellow buckeye—sugar maple—birch (to southward).
Beech, quality 5.

6

192 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | March

Oxylophytic associations.

Chestnut with laurel, qualities 4 and 5.
Rhododendron catawbiense.

Helophytic associations.

Red maple—black gum—green ash—alder.

For most of the forest types listed the quality sites are given, the
quality of the site being indicated by the dominant trees in the super-
ior stand having the general range of heights as follows:

2) reality SU Gta eeeeeneceesecseres-erasac--s-.-c00ss+-cccsessencneesemmzares 140 feet and over
) trary leeeeeeeererenee recast eestor eco t cr cvace<aosaeaseoescsncccnacessaseummtsenenetente 125-139 feet
2) Uren yeaa epee eee eee aet ence cere aceorsococacnessaue-0qcecuscnteeaeneepeaseeenees 100-124 feet
GC) rallitiiyig pseereemeeecesre eeemececerec-tacecss=s-sssasoncds2o0scesccreesnens 75-99 feet (average)
ea Ny rarest ee ereceadetrcedcserssencssescssendseseossnnnessiaaeiseueetententeeeeteat Merman
GQ reilliitiytonte coretesseeceescerests ons caus <casceasess0sceseeacossnovecsseeceeeees teen eeeetaenten 25-49 feet
(AMEN bit ay S10 0) Dsoreecceeosotecodeens 20s ee EERE CeCe EEE oe Roccoconesodccoscto: Under 25 feet

FOREST TYPES OF CANADIAN LIFE ZONE WITHIN THE APPALACHIANS

In the Canadian Life Zone the following forest types are repre-
sented in the Appalachians:

1-5. Red spruce, qualities 2, 3, 4, 5, sub 5 (subalpine).

6. Southern balsam, quality 4

7. Alnus viridis (local).

8. Rhododendron catawbiense (local).

9. Black spruce—balsam (local).

FOREST TYPES OF ALLEGHANIAN AREA, TRANSITION ZONE

In the Alleghanian area of the Transition Zone there are two dis-
tinct forest divisions: the chestnut phase and the white pine and
sugar maple—birch phases. The chestnut phase is the more southern,
while the forest types of the white pine and sugar maple—birch
phases are more representative of the Alleghanian area to the north-
ward. In the following notes the paragraphs are numbered according
to the numbers of the types.

1-4. Chestnut pure types, qualities 2, 3, 4 and 5. These types with their
transitions to other types occupy not less than 10 million acres from Connecticut
to northern Alabama. They are located especially on the acid and subacid
(often semi-peaty top soil, Porter black loam of the Bureau of Soils series)
soils from gneiss, metamorphosed sandstone and sandstone deficient in lime and
potash (Appendix 15).

5-7. Chestnut oak pure types, qualities 3, 4 and 5. These types occupy not

1922] Forest Types 193

less than 2 million acres from Pennsylvania southward. They are located especi-
ally on soils derived from sandstone and shale.

8-9. White oak pure types, qualities 2 and 3. These types occupy not less
than one million acres. They are especially developed on the dryer soils derived
from shales and located to the west of the Blue Ridge, though they likewise occur
along and to the east of the Blue Ridge in northern Virginia and to the northward.

10. Spanish oak type, quality 3. This type occupies not less than 500,000
acres. It is especially developed on the dryer phases of subacid soils derived
from gneiss between 2000 and 4000 feet altitude in the mountains of western
North Carolina. In south central Pennsylvania, Maryland and northern Virginia
it occurs at altitudes between 1,000 and 2,000 feet.

11. Serub oak type, quality sub 5. This type occurs usually in small areas,
the aggregate being not in excess of 50,000 acres, largely in Virginia, West
Virginia and to the northward. In the mountains of Virginia, West Virginia
and Maryland it is characteristically developed on shallow soils derived from
sandstones and shale. It fringes many of the shrubby barrens along the crests
of the Shenandoah Mountains.

12-13. Yellow buckeye—sugar maple—yellow birch types, qualities 2 and 3.
This society extends southward from Roan Mountain (Appendix 16) to the Great
Smoky Mountains, being typically developed on north slopes between altitudes
of 4500 and 6000 feet. They occupy thousands of acres in the Smoky Mountains,
where they are at their optimum. To the northward by dilution they merge into
the beech—birch—maple society.

14, Black cherry—sugar maple—mountain lin—black birch type, quality 2.
This type is probably at its optimum in West Virginia and Pennsylvania on
elevated portions (3000 to 3500 feet) of the Alleghany plateau. In North Caro-
lina it occurs only in patches usually between 4500 and 5500 feet. In West
Virginia, however, the lin ceases to be a component.

15. Mountain lin—yellow buckeye—white ash type, quality 2. Most char-
acteristically developed along the eastern Appalachians in Tennessee and North
Carolina between 3000 and 5000 feet altitudes, prevailingly in coves and hollows.
It does not extend north of West Virginia.

16-17. Yellow poplar—chestnut—red oak—hemlock types, qualities 1 and 2.
These are characteristic cove types of the southern Appalachians and ure at
their optimum between southeastern Kentucky and the mountains of northern
Georgia. Quality 1 produces heavier yields of hardwood lumber than any other
association within the Alleghanian area. It is best developed between 2500 and
3800 feet in North Carolina and Tennessee. In middle Pennsylvania, where its
identity is lost, it occurs below 2000 feet altitude.

18. Yellow poplar—white oak—black gum—red maple type, quality 3. This
forest type indicates the wettest site on which yellow poplar naturally grows.
It is well developed on gravelly flats on the head of Davidson River, Transylvania
County, N. C., but is not uncommon on similar sites throughout the region.

19. Yellow poplar—white oak—sugar maple type, quality 1. This society is
characteristically developed in middle Kentucky, middle Tennessee, and extends

194 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | March

southward through the Sand Mountain of northern Alabama. It occupies not
less than a million acres, much of it on limestone soil, being some of the most
productive land in these states.

20-21. Yellow poplar—white oak—black oak—white hickory (big leaf ecu-
cumber) types, qualities 3 and 4. These types are typically developed on sandy
soils, often calcarious, on the Cumberland Mountains in Tennessee and the Sand
Mountain in Alabama. Quality 4 represents the dryest site on which the yellow
poplar occurs.

22-23-24. Red oak pure types, qualities 4, 5 and sub 5. These types occur
in comparatively small bodies along crests of ridges and north slopes with
shallow soil from Pennsylvania southward to northern Georgia. In northern
Georgia and the adjacent territory they occur between 3000 and 5000 feet alti-
tudes. They probably oceupy in excess of 100,000 acres. In the White Moun-
tains these types occupy south slope or valleys (as on Oliverian Brook, Bethlehem,
Grafton County, N. H.).

25-26. Beech pure types, qualities 4 and 5. These stands occupy compara-
tively small areas along the crests of the ridges, mountain summits, and benches
on upper slopes between (in North Carolina) 4500 and 6000 feet. It is doubtful
if the aggregate area exceeds 10,000 acres. (Appendix 17.)

27. Beech—yellow birch—sugar maple type, quality 3. This forest type
occupies several million acres. To the northward it is characteristically developed
at medium altitudes on loamy and clay soils, often rocky. To the southward it
becomes limited to north slopes and correspondingly higher altitudes, phases of
it frequently occupying extensive areas of stony soil, especially on the Cumberland
plateau and the north slopes of sandstone ridges.

28. Red maple—pin oak—green ash—black gum—alder type. This is charac-
teristically a type of the wet clay flats and wetter alluvials and enters the Appa-
lachians only in Virginia, West Virginia and Pennsylvania. It is one of the
less important types occupying comparatively small areas. South of West
Virginia pin oak is absent.

29-31. Hemlock—hbirch types, qualities 1, 2 and 3. These occasionally are
almost pure hemlock. While the birch is prevailingly yellow birch, there is,
especially toward the South, a considerable admixture of black birch. These
types once occupied not less than 10 million acres in the Eastern States. The
present area of the unlumbered types probably is less than a million acres, mostly
in small bodies. Quality 3 is characteristically developed on soils which are
either wet, on account of lack of drainage due to the stony substratum, as
developed around Highlands, N. C., or there is better drainage and the type is
located on north slopes with poor insolation, as occurs throughout the Shenandoah
Mountains. (Appendix 18.)

32. Spruce pine—chestnut oak—chestnut type, quality 4. This type is most
characteristically developed on the points of shale and sandstone ridges in Ken-
tucky and Tennessee. It occurs, however, to the northward on similar sites
through extreme northeastern West Virginia and northern Virginia to Mary-
land and is likewise well developed in places on spurs of the Blue Ridge in

1922] Forrest TYPEs 195

western North Carolina and even occasionally as far south as Jasper County,
Alabama.

33. Mountain pine—chestnut oak—black oak type, quality 4. In North Caro-
lina, South Carolina and northern Georgia this type is developed on heavy clay
soils on crests of spurs of the Blue Ridge Mountains between altitudes of 1500
and 3000 feet. This type occurs occasionally in the mountains of Tennessee and
Kentucky and probably extends northward to Pennsylvania.

34-37. White pine pure, qualities super 1, 1 and 2. These types formerly
occupied many million acres, especially to the northward. In the Appalachians
they become localized and restricted in area, being best developed between
altitudes of 500 to 2000 feet in Pennsylvania and 3000 to 4000 feet in Tennessee
and North Carolina. They are the exponent of sandy or gravelly soil phases.
In many places in the Appalachians they intergrade with hemlock qualities 1 and
2, as is the case in the Shady Valley, Tennessee, and other nearby valleys, or
(No. 37) into chestnut—white oak as in the upper valley of the Linville River in
North Carolina and Horse Creek Valley in Blount County, Tennessee, quality 1.

38. Black pine—chestnut oak—Spanish oak type, quality 4. Characteristically
a type of sandy or gravelly soils; in the extreme south on northwest slopes at
higher altitudes but to the northward seeking other exposures and level sites.

FOREST TYPES OF CAROLINIAN AREA WITHIN THE APPALACHIANS

In the Carolinian area of the Upper Austral Life Zone the fol-
lowing forest types are represented:

1. Rosemary pine—black oak—white hickory type, quality 2. A widely dis-
tributed type throughout the Piedmont, occupying not less than 5 million acres,
and the source of much yellow pine timber. In the Valley of Virginia it ascends
to an altitude of 1100 feet; and in the Asheville Basin to 2600 feet. Its identity

is lost in western Maryland and southern Pennsylvania.

2. Rosemary pine—post oak type, quality 3. A widely distributed type in the
Piedmont. In the mountains it is largely restricted to low ridges in North
Carolina, Tennessee and southward and does not ascend above 2500 feet in North
Carolina.

3. Rosemary pine—blackjack oak type, quality 4. Widely distributed in the
Piedmont. In the Appalachians it is largely limited to low ridges, seldom
ascending above 2000 feet in North Carolina, Tennessee and southward; or 1100
feet in Augusta County, Virginia.

4. Black oak—southern red oak—white oak—sand hickory type, quality 2.
Best developed at the lower altitudes and on dryer sites on the Cumberland,
Plateau of Tennessee and to be southward in Alabama, specially on calearious
sandy soils.

5. Spotted oak—black oak—northern red oak—chinquapin oak—southern
sugar maple—Biltmore ash type, quality 3. At the southern end of the Alle-
ghany ranges this is a common society on slopes and in hollows on soil derived
from limestone. It is doubtful if it extends northward beyond Kentucky.

196 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocIETY | March

6. Chinquapin oak—small shagbark hickory—post oak—red cedar type,
quality 4. This covers a large portion of the limestone barrens of Tennessee
and Alabama. It passes especially at lower altitudes and outside of the moun-
tains into pure red cedar (cedar barren).

7. Sweet gum—swamp southern red oak (Quercus pagoda)—spotted oak—
black gum—Acer tridens—green ush—Celtis laevigata type, quality 2. This
occurs along alluvials of larger streams at the southern end of Appalachians at
altitudes of 2,000 feet or less. (Appendix 18.)

8. Sweet gum—white oak—black gum—shagbark hickory—syecamore type,
quality 2. This occurs on alluvials, chiefly of smaller streams at altitudes below
3000 feet in northern Georgia and below 1000 feet in the mountains of Virginia.

9. River birch—sycamore—red maple—black willow type, quality 3. This is
a riparian type and occurs on alluvials of smaller streams at altitudes below
2500 feet at the southern end of Appalachians, and in Maryland below 800 feet.

APPENDIX

(1) In Augusta County, Virginia, the Carolinian zone ascends to 1,100 feet;
in the French Broad basin, and southward to approximately 2,600 feet on sunny
slopes. See also Kearney, Science 12:831. 1900.

(2) See also Warming, Ecology, 359.

(3) Among the most important of these natural causes may be mentioned
insects. White pine and black pine have been practically exterminated over
wide areas from Pennsylvania southward since 1870 by the southern pine beetle,
Dendroctonus frontalis (see Hopkins’ reports). Chestnut has ceased to exist in
great portions of Alabama, Georgia and the Carolinas, largely as a result of the
two-line chestnut borer and the root fungus. (See ‘‘Chestnut in Tennessee,’’
page 11.) Within the past decade the composition of stands in which the
hickories form a significant element has been seriously modified, especially in
northern Illinois and the adjacent region, by an insect (Scolytus quadrispinosus).
Two decades ago there was a similar modification in the composition of oak,
hickory, and rosemary pine stands in Piedmont Carolina, through the dying out
of the southern red oak and black oak, there being in many places a displace-
ment of the natural equilibrium which cannot be restored for many years. How
large a part drought, an extended period of which terminated about this time,
and insects relatively contributed to this condition is a subject of conjecture.

(4) Dominant is employed in the sense of exceeding all other in height, its
significance in an extensive forest literature (see Standard Dictionary). Con-
trolling species is used to designate such as are numerically preponderant.

(5) The basis for division is approximately the same as that which has been
used in the work of appraising hardwood timber lands for purchase for eastern
National Forests; 7. e., an interval cf 16 feet in the length of the merchantable
stem (a standard saw-log length) or 25 feet as the difference in the height of the
crown of the dominant trees, since approximately one-third of the total height
of a tree with a deliquescent form is in the crown and two-thirds in the stem.

1922] Forest TYPES 137

(6) Frothingham, Journal of Forestry 19:1. 1921.

(7) Mechanical condition is the basis for the classification of soil types
employed by the Bureau of Soils of the Department of Agriculture; while the
moisture content, and the number of times that the critical moisture period is
reached (Briggs and Schantz, the wilting coefficient) are determined by (1)
humus content and granulation, (2) depth of water table, (3) transpiration
factors of wind and insolation, the precipitation being the same; and these are
controlling factors in determining site.

(8) Kearney, Science 12:841. 1900. Noted particularly also by Shreve,
Vegetation of a Desert Mountain, 97. 1915. The result of differences in inso-
lation is noticeable to a marked degree in the southern portion of Walker County
and in Jasper County, Alabama, along the southern edge of the Alabama National
Forest. Here on the uplands are typical forests of longleaf pine while in the
deep gorges of the streams penetrated by direct sunlight only during a few hours
each day may be found fragments of hemlock—hblack birch type; and the yellow
poplar—cucumber—beech—black birech—northern red oak mixture. To a less
extent this is also noticeable in the deep hollows which indent the bluff formation
along the Mississippi River in its most dissected phases.

(9} Contrary to general opinion, many of the surface soils derived from
limestones, in cases where the unaltered limestone is at a great depth, are not
only not neutral but even acid. This is due to the fact that the so-called lime-
stone soils, produced from the weathering of impure limestone, are residuals,
consisting of the less soluble, chiefly silicious materials. The more rapid is
erosion the thinner, as a rule, is the residual blanket permitting the roots of
more plants to come in contact with the calcareous elements in the unleached
limestone. Many of the residual soils in the Appalachians from the Silurian and
Cambrian limestones, consequently, are acid and support stands of plants asso-
ciated with acid soils.

(10) North Carolina Pine, Bull. 24, N. C. Geo. Survey, p. 57. 1915.

(11) In the superior stand or sun stand certain species (like yellow poplar)
may be largely intolerant of shade throughout their entire life period. Such
species produce relatively few suppressed trees in the mature stands. Other
species, like beech and white oak, are tolerant for a long period and consequently
produce many suppressed specimens; while tolerance of some others, like balsam,
progressively declines with age. The leaves of dominant and suppressed trees
of the same species, or the sun and shade leaves on dominant trees may be quite
different. In the southern red oak and its races the sun leaves are smaller, more
divided, and more densely pubescent beneath. In Tilia heterophylla of Authors
the shade leaves are larger, thinner, and often glabrous, having been mistaken for
T. glabra, whereas the sun leavesare silvery-white pubescent beneath. The
records of the occurrence of T. glabra in the eastern Appalachians are largely
based on collections of such shade leaves.

(12) Botanical Gazette 34:241, 369. 1903. Unfortunately the value of
these articles is marred by a number of errors in the determination of very com-

198 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [March

mon trees, as, for example, Quercus phellos is credited to the valley of the Swan-
nanoa River, when the species should be Q. imbricaria.

(13) Phytogeography of North America, 1911.
(14) Plant Geography.

(15) Coville, Formation of Leaf Mould, An. Rept. Smiths. Inst., 338-340.
1913.

(16) Harshberger, Bot. Gaz. 36:375. 1908.

(17) Kearney (1. ¢., 831) regards beech as being characteristically a tran-
sitional or northern tree. He apparently overlooked the fact that beech reaches
its best development along the bluff formation in Louisiana and Mississippi, and
that there are magnificent forests which contain a large proportion of this tree
throughout other portions of the Gulf States and Tennessee. It occurs to the
very coast in North Carolina (var. caroliniana) and forms nearly pure stands
on the beech flats around the southern edge of the Dismal Swamp. Stone (Plants
So. N. J., p. 84, 1911) records beech as forming pure stands in New Jersey. It is
probable that the New Jersey tree is the same as the North Carolina coastal form.

(18) The tendency is for southern types especially those of the low-lands
to extend up the valleys of the streams beyond the general limits of the life
zone of which they are representative as finger-like projections into the more
northern types when deficiency in insolation is not a controlling factor. This is
particularly noticeable when the soils of the lowlands are sandy and consequently
‘‘warm,’’ while those of the surrounding uplands are clayey and ‘‘cold.’’ Such
projecting tentacles of southern types are noticeable in Tishomingo County,
Mississippi, on the sandy alluvials of Bear Creek where typical lower austral
societies, such as tupelo, cypress, button bush, white bay, southern red maple and
alder occur contiguous to the yellow poplar, white oak, black oak, white hickory,
big leaf cucumber society on the adjacent slopes of the Pearson hills which are
the southwestern outlyers of the Appalachians. Similarly the intrusion of fingers
of the Carolinian alluvial flora into the transitional are noticeable in eastern
Tennessee and western North Carolina. On the other hand, when deficient inso-
lation is a controlling factor tentacles of northern types penetrate areas in which
southern types prevail. Such cases are the colonies of hemlock and birch which
occupy the deep gorges of the Sipsey and other rivers in Jasper County, Alabama
(see also Appendix No. 8), or the groups of these trees on steep north slopes
along the south bank of the Potomac River below Great Falls, Virginia.

FOREST SERVICE,
WASHINGTON, D. C.

, =

=

—_
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INDEX TO VOLUMES 32-37

VOL
Achlya Orion, a new species, COKER and COUCH..........cccceecceeseeeseeesees 36
UN PRLEE seas aoa oat gsi ea ce katnni ask cadssdaiees=saeehessacasseesecsnsesssesecs 35
mgmesemceae, key £0 the penera, COKER. ......:...0...::-.cssncceescesscsnsseeseassoassonese 35
PRM RARE EAE SEE OA EM ann ncrneneraranncnannonsuannacycansnstnevesesesocnstsnesessecepernece 37
MME PEPLM PAN MESES oo ats Feces oon cuiaciscn cs ainenicewensvesannnqandesnedsanesssacsonnsesessesisuseee 36
SERN IN Ee enc ca aee a senncpneace -assececcacsronnndsacnraonosedeticceaacerieusesess 36
PARI ERR Ee oot ane ons nas gs cosa canon vissononecedecascacseecsaessnsseoonsbdésassexeosessaneccsee 36
PART APA RPE Rls Gate ec sanenst vines farestsueesdece=sseeeneacisearsneccesicensnensoes 36
RENE SER RMT TILE OST) OT US een cet encncnceeecetdaaceanecsacosarsscorsnencesaseeceoncseennscs 36
WINER ETI ERE NS Mee ae ocr sn naan ance snanecadareascetecGesshrnatnncsesseeqnctséssesesecersesensce 36
MU MIPISN ESM eco socan ans ane nsnn coca cacdencosceussavasesaheinescasnsiabnafesdssssvececonnussssacenecs 36
POR RNeates aacrescnaa aoe canoe nn xeon ee Ree oo ae rouee Soncenscass50scs ee euiececsecesesses 36
ALLARD, Harry ARDELL
Effect of the relative length of day and night on plants (with
ro Wmvemigmtnnmtcr ye ADSUPACE co-zccecsecescserccacesececte<cecssselicctvocsccsesseaseces Bi
NP MMAN NTRP ee genet sonar ak sanacevencecneccxr-in-ccccdeseevaccoavenecnseecheirsaaseerccesenessees 33
BU HETIL MPO p soe eae oss cn 0-Se) on cacy graces incessecescasebacccteressdvescaccesereessccsesosncers 33
MMT nc asso seme petentichunaeavconsdvasuetncnenesh sae ee Pepencrrateassest 33
OME PNET ME onc eae eos dae ce « Was oxsassaioctes tracccencdaccsstesadscscsiesesuavensssseescsseces 33
MONI E MMII I IRE e das doen cae las Sas svecvacenesdexs=coe cece icnansovascesesnabeascessenarsoesece 33
DME TERR TIRE: 2-5: deeeeaees ct cot keene lp see One one ee 33
NPRM AYINGIIYNE Dee escort ee wsaosct cokcasce danceoesset-oodecesavzlsasncosesaausacessoressaceeossssneeesses 33
APA a sne Taetcanco a suaconxsevpeopaccvesavauissdoseosseacscessesuseoseaseeeeeateosecoeese 33
eR ERLISU OIE T Ie Be oa cas oaican us ovaneeener <eccc@cctsetvsssvsdessdsssisseidsssecereeressseses 33
EERE ASE Ee oe eae ie naa cance c a= cascsscossestsand,vancnadsdsiascsdssesesnccessssaconccceseseaecesenee 33
a MINE PEM ees ernc atav scan nacne-avdsteshiaadacadedacesccnswanacuderr=s= doves -seoscccaceunsapenedoeeee 33
[op POURED ceecececosoc eee OOP or CERES ee 33
SITAR STARE TALS MMe eee oe caneoe os Page cs ccctauseas= ss cae sei ccddceeecsssesseesesosscscneesacceosens 33
UN US OIE ME enti enlo a cay perinna Noaae sca ncoa eae scanennesdecandaunesssvsovsros0secesesvecceceeesessdeses 390
TNA UIE MAME ES ER ET LU IOUE cata n aco ceen- viaatc aia edatereestesscenectavasnasiessesenesccceewssansce 33
TI TRSEAU TRAE RP roe ana n eens s as sera nedacesipeesocaeiqoAnclcudsesrsct+sGeisseuciecsseescencesceseseseceseee 33
TINA I MIAME MM Oca ees sae vaca ta eee ce oeicot oe os <Scaendee scestieess kcen>-sesisiescbeiseseaceesacrqeeeess 34
SARL Ms ees eee occ Pie rE osssanpnacntuadtereensccennesteeesdisesitecnseecesseneceneace 33
SAINI ARID Sree ee eto s coed vadocce dec ade ceacesashoncesicdesupeeseosvessSseceseossesesses 33
RCIA AMM oases oats cee aac n naa ca van ac doe sc oo cates tesacteceescnscssedecdeseteresseseserssssasseses 33
Rat PIR MEL eee P RR ors anna a cca ede ccaneceestwacesuretssievedesvaterssdeseessescecnareeenssses 33
MAIR IDEA IDETIS Ree cee alse Soca z= saa atstenttugessveccdadeceseccesocteaccsessessosssersensseseseseoese 33
TILER PEILG VRIES GUDT) Se Ei eee ec oe oe eee 33
a ae LIEGE MMe ne ate heise cis sace esc eceerates ost susscannssanesseeeceenerssernsees 33
SNES Aaa a ae Sat aan acne oye aaaceventagev situs desseseséasaesseseasesaseusste 33
aaNet RMR AEs EEL Laer erat aster nora os cones senb s-cas en snevenssedes soos seucssaccescersecceesecsncenecs 33
Sar R las UD Mer ae age ao as wnae o's sacd cae ecehcaseeasecerecceseecaveneseséseessacscesascessasscsse 33

198

200 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [March
Amanita—Continued VOL. PAGE

SDM CU On VelNem pI Nt Clgeen sememeeenteeteaecartecncessu-se-cacosostestscscconsceuanietemessusecceummertnees 33 23

SUT O UNM MOMMUUS mareeteesstn cece secetenescocces ssesssessanocerss¢acCessocseuesendepterennaccemmmatneet 33 73

MOND) va sancencereneeeune reas cence rae aomoxt nec cessucososssaceasesaesescrevancuecenase Tees ceneeecteaammee 33 30

UNOS Cmarsertcee te ertanet arene ee toate teasta ce svscveass'oes ou ses osceedercouacesntsccureunceeestanteceraeee 33 83
Amanitas of the eastern United States, COKER............,:.scscccsesscessensseees 33 1
PAT ANVUL OFF SUSI wrcee seeetenme tee ertee teste cnceceres «2020 22-<coreovecesaccnatccedescassneecnenteat ee Meneteeadeen 33 5

CG GACH ANOLE Cimrreeree renner ects teest ssc ccccsesonccssvonssedevesesusaseansnessenacedescanteeneeeeee 33 iil

POT AMOSCL poarch cerree reer a reer ae eae ss Sane cones sassusvassevsuuces scceounseneebeeseetenteametes 33 14

PGR OU OUUGLEO snetensotessnerees cette esccsq0scssacssotacessscsveateseusesssesescenseoucacsenseeerterere 33 10

DUDES CONS Mevercerertersecceencrteete saree seta ncensae noises os usecensscwessenaOshacsabeaccenseneereneene 33 14

UST Oracccncessezceeesteec cee teeteseeniies ctocvsosn0s00es0nsses0onoceesvsccssoantanseneesenaaeentmteees 33 16

SURAT GUU EC eeccee cece neteean care oces soo co0 ox vesssscaveesesiesessecseeeanaveneessnncesnaaseceaeteemeee 33 8

WOUGUNGUD Jor .coeccotec cree: teeta cnessstssvawssdseosesssscacenssscssescdcustesteavennesesunetceeetereeeet 33 6
Animal kingdom, nature of the individual, WILSON............c.ceeeeeees 32 125
Anibhracmosesetall Se accccsccccscncsssccccetosouscessvecs sesocesssstecvsscevsouesocsren sareenseneeee re eames 36 73
Arborescent flora of North Carolina, additions, ASHE...........ccseee 34 130
ARBUCKLE, HOWARD BELL =

An) imnterestinosrertilizer joroblem......-.<.....s.s-ccss-ssccersesssettesesateoteeeeenes 36 94

Report of an investigation as to cause of death of chicks in

shell im artificial imembation «.....<...2:0:s..::s«ssscsscnceeasneeesereastenseemmeens 34 141

Arsenic in arsenates, defermimation, BWLL..........:::-.ssccensscsvesserssccsscreeeves 35 90
ASHE, WILLIAM WILLARD

Additions to the arborescent flora of North Carolina.................. 34 130

The eastern shrubby species of Robimtia................scsscsconsecssscsees 37 175
A SECT OSET OMG cake cacedecncsecssetecsieccestssvecsssvecesopsceuvistanesacestusdeuaieeenceeneestsseermene steams 36 164

COTULCOLOT —cechesidicccactessasegsszestodesceisssesvassecbacessocecatsce couassventescessessbeterenneneetts 36 164
AUTUCULATIG: -sscedecezcttiececvocessssosustreccentssissssacotsesuatessnuaseosdonadersont enacteneeneentermnmees 35 120

UT OULU Mirsrss asec secs stseoce ts ess iessssctbedesdsosevsesocescesteceeneeeseute det aetteemnmns 35 120
AMUN UCULOTIDCEDE® er ccssnsacvssastacredebascssvakseoucetocvascosansceesenenustecsenenedstecsecem tenements 35 119
Azalea atlantica Ashe and its variety luteo-alba n. var., COKER........ 36 97
Batty, HERMAN GLENN

An interesting maximal case (with A. HENDERSON)..........ceee 37 61
Basidiomycetes ot North Carolina, COKER) <:.....cccsse.cecessseneeesersteesess teens 35 113
Batesburg, 8. C., and vicinity, list of plants, MCGREGOR...............:.66+ 33 133
BaTtLeE, KEMP PLUMMER

Dr. Joseph Austin Holmes at the University of North Carolina 32 20
BAYLEY, WILLIAM SHIRLEY

A magnetite-marble ore at Lansing, N. C.....0........0:.cesesscersosvasevsecers 37 138
BEARDSLEE, HENRY CURTIS

Collybias of North Carolina (with W. C. COKER)..............:scsssseeceee 37 83

A new species: Of AMANIGAR......::.c0.c:.ccsencreoussenseenaarce sence seenen=neee aeeanaaee 34 198

Russulas ‘of Northin Carolina. ........<c2....s.ceseccesscceessteteee ne eesete eee 33 147
Beaufort, IN-C3"miolluscammshellls, Jia COW::....:.1:.00-.ss.cessscepeeceestenee a erent 36 129
Beaufort, N.C., sponges, GEORGE and WILSON. Abstract...........-cc00 37 112
BELL, JAMES MUNSIE

A rapid volumetric method for the determination of arsenic in

ATPSOUALES): Belen cecves eeteetestescees ce vseeess sevecorodeuscsscevuiessetiie eee eee 35 90

2 ‘a

1922] INDEX TO VOLUMES 32-37

BELL, JAMES Munste—Continued VOL.
Biology course, general, considerations in its defense, GIVLER.............. 37
Botanical bonanza in Tuscaloosa County, Alabama, HARPER............ 37

BRIMLEY, CLEMENT SAMUEL
Brief comparison of the herpetological faunas of North Carolina

POUT ISN FN aac ence co sdae MM nn (enact aacenwaiernetavenseasannsenescenseoseseseasencenacne® 34
Eliminations from and additions to the North Carolina list of
reptiles and amphibians.................cccscesccsccsersesecsstsessseseescsseassseeees 34
Key to the butterflies of North Carolima..................:sssseseesesssenesees 37
RUE E ES OAMNCS AAG SHEC WS sc: c2qccnc.acncenensvenacnsenvsaessonconeqasseetasnseoeesencenes 35
Some known changes in the land vertebrate fauna of North
CR SCTRERD, cceccendcacedes ReSne ceca eC SED: 30 EEE USD Ce cee ee ee eee 32
The turtles of North Carolina; with a key to the turtles of the
Sara sR NESE OS acces ps ences tne deseceenacccaicancconocsesaseeatcseieoussses 36
Butterflies of North Carolina, key, BRIMUDBEY.................:ccscccsescesscssesesees 37

Cain, WILLIAM
Teaching of geometry, by ARCHIBALD HENDERSON. A review.... 37
Contributions to the scientific study of earth pressure. Re-

Seti RECT E) EE GSOONY 5 casa neu neesnccsarsnecseacranecareracceraratqcaecseescatescaeencs 32
DIE ae pene cence ad occ csscceneassugeascbacsonesicsssescevivesssvsseanaccensensetecees 35
PENIS LMP ee Cee erase ciasacecsact dese cusantsisees <aveesscescclinsdcccesesecseseesesccereocoees BYS)
SAMI CHEM LER AILUIVETIVGG mcncteccceccceccsoct cated issue cectercetercaccsvaesscccecsaeeesceasvassseesoosese 39
Pe fa pe AU aR Rca canna enced rains of SutUeasacasvscetsedsiecessenaesveeeccccsessecscess 35
DEV ORTTOTEMITED — osecenerigee SSeOCOS SOLO LOO SEE SOE ECEEE CEC EHEC Ce POE ee 35
PETRA MACUL SEM ee meee na ances sasass-s<dasaknesscecdpsesssces<Grsrcocaccecessccaccscesereseccceeseoesoese 35
UPTIME SMO Ce Pesce coasdsceceaansucssscnuassaasstsscsosssccosess>ss0scsoassceccceceseessvesncscessoccee 35
Par TIPU LIES Ett cece dseanvescccececsertnciapacuesesansasctecstassessssceates-+cccocsnesssersscccnsee 35
PSUBED ed CMM sac tecee cgsi ct xscacuorsss=e ane oc cites ceeesssisicssbocssensaneccececceeesesesscceeer 35
SAMA OIUIRI Meee ate. canseadeecocaseascancdesoeessiee=sccciceutiseoasssscestesorecesecectanescesaccsooess 35
MAUL OU TIS ONIIING oe toa r dere acncaesseasstaaiocstacsseee-stesonsescsoscscseescasssensesssuneeseceses 35
UP IPAI AUS see aren eree teen acts esonancesdese cantare cassee-catavsaseeerts <teeciescccccecesenseeseceneessese oo
IIT TN(A a eee cea cecnee coe ev¥esas a aasesiecocadesseuascestesussiavesnovsstneceecheceoeervaransecescases 35
TORE NEIEIOUES — seseceenereccchpe nbs eee o- PP PECE EE ORDO OSE EE Cee 35
Mtabeh TaN) RUSE ee Pete seeder scacactoaceszsacrseessstscestedecscesas sensi seceocsseeecseccosceraseesios 35
POPS SME re ee teas an cer ee see tcesctensertne oe eens isweccésevessteese+sessoeceeonsacoeseese 315)
WIDOT TRONS ceeceetccctec ep eeO SEA IOS CEP OPERECL PEEEPOT ECO OLE TOE PECTED 35
ermetmnerm Morin) Carolina, COREE .....2.1.2....2-...-.-c-ceceoosecsncsecsessseenes 35
Chapel Hill, shrubs and vines, COKER and TOTTEN............sccscscsseeseeesees 32
Chicks, death in artificial incubation, ARBUCKLE............:csecseseeees 34
Chlorination by mixed carbon monoxide and chlorine, VENABLE and
DUACTRGSORY — notedthce-cecohenceecn ace Sacer aD eee ee 315)
meme ene er ING Ord, MOA DHE occ ccccccccnstsa-cnsseccesensescsscecsessssveoss 35
Circular curves, new method for laying out, HICKERSON.........0008 36
CoKER, WILLIAM CHAMBERS
mmanitas of the eastern United States.................0...scccccsssecsscsesees foo

Azalea atlantica and its variety luteo-alba ND. Va... 36

109

202 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [March

CoKER, WILLIAM CHAMBERS—Continued VOL. PAGE
Collybias of North Carolina (with H. C. BEARDSLEE)..........::e 37 83
Craterellus, Cantharellus and related genera in North Carolina;

with a key to the genera of gill LUMQL........ eects ereeteeteeeees 39 24
Distribution of Rhododendron catawbiense, with remarks on a

POTN cvzeezccesssstetnstedactoceaiss cas ewsoe: Ss sscdavesvenuss00es«Vaseuccessucossvssuunscvartensecemeeeeeee 35 76
Hydnums of North Carolina...............scsscecescscereceesssesssseessssccssessessrsns 34 163
alc tariasaO fae WOTbINN@ aM OLN Arse. cs---01-+-ce-svacorcecoseanacosenthensacecenestmeneeees 34 it
The Laurel Oak or Darlington Oak (Quercus Laurifolia Michx) 32 38
A new genus of water mold related to Blastocladia (with F. A.

(GRAINY) I sere cesta tec cee cena tet accnac ctnpcevesrsesoosivaees-scouncnecresnsommerstasesteeeeaemeem 37 180
A new species of Achlya (with J. N. COUCH)... :sessseeesseeeseees 36 100
Notes on the lower Basidiomycetes of North Carolina................ 35 iLats}
Notes on the Thelephoraceae of North Carolina.............ccccceseeees 36 146
Shrubs and vines of Chapel Hill (with H. R. Torven)............ 32 66
IAW WASTE LOM SMU GHPE STAT scraces.cs-00--ccncesssacuse-occecessnacsssescunsverstereessnntmmenen 34 150

COU GUD. veraccccresee stant bee cc ods ces sous sencsusovacoscsuncnscsecestssnunesestasteese see aaa 37 99
DRUG. CE Ceserennens etantc anc ceetccscnasece nnceo-<-cecovare svctssatessassenctenate meen eer tenet 37 86
CUTE) Seren eeeace retreat er Sar atuaaecatscussesscceesdcbos sseedevteneneeeseceeette tomer neasemetes 37 96
CUUSUUIS asarcccesrareetncor eeeen see vanaccor ssc sddsecussest vecocsossocesers sesteracneenmnreeecttedseeenseeee 37 105
COMPILE TIS iareacemetensattaatcee te covavecsetsaccsev=5-5-c0seoacseeecetetenacesnaeereeneeee eee 37 101
CONN CT eters cart ance sete eater att ca cance cen ccesedotevuses'ssshocee sotto ett et Renee nna enaneEeEraNa 37 98
COTEG EN OUGES eirersrarcee sesecctte thas secac+sosdnsee<ateosdvoncesacs nest aac caeereeenaannteenteteete 37 98
GSEOTER) scdescceceseniceccvesenetatteescchseusoscendoocseatvsidsesestccaaseersen eeeerterteteseeeteaneee 37 91
ial OD TUUl es evees erst netecterees cee stcearccchd-o.c+suc:sensscacescessasetenee aeueenereneeeeeter eee 37 87
SGU COG srszsetrastnecccutcceaetnststavencets sscssccohsccesres socrovsseessatineseneeeee terse temeemaee 37 89
CUS CULL mmercsenceteentereecoeeteteneteceswocovno:cresceseecsesteedstaeeesnenssstseannesameaeesteeantd 37 95
TUQTIOLOTIUNG.. drvcescracscrteeet caine teSeeniabececesccodeaaenteceacecesettecetrateccreacetemenmmneyentics 37 101
UU CUTE ere cas trcceen cece ccnee occa tanec a aecsoiscusacisssvaccesoccccte ttoscesteatecesecteeeeeee teemeRnaees 37 104
NUD CUULGIEG: oo sosseotnntaceesncngsietvstbne vss vavasscecsosnvoesescctaccsesseete ote eesere nate eTemeneeaa 37 85
AVY IU ODL UU teres tone cpace tn ceccessocoscccscocaece neon soncrtestecsantsenteeeeneee seats 37 91
MUATUINUUL ANID ccecccacctccesecssececvetacsccocssocccccececscsssooseserececnecoccecemsececee te Maceneaaamen 37 90
FORM VOICI UGS Cobooteoeenpeceococnen oo. LDH EES UDe BREE EOS peooaeanrecohochd ooaeancedeccyonaxscesce 37 94
MP OLQUCHLCS eaccrasncnttactere inet ceectcownaco-ccosssrsconacccccessevccscne ss ertttserenaeee ereeeetetaeees a7 92
SCMAUEGIAG. .daesebseheveccencecccenceeseetececcsncecooaccsbevsvanassocncteccesesenestanseeneeseceeeeseenee 37 92
SEU ULCTIUG caseecestcctersestrcarseascsesccseossssanceoccduessnesossocssoescevsesessettenentntaseeteseateeee 37 103
MCUULUD ES) Jeactcnscasearttcessccesunsensscscocsssseacesnsscesoccesoccresecseererectnetastaeneteentenentet 37 100
BOMGUL, “seter teeter eRe eeetn STR a tces coi ssnebasiadsossoousntenssdte setts ee sceeeaeneeen etna 37 102

Collybias of North Carolina, COKER and BEARDSLEE.........:csccseseseeseeseeee 37 83

CONMMODNOT Riresretirsconeetetarerwes te ceeeceac tose saseeonsseseastseacesen ses vasevite coecemerstteeataetaeen 36 157
OPTUS xi clectcbertaes eet tet cree ster ann esas Sse esonsaacsssasascaddbessaccsenasces ses exteeteneaeeeennemeemns 36 157

COPECO ore cee rere erate eee vnosnnnissstabaghocecesterce seteccetsceeesteTee aoe eTeeEEEEEES 36 168
CVG CHIOUA CUA, Sesetnnsstesec<testesessteecacesvecedsesseesseedesscvscsacer eovegustentensetsenttommes 36 172
COT UULEUATY rreee a testet tere centactcctoss sacsstvcatsososseacassuevosseeesastesteteteee tee eT aneem 36 169
USTUCIO=F USCWIN” cestestsxxceteacstrtaesnc-nsecasedascoreasesseuaseassacccascessseeeeeaeeemeenaae 36 170

POSCUNE. <<iddcsacethcwcta cece ren eeen tren eiaausvnusavscucccececccosesssdisccos sitet ee eert ee RE 36 171

1922] INDEX TO VOLUMES 32-37

Corticium—Continued VOL.
EIREL EERE oy econo cee EE ATONE Coo GEEE oe COCEE, CEE RE 36
PU RNEDSOR. teecrosseten haste hae CPO RRS EEO 36
RPPECHIBPRIEILEUENE | Ua soccaexschereccacss sccnacteccescivestcresesuccece sevencceccessitenceuenvsaaneecesoeeees 36
PiPMN MNT Meena rene ree co cn cnee sect cescccuocaaacsncecetasranesccacatss soucdsnescsusctsseceacsvcdecesasessesocee 36
WORN FO Caer ce orc toa caanecoiiacuccavsacavncssse<setes?seiceses sseccdescessestessesesdeceesacccZees 36
CoucH, JoHN NATHANIEL ;
A new species of Achlya (with W. C. COKER).................sscsscssssesees 36
(J TEEECVECTOEE: _senoedintsntendecteau Ma Se ec hee sa Reni a 35
ROUNDLY ES Msc ara cu ctnctns tacecvasts tvusctscecoseosscpcunacceassvdcccSeaesecveesseccisceseoseoesses 35
PAA NSUR ERLE Sense arose aa pos aaa eS dr east cea ar sees ose oksUGeaTCe os aseeseesenenesacepevenees 35
WSR NIN I PERCUILE Sore co tee canes scvaen casas searcvscceacssccagecsistesuelcvelenddssesssivecseceosaeesos 35
NUMBER ELAN SM aaa eB Dee es cose a seeenns cnsstneeecéssecesda iach ssutaccciscnvasdececoreseoveessecseee 35
Pana E GG ASORIER IL EMEP uns Cele sec Rc duvssanarccooeeevansayosthuskcsoesisdaesevessiesessecséeseoeaces 35
PSR OR EAE UE Se eae cere teas cas evans asech anes soncAesnsct teeinnneivcesussesiaecccosacseveesonserees 35
MP arse ene ere entre aan erecacs acvansuceces coh acres tesceceieewaccanssaiecesssieécaseceesssvscsesecees 35
emer eririrte PER EDEL YN Crs. OUENR CORB oo. aoc cn nnccntasccnsoncooesenssecsnccseonsnsees 35

CUNNINGHAM, BERT
Notes on occurrence of Tintinnus serratus in Chesapeake Bay.... 35
The occurrence of unlike ends of the cells of a single filament

DEES UCUMEOIRIS, ‘ceed aetna capecceeehce Gee ae 36
PERMES VCHIGHEG THELHOG TOF GIALOMIS...............s.0:ics---cecsecsecsorecsessscseos 36
aca coy tego e cocoa dccecneesessacece <Sbeteaitrrvessegesaceussecsessssessssnsecceceues 36
EBERTTOSD cospeesssedncterie CCDS SCcCECLEEEOOO REEDS CEP DECREE EEE eee 36
EE TU TEN OIPOG Sectecosecon sect Occ 08a see EEOc EEE LEER Pee ee 36
FA PSIES ENTE thers scponcensae Boy SE SSEEea ae EEEPEEE EEO EE 36
CPIM CMTE TAMA Tae Sans cana ot oo an spac eae cea nesses ean bcsceaecievsisuctceSuntvodeccenseetsvesseee 36
LODE TOTIERS o:sbaccess sce eee 35
LIEB CTITS cocpeascscc cette sco ce BOS Spo e DUE DEEeUEEECEE De 35
PASUMGRA TERRIER Me oer epee oe ao cae neb ea ce esa sac ecsuseecesecccbssaisscesvaccesestceacsdeessoneasens 35
TEENELE occemaccencnsbeclo soso ce Scee abo Pee Ere eee ER 35
DTS ISIVEIATSS qoceenscnes cob oc Oe SSDI CEE Hee EnE EEE ESE EEE 35
EU PYRE PET PTS anqprnney ostec se Base oa soe eR OOnEE 35
SRI EIPITIS.conebeescsheb5eoc eONOecoocLEPPE Tone Er a 35
TETGNTDTIADS - cosccosctecostabeceo doe eR DSO EON RESET 35
BOB AO IMAI Y SMe Renee eects ease Nee bisa 5 5 saastevsiessacoooeasetesesooseeess 35
SR ea goatee gos See cee Es cada sncesuaevecsececeecranescecccsseceoes 35
POPU E oe ponecee GH CECEMECEECEEDEPROUE ROSES EERO EEE Oo oe Ee 35
POLGCHOIRIPIS acostencsinebire a enOLeOPECEPE 35
INA Ren FE cc nacieuacvecvceccencnoseseeenncessvet 35
CPONDUTTEDS corer concen Scc00 oS PCCD EEE CEES ee 35
eos ise coerce on Sennen cecedcddadassesonsecasvsccearsancnccsescaseantesee 35
CPEIUTIPS 5 err nesemnnedecgoc coo SeCe UA OEE A oe or 35
A occ ssnndcecesaconavansecte 35
I era oe ce ahs ngctnndueceonsseocseesenconsnsers 35
ENE QTIDS » cece BORE Ee eee 130

SE EUEGEDS soscecsecbaecochesocOecoc CEE ee Soc ee 35

204 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocieTy
Dacrymyces—Continued VOL

MUCUS OL i apeatatenastsy ances cdeccarcarestcctevcaessassccevesscctsssocs cosvecsusscsrcocaencccvessqnaeaeratcs 35
D) GOT AINA) COUCLE UC im ereeeeretgerrtee nn partes canseccs coc scnes=cc-ac-sedeacososuscee--nnosnaesaneacnaasereneem 35
TORT POLOUC URED cocbccc as tes notes Fee SCE Odeo EL OEE DEERE PULE OEE OOF 35

ITTV coascececacccce cen cC020%. oe Cee CO-CLLLECOCCCECEE EE PEEEPRBEEP CDEP DOC CRCSESECEE RSLS COCCOSGNONSEE CANS 35
IDNR KOVDSUS. Beccencbeccanena.tkee: codec 0 OLELOE EER EE CODEEEEEEEECE DEE CORE EEE EDOSSEEE Cone Cece scecrtcecoccusccec 35

GON GUCE Crees eterna eee ened oan nntdss an -oe-esenuccessonasassoeseacedeenneerarteusaceeceseates 35
Darlington Oak, COKER ..............-.0-00.++: lasses cevsdasscanansiere ss aes cavcoetsussessteneateeees 32
DVN GE OMI a rrsrrer rere eter ee eaesnsstscevons ssusnaeescscsisssssossecedssosecsscssncsevedocsteentnees 34
Den ariun Oar OVUM, ACG OGUR) tessazcssecscsscn<+coeees-ce--acacacencecseqnesestentssvacesuersnnnte 34
DrETJEN, L. R.

Pollination Or sbheeronuMGuOWa, TAPES ....-...c.0-ccccressscecceseaseeevecseamene 33
Diatoms, pure culture method, CUNNINGHAM .......:..:sccssssscessesnssssescensens 36
Diorites! near | Chapeligeetall Ne Cl (SMITE. ...........0.csscosseacccnsseseeerenssnenenamren 33
DDUQiOUGs” eecccccaccocenssncerestcsesueeseseveccarteeeescsvescesscséneseeqc0ceceXoo suussunnececeetanaeeennasteeeeneen 35

CUD NE LUE oan ween rere eeee cc eeerees Cec sen noc: sscencosss0ses00acscossescescernusscecoemercseaaseraeet 35

TOOUCOLG® crascstcscecexsestroersenaceestsesdecace=cossessesveassseoccesecesenncdeccse acer tnenenaaseenenene 35
Dyestuff situation, critical condition, WHEELER............::cscccssscssessseseeees 32
Earth pressure, Professor CaIN’s contributions to the scientific

Std. UMN MR SONG ereastecctsseesecccssncevovncsevosesosssaceesnssennaceeanreeeeeaeteaceeermmae 32
Kelipse of the sun, Jume!S; W908) TiANNEAU......:....:ccnscovsencssesecsessnceeesrene 34
TGUCIIUCTUCULGT. .cccsesnsccensr teceoee? cosestccreses se coess02caceseeo-colessansaetesseneteeCeen eet staan eeneREED 35

TEV CULL ON Fe reee eocercetee sen coteceeecccstens eess%as00++aceceseecccscousnerantcenen senate te eaenaE 35
Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, ‘origin........:...:..scsssecensceserentesrentnnes 32

Proceediniast) cemehOl em rO MD eC. sO GO. irc css cccseccsssntssesuntcensesteaeeteeeeneas 32

Proceedines DecwlOlG to March 1920) -o-.. ssc..ccsenecseceetettasunmmtententnenns 36

Proceedings May W920) tomDec. LOZ ...<..:<ccccssceoesseeensescsserreseneeeeree 36

Proceedings, Heb. 1921 to May 19211 2c...:....cvestssntensneeee eee 37
Embryos with spina bifida defect, WiLSon and MarKHAmM. Abstract 37
TR OMA COMCLUG: -srceckaviecycucucctswateccestsceweust sees vesssivduunses secede cvsstuaneceeresteesesenseet uae 35

EL CHAN OCEPRGLG: si siccccessstacstvastssessssssensssuescsvsssvecssoeecostecevestorseststeoereneeeetotaee 35
TP GUMUG cis abaxsousvacecuathosendentee teas cuss ie osSuagaeoeeenssacebecssccesssavcassesssdesessover ee taeeetE deer aeee 35

OD DUOTUE weivcceencentennsctunccccee-dacetétesconececssesocscssqssceusenctesecseee eeenee ene eceeeneneeaen 35

BOOP OSUCED cavvwczeceaeeese cats sesh s cvctscscdevencsecevessocssnedshusvivles dae sueeaect eet 35

GCUMUUN OS Oe voice xsuctcccemetcnencdsseeutenssssdssescssseesteevcodudsescodsectceuveseecseetsoneeetene ena 35

QGUOMGUN OSG: -wecsssecnctexexiececeesvadtesteessesscnues successes juteccnctdeedencessue nett ceeeenoeeaane 35

VPA DG wesiinevesuessesssssoot ones tases esbasehesceecssvessscssossvovauuveueienes teeeseeen eteneeeeeceaeaeine 35

DUNMVUCOUG: Sacvsschacctvereneve toneehe ee neoeeeeehanonesasssubueeaecesdsagessssscncetseeeeeeTa ee eee aeRENENG 35

SCULCULOCTIONING a ecvsesatecssraststvssccce+s2ss00ssu0ecesoocsesedesosstnrcosedeteseesuene een eeeRnEEen 35

SD UCULUED seesieseeaecanereetesece can etee eesescnn0eaouecketeos=seeseousevesocbesneaes tee eeeeee eeRenRene 39
TIER OXOESOMOHID, cece nccerec 2008 C0090 0200: NOC“ CCCASSOLEEEE CEE wand ocsonseseesosstcsesnaredee sean taseeeme sense 36

VQCCUNAN: soasccdasecieasterataese deed seesnasenSs0assossaassccenescccsvsveacndscddeueden thaatetaneeeeeeee 36
Fauna of North Carolina, land vertebrate, some known changes,

BBRUMIGE Yi ae sossaeseaeticceterswestontcecbesc++cssvapivcesscecacsuaeascevseeltivesteeee see a teeeaeee 32
Bernworts Of Wloridal iS MAU esccs..-+s.0ssescssvaecesoossesscascosscessectestonessseereeeereeene 35
Mertilizer problemi, DR UGREE rcec.......c0.seccsecisisenceousoosscacepeteaseeeeetaeeeeane 36
Fisheries. of North @arolimay We ATT. .........00:+sss00ccscascceesusntesenates maeeeenen 32

| March

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38
112
153

120
123
128
178
180
178

53

1922] INDEX TO VOLUMES 32-37

VOL.
Fishes in relation to mosquito control, HILDEBRAND......-:::...::csceeeeeeees 37
aieersm eG HUTCH ON SING UG AUT Gless crac csnancce-sucessasacucrocnctet pde-ssnencermnsasosss 35
Ia REPRESEN EID ec «ccc ne re natn suanccnnacsnesncsanstcs>a-sedencecerensanensceeeeecadsnds 35
GARNER, WIGHTMAN WELLS
Effect of the relative length of day on plants (with H. A.
RUS POUEEN MANOS GE CLC bine scttce dit senenccuseernceseccccercsesaceseccassecssaccsnatsvesssvaee en: 37
““Geometry, Teaching of,’’ by Archibald Henderson. Reviewed by
SoD a ees nese nec ee een cencenmaccenee consavtandesssueam=s"vanessscececeesvrassoerensc 37
GEORGE, WESLEY CRITZ
An interesting anomaly in the pulmonary veins of man................ 37
Sponges of Beaufort (N. C.) harbor and vicinity (with H. V.
a en Na BPI Ease ct lane aera eetseecen dense ss tacaneacu dectn+rccsadesterscvancee 37
Gil fungi, Key to the genera, COKER..............ccsscesrsoccsssnssssersssensssssserseres 35
GIVLER, JOHN PAUL
Notes on the oecology and life-history of the Texas Horned
er7 or Oe EV MOSONIA COLMUGUNN 2a.cvearsscacessicesadscscssnnccasserseroseneesancee 37
Some considerations in defense of the general biology course.... 37
GRANT, FREEMAN AUGUSTUS
A new genus of water mold related to Blastocladia (with
SNe NO EEO (CORTE) esac ete: -nc2ss acacccsceesseessartecsseordtetsssee secs Soeesesessscesonessoaseie Bi/
Grapes, rotundifolia, pollination, DETIEN................scccsccscessesseeersessseees 33

GUDGER, EUGENE WILLIS
On Leidy’s Owramoeba and its occurrence at Greensboro, N. C. 32

‘*A primer of household biology.’’ Review by WOLFE.............. 34
EEF ENEMA oc eae eteec snc tains sce esac <coccscsesch sco steendicecsseiece<sadscesescacessasereveseeeses 35
PAPER RPM ene a eee ener ck occu ce necacnavsseveresttscedanccnavadessosisssssssezeeresvscooensses 35
ROUSE MI LOL) XA AORMMC te eee coe Naan cesscnesvocnresvvensasiecewsvsesziscsesousetaeressssescecessseee 35
TAS OT LIL SUIT Dientecee noe sssneosss dads Socccescbacsaseesssvesedssesccciserce<sasncorcesssseeesseeessees 35
AAI LINN Ears sca Seren cdeescosencsccsensdsesenssoisec0cess SvesoSeessedsasvdoosesseeserese 39
PRIMI ME VUII RTI VOILOLG dec exe sosecerestenestestkascastaeen esas oxssota soci caesveusesseoascsssseeee 35
URANO PRO cere oder set sain scestecten} cn ssssscscssceiewddéasaeeqbcsescarovaseeocsesasnonssasne 35
Harper, RoLAND McMILLAN
BH ePIC TA CAM EGIL CHOE“DIANIGS) s..-s+-ecsccevessonvtgcstesececencsssaiseascsoan+ssssonesiee 34
A botanical bonanza in Tuscaloosa County, Alabama.................. 37
Regional geography of South Carolina illustrated by census
Bic MBERL Teh CM Ppa Reece nc re vncd Sac'sarescusessometsotsysit isessvaccessseseneessssooserses 35
Some North Carolina soil statistics and their significance........ 33
HENDERSON, ARCHIBALD
An interesting maximal case (with H. G. BAITY)........cceeeeees 37
UG TACTS eemeetecteteecetosee soso ee 2 SUE CO-EEECONCEOEEE IO EEO EEE EEC EEE PEPE 34
I a ee sacs ee sneer oe suns cecdannSsanendoceiavsesancntoresassancenrsesescedsnnsesses 34
DINED peste ce sits oonestiossacsccvonecsacra ats bseaueiaireaesvatccaessaceasassssssnsocrensescees 34
cence coisas canatiesdcceeavetsseaitnnsearsiacsedeossssecessesnsacscenesses 34
a ND coe ohne ced vancsuaceadaseascUavezisshes--coseuscesseaccsevorsnesssoceaces 34
Professor Cain’s contributions to the scientific study of earth
PRS IEE Meet steer care sete ccoce ance en csaes au seustsentncob sesec on scevescessisosaeescarenedanses 82
**Teaching of Geometry.’’ Reviewed by CAIN..........ssscsceeeeeees 37

108

206 JOURNAL OF THE MiTCHELL SOCIETY
: VOL
Herpetological faunas of North Carolina and Virginia, BRIMLEY........ 34
Herpetology of North Carolina, SCHMIDT................::ccsccesessesessnresseners 32
HICKERSON, THOMAS FELIX
A new method for laying out circular curves by deflections from
TN a eee eee eee ete ast sitcosen ns canst osu-<esote+oosscorecesusnaaterseeeneaemttenteres 36
HIGGINS, BASCOMBE BRITT
Notes on the morphology and systematic relationship of Sclero-
GRUNT, PHOS Umi C Cxereeteeees ss ccevers-Ucas<os---cve-cascss.oceccevaattsenacenesstasanicerateet Bill
HILDEBRAND, SAMUEL FREDERICK
Fishes in relation to mosquito CONtrOl................sceccccerscsessenresareeses 37
HOLMES, JOHN SIMcox
Extension of the range of Prunus umbellata into North
(CRONIN Ey peeereeetraeeeeeectenare nce sees cates =cccroncsoone-soorssusseseteastnsnantunaestatnaaaaemnaee 34
Some notes on the occurrence of Jandslides.............ccesseesesseeesseeees 33
Holmes, Joseph Austin, at the University of North Carolina, BATTLE 32
Jord olbioysarten olaay, (LE \ymeAlTni\etS) ay eeeeee eee reonepo eae DO CCL oaA oOo O-cene-crsococeecrecosaccuee 32
WM CMM OIA W SKETCH EVRA TU Hectares ancscciescnesscoescoonssvansnscceeenteenenee ee eeaeenenEneS 32
MEMINISCONCES WAVANNUADB OE ceeasevessocvsesssoccsco-scvoosanccsereeteoe-warrerssemeeeneceemeenees 32
TTA ON CUI: x ccessevccseseseer ts oneett eres coissieeTiessssevensscscscscceadesserddgettreecencona eeeMeeenenenee 34
COT OUTIONAUIN Sasrrcstkevicteentscnsecseasstenecsssessseotavescussucudeetertetece sche tee eeeeeeeneeee 34
QUAD OLUS® eircrscvesceteceten chases cceesecscssevnonssencendeicessnsasestessteenteaeoneaestt cee menneeeeaan 34
POTTUGUI ES isacecccset Nee tatess cos tscccsisusasescseasssssvnadsnesvaboasetescectttecscet tan nec RaCaEee 34
PUOTUPONING. (cececxccccesssses-cseesvsecn ses aseesceosescececnestacsspesyeacoeee eee teeaeaeene nee eee 34
TWMAGUA eacieeccecesenvezscecstevssectotosesscense ceed ssensecVesecasteestinetente: tect eae ee aeameme 34
INALGE GLU: ccercconexe states soesiecvesssca-oseessesnoenseaescececeecesevae eee neeee tant teRee ener 34
SCT OOUCUVAUUIL Cecccesesosscese ssc sessvesusoasesecevasuasenesscevexcoustussseeenceee te neee eeteneeeente 34
VEVUTANAUIL cosudaxccenstcstave-uonssisasssonrnescoosessaccoascesevscsvsaseresaconrererest ee coat 34
BONGUUNY, <cccesrssetscrteraswescacedeccecccvseveacsncsdsereasecdns snscemeneetsaneeeteceas eamne cone nnaanee 34
ET YQMOCI CELE seceszsencsxccsessavssacencqorssesondsesscessbeecssacevescouvonsedesseeeeconetaceeeaeeee te meres 34
OU GGOWINE scecceccscenesctscacsvesseicncesveosc+vseseer csc ccoassscussnceeseeaeectsaeaceneees =tmeneeenentee 34
FLY UA: coccseds cozscusesoeeetcenecsevsinet dis cWéoscosesteeseneess cassaescoasn ted enenee Steet eee neat 34
GUO O=MOGTUWIN, seccacesccsscccacccsecceccccecceceseueduceeecesseoussessnececseeseeneeee eee eeeeeeeaeenenes 34
CHUSTQUWIN cre scevonceteescate cent scxeccaecseesesacceesteseasanaescdsouasseenesateseet seta teeeeaaaene 34
FUMAGUIVEO- VIOLA COW, Vrecesccczxscca000000ss0sce0eeeecadss seus ieccecesentteseteereuraeeeeenmemnee 34
FUMOSUMD <i occcceconacasseasdieosstencocceccwoersscosccesneesessesaccusseTerceEneE tent eet aEEEEenEa 34
PNUD TUCGUUG csnsecestenusacdeterene= snr evesvee---=canezcascescsaesuanneinuenaaaaeneete ea 34
MUP ULly eacecacssectevaces stasesssscnnnceecooe+ssiecesscesensesenactdssat Coie cee teette Reet 34
TED GMOWING sevsectencinccSevsecsecscecs«cacceesceseeciscseoscueossesesessescecte ate seeenaneeeeeeena 34
MOSCOUUS ze cacnccveseetccessaccdvececcceecscescetersesseeéseressessressousyuseveads oneteeeteeeeeeteeemeanaes 34
SCQOTUDES: ceccontonsapsscsctscncascunsvoscocssocseresesceueeososeesds snucceedcerenteesea tremens 34
UNE WO OGL, aoe ccccnkcsseres-cecacertexssson--sosecesssonsesscsosesseuuseis7eeseesees ease ae eeeaReeneee 34
Hydnums of North Carolina, COKER................:00000.0cesseastentenssestcneneeeeeeee 34
TL YIM CTU0 CHU Cb Ey recnctv on cccteccoce oe ccste vex sera enanocsatedssenessvaceessassonceetsneets tee een 36
UG QUIGEUIVGTUS areerereceee aerate ttatster es css cccdenssac Leciscoussnconseccbouchenececees tect eReenaaen 36
COVTUG OED crass ccssocterainrceesetthasteraiosees0seasesceaceoeesocei «xsvasecs seus ot eee Tete neeeEe 36
CUT EASE ese apa ret scores oe oeaensce diane sovnaiacsessuseccstsscecsssnsacaseasdoestan ee neeeeetaenteee 36

[March

PAGE

146
33

42

167

16]

1922] INDEX TO VOLUMES 32-37

VOL
MEMNMETPURSID URES eres ene ce ser san Sets S econ ecece caccesenecends Coeecescoxnasssocccstcusewbascecsesucesceseses 36

LERNER, sss ee ashe aber SESS as ERA A a 36

DUUSHETS canned bacon ses ot aa Sea a a 36
Incubation, artificial, death of chicks, ARBUCKLE...............ccc:ccsssssseseeee 34
Individual in the animal kingdom, nature, WILSON............ccccccseee 32
TAREE TELS NOR EIR on onc cone pcseen coe snayvcnvecexcnetaciecucesenieereneastorsessucssoeceis 37
Involution, theorem on double points, LASLEY....................sscssscsssccesseee 37
ION SEF aoc ena nk pv a saa cape acck ecu ebpnecntcccesdceuseseeieasiaacens 37
Jackson, David HouGHtTon

Chlorination by mixed carbon monoxide and chlorine (with

2D Ten WIE UAGSIVIIS)) ces peepee eeeo tere eh tee en rr 35
JACOT, ARTHUR P. »

Some marine molluscan shells of Beaufort and vicinity.............. 36
RRND ENTP Eases ocr oe wa eta are ce seine dsacennearstrescessceneesanseenee 35
Kidney cells, normal and nephropathic, occurrence and distribution

pemmmmpersupecorem ties TVEA CTC NINES estes oecae sane scecanasecpacssetccsceacnececeanescocnesacees 32
EMAIL ENG LE Mere C OMIM, COKER :-..0-.022-cc-se--csseceesdnacssecsssseeucsssesssassnsavas 34
MN SHEMINI OLE LLU VIINL LIES) hac soesaanntseantens is estsactnescasscocsessssecsedeatsseseessseacsveseseessee 34

PMU ANAM ree cones eee eons eaes cues scsecoscdeuva<tveabcssecnatt-esdsesesséseteseeveccsaces 34

PRE TTIO AND Svan ooa ss ccessasccdessscseeceiasecess ee omen ee erat ea ct sccsessspcsesssscecesice 34

PEST IETS. cpmecmcber ccee eae Deo EEEEPER CASE Cine PES EE EE 34

CD TREUIS aERIGTDS . cctee tcecSe6CP PEE eo SePEEL PE CECEEEE DOCH DDO LORE EC AP Oe 34

PIM EIT ND MILLA Rr eee doe cnet awe aeeeasenee sac dseearcacstescarsseiccseasnesceseseoeecicasosceeeas 34

MLR aR aI MINT SM RP eee ae enero costo stawguasvecdadsdaccatsesacsee<esssecctesessasestcasseos 34

Maan eae tciccnnneactsssvssecscesenancctnccscusasandacesvsrensssceecececesseers 34

PMCS OL HE eet ened ace was isnot eee ce ntateSsahaes<Sdsevaecnsesssvecctersoosassasaces 34

ORVEEIDRESIS cosdescedeipsachccey Soe eaeece- eee no Ree 34

NPAC IEI NSE Reece pear ee oe enc cove any ce epeaen seen ans sere caters sdessi¥secesdecucccecdscrscessseseaavoce 34

EDUPLD coghhste socket OOS a a 34

SGT RU MMR eRe eee cai oa Sess se adeaccsssnurarsc sass -cocseséeencicnsssasaceesessescacssneasess 34

SAIC MILT ENDS Meee ee ane eat cere n cee eee cents e cae SeeeSenaceeCaasaseeccevisesscsecccceaasceieses 34

PTE DUGIIIS copandditcncgs ca aecece ERE LE eCe TEE PO OEE Ce A 34

SUN AIgT ennenee See c case acs acess eeeaneer = suecscarecasdessessueseseoosvenseee 34

PU SA IES LE Snape anata ce teni es nasa ct saetc.inces:saccsvoacorstemeesseseccssecsecseecesseestesenesaseess 34

FUIRORIES -ceeccnesenanascet tee Bete SOLOS SOLEEEEE EEC DCE OICEED DARE 34

Be aM AIS oreo est neve sosasaeacsscsensaueacesuadessssesccsedcacesesscssecceesnsescenace 34

IIa NOCEAT LS ree eae es eee ras Snsaens Se econc ri cacescoresiers 5 sposcarncesvsnnsncsenssdseessuesss 34

Niece ee eta rene ae ee ness acs scons sae ocae) sebistsatscecetbeeseaensoonseseesbeces 34

Neg E OOTN EMEC ae eee Danser ees eed ecccd ss sosacs eke osesooanteasaeceszeceess 34

TAG Amn enna ea oes es Sos sa cecssaernibessisseanctsvensveseseesstesesssess 34

esr IMO eee are acco cosa ceeasasscocssouCOeeEs ss2tthecsteesseatesouacessensneessse 34

ANDES TG SIUM Pee Pe Oe note coves evoes caecdaevoodautsaeuees soe eet cccoeeeeretscaicnaete 34

Ue LATE eee eee ee ane cee e et ssn aes sence: se=csnsicnateuattscabevesonceseesséoasesescaseess 34

RE NMRTUINC IIL SME n DEER ET cotEE a cane conccecccues cs ans esneunenccenaccésusssncaeesssecsssocnssccssesees 34

CLPEP DELS — cccscadasdanstose beet cece aCe ee 34

208 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY

Lactarius agglutinatus—Continued

MUUMLUEN OG GUUS rer tenaetrsers teste cen tec seer ctcasedencocenscreo0n-cascavasacoet@nes:sauancantesserte
UNCUT US arenertes neecehere et canespatetas setec sos sctesycunceo<-a vase leuuset. venonctehansaecesenaaerenee
TUMOSELUUS ....-00<00 Pepe ease c ee svececssiiagasisee-nscsatacssseevascecsaceesesen sueneeeeeeamteee
MUSTUCOTIAUS meretertanavenatcessssetaecetterant sonnpac-taesseesenza0+ans<¢uewessonasceresencescaetetece=
SCTNODUCULGILUG a eenecrcerscnerstesecasess ests sev: v0 -200c-0er0-ss50oeacnorhs scnseusneebertsasuenesteceanes
DE CLO SUG rrrenerccedcereetercnaceenstasisdesersssaentes:cscsossesacoeesssoenassaeecescesecsseceemeuccemats
GUD CULL GUS eeeneseeerctaneec settee teessecnecestness.sonas0ce Gus cananecercesseanuaproserserssecataeeamees
SUD DVUTULIVO G CILUES Meeeetateecaatets ene ceetar eve xn ca-<2s- coches oucius.vasrecusonteseestecaesgenseeenenntt
SWODUND UNGUS mcrrcstettecndeeedeenel sat rea --s-scereceonsaessassosssennscconvacenssasaeuecneseesenemna
SUUDIGOTATIUILO SILS mumeeeetaette mereenecttegesers.+4720ss>>s-902=5000snq"-coacuesneeconas aenencceeeeneee
SUDUCILET EUS macros teter renter c cre ccscovtescvanteosscseoscesseoseseisedecesaetupeanteeeteeeeeteeeeee
GCETOG CUUS) cuetececstatcettesteccss tee decease s +3 susssi00 dives: sbosesscbnovsadseeseset ee eee eeesereee
COMMULIEO SUS iaeangnesenetametanereemensaatesedscasesesases cs «coer +7 ~/ev sane daetanuaet seat steeee teen
CP WUU US rs ceacee licens or conte oe TRS OSs CECCE oo esg vo oc gace suasensenesdsuaes soccnusqusrunen teeaseenEet eee
EUNDIS. socccarecastagsetaatasee ys senst ona secevnpii-acessesnacseseseseseascucaucesnen seesuaacney semmeneaae
MCLLEV EUS) Se ceviceccsvevectucdssdesisessogoesvesvuassesseesesecanstocsaeeceonatccceetce eee eee
MO ULC TUS Mar owntesne ts se cen tetana nce eec cas tevedis coeds ss sere0sesseeno¥asnadosbanee canes head ateeeeaneeeee
GSD Phi cccnaczeceeneeeenaseseeseye aeese ee ot sap eai: apscaeennanseccoseee Soolsnalseeesepeaeteenees eae aan
Land vertebrate fauna of North Carolina, some known changes,
BRU MUB YW eocsesctcescescsscersnssosccssessrsessseosuseopsssoesesvoesssasassont ae resesaetaeaneeeaeeeeeeee
Landslides,‘ notes on their occurrence, HIOLMEG.............2:cssssssssccceerseeees
LANNEAU, JOHN FRANCIS
The suns eclipse) Jume 8; 1918: a questions .cccnsceseccseeeseeeeeeeet
Wanneaus John Hrancis’ 1836-1921... -2-.ccssssccesseecestsseeeneneteeseenes
Lansing, N. C., magnetic-marble ore, BAYLEY..........0.. scsesrssrssensssearens
LASLEY, JOHN WAYNE, JR.
Some elementary vector equations........:.:..-..cc-cce-secssereeesstesseeeeneeceeae
A theorem) on double pois) im) involutiome....cers.cess-eree eerste
Warurel’ 1\Oalk, (CORR: ccrsscecsecces-sc<ceguoscces coos veidccevatets scesesntee one cneenteeeeeeaeemeeeerete
Leidy’s Ouramoeba and its occurrence at Greensboro, N.C., GuDGER
Lithistid sponges, remarkable form of skeletal element, WILSON....
McAtTEE, WALDO LEE
Notes ont themtiora, or «Churchi’s) Island), Ni Ciccccscaeseseetereces teense
McGreGcor, ERNEST ALEXANDER
List of plants from Batesburg, S.C., and vicinity.....................-
MacNiper, WILLIAM DEBERNIERE
On the occurrence and distribution of potassium in normal and
nephropathies Ikidmey) Gells) <-.:.......5:0..+.:-.s-+os-eeoseedereeeden eteteemeetetene
Magnetite-marble ore at Lansing, N. C., BAYLEY.............ssssscesscssecseeeeeees
ME GING, ezzecee dvccucccose restos ones: ceores cafeneaaaierssoossesee-cecoasscuescnctdeeeres ee eer eee
COP GUS ON INAS) Gevcscrecattasccdecvecn-cacecesasss+suase0scseede3sunsdeseseesss sactececeee ane eee
UGG CLUS. ee aasvccetset teas concdiorstecchoo00seeessdeseescss500nss0aceascehs co ree ee eRe
MARKHAM, BLACKWELL’
Asymmetrical regulation in anuran embryos with Spina befida
detect, (with He Vee Womson))). — Abstract......----:-:ccceesseesseeeeeeen
Maximal ‘case, EininDeRSON ad) MATT Y:,....--ccc-:e---casereeceeoee ees -eee ee eeeeeeeneeeem

[March
VOL. PAGE
34 48
34 39
34 58
34 15
34 21
34 29
34 59
34 50
34 34
34 18
34 10
34 36
34 16
34 23
34 28
34 8:
34 53
34 59
32 176
33 100
34 76
37 ef
37 138
32 143
Biff 80
32 38
32 24
36 54
35 61
33 133
32 113
37 138
34 176
34 176
34 177
37 3}
37 61

1922] INDEX TO VOLUMES 32-37

VOL.
MEMMINGER, EDWARD READ
MAMIE LTE CLIO fe cont eancsecccascetes<eesudsccnecssssacessessecsssensisss<cteasscosevessdiussovevseceaseeate 32
METCALF, CLELL LEE
Peteree yepidae GL North Carola. 2. ..ccccnnssncnsss.-ssecsessesscecenseonense 32
METCALF, ZENO PAYNE
RRNA wc aera pees sn omnes tne santictrdaeneeppeansvosenrynssep 37
A portable printmg press for the ecologist...................ccsssccsscssees 35
Molluscan shells of Beaufort and vicinity, JACOT................csccccsseesees 36
Mosquito control, in relation to fishes, HILDEBRAND..............cccseeeseeeees 37
Mosquito fauna of North Carolina, SHERMAN... sceseeeeeeteees 36
i cen nals gor cansns dey nacecsnnceGtsuninpnenassecsenseccessseneseesse 35
PURNESETATIIEI RN HOT MTLUS eats sh conse cchscssnccnecs-acaseabessnececcsesicesrcectdecesucessucccessecersansecescee 35
RONNIE APL Renner nae ane cn se on er en on nseen ect Sansseaesaccachncéeasadencsseneesversecss 35
PPAR PN MLR rein nt enee cnenan es neice caavetiassaafacnsvacssennasstseostssaycostsciscessecscsspancesvaeeceraceee 35
North Carolina
OE Le 2 0 34
Seen ae AI NEUMAN DIO occas ccs nacsnsncsonavetedavsnsesaesisheeccersonscceosseeesease 37
ry tae, CORER ANG EARDSUEE .ccn..-.c:-censcsccacsnnnesncveccesesescssocsessesees 37
SALE UEIUILS a CAMEL CLIRIS COOK MR) nerensticssecnaapacacasecsseccsscstssasescccscuscosereee 35
SO MA RP noapic cre asec cet oe ovee ance asdidedsicesceodeescensececeeveces 32
SPS ETUDE S(C1S 0 1 117 ses ee) ie ages ne ara 32
I NaaI ERIE SONNE ea eden Pee sa cue serccansenceancesesarseeeess 34
BNR ASO ORR acoso enact dngu cn anasaassessencseetene secnctauctnenedseaceascencsseceenees 34
PRE WCEPCOTALG FAUNA, TSREMUEY ~..,.......-----0c.cce-ac-escsececeecesscescesscees 32
RaaNpEEIEEPHPMIETTIVECOECH, CORE <0 o.9o2---3ccescsnc-cencccceiacenceeocenseesecceccnosscess 30
Rare SOME MINAS Se SEDI MOAN 5 orn oc sock aceisencsGeeseasceanecareees-ecennneeccsaneescsen 36
SSIES MIETIE IT CL LLL COME OTA MUNG ts esses ce see core ns oz accecccoaccoscocsécoccuccanccessscaseeee 34
MeemeemePbICE AL BUEEWS, EGRAUMEDIEY 62021 coo gce-dccccadeaiissoce0cceocssenseccsoeescneoess 35
Reptiles and amphibians, BRIMULEY .....................c.:csscsssssssiscsnessssssees 34
Bi NAN ESR PI EM cana sec cn aun sncsinascnenaaeoeisasincessencehececcecsecsensntee 33
saad ED EERE, ee ages PES o cc. sacksnesseccaccsonsscesees ay)
7 LS Ee DLS Con es Oe 32
SPOR Pago BEA AA TG C-ELCPmm UC KSEE rere oe Soe wo nso cacsascectesesabinndnesecesccace 36
Se aE EL IESLAMERDE areneatcg ea daar ee slvza cinch cdaceedescceseessenrsenersees 36
North Carolina Academy of Science
Proceedimes, 15th annual meeting, 1916................c.ccccccsceccccees 32
Proceedings, 16th annual meeting, 1917...................s.cssssssssssesesees 33
Proceedings, 17th annual meeting, 1918.................scscscsccscceeeeees 34
Proceedings, 18th annual meeting, 1919.................ccccsceccsessssseees 35
Proceedings, 19th annual meeting, 1920............:ccsecseeeteeceseeeeeeee 36
Proceedings, 20th annual meeting, 1921..................s:scsesssssseseees 37
ia ee eh eedce ce yoat pe eeisccnaceuvesasueadcccsveccsccscnenseenece 35
PETE TUT UTES cosetes-cecl esc BS eeEEEOe CPC E HEPC 35
Oak from the Gulf States, new species, STERRETT..........:.cccseseeseeeeeeees 37
Opuntia Drummondii, on Smith Island, COKER...........cccccscscssseeeeeeeees - 34
Been, MIBHOSFAphy, GUDGEE .........2c..:2cccsecsssssssecsessceosseossncncrosnescenees 32
IN DARN 2 8 enc sae cose sees eases sacassocsavereessvenseceentsescnnes 32

209

PAGE

120
95

19
20
129
161
86
134
137
136
135

210 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY
VOL
Padina, alternation and parthenogenesis, WOLFE..........::sssssseceereeeees 34
PATTERSON, ANDREW HENRY
Me: theory, MO bela tava iyi ccece:2-.<2-0.-95<0ceaccasocesacsvaosenssnecs seeesanase=tenemes 36
PONMAODIO TO escccsceeetenscntesneteerseeeaeeteveaecks sizcccss snese ou scccestoovessssaneesesesatserenseestetuaners 36
GUO ORO OV GGUieecteesearspacteasccecshestsees-.vscst+vses+-0n2240000s ansocseasseasesenetaaameeteetns 36
CUIVET. COs ssetnenseneatnceneeessterepeccecdecsesssa-ccessscossersscecsacesssnssacacancnesueneeeeecemanesene 36
JULIET OSG pecaeenereneetcecceettarcusccctes cases 1snc2000cssvsascceccscevescavesnancecetaeere ene temaaaen 36
QUO. CUT CO Serenceunesnasseoteseneseeaeasancedeesteccs- os ssececescunasocesecesue ae cndeneeesesenenssesenemtars 36
VOMUGUS ON Gaaeeececstavecteercreceesteenttacscoeessvessce0s-+cesoce=ca0c0cevencnesnscreetenensteesernenee 36
MULL CLUS ae scocncteeren attest cer teeter e artnet ceva ce sceseséssocvacecscncevosacsseerenteecsesnneseemeen 36
AUOURCE O-UUUTO Uae (ecccteantereseeencee stare ccucet.osessscusatcosrsasucccaseccocsneeseeoeeanceeeseeeees 36
PRACOTREMENG VOSCUMOROMAGEE Veecsns-csceses.>-s000-00+se+0c0s onceccceceosvessececececesttesseanet 35
PROUD ON ec es-nenccceoessuasssee coveeveess Sencec ess sys 0 onss onsen snceoscscncoovscsnccececes sete ee teen enteeenet 34
GUD OTVUG CT eccneneseeetatee asa eneuhn cose Taesep aes coudsuennesdesescuecdecteueeoneccaceeen ee ceeeneeeeenen 34
ONVUCUS I eececcvectereseeesettisstecesieccestseavodssso2sesscesnssecescoetcocnassecseae taen ee eNeeeeeaEeAeEee 34
CORK OTUs cscscsesvencercaoseeeatees cal cavsceuyenss0o0+sisasceseuseseovena keds suas ceeenteee eared eeeeee eee 34
FLUUASTOAUUS | cecdeccenccnncnesascccttes sees coes ise ssrscoscesusssnnavsstcctceeseeeombervessanteeneteeteeee 34
GOMVENLOSUS: <eveacosenteac- ses teseessescesvoxo ts bis aeesoneensasdeduenee RO Rae ee 34
PRTYNOSONUG (COTTALUU ss GUVISER 4 c..c.202s2-c00ss.--s00nsacesossceccevansteconeencteeteetasteeeeeee 37
Pitcher-plants, American, HARPER ......... sa ean sadeso coast duseauerteeesece duces epemeeeeneee 34
Plants, effect of relative length of day and night on growth,
GARNER andADRDARDS “AStract.......2c.:0.:c.c.5...20..ocssecerseaneeteasteomneeteceaan 37
PUGEY QUOC ca cesezisdasctecees daca ccaseeecdaeteeeswosehses+sbeacisecedecesesescacecdcetecsee ree anaeeteeneeetents 35
COMOUUNAGIG: ccareccveveseonstcassiscsusseucae ceases cesacdiccecsdvaccccesesenseseetuess tence eee eRe 35
LQG CTSUVOCINAGE: cemececaveceuveceaticttsccicsnsesedesssusescunzssevcosteustoeeeseoe eee ee eee aE e eRe 35
PU COUT CUO cavecccceacacnvessuscans steve scs sxvaiSsvevs+seseus sve ssUoaelsducvedeeo eee MeO aE 35
OVUUGCOG, « ciccvecccsccicssusvaeessansecsesacbesissiscoscsssaueenscecacesvsdsndeete rt eeomeeden sett aneeaternees 35

Potassium in normal and nephropathie kidney cells, MAcNrper.... 32
PRATT, JOSEPH HYDE

Fisheries ot (INorbha Carolina) c.::....0c:2.:..s-sseeeveoe--seceteen oe nee 32

Memorial sketch of Dr. Joseph Austin Holmeg................ccceccccseres 32
Printing press) for theyvecologist, MimtCALM.....<...s.<.sssesectevscorts eeeeeereetere 35
PTOCOCOTOMOSD OGG TULGTUCOTUS Necccasectsevs- asses <sapeeesssnnts sa sesdedsaoe. tome Ree 36
Prunus umbellatus, extent of range into North Carolina, HoLMEs.... 34
Pulmonary veins, an interesting anomaly, GEORGE...........c..cccssssessssnesoeere 37
Qwercus AShEt, STERB WDD ec cesss-cerscceceses..cceeuosideccussheceeesonteote tata ee eRe 37
Quercus Lawrifolia Michie A @OKGMR) .....3...:.0.0cscersaccnetoscceee teen ates eee eee 32
Raspailia; the Gents, WaUSON; ...1-..:.......:ccscceseccescusecseonstseeeee teaers eee eae 37
Rats, mice and) SHrews; BRUM 9..:...........ccesecencsseccoscetecsnceeaeost eee meaneeeee 35
Relativity, bibliography, PATTERSON ..........icsescsssscssesesccastesete tea neeneeenenee 36

The theory, HPAWRMRSON( -.2c-tscevecs.:--scasssesnesssucedesdsessccesseneee eter eee 36
Rhododendron catawbiense, distribution, COKER ..........ccccccsssseesessceeseeeees 35
Robinia, eastern shrubby species, ASHE..:........:sssssscassicastisccssescateesssemetee 37

Rotundifolia grapes, pollimation, DETIUN .......1..:.sco...s-c-cocesstssterteeneteetens 33

175
120

22] INDEX TO VOLUMES 32-37

VOL
a SNR I ee en aig ne ee a Shs avesay SdcSas lous ancaceceeceeseasssancassceceacs 33
PE ESE Ae Me a ak caso ate ncnssenncneacacscdenthscccsvell sacscccsesscsnsseeeesten 33
Ie FAs ROO ct Fe ae EN cae caecagic se Soua coos dictcaueisnveoseceevsacbacoesh udccaese 33
TEN NRL ee a cS cect an nc ac Seen Scot c nse sects wan cwaeedeessvesvesesne 33
aE apa a na ee woos ev Sevan acne sareg acu kas aces ssseucdecdenseudseeswotees 33
TAMIR TUR TED Senne ee ean sio as wnencu gun s<csieesssceesssneoncessesass 33
eR Pen waa Cec ones on ancien aiesiscedsacacegcnadeccoeceseonsacocesssd 33
© PEO SETHE: lat San Eo OEE SSS EE SO 33
a IFAD oN nel sen ou soins sass onv=easencbewsensnderesascaeaatuseevese 33
NON NIN ce ones cena se cceasbenacnscchatees=easonhccouescaceseasaeehs oass39 33
CY EP TREN 3 ach tence A CEE ic 33
aI TM TPIT TNMs a on cee nara c prennn ses ceado ance svanaowasneentavcee+Succosaeesces<ce 33
CREEPS VRE © a es OR 33
ete Se cee ren eg ace aoe ia n-Aeeranwset kaebeececoetsceceseescesoes aD
NRMP MEL ee ae oa cea cra cng encod coicnccvsaiese-cacsecessaserunessatecsticecedseancoeseseos 33
ina en a can Te Mdeet tee gee tad aur eaxe Beano doe occcpvesteesssenssencecereceenes 33
Sa SESE MO en xe etre Oe hat nas Mes ects nocseesoodoatsterdenccenceaeeeeebececeess 33
Sa MANR EM oeeen aeia can se as nnnennncs <dadenessnagacsaniiesadsacasavescngroatisdaccseseeseseeseeeeseceees 33
MELA NIP ese cp snc aa tasaascnnesssaeganeScasacsesetssniesctarsanasdecsasdesassessencsensaee 33
Oe VAD SA 3 ae 33
SatI sap I geo ecco ape acn na dnaesascaaiaccaaecAsacacswactaaccessensaainssacceencessseenseseess 33
HUA NetR AIR UN ereraeeen nccns ness snmnnacscnaanccaasnocnicssAeceannacoassesaasececeessseccceseesssene 33
IARI PD CD Te ee eee ae radacccsy oon nnnchsessCnscocse.setunlasccsoesasscoorecessnoneeeat 33
UO FAM oo conn cane cnn se cisoaieessicnnescoSccacdcneuacesesiccererevercoovocevocnecns 33
eget Mee eon oss asn cua seesanapeecanncsbanarve2necesdeceasannr-aceeerseseccerascerees 33
PORE LORIR RSC eee oe eae nas sana oe rate aanacoscheer nachna cinda<sucsbscceeeernsseceeseaccedees 33
TERA A RM re cee nosso ssa nnercncesatnss soienispssasecrcceronccstcesedécesecvedeqcssscocestess 33
WUIMIM UM LCN Serer ee vada ons ose ssss7-cnoe aac scaaccocodssstvcscsrssisanssesssssveesecesoseesesseses 33
iM Ma an srs senna ae oe see Race tcesrer coils deores'sssnanennesccaceecesesceseses oo
SSIES REE E Sec aaa a ese ae a ee SEN Cds caus ce vdpnsficasisensueseocaeceecseoes 33
IAS RCT REL ee oes noo tins Sana ch aebindoninnavesitusescrnxsons-csessinasesscaaascroveeeseserecececcees 33
SUCZUAEERES adhbpsedhstces stood see ee Be 33
rea M TOYA cee a eee Sec ea cacinacccustecesvasseegscesescasese 33
SA TS Ice Di Mae eee oar an wate ranetesosascaiesssasanorsescecccscscetteesossesngscescecsesscusseoses 33
SBR CaM SU Cle sce tas oe seas Sosy ss a sesrs cena ddcctatsectesissusevcobcditdecsescceeseosssseseesncceene 33
SEAT ae AN aoe a eae ag ska cance eters as ssasSanensesssnpacceosencnacoeeransosets 33
PRE AIIIEL CTU DO a ceees sestussvrvensssaseesseseessrseseers ee ees ais Pvt ah av edvevetvores 33
ee ee ata ae oeete oa ness oeian save aoper ee eprned-aaaccccnasrscacesssenscaccansconceesore 33
ga N ese ee oa sacaee see pera daad cnt ips senceeeonne sess sdccnseiseesceesaseeeeesceecsrsssectece 33
ee ei ee ee can, Jas Seca tee teas viacadecdocsscsbsse+veeccseocaecsessseeee 33
Sa aI a ce ee nee ao OE cas 2ssessunSicodecs-cacceeseeaescessee 33
RICE A ae pence see wa gasses ssc usrccenccct cence: otdestis+sssacvosescvcscesecersoresceenenneocene 33
SI SO eae I ova case atcavesesososennsacnananes 33
DUR PPE DO ERNE CRM ota eee eo Se ess agdanninsoceceneaoscseecenoasaeace 33
ea Nee 5 ES De IS, 2 cn ccanpcdsuceeessasocnubsced 33

variata na eee a ec ONE Es os socddeevendonstuntuessscaseoscesseess 33

212 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL SOCIETY [March
Russula—Continued VOL. PAGE
MET ECSCOMNS acccccsccarnetenaresee seat tewae ssneses sa cenasessy sencte ross os scpnadsseserocousenmapeese smamenmees 33 174
WE ONGTIGD CVU picaee tence tees tonnes tacceesses ovsauc sas snestce siceceoewiiebaeeesscdcdeavecsccerauceteeancenen 33 185
Russulas of North Carolina, BEARDSLEE ...........sscccssecesccsserreenenssensessncenes 33 147
BCCODUAS TAG: i canconcasscecnesccBones sates cccecanesuscdessvhseezeceessiedasveascdsevenceeanseehestecouseeeneees 35 121
OVASPOTS MOMESL VATA COOUNIGNG) ...<0sc0-seecareacenvecssscennaceseusesceneottenseroete 35 121
MW QTTOCENIG, \.ceencossevrscatetevaneaecheece eee evens stuacessesesooesssvescvssenssueeesceds seveveneccncaureeeaee 34 112
DWM ONG eo csccentee ste decrease soseccescecsasceesovocsanes enassssseresesuscsocsesncceerseteenseeeeee 34 121
JUQUG seckczcoosnccarestesestrnst ease ane cSogeses vase ceaseseseseessunssossuecsianccascesnvecssepeoceneeee 34 119
MUON cacecensssansasunoceetteey sanetesteseiceos puss sctsissseisasovsussvousdousensusnsedeaere aeeeeeremee 34 iil
DSUOCO CIGAR . ccsnanecseeste Nee sen tenes Stseee tusgp 0s s0N0000sssaneeneesevseooeeseuseasseetemteteeese Geet 34 116
POUT UTC Cente sanenanen sean seen eeenenn teen rekece a c0-= nav denc0<-vecetevecsee seneeeaa eee eecee eae 34 114
PUWOTG, 2. cee sstnen au sustae pert maser CRON TBtseces 6 sseueeicsinvstousecd secied cess eeceeeueeensuaa ceaee ee eee Eee 34 i lye
PSION GT AB lope ce coacice ce cA aCzOCOCCCONEL CEE ECODEEEEE EERE REE EERE PEEP reer Oa acoobaccecoatne: 34 118
WY DEIAS, coe ces-cacscceseass ee trsctre seen csecexsnescecsaceseseseecuensseasswest¥ sees e Reece Ree eae 34 122
ScHMIDT, Kari PATTERSON
Notes on the herpetology of North Carolina..............cssscsssecssees 32 33
Sclerotviem: Rolfsti, Sac, HIGGINS .:...:..+..00-+essssoecsdescenccecessesceeae enero 37 167
SEDO CUNG vcccacicecvccsssaaescutsresctereneaetatohl seis tasccevsasdesseuseeeestdacezessiceeenseaeereeeee eneeeeaes 35 156
COMCED.. .cdateasancccrecsdenend son roe Waw eon CageeE Gu Cve san osenssnenscinee segsder eeeedeT ERO eORC STE eae 35 157
FF CLV CW OUMES scvcacsacccecsstesenuseoves oss avsvercousees+seececcsnsvesvonssocedsceceeneseuaaneseeeens 35 159
ANOTUSEQNS.. sccesesesneccncasestusevcndassss’svvesecevsscascaasuescsessedanecessecsdeueneseceseenseeneeee 35 159
BPP scoucssssctevevsdceversevencccascacsnucessvscvessesernsseaseoecesesscseveessevounseesdeuseanere te meneenenee 35 157
SEDLODASIAUUM sac cccscadeceasexsecssvvssvewoesootas ces socsoossscinccasviewseasaceedescsuavaneeecenetteseeeenenm 35 125
PSCUGOPCALCELLCTUINS “secccsscsscucccesssessesasescvsvsvuvesuaucvedesscostereneesewaneeveceeemeemeee 35 125
CRAIN BOLELL ORE SECO DASE SONOS ECE RRR cco sadsocoacecceaszoosen. ace 35 127
SCIAWOUNEZU ode. ccecauet coarse savious snenesciveasssvuats cess ootss siege sopestacesetenteeteeeeeeeenee 35 128
SEptocladiad, COKER WAND GRAND ecesseccexscasas. sodcsevessceevserseeetreeCoer nee Ree RE 37 180
SHERMAN, FRANKLIN
Notes on the mosquito fauna of North Carolima................ eee 36 86
Shrubs and vines of Chapel Hill, CoKER and TOTTEN...............::ccsscceeee 32 66
SUPODASTAUACEME sevccvecsrucconcncnstceesondusr teed svoseserscisscoseswuves co¥icves dosuTseareee nc eRe ROE STE 35 128
SGT OD ASUGUUIN, «ce ckecons severe teem cweccteee Sap teaet vee venassvaecnessaussonasstiv ccteeesasUaeoe mee ee a eRREEES 35 128
Bre f CLQUANUWIN, ceevsereecveveecees sanaecevovseseeeusaevvesdi+oecceestvenet: 0se-sUseeeeaeee ae neeeteee ene 35 128
SMALL, JOHN KUNKEL
The land of ferns: habitats and distribution of the fernworts
Paya C0 ae (0 Fs ee Pres ccc ecco“ ooOcEr ERE EERE ERROR Re rocopacoccocoroccasacooaerooooctioc 35 92
SMITH, JOHN ELIPHALET
Diorites meariGhapely wy INGO r..........0.cs000.0cnccssucecsesosene dee ansheeeeeeeeeeeme 33 128
Smith Island, IN.@.ja visit, COREE ccic.:.....0i2.sacsscs.0.ccsnesacnneseeeteeaeeeeeseeeeene 34 150
Soil statistics and their significance, North Carolina, HARPER.......... 33 106
176911 11 ame COO LO CEPR EEE EEE CEREEeeeR rcooceccoco ea aucercecoau03 36 150
PIG ILE OT TUS manera eteoneenteenesereaceanenns+>--axsc--rercestereessncecncacreeees aseass Cone eeeeenaiee 36 151
South Carolina, regional geography, HARPER.............scssssssessesscsssesseeesens 35 105
[SPURS Sig accra ean cnet eee meee eles 0s esac ads syees ona sassaundeacesesuee eee eee 36 193
CTUSD O pisere neater eene eementnase .cccsesccecovae coonaszcosdectaness -ceeetaeeeenmeeenaa 36 195
DF Ag 17 1c, ROPERS PEPE SOA Cree EOC CEPPEPPEEERET EEE EPETEPEE EEE ITI RCT Cont o LCCC 36 194
SPAGIWULGLD ceecestuckeseeeusentaeestterseteniesa>secescncennneesaaoceievenene+nerostseeestegetseeeaaeet 36 194

1922] INDEX TO VOLUMES 32-37

VOL.
Spirogyra, occurrence of unlike ends of the cells of a single fila-

BRED eaYE Crot Oa UUNUNUTIN GEDA Noe sec ovce co sn ccs acusessseessscasscasessaacesseessivessseeeesesosssbdsoueéses 36
See SMOCION, WILSON. ADSETACE s.scccicsecccccctsessecicesesecsscssesssccsescsesessceness 37
Sponges, lithistid, remarkable form of skeletal element, WILSON.... 36
Sponges, some generic distinctions, WHILSON..............sccsscessssssesseseees 35
Sponges of Beaufort (N.C.), GEorGE and Winson. Abstract............ 37
Seat ete ME MNUURN TU coe ce wan Cece ca sacs cee oon (oe sc suscc Cov code eve cc ccevobtaaeadeseeststeesesenaeressee 34

PRR RRO INIA TE IY icc oa s<o Sas 25s coe nS0sncs00s 02 es se0esesswesesadieeseses SAO OLE EEE 34

eA AMIR ce soo Ona couse ac ccs scree 0d sce cessawe ses dae Ctdeheesseseasts cfs idtesdecseacesoadasoiees 34
PME NRE N Me nnn een oon none coccece nce cerceveck reste sscdsslacdeiswsstessasscnddecesbvsieuclecorsoncccesessscees 36

MARS CMLL IMT ee Nance <n ececsucccesscdedsesseessassetasasscseccstesdocteestgocssteueactoeeccesorcessnanesees 36

FP SLSE LEST. cccocdcet cote Sep SEO EEOR OCOLEEP EPEC PEDO E CEC eee 36

HIRES CGE TIO eee cece Sone e cc rca ste ces SeeJase sass sestesecescstaceetesJessdevesssctetcoetssesascecesens 36

WPI NM STEL PICO D ULD Re tere ceca ts on ou de cwse wa ce coi essnunedesncseeee<e<ncccasesccdecssssscesecuocsecscdocesacs 36

PIID AMEE ene oe yee c oe oan wca eon n= 50S Zekg <a devectsssssecoasacessstecsceesisseiereveinceseenes 36

DEP OE BEDI TTT. cocgaacebSorpeeecOo eRe O COOLER EEE SCESEEREE ECE EEE ee 36

CIMIUEEEE | sccocedgteececas tad coSces oo str OEE CECEEE DECC OLGE CODES e-EEDOREE CEL CECE ECE A eee 36

DADS IRE SUCRETUTD. ech sce te HEE BUCO EEEE AED EEC ECAC EEOEO SO CCE EE EEO 36

Sa FI ICES PAT IDS cae nos ne crc one See cata osavesusencscseceesscecscesuaceseidedesebeccecedeanceeseeenscevses 36

SPU FIRM UCEME ANTI MMEC snot nc davaness vine cess acocessneceeuetseses sees rice ssevssetssorsccesssneceeceeeesoecs sees 36
STERRETT, WILLIAM DENT

PRE Wao Ace ErOMe me. Guilt: Sta teSte.:.-..c---.c-csc-cesvs-cseeeseesssenndsosscecsseceess 37
Syrphidae of North Carolina, list, METCALI..................c.sccsscccccssesecesseees 32
aan TUBERC ME UREA AT OD LVM << ors cen catcnccentencveancoanessactiassscersessoececcnecseccenees 37
LUEUE/RIINDIRE! oceonebecce bec Goce CIOS CECEEECLOLEEEERESE EEE PEPE ECE EE ee eRCCEEET CEPT PEER oe en 36

LUPO IVGPAURTS ere Be CBOSS CRSERSOL EDS COCR DEERE OCEELESECPE-CCEECEE CPOE EEE eee 36

MURAI CMU S Mien cascatacucccssss<ssaccdsse<scacsscsusassece-ccttecsetieseiveccsecserescensceesesss 36

SM RIII A MER GME Ree cee ne ce aoa aches cuacerecoacGes-tecacteceecet is iavosossscdeasceusserssescesenesssees 36

PUNE ATO UCU CUM eee en tecrc ates tchcdensatnsaamcesesssscacsevsesniasesesesdvasscseceiseeessessesense 36

MIRE MAIID CEL CCR nao sc Fe cet hep siah ssnedsvacsdeensdaissccsices¥eescesseuUsttbesccceceeesesees 36

PANS G SIR clans ae sas se cote ns seco nacasscecasbectsss:<aceseneosaciwesessusedsieentsssselesvenscseees 36

PIED RI RLENGLIL (Re me ers eee ae oes awe es Vasc tase seeeeeei st<isaiessessseSeocecsseusensesoes 36

STARE LTR NUMMER re ec ce coco s sss 70 acs Sos nana s<G6seeabects oo och secceapsdseWadeeverarievessenses 36

TU ENE TUS Mr Pee eee nace ns ccc canawacecesdsstabs+-scsdecoasteeaccssuseusdsssiUésbsseeeeedecedavees 36

TABIPIMESTAPID — cecetoccace Soe SOE CEE CCE FECOLC EAE CER RED DECO CCDC CECE ee ee eee eee 36

AIUD Ute ree eee ee cease ae cae sks <sosia et oscvisvceateteuat «sche tveltséedssonscisescessesokerssceneetes 36
meelepnoracese, of North ‘Carolina, CORER....:...............-sscscsscrsseseesesseees 36
Tintinnus serratus, occurrence, CUNNINGHAM..........cccscccsscesssssssseeeeseesees 35
ToTTeEN, HENRY ROLAND

Shrubs and vines of Chapel Hill (with W. C. CoKERr).............. 32
EEUEEMENOTIHOOALOUNA, AGT 2.2.2: .:cecceeccsasssesesonssonsesceaneseieccesncsenceessncens eo eis
eee cara snot e a esacvaccuns assdoiccuskurtednsnas savadchersscneseersceensecceace 35

BUSUIE Ee Melee enor soisaraesccnsssececeees ssssteeeacaeisec=cavesssstecotess-sececansesveseecedsceeesenees 35

Pa AMA OIART TCM ee ee oR eT cece os ane sco S cewek SSaCe. Senca tes soit Suabessnncctadiecssseceovesesones 35

213

PAGE

127
112
54
15
112

214 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL SOCIETY | March
Tremella—Continued VOL. PAGE
COMPILE OGUD Umernen eee nrercccrstnence sta see stcncae-2oececssokssccscccusesropssdttecenpsessetmenndenaten 35 146
COV TUG GUL mactrer cere one naan a nse cteascn cae scecses sestesasaseaddetsauenccenecceresonmeanaeteentet 35 151
CLASSUUOD Cie ere ianenate ee eenee sea nnes sn ccasddcccscvsssqceessarocyseseevasenuncettenas mentean 35 151
CT ENGUT eee eere eae ate teen aaa erncacen Les ones ccaceecsssecadceusSacssonenemmeneceaseresteueemeet 35 151
CED CG CTIGT meena erie cca ncas cost itvsasastcevessouecssceseseceseucrtaresee tameeenenaneet 35 150
(EL EU Be eee seoceesaccece ce ke AeA Oo EELS EEO EEE DEE OI COND OCCULT 35 149
T TOTALS Cresent rena aera sea ccc es sczescocesedsevsvaveescacceeaveretmanpecrseens cereeeateeees 35 141
fuciformis Pera RRR TNF cde Weave vccensees vascen sculls a ysusdlzadeeneuadees saat eeeeaanenE 35 140
QU OLE: esters eee e cee orate eran docesna aed csdessscuscecosesdvosesusdouneseuteysacneeesenmemtenms 35 149
VUE CSCS TES eee eie see RO ee es tecnica beiaasal ose sats seecdedluiedEcadtuemonee tae aeeae 143
AVOTUT OT NUS eae cceteaerteas Sot vessce ca scoseéssuccecesauacecersddseesadeeeeseevsusseepenCen a eaeaaeemeee 35 148
DAY TUCH ES a ie ee eas sccu shouts cavesveussci dacecsedeesSeaseeteeteccets ee aeeeemeneee 35 150
PONG YTD Mee ecco -ceCES Bec CECE EERE EREEECPTEEEE EEE ETE Or COLECO I COOL N 35 151
DUTUCOUL. arame tester tence seein tanenaes tine soainsaccascucsncdcescemete dup sadesesenaamececes emmenaes 35 144
TOULCULAEG, 2A aarenesecse acces tevetashenascocesscccccvnscaaccucessaadsedvoasdensseerauesencsaparenaemmnne 35 139
TUF OUVWEEH, “Frrrcetasecracstectn sas ceectsedesosenescsstecessaasooscsdesscesssseesdeceeeteeeasee ate mene 35 149
SEU ULATED vocccececteccocot tresses tus5iassicuusvs sssesuvvensiscosecuuevaseseeeneteeteneeee eee eae 35 150
Subanomala .......+. Spodarudecs stuhuss'ssavescessesesvusegee sosaeded eset tueuacetansaeseds ceameeeceemne 35 148
ENO MEVOUAES Grrieeesren heii desta sentinguosadesasccuauses coves casteeudeenedeen eoaentates teatro 35 149
DUT ENG cdacaceucssesectoncOats wsasocs voactsxtbinsstsscnaecsccuechivecevent cen tae Meat ee taete tee neneeEee 35 145
ET CMECUACEOE. \ i iccsonscencencscqedavetevestsesdssevusacssvesnssoseedoceceeteoneed eecettees deat eae eee 35 129
EPEMEWUOAEMATON s.csscve--actscsstecnacesdecesscsovecsaosecesscuabsoces te ceeseseteee ceertner eter TERE TIEeaD 35 153
GUT ONMIAUIN. aveeseceberieeieevseseteccsssecsnceccessseusoulecccccesssevsettataete seteenecoetee tee ntEe 35 155
CONGUAUWIMN. cercccnsscssccsctessesccsvsvscsacctcocsecedncsseccdbsssncsuadadecdetteesentees tote ceeae tae mteee 35 153
CUM ONG: saves se eeae docs evens bead otes ce cuees sssveaeis Wodsasetet sso OS OTR 35 154
IMETUSIMAULOVMES — sveaesedccevcecsstivonsiecescoosesseesscveaes sunoncapanviadcevertancoeteseeeseres sees 35 154
ETOMEMOGON \ccascasctsecusccectessivontosineoessssesceacssecesavaaszeoveceeselveve sedssweceeecee ete aCe Eee 35 152
QCLOUUNO SWAN: Faieiiocieta cise sceweteesssscscssesacceaccceacccedeccceuctecasetececcede coceecseeeeceeemeeeee 35 152
LV OGUD seccclvesestevecsestartowotguaceveassinsvouvesausseieaaecesvncdccasseeceeee tOteseet eee eT ERE 390 29
CPUS DG < sencsdoceweomen enone Seas ree aasvseeiesaensesavevctesedsueetsoceeue te RC 35 29
Turtles of North Carolina, with a key to the turtles of the eastern
United States) ISRINMG BV <. 0. .c<.<.c0.cesorcech uc vessseeueseeeeeverertesee mete een tneaetes 36 62
Tuscaloosa County, Alabama, botanical bonanza, HARPER............00 37 153
Vector equations, elementary, IUuASUEY........:.:--<:1...-ccevsceeerestnemeeereneenenees 32 143
VENABLE, FRANCIS PRESTON
Chemical behavior iot Zin cONWUM.....2<..0ts.scccccesesonsceeeast ee tent een 36 115
Chlorination by mixed carbon monoxide and chlorine (with
DD). 7 Deeks OM eee orate ss scheensecceceasceseeveceesseevseeeree etree ee 35 87
Industrial applications of zirconium and its compounds.............. 34 157
MS OCOPOS) SrssrssccectccesdsPectssecesaeeassosecensoouscousecsesooisoeresnanes tne eee enone R EERE 37 115
Joseph: Aqistime HOMES C22 .ss.......3ccesecssecsssssscosssecvesteree ecbeeet ee eRe 32 16
DiUMINESCENCE HOLM AIT COMG i 2-52525...scceccdccasesessocencs Seascechenteeateeee eee eee 34 13
Vetch. disease; one Witile katowny, WOLK\...::::ss20:s-2cccascesssacesseste opener 36 72
Vines and shrubs of Chapel Hill, Coker and TOTTRN..............000++e 32 66
ViAtrs POt UALS OSD WTB tet eteyieseeecsss52ssveccessassesesevsessvetcsenseeeeeesee eee eee 33 120
Water mold, new genus related to Blastocladia, Cokrr and GRANT.... 37 180

1922] INDEX TO VOLUMES 32-37

WHEELER, ALVIN SAWYER
A MNGETITESUL VOCE CRUG ATION. c22cccccnee. caccsncronsaceoascassovstaedenceascsescessecs
OL EMSIUE cescdhcesi ogi choc oc cS ae Seca Ree ae Re CEE En go Soe Pe
WiLson, HENRY VAN PETERS
Asymmetrical regulation in anuran embryos with Spina bifida
Boece webb ds IWARKITAM ).9 -A-DSLTACH..cc<cccccec-s.00ccccc.scesseones00
The genus Raspailia and the independent variability of diag-
NNR ESERIES Ses os So catncn sen eg cap oan pasnanais ssn vessintaasdaaeiccisscseeee-sescsseeees
PUL AMGOM AG RLNE ZOOLOSY OL LOGY. -<-<.ceveaceerstcsc-<esvesseonsiccsceceseosees
In regard to species and sponges. Abstract............ccsceeeseeeeeeees
The nature of the individual in the animal kingdom................
On some generic distinctions im SpPOngeb...................:cesscceccseeeeeees
A remarkable form of skeletal element in the lithistid sponges
Sponges of Beaufort (N.C.) harbor and vicinity (with W. C.
200s. a PT Ee A ee
Wor, FREDERICK ADOLPH .
PUPPEMEPITIOWSE WOLEN, GISCASC ..21..0-ccescsecceoneeocnsestcuaresesonvessseceecsecsassceenes
WOLFE, JAMES JACOB
Alternation and parthogenesis in Pddind.........eccccecccccsscesscecsesecees
Review: ‘‘A primer of household biology,’’ by E. W. GupcEr
rere PCO. E1631 920 8. cc c-cenccsenncoekecovussnanecsesssccussessesseeoceseneese
MIRMIE “PAPEL, ANG AGOTCSSES......-...0<.2..0ccecccesccseosscceeceenesoveeeneee
Zirconium, chemical behavior, VENABLE...............:sscsssssscssscescsscesssceeceecees
Zirconium and its compounds, industrial applications, VENABLE....
MRCPMRITMERITHOSCOTICO | WEN ARG <2. ......c.0ccreccseiedscseatsesecssesecsossacsessessscceseaee
Zoology of today, a glance, WILSON.............0.s:s:+ Reseewoaeeadesicticcsbesdives

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JOURNAL

OF THE

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

VOLUME XXXVIII
1922-1923

Published for the Society
by the
University of North Carolina Press

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CONTENTS

PROCEEDINGS OF THE TWENTY-FIrst ANNUAL MEETING OF THE
NortH CAROLINA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE HELD aT CHAPEL

Pee NAY SANDED, POO cow occ cise asco ccccec cess

PROCEEDINGS OF THE EuisHA MITCHELL ScIENTIFIC SocIETy,

eomeatieet 1921 TOOUNE 2, 1922... oe ccc cece ee ewes
THE SEARCH FOR THE ULTIMATE Atom. J. UL. Lake...........

TWENTY YEARS OF THE NorTH CAROLINA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.

0 EE a

SomME PHASES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRYSEMYS CINEREA.

RPMI TENE es fe ee teas oc anc hs oso es eet

REACTION OF METHANE AND ALSO OF ACETYLENE UPON

ZIRCONIUM TETRACHLORIDE. Ff’. P. Venable and R. O. Deitz...

SomME PHASES OF STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF GARDEN PEA
AND WHITE SWEET CLOVER SEEDS AS RELATED TO HARDNESS.

INNS RTSIE ee ee ee ei ss cc ee eo oe ee

VARIATION OF PROTEIN CoNTENT OF Corn. JH. B. Arbuckle and

OTR UR ne Fe a
GEOLOGY OF THE MuscLE SHoas AREA, ALABAMA. W. F. Prouty...
PMaGEA IM NORTH CAROLINA, W. W. Ashe..............5-.0-

NOTES ON THE REPRODUCTION OF HyYpRA IN THE CHAPEL HILL

Se TRS 5

CHEMISTRY IN Its RELATION TO THE STATE WATER SUPPLIES.

Dea OE Re yk ee cee ee cc cence

THe LACCARIAS AND CLITOCYBES OF NortH Caronina. W. C.

mee Men PIICIO, OESPHTOSICE. 5. Jac ee cccccvcccccccessecce

THE FRUITING STAGE OF THE TUCKAHOE, PacHyMaA Cocos.

Peraemen A, Wolfe. : 6 sc ck ses _. eee

A KEY TO THE FULGORIDa oF EasterN North AMERICA WITH

DescripTions oF New Speciss. Z. P. Metcalf.............

THE GASTEROMYCETES OF NortH Carouina. W. C. Coker and

2 TIO a ee cep rrr

ERRATA

In vol. 35, pl. 49, the words ‘‘right’’ and ‘‘left’’ should be reversed.
In vol. 38, p. 23, line 24, the word ‘‘deposition’’ should be
‘* disposition. ’’

PLATE 1

he
Ly, idly

Lacearia laceata. Hartsville, S. C. (No. 72), fig. 1.

Lacearia amethystea. No. 5178, fig. 2.

Lacearia tortilis. No. 3612, fig. 3.

Clitocybe cyathiformis. No. 4934, figs. 4 and 5.

Clitocybe infundibuliformis. No. 3248, fig. 6; No. 3260, fig. 7.
Clititocybe subnigricans (young plant). No. 3dDN, tiga os

BY RESOLUTION OF

Tue ExvisHAa MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY
AND

Tue NortH CAROLINA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

THIS NUMBER IS DEDICATED

TO THE MEMORY OF

CHARLES BASKERVILLE

BORN 1870

DIED 1922

JOURNAL

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society
Volume XXXVIII SEPTEMBER Nos. 1 and 2

PROCEEDINGS OF THE TWENTY-FIRST ANNUAL MEETING
OF THE NORTH CAROLINA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Hep at CHapen. Hin, N. C., May 5 anp 6, 1922

The Executive Committee met Thursday night at the Faculty
Club of Trinity College with the following members present: J. L.
Lake, president, Bert Cunningham, secretary, F. A. Wolf, R. N. Wil-
son, and H. R. Totten.

The following recommendations were adopted for presentation to
the Academy:

1. That the business meeting of the Academy shall be held on
Friday afternoon at 4:30.

2. That a special committee consisting of the president, the editor
of the ExisHa MircHennt JourNAL and the secretary be appointed to
revise and publish the constitution and membership list and consider
the advisability of adding to this a brief history of the Academy,
getting the whole out in booklet form for distribution to prospective
members.

3. That the fiscal years be changed from January to January to
October to October so that it may coincide with the A. A. A. S. year,
and the Elisha Mitchell year.

4. That the secretary be authorized to discontinue the practice of
placing papers on the program in the order of their arrival, and to
arrange the program as deemed best in his judgment.

5. That a loose-leaf system of records and accounts be adopted.

6. That the old secretary’s book be rebound.

Pe]

2 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocleTY | September

7. That the seeretary be authorized to have reprints of the pro-
ceedings made for distribution to interested parties.

8. That the Acddemy pay to the EnisHa MircHeLu JourNAu the
sum of $125.00 for the Journals to the membership rather than the
$75.00 now paid. The latter price was based upon a membership
of 100. There are now 163 members.

The following were then elected to membership: J. F. Dashiell,
J. F. Daugherty, L. M. Dixon, J. E. Eckert, C. O. Eddy, N. B.
Foster, E. H. Frothingham, F. A. Grant, F. Haasis, M. L. Hamlin,
C. H. Higgins, A. L. Hook, C. F. Korstian, W. E: Jordanjsnac-
Linderman, Mary Lyon, I. H. Manning, A. C. Martin, Bessie Noyes,
K. B. Patterson, W. L. Porter, R. 8. Pritchard, Mrs. J. C. Root, P. O.
Schallert, F. W. Sherwood, H. G. Smith, 8. C. Smith, J. H. Taylor,
M. F. Trice, G. W. Vaughn, F. C. Vilbrandt, Ruth Walker, N. F.
Wilkerson, C. F. Williams, W. T. Wright, L. E. Yocum.

The following were reported as resigning: J. S. Downing, H.
Spencer, M. R. Smith, C. B. Williams. All resignations due to re-
moval from the state.

The secretary-treasurer then made a financial report which is
printed elsewhere.

The secretary reported the adoption of a policy of notifying mem-
bers when their titles for papers were received.

The committee extended the time for Dr. A. Henderson’s paper
on Einstein to 45 minutes, and then adjourned to meet Friday at
2:30. There was no new business presented at the Friday meeting
of the committee. }

The Academy was called to order Friday morning by President
Lake and the presentation of papers was begun. After the appoint-
ment of the following committees the Academy adjourned at 1:20
for lunch:

Nominating—C. 8. Brimley, H. V. Wilson, C. W. Edwards.

Auditing—W. C. Coker, R. N. Wilson, J. P. Givler.

Resolutions—W. A. Withers, H. N. Gould, Miss Mary Seymour.

After lunch many visited the flower show at Davie Hall which
served as a demonstration for Mr. Totten’s paper, as shown on the
program. At 3:00 o’clock the Academy re-convened and the read-
ing of papers was continued until 5:45 when the Academy adjourned
until 8:00 p. m.

1922] PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 3

The evening meeting was called to order by the secretary who
introduced President Chase of the University who welcomed the
Academy and spoke a few well-chosen words as to the relation of
science to daily life. President Lake of the Academy responded and
then delivered the Presidential Address on ‘‘The Search for the
Ultimate Atom.’’ This was a timely review of the various discoveries
which have led to our modern ideas of matter. The Academy then
ealled for the paper by Mr. C. 8. Brimley—‘‘Twenty Years of the
North Carolina Academy of Science.’’ This paper was highly ap-
preciated as it was given by one who has been with the organization
since its birth. An informal ‘‘get-to-gether’’ was enjoyed after ad-
journment.

At nine o’clock Saturday morning the Academy opened with a
business meeting. Reports of Committees were first called for.

The Committee on Natural Resource Conservation reported, and
the Committee was continued.

The Representative of the Academy on the Council of the Ameri-

ean Association made a report.

The Auditing Committee reported the books of the Treasurer as
satisfactory.

The Publicity Committee reported some progress, but was some-
what uncertain as to what was expected of it. After further in-
struction the committee was continued.

The Committee on High School Science reported, and the com-
mittee on the order of the Academy was reorganized as follows:
Chairman—Bert Cunningham; J. N. Couch, R. N. Wilson, and A. F.
Roller.

The Legislative Finance reported no progress.

The Executive Committee reported and all the recommendations
shown above were adopted.

The Treasurer gave a summarized report as follows:

RECEIPTS
pawerreccoumn former Treasnrer........- 22+. 202s. .se ees eaeen $196.98
Mires; J. . SOUS SS 5 MOINS Get crS Slo GIGS BIB ea 438.79

$635.77

+ JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocIETY | September

EXPENDITURES
Current, EExpensest hse er ce 6 crc os oon ws hee $141.85
ALS AS TA‘. (OE (Sic ener eee. ib wires eons: 6 3 none a ee 158.00
$299.85
Balance) Savaniey Account. yer ctete ec: c1s awl sisi e's cversveleneieee tee) eee ten ene 200.00
Balance iCheckeAccountha mrs 26.4... hc ws vss ee eee 135.92
$635.77

The Academy ordered the Secretary to send the following telegram
to Dr. E. W. Gudger—‘‘N. C. A. 8. in session at the University sends
you hearty greetings and is glad to report that the treasurer’s bal-
ance is now $370.00.’’

The Resolutions Committee reported as follows:

The Committee on Resolutions very respectfully recommends the
adoption of the following :

1. That the Academy place upon record its appreciation of the
services of its officers who have arranged such an attractive program
and secured such a large attendance.

2. That the thanks of the Academy are due to our gracious hosts
who have so charmingly entertained its members during the pres-
ent meeting.

3. That the Academy dedicate the volume of the Journal of the
Elisha Mitchell Society containing the report of the Proceedings of
this meeting to the memory of the late Dr. Charles Baskerville, one’
of its earlier members, one of its very active workers, and at one
time its President.

W. A. WITHERS,
Mary SEYMOUR,
H. N. Gounp.

The Nominating Committee presented the following for office and
they were elected by the Academy:

President—Dr. A. Henderson, University of North Carolina.

Vice-President—Dr. H. B. Arbuckle, Davidson College.

Secretary-Treasurer—Dr. Bert Cunningham, Trinity College.

Executive Committee—Dr. H. N. Gould, Wake Forest, Professor
J. P. Givler, N. C. College for Women, Dr. B. W. Wells, State College.

The time for the Annual Meeting was discussed, and was finally
left in the hands of the Executive Committee as in the past.

1922] PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 5

The invitation to hold the next meeting in Greensboro at the N. C.
College for Women was announced and accepted.

At 11:00 papers were presented to the joint meeting, and at 11:30
the Chemists and Physicists adjourned to other quarters to hold
their separate meetings. Their papers are shown on the following
programs. The last paper was read just before lunch time and the
Academy adjourned.

Following is the present membership of the Academy. Those
marked with an asterisk were present at the meeting.

oli evngg Wo difgs Gri all Di rea Tee i ior cie Iie oo eae Raleigh
*Arbuckle, H. B., Professor of Chemistry, Davidson College............ Davidson
ec iniversizy of North Carolina. .......-.-.....5..0..05- Chapel Hill
nee tae SINDUTY BOAG. . 6.0 cats acess eee ee eee ee Winston-Salem
eect res Pucresia, Meredith Colleve....... 2.2.5.5. ec eee ees Raleigh
Balderston Mark Guilford, College. 2... 22.5 .c. eee e ee eee es Guilford College
Lat ve Usig SOS SAIS ADs SA Se os ee Roanoke Rapids
enteurEPe mE eet WAI AVG. 2 025 os oe cals fst ews sec eee ee ee ees Charlotte
Barrow, Miss Elva E., Chemistry Dept., N. C. College for Women....Greensboro
*Bell, J. M., Dept. of Chemistry, University of North Carolina....... Chapel Hill
Binford, Raymond, President Guilford College................ Guilford College
Bonneyeevaiss Bo C-. 1400 Mourteenth Ave... s56.0 2. ec cece ee eee Hickory
OnE ty Stary S SCHOOL. 5.2555. 2550 05cs ee cece ee cece Raleigh
*Blomquist, H. L., Dept. of Biology, Trinity College................... Durham
*Brimley, C. S., Division of Entomology, N. C. Dept. of Agriculture...... Raleigh
Briley ri ee uration state Museum. ....5..5..5....2.. eee e eee eaee Raleigh
Browne, Wm. Hande, Dept. of Electrical Engineering, State College..... Raleigh
Bruner, 8. C., Estacion Agronomica.............. Santiago de las Vegas, Cuba
*Bullitt, J. B., Professor of Pathology, Univ. of North Carolina....: Chapel Hill
Bare. Wenaay Wnniie CHG e As -aoae ASG id oe Durham
Cain, William, Kenan Prof. Emeritus of Math., Univ. of N. C....... Chapel Hill
Campbell, Miss Eva G., Dept. Biology, N. C. College for Women..... Greensboro
Glappy sc. supermtendent State Test Parm....................: Swannanoa
Zeopbcolucr, erotessor of Geology, Univ. of N: C................. Chapel Hill
Cobb, William B., Louisiana State University................ Baton Rouge, La.
*Coker, W. C., Kenan Professor of Botany, Univ. of N. C............ Chapel Hill
eee LEA Se Acc WG Sa White Hall, S. C.
*Couch, J. N., Dept. of Botany, University of North Carolina........ Chapel Hill
*Cunningham, Bert, Professor of Biology, Trinity College.............. Durham
Dashiell, J. F., Prof. of Psychology, Univ. of North Carolina....... Chapel Hill
Daugherty, J. F., Dept. Physics, Univ. of North Carolina.......... Chapel Hill
Davis, Harry T., Assistant Curator State Museum.................... Raleigh
Warne Meow Wass Weather BUreal. 2.5.22 522-220. c cece ee wesw Raleigh
“lLETerag d/o Tks Sie ie Clore ees Sigo 6 tad cio eae Raleigh

8 i tak SS OGY er '... Raleigh

6 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

*Hickort, we Hi, Dept. Zoolosy Staten College. ..7..... . . 5s cbactan bathe sistent Raleigh
*Bddy, C. O., Dept. Zoology, StaterCollere. < .-....2s.. «<csas a es ore ele einen Raleigh
“Edwards, ©: W., (Protessomon Physics, Trinity Colleses ss.) -e-n neers Durham
Harmer, Co Me Uae @ranto er streetain cn «1... 2 c-,0%. «0, norm spe eretoniene ramen Troy, Ala.
*Farrington, R. K., Med. Student, Univ. of North Carolina.......... Chapel Hill
“Poster, IN: By Dept. tofebhysiess spate College: ....\..flasayarrseetl tenets Raleigh
pl Dieoyrlabbavedenoy Dp, als US ise SilhyatouillbhottaeingGmom ol Soddood 5 665.bG0K0C Asheville
*George, W. C., Asso. Prof. Histology and Embryology, Univ. N. C...Chapel Hill
*Givler, J. P., Professor of Biology, N. C. College for Women........ Greensboro -
*Gould, H. N., Dept. of Biolosy, Wake Forest College............. Wake Forest
*Grant, F. A., Asst. in Botany, University of North Carolina........ Chapel Hill
“Gross, P. M.) Deptot Chemistry, Trinity Colleges. 55-1456 eerie Durham
Groves Miss PattierJm, S025 Watts Street... . 1... <0 ccrvteltrsteiienn teens Durham
Gudger, E. W., American Museum of Natural History.......... New York City
“Halverson; ). ©-; Dept-sor Aoriculture ......)5.. «chalcone ieee eee Raleigh
Haber, V. R., Division of Entomology, N. C. Dept. of Agriculture....... Raleigh
Hatley, C, C.) ColimbiasUmiversity. .<...- 1 .e ae eee eae New York City
“eek, C. Ms Depts of Physics, State College. -scyier -ruetlsieie terete neste Raleigh
*Henderson, Archibald, Prof. of Mathematics, Univ. of N. C......... Chapel Hill
*Hickerson, I. H. Prot. Civil Hnoineering, Univ. of NSCs eer Chapel Hill
Hobbs, A. W., Asso. Prof. Mathematics, Univ. of N. C............05 Chapel Hill
El offmianeiS.: Wij esccyette bens in 6 ene, o00 6 2.300 + -oye cel See ie One ae Statesville
*Holland, Miss Alma, Dept. of Botany, Univ. of N. C.....:..2...255 Chapel Hill
*Holmes, J... 'S.,; State Monrester. ...... 4 «+ 2)s Ys «ge Seen tei eee Chapel Hill
Haasis, E':, Porest Wxaminer’. .. ....... 4°. <i .neycciede leet eee ene Asheville
*Hamilin, M. du. dndust; Chemist, Trinity. Collese:sce 1. sete eer Durham
*Higgins, C. H.,.Dept. of Science, Salem College... 7.). 5. - scmuaker Winston-Salem
Hook, A. L., Dept:of Physics, Elon College...:2:... <i. seein Elon College
Ives, J. D:; Stetson: Umiyersify. ... 2 5.t wa beiceek eben ene eee Deland, Fla.
Ivey, Ji. Hs. State iColleme ek x... 0... 0 [atl scars soy tjeremehebenenel eke een Rene Te enna Raleigh
*Jordan; W. BH. State Colleges .... 5.0/0.4... 2 aera ee eee eee eee ’... Raleigh
*Jones, HE. P:, Indust. Chemist, Trinity Colleme. ors eee Durham
Kilgore, B. W., Director of Experiment Station..>.. 0.2.5. ssss1eeneere Raleigh
Korstian, \C:, '., Horest Hxaminer,. .....) < sc .ictierskehe tenner eee Asheville
Krats2;Hi, Buz ies histlensete ote ore 0's ere sees le Susie eS oS CI RE aetna Raleigh
*Lake, J. L., Professor of Physics, Wake Forest College............ Wake Forest
*Tasley, J. W., Jz-, Asso. Prof. Math., Uniy. of IN. Cisiseeen ace Chapel Hill
Tiehman,.S: G.,, State Collemes... . 5 6 6... 5 ie Shs dates eee ee eee ene Raleigh
Leiby, R. W., Division of Entomology, N. C. Dept. of Agriculture...... Raleigh
luewis, R. W., Citizens) Bank Building’. «... <2). «ccc slotted een eee Raleigh
Lugn, A. L., Dept. of Chemistry and Physics, Lenoir College.......... Hickory
Linderman, E. C., Dept. of Sociology, Greensboro College........... Greensboro
Lyon, Mary, Dept. of Biology, Greensboro College................. Greensboro
*Mabee, W. Bruce, Division of Entomology, N. C. Dept. Agriculture..... Raleigh
*MacNider, W. DeB., Kenan Prof. of Pharmacology, Univ. of N. C....Chapel Hill
Marion, 8. J., Dept. of Chemistry, State College... .\..cur)-imile eee Raleigh

Markham, Blackwella sie seiece aie slew oi + cove jars (6 els bi vino lovaltooelele RRC ene eee anne Durham

1922| PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 7
Mendenhall, Miss Gertrude, 1023 Spring Garden Street............ Greensboro
*Metealf, Z. P., Prof. of Zoology and Entomology, State College........ Raleigh
*Mitchell, T. B., Division of Entomology, N. C. Dept. Agriculture........ Raleigh
Swann. T H., Dean Med: School, Univ. of N. C................6.. Chapel Hill
earn A. ©. Dept. of Botany, State College. ..5.........0..0..0005 Raleigh
Season, io. M. Chemist, Dept. of Agriculture.-................0..0800. Raleigh
Pw demwo Wiske Mores, College... 2 con. fee eee ee ee as Wake Forest
*Noyes, Bessie, Dept. H. Biology, N. C. College for Women.......... Greensboro
*Patterson, A. H., Prof. of Physics, Univ. of North Carolina........ Chapel Hill
*Paull, N. M., Assistant Prof. of Drawing, Univ. of N. C............ Chapel Hill
Peeram, W. H., Dept. of Chemistry, Trinity College.................. Durham
Pawan Mary, N.C. Collese for Women..<-:..2...........5... Greensboro
*Phillips, Charles, Dept. of Pathology, Wake Forest College........ Wake Forest
Pew ers tane COllese Station 2. cess cae see ees Raleigh
Piemmer. 5. K, 499 Courtland Sireet.......:....2..............4 Atlanta, Ga.
Poteat, W. L., President Wake Forest College.................... Wake Forest
*Powell, T. E., Jr., Professor of Biology, Elon College.............. Elon College
Pratt, J. H., State Geologist, Univ. of North Carolina.............. Chapel Hill
*Prouty, W. F., Prof. of Stratigraphic Geology, Univ. of N. C........ Chapel Hill
*Patterson, K. B., Assistant Prof. of Math., Trinity College............ Durham
eParter, W. li. Prot. of Biology, Davidson College.................5. Davidson
*Pritchard, R. S., Chemistry Dept., Wake Forest College........... Wake Forest
*Randolph, E. H., Chemistry Dept., State College..................000- Raleigh
Rammoinbo BOs...) 52 Fiopie oto nich coed teen College Station, Texas
em MNNRIIEENIIEES COE Core ess So Sis a ncaa la a ales pis seinieieid ie oe eee College Station, Texas
Pimms otiataeOard ot Health: -.).2 <5. s2 se eee ees Raleigh
*Rhodes, L. B., Division of Chemistry, N. C. Dept. Agriculture.......... Raleigh
TU TLE. Ws) INAS a oe 6 one See Clo eee Sic ee Wadesboro
oTPaillem., ual, IDL. TEI SONGS 2S ote cans ob ado On eo eee ieee Raleigh
lining If, 1Sks (Sie) (COAG ORE ee esa 5 Se nan ane ae ieee Raleigh
rena SETI CHOON. igeb scicle wsisrsists wir ants oe oe ee eee eee Raleigh
Serpremgily Gy lake deanna Ont G Oe elas os See eee Durham
*Saville, Thorndike, Asso. Prof. Engineering, Univ. N. C............. Chapel Hill
“Seymour, Miss Mary F., N. C. College for Women................. Greensboro
Shaffer, Miss Blanche E., N. C. College for Women................. Greensboro
Sherrill, Miss Mary L., Mt. Holyoke College.................:S. Hadley, Mass.
Seereemee aa Minigned, Hoh SeHOOl. 6. a ee ee ee ee Henderson
Slop, ll Di Siitey (Olle ee aes Eee eee i enero Raleigh
Sherman, Franklin, Entomologist, N. C. Dept. Agriculture............. Raleigh
ee a pale tioratory Of PH yo1ene.. 0.2.22... ee eee eee Raleigh
Senta IeeVe AOA West Morgan Obreeb. ..-.. 2-2... 1s ee ee ett eens Raleigh
Sin, Ue 1k I ey Sie hoe Coll eee Oe Se oe eee anna Ames, Iowa
fem e., Dept. of Chemistry, Univ. of N. C.................26. Chapel Hill
*Speas, William E., Dept. of Physics, Wake Forest College.......... Wake Forest
amber mY ELyOTGnIC WaDOLAbOTY).< s<cecs a eos cee es ee ee Washington, D. C.
eeu Oto, Jt., Dept. Physics, Univ. of N. C...............06. Chapel Hill

*Sullivan, R. W., Chemical Dept., Wake Forest College............. Wake Forest

8 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [September

ASchallert.y P.): Ocak, cS recep erm etter ters aya ates i=») 6 levee sete tae Winston-Salem
“Sherwood, EF. W., Chemist, Dept. of Agriculture. - ... ee. 0-2 eee Raleigh
*Smnthy JEL. Ge, StatecCoulemert revere. a% «.c.0 + « oxks cs cero mneyatene tee amerentet eaten Raleigh
*Taylor, J: H., Grad astudent,irimity College)... . ci. clit eerie Durham
Taylor, C:-G3,-Statey Colle a apr ars secre «+s cas s.dasw eiopeilcrecout Sekeyenetens Wenner eee Raleigh
*Taylor, Haywood, M., Dept. of Chemistry, Univ. of N. C........... Chapel Hill
“Taylor, Wi: E., Wakesiorest) Collece..:....2 2.25. 5 scee ls eee Wake Forest
Thies, O. J., Jr., Dept. of Chemistry, Davidson College............... Davidson
“Totten, HR: Deptoteesotany,, Wmiv. of IN. “C27 je.. aers sr eer Chapel Hill
*Trice}, Mi. a... Staber@olkeroe ae. che tise + «cose o <-chenetemeieneds Secale eee kee enene Raleigh
*Vann, H. M., Dept. of Anatomy, Wake Forest College............. Wake Forest
“Venable; i. P., Kenan Prot, Chemistry, Univ. of Na Gio... ee Chapel Hill
“Wells, B: W., Dept of Botany, State. College. ... a2. 2. seni ei enna Raleigh
*Wiells: Mrs: Bi Wis Stabea@olleme: Station\. .. . 2. acer reer \.vie ager eneten Raleigh
*Vaughn, G. W., Asst. Prof. Engineering, Trinity College.............. Durham
*Vailbrandt, H.C. Protasimdust. Chemistry, Wiiva ote Cerri Chapel Hill
*Walker, Ruth, Dept. Biology, N. C. College for Women............. Greensboro
“Wiheeler; A-7S:) Deptaom@hemistry, Univ. Of Ne Cay eerie n eens Chapel Hill
Wilkerson, N. F., Grad. Asst. Biology, Trinity College................ Durham
“Willrams, ©. E Deptebortieulture, State Collecest ser emer eitttieaiee Raleigh
“Wright, Wi. 02) Dept Physics; IN. ©: College forWontens eee Greensboro
Walliams: (CB StaterCollese Station: | .-\- 5 cree seein eee ieee eae Raleigh
Williams, Jj. El.y HqOHESChOO). 5. 52s «Feces ss crete tele ciate tensions ieite iene ane Raleigh
*Williams, I. BoaStateCollleme:. « . ... Jac ..0's oc si eke nee ee eee Raleigh
Wilson, Donald BStateCollege....25%..-5 50 aan = eee Raleigh
*Wilson, Elenry Vi, Depts of Zoology, Univ. of IN-1Ci.7eneec eee Chapel Hill
*Wilson, R. B., Dept. of Biology, Wake Forest College.............. Wake Forest
*Walson, R. N.; Dept. of (Chemistry, Trinity. Collerete. a. eee Durham
*“Wanston, lula’ G:;-Meredath College....<.... «. <1 eiie eaeneneh et aeee Raleigh
Winters; R..¥., State: College... ...... . Hi. «« sieelemueeabee nor ene tei baer nee meee Raleigh
*Withers, W. A., Dept. of Chemistry, State College.................... Raleigh
“Wolf, H. A., PlantePathology, State College. 2 ee. caeeieaereeieitiete Raleigh
Wright, Miss Eva K., Dept. of Chemistry, N. C. College for Women. .Greensboro
*Yocum, L. E., Dept. of Biology, N. C. College for Women........... Greensboro

The following papers were presented:

The Search for the Ultimate Atom. J. lL. Lake. (Presidential Ad-
dress.) Historical review of the discoveries leading up to the
modern ideas of matter. Appears in full in this issue.

Twenty Years of the North Carolina Academy of Science. C. S.
Brimley. Appears in full in this issue.

Coérdinate Systems in Mathematics. J. W. LasuEy, JR.
Descartes in the seventeenth century furnished mathematicians

1922] PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 9

with the means of attacking geometric situations by means of analysis.
It is now one of the problems of the mathematician to adapt to a
problem that particular system of coordinates best suited to it. In
trying to do this many kinds of codrdinate systems have arisen. One
of these, namely homogeneous coordinates, besides possessing marked
power in itself, includes many of the more frequently used systems
as particular cases. A detailed and connected account of this system
is a need keenly felt by students of mathematics. This paper points
out this need, and suggests lines along which this account may be
developed.

A Note on the Pulmonary Circulation in Vertebrates. W.C. Grorae.

Some anomalies in the pulmonary veins of man were described.
Attention was called to the correspondence between the atypical con-
dition in these anomalies and the typical relations of the vascular
drainage of the air-bladders of some fishes.

Notes on Protozoa. Bert CUNNINGHAM.

The report consisted of two parts. The first was a systematic
study of the forms occurring near Durham. The following classes
and orders were observed:

er a ES Re 29
0 SLE USE Dd SO ee ee 5
wSlUn Ph ot oid ge ee ee 2 ee 24

SED ES) os 8b Ee A ee ee SG 2
aE MEMEIEEMMURSECBENOT sa 50)2 aiclcie Ss seen ie vine cc cece see ees cancss 2

EDS SLES LS SUS see 18
ED DL tile 2 1
oF Sn 6 2
(STE SIS 1 AMER Seo Aa ae if!
BLEEP Ao. Dee es Soe =

EE oe Se SE = 44
2 GL 3 SG be ages 5 a Se 19
te URL CLG. S26. 2 /oo5 6 Sk or 12
a SDE pe oS 0 8
VOEDDUESLGO5) 220 (SS Se 2 te es 5

0 SSS ESTEE Oh ee 3
0 spb en oe 1
LD ES DEL Sas ae eee ee 2

96 96

10 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

No attempt was made to study the Sporozoa.

The second part was the presentation of a number of
rare forms which had not yet been identified by the
writer. Among these rare forms was a species of Jin-
tinnus observed in the Plankton Collections* of Chesa-
peake Bay (fig. 1). It bears the characters of the genus,
with the following specific characters:

Length 0.275 mm. Diameter 0.05 mm.

Cylindrical with corrugated constriction near the in-
terior end; nucleus single.

It was observed but once in some four hundred eol-
lections averaging about 2,000 individuals per eollec-
tion. Found in a bottom collection (23.79 meters) taken
just off Cape Henry, July 9, 1920.

SS
Fig. I
New Dyes Derived from 5-Chloro-2-amino-p-cymene. A. S. WHEELER
and I. V. GiLEs.

A new series of dyes was obtained by coupling the diazo salt of
5-chloro-2-amino-p-cymene with the following compounds: 1, Beta-
naphthol (dyes wool searlet) ; 2, Alpha-naphthol- (dyes wool claret
brown); 3, Phenol (dyes wool capucine yellow); 4, Salicylic acid
(dyes wool Mars orange) ; 5, Resoreinol (dyes wool Brazil red); 6,
Alpha-naphthol-2-sulfonic acid (dyes wool burnt Sienna); 7, Beta-
naphthol-7-sulfonie acid (dyes wool searlet); 8, Alpha-naphthol-4-
sulfonie acid (dyes wool scarlet). Silk dyeings show different shades
from those indicated for wool.

A ‘‘Nature-Experiment’’ on the Development of Frogs and One on
the Physiology of Sponges. H. V. Winson.

In an artificially inseminated batch of eggs of Hyla pickeringu,
a large number exhibited an abnormality which may with justice be
reasoned from as if it were the result of a planned experiment. In
these embryos the tail begins to grow out as a pair of buds at a
time when the exposed yolk area is so large that in side view it forms
one-third to one-fourth the total cireumference. Except in the mid-
dorsal region where the archenteron has an actual aperture there is

* Collections taken by the U. S. Fisheries for a Biological and Hydrographical Survey
which is as yet incomplete.

1922| PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Hf

only a virtual blastopore lip, that is, laterally and ventrally the
ectoderm and yolk cells are not set off from one another by a groove.
This virtual blastopore lip which on the concrescence hypothesis con-
tains the material destined to form the axial organs of the embryo,
gradually closes along the ventral surface of the tail and at the
posterior end of the body. This fact forms additional evidence for
the view that conerescence, although it may occur in teratological
embryos, is not a constant or basic process in the embryogeny of a
vertebrate body.

The recorded observations on the Phloeodictyine sponges leave
in doubt the question whether the tubes (fistulae) which project
from the body carry the currents of water outwards, inwards, or
perhaps in both directions. A specimen of Phloeodictyon putridosum
taken by U. S. Bureau of Fisheries Steamer Albatross, in the Philip-
pines, seems to answer this question, which no one has yet had the
opportunity of studying on the living sponge. The specimen referred
to is spheroidal, 115 mm. in diameter, and bears about forty fistulae
on its upper and lateral surfaces. Just beneath the natural sur-
face of the body a caleareous alga, one of the Corallinaceae, of branch-
ing, filamentous habit, has formed a practically solid calcareous layer
5 mm. thick. This layer, interrupted only by the fistulae, extends
all over the sponge body. The interior of the sponge is thus left
in connection with the surrounding water only through the fistulae,
which, it is therefore obvious, must conduct currents both inwards
and outwards.

The Stems of Grape Hybrids. C. F. Wiutams.

A study of transverse and longitudinal sections of mature one-
year wood of Vitis vinifera, V. rotundifolia and their F, hybrids
shows the pattern of the phloem tissue and the character of the
cork cambium to be specific. In V. vinifera the pattern is square in
outline with alternate tangential layers of hard and soft bast, promi-
nent cork cambium and a large sclerenchyma bundle externally. The
rays extend intervascularly without expansion, the open ends acting
as lenticels. In V. rotundifolia the pattern is triangular, the hard
bast outlining the soft radially, with a small sclerenchyma bundle
inside the cork cambium. The rays expand in the vascular region
by tangential division. Typical lenticels are present and the cork
cambium inconspicuous. The F, hybrids of this cross show inter-

12 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL SOCIETY | September

mediate characters of great variation, especially in regard to cork
cambium, demonstrating that anatomical characters are inherited as
well as the ones of color, size, weight, ete., usually studied.

Wild Ferns and Flowers of Chapel Hill. H. R. Torresen.

The Department of Botany, with the assistance of the classes in
Botany 1 and 2, brought in wild plants found in flower during the
first week in May. These were put on display for two days, so that
the botany students and others interested in our native plants could
familiarize themselves with them. One hundred and seventy-one
plants were displayed in flower. This number ineludes thirty-four
naturalized weeds and fourteen escapes. The Virginia Spiderwort
(Tradescantia virginiana) and the White Bladder Campion (Silene
alba) have not been previously reported from Chapel Hill. Not
included in the number given above were several plants not in com-
plete flower, also twelve ferns and one of the fern allies.

The Calcium Content of Mixed Feeds in Relation to the Feeding
Requirement of Animals. J. O. HAtverson and L. M. Nrxon.

Dr. Forbes and associates of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment
Station showed that in heavy milking cows there is an actual short-
age or loss of calcium from the body. Perhaps a higher calcium con-
tent of mixed feeds for animals under domestication is necessary.
Concentrated dairy feeds require a somewhat higher, more carefully
regulated calcium content. The addition to mixed feeds relatively
low in ealeium of such high calcium-containing substanees as alfalfa
leaf meal, meat, and ground bone to poultry and hog feeds, and beet
pulp, alfalfa meal, or calcium carbonate to dairy feeds, is a com-
mendable and beneficial practice. Actual intensive feeding practice
strengthens this belief. Recent work on the importance of the mineral
elements in nutrition has shown that they are fundamentally neces-
sary in the growth of farm animals as well as in the animals of the
laboratory; that they are as necessary in the ration as is a protein
of both adequate quality and quantity.

Studies on Fermentation of Rare Sugars by Plant Pathogemec Bac-
teria. F. A. Wor.
Organisms from the same host may be indistinguishable on the
basis of their ability to ferment the carbohydrates of the Descriptive
Chart. The fermentation of rare sugars has, therefore, been used as

1922] PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 13

a means of identification of these closely related organisms. In the
ease of two leafspot diseases of tobacco commonly designated as wild-
fire and angular leafspot caused by Bacterium tabaccum and B.
angulatum respectively, both are able to form acid from dextrose and
saccharose but not from glycerine and lactose, but the farmer at-
tacks in addition mannitol and galactose whereas the latter is with-
out action on them. A similar specialization obtains in the case of
two leafspot organisms, Bacterium glycineum and B. sojae from soy-
bean. This study emphasizes the necessity of employing in phyto-
pathological studies the rare sugars for diagnostic purposes.

Pod and Stem Blight of the Soybean. S. G. LEHMAN. (Read by

FP. A. WoLF).

This disease is capable of causing serious damage to the soybean,
particularly in wet seasons. It attacks pods, stems, and less fre-
quently, leaves, but greatest apparent loss results from attacks on
pods. Very young pods drop off when attacked, but older ones
remain firmly attached. The causal fungus penetrates the pod wall
and invades the developing seed. The cvule may abort at an early
stage, or, if attacked later in its development, the seed becomes
shriveled to various degrees depending on the time and severity of
infection. Seeds in diseased pods are often completely invested with
a conspicuous white fungus covering. Diseased areas on stems, pods,
and leaves become specked with minute black fruiting bodies, pyenidia,
which begin exuding small, hyaline, single celled spores within a
few days after their appearance.

The causal fungus is placed in the form genus Phomopsis, and
in reference to its host, it is assigned the binomial ‘‘ Phomopsis sojae.’’
It has been isolated from stems, pods, and seed, and has been ob-
served to cause the death of seedling soybean plants by growing from
the seed coat onto the hypocotyl and causing its decay. It over-
winters in diseased stems and seed. The practice of such sanitary
measures as plowing under diseased plants after harvest, use of
disease-free seed, and crop rotation are recommended as control
measures.

Variation of Protein Content of Corn. H. B. ArpucKuE and O. J.
THIES.

Appears in full in this issue.

14 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL SocieTy | September

Some Phases of Structure and Development of.Garden Pea and White
Sweet Clover Seeds as Related to Hardness. L. EB. Yocum.

Appears in full in this issue.

Notes on the Reproduction of Hydra in the Chapel Hill Region. H.S.
EVERETT.

Appears in full in this issue.

Dormancy in Seeds of Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana). H. lL.

BLOMQUIST.

A preliminary report on an investigation in germinating seeds of
persimmon, showing that there is a marked period of dormancy under
both natural and artificial germinating conditions. The length of
this period has not been definitely determined but seems to extend
over two to several years, depending upon the physical, chemical,
and biological conditions of the soil and upon the location of the
seed and the variation in its structure. The main cause of the delay
in germination has been found to be due to a layer of the seed
covering which caps the radicle and exerts a certain amount of
resistance to the expansion of the embryo and a decrease in water
absorption. By removing this cap one hundred per cent germina-
tion was secured with seeds collected in the autumn from mature
fruit.

Some Investigations into the Bacteriology of Common Colds and an
Autogenous Vaccine Therapy for Six Months at Wake Forest Col-
lege. W. UL. Taytor and CHARLES PHILLIPS.

In the fall of 1921 bacteriological cultures were made from the
noses or throats of 25 persons having fresh colds. Growth was
made in dextrose blood broth and on dextrose blood agar plates, re-
action Ph 7.2, the broth tubes incubated anaerobically and the plate
aerobically. Incidental saprophytic bacteria were largely ruled out
by this method. The organisms identified and obtained in pure cul-
ture were: Staphylococcus albus and aureus, B. Mucosus capsulatus
(Friedlander), Streptococcus hemolyticus and viridans type, Micro-
coccus tetragenus and catarrhalis, Pneumococcus types 2 and 4, B
influenza, and two strains of Diphtheroids. Several strains of most
of these were obtained. A polyvalent vaccine of these was made and
standardized to contain 1000 million per ec. This was given by the
usual technique hypodermically every 4-5 days in these doses, .25ec¢,

1922] PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 15

.50ee, .75ee, lee repeated twice, six doses for the whole treatment.
Of 35 people reporting for doses, only 20 reported with regularity
allowing tabulation, which was carefully done in detail to check
claims against actual results. A column of figures in percentages
shows actual findings. The summary gives several interesting points
of diseussion. Here is a group of common colds, 25 in number, occur-
ring in an average college community, and from which were isolated
10 different organisms of varying pathogenicity. A polyvalent auto-
genous vaccine made up from these was found to be relatively non-
toxie in the dosage used in spite of the nature of some of them. In
treating these cases there was found to be no constant relationship
between the number of doses taken and freedom from colds during
the trial period of October to April, 2% getting absolute protection,
while 70% had one or more colds after the last dose, all living under
comparable conditions. This is true also for those cultured or not
cultured, suggesting little if any specificity for the vaccine. Over
half of those treated claim some benefit from its use, in reduced
severity of colds contracted and number expected, judging from
previous experience during these months. Not enough people took
the full six doses, making this group too small to draw conclusions
from. The attitude of the members of this group towards this vac-
eine trial is partially shown by 65% of them stating their prob-
able willingness to try something similar next winter.

Some Intestinal Cestode and Nematode Parasites of Cats of Wake
Forest, N. C. R. B. Witson. (Body of the paper accepted as a
thesis for the M. A. degree, 1922.)

The writer made at Wake Forest College an examination of the
intestines of 25 cats for Cestode and Nematode parasites. The report
gives an account of the material used and the method of study fol-
lowed. The result of the study ean best be given in the form of a
table showing the relative number of each kind of parasite, as fol-
lows:

Number of Cats Taenia cras- Dipylidium Ascaris mystax Anchylostomum Unidentified Nematode
; sicollis caninum trigonocephalum of Large Int.
PAS 60 150 106 13 Many

The unidentified nematode of the large intestine was very small,
measuring 320 to 432 microns in length by 10 to 19 microns in
thickness. These worms had the general appearance of larvae, but

16 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

no intermediate developmental stages were found, and no adult
worm was found in the alimentary canal from which it could come.
The investigation of this organism is continuing.

The Age of the Ocoee and Associated Rocks of Clay County, Alabama.

W. FE. Proory.

The geological age of many of the rocks occurring in the semi-
erystalline area in the southern Appalachians has long been in doubt.
Dr. Safford of Tennessee, in 1856, assigned the Ocoee to the Pots-
dam Group (Cambrian). Arthur Keith of the U. S. Geological Sur-
vey, working in portions of Tennessee and North Carolina in more
recent times, demonstrated the conformity of the Ocoee with the
fossiiferous Cambrian. In 1903 Dr. Eugene A. Smith of the Alabama
Geological Survey discovered Carboniferous fossils in a small area
of the Talladega Phyllites (the unquestioned equivalent of at least
a part of the Ocoee of Tennessee).

It fell to the lot of the author to work out the relationship of
this small fossiliferous area to the associated rocks. This work was
earried on in the geological mapping of Clay County, Alabama.

The area in which the Carboniferous fossils occur is considerably
faulted, but the fault block in which these fossils oceur is connected
with and proves to be conformable to a series of dark slates and con-
glomerates underlying it with a thickness of several thousand feet.
From a careful study of the sequence of sediments in this area with
those in the Coosa and Cahaba Coal Fields, a little to the west, one
is brought inevitably to the conclusion that the conglomerate of Tal-
ladega Mountain just to the west of and geologically older than the
fossil beds is the Millstone Grit of the Pennsylvanian, and that the
underlying formations for some distance to the west, in the area of
the Ocoee (Talladega), are of Mississippian age.

The Hillabee Schist, a metamorphic basic igneous rock, both euts
across the strike of the Carboniferous Ocoee and intrudes it, thus
demonstrating its Post Carboniferous age. <A little farther to the
east in Clay County areas of altered Talladega (Ocoee) of prob-
able Carboniferous age are intruded by the Pinkneyville granite,
thus suggesting if not proving their Post Carboniferous age.

It is thus evident that the Ocoee is a group and that it ineludes
rocks varying in age from Cambrian to Pennsylvanian. It is also
evident that some of the larger areas of green schist in contact with

1922] PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 1G,

these Ocoee slates are Post Carboniferous, and that some of the
larger granitic masses to the east of the Ocoee proper are probably
also of Post Carboniferous age.

The Variation of the Photoelectric Current With Thickness of Metal.

OTTo STUHLMAN, JR.

Silver and platinum deposited in the form of transparent and semi-
transparent wedges were examined for variation of the photoelectric
eurrent as thickness of the metal was increased. The metal was
deposited on quartz by the evaporation method and examined when
monochromatic light fell on the metal side of the plate.

The results are found to be consistent with the view that the prob-
ability of an electron going a given distance without losing its ability
to eseape falls off exponentially with the distance, when this distance
is less than about 40 mm. Up to this thickness there is a parallelism
between optical absorption and photoelectric emission. For large
wave-lengths this parallelism is more pronounced than for short wave-
lengths. For greater wave-lengths optical absorption may increase
but photoelectric emission decreases terminating at the threshold
value of photoelectric sensitivity.

The results seem to support the view that photoelectric emission
is probably not caused by the absorption of energy out of the inci-
dent light beam, the light only acting as the agent which sets the
electron free from its parent atom.

Geology of the Muscle Shoals Area, Alabama. W. F. Prouty.
Appears in full in this issue.

Chemistry in Its Relation to the State Water Supplies. G. F. CaTLert.
Appears in full in this issue.

The following papers were presented but no abstracts have been
received :
The Dipterous Galls of the Hickories. B. W. Wests. (Lantern).
Instincts in Social Life. (By title). C. C. Tayzor.

The Effect on Tops of the Wilting of Succulent Vegetables. L. B.
RHODES.

The Polymorphic Genus Clavaria. W.C. CoKEr.

18 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [September

A Review of the Fulgoridae of Eastern North America. Z. P. Mur-
CALF.

Striations in Inorganic Solutions. C. M. Heck.

A Parasite of the Mediterranean Flour Moth. J. BE. Eckert. (Lan-
tern).

Spore Discharge in Some Genera of Water Molds. J. N. Coucu.
To appear in full in an early issue of this Journal.

Laboratory Work in Elementary Genetics. C. O. Eppy.
The Echigo Oil Fields, Japan. Couurer Coss.
Acoustics of Auditoriums. A. H. Parrerson.

A Review of High School Science Teaching. J. N. Coucu. (Lan-
tern).

Sand Dunes of Niigata. CouureR Coss.

A New Specics of Isoachlya. F. A. GRANT.
To appear in The Saprolegniaceae, a volume by W. C. Coker, to be

published soon by The University of North Carolina Press.
DEMONSTRATIONS
Wild Flower Show. H. R. Torren and the class in Botany 2.

Abnormal Frog Embryo (Hyla pickeringti) with Developed Tail and
Exposed Yolk. H. V. Witson.

A Sponge (Phloeodictyon putridosum) with a Shell made up of a
Parasitic Caleareous Alga. H. V. Winson.

Striations in Inorganic Solutions. C. M. Hrecx.

Laboratory Work in Elementary Geneties. C. O. Eppy.

The following papers were presented to the Physics Section:
How Einstein’s Theory of Relativity Was Verified. ARCHIBALD
HENDERSON.

In this paper, for which forty-five minutes were allowed, the at-
tempt was made to put into simple terms a précis of the general ideas

1922] PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 19

underlying Einstein’s theory of universal gravitation. It was indi-
eated that the differences in results given by the theories of Newton
and Einstein are surprisingly small, despite the fact that the theories
have few points of resemblance, and proceed from totally different
assumptions. The difficulties of finding natural phenomena which
will verify Einstein’s theory are very great, but finally three were
arrived at. These are: the deviation of a ray of light from a recti-
linear path, or deflected for example by the attraction of the sun;
the advance in the perihelion of Mercury over a period of a century;
and the shift of solar light lines to the red end of the spectrum.

Dr. Henderson sketched in outline the fundamental principles
of Generalized Relativity, and derived the equation of the curve
taken by a ray of light. A figure which was exhibited, as well as
the calculations, showed that the deviation according to Einstein’s
theory, amounted to 1.74’’. This figure, which was exactly twice the
amount given by the Newtonian theory, was verified (within thir-
teen per cent) by two astronomical expeditions sent out by Great
Britain during the World War, one to Principe, the other to Sobral.
Since the time of Leverrier, it has been known that there was a dis-
crepancy of approximately 43’’ in a century between the actual ad-
vance of the perihelion of Mercury and the computed value accord-
ing to the Newtonian theory, even allowing for all the known in-
fimences. From the equation of the orbit, as computed by the Ein-
stein theory, and the known values of the constants, it was shown
that the advance for the perihelion of Mercury came out to be about
43’’—a most remarkably accurate determination. Last of all, it was
shown by a simple computation that a ray of light from the sun,
being of greater wave-length and higher frequency (i.e., redder)
than a ray from a terrestrial source, would cause a shift of the
spectral lines an appreciable amount toward the red end of the spec-
trum. Only quite recently, by isolating the solar ray in a vacuum,
the French physicist Pérot has shown that the actual shift, for
eyanogen, affords entirely satisfactory agreement with the value in
Angstré6m units computed according to the Einstein theory.

Effect of an Electric Field Upon Colloids in Non-conducting Liquids.
N. B. Foster.

X-Ray Spectra from Crystals. J. B. Derteux.

20 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

Analysis of Crystal Structure from X-Ray Spectra. A. A. Drxon.

The Color of Metals by Transmission. Ovtro STUHLMAN, JR. (Lan-
tern).

Use of an Audion Tube as Negative Resistance. D. A. WELLS.

Problems of Research in North Carolina. (By title.) C. W. Ep-
WARDS.

Some Suggestions for the Teaching of Physics. A. H. PATTERSON.

The following papers were presented to the Chemists:
Zirconium Ferrocyanide. F. P. VENABLE and R. A. LINEBERRY.
Zirconum Citrate. F. P. VENABLE and E. C. MonHLMANN.

Modification of the Official Sodium Method. J. O. Hatverson, L. E.
Mor@an and J. H. ScHuurz.

The Determination of Potassium in the Official Sodium Method. J. O.
Hauverson and J. A. ScHULTZ.

A Modified Thermoregulator. M. L. HAaMuin.
A Convenient Form of Condenser. M. L. HAMuin.

Phenolsulphonphthalein and Some of its Derwatives. W. N. Orn-
DoRFF and F. W. SHERWOOD.

Binary Systems of Metanitrotoluene and Another Mononitrotoluene.
J. M. Bei and J. L. McEwen.

The Nitration of Certain Nitrotoluenes. J. M. Bett and W. B.
Smoor.

The Nitration of Orthonitrotoluene. J. M. Bet and H. G. PicKert.

The Chlorination of 2-Amino-p-cymene. A. 8. WHEELER and I. V.
GILES.

New Derwatives of 2-Bromo-5-hydroxy-1,4-Naphthoquinone. A. S.
WHEELER and B, Naan.
Bert CUNNINGHAM, Secretary.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC
SOCIETY, OCTOBER 11, 1921, TO JUNE 2, 1922

250th Mertinc—OcrToser 11, 1921

Cottier Copp—Physiographic Processes in Relation to Harbor De-
velopment and Harbor Maintenance.

The observations on which these studies are based have been ex-
tended over practically the entire northern hemisphere, and the pro-
cesses considered are here presented merely in outline. The object of
these studies has been to examine into the physical conditions and
the physiographic processes that have to do with the formation, pres-
ervation, and destruction of harbors. The pursuit of this object is
facilitated by a tentative classification of these sheltered waters, based
upon the circumstances of their origin; and this leads to an at-
tempted grouping of those various forms of energy, operating upon
and within the earth, which tend to improve or to destroy harbors;
and, lastly, it is purposed to consider to what extent these natural
processes may be affected by the codperation of man, or by the
hindrance that he may offer to Nature’s operations.

The forces at work upon our shorelines include all of those agencies
for the application of solar energy which are generally described as
gradational, resulting in the disintegration of rock-masses, and the
transportation and deposition of detritus. These atmospheric and
aqueous agents effecting gradation may be considered in the follow-
ing groups: 1. The work of the atmosphere; 2. Rain and rivers;
3. Snow and ice; 4. Wind and waves; 5. Tides and currents; 6. Plants
and animals. A comparison of harbors of sub-aretic regions with
those of sub-tropical and tropical regions, in essentially similar rocks
and rock-structures, will at once reveal the interesting fact that har-
bors owe their chief characteristics to the processes by which they
have been formed, rather than to the geological formations out of
which they have been carved.

Besides the forces of gradation just enumerated, which have to
do with the application of solar energy, there is another group of
agents deriving its energy from the earth itself. This comes from
the slow cooling of the earth’s mass, its warping, and the creeping

[21]

bo
~)

2 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

of its crust, producing the movements of subsidence, elevation, and
sudden jarring, which take place along the border-line between land
and sea. Indeed, there is an everlasting see-saw between the land and
sea taking place along the shoreline, and this profoundly affects all
harbors. This is especially noticeable on both sides of the North-
Pacific, and the changes on our Pacific coast—especially in Alaska—
and in Japan, in a single generation, have been so marked as to force
us to believe that the uniformitarians have overaccentuated the slow
movement, through all time, of the forees now in operation. The
modern geologist is foreed to recognize that there have been changes—
sometimes gradual and sometimes sudden—in the intensity and mode
of action of existing forces. And these changes seem more and
more marked as wider areas of the earth’s crust have come under
the scrutiny of the geologist, during the century that has not yet
elapsed since Sir Charles Lyell made his epoch-marking generaliza-
tion; but that.does not mean that the geologist of today is in any
sense swinging to the conclusions of the catastrophist. These forces
bringing about elevation and subsidence are covered by the term
diastrophism.

Vulcanism is another of the igneous agencies for the application
of terrestrial energy, whose work as a harbor-maker, of little im-
portance in the past, is destined to play an important part in the
immediate future. Since our own nation has learned that the way
to national power is over the waves, and our hope is that the con-
quests of the future will be of a commercial sort, harbors of refuge
and naval harbors are now seen in a new lght, as aids to commerce
without which the commercial harbor can never grow into a great
port. Harborage of such a sort is afforded in numerous instances
where the rim of a voleanic crater has broken down in one or more
places, and the whole submerged to such an extent that the central
cavity forms excellent harborage, often of great strategic importance.
Harbors of this kind are known in nearly all seas; but they have
hitherto been dismissed with the statement that they have no other
than a scientific interest, if indeed they are mentioned at all in any
discussion of the subject. Fortunately, our own country owns sev-
eral such harbors in different parts of the Pacifie. These and coral-
reef harbors, which are to be considered in some detail, afford excel-
lent naval harbors and coaling stations, not only in the Pacific and

1922| PRocEEDINGS OF ExisHA MiTcHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 23

the Caribbean, but in other parts of the world as well, and the owner-
ship of such harbors is a matter of immediate and strategie impor-
tance.

The classification adopted, tentatively, gives us:

J. Estuarine harbors, lagoon harbors, delta harbors, formed in
the main by gradational processes, but in most cases profoundly in-
fluenced by diastrophic action.

II. Fjord harbors, moraine-enclosed harbors, indented kame-
plains, all the product of glacier action.

III. Crater harbors, coral-reef harbors, and a combination of these
two, in which the reef, fringing close upon the volcanic rock, has
profoundly influenced the form and the commercial or strategic value
of the harbor.

While the effect of organic life on harbors is generally very great,
the influence of animal life is not always beneficial; and the influence
of plants is almost wholly detrimental, leading to the accumulation of
sediment and the consequent shoaling of water.

In determining the value of each harbor considered, the geological
and other physical features of the shore; the strength, direction,
range, and scour of the tides; the depth of water in the protected
area; the influence of prevailing and seasonal winds; the angle at
which the heaviest waves impinge on the coastline and their pound-
ing on the headlands; the slope of the foreshore; the transportation
of detritus to the basin and its deposition by the currents; and the
width and shape of the entrance, have all been taken into account.
Lastly, the industrial and commercial possibilities of the hinterland
have often been examined into in an effort to determine whether a
promising harbor might some day be developed into an important
port.

Election of Members:

The following members of the faculty were elected to Active Mem-
bership in the Society: Dr. H. B. Anderson, Dr. H. W. Crane, Dr.
F. C. Vilbrandt, Prof. G. M. Braune, Prof. H. F. Janda, Prof. E. L.
Mackie, Mr. C. D. Beers, Mr. J. H. Bradley, Mr. J. F. Daugherty,
Mr. M. A. Hill, Mr. H. F. Latshaw, Mr. G. W. Smith.

The following students were elected to Associate Membership:
From the Department of Botany—J. N. Couch, F. A. Grant, Mrs.

24 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL Society | September

W. J. Matherly ; Chemistry—J. A. Bender, C. K. Brooks, F. C. Coch-
ran, E. W. Constable, H. D. Crockford, E. D. Jennings, J. L. McEwen,
EK. O. Moehlmann, J. L. Mourane, L. V. Phillips, H. G. Pickett, W. B.
Smoot ; Civil Engineering—J. P. Clawson, L. W. Fischel, N. P. Hayes,
E. M. Knox, O. E. Martin, L. J. Phipps, J. W. Taylor, J. S. Wearn;
Electrical Engineering—G. T. Finger, J. L. Pressley, R. A. Tillmann,
R. M. Wearn, D. A. Wells; Geology—E. J. Alexander, H. H. Bullock,
R. E. L. Carson, C. W. Fowler, H. C. Harris, T. G. Murdock; Mathe-
matics—J. N. Brand, W. V. Parker ; Medicine—Howard A. Patterson;
Pharmacy—k. B. Bristow, J. E. Campbell, W. A. Prout; Physics—
Wade Gardner, C. G. Mauney; Psychology—W. D. Glenn, John H.
McFadden; Zoology—W. L. Smith.

251st MreriInc—NovEMBER 8, 1921

F. P. VENABLE—Isotopes.

The growth of the idea that the atoms of the elements might be
dissimilar as to their relative weight was traced through the work
of Crookes and others and the revelations of radio-activity ; the neces-
sity for assigning a number of elements to the same position in the
Periodic Table was pointed—hence the need of a new designation,
namely, isotopes. The physical demonstration of the existence of
isotopes, the determination of their atomic weight and the relative
proportions in which they occurred were deseribed, and the close
agreement with accepted atomic weights noted. The paper appeared
in full in this Journal, Vol. 37, p. 115.

W. C. Coker—A Visit to Lapland and to Some Old Herbaria.

The past summer was spent in Europe in the study of fungi in sev-
eral of the most important herbaria. About a month was spent (two
weeks at first and two weeks later) at Kew Gardens, England, in the
use of the fine hbrary, and in looking over plants sent by our Dr.
M. A. Curtis to Rev. M. J. Berkeley. Another month, with the ex-
ception of a short trip to Lapland, was spent in Stockholm, Sweden,
with daily trips by tram to the massive new Riks Museum, where
are to be found several fine collections of fungi, notable among them
being those of the Sydows and that of Bresadola, the latter recently
bought by the well-known mycologist Lars Romell, a patent lawyer
by profession and a devoted scientist by instinct, who has deposited

1922| Proceepines oF EvisHa MircHeitu Screntiric Sociery 25

it at the museum and made it available for study. The Lapland
trip was to Abisco, arriving on July 18, about a week too late to see
the full midnight sun, but there was no darkness and the sun was
visible for twenty-three hours of the day. The Laps were all living
in the same primitive fashion, but some of them were well-to-do from
the profits of their reindeer herds. After a few days in Copenhagen
and Berlin about a week was spent at the Riks Herbarium at Leiden,
Holland, where may be found the herbarium of Persoon, one of the
greatest pioneers in the study of fungi. After several days study at
the Herbarium of the University of Paris, at the Jardin des Plantes,
where one is constantly reminded of the great Lamarck, Kew was
again visited for two weeks, and the trip ended.

252nd MEETING—DECEMBER 13, 1921

A. 8. WHEELER—Research in Progress in Organic Chemistry at the

University of North Carolina.

A study is being made with Mr. I. V. Giles of the action of
chlorine upon 2-amino-p-cymene. The constitution of the monochloro-
derivative has been determined and a series of new dyes has been
prepared by coupling it up with hydroxy compounds in the benzene
and naphthalene groups. These dyes are browns and yellows, espe-
cially adapted to wool. The problem given to Mr. S. C. Smith is
the constitution of the N,N’, 8, 8. 8 -Dichloro-hydroxyethylidene-bis-
nitranilines, discovered some vears ago by Dr. Wheeler. Mr. H. M.
Taylor is engaged in determining the constitution of bromo-2-amino-
p-cymene and will seek to prepare new dyes with it. Mr. F. P.
Brooks is studying the complex reaction between phenylsemicarbazine
and acetonylacetone, a diketone. The solution of the constitution of
Oxyjuglone is in the care of Mr. A. P. Sledd. This substance was
discovered 35 years ago. Mr. B. Naiman is studying the behavior
of monobromo-5-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone. Mr. T. P. Dawson’s
work concerned the addition and condensation products of chloral
with 3-nitro-4-toluidine. To Mr. C. K. Brooks was given the prob-
lem of the constitution of monobromoamino-p-xylene. Dr. Wheeler
is working in his own laboratory upon the reaction between phenyl-
semicarbazine and acetylacetone, having a grant from the Graduate
School to pay the cost of the raw materials.

26 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL Society | September

A. H. Partrrrson—The Ether vs. What?

The older theories of the ether were given, and the various theories
of light described, with the reasons for and against each. The dif-
ficulties attendant upon the results of experiments of Airy, Lodge;
Michelson and Morley, ete., were described, and the newer attempts
to frame theories to account for all observed facts were presented:
the wave theory, the ether-storing theory, the Cone-Ray theory and
the Quantum theory.

Each of these was examined as to its ability or inability to ex-
plain Ionization and Photo-electric effects, Interference effects and
Quantum relations. In the course of the discussion of the paper
Einstein’s latest views on the subject were brought out.

253rd MretiInc—January 10, 1922

G. M. BrauNnE—Experimental Determination of Lateral Earth Pres-
sures.

The question of finding the correct or approximately correct lateral
pressures existing in masses of granular material such as earth pres-
sures against retaining walls or grain in elevators has been studied
by physicists and engineers for a great many years.

The problem as occurring most often in engineering structures
is the active pressure against retaining walls. The correct determi-
nation of this force affects the design of construction work, involving
the expenditure of millions of dollars yearly, and therefore a proper
knowledge as to its correct magnitude is of great economic value.

C. A. Coulomb, the French physicist and engineer, was probably
the first one to present a working theory for the determination of
earth pressures. Rankin, the great English engineer, developed the
theory on the assumption that the filling material behind the wall
consisted of an incompressible homogenous granular mass of un-
limited extent, without cohesion, the particles being held together
by friction on each other. These assumptions lead to the ellipse of
stress and make the resultant earth pressure on a vertical surface
parallel to the top surface. The German engineers have also given
much study to this problem and some valuable experiments have
been made by Mueller-Breslau at the Charlottenberg Laboratories.
In America Major William Cain has contributed more than anyone
alse in this country, and is considered an authority on the subject.

1922] Procrerepines oF ExvisHa MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 27

When the writer became connected with the University of Cin-
cinnati some nine years ago, he decided to construct an earth pres-
sure machine of such a size that it would reduce the effect of cohesive
stresses to a minimum.

The method adopted of obtaining the magnitude of the earth pres-
sure was to measure the horizontal and vertical components of the
action of the filling material upon a ‘‘free body.’’ In order to
‘ earry out this method a wooden wall or gate five feet wide and six
feet high was constructed which fitted into the open front of a con-
crete bin five feet wide and nine feet long, six feet high at the front,
and twelve feet high at the rear. The wall is supported by two
vertical rods or contact points which rest directly upon Fairbanks’
platform seales of two thousand pound capacity. Thus, any vertical
foree acting on the wall is directly transmitted to the scales and is
registered. The horizontal thrust of the earth against the wall is
measured by three horizontal struts, one at the top in the center
of the width and one at each of the lower corners. These struts
by rocker-arm arrangements transmit the pressure directly to plat-
form seales of one thousand pound eapacity. From the individual
seale readings, the amount, direction and point of application of the
resultant pressure can be computed.

Method of Operation. Before any filling material is placed in
the bin the riders are run out on the seale beams so that the beams
will always be down. The reading on the scales will at all times
be in excess of the contemplated active earth pressures; the gate is
prevented from moving into the bin by bearing angles. Then after
the filling material has been placed in the bin, by moving the riders
and by allowing the beam to float, we will get active and not passive
pressures.

Description of Experiments. The results of the experiments made
on this machine and tabulated below were made, under the direction
and supervision of the writer, by Mr. Jacob Feld, a fellow in the
Civil Engineering Department of the University of Cincinnati. The
filling material consisted of sand weighing one hundred pounds per
cubic foot. The angle of natural repose was found to be forty degrees
and the angle of internal friction thirty-four degrees. The angle of
friction between the sand and the dry wood of the wall was twenty-

‘six degrees. When the wood was wet this angle increased to thirty-

N
ie 6)

JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

one degrees. Readings were taken for every three inches of fill, the
material being shovelled in horizontal layers.

The tabulated quantities of these experiments are defined as fol-
lows:

height of fill, feet;

ies V H? + V’, total pressure per foot width;
H = horizontal component per foot width, pounds;
V = vertical component per foot width, pounds;
@’ = angle of inclination of the resultant from the normal to the back of
wall; tan @' = V/H; a ae
y 5 : SRR : Tere a top x 6 ft.
x = height of point of application above the base of the wall eT

x/h = ratio of height of the point of application of the resultant to total
height of fill; ;

H* = theoretical horizontal component from formula H = % wh’tan? (45° —
1% MD);
w = weight per cu. ft. of filling material;
@: = angle of natural slope (40 deg., as determined for this material) ;
H, — same as H, where
@,. = angle of internal friction (34 deg., as determined for this material).
h P H Vv ily — H, H,
2ift: 62 lbs. 54 Ibs. 32 Ibs. 30° 50% .425 44]bs. 56 Ibs.
4 242 205 131 32° 50 .858 174 226
6 545 464 285 31° 30% .865 393 507

Conclusions—For this case, horizontal fill and vertical wall, the formula
H ='% wh’tan? (45—15 @) may safely be used, if @ is taken as the angle
of internal friction. For this special case, Coulomb’s and Rankin’s theories give
the same formula.

Orro StuHLMAN, Jr.—Theory of the Audion and its Application to
the Wireless Telephone.

Through the courtesy of the American Telegraph and Telephone
Company three reels of moving pictures were shown, the first two
of which illustrated the theory of the audion and the third its ap-
plication to the wireless telephone.

Preliminary experiments were shown to illustrate a stream of elec-
trons and how this same stream of electrons functioned in the ease
of the audion. The subsequent discussion went into details of the
origin of the discovery and development of the thermionic effect and
the contributions made by Richardson, his students, and the results
of recent experiments on the audion as developed by the research
laboratories of the great electrical manufactories of the country.

1922| PRrocreeprnes oF EvisHa MircHELL SCIENTIFIC SocleTy 29

254th MretiInc—FrEsruary 14, 1922

T. F. Hickerson—Transition Spirals for Roads: A New Method.
No abstract furnished.

FRANK C. Vinpranpt—The Manufacture of Beet Sugar.

Beet sugar, indistinguishable from cane sugar, is obtained from
a variety of white beet containing from 12-19% sugar. At best,
however, beet sugar factories obtain but 240 pounds of refined sugar
per ton of beets sliced.

Preparations are begun nine months previous to the sugar cam-
paign to make the ten weeks campaign successful and efficient. The
agricultural staff oversee the best cultivation to insure good beets
and eliminate mongrel stock. The engineering staff overhaul the
entire plant and make the proper repairs and changes.

In fall the topped, matured beets are transported to the nearby
factories and stored in bins or sheds in the yards. Each bin is pro-
vided with a flume which transports the dirty beets through stone,
sand and trash catchers to the beet-washer. The washed beets, after
elevation to a picking table to remove decayed beets, are weighed
and sleed. The y-shaped slices provide for minimum settling of
the cossettes, minimum rupture of the cells and maximum exposure
of cell walls through which the diffusion takes place.

The cossettes are extracted in three and one-half ton batches in
fourteen diffusion battery cells, three of which at any time are being
filled, the others in operation. The fresh water meets the most ex-
hausted cossettes, leaving the battery as concentrated juice in the
part holding fresh cossettes. Calorizors between each battery main-
tain the optimum temperature for extraction.

The exhausted pulp is dumped and pumped to the pulp house
where a reduction of 12% moisture is effected by means of a wet
drag, pulp presses, and a furnace.

The raw juice is limed, carbonated and filtered at least two times
to reduce the pulp and non-sugars by precipitation, coagulation and
filtration. The juice also receives a sulfur dioxide treatment to re-
duce the lime content and color. Calorizors between each set of equip-
ment maintain the optimum temperature.

This treated and purified juice is evaporated down in quintuple
effect evaporators from 10% to 60% solids, treated with sulfur dioxide,

30 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL SocieTy | September

filtered and evaporated under vacuum down to grain in the ‘‘A”’ or
‘“White’’ pan. The ‘‘strike’’ is then made and the mix centrifuged.
The resulting ‘‘first swine’’ sugars are washed with steam, dried
and granulated, the product being the refined white granulated
beet sugar.

The first swing of molasses is evaporated to grain in the ‘‘B”’ or
‘‘Brown’’ pan and dropped into erystallizers, where for 60 to 80
hours erystal growth is permitted with agitation and slow cooling.
These erystals are centrifuged from the waste molasses, redissolved
and introduced into the system of refining to be evaporated down
with the raw juice and recovered as white sugar.

Cooperation among the various stations 1s eminently important
to reduce loss of sugar in wash and waste water, extraction of un-
desirable non-sugars and reduction of coal consumption. A loss of
each 0.03% sugar in any operation in a 100,000 ton beet campaign
registers a loss of 600 bags of sugar and each 3% additional quantity
of water to be evaporated increases the daily consumption of coal 10
tons.

The hope is expressed that sugar beet culture and beet sugar
plants may become more extensive to increase our home supply of
this staple.

255th MEETING—FEBRUARY 25, 1922

Dr. J. E. Minus, Director of Chemical Research at Edgewood Ar-
senal.—Chemical Warfare—Methods of Attack and Defense. (By
invitation).

A review of the development of chemical warfare was given and
special mention made of the following methods:

Cylinders are used for cloud gas attacks, the cylinders being filled
principally with chlorine or with mixtures of chlorine and phosgene.
They are generally installed in the front line and released under suit-
able wind conditions. 20 tons of gas or even more will be used
per 1000 yards of front for such an attack. The advantages and dis-
advantages of this form of attack were discussed.

Livens projectors are used and installed in special trenches, later
earefully camouflaged, generally somewhat back of the front line.
They fire a drum containing 30 pounds of gas and have a range of
nearly a mile. Thus exceedingly high concentrations of gas can be

1922| ProcEEDINGS OF ELISHA MITCHELL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 31

placed directly upon the target. It is probably the most deadly
form of gas attack known. The principal gases used in Livens drums
are phosgene and chlorpicrin.

The 4’’ Stokes mortar is used for gas, each shell carrying about
7 pounds. The rate of fire is very high, 10 rounds per minute being
maintained even at night. The range is approximately 1000 yards.

All of the above weapons are used by gas troops and have the ad-
vantage over the Artillery of being able to place very high concen-
trations of gas upon the objective. As compared with the Artillery
they have a disadvantage as regards the range of the weapon and
also as to the accuracy of the weapon.

The number of gas shell used towards the end of the War was
very large, amounting in some eases to 50% and even more of the
total shell used. If the entire War is considered probably not much
more than 5% of the total shell used were gas shell. Altogether
the French filled about seventeen million gas shell. Mustard gas
was by far the most effective gas used by the Artillery.

Methods of gas defense deal with personal protection, such as
that afforded by the mask or by protective clothing, and with group
protection, such as that afforded by gas alarms and protective dug-
outs. Gas protection is also sought by keeping troops fairly well
apart or by abandoning gassed areas.

It is probable that the use of gas combined with aviation will
greatly change methods of coast defense and naval offense.

256th Meetrine—Marcu 14, 1922

H. B. AnpErson—Spirocheticidal Action of Arsphenamin (Salvar-
san, ‘*606’’).

Spirochetes are a class of microscopical organisms which are, al-
though placed with the Bacteria, very closely related to the Protozoa.
After the discovery of Spirocheta pallida by Schaudinn, who at first
elassed it with the Protozoa, there were many experiments made to
determine the spirocheticidal action of various arsenical compounds
such as had been efficient in the treatment of protozoan diseases.
Ehrlich discovered a synthetic organic arsenical compound which
had very pronounced spirocheticidal action. This he called salvar-
san. Soon after this discovery he placed neo-salvarsan on the market .
too. When the war broke out the allied nations took up the manu-

32 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

facture of salvarsan and in the United States is was ealled arsphe-
namin and neo-arsphenamin.

The author reports a dark field study of six cases with primary
lesions and one ease with secondary lesions after the administration
of arsphenamin and neo-arsphenamin. Six of these cases showed an
absence of live spirochetes in the lesions 48 hours after the administra-
tion of the drug. One seemed more refractory to arsphenamin and
did not show complete sterility of the lesion for 8 days after the
administration of the drug.

J. F. Dasureti—Measurement of Intelligence in Different Social

Classes.

After preliminary discussion of intelligence and its measurement,
and of the correlation of economic class differences with certain phys-
ical and mental traits, a brief experimental study was reported. In
continuation of a study made four years earlier by Chase and Car-
penter, Dashiell and Glenn made Binet intelligence examinations of
Chapel Hill children belonging to different social-economic groups.
The same results were found: a correlation between economic class
and intelligence level; the country, town, and faculty children show-
ing respectively low, medium, and high levels. To make sure that
previous conditions of literacy in the children’s life played no part,
a series of motor performance tests was given the same subjects.
Results for the faculty group were still distinctly high, but the
country children now excelled the town children slightly. Thus,
the Chapel Hill school population appears divisible into two groups
on the basis of hereditary family stock, with a subdivision of one
of these on the basis of environmental opportunity.

257th Mrerine—Apriu 11, 1922

ARCHIBALD HENDERSON—CGeeneralized Relatiwity and the Three Tests.

The Newton and Einstein cosmologies were compared in detail,
using the device of parallel columns. The author then outlined the
trend of Hinstein’s thought in reaching his epochal generalization,
and showed how the transition was made from the Restricted to the
Generalized Relativity. In especial, he described the practical mode
by which Hinstein’s theory was tested, and indicated the procedure
employed in making these tests. In particular he announced that
news he had just received from Paris that the third test,—the shift

1922] ProcreEepINGs oF ExvisHA MitcHELL ScIENTIFIC SOCIETY 39

toward the red end of the spectrum of rays of light emanating from
the sun,—had been conclusively established to a very close degree of
approximation by the eminent French physicist Pérot.

W. F. Prouty—The Rejuvenated Ocoee.

J. M. Safford of Tennessee, described the Ocoee in 1856. He then
classed it as ‘‘Metamorphie’’ and considered it of Pre-Cambrian age,
but in his report of 1869 he placed this group in the Potsdam (Cam-
brian). Arthur Keith after careful study of the western portion of
the Ocoee of Tennessee and North Carolina, confirmed Safford’s cor-
relation for the western portion and, like Safford, placed the entire
group in the Cambrian.

In 1903 Dr. E. A. Smith of Alabama discovered fossils in the
eastern portion of the Ocoee of that State. These were determined
by David White to be of Carboniferous age. The working out of the
relationship of this fossiliferous area to the rest of the Ocoee recently
fell to the author in the study of Clay County, Alabama. A eare-
ful study of the structure of the area brings out the fact that a con-
siderable portion at least of the Ocoee is of Carboniferous age,
both Mississippian and Pennsylvanian being represented.

At the present time therefore it is known that the Ocoee Group
consists of at least three systems of rocks.

258th Mretine—May 9, 1922

Wm. DeB. MacNmer—The Changes Induced in the Kidney by the

Continued Use of Alcohol.

Dogs were employed in the experiments. The animals were given
10ce. of 20 per cent alcohol once a day to the point of establishing
a moderate grade of intoxication. Such a state was shown by muscular
incodrdination and drowsiness,

Following such a usage of alcohol the animals develop in from
seven to eighteen days a well-marked albuminuria. The number of
tube casts in the urine are few as compared with the quantitative out-
put of albumin. There is but a slight reduction in the elimination
of phenolsulphonephthalein. Kidneys from such animals show but
slight injury to the tubular epithelium. The glomerular capillaries
show an early and very marked accumulation of stainable lipoid in
the endothelium.

34 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL Sociery [ September

H. V. Witson—Metschnikoff, Zoologist and Pathologist.

Elie Metschnikoff (1845-1916) is doubly distinguished in that he
brought to light a great idea in abstract science and himself carried
it over and further developed it in a field that is directly concerned
with the physical welfare of mankind. In the course of Metschnikoff’s
many, varied, and eminently original studies on the comparative
embryology of invertebrates, ending with his ‘‘Embryologische
Studien an Medusen’’ (Wien, 1886), his attention was focussed again
and again on the wandering, amoeboid cells, which play so important
a part in the development and physiology of sponges, coelenterates,
echinoderms and other invertebrates. Correlating the wandering,
digestive, and protective (Messina, 1882) functions of such cells, he
asked himself if the leucocytes of vertebrates were not essentially
similar elements. With this began his famous discoveries in Path-
ology concerning the direct and indirect action of leucocytes against
invading bacteria.

ELECTION OF OFFICERS:

President—W. F. Prouty.

Vice-President—Otto Stuhlman.

Permanent Secretary—J. M. Bell.

Recording Secretary and Treasurer—H. R. Totten.

Editorial Committee—W. C. Coker, chairman; J. M. Bell, Collier
Cobb.

CaLLED MrETtiInc—JUNE 2, 1922

A meeting was called to consider some appropriate action in recog-
nition of the late Charles Baskerville. A motion was passed that
the next number of the JourNAu of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific
Society (Vol. 38, Nos. 1 & 2) be dedicated to his memory.

THE SEARCH FOR THE ULTIMATE ATOM*
By J. L. Lake

Just when the belief in a primordial atom originated in the mind
of man seems difficult to determine. Sometimes it seems like a primal
notion. The Encyclopedia Britannica tells us, ‘‘The concept of an
element as a substance from which all bodies are made or derived
was held at the very beginning of occidental philosophy.’’ We are
also told that Thales of Miletus, who immortalized himself by record-
ing the fact that rubbed amber would attract light bodies, regarded
water as the element of all things, and that his followers accepted
his ideas of a primordial substance as the basis of all bodies but
that they endeavored to determine some other general elements.

Democritus is regarded as the founder of the atomic theory though
we are told that traces of the conception of the grained structure
of matter are to be found in Indian philosophy perhaps twelve cen-
turies before the Christian era. As Millikan says of the principles
of Democritus as given by Tyndall, with a few modifications and
omissions they might almost pass muster today. Yet though his theory
was advocated by Epicurus and the Latin poet, Lucretius, the Platonic
school prevailed, and, as we know, the Aristotelian philosophy domi-
nated the world of science as well as philosophy till the seventeenth
century.

In the time of Boyle and Newton, however, an atomic theory re-
appeared. We know how forcefully Newton maintained the cor-
puseular theory of light. He also regarded gases as consisting of
small separate particles which repelled one another, and attributed
to this supposed repulsion between the particles the tendency of
gases to expand. It was Dalton, however, who resurrected the atomic
theory and made it a scientific hypothesis to explain experimentally
determined facts instead of mere speculation. This was about 1803.
Soon after this Prout published his hypothesis—that hydrogen is the
primordial atom, that the atoms of all heavier chemical elements
are built up from it. Von Meyer in his History of Chemistry (1891)
speaks of the baneful effects of Prout’s hypothesis. He states the

* Presidential address before the N. C. Academy of Science, May 5, 1922.

[eave

36 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

hypothesis as follows: ‘‘Hydrogen may be regarded as a primary
matter from which all other elements are formed by various econden-
sations.’” Were he stating the present day belief it is doubtful if
he could improve on the statement.

Prout’s hypothesis, however, was based upon inexact determi-
nations and was unable to stand against the more exact work of
Berzelius, Stas, and others. But despite the downfall of this hypoth-
esis the germ idea, the belief in a fundamental, basal substance
persisted. Von Meyer says that Prout’s hypothesis acted for a long
time like a ferment, in that it gave rise to continually renewed specu-
lation upon the connection which existed between the elements and
their atomic weights. May it not be that the working of this fer-
ment finally produced the periodic tables of Newlands and Mendeleef ?
Moreover, does not the table of Mendeleef itself suggest that the
various elements are complex and not simple? We know that Mende-
leef predicted the discovery of elements to fill certain blanks in his
table, and that because of their positions in the table he predicted
both their chemical and physical properties. Was not the simple
statement of the periodic law, that the properties of an element are
periodic functions of its atomic weight, sufficient to warrant the
belief in an elemental substance?

The beginning of the new era, which has been so rich in results
in the seareh for the primordial atom, may be said to have its origin
in the invention of the Crookes tube. The study of gaseous con-
duction has been a most interesting one for physicists from the time
of Faraday in the hope that it might reveal the nature of elec-
tricity. With the advent of the Crookes tube the discharge from the
negative electrode, the cathode rays, assumed chief importance. While
notable work was done by many with these tubes preéminence belongs
to Sir William Crookes, both for results obtained and for the inter-
pretation of these results.

Crookes showed that the cathode rays were deflected by a magnet
as if they were negatively charged particles. That they are such
was first shown by Perrin and later rigorously by J. J. Thomson.
From his studies of these cathode rays Crookes was led to announce
his theory of radiant matter or fourth state of matter, which theory
no less an authority than the Encyclopedia Britannica says led to
the modern electronic theory.

Crookes’s studies with the tube which bears his name extended

1922] THE SEARCH FOR THE ULTIMATE ATOM 37

over a good many years. In 1883 he began the study of the nature
and constitution of the rare earths. From his studies of the spectra
of yttrium he concluded that there was an actual splitting up of
the yttrium into more elementary substances, also he formulated the
hypothesis that all the elements have resulted from a primary sub-
stance which he termed protyle.

Not only directly but also indirectly was the Crookes tube a
potent factor in the establishment of the electronic theory. It was
while working with a Crookes tube in 1895 that Roentgen discovered
the X-rays which have been so efficient as an aid in establishing this
theory. Lecquerel was impressed with the similarity in appearance
of the phosphorescence produced by X-rays on the glass of the
vacuum tube and the phosphorescence produced in some ordinary
substances by sunlight.

He thought that possibly these would emit radiations similar to
X-rays. Prompted by this idea, in 1896 a few months after the
discovery of X-rays he placed several substances wrapped in paper
beneath a photographie plate. Of these the only one that acted on
the plate was a salt of uranium. He subsequently found that this
property of affecting a photographic plate was common to all the
salts of uranium and that it was possessed by the element itself.
Moreover, he found that this action was a spontaneous one, that it
made no difference whether uranium and its compounds were ex-
posed to sunlight or kept wholly in the dark. This was the begin-
ning of radioactivity and the study of radioactive substance. In
this study there have been numerous investigators. Becquerel ex-

tended his studies further and later found the ratio of = for the

beta (8) rays of radium and also their velocity. The ratio of =
he found practically the same as that previously determined by J. J.
Thomson for cathode rays. He found, however, that they had vary-
ing velocities some moving much faster than others. These dif-
ferences in the velocities of the beta (8) rays furnished Kaufmann
an opportunity to test the electromagnetic theory of mass—that the
mass of an electron is due, wholly or in part, to the fact that the
electric charge is in motion. The findings of Kaufmann were entirely
in harmony with the theory, since = decreased as the speed in-
creased.

38 JOURNAL OF THE MrrcHeui Socrery | September

The most notable workers in the field of radioactivity have been
the Curies and Sir Ernest Rutherford. The Curies examined a
great many elements and their compounds to see whether they had
the radioactive property of uranium. Thorium was the only ele-
ment that was found to show the effect in a degree comparable to
that of uranium. They found that all minerals containing uranium
or thorium were radioactive but that several specimens of the
uranium ore, pitchblende, were several times more active than uranium
itself. Hence they concluded that pitchblende contained some un-
known substance or substances which were the cause of this activity.
Inspired by this idea they sought for them in pitchblende, using
chemical methods. In 1898 their efforts were rewarded by the dis-
covery of two, which they named polonium and radium, each of
which is vastly more radioactive than their common parent uranium.

The story of the successive steps by which the Curies were finally
led to the discovery of these new elements Fleming characterizes ‘‘one
of the most fascinating chapters in the history of science.’’

In 1899 Rutherford showed that the radiation from uranium was
complex and consisted of rays easily absorbed, which he called alpha
(a), and more penetrating rays which he called beta (@). The
beta (8) rays have been thoroughly studied. While their velocities
are different for different sources and in the ease of radium, as
already noted, the particles have unequal velocities, in general their
velocities are greater than the velocities observed for electrons set
free in vacuum tubes. The swiftest moving beta (8) particles have
a velocity closely approaching that of light; but that they are elec-
trons, similar in all respects to the electrons set free in a vacuum
tube save in velocity alone, seems to be indisputable.

Rutherford made a thorough study of the alpha (a) particles.
He showed first that they carried positive charges. Then he deter-

mined the —- ratio for them and showed that this was only one-half
m

the = ratio for hydrogen got in electrolysis. Under the assumption
of equal charges for the alpha (a) particles and the hydrogen ions,
the mass of the alpha (a) particle would be twice that of the
hydrogen ion; but under the assumption of twice the charge, the
mass would be four times that of the hydrogen ion. In a classical
experiment in which every precaution was taken to eliminate any

1922] THE SEARCH FOR THE UntTimMatTe AToM 39

misinterpretation of results Rutherford proved that the spectrum of
the alpha (a) particles was the spectrum of helium. Thus he clearly
demonstrated that alpha (a) particles are helium atoms which have
lost two electrons.

While still somewhat removed from a complete theory of atomic
structure, we can assert with positiveness that the atom is a struc-
ture and, in the case of the heavy atoms, a decidedly complicated
one. For the light it has thrown on the nature of this structure
the radioactive compounds have been an invaluable aid. The enor-
mous velocities with which alpha (a) and beta (@) particles are
ejected from the nucleus shows the atom is a vast store-house of
energy. That the thirty odd radioactive substances are the disinte-
gration products of uranium and thorium, that they are in a constant
state of disintegration by virtue of forces within the atom, and that
lead is the final product of disintegration seems now the general con-
clusion from experimental data.

The earliest determination of = was made in 1897 by J. J. Thom-

son and Wiechert independently. Thomson’s first determination was
for the cathode rays, which Crookes claimed to be negatively charged
particles. He extended his investigations to the negative ions given
off by metal plates when exposed to ultra-violet light, also to the
negative ions produced by an ineandescent ecarbon-filament in an

atmosphere of hydrogen. He found that the value of = for these

was the same in all cases, that it was a constant quantity independent
of the nature of the gas from which they were produced and of the
means used to produce them. These were epoch-making experiments
in the development of the present atomic theory. It was with amaze-
ment the rank and file of us learned from Thomson that he had dis-
covered corpuscles whose mass was not greater than one thousandth
that of the hydrogen atom. The first estimate was subsequently re-
vised by him to about one eighteen hundredth the hydrogen atom.
Bucherer’s value, now considered the most accurate, makes the mass
of the hydrogen atom 1845 times that of the electron, Thomson’s
corpuscle. These experiments of Thomson’s were followed by many
others, some performed by himself, others by his pupils, in the develop-
ment of the electronic theory. In the development of this theory the
leading réle has clearly been played by the Cavendish laboratory,

40 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL Society | September

presided over formerly by him and now by his former pupil, Sir
Ernest Rutherford. Among experiments performed by Thomson
was one on the canal or positive rays, to which we shall have occasion
to refer later. We may note in passing, however, that while for
cathode rays whose velocity does not approach that of ight he found
a equal to 1.7x 108, for the positive rays the greatest value ob-
served was 10+, which is also the value for the hydrogen ions in elec-
trolysis, thus reénforeing conclusions as to the relative size of the
electron.

A series of experiments was performed in the Cavendish labora-
tory, both by Thomson and his pupils, to determine the value of e,
the charge carried by the electron. The value of this most im-
portant physical constant has been determined by Millikan in a
series of admirably planned and accurately executed experiments
which extended over several years. His method was an important
modification of one of the Cavendish laboratory experiments. His
findings were very concordant, and are accurate to 0.07 of 1 per
cent; the value obtained by him is now the generally accepted one.

Rutherford and Geiger devised an electrical method by which
they could count the number of alpha (a) particles emitted per sec-
ond by radium. By measuring the charge on the counted number
they found that each alpha (a) particle carried two positive elec-
tronic units of charge, a finding in harmony with Rutherford’s spec-
troscopie work, which showed that alpha (a) particles were helium
ions. Making use of the rate of emission of alpha (a) particles by
radium, Rutherford in 1911, with the aid of Geiger and Marsden,
performed another important experiment. He computed the chance
that an alpha (a) particle in being shot through thin sheets of
vold and other metal foils would suffer a given deflection because
of the positive nuclei of these metals. Most of the alpha (a) par-
ticles in passing through the foils move in straight lines but some are
deviated. Rutherford’s theory was that whenever an alpha (a) par-
ticle passes sufficiently near the nucleus it will be deflected by the
charge of the nucleus and be deviated. The experiment involved
finding what fraction of the alpha (a) particles, which were shot
through the foils, produced scintillation on a sereen at a position
which corresponded to the computed angle of deflection. From eal-
culations based on this experiment he concluded that the number of

1922] THE SEARCH FOR THE ULTIMATE ATOM 41

positive electronic charges on the nucleus equals approximately half
the atomic weight. This was the first experimental determination of
atomic numbers. The rigorous and exact determination of atomic
numbers, however, is the work of Mosley. Millikan has character-
ized his work as one of the most notable pieces of research in the last
fifty years. In his work Mosley made use of X-rays and the crystal
erating.

Barkla had previously discovered that when different elements
were used as the anti-cathode each gave off X-rays characteristic of
the element used. The Braggs had shown that erystals, because of
the reguiar spacing of their molecules, could be used as reflection grat-
ings for X-rays, and that by knowing the distance between the mole-
eular planes and the inclination of the rays to the planes the wave-
lengths of the rays could be determined.

Beginning with Al and using the K rays Mosley examined the
X-ray spectra of most of the heavier elements. He found that in
passing from the lighter to the heavier elements there was a pro-
gressive shortening of their wave-lengths, or an increase in their fre-
quencies. The functional relation established by Mosley between fre-
queney and atomic number is accurate to the degree that when the
X-ray spectrum of any element is known its atomic number can
be determined unequivocally. The work of Mosley has been extended
by De Broglie and others with modifications of the Mosley method.
While no X-ray spectra for the ten elements below Na have yet been
obtained the properties of these elements are so well known we may
confidently rely on the correctness of the numbers assigned them.

Since the table starts with hydrogen, 1, and ends with uranium,
92, with six blanks, it seems that the total number of elements is
92 and that six of these are yet to be discovered.

Not only did Mosley’s work substitute a scientifically determined
table for the empirical table of Mendeleef, but he proved for the
first time that the physical and chemical properties of an element
depend upon the nuclear charge. The logical inference from his
work appears to be that each element differs from the next lower
by the addition of a definite amount of electricity to the nucleus and
that this addition causes a corresponding increase in the frequency
of the characteristic radiation.

As the result of the experimental determinations of Thomson and
others the hydrogen ion is considered to be the proton,:or positive

42 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL SOCIETY | September

unit of electricity. In view of the comparative masses of it and the
electron the atomie weight of an element is considered numerically
equal to the number of protons in its nucleus. The atomic weight
of helium is 4. Since its nucleus has been shown by Rutherford to,
be the alpha (a) particle it contains 4 protons. While it has been
proven by Aston that the mass of the helium atom is not exactly
four times that of the hydrogen atom, this loss of mass, due to the
packing effect, is in harmony with the electromagnetic theory of mass.
That the electromagnetic theory is true, and that the mass of elec-
tron is wholly electrical, seem established by the experimental find-
ings of various workers with the beta (8) particles of radium, whose
velocities range from 0.3 the velocity of light to approximate equality.
While it has been impossible to apply the same test, variation of
mass with velocity, to the slower moving positive charges, it seems
illogical to assume for them another explanation of mass. |

The atomic member, however, is determined by the excess of pro-
tons over electrons in the nucleus. Hence we see that atomic struc-
tures may have equal atomic numbers and unequal atomic masses.
Such bodies were discovered by Rutherford and Soddy in their
study of the radioactive substances and were named by Soddy isotopes.

Since the chemical and practically all the physical properties of
the atom are determined by its atomic number, isotopes cannot be
separated by chemical methods. The most effective means of sep-
arating them has been the positive ray method, first devised by Thom-
son and afterwards modified and improved by Aston. In view of
the recent lectures here by the last named it is needless for me to
speak of his method further than to say the determinations from his
mass-spectra have a very high degree of accuracy. However, I hope
I may be pardoned for a few remarks about these recently discov-
ered structures despite the lectures of the distinguished visitor and
notwithstanding the illuminating paper recently presented before the
Elisha Mitchell Society by a distinguished authority in chemistry.

Many, at least, of the fractional atomic weights can be explained
by the presence of isotopes. Neon, with atomic weight 20.2, has
two isotopes of mass 20 and 22. The atomic weight can be explained
by the assumption of its having these isotopes in the ratio of 9 to 1
respectively. Magnesium with its two isotopes, 24 and 25, and the
atomie weight 24.32 can be explained by assuming a ratio of 17 to 8
for the isotopes.

1922] THE SEARCH FOR THE ULTIMATE ATOM 43

If we write our old friend calomel Hg,Cl.,, as our chemical friends
tell us we should, then since Cl has two isotopes and Hg has six
there is a total of 63 ways in which they can combine. Whether Cl
and Hg avail themselves of all their privileges I leave it to others
to decide. Also whether the physiological effects of the different
combinations of isotopes are identical I leave to our biological friends
to determine.

Various theories have been advanced as to the grouping of protons
and electrons in atomic structures. That the nucleus, save in the case
of hydrogen alone, contains both protons and electrons with protons
in excess, and that around this nucleus are grouped electrons equal
in number to the excess of protons in the nucleus, seem now to be
agreed upon by all. From Rutherford’s experiment on the scattering
of alpha (a) particles the radius of the nucleus appears to be of the
order of 101° of a em., while the radius of the atom is of the order
of 10°° of a em. Hence the electrons constitute what may be termed
a planetary system, with the positive nucleus as the central sun.

Of the theories advanced for the arrangement and behavior of
electrons which will explain the chemical and physical properties
of atoms, two are of commanding importance.

The Bohr atom, apparently the outgrowth of the atoms of Thom-
son and Rutherford, was designed primarily to explain the hydrogen
atom and the Balmer or visible series of the hydrogen spectrum. The
fundamental assumption of Bohr, that the electrons rotate around
the nucleus in non-radiating orbits, or that an electron loses no energy
while it remains in the same orbit, is in harmony with our theory of
magnetism and furnishes a satisfactory explanation of the stability
of the hydrogen atom. The law of force assumed by Bohr for the
electrons rotating in these non-radiating circular orbits is simply
the Newtonian law for planetary motion.

The second assumption of Bohr was that radiation takes place
only when an electron passes or jumps from a larger to a smaller
orbit. He assumed that the energy lost in this change is propor-
tional to the frequency, that it is always one quantum.

In his energy equation to determine the possible orbits for the
electron Planck’s constant is again involved. The equation involves
this constant, the orbital frequency of the electron and an integer;
the equation is so framed as to make the series of frequencies agree
with the Balmer series of hydrogen.

44 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL Society | September

That the Lyman series for hydrogen is in accord with the Bohr
atom, although Bohr announced his atom before the series was dis-
covered, is not remarkable; but the very close agreement between
the experimentally determined value of the constant in the Balmer
series and the value of this constant, computed by the Bohr theory,
is a fact of significance. Numerous other physical facts are in har-
mony with the Bohr theory. Whether this theory can be so modified
as to furnish a complete explanation of physical and chemical facts
remains to be seen.

The Lewis-Langmuir atom, proposed by Lewis and developed
greatly by Langmuir, is discussed at length by Langmuir in the
June number of the Journal of the American Chemical Society, for
the year 1919. As in the construction of the Bohr atom the predomi-
nant idea was the explanation of physical phenomena, so in the Lang-
muir atom the predominant idea was the explanation of chemical
phenomena. The guiding principle in this construction seems to have
been that a system in unstable equilibrium tends to pass into one
of stable equilibrium. Adopting an untechniecal classification of the
chemical element suggested by Mills, we may classify the elements
as satisfied, unsatisfied, and dissatisfied. The radioactive elements,
which by ejecting alpha (a) and beta (8) particles are constantly
changing into other elements and finally end in lead, constitute the
dissatisfied. The inert gases constitute the satisfied although the
degree of satisfaction wanes as we pass from helium to niton. The
atoms between the satisfied constitute the unsatisfied and hence are
chemically active.

Between neon, atomic number 10, and argon, atomic number 18,
lie the seven elements Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl. The first three of
these give up electrons and are electropositive, the last three take
electrons and are electronegative, while Si, midway between the two,
avails itself of its double privilege and is sometimes electropositive
and sometimes electronegative.

The Rydberg formula for the atomic numbers of the inert gases is
N=2 (1+ 2?-+ 224 32+ 32+ 47). In the construction of his
shells Langmuir states he was guided by this formula. Passing
through the nucleus of the atom is a plane of symmetry which Lang-
muir terms the equatorial plane. No electrons lie in this plane. His
shells, on which lie the external electrons, are approximately spherical.
The first is for helium and its radius is taken as unity. One elec-
tron is in each of the hemispherical surfaces called a cell. The elec-

1922] THE SEARCH FOR THE ULTIMATE ATOM 45

tron ean vibrate or oscillate in this cell but cannot depart from it.
The second shell has a radius of two and hence four times the area
of the first. Since all the cells are equal in area this has a capacity
for 8 electrons, 4 in each hemisphere, and we have the shell for
neon. Superposed on this shell is another of approximately equal
radius and hence of equal capacity. This is the shell of argon. The
next two shells, one superposed upon the other, have the radius 3,
hence each can contain 18 electrons and we have the shells for
krypton and xenon. The next shell with a radius of 4 accommodates
32 electrons and gives us the shell for niton.

There can be no electrons in the outer shell till the inner ones
are completely filled. The atoms with the partially filled shells con-
stitute the active elements. The tendency of these outside electrons
to combine so as to form stable configurations constitutes chemical
action. Quoting from a brief article by Langmuir: ‘‘The 8 electrons
in the second and third layers are arranged in a symmetrical way
like the arrangement of the 8 corners of a cube. This stable group
of 8 electrons is called the Octet. The chemical properties of the
elements result from the tendency of the individual atoms to take up
or give up electrons in order to form Octets.”’

This theory has been highly successful in explaining chemical phe-
nomena and, says Langmuir, ‘‘has made it possible to predict cor-
rectly the properties of certain substances before these properties
have been determined by experiments.’’

The real atom must necessarily incorporate whatever is true in
both the Bohr and Langmuir atoms. It seems that in all prob-
ability it may be a compromise between the two.

WAKE Forest, N. C.

TWENTY YEARS OF THE NORTH CAROLINA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE

By C. S. BrimLEy

With this meeting (that of 1922), the North Carolina Academy
of Science closes its twentieth year, and at the request of the secre-
tary, Dr. Cunningham, I have prepared a brief review of those first
twenty years of its history.

No account of its origin has ever been published, the first printed
records being those of the first regular meeting for the presentation
of papers at which time the Academy had already been organized
for over six months.

The manner of its beginning was in this fashion. W. W. Ashe,
at that time State Forester, conceived the idea of organizing such
an institution for the State sometime in 1901, and he communicated
his thoughts to Franklin Sherman, State Entomologist, and H. H.
Brimley, Curator of the State Museum, and later on to F. L. Stevens,
Plant Pathologist at the A. and M. College, and Tait Butler, State
Veterinarian. These five gentlemen held various conferences and
discussions, and the idea also spread among the members of the
Raleigh Biological Society of which Dr. Stevens was president. This
was mainly during the early part of 1902.

Finally these five gentlemen sent out a eall for a meeting to
organize a North Carolina Academy of Science, though I am not
sure whether the call was signed by others or by these five gentle-
men alone, nor do I remember just to whom the appeal was sent.
Probably it went mostly to biologists as all the gentlemen inter-
ested were biologists themselves, and I have a dim recollection of
some discussion as to whether the attempt should be to form an
Academy of Science or of Natural Sciences. The former was finally
decided upon, but I am not at all sure that that decision was reached
before the call was sent out.

However, be that as it may, the call was sent and in response to
it there assembled in Dr. Butler’s office in the State Agricultural
Building at Raleigh on March 21, 1902, four of the five originators
(Sherman, H. H. Brimley, Stevens, and Ashe), Dr. Butler being out

[ 46 ]

nd

1922| .Twenty YEARS oF THE N. C. ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 47
of town at the time, and five others, namely: W. L. Poteat, Professor
of Biology at Wake Forest College, T. Gilbert Pearson of Guilford
College, B. W. Kilgore, State Chemist, J. L. Kesler, Professor of
Science at the Baptist Female University (now Meredith College),
and the writer.

Dr. Stevens presided till the permanent officers were elected and
Mr. Sherman acted as secretary. Two sessions were held, one in
the afternoon and one at night. After much discussion it was agreed
to go ahead with the organization of an Academy of Science, although
there was a doubt in the minds of some as to whether it might not
be advisable to wait until a larger representation of the scientists of
the State could be secured. The majority, however, feared that any
delay might prove to be permanent and it was decided to proceed
and organize the Academy at that meeting.

Consequently the North Carolina Academy of Science was or-
ganized then and there with a constitution, a full set of officers and
twelve charter members. The charter members were the five origi-
nators (Ashe, H. H. Brimley, Sherman, Stevens, and Butler), the
others present at the meeting (Poteat, Pearson, Kilgore, Kesler, and
I), and two others (Dr. H. A. Royster of Raleigh, and Dr. H. V.
Wilson, Professor of Zoology at the University). Of the twelve char-
ter members, six have retained their membership to the present time,
the others having with one exception left the State. The first of-
ficers were: W. L. Poteat, President, T. G. Pearson, Vice-President,
Franklin Sherman, Secretary. An executive committee was also
elected, consisting of nine members, including the president and sec-
retary. It may be added that at first there was some idea that the
Academy was intended by its founders to be a Raleigh institution
and for some three or four years the majority of the executive com-
mittee was from Raleigh as also were the first two secretaries. How-
ever no such idea was present in the minds of the charter members
and with the election of Dr. Gudger as secretary in 1907 it finally
sank into oblivion. °

I should be inclined at this distance of time to give a larger part
of the credit for the success of the organization meeting to Messrs.
Poteat, Sherman, and Stevens, than to the other members, although
I know it is somewhat invidious to discriminate in such matters.

Twenty regular meetings for the presentation of papers have

48 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

been held since that memorable day, the first two in the fall, the
others in the spring.

Twenty-one presidents have held office, namely: W. L. Poteat
(Wake Forest College, Zoology), C. W. Edwards (Trinity, Physies),
Charles Baskerville (University, Chemistry), F. L. Stevens (A. and
M. College, Botany), J. F. Lanneau (Wake Forest, Astronomy), Col-
her Cobb (University, Geology), T. Gilbert Pearson (State Normal,
Ornithology), Tait Butler (Agricultural Department, Veterinarian),
W. C. Coker (University, Botany), W. H. Pegram (Trinity, Chem-
istry), H. V. Wilson (University, Zoology), C. S. Brimley (Raleigh,
Zoology), Franklin Sherman (Agricultural Department, Entom-
ology), J. J. Wolfe (Trinity, Botany), A. S. Wheeler (University,
Chemistry), F. P. Venable (University, Chemistry), W. A. Withers
(A. and M. College, Chemistry), E. W. Gudger (State Normal, Zo-
ology), A. H. Patterson (University, Physies), Z. P. Metealf (State
College, Entomology), J. L. Lake (Wake Forest, Physies).

It will be seen from this list that the University contributed 7
presidents, Trinity, Wake Forest and the State College, three each,
the State Agricultural Department and the State Normal College,
two each, and private life one. As to the branches of science repre-
sented there were seven chemists representing both organic and in-
organic chemistry, seven zoologists, (including two entomologists and
one ornithologist.) three each botanists and physicists, one astron-
omer, one geologist, and one veterinarian.

The place of meeting has from the first rotated between Trinity
College, Wake Forest College, State College, the University and the
State Normal (now the North Carolina College for Women) usually
in the order named, there having been five meetings at the State
College, three at the State Normal and four at each of the other in-
stitutions.

The proximity of these five institutions of learning, united to the
fact that the State Department of Agriculture, Elon College, Guil-
ford College, and several’ other smaller institutions fall within the
same area, is one of the causes that made the existence of a successful
Academy of Science an accomplished fact in North Carolina. I do
not wish to minimize the work of those who organized the Academy
nor of those who have successfully piloted it through its twenty years
of existence, but if these institutions had been seattered all over the

1922] Twenty Years oF THE N. C. ACADEMY oF SCIENCE 49

State their work would have been much harder and might not have
succeeded.

The first meeting at Trinity College was quite a success but the
second at the University (in the fall of 1903) was rather a frost, only
two persons outside of the University, the president, Dr. Edwards,
and I being in evidence on the first day of the meeting, though a
few more turned up next day. Even the secretary was away in
Texas attending a cotton boll weevil meeting or convention. Never-
theless the meeting was by no means a failure and the successful
meeting at Wake Forest next spring dispelled all doubts as to the
success of the Academy.

During its early years, in fact up to 1910, the membership of the
Academy averaged about forty to fifty, but in that year an inten-
Sive campaign for new members was put on and the membership
doubled. Since then the membership has oscillated between seventy
and eighty but in the last two years has gone well over a hundred and
shows signs of never again dropping below that number. It may
be noted here that the campaign for membership was incited by the
uneasiness of our esteemed secretary, Dr. Gudger, who was easily de-
pressed by a slight drop in the Academy’s bank balance, which, how-
ever, never at any time got dangerously low.

Of the Academy’s hard working secretaries (Franklin Sherman,
1902-1905, F. L. Stevens, 1905-7, E. W. Gudger, 1907-1918, Bert
Cunningham, 1918-1919, and 1921-...., and R. W. Leiby, 1919-1921),
two deserve especial mention, Mr. Sherman who piloted the Academy
through its first perilous years, and Dr. Gudger who for eleven years
faithfuliy sat at the receipt of custom, always with a genial smile,
always on the job, and always with a nice little balance to the
Academy’s credit, though its occasional downward trend invariably
disturbed his equanimity for the time being. His departure from the
state was a great loss and he will long be missed by his old associates,

In its course of existence the Academy has lost quite a number
of its prominent members, a few by death, more by removal from the
state. Thus Mr. Ashe and Professor Kesler left the state very
soon after its organization, Messrs. Stevens, Butler, Baskerville, Pear-
son, and Gudger, each shortly after the expiration of his presidential
term. Dr. J. J. Wolfe and Dr. J. S. Lanneau, both ex-presidents
and both sturdy pillars of the Academy, as well as Dr. Baskerville
have died within the past three years.

50 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

Among those who have been more conspicuous in the Academy
the following deserve notice: Charles Baskerville, H. V. Wilson, W. C.
Coker, Collier Cobb, A. H. Patterson, and A. 8S. Wheeler of the Uni-
versity ; C. W. Edwards, J. J. Wolfe, and Bert Cunningham of Trin-
ity; W. L. Poteat, J. S. Lanneau, and J. L. Lake ‘of Wake Forest ;
T. Gilbert Pearson and E. W. Gudger of the State Normal; F. L.
Stevens, W. A. Withers, and Z. P. Metcalf of the State College;
Franklin Sherman, Tait Butler and R. W. Leiby of the State Agri-
eultural Department.

In 1904 the annual mecting was held in conjunction with the
spring meeting of the North Carolina section of the American Chem-
ical Society, largely through the efforts of Dr. Baskerville, and the
arrangement has proved so acceptable to both organizations that it
has been continued, with an occasional lapse, ever since.

‘‘Behold the field that seemed barren,
How great a harvest have the years revealed.’’

RAueicH, N. C.

oe

SOME PHASES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRYSEMYS
CINEREA*

By Bert CUNNINGHAM
Plates 2-4

INTRODUCTION

The egg production, egg-laying habits, nest building, and the de-
velopment of the embryo through the gastrulation stage in Chrysemys
cinerea are dealt with in this paper. A satisfactory method of arti-
ficially incubating the eggs has made it possible to secure consecutive
stages of development in such numbers that careful study could be
made of many points which have caused dispute.

Many details of turtle embryology have been worked out, but there.
has been little collection or unification of these data. Since several
forms of turtles were used by the various writers, it will be impos-
sible to limit the discussion of the literature to even a single genus,
and the contradictory opinions of these writers as to developmental
history probably resulted from the uses of a variety of forms.

As early as 1828 Tiedmann published a report upon two eggs of
Emys amazoni. This was followed by the description (exact title
unknown) of a turtle egg seven days old by Carus in February, 1829.
In the same year Berthold discussed the absence of the chalaza in the
egg of Hmys. An account of a young egg of Emys europaea was pub-
lished by Von Baer in 1834. Three years later he published ‘‘ Ueber
Entwicklungsgeschichte der Thiere,’’ Teil II, in which he points out
the similarity of structure of the eggs of the chick and the turtle,
and the greater time required for the development of the latter. His
conclusions were based upon the observations of Carus and Tied-
mann. He noted also that while the ovary and oviduct of the chick
is single, that of the turtle is paired. Peters (1838) published an
article upon a young ‘‘Schildkroete.’’ Rathke, who is often credited
with the first embryological work on Chelonians, began his contri-
butions to embryology in 1832 with an account of the ‘‘ Wolffscher’’

*The writer wishes to express his appreciation to the Zoological Staff of the Univer-
sity of Wisconsin, especially to Dr. E. A. Smith, Dr. M. F. Guyer, and Dr. A. S. Pearse
for helpful suggestions and criticisms.

[ 51]

52 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

bodies of the turtle. The results of his later investigation were pub-
lished (1848) under the title ‘‘ Entwicklung der Schildkroeten.’’ In
this work he deals chiefly with gross anatomy of various stages of
development, especially of the muscles, the carapace, and the ali-
mentary canal.

Nothing more of importance appeared on this subject until 1857
when the classic work of Agassiz was published, which, according to
Davenport (1898), ‘‘stands today with its many unverified facts as
an incentive to the reptilian embryologist.’’ Since Agassiz’s time no
one has attempted to work completely over the field of turtle embry-
ology, although numerous short articles have been written.

THE COLLECTION OF MATERIAL

The materials used in the preparation of this paper were col-
lected in the vicinity of Madison, Wisconsin. The territory around
Lake Wingra furnished most of the specimens taken on land. Col-
lections were made also on Lake Mendota, Lake Monona and on Mud
Lake. A number of turtles were taken from high land, since the
object was to capture them when nest building, but the majority
were caught with dip nets in the water.

There seems to be considerable confusion as to the synonymy of
four of the so-called ‘‘species’’ of Chrysemys, viz. Chrysemys margt-
nata Agassiz; C. bellii Gray; C. cinerea Bonnaterre; and C. picta
Hermann. Chrysemys cinerea was named by Bonnaterre probably
between 1790 and 1800. Chrysemys bellii was named by Gray early
in the nineteenth century, while C. picta was designated as Testudo
picta by Hermann before 1792.

Agassiz recognized the validity of all four species. His differ-
entiation, however, was built largely upon the color pattern which
may easily be shown to be a false basis. In his description he indi-
cates that the arrangement of the vertebral plates in C. picta differ-
entiates it from all other forms. While some of his figures bear out
this idea, the others do not. An examination of figures 1 to 6 will
make this clear. Figure 2 is C. marginata while all the other are C.
picta. The similarity of figures 2 and 5 is so striking in regard to
vertebral plate arrangement that no one would think of making
them into two species. Figures 1, 3, and 5 seem to form a graded
series from the typical C. picta to the typical C. marginata.

Gadow’s (1901) figure of C. picta (figure 7), is intermediate be-

1922] PHASES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRYSEMYS CINEREA 53

tween figures 1 and 2. Hegner (1916) copies Gadow’s figure. Dit-
mars (1914) says of C. marginata ‘‘size and structure of the shell,
like the preceding (ie., C. picta), differs only in ecoloration.’’ If
eolor pattern were the only difference this form could well be grouped
as a variety of C. cinerea as will be shown later. However, in his
text descriptions Ditmars has overlooked the most characteristic dif-
ference shown in his drawings, (figs. 8 and 9) namely, that in C.
marginata the neural seutes alternate with the costal. This is not
true in C. picta. Since there was no opportunity to examine a large
number of specimens on this point, it is assumed that this arrange-
ment of the vertebral plates as indicated by Hermann (see figure 14)
is sufficient to separate C. picta from the other species, and that C.
picta is best represented by this figure.

Of the three remaining species Ruthven (1912) considers C.
marginata as synonymous with C. cinerea. He adopted the latter
specific name on the basis of priority, and thus describes but two
species, C. cinerea and C. belli. These two species were separated
by certain carapace and plastron markings. Applying Ruthven’s
descriptions to the forms occurring at Madison, the separation of the
two species was impossible. Carapace markings were examined and
found to be variable and uncertain, in fact, carapace markings typical
of C. belli occurred in animals having a typical C. cinerea plastron,
and vice versa. The conclusion that these carapace markings are
no longer of any systematic value was confirmed by communications
from Ruthven. Differentiation, therefore, must be based wholly upon
plastron marking. Figs. 15 and 16 are copies of the plastron
drawings of these two species as shown by Ruthven. The former
represents C. bellii and the latter, C. cinerea. While there are indi-
viduals occurring here that have typical belli plastrons, and others
which have typical cinerca plastrons, individuals have been found
with plastron markings intermediate between these two ‘‘species.’’
More than seven hundred turtles were examined, and practically
every degree of variation of plastron marking was found, ranging
from the typical C. oregoniensis, a common species upon the West
Coast, to a form with considerably less color pattern than that shown
by Ruthven for C. cinerea. Life size drawings were made (see figs.
17-24) of eight selected specimens showing some of these variations.
If plastron markings alone are to be the determining factor, where

54 JOURNAL OF THE MircHeLui Sociery | September

should the line be drawn to separate these forms into two species?
Furthermore, females having one type of plastron may produce
offspring of entirely different markings. Unfortunately, the plastron
markings of turtle No. 25, from which embryos No. 115 and No. 116
were secured, is not known; however, these embryos, the plastrons of
which, drawn to seale, are shown in figures 25 and 26, were taken
from the same clutch. The former shows a typical C. belli plastron
while the latter shows the plastron typical of C. cinerea. There were
two other embryos in this clutch which are not figured; one has a
plastron marking smaller than that shown in figure 22, while the
other is intermediate between figures 21 and 22. There is, evidently,
only one species occurring near Madison, or else there is a hopeless
hybridization. If the latter be true, it is unaccompanied by any
partial sterility such as is usually the case. The relation of these
color patterns to geographical distribution in Wisconsin has not been
worked out. In Michigan (Ruthven) C. bellii oceurs in the upper
peninsula while C. cinerea occurs in the other parts of the state. It
would be interesting to find the results in other regions where both
forms occur. It seems probable that in regard to these animals the
case 1s similar to that of the song sparrow. In the central region
of the distribution we have a mixture of all forms which, west of
the Mississippi River, grades through bellii into oregoniensis, and
eastward, into cinerea and possibly into picta. On this basis the
classification would be Chrysemys cinerea and Chrysemys cinerea
var. belli. If this classification is adopted or even the rule of priority
is applied, then the work of Allen (1904-1906) and that of Van
Alten (1914-16) should be designated as being upon Chrysemys
cinerea rather than Chrysemys marginata. In this paper the forms
are designated as Chrysemys cinerea and no effort is made to dif-
ferentiate the varieties.

During the collection of the material opportunities were afforded
to observe the egg-laying habits of this turtle. In 1919 this species
was found to be laying between June 8 and June 26. One female
was taken upon high ground June 28, but no nest was found to
prove that she had just laid. Dissection showed no eggs in the ovi-
duet.

Collections during the summer of 1920 gave slightly different re-
sults. The first turtle taken in oviposition was collected June 8.
However, the laying time was considerably extended. No turtles

1922] PHASES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRYSEMYS CINEREA 55

were found in oviposition later than June 25th, but as late as July
7th turtles bearing fully formed eggs were found crushed upon the
road as they were seeking high ground for laying. This latest ob-
servation was made by Dr. E. M. Gilbert, but similar previous eases
were observed by the writer as late as July 1. The latest date previ-
ously reported for these turtles with eggs is July 1, when Ruthven
(1910) collected a turtle with ten eggs in the oviduct.

The eggs are usually deposited during the afternoon or evening.
One turtle was found packing the hole of the nest at 4:00 p. m., which
indicates that the work of nest building was begun before noon.
None were found in oviposition in the morning but a number were
taken at 4:30 p. m., and a few were just beginning the work of nest
building as late as 6:00 p. m.

These turtles select high ground in which to build their nests.
Sometimes this is a considerable distance from the water or, where
the banks are high, it may be only the distance of a few feet. Usually
the ground chosen is hard and dry but a sandy beach may be used.
The dirt is first moistened with water from the supernumerary bladder.
*This is shown by the fact that the dirt in the hole and surrounding
it closely is moist while that farther away is hard and dry. The
moistened dirt is worked up and thrown out by the hind feet. It
was impossible to determine whether or not the tail was used in dig-
ging the hole, as some investigators have reported, since it was al-
ways either in the hole or turned up under the plastron while the
work was being done. When the hole has reached a depth of from
three to four inches a small cave-like excavation is made at one side
into which the eggs are dropped without any reference to position.
They frequently are found standing on end but more often they
are lying on one side. After the last egg has been deposited the
dirt is pushed loosely around them and the neck of the nest is packed
with wet dirt which is tamped down with the plastron. The nest
is then scratched over and is made to resemble the surrounding

* It was considered desirable to determine whether the great quantity of water found in
the supernumerary bladder was water removed from the circulation stream or drawn in
through the cloaca, since the quantity of liquid in the supernumerary bladder increases
markedly during the laying season and decreases after the laying season is past. While the
evidence on this point is incomplete, it is thought best to present it at this time. The urine
from five turtles was centrifuged and microscopically examined, and since neither diatoms,
green algae or protozoa were found, it is doubtful if this is other than excreted water.
Chemical examinations were made to determine the percentage of nitrogen compounds in
the urine. It was found, in the summer, to be .00055%. Materials for fall determination
were lost in transit. :

56 JOURNAL OF THE MiTrcHELL SOCIETY | September

ground so closely that it is difficult to find, especially after the place
has become dry.

In the beginning it was deemed best to allow the eggs to incubate
under normal conditions. A plan of marking the nests with stakes
was adopted. Soon it was found that these nests and many others
were opened by some animal, or animals, and the contents of the
eggs consumed. Nests were frequently found where the empty shells
had been replaced and covered over with loose dirt and sticks. Be-
eause of this, the plan of marking the nests was abandoned and all
the eggs were brought into the laboratory for artificial incubation.

In the chick the eggs are so produced that they mature at con-
secutive intervals of time, approximately from twenty-four to forty-
eight hours apart, and are laid individually from day to day over a
considerable period. An examination of the ovary of the chick shows
a graded series of the eggs from the smallest ovarian egg up through
sizes to those with fully developed yolks just ready to be shed from
the ovary. In Chelydra serpentina this is not the case. Here, where
a large number of eggs are to be fertilized and laid a brief period
of time, are found two types of eggs: the small ovarian egg and
the mature egg which is ready to receive the white. The mature
eggs of C. serpentina are evidently developed simultaneously from the
ovarian egg in the season. In Chrysemys cinerea, however, a much
greater period of time is required to build up the mature egg, pos-
sibly four years, since, according to size, the eggs usually occur in
four groups. The largest group is composed of eggs the yolks of
which are nearly as large as those in fully developed eggs. The sec-
ond group contains eggs about half as large as the first and the other
groups of eggs decrease in size correspondingly. Agassiz noted this
fact in C. picta and he assumed that it takes four years for the egg to
reach the stage where it is ready to receive the white. He stated also
that the number of eggs of a given size must represent the number
of eggs in a clutch laid by the species. This latter statement seemed
a valid assumption but present evidence from Chrysemys cinerea
shows it to be doubtful. Although specimens were dissected which
contained but one egg of a given size, many had groups of two or
three eggs. Since never fewer than four eggs were found in the
nest or the oviduct of the turtles examined, it would appear that the
small eggs may mature rapidly.

1922] PHASES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRYSEMYS CINEREA

Or
~l

The eggs deposited by different individuals vary in number from
four to fourteen, with an average of seven. Inasmuch as the size
of a turtle is an indicator of its age, comparisons were made to deter-
mine whether there is any relation between the age of the turtle and
the number of eggs laid. No definite relation is apparent if isolated
eases be studied but when the average production of the various
sizes is taken a gradual increase in egg number occurs with in-
creasing size, as is shown in the following table:

Length mm. No. of Individuals. Av. of Eggs.

130 1 5

135 il 6

140 13 6.38
145 10 (lat
150 5) 9

155 10 9.4
160 10 9.9
165 4 10.5
170 2 13.5

The size at which turtles begin to lay is not at all uniform. In
C. picta, Agassiz states that copulation begins about the seventh
year and egg-laying about the eleventh, or at the time that the tur-
tle has reached 80 mm. in length. He estimates that other species
begin to lay when from eleven to fourteen years of age. Newman
(1906) says of Graptemys, that he has never found one nesting when
less than 190 mm. in length, or when about fourteen years of age.
In C. cinerea nesting may begin when the carapace length is only
130 mm.; but oviposition may be delayed until after the length is
150 mm. In the case of one specimen, 187 mm. long, an examination
of the ovary revealed the presence of only very small eggs, indi-
cating that the turtle would not lay within a couple of years. This
case may have been abnormal.

In some species it is possible to determine the age of turtles by
the growth rings on the dorsal plates, much as the age of the fish
is determined by the growth rings upon the scales. This method
is not applicable to C. cinerea since in this species no growth rings
are evident. Agassiz noted these rings on some species which he
does not name and used a novel method of calculation. Forms in
which the rings occurred were measured and from the number of
growth rings he determined the age. This standard of measure-

58 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL Socrery | September

ment was then applied to species in which growth rings were not
evident and the age was determined by measuring the length. It
seems possible that this caleulation proved satisfactory for C. picta,
since Agassiz held this species under observation for ten years. By
this method he determined that egg-laying begins about the eleventh
year in C. picta, or when the turtle has reached a length of 80 mm.
On the basis suggested by Agassiz, a specimen of C. cinerea, 130 mm.
in length, would be considerably over twenty-five years of age. The
great majority, which begin laying when the carapace length is 150
mm., would be very old. In fact, Agassiz cites one case of C. belli
as being ‘‘very old’’ with a carapace length of 155 mm.

Through the kindness of Dr. A. S. Pearse, we have been able to
secure some data as to the growth in C. cinerea. For the past few
years turtles have been caught, measured, tagged, and then returned
to Lake Mendota. Two such turtles which were caught and tagged
August 6, 1917, were again taken on September 12, 1919. Two others
that had been tagged September 24, 1919, were taken again; one on
May 8, 1920, and the other on June 6, 1920. The data concerning
these four turtles is given in the accompanying table:

Date tagged. Date retaken. Interim. Size a Size b Increase.
Avion) (6,007 Sept. 12, 1919. 2,1, 6. 130 mm. 138 mm. 8 mm
ATS Opel OTT Sept. 12, 1919. Aalemos 130 mm. 137 mm. 7mm
Sept. 24,1919 May 8, 1920. 0,8,14. 91 mm. 92 mm. 1mm
Sept. 24,1919 June 6, 1920. 0,9,12. 66 mm. 70 mm. 4mm

While these data are insufficient, it has been used as a basis and it
has been calculated that a turtle measuring 130 mm. in length would
be from eleven to fifteen years of age. If this be true, even approxi-
mately, then there is a difference in the growth rate of C. picta and
C. cinerea.

The relation of the length of the turtle to the beginning of egg-
laying, based upon the data of 1919 is shown in the accompanying
table:

Length. 115 130) 135 1138) 40n asso melon
mm. mm. mm. mm. mm. mm. mm. mm.
Total No. of specimens.......... 4 4 4 5 6 8 Atri Te
No. with small eggs present..... 4 De aan ws 1
Large eggs present but
would not lay in 1920........ Sc 56 are Cec Be 2 1
No. that would lay in 1920...... ae i i Son's até aie 2
No. having eggs in oviduct...... at 5 3 1 4 3
INo: taken on Mest)... eel re 1 ao at 1 5

* Specimens of this size with no eggs found in oviduct.

1922] PHASES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRYSEMYS CINEREA 59

From present evidence it appears that there is also a considerable
difference in growth rate between the males and the females of C.
cinerea. The average size of the males taken during the two summers
was 117 mm., while the average for the females, for the same time,
was 143 mm. The largest female caught measured 187 mm., while
the largest male was 175 mm. Another fact which seems to sup-
port the idea is that the males become sexually mature by the time
they have reached a length of 88 mm., while no females have been
found which were sexually mature under 130 mm. <A male turtle
was considered as being sexually mature when active spermatozoa
were found in the vas deferens. Sexual maturity in the female is
indicated when the first set of eggs begins to enlarge. In the face
of these facts, one must assume that there is either a differential
growth rate or that the male matures several years earlier than the
female. It is to be expected that light will be thrown upon this
subject when the hundreds of turtles which have been measured,
tagged, and returned to the lake are retaken from year to year.

It has not yet been determined when nor how the eggs are ferti-
lized. It seems a very difficult matter to collect C. cinerea in copulo.
Chelydra serpentina has been observed copulating in the laboratory
but this has not been observed for (. cinerea. A number of catches
were made in the lake when a male and a female were taken together,
plastron to plastron, the female being above, usually with the head
above water. These were supposed to be copulating. In all such
eases the males were much smaller than the females. Two copulating
Seasons were observed during the year; one in the fall and another
in the spring. The opening of the spring copulating season is indi-
eated by the arrival well out in the bay of rather timid individuals.
Some of these have been caught with great difficulty and were found
to be males. As the season progresses, the females appear in the
swampy parts of the lake and are there sought out by the males.
Both males and females now become less timid and are easily taken.
Soon after the spring copulation laying begins. During September
and early October there is a similar congregation of individuals, and
spermatozoa can again be found in the oviducts which had been
free from them during the latter part of the summer. It was this
semi-annual copulation together with the appearance of the eggs in
groups that led Agassiz to formulate his theory of progressive ferti-

60 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL SOCIETY | September

lization. This theory is contrary to the modern concept of ferti-
lization, and seems untenable, at least in the case of C. cinerea, al-
though there is no specific evidence bearing on the ease.

There is, however, some contributory evidence. If turtles be taken
from their native haunts before the spring copulation season, they
produce wholly infertile eggs, and it is only after spermatozoa begin
to appear in the oviducts of turtles in their native habitat that fertile
eges are found. It would seem reasonable that the fall copulation
should be the fourth for some considerable number of individuals,
and hence should initiate cleavage. But no such cleavage is found.

The foregoing observations lead also to the conclusion that the
fall copulation is ineffectual for fertilization. The idea that the
spermatozoa are retained in the body of the female during the winter
and are capable of fertilizing the mature eggs in the spring is also
erroneous. In a few weeks after the close of the fall season a careful
examination of the uterus, oviducts, bladder and body fluids of a
number of specimens failed to reveal any spermatozoa. This leaves
still unexplained the presence of a ‘‘food mass’’ observed on the
spermatozoa by Glascock (not yet published) which might have been
interpreted as an adaptation for this purpose.

As had been suggested, the males and the females are of con-
siderably different sizes when copulation begins. Whether this is
due to a differential growth rate or a different age for reaching sexual
maturity is undetermined, but the evidence presented here appears
to sustain the former idea. That copulation does not begin until
sexual maturity has been reached by the females, at least, is evi-
denced by the fact that the spermatozoa were not observed in the
oviduects of sexually immature individuals. One turtle 125 mm.
taken after the copulation season was well under way showed no
traces of spermatozoa while another, 130 mm. in length, taken five
days later, produced fertile eggs. Since, as already shown, the males
may have active spermatozoa in the epididymus when they reach a
length of 88 mm., it is safe to assume that copulation begins in the
male when a carapace length of 85 mm. has been reached. In the
ease of females, no spermatozoa were found in the turtles with a
carapace length of less than 130 mm., therefore copulation must
begin about that time.

Development to a certain stage takes place in the oviduct. The
great majority of eggs removed from the oviduct had attained the

1922] PHASES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRYSEMYS CINEREA 61

blastopore stage and remained in that stage. Evidently some condi-
tion arrests the development of most of the eggs about the time the
blastopore is formed. Several attempts were made to determine the
factors which inhibited development. It was thought at first that
possibly the egg absorbed water from the soil, since soon after deposi-
tion the egg became turgid. To test this idea, uterine eggs were
weighed immediately upon their removal from the oviducts, then
placed under incubation conditions and weighed from time to time.
There was a slight decrease in weight indicating that water was not
absorbed from the outside during the development of the egg. Eggs
were also incubated under moist conditions without contact of soil
and were found to develop normally, indicating that soil has nothing
to do with the initiation of development. This left only the assump-
tion that either the gases of the air or those dissolved in water were
responsible for the renewal of embryological processes. Whole ovi-
ducts containing the eggs were removed, tied at each end and placed
under incubation conditions, but without results. The failure of these
eggs to develop, however, might reasonably be traced to the decay
of the tissue of the oviduct. Further experimentation will be carried
out along this line. It is quite possible that the physical change in
the shell from the hard, inflexible shell in the oviduct to the soft,
flexible shell in the nest permits a freer flow of gases. At any rate,
this renewal of development is co-incident with a change in the al-
bumen from a thick to a thin substance, with a corresponding in-
crease in pressure.

While as a rule the eggs taken from the oviduct are in the blasto-
pore stage, some of them are found in the cleavage stages and others
in the earliest flexure stages. Embryo No. 38, fig. 33, was found
to be in this flexure condition. This was the second egg to enter
the oviduct and it was opened immediately upon its. removal. This
embryo shows a greater development than those behind it in the
oviduct.

Agassiz noted that a turtle might lay eggs that had been retained
for a considerable time. He found, however, that in most eases
such eggs developed into monstrosities.

This is not necessarily true as is shown in the following experi-
ment. A turtle was caught, June 12, in the act of digging a nest.
She was placed in a tank of water, without sand, and kept until
July 10, when she was dissected. Of the seven eggs covered by shells,

62 JOURNAL OF THE MrircHELL Society | September

four were opened and found to be in blastopore stages. One of these
is Shown in fig. 27. It is to be noted that this egg, although retained
for a month, had not passed beyond the blastopore stage, and it
seems reasonable to suppose that the development of the three un-
opened eggs was about the same. The three unopened eggs were
placed under incubation conditions. Figure 10 was made from one
of the eggs from this clutch, artificially incubated for forty-eight
days. Figure 11 is a drawing of a specimen from a non-retained
egg which was incubated for forty-three days. A comparison of
these two embryos shows that no unsatisfactory results came from
such retention. In order to determine how long they could be forced
to retain their eggs, turtles collected early in June were kept in
tanks of water without sand until the latter part of July, when
some of them, at least, laid their eggs in the water and presumably
ate them, for the only evidence of such deposition was the empty
egg shells. Dissections of a number of individuals at a later time
showed no traces of eggs.

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION

Up to date, efforts to incubate artificially the eggs of turtles and
terrapins have not been very satisfactory, although several success-
ful attempts have been reported. One of these cases is related by
Pease (1910), who carried home some newly laid eggs to show the
children. These eggs were carelessly left in a tin box on the pantry
shelf and in due time they hatched. Neither the species nor any
other detail was given. Another plan, used commercially, is reported
by Moulton (1914) who states that the eggs of the diamond-back
terrapin are collected from the sandpiles in which they are laid,
placed in boxes of sand, and sprinkled with water weekly until they
hatch. Little data is given. Hochstetter (1906) mentions the arti-
ficial incubation of some fifty eggs for embryological purposes, by a
method similar to that reported by Moulton.

Before any of the papers mentioned above had come to the knowl-
edge of the writer, the following experiments had been successfully
carried out. The first effort of the writer to incubate Chelonian
eggs, artificially, was made in the summer of 1918 at Trinity Col-
lege, Durham, North Carolina. Four eggs, secured from a potato
hill near Farmville, Virginia, about the middle of August, were

1922] PHASES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRYSEMYS CINEREA 63

placed in a box of sand, without any reference to their previous
position, and earried about one hundred. miles to the laboratory,
where they were placed in a bucket of moist dirt which was cov-
ered with a bell jar. About the middle of September four little
terrapins of an undetermined species made their appearance. It is
surprising, when the careless handling of these eggs is considered,
that they hatched, for if such treatment had been given the eggs of
Chrysemys cinerea, the embryos would have died. This indicates a
fundamental difference in the egg structure of these two forms; the
blastodise of this terrapin egg, like that of the hen’s egg, did not
stick to tke shell membrane but rotated as the egg was placed in
various positions. In the summer of 1919 the eggs of the painted
turtle were brought into the laboratory of the University of Wis-
consin and placed in buckets of dirt, covered with bell jars. From
such eggs embryos were secured. In these experiments newly laid
eggs (not over a few hours old) and uterine eggs were used. The
former were frequently collected before the the completion of the
packing of the hole of the nest but never before the laying was
finished. Uterine eggs were removed directly from the female. A
summary of the results of the incubation of the uterine and the laid
eggs for the first summer is here given:

Total No. Total No. Total No. Per Cent

Clutches Eggs Embryos Development
IDE Le A aN 6 32 11 34.4
(LUGE 6 SIRS eee 19 135 99 73.3

During the second and third summers practically none but uterine
eggs were used, but owing to the fact that many turtles were taken
before the copulating season began, the data on fertility would be
unreliable, and is therefore not included.

Uterine eggs of other species have been examined. by other stu-
dents, but no reports have been found which would indicate that
the incubation of uterine eggs had ever been attempted. The value
of such incubation will be pointed out later in the paper.

Although it is necessary to kill the turtle to secure the uterine
eggs, this has its recompense, since from four to ten eggs are secured
from each turtle. These represent various stages of development
between early cleavage and the first flexure stages. Such a variety
of phases in a single individual does not seem to be available in
any other animal. If the turtle is taken early in the breeding sea-

64 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

son cleavage stages are very likely to be found, although the major-
ity of eggs will be in the blastopore stage. This condition makes the
turtle an excellent animal from which to secure the blastopore stages
of the discoidal cleavage type for class work, since a single turtle
may produce six or more eggs in this stage, whereas the hen, which
must also be killed in order to secure the blastopore stage, will produce
but a single egg in this condition.* The use of turtle eggs permits
of a comparative study of the development of eggs of a elutch which
have, in the very nature of things, much more in common than any
eroup of hen eggs. Furthermore, turtle eggs may be placed under
identical incubation conditions immediately upon removal from the
oviduet, while the hen eges, which are laid from day to day, are
subject to varying external conditions before incubation.

For incubation, the eggs of Chrysemys cinerea are buried to a
depth of about one inch in horizontal position in a battery jar of
moist sand. Each group is labeled with a peg bearing the number
of the turtle. The embryos are numbered as they are removed from
the eggs and fixed.

A few precautions are necessary in the artificial incubation of
C. cinerea eggs. In the first place, if eggs which have been laid
are to be incubated, they must be secured early after deposition, since
in from twenty-four to thirty-six hours after laying the embryonic
dise comes to lie just above the yolk level, either at the top or the
side or at the end of the egg, and attaches itself to the shell mem-
brane. Any change in the position of the egg, even as little as a
quarter of a turn, after this, may cause the yolk to settle over the
embryo and the development will cease, or become abnormal. This
probably accounts for the failure of many attempts at artificial in-
eubation where the eggs are brought in from the field several hours
after deposition.

A proper moisture content also is essential for suecess. Eges of
the painted turtle exposed to the air of laboratories soon become
wrinkled and finally collapse. In the ease of the snapping turtle,
the shell is much tougher and the shriveling does not take place but
the moisture leaves the egg and the yolk becomes a hardened mass
within the shell. Seven ‘‘snapper’’ eggs were completely dried at

* Recent work by Riddle (1921) would indicate that blastopore stages may be secured
from live hens by intramuscular injections.

1922] PHASES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRYSEMYS CINEREA 65

the close of twenty-eight days. Eggs from the same clutch, kept
under moist conditions, continued to develop.

Temperature, of course, plays its part, although a room with a
southern exposure gives sufficient heat for reasonably rapid develop-
ment. In this connection it was thought desirable to determine the
effect of cold upon the rate of development. For this experiment
the eggs from turtles No. 128 and No. 129 were placed under the
usual incubation conditions except that they were put in a refriger-
ator. After a period of about one month one of these was opened
and found to be in the blastopore stage, indicating that development
does not proceed at temperatures near the freezing point. The eggs,
however, were not injured by the cold, for when placed under the
natural heat conditions of the room they began to develop in the
normal manner. In order to determine the relative rate of develop-
ment, indoors and out, three eggs from each of the specimens No.
36, No. 37, and No. 38 were buried in an artificial nest out of doors,
exposed to all natural conditions. The remaining eggs from each of
these specimens were placed under incubation in the laboratory. From
time to time these eggs were opened. Embryo No. 88, fig. 11, was
incubated in the laboratory forty-three days, while embryo No. 100,
fig. 12, was incubated out of doors in an artificial nest for forty-
seven days. Development proved to be about as rapid in the labora-
tory as outside.

The presence of soil around the egg is not necessary. This has
been tried out in one case with the eggs of the ‘‘snapper.’’ Five
eggs from a clutch of eleven were placed in a finger bowl without
sand or water, (see a, in table below). The remaining six were placed
in moist sand, (see b, table below). The two bowls were placed in
a glass dish which contained a small quantity of water and cov-
ered with a bell jar. Incubation was allowed to go on for a few
days and then the eggs were opened with the following results:

(a) 5 eggs—3 embryos, 1 dead, 1 egg infertile.
(b) 6 eggs—3 embryos, 1 dead, 2 eggs infertile.

Although the eggs develop without soil, nevertheless, it serves the
useful purpose of holding the eggs in position during development.

The rate of development of the uterine egg is about the same as
that of the laid egg. An examination of the drawings of embryo No.
68, fig. 34, which was incubated twenty days, and of embryo No.

66 JOURNAL OF THE MircHEeLL SocrIeTy [ September

69, fig. 37, incubated seventeen days, shows that the latter, which is
from a laid egg, is slightly more in advance, as would be expected.
Comparison of embryo No. 92, fig. 10, and No. 99, fig. 13, shows that
the former, which is from a uterine egg, is more advanced. In this
cage, also, the laid egg was incubated three days longer than the
uterine egg.

Even among uterine eggs there is a variation in the rate of de-
velopment. Two eggs were placed under identical ineubation condi--
tions, one day apart, and were opened on the same day. From these
embryos No. 80, fig. 39, and No. 81, fig. 38, were obtained. Embryo
No. 80 is considerably more developed than No. 81 would be if it
had been incubated for the same time. Such difference may pos-
sibly be due, in some degree, to the extent of the egg development
in the uterus, but more likely it is due to the different developmental
rates.

Altogether one hundred and sixty-seven eggs were incubated the
first year. From these one hundred and ten embryos, or slightly
over sixty-six per cent, developed. During the second summer, three
hundred and five eggs were handled from thirty-five clutches. Since
a number of these clutches were taken from turtles collected before
the spring copulation season began, there is a rather high percentage
of infertility, some ten clutches failing to have any eggs develop.

The ease with which turtles may be secured and incubation ear-
ried on, and the high percentage of fertility, make the turtle an excel-
lent subject for embryological work.

PREPARATION OF MATERIAL

Some of the eggs collected were opened immediately and some
were artificially incubated according to the method just described.
The embryos were all killed in Bouin’s fluid, stained in Alum Cochineal
in toto and sectioned in paraffine. In this manner some two hun-
dred and forty embryos have been prepared for study.

DEVELOPMENT History THROUGH GASTRULATION

As stated earlier in this paper, many of the eggs studied were
removed from the oviduct and artificially incubated. No fertilization
stages were found.

1922]. PHASES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRYSEMYS CINEREA 67

CLEAVAGE

Since Chrysemys cinerea deposits its eggs in an advanced stage,
considerable difficulty was experienced in finding cleavage stages.
Two eggs were taken having sixty-four or more cells arranged in a
diseoidal plate. In appearance they were similar to those of the
pigeon eggs photographed by Miss Blount and published in Lillie’s
(1908) text, page 45, fig. C. On account of the hardness of the
embryos, sections were not secured.

FORMATION OF BLASTULA

The formation of the blastula in Chelonians has been studied py
Agassiz (1. ¢.), Will (1893) and Mitsukuri (1896). The sections show
-a layer of rather large cells, co-extensive with the blastodisc, and
underlying these, a layer of more spherical cells. The former is at
once recognized as the ectoderm and the latter as the yolk endoderm.
There is sometimes a cavity present which may be called a segmen-
tation cavity. In the earlier works it was called a Baerische Hohle,
and was figured by Will (1. ¢.).

Some OBSERVATIONS UPON GASTRULATION AND THE FORMATION OF
THE BLASTOPORE

Keibel (1905) raised the question as to the advisability of divid-
ing the process of gastrulation into two parts. He suggested that
the part involving invagination or involution be considered as the
first part and the formation of the mesoderm as the second. This
plan has been adopted in this paper.

Mehnert’s work (1892) concerning the process of gastrulation is
by far the most complete, and carries an excellent bibliography.
Mitsukuri (1893) published a preliminary note upon this process,
which was more fully treated by him in 1894. There is nothing
unusual in the process. The views of these writers will be given
later. ,

The earliest stage of gastrulation is shown by the first invagina-
tion of the ectoderm to form a small cup. This is commonly known
as the blastopore stage. No trouble was experienced in securing it,
since by far the greater number of eggs opened immediately were
found to be in this condition. Altogether, twenty such embryos have

68 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL SOCIETY | September

been mounted whole or sectioned. In Chrysemys cinerea, the blasto-
pore is well within the germinal dise and is usually located asym-
metrically in reference to length, about one-third of the total length
distant from the posterior end. Figure 30 shows a typical case. In
some species the blastopore seems to be in such a position as to ex-
tend beyond the end of the dise, as figured by Mitsukuri (1894). Sev-
eral stages of the closing of the blastopore are shown in the mounted
specimens. The opening, which was originally round, comes to form
first an oval and then an almost straight slit which later becomes
slightly curved with the points of the crescent towards the anterior
part of the body.

The eavity formed by the invagination at first pushes directly
downward and then suddenly bends cephalad, forming two layers
of ectodermal cells, the small space between which is probably the
segmentation cavity. The space continuous with the blastoporie canal
is the archenteron, the roof of which is formed by the invaginated
cells and the floor by the cells of the yolk endoderm. Mitsukuri
(1894) was the first to identify this cavity in Trionyx as the arch-
enteron. Older specimens were found in which the endoderm had
disappeared from the floor and the invagination cavity was continuous
with the space at the top of the yolk. Will (1893) and Mitsukuri
have had considerable argument as to the extent of this archenteroni¢c
cavity before its entrance into the yolk cavity. The former held
that it was co-extensive with the dise while the latter maintained
that it was in no way approximately equal in size to the dise. Ob-
servations upon Chrysemys cinerea confirm the idea of Mitsukuri.
However, Will may also be correct for the form which he discussed,
since generic differences have been shown to exist.

The primitive knot is on the posterior side of the blastopore.
When it is not covered with ectoderm it is considered a yolk plug.
Such an uncovered knob was found by Mitsukuri and Ishikawa in
1886 in Trionyx japonicus, which is one of the snapping turtles. They
at once formulated the idea of homology of the yolk plug in reptiles
and amphibians. Robinson and Assheaton (1891) disagree with the
homology suggested by Mitsukuri and Ishikawa. Kupffer (1882)
did not find the yolk plug in reptilia. Chelydra serpentina is also a
species of the ‘‘snapper,’’ and shows this yolk plug as is seen in
figures 31, 32, 35, and 36. These drawings were made from mounts
already in the University of Wisconsin embryological collections.

19221} PHASES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRYSEMYS CINEREA 69

They show essentially the same features as are figured by Mitsukuri
and Ishikawa.

Similar conditions are not found in Chrysemys cinerea, since the
yolk is plainly covered with ectoderm for some distance down into
the blastoporal canal (see fig. 29). This is brought about in the fol-
lowing manner: At the posterior end of the primitive plate, before
the beginning of invagination, there is proliferated a group of cells
of endodermal origin. These are covered over with a layer of ecto-
derm. When invagination begins, the ectoderm forms a eup which
seems to sink into these lower cells. Ultimately the ectodermal cells
break and the part forming the anterior wall of the blastoporal cavity
turns cephalad, forming a layer of cells under the ectoderm. In
Chrysemys cinerea this rupture of the ectoderm takes place at the
bottom of the cup when it has reached its greatest depth before
turning cephalad. This leaves a part of the endodermal cells of
the primitive knob covered with ectoderm, as indicated above. On
the other hand, Mitsukuri (1896) found in the forms which he studied,
(Trionyx Japonicus and others), that the primitive knob was never
completely covered with ectoderm but that when the ectoderm had
spread over about one-half the outer surface it began to invaginate,
leaving the latter half of the primitive knob uncovered. To this un-
covered part he applied the term yolk plug. Earlier in this paper
such a condition has been shown to exist in Chelydra serpentina. This
was the basis upon which Mitsukuri constructed his theory as to the
homology of this structure in Elasmobranchii, Chelonia, Amphibia
and Mammalia. He states that no such structure (i.e., yolk plug)
has been reported for birds, ‘‘probably due to the fact that nobody
has looked for it.’’ He finds a closer analogy between Elasmobranchu
and Chelonia than between Amphibia and Chelonia. In the exami-
nation of several species he found that the more specialized the
Chelonian studied, the less distinct was the yolk plug. If this be
true, the non-oceurrence of yolk plugs in Chrysemys cinerea means
that this species is farther removed from the ancestral type than
Trionyx japonicus and Chelydra serpentina. Other facts concern-
ing these two forms lead to the same conclusion.

Soon after invagination begins there is a thickening of the ecto-
derm in the median longitudinal line. This represents the primitive
plate. Previous to this thickening the head fold becomes visible at
the anterior end of the dise, but it is not nearly so marked as is

70 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

figured by Agassiz (1. ¢.). In fact, Agassiz (see Agassiz, plate 9-e)
makes the head fold the first to develop. Certainly, such is not the
ease in Chrysemys cinerea.

SUMMARY

1. Chrysemys cinerea is shown to be the only species occurring in
the vicinity of Madison, Wisconsin.

(a) There are no constant differences of markings in the forms
occurring there by which C. cinerea and C. bellii can be separated.

(b) Chrysemys marginata and Chrysemys cinerea have been
previously combined as a single species, the latter name being adopted
on the basis of priority. The impossibility of differentiation between
C. cinerea and C. bellii requires that but one species be recognized.
Priority designates it as C. cinerea.

(c) While hybridization is possible, the undiminished fecundity
of these forms indicates that they are not hybrids.

(d) It is more probable that geographical varieties occur in dif-
ferent regions, as is the case with the song sparrow.

2. The egg-laying period was found to extend from June 8 to
June 26, with a possible extension of time to July 7. Turtles were
observed in oviposition from 3:30 p. m. to 6:00 p. m., but indications
were that egg-laying may be carried on any time from 12:00 m. to
10:00 p. m.

3. It was found that the supernumerary bladder is used for moist-
ening the soil in digging the nest. That the water contained therein
was excretory in nature.

4. The number of eggs in a clutch varies from four to fourteen.
The number of eggs in the ‘‘groups’’ in the ovary varies from one
upwards to fifteen.

5. Chrysemys cinerea may begin laying when it reaches a length
of one hundred and thirty millimeters and, apparently,’ there is a
relation between the size of the turtle and the number of eggs laid.

6. The nests are opened by some unknown animal which destroys
the eggs. This led to the use of artificial incubation.

7. The possibility of artificial incubation has been shown and suc-
cessful methods have been described.

8. Uterine eggs may be used with even better results than can be
obtained with laid eggs.

ce

1922| PHASES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRYSEMYS CINEREA ie!

9. Contrary to general opinion, no great care is necessary in
handling turtles or their eggs, provided uterine eggs or newly laid eggs
are used. Embryos may be opened in normal saline without dis-
tortion.

10. Eggs that have been retained by a turtle for a month will
produce apparently normal embryos when incubated.

11. Development in the oviduct ceases about the time the blasto-
pore is formed, but may be arrested in the cleavage stages, or may
proceed to the first flexure stage.

12. The rate of development is approximately the same in arti-
ficial incubation as it is under normal conditions. There is prob-
ably quite a difference in the development rate of various eggs of
the same clutch.

13. Cleavage in Chrysemys cinerea is similar to that of any dis-
coidal cleavage form.

14. In the blastula the lower part is formed by yolk endoderm
while the upper part is formed by ectoderm. There is a cavity be-
tween them similar to the cleavage cavity of other forms.

15. In Chelydra serpentina a yolk plug occurs but it does not
occur in Chrysemys cinerea. This, with other considerations, indi-
eates that C. cinerea is more specialized than Chelydra serpentina.

16. The rounded blastopore in closing forms first an oval and
then a crescent.

17. The blastopore is formed by an invagination of the ectoderm.

18. In Chrysemys cinerea, as in Trionyz, the anterior part of the
blastoporeal canal forms the archenteron. :

TRINITY COLLEGE,
DurHaM, N. C.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ageassiz, L. 1857. Contributions to the Natural History of the United States.
ivee are ll.

ALLEN, B. M. 1904. The embryonic development of the rete-cords and sex-
cords in Chrysemys. Anat. Lab. Univ. Wis. 1.

ALLEN, B. M. 1906-7. A statistical study of the Sex cells in C. marginata.
Anat. Lab. Univ. Wis. 3.

ALTEN, H. vAN. 1914. Ueber die Entwicklung des Kiemendarms bei Schild-¢
kroten. Ber. nat. Ges. Freiburg. 1 Br. 20: 99-105.

ALTEN, H. vAN. 1916. Beitrag zur Entwicklung des Kiemendarms einer Schild-
krote. Arch. mikr. Anat. 86, Abt. 1: pp. 585-610.

BAER VON, C. E. 1834.

ca |
bo

JOURNAL OF THE MrrcHELL SOCIETY [September

BAER VON, C. E. 1837. Ueber Entwicklungsgeschichte der Thiere. Teil 11.

BERTHOLD, A. A. 1829. The absence of the Chalaza in the egg of Emys. Isis,
1829, S. 413.

Carus, C. C. 1829. Description of a seven-day-old ‘‘Schildekroete.’’ Hecker’s
Lith. Ann. der Heilkunds. Feb. 1829.

DavENporRT, G. C. 1898. Agassiz’s work on the Embryology of the Turtle. Amer.
Nat. 32, pp. 187-188.

Ditmars, R. L. 1914. New Nature Library. 5.

Gapow, H. 1901. Cambridge Nat. Hist. 8. :

Herener, R. W. 1916. College Zoology.

Hocusterter, F. 1906. Ueber die Art und Weise wie die europaische Sump-
schildkrote. Ber. nat. med. Ver Inisbruch Jahrg. 39: 147-158.

KEIBEL, V. 1905. Zur Gastrulationsfrage. Anat. Anz. 26: 366-368.

Kuprrer, C. 1882. Die Gastrulation an den Meroblastischen Eiern der Wir-
belthiere und die Bedeutung des Primitivestreifs. Arch. fiir Anat. und Phys.
Anat. abth.

LILLIE, F. R. 1908. The development of the Chick.

MEHNERT, E. 1892. Gastrulation und Keimblatterbildung der Ei. Morph.

Arbeit. (Schwalbes) 1.

Mitsuxuri, K. 1893. On the Process of Gastrulation in Chelonia. Jour. Coll.

Se. Tokyo. 6.

Mirsuxkuri, K. 1894. On the Process of Gastrulation in Chelonia. Anat. Anz. 8.

Mitsuxkur!i, K. 1896. On the fate of the Blastopore, the relation of the primi-
tive streak, and the formation of the posterior end of the embryo of
Chelonia, ete. Jour. of Coll. Tokyo. 10, Pt. 1.

Mitsukuri, K. and Isurkawa C. 1886. On the Formation of the Germinal
Layers in Chelonia. uart. Jour. Micros. Sci. 27.

Movuuton, R. H. 1914. Raising Terrapins in Incubators. Tech. World. 22: 246-
249,

NEwMANN, W. H. 1906. The Habits of Certain Tortoises. Jour. Comp. Neur.
and Physio. 16: 126-152.

Prasrt, C. H. 1910. A Chelonian Incubator Extraordinary. . Country Life in
America. 18: 37.

Peters, W. 1838. Observationes ad Anatomiam Cheloniorum, das inaugualis.
Berolini.

RatHuKke, H. 1832. Abhandlungen zur Bildungs und Entwick. Geschichte des
Menschen und der Tiere. Tiel 1., seit. 43-44. Leip.

RatHKE, H. 1848. Ueber die Entwick. der Schildkréten. Braunweig.

Rippuie, O. 1921. A simple method of obtaining premature eggs from birds.
Science n.s. 54: 664.

Ropinson, A., and ASSHEATON, R. 1891. Formation and Fate of the Primitive

- Streak. Quart. Jour. Mic. Soe. 32:

Rutuven, A. G. 1910. Mich. Acad. of Science. 12th. Report, p. 57.

RuTHVEN, A. G. 1912. Herpetology of Michigan. Mich. Geo. Survey.

ScHorprr, J. D. 1792. Historia Testudinum Iconibus Illustra. Erlangae.

TIEDMANN, Fr. 1828. Ueber das Ei und den Foetus der Schildkrote. Heidel.

Witt, L. 18938. Zur frage nach der Entstehung des Gastralen Mesoderm bei
Reptilien. Anat. Anz. 8: 677-683.

)

~
4

PLATE

PLATE 3

PLATS I WOR EARRING

a

Me)
Pie Lid yyy sens

pete anny terrane La po WPM DIIN

ae

or

s

aimee

\
4 i t
mr H
fi Pry eaverael Maid

pA yyy berth ALUN AT VET BLL nee

eal Indi |

q _s
( mo :
alt Mau as
mc) ro eles ee ee

RMA yea a

ARTE iy
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‘ Ys

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ae
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AMANO ANNAN LAREN 2 te Seamus §

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nt}

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es Sl

PLATE 4 :

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i
ous

29
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see

1922] PHASES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRYSEMYS CINEREA 73

Figs. 1, 3-6,
Fig. 2,

Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9,
fig. 10

1 orteeea
Fig. 12,
Fig. 13,
Fig. 14,
Fig. 15,
Fig. 16,
Figs. 17-24,

Figs. 25-26,
Fig. 27,
Fig. 28,
Fig. 29,

Fig. 30,

EXPLANATION OF PLATES 2-4

Chrysemys picta after Agassiz.

Chrysemys marginata after Agassiz.

Chrysemys picta after Gadow.

Chrysemys picta after Ditmars. Photographs by permission.

Chrysemys marginata after Ditmars. Photographs by permission.

Photograph of C. cinerea. Uterine egg retained for 30 days. Incu-
bated 48 days.

Photograph of C. cinerea. Incubated 43 days out-of-doors.

Photograph of C. cinerea. Incubated 47 days indoors.

Photograph of C. cinerea. Laid egg incubated for 45 days.

C. picta Hermann, after Schoepff.

Plastron of C. bellii after Ruthven.

Plastron of C. cinerea after Ruthven.

Drawings of plastrons of various specimens showing gradations of
plastron markings between these figured in 15-16.

Drawings of plastrons of two specimens from the same clutch.

Blastopore stage of C. cinerea. Egg retained 30 days.

Transverse section showing invagination of C. cinerea.

Sagital section of a later stage showing ectodermal cells posterior to
blastopore.

Blastopore stage typical of C. cinerea.

Figs. 31, 32, 35,36, Yolk plug of Chelydra serpentina.

Fig. 33,
Fig. 34,

Fig. 37,
Fig. 38,

Fig. 39,

Early flexure stage. Egg opened upon removal from oviduct.

Outline drawing of embryo of C. cinerea. Uterine egg incubated 20
days.

Outline drawing of C. cinerea embryo. Laid egg incubated 17 days.

Outline drawing of C. cinerea embryo. Uterine egg incubated 28
days.

Outline drawing of C. cinerea embryo. Uterine egg incubated 30
days.

Figs. 10-13, slightly reduced; 15-24 reduced 14; 25-26x 214; 27x12; 28-29x 50;

30x 20; 31, 32x50; 33x8; 34x4; 35, 36x50; 37x6; 38x5;
39 x 3.

REACTION OF METHANE AND ALSO OF ACETYLENE UPON
ZIRCONIUM TETRACHLORIDE

By F. P. VenasueE and R. O. DErTz

The reactions of zirconium tetrachloride with certain hydrides as
ammonia, phosphine, and hydrogen sulphide have been investigated
in so far as the changes taking place in the zirconium compound are
concerned. There are first formed with ammonia addition com-
pounds which on heating yield nitrides and hydrogen chloride. With
phosphine zirconium phosphide is formed and with hydrogen sul-
phide the product is zirconium sulphide.

As zirconium carbide is somewhat imperfectly known, it seemed
of interest to examine the reaction between zirconium tetrachloride
and certain hydrocarbons. The carbide was prepared by Troost,*
who heated powdered zircons with carbon in an electric furnace,
obtaining a substance which on analysis yielded results agreeing
fairly with the formula ZrC,, but no distinction was made between
free and combined carbon. Moissan? prepared the carbide by fusing
zirconia with earbon, varying the amount of earbon in different
fusions and obtaining a substance of consistent composition agree-
ing with the formula ZrC. Wedekind® later confirmed the work of
Moissan. So it may be concluded that normally zirconia reacts with
carbon at high temperatures, forming a carbide containing one atom
of each of the combining elements in the molecule.

For the following experiments zirconium tetrachloride was pre-
pared and freed from traces of iron by the method used by Venable
and Bell.t It was retained in a hard glass tube where it could be
volatilized by means of an electric sleeve. Every precaution was
taken to avoid the presence of traces of water which would hydrolyze
the tetrachloride.

Methane was prepared by heating anhydrous sodium acetate and
soda lime and was dried before admission to the reaction tube. This
tube contained about 5 grams of ZrC1, which was volatilized during
the passage of the methane. Apparently no reaction took place

1Compt. rend. 116, 1227. 1893.

2 Compt. rend. 116. 1222. 1893.

2 Ann. 895. 149. 1912.

* Amer. Chem. Soc. 39. 1598. 1917.
[ 74 ]

1922] REACTION OF METHANE AND ALSO OF ACETYLENE 7d

below the temperature of vaporization. The tetrachloride began to
darken at about 400°. About 13 1. of methane were used in a slow
stream. After about one-third of the methane had been used no
further volatilization of the tetrachloride was observed. When the
reaction tube was opened after cooling there was observed a peculiar
odor resembling that given off when sulphuric acid through which
methane has been bubbled is diluted with water. This may indi-
eate the formation of condensation hydrocarbons either in the drying
train containing P,O,; or in the reaction tube in the presence of
heated ZrC1,.

The contents of the reaction tube were washed out with water to
remove zirconium chlorides and after thorough washing three undis-
solved products were distinguished under a magnifying glass as fol-
lows: (1) Black particles, (2) lighter brownish particles which were
easily blown about by slight air currents, and (3) masses which were
largely colorless but held small black particles disseminated through
them. The total yield was only a small fraction of a gram, showing
that in spite of prolonged heating with an excess of methane the re-
actions taking place were quite limited in extent. From two runs of 5 g.
ZrC1, each, 0.51 g. of the black particles were obtained and the sep-
aration could not be looked upon as complete.

Separation of these different particles by flotation in various
liquids was attempted but proved unsatisfactory. Various solvents
were tried also without success. Concentrated nitric acid reacted
upon the mixture, as also did sulphuric acid. After partial separa-
tion by flotation followed by picking out the particles as far as
possible under a magnifying glass about 0.5 gram of the black par-
ticles were secured and analyzed. The percentage of carbon found
was 32.09. Later the experiment was repeated with some additional
precautions and a sample obtained yielding 28.11 p.c. carbon. From
these analyses it was concluded that the black particles contained a
considerable admixture of free carbon, since the percentage for ZrC
is 11.69 and for ZrC, 20.95.

The investigation of the reaction with acetylene showed that it
began on gentle heating and was exothermic. Gradations in color
from brown-red to black were observed in the product and on wash-
ing with water a mixture apparently similar to the above was obtained.

UNIVERSITY OF NoRTH CAROLINA,
CHAPEL Hit, N. C.

SOME PHASES OF STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF
GARDEN PEA AND WHITE SWEET CLOVER SEEDS
AS RELATED TO HARDNESS

By L. Epwin Yocum
PLATES 5 AND 6

Hard seed coats are very common among the Leguminosae. Guppy
(7) mentions 32 legume seeds in a list of 43 plants whose seeds are
more or less hard. Harrington (8) has found in hand hulled seeds
the following percentages of hard seeds: alsike clover, 92%; red
clover, 92% ; white clover, 98% ; and white sweet clover, 98%. There-
fore, it is of vast economic importance to determine some way of
inducing all the legume seeds to germinate soon after sowing rather
than months or years later, which is often the cause of a poor stand
of clover. The purpose of this paper is: (1) to trace the develop-
ment of the garden pea and white sweet clover seed coats, and (2)
to find out the chemical composition of the cell walls. It is hoped
that these factors may throw lght on the eause of hardness and sug-
gest some method of overcoming the hardness of the seed coats which
will be more practical to the farmer than any of the present methods.
The Malpighian cells have been found to be most important as
regards hardness, and therefore most emphasis will be put on the
study of that layer of cells.

Hard seeds are considered as those failing to absorb water when
under favorable conditions for three or more days.

HISTORICAL

Seed coats have been investigated from time to time since 1667
when Malpighi described the cells now bearing his name. Russow,
1871, studied the light line with polarized ight and came to the con-
clusion that it had less water than other parts of the cell. Pammel,
(12) 1885, examined several of the Leguminosae, and again, Pammel,
(13) 1899, published a monumental work on the anatomical char-
acters of the Leguminosae, with excellent figures, and an extensive
bibliography.

[ 76 ]

1922] GARDEN PEA AND WuitTe Sweet CLovEr 77

Workers began to turn their attention to the treatment of hard
seeds about 1890. Kuntz and Huss used sand paper as a scratching
machine. Other investigators have used various forms of sand
paper seratchers. In the past ten years most investigators have used
some modification of throwing or blowing seeds against sharp points
or needles as a means of puncturing the seed coat. Carruthers, (2)
1911, was able to guarantee 98-100 per cent germination of clover
seed with a machine of this type. Rose, (14) in 1915, explains a
device where seeds are blown against a pad of needles, which very
effectively improves germination. Prof. Hughes of Iowa State Col-
lege has invented a similar but less complicated machine which is
fairly satisfactory and is in use by some seedsmen.

Harrington, (8) 1915, shows the effectiveness of clover hullers
as seratching machines. He finds that while hand hulled white
sweet clover has 98 per cent of hard seeds, machine hulled has only
20 per cent of hard seeds. Hulling, however, injures some of the
seed when set to get the maximum scratching results.

Hot water treatment has been recommended for a number of years.
Jarzymowski, in 1905, used it with some success with legume seeds.
Bolley, (1) in 1910, reports suecess with hot water provided the
treatment was not so long as to injure the embryo.

Chemical treatments are receiving more and more attention.
Rostrup, (15) in 1896, treats Lathyrus sylvestris seeds for one minute
in sulphuric acid and had 100 per cent germination. Bolley (1) has
used sulphurie similar to the way it is used by Love and Leighty, (11)
in 1912, who treated seed for 10 to 30 minutes to get maximum re-
sults. Periods of more than one hour usually injure the seed.

Many other chemicals have been used; however, the lower alcohols
seem to be most effective. Verschoffelts thinks the water will not
wet the cell walls, but alcohol can do this more easily. After the
walls are wet they can absorb water. Coe and Martin (3) find that
the alcohol treatment is not effective with white sweet clover.

Several explanations have been offered for dormancy or poor germi-
nation of seeds. Crocker, (4 and 5) in 1916, gives a representative
list of probable causes. He attributes dormancy in many eases to
the hard seed coat, which keeps out water and possibly oxygen. The
impermeable portion may be the cutin or the light line. Coe and
Martin (3) show by staining whole seeds that the light line is un-
doubtedly the limiting factor of absorption, since the stain enters

~l
CO

JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

readily to, but does not stain, nor pass beyond the light line. The
light line is very much harder than other portions. They have found
that while the outer portion of the seed is readily eaten by sul-
furie acid, the light line is not destroyed by it. The paper also
contains a very extensive list of the important literature.

Some work has been done on the hereditary possibilities of hard-
ness. Harrington (8) gives an account of the tests on the experi-
mental farms, 1909-14. He says the percentage of hard seeds has
been as great from seeds when only 5 per cent were hard as from
seeds when 95 per cent had been hard.

Hiltner and Kinzel (10) find that the percentage of hard seeds
is higher in some years than others, and that perhaps weather condi-
tions have an effect. They also find that rapid drying, 30° to 40°C.
increases hardness. Harrington (8) and Coe and Martin (3) have
not found a seasonal relation.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

All stages of development of garden peas and white sweet clover
seed coats, except those fully mature, were killed in chromoacetic
acid, imbedded, cut and finally stained with either safranin and
light green, or haematoxylin and safranin. Mature stages were taken
from free hand sections. In some cases the flowers were tripped and
age of seed figured from date of tripping, in other eases it is esti-
mated from the time the flower wilts which is considered as the time
of fertilization.

All microchemical work was done on fresh material grown in
the green house. The methods followed were those outlined by Zim-
mermann, Hass and Hill, and Tunmann.

In this work hardness in peas was determined by soaking for
three days. Less than 1 per cent of most peas are hard. Some few,
however, appear to have hard seed coats, but admit water at the hilum,
as shown by swelling around that region first, as well as by stain-
ing. Sweet clover seeds were placed in germinator for 10 days and
those not swelled were considered hard.

DEVELOPMENT OF SEED CoAT

These legumes have their seed coats made up almost entirely of
the outer integument. The inner integument in sweet clover never

-

1922] GARDEN PEA AND WHITE SWEET CLOVER 79

develops more than two or three rows of large cells. The garden
pea forms six to eight rows of cells in the inner integument but
never forms the cells so compactly as in the outer integument; how-
ever, the two gradually shade off together. The inner integument in
both cases soon partially breaks down.

The outer integument in sweet clover is made up of from five
to eight rows of cells. The garden pea has from six to ten layers
of cells in the outer integument. The former number is common at
the time of fertilization and the remainder are added soon after.

The sweet clover seed coat has almost cubical Malpighian cells
at the time of fertilization, with thin walls slightly thicker at the
outside. In six days the Malpighian cells begin to elongate and divide
so as to become very narrow. This elongation and division goes on
very rapidly for about eight days, when it appears that possibly the
sotal number of cells have been formed and that these get wider to
accommodate the later growth of the seed.

The cell walls begin to thicken soon after fertilization, and decided
thickening takes place on the outside at the time the cells elongate.
The domes begin to thicken in nine days and are completely formed
in about twenty days. The light line does not appear until the seed
is nearly mature.

A very striking contrast is found between hard and soft seeds.
Hard seeds have their walls thickened so much below the light line
that the lumen extends only part of the way from the base to the
light line. In soft seeds a fairly large lumen extends to the light
line. This may allow larger pores to extend through the light line.

The thickening of the cell walls of sweet clover and peas is similar
in that both are thickened in ridges leaving crevices between the vari-
ous thickened portions. The crevices are usually very narrow.

In the garden pea the cell walls are generally thinner, especially
in young stages, than in sweet clover. The Malpighian cells change
very little for several days after fertilization. The remainder of the
cells of the integument enlarge very much. In about six days the
Malpighian cells elongate to several times their width and thicken a
very small amount. Thickenings come in very rapidly at the time
the seeds are nearly mature.

The cells sometimes entirely close up due to thickenings, as in
the case of hard seeds. Seeds which are not hard usually have the

80 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

lumen extending nearly the length of the cell, although the walls are
very much thickened.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CELLS IN GARDEN PEA

In very young flowers where the anthers were not open, light
green stains the walls nearly equal around the ovule. Ruthenin red
shows very little staining at any point. Methylene blue stains cell
contents, walls lightly if any. Cupro-ammonia destroys the walls en-
tirely in one hour. Chloroiodide of zine stains brown color. This indi-
cates generally cellulose but not definitely.

At the time of fertilization, all the cells except those of the micro-
pylar region remained the same. At the micropyle the hght green
does not stain. Ruthenin red stains distinctly at micropyle. Methy-
lene blue stains cell walls deep blue, and destains in aleohol. In
cupro-ammonia micropyle cells are more resistant, remain intact after
two hours. This indicates presence of pectin appearing in micropyle
at time of fertilization.

After fertilization the cell walls of the Malpighian cells modified
very rapidly in structure and took stains with difficulty. Chloroiodide
of zine, one week after fertilization, stains brownish yellow except
at micropyle where it is blue. In half grown seeds it stains violet at
base and brown at outer part of cell. Iodine and phosphorie acid give
no distinet stain one week after fertilization. Iodine and sulphurie
acid on a mature seed gave a yellowish brown color at outer part of the
cells or the region of the cutin and blue in the inner half of the
cell, outer half unstained. Cupro-ammonia has little or no action on
cell walls. This indicates a cutin on the outside, inner part cellulose,
and outer part more impermeable.

Mild hydrolysis was tried. Seeds of three ages were boiled slowly
for 20, 50 and 80 minutes in 4 per cent HCl solution with reflux con-
denser. These were then tested with chloroiodide of zine. Cell walls
all stained deep blue. Cupro-ammonia rapidly dissolved the walls.
On mature seeds iodine and sulphurie acid gave a deep blue color
with much swelling, on young seeds gave a violet color. This dis-
tinetly indicates pure cellulose after treatment for 20 minutes in
weak HCl acid solution. Since this substance was so easily hydro-
lyzed it seems likely to have been a hemi-cellulose. Hemi-celluloses
are usually either some paragalactan or pentose. Untreated seed

1922 | GARDEN PEA AND WHITE SWEET CLOVER 81

coats were tested with phloroglucin and HCl acid and then heated
to test for a paragalactan substance. No action. This would indi-
eate a pentose substance in the hardest part of the seed coat.

With the above observations in mind, nearly mature and mature
white sweet clover seeds which were very impermeable to stains were
treated as above with HCl acid solution. When tested with iodine and
sulphurie acid and chloroiodide of zine the domes took a very deep
blue color, indicating as in the garden pea the presence of a pentose.
The light line and the portion covering the domes were unattacked,
except slightly. The light line does not readily yield to hydrolysis.

The work of Coe and Martin was confirmed as to the distance a
stain will penetrate a hard seed in white sweet clover. The domes
were readily stained to the lhght line but no trace of stain passed
into the light line.

Pammel and others have indicated a light line in Garden Peas
in about the position it is commonly found in the Leguminosae. Tun-
mann shows a light line in the shape of a cap over the end of the
cell. In this work no distinet light line was observed in the Garden
Pea. Testing by immersion in stains showed that the impermeable
portion of the pea is in the cutin, since stains do not pass through
the cutinized layer.

I wish to express my appreciation of the encouragement and help-
ful suggestions given me by Dr. J. N. Martin of the Iowa State Col-
lege while I pursued this work.

SUMMARY

In sweet clover and garden peas the Malpighian layer of cells
begins to thicken very much about a week after fertilization. Thick-
enings are in ridges leaving crevices between.

Sweet clover develops a light line which is more impermeable to
water than the outer part of the cell. The pea does not have this
region but in some cases had an impermeable cutin.

Pectin is deposited in the cells around the micropyle at about the
time of fertilization in the garden pea.

The outer portion of the Malpighian cells of sweet clover and gar-
den peas is a hemi-cellulose, very likely some form of pentose. The
inner portion is cellulose.

82

JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocieTy | September

The impermeable portion of a hard pea seed is located in the
cutinized layer as compared with the light line in sweet clover.

N. C. COLLEGE FoR WOMEN,
GREENSBORO, N. C.

oo

OT

16. TUNMANN, O. Pflanzenmikrochemie. Berlin. 1913.
17. ZIMMERMANN, A. Botanical Microtechnique. New York. 1893.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES
Plate 5. Melilotus alba.
Fig. 1. Ovule wall forty-seven hours after pollination and just before fertiliza-
tion. (x1500).

Fig. 2. Ovule wall after first division of the egg cell. (x 1500).
Fig. 3. Ovule wall five days after pollination, suspensor well developed. (x 1500).
Fig. 4. Ovule wall six days after pollination. (x 1500).

Fig.

LITERATURE

Bouury, H. L. The Agri. Value of Hard Seeds in Alfalfa and Clover
Seeds. Paper read before Official Seed Analysts. 1910.

. CARRUTHERS, W. On Vitality of Farm Seeds. Journ. Roy. Agric. Soe.

Eng. 72: 168-183. 1911.

. Coz, H. S. and Martin, J. N. U.S. Department Agric. Bull. No. 844,

Professional Paper.

. CROCKER, WILLIAM. Role of Seed Coats in Delayed Germination. Bot.

Gaz. 42: 265-291. 1906.

. CROCKER, WILLIAM. Mechanics of Dormancy of Seeds. Am. Jour of Bot.

3: 99-120. 1916.

. Cross, C. F. and Bevan, E. J. Cellulose. London. 1916.
. Guppy, H. B. Studies in Seeds and Fruits. London. 1912.
. Harrineton, G. R. Hard Clover Seed and its Treatment in Hulling.

U. S. Department of Agric. Farmers’ Bull. No. 676.

. Hass, Pauu and Hitz, T. G. Chemistry of Plant Products. 1917.
. HILTNER and KInzEL. Hardness of Seed Coats of Leguminosae. Zentbl.

Agr. Chem. 36: 38-84. 1907. (Review E. S. R. 19: 642).

. Love, Harry H. and Leienry, C. E. Germination of Seed as Effected by

Sulphuric Acid Treatment. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 312.

2, PAMMEL, L. H. On the Structure of the Testa of Several Leguminosae

Seeds. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club. 13: 17-24. 1886.

. PAMMEL, L. H. Anatomical Characters of Leguminosae. Trans. Acad.

Sci. of St. Louis 9: 1899.

. Rost, D. H. A Study of Delayed Germination in Economie Seeds. Bot.

Gaz. 59: 425-444. 1915.

. Rostrup, O. Report of the Seed Control for 1896-97, p. 37. Copen-

hagen. 1898. (Review E. S. R. 10: 53-54).

. Malpighian cells nine days after pollination, cotyledons well developed.

(x 1500).

—— |

PLATE 6

Fig. 12.
Fig. 13.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

© oON SD

Fig. 10.

Fig. 11.

|
VS
OV He oo DO

GARDEN PEA AND WHITE SWEET CLOVER 83

. Malpighian cells and osteosclerid cells fourteen days after pollination.

(x 1500).

. Malpighian and osteosclerid cells sixteen days after pollination. (x 1500).
. Malpighian cells of a medium hard seed showing the first appearance of

the light line. (x 1500).

. Malpighian cells of a hard seed with wider light line and smaller pro-

portion of lumen. (x 1500).

. Malpighian and osteosclerid cells of a soft seed, showing narrow light

line and large lumen. (x 1500).

. Malpighian cells of a hard seed stained in mass, domes heavily stained

but none has passed into or through the light line. (x 1500).
Cross section through domes. (x 1800).
Cross section just below the light line. (x 1800).

Plate 6. Pisum sativum.

. Ovule wall before pollination. (x 1500).

Ovule wall shortly after fertilization. (x 1500).

. Portion of ovule wall about four days after pollination. (x 1500).
. Malpighian cells about ten days after pollination. (x 1500).
. Malpighian and osteosclerid cells about fifteen days after pollination.

(x 640).

. Malpighian cells of a mature seed. (x 1500).

. Cross section of Malpighian cells just under the cuticle. (x 1800).

. Malpighian cells of a hard seed, very much reduced lumen. (x 1500).
. Malpighian cells of a soft seed, with lumen extending nearer the cuticle.

(x 1500).

A single Malpighian cell treated with iodine and sulphuric acid. Much
swollen, and blue except at triangular shaded portions which are
yellow. (x 1500).

Cross section of Malpighian cells where the lumen appears. (x 1800).

VARIATION OF PROTEIN CONTENT OF CORN
By H. B. Arpuckue and O. J. THIEs, JR.

I. INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE

Corn is now the greatest feed crop in the United States, and is
relied upon for the production of most of the beef, mutton, and pork
marketed in this country, and exported to foreign countries. For
fattening butcher stock on the farms and in the big feed yards
corn is the most efficient food, but for breeding stock, and young
animals, it must be used with caution. Grains of higher protein
content, such as oats, soybeans, wheat (in form of bran) must supple-
ment the corn.

Many attempts have been made to increase the protein content
of corn with a view to removing its deficiency, but despite all these
efforts the protein content of corn in general remains the same. By
careful seed selection some varieties have acquired the reputation of
possessing higher protein content, but after a few years it is found
that it has dropped back to its former standard. Hayes and Garber,
in 1919, completed some experiments extending through a period of
several years, in which, by self-fertilization, followed by crossing and
seed selection, they were able to increase the protein content as much
as two per cent, thus making it almost the equivalent of oats in
' protein. The yields, however, were greatly cut down, and the corn
developed showed a tendency to revert to the lower protein stand-
ard. Such experiments, and other similar observations, raise the
question as to whether the protein content in a given variety of corn
is a fixed factor.

If the protein does change, can this change be controlled? What
is the effect of climate, season, soil, fertilizer, tillage?

The object of this investigation begun a year ago by the authors
is to determine, if possible, how certain conditions may modify the
protein content in a given variety of corn. This preliminary paper
presents the results of our first year’s investigation of the effect of
climate. We have chosen three varieties of corn, and will super-
vise the seed selection each year. The first variety is a white corn,
Silver King, which has been grown for four years on the farm of

[ 84 ]

1922] VARIATION OF PROTEIN CONTENT OF CoRN 85

one of the authors in West Virginia. Analysis for three years shows
approximately 8.5% protein. This corn has shown little change dur-
ing these years. It has been grown on the same land under uniform
conditions of rainfall and tillage.

The second variety is a white corn of high protein content. The
seed was raised in North Carolina, and the corn analyzed was grown
in North Carolina. Its protein content is 9.6%.

The third variety is a yellow corn, Golden Dent. This seed was
raised in North Carolina, and the corn analyzed was grown in North
Carolina. The protein content is approximately 6.7%.

In each case several grains were taken from different parts of a
number of ears, and a composite sample was secured by mixing and
erinding.

This year we made an analysis of a sample of the first variety,
Silver King, secured from ears grown in North Carolina. The seed,
however, was raised in West Virginia. It is our purpose to grow
this corn, Silver King, for a number of years in North Carolina,
reporting results, and also to grow the North Carolina varieties in
West Virginia, reporting results.

We were limited in our choice of varieties, as the growing period
in West Virginia is only about 110 days.

The altitude at which this corn was grown in West Virginia was
2500 feet. The altitude of Davidson, N. C., where the corn was
grown, is 800 feet. The season of North Carolina is approximately
30 days ahead of that in West Virginia. This should furnish such
a marked difference in climate that any variation in protein due to
this cause should be clearly shown.

Our first experiment showed a marked change in the protein con-
tent, but in the direction that is exactly opposite to that generally
expected. It has been thought that warmer climates produced higher
protein in corn. No satisfactory reason, however, has been given
for this supposition. Quite recently it has been shown by a num-
ber of experiments that the sugar content has been raised by plant-
ing corn in colder climates.

The analyses are given below:

86 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL Socrery | September

Analysis of the white corn, Silver King, grown in West Virginia.

Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of
Nitrogen Nitrogen Protein

(2 gram sample) (3 gram sample)

No. 1 1.418 No. 4 1.371 8.534

No. 2 1.365
No. 3 1.376
Mean, 1.383% N,

Analysis of the white corn, Silver King, grown in North Carolina.

Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of
Nitrogen Nitrogen Protein
(2 gram sam: le) (3 gram sample)
No. 1 1.251 No. 4 1.233 7.700
No. 2|- 1.247 No. 5 1.217
No.3) 12213

Mean, 1.232% N,

Analysis of the white corn, White Plume, seed raised and grown in North
Carolina.

P reentace of Percentage of Percentage of
Nitrogen Nitrogen Protein

(3 gram sample)

No.1 1.543 9.619%

INiow 2\) e531

No.3) 12543

Mean, 1.539% N;

Analysis of the yellow corn, Golden Dent, seed raised and grown in North
Carolina.

Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of
Nitrogen Nitrogen Protein

(3 gram sample)

No. 1 1.095 6.687 %

No. 2. 1.028

No. 3 1.087
Mean, 1.070% N,

It may be of interest to some to know the method of nitrogen
determination employed. After experimenting with several modi-
fications of the Kjeldahl, ineluding the use of potassium perchlorate,
we finally adopted as the most satisfactory method of determining
nitrogen in corn the following: 3 grams corn, finely ground, is in-
troduced into a Kjeldahl flask, 0.3 gram copper sulphate, C. P. added,
and then 20 ee. sulphuric acid with phosphorous pentoxide. After
digesting till the material in the flask has assumed a liquid form,
10 grams potassium sulphate, C. P. is added slowly. By this plan
samples were completely digested and ready for distillation in times
ranging from 26 to 40 minutes. This included five minutes for

-

1922 VARIATION OF PROTEIN CONTENT OF CORN 87

digestion after contents of the flask had cleared. We found that
the chief factor in the time saving was the introduction of the po-
tassium sulphate at the proper time after the digestion had gotten
well under way. This allows the use of comparatively high heat from
the beginning without serious foaming of the “contents of the flask.

T. B. Osborne, at the Connecticut Agricultural Station, has given
us the best data on the protein content of corn and recommends
6.25 as the protein factor. We have used this factor in our ecalcula-
tions. If we succeed in establishing a marked change in the protein,
we shall endeavor to show which form of protein found in corn is
affected. We append for convenience of reference Osborne’s analysis.

Proteins in Corn:

SICRIL® EI OVE Y Pree AS I ie Proteose, 0.06%

Globulin, 0.04%

Le SES TLE ES Maysin, 0.25%

{ Edestin, 1.10%

STUDIUE Eh ACTING SS eee ee ee Zein, 5.00 %

Insoluble in above, but soluble in 0.2% KOH................ 3.15%
Summary :

1. Plan of investigating influence of climate on protein content
of corn is outlined.

2. The analyses of the varieties of corn chosen for experiment
are reported.

3. The result of planting of West Virginia grown corn in North
Carolina for the first year shows a marked reduction in protein.

4. The modification of the Kjeldahl method which was employed
for the determination of nitrogen in corn is given.

DAVIDSON COLLEGE, N. C.

GEOLOGY OF THE MUSCLE SHOALS AREA, ALABAMA
By W. F. Prouty

The Tennessee River at its confluence with the Ohio is the larger
of the two streams. The Tennessee represents, about as perfectly as
any stream known, a shift of course through successive river cap-
ture. Rejuvenation has caused the down-cutting of the Tennessee
into its old peneplain. In the neighborhood of Florence, Alabama,
where the stream makes a considerable bend toward the north, the
older and more resistant rocks of the Nashville arch outcrop and
cause the Muscle Shoals, which have a fall of more than 140 feet
in the course of a few miles. In the Waldron Ridge the lower part
of the Pennsylvanian and upper part of the Mississippian rocks are
well exposed. In the Muscle Shoals area proper the lower portion
of Mississippian is alone seen along the stream.

In this portion of the State the Fort Payne series is composed of
the Tuscumbia limestone above and the Lauderdale chert, limestone
and shale below. The very resistant Lauderdale chert forms the
bed of the stream throughout the area of the shoals. This rock dips
more steeply than the stream so that in going from the head to the
foot of the shoals one passes from the bottom to the top of the heavy
Lauderdale chert beds. As these beds are jointed, they break off into
steps which form the riffles across the stream, usually at a considerable
angle to the flow of the stream.

The big or Wilson dam, now under construction, is located near
the foot of the shoals and near the top of the Lauderdale chert. At
this locality the river runs south of west, the 4000 foot dam runs
a little west of north and the dip of the formations is practically due
south. At this point the dip is unusually large, being about 60 feet
for the width of the river. As a result of this the bed of the stream
and the north bluff are composed entirely of the Lauderdale chert
formation while the bluff at the south end of the dam is made up
in part of the less resistant chert of the Lauderdale, and at higher
levels of the more soluble limestone of the Tuscumbia formation. It
is in the portion of the proposed flooded area occupied by this more
soluble limestone that trouble from leakage is anticipated and it was

[ 88 }

1922] GEOLOGY OF THE MuscLte SHoauts AREA, ALABAMA 89

because of this threatened leakage that the writer was asked to make
a geological report to the Government concerning the dam founda-
tion during the war period.

Although there is a considerable area of the Tuscumbia which
will be flooded by the Wilson dam, the trend of the rocks is such
that no great danger from leakage is to be expected except in the
area near the dam, where considerable pressure grouting will be
necessary.

The proposed Dam No. 3 is to be located near the head of the
Big Muscle Shoals. At this point the Lauderdale chert occupies the
southern bluff while a shale and a very soluble crinoidal limestone,
lying below the Lauderdale chert, occupy the northern portion of
the stream bed and the northern bluff. At this locality the northern
end of the proposed dam is the weak one and the weakness is of
greater concern than at the south end of the Wilson Dam.

The strata throughout the area show a number of small, rather
sharp folds. These run nearly with the strike. One such fold is
seen in the bed of the stream near the north end of the Wilson Dam.
It does not here constitute a line of weakness. Another such sharp
fold cuts diagonally across the river at Bainbridge Eddy, here bring-
ing up the less resistant shale and limestone which have yielded the
deep and narrow channel.

The upper Lauderdale in places contains small cavities containing
oil residues. That gas is also present, in small amounts at least, is
also demonstrated by the secondary explosions which were so com-
mon following blasts made at the location of the new power plant on
the south side of the river below the Wilson Dam.

CHAPEL Hitt, N. C.

AZALEA IN NORTH CAROLINA

By W. W. ASHE

Key to Eastern Species following that of Small’s Flora of the
Southeastern United States. Only the species in italies in the key
are known to oceur in North Carolina.

Corollas expanding with or before the leaves

Corollas red or orange or yellow
Flowers with the leaves

Corolla tube glandular outside..........:.... (1) A. calendulacea Mx.
Tube merely pubescent outside................. (2) A. speciosa Willd.
Mlowers) behonenidte pea veri. wi<.5,< 5 -105-) +1: wie a 6 ole eee (3) A. austrina Small

Corollas white, pink, or purplish

Low stoloniferous shrubs, under 5 dm. high

Flowers white, tube glandular, funnel-form...... (4) A. atlantica Ashe

Flowers purplish, only back of lobes glandular, tube cylindrical

(5) A. neglecta Ashe

Not stoloniferous, more than 5 dm. high

Leaf blades pubescent beneath

Corolla tube pilose, dilated above middle
Leaves not glaucescent under pubescence

(6) A. rosea Lois.-Desl.
Leaves glaucescent under pubescence (7) A. alabamensis* n. ¢.
Corolla tube villose, apex abruptly expanded (8) A. canescens Mx.
Leaf blades strigose only on midrib beneath....... (9) A. nudifiora L.
Corolla expanding after the leaves
Leaf blades glabrous beneath or with scattered hairs (except var. of (10)

Midnerve strigose beneath at maturity................ (10) A. viscosa L.
Midnerve glabrous at maturity
Weavies Sernwlacerrwye race l etc one er0 cue cece eens (11) A. serrulata Small
Leaves with ciliate margins
Corollavglandular pilose. 2... ..-eeeae (12) A. arborescens Pursh.
Corollaynesrlysolabrous!.: .: . ce eeieee (13) A. prunifolia Small

Azalea speciosa should be looked for in North Carolina near the
base of the Blue Ridge between Jackson and Polk counties.
The following varieties have been reported from or should be
looked for in North Carolina:
A. nudiflora glandifera Porter. It has the pedicels and corolla
tubes more or less glandular pubescent.

* Rhododendron alabamense Rehd. Azal., 141. 1921.

[90]

1922 | AZALEA IN NoRTH CAROLINA gil

A. atlantica luteo-alba Coker. It is distinguished by its finely
pubescent leaves.
A. viscosa glauca Ait. It differs from the type in its glaucus
leaves. It should occur in the coastal plain.
. A. viscosa tomentosa Hort. (A. tomentosa de G. Bot. Cult., 2nd.

ed., 3: 336. 1811). This has the leaves more or less pubescent.
(Cumberland Co., near Manchester).

A. viscosa hispida Wood. The branchlets are hispid. It has not
been found south of Pennsylvania but might occur in moun-
tain swamps in North Carolina.

A. viscosa montana n. e. (Rhododendron v. var. Rehd. <Azal.,
164. 1921). This has been found only in the mountains of
North Carolina. It differs from the type chiefly in the pu-
bescent winter buds.

A. arborescens Richardsoniu n. e. (Rhododendron a. var. Rehd.
Azal., 168. 1921). This is a shrubby form which occurs on
the summits of high mountains in North Carolina.

The following varieties which have been reported from further
south do not occur in North Carolina:

A. canescens candida n. e. (Azalea candida Small. Bull. Torr.
Bot. Club 28: 360. 1901). Differs from the type in the glau-
cescent arid densely pubescent leaves.

A. serrulata georgiana n.e. (Rhododendron s. var. Rehd. Azal.,
156. 1921). This differs from the type chiefly in its densely
pubescent winter buds.

A. viscosa aemulans n. e. (Rhododendron v. var. Rehd. Azal.,
165. 1921). This variety, which has been found only in Ran-
dolph County, Georgia, differs from the type chiefly in its
larger leaves.

NoTE ON RHODODENDRON—During the past year considerable additional information has
been secured concerning the two~ small early flowering rhododendrons of the southern
Appalachians. Rhododendrom carolinianum Rehd., the rose flowered plant, is not uncom-
mon, particularly on dry standstone sites, in North Carolina and Tennessee to the north of
the French Broad river valley. To the south of this valley, and particularly to the south of
Mill Creek along the Blue Ridge at relatively low altitudes on moist cool sites, occurs the
white flowered plant, Rhododendron Margarettae n. c. (R. carolinianum var. Margarettae
Ashe, Rhod. 28: 177. 1921) which on account of its different habitat and distinet dis-
tribution can probably best be regarded as specific.

FOREST SERVICE,
WASHINGTON, D. C.

NOTES ON THE REPRODUCTION OF HYDRA IN THE
CHAPEL HILL REGION

By H. 8S. Everett

In the course of an investigation dealing with the germ eells of
Hydra during 1920-1921, a number of observations were made on the
occurrence and habits of hydras in the region around Chapel Hill.
The work continued over a period from October until June, and it
is the purpose of this article to record briefly such data as may be
of general use and interest to the worker on Hydra in the Chapel
Hill region.

Two species, H. viridis and H. grisea, were found throughout the
period in collections of leaves, trash, and green algae from pools
and swamps near the town. In the spring they oceurred in much
greater abundance out of doors than in the fall and winter.

H. grisea was always found budding vigorously, but showed no
sex organs until late in May, when some specimens which had re-
mained in aquaria in the laboratory for about two weeks developed
gonads. Although green hydras were not found in a sexual state
out of doors until April, animals could be found in the laboratory
with gonads at nearly all seasons. This species (H. viridis) appeared
in three aquaria, the material of which was collected early in October.
The hydras underwent a period of vigorous budding, after which
about the first of December large numbers developed sex organs.
This sexual period lasted about a month. After it had ceased the
animals in two of the aquaria seemed to be well-nourished and con-
tinued to bud for some months, but never returned to the sexual
state. Those in the third aquaria seemed to be underfed, budding
practically ceased, and they began to grow smaller. A careful exami-
nation of them about February the first revealed the fact that eighty-
two per cent of them possessed male sex organs. This observation
was in complete agreement with the statement often made that the
Spermaries are produced as a result of starvation. But though this
may be one stimulus for the production of the sperm, it is certainly
not the only one, at least in H. viridis, for the ovaries are never

1922] REPRODUCTION OF HyprA IN CHAPEL Hinu 93

found without the spermaries also, and the ovaries are found only
in well-fed animals.

The period, then, most favorable to sexual reproduction in Hydra
in this region begins in April and continues through May, and since
no cessation was noted at the time observations were discontinued, we
may conclude that it probably extends on into the summer.

The course of the development of the egg in Hydra viridis was
followed in some detail. The egg arises from numerous ordinary
interstitial cells, which first enlarge beneath the epithelial ectoderm
and then coalesce to form a single egg. One nucleus persists as the
egg nucleus, the rest degenerate. The coalescence is at first by simple
fusion of the central cells to form a large central mass, which then
ingests the peripheral cells in an amoeboid fashion.

My observations are in general accord with those of Jannreuther
(Biological Bulletin 14, 16) and Wager (Biol. Bull. 18).

The subsequent development has been often described and is well
known. The time required for the development of the egg until its
extrusion through the ectoderm is about four days, while about three
weeks are consumed after the extrusion through the ectoderm before
the young hydra is hatched. These observations were made on animals
kept in laboratory vessels where it was also found that the number of
extruded eggs which fail to develop either from non-fertilization or
other causes is very large. It was not possible to determine whether
these same facts hold for the out-of-door environment.

CHAPEL Hitt, N. C.

CHEMISTRY IN ITS RELATION TO THE STATE WATER
SUPPLIES

By G. EF. Carnerr

Twenty years ago in comparison to the possible development the
chemist and applied chemistry were utilized very little in solving
industrial problems. It has been interesting and gratifying to ob-
serve how the utilization of the chemist has broadened until in recent
years most large corporations and big industries have their own re-
search laboratories and control by chemists over their processes and
raw material.

In the field of municipal utilities the late Dr. Baskerville in his
book ‘‘Municipal Chemistry’’ has covered very fully how chemistry
is concerned very essentially in most all of our municipal activities.
In particular may be mentioned water supply and water purification,
sewage disposal, waste and garbage disposal, gas supply, quality of
materials such as cement and paving materials. While the appli-
cation of the chemical data, except in very large organizations, is
usually made as part of the work of the sanitary engineer, the solution
of the chemical problems must rest with the chemist.

Almost as far back as the history of the science dates the chemists
have developed analytical methods and made investigations that
cover the properties and quality of natural waters for domestic and
industrial uses.

As the cities and town have grown and the population has eol-
lected in more or less congested groups, it has become necessary, in
North Carolina as elsewhere, to utilize sources of water supply which
require very elaborate purification to render them suitable for
domestic and industrial purposes. It has also been necessary to devise
treatments of sewage and wastes in order to prevent their contami-
nating these public water supplies.

North Carolina now has over fifty towns and cities where it is
necessary to filter and purify an unacceptable surface water in order
to obtain a suitable public drinking supply. In general only the very
smallest towns are able to utilize natural underground water sup-
ples, and even those frequently require chemical sterilization. As

[ 94 ]

Or

1922] CHEMISTRY IN RELATION TO STaTE WATER SUPPLIES 9

the towns grow the number of purification plants are rapidly in-
creasing.

Almost the universal method for purification is the so-called me-
chanical or rapid sand filtration involving the coagulation of the water
with aluminum hydrate and the preparation of a film of this chem-
ical as a medium through which the water is filtered. In conjunction
with this is chemical sterilization with chlorine. These processes
are basically chemical ones, and difficulties encountered in their use
must be largely solved through chemistry. The mechanical features
in both cases have been very highly developed, and such lack of
efficiency as is found is chiefly due to the chemical features.

When mechanical filtration first began to be utilized aluminum
sulphate (commonly called filter alum) was used and the hydrate
serving as coagulent prepared by adding soda ash sufficient to react
with the aluminum sulphate required and to furnish sufficient ex-
cess to insure complete precipitation of the alum.

While the process was in general recognized as a success, different
waters reacted differently using the same amount of chemicals, and
on the same type of water poor coagulation was frequently expe-
rienced and in many eases the reaction involved did not complete it-
self until after passing the filters with precipitation in the water
mains. These troubles were experienced particularly in the case of
waters with considerable vegetable stain such as are found in eastern
North Carolina.

About the year 1915 several engineers, including the writer, called
attention to the fact that what was involved in the whole process
was so-called ‘‘colloidal chemistry.’’ It was well recognized that
aluminum hydrate was precipitated in colloidal condition and its
coagulation followed the known action of such physical condition.
The finely divided clay and organic matter was obviously in colloidal
condition, and Thorndike Saville, working in the Harvard Laboratory,
proved that the vegetable coloring matter was in colloidal suspen-
sion. It was also determined that the clay was negatively charged
and aluminum hydrate and coloring matter positively charged. It
was suggested that the proper application of aluminum sulphate and
the ratio of this to alkali present was one of ionization balance.

Due largely to the fact that ‘‘colloids’’ and ‘‘ions’’ represented
something surrounded by impenetrable mystery to the average engi-

“I

96 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

neer and water works man, a proper investigation of the matter
has been very slow to start. During recent years, however, a great
deal of interest has been awakened, and we find no convention of
water works people whose program does not include at least one
paper on hydrogen ion determination in the control of water treat-
ment. Quite a little work is being done on the subject in various
parts of the country and with recent development of simple methods
for determining hydrogen ion concentration value, the outlook is good
for some valuable data of practical value. At present there is very
httle useful information developed regarding the whole matter.

Another problem, entirely a chemical one, is trouble experienced
in the corrosion of mains and plumbing or the deposition of in-
crustants in these mains. With the natural waters we felt as if we
knew the causes of this and remedies. With the chemical and phys-
ical condition of the water disturbed by the artificial means em-
ployed for purification, the matter is very much complicated. Such
data as has been collected would indicate that the hydrogen ion econ-
centration figures would solve this difficulty. The field at present,
however, has been very little explored, the most important contri-
bution to the subject being a very interesting paper by some Dutch
chemists. In the case of chlorine sterilization the chief difficulty is
to prevent chemical combination of the chlorine with waste by-
products causing tastes and odors.

A fourth very important state problem, which we must look
chiefly to our chemists to solve, is the interference with sewage dis-
posal plants by dye house wastes. From various parts of the state
we are having complaints of the functioning of municipal sewage
disposal plants being entirely or partially destroyed by dye house
wastes from textile plants. The chief trouble seems to be from bleach,
sizing, and dyestuffs, of which the sulphur blacks seem to be the worst
offenders. If we cut these out of the municipal sewerage and deposit
in some adjacent small stream a nuisance is the usual result. The
problem is how to treat these wastes so as to render them non-
injurious to the disposal plant process, or how to change the dis-
posal plant process so as to handle them, or else how to treat them
separately and secure disposal without nuisance.

Upon inquiry there seems to be little information developed in
other parts of the country in regard to the matter, chiefly because
most of the textile communities that might have investigated have

a

1922] CHEMISTRY IN RELATION TO STATE WATER SUPPLIES 97

larger streams for disposal than in our state. North Carolina, as
you are aware, is a leading textile state and the problem is one of
importance to us and of general interest.

Some of the other states, notably Massachusetts, have contributed
to a large-extent to our knowledge of such subjects, largely through
cooperation with their institutions of learning, through State De-
partments and the scientist concerned. There are certain features
of the problems cited, especially in regard to the treatment of colored
waters and the textile waste, which are peculiarly North Carolina
problems.

These problems have been brought to your attention with the
hope that the chemists may interest themselves in their solution. If
it is not possible to do actual work upon them, the clearer under-
standing of such problems by virtue of chemical knowledge will put
the chemist in better position to influence codperation in their solution.
There are no state funds available at present for such work, but the
Department of Engineering at the University has offered to codperate
and the State Board of Health through its various bureaus con-
cerned is always willing to lend any assistance in its power.

RALEIGH, N. C.

THE LACCARIAS AND CLITOCYBES OF NORTH CAROLINA
By W. C. Coker and H. C. BEARDSLEE

PLATES 1 AND 7-33*
LACCARIA

Cap fleshy, thin, usually depressed or umbilicate in center; gills
thick with blunt margin, broadly adnate, in our species usually
notched at the stem (sinuate), colored conspicuously, whitened by
the abundant spores which are subglobose, white or faintly lavender,
and echinulate; stem central, fibrous and toughish. Volva and veil
wanting. Gregarious or cespitose. Our four species of this genus
are very closely related, so much so that certain authors (Ricken, Die
Blatterpilze 2: 382. 1915) consider L. laccata, L. amethystea and L.
tortilis all forms of the same species, and from our observations in
several sections of the country it is impossible to define any one of
these three species so as to exclude forms of the others. In the
vicinity of Chapel Hill we find that L. laccata ean be distinguished
usually by its thinner, closer, less irregular gills which are nearly
always paler than in the other two, where the variations are more
confusing.

The genus differs from Clitocybe in the globose, asperulate spores
and thicker gills which are more broadly attached, often sinuate and
not decurrent except by a little tooth. The attachment of the gills
is about as in Tricholoma, but that genus is separated by thinner gills
and different spores. In L. ochropurpurea, L. amethystea and L.
tortilis the mature gills are conspicuously white-dusted by the spores,
but in the commonest forms of L. laccata this character is not well
shown:

ImporTANT AMERICAN LITERATURE

Kauffmann. Agaricaceae of Michigan, p. 747 (as Clitocybe). 1918.
Morgan. Journ. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist. 6: 66 (as Clitocybe). 1883.
Murrill. N. Am. Flora 10: 1. 1914.

Peck. Bull. N. Y. St. Mus. 157: 90. 1912.

* In the colored plate, figures 1, 6 and 7 were painted by Miss Dorothy Coker, figures
2 and 5, by Miss Cornelia S. Love and figures 3 and 8, by Miss Alma Holland. All spore
drawings are by Miss Holland. Unless otherwise stated photographs are by Coker and
are natural size. Those by Beardslee are noted “Photo by B.” The written matter is by
Coker unless otherwise stated.
[ 98 ]

PLATE 7

LACCARIA OCHROPURPUREA. No. 641.

1922] Tue Laccarias AND CLITOCYBEs oF NorTH CAROLINA 99

KEY TO THE SPECIES

Plants usually more than 5 em. broad.........../..... L. ochropurpurea (1)
Plants less than 5 em. broad
Cap not marked by lines; plants larger than L. tortilis

SoU: joranl cht EOE S528 Ao ee ee Se NE enh L. laceata (2)

GullawaceprviOlet-PUBOlO- 15 qmiec es aloo mca ee eee ee L. amethystea (3)
Cap distinctly striatulate; plants small; growing in

Wilk (DICE cho aAt Um COO COR CI Cee rete enna ena L. tortilis (4)

1. Laccaria ochropurpurea (Berk.) Peck.

PLATES 7 AND 33

Cap 6-13 em. wide, almost smooth or slightly sealy, often irreg-
ular and contorted, bright tan or elay color with a very light tint of
pink from the flesh which is light pink, thick in the center and thin
on the margin.

Gills purplish-lhlac, changing to grayish purple and powdered by
the spores, distant, very wide, thick, wavy and irregular, usually
sinuate and slightly decurrent by a tooth.

Stem stout, usually crooked, variable in length and thickness,
tough and firm, solid, color of cap, longitudinally marked with pink-
ish fibers.

Spores (of No. 1311) globose, minutely asperulate, 6.8-8.54 in
diameter. A thick spore print of No. 4675 shows a decided tint of
pale lavender like the gills.

Not rare in uplands along banks, roads and margins of woods.

For other illustrations see Peck, Bull. N. Y. St. Mus. 116: pl. 106,
figs. 7-11. 1907; McIlvaine, Am. Fungi, pl. 24, figs. 1-4. 1900; Hard,
Mushrooms, pl. 11.

100. In Battle’s Park, October 8, 1904.

179. In mixed woods near creek, Glen Burnie Farm, October ‘1, 1908.

181. Under log in damp ground, October 1, 1909.

641. From under the sides of rocks by a road, October 28, 1912.

761. Along ‘‘Fern Bank,’’ September 14, 1913.

1311. By road through deciduous woods, October 7. 1914.

4675. Mixed woods near Pittsboro road, October 15, 1920. Spores pale lavender,
spherical with sharp straight mucro, minutely echinulate, 7.2-9.54 thick.

Asheville. Rather common. Beardslee.

100 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

2. Laccaria laccata (Scop.) Berk.

Puates 1, 8 AND 33

Cap about 3 em. broad on the average, running up to 6.5 em.,
deeply depressed in center and often irregular and split, hygropha-
nous, surface light tan or reddish buff or buffy cinnamon when not
soaked, a deeper reddish-ochraceous when soaked, rarely striatulate,
squamulose-seurfy or only somewhat channelled and fibrous. Flesh
very thin, tough and elastic, a light pink color, taste slightly woody,
odor none.

Gills broad, up to 1.2 em. wide, not crowded, sub-distant or dis-
tant, thickish and wavy, entire, or at times fragmented and irregular,
notched at the stem, slightly decurrent by a tooth, pinkish with a
tint of lilae.

Stem 2.5-9 em. long, 3-6.5 mm. thick, sub-equal or irregular, at
times bulbous, hollow, tough, elastic, fibrous, color of cap with a tint
of flesh.

Spores (of No. 854) spherical, echinulate, 6.6-7.64 in diameter not
including the spicules. Basidia (of No. 5118) 7.4-8» thick, 4-spored ;
hymenium about 48 thick, with a few erystals; threads of the gill
flesh 3.7-7p thick, constricted at the septa, and parallel in section.

The species is common in pine and not rare in deciduous woods,
growing often in populous colonies and sometimes in fairy rings.
It is distinguished from ZL. tortilis by stouter form, thinner, closer
and more regular gills, usually non-striate cap, and preference for
upland woods. It differs from L. amethystea in absence of deep pur-
plish color and thinner, closer and more regular gills.

For other illustrations see Cooke, Ills. Brit. Fungi, pl. 139; Hard,
Mushrooms, figs. 76 and 77; McIlvaine, Am. Fungi, pl. 24, fig. 10.
1900; Murrill, Mycologia 3: pl. 40, fig. 4. 1911; Peck, Rept. N. Y.
St. Mus. 48: pl. 25, figs. 1-18. 1895.

854. Growing abundantly in a large fairy ring about twenty feet in diameter
under pines, September 18, 1913.

1413. Under pines near Piney Prospect, October 24, 1914.

1435. Under pines near Piney Prospect, October 28, 1914. Spores spherical,
echinulate, 6.8-7.6u.

1495. Under pines, Glen Burnie Farm, December 8, 1914.

2960. On ground in pine woods, December 3, 1917.

2993. On ground in pine woods, March 25, 1918.

3176. Low place in deciduous woods east of cemetery, October 3, 1918. Spores
6.3-8.5y thick.

PLATE 8

No. 854.

LACCARIA LACCATA.

1922| THe Laccarias AND CLITOCYBES OF NorTH CAROLINA 101

3181. Among pines near branch southeast of campus, October 5, 1918. Spores
white, spherical, papillate, 7-9u.

3246. By branch in deciduous woods, Lone Pine Hill, May 25, 1919. Spores
7-9.3u4 thick.

5118. By branch south of campus, May 19, 1922. Typical. Spores spherical,
minutely spinulose (less so than in L. tortilis), 6-8.2 thick.

Asheville. Very common. Beardslee.

Blowing Rock. Atkinson.

Reported by Curtis.

South Carolina: Hartsville. In pines and in a field, December 26, 1918
(No. 72. W. C. Coker, coll.).

3. Laccaria amethystea (Bull.) Murrill.

PLATES 1 AND 33

Cap 1-5 em. broad, irregularly crumpled and lobed, in age the
margin uplifted or refiexed; the center depressed or plane; surface
like rougish leather, the margin finely scaly, not squamulose all over
as typically in L. laccata, eolor when not soaked avellaneous to vi-
naceous buff (Ridgway); when young and when soaked almost as
purple as the gills, the margin retaining the purple longer. Flesh
very thin, up to 1 mm., toughish, concolorous, taste and odor musty-
fungoid.

Gills distant, thick and leathery, up to 3.3 mm. thick, irregular,
broadly adnate and decurrent by a tooth, color at all ages deep violet
purple (about dull Indian purple of Ridgway), at maturity dusted
with the spores.

Stem 3-5 em. long, 2-5 mm. thick, sub-equal or enlarged below or
above, crooked, tough, color of cap or whitish with a scurfy sur-
face; in youth purple; stuffed then hollow.

Spores white, spherical, minutely spinulose, 7-10» thick. Basidia
5.5-8.5 thick, 2-4 sterigmata. Hymé@nium 48» thick, with many
erystals. Threads of the gill flesh 3.7-8p.

In damp places in woods; rather rare. This plant has been con-
sidered a species or a variety or only a form of C. laccata. Peck
treats it as a good species, Kauffman as a variety and Ricken as only
a form. Careful comparison in the fresh state of this and the com-
mon form of C. laccata shows the latter to differ in broader, thinner,
less distant and notched gills of a pinkish-lilaec (much paler) color,
cap more squamulose and buffy-cinnamon in color. For other illus-
trations of L. amethystea see Mycologia 10: pl. 8, fig. 2. 1918;

102 JOURNAL OF THE MiTCHELL SOCIETY | September

sulliard, Herb. Fr., pl. 198; Bolton, Hist. Fung. Halifax, pl. 63.
1788.

3622. In pine woods by Bowlin’s Creek, November 9, 1919.

5046. Among moss on side of stream, May 8, 1922.

5119. On earth by ditch in deciduous woods, May 19, 1922.

5178. By branch south of campus, June 6, 1922.

Asheville. Occasional. Beardslee.

4. Laccaria tortilis (Bolt.) B. & Br.

PLATEs 1, 9 AND 33

Caps usually irregular, often cespitose, 0.5-2.3 em. broad, rounded
or nearly plane to depressed in center, usually slightly unbilicate,
nearly smooth or minutely fibrous roughened, hygrophanous, and,
when water-soaked, of a dull fleshy-brick color with a distinctly
deeper-colored line over each gill (striatulate) ; when dry pale fleshy
buff and not striatulate or very faintly so. Flesh colored lke the
surface, brittle, very thin and translucent, only one-third mm. thick
near stem; taste rather nutty.

Gills broadly adnate, usually sinuate, sometimes squarely attached,
very slightly deeurrent, distant, thick, irregular, the margin blunt,
deep flesh color and distinctly powdered with the white spores.

Stem 1.2-3.5 em. long, 1-2 mm. thick, equal, often twisted and
bent, sometimes flattened; surface pruinose, flesh tough, fibrous, a
small hollow, color of cap, the base often somewhat swollen and at
times white with mycelium.

Spores white, spherical, echinulate, 7.4-10.3n, (up to 1lp, count-
ing the spines) usually about 9.24 in diameter. Basidia (of No.
5121) 9.7-12.5 x 30-37» with 4 long, curved sterigmata.

Frequent in damp depressions in woods and along wet ditches.
The spores of our plant are smaller than the dimensions given by
Peck, but they are distinctly echinulate and also very variable in
size in the same plant. The striatulate cap, small size, irregular
shape, thick distant and leathery gills, large spores and swampy
habitat would indicate this species. Patouillard deseribes and fig-
ures the basidia as two-spored (see below). They have not been so in
the plants we have examined.

For other illustrations see Mycologia 10: pl. 8, fig. 4 (as ZL.
striatula). 1918; Bolton, Hist. Fung. Halifax, pl. 41. fie, A (as
Agaricus tortilis). 1788; Patouillard, Tab. Fung., No. 105.

1954.

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1922] Tue LaccARIAS AND CLITOCYBES OF NorTH CAROLINA 103

1951. In grass in moist place in Arboretum, November 1, 1915,

2454. Swamp of New Hope Creek, September 28, 1916.

2886. Swampy woods near Strowd’s pasture, October 8, 1917. Spores spherical,
echinulate, 7.4-10u thick, not counting spines, 8.4-1ly, counting spines.

3199. Low place with moss, October 7, 1918. Spores 7.4-9y thick.

3344. In moss by creek below Glen Burnie Farm, June 11, 1919. Spores 7-10u
thick.

3612. Damp ground near swamp, Strowd’s low grounds, November 8, 1919. Cap
5-13 mm. broad, almost glabrous, striate when moist, deep reddish-

ochraceous.

5121. On earth by branch south of campus, May 19, 1922. A very small lot;

gills sometimes decurrent, spores spherical, spinulose, 7.7-10.5y thick.

Asheville. Rare, usually in damp places. Beardslee.

CLITOCYBE

Cap mostly depressed in center or infundibuliform, the margin
involute to near maturity. Gills narrowed toward the stem, typically
decurrent, but often only slightly so and rarely they are even a little
notched at the stem. Stem fibrous externally, more or less elastic, not
brittle, sometimes hollow, continuous with the fiesh of the cap. Spores
typically white, but flesh color in C. cerussata and tinted pinkish-
lavender in C. cyathiformis, elliptic, pip-shaped or rarely subspher-
ical, smooth in all species here included, said to be minutely echinu-
late in C. pulcherrima, C. albissima and C. maxima. Volva and
annulus wanting. Growing on the ground or among leaves or on
rotting wood. One species, not yet found here (C. nebularis), is the
host of a parasitic Volvaria (V. Loweiana. See Mycologia 8: 65.
1916) and another (C. peltigerina) grows on the lichen Peltigera.
This is not always an easy genus to determine as the gills are vari-
able, in some cases approaching Tricholoma, in others Collybia or
Omphalia. A few of the species are poisonous, as (. i//udens and C.
morbifera, but these are not classed among the deadly mushrooms.
Clitocybe sudorifica causes profuse perspiration.

ImporTANT AMERICAN LITERATURE

Kauffmann. Agaricaceae of Michigan, p. 715. 1918.

Morgan. Journ. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist. 6: 66. 1883.

Murrill. N. Am. Flora 9: 396. 1916; Mycologia 7: 256, pls. 164-166. 1915.
Peck. Rept. N. Y. St. Mus. 23: 75. 1872. Bot. ed. Also Rept. 157: 59. 1912.

104 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

KEY TO THE SPECIES

Plants growing from bases of stumps or from underground wood; densely cespi-
tose and usually large
Plant brownish, op honey-colored.. 00.4... - a noe aren cmamereen C. tabescens (3)
Hntiresplantwonamcercolored erecta. yet ss a6 ceio.« «oe suena eee C. illudens (5)
Plants not wood-loving, or if so not densely cespitose and smaller
Plants with a distinct odor of sweet fennel or anise
C. odora var. anisaria (14)
Not with an odor of sweet fennel
Gulls\coldentyellowescapetbrous! Limed!.).75.5 .1)- ele hereneieene C. ectypoides (15)
Gills not golden yellow
Cap white or tan or buff or fleshy-buff (see also C. infundibuliformis)
Cap large, up to 7-11 em. broad

Gills broad, margin of cap lobed or crenate.......... C. gigantea (1)
Gills narrow, crowded, margin of cap even; plants strongly
COSPIUbOSC aewaoraate cle trois ave csUse 0.0 nrote: 2) eae ee ene C. cerussata (4)

Cap smaller
Cap marked by more or less concentric rivulose lines. .C. rivulosa (20)
Cap not so marked
Growing in open grassy places, cap light buff or fleshy-

DOULA icteweuci creeps the, cease: ov 01 0 20 ee Ree ne C. dealbata (19)
Growing in woods among leaves and sticks, or on much decayed wood
Growanesamione pine needles=. 4-1 ee eee C. pinophila (17)

Not growing in pine woods
Stem base with radiating hairs; spores

eS ix 3184. Pig alc. 5 «ons oa C. setiseda (18)

Stemebase without hains\-. yells C. adirondackensis (11)

Cap chestnut red or reddish when young, often ochraceous or lighter in
age

Center of cap cracked into minute, inherent scales C. sinopicoides (10)

Centeremoticrackedly iii cttw ss wold ere C. infundibuliformis (9)

Cap blackish-brown or grayish-brown or grayish buff or umber or drab
when moist
Taste and odor strongly farinaceous, the cap brown or smoky
Stem Jones white Wbelow. 5-4. «1... teenie C. cyathiformis (16)
Stem shorter, mob white below. <=... secue sete C. subnigricans (8)
Taste and odor not farinaceous
Strongly cespitose, usually with stems fused below into a solid mass

Cap grayish-brown to sordid brown..............- C. tumulosa (6)
Cap smokyseray, to nearly white. = .-macereeene C. conglobata (7)
Not strongly cespitose
Gills very narrow, not over 2 mm. wide................ C. sp. (2)
Gills over 3 mm. wide
Stem! base ymuch swollen... 25 :.4)... eee Gee C. clavipes (12)

Stem: base motiswollen. .... 22.0... oes eee C. media (13)

1922] THE LaccARIAS AND CLITOCYBES oF NorTH CAROLINA 105

1. Clitocybe gigantea Sowerby.
Paxillus giganteus (Sow.) Fr.

PLATE 10

Solitary or gregarious; cap up to 11 em. wide, depressed in center,
the margin incurved when young, drooping at maturity, usually very
irregular and much lobed; surface whitish to light tan or buff, darkest
in center, smooth or somewhat pruinose in angles. Flesh white, soft,
mild.

Gills not crowded in our plants, irregular, thick, wide, up to 8
mm., many short ones, none forked, decurrent, but ending abruptly
and bluntly and therefore somewhat resembling a Tricholoma. The
gills are slow to develop and in young plants are very narrow.

Stem short, about 5 em. long, 1.5-2 em. thick, the outer part
fibrous, the inner softer and often cavernous, usually bent at base;
surface smooth, color of cap, pure white at the very top.

Spores white, smooth, elliptic, 3.5 x 5-6p.

A peculiar plant that is not closely related to other species of
Clitocybe. It is said to reach a breadth of over a foot. The thick
and irregular gills remind one of a Pazillus, but they do not separate
easily from the cap.

This agrees well with C. gigantea in the sense of Kauffman except
that the gills are not very crowded. Ricken does not give the spores.

For other illustrations see Gillet, Champ. Fr., pl. 124 (100);
Quélet, Champ. Jura et Vosg. 1: pl. 3, fig. 3. 1872; Cooke, Ills., pl.
106; Juillard-Hartmann, Icon. Champ. Sup., pl. 31, fig. 5.

1765. Low damp woods near pines at foot of Lone Pine Hill, September 12, 1915.
1832. In woods loam by branch south of Raleigh road, Rocky Ridge Farm,
September 20, 1915.

Asheville. Rare. Beardslee.
Reported by Schweinitz.
2. Clitocybe sp. ?

PuateEs 11 anp 33

Cap 4-13 em. broad, broadly depressed in center, the margin plane
or crimped and drooping, surface quite glabrous, sub-shining, viscid
when wet; color buffy drab, between drab and wood-brown of

106 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

Ridgway. Flesh white, only up to 1 em. thick at stem, very thin
toward margin, pliable, taste mild and sweetish, odor faint.

Gills crowded, very narrow, hardly up to 2 mm. wide, fading to
a line toward the stem and barely reaching it; color exactly that of
the cap.

Stem 2-4.5 em. long, 1.3-1.8 em. thick, color and surface of cap,
solid, soft and pliable, the base sub-bulbous.

Spores white, smooth, sub-elliptic to pip-shaped, 2.2-3 x 4-5.

A peeuliar plant, sharply marked by the uniform gray-buff color,
soft, tough flesh and peculiar gills. In the absence of young stages
and with only one collection we prefer not to name it as yet. It may
possibly be a form of C. nebularis, but a plant of that species from
Peck has gills broader and much darker in the dried state. It can-
not be C. geotropa. In his Funghi Mangereecci, pl. 39, Bresadola
shows an obviously different plant and the spores are nearly globose
and rough. A plant from his herbarium, so labelled, has spores that
are rough, but they are 3.7-4.6 x 5-7 and are not like those of our
plant. Ricken gives the spores at 5-6 x 6-7» and does not mention
roughness. Clitocybe geotropa is also recognized as being a paler
plant than ours and as being umbonate or gibbous and it could hardly
be brought to the thinness in center shown by No. 3210. (See Bresa-
dola as cited above; Ricken, pl. 101, fig. 1; Bulliard, pl. 573; and
Dumée, Atlas Champ., Ser. 2, pl. 15). Clitocybe lenticulosa Gill. is
also easily different, with its rough cap and white, long decurrent gills
(Champ. Fr., p. 144, pl. 130).

3210. In sandy humus near branch west of Meeting of the Waters, deciduous
woods, October 9, 1918.

3. Clitocybe tabescens (Scop.) Bres.
Pleurotus caespitosus B. & C.
Clitocybe caespitosus (B. & C.) M. A. C. Not C. caespitosa Pk.
Clitocybe monadelpha Morg.
Agaricus gymnopodius Bull.

PLATES 12 AND 33

Plants densely cespitose at bases of old stumps, and from under-
ground wood. Cap up to about 7 em. broad, usually between 4 and
6 em., expanded and broadly umbonate; tawny or honey color, edge

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No.

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PLATE 12

ITOCYBE TABESCENS. No. 1342
Reduced about one-fifth.

1922] THe LaccarIAs AND CLITOCYBES OF NorRTH CAROLINA 107

often water-soaked and darker, the surface with small scales in center,
elsewhere nearly smooth or squamulose-fibrous.

Stem long, dark grayish-brown, tapering to a point at the crowded
base, solid, tough, fibrous, bent and usually twisted.

Gills decurrent, not crowded, pale flesh color, often with brown
stains.

Spores variable in size in the same plant, white, subspherical to
elliptic, smooth, (of No. 1342) 4.8-7.4 x 6.5-10p.

This plant, which is very common around stumps from July to
cold weather, is much like Armillaria mellea in habit, color, texture
and general appearance, and is easily confused with it in passing.
The entire absence of a veil in Clitocybe tabescens will, however,
serve as an easy distinction between the two plants. Pure cultures of
these two species grown on wood, agar and other media by one of our
students, Mr. H. R. Totten, Instructor in Botany, shows that C.
tabescens is certainly distinct from A. mellea. In agar, the rhiz-
omorphs of the latter are blackish, while those of the former are
white. (Jour. E. Mitchell Sci. Soe. 33: 96. 1917).

There seems no doubt that Bresadola is right in considering the
American plant the same as the European. His good figure is just
like our plants (Fung. Trident. 2: 84, pl. 197. Bulliard’s plate, No.
601, is less good). Other synonyms given by Bresadola are Agaricus
socialis DC., Agaricus inarmillatus Schulzer, Lentinus caespitosus
Berk. Still other names, according to Murrill (N. Am. Flora 9: 420.
1916), are Clitocybe aquatica Banning and Peck and Armillaria
mellea exannulata Pk. See a note by Lloyd in Myce. Notes 6: 54.
1901.

While not of first-class quality, this species is edible and on ac-
count of its great abundance could probably be made valuable to the
housekeeper. It can be easily dried and put away for future use.

For other illustrations see Morgan, Journ. Cinn. Soe. Nat Hist. 6:
pl. 4, 1883; McIlvaine, Am. Fungi, pl. 27 (as C. monadelpha), 1900:
Hard, Mushrooms, pl. 12 (as C. monadelpha), 1908.

182. On underground wood, campus, September 27, 1908.
188, 198, 1342, 1373, 2453, 2457. All around stumps or from underground wood

in October. Spores of No. 2457 elliptic, smooth, 5-6.5 x 6-8.5u, of No.
1373, 4-6 x 5.5-8u.

Asheville. Not common. Beardslee.
Reported by Curtis (as C. cespitosus).

108 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

4. Clitocybe cerussata Fr.
Clitopilus caespitosus Pk.

PLATE 13
The following is by Beardslee:

Strongly cespitose ; cap 3-10 em. broad, round convex, becoming ex-
panded and plane or depressed, white with a silky luster, often gray-
ish white with a water-soaked appearance with age, margin thin,
even or obscurely striate, inrolled at first. Flesh white to watery
white.

Gills white becoming dingy or flesh-color, narrow, crowded, many
shorter and a few forking, sinuate-adnate to adnate-decurrent.

Stem 7-10 em. long, usually about 1 em. thick, spongy stuffed be-
eoming hollow, silky fibrillose.

Spores 2.5-3 x 4-5y ellipsoid, flesh color in mass.

This is without doubt Peck’s Clitopilus caespitosus. In many
ways, however, it is more suggestive of Clitocybe than Clitopilus. It
is true that the spores have a rosy tint when they are viewed in
mass, but they are much lighter than is usual in Rhodosporae. In
fact if care is not taken to secure a good spore print they may easily
pass for white. The fact that a number of species of Tricholoma,
Clitocybe, and Pleurotus have spores that are not pure white lead to
the belief that this plant might be known in Europe as a Clitocybe.
Specimens and photographs were accordingly submitted to Bresadola
who positively identified our plant as C. cerussata Fr., our usual form
being variety difformis.

We are therefore referring our plant to this species especially as
its large size, fragile flesh and light colored spores seem to indicate
a closer relationship with Clitocybe than Clitopilus.

Asheville. In large masses in the margins of woods. Beardslee.

5. Clitecybe illudens Schw.

Puates 14, 15 anv 33

Cap up to 15 em. broad, expanded then depressed in center, bright
orange or golden yellow; margin elevated or drooping, surface smooth
and glabrous. Flesh yellowish, taste and odor rather strong.

Gills close, strongly decurrent, color of cap.

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PLATE 14

NS.

ILLUDE

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CLITOCYBE
ir east gate of ¢

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1922] THe LaccaRIAs AND CLITOCYBES OF NorTH CAROLINA 109

Stem long, solid and elastic, bent, tapering downward, color of

cap.
Spores (of No. 183) white, sub-globose, smooth, 4-4.6, thick.
A large and very striking species growing in densely cespitose
clusters from the bases of stumps of deciduous trees or from roots
near the surface of the ground; not rare in September and October.
It was first described by Schweinitz from this State. The entire plant
is brightly colored and may be seen from a long distance. It is
poisonous to most people though not classed among the deadly species.
It is a severe emetic and may also cause intestinal derangement. For
cases in detail see Fischer in Kauffman’s Agarics of Michigan, p. 486.
The gills exhibit a marked phosphorescence which may be easily
shown by looking at the plants in a dark room.

For other illustrations see White, Bull. Conn. Geol. & Nat. Hist.
Surv. 3: pl. 18. 1905; McIlvaine, Am. Fungi, pl. 29a. 1900; Hard,
Mushrooms, pl. 10; Mem. N. Y. St. Mus. 4: pl. 68. 1900; Marshall,
Mushroom Book, pl. opposite p. 70. 1904.

183. On an oak stump near east gate of campus, September 14, 1910.
184. Near Meeting of the Waters, on a stump, September 30, 1908.
557. By a stump on Cameron Avenue, October 14, 1912.

Blowing Rock. Atkinson.

Asheville. Very common. Beardslee.

Reported by Curtis.

6. Clitocybe tumulosa (Kalchbr.) Sace.
Agaricus multiformis Schaeff., plate 14.

Puates 16, 17 anv 33

Plants cespitose or gregarious. Cap up to 10 em. wide, convex,
smooth, not viscid, quite irregular, the margin incurved nearly to
maturity, remaining bent down, usually strongly lobed and crenated,
eolor grayish-brown or sordid-brown, lighter on the margin, turning
nearly black in age. Flesh about 8 mm. thick near stem, very thin
on margin, sordid white, tender, tasteless, odorless.

Gills not crowded at stem but much closer at margin, where there
are very many short ones, rather narrowly adnate to the stem, not
sinuate and varying from not decurrent in some plants to distinctly
so in others, up to 6 mm. wide in middle, dingy white at maturity and
somewhat dingy even when quite young. The gills are very sus-

110 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL Society | September

ceptible to the attacks of insects or snails and are usually almost
entirely eaten away before maturity.

Stem up to 6 em. long, often bent at the base, in our plants usually
fused with others into a solid basal mass, sometimes nearly equal
above the base, again strongly expanding near the cap; when not
fused with others the individual stems are usually decidedly swollen
or bulbous below, but base not enlarged in the fused stems except
as they expand into the mass; surface smooth, generally with ridges
and grooves, almost silky-shining, dull or sordid white; flesh rather
fragile, fibrous, solid, but softer-fibrous inside.

Spores white, short elliptic, lateral apiculus at one end, smooth,
4-5.4 x 5.4-6.8u.

In Chapel Hill this species grows only in ashes, usually where
piles of trash have been burned, a fact I have not seen mentioned by
others.

Cooke’s illustration of C. tumulosa (pl. 105) and Schaeffer’s of A.
multiformis (pl. 14) leave little doubt that their figures repre-
sent our plant. This is also true of Bresadola’s pl. 32 in Fungi Tri-
dentini, published as C. conglobata but later said by him in a letter
to Beardslee to represent C. cinerascens. Clitocybe fumosa FY. is lighter
in color and has a more expanded cap. Peck’s C. multiceps might
well be this, but is described and figured (Bull. N. Y. St. Mus. 139:
pl. 117) as being much whiter, and photos by Kauffman (Agaricaceae
of Michigan, pl. 157) and Clark and Kantor (Mycologia 3: pl. 52.
1911) show a denser mass of plants. From these interpretations it
would seem that C. multiceps is nearer C. conglobata than C. tumulosa,
if indeed the two latter are really different. Ricken considers them,
as well as Tricholoma pes-caprae Fr., the same. Gillet’s pl. 689 under
the last name is just like our Chapel Hill plant. Clitocybe multi-
formis Pk. does not seem to be different from C. multiceps (see
Mycologia 7: pl. 164. 1915).

Beardslee agrees that our Chapel Hill plants are C. twmulosa and
that C. multiceps Pk. is the same. He believes that C. conglobata is
different and we are giving his notes and photographs of this species
as he understands it.

1941. In leaves and trash under oaks, October 22, 1915. Spores elliptic, smooth,
one oil drop, 5 x 6-7.2u.

1989. On burnt over ground with Funaria moss, oak woods east of athletic field,
November 17, 1915.

1 16

PLAT!

1941.

No.

CLITOCYBE TUMULOSA.

wise Li)

rl
4

PLATI

B.

Photo by

Asheville.

CLITOCYBE TUMULOSA.

ze
‘hee

1922] THe LaccaRiAs AND CLITOCYBES OF NorTH CAROLINA TEE

2001. In ash pile, south of campus, November 23, 1915.

2006. In ash pile, southwest of campus. Spores 3.7-5 x 5-7.4y.

2007. In soil containing ashes with moss Funaria, woods southwest of athletic
field, December 6, 1915. Spores elliptic, smooth, hyaline, 3.6-4 x 5.8-6.7p.

2008. In soil containing ashes, burnt-over place in woods southwest of athletic
field, December 8, 1915.

7. Clitocybe conglobata Vitt.
PLATE 18

The following is by Beardslee:

Cap 2-5 em. broad, at first rounded convex, becoming expanded
with the fieshy center somewhat prominent as an obtuse umbo, smoky
gray to almost pure white, usually darkest at the center, marked
with darker fibrils. Flesh white, thin at the margin, rather fragile;
no marked taste or odor.

Gills white, close, moderately narrow, varying in attachment from
adnexed to adnate. decurrent. .

Stem white, solid, curving, furfuraceous at the top, springing in
large numbers from a solid, white-fleshed, tuberous mass 10-12 em.
thick.

Spores globose, 6-7 thick.

This species was found twice at Asheville, and seemed very dif-
ferent from the related species with globose spores, which we have
referred to Clitocybe tumulosa. Specimens and photos were submit-
ted to Bresadola who referred them as above, with the statement ‘‘C.
conglobata Vitt. Funghi Mangerecci, tab. 34, not Fungi Tridentini,
tab. 32, which is C. cinerascens Bull.’’

The first figure will be found to represent our plants well. It
shows the cap white to pale gray, and the same densely clustered
stems springing from a dense subterranean mass. The figure in
Fungi Tridentini does not show these features. We are referring
our plants to C. conglobata Vitt., therefore, in the sense of Bresadola’s
later views. As we find it the plant seems amply distinct and well
worthy of a specific name.

Asheville. Densely cespitose in thick woods. Beardslee.
Linville Falls. In humus, August 24, 1922. No. 5758. Coker, coll.).

112 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

8. Clitocybe subnigricans Pk.
Puates 1, 19, 20 anp 33

Cap 7-11 em. broad, irregular, the center plane or depressed, mar-
gin broadly drooping and more or less zoned by light terraces, much
erimped and lobed; surface dry, nearly glabrous in places, but still
showing in areas a fine felted tomentum, (under a lens a light, frag-
mented, inherent pellicle is visible) ; color a peculiar buffy drab with
blackish places where rubbed. Flesh color of cap, tough, elastic,
very thin on marginal half, up to 6 mm. thick near stem, odor slight,
taste rank and farinaceous.

Gills close, many lengths, not branched, about 6 mm. wide, adnate
or mostly decurrent, none sinuate, color of cap, then soon smoky in
“an irregular way, the distal ends remaining light longest, finally
blackish.

Stem 5-7 em. long, 11-16 mm. thick, nearly equal, tough, solid,
surface smoothish to roughish, color of cap at first, then blackish;
base deeply inserted in the leaves and without a definite end.

Spores (of No. 3165) white, elliptic, smooth, 4-6.2 x 7.4-10p.

This interesting plant has been compared with the type and found
to agree, both in appearance and spores, which in the type are smooth,
elliptic, 4.2-6 x 7-9.5p.

3165. Deciduous woods by Battle’s Branch, October 3, 1918.

3357. In moss bed by path to Meeting of the Waters, June 21, 1919. These two
young plants are undoubtedly the same as above. They show that in
the young state the cap is covered with a fine squamulose felt. The
gills are sinuate and, when young, decurrent by a little tooth. Spores
3.7-4.4 x 6.6-7.7u.

3361. Same place as No. 3357, June 25, 1919. Spores smooth, elliptic, 3-3.7 x
6.2-7.4y.

8552. Mixed woods by Battle’s Branch, October 29, 1919. Gills very crowded.

9. Clitocybe infundibuliformis (Schaeff). Fr.
Puates 1, 21, 22 anp 33

Gregarious or cespitose among leaves in woods or in piles of turf.
Cap 4-8.5 em. broad, soon depressed in center or broadly infundi-
buliform, usually undulately, lobed and uneven, when young the mar-
gin strongly inrolled and distinctly lined by being pressed against

‘a Aq OJoyT “OTA0YSY “VLVAEOTONOO AAAOOLITO

8l WLV Id

Paw 19

CLITOCYBE SUBNIGRICANS.

PLATE 20

CLITOCYBE SUBNIGRICANS. No. 3165.

1922] Tue Laccartas AND CuiTocyBEs OF NortH CAROLINA 113

the gills just as in C. odora, these lines still visible or absent at
maturity; surface finely puberulent when young and in protected
places until maturity, usually becoming smooth or nearly so from
the collapse of the tomentum; color in youth deep reddish tawny,
but soon fading to a dull brownish tan, the margin pale and some-
times zoned. Some plants are decidedly flesh color at maturity.
Flesh white, soft, 4-10 mm. thick in center, gradually thinning out-
ward, taste fungoid-musty ; odor slight, similar.

Gills crowded, slightly decurrent, 2-2.8 mm. wide, some branched,
and in No. 2512 abundantly and conspicuously veined in most of
the plants (a few with inconspicuous veins); color pale creamy, in
drying becoming more like the eap color.

Stem variable in size, 2.5-3.5 em. long above ground, 5-15 mm.
thick, often deeply inserted, nearly equal, color of gills, nearly smooth
where exposed, but covered with soft cottony mycelium where pro-
tected and bound firmly to the substratum with it, center softly
stuffed and often hollowed by grubs.

Spores (of No. 2512) not abundant, smooth, pip-shaped with the
small end eurved, 2.4-4.5 x 5-7y.

We are referring this to C. infundibuliformis because of its deep
reddish color (fading to tan), only slightly tomentose cap, crowded,
narrow gills, and spores like those of the European plant. A specimen
from Bresadola is just like ours and has spores 3.5-4 x 5.2-7.4u. Bres-
adola thinks that C. adirondackensis Pk. is the same, and they are
certainly very close. A collection of the latter by Peck from Bolton,
N. Y., is just like our plants in the dried state and has the same
spores (3.5-4.2 x 4.5-7u). However, there is a milk white plant found
at Asheville (Beardslee) and Blowing Rock (Coker) that is ver}
smooth and may conveniently be separated as C. adirondackensis
(which see).

This species is very near C. sinopicoides, from which it may be
distinguished only in the most typical forms. In such cases the
stouter stem, larger size, more glabrous surface and the vein-like
ridges on the margin in youth and often until maturity serve to mark
it. The spores are alike, and I have come to the conclusion, after
several years of observation, that the two are only different forms
of the same species, the larger veined form growing most often under
cedars and pines, the smaller with smooth margin under deciduous
trees, but not confined to them. The latter often has short, obscure

114 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL SocieTY | September

ridges or a series of dots near the margin which are intermediate
between the smooth and veined extremes; smooth plants also occur
among the veined ones of cedars. The two forms occur in abundance
at the same time and are exactly alike in color, shape, odor, taste,
gills and spores.

For illustrations see Dumée, Atlas de Champignons, pl. 16; Cooke,
Ills. Brit. Fungi, pl. 107; Gillet, Champ. Fr., pl. 107 (126) and pl.
127; White, Conn. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 3: pl. 19. 1905;
Hard, Mushrooms, pl. 9, fig. 65; Kauffmann, Agaricaceae of Michigan,
pl. 158; Peck, N. Y. St. Mus. Rept. 48: pl. 24, figs. 1-6. 1895; Me-
Ilvaine, Am. Fungi, pl. 24, fig. 11.

2512. In a pile of rotting turf by road at cemetery, June 11, 1917.

2767. Same spot as No. 2512, July 24, 1917.

2841. From woods on right of Durham road, October 1, 1917.

3248. In grass lawn of President’s house and by sidewalk near, May 28, 1919.

3258. Under cedars in cemetery, May 30, 1919. All these plants except one
were distinctly veined on margin. One was quite smooth.

3260. Same spot as No. 2512, May 30, 1919.

Blowing Rock. Atkinson. Coker.
Asheville. Very common. Beardslee.
Reported by Curtis.

10. Clitocybe sinopicoides Pk.

PLATES 23 AND 33

Cap up to 5 em. broad, usually about 3-4.5 em., depressed in
center, or almost plane, sometimes approaching infundibuliform ; sur-
face when young minutely pruinose-tomentose, the margin more dis-
tinetly tomentose, dry and chestnut red, becoming more or less squam-
ulose and sometimes rivulose when old and fading to ochraceous-
buff or even lighter, often with darker dots, margin usually irreg-
ular and very wavy, inrolled when quite young. Flesh white, soft,
flexible, very thin, about 1 mm. thick half way to margin, much
thicker over the stem; taste mild and slightly earthy, not farinaceous.

Gills very decurrent, white, changing to creamy and drying when
mature to ochraceous buff, close or moderately so, very thin and nar-
row, only 1.5 mm. wide in center, many short, some forked, in large
plants their sides sometimes veined.

Stem color of cap or lighter, smooth, tapering slightly downward,
firm at surface and stuffed with soft, dense, white material like the

512

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1922| THE LAccARIAS AND CLITOCYBES oF NorTH CAROLINA 115

eap flesh, tough or rather brittle, about 2-3 em. long and 2-5 mm.
thick, attached firmly to the ground with white mycelium. When
mature the entire plant dries to a pretty ochraceous-buff.

Spores white, smooth, pip-shaped, 3.4-4.6 x 4.2-7.4n.

In humus or grass or on rotten wood, in woods and groves.

We have examined Peck’s type of C. sinopicoides and cannot dis-
tinguish it from our plants. The caps distinctly show the squam-
ulose center and the spores are exactly the same except that a few
of the former are a little longer (3.2-3.8 x 7-8.5)y. In the presence
of squamules and cracks on the cap in age the present species is
like C. sinopica, but a European plant of that species from Bres-
adola has distinctly larger spores, 3.8-5.5 x 7-9.34 and differs further
in far less crowded gills and smoother cap. This is almost certainly
the plant listed by Schweinitz as C. gilva, but according to Ricken
that species has spherical, spiny spores. The present species is
doubtfully distinct from C. infundibuliformis, which see for dis-
cussion.

614. On a very rotten log, October 24, 1912. Stem eccentric in several of
these plants, but not hairy.

1068. In damp grassy place in woods, October 18, 1913. Spores white, oval,
smooth, 3.7-4.6 x 5.5-7.4y.

1140. In clusters, some cespitose, in a shaded lawn, July 16, 1914.

1414, Under pines in burnt over woods, near Piney Prospect, October 24, 1914.
Spores 3.4-3.8 x 4.2-5.9y.

2039. Among shrubs by path west of President’s house, June 5, 1916.

2103. Deciduous woods, June 22, 1916.

2273. Oak woods, Lone Pine Hill, June 28, 1916. Spores pip-shaped, 2.4-4 x 5-6.

3262. By path on campus, May 29, 1919.

3264. Under oaks in cemetery, May 30, 1919. Margin not marked by lines but
some with dots. Spores pip-shaped, 3-4 x 6-7.8y.

11. Clitocybe adirondackensis Pk.
PLATES 24 AND 33

The following is by Beardslee:

Cap 2-7 em. broad, thin, becoming deeply infundibuliform, dingy
white, becoming white when dry, with a narrow marginal zone when
moist; flesh thin, white, 2-3 mm. thick.

Gills thin, white, very narrow, scarcely more than 1 mm. thick,
forking, long decurrent.

Stem slender 2-4 em. long, 5-7 mm. thick, stuffed, then hollow.

116 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL Society | September

Spores ellipsoid-ovate, 3-3.5 x 4-5p.
Asheville. On old leaves; not rare. Beardslee.
Blowing Rock. In leaf mould, Aug. 19, 1922. (No. 5585. Coker, coll.).

12. Clitocybe clavipes Fr.

Cap up to 10 em. wide, plane to depressed in center or cup
shaped in age, glabrous, straw drab to buffy drab, hygrophanous.
Flesh soft, pure white, 1.5 em. thick near center; taste shghtly acid,
odor distinetly fragrant when wilting, rather like jessamine.

Gills close, 4.5 mm. wide, cream color when fresh, a deeper honey
yellow when dry, shehtly decurrent, edges entire.

Stem 3-5 em. long, usually 6-10 mm. thick above, smooth, color of
cap above; expanded below into a bulb which is up to 3 em. thick,
white and felted with the mycelium which holds the leaves.

Spores white, ovate-elliptic, smooth, with a very distinct oil drop,
3.1-4.2 X 6.5-8.2p.

Our plants have been compared with C. clavipes as understood by
Peck (Bolton, N. Y.) and are identical. The spores of the latter are
3-3.8 x 6-8u. <A preference for coniferous woods is noted by Peck,
Kauffmann, Gillet and Ricken. Descriptions of these authors do not
agree in all particulars, but it seems clear that our plant must be this
species. Ricken says that the spores are roughish, but they are cer-
tainly not so in the American form.

_ For illustrations see Peck, Mem. N. Y. St. Mus. No. 4, 3: pl. 46,
figs. 1-6. 1900; Gillet, Champ. Fr., pl. 115; Hard, Mushrooms, fig. 69.

Blowing Rock. Under dense white pine growth, Chetola, August 21-22,
1922. (No. 5651 and No. 5677. W. C. Coker, coll.).

13. Clitocybe media Pk.
PLATE 33

Cap about 5-8.5 em. wide, gibbous or nearly plane at maturity,
smooth, dull and with appearance of leather, slightly viscid when
damp, margin ineurved then expanded, often irregular; color brown-
ish-gray all over, between smoke-gray and drab of Ridgway. Flesh
white, soft and spongy, gradually thickening toward the stem, taste-
less and odorless.

Gills distant to sub-distant, slightly decurrent or adnate, 5-6 mm.
wide, ventricose, veined, none branched, pallid and more or less
tinted with the cap color.

PRAEE

CLITOCYBE ADIRONDACKENSIS. Asheville. Photo by B. [above].
CLITOOYBE SETISEDA. No. 1782. [below].

ie

1922] THe Laccartas AND CLITOCYBES OF NorTH CAROLINA 117

Stem 2.5-5 em. long, 1-2 em. thick in center, tapering downward,
often flattened, color of the cap or lighter, smooth or pruinose above,
flesh solid and like that of the cap.

Spores (of No. 2992) white, smooth, elliptic, 4-5 x 6-7y, with a
large oil drop.

The cap margin is at times marked by darker spots in a row as in
Tricholoma russula. The species is new to the South, having been
reported only from New York and Wisconsin.

For illustrations see Hard, Mushrooms, fig. 64. 1908; Peck, Rept.
N. Y. St. Mus. 42: pl. 1, figs. 9-12. 1889; 48: pl. 23, figs. 1-7. 1896.

2992. On ground among leaves, Battle’s Park, deciduous upland woods, March
19, 1918.

14. Clitocybe odora (Bull.) Fr. var. anisaria (Pk.) Kauffman.
Agaricus (Clitocybe) anisarius Pk.

PuatEs 25, 26 AND 33

_ Plants cespitose or solitary in rotting leaves in woods. Cap up
to 7.5 em. broad, convex at first, but soon fiat and then plane-de-
pressed or somewhat umbilicate in center, not infundibuliform; mar-
gin inrolled when young, then plane or somewhat curved downward ;
surface dry, roughish with firm inherent squamules which are tipped
by fine upright wisps of fibers, the margin covered with short hairy
tomentum which is most easily observed in youth. Squamules and
tomentum may both become practically invisible after maturity (as
in No. 4669). Just back of the margin is also observable in youth
a distinct circle of spots which correspond te the little cogs on the
stem where the margin touched it. Color light pallid tan or brown-
ish tan or whitish gray at maturity. When young a lght bluish
olive-tan, the marginal dots deeper smoky-blue-green. The center is
darkest at maturity, a smoky drab or dull green, sometimes faded
and not much darker than remainder. Flesh white, very brittle, 4
mm. thick near center, gradually thinning to margin. Taste mild,
pleasant, like that of Agaricus campestris. Odor distinct and ex-
actly like that of sweet fennel or of anise.

Gills crowded, slightly decurrent, and usually a little notched at
stem, none branched, numerous short ones of any length, scarcely 2
mm. wide, color nearly white, then light tan, margin usually eroded
in marginal half and nearly even near the stem.

118 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL Sociery [| September

Stem 4-5 em. long, up to 5 mm. thick, nearly even below, coated
with and fading into the thick white mycelium. Color of cap, when
young nearly white. At top finely granulose and usually with a
little collar of cogs about 1 mm. below the tip, middle region faintly
fibrous, basal coated with white mycelium. ‘Texture fibrous, rather
brittle, inside stuffed, sometimes partially hollow in age.

Spores (on No. 1881) decidedly cream in bulk, elliptic, smooth,
4.5-5 x 5-7.2u.

Our plants differ from the typical C. odora in the roughish-squam-
ulose cap, quite close gills, hairy margin marked with dots. The
loss of greenish color at maturity may also occur in the typical form.
Peck’s description of his C. anisaria (N. Y. St. Mus. Rep. 32: 26.
1879) is much more like our form, with narrow, crowded gills and
the cap ‘‘adorned with minute, innate fibrils, shghtly pruinose and
substriate on the margin.’’ In some of our collections this squam-
ulose tendency is carried much further than this, the eap being fur-
nished with rough, raised lines which meet in pairs and end in a free
upright wisp. These wisps may disappear in age. The margin,
too, is distinctly short-hairy, with hairs arranged in two or three
more or less distinct concentric lines about 1 mm. apart. We find
the spores of Peck’s type to be 4.2-5.5 x 7.4-8y.

For illustrations see Murrill in Mycologia 7: pl. 166. 1915 (as C.
virens. This shows a rough cap); McIlvaine, Am. Fungi, pl. 24, fig.
9; Marshall, Mushroom Book, pl. 15 (as C. virens); White, Conn.
Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 3: pl. 17. 1905. For the European
form of C. odora see Gillet, Champ. Fr., pl. 113 (85, 134) ; Sowerby,
Engl. Fungi, pl. 42; and Bullard, Herb. Fr., pl. 556, fig. 3; Patouil-
lard, Tab. Fung., No. 404. 1886.

457. On dead bark and leaves near Battle’s Branch, September 28, 1912. Spores
light creamy ochraceous, 4.9 x 7.4y.

1881. Among decaying oak leaves, Lone Pine Hill, October 3, 1915.

1883. Under pines and cedars south of the iron mine, October 3, 1915.

3562. Mixed woods west of Pittsboro Road, October 31, 1919. Odor distinct,
margin ridged, olive colors in youth.

4669. Mixed woods by Fern Walk, October 3, 1920. Spores pale buff, smooth,
elliptic, with one large, distinct oil drop, 3.7-5 x 5-7.4u.

4896. On bank of Battle’s Branch, October 5, 1921.

Reported by Schweinitz as C. odora.

PLATE, 25

CLITOCYBE ODORA VAR. ANISARIA. No. 3562.

‘L880 ON “VIUMVSINV YUVA VYOGO AAAOOLITO

Ny

96 ULV d

1922] THe Laccarias AND CLITOCYBES OF NoRTH CAROLINA Lg

15. Clitocybe ectypoides Pk.
Puates 27, 28 anv 33

Very persistent and slow to decay. Cap up to 9.8 em. wide,
usually 2-3 em., hygrophanous, deeply umbilicate, the margin inrolled,
or at maturity reflexed, often with a sinus on one side, and fre-
quently splitting in age into several parts; surface distinctly lined
radially with fibrous streaks; when young, distinctly but sparsely
squamulose, especially toward the margin, with small tufts of darker
fibers which terminate the fibrous lines; color when water-soaked
dull ochraceous with a superficial tint of purplish-red; when not
soaked the purple-red color is much more distinct and as it is con-
fined mostly to the fibers and squamules it is much plainer on the
margin. In old age this superficial tint becomes almost or quite
invisible to the naked eye, but with a lens can be detected at all
times on the margin. Flesh quite thin, 1.5 mm. thick near stem,
¥%4 mm. thick near margin, whitish, tough, nearly tasteless.

Gills rather close to sub-distant, not venose-connected, some fork-
ing and occasionally anastomosing, narrow, only about 2 mm. wide
at best, the edges blunt; color nearly the same at all ages, a clear
golden yellow (about mustard yellow of Ridgway). On account of
the shape of the cap the gills are apparently decurrent, but in sec-
tion it will be seen that they are not at all so, but end at a slight
ridge at the top of the stem.

Stem up to 2.5 em. long and 4.5 mm. thick, equal, quite firm and
tough, solid at all ages, surface smoothish, faintly lined longitudinally,
pale, soaked-ochraceous, very light when dry, lighter than cap at all
times, never yellow. The tip is nearly white and the base enlarged
by the soft white, compacted mycelium.

Spores (of No. 1421), white, ovate, very hyaline, at first sight
only the bright oil drop visible. 3.8-4.2 x 5.9-8.5y.

On rotting pine logs, not common.

- Others have failed to mention the reddish-purple color of the cap
fibers, but as in all other respects our plant is unmistakably C.
ectypoides, a clearly marked species, I have no doubt that this char-
acter has been overlooked. The species has the size and somewhat
the appearance of Omphalia strembodes but easily differs in the
purplish red tint to the cap, the solid stem, and in the gills being

120 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [ September

only apparent decurrent. The present species should be compared

with Omphalia xanthophylla B. & C. which is represented in the

Curtis Herbarium by two plants from S. C. (Ravenel). I could get

no good spores from them.

1421. On rotting wood by Bowlin’s Creek, October 26, 1914.

1774. On a very rotten pine log half way down Lone Pine Hill, September 14,
1915.

3781. On pine logs in woods, November 20, 1919. Largest cap 9.8 em. broad.
Gills golden, cap squamulose.

Asheville. On old logs, usually cespitose. Beardslee.

16. Clitocybe cyathiformis (Bull.) Fr.
Puates 1, 29 anp 33

Cap 2-5.5 em. broad, convex on margin, the center broadly umbil-
icate; smooth, not viscid, strongly hygrophanous, not striate, deep
brown, sayal brown of Ridgway when not water-logged, the margin
becoming a darker coffee color. Flesh paler, thin (1.5 mm.), elastic,
fibrous and toughish; odor and taste strongly farinaceous.

Gills close, decurrent, arcuate, 5 mm. broad, margin even, venose
connected, color of cap, with a faint or distant lavender tint and a
pale sheen.

Stem long, up to 9 em., enlarged downward, flattened or irreg-
ular, about 5-8 mm. thick above, color of cap above but white below
with mycelium and with white silky lines from superficial fibers
except at the minutely pulverulent tip; texture tough and fibrous,
stuffed with white fibers, dark near surface.

Spores (of No. 4934) faintly pinkish-lavender on a heavy print,
smooth, elliptic, very granular when first shed but soon showing a
very large oil drop, 4.2-6.2 x 9-12.24. Basidia 5.5-7.4p thick, clavate,
4-spored. Hymenium 40-45, thick. Context of gills rather close,
the threads about 4.5-5.54 thick. Scattered rather sparsely among
the normal basidia are cells of the same size and shape, but peculiar
in having two longer and unequal projections without spores; the
longer projections about 14py long, the shorter about 1lp. If ab-
normal basidia, their regularity is remarkable.

Very rare in Chapel Hill and apparently oceurring only in late
fall or winter. According to Ricken it appears in Germany only
after frost.

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CLITOCYBE

1922| THe Laccartas AND CLITOCYBES OF NorTH CAROLINA 121

Our plants look very much lke Bulliard’s pl. 575, fig. M, and like
Sowerby’s pl. 363. Hussey’s pl. 1, Vol. 2, has the gills much lighter
than in ours. All have the caps more deeply and broadly depressed.
Gillet’s pl. 116 (94) is entirely too pale, as are the gills in Cooke’s
pl. 118 (166). Ricken’s pl. 104, fig. 1, has the right color of cap,
but is striate. For microscopic detail as well as a drawing in color
see Hoffman, Icones Analyt. Fung., pl. 3. 1861; see also Kauffman,
Agaricaceae of Michigan, pl. 159. Peck’s C. subconcava should be
compared (the spores as given by Peck are smaller.) Murrill thinks
the Agaricus cyathiformis of Fries and of Bulliard are different and
that C. poculum Pk. is the same as Fries’s species. Our plants seem
to be the darkest form of the species, particularly as regards the
gills. The species is very variable, particularly as regards color.
The spores agree well with the dimensions given by Kauffman and
by Ricken. The only serious difficulty is the very distinct farinaceous
taste which is not mentioned by others. This taste and the lavender
spores suggest Clitopilus, but the color would escape anyone except
in a heavy print. The spore color is very faint, but was noticed
by five out of six observers who saw the print.

4934. In decaying leaves of mixed woods under honey-suckle vines on damp
ground, December 7 and 11, 1921.

Asheville. Very common. Beardslee.
Reported by Schweinitz.

17. Clitocybe pinophila Pk.
PuATEs 30 AND 33

Cap hygrophanous, 1.3-4.2 em. broad, plane in center or slightly
depressed or umbilicate, margin curved or nearly plane, not striate,
smooth, a drab tan or buffy tan or pale whitish tan, darker when
wet. Flesh thin, pliable, of pleasant taste (not farinaceous) ; odor
none.

Gills rather close, slightly and unequally decurrent, nearly white
then buffy tan, about 1.5-2.5 mm. wide.

Stem 2-3 em. long, thick above (up to 7 mm.), tapering down-
ward, color of cap and mealy at top, darker brown and nearly smooth
downward, the very base whitened with mycelium, stuffed then hol-
low, toughish.

Spores (of No. 2969) elliptic, smooth, 2.5-3 x 5-7.

122 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

Our plants agree well enough with Peck’s description and like
the northern form they are confined to pine woods. The absence of
a farinaceous taste is not a serious discrepancy. Peck gives the
spores as nearly elliptical, 5-6.44 long, which agrees quite well, but
an authentic specimen from his herbarium (Catskill Mtns., Peck,
Coll., not type, which we could not find) has spores somewhat
shorter than in our plants, 2.2-8 x 3.4-4.54 (possibly not fully ma-
ture). Kauffman’s Michigan plants have spores 4.x 5-6, which is
distinctly broader than in our southern form. The European C.
phyllophila and C. pithyophila, which are quite near, are supposed
to be larger and whiter. Ricken gives the spores of the former (he
considers the latter a pine-loving form) as 3-4x4-5y. Spores of a
plant of C. phyllophila from Bresadola are 2.5-3.7 x 4.2-5.4u.
Schweinitz’s record of C. phyllophila is probably based on the present
species. For the white plant known as C. pithyophila in America see
the photo by Hard, in his Mushrooms book, fig. 78, p. 100.

Beardslee finds at Asheville, on pine needles, a whiter plant that
would easily pass for C. pithyophila, but as it has all other char-
acters, including the spores, the same as the present species we can-
not believe it specifically distinct. Beardslee’s description of this
whiter plant is as follows:

Cap 2-6 em. broad, watery white when moist, becoming pure white when not
soaked, glabrous, thin, plane, but a little depressed at the center, often with

the margin waved or lobed. Gills white, crowded, narrow, decurrent. Stem
white, stuffed, then hollow, somewhat compressed. Spores ellipsoid, 6-7 x 3-4u.

2964. On ground, pine woods, Strowd’s pasture, December 13, 1917. Spores
2.2 x 4.8-5.5y.

2969. On ground under pines and persimmon trees, Strowd’s pasture, December
6, 1917.

2957. On ground, pine woods, Strowd’s pasture, December 3, 1917. A form.
Spores 2.2-3 x 5.2-7y.

Asheville. Occasional. Beardslee.

18. Clitocybe setiseda (Schw.) Sace.
Clitocybe eccentrica Pk.
PLATES 24 AND 33

Cap up to 3 (rarely 6) em. wide, deeply umbilicate, surface very

4934.

No.

29

)
=i
=
=|
Ay

CLITOCYBE CYATHIFORMIS.

PLATE 30

CLITOCYBE PINOPHILA. No. 2969.

1922] THe LaccaRIAs AND CLITOCYBES OF NorTH CAROLINA 123

minutely squamulose, scarcely more than pruinose (not noticeable
except under a lens), not at all striate or fibrous, a very faint pinkish
tan or soiled white. Flesh very thin, less than 0.5 mm. in marginal
half, color of cap, quite strong and tough, decidedly bitter.

Gills very much crowded, thin and narrow, only 1.5 mm. wide
in middle, pointed at both ends, many short, none branched, margin
quite entire, decurrent, color of cap at certain angles, faintly cream
colored at others.

Stem about 2 em. long to gill tips, 1.5-2.5 mm. thick near top,
somewhat larger downward, color of cap, smooth or minutely scaly-
dotted like the cap except below where is is covered with long, tough,
creamy hairs and strands which penetrate far into the surrounding
trash; texture of stem very firm, tough and strong, with a softer cen-
tral core which may become partly hollow.

Spores (of No. 817a) white, smooth, very small, oval-elliptie,
about 2.7-3 x 3.8-4.2u.

Schweinitz’s plant has not been recognized since he described
it from this state in 1822. It was placed by him under the subgenus
Omphalia, but Curtis and Saceardo place it in Clitocybe. The de-
scription agrees so well with our plants that I see no reason why
this name should not be applied to them. Clitocybe eccentrica is the
same. A plant from Peck’s herbarium, not type but authentic (Ray
Brook, N. Y., Peck, coll.), is exactly like ours and has the same spores
except slightly longer (2.5-3 x 4-54). From published data it seems
impossible to separate this from C. candicans. Kauffman’s spore
measurements for the latter would serve to distinguish (4 x 5.5-6),
but Ricken’s measurements are like ours (2-3x4-5). Omphalia
scyphoides Fr. is also hard to separate.

In most species of this group the cap has a tendency to become
one-sided at times, thus appearing eccentric. Following is a transla-
tion of the original description (Schr. Nat. Ges. Leipzig 1: 88. 1822):

‘‘White, becoming yellowish, small, cap thin, infundibuliform ;
gills crowded, thin, decurrent; stem with white, radiating hairs.
Rare in autumn among leaves. Stem attached to leaves, hairs about
one inch long, spreading in a stellate manner.’’
817a. On rotting bark, twigs, and leaves, woods southeast of campus, November

ie AOEY,
1782. On a very rotten mossy log, Lone Pine Hill, September 14, 1910.

Reported by Schweinitz.

124 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHELL SOCIETY [| September

19. Clitocybe dealbata Sow.

C. sudorifica Pk., toxie form.
C. morbifera Pk., toxic form.

Puates 31 anv 33

Small plants growing gregariously in grass in lawns and pastures,
not rarely cespitose in twos. Cap up to 4.5 em. in diameter, usually
smaller, smooth or sometimes slightly pruinose, especially near the
margin, dull or shiny, wavy and often irregular, depressed in center
(umbilicate) ; color a light buff or fleshy buff, sometimes with brown
areas; the thin margin inecurved and whitish, and shghtly extended
beyond the gills. Flesh very thin towards the margin, thick towards
the center, about 2.5mm. thick half way between; pale flesh color,
with a distinet taste of meal, not at all bitter. The taste is just lke
that of Tricholoma panaeolum except that it is not bitter. As the
plants get old they often become water-soaked and therefore much
darker brown.

Gills moderately close, deepest in middle where they are 3.5-5 mm.
deep, not branching, slightly notched at the stem, not decurrent,
fleshy white, then fleshy tan.

Stem color of cap, 1.5-2.5 em. long, about 3 mm. thick in center,
tough and elastic, solid or hollow, smooth, pruinose at top and bot-
tom, slightly tapering towards the base, white at base, and the white
mycelium often obvious.

Spores (of No. 929) white, very small, smooth, elliptic,
2-2.5 X 3.8-5,2p.

The color of our plants is not pure white as is described for the
species. From the farinaceous taste and odor this would be var.
minor Cooke, but that is said to grow in leaves. It is almost exactly
like the form that grows in mushroom beds and described as var.
deformata by Peck.

Two toxic forms have been described by Peck, C. dealbata sudorifica
(N. Y. St. Mus. Bull. 150: 48. 1911. Later described as a species in
Bull. 157: 67, pl. 7, figs. 1-6. 1912) and C. morbifera (Bull. Torr.
Bot. Club 25: 321. 1898). These do not seem to be distinguishable
morphologically in Murrill’s opinion (Mycologia 7: 260. 1915), al-
though Kauffman treats them as distinct. We have examined the types
of both and find them alike and lke our plants, and the spores are
the same in all three eases (C. sudorifica, 2.2-3 x 4-5.24; C. morbifera,

ol

PLATE

No. 929.

DEALBATA,

1
4

CLITOCYBE

‘

RIVULOSA. No. 907.

ITOCYBE

CL

1922] Tue LaccaRIAs AND CLITOCYBES OF NorTH CAROLINA 125

2.5-3 x 3.7-4.8u). For the toxie effects of these two forms see the
original descriptions. Peck considers the latter as more serious in
its effects than the former, which, in the cases reported by him,
caused only a profuse perspiration in man, but the death of rabbits
and guinea pigs; later, however, Roberts (Mycologia 13: 42. 1921)
found its effects to be somewhat more serious, causing profuse perspi-
ration, interference with vision, diarrhoea and other unpleasant
symptoms,

For good illustrations see Peck (1. ¢., as C. sudorifica) ; Sowerby,
Engl. Fungi, pl. 123, 1798; Cooke, Ills. Brit. Fungi, pl. 104 (142)
(larger than American plant), pl. 173 (as var. minor, like American
form) ; Gillet, Champ. Fr., pl. 117.

929. Gregarious in grass in northwest side of Arboretum, October 18, 1913.
There is another group of these plants in the northeast side of the
Arboretum, near the smallest live oak tree. Both of these groups appear _
every fall.

977. In hillside pasture, west side of Glen Burnie Farm, November 11, 1913.

1466. Pasture, east side of Glen Burnie Farm, November 2, 1914.

Asheville. Common, often in lawns under trees. Beardslee.

20. Clitocybe rivulosa (Pers.) Fr.
PuLatTEs 32 AND 33

Cap up to 5.5 em. wide, usually 3.5-4 em., irregularly lobed, ele-
vated and depressed ; covered with a thin, whitish or light tan super-
ficial layer that is marked by many rivulose lines and collapsed areas
that show the cartilage colored fiesh below; margin inturned always,
milk-white when young. Flesh barely mealy in taste, not bitter,
cartilage color, rather brittle, only about 2 mm. thick.

Gills light fleshy-cartilage color, somewhat crowded, not decur-
rent, about 3 mm. wide in center.

Stem only 1-1.5 em. long, about 4.5-5 mm. thick, color and sur-
face just like the cap; firm and solid.

Spores (of No. 907) white, smooth, elliptic, very small, 2.6 x 4.2n.

The characters are well shown in photo of No. 907. The rivulose
markings of the cap are remarkably like those of Clitopilus nova-
boracensis.

Rare, and heretofore reported in the United States only from

126 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | September

New York. In Chapel Hill they are known only in one place, where
they occur gregariously every fall in rainy weather. They have
been observed for three years, and are remarkably constant. This
is apparently only another of the numerous forms of C. dealbata,
which is indistinguishable except for the absence of rivulations. A
plant of C. rivulosa from Bresadola is like ours and has the same
spores (2.5-3.2 x 4-54) which are like those of C. dealbata.

907. Nine plants on edge of sidewalk west of Mrs. Kluttz’s, October 11, 1913.
1269.* From the same spot as No. 907, and like them in every way, Sep-
tember 26, 1914. Spores 2.5-3 x 4-4.8y.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 33

Laccaria ochropurpurea. No. 4675, fig. 1.
Lacearia laccata. No. 2960, fig. 2.
Lacearia amethystea. No. 5119, fig. 3.
Lacearia tortilis. No. 3344, fig. 4.
Clitocybe candida. No. 3546, fig. 5.
Clitocybe sp. No. 3210, fig. 6.
Clitocybe tabescens. No. 1373, fig. 7.
Clitocybe illudens. No. 183, fig. 8.
Clitocybe tumulosa. No. 2006, fig. 9.
Clitocybe subnigricans. No. 3165, fig. 10; type, fig. 11.
Clitoeybe infundibuliformis. No. 2512, fig. 12.
Clitocybe adirondackensis, Bolton, N. Y., fig. 18.
Clitocybe sinopicoides. No. 3264, fig 14; type, fig. 15.
Clitocybe media. No. 2992, fig. 16.
Clitocybe odora var. anisaria. No. 4669, fig. 17.
Clitoeybe anisarius. Type, fig. 18.
Clitocybe ectypoides. No. 1421, fig. 19.
Clitocybe cyathiformis. No. 4934, fig. 20.
Clitocybe pinophila. No. 2969, fig. 21.
Clitocybe setiseda. No. 817a, fig. 22.
Clitocybe eccentrica. Ray Brook, N. Y., fig. 23.
Clitocybe dealbata. No. 929, fig. 24.
Clitocybe sudorifica. Type, fig. 25.
Clitocybe morbifera. Type, fig. 26.
Clitocybe rivulosa. No. 1269, fig. 27.

All figures x 1620.

Rite 5

PLATE 33

we 4

rt

THE FRUITING STAGE OF THE TUCKAHOE, PACHYMA
COCOS

PLATES 34-37

By FREDERICK A. WoLF

The names tuckahoe, Indian bread or Indian potato appear to be
quite generally known in the Coastal Plains section of the Caro-
linas as a designation for certain tuber-like structures which grow
under ground. These structures are frequently unearthed by the
plow especially when timbered lands are brought under cultivation.
During the past spring, fifteen specimens were collected near Raleigh,
N. C., in a situation where the land had been cleared and broken in
preparation for a tobacco plant bed. Subsequently four other speci-
mens were unearthed by the writer and several of his colleagues in
the same locality.

My acquaintance with tuckahoe extends over a period of several
years since occasional specimens, similar in appearance and accom-
panied by inquiries as to their nature, have been received at the
botanical laboratories of this Station. An examination showed that a
tuckahoe is obviously the sclerotial or resting stage of some fungus
and as such is composed of a vegetative mass of fungous tissue. This
fact gave no clue to the identity and systematic position of the fungus
since various fungi are known to produce sclerotia. An examina-—
tion of published reports on large sclerotia furthermore showed that
not only the affinities of the tuckahoe, Pachyma Cocos, which has been
collected by a number of botanists, but also the origin and forma-
tion of these subterranean fungous masses have remained for years
an unsolved botanical problem. It was the writer’s good fortune,
however, during May, 1922, to observe the fruiting stage of this
fungus. The present purpose is, therefore, to assemble the infor-
mation in hand as a contribution to our knowledge of this unusually
interesting form.

HIsToRICAL

The name tuckahoe is of Indian origin and is apparently generic
among them for all round or roundish edible roots. Gore (7) quotes
the statement of Trumbull, an ethnologist, that the word is derived

[127 ]

128 JOURNAL OF THE MrrcHELL SocrIETY | September

from ptuequi or ptuckquen which signifies that which is made round
or rounded as a loaf or cake. The name, varied by the dialects of
the several tribes, applied to all esculent bulbous roots. These state-
ments are confirmed by such historians as Smith (16), Beverley (3),
Campbell, (4) and Kalm (9), who record such tribal names as
tawkee, petukqui, pittikwow, ’tuquauh, petukuineg, puttuckqunnege,
tockawhoughe, tawko, tuckah, and tawkin. Campbell says, ‘‘The
tockawhoughe was in summer the principal article of diet among the
natives. It grows in the marshes like a flag and resembles somewhat a
potato in size and flavor. Raw, it is no better than poison so that the
Indians are accustomed to roast it and eat it mixed with sorrel and
corn meal. There is another root found in Virginia ealled tuckahoe
and confounded with the flag-like root deseribed above and errone-
ously supposed by many to grow without stem or leaf. It appears
to be of the convolvulvus species! and is entirely unlike the root
eaten by the Jamestown settlers.’ No less an authority than the
Swedish botanist Kalm, whose travels in America shortly before the
Revolutionary War are recounted in two volumes published in 1772,
states that the word tawko referred to the Virginia wake robin, Arum
virgimicum, and tawkee to golden club, Orontium aquaticum. While
the Indians no doubt included under the name tuckahoe the tubers
and roots of a number of flowering plants as well as Pachyma Cocos,
botanists have come to apply this designation exclusively to tuberous
fungous masses.

The first botanical description of this tuckahoe was made by Clay-
ton (5) in 1762 in his Flora Virginica, published by Grovinius. He
was under the impression that the plant was one of the puffballs
and accordingly sent specimens to Grovinius under the name Lyco-
perdon solidum. Next it is supposed by some to have been described
by Walter (18) in 1788 in his Flora Caroliniana under the name
Lycoperdon cervinum. later, it was well described by Schweinitz
(15) in 1822 as Sclerotium Cocos. The next year Fries (6) pub-
lished it as Pachyma Cocos, using Schweinitz’s deseription. The ob-
servations of MacBride (11) of South Carolina on this fungus were
published in 1817 and he gave to it the name Sclerotium gigantewm.

Later a number of other descriptive accounts were published, as
will be indicated subsequently, the most comprehensive of which is

1This is very probably the wild potato vine, Ipomoea pandurata.

1922] FRUITING STAGE OF TUCKAHOE, PacHyMA Cocos 129

that of Gore (7). This account includes also the results of chemical
analyses of the tuckahoe which, in confirmation of the earlier work
of Torrey (17), shows that it is largely composed of pectic com-
pounds. Torrey, however, employed the name ‘‘sclerotin’’ which
was subsequently found to be identical with the jelly-forming con-
stituents of fruits and tubers to which Braconnot? applied the name
‘“pectous substances. ’”?

DISTRIBUTION

The tuckahoe is reported to occur from New Jersey southward
to the Gulf of Mexico, westward to Texas, and as far north as Kan--
sas, in light loamy or sandy soil. Whether or not the data on dis-
tribution of tuckahoe in the accounts of Banning (2), Ravenel (13),
Lockwood, (10) Gore, (7), Schrenck (14) and in a recent bulletin
from the Missouri Botanical Garden (1) apply to Pachmya Cocos
alone or include closely related species cannot now be determined.
It is my belief, as will be discussed later, that Pachmya Cocos is
parasitic and is associated only with the roots of pines. However,
Lockwood (10) records finding tuckahoe among the roots of willow
oak, Quercus phellos, in New Jersey. Further, specimens in the
herbarium of Bresadola under the name ‘‘Pachma Cocos Fr. = My-
litta pinetorum Horaninow,’’ show sclerotia which are very different
from the form under discussion since they are very heavy and in
section look like mottled amber.* Manifestly, in the absence of wide-
spread knowledge of the identity of Pachyma Cocos, and of definite
information of its host relationship together with confusion of names
in herbarium collections, satisfactory information on distribution is
not available.

DESCRIPTION OF SCLEROTIA

The tuber-like structures to which Fries (6) gave the name
Pachmya Cocos were described by him as ‘‘oblong to elliptical in
shape with hard scaly bark and with a brown and woody appear-
ance, about the size of a man’s head, exactly resembling a cocoanut ;

2 Ann. Chim. phys. 25: 358-373. 1824.

3A transcript from Berkeley and Curtis’ manuscript which accompanies their specimens
of tuckahoe was given me by Dr. W. C. Coker. These notes include chemical studies by
Prof. Ellet of South Carolina College who states that, ‘““Twenty years ago I examined a
specimen of it from Virginia. I have repeatedly worked with Carolina specimens of the
substance and find them all identical in their nature. It consists entirely of pectic acid
or rather the pectin of Braconnot.” : .

*From notes made during the summer of 1921 by Dr. W. C. Coker.

130 JOURNAL OF THE MrircHELL SOCIETY | September

bark thick and fibrous in general appearance like a pine root. Within
the substance is uniformly whitish to flesh-colored with an odor like
a mushroom. They are flesh-colored when they attain their growth,
and are considered by the natives as possessing medicinal properties.
They are found in Carolina especially among pine forests.’’

The selerotia which I have examined show considerable variation
in size and shape as shown in plate 34. The largest specimen taken
was an oval body 27 inches by 19 inches in circumference and its
weight was 3161 grams or approximately 7 pounds. Another was
slender and elongated and measured 41 inches in length. When first
‘taken from the earth these masses are of such a consistency as to be
easily cut with a knife but on drying they become extremely hard
and horn-like and the interior becomes variously eracked and fissured.
This fissuring is not perceptible from the exterior, however.

The cortex of the sclerotium possesses the roughed furrowed ap-
pearance and color of pine roots. This appearance is simulated best
in specimens in which flakes of bark constitute a portion of the
sclerotial cortex. When examined microscopically, this cortex is
seen to consist of densely compacted fungous cells making a quite
well-defined layer 100-150» in thickness (fig. 7). The interior is
whitish or tinged with pink when fresh and becomes grayish when
dry. The cells which compose this portion are extremely variable
in size and shape as shown in fig. 2.

ORIGIN OF SCLEROTIA

As has been recorded by the several botanists who early described
tuckahoe, the habitat of these sclerotia is invariably among the roots
of pine trees, Pinus taeda and Pinus rigida. It would appear improb-
able that such an association is purely accidental. That they are
parasitic, however, seems very probable in the light of the following
facts:

1. All of the selerotia which I have found are in part pine root
tissues, but there is, however, neither hypertrophy or hyperplasia of
these tissues. In respect to the inclusion of host tissue Pachyma
Cocos differs from all other known large sclerotia.

In some eases the xylem portions of the pine root extend entirely
through small sclerotia and the root is free from bark inside the
tuber. If the sclerotium merely surrounded the root, or attached

PLATE 34

A group of tuckahoes, Pachyma Cocos. The largest had a weight
of seven pounds and the longest a length of 41 inches.

al

iN

1922] FRuITING STAGE oF TUCKAHOE, PacuymMa Cocos 131

itself to it, the bark should be intact. Such a case has been observed
also by Gore (7) and is illustrated in fig. 1 accompanying his ac-
count.

2. Sclerotia attached to the roots have been unearthed near the
base of living trees.

3. There is no evidence of mycelium or rhizomorphs in the soil
surrounding the sclerotia.

4. Sclerotia have been found with portions of roots not only at
the end directed toward the tree, but also distal to it. If one fol-
lows the course of these roots into the sclerotia, all stages can be
found from what appears microscopically to be normal woody tissue
to a splitting apart and transformation of the xylem strands, which
are few in number toward the outside, but numerous and slender
toward the center of the sclerotium (figs. 3 & 4). In large sclerotia
all traces of the woody portions of the roots have disappeared at a
distance of about one and one-half inches from the end. In forming
such sclerotia it seems reasonable to suppose that as they enlarged
there was both a stretching apart of the woody tissue of the root and
at the same time a transformation of substance appropriated from
the root tissues.

5. The roots at some distance from the body of the sclerotium
have to the unaided eye, apparently normal bark and wood tissues.
Both pertions, however, on microscopic examination are found to be
invaded and the mycelium completely fills all intercellular and intra-
cellular spaces (fig. 8).

Several investigators have held that the tuckahoe is to be regarded
as an altered or transformed state of the root. Gore (7) concludes
that such is the case in his discussion of their origin in which he
states that ‘‘Specimens in all stages of development are in my pos-
session from the root with only a film of the substance between the
bark and the woody part of the root up to pieces six inches in
diameter.’’ MacBride (11) states that the growth originates be-
tween the bark and wood of living trees, that it gradually enlarges,
detaches the bark and transforms the root tissues into its own sub-
stance. Another observer quoted by Gore (7) in a letter to him
states that ‘‘this growth had taken place from the roots of pines
as was evident from some having just commenced growing, the pine
root extending through and reaching out on each side. Others had

10

132 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Societry [September

developed to considerable size showing no appearance of any root
in them or any bark of the pine on the outside as was the case
with the smaller ones. I think the whole root for two inches or
more is changed into this substance from the fact that some of the
roots extend entirely through it, some of them being smaller inside
and larger outside.’’

The observations of Ravenel (13) alone cast doubt on the para-
sitie origin of the tuckahoe. He records the finding of five or six
specimens varying in size from a hen’s egg to more than twice as
large, attached to an old pine rail. Since all other observers agree
in the occurrence of tuckahoes singly and not in groups, there is a
possibility of mistaken identity by Ravenel.

FORMATION AND STRUCTURE OF THE SPOROPHORE

In efforts to bring about the production of fruit bodies several
sclerotia which had been subjected to drying in the laboratory for
a few days after collection, were placed in water to soak for about
24 hours. One was then left to lie on a laboratory table, one in a
moist chamber in the laboratory, two were placed in an ice chest,
one was placed in a moist chamber in a photographie dark room and
three were buried out of doors in the sand. In three days, a dense
white fungoid crust had formed in the case of the first one on the
side in contact with the table. As I did not suspect that this crust
was an immature resupinate hymenophore, since I was looking for
a stalked fruit body to make its appearance, I scraped off most of
it in making examination and left it lying with the crust upward.
Several days later, I was surprised to find that a similar erust had
formed on the opposite side. This was undisturbed and in the course
of a week had matured into the hymenial layer. The one in the
moist chamber had meanwhile developed a fruit body similar in ap-
pearance. The two tuckahoes in the ice chest showed no signs of
growth during two weeks there. They were then placed in a moist
chamber in the laboratory where within a week both fruited. One
formed four fruiting structures and is the one shown in plates 35
and 36.

In the case of the selerotium in the dark room, a profuse loose
mycelial envelope which completely surrounded it had formed in
two weeks. When after this time it was subjected to the diffuse light

PLATE 35

Fruit body developed in a test tube from bit of tissue from center
of a sclerotium [left].
Several resupinate fruit bodies on one sclerotium [right].

eT

36

PLATE

e wr * a

aed! ad

PSA hase SZ

rad Vd pad

~ UR eS

oe” WEY LIAS f
sr) *s? , (Aioy*

1 =

An enlargement of a portion of the fruit body shown in pt.

illustrating character of the pore surface.

1922] Fruiting Stace oF TUCKAHOE, PacHyMa Cocos 133

of the laboratory several diminutive fruit bodies formed on its sur-
face within a week.

The sclerotia which were buried were examined after two weeks
and were found to have surrounded themselves with a loose weft of
mycelium (fig. 1) which was whitish at first and became at length
tawny. Two weeks later these sclerotia were largely decayed.

Several unsuccessful attempts were later made to bring into fruit-
ing specimens which had dried out from exposure in the laboratory.
These experiments, which have resulted in the development of sporo-
phores on five tuckahoes,® indicate that fruiting is conditional upon at
least three factors, (1) fresh specimens, (2) saturation with water.
and (3) the presence of light.

In efforts to artificially culture this organism, a bit of tissue from
near the center of a large sclerotium was transferred with aseptic
precautions on May 2 to a potato plug. A loose white mycelium
developed and on May 23rd a poroid sporophore somewhat abnormal
in appearance but with mature normal spores entirely similar in
size, shape and appearance to those in nature, had formed.®

The sporophores are resupinate, plate 35, and although pure
white at first they become with age slightly tinged with brown. The
subiculum is thin. The pores are large and angular to irregularly
sinuous and 2-3 mm. deep, plate 36. The hymenium is at first rather
tough and cartilaginous but becomes papery on drying. There is
no sterile margin nor are cystidia present. The basidia are blunt,
elub-shaped, 20-25» in length and 6-8» in width and are crowned
with four rather slender sterigmata, fig. 9. The basidiospores are
white in mass, asymetrically cylindrical, smooth, and 7-8 x 3.5, Fig.
10.

5 After receiving this paper for publication, I suggested to Dr. Wolf that he make still
further cultures so as to place the proof of relationship of the Poria to the tuckahoe beyond
all doubt. He accordingly made six other cultures on potato plugs sterilized in glass tubes
and inoculated with tissue taken from the center of three large tuckahoes. The lat-
ter were collected during the last week in April and had been left to lie in the laboratory
until June 22nd, the date on which the cultures were made. By July 17th each of the six
cultures had formed fruiting bodies of the Poria type and one of these is shown in plate
35. Dr. Wolf has also produced another fruiting body on the surface of a tuckahoe since
writing this paper. A sclerotium was soaked and buried in sand for three weeks, during
which time it enveloped itself with a loose, white weft. It was then dug up and put into a
moist chamber. Within ten days it had formed on its surface the most perfect fruiting body
that he has obtained This makes a total of six tuckahoes that have produced sporophores
on their surface. The plant had been buried to test the possibility of production of a stalked
sporophore. The result confirmed the previous conclusion that light is a necessary stimulus
to production of a fruit body. Just as this paper was going to press there was published by
Elliott an article on “Some Characters of the Southern Tuckahoe’ (Mycologia 14: 222.
1922). His specimens were not attached to pine but supposedly to sumac roots in two
cases. Efforts to secure a fruiting stage were not successful, and the identity of his plant
with Wolf's species must remain in doubt.——W. C. COKER. ;

134 JOURNAL OF THE MitcHELL SOCIETY | September

The fruiting of Pachyma Cocos is manifestly of the type char-
acteristic of the genus Poria which is recognized to inelude a hetero-
geneous group of forms but it is provisionally placed in this genus.

When comparison is made with the descriptions in literature of
fungi arising from large sclerotia none of them are found to bear
any resemblance to our specimens. Grifola Tuckahoe Giissow (8),
for example, has coal black sclerotia with a blackish interior and its
fructifications are fleshy, stipitate, ochre to yellowish brown struc-
tures. Polyporus tuberaster (Jaeq.) Fries as first illustrated by
Micheli (12) shows this species to possess an irregular, globular,
sclerotium enclosing stones and earth, from which arises a stipitate
polypore with angular pores. Polyporus Sapurema Moller from
Brazil has an enormous sclerotium from which a large fleshy stipi-
tate fruit body is developed. Lentinus tuber regium Rump. is a
large, stipitate, gill-bearing form. In fact, all hitherto known large
sclerotia whose fruiting stages have been found have large sporo-
phores whereas our specimens bear small fruit bodies. Further, no
other species of Poria is known to have a sclerotial stage. It is for
these reasons that C. G. Lloyd to whom specimens were sent for
determination is of the opinion that it is very improbable that there
could be any relationship between tuckahoe and Poria.

The question of a species name is much more difficult since to
determine whether or not this form is different from previously de-
seribed species would involve a thorough-going study of all known
resupinate forms. Since, however, Pachyma Cocos is believed to be
parasitic and consequently its fruiting stage in all probability occurs
only on the surface of the sclerotia, it is entirely unlikely that it
has been observed or collected previously. The combination Poria
Cocos, is therefore proposed in order to connect our fungus with the
long known sclerotial stage name, with the following brief diagnosis.

Poria Cocos (Schw.) comb. nov.

Sclerotium giganteum Macbride. Trans. N. Y. Phil. Soe. 1817.
Sclerotium cocos Schw. Syn. Fung. Car. Sup., p. 56. 1822.
Pachyma cocos (Schw.) Fries. Syst. Mycol. 2: p. 242-243, 1823.*

* Other synonyms given by Gore are:

P. solidum Oken. Lehrbuch d. Naturgesch. 2 ter Thiel. Botanik 2 ter Abtheil, 1 te
Halfte, 1815.

P, pinetorum Horaninow, p. 2-23, 1856. .

P. coniferarum Horaninow. (See continuation on p. 135).

1922] Fruiting Stace oF TucKAHOE, PacHyMA Cocos 135

Sporophoris resupinatis, albidis deinde pallide ferrugineis, mem-
branaceis—crustaceis; tubulis 2-3 mm. long, eartilaginis, siccatis
chartaceis; ore erassi, irregulari vel labyrinthiformi; margine non
sterili; eystidiis nullis; basidiis clavatis, 20-25 x 6-8; sporis hyalinis
inaequilateralibus, oblongis, levibus, 7-8 x 3.5-4y.

Hab. ad sclerotia in vivis radicibus Pini. Sclerotium magnum,
oblongo-subrotundum, arrhizum; cortex crassus, fibroso-squamosus,
durus, colore radicum Pinorum; intus ecellis radicorum Pini atque
materia carnoso-suberosa repletum, odore fungoso-farinacea. In terra
praesertim in pinetis sabulosis.

Specimens have been deposited in the herbarium at the University
of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C., at the Lloyd Library, Cin-
cinnati, Ohio, and at the Missouri Botanical Gardens, St. Louis, Mo.

Special thanks are due to Dr. W. C. Coker, for his courtesy and
help in connection with the preparation of this report and to Mr.
C. G. Lloyd for his opinion as to the identity of the fungus.

SUMMARY

This study of the southern tuckahoe, Pachyma Cocos, includes an
account of its history, structure and origin together with the develop-
ment and morphology of its fruiting stage.

The name tuckahoe is of Indian origin and was applied by them
to all edible roots and tubers. It has come to be used by botanists,
however, to include only certain subterranean fungous growths or
sclerotia.

The tuckahoe has been known to botanists for about 175 years
but its fruiting stage has not hitherto been described. Pine root
tissues are always included within this tuckahoe and it is apparently
parasitic upon the roots of pine.

Several conditions which include (1) fresh sclerotia, (2) their
saturation with water and (3) exposure in light govern the pro-
duction of sporophores. Mature sporophores of the Poria type have
been secured on the surface of six tuckahoes. A period of about a
week’s duration is necessary for their complete development. The

Lycoperdon solidum Clayton. Flora Virginica, p. 176. 1762.

L. sclerotium Nuttal. Systematic and Physiological Botany, p. 200. 1820.

L. cervinum Walter. Flora Caroliniana, p. 262. 1788.

Tuckhaus rugosus Rafinesque. Med. Flora of N. America 2: 255. 1830. f

In such of these as we have seen, the description is too imperfect to refer with any
certainty to our plant.

136 JOURNAL OF THE MircHeLu Socrery [September

fruiting stage has also been developed in cultures from tissue taken
from near the center of large sclerotia.

This Poria is herein given the name Poria Cocos to relate it to its
tuckahoe stage.

COLLEGE STATION,
RALEIGH, N. C.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 37

Fig. 1. Hypha from mycelial envelope of sclerotium as it appears when sclerotia
are buried or put into the dark room.
Fig. 2. Variation among the cells which compose the interior of the sclerotium.
Fig. 3. A diagrammatic section of a sclerotium with three groups of woody
tissue and one of bark remaining. Proportional sizes are shown.
Fig. 4, Diagram of a section of an apparently normal root and of a sclerotium.
The sections are about one and one-half inches distant from each other.
The woody elements have become separated into seven groups. Relative
sizes are preserved.

Fig. 5. A diagram of a sclerotium showing relative sizes in cross section of the
woody elements. The sections are about an inch distant from each other.

Fig. 6. All of the xylem elements have been destroyed in this section but much
of the bark remains although it is densely filled with fungous hyphae.

Fig. 7. Section of the compact sclerotial wall together with the less dense
subjacent tissue.

Fig. 8. Xylem cells from apparently normal tissue.

Fig. 9. Basidia of Poria Cocos.

Fig. 10. Basidiospores.

Fig. 11. Tissue from a rhizomorph which formed from a seclerotium which was
unearthed and then partially buried in leaf mold for two months.

Figs.1, 2, 7, 8, 9, and 11 are drawn to the same scale.

LITERATURE CITED

1. ANONYMOUS. Indian Bread or Tuckahoe. Bull. Mo. Bot. Garden 9: 71-
75, pls. 20-21. 1921.

2. BANNING, Mary E. The Tuckahoe. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 9: 125. 1882.

3. BEVERLEY, RoBerT. The history and present state of Virginia, London,
1722. (Vide p. 153).

4. CAMPBELL, CHAS. History of the colony and ancient dominion of Vir-
ginia. Philadelphia, 1860. (Vide p. 75).

5. CLAYTON, JOHN. Flora Virginica. Lyons, 1762.

6. Fries, Evias. Syst. Mycol. 2: 242-243. 1823.

7. Gore, J. H. Tuckahoe or Indian Bread. Smithsonian Institution Ann.
Rept. 1881, p. 687-701, fig. 5.

8. Gussow, H. T. The Canadian Tuckahoe. Mycologia 11: 104-110, pls.
(9) IINAIEE

9. Kaum, Peter. Travels into North America. Translated by John R.
Foster, London, 1772. (Vide Vol. 1, pp. 388-389).

10. Lockwoop, S. The Tuckahoe. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 9: 152-3. 1882.

11. MacBrivz, James. Trans. N. Y. Philosophical Soe.,; New York, 1817.

PEATE 37

FRuITING STAGE OF TUCKAHOE, PacHymMA Cocos 137

Micuenl, Prrrk ANTONIO. Nov. Pl. Gen. 1-234, pl. 1-108, 1729. (Vide
PT, pe aL)
RAVENEL, H. W. Note on the Tuckahoe. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 9: 140.

1882.

SCHRENCK, JOSEPH. Notes on Tuckahoe. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 11: 1-5.
1884.

DE ScHWEINITZ, L. D. Synopsis fungorum Carolinae superioris, pp. 56-
o7. 1822.

SmitH, JoHN. History of Virginia, Richmond, 1819. (Vide p. 87).

. TORREY, JOHN. Analysis of the Sclerotium Giganteum or Tuckahoe.

New York Medical Repository, New York, 6: 37-44. 1821.
WALTER, THOMAS. Flora Caroliniana. London, 1788. (Vide p. 262).

W

38

‘
e

PLATE

Metealf del.

Tis 12.

JOURNAL

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society
wile XXX VIII MAY 1923 Nos. 3 and 4 |

A KEY TO THE FULGORID A OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA
WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW SPECIES

By Z. P. Mretcaur

INTRODUCTION

The Family Fulgoride is perhaps the most neglected family of
homopterous insects. This is due in no small measure to the fact
that in comparison with other families of the order they are relatively
of little economic importance in our region. This is merely relative,
however, and in a final summing up it must be borne in mind that a
family of relatively small importance when compared with Coccide
or Aphidide may be of outstanding importance when compared with
other families in other orders. Much more study must be devoted to
this family, however, before we can even begin to estimate its real
economic importance.

Taxonomically the Family Fulgoride is of great interest and per-
haps in no family of insects in any modern scheme of classification
do we have as many and as diverse forms as in this one. There is
no doubt that the Fulgoride@ are really of superfamily rank, but the
author feels that violent revisions in schemes of classification have no
place in a study of a restricted fauna such as this. From the view-
point of bizarre forms and structures few insect groups can even ap-
proximate the members of this family. Unfortunately from the stand-
point of great popular interest the forms are too small to create much
excitement. But with all of these limitations the chief drawback to
a real interest in this group is the fact that there is no manual of the
genera and species available. Descriptions are scattered far and
wide. A recent census shows that the descriptions of the two hun-
dred and fifty-eight described species in our region are scattered in
no less than fifty-nine separate publications with usually no corre-

[ 139 J

140 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

lation of new species with old or with no keys for their determination
and very few illustrations. Then too, many of the original descrip-
tions. were made by the older entomologists before the middle of the
nineteenth century and have never been brought down to date. It
was with these points in mind that the present paper has been pre-
pared in the hope that it would bridge a gap and would stimulate
real interest in this family in the future.

DISTRIBUTION

The Fulgoride of Eastern North America have not been colleeted
sufficiently for us to know very much about their distribution as is
evidenced by the fact that of the three hundred and one known species
eighty are known from a single state only, or two closely contiguous
states. Of the remainder ninety-seven seem to have a general distri-
bution; forty-four are generally southern in their distribution;
twenty-nine are western species that invade our territory; ten are
apparently West Indian forms more or less abundant in Cuba:that
have invaded Florida; three are European forms which have become
established ; and nine are Mexican forms that have crossed the Mexican
border into Texas and the other border states.

As used in this paper the term Eastern North America is used to
inelude all the territory lying east of the foot hills of the Rocky
Mountains. This large area seems to be rather homogeneous as far
as its fulgorid fauna is concerned, but as pointed out above there are
naturally certain intrusions especially in Florida and Texas. Other
West Indian, Mexican and western forms will undoubtedly be found
within our territory but only species with definite records within our
borders have been included below. Certain of the older species
which have been recorded from North America only have been in-
cluded for the guidance of future students.

TAXONOMY

Heap Reactions. The regions of the head of the Fulgoride used
in taxonomy are the vertex, frons, gene and clypeus. The frons,
vertex and gene are frequently prolonged into a long cephalic pro-
cess. The vertex shows a number of good specific characters in most
genera. The comparative length and breadth, the shape and the ar-
rangements of the carine are usually quite specific and have been
much used in the past. Sometimes the vertex is narrow and shades

1923 | THE FULGORIDZ OF EASTERN NorTH AMERICA 14]

insensibly into the frons. Sometimes it rounds into the frons but is
more distinct. In still other cases it is sharply set off from the frons
and may be separated for its entire breadth from the frons by a more
or less distinct carine (Issinw, Megamelanus) or suleus (Poblicia).
The vertex is sometimes prolonged along the dorsal side of the cephalic
process (Dictyophara, Scolops). Sometimes the vertex is furnished
with a more or less distinct median carina and another very common
condition is to have two lateral carine converging towards the frons
(Cizius, many Delphacine). In this condition the vertex is divided
into three regions, the two lateral compartments between the lateral
carine and the converging carine, and the central compartment pos-
terior to the converging carine. Sometimes the central compartment
is divided by a median y-shaped carina into three compartments, the
frontal compartment and the posterior compartments.

The frons is usually separated from the genx by sharp carine and
from the elypeus by a distinct suleus. Its separation from the ver-
tex may be distinct and furnished by a carina or sulcus as mentioned
above or it may be impossible to distinguish the frons from the vertex,
in taxonomy the entire dorsal surface is usually called the vertex al-
though this may include a portion of what is the frons morphologic-
ally. The comparative length and breadth of the frons is often a
very useful character, as is its comparative width at the base, along
the vertex and at the apex, along the clvpeus.

The characters of the genz have not been much used but there are
frequently good generic characters present especially in the shape
and size of the antennal socket and antennal collar.

The clypeus frequently furnishes reliable characters both in com-
parative size and shape and in the arrangement of the carine. In the
subfamilies Fulgorine and Dictyopharine and some others the clyp-
eus is laterally sharply carinate but in other groups it is ecarinate
laterally. The depth of its insertion into the frons is also a useful
character at times. The clypeus frequently shades imperceptibly
into the labrum-epipharynx which may or may not be evidently di-
vided into its separate components.

Ocelli are frequently present and usually these consist of a lateral
pair placed between the compound eyes and the lateral frontal
earine. In the Ciziine there is usually a very distinct frontal ocellus
at the apex of the frons. Sometimes this frontal ocellus is repre-
sented by a scar only.

142 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

APPENDAGES. The following appendages, compound eyes, an-
tenne and mouth parts especially the labrum-epipharynx and labium
are usually conspicuous. The compound eyes are sub-hemispherical
in shape and usually ecreseentric in outline with a ventral sinus for
the reception of the antennx but occasionally, as in Bothriocera, the
sinus and antenne are anterior in position.

The antenne consist of two segments with a terminal flagellum.
The comparative lengths of the two segments of the antenne are fre-
quently useful as is the shape of these segments. The first segment
is usually shorter than the second and is frequently set in a distinct
socket and more or less surrounded by a ecollar-like projection of the
gene, the antennal collar. Usually the first segment is more or less
terete or frequently it is widened distally and more or less elub-shaped.
In a few eases the first joint is much flattened (Bostera). The sec-
ond joint is usually elub-shaped, sometimes flattened and more or less
studded with sensory organs. The number and arrangement of these
sensory organs furnish excellent characters as pointed out by Hansen
long ago, but their examination requires a rather high power and for
that reason they have not been much used. The flagellum is usually
longer than the two segments of the antenne combined. It consists
of an enlarged spherical basilar portion, the basal segment and a
distal portion, the bristle. The bristle of the flagellum is gradually
attenuated. In Otiocerus the antenne are provided with two or three
vermiculate appendages of unknown function.

The mouth parts are of the usual haustellate homopterous type.
The epipharynx is small and sharply pointed and lies in the groove
of the labium. It is not always distinetly separated from the labrum.
The labium is long or short and consists of four segments. The basal
and sub-basal segments are closely appled to the gular surface of the
head and are not visible from the frontal view. The apical and sub-
apical are usually unequal in length, the apical being short and the
subapical long. The length of the labium is frequently a good generic
character but is seldom of any value as a specific character.

THoracic Reaions. The typical regions of the thorax are some-
what modified in the Fulgoridw. The pro- and mesonotum are con-
spicuous but the metanotum is hidden by the wings when at rest.
The propleura are covered by the lateral extensions of the pronotum,
the breast plates, but the meso- and metapleurs are quite distinct.
The sternites are small.

SS S—3Q———<“€eees-

1923 | THE FuLGorip2 or EAasterRN NortH AMERICA 143

The pronotum is a saddle-shaped piece with the breast plates ex-
tending ventrad and covering the propleura. The pronotum is long
or short sometimes being reduced to a mere collar (Catonia) and
sometimes longer than the mesonotum. It is usually medianly eari-
nate and more or less notched posteriorly, although it is truncate in
most Issinw. There are frequently intermediate and lateral carine
whose positions and direction have been much used as generie char-
acters among the Delphacine. The breast plates are usually sepa-
rated from the dorsal field of the pronotum by distinct carine.

The mesonotum is generally longer than the pronotum, broadly
triangular and is as a rule provided with three distinct carine, some-
times five (Oliarus). In all of our genera there are distinct tegule
at the base of the fore wings. These are broadly crescentric in shape
with one horn directed dorsad and the other laterad. The tegule are
frequently medianly carinate and their shape and size furnish good
diagnostic characters.

THorAcIc APPENDAGES. The thoracic appendages are the typical
three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings although the metathoracic
(hind) wings are sometimes wanting (most brachypterous forms).
The legs have the usual segments of an insect leg, with wel! developed
trochantines and three jointed tarsi. In the prothoracic (fore) legs
the coxe are generally long sometimes nearly as long as the femora.
The femora and tibiz are terete with the former thick and the latter
slender. They are nearly equal in length. Sometimes (Phylloscelis
and Phyllodinus) the femora and tibiz are much dilated. Spines are
usually absent on the fore legs and the pulvillus and claws are weakly
developed. The mesothoracic (middle) legs are but little used taxo-
nomically. They are somewhat intermediate in character between the
fore and hind legs. In the metathoracic (hind) legs the coxe are
usually nearly globular in shape but sometimes they are more elon-
gate. The femore are clavate and not especially elongate. The tibie .
are slender and much elongate. Normally they have one or more
heavy spines along the posterior lateral margin, although these spines
are sometimes absent (Myndus, Oecleus). The number of these spines
are not specifically constant as has been assumed by some writers as
the number frequently varies on the two members on the same speci-
men. The number of these tibial spines and their approximate posi-
tion should be recorded in all generic diagnoses, however, as they are
very useful. The hind tibie frequently end in a circlet of spines

144 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

whose number and arrangement seems to be rather constant. The
two basal segments of the hind tarsi are usually provided with well
defined spines ventrally on their apical margins. The claws are
usually weak and simple but the pulvilli are frequently of consider-
able size. The members of the subfamily Delphacine are provided
with a special organ, the ealear, which is an organ of great taxonomic
importance in this group. It assumes four primary shapes: spini-
form, in which it is slender and attenuated to a rather fine point;
eultrate, in which it has one edge thick and the other edge thin lke
a thick bladed knife, the thin edge may or may not be provided with
marginal teeth; foliaceous, where the calear is reduced to a thin leaf-
like structure; and lastly tectiform, where the calear is angled in
eross section, in some eases (Stenocranus) the two edges of the tecti-
form ealear are brought close together and the space between is filled
with a sponge-like mass. In both the foliaceous and tectiform ealears
the edge may or may not be provided with minute teeth.

THe Wrincs. Not very much attention has been paid to the taxo-
nomic characters in the wings of the Fulgoridw. This is perhaps due
to three reasons: (1) The fore wings of Fulgoridw occur quite com-
monly in three forms; a very short wing with reduced venation cov-
ering the basal segments of the abdomen only, brachypterous; a wing
of moderate length covering most of the abdomen and with fairly well
developed venation, kelopterous; and lastly a wing usually longer
than the abdomen frequently much longer with fully developed ve-
nation, macropterous; (2) the branching of the longitudinal veins
are not constant either for the genus or species; (3) the position of
the cross veins is very variable and the number is not constant. Yet
in spite of these objections the wings furnish good characters and I
feel sure that no satisfactory classification of the higher groups of this
family will ever be made without taking into consideration the wing
characters.

Just what are the factors that produce brachypterous, kcelopterous
or macropterous wings is one of the many unsolved questions in bi-
ology today. The reduced wings are found in certain groups only
and so far as I know are never found in the following subfamilies:
Fulgorine, Flatine, Acanolonine, Achiline, Derbine, Cixiine.
Brachypterous and kelopterous wings are fairly common in the sub-
family Dictyopharine, occur about as commonly as macropterous
wings in the Delphacine, and are all but the rule in the subfamily

1923 | THE FULGORID2 OF EASTERN NortTH AMERICA 145

Issine. That this is not determined by environment would seem to
be settled by the fact that brachypterous and macropterous forms, or
kelopterous and macropterous forms of the same species occur on the
same host plants at the same time. That the factors are hereditary
would seem in accord with all known facts but would require experi-
mental proof before it can be established.

In spite of the fact that the longitudinal veins are not always
constant either within the genus or species they are constant enough
to furnish good characters. On the basis of wing venation the Ful-
goride of Eastern North America fall into eight groups. Group one
includes the subfamily Fulgorinew and is distinguished by the follow-
ing points: subeosta and radius are not united save for a short dis-
tance at the base, radius and medius are united for a considerable dis-
tance, cubitus is provided with several accessory veins, the second and
third anals are united into a common stem, the surface of the fore
wing is reticulated by many cross veins and the hind wing has
the anal area reticulate. Group two includes the subfamily Flatine,
it may be distinguished as follows: costa is distant from the margin
of the wing and united with it by a series of transverse veinlets; the.
other veins are distinct and have many accessory veins, second and
third anal distinct. The third group includes the subfamily Acana-
lonine. This group has the costal vein distinct from the margin but
not connected by transverse veinlets, the other veins are distinct and
connected by reticulating veinlets, cubitus is unbranched. Group
four includes the subfamilies Achilinw, Derbinew and Cixiine. The
principal character in this group is that subeosta and radius are united
for a considerable distance from the base. Group five includes the
subfamily Dictyopharinew. The members of this subfamily in our
fauna have subcosta and radius completely united and with medius
and cubitus distinetly two branched before the apical reticulate area.
Group six includes the subfamily Delphacine and is perhaps simply
an evolution of group four. Subecosta and radius are united as in that
group but the single stem of radius after its separation from subcosta
is bent anally and merges for a short distance with medius one plus
two only to separate again and appear as a distinct vein like a branch
of medius. Group seven includes the [ssinw whose wings are generally
so reduced either brachypterous or kelopterous that little can be said
about their ‘real character. For the most part the veins are straight
and extend from the base to the apex without branching but are con-

146 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SoOcIetTy | May

nected by many transverse veinlets. Group eight includes our Tropi-
duchine which have a venation quite similar to our Dictyopharine,
but costa is distant from the margin of the wing sometimes united by
transverse veinlets, and the apical portion of the corium is separated
from the basilar portion by a distinet transverse vein, thus paralleling
the development of the Heteroptera. ;

THe ABDOMEN. Outside of the genitalia the characters of the ab-
domen have not been much used. The general shape of the abdomen,
whether compressed or depressed is sometimes useful and I have no
doubt that other good specific and generic characters await discovery.
The abdomen in Fulgoride consist of eight definite segments with the
ninth, tenth and eleventh segments much modified by the genitalia.
Typically each segment consists of the usual tergite, sternite and
pleurite. The pleurites are modified in that they usually have a broad
lateral portion and a broad ventral portion. The first and second
segments are modified by having their tergites ending in a posteriorly
directed process from the metapleura. The pleurites are wanting and
the sternites are mostly covered by the metasternum, the coxa and
trochanters of the hind legs. The spiracles of these segments are
situated dorsally well within the lateral margins and the second pair
is usually much larger than the first pair. Segments three to six are
usually typical with their spiracles on the lateral faces of the pleurites.
Segments seven and eight are usually modified by the genitaha but
have a pair of small spiracles on the lateral faces of the pleurites.

THe GenitrauiA. The genitalia are useful in some groups espe-
cially in the Delphacine where the male genitalia are the court of last
appeal for specific determinations in many genera. In a few other
eroups they are frequently useful but in many groups they seem to
be entirely useless. In the Delphacinew the female genitalia are very
similar to the female genitalia in other Homoptera and consist of a
pair of swollen pygofers on either side of the ovipositors. In the males
the ninth segment is modified into the tubular pygofer which opens
posteriorly through a more or less circular genital aperture which in-
cludes the anal segment and the anal style dorsally. Ventrad the
aperture is frequently incised to form the ventral sinus, and dorsad
there is an incision, the dorsal sinus (anal emargination), which en-
closes the anal segment. The angles where the sinuses merge with
the genital aperture are sometimes prolonged and form the dorsal
(anal) and ventral angles. In a few cases the ventral wall of the

1923 | THE FULGoRID# oF EasteRN NortH AMERICA 147

genital aperture is prolonged into variously shaped lobes or plates,
which may be known as the genital plates. In a few cases there is a
single median tooth on the ventral margin, the genital tooth. Look-
ing directly into the genital aperture one can usually see the dia-
phragm which almost completely divides the genital chamber into an
outer and inner chamber. The dorsal margin of the diaphragm is
sometimes straight transverse and is sometimes variously armed or
toothed, genital armature, these teeth are frequently prolonged and
hook-like, genital hooks. The outer genital chamber contains two
style-like plates, the genital styles, which are of various sizes and
shapes. The following terms are used in describing them: outer and
inner margins; apex with inner and outer angles. The edegus lies
in the inner genital chamber and projects posteriorly through the
genital orifice. The tenth abdominal segment is modified into the
anal segment which is armed ventrally with one or two hook-like pro-
cesses, the anal processes. The eleventh segment constitutes the anal
“style.

Various modifications of the genitalia exist in the other subfamilies
but so far as I am aware no one has attempted to homologize the
genital structures of the different subfamilies of the Fulgoride.

CLASSIFICATION

The classification adopted is substantially that of Van Duzee’s
Catalog of the Hemiptera of America North of Mexico (1917).
Wherever additional synonomy has been used it is clearly indicated
under the genera or species concerned. Otherwise the student is re-
ferred to this excellent catalog for matters of nomenclature. As
stated elsewhere the writer is far from satisfied with the present ar-
rangement of subfamilies but as our chief interest in this paper is
the identification of genera and species a thorough revision of the
higher divisions need not concern us greatly.

The key given below is based as far as possible upon two con-
trasting characters. Having used it repeatedly during the past three
years, on material from all parts of the country, no one is more fa-
miliar with its weaknesses than the writer. Nevertheless it is an at-
tempt to stabilize our knowledge of the classification of the Fulgoride
and to make easier the path of the beginner. The characters used
throughout are what appear to the writer to be the most obvious ones
available. These characters have been taken entirely from forms in

148 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

our territory and do not necessarily have any significance when ap-
pled to extralimital forms. As far as possible I have made an at-
tempt to include all our described forms. A few forms as listed be-
low have not been included for the reasons stated. A few forms have
been ineluded on characters which seem to be reliable, although I have
seen no specimens. In many genera recourse has been had to color
characters, a rather doubtful procedure, while in other genera it has
been necessary to resort to genital characters from the one sex or the
other, which is apt to prove disappointing if the sex one is trying to .
identify is the opposite sex to the one used in the key. At the present
time the only hope in all such eases is to collect enough material and
then by careful comparisons work out both sexes. For economy of
time and space the keys to the subfamilies, genera and species are all
grouped together, thus avoiding the necessity of searching through
several pages in locating any given form.

The following changes in the nomenclature adopted in the Van Duzee
Catalog are proposed :

Elidiptera Spinola to Epiptera Metcalf.

Cyclokara vanduzei Ball to Patara vanduzei Ball.

The genus Lamenia Stal in our territory to Herpis Stal as has been suggested
by Muir;

The genus Cenchrea Westwood in our territory to Phaciocephalus Kirkaldy ;

Stenocranus saccharivorus Westwood to Saccharosydne Kirkaldy;

Stenocranus longicornis Dozier to Megamelus Fieber ;

Stenocranus paletus Van Duzee to Megamelus Fieber;

Pissonotus piceus Spooner to Phyllodinus Van Duzee;

Pissonotus crawfordi n. n. for Dicranotropis marginatus Crawford nec
Pissonotus marginatus Van Duzee;

Pissonotus foveatus Spooner to Pissonotus quadripustulatus Van Duzee;

Pissonotus variegatus Spooner to Pissonotus quadripustulatus Van Duzee;

Phyllodinus kebelei Osborn to Phyllodinus flabellatus Ball;

Stobera quadripustulata Van Duzee to Pissonotus Van Duzee;

Stenocranus breviceps Dozier to Liburnia slossoni Ball;

Liburnia arvensis Fitch to Liburnia pellucida Fabricius;

Megamelus constrictus Crawford to Liburnia Stal.

The following species have not been included in the present review
for the reasons stated :
Liburnia culta Van Duzee known from the female sex and I have been unable
to place it;
Liburnia fureata Provancher, the male has not been described and I have
been unable to place it;

1923 | THE FULGORIDZ oF EASTERN NortH AMERICA 149

Liburnia seminigra Stal, the male has not been described and I have not
been able to place it;

Liburnia unicolor Walker, the type is an immature specimen according to
Mr. W. E. China.

Dicranotropis luteivitta Walker, the male genitalia have not been described;

The following species have not been seen by the writer:

Calyptoproctus marmoratus Spinola described from North America
Myndus lunatus Van Duzee

Monopsis tabida Spinola

Aphelonema decorata Van Duzee

Thionia transversalis Melichar described from North America
Ormenis pauperata Melichar

Ormenis relicta Fabricius

Ormenis proxima Walker

Otiocerus francilloni Kirby

Otiocerus reaumurii Kirby

Megamelanus rufivittatus Ball

Pissonotus binotatus Spooner

Pissonotus divaricatus Spooner

Phyllodinus piceus Spooner

Stobera affinis Van Duzee

Liburnia dolera Spooner

The following species have not been reported previously from America
North of Mexico:

Poblicia constellata Walker, Mexican

Acandlonia virescens Stal, Mexican

Cyarda acuminipennis Spinola, West Indian

Cyarda walkeri n. n. for Cyarda conformis Melichar nec. Walker.
Flatoides insularis Melichar, West Indian

Flatoides tortrix Guerin, West Indian

Bakerella maculata Crawford, Mexican

The following new genera are proposed:

Ciocixius for Cixius dorsivittatus Van Duzee
Traxus, orthotype Traxus fulvus n. sp.
Euklastus, orthotype Euklastus harti n. sp.
Neocenchrea for Cenchrea heidemanni Ball.

150 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

The following new species are described :

Crepusia glauca

Dictyophara recurva

Scolops parvulus
Epiptera brittoni
Catonia carolina
Catonia Juella
Catonia pini
Catonia lunata
Bothriocera drakei
Oliarus montanus
Oliarus texanus
Oliarus vitreus
Oliarus vittatus
Microledrida fulva
Cixius apicalis
Oecleus productus
Myndus truncatus

Bruchomorpha minima

Bruchomorpha decorata

Bruchomorpha_ bicolor
Bruchomorpha vittata
Bruchomorpha rugosa
Aphelonema rosa
Traxus fulvus
Thionia quinquata
Acanalonia fasciata
Flatoides maculosus
Flatoides concisus
Buklastus harti
Herpis incisa

Herpis australis

Stenocranus arundineus
Megamelanus terminalis

Megamelanus dorsalis
Megamelanus lautus

Megamelus distinctus
Megamelus estus
Megamelus inflatus
Megamelus uncus
Megamelus anticostus
Pissonotus speciosus
Pissonotus fulvus
Pissonotus nigridorsum
Liburnia triloba
Liburnia gerhardi
Liburnia alexanderi
Liburnia fulvidorsum
Liburnia unda
Liburnia shermani
Liburnia staminata
Liburnia waldeni
Criomorphus conspicuus

KEY TO THE SUBFAMILIES, GENERA AND SPECIES OF THE FULGORIDZ

1. Posterior tibizw with a calear 557

Posterior tibize without a calear 529

bo

oF EASTERN NortTH AMERICA

SUBFAMILY DELPHACINZ 202

Fore wings macropterous, clavus granulate or reticulate 501.......... 3

Fore wings macropterous or brachypterous, clavus of macropterous wings

not granulate or reticulate 518

wala obellavoNe ag Leth SEAL amen 45

3. Sides of the clypeus sharply carinate; anal area of hind wings reticulate

BLUE SEM ADIII NAGE Aco O'S 6 SOE EOI io Carcld O69 cho

SUBFAMILY FULGORINZ 34

Sides of the clypeus not carinate; anal area of hind wings not reticulate 4

4. Costal area with transverse veins; hind tibie with one to three spines 498

Costal area without transverse veins;

SUBFAMILY FLATINZ 13

hind tibize without spines 497
SUBFAMILY ACANALONIINZ (Genus Acanalonia) 5

ACANALONIA
5, Vertex conically- produced 124°... ase ne eee Acanalonia conica Say
Vertex not conically produced, at most triangular before 133......... 6
6. Size small, less than 5 mm. in length 118........... A. pumila Van Duzee
Size larger, more thang? mm. in length? :). .) eee sieiepe terete 7

* Numbers in blackface refer to figures on the plates.

1923 | THe FuLGorIDe oF EASTERN NortH AMERICA Tf

‘€

10.

wit

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

i (-

Color green or rosaceous, usually with two brown stripes on the lateral
margins of the vertex and thorax which extend along the sutural margins
Sm aT RES Ue LDU CU cyanea aici wie wis = 2) a5 5 soi ww 8S oe oreies ae 8

Color green, without brown stripes 5 AOC Oe aN RC RCE ae Res OS ie 9

. Venation rather simple; last ventral segment of the female not produced 558

A. fasciata Metealf
Venation strongly reticulate; last ventral segment produced, notched at

bb (Ep BOE) Sos sao Semon .cletso Jo DOI ee nen eee mena A. bivittata Say
Meariexelaunon romnded: before 130... 25.0... 2-6-6... - ees A. virescens Stal
WertesnoL fiat. stronely rounded before 133.52... ...6....0000600 sees 10

Mesonotum without median carina; fore wings short and broad, not marked
wath fuscous pomts on the apical margin 132 ..........0..0.5000 6 ae ila
Mesonotum with an evident median carina; fore wings longer, marked with
PHSCOUSEN ON SuOH The apicalomarginy 133). 2.26.6 cae ose eee ees 12
Fore wings shaded with fuscous along the claval suture; second branch of
medius with three branches arising at about the same point; vertex
“UELer i: ESN Ge ee, ee A. concinnula Fowler
Fore wings not shaded along the claval suture; second branch of medius
branching into two veins, the posterior one again branched; vertex

PeAadlivetOUund COuL32* paren loknic.c.c sie Seles acces os A. immaculata Kirkaldy

Length 10-11 mm.; costal margin of the wing broadly rounded
A. latifrons Walker

‘Length 14-15 mm.; costal border of the fore wings nearly straight pos-

UPSD. ee AUS See ee A. servillei Spinola

SUBFAMILY FLATIN A

TEES Ee LOT eT arrice nS ee 14
errnuetatramed: apiealig, 1250 5202. 5-8 ee ee eee ces ene ily
Wings three or four times as long as broad, with the apical margin ob-

hiquelysetroncaie: 40> - 2s225)seie Gis sles. oases Genus Cyarda Walker 15
Wings but little longer than broad, produced into an acute point 41
Rhynchopteryx caudate Van Duzee

CYARDA

Vertex narrow, usually not more than twice as broad as long 136
Cyarda melichari Van Duzee
Vertex broader, usually more than three times as broad as long 138.... 16
Vertex with a distinct transverse carina basally; size small, 8 mm. 138
C. walkeri Metcalf
Vertex without transverse carine; size large, 11 mm. 139 P
C. acuminipennis Spinola
Werex shor. mearly linear 10... 2... 0205.22. e eee Genus Orments Stal 18
Vertex triangular, produced 145............... Genus Flatoides Guerin 26

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

JOURNAL OF THE Mi?tcHELL SocIETy | May
ORMENIS

Color: LUE ope, 6: 0)0:0) 0: wise taaetbeccie sss ox ee aites.cae + 6 MES «seep opiate ele tee ote 19
Color dark with evident pruinosity when fresh 13....Ormenis pruinosa Say
With one sub-apical line on the fore wings 498.................00-- 20
With two sub-apical lines on the fore wings 499..............0000- 22
Head and thorax green, marked with red 10........... O. rufifascia Walker
Head and thorax not marked with red....)..':.i0.0¢ ae a0 eee eee 21

Sub-apical line widely separated from the apical border
O. venusta Melichar

Sub-apical line near the apical border............. O. pauperata Melichar
Sizéersmaill: Oompa eres ois, Cold Sere Oe O. prorima Walker
Size larger, 8-10 Mimisin vets nce. a0 ss alk! avaiele blecerele she bigs ee 23

Frons with median carina well elevated; mesonotum yellowish or brownisk
testaceous, sharply contrasted with green wings 141...0. chloris Melichar
Frons with median carina indistinct; mesonotum not sharply contrasted

With the ‘Waimgs: D446. ce. oo sn «ince nyse 0 clean) 5 oteleyersy ate 24
Wings pale: with brown spots. ....\..c22 esas sour O. contaminata Uhler
Wings without brown spots... ......24.<c%s suk sacle eee 25

Both sub-apical lines united with the costal nerve 499
O. septentrionalis Spinola
The last sub-apical line not reaching the costal border 500
O. relicta Fabricius

FLATOIDES
Hind tibize with three spines before the apex; fore wings light buff, heavily
spotted with large black spots 17.......... Flatoides maculosus Metcalf
Hind tibie with two spines before the apex; fore wings variously col-
OTEG) Las sites corer tate: asses Sie stelen eeapees seb eee enone eee ec eenes 27
Color blackish fuscous, unmarked 16................. F. fuscus Van Duzee
Color lighter, more or less strongly marked with darker 15............ 28
Vertex nearly twice)as) lone as) broad 14722. sees ee een 29
Vertex not twice as long as broad U515 2c si. ci citi ae eee 30
Color ochraceous green, with a transverse fuscous band at the apex of the
elavus and numerous fuscous flecks..............58-05 F. tortrix Guerin
Color ochraceous yellow with a fuscous stripe along the claval suture and
then diagonally to the costal margin.............. F. insularis Melichar
Vertex acute at the apex; anterior margin of the pronotum not notched
VAS oi aieccie scr elersinlaweroye’e) aie 03! o 6.10, 6) sielrehs/-evebetaliotn oie ienel ate ke ean teeta eae 31
Vertex obtuse at the apex; anterior margin of the pronotum notched
LS2) wi) aieiei oleic oie eye ieleoesiefiepss)is! si a)»: <=) ol omeleysr este aie enek enn OnS Ree a eee e eeene 33
Vertex twice as broad as its median length 150..... 20.0 seer 32
Vertex not twice as broad as it median length 151........ F. acutus Uhler

Color ochraceous buff with a broad transverse fuscous band at the base and
at! the apex (Ofvclawilsianiats «2 0s arches teehee teens F. concisus Metealf
Color greenish without evident transverse bands ..... F. punctatus Walker

1923 | THE FuLGorRIDz2 or EAsteERN NortH AMERICA 153

33.

34,

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44,

Frous nearly smooth; vertex not produced 152......... F.. signatus Melichar
Frons with two prominent rolls near the base; vertex produced 154, 155
F. scabrosus Melichar
SUBFAMILY FULGORIN 2

ERGs ELON Sys pnOMUCCHuML Ol. sties cio) 25/60 615 es se) se ovaysi'e eiahsin echo ete alone 35
eon deMOL MSE LOU hye Bp TOOUMECH W103). 6 sjouco-0% «+ 2ic.0 2’ 0a 0,5 sveinte ae eiche eee 37
Cephalic process expanded apically; lateral carine of the vertex crenulate
UB die tab O.0-0 6 6 OOO DIC EEO Ieee Scolopsella reticulata Ball
Cephalic process narrowed apically; lateral carine of vertex not crenulate
HED) o woot 6 G6 bigiOts OG.0 2) G0, iCkO 1D EIEIO RCC ear meee Genus Amycle Stal 36
AMYCLE
Cephalic process narrow, elongate 159.............. Amycle vernalis Manee
Cephahiemprocess! broaden GO... sts .0.. 2: oe se A. sazatilis Van Duzee

Ninth abdominal segment elongate, quinquecarinate
Calyptoproctus marmoratus Spinola

Ninth abdominal segment not elongate, not quinquecarinate.......... 38
Posterior border of pronotum with a transverse carina 163

Crepusia glauca Metcalf
Posterior border of pronotum without a transverse carina 165........ 39
Vertex short with a distinct sulcus between vertex and frons 172

Genus Poblicia Stal 42

Vertex longer, produced anteriorly 165.......... Genus Cyrpoptus Stal 40
CYRPOPTUS
Medius and cubitus of the fore wings forked at about the same distance
from the base; fore wings opaque 501......... Cyrpoptus belfragei Stal
Medius forked much nearer the base than cubitus; apex of the fore wings
Wien paneM, SOL) oo dope 506 GD ed Oe DA Oe eerie ier ere icc 41
Apex of the fore wings with a diagonal transparent vitta; base not clouded
with fuscous; wings strongly flaring............ C. reineckei Van Duzee
Apex of the fore wings without a diagonal transparent vitta; base clouded
with fuscous; wings not strongly flaring............ C. nubeculosus Stal
POBLICIA
Fore wings tricolored; base greenish; apex fuscous with a sub-apical trans-
VETSORVILLAatrAMSDAreNnt Q)ycp. 26 cic sicye oe ee os 0 6, Poblicia constellata Walker
Fore wings not tricolored, no sub-apical transparent vitta............ 43
COlGTa a OBUCHEACCOUS T4 etal cA sidelos es cece nese es ewes P. misella Stal
Se emENNOUR at SWIACKISI, Bato e ss csi. asc nies ce ete eet ewnlawenes 44
Color fuscous, veins and veinlets pale............... P. fuliginosa Oliver

Color blackish, veins and veinlets black......... P. thanatophana Kirkaldy

154

46.

47.

48,

49.

50.

51.

52.

54.

JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

Macropterous wings with subcostal vein branching to form a distinet post

nodal cell or post nodal cells; no brachypterous forms 518.......... 104
Macropterous wings with subcostal vein not branching to form a distinct
post nodal cell; brachypterous forms common 509................ 46

With a distinct cross vein from costal margin to apex of clavus dividing
the fore wings into a distinct corium and membrane with many cross
VOUS. AON va a aye oronkis EEE 6 i es, Sis 3 @ See SUBFAMILY TROPIDUCHINZ 47

With no distinct cross vein from costal margin to apex of clavus 508 49

SUBFAMILY TROPIDUCHIN A

Frons with a. median caring, 180). «0... «2... «006 oe ee eee 48

Costal cross veins present; vertex as long as the mesonotum 506
Neurotmeta sponsa Guerin
Costal cross veins absent; vertex shorter than the mesonotum 507
Monopsis tabida Spinola
Lateral margins of the pronotum equalling its median length; head nar-

‘rower than the mesonotum 201........... SUBFAMILY DICTYOPHARINZ 90
Lateral margins of the pronotum shorter than its median length; head
usually as broad as the mesonotum 215.......... SUBFAMILY ISSINZ 68

SUBFAMILY DICTYOPHARIN 4

Vertex produced in front of the eyes; anterior femora simple 184.... 52
Vertex transverse; anterior femora foliaceous 182, 530
Genus Phyllescelis Germar 51

PHYLLOSCELIS

Fore wings pale, veins brown, dotted with white 8..... P. pallescens Germar

Fore wings black, veins uniform black or broadly pale yellow 6
P. atra Germar
Fore wings pale, transparent green, much longer than the abdomen; vertex
not suddenly constricted in front of the eyes; cephalic process triangular
71 Se RIREISRO I OD.D SO. 6:0 A ERO OIG 4c Genus Dictyophara Germar 64
Fore wings coreaceous, equal to or slightly longer than the abdomen; vertex
suddenly constricted in front of the eyes; cephalic process very slender,

mearly, parallel-sidiedealls4ery-...\. «10! 0 eee Genus Scolops Schaum 53
SCOLOPS

Fore wings densely and uniformly reticulated apically 52............ 54

Fore wings with only a few irregular cross veins apically 53.......... 55

Reticulations of the fore wings small, the veins margined with darker;
cephalic process rather slender 184................ Scolops sulcipes Say
Reticulations of the fore wings large, not margined; cephalic process
SEOULER UBS ai.feteehe eterratoyele vies: 6:0 c\a acs, eleteene Otke oer eee S. osborni Ball

1923] THE FuLGorRIDZ oF EasteRN NortH AMERICA 155

55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

60.

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

Cephalic process with the lateral margins nearly straight lines sometimes

BOB Vole Camel pi Cal hapa BObe ete fs 5)s ass,0 0 « de 5 sve hy Nee ee ee 56
Cephalic process suddenly narrowed in front of the eyes, the lateral mar-
wim Mentive parallel ie ihe apex 102... - .. .. onan sacs aac cnceeaemon 58
Cephalic process slender; size small, less than 5 mm. 186 S. parvulus Metealf
See pee Wt NaN ENE EEL LO ole 82a as) ac Janse © =) 2 ov <0) «so o «nc sa otepmee eels 57

Cephalic process short; the margins of the frons somewhat expanded to-
ward the apex of the cephalic process giving it an inflated appearance
I Reb 6 OBS O45 Bt OCSE BOIS AAs eee S. hesperius Uhler

Cephalic process long, tapering anteriorly, not inflated 188

S. grossus Uhler

Costal vein mostly white, the costal cell white 53.................... 59
Costal vein alternately dark and pale, the costal cell not white........ 60
Cephalic process shorter than clavus; veins of the fore wings nearly uni-
Pinnn TEC pas cecuca ain sees ann We aoe: eee S. angustatus Uhler
Cephalic process longer; veins of the fore wings distinctly alternate with
20k DiGi) elt We sea ags Sen OOOO. ee aa S. perdiz Uhler
(ll EDSSDe sees See eee Oto le S. viridis Ball
Nal EMRE ECCUET Yee scene fellate) slo jors sicis\sie 2 sie"aye"s sass ee vias wales seivelee 61
ETE. TOD PEYa TTR US A ne Se esi 62
Serle mL O CESS E NON et OO Mer netteratalie se lalc) src cio alias 2is'e sta e cies oleae 63
Cephalic process stout, at least four times as long as the diameter of the
G@ 1h 5a 550560 c4nb 60 bOd.b. CUO one ee S. desiccatus Uhler
Cephalic process slender, not more than twice as long as the diameter of
Ge Ge Ue oe 5 cos poo SB Oot GOs Oto Cae tac aac S. robustus Ball
Cephalic process very slender, parallel sided 196.......... S. spurcus Uhler
Cephalic process stouter, somewhat tapering 197.......... S. vanduzei Ball
DICTYOPHARA
Many of the cross veins of the fore wings meeting each other, thus form-
ing a few regular transverse veins 509....... Dictyophara dioxys Walker
Cross veins many, irregularly placed, not forming transverse veins
SUD sss seanncchbs beet oe ESS doe Sonn at Ig EEE noe no iar 65
Vertex at least twice as long as its width between the eyes 199....... 66
Vertex scarcely longer than its width between the eyes 205) cae ee 67
Cephalic process slender, intermediate carine of the frons nearly parallel,
plates longer than the ovipositor 199.............. D. microrhina Walker

Cephalic process stout, nearly parallel sided; intermediate carine of the
frons not parallel; ovipositors slightly longer than the plates 201
D. recurva Metcalf

Lateral carine of the frons lined with black basally; female plates short
Ss one - ob DSU E DEN COCO E ORI OO OOO CSIC I naa D. florens Stal

Lateral carine of the frons concolorous; female plates long 563
D. lingula Van Duzee

68.

69.

81.

JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Sociery | May

SUBFAMILY ISSIN Al

Fore wings short, usually shorter than the abdomen and not covering the

Faterall Margins (37). cjctersersve jars ic «0's (vie alleite ells eetesahcke lai cus ele itts ane eR eee 69
Fore wings longer than the abdomen, broader, covering the lateral margins
GYR BOCAS 0-0:0 DINGO DICU,0 0.0 0D CO AIM IOIDD COO a GiKKOmOO deo GUO OKO Sa oare 90
Fore and middle tibia expanded 531...... Genus Fitchiella Van Duzee 71
More ‘and! middle tibia mot expanded... tose nies e ce ene 70

Clypeal suture not evident, head triangularly produced, face more or less
horizontals 216%.) ners tes eter Genus Bruchomorpha Newman 73
Clypeal suture evident, head not triangularly produced, face vertical 236
_ Genus Aphelonema Uhler 84

FITCHIELLA
Nasal process expanded apically, knob like 207..Fitchiella robertsoni Fitch
Nasal process not expanded apically 2100... 22.2... <1 eieeieee 72
Nasal process viewed dorsally, obtuse 209............... F. fitchi Melichar
Nasal proeess viewed dorsally, acute 210................ F. melichari Ball
BRUCHOMORPHA
Body and wings black, often with a pale dorsal vitta 51............. 74
Body and wings mostly pale 57...:..-sce« «cee > siesta eee 81

Body and wings black without pale median vitta; legs uniformly black 75
Body with a pale median vitta; legs in part at least pale............ 76

Size large, robust; the lateral carine of the mesonotum strongly elevated
Bruchomorpha tristis Stal

Size small, slender; the lateral carine of the mesonotum faint
B. minima Metealf

Nasal process protuberent, concave ventrally 218................... 77
Nasal process not protuberent, not concave ventrally 221............ ty)
Dorsal vitta evident extending from the apex of the head to the apex of the

abdomen: Sieve mapetetns c.+ << c+ tm oo) aloleia tee eet ete B. dorsata Fitch
Dorsal vitta only faintly indicated on the head.............s2s.cu. 78

Nasal process viewed from above centrally compressed; lateral carine
SUMS) PUSS 5 oo ong DOO BOE OOO oo acu OusooGsdueRES B. oculata Newman
Nasal process not compressed; lateral carine not sinuate 217
B. nasuta Stal
Nasal process upturned at the apex; dorsal vitta broad, extending to the
apex of the brachypterous wings 219............. B. suturalis Melichar
Nasal’ process not; upturned at the apex 2212 epi eterieetier neers 80
Dorsal vitta evident, extending to the apex of the mesonotum 55
B. vittata Metcalf
Dorsal vitta not extending to apex of mesonotum........ B. pallidipes Stal
Wings ‘strongly ragose 56.5 «52: ee ig 1 ole eile sich rene tet ene 82
Wings not strongly rugose! . 2.5/2.0 5 occ l= )0)) uetsicnele ties eaeie ree enanene 83

Sooo

1923 | THE FUuLGoRIDE OF EAsTERN NortH AMERICA 157

82.

83.

84.

85.

86.

87.

88.

89.

90.

91.

92.

93.

94,

95.

96.

Nasal process produced, concave ventrally, nearly unicolorous 222
B. rugosa Metealf
Nasal process not produced, not concave ventrally 223 B. decorata Metealf
Nasal process slightly protuberent, not concave ventrally, an evident stripe
on each side of the apex of the vertex across the eyes to the apex of
FIVE DODACI “210770 Ye & en ae eee B. bicolor Metcalf
Pica chat B. jocosa Stal.

APHELONEMA
WINES GInGhard RCL VS 2 85
Vertex more elongate, nearly as long as pronotum, six-sided 236...... 88
General color pale ochraceous yellow or blackish fuscous.............. 86
Remora eMloryPright TOG 2.6..)0. 556i son wes. s- Aphelonema rosa Metcalf
irons elongate, clypeus’ black 229................. A. obscura Van Duzee
PrOnseEtansverse. chy peus NOt DIACK 231... ss. eee ee cae cele 87
General color of the body pale ochraceous buff........... A. simplex Uhler
Generalvcolor of the body darker...........%.....: A. decorata Van Duzee

Frons almost parallel-sided; intermediate carine not strongly arched 233
A. bivittata Ball

Frons nearly circular; intermediate carine strongly arched 235...... 89
OTR MATI ER ROM COSGHIG! cielo cists ss) oleajorsis 2S ae ss sele'e secs cae A. rugosa Ball
Harem Wal OR SHOLETUGOSC. 59).y5 cle cie selene eee eels esse ce ele ees A. histrionica Stal
Fore wings reticulate, venation not evident 60..................-.06. 91
Fore wings with the longitudinal veins evident 65................... 92

Vertex triangularly produced anteriorly 60...Misodema reticulata Melichar
Vertex obtusely produced anteriorly; body hairy 61
Dictyonissus griphus Uhler

General surface of the wings rugulose; vertex broadly emarginate anteriorly

This 59 agers Be ICIS EIS IORI GIC LS Ai Trazus fulvus Metcalf
General surface of the wings not much roughened; vertex not broadly
BiH ANAT AUCH ANLCTIONY OSE ys iets sts a cisic else (esc'e ss otels cle cae ecls ae 93
Siete MmCeMNn PTANEMINS SIF... 2. et eee ences 94
CamsnesGr ic fore wine unbranched 515-....-......0. cscs ceeceeces 96
Pre iit wigtl bWwO Bpinen Sad. -.....-..-.505...--- Issus servillei Spinola
md inva with four OF five SPINES 534:. 2... 2.2.2... eee eee eee ene 95
Vertex transverse, rounded anteriorly, wings broadly expanded at the base,
PaO MOA MTT ie oat Faaicinie sos Silene sven ees Picumna ovatipennis Walker
Vertex elongate, triangularly produced anteriorly, fore wings not expanded
at the base, form elongate 65........... Issomorphus maculatus Melichar

Fore wings short, not twice as long as broad; hind wings small 66
Genus Hysteropterum Amyot & Serville 97
Fore wings longer, twice as long as broad; hind wings broad with a dis-
tinct incision between first and second anal vein 67
Genus Thionia Stal 98

158

97.

98.

99%

100.

ONE

102.

103.

106.

107.

108.

JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

HYSTEROPTERUM
Color dark brown; the fore wings with numerous round points; anterior
margin of the vertex broadly sinuate between the eyes 246
Hysteropterum punctiferum Walker
Color ochraceous orange, the wings clouded with brown; anterior margin of
the vertex nearly straight between the eyes, indented medianly 247
H. auroreum Uhler

THIONIA
Vertex broader than lone (2505 0. 2 ode ciel 2 ale eee 99
Vertex as long or longer than broad 256..4.5-.5- soe eee eee 100
Basal margins of the frons nearly straight between the eyes; fore wings
unicolorous with dark veins 249................. Thionia simplex Germar
Basal margins of the frons broadly concave between the eyes; fore wings
Warleg ated: 25h verse rete; cca cy 25 4: c2 ae! ay aytss ala) aiccle PRR e roe T. elliptica Germar
Frons slightly arched with a bright yellow transverse band
T. transversalis Melichar
Hrons not arched), without a transverse) band =). o.com ee eee eee 101
Vertex acutely produced anteriorly; cells of fore wings with minute dark
OMNES 252 ie seseye oreo spies.) os-0-0 8 csi eeheyel Oe Remeeriemeeee T. producta Van Duzee
Vertex rounded or only obtusely angulate anteriorly; fore wings variegated
D25G vice avs ese evel she whieie ie Wis eie sls on esis, aaligte velo leiellaj erie Peden Sen ee eee 102
Vertex rounded anteriorly; fore wings with an ocellated spot near the
APEX ~ 254). wis. Gyaue sla se ews ook aie Hee OSs Oe eee T. ocellata Melichar
Vertex angularly produced anteriorly; fore wings variegated 256...... 103
Vertex strongly five-angled, the lateral margins flaring anteriorly 255
T. quinquata Metealf
Vertex obtusely produced, not five-angled, lateral margins parallel 256 -
T. bullata Say
Fore wings overlapping at the apex 72......... SUBFAMILY ACHILINZ 105
Hore wings not overlapping dat the) apex meee eee 124
Pronotum short, collar-like; vertex not much produced, with median carina
OA a) «Pee er s.0 8 /0lc. RODEO CEE OC m Did'6 Go's © Genus Catonia Uhler 113
Pronotum not collar-like; vertex produced, with median suleus 258
Genus Hpiptera Metealf 106
EPIPTERA
General color blackish, nearly uniforms. =.) ie ere 112
General color brownish variegated with grayish................-..-- 107
Frons black with a broad band of white across the apex 49.......... ital
Frons| not black, not banded with white 47.235. sees eee ere 108
Clypeus’ distinctly darker than’ the frons 47)... 7). 109

Clypeus not distinctly darker than the frons 48..... 0005. .00e see 110

——

1923 | THE FuLGoRIDZ oF EASTERN NortH AMERICA 159

109.

110.

las

112.

113.

114.

115.

116.

ATi

118.

119.

120.

121.

122.

Vertex longer than its basal width; size smaller, 7 mm. 258
Epiptera floride Walker
Vertex not longer than its basal width; size larger, 8-10 mm. 259
E. septentrionalis Provancher

Vertex broader than long; frons irrorate 48....... E. variegata Van Duzee
Vertex as long as broad or longer; frons not irrorate, pale with a distinctly

darkersbrown band abasallly 260 jo0552.0. 260 66s sae E. slossoni Van Duzee
Clypeus brown; vertex obtusely angulate anteriorly 262..... E. pallida Say
Clypeus black; vertex broadly rounded anteriorly 263...E. brittoni Metcalf
Vertex elongate, twice as long as broad 264......... E. colorata Van Duzee
Pier pemenelON aS wOTOAG! AOS nace cies sce toast eels ues ce cweeees E. opaca Say

CATONIA

NemsmOrshne. Fare WINGS WMpPUNCbAbe 73. ..c. 22.2 e ee cc cee o see oe we 114
MermseOnsine tore wits distinctly punctate 14...........06..000ece0s 116
Fore wings uniform brown in color, a few of the cross veins sometimes

marked with paler, size larger about 6 mm.,..........0.0600.0000. 115
Fore wings blackish uniformly spotted with small pale spots, size smaller

SHOGWIY BTS 4 6 oie o.dlea ao ota CCR Ee Oe oer er eee Catonia luella Metealf

Frons uniformly black; clypeus paler, strongly contrasted 70
C. dimidata Van Duzee
Frons transversely banded with pale 69.............. C. impunctata Fitch
Fore wings with incomplete transverse veinlets in the cells
C. grisea Van Duzee

Fore wings without transverse veinlets in the cells.................. ily
Wace wnlhamdletl, ogc ab ee eS bee lo OO a Eis Oe EO Ie eae ae eens Air 118
HACemCONSPIGUOUSliyg banded: (JOM ns 1.105 seat cece ee cee este e catese me 119
Frons with a short white bar at the middle and at the apex, colors darker,

SIZ em area DOU OMNI aia rlcye cf tieletererav s 00.0 siecle 2 os C. carolina Metcalf

Frons without the white bars, color mostly tawny, size smaller, about 5 mm.

C. pumila Van Duzee
Middle light band narrow, basal and apical bands brownish.......... 120
ener emis ethene TOMO ei acy aie, nid was aivte ie se vise 6 8 eee nie wewencine 121

Wings variegated; lateral margins of the frons distinctly punctate
C. pint Metealf

Wings unicolorous except the punctate veins....... C. bicinctura Van Duzee
Basal and apical bands brown, the latter with a distinct pale transverse

maize cillovayer slaves Clhyoxersill loresecl}0 > gael ela cee Dre OOO C. lunata Metealf
Pasaleanieapical bands black. 2.0... .cc. sees et ee ete e scenes cseces 122

Frons much narrowed between the eyes, broadened.apically; size larger
C. nava Say

Frons not much narrowed between the eyes; not much broadened apically;
* 9
RIZGMSMA Mer wOmIMM OF MESS ccc ccc vecls cree esse eee ress ueanes 123

160

123.

124.

131.

132.

133.

134.

JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May
Color strongly contrasted, mesonotum variegated...... C. cinctifrons Fitch

Color not strongly contrasted, mesonotum unicolorous....C. picta Van Duzee
Carine distinct on the mesonotum; frontal ocellus usually evident 274
SUBFAMILY CIXIINZ 125
Carine indistinct on the mesonotum; frontal ocellus wanting
SUBFAMILY DERBINZ 172
SUBFAMILY CIXIINA
Posterior tibie armed with one to three spines before the apex 538.... 126
Posterior tibiz without spines before the apex 539..............-+0-- 149
Posterior margin of the vertex broadly rounded, mesonotum tricarinate
ZOOM Me 5, sro erro or ealtenap Monel eure) ciic)'s:se.'n. = thls) a vane ohetelets Fede tettotc] eRe i Meme net eee ieaieamea 139
Posterior margin of the vertex angulate, parallel to the posterior margin of
the angulate pronotum; mesonotum usually quinquecarinate 274
Genus Oliarus Stal 127
OLIARUS
Fore wings pellucid, more or less mottled with brown 74............ 129
Fore wings smoky “brown, at least apically 75... 5....0.5- ene ene 128
Fore wings uniform smoky brown, stigma and narrow costal margin pale;
Size larger, (Brae yee cc. sls ee w-0 ah Oates Oliarus cinnamomeus Provancher
Stigma and costal margin not paler; apical third of the fore wings usually
sharply darker; size smaller 6) mma. eee O. humilis Say
Median tooth of the male pygofer simple, acute 569................. 132
Median tooth of the male pygofer broadly expanded apically 566...... 130
Vertex about as broad as median length; male styles not broadly expanded
apically“ S6Gicsaoetns Ss. «so 2 skies a ee eee O. montanus Metcalf
Vertex narrow, produced, genital styles of the male broadly expanded
apically 568.0 0.0.22... . Saud Sao s eee eee es ne er 131
Wing veins uniformly punctate, fuscous markings not confined to the veins
and cross veins, female with a distinct fuscous longitudinal vitta at the

apex Of thes foreawAles....'..- sieae ceremerreete O. placitus Van Duzee
Wing veins not uniformly punctate, fuscous markings confined to narrow
lines! on! the) vemspand cross ves...) serene er O. difficilis Van Duzee
Fore wings distinctly and uniformly punctate...................-« 134
Hore wings impunctate! or nearly Sojcac.s crescent ien eee rere 133
Size smaller, 4-5 mm.; fore wings nearly uniform in color, or infuscated
apically 569 2. tecr ets = « a+< 6 ss sip. oe nratelete eel ohne earn O. franciscanus Stal.
Size larger, 8-9 mm.; fore wings with heavy fuscous markings, principally
On apical veinspanasGross’ VEINS erent ciel menor O. slossoni Van Duzee

Frons with a broad white mark on either side next the base of the clypeus
r O. aridus Ball
Frons nearly unicolorous, carine only paler...............s.e+-«ss 135

1923 | THe FuLGorIDZ oF EasteRN NortH AMERICA 161

135.

136.

137.

138.

139.

140.

141.

142.

143.

144,

145.

Frons not greatly narrowed between the eyes; median tooth of the male
pygofer nearly as long as the pygofer; clypeus usually paler than the
LETS) SV Ake Bio ga 8:o.6-05.0 bo: SIOICIDID aise nee ..O. quinquelineatus Say

Frons much narrowed between the eyes; median tooth of the male pygofer
BiOLLerastbaMabnes PN COLer (5732 66.0 6 «5.3/3 0iscr08 wis calcio nne ens 136

SuMemNInallcr Oss wiMAMN OMIM ao)..6.02) eos x dees ald cis vine cdeleeealese sce 137

SUE: LEDGES) UsSLUD SIUC 266 Senge ie ane ee eee 138

Genital styles of the male longer than the ventral sinus; anal segment
LDV DGISUT Me) GY) ela 6 Eo aie eS Pee en O. texanus Metcalf

Genital styles of the male barely equalling the ventral sinus; anal segment
PO ORG CMKOW OMS ate af plcsieel <j eters: steers Wis slays = 4s 6% due O. vittatus Metcalf

General color blackish, polished; male plates very slender basally, the apices

strongly recurved and ridged so as to appear coiled 574 O. vitreus Metealf
General color tawny; male plates broader basally, their apices broad and

LSE BV [Bho ob Ss émi ate CO oa C. wid O Ge IIe eee O. vicarius Walker
Pine anDttad an lame OF DLOAUeCr 279.2... 2.0... ee eee eee seas 140
ihn Lome igi, ORO Zs 5 os tis COG Ot CeIn actin err 142

Vertex short, transverse, about four times as broad as long 278
Monorachis sordulentus Uhler
Vertex elongate, about one and one-half times as broad as long 280
Genus Microledrida Fowler 141

MICROLEDRIDA
Color light testaceous yellow; male genital styles not produced into a long
Zeaexed process ab the apex 576.....+........ Microledrida flava Metcalf
Color fuscous; male genital styles produced into a long reflexed process at
AR DES S771 s octamer Gre 0 SOI OCC eee ere M. asperata Fowler
Posterior margin of the pronotum broadly rounded; fore wings nearly
WE ACS 0 7 A i Ciocizius dorsivittatus Van Duzee
Posterior margin of the pronotum deeply notched; fore wings not vertical
Tels gap dS ac Hae we GOR OO BAS 6 Sacnae eens Genus Cixius Latreille 143
CIXIUS

Wings with the basal half infuseated, apical half milky hyaline, more or
less marked with fuscous; median tooth of male pygofer longer than its
(DESI ONO ey 1: ee Cixius apicalis Metealf

Wings more or less marked with fuscous but not with basal and apical
areas distinctly different in color; median tooth of male pygofer shorter

SIO 0 le Sl Syn S748 Stee eee ee iain 144
Vertex longer than basal width, veins impunctate 286........ C. cultus Ball
Vertex shorter than basal width, veins punctate 289................. 145
rons and clypeus black with pale carin®.............e.seceeecess 146

Hronspdark, clypeus) distinctly paler... .. 0.1.0... eee e ees e sec eseees 148

162

150.

JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL SOCIETY | May

Wings evidently white, basal band blackish; genital styles of the male
Siimopledby mchikerdetel grocery SyMoooagaucoqconacouanboonct C. stigmatus Say
Wings more or less marked with fuscous; genital styles of the male broadly
broadly rounded apically, broadly meeting in the median line 580... 147
Vertex, broadly stranoulare288i\ 4.2). « aiererteiekee tren: C. misellus Van Duzee
Vertex shorter, transverse, rounded before 289.......... C. colepium Fiteh

Anal processes of the male very long; female with base of fore wings
Stoned he wiubernctl SEVo oaaaoee dase sono G0 U0UDIOC.c C. basalis Van Duzee
Anal processes of the male short; base of the fore wings not infuscated 583
C. pint Fitch

Antenne inserted anteriorly to the eyes; eyes with an anterior sinus 294
Genus Bothriocera Burmeister 150

Antenne inserted below the eyes; eyes with a ventral sinus........... 155
BOTHRIOCERA

General color blackish fuscous, wings strongly marked with blackish fus-

COUS® sic 'syis Gas eiveneyeiers © ta ete oss. = 0 ies) ni 6erccel eet Tee a eee 152

General color ochraceous, wings marked with tawny.................. 151

Fore wings with two indistinct transverse tawny bands, one at the apex of
the clavus and one subapical, basal half of the wings unmarked 80
Bothriocera undata Fabricius
Fore wings rather heavily marked with tawny, basal half heavily marked 81
B. drakei Metcalf
Apical bordervof the wings, hyaline (822 eee eee 153
Apical borders) of the wings fuscous 84-4. )aeer ete teeter 154
With a row of distinct fuscous points in the cells near the apex 82
B. tinealis Burmeister
Without a row of distinct fuscous points in the cells near the apex 83
B. westwoodi Stal
Vertex paler than the mesonotum; hyaline spots on the fore wings irregular
in OUGIMNE SS ower h:. =). - 1+. = «/alshe lo pee ee eee B. bicornis Fabricius
Vertex not paler than the mesonotum; hyaline spots on the fore wings
rather reowlansimeoutlin eat-in eel re eee eaten B. signoreti Stal
Vertex narrow, trough-like; lateral carine well elevated 297.........: 156
Vertex broader, lateral carine not strongly elevated 304
Genus Myndus Stal 162

Vertex narrowed anteriorly 295................ Oeclidius nanus Van Duzee

Vertex narrowed) posteriorly 300... 2-2-1 Genus Oecleus Stal 157
OECLEUS

Male pygofer with the median tooth finger-like or tongue-like 588...... 158

Male pygofer with the median tooth quadrate or triangular 592, 160

Vertex not strongly produced in front of the eyes 299............... 159

Vertex strongly produced in front of the eyes; lateral margins sinuate 297
Oecleus decens Stal

1923 | THE FuLGorip2 or Eastern NortH AMERICA 163

160.

161.

162.

163.

164.

165.

166.

167.

168.

169.

170.

sZaLs

Laterial margins of the vertex nearly touching posteriorly, strongly wid-
ened anteriorly; anal segment of the male strongly produced and de-

fexed beyond the pygofer 588....-...........%50% O. vroductus Metcalf
Lateral margins of the vertex nearly parallel; anal segment of the male
HOM STLONS Iya LOGUCEO S80) \sioim s... o1o)e.0 cle doo woe Ses O. fulvidorsum Ball
Vertex strongly produced; lateral margins sinuate; median tooth of male
pyeetee Onnune apically, 5905.2. 2 casei os ee ee ee ees O. lineatus Ball
Vertex not strongly produced; lateral margins not sinuate; median tooth
Gia lenny SOLere ACUbeapICalliy, 592 6.6.5 =: «)s.<\<j0:%/ereie/s. vee ereie aie» ofere oe 161

Median tooth of male pygofer triangular, genital styles barely longer than
the tooth; vertex rather broad anteriorly 301, 591........ O. obtusus Ball
Median tooth quadrate at the base, apical portion triangular acute, genital

styles longer than the tooth; vertex narrower anteriorly 302, 592
O. borealis Van Duzee

MYNDUS

[Dingins: (Ryavee: lopiraeal gy ahi Oe Oy 5 ee eee re 169
LGHSeNOLML WICC NDANGeGe witht OlACK. . 2.2.0 c.c.cgs cos cesses ees eesneeens 163
Color uniform ochraceous orange, eyes darker...... Myndus fulvus Osborn
ColGteuG UI LOnMSOCHTACCOUS OLANEC. 2. secs. cece sess ew cscs eee sacte 164
Head and thorax black; fore wings black with pale costal margin and dorsal

PELLAE Be ot Me SSG EE I oe OO Sener M. slossoni Ball
eles A SIME HOTU Olas ACK ai ce yeiavetsicialsciglefee sso ssc csaecdtse es aerne 165
Preis marked with fuscous bands OF spots:...............2.-+22.00% 166
SitemamOHaT SCM EALCNOE ACATIY (SO fe oc taciais os see teens cesses es 167

Frons with a pair of black spots between the carine at the base, larger, 5 mm.

M. radicis Osborn
Frons with a lunate fuscous mark at the apex; smaller, 4 mm.

VM. lunatus Van Duzee

Costal border of fore wings broadly whitish........ M. enotatus Van Duzee
Coaralenatder Gt Lore witts |Concolorous..........-..--+-..-2ecesees 168
Vertex narrow, elongate; color greenish 309............... M. viridis Ball
Vertex broad; color dull pale tawny 310......%.... M. pusillus Van Duzee
Fore wings vittate with brown apically; genital styles of the male broad-

Higa! apreiliky BEDS sas oid og COO OE CoD ieee Ice ae narene M. pictifrons Stal
Fore wings not vittate with brown apically; genital styles of the male not

ligdiencs ahonceilllyy COU seo ede. ee Ue OOo Sen eee a ite anions ici 170
Genital styles obliquely truncate apically, the inner angles strongly produced

Els odg05600 bob Code DO GOO OF RT Oe ieee ieee M. truncatus Metealf
Genital styles reflexed apically, the inner angle not produced 601....... Va

Sides of the vertex converging to the apex; veins of the fore wings brown,
CM CO OLOUSE Sl Sette ci eveie eyaurts ciate oie orsvelere sis ss ee M. sordidipennis Stal
Sides of the vertex parallel in front of the eyes; veins of the fore wings
gilli ZUG + 162560 C60 de CODE CO io Iacono M. delicatus Van Duzee

164 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

SUBFAMILY DERBIN 2

72. -Clayus: ‘opens '519\is./jereretstenete ates: he os a0 2 Sranetotoy oot ieloltsr anal ejorehesen cnn ean 173
Clavus Closed. (522) cvavsyerstetenetc ares s\e 1s dos, ¢, sl eucioie a: eget sl tele) eae eee he etme tae net 192

173. Antenne with appendages 478................ Genus Otiocerus Kirby 174
Antenne without, appendapes 479... 22% ssl sea cite cetera terreno 184

OTIOCERUS

174. Wings with conspicuous round dusky spots in the cells 27............ 175
Wings without conspicuous round dusky spots in the cells 33........ 181

L75- ‘General’ color ‘of the wanes Light’ Sao. eo cre ecnarelel= eee) tetale epee net tetramer 176
General color of the wings dark rose 27.......... Otiocerus degeerii Kirby

176. Wangs) with avconspicuous dusky band! 352i. is. ciel l iene seinen Ure
Wane's withoutmam amas 4 yc... s «v/s sjoleretrsioioreteranetstens elias ..O. abbotii Kirby

177. Apical margin of the fore wings with a row of black spots alternating
With the VEINS 35:2. 6 cis o 6c 523.) ois oye 4:0 ia0 eyeyie) op s)acel s lopoho tne renee 178

Black spots! nos placedin’ a) marginal’ TOW... -)-loleri ernie eee 179

178. Apex of the cephalic process with a black line laterally..... O. wolfii Kirby

Apex of the cephalic process without a black line laterally. .O. amyotii Fiteh

179. Fore wings with a large black spot on the sutural margin and four smaller
ONES INSAPSQWATE rec soo. F516 sve /en cea che ee eRe O. signoretii Fitch
Fore wings without a large black spot and four smaller ones in a square 180

180. Band, on the wings: broad... ...2: 5. J.+08 54s eee O. reaumurii Kirby
Band on the wings narrow, interrupted............... O. francilloni Kirby
181. General ‘colomsot the wings dark! 33)..2 2.2) see eee O. stollii Kirby
General color ‘of the wings light 28... .....:. «..ces eae eee 182
182, Wings with a conspicuous band 28.3.0 5-+45.- eee cuane aha ee 183
Wings without a conspicuous band 36............. O. schellenbergii Kirby

183. Head with a lateral sanguineous stripe; band on the wings sanguineous
O. coquebertii Kirby
Head without a lateral sanguineous stripe; band on the wings dusky
O. kirbyit Fitch
184. Vertex nearly an equilateral triangle; apical veins of the wing strongly

TECUTVEO: (S34 repens + s+ se ty ale stolenelenemeerr ele went anes Euklastus harti Metealf
Vertex longer than broad; apical veins of the fore wings not strongly re-
CURVED (34.25) rc ajo ove 0 6 nc: o''s ore ei etere ofc) elle) oO lorste oles foleet sts ieee eae 185

185. Costa narrow; fore wings with several transverse costal veinlets, not crowded
together to give the appearance of a stigma 87...Genus Anotia Kirby 187

Costa distinctly broader; costal veinlets crowded together to give the ap-
pearance Of aesmema 25..).'.. cence ae Genus Amalopota Van Duzee 186

AMALOPOTA
186. Fore wings milky white, longitudinally banded with fuscous 25
Amalopota fitchi Van Duzee
Fore wings pale yellowish with basal and apical thirds transversely banded
With WeUS COUS Me Asien s-)< <1</ 0/12 hte neelol notes tsn tkeetnea A. uhleri Van Duzee

1923 | THE Fuucorip& or EasterN NortH AMERICA 165

188.

189.

190.

ie)

192.

193.

194.

195.

196.

197.

198.

1h)

ANOTIA
First three segments of the abdomen with a mid-dorsal black stripe
Anotia burnetii Fitch
First three segments of the abdomen without a mid-dorsal black stripe 188
Apical border of the fore wings with round black spots in the cells 87
A. bonnetii Kirby
Apical border of the fore wing without round black spots in the cells 88 189

A few of the cross veins marked with fuscous, otherwise fore wings uni-

LEDER? JONG b6 SN oo cere OND Che SOR CL Cr Cae aE PR ae A. robertsoni Fitch
Fore wings more or less marked with fuscous...................0-- 190
Some of the veins of the wings dark in color 89.................... 191

All of the veins of the wings pale, bordered with smoky 88
A. westwoodi Fitch

Fore wings crossed by single smoky band about two-thirds the distance
from the base; basal area of the wing white, apical area ochraceous yel-
Lown costaleanpendage large 89). fo... 2c. este cece nee ae A. sayi Ball

Fore wings variously marked with smoky; costal appendage small 90

A. kirkaldyi Ball

puonldcr keels absent (or very Small 357... ...0.....00.00ccecceeoes 193
pummlaerekrels) well developed (300. 2.2... 620250... eect eee eee e ees 194
Antenne with second segment flattened, longer than the width of head

AGrOss tue Compound eyes 356:.....-............- Patara vanduzei Ball
Antenne with second segment globular, shorter than the width of head

across the compound eyes 484........... Mysidia mississippiensis Dozier
Savamiennal process absent or very small..............2...s0neeeees 195
Subantennal process well developed................ Genus Herpis Stal 197

Medius and cubitus of the fore wings each with two branches, not con-
MECHCAMMYACTOSS! VEINS 523').siyei-e = 0 oe es oe Neocenchrea heidemanni Ball

Medius and cubitus of the fore wings connected by cross veins 524
Genus Phaciocephalus Kirkaldy 196

PHACIOCEPHALUS
Lateral carine of the vertex strongly elevated; general color ochraceous
i eLV TV eRe BOTAN Ne) =) chciavsie\eys feud o.s).\s-els, sve ae Phaciocephalus fulvus Van Duzee
Lateral carine of the vertex not strongly elevated; colors paler
P. uhleri Ball
HERPIS
CUCM WAM OM MRUSCOUSMOL NDI ACK ys ache sid cclenc ence eee cence teres ences 198
Fore wings grayish white with fuscous clouds in the cells 94
Herpis maculata Van Duzee
Genital styles of the male with an apical tooth 618..............+.-- 199
Genital styles of the male without an apical tooth 617
H. edentula Van Duzee
Inner margin of the genital styles straight 618.........-. H. vulgaris Fitch
Inner margins of the genital styles sinuate or notched 619..... seeeeee 200

201.

207.

208.

209.

211,

JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

Apical tooth of the genital styles short, the inner margins of the genital
Styles deeply notched near the base 6195... 3200 eer H. incisa Metcalf
Apical tooth of the geninalestyles! Tons, 62055 32s. -eiek siete deieho enone 201
Apex of the genital styles obliquely truncate 620...... H. australis Metealf
Apex of the genital styles broadly rounded 621............ H. obscura Bail

SUBFAMILY DELPHACINA&

Calear ftoliaceousmor i techitorm (S57) 5/52. ec jsisls ious) epee) ele tele 219
Calear not foliaceousvonm@iectitorm 540)... .2.5-- 922 aoe eee 203
Calcar ‘spiniform;, without lateral’ teeth 542). (2. .-e.c eee eee 208

Calear cultrate, with a row of marginal teeth, antenne flattened 540
Genus Stobera Stal 204

STOBARA
Sides of the frons)motsparallel 369. ........%00se- Stobera pallida Osborn
Sides: of the frons’ nearly parallel 371. . ...../s/s)\/teee eee 205
Frons distinctly lighter in the middle, base and apex darker.......... 206
Frons not paler in middle, with base and apex darker............... 207

Head narrower than pronotum; anal process trilobed ventrally; genital
styles with the inner angles strongly produced 623...... S. concinna Stal
Head as broad as pronotum; anal process not trilobed ventrally; genital
styles with the inner angles strongly refiexed 624...... S. tricarinata Say
Vertex distinctly shorter than broad; frons nearly concolorous; larger,
e118 Reels > clinic eae eR Pa Goo 's o'a 6 a oo vic S. affinis Van Duzee
Frons light below, dark above; vertex quadrate; smaller, 3 mm. 372
S. minuta Osborn
Antenne foliaceous, half as long as the body; seutellum tricarinate; frons
with a single median carina 96.............. Copicerus irroratus Swartz
Antenne not foliaceous, short; scutellum quinqueearinate; frons with two
medianacaninzapelOpeee ij. . eeeee Genus Pentagramma Van Duzee 209
Size small; genital styles of the male short, slender, enclosing a nearly
Circular ALCARGZ7EPEN. «. <. «cs vote Pentagramma minore Crawford
Size large; genital styles of the male elongate, robust, enclosing an elongate
Oval AFCA" OZS meres - «5 ss ce ance © Aishale Geen ten eee P. vittatifrons Uhler
First segment of antenne flattened; head broader than the pronotum 380
Bostera nasuta Ball
Hirst segment of antennz not flattened —.. .. 22-2 eee 211
Frons nearly circular in outline; antenne and calear very short 383
Bakerella maculata Crawford
HMrons not circnlaneim! outline 385). - 2c. <r here 212
Frons, pronotum and abdomen with prominent pits
Genus Laccocera Van Duzee 213
Frons, pronotum and abdomen without prominent pits............... 214

1923 | THE FuLGorIDz oF Eastern NortH AMERICA 167

213.

215.

219.

220.

221.

222.

223.

224.

LACCOCERA
Vertex broader than long; colors black and buffy 384

Laccocera vittipennis Van Duzee
Vertex nearly square, colors bright yellow, orange and black 386

L. zonata Van Duzee
Anterior and middle femora foliaceous 546
Genus Phyllodinus Van Duzee 215

Anterior and middle famora not foliaceous..........2/..c.2s00c5-5 219
PHYLLODINUS

Head as broad as pronotum; brachypterous wings with veins white, apical

marcim concolorous 102...5...0.0... 506% Phyllodinus nervatus Van Duzee
Head narrower than pronotum; brachypterous wings with veins concolorous,

PN pie USSR SSPE 6 ee 6 CR ee eee 216
HLGUSEW Ene neaMsVveErse WHELC DANS. «7.5.02 se ec ee tee sree eee 217
TPECINS) IES Ste eS eae A ee P. nitens Van Duzee
DUETTRO TE STINTS Aad diss oho BRIO Oe ee Een ea 218
woth DE SDS 200 ee ee Sr P. piceus Spooner

Frons with indistinct carina between median and lateral carine
P. fuscous Osborn

rouse withous aniermediate CariMa................s05: P. flabellatus Ball
PEGS GO) IMEC TUM) CCATINGE SOD). scala os 0 wie es .ane g dics oes 2d wisic le Sse 220
Frons with one median carina, sometimes forked below the apex of the
EG AS at Pe Igoe ator 3) 8s (ay) $< 215s) 2a 8 oe nlc 8 oases oie e 221
Lateral carine of the pronotum reaching the hind margin; head narrower
than the mesonotum 389.............. Macrotomella carinata Van Duzee

Lateral carine short, divergent, not reaching more than half way to the
hind margin of the pronotum; head as broad as the mesonotum 391

Criomorphus conspicuus Metcalf

Median carina of the frons running to the posterior margin of the vertex

without oblique carine to the lateral margins 393

} ; Liburniella ornata Stal

Median carina of the frons forked on or below the apex of head, each

branch of the fork running obliquely to the lateral margins of the vertex

Lateral carine of the pronotum straight or convergingly curved, usually
reaching the hind margin of the pronotum 398................+.+--+- 223
Lateral carine of the pronotum divergingly curved, not reaching the hind
Uofcion SSD PS Re ASA ee Genus Liburnia Stal 265
Frons narrow, sides nearly parallel; head narrower, produced 400...... 224

Frons broader, sides not parallel; head broader sometimes produced 416 229

Vertex inflated in front of the eyes and then narrowed to the apex 395
Saccharosydne saccharivorus Westwood

Vertex regularly narrowed to the apex 399...Genus Stenocranus Fieber 225

226.

231.

bo
wo
bo

234.

235.

236.

JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

STENOCRANUS
Second antennal segment four times as long as the first; female pygofers
Cy limamical $4045 cy eetempenteysy-t-4. rete aioe) -r-yrei= Stenocranus similis Crawford
Second antennal segment not over three times as long as the first 495 226

General color bright ochraceous orange, not darker in the lateral compart-

MNEVMAS, (OVE WS) ROHOMS!. oo 505 00 RID OD ODOC OMcacunDe S. arundineus Metealf
General color darker, sometimes distinctly darker in the lateral compart-
ments of ire sronSaeeies = 04s gee «ac clehouerelonse eleuedal Nolet keine aaa 227
Frons light brown in the lateral compartments......... S. felti Van Duzee
Frons black in the lateral compartments..:.. 2... 53222 e oe -pietnene 228

Genital styles broad and contiguous at the base; anal process short, not
reaching the ventral margin of the genital aperture 642

S. vittatus Stal

Genital styles slender, not contiguous at the base; anal processes long,

reaching the ventral margin of the genital aperture 643 S. dorsalis Fitch

Median carina of the frons forked below the apex of the vertex, head not

much narrowed between the eyes 437... - 1c -melaeeirteicntinenere ener 251
Median carina of the frons forked on the apex of the vertex or obscure
ct Ao Mee Gic. 6 5.0.0 CC eG each bdo eC ogo Doo oo c OOS 230
When viewed laterally the apex of the head is acute with a faint transverse
CATING, “A2G Water yotie a snsis/ ic. ocierers a aeeroeerener. Genus Megamelanus Ball 246
When viewed laterally the apex of the head is rounded, without transverse
GALINA: 4Z2: cetera cnalels inle/e nce soo ie oie lelehoben eee hofeste tes IC eRe ae eae 231

Frons widest above the middle, not or scarcely narrowed between the eyes;
vertex scarcely produced in front of the eyes 421
Genus Ivelisia Fieber 244
Frons widest below, narrowed between the eyes; vertex well produced in
front of the eyes! 41@. . 2... .-. 00s ole ele ee Ont eee eee 232
Head nearly as wide as the pronotum; face oval in outline; slender species
AIO’, cori tors esp Onesies) ote» cise ue joe ee atone Genus Prokelisia Osborn 243
Head narrower, tapering anteriorly; face not oval, robust species 405
Genus Megamelus Fieber 233

MEGAMELUS

Genital plates flatiO4G@. ©. 6... os date aim oye coin 234
Genital plates robust, mot flat G55. semen. «sc cic teenies eens 241
Anal “processes wanting 646... 2. 6.2. syste se oye olka tenner eee Ree eere 235
Anal) PTOCeSSEs! PEESEMb (OST). se ei anene)-) he) aa enenenaiel ieee ene 239
Pygofer of the malevstrongly inflated 646.5... --))- ieee eee 236
Pygofer of the male not inflated 649...........5...-00-00eee eee eeees 237
Genital styles shorter than the genital plates, calcars very large, as long as

the basal segment of the tarsus 645...... Megamelus paletus Van Duzee

Genital styles longer than the genital plates, calears small, not as long as
the basal segment of the tarsus 646................- M. inflatus Metealf

1923] THE Fuucorip& or Eastern NortH AMERICA 169

237.

238.

239.

240.

241.

242.

243.

244,

245.

246.

247.

248.

249.

Genital hooks long, reaching the anal segment 647 M. longicornis Dozier
Gonitalehooks: wantino O4Qhrrsc oc csi e soak cone ee wee once dee Soman 238
With a pale median dorsal vitta, genital plates ligulate, obtuse 648

M. notulus Germar
Without a pale mid-dorsal vitta, genital plates broadly triangular, acute

TDs aun dled og ae Soobo 0 Dae DIU Oceans M. distinctus Metcalf
Anal processes four, hook-like 650................ Soak M. estus Metcalf
L\ie) (PRDCOIEGE NO GEils byS.Ge65 Dons BOD ED aon EEE Op DD rObea Ace. 47 240
Genital hooks strongly reflexed, hook-like, genital styles obtuse at the apex,

MECC REGIE ML eri stale ett sekela ise) onalisiess)s 6! die a2 S00 2 esa sid a.0 M. uncus Metealf
Genital hooks elongate, straight, obtuse; genital styles with their apices

GHEE Su Gain AGS CSV8 OSes Gos ao on ond Go oenoE M. anticostus Metcalf
Colocadacke almost unitorm blacks/Or PiceOUS........ 2. ..2csceeee cess 242
Calociuohte marked with darker 7255.6. -<enc+ see eee M. angulatus Osborn

Calear very large, as long as the first segment of the tarsus

M. davisi Van Duzee
Calcar smaller, not as long as the first segment of the tarsus

M. piceus Van Duzee

PROKELISIA
Frons very broad at the apex, three times as broad as at base 416
Prokelisia marginata Van Duzee

Frons about twice as broad as at base 419.............. P. setigera Osborn

KELISIA
Fore wings vittate with brown, sutural margins pale 109
Kelisia axialis Van Duzee
S252 ODNSS De aoe oe ao ee eer eer: 23)
Vertex distinctly longer than broad, with a pale median vitta 423
K. crocea Van Duzee

Vertex barely as long as broad, without a pale median vitta 424
K. parvula Ball

MEGAMELANUS
Vertex very long, its length beyond the eyes equal to or greater than the
lore GHEMTIGEY GES (Uli) Gh/Gh} 6-5) ols Dead Re Ron Oana aoc oc 247

Vertex not as long before the eye as the long diameter of the eye 434 250

Frons nearly parallel sided and much elongate 426
Megamelanus terminalis Metealf
Frons broader below, somewhat narrowed between the eyes 430........ 248

Fore wings with a distinct white stigmatal and anal spots 38
M. lautus Metcalf

Fore wings without distinct stigmatal and anal spots...........-++. 249

Wings pale, with fuscous spots apically 122............ M. elongatus Ball
Wangs uniform black 110. .......2...2.0ceeeeeeeeeces M. dorsalis Metcalf

bo
or
bo

259.

261.

JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL SocieTy | May

Color pale green, with a pair of dark red stripes from the apex of the vertex
tolthe apex ot thenalodonientry oy. ere...) \aelstene atone tohetenaiens M. rufivittatus Ball
Color pale ochraceous yellow, eyes black............... M. spartini Osborn
Median carina of the frons forked near the middle, the two prongs of the
fork widely separated; macropterous forms chiefly 111, 437
Peregrinus maidis Ashmead
Median carina of the frons forked above the middle, the two prongs but
slightly separated; brachypterous forms chiefly 221
Genus Pissonotus Van Duzee 252
PISSONOTUS
Clypeus) black emeeeer a - wea a wile shia eho ol atiouts0i(o elle = Roget OR 253
Clypeus: yellow 2 seigris caiesa/s oee 0's. 4% » wlelrn cratens tees eg ee ee 263
Pale buffy in color, with distinct pustules on the seventh abdominal seg-
MeN 15 eae esas wis 0s Pissonotus quadripustulatus Van Duzee
Color darker, without pustules 116... ......).)..¢2.:0e9soe eee 254
With the apex of the brachypterous wings marked with paler, veins con-
ColOrous, VLG oe oo. ioc oo os 0 anes 5 cio ia ee 256
With the apex of the brachypterous wings concolorous, veins pale 116 255
Apex of the frons broadly white, frons marked with white bars
P. aphidioides Van Duzee
Apex of the frons not marked with white, white bars wanting
P. brunneus Van Duzee
Abdomen black, with a broad median vitta brown 117
P. dorsalis Van Duzee

Abdomen without broad vitta..v....... 222: 150 poe eee 257
Color almost uniform black, wings sometimes a little paler........... 258
Color, ochraceous tawny ....).:.. .\2 ss 5 04 sa ctcrcioley eta ante te 261
Apical markings of the wings in the form of a distinct band......... 259

Apical markings of the wings in the form of spots or wanting
P. ater Van Duzee
Anterior and intermediate tibie black or nearly so
P. marginatus Van Duzee
BMA Cm racic SG a boc 260
Anal processes long, nearly reaching the ventral margin; genital plates
tubular, surrounding the genital styles basally 673
P. pallipes Van Duzee
Anal processes short, the dorsal angles of the pygofers strongly produced
(<7 fas 3.0 2 SORMBIIG ooic Goedel e tab oSa00C P. crawfordi Metcalf
Head concolorous or paler than the pronotum and elytra............. 262
Head and pronotum black or nearly so, sharply contrasted with the paler
mesonotum, wings and abdomen.........-.........- P. guttatus Spooner

Anterior and intermediate tibie not black

1923 | THE FuLGorID2 or HasterN NortH AMERICA siya

262.

263.

264.

265.

266.

267.

268.

269.

270.

271.

272.

273.

274.

275.

Anal processes of the male long, reaching the ventral margin of the genital

OF SISOS Die Ei AS G8 oon 0 P. basalis Van Duzee
Anal processes of the male short, not reaching the ventral margin of the
perme eM AE TINEC GOS che aie aes cickalare o'= 52 o « =! 5 «(arose os P. delicatus Van Duzee
iesnioseee- and mcsonotuny-DIACK. 2.62)... i eel ae reese nla 264
General color pale ochraceous tawny, eyes black......... P. fulvus Metealf
ne eeepc Kem OA UC =) auth yelo rel ois 6s 0 e)ste ols 8s 3.0 P. nigridorsum Metcalf
Wings semitransparent, not black........:.......... P. speciosus Metcalf
LIBURNIA
Carine obscure on the apex of head; vertex broadly rounded in front,
Tbs UA pan cle WE AGE 2S ESA ee ar 266
Carine distinct on the apex of head; vertex narrow, produced 455..... 273
General color of head and thorax light yellow or brown............. 267
General color of head and thorax dark brown or black.............. 272
PeMiHEVICR ACULE at He APO sGOL.). coc ae ee cote es eae ee claw es 268
VEIT gle GG ST eae ee 270
Anal tube without anal processes; frontal carine bordered with darker;
genital styles claw-like 681............... Liburnia lutulenta Van Duzee
Anal tube with one ventral process; frontal carine not paler than frons
E33) soy sconce bss S000 Gh000 0000.00 SSDS OS Ie en ean aie nee 269
Genital styles lanceolate, broadly divergent; anal processes long, almost
reaching the base of the styles 682.............. L. obscurella Boheman

Genital styles notched internally near the apex; anal processes short 683
L. analis Crawford
Mesonotum pale between the lateral carine black laterally; genital styles
broad, short, square at the apex roundly divergent 684

L. campestris Van Duzee
Pimtmaniminmoieg@arker taberallye iiss cc 2c see le eee ee eee ce ee ee meee 271

Styles contiguous basally, the apices broadened but divergent 685
L. rotundata Crawford

Styles not contiguous basally, their apices mushroom shaped 686

L. shermani Metealf

Frons less than twice as long as broad, lateral margins rounded; styles

short, lanceolate 687...... bois GORD eG ee L. occlusa Van Duzee
Frons twice as long as broad, lateral margins nearly parallel; styles long,

PCM CMOS ORAM RE Tae. 2 nc) accki sic co ossvea clase L. nigridorsum Crawford
iGcmnialenimlesmacibe maby Apex O89. 2... 0. eee we ee eee cee eee 274
Genital styles acute or bifureate at apex 702...............+.+-++-- 286
Carine of the frons pale not concolorous.............-.+seeeeeeees 275
Carine of the frons concolorous or nearly sO..........---+++++++-++- 282
General color of head and thorax yellow to light brown.........-..-. 276

General color of head and thorax brown to black.................... 278

290.

291.

JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

Macropterous wings vittate with fuscous 112.............. L. slossoni Ball
Macropterous) wings note vittater with, fuscous-.. =) ae ti tee 277
Frons conspicuously narrowed between the eyes; styles broad, suddenly nar-
LOW ed Fat he apexsOOOr ye pyete terete) )-\arejiets!-\-!eap-holtenetedetere L. foveata Van Duzee
rons, not much) narrowed... <s<.cc5 2 ~ fe tele elcler oie eie eiee eee ee 278

Genital styles of the male elongate, diverging from each other at an angle
of about thirty derrees 691... ... -... 60.2.2 ose L. constricta Crawford
Genital styles of the male twisted at the apex, apices strongly divergent 692
L. osborni Van Duzee

Legs lineate with darker; genital styles long 693................... 280
Legs not lineate “with darker... .... 3.22 hc <siei ere ie eee 281
Styles slender, wings infuscated 693............... L. gillettei Van Duzee
Styles broad, wings not infuscated, ciliate 694..... L. lineatipes Van Duzee

Genital aperture large; styles horizontal, sinuate and flexed at the tip 695

L. pellucida Fabricius

Genital aperture small, nearly circular; styles smaller, divergent not hori-

ZONGAI OIG pened oc. cies sve. 4.2 2° 0llele renee eRe L. consimilis Van Duzee

General color of head and thorax brown or black; frons narrow, black 283
General color of head and thorax yellow to light brown; wings black

L. kilmani Van Duzee

Styles widely diverging 699. .....:.....c.ccse=ee es ote ee eee 284
Styles more or less curved, nearly parallel 698.......... L. waldeni Metcalf
Styles with basal angles produced 699............. L. basivitta Van Duzee
Styles wath basal angles not producedo eerste eee 285
Styles not widely diverging, color black........... L. andromeda Van Duzee
Styles widely diverging, color dull brown............ L. incerta Van Duzee
Styles, bifuxcatesor trifurcate at the apex! 702-2...) 287
Styles obtuse! at) the: apex 704... 3.50 (52 ean eee nee 290
Dorsal angles of the male pygofer strongly produced 701............. 288

Dorsal angles of the male pygofer not produced 700
L. magnistyla Crawford

Macropterous wings vittate with fuscous; vertex, pro- and mesonotum with

abroad palemvyitia 113... . Gt sekessene sie ener eas L. albolineosa Fowler
Macropterous wings not vittate with fuscous; vertex, pro- and mesonotum
not, vattate Swath) pale... s/s ale cere ol alcieuametate otenste tale tenet eee 289

Styles terete, not much flattened apically, narrowly arched 702
L. triloba Metealf

Styles flattened apically, broadly arched 703........ at i gerhardi Metealf

Head and thorax yellow, brachypterous wings black, strongly contrasted 31
291

Head and thorax not strongly contrasted in color with the wings 114.... 292
Styles together lyre-shaped, apices reflexed; frons black, carine pale 704
L. alexanderi Metcalf

Styles obtuse at the apex, diverging 705........... L. fulvidorsum Metealf

1923 | THE FUuLGorIp# or EasterN NortH AMERICA 173

BoP euolgn creamy owhibeatOs Ment IDEOWDs ..\.'. <0 20%. 2s 3. oss soe sete we Bee 293
Reaatiyreed unten OMOWIL A LOM DLAC K eer. bapa <5 a's fare oe «5 xi sve oe a 0 leis apererefa SPOR 298
293. Calear very large, as long as the basal segments of the tarsus........ 294
Calear normal, shorter than the basal segment of the tarsus.......... 295

294. Genital styles gradually narrowed to near the apex then suddenly expanded,
stamen-like; anal processes broad triangularly 706

L. staminata Metcalf

Genital styles not stamen-like; nearly parallel margined to the apex; anal

processes long, horn-like 707............-..-...... L. humilis Van Duzee

295. Styles broadened at the apex, truncate; pronotum unusually long 708 296
Styles not broadened at the apex; pronotum not unusually long 711.... 297

296. Pygofer of the male elongate; genital aperture very broad, oval; genital
styles strongly diverging 708.................... L. detecta Van Duzee
Pygofers very short; genital aperture nearly circular; genital styles not
RinonelyGivercing. JOO. \s ose cleo sta ess ee ee whe wa L. unda Metcalf

297. Styles ligulate, following the contour of the genital aperture 710
L. tuckeri Van Duzee
Styles broad, rounded at the apex; reaching the anal tube; genital aper-
ture with the dorsal angles strongly produced 711
L. lateralis Van Duzee
298. Macropterous wings fuscous with a large stigmatal spot pale 114
L. teape Fowler
Macropterous wings not fuscous with a large stigmatal spot pale.... 299
299. Antenng short, not reaching clypeal margin; styles broad and truncate 713
L. vanduzeei Crawford
Antenne reaching at least to the clypeal margin.................... 300
300. Male pygofer deeply notched dorsally and produced caudally around the
Pell SERINE 7A Soe oe eee ee L. laminalis Van Duzee
Male pygofer not deeply notched dorsally and produced caudally 715 301
301. Color black; pronotum white posteriorly; styles with a tooth on their inner
TEGIeT WALES eae oe Aa os Bas Oo L. puella Van Duzee
Walor brawn; pronotum not white...............-...---2ssseeeene 302
302. Styles broadly diverging, following the contour of the genital aperture
L. dolera Spooner
Styles concentric, slightly indented apically............ L. weedi Van Duzee

Crepusia glauca n. sp.
Figs. 43, 163, 164, 166
This species may be recognized by the general ochraceous buff

color which is strongly sprinkled with black.

Head narrow. Vertex about three times as broad as long. Frons
with the base narrow, apex somewhat broadened. Clypeus with the

174 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

central area flat, distinct indication of the clypeal grooves. Antennal
eollar conspicuous, second joint globular. Pronotum truncate an-
teriorly ; median carine strongly elevated, transverse carine distinct.
Fore wings semitransparent ; hind wings transparent.

Cotor: General color ochraceous buff, marked with numerous
black points which become confluent in various areas making irregular
black blotches. Frons heavily marked; tibiew thrice banded with
blackish fuscous. Fore wings with the clavus irregularly marked
with black; basal area of the corium more or less marked with black,
numerous irregular blotches along the costal margin and an irregular
vitta from the claval suture to apical angle; bases of hind wings
ochraceous, rest of the wing transparent; veins blackish. Abdomen
ochraceous orange dorsally, with the lateral field of each segment
heavily marked with black; ventrally, the abdomen is pale ochraceous
with the pleural pieces and a broad triangular blotch on the outer
margin of each segment black.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 10.4 mm.; to tip of wing
13.1 mm.; wing expanse 35.4 mm.

Holotype ¢. Brownsville, Texas.

Allotype ?. Nogales, Arizona.

Paratypes 1¢. Dragoon, Arizona. 106 Nogales, Arizona.

Dictyophara recurva n. sp.
Figs. 201, 202, 2038, 561

This species may be distinguished from Dictyophara microrhina
Walker, to which it is closely related, by the more robust cephalic pro-
cess which is parallel-sided and not tapering as in D. microrhina and
the genital characters are different.

Vertex more than three times as long as broad, nearly parallel
sided and not much narrowed toward the apex; median carina ex-
tending from base to apex; gen with a median carina from the eye,
almost to the apex; frons rather broad; clypeal expansion very slight ;
intermediate carine more widely separated than in D. microrhina;
fore wings very finely reticulate; female pygofers much longer and
more slender than in D. microrhina, not so deeply curved and not as
much constricted at the base; ovipositors slightly exceeding the py-
gofers with small teeth; subanal plate parallel-sided, reflexed border
narrow ; male plates rather long, blunt at the tip, slightly exceeded by
the anal plate.

1923 | THe FuuGorip2 oF HAsTterN NortH AMERICA 175

Cotor: Grass green; fore and middle tibizwe and apical segment
of the labium suffused with searlet red; tip of the labium and of the
tarsal claws only, black.

Length, apex of vertex to apex of abdomen 11.00-12.00 mm.; tip
of wing 14.00-15.00 mm.; wing expanse 24-25 mm. .

Holotype 2. Southern Pines, North Carolina. A. H. Manee.

Allotype ¢. Southern Pines, North Carolina. A. H. Manee.

Scolops parvulus n. sp.
Fig. 186

This species may be recognized by its small size and by the stout
gradually tapering cephalic process.

Disk of the vertex broad, well rounded, being much broader than
in any other species known to me; cephalic process broad, stout, inter-
mediate in shape between the processes of sulcipes and grossus; gen-
eral form broad and oval, wing veins sharp and distinct.

Conor: General color fuscous, with the eyes, lateral areas of the
pronotum, tips of the wings, the tibiw and the tarsi blackish.

Length, eyes to tip of the abdomen 3.50 mm.; cephalic process
2.40 mm.

Holotype ¢. Southern Pines, N. C., June 14, 1918. A. H.
Manee.

Paratype 2. Southern Pines, N. C., June 14, 1918. A. H.
Manee.

Epiptera brittoni n. sp.
Fig. 263

This species may be recognized by its dark brown color, narrow
produced vertex which is transversely rounded before.

Vertex elongate, narrow, the lateral margins a little arched and
the anterior margin broadly transversely rounded; frons narrow, the
lateral margins strongly elevated; clypeus strongly carinate; pro-
notum obtusely produced between the eyes; mesonotal carine nearly
obsolete.

Cotor: General color dark brown somewhat intermediate be-
tween the black species like opaca and the brown species like varie-
gata; vertex, pro- and mesonotum irregularly marked with ochraceous
tawny; base of the frons black; apex pale ochraceous buff; clypeus

176 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL Society | May

black, the lighter band continued indefinitely across the gen, the
narrow ventral margin of the breast plates, pro- and mesopleura; the
breast plates deep dorsally; legs and abdomen dark brown, the seg-
ments of the latter narrowly bordered with paler.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 6.50-7.00 mm.; tips of
wings 8.00-9.00 mm.

Holotype ¢. Black Mountain, N. C., Sept. 12, 1912.

Allotype 2. West Point, N. Y., Sept. 15, 1912. In the eollection
of W. T. Davis.

Paratypes 16. Portland, Conn., Aug. 15, 1913. B. H. Walden.

I take pleasure in dedicating this pretty little species to Dr. W. E.
Britton, State Entomologist of Connecticut, who has sent me many
interesting Fulgoride.

Catonia carolina n. sp.

This species may be recognized by its rather large size, dark color
with the frons unbanded but marked with two short ivory white
transverse bars.

Vertex produced, obtusely angulate anteriorly ; the median carina
faint, the lateral margins strongly elevated; the frons narrow be-
tween the eyes; lateral margins nearly straight to near the apex
where they are shghtly narrowed to the broad clypeus; pronotum
short, carine well elevated; mesonotal carine distinct; veins of the
fore wings strongly punctate.

Conor: General color blackish fuscous; the carine of the vertex,
pro- and mesonotum paler; frons brownish fuscous, laterally alternate
with black and white spots; a short transverse bar at the middle and
another at the apex ivory white; ocellated spots on the mesonotum
reduced to small pale spots; wings blackish fuscous, more or less
variegated with whitish; veins in the wings irregular; longitudinal
and cross veins at the apex narrowly white; venter and legs brownish
fuscous; abdomen mostly blackish fuscous.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 4.60 mm.; to the apex
of the wings 5.90 mm.

Holotype?. Swannanoa, N. C., Aug. 8, 1919. H. Osborn and
Z. P. Metealf.

Allotype ¢. Vienna, Va., Aug. 1918.

Paratypes 49. Plummer’s Island, Maryland. O. Heidemann.
In the collection of Cornell University. 14 Vienna, Va., Aug. 1918.

1923] THE FuLGoRIDZ OF EAsTeRN NortTH AMERICA TRE

Catonia luella n. sp.

This species may be recognized by its small size, blackish color,
veins of the wings impunctate, the cells with numerous small round
pale spots.

Vertex narrow, rounded before, the carine strongly elevated;
frons broad, not distinctly narrowed between the eyes; clypeus broad,
shallowly inserted in the frons; pronotum rather elongate, the carinz
strongly elevated, the links of the lateral chain distinct; mesonotum
tricarinate ; the lateral carine but slightly divergent; fore wings with
the veins impunctate.

Cotor: General color blackish fuscous; frons nearly unicolorous;
the lateral carine a little paler; eyes black; mesonotum blackish fus-
cous, with two indistinct ocellated spots on the anterior margin, two
on the posterior margin; fore wings blackish fuscous, the veins black-
ish, some of the cross veins at the apex narrowly pale; all of the cells
with numerous pale round spots; venter and legs blackish, the latter
more or less marked with pale.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 3.00 mm.; to the apex
of the wings 3.70 mm.

Holotype ¢. Upper Natacumbe Key, Florida. March. In the
collection of the Museum of Comparative Zoology.

Allotype @. Paradise Key, Florida.

Paratypes1¢,49. Paradise Key, Florida. February.

Catonia pini n. sp.

This species may be recognized by its large size, uniform meso-
notum, strongly variegated wings, the frons brownish with a narrow
pale transverse band.

Vertex produced, obtusely rounded anteriorly; frons narrow at
the base, widened apically, the lateral margins a little arcuate;
median carina faint, lateral margins strongly elevated; wings strongly
punctate.

Coton: General color pale, more or less variegated with brownish
and blackish fuscous; vertex, pro- and mesonotum uniformly ochra-
ceous brown; frons ochraceous brown, the lateral margins alternate
with black and ivory white, the narrow transverse band ivory white,
basal third of the elypeus ivory white, the apex brownish; wings
largely pale ochraceous yellow, irregularly variegated with brownish
and blackish fuscous; venter and legs mostly ochraceous brown.

178 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [| May

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 4.70 mm.; to the tips of
wings 6.20 mm.

Holotype ¢. Southern Pines, N. C., August 10, 1917. “Ay
Manee. | ie

Allotype 2. Southern Pines, N. C., late August, 1917. <A. H.
Manee.

Paratypes 24 6. Southern Pines, N. C., June, 1909. Z. P.
Metealf.

Catonia lunata n. sp.

This species may be recognized by its small size, blackish color and
broad strongly produced vertex with the frons brown with a broad
transverse pale band in the middle and a shorter pale bar at the apex.

Vertex strongly produced but lttle narrowed anteriorly; frons
broad, not much narrowed at the base or at the apex; wings strongly
punctate.

Cotor: General color blackish; vertex pale yellow, with two
elongate dashes next the inner margins of the eyes and two near the
median carina anteriorly; frons brown, the lateral margins alternate
with black and ivory white, the transverse band broad ivory white, a
small ivory white bar along the clypeal margin; clypeus mostly pale;
pronotum with the carine broadly pale, leaving small blackish spots
in the compartments; mesonotum blackish, with the carine pale and
a few small tawny spots; fore wings blackish fuscous variegated with
ivory white; venter largely tawny yellow, legs brownish fuscous; ab-
domen blackish.

Length, apex of head to apex of vertex 4.00 mm.; to the apex of
the wings 4.30 mm.

Holotype @. Swannanoa, N. C., August 29, 1919. H. Osborn
and Z. P. Metealf.

Allotype ¢. Paradise Keys, Florida.

Paratypes 19. Paradise Keys, Florida. February. In the ceol-
lection of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. 12, Tyngsboro,
Mass. 19, Bay Shore, Long Island. In the collection of Mr. C. E.
Olsen.

1923 | THE FuLGorip# oF EASTERN NortH AMERICA Wg

Bothriocera drakei n. sp.
Figs. 81, 585

This species may be recognized by its pale yellowish testaceous
color with the fore wings heavily and irregularly spotted with fus-
cous, the apex of the wings being strongly infuscated.

Vertex strongly produced; lateral margins of the frons strongly
produced; elypeus very long. Pronotum not deeply notched pos-
teriorly. Mesonotum tricarinate. Male pygofer narrow, ventral
tooth rather long, genital styles short, narrow at the base, broad and
rounded at the apex.

Cotor: General color pale yellowish testaceous; the mesonotum
brownish fuscous; fore wings pale whitish testaceous, heavily marked
with fuscous, two small fusecous spots at the base, a fuscous band an-
terior to the stigma, narrowly separated from the stigmatal band;
apical portion of the wings crossed by two irregular bands beyond
the stigma, the apical border of the wing broadly infuscated; legs
testaceous yellow, except the tips of the tarsi which are black; ab-
domen ochraceous orange; pygofer of the male testaceous yellow.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 2.45 mm.; to the tips
of the wings 4.00 mm.

Holotype ¢. Gainesville, Florida. July 4, 1918. C. J. Drake.

Allotype @. Gainesville, Florida. July 7, 1918. C. J. Drake.

This species may be merely a darker color variety of Bothriocera
undata Fabricius but the male genitalia seem to be quite distinct and
as stated before it would require a much larger collection of these in-
sects to be sure of their specific distinctions.

Oliarus montanus n. sp.
Figs. 269, 566

This species may be recognized by its broad vertex, finely punctate
wing veins and distinct male genitalia.

Vertex broad, narrowed anteriorly, Geeply notched posteriorly ;
frons longer than broad; the clypeus shorter than the frons, much
more deeply inserted. Pronotum rather long, the posterior margin
triangularly emarginate, the sides nearly straight. Mesonotum with
five carine distinct, the intermediate carine broadly arched. Male
pygofer short, broad, the ventral sinus broad, median tooth broadly
expanded apically, the apical border but little reflexed, genital styles

180 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [May

slender, broadly curved, the apical portion but little widened: the
inner margins short, not contiguous, the outer angles but little pro-
duced; the anal segment hood-like, rounded on the apex, which is
strongly deflexed, almost touching the apex of the median tooth.

Conor: General color blackish fuscous, the wings strongly infus-
cated, veins darker, finely punctate ; frons blackish fuscous, the carine
but little paler; clypeus rufo-fuscous; carine distinetly paler; venter
and femora fuscous, with tibia testaceous brown, with fusecous rings;
abdomen black, the segments narrowly bordered with pale yellow,
male genital pieces brown.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 5.00 mm.; to the tip of
the wings 7.20 mm.

Holotype ¢. Black Mountains, N. C.

Allotype @. Herndon, Virginia.

Paratype 1¢é. Craggy Mountains, N. C., and 1¢, Makanda,

Oliarus vitreus n. sp.
Fig. 574

This species may be recognized by its large size, glossy blackish
color and distinct male genitalia.

Vertex narrow, triangularly narrowed anteriorly; frons narrow
between the eyes, broader below; pronotum deeply notched pos-
teriorly ; mesonotum with five distinct carine; fore wings uniformly
punctate; male pygofer with a long median tooth, genital styles
slender with a distinct elevated ridge, their apices much reflexed
appearing coiled.

Cotor: General color dark, glossy; head, thorax and abdomen
black, elypeus not distinetly paler than the frons; legs uniform dark
tawny ; fore wings glossy much infuseated and marked with blackish,
there is usually a broad distinct transverse band from the middle of
the costal margin diagonally across the wings to near the apex of the
clavus, this band nearly paralleling the lateral borders of the
mesonotum.

Length, male, apex of head to apex of abdomen 6.00 mm.; tips of
wings 8.00 mm.; female, apex of head to apex of abdomen 7.00 mm. ;
tips of wings 9.00 mm.

Holotype ¢. Southern Pines, N. C. May 29, A. H. Manee.

Allotype @. Southern Pines, N. C. May 29, A. H. Manee.

Paratype 12. Southern Pines, N. C. June 4, A. H. Manee.

1923 | THe Fuucorip# or Eastern NortaH AMERICA 18]

Oliarus texanus n. sp.

This species may be recognized by its small size, broad form, nar-
row vertex which is deeply notched posteriorly and distinct male
genitalia.

Vertex narrow, triangular before, posterior border deeply emargi-
nate; frons very narrow at the base, broad at the apex, the side mar-
gins nearly straight; clypeus shorter than the frons. Mesonotum
distinetly five carinae; pygofer of the male rather slender, the ventral
tooth broad at the base, suddenly constricted apically; the genital
styles broadly excavated at the base, nearly touching in the middle
line apically, the apical portion reflexed and produced into an acute
tooth laterally, the anal segment broad, hood like, almost enclosing
the tips of the genital styles.

Cotor: General color blackish fuscous; the eyes brown, vertex
and disk of the mesonotum, the elypeus of the female brownish fus-
cous; wings a little smoky with veins fuscous apically; all the veins
strongly punctate; legs testaceous yellow, the coxze and femora
blackish fuscous.

Length, male, apex of head to apex of abdomen 2.60 mm.; to the
tips of the wings 3.85 mm. Female, apex of head to apex of abdomen
4.20 mm.; to the apex of the wings 4.90 mm.

Holotype ¢. Brownsville, Texas. November 21, 1911.

Allotype 2. Brownsville, Texas. November 21, 1911.

Paratypes. Brownsville, Texas. November 19, one ¢, December
9,one ¢ and November 23, one @.

Oliarus vittatus n. sp.
Figs. 74, 276, 573

This species may be recognized by its small size, narrow vertex
with the genital styles of the male about as long as the ventral sinus.

Vertex narrow, elongate, the sides nearly parallel; frons much
narrowed between the eyes, about half as wide at the base as at the
apex; mesonotum quinquecarinate; the intermediate carine rather
faint; wings strongly and uniformly punctate; male pygofer with
median tooth simple; triangular, the ventral sinus deep; the genital
styles rather broad at the base, constricted near the apex, the inner
and outer angles about equally produced.

182 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

Cotor: General color tawny; the eyes and the lateral margins of
the mesonotum blackish; frons and venter largely fuscous; the legs
pale yellow. The female that I associate with this species has the
claval area of the wings fuscous and a broad vitta at the apex fuscous.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 3.50 mm.; to tips of
the wings 5.80 mm.

Holotype ¢. Brownsville, Texas. November 19, 1911. In the
collection of the Ilinois State Laboratory of Natural History.
Allotype @. Brownsville, Texas. December 8, 1911.

Cixius apicalis n. sp.
Figs. 78, 284, 285, 578

This species may be recognized by the fact that the wings are
broadly fuscous to near the apex of the clavus with the apex milky
subhyaline, thickly spotted with fuscous and by the distinet genitalia.

Vertex crescent-shaped transverse, broadly rounded before, not
reaching the frons; frons longer than the clypeus, strongly narrowed
between the eyes; lateral carine of the mesonotum strongly diverg-
ing; pygofer of the male short, ventral tooth elongate, acute, genital
styles narrow at the base, widely separated, meeting apically, their
apices broadly expanded and reflexed, reaching the anal segment ;
anal segment narrow, not produced.

Cotor: General color of the body blackish fuscous; carine of the
frons and posterior margin of the pronotum yellowish testaceous;
fore wings blackish fuscous on the basal half with clavus darker, al-
most black on the costal margin, paler and brownish internally; the
apical portion of the wings milky subhyaline, more or less spotted
with fuscous; there are three distinct fuscous spots on the costal mar-
gain; the middle one continued as an interrupted fuscous band to-
wards the apex of the clavus, the longitudinal veins with some tri-
angular fuscous spots on the apical margin; basilar angles narrowly
pale yellow; legs testaceous yellow; the fore femora fuscous; ab-
domen fuscous; the apex of the genitalia testaceous yellow.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 3.50 mm.; to tips of
wings 5.25,mm.

Holotype ¢. New Haven, Conn. June 25,1921. B. H. Walden.
Allotype @. Ithaca, N. Y. June 8, 1895.

1923 | THe FULGORIDZ OF EASTERN NortH AMERICA 183

I believe that this is the species that has been identified in the past
as Cizius albocinctus Germar, the Paleartic species given as a variety
of Cixius pilosus by Oshanin; but it seems to be distinct from speci-
mens in my collection identified as Cirius albocinctus Germar and
Cizius pilosus by Lethierry.

Ciocixius New Genus.

Orthotype Cixius dorsivittatus Van Duzee.

This genus may be recognized by the broad vertex and by the
nearly perpendicular wings which are broadened apically and strongly
compressed.

Head nearly as broad as the pronotum; vertex squarely produced
for more than half its length in front of the eyes; lateral compart-
ments of the gene evident dorsally; frons nearly vertical, median
carina distinet, lateral margins strongly reflexed, regularly arcuate
from base to apex; pronotum short, collar-like, the anterior and pos-
terior margins nearly concentric; disk of the mesonotum tricarinate,
strongly elevated, the lateral compartments nearly vertical; fore
wings vertical, strongly broadened apically; subcosta and radius
united at the base for a short distance only, eubitus forked at about
the same level as the union of the claval veins; posterior tibia armed
with two small spines, one on the basal half and the other near the
middle.

Microledrida flava n. sp.
Figs. 76, 280, 281, 576

This species may be recognized by its pate yellow color, practically
unmarked wings and distinct male genitalia.

Vertex broad, not produced for more than one-third of its length
in front of the eyes; median carina strongly elevated throughout;
frons broad, not more than one and one-half times as broad as long:
median carina distinct; pronotum not half as long as the vertex;
mesonotum nearly twice as long as the vertex; median tooth of the
male pygofer short and obtuse; genital styles not widely separated,
their inner angles meeting on the median line; outer angles only
slightly produced, obtuse.

CoLtor: General color pale testaceous yellow, eyes brown; clypeus
shading to ochraceous orange; wings milky subhyaline; the punctures

184 JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL SOCIETY | May

testaceous yellow with an indistinet fuscous spot at the apex of sub-
costa, otherwise wings are unmarked; legs pale ochraceous yellow,
spines and claws tipped with black; abdomen pale ochraceous yellow.
Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 2.50 mm.; to the tips of
the wings 3.25 mm.
Holotype 1¢. Brownsville, Texas. November 21, 1911. In the
collection of the Illinois State Laboratory Natural History.

Oecleus productus n. sp.
Figs. 298, 588

This species may be recognized by its small size, general pale yel-
low color with the anal segments of the male strongly produced.

Vertex much narrowed posteriorly, lateral margins almost touch-
ing, much produced in front of the eyes; frons rather broad at the
apex, suddenly constricted at about the middle of the eyes; median
carina distinet; pronotum short, the posterior border strongly re-
flexed, rather deeply notched; mesonotum quinquecarinate; median
tooth of the male pygofer short but tongue-like; genital styles rather
short; the anal seements strongly produced, narrowed apically.

Cotor: General color pale ochraceous orange or ochraceous yel-
low; frons and eclypeus black between the carine; gene black, the
eyes and antenne paler: vertex black and the carine paler; pronotum
mostly pale but a little clouded with blackish; mesonotum ochraceous
orange, somewhat clouded between the carine; wings yellowish; veins
on the base concolorous, fuscous at the apex; abdomen blackish, the
segments narrowly bordered with yellow apically.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 2.50 mm.; to the apex
of wings 4.20 mm.

Holotype ¢. Dongola, Ilhnois. August 23, 1916.

Paratypes 24. Metropolis, Illinois. August 19 and 20, 1916.
1¢, Phoenix, Ariz., June 8, 1902.

Myndus truncatus n. sp.
Figs. 312, 600

This species may be recognized by its twice banded frons and
truncate genital styles.

Vertex long, narrow, the lateral margins converging to the middle
of the eyes then nearly parallel to the front; frons very short and

1923 | THE FuLGorIp2 oF EASTERN NortH AMERICA 185

broad below; pronotum short, deeply sinuate; mesonotum long, lateral
earine strongly diverging; median tooth elongate, obtuse; genital
styles long, meeting on the median line for about half their length,
their apices slightly broadened, obliquely truncate.

Cotor: General color ochraceous yellow; apex of the vertex
marked with blackish fuscous; frons and clypeus ochraceous buff,
the former with a broad basal band and a narrow apical band of
black; mesonotum ochraceous orange, the intermediate compartments
clouded with blackish fuscous; wings milky subhyaline, the veins
heavily brown, the apical margin narrowly fuscous.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 4.20 mm.; to the tips of
the wings 5.25 mm.

Holotype ¢. Elizabeth, Ill. July 6, 1917. In the collection
Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History.

Bruchomorpha vittata n. sp.
Figs. 55, 220

This species may be recognized by its elongate narrow front, short
nearly truncate nasal process.

Vertex rather broad, the lateral margins converging to the inter-
mediate carine, the anterior margin nearly straight; frons rather
elongate, narrow; the intermediate carine slightly arched, the nasal
process short, but little produced, nearly truncate anteriorly. Pro-
notum broadly rounded anteriorly, deeply almost triangularly emar-
ginate posteriorly. Mesonotum ecarinate, the disk broadly arched,
the scutellar portion flat, produced. Macropterous wings narrow,
elongate.

Cotor: General color dull blackish fuscous; eyes grayish brown;
median frontal stripe evident, extending to the posterior border of
the pronotum. Mesonotum and abdomen paler, median stripe nar-
rower. Macropterous wings smoky hyaline; legs pale yellowish testa-
ceous; all the femora and fore tibie washed with brownish fuscous.

Length, macropterous form, apex of head to apex of abdomen 3
mm.; apex of wings 4.20 mm.

Holotype @. Brownsville, Texas. November 21, 1911. In the
collection of the Illinois State Laboratory Natural History.

Paratypes 22 2. Brownsville, Texas. November 21, 1911.

186 JOURNAL: OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

Bruchomorpha rugosa n. sp.
Wigs. 56, 222

This species may be recognized by its general pale testaceous color
with the brachypterous wings strongly rugose, the nasal process nar-
rowly produced.

Vertex almost triangular, strongly produced anteriorly ; frons nar-
row, elongate, the intermediate carina broadly arched enclosing a
nearly oval area, nasal process distinctly produced, not deeply sinuate
ventrally. Pronotum elongate, broadly arched anteriorly, nearly
straight posteriorly. Mesonotum rather short, tricarinate, the lateral
carine converging with two impressed points on the posterior half of
the disk; wings coarsely rugose; legs stout.

Cotor: General color testaceous yellow, more or less marked with
black; intermediate carine of the frons narrowly bordered by black
internally ; lateral compartments of the frons black; the apex of the
nasal process broadly black; gene chiefly black; abdomen with a series
of six short dashes on each side of the segments; legs testaceous yel-
low; heavily marked with black; fore and middle femora twice-ringed
with black; all the tibize broadly black apically; tarsi blackish
fuscous.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 3 mm.

Holotype @. Brownsvilie, Texas, September.

Paratype 19. Nogales, Arizona, September 24.

This special somewhat suggests Aphelonema rugosa Ball but it is
an evident Bruchomorpha with strongly produced front and short
vertex.

Bruchomorpha bicolor n. sp.
Figs. 30, 224

This species may be recognized by its shortly produced nasal pro-
cess, elongate frons, general pale yellow color with two broad black
stripes extending from the apex of the nasal process across the eyes
to the apex of the abdomen.

Vertex short, the anterior margin broad, nearly straight; frons
elongate, the intermediate carina broadly arched basally then con-
verging straight to the apex of the frons; nasal process elongate,
bluntly triangular, the ventral margin not sinuate. Pronotum broadly

1923 | THe FuLtcorw2 or Eastern NortH AMERICA 187

rounding anteriorly, broadly sinuate posteriorly, about half as long
as the mesonotum; disk of the mesonotum broad, the lateral carinze
evident, the intermediate carina faint; male genital styles broad at
the base, gradually narrowed apically, the apex produced, short tri-
angular teeth directed anteriorly.

Cotor: General color pale dull yellow, a broad blackish fuscous
stripe on each side of the body extending from the apex of the nasal
process across the compound eyes, the disk of the wings and then
converging to the apex of the abdomen; meta-pleura black, a narrow
black stripe on the lateral ventral margins of the abdomen, spines
and claws of the legs black; genitalia black.

Length of male, 2 mm.; of the female 3 mm.

Holotype ¢. Brownsville, Texas, November 21, 1911.
Allotype 2. Brownsville, Texas, November 21, 1911.
Paratypes 52 9. Brownsville, Texas, November 21, 1911.

Bruchomorpha minima n. sp.

Fig. 213

This species may be recognized by its uniform black color, small
size and narrow frons.

Vertex narrow, the anterior border broadly sinuate, median carina
of the vertex strongly elevated; median carina of the frons strongly
elevated, the intermediate carine strongly arched basally, gradually
converging anteriorly; nasal process not produced, broadly rounded
anteriorly ; anterior border of the pronotum broadly rounded, the pos-
terior border narrowly and shallowly sinuate. Mesonotum but little
longer than pronotum, none of the carine strongly elevated; wings
coarsely rugose.

Cotor: General color almost uniform shining black; the pos-
terior tarsi a little rusty.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 1.90 mm.

Holotype ¢. Southern Pines, North Carolina. Late June, A. H.
Manee.

Paratypes 24 ¢. Southern Pines, N. C. Late June, A. H. Manee.

This is the smallest species known to me. It is very close to B.
tristis Stal but seems to be distinct.

188 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

Bruchomorpha decorata n. sp.

This species may be recognized by its very short nasal process,
nearly vertical frons and strongly contrasted colors.

Vertex short, strongly sinuate on the anterior margins, nasal pro-
cess not produced, broadly rounded anteriorly; frons more nearly
vertical than in any other species of the genus; frons broad about one
and one-half times as long as broad; the intermediate carina broadly
arched; pronotum produced anteriorly, posterior margin broadly
sinuate with a distinct median notch. Mesonotum short and broad,
about twice as long as the pronotum; tricarinate, the lateral carine
strongly elevated; wing coarsely reticulate; male genitalia broad at
the base, gradually narrowed to the acute apices, the inner margins
nearly parallel, the apices a little curved anteriorly.

CoLor: General color ochraceous orange, heavily and irregularly
marked with black; frons ochraceous orange, the lateral ecompart-
ments irregularly marked with black; gene black. Pronotum ochra-
ceous orange, with a row of heavy black spots anteriorly. Mesonotum
varying from ochraceous orange with a few black spots to black with
a few ochraceous orange spots; wings with the veins mostly pale, the
cells irregularly clouded with fuscous or black; legs blackish fuscous
or brownish fuscous; dorsal porticn of the abdomen ochraceous buff
or ochraceous orange varied with blackish; venter of the abdomen
black.

Length of the male 2.25 mm.; of the female 2.75 mm.

Holotype ¢. Brownsville, Texas, November 21, 1911.

Allotype 2. Brownsville, Texas, November 21, 1911.

Paratype 1¢. Brownsville, Texas, November 21, 1911.

Aphelonema rosa n. sp.
Figs. 2, 226, 227

This species may be recognized by its small size, narrow vertex,
general reddish color and short obtuse genital styles of the male.

Vertex short, about six times as broad as long; frons short and
broad, the intermediate carine strongly arched, pustules inconspicu-
ous; clypeus with an evident median carina. Pronotum with the an-
terior margin strongly curved laterally, the posterior margin almost

1923 | THe FuLeorip& or EAstTeRN NortH AMERICA 189

straight, median carine evident, the disk without pustules. Meso-
notum short, the disk broad; lateral compartments pustulate. Bra-
ehypterous wings truneate posteriorly, nearly reaching the third seg-
ment; genital styles of the male broad, rather obtuse, the inner mar-
gins nearly contiguous for the entire length; the apices acute, directed
anteriorly.

Cotor: General color pale dull red, the legs, vertex, dorsal part
of the frons, the pro- and mesonotum salmon orange; eyes black.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 2.25 mm.

Holotype 1¢. Cape Charles, Virginia, September 1, 1920. D.M.
DeLong.

Paratype 3¢. Cape Charles, Virginia, September 1, 1920. D. M.
DeLong.

Paratype 1¢. Pascagoula, Miss., August 6, 1921. H. L. D.

Traxus New Genus.

Orthotype Trazus fulvus n. sp.

This genus is close to Hysteropterum Amyot and Serville but it
may be recognized by its general rugose appearance, triangularly in-
cised vertex, narrowly parallel-sided concave frons.

Vertex short, about four times as broad as its median length; an-
terior margin deeply incised, the lateral margins nearly one and one-
half times as long as the median length; frons narrow, tricarinate,
nearly parallel-sided, the margins finely crenulate; clypeus small, re-
flexed ; antenne short, second segment globular ; pronotum about twice
as long as the vertex, strongly produced anteriorly ; mesonotum about
as long as the pronotum, tricarinate; the lateral carine strongly
elevated and tuberculate; fore wings rugulose and reticulate, the
eorium broadly expanded and the clavus elevated; no submarginal
veins; posterior tibiew with strong spine at the middle, and another
near the apex.

Traxus fulvus n. sp.
Figs. 62, 238, 239, 532, 474
This species may be recognized by its general ochraceous orange
color with the clypeus and coxe black.
Frons concave deeply emarginate dorsally, the carine very irregu-
lar the lateral margins nearly parallel crenulate, suddenly constricted

'
190 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

to the small clypeus; pronotum with an evident median carina and
two impressed points either side; mesonotum tricarinate, the median
carina faint, the lateral carine elevated into elongate tubercules;
wings rather narrow, the apical margins obliquely rounded.

Cotor: General color dull ochraceous orange sometimes clouded
with blackish; eyes black, the lateral margins of the frons alternate
black and white; clypeus, cox, fore and middle femora black, irrorate
with paler; wings concolorous, the veins a little paler.

Length, male, apex of head to apex of abdomen 4 mm.; female,
5.90 mm.

Holotype ¢. Brownsville, Texas, August 8, 1906. A. B. Wolcott.

Allotype 2. Brownsville, Texas, November 26, 1910. In the col-
lection of Illinois State Laboratory Natural History.

Paratypes 19. November 24, 1911. 192, November 21, 1911.
19, November 26,1919. All collected at Brownsville, Texas.

Thionia quinquata n. sp.

Bie. Zap

This species may be recognized by its narrow five angled vertex and
nearly uniform brown color which is almost uniformly covered with
small dark points.

Vertex narrow, a little longer than broad, the lateral margins
diverging, the anterior margin strongly produced; frons narrow tri-
earinate, the lateral margins a little arched; pronotum strongly pro-
duced between the eyes; mesonotum long with an evident transverse
carine ; fore wings with the longitudinal and transverse veins evident.

Cotor: General color ochraceous brown with the whole surface
of the body ineluding the wings and legs uniformly sprinkled with
small black points, veins of the wings and claws black.

Length to tips of the wings 8.00 mm.

Holotype @. Raleigh, N. C. Early September. C. 8. Brimley.

Acanalonia fasciata n. sp.

This species bears a general resemblance to Acanalonia bivittata
Say but it may be recognized by its small size, pale legs and frons,
and different genitalia.

1923 | THe FuLGorIp2 oF EASTERN NortH AMERICA 191

Head broad, shghtly broader than the prothorax; vertex broad,
tricarinate; lateral margins strongly diverging; posterior margin
broadly curved; anterior margin curving gradually into the frons.
Frons very broad, nearly twice as broad as long. Pronotum elongate ;
anterior margin produced; postericr margin broadly triangularly
notched. Mesonotum elongate without carina. Fore wings elongate,
about twice longer than broad, longitudinal veins distinet; reticulat-
ing veins rather indistinct on the basal half. Last ventral segment
of the female broadly excavated without median tooth.

CoLtorz: General color testaceous (green in life?) with the broad
brownish fascia extending from the compound eyes across the lateral
field of the pro- and mesonotum and gradually attenuated along the
sutural margins of the elytra. Frons, clypeus and all of the legs
testaceous. Last ventral segment of the female broadly exeavated
to almost its anterior border.

Length, apex of head to ape.. vf abdomen 5.25 mm.; to apex of
wing 7.35 mm.; length of wing 5.07 mm.; greatest width of wing 2.62
mm.

This species might readily be mistaken for a depauperate form of
Acanalonia bivittata but the coloring is somewhat different and the
genitalia totally unlike.

Holotype 2. Brownsville, Texas.
Allotype ¢. Nogales, Arizona.
Paratypes 12,124. Nogales, Arizona. September.

Flatoides maculosus n. sp.
Mies 7, 145

This species may be recognized by its short, broad vertex, pale
ochraceous buff or olive ochraceous buff color, heavily spotted with
fusecous and by the very distinct genitalia.

Head broad ; vertex nearly twice broader than long angularly pro-
duced anteriorly; frons somewhat elongate, conically produced ba-
sally ; eclypeus about one and one-half times as long as broad; clypeal
grooves evident; antenne with second segments about one and one-
half times as long as first segment, beth segments somewhat flattened.
Pronotum broad, short, nearly four times as broad as long. Meso-
notum strongly produced anteriorly; costal margins of the wing
faintly crenulate ; costal membrane about twice as broad as the costal

192 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

cell; the transverse veins shghtly reticulate; humeral angles not much
produced ; hind tibia with three spines; the basilar one small; female
genitalia with last and penultimate segments deeply almost squarely
excavated; pygofers large, broadly curved on the inner margins;
marginal teeth very fine and numerous; anal segment broad, tri-
angular, barely exceeding the pygofers; last ventral segment of the
male broader than long, roundly excavated apically; pygofers nar-
row, about two and one-half times as long as broad, longer than the
last ventral segment, broadly separated at the base, approximate sub-
apically, their apices bluntly rounded.

Conor: General color in the female pale ochraceous buff, heavily
flecked with blackish fuscous; in the male the general color is more
olive; head unmarked except for two blackish dashes in front of the
eyes and three black spots on the second joint of the antenne. Pro-
notum with two impressed points near the anterior border and a
blackish cloud behind the eye. Mesonotum with three blackish spots
along each posterior border, the central one very large and a pair of
spots medianly near the anterior border; wings heavily marked with
irregular blackish fuscous spots. There is usually a row of very
irregular spots along the costal border which become small triangular
spots around the apical margin. The corium is marked with numer-
ous large and small spots and the last subapical line is irregularly
bordered with fuscous externally ; the clavus has a large spot near the
base and a row of short dashes along the sutural margin.

Length, female, apex of head to apex of abdomen 7.50 mm.; to
apex of wing 10.40 mm.; male, apex of head to apex of abdomen 6.30
mm.; to apex of wing 9.20 mm.

This species might be confused with pale specimen of Flatoides
punctatus Walker but they are much more heavily spotted and their
genitalia are entirely different.

Holotype ¢@. Paradise Key, Florida. In the collection of the
U.S. National Museum.

Allotype ¢. Marco, Florida.

Flatoides concisus n. sp.
Fig. 150

This species may be recognized by its small size, pale color and
short transverse vertex.

1923 | THe FuLGorip2 oF EasteRN NortTH AMERICA 193

Head broad, nearly as broad as the disk of the pronotum; vertex
short, about one and one-half times as broad as long; anterior margin
nearly right angled; frons longer than broad, bluntly produced ba-
sally; elypeus broad, flat, clypeal grooves indistinct, antenne with
second joint nearly three times as long as first, truneate apically.
Pronotum short, produced anteriorly to the anterior margins of the
eyes, triangularly notched posteriorly. Mesonotum small, flat, wings
elongate narrow, costal membrane about twice as wide as the costal
cell, costal margin straight ; two subapical lines rather irregular ; hind
tibia with two spines on the apical third; last ventral sezment of the
female triangularly notched; penultimate deeply notched with the
side margins converging slightly; pygofers short, broader than long,
the apical margins broadly rounded with heavy teeth; anal segmeni
short, transverse, exceeded by the pygofers.

Cotor: General color pale ochraceous buff, heavily sprinkled with
a whitish powder, a few blackish fuscous markings; vertex fuscous
with the median lines and lateral margins paler; frons and elypeus
ochraceous buff; pronotum with two impressed points and a blackish
cloud behind the eyes. Mesonotum brownish fuscous clouded with
blackish anteriorly ; fore wings ochraceous buff, veins nearly concol- .
orous. ‘There is a broad irregular blackish fuscous band from the
costal margin across the humeri to the middle of the clavus, another
one at the apex of the clavus extends on to the corium, another di-
agonal band at the apex of the costal membrane and a few irregular
fuscous clouds in the cells of the membrane, apical spots very faint;
venter and legs ochraceous buff, excepting the mesopleura, genital
pieces, spines and claws of the legs which are marked with fuscous.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 6.60 mm.; to tip of wing
9.10 mm.

Holotype @. Florida.

This is a very small pale species which is closely related to
Flatoides acutus Uhler. The genitalia seem to be sufficiently distinet
and the color is entirely distinct.

Neocenchrea New Genus.

Orthotype Cenchrea heidemanni Ball.

This genus is closely related to Cenchrea but the vertex is narrower,
more produced ; the frons is narrower, the side margins more elevated ;
the wings are elongate with distinct venation.

194 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

Head narrow; vertex about twice as long as broad, strongly pro-
duced anteriorly; triangularly excavated on the posterior margin,
lateral margins strongly elevated and pustulate; anterior margin
separated from the frons by a distinct carina; frons narrow, about
four times as long as broad on the clypeal margin, the lateral margins
nearly parallel above, gradually widened to the border of the elypeus
below; the lateral margins strongly elevated; median carina wanting ;
elypeus strongly inflated broadly inserted into the frons, wider than
the frons; lateral border faintly margined; median carina distinct ;
antenne short; antennal collar strongly elevated; second segment of
the antenne about four times as long as the first; eyes large, ventral
sinus broad and deep; prothorax short, broadly notched posteriorly ;
the posterior borders strongly elevated; median carina blunt; inter-
mediate carina blunt; lateral carina not as strongly elevated as the
ventral margin; antennal chamber very deep. Mesonotum nearly as
long as broad, strongly inflated anteriorly, tricarinate; all the carine
faint; wings long and narrow, nearly five times as long as broad;
radius separated from subeosta at about the middle of its length;
medius two branched, each of these branches forked at a short dis-
tance from the apex; cubitus deeply forked; forking nearly the same
level as the claval veins; claval veins two, the posterior one coarsely
pustulate; legs slender; posterior tibia unarmed; posterior tarsi
nearly half as long as the tibia.

Euklastus New Genus.
Fig. 33

Orthotype Euklastus harti n. sp.

This genus may be recognized by the peculiar venation of the
wings, by the narrow frons and elongate antenne.

Head narrow, the eyes large, vertex very small, deeply incised
posteriorly ; produced anteriorly and continued as the narrow rounded
frons; frons very narrow produced; clypeus broader slightly inflated,
antenne elongate, first joint very small, second joint flattened, elong-
ate; pronotum short, deeply notched posteriorly, the anterior margin
a little produced, median carina evident ; mesonotum large, ecarinate ;
fore wings long, subeosta and radius united to near the apex of the
wing; medius with four branches, clavus narrow, open, the common
stem of claval veins extending to first eubitus, hind wings small, costal
margin with an appendix, venation reduced; legs slender, hind tibiz
without spines.

1923 | THE FuLGORIDA OF EasteERN NortH AMERICA 195

Euklastus harti n. sp.
Figs. 23, 334, 335, 336, 520, 479

This species may be recognized by its small vertex, pale colors
with the wings heavily but sparsely spotted with fuscous.

Vertex consisting chiefly of the carinate lateral borders, posterior
margin deeply triangularly emarginate, broadly rounded anteriorly
to the frons; frons narrow, keel-like, produced; eyes large, deeply
sinuate, the anterior horn strongly produced ventrally ; antennal col-
lar strongly elevated; first segment of the antenne minute, second
segment flattened about six times as long as broad, narrow basally,
widened apically, the apex obliquely truncate and notched for the
bristle; pronotum deeply notched posteriorly, the sides flaring; fore
wings elongate, spatulate.

Cotor: General color pale tawny yellow, eyes black, fore wings
milky subhyaline, veins yellow with a few spots of tawny, and a few
rosy red spots at the apex of the costal cell on the costal cross veins,
the tawny spots are arranged as follows, a small one at the base, a
narrow one about one-third thé length of the wing from the base ex-
tends from the costal margin to the cubital veins, two small transverse
ones beyond this in the costal cell, a narrow cloud on the radio-medial
cross veins, a broad cloud on the cell subcosta one, a large spot on the
first and second medius, the veins at the apex of the wing with small
spots and the small quadrangular cells of the costal margin clouded
with tawny; legs and abdomen pale tawny yellow.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 2.10 mm.; to tips of
fore wings 6.30 mm.

Holotype ¢. Alto Pass, Illinois. C. A. Hart, August 13, 1891.

This delicate little species is named in honor of the late Mr. C. A.
Hart who labored so industriously collecting and arranging the
Illinois Fulgoride.

Herpis incisa n. sp.
Figs. 619, 486

This is a small blackish species with distinct male plate.

Vertex twice broader than long. Frons broad, short, scarcely two
and one-half times as long as broad, only slightly narrowed between
the eyes: lateral margins slightly elevated with faint central carine.

196 JOURNAL OF THE MitCcHELL SOCIETY | May

Clypeus elongate, longer than the frens with distinct lateral and cen-
tral carine. Compound eyes with ventral sinus rather deep. Pro-
notum narrow, deeply and broadly notched posteriorly ; breast plates
rather small; three mesonotal carine rather sharp ; subcostal cell about
twice as long as broad. Male plates with the inner margins with a
distinet notch on basal half, apical tooth very blunt and short.

Cotor: General color blackish fuscous; beak and legs ochraceous
buff with the tip of the former and the tarsi spotted with blackish.
Fore wings blackish fuscous, veins darker, covered in fresh specimens
with dark bluish powder. Hind wings smoky, subhyaline; veins
blackish.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 1.75 mm.; to apex of
wings 3.15 mm.; width of pronotum .98 mm.; wings expanse 8.40 mm. .

Holotype ¢. New Haven, Conn., July 2, 1920. B. H. Walden.
Allotype @. North Branford, Conn., July 2, 1920. B.H. Walden.
On Saliz.

Herpis australis n. sp.
Fig. 620

This is a medium large, blackish fuscous species with light yellow
venter and legs; and distinet genitalia.

Vertex nearly twice as wide as long, rounded anteriorly, separated
from the frons by a very faint carina; frons nearly three times as long
as broad, side margins strongly reflexed but little narrowed between
the eyes; elypeus long, nearly as long as the frons; subantennal plate
strongly elevated. Pronotum short, deeply excavated, posteriorly.
Mesonotum long, weakly tricarinate on the anterior border ; wings long
and narrow; venation typical. Male plates large, separated about the
width of their bases basally, the inner margins converging and nearly
meeting in the middle of their length then widely converging apically
ending in long sharp recurved spines. This species bears a general
resemblance to our northern Herpis vulgaris Fitch but it averages
somewhat smaller and the genital plates are entirely distinct.

Cotor: General color blackish or brownish fuscous; venter and
legs pale yellow, more or less covered with blueish powder; head
mostly brownish testaceous; lateral margins of the elypeus and frons
bordered by a broad blackish stripe; eyes blackish; gene and lateral
margins of the elypeus blackish fuscous; pronotum yellowish testa-

1923 | THe FuLGorIpDz oF EasteRN North AMERICA IDF

ceous. Mesonotum blackish; fore wings deep brownish fuscous at the
base gradually paler apically, densely covered with brownish pow-
der, veins darker; venter and legs pale yellowish; tips of the tarsi
and claws blackish; abdomen brownish fuscous densely covered with
brownish powder.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 2.45 mm.; to apex of
wing 4.20 mm.; length of wing 3.85 mm.; greatest width of wing 1.40
mm.; width across the tegule 1.05 mm. .

Holotype ¢. Brownsville, Texas, November 11. In the collection
of the Illinois Laboratory of Natural History.

Allotype 2. Brownsville, Texas, November 24.

Paratypes 2 ¢. Brownsville, Texas, December.

Stenocranus arundineus n. sp.
Figs. 399, 400, 640, 641, 552

This species may be recognized by its general light orange yellow
color without conspicuous black markings except the black eyes and
its broad short vertex.

Head narrower than the pronotum; vertex broad about twice as
long as broad at the base, the basal margins strongly elevated and
weakly triangularly notched; the lateral carine meeting before the
anterior margin of the compound eyes; median carina wanting; frons
about five times as long as broad nearly parallel margined throughout
its entire length; clypeus long about two-thirds as long as the frons;
antenne long reaching beyond the clypeal margin with segment two
about three times as long as segment one; pronotum about as long as
vertex; lateral carine strongly convergingly curved; posterior margin
weakly excavated between the lateral carine; mesonotum about two
and one-half times as long as pronotum; lateral carine converging;
calear half as long as the basal segment, strongly appressed; male
pygofer about as long as broad; genital styles broad at the base,
rather suddenly constricted curving outward and then inward with
sharp apices nearly touching; anal tube as long as the pygofer with
two strong nearly parallel ventral processes which are quite sharply
pointed; female pygofers broad and rather flat: ovipositor narrow,
well elevated; anal tube short without ventral spines.

Cotor: General color light orange yellow with the frons and the
antenne and two broad stripes just inside the lateral carine orange;

198 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

between these stripes the pronotum and mesonotum are creamy white,
these stripes are faintly indicated along the clavus with the suture
margin creamy white; the eyes, the spines on the legs and the claws
black.

Length, apex of vertex to apex of abdomen 3.75 mm.; width of
pronotum 1.00.mm.; length of vertex .33 mm.

Holotype ¢. Swannanoa, N. C., August 9, 1918. Herbert Os-
born and Z. P. Metealf.

Allotype @. Swannanoa, N. C., August 9, 1918. Herbert Os-
born and Z. P. Metealf.

Paratypes 10¢ and 109.

Collected Swannanoa, North Carolina, August 1919 from Arundi-

nari sp.
Megamelanus terminalis n. sp.
Figs. 18, 425, 426, 555, 661

This species may be recognized by the bicolored wings of the
brachypterous male, the strongly spatulate vertex and the straight
lateral carine of the pronotum.

Head as broad as pronotum; vertex flat with the lateral carina
meeting at the apex; median carina faint; lateral carine of the genz
very strong giving the vertex a broad spatulate appearance; frons
about four times as long as broad; antennx short; second segment
about two and one-half times as long as first; pronotum projecting
anteriorly to about the middle of the eyes; nearly square anteriorly ;
weakly sinuate posteriorly; about half as long as the vertex; lateral
carine broadly separated straight, weakly diverging mesonotum equal-
ling the pronotum; the lateral carine straight and more strongly
divergent; calear nearly as long as the basal segment of the tarsi
without the apical spines, strongly and uniformly toothed; pygofer
of the male rather long, the genital aperture oval; genital styles
diverging for about three-fourths of the length with the apical portion
incurved, sharply acuminate, meeting in the median line; anal tube
with two long curved horn-like processes.

Conor: General color of the male: head and thorax pale buffy
more or less shaded with fuscous; eyes black; legs ochraceous orange
faded to buff at the joints with the spines and tarsal claws black.
Brachypterous wings with the basal half milky subhyaline allowing

1923 | THe FuuGoripz oF EASTERN NortH AMERICA 199

white metanotum to show through; the apical half opaque black; ab-
dominal segments dorsally and ventrally ochraceous orange marked
with black along the lateral margins; genital pieces black. Color of
the female: eyes, spines of the legs, claws and ovipositors black; lat-
eral margins of the pronotum and the tegule dusky; metapleura
clouded with black; keolopterous wings long, narrow, faintly yellow
the veins white setigerous.

Length, apex of vertex to apex of abdomen, niale, 2.25 mm.; fe-
male 3.50 mm.; length of vertex, male, .66 mm.; female .66 mm.;
width of pronotum, male, .50 mm.; female .66 mm.

Holotype ¢. Carolina Beach, Wilmington, N. C., June 4, 1920.

Allotype @. Carolina Beach, Wilmington, N. C., June 4, 1920.

Paratypes 56. Carolina Beach, Wilmington, N. C., June 1920.
Four ¢, Cape Charles, Virginia, July 31, 1920. D. M. DeLong. Ten
2, Carolina Beach, North Carolina, June 1920. Two ¢?, Cape
Charles, Virginia, August 1, 1920. D. M. DeLong.

Megamelanus dorsalis n. sp.

Figs. 110, 432, 433, 664

This species may be recognized by its yellowish testaceous head
and thorax, and blackish wings and distinet genitalia.

Vertex elongate, narrow, the jateral margins converging slightly
to in front of the eyes and then strongly to the acute apex; frons
widened apically, strongly narrowed to the apex of the vertex; frons
tricarinate; clypeus broad and short, antenne short; first segment
about half as long as the second; second segment globular; eyes sub-
globular, triangular in outline. Pronotum about half as long as the
vertex, deeply notched posteriorly, tricarinate on the disk, the inter-
mediate carina somewhat bowed outwardly; ventral margins of the
breast plates convex, strongly reflexed. Mesonotum about as long as
the pronotum, tricarinate, the lateral carina strongly converging an-
teriorly ; wings elongate, narrow, opaque. Male pygofer rather short,
broader than long; aperture large, the genital styles long, narrow,
widened apically; anal segment short, anal processes short incurved,
nearly meeting in the intermediate line, anal style short; female py-
gofers long, narrow, nearly parallel-sided; last and penultimate ven-
tral segment triangularly notched; ovipositor long, reaching to the

uw

200 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

apex of the pygofers; anal segment short, broad, nearly four times as
broad as long, anal styles heavy about twice as long as the anal seg-
ment.

Conor: General color yellowish white and black as follows: ver-
tex, basal margins of the frons and gene, pro-and mesonotum yel-
lowish white; apical seven-eights of the frons, clypeus, venter, ab-
domen and fore wings blackish; legs mostly blackish; fore tibia and
middle tibia and tarsi except the apex of the tarsi and claws yel-
lowish whitish; apex of the hind femora, base and apex of the tibia
and the hind tarsi yellowish.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 2.25 mm.; to the tip of
the wing 2.60 mm.; width across the tegule .50.

Holotype ¢. Atlantic City, New Jersey, August 25. W. J.
Gerhardt.

Allotype ¢. Atlantic City, New Jersey, August 25. W. J.
Gerhardt.

Paratype ¢. Pascagoula, Miss., August 6, 1921. H. L. Dozier.

Megamelanus lautus n. sp.
Figs. 38, 427, 428, 662

This species bears a superficial resemblance to Megamelanus dor-
salis but the vertex is longer, narrower, the wings are more elongate,
brownish fuscous, spotted with white and the genitaliz are different.

Vertex very long and narrow, not as much narrowed anteriorly
as in the allied species; posterior margin nearly straight, median
carina extending for only about half the length of the vertex; lateral
carine strongly elevated; frons much narrowed above to the narrow
vertex, strongly produced to the median carina; second segment of
the antenneze about twice as long as the first, subglobular. Pronotum
slightly shorter than the vertex, disk tricarinate, the lateral carine
nearly straight and nearly parallel to the median carina. Mesonotum
tricarinate; median carina abbreviated on the seutellar portion; fore
wings elongate, narrow, nearly five times as long as broad, parallel
margined not widened apically. Male pygofer short, broad, the aper-
ture large, subtriangular; genital styles broad; flattening: the inner
margins nearly continguous for half their length on the base then
suddenly excavated, the apices obliquely truneate; the inner angles
produced nearly meeting; anal processes short, blunt, incurved, nearly

1923 | THE FuLcorma or EasterN NortH AMERICA 201

meeting on the median line, anal style short, blunt, barely produced
beyond the anal segment; last ventral segment of the female triangu-
larly notched to the base ; pygofers subterete, exceeding the ovipositors
slightly ; anal segment short and broad, posterior margin roundly ex-
eavated, anal style elongate, subconical.

Coton: General color of the male, blackish fuscous, pale yellow
and whitish; vertex, disk of the pro-and mesonotum pale yellowish
white; frons, clypeus, ventral portion of the genx, breast plates and
lateral areas of the mesonotum blackish fuscous; fore wings blackish
fuscous; scutellar angle, apex of the clavus, broad triangular marks
on the eostal and anal borders whitish; legs pale yellowish with the
spines and teeth on the calear and the claws black; abdomen largely
blackish fuscous, a row of ochraceous orange spots on each segment ;
the penultimate and last ventral segments and the pygofer ochraceous
orange, the latter more or less clouded with fuscous apically. The
female that I associate with this species is almost entirely pale yel-
lowish with the eyes clouded with brownish; the clypeus pale ochra-
ceous buff; the spines, teeth and claws of the leg black; the wings
heavily clouded with fuscous apically.

Length, male apex of head to apex of abdomen 2.50 mm.; to the
tip of wing 3.15 mm.; across the tegular .50 mm.; female, apex of
head to apex of abdomen 3.15 mm.; to the tip of the wing 3.85 mm.;
width across the tegule .70 mm.

Holotype ¢. Loma, Texas, December 11, 1910. In the collection
of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History.

Allotype @. Loma, Texas, December 11, 1910.

Paratype 1¢. Sarita, Texas, December 5, 1911.

Paratype 1¢. Ocean Springs, Miss., August 15, 1921. H. L.
Dozier.

Megamelus distinctus n. sp.

Figs. 408, 649

This species may be recognized by its pale frons with the black
elypeus and distinct genitalia.

Vertex about three times as long as broad, rounded before; frons
- much narrower between the eyes, nearly twice as wide below; an-
tenn short, first segment nearly as long as the second; pronotum
short, lateral carine straight and reaching posterior margin; meso-

202 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

notum twice as long as the pronotum, scutellar portion broad, obtuse ;
ealear tectiform, marginal teeth evident; pygofer of the male broad;
genital plates long, triangular; genital styles small, U-shaped; anal
segments elongate, the ventral margins produced into two obtuse
processes ; edegus long, slender, needle-like. |

Conor: General color testaceous gray, strongly marked with dull
black; vertex whitish; posterior and frontal compartments marked
with black; frons whitish, this color extended as a broad band across
the genx, the proximal end of the fore cox, the breast plates to the
mesopleura; first segment of the antenne and the proximal end of the
second similarly colored; the distal end of the second segment black ;
elypeus black, this color extended as a broad band across the distal end
of the coxe to the metapleura; legs grayish testaceous, more or less
clouded with brownish; disk of the pronotum blackish ; narrow anterior
and posterior borders and the carine testaceous gray; mesonotum
black, the median carina and the scutellar portion gray; fore wings
testaceous gray, the veins ochraceous yellow, faintly pustulate, basilar
margin blackish fuscous, claval stem black fuscous to the commissural
margin which is broadly blackish fuscous where the claval stem joins
it, common stem of medius and cubitus blackish fuscous, this. color
extending along medius and ecubitus for a short distance making a
definite Y-shaped mark, veins at the apex brownish fuscous; abdomen
black, the pleural pieces and posterior margin of the segments
testaceous gray.

Length apex of head to apex of abdomen 2.10 mm.; to the tips of
wings 3.15 mm.

Holotype ¢. Portland, Conn., July 25, 1920. B. H. Walden.

Megamelus estus n. sp.
Figs. 108, 409, 650

This species may be recognized by its general blackish color with
a median pale vitta evident dorsally and distinet genitalia.

Vertex narrow, strongly produced; frons much narrowed between
the eyes, gradually widened apically; antenne with the basal seg-
ment about as long as the second segment; pronotum a little shorter
than the vertex, the intermediate carine not strongly divergent;
mesonotum about as long as the pronotum, the intermediate carinze
not strongly divergent; male pygofer not strongly inflated; genital

1923 | THE FuLGoRIDZ OF EASTERN NortH AMERICA 203

plates flat, obtuse at the apex; genital styles short, about half as long
as the genital plates; genital hooks wanting; anal processes four,
horn-like.

Cotor: General color blackish fuscous, a broad median vitta pale
yellow; frons, antenne, legs and venter, except the abdomen, pale
yellow.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 2.50 mm.

Holotype ¢. Carolina Beach, N. C., June 7, 1920. Z. P. Metcalf.

Megamelus inflatus n. sp.

Figs. 406, 646

This species may be recognized by its almost uniform pale yellow
color with the pygofer of the male strongly inflated, genital hooks
united into a single obtuse process.

Vertex rather broad, strongly produced; frons narrowed between
the eyes, broadened apically, the median frontal carine forming a
distinct callosity at the apex of the head; antenne long; first segment
almost as long as the second; pronotum elongate, with a distinct im-
pressed point either side of the median carina; intermediate carine
strongly divergent, reaching the posterior border; mesonotum about
as long as the pronotum; calears small; less than half as long as the
basal segment of the tarsus; male pygofer strongly inflated; genital
plates flat, incurved at the apex with a small median tooth between;
genital styles short, about half as long as the genital plates, obtuse at
the apex; genital hooks united on the median line then produced into
an elongate obtuse process; anal segments short, anal processes not
produced.

Cotor: General color pale yellow, the frons, antenne and eyes
and the lateral margins of the abdomen a little darker.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 2.10 mm.

Holotype ¢. Mill Neck, New York, June 19. N. Banks. In the
collection of the Museum of Comparative Zoology.

Paratype ¢. Mill Neck, New York. June 19. N. Banks.

This distinct little species has evidently been confused in the past
with Megamelus notulus but the male genitalia are entirely distinct.

204 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocieTyY | May

Megamelus uncus n. sp.

Figs. 410, 411, 651

This species may be recognized by its general pale yellow color
with the lateral borders of the abdomen broadly black and .distinet
male genitalia.

Vertex narrow, produced; frons rather broad, narrow between
the eyes first segment of the antennz about two-thirds as long as the
second; pronotum shorter than the vertex; the intermediate carine
not strongly divergent; mesonotum longer than the pronotum; calear
about half as long as the basal segment of the tarsus; male pygofer
broad, the genital plates narrow, triangular; genital styles about as
long as the plates; genital hooks elongate, strongly recurved; anal
processes two.

CoLtor: General color pale yellow; eyes black; metapleura with a
large black spot; tarsus spines black; lateral border of the abdomen,
the pygofer and most of the venter black.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 2.40 mm.

Holotype ¢. Ellis Bay, Anticosti, Quebec, August 29. In the
collection of the Museum of Comparative Zoology.

Allotype ?. Ellis Bay, Anticosti, Quebec, August 29. In the eol-
lection of the Museum of Comparative Zoology.

This is another species that might easily be confused with Me-
gamelus notulus Germar; the male genitalia, however, are very dis-
tinct.

Megamelus anticostus n. sp.

Figs. 412, 652

This species may be recognized by the evident pale dorsal vitta
and distinct male genitalia.

Vertex broad, not much produced; frons broad, not narrowed be-
tween the eyes; first segment of the antenne about half as long as
the second; pronotum about as long as the vertex; the intermediate
carine somewhat divergent; mesonotum longer than the pronotum ;
ealear about half as long as the basal segment of the tarsus; pygofer
of the male broad, not inflated; genital plates narrow, legulate,
broadly separated; genital styles short; their apices bent at right
angles; genital hooks elongate, broad and obtuse; anal segments two.
spine-like.

1923] THE FULGORIDH OF EASTERN NortH AMERICA 205

Coton: General color pale yellow, eyes black; the lateral margins
of the pronotum and mesonotum, the costal margins of the wings
faintly fuscous, the lateral margins of the abdomen blackish, leaving
a broad pale median vitta.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 2.50 mm.

Holotype ¢. Ellis Bay, Anticosti, Quebec, August 29.

Allotype 2. Ellis Bay, Anticosti, Quebec, August 29.

This species might readily be confused with Megamelus notulus
but the male genitalia are very distinct.

Pissonotus speciosus n. sp.
Figs. 32, 450, 680

This species may be recognized by its small size bright colors and
distinet genitalia.

Vertex not short, produced; frons short, the median carina forked
just below the apex of the head; pronotum a little longer than the
vertex, sinuate posteriorly; mesonotum very small, wings reach-
ing nearly to the pygofers; genital aperture small, ventral sinus
produced ; genital styles terete at the base broadly curved, the apices
expanded and truncate, the inner angles produced meeting on the
median line, the basal angles obtusely produced; anal processes
strongly produced, obtuse and finger-like apically.

Cotor: General color black and bright ochraceous orange and
black, strongly contrasted; vertex and frons black; eyes, gene and
first segment of the antenne black; clypeus and second segment of
antenne bright ochraceous orange; pronotum black; posterior border
broadly white; mesonotum black; wings transparent; scutellar por-
tion of the mesonotum and basal segments of the abdomen bright
ochraceous orange; apical segments largely black with distinet white
powder, paler in the dorsal line and on the posterior borders; legs
pale ochraceous buff.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 1.90 mm.

Holotype ¢. Wrentham, Mass., June 27, 1920. G. W. Barber.
Paratypes 26 ¢. Wrentham, Mass., June 27, 1920. G. W.
Barber.

206 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

Pissonotus fulvus n. sp.
Figs. 448, 678

This species may be recognized by its almost uniform ochraceous
orange color with only the eyes and tips of the tarsi black.

Vertex elongate, narrow, nearly twice as long as broad; frons
elongate, narrow, the median carina forked well below the apex of
the head; pronotum shorter than the vertex, the lateral carine reach-
ing the posterior border; mesonotum shorter than the vertex; genital
aperture elongate, linear; the genital plates triangularly produced ;
genital styles slender, acute, parallel shorter than the hooks, genital
hooks nearly straight, parallel, the apices suddenly constricted acute ;
anal processes short, incurved.

Cotor: Almost uniform ochraceous orange; eyes black; carine
of frons sometimes narrowly lined with black; clypeus yellow, tarsal
elaws black; genital sytles and hooks and the anal process tipped
with black.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 2.50-3.00 mm.
Holotype ¢. Paxton, Illinois, July 30, 1916.

Allotype @. Paxton, Illinois, July 30, 1916.

Paratype 1¢. Metropolis, Illinois, August 19, 1916.

Pissonotus nigridorsum n. sp.
Figs. 449, 679

This species may be recognized by its general shining black color
with the elypeus and legs bright yellow.

Vertex broad, broadly rounded anteriorly; frons broad, the me-
dian carina forking below the middle of the eyes; antenne long first
segment joint about half as long as the second; pronotum longer than
the vertex, the lateral carine becoming obsolete before the posterior
border ; aperture of the pygofer broad; ventral sinus distinct; genital
styles large, twisted broader and truncate apically, the inner angle
produced and recurved; anal processes short, recurved, their apices
concealed by the styles.

Couor: General color shining black, elypeus and legs except the
tip of the tarsi pale yellow.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 2.25 mm.

Holotype ¢. Greenburg, Pa., September 18, 1904. M. Wirtner.

~)

1923 | THE FuLGoRIDe oF EastERN NortH AMERICA 20

Liburnia shermani n. sp.
Figs. 557, 686

This species is close to L. campestris Van Duzee but may be recog-
nized by the entirely distinet genitalia.

Vertex long and narrow, short; lateral carine indistinet over the
apex of the head; frons broad below about three times as long as broad ;
posterior margin of the pronotum nearly straight; lateral carinee
strongly curved outward, following the posterior margin of the eyes:
ealear short and narrow about half as long as the basal tarsal segment ;
marginal teeth very minute; male pygofer short, the genital opening
notched ventrally, rounded dorsally ; genital styles broad at the base,
widely separated touching each other medially about one-third of the
distance from the margin of the genital aperture then constricted into
a narrow neck-like portion which expands apically into a broad mush-
room-shaped apex; anal tube with two blunt ventral processes ; female
genitalia with the pygofers about four times as long as broad, slightly
longer than the ovipositor.

Cotor: General color brilliant orange yellow with the following
parts marked with black; eyes, gene, meso-and metapleura and a row
of lateral spots on the margins of the abdomen; the frons in the male
is deep black, in the female brownish testaceous; the lateral pieces of
the pronotum are white in the male and female with the broad pos-
terior margin of the pronotum in the male whitish.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 2 mm.; width of the
pronotum .66 mm.

Holotype ¢. Raleigh, N. C., late July. F. Sherman.

Allotype ¢. Raleigh, N. C., late July. F. Sherman.

Paratypes 592 2. Raleigh, N. C., late July. F. Sherman.

Liburnia unda n. sp.
Fig. 709

This is a pale species quite similar. to Liburnia detecta Van Duzee
but may be recognized by its distinet genitalia.

Vertex broad and short; the lateral carine distinct over the apex
of the head; frons broad, narrowed to about half its width between
the eyes; pronotum as long as the vertex; the lateral carine diverg-
ingly curved outward; mesonotum but little longer than the pro-

208 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

notum; ecalear rather narrow with the margins strongly reflexed,
about two-thirds as long at the basal segment of the tarsi, teeth very
fine; pygofers of the male short; the genital aperture broadly oval
below the anal tube; the dorsal margin strongly reflexed and touch-
ing the anal tube dorsally; genital styles narrow, blunt, their bases
contiguous about one-third of the length and then roundly diverging
so that their apices are about half of their length apart.

Cotor: Color pale creamy white with the eyes, the lateral mar-
gins of the mesonotum, mesopleura, and a row of more or less con-
fluent spots on the lateral margins of the segments of the abdomen
blackish; these blackish markings fading to fuscous in the female.

Length, apex of vertex to apex of abdomen 2.50 mm.; width of
pronotum .85 mm.

Holotype ¢.. Carolina Beach, near Wilmington, N. C., June 6,
1920. Z. P. Metcalf.

Allotype @. Carolina Beach, near Wilmington, N. C., June 6,
1920. Z. P. Metealf.

Paratypes 1¢. Carolina Beach, near Wilmington, N. C., June 6,
1920. Z. P. Metcalf.

Liburnia triloba n. sp.
Fig. 702

This species may be recognized by its dull ochraceous brown color,
large size and distinet genitalia.

Vertex quadrate, produced anteriorly, a little longer than broad;
frons narrow between the eyes, arched ventrally; antenne long, the
second segment about one and one-half times as long as the first;
pronotum as long as the vertex, broadly notched posteriorly ; meso-
notum nearly twice as long as the pronotum, the scutellar portion
very large; calear large and foliaceous, marginal teeth stout; genital
aperture elongate, ventral sinus shallow, ventral teeth small, acute,
side margins a little inflated; dorsal angles slightly produced; genital
styles contiguous, horizontal at the base, strongly projecting pos-
teriorly, the apical portion bent at right angles and trilobed; the in-
ner lobe slender with a ventral tooth, dorsal lobe elongate, marginal
lobe obtuse; genital hooks slender, curving posteriorly ; anal segment
short, processes obtuse.

1923 | THE FuLeorip2 or Eastern NortH AMERICA 209

Cotor: General color testaceous yellow ; frons and clypeus brown;
eyes black; wings brownish yellow, veins faint on the base a little
brown apically ; abdomen of the male black, the margins and ventral
pieces narrowly bordered with pale yellow.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 2.25 mm.; to the tips of
wings 3.30 mm.

Holotype ¢. New Orleans, La.

Paratypes 26 ¢. Titusville, Fla., November 8, 1911. Cornell
University collection.
Liburnia alexanderi n. sp.

Fig. 704

This species may be recognized by the pale yellow color of the
head, thorax and legs, the frons, wings and abdomen largely black.

Vertex narrow about twice as long as broad, more produced an-
teriorly; frons narrow between the eyes widened below; antenne
short, first joint nearly as long as the second; pronotum shorter than
the vertex; mesonotum short, lateral carine strongly divergent; eal-
car small, acute; genital aperture large, ventral sinus shallow; genital
styles together lyre-shaped, contiguous at the base, their basal angles

a little produced, the apical margin broadly recurved, the inner angles
a little produced.

Cotor: General color of the head and thorax and legs pale yel-
low; eyes black, lateral compartments of the frons and clypeus black;
the carine pale yellow, gene largely black; wings piceous brown to
piceous black, the veins distinet ; abdomen piceous brown to black, the
broad posterior margins of the abdominal segments and the lateral
margins pale yellow.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 1.75 mm.

Holotype ¢. Swannanoa, N. C., August 25, 1919. H. Osborn
and Z. P. Metcalf.

Paratypes 1¢. Urbana, Illinois. 1¢ Dongola, Illinois, August
21, 1916.

1¢. Tupelo, Miss., Mareh 22, 1921. H. L. Dozier.

1¢. Falls Church, Va., August 24, N. Banks.

210 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

Liburnia fulvidorsum n. sp.
Figs. 31, 705

This species may be recognized by the pale yellow color of the
frons, vertex, thorax and legs; wings and the abdomen largely black.

Vertex about twice as long as broad, rounded anteriorly, carine
distinet; frons nearly parallel sided, very little broadened below;
antennex long, reaching the elypeal margin, the second segment twice
as long as the first; pronotum elongate, the posterior margin tri-
angularly notched; mesonotum short, the lateral carine strongly
diverging; calear foliaceous; rather broad; aperture of the pygofer
very broad, triangular below, the dorsal angles strongly produced ;
genital styles broad, lgulate, truncate at the apex; anal segment
short.

Cotor: Head excepting the black eyes pale yellow; thorax in-
cluding the legs pale yellow, the metapleura with a fuscous spot;
brachypterous wings black, opaque; abdomen black, the posterior
segments broadly margined with yellow, the lateral margins broadly
yellow. ,

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 2.10 mm.

Holotype ¢. Brownsville, Texas, December 10, 1910.
Paratypes 2¢ ¢. Brownsville, Texas, December 10, 1910.

Liburnia gerhardi n. sp.
Figs. 703, 496

This species may be recognized by its general bright ochraceous
yellow color with the frons narrow and distinct genitalha.

Vertex about one and one-half times as broad as long, distinctly
carinate, broadly rounded at the frons; frons narrow, elongate, the
sides a little arched below the eyes; antenne elongate, the first seg-
ment about as long as the second; pronotum about as long as the
vertex, broadly sinuate posteriorly; mesonotum large, the secutellar
portion occupying about half its length, lateral carine broadly di-
vergent; calear very large, foliaceous, nearly as long as the basal seg-
ment of the tarsus; genital aperture very large, ventral sinus tri-
angular, deep, the ventral angles a little produced, dorsal angles
strongly produced; genital styles contiguous at the base, the basal
angles roundly produced posteriorly, the stems strongly divergent, the

1923 | THE FULGORID2 OF EASTERN NortH AMERICA PAR

apical portion broad and flat, the outer angle produced dorsad to near
the dorsal angle, the inner angle reflexed, produced into a strong
finger-like process; anal segments short, anal processes slender, in-
eurved, reaching the dorsal margin of the diaphragm.

Cotor: General color bright ochraceous yellow, shining; eyes
black; pleural pieces and abdomen black, the lateral margins and
posterior borders of the segments narrowly yellow.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 2.95 mm.; to the tips of
wings 5.25 mm. .

Holotype 13. Beverly Hills, Ill, August 31, 1907. W. J.
Gerhard.

Allotype1¢?. Beverly Hills, Ill., August 31,1907. W. J. Gerhard.

Paratype 12. Chicago, Il., July 5, 1907.

I take pleasure in naming this species for Mr. W. J. Gerhard who
very kindly loaned me his entire collection of Fulgoride for study.

Liburnia staminata n. sp.

Fig. 706

This species may be recognized by its pale color with the frons
strongly constricted between eyes, the genital styles slender; the
apices suddenly expanded.

Head broad; vertex narrow, strongly produced; lateral margins
converging anteriorly and the carine strong over the apex of the head;
frons broad strongly narrowed between the eyes broadest at about the
level of the antennex, converging toward the clypeus; antenne reach-
ing the elypeal margin, first segment nearly as long as second; pro-
notum longer than vertex, distinctly notched posteriorly ; mesonotum
transverse, the scutellar portion large; calear very long, longer than
the basal segment of the tarsus; pygofer of male long, genital aper-
ture large, ventral sinus shallow; genital styles slender, contiguous
at the base, diverging from each other at an angle of about eighty-five
degrees ; the apices suddenly expanded stamen-like; the dorsal margin
of diaphragm produced into a short nearly quadrate median tooth;
anal segment short; anal processes broadly triangular reaching the
dorsal margin of the diaphragm.

Cotor: General color dull ochraceous yellow; eyes black, tips of
tarsi black; wings ochraceous yellow, the veins brighter; anal seg-
ment fuscous brown.

212 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 2.80 mm.; to tips of
wings 3.50 mm.

Holotype ¢. Chicago, Ill., July 25. W. J. Gerhard.

Liburnia waldeni n. sp.
Fig. 698

This species may be recognized by its uniform duil brown color
and short male pygofer.

Vertex rather narrow, elongate; carine fairly distinct over the
apex of the head; frons narrowed between the eyes, a little arched
below; antenne reaching well beyond the clypeal margin; pronotum
nearly as long as the vertex, the lateral carine not strongly reflexed ;
pygofer of the male short, truncate caudally, the genital aperture
large, the genital styles long, ligulate, a little arched, their apices acute
meeting in the median line just below the anal segment, which is
definitely incised on the ventral margin and triangularly produced
on each side.

Cotor: General color dull blackish brown; antennze and legs
buffy, lateral margins of the abdomen with large pale spots, wings
brownish, the veins darker.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 2.10 mm.; to tips of
wings 3.30 mm.

Holotype 6. New Haven, Conn., August 8, 1920. B. H. Walden.

Criomorphus conspicuus n. sp.
Figs. 105, 391, 392, 549, 635

This species has a general resemblance to Phyllodinus flabellatus
Ball but the tibiw are terete, not expanded and the median frontal
carina is forked on the eclypeal margin.

Head wide, about as wide as the pronotum; vertex about as broad
as long; median carina short, the lateral compartments elongate,
reaching almost to the base of the vertex; posterior margin of the
vertex nearly straight; anterior margin slightly arched; frons about
twice as long as broad, lateral margins curved; median carina of the
frons forked nearly to the clypeal margins, the two prongs of the fork
conspicuous on the apex of the head; antenne with first segment
about half as long as second, the second segment clavate. Pronotum

1923 | THE FuLGoripa oF EAsterN NortH AMERICA 213

nearly as long as the vertex, posterior margin nearly straight. Meso-
notum small, carine wanting or very faint. Brachypterous wings
short, reaching the second segment; abdomen short and stout. Male
pygofer short, broad, about twice as broad as long; aperture broad,
triangularly excavated ventrally; genital styles slender, nearly hori-
zontal; the inner margin expanded to the middle then suddenly con-
stricted, the styles ending in acute reflexed tips; anal segment short,
the anal processes long, acutely pointed, anal styles short, barely
exserted.

Cotor: General color black with the head, thorax and legs largely
testaceous yellow, the posterior margin of the pronotum and the apical
margin of the wings bordered with whitish; head testaceous yellow;
eyes blackish; frons with the carine narrowly bordered with fuscous.
Pronotum testaceous yellow; posterior border margined with whitish.
Mesonotum testaceous yellow, the posterior borders whitish; fore
wings blackish, the apical margins bordered with whitish; legs tes-
taceous yellow; femora lineate with fuscous; claws and spines black-
ish; abdomen shining black with each dorsal segment with a median
testaceous yellow dash on the posterior border; pygofer fuscous and
anal segments bordered with yellow posteriorly.

Length, apex of head to apex of abdomen 2.60 mm.

Holotype 2. New Haven, Conn., June 1920. B. H. Walden.

Paratypes 1¢?. Urbana, IIl., June 1913. 192. Forest Hills, Mass.,
August 1919.

This is a very pretty little species and has apparently escaped
attention previously.

214

Fig.
Fig.
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Fig.
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Fig.
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Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
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Fig.

aie.
Fig.
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Fig.
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Fig.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

PCOIHA MP wD P

See
eps

bo p bw Ww wb t
= °

37.

CDAAM

JOURNAL OF THE MircHeLL SocieTy

EXPLANATION OF PLATES

PLATE 38

Amycle vernalis Manee.
Aphelonema rosa Metealf.
Cyrpoptus belfragei Stal.
Poblicia misella Stal.

Poblicia fuliginosa Olivier.
Phylloscelis atra albovenosa Melichar.
Megamelus angulatus Osborn.
Phylloscelis pallescens Germar.
Poblicia constellata Walker.
Ormenis rufifascia Walker.
Aphelonema bivittata Ball.
Acanalonia bivittata Say.
Ormenis pruinosa Say.

PLATE 39

Catonia nava Say.

Flatoides seabrosus Melichar.
Flatoides fuscus Van Duzee.
Flatoides maculosus Metcalf.
Megamelanus terminalis Metcalf.
Pentagramma vittatifrons Uhler.
Myndus slossoni Ball.

Pissonotus guttatus Spooner.
Laccocera zonata Van Duzee.

PLATE 40

BEuklastus harti Metealf.
Amalopota uhleri Van Duzee.
Amalopota fitchi Van Duzee.
Patara vanduzei Ball.
Otiocerus degeerii Kirby.
Otiocerus coquebertii Kirby.
Liburnia campestris Van Duzee.
Bruchomorpha bicolor Metcalf.
Liburnia fulvidorsum Metealf.
Pissonotus speciosus Metcalf.
Otiocerus stollii Kirby.
Otiocerus abbotii Kirby.
Otiocerus wolfii Kirby.
Otiocerus schellenbergii Kirby.
Fitchiella robertsoni Fitch.
Megamelanus lautus Metealf.

| May

1923]

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

76.
Wits

THE FuLGoRIDe oF EAastTeRN NortTH AMERICA

PLATE 41

Cyarda melichari Van Duzee.
Cyarda acuminipennis Spinola.
Rhyncopteryx caudata Van Duzee.
Scolopsella reticulata Ball.
Crepusia glauca Metcalf.
Pelitropis rotulata Van Duzee.
Neurotmeta sponsa Guerin.

. Phylloscelis atra Germar.

Epiptera septentrionalis Provancher, face.
Epiptera variegata Van Duzee, face.
Epiptera opaca Say, face.

Fitchiella melichari Ball.

. Bruchomorpha dorsata Fitch.

PLATE 42

Scolops sulcipes Say.

Scolops perdix Uhler.
Bruchomorpha suturalis Melichar.
Bruchomorpha vittata Metcalf.
Bruchomorpha rugosa Metcalf.

. Bruchomorpha decorata Metealf.

. Aphelonema rugosa Ball.

. Aphelonema histrionica Stal.

Misodema reticulata Uhler (after Melichar).
. Dictyonissus griphus Uhler (after Melichar).

Traxus fulvus Metcalf.

PLATE 43

Issus servillei Spinola.

Picumna ovatipennis Walker.
Issomorphus maculatus Melichar.
Hysteropterum punctiferum Walker.
Thionia simplex Germar.

Catonia dimidata Van Duzee, face.
Catonia impunctata Fitch, face.
Catonia bicinctura Van Duzee, face.
Catonia cinctifrons Fitch, face.

. Epiptera opaca Say.

Catonia impunctata Fitch.

. Oliarus vittatus Metealf.

Oliarus cinnamomeus Provancher.

PLATE 44

Microledrida fulva Metealf.
Ciocixius dorsivittatus Van Duzee.

Or

85.

JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL Society | May

Cixius apicalis Metealf.

Cixius basalis Van Duzee.

Bothriocera undata Fabricius, fore wing.
Bothriocera drakei Metcalf, fore wing.

J Bothriocera tinealis Burmeister, fore wing.

Bothriocera westwoodi Stal, fore wing.
Bothriocera bicornis Fabricius.
Oeclidius nanus Van Duzee.

Oecleus borealis Van Duzee.

Anotia bonnetii Kirby.

Anotia westwoodi Fitch.

Anotia sayi Ball.

Anotia kirkaldyi Ball.

PLATE 45

Mysidia mississippiensis Dozier.
Neocenchrea heidemanni Ball.
Phaciocephalus uhleri Ball.
Herpis maculata Van Duzee.
Stobera tricarinata Say.
Copicerus irroratus Swartz.
Bostera nasuta Ball.

Bakerella maculata Crawford.
Laceocera vittipennis Van Duzee.
Saccharosydne saccharivorus Westwood.
Stenocranus vittatus Stal.
Phyllodinus nervatus Van Duzee.
Phyllodinus flabellatus Ball.

PLATE 46

Maecrotomella carinata Van Duzee.
Criomorphus conspicuus Metcalf.
Liburniella ornata Say.
Megamelus palaetus Van Duzee.
Megamelus estus Metcalf.

Kelisia axialis Van Duzee.
Megamelanus dorsalis Metealf.
Peregrinus maidis Ashmead.
Liburnia slossoni Ball.

Liburnia albolineosa Fowler.
Liburnia teapea Fowler.
Pissonotus quadripustulatus Van Duzee.
Pissonotus aphidioides Van Duzee.
Pissonotus dorsalis Van Duzee.

1923]

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

118.
i)
120.
121.
122.
123.

124.
125.
126.
127.
128.
129.
130.
131.
132.
133.
134.
135.
136.
137.
138.
139.
140.
141.
142.
143.
144,
145.
146.
147.

148.
149.
150.
151.
152.
153.
154.
155.
‘156.
157.
158.

THE FuuGorID2 oF EasterN NortH AMERICA

PLATE 47

Acanalonia pumila Van Duzee.
Myndus enotatus Van Duzee.
Dictyophara microrhina Walker.
Liburnia detecta Van Duzee.
Megamelanus elongatus Ball.
Megamelanus spartini Osborn.

PLATE 48

Acanalonia conica, dorsal view.
Acanalonia conica, lateral view.
Acanalonia pumila, dorsal view.
Acanalonia fasciata, dorsal view.
Acanalonia servillei, frontal view.
Acanalonia bivittata, dorsal view.
Acanalonia virescens, dorsal view.
Acanalonia concinnula, dorsal view.
Acanalonia immaculata, dorsal view.
Acanalonia latifrons, dorsal view.
Acanalonia servillei, lateral view.
Acanalonia servillei, dorsal view.
Cyarda melichari, dorsal view.
Cyarda melichari, frontal view.
Cyarda walkeri, dorsal view.

Cyarda acuminipennis, dorsal view.
Rhynchopteryx caudata, dorsal view.
Ormenis chloris, frontal view.
Ormenis rufifascia, frontal view.
Ormenis venusta, frontal view.
Ormensis septentrionalis, frontal view.
Flatoides maculosus, dorsal view.
Flatoides fuscus, dorsal view.
Flatoides tortrix, dorsal view.

PLATE 49

Flatoides insularis, dorsal view.
Flatoides punctatus, dorsal view.
Flatoides consisus, dorsal view.
Flatoides acutus, dorsal view.
Flatoides signatus, dorsal view.
Flatoides signatus, frontal view.
Flatoides scabrosus, dorsal view.
Flatoides secabrosus, frontal view.
Scolopsella reticulata, dorsal view.
Scolopsella reticulata, frontal view.
Scolopsella reticulata, lateral view.

217

218

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

159.
160.
161.
162.
163.
164.
165.
166.
167.
168.
169.
170.
nals

172.
UPS}
174.
175.
176.
T/T
178.
Ue).
180.
181.
182.
183.
184.
185.
186.
187.
188.
189.
190.
HO hire
192.
193.
194.
195.

196.
197.
198.
i1g%)-
200.

JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY

Amycle vernalis, dorsal view.
Amyele vernalis, frontal view.
Amycle vernalis, lateral view.
Amycle saxatilis, dorsal view.
Crepusia glauca, dorsal view.
Crepusia glauca, frontal view.
Cyrpoptus belfragei, dorsal view.
Cyrpoptus belfragei, frontal view.
Cyrpoptus belfragei, lateral view.
Cyrpoptus reineckei, dorsal view.
Cyrpoptus nubeculosus, dorsal view.
Poblicia constellata, dorsal view.
Poblicia constellata, frontal view.

PLATE 50

Poblicia fuliginosa, dorsal view.
Poblicia fuliginosa, frontal view.
Poblicia fuliginosa, lateral view.
Poblicia thanatophana, dorsal view.
Poblicia thanatophana, frontal view.
Pelitropis rotulata, dorsal view.
Pelitropis rotulata, frontal view.
Neurotmeta sponsa, dorsal view.
Neurotmeta sponsa, frontal view.
Monopsis tabida, frontal view (after Spinola)
Phylloscelis atra, dorsal view.
Phylloseelis atra, frontal view.
Scolops sulcipes, dorsal view.
Scolops osborni, dorsal view.
Scolops parvulus, dorsal view.
Scolops hesperius, dorsal view.
Scolops grossus, dorsal view.
Scolops grossus, frontal view.
Scolops angustatus, dorsal view.
Scolops angustatus, frontal view.
Seolops perdix, dorsal view.
Scolops viridis, dorsal view.

Scolops desiceatus, dorsal view.
Scolops robustus, dorsal view.

PLATE 51

Seolops spurcus, dorsal view.

Scolops vanduzei, dorsal view.
Scolops spureus, lateral view.
Dictyophara microrhina, dorsal view.
Dictyophara microrhina, frontal view.

| May

E AVI
. 202.
. 203.
. 204.
ig. 205.
. 206.
. 207.
. 208.
. 209.
. 210.
Sale
5 Ale
7 alo.
. 214.
5 se
. 216.
5 PALE
. 218.
5, Pale

. 220.
. 221.
. 222.
. 223.
. 224,
. 225.
. 226.
. 227.
. 228.
5 PA
. 230.
aol.
. 232.
. 233.
. 234,
. 235.
. 236.
. 237.
. 238.
. 239.
. 240.
. 241.
. 242,
. 243.

THE FULGORID2 OF EASTERN NortH AMERICA

Dictyophara recurva, dorsal view.
Dictyophara recurva, frontal view.
Dictyophara recurva, lateral view.
Dictyophara florens, dorsal view.
Dictyophara lingula, dorsal view.
Dictyophara lingula, frontal view.
Fitchiella robertsoni, dorsal view.
Dictyophara florens, frontal view.
Fitchiella fitchi, dorsal view.
Fitchiella melichari, dorsal view.
Fitchiella melichari, lateral view.
Bruchomorpha tristis, lateral view.
Bruchomorpha minima, lateral view.
Bruchomorpha dorsata, lateral view.
Bruchomorpha oculata, dorsal view.
Bruchomorpha oculata, lateral view.
Bruchomorpha nasuta, dorsal view.
Bruchomorpha nasuta, lateral view.
Bruchomorpha suturalis, lateral view.

PLATE 52

Bruchomorpha vittata, lateral view.
Bruchomorpha pallidipes, lateral view.
Bruchomorpha rugosa, lateral view.
Bruchomorpha decorata, lateral view.
Bruchomorpha bicolor, lateral view.
Bruchomorpha jocosa, lateral view.
Aphelonema rosa, dorsal view.
Aphelonema rosa, frontal view.
Aphelonema obscura, dorsal view.
Aphelonema obscura, frontal view.
Aphelonema simplex, dorsal view.
Aphelonema simplex, frontal view.
Aphelonema bivittata, dorsal view.
Aphelonema bivittata, frontal view.
Aphelonema rugosa, dorsal view.
Aphelonema rugosa, frontal view.
Aphelonema histrionica, dorsal view.
Aphelonema histrionica, frontal view.
Traxus fulvus, dorsal view.

Traxus fulvus, frontal view.

Issus servillei, dorsal view.

Issus servillei, frontal view.

Picumna ovatipennis, dorsal view.
Picumna ovatipennis, frontal view.

219

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JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL SOCIETY | May

PLATE 53

Issomorphus maculatus, dorsal view.
Issomorphus maculatus, frontal view.
Hysteropterum punctiferum, dorsal view.
Hysteropterum punctiferum, frontal view.
Thionia simplex, dorsal view.
Thionia simplex, frontal view.
Thionia elliptica, dorsal view.
Thionia elliptica, frontal view.
Thionia producta, dorsal view.
Thionia producta, frontal view.
Thionia ocellata, dorsal view.

Thionia quinquata, dorsal view.
Thionia bullata, dorsal view.

Thionia bullata, frontal view.
Epiptera floride, dorsal view.
Epiptera septentrionalis, dorsal view.
Epiptera variegata, dorsal view.
Epiptera slossoni, dorsal view.
Epiptera pallida, dorsal view.
Epiptera brittoni, dorsal view.
Epiptera colorata, dorsal view.
Epiptera opaca, dorsal view.

Catonia grisea, dorsal view.

Oliarus cinnamomeus, dorsal view.

PLATE 54

Oliarus humilis, dorsal view.
Oliarus montanus, dorsal view.
Oliarus placitus, dorsal view.
Oliarus difficilis, dorsal view.
Oliarus franciscanus, dorsal view.
Oliarus aridus, dorsal view.

Oliarus quinquelineatus, dorsal view.
Oliarus texanus, dorsal view.

Oliarus vittatus, dorsal view.
Oliarus vicarius, dorsal view.
Monorachis sordulentus, dorsal view.
Monorachis sordulentus, frontal view.
Microledrida fulva, dorsal view.
Microledrida fulva, frontal view.
Ciocixius dorsivittatus, dorsal view.
Ciocixius dorsivittatus, frontal view.
Cixius apicalis, dorsal view.

Cixius apicalis, frontal view.

Cixius cultus, dorsal view.

THE FuLGoRID2 oF Eastern Norru AMERICA

Cixius stigmatus, dorsal view.
Cixius misellus, dorsal view.
Cixius colepium, dorsal view,
Cixius basalis, dorsal view,
Cixius pini, dorsal view.

PLATE 55

Bothriocera bicornis, dorsal view.
Bothriocera bicornis, frontal view.
Bothriocera bicornis, lateral view,
Oeclidius nanus, dorsal view.
Oeclidius nanus, frontal view.
Oecleus decens, dorsal view.
Oecleus productus, dorsal view.
Oecleus fulvidorsum, dorsal view.
Oecleus lineatus, dorsal view.
Oecleus obtusus, dorsal view.
Oecleus borealis, dorsal view.
Oecleus borealis, frontal view.
Myndus fulvus, dorsal view.
Myndus slossoni, dorsal view.
Myndus radicis, dorsal view.
Myndus radicis, frontal view.
Myndus enotatus, dorsal view.
Myndus viridis, dorsal view.
Myndus pusillus, dorsal view.
Myndus pictifrons, dorsal view.
Myndus truncatus, dorsal view.
Myndus sordidipennis, dorsal view.
Myndus delicatus, dorsal view.
Otiocerus degeerii, dorsal view.

PLATE 56

Otiocerus degeerii, frontal view.
Otiocerus degeerii, lateral view.
Otiocerus abbotii, dorsal view.
Otiocerus abbotii, lateral view.
Otiocerus wolfii, dorsal view,
Otiocerus wolfii, lateral view.
Otiocerus amyotii, dorsal view.
Otiocerus amyotii, lateral view,
Otiocerus signoretii, dorsal view.
Otiocerus signoretii, lateral view.
Otiocerus stollii, dorsal view.
Otiocerus stollii, lateral view.
Otiocerus schellenbergii, dorsal view.

221

5 Bee)
. 330.
. 331.
. 332.
. 333.
. 334,
. 335.
. 336.
. 337.
. 338.
. 339.

. 340.
34a
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2343)
. B44.
. 845.
. 346.
84
. 348.
. 349.
o, 350.
oil
. 352.
easy
. 354.
. 355.
. 356.
4 Soi
. 358.
. 359.
. 360.
. 361.
. 362.
. 363.
. 364.

. 365.
r, 366.
ig. 367.
. 368.
POs
. 370.

JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY

Otiocerus schellenbergii, lateral view.
Otiocerus coquebertii, dorsal view.
Otiocerus coquebertii, lateral view.
Otiocerus kirbyii, dorsal view.
Otiocerus kirbyii, lateral view.
Euklastus harti, dorsal view.
Euklastus harti, frontal view.
Euklastus harti, lateral view.
Amalopota fitchi, dorsal view.
Amalopota fitchi, lateral view.
Amalopota uhleri, dorsal view.

PLATE 57

Amalopota uhleri, frontal view.
Amalopota uhleri, lateral view.
Anotia burnetii, dorsal view.

Anotia burnetii, lateral view.

Anotia bonnetii, dorsal view.

Anotia bonnetii, frontal view.
Anotia bonnetii, lateral view.

Anotia robertsoni, dorsal view.
Anotia robertsoni, lateral view.
Anotia westwoodi, dorsal view.
Anotia westwoodi, lateral view.
Anotia sayi, dorsal view.

Anotia sayi, lateral view.

Anotia kirkaldyi, dorsal view.

Anotia kirkaldyi, lateral view.
Patara vanduzei, dorsal view.

Patara vanduzei, frontal view.
Patara vanduzei, lateral view.
Mysidia mississippiensis, dorsal view.
Neocenchrea heidemanni, dorsal view.

Neocenchrea heidemanni, frontal view.

Phaciocephalus fulvus, dorsal view.
Phaciocephalus fulvus, frontal view.
Phaciocephalus uhleri, dorsal view.
Phaciocephalus uhleri, frontal view.

PLATE 58

Herpis maculata, dorsal view.
Herpis vulgaris, dorsal view.
Herpis vulgaris, frontal view.
Stobera pallida, dorsal view.
Stobera pallida, frontal view.
Stobera tricarinata, dorsal view.

[May

1923 |

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

THE FuLGorip& or Eastern Norru AMERICA

Stobera tricarinata, frontal view.
Stobera minuta, dorsal view.

Stobera minuta, frontal view.
Copiocerus irroratus, dorsal view.
Copiocerus irroratus, frontal view.
Pentagramma minore, dorsal view.
Pentagramma minore, frontal view.
Pentagramma vittatifrons, dorsal view.
Pentagramma vittatifrons, frontal view.
Bostzra nasuta, dorsal view.

Bostera nasuta, frontal view.
Bakerella maculata, dorsal view.
Bakerella maculata, frontal view.
Lacecocera vittipennis, dorsal view.
Laccocera vittipennis, frontal view.
Laccocera zonata, dorsal view.
Phyllodinus nervatus, dorsal view.
Phyllodinus nervatus, frontal view.

PLATE 59

Macrotomella carinata, dorsal view.
Macrotomella carinata, frontal view.
Criomorphus conspicuus, dorsal view.
Criomorphus conspicuus, frontal view.
Liburniella ornata, dorsal view.
Liburniella ornata, frontal view.

. Saecharosydne saccharivorus, dorsal view.

Saccharosydne saccharivorus, frontal view.
Saccharosydne saccharivorus, lateral view.
Stenocranus similis, dorsal view.
Stenocranus arundineus, dorsal view.
Stenocranus arundineus, frontal view.
Stenocranus felti, dorsal view.
Stenocranus felti, frontal view.
Stenocranus vittatus, dorsal view.
Stenocranus dorsalis, dorsal view.
Megamelus palaetus, dorsal view.
Megamelus inflatus, dorsal view.
Megamelus longicornis, dorsal view.
Megamelus distinetus, dorsal view.
Megamelus exstus, dorsal view.
Megamelus uneus, dorsal view.
Megamelus uncus, lateral view.
Megamelus anticostus, dorsal view.
Megamelus angulatus, dorsal view.
Megamelus davisi, dorsal view.

co

2 alt:
. 416.
Bec tly /-
. 418.
. 419.
. 420.
seaoiks
. 422.
. 423.
. 424,
. 425.
. 426.
. 427.
. 428.
. 429.
. 430.
. 431.
. 432.
. 433.
. 434.
. 435.
. 436.
. 437.

. 438.
. 439.
. 440.
. 441.
. 442.
. 443.
. 444,
. 445.
. 446.
. 447.
. 448.
. 449.
. 450.
. 451.
. 452.
. 453.
. 454,
. 455.
. 456.
1 4c

JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL SOCIETY

PLATE 60

Prokelisia marginata, dorsal view.

Prokelisia
Prokelisia
Prokelisia
Prokelisia

marginata, frontal view.
marginata, lateral view.
setigera, dorsal view.
setigera, dorsal view.

Kelisia axialis, dorsal view.
Kelisia axialis, frontal view.
Kelisia axialis, lateral view.
Kelisia crocea, dorsal view.

Kelisia parvula, dorsal view.

Megamelanus terminalis, dorsal view.
Megamelanus terminalis, lateral view.
Megamelanus lautus, dorsal view.
Megamelanus lautus, lateral view.
Megamelanus elongatus, dorsal view.
Megamelanus elongatus, frontal view.
Megamelanus elongatus, lateral view.
Megamelanus dorsalis, dorsal view.
Megamelanus dorsalis, lateral view.
Megamelanus spartini, dorsal view.
Megamelanus spartini, lateral view.
Peregrinus maidis, dorsal view.
Peregrinus maidis, frontal view.

Pissonotus
Pissonotus
Pissonotus
Pissinotus
Pissonotus
Pissonotus
Pissonotus
Pissonotus
Pissonotus
Pissonotus
Pissonotus
Pissonotus
Pissonotus

PLATE 61

quadripustulatus, dorsal view.
aphidioides, dorsal view.
brunneus, dorsal view.
dorsalis, dorsal view.
ater, dorsal view.
marginatus, dorsal view.
pallipes, dorsal view.
guttatus, dorsal view.
basalis, dorsal view.
delicatus, dorsal view.
fulvus, dorsal view.
nigridorsum, dorsal view.
speciosus, dorsal view.

Liburnia lutulenta, dorsal view.
Liburnia lutulenta, frontal view.
Liburnia campestris, dorsal view.
Liburnia slossoni, dorsal view.
Liburnia pellucida, dorsal view.
Liburnia pellucida, frontal view.
Liburnia albolineosa, dorsal view.

[May

1923]

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

. 458.
. 459,
. 460.
. 461.

. 462.
. 463.
. 464.
. 465.
. 466.
. 467.
. 468.
. 469.
. 470.
. 471.
. 472.
. 473.
. 474,
. 475.
. 476.
ae ete
. 478.
. 479.
. 480.
. 481.
. 482.
. 483.
. 484.
. 485,
. 486.
. 487.
. 488.
. 489.
. 490.
2 491.
. 492.
. 493.
. 494.
. 495.
. 496.

497.
498.
499,

THe FuLcorip2 or Eastern Nortu AMERICA

Liburnia albolineosa, frontal view.
Liburnia teapea, dorsal view.
Liburnia teapea, frontal view.
Liburnia puella, dorsal view.

PLATE 62

Acanalonia conica, antenne.
Flatoides tortrix, antenne.
Scolopsella reticulata, antenne.
Amycle saxatilis, antenne.
Crepusia glauca, antenne.
Cyrpoptus belfragei, antenne.
Poblicia fuliginosa, antenne.
Pelitropis rotulata, antenne.
Neurotmeta sponsa, antenne.
Phylloscelis albovenosa, antenne,
Scolops perdix, antenne.
Dictyophara microrhina, antenne.
Traxus fulvus, antenne.

Epiptera variegata, antenne.
Cixius colepium, antenne.
Bothriocera bicornis, antenne.
Otiocerus degeerii, antenne.
Euklastus harti, antenne.
Amalopota fitchi, antenne.

Anotia westwoodi, antenne.
Anotia sayi antenne.

Patara vanduzei, antenne.
Mysidia mississippiensis, antenne.
Neocenchrea heidemanni, antenne.
Herpis incisa, antenne.

Stobera pallida, antenne.
Copiocerus irroratus, antenne.
Pentagramma yvittatifrons, antenne.
Bostera nasuta, antenne.
Bakerella maculata, antenne.
Laccocera vittipennis, antenne.
Saccharosydne saccharivorus, antenne.
Stenocranus similis, antenne.
Stenocranus vittatus, antenne.
Liburnia gerhardi, antenne.

PLATE 63

Acanalonia latifrons, wing.
Ormenis venusta, wing.
Ormenis septentrionalis, wing.

or

or On

or oo
bo pS bd WW WS DW
oO

oO

5 GPU)
. 530.
. ool.
. O32.
. 033.
. 534.
. 530.
. 536.
5 DBM
. 538.
. 539.
. 540.
. O41.

H Co bo

Coe Coe

JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY

Ormenis relicta, wing.
Cyrpoptus belfragei, wing.
Cyrpoptus reinecki, wing.
Poblicia fuliginosa, fore wing.
Poblicia fuliginosa, hind wing.
Pelitropis rotulata, wing.
Neurotmeta sponsa, wing.
Monopsis tabida, wing (after Spinola).
Seolops perdix, wing.
Dictyophara dioxys, wing.
Dictyophara microrhina, wing.
Bruchomorpha oculata, wing.
Tssus servillei, wing.

PLATE 64

Picumna ovatipennis, wing.
Issomorphus maculatus, wing.
Thionia bullata, wing.
Epiptera opaca, wing.

Oecleus borealis, wing.
Myndus pictifrons, wing.
Otiocerus degeerii, wing.
Euklastus harti, wing.

Anotia bonnetii, wing.

Patara vanduzei, wing.
Neocenchrea heidemanni, wing.
Phaciocephalus uhleri, wing.
Herpis vulgaris, wing.
Liburniella ornata, wing.
Saccharosydne saccharivorus, wing.
Stenocranus vittatus, wing.

PLATE 65

Cyrpoptus belfragei, hind legs.
Phylloseellis atra, fore legs.
Fitchiella melichari, fore legs.
Traxus fulvus, hind legs.

Issus servillei, hind legs.

Picumna ovatipennis, hind legs.
Issomorphus maculatus, hind legs.
Hysteropterum punctiferum, hind legs.
Thionia simplex, hind legs.
Oliarius quinquelineatus, hind legs.
Myndus radicis, hind legs.

Stobera pallida, hind legs.
Copiocerus irroratus, hind legs.

[May

1923 |

THE FULGORID2 OF EASTERN NortTH AMERICA

Pentagramma vittatifrons, hind legs.
Bostera nasuta, hind legs.

. Bakerella maculata, hind legs.

Laccocera vittipennis, hind legs.
Phyllodinus nervatus, fore legs.
Phyllodinus nervatus, hind legs.
Macrotomella carinata, hind legs.
Criomorphus conspicuus, hind legs.
Liburniella ornata, hind legs.
Saccharosydne saccharivorus, hind legs.
Stenocranus arundineus, hind legs.

. Prokelisia setigera, hind legs.
. Kelisia axialis, hind legs.

Megamelanus terminalis, hind legs.

. Pissonotus quadripustulatus, hind legs.

Liburnia shermani, hind legs.

PLATE 66

Acanalonia fasciata, female genitalia.
Acanalonia bivittata, female genitalia.
Dictyophara microrhina, female genitalia.

. Dictyophara, recurva, female genitalia.
. Dictyophara florens, female genitalia.
. Dictyophara lingula, female genitalia.

Oliarus cinnamomeus, male genitalia.
Oliarus humilis, male genitalia.
Oliarus montanus, male genitalia.
Oliarus placitus, male genitalia.

. Oliarus difficilis, male genitalia.

Oliarus franciscanus, male genitalia.
Oliarus aridus, male genitalia.
Oliarus quinquelineatus, male genitalia.

. Oliarus texanus, male genitalia.

Oliarus vittatus, male genitalia.
Oliarus vitreus, male genitalia.
Oliarus vicarius, male genitalia.
Microledrida fulva, male genitalia.

. Microledrida asperta, male genitalia.

Cixius apicalis, male genitalia.
Cixius stigmatus, male genitalia.
Cixius misellus, male genitalia.
Cixius colepium, male genitalia.
Cixius basalis, male genitalia.
Cixius pini, male genitalia.
Bothriocera undata, male genitalia.

. Bothriocera drakei, male genitalia.

bo
“I

2

. 586.
. 587.
. 588.
. 589.

JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL SOCIETY

Bothriocera tinealis, male genitalia.
Oecleus decens, male genitalia.
Oecleus productus, male genitalia.
Oecleus fulvidorsum, male genitalia.

PLATE 67

Oecleus lineatus, male genitalia.
Oecleus obtusus, male genitalia.
Oecleus borealis, male genitalia.
Myndus fulvus, male genitalia.
Myndus slossoni, male genitalia.
Myndus radicis, male genitalia.
Myndus enotatus, male genitalia.
Myndus viridis, male genitalia.
Myndus pusillus, male genitalia.
Myndus pictifrons, male genitalia.
Myndus truncatus, male genitalia.
Myndus sordidipennis, male genitalia.
Myndus delicatus, male genitalia.
Otiocerus degeerii, male genitalia.
Otiocerus abbotii, male genitalia.
Otiocerus amyotii, male genitalia.
Otiocerus coquebertii, male genitalia.
Amalopota uhleri, male genitalia.
Anotia burnetii, male genitalia.
Anotia bonnetii, male genitalia.
Anotia westwoodi, male genitalia.
Anotia sayi, male genitalia.

Anotia kirkaldyi, male genitalia.
Neocenchrea heidemanni, male genitalia.
Phaciocephalus fulvus, male genitalia.
Phaciocephalus uhleri, male genitalia.
Herpis maculata, male genitalia.
Herpis edentula, male genitalia.
Herpis vulgaris, male genitalia.
Herpis incisa, male genitalia.

Herpis australis, male genitalia.
Herpis obscura, male genitalia.’

PLATE 68

Stobera pallida, male genitalia.
Stobera concinna, male genitalia.
Stobera tricarinata, male genitalia.
Stobera minuta, male genitalia.
Copiocerus irroratus, male genitalia.
Pentagramma minore, male genitalia.

[May

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

- 628.
629:
- 630.
p Agea
- 632.
. 633.
. 634.
. 635.
. 636.
. 637.
. 638.
. 639.
. 640.
. 641,
. 642,
. 643,
. 644.
. 645,
. 646.
OAT.
. 648.
. 649.
. 650.
. 651.
. 652.
. 653.

. 654,
655.
656.
657.
. 658.
. 659.
. 660.
- 661.
. 662.
. 663.
664.
665.
. 666.
. 667.
. 668.
. 669.
. 670.
671.

THE FuLGoRIDe oF Eastern NortH AMERICA

Pentagramma vittatifrons, male genitalia.
Bostwra nasuta, male genitalia.

Bakerella maculata, male genitalia.
Laccocera vittipennis, male genitalia.
Laccocera zonata, male genitalia.
Phyllodinus nervatus, male genitalia.
Phyllodinus flabellatus, male genitalia.
Criomorphus conspicuus, male genitalia.
Liburniella ornata, male genitalia.
Saccharosydne saccharivorus, male genitalia.
Stenocranus similis, male genitalia.
Stenocranus similis, female genitalia.
Stenocranus arundineus, male genitalia.
Stenocranus arundineus, female genitalia.
Stenocranus vittatus, male genitalia.
Stenocranus dorsalis, male genitalia.
Stenocranus dorsalis, female genitalia.
Megamelus palaetus, male genitalia.
Megamelus inflatus, male genitalia.

Megamelus longicornis, male genitalia (after Dozier).
Megamelus notulus, male genitalia (after Crawford).

Megamelus distinctus, male genitalia.
Megamelus exstus, male genitalia.
Megamelus uncus, male genitalia.
Megamelus anticostus, male genitalia.
Megamelus angulatus, male genitalia.

PLATE 69

Megamelus davisi, male genitalia.
Megamelus piceus, male genitalia.
Prokelisia marginata, male genitalia.
Prokelisia setigera, male genitalia.
Kelisia axialis, male genitalia.

Kelisia crocea, male genitalia.

Kelisia parvula, male genitalia.
Megamelanus terminalis, male genitalia.
Megamelanus lautus, male genitalia.
Megamelanus elongatus, male genitalia.
Megamelanus dorsalis, male genitalia.
Megamelanus spartini, male genitalia.
Peregrinus maidis, male genitalia.
Pissonotus quadripustulatus, male genitalia.
Pissonotus aphidioides, male genitalia.
Pissonotus brunneus, male genitalia.
Pissonotus dorsalis, male genitalia.
Pissonotus ater, male genitalia.

229

JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY

Pissonotus marginatus, male genitalia.
Pissonotus pallipes, male genitalia.
Pissonotus crawfordi, male genitalia.
Pissonotus guttatus, male genitalia.
Pissonotus basalis, male genitalia.
Pissonotus delicatus, male genitalia.
Pissonotus fulvus, male genitalia.
Pissonotus nigridorsum, male genitalia.
Pissonotus speciosus, male genitalia.

Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia

Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia

lutulenta, male genitalia.

obseurella, male genitalia (after Melichar).

analis, male genitalia.
campestris, male genitalia,
rotundata, male genitalia.

PLATE 70

shermani, male genitalia.
occlusa, male genitalia.
nigridorsum, male genitalia.
slossoni, male genitalia.
foveata, male genitalia.
constricta, male genitalia (after
osborni, male genitalia.
gillettei, male genitalia.
lineatipes, male genitalia.
pellucida, male genitalia.
consimilis, male genitalia.
kilmani, male genitalia.
waldeni, male genitalia.
basivitta, male genitalia.
magnistyla, male genitalia.
albolineosa, male genitalia.
triloba, male genitalia.
gerhardi, male genitalia.
alexanderi, male genitalia.
fulvidorsum, male genitalia.
staminata, male genitalia.
humilis, male genitalia.
detecta, male genitalia.
unda, male genitalia.
tuckeri, male genitalia.
lateralis, male genitalia.
teapea, male genitalia.

Crawford).

vanduzeei, male genitalia (after Crawford).

laminalis, male genitalia.
puella, male genitalia.

[May

PLATE 39

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THE GASTEROMYCETES OF NORTH CAROLINA
By W. C. Coker and J. N. Coucu i

‘The Gasteromycetes include a large and varied order of fungi
that are characterized by having the hymenium or spore-bearing sur-
face enclosed within a protective coat or coats (volva or peridium)
until the spores are ripe, when they are liberated in a powder or
slime by the rupture or decay of the coat.* Included in the order
are many well known plants that attract the attention by their in-
teresting characters. Such are the puff-balls, earth stars, bird’s-nest
fungi and stinkhorns. A number are of subterranean growth and
never become exposed; others are found just below the surface but
become visible on expanding at maturity, others again are quite
superficial and visible in youth. It is highly probable that many
subterranean species will be unearthed in this state as soon as a eareful
search is made for them. The edible truffle which grows underground
is not a member of this group, but an Ascomycete. The puff-balls
when white inside (before the spores begin to ripen) are among the
best of edible fungi.

In preparing this paper we have been assisted by other members
of the botanical staff. All written matter and nearly all the photo-
graphs are by the senior author, and all microscopical preparations
used have been carefully examined and compared by him with the
drawings made from them. Most of the drawings (which will appear
in the following issue of the JourNAL) have been made by Mr. Couch
and inked in by Miss Alma Holland. Some microscopie work done
by Mr. Curtis Vogler, a former instructor in this laboratory, has also
been utilized. Mr. H. R. Totten has developed and printed most of
the photographs. Mr. H. C. Beardslee has been so kind as to send us
material from Asheville, which has enabled us to include two species
that we had not found. All photographs are natural size unless other-
wise stated.

*In the peculiar genus Gautieria there is in most species no peridium at maturity,
the chambers of the gleba opening directly on the surface. It is a small tuberous plant
growing hidden in humus or earth, and therefore rarely found. It has been reported in
this country from New York, California and Idaho and is to be expected in our state. See
Zeller and Dodge, Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 5: 113. 1918; Zeller, Mycologia 14: 196. 1922; At-
kinson, Bot. Gaz. 5: 538. 1912: and Fitzpatrick, |. ¢., p. 135.

[231]

232 JOURNAL OF THE MircHELL SOCIETY | May

IMPORTANT LITERATURE*

Berkeley. Sur la fructification des genres Lycoperdon, Phallus, et de quelques
autres genres voisins. Ann. Sci. Nat., 2nd ser., 12: 160, pl. 2. 1839.

Bigeard. Flora des Champignons 2: 513, pls. 36, 37, and pl. 38, fig. 1. 1913.

Corda. Icon. Fung. 5: 22, 70, pls. 4, 6, 7 and pl. 8, fig. 51. 1842. :

Fischer in Engler and Prantl. Pflanzenfamilien 1, pt. 1: 276, figs. 126-182. 1900.

Fitzpatrick. A comparative study of the development of the fruit body in
Phallogaster, Hysterangium, and Gautieria. Ann. Mye. 11: 119, pls. 4-7. 1913.

Fries, Rob. E. Einige Gasteromyceten aus Bolivia und Argentinien. Arkiv For
Botanik 8, No. 11: i, pls. 1-4. 1909.

Harkness. Californian Hypogeous Fungi. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., 3rd. ser., 1:
241, pls. 42-45. 1899.

Harvey. Contributions to the Gasteromycetes of Maine. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club
ZA l eS Oi.

Hesse. Mikroscopische Unterscheidungsmerkmale der typischen Lycoperdaceen-
genera. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 10: 383, pl. 28. 1876.

Hesse. Die Hypogaeen Deutschlands. 1890.

Hollos. Die Gasteromyceten Ungarns. Leipzig, 1904.

Kauffman. Outline of the Gasteromycetes of Michigan. Rept. Mich. Acad. Sei.
10: 70. 1908.

Lloyd. Myce. Notes Nos. 7-9, figs. 30-56. 1901-2.

Lloyd. The Genera of Gastromycetes, figs. 1-14 and pls. 1-11. Cincinnati, 1902.

Lloyd. The Curtis Collection. Myc. Notes No. 15: 152. 1903.

Lloyd. The Lycoperdacee of Australia, etc., pls. 25-39 and figs. 1-49. 1905.

Lloyd. Sur Quelques Rares Gastéromycétes Européen. Myc. Notes No. 22: 261,
figs. 98-111 and pls. 28, 35, 72, 87-89. 1906.

Massee. A Monograph of the British Gastromyeetes. Ann. Bot. 4: 1, pls. 1-4.
1889.

Morgan. Gastromycetes. Journ. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist. 11: 141, pl. 3. 1889;
12: 8, pls. 1, 2. 1889; 12: 163, pl. 16. 1890; 14: 5, pls.) 25 180i seer
pl. 5. 1892.

Rea. British Basidiomycete, p. 21. 1922.

Saccardo. Sylloge Fungorum 7: 1, 469. 1888; 9: 262. 1891; 11: 152. 1895;
14; 254. 1899; 16: 224. 1902.

Sehroeter. In Cohn’s Kryptogamen Flora von Schlesien 3, pt. 1: 689. 1888.

Trelease. Morels and Puff-balls of Madison. Trans. Wise. Acad. Sci. Arts and
Letters 7: 105, pls. 7-9. 1888.

Tulasne, L. R. and Ch. De la fructification des Scleroderma, comparé & celle des
Lycoperdon et des Bovista. Ann. Sci. Nat., 2nd. ser., 17: 5. 1842.

Tulasne, L. R. and Ch. Champignons hypogés de la famille des Lycoperdacées.
Ann. Sci. Nat., 2nd. ser., 19: 373. 1843.

Tulasne, L. R. and Ch. Fungi nonulli hypogei, novi vel minus cogniti. Parla-
tore, Giorn. Bot., 2: 55. 1844.

* References to other less comprehensive literature will be found under the families,
genera and species.

1923 | THE GASTEROMYCETES OF NorTH CAROLINA 233

Tulasne, L. R. Fungi Hypogei. Histoire et monographie des champignons
Hypogés. Paris, 1851.

Vittadini. Monographia Tuberacearum. Mediolani, 1831.

Vittadini. Monographia Lycoperdineorum. Mem. Acead., Torino, 5: 145, pls. 1-3.
1843.

Vittadini. Monographia Lycoperdineorum. Ann. Sci. Nat., 2nd. ser., 19: 277.
1843.

Winter. Gasteromycetes. In Rabenhorst’s Krypt.-Fl. Deutsch. 1, Abtl. 1: 864.
1884.

Zopf. Die Pilze, p. 362. 1890.

Kery TO THE FAMILIES

Plants emerging at maturity from a soft volva or ‘‘egg;’’ the spores borne in a
slimy, brown, bad-smelling liquid at the top of a stalk or net or several
GEEEEIIS ony: Avo SOO eiS ooo ee nh oe Phalloidee

Not as above
Plants with a distinct firm or gelatinous stalk which carries the spore-bearing

sac, the latter in our representatives having a distinct apical mouth through
which the spores escape as a dry powder.
Sialkesirmpandetibrous-) mouth not. red.:..:....0..-.+.- Tylostomacee
Sikepoelanous = Moupn) TEds 5.0.2. 62s hace ecw ccs neae Calostomacee
Plants without a distinct, terete or gelatinous stalk; if a stalk is present it is
thick and expands gradually into the swollen spore-bearing part above.
Plants small, shaped like cups or tumblers or subspherical, at maturity
opening in most of the species over the entire top by the collapse of
a veil (or rarely by the crumbling of the peridium) to expose a
number of small peridioles with hard coats which contain the spores,
the whole looking like a little nest containing eggs. In one genus
of minute plants an outer peridium opens and an inner peridium
evaginates itself with a snap and throws out for some distance a
single, minute, black peridiole......................Ntdulariacee
Not as above
Peridium without a distinct outer layer that falls away or
splits; at maturity opening at the top by irregular lobes, or
by an irregular tear, or by crumbling or rotting away. Elon-
gated threads (capillitium) not present among the spores.
Gleba not formed of hollow chambers, but of sterile
plates cutting out irregular blocks which are stuffed
with the fertile tissue; at maturity crumbling into a
Gus tysepOWUer ss. .<2 6 << mn - ee == vie = Sclerodermatacee
Gleba formed of hollow chambers (at least when young)
which are lined with the hymenium.
Peridium rotting away after maturity, the gleba
(at least in species we are treating) turning into
DeSHM yy MASIs. + LS a erieitenies Hymenogastracee

ho
(SU)
Ns

JOURNAL OF THE MiTcHELL SOCIETY | May

Peridium crumbling away after maturity, the glebal
chambers remaining intact and falling apart as
fine sand-like particles........ Genus Arachnion

Peridium with a distinet outer coat which falls away in flakes
or wears away by degrees at maturity, or dehisces equatori-
ally, or (in Geaster and Astreus) splits into star-like rays to
expose the thin, pliable or (in Calvatia) fragile and brittle
inner peridium; gleba (except in Astreeus and Disciseda)
composed of small, hollow chambers lined with the hymenium ;
spores mixed with a true capillitium of long, slender, branched
or unbranched threads, and escaping as dust through a
definite (except in Calvatia) pore or slit. (In several small
species of Lycoperdon the outer peridium is very thin, obscure
and persistent, and in Myriostoma there are several pores)

Lycoperdacee
FAMILY PHALLOIDEAH

Plants consisting at first of a white, elastic, oval or subspherical
‘‘eoo,’’ which consists of three coats, the central one soft and gelatin-
ous, which break at maturity to allow the elongation and exposure
of the curious, spongy, and in some species brightly colored recep-
taculum of various shapes which bears above either on itself or on a
specialized appendage the slimy, deliquescing gleba which contains the
minute, smooth spores, and which in nearly all cases has a very strong
and offensive odor by which insects are attracted to scatter the spores.*

The family is divided into two subfamilies or by some authors
(as Corda) into two distinet families which are separated by the po-
sition of the gleba and by other impcrtant microscopical characters.
These subfamilies may be simply defined as follows:

Gleba (and spore slime) borne on the inner side of the
receptaculum s >... - nematic « sao oe Clathree
Gleba borne on the outer surface of the receptaculum..... Phallee

In addition to the genera treated by us there has been found of
the true phalloids in the United States only Anthurus borealis (see
Burt, 1. ¢., 1849, and Lloyd, Mye. Notes No. 17: 183. 1904), which is
placed in Lysurus by Lloyd, and an undetermined species of Lyswrus
from Texas (Lloyd, Phalloids, p. 40; Gerard, l. c., p. 30). The unique
genus Phallogaster, placed by Morgan, its author (1. ¢., 15: 171, pl.
11. 1892), and by Thaxter (Bot. Gaz. 18: 117, pl. 19. 1893) in the
Phalloidew, but differing from them in the absence of a volva and in

* Drawings of spores in species of this family will appear on a plate to be published in
the continuation of this paper.

1923 | THE GASTEROMYCETES OF NORTH CAROLINA 235

other ways, and treated by Fischer in the Hysterangiacee (1. ¢., Pflan-
zenfamilien, p. 307), is known only from the United States and Can-
ada (see also Lloyd, Known Phalloids, p. 71, figs. 93 and 94).

As the number of our species of Phalloids is small, we key all of
them here under the family, and for the convenience of students we
inelude all described species from the United States.

IMPORTANT LITERATURE

Atkinson. Origin and Taxonomic Value of the Veil in Dictyophora and Ithy-
phallus. Bot. Gaz. 51: 1, pls. 1-7 and one text fig. 1911.

Burt. The Phalloidee of the U. S. I. Bot. Gaz. 22: 273, pls. 11 and 12. 1896.

Burt.. The Phalloidee of the U. S. Il. Bot. Gaz. 22: 379. 1896.

Burt. The Phalloidee of the U. S. III. Bot. Gaz. 24: 73. 1897.

Burt. A North American Anthurus. Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 3, No. 14.
1894.

Corda. 1. ¢., 5:70, pl. 6, fig. 49, pl. 7, and pl. 8, fig. 51.

Fischer. Beitrage zur Morphologie und Systematik der Phalloideen. Ann. Mye.
8: 314, pl. 5. 1910.

Fischer. . Unters. z. vergleichenden Entwicklungschichte u. Systematik d. Phal-
loideen. Denkschriften d. Schweiz. Naturforschenden Gesellschaft 36: 2. 1900.

Gerard. Additions to the U. S. Phalloidei. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club. 7: 29. 1880.

Gerard. Correlation between the Odor of Phalloids and their Relative Frequency.
As above, p. 30.

Lloyd. The Phalloids of Australasia, figs. 1-25. Cincinnati, 1907.

Lloyd. Concerning the Phalloids. Myc. Notes No. 24: 293, figs. 131-135 and pls.
91-93. 1906; No. 26: 325, figs. 160-163 and pls. 112-121. 1907; Nos. 28-30:
349, figs. 167-223. 1907-08.

Lloyd. The Phalloids of Japan. Myc. Notes No. 31: 400, figs. 236-242. 1908.

Lloyd. Synopsis of the Known Phalloids, figs. 1-107. Cincinnati, 1909.

Long. The Phalloids of Texas. Journ. Myce. 13: 102, pls. 102-106. 1907.

Schroeter. .In Cohn’s Krypt.-Fl. Schlesien 3, pt. 1: 687. 1889.

For other literature see p. 94 and Fischer as cited there.

KEY TO THE PHALLOIDS OF THE UNITED STATES*

CLATHRE#

Receptaculum composed of a stout, netted globe............ Clathrus cancellatus

Receptaculum composed of two to five stout columns fused only above
Clathrus columnatus
Receptaculum composed of a single distinct stalk bearing a subglobose, netted,
spore-bearing part on the end; red above.........- Simblum spherocephalum
Receptaculum as above, but color yellow all over.............. Simblum texense
Receptaculum stalked as in Simblum, but the apical spore-bearing part composed
of several (usually six) short, hollow arms, incurved and meeting above at

* North Carolina species are given in italics.

236 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

first and enclosing the gleba; stalk white.......°5..:....:4 Anthurus borealis
As above, but gleba borne on outer surfaces of the arms............ Lysurus sp.

PHALLEA
Gleba (and spore slime) borne on the upper part of the stalk itself
Stalk 10-17 em. long, tapering gradually from the center upward to a rounded
point; Spores" 4-7 PLO ey A= ee siemepereevedera ee <1 cis) ckenedereneesete Mutinus Curtisvi
Stalk 6-8 em. long, nearly cylindrical except for the tapering base (at times),
the tip rather abruptly rounded and the spore-bearing part more or less
sharply delimited from the sterile part; spores 3.7-4.8y long.
Mutinus Ravenelii
(anc M. eaninus, if that is different)
Gleba borne on a pendent cap hanging from the stem tip
An obvious netted veil absent
Stalk «watery “white ae ccs ewe meet oi slots suse, ouslate) noterags Ithyphallus Ravenelii
Stalk reddish eestor ee .. Lthyphallus rubicundus
(reported from N. C. by Curtis)
An obvious netted veil-like indusium pendent from the stem apex and exposed
for Some’ distance, below, iihemcaperan a... . + ln Dictyophora duplicata
ANOMALOUS

Volva absent; plant until mature looking like a long-stemmed puff-ball, but open-
ing by holes and flaps to expose the green, slimy masses of gleba inside
Phallogaster saccatus

CLATHRUS

Receptaculum without a single distinct stem, but composed of an
inflated hollow network or of several curved columns meeting and
fused above; in all cases having the spore-bearing gleba attached to
the inner side above as a slimy mass. Odor offensive. Only a few
species are known and but two have been found in the United States.

For literature see under the family.

Clathrus columnatus Bose
Laternea columnata Nees

PiLatE 71

Eggs subspherical, about 2.5 em. thick, bursting above into several
flaps to allow the expansion of the receptacle which consists of 2-5 (in
our plants 4-5) stout, spongy, curved and very delicate columns with
separate, pointed, basal ends which remain in the volva, the distal
ends incurved and completely fused into a flat roof from which hangs
within the dark slimy mass of the spore-bearing gleba. Color of the

“IMLSHI] GPGF ON ‘SOLVNWATOO SANMLVTIO
[9901] TFL ‘ON ‘ITTONGDAVY SONTLLOW

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1923 | THE GASTEROMYCETES OF NORTH CAROLINA 25

_receptacle rosy red, the base pale to colorless; volva watery white,
attached at base by a cord-like root. Odor about that of a stink horn,
strong and fetid.

Spores (of No. 4949) smooth, elliptic, minute, 1.8-2.4 x 3.7-4.8p.

This plant seems to be entirely southern in its range (but see
Saccardo’s Sylloge 7, part 1, p. 10) and our collections have come
from the subtropical southeast corner of our state, where Sabal Pal-
metto grows, and from coastal South Carolina. It is said to be com-
mon ir Florida, and Curtis reports it as occurring in the lower and
middle districts of North Carolina in sandy woods. It was originally
described from South Carolina and is also known from the Gulf States.
An interesting anomaly is shown by one of our plants (pl. 71). There
is a natural perforation on one side at the top just about the center of
one of the columns, exactly like the more numerous perforations in
C. cancellatus and in Simblum. For development and microscopie de-
tail see Burt, Bot. Gaz. 22: 273, pls. 21 and 22. 1896. The beautiful
species, C. cancellatus, has been found a few times in the United States
and should be looked for. It kas been reported from Georgia
(Schweinitz, Syn. Fung. Car. No. 557, as C. ruber) and from Florida
(Lloyd, Mye. Notes No. 24: 296).

Illustrations: Bose. Mag. der Gesell. naturforschender Freunde Berlin 5: pl. 5,
fig. 5. 1811.
Burt. As above.
Fischer. Pflanzenfamilien 1, pt. 1: fig. 120 B.
Lloyd. Myce. Works, pl. 92.
Lloyd. Myc. Notes No. 26: fig. 162.
Lloyd. Phalloids of Australia, fig. 20.

Smith’s Island. Couch and Grant, No. 4949. In a sandy road, December
29, 1921.

Georgetown, South Carolina. Coker, No. 6013. In sandy soil near Silver Hill
Farm, December 29, 1922.

SIMBLUM

Receptaculum formed of a distinct, hollow, delicate stalk which is
transformed above into a somewhat larger inflated network which
bears the gleba slime on the inside. Volva watery white; receptacu-
lum bright colored, red (in our species) or yellow, rarely whitish;
odor offensive.

Only a few species are known and only two are North American.
For literature see under the family.

238 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY | May

Simblum sphezrocephalum Schlecht

Simblum rubescens Gerard

Puates 72 AND 73

Stalk long, club-shaped, hollow, spongy, tapering downward to a
narrow attachment in the bottom of the large, white, toughish, in-
flated volva; terminated above by the subglobose structure of thick,
anastomosing strands that holds the dark slime containing the spores.
Color bright red above, fading to pale below; odor strong and re-
pulsive. The entire plant is about 7-9 em. high and the stalk about
1-1.6 em. thick above, its honeyeombed wall 3-4 mm. thick near the
top and only 1 mm. thick below.

Spores (of No. 1427) elliptic, smooth, 1.4-2 x 3.7-4.4y.

This is a rare plant in the United States and has not been reported
before from North Carolina (for distribution see Lloyd’s Mye. Notes
No. 19: 220. 1905). It is said to be common in South America. The only
other North American species is S. texense which differs from the
present one in its yellow:color and longer spores, which are 3x Tp
(see Long, l. c., p. 112, pl. 106, fig. 11).

Our plate 73 shows an abnormal variation of two plants spring-
ing from one volva and fused at their tips. This is apparently of not
rare occurrence as a Similar example is shown in Lloyd’s Mye. Notes
No. 24, fig. 133, from a photograph of a Brazilian plant by Rick, and
another such is illustrated by Gerard in his plate 2 (as cited below).

Illustrations: Gerard. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 7: 8, pls. 1 and 2. 1880.
long Ic.) ple LOG y tie. sll0:
1426. In apple orchard, October 26, 1914.
1427. In grass on campus, fall of 1902. A large number of plants.
5910. On ground in pasture, November 20, 1922.
5917. On ground in pasture by branch, November 22, 1922. Several plants.

MUTINUS

Receptaculum formed of a distinct, delicate, hollow stalk as in
Simblum, but differing in the spore slime being borne on the outside
of the upper part of the stalk itself, which is smooth and more or less
pointed, the tip often perforated. Color rosy red above (under and
below the deep olive slime), fading downward. Volva soon collapsing
against the base of the stalk.

For literature see under the family and species.

GL ULV Id

"y

SIMBLUM SPHAEROCEPHALUM.

1923 | THE GASTEROMYCETES OF NORTH CAROLINA 239

Mutinus Ravenelii (B. & C.) E. Fischer

Puates 71 anv 74

Plants about 6-8 em. high, the ample volva 2.5-3.5 em. long; stalk
up to 1.3 em. thick in center and typically tapering a little downward.
again nearly cylindrical, the spore-bearing part about 2-2.5 em. of the
apex, more or less abruptly marked off from the sterile part by the
narrower, radially elongated, definitely one-layered compartments of
the wall. Color bright rosy red above (under and below the slime).
fading downwards; apex with or without a small opening; odor strong
and offensive. Wall of the stalk about 3 mm. thick in center and 1.5
mm. thick near base; that of the spore-bearing part about 2 mm. thick
below and 1 mm. thick above; walls of the stalk compartments 55-7T5u
thick, with 3-4 layers of cells, those of the spore-bearing part 90-95u
thick, with about 5-7 layers of cells.

Spores (of No. 741) smooth, ellipitic, 1.6-2.2 x 3.7-4.8y.

This is more common with us than M. Curtisii. For treatment of
its development see Burt in Ann. Bot. 10: 343, pls. 17, 18. 1896; see
also Bambeke, Mém. Acad. Roy. Belgique, 2nd. ser., 2: 1. 1910.
Lloyd considers M. Ravenelu as different from M. caninus, both ocecur-
ring in the eastern United States (Myc. Notes No. 24: 300; No. 26:
325; Syn. Known Phal., p. 28). Burt considers the two species the
same (1. c., p. 344). Lloyd would probably consider the left hand
plant on our pl. 74 as W. caninus, the two right hand plants as WM.
Ravenelu. We cannot find any important difference in structure
among the forms we have collected. Muitinus caninus is common in
Europe.

Illustrations: Lloyd. Myce. Notes No. 24, fig. 135; No. 28, fig. 183.
Marshall. Mushroom Book, pl. opposite p. 136 (as M. caninus).
For illustrations of the European WM. caninus see:
Fischer. 1. ¢., fig. 142 A-E.
Hollos) We:,) pl. 1, figs. 3-11.
Long. 1. ¢., pl. 104, fig. 9.
Sowerby. Engl. Fungi, pl. 330.

22a. By stone wall near Battle’s Park, October 24, 1902. Spores 1.4-2 x 3.7-4.4u.
24a. Old Chapel Hill collection without label. Spores smooth, 1.6-2.2 x 3.7-4.8y.
741. On ground near stream, September 12, 1913.
1312. Near brook just above Meeting of the Waters, September 17, 1913. Spores
1.2-2.2 x 3.7-4.6y.
1729. In low place by branch, September 10, 1915.
1925. In grass in front of Davie Hall, October 25, 1915. Spores 1.6-2.2 x 3.7-4.8u.

240 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SOCIETY [May

Mutinus Curtisii (Berk.) E. Fischer
M. bovinus Morgan
M. elegans Mont.

PuAtTEes 75 AND 76

Plant about 10-17 em. high, the white volva at first spherical then
elongating and on rupturing at the apex collapsing against the stalk
which is almost cylindrical for the first third and up to 2.5 em. thick,
then tapers gradually upward to the blunt point; spore-bearing
(slimy) part composing about 3-5 em. of the apical end, similar in
superficial appearance to the rest of the stem except for the slime;
color bright rosy red under and below the slime, gradually fading to
watery white or flesh color below; apex perforated by a small open-
ing; volva rooted by a strong cord; odor of the brownish slime very
strong and offensive.

Spores (of No. 5118) smooth, elliptic, 2-3x4-7p. Wall of the
very hollow stem about 2-3 mm. thick and composed of one or two
layers of small thin-walled chambers which are irregularly isodiamet-
rical below and change gradually to radially elongated and definitely
to a single layer in the slime-bearing part. Walls of the chambers of
the stalk 90-95, thick, with only 3-4 layers of cells; of the spore-bear-
ing part 55-75p thick with 3-4 layers of cells.

The plants usually appear singly in woods or groves.

Illustrations: Hard. Mushrooms, pl. 56 and fig. 453.

James. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 15: pl. 86. 1888.

Lloyd. Syn. Known Phalloids, fig. 24 (as M. elegans).

Lloyd. Myc. Notes No. 28: fig. 182 (as WM. elegans).

Morgan. 1. ¢., 11: pl. 3 (as M. bovinus). 1889.
2421. In woods mold, Battle’s Park, July 24, 1916. Spores smooth, elliptie,

2-2.8 x 4-7.
5113. In rotting leaves, May 16, 1922.
Asheville. Beardslee.
ITHYPHALLUS

Volva and stalk as in Mutinus, but the spore slime is borne on
the outside of a thin, pendent, campanulate membrane or cap which
is free from the stem except at the tip. Between this cap and the
stalk above and between the volva and the stalk below another delli-
eate, white membrane or veil is obvious (at least in I. Ravenelu).

PLATE 74

meh cade

PLATE 75

MUTINUS CURTISII. No

PLATE 76

MUTINUS CURTISII. No. 5115.

=
a

1923 | THE GASTEROMYCETES OF NORTH CAROLINA 241

We are following Fischer and Atkinson in placing in this genus
Phallus Ravenel: B. & C., a species closely related to the European
I. impudicus but separated from it by the smooth surface of the cap.
In addition to the former only one other American species is known,
I. rubicundus (Bosc) E. Fischer, and it has been reported from this
state by Curtis. It should be looked for in the coastal plain and ean
readily be recognized by the red stalk, the other species being white
stalked.
For literature see under the family.

Ithyphallus Ravenelii (B. & C.) E. Fischer
Dictyophora Ravenelii (B. & C.) Burt

Puatrs 77-79

Stalks usually 10-16 cm. high, tapering gradually upward or
nearly equal, about 1.7-2.5 em. thick, springing from an ovate egg or
volva, which is pinkish, tough, thick, wrinkled below and connected
with the earth and with other eggs by purplish pink strands or roots
which grow out from the base. The eggs are large and just before
rupturing may reach a height of 5 cm. and a thickness of 3.5 em. The
cap or pileus is conical and is attached around the raised white ring
which terminates the stem. The upper part of the membranous veil
is concealed beneath the cap while the lower half remains in the volva
around the base of the stem. At times parts or rings of the veil may
be torn loose in expanding and cling to the stalk so as to be visible
beneath the cap. Surface of the cap minutely granular, not veined
or honeycombed, covered at first by the dark, bad-smelling slime of
the diliquescent gleba.

Spores (of No. 41a) smooth, elliptic, 1.2-1.8 x 3.7-4.4u.

This interesting species is generally found growing in soil contain-
ing rotten wood such as old wood piles and rotting trash piles and
often appears in large numbers from one colony.

Illustrations: Atkinson. 1. ec. pl. 2; pl. 3, fig. 7; pl. 4, fig. 10; pl. 6, fig. 14.
Hard. Mushrooms, figs. 447-449.
Lloyd. Syn. Known Phalloids, figs. 7 and 8.
Lloyd. Myc. Notes No. 28: fig. 168.
Peck. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club. 9: pl. 25. 1882.
Scofield. Minn. Bot. Survey 2: pls. 29-31. 1900.

242 JOURNAL OF THE MITCHELL SocIETY [ May

41a. Chapel Hill. No other data.
618. In pile of chips and trash in road, October 24, 1912.
649. Same spot as No. 618, October 31, 1912.

Asheville. Beardslee.
DICTYOPHORA

With the characters of Ithyphallus except that there is a large
campanulate, veil-like, netted indusium that is attached to the stem
tip under the cap and extends far below it. Atkinson has shown
(1. ¢.) that this indusium is a distinct organ and not homologous with
the short, membranous veil of Ithyphallus. The species here included
is the only one known in the United States.

For literature see under the family.

Dictyophora duplicata (Bose) E. Fischer
PLATES 80-83

Our largest and most massive phalloid, arising from a large egg
which is subspherical, ovate or sometimes flattened, about 4-4.5 x 4.5-5
em., when flattened up to 7 em. broad and 5 em. high, white and pli-
cate below as in a peeled orange, the upper half smooth, pale flesh
color to deep fleshy brown; in the center below is given off a large,
fleshy root, and sometimes one or two smaller, more lateral ones. The
expanded plant may reach a height of 17 em. with the fertile, pendent,
apical cap about 5 em. long and broad, its outer surface strongly
chambered by anastomosing plates, over which the brownish olive slime
is spread. Between the cap and the stem, and hanging from the top,
is a beautiful net-like veil (technically the indusium) of a light rosy
pink color that extends below the cap for about 3-5 em., the perfor-
ations being rather regular and about 1-2 mm. broad except towards
the margin where they become much smaller. Stalk about 4.5 em.
thick, nearly cylindrical, very hollow and with chambered walls; be-
tween its base and the volva is a thick, brownish yellow slime which is
separated from the stem by a thin membrane. The odor of the dark
spore slime above is offensive but not nearly so much so as in the
species of Mutinus, being weaker and not so distressingly fetid.

Spores (of No. 5195) smooth, elliptic, 1.2-1.8 x 3.7-4.4p.

Not rare in Chapel Hill, occurring usually in a seattered colony .
of several in woods mold in deciduous woods. Dictyophora phalloides
(Phallus indusiatus) is a closely related tropical species.

1923]

THE GASTEROMYCETES OF NORTH CAROLINA 243

Illustrations: Atkinson. Il. ¢., figs. 6, 7, 11, 13, 16.
Hard. Mushrooms, pl. 55.
Lloyd. Syn. Known Phalloids, fig. 16.
Murrill. Chart of Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms, fig. 34.
Rau. Bot. Gaz. 8: pl. 4 (as Phallus togatus).

836a.
2286.
5195.
5343.

On lawn of president’s house, October 22, 1911.

On a ditch in woods, June 28, 1916.

In rich woods, June 20, 1922.

In deciduous woods near Forest Theater, July 8, 1922. Plant 12 em. long.

Asheville. Beardslee.

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Physical &

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