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C?l)£ Journal

OF THE

East Africa and Uganda
Natural History Society

January, 1932 . No, 44,

CONTENTS.

Notes on the Flora and Fauna of Euwenzori with Special
Reference to the Bujuku Valley, by 0, W. L.
Fishlock, b.sc., a.i.c.t.a. , and G, L. R. Hancock,

The Publication Committee.

Additional copies to members, 7/50; non-members, 15/-.
Hate of Publication: January, 1933.

PRINTED BY THE EAST AFRICAN STANDARD, LTD.

All Rights Reserved,

East Africa and Uganda Natural History Society

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Ol)e Journal

OF THE

Fast Africa and Uganda
Natural History Society

nuary, 1932. No. 44.

CONTENTS .

otes on the Flora and Fauna of Ruwenzori with Special
Reference to the Bujuku Valley, by C. W. L.

Fishlock, b.sc., a.i.c.t.a., and G. L. R. Hancock,

m.a., f.e.s., f.z.s. ( illustrated ) ... ... ... 205 — 229

Editors :

The Publication Committee.

Additional copies to members, 7/50; non-members, 15/-.
Date of Publication : January, 1933.

PRINTED BY THE EAST AFRICAN STANDARD, LTD.

All Rights Reserved.

NOTES ON THE FLORA AND FAUNA OF RUWENZORI WITH
SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE BUJUKU VALLEY.

By

C. W. L. Fishlock, b.sc., a.i.c.t.a.,

and

G. L. R. Hancock, m.a., f.e.s., f.z.s.

( Agricultural Laboratories, Kampala.)

Section I. General Account of the Ascent.

An account of all the earlier expeditions to Ruwenzori is given by
Filippi and a few of the more important are mentioned below. Almost
every expedition has been gravely handicapped by the adverse climatic
conditions which prevail on the mountain and which have retarded its
thorough investigation. Dr. Stuhlmann’s expedition of 1891 to the
western slopes was the first serious attempt to reach the central parts
of the mountain. This was followed, in 1895, by a series of ascents by
Scott Elliot, the most successful of which was from the west up the
Butagu valley. After Sir Harry Johnston’s expedition which reached
14,800 feet on the eastern side, via the Mubuku Valley, came the very
important British Museum expedition of early 1906 under R. B.
Woosman (see Ruwenzori Reports and Rendle and others). This ex-
pedition had as its object the collection of the flora and fauna of
Ruwenzori and spent about three months on the mountain making its
base camp at Mihunga in the lower Mubuku valley. From here
several ascents were attempted, but none was successful as bad
weather prevailed throughout the length of their stay. Very shortly
afterwards the Duke of Abruzzi with a particularly well equipped ex-
pedition reached the lower foothills. This party penetrated up the
Mubuku valley, ascended all the peaks of the range (Filippi 1908) and
remained on the mountain for two months. Although they chose
what was considered the best time of the year, they were very greatly
handicapped by almost continuous rain and mist. Both this party and
the British Museum expedition made collections of the flora and fauna
of the Mubuku valley. The next important expedition of which there
is a record is that in 1927 led by Capt. G. N. Humphreys, who crossed
the mountain from east to west by the Bujuku valley route and who
has now made an aerial survey of the range, followed by a further
ground survey and the collection of botanical material.

It will be seen from this short account of previous expeditions that
most of the collecting of the flora and fauna of Ruwenzori has been

205

r- io'°°3

done in the Mubuku valley and not in that of the Bujuku; no serious
effort has previously been made to collect the flora of the latter valley.*
The object of our journey was to collect, as far as possible in the short
time available, the commoner and more characteristic plants of the
Bujuku valley and collections of the smaller fauna were also made
when time permitted. In this paper we give an account of the trip
itself and the observations made on the flora and fauna of the valley.

The Bujuku valley leads most directly into the heart of the highest
peaks and it was therefore hoped that it would best show the zonal
changes to be found both in flora and fauna. Unfortunately these
changes with altitude proved most difficult to demarcate as the only
path followed a very tortuous route; in many places it led steeply up
high ridges dividing confluent streams and on each of these ridges
were found several floral zones differing with the altitude reached.
The members of our party were four Government officials who had
obtained a fortnight’s local leave for this purpose; for this reason the
time spent upon the mountains was only twelve days and we were
very fortunate in experiencing a spell of exceptionally fine weather
which lasted almost without a break throughout. Our aim was to
reach the moraine lake at the foot of the main peaks and this we did
under almost ideal conditions. Both the journey to Lake Bujuku and
the return were accomplished in very easy stages; in this way we had
plenty of opportunity to collect the more characteristic members of the
mountain flora. Our route lay along the Mubuku river for the first
two days’ march and then followed the Bujuku. From the point of
view of conformity of floral change to increased altitude the route
which follows the Mubuku valley would, perhaps, be preferable since
it follows a ridge on one side of the valley for the greater part of the
way.

The approach to the mountain is now made much easier by the
fact that a motor road has been constructed down on to the Lake
George flats as far as the Mubuku river; from this road it is possible
on a fine day to obtain many views of the northern end of Ruwenzori.
A private road leads off to an estate on Bikoni hill six miles further
up the Mubuku valley. Head-porterage of loads from Fort Portal is,
therefore, avoided and a great deal of time saved, but this form of
holiday is still rather expensive because porters are difficult to obtain
and demand a higher rate of pay than the work entailed warrants and
because the path, being so infrequently used, has to be cut afresh at
the expense of each party. The porters who volunteered for the trip
were Batoro and Bakonjo; the former are inhabitants of the plains
and lower foothills, while the latter live on the slopes up to about
seven or eight thousand feet and hunt right up to the snows. Besides

* The account of the scientific results of the Duke of Abruzzi’s expedition is,
unfortunately, not available in East Africa ; it is therefore not possible to
ascertain to what extent these collections included the Bujuku valley.

206

his wages each porter was given a blanket and, at the higher camps,
a vest; we also carried a supply of millet meal for their rations on the
mountain. An amusing side of the bargaining was that when it was
ended the local chief came forward and asked if he might be allowed
to be present when the porters were paid at the conclusion of the trip
in order to collect taxes which were due from them; he evidently
looked upon the expedition as a godsend to the Government’s purse.
We took as our guide the old headman, Bamwanjara, who had
evidently done this work for almost every previous expedition and who
proved to be extremely efficient and most useful in many ways. The
path-cutters were sent forward on August 11th and the opportunity
was taken on that day to pack our kit into small loads suitable for
head-porterage up the mountain.

The Lower Mubuku to Mihunga.

The actual start was made on the 12th of August (1931) in beauti-
fully fine weather. The ascent began with the fording of the rapid
Mubuku river which is a very treacherous stream and needs great care
in crossing. The banks of this river are lined with a giant Phragmites
which is regarded as a variety of the European P. Communis (var.
isiaca. After crossing the river the path follows the valley which here
rises gently. The soil is very rich and appeared to produce good yields
of almost every native crop, besides excellent European vegetables.
The fertility of the soil was also shown by the luxuriant growth of
elephant grass ( Pennisetum purpureum ) which here grew to a height of
twelve or fifteen feet and which is a very sure indication of a fertile soil
of good depth; it covered the foothills up to an elevation of over six
thousand feet. These steep slopes showed no indication of the erosion
visible near Fort Portal; we are informed that in this area rain falls
lightly, much as in England, and not in tropical downpours. The
undergrowth along the path through this grass consisted mainly of the
following plants : Plantains ( Plantago palmata), a white-flowered

balsam ( Impatiens sp.) and in the damper tributary valleys, wild
bananas ( Musa ? Ensete).

At an altitude of about five thousand feet our path passed out of
the elephant grass and entered more or less heavily wooded country
with a dense undergrowth of creepers and low-growing plants, among
which was noticed a slender very tall Lobelia (L. gibber oa) with green
flowers and purple stamens. At this altitude it appeared to flourish
only in the very wet beds of small hill streams but at the higher levels
it grew on the sides of the Mubuku valley some five hundred to a
thousand feet above the stream. Other plants included Ranunculus
pubescens (about two feet in height), a Rubia resembling a large
Galium and a tall Thalictrum (T. rhynchocarpum). At
the lower end of this zone the path led through swampy country and
was intersected by large numbers of elephant tracks. Mihunga, the

207

first camp on the route, was reached about 2-30 p.m. after about four
hours’ climb during which we passed the hut previously occupied by
the British Museum expedition. The last part of the ascent was more
difficult for the porters as it led over the slippery broken-down stems
of a woody yellow-flowered Triumfetta (perhaps T. ruwenzoriensis ,
Sprague in Stapf, 1906). Our tent was pitched under the shade of an
immense fig-tree on the crown of a ridge with a view up the valley
towards the Portal Peaks, while downstream we had a wide view of
the valley flats clothed with elephant grass. The atmosphere at
Mihunga seems cool after that of the hot plains below; the tempera-
ture at night (7-30 p.m.) and in the morning (8 a.m.) was 60°P.

Mihunga to Nyinabitaba.

A start was made early on the following morning as the journey
from Mihunga to Nyinabitaba was reported to be long and tiring.
During almost the entire day the sky was overcast but there was no
rain. Prom our camp the track led steeply down the side of the ridge
to a tributary of the Mubuku. The whole of this ridge is heavily
forested but has a thick undergrowth of the Triumfetta noted before.
The path crossed the Kyowha, a small stream at the foot of the ridge,
and then passed over the floor of a fairly level, somewhat swampy
valley for about a mile. After this it crossed the Mahoma, which is a
fairly large, clear, cold and very rapidly flowing river. The swampy
strip of country between the two streams is covered with a sparse
forest of tall trees. A very prominent tree in this is a species of the
Leguminosae known to the Batoro as the “ Murongo ” of which we
were unable to collect any flowers or other specimens. The most
noticeable feature of this forest, however, is the fact that many of the
biggest trees are slowly dying out and no saplings appeared to be
growing up to take their place. Tracks of elephant are numerous
throughout the forest and the Batoro say that it is they who are
destroying the trees but the size of the latter seems to make this ex-
planation impossible. The whole of this swampy strip is covered with
a heavy undergrowth of a woody plant which is known as “ Mpuku,”
and which grows in many places to a height of fifteen or twenty feet;
it was impossible to find any of these plants in flower. Growing
abundantly, mixed with this plant, was the big pink-flowered Acanthus
arboreus and other plants noted and collected in this area were a
small malvaceous bush ( Pavonia kilimandscharica) and a beautiful
rambler, bearing conspicuous pink flowers, which appears to be Thun-
bergianthus ruwenzoriensis. A balsam with shell-pink flowers was also
common but seemed most at home along the banks of the Mahoma
river where it grew in profusion.

After crossing the Mahoma river the path led through heavy
forest and rose fairly steeply. The forest on the slope is here corn-

208

posed of trees of a different type to those found in the swampy area
before the Mahoma and has a totally different type of undergrowth.
The commonest tree is one called the “ Muhunga which grows to
about seventy feet in height and has broadly saggittate leaves; it was
found impossible to collect specimens of the flowers. Scattered
through this forest is a very tall tree known as the “ Munankwasi
which exudes a gum used by the Batoro for fixing knives and axes to
their handles. With the exception of saplings of the forest trees there
is little or no undergrowth; epiphytic ferns were noted on the roots and
trunks of the trees. This forest extends up the Nyinabitaba ridge from
the Mahoma river for about a thousand feet, but towards its upper
limits the undergrowth is different, consisting largely of a big Piper
(P. guineense).

At an altitude of about 7,500 feet, the forest suddenly gives place
to a patch of bracken* which extends up the ridge for five or six hundred
feet; among this bracken there are only a few scattered trees. The
sudden change in the flora appears to be due to an abrupt change in
soil. The trees growing among the bracken appear to be able to grow
on very shallow soil overlying rock; they are known to the Batoro as
Mukuka ” ( Schefjiera sp. c.f. S. polysciada ). At the time of our visit
the bracken was luxuriant and reached a height of six or eight feet.
It is evidently burned in February by the hunters who use the track
as this appears to be the driest month at this altitude (7,500 feet) and
from native accounts the bracken only becomes dry enough to burn
once in two years. The most striking plant in flower among the
bracken was a conspicuous Hibiscus with flowers of a reddish purple
(H. diversifolius form). Other plants included Euphorbia longicornuta,
a tall yellow Coreopsis ( C . elliotii), the little white Cerastium Africanum,
and a tiny creeping St. John’s wort (H. peplidifolium). The under-
growth in the bracken consisted mainly of a grass mixed with a sedge
(Fimbristylis capillaris). At the same altitude, across a small valley,
we noticed the only tree-ferns seen on the trip; these were growing in
a forest glade on a steep slope. On this and neighbouring slopes we
noted a striking tree with branches growing horizontally of which the
older leaves near the main trunk were dark green and the younger
leaves at the tips of the branches a beautiful pale apple-green; between
the two were borne masses of crimson fruit. This tree, known as the
“ Masabu,” grows to a height of about sixty feet with the lowest
branches about twenty or thirty feet from the ground and in conse-
quence we were unable to collect specimens; its fruit appears to attract
large numbers of birds including the Spotted Wood-pigeon which is
common on these slopes of Ruwenzori.

* A geographical form of the common European, Pteridium aquilinum.

209

Along the path through the bracken were seen a number of
butterflies including a black and white Satyrid ( Mycalesis aurivilii), a
few Lyeaenids and Antanartia spp.; a single specimen of Argynnis
excelsior was taken at about 8,500 feet but this species was commoner
in the marshy ground near the Mubuku immediately below.

Above the bracken the ascent becomes still steeper, the soil is
poorer and covered with a mat of wiry grass ( Panicum adenocarpum
and P. calvum) interspersed with patches of bare quartz. Growing in
this grass were numbers of small shrubby plants, principally Compo-
sitae and Leguminosae. Lower down the ridge the dominant species
of the latter was a Crotalaria and the Compositae were represented by
several yellow-flowered forms of which one ( Helichrysum fruticosum)
had small very sweetly scented leaves. In this zone was also found a
Labiate ( Micromeria biflora) with leaves having a strong smell of
peppermint, and at the highest limits of the zone the principal tree is
a very graceful heather (Philip pia Stuhlmannii'} which grows to a height
of about ten feet and bears small brick-red flowers.

Towards the end of this zone of short grass and shrubs the ridge
becomes a knife-edge. Although the side of the ridge was very steep
we were surprised to find that it was frequented by numbers of elephant
whose tracks had facilitated the preparation of our path. We found
that the attraction for these animals was a tall Leguminous shrub
which grew on the very top of the ridge and on which they had browsed
so heavily that, despite its abundance, there was hardly a plant intact.
This shrub (Smithia ruwenzoriensis form) bore very pretty white
flowers striped with mauve. A little lower down the ridge grew large
numbers of two species of Tephrosia one bearing big white flowers and
the other purple ones. The purple species (T. doggetti ) is known to
the Batoro as “ Muluku ” and is said to be used for poisoning fish in
the lakes, though the Baganda use a white flowered species (T. vogellii )
to which they apply the same name. In the forest, just below the
crest of the ridge, at an elevation of about 8,400 feet, we observed the
first Podocarpus (“ Ob wipe ”) and bamboos.

Further on the ridge broadens, becomes slightly flattened on the
top and the forest extends right across its crest. The path enters this
forest and arrives at the first rock-shelter, Nyinabitaba (Nakitawa of
Filippi), a pleasant spot which according to our aneroid, lies at 8,500
feet above sea level, but Filippi ’s figure (8,701) is probably more
accurate. On the 18th, when we arrived at Nyinabitaba (PI. C, fig. 2)
the two pinnacles of the Portal Peaks, rising almost sheer from the
opposite side of the valley, were bathed in sunlight : at night, however,
the air was cold, our thermometer at 8 p.m. reading 55.5°F.

210

Nyanabitaba to Kyansabo.

On the 14th our path first dropped steeply downwards to the
Mubuku river, after crossing which it went over a low ridge and finally
emerged upon the steep ridge forming the right bank of the Bujuku
which it followed at much the same level for about two miles finally
dropping steeply to the river itself. After crossing the Bujuku the
path climbed steeply and then ran along the base of the ridge on the
left of the valley and after a little more than a mile
we came to Kyansabo rock-shelter, a very bleak, wet and un-
comfortable spot. Nevertheless we had no actual rain and the damp
depressing effect is due to the heavy tangled undergrowth which here
takes the place of true forest while the gloom is enhanced by the
narrowness of the gorge and by the steep cliffs of the Portal Peaks.

The path from Nyinabitaba first leads through a forest composed
mainly of Podocarpus milanjianus ; it appears that the biggest Podo-
carpus trees are to be found not on the top of the ridge, but on its
very steep sides. Lower down the ridge towards the Mubuku the
Podocarpus disappears and is replaced by a rather miserable growth
of scattered bamboos. The path through these led over a tangled mass
of a scrubby Labiate, Pycnostachys urticifolia. On the valley floor
was found a tree Dracaena ( D . reflexa var. nitens ) which attains a
height of thirty or forty feet. Growing over the lower branches of the
trees at this point were masses of Canarina Eminii with dark salmon-
coloured campanulate flowers. Along the path on the low ridge
separating the Mubuku and Bujuku valleys we observed a large aroid
(apparently Arisaema ruwenzoricum) with a beautiful green spathe
streaked with cream, and which grew to a height of more than three
feet. We also passed through an area where there were numbers of
a very beautiful Amaryllid (probably a Choananthus ) with flowers of a
very dark reddish salmon, borne in fours and fives at the end of a long
upright stalk. The forest here was very thick and consisted of an
intimate mixture of Podocarpus, bamboos and Dracaenas under the
shade of which the flowers of this Amaryllid showed up in bright
contrast; the trees and rocks were covered with mosses and Selagi-
nellas. The undergrowth changes about half a, mile before the crossing
of the Bujuku, when Pycnostachys gives place to Mimulopsis elliotii,
a plant with dirty white flowers which has a stem with very numerous
swollen nodes. This plant formed the predominant undergrowth en-
countered on the trip and extends from this ridge at about 8,700 feet
to the Butakobwa river at 10,000 feet.

After crossing the Bujuku the path entered the only zone of
bamboos which could be called a forest; in this zone they were the
predominant plants. This forest did not extend for more than half a
mile along the road and the bamboos ceased between 8,600 feet and
9,000 feet. The path then led through country with only scattered

211

trees of which the most characteristic was the big Hagenia abyssinica
which grew to a height of about sixty or seventy feet and had an
immense spread. The only other striking tree was a very tall Com-
posite with attractive light mauve flowers ( Vernonia hymenolepis)
which grew to a height of thirty or forty feet. The undergrowth con-
sisted almost entirely of a mixture of Pycnostachys and Mimulopsis
while growing in more or less open spaces among this tangled under-
growth a tree, St. John’s wort was observed in small numbers. All
the trees were festooned with masses of a grey lichen which formed
long streamers.

A feature of this zone of scattered trees, which extended from the
bamboos to beyond Kyansabo rock-shelter, was the large number of
runs and open spaces formed by wild pig. The temperature at Kyan-
sabo at 8 p.m. was 50°F. and at 8 a.m. 48.4°F.; the height above sea
level is about 9,000 feet.

Among the insects observed on the way from Nyinabitaba was a
yellow Pierine butterfly which flew at a great height round the flowers
of a big forest tree ( Dombeya runsoroensisy.

Kyansabo to Kigo.

The journey from Kyansabo to Kigo rock shelter was, botanically,
the most interesting part of the trip. Unfortunately it was a long and
tiring day’s march and it was difficult to spend as much time collecting
as we would have liked. From Kyansabo the path continued along
the base of the cliff which forms the left side of the Bujuku valley and
passed over boulders and tree trunks overlain by a matted growth of
the slippery stems of Mimulopsis , often two or three feet above the
earth which it completely hid, thus making the march exceptionally
difficult. Growing through this undergrowth were numbers of Podo-
carpus, a tree Hypericum with yellow flowers and a forest tree
( Rapanea rhododendroides ) with dark green leaves and red berries
which seemed to have a very definite range as it was not noticed below
Kyansabo and disappeared entirely by the time we reached Kigo. At
Kyansabo it often attains a height of 30 to 40 feet while above this
point it becomes increasingly stunted until, at the second Bujuku
crossing (10,700 feet) it occurs in only the more sheltered spots and
even in these does not exceed five or six feet in height. In the more
or less open spaces in the undergrowth above Kyansabo the most
noticeable plants included one or two species of Ccirdamine with pink
flowers, a Begonia with bright red flowers, a green-flowered Clematis
and two species of bramble. The first arborescent Senecio ( S . longili-
gulata ) was found at about 10,000 feet; this species reached a height of
fully thirty feet and bore bright yellow flowers in a very much branched
inflorescence. We saw numbers of very young plants growing around
the older trees but very few of an intermediate age. Near these trees

212

we collected a tall and graceful Thalictruni which in many places
reached six feet in height and has been identified by Kew as the same
species (T. rhynchocarpum ) which we collected lower down the moun-
tain; the flowers, which were in profusion, were dull mauve in colour.

Beyond this point the path dropped steeply down the side of the
ridge and ran through a thick growth of Senecios among which we met
with the first specimens of a second tall slender Lobelia (L.
stuhlmannii) . We next passed the rock shelter of Nyamuleju, a very
open and bleak spot which is stated by the porters to be a bad place to
camp because men have been known to die there. ' Beyond Nyamuleju,
the path, though still clinging to the side of the cliff, became more
swampy; in the wetter places a tall Rumex ( R . afromontanus) with an
inflorescence reaching a height of over six feet, was very common.

The Bujuku river is joined by the Kanyuwankoko just above
Nyamuleju and a little further on by the Butakobwa (perhaps the same
as the Manureggio of the maps). Both of these rivers and other small
streams which also flow from the Portal Peaks showed signs of having
recently been in most violent flood; there had evidently been a very
heavy storm on this part of the range. The volume of water had been
so great that the Mubuku, into which the somewhat larger Bujuku
flows, had risen rapidly; the new bridge under construction near Ibanda
in the plains below, had been washed away and the river had entirely
altered its course at this point.

Near the Kanyuankoko we found banks of a violet ( Viola eminii )
which bore either blue or white flowers. From here up to Kigo the
most striking feature of the vegetation was the mosses, of which there
were several different kinds which covered the ground for a foot or
two in depth and also grew over the trunks and branches of the trees.
Their colours varied through all shades of green and from pale straw
colour to a rich dark reddish brown. Every tree and rock was
festooned with grey lichen but the general colour effects were not so
vivid and bizarre as those depicted by Wells, perhaps owing, in part,
to the fact that many of the mosses on the trees were dry. Growing
over the moss on the ground and climbing the lower branches of the
trees was a leguminous plant with very deep violet-blue flowers
( Parochetus communis) and in a fairly dry spot at about 10,500 feet
was found the first extensive growth of Everlastings ( Helichrysum
argyrocotyle), which grew to a height of about three feet and bore very
pretty pinkish flowers. A little further up we found another species
( H . guilelmii) having a pure white flower and a Rubus with very large
pink flowers, while the aroid met with lower down persisted along the
drier parts of the sides of the valley.

About half a mile beyond the Butakobwa river the path dropped
down to the valley floor where the soil is evidently constantly water-
logged. On a piece of boggy land we came upon the first examples of
Lobelia bequaertii (PL G); these were nearly all in flower and there

213

were a few others which had evidently flowered about a year earlier,
but we saw very few young plants.

For a little less than a mile before coming to the second crossing
of the Bujuku (at about 10,700 feet) the forest consists of tree heathers
(Philippia nr. hexagona ) which were very close together and reached
thirty to fifty feet in height. Their lower branches were more or less
bare of leaves but the tops of the trees bore dense foliage which ex-
cluded almost all light even on a bright sunny day (Pis. E and F)
Among the mosses in the heather forest grew a terrestrial orchid with
vivid pink flowers ( Disa stairsii).

After crossing the Bujuku the path lies along the first big valley
“ step ” where the vegetation is dominated by tufts of a big sedge
( Car ex runsoroensis) which has brown flowers and yellow stamens.
This flowered freely but the mosses which were also a feature of this
bog, were entirely in a vegetative stage. Along the edges of this bog,
on rather drier ground, Helichrysum stuhlmanii was dominant and
grew almost into small trees with very hard woody stems; this same
species was found to persist right up to the snows. Around Kigo rock,
where the land is a little drier, the sedge is replaced by a carpet of the
silver-leaved Alchemilla ruwenzoriensis on which we pitched our tent.
This plant evidently grew on a stratum of peat which was overlying
a bog and was very spongy to walk upon.

Kigo to Lake Bujuku.

On August 16th we proceeded from Kigo rock shelter to Cooking-
Pot camp above Lake Bujuku. The path first led up the side of the
valley and then dropped down to the second valley step, across which
it followed the stream, finally climbing the moraine to the source of
the stream, Lake Bujuku.

On the side of the valley we passed through very thick vegetation
composed mainly of tree heaths, Lobelia stuhlmannii , a bramble with
large pink flowers and (in the more open parts) a tree Hypericum with
orange and scarlet flowers, while on the valley step Lobelia bequaertii
still persisted. On the sides of the valley and on the somewhat drier
rocky moraines between the steps we met with another tree Senecio
( S . adnivalis ) which grows to about thirty feet and branches freely.
On the swampy steps grew Senecio erioneuron1 Cotton (1932)
which differs markedly in habit from S. adnivalis being
generally shorter, having fewer branches and with the dead
leaves more persistent. A swamp-loving Lobelia (L. wollastoni )
of great grace and beauty is first seen on these steps
above Kigo; the flowers are a delicate grey-blue colour and, as the
bract below each flower is small, they are more conspicuous than those
of the other giant Lobelias which we saw. On the lower step its
range overlaps that of L. Bequaertii but around Lake Bujuku it is the

214

only giant species; this distribution suggests that temperature may
perhaps be the limiting factor in the range of L. bequaertii.
Alchemillas, mosses and the yellow-flowered Helichrysum persist in
the damper parts of the moraine up to and beyond the camp but the
tree heaths (P. hexagona ) disappear entirely before Lake Bujuku is
reached and the only tree forms are the Senecios which are in places
the dominant vegetation.

Cooking-Pot camp (PL J, fig. 1) consists of an immense boulder
supported by a smaller one and beneath the former was plenty of room
for our four beds and kit; but the tent was most useful, as we hung
it over the front of the shelter which it helped to keep warm and dry.

We found on reaching Lake Bujuku that the level of the water
was so low that the stream disappeared as a tiny trickle through a
crack in the moraine debris. On our arrival we noted a pair of duck
on the lake. Just as we reached the top of the moraine, the mist,
which had descended in the middle of the morning, parted and the sun
shone on the slopes of Mount Stanley (PL L); on comparing our
photograph with one published by Filippi the same details of the
mountain are clearly visible.

We were at Cooking-Pot camp from the evening of the 16th
August to the morning of the 19th. During that period we made
short excursions up the surrounding mountains and also collected in
the valley itself. During our stay the weather was clear every day
at dawn and we were able to see the snowfields bathed in the earlv
sunlight; the weather remained clear and sunny until 9 a.m., but for
the next two hours mist blew up and covered everything; this then
cleared again and we had sunshine and uninterrupted views until 1-30
or 2 p.m. when the mist came up in great banks until about 6 p.m.
After sunset we experienced a cold, frosty and clear atmosphere. The
morning temperature was usually about 35 °F. and there was a white
frost on the ground each day. On several occasions we heard or saw
small avalanches of ice or rock and on finally leaving Cooking-Pot camp
to descend the mountain we heard through the mist a dull roar indicat-
ing a very heavy fall.

On the 17th a short trip was made up the Scott Elliot Pass; the
start was late and it happened that on this particular day the mist did
not clear at 11 a.m. and we were unable, therefore, to proceed to Elena
Glacier as we had hoped. The most interesting plant collected on the
higher slopes was a white flowered crucifer ( Arabis alpina) found
growing in wet places up to about 13,000 feet, while on the pass itself
the only plants seen were a Helichrysum, which has not yet been
identified, and which grew to a height of about eighteen inches, and
two grasses ( Poa glacialis and Poa sp.).

On the 18th an early start was made in bright sunlight and the
Marguerita glacier was reached just as the mist rolled up. The path
led either over very wet sodden ground or over masses of boulders

215

which had fallen at some time from the face of the glaciers above.
Everywhere up to 13,500 feet the yellow Helichrysum, the deep moss
and arborescent Senecios persisted, and growing in the moss the pink
Cardamine was again noted. Above 13,500 feet the tree Senecios
were the only vegetation seen and these persisted almost to the foot
of the glacier at 14,500 feet. In the valley bottom above Lake Bujuku
were found the same tussocks of rush, yellow moss, and Senecio
erioneuron as were seen lower down. The sides of all the mountains were
heavily clothed with tree Senecios and the tall slender Lobelia wolla-
stonii. It may be pointed out that even the sides of the mountains
were waterlogged through the constant seepage of water from the
glaciers above. The soil was perhaps not so acid as that of the bogs
in the valleys which had a pH of about 4.5 since the water of Lake
Bujuku had a pH of about 8.

The return journey was begun on August 19th and we endeavoured
during the descent to give more time to the demarcation of the floral
zones of the upper part of the Bujuku valley and to the collection of
insects.

Section II. Zonal Divisions.

The plant zones of Ruwenzori have been demarcated by Good and
Rendle and in discussing the flora of the Bujuku Valley we have
followed these writers to a limited extent. Rendle defines the highest
zones as being from 12,000 to 15,000 feet but Good is perhaps more
accurate in his figures of 12,800 to 14,800 feet.

The Highest Floral Zone.

In the Bujuku valley the series of steps and moraines assist in the
definition of convenient zonal boundaries. The highest zone may be
taken as extending from about 12,500 feet up to the line of permanent
ice and snow which is about 14,800 feet; the lower limit coincides
approximately with the top of the moraine below Lake Bujuku. The
altitude of Cooking-Pot camp, around which much of our collecting
was done, is (from the position of the camp site marked by Filippi)
about 12,900 feet.

The following flowering plants were collected in this zone and are
arranged in systematic order following Hutchinson (1926): —

Arabis alpine , L. (89).*

Cardamine sp.

Sagina abyssinica , Hochst ex A. Rich (97).

Alchemilla geranioides, Rolfe (95).

Helichrysum guilelmii, Engl. (87).

Helichrysum sp. (86) at 14,800 feet on Scott Elliot Pass.

The numbers given in parentheses are collectors’ numbers registered at Kew.

216

Senecio adnivalis, Stapf. (100, 115).

Senecio erioneuron , Cotton. (70, 81, 82, 83, 99, 116, 117;
perhaps 98 sece. Cotton p. 439).

Senecio sp. near Humphreysii, Good (88). This plant, which
stands about a foot in height, had purple flowers and grew
on the Uganda side of the divide on comparatively dry
ground among the rocks, at about 13,100 feet, beside the
stream running from the glacier on Mount Speke.

Lobelia wollastonii, Baker form (80).

Car ex runsoroensis, K. Schum (108).

Festuca abyssinica, Hook (90).

Poa glacialis, Stapf (93) at about 14,000 feet on Scott Elliot
Pass.

Poa spp. (91, 92, 94, identical).

Agrostis sp. (111).

Mosses (96, 101, 102, 103, 104, 112).

A tall species of Umbellifer occurred in the clefts of Mount Stanley
and below Stuhlmann Pass; Good records two specie (Peucedanum
dissectum and Torilis gracilis ) from the highest zone. The tree St.
John’s worts which, according to Good, extend into this zone, barely
touched its lower limit. Our specimens of Ranunculus oreophytus
were collected lower down the mountain but this species was also seen
at Cooking-Pot camp.

The level bog in front of our camp was carpeted with big tufts of
Carex runsoroensis between which grew a Sphagnum over black mud;
Senecio erioneuron occurred in his bog together with a few Lobelia
Wollastoni but the latter species was apparently commoner on the
sides of the mountain at the edge of the bog. On the slopes of the
mountain, and in other less boggy places the flora consisted of
Alchemilla spp. and Senecio adnivalis. One specimen of S. erioneuron
was collected in a damp cleft on the mountain side but differed slightly
from the specimens collected in the level bog. The grasses were
collected mostly on the higher slopes or where rocks had recently been
brought down from a glacier and where the soil was consequently very
shallow.

The Second Floral Zone.

This zone includes the lower part of the moraine below Lake
Bujuku and the two steps one above and one below Kigo; it ends at
the point where our path crossed the Bujuku just below the junction
of the Waigga River. Our aneroid at this point read 10,700 feet, but
from Filippi’s map the altitude appears to be nearer 11,000 feet.

The following plants were found in this zone: —

Ranunculus oreophytus, Del. (68).

Subularia monticola, A.Br. (76), a tiny plant growing at the
water’s edge beside the Bujuku stream.

217

Rume x afromontana, Th. Fries jr. (121).

Hypericum lanceolatum, Lam. (50) a-nd (74). This name has
been applied by Kew to the two forms mentioned above
in the general section. The one (74) collected at higher
levels (above 11,000 feet) had orange flowers with the
petals scarlet below, while the other (50) collected at
lower levels (below 10,500 feet but above 9,000 feet) had
yellow flowers. Good records two forms, H. ruwen-
zoriense de Wild, with yellow flowers and H. bequaertii
de Wild, with orange flowers; the ranges of these two
forms appear either to overlap greatly or to be ill-defined
in the areas collected by Capt. Humphreys.

Rubus sp. (105).

Peucedanum Kerstenii , Engl. (60).

Philippia nr. hexagona , Aim. and Th. Fries jr. (74).

Galium sp. (78).

Carduus sp. (107).

Helichrysum stuhlmanii , O. Hoflm. (67).

Senecio syncephyllus , S. Moore (114).

Senecio adnivalis, Stapf.

Senecio erioneuron, Cotton.

Senecio spp. (71 and 75).

Lobelia wollastonii, Bak., extending from the highest zone
into the upper part of this zone.

Lobelia stuhlmanii, Schweinf.

Lobelia bequaertii, de Wild. (This form is considered by
Kew to be specifically distinct from L. deckenii which is
now not considered as occurring on Ruwenzori; older
records of L. deckenii refer to L. bequaertii.)

Carex runsoroensis , K. Schum. Again in all the bogs.

Carpha eminii, C. B. Clarke (109).

Luzula johnstonii, Buchen (110).

Bromus sp. (118).

Deschampsia latifolia, Hochst. (139).

Asplenium praemorsum, Sw. (120).

Lycopodium Saururus , Lam. (73).

Moss (? Sphagnum) (113).

The zone is, on the whole, similar in general appearance to the
one above; a few strictly high level species such as Lobelia wollastonii
hardly descend to this altitude and the development of the tree Senecios
has not reached the climax which is attained in the higher zone. This
second zone may be characterised by the association of arborescent
Senecios, tree heaths ( Philippia sp.), Helichrysums (which here reach
their maximum development), Lobelia bequaertii, and Alchemillas;
comparatively few of these last were collected as the diversity of
species was not recognised in the field. The boggy steps here, also,

218

were dotted with tussocks of Carex runsoroensis among which grew the
Sphagnum. Ferns which were absent in the highest zone appeared
towards the upper limit of the second zone.

The Third Floral Zone (10,700' to 9,500').

This stretches from a point at the bottom of the lowest valley
step, where our path crossed the Bujuku, and merges into the mixed
forest and shrub above Nyamuleju. It is less well defined than the
two previous zones, partly because the path follows a hillside and does
not descend at a uniform gradient. The upper part of the zone is
characterised by a forest of tree-heathers on the trunks of which are
thick clumps of moss and on the branches festoons of lichens. Two
species of these heathers occur, at the upper limit the dominant species
is the Philippia (P. nr. hexagona) while lower down the proportion of
Erica (E. ruwenzoriensis) increases and this species could be seen in
flower on the hillsides and at the lower limit of the zone where it
seemed entirely to replace the Philippia. Lobelia bequaertii enters
the top of this zone in a suitable boggy spot but Lobelia stuhlmannii is
the characteristic species of Lobelia. A number of smaller plants are
characteristic of this zone, which is the lowest which shows definite
alpine characters. The species of arborescent Senecio found here is
S. longiligulata.

The following plants were collected in this zone: —

Clematis sp. (52).

Thalictrum rhynchocarpum , Dill, and A. Rich.

Ranunculus volkensii, Eng. (129).

Ranunculus stagnalis , Hochst, ex A. Rich (69).

Rwiuculus pubescens , Thunb. (128).

Arabis alpina, L. (132).

Viola eminii, R. E. Fries (63).

Cerastium viscosum , L. (125).

Geranium simense , Hochst (126).

Epilobium fissipetalum, Steud. (134).

Melothria longipedunculata , Cogn. (51).

Hypericum lanceolatum, Lam. (50).

Alchemilla ruwenzoriensis , Rolfe (57).

Hagenia abyssinica, Wild (152).

Parochetus communis, Hamilt. (61).

Parietaria ruwenzoriensis, Cortesi (62).

Peucedanum kerstenii, Engl. (57).

Peucedanum runsoricum, Engl. (47).

Anthriscus dissectus, C. H. Wright (55).

Erica ruwenzoriensis, Aim. and Th. Fries jr. (48, 49).

Rapanaea rhododendroides , Menz. (58).

Galium serrato-hamoAurn, S. Moore (53).

Conyza sp. (136).

219

Helichrysum argyrocotyle , S. Moore (65).

Helichrysum guilelmii, Engl. (66).

Helichrysum stuhlmannii. O. Hoffm. (67).

Senecio syncophyllus, S. Moore (65).

Senecio longiligulata de Wild. (56).

Senecio sp. (71).

Veronica glandulosa, Hochst ex Benth (64, 124).

Disa stairsii, Kraenzl (72).

Polystachya sp. (151) epiphyte.

Gar ex ? cognata, Kunth. (185).

Bromus sp. (181).

Pelypolium lineare, Thumb. (180).

Asplenium* bipinnatum, C. Chr. (187).

Pteris sp. (188).

Mosses (127) and (140).

Physcia leucomela, Wainio. (150).

Liverwort (185).

The Lower Forest and Bracken Zones.

It has been mentioned above that the lower zones are difficult to
demarcate; a rather full description of them has therefore been
included in the general account of the ascent, while the plants
collected below 9,500 feet are listed below with the locality and altitude
appended but without further comment.

Clematis sp. (27, 28), Kyansabo, 8,000 feet.

Thalictrum rhynchocarpum , Dill, and A. Rich. (1), Mihunga,
6,200 feet.

Ranunculus pubescens, Thunb. (205), Ibanda, 4,500 feet.
Stephania abyssinica, A. Rich (170), Nyinabitaba, 8,500 feet,
Mubuku Valley, 6,000 feet.

Piper guineense , Schum. and Thonn. (185), Mubuku Valley,

7.000 feet.

Peperomia reflexa , Dictr. (14), Mihunga, 6,000 feet, epiphyte.
Sedum sp. (172), Bujuku Valley, 8,000 feet.

Cerastium africanum, Oliv. (15), Mihunga, 6,500 feet.
Harpagocarpus snowdenii , Hutch and Dandy (6), Mihunga,
6,200 feet.

Basella alba, L. (17), Mihunga, 6,200 feet.

Geranium aculeolatum , Oliv. var. (5), Mihunga, 6,200 feet.
Impatiens sp. (201), Ibanda, 4,000 feet, extends to 6,000 feet.
Impatiens sp. (185), Mubuku Valley, 6,500 feet, extends to

9.000 feet.

Faurea saligna, Harv. (179), Mubuku Valley, 8,000 feet.
Hypericum peplidi folium, A. Rich. (194), Nyinabitaba, 7,500
feet.

220

Dombeya runsoroensis , K. Schum. (195), 6,500 to 9,500 feet.
Pavonia kilimandscharica , Gurke (9), Mihunga, 6,000 feet.
Pavonia schimperiana , Hochst (207), Mihunga, 6,000 feet.
Hibiscus diver si folius, Jacq. form (17), Nyinabitaba, 7,000
feet. This form is so different both in habit and. habitat
from the form found in tropical Uganda swamps that it is
difficult to believe that the two forms are conspecific.
Kosteletzkya adoensis, Hochst. var. hirsuta Oliv. (189),
Mubuku Valley, 6,000 feet.

Phyllanthus sp. (11), Mihunga, 6,000 feet.

Euphorbia longicornuta , Pax (18), Nyinabitaba, 7,000 feet.
Rubus doggettii , C. H. Wright (161), Bujuku Valley, 8,500 ft.
Rubus sp. (40), Kyansabo, 8,500 feet.

Rubus sp. (174), Bujuku Valley, 8,500 feet.

Tephrosia doggettii, Bak. form (182), Nyinabitaba, 8,500 feet.
Amphicarpaea africana, Plarms. (8), Mihunga, 6,200 feet.
Smithia ruwenzoriensis , Bak. form (182), Nyinabitaba, 8,500
feet.

Psophocarpus palustris, Desv. (197), Mihunga, 6,500 feet.
Zornia tetraphylla , Michx. (210), Ibanda, 4,000 feet.

Pilea ceratomera, Wedd, (87), Kyansabo, 8,500 feet.

Cornus volkensii, Harms. (178), Bujuku Valley, 8,500 feet.
Schleffiera c.f. polysciada , Harms. (196), Nyinabitaba, 8,500
feet.

Peucedanum runzoricum, Engl. (45), 8,500 feet, Kyansabo.
Philippia stuhlmanni, Engl. (20), Nyinabitaba, 8,500 feet,
c.f. Grumilea sp. (13), Mihunga, 6,000 feet.

Rubia sp. (4), Mihunga. 6,200 feet.

Galiniera coffeoides, Del., Bujuku valley, 8,500 feet.

Pentas carnea , Benth. (178), Nyinabitaba, 8,500 feet.
Borreria Ruelliae, K. Schum. (206), Ibanda, 4,000 feet.
Oldenlandia abyssinica , Hiern. (209), Ibanda, 4,500 feet.
Erlangea ruwenzoriensis , S. Moore (184), Bujuku Valley,

9.000 feet and (171) 8,000 feet.

Carduus sp. (162), Bujuku river, 8,500 feet.

Conyza ruwenzoriensis, B. E. Fries (180), Nyinabitaba, 8,000
feet.

Coreopsis elliotii , S. Moore (19), Nyinabitaba, 8,000 feet.

? Gynura crepidoides (188), Mubuku Valley, 6,500 feet.
Melanthera brownei, Sch. Bip. (204), Ibanda, 4,000 feet.
Helichrysum argyrocotyle , S. Moore (175), Bujuku Valley,

8.000 feet.

Helichrysum fruticosum , Vatke (183), Nyinabitaba, 8,000
feet, extends from 7,000 feet to over 9,000 feet.

Senecio maranguensis, O. Hoffm. (154), Nyinabitaba, 8,500
feet and (187) 7,500 feet.

221

Senecio multicorymbosa , Klatt. (200), Mihunga and Mubuku
Valley, 5,500 feet to 6,500 feet.

Vernonia hymenolepis , A. Rich (46), Kyansabo, 9,000 feet.

? Ethulia conyzoides (44), Kyansabo, 8,500 feet.

Ardesiandra sibthorpioides, Hook form (16), Mihunga, 6,500
feet.

Plantago palmata, Hook form (203), Ibanda, 4,500 feet to

6.000 feet.

Canarina eminii, Asch. aus Schwein. (29, 30), Kyansabo,

8.000 feet.

Lobelia Gibberoa , Hemsl. (211), Mihunga, 5,500 to 8,000 feet.

Cynoglossum c.f. geometricum, Baker and Wright (8),
Mihunga, 6,200 feet.

Solanum ruwenzoricum , C. H. Wright (43), Kyansabo, 9,000
feet.

Discopodium pennincrvium, Hochst (41), Kyansabo, 9,000 ft.

c.f. Thunbergianthus sp. (10). This plant appears to be the
one described by Good as T. ruwenzoriensis f. macrocalyx,
and is a comparatively small rambler.

Rhamphicarpa herzfeldiana , Yatke (202), Ibanda, 4,000 feet

Streptocarpus ruwenzoriensis, Baker (2), Mihunga, 6,200 ft.

Mimidopsis Elliot tii, C. B. Clarke (38), Kyansabo, 9,000 feet.

Justicia pinguior, C. B. Clarke (191), Nyinabitaba ridge, 7,500
feet.

c.f. Coleus sp. (166), Bujuku Valley, 8,500 feet.

c.f. Coleus sp. (39), Kyansabo, 8,500 feet.

Pycnostachys urticifolia, Hook f. (26), Nyinabitaba, 8,500 ft.

Micromelia hi flora. Benth. (190), Nyinabitaba ridge, 7,000 ft.

Leucas martini censis, R. Br. (198, 199), Mihunga, 6,500 feet.

c.f. Arisaema ruwenzoricum, N. E. Brown (35, 36), Kyansabo,

8,000 feet.

Dracaena reflexa, Lam. var. nitens, Bak., Kyansabo, 8,000 ft.

Dioscorea beccariana, Martelli (212), Mihunga, 6,000 feet.

Aneilema aequinoctialis , Kunth. (12), Mihunga, 6,000 feet.

Epipactis africana, Rendle (21), Nyinabitaba, 7,500 feet.

Disa Stairsii, Ivraenzl. (22), Nyinabitaba, 8,000 feet. A very
pale specimen and without the very bright pink colour of
those found at higher altitudes.

Disperis sp. (25), Nyinabitaba, 8,500 feet.

Orchid (24), Nyinabitaba, 8,500 feet. Perhaps Cynosorchis
anacamserpoides, Kraenzl, a specimen of which, deter-
mined by Kew, had lost its reference number.

Carex johnstonii, Boeck. (165), Bujuku A7 alley, 8,500 feet.

Carex echinochloe , Kunz. var* chlorosaccus, Kukenth (192),
Mubuku Valley, 6,000 feet.

222

Fimbristylis capillaris, Kunth, var. trifida , C. B. CL (184),
Nyinabitaba, 8,000 feet.

Panicum adenophorum , K. Sebum. (177), Nyinabitaba, 8,500
feet.

Panicum calvum , Stapf. ('177), Nyinabitaba, 8,500 feet.

Podocarpus milanjianus, Rendle (160), Bujuku Valley, 8,500
feet.

Hymenophyllum kuhnii , C. Chr. (81), Kyansabo, 8,000 feet.

Elaphroglossum hirtum (Sw.), C.Ch. (157), Bujuku Valley,
8,500 feet.

Dryopteris boreana, C.Chr. (159), Bujuku Valley, 8,500 feet.

Asplenium anisophyllum , Kze. (159, 167), Bujuku River,
8,000 feet and 8,500 feet.

Asplenium abyssinicum , Fee (168), Bujuku Valley, 8,500 feet.

Asplenium lunulatum , Sw. (169), Bujuku Valley, 8,500 feet.

Lycopodium phlegmaria , L. (155, Bujuku River, 8,000 feet.

Lycopodium clavatum , L. (23), Nyinabitaba, 8,000 feet.

Sclaginella ? Goudotiana . Spreng (208), Muhunga, 5,000 feet,
apparently extends to 8,000 feet, but no spore-bearing
branches were seen.

The Flowering of Lobelias and Senecios.

In the account of the collections made by the British Museum
expedition, Rendle and others quote Woosnam’s remarks on the ages
and flowering period of these plants. He estimates the life of a tree
Senecio at from fifty to a hundred years emphasising the importance
of taking into consideration the time required for the accumulation of
the persistent dead leaves which are so characteristic of some of the
species. He suggests that these plants flower every few years; a very
few Senecios were seen in flower by us and similarly only a few showed
dead flower-heads which might perhaps have been a year old. It seems
clear that these plants cannot flower annually and Woosnam’s estimate
of the interval between flowerings would appear to err, if at all, on
the conservative side.

In describing the Lobelias, the British Museum expedition state
that they found but two plants of L. deckenii (i.e. L. bequaertii) in
flower but, as will be seen from the photograph (PI. G) this species was
flowering very freely at the time of our visit. Dawe (1906) who
ascended the Mubuku Valley in July, 1905, appears to have found all
the species of Lobelia in flower. The two other species, L. W ollastonii
and L. stuhhnannii were also flowering in considerable numbers.
There were a few dead plants of L. bequaertii but these were consider-
ably fewer in numbers than those which were in full bloom and it
was only with some difficulty that we found a few plants from which
we could collect ripe seed.

It is not easy to judge the length of life of L. bequaertii and to
decide at which periods these plants come into flower. The time of
our visit coincided with a maximum flowering period and it seems that
this cannot be more frequent than every two or three years; perhaps
the fine warm weather which we experienced may have helped to
initiate the production of flowers.

There were considerable numbers of L. stuhlmannii of all ages from
tiny seedlings to plants in full flower ; it is probable that the suggestion
made by Woosnam, that this species is longer lived than L. bequaertii,
is correct.

Comparison with Other Floras.

It is not at present possible to make a detailed comparison
between the alpine flora of Ruwenzori and that of other mountains in
East Africa as systematic work is still incomplete. The whole litera-
ture is not available in East Africa, and the writers hope that at some
later date they may be able to continue work on this subject in the
field. One of the writers recently contributed to an account of some
of the plants of Mount Elgon (Hancock and Soundy). There is one
difference between the floras of the two mountains : on Mount Elgon
the higher slopes are mostly grassy meadows, whereas on Ruwenzotx
they are rocky hill-sides or bogs. Certain groups of plants are, there-
fore, absent from Ruwenzori and those expecially missed were the
Anemonies, gentians and Iridaceae. On the higher more northern
ridges of Ruwenzori (not visited by our party) Good records a carpet of
Alchemilla as the sole vegetation.

the flora around the crater lakes between Fort Portal and the
northern end of the range is at present being investigated and it is
difficult to state its relationship to that of Ruwenzori. The soil is of
recent volcanic origin, the dominant plants are short grasses and the
climate more resembles that of the lower slopes of Elgon. The flora
of the northern end of Ruwenzori including the more luxuriant bamboo
forests of Musendama, was not collected and is not here discussed;
that of the lower-lying country at the southern end of the range near
lakes Edward and George included in the account of the British
Museum expedition.

Fatjnistic Notes.

The fauna of the mountain has been dealt with extensively by
various British Museum specialists in the Ruwenzori reports and the
vertebrates, more especially the birds, received very careful study. It
is unfortunate that the insects could only be dealt with very briefly and
in some cases the range of altitude given is highly deceptive since in
many cases it is clear that the statement “ from 6,000 to 13,000 feet
merely means that the insect was captured somewhere within this
range. A good example of this is the male of Danais chrysippus f.

224

alcipus of which only one specimen was collected but of which the
range is given as 6,000 — 13,000 feet.

Among the Senecios and Alchemillas the most noticeable insects
were small Geometrid moths ( Larentia spp.) resembling the European
“ Carpets.” At the bases of the leaves of Senecio adnivalis and S.
erioneuron were found weevils Sublepto spiris turbida , Mshl., wrhich
superficially resembled those found in similar situations on Elgon, and
the flowers of this species yielded specimens of Cryptophagids and
Athela ugandae, Bernh. ( Staphylinidae ). The flower heads of Lobelia
wollastonii were carefully examined and the dominant insect was a^ small
weevil Pseudomesites lobeliae, Mshl., which appeared to be feeding on
the fruits; in addition were found numbers of Omalium algidum , Fauv.,
a Staphylinid recorded by Scott from the closely related Lobelia rhyn-
chopetalum in Abyssinia.

In Lake Bujuku a specimen of Cephanodes hylas , a clear-winged
Sphingid moth, common in Uganda at lower levels, was found floating
on the water; it appeared at first to be dead but revived after being
taken into camp. This insect has a very powerful flight and it seems
improbable that it was carried up by wind; it would almost seem that
it had been endeavouring to cross the mountain.

Among the species of insects collected at the higher levels two
show apparent Palearctic affinities : a male Chironomid, Spaniotoma
( Orthocladium ) sp. was collected on flowers of a giant Senecio at
about 12,000 feet and the following note was received from the Im-
perial Institute of Entomology : ‘ ‘ Very similar to several European
species and unlike anything Dr. Edwards has hitherto seen from
Africa.” The second was a single female Tipula from about 12,500
feet concerning which it was noted : 4 4 This species is very different
from all the other African Tipula in the British Museum; it has a
decidedly 4 Palearctic ’ appearance and seems related to T. marmorata
and similar European species.”

The only other fly collected in these floral zones was a Psychodid,
Clytocerus sp., below Kigo, 10,000 feet.

The Lepidoptera from these regions included : —

Larentia heteromorpha , Hamps. (Geometridae), Bujuku,
12,000 feet,

Lareyitia barnsi, Prout, Bujuku, 12,000 feet.

Larentia hancocki, Prout (Geometridae), Bujuku, 12,000 feet.

Larentia wellsi, Prout (Geometridae), Bujuku, 12,000 feet.

Larentia alluaudi, Prout (Geometridae), Kigo, 10,500 feet.

Homalopsyche hyacinthopa , Mevr. (Tineidae), Bujuku, 12,000
feet.

Polymnestra capnochalca, Meyr. (Tineidae), Bujuku, 12,000
feet.

Plutella orosema , Meyr. (Plutellidae)*, Bujuku, 12,000 feet.

Labdia iriphaea, Meyr. (Cosmopterygidae), Bujuku, 12,500 ft.

Scoparia tyrophanta, Meyr. (Pyralidae), Bujuku, 12,006 feet.

Harpendyreus reginaldi , Heron (Lycaenidae), below Kigo,
10,500 feet.

Cupido aequatorialis, Sharpe (Lycaenidae) with the above.
Pour males and two females of this species were collected
on a sunny hillside toward the lower limits of the heather
zone (PI. VI), being found with H. reginaldi more parti-
cularly on the flowers of a tall ragwort. These specimens
of 0. aequatorialis are smaller and have the brown mark-
ings on the underside darker than in two males and seven
females collected on the Bwamba pass and at Nyakasura
near Port Portal. A single male from Nkokonjeru, a hill
rising to about 7,000 feet near Mount Elgon, is darker
than any of the specimens from the lower levels near
Toro.

Trapezoritis anisastra, Meyr. (Tineidae), below Kigo, 10,000 ft.

Tinea amphitrita, Meyr. (Tineidae), Kyansabo, 10,000 feet.

Acrocercops chenopa, Meyr. (Gracilariidae), Kyansabo, 10,000
feet.

Among the Coleoptera Ruwenzoria viridis, Labois (Galerucidae)
was taken below Kigo at about 10,000 feet and Silidius ruwenzoriensis
Pic. var. hancocki, Pic. (Telephoridae) at 11,000 feet near Kigo.

Among the insects collected at lower levels it is almost impossible
to decide which can be considered truly endemic or even characteristic
of African mountains in general. The following are worthy of
mention : —

Argynnis excelsior , Butl. (Nymphalidae), Nyinabitaba, 8,500
feet and below Mihunga, 6,000 feet; also found at the top
of the Bwamba pass, 8,500 feet and collected by the late
C. C. Gowdey from near Lake George.

Hypolycaena jacksoni, B. Bak. (Lycaenidae) by a stream in
forest near Mihunga about 6,000 feet.

Gnophodes grogani , E. Sharpe (Satyridae), forest on Bwamba
pass, 7,500 feet.

Mycalesis aurivilii, Butl. (Satyridae), Nyinabitaba ridge and
Bwamba pass, 7,000 feet up to 8,500 feet.

Mycalesis matuta , Karsch. (Satyridae), Mihunga, 6,000 feet,
and Bwamba pass, 6,000 feet. Apparently confined to
about this altitude.

* The following note by Mr. Meyrick has just been received : “ Nearest the

European incarnatella and the Abyssinian mountain species now in course of
publication.” ( Exot . Microl. IV, p. 228, 1952.)

226

Hydrelig, argyridia, Butler (Geometridae).

Argyroploce phyllodoxa, Meyr. (Eucosmidae), Nyinabitaba,
8,500 feet.

Philotherma thoracica, Butl. (Lasiocampidae), Nyinabitaba
camp, 8,500 feet. It is possible that a Lasiocampid larva
found on Philippia stuhlmanni only a few yards from
where the moth was captured may have belonged to the
same species.

The bamboo forest in the Bujuku Valley was not growing vigorously
and a day trip was therefore subsequently made to the bamboos at the
top of the Bwamba Pass (8,500 feet) in order to compare the fauna with
that collected on Mount Elgon. A small collection of insects was
made and special attention was given to bored bamboos. It is un-
fortunate that no moths were bred from the larvae collected but they
appeared not to be Noctuids, as was found to be the case on Elgon
(Hancock and Sounday) but more probably Pyralids. The mosquito
fauna was carefully collected and both in open and bored bamboos
were found larvae of Culex nebulosus, Theo. In addition Uranotaenia
shillitonis , Edw. (MS) occurred sparingly and one pupa of a
Megarhinus * was found but was damaged in the pipette and died.
Mosquitoes were also collected in the Mubuku and Bujuku valleys
hut the larvae from different altitudes were unfortunately mixed in
the jars. It is, however, almost certain that larvae collected in a
pool among the stones in the flood-bed of the Bujuku at 8,500 feet
included Culex andersoni, Edw. Larvae were also collected in small
grass-grown pools in the Mubuku Valley and it is probable that
among these was Culex ninagongoensis , Edw. Culex hopkinsi, Edw.
(MS) has a larva which closely resembles C. andersoni and at the time
the larval differences were overlooked so that it is not now possible to
state whether this species inhabited the pool in the stream bed or
occurred lower down in the valley at about 6,000 feet.

Simuliid larvae were taken from stones in the Bujuku at 8,500
feet and further larvae collected at the bottom of the Bwamba Pass
included 8. gilvipes, Pom. to which species it is probable the larvae
collected in the Bujuku Valley belong. In the same stream at the
foot, of the Bwamba Pass were found a number of torrenticolous beetles
resembling species of Elmis and some pond skaters (Veliidae).

A small collection of zoo- and phyto-plankton was made in Lake
Bujuku and from a few boggy pools at above 13,000 feet. No insect
life was found but Planarians occurred under stones at the edge of Lake
Bujuku and a number of small Crustacea were collected with a fine
silk net. The temperature of the lake was 0.6°C. , the alkali reserve

* The only specimen of Megarhinus known from the Bwamba Pass is in exceed-
ingly poor condition but appears to be M. aeneus.

0.0004N., and the amount of phosphates was 0.2 parts per million
calculated as P205 organic; inorganic phosphates were not demonstrable
by the Caeruleo-molybdate test. The material from these waters has
been kindly taken over by the Cambridge expedition to the African
lakes and the analyses were done by Dr. Griffith, Assistant Agricul-
tural Chemist, and a member of our party.

Acknowledgment s .

The writers wish to acknowledge the assistance of many friends
without whose help this paper would never have been written. Mr.
George Oliver gave invaluable assistance in selecting porters for the
trip — an essential preliminary — and also entertained us before and
after our journey. We are also indebted to the staff of Nyakasura
school for their hospitality and for assistance in drying specimens and
preparing material for despatch. Identifications of plants were
obtained for us from Kew by the Acting Botanist and the insects were
almost all identified by the Imperial Institute of Entomology to which
institutions we owe debts of gratitude. We also wish to thank Mr.
Hargreaves, Government Entomologist, and Mr. Hopkins, Entomolo-
gist, for valuable suggestions and advice in the preparation of this
paper, and Mr. E. G. Gibbins for identifications of Simuliidae and the
successful rearing of these and of the mosquito larvae which were
brought to Fort Portal. The whole of the material of the giant species
of Lobelia and Senecio has been very carefully studied by Mr. A. D.
Cotton, Keeper of the Herbarium, Kew, and we are specially grate-
ful for the help which he has given us and the interest which he has
taken in the material sent to Kew.

REFERENCES.

Bernhauer, M. and Scott, Hugh (1931) “ Entomological Expedition to Abyssinia
in 1926—27.”

Journ. Linn. Soc. XXXVII, pp. 569 — 605.

Cotton, A. D. (1932) “ A New Species of Arborescent Senecio from Ruwenzori
(S. erioneuron) Kew, Bull. IX. pp. 438 — 439.

Dawe, M. T. (1906) “ Report on a Botanical Mission through the Forest Districts
of Buddu and the Western and Nile Provinces of the Uganda
Protectorate. 5 9

London H.M. Stationery Office, Cd. 2904.

Filippi, F. de (1908) ” Ruwenzori ” London, with map.

Good, R. D’O. (1928) " Notes on Capt. G. N. Humphrey’s plants from the
Ruwenzori Mountains.”

Journ. of Botany, LX VI. pp. 37 — 41.

Hancock, G. L. R. and Soundy, W. W. (1929) “ Notes on the fauna and flora
of Northern Bugishu and Masaba (Elgon).”

Journ. E. Africa and Uganda Nat. Hist. Soc. No. 36 pp. 165 — 183.

228

Humphreys, G. N. (1927) “ New Routes on Ruwenzori ” with map.
Geographical Journ. LX IX pp. 516 — 531.

Hutchinson, J. (1926) “ The Families of Flowering Plants.”

Johnston, H. H. (1902) “ The Uganda Protectorate,” London.

Marshall, G. A. K. (1932) “ New Curculionidae from Tropical Africa,”

Annals and Magazine Nat. Hist. X. p. 217 — 230.

Rendle, A. B., Baker, E. G. and Moore, S.leM. (1908) “ An account of the plants
collected on Ruwenzori by Dr. A. F. R. Wollaston.”

Journ. Linn. Soc. XXXVIII, pp. 228—279.

Stapf, 0. (1906) “ Plantae Novae Daweanae in Uganda lectae.”

Journ. Linn. Soc. (Botany) XXXVII, pp. 495 — 544.”

Wells, C. (1930) “ The colours of Ruwenzori,”

Geographical Journ. LXXVI pp. 110 — 125.

Ruwenzori Reports (1909) “ Zoological results of the Ruwenzori expedition

1905—1906.”

Trans. Zool. Soc. London XIX.

MAP.

Uganda Survey Department sheet number X, IV N.E. 1/50,000 drawn by
D. O. Mathews.

END OF VOLUME 10

ILLUSTRATIONS

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

PLATE A.

Forest on the Bwamba pass, western slopes of Ruwenzori, about 7,500 feet.

showing tree ferns.

View from the top of the Bwamba pass looking east over the top of the
banks of clouds overlying the plains. Taken at 8,500 feet.

PLATE A

1.

Fig. 2.

Photos: G. L. B. Hancock

Fig.

PLATE B.

Photo: G. L. B. Hancock.

The bamboo forest at the top of the Bwamba pass, 8,500 feet

PLATE C.

Fig. 1. The Bujuku stream above Kigo on the second valley step, showing giant
Senecio and Lobelia bequaertii, at 11.600 feet.

Fig. 2. Nyinabitaba camp on a forested ridge 8.500 feet.

PLATE C

Fig. 2

Photos: G. L. P. Hancock

PLATE I).

Photo: Q. L. P . Hancock' .

Vegetation above Nyamuleju at about 10,000 feet showing lichens hanging from
tree heaths and flowering specimens of Lobelia stuhlmannii.

PLATE E.

Photo: G. L. It. Hancock .

Heather forest at about 10,000-10,500 feet showing the thick cushion of moss on
the trunks (top right), lichens, mosses, ferns and young plants of Lobelia

stuhlmannii.

PLATE F.

Photo: G. L. B. Hancock.

The Bujuku river flowing through the heather forest at about 10,500 feet.

I ih

6

Xj

A group of Lobelia bequaertii in flower, at about 10,700 feet.

PLATE H.

Fig. 1. The Senecio forest near lake Bujuku, 12,800 feet, showing cushions of

moss on the tree trunks.

Fig. 2. Lake Bujuku, 12,850 feet showing Lobelia ivollastonii.

PLATE H.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Photos: G. L. B. Hancock.

PLATE I.

Fig. 1. Photo: G. L. R. Hancock. Fig. 2. Photo: G. L. R. Hancock.

Fig. 1. Senecio erioneuron growing in a bog among Cenex runsoroensis above lake Bnjnkii at nearly 13,000 feet.
Fig. 2. Lobelia wollastonii and Senecio erioneurno at the same point as fig. 1.

PLATE J

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 1. Cooking-Pot camp, nearly 13,000 feet, showing Senecio adnivalis.

Fig. 2. Mount Baker and Scott-Elliot pass from Cooking-Pot camp.

Photos : G. L. P. Hancock.

PLATE K.

Fig- 1- Photo: C. W. L. FishlocJc. Fig. 2. Photo: C. W. L. Fishlock.

Lake Bujuku and Mount Baker from near Stanley Glacier. The clouds are moving up towards the lake from the

Bujuku valley.

Fig. 2. Mount Speke from near Stanley Glacier.

PLATE L.

Photo: G. L. R. Hancock.

Mount Stanley from below Lake Bujuku, showing giant Senecios, Alchemilla and

Carex runsoroensis.

Ol)£ Journal

OF THE

East Africa and Uganda
Natural History Society

April — July, 1932. No. 45-46,

CONTENTS.

A Chemical Survey of the Waters of Mount Meru, Tanga-
nyika Territory, by D. Sturdy, b.a., W. E. Carton, b.a.,
and G. Milne, m.sc., f.i.c 1

Some Preliminary Notes on Luo Marriage Customs, by K. C.

Shaw ... ... ... ... ... 39

The Significance of Bride-Price, with special reference to the

Nandi, by G. W. B. Huntingford 51

Kikuyu Land Tenure and Inheritance, by A. R. Barlow ... 56

The Bantu of Kavirondo, by W. E. Owen ... ... ... 67

The East Africa and Uganda Natural History Society Annual

Report, 1932 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 78

Editors :

The Publication Committee.

Additional copies to members, 7/50; non-members, 15/-.
Date of Publication : May, 1983.

PRINTED BY THE EAST AFRICAN STANDARD, LTD.

All Rights Reserved.

East Africa and Uganda Natural History Society.

PATRONS:

HIS EXCELLENCY SIB JOSEPH BYBNE.
HIS EXCELLENCY SIB WILLIAM GOWEBS.
Sir EDWABD NOBTHEY, g.c.m.g.

president:

Capt. B. E. DENT, f.z.s.

vice-presidents:

A. B. PEBCIVAL, Esq., f.z.s., m.b.o.u,
H. J. ALLEN TUBNEB, Esq.

EX. COMMITTEE:

Rev. CANON St. A. ROGERS,

M.A., OXON, F.E.S.

Capt. A. T. A. RITCHIE, m.b.o.u.,

F.Z.S.

H. L. SIKES, Esq., b.a., b.e.,

M.INST.C.E. , F.G.S.

H. M. GARDNER, Esq., b.a., for. dipl.
R F. MAYER, Esq., o.b.e., f.z.s.

T. J. ANDERSON, Esq., m.a., b.sc.,

F Z S

E. CARR, Esq.

H. S. SCOTT, Esq., m.a.

A. F. J. GEDYE, Esq., f.e.s., f.z.s.

F. S. ECKERSLEY, Esq.

C. J. T. BARTON, Esq., m.a.

R. DAUBNEY, Esq., m.sc., m.r
H. L. GORDON, Esq., m.d.

C. B. SYMES, Esq.

A. V. BECKLEY, Esq., m.c., m.
A. C. TANNAHILL, Esq.

E. BISS, Esq., m.a.

Mrs. E. B. SHAW.

L. S. B. LEAKEY, Esq., ph.d.
J. GRAHAM DAWSON, Esq., f

.c

:

v v

A.

.R.G.S.

F.Z.S.

HON. TREASURER:

HUMPHBEY SLADE, Esq.

HON. SECRETARY AND CURATOR:

V. G. L. VAN SOMEBEN, l.r.c.p.&s., l.r.f.p.&s., l.d.s., f.i.c.d.,

F.L.S., M.B.O.U., C.F.A.O.U., F.E.S., C.M.Z.S., &C.

BOTANIST :

E. NAPIEB.

LIBRARIAN:

V. FEILDING,

r^»

Ling points.

o

t

SKETCH MAP of MERU shewing STREAMS and SAMPLING POINTS.

Numbers correspond to sample-numbers in the Tables.

'

Ol)£ Journal

OF THE

East Africa and Uganda
Natural History Society

April — July, 1932. No. 45-46.

CONTENTS.

A Chemical Survey of the Waters of Mount Meru, Tanga-
nyika Territory, by D. Sturdy, b.a., W. E. Calton, b.a.,
and G. Milne, m.sc., f.i.c. ... ... ... ... ... 1

Some Preliminary Notes on Luo Marriage Customs, by K. C.

Shaw ... ... ... 39

The Significance of Bride-Price, with special reference to the

Nandi, by G. W. B. Huntingford ... ... ... ... 51

Kikuyu Land Tenure and Inheritance, by A. R. Barlow ... 56

The Bantu of Kavirondo, by W. E. Owen ... ... ... 67

The East Africa and Uganda Natural History Society Annual

Report, 1932 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 78

Editors :

The Publication Committee.

Additional copies to members, 7/50; non-members, 15/-.
Date of Publication : May, 1933.

PRINTED BY THE EAST AFRICAN STANDARD, LTD.

All Rights Reserved.

A CHEMICAL SURVEY OF THE WATERS OF MOUNT MERU,

TANGANYIKA TERRITORY,

ESPECIALLY WITH REGARD TO THEIR QUALITIES FOR IRRIGATION.

By

1). Sturdy, b.a.

(Department of Agriculture, Tanganyika),

and

W. E. Calton, b.a. , and G. Milne, m.sc., f.i.c.

(East African Agricultural Research Station, Amani).

In this paper are presented the results of a number of analyses
of water-samples taken during the years 1931 and 1932 from the
streams and minor lakes occurring on the slopes of Meru, the
dominating mountain of the district of Arusha, Northern Province,
Tanganyika Territory. The work originated in the examination at
Amani of a few samples from streams on the south-west of the
mountain, at the request of Mr. E. Harrison, Director of Agriculture
for Tanganyika, wTho on the occasion of a visit to the area in
December, 1930, expressed the opinion that alkali salts, either
originating naturally in the soil or introduced by irrigation, were
possibly causing injury to coffee, the principal economic crop of the
district. It is common knowledge, locally, that the streams draining
from Meru contain “ soda ” in greater or less amount, but in spite of
this they have been employed for irrigation, sometimes on a lavish
scale. The results of these first analyses made it clear that a
systematic chemical survey was desirable if guidance was to be
offered on the merits of this practice in the several divisions of the
district, and one of us (D.S., in his capacity as District Agricultural
Officer, Arusha) began a series of periodical samplings of the principal
streams. The analyses were carried out by another of us (W.E.C.)
in the soils laboratory at Amani. At a later stage, in view of the
relevance of the whole subject to the study of the volcanic soils of
the area, it was decided to extend the samplings beyond the range
originally contemplated, so as to include all waters rising on the
mountain whether or not they came into question for irrigation.
This was done during a circuit of the mountain made by D.S. and
W.E.C. in company in August, 1932. ' "

There has resulted a body of information for which we use the
word “ survey ^‘"rather diffidently, for no chemical survey should be

content with single samples, and at many points we were able to
sample only once. Yet the number of sub-localities examined
altogether is fairly large, some streams were sampled frequently and
at several points in their course, and there is a fair distribution of
the sampling-dates over the seasons. Also it would be misleading
to call it a “ preliminary survey,” incomplete though it is in many
ways; for there is no immediate prospect of further chemist’s time
being spared to amplify the work in the same district. The results
are however sufficient to form a fairly clear picture.

Short accounts of the topography, climate, and (within the
limits of very scanty data) geology of the mountain are prefixed to
the analytical results as an aid to the discussion which follows them.
Finally the agriculture of the district is briefly sketched, in so far
as its practices touch irrigation. The conclusion is inevitably drawn
that the waters are for the most part of undesirable quality for
irrigation purposes. It should however be made clear that this paper
is not a discussion of the existence of an “ alkali problem ” in the
area, except on the evidence of stream-composition. Soil properties
as such are touched upon only very briefly. The reconnaissance soil
survey which is in progress as part of a joint programme of the
Department of Agriculture, Tanganyika, and the Eesearch Station,
Amani, and to which this paper is in its degree contributory, should
in due course enable irrigation-practice to take more account of soil
properties.

Topography of the Mountain.

Meru (14,995 feet) is the third highest of a series of volcanic
peaks that occur along a line running approximately east and west
across the north of the Territory. Its neighbours on the east are
Shira (12,800 feet), Kibo (19,300 feet), and Mawenzi (17,580 feet),
which together make up the Kilimanjaro massif; and on the west
Meandet, Mondul, El Burko, and Essimongor, none exceeding 7,500
feet. The plains at the foot of Meru are about 4,000 feet above sea-
level. It rises very steeply, making much of its height at a mean
slope of 30° to the horizontal.* On the east there is an extending
arm of the mountain, trending somewhat southwards, and containing
a large subsidiary crater, Engurdoto, and a smaller one, Meruni, the
latter at 5,000 feet. On the west there is a shorter arm with a high
shoulder forming a plateau at 9,800 feet. On the northern face,
below the edge of the main crater, there is a considerable conical
mass (Little Meru) having the appearance of being the eroded neck
or crater-wall of an older volcano; and at lower levels on this slope

* See Meyer (!) (1909), who compares this angle with that of Kilimanjaro,
namely 8 degrees (except for the summit-slopes), and attributes the difference
to a higher viscosity of the Meru lavas.

2

there are several notable lesser cones (e.g. , 01 Doinyo Sarnbu, Long-
ringo), some of which have relatively fresh craters. Around the settle-
ment of Engare Nanyuki at the north-east foot, and also on the
southern and south-western lower flanks, are found numbers of smaller
volcanic hills. Of those on the south, Kibwezi (6,300 ft.) overhangs
Arusha township, and still maintains a mantle of forest. Among
these secondary hills to the south lies the crater-lake 01 Balbal
Duluti.

Above 9,000 feet the main mountain is but a hollow shell. From
the north, west, or south it appears solid to the summit, but from
the east the interior of the great crater is fully visible, for its whole
eastern wall has been blown out and is scattered in a litter of lava-
blocks over the countryside at the mountain-foot, towards Kilimanjaro.
This scattering of the dbbris of the crater-wall has resulted in an
irregular damming-up of the drainage from the eastern slopes in a
number of small lakes, having no outlet, at the foot of the mountain.
The chief of these are Elduroto Ebor (the Sanya salt-pans) and the
Moniela lakes. (See analyses, Table IX.) Within the remaining
north, west and south walls three concentric crater-formations have
been recognised (Uhlig (2) (1904), and (3) (1911) ), and in the inner-
most is an immense ash cone of extremely recent appearance, with
lava-flows at its foot so fresh that Uhlig was led to consider that the
last outflow might have occurred within a few decades of his visit.
The crater is 4 kilometres across internally, and is bounded by
precipitous walls except at the eastern breach, where the floor is
8,900 feet above sea level. The highest point of the mountain is on
the south-west edge of the crater lip.

It is from within the main crater that the Engare Nanyuki river
flows, eastwards at first through the great breach, turning northwards
after reaching the forest belt. It runs for some miles in a deep
gorge, and after reaching the plain is lost in a swamp a few miles to
the north. This is the only considerable river going in this direction,
the other north-flowung streams to the west being represented for
most of the year by dry gorges, or small streams barely reaching
beyond the forest edge. (See Tables IX and X.)

The southward-flowing rivers may be divided into two groups, (i)
those which run from the south-western slopes into the Masai steppe,
and are lost in their river-beds or in swamps as are the northern
streams; (ii) those which unite in the south-east comer of the area
to form the Kikuletwa river, and later join with Kilimanjaro waters
to form the Ruvu (or Pangani), finally reaching sea at Pangani. In
the tables of analyses it has been found convenient to make several
further sub-groupings of these south-flowing streams. The sketch-
map shows the drainage of the whole area, and indicates the sampling
points by numbers corresponding to the sample-numbers in the left-
hand column of the tables.

3

Including the settled lands on its lowermost slopes, the base on
which Mem stands has an area of roughly 450 square miles, or about
twice the size of the Isle of Man.

Geology of the Mountain.

Rock-exposures in the river gorges show that the older lavas of
the main mountain and its secondary hills, while exposed and
weathered to form maturing soils on the southern flanks, are still
covered by ash, tuff, and conglomerate on the other three sides and
also at the south-west and south-east corners. It will appear from
the analyses that this principal distinction between the older (or at
any rate more fully weathered) and the more recent (or at any rate
fresher) rocks is well reflected in the dissolved matter of the streams.

Recorded geological information on the mountain is scanty.
J. W. Gregory (4) (1921) emphasizes the fact that the lavas of East
African volcanoes belong generally to the alkalic division, rich in soda
and poor in lime, and he quotes Mauritz (5) (1908) as follows on
particular rocks collected on Meru : 4 ‘ Mauritz shows the predomi-
nance of the alkaline lavas and kenyte .... He describes
nephelinite .... from tuffs at Elduroto Ebor; also kenyte (trachy-
dolerite) at 4,250 feet at the southern foot. On Meru as often else-
where the lavas are especially alkaline, and include the phonolitie
kenyte of the Meruni crater and Towaila on the S.E., and a leucite-
nepheline-tephrite tuff at 5,900 feet on the E.” It should be observed
that the above quotation, though carrying Gregory’s authority, is
perhaps misleading as to the state of petrological knowledge for the
mountain, for Mauritz had actually no more than one specimen each
from the five localities quoted, and in his original paper offers no
generalisation. The rocks of the mountain as a whole, and particu-
larly the ash, pumice, and tuffs which bulk so largely in the super-
ficial covering of the west, north and east sides, still await the atten-
tion of petrologists.* The apparently very recent date of some of
the rocks within the crater has already been referred to.

Climate.

Meru receives rain during two wet seasons, a short one in late
October and early November, and a long one from the middle of
March to the latter half of May. Following the long rainy season
thpre are two months of cold weather, after wThich temperatures
gradually increase till the break of the next rains. Rainfall records
have only been taken within the narrow belt alienated for European
settlement, but from the scanty figures available an approximate
rainfall map has been prepared sufficient for the purposes of this
paper.

* By the kindness of the Director and officers of the Tanganyika Geological
Survey, a number of rock-specimens collected in 1932 by one of us (G.M.) in
connection with the soil survey are now under examination at the Survey
laboratory at Dodoma.

4

Approximate Map of Rainfall of Mount Meru.

The effect of an unequal distribution of the rainfall around the
mountain is shown by the natural vegetation. On the southern slopes
Meru has been forest-clad from about 4,500 feet to 8,900 feet, above
which continuous forest ceases. Cultivation has now destroyed this
forest up to about 6,000 feet, above which the forest is reserved. On
the other three sides the forest has never come so low down as on
the south, but there is little doubt that the line to which it now
reaches, and at which it is reserved, is a line to which it has been
thrust back, by grass fires, in quite recent times. On the north the
lowest edge of the forest barely reaches down to 7,000 feet, and in
one place a gap occurs right through it.

The areas of highest rainfall and of broadest intervals between
isohyets are to the south and south-east. In this respect Meru differs
slightly from its neighbour Kilimanjaro, which receives its greatest
rainfall to the south and south-west.

Sampling.

The collection of samples began in May, 1931, towards the close
of the long rainy season. The streams then first sampled (Engare ol
Motonyi, Selian, Engare Narok) w’ere those near which the question
of alkali damage to coffee had arisen, and could be visited at approxi-
mately fortnightly intervals in the course of other duties. The
sampling was later extended as already described. Samples were
taken from as near as possible to the swiftest flow of the current.
Some time necessarily elapsed during transit to Amani for analysis,
but it is not considered that the analytical determinations, directed
as they were to ends quite different from those in view’ when waters
are examined for potable quality, were vitiated by the delay except
in the case of pH values, to which reference is made in the next
section.

Analytical Methods.

The short account of these that follows will assist in the inter-
pretation of the results.

Total bicarbonate. — This reflects the total alkalinity of the water,
i.e. the sum of the bases lime, magnesia, soda and potash, not com-
bined as sulphate or chloride. It was determined by titration with
N/20 sulphuric acid using methyl orange, and is expressed as “ parts
of bicarbonate-ion (HCOs) per million of water.” For every 100 parts
of bicarbonate-ion recorded, about 85 parts of solid alkaline matter
(mixed calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium carbonates)
could be realised as residue on evaporation of the water.

“ Soda ” was determined by a method adopted by the American
Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (®) (1925) for the

5

examination of waters suspected to contain “ black alkali.” It repre-
sents the sodium and potassium bicarbonates (or carbonates) present-
in the water, calculated for convenience as sodium carbonate (Na2C03),
in parts per million. The alkalinity it represents is included in, and
is not additional to, that recorded as total bicarbonate. In column 3
of the tables of analyses the “ soda ” alkalinity of the wafer is
calculated as a percentage of the total alkalinity after reducing both
to the same units.

Sulphate and chloride * determinations, by the usual methods, are
recorded as parts per million of the respective ions.

The pH values that are recorded were determined colorimetri-
eally by the Hellige comparator or electrometrically by the quin-
hy drone electrode. Salt errors were corrected for by making the
assumption that the total dissolved-salt concentration was effectively
represented by the total bicarbonate. The colorimetric figures are in
brackets. At the beginning of the investigation it was thought that
the colorimetric pH tests would serve usefully in the field for diagnosis
of alkalinity. It was soon found, however, that the method was
subject to several errors, e.g. the salt-error mentioned above, which
for these waters is by no means negligible and cannot be estimated
in the field. Also it often failed to distinguish between waters of
very different soda-content. The pH determinations were therefore
given up, more especially as we were not concerned with biological
conditions in the waters. The values are however given in the tables
as a matter of interest. The results of determinations made on long-
bottled samples cannot be expected to give very accurate or very
useful information.

The determinations above-described are sufficient to classify the
waters from the original viewpoint of the survey (suitability for use
in irrigation), but lead to only a partial statement of their chemical
composition and leave several questions of interest unanswered.
They will be referred to below as the partial analyses. A more com-
plete analysis has been possible for certain streams only, for which
the numbers of samples available at one time were sufficient to allow
of composite samples of large volume being made up. The results
for these streams are reported in Table XIII, which follows after the
discussion of the partial analyses.

6

Composition of the Waters — Partial Analyses.
(See Tables I to X.)

Table I. Engare ol Motonyi.

No.

Locality.

Date.

1

s

o

% o

■g 8 O
PP-m.

2 3

+->

*s

• i cd

*> ^ to

. (3 O ® 1

1 T3 o ° 2

m cT a I
= £ ^ to

p.p.m. %

4

r— i

o a
"2 3 o

• S OQ
p.p.m.

5

<D

T3

'P

* o

o

p.p.

6

. W
5 04

m.

19

Forest Station 2/ 9/31

278

180

74

12

7

7.5

8

Nairobi Bd.

Drift 8/ 6/31

302

208

79

9

7

9

20/ 6/31

355

248

80

10

8

10

> >

10/ 7/31

385

246

74

12

6

11

5 5

24/ 7/31

315

227

83

12

6

16

? f

7/ 8/31

315

240

88

14

6

13

1 •)

22/ 8/31

314

237

87

34

6

18

? ?

2/ 9/31

328

215

75

11

7

(8.1)

20

5 ?

19/ 9/31

311

208

77

14

7

(7.6)

21

J ?

2/10/31

338

222

75

15

7

(7.4)

22

? ?

19/10/31

313

200

73

13

7

(8.6)

23

» 5

6/11/31

307

202

76

12

7

(8.6)

24

> >

24/11/31

294

203

79

11

6

(7.6)

25

1 9

19/12/31

312

210

78

12

6

(8.1)

26

5 5

25/ 2/32

327

225

79

15

rr

4

(7.9)

27

5 9

22/ 3/32

237

168

81

12

5

(7.6)

Mean (15 samples)

317

217

79

14

6.5

60

Mbugwe Bd.

Drift 1/ 6/31

282

189

77

24

5

7.6

7

Table II. Selian River.

No.

Locality.

Date.

1

of

-4-i

ct3

S3

O

_0 co

le o
-s o O

EH S W

PP-m.

2 3 4

>0

2

? • +3 CS >n

‘ « « S3 M .<§

te O

T3 h 5

<8 -"S-3
= » £ & .s <S S

p.p.m. % p.p.m.

5 6

<v

T3

• r*-f

S~I

o o cL

p.p.m.

148

Forest boundary

23/ 8/32

259

216

96

21

5

—

1

Drift, Farm 194

23/ 5/31

268

182

78

25

6

—

2

7 1

8/ 6/31

279

197

81

22

5

—

3

5 ?

20/ 6/31

286

205

83

25

3

—

4

7 7

10/ 7/31

272

195

82

22

6

—

5

* 7

24/ 7/31

266

196

85

20

5

—

6

7 7

7/ 8/31

316

211

77

nd*

2

—

7

7 7

22/ 8/31

271

196

83

9

6

—

28

- 7 7

2/ 9/31

295

184

72

8

8

(7.0)

29

7 7

19/ 9/31

272

192

81

9

6

(7.1)

30

7 7

2/10/31

269

189

81

12

5

(7.6)

31

7 7

19/10/31

420

216

59

12

9

(6.3)

32

7 7

6/11/31

271

193

82

10

6

(7.5)

33

7 7

24/11/31

252

189

86

9

6

(7.7)

34

7 7

19/12/31

252

184

84

12

5

(8.6)

36

7 7

22/ 3/32

267

197

85

12

6

(7.4)

Mean (14 samples, No.

31 excluded) 274

193

81.5

15

5

35

Selian-Sunoni

Furrow

25/ 2/32

288

202

81

16

6

(7.5)

61

7 7

9/ 5/32

203

137

78

17

3

7.55

* nd — not determined.

8

Table III, Engare Naror,

No.

Locality.

Bate.

•■s T otal
^

? Bicarbonate,
? HCO .

3

2 3 4

>5

*c

. ^ 2

1 8 8 1 3 J
-

p.p.m. % p.p.m.

5 6

of

2 _• a

° 5 a

p.p.m.

150

W. trib. within

forest

23/ 8/32

159

133

96 5

4

151

Middle ,,

23/ 8/32

76

66

100 6

2

152

E-

23/ 8/32

98

76

89 2

<n>

O

149

Main stream, forest

boundary

23/ 8/32

146

114

90 5

4

14

Mbugwe Eoad

bridge

20/ 6/31

141

98

80 9

3

15

9 9

24/ 7/31

150

104

80 11

Q

o

12

9 9

7/ 8/31

153

101

76 5

4

17

? 9

22/ 8/31

161

111

80 4

4

42

9 9

2/ 9/31

288

122

49 7

6

(6.5)

43

? >

19/ 9/31

160*

119

86 5

6

(9.0)

44

» ?

2/10/31

160

105

76 7

5

(7.5)

45

5 9

19/10/31

159

103

74 5

5

(7.7)

46

9 7

6/11/31

163

111

79 5

4

(8.2)

47

9 9

24/11/31

149

100

77 3

5

(7.3)

48

9 9

19/12/31

153

77

58 5

6

(6.9)

49

9 9

25/ 2/32

156

101

74 8

5

(7.5)

50

9 9

22/ 3/32

127

78

71 7

4

(7.2)

65

9 9

9/ 5/32

94

51

63 18

2

7,45

Mean

l (13 samples, No. 42 excluded) 148

97

75.5 7

4

99

Above junction

with Burka

11/ 7/32

212

133

72 20

6

* Contains free sodium carbonate.

9

Table IV. Burka — Themi River System.

No.

Locality.

1 \

a

cS

a

o

1 rfl C5

o 3 O
^ pq M

Date, p.p.m.

2 3 4

• H

- . 73

O-P ^ . ©

cS o £ -+p

S O o ^ -p> ja

- ^ a O d 3 O

- 2 Qj CC .S tc OQ
p.p.m. % p.p.m.

5 6

*>>

©

rC

• pH

S-l

* ^ i— i

K

o o a
p.p.m.

63

Burka Spring No. 2 (W)

1/ 6/32

301

207

79

31

4

7.5

102

9 9 99

11/ 7/32

316

231

84

18

8

103

No. 1 (E)

11/ 7/32

364

250

79

20

9

104

,, No. 3 (upper)

11/ 7/32

376

262

80

19

10

62

Mololosyoke affluent

9/ 5/32

247

136

63

9

4

7.8a

37

Burka R. at Mbugwe

Rd. bridge

19/10/31

327

222

78

19

12

(6.7)

38

99 99 99 99

6/11/31

325

227

80

16

10

(7.5)

39

99 99 99 99

24/11/31

335

233

80

14

10

(7.4)

40

99 99 99 99

25/ 2/32

337

226

77

14

8

(7.4)

41

99 99 99 99

19/ 3/32

333

209

72

10

8

(7.0)

64

99 99 99 99

1/ 6/32

349

229

75

30

7

7.8

Mean (6 samples)

334

224

77

17

9

100

Burka above junction with

Engare Narok

11/ 7/32

480

346

83

30

13

101

Burka below junction with

Engare Narok

11/ 7/32

316

212

77

22

9

51

Themi at Arusha

3/10/31

117

56

55

5

4

(7.2)

52

9 9 9 9

19/10/31

126

76

69

8

4

(7.1)

53

9 9 9 9

25/ 2/32

124

78

73

4

3

(7.3)

54

9 9 9 9

31/ 3/32

117

72

71

7

4

(7.3)

68

9 9 9 9

6/ 5/32

62

25

47

14

?Tr.

7.45

107

9 9 9 9

12/ 7/32

102

59

67

6

2

Mean (6 samples)

108

61

65

7

3

108

Nauru R., Arusha Township

12/ 7/32

143

58

47

12

4

66

“Loloda” Furrow, Themi R.

2/ 5/32

89

40

52

10

1

7.4

106

Themi below junction

with Burka

12/ 7/32

208

121

67

9

6

109

Olgeju Loldiloi (Themi)

below gorge

13/ 7/32

209

125

69

8

5

67

Kijenge R.

2/ 5/32

119

33

32

16

2

7.45

105

Kijengi R. near house,

Farm 151

12/ 7/32

192

61

36

8

5

10

Table V. Nburumu K., and Manire — Duluti Area.

No.

Locality.

1

<D

a

o

-P co

5 O
Eh pq W
Date, p.p.m.

2 3

" - ■§
<s O o
T3 O o
O «

02 c3 f-i
CD

- ^ Cb

p.p.m.

>>
• |H

Cj

r— <

c3

r— H

Cu

o3

'd

O

02

%

4

. oT

. 1 +3

cS c3

o ^ •

3 £>*

• 2 eg CO
p.p.m.

5 6

al

-d

• fH

f-i

O O a,
p.p.m.

112

Nduruma, Upper Ed. bridge

16/

7/32

83

41

57

4

3

111

Nduruma, Moshi Ed. bridge

16/

7/32

104

47

52

5

3

69

>> >)

2/

5/32

82

37

52

15

1 7.35

ro

,, at Olgedereda

(lower Nduruma)

16/

7/32

105

49

53

9

3

Mean (4 samples)

94

44

54

8

2.5

113

Manire Springs

16/

7/32

65

8

14

5

2

114

Sinana Springs

16/

7/32

89

15

19

5

2

115

Mkumbundu Springs

16/

7/32

133

49

42

15

3

116

Manire R. at Moshi Ed.

bridge

16/

7/32

167

55

38

5

3

70

2/

5/32

157

55

40

15

3 7.55

117

L. Duluti (N.E. edge)

16/

7/32

198

89

52

6

6

118

Loingare Springs, Farm 97

16/

7/32

141

72

59

15

4

11

Table VI. Tengeru Rivers.

No.

Locality.

6

-t-j

<v

a

c

o

r^2

- ci

43 M

05 Vj r=i . ®

> * 8 s I 3 J

4>

T3

•<e

'e8 3 O O - N «} O o,

■+3 k n cq ^ p-i -+j ,±r

o .a y j* & o M ^ o

H H M - ^ Ph go .2 te gq O q l'eL
Date, p.p.m. p.p.m. % p.p.m. p.p.m.

119

Malala R., Upper Rd. bridge

16/ 7/32

66

35

61

9

2

120

Malala R., Moshi Rd. bridge

16/ 7/32

91

49

62

8

3

71

2/ 5/32

75

36

55

13

1

7.35

55

,, furrow, Farm 131

30/10/31

112

70

71

5

5

(7.1)

56

>> )> ))

13/11/31

122

81

76

2

5

(7.1)

122

Nsungu-Makitengo junction
(Upper Road)

15/ 7/32

85

55

74

5

5

123

Tengeru, above junction

with Uriilo

15/ 7/32

80

35

50

4

4

124

Mpembe, Upper Rd. bridge

15/ 7/32

63

24

45

2

2

72

Tengeru, Moshi Rd. bridge

2/ 5/32

103

47

52

4

2

7.45

126

Makumira R. above in-fall
of Karamu

15/ 7/32

119

72

70

35

3

73

,, Moshi Rd. bridge

2/ 5/32

146

71

56

2

4

7.55

75

Kigeri R.,Capt. Rydon’s dam

9/ 6/32

105

64

71

5

2

7.6

76

,, Moshi Rd. bridge

9/ 6/32

114

65

66

5

2

7.35

74

>y >> >y

2/ 5/32

112

70

72

4

2

7.6

127

Kigeri Ndogo Spring, farm 76

16/ 7/32

174

105

70

8

4

128

Kigeri R. at junction

with Tengeru

15/ 7/32

123

72

68

6

3

125

Tengeru R. at junction

with Kigeri

15/ 7/32

112

65

67

3

4

121

Malala R. ,, ,,

15/ 7/32

96

46

55

4

4

129

Combined Tengeru Rivers below

Malala-Kigeri junction 15/ 7/32

117

69

68

6

5

12

Table VII. Usa Rivers.

1

2

3

4

5

6

No.

Locality.

«-V

©

-*3

aS

S3

O

. .2 «o

o|u

H PQ W

Date. p.p.m.

T “ Soda,”
b Na CO .

p 2 3

Per cent

'.S

”c6

^

1—1 i— h "*r*

■'f tS 5

-t-3 .23

4 s

o - s O
.5 in m

% p.p.m.

? Chloride,
B Cl.

w

145

Tema Springs,

Magdarisho R. 15/7/32

124

72

67

5

4

144

Magdarisho R., lower end
of Tema Estate

13/ 7/32

149

81

62

5

4

57

Ndurumanga Spring,

Magdarisho R.

9/ 8/31

113

64

66

5

5

(7.8)

77

Magdarisho R., Moshi Rd.

bridge

2/ 5/32

128

72

65

7

3

7.55

140

Usa Springs

14/ 7/32

136

99

84

6

5

139

Usa R.from Western Springs

14/ 7/32

112

83

86

3

3

138

Usa R. from Eastern Springs
(above tributary from
Ngongongare)

14/ 7/32

166

123

85

8

6

137

Tributary to Usa R. from
Ngongongare Swamp

14/ 7/32

279

221

91

6

1

141

Usa R. at Kilimanjaro

Saw Mills

14/ 7/32

130

99

88

6

4

82

Usa furrow, intake

9/ 6/32

143

89

71

15

4

7.75

83

Usa furrow, end

9/ 6/32

146

101

79

10

3

7.65

142

Loliondo Spring, Usa R.

15/ 7/32

121

71

68

4

3

78

Usa R., Moshi Rd. bridge

2/ 5/32

140

96

79

4

4

7.65

84

>> >> >>

9/ 6/32

136

88

74

5

3

7.65

143

)) >9

16/ 7/32

130

87

77

5

4

13

Table VIII. Maji-ya-Chai and Combined Usa Rivers.

1

2

3

4

5 6

oT

;s

-4— >
CCS
£

£

CO

+3

i1 ■ i

©

©"

o

32

Sh

o

CO

o

o

Soda

o

o

<N

eg

S3

<D

O

£■4

t— H

ejt

co

IS

-|3>

O

cO

G3

T3

■ «-4

S-*

c

Cl.

pH

O

H

s

ffi

-

£ ,

©

Ph

o

02

G

• i— *

3

m

SO

s

o

No.

Locality.

Date. p

•p-

m.

p.p

.m.

%

P

•P-

m.

PE

>.m.

79 Chem Chem R., Moshi Rd.

bridge

2/5 /32

277

201

84

3

4

7.9

136

Maji ya Chai Ndogo, on path
to Loliondo’s Chai Estate 14/ 7/32

341

277

93

3

4

131

Garden Spring, Ngongongare,

Maji ya Chai 14/ 7/32

174

124

82

8

6

132

“ Forest Stream,”
Ngongongare, Maji ya Chai

14/ 7/32

194

141

84

6

5

133

Southern tributary,
Ngongongare, Maji ya Chai

14/ 7/32

166

122

84

4

2

134

Maji ya Chai, Loliondo’s
Chai Estate

14/ 7/32

305

231

87

14

9

135

Maji ya Chai, Moshi

Rd. bridge

16/ 7/32

340

265

90

11

11

,

80

yy yy yy yy

2/ 5/32

326

264

93

14

10

8.1

81

yy yy yy yy

8/ 6/32

244

177

84

8

5

7.75

146

Combined Usa Rivers,

Kalangai Drift

14/ 7/32

202

145

83

7

5

85

Combined Usa Rivers,

Kalangai Drift

9/ 6/32

244

167

79

5

4

7.9

130 Kikuletwa R. below junction of
combined Tengeru & Usa Rivers 15/ 7/32

151

98

75

6

1

147

Kikuletwa R. at Engare

Rongai Sisal Estates

14/ 7/32

150

102

78

5

4

Table IX. Engare Nanyuki Rivers.

1

2

3

4

5

>*

<D

CS

S3

O

_ «

s SO

-g .« o
H « W

“ Soda,”

Na CO,.

Per cent
Soda-alkalini
in total.

Sulphate,

SO..

Chloride,

Cl.

No.

Locality.

Date.

p.p.m.

p.p.m

. % p.p.m.

p.p.m

88

Engare Nanyuki (Mangas),

Main Stream at Momela

8/ 7/32

872*

732

97

159

76

87

Engare Nanyuki sweet stream

at Momela

8/ 7/32

627

522

96

59

32

86

Engare Nanyuki below falls

at Momela

8/ 7/32

723

579

92

93

39

89

Engare Nanyuki small stream,
Momela Gate

8/ 7/32

740*

624

97

112

56

90

Engare Nanyuki larger stream,
Momela Gate

8/ 7/32

742*

636

99

102

55

92

Engare Nanyuki at Kiranyi Ford

9/ 7/32

672

565

97

65

40

91

Kiranyi stream flowing across

salterns

8/ 7/32

1446*

1278

(>100?)

63

73

93

Kimosan Spring

9/ 7/32

412

317

89

33

19

94

Kimosan furrow to Farm 29

9/ 7/32

414

317

88

25

19

58

99 99 99

16/ 3/32

452

318

81

33

25

95

Kimosan “ Spruit,” below

Police Post

9/ 7/32

532

388

84

34

16

* Contains free sodium

carbonate.

174 Momela Lake (2nd or principal lake) C03, 2494 ppm = Na2C03, 4404 ppm.

HCG3, 3177 ppm. = NaHC03, 4376 ppm.
S04, 890 ppm. — Na2S04, 1316 ppm.

Cl, 369 ppm. = NaCl, 608 ppm.

Table X. Ol Boinyo Sambu and Northern Streams.

1 2 3 4 5 6

No. Locality. Date. p.p.m. p.p.m. % p.p.m. p.p.m.

96 Natgooosais R., furrow to

97

Farm 227

Engare Narok (N) R.,

9/ 7/32

205

158

89

18

9

furrow to Farm 217

9/ 7/32

390

275

81

20

6

98

Valatia R., furrow to farm 214

9/ 7/32

316

222

81

18

3

59

14/ 3/32

331

217

76

11

4

For those streams which were sampled repeatedly at the same
point the tables include an average figure, but the samplings are also
reported individually in full, as the detailed figures possess an interest
which a mere statement of averages would withhold. The averages
should be regarded only as convenient signposts. For most of the
streams we can offer only a single analysis at any one point. Inter-
pretation of detail in particular cases should therefore be cautious,
as small differences may have no significance.

In spite of sampling-limitations, however, the tables show very
clearly the features common to the Meru waters as a group, and
also that well-marked differences exist which correspond to the
geographical grouping of the streams and their head-waters around
the mountain.

The outstanding common features are, first , a high, frequently
very high, proportion of “ soda ” in the total alkalinity, and a corres-
pondingly low content of the alkaline -earth bases; second, a relatively
low content of neutral salts (sulphates and chlorides).

The first point is illustrated by the following summary of the
figures bearing upon it in the tables. The samples came in all from
90 localities within the area. The streams at only 10 localities (11
samples) contained less than 50 per cent, of their alkalinity as
“ soda.” 75 localities (126 samples) contained 60 per cent, or more,

16

Per cent SoD«-ALKALmirr m Totm.

ooSSSiSgaggNg

60 localities (110 samples) 70 per cent, or more, 37 localities (57
samples) 80 per cent, or more, and 14 localities (15 samples) 90 per
cent, or more of their alkalinity as “ soda.” The absolute amounts
of “ soda,” calculated as parts of sodium carbonate per million of
water, ranged up to 280 p.p.m. outside the Engare Nanyuki area,
and up to 730 p.p.m. including that area but still excluding some
extreme cases.

With regard to the second point above-mentioned, it will be seen
that figures exceeding 20 p.p.m. of sulphate or 10 p.p.m. of chloride
are rare, except in the Engare Nanyuki area.

Turning now from the common features to the differences, and
considering first the soda-alkalinity, the range of variation met with
and the position of individual streams can be judged from the
diagram, Eig. 1. Here the total alkalinity is plotted horizontally
and the percentage of soda-alkalinity in the total is plotted vertically.
The data are those of columns 1 and 3 of the tables, and the points
are labelled by their serial sample-numbers. Each locality (i.e.
each separately-sampled point along the course of a stream) is repre-
sented once only, the averages being employed, in the “ signpost- ”
sense, for localities sampled repeatedly. In these cases the designat-
ing number on the diagram is that of the earliest sample taken.

The scattering of points is considerable, but they lie mainly in
the upper half of the diagram above the 50 per cent line. The higher
total alkalinities lie entirely above the 70 per cent, line, and there
is a general upward trend of the points towards the right-hand side
of the diagram. It appears from this that the local circumstances
which lead to a high total amount of alkaline dissolved matter lead
also, on the whole, to a high proportion of soda in it. (Two examples
of non-conformity with this will be noted later.) The converse is
however not true. There are points above the 80 per cent, line
across the whole width of the diagram : that is, streams of quite low
or moderate total dissolved matter may still contain a high propor-
tion of it as “ soda.”

With the aid of Fig. 1 and the data of the tables, it is possible
to group the wraters by composition, adopting the percentage of
soda ” in the total alkalinity to define the groups. The result is

Table XI.

17

Table XI.

Grouping of Streams by Percentage of Soda in total Alkalinity.

Per cent, soda
Group. in total.

A 85—100%

B 75— 85%

C 65— 80%

D 50— 60%

E

80— 50%

/O

Name of stream.
Engare Nanyuki
Maji -ya-Chai

Total bicarbonate
(approx, range).

400 — 800 p.p.m.

| 250 — 850 p.p.m.

• 200 — 400 p.p.m.

150 — 200 p.p rn.
100 — 200 p.p.m.

Headwaters of Selian
Headwaters of Usa ' 1 n

Headwaters of Engare Narok | p.p.m.

01 Doinyo Sambu streams
Burka
Selian

Engare ol Motonyi
Headwaters of Map -ya- Chai

Engare Narok
Them! (variable)

Usa River
Magdarisho
Kigeri
Kikuletwa

Tengeru, lower reaches.

Malala furrow

Malala, except Malala furrow 50 — 150 p.p.m.
Tengeru, upper reaches.

Nduruma
Loingare
Themi (variable)

Kijenge 100 — 200 p.p.m.

Manire.

Nauru

The significance of this grouping is at once apparent when it is
compared with the sketch-map and the notes on topography and
climate already given. Groups A and B, with the highest proportion
of soda, form a horseshoe enclosing the mountain but open to the
south, having its horns on the S.W. and S.E. flanks. These groups
include the dry northern and western, ash- and tufl-covered slopes,
also the region of the crater and the slopes carrying recent eruptive
material, below its great eastern breach. Proceeding south-westward
from the eastern extremity of the horseshoe, and south-eastward from
its western extremity, Group C, with more moderate proportion of
soda, is entered upon from both directions, but it is not continuous

18

across the southern slopes, for the wettest, southern face of the moun-
tain is occupied by Groups I) and E, with the lowest soda-content.
Groups D and E drain the geologically less recent, or at any rate more
fully-weathered, formations, which carry brown or grey-brown loam
soils, as distinct from the powdery grey or yellow-grey immature soils
of the east, north and west.

The streams differ less markedly amongst themselves in neutral-
salt content, except for the Engare Nanyuki and Kimosan, which
to their high total alkalinity and Group A soda-proportion add a
high content of both sulphate and chloride. It is, however,
possible to distinguish a grouping amongst the other streams. Their
content of sulphate and chloride is low and fairly uniform, but the
ratio of these to total alkalinity shows an interesting geographical
distribution round the mountain. In Table XII, total bicarbonate is
put at 100 for all samples, and sulphate and chloride recalculated pro-
portionately. The streams are listed in the order in which they would
be encountered in proceeding round the mountain counter-clockwise,
starting from 01 Doinyo Sambu.

S

19

Table XII.

Proportion of Sulphate and Chloride to total Alkalinity.

Streams.

Bicarbonate.

Sulphate.

Chloride.

HCCL

SO.

Cl.

West and South-West .

Engare Narok (N.) ...

100

5

2

Valatia

100

5

1

Engare ol Motonyi ...

100

4

2

Selian

100

5

2

Burka

100

6

3

Engare Narok

100

5

3

Tli e mi

100

6

3

Mean for the group

100

5

2.5

South.

Nauru

100

8

3

Kijenge

100

8

3

Nduruma

100

9

3

Manire

100

7

2

Loingare

100

11

3

Malala

100

10

4

Mean for the group

100

9

3

South-east.

Tengeru

100

4

3

Kigeri ... . .

100

4

2

Magclarisbo

100

4

3

IJsa

100

4

3

Maji-ya-Chai ...

100

3

2

Kikuletwa

100

4

2

Mean for the group

100

4

2.5

East.

Momela Lake ...

100

14

7

Engare Nanyuki

100

11

4

North..

Kimosan

100

7

4

Natgonasais

100

9

4

20

The figures for each natural group of neighbouring streams are
closely consistent among themselves, but those for different groups are
well contrasted. It appears that there is more sulphate per unit of
dissolved matter in the streams of the wet south side of Mem than
elsewhere on the mountain except in the Engare Nanyuki and its
two small northern neighbours. This point has some geochemical
interest, which is discussed later; but the table as a whole emphasizes
the non-significance of dissolved neutral salts in the region generally.

A number of items of local interest in connection with particular
streams may be mentioned here before proceeding further. The order
followed is that of Tables I to X.

Engare ol Motonyi (Table I). This is the farthest west of all
the streams on the south side, and eventually loses itself in the Masai
steppe between Meru and 01 Doinyo Lolkisale to the south-wTest. The
Forest Station is some miles upstream and about 500 ft. higher than
the Nairobi Road Drift, whereas the Mbugwe Road Drift is down-
stream and about 100 ft. lower. The samples are consistent in com-
position throughout.

Selian (Table II). The Selian river loses itself in irrigation
channels and in its own bed before joining the Burka stream below’
the Burka Springs, but the dry watercourse can be traced to the
junction. The samples are somewhat lower in absolute amounts of
dissolved matter than those of Table I, but the percentage soda-
alkalinity is similar. The sulphate-content varies rather more, but
about the same mean. No 148, taken at the forest boundary, up-
stream of the other points of sampling, contains a markedly higher
percentage soda-alkalinity than the rest — contrast the parallel sample,
No. 19, for Engare ol Motonyi.

Engare Narok (Table III). This joins the Burka-Themi river-
system at certain seasons, but for much of the year the lowrer part of
its river-bed is dry. It has only about half) the total alkalinity of its
neighbours to the west, but with a similar proportionate soda-percen-
tage. Samples Nos. 150, 151, and 152 are of interest in that it was
noted at the time of sampling that the tributary which now7 proves to
contain the greatest absolute soda-content (No. 150) drained a con-
glomerate formation while the other two came from lava. The forest
samples as a group resemble the Selian forest sample (No. 148, Table
II) in containing a larger proportion of soda than the main stream
below7; their alkaline-earth content is extremely low. Samples 42 and
48 present an anomaly which is discussed later (p. 25). The high pH
value of No. 43 corresponds to its content of free sodium carbonate —
an exceptional occurrence, not paralleled in this part of the district in
any other sample, but occurring frequently in the Engare Nanyuki area
(see Table IX). The usual form in which the “ soda ” occurs is of

21

course sodium bicarbonate, with a much less alkaline reaction to
indicators.

Burka-Themi river system (Table IY). The Burka and the
Themi join, some way south of Arusha, and thereafter are known as
the Olgeju Loldiloi, which flows south-east in a deep gorge. On
leaving the gorge it turns due south and loses itself 10 miles further
on in the Shambarai swamp.

The Burka clearly belongs as to composition to the group of
alkaline streams to the west. It has a maximum alkalinity just above
its junction with the Engare Narok, and it appears from this and from
a comparison of sample No. 99 of Engare Narok, taken near this point,
with the rest of the Narok samples (Table III), that both streams
receive an accession of very alkaline seepage water from the ground
near their junction.

The Nauru, Themi, and Kijenge are of variable composition, but
belong as a whole to the less alkaline groups. Some of the samples
were amongst the purest waters found in the area. The Kijenge has
its alkalinity mainly in the desirable form of alkaline-earth
bicarbonates.

Nduruma (Table V). Few' samples are available for this, but they
are enough to make it cleai} that it is one of the purer rivers. The
Nduruma flows into the Kikuletwa at a point below any sampling that
was made of the latter river. It collects practically the full amount
of its flow within the forest reserve, and runs for the greater part of
its course in deep gorges lined with trees. It appears from samples
112, 111, and 110, all taken on the same day, that an accession of
alkaline water is received, containing however a smaller proportion of
soda, between the crossing of the upper foot-road and that of the
Arusha-Moshi main road. Presumably this is from the Songota and
Baraa tributaries.

Manire-Duluti area (Table Y). The Manire and Loingare rivers
follow separate courses south-east, and eventually join the Kikuletwa.
They are amongst the purer streams. The Manire receives its water
from springs arising below the forest level. These (Nos. 118, 114,
115) vary a good deal amongst themselves.

Sample 117 was taken from the N.E. edge of Lake Duluti and
ms,y not fairly represent the lake as a whole. It contains somewhat
more soda than the streams of the neighbourhood, which may be due
merely to a precipitation of alkaline-earth bicarbonates on the lake-
bottom, and a slight accumulation of soda in solution. The water is
quite “ fresh,” though there is no known surface inlet or outlet.

Tengeru rivers. (Table YI). Under this head have been grouped
the Malala and all streams east of it which join with the Kigeri before

22

flowing south-east to the IJsa River to form the Kikuletwa. They
belong to Groups C and D of Table XI, and in general the head- waters
have less alkalinity than the lower courses.

Usa rivers (Tables VII and VIII). In this group are placed all
the remaining rivers of the south side of the mountain. They all join
together above the railway bridge at Usa River Station, and further
down join the Tengeru rivers to form the Kikuletwa.

The Usa River proper falls into Group C, but its own headwaters
and the Maji-ya-Chai fall into Group A with a very high proportionate
soda-alkalinity. All samples to the east of the Usa furrow (which
itself appears to receive more soda as it passes along) contain consider-
ably more soda than any others on the south of the mountain as far as
beyond Arusha on the west. The sources of the Maji-ya-Chai at
Ngongongare carry much less dissolved matter than the main stream
further down, and by the time it reaches the Moshi road it has approxi-
mately doubled its content of soda. Much alkaline seepage-water
evidently reaches it about its middle course.

The Kikuletwa in its lower course, after leaving the Mem foothills,
receives the waters of the Shira stream and the Kikafu River,
both draining from western and south-western Kilimanjaro; but con-
tinues under the same name until, at Arusha Chini, it receives the
Weru-Weru, carrying the combined waters of the south flank of
Kilimanjaro. An observation made by one of us (G.M.) at this
junction is of interest. The Kikuletwa, carrying mainly Meru water
with some addition of purer water from Kilimanjaro, was turbid, with
pH — 8.7 (a rough colorimetric test). The Weru-Weru, carrying
Kilimanjaro waters only, was quite clear, with pH = 8.0 (March 26th,
1932). The confluence is shown in the photograph, Plate II.

Engare Nanyuki (Table IX). The course of the main stream has
already been described (p. 3). The Kiranyi stream flows across
grassy flats, on which, in many bare or scorched patches, soda-incrus-
tations were much in evidence at the time of sampling.* Sample No.
87 is from a small tributary to the Engare Nanyuki, locally considered
a “ sweet ” stream.

These streams are by far the most alkaline, and also the most
saline, of all the flowing waters of the Meru drainage. In four of the
samples free sodium carbonate was present, giving ai red colour with
phenol-phthalein.

The sample from the Momela lakes (No. 174) is a very concen-
trated water. The high soda- and salt-content of these lakes is due
to their lying in a closed drainage area, into which much water of the

* Soil samples taken in the green turf of these flats have been found to have
a pH = 10.2, measured by the hydrogen electrode in a 1 :2£ soil : water
suspension.

23

Engare Nanvuki character enters, and there concentrates by
evaporation.

Ol Doinyo Sambu (Table X). These streams flow off the western
and north-western slopes, in deep-cut, precipitous gorges, and are lost
in the plain. On the whole they resemble the streams of the south-
west.

Complete analyses of composite samples.

These are available for the Tengeru, Usa, and Maji-ya-Chai groups
of rivers only. The results are contained in Table XIII. The total
content of dissolved inorganic solids is represented by the figure
salinity,”* in parts per million. The figure “ soda ” has the same
conventional meaning as in column 2 of Tables I to X. The remaining
figures express the percentage composition of the dissolved inorganic
solids, all bicarbonates being calculated to their equivalent in normal
carbonates in arriving at the figure (C03. The absolute content of
silica is also given, in parts per million.

Table XIII.

Complete Analyses,

Composite Samples.

Tengeru B.

Usa B.

Maji-ya Chai

Salinity ...

151 p.p.m. ... 155 p.p.m.

... 281 p.p.m.

co3 ... .

as. 43%

46.14%

49.75%

Cl

2.05

2.65

2.85

so4

2.32

3.11

2.39

Ca

9.74

7.96

4.21

Mg

1.13

0.52

0.57

Na

16.17

24.79

29.54

K

4.24

6.28

7.13

Fe^ + Al^ .

2.52

3.11

2.21

Si02 ...

23.40

5.44

1.85

100.00

100.00

... 100.00

Soda,” p.p.m.

57

91

... 201

Si02, p.p.m.

35.5

8.5

5.2

The new features brought out by the complete analyses are the
great differences in the silica-content of the three rivers, the great
excess of calcium over magnesium, and the considerable amounts of
potassium present, occurring in a constant ratio of about one quarter
of the amounts of sodium.

* An unfortunate term in the present connection, since the waters in question
are not appreciably “ saline ” as the word is usually understood, i.e. their
neutral-salt content is small. We use the term here for the sake of uniformity
with the form of statement adopted throughout in F. W. Clark’s standard
compilation (9) (1924), from which some analyses are quoted at the end of
this paper for comparison.

24

It is clear that the materials from which the three rivers derive
their soluble matter are very different in character, or if originally
similar, are now in very different stages of weathering. This will be
discussed presently.

Other Determinations.

As has been mentioned, the determinations of hydrogen-ion
concentration were abandoned at an early stage, but the figures
obtained may be briefly commented on. In general they are well
on the alkaline side, but afford little further guidance to the amount or
composition of the matter in solution. In two instances, however
(No. 31, Selian, and No. 42, Eng. Narok), an anomaly occurs, which
may indicate the presence in those samples of fair amounts of
phosphate. The pH values fall on the acid side of neutrality, yet they
are accompanied by an unusually high titratable alkalinity, of which
an unusually low proportion consists of “ soda.” A third example,
not so well marked, is No. 48 (Eng. Narok). Phosphoric acid is the
only one of all the weak acids likely to occur in natural waters that
has a greater dissociation-constant than carbonic acid; and the sug-
gested explanation is supported by qualitative tests on the waters, by
the occurrence of phosphate in the salt-deposit samples to be
described later in this paper, and from the mention by Mauritz (loc.
cit.) of apatite as an accessory mineral in all the rocks he examined.
The kenyte from south Meru which he analysed had 0.63% P205, a
fairly high figure.

It is of interest to note an example of how imperfect a picture of
a water’s dissolved alkaline matter is given by either total alkalinity
or pH, separately, or even by the two together when the soda-content
is not stated, from the recently-published accounts by Worthington
and others ( (7) and (8) (1932) ) of the results of the Cambridge
expedition of 1930-31 to the lakes of Kenya and Uganda. Lake
Edward, with a titratable alkalinity of .01 normal, had pH = 8.7 to 8.9.
Lake George, alkalinity .002 normal or one-fifth of the other, had pH
= 9.3 to 9.9. The local evidence adduced as to soda- content is that
L. George receives none but relatively pure waters from Euwenzori,
a non-volcanic massif, while Lake Edward receives soda-bearing waters
from the Mfumbiro volcanoes. Yet from the figures quoted above it
might have been concluded very reasonably that it wTas L. George that
had the higher proportion of soda in its total alkalinity, as shown by
its much higher pH values.

The possibility that the Meru waters contain borates has been
considered, as boron compounds are often associated with the products
of volcanic action. When present in water used for irrigation they
may be a cause of injury to crops. Thus certain Californian waters
(see Schofield and Wilcox (10) (1931) ) were found to be damaging fruit

25

trees from this cause, and it was concluded that a boron-content of
more than 1 part per million may be injurious to boron-sensitive
plants.

The determination of boron in waters in such small amounts as
these, even qualitatively, requires rather large samples and consider-
able precautions, particularly in the use of boron-free laboratory glass-
ware, and in the present work both chemist’s time and the quantities
of sample were too limited for us to proceed far in the matter. Borne
of the Selian, Engare ol Motonyi, and Engare Narok samples were
examined with results that were inconclusive except as indicating that
no very large quantities of boron are present. The matter may deserve
fuller investigation at some time if any question on the point arises
in the district as a field problem.

The brown colour of the Maji-ya-Chai, and the red colour of the
Engare Nanyuki — the origin of both their names — -appear to be due
simply to the fact that these alkaline rivers pass through, or receive
seepage from, swamps containing much humic material readily soluble
in alkali. Though already alkaline, the Engare Nanyuki at Momela
Gate (far upstream) is quite clear and colourless, and the Maji-ya-Chai
upstream of Ngongongare has the same appearance. The Momela
Lake sample (No. 174) is much more alkaline than any of the Nanyuki
samples, but is practically colourless when its greenish scum is
filtered off.

Interpretation of the Besults.

The trend of the conclusions to be drawn from the analyses, from
the point of view of the use of the waters in irrigation, will have
become apparent during the foregoing partial discussions. The
features common to the area as a whole were noted on p. 16. It is
clear that sodium sulphate, the characteristic salt of certain types of
alkali-soils, and sodium chloride, can be dismissed from consideration
throughout most of the district. The amounts of them are negligible,
except in the Engare Nanyuki area, where in any case the waters are
unsuitable on other counts.

The soda-content of the waters, and its relation to the alkaline
earth bicarbonates present, is however a matter not to be dismissed
so summarily. The state of affairs represented by the analytical data
is one that renders caution necessary in matters of irrigation through-
out the whole area . This is not to say that water- qualities as a whole
are so bad that none of the streams may be safely used if proper
precautions are taken. But soda-alkalinity is an undesirable property,
and it is so widespread in these streams, and its degree so high in many
localities, that the general attitude in the district should be towards
avoidance of irrigation wherever possible : and if the case for irrigat-
ing a particular farm or a particular crop is strong on all other counts

26

and a decision to irrigate is taken, then the local water should be*
examined and advice sought on the best methods of using it safely.

The analysis by groups given in Table XI may be re-stated as
follows. The risk of encountering the disadvantages of high soda-
content diminishes as one passes from the districts of Groups A and
B, where it is almost a certainty, through Group C where the total
alkalinity is likely to be less and the proportion of soda slightly less, to
Groups D and E where lime- alkalinity bulks more largely in the total
and soda-alkalinity, though still present, is not very great.

The agricultural literature of semi-arid regions contains many
attempts to frame criteria by which a water may be judged when the
local circumstances attending its use are known. For example,
Hoagland and Christie (n) (1919) consider the dissolved matter found
in the water under four categories : primary and secondary alkalinity,
which wre may label for convenience I and II, and primary and
secondary salinity, III and IV. Category I is approximately the
soda ” of our tables, II is the alkaline earth bicarbonates, III the
alkali sulphates and chlorides, IV the alkaline earth sulphates and
chlorides. Roughly speaking, a water is the better the more it has of
II, and the worse the more it has of I and III, IV being indifferent in
moderate quantities. If calculated in these terms, for most of the
Meru stream^ I is fairly high, II variable but on the whole low, III
and IV almost absent. The conclusions on quality would therefore be
similar to ours above.

It is impracticable to attempt, on the data to hand, a labelling of
particular streams as good, bad, or indifferent, except as above in a
generalised statement of probabilities, and this is all we are justified,
in offering. For most of the streams we have not examined seasonal
fluctuations in composition, and uncertainties always attach to the
analysis of single samples. But apart from these limitations, it is
impossible to judge a water finally without reference to how it is to
be used, and especially to the drainage that is to be provided. A
relatively pure water may do damage if it is used irresponsibly; and
one of poor quality may do good service in the hands of one who is
prepared to go to trouble and expense in providing against the risks
he is incurring.

As regards the other factors entering into one’s judgment of an
irrigation-water, an essential one, namely the degree of tolerance of
the irrigated crop to concentrations of salt or soda in the soil, is
almost unknown for the principal crop of this area*. Coffee elsewhere
in the world is usually grown in places where the rainfall is ample and
the soils are leached, so that, the question does^ not arise. The Meru
area^ will itself no doubt provide the information, when its established
population of coffee-trees comes to be studied in detail from this

27

viewpoint. Mention of the gross amounts of “ soda ” likely to be
involved per acre when irrigating with typical waters, is made in the
concluding section of this paper.

From a geochemical point of view the composition of the streams
fits in very well with the other components of the picture for the
mountain. As has been mentioned, petrological information is scanty,
but that available is to the effect that the rocks of Mem have been
derived from a magma which is basic or moderately basic, and alkalic,
i.e. having a low to medium silica-content, and a predominance of
soda-bearing minerals. Such rocks weather rapidly. Their first
stages of decomposition yield carbonates of the alkalies (Na, K) and
alkaline earths (Ca, Mg), the former in considerable excess. At a
later stage, under humid conditions of weathering where the soluble
products can be carried off, the silicates break down further, yielding
again carbonates of the bases, together with silica, to the percolating
waters; but as this stage is reached after the original excess of alkali-
bases has been lost in the drainage, the carbonates are now princi-
pally those of the alkaline earths. Weathering is assisted by fineness
of sub-division, and an ash or pumice will decompose throughout
its bulk more rapidly than a compact glassy or crystalline lava under
similar climatic conditions. Under moderate but periodic rainfall and
high evaporation, an ash of the given composition will develop an
abundance of alkali carbonates to be washed into the periodic streams
which drain it; but they will be very incompletely washed out, and
the onset of the second (lime- and silica-yielding) stage of weathering
will be slow. The streams} therefore receive much soda, proportion-
ately little lime, and very little silica. This is the condition of Groups
A and B of Table XI. On the south of the mountain, however, zones
of high or moderate rainfall occupy the whole of the slopes. Such of
the superficial; rocks as were ash or tuff are probably weathered by
now quite beyond their first (soda-yielding) stage, and the main bulk
of their soluble products has long since gone in the drainage of the
past. In so far as they have survived bodily removal by mechanical
erosion, their soluble products of to-day will be those of stage 2. The
underlying hard lavas, more resistant to mechanical erosion and
weathering more slowly, are likely to be yielding soluble products
of both stages, i.e. still containing much soda but with fair amounts
of lime and silica. This corresponds with the ascertained composition
of the southern streams. The variable nature of the rocks from point
to point, and in particular the occurrence of relatively young deposits
in the neighbourhood of subsidiary craters or vents formed late in the
volcanic history of the mountain, will account for the few local
anomalies. The fact that the rivers of Tables VII and VIII (Usa
and Maji-ya-Chai) lie on a sector having broad high-rainfall zones, and
yet include some with notably high soda-content, is by no means an

28

anomaly, for the high-soda streams lie to the east, and drain the
slopes below the great breach of the main crater. The superficial

rocks here are either a fine powdery ash that must belong to a
relatively late eruption, or shattered lava dbbris from the destroyed
crater- wall. They form a large bulk of material well advanced into,
but not past, the early stages of weathering.

In view of the evidence from the complete analyses (Table XIII)
that potassium occurs in a steady ratio along with sodium in the
waters, it wall be understood that the word “ soda ” in the above
discussions generally means soda and potash. The ratio of potassium
to sodium in the waters is however less than that commonly found in
eruptive nepheline-bearing rocks. Mauritz (loc. cit. (5) ) gives no
analysis for his nephelinite, but a somewhat less basic trachydolerite
(or kenvte) from the plain at the S. foot of Meru contained

This is fairly typical of the usual proportions of the alkali-bases in such
rocks. They are therefore yielding soda more rapidly, as they
weather, than potash, in proportion to the amounts present. The
effect may of course also be due in part to the occurrence of eruptive
material on Meru much richer in soda than such rock-analyses as that
above-quoted would lead one to expect. The discussion cannot
however be carried further until more complete analyses are available,
both of rocks and waters.

Mauritz ’s petrographic descriptions include mention of socialite
as an accessory mineral, and he reports 0.32% Cl in the above-men-
tioned trachydolerite. This is sufficent to account for the small and
very steady chloride content of the waters (except Engare Nanyuki).
It is unlikely that chloride is derived in appreciable amounts either
from human pollution or as “ cyclic ” salt, i.e. salt returning from
the sea via the rain-bringing winds.

Sulphur-bearing minerals are not mentioned by Mauritz, but it
seems likely that in these rocks the sources of sulphate are minerals
of the noselite or hauynite type. As in other volcanic regions, native
sulphur and sulphides may possibly occur. Table XII appeared to
indicate that the sources of sulphur occur more variably around the
mountain than do the sources of chloride. The waters of south and
of north Meru contain more sulphate per unit of bicarbonate than the
rest. As regards the north, this effect and the high chloride-content
are probably both ascribable to the extremely fresh state of the recent
ejecta, and especially the ash-cone, in the main crater where the
Engare Nanyuki rises. Sulphates and chlorides are not improbably

Si02

52.7%

CaO

5.0

MgO

1.6

K20

3.9

29

there as direct reaction-products of acid volcanic gases upon alkali-
rich minerals. As regards south Meru, the greater proportionate
sulphate-content may conceivably reflect mineral differences, but may
simply be due to the greater activity of vegetation under the more
generous rainfall, and hence to a more rapid turnover of sulphur in
the decomposition of plant-protein.

The Influence of Rainfall. Seasonal Variations.

It is to be expected that the composition of a stream at any given
point will bear some relation to season, and in particular to rainfall,
for the different formations of the catchment area will not contribute
in the same proportions to the total volume of flow in times of heavy
and light rainfall. For two of the streams sampled (Eng. Narok and
Eng. ol Motonyi) we hoped to be able to trace the relationship. There
are rainfall-measuring stations in the forest belt at their headwaters,
and rough gauges of stream-volume were fixed at the points visited
for the periodical samplings. The graphs constructed to compare the
three sets of observations have however afforded no conclusions except
an indication that the effect of heavy rainfall is to dilute the water
somewhat — not a startling result, but showing that run-off wafer, in
spite of its greater erosive power, carries off less dissolved matter than
does percolating water penetrating the deeper soil horizons.

Some points however deserve mention. The fluctuations in
chemical composition are relatively slight, except at the onset of the
long rains for the Engare Narok (samples 50 and 65). There is a low
flow in both streams from August to October inclusive, which, as
measured at the gauges, is partly due to the great demand for water
for irrigation purposes during those months at points upstream. The
demand is very much reduced by January when the main crops are
harvested or are approaching harvest time, and still further by
February. The actual lowest water in the rivers if this is allowed for
is probably at the end of January or early February, or some six
weeks after the end of the short rains. It may be noted that for the
Usa River, on the wetter southern slopes, it is locally well known that
the greatest flow comes two to three months after the greatest rain.
The samples taken from the Usa in early May, mid- June, and mid-
July (Nos. 78, 84, 148) therefore correspond approximately with periods
both before and at the peak of the long rains; yet the differences in
dilution are relatively slight.

The graphs have not been considered worth reproducing for
publication. Their inconclusiveness has an interest as a demonstra-
tion that the seasonal behaviour of streams cannot be profitably
studied without setting up a thorough organisation for the work. The
readings of a single rain-gauge near the headwaters of a river are

30

altogether too slender a basis on which to form an estimate of the
precipitation in its whole catchment area. If sampling-dates are
spaced more than a few days apart, a spate or high-water peak may
easily be missed and critical information thus lost. Yet if sampling
is done very frequently, the burden both of travelling and of analytical
work becomes serious. Stream-gauging with accuracy is no easy
matter. And the observations should relate to the full cycle of
seasons over several years. That such work upon some of the Meru
streams would produce results of much scientific interest and local
value, there can be no doubt; but it seems unlikely that the impor-
tance of the streams will justify undertaking it on economic grounds.

Composition of Salt-deposits.

While collecting the water-samples the opportunity was taken to
examine and sample certain minor salt-accumulations that occur here
and there in the district. Analyses of these are given below (Table
XIV).

Table XIV. Salt-Deposits.

No. 1.

No. 2.

No. 3.

No. 4.

No. 5.

No. 6.

Sanya.

Kiranyi. Engare Bnrka.

Nanyuki Falls.

Usa.

Tengeru.

Si02

6.87%

14.55%

18.73%

12.47%

9.10%

10.51%

Fe2Oa )

ai2o3 f

4.36

11.08

23.43

7.13

11.57

10.02

Ca3(PO.)2

1.16

2.36

2.80

1.04

1.52

0.83

CaS04

3.68

5.41

2.26

tr.

—

3.33

CaC03

0.48

—

2.72

8.54

5.37

0.34

MgC03 ...

1.54

—

—

tr.

tr.

0.45

Na2S04

—

2.69

—

—

—

—

NaCl

4.74

2.95

1.64

tr.

0.60

3.48

Na2C03 ...

43.08

34.92

30.03

56.89

54.40

47.76

NaHC03 ...

34.09

26.04

18.39

13.93

17.44

23.28

100.00

100.00

100.00

100.00

100.00

100.00

They consist of deposits at lake edges, and the residues left by seepage
waters as they evaporate. No. 1 is a dirty grey amorphous material
which is deposited at the edges of the Sanya salt-lakes, whose waters
are very alkaline in reaction. No. 2 is a similar sample from the Kiranyi
salt flats near the Engare Nanyuki. No. 3 was collected from the
cliff face at the Engare Nanyuki Falls at Momela. It has a light
brownish colour and occurs in a conglomerate formation at a depth of

31

about 100 ft. from the surface. Nos. 4, 5, and 6 are “ seep salts ”
that occur on the surface of the ground at Burka, Usa and Tengeru
respectively.

They are all essentially soda-deposits, and confirm the general
picture given by the water-analyses. The results are expressed as
percentages (in the sample) of constituents soluble in hot dilute
hydrochloric acid. The alkali carbonates and bicarbonates, putting
sodium and potassium together, were calculated from the excess of
C03 and HC03 over that required to combine the alkaline earths.
The sesquioxides are conspicuously high in No. 3, and appear to be
mainly alumina. All samples contain phosphate in appreciable
amounts, from which it would appear that the soils and rocks of the
district carry phosphate in fair quantities. Sulphates and chlorides
are present in minor amounts only, as in the waters. The molecular
ratio of Na2C03 to NaHC03 in the two lake-edge deposits is very
nearly that of the mineral trona, which is the chief soda mineral
worked at Lake Magadi in Kenya.

All these salt deposits are collected locally by the natives and fed
to cattle. Those at Sanya are in the Chagga country, the remainder
are used by the Wa-Meru except that at Burka, which is the property
of the Wa- Arusha.

The Agriculture of Mount Meru.

It remains to add a short account of the relevant features of
native and European agriculture, to assist in placing the subject of
stream-composition in its proper relation to local economics.

Native Agriculture.

Two tribes are found on Meru, namely the Wa-Meru, who are
akin to the western branches of the Wachagga of Kilimanjaro, and the
Wa- Arusha, a tribe speaking a language similar to that of the Masai
of the surrounding plains, and further imitating many Masai customs.
The Wa-Meru occupy the southern foothills of the mountain between
the Usa and Nduruma rivers, and the Wa- Arusha the south-western
foothills between the Nduruma and the Engare ol Motonyi. Both
adopt almost Ihe same agricultural practices. Neither tribe has been
long in the land, but no trace of former inhabitants, if any, is to be
observed.

Old native furrows exist taking water from all the streams in the
areas above-mentioned except the two, Usa and Engare ol Motonyi,
which form respectively their eastern and western boundaries.
Furrows of recent date are taken from all the streams on the
southern slopes without exception. The Masai of the steppes sur-

rounding Meru have two large furrows for the purpose of watering

32

stock. One, in the north, carries water from the Engare Nanyuki on
to the Engasserai plains between Kilimanjaro and Longido. The
other carries water from the Engare ol Motonyi to the Kisongo plains
south of Mondul mountain, west of Arusha. The construction of
this latter furrow played a very important part in the history of the
district, for it was for this purpose that the Wa- Arusha were brought
by the Masai as slaves from the area south of MosM now known as
Arusha Chini. After the completion of this work they were released
and settled on the slopes of Mem.

Both the agricultural tribes settled in forest country, approxi-
mately between 4,500 and 6,000 feet above sea level, and did not use
the grasslands for cultivation. This forest country has a soil of light
yellowish grey colour, dusty when dry and very open and light in
texture, but apparently more mature than the grey soils of the grass-
lands. They irrigate extensively with water of the better qualities,
the principal streams used by them being those of Groups C, 1), and
E of Table XI. The crops irrigated are chiefly maize, eleusine, and
to a less extent bananas.

The rainfall over the original area occupied by the tribes varies
from 25 inches in the extreme south-west of the Wa- Arusha country
to 60 inches and more along the forest boundary, and for the most
part averages 45 to 50 inches.

Plantation Agriculture.

From 1908 to 1914 under the former German Government large
areas of land about Meru were alienated, and the cultivation of coffee
was commenced. Most of the early plantations were started in or
immediately adjoining the “ Loliondo ”* forest which formed the
southern (lower) boundary of the land in native occupation. The soil
here is usually of a heavier type than elsewhere. Though still dusty
when dry, it tends to cake in hard lumps, and is inclined to form, a
sticky pan about one foot down. On these estates shade was usually
established, using Grevillea robusta. The principal exceptions to the
generalisation that the alienation was in or adjoining the Loliondo
forest were the Usa — Maji-ya-Chai block of farms and the South
African Dutch settlements of Engare ol Motonyi, Ol Doinyo Sambu,
Kampfontein, and Engare Nanyuki, around the west and north of
the mountain. The Dutch were however at that time almost entirely
graziers and cereal growers, and did not turn their attention to coffee.
Their farms, and the other exceptions mentioned, are grasslands with
a proportion of thorn and scrub, and have a soil consisting of a
relatively fresh volcanic ash. These ash soils may be divided into two

* Loliondo (a Masai name) = Olea Hochstetteri, Baker, or Linociera W elwitschii ,
Baker, both Oleaceae, valuable timbers.

33

main types : those which are shallow and overlie a table of hard lava,
more or less weathered, as at Usa and Engare Nanyuki, and those
which are deep and overlie loose eruptive material, principally
pumice, or semi-consolidated tuff.

The coffee planted in the early years was all heavily irrigated.
Eor the most part the waters used were those of the comparatively
pure central southern streams, as in the native-farmed belt, but the
Burka, Selian, and also the Usa began to be used at this stage.
Since the war there has been a great increase of coffee-growing, and
practically all the rivers have been employed for irrigation except those
at 01 Boinyo Sambu, where there is not enough flow. Planting nas
taken place to a greater or less extent in every part of the district,
including large acreages on the immature grassland soils mentioned
above, where the cheap clearing costs proved an attraction. On many
plantations developed since the war shade has not been used, and
especially is this the case on the grassland soils.

Failures to establish coflee are only recorded twice. Both were
in very dry areas where the waters of the Engare Nanyuki were
employed for watering nurseries. Sample No. 92 may be taken as
representing the water used. In one of these cases the land had
been periodically flooded for years, to encourage a short turf for sheep
grazing. Plere not only coffee, but maize too, failed. In the other
case, though coffee failed, maize is grown and irrigated successfully
with the water in question. In one further instance the coffee planted
has died out almost entirely after yielding very large crops for two
or three years. The water used was the Kimosan Spruit, a tributary
of the Engare Nanyuki. The district where all these failures have
occurred has probably not more than 20 inches of rain per annum, and
the irrigation would be heavy.

Elsewhere around the mountain, including places along the forest
edge at Engare Nanyuki, coffee is being successfully grown both with
and without irrigation. There is, however, room for improvement in
the bearing life of the trees in certain areas. At present they mature
in a very short time, and too large a proportion of them bear a few
heavy crops and then suffer serious defoliation and die. This condition
occurs chiefly on the immature “ ash ” soils of the grass-and-thorn-
scrub region.

For a period of years immediately following the war, practically
every plantation was irrigated — it could be said to be the universal
practice of the district. The irrigation of coffee is not now, however,
carried on to the same extent as formerly. Many estates have aban-
doned the practice altogether in recent years, and a number of new
plantings exist that have never been irrigated.

34

A Water Board under the Natural Water Supply Ordinance
controls the use of water from all streams.

The practice most often adopted when irrigating coffee has been
to fill with water a plate-like depression (termed a sahani, Kiswahili)
around each tree. Thirty to forty gallons per tree at each watering
would be applied in this way up to bearing age, and between 100 and
150 gallons per tree to bearing coffee, these estimates including the
loss by seepage in the network of furrows within the plantation. As
an average there may be 700 trees to the acre. A bearing plantation
would therefore receive between 70,000 and 100,000 gallons per acre
at each watering. This may be done once, twice, up to as many as
five times per annum. In one case an irrigation was given every six
weeks except when rain fell fairly heavily. Taking now an example
of the significance of the data presented in this paper in the light of
local irrigation-practice, let us suppose 100 gallons given per tree, of
a water containing 200 parts per million of sodium carbonate. The
amount of soda added per tree would be 100 x 10 x .0002 lb. =0.2 lb.
per tree, or 140 lb. per acre, at each irrigation. If three irrigations
per annum are given, 420 lb., or nearly 4 cwt. of soda per acre are
brought on to the land. This may not be a net figure, for no account
is taken of any loss in through-drainage. But it is clear that in such
an example sodium carbonate, undoubtedly an undesirable soil con-
stituent, is being brought in in quantities comparable with ordinary
dressings of artificial fertilisers.

It is not the purpose of this paper to pursue the matter further,
for its agricultural significance cannot be fully assessed without a
much closer analysis of factors of soil, soil management (especially
drainage), climate, tolerance of crop to alkali, and so on, than is at
present possible. A knowledge of the composition of the waters
should however be of assistance, within its limits, in the further
handling of some of the questions that must inevitably be raised by
such a disturbing conclusion as that of the last sentence of the
paragraph above.

Comparison with Other Waters.

Partial analyses are available for a few other water-samples from
northern Tanganyika received at Amani during the course of the
Mem survey. They contrast strongly with the Meru waters. Thus
three samples from Kirn and Ndareda, near Babati, had 30, 41 and
53 parts per million of total bicarbonate, containing 0, 5% and 17%
of the total as soda, respectively; sulphate and chloride from 2 to 6
p.p.m. ; pH 6.5 to 6.9. Volcanic rocks occur locally in the area in
question, near the wall of the Eastern Rift Valley, but the drainage
is mainly from the gneiss. Typical waters from gneiss are those of

35

East Usambara, two examples of which, both from feeders of the Sigi
River in the rain-forest at 3,000 to 3,500 feet, had 13 and 15 p.p.m.
total bicarbonate, no soda, sulphate and chloride about 6 p.p.m.,
pH 6.2.

An irrigation-water used at Engare Nairobi, N.W. Kilimanjaro,
had 18 p.p.m. total bicarbonate, sulphate 20 p.p.m. On the opposite
side of Kilimanjaro, at Taveta, two springs of a hard alkaline-earth
water occur, both having 165 p.p.m. total bicarbonate, with only 9%
of it as soda, and very little sulphate and chloride. It will be of great
interest to explore the Kilimanjaro waters in detail, when opportunity
offers.

With a view to assisting further a comparison of the Meru waters
with others, we reproduce below in Table XV, from various authorities,
some complete analyses of waters from elsewhere in East Africa, and
also some from Europe. These are stated in similar terms to those
used for the complete analyses of the three Meru rivers of Table XIII.

Table XV. Composition of Dissolved Matter, other Waters,

Lake

Victoria. 1

White Nile
nr. Khartoum.1

Blue

Nile.1

Lake

Naivasha.2

Typical European Waters.1

m

E3

O

<D

o

■+3 -+D

2 ce

© o <a w

+3 ® 2 a

S'S 3^ S £ 3So

S-< S-i J-* c3 _H o pH 'z?

EhEhQ

Salinity,

p.p.m.

135

174

130

162

65

343

603

272

C03 %

42.1

43.0

41.8

(approx.)

39.0

30.5

46.9

33.0

41.9

Cl

9.3

4.6

2.2

4.3

6.4

1.7

2.9

5.2

S04 ...

1.9

0.25

5.6

7.4

14.1

8.0

27.7

11.8

Ca

7.0

9.8

18.4

7.0

11.9

20.0

22.1

30.1

Mg

5.1

3.0

4.7

3.0

3.6

5.7

5.3

2.0

Na

i

i

25.1

17.7

5.4

17.7

10.6

6.2

3.4

2.3

K

6.8

1.3

8.2

5.6

3.2

2.7

2.2

Feo0,&Alo0,

1.9

—

—

2.6

—

0.6

—

0.5

Si02 ...

7.6

14.7

20.6

10.8

17.3

7.7

2.9

3 3

100.00

99.85

100.00

100.00

100.00

100.00

100.00

99.3

1. Quoted from the original sources by F. W. Clark (9) (1924).

2. Calculated from the data given by L. C. Beadle (8) (1932),

pp. 171 and 207.

36

Summary.

A chemical survey of the streams draining Mount Meru has shown
that their characteristic common features are a considerable, some-
times high, soda-alkalinity, and a small, usually negligible, content of
alkali sulphates and chlorides.

The differences in the above respects, and particularly in the
percentage contribution of the alkali carbonates and bicarbonates to
the total alkalinity, enable a grouping of the streams to be made,
which corresponds very well with the climatic and lithological features
of the mountain on its various slopes.

The state of affairs represented by the analytical data is one that
renders caution necessary throughout the whole area, when considering
the use of any stream for irrigation. Guidance is given on the likeli-
hood of encountering serious soda- alkalinity in the various districts.
The greatest risk lies in the Engare Nanyuki area, the least in the
middle area of the southern slopes.

Seasonal fluctuations in composition are discussed for several
streams, but this part of the work has been inconclusive.

An account is given of the relevant features of both native and
plantation agriculture, with an example of the significance of water-
composition in terms of current irrigation-practice.

The discussion of “alkali,” in the sense in which the word is com-
monly used in regard to soils, is confined throughout to the evidence
given by stream-composition only, in order not to anticipate the con-
clusions of the soil-survey and of field studies of coffee-behaviour that
are in hand.

Certain minor salt-deposits in the area have been examined, and
found to yield evidence in corroboration of the water-analyses.

Acknowledgments.

We wish to thank Mr. E. Harrison, Director of Agriculture,
Tanganyika Territory, and Mr. W. Nowell, Director of the East African
Agricultural Research Station, Amani, for the facilities which they have
afforded for the carrying out of the work; and also Mr. A. J. Wakefield,
Senior Agricultural Officer. Moshi, for his interest and active assistance.

REFERENCES.

1. MEYER, Hans. Das Deutsche Kolomalreich, I, Ostafrika (1909) ; section
“ Der Meru,” pp. 242-248.

2. UHLIG, C. Vom Kilimanjaro zum Meru. Zeitschr. der Ges. fur Erdkunde
zu Berlin (1904), p. 717, quoted by Meyer, ioc. cit. (1).

3. UHLIG, C. Die Tatigkeit des Vulkans Meru. Geogr. Zeitschr., 17 (1911),
pp. 278-281. The plate illustrating this paper gives four excellent photographs
of the interior of the crater — the lava-field, the ash-cone, and the crater- walls.

37

4. GREGORY, J. W. The Rift Valleys and Geology of East Africa (1921),
p. 148.

5. MAURITZ, B. Ueber einige Gesteine des Vulkans Meru in Ostafrika.

Tschermaks Min. nnd Petrogr. Mitteilungen, 27 (1908), pp. 315-326.

6. Official and Tentative Methods of the Association of Official Agricultural
Chemists, Washington (1925), p. 108.

7. WORTHINGTON, E. B. The Lakes of Kenya and Uganda Geogr.
Journal, 79 (1932), pp. 275-297, analyses on p. 292.

8. Scientific results of the Cambridge Expedition to the East African Lakes,

1930-31 — 4, The waters of some East African Lakes in relation to their

fauna and flora, by L. C. Beadle. Journ. Linnean Soc., 28, Zoology (Oct.,
1932), pp. 157-203, esp. pp. 193 and 195.

9. CLARK, F. W. The Data of Geochemistry, Bull. 770, U.S. Geological

Survey (1924), section on lakes and rivers.

10. SCHOFIELD, C. S., and WILCOX, L. V. Boron in Irrigation Waters,
U.S. Dept. Agric. Tech. Bull. No. 264 (1931).

11. HOAGLAND, D. R., and CHRISTIE, A. W. The effect of several types
of irrigation water on the pH-value and freezing-point depression of various
types of soils. Univ. Californa Publ. Agr. Sci. 4 (1919).

The comprehensive paper by F. Jaeger (Geogr. Zeitschr., 1906) on which
Meyer apparently bases his account in (1) above, has been available to us only
in the form of a short abstract in Geogr. Journal, 29 (1907), p. 88.

PLATE I.

Meru from the south slopes.

Photo: D. Sturdy.

Meru from the south-east slopes, showing both walls of the crater.

Photo: D. Sturdy.

Meru from the forest edge, near the headwaters of the Engare Narok

(south-west slopes).

Photo: D. Sturdy.

PLATE II.

Confluence of Kikuletwa (1.) and Weru-Weru (r.) in gallery-forest at Arusha-Chini.

Photo: G. Milne.

Lolondo forest, Tengeru, south slopes of Meru.

Photo: G. Milne.

SOME PRELIMINARY NOTES ON LUO MARRIAGE CUSTOMS.

By K. C. Shaw.

I. Introductory.

This account of Luo marriage customs was given to me by half
a dozen elders of the Luo tribe, living in a location called Nyahera
about seven miles from Kisumu. All of them were over fifty, and
two at least must have been nearing seventy, if they were not older.
The question of the age of my informants may seem irrelevant, but
in fact it is not. In the first place their advanced age, as age is
counted among primitive people, entailed that they had been brought
up, and had passed their early manhood during a period when the
customs of the tribe had still not been affected by contact with
European civilisation. Their view of life, and of their duties as
members of the Luo tribe was the view that had been taken by their
fathers and their grandfathers before them. In this they differed
from their own sons and grandsons whose attitude towards tribal
customs has been and continues to be profoundly modified by white
influences. This falling away from the traditional ways on the part
of the younger generation is not only a source of grief to the old men :
it is also a source of profound annoyance. For it robs them of a large
part of the prestige and authority which among the Luo, as among
other primitive people, is traditionally the due of those who attain to
a ripe age. In the old days this prestige and this authority carried
great weight. It was the head and fount of power in the tribe, and
the exercise and enjoyment of this power became the chief interest
of a man’s life as his years increased and his sons grew up
and took from his shoulders the family duties and cares of his
earlier days. It follows that the decay in the importance of the old
men, which is such a marked feature in nearly all the Kenya tribes
to-day, makes the elders not only resentful, but also very willing to
dwell on the old days, the good days, when their word was law, and
the young were still in due subjection to the old and the wise. For
these two reasons then, their exact personal knowledge of the tradi-
tional mode of life of the tribe, and their interest in the days when
this mode of life was still the accepted one, the advanced age of my
informants was a valuable factor. Also it pleased and flattered them
to be appealed to as authorities, and from the beginning to the end
of our intercourse they were only too pleased to tell me all they could
of the days when they were young. Apart from a natural inclination
to view the past through rosy spectacles they took great pains to give
me an accurate account of what the tribal customs used to be before
the white man came. Long discussions used to go on over points of
detail, and it was only when they were all agreed that I was allowed

39

to write down the authorised version of whatever occurrence it was
that I wished to describe. Moreover they warned me not only that
customs differed slightly from clan to clan and location to location in
North and Central Kavirondo, but that the Luo who had crossed the
Gulf and gone to live in South Kavirondo differed in a good many
ways from the Luo who had remained on the north side of the wrater.
It must therefore be understood that the customs which I am about
to describe are those of a group of Luo clans living in a small area in
Central Kavirondo, and that there may be discrepancies between my
account of these customs and those of other observers in other parts
of the tribal area.

II. The Marriage Customs.

In the old days, before the Europeans took over the government
of the Luo country, it seems that a man did not normally marry
until he was nearer forty than thirty, and girls did not marry
until they were nineteen or twenty. In the case of a man this delay
was apparently connected with his duties as a warrior. It was con-
sidered that a man fought better if he were free from the ties of
married life. Though the Luo were never a fighting tribe in the
grand manner like the Masai they had for some hundreds of years
been pressing southwards through the surrounding Bantu tribes.
Kaiding for fresh land or even for cattle alone, and the consequent
reprisals on the part of the raided, played an important part in tribal
life, and every able-bodied man from the age of seventeen or eighteen
up to the time of his marriage had to hold himself in constant readi-
ness for a scrap. The term for a man of fighting age was wuowe,
that for a married man jadt. while that for a man who delayed to
marry until much later than usual was musomba. After marriage a
man seems to have been exempt from all warlike duties and allowed
to settle down and devote himself entirely to his family life.

It is likely that this postponement of marriage to a comparatively
late age was, apart from its connection with the defence of the tribe,
an instance of the reluctance of the older men to surrender even a
part of their wealth and power to their sons. A man could not marry
without his father’s permission, for it was only from his father (except
under special circumstances into which I need not enter here) that
he could obtain the cattle with which to acquire a bride, and primitive
fathers are often no more anxious than some civilised ones to part with
large quantities of their worldly goods for the benefit of their children.
There was, however, no hard and fast convention as to the age at which
a man might marry. Circumstances altered cases. A mother, for
instance, who was without an unmarried daughter, and who wanted
another woman to help her in the household work and cultivation,
might insist that her son should bring a wife into the family, even if
he had not yet reached ordinary marriageable age. Again if there

40

were other sons by other wives growing up in the data (dala — home-
stead), a woman would hasten the marriage of her own son lest when
it came to paying the bride-price for him cattle might be short on
account of the claims of other sons on the family resource.

Between the permission to marry, however, and marriage itself,
there intervened a long chain of events, extending over months, and
sometimes even over years. The mere choice of a bride was hedged
about with complications and difficulties that often delayed a man’s
marriage considerably. This choice was, in the first place, limited
by the rule that he might not marry any woman related to him,
however distantly, either on his father’s or on his mother’s side
of the family. To do this would be to commit incest, and would
bring terrible consequences upon the clans and families concerned.
If it happened, as it sometimes did, that a man fell in love with a girl
without knowing whether he was related to her or not, only to find
that she belonged to one side or other of his own family, the discovery
put an end immediately to all intercourse between them. If, on the
other hand, it could be established that the two were not related, the
man would get permission from his father to take her as his wife, and
the usual negotiations would be put in hand. It was, however, more
usual for a man to leave the choice of his wife to his father, who
would select a suitable maiden with regard only to the mutual advan-
tage of the two families concerned. In this case neither the young
man nor the girl were regarded as at liberty to refuse the marriage.
If the son did so, it was at the cost of his father’s deep displeasure;
and this was a serious matter in the old days when a man was entirely
dependent upon his father, not only for the means to acquire a wife,
but for his livelihood in general. So to rebel was unusual. The girl
was equally at the mercy of her parents. If she disliked the husband
selected for her the only way to escape the match was to run off with
another man. But if she did this her lover’s father would only pay
a very small bride price for her, even as little as a single cow, and
not only was she considered to have disgraced herself (not unnaturally
in view of the severe pecuniary loss suffered by a family losing a
daughter for whom the customary cattle had not been received) but
her conduct was regarded as a slur on the whole family.

If a, young man was specially anxious to marry a girl who was
not debarred by any relationship from becoming his wife, and who
returned his affection, he could establish a sole claim to her by suck-
ing her breast before witnesses. After this ceremony she could not
be given in marriage to any other man. The existence of such a
custom is sufficient proof that among the Luo, as among the more
civilised, marriage is often the outcome of a strong personal attraction
between a man and a woman. And the fact that tribal custom
provides for such a contingency within an otherwise largely utilitarian

41

system should be borne in mind by those who are inclined to argue
that because primitive marriage customs are governed chiefly by prac-
tical considerations those who submit to them must necessarily be
lacking in what are known as “ the finer feelings.”

After the choice of a wife had been made and approved on both
sides the next step, until as late as ten years ago, was the ceremonial
capture of the bride. This was known as mako nyako (literally “ the
catching of the maiden ”)». The man and one or two of his friends
armed with clubs and shields would lie in wait for the girl as she went
to work in the fields or draw water from the river, and when she came
they would take her away with them to his village. She was expected
to resist her capture, but not too seriously. As soon as it was known
that she had been carried off she was followed by her sisters and as
many of her friends as cared to go. On the night of her capture, and
in the presence of her friends intercourse would take place between
her and her future husband in the simba hut (the simba hut is the
hut inhabited by the unmarried men of the family). The man
expected to find her a virgin. If he was disappointed she fell into
permanent disgrace. Her parents were furiously angry with her; her
husband held her unchastity against her for the rest of her life, and
she returned to her village on the following day in silence and shame.
But the marriage was not abandoned nor was the bride-price
diminished on this account. If she was found to be virtuous she
returned to her home surrounded by her sisters and friends singing
songs and rejoicing, and the whole party were smeared with sim-sim
oil, ghi and ashes cn their arrival by the bride’s mother. This
triumphal return was called omu wer. Before it could take place,
however, two other ceremonials had first to be carried out at the
bridegroom’s data . The first, called diero , began with the arrival
there, on the day following the capture of the girl, of a party of young
men belonging to her clan. The party was composed of her brothers
and some of their friends, armed with clubs and shields. They were
met outside the dala by the bridegroom and his brothers and some of
his friends and a sham fight usually took place between the two bands^
of young men, though sometimes they did not trouble to stage the
traditional mock battle. After the encounter the visitors chose a bull
and a heifer from the family herd. The cattle chosen need not neces-
sarily belong to the bridegroom’s father; they might be the property
of some other member of the family, and if this was so they were
replaced later by beasts belonging to the former and sent to the bride’s
father. This bull and this heifer were known as the dho dier and were
not delivered until a much later stage in the proceedings.

After the bull and the heifer had been chosen a ceremony of an
obviously sacrificial nature took place. A hen was brought by the
bridegroom’s grandmother (his father’s mother). A string was passed'
through a hole pierced in the lower part of the hen’s beak, and the

42

grandmother then hung the bird, still alive, round the neck of the girl.
Hanging there it was then killed, and immediately afterwards removed
by cutting away the lower part of the beak through which the string
was passed, leaving this portion still hanging round the girl’s neck.
The bird was afterwards roasted and eaten by the men in the dala *
After the fowl had been removed the girl put on a small apron about
six inches square made of strips of leather hanging free from a sup-
porting strip decorated with beads and cowrie shells. Aprons of this
kind were manufactured by a man whose special trade it was. The
beads on it were made of mukongo and the apron itself of cow-hide.
The apron given to the bride was not a new one. It was borrowed
for her from one of the bridegroom’s married sisters, and she took it
away with her and wore it until he sent her a new one of her own.
At the same time she put on a small “ tail ” of cactus fibre. This
tail, like the larger one worn by married women, was known as
chieno, and the plant from which it was made was called tworo. If
there was no fibre ready in the dala from which the chieno could be
made, a fresh supply was gathered after the girl’s arrival, and the
chieno was constructed by a woman married either to one of the bride-
groom’s full brothers, half brothers, or to one of his first cousins, i.e.
to any of the men whom he called “ brother.” The small chieno was
presented to the bride by the bridegroom, who first, however, gave
her a goat. This goat (diend chieno) was in turn presented by the
girl to her best friend who had accompanied her from her home and
who was expected to remain close to her side until she returned to
her mother’s care. The bride wore the small tail until certain cattle,
known as the dho golo onyimbo (the cattle of the casting away of the
onyimbo) were paid to her father. She then took off both the chieno
and the onyimbo, and they were burnt. I did not, at the time,
enquire into the motives and beliefs underlying this ceremony, as
enquiries of this kind made through an interpreter seldom have any
satisfactory results, but the ceremony is obviously a rite de passage
marking a stage in the girl’s progress from the virgin state to that of
a married woman. After the night in the simba hut she was no longer
entitled to the name of nyako— a maiden — but was referred to as
miaha — a bride — a designation that was applied to her until she finally
left her father’s data for that of her husband.

After these ceremonies she was sent back to her home with her
companions and to the accompaniment of the songs and rejoicings I
have already described (omu wer), taking with her a goat given her
by her father-in-law. This goat was called the diend buombwe because
it was decorated for the journey with festoons of the creeper called
buombwe, which was also used in this way on other occasions of
rejoicing. The goat was given by the girl to her father who could

* Women were forbidden to eat fowls (or sheep) for fear that if they did so
they would contract chicken-pox ( luro ).

43

dispose of it as he pleased. On her return a feast was held — the tero
nyako — for her and her companions. Preparations for this feast were
made before her arrival, and the guests invited and the kind of enter-
tainment provided seems to have varied according to the family
circumstances. If the parents were poor only the girl’s sisters and
the friends of her own age who had accompanied her were present;
porridge and milk were set before them, and the guests returned on
the same day to their own homes. But if the family was rich, older
relations and friends of both sexes were invited and were given meat
and beer. The quantity of beer required was often more than could
be stored in the accustomed place, namely the hut belonging to the
girl’s mother, and in this case a temporary shelter was built, known
as the siwandha. It was constructed of reed mats between the
mother’s hut and the hut next to it, and if the number of reed mats
available in the dala was insufficient, more were borrowed from the
neighbours. After the beer had been drunk the siwandha hut was
dismantled and its component parts returned to their owners. The
guests stayed two or even three days, and it was the convention that
before their departure a final meal of meat or of a kind of dried fish
called kabaka (an expensive dish that cost a goat to buy) should be
provided and cooked for them by the mother of the bride.

A sort of parallel to this feast known as lupo then took place in
the bridegroom’s dala, a cow or a goat being sent to him by the bride’s
parents to be killed and eaten by his brothers and sisters.

After the tero nyako and the lupo had taken place a bull known
as the dho goto onyimbo was paid by the bridegroom, and with them
he sent a new onyimbo, specially made for her, to the bride. She
then returned the onyimbo lent to her by the bridegroom’s sister, and
also took off the small chieno and burnt it, being now entitled to wear
the big chieno of the married woman. This was a bunch of aloe fibre
about ten inches long and thick enough to have a diameter of three or
four inches. It was tied tightly at the top like a tassel, and was worn
hanging from the small of the back, being attached to a string which
passed round the waist. This, and a six inch square apron of fibre
string was all that a Luo woman wore, apart from her ornaments until
the advent of the Indian trader with his cotton piece goods at the
beginning of the century.*

* Even now a woman who puts on a cotton dress when she leaves the dala some-
times reverts in the privacy of her home to the traditional nakedness adorned
only by the tassel and the fringe, and often the dress is put on over the tassel.
This curious ornament has clearly a ritual if not a magical significance, of which
I hope to obtains details later. I was informed that if a man touches, acciden-
tally or purposely, the tassel of a married woman, he has to pay a fine of three
goats to her husband. Moreover, when a woman loses her husband she discards
her tassel of aloe fibre and replaces it by one of banana fibre, and this tassel
apparently has maleficent properties. For if any man annoys her, she is likely
to take it off and beat one of his cows with it, whereupon the cow is regarded
as bewitched, and no one will buy it, or accept it in payment of a debt.

44

When the dho goto onyirnho had been paid the bull and the heifer
— the dho diet — chosen by the bride’s brothers after the mock battle
outside the bridegroom’s dala i were sent over by the bridegroom. If,
after the dho dier had been received, the marriage was broken off by
the bridegroom he had to pay compensation to the Bride’s father for
the meat and beer consumed at the feast of the tero nyako , and he
was also bound to pay one bull for the loss of the girl’s virginity. Even
if the girl, or her father refused the marriage at this stage, the
bridegroom was still bound to pay this bull.

With the payment of the dho dier what may be regarded as the
ceremonies of the betrothal were completed, and the marriage process
entered on a new stage.

The stage was marked by various presents of cattle made by the
bridegroom to certain of his future relatives. He gave a number
(sometimes as many as fifteen) known as the dho iheny , to the bride’s
full brothers. If she had no brothers the dho iheny passed into the
possession of her mother who might, if she wished, allow them to be
used in the payment of bride-price for one of her husband’s sons by
another wife. (In this case the young wife was expected to treat her
step-mother-in-law as she would treat her own husband’s mother, and
to help her in the fields and the home.)

In addition to the dho iheny , the bridegroom sent a bull and a
heifer (the dher wuon nyako) to the bride’s father, and another bull
and heifer (the dho jochiemo ) to her uncles on the father’s side.

Finally a cow and a calf (the dher min nyako)) were sent to the
bride’s mother. These, with their offspring, became her absolute
property. She could, if she chose, use them to contribute towards
the payment of bride price for her sons, or equally could refuse to
allow them to be used in this way. After her death they were
inherited by her youngest son.

When all these had been handed over, and it should be noted
that they were, apparently, conventional payments, made without
question or discussion so long as they were within the means of the
parties concerned, like our own engagement rings and wedding
presents, then the discussions began about the number of cattle to
be paid over in return for the transfer of the girl from one family to
another — the true bride price itself. I believe that in some parts the
number to be paid over was settled by discussion between the Treads
of the two families before the girl had been ceremonially captured.
But the elders at Nyahera told me that there the custom was that the
bridegroom conducted the discussion with the bride’s father himself
at this much later point.

He went over himself to the bride’s dala, accompanied by his
brothers and friends to the number of fifteen or sixteen, and taking-

45

with him three or four cows. The party entered the dala very slowiy
feigning indifference and reluctance. The bridegroom made himself
as inconspicuous as possible, and tried to conceal himself in the midst
of his companions. No ceremonies took place on the day of arrival,
but the guests were given food and spent the night in the simha hut.
On the following day the bridegroom was taken to the hut of the
bride's mother and made formally known to her. Meat was killed
and the day was spent feasting and drinking. Finally in the evening
the bridegroom and the bride’s father sat down together and the
bargaining began. The rest of the gathering were entertained by a
professional minstrel who sang topical songs, some composed to meet
the occasion. His fee, incidentally was a goat, which, for some reason
I could not discover, had to be presented to him by the bride. He was
also given presents by the girl’s father and mother.

During the bargaining the bride’s father tried to get as large a
payment as possible out of the bridegroom. If he was too greedy the
negotiations were broken off, and the bridegroom paid compensation for
the expenses incurred in entertaining his party and for the loss of the
bride’s virginity. But if the two came to an agreement that agree-
ment was final, and no further demands on the father’s part or sub-
tractions on the part of the bridegroom were allowed, unless the
former demanded to see the cattle before accepting them. This was
sometimes done, and if the cattle were unsatisfactory he might refuse
to proceed with the marriage. If, on the other hand, he trusted the
bridegroom, the negotiations were considered closed, and he might
even consent to receive a proportion of the bride-price after instead
of before the final marriage feast had taken place, and the girl left
her home for good. In this case the bridegroom had to give an extra
bull, known as the ruadh kirisya, which was sent over for inspection
before the feast took place. If it was accepted the final ceremonies
were then carried through.

In most cases the bride-price itself was paid by instalments over
a period that varied with the ability of the bridegroom’s father to meet
his liabilities. Usually some months elapsed before the whole number
of cattle had been handed over, and it might even be a year or two
before the girl’s father received all that was due to him. During this
period it was customary for the girl to pay her future husband a visit
from time to time. She was always accompanied on these visits by
one or two girl friends, and was expected to stay for several days.
She slept in the simba hut with her betrothed, and intercourse took
place. It sometimes, though rarely, happened that the girl conceived
on one of these occasions. This was bad luck for the girl’s parents,
but fortunate for the bridegroom, for it was absolutely necessary that
the child should be bom in his dala . He could in consequence hurry
on the marriage, which could now take place before the whole of the

46

dowry had been paid; he was thus enabled to spread his payments of
the bride-price over a longer period than would otherwise have been
possible. Also the fact that the girl was with child prevented her
from being carried off by any other man; apparently a not unheard
of occurrence.

The wedding feast itself — the kirisya — took place in the bride-
groom’s data. The bride arrived accompanied by her sisters, or, if
her sisters were too young to go with her, by her brothers’ wives. She
was also attended by one older woman, perhaps a married sister, who
acted as a chaperone. It was the special duty of this older woman
to see that the bride was properly treated, and to make herself polite
to the father and mother of the bridegroom. But with this excepion
older men and women were never included in the bride’s party. Any
man who attached himself to it would have been laughed at for mixing
himself up with an affair that concerned women only. On the other
hand not only did the bridegroom’s sisters attend the feast but, as
well, all his brothers, half brothers, and first cousins (in other words
all the people he called “ brother ”), the wives of his brothers, and
all his male friends.

As a rule the wedding feast lasted only one day, but if the guests
had come long distances, it might last two or even three days. The
feast consisted of porridge and meat. The young people were not given
beer, but the bridegroom’s mother usually brewed a small quantity
for her husband and his brothers.

The meat provided consisted of the flesh of a bull winch was cut
up and apportioned according to certain definite rules. The division
was the duty of the bridegroom’s father, who first of all cut a small
piece from the neck and sent it into the bridegroom’s mother, who
waited in her hut to receive it. He then cut more small pieces from
the neck and scattered them outside and inside her hut. This was
an offering to the ancestral spirits, and was accompanied by the
following prayer : —

Dho waniego dhiang mar dhakonye juogi duto ubi ucham bad.

jachien aketo riu tieloka kwara gi woura gidega umi ringere nyani

okwe natu kiringia marach obed man gima maber dalo duio.

Prayer and offering were together intended to placate tile ancestral
spirits and to persuade them to bless the marriage. After this the
right fore leg was cut off and placed in the centre of the mother’s hut.
This fore-leg had a special name, badjachien and was a gift to all the
ancestral spirits. It was afterwards eaten by the bridegroom’s father
and mother, and part of it was dried and sent to the bride’s mother.

The whole of the breast, with the exception of a small piece
reserved for the bridegroom’s brothers, is sent to the brothers of the

47;

bride. It is a curious fact that only young men (yanyuoye — bachelors)
may eat this part of the animal. The elders told me that in Gem,
Alego, Seme, Ugoma, Asembo, Kadimu and TJgenya the breast is set
aside to be eaten in the early morning by the friends of the bride-
groom. But in Kano, Kisumu, Nyakach, and Kabondo it is used as
I have described.

One fore-leg and one hind-leg were sent to the parents of the bride,
and two small pieces of the liver were also allotted to them. The
rest of the liver was eaten by the older men living in the dala, and the
lungs, heart, and stomach were divided and disposed of in the same
way as the liver. The thick part of the stomach was also the
perquisite of the older men, who also ate the contents of the small
intestine mixed with blood and used as a relish. This concoction was
called kichuri and was highly esteemed. Half of it was sent to the
bride’s father. Here again there was a difference between the customs
of Alego, Gem, Seme, Ugoma, Sakwa, Kadimu, and Ugenya on the
one hand, and those of Kisumu, Kano, Nyakach, and Kabondo on the
other. For in the former districts kichuri was eaten by men and
women, whereas in the latter districts only the men were allowed to
eat it. This difference may well provide an interesting clue to the
past history of these two divisions.

The hump was divided into two parts, one being sent to the
bride’s parents, and the other half being eaten by the parents of the
bridegroom. The ribs and loins were the portion of the women
guests, who were also allotted the kidney and the pancreas which men

are forbidden to eat, for fear of contracting the disease known as

hydrocele. Women with child may not eat these portions in case the
child is a boy.

After the kirisya was over the girl was regarded as having finally
passed into the fully married state. But even so there were still
certain ceremonies which had to be observed before she could take
up her residence in her own hut, specially built for her by her husband
and there assume the normal duties of a married woman.

The building of this hut was never begun until the wedding feast
was over. While it was being constructed the girl slept first in the
simba hut, and later in her mother-in-law’s hut; and before it was
finished the girl returned to her own home for a short visit, taking
with her that part of the dried fore-leg of the bull (bad jachien ) which
had been set aside for her mother at the wedding feast, as well as
other presents of food. It was explained to me that these gifts were
in the nature of a compensation to the mother for her absence from
her daughter’s wedding feast, and they may indicate that in earlier
times it was the custom for the mother to accompany her daughter on
that occasion. While the girl was at home the mother prepared a

48

large quantity of beer, even as much as nine or ten pots full, and
when the girl returned to her husband’s dala, not only this beer, but
also a goat or a sheep, or perhaps a large quantity of fish was sent with
her as a present for her husband’s parents.

On her return a ceremony known as the raijue dipo took place.
It was also known as the wen dipo. Rayue > is the name of a plant,
and it is also the name for a broom or brush. Dipo is the open space
in the middle of the dala. Wen means the stomach contents of an
animal. All these elements enter into the ceremony, which consisted
of the following events. The father-in-law killed a bull and one of the
front legs provided a feast for the family; the hindquarters and the.
other front leg were set aside to dry, but the stomach contents were
strewn over the dipo and left there until the evening. Meanwhile the
father-in-law made a brush of rayue which he gave to the girl, and
with this broom at, dusk, she swept the wen into a heap, afterwards
laying hot ashes over it to bum it up. In the morning the ash heap
was scattered to the wind. When the dried meat was ready the girl
was sent with it to her old home where she presented it to her
parents. She then went back to her husband and was allowed
to carry out two duties hitherto forbidden her. These were the
tending of the fire in her mother-in-law’s hut, and the preparation of
food for her father-in-law. This indicated that she was at last a full
member of her husband’s family and so might render services that
only a member of the family was allowed to perform.

After the rayue dipo she lived in her mother-in-law’s hut until
her own hut was ready. The framework was built by her husband,
and he was expected to thatch the roof himself, but his brothers helped
him to prepare the mud for the walls and in building them up. When
the hut was finished the girl again visited her parents and brought
back with her a ram or a billy goat which was killed to provide a
feast to reward the labours of her husband’s brothers. Even then,
however, the bride might not live independently in her own hut. She
was expected to spend the day with her mother-in-law, doing all the
laborious parts of the house work arid generally holding herself at
the beck and call of the older woman. This arrangement normally
continued only until the birth of a child, but if the two women got
on well together if might endure until a second child was born, when
it invariably came to an end. On the other hand if one of the
husband’s full brothers married the younger woman was immediately
relieved of her duties to her mother-in-law by the new bride. Failing
both this avenue of escape and the birth of a second child she con-
tinued in her mother-in-law’s service until her husband could afford
to take a second wife, when her duties again would devolve upon the
new-comer. It is often a cause for wonder to those who are un-
acquainted with the details of native life and custom, that in poly-

49

gamous tribes the women should be contented with a system that
deprives them and their children of the exclusive care and attention of
the husband and father. But it is easy to see that a young Luo wife
might well be glad to share her claims with another in return for a
lightening of her domestic burdens. A description of the full nature
of these burdens does not lie within the scope of this paper. But I
might say here that they are in all cases extremely heavy. There is
little doubt that the premature ageing that is such a marked character-
istic of the women in all primitive agricultural tribes such as the Luo,
is due to the almost unremitting toil incidental to the early years of
marriage and child-bearing even where the family circumstances are
comparatively prosperous.

(To be continued.)

-y-

50

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF BRIDE-PRICE, WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO THE NANDI.

By G. W. B. Huntingforb.

The social institution known as bride-price is at present a subject
of controversy, for anthropologists are in agreement neither as to its
name nor as to its proper significance; and this scientific meeting* is
a convenient occasion for trying to describe to you something of the
theory and practice of this rather puzzling custom, the more so as
most of the tribes in Kenya indulge in some form of it. First of all,
bride-price may be defined as a payment, usually in live-stock, some-
times in food or objects of daily use, made by a man to the father or
group of the woman he is going to marry. This payment seals the
marriage-contract, acts as a guarantee of the stability of the marriage,
and is a compensation to the father for the loss of his daughter. If
is useless to seek a parallel to this in our own social institutions,
because we have nothing even remotely equivalent to it; but if we
go back to the Homeric poems we find something which is similar in
many respects to the modern African custom. In the Iliad and
Odyssey we are told that girls were given in marriage in return for
what the translators call “ bride-gifts,” which are called Hedna in
Greek; these hedna were not necessarily cattle, but, as is implied
by the verb used to describe their preparation, works of wood or
metal, clothes, and food — just as the Tindiret Dorobo at the present
day give fur caps and honey-wine. Therefore we may believe
Aristotle when he says that the early Greeks bought their wives,
provided we understand “ bought ” to mean “ made payment for ”;
superficially the marriage arrangements may appear to be a matter
of buying and selling, though actually they consist of making a pay-
ment— not quite the same as buying; and the Nandi describe it by a
word which means ** pay,” and is different from the verb meaning
“ buy.”

In Nandi marriage, there are two aspects, the ritual and the
economic; and though marriage can take place without the fulfilment
of the latter condition, it cannot take place until the ritual part has
been performed. The two aspects, though connected, are not in-
separable. Now the verbs used in Nandi to describe the giving and
receiving of bride-price are hardly ever “ buy ” or “ sell,” but
“ pay ” or ” give ”; and nowadays a verb borrowed from the
Swahili toa, used of paying hut-tax, ig very often employed. It is
thus quite evident that there is some notion in the Nandi mind of

* Paper read at Annual Scientific Meeting, 1932.

51

“ payment/' I mention this because some anthropologists seem
inclined to deny that there is any element of payment in the trans-
action. The statement, too, that is common in the mouths of the
Nandi, “ We like to have daughters because they bring us cattle," is
quite definite as to this. And the fact that girls are sometimes
married when very young — that is, before puberty — and wear the
dress of married women, would alone be sufficient evidence that
payment is at least one of the ideas underlying the bride-price. For
this practice of marrying immature girls is only resorted to in extreme
cases, for example, when a girl’s father is very old and poor, and
expects to die long before his daughter is marriageable; by thus
obtaining a husband for her, he acquires cattle which increase his
herd, and give him more stock to bequeath to his sons. The husband
in such marriages is one who already has a wife, and the child- wife
does not cohabit with him till she is old enough. Ordinarily the
whole of the bride-price is not paid before marriage, which often takes
place before any of it has been paid; but the full amount must be paid
eventually, even if the husband dies before he has completed pay-
ment, in which case the obligation falls on his sons or relations.

There is no question of barter in the preliminaries to a marriage,
for the amount of the bride-price is fixed, though it fluctuates from
time to time; and any disputes that may arise concern not the cattle,
but the number of goats and sheep. The amounts recorded are as
follows :

Before 1909 : 1 bull, 4 cows, 5 goats.

About 1909 : 1 bull, 1 cow, 10 goats.

At present : 1 bull and 1 cow (or 2 cows), 5 goats.

A statement from Sir Claude Hollis’s book is worth noting; he says,
“ If the parents cannot come to terms, it is a common custom, except
among the Tungo clan, for a man to elope with his bride, in which
case the price is arranged at a later date." This is what happens in
such cases, and is still further evidence for the economic side of
marriage. The Tungo clan is excepted from this rule, because the
bride-price among them is higher than among other clans.

The payment of bride-price neither implies nor means that a man
buys a wife : she is no more his property than a European woman is
her husband’s property. After marriage a woman enters into a definite
social status of a “ married woman," and she acquires with this status
the duties and privileges of her position, which is that of a free person.
If she was bought, and became her husband’s actual property, he
would be able to beat her at his pleasure without fear of any conse-
quences, and she would not be allowed to leave him. As it is, if a
man ill-treats his wife, she may take refuge either with her parents
or with one of her husband’s age-mates; and whoever takes her in

52

will endeavour to make peace between husband and wife. Further,
an habitual wife-beater acquires a bad reputation, and may be cursed
by his age-mates. A wife may do as she pleases; if she chooses to
be lazy and will not work in the fields, her husband may possibly
beat her, but he cannot force her to work, and he must either do it
himself, or pay somebody else to do it for him. If a wife wishes to
visit her parents or friends, to spend her husband’s money — if she can
get any — or to take part in social activities like dancing or beer-
drinking, her husband has no authority under customary law to stop
her, whatever he may actually do if she goes against his own wishes.
Nor can he get rid of her if she displeases him, provided she has had
a child; for the one condition essential to the possibility of divorce is
that the woman must be barren, whatever reasons the man may have
for seeking a divorce.

A man may divorce his wife — always provided that she is barren
— if she is what is called “ a bad woman.” The implications of this
adjective are : first, continual disobedience, laziness and neglect of
her work; second, continued breaking of sex-laws, that is, being caught
with other men; third, refusal to cohabit (rare); and lastly, neglect
of her children. For such causes a man may divorce his wife; and
after the divorce he is entitled to demand the return of the bride-
price, or whatever part of it he has paid — provided he can find another
husband for the woman; if he cannot, he has no claim on the bride-
price. To the best of my knowledge, divorce is rare, not so much,
perhaps, on account of the difficulty of finding a new husband, but
because of the return of the bride-price. In cases where a husband
contemplates divorce, the wife’s parents will do all they can to mend
domestic breaches to avoid the return of the bride-price; and they
usually succeed. If they fail, it is much more usual for the parties
to separate, than for actual divorce to take place, when the wife often
becomes a professional prostitute. And in some instances the
husband is afraid to divorce his wife in case she may refuse to leave
him, a situation for which customary law does not provide.

Returning to the economic aspect of marriage, there are three
ways in which a Nandi can acquire cattle of his own. These are : (1)
By his share of cattle taken on a raid, or nowadays by the less osten-
tatious means of theft; (2) by buying cattle, or receiving cattle as
payment of wages; (3) by receiving the cattle paid as bride-price for
a daughter. The Nandi bride-price must therefore be regarded as
being in the nature of a payment, for it is an economic transaction
in which cattle are passed from one man to another, and become the
actual property of the receiver, being returnable only under the
circumstances I have already described. We may note, too, that only
a man’s own acquired cattle may be paid out, since inherited cattle
are not private property, but held in trust, as it were, for the whole

53

tribe living and dead. Girls are definitely regarded as sources of
wealth, just as in Homer they are called “ maidens who bring in
cattle. ”

The Nandi conception of bride-price is in our eyes something of
a paradox, since a man pays for something which does not become
his property. Perhaps it may help us to understand it if we consider it
as somewhat analogous to a tax; for example, a man pays a road tax,
which gives him the right to use the roads, and to expect, in return
for the money he pays, that they will be kept in good order; but the
payment of the tax does not mean that the roads become his own
property, to do what he likes with. He may not dig holes in them
any more than a Nandi may ill-treat his wife, unless he is looking for
trouble. Granted that the bride-price is both a guarantee and a
compensation, it is payable to the bride’s father in return for some-
thing received. Nor can I find that the Nandi conception of marriage
and bride-price has altered as the result of modern economic condi-
tions; in this, as in other tribal affairs that really matter, the Nandi
have so far been singularly unsusceptible to outside influence.
Indeed, not counting the fluctuations in the amount of cattle payable,
the only change that is apparent in the Nandi group is one for the
better; for, if we are to believe Mr.. Beech, among the Pastoral Suk —
when he wrote in 1911 — “ women have no liberty, they must do as
they are told,” and among the Agricultural Suk, “ woman is a
property, and must do as she is told, and all the work,” implying
definitely that a wife became her husband’s property, being bought
by the bride-price, which among the Pastoral Suk was exceptionally
high — 10 cows and 20 sheep. If Beech is correct, the Suk furnish
the only exception known to me of the anthropological axiom that
“ a woman for whom bride-price is paid does not become her
husband’s property ”; and the Nandi group (with whom we may
include in respect to this at least the Elgon Nandi, Elgeyo, and
Dorobo) have made a distinct upward step in bettering the condition
of women. Whether Beech’s statements are accepted or not, I think
that the facts concerning the Nandi show sufficiently that while a wife
is not bought, and does not become a “ property,” the underlying
motives of the bride-price are first, payment, and second a guarantee
of the stability of the marriage.

Concerning the term bride-price which I have used, there has
been of late considerable discussion as to whether it is not an
objectionable word, giving a false idea of what is really meant. It is
maintained that the word implies the buying of women, and that
people are liable to form quite incorrect ideas from its use. Various
substitutes have been proposed, among which may be noted “earnest”
(in respect of its function of sealing the contract); “ indemnity ” (in
view of its being a compensation)/; “marriage-settlement”; “espousal-

54

fee ”; “ bride-wealth ” ; “ equilibrium guarantee and “ bride-

compensation.” It is needless to say that all these suggestions have
met with adverse criticism, and have found opponents who condemned
them. And in truth, none of them are entirely satisfactory, while
some are definitely misleading; for none sufficiently emphasize the
notion of payment which is such an essential part of the transaction,
and which is clearly brought out in the term “ bride-price.” This
term, if we must have an English word for it, is really the most-
satisfactory, were it not for the possibility that it may mislead people
into thinking that savages sell their women. I myself suggested the
Greek word Hedna, which has the double merit of fulfilling our
requirements, and of being a technical term with a definite fixed
meaning which weT cannot alter to suit our own pet theories. It has
also been suggested that native terms should be used; of course,
when describing native customs, the vernacular term should be
recorded; but a native word is unsuited for a general term, as it may
imply something either more or less than a similar term in another
language, apart from the fact that all tribes do not possess distinctive
names for bride-price — the Nandi for instance call it simply “ cattle,”
sometimes “ daughter cattle.” A non-native technical term which
may be understood to cover all shades of meaning is really better.

To sum up, the actual facts relating to bride-price among the
Nandi are: bride-price is a payment, but the wife is not sold, and
does not become her husband/s property; the bride-cattle become the
property of the woman’s father, and hence girls are regarded as real
sources of wealth.

KIKUYU LAND TENURE AND INHERITANCE.

By A. R. Barlow,

Church of Scotland Mission, Kenya Colony.
Introductory.

When Europeans first arrived in the Kikuyu country they found
the land covered by what appeared to be a system of individual owner-
ship, while round its borders the inhabitants were still eating steadily
into the virgin forests and bringing them under the same system. In
1897 the Rev. Thos. Watson wrote from Fort Smith: “ Unlike
Ukambani, all the land here is owned by some one or more of the
natives.” In 1902 W. Scoresby Routledge, who produced in 1910
his book on the Kikuyu, settled down to his investigations at the
newly-established post of Nyeri. He says: ” As locusts clear a

sturdy crop, so have the Akikuyu cleared the forest, ... As far
as the eye can reach, in all directions, spreads one huge garden,
every square inch of which is private property with carefully marked
boundaries, that have been bequeathed from father to son for
generations.” He estimated that along the Western border, under
the Aberdares, forest to a depth of 10 to 15 miles had been brought
under cultivation within the memory of people living at the time he
wrote. It was recognised by Mr. Routledge that ownership was not
limited to land under crops. “ Fallow land,” he notes, “ is all in
private ownership, and cannot be again brought into cultivation by
any one except the owner, without his leave.”

Up to about the year 1900 the Kikuyu’s rights in their land, both
cultivated and fallow, seem to have been fully conceded. The policy
subsequently followed for some years unfortunately disregarded
certain aspects of Kikuyu land tenure, and the mistakes that ensued
became the prime cause of the dissatisfaction and suspicion that
afterwards developed in the tribe.

Perhaps the first thorough enquiry into the Kikuyu system of
tenure was that conducted by Mervyn H. Beech, a District Officer,
who published a most valuable article thereon in 1917 in the Journal
of the African Society. Mr. Beech states that he examined several
thousands of witnesses in the Kikuyu (Dagoretti) District. He supple-
mented his personal researches by information received from District

Commissioners all over Kikuvuland as far as Chuka and Mwimbi.

«/

In 1920 Mr. John Ainsworth, Chief Native Commissioner, held
a representative meeting of elders and others for the purpose of enquir-

56

ing into Kikuyu land claims and customs in Kiambu District. The
record of this, with his conclusions, was embodied by him in a
Memorandum.

The most comprehensive survey of the subject, however, is that
contained in the Report of the Committee on Native Land Tenure in
the Kikuyu Province drawn up in 1929. (In passing, might one be
permitted to voice a regret that this important document was not
made generally available to natives and others in view of the
coming of the Land Commission.)

In drafting this paper I have purposely refrained from drawing
upon published information in order that what I say may perhaps
have some independent value.

Historical.

All who are familiar with the Kikuyu Reserve know that viewed
from any eminence it presents the appearance of an enormous and
very much rumpled patchwork counterpane. The surface of the land
is covered with patches of cultivation of all shapes and sizes, in some
parts packed closely together, filling a whole ridge from river to
river; in other places scattered through tracts of low bush or grass-
land, with here and there a sacred grove of forest trees or a great
solitary mugumo tree. During recent years the aspect of the country
has been greatly changed by the numerous plantations of black wattle
grown for fuel and timber. What we have to realise is that all this
land is divided up into clan and family holdings or estates. Even the
apparently unutilised hillsides of bracken or stretches of thicket have
their recognised owners. The swamps, even, have their claimants,
while much of the virgin forest now included in Government Forest
Reserves is stated by the Kikuyu to have been definitely in their
possession. The boundaries between their ithaka or holdings, they
say, can still be traced through the forest and shown by those who
know. Githaka (pi. ithaka) is a Kikuyu word meaning bush or wood-
land, and in relation to land tenure has come to mean also any tract
of land in ownership, or, as we might say, an estate. Ng’undu is
another word used of land in clan ownership in Northern Kikuyu

How did the land become divided up so completely into these
ithaka or estates, large and small, some a few acres only, others
perhaps 500 acres or more in extent? And how did the people who
are the acknowledged owners come by their rights?

It is perhaps more a matter of scientific interest than of practical
importance to discover how the Kikuyu acquired their rights in the
land. The fact remains that we found them in possession, and “posses-
sion being nine-tenths of the law ’ ’ it is more profitable to concentrate
rather on an examination of the principles and customs by which land

57

tenure is governed than upon theories as to their origin. On the other
hand, the people themselves in some areas offer definite explanations
to account for the existing system, and these may help us to under-
stand, for instance, how the Kikuyu still claim as theirs large blocks
of untouched forest or areas of grazing-land now alienated.

It is generally accepted that the Kikuyu migrated to their present
habitat from somewhere down the Tana valley to the east of Mt.
Kenya. This migration, one assumes, took the form of a gradual,
possibly a rapid, drift rather than a mass movement. The nine clans
were probably in existence before the migration reached what is now
Kikuyuland. The clans did not move in a body, but in small units,
the pioneers being individual hunters of game and honey-collectors.
It is believed that Kikuyuland was then covered with forest from
Kenya to Ngong. The central portions of the country, in what is now
the Fort Hall District, may have been the first to have been
permanently settled, and from thence the movement continued south
and north.

Had the forest other occupants before the arrival of the Kikuyu?
Here we come up against a difficulty. It lies in the blessed word
“ Wandorobo,” that SwahHi-ized Masai term which one suspects has
been made to cover a multitude of sins. Its Kikuyu counterpart is
Aathi (sing. Mwathi). In southern Kikuyu (Kiambu) it is stated that
people called Aathi lived in the forest, and that the Kikuyu pioneers
bought ” the forest from them. They appear to have been bush-
men living under the most primitive conditions. They did not culti-
vate the soil, but existed mainly on the flesh of the game they trapped
or shot with poisoned arrows. They also placed honey-barrels in the
trees. The forest was divided between them by recognised
boundaries, each family group having its own trapping-grounds. The
survivors or their descendants who have been absorbed among the
Kikuyu say they had a language of their own, but most of them have
forgotten it. The Kikuyu advance caused numbers of them to go and
take up their abode with the Ma,sai, but others made blood-brother-
hood with leaders of the Kikuyu and having thus been “ adopted ”
by them, became cultivators, though still addicted to hunting. The
late Hon. K. Dundas, writing in 1908, says these people called them-
selves Okkiek and spoke a Nilotic language, and that for a period the
Okkiek and the Kikuyu occupied what is now the Kikuyu country
together. He also states that “ later arrivals ” among the Kikuyu
purchased from individual Okkiek the right to certain pieces of land
or forest.”

At the other end of the country, in Nyeri District, a different
story is told. Although it is generally stated by the natives that those
who held the original rights over the ng'undu, or clan holdings, were
** Aathi,” these Aathi were themselves Kikuyu ; they were Kikuyu

58

trappers and hunters of game — the advance-guard, as it were, of the
tribe — who acquired their rights over the forest by the simple process
of apportioning it out among themselves as trapping-grounds. The
first man to establish traps in a given area was acknowledged to have
sole rights to it for that purpose. This statement that the first people
to establish githaka rights in the Nyeri District were Kikuyu Aathi,”
not “ Wandorobo ” of some different race, was made to me by elders
20 years ago and has been repeated on subsequent occasions. Differ-
ing answers may be received in different localities, however, to the
question “ How did your githaka rights originate?” From some the
answer will be, “ We do not know others may reply that the
Kikuyu found the forest untenanted and simply took possession. It
must be mentioned, too, that in Nyeri District, as elsewhere, there
linger traditions of a pygmy people called Gumba or Agumba. In
southern Kikuyu they are said to have disappeared into the ground,
while in Mathira and in Ndia there is a legend that they were scared
away northwards by the loud cawing of hornbills sent by a Kikuyu
magician. In the Ndia country, according to information sent me by
a missionary there, people say that the githaka rights were “ bought ”
from these Agumba dwarfs.

This whole question is surrounded in mystery, and we have only
the uncertain ground of conjecture to tread on. Mr. Dundas was of
the opinion that the Okkiek and the Gumba were sections of the same
people who were the dominant tribe in these parts before, and for a
time after, the coming of the Kikuyu.

Whatever may be the truth regarding the “ Aathi,” the Kikuyu
of Kiambu District, at the latest limit of the Kikuyu migration, affirm
that their lands were acquired from them by a form of purchase, and
some of the descendants of those who were absorbed among the
Kikuyu claim to have direct knowledge of the transactions by which
the forests changed hands. The “ consideration ” given by the
Kikuyu for this transfer of githaka rights took the form of large
number of goats and cattle, which the meat-loving Aathi proceeded to
convert into mutton forthwith. Girls also were given as wives to Aathi
husbands when the latter had been “ adopted ” by the Kikuyu, and
the value of these brides was counted as part of the payment. There
were other ways in which tracts of land passed info Kikuyu possession.
Dr. John E. Henderson, late of the Gospel Mission, was informed of
a case in which a large extent of githaka was handed over to a Kikuyu
family as compensation for the death of one of its members who fell
into a “ Ndorobo ” game-pit and was killed.

At the same time it is necessary to note that in northern Kikuyu
over whole districts there is no record of any sort of purchase from
people of another tribe. The first Kikuyu to lay claim to the forests

59

were themselves hunters who afterwards settled down to clear and
cultivate their own trapping-grounds.

Description of “ Githaka ” System.

To-day the whole Kikuyu country is covered by an absolutely
continuous network of ithaka holdings. Each of them is in the posses-
sion of a family group, a moiety of one of the nine great clans. Such
a unit is called a mb an, or “ side ” (in the same way as we speak of a
“ branch ” of a family). The clans are known as mihiriga. Thus a
family group may be known as Mbari ya Njuguna, the “ Side of
Njuguna. If belonging to the Achera clan, they will be described as
Achera a Mbari ya Njuguna, that is, Achera of the Njuguna family.
This patriarch may have been the grandfather or great-grandfather of
the present proprietors of the githaka. He himself, of course, was a
member of a more ancient mbari}. Frequently such a sub-clan owns
more than one piece of land in different parts of the country. The
githaka is in the absolute ownership of the mbari , and over much the
greater part of the Kikuyu country is inalienable. If for any reason,
such as the necessity of paying blood-money to another sub-clan, a
portion of the family holding were to be transferred to another group,
the land would be regarded only as security for the discharge of the
debt, and it would ultimately be redeemed.

The sense of family ownership is so strong and the instinct to
preserve the integrity of the family githaka is so deep-seated that the
enquirer into the system of tenure may at times find difficulty in
disentangling family rights and individual rights. Under normal
circumstances family control over the land remains inconspicuous,
and individual rights play the more important part in the every-day
life of the githaka. Every sub-division of the mbari, and every
individual down to the youngest son of the youngest wife of the most
junior member of the family, have their indisputable rights in their
respective portions of the land. And yet every transaction concern-
ing any modicum of the land is preceded by consultation between the
members of the mbari whose common interests are affected.

Individual rights are established in the first instance by virtue of
cultivation. It would seem that the basic principle, from the very
beginnings of the githaka system of tenure — apart from actual
purchase — has been that the first person to bring an area of land under
cultivation acquires a permanent and heritable claim upon it, whether
he cultivates it continuously or not.

An owner of githaka land assigns portions of his holding to each
of his wives, if he has more than one. The sons of each wife have
equal rights in all land cultivated by their mother, although the eldest
son in each household, in respect of his seniority and his respon-

60

sibilities towards his brothers, is accorded the more privileged position.
He becomes in time the head of his section of the githaka , and
possibly the head of the mbari.

If there is land on the githaka which has never been brought
under cultivation, or has remained uncultivated for a long period of
time, such as land reserved for grazing or as woodland or as a place
for the disposal of corpses, this become^ the joint property of the
owner’s sons on his death. None of it may be sold while it remains
uncultivated except by agreement between them. Should one of
the brothers decide to break up part of it he acquires an individual
right to the portion he cultivates and afterwards he may sell his culti-
vation rights in the same. If the other brothers see that there is
danger of his appropriating an undue share of the new land, they may
protect their own interests by following his example and cultivating
portions themselves. (It is of interest to note that they can preserve
their shares by the expedient of giving out plots on loan to their
friends to be cultivated by proxy, as it were, until such time as they
wish to take it over.) But land that has long lain uncultivated may
still be subject to dormant claims resulting from cultivation in times
past, and even when free from these there may be pre-emptive claims
upon it from members of the mbari who have gardens adjacent to it.
The typical Kikuyu garden plot takes the form of a strip, called a
ruthanju , or rod, and the owner has a pre-emptive right to extend his
cutivation into any unclaimed land there may be at either end of his
strip.

The outer boundaries of all the major githaka holdings are marked
by natural features, such as a river or ravine, or by planted trees or
African lilies, which once planted are said to propagate themselves
for ever. Heaps of stones are also used, and in some instances large
stones are sunk into the ground, and under them may be buried human
hair, said to be indestructible, as proof if need be of their having been
placed as boundary marks. No such permanent boundaries are fixed
between the holdings of the members of the same mbari , nor between
the holdings of mbari that are closely related; the boundaries are there,
but not marked in any special way. The boundaries separating the
territory of one sub-clan from that of another are treated with a certain
measure of awe. They may not be shown (e.g. in case of dispute)
without the sacrifice of a sheep. On certain occasions, notably during
the ceremonies by which one generation hands on the custody of the
land and tribal institutions to its successor, a kind of “ riding of the
marches ” takes place, when tatha, the undigested contents of a
sheep’s stomach, is sprinkled here and there along the githaka
boundaries by the elders of the district. (Natives have recently said
that this ceremony continues to be carried out surreptitiouslv on land
now in the occupation of European settlers !) A similar rite is
performed when — as occasionally happens, it is said, in some parts of

61

the country — a new boundary has to be fixed owing to the permanent
sub-division of a githaka or the sale of a portion.

Differences in Kiambu District.

Mention of this last possibility brings us to the chief difficulty
confronting the student of Kikuyu land tenure, and that is the
apparent differences which exist between the system as it is found
in the Kiambu District and that obtaining elsewhere. Kikuyu will
tell you that their land tenure customs are the same everywhere, and
yet in the Kiambu District, or parts of it, they declare that githaka
land can be, and is, sold outright, either by the family or by any
member having a personal right to a portion thereof, and that without
any reservation as to possible future redemption such as exists in every
other part of Kikuyuland. The idea of absolute individual ownership
is present to such an extent that requests have been made to Govern-
ment from time to time for the issue of individual title-deeds.

Even so, one has been assured repeatedly that for a man to sell
his patrimony without the knowledge and consent of the family was
looked upon as most reprehensible and disloyal; also that anyone
selling his portion of the githaka, with or without the consent of the
rest of the family, thereby forfeited or diminished his joint-interest in
the remainder of the holding. Again, even in southern Kikuyu, one
is told, when the purchaser of a piece of a githaka desires to resell he
must give the original owner or owners the first refusal. Only in the
event of their being unable or unwilling to buy it back may he proceed
to sell it to a third party.

There is no time to discuss other points of divergence between
Kiambu District and the rest of Kikuyuland. It seems probable that
the things that puzzle one may be due to the fact that this part of
the country was among the last to be occupied by the Kikuyu, and up
to the time of European intervention the ithaka acquired from the
“ Aathi ” were so extensive that restrictions such as prevailed in the
older and more thickly populated districts had not yet evolved.
Responsible men have affirmed, for instance, that on the ithaka of
this area no Kikuyu of any clan would be refused permission by the
ene, or owners, to cultivate so long as there was room for them; and
that once established, these ahoi, or permittees, and their descen-
dants might not be evicted, unless for criminal practices. If they
ceased to cultivate long enough for their gardens to revert to bush,
their right to occupy lapsed.

Inheritance.

Let us look a little further into this matter of inheritance . This
is a very wide and very involved subject, complicated as it is by the

62

custom of polygamy and other features of African social organisation.
It is impossible to do more than give it a cursory glance.

I have been told that in some cases a father who has extensive
githaka rights will divide out his land between his sons before
his death. But the way in which the family heritage generally
becomes divided up is through its division by the owner between his
wives. Every man on buying a wife has to provide her with land to
cultivate and thus provide him and herself, and later their children,
with food. The children of each wife assist her in the cultivation of
her gardens. When the sons grow up and marry, their wives take
over portions of their mother-in-law’s fields, and on their father’s
death the sons enter into full possession of their respective portions.
This process involves no particular hardship on the mother, because
as her sons marry, one after the other, the burden of supplying them
with food devolves upon their wives, and so her requirements in the
way of land progressively decrease. If a son finds his portion of his
mother’s plot insufficient for his needs after marriage, he will obtain
extra land elsewhere by purchase under condition of future redemp-
tion or by gift (which is in reality a loan) from a relative or friend.
If the father is still alive and has unallocated land available, the sons
may be allowed to make additional gardens there; or, if a son is hard
put to it to find the land he needs, the course may be followed of
buying back, under the redemption system, some of the family land
that has been sold to other people.

As every son born to a man has equal rights of inheritance with
his brothers, the question arises, “ How is it that in the course of
two or three generations a githaka does not become divided and re-
divided into such minute fragments that the system breaks down?”
I have asked that question of natives, and the answer given is that
the death-rate acts as regulator, and the fact that all men do not
have male offspring. If a man dies without a male heir, his landed
interests pass to his senior full-brother, or if he has none, then to his
senior half-brother, or to the surviving heir of either of these. Thus
the process of sub-division is held in check by a parallel process of
reaccumulation. When a githaka does become overcrowded, some
members of the family have of necessity to seek land elsewhere. In
the old days, before the Native Beserve boundaries were fixed, they
could move out to new forest areas. One alternative nowadays is to
go on to European farms as squatters.

Daughters do not inherit. A girl’s mother may give her a small
bit of her field to cultivate, but she retains it only by the grace of her
mother. She may be allowed to continue to cultivate there after
marriage, but she has no sustainable right to the plot.

It is the custom for a father to give a favoured daughter a goat
with which to buy wire for her personal adornment. When wire

63

used to be hand made by native smiths it was expensive. Now it can
be bought cheap at the shops. So it happens that the father may
give the girl a piece of land to cultivate in lieu of the goat. This
present may be made at the time of the girl’s marriage or before.
She may continue to cultivate the garden after her marriage, but at
any time, whether before marriage or after, the father or whoever
succeeds him as the owner of the land can require her to relinquish
it by compensating her with a goat.

The general rule is that a woman cannot inherit land, as such,
though she may be the medium of inheritance. On the other hand,
under certain circumstances a woman can sell her cultivation rights.
For example, a widow with no son, or with only a young son, may
sell her garden, but only to a member of the family of her late
husband, that is to say, to a member of the mbari which owns the
githaka . Her son, if she has one, can redeem the garden later on.

A word needs to be said about this interesting custom of land
redemption. It is founded on the general principle that Githaka ni
ngwatira — land is a loan — to everyone, that is, except male members
of the owning family. They have a perpetual right in the land, not
merely leave to use it. (This is why the Kikuyu find it difficult to
accept the Crown as the ultimate owner of the soil. It appears to
them that this infers that the land is lent to them by the Crown,
even though it be “ for ever,” to quote the Native Lands Trust
Ordinance; whereas, in the case, say, of land given up for a Govern-
ment station, a road reserve or a trading site, they regard this as a
loan on their part to the Crown !)

Land is redeemed by the return of the goats paid for it — or their
equivalent. If, however, the person to whom it was sold has let it
lie uncultivated, all the progeny of the goats has to be added to the
number returned. It is argued that the buyer has reaped no
advantage from his tenure of the land, and therefore the vendor like-
wise should make no profit on the transaction. When a person is
evicted by redemption, or otherwise, he is allowed time to reap his
produce and to remove any perennial crops, such as bananas, sugar-
cane or yams. If the original owner is in urgent need of the land, he
may arrange to buy such permanent crops. Thus the amount pay-
able in a redemption transaction may be augmented by the value of
such crops as these. I believe it is the case that a man sometimes
finds himself unable to buy back his land because he cannot afford to
pay for such “ improvements.” The occupier is bound, however, to
remove perennial crops and planted trees in the course of time and
thus finally vacate the ground.

Types of Occupiers on a “ Githaka.”

What classes of people may be found in occupation of a githaka ?

64

First there are the members of the owning mbari and their
families. They will in all likelihood have rights in more than one
such githaka, according to the size of the mbari and the extent of its
hereditary lands. They will certainly have cultivating rights also on
other ithaka, including ithaka belonging to members of other clans.
These will have been obtained through marriage relationships, by
purchase, or by free permission.

Next to these ene , or owners of the githaka , come their relations-
in-law, or athoni , as they are called. It is the custom for a githaka
owner to give land for cultivation to his near relations by marriage,
if he has unoccupied land available. In the same way he can obtain
gardens from them if he himself is short of land. Athoni have no
right to such land; they cannot demand it. It is a matter of friend-
ship, and they are in the same position as other friends to whom the
githaka owner gives gardens. If a man had land available but was
unwilling to give his athoni gardens, they would regard it as a sign
that he was ill-disposed towards them. A muthonif or relative-by-
marriage, has no right to sell or transfer a garden given to him in this
way, and he could be asked to relinquish it should the owner
require it.

Besides the gardens of the githaka owners and their athoni, a
githaka may contain plots which have been sold to people in no way
related to the owning family, and who may be members of other
clans. It will be understood, of course, that it is only the cultivation
rights that have been sold, and such plots can at any time be bought
back, even though they may have changed hands again in the mean-
time. A buyer of a plot may resell to another person with the know-
ledge and approval of the real owner; or he may give free permission
to someone else to cultivate it.

A githaka owner can also, of course, give free permission to
cultivate to whom he pleases, although he will consult his full-brothers
before doing so. Fie is still more careful to do this before selling any
land, seeing that the question of redemption will arise in the future.

People to whom land has been sold are called aguri, purchasers,
or andu a mburi , those who have paid goats. Those who have been
given gardens free are called ahoi, i.e. those who have begged permis-
sion. Athoni are really privileged ahoi. Ordinary ahoi may not
plant permanent crops and must vacate when asked.

The sons of athoni, aguri , and ahoi inherit the plots acquired on
the githaka by their parents and may retain them so long as the ene,
or owners, are agreeable. If at any time a muhoi ceases to cultivate
his garden and it reverts to bush his permission to occupy it lapses,
and he must approach the owner afresh should he wish to recultivate.
Ahoi occasionally give presents of beer or produce to the githaka
owner in acknowledgment of his kindness in allowing them the use
of the land.

65

The position regarding ahoi appears to be different in the Kiambu
District, as already stated, and there are no aguri, or purchasers,
except those to whom land has been sold outright.

Building Rights.

All that has been said so far has been in reference to the owner-
ship of land and the right to use it for cultivation. Nothing has been
said yet regarding occupation for the purpose of residence. A good
deal could be written on this aspect of our subject, but it behoves
us to be brief. In some parts of Kikuyuland, such as Ndia and
Kiambu, it would appear that one may build one’s house, or, if you
prefer it, erect one’s hut, anywhere on anyone’s githaka; even in the
middle of somebody’s garden. This is the theory. In practice a
person is not likely to establish himself where he is unwelcome, and
consultation takes place before the decision is made. Elsewhere in
the Kikuyu country a man is at liberty to build anywhere within the
family githaka. A “ raw ” Kikuyu generally consults the oracles in
regard to the site for a new village. If the spot selected, with the
aid of a medicine-man, is in someone’s garden, the owner will not
object. Standing crops may be cut down, if necessary, to make room
for the new homestead. If, for any reason, a man wants to build
on a githaka belonging to another mbari, he can obtain a site either
by permission from a member of the mbari or by the purchase of a
plot. In the latter case, however, he can be evicted in the event of
.the plot being redeemed. If he obtains the site by free permission
he will not be ejected unless he becomes a danger to the community;
in that case it is the representatives of the community in general who
take action.

Settling on another person’s land does not confer the right 10
cultivate, and if the huts are again removed the site reverts to the
githaka owner or other occupier of the plot.

Conclusion.

The foregoing are some of the conditions governing Kikuyu land
tenure. Native law and custom is not a rigid, unadaptable thing,
and while certain guiding principles are closely observed, factors such
as density of population and difference of soil and climate are no
doubt responsible for local variations in the customs regarding land.
Local problems, too, are generally settled on a basis of mutual
accommodation and conciliation. The system has worked extra-
ordinarily well so far. The changes brought about by advancing
civilisation are forcing modifications, but there is reason to hope that
these will be effected without undue disturbance by the adaptable
genius of the people themselves.

66

THE BANTU OF KAVIRONDO.

By W. E. Owen.

The Bantu tribes of North, Central, and South Kavirondo number
roughly about half a million, divided into many units. Under the
present organization they are administered for purposes of local
government under two Native Councils, those of North Kavirondo and
of Kisii, in South Kavirondo. One large Bantu Location, that of
Sarnia, comes under Central Kavirondo, but with this large exception,
and a few minor ones, the Bantu tribes are being given the oppor-
tunity to develop as racial entities.

The land which they occupy comprises some of the very best in
Kavirondo, from the point of view of rainfall, altitude and soil con-
stituents, though there are lands where the small rainfall and poor
soil militate against a large population. Bunyole, for instance, has
a population of 1,200 to the square mile, Maragole 900. Over
against these densely populated areas must be set the large tribal
lands of North and South Kitosh, Kabras and Kakalelwa, carrying
less than 100 to the square mile. Broadly speaking, the richest soil
carries the largest population, and the poorest soil the smallest.

In days gone by the distribution of the Bantu was much wider
than it is now. The old men of the tribes possess a strong historical
sense, and are mines of historical lore and tradition (fast passing
away, sad to say). The main lines of the traditions they hand down
are as trustworthy as tradition is generally accepted to be the world
over. According to these old men it would appear that generations
ago, they occupied lands away to the west of their present holdings,
land now in the possession of the Kavirondo Nilotes. They linked up
with the Bantu in Busoga in the Uganda Protectorate.

A typical instance is that of the Banyole tribe. Their traditional
founder, by name Omwa, lived 45 miles to the west of their present
location. His migration eastwards can be traced, and a comparison
of the genealogies of the Banyole and of the Nilotes now in possession
of the land westwards, bears out the statements of both Bantu and
Luo, that the Bantu retreated before the rising tide of Nilote
conquest. The struggle which goes on in the mind of the Bantu
narrator is amusing at times, for he is obviously unwilling to admit
any superiority of prowess on the part of the Nilotes, and yet resent-
ful that lands formerly in the possession of his tribe have been
wrested from them, and are now in the possession of their old-time
enemies. So though they have lost much land it is never because

they were not as good and as brave men as their conquerors. They
generally attribute their defeat to “ frightfulness ” and “ rutnless-
ness ” on the part of their enemies which they themselves were too
humane to resort to.

If any further proof of this former possession were needed it is
to be found in many of the place names now far outside the Bantu
territories. They are survivals into the Nilote occupation of the
tongue of the former Bantu owners.

This retreat of the Bantu before the Luo was not a retreat, lock,
stock and barrel. While the majority retired before the invaders,
others remained behind, or returned to tlieir old homesteads on
sufferance, when the first shock of conflict had passed. The descen-
dants of these remnants of the former Bantu tribes can be traced m
what are now purely Luo locations. They have become completely
Luoised, and, in fact, call themselves Luo, but they inter-marry with
the descendants of the pure Luo, and are thus distinguished from the
members of their neighbouring clans, who do not inter-marry. When
confronted with a genealogical tree they shamefacedly admit their
Bantu ancestry, in which they take no pride whatsoever.

Here it may not be out of place to emphasise the importance of
collecting genealogies at times when there is nothing to excite the
suspicion that if a true genealogy is given it will not serve the interests
of those who supply it. Over and over again I have been able to
confound disputants of contending clans by referring to genealogies
given me years ago when no dispute had loomed over the horizon.
For instance, in a certain claim to land, it was put forward that the
claimant’s ancestors for four generations had all been buried on the
land claimed. Had this been unchallengable it would have given
very strong support to the claim. As the dead are not given head-
stones with the names of the dead inscribed, it is an extremely diffi-
cult claim to disprove. As if happened, I had in my book the
genealogy of the claimant clan, given me years before, when there
was no motive to pervert history. This gave a very different story,
and showed a migratory movement, every ancestor in the four genera-
tions concerned having been buried in a different place, miles from
the land claimed. In this transition stage every bit of information
may have an interest far beyond that which it had when it was
collected.

With the coming of the British Government the pressure by the
Nilotes on the Bantu borders has ceased, in so far as actual warfare
is concerned, but only to give place to pressure through the Adminis-
tration, the Nilotes claiming that the present Bantu boundaries where
the two races meet, include lands restored to the Bantu by the
British, but which had been conquered by the Nilotes about the time

68

of the coming of Hobley, the first to bring Kavirondo under
administration.

In these racial wars the Bantu lost, not only lands, but women
also, to the Nilotes, who captured them. This meant to the Bantu
the loss of potential population, but to the Nilotes an increase to their
future numbers beyond the capacity of their own women folk. This
Bantu loss of women is still going on, but in a more subtle manner.
The bride-price among the Bantu is low as compared with that
amongst the Nilotes. Inter-marriage is common, but the differing
standards result in the flow of women being largely in the one direc-
tion, that is, away from the Bantu to the Nilotes.

In the south of South Kavirondo there is a tribe in a location
called Suna. The people came over from Uganda about eight genera-
tions ago. They have been so permeated with Nilotic influences that
they are becoming absorbed. The same thing is happening on the
island of Rusinga, where the ruling family goes back eighteen genera-
tions. But even this long tradition is not able to withstand Luo
influences. What the future holds for the Bantu Kavirondo remains
to be seen. One thing is certain, and it is that the age-long rivalry
will continue.

Origin of Bantu Tribes.

In what I shall have to say with regard to the origin of the Bantu
tribes, my remarks will be confined mainly to those of North
Kavirondo. I have no experience of the Kisii, and only a very slight
knowledge of the other Bantu peoples of South Kavirondo. The
materials for arriving at tentative conclusions are derived from two
sources: traditions and language. Sir Harry Johnson put forward the
suggestion that the mother tongues from which all the Bantu stock
derived are to be found in the Bagishu of Elgon and the Bakonjo of
the Ruenzori Mountains. Whether this is true or not it is certainly
true that the Bantu tribes south of Elgon speak in dialects which have
very strong affinities. These affinities reach out far beyond the purely
arbitrary boundaries of the administrative area of our creation, and
have kinship with not only the Bantu tongues of their immediate
neighbours in Busoga in Uganda Protectorate, but extend away to the
Congo border, so much so that on my first visit to Kavirondo in
Eebruary, 1918, I was able from my knowledge of the language of the
ancient kingdom of Bunyoro on the border of the Congo, to understand
the first sermon I heard.

The dominant dialect is that of the tribe of which Chief Mumia
is the head. They call themselves Bawanga, from their traditional
ancestor and founder, Wanga, who is said to have led an emigration
from Teriki, near the Nandi border, about twenty generations ago. A
knowledge of this dialect enables one to be understood, with ease or

69

with slight difficulty, over practically all the Bantu areas. The most
peculiar of the dialects is that of the Maragole tribe, and it is the one
which is less understood outside of its own group. But in spite of
these differences the dialects fall into one broad language unit, and
the differences are no more marked than those between, say, the
speech of a Cornish yokel as compared with one from Yorkshire.

But while the affinities of language would point to a common
origin, this belongs to such a remote age that it gives but little help
in the task confronting us. Our only hope is that in their own tradi-
tions or in those of their neighbours, we may get the information which
we want.

The North Kavirondo Land Tenure Committee of 1930
endeavoured to lay foundations upon which further and more detailed
information could be built up. I had been engaged for some years on
the task of getting genealogies from leading clans, and this, together
with the results of the Land Tenure Committee, forms the basis of
certain tentative conclusions. With one exception, all the present
units trace their origin back to districts other than those which they
now occupy and own. Bor instance, the Maragole occupying a large
and populous location, say that their ancestor Muragoli, came from
Shirati in Tanganyika Territory; the Bawanga, that their ancestor,
Wanga, came from Teriki; the Basuna, from the Kingdom of B Uganda
(Suna was a well-known name in the royal house); the Banyole, from
near where the Yala River enters Lake Victoria.

None of the tribes have traditions of a long migration except the
Maragole and the Suna. The length of the genealogies I have
recorded vary from twenty-one generations in the case of the Abayaya
clan in Bumaraki, down to eight in that of the Abakulo of Buk’ek’e.
Genealogies are carried back, with but one or two exceptions, only so
far as the founder who led the migration from the former home. None
have any tradition as to what led the ancestor to migrate, except one
small tribe now near the mouth of the Nzoia River. In this case
internal dissensions in the parent tribe led to a split. But from the
importance which was attached to opportunities for hunting it is
plain that the desire for new hunting grounds was one of the factors
impelling migration. Where the new comers found good unoccupied
hunting lands they took possession, and as their numbers increased,
they fought with their neighbours for expansion. Hence the history
of the tribes is one of constant inter-tribal strife.

It is not clear whether they brought with them the system of land
tenure which they have to-day. But while it is in the nature of the
case that they broke territorially with the parent stock, there is nothing
to indicate that this involved a break with the culture of their ancestors.
We may safely assume some element of continuity between their

70

present system and that of the land from which they migrated. Before
describing this system, one general observation may not be out of
place here. I have received the impression that both in the original
occupation of the land and in the arrangements for its subsequent sub-
division and inheritance the dominating passion has been a regard for
posterity. In the most natural way this passion manifests itself, and
embraces not only the immediate offspring but extends indefinitely q
a vision of generations yet to be born. In our industrialised civiliza-
tion this desire to provide for posterity finds expression, not in the
acquisition of land so much as in the acquisition of wealth, but* in the
communities which we are considering it appears to have had its
principle manifestation in acquiring land. This passion for the good
of posterity is one of the most marked features of tribal life.

The system of land tenure is so bound up with the tribal organiza-
tion that they are complementary, the sub-divisions of Tihe land
corresponding with the sub-divisions of the tribe. The tribe as a whole
unit is called the Lihanga, and the land it occupies is called its Kyalo.
The tribe is sub-divided into clans called Tsimbiya, and each
clan has its own clan lands, called Tsingongo. The clans are
sub-divided into sub-clans, called Efiribwa and these also have their
lands, which they refer to as Liloba. Within the sub-clans are the
families, and each family has its fields, known as its Kimenyo or its
Indalo. All the males in the tribe have a definite status, that of Abene
Kyalo or Abene Liloba, the terms meaning Owners of the Land, and
Owners of the Soil. These terms are used interchangeably.

The tribal head or chief is likened to the centre pole supporting
the roof of the round house. Amongst the Bawanga he is called the
Nabongo, other tribes have other names, such as Omwami, Omwami
Omuk’ulundu, Omulindi we Ng’oma, or Omwilwatsi Omuk’ulundu.
Next in order below the chief are the heads of the clans, and as the
poles arranged in a circle supporting the verandah of the round house
are called Maguru, so the heads of the clans are called Abamaguru.
Surrounding the home is the fence with its entrance called Ekiribwa,
its plural form Ebiribwa being the name for the sub-clans. The heads
of the sub-clans are called Abelwatsi. In this picturesque way the
constitution of the tribe recalls the familiar features of the kraal.

Theoretically, the land belonging to these tribal sub-divisions is
inviolate. Actually, it is subject to encroachment from its neighbours.
Thus the family land may be coveted by a neighbouring family, either
that of the same sub-clan, or that of a different sub-clan or even clan,
according to contiguity. Avariciousness is not confined to more
cultured races, so that land disputes are not uncommon in tribes with
a heavy population. If the parties are both members of the same
sub-clan then appeal is made to the Omwilatsi, the head of the sub-
clan, who has powers to adjudicate. If the disputants belong to

71

different sub-clans then appeal is to the Gweliguru, the head of all the
sub-clans within the clan. If they belong to different clans then the
appeal is to the Omwami, the chief of all the clans. No class of dis-
pute raises such angry passions and such strong feeling as a dispute
about land. In those cases where members of one tribe encroached on
the land of members of another tribe, the appeal was to the spear.
After an appeal to the spear peace was resorted by a suitable ceremony,
a common one being known as ok’ukalaga imbwa— cutting a dog. In
its original form an actual dog was employed, which was speared by
representatives of the warring tribes, vows of peace being made over
the dying body. At the recent meeting in North Kavirondo bet?/een
the representatives of the people and His Excellency, it is reported
that the Africans produced a dog, when land questions were discussed,
and that they invited His Excellency to set their hearts at rest in their
traditional way.

The nature of the rights of the clansmen, the abene liloba, in the
land within the jurisdiction of the clan is of a very definite nature.
There is no abstract conception, nothing nebulous, about the nature of
these rights. On the contrary everything is of a particular, concrete
nature. Eor instance, the land of the sub-clan is the sum total of the
land in the possession of the individual families in the sub-clan. There
is no mystical entity in the sub-clan which holds the title deeds, as
it were, apart from the individual families. Thus in law suits, it is
always the individual with a grievance who appears as the com-
plainant. When he is supported By members of his own community
it is from a deep sense of clan solidarity, because united they stand,
but divided they fall, so that while it is true to say that the individual
has no rights apart from the sub-clan, it is equally true to say that
the sub-clan has no rights apart from the individual families which
compose it. The sum total of their rights is that which the sub-clan
is entitled to maintain.

In like manner can the rights of the wider units of tribal organiza-
tion be described. The rights of the clan, the unit wider than the sub-
clan, is the sum total of the rights of the individual families in all the
sub-clans which have sprung from it. Similarly, the rights of the
tribe is the sum total of the rights of the families in all the clans which
have descended from the tribal ancestor.

I have rather elaborated this point, because in many of the tales
jbhat are told of tribal or clan expansion it is the individual who extends
the clan boundaries into the bush country to the point where expansion
brings conflict with others. In the most natural and simple way trie
process is unfolded. Eirst the original ancestor appears on the scene
on desirable land. He cultivates and hunts from the homestead as a
centre. His sons grow up, and extend the area brought under cultiva-
tion and under the chase. Some stories represent the ancestor as

72

portioning out liis land north, south, east and west among his sons,
with “ hinterlands ” towards the circumference in which they can
expand. As the generations increase in numbers, the individual
members, using the land already occupied as a vantage ground, pushed
on ever further and further, establishing their families on fresh ground,
and so extending the area brought under the influence of the clan and
tribe as a whole.

Another line of evidence supporting the view that the basis of land
rights is to be found in the family, lies in the fact that there can be
no stronger argument amongst the Bantu than the appeal to the grave
sites of their forefathers. The English expression “ The land of my
fathers ” may be used by one whose family has no tradition of land-
owning. Amongst the Bantu of Kavirondo such an expression con-
jures up a picture of actual sites of graves where lie the bones of their
ancestors, wrhose spirits are conceived of as attached to the land, over
which they act as guardians. These spirits are thought to exercise in
a glorified manner the functions performed while still alive. Thus the
family in trouble invokes its actual ancestral spirits, the clan invoked
the spirits of the old clan Abamaguru, and the tribe, on the compara-
tively rare occasions when danger threatened the whole tribe, invoked
the spirits of the old chiefs. (I have deliberately used the past tense
in the case of the last two invocations, for I have never come across
their use, and believe them to have faded away under our
administration.)

It must be kept in mind that the “ family ” has a wider connota-
tion amongst the Bantu, than that amongst us. Ties of kinship which
are weak with us, are strong with the Bantu. The bearing of this on
land tenure means that in the division or inheritance of land a much
wider circle of relations must be considered than is customary amongst
ourselves.

Land is disposed of during the lifetime of the head of the family
as need arises. Thus a man divides some of his land to his sons if
they marry during his lifetime. On the approach of death he informs
responsible relations in the sub-clan as to the disposal of whatever land
remains. If he leaves a widow she has the right to cultivate as much
of the fields as she requires for her own support and that of any
children still dependent on her. On the death of the widow the fields
she used revert to the heir who may keep them for himself, or meet
the claims of other members of the family.

This process of sub-division results in, what appears to our
orderly minds, a very chaotic distribution of the fields. The land in
the possession of any family is seldom, if ever, composed of a solid
block. When pressure on land was less a man would leave one site
and occupy one a mile or two away, but still retaining his rights to

73

his old site. When he came to distribute land to his sons, he would
give one a field here and a field there, and this apparent chaos was
further complicated by fields of a dwindling family passing to the
members of a growing one. But though to us the result is chaos, and
a map of the land of a clan done in different colours for the different
families comprising it, would be of a very intricate pattern, it is not
chaos to those families themselves. Each field has its boundaries
(generally cultivation trenches) and these are most jealously guarded.
Even a small encroachment leads to angry passions.

As can readily be imagined, this process of sub-division had its
limits. Pressure of population on the soil reaches the point where
sub-division can proceed no further. It is said of some families in
Maragole to-day that a man with four sons can only provide for two
of them. The others must seek wage-earning, or become tenants on
the land of more fortunate families. It is significant that only amongst
the Maragole is there an alleged custom of selling land.

A quotation from Lord Lugard’s Dual Mandate may fitly conclude
the point of view here set forth. He writes “ It is clear from this
description that African land tenure is not “ communal ” in the sense
of tenure in common. Its characteristic seems rather to be individual
tenure of land derived from a common stock at the disposal of the
tribe or family.” Lest anyone should dissent from Lugard’s view and
quote the findings of the Committee appointed to consider the question
of land settlement in Ankole, Bunyoro, Busoga, and Toro (the report
was published in 1913) I would like to say that I have spent about six
years in Ankole and Toro, and went into the question and could find
nothing to support the statement that “ It would appear that accord-
ing to native customs no land was owned by anyone except the chiefs,
and that the peasants were merely occupiers.”

Important as it is to understand the rights of the owners of the
soil (the abene liloba) only second in importance is it to understand
the position of the tenants. These are called abamenywa or abame -
nyibwa , or abarende, words meaning the same status, but used in vary-
ing dialects. Before freedom of movement came in with the British
Administration, the would-be tenant was confined in his choice mainly
to seeking a tenancy on land of another clan within the tribe. I
cannot do better than quote the report of the Committee on Native
Land Tenure in North Kavirondo (of which I was a member) for a
description of the position of tenants.

There are no clans in the district which have no clan land, but
there are families which for one reason or another have left the land
of their own clans and are residing, by permission, on the land of other
clans. Some are from other clans of the same tribe, some from other
tribes, and, in some cases from tribes outside the district. The custom

74

governing the granting of permission so to reside was as follows : The
man desiring leave to settle on the land of a clan other than his own
would first approach someone well known to him (frequently a relation
by marriage) and ask permission to settle on or near his holding. If
the friend was willing he took the applicant to the liguru of the
lugongo who, in conference with the elders, would enquire into the
man’s history and character and his reasons for leaving his own clan.
If there was any objection by the elders of the lugongo the request must
be refused. In the event of approval the man would be allotted land.
. . . There wTas no payment, but he was required to make himself
generally useful to the family which had sponsored him and it was an
absolute and essential condition of his residence that he came com-
pletely under the authority of the liguru and elders of the lugongo. . .
He could be turned out at any time if he gave offence to his sponsor
or to the people of the lugongo , but when once established ... he
could not be evicted without reference to the liguru. . . . The
children of a tenant inherit their father’s rights, but are tenants-at-will
just as he was. . . . When the family of an omumenyibwa has

remained for three or four generations it is known as omumirikha
(absorbed or merged) and is considered to have been adopted into clan
membership, with corresponding rights in the land, but the fact that
its members can inter-marry with the clan indicates in itself that it is
of different stock, and this is never forgotten. . .

Turning now to another subject, and with but little time to deal
with other aspects of the life of the Bantu, I have thought it important
to touch upon tribal government. The family is governed by its head,
the families which comprise the ekiribwa or sub-clan by their head, the
omwilwatsi, the settler of disputes. Next in ascending order is the
clan, ruled over by the oweliguru, and above all is the Omwami Omuku-
lundu. When any one of these died a successor was appointed by a
ceremony of installation called okwemeka. This ceremony was divided
into two stages, the first called kiremba performed on the day of death
and burial, and the second called okukina omwimo performed at a
variable time later. An important factor in deciding the time when
the second ceremony was to take place, was the amount of the food
stocks in the grain stores. It was always put off until there was an
abundance of food for the feast, with copious supplies of beer.

The description which follows is mainly based on that given me
by the clan of the Abagolwe in. the Location of Wanga, and is that of
an oweliguru or clan head. When he is seen to be dying the clan
elders gather at his kraal, and learn from him which of his sons is to
succeed him in office. If he dies leaving no choice, the elders choose

75

one. It is not necessarily the eldest son. The sons are not allowed
to see their father die, but they are, of course, at the kraal. After
death (I am only picking out the main points, for a full description
would take too much time) a fat ox (called isurusi) is brought and the
heir takes his father’s spear, and with one powerful thrust endeavours
to spear the animal through, from the right side to the left. The spear
is withdrawn, and the mortally wounded ox is guided, if possible, into
the hut in which the dead man is lying. If it resists all efforts to guide
it into the hut, but dies in the open, this is taken as a sign that the
choice of an heir is not approved by the clan heads in the spirit world.
No immediate action is taken to choose another son. This is deferred
until before the second part of the rite, the okukina omwimo.

On the day appointed for Okukina omwimo the heir is prepared for
the ceremony. Seated at the doorway of his late father’s hut his head
is first of all shaved by a married sister. If he has no sister, then
the office is performed by a near female relation. This done, he is then
seated in the open kraal on a newly prepared cow skin, and his head,
back and chest rubbed with butter till it glistens. The elder women,
the wives of the clan elders, then throw at him or pour over his head
from small baskets, simsim seed, small and large millet and beans.
This is done with an accompaniment of loud ululations, and is a token
that the women of the clan accept the new head, and that he guards
the crops.

The insignia of office which belonged to his deceased father are
then produced, and consist of five articles: —

1. The Elisiri. This is an iron wristlet made from twisted iron,
generally curled back at the ends leaving a gap of about three-
quarters of an inch. It is worn on the right wrist.

2. The Ekisiri. This is generally the tail of a monkey, and is worn
on the forearm just below the elbow, so that the tail hangs down.

3. The Ekimwata. This is a headdress generally made of cowrie
shells sewn on a skin, conical in shape, and provided with a chin
strap.

4. The Elifumu. This is his father’s spear.

5. The Imbiri or shield.

The next part of the ceremony is performed by an elder of a class
of dependents called Abagali, or Abasumba. It is not the function of
the members of the clan to perform it. He puts on the elisiri and the
ekisiri , the wristlet and the tail, and in doing so signifies that he and
his class give their allegiance to the new clan head.

The Ekifumbi or stool of office is now brought into prominence.
Glistening with butter on head and chest, with simsim seeds and small
millet sticking to his body, he is now seated on the ekifumbi of his

76

<

father while an elder of the clan puts on his head the ekimwata, the
cowrie shell headdress. His father’s spear is put into his right hand
and the shield in his left, again to the accompaniment of loud
ululations.

Thus attired, he with the clan elders, beats the bounds of the clan
land (some clans omit this part of the proceedings) and then makes a
tour of visits to the kraals of the principal clan elders, who make gifts
according to their substance, some offering a fowl, others goats.

In this ceremony of okwemeka all sections of the clan community
have their share, his near relations, the women, the dependents, and
the clan elders. One cannot help a feeling of deep regret that
customs such as this are swiftly passing away. With their passing
also passes much of the old clan loyalty and discipline. Personally
I urge on the people the importance of retaining this custom, but with
so much sweeping away this and other customs, it requires concerted
action if it is to be saved.

One final word ought to be said about the administration of
justice. Appeals to constituted authority were less frequent before
the British administration came in than after. There was much
more individual action than now.

This can be illustrated by the procedure adopted to procure the
return of the bride-price of a wife who had been divorced. The
irrevocable action against which there was no appeal was for the
husband to seize the wife^by the wrist and drag her forth from the
kraal. This was their equivalent of our decree absolute. If the
wife’s people refused to return the cattle, there was no appeal to
constituted authority. The claimant watched his opportunity and
seized a woman of their clan known to have an infant. He caught
her as she went to the well, or to market. He hauled her oh to his
kraal, treating her as gently as her struggles permitted. The fact of
the seizure of this woman soon became known to those who held back
the return of the bride-price. The unhappy father of the infant, left
with a crying baby on his hands, lost no time in bringing pressure to
bear on those responsible, to return the cattle, that his infant be not
deprived of its mother too long.

I am told that this scheme always worked, but it is not one of the
customs which I would wish to retain.

THE EAST AFBXCA AND UGANDA NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1932.

General.

The activities of the Society throughout the year have been
directed towards the maintainance of the scheme of development
adopted three years ago when we established ourselves in the present
building.

We have to record a slow and steady advance despite financial
starvation and general adverse conditions. Eor purposes of report, the
activities are divided into sections dealing with the public educational
side and those mainly devoted to systematic work.

Section A.

The development of the exhibited material has been retarded
owing to lack of funds for the purchase of exhibition cases. As fore-
shadowed in the last Annual Report, the reorganisation of the
Geological section was taken in hand early in the year and a compre-
hensive display of geological .material, arranged on modern lines with
maps, graphs, and micro-photographs is now on view. The economic
section will receive attention during the ensuing year, and the display
will then be comprehensive of the geology of Kenya and Uganda.
The bulk of the material for this section and the arrangement of the
exhibit, has been provided and carried out by Mr. H. L. Sikes, to
whom the thanks of the Society are here recorded.

The Hunters Antelope, presented by Mr. McArthur, was placed
on view, but owing to lack of funds has not been placed in a case,
and for this reason also, the Bongo habitat group still remains a
feature of the future.

Three series of Bird exhibits, with detailed catalogues, illustrat-
ing bird migration, and specific families were staged during the year.
Several additions were made to the series of smaller mammals,
including a specimen of the recently described “ Brush-tailed
Porcupine ” discovered by Mr. Allen Turner at Kaimosi.

The Botanical section has been greatly augmented by new
specimens and coloured drawings and amply proves the value of this
department. A detailed report from the Botanist is appended.,

The Ethnological section has been added to, but here also,
expansion has been curtailed owing to lack of exhibition cases.

The Archaeological and Anthropological sections have been under
the guidance of Dr. L. S. B. Leakey, who has made several important
additions to the exhibited material.

78

No advance could be made in the economic Entomological section
for want of exhibition cases, though material for this exhibit is
accumulating daily.

Section B.

In order to stimulate interest in the Society and the Museum, a
series of lectures to school children was undertaken by the Curator
and Dr. Leakey. Twenty-four talks and demonstrations were given
and prizes were awarded to pupils sending in the best essays on the
subjects dealt with. These prize essays were of a high standard and
indicated the keen interest taken in the subjects. Dr. Leakey also
undertook a series of evening talks on the exhibits in the Museum.
These demonstrations were fairly well attended and added greatly
to the interest of the exhibits.

The annual two-day scientific meetings, open to the public, took
place in July. Morning and afternoon sessions were well attended
and once again demonstrated the advisability of providing a suitable
lecture hall, the accommodation available being totally inadequate.

Three evening lectures were given during the year : we record our
thanks to Sir Albert Kitson for kindly lecturing under the auspices
of the Society; to Dr. Leakey for his public lecture on Early Man;
and to Dr. van Someren for his illustrated talk on the Birds and
Mammals of the Ngong district.

Natural history films have been loaned to the two Preparatory
Schools in Kenya and to the Native Affairs Officer for exhibition at
Pumwani.

During the early part of the year, the Society was honoured by
a visit from Sir Henry Miers, President of the Museums Association,

and Mr. Markham, Secretary of the Association. This visit was in

* *

connection with a tour of inspection of all museums in Africa,
undertaken on behalf of the Carnegie Foundation.

We have to report that Sir Henry Miers was impressed with the
progress made and was thoroughly satisfied with the organisation of
the Museum and the scheme for future development.

Visitors : Among the distinguished visitors who have availed
themselves of the Museum collections, may be mentioned Dr. Kogers,
of Princton Musum; Dr. Jeannel of Paris; and members of the
Cambridge Archaeological Expedition.

The total number of visitors for the year is just under 3,000, and
of these, about one half were admitted free, being either school
children or students from various teaching centres.

79

Section C. Study Collections.

The systematic collections have been worked on by the various
officers in charge. Large and valuable collections of new material
have either been donated or loaned and these are gradually being
incorporated in the systematic series. Collections of outstanding
value have been donated by Allen Turner, G. S. McArthur, A. E. J.
Gedye, Dr. Leakey, Dr. van Someren, Capt. Dent, and A. Champion.

The general monthly donations of material have been maintained
throughout the year and storage room is now insufficient to meet the
demands made on it. Two collecting expeditions were made for the
Society by H. J. Allen Turner, resulting in valuable accessions in
several departments. Donations to the Botanical department are
dealt with in the special report.

Valuable help in determining material has been received from
Prof. Poulton, Oxford; Sir Guy Marshall of the Imperial Institute of
Entomology; Dr. Jordan of Tring; Miss St. Leger of the British
Museum; Sir Arthur Hill, Boyal Botanical Gardens, Kew; and
specialists in continental Museums and in America. Our thanks are
here recorded.

Section D. Library.

The Library continues to receive support from Scientific Societies
and Museums overseas, either by direct donations or exchange. A
valuable contribution has been made by Dr. Jeannel of the Paris
Museum.

Special rules governing the acceptance and loan of books were
drawn up by the Library Sub-Committee and approved.

Section E. Special Donations .

Mr. E. Carr continued his grant to the Botanical Department
throughout the year; unfortunately this donation will not be renewed
during 1933. Capt. Dent contributed largely towards the cost of
having the Bongo mounted, while Mr. Sikes and Mr. Mayer
generously made contributions towards the Geological exhibit. We
wish to record our thanks to these gentlemen for their valued assis-
tance. A special “ Bongo fund ” was opened towards the middle of
the year. The sum required is £100 and donations to this fund will
be expended on a special habitat group of Bongo.

Section F. Advertising and Propaganda.

An illustrated card advertising the Museum was prepared and
distributed to the various hotels in Kenya; this has been the means
of bringing the existence of the Museum before a wide public. In-
sufficient funds have prevented further advertising. Assistance in

80

the preparation of these advertisements has been received from Capt.
Weller and Mr. Mayer, and we wish to record our thanks to the
Editor of the East African Standard for publishing notices regarding
the activities of the Society.

Section G. Finance.

The Financial Statement and Balance Sheet show a careful
husbanding of our resources. The income from all sources was in-
sufficient to meet expenditure and we were faced by a very consider-
able deficit; the original deficit budgetted for, was reduced, however,
to less than half the estimated sum, by curtailment of normal
activities. The reduction in the Municipal Grant to less than half
the original sum severely crippled our activities and negatived
expansion.

We wish to record our thanks to Government and to the Nairobi
Municipal Council for grants received during the year.

Section H. Membership.

The subscriptions from membership have been more than main-
tained; any loss from inevitable resignations has been compensated
for by elections of new members.

Section 1. Publications.

Two double Journals and one special Supplement were issued
during the year. The importance of the Journal is apparent to an
increasing degree as evidenced by the demand from overseas Museums
and scientific institutions, for exchange and purchase. The high
standard of level has been maintained by reduction in bulk; an
unsatisfactory though inevitable result of financial stringency.
Several MSS are on hand and await publication, but these can only
go to the printers when funds are available.

Section J. Staff.

The Staff, consisting of the Curator, Botanist, and Librarian,
were on duty throughout the year. Mr. A. F. J. Gedye was engaged
as assistant in the Entomological department from April to the end
of the year, and carried out valuable work in re-arrangement of certain
families of Coleoptera and preparation of fresh material.

Mr. Allen Turner and Capt. Dent rendered valuable assistance
with the systematic collections as opportunity offered; without such
assistance a great deal of work could not be overtaken. The menial
staff, both general and technical, has again rendered staunch service,
working overtime willingly and with a keen appreciation of the work
in hand.

81

Your Committee has met regularly once a month, and several
sub -committees have attended to special business. All proposals
affecting general policy and finance were carefully gone into before
definite action was taken. The foundations of the Museum and the
Society are sound; the development of the superstructure depends on
financial support.

LIBRARY REPORT, 1932.

The Library attached to the Museum now contains several
thousand volumes, besides numerous papers and booklets issued by
other Museums. The work of general card-indexing of all Volumes
and Journals was commenced by the then Librarian, Mrs. Beckett, in
1931, and a detailed subject index was inaugurated towards the latter
part of that year. Provisional sectional indices were also done in
draft. On the resignation of Mrs. Beckett in January, 1932, Lady
Victoria Feilding was appointed Librarian. The Botany index was
completed, and kept up to date, as were also the Entomological
indices. These indices are carried down to families and genera and
should prove of immense value for reference purposes.

The Mammal and Bird indices are in course of preparation.

It is estimated that two more years must elapse before the
sectional indices are completed or sufficiently advanced to maintain
them up to date.

The work is complicated, as a result of a considerable number of
books being in foreign languages, and these have to be partially
translated; furthermore, many of the volumes are on loan and are
not indexed in detail, but are merely referred to in the general index.
A further difficulty is experienced in the lack of certain standard
works of reference, a state of affairs which it is essential to rectify as
soon as possible. Funds are required. There is no special vote for
the purchase of books of reference, and' the acquisition of such works
is dependent on the generosity of donors. It is suggested that t'h®
Library Sub-Committee should consider the possibility of obtaining
assistance from the Carnegie Foundation.

We have to record our thanks to the Librarian of the McMillan
Memorial Library, and to the Department of Agriculture, Kampala,
for assistance in the general scheme of classification and card-
indexing, and to Messrs^ Hancock, McDonald, Gedye, and Dr. van
Someren for help in the more detailed work.

82

ANNUAL REPORT, DIVISION OF BOTANY, 1932.

The work during this year has been concentrated almost entirely
on the Herbarium. Systematic work on collections received has
taken up the bulk of the time; this has consisted in preservation,
mounting, sorting and naming of specimens, where possible, and
despatch of unidentifiable material to Kew.

The specimens named, mounted and indexed, now number 3,153,
in addition to which, 200 specimens have been received from the
Director of Kew Gardens, and the Conservator of Forests, Kenya.
Approximately 1,000 specimens have been forwarded to Kew for
determination, during the year.

A collection of considerable interest and value was presented by
Major Lugard, who concentrated on the flora of Mt. Elgon. The
material was dealt with by Kew, and a systematic list of all specimens
collected accompanied the donation.

Regular donors to the Museum collections have maintained their
support during the year; we wish especially to thank Lady Muriel
Jex-Blake, Mrs. Chater Jack, and Miss Mainwaring for their con-
tinued interest in this work. Miss Mainwaring has on several
occasions given her services and the use of her car for collecting
expeditions; this is greatly appreciated.

Needless to say, the Herbarium is far from complete, even as
regards the flora of Nairobi area, and we look forward to the continued
support of members and others interested.

It is encouraging to report that the Herbarium is used more
frequently than hitherto. Assistance in determining material has
been given to officers of the Veterinary, Agricultural and Medical
Departments of Kenya, and to private individuals. Material sub-
mitted by children of the Girls’ Secondary School was identified, and
a talk on trees was given under the auspices of the Society to a
section of this school by Mr. Gardner.

Additions have been made to the exhibition of paintings in the
botanical room, but lack of funds precludes any extensive increase in
this section.

E. NAPIER, Botanist.

83

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Uournal

OF THE

East Africa and Uganda
Natural History Society

Oct., 1932 — Jan., 1933 Double Number. Nos. 47 — 48

CONTENTS.

The Birds of Kenya and Uganda (illustrated), Part 9, Yol. 1.
Anatidae. By Y. G. L. van Someren, f.l.s., m.b.o.u.,
C.F.A.O.U., etc. ...

The Birds of Kenya and Uganda (illustrated), Part 1, Vol. 2.
Otidai and Burhinidae. By Y. G. L. van Someren,

F.L.S. , M.B.O.U., etc. ... ...

Notes on the Nesting of some East African Birds.

By D. McInnis

Life History of Charaxes ; pythodorus . By R. Evans

Notes on Wild Flowers. By E. Napier

Notes on Comparative Series of Skulls.

By L. S. B. Leakey, ph.D. ...

Masai Social Customs. By L. E. Whiteiiouse

Religious Beliefs and Practices of the Kipsigis.

By Ian Q. Orchard son

89

101

128

136

138

142

146

154

Editors :
The Publication Co:

PRINTED BY THE EAST AFRICAN STANDARD, LTD.

All Rights Reserved.

East Africa and Uganda Natural History Society

PATRONS :

HIS EXCELLENCY SIR JOSEPH BYRNE.
HIS EXCELLENCY SIR WILLIAM GOWERS.
Sir EDWARD NORTHEY, g.c.m.g.

PRESIDENT :

Capt. A. T. A. RITCHIE, m.b.o.u., f.z.s.

vice-presidents:

A. B. PERCIVAL, Esq., p.z.s., m.b.o.u,
H. J. ALLEN TURNER, Esq.

EX. COMMITTEE:

Rev. CANON St. A. ROGERS,

M.A., OXON, I'VE. S.

Capt. R. E. DENT, f.z.s.

H. L. SIKES, Esq., b.a., b.e.,

M.INST.C.E., F.G.S.

H. M. GARDNER, Esq., b.a., for. dipl.
R. F. MAYER, Esq., o.b.e., f.z.s.

A. F. J. GEDYE, Esq., f.r.e.s., f.z.s.
Capt. V. WARD.

J. MacDONALD, d.f.c., b.sc., f.l.s.

JAMES SCOTT, Esq., b.sc.

C. J. T. BARTON, Esq., o.b.e., m.a.
R. DAUBNEY, Esq., m.sc., m.r.c.v.s
H. L. GORDON, Esq., m.d.

C. B. SYMES, Esq.

A. V. BECKLEY, Esq., m.c., m.a.
Mrs. E. B. SHAW.

II. 0. WELLER, b.sc., m.i.c.e.

HON. TREASURER*.

HUMPHREY SLADE, Esq.

HON. SECRETARY AND CURATOR:

V. G. L. VAN SOMEREN, l.r.c.p.&s., l.r.f.p.&s., l.d.s., f.i.c.d

F.L.S. , M.B.O.U., C.F.A.O.U., F.R.E.S,, C.M.Z.S., &C.

BOTANIST :

E. NAPIER.

Journal

OF THE

East Africa and Uganda
Natural History Society

Oct., 1932 — Jan., 1933 Double Number. Nos. 47 — 48

CONTENTS.

The Birds of Kenya and Uganda (illustrated), Part 9, Vol. 1
Anatidae. By V. G. L. van Someren, f.l.s., m.b.o.u.

C.F.A.O - Tj etC. • • • « • • .. 9 9 . 9 9 9 9 ..

The Birds of Kenya and Uganda (illustrated), Part 1, Vol. 2
Otidat and Burhinidae. By V. G. L. van Someren
F.L.S. , M.B.O.U., etc. ... ... ... ... ...

Notes on the Nesting of some East African Birds.

By D. McInnis ...

Life History of Charaxes pythodorus. By B. Evans

Notes on Wild Flowers. By E. Napier

Notes on Comparative Series of Skulls.

By L. S. B. Leakey, ph.o

Masai Social Customs. By L. E. Whitehouse

Religious Beliefs and Practices of the Kipsigis.

By Ian Q. Orchardson

89

101

128

136

138

142

146

154

Editors :

The Publication Committee.

Additional copies to members, 7/50; non-members, 15/-.
Date of Publication : September, 1933.

PRINTED BY THE EAST AFRICAN STANDARD, LTD.

All Rights Reserved.

'

'

White-faced Tree-duck ( Dendrocygna viduata, Linn).

THE BIRDS OF KENYA AND UGANDA.

Part IX. Vol. I.

DUCKS AND GEESE. ( Illustrated .)

By

V. G. L. VAN SOMEREN, M.B.O.U., C.F.A.O.U., etc.

ANATIDAE.

Genus Dendrocygna.

DENDROCYGNA VIDUATA (Linn.). WHITE - FACED TREE

DUCK. WHITE-FACED WHISTLING DUCK.

Ref. : Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., 12th Ed., p. 205, 1766.

Type locality : Cartagena, Venezuela.

Distribution :

On most of the shallower waters from the coast of Kenya to north
and western Uganda.

Description, male, adult :

Anterior two-thirds of head, throat, and a patch in front of the
neck, white; hind part of head and neck black, which colour passes
forward and tends to separate the white of the neck from that of the
throat, very often extending right across. Lower part of hind neck
and iront neck and chest rich chestnut, the former shading off into the
olive-brown of the mantle, while at the sides of the chest it merges
into fulvous, barred with black. Lower breast, belly, under tail-
coverts, tail, upper tail-coverts, rump, primaries and secondaries of
wing, and thighs black. Sides of body white to buffy, barred with
black. Mantle feathers olive-brown with fulvous and ochreous
margins, tinged with chestnut in the middle of the mantle. Scapulars
rather more tinged with olive.

Lesser wing-coverts chestnut shading to black at the bend of the
wing and to olive-grey on the secondary coverts. Bill black, with a
patch of blue above the “ nail ” and round the nostrils; legs and feet
lead-grey; eyes brown to hazel. Wings 210-235 mm.

Female, adult :

Similar to the male.

Immature :

Somewhat like adults but the top of the head tinged with brown;
hind part of head and neck brownish-black; throat and face not pure
white but tinged with greyish; breast with a wash of chestnut, while
the lower breast and belly are ashy-brown slightly barred; flanks buffy
with ochreous wash and barred.

Habits :

This is quite one of the most distinctive of the ducks found in
Kenya and Uganda. Not only is its colour very striking, but its call
is unmistakable; furthermore, when the bird visits certain suitable
localities it does so in large numbers. Although known to have a very
wide distribution, one cannot always count on finding the species in a
given locality; there is undoubted local migration, not only for purposes
of breeding, but for food also. The White-faced duck can be called a
common species, but it has a marked preference for certain types of
water. Deep open sheets are avoided; it prefers shallow swampy pans,
lakes with wide swampy margins, and is not infrequently met with on
the inundated banks of rivers when in flood. It is no uncommon thing
to find quite a few examples in temporary shallow pans when the rains
are on, such areas as one not infrequently finds migratory snipe to
visit. We have records of this bird from the swamps at the coast, the
Tana and Juba rivers, Lake Jipe, Magadi, Natron, Naivasha, occasion-
ally Lake Nakuru, Olbolossat, Elmenteita, Solai, Marsabit, and Koroli,
the swamps of South Kavirondo and Central Kavirondo, temporary
rain pans in the Uasin Gishu, Lake Kioga, Wamala, and in Toro.

As already indicated, one cannot reckon on seeing the bird on any
one of these places; it moves about very considerably, and indeed
travels with the rains, frequenting those inundated areas where food
is to be obtained. A common species, yet little is on record regarding
its nesting habits. It is said to nest in dense reed beds, constructing
a shallow nest of reeds and rootlets which it lines with down. As
many as seven eggs are laid, creamy-pink to buff, smooth but not
jjlossy. In the coastal belt, breeding birds have been shot in July to
August. Jackson records young in September. I have specimens in
complete wing moult in December.

One usually comes upon these birds in flocks of half a dozen to
perhaps a hundred. They spend the day time in sleep or preening
themselves, but in the late evening and dusk they become active, and
it is at this time they feed, and carry on until dawn. They flight from
their resting grounds to the shallows where they feed. Not infrequently
one may hear their clear whistling call of three notes “ sip-sip-sieu ”
or “ sit-sit-siew,” far into the night, and indeed, one has actually
heard them flighting over Nairobi township. They feed on mollusca,
Crustacea, aquatic weeds, and grass seeds. Their flight is not as strong

90

or as swift as that of most ducks, and they are rather loath to leave a
particular spot even though shot at. If flushed, they will circle round
and very soon alight, and in this way several birds may be obtained outv
of a flock. At noon when the birds are resting they can be approached
with little difficulty. Though excellent swimmers, they prefer to wade
and feed in the shallows, their long legs being especially adapted for this
environment.

The White-faced Duck is said not to perch on trees and the name
Tree Duck is a misnomer when applied to this species. It is a fact,
however, that specimens which I have had in captivity in a large
enclosure with numerous tree-stumps and strong flat boughs, were very
fond of roosting on the trees. Further, I have observed them sitting
on half submerged boughs on the Tana River.

As a sporting bird the Whistling duck ranks fairly low, its flight
being rather weak, and because of its habit of circling round before
going off. The long legs and long slender neck, besides the striking
colour, make this bird unmistakable even on the wing.

These birds take kindly to captivity and make interesting pets;
their conspicuous plumage and sibilant whistling adds colour and sound
to any wild-fowl enclosure. The males become rather pugnacious and
frequently cause damage to duck larger than themselves. Their
method of fighting is interesting; they drop the forepart of the body,
half open the wings, and depress the head on the back, then suddenly
they extend their necks and strike, the “ nail ” of the bill being
sharply drawn back and inflicting an unpleasant injury. Throughout
the encounter the crown feathers are raised, and a continuous whistling
is maintained.

DENDROCYGNA FULVA (Gmel.). FULVOUS TREE DUCK, or

WHISTLING TEAL.

Bef. : Gmelin, Syst. Nat . 1, pt. 2, p. 530.

Type locality : Mexico.

Distribution :

Suitable localities from the Kenya coast to Uganda.

Description. Male and female, adult :

Top of head rufescent-chestnut shading to fulvous on the sides of
the head ; a black streak extending from the hind crown down the centre
of the hind neck; throat and chin paler fulvous to almost white; about
the middle of the neck an indication of a pale fulvous ring streaked with
sepia. Upper breast and belly fulvous, more rufescent on the former,
and paling' to creamy-buff under the tail, the thighs and upper tail-
coverts, side of body cinnamon, with the long flank feathers with wide

91

creamy longitudinal line outlined above and below with sepia. Feathers
of mantle and back dark brown-black with chestnut tips paling at
margins ; wings brown-black with chestnut lesser coverts ; rump and tail
black. Bill, lead-grey; legs and feet, blue-grey; eyes, ochre-brown.

Immature :

Somewhat like the adults, but the back is browner and the
cinnamon flanks less rich and streaking not so obvious; breast tinged
with greyish. The young in down appear undescribed, and the periods
of moults unrecorded.

Habits :

This species has a wide distribution, but is given to wandering.
As with the White-faced duck, we find these birds in very large numbers
on certain waters if the time is favourable; that is, when large areas
of low land are flooded and food is abundant. It is partial to shallow
water and thus avoids the deeper lakes, but if there are flats and
floating islands on the larger sheets of water, one may see the birds
there occasionally. The actual localities from which I have records of
this bird correspond with those of the previous species. During the
floods of 1918 this bird was much in evidence at Lakes Magadi,
Naivasha, Nakuru, and Olbolossat, and equally plentiful on the swampy
ground behind Kisumu on the Kano plains. During the day they rest
and engage in their toilet, and at such times several birds may be seen
together, half to a couple of dozen, or even more. Archer records them
in “ thousands ” on Lake Wamala in Uganda. They feed during the
night, and at sunset or just before^ they begin to move from their
resting grounds. When in flight they keep up an incessant whistling,
not so loud as the White-face, but somewhat similar. The flight is
weak, and has nothing of the quality associated with the duck family
as a whole. As a sporting bird the Fulvous duck does not rank high.
They have the habit of circling round or even alighting near one of their
species that has been shot, and it is no uncommon thing to bag a dozen
or more in one small patch of water, if one is aware of their habits.
They feed on Crustacea, small mollusca, aquatic weeds, and seeds.

The nesting season appears to vary with the locality. In the
coastal belt they breed in August and September. On Lake Magadi
they had nests in April and breeding birds were shot in Uganda in May
and June. The nest is a shallow depression lined with a few bits of
grasses and reeds and a little down, but the margins are built up with
herbage to form a nest in which the edge is above the sitting bird. The
usual situation is in dense reed-beds. In the Magadi area the nest was
in long grass at the edge of water. At Naivasha, the nests have been
in thick grass growing below young acacia trees. Six to ten eggs form
the clutch, but Jackson recorded one of 13. The eggs are ivory-white,
smooth but not glossy, 50 x 42 mm.

92

Fulvous Tree-duck ( Dendrocygna fulva, G-mel.).

Fulvous Tree- duck.

igmy Goose ( Nattapus auritus, Bodd.).

GEESE.

The geese of these territories belong to four genera : Nettapus,
Sarkidiornis, Alopochen, and Plectropterus. Each is represented by
a single species.

NETTAPUS AURITUS (Bodd.). DWARF or PIGMY GOOSE.

Ref. : Boddart, Tabl. PI. Enlum., 1783.

Type locality : Madagascar.

Distribution :

Coast belt of Kenya and Lake Jipe, then a break until Lake
(Victoria, and Lake Rudolf; also crater lakes Toro.

Description, male, adult :

Greater part of head and a streak passing down the neck obliquely
and often meeting behind, white. Crown from in line with the eyes
and down the nape, dark glossy green; a large patch over the ears and
extending down towards the back of the neck, light pea-green outlined
with a band of black. Lower neck, breast and upper mantle, sides of
body and flanks, rufescent brown; rest of mantle, rump and upper tail-
coverts dark glossy green. Tail and flight feathers black; a few of the
secondaries and the tips of the greater coverts, white. Under surface
of body from lower breast to belly white. Under tail-coverts and
round the vent glossy black. Legs and feet black; bill bright orange
yellow with black “ nail.” Eye brown. Wings, 150-160 mm.

Female, adult :

Crown dark brown; cheeks and side of neck whitish streaked with
blackish-brown; throat and fore-neck whitish. Lower neck and mantle
dark brown barred rufescent ; scapulars and greater part of back brown-
black with green sheen; wings as in the male, but the coverts more
brownish, less green. Under surface as in the male though the tail is
less black and the rufescent-cinnamon of the flanks paler. Bill olive;
legs and feet black; eyes brown.

Immature :

Very similar to the female, but the back with less green, and the
head and neck more speckled. Juvenile in down not recorded.

Habits :

As already mentioned under distribution, this little Goose occurs
on only certain of the waters of Kenya and Uganda. The reason is
difficult to explain. It is not that the waters of the Rift Valley are not
suitable, for what would appear ideal conditions are there. It certainly

93

likes to rest in deep water, and very seldom has one observed it on land,
and then only on half-submerged floating islets of sudd. Nevertheless,
one frequently sees it on shallow rain pans which are full of water-lilies
and other vegetation particularly the curious water-lettuce (jpistia).
Jackson found the bird common on the temporary rain pans on the
coast near Lamu in August and September. From personal experience,
I should say that Lake Victoria is the stronghold of this goose so far
as Eastern Africa is concerned; and this is all the more interesting in
that few duck appear to frequent this lake, preferring the smaller sheets
of water. The Pigmy Goose is not found in the open water of Lake
Victoria, but in the secluded quiet bays where vegetation has a chance
to grow undisturbed by the high winds that sweep the water.

Here among the water-lilies, the geese feed and rest and are
extremely tame. They feed largely on the vegetable matter which
grows round the stems of pistia, and one may observe the birds nibbling
at the plants which they first pull out of the water.

One has only observed these birds on shore, on the quiet coves on
Buvuma Island.

The breeding season on the coastal belt is between May and June,
and if for any reason a second brood is reared they may be found in
July or August. On Lake Victoria, we have seen the nests in January,
and again in July and August. The nest is usually made in a hole in
some large tree, but Jackson records a nest in a cliff also. Six eggs
usually form a clutch, oval in shape and of a creamy colour.

As a sporting bird the Pigmy Goose is quite good ; its flight is rapid
and strong, but in localities where it has not been disturbed it will often
return after the first shot and one or more may be bagged without
changing position. A wounded bird is difficult to recover. They have
the same habit as the Stiff-tailed diving Duck — they submerge and only
keep their bill above water, and are thus difficult to locate. In captivity
this little Goose is most attractive, is easy to keep, and is very
ornamental.

SARK1DI0RNIS MELANOTUS (Penn.). KNOB-BILLED or COMB

GOOSE,

Ref. Pennant, Ind. Zool., p. 12, 1769.

Type locality: Ceylon.

Distribution :

Kenya and Uganda, on most of the lakes and rivers.

Description. Male, adult :

Centre of crown and middle feathers on back of neck, blue-black,
the latter feathers up-curled; rest of head and neck white, widely
flecked with purply black, and often with yellow in robust individuals.
Base of neck and the whole of the underside, white, shading to ashy

94

Knob-billed or Comb Goose ( Sarkidiornis melanotus, Penn.)

grey on the sides of the body and thighs; a patch of naples yellow on
either side of the base of tail; under tail-coverts white. At the base of
the hind neck, where it joins the mantle a row of black- tipped feathers
which extend downward towards the upper breast forming an incom-
plete band; mantle and scapulars dark blue-green with strong purply
sheen; lesser coverts metallic-green shading to bronzy green on the
secondary coverts ; secondaries with a marked bronzy sheen on the outer
webs; primaries black. Back and rump greyish, becoming black with
green gloss on the upper tail-coverts. Tail black with green gloss;
legs and feet black; bill black with a large laterally flattened fleshy
“knob ’’ on the ridge of the mandible. This “ knob ” or comb
varies in size, but is largest at the breeding season. Eyes hazel or
brown. Wings 349-395 mm.

Female, adult :

Much smaller than the male though somewhat similarly coloured,
but the degree of glossy sheen not so marked, and the head and neck
black speckling smaller and more numerous. The bill does not have
a knob. The flanks are less decided ashy-grey, and there is no yellowish
patch at the sides of the under tail region. Bill legs and feet grey-
black; eyes brown.

Immature :

Immature birds are like the female but often have the feathers
of the upper breast narrowly tipped with black ; the metallic reflections
on the mantle and back are not strongly marked.

Juvenile :

I have no description of the young in down, nor does there appear
to be a published record.

Habits :

As with many of the duck and geese, this species is given to local
movement and is a true migrant also. The range of localities from
which it has been taken or observed is very wide.

We have taken it on the flooded banks of the Tana River, at Lake
Jipe, on temporary swamps near Samburu, Lake Magadi, observed it
on rain-pans in the Southern Masai reserve; it is plentiful on Lakes
Naivasha, Elmenteita, Nakuru, and Solai, and present on most of the
lakes in Uganda, but only sparingly on Lake Victoria. The only
locality where these birds seem to remain all the year round in any
numbers is on Lake Naivasha. They are usually seen in small
companies of half a dozen or so, but during an influx as many as a
hundred may be observed together. Though no records of nesting have
been made in Kenya, I feel convinced that they do breed on Lake
Naivasha, as one often observes the birds in pairs.

95

The Knob-bill is a rather sluggish bird and spends most of the
day time resting on some mud bank or floating islet; its very
conspicuous plumage makes it an easy object to pick out, and one may
approach quite close in a boat or canoe. They are good swimmers but
only take to the water after being disturbed. They feed very largely
on herbage at the edges of the shallows, and may occasionally be seen
in patches of swamp grass away from the water’s edge. They do
most of their feeding in the evening and early dawn. They also eat
the seeds of the water-lilies.

As already mentioned, little is known of their nesting habits.
There are records of nests taken in South Africa; these have always
been on the ground amongst reeds, but in Ceylon and India, where
the species also occurs, it is said to nest in hollows in trees, either a
hole in the trunk or branch or in the angle between a widely forked
upright trunk. The nest is described as an untidy structure of twigs
and grass and a little lining. The eggs are yellowish- white, six to
eight in a clutch.

Observations on the nesting of this species are badly needed and
readers are requested to send in any notes they make to the Editor
of this journal.

'AI OP 0 CHEN AEGYPTIACUS (Linn.). EGYPTIAN GOOSE.

Ref. : Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., 12 Ed., 1766.

Type locality : Egypt.

Distribution :

Widely distributed through Kenya and Uganda.

Description. Male, adult:

Top of crown, sides of head, chin and throat white; a line at the
base of the bill, a large patch round the eye and a collar round the
neck where the feathers are elongated, ashy-brown with a rusty tinge.
Upper breast and lower neck towards the mantle olive-greyish tinged
with rusty and very finely vermiculated ; lower breast and under side
white., the former with a large chestnut patch; sides of body and thighs
greyish with a rusty tinge, and blackish vermiculations. Vent and
under tail-coverts rusty-buff. Mantle, dark ashy-brown finely vermi-
culated. Scapulars brown with rusty tinge and fine vermiculations;
wing-coverts white, the greater coverts with a distinct sub-terminal
black bar. Innermost secondaries chestnut, the remainder oily-green
merging to purplish distally; primaries black with greenish tinge on
outer web. Back, rump, and upper tail-coverts black, the first with
fine buff vermiculations; tail black; eyes yellow; bill pinkish mottled,
darker at the base, nail dark brown; legs and feet pink. Many old
males have a well-developed spur at the “ elbow ” of the wing. .Wings
390-410 mm.

96

Egyptian Geese ( Alopochen aegi/ptiacus, Linn.)

.

,

.

■

./

Egyptian Goose on nest. Photo: van Someren.

Nest of Egyptian Goose in cliff. Photo: van Someren.

Female, adult:

Very similar to the male, but the chestnut breast patch not so
marked or large, and the rusty tinge to the inner secondaries not so
rufescent. Size smaller.

Immature :

Fore part of head, chin and throat white; crown, an area round
the eye, hind neck olive-grey tinged with rufous; upper breast and hind
neck buffy-grey vermiculated, the latter with rusty wash. Lower
breast, belly and vent to under tail-coverts white, the last with creamy
tinge; sides of body ashy-grey vermiculated rather coarsely. Mantle
and scapulars ashy-grey strongly washed with rusty. Greater part of
wing-coverts white but shading to grey proximal to the sub-terminal
black bar of the greater coverts which are all white-tipped ; rest of wing
as in the female.

Juvenile :

Somewhat like the young of the European Sheldrake. Most of
the down dirty whitish, with a dark patch on the crown; a streak down
the hind-neck, four blotches on the back, two on each wing, and one
on either side of the flanks. Bill greyish-pink; legs and feet greyish-
flesh; eyes grey-brown.

Habits :

The Egyptian Goose is certainly the commonest of any within our
boundaries. They are to be found on all the lakes and many of the
larger rivers and swamps, both temporary and permanent.

The lakes of the Lift Valley are the most frequented, especially
Naivasha, Nakuru, and Elmenteita. Practically every sandpit, mud-
flat or half submerged floating islet has its quota of geese. The
numbers recorded by Jackson as observed in the years 1889-94 are not
by any means maintained at the present day.

Small flocks or even single pairs are most frequently seen. They
spend the day time in sleep and resting in some quiet spot and then
commence their evening flight about five thirty. They resort to the
open patches of grass-land and here they feed on the herbage and
grasses especially the latter when they are in seed. They are most
systematic in their stripping of the seed-heads; a bunch of geese will
walk six or eight abreast, each stripping practically every head in front
of them as they progress. Now that the shores of Lake Naivasha have
been settled and many gardens have lawns toward the water, it is no
uncommon sight to see a pair or more of these geese grazing on the
grass at evening or early dawn. So regular are they in the times that
they resort to these grazing grounds that one can almost set one’s
watch by their arrival.

The call of the Egyptian goose is characteristic and can be
likened to a cross between a quack and the honking of a Pink-foot,

97

somewhat like “ honk-haah-haah-haah. ” They also make a hissing
sound when angry. The breeding season is prolonged; I have records
of their nests from January to July, August, October to December.
The nesting site is variable, and the following have come under my
personal observation : in an old disused vulture’s nest; Cormorant’s and
Darter’s nests, hollow in a tree, in crevices of rocks on rocky islets, on
an open sandy spit among grass, in a reed bed, on a river bank, in an
old disused boat-house, and in a hole in a cliff face. These birds
construct a nest of grasses and reeds and there is nearly always a very
thick lining of down from the female. Six to ten eggs are usually laid,
cream-coloured and nearly oval. Incubation takes a month, and both
birds take part in incubation, though the female does the greater
amount.

It is no uncommon sight to witness after one of the main nesting
seasons, several young up to as many as twenty, escorted on the water
by a couple of three-quarter grown geese. Very often one comes across
them quite a distance from the shore; doubtless they are safer here
than resting on the shore, for most of the young are unable to fly.
The moults of these geese have not been studied in detail, and herein
lies a field for original observation.

As a sporting bird the Egyptian Goose stands fairly high; once he
is on the wing and going strong, his speed is good. During the close
season these birds get quite tame, but soon lose their tranquility after
a few days of shooting; they are then very alert and go off at the
slightest sign of danger.

As captive birds these geese are excellent; they are hardy and
easy to cater for and breed regularly, but they require plenty of water.
They are, however, rather pugnacious especially during the nesting
season. They are excellent “ watch-dogs.”

They are very good tree-perchers and one may often see these
birds perched on trees overhanging river banks or even sitting on the
■flat-topped acacias.

PLECTROPTERUS GAMBENSIS GAMBENSIS (Linn.). SPUE-
WINGED GOOSE.

Eef. : Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., 12th ed., 1766.

Type locality : Gambia.

Distribution :

Kenya and Uganda.

Description. Male, adult :

Somewhat variable. The fore-part of the face from forehead to
just behind the eyes bare of feathers, the bare patch extending beyond
the gape in many old male specimens. Beyond the bare area, chin
and throat and fore part of upper neck, pure white; back portion of

98

Spur-winged Geese ( Plectropterus gambensis, Linn.)

crown, nape and the greater part of the neck black, rather browner on
the back of the neck; this black extends on to the upper breast on its
sides and may be continuous with the black on the sides of the body.
Mantle, back, scapulars and most of the wing coverts black, some of
the lesser coverts pure white surrounding the “ elbow ” and at this
joint a well-developed spur. All the black feathers with a strong
greenish metallic reflection, shading to purplish at the margins of each
feather. secondaries similarly coloured; primaries black. Under
side of body from breast to under tail-coverts pure white. Some
specimens have some black feathers below the sides of the tail. Bill
pinkish with a bluish tinge at the base, nail black; legs and feet pinkish;
eyes yellow. Wings 448-500 mm.

Female :

Similar to the male, but with less bare area on the face and gener-
ally smaller.

Immature :

, Head feathered for the most part, and the white areas restricted
and speckled with blackish; dark parts of hind head and neck, dark
brown. Mantle brownish-black. Best of upper side as in the female
but greenish reflections not so marked. Sides of body and flanks
mottled with black. Bill, brownish-pink; legs and feet dirty flesh-
brown. Eyes brown.

Juvenile :

The downy plumage has not been recorded.

Habits :

This is the largest of the geese in Kenya and Uganda, and its
distribution covers an area from the coast to north-west Uganda. It,
however, occurs only in certain localities throughout the year such as
Lakes Naivasha, Nakuru, Elmenteita, portions of Lake Victoria, and
on Lake Jipe, in other places it is but a temporary visitor. It turns
up in most unexpected places such as dams and temporary rain-pans
and swampy areas during the rainy season. I have seen a pair on the
sw^amp near the Nairobi Bifle Bange and occasionally on the swamp
at Lirnuru. ' 1

They do not always keep near water; thus one has seen them on
the open grassy plains in the Masai Beserve when the grass is short
and green, but as a rule they frequent water. They are certainly most
plentiful on the lakes of the Bift Valley so far as Kenya is concerned,
and their favourite localities in Uganda are Lakes Wamala, Kioga, and
George.

The Spur-wing Goose is a nocturnal feeder, coming out on to the
open grassy patches by the lake side, or even frequenting the cultiva-

99

tions near the water. They are grazers and do quite a lot of damage
to fields of lucerne and maize. Not only is damage done by eating the
crop, but their great weight tramples the young plants.

The situations in which one sees these birds are usually the quiet
back waters where there are shelves of floating vegetation or islets and
on half -submerged spits of land. Here they stand or rest and preen
themselves. It is only occasionally that one comes on these birds in
any large numbers : they are usually in pairs or small companies of
half a dozen or so. They are rather shy and soon take alarm unless
one drifts down on them very slowly and quietly; any movement in
the boat puts them on the alert at once. On certain of the low-lying
water-logged banks on Lake Naivasha one may detect these birds by
seeing a dark head and neck above the tops of the rushes ; nothing more
is visible, but approach near and they get up with a swish of wings
that reminds one of the flighting geese on the mud-flats at home.

Their principal food is young luscious grass and grass seed, but they
also devour the young flowers and the seeds of the water-lilies. On
the shores of Lake Victoria, they are accused by the natives of raiding
potato and ground-nut shambas.

The nesting season is not very well known; much more detailed
observation is required. I have found the nests in August and
September on Lakes Naivasha and Nakuru and young, not able to fly,
in January. The nest is a large structure of reeds and roots and other
debris, about six inches deep, in a dense reed patch. Six to eight eggs
have been seen in clutches, ivory-white or creamy in colour, and smooth.

These birds are expert tree perch ers. I have not infrequently
observed them perched on dead trees by the lake side, but those I have
had in captivity always roosted on the topmost branch of an old tree
in their enclosure.

Quite good sport of a type can be had when these birds are flighting
of an evening to one of their favoured grazing grounds, and they take
a deal of lead; however, when obtained they are really not worth
eating, the flesh is coarse and very tough.

As ornamental waterfowl they have their uses; birds in full
plumage and robust constitution add greatly to any assemblage of
water birds.

[End of Vol I.]

Separates of this and the preceding articles can be obtained at the
cost of Shs. 5/- each.

The series includes the Guinea-fowl, Francolin, Spurfowl, Quail,
Pigeons, Doves, Duck, Geese of Kenya and Uganda.

100

Greater Bustard, female.

Greater Bustard, male ( Choriotis struthiunculus , Neum.)

THE BIRDS OF KENYA AND UGANDA.

Part I. Vol. 2.

OTIDIDAE and BURHINIDAE (Bustards and Thick-knees).

By

V. G. L. VAN SoMEREN, F.L.S., M.B.O.U., C.F.A.O.U., etc.
OTIDIDAE (Bustards).

Introduction.

With the issue of Part IX of this series Volume I was completed.
Part I of Vol. II is now issued. This volume deals with the Bustards,
Plovers, Sand Pipers, Rails, Crakes, and Snipe of the territories em-
braced in the review, i.e. Uganda, Kenya, Tanaland, and Jub aland
(Juba River).

The Bustards as a group possess certain characters which are
common to the family. They are entirely terrestrial and their feet
are adapted to their mode of life; the legs are long and strongly scaled;
toes short, and the hind-toe entirely missing. They vary in size from
the Greater Bustard which stands some five feet high to the Little
Crested species which is no taller than 18 inches. All possess powerful
straight bills, rather wide at base, bluntly pointed, and slightly notched
at the tip of the cutting edge; nostrils bare and open. The crown of
the head is wide and flattened.

Seven species and two sub-species occur in our territories,
arranged in five genera.

CHORIOTIS STRUTHIUNCULUS (Neum.) GREATER BUSTARD.
Ref. : Neumann, J. f. Ornith., 1907, p. 306.

Type locality : Lake Zwai, Abyssinia.

Distribution :

North-eastern portion of Uganda and the greater part of Kenya,
though not the highlands above 6,500 feet.

Description, male, adult :

Streak in centre of crown grey finely vermiculated, bordered on
either side by a wide black streak from the base of the bill, all these
feathers greatly elongated, especially those posteriorly, and with the
white black-barred feathers of the occiput, form a crest; from the
nostrils and passing over the eye, a white stripe bounded below from

10!

the posterior angle of the eye by a black streak. Lores and earcoverts
white, the latter streaked with blackish; cheeks white more strongly
streaked with black; chin white; throat and neck feathers elongated
and black and white barred, those on the base of the neck on either
side black, forming a decided patch. The hind part of the neck,
especially towards the base devoid of feathering, but this bare area is
completely covered by the backward inclination of the elongate neck
feathers. Base of hind neck where it meets the mantle, with a con-
spicuous black patch often continuous with the patches on the side.
Mantle, scapulars, innermost secondaries, lesser wing-coverts buffy to
ashy-grev very finely vermiculated with black; those of the mantle
with rufescent tinge to margins; median wing-coverts white with
wide black bar towards end and irregular black speckling basally,
forming a distinct check pattern; secondary coverts, white mottled
with black with a wide grey penultimate bar and white tipped;
secondaries grey with macular white bars; outer primaries black, others
dark grey with white bars and wavy lines on the inner webs. Back,
rump and upper tail-coverts like the mantle ; rectrices dark grey
basally, with twro or more white cross bars, distally vermiculated and
freckled as the mantle, and with a blackish end white tipped. The
whole of the underside from upper breast to under tail-coverts white.
Wings, 720-760 mm. Bill, grey-brown upper, olive-greyish lower.
Eyes, reddish-yellow to hazel-yellow. Legs, greyish-yellow with
greenish tinge. Weight 25-30 lbs.

Female, adult :

Very much like the male but smaller, the wings varying from
525-640 mm., weight 11-14 lbs. The colour difference is mainly in
the tone of the black, it being paler; the head crest and neck plumes
not so developed; the wings are greyer and the check-pattern of the
coverts not so developed.

Juvenile :

There appears to be no description, nor have I any personal notes
on this stage.

Habits :

The Greater Bustard is an inhabitant of the open grassland plains
and open thornbush, and occurs from the Taru desert through suitable
localities up the Bift Valley to Baringo and Budolf, is found on the
plains to the east and west of Mt. Kenia to east Budolf and westward
to north-east Uganda. It does not occur at over 6,500 feet. The
type of country loved by these birds is one where the grass is not too
long such as we find on the Athi Plains and where stony outcrops
occur. They are also very partial to this type of grass country after
a fire has passed over it; not only when the young grass is sprouting

102

but also soon after the fire. At these latter times they pick up vast
quantities of land snails, grasshoppers and small rodents which have
been partly scorched by the heat though not charred. One usually
sees these birds in pairs, or in small companies occasionally; even if
there are several in one locality, one will notice that the pairs do not
associate. The numbers in any one district vary from time to time,
partly seasonal — that is breeding or not — but mostly varying with the
food available. In April- June, 1932, I have counted as many as
twenty birds within a radius of two miles or so; this year in the same
locality not more than two pairs were observed. On the other hand,
the Nairobi commonage has been full of these birds.

They may be seen at a considerable distance, for they walk and
stand with proud upright carriage. Even afar off one will note the
difference in size of the sexes, a difference which is accentuated at
close range. The male are altogether taller and bigger and though
there is quite a considerable range in size in this sex, they are never
as small as the females. One may term these birds tame, that is, they
allow one to pass or approach in a car at no great distance, but attempt
to draw nearer and with aggravating, slow, stately walk they move
away keeping just so far off. One will note the characteristic back-
ward and forward swing of the neck. If on foot, one may tramp miles
to get within reasonable distance but one never gets nearer. If one
comes upon these birds suddenly, they may take flight, but trust
rather to a short run, then leisurely walk to put distance between one.
The times of the day to see these birds are early morning and in the
afternoon; during the heat of the day they remain quiet, perhaps stand-
ing under the shade of a stunted thorn-tree or squatting in longish
grass. They seem to be partial to ridges and tops of hillocks, but take
shelter in the valleys and dips when they rest. One may hear them
call in the morning or late evening, or occasionally when flushed. The
call may be likened to the syllables “ bar-kah-ka,” frequently repeated
when undisturbed, but uttered once or twice only when frightened.

Although fairly evenly distributed throughout their range, the area
between Nairobi and the Kapiti Plains, seems to be considered wdth
favour. They are always to be seen here. They nest on the bare
ground, very often without any attempt at a shallow scoop. One or
two eggs are laid, greenish or olive-brown in ground colour streaked
and mottled all over with darker brown, thus resembling their imme-
diate surroundings to a great degree. They measure 75-78 x 60-63 mm.
Both birds incubate. The nesting season varies according to the rains;
breeding birds or eggs have been noted from May to August over a
number of years. The males display before the female at the approach
of the nesting season. I have not noticed more than one male so
engaged at a time. The display is somewhat like that of a turkey
cock; the head crest is raised and fanned, the neck feathers raised and

103

ruffled out, especially those of the lower neck, and the head and neck
thrown back; the tail is raised and spread fan-wise; the wings drooped;
the throat expanded. A short space in this position and he advances
to the female by side-stepping, then suddenly ruffling all his feathers
he resumes the usual poise. The female appears to take little notice.

The diet of this bird covers a wide range : stones, flints, bits of
iron and brass; insects, snails, small rodents; bulbs, grass and other
herbage are grazed. Truly a diet almost as varied as that of the
ostrich.

As a sporting bird, the Greater Bustard offers a large target, but
many are the misses on account of the large wing span and length of
tail; bulk goes for nothing. A rifle of small bore is usually employed
to secure these birds as they can be very wary, and it is only by care-
ful stalking that one can get within gun-shot range. When secured,
the flesh is not really palatable, unless it be a young bird, and even
then it has to be hung.

CHORIOTIS ARABS BZJTLERI , Bannm. SPECKLED - WING

BUSTARD.

Ref. : Bannerman, Ibis, Vol. VI, No. 3, p. 433, 1930.

Type locality: Renk on the White Nile.

Distribution :

Restricted to Lake Rudolf area.

Description, male, adult :

Feathers of crown sandy ochreous to sandy-grey, finely vermi-
culated with black; those toward the occiput elongated, bordered by
a black streak, narrow in front and widening out posterior to the eye
where the feathers elongate and meeting those of the other side, form
a crest with the long feathers of the crown. Lores and a wide streak
running through the eye, white; chin, white; cheeks, ear-coverts, neck,
except the base of hind-neck, white barred with black, the neck
feathers elongate and disintegrate, forming a ruffle. Feathers at
basal area of hind-neck, mantle, scapulars, back, rump and upper tail-
coverts sandy-buff vermiculated with black; some of the outer short
scapulars, lesser and median wing coverts sandy and vermiculated,
each with a white tip; distal half of major coverts white with some
black freckling; primaries black, inner ones with slight white barring;
secondaries ashy-grey with irregular white bars on outer web and white
freckling on inner webs; tail feathers, base ashy-grey followed by three
white bands separated by two black bands the distal one narrow,
followed by a broad sandy band strongly black vermiculated merging
into a black subterminal bar tipped with white.

The whole of the under-surface of the body is white, including
the axillaries, a few of the upper breast feathers slightly black-barred.

104

Speckled-winged Bustard ( Choriotis arabs butleri, Bannm.).

•

Length of wing 565-570 mm. Bill ochreous-olive with blackish at
base of culmen; legs and feet dirty yellowish-white; eyes creamy
round pupil, white distally.

Female, adult :

Similar to the male but smaller and rather paler above.

N.B. — The chief characters which distinguish this species from
C. struthiunculus , with which it might be confused, are : The
colour of the crown; the absence of any black collar at the
base of the neck; the presence of white tips to the wing coverts,
and absence of any black and white “ check-pattern ”; the
general more sandy tone of the upper side and the amount of
white on the wings.

Habits :

So far as I am aware, this is the first record of this species for
Kenya or Uganda. No mention is made of its occurrence in these
territories by Sclater in his Sy sterna Avium Aethiopicarum, by the
late Sir F. Jackson, in his “ Game Birds,” nor Bannermann in his
review of the species in Ibis, Vol. YI, No. 3, p. 429-434, 1930. There
is, of course, no reason why it should not occur further south than its
previous known distribution, that is S. Anglo-Sudan, and it has
probably been overlooked in the area from which it is now recorded,
viz. Turkana, East Lake Budolf area. I know little of its habits.
The type of locality frequented by these birds is the semi-arid open
plains with sparse grass, grass-lands with stunted thorn trees, and
dried-up watercourses. In general habits they resemble others of the
group, but are reported by my collectors as much more wary than the
others of this genus.

The records for this country are a male and female shot in the
locality cited, in January, 1932.

NEOTIS CAFBA JACKSONI, Bannm. JACKSON’S BUFOUS-

NECKED BUSTABD.

Bef. : Bannerman, B.B.O.C., Vol. 1, 1930, pp. 59-61.

Type locality : Amala Biver, Kenya.

Description, male, adult :

Crown of head from forehead to nape, black with a white central
streak, widest at the nape; a white supercilliary line widest at and
beyond the eye; a whitish patch at base of bill; lores and ear-coverts
white with grey streaks; chin and throat white, followed by a grey
area from the gape down the fore-part of the neck where it pales off
and becomes streaky over the white ground of the fore-neck; hind-
neck cinnamon-rufous separated from the black of the nape by a white

105

collar. Upper breast to abdomen white streaked with grey, these
leathers elongate and disintegrate at the ends forming a ruffle.
Abdomen and under tail-coverts white ; lateral upper tail coverts
white, remainder as the back. Mantle, scapulars, back, rump, and
long upper tail-coverts closely vermiculated with tawny and black,
the mantle washed with greyish in fresh plumage; lesser wing-coverts
similarly coloured; median coverts white at base, black beyond;
greater coverts black and white, the latter colour being more apparent
at the tips and most in evidence at the inner ones; primary coverts
black, white tipped; primaries mostly black with an increasing
amount of white on the inner webs; secondaries black with white on
inner webs, freckled with blackish, long secondaries as mantle. Tail,
central feathers freckled and vermiculated as back, remainder black
and white barred, the penultimate white bar freckled with black
distally. Wings, 580-620 mm. Weight, 15-18 lbs. Eyes, brown;
bill, grey-blue with darker base and homy white edges, lower mandible
whitish tinged with olive; legs and feet whitish with ochreous to
greenish tinge round 5‘ knee.”

Female, adult :

Somewhat like the male but smaller. Crown black with central
white streak expanding towards nape but not extending over the black ;
lores freckled black on sandy ground, this colour extending over the
fore part of eye, followed by a wide white supercillium which goes back
over the ear-coverts; cheeks and ear-coverts whitish freckled on the
former and streaked on the latter, with blackish; chin and throat
white; the whole of the fore-part of the neck ashy-grey finely and
closely vermiculated, the grey shading to lavender at the sides,
encircling the nape, and extending to the upper breast where it is
sharply defined from the white of the breast; hind-neck rufescent;
abdomen flanks, thighs, under tail-coverts white; flanks buffy; mantle,
back, scapulars, rump, long inner secondaries, lesser coverts, freckled
and vermiculated sandy-buff and black; median, greater-coverts black
and white. Tail and flight feathers as in the male. Wings 490-590
mm. Weight 10-12 lbs. Eyes, hazel; bill, lead-grey with darker
culmen, lower whitish; legs and feet whitish.

Immature :

Very like the female, but with freckled streak to crown, coarser
freckling on the throat, less rufescent on the back of the neck,
scapulars and long inner secondaries more coarsely vermiculated
longitudinally, and with a considerable rusty wash on the lesser
coverts. Bill, blackish above, dirty white below; eyes brown; legs
and feet dirty whitish.

J UVENILE :

Not examined.

106

Rufous-necked Bustard (Neotis cafra jacksoni, Bannm.)

Habits :

Jackson's Rufous-necked Bustard inhabits similar country to that
of the Greater Bustard. One frequently sees both species hunting
the same ground and the difference in size is at once obvious.

It can be definitely stated that Jackson’s Bustard ranges to
higher altitudes than does C. struthiunculus ; thus we have records of
it from Nandi, Ravine and Mau. Its stronghold, however, appears
to be the Rift Valley south of Rongai, and the plains of South Kavir-
ondo and West Kenia. It also occurs in suitable localities in Uganda,
especially N.E. Lake Albert. It is very partial to localities which
have recently been burnt off and here it takes its fill of insects, small
mammals, and lizards which have been left by the flames. Under
ordinary circumstances, in addition to the above diet, it feeds on
grass, both blades and seeds, and herbage; it also digs up with its bill,
bulbs of certain lilies and allied plants. I have always found the
stomach to contain a large quantity of grit also.

The display of the cock bird is even more elaborate than that of
the Greater Bustard, partly due to the fact that the neck ruffle is very
much longer and is fanned out into an immense ball in front and the
feathers are kept quivering all the time; further the actual neck skin is
capable of great distension. The call is unlike that of other Bustards
and is very similar to the “ booming ” of the Bittern. Calling
usually takes place in the morning or evening, except during the
pairing season when it can be heard between times. The nesting
season is from February (Uganda), March to June and November.
The nest is a mere shallow scoop or nothing at all, usually quite
exposed or occasionally at the base of a dwarf thorn-tree. Two eggs
are laid, oval in shape, of a pale brown ground smeared and blotched
with darker brown.

In general behaviour, this Bustard is rather wary, and seldom
allows of a close approach even in a car. The only time I have really
come quite close and within easy gun-shot range was when a cock wTas
busy displaying. The flight is a heavy seemingly slow motion, but
it covers distance with remarkable speed as one has learnt to realise
when trying to walk the birds up. At the end of a flight they drop
suddenly, unless the flight has been prolonged and at a considerable
height, in which case they “ plane 5? down gradually. They are
usually loath to take wing, but their steady walk suffices to out-
distance one completely. Though one may see these birds feeding
on the more open grass lands, they resort to the taller denser grass
areas to rest towards noon, and in such situations they are difficult
to detect as their plumage harmonises with the vegetation to a
marked degree, but they are always on the alert; and their height
accentuated by their erect carriage enables them to detect danger
long before one can “ spot ” them.

107

As a sporting bird they offer excellent targets for a rifle ; a shotgun
is seldom of use. Their flesh is quite excellent, but they have to be
hung for a day at least.

There is an undoubted local migration of these birds, but insuffi-
cient data exists to enable one to attempt a calendar of movements.
Information of this nature should be noted and submitted to the
Museum in Nairobi.

NEOTIS HEUGL1NII (Hartl.). HEUGLIN’S BED-BREASTED

BUSTARD.

Ref. : Hartlaub, Ibis , 1859, p. 844.

Type locality: Harar, Abyssinia (E.).

Distribution :

Extralimital, Somaliland, and Eastern Abyssinia; within our
limits, Northern Frontier and Jubaland.

Description, male, adult :

Crown black, tapering to a point at the nape, with a central
irregular white streak slightly expanded towards the nape, followed by
a white supercilliary line narrow at the base of the mandible, expand-
ing in the region of the eye and extending back over the ear-coverts;
lores white speckled with black; a black streak runs from the gape to
below the eye and ends above the ear-coverts; chin and cheeks white,
the latter black speckled; throat white with a large black patch; fore-
neck and upper part of hind-neck lavender grey shading into vinous-
grey, then chestnut on the base of the fore-neck and upper breast,
these areas indistinctly barred with wavy dark-grey lines; feathers on
back of neck sandy-buff with large buffy central area freckled and
vermiculated with black at margins and tip. Mantle, back, lesser
wing-coverts sandy-buff with arrow-shaped buff marks vermiculated
and freckled at margins with blackish; the upper part of mantle
slightly washed with rusty; scapulars and long inner secondaries
coloured as the mantle, but the buffy arrow marks more broken up
by wavy black lines; median coverts black and white with terminal
white spot; greater coverts black with white tips. Secondaries brown-
black with white tips and varying amount of white on inner webs;
primaries mostly black with slight freckling on inner webs, remainder
black-brown with white on inner webs. Rump and upper tail-coverts
buff-sandy distally with gradually increasing distinct blackish vermi-
culations towards end where there is a distinct broad black bar
followed by clear blackish vermiculations then a pure white tip.
Lower surface : Breast, flanks, abdomen, and undertail-coverts white.
Wings, 445 mm. Eyes, hazel; bill, olive at base, horn at tip, lower
whitish; legs and feet, ivory with greenish tinge posteriorly. Weight
6 lbs.

108

glin’s Red-breasted Bustard ( Neotis heuglini, Hartl.).

Blue-necked Bustard (. Eupoditis canicollis, Reich.).

Female :

Very similar to the male above, but top of head less black and
the pale central line buffy; very much less black on throat; chestnut
of breast merely a wash; size smaller. Wings 360 mm.

Habits :

The Chestnut-breasted or Eed-breasted Bustard has only just
recently been known to exist within the limits of our territories and
is represented by specimens in my collection from the Northern
Frontier and Jubaland. It is reported on good authority to be present
on the north-east of the Tana River, though no actual specimens are
preserved from this district. Little is on record regarding its habits.
The country inhabited is open rocky or tufty grass land, with sparse
vegetation.

EUP0D0T1S CANICOLL1S CANICOLLIS (Reichw.). BLUE-

NECKED BUSTARD.

Ref. : Reichenow, Orn. Centrbl., 1881, p. 79.

Type locality : Bardera, Juba River.

Distribution :

Kenya, from the Juba River southward to east Kenya and thence
Tanganyika Territory.

Description, male, adult :

Forehead black, shading to blue-grey which colour extends to
the nape, but is surrounded marginally by black which runs into a
point of elongate feathers at the nape, forming a crest. Lores, super-
cillium, ear-coverts, chin and cheeks pure white, the central ear-
coverts black streaked, while a line of similar colour extends from
above the gape to below the posterior angle of the eye. A large V-
shaped black patch, apex towards chin occupies the throat, the angle
of the V being white. The whole of the neck blue-grey L this colour
extending to the upper breast where it becomes slightly vermiculated
with fine alternate lines of black and sandy. Mantle, scapulars, back,
rump, and upper tail-coverts sandy buff, minutely freckled and
vermiculated with blackish, the centre of the mantle feathers darker;
the long scapulars and long inner secondaries with more marked
sandy-buff areas and wider black speckling and wavy black lines.
Lesser coverts, bend of “ elbow,” primary coverts, slaty-grey with
slight sandy vermiculations ; median coverts rather more tawny and
less vermiculated at tip and outer web giving this area a more uniform
tawny appearance; greater coverts greyish distally shading to tawny-
buff proximally most black tipped. Secondaries black at tip and
along outer web, with increasing whitish on inner web; primaries
brown-black with increasing degree of whitish on inner webs.

109

Bee trices, ashy-grey at base shading to buffy veraiieulated with
blackish and with two blackish cross bars. The fluffy bases of nearly
all the feathers tawny- vinous coloured. Axillaries black. Sides of
breast washed with tawny-buff slightly vermiculated; rest of underside
to vent white; under tail-covert greyish at base becoming white then
buffy at tip, crossed by greyish bars and freckling. Wings, 295-320*
mm. Weight 2}-3 lbs. Eyes, grey-brown; bill, horn brown at tip,
pinkish to yellow at base, lower mandible whitish; legs and feet
ivory with golden ring at knee.

Female, adult :

General scheme of colouration as the male, but with less black on
the forehead and round the crown, also very much less black on the
throat, these feathers being largely white-tipped. The fore part of

the neck and the upper breast tipped with sandy-ochreous finely
vermiculated; the mantle and back more crossed with sandy-buff
markings, the wings with less grey and the blackish freckling and
vermiculations more distinct though wider spaced.

Immature, 1-3 months : Forehead rufescent shading to black
towards nape, all feathers buff or white tipped; streak below eye
rufescent, black streaked; throat patch as in the female; hind part of
neck greyish, fore part of neck and upper breast tawny washed, all
white or buffy tipped and a black line proximal to pale tip; mantle,
scapulars, lesser and median coverts, back and rump with sandy and
black vermiculations and freckles all with white ends rusty tipped;
lesser coverts rusty with white tips; the whole of the lower surface
white; secondaries blackish on outer webs, whitish internally and with
buffy and black vermiculations; primaries blackish with paler inner
webs and buffv freckling at ends. Bectrices buffy at proximal half
sparsely black freckled, more heavily freckled distally and with two
black bars. Bill, horn brown; eye, greyish; legs and feet, dirty
greyish-pink.

The change of plumage from this stage to almost adult female-
like takes four months (captive birds).

Habits :

The Blue-necked Bustard is found in the open grass and thorn
bush from the coast up to Ukambani and the Southern Masai country;
in the latter two areas it is common. It is quite common in the thorn-
bush south of Nairobi. North of these areas it is represented by a
northern race which is distinguished by its paler plumage. They are
usually met with in pairs or small bunches after the breeding season is
over, though on occasions, one may see them in greater numbers in
areas where the grass has been burnt off.

This is perhaps the most-noticed of the smaller Bustards on
account of the fact that it makes its presence known by its loud far-

110

reaching call which is like the syllables “ rue-a-akh sounded
gutterally, and oft repeated. It is particularly noisy in the early
morning, any time during dull weather, at evening, and after a sudden
rain storm. It also has a soft low whistle like “ peu-peu ” which it
utters as it feeds. A tame bird which had the freedom of the grounds
could always be made to call lustily if a loud hammering noise was
made. In captivity they are fearless and will put up quite a good
fight against an animal considerably larger than themselves. The
attitude of defence is very similar to that of the courting display but
defence is achieved by the use of the bill, and to a lesser degree the
feet, in much the same way as an ostrich defends itself, by a forward
kick. Captive birds become extremely tame, confiding, and playful.
They are practically omnivorous.

In the wild state these birds feed principally in the morning and
evening, and during noonday they rest, preferably amongst iongish
grass under the shade of a small acacia.

Their food consists very largely of green herbage, grass seeds,
bulbous roots, insects, and land shells.

The nesting season is from February to June and later in the year
in November, though the early part is the principal time. The
courting takes place when the grass-rains start. The males call
lustily and display, though the performance is not so elaborate as that
of Jackson’s Bustard. The wings are half expanded and drooped;
the tail is fanned; the neck is depressed, but the throat is expanded
showing off the full black patch to great advantage, and the head
feathers are raised, the nape crest being expanded. In this attitude
he walks around in small circles, and drawing in his feathers he stands
upright, expands his throat and calls vociferously. The nest is a mere
scratch amongst stones on the bare ground; two eggs are laid, almost
round, olive-grey in ground colour with dark-brown blotches and
indistinct purply-grey marks. The downy stage has not been recorded.

These birds offer quite good sport but they are not difficult to
obtain. Their flight is slow and not sustained. When flushed they
soon alight again and do not run, so that one can count on flushing
them more than once. If one of a pair is shot, the other remains in
the vicinity and can be bagged with little difficulty.

EUPODOTIS CANICOLLIS SOMALIENSIS, Erl. SOMALI BLUE-
NECKED BUST ABB,
Ref. : Erlanger, Jur . /. Ornitli., 1905, p. 84.

Type locality : Metaker, Gallaland.

Distribution :

The whole of the Northern Frontier area to just south of the
Northern Guasso Nyiro, Laikipia, Suk, and Turkana.

Ill

Description :

In both sexes, this race can be recognised from the more southern
and typical race by their generally paler, more sandy upper surface
which in addition to the sandy and black vermiculations, has sandy
subterminal irregular bars. Further the wings are more rufescent
from the “ elbow ” to the long secondaries.

The female is rather more buffy on the front of the chest, and the
top of the crown is greyish -buffy.

Habits :

These are similar to the southern race.

LOPHOTIS GINDIANA GINDIANA (Oust.). BUFF - CRESTED

LITTLE BUSTARD.

Ref. : Oustalet, Bull. Soc. Philom ., 7, 1881.

Type locality: South Somaliland, Bardera?

Distribution :

The dry country round Rudolf, Suk, Northern Frontier, south
through Ukambani, to the Taru desert.

Description, male, adult :

Forehead, lores, cheeks, supercillium, upper ear-coverts dove-
grey, with a white line above gape and round the fore-part of the eye;
sides of throat to lower ear-coverts creamy-white shading to isabelline
at the nape ; crown of head grey with sandy-buff vermiculations alternat-
ing with fine black freckling and dark centres to each feather; at the
nape a long isabelline-vinous tuft of disintegrate plumes. Fore and hind-
neck grey, the latter with an isabelline wash at upper part, the former
with a black central stripe which runs from the chin to the middle
of the upper breast where it separates the two conspicuous white breast
patches ; the whole of the undersurface to the under tail-coverts jet
black. Mantle, scapulars, lesser wing-coverts, long secondaries, rump
and upper tail-coverts sandy-buff with irregular, coarse, wavy blackish
vermiculations, the feathers of the mantle and scapulars with blackish
spear-shaped central markings.

Median wing-coverts grey vermiculated with blackish basally and
with broad white tips; greater coverts, similarly vermiculated at base
but with a broad white sub terminal band followed by black ; secondaries
black, isabelline- white barred; primaries black on outer web, but mostly
white on inner web with black bars. Central tail feathers sandy-buff
vermiculated with blackish, remainder similarly coloured but with a
terminal black band. Bill, horn-brown at tip, olive-grey at base, lower
paler greenish-grey; legs and feet pale olive-grey with whitish fore
scales; eyes creamy-white. Wings, 250-260 mm. Weight 1J-2 lbs.

112

Buff -crested Little Bustard (Lophotis gindiana, Oust.).

Female :

General scheme of body plumage similar to the male. The wings
are less conspicuously coloured having more black freckling and less
white on the median coverts ; the upper breast feathers instead of being
pure white are heavily and irregularly marked with black; the whole
of the neck feathers are sandy, barred with blackish and have terminal
buff tips; the throat is isabelline to whitish with an extension of the
white colour down the middle of the front to about half way; the lores,
cheeks, and ear-coverts are deep isabelline; the forehead is rufescent
shading to black-brown with buff tips and bars. The white areas on
the primaries and secondaries are strongly isabelline. Wings 250 mm.
Bill horny brown to greyish at base, lower horn-grey; legs and feet
olive-grey. Eyes ochre.

Habits :

This, the smallest of the Bustards of the territories, is a very
handsome species and its distribution is more limited than most. It
is an inhabitant of the drier thorn-bush and veldt country of low levels
and does not occur over 5,000 feet. It is frequently met with singly,
sometimes in pairs and seldom in parties. One often sees it in those
open bare patches where ants have cleared all vegetation leaving a
wide circle of bare ground with just a heap of grass-seed husks in the
centre; I shrewdly suspect that these birds eat the ants in these places,
as ants of the species have been found in the stomach contents. Their
principal diet is seeds, green herbage, and insects.

Little is known of their movements, but there is a local migration.
When flushed, they fly up over the stunted bush but soon drop,
selecting some patch where cover is thick, and here they actually
squat, and may be flushed again. Breeding birds were obtained in
March to June. I have not seen the nuptial display. The clutch
consists of two eggs laid on the bare ground. They are stone grey with
brown markings and underlying blotches of darker purply-grey. There
is not the great difference in size between the sexes in this species as
in others but its general small size makes it readily recognisable.

LISSOTIS MELANOGASTER MELANOGASTER (Hupp.). BLACK-

BELLIED BUSTARD.

Ref.: Ruppell, N. Wirbelth. Vog., p. 16, 1835.

Type locality : Lake Tsana, Abyssinia.

Distribution :

Through the open bush and grass-lands from practically the coastal
belt to the highlands up to 6,000 feet and thence to Uganda in suitable
localities.

Description, male, adult:

Forehead to about the centre of the crown blackish, each feather
with a wide sandy-buff tip ; posterior part of crown sandy-buff extremely

113

finely vermiculated with blackish, the nape feathers elongate; lores,
supercillium and upper part of ear-coverts pearl-grey with buffy flecks,
continued beyond the eye as a black streak bordered above and below
with white and continuing to the nape, forming with the buffy-nape
feathers a short crest; feathers round gape isabelline shading off into
white on the cheeks and ear-coverts, this white extending downward and
forward on either side of the black neck line ; chin and upper throat
silvery-grey shading to black which colour passes down the mid-line of the
fore-neck to widen out on the upper breast and joins the black of the lower
surface. The hind-part of the neck sandy-buff with fine wavy black
lines; this ground colour extends over the mantle, scapulars, long inner
secondaries, each feather vermiculated with black and having an arrow-
head central mark of the same colour in increasing size from the fore-
part of the mantle to the long secondaries. Wings and marginal coverts
and median coverts pure white ; lesser coverts sandy-buff sparsely
vermiculated with blackish, the upper ones with black arrow-marks
towards end; greater coverts almost entirely white and with a sub-
terminal Y-shaped black mark; outer primary black, remainder white
with black on the outer web of the next two and black only on the tips
of the rest; secondaries white with black tips and black on the inner
webs. Back, rump and upper tail-coverts buffy with blackish freckling
and vermiculations ; central tail feathers similarly coloured and with
blackish cross-bars, remainder more ochreous-sandy more sparsely, but
less finely freckled and vermiculated with black-brown and with four
blackish cross-bars. Upper breast with a large white patch on either
side formed by the expansion of the white stripes of the fore-neck;
whole of the remainder of the underside, including the thighs, black,
this last with a white ring distally, and the tips of the under tail-coverts
slightly freckled with buff. Bill horn-brown at culmen, rest yellowish,
lower whitish; eyes yellow or ochreous; legs and feet yellowish white
or creamy. Wings 325-350 mm. Weight (average) 2J lbs.

Bemale, adult :

Middle of forehead to just beyond the eye line, sepia, each feather
with an ochreous tip; remainder of the crown to nape rufescent-sandy
vermiculated with blackish; sides of forehead, lores and supercilliary
stripe ochreous fading to whitish distally; region below the eye, forward
ear-coverts, chin and throat whitish with buffy tinge more pronounced
on the distal ear-coverts; neck sandy coloured finely vermiculated with
blackish ; upper breast paler and more sparsely vermiculated and
speckled with black, with median dart shaped blackish marks; mantle,
scapulars, back, long secondaries, marginal and lesser coverts of the
wing buffy with spear-head blackish central marks and black irregular
vermiculations. The buffy ground-colour of the wings paling towards
the median coverts and less marked with black ; secondaries black with
small white tips and sandy freckling in the form of bars; primaries,

114

Black-bellied Bustard (Lissotis melanogaster melanogaster, Rupp.).

outer one black, remainder black with dentate marks on the inner web
and with slight buff tips. Upper breast buffy fading to white on the
abdomen and vent; sides of body washed with ochreous buff and with
blackish vermiculations and black streak on mid-rib; some of the long
feathers blackish; under tail-coverts buffy with blackish wavy cross-
bars and freckling. Eectrices sandy-buff with blackish vermieulation
and four black bars. Bill, eyes, and feet as in the male. Wings
310-330 mm.

Immature male :

Very like the female but with some indication of a black throat
patch and central black line down the front of the neck; breast and
abdomen sepia to black blotched with white; thighs black spotted with
white and with a white circlet distally; mantle and back generally like
the female, but arrow marks more distinct and the wing-coverts paler
and inclining to white on the median area.

J uvenile :

Crown dark brown heavily spotted with ochreous; neck ochreous
with black bases; mantle, back and wing coverts sepia with black
central area to each feather vermiculated with sandy-buff and with a
terminal buffy spot; upper breast spotted like the neck; remainder of
underside dirty whitish freckled and vermiculated with blackish on the
sides and on the under tail-coverts.

Habits :

This is by far the commonest of the smaller bustards within our
territories and is distributed over a wide area from the bush zone of the
coast to the highlands up to 7,000 feet and over the greater part of
Uganda. It is a conspicuous bird when on the wing, more especially
the males, as the large white area of the wings is most apparent. One
character of interest and importance is the very slender long neck,
which gives the impression that the bird has an extra big head; most
figures of the species do not depict this character. The black-bellied
Bustard can only be confused with one other species and that is
Hartlaub’s Bustard, which should be recognisable by its much darker
appearance and more squat, thicker neck.

One most often sees the birds in pairs or small family parties, though
occasionally in groups of half a dozen on some favourite feeding ground
which has recently been burnt off. In the grass and thorn-bush country
these birds are difficult to detect as their colour harmonises with the
brown vegetation, and even the black under-surface conceals rather
than makes the bird obvious. Often, if one suddenly surprises these
birds, they will squat or lower themselves on to their “ knees ” and
remain motionless; they are then very hard to see. When flushed they

115

go off with rather a heavy flight and carry on until well out of range
and then drop down and crouch.

It is easily killed with shot, as its plumage is soft, and the pellets
penetrate with little difficulty. As a table bird, its flesh is excellent.
These birds have a ground display when courting very similar to that
of the Blue-necked species, but in addition they indulge in aerial
displays both before and after copulating.

The male bird will fly up and “ tower ” and when a considerable
height up will put the wings up over the back, depend the legs and with
lowered head will drop vertically, and just before reaching the ground
will bring the wings sharply to the horizontal and with outspread tail
will break the impetus. On other occasions the downward flight is
more of a sailing motion, the wings being held not so vertically.

The call of the cock is characteristic and is like the syllables ‘ ’ Ror-
burk ” oft repeated and is usually uttered in the morning or evening,
but in this species also, a shower of rain will cause them to call. They
feed largely on insects, seeds, green vegetation, and berries. They are
easy to keep in captivity and become very tame. The nesting season
varies according to district; thus in Uganda breeding birds were obtained
in February to April; in the Nairobi area they breed in May and June;
at the coast in March and October. The egg, for only one is laid, is
laid on the bare ground, either amongst stones or in short tufty grass.
It is olive-brown in ground colour, with deep purply-grey marks and
brown blotches on the surface. Old native cultivations are very
frequently resorted to by these birds, for the purpose of obtaining
certain green herbs, especially a wild spinach which grows there.

LISSOT1S HARTLAUBI1 (Heugl.). HARTLAUB’S BLACK-

BELLIED BUSTARD.

Ref. : Heuglin, Jrl. /. Ornith ., 1863, p. 10.

Type locality : Eastern Sennar.

Distribution :

Drier parts of Kenya from the Coast up the Rift Valley, east and
north Mt. Kenia, to Eastern Uganda.

Description, male, adult :

Centre of forehead to mid-line of crown blackish with creamy tips,
behind this paler, with whitish fine vermiculations ; this area to the
nape surrounded by a white band; lores, supercillium, cheeks, chin, and
throat shading to black, this black zone extending from the posterior
angle of the eye, passing to the posterior part of the supercillium thence
back to the nape where it meets the line of the opposite side ; it is con-
tinued down to the lower throat where it meets its fellow of the other
side and then extends down the mid line of the fore-neck to meet the

116

Hartlaub’s Black-bellied Bustard ( Lissotis hartlaubi, Heugl.).

%

/ ' •

“

;

black of the upper breast which colour extends over the whole of the
underside to the under tail-coverts. Beyond the black on the head is
a narrow white zone which expands over the ear-coverts then passes
down on either side of the mid black line of the throat and expands out
into two white patches on either side of the upper breast. The
remainder of the neck is very finely vermiculated black and greyish-
white, the vermiculations broader and widening out at the base of the
neck. Mantle, scapulars, back gtnd long inner secondaries sepia, with
bold creamy speckling and vermiculations, each feather with an
irregular arrow-mark in the centre accentuated by a creamy outline.
Lesser wing coverts similarly coloured but paler; while the marginal
coverts median and greater coverts are white ; primary coverts black and
white; primaries: outer one black, remainder mostly pure white with
increasing black tips from within outward, the second and third with
black outer webs; secondaries white with black inner webs and an
increasing amount of black extending to the outer web from without
inward, innermost secondaries as described above. Bump and upper
tail-coverts black with fine sparse white speckling; tail black with
narrow bars of white speckling. Bill horn-brown on culmen, remainder
pale whitish-horn with yellowish tinge; legs and feet ivory; eyes creamy-
yellow. Wings 320-33*0 mm.; weight 2J lbs.

Female, adult :

Fore-part of crown sepia with large creamy tips shading to sandy
buff on the hind-part which is finely vermiculated with blackish and
ochreous tipped; lores, area round the eye and ear-coverts sandy-buff
the latter slightly streaked; chin and throat whitish with a creamy
wash; upper part of hind neck sandy-buff very finely vermiculated with
blackish while the lower part, though similarly coloured, has in addition
large creamy spots at the end of each feather, these spots outlined in
blackish; fore-part of neck with ground colour as back, but with
elongate creamy central marks which become more rounded towards
the base of the neck and widening out on the upper breast and outlined
distally with blackish thus forming narrow angular marks; the breast,
abdomen, flanks and under tail-coverts are creamy, the long feathers on
the side of the body with black shaft-marks and slight blackish vermicu-
lations; mantle, scapulars, long inner secondaries with small arrow-head
blackish marks accentuated distally with creamy, the remainder of each
feather being creamy with blackish vermiculations (the back is thus
more pale and blackish and the central marks less conspicuous than
in L. melanogaster). The wing-coverts are creamy with sparse sepia
vermiculations and blackish shaft streak; the outer primary is black,
the remainder black with dentate white marks on the inner webs; the
secondaries black with white tips and whitish freckling as indistinct
bars on the inner webs. The tail is buffy with blackish vermiculations
and irregular blackish bars, more ill-defined than in L. melanogaster .

117

The under tail-coverts are buffy with distinct black bars and widely-
spaced black vermiculations.

The whole general tone of the upper-side in both male and female
is darker, more finely marked and less sandy ochreous than in
L. melanogaster , with which they might be confused.

The immature and juvenile plumages are unknown to me.

Habits :

Hartlaub’s Bustard is of extreme interest in that so far as Eastern
Africa is concerned, little or nothing is known of it or its accurate
distribution, largely owing to its great resemblance to the preceding
species and resultant confusion therewith.

Relatively few examples have been obtained, not so much due to
its scarcity, but to the fact that most Lesser Bustards, when shot, are
not preserved but find their way to the “ pot.” From records, as
indicated in the distribution, we know that the bird is to be found in
the lower altitudes from the coast to Uganda, that is, in open bush-
country and the more arid areas of the territories. They occur singly
or in pairs and in general behaviour resemble L. melanogaster, except
that I have never witnessed these birds doing aerial stunts. It is
reported to be plentiful north of Suk and in Turkana. There is nothing
on record as to its nesting time in Kenya or Uganda. I have
endeavoured to indicate the distinguishing characters of these two very
similar species in the hope that readers will make observations on
Hartlaub’s Bustard, and send material to the Museum.

Family BURHINIDAE.

STONE PLOVERS, or THICK-KNEES.

Genus Burhinus.

The members of this family form a compact group which until
recently were classified along with the Charadriidae, or true Plovers.
There are however certain skeletal characters which remove them from
the plovers and indicate their affinity to the Bustards, a group we have
just completed. The presence of only three toes, the type of scaling
on the legs, and the thickened knee are points which separate them
from plovers.

Four species and two geographical races are found within our
boundaries. All are characterised by a type of plumage which is suited
to their environment, mostly greys, buff and sandy, streaked or spotted
with blackish or sepia, and white underside. All possess long legs
which enable them to run with ease in the type of country they inhabit,

118

Spotted Stone Plovers. Photo: Mrs. J. T. Hansen.

Spotted Stone Plover ( Burhinus capensis capensis, Licht.). Photo: Mrs. J. T. Hansen.

and all have large heads with very large eyes and strong blunt-pointed
bills. Of the species which occur here, one is a migrant from Europe,
visiting these territories during the northern winter.

BUBHINUS CAPENSIS CAPEN81S (Licht.). SPOTTED THICK-

KNEE or STONE PLOVER.

Ref. : Lichtenstein, Verz. Doubl., p. 69, 1823.

Type locality : Cape of Good Hope.

Distribution :

Through the southern and central portion of Kenya to the Rift
Valley and Kikuyu country and south of the Northern Guasso Nyiro and
parts of South-western Uganda.

Description. Male and female, adult :

Lores and forehead at base of bill, white, the latter slightly streaked
with black; the white of the lores extending below the eye to the front
of the ear-coverts, the feathers below the eyelid streaked with black; a
buffy line streaked with black extends from the sides of the lower
mandible and passes back to the lower ear-coverts which are greyish-
buff streaked with sepia; chin and throat white, this colour extending
up towards the ear-coverts ; crown to nape and fore-part of supercillium
dark sepia with sandy-buff margins, posterior part of supercillium
white; neck and chest buffy to sandy colour streaked with dark sepia,
these dark streaks extending on to the lower breast and sides of body
which are buffy white; abdomen white; vent pale buff shading to deep
buff on the under tail-coverts; mantle, scapulars back, and marginal
coverts of wing sandy to to greyish-buff with central dark sepia arrow
marks ; long secondaries similarly coloured but with a series of
contiguous arrow marks; lesser and median wing-coverts pale buffy-
grey to buffy, with sepia arrow marks; greater coverts grey to buffy -
grey with paler margins ; secondaries : outer ones sepia-black with white
tips and white on inner webs, inner ones becoming more greyish with
buffy margins and vermiculations ; primaries black, paling on the inner
web and with a broad white bar on the three outer ones. Rump and
upper tail-coverts buffy to grey-buff with central sepia marks which
form irregular cross bars on the latter; tail feathers, central ones grey-
buff with sepia cross bars, others with a paler ground colour to almost
white, with fewer bars but subterminal white bar and broad black tip,
sometimes slightly edged with whitish. Wings 210-225 mm. Eyes
lemon-yellow, with mottling; bill, black at tip, greeny-yellow at base;
legs and feet yellowish with darker more brownish scutes.

Immature :

Somewhat like adults in general colour but dark markings more
elongate, especially on the dorsum.

119

Juvenile in down :

The whole of the upperside greyish-buffy with slight diffuse darker
marks in spots, bars, and streaks down the centre of the back and
the sides of the dorsum; underside whitish to buffy on the breast where
it is slightly mottled. Feathering takes place rapidly, but the downy
feathers are retained on the tips of the succeeding feathers for quite a
long period. The back and rump feathers are the last to appear. Eyes
yellow; bill pale olive at base, tip black; legs pale olive-yellow.

Habits :

These will be dealt with under the two races. Vide post.

BURHINUS GAPENSIS AFFINIS (Rupp.). NORTHERN SPOTTED

THICK-KNEE.

Ref. : Ruppell, Mus. Senck. 11, p. 210, 1837.

Type locality : Kordofan.

Distribution :

The northern portions of Kenya, north of the Guaso Nyiro, Lake
Rudolf area, and Turkana.

Description. Male and female, adult :

Differs from the southern race by the general brighter colour, the
ground tone being a tawny-rufous instead of sandy-buff. The crown
of the head is not so dark, and the ear-coverts are strongly rufescent;
the dark sepia markings are smaller, not so diffuse marginally and thus
show up much more on the rufescent ground colour. On the other
hand the wing coverts are paler with more cordate or racquet-shaped
spots; the tail feathers are more strongly marked.

Juvenile :

Ground colour sandy grey finely mottled ; two dark dorsal lines and
broken lines on the head and spots on the wing. Underside buffy to
white.

Habits of both races :

The Spotted Thick-knees are found in the more open scrub and
bush country where there are areas of open rocky or sandy ground or
rocky broken ground with sparse tufty grass. They are very partial
to the wide shallow rock-strewn dongas or valleys, but they are not
averse to frequenting partially dried-up river-beds. In the Nairobi
district one not infrequently sees them in the vicinity of the large
exposed and decomposing lava flows such as one finds on the plains and
in the Ngong district. They do not occur in long thick grass, but it

120

is no uncommon thing to find them on the veldt where the grass is
short and small stunted whistling- thorn abound. They are full of
confidence in their wonderful protective colouration, and for this reason
are bold and do not take alarm easily, but they remain motionless either
standing or squatting, and it is extremely hard to detect them. Their
large light yellow eyes are the most conspicuous part about them.
Even when disturbed, they run and take up their position near some
object that blends with their colours; this action is deliberate. If they
have settled, after flight, they stand and then move with very slow
motion to some spot of concealment. Furthermore, a brooding bird will
not leave its nest, sic, unless made to; rather does it make itself less
visible by flattening and laying its head and neck on the ground straight
in front. The species is comparatively common on the plains south
of Nairobi, and here they breed. The nesting season in the Nairobi
district is March to June and October to November, and during these
months we have seen both eggs and young. Two eggs are laid in a
shallow depression with either no lining or possibly a few small stones
or bits of grass. In ground colour these eggs are grey-buff or pale
brown with underlying marks of stone-grey or purply-grey blotched on
the surface with dark brown. In size they vary from 50-55 x 86-40 mm.
The young in down are as already described. They remain in the
vicinity of the nest-scrape for a few days but later wander further
afield. At the slightest alarm, these youngsters squat and lying fiat
with head and neck outstretched, in some slight depression, become
invisible. One has frequently watched a pair feeding with their young
on some stony ground, and going forward one has failed to find the
youngsters which were a moment before walking about the spot. At
such a time, the parents remain close by and keep up a continuous low
whistling, running a few steps, then standing still, or standing very
upright for a while, then bobbing, at the same time raising and
depressing the tail — very plover-like in behaviour. Their food consists
almost entirely of insects, and small Crustacea and molluscs, but
certain grass-seeds are also taken. Young birds make a curious noise
like that uttered by a brooding fowl when disturbed, a rather long-
drawn note; while the usual call is rather plaintive like that of the
Curlew, “ tche-u,” the end of the note drawn out and gradually
tailing off. These birds are subject to local movement, but the data
is incomplete to suggest fixed movements. When on migration one
may see more than a dozen birds more or less together, but usually one
finds them in pairs.

Their flight, when disturbed, is weak and trailing, that is, it lacks
vigour; the wings are not fully expanded, and the legs are held hanging
down as though the bird was very loath to fly at all, and it soon settles.
They have a good turn of speed when running and this mode of progres-
sion is preferred. The head and neck are extended and held low as
they run.

121

BURHINUS SENEGALENSIS (Swains.). EASTEEN, SENEGAL

OE WHITE- WINGED THICK-KNEE.

BURHINUS SENEGALENSIS ASSIMILIS (Badeker).

Eef. : Swainson, Bds. W . Afr. 11, p. 228, 1837.

Type locality : Senegal (typical); East Sudan (for race).

Distribution :

Through Uganda, to the N.W. portion of Kenya, Lakes Baringo,
Hannington; Northern Guasso Nyiro; Eudolf area.

Description. Male and female, adult :

Top of head, cheeks, ear-coverts and back of neck, cinnamon- huffy
with dark central streaks of sepia to black ; lores and the greater portion
of the supercillium white; throat white, this colour being carried up the
side of the upper neck below the ear-coverts; lower neck and upper
chest white, washed with sandy-buff and streaked with black-brown;
rest of the underside to vent white; the sides of the body lightly streaked
with blackish; under tail-coverts white to cinnamon-buff. Mantle,
back, scapulars, marginal coverts of wing, long inner secondaries ashy-
grey brown, with blackish central shaft streak and faint sub-marginal
grey line, the edges washed with ochreous and sandy. The lesser wing-
coverts ashy-grey-brown with blackish shaft streaks and tawny edges,
darker where they meet the median-coverts which are pale ashy-grey
with decided sepia shaft streaks; greater-coverts pale greyish basally
shading to whitish followed by a sub-terminal black bar, tips white.
Primaries white at base and on most of the inner web, remainder black-
brown with a white bar crossing the three outer feather, and with white
tips to the inner primaries; secondaries: outer ones whitish basally,
distally grey-brown with white tips, inner ones elongated and mostly
grey-brown to ashy-brown with narrow blackish shaft streak, edges
paler and washed with sandy-buff. Eectrices : central pair ashy-grey
with black shaft and grey sub-marginal band and pale edges; next two
pairs mostly ashy-grey with indistinct grey "wavy bars, then shading to
black distally, with a white subterminal bar; remainder mostly white
with a black tip and indistinct wavy grey bar across inner web, and dark
shaft. Eyes pale yellow; legs and feet olive-grey with yellowish tinge;
bill, black at tip and margins; greyish-yellow basally. Wings 212-230
mm. (These birds are slightly larger than West African ones. The
racial name assimilis, Badeker, is available for them.)

Habits :

I am not yet satisfied that the eastern birds constitute a fixed
geographical race and have therefore merely indicated the possibility of
distinction. ( Vide Friedmann, Bull. U.S.N . Museum , 153, pp. 182-

122

Senegal Thick-knee or Stone Plover ( Burhinus senegalensis, Swains.)

184.) This species has a rather limited distribution as already indicated
ante, but it is common in the Turkana and Rudolf areas. In these
districts it is to be found along the banks of the rivers, in old water-
courses, and also occurs on the shores of Lake Rudolf. One may safely
state that it is partial to water, but on the other hand one does observe
it in places miles from rivers or lakes. In general habits it resembles
the Spotted Thick-knee, but is on the whole rather more shy. As soon
as they observe one approaching, they stand motionless, or squat; with
care one can then come quite close to them. If too close, they suddenly
run, but not far, seeking cover at no distance, usually a bush, rock, or
depression. Their mode of running is typical; they hold the wings just
clear of the body, and with out-stretched necks they make off, often
taking a zig-zag course. Their general carriage is an upright one and
if they have come to a stand after a run, they “ bob ” in much the
same way as has been described under the preceding species. When
the river beds are dried up one may frequently find the birds there, for
they love the shelter of the trees in the vicinity. Their diet consists
almost entirely of insects, small mollusca and Crustacea, but they are
also known to eat small frogs and tadpoles. They devour large
quantities of locusts when these pests are about.

Though fond of the vicinity of water, the ground they frequent is
usually sandy or rocky and it is in these localities that they nest. The
nesting season occurs twice a year : March to June and September to
November, so far as my records show. The clutch consists of two eggs,
huffy with brown marks of various shades, some superficial, others
underlying, and are deposited in a shallow depression which may or
may not be lined with a few bits of gravel or grass. They are of no
interest as a sporting bird. The call is very like that of the spotted
species, but higher in pitch.

BURH1NUS VERM1CULATUS VERMICULATUS (Cab.). WATER

THICK-KNEE or STONE-PLOVER,

Ref. : Cabanis, J. f. Ornith ., 1868, p. 418.

Type locality : Lake Jipe, Teita.

Distribution :

In suitable localities from Western Uganda through to the Juba
River and Kenya.

Description. Male and female, adult :

Throat white to buffy-white; a white streak on the posterior
supercillium ; lores white, this colour passing below the eye and shading
off into the ear-coverts; streak from the base of the lower mandible,
top of the head and hind-neck to upper mantle, ashy-brown streaked
with blackish; front of neck, breast and sides of body white with a
strong wash of sandy to buff, strongly streaked with sepia, the feathers

123

on the sides of the upper-breast tinged with greyish; rest of the under-
surface white to as far as the vent; under tail-coverts cinnamon-buff.
Mantle, scapulars, long inner secondaries ashy-grey-brown with
central blackish streak, widest and most pronounced on the mantle,
and vermiculated with dark ashy-grey. Back and rump as the hind-
neck; upper tail-coverts ashy-grey with dark streak and faint vermicu-
lations ; tail feathers : central pair ashy-grey paling at margins and
tips strongly vermiculated, others with basal two-thirds ashy with
darker wavy cross-bars followed by a white subterminal bar, ends black
with pale tips. Wings : marginal coverts ashy-grey with black centres
and fulvous edges; these shade into a very dark series which form a
bar across the wing, which in turn give place to another line of white
coverts grey tipped; the median coverts are pale ashy-grey with
distinct blackish or sepia shaft streaks, while the greater coverts are
ashy-grey with blackish tips; primaries black-brown with some white
on inner webs, the three to four outer mostly black with a white bar,
the remainder with pale bases and black distally, the outer ones white
tipped; secondaries basally whitish, distally black with the exception
of the innermost ones already described. Eyes yellow; bill black at
end, yellow-olive basally; legs and feet yellowish-grey-green. Wings,
195-205 mm. Bill, 40-48 mm.

Immature :

Very similar, but dorsum more rufescent; wing and fail feathers
more pointed, breast and sides of body more ochreous washed.

Juvenile :

The young in down is greyish-ashy from the crown to the tail with
blackish and darker ashy-grey spotting and mottling, with two lines
on the dorsum, and some barring on the neck; the lower surface is
mostly white with a wash of buffy on the breast.

Habits :

These will be considered along with the western race.

BURHINUS VERMICULATUS BUTTIKOFERI (Reicbw.).

WESTERN WATER THICK-KNEE.

Ref. : Reichenow, Orn. Monatsh. V., p. 182, 1898.

Type locality : Liberia.

Distribution :

The western portion of Uganda.

Description. M4LE and female, adult:

Very like the typical race but with greyer upper side with the dark
markings less defined and conspicuous; bill larger and longer. Bill,
48-55 mm. Wings, 200-220.

124

Nest of Water Thick-knee. Photo: van Someren.

Water Thick-knee or Stone Plover (. Burlunus vermiculatus vermiculatus, Cab.).

Photo: van Someren.

Water Thiek-knee on nest. Photo: van Someren.

Habits. Both races :

This species is essentially a bird associated with water; thus we
find it occurring along the maritime coast, the larger rivers and lakes
and swamps. It is particularly plentiful on the coast at Lamu and
adjacent mainland. It then occurs fairly commonly through Kenya
and again becomes plentiful on the shores of Lakes Victoria and Kioga,
and merges into the western race on the shores of the central chain
of lakes from Albert to Edward and George.

In general demeanour they resemble others of the group, but are
not so given to squatting. They are, however, less shy than the
spotted species, but like them, they are loath to take wing unless
actually forced to do so, but their flight is short. They, however,
have the same power of running.

Their chief food consists of various insects, Crustacea and mollusca.
All the Thick-knees are crepuscular and are most active as the sun
goes down. One not infrequently hears them moving at night, the
evidence being their distinctive call. I have heard the spotted species
flighting over Nairobi on more than one occasion. The nesting season
appears to vary somewhat and to extend over quite a long period ; thus
we have records which cover the months of March, April, May, June;
August, September, October, November, and December. The nest
situation varies; sometimes it is a mere depression on a sandy shore
01 sand spit; occasionally amongst drift-wood and debris on a mud-
bank, often on a pebbly shore or perhaps on some rocky islet. The
clutch is usually two, stone-grey to putty colour on the ground, spotted
and blotched with varying shades of sepia and dark brown mostly
round the larger end. The average size is 45 x 35 mm. though some
go to over 50 mm. in length. These birds are often associated with
crocodiles in their nesting areas.

I take the liberty of reprinting an account of the birds which we
photographed many years ago.*

“ . . . . by a small stream the stealthy movements of a

pair of Stone-plovers arrest one’s attention, so one steps ashore
and casts around for the nest, the while the birds move uneasily
up and down the opposite bank of the stream. A low call from
a native announces a find, and one is delighted to see the nest, a
mere depression in the sand and lined with drift-wood, containing
two handsomely marked stone-coloured eggs splashed with rich
brown. . . .

A hide ’ was constructed near the nest and the photo-
grapher took up his position within it. Soon a plaintive whistle
announced the bird’s return .... the female, after a quiet
inspection of the structure (i.e. ‘ hide ’) boldly walked up to her

* Th© full account appeared in Journal No. 2, Vol. 1, pp. 78-81.

125

eggs at which she seemed to gaze pensively for a few seconds.
Finding all in order she sat down, till the click of the shutter sent
her across the stream once more, where her mate was waiting.
. . . . Latterly the bird did not move off even for the click of
the shutter. . . . Her mate remained on the opposite bank

uttering uneasy cries of warning; however, quite unheeding, she
walked up to the nest and, after a glance at the camera, she gazed
at her eggs for a few seconds, then with a quick motion she sidled
breast first on to the eggs and shuffled around till a comfortable
position was found. Even as the bird sat brooding it would snap
up any passing insect. Occasionally the eggs would be turned
by means of the feet before she brooded.”

The above extracts will serve to show how really bold the birds

are.

BURHINUS OEDICNEMUS OED1CNEMU8 (Linn.). EURO-
PEAN STONE-PLOVER or THICK-KNEE.

Ref.: Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., 10th ed., p. 151, 1758.

Type locality : England.

Distribution :

A European migrant to Uganda and Kenya.

Description. Male and female, adult:

Forehead, lores, stripes above and below the eye, white, the first
with a little blackish streaking, and in front of the eye a black area
which extends below the eye, but not including the lower-lid, and
reaches the upper ear-coverts; a streak from the base of the lower bill
to the lower ear-coverts, the crown of the head to the hind-neck
cinnamon-buff with black streaks; chin and throat white; fore-neck
and chest creamy with dark blackish shaft-streaks, the whole washed
with buffy, and cinnamon-buff on the sides of the chest. Rest of the
under-surface to the basal under tail-coverts white, the feathers on
the sides of the body with narrow black shaft-streaks, the rest of the
under tail-coverts cinnamon-buff. Mantle, back, and rump ashy-grey
with dark shaft streaks, widest on the mantle, feathers with cinnamon
buffy edges; scapulars similarly coloured but with more buffy margins;
long inner secondaries very similar but paler on the edges and with
some grey irregular wavy lines sub-marginally ; marginal coverts of
wing at “ elbow ” ashy-grey, with cinnamon-buff edges and blackish
shaft-streaks, followed by a darker series cinnamon-buff edged, then
by a series which are basally white with narrow black shaft-streaks
which widen out to racquet-shaped terminal spots; these are succeeded
by the median series which are pale ashy-grey with a central sepia area
terminating in dark pointed shaft streaks. The greater coverts are
pale ashy-grey basally shading to whitish, each with a sub-terminal

126

L'opean Stone Plover or Thick-knee ( Burhinus oedicnemus, Linn.)

blackish bar. The wings therefore have a white bar edged above and
below by a dark line, and a further whitish bar crossed by a blackish
bar. The inner secondaries have been described, the basally whitish
shading to blackish distally; the primaries are outer two black with
irregular white bars, next four whitish basally, black distally, the next
series with some white basally but mostly black with white tips. The
upper tail-coverts are pale ashy-grey, tinged with buffy marginally,
with black shaft streaks and greyish longitudinal wavy lines; the tail
feathers are as follows : central pair ashy-grey with wavy sepia-grey
cross-bars, the next pair mostly ashy-grey with black shafts, shading
to blackish at terminal third, then followed by a pale ashy-grey bar,
this bordered distally by further blackish; the other feathers are much
paler in ground colour to almost white, with wavy sepia cross bars,
a pure white sub-terminal bar and a black end, the outermost two being
almost pure white with only the ends black. Eyes, pale yellow; legs
and feet yellowish-grey-green; bill black at tip, basally yellowish-
grey-green. Length of wings, 225-230 mm.

Habits :

This species is a scarce though regular visitor to Kenya and
Uganda, arriving here in October (earliest date recorded, but probably
arrives earlier) and departing in late April. I have invariably found
these birds in twos or small flocks of half a dozen, never singly, and
always in bush-country or the acacia park-like country where scattered
trees give shade over ground which is sparsely covered with grass or
open, sandy, or rocky.

Their plumage is very cryptic, so that one does not see the birds
until one is almost on top of them, but they on the other hand have
detected one’s presence long before, and have “ blanked,” that is,
taken up an absolutely motionless position near some object against
which their plumage blends. When one comes too near for their
comfort, they run off, placing a bush or similar protective object
between themselves and the observer. They then stand again, or
perhaps one of their number will squat in some depression. They will
allow one to approach two or three times to quite near distances before
becoming sufficiently alarmed to actually take flight. They feed
almost entirely on insects, but small mollusca and Crustacea are also
devoured. They do not nest here. One has heard their calls by night,
as they flight either locally or when they are on regular migration.
They are crepuscular to quite a degree, and one has actually picked
these birds up with a spotlight from a car. A locality in which I have
always seen these birds year after year, is on the plains round
Elmenteita, and also on the shores of Lake Nakuru. One specimen
was obtained in a coffee shamba at Kiambu; it was a bird from a flock
which had been heard passing over, and this individual had come in
contact with the telegraph wires and was injured.

127

NESTING HABITS OF SOME EAST AFRICAN BIRDS.

By D. McInnis.

GLOSSY IBIS ( Hagedashia hagedash nilotica).

Among certain of the Jaluo on the shores of Lake Victoria it is
generally supposed that the Glossy Ibis, unlike other birds, dives into
the water in the nesting season and lays its eggs at the bottom of the
lake. They are not however prepared to say whether the parent birds
incubate the eggs themselves or whether the warmth of the water is
sufficient for the purpose. The reason for this belief is not at all clear,
for though the nest is by no means easily accessible, the incubating
parent, when disturbed, remains nearby, continually uttering its harsh
cry, so that even the casual observer could hardly fail to see the nest.

In appearance this nest is not unlike that of the English Rook,
being a large untidy structure composed of twigs, situated high above
the ground in a tall tree near the water’s edge, often at the extreme
end of a branch.

Two to four eggs are laid which are unusually large and elongate
and heavily marked with reddish-brown. Incubation begins when the
first egg is laid. When driven from the nest, the bird is very unwilling
to return unless the observer be well hidden, but it will remain quite
close, frequently taking flights round, or settling on the tree.

EAST AFRICAN BUTTON QUAIL ( Turnix sylvatica alleni, Mearns.)

The nest of this Quail is not easy to find, being hidden in the thick
grass, and the bird when disturbed may run for a considerable distance
before taking wing. The nest consists of a shallow scrape, slightly
lined with grasses. A nest found by the writer contained three eggs,
almost spherical in shape, of a buff ground colour speckled and marked
with dark brown.

Owing to its situation, it is difficult to observe the bird on its nest,
though by watching from a short distance, it may sometimes be possible
to see the birds running quickly through the grass nearby.

SPUR-WINGED PLOVER ( Hoplopterus spinosus, Linn.).

The Spur- winged Plovers are very common along the shores of
Victoria Nyanza, occurring generally in pairs, or groups of three to four,
but never in larger flocks. It is often very difficult to see the bird on
the nest, as it invariably leaves at the first sign of danger, and circles
round the intruder uttering loud cries. On closer approach the bird
often becomes silent, settling on the ground some distance away,

128

thereby disclosing the presence of the nest. Three or four eggs are
laid in a shallow scrape on dry grass-land near the edge of the reeds.

Apparently a considerable time elapses between the laying of each
egg, but incubation begins at the laying of the first egg, not consistent
brooding however, but rather as a means of partial protection. A
clutch of four eggs taken in April was found to have one fresh egg, two
half incubated, and one almost ready to hatch. The same stages were
found in a clutch of three taken in June. In size and colour, the eggs
closely resemble those of the European Lapwing.

iWHITE-WINGED PLOVER, ( Hemiparra crassirostris hybrida ,
Reichw.).

These birds are quite common along some parts of the eastern shore
of Lake Victoria. As a rule they are rather shy but during the breeding
season they may be approached without much difficulty. The birds
are usually seen in pairs, but after the nesting season parties of four
may be observed. When disturbed they never fly far, but settle again
at a short distance or if driven back, circle after reaching a certain
distance and return to the nesting ground. The same applies in what-
ever direction the birds may be driven, suggestive of defined “ beats
between each nesting pair. During the breeding season, though more
approachable, one seldom observes a brooding bird, and although one
is certain of the presence of a nest in the vicinity, the parents seldom
give any indication as to its whereabouts. Unlike the majority of
plovers, the birds construct a nest of damp mosses and weed in
swamps of two to three feet deep. The platform is raised so that the
eggs are raised a few inches above water-level. The eggs are slightly
larger than those of the Spur- winged Plover and on the whole rather
darker, otherwise they are very similar.

THREE-COLLARED RINGED PLOVER (Charadrius tricollaris
tricollaris, Vieill.).

The Three-collared Plovers do not occur in such numbers as the
Sand Plovers, and seldom in flocks unless after the breeding season,
when they may associate with the Sand Plovers. They are almost
entirely confined to the sandy areas of the lake shore where they may
be observed in pairs, hunting the water-line for food. The nest
consists of a small scrape lined with stones and shells, usually situated
on a slight mound of a foot or more in diameter. The eggs are paler
than those of a sand Plover, being less heavily speckled, but in shape
they are very similar. Two, or even one, form the clutch.

The parent birds are not at all shy and when driven from the nest
they always remain within a few yards of the nesting site. They are
however very liable to desert the eggs if too frequently disturbed.

129

EAST AFRICAN SAND PLOVER ( Charadrius pecuarius pecuarius,
Temm.).

The Sand Plovers may be seen in great numbers on the shores ol
Lake Victoria, but each flock consists of not more than a dozen. They
generally frequent those parts of the shore where there are sandy
stretches or mud flats; though they also occur on the grass-lands in
smaller numbers. The nest is a slight depression in the sand, and may
be unlined, or surrounded by a small collection of pebbles. Two eggs
are laid, which, like the parent birds, resemble the colour of the
environment to a very marked degree. The ground colour is buff
closely speckled and lined with black and browrn. The incubating bird
remains entirely motionless for a long period at a stretch, and this,
coupled with its protective colouring, makes it very difficult to see.
At the approach of danger, the bird rises and stands over its eggs and
with rapid shuffling of the feet scrapes the sand over the eggs until
they are completely hidden, when it runs off the nest, seldom taking
wing. Many of these birds are caught during the breeding season by
the native children of the district by means of hair nooses set round
the nest.

COMMON DRONGO SHRIKE ( Dicrurus adsimilis divancatus , Licht.j.

The Drongos are very common in South Kavirondo, but are mainly
confined to certain areas. Generally speaking they frequent patches
of bush along with the Red-winged Bush shrikes, but where the Fiscal
shrike is absent. At all times the Drongos seem quite fearless,
particularly during the breeding season when they become actually
aggressive, attacking any intruder.

The nest is composed of fine twigs and rootlets built into a fork
of a tree at a considerable height from the ground.

Two eggs are laid which may be either pale cream or white with
irregular red markings with a few purply or black spots forming an
indistinct zone round the large end.

GREATER RED-WINGED BUSH SHRIKE ( Tchagra senegala
armena, Oberh.).

The Bush-shrikes are extremely shy at all times, but more
especially so during the breeding season, when they are seldom seen.
Unlike other shrikes they often settle or feed on the ground under cover
of a bush, rather than perch above the ground.

In general structure the nest is very similar to that of the Drongo,
being lightly but strongly built of twigs and rootlets but it is always
situated within a few inches or possibly three feet off the ground in a
low bush. Two or three eggs are laid which show considerable varia-
tion in size. The markings are irregular smears of pink or brown on
a white or pinkish ground fairly evenly distributed over the whole
surface, seldom forming a zone at one end.

130

VICTORIA. RATTLER GRASS WARBLER ( Cisticola cheniana
victoria , Lynes).

Although this species is common round the shores of Lake
Victoria, their nests are difficult to find. The birds are much in
evidence perched on the top of some high bush uttering their calls and
fluttering their wings as the last two notes are sounded.

When disturbed from the nest the bird leaves quickly, keeping
to the cover of surrounding vegetation until some distance off when it
is joined by its mate. Both birds then return to a neighbouring tree
and begin to call with characteristic notes.

The nest is loosely built of rather coarse grass, lined with finer
grass and is placed under some natural projection and slung between
upright grasses or herbs. The eggs are white with pink or liver spots
mainly at the larger end. Three form a clutch. Nests were taken in
April to June.

V^REN WARBLER ( Frinia mystacea immutabilis , van Som.).

The nesting habits of these birds seem to vary to some extent.
The majority, when breeding, are very shy and leave the nest at once,
generally getting away unobserved. A nest containing one egg was
found on the 5th June and was kept under observation until June 13th
when the egg hatched. During the whole of this period the parents
were not seen. Occasionally one finds a bird which will sit close. The
situation and structure of the nest may vary as also the colour of the
eggs. A pair of birds observed on June 7th had built a very neat nest
of fine grass closely woven together and attached to two large leaves
about two feet from the ground. Four eggs had been laid, of a pink
ground colour with irregular spots varying from red to purplish black.
A second nest found on June 16th was very untidy and loosely built
of coarse grass entirely unlined, slung between two leaves about five
feet from the ground. The ground colour of the eggs was bright blue,
with markings similar to the first clutch.

LESSER SWAMP WARBLER ( Calamornis jacksoni, Neum.).

The Swamp Warblers are not easy to observe at close range on
account of their habitat and their shy nature. They are quite common
in patches of reeds growing out in the water on the edge of Lake
Victoria, but they seldom come inland even to the swampy areas.
They are noisy birds, and it is by their full notes that one detects their
presence. The nest, in structure and situation, closely resembles that
of the European Reed Warbler, and is a deep cup suspended between
three or four reed stems about three feet above the water level. Several
nests were found within a few feet of each other. Both birds share in
incubating and if disturbed they hop off but remain in the vicinity and

131

return in a few minutes. Two eggs are laid, whitish in ground colour
and closely speckled with grey. Sometimes they have a greenish
tinge.

ELGON GOLDEN WARBLER ( Eremomela elegans elgonensis , van
Som.).

These birds are fairly common in the open scrub and acacia
country along the southern shore of the Kavirondo Gulf, but are gener-
ally very shy and therefore not often seen. During the breeding
season particularly, it is extremely difficult to observe the bird at close
range until the eggs are hatched, as the parent leaves the nest at the
slightest disturbance, and may not return for an hour or more. Later
when the young are nearly fledged both parents may generally be seen
nearby. It is probable that during incubation, both birds sit, but only
the male has actually been taken on the nest. The only eggs of this
species that have been found are bright blue-green, with a zone of
brown spots towards the large end. This nest was first seen on May
18th when it contained one egg. On the 20th no more eggs had been
laid and the single egg was found to be slightly incubated. Another
nest found on June 18th contained only one young, and it seems that
the clutch must be very small.

The nest consists of a shallow cup composed of mosses, leaf frag-
ments, and thin twigs, the whole being bound together with cobwebs.
It is situated in a fork or suspended between twigs, about six feet from
the ground, in some bush.

JACKSON’S SHORT-TAILED WARBLER ( Sylvietta whytii jacksoni ,
Sharpe).

These birds are occasionally found nesting in South Kavirondo,
though on the whole they do not seem to be common. The nest which
is situated from two to eight feet up consists of a very deep cup with
one lip elongated and built in between a fork or suspended from the
end of a branched twig, and being covered with bits of bark and leaf
fragments, looks very like an old disused nest or a mere collection
of debris. The eggs are rather large in proportion to the size of the
bird, white in ground colour with irregular brown markings. During
incubation the parent sits close and is often difficult to see on the nest
as the bird always sits head towards the top with the beak held
vertically upward.

SPOTTED-TAIL BUSH CHAT ( Erythropygia ruficauda vansomereniv
Sclater).

These birds are not often seen in South Kavirondo, though they
must be plentiful. They frequent the clumps of mixed shrubs and
keep to the undergrowth. They have a most pleasant song.

132

During the nesting season the birds are very shy and it is difficult
to make close observations of their habits. The nest, consisting of a
-deep cup built of grass, is situated almost on the ground in some thick
shrub. Two eggs are laid, not unlike those of the Rattler Warbler,
but considerably larger, white in ground colour spotted with brown
and red.

MEDIUM GREY FLYCATCHER ( Bradornis griseus griseus , Reichw.)

This species is abundant in South Kavirondo, frequenting the open
bush and thorn country. The birds are not at all shy and may be
approached easily. During incubation only the male has been observed
at the nest where he sits very close and sometimes one may almost
touch him before he slips off.

The nest is a shallow cup composed of rootlets loosely woven
together, and generally placed at the top of a stunted bush. One or
two eggs are laid, of a uniform pale olive green.

LONG-TAILED RUFOU S-BELLIED SWALLOW ( Hirundo gordoni
tieumanni, Rchw.).

This bird very closely resembles Emin’s Swallow but may be
distinguished by the length of the fine outer-tail feathers.

The nests of the two species are almost alike both being built of
mud with a long tunnel entrance, and lined with grass and feathers.
Two nests of Gordon’s Swallow were found to contain three eggs,
slightly incubated. The eggs are white. One nest was placed under
an arch formed by the junction of two ant-hills, the second was in a
culvert. When disturbed the birds leave the nest at once and may
remain away for some considerable time.

RUFOUS-CAPPED FINCH-LARK ( Eremopteryx leucoparia , Fisch.,
Reichw.).

Finch-larks are very plentiful in South Kavirondo, especially on
the low-lying grass lands near the shore. The chief nesting period
appears to be May and June, when large numbers of the birds were
taken in snares by the natives. The nest is situated on the ground,
generally in the open without any cover, and consists of a shallow
scrape lined with grass. The eggs, two to three in number, are creamy
white closely spotted with light brown. During the incubation period
the bird is rather shy and leaves the nest at once when approached,
flying off for some distance, to return some time after accom-
panied by its mate. Both parents have been observed on the nest but
the male only relieves the female for short intervals.

138

CHESTNUT SPARROW (Sorella emini emini, Reiehw.).

Several pairs of these birds were found nesting in a colony of
Speke’s Weavers in June. When building, some of the birds utilise
disused nests of the weaver birds, merely adding a lining of feathers.
The majority, however, build new nests, very often robbing the weavers'
nests for material, but sometimes they collect fresh grasses. In the
latter case the material chosen is fine grass stems so that the nests are
much neater structures than those of the coarse grasses previously
used by the weavers.

The nests are domed and reached by a rather elongate entrance
tube, and in the only colony found were suspended from the end of
branches of a eucalyptus tree, at a considerable height from the ground.
Three to four eggs are laid, of a pale-green ground with dark greenish
markings mainly at the larger end.

KAVIRONDO BLACK-FACED BISHOP ( Euplectes orix wertheri t
Reiehw.).

These birds nest in great numbers in the reed-beds of the swamps
near Lake Victoria. Though not in colonies, several nests may ba
found in a single swamp. They sometimes make use of growing
maize, or even bushes at some little distance from water, three or four
feet off the ground or from the water level.

The materials used are fine grasses neatly woven together, and
leaving an entrance at the side towards the top. Nests have been
found containing from four to seven eggs. As a large clutch shows
two distinct degrees of incubation, it appears possible that the nests
are used by more than one bird. It remains to be proved that females
lay indiscriminately in any suitable nest, also whether when two hens
make use of a single nest, both take part in incubation. The
eggs ars usually of a uniform bright blue, though some show minute
black spots which readily wash off.

RED-SHOULDERED BISHOP ( Urobrachia axillaris media , Sharpe.).

Large numbers of these birds may be found nesting from April to
mid- July in the swampy ground on the shores of Lake Victoria.

So plentiful are these nests that they can be said to be in colonies,
nevertheless they are difficult to find being placed in thick grass just
above water-level. The nest itself is semi-cup shaped but a hood
is made over it by weaving the overhead grasses together. Two or
three eggs are laid which may show some slight variation in ground
colour, being either brown or olive green rather heavily spotted with
dark brown and black.

The females are very shy, much more so than the males, and try
to keep out of sight in the thick grass as much as possible. They
undertake most of the incubating, though the males sometimes sit

134

for short intervals. A nest found on June 17th was of the usual type
and a female obtained from it, but the three eggs are, however, more
like those of E\. o. wertheri.

WEAVERS : Hyphantornis castanops, Shelley.

Hyphantornis dimidiatus , Ant, Salvad.

Hyphantornis jacksoni, Shelley.

It is extremely difficult to distinguish between these species in the
field. One of course refers to females. When nesting there seems to
be little segregation of the species, for one will frequently find all three
nesting in the same colony. As a rule, the colonies are in Ambatch
trees or in the papyrus bordering on the lake. The eggs of H. castanops
are commonly of a pale greenish-blue with small purply or brown spots
but those of the other two species may show almost any variation from
uniformly coloured eggs to some heavily spotted.

On the whole, those of H. jacksoni are less uniform and more
spotted than H. dimidiatus. Some examples of clutches taken from a
colony of H. dimidiatus may be of interest :

One uniform dark olive green, two paler green with dark green
spots, three pale green with few large purply spots, five pale green
with close spotting of purple and brown, six plain white, seven
dark chocolate, eight uniform light red-brown.

NOTES ON CHARAXES PYTHODORUS PYTHODORUS.

By R. J. Evans.

Remarks on Habits of Female.

I have watched Ch. pythodorus ovipositing, and it appears to be
its habit to lay not more than four or five eggs on one tree, thus
scattering the eggs over a large area. Ch. pythodorus is also appar-
ently a very slow layer, taking at least two seconds over each egg.
The only specimen of this insect that I succeeded in getting to lay
laid eleven eggs and then died. I afterwards examined it, and the
eggs were finished. Other specimens w'hich died without laying had
from ,27 to 34 perfect eggs inside. Ch. pythodorus apparently will
not lay in captivity unless the cage is in full sunlight.

The laying season would appear to be governed by the young leaf
period of the food-plant. As this is very short, and the females will
only lay on the young leaves, the laying periods seem to be very
restricted.

Early Stages.

The eggs are large and pearly-white. They are laid, singly as a
rule, but sometimes in pairs, on the under or upper surfaces, generally
the former, of the young leaves of Crabia brownei. For 24 hours
after laying it remains almost spherical, slightly flattened on top, then
the usual depression appears. Twelve hours later, an irregular reddish
ring appears round the rim of the depression, with a small red spot
in the centre. The lower half of the egg becomes suffused with
pinkish-brown. After three days the red markings turn grey-brown.
Before hatching the egg turns black. The egg stage lasts eight to
ten days.

The young larva is at first uniform olive-brown with a white tail
and black head. The horns are white, and give the appearance of a
frill. Immediately on emerging the larva eats the egg-shell, and very
shortly after starts in search of food. After three days the larva
becomes olive-green finely speckled with white. Each white spot
consists of a small papillation bearing a minute hair. The head is
now darK brown mottled with black. The horns remain white, and
are short and broad, all four being of a more or less uniform length.
The larva gradually becomes greener, until when it is a week old, the
body is grass-green. The tail and horns remain white. When at rest,
the larva lies along the mid-rib of the leaf with head raised. Two
days before the first moult, in some specimens, a small white dorsal
spot appears on the sixth segment. The first moult takes place after

136

ten days. The head is now brown with the lower parts green. In
some specimens there is a well-marked dorsal spot on the sixth seg-
ment, consisting of a white spot bordered with brown. After the
second moult the head becomes green, with mouth-parts black, bases
of the lateral horns and tips of the inner horns dark brown, bordered
with a pinkish line. The face is bordered with a yellowish line, which
becomes broader towards the mouth. The body marks are as follows :
A row of yellow dorso-lateral oblique lines from the fourth to the last
segment. Each line starts from a spot in the front of each segment,
runs obliquely forward through the segment in front of it, and enters
the next segment to join a conspicuous white spiracular line. Seg-
ments 1 and 2 are without these lines, but have each a spot placed
where these lines would start. Segment B has a small line, com-
mencing as the others, but not entering segment 2. In some speci-
mens there is a conspicuous dorsal spot on segment 6, in shape like
an acorn, creamy-white, bordered with dark brown. It consists of a
raised spot, higher at the back than at the front, like a pouch open-
ing backward. In other specimens, however, there is no trace of
this spot. The head continues the same in the fourth instar, but
after the final moult changes slightly, in that the horns are* shorter,
thicker, and more upright, and the face is squarer. Throughout the
wdiole larval stage, the body and head are finely papillated with
yellow. The mature larva is from 45 to 50 mm. long. When the
larva has curled just before pupating, it becomes slightly translucent,
and the dorsal spot, when present, becomes pale green.

The pupa is a beautiful object. It is of the usual Charaxes form,
25 mm. long, pale green, with yellowish marbling over the dorsum
of the thorax. The abdomen is slightly darker, ornamented with
purplish spots arranged in a regular pattern. The spiracles are pre-
sent as a row of purplish marks. The head is bluntly bifid. The
only ornamentation on the wing-scutae is a row of four black spots,
those on the inside being larger than on the outside. The cremaster
consists of a pinkish stalk arising from a base, consisting of two
kidney-shaped lobes, ochreous in colour. Two small blackish spines
arise at the base, and lie along the abdomen, pointing forward. The
abdominal segments are produced backward, forming almost a hump.

137

NOTES ON WILD FLOWERS.

By E. Napier.

Fig. No. 1.

Craterostigma plantigineum , Hochst. (Scophulariaceae).

Suggested names : Kenya Violet, Rainbow-flowers.

This species was described by Hochstetter in 1841; the name
probably refers to the hollow between the two lips of the stigma.
There are fourteen other species of this genus in Africa, including one
which extends to Arabia.

C. plantigenium has a rosette of leaves, usually, though not
always, closely adpressed to the ground, and resembling those of the
British wayside weed known as “ plantain ” hence its specific name.

They are to be found making a carpet of all shades of blue and
purple to pale pink on the edge of murram or rock and poor pasture
land. The flowers appear soon after the ground has been soaked with
rain and cease when it dries up again.

Leaves. — Prominently ribbed. These are purple or pink on the
underside, and slightly hairy on both surfaces.

Flowers. — Of velvety texture, two lipped, the lower having an
irregular white patch at the base, and two yellow tipped false stamens
attached to it. The true stamens are united under the hood, where
also lies the two lobed stigma.

Stems. — Branched or unbranched with two bracts at the base of
the branches, hairy, red or green, about two to three inches in height.

Locality. — Almost universal on suitable soil between the altitudes
of 5,000 to 8,000 feet.

Fig. No. 2.

Rhamphicarpa montana , N. E. Br. ( Scrophulariaceae ).

Suggested names : Wild Petunia, Paper Flower.

This species was described by N. E. Brown in the Kew Bulletin
in 1901, and is one of 25 species indigenous to South and Tropical
Africa. It is widely distributed, extending from Rhodesia to Uganda
between the altitudes of 4,000 feet and 7,500 feet.

The size, colour, and growth of this plant varies considerably, a
large flowered white variety being common on the Athi Plains. The
smaller variety (illustrated) comes from Naivasha and the higher

138

Fig. No. 1. Craterostigma ; ylantigineum , Hochst

Fig. No. 2. Rham'phicarpa montana, N. E. Br.

Fig. No. 3. Leonotis nepetaefolia, R. Br. Fig. No. 4. Ocirnum americanum, Mill.

altitudes where it is common, growing prostrate in grassland. The
flowers are dull mauve, fading to dirty white, or pure white.

At the beginning of the rains, when the grass is short, the flowers
appear like pieces of paper strewn over the plain.

Leaves. — Usually narrow irregularly toothed, from half inch to
two inches long without a leaf stalk, opposite, on a stem which spreads
along the ground.

Flowers. — The five large petals are thin in texture and easily
bruised; a hairy, greenish-pink corolla tube contains the four stamens
and the stigma. The mauve coloured varieties have a white patch on
the lower lobes. A slender stem from the axil of the leaves raises the
flower to the height of the surrounding grass, i.e. about three inches.

Fig. No. 3.

Leonotis nepetae folia, B. Brown ( Labiatae ).

Suggested names : Lion’s ears, being the English form of the

generic name.

This species was described before 1900 by B. Brown. It is now
cosmopolitan in the tropics, there being 29 other species in Tropical
and South Africa. Some are used as ornamental or medicinal plants.

L. nepetaefolia is an erect branched annual 4 ft. to 6 ft. in height.
It is found from East to West Tropical Africa, but is not usually seen
above 6,000 feet. At this altitude it gives way to another species.)
The tall flower spikes with dense prickly whorls of orange flowers
form a great attraction for sunbirds and ants.

The leaves often hang drooping from their stiff leafstalks on a hot
day; this plant grows on road sides, rubbish heaps or waste land.

Leaves. — Thin in texture, dark green, edges serrated, the leaf-
stalks vary from one to three inches in length; they spring in opposite
pairs at right angles to the quadrangular slightly hairy stem.

Flowers. — Velvet-like in texture, bright orange-yellow in colour.
The corolla tube hangs downwards from the prickly five-toothed calyx.
The essential organs are concealed under the upper lip which protrudes
considerably and is densely hairy. The lower lip soon withers to an
almost brown petal scarcely noticeable.

The stamens are in two pairs of different lengths. The style
springs from the centre of four nutlets (seeds) at the bottom of the
corolla tube and terminates in the forked stigma clasped by the
stamens %

139

Fig. No. 4.

Ocimum americanum , Mill. ( Labiatae ).

Suggested names : Nil.

There are 75 species of this genus in Tropical and South Africa,
some being used as pot-herbs, medicinal or ornamental plants, as
substitutes for tea and for preparing essential oil.

0. americanum was first described by Miller in 1755 from a West
African specimen. In Kenya it forms with Lippia sp. and Laniana sp.
the greater part of the scrub which borders grassland, or anthills or the
outskirts of forest land, from 2,000 feet to 6,000 feet.

It has been described as a shrublet, or woody herb. It varies in
height from 1 ft. to B ft. ; the whole plant is aromatic; the flower spikes
often remain brown and erect long after the flowers have died, giving
the plant an untidy appearance.

Leaves. — Hoary green, without gloss, pale beneath, somewhat
limp, and covered with oil glands.

Flowers. — In whorls on a straight stem from three to five inches
long. Petals pale mauve, small, forming two lips, the upper one
recurved and short. Stamens four, two long and two shorter, protrud-
ing from the flower. Anthers a curious shade of pinky-orange. Stigma
forked, slightly longer than the stamens. There are scented oil glands
dotted about the calyx which is irregularly five-toothed and dull purple-
green in colour.

Stem. — Square, woody and much branched at the base, green or
purple brown and erect at the top.

Fig. No. 5.

Asclepias macrantha, Hochst. ( Asclepiadaceae ).

Suggested names : Field lamps.

The genus is widely spread in Central and South Africa. Some
species yield rubber and fibre from the bark ; others vegetable silk from
the hairy seeds, or medicaments.

A. macrantha was first described by Hochstetter in 1844. This
species is found in Kenya, Uganda, Tanganyika Territory, and is
common on vleis and in marshy ground from 2,000 feet to 6,000 feet.
It is conspicuous on account of its brilliant flame-coloured flowers.
The recurved petals and curious angular “ table ” in the centre of the
flower are characteristic of the genus. There are no stamens proper,
but as in the orchids, there are “ pollinia ” which are carried away
bodily on the legs or antennae of insects who alight on the table and
search for honey in the many crevices around it. In doing this they
deposit any previously collected pollinia, as the table is sticky in places,
and so cross fertilization takes place.

140

The leaves are long, narrow, and green, in pairs up the stems.
The seed consists of two long “ horns,” which split and let loose light
seeds with hairy appendages which are soon carried away on the wind.

Fig. No. 6.

Platycoryne montis-elgon, Summerhayes ( Habenaria montis-elgon )

( Orchidaceae .)

Suggested names : Nil.

A small genus consisting of nine species confined to Tropical
Africa.

P. montis-elgon , as its name denotes is found around Mt. Elgon
in Uganda and in Kenya Colony. It has also been found in Kipkarren
and at Kiminini at an altitude of about 6,000 feet.

It grows in masses near pools and in grassland. Height, four
inches to ahout eight inches. The young flowers are pure golden
yellow, but turn to orange as they mature.

The leaves are mostly basal, and are from 1J to 3 inches long, and
about | in. wide. The flowers consist of an upright yellow hood, two
broad petals, one on either side of it, and a central sword-like petal,
with an attachment at the top resembling the hilt of a sword. The
ovary is not twisted as in some genera, but the flower stem is twisted.
Each flower is protected by a leafy bract. The rostellum is placed at
the base of the hood, and is not very prominent.

141

NOTES ON THE COMPARATIVE SERIES OF SKULLS
AND CULTURES IN THE MUSEUM.

By L. S. B. Leakey, Ph.D.

In the Archaeological case in the Coryndon Memorial Museum,
our Society now has an excellent exhibit of plaster casts of most of
the famous prehistoric skulls of other parts of the world ranged side
by side with casts of the more important stone-age skulls from East
Africa.

It may not therefore be out of place to give a brief outline of
this interesting comparative series for the benefit of visitors to the
Museum. The primitive Mousterian or Neanderthal race, which belongs
to the last Glacial period of Europe is represented in our collection
by the famous skulls from Gibraltar, La Quina, and La Chapelle.
The Gibraltar skull and one of those from La Quina represent
the females of the race and that from La Chapelle is a male. The
second La Quina skull is that of a child.

Among the more noticeable characteristics of this race is the
absence of the “ canine fossa ” which is the term used to describe
the hollow beneath the cheek bone on a skull of Homo sapiens type.
It will be noted that even in the child this characteristic absence of
the “ fossa ” is very clear. Another characteristic of the Neanderthal
is the massive brow-ridge or “ torus ” which is of a special type. Even
in modern races some individuals develop enormous brow-ridges and
of course in prehistoric times this was also true of individuals of the
Homo sapiens type. The Predmost male skull is an excellent
example. It must therefore be clearly understood that it is not the
size of the “ torus ” in Neanderthal man that is the characteristic
thing but rather the “ nature ” of the torus.

In Homo sapiens the brow-ridges, be they prominent or insigni-
ficant, are composed of two separate component parts over each eye.
These parts are known as “ superciliaries ” and “ supra-orbitals '*
and they can be clearly seen as separate units even in the massive
brow-ridges of the Predmost skull.

In the Neanderthal race the superciliaries and the supra-orbitals
are fused into a single bony prominence and it is really the fusion of
the two parts into a single massive ridge that distinguishes the
Neanderthal type of brow-ridge from that of Homo sapiens.

Although in Africa we have plenty of traces of the' culture of the
Mousterian type, which in Europe was made by the Neanderthals, we
have not yet found any human remains along with the Mousterian
culture, so that we cannot say for certain what type of man made it.

142

In the famous Broken Hill, which is usually termed Rhodesian
Man, we have however, a skull which in type approximates closely
to that of the Neanderthals, and it is more than likely that it was
man of the Broken Hill race who made the African Mousterian
culture.

We have a fine cast of the Rhodesian skull and it can be easily
seen that it conforms to the Neanderthal type in characteristic torus
and in the absence of the canine fossa. The Broken Hill skull is of
particular interest to us here in Kenya, as sooner or later, it is almost
certain that we shall find this type of skull. If and when that happens
we may hope that it will be found under conditions that leave no
doubt as to the culture stage with which it is associated.

Turning from skulls of the non -Homo sapiens type, let us
examine the prehistoric skulls from Africa and elsewhere, which
though prehistoric belong essentially to the same species of man as
we do. In Europe, authentic skulls of the Homo sapiens type are
not known earlier than the closing stages of the last Glacial period —
the Wurm glacial. At that date in Europe we find that the species
was represented by a number of races or tribes which distinguish them
from the others. This shows us that we must go much further back
in the earth’s history if we are to find the common ancestor of these
local races. These early races of Homo sapiens which in our collec-
tion are represented by the Predmost (male and female), Combe
Chapelle (male), Chancelade (male), and Cromagnon (male) skulls,
differ in minor points from the living races. The chief differences lie
in the extra massive features, large size of the jaw and teeth and in
certain other characters which are regarded as primitive. On the
other hand individuals to-day could be found who are almost indis-
tinguishable from these, our early ancestors.

I might note here that the common belief that a small brain is
a primitive character is a fallacy. Nearly all the known early Homo
sapiens skulls have a bigger brain capacity than the average English-
man. It is not the size of the brain cavity but the quality of the
brain that counts.

At the time when the races just mentioned lived in Europe,
Kenya too was peopled by man of the Homo sapiens type. The
skulls marked Gamble’s Cave IV, and Cave V, represent a race that
was contemporary with the Cromagnon, Combe Chapelle, and Pred-
most races, while the Elmenteita skulls A, B, D, E, represent the
contemporaries of the Chancelade race which belongs to a slightly
more recent date.

We have not got in our collection any casts representing the
makers of the Neolithic cultures of Europe, but we have a series of
casts representing some of the races which flourished in Kenya during
the Neolithic period just before the dawn of the Metal Age.

148

The Nakuru II skull represents one such race and the Willey’s
Kopje and Makalian skull another. It is interesting to note
that the Willey’s Kopje race already practised the custom of remov-
ing the lower central incisor teeth at an early age, as do some of our
modern African tribes. The custom however, was common in Pales-
tine at an even earlier culture stage than the Neolithic.

For comparative purposes there are exhibited a modern French
skull, two modern Kikuyu.

Notes on Cultures :

We have as yet no positive evidence that the Wilton culture
persisted in East Africa after the end of the Makalian post pluvial
wet phase, but nevertheless, I am inclined to believe that we shall
eventually find this to have been the case. At present we do not
know what culture existed in East Africa during the succeeding dry
period. Certainly, at this time large parts of the country became
unsuitable to human occupation and equally certain, other parts were
habitable.

On the shores of Victoria Nyanza, rich Wilton sites are found in
many places. These sites usually, but by no means invariably, take
the form of “ shell mounds,” and I suspect that this shell mound
phase of culture is a somewhat later one than the form found in
caves. This however remains to be proved or disproved. When we
reach the second of the post-pluvial wet phases, the Nakuran, we are
confronted with a series of Neolithic cultures all of which certainly
belong to this point in the time scale, but none of which can be dated
relative to the others.

Two of these cultures, to which the names Gumban A and
Gumban B have been applied are without doubt derivatives of the
Wilton, and they include certain tool-types characteristic of the
Wilton. In addition however, they have other cultural objects, never
found in a purely Wilton industry, and it is these objects which are
the “ type-tools ” of these respective cultures.

The Gumban A has as its chief characteristic, a type of pottery
which seems to be unique. Examples of nearly complete pots as
well as pot fragments are exhibited in the Neolithic case. The
pots of the Gumban A culture are decorated all over their external
surface vvith intricate patterns recalling basket-work, while their in-
terior surface is scored with irregular deep scratches made while the
clay was still plastic. The reason for this curious custom is not
known, but this style of pottery has not been found except with
Gumban A culture, and may be taken as typical. It must not how-
ever be imagined that other simpler pots do not also occur, in which
no internal scoring is present.

144

The Gumban B culture is chiefly characterised by its stone bowls
some of which are but crudely shaped, whilst others are well finished.
With these stone bowls are found stone pestles and mortars, and flake
grinding stones, both of which suggest a knowledge of agriculture.

With the Gumban B culture too, on several occasions, beads have
been found whose origin is Egyptian or Mesopotamian showing that
the culture does not go back further than 1500 B.C. It would seem
that traders came down to East Africa during the last stages of the
stone-age and introduced agriculture and probably also eventually
metal. The third Neolithic culture which I have provisionally named
Njoroan is as yet very imperfectly known. The characteristic tools
are polished stone axes of which some seven types have already been
been found in East Africa.

Until much further work has been done it remains impossible to
say whether all of these types belong to a single culture or not. I
suspect that they do and that variation is solely due to the varying
ideas and individuality of the craftsmen who made them.

In conclusion let me indicate the distribution of the various
cultures as at present known to us. I cannot, however, here give the
full list of localities, nor can 1 say anything about the distribution m
Uganda.

The. Chellean and Acheullean and Mousterian culture types are
known to us from the Coastal belt, Eastern Rift Valley zone, and the
Sotik area, and the country surrounding Lake Victoria.

The Aurignacean culture has so far not been found in truly
characteristic form outside the Eastern Rift Valley and its imme-
diate surroundings. Certain localised variations of the later phases
occur, however, in the Victoria Nyanza basin. The Stillbay culture
has not been recorded from the Coast, but occurs over the rest of the
country, as does the Elmenteitan and Wilton.

The Gumban A culture has not at present been recorded outside
the Nakuru-Elmenteita basin while the Gumban B, is spread over
the whole of the Rift Valley zones and also Sotik. Polished axes
which are at present all classed together as Njoroan occur from the
coast to the Victoria Nyanza but I do not know of any one site which
has yielded more than three examples.

Any information as to sites which readers may obtain and which
throws further light on the Stone Age cultures will be greatly appre-
ciated and persons who make archaeological discoveries are asked to
send their finds to the Coryndon Memorial Museum rather than to
Museums elsewhere.

145

MASAI SOCIAL CUSTOMS.

By L. E. Whitehouse.

These notes have been prepared from information collected from
the Masai who occupy the south-east corner of the Southern Reserve,
oetween Kilimanjaro and the Chylulu Hills. They belong to a large
section of the tribe called I’Sigirari. This section unlike other Masai
sections is divided into two sub-sections, the Ingidongi, to which all
“ medicine ” men belong and the Il-Kisongo, the majority of whom
live in Tanganyika Territory.

The Kisongo living in Kenya distinguish themselves from those
of Tanganyika by assuming yet a third name “ II Oitokitok.” This
name is undoubtedly derived from that of a spring “ Engoitokitok, ”
meaning “ bubbling water.” It was in the vicinity of this spring
that the Masai settled when first they inhabited that part of the
country.

I propose to deal with certain customs and ceremonies con-
nected with the founding of a new age group. For the benefit of those
who may not be conversant with this form of tribal government, may
I briefly explain that the Masai tribe is divided into age groups called
il poror or ol-aji. All youths circumcised during a specified period of
years are said to belong to the same warrior age and together they
form one age-group. In some sections an age-group is formed of two
distinct divisions, a senior and a junior, known as the right-hand
circumcision and the left-hand circumcision. Later a group passes
from the status of warriors to that of elders and thus make way for
a new age-group to rise to warrior rank.

Masai boys are circumcised usually between the ages of seven-
teen and twenty-five. The ceremonies which recommence about
every seven years extend over a period of about five years. When the
majority of the youths are circumcised and a warrior age-group of
considerable number is assured, a movement is made to prevent any
more boys from joining that group. Those responsible for the move-
ment are the elders of the age-group next senior to the warriors at the
time. These elders are to become sponsors and instructors to the
members of a new age-group for the formation of which they make
preparations.

They first send for a few of the bigger uncircumcised boys and
explain that it is proposed to form a new age. In order to do this a
ceremony called endungori must be held. The boys receive their
instructions and immediately don short cloaks made from black calf
skins and anoint their heads with red earth that they may resemble
warriors. They then set off in procession round the country on what

146

is called an ol amal. The boys may carry knives for defence but not
spears, for it is said that a spear is a sign of force, and their quest
is a peaceful one. Each boy must carry a bow, for the bow is a
token of peace. Furthermore it ensures that any reasonable request
the boys may make during the ol amal will be granted. No Masai
may refuse the request of one who carries a bow in his hand. The
boys take no arrows with them. They visit all the principal villages
and in dance and song they announce the object of their visit. They
then seek out all the bigger boys of the village and add them to their
number. If they wish to spend a night at a village they beg an ox
for food from the elder of their sponsor’s age-group. Elders of other
age-groups present them with milk to drink. In this way the news
is spread far and wide and finally the boys, now of considerable
numbers, return to the elders who despatched them, taking as a gift
a large quantity of honey. Then a special village is erected in which
only the boys’ sponsors and their families may live. The boys borrow
ostrich feathers and lion mane head-dresses from the warriors and
on the appointed day they collect at the elders village.

The ceremony commences with a dance called engibata ; for this,
the boys form three files, one wearing ostrich feather head-dresses,
the second wearing lion mane head-dresses, and a third, of boys who
have decorated their bodies with broad stripes of white earth to
resemble zebras.

The latter must be quite nude; those who wish may wear thigh-
bells. They may not carry weapons of any sort, but each carries a
thin wand, the length of a spear. After much dancing, the boys
form a procession and walk round inside the circle of huts following
two leaders, one of whom blows a Kudu horn from time to time.
The procession then halts and the leader prays aloud to Engai Narok
-—the Black God, to shower his blessings on the boys. This prayer
has been taught them beforehand by the elders, some of whom stand
by and prompt when necessary. When the prayers are over, the
elders take the boys outside the village and spend some time instruct-
ing them in their duties to their sponsors and to the tribe. A return
is then made to the village and the elders bring a fire-stick, the one
called ol-piron, also a male circumcision knife and a small dead bird.
This bird may be of any kind other than a dove. The elders break
the fire-stick before the assembled boys. They then place a curse
upon the circumcision knife and taking the dead bird they break one
of its legs and pierce one of its eyes— presumably as an indication of
the ill which will befall any boy who dares to be circumcised before
the curse is taken off the knife.

In this way, the elders formally lay claim to the sponsorship of
a new age-group. From that time the boys refer to their sponsors as
ll-piron, whilst the elders refer to the boys as ll-piron.

147

Soon after the endungare ceremony, the elders take three or four
of their charges to visit the “medicine man.” They take with them
three or four new gourds as presents for the “ medicine man,” who is
called ol-oiboni . They must also take with them the bark and root
of a tree called imohongora. I have not been able to identify the tree;
it is said to be scarce and is not found in the Loitokitok area. The
root and bark are ground to powder and used to make a medicine
named emasho sirua , an ingredient used in the preparation of a wide
variety of charms. The elders inform the “medicine-man” that
they have broken the fire-stick and present the boys to him and say
“ 01 piron lang ette, him nalo ” — “ This is our fire-stick, we are one.”

On their return home the bovs’ leaders seek one of their number

%* ______

to appoint as their spokesman called 01 ai gurenani. They make no
special efforts but during the many debates, to which they devote
much time, they note those who show special ability; but ability to
speak well is not in itself sufficient; there are other considerations of
far greater importance.

There are certain families whose sons must not be chosen for
they would certainly die if elected; again, the counsel of other families
has an evil reputation and must be avoided. Nor would it do to select
a spokesman from the Endigongi or medicine-man section or from the
clans reputed to be unlucky.

The ideal Vaigwenani is one born of Masai parents in Masai
country of a family from which V aigwenak of former age-groups have
been chosen. He should be wealthy if possible and a member of a
lucky clan, must be energetic, not given to favouritism, and known
to be fond of his tribe. That he should be an outstandingly good
speaker matters not, provided that he satisfies the other conditions.
It is said that his efficiency in debate will improve after he is
appointed .

The names of possible candidates are submitted to the il-piron
elders for consideration; the elders do not actually select a boy but
prevent any unwise choice being made. The responsibility of making
a choice rests with the boys themselves. It is particularly a matter
for the leading boys of whom there are probably several by this time.
They are called ingopior, and are those who have shown ability and
strength of character during the many debates already held.

Usually a Vaigwenari is chosen from among these ingopior. They
discuss the matter secretly amongst themselves'sending off one of their
number on some pretext in order to be able to discuss him freely.
When a decision is made the boys call some of the il-piron elders and
send for the boy chosen. When he comes the ingopior say to him :
lye hintaa oVngwenani ” — We make you our aigwenani. If he

148

.shows reluctance, as he may — for many shun election to the office- —
he is seized by the boys and held until he agrees. Other boys set off
to relate the news to his family. When the family has been informed
the new aigwenani is presented with his badge of office called ol kuma
or ok — the black club. This club is made of olive wood. It must be
quite straight and unlikely to break easily. It need not necessarily
be black in colour. The club is blessed by the il-piron elders who spit
honey wine over it; it is then blessed by the ingopior boys in similar
fashion and handed to the V aigwenani. He too is spat upon in bless-
ing and prayers are offered that he may have strength, wisdom, and
long life. Later the boys present their V aigwenani with a heifer and
a goat.

If at any time the boys go against his wishes, the V aigwenani
may resign by throwing his club to the ground before a meeting of the
boys. Should they be dissatisfied with him they may make him
resign by taking away his club. They may even take away the heifer
if his offence is severe.

When the boys have elected their V aigwenani the il-piron elders
take him, together with a few boys to visit the medicine man. The
medicine man always accepts the spokesman presented to him, and
prepares for him a special medicine called ol oingonimyuhia — the red
bull. This the spokesman is made to drink; it is said to preserve him
from witchcraft of the medicine men. In addition, the spokesman is
given various charms for the benefit of the tribe. Possibly one is to
prevent rinderpest in cattle, another to cause the cows to calve freely,
another to prevent malaria. Usually the charms are sewn in leather
bags and are always accompanied by very intricate instructions as to
their use. All these charms must be paid for by those who expect to
benefit. An instance was related to me of a ceremony held at
Loitokitok in 1926 for which a famous medicine man Sandenyo sup-
plied the charm. Its purpose was to prevent the old men of the tribe
from dying until they reached a great age. Sandenyo received 49
heifers and bullocks in payment. The medicine man does not state
his price but it is usual to pay generously for his services as he is a
dangerous person to offend.

Obtaining charms from a medicine man is not a matter to be
undertaken lightly. Those who accompany the spokesman are always
people of proved intelligence and good memory. Charms are always
given with much complicated directions as to their use. If any one
of the instructions are overlooked the charm may be rendered useless
or may even work evil against its users. The Masai sometimes find
that their purchases do not have the effect they desire and report the
matter to the medicine man; the latter never fails to point out where
an error in the method of its use occurred — and probably effects

149

another sale ! Sometimes circumstances prevent the immediate use
of medicines obtained : a drought for instance might make it impossible
to collect people for the ceremony; in such a case the charm might
get old and lose its efficiency; or perhaps the object of its use may be
forgotten. If this happens the medicine is conveniently mislaid or is
thrown away, but if so a report must be made to the medicine man,
for he will have seen what happened to his medicine and will be angry,
if its fate is concealed from him.

After some years the boys are circumcised, and become moran
warriors. As soon as most of them are circumcised the ingopior plan
to form into separate companies in readiness for residence in warrior
villages called imanyab. Messages are sent and the warriors of all
clans are called together by means of an ol-amal just as the boys did
before the endungore ceremony. The number of companies, called
i’sirit, to be formed, also the names to be given to them are decided
on beforehand by the ingopiri warriors. After discussion a division is
decided upon. One warrior representing each company to be formed
leaves the assembly, goes a little way and striking the haft of his
spear with his club to attract attention, he calls: liEn alo II Mirisho *’
or “ En alo II Tetiauri ” — “ This way the Merisho, this way the
Tetiuri.” The warriors then rise and join the man calling the name
of the company they wish to join.

Groups of five will go together, to join the same company. A
company may include warriors of more than one clan though as a rule
the majority are of the same clan.

If the warriors of one clan are too few to form a separate unit they
join the unit of another clan. If the clan is a very big one, the
warriors may form two or even more sirits. Having joined a sirit a
warrior may retract at any time before that sirit forms the first warrior
tillage. Once the warrior villages are formed, any warrior who leaves
nis sirit to join another, incurs the bitter resentment of the others.
In some cases a fine of cattle is inflicted.

The sirits once formed, the warriors now approach the ti-piron
elders with a view to holding the ceremony of drilling — without which
the first warrior village or manyata of new age-group may not be
erected.

The enthurgori ceremony or the breaking of the fire stick, though
it effectively holds up the circumcising ceremonies, is not finally bind-
ing. It sometimes happens that the medicine man decides that a
left-hand circumcision shall be held, in which case all the boys, the
II piron planned to make their special care, will be lost to them, for

the boys will be circumcised to form one age with the or right-

hand circumcision moran.

150

If however there is to be no left-hand circumcision the 11 piron
elders arrange to hold the fire-drilling ceremony.

This ceremony finally binds together the 11 piron elders and their
moran charges. The warriors and the II piron elders decide on the
suitable site for the first warrior village. The warriors, together with
their mothers, sisters and cattle move in close to the site chosen and
for the time being occupy any deserted village in the vicinity. When
the warriors announce that they are in readiness, the elders give orders
that on the morrow all the cattle are to move to a new village. Next
morning at sunrise, the 11 piron tell the warriors to bring the heifers,
four suria, four calves (all black). The heifers must have perfect
eyes, straight tails, each must have four teats, in fact they must be
perfect in every way. The warriors must find also a young bull,
either a black one, or a fawn one; it must be perfect in eye, have
erect horns, and its dam must still be alive.

The warriors are warned that after the ceremony, the bull must
not be castrated, or sold, or slaughtered for food.

The nine cattle having been selected, eight moran are called for,
and eight girls. The warriors must have unblemished eyes, must not
have killed a Masai, or have committed any serious offence against
tribal laws; also they must not all be right-handed.

The girls, too, must be free from blemish and must not have
reached the age of puberty. The warriors don a short coat of black
calf skin, make a circle of white round the eyes, down each cheek
meeting under the chin, and each carries a bow in his hand. The
warriors and girls then drive the cattle to the centre of the chosen site
and prevent them from running away. The rest of the warriors watch
this proceeding until as soon as the ceremonial bull and the heifer have
taken up their positions; the remainder are driven forward to the
waiting group. The warriors then seize the ceremonial bull by the
horns and twist its head so that the right side of its face is uppermost.
A piece of hide which must have been cut from the back of an ox
which when slaughtered was found to be in perfect health, is then
placed on the bull’s upturned face. The II piron elders who performed
the first ceremony were dressed in robes made from sheep skins. New
fire-sticks are then produced, placed on the bull’s cheek and fire made
by drilling, by the II piron elders.

The smouldering charred wood falls on the hide, pieces of frayed
cedar bark are added, and the glowing ember is blown into a flame,
when a fire will start with dry clean wood. The fire is then placed
on the ground in the centre of the village; the place is given the name
osingo. Large pieces of wood are added. One elder is then left to
look after the fire whilst the others walk in a circle round the assembled

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herds. They are followed by the moran and the women who cut bush
to mark where the elder has walked. When the circle is demarcated,
they set to work to build a thick thorn fence to enclose the village.
By the time the work is finished, it is evening. A special piece of
olive wood is brought in readiness. The log used in a recent ceremony
is described as being four to five feet long, and of the thickness of a
man’s thigh. It had been part of the trunk of a tree, not a branch.
A tree leaning in the direction of the rising sun had to be found.
When it was cut, it had not to be allowed to fall to the ground.

In the evening before the cattle return, the olive log is brought

and one end is placed in the fire. The wood is and as the log

burns away it is pushed further into the fire. The mothers of the
morans each come with four small pieces of olive wood to light at the
fire; this they take to their temporary hut made of hide to start their
fires. No other source of fire may be used. Great care must be
taken that the log is burnt completely. A close guard is kept over it
to prevent the cattle from disturbing it and to prevent evil-wishers
from taking away the log to make black magic. The morans guard
the log through the night and the morning.

In the morning all the morans come and form a circle round the
fire; they bring their spears, and wear lion-mane and head-dress.
Four elders of known good character, with wives and children, then
walk round the morans; two walk one way, two the other. One of
each pair has a gourd of milk, the other a gourd of honey wine. As
they walk they fill their mouths with milk or honey wine and blow it
on to the sitting morans.

Each girl has a slipper of green grass which when removed is
held in the left hand, the gourd in the right. As the liquid is sprayed,
so is the green grass waved toward the moran. As they walk the
-elders call down the blessing of the Engare-Narok.

Engai !

Entumunyana. Enjuru.

Entobulu ! Engai.

Entaa il kulabang o l’eng Ai. Hai.

Metapaash ndai il kuluki.

Entiaki il oibanjook, aya

Afa il kejek l’emelepo ! Ecapa.

Eteyo Lenana; Supeit o Mbateyan enjuon

Metagolo indae il lugony

Entan ol Donyo Pibon

Entan Koirnarek

Entoning en eyo il o minji.

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Entumunyana ! Engai 1 Enjuru ! Engai !

Entaa II kulalang o 1’engai ! Hai I
Metapash andae il kuluki Engai Narok
Entiaki il oibaa inyoh ayaapial hejeh l’emelepo !

Eteyo Lenana O Supeet O’Mbatian anguvu Gai
Entubulu ! Engai ! Metagele indae il luginy
Entaa 01 Donyo Pilon ! Engai !

Endoisho ! Entoyne il Engai !

Entoinyu nirihirihi ! Engai !

Enoto si isiaiyeh ! Engai Narok !

Metanyoyu ndae Engai ! Metanyoyu ndae il ufa !
Entamelono eitaa enoishi o hole !

Metoripo ndae il oingoni sifia l’engheworie ! Engai;

01 poror lang meta magilani. Engai !

Be trustworthy! Oh return safely! 0 God.

Become ye ours and of God.

May the illnesses pass you by.

Wish those who hate us, that they may find dry rivers on
their journeys.

Lenana and Sufeit and Mbatian wish thy safe return !

Grow up ! Become possessed of wise heads !

Become as great as Kilimanjaro !

Be the father of my children; be fathers of boys and girls,

Be fathers of children, and bring them up well !

Have many wives !

May God love you ! May the moon love you !

Be as sweet to us as milk and honey.

May the red bull of the night guard thee,

May our age be the bravest.

As soon as the prayer is finished the warriors rise and disperse. Later
they reassemble and celebrate the founding of their age by dancing
and singing. Thus is a new Masai age founded. Henceforward the
warriors live apart from the rest of the tribe.

153

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND PRACTICES OF THE KIPSIGIS.

By Ian Q. Orchardson.

Introduction.

We all know how difficult it must always be to obtain a correct
idea of the religious beliefs of others. Even when they are our own
countrymen it is not easy. How very difficult then to obtain a true
and just idea of the beliefs of an African tribe so different in men-
tality and tradition from ourselves.

Imagine the various results one would obtain by asking a number
of Englishmen of various ages and in different walks of life what are
their ideas of God and Spirit. Even so in an African tribe on a
smaller scale one will find different views and interpretations of reli-
gious practices, especially amongst the young, those who have
neither thought nor been taught.

The description I am about to give cannot hope to be completely
true for any one individual and may be coloured by my own person-
ality but I hope it is free from the prejudice of a feeling of superiority.

In so short a paper it is difficult to select suitable points from
so large a quantity of material, for not only every ceremony but many
other things in the life of primitive peoples have a religious connec-
tion. I use the word “ religious ” in this paper to mean appertain-
ing to God or the human Spirit.

I wish to try and show you that the Kipsigis in spite of their
primitive mode of life and their uncultivated minds, have religious
beliefs ot a somewhat higher order than we are accustomed to credit
a primitive people with.

The belief in God and the belief in the human Spirit are not so
closely related as in what we call the more advanced religions. And
here let me say at once, so that we do not start with any false notions,
firstly that the spirits I speak of in this paper are not “ evil spirits ”
for the Kipsigis know no devil or evil spirits; and secondly, that “witch-
craft ” has nothing to do with any of these things — it is a human
evil. There is the exception of the notorious orgoyot Akoylegen whose
spirit was supposed by many to be ubiquitous at night.

Their belief in God is a simple Monotheism — but they have three
names for God viz.

Asista, Chebtalil and Nggolo a rarely synonym for Chebtalil,
probably of foreign origin.

Asista is the sun and hence when I was just beginning to know
the people I called them Sunworshippers and unfortunately described

154

them as such in a memorandum which the D.C. asked me to write.
And so the erroneous idea has spread to some extent.

They do indeed address their prayers to the name Asista even
more often than to the name Chebtalil and again as we shall see £
great number of their ceremonies are carried out facing the newly
risen sun. But an old man explained this to me very gracefully,
quite recently. He had just come back from seeing the Prince of
Wales, for he was one of those selected by Government for that event.
Each had been given a photograph of the Prince to take home. “ Just
as when we see that picture,” said he “ we remember the Prince, so
when we see the sun we remember Chebtalil.”

And what more splendid and appropriate symbol of God could one
have than the glorious equatorial sun at 6,000 or 7,000 feet altitude
where living with nature the most thoughtless cannot fail to see
how dependent all life is upon the sun.

God, i.e. Chebtalil, often referred to as Asista, is vaguely thought
of as the author and controller of the world, but is truly present to
them as the protector of mankind — and not only of mankind but of
animals also. All prayers are addressed to him as such. He is
almost entirely beneficient. This is a very noticeable feature of their
belief. Personal ills such as sickness, loss of children or property are
not attributed to the anger of God. Only major disasters such as
defeat in war, drought, famine, locusts are attributed to God whilst
personal suffering and loss is often attributed to spirits who thus call
attention to and punish individual moral delinquency. Nevertheless
if one is ill they pray to God for one’s recovery and do not forget to
give thanks for such recovery.

I will cite just one curious old belief illustrating God’s control of
War. When a halo appeared round the sun (no uncommon thing in
this district) during war-time it was considered an omen of victory or
otherwise according as the halo opened towards home or towards the
enemy.

There were many curious praise-names of God and the halo gave
rise to one, viz. “ Asista cebo Kipkoyo ” — God with the halo,

Kapkorosit.

Until about 1908 there was a great annual public ceremony for
the worship of God. But when the British Government arrived and
made the road from Lumbwa Station to Kericho turning out all the
people from the south side of the road the old people said, “ God has.
forsaken us and we are scattered.” So they gave up the great festival
and it has never been held since. I will not describe the ceremony
except to say that it centred round the Kapkorosit, a huge cone of
poles of trees sacred to each clan and tied with special lianas. This.

155

corresponded to an altar and around it was led a pure white he-goat
decorated for the ceremony. It is noteworthy that no sacrifice was
made, but only prayers offered for blessing on the people, their herds,
flocks and fields. (Sun worship and phallic worship, etc., are usually
associated with blood sacrifices.)

Though this central ceremony is abandoned there still remains
that most important thing in their family life, the Mabwayta, which
is a small replica of the Kapkorosit. This is the family altar which
stands outside every married man’s or widow’s house. Like the
Kapkorosit it consists of a narrow cone of sticks about eight feet high
bound together with creepers. They are all special plants sacred to
the man’s clan. (These sacred plants are called Korosek.) This altar
plays a part in almost every ceremony (and they are many) which a
person goes through from birth to death.

Here the sun plays a very interesting part. The mabwayta is
always on the east of the house. Not only that but every house is so
orientated that the door faces neither east nor west so that a line
drawn through the doorway divides the house into an eastern and
western half known as Njor and Koyma which play an important part
not merely in ceremonies but even in behaviour on other occasions.
The eastern half or njor is especially associated with all relations either
by blood or by marriage. One stage of the process of getting married
is called “ entering njor, (the eastern half),” i.e. becoming a relation
of the bride’s family.

There is not space to go into the numerous ceremonies, suffice it
to say that many of them take place at the mabwayta shortly after
sunrise, the participants all facing the east. Even when a ceremony
takes place in the afternoon one still faces the east. In some cere-
monies, however, a procession goes round the mabwayta without
facing east e.g. in the marriage ceremony which takes place after
dark. (But the bridal pair face the east within the house during the
ceremony.) On most of these occasions prayers are offered asking
blessings.

Prayers and Blessings.

There are no priests but at any ceremony the oldest man present
or better “ Poyot ap Tumdo ” the principal old man of the Kokwet
(Social unit) chants the prayers. Even at women’s ceremonies it is
only the ‘elder of the ceremonies’ who may ask the blessing or failing
him some other elderly man and when as is often the case a sheep
goat is sacrificed at the Mabwayta it must be done by a man.

Even when there is no ceremony but merely a beer party one of
the elders will usually ask blessings on all those present and their
relations, sometimes singling out certain persons for special mention.

156

The blessing is given in a very attractive way. The old man
chants in a very vigorous voice, the assemblage repeating in chorus
at intervals a final word, till at the end the elder raises his voice still
louder and the chorus ends in a crash on his last words.

It is very noticeable that there is not the fear of Good that one
finds among so many peoples. One does not speak of Him in a
hushed voice but openly and freely though with respect.

On the other hand people are reticent about their private prayers
and it requires great intimacy before one even knows of their prayers.

I will end this part of the article on Kipsigis religious belief with
a charming little anecdote which I fancy helps one to understand their
idea of and attitude to God.

The Kipsigis, especially children, are fond of putting words to ^he
calls or songs of birds. The Guinea Fowl in anecdote is the wisest
of birds. When the guinea fowl calls at dusk before going to sleep
it says,

“ Yagech ngo? Yagech ngo?

Ani Nggolo ! Ani Chebtalil ! ’ ’

Who will watch over us? Who will watch over us? Let God,

let God look after us !

Even from the little I have been able to say here I think it will
be apparent that the Kipsigis have a simple Monotheism and that it is
only sun-worship in the sense that one not knowing Christianity might
call it cross worship. Unfortunately the younger people nowadays
are remembering God less than they used to do.

This seems to be a common feature of present day progress in
any stage of civilization.

SPIRIT.

Now let us turn to the other part of Kipsigis religious belief viz.
the belief in spirits i.e. the belief in the human spirit. I chiefly wish
to show how different this is from the belief in and fear of evil
spirits which we from our reading have become so accustomed to
associate with most African peoples who credit not only animals and
plants but inanimate objects with powerful and usually evil spirits.

Amongst the Kipsigis there are practically no such beliefs. One
finds perhaps vestiges of them in the following.

Totems.

The totem clan name is no more than a name. They know
nothing of the idea of being descended from or related to such animals.
Neither do they credit these animals with spirits. One does find

157

however in the case of the leopard for example that a man of the
leopard clan may be called upon to take a prominent part in a leopard
hunt, if a leopard has been continually causing trouble, killing sheep.

They do not however before killing their totem animal either
propitiate or pray to it. A man kills or eats his totem animal without
thought about it.

Again though animals are not credited with spirits, when hunting
dangerous game such as the elephant or buffalo one does not use the
normal name but another nickname.

Evidently this has nothing to do with the animal having a spirit,
for the same procedure is followed if one runs a splinter of bracken
into one’s foot. It is more in the nature of what they call “ mongset,”
a word very difficult to explain.

We ourselves say “ absit omen ” or “ touch wood ” to avert some
trouble felt to be liable to be caused by something we have said.

It is a similar feeling in Kipsigis that overpraise, expecting that
for which one merely hopes, or the mere mention of such things as
death or sickness may be unlucky.

The saying of such things which may bring trouble is “ mongset.”
It is very similar to speaking of the animal one hopes to kill, etc.

(If I say “ I envy so and so, he is never ill ” — that is mongset — -
he probably will be ill).

Of course there are many fairy tales of animals in which they
behave as human beings. But then there are also in European folk
lore. European children according to age and temperament give these
tales varying amounts of belief. Adult Europeans will believe in
supernatural, miraculous occurrences provided they happened suffi-
ciently long ago.

In the same way the Kipsigis accord these tales varying amounts
of belief. Some of the tales are regarded merely as stories for
children. Of others they will say ” Well perhaps such things did
happen long ago.”

The hyaena particularly however is associated with spirits, i.e.
human spirits of course. There is the tale of (1) raising from the
dead by the chief of the hyaenas. (2) The man who wounded a
hyaena and followed him down his hole to the nether world where he
found him as a man with his family. There still remains to-day some
hazy idea that when a man dies and the hyaenas come for the corpse
they have something to do with the spirit, for the deceased’s spirit is
supposed to stay about the place of his death for some few days. The
existence of this belief is indicated in some of the Kurenet names.
If a child born just after the death of his father or uncle, say, receives
that spirit, he will have such a name as Kimoru Kamngetuny, mean-
ing 4 he did not sleep at Kamngetuny ’ the place where he died — i.e..
the spirit did not stay long there, but was reincarnated at once.

158

There being no evil spirits then, there is naturally no fear of
spirits. As evidence of this one may cite the fact that all Kipsigis
including tiny children wander about at night without a light without
fear.

Spirits to them are not evil spirits but human beings retaining the
character they had when embodied as human beings. The only spirits
a man may have to deal with are those of his own family (extended
family) and relations by marriage.

I have seen people go to meet (as they put it) the spirit of their
dead father with suppressed joy (all feelings are suppressed amongst
adult Kipsigis) to carry out a small ceremony which they understood
he desired.

The basis of this belief in spirits is the immortality of the human
spirit. But this immortality is not quite the same as that of the
major religions of the world which suppose a heaven of eternal bliss
according to the particular ideas of happiness of their adherents.
There is indeed for the Kipsigis a spirit world “ below,” which accord-
ing to their ancient tales is very like the mortal life they know. But
the actual immortality is achieved by the continual reincarnation of
the spirit in succeeding members of the family.

The story of how immortality was obtained is worth relating for
it contains the idea of a great sacrifice to obtain immortality for the
race.

Chebyosok en Bore.

Long, long ago man was very long lived, for when one was getting
old one cast one’s skin like a snake and became younger again. But
finally when death came it was permanent. The body was buried in
the dung heap or thrown out to the hyaenas and that was the end.
So that children were born without spirits just like the animals.

So the old people said, “ Why do we die for ever and not return
again.” “ Even the moon dies but is bom again, why should man be
lost eternally. Let us go and beg for death in Bore, at the river at
the bottom of the precipice so that our children may have spirits
which will return and be born again and again for ever.”

So the old women ground flour and each took some in a small
basket ao dawn and walked slowly, singing, to the precipice. Then
standing with their backs to the gulf and facing the rising sun they
cried, “ The moon dies and returns again but man dies for ever.”
And so hurling their baskets of flour over their shoulders they fell
with them backwards ‘ £ Siel ! ” So that now no spirit dies but returns
always and lives in the children again and again for ever.

When a person dies the spirit returns to the nether world await-
ing reincarnation. The people’s ideas of that world are naturally
indefinite and variable, as are our own.

159

When a child is bom the first ceremony is the ascertaining of
what spirit he has. This is called the “ Kurenet ” and he receives a
name referring to the spirit. The stem of this word means “ to call ”
but whether this refers to the child being “ called ” after the spirit
or to the calling of the spirit I do not know. Certainly they speak
of calling the spirit but yet the human participants in the ceremony
have no influence on which spirit comes. That is decided by the
spirit itself. In fact dissension may arise amongst the spirits them-
selves as to which is to come for all spirits whether embodied or not
are desirous of reincarnation.

A man usually has a character similar to that of his spirit or
kurenet. Naturally, for this is usually a grand-parent, uncle, great-
uncle or some such near relation.

Some curious difficulties arise here, which however cause the
primitive people no trouble.

For example, (1) the spirit of one Grand-parent may enter into
more than one grand-child. (2) Occasionally a child may have more
than one kurenet, one male and the other female. (3) Also a boy
sometimes has only a female spirit as is indicated for example in the
case of the name “ Chebkwany ” (from kwando, plural kwanyik,
woman).

The plurality of spirit is a common belief amongst primitive
peoples ond seems to appear even in the Monotheistic Trinity of
Christianity. It in no way detracts from the individuality of the spirit
in the ordinary sense of that word.

It is curious that the spirit of a woman is not credited with this
capability of sub-division, whilst the ascertaining of what spirit has
come to a child is done by women only, as also nearly all communica-
tion with spirits by means of visions.

In Kipsigis thought (or perhaps we should say feeling) the spirit
is much more important than the body, which is regarded rather as
a temporary dwelling place of a permanent spirit.

Even their mode of expression in ordinary speech indicates this
e.g. If one wishes to enquire after someone’s health one says
“ Kagosop porto? Has the body recovered?”

I remember when I was continually ill expressing regret for being
so much trouble. I was told “ It is not you who is troublesome, it is
your body ” and so on.

It is therefore very important that each family be carried on and
to die without issue is a catastrophe (chemukto).

Under these circumstances it is natural that the spirits of deceased
members of a familv should continue to take an interest in the human
family which is only a temporary state of the real spirit family.

160

Thus of course spirits in Kipsigis belief are not evil spirits, but
simply continue to show an interest in human affairs especially those
of his family.

One of their chief roles is however to protest against the ill
behaviour of any member of the family or to protect one of their
family against ill treatment by members of the family with which
they have married. They may express their displeasure and call
attention to moral ill-behaviour by causing sickness for example in
such offenders or their stock. It is then that a sheep or goat is
sacrificed to the righteously angry spirit. This we are often enough
told of by European observers but we are not told that thei sacrifice
alone is useless unless the behaviour of the offender is amended.
Whether this is so amongst other tribes I cannot say, but it is the
essential in Kipsigis practice as I know very well indeed.

These sacrifices are usually referred to in books as “ appeasing
the spirits ” a description which I find quite inappropriate to the
many cases I have experience of.

No doubt there is the idea of pleasing the spirit but in many
cases the sacrifice is actually asked for or ordered by the spirit as a
token of the intention of the evil doer to mend his conduct.

Sometimes they definitely “go to meet ” a spirit from motives
of affection and sacrifice a sheep. That this is so even though I did
not know it from personal experience is indicated by the word they
use for “ go to meet ” on such occasions viz. “ Ketoroch ” which is
the word for going half way to welcome or help a friend.

Naturally a spirit of a family does not wish as a rule to ill-treat
members of his own family unless he were when embodied a bad
character himself. Such cases do occur but they are not usual.

A spirit may occasionally . even wish to recall a member of his
family from the world either on account of the ill-behaviour of his
relative or to save one from continual ill-treatment. I have known
examples of both cases.

This of course means death and the threat is sometimes used
against a person who is continually guilty of unkindness to another.

When two or three children in a family die in succession, as is
by no means uncommon, it is often supposed that the spirit was
ill-treated during life and is thus demonstrating his anger — getting his
own back — by “ returning ” as they put it time after time thus
causing sorrow to the person or the son or daughter of the person who
ill-treated them when alive. When this has happened the next child
whether boy or girl is called “ Kitur ” (he repeated).

You may wonder how such feelings and doings of the dead are
known. It is through certain people who in visions meet or believe
they meet and talk with spirits of the dead.

161

Whether these are realities or merely figments of the imagination,
it is a most extraordinary and interesting phenomenon. For some of
these are strictly honest people who do not doubt for a moment the
reality of their experiences in these visions. And further I have often
observed that they do at times ascertain purely mundane facts which
they could not know by what we call usual means.

This spirit belief of the Kipsigis appears to be very useful as
a moral control, especially as they know no spirit of evil, Satan or
what not which in many nations has been so efficient in that role.

Further it is a very pleasing belief carrying as it does the respect
for age, on which they lay so much stress in life, beyond the grave*
and taking the sting out of death whether of the one who goes or the
one who remains in the flesh.

The Kipsigis, I fear, like the rest of the world in contact with
modern ideas of “ progress ” are paying less attention to God and to
religious beliefs in general.

Should we not be very careful in our anxiety to banish what we
call superstitions, that we do not either replace one set of supersti-
tions by another, or on the other hand destroy beneficient useful
beliefs.

A superstition is not necessarily bad because we call it a supersti-
tion. What is a superstition to one is truth to another. The
adherents of any religion are inclined to call all other religious beliefs
superstitions whilst those who have no religion would call all religious
beliefs superstitions.

Let us, then, be broad-minded and see the good in all religious
beliefs and not destroy it.

Whilst we attempt to destroy such vicious beliefs as witch-
craft and such religious beliefs as may cause immorality or fear, let
us be careful not to destroy the good merely because it is not exactly
our own belief.

162

Ol)e "Journal

OF THE

East Africa and Uganda
Natural History Society

■" ... i.m —— —

April — July, 1933 Double Number. Nos. 19 — 50

CONTENTS.

The Birds of Kenya and Uganda (illustrated), Part II, Vol. II.
Glareolidae. By V. G. L. van Someren, f.l.s., m.b.o.u.,
c.f.a.o.u. , etc.

The Birds of Kenya and Uganda (illustrated), Part III, Vol. II.
Gharadriidae . By V. G. L. van Someren, f.l.s., m.b.o.u.,
f.l.s. , etc.

The Economic Sea Fishes of pur Coast. By Hugh Copley ...
Introduction of Trout into Tanganyika Territory. By D, K. S,

Grant ...

A List of Cestodes known to occur in East African Mammals,

Birds and Beptiles. By J. B. Hudson ... ...

Botanical Notes. By E. B. Napier

Kenya Flowers as Garden Plants. By Lady Muriel
Jex-Blake

Food Production and Kindred Matters amongst the Luo. By
Archdeacon W. E. Owen

Some Aspects of Nandi Stock-raising. By G. W. B.

Huntingford
Beviews
Annual Beport

Editors :

The Publication Committee.

Additional copies to members, 7/50; non-members, 15/-.
Hate of Publication: Julv, 1984.

PRINTED BY THE EAST AFRICAN STANDARD, LTD.

All Bights Be served.

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East Africa and Uganda Natural History Society.

patrons;

HIS EXCELLENCY SIR JOSEPH BYRNE.
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Sir EDWARD NORTHEY, g.c.m.g.

president:

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Capt. V. WARD.

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HON. TREASURER:

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HON. SECRETARY AND CURATOR:

V. G. L. VAN SOMEREN, l.r.c.p.&s., l.r.f.p.&s., l.d.s., f.i.c.d.,

F.L.S. , M.B.O.U., C.F.A.O.U. , F.R.E.S,, C.M.Z.S., &C.

BOTANIST:

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LIBRARIAN:

H. KOTTKE.

Ol)£ Journal

OF THE

East Africa and Uganda
Natural History Society

April — July, 1933

Double Number.

Nos. 49 — 50

CONTENTS.

The Birds of Kenya and Uganda (illustrated), Part II, Vol. II.
Glareolidae. By V. G. L. van Someren, f.l.s., m.b.o.u.,
c.f.a.o.u. , etc. ... ... ... ... ... ...

The Birds of Kenya and Uganda (illustrated), Part III, Vol. II.
Charadriidae . By V. G. L. van Someren, f.l.s., m.b.o.u.,
f .l. s. , - etc. ... ... ... . . . ... ... ...

The Economic Sea Fishes of our Coast. By Hugh Copley ...
Introduction of Trout into Tanganyika Territory. By D. K. S.

Grant ... ... ... . • . ... ... ...

A List of Cestodes known to occur in East African Mammals,
Birds and Reptiles. By J. R. Hudson
Botanical Notes. By E. R. Napier

Kenya Flowers as Garden Plants. By Lady Muriel
J ex- Blake ... • • • ... ... ••• ••• •• •

Food Production and Kindred Matters amongst the Luo. By

Archdeacon W. E. Owen

Some Aspects of Nandi Stock-raising. By G. W. B.
Huntingford

keviews ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Annual Report

PAGE

16B

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Editors :

The Publication Committee.

Additional copies to members, 7/50; non-members, 15/-.
Date of Publication: July, 1984.

PRINTED BY THE EAST AFRICAN STANDARD, LTD.

All Rights Reserved.

THE BIRDS OF KENYA AND UGANDA.

Part II. Vol. 2.

V. L. G. VAN SOMEREN, M.B.O.U., C.F.A.O.U., F.L.S., etc.

FAMILY GLAREOL1DJE (Coursers and Pratincoles).
Introduction.

The Coursers of Kenya and Uganda are represented by species
belonging to four genera, Cursorius , Rhinoptilus, Glareola and
Galachrysia. Birds belonging to the first two genera are noted for their
long legs and long de-curved bills; those of the genus Rhinoptilus have
proportionately long legs, but the bills are considerably shorter and
relatively broader at the base; representatives of the last two genera
are noted for the shortness of the legs, short bills and forked tails, giving
them a superficial resemblance to swallows when they fly.

Representatives of the first two genera are found in open veldt
country or rocky plateau, whereas the latter two are usually found in
the vicinity of water. Most of these birds are plover-like in appearance
and habits. They all nest on the open ground in pebbly or rocky
situations.

Sub-Family CURSORINM.

Genus CURSORIUS.

CURSORIUS CURSOR L1TT0RAL1S, Erl. COASTAL BLUE-

NAPED COURSER.

Ref. : Erlanger, Jrl. f. Ornith., 1905, p. 58.

Type locality: Kismayu.

Distribution :

The coastal belt of Kenya, from the Tana to Jubaland and inland
to south of the Lorian Swamp.

Description : Male and Female.

Very similar to the race somalensis, but distinguished by its darker
more greyish upperside, otherwise the plumages are alike.

Habits :

These will be discussed with the next race.

APR 2 0 1939

163

CURSORIUS CURSOR S0MALENS1S, Shelley. SOMALI BLUE-

NAPED COURSER.

Ref. : Shelley, Ibis, 1885, p. 415.

Type locality : Somaliland.

Distribution :

The northern frontier of Kenya, to east and west of Lake Rudolf.
Intermediates south of the Northern Guasso Nyiro approaching the race
littoralis.

Description : Male and female adult.

Forehead and crown to just about the posterior angle of the eye
cinnamon, shading to blue-grey on the hinder-crown; nape patch black
in the form of a triangle ; lores and supercillium cream paling to white
above the earcoverts, and carried back as a Y mark surrounding the
black nape triangle; from the posterior angle of the eye is a black line
which borders the white V and meets on the hind neck. Cheeks and
ear-coverts isabelline, shaded with sandy on the distal ear-coverts;
lower hind-neck sandy-isabelline; chin and throat creamy shading to
pale isabelline on the breast; the rest of the underside including the
tail-coverts creamy white. Mantle, rump, scapulars and the wing-
coverts sandy-isabelline; upper tail-coverts similarly coloured, washed
with rufescent; secondaries greyish-buff on the outer- webs white on the
inner, with whitish margin with a greyish streak on the tips; primaries
black with slight white tips to inner ones; under-wing-coverts and
axillaries buffy-grey to isabelline. Tail, central ones grey -isabelline
gradually paling to whitish on the outer ones, all with a black sub-
terminal bar and white tips.

Bill, black to brownish at base; eyes brown; legs and feet creamy-
white to ivory. Wings, 125-135 mm.

Immature :

General plumage somewhat like the adults but no blue on the nape
and hind-crown ; the upper surface ground colour darker and with narrow
wavy bars and rusty tips. The white lines on the back of the head not
marked, only indicated.

Juvenile :

The downy plumage is mottled, sandy, greyish and white, with
whitish underside.

Habits :

The Blue-naped Coursers of Kenya and Uganda are limited in their
distribution to semi-arid open plains and bush country below 4000 ft.
The two races are about equally distributed but it is not yet known

164

Somali Blue-naped Courser ( Cursorius cursor somalensis, Shelley).

exactly where the two forms meet, the country they inhabit being little
traversed. During the non-breeding season, one may find them in small
flocks up to a dozen birds, but as the nesting season approaches they
split up into pairs, over a wide area.

They are rather wary and do not allow one to approach very near
on foot, but if one is in a car and progress towards them is rapid, they
w*ill remain stationary, either in a semi-crouching position or bolt up-
right, with head held vertically. As one moves away from them they
will gradually relax and with stealthy walk will take up positions behind
some convenient bush or rock, but always watchful. When in flight,
the contrast in the plumage is strongly emphasised; the black flight-
feathers and pale body plumage is very evident. They are capable of
a remarkable turn of speed when running, and this method of progress
is preferred to flight unless they are greatly disturbed. When they
have nests or young one may approach the adults very much more
easily to within quite a short distance but they always maintain just
that distance which they consider safe, walking slowly away from one
as one tries to get nearer. Should they be nesting, the retreat is always
away from the nest or young. The flight is swift though irregular, and
is a series of rapid wing-beats and gliding just before landing, and as
they touch the ground they run for some distance. As they land on
the ground they seem to disappear, so closely does their plumage har-
monise with the ground. They feed entirely on insects which they find
on the surface or under small stones. They are often found in places
where game have been resting, and in among the droppings of these
animals, they obtain quantities of fly larvae and small beetles.

The nesting season is not well known, but breeding birds and eggs
have been noted in April-May and November, while young in the
speckled plumage have been seen in July. The nest, if such it may be
called, is merely a slight depression with no material added or some-
times just a few pebbles and bits of grass. The eggs, two in number,
are putty to cream in ground colour with streaks and scrawls and fine
lines of dark brown over the entire surface and subcutaneous shades of
grey and lilac. Average size 32 x 26 mm. Their colour is very cryptic,
especially so when laid on the bare ground. The nestling in down has
already been described. They are extremely active practically from the
time of hatching, and their powers of running are remarkable. When
very young, they adopt the “ flattening ” method of concealing them-
selves at the first note of warning from their parents; they drop down
into some slight depression, or possibly just where they were standing
and they vanish completely, so closely does their colour blend with the
surroundings. Not only is this the case with the young, it is evident
in the juvenile plumage, and equally so when the bird is adult. If on©
takes the trouble to look at the colouration of the sandy desert which is
their habitat, one will find just those colours which are present in the

165

old birds; blue, grey, brown, buff pebbles, bits of bleached twig and
grass strewn about the sandy surface, all making for harmony.

If it were not that the birds moved, and kept up their soft plaintive
call of two notes oft repeated, one would not know of their presence.
As they feed they jerk their bodies into an upright position every now
and then, and taking a few rapid steps first to right, then left, they
hardly ever miss an insect as they hunt in bands over some favourite
feeding ground. They appear to adopt a definite system and formation
in 4 ‘ working * ’ an area.

When a rain-storm is working up, these birds get restless; they take
little running flights and lift their wings vertically over their bodies,
and as the rain gets near they all rise together, uttering their calls
awhile, and circle around at a considerable height and then disappear,
seemingly, into the rain.

CUR80RIU8 TEMMINCKII TEMMINCKII , Swains. TEMMINCK’S

OR BLACK-BELLIED COURSER.

Ref. : Swainson, Zool, Illustr. 11. pi. 106. 1822.

Type locality : Senegal.

Distribution :

Throughout the drier parts of the open plains country from the
Coast to Uganda.

Description : Male and female adult.

Top of head to nape rufescent chestnut with a triangle of black on
the nape; lores paler shading to cream and white over the supercillium,
this colour extending back to the nape and joining the line of the
opposite side; posterior to the eye, a black streak which passes over the
ear-coverts and ends at the hind-neck; throat white to cream shading
to rich cream washed with rufous over the ear-coverts and the lower
throat, this in turn shades into greyish-ashy-browu on the chest, washed
with rusty, and merges into a chestnut patch on the lower breast ; sides
of body, vent, and under tail-coverts white, the centre of the abdomen
with a large jet-black patch. Mantle, scapulars, coverts of wing, rump
and upper tail-coverts ashy-grey-brown often with a rusty wash at the
tips of the feathers; Primaries purply-blue-black, outer secondaries
similar but with white tips to most, the inner ones shading to ashy-
brown particularly on the inner webs; tail: outer pair white, central
ones ashy-grey-brown with penultimate dark bar, others ashy, with a
White tip and subterminal blue-black band. Bill, horn-brown, yellowish
at base of lower; eyes brown; legs and feet white or ivory. Wings,
120-130 mm.

166

Juvenile. Adult.

Temminck’s Black-bellied Courser. ( Cursorius temminckii temminckii, Swains.),

Immature :

Crown of head dark brown with sandy tips to each feather; super-
cilliary stripe white, bordered below from the posterior angle of the
eye by a blackish line which extends to the nape ; ear-coverts buffy with
a rufescent wash; throat white merging into the ashy-grey on the
breast, which in turn shades into buffy-cinnamon on the sides; flanks
and abdomen and under tail-coverts white. Hind-neck, mantle,
scapulars, back, rump and upper tail-coverts, wing-coverts sandy to buff
with dark centres and irregular barring ; tail ashy-brown with dark cross-
bars and pale tips, outer pair greyish, all more pointed than in the
adult.

Habits :

Temminck’s Black-bellied Courser has a very wide distribution but
the type of country inhabited is very similar. It frequents open,
broken, semi-arid country where vegetation is scarce and bush growth
is scanty, nevertheless, one not infrequently finds them in open pasture-
land when the grass is short, or in these areas when the grass has been
burnt off. These birds are subject to local migrations and at such times
one may find them on cultivated fields which have not been planted or
on which the growth is short; further, they may even be met with in
coffee plantations. It was particularly plentiful in the Witu district in
May 1916, but was apparently not then breeding, but immature birds
in half adult plumage were plentiful.

It is common on the plains outside Nairobi, especially in the
vicinity of “ Lone Tree,” to Stony Athi. It breeds in this district in
some numbers every year. It is very often seen on golf courses doubt-
less frequenting these spots on account of the open fairways which give
them free movement; they do not frequent long grass.

I have met with this bird from sea-level tq 9000 ft., but at over
6000 ft. the birds are usually on migration.

In general behaviour this species resembles the previous one, but
one sees them in much larger flocks, sometimes 20 or more, parties
that have come together during the “ off season.” When one first comes
upon them, they are not unduly shy; they stand motionless or crouch
in a squatting position, and if not disturbed further, will relax and
continue feeding. If at all disturbed, they will run — and they have a
wonderful turn of speed — rather than take flight. When they do fly,
the whole appearance of the bird is changed, for then, the deep purply-
black flight feathers are exposed, and the white-tipped secondaries show
up conspicuously. But their flight is not far; they land and run a few
yards, and plover-like they jerk their heads up and down.

They feed almost entirely on insects, but small land shells and
seeds are sometimes taken. Though they will feed at almost any time

167

of the day, their principal hunting times are early morning and after-
noon; at noon day they lie up in the shade of some rock or small
stunted herb.

The nesting season would appear to be not too well known.
I have eggs taken in the month of April to May, August, December,
while Jackson obtained them in July in the Naivasha district. Newly
hatched young were seen in May and July. Two eggs only are laid on
the bare ground or in a shallow depression. They are stone grey to
whitish in ground colour with lilac submerged marks the whole being
lined and speckled with blackish and brown. Average size 27 x 23 mm.
The young in down are very protectively coloured, being mottled with
shades of brown and blackish on a greyish to whitish ground. If one
comes upon a pair with newly-hatched young, they will go through the
performance usually noted in the case of plovers, that is, one parent
will shuffle along the ground with hanging wings, as though these were
broken, the while uttering a plaintive call, and as one goes toward the
seemingly injured bird it will lure one away from the crouching young
step by step, and in a circular manner until one entirely loses the spot
where the bird was first put up. They will do this, but to a less extent,
when they have eggs. We once found a nest of this species just off the
fairway on the Jinja golf course, and here the birds were remarkably
tame, taking little notice of the players as they passed along.

Their flight is rather peculiar, in that the wings are depressed in a
seemingly jerky manner; actually the down stroke is rapid and there is
a pause between each beat. Their call is a plaintive piping one, uttered
as they fly, but at rest on the ground they have a low twittering call
which is more in the nature of a warning note.

RHINOPTILUS AFRICANUS GRACILIS , Fisch. & Reichw. KENYA

TWO-BANDED COURSER.

Ref. : Fischer & Reichenow, Jrl. f. Omith., 1884, p. 178.

Type locality : East of Kilimanjaro.

Distribution :

Kenya, through practically the whole of Masai Reserve to
Ukambani and the region north of Mt. Kenya.*

Description : Male and female adult.

Crown of head to nape blackish-brown, each feather edged with
sandy-buff; forehead buffy, this colour extending back over the eye as
a supercilliary stripe ; throat creamy to buff shading to sandy-buff on the
upper chest and ear-coverts, these areas with fine blackish streaks;

*A further race, R. a. hartingi, Sharpe, type locality Somaliland, occurs in the
region of the Juba River.

168

venya Two-banded Courser (Rhino ptilus africanus gracilis, Fisch. & Reichw.).

hind neck sandy; upper chest crossed by two black bars separated by a
buffy area washed with sandy colour and shaded with greyish where it
meets the mantle; the whole of the abdomen to the under tail-coverts
white, washed with bud-pink on the lower breast. Mantle, scapulars,
wing-coverts, long inner secondaries, ashy-grey with wide buffy tips
accentuated proximally by a black line ; Primaries : outer five brown-
black on the outer web shading to pale cinnamon on the inner,
remainder rufous cinnamon paler at margin of inner web; Secondaries :
pale rufous cinnamon on the outer web shading to greyish on the
proximal side of the shaft and to whitish on the margin of the inner web.
Back and rump ashy-grey with budy tips and dark bars; upper tail-
coverts white; tail: outer pair white, two centrals, basal third white
followed by black shading to sandy-bud at the tip and lined with black,
remainder mostly blackish with pale tips. Bill, blackish, browner at
base; eyes brown; legs and feet ochreous. Wings, 128-135 mm.

Immature :

Very similar to the above, but median and greater wing-coverts
more vermiculated on the pale ends ; inner primaries with dark vermicu-
latlons and secondaries with a large amount of the central area of the
feathers greyish; primaries with pale tips. Tail with much greater
amount of white, and paler tips, dark vermiculated.

Juvenile :

Unknown to me, as also the nestling in down.

Habits :

This graceful little Courser is restricted in its distribution and
occupies the area indicated above. They inhabit the sandy, rocky, more
open thornbush, acacia-country, and dry plains country.

Here one comes upon them in pairs or in family parties of three to
four. They appear to be resident. Like others of this group, they are
expert runners and as one comes upon them in the sandy patches
between the clumps of thorn bush they stand for a moment then dart
behind cover. One may follow them up from bush to bush for quite a
long way before they take flight. When they do get up, they fly with
jerky movement and legs held pendent, and very soon alight and run.
So far as I know, the eggs of this bird have not been recorded, those of
the more southern race are described as two in number, buffy to greyish
in ground colour with grey submerged blotches, the whole lined with
scrawls and speckled with dark-brown and blackish.

The nest is a shallow scoop or a mere depression in the earth among
pebbles, and there is no lining.

The birds are entirely insectivorous. Stomachs examined contained
insects of various species including beetles and grass-hoppers.

169

RH1N0PT1LUS CINCTU8 CINCTUS , Heugl. THREE-BANDED

COURSER.

Ref. : Heuglin, Ibis, 1863, p. 31.

Type locality : Gondokoro, S. Sudan.

Distribution :

The northern and north-eastern portion of Uganda, Lake Rudolf
area, east and west, northern portion of Kenya east to Jubaland, south
through Ukambani, the Masai country to the plains of Kisii.

Description : Male and female adult.

Forehead creamy to rusty-buff, this colour going back over the eye
to the posterior angle where it becomes white and circles the nape to
meet that of the opposite side; crown sepia with conspicuous rusty-buff
margins, the nape feathers darkening to black and bordering the white
nape line; lores, cheeks and ear-coverts rich rufescent-buff, streaked on
the ear-coverts, and with a series of black spots from the gape to below
the ear-coverts; the posterior, upper ear-coverts blackish and this
colour extending back in a fine line below the white nape line and also
downward and forward in a V above the speckled breast band; throat
white to the first black V, but crossed by a chestnut V which starting
posterior to the ear-coverts extends down and forward; the upper breast
is whitish to sandy-buff on the sides each feather with a central sepia
streak, the lower ones with a conspicuous sub terminal black band, the
series forming a marked black bar below the spotted area; the whole of
the remainder of the underside is white with the exception of a pale
chestnut bar which extends across the breast. Hind-neck, mantle,
scapulars, lesser and median wing-coverts grey-sepia with wide marginal
border of rusty-buff internally edged with darker sepia; the mantle
feathers rather more strongly and richly edged. Primaries, sepia with
pale tips; secondaries similar but slightly more greyish, edged with
rufous-buff and white-tipped; back and rump ashy-brown with rusty
tips; upper tail-coverts white; tail: outer pair white, next white with
broken dark bars, remainder ashy-brown with subterminal black bar
and white ends, central pair with little black subterminally, pale edged
and tipped. Bill, black at tip, basally yellowish; eyes light brown; legs
and feet ochreous to yellowish. ^Wings, 145-160 mm.

Immature :

Somewhat like the mature, but margins of the feathers paler; head
more blackish; eye stripe whitish; first V band less chestnut more
black, and breast speckling not so defined but dark marks bigger;
second chestnut bar hardly present and black band more broken and
ill-defined; tail feathers vermiculated at margins and the upper tail-
coverts white only at tips.

170

Three-banded Courser ( Rhino ptilns c. cinctus, Heugl.).

L

>

< '

L .

S'.

<

-

Sketch to show the variation in the three outer tail feathers of Hhinoptilus cinctus cinctus, Heugl.

Juvenile :

The down-plumage is unknown to me.

Habits :

This Courser lives in the dry steppe and desert country for the
most part, but in its southern range it frequents the drier bush and
thorn country. I have found them to be most abundant in the region
of the Juba River, the Northern frontier and in the Lake Rudolf
district. One usually finds them in pairs and unless one notices them
actually moving, they are very difficult to detect, so closely does their
plumage harmonise with the ground. They seek protection by running
rather than flight, if suddenly disturbed, but if one has detected them,
and approach is slow and oblique, they will stand and can then be
observed at close quarters. I have watched these birds catching a small
species of “ Tiger beetle (Cicendelid) a species which is noted for its
quickness of movement; the birds were even quicker, and seldom failed
to make a capture, whereas I, with my net was more often unsuccessful.
These birds are extremely agile but they seem to have a subconscious
appreciation of their strongly protective colouration and as they run off
they will stop close to some object, such as a rock or stunted bleached
bush and they simply disappear. They are very attentive in their care
for their young and even when these are well grown and capable of
flight, they remain with the parents who attempt to draw off attention
from the young to themselves, by running a little way then stopping
and repeating this several times, deliberately lead one away; their
warning calls being uttered all the while. At the first sign of danger,
the young will crouch, with heads held low almost on the ground.

They lay their eggs on the bare ground, in a shallow depression.
Two form the clutch, and these are greyish to putty coloured, with lilac
submerged blotches and numerous streaks and scrawly marks of dark
brown to blackish. They resemble, to a most remarkable degree, the
stones and pebbles around. Both birds share in incubation. The nest-
ing season is not really known; eggs are recorded in December and
November, also April to June.

RHINOPTILUS CINCTUS EMINI, Zedlitz. EMIN’S THREE-

BANDED COURSER.

Ref. : Zedlitz, Jrl. f Omith., 1914, p. 624.

Type locality: Ukerewe Island, S. Lake Victoria.

Distribution :

The islands of south Lake Victoria and the mainland of northern
Tanganyika and the plains of South Kavirondo.

Description :

This race differs from the typical form in being larger, in having
longer tarsi and in the amount of white in the tail. The length of the

171

tarsus is given as 63-66 mm. and the tail as having the outer one white,
the next only partly white and the third no white. The characters are
not very satisfactory, though the race is supported by both Sclater and
Friedmann.

I have typical birds of the nominate race which have the tarsus
67 mm. minimum 55 mm. The markings on the outer tail feathers are
very variable as can be seen from the accompanying diagram.

RHINOPTILUS CHALCOPTERUS CHALCOPTERUS , Temm.

PURPLE-WING-TIP COURSER.

Ref. : Temminck, PL col. Livr., 50, 1824.

Type locality: Senegal.

Distribution :

The nominate race ranges through Uganda and the north-western
portion of Kenya.

Description : Male and Female.

Forehead and a line above the eye white, the supercilliary line
edged with black below and becoming chestnut posteriorly; a white line
runs from the posterior angle of the eye to the line of tjtie ear-coverts ;
crown dark ashy-brown with a few white to buff feathers in the centre
of front; lores and ear-coverts pale rufescent streaked with black; chin
and throat white, the latter with an interrupted patch of blackish and
ashy on the sides, which may meet as a blackish triangular throat patch;
the lower throat is occasionally spotted with blackish above the ashy-
grey of the fore neck; the ashy-grey of the fore neck is succeeded by a
buffy line which in turn shades to ashy-grey, and this is distally bordered
by black; rest of the underside to under tail-coverts, white, washed
with buffy to sandy on the sides; hind-neck, mantle, scapulars, back
and rump and the majority of the wing-coverts ashy-grey-brown, the
long scapulars with a purply sheen; coverts on edge of wing, white;
bastard wing blue-black; primary coverts similar; secondaries purply-
blue-black on outer web and obliquely on inner web, basally white;
primaries purply-blue-blaek with the tips strongly metallic purple shad-
ing to olive green and blue proximally. Upper tail-coverts white; tail
basally white, greater part sepia-ashy-grey darkening distally and with
a white tip, the body shaded with olive. Under surface of wing on
coverts white with black patches. Bill, horn-black at tip, red at base;
eyelids reddish; eyes hazel to brown; legs and feet reddish lilac. Wings,
168-179 mm. Some specimens have the ear-coverts black.

Immature :

Somewhat like the adult, but head markings less defined, the fore-
head feathers tipped with rusty as are all the feathers of the upper-side,

172

Purple-Wing-tip Courser ( Rhinoptilus cholcopterus albofasciatus, Sharpe.). (R. c. dial copter us, lemm. 2.).

those of the mantle and coverts tipped sandy to ochreous. The chest
band is less defined and the feathers are tipped with sandy-buff and the
black edge is obscure. There are no metallic tips to the flight feathers.

Juvenile in down. Unknown and apparently undescribed.

Habits :

Vide post.

RH1N0PTILUS CHALCOPTERUS ALBOFASCIATUS, Sharpe.

SOUTHERN PURPLE- WING-TIP COURSER.

Ref. : Sharpe, Bull. Brit. Ornith. Club., 1893.

Type locality : Natal.

Distribution :

The greater part of Kenya south of the line of the Equator.
Description :

This race was first described by Sharpe as cited above on material
from Natal, and was founded on what appears to be an immature
specimen. In 1910 Neumann redescribed the adult under the name
obscurus , the characters given being its generally darker colouration
above. According to Sclater, this race occurs in Tanganyika Territory
■while the nominate form occurs in Kenya, but material at my disposal
suggests that the northern form comes into north and north-west Kenya
as given under distribution.

Habits of Both Races :

This Courser is widely distributed throughout the more wooded
areas of the drier belts, such country as the thorn-bush and acacia
steppes of the game country. It is much more addicted to sheltered
timbered areas than any of the other Coursers and is found up to 6000
feet. I have not infrequently seen them in wattle and coffee planta-
tions, and on more than one occasion they have been obtained in my
garden (Nairobi). They are less approachable than others of the group,
doubtless due to their environment, for their plumage does not by any
means harmonise so well with the surroundings as do those of the other
species. I would describe these birds as actually timid, for when one
tries to get near enough to observe them, they scuttle away and always
attempt to take shelter behind or beneath some convenient bush. It is
when the bird is in the deep shadows of a bush that they become less
obvious, and then they will stand. I have not observed them on the
open sandy and rocky country, nevertheless where such patches occur
between belts of bush, there one finds them. It is in such areas that
they feed and nest. The food consists of various insects, including
grasshoppers, beetles and hymenoptera. They feed in the cool of the

173

day, morning and evening, and at midday take shelter beneath some
bush. The nest is a shallow scoop or depression with bits of grass or
gravel around. Unlike the other Coursers, this bird frequently lays
three eggs, not two, and these are very similar to plovers eggs. They
are putty to buff in ground colour with submerged blotches of greys
and lilac, with surface marks and blotches of red-brown and dark-
black-brown, many of the blotches being confluent about the greatest
diameter, and the more obtuse end. They average 36 x 28 mm. Not
only are the eggs plover-like, but in the general behaviour of these birds,
one is reminded very forcibly of various plover tactics and character-
istics. When with eggs or young, the parent birds will flutter along
feigning disablement or they will crouch and actually roll over on their
sides.

They are subject to local migration during the “ off season." The
exact nesting periods are not too well known; we have eggs taken in
May, June and July, and juveniles in December.

Sub-Family GLAREOLINiE.

Genus Glareola and Galachrysia (PRATINCOLES).

GLAREOLA PRATINCOLA FULLEBORNI , Neum. EAST

AFRICAN PRATINCOLE.

Ref. : Neumann, Orn. Monatsb. XVIII, p. 10, 1910.

Type locality : Rikwa Lake.

Distribution :

Through Uganda and suitable localities in Kenya.

Description : Male and female.

Chin and throat cream to buff demarcated by a white line followed
by a black one which starts just above the gape below the lores, circling
the throat patch; a slight black moustachial streak; lores dark brown;
ear-coverts, ashy washed with buffy; forehead and crown, hind-neck,
mantle, scapulars, back, rump and wing coverts, olive -ashy -brown,
slightly darker on the first two areas; primaries black with a greenish
sheen, the first primary with a white shaft; secondaries: ashy-olive-
grey slightly darker on the inner webs and with whitish tips. Upper
tail-coverts white; tail feathers white basally, sepia distally, the four
central ones with paler ends, the outermost, mostly white on the outer
web except at the tip; breast ashy-grey with a buffy tinge shading to
buff on the lower breast; sides of body ashy-grey; rest of underside
including the under tail-coverts white. Bill, black, basally red; eyes
brown to hazel; legs and feet greyish. Wings, 170-186 mm., average
176 mm.

174

Adult. Juvenile.

East African Pratincole ( Glareola pratincola fulleborni, Neum.).

Immature :

Very like the adult but without the defined throat patch, this being
huffy and shading into the ashy-grey of the breast; no blackish on the
lores; ear-coverts ashy; upper surface ashy-grey without the olive sheen
and all the feathers tipped with bully.

Juvenile :

Throat buffy, slightly streaked with blackish; breast heavily
speckled sandy-buff and sepia, merging into buffy of the lower breast
and to white on the rest of the underside; crown, hind-neck, mantle,
scapulars, coverts, back, rump, and wing-coverts sepia-blackish spotted
with greyish buff; upper tail-coverts white; tail white at base sepia to
blackish distally with buffy tips and margins. Bill dark brown; eyes
grey-brown; legs and feet grey-brown.

GLABEOLA PRATINCOLA ERLANGERI, Neum. COASTAL

PRATINCOLE.

Ref. : Neumann, Jrl. f. Ornith., 1920, p. 78.

Type locality: Kismayu.

Distribution :

The coastal region of Kenya north of the Tana to the Juba River
and S. Somaliland.

Description : Male and female, adult.

Very similar to the race fulleborni but rather darker on the upper
side and on the ashy-grey breast band, and larger. Wings, 184-204 mm.
Bill, black at end, basally red; legs and feet dark brown.*

Habits : (all races).

The various races of this species are usually found on the flats on
the borders of lakes, rivers and along the coast. They occur in flocks,
and restricted pairs during the breeding season. When they have
associated in companies as many as a hundred birds are often seen.
They are locally migratory to certain of the inland lakes of Kenya, thus
they appeared in considerable numbers on the shores of Lake Naivasha
in February, 1920, remaining there for a week, and passing on. They
appear to be much more resident on the south end of Lake Rudolf, and
the small Lake Koroli, for here we obtained them in February, June,
July and November and they were breeding on the plains round Koroli
in June. Friedmann records them from the same localities in June-
July 1912. They were very numerous along the seaboard at Kismayu,
Lamu, and the lower Juba in May.

*A further race G. p. limbata, hardly separable from the nominate form is
recorded from Uganda and north-east Lake Rudolf. Actually, these specimens
would appear to be intermediate between limbata and fullebornii. Vide Friedmann,
Bull. 153, U.S. Nat. Mus.

175

In general appearance they differ greatly from the Coursers; they
have short legs with four toes, their wings are long and pointed and
their tails forked. When on the wing they remind one of a very large
swallow. They take most of their food on the wing and for this reason
they have very wide gapes, but they also feed off the ground, as I have
observed on several occasions. The birds which visited Lakes Naivasha
and Elmenteita were seen hawking insects over a partially burnt patch
of open country in the late afternoon, whereas previously they had been
observed on the flats surrounding the lakes. Its food consists almost
entirely of insects such as beetles, grasshoppers, termites, etc., and also
small mollusca. They nest in small colonies; the nests are shallow
scrapings in the sand and two to three eggs are laid. They are pale
stone-grey with spots, lines and blotches of dark-brown and black.
30 x 25 mm. When these birds are disturbed at their nesting grounds
they hover and swoop over the intruder in much the same way as do
plover and terns. Though built for flight, and capable of swift move-
ment, these birds, nevertheless, can run with great speed. One has
not infrequently observed these birds engaged in aerial play, jvhich
in my experience takes place in the late afternoon. They will rise in
a body and ascend in wide circles until some height up, when they
will wheel rapidly and descend with lightning speed for several feet
then mount steeply and suddenly split into companies which fan out
and then they all return with a rush to the bank from which they
started. Bannerman has recorded this same observation as seen by
Butler and Hawker. It is really remarkable.

GLAREOLA OCULARIS , Verr. MADAGASCAR PRATINCOLE.
Ref. : Verreaux, S. Af. Quart. Jrl., p. 80, 1888.

Type loc. Madagascar.

Distribution :

Occurs on the coast of Kenya from Lamu south to Gazi, and also
recorded from Kendu Bay, Lake Victoria.

Description :

Top of head black-brown; lores black; a white line under the eye;
hind-neck, mantle, scapulars and wing-coverts ashy-brown with an
olive sheen; throat and breast grey-brown paler on the mid-throat;
lower breast and upper belly and sides light red-brown or rusty coloured ;
lower abdomen, vent and under tail-coverts white. Upper tail-coverts
white; under side of wings and axillaries light chestnut, primaries
black-brown ; tail : central pair brown-black, next two similar but with
white tips, next two almost entirely brown-black, while the outer two
pairs white with black ends and black on the margin of the outer webs.

176

Immature and Juvenile:

Unknown to me.

Habits :

As for the preceding species, Granvik, Jrl. f. Ornith., 1923, p. 34,
records these birds in large flocks of fifty to one hundred along the
shores of Kavirondo Gulf, most often frequenting the small, often reed-
covered, islands out in the water. “ Their flight is rapid but unsteady. ”
I have had no personal experience of this bird in the field.

GLAREOLA NORDMANNI , Fisch. BLACK- WINGED

PRATINCOLE.

Ref.: Fischer, Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, XY, 1842.
Type locality : S. Russia.

Distribution :

A winter visitor to the northern parts of Uganda, but not recorded
further south, but probably occurring on Lake Rudolf.

Description :

Crown, mantle, scapulars and wing-coverts dark olive-brown, paler
on the hind-neck; back and rump slightly darker; upper tail-coverts
white; primaries black- brown; secondaries same with purplish sheen
and with slight white tips; under side of wing and wing-coverts black ;
tail : central pair dark black-brown with purply sheen and pale edges ;
the remainder with increasing white bases from inner to outermost, the
longest having most of the outer web white except at the tip, the dark
areas are olive-brown with purply sheen.

The throat is whitish at the chin then shading to cream and buff
and circled by a black band which starts below the eyes; upper breast
ashy-brown shading to buffy below and on the sides and white over all
the rest of the under side. Legs and feet black.

Habits :

In general appearance this species is very similar to the races of
G. pratincola already dealt with, but can be at once distinguished by
its darker colour above and the black axillaries and blackish underside
of the wings. In habits it resembles the others of this group. It has
been reported in large numbers on the Uganda White Nile by Seth-
Smith and Pitman in March and April, probably birds on their north-
ward movement to the breeding grounds in the Kirghiz Steppes in
Russia where they nest in May.

Many more observations need to be made on these birds during
their movements through East Africa than are on record.

177

GALACHRYSIA NUCHAL1S EMINI, Shelley. EMIN’S WHITE-

COLLARED PRATINCOLE.

Ref. : Shelley, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1888, p. 49.

Type locality : Foda, Wadelai.

Distribution :

Uganda, in the vicinity of water, particularly the north end of
Lake Victoria.

Description : Male and female.

Forehead and crown dark earth-grey or ashy-grey; lores and
eyelids and streak behind eye black; a white collar starts from below
the eye and circles the nape; chin black; throat and breast pale ashy-
grey paling towards the abdomen and becoming white on the vent and
under tail-coverts; hind-neck ashy-grey, slightly darker on the mantle,
scapulars, back and wing-coverts, darker on the rump; greater wing-
coverts with pale edges; upper tail-coverts white; primaries brown-
black; secondaries brown-black with basal area on inner webs white;
tail : central three pairs white at base rest blackish with white tips,
the remaining feathers with increasing white from within out with
black tips and black along the margin of the outer webs. Bill, black
at end, basally coral red; eyes brown; legs and feet coral red. Wings,
145-155 mm.

Juvenile and Immature :

I have no notes on these.

Habits :

This bird is essentially associated with water, and especially where
there are little rocky islets such as one finds in great abundance on the
north end of Lake Victoria. In this area the bird can be called common.
During the breeding season practically every little islet has its pair of
nesting birds. They are even found on the rocks below the Ripon Falls
at Jinja where the spray continually keeps the surface moist and wet.
They are active and not at all shy and do not fly far when disturbed;
but circle round and alight on some nearby rock. Should this rock be
occupied by another pair, they drive the intruder off at once.

The nesting season is somewhat ill-defined and erratic. We have
eggs taken in January- June and Pitman records them as late as August.
Two eggs, occasionally three, form the clutch. They vary in ground
colour from white to grey and buff with lines and spots and blotches
of blackish and dark-brown and grey submerged blotches and marks.
Some eggs have the marks defined and sparse, others are almost
covered all over or the blotches are concentrated in a ring round the
largest diameter. Size average 30 x 22 mm. The eggs are laid on the
bare rock, sometimes in sheltered hollows, often quite exposed, some-
times on debris in a crack. The birds are close sitters.

178

Emin’s White-collared Pratincole ( Gcdachrysia nuchalis emini, Shelley.).

Siberian or Eastern Ringed Plover ( Charadrius hiaticula tundra, Lowe). Winter plnmagi

THE BIRDS OF KENYA AND UGANDA.

Part III. Vol. 2.

FAMILY CHARADRIIDiE.

This Family consists of the Plovers and certain outlying members
which show a close affinity to what we generally refer to as Plovers;
these are the Stilt, Avocet, and Oystercatcher. The Plovers may
conveniently be divided up into sub-families as follows :

Charadriince (including Ringed, Lesser, Sand, Grey, etc.)
Vanellince, large plovers of the lapwing-type, many bearing spurs
on the wings, and some with wattles. The Stilt is included
here.

Recurvirostriruz, for the Avocet; and

H&matopodincz , containing the so-called Oystercatchers.

Sub-Family CHARADRIINAE.

This sub-family has been divided into several genera and sub-
genera and those who desire to recognise some of the sub-genera,
created will find reference to these under the species as they are dealt
with. Personally, I prefer to maintain most in the comprehensive
genus CHARADRIUS. Many of the species seen in Eastern Africa
are migrants from the north and occur here during the winter months.
(A few may remain over from one winter to the following but the
majority move north in the spring). The remainder are resident and
breed; some few are local migrants.

CHARADRIUS HIATICULA TUNDRAE, Lowe. SIBERIAN

RINGED PLOVER.

Ref. Lowe, Bull. Brit. Ornith. Club. XXXVI, p. 7, 1915.
Type loc. Yenesei Valley.

Distribution :

Occurs on the margins of the lakes in Kenya and Uganda, on
temporary swamps and pans, dams, and often on larger rivers, and
along the coast.

Description: Male and female, adult; winter.

Forehead white followed by a blackish band; a narrow blackish
line at the base of the upper mandible which is continuous with the
blackish lores and blackish-brown ear-coverts.* A white line runs above

*It is possible that some mature birds will be found to have these dark areas
jet black when about to go north in March or April.

179

and posterior to the eye, a white spot under the eye; chin and throat
white, this colour is carried back to the upper mantle and forms a ring
by meeting its fellow of the opposite side; below the white throat is a
black band narrow in the middle and widening out on either side of the
chest (f); crown of head, mantle, scapulars, back, rump and middle
upper tail-coverts and lesser and median wing-coverts ashy grey-brown,
darker on the upper mantle below white collar; feathers on side of back
and upper tail-coverts white ; greater wing-coverts ashy-grey with white
tips; secondaries mostly white inwardly, with an increasing amount of
dark ashy-grey on the outer webs, tips narrowly white; primaries dark
ashy-brown on the outer webs, whitish on inner, shafts of outermost
three sub-terminally white. Tail : outer pair white, remainder with
increasing amount of ashy-brown mostly on the inner web, shading to
blackish subterminally, ends white; central pair ashy-brown with
narrow white tip. The whole of the underside to under tail-coverts
white. Bill, horn-brown at tip, basally yellow; eyes brown; legs and
feet yellowish. Wings, 118-130 mm.

Immature :

Differs from the above in having the ear-coverts and breast band
hardly different to the crown and mantle, only slightly darker; the
frontal band and throat tinged with buff. Mantle feathers with pale
tips.

This race is said to differ from the nominate western form by being
darker and smaller. Bannerman gives the wing measurements of the
typical race as 121-132 mm., thus very very slightly larger, and we find
both dark and light birds in a series from eastern Africa. It is possible
that we do get both forms, through Meinertzhagen suggests not. The
fact is that winter birds are very difficult to differentiate. Friedmann
records the typical race from Lake Edward, so why not further south?

Habits :

This species is to be found on most of the lakes, swamps, tem-
porary pans and dams, and on the larger rivers in Kenya and Uganda,
and along the sea board of Kenya, but usually only during the winter
months. Some birds however, most immature, remain over until the
second spring migration. Dates of arrival and departure are as follows :
arrival, beginning of October; departure, end of April. One usually
finds these birds in flocks when they occur on lakeside or seashore;
on smaller waters they are seen in lesser numbers, often solitary. In
the early morning and later in the afternoon one sees them in parties
working along the edge of the wavelets that wash the shore. Here they
feed on various aquatic insects and their larvae, that of the Eristalis

tThis chest band, in fully plumaged mature individuals is not so constricted,
but is of nearly equal width: April birds.

180

Adult. Juvenile.

Little Ringed Plover ( Charadrius dubius curonicus, Gmel.).

Fly being one of their chief food supplies. They also take other insects,
small mollusca and Crustacea. As one walks them up, they rise in a
body and give utterance to the familiar cry which one knows so well
when shore-shooting at “ Home,” “tooli-tooli” and “pen-y-et.” They
go off in a wide circle, showing first their dark upper side with the
white bar on the wing, then the white undersurface, each bird turning
in time with the leader. At noonday one sees them resting on some
spit of land jutting out into the water, or on some sand-bank. They
stand, with head depressed on the body, usually on one leg, dozing.
They do not breed in this country.

CHARADR1US DUB1US CURONICTJS, Gmel. LITTLE RINGED

PLOVER.

Ref.: Gmelin, Syst. Nat., 1, 692, 1789.

Type locality : Courland.

Distribution :

Kenya and Uganda. On the shores of the larger lakes and at the
coast.

Description : Male and female, winter.

Fore-part of head and ear-coverts black, the forehead crossed by a
white frontal band; a white spot under the eye; a white streak above
and behind the eye, often continued in the fore region to the posterior
edge of the black on the fore-crown; chin and throat white, the white
extending back to circle the lower ncek; this is edged above and below
with black, which colour crosses the chest as a broad band, slightly
narrower in the centre; the remainder of the underside white; hind
part of crown above the white neck-band, mantle, scapulars, centre of
back, rump and upper tail-coverts, wing-coverts, lesser and median ashy-
grey-brown with very narrow paler tips ; greater coverts ashy-grey-brown
with narrow white tips; secondaries mostly ashy-grey with increasing
white on the inner webs and narrow white tips; primaries dark ashy-
grey, white tipped, the first with white shaft, remainder brown. Tail :
central two pairs ashy-grey-brown shading to blackish at ends and pale
tipped, rest with increasing amount of white with reduction of dark
areas to blackish spots on the inner web, outer pair pure white. Bill
black, base lower yellow; eyes brown; legs and feet yellowish -flesh.
Wings, 108-120 mm.

Immature :

Dark line from bill to ear-coverts ashy-brown as the breast band,
hind-crown mantle and wing-coverts, all these except the ear-coverts
with sandy-buff edging and whitish tips to those of the wing. Frontal
band and stripe above and behind the eye buffy; flight feathers more

181

white tipped than in the mature. Bill horn-brown, paler at the base of
lower mandible; eyes brown; legs and feet ochre.

Habits :

The Lesser Ringed Plover is a migrant from eastern Europe arriving
in this country about October and departing in April. It is not by any
means as plentiful as its larger cousin and in distribution is more
restricted being found sparingly on the inland waters, except on Lake
Rudolf where it is common, and along the seaboard where it congregates
in numbers, more particularly the coast from Lamu to Kismayu, and
very plentiful on the Juba River. In general habits it resembles the
larger species. Though somewhat alike, this species can be identified
by its smaller size, more slender build and relatively longish tail, and
when in flight one at once detects the absence of the white wing-bar
and the darker wings.

They do not breed in their winter quarters. The localities in which
we have records of the species are : Lake Albert, Lake Rudolf,
Kavirondo Gulf, Baringo, Lake Nakuru, Lake Naivasha, and the coast
of Kenya.

CHARADRIUS (LEUCOPOLIUS) MARGINATUS TENELLUS

Hartl. LITTLE WHITE-FRONTED PLOVER.

Ref. : Hartlaub, Fauna Madagascar, p. 72, 1861.

Type locality : Madagascar.

Distribution :

The coast line of Kenya.

Description :

Frontal band white ; a narrow grey line at base of bill passing
through the lores and becoming black before the eye; posterior to the
frontal band a greyish area to the mid-ocular line; a pale whitish line
above and posterior to the eye; chin and throat white, this colour
extending back to the hind-neck and forming a rather ill-defined ring
with its fellow of the opposite side; sides of chest tinged with pale ashy
and washed with rusty colour, the whole of the underside white with a
very slight buffy tinge to the sides of the body; hind-crown pale ashy-
grey strongly washed with rusty, especially above the hind-collar;
mantle, scapulars, lesser coverts, centre of back, rump, and upper tail-
coverts pale ashy-grey, darker on the last, the first two areas washed
with rusty, more especially on the scapulars; median wing-coverts ashy-
grey with pale edges; secondaries similarly coloured but with white
edges and white tips; primaries ashy-grey, darker at the tips and paler
on the inner webs, shafts white; sides of rump and upper tail-coverts
white, central upper tail-coverts ashy-grey; tail feathers : central pairs
dark ashy-grey pale tipped and tinged rusty on margins, others white.
Bill, black; eyes brown; legs and feet ochre-green. Wings, 93-103 mm.

182

Female. Male.

Little White-fronted Plover ( Charadrius ( Leucopolius ) marginatus tenellus, Hartl.).

Immature :

Frontal white band narrower, no blackish bar beyond; loreai
streak brownish; upper surface ashy-grey with only a trace of the
rufescent wash.

Juvenile :

Unknown to me.

Habits :

The Little White-fronted Plover is confined to the coast-line and
the sand banks of the lower Juba River. Owing to the very limited
amount of collecting that has been done actually on the sea-shore, very
few examples have been taken. In general habits they resemble the
Ringed Plovers, but whereas the latter keep in bunches or flocks, these
birds occur in fair numbers in threes and fours along a stretch of beach.
They are very quick in their movements and speedy when running; they
dart about after insects and small Crustacea all along the edge of the
water, and will often rush into the water thigh-high as a wave recedes,
after some elusive prey. When they are flushed they utter a low
plaintive call somewhat reminiscent of that of the Ringed Plover, but
not so strong and higher pitched. I have no records of its nesting
habits, but the West African race is said to lay its eggs in a shallow
scrape in the sand, and to cover the eggs when it leaves, as do some of
the other little plovers of Africa. The eggs, said to be two in number,
are not described.

CHARADRIUS ( LEUCOPOLIUS ) ALEXANDRINU8 PONS , Neum.

EAST AFRICAN KENTISH PLOVER.

Ref. : Neumann, Nov. Zool., Vol. 35, 1929.

Type locality : Kismayu.

Distribution :

The coast of Kenya north of the Tana to Jubaland.

Description : Male.

Forehead white, followed by a black band at about mid-point
above the eyes; a black line from the base of the bill to the anterior
angle of the eye; ear-coverts dusky; chin and throat white extending
round the hind-neck; hinder part of crown ashy-grey-brown with a wash
of rusty above the nape; the whole of the underside white with a patch
of black feathers on the sides of the upper breast; mantle, scapulars and
lesser wing-coverts ashy-grey-brown, slightly darker on the last; median
and major coverts similar but with pale edges and white tips;
secondaries ashy-brown with paler inner webs to almost white; primaries
ashy-brown with paler inner webs; upper tail-coverts dark ashy-brown;
tail feathers white on the outer ones, ashy-brown on the inner pairs.

183

Eyes brown; legs and feet greyish; bill black. Wings, 100-104 mm.
Female similar but lacks the black head band and has an ashy-brown

pectoral patch on sides of chest.

♦ '

Immature :

Very similar to the mature but without the black frontal band,
this is indicated by brownish feathers, and the white forehead is tinged
with buffy; the lateral pectoral patch is brownish, and there is hardly
any trace of rusty wash on the hind-crown.

Habits:

These are similar to the White-fronted Plover, but more data is
required regarding nesting habits, etc.

CHARADRIUS (LEUC0P0L1US) VENUSTUS VENUSTUS, Fisch.

& Eeichn. KENYA CHESTNUT-BANDED PLOVER.
Ref. Fischer and Reichenow, Jrl. f. Ornith., 1884.

Type loc. Salt Lake Nguruman, T.T.

Distribution :

Restricted to the Soda Lakes of Kenya and Tanganyika in the Rift
|V alley.

Description: Male.

Forehead white, extending laterally above the eye at mid-point and
and round the eyelids; followed by a black band at mid-crown; hind-
crown ashy-grey becoming rusty at the margins and so forming a rusty-
coloured streak behind and above the eyes ; joining the rusty nape band
is the chest band of the same colour, very often with blackish feathers
present; a black line from the anterior corner of the eye to the base
of the upper bill; chin and throat white, as is also the whole of the
remainder of the underside; mantle, scapulars, lesser wing-coverts,
back and central upper tail-coverts ashy-grey, darker on the last, with
very narrow whitish tips; median and greater wing-coverts ashy-grey
with pale edges and white tips; secondaries and primaries darker ashy-
grey paling to whitish on the inner webs, primaries with white shafts
except at tips. Eyes brown; bill black; legs and feet blackish-brown
to black.

Female:

Very similar to the male, but without a black head band, this being
pale chestnut, and the crown with only a trace of rusty at the edges,
while the breast band is also much paler chestnut.

Immature :

Somewhat like the female but breast band ashy-grey, narrow in
the centre of breast and expanded at the sides ; ear-coverts dusky.

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Juvenile. Adult.

Buff-breasted Sand Plover ( Charadrius (H elencegiolus) pecuarius pecuarius, Temm.).

Habits :

The restricted distribution of this little plover is in itself a very
interesting thing, and taken in conjunction with the fact that the only
other country in which it occurs as a geographical race is South-west
Africa and Angola, one is led to speculate as to the reasons why in our
country it occurs only (so far as we know) on the shores of the soda-
lakes of the Eift Valley. Lake Magadi and Natron appear to be its
stronghold on the eastern side of Africa. It is resident and breeds here.
They feed on insects, small mollusca and Crustacea. One sees them
m pairs or family parties of four usually feeding along the edge of the
water or basking on some sand-spit or promontory. They have the
same habits as other little plovers and take a large amount of their food
actually at the water’s edge. They wade in the water up to their
“ knees ” and as the little wavelets wash the shore one can observe
these birds taking little jumps to avoid getting wet. Most of the food
is obtained on the surface, but they also delve with their bills into the
soft mud to obtain certain aquatic insects and their larvae.

They are often seen on the soda pans where the alkalinity of the
water is so strong as to cause unpleasant results to one’s hands if
immersed in it, yet the water does not appear to affect their feet. Never-
theless, the soda soon bleaches the plumage of these little birds, affect-
ing principally the tail and flight feathers.

They nest on the more sandy stretches of the shore or on the lines
of debris above highwater line. The nest is a shallow scrape and may
be left thus, or sometimes has a few bits of grass and other debris placed
in or around it. The eggs, two in number, are putty-colour in ground
colour with grey submerged spots and dark superficial spots and dots of
black and sepia. They are large for the size of the bird.

CHARADR1US (HELEN 2EGI ALU S) PECUARIU8 PECUARIUS ,

Temm. BUFF-BEEASTED SAND PLOVEE.

Eef. : Temminck, PI. Col. livre, 31, 1823.

Type locality : Cape of Good Hope.

Distribution :

On most of the lakes of Kenya and Uganda, and on some of the
larger rivers.

Description: Male, adult.

Forehead white, followed by a black frontal band which starts
above the anterior angle of the eye, often distally and laterally edged
with white ; a black streak extends from the eye to the base of fhe upper
mandible. A white streak runs from above the mid-point of the eye
above the ear-coverts and circles the back of the upper neck; ear-
coverts black, this colour extending back to form an almost complete

185

collar on the hind-neck below the white collar; chin, throat and cheeks
white shading to rich cinnamon buff or sandy-rufous on the breast,
sides of the body and upper abdomen, lateral pectoral region tinted with
ashy-grey; centre of abdomen, vent and under tail-coverts white; top
and hind part of crown ashy-brown with paler tips and fine blackish
shaft line; mantle, scapulars, median wing-coverts and centre of back
dark ashy-brown with wide sandy-rufous to rusty margins and tips
especially marked on the long scapulars and the wing-coverts; lesser
wing-coverts darker, almost blackish; secondaries ashy-brown, paler on
the inner webs, and with pale edges to the outer webs and whitish tips;
primaries blackish, the inner ones with white on the base of the outer
webs, outer primary with a white shaft for almost its total length. Sides
of rump and upper tail-coverts white; upper tail-coverts dark ashy-
brown to blackish with paler tips; tail: mid pair blackish brown, next
pair paler, remainder white with slight sandy tinge along middle of outer
web. Bill horn-brown; eyes brown; legs and feet grey-brown or grey-
green. Wings, 95-104 mm.

Female :

Very like the male, but the dark areas on the head dark blackish-
brown, not black, and the dark frontal band narrower ; the lower surface
not so sandy-rufous, but paler.

Immature :

Somewhat like the female; the black frontal band almost wanting,
the light coronal line buffy, the lower line brownish, undersurface white
or with a faint tinge of buffy on the breast and the upperside rather more
brownish and less rusty tinged though the tips of the feathers are pale
edged with buff.

Nestling :

Crown and back greyish to white mottled and spotted with dark
ashy-grey, the dorsum with a dark line, and one on the wing, the dark
area of the crown separated from that of the back by a white ring ;
undersurface white.

Habits :

The Buff-breasted Sand Plover occurs along the coast line of Kenya
from the Juba to the boundary, and is found inland, on the lakes and
occasionally on the rivers, when these latter two have stretches of sand
gravel, or mud banks, throughout Kenya and Uganda. One seldom
finds them on waters where the reeds and papyrus come down to the
water's edge. They occur in small flocks, or pairs during the nesting
season. Though essentially a bird associated with the water’s edge, yet
one does occasionally find them on the open grass lands nearby, if the
vegetation is short. They are agile and fairly tame and will continue

186

Three-banded Plover ( Charadrius ( Afroxyechus ) tricollaris tricollaris, Vieill.).

running along the water’s edge at no great distance from one if they
are not suddenly disturbed. They feed on Crustacea, small moilusca,
and insects and their larvae (mostly aquatic).

The nesting season appears to be from March- June, August, Sep-
tember and also January; rather variable, but doubtless influenced by
the floods following the rainy seasons. The nest is a shallow scrape
in sand, mud, or pebbles. There is usually no lining, but a few pebbles
may be placed round the nest. Two eggs are laid, of a stone-grey to
buff finely speckled and finely lined with black and sepia all over.
There is some variation in the profusion and density of the markings.
The colour of the eggs makes them very difficult to see even when one
is actually within a few feet of them. These birds adopt a very interest-
ing method of protecting their eggs. When a sitting bird detects danger,
she gets up, and standing over her nest, she rapidly shuffiles sand and
pebbles over the eggs until they are entirely covered, she then runs a
little distance away and stands and calls.

Should one be on the lookout for the nests of these birds, one
naturally seeks for them in the spot where the birds are seen standing
or running about, but in this instance, their position is deliberately
misleading. A brooding bird is most difficult to detect; it sits low in
the nest, with head drawn in, and the colour of the upper side so
blends with the surroundings that one cannot pick it out. The young
in down are equally cryptically coloured. One may see a couple being
led about by their parents, and one notes the white underside and com-
paratively long legs of the youngsters; try to get near them and the
parents will run hither and thither in a zigzag way, all the while utter-
ing their warning call, and perhaps one will simulate disablement and
flutter along the ground. Even if one’s attention has not been distracted
by the parents and the place where the young were seen carefully
noted, search in that spot is often unrewarded. The youngsters have
crouched down in some slight depression or perhaps just where they
stood, and their small rounded bodies and round heads separated by the
white collar, have become merely two rounded mottled stones, exactly
similar to pebbles in the vicinity !

CHARADRIUS ( AFROXYECHUS ) TRICOLLARIS TRICOLLARIS,

Viell. THREE-BANDED PLOVER.
Ref.: Viellot, N. Diet. d’Hist., XXVII, 1818.

Type locality : Capetown.

Distribution :

On most of the waters of Kenya and Uganda, and on the coast-
line of the former.

Description : Male, adult.

Forehead white, the white continues back over the eye and circling
round the crown meets the line of the opposite side; lores, cheeks and

187

ear-coverts ashy-grey, this same colour extending back to the nape of
the neck where it shades into blackish distally; chin and throat
white not sharply defined, but shading into the grey on the side of the
head; upper breast crossed by three bands, a narrow black one which is
continued up to the hind-neck, a white one which runs up to the hind-
neck followed by a wide black band which ends in the latero-pectoral
region; the rest of the underside including the under tail-coverts white;
top of crown deep black-brown; mantle, scapulars, centre of back,
rump and upper tail-coverts dark ashy-brown with olive tinge; lesser
wing-coverts similar, those on margin with white tips; median and
greater coverts darker ashy-olive-brown with paler edges and white tips ;
primary coverts same with conspicuous white tips; secondaries slightly
darker also white-tipped; primaries: outer three black-brown, rest not
so dark and with white tips ; sides of back, rump and upper tail-coverts
white; tail: mid-pair ashy-olive-grey, darker towards the ends; the
next brownish with white ends, while the remainder are mostly white
with black bars. Bill, black at tip, basally reddish; eyes light brown;
legs and feet ochre-yellow or yellowish-flesh. Wings, 100-113 mm.

Female :

Very like the male but black areas more brownish, crown not so
dark.

Immature :

Differs from the adult in that the forehead is mostly greyish, the
throat tinged with grey, the first dark chest-band incomplete, the
second one with white tips to the blackish feathers; the feathers of the
crown, mantle, scapulars and tail are tipped with sandy-buff or ochreous;
the end of the tail and long scapulars with incomplete ochreous cross-
bars. The actual downy tips are retained for quite a long time at the
ends of the tail feathers, the long scapulars and those of the crown.

Juvenile :

The downy plumage of this plover is very similar to that of C..
\ pecuariua , but is on the whole rather darker and more boldly mottled.

Habits :

The Three-collared Plover is found throughout Uganda and Kenya,
including the seashore of the latter. It is much more widespread than
is the Sand Plover, but it does not occur in flocks. They are usually
seen in pairs or family parties, and very often in localities where one
would not expect to find such birds; for example, by a small water-hole
in a semi-arid area, on little streams at high altitudes up to 9000 ft.,
on small dams, and so on. They are commonest, however, on the
shores of the larger lakes. One can recognise these birds at once by the

188

double black collar, but even if this is not visible, one notices the long
tail and wings, these being proportionately longer than in any of the
other plovers. Their flight is unlike that of other species, is rather more
jerky, and quivering just before alighting and in this they recall to
mind this aspect in the flight of the Common Sand-piper. They feed
on terrestrial and aquatic insects and their larvae, worms, Crustacea and
small mollusca. One occasionally finds them on the dumping grounds
outside townships, also on manure heaps and in cattle bomas, they here
feed on the maggots of flies. When the open grass plains have been
burnt off, one may see these birds in twos and threes scattered over
the area, feeding on disabled insects which have been scorched by the
flames. Such a place is merely a temporary feeding ground, and may
be situated miles from water. Water of some sort is usually found in
the habitat of these birds and where this is present there the birds will
breed. Along the coast it is no uncommon sight to see these plover
perched on the roots of the mangrove trees. The nesting season varies
with the locality. In Uganda and the Lake Victoria region we observed
eggs and young from March to June, in Nairobi and Ukamba in May
and September, at the coast in August. The nest is a shallow scrape
with no, or very little, lining, not very far from water, but usually above
the high-water level. I have once found a nest on ploughed land some
twenty feet from a stream.

The clutch consists of two, rarely three eggs, buff to greyish in
ground colour with numerous fine lines and scrawls of sepia and black,
very often concentrated at the largest diameter. Average size 82 x 23
mm. I have no records of the incubation period. The parents are,
like other plovers, very concerned for the welfare of eggs or young. They
adopt various methods to distract one’s attention, that of disablement
being commonly resorted to. One seldom observes these birds on the
nest, for at the sign of danger the sitting bird will rise and run some
distance from the nest before making its presence known by its sharp
piping call like “ peee ” uttered at intervals. The hen will sit close
when the eggs are due to hatch, and at such times is reluctant to leave
and if dislodged will remain near the nesting site.

A very useful method of finding the young and nest of this species
is to use a dog which has been trained for the purpose. Whereas the
parent birds will go a long way from either the eggs or chicks, when
humans approach, yet when disturbed by a dog, the parents will actually
face it up and with ruffled plumage and dependent wings will rush at
the intruder, often flying straight at him. The dog has to be trained
to exercise considerable control ! The downy chick is very cryptically
coloured and most difficult to find, but patience is usually rewarded, if,
having located the area in which the chicks are, one retires fifty yards
or so and watches carefully with field glasses, when one will presently
detect them as they rise and scamper to the protection of their parents.

189

CHARADR1US ( C1RREP1DESMUS) MONGOLUS ATR1FR0NS,

Wagl. BLACK-FRONTED SAND PLOVER.

Rel. : Wagler, Isis, 1829, col. 650.

Type locality : Bengal.

Distribution :

A migrant from Central Asia to the coast line of Kenya during
winter months.

Description : Male and female, winter.

Forehead and supercilliary line white; an ashy-grey streak from the
lower lores to below the eye and the upper ear-coverts ; the whole of the
underside from chin to under tail-coverts pure white, with an ashy-grey
latero-pectoral patch; crown, nape, hind-neck, mantle, scapulars, back
and centre of rump ashy-grey with paler tips ; lesser wing-coverts darker
ashy-grey with narrow darker shaft stripe; median and greater coverts
ashy-grey with paler margins and whitish tips; secondaries : outer ones
ashy-grey with narrow white border and tips, inner ones with most of
the outer-web white with an ashy line, inner webs ashy; primaries:
outer four brownish-black with white shafts for greater length, and
paler inner webs, remainder conspicuously white on the greater part of
the outer web, black-brown on inner web and white tipped. Central
upper tail feathers ashy-grey with white ends, lateral ones white; tail:
outermost mostly white, remainder dark ashy-grey with paler margins
and white tips. Bill black, eyes brown, legs and feet black. Wings,
120-130 mm.

The breeding plumage is not often seen in birds obtainable here,
but a few examples taken late in the spring may show some indication
of it, in that the breast may show some chestnut feathers and similar
colour on nape and eye-stripe, and black feathers on frontal band, lores
and ear-coverts. Similarly adults which have not yet changed into full
winter, may retain some of the characters of the breeding dress.

Habits :

During the summer these birds are found on the inland areas of
their breeding range, Central Asia, but with us, in winter, they are con-
fined almost entirely to the coast, a few finding their way to inland
waters (Lakes Victoria, Naivasha). They associate in flocks, as many
as a hundred being noted at one time, on the shores above and below
Mombasa. They are recognisable in flight by the white areas of the
wings, and medium size. The only other plover which has a very
similar wing pattern, C. leschenaulti. , is very much larger. They feed
on Crustacea, small mollusca and marine “ worms.” They are most
active in the morning and evening, and seek their food at the waters’
edge or on the sand when the tide is out. When at rest they bunch
and stand in groups on some convenient sandbank, a favourite position
being near some shallow or lagoon. They arrive in October and depart
at the end of April.

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Black-fronted Sand-Plover (Winter) ( Charadrius ( Cirrepidesmus ) mongolus atrifrons, Wagl.).

Greater Sand Plover (umaradrius ( Pagoa ) leschenaulti, Less.).

CHARADRIUS (PAGOA) LESCHENAULTI , Less. GREATER

SAND PLOVER.

Ref. : Lesson, Diet. Sci. Nat,, XLII, 1826.

Type locality : Pondicherry.

Distribution :

A winter migrant from Asia, frequenting the coast.

Description : Winter.

Forehead, supercillium and lores white; a blackish area in front of
the eye, shading to dark ashy-grey below the eye and on the ear-coverts;
the whole of the underside from chin to under tail-coverts white, with
an ashy-grey latero-pectoral patch. In some specimens, this greyish
patch extends across the breast in a narrow bar. The whole of the
upper side from crown to back, and including the median wing-coverts,
ashy-grey with darker shaft-lines and paler edges and tips; lesser wing-
coverts darker ashy-grey, greater coverts similar but with white edges
and white ends ; secondaries : ashy-grey with conspicuous white on the
outer webs and ends; primaries grey-black, the outermost with white
shaft, the next three with partly white shaft, the remainder ashy-grey-
brown with conspicuous white area on outer webs. Central rump and
upper tail-coverts ashy with white border and tips, lateral rump white;
tail feathers ashy-grey-brown, white ended, the outer most entirely
white. Bill black, eyes brown, legs and feet grey-brown. Wings, 138-
145 mm.

Males in almost full plumage have been obtained in April. They
differ from the above description in that the ear-coverts, lores and a
frontal band wth latero-frontal white patch, are black, and the chest
is light chestnut. Such birds are not often seen. In habits they
resemble the previous species. Date of arrival: end of September;
departure : end of April.

191

THE ECONOMIC SEA FISHES OF OUR COAST.

By Hugh Copley.

(Paper read at the 3rd Annual Scientific Meeting held in Nov., 1933.)

I rather apologise for daring to give a lecture on our Economic Sea
Fishes, for an old friend once told me that those who know nothing
about their subject either lecture or write books; whilst those who do,
keep their mouths shut — so you know the class I belong to. However,
it is no use bemoaning ones fate so we will get on with the job beginning
with a few remarks on the life of our seas, upon which is based the
existence of our economic fishes.

Along the coast of this great continent the water is comparatively
shallow and a shelf is formed, either by wave erosion, a falling or even
an uplift of the shore itself, or by the seaward extension of deposits of
mud and silt brought down by the large rivers. This is known as the
Continental Shelf. The water over the Continental Shelf varies from
nothing to 100 fathoms and also varies considerably in width. For
instance, from Mombasa to Lamu the Continental Shelf is a very
narrow strip, but south of Mombasa it stretches over to Zanzibar and
Pemba with only a narrow deep valley between.

From the seaward edge of this shelf starts the Continental Slope
which is generally considered as running from the 100 fathom mark to
the 1,000 fathom line.

After the 1,000 fathom mark is reached, the bottom of the sea
stretches away not unilke a vast and slightly undulating plain and these
are known as the Abyss or the Abyssmal Plains.

There are regions below this 2,000 fathom mark and these go from
2,000 fathoms to 5,000 fathoms, being known as “ deeps.’5 There are
five such deeps in the Indian Ocean and the greatest depth yet sounded
is 5,850 fathoms off the Island of Mindanao, Phillipine Islands. Taken
as a whole the depth of the ocean is very great, for more than half the
ocean floor lies between 2,000 and 8,000 fathoms, whilst well over
three-quarters are over the 1,000 fathom mark.

Now the basis of all life in the sea is plankton. Again this word
“ plankton ” covers a multitude, so we will go to the basic plankton
which is the diatom. These are little plants which have two glass-like
protective shells, lid-like structures that fit, one into the other, and thus
enclose the body in a little box.

There are other single-celled organisms which help to swell the great
drifting multitude of the sea. They are divided into three great groups :

192

2000.

Fathoms

v

— the Diatoms, the Peridinians and the Coccospheres. Now these
form the food basis of yet larger plankton, the Copepods, of which the
most important is Calanus. This is very often called 44 brit ” or whale
food. Again there is a larger shrimp-like animal called 44 krill ” by the
Norwegian fishermen which has a length of about inches. These two
are the main food of hosts of fishes and two kinds of whales.

You, therefore, have in our seas drifting forms of plankton, feeding
upon which are large transparent shrimp-like animals and upon these
feed the sardines, anchovies and a host of small fishes. Again feeding
upon these are the economic fishes which supply our market. So that
the basis of all are the unicellular forms of drifting life. If they fail,
the fisheries fail and vice versa , whilst again this minute life depends
on water temperature, generally within a close limit, and also salinity
but this subject must be left to another paper.

However interesting these vital questions are we must get on to
the fish themselves.

The economic fish fall into three main divisions: —

The Pelagic fish or the surface fish, in which section the big game
fish belong.

The Coral Reef fish in water from 3 to 10 fathoms.

The bottom feeding fish in water from 10 to 30 fathoms.

Each fish appearing in the market belongs to one of these three
classes.

The next point to remember are the monsoons and that each mon-
soon brings different fish, but there are a certain number of bottom
feeding fish and one pelagic fish which stay on the coasti all the year
round. These have migrations from the deep water to the shallow
water for spawning.

The Pelagic Fish.

The fish of the north-east monsoon are as follows: — 5 different
kinds of herrings, 3 anchovies, a glass-nose and a smelt. The flying-
fish also come with the monsoon and are actively chased by every
sporting fish that swims. Feeding on these coma the Sailfish or Suit
suli, the dolphin or faloosi, the Five-fingered Jack or panda, Commer-
son’s King-fish or nguru, 4 members of the Caranx family the koli koli,
kambesi, wai, matongo and the pamamba. Then the various lesser
tunnies such as the bonito, the oceanic bonito, the albacore and the
yellow-finned tunny which go under two common names, jodan and
sahaywa.

With the south-west monsoon more southerly species of fish come
up the coast and they are all of a much smaller size. There is a smaller
king-fish, three different kinds of Caranx of which the largest and the

193

principal one is the kotwe , and a number of bottom feeding fish, prin-
cipally of the Dentex family.

With the exception of the sailfish, which goes up to a thousand
pounds in weight, all these fish come to the Nairobi and the Mombasa
markets. They are excellent eating, the flesh being firm and white. In
size they vary from 5 to 100 pounds. The principal native method of
catching them is to bait a hook on a handline with a bunch of seemu
or sardines and tow at a speed of from 4 to 5 knots from a small sailing
dhow. Should they go through a big school of 'pandu or nguru, which
sometimes are acres in extent, the fishing is fast and furious.

When after the faloosi or dolphin and a small school of these fish
are met then three or four lines are baited for action. As soon as a
dolphin is hooked the line is made fast so as to have the hooked fish
still astern and the other lines are put over. The shoal always keeping
with the captive, as many as seven fish will be taken from one school
by this method.

The Coral Fish.

The coral reef fishes seldom come to Nairobi. Some are poisonous
whilst nearly all are of brilliant hues. From the market food point of
view they are useless but a lot are caught for local consumption, fishing
being made from small out-rigger dug-outs using squid, cuttle-fish, cut-
bait, prawns, etc. for bait.

The Bottom Feeding Fish.

These are of equal importance to the Pelagic fish, even more so,
and are caught by line fishing off the 20-fathom mark. The bait,
generally sardine, squid or cuttle-fish, is lowered to the bottom by means
of a stone sinker to counteract the force of the tide. The fish caught
are generally lumped together under the general name of “ snapper,”
especially by the chief steward on the boat. One day it is “ red,” the
next “ grey ” and even “ rock salmon,” and one enterprising Union
Castle gentleman labelled it “ sea trout,” which was certainly one up
on myself.

There are five main families, i.e., Lethrinus, Lutianus, Pagrus,
Serranidse, and Dentex, and they all belong to what I might loosely
describe as the bream and perch family.

There are about 20 different Lethrinus, the same number of
Lutianus, about a dozen Pagrus, twenty Dentex and perhaps a hundred
different Serranidse, so it will be best to describe a few of the commonest
of each family. All, however are good table fish whether boiled or fried.

The commonest of the Lethrinus family is the Scavenger of which
there are two kinds, the common Scavenger ( Lethrinus nebulosus), and
the Long-snouted Scavenger ( Lethrinus miniatus) called kibura by
the fisherman.

194

The general colour of each fish is olive-brownish, difficult to des-
cribe; the head is dark with violet colouring on top; each scale on the
back and sides has a cobalt-blue centre, whilst there are a number of
cobalt-blue lines and splashes on the cheeks. The edges of the dorsal,
anal and caudal fins are yellowish or reddish. One very interesting fact
is that all this family have the whole of the mouth and throat coloured
orange or scarlet and a vivid colouration it is too. When driving off
any intruders the fish opens its mouth and charges its foe showing these
vivid colours. The foe generally retires in haste.

The Long-snouted Scavenger has a long head and snout and also
narrow vertical dark bands on the sides. Both fish go up to 20 pounds
in weight, but the average would run from 5 to % pounds.

The two most common species of the Lutianus family are the Two-
spot Snapper ( Lutianus bohar), called cazanda by the native fishermen,
and Lutianus gibbus or kuenga. The Two-spot Snapper is a reddish-
brown in colour, with two silvery-white spots on the back above the
lateral line, one below the end of the spinous dorsal and the other below
the end of the soft dorsal. Lutianus gibbus is a rich crimson with the
soft dorsal, anal, and caudal fins with a vivid white or yellow margin;
the other fins are yellowish but the ventral has a dark tip. These fish
go up to 12 pounds in weight but the average would be from 2 to 4
pounds. A good common name for the last fish would be the crimson
snapper.

For the Serranidae or the Bock Cods I will pick out the Tewa
(Phomicro'ps gigas). This is the largest of the family, some specimens
running to the 400 pound mark. To look at, they are like a
big perch, a chocolate blotched dark looking fish with a spinous
dorsal fin and a mouth which you can put your foot down. They
frequent deep holes and passages in the reef, steamer anchbrages, deep
water jetties, and are caught on handlines. Should one be hooked the
ensuing encounter is a real tug-of-war as the only idea in the mind of
the fish is to get back into some deep cavern and stay “ put.”

For the Pagrus family I take the Mud Bream ( Pagrus berda) or
Chena of the Swahili as an example. The colour is silvery grey, scales
with a dark edge, fins sometimes barred.

This then is a very brief description of the economic fishes which
affect the housewife but there is a good trade done catching shark up
and down the coast. At Lamu, shark, rays, and sawfish are caught
in special nets and although it is a small trade you will find that further
up the coast, at Kismayu for instance, a lot is done. The flesh is dried,
also eaten fresh; the fins are rough dried and shipped, principally to
Zanzibar and then on to China.

The common economic fishes are rough dried in the sun, an
attempt is made at salting and the result is a most unsavoury article.

195

The catches are auctioned by bulk in the local market, this business
being in the hands of a small ring. The purchasers then retail them in
smaller lots but no precaution is ever taken to prevent damage or
exposure. The Nairobi market is supplied from the Mombasa market,
the fish being packed in old sawdust with a most inadequate supply of
ice, the whole trade being a disgrace to the Colony or any collection
of European people. There seems to be no control or supervision over
the industry to see that proper hygienic conditions are complied with.
However, this is a very sore subject so I will leave it alone, but the
whole matter of our sea-fishing industry including the intrusion of the
Japanese element is now up before Government.

There are several local minor industries of which one has been
mentioned — the curing of shark fins. Again this industry is done so
badly that the prices got are very poor. It may interest you to know
that the skin is used by the coast carpenters in place of sandpaper and
a varnish is made from the entrails which is applied to the dhows.

The next minor industry is “ trepang ” or “ beche de mer ” made
from one of the Holothurians called jongoo on the coast. The licence
to collect these sea-slugs is generally bought at yearly auctions. The
slug is a fat leathery sausage-like bag as long as 8 inches and 2| inches
in diameter. They are boiled in two or three changes of water and are
then sun-dried on wicker-work tables. This reduces them to half their
original size, the remains being both hard and brittle. They are shipped
to China through Chinese merchants but do not fetch anything like a
good price as the method is too crude, and there is no sorting of the best
quality from the poorer varieties.

There is also a trade done in various shells and a species of murex
and a large cowrie are exported for cameo work. Other shells find their
way into the interior for personal decoration.

There are great banks of edible oysters all along the coast and this
industry alone is worthy of proper investigation and development. Small
pearls are sometimes found.

There is a trade in prawns which are handled with the fresh fish
but all the dried prawns to be bought along Government Eoad are from
Madras although they live in millions along our own coast.

The bone of the cuttle-fish is used in the local jewellery trade for
working and polishing precious stones.

Time does not allow me to treat with measures that might be
instituted to develop an economic fishing industry, also I have kept the
paper short, deliberately, so that there will be a little time in which to
answer any questions but I do not guarantee to answer them all as my
knowledge is very scanty. However, I will do my best.

196

INTRODUCTION OF TROUT INTO TANGANYIKA

TERRITORY.

By D. K. S. Grant, Tanganyika Forest Department.

(Paper read at the 3rd Annual Scientific Meeting held in Nov., 1933.)

Trout having succeeded so admirably in the neighbouring territory
of Kenya, it was decided by a few keen fishermen in the Usambara
District of Tanganyika Territory to try the experiment there. To the
late Major Sandwith of Magamba Estate in the West Usambaras, the
credit is due, for it was he who first suggested the introduction of trout
and subscribed a large part of the necessary funds. The writer, helped
by a few friends, attended to the actual business, built the hatcheries
and generally conducted operations throughout. Early in 1926 a very
small hatchery was made on a tributary of the Mkussu Stream on
Major Sandwith ’s estate. The capacity of the hatchery was some 5,000
ova at the most. The Mkussu stream, which it was intended to stock,
drains a well forested tract of the West Usambara Mountains between
altitudes of 6,500 feet at its sources and 1,200 feet at its confluence with
the Mkomazi River on the plains at the foot of the Usambara Escarp-
ment. There are nine major falls on the stream, varying in height
between about 40 and 190 feet of sheer drop. Between these falls the
reaches have for the most part an easy gradient. For many miles the
stream flows slowly in a deep and narrow bed through swampy lands.
In such it meanders to an extraordinary extent greatly increasing the
available fish containing and fishable water. On other reaches there is
a rapid fall over a rocky bed with many runs and pools. The water is
well broken and aerated in these reaches as well as at each of the major
waterfalls, a condition which as regards oxygen content counteracts the
effect of a quiet swampy course in other reaches. The total length of
the main stream measured in its prevailing directions would be some
30 miles, but taken over its actual meandering course this distance can
safely be doubled.

The climate of the West Usambara Mountains is cool and
moderately wet. The average shade temperature is 60° F. with extremes
of approximately 30° F. — 75° F. Two rainy seasons prevail, the longer
in March, April and May and the shorter in October, November and
early December. Water temperatures vary from 51 °F. in the cold
months of June to September to about 62 or 63 °F. in December-
February. The water is normally rather peaty and, though no chemical
analysis has been made, it can safely be assumed to contain much 003
and to have a high acidity. But neither condition appears to be in the
least harmful to rainbow trout, though their effect on the brown trout
is doubtful. In regard to the natural food supplies of the Mkussu River,

197

unfortunately little definite knowledge exists. Much careful investiga^
tion is required and an entomological survey would be invaluable.
Certain it was, however, that a large number of fresh water crabs
inhabited the stream and examination of the stream bed as well as of
the stomach contents of many trout shows the presence still of fairly
abundant and varying aquatic insects. Frogs in the adult stage are
common, but their spawn and tadpoles have seldom been observed.
Presumably the frogs breed in small pools and swamps by the stream
side and migrate to it only as adults.

Long reaches of the stream were in dense forest, but the heavy
shade was lightened artificially by judicious clearing with the result that
these dark reaches, so poor in insect life, have been much improved by
the presence of water weeds and a more luxuriant fringing growth along
the banks.

Such then briefly is the nature of the water stocked. As for the
stocking itself, little need be said. The first attempt was with Fario.
Three thousand ova were received from the Solway Fisheries, Dumfries
N.B., on March 11th, 1926. The hatchery mentioned above was only
completed on the day the ova arrived in Magamba and on testing the
water temperature it was found To be in the region of 70° owing tg^the
sun- warmed flume boards, filters and troughs. The hatchery, therefore,
could not be used and resort was had perforce to placing a hatching
trough with boats directly in the stream itself anchored down with pegs.
The ova arrived at 11 p.m. and a shivering trio sat out for three hours
thawing up eggs from the travelling box temperature of 42 °F. to that
of the stream at the moment, namely 58°F., a good fire at a distance
and much bottled beer made this vigil more tolerable. This lot of ova
was unlucky from the start. In a few days the stream came down
in flood and covered them with a brown peaty deposit, which it was
most difficult to remove. The first alevins emerged 4£ days after
incubation recommenced and hatching ceased on the 6th day thereafter.
The water temperature during this time varied between 55° and 60J°F.
owing to periodic flooding, and for the same reason the stream was very
dirty and the ova seriously injured by heavy deposits. On the 17th
of March the hatchery had become serviceable with a comparatively
clean water supply at a temperature of 62°. The mortality among
alevins had been great, but the remaining few together with unhatched
ova were removed to the hatchery. Much dropsy of the yolksacks and
deformity appeared among these alevins.

Out of this consignment of 3,000 ova only some 57 fry were
obtained ! The yolksacks were absorbed from 9 to 10 days after hatch-
ing and the fry were first clearly seen to feed 4 days after absorption,
though they must actually have been feeding before this. The food con-
sisted of fowl’s liver and eggs hard boiled and finely grated. Crabs were
caught, boiled and their flesh finely grated. This food was readily

198

devoured. The hatchery was too dark, an error in construction, which
rendered accurate observation of the stock most difficult. The next
lot of ova to be received was of rainbow (Salmo irideus). Little better
success attended them, for it was found that the ova had been badly
packed all on one tray between heavy layers of wet moss and a large
percentage was already crushed and dead, probably by vibration during
the train and lorry transit.

On April 6th, 1927, a further consignment of Fario arrived, the
number of which was never ascertained but could not have been above
3,000. These were well packed and travelled unscathed the 80 miles of
railway. The water temperature was 60JoF. Few losses were sustained.
On May 28th a second lot of rainbow ova arrived and without due
notice. In consequence the box was deposited on the Railway Station
platform at an altitude of 1,200 feet above sea level and at a shade
temperature of 90 °F. It remained there from 4 p.m. till 12 noon the
next day. During some of this time the box was exposed to the direct
rays of the sun. It speaks well for the packing that these ova were
intact and hatched successfully, although subjected to such trying con-
ditions. The temperature on opening the box was found to be 46°F.,
that of the stream in the hatchery was 58 °F. There was insufficient
ice to keep the temperature down for long enough evenly and slowly to
equalise the temperatures of the travelling box and hatchery water.
Some ova commenced to hatch within 5 minutes of opening the box —
they would have begun hatching on the trays, had the transfer been any
longer delayed. Despite the rough and drastic treatment experienced
by these ova, the hatch was very successful, and the fry developed
strongly in the hatchery and when set out eventually in the river con-
tinued to do so without any apparent weakness resulting from the
treatment. Fish of this lot grew to 2 lbs. 8 oz. in 22 months from
the egg.

The hatchery thus contained almost even aged brown and rainbow
trout fry. The brown were first put out into a pond close to and fed
by a flume from the Mkussu and were regularly fed there. A rent was
made one night in the grating at the entrance of the pond and most of
the fry escaped prematurely into the river. The rainbow were trans-
ferred to this pond after a few weeks in the hatchery and fed daily on
boiled crab flesh and ox liver.

In all 1,700 brown trout and 1,457 rainbow fry escaped or were put
out into the stream and no other stock was added until June, 1931, four
years later.

As usual the mixture of Fario and rainbow in the water was no
success as far as the former are concerned. The Fario, it has been
observed, remained more or less in the reaches where they were set out,
but their travelling tendency has been upstream. The rainbow have
travelled equally upstream and down. An insurmountable fall put an

199

end to their upstream journey after some 2J miles. But down-stream
they have travelled about 5 miles, going unhurt over a 90- foot waterfall
and a narrow race rushing at an angle of 45° through a rocky channel
about 50 yards long into a deep wide pool below.

The Fario have never been happy and do not appear to have propa-
gated their kind, though certainly hen fish have been taken in ripe
spawn and cocks in milt. No Fario fry or finger lings have ever been
taken or observed. Some people claim to have observed hybridization,
but the writer has not yet seen any evidence of this. Most of the Fario
caught are sorry starvelings with tremendous hungry looking heads and
soft emaciated bodies. But there are exceptions, e.g. a beautiful 3-
pound cock fish in perfect condition was taken last July. This was
certainly one of the old pioneers.

The rainbow encountered perfect conditions in a virgin stream,
abundance of food and complete freedom from natural enemies. Angling
began in earnest about 12 months after the rainbow were planted. By
the end of the second year it was common to take 2 and 3 IB. fish in
perfect condition.

Observation appears to show that, although the fish spawn in any
month between June and January even into February, there is a period
of greatest spawning activity in the months of August-November when
the water temperatures are coldest and the volume of flow at its lowest.
A close season was originally prescribed by law as well as restrictions
as to size and numbers of trout to be killed. But the stock increased
so rapdly that all attempts at preservation by regulating the activities
of anglers were abandoned after four years when the problem became
one of increasing food supplies and reducing the numbers of fish rather
than attempting to augment them. The relation between natural food
supplies and fish stock is as marked here as it is in Kenya. The fresh-
water crab, so plentiful before the advent of the trout, has practically
disappeared from the reaches in which fish are most plentiful.

It may be noted here that recently the Mkussu Angling Association
has been adopting the following measures aimed at increasing food
supplies in its water. Small log dams are thrown across the stream at
places where one bank is low and already somewhat swampy. The
water overflows into the reedy low-lying land and inundates it. The
object in view is to promote the breeding of insects, which will have
direct connection with the stream over the flooded bank. These dams
hold up the water very well and provide deep shelter for the trout.
Below each is a good swirling current, which aerates the water.

Thin poles or logs are laid across the stream just touching the
surface in sluggish places. Floating refuse and white scum collect at
these poles, which at once become a much appreciated resort for the
fish. They are also death traps, as the angler generally takes a good
trout at each pole.

200

The third measure consists of actually collecting the fresh-water
crabs in large numbers in streams and swamps untenanted by trout
and liberating them alive in the dammed reaches of the trout stream.
These crabs had eggs in the month of July and young in August —
September carried between the body and tail folded inwards to support
them.

It is intended also to rake over the redds in reaches where over-
crowding is most noticeable and thus reduce numbers.

The year 1928 saw heavy long rains in April and May. The
Mkussu came down in spate seven feet over its normal level and
produced powerful currents, which doubtless carried some of the young
fish far down stream, leaving them, on the flood subsiding, in un-
populated reaches, where, being well spread out and encountering
quantities of food, they developed very rapidly.

Microscopic examination of scales does not appear to be very
informative as to the life history of the trout in the Usambaras. It is
recognised, however, that the observer may be at fault and incapable,
through lack of experience, of recognising the characteristic signs or of
correctly interpreting them. The scales of a few three year old fish
seemed to show spawning marks, while only occasionally is definite
zonation to be observed, denoting, it is thought, the successive periods
of food plenty and scarcity. Attempt was made to correlate this zona*
tion with the periods of the short and long rains, but without much
success. Only in the cases of trout found singly in pools far down
stream in 1929 did the scales relate the owners’ history. These fish
were spawned in the upper reaches and for a time lived with numerous
others in keen competition for the available food supplies. The floods
of April, 1928, transported some of them to rich feeding grounds enjoyed
without competition. The scales show a zone of narrow rings at the
centre followed immediately by a far wider zone of broad rings. No
sign of spawning marks is seen. One such fish was a cock of 18 inches
long with a girth of 15 J inches and the small and short lower jaw charac-
teristic of the henfish.

The year 1929 marked the height of the Territory’s prosperity and
the Legislative Council readily agreed to vote a small sum for further
stocking operations to be conducted by Government. An allocation of
£200 was made to the Forest Department for a permanent hatchery to
be erected on the Mkussu River near Lushoto. This was duly erected
and ready to receive ova by January, 1931, and a consignment of 20,000
Rainbow ova was hatched. Operations were partially successful. The
water temperature at the time was unfortunately on the warm side,
being about 61£°F., and in consequence mortality among ova and
alevins was nearly 50%.

201

It was from fry resulting from this hatching that the trout were
spread to the West Kilimanjaro area, where there are a number of small
streams suitable for them and a fair population of Europeans.

Moving fry from the Lushoto hatchery to West Kilimanjaro proved
no simple business. Aeroplanes were out of the question owing to lack
of landing grounds. The hatchery at an altitude of 5,000 feet is 27 miles
by road from the railway station at 1,200 feet. Mombo, the railway
station on the Tanga line, is a distance of some 140 miles from Moshi.
The whole of this length of line runs through low-lying hot country.
From Moshi to the Ngare Nairobi North River, the one chosen for the
first stocking, is about 50 miles over roads at the time very bad in parts.

Several attempts were made to move fry and by bitter experience
a method was finally evolved, which proved very successful. The fry
were starved for 24 hours, then placed in thick flannel bags inside 8-
gallon milk-cans. In one can of this capacity as many as 500 1£ inch
fry or 100 3-4 inch fish were placed. Aerators were used. They con-
sisted of steel cylinders fitted with valve, rubber piping, pressure gauge
and tap. The air was forced through filter candles into the water cans.
This idea proved highly efficacious in breaking up the air into millions of
minute bubbles, so that the oxygen was readily absorbed by the water.
Ice was also necessary to regulate the water temperature and smart
staff work was necessary to ensure the ice supply would be on the train
on which the fish were to travel and immediately obtainable when the
train arrived. Fortunately the mail train ran at night in the coolest
hours. The General Manager, himself a keen fisherman, arranged for
a four berth 1st class compartment in the centre of the bogey for the
cans5 accommodation and two people travelled with the fry taking
turn to watch thermometers and aerators throughout the night. The
jolting of the lorry next morning between Moshi station and West
Kilimanjaro was the most trying time for the fry, but this was where
the thick flannel bags came in and prevented injury to the small fish
when the water was violently hurled from side to side of the cans.
Arrived at the Ngare Nairobi, the temperature discrepancy between
river water and can water was found to be between 10 and 11 °F.,
necessitating very gradual equalization.

One incident of considerable interest occurred. Five hundred 4-inch
fish were being transported to stock a reservoir in the Ngare Nairobi
area. Wooden troughs had been installed at the place fed by water
from the bottom of the said reservoir by a pipe and tap. On arrival
at the troughs the fish were apparently in excellent health being lively
and actually feeding on small pieces of ham and bread crumbs. The
water temperatures in troughs and cans were identical so the fish were
emptied straight from cans into troughs. During the first five minutes
49% died, during the ensuing hour 15% and during the next 19 hours
a further 1 % . After much consideration the writer inclines to the view

202

that deaths were due to asphyxiation. The water in the cans was over-
aerated by the efficient apparatus while that in the troughs issuing as
it did from the bottom of the deep reservoir contained less than a normal
oxygen content of 2 p.p.m. The truth of this theory might have been
tested by shutting off the aerators until the fish were beginning to show
signs of distress from asphyxiation and then turning them out into the
troughs. It is understood that trout gradually accustomed to water of
low oxygen content will withstand much lower contents than fish
suddenly transferred from normal oxygen conditions to water of low
oxygen content.

In this way some 500 fry were successfully planted m the river
during June and July, 1931. By the latter month of 1933 the river
was full of trout. The original stock had spawned freely and themselves
reached a weight of 2 lbs. and over. The majority of fish in July were
of a half-pound average down stream. The writer took 50 such in
three hours. All were in fine condition. This stream, unfortunately,
is a rapid mountain torrent running mostly in a precipitous rocky gorge
and liable to most sudden and violent flooding. A rise of eight feet in
two hours is common in the long rains. The food supplies are doubtless
meagre and rapid deterioration of stock is to be expected. But the
importance of having stocked this stream lies in the fact that it now
forms a nucleus and supply base for fry and fingerlings for stocking the
neighbouring waters of Moshi and Arusha Districts. The writer, helped
by the local Forest Officer, last July successfully transported 128 fry
to the Ngeraragua River, 12 miles to the east. This is a better trout
stream of easier gradient flowing through forest reserve and open plain
between European farms. Judging by the speed of increase in the
Ngare Nairobi River, it is safe to expect good fishing in the Ngeraragua
two years hence.

There are beautiful streams emerging from the south slopes of
Kilimanjaro, among them the Weru Weru and Kikafu. The volume
of water is great and pools deep and long, but the temperatures soon
increase with loss of altitude while irrigation furrows are numerous, as
also, it is feared, are the eels and giant kingfishers. It is probable,
however, that the rainbow trout will succeed in them. If this is the
case, the angling will be of the highest quality.

Further attempts to stock waters in Tanganyika Territory have been
made, notably that of an Association of fishermen at Usa in the South
Meru area of Arusha. This association flew 2,000 fry by air from Kenya
to Arusha and succeeded in planting them in the Usa River. But this
Btock, which developed well initially, now appears to have been lost.
Much of it doubtless has served as fish manure for coffee trees, having
escaped down the irrigation furrows into the coffee plantations. A more
probable explanation of the disappearance is the high alkalinity of the
Meru Mountain waters.

203

This paper cannot be ended without a mention of Tanganyika's
Southern Highlands, south from Iringa to Mbeya and into the Living-
stone Mountains to Rungwe and Tukuyu. There is in this lovely region
great scope for introduction of trout. The streams are legion and they
are cold and long, some ideal for Fario. The Rufirio River flowing out
of the Livingstone Mountains will, it is hoped, before long rival Kenya’s
Gura. Residents in the Southern Highlands have already formed an
association with which Government will co-operate to mak§ a fishery
man's paradise of this attractive country.

Since writing the above there have been important further develop-
ments as regards introduction of trout into these Southern Highlands.

The Mbeya Planters’ Trout Association last August succeeded in
hatching out some rainbow as a first experiment. Three thousand ova
were posted up from Stellenbosch, South Africa, by air mail. The box
of ova was a simple, single-sided, wooden one without any insulation or
devices for preserving the contents either against heat or mechanical
injury. The box was shaken out of one of the mail-bags at the post
office and tumbled along the floor ! In view of this and lack of suitable
hatching apparatus, it is surprising that even a low percentage hatch
took place. It sufficed to prove that, given better conditions, rainbow
can be easily introduced.

Funds both from private subscription and Government grant are to
be available in 1934, when serious work will begin in two separate
hatcheries, to stock the fine streams of Dabaga, Mufindi, Njombe,
Tukuyu and Mbeya. The writer had the opportunity of making a pre-
liminary reconnaisance of three of these streams, the Kiwira of Rungwe-
Livingstone origin and the Ruhudje and Hagafirio on the Ubena
Plateau. All three are unsurpassed by anything in the way of potential
or existing trout water in Eastern Africa. So Tanganyika, it is hoped,
will soon be entering into friendly rivalry with Kenya.

Moro goto,

November 7th, 1933.

204

A LIST OF CESTODES KNOWN TO OCCUR IN EAST AFRICAN
MAMMALS, BIRDS AND REPTILES.

By J. R. Hudson, Division of Veterinary Research, Kabete.

Records of cestodes from East African hosts are scattered in
literature, most of which is inaccessible to workers in this country.
Such records have been derived in the main from the examination of
material brought back to Europe and America by members of scientific
expeditions and are naturally very incomplete. The helminth parasites
of domesticated animals in Kenya are now comparatively well known
at Kabete and it is thought that before further work is undertaken, a
general review of the situation will be of great value.

In recording parasitic species no useful purpose will be served by
too strict a definition of the geographical area which is covered.
Generally, however, this area includes Kenya Colony, Uganda, Tanga-
nyika and Zanzibar only. The classification followed is that of
Southwell (1930) although the Tsenioidea have been rearranged follow-
ing Fuhrmann (1932).

In the following list, except for species described from E. Africa,
records for which no authority is given are new. Where the record
refers to the original description the fact is mentioned and the reference
is that of the specific description.

The writer owes a debt of gratitude to Dr. H. A. Baylis of the
British Museum of Natural History for his assistance with the literature
and for permission to publish records of specimens determined by him
in the British Museum collection but hitherto unpublished. Where
such records are given the source is acknowledged. The writer has to
thank Mr. R. Daubney for his encouragement and help. Without the
assistance of his collection of reprints the determination of most of the
cestodes of East Africa would have been impossible. Finally, thanks
are due to Dr. van Someren for material and for assistance with many
of the host names.

Order

Superfamily

Family

Genus

EUCESTODA, Southwell, 1930.
Dibothriocephaloidea, Stiles, 1906.
Dibothriocephalidse, Luhe, 1902.
Dibothriocephalus , Luhe, 1899.

Dibothriocephalus felis (Creplin, 1825).

HOST. Leopard ( Felis pardus), Kere Kiu (? Kiu Kiu), Belgian Congo.

Genus Bothridium, Blainville, 1824.

Bothridium ovatum , Diesing, 1850.

HOST. Python, Ngong, Kenya.

205

Genus Duthersia, Perrier, 187B.

Duthersia fimbriata (Diesing, 1850).

HOST. Varanus niloticus, Tanganyika (Sandground, 1928).

According to Joyeux, Gendre and Baer this species is frequently
encountered in all African species of the genus Varanus.

Larval Forms Sparganum.

Sparganum , sp.

HOST. Serval ( Felis capensis hindei ), Ngong, Kenya.

Specimen found in the subcutis.

Sparganum , sp.

HOST. Mongoose ( Atilax albicauda ibeana), determined by Baylis,
recorded by Loveridge (1923).

Superfamily Proteocephaloidea, Southwell, 1930.

Family Proteocephalidae, La Rue, 1911.

Genus Proteocephalus, Weinland, 1858.
Proteocephalus gabonicus , Beddard, 1913.

HOST. Puff-adder ( Bitis gabonica), Amani, Tanganyika (Sandground,
1928); puff-adder, Nairobi (Solomon, 1932); puff-adder, Ngong Road,
Nairobi.

Proteocephalus elapsoidece (Sandground, 1928).

HOST. Elapsoides guentheri.

Originally described from this host from Nyange, Ulunguru Mts.

Proteocephalus crotaphopeltis (Sandground, 1928).

HOST. Crotaphopeltis tornieri.

Described from the same locality as the last species.

Proteocephalus, sp.

HOST. Bocedon lineatus.

Sandground records specimens that be could not determine
specifically (1928).

Proteocephalus, sp.

HOST. Thelotornis kirtlandii.

Indeterminable specimens recorded by Sandground (1928).

Superfamily Taenioidea, Zwicke, 1841.

Family Davaineidae, Fubrmann, 1907.

Sub-family Davaineinae, Braun, 1900.

Genus Cotugnia, Diamare, 1893.

Cotugnia crassa , Fubrmann, 1909.

HOST. Guinea-fowl. Specimens in the British Museum collection
from Uganda.

206

Genus Davainea, Blanchard, 1891.

Davainea proglottina (Davaine, 1860).

HOST. Domestic fowl, Maseno, Kenya.

This species appears to be rather rare in Kenya. Although con-
stantly sought it was not encountered until recently (January, 1933).

Genus Houttuynia , Fuhrmann, 1920.

Houttuynia struthionis (Houttuyn, 1772).

HOST. Ostrich ( Struthio camelus massaicus ), Laikipia, Kenya.

Previously reported by Meggitt (1921) from specimens forwarded
to Prof. Nuttall by the Veterinary Pathologist, Nairobi.

Baer (1928) appears to have demonstrated satisfactorily that there
is only one species of cestode known to occur in the ostrich. Examina-
tion of the writer’s material gives support to his findings.

Genus Raillietina, Fuhrmann, 1920.

Sub-genus Raillietina, Stiles and Orleman, 1926.

Raillietina ( Raillietina ) tetragona (Molin, 1858).

HOST. Domestic fowl, Nairobi, Maseno and Mombasa.

Solomon (1932) has reported this species from Koja, Uganda.
Specimens in the British Museum collection from fowls from Uganda
and Kilosa, Tanganyika, and from guinea-fowl from Bululi, Uganda.

Raillietina ( Raillietina ) echinobothrida (Megnin, 1880).

HOST. Domestic fowl, Nairobi, Kabete and Njoro.

The writer is not satisfied that the separation of this species from
R. tetragona is justified. Examination of a number of specimens shows
that there is considerable variation in the number and size of the hooks,
the only characters that can now be used to separate the forms. Both
forms produce the same nodular lesions in the intestinal wall.

Raillietina ( Raillietina ) penetrans (Baczynska, 1914).

HOST. Domestic fowl. Described originally from specimens from
East Africa.

Lopez -Neyra (1920) considers this species identical with R.
echinobothrida.

Raillietina ( Raillietina ) cohni (Baczynska, 1914).

HOST. Domestic fowl. Described from specimens from East Africa.

Raillietina ( Raillietina ) pintneri (Klaptocz, 1906).

HOST. Guinea-fowl ( Numida mitrata reichnowi ), Loitokitok, Masai
Beserve.

Raillietina ( Raillietina ) bycanistis (Baylis, 1919).

HOST. Hornbill ( Bycanistes sub quadratics).

Originally described from Uganda.

207

Baillietina ( Baillietina ) debilis (Baylis, 1919).

HOST. Stork ( Anastomus lamelligerus).

Originally described from Uganda. Dr. Baylis has re-examined
the type material and kindly permits me to state that the pores are
unilateral.

Baillietina jRaillietinai insignis (Steudener, 1877).

HOST. Vinago delalandii , Dar es Salaam. Specimens in the British
Museum collection.

Baillietina ( Baillietina ) vaganda (Baylis, 1919).

HOST. Sea-eagle ( Halitetus vocifer ), Uganda (Baylis).

Originally described from Uganda. After re-examination of the
types Dr. Baylis kindly informs me that this species has about ten
eggs in a capsule.

Sub-genus Paroniella , Fuhrmann, 1920.

Baillietina ( Paroniella ) numida (Fuhrmann, 1912).

HOST. Guinea-fowl ( Guttera pucherani), Ngong, and ( Numida
mitrata reichnowi ), Coryndon Memorial Museum, Nairobi. Specimens
in the British Museum collection from guinea-fowl from Ankole,
Uganda.

This species is exceedingly variable in size.

Sub-genus Shrjabinia, Fuhrmann, 1920.

Baillietina ( Shrjabinia ) cesticillus (Molin, 1858).

HOST. Domestic fowl, Kikuyu.

Genus Davainea , sensu latu.

Three records of collections determined as Davainea sp. before the
sub-division of the genus by Fuhrmann (1920) are given here.

Davainea sp.

HOST. The field rat, Arvicanthis abyssinicus nairobire , Nairobi. Speci-
mens in the British Museum collection.

Davainea sp.

HOST. Bleda pallidigula, Uganda (Baylis, 1919).

Davainea sp.

HOST. C entropies superciliaris, Nairobi (Baylis in Loveridge, 1923).

Sub-family Idiogeninse, Fuhrmann, 1907.

Genus Chapmania, Monticelli, 1893.

Chapmania unilateralis , Skrjabin, 1914.

HOST. Ground hornbill ( Bucorvus cafer).

Originally described from material collected in what was then
German East Africa (South Ufipa).

208

Genus Idiogenes , Krabbe, 1867.

Idiogenes flagellum (Goeze, 1782).

HOST. Milvus migrans parasitus, Tanganyika (Baylis in Loveridge,
1923) .

According to Fuhrmann (1932) I. longicirrhosa (Fuhr.) is a
synonym of I. flagellum.

Genus Sphyronchotrenia , Ransom, 1911.
Sphyronchotrenia uncinata, Ransom, 1911.

HOST. Bustard ( Neotis caffra).

Originally described from specimens collected at N’garri Narok
River, Kenya.

Family Anoplocephalidse, Fuhrmann, 1907.

Sub-family Anoplocephalinse, Blanchard, 1891.

Genus Anoplocephala , Blanchard, 1848.

Anoplocephala perfoliata (Goeze, 1782).

HOST. Horse, Zanzibar (Meggitt, 1921), Molo, Kenya.

Often seen in horses that have been killed at Kabete.

Anoplocephala rhodesiensis , Yorke and Southwell, 1921.

HOST. Zebra ( Equus quagga bohmi), Loitokitok, Masai Reserve.

Previously recorded by Baylis (in Loveridge, 1923) from the same
host from Sagayo, Mwanza, Tanganyika. There are also in the British
Museum collection specimens from zebra from Mwale, Tanganyika and
from Karamoja and from a donkey at Mbarara.

Some of the author’s batch of specimens have been recorded by
Solomon (1932) as A. perfoliata .

Anoplocephala magna (Abildgaard, 1789).

HOST. Grevy’s zebra ( Equus grevyi), Laisamis Northern Frontier
Province.

Part of this material has already been recorded by Solomon (1932).
Anoplocephala spatula (von Linstow, 1901).

HOST. Hyrax ( Procavia sp.), Kibwezi, Kenya (Bischoff, 1913);
Dodoma, Tanganyika (Baer, 1924).

Genus Aporina, Fuhrmann, 1902.

Aporina delafondi (Railliet, 1892).

HOST. Dove (Streptopelia semitorquata semitorquata), Kabete, Kenya.
Reported by Klaptocz (1908) from N. Uganda.

209

Genus Moniezia , Blanchard, 1891.

Moniezia expansa (Rudolphi, 1810).

HOSTS. Sheep, goats and calves, very widely distributed in Kenya.
Bushbuck ( Trag&laphus scriptus delameri), Ngong, Kenya. Recorded
from the eland (Taurotragus oryx) from Kenya by Monnig, 1988.

As reported by Daubney (1925), this is the most frequently en-
countered tapeworm of sheep in Kenya.

Moniezia benedeni (Moniez, 1879).

HOSTS. Specimens in the British Museum collection from impala
(Aepyceros melampus), eland (Taurotragus oryx) and reedbuck from
.Tanganyika; also from kongoni (Alcelaphus lelwel) from Karamoja.

Moniezia sp.

HOST. Goat, Kaimosi, Kenya.

Owing to the contracted state of this specimen no interproglottideal
glands can be distinguished; but the genital pores are in the centre of
the proglottis margin. It is probably either M. expansa or M. benedeni .

Moniezia sp.

HOST. Harvey’s duiker ( Gephalopus ignijer ignifer ), Taveta.

Another contracted specimen that unfortunately cannot be deter-
mined specifically. It is probably M . expansa.

Sub-family Linstowinse, Fuhrmann, 1907.

Genus Inermicapsifer. Janicki. 1910.

Inermicapsifer hyracis (Rudolphi, 1810).

HOST. Hyrax (Procavia sp.), Entota, Tanganyika (Bischoff, 1918).
Inermicapsifer guineensis (Graham, 1908).

HOSTS. Pouched rat ( Cricetomys gambianum ), Zanzibar (Meggitt,
1921), Arvicanthis abyssinicus nairobice , Athi Plains, Kenya.

A very common parasite of the field rat, Arvicanthis, in the
vicinity of Nairobi.

Inermicapsifer lopas , Bischoff, 1913.

HOST. Hyrax (Procavia sp.), Dodoma (Bischoff, 1913).

Inermicapsifer norhalli , Baer, 1924.

HOST. Hyrax (Procavia sp.), Dodoma (Baer, 1924).

Inermicapsifer prionodes , Bischoff, 1912.

HOST. Hyrax (Procavia sp.), Dodoma (Bischoff, 1913).

Genus Oochoristica, Luhe, 1898.

Oochoristica crassiceps , Baylis, 1920.

GOST. The snake Psammophis subtaeniatus, Mombasa.

Original description from material from Mombasa.

210

Oochoristica zonuri , Baylis, 1919.

HOST. The lizard Zonuras tropido sternum, Dodoma, Tanganyika.
(Baylis, 1920).

Sub-famly Thysanosominse, Fuhrmann, 1907.

Genus Avitellina , Gough, 1911.

Avitellina centripunctata (Rivolta, 1874).

HOST. Sheep, Ngobit, Kenya. Specimens in the British Museum
collection from sheep from Karamoja. Recorded from the eland

( Taurotragus oryx) from Kenya by Monnig (1933).

The specimens collected in Kenya agree generally with the amended
description given by Woodland (1927) for this species. The species is
liable to considerable variation throughout the length of the strobila.
The paruterine organs may lie in a single row in the centre at one point
and overlap laterally at another. Similarly the number of testes in the
row external to the ventral excretory vessels varies from segment to
segment. It is hoped to make a detailed study of these variations at a
later date.

Avitellina edifontainea (Woodland, 1928).

HOST. Eland ( Taurotragus oryx).

Originally described from material from Chilangali, Tanganyika.

Genus Thysaniezia , Skrjabin, 1926.

Thysaniezia giardi (Moniez, 1879).

HOST. Sheep, Kinangop, Kenya.

This worm has only been collected once (1933).

Genus Stilesia, Railliet, 1893.

Stilesia globipuncta (Rivolta, 1874).

HOST. Goat, Zanzibar (Meggitt, 1921). Specimens in the British
Museum collection from sheep, Jinja, Uganda.

Stilesia hepatica, Wolffhugel, 1903.

HOST. Sheep. Generally distributed in Kenya.

This parasite of the bile ducts of sheep was first reported from
Kenya by Daubney (1925). Fragments of 180 mm. in length have been
collected and the total length must be greatly in excess of this. There
appears to be no reaction on the part of the host, sections of liver and
ducts containing the worms show no lesions either in the wall of the
ducts or in the surrounding parenchyma. It may be recorded that this
parasite has been collected from sheep on the well-drained northern
slopes of Mt. Kenya which were free from all other worms.

Stilesia vittata, Railliet, 1896.

HOST. Camel ( Camelus dromedarius), Zanzibar (Meggitt, 1921).

211

Family Mesocestoididae, Perrier, 1897.

Genus Mesocestoides , Vaillant, 1863.

Mesocestoides lineatus (Goeze, 1782).

HOSTS. Frequently found in dogs and cats at Kabete, Kenya.
Mesocestoides sp.

HOST. Serval ( Felis capensis hindei), Ngong, Kenya.

A large number of what appear to be young worms were present.
Their size and characters appear to agree most nearly with those of
M. longistriatus (Setti, 1897).

Larval Form Tetrathyridium .

Tetrathyridium variabile (Diesing, 1850).

HOST. Domestic fowl, Kabete.

This parasite was originally described from the lung of the guinea-
fowd. Specimens have been found fairly frequently in large numbers
in the lungs of fowls that have been kept at the Laboratory for experi-
mental purposes.

Family Dilepididae, Fuhrmann, 1907.

Sub-family Dilepidinae, Fuhrmann, 1907.

Genus Amoebotcenia, Cohn, 1899.

Amoebotcenia splienoides (Bailliet, 1892).

HOST. Domestic fowl, Njoro, Kenya.

This parasite is encountered in cases of fowl leukemia, when it
occurs in large numbers in the duodenum causing a very severe
catarrhal condition.

Genus Cyclorchida, Fuhrmann, 1907.

Cyclorchida omalancristrota (Wedl, 1855).

HOST. Spoonbill, Platalea leucorodia leucorodia, Tanganyika. (Baylis
in Loveridge, 1923).

Sub-family Dipylidiinae, Stiles 1896.

Genus Choanot-cenia, Bailliet, 1896.

Choanotcenia infundibulum (Bloch, 1779).

HOST. Domestic fowl, Kenya.

Ghoanolcenia polyorchis (Klaptocz, 1908), Baer, 1925.

HOST. Milvus migrans parasitus, Tanganyika (Baylis in Loveridge,
1923). There are also specimens in the British Museum collection from
a “ brown hawk,” Toro, Uganda.

Genus Dipylidium , Leuckart, 1896.

Dipylidium caninum (Linnaeus, 1758).

HOST. Dog. Generally distributed in Kenya. Cat. Zanzibar
(Meggitt, 1921).

212

Genus Joyeuxia, Lopez-Nerya.

Joyeuxia pasqualei (Diamare, 1893).

HOST. Cat, Zanzibar (Meggit, 1921).

According to Witenberg (1932), J. chyzeri (von Katz, 1897) is a
synonym of J. pasqualei (Diamare 1893).

Joyeuxia fuhrmanni (Baer, 1924).

HOST. Serval ( Felis capensis hindei), Ngong, Kenya.

According to Witenberg (1932), this species is also a synonym of
J. pasqualei. Witenberg has shown that Dipylidium sp. (Kolend, 1917)
is the same worm as J. fuhrmanni. The present specimens also agree
with J . fuhrmanni and as the specimens were carefully fixed, the
writer is unable to concede the appearance of Joyeuxia from the serval
as being due to contraction only. The fact that on three occasions a
cestode, with the same characters, has been collected from the serval
gives support to the view that it is a distinct form. While this paper
was in preparation a note by Ortlepp (1933) appeared expressing the
same opinion.

Sub-family Paruterinae, Fuhrmann, 1907.

Genus Biuterina, Fuhrmann, 1902.

Biuterina ugandce , Baylis, 1919.

HOST. Sunbird ( Cinnyris gutteralis).

Originally described from Uganda.

Genus Metroliasthes, Ransom, 1900.

Metroliasthes lucida , Ransom, 1900.

HOST. Domestic fowl, Kenya (Meggitt, 1926).

In his paper on the tapeworms of fowls Meggitt lists Kenya among
the localities from which this worm has been collected. The author has
not been able to trace any reference on which this statement could have
been based.

Genus Octopetalum, Baylis, 1914.

Octopetalum gutterce, Baylis, 1914.

HOST. Guinea-fowl ( Gutter a edouardi), Ngong, Kenya.

Octopetalum longicirrosum, Baer, 1925.

HOST. Guinea-fowl. Specimens in the British Museum collection
from Toro and Ankole, Uganda.

Genus Rhabdometra , Choiodkovsky, 1906.
Rhabdometra numida (Fuhrmann, 1909).

HOST. Guinea-fowl ( Numida mitrata reichnowi), Loitokitok, Masai
Reserve. Specimens in the British Museum collection from guinea-
fowl from Uganda.

213

Family Hymenolepididae, Fuhrmann, 1907.

Sub-family Hymenolepidinse, Perrier, 1897.

Genus Dipl op os the, Jacobi, 1896.

Diploposthe Icevis (Bloch, 1782).

HOST. The duck Nyroca erythrophthalma, Kabete, Kenya.

Genus Hymenolepsis , Weinland, 1858.

Hymenolepis murina (Dujardin, 1845).

HOSTS. Arvicanthis abyssinicus nairobice , Athi Plains and Cricetomys
gambianum, Kabete, Kenya.

Hymenolepis carioca (Magalhaes, 1898).

HOST. Domestic fowl, Njoro, Nakuru, Kabete and Nairobi, Kenya.

Hymenolepis megalops (Creplin, 1829).

HOST. Nyroca erythrophthalma, Kabete, Kenya.

Hymenolepis multistriata (Rudolphi, 1810).

HOST. “ Coot ”? (more probably a grebe Podiceps), Kabete, Kenya.
(Solomon, 1982).

Hymenolepis phoeniconaiadis , Hudson, 1934.

HOST. Lesser flamingo ( Phoeniconais minor), Narok Road, Kenya.
Hymenolepis sp.

HOST. Domestic goose, Kaimosi, Kenya.

This specimen, being without a head, is not determinable
specifically.

Hymenolepis sp. near H. unilateralis (Rudolphi, 1819).

HOST. Butorides atricapilla, Tanganyika (Baylis in Loveridge, 1923).

Fuhrmann (1932) considers Rudolphi’s species Taenia unilateralis
to be a Dilepis.

Hymenolepis sp.

HOST. Podiceps ruficollis capensis , Tanganyika (Baylis in Loveridge,
1923).

Sub-family Fimbriariinse, Wolff hugel.

Genus Fimbriaria, Frolich, 1802.

Fimbriaria fasciolaris (Pallas, 1781).

HOST. The duck, Nyroca erythrophthalma, Kabete, Kenya.

Family Taeniidoe, Ludwig, 1886.

Genus Echinococcus, Rudolphi, 1810.

Echinococcus granulosus (Batsch, 1786).

HOST. Larval forms have been found occasionally in the liver and
lungs of sheep, cattle and pigs at Kabete.

214

Genus Tania , Linnaeus, 1858.

Tania solium , Linnaeus, 1758.

HOST. Larval form ( Cysticercus celluloses) in the muscles of the pig,
Naivasha. Previously reported from Kenya (Uplands) by Solomon
(1932).

Until the early part of 1933 measly pork was very rarely seen in
Kenya. During February of that year a number of specimens were
received at Kabete. So far as is known the adult worm has not been
recorded from Kenya.

Tania hydatigena , Pallas, 1766.

HOST. Fairly frequently encountered in dogs at Nairobi and Kabete,
Kenya. Lion ( Felis leo masaica), Ngong, Kenya. Recorded from the
dog, Zanzibar (Meggitt, 1921). Larval form ( Cysticercus tenuicollis)
in the peritoneal cavity and liver, is very often found in sheep, and
goats, and occasionally seen in cattle throughout the highlands of
Kenya (Daubney, 1925). Daubney has recorded the larval form from
the meninges of a calf at Kabete {hoc. cit.). The writer has once found
the larval form in the peritoneal cavity of a Thomson’s gazelle ( Gazella
thomsoni nasalis), Laikipia.

Tania multiceps , Leske, 1780.

HOST. Larval form ( Coenurus cerebralis) from the lateral ventricle of
the brain of a native sheep, Laisamis, Northern Frontier Province.

The adult worm, which occurs in other countries in dogs and jackals,
has not been found in Kenya. The larval form has only been seen once
and the parasite, which is undoubtedly rare, is probably restricted to
the Northern Frontier Province.

Tania taniaformis (Batsch, 1786).

HOSTS. Recorded from the domestic cat (Meggitt, 1921), Zanzibar.
Larval form {Strobilocercus fasciolaris), beneath the capsule of the liver
of rats ( Rattus rattus kijabius and Arvicanthis abyssinicus nairobia ),
Kabete, Kenya.

Tania saginata, Goeze, 1782.

HOST. Man (Daubney and Carman, 1928). Larval form ( Cysticercus
bovis) in the muscles and beneath the epicardium of cattle. Widely
distributed in Kenya.

Tania sp.

HOST. Jackal (Solomon, 1932), Kenya.

The recorded specimens were too immature to determine specifi-
cally; but were probably either T. ovis or T. hydatigena.

215

Tcenia sp.

HOST. Hartebeeste, Athi Plains, Kenya.

Daubney (1929) has reported that cysticerci are not uncommon in
the muscles of kongoni on the Athi Plains. Specimens, examined
microscopically, appeared to be C. ovis.

It may be mentioned here that cysticerci have never been found
in the musculature of the Grant’s gazelle. The popular idea that the
flesh of this antelope should not be eaten on account of the supposed
presence of measles is probably due to the frequent occurrence of
harmless Sarcosporidia.

T tenia sp.

HOST. Spitting cobra.

Solomon (1932) recorded the presence of cysticerci about 2 mm. in
diameter on the serous surface of the intestine of this snake. There
were no rostellar hooks.

Family Acoleidse, Fuhrmann, 1907.

Genus, Dioecocestus , Fuhrmann, 1900.

Dioecocestus aspera (Mehlis, 1831).

HOST. Podiceps ruficollis capensis , Tanganyika (Baylis in Loveridge,
1923).

Family Amabiliidse, Braun, 1900.

Genus Amabilia, Diamare, 1893.

Amabilia lamelligera (Owen, 1835).

HOST. Lesser flamingo ( Phoeniconaias minor), Kabete, Kenya.

Genus T atria, Kowalewski, 1904.

T atria decacantha, Fuhrmann, 1913.

HOST. “ Coot ”? (probably a grebe Podiceps), Kabete, Kenya.
(Solomon, 1932).

Tatria fuhnnanni, Solomon, 1932.

HOST. The same bird as the last species. Described from Kabete.

216

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

For the most part, this bibliography includes references to the
occurrence of species in East Africa only. General references mentioned
in the text are given; but references to original descriptions of species
that were described from other parts of the world are omitted.

Baczynska, H.

Baer, J. G.

Baylis, H. A.

Bxschoff,
Daubney, R.

Daubney, R. and
Carman, J.

Fuhrmann, 0.

(1914). Bull. Soc. sc. nat. Neuchatel 40. 187-230.
(1924)i. J. of Helminthology 2. 77-80.

(1926). 11th and 12th Reports of the Director of
Vet. Educ. and Res., Pretoria. 61-136.

(1928). Bull. Soc. sc. nat. Neuchatel 52. 1-13.

(1914). An. & Mag. of Nat. Hist. Ser. 8 14. 414.

(1919). An. & Mag. of Nat. Hist. Ser 9 3. 457.

(1920). An. & Mag. of Nat. Hist. Ser. 9 6. 283.

(1913). Rev. Suisse de Zool. 21. 224-284.
(1925). In report of Director of Agriculture,
Kenya Colony for 1925. 121-122.

(1929). Department of Agriculture , Kenya
Colony, Bulletin 26 of 1928. 17..

(1928). Parasitology 20. 185-206.

(1932). Les tenias des oiseaux, Memoires de
V universite de Neuchatel. 8.

Klaptocz, B.
Lopez-Neyra, C. R.

Loveridge, A.

Meggitt, F. J.

Monnig, H. O.
Ortlepp, R. J.
Ransom, B. H.

Sand ground, J. H.
Skrjabin, K. J.
Solomon,

Southwell, T.
WlTENBERG, G.
Woodland, W. N. F.

(1908). Sb. Akad. Wiss. Wien. 17. 40p.

(1920). Rev. de la Real Acad, de Ciencias
Exactas Fisicas y Naturales de Madrid. 18. 23 p.
(1923). Proc. Zool. Soc. London. 685-739, 899-
921.

(1921a). Parasitology . 13. 1-24.

(1921b). Parasitology . 13. 193-204.

(1926). J. Burma Res. Soc. 15. 239.

(1933). Onderstepoort J. 1. 85.

(1933). Onderstepoort J. 1. 97-98.

(1911). Proc. U.S. Nat. Museum. 40. 637-647.
(1928). Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 39. 131.
(1914). Central fur Bakt. u Par. 75. 72.

(1932). J. of Helminthology . 10. 209-218.
(1930). Fauna of British India, Cestodes.

(1932). Zeitsch. fur Parasit. 4. 542-584.

(1927). Ann. Trop. Med. & Parasit. 21. 385-414.
(1928). Parasitology. 20. 56-64.

217

BOTANICAL NOTES.

By E. B. Napier.

Introduction.

It has been suggested that an attempt should be made to publish
a flora of Kenya in the pages of this journal. This can only be a tenta-
tive effort for the material at hand is inadequate, and I would empha-
size that the flora cannot at present be complete. It is proposed to
leave out the trees as the Forest Department are said to be publishing
a revision and addition to Battiscombe’s Catalogue of Trees and Woody
Plants.

However incomplete this effort may be, it is necessary to follow a
definite system. There are various authorities on the classification of
plants, the best known being Bentham & Hooker (Genera Plantarum)
1862-1883, and Engler & Prantl (Die naturliche Planzenfamilien)
1887-1909.

The former made no attempt to classify in a phylogenetic manner,
the latter did aspire to place the Natural Orders, as the writers con-
ceived them to have originated or developed from prehistoric times.

Since that work was published, ideas as to which features are
primitive and which modern have changed considerably, owing to the
discoveries of more fossil plants. Mr. John Hutchinson, Assistant in
the Kew Herbarium, and botanist in charge of the African section, pub-
lished a book some years ago (1926) which claims to be, to use his own
words, “ arranged according to a new system based on their probable
phylogeny.”

It is proposed to follow this system here; unfortunately Part II of
the book has not been published, which is to contain the Monocoty-
ledons, so in dealing with them little or no attempt will be made to
follow their evolution.

Mr. Hutchinson bases his system on the assumption that “ plants
with sepals and petals associated with other characters regarded also
as primitive, are more ancient phylogenetic ally than plants without
sepals or petals.” This is the reverse of Engler & Prantl’s ideas.

The Monocotyledons are placed after the Dicotyledons from which
they were derived at an early stage, the point of origin being the Banales
and perhaps other groups. Becent prehistoric discoveries strongly sup-
port these theories.

As many people are more interested in Monocotyledons (chiefly
bulbous herbs) than Dicotyledons, it is proposed to publish a descrip-
tion of three Dicotyledons and three Monocotyledons in each journal.

218

A description of every species will not be given, but a list of them
will be included.

As trees are not being described, the first family represented in
Africa under Mr. Hutchinson’s system is Ranunculaceae. This is also
the first in most of the well known works. Its characteristics are the
free carpels, not enclosed in an ovary, this is a primitive character.

DICOTYLEDONS.

RANUNGULAGEM .

This family, or rather, the group of families known as Ranales, to
which it belongs is generally considered to be the most primitive.
Ranunculaceae family is closely allied to Alismaceae, but the latter
belongs to the Monocotyledons. It consists of hermaphrodite herbs with
numerous free carpels or achenes. “ A family represented all over the
world to the limits of vegetation, on high mountains and towards the
poles.”

Ranunculus. A large cosmopolitan genus, first described by
Linnaeus, commonest in the N. Temperate zone. Two well known
British representatives being the buttercup and celandine.

Plate I.

Ranunculus pubescens , Thumb (pinnatus Poir).

The plant springs from a tufted root stock and grows to one or two
feet high when not in damp ground, and almost any height up to five
feet when in wet ground or in water. The shape and indumentum
(hairy covering) of the leaves varies almost as much as the height, but
it is usually softly hairy on the under surface of the leaves, and slightly
or not at all hairy on the top, occasionally the whole plant is very hairy.

Stems. — The stems are branched, ribbed and covered with short
hairs growing upward.

Leaves. — The radical leaves, on a stalk from 2" to 5 " long, are
3-partite or variously sub-divided. The smaller leaves on the stems
are sessile, 3 fid or deeply incised, or occasionally entire.

Flowers. — The flowers, poor imitations of the meadow buttercup,
but sometimes not unlike those of the water buttercup of Britain, are
nearly as variable as the leaves. The calyx is recurved and yellow,
sometimes the petals are almost round, at other times elliptical or
oblong, but they are always bright yellow and have small honey glands
at the base to attract insects of various kinds who effect pollination.

The two-celled stamens are numerous, and clustered at the base
of the pyramid of achenes, so characteristic of the genus. Each achene
or carpel is tipped by a small stigma.

219

Distribution. — Common in or near water between the altitudes
of 4,500 to 9,000 feet.

Other species in Kenya are: —

R. oreophytus, common at about 10,000 feet, growing close to the
ground and resembling in flower a large celandine.

R. Volkensii, an insignificant herb growing in damp ground at high
altitudes; it has a small yellow flower and heart-shaped entire leaves.

Clematopsis. The genus was first described by Mr. Bojer from
Madagascar, but the Kew authorities were very doubtful as to whether
there was sufficient distinction between it and Clematis or Anemone.
Mr. Hutchinson in 1920 wrote an article on the Genus (Kew Bull., 1920,
page 12) upholding a theory that it is a primitive genus, a step between
Anemone and Clematis. It is a variable genus, sometimes almost like
Anemone and sometimes like Clematis, many botanists therefore in-
clude the species in either of the two foregoing genera.

Plate II.

Clematopsis oliveri , Hutch.

This was described as a new species in 1920. It had been collected
first from Uganda by Speke and Grant in 1861, but was thought to be
a Clematis. It is an erect woody herb, from one foot to two and a half
feet in height, growing in grass land between the altitudes of 4,000 —
7,000 feet.

Stems. — The stems spring from a rhizome, and are branched or
single, strongly ribbed, covered with short hairs, and bearing a single
flower at the apex.

Leaves. — The leaves are without stalks or with very short stalks
on the lower ones, borne in pairs up the stem, either trifoliate or pin-
nate, thinly covered with short hairs.

Flowers. — The flowers have four to six velvety sepals either white,
cream or delicately shaded with pink or purple. The stamens with
yellow anthers are numerous and clustered around the more numerous
feathery styles, which are attached to the separate carpels in the centre
of the mass. When the fruit is ripe these feather mops are white and
very decorative being 8" or 9" in circumference; eventually they are
dispersed by wind.

Distribution. — This species has been recorded from Mt. Elgon,
Kapenguria, Trans Nzoia and Nyanza basin.

Plate II.

Clematopsis oliveri, Hutch.

There is another species, C. kirkii , very similar but, if anything,
bigger and more beautiful; the leaves have a much thicker indumentum.
So far, specimens have only been received from Uganda, but it has
been seen in the S. Kavirondo district.

Delphinium. A N. Temperate genus, but eighteen species are to
be found in N. and E. Africa. The genus provides some of the most
beautiful garden plants, some also are poisonous or used in medicine.

Plate III.

Delphinium macrocentron Oliv. An erect herb varying in height from
2 feet to 4 feet. Very straight and stiff, branched or unbranched. Its
strikingly brilliant blue-green flowers cannot fail to catch the eye,
although they often grow in long grass or in rocky, bush-covered hill-
sides or escarpments, 6,000 to 9,000 feet.

Stems. — Erect, and somewhat hairy, bearing from two to eight
flower heads, in lax terminal racemes. There are usually a few sub-
sessile leaves up the stem, linear and two or three fid.

Leaves.— The leaves proper spring from the tuberous root on
stalks up to one foot in length, palmately shaped, and deeply and
variously split up having usually five main divisions.

Flower. — The flower is somewhat like a “ Monk’s Hood ” flower;
the spur is longer than the petals, and very nearly upright it continues
down forming a hood for the stigmas and stamens in the centre of the
flower, but the stamens spring out from either side of it on unruly
yellow filaments with black anthers. The colour of the flower varies
from deepest peacock blue to green, and even pure white, but most
colours are shaded in parts with green.

Distribution. — D. macrocentron is almost universal between the
altitudes of 6,000 — 9,000 feet.

There is some confusion over the other species. D. Welbyi is said
to have come from Kenya and has been shown under that name at the
Boyal Agricultural Show. D. candidum is a beautiful white sweet
scented species from Kilimanjaro and foothills of Elgon. There is a
similar but bright blue one from Isiolo and Abyssinia, so far only
returned as Delphinium sp. There may be others from the outskirts
of the Colony.

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MONOCOTYLEDONS.

ALISMACE/E.

According to Mr. Hutchinson, this was probably the first Mono-
cotyledonous family to evolve itself from Ranunculacese. It is very
similar in several respects to that family.

Alisma. This genus was first described by Linnaeus. It is large
and widespread consisting chieflly of water or marshplants with
perennial rhizomes.

Plate IV.

Alisma plantago-aquatica.

A species widely distributed all over the world. (Water plantain).

It is found growing in water, in marshes, on the edge of streams
or ditches, at an altitude of from 3,000 — 8,000 feet.

Stem. — The stem erect and much branched growing up to about

3'6".

Leaves. — The leaves are all radical, and vary somewhat according
to the situation of the plant. When growing in water they appear to be
inflated, and float, but when not actually in the water they are not so
thick in texture, they vary in shape too, but are usually lanceolate, and
from about 4" to 8 " in length, on a leaf stalk about 6" in length. The
nerves are numerous and almost at right angles to the broad mid rib.

Flowers. — The flowers are in compound whorls, not more than
two or three flower on a whorl at one time; the three sepals are green
with transparent margins, the three petals are white with undulating
margins, and are bent right back when fully open leaving the six stamens
and the numerous stigmas well exposed in the centre. The recurved
stigmas are attached to compressed achenes, tightly packed together
to form a disc, to this the calyx clings long after the petals have fallen.

The flowers do not open until about ten o’clock.

It is to be found all over the colony in suitable situations but can
scarcely be called common.

In the FI. of Trop. Africa., another species is cited as occurring
in East Africa, A. p amis si folium.

The only other genus so far recorded is Limnophyton, L, obtusi-
folium occurring at Arabuko in the Coastal region.

ARAGEJE (Aroideae B. & H.)

A large Tropical and Temperate family providing ornamental
flowers and starch. “ It consists of herbs, large and small, with aerial
stems, tubers, or rhizomes, climbing shrubs, climbing epiphytes, marsh
plants, and one water plant (Pistia), etc.” (Willis). There are about
thirty-three genera in Africa and a hundred and fifty species.

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Plate IV.

Alisma plantago-aquatica, Linn.

Plate V.

Ariscema ruwenzoricum, N.E.Br.

This species, as its name indicates, was first found on Mount
Ruwenzori by Scott-Elliot at an altitude from 7,000 — 8,000 feet.

It is an erect herb varying in height from one foot to three feet,
it usually grows in shade and near a stream.

Stem. — The peduncle averages about six inches in length (it varies
greatly) and is glabrous.

Leaves. — Very variable, either comparatively small, from 4" to 9"
in length, consisting of five pedately arranged leaflets from 1" to 2}"
broad, or six or seven distinctly radiating leaflets 8" — 9" long and
about 2" broad.

Flower. — The spathe tube is about 4" long and the rest of the
spathe green in colour and striped with white, about 6" in length,
tapers almost to a thread and sometimes curves over the mouth of
the tube. The spadix is unisexual, about 4J" long and slightly exserted.

There are no other species of this genus recorded from Kenya or
Uganda but there are two others in Abyssinia.

Several other genera have been recorded, they are:— -

Culcasea scandens , Beauv. from Kericho forest 7,000 feet and S.
Kavirondo.

Callopsis Volkensii Engl., from Kongoni Forest, Gazi and Chopu
Hills, 800 — 1,000 feet. Spathe white, spadix yellow, in dense shade
growing like violets.

Gonatopus Boivinni Hook. /., from Mowesa, a succulent plant.
Spathe white with longitudinal markings of mauve-grey.

Pistia stratiotes Linn. Floating water plant that is said to sleep
at night, to be found in most lakes and sheltered pools of rivers. Looks
like a small cabbage.

Amorphophallus Schweinfurthii, N.E.Br. Elgon 7,000 feet. This
is said to be quite common in some parts of the Colony.

A. laxiflorus, N.E.Br., is recorded from U-kamba and Kitui.

A. maximus, N.E.Br., from near Mombasa; this and the above
are quoted from FI. of Trop. Africa. No specimen has been received
in the Herbarium so far.

Zamioculcas Loddigeii Schott. Rabai Hills (FI. Trop. Afr.).

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TYPHACM.

This well-known family is small and consists of reed-like marsh or
acquatic herbs with linear two ranked leaves.

Typha. Described by Linnaeus and Tournefort, this genus is the
only one in the family. “ Some species are used medicinally and yield
potash and also materials for plaiting, stuffing, and for the manufacture
of paper and felt. The root stock and pollen are edible." (Thonner,
The Flowering Plants of Africa).

There are about twelve species in temperate and tropical countries.

Plate VI.

Typha latifolia (Great Reedmace, Cat’s Tail, and often but erroneously
called Bull-rush), Benth. and HK.

It is found on the margins of ponds, lakes, and watery ditches
nearly all over the world. It is not so common in Kenya or as useful
as “ Ithangi," as it is unsuitable for thatching.

Stem. — The reed-like stems 3 — 6 feet high, spring from a creeping
or scarcely creeping rootstock.

Leaves. — The leaves are long and narrow, about half an inch wide,
but broader and sheathing at the base, they spring alternately from the
stem for the whole of its length.

Flowers. — Flowers in a continuous spike about a foot long, the
upper portion tightly packed with yellowish stigmas (female flowers),
the minute ovaries are enveloped in tufts of soft brownish hairs which
eventually help to distribute them.

Other species recorded from Kenya : —

T. australis from Mombasa.

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Plate VI.

Typha latifolia, Linn.

KENYA FLOWERS AS GARDEN PLANTS.

By Lady Muriel Jex-Blake.

(Paper read at Third Annual Scientific Meeting, Nov., 1933.)

When Miss Napier and I were asked to write a paper on some
aspects of the Kenya Flora we both agreed that the “ Aspect ” which
should have the widest appeal would be the suitability of Native
plants for garden cultivation, and a few days later I heard of a
gardener who was very indignant because his local Plant Nurseryman
had sold him, as a flowering shrub, a Clerodendron which had turned
out to be “a beastly wild thing which grows in the bush ! ’ ’ and I
smiled when I remembered that the last time I was in England I had
seen a very mangy specimen of this same blue clerodendron, growing
in a pot, and exhibited at a R.H.S. show in Vincent Square as a very
special treasure.

One has to remember I think, that all garden plants grown in
England were originally wild flowers somewhere, or were evolved from
wild flowers in the past; that expeditions are continually going to
China and such places to collect further new wild flowers to bring
back for cultivation in England; the only reason they do not come
here is because our flora, not being hardy, is only suitable to hot
houses in England, and in these economical days very few people can
afford to grow tropical plants.

Now many of our indigenous plants are things of very real beauty,
and are worthy of good places in any garden; and some have the added
value of flowering when most imported plants are drooping sadly and
making no show. Yet so odd is the mind of the general public (with
apologies to the wiser minority ! ) that while nearly every one will show
you with pride a sad little plant of an English Primrose, with one
miserable flower, they will also turn away from a well grown group of
flaunting scarlet and yellow Gloriosas remarking, “ but those are only
weeds aren’t they?” Nothing as beautiful as a Gloriosa could be a
weed. A wild flower out here, yes, but a much sought after green
house plant in England, costing half a crown a tuber at least 1

Flowering Trees :

I cannot attempt to tell you of all the plants worth growing, but
I would like to mention a few of the better ones, and among flowering
trees the first which occurs to me is Spathodea nilotica, or the Nandi
flame tree. I have a suspicion that not many people realise that this
is an indigenous tree, as it is so widely planted; and it is so well
known, with its great orange scarlet cups, that it really needs no
further recommendation from me.

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Another exceedingly handsome tree is Cordia Holstii, known to
the Kikuyu as Muringa. It has the advantage of being very quick
growing, with large heart-shaped leaves which get smaller on the older
trees, and when in flower is completely smothered with trusses of
papery white flowers. If the lower branches are kept cut it grows up
with amazing rapidity, into a fine shaped specimen tree and, having a
wide spread, would be a good shady tree for a lawn.

Smaller trees, and slower growers, are the Ochna family with
pretty foliage and wood rather like a wild cherry, masses of sweetly
scented yellow flowers (folk call it the Primrose tree) and curious
fruits, or seeds, blue black on a persistent calyx which turns deep red,
so that the season of colour is very much prolonged. Branches cut
for the house drop every petal in the evening and produce a new crop
of flowers each morning for several days.

Millettia oblata is a small deciduous tree which is much in
evidence on the Nyeri Read, with its panicles of mauve pea flowers,
rather like a tree Wistaria. It flowers quite freely and quite quickly
and is always admired; while in the districts which suit it, and round
Thika and down into the Akamba country the Dombeya umbraculifera
makes the country side look like a fruit orchard, so apple-like are the
pink or white masses of blossom on the leafless little trees; but this
tree, alas ! is also very slow, and pretty particular as to where he
grows.

The evergreen tree that used to be called Randia, which is now
classed among the Gardenias, is very well worth a place, for it seems
to bear flowers most of the year, stiff upright bell shaped things,
creamy white spotted with purple inside and intensely sweetly scented.
They stand along the branches rather like candles on a Christmas tree.

Every one probably knows the so-called “ Cape Chestnut ” by
sight, Calodendron capense, but it is surprising how few people have
ever handled the blossoms, or realised the positively orchid like beauty
of the details of those pinky mauve clusters. Cape chestnuts too
require patience, as they do not flower for a sadly long time after
planting; but they should certainly be planted for the benefit of our
children, even if not for our own !

Calpurnia aurea is often alluded to as the sham laburnum, and a
good description it is of this golden flowered tree which is fairly
common in forest lands of the Mau and of Laikipia; while Markhamia
Hildebrandtii is another worthy of a garden place, with dark green
handsome pinnate leaves and panicles of large clear yellow trumpet
flowers, like those of a Bignonia, to which family indeed the tree
belongs. This tree is common from Nairobi to Meru, a true Kikuyu
in fact.

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Erythrina tomentosa , sometimes called, in imitation of the Dutch,
the Kaffir boom, grows everywhere, and few things are lovelier than
this tree in full bloom. It should be more planted, as in populated
districts it is apt to be crowded out. Its red lobster-claw flowers are
very very good, and what Kenya child has not delighted in picking up
its red seeds, which they call “ lucky beans?”

Flowering Shrubs.

When one comes down the scale of height and looks at the
flowering shrubs of the Colony, it is indeed hard to know where to
stop^ they are so many, and so good.

I think my favourite is perhaps Carissa edulis, that very cruelly
spiny big shrub with clusters of deep red buds opening into jasmine
like flowers, deliciously scented, and followed by red and purple fruits
which, as its name tells you, are edible. It seems to grow all over
the Colony, so should do anywhere; it is a bit slow from seed but
flowers nearly all the year through.

The Blue Butterfly bush, Clerodendron myricoides every one
knows also, and in its best forms it is very lovely, with flowers like
clouds of blue butterflies all over the bush; while a handsome shrub
is the white Clerodendron Guerkei, which is common beyond LumBwa,,
and again round Kitale. It is really beautiful, but has the nasty
habit of sending suckers all over the garden. Still, I think it is worth
the trouble of weeding them out, for its masses of long tubed white
flowers make such a fine show for so many months in the year.

The deep violet blue, yellow throated Thunbergia affinis, from
the Akamba country is another treasure which everyone should grow,
the flowers being large and brilliant out of all proportion to the size
of the shrub ; and the paler, soft mauve blue Dyschoriste Thunbergi flora
which also comes from parts of the Akamba country is another very
showy shrub with masses of its smaller trumpets for months at a
time. It has flowered valiantly this dry year, which is much to its
credit. All round Nairobi you can find two charming white flowered
shrubs, Turraea mombassiana, with its neat close shining foliage and
quite big, loose petalled white flowers, followed by scarlet seeds; and
the taller looser growing Englerodaphne, a delicate graceful tall bush
with masses of tiny sweet scented white flowers. The Turraea this
spring was so white with flowers that several times it made my pony
shy, as he came on it in the bush.

Ruttya speciosa is another favourite of mine from the dry slopes
of the Kedong Valley. A scandent shrub, deciduous, and bearing
showy and curious orange scarlet flowers with a black blotch on the
lip of each like burnt sealing wax. This bush always attracts attention
from visitors.

Acokanthera longi flora, the leaves and twigs of which are used
by the Wakamba for poisoning arrows, is a handsome bush in foliage,
scented white flowers, and red plum like fruits too, and is better for
garden work than A. schimperii, a larger tree with smaller leaves and
flowers. Both are common over a great part of the country, but none
the less desirable for that !

Many of the Hypericums, or St. John’s Worts are good garden
shrubs and very free flowering with loose showers of golden bloom
while the big pea family of Crotalaria gives many very handsome
members for garden decoration. 0. agati flora with long spikes of
pale greenish yellow flowers, C. pseudospartium of weeping habit with
very small leaves and prominent big golden flowers, and G. lachnocar-
poides which opens golden yellow and turns to a reddish bronze and
has pods softly hairy and brown when ripe, like mice! are some of
the best.

The Pentas’s are useful too. P. Carnea which is common all
round here and over most of Kenya, is very pretty, lilac mauve in
colour, the scarlet P. coccinea is very good and really showy but the
loveliest of all has so far refused garden life with me. P. longituba
from Kitale to Kericho is really beautiful with large heads of pure
white long tubed flowers on single stems with whorls of narrow leaves
at intervals, the plant having the general appearance of some strange
lily rather than a shrub.

There is a very charming little Bauhinia taitensis, with lemon
yellow flowers which have a purple eye. It is a rather variable shrub,
and seeds from the same source may give some almost prostrate
spreading plants and others upright and nearly tree like with larger
leaves, it is very rarely completely out of flower.

One must not leave out Cassia didymobotrya , frequent as it is,
for though on the coarse side, it is undeniably handsome with great
upright racemes of bright yellow flowers topped by the immature buds
of darkest brown. Hibiscus certainly deserve mention for though
most of the yellow flowered ones are too big and coarse for garden
work nevertheless the little crimson fellow, H. aponeurus is very
restrained and dainty, and a charming flower if you look closely at it,
and with small neat foliage and no dangerous spreading habits, while
the violet flowered H. cannabinus is one of the most distinctive
flowers in Kenya. It varies in colour, perhaps according to soil, from
the palest grey lilac to a deep violet, always maroon eyed and though
not strictly a shrub as it is at most, I think, biennial, it grows over
5 foot in height and becomes quite woody in stem.

Hibiscus gossipinus, is the upright little bush, growing all over
Kenya, with small pendant white flowers with the typical long brush

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of stamens that all the Malvacea family carry, very pretty, perhaps
rather a seeder, but easy enough to weed out when small.

While the nearly related Abutilon zanzibaricum an upright larger
shrub, handsomer in all respects though superficially very like Pavonia
is more worthy of a place — and has the unusual habit of only opening
fully in the afternoon, so as to suit the evening garden visitor — the
Pavonia on the other hand closes soon after mid-day. Pavonia kraus-
siana with yellow flowers, sometimes red eyed, and long straggly
unbreakable branches, had better be avoided, it is far too all invading.
I believe it is this plant that provides the string with which the
Kikuyu women make their bags for carrying purposes.

I wonder how many people know Tinnea aethiopica a true
charmer, but retiring by nature? Masses of maroon coloured flowers,
faintly like a snapdragon in shape and in a hot sun very strongly
scented of violets. It was called after that unfortunate Mademoiselle
Tinne, who explored parts of the Nile earlier in the last century, ana
who was done to death by her porters, who believed she carried gold
in the little water tanks that were always loaded on two camels.

There are wild shrubs nearly allied to the garden Lasiandra
(whose correct name, by the way, is Tibouchina!) called Dissotis
mostly growing by streams and fairly widely distributed, some of a
rather nasty mauve colour but others very good violets and purples.

Asclepias is another family worth growing — tall willowy plants
with interesting flowers in buff, yellow, white or mauve, and most
attractive fat seed pods, in which hundreds of seeds, each with a
silken flying apparatus are packed closely and beautifully round a
central core — once open, and the seeds loosed, it is a marvel how
they ever fitted in.

The Dracaenas are useful and tropical looking plants in the garden,
both the large D. fragrans which grows all round Nairobi, in old forest
land and on river banks, and the smaller rarer species from the
Kedong Valley.

There are several attractive shrubby Ipomeas, and at least two
are easy and ornamental. I. Hildebrantii with large leaves and pale
mauvy white flowers which one sees such a lot of on the road through
Kajiado, and prettier though inclined to be straggly is 1. argyrophylla, I
believe from beyond Ngong, smaller in foliage and flowers but a far
better colour, being a bright lilac.

This family is naturally largely composed of climbers and many
of these are very lovely, such as 1. cairica with delicate palmate leaves,
though many are also too rampant for garden use. One big heavy
species, but by no means uncontrollable, is 1. kituensis with mauve
flowers, which will very quickly make a dense screen to hide any part

229

of the garden from general view, and the little yellow I. obscura is
tractable enough and very pretty for growing up a wire fence or
pergola post.

We have several Jasminums, all with the correct family scent
J. Hildebrantii growing on the edges of forests or in light bush country
is rather a ramper and roots wherever it touches the ground and
prefers his toes in the shade and his head in the sun, while
J, Goetz eanum fairly common round Nairobi among low scrub and
rocks is smaller in all ways, very dainty in leaf and flower, very
strongly scented and easier to control.

Perhaps the most brilliant climber we have is Combretum pani -
culatum which climbs to the tops of the tallest trees and makes a
glorious display with its big flat cymes of vivid scarlet blossoms.
Planted in the open and kept brutally cut back, as though eaten down
by goats, it can be made to flower freely as a shrub, a lesson which I
learnt on the Nyeri road when I found it so treated and a mass of
scarlet flower. It flowers with great frequency all through the year,
once it is established, but I must confess that I had it in the garden
for about five years before it bloomed at all !

A far more pernickety beauty is Canarina, in two or three varying
forms. Herbaceous in habit, in that they die down completely after
flowering and not coming up every year, but only when the weather
suits them. But when they do come, soft green growth pushes
rapidly up and through some sheltering shrub, ivy shaped leaves,
slightly waxy and finally large pendant bells three to four inches long
of the softest apricot colours, variously streaked, or blushing with
deeper red.

A very beautiful flower, especially in the forms from the deeper
forests which are more delicate in outline and in colour, but corres-
pondingly more difficult to grow.

There is a very lovely, but very large Landolphia which grows at
the coast, and as near as Donyo Sabuk with huge white trumpet
flowers, but I fancy only a very large “ Wild Garden ” could
accommodate it, beautiful as it is.

We must not forget the Thunbergias while we are discussing
creepers. Bright and cheerful as she is, T. alata or black eyed Betsy
as we are told she is to be called, is too rampant a seeder and grower
to be allowed among choice plants but her brothers T. Gregorii the
glowing plain orange one from the slopes of Ngong and even nearer
home and the larger orange T. Gibsonii which grows plentifully up
country, noticeably in the Solai, round Molo and up to Timboroa; and
the chastely beautiful T. primulina, primrose coloured with violet eye
which one finds from Thika to Fort Hall and again in places back to

280

near Machakos. All these are very well worthy of prominent places
in the garden.

In a large garden one can perhaps afford space for some of the
climbing groundsels, Senecio Petitianus or Gynura scandens, which
make so many of our forests gay with bunches of yellow or orange
daisy like flowers. The latter is not a true groundsel, but is so like
one that it gets included in the name but they are powerful climbers
and hardly suited to the average garden.

Of smaller plants, personally I consider all the varieties of the
Aloe well worth including in the garden. These plants are commonly
called ** cactus ” or red hot pokers by the unbotanical, but they have
no connection with a cactus and indeed I believe I am right in saying
that hardly any cactuses are indigenous in Africa at all, only a very
few epiphytes of the Rhipsalis order, and here and there an opuntia
has been naturalised.

There is a great variety in the Aloe family, from the A. arborea
type one knows so well both here and round Lake Elmenteita to all
the rosette leaved ones which vary all over the country, both in size,
leaf and colour, and the only drawback to collecting them is that they
all have saw edged leaves and spikey ends, and are fierce to dig up
and fiercer as fellow passengers in a car!

Another of the Kenya wildings I saw exhibited in the forefront of
a group of hot house plants in London, was a Crossandra, one of the
paler salmon coloured spikes with a rosette of leaves close to the
ground and which varies from pale to the deep red of the best
varieties of tinned salmon, which is so very common here, round
Nairobi, G. subacaulis by name, and the shrubby G. nilotica , with
smaller scarlet flowers is a charming thing, and one finds others, all
worth collecting.

We have a charming white Pelargonium multibracteatum which
will grow as a ground cover, or if preferred can easily be induced to
climb through shrubs to a considerable height, and a near relation
Monsonia glauca with yellow geranium like single flowers from the
Machakos district.

Notonias, succulent plants in several varieties, but all with red
or orange pom-pom heads, are very attractive and charming, especially
among rocks and indeed there are many small plants suitable for a
rock garden, notably the Craterostigmas, which people will call the
Kenya Violet, a misleading name, as they have no real resemblance
to a violet, and there are real violets indigenous to the higher forest
lands of Kenya. It is true their own name is pretty impossible but
they are lovely little things and grow in sheets, usually near some
rocky out crop, as soon as the rain comes. One with stalks about two

231

inches and white and blue flowers, and the other even shorter stemmed
with flowers varying from deep violet to a sort of wine pink. They
transplant easily enough, and given a sunny spot not overgrown by
stronger things, will persist and flower season after season.

Stapelias of several sorts with their odd stars, in some cases very
beautiful, and in others rather repellent ! Cotelidons of which one at
least is very good, a shrubby grower with heads of pendant red bells.
Charming little Cyanotis with fluffy blue anthers, and the lovely little
Nesaea a wee shrubby plant with soft brown-pink flowers.

Many of the Impatiens, or Balsams are interesting and pretty
but they really need shade and such shade as big fig trees, which
conserve moisture, and if you have that you can also collect the
epiphytic, or tree growing orchids, many of which are pretty though
none brilliant. They are very happy pushed into the forks of Mugumu
fig trees, and soon make themselves at home.

The ground orchids of Kenya are harder to tame, except for the
Lissochilus, and the bog growers of that family are easily satisfied by
any damp spot, while the pretty little yellow flowered one from dry
hillsides, L. micrantha is very easy and almost continually in flower.

There are various Kniphofias, or red hot pokers, and many of
these transplant easily and are happy in good garden soil and there
are dwarf varieties that are particularly charming. Camping, years
ago, in the forest on the road near Meru, I found and collected a very
lovely Thunbergia which is neither shrub nor creeper, really more of a
herbaceous plant, in that it sends up new shoots each rains, and the
older ones die off if the drought is sufficient. It has the deepest,
clearest violet trumpets in pairs up the stem, growing from the leaf
axils, and seems to grow as happily in the sun as in the shade., A
first class plant in fact, as even the Elephants agree, for the herd
which passed our camp in the night browsed on it greedily.

A flower which has excited a lot of interest in England is the
blue Delphinium macrocentron, which is pretty widely distributed
over Kenya, though our nearest colonies here are up half way to
the Escarpment and in Ngong forest and hills. It is a wonderful
colour, true blue, either dark or sky, shaded with green and no red
in it. This grows in the garden quite happily, but once established it
must be left alone, as it resents any disturbance about its semi-
tuberous roots.

There is also a sweetly scented white species, with wide flat open
blooms, quite unlike the curious hooded flowers of the blue one. The
white is far rarer and far harder to grow or keep in the garden. A
blue or lilac species very like it, and also scented has been brought
down from just over the Abyssinian border, and has just lately proved

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to be a Kenyan plant also, being found on the road to Marsabit. Unfor-
tunately so few of the people whose work lies on the northern frontier
happen to be interested in the flowers that grow there, of which I
believe there are a great number, and many of them very lovely.

Bulbs :

Finally there are bulbs, many bulbs, worth collecting; and among
bulbs I hope I may be allowed to include the tubers of the Gloriosa,
which is perhaps our most beautiful wild flower. They grow in one
form or another, from the sea shore up to 8,000 or 9,000 ft. Mostly
scarlet with yellow centres, but occasionally clear yellow with
maroon centres, this last being a very tall species, growing up to 12
or 15 feet in forest land. The tuber is undoubtedly poisonous, and the
whole plant is listed among the plants dangerous to cattle. On the
other hand the whole country is thick with them, where cattle graze;
perhaps the cows are mostly wise enough not to touch them.

Another lovely showy red flower is that of the Haemanthus
multi florus , like large pom-poms or powder puffs which come up before
their leaves, generally in March. One has to dig deep for the bulb,
but it is worth having, and though they will not flower every year they
will delight you very often, and at a time when most things are looking
pretty tired too.

An even larger plant of the same type is Buyhane Sp. also
supposed to be poisonous to cattle, hence its name. A huge “ Poof ”
of long tubed red flowers forms a gigantic round “ head ” larger than
a man’s and as the flowers die the leaves come up like a Japanese fan,
very large and long. The plant is common, to my knowledge on the
top of the Escarpment, round Lake Naivasha, on Kilima Kiu hills
and doubtless in many other places as well.

A very widely distributed plant is Gladiolus Quartinianus which also
shows wide variations of colour, from pure pale yellow to various
streaks and mottling, and up on the highest mountains a wonderful
brilliant scarlet fellow grows who has so far shown no desire to live
at these comparatively low altitudes. And here again, rumours from
the northern frontier tell of lovely Gladiolus of various colours and
sizes, and I have one, a pure white one, from those parts in my own
garden.

A very lovely little bulb which grows all round here and indeed
all over most of the Colony is the fragile and delicate looking white
flowered Acidanthera Candida, very sweetly scented and very easy in
the garden, also excellent as a cut flower. It is a near relation of the
Gladiolus and very like them to look at.

The “ Kikuyu Lily,” that large Crinum Kirkii, is known to all
and there are several smaller and more refined members of the family

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to be found, noticeably C. heterostylum up from Eldoret to the slopes
of Elgon, which charming little species grows freely with rosy pink
flowers only a few inches high; and another a shade bigger, round Ulu
and such parts.

There are some pretty Ornithogalums besides the dull greenish
flowered ones that grow everywhere, and a host of smaller bulbous
stuff, like Bulbine and Urginia both with yellow flowers. Dipcadi
viridis , a delicate all green “ blue ” bell and of course the orange red
tuberous Asclepias, all over the country in damp ground and grassy
slopes, but he alas seems so far rather incurably wild.

I hope I have said enough to prove that the flora of Kenya is
very largely a flora suitable to garden cultivation, and indeed, if
some one starting a garden wanted to make it really interesting and
unlike everyone else’s, he would grow native plants only and see how
lovely it could be.

Many of the plants are not easy to strike as cuttings but given
the smallest scrap of root, most of them will grow readily enough,
and seed is a sure, and in most cases a quick method of increase.

Very many of the trees and some of the shrubs are procurable
from the Forest Department’s Nurseries, and with a greater demand
no doubt a greater supply would soon be forthcoming.

The experimentalist is sure to collect some plants which do too
well, and do really become weeds, but the good ones more than out
balance such little annoyances and I can assure you that there are
many other plants, besides those I have mentioned which will give
you the greatest pleasure if you grow them, and which will interest
the visitor from England far more than the sweetest roses or the
finest antirrhinums !

234

FOOD PRODUCTION AND KINDRED MATTERS,
AMONGST THE LUO.

By Archdeacon W. E. Owen.

(Paper read at the 3rd Annual Scientific Meeting held in Nov., 1933.)

Soil:

The production of food must necessarily be associated with know-
ledge of the soil. The principal soil varieties have been named by the
Luo, and the methods appropriate to each variety are well known.
Black cotton soil, called “ anywang,” occurs over a wide area, mainly
around the lake shores, and is conspicuous in the locations of Uyoma,
Karachwonya, Kasigunga and the Kano Plains. Red earth, called
44 lwala,” is, speaking generally, found further back from the lake,
on the higher lands, and is to be found over wide tracts in Central
and South Kavirondo, a notable location being North Gem, in Central
Kavirondo. Sandy soil, called “ kwoyo,” is generally found in the
neighbourhood of outcrops of granite, which is a prominent feature
in many parts. The locations of Asembo in Central Kavirondo, and
Suna in South Kavirondo are good examples of areas where this sandy
soil is abundant. Murram, called 44 gu ” when solid and 44 ge ” when
disintegrated into a soil, occurs in places all over the country, Sakwa
and Alego in particular providing many examples of it. Stony soil,
called 44 kite,” is to be found over large stretches, particularly in those
neighbourhoods where escarpments rise from the regions round the
lake. Though the labour involved in the cultivation of this stony soil
is very great, where there is pressure of population, every available
patch is made to produce food.

Rainfall :

Over certain sections of the country rainfall is very uncertain.
The worst locations in this respect are lower Seme, Uyoma, Sakwa,
Kadimo, parts of Asembo, Mirunda, Kasigunga and Rusinga. In other
districts rainfall is abundant, running from forty to sixty five inches
in the year, well distributed over the months, with the exception of
January and early February. January is reckoned to be the driest
month of the year, and is the month when there is most relaxation
from agricultural operations, this being the favourite time for the inter -
dan wrestling matches.

Contrary to what many would expect, amongst people who
periodically suffer from lack of rain, the Luo have developed no system
of rain makers. At the top of Usenge Hill in Kadimo, there is still
to be seen a site marked by a collection of votive pots, where the local

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elders gathered to offer sacrifice and supplicate the local spirit,
together with the clan spirits, in times of great drought, but this is
entirely different from the rain-making cult. Even in this instance,
it is doubtful whether the ceremony has not been influenced in large
measure by the neighbouring Bantu peoples. The particular guardian
spirit of this hill, is reputed to be a fabulously big snake, so enormous
as to be able to encircle the hill with its body. Away from the Lake
shore, which suffers most from uncertain rainfall, the Luo account
very easily for the fact that they have no rain-makers. They simply
say that they never have lack of rain, so why should they have rain-
makers.

But though they have no rain-makers, they have a term for rain-
maker, whom they call “ Jajimb koth.” When they need a rain-
maker they employ either a Bantu from the Basiekwe clan of the
B any ole, or one from Mudhiero, Yiro in Marama. And, of course, it
is not alone for agriculture that rain is needed. The fishing in the
rivers suffers greatly when the rivers run low, and fishermen not
infrequently call in the aid of the rain-maker. On the lower reaches
of the Nzoia River, there existed a custom now happily extinct,
according to which human sacrifice was made to the spirit of the river.
The unfortunate person to be sacrificed was a girl, generally a young
one and ill-favoured, who was bound, and some accounts say stunned,
before being cast into the river. Rain-makers still flourish, though
shorn of much of their influence and tribute. Only a few years ago
I was in Uyoma during a time of rain shortage. I happened to be
collecting genealogies, and was visiting the old men for this purpose.
The conversation turned on the lack of rain, and I asked had they sent
for the rain-maker I really did not expect that they would have done
so, and was somewhat surprised to find that they had sent their
offerings to one of the Bantu of Ihe Basiekwe clan. It seemed a pity
that they should waste their substance on what could do them no
earthly good, so I spent some time trying to convince them that the
rain-maker had no power to bring rain. They listened very politely,
but at the end of it were “ of the same opinion still.” I left them
gently poking fun at them for being so credulous. I was about a mile
or less from my camp, and during my walk home, suddenly, from
nowhere, clouds rushed up, a violent rain storm pelted down and I got
thoroughly drenched. I would have given a good deal to have been
able to listen to the comments of those who had heard so politely
my well-meant arguments. Incidents somewhat like this are, no
doubt, responsible for the deep seated faith in the rain-makers’ powers.
It did not convince me.

The preparation of the soil for the seed was, and is, performed
without any ceremony of invocation preceding it, except when the land
had been taken in conquest from enemies. In the latter case the

1

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Jabilo ’ or leading medicine-man of the community concerned per-
formed a sacrifice or “ misango ” the purpose of which was to render
ineffectual any harmful magic left behind in the soil by those from
whom it had been taken. It occasionally happens even to-day that
a cultivator will suspect that an enemy has buried “ yath ” or harmful
medicine in a field. In this case no preparation of the soil of this
field for a crop is begun until a diviner has been consulted in order
to find out the enemy. The Luo have a great faith in the power of
the diviner to discover an enemy., That the diviner denounces people,
and that he is oft times right, cannot be denied. Sometimes it may be
guess work, as when there has been a notorious quarrel and it is simple
to suspect the other party in the quarrel, but at times the medicine
man has more certain sources of information. In the year 1910 I had
the good fortune to get into rather friendly relationships with a
medicine man who had become a Christian. In one of our conversa-
tions I asked him how it was possible to divine a wrongdoer. He told
me that it was generally very easy. If a man wished to put down
medicine, he had to procure it from a medicine man. Or, if he
proposed to rob his neighbour he applied to the medicine man for
protective medicine. Following upon the injury or the robbery, the
injured party applied to the local medicine man in order to find out
the enemy. If the injured person was prepared to pay a fee exceeding
that paid by the enemy, the medicine man had no scruples about
giving his client away. But I do not say that this is a complete
explanation of all the powers of divination exercised by medicine men.
Still, there can be no doubt that often both parties consult the same
diviner, just as at times in our own social life both parties to a lawsuit
will approach the same lawyer. Perhaps I had better safeguard
myself. I am not, please, to be understood as implying that a lawyer
will give his client away.

In the preparation of the soil for the crop, all members of the
family who are fit, take their share. Only in bush country, where
there is heavy clearing to be done, is the work left to the men. This
operation is called “ beto. ” In all other types of land there is no
discrimination between the sexes, even where tall grass, called
‘ olenge,” has to be dug up. But there is a certain amount of dis-
crimination amongst the age groups. When a man has advanced in
years, and younger members of his family are sufficient for food
production, he leaves it to them, while he devotes himself to less
arduous tasks, possibly herding, or some form of social service such
as the elders perform in settling the lawsuits of the clan.

The next operation after “beto ” is “ puro,” the turning over of
the soil. Where weeds or grass have been heavy, this is followed by
“ wang’o ” or burning. In sandy, stony or red soil, sowing the seed

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comes next, but in cotton soil, there is further preparation by breaking
up the clods, getting a fine tilth., This is called “ buso.” I well
remember my surprise, and critical attitude, when first I noticed that
sowing was done without any attempt being made to break up the
rough grass-matted clods. However, the crop, which happened to be
" bel ” or millet, which resulted from these primitive methods, was,
a heavy one. I was told that the clods afforded protection to the
young seedlings.

With regard to the sowing or planting three terms are used.
Broadcast sowing, as of millet, simsim and beans, is called “ chwoyo ”
or ” ludo.” The planting of each seed individually, as with maize, is
termed “ komo,” while the planting of cassava and sweet potatoes is
known as “ pidho.”

Under the system now fast dying out, sowing was surrounded by
many taboos. First of all, was the knowing the time to sow. In
a normal year there are two sowings, one in the early part of the
year, February or March, and one during the shorter rains about
September-October. The slower growing crops were put down in the
spring, and the quicker crops in the autumn. For the spring sowing
guidance was sought from the stars. Amongst a people who had no
names for the months of the year, natural phenomena had to be relied
upon. These the stars supplied, and especially the constellations of
Orion and the Pleiades. These two constellations are called by one
name “ Yugini ” by the Luo., They further differentiate by calling
the three stars of Orion’s belt, the “ chuo ” or “ men,” and the cluster
of the Pleiades the “ mon ” or “ women.” (The men are obviously
polygamists.) When the time of the year comes round during which
these stars are observed shortly after nightfall, to be about midway
between the zenith and the horizon, then they know that sowing time
has arrived. No matter how good the rains may have been before
these stars reach the traditional position none must sow, and, con-
versely, if rains do not come by the time the stars say that sowing
ought to be done, there are dismal forebodings about the crop. The
Luo say that if the millet (their main food crop), has not flowered by
the month when these stars dip below the horizon shortly after night-
fall, then there will be a poor harvest and scarcity of food.

Other natural phenomena which guide them are birds. There is
a bird called by the Luo “ Ondiek ti oyieng ” (” the wild beasts are
well fed ”) which has a very monotonous three note cry. Some
Europeans call it the brain fever bird, from the deadly monotony of
this call. The Luo have given words to this cry “ L>ak tu kom ”
meaning “ Aren’t you going to sow to-day.” There is another bird,
called ‘ ‘ Oliech ga apol ’ ’ which follows behind the digger for the insects
turned up with the soil. The presence of these birds is held to

238

indicate that sowing time is at hand. In the autumn, there is the
ordinary African kite, which comes over literally, at times, in
thousands, feeding in the air, and on the ground on the swarms of
flying ants. Some withhold their sowing until these birds appear.

In exceptional cases an important sacrifice, called “ bilo ” was
performed before sowing took place. If the “ Jaduong’ bilo ” was
warned in a dream of impending disaster to the coming season’s food
supply, he called the elders of the community together for the purpose
of the ceremony. “ Bilo ” was performed to avert any disaster
threatening the community. It was always performed in the early
morning, before the cattle had gone out to graze. The present
Jabilo ” in Sakwa location performed the ceremony of “ bilo ” in
1931 when the people of Sakwa had a boundary dispute with their
neighbours of Asembo. He performed it again in the early months
of 1933 to get rid of the locusts. It is natural that not a few in
Sakwa attribute the absence of locusts this year to the effect of this
ceremony.

When the time was ripe for sowing, the “ Mikayi ” or chief wife
of the head of the community, was always the first to sow. None
dare begin their sowing until the 44 mikayi ” had thus given permission.
Any who were so bold as to begin before the “ mikayi ” were made to
feel the displeasure of the community. As recently as 1931 I have
known a man to come under discipline for sowing too soon. But what
with the efforts of the Agricultural Department, pressing upon the
people the wisdom of early sowing, together with a widespread know-
ledge of the names of the months, re-inf orced by the rise of
individualism accompanied by the breakdown of tribal authority, the
influence of the “ mikayi ” is steadily waning. Amongst the more
advanced sections of the communities it has ceased to exist, and they
are no longer subject to discipline for early sowing. After sowing
comes a pause, but not for long. About April weeding begins. This
is shared in by all. Amongst the sturdier crops, it is done by the hoe,
but in crops like the small millet, called “ kal,” the seed is sown too
closely for there to be room for a hoe, so it fias to be done by hand,
the weeders squatting down on their heels and pulling up the weeds.
This results in a much trampled crop, but it very soon recovers, and
suffers no damage. In recent years the Administration has made great
efforts to get people to eradicate the striga weed, called by the Luo
hayongo.” This weed shoots up, curiously enough, after the
customary weeding has been done. The Luo let it grow in spite of the
fact that they know that land infested with it must be left for a term
of years. I have over and over again tried to persuade them of the
wisdom and benefit of getting rid of it, but to no avail. Anything
which comes after the routine weeding has been done is allowed to
remain.

239

Besides weeding, there is much to be done to protect the crop,
Hail storms do a lot of damage at times, and to protect the crops a
“ medicine ” is employed called ‘ migalo magalo pe.” This consists
of herbs tied in a bunch to the top of a pole about 6 — 8 feet high,
which is stuck in the middle of the field. (Herdsmen too, use this
to keep themselves dry while out with the cattle, and I have seen a
herdsman accompanying the cows with these herbs tied to the top
of his spear.) Except in time of famine, stealing from the crop is
unknown, which contrasts favourably with complaints made from time
to time that Natives steal maize and coffee from European farms.
In their own community buch an offence is practically unknown. But
four-legged depredators are a serious problem in certain localities.
Fields are enclosed in fences of the branches of thorn trees, laid on
the ground, and these do give a certain protection against wild pigs,
monkeys and baboons. But they are of no use against hippo and
elephant. To protect crops, mainly sweet potato, against the hippo
it is the practice to erect a small temporary hut, which is occupied at
night by a guard armed with a couple of spears. It must be a weary
business, for the potatoes are cultivated close to the lake edge where
mosquitoes swarm, so between the hippo and the mosquitoes the guard
must have a trying time. In old days before the Game laws came in,
organized hunts were held, which were very successful.

The most difficult animal is, of course, the elephant. These have
disappeared from Central Kavirondo but still infest districts like
Mirunda and Sakwa in South Kavirondo. They can do heavy damage
both to millet and sweet potato. The beating of pots and pans is tried
to scare away the elephant, while occasionally the more daring venture
forth from the hut to throw stones or otherwise drive away the beasts.
This is an operation attended with peril in the dark of the night, and
occasionally lives are lost in this way. Lives too are lost through
guards mistaking their fellow guards for wild animals. Jok, one of
the most famous of ancestors of the Luo, is said to have lost his life
in thus way. The story is that before going off to drink beer, he
told his sons to go on guard in the field that night. They refused to
his face, but when he had gone thought better of it, and went on
guard. He returned from the beer drink, and went to see what was
happening in the field, believing that there was no guard. His sons
mistook his footsteps for that uf a pig, and speared him with fatal
results. Similar things still occur from time to time.

Birds, especially weaver birds, are a pest as the grain crop
ripens. Scarecrows are employed, both mechanical and human. Of
the former an inverted cooking pot on the top of a short pole is a
common device. Boys are employed in large numbers when the birds
are most troublesome, and their harsh cries are quite a part of the

240

life of the countryside. Ofttimes the boys are armed with slings from
which stones are projected at random into the midst of the crop, or
into the midst of a flock of birds as they rise. One of the reasons why
the Luo denude the land of trees is because they give harbourage to
their bird enemies.

They are wise to insect pests also, and have a greater belief in
their remedies than many a farmer has in the aids supplied by our
civilization. The medicine is called by two names, “ yadh miri ” or
“ yadh lisese.” It is employed against a small red and black beetle,
called by the Luo “ Nyanginja ” which eats the flower of the millet,
thus preventing a crop. The medicine man who prepares it must be
a man of peaceable disposition and character, not a quarreller or
disputer with his neighbours. The whole success of the medicine
depends on the absence of disputation and quarrelling, and of the
grosser forms of vice, like adultery. No adulterer may be supplied
with the medicine, for his very handling of it would nullify its useful-
ness, not only for himself, but also for his neighbours. All must be
peace in the community until the harvest is reaped. Unlike other
medicines, which are tied to a pole and left to work their influence,
yadh miri ” is made into a decoction, which is sprinkled over the
growing crop at eventide. I have seen the operation at a place called
Maranda in Sakwa, Central Kavirondo. It was then being used against
maize borer. At a time when this pest was giving a good deal of
trouble to European farmers, I heard a man who was back in the
Reserve on leave from a farm in the Kit ale district, pour scorn on the
methods used by Europeans with various sprays., He was by way
of being one of the more progressive men, but he had nothing but
absolute faith in the efficacy of “ yadh miri.”

Crops damaged by domestic stock gave rise to many an angry
passion. The owner of the crop had liberty to chastise personally the
herdboy (or man) through whose carelessness the stock were left
untended. If the herd were a lad he could be cuffed and thumped
without being able to proceed against the assailant. Nor did the father
protest, provided the chastisement were in reason, for he knew that
his son had rendered him liable to a claim for compensation. As
likely as not he would add his own quota to the punishment already
meted out. If the owner feared that he would get the worst of it in
a personal encounter with a herdsman, then he had his remedy at law.

When the crop is ready for harvesting it is the duty of the men
to do the reaping. In the case of millet, this is a laborious business,
calling for judgment, for not all the heads would be ripe, and some
must be left to ripen after the bulk has been reaped. It is the task
of the women and children to pack the crop into the grain baskets
and carry it to the grain stores. In the case of millet it is quite

241

common to allow some of the sturdier roots to spring up again and
give a second crop. I have seen some very fine heads of grain as a
result of this method.

The crop is stored, unthreshed if millet or maize, in large basket-
like receptacles, covered with thatch and standing on stones or
supported on forked sticks across which a rough platform is made. It
is the work of the man to prepare the grain stores, and I suppose that
there is no more prolific source of domestic bickering than these supply.
Some men are shiftless, and leave off the preparation of the stores
until near to harvest, sometimes exhausting in so doing the patience
of the wife. Or he may be neglectful, and leave the thatch unrepaired,
rendering the grain liable to suffer from the weather. Many women
would far rather see the living hut left in disrepair than that the grain
should be imperilled.

The store varies in size according to the grain for which it is
intended. The large size is for millet and maize, the small for the
small millet and simsim. The Luo name for them is “ dero.” The
large sizes run up to six feet high by about six feet in diameter. The
small about four feet by three. They are made from swamp reeds
built in a very coarse basket work fashion, and are finished off with
a coating of cow dung inside. The better made stores have provision
for access to the grain, by the simple device of cutting away a section
from the top of the side, just under the thatch. It used to be the
custom for a present of a small basket of grain to be given to the
Jabilo or medicine man, after harvest. This custom has already diea
out in many places.

It was the woman’s first care to secure seed for the next year.
Millet and maize was hung in the head, sometimes outside from the
branch of a tree, more frequently from the roof of the hut. Smaller
grain, and beans were stored in pots in the living hut, and to ensure
their being kept in good condition, it was the woman’s duty to empty
the contents of the pots periodically onto a “ thigo ” or large circular
flat basket work tray, or some part of the courtyard swept clean,
that the sun might keep them dry. Lack of seed, owing to a planting
dyifig off from lack of rain was a serious matter. Seed was then begged
from neighbours more fortunate.

Not all the grain went into the common store, for all the cultiva-
tion was by no means the common united effort of all the members
of the family. The main effort of the members was put into the
fields from which all were to draw their food supply, but in addition
individual members had their own plots which are called “ mondo.”
The head of the family would have his own “ mondo,” and the grain
from this went into a separate store. This grain formed a reserve in

242

case of the main store being depleted. Grown up unmarried sons
and also daughters could have each hi&» or her own “ mondo.” In
case of necessity their grain went into the family store, but from h
they were allowed to barter grain for the personal ornaments which
were common in the tribe. Grain which was* still in store when the
new crop came in was at the disposal of the woman, who frequently
used it in barter for domestic animals. This custom is called
rundo,” and the beast procured, if a cow or heifer is called “ dher
tekre.” It was the woman’s own property, subject to the limitations
of absolute ownership which pertain to all notions of property among
primitive peoples. It could not be bequeathed away from her by
her husband. In case of famine she could take of its offspring and
barter it for grain. Once having acquired the beast she did not readily
part with it, but kept it for her children.

As at the present day so also in days gone by, there was no
tribal organization of food supplies as a provision against famine.
During the last two or three years when crops have been short through
damage by locusts there has been one word which was heard very
frequently. The word is “ kisuma.” It means to journey away from
the home locality in search of food for the family. In days gone by
domestic animals were taken to those who had food to dispose of,
and bartered for grain. A man without stock would marry off his girl
child, and with the cattle get food. This was the only way in which
famine conditions were met. Needless to say when famine was
widespread, very much suffering was entailed..

Rotation of crops is practised to a limited extent. The order of
rotation is decided largely, by the period of the year in which the
first crop is put down. If virgin or fallow land is prepared for the
autumn sowing, then the first crop is one which ripens quickly, such
as simsim or beans. When this is harvested, the land will be put
under a slower growing crop, like millet or maize. Before being
allowed to revert to fallow land, it may be put under sweet potatoes.
If the land is first prepared for the spring sowing then the order is
reversed. But it must not be taken that what has been written above
is the invariable rule. I have known a field to be put down first in
sweet potatoes and then followed by a second crop of potatoes before
being planted with maize. Also where the land is very rich, as in
certain valleys, year after year maize or millet may be put down
until the land shows signs of exhaustion. It then reverts to fallow.
There is no strict rule governing the length of time i,t rests. Some
allow a rest of three, some of five, years. It depends upon the
amount of land available and the pressure of population upon it.

The names used by the Luo for the different phases are as follow : —
Virgin soil, “ Okang.,” Land under rotation, “ Tiang.” R allow

243

land, “ Mbora.” A piece of land weed infested in the middle of
cultivation is called “ sino,” and the Luo are alive to the menace
this neglected patch is to the cropsi surrounding it. A man who
allows “ sino ” to endanger his neighbours’ crops is very unpopular.

Status of women :

The position of women amongst the Luo i& one of great influence,
in spite of many things which show that they are not regarded as the
equal of the men. While they have nothing in their creation stories
which gives the male such pre-eminence as is given in the Hebrew
account of creation in the second chapter of Genesis, yet even in
their stories it is the male which is created first. The origin of the
female is surrounded with mystery, none have any clear account of
her origin,.. But it is significant that the name by which the first
woman is known to many of the Luo is ALOO. LOO or LOWO is
the stem meaning earth or soil, and there is undoubtedly some con-
nection in their minds between the fruitful soil and woman. But
though her origin is surrounded in mystery, she soon is made to carry
the responsibility for the fact that the sons of men have got to work.
Lest the story should be unknown to some it is worth while repeating
it here. According to the creation story, the first man to be created
was one called Podho. To him the Creator (called Nyasaye) gave a
magic hoe, which worked by itself, requiring no arm to wield it. With
the hoe Nyasaye gave Podho a command that he was never to attempt
to do any work with it himself./ If he should disobey this command
then the hoe would lose its virtue and cease to work unaided. This
happened before the advent of ALOO (sometimes called also
MIHAHA). When eventually Podho was given ALOO, he gave the
hoe over to her care, telling her at the same time of the command
which Nyasaye had laid down. For a time all went well. When
they wanted any digging to be done all they had to do was to take
the hoe out to the site, show it what they wanted it to dig and leave it
to do the work. In the evening it was brought in again. But one day
curiosity was too much for ALOO. She felt that she must feel what
it was like to turn up a few sods. So she picked up the hoe and with
it turned up a little soil. Then becoming suddenly afraid she dropped
the hoe and went home, but did not tell her husband, Podho. However
she was unable to hide what she had done, for in the evening when
they went to bring in the hoe, it lay where she had dropped it, and
had done no work. Then the voice of Nyasaye said that as they
were now so clever that they knew how to dig, never more would
the hoe dig for them. So to this day woman is blamed as the one
through whose wrongdoing the curse of work came to men.

However the tradition came into existence it reflects the common
tendency of many creation stories to put the blame on the woman,

244

and possibly was invented to keep women in subjection. It has only
partly succeeded. Something more potent than a creation story is
required to keep many of the LUO women down. Two illustrations
suffice to show this. The first in Church. The collection is being
taken up, and a man finds himself without any cash. He crosses
over to the women’s side, whispers a few words to his wife, where-
upon she gives him a cent for the collection. Like many a wife in
other lands, she holds the purse strings. The second the Law Court.
A wife pleads for a divorce from her husband on the ground that he
has become a polygamist. She gets her divorce.

Much of the apparent inequality is only apparent, not real. The
thing which, more than any other, has been quoted as showing the
inferior position accorded to women, is the manner in which girls are
given in marriage. But this is not as much a matter of sex as of age.
If it be true that girls are sometimes* given in marriage without their
wishes being consulted in the matter, it is also true that many a
young man is provided with a wife without his wishes being consulted
either. Not so long ago I asked a man what the girl to whom he was
engaged was like. He replied that he had never seen her, that the
marriage had been arranged by his father. This kind of thing is
quite common. And it must not be forgotten that the girl’s mother
is taken into the fullest consultation when the question of her
daughter’s betrothal is raised. It is not decided by the men only.
And generally there is some form of consultation with the girl. Long
and bitter experience has taught the community that to force some
girls beyond a certain point is only to lay up trouble for the future.
Only three weeks ago a father came to me to ask me to try to mediate
in his daughter’s affairs. She had been betrothed when quite a young
child to a man old enough to be her aged father. He had in due
course taken her to wife, and there were two children by the union.
Then she left him and consorted with another tnan, more nearly her
own age. I saw the woman, went into the matter and found that
the old man was so uncongenial to her, that even the fact that she
had born him two children was not strong enough to reconcile her to
her lot. She had much of my sympathy, though I could not condone
the desertion of her children.

Not even the very strongest bonds can bind a woman who wishes
to break them. The most binding form of betrothal known to the
LUO, is that which is the outcome of an alliance between two families.
The Luo have a proverb which runs “ Osiep otho, to wat okotho.” In
English it would run “ friendship dies, but relationship does not die.”
So, as in other lands, the heads of two Luo families may desire to
cement their friendship by ties of intermarriage. A feast is provided
by one of the parties, generally by the one taking the initiative in

245

the negotiations, which is partaken of in a hut, not outside. To this
feast three or four friends of each side are invited as witnesses. When
the beer drinking stage has been reached, the company sit round the
beer pot in a circle, and the provider of the feast takes the long hollow
beer-sucker, puts the end provided with a strainer in the pot, takes a
few sucks, and then hands it across to the other party with the invita-
tion to drink if he agrees to a matrimonial alliance between the two
families taking place. If the second party desires at the last moment
to withdraw he declines to drink, but once having accepted the invita-
tion and completed the contract by drinking, it is as irrevocable as a
contract can be. The children thus pledged to marry may be so young
that the marriage can not take place for years, or the girl may be a
child, while the other may be a man already married. The girl so
pledged in this way is known in some parts, as in Asembo, as “ nyar
oseke,” “ the girl of the beer sucker,” and the Luo have no stronger
matrimonial contract. It is hedged about with potent penalties,
mainly magical, in case of any breach of the contract by either of the
parties pledged. But even this most binding of all binding contracts
is not invariably kept. Occasionally a girl will not submit to the fate
marked out for her, and if she can find a man brave enough to join
his fortune with hers, they undergo a ceremony, the essential feature
of which is the drinking of “ medicine ” called “ manyasi.” This
is supposd to render harmless the evils which would otherwise befall
them.

Women are by no means so helpless when bound to their husbands
as many are inclined to believe. In some ways wives are in a stronger
position than are women in lands where magic is not believed in.
Luo women have many weapons in their armoury, by which they can
bring their husbands into subjection, or perhaps* I ought to say, some-
thing like subjection. I cannot find that these weapons are resorted
to frivolously. A woman has to be Lard pushed to bring them into
play. One of which we hear a good deal is a curse debarring cohabita-
tion. It is very simple in operation. Striking her thigh with her open
palm, the wife vows never to cohabit again. The striking of the thigh
is essential. Once this is done dire penalties, sickness of himself and
children, will result if the husband attempts to force consent. The
fat is now truly in the fire, and the husband has to come to terms with
his wife. When he has succeeded in mollifying her “ manyasi,” the
medicine already mentioned, is drunk to break the curse. At this
stage of social development a belief in magic does s*erve the needs of
women in certain circumstances. She has powers in connection with
agriculture which can be devastating., For instance, during her menses
no woman must sow seed. In the family of a polygamist lesser wives
dare not approach the “ mikayi ” or chief wife to share in the labour
at this time. Such contact with the seed would prejudice the crop.

245

Similarly, during this time she must be careful where she walks. She
can ruin a crop by walking through it. But, of course, in this case,
she would suffer with the other members of the family.

From early childhood the girl is brought up as an agricultural
labourer. There was no class of women divorced from the soil. The
only class whose labours in agriculture were lightened were the women
who belonged to the divining cult of “ SEWE.” Sewe is the spirit
of divination and is supposed to have descended on those who have
been delirious in illness. The delirium is the sign of possession. The
devotees of the cult are mainly women, and they are a fairly common
sight as they go about their avocation. They are skilled beggars as
well as diviners. With their bodies festooned with strings of beads,
shells, bells and other barbaric ornaments, they pass from kraal to
kraal, and standing with their bodies leaning forward supported by a
hand resting on a short stick they sing songs of the countryside and
and are rewarded by presents of small baskets of grain. In this way
women who have been ill are enabled to help to replenish the grain
stores, which have probably run low during the illness.

Gradually a change is coming over the life of the women, due to
white influence. Ploughing by the men with teams of oxen, is setting
women free for other tasks. This movement is by no means wide-
spread, but it has begun, and its effect on the women has been great.
Even if the husband has no team and plough himself, many wives
do not rest content until the husband has hired a plough owner to come
along and plough up the land. It is not unusual for ploughs to be
taken 15 miles for this purpose. Again, the use of hand mills of the
Colonist ” type, is easing women of much labour at the grind stones.
These are much more common than ploughs, probably there are twenty
mills for every plough in use. This is partly accounted for by the
fact that the mills are turned by hand power, not by oxen.; At this
labour girls and women take their share, but whereas you would never
see a man down on his knees at the grindstone, you do see them
turning a mill. New activities are employing the time of many
women, and those who have learned to knit or make palm mats in
recent years are rapidly increasing in numbers.

Child Labour :

Generally speaking, from early childhood, all are required to
make some contribution to the activities of the home. Girls for
the fields, and boys for herding, is the broad division of labour, though
the boys also lend a hand in the fields, and, very occasionally, a
girl or woman may be seen herding. With the opening up of
avenues of wage-earning to the boys on coffee and tea estates, and in
other forms of employment, the male child is being made by impecuni-

247]

ous parents to make his contribution to the family hut tax. The
most unruly elements, again speaking generally, are these lads when
they return to the Reserves, though some of them come back much
benefitted in every way so far as one can tell.

Provision for the aged :

There is nothing in the social life of the Luo in the way of
organized old age relief. The aged look to the younger members* of
the family to support them. In days gone by when there was no
Hut and Poll Tax, and when all the clothing needed was a goatskin, all
that the younger members had to provide was food and shelter, with
an occasional fee to the medicine man, in the case of illness. Even
funerals, when the aged died, were simpler than now. If the parents
outlived their offspring there was always the wider circle of the sub-
clan or clan to appeal to. And outside the clan were the relations-
in-law, upon whom many more claims* are made than is customary
with us.

But, now, the whole problem of the support of the aged is vastly
more difficult, and this in spite of the fact that health measures are
beginning to increase the chances* of the younger elements surviving
to adult life. As against this can be offset the fact that many of the
younger members of a family leave the Reserves and remain away
for years, and indeed some never are heard of again. Also, there is
more than a tendency for the younger generation to go its own way,
and commit itself to a more civilized mode of life. There is a definite
cleavage between the lives of the younger and the older generations.
This is accompanied by weakening ties of common interest and filial
duty.

Under our regime, and particularly under our system of hut tax,
we have driven a wedge into the solidarity of family life which has
given a grievous blow to the foundations upon which community life
rests. The old are felt to be a burden as never before in the history
of the Luo. It is inevitable that more and more burdens should
be placed upon the younger elements in tribal life, but we have added
to them with, in many cases, a certain element of ruthlessness which
is very keenly felt and resented. I quote one instance of what 1
mean. An old couple in the Reserves with two sons, one a ne’er-do-well
a worthless fellow, a jailbird. The other son just rising Poll Tax age.
The old couple lived in a rather tumble-down hut, and were known
as having no resources, no cattle, sheep or goats. A few fowls formed
their “ wealth.” The old father, while by no means decrepit, was
long since past the stage when he could cultivate extensively or go
out wage-earning. The old mother had indifferent health, and at
times could hardly drag herself back from the well with the pot of

248

water. The young son could not find employment and was wander-
ing about trying to scrape together the money for his poll tax. Upon
the father came the demand for hut tax. He had no money and could
not pay. Next year another demand was made, this time for the
current year and for that of the previous year. Again he could not
pay. The third year he was dunned for three hut taxes, and as he was
unable to pay his hut was confiscated to Government, the door was
sealed up, and his aged wife driven to seek shelter among neighbours.
Homeless, the old man made a frantic effort amongst his relations,
who were already liable to pay their own dues, and by dint of much
supplication managed to get enough to satisfy the tax for the first of
the three years, whereupon his hut was unsealed. Is it any wonder
that the younger generation regard the aged as a liability as never
before ? Demands for hut tax upon the penurious aged is one of
the greatest solvents of filial affection in the Reserves to-day, for
the burden falls largely on the young.

249

SOME ASPECTS OF NANDI STOCK-RAISING.

By G. W. B. Huntingford.

(Paper read at the 3rd Annual Scientific Meeting held in Nov., 1933.)

§ 1. Cattle as Property.

It is a matter of common knowledge that the Nilotic and Nilo-
Hamitic peoples regard cattle with veneration and affection, and trans-
fer the former feeling to things like grass, milk, and dung which are
intimately connected with cattle. But while these things are more or
less sacred, it does not appear that the animals themselves are so
regarded, though they receive as much care and attention as people,
and a good deal of trouble is taken to assure their welfare. Such at
least is the theory that seems to be current concerning the East African
cattle-owning tribes. How far it is correct when applied to the Nandi
will appear in the course of this paper, in which we shall consider chiefly
the practical aspects of stock-raising, and the management of stock as
carried out at the present day, without regard to such questions as the
supposed psychological “ identification ” of the owner with his cattle1,
or more remote considerations like the worship of the bull in ancient
Egypt.

One of the most noticeable things about the Nandi is the use of
personal names derived from cattle : a man who has acquired a cow
at the time a child is born to him will call it after the cow; and another
phenomenon (common to many cattle-tribes, and found also to a
limited extent in Europe) is the use of special words in connection with
cattle. Thus, apart from the terms applied to cattle at different ages,
like calf, heifer, cow, there are distinctive words used only of cattle in
everyday language. For example : there is a word meaning “ to lead,’7
but two other distinct words are used of leading cattle and goats. The
different parts of cattle have also special names, as well as their natural
actions : there are two separate words meaning “dewlap,” one referring
only to cattle, the other to sheep and goats. This terminology empha-
sizes the fundamental importance of cattle in Nandi life : for their
animals are actually the beginning and end of everything in their eyes.
One tribal name, too, brings this out even more forcibly. The Moi
clan, the largest of the Nandi genealogical divisions, derives its name
from cattle, for moi means “ calf,” and the three subsidiary names of
this clan all refer to cattle2 * * : its clan-animals are the buffalo and crested
crane, which the Nandi call “ daughter of the calves’ ears ” in allusion
to the ear-cutting of calves by this clan. These facts are of some sig-

1 Reported of the Dinka : see Seligman, “ Races of Africa,” p. 175.

2 Rarewa = heifer ; Kaparitkisapony, from parit = cow with cut ears, and pony,

— bushbuck, the skins of which the Moi may not wear; Kapartatukasos, where

tuka = cattle, and sos, archaic plur. of soen = buffaloes. (J.R.A.I. lvii. 429-31.)

250

nificance, because it seems that the Moi is the oldest of the clans; and
the names for it appropriately record the importance of cattle : none of
the other clan-names refer to them.

Cattle to the Nandi are wealth; and the ancient saying “ cattle are
the foundation of all wealth ’ ’3 applies with greater force to savages who
own nothing else than to civilized people who are not dependent on
one industry or occupation. For cattle are at present the only form
of personal property the Nandi have, and till quite recently formed their
sole industry, their main support, and their only stimulus to action —
this last taking the form of increasing their herds at other people’s ex-
pense. The settled life led by East African agricultural tribes is not
conducive to mental or physical exertion; cattle-raiding does stimulate
to a certain extent; and it is not impossible that the somewhat higher
intelligence of the pastoral tribes is due to the fact that this action
has kept them from the stagnation into which their Bantu neighbours
have sunk. Yet this intelligence, while it undoubtedly exists, is not
always directed to practical ends even where cattle are concerned.
Grass, being the food of cattle, is sacred, and therefore (till quite
recently) men did not cut it, but left that work to women, showing
thereby a good deal of sense in avoiding a distasteful work. But dung,
wTiich is produced by cattle, is also sacred, and is therefore used to
plaster wounds and sores : here we have no intelligent choice of a
remedy, for although there may be some healing properties in dung,
it is not used for that reason, but simply because it is produced by
cattle, and it is of value on that account alone.

As property, cattle belong to the whole tribe, living and dead, a
fact which does not seem to be generally realized, and which is partly
responsible for raiding and stock-theft. If cattle are lost, whatever
the cause may be ,they must be replaced at all costs, for otherwise the
spirits of the dead will be angry, and their vengeance is one of the
things that the Nandi, like other savages, fear more than anything else.
Individuals can acquire cattle, by theft, purchase, or as “bride-cattle,”4
which are their own property during their life-time; but after their
death, though inherited by others, they are only held in trust for the
dead, and cannot be disposed of in the same way as acquired cattle.

§ 2. The Management of Cattle.

Taking cattle as an industry and occupation, we shall now consider
their management, which from the Nandi point of view falls into 5 main
divisions : herding, milking, housing, parturition and bulls. These in-
deed are the absolutely essential parts of stock-farming : and when we
have included, as part of the herdsman’s work, the provision of salt,

3 “ Omnis pecuniae pecus fundamentum,” Varro., Res Rusticae, II, 1. § 12.

4 See my notes on “ Bride-price ” in this Journal, No. 45-46, pp. 52, 53.

251

it will be found that the Nandi restrict their work to the essentials, and
do not, for the most part, trouble themselves further. Being the main
industry, the herding of live-stock is naturally the chief occupation of
the people, even in these days of agricultural development. Herding
is an end in itself : to possess cattle, and to see them day by day seems
to be the highest good to which the Nandi mind can aspire, and accounts
partly for the prejudice aaginst using oxen for working. A Nandi once
told me as much : if, he said, our oxen work, what shall we have left to
herd? Yet years of familiarity with their cattle, and handling of them
since birth, have not produced any noticeable degree of tameness in
Nandi live-stock, but rather the opposite; for while the cows submit,
as a rule, quietly enough to be milked, they are with difficulty handled
for other purposes even by their owners. Calves and oxen are even
more troublesome. The reason for this seems to be in the physical fear
which many Nandi display towards their own cattle — I mean the fear
of being kicked or horned — when doing anything to them, and in the
lack of control they show, both over themselves and the cattle, when
rounding them up; shouting, waving sticks, and running about are not
the best ways of dealing with any domesticated animals.

The practical part of herding is usually divided between the owner
and his relations — the precise degree of relationship is immaterial, and
the caretaker is sometimes not related at all to the owner, though he
is always a member of the same military division, and generally of the
same clan. Some of the cattle live at the owner’s homestead, while the
remainder are sent out to grass in the charge of a caretaker, at whose
homestead they live. Such a place where a man keeps part of his herd
is referred to by him as “ the cattle-place,”5 without a possessive
pronoun; and part of his work is to visit the “ cattle-place ” to inspect
his animals. Sometimes it is close to his own hut, or it may be many
miles off; and in rare cases it is not even in Nandi, but in another
Beserve (for it must not be thought that, among the Nandi tribes, a
Beserve or tribal area is exclusively inhabited by people of that tribe :
when all speak the same language, and have the same customs and
institutions, political boundaries in peace time mean very little).

As regards grazing rights, the land is the common property of the
tribe, and subject to certain restrictions, the Nandi are at liberty to live
and pasture their stock wherever they like. This freedom is, however,
limited by the fifteen divisions of the tribe which we may call in
English “ military divisions.”6 Originally applied to groups of people
which formed independent fighting units, the name in course of time

5 Kaptich.

6 Pororiet, plur. pororosiek. This is usually, though quite wrongly, spoken of
as “ clan ” ; thus we hear of “ the activities of the Kapchepkendi clan.”
whereas there is no such clan, the name being that of a military division. As
to the names, see Hollis, “ Nandi,” p. 4; and my notes in J.R.A.I. Ivii. 432-434.

252

was extended to the territory of each group, and as each expanded, the
newly-settled area acquired the group-name; so that the land of many
of the divisions is not all in one block, but scattered in various parts of
the Beserve. The occupation of land for living, grazing, and cultivation
is regulated by these divisions. Natural boundaries, for the most part
rivers, which are well-known to the inhabitants, separate the divisions,
and in the ordinary herding of cattle, people keep to their own area^;
though it is now easier for a man to settle permanently in another
division than it was formerly.

The Nandi is not an early riser. Even if he believes that dew does
not hurt cattle, he does not often trouble to let them out before sunrise.
Between 6.00 and 6.30 a.m. is the usual time for opening the fold, and
they are allowed to wander about picking up what grazing they can till
about 9 a.m., when they are brought in for milking. This is done by
either sex, without discrimination, though not usually by the uncircum-
cised. Before being milked, the calf is allowed to suck to bring the
milk down. When the milker, by squeezing a few drops on to the
ground, has decided that there is a sufficient flow, he ties the calf to
a tree or post, and squats on the off-side of the cow to milk. Holding
a narrow-mouthed gourd7 in his left hand to receive the milk, he
squeezes the teat with the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, and
causes the milk to flow by a downward, pulling movement. When he
has drawn off about half the milk from the udder, the calf is allowed
to suck again. Cows have the remarkable but unexplained power of
withholding their milk,8 which makes it necessary to allow the calves
to suck first; though when a calf dies, it is usually possible to milk the
cow by stuffing the skin with grass9 and producing it every milking-time.
The cow licks the skin, and they sometimes pour salt water over it
as an attraction; and it seems that the animal is deluded into believing
that the skin is a real calf : at any rate, she usually stands quietly
enough licking the skin, and allowing herself to be milked; though the
udder is seldom emptied in this way, and therefore such cows quickly
go dry. Fractious cows have their hind legs tied together with a leather
thong. The milking done, the cattle are driven out to graze, sometimes
in the charge of a herdsman who may be a warrior, an old man, a
woman, or a couple of small children; and sometimes they are left to
wander where they please without supervision. As a matter of fact,
herding is one of the few forms of work that appeals to a Nandi, for he
can either go to sleep under a tree, or stand in the typical Nilotic posture
with the sole of one foot resting against the knee of the other leg, while
he whistles to his animals and meditates, or else merely stands.10

7 Sotet ne para-kut.

8 See Stephens’ Book of the Farm,5 III. 341.

9 aosit.

10 Cf. the rustic in “ Punch “ Zometimes I zits and thinks, and zometimes I
just zits.”

258

Twice a day the cattle are taken to water,11 and about 5.30 p.m. they
return home to be milked and to feed their calves; this over, they are
shut up for the night in the cattle-fold, and the calves are put to bed.
The monotony of herding is varied by occasional visits to a salt-lick,12
about twice a month if there is one nearby, less often if it is far away.
At Kiptoros near Kapsabet in central Nandi there is a large salt-lick on
the north side of the Kamnetui river, occupying several acres, which
serves a large area; here pits have been dug for the salt-earth,13 which
is put into shallow troughs dug in the ground, and mixed with water.
The younger animals are brought to these troughs, while the adult stock
lick the bare earth, which in dry weather is moistened with water.

The housing of the cattle is a very simple matter. The full-grown
animals are kept at night in an open circular fold14 made of poles fixed
in the ground at intervals, the intervening spaces being filled with sticks,
thorn, and brushwood. There is one entrance,15 formed of upright
forked posts with a cross-bar at the top, against which, on the inner
side, are stood upright poles in such a way that the animals cannot get
out. The dung is removed every morning by the women, who scrape
it out with their hands, using a small piece of hfde to help when it is
very wet, and fling it outside on to a dung-heap,16 sometimes near the
entrance, though often the dung is collected all round the enclosure.
The calves are housed in the owner’s hut. Nandi huts are divided by
a central wall with a doorway in it : in the front part of the hut,17 where
the hearth is, the people sleep, together with the sheep and goats; in
the back part18 the calves are put. By day, when too young to walk
about, calves are kept in the hut tied with a thong to a post : when
older, they wander about outside picking up what grazing they can.
The Nandi do not give calves water, believing that they will get East
Coast Fever if they drink; but they do not interfere if the calves find
their own way to the river.

At calving-time, a bed of grass or leaves is prepared for the cow
to drop its calf upon. When the calf appears, the owner, or whoever
is in attendance, wipes the viscid fluid from the calf’s mouth and
nostrils, and stands by till the mother has licked it dry : then he puts
it into the hut. In cases of difficult delivery the attendant sometimes
inserts his hand to turn the calf; and in protracted cases a “ cow-
doctor ” may be called in. These cow-doctors have actually little more

11 A watering-place in a river is called taparta.

12 ngenda.

13 The value of these salt-licks is said to be very small.

14 pent.

15 ormanchet.

16 Kamngototek.

17 Koiimaut.
ls injorut.

254

knowledge than other people; and as a final remedy they may attempt
to pull the calf out, and even to hacking off such parts as they succeed
in withdrawing in the hope ofYasing delivery. Such methods usually
result in the death of the cow. If the placenta does not come away,
it is sometimes removed by hand, or else left. The Nandi have no idea
that a cow wants water after calving, and so none is given, although
they see the unfortunate creatures eagerly drinking from puddles of
filthy water. The calf is allowed to suck all it wants for ten days or
so, and during this time the cow is not milked; and it is allowed to suck
till the cow goes dry, being artificially weaned only if there is not
enough milk for itself and for the people, m which case the cow’s udder
is smeared with dung to stop it sucking. If a cow dies, her calf is fed
with milk from a gourd with a leather mouth-piece; but orphan calves
usually die from starvation.

The production of calves, which is the object of the stock-farmer,
depends, as the Nandi are well aware, upon the bull, and the breeding
of sound animals requires a certain amount of skill and care in the
selection of the bull. Yet to the Nandi, one bull is as good as another,
and a long-legged narrow animal is just as acceptable a sire as a short-
legged thick-bodied bull : his ancestry is of no account, and colour is
left to chance. And while they appreciate good animals, and do not
refuse the services of a good bull if they happen to have access to one,
yet the fact that their own bulls come of undersized and poor milking
stock does not seem to present itself to them as something which should
be remedied. And if it did, the conditions under which Nandi cattle
grow up would neutralize any trouble that might be taken. Improper
housing in a stuffy, smelly hut, lack of water to drink, and insufficient
milk when young, combined with poor grazing, are not conducive to
a sound healthy breed of cattle. The pasture in Nandi is to-day in a
very impoverished state, from long years of mismanagement and ignor-
ance; and if the Nandi are ever to have good cattle, they must re-
condition their grass-lands. At present, however, these evils do not
worry them, for provided they can rear 25% or so of their calves,
quality is of little account if they can but have cattle of some sort.

§ 3. Veterinary Knowledge.

The specific diseases of cattle, rinderpest,19 east coast fever,20 and
pleuro-pneumonia,21 are known to the Nandi by name, as well as other
diseases, for example, blackquarter, foot-and-mouth, anthrax, and three-
days’ sickness; and in some cases the name is taken from the part
affected, as pleuro-pneumonia, from the Nandi word for “lung”; black-
quarter, from the Nandi for “foreleg”; foot-and-mouth from the Nandi

19 Kipkaitet.

20 Cheptigonit.

21 Chepuonit.

255

for “mouth”; and anthrax, from a Nilotic word meaning “ swelling.”
Sometimes they can diagnose them, though any disease which shows,
for example, one of the symptoms of rinderpest, may be diagnosed as
such, though actually it may be no more than a catarrh; and a cough
will be set down to east coast or pleuro without further enquiry or
examination, and although the existence of anthrax22 is known, the
symptoms convey little information, and an animal that has died of
anthrax will be eaten without hesitation; deaths have occurred in the
Reserve from this foolish behaviour.

Now while sickness in people is generally attributed in some way
or other to the action of the spirits of the dead, the incidence of disease
in cattle (unless magical influence is known to have been at work) is
ascribed to natural causes. Yet these causes are such as one might
expect to find in Pliny’s “ Natural History,” but not from a people who
have behind them centuries of cattle-raising. I saw not long ago a calf
with a large abscess below the ear, which was probably due to an insect
bite. The Nandi owner, however, thought otherwise : it was due, he
said, to the fact that the calf was not allowed to suck its mother; yet it
was more than a year old and had been weaned some four months. I
have already mentioned the belief that drinking water gives calves east
coast fever; and if I add that I have heard a Nandi express his belief
that the brand AM23 is in itself a protection against rinderpest (without
the previous double inoculation), it will be realized that their patho-
logical knowledge is almost non-existent, as one would naturally expect
on the analogy of their knowledge of human ailments. On the other
hand, the Nandi have quite a respectable knowledge of the anatomy of
cattle, and can name most of the internal organs, though they know
little about their functions. Anatomy, however, is largely a matter of
observation, and between it and physiology there is a great gulf.

As a consequence of all this, when disease breaks out in a district,
no attempt is made to treat it (unless a veterinary officer takes charge).
A bonfire is made, in which wild olive, solanum24, and other shrubs are
burned, and the cattle are driven up to it. Omens are then taken from
the entrails of a pregnant sheep, which is strangled by two men of clans
that may intermarry : if favourable, the herd is driven round the fire,
the sheep roasted and eaten, and rings are made of its skin, and worn
by the owners of the cattle. If the omens are not favourable, the cattle
are kept waiting until a suitable sheep is found. A similar ceremony
is held when cattle are poisoned. Dead animals are eaten, no matter
what the cause of death may be.

22 purasta.

23 The veterinary brand denoting “ immune to rinderpest.”

24 The Solanum campylacanthum (Ndi. lapotuet) possesses certain magical virtues,
and is used in other performances of a magical nature.

256

The only practical remedy known to the Nandi is bleeding : a prac-
tice approved by the modern veterinary authorities in some diseases, e.g.
rinderpest.25 It is done with a special blocked arrow,26 which is shot
from a bow into the jugular vein : a thong is tied tightly round the neck,
and when it is released, the removal of pressure stops the flow of blood.
The operator stands about 4 feet from the animal, and the blood is
caught in a gourd. Healthy animals are also bled periodically in the
same way to provide the owners with their favourite food. Sick calves
are sometimes given a gruel of eleusine meal which is fed from a gourd.

§ 4. Nomenclature and Types of Cattle.

Every animal has its name, which is usually taken from colour,
the shape of the horns, or physical peculiarities, such as “ Large navel,’ *
“Broad,” “Cut-ears.” The Nandi do not recognize any particular breeds
of cattle, though they know that those of their kinsmen the Elgeyo are
on the whole smaller than their own. The modern East African cattle
are descended from the long-horned, straight-backed Egyptian ox ( Bos
aegyptiacus ), and the short-horned, humped Indian ox (Bos indicus
brachyceros). Bos aegyptiacus may have received its long horns from
an extinct species, the remains of which are found in Mauretania, called
Bos opisthonomus, having very long horns slanting forward, which
Herodotus (IV. 183) tells us occurred in the cattle of the Lotophagi, and
that they received the name because they had to graze walking back-
wards, lest their horns stuck into the ground. In some parts of East
Africa, notably Ankole, cattle have an enormous development of the
horns; in Kenya, however, the descendants of these ancient cattle have
largely lost the cornual exaggeration; and we have some four breeds,
not greatly differing from each other, in which the differences are due
to geographical and climatic conditions; these breeds may be referred
to as the Masae, Nandi, Elgeyo, and Kitosh. The IJasin Gishu Masae,
however, derived their name, which means “ striped cattle,” from a
peculiar development of the Masae breed which was apparently of a
striped tortoiseshell colour, and of which a few specimens are still to
be seen in Nandi. The only sort of typology used by the Nandi is that
of appearance, and a set of adjectives exists to describe the different
types of cattle, on the same lines as the names already mentioned, i.e.,
colour, horns, and physical peculiarities; indeed, these adjectives are
for the most part used also for individual names.

“ Aids to Stockowners,’5 ed. 3, p. 5. (Nairobi, 1930).

36 lofignet.

257

Certain cattle are again differentiated as being “ unlucky,"27
because they have some physical abnormality which detracts from their
value. Such cattle are of at least five kinds :

1. Those whose tails are frequently caught in clefts of trees, or
between two close-growing stems.

2. “ Those which do not swallow all the grass they eat, but keep
some of it in the cheek.’’28

3. Those which have a habit of getting their nostrils torn by twigs
or branches.

4. Those which put out their tongues an abnormally long way.

5. Those which grind their teeth (excluding calves).

Besides the obvious drawbacks to some of these peculiarities, there is
in these animals the fear of the abnormal, for a thing which is out of
the ordinary may be harmful, and must be avoided. Hence, in a cattle
deal, careful enquiries are made, lest a man find himself saddled with
an unlucky beast.

Some special uses to which cattle are put have resulted in a dis-
tinctive terminology: thus, while there is a general term for “ cattle,"
and words denoting animals at various ages, we find that cattle used
for certain purposes are given other names. Thus, the cows which are
given to a bride by her father and by her groom’s father during the
marriage ceremony are known as “ The Fat Ones ’’;29 and the cattle
paid by a man as bride-price for his wife are called “Daughter-cattle."30
Animals which are paid by way of a fine or compensation for a murder
are of two kinds: one is called “ Break-spear,’’31 and is paid by the
murderer himself to the relations of his victim; the other, known as
“ Head-cattle,"32 are those paid on the murderer’s behalf by his rela-
tions. And animals captured on a raid are called by a name which
comes from a Nilotic verb meaning “ to take a cow by stealth."33

The complete division of cattle, as recognized by the Nandi, may
therefore be summarized as follows :

Ordinary or herded cattle: 1, Inherited; 2, Acquired.

Unlucky cattle.

Marriage-cattle .

Bride-cattle.

Fine-cattle.

27 Sigoranet, pi. Sigoranok.

28 Teta ne malukui susuek tukul che ome, ako tepchi alak em matanda, a’ mapendi
moieti.

29 Chemwai.

30 Tuk’ ap chepto,

31 Iri-ngot.

32 Tuk’am met

33 Koiy-o (-et), from Luo Koyo, “ to take a cow
for the dowry secretly from one of the rela-
tions.” (Catholic Mission : Vocabulary Nilotic-
English.)

258

KUINET

KONDA
MATANDA
STRUT—
VCUTIT

KATUTIET

TAKOLET —
KUTUND A
KUSTC
SHYTT

SERUMBET1
MUKET )

FtG. I.

Sketch of
for

A COW GIVING
ITS DIFFERENT

THE NANDI
PARTS

NAMES

RG X. PLAN OF A TYPICAL NANDI HOMESTEAD

In a short paper, it is impossible to deal with the whole subject
of cattle, and I have for that reason confined myself to the more prac-
tical aspect of the matter. Such things as cattle-magic, the effect of
spells on cattle, religious ceremonies connected with them, and cattle
in mythology, as well as other practical details, I have had to leave out.
And, if it be thought that I have been too severe on Nandi methods,
I can only plead that I have tried to describe what they actually do,
rather than portray them as the “ perfect savage ” that exists in the
imagination of some writers.

APPENDICES.

I. Nandi Names of Cattle Diseases.

Chepkiyait : vertigo; rotation of the head.*

Cheptigonit: (1) bile; (2) east coast fever.

Chepuonit : pleuro-pneumonia. [from puon, 4 lung.’]

Eset : any fever.

Kipkaita, Kipkaitet : rinderpest.

Kipkuit : anaplasmosis (gall-sickness).

Kipkusto : blackquarter. [From kusto, “ the fore-leg.”]

Maikutiet : foot-and-mouth disease. [From kuf, 44 mouth.”]
Makarkarek : worms.

Mokoiek : strep tothricosis.

Purasta : anthrax. [From Luo bur, 44 swelling.”]

Sasoito : redwater.

Sutonik : contagious abortion.

Tertit: three-days’ sickness.

Tungwek : catarrh.

Ututik : mange.

4

II. Nandi Cattle-Names and Types.

1. Colour.

Chaipis : black and white.

Kamarokong : black with white stripe on face.

-kepe : black with white flanks; (masc. kip-kepe, fern, chep-kepe).
Koroiit : black and white.

Lelgut : white mouth.

lei, lelyo : white (masc. kip-lel, fern, chep-lel).

Lelmet: white head.

Miso : black (also masc. ki-miso, fern, che-miso).

-mukye : partly brown (masc. ki-mukye, fern, che-mukye).

-murkut : brown mouth (masc. ki-murkut, fern, che-murkut).

-naria : white round eyes (masc. kim-naria, fern, chem-naria).

*As, for example, in poisoning from water parsnip (Sium thunbergi), where one of
the symptoms is shaking or rotation of the head. (Aids to Stockowners, p. 132.)

259

-orus : light grey (masc. kip-orus, fem. chep-orus).

Pirirmet : red head.

Samo : tortoiseshell; dapple.

Samokut : dapple mouth.

-sirue : white (masc. kip-sirue, fem. chep-sirue).

-sitye : chestnut (masc. kip-sitye, fem. chep-sitye).

Talelio : khaki-coloured.

Tuimet: black head.

Tuimising : black all over.

2. Horns.

-karai : hornless (masc. kip-karai, fem. chep-karai).

-kulunymet : horns turned in (masc. kip-kulunymet, fem. chep-
kulunymet).

-ngatimet : erect horns (masc. kim-ngatimet, fem. chem-ngatimet).
-puruk : horns pointing forwards (masc. ki-puruk, fem. che-puruk).
seta : crumpled horns (masc. kip-seta, fem. chep-seta).

3. Other names.

Cheparft: cow with cut ears. [Par = cut; iit = ear.]

Cheplakwet : nurse.

Cheponeko : of the goats.

Kimasas : ox with cut ears.

-korat : blind (masc. kip-korat, fem. chep-korat).

-makong : one eyed (masc. ki-makong, fem. che-makong).

-malel : born when new grass was growing (masc. ki-malel, fem. che-
malel).

Melgut : lick-lips.

Merewa : plantain-eater bird.

-muke : large navel (masc. ki-muke, fem. che-muke).

-mugung : lame; deformed (masc. ki-mugung, fem. che-muguhg).
Tepes : broad.34

III. Glossary of Words Used in Connection with Cattle.

Akete, v. : graze. (Pres.35 oketi.)

Anuet : thong of ox-hide.

Aosit : the skin of a dead calf stuffed.

Araket : a cow whose calf has died.

Char, v. : bleed cattle from the jugular vein.

Chatit: hind leg.

Cheko: milk.

34 Some of these words are used as people’s names : see Hollis, “ The Nandi,”
p. 67, and the list of names in my notes in J.R.A.I. lvii. 435-6.

35 The 3rd pers. (sing, and plur.) of the tenses named are given.

260

J 'FT.

\ 1

Fia 3.

A O 5 IT

0

( i Cmy :) L

f)G 5 LONGNEr ARROW*

Chemwai : cow given to a bride.

*Chepkulet : bladder.

Eito : castrated ox.

lake, v. : herd cattle; take to pasture.

Injorut : part of the hut where calves sleep.

*Iri, v. : serve, of bulls. (Narrat. tense, ko-’ri.)

Iri-ngot : cow paid as fine for murder.

Iririot : a piece of ox-hide.

Irot : drive cattle home.

Iyuoget : a cow that has had a calf.

*Kaiyuai, v. : have diarrhoea. (Pres. Koiyuoi).

Kamngototek : dung-heap.

Kapioget : fore-part of the back-bone.

Kaptich : cattle-place.

*Katit: neck.

*Katutiet : tail.

Ke, v. : milk.

*Kerepesiet : tick.

Ketu, v. : bring cattle (towards the speaker).

Kiminyoriet :the second or “ honeycomb ” stomach.

*Kfnet : teat.

Kipkonyanit : the 3rd stomach, or omasum.

Kipsageriet : the 4th stomach, or abomasum.

Kirkit : bull.

*Koito : liver.

Koiyet : raided ox.

*Kuinet : horn.

Kusto : fore-leg.

Kweri, v. : drive cattle.

Laiyet : shoulder-blade.

*Lat, v. : castrate.

Lfrnet : grazing-ground.

Longnet : blocked arrow for bleeding cattle.

Luk, v. : go dry, of cows.

*Mian, v. : be ill. (Pres, mioni).

*Miondo : disease.

Mistdat : herdsman.

*Moiet: the 1st stomach or paunch; also “stomach” generally.
Moita : calf. (Plur. moiek).

Muito : ox-hide.

*Mukuleldo : heart.

Murungut : udder.

Mwait’ ap tan’ gfna : butter fat (for oiling the body).

Naiget : blood from the neck of an ox.

Agenda : salt earth, salt-lick.

261

$ges, v. : clean out a cattle-fold.

^gototek: cow-dung.

*Nye, v. : chew. (Pres. nyei).

Ormarichet : door of a cattle-fold.

Os, v. : abort. (Pres. ose).

Osit : an old cow past calf-bearing.

*Parpet, pi. Parpasek : placenta.

P6ut: cattle-fold.

*Puondet; lung.

*Eany, v. : turn, head off (cattle); stop from going somewhere.

Eorta, Eoriat : heifer.

Eotet : the backbone of an ox.

Sigan, v. : pass dung.

Sigoranet : an unlucky beast.

Siiyet : hoof.

Soi : place where cattle are sent to graze.

*Soromyet : kidney.

*Sosiot : stick of the Phoenix reclinata or mkindu palm used for clean-
ing milk-gourds.

*Sotet: gourd. S. ne marich-kut, wide-mouthed gourd; S. ne para-kut,
narrow-mouthed gourd.

Subendo : young female calf.

Sukulumdo : rump.

Takolet : dewlap.

Tany : an ox, a cow.

*Taparta: ford; drinking-place in a river.

Teta : the ox, the cow.

Tich : oxen, cows.

Tir, v. : to back an ox.

Tuka : the oxen, the cows. Tuk’ ap chepto, bride-price; Tuk’ am met,
fine paid for murder.

Ukta: hump.36

IV. Words connected with Grass.

Iwasto : place where grass has been burnt.

Kipkirkiriet : knife for cutting grass; sickle.

JDaluet : place where grass has been burnt.

Maleliet : place where new grass has grown after burning,
ftgei, v. : to cut grass.

Ngemiat : burnt grass.

Satyet : dried grass, straw.

Susuot, pi. susuek : grass in general.

Wareng: a place or area where grass is burnt without restriction.

as Words in this list marked with an asterisk * are used also of other things. The
rest are properly used of cattle only.

262

THE GEOLOGY OF BRITISH SOMALILAND, PART I. By Dr.

W. A. Macfadyen (London, 1933, the Crown Agents for the Colonies,

Shs. 12/6.)

This small volume, being Part I of the “ Geology and
Palaeontology of British Somaliland ” provides a concise and valuable
account of the physiography, stratigraphy and tectonics of that Pro-
tectorate. It is based on surveys made by an expedition sent out by
the Somaliland Petroleum Company in 1928, which spent some 19
months in the Protectorate. Appendices deal with (1) the igneous
and metamorphic rocks, (2) water supplies and (3) the fossil localities,
the first being by Dr. Harker. Forty-two strata sections are illustrated
and fifteen photographs depict features of geological interest. An
excellent coloured map clearly exhibits the distribution of the forma-
tions and planes of faulting. The publication of a second volume
dealing with the palaeontology is foreshadowed when the examination
of the fossil collections by specialists in the various branches is finished.

The Kainozoic and Mesozoic formations occurring in the Protec-
torate are described in some detail, and in general the author finds
himself in agreement with much of the work done by previous
investigators. He dissents, however, from some of Gregory’s conclu-
sions which he regard as being based on inadequate evidence. The
extensive development of the divisions of the Middle and Lower
Eocene in British Somaliland is well illustrated by the strata sections.
In dealing with the stratigraphy of the Anhydrite Series to which an
average thickness of 300 to 350 m. is ascribed, over a minimum area
of 70,000 sq. km. within the Protectorate, the author discusses possible
modes of origin of this remarkable deposit of calcium sulphate. He
regards the anhydrite as a marine deposit laid down as anhydrite and
not as gypsum. Careful work has been done by the expedition in
investigating the stages of the Jurassic, especially at the Daghani
section of the Bihendula outcrop, and the working out of the fauna
from these highly fossiliferous beds will be awaited with interest.
Little attention is accorded to the Pre-Cambrian; for, as indicated,
the Somaliland Petroleum Company’s expedition was not greatly con-
cerned with the Archaean rocks. The author, however, agrees with
Farquharson in the tentative correlation of the Inda Ad Series with
the “ Karagwe Series ” of Scott Elliot and Gregory in Uganda. The
short but interesting record of Dr. Barker’s examination of the speci-
mens from the Archaean does not state which, if any, of the
specimens are from the Inda Ad Series. In view of the economic
importance in Kenya and Uganda of the original Karagwe Series (a

263

term now practically obsolete), or the portion now designated the
Muva-Ankole System and its associated intrusives, one would have
welcomed a more detailed account of the grounds on which the
correlation of the Inda Ad Series with this particular division of the
Pre-Cambrian of Equatorial Africa is based.

But one of the chief items of general interest arising out of the
work of the Somaliland Petroleum Company’s expedition is likely to
lie in such further light as the palaeontological evidence may throw
on the distribution of sea and land in Jurassic time by providing
increased knowledge of the similarities and dissimilarities of the
marine Jurassic fauna of British Somaliland in relation to those of
Kenya Colony, Cutch, Arabia and the region of the Tethys. The
Monographs of the Hunterian Museum, Glasgow University, on collec-
tions from the Coastlands and Northern Frontier Province of Kenya
Colony and British Somaliland have already yielded much of interest
in this connection as far as East African geology is concerned, and
it is to be hoped that the issue of the succeeding part of Dr.
Macfadyen’s work will not be long delayed. Further matters of
interest in this publication to geologists in Eastern Equatorial Africa
are the questions of the correlation of the Duruma Sandstone Series
of the Kenya Coastlands, or part of it, with the Adigrat Sandstone,
and of the Marehan Sandstone of the Northern Frontier Province
with the Nubian Sandstone.

The author recognises three systems of faulting, namely: — East-
north-east, trending parallel to the Gulf of Aden; north-west, roughly
parallel to the Red Sea; and north, the East African trend. The
throw ascribed to some of these faults is very high, amounting in the
case of the Dagah Shabell fault, one of those having the Gulf of Aden
trend, to 4 km. and possibly 6 km. ; while that of the Suria Malableh
fault, belonging to the Red Sea series, is stated to be over 3 km.
The Somaliland Plateau is attributed to up-faulting, while the Gulf
of Aden is ascribed to down-faulting, but the author does not indicate
the evidence which leads to the former conclusion.

This first part of the “ Geology and Palaeontology of British
Somaliland,” which has now been published, is a valuable contribution
to knowledge of the geology of Eastern Africa. When the companion
volume on the palaeontology is available, the two parts should form a
comprehensive reference book similar to Stockley’s two volumes on
the Geology and Palaeontology of the Zanzibar Protectorate.

H. S.

264

“ MIMICKY ” by G. D. H. Carpenter and E. B. Ford,
Methuen & Co. Ltd., 3/6d.

Pocket introductions to various branches of knowledge are now
so general and popular that there appears to be every reason to wel-
come potted science. The volume under notice forms one of
Methuen’s ‘ Monographs on Biological Subjects.’ Professor Carpenter
owing to his extensive and prolonged experience of field conditions in
Uganda is particularly well fitted to deal with the subject of Mimicry.
In the past some of the most staunch adherents of the Mimetic
Theory have been accused of only an arm-chair knowledge of the
subject. This charge can hardly be laid against Professor Carpenter
who has spent so many years in making first-hand observations in the
field.

The first part of the monograph contains an admirable survey of
the history of the subject. The second part deals with the modern
evidence, and the third part by Mr. Ford gives an excellent account
of the genetic aspect. We are pleased to note references to our own
Journal in the text. There are only two plates, one dealing with
mimicry between Hymenoptera and Diptera and the other with
Ichneumon flies and moths. These are not well produced. It seems
a pity that a plate has not been included, preferably coloured, dealing
with Papilio dardanus. This remarkable butterfly provides one of the
most interesting examples of mimicry in existence and its proper
appreciation by the student cannot fail to be instructive.

Apart from the above criticism the book is well printed on good
paper and we have no hesitation in recommending it to those interested
an one of the most fascinating problems of natural history.

A. F. J. GEDYE.

265

THE EAST AFRICA AND UGANDA NATURAL
HISTORY SOCIETY.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1933.

The year 1933 has been an exceedingly difficult one for the Society,
more especially in those matters connected with the public side of its
activities, i.e. the Museum.

Membership :

The membership of the Society has been maintained ; losses due to
resignations have been amply recovered by the election of new mem-
bers. Two Honorary Life members and thirty-one ordinary members
were elected.

Finance :

The financial depression referred to in the Report for 1932 showed
little signs of recovery, and your Committee was faced with the diffi-
cult task of framing a Budget which would assure equitable distribution
of the restricted funds available.

As members are aware, the two main sources of income are: —
(a) from Government, (b) Municipal. These grants are made from
public funds for the express purpose of maintaining and developing the
Museum. For reasons of economy, the Government grant was reduced
tc £600, but we are glad to state that the Municipal vote was
restored to the 1930 level. We, however, suffered a setback by the
cessation of the special botanical grant which had been previously
donated by Mr. Ernest Carr. As the botanical work is of prime impor-
tance and could not be curtailed, funds for this purpose had to be
allocated from general revenue. The result of the redistribution and
allocation of funds was a reduction of 33% in the salaries of staff, other
than menial. We are glad to report that the staff willingly accepted
this 4 cut,’ and have rendered staunch and faithful service throughout
the year.

The general revenue and expenditure accounts are set out in detail
in the Treasurer’s Financial Statements which are before the meeting.

We would draw attention to the fact that contributions to the
special 4 Bongo Fund ’ have come in well and a beginning will be made
to this habitat group early in 1934. The case for the group is completed.
A handsome donation of £100 was made to the Society by Mr. de Ganahl

266

of Kakamega. This has enabled us to allocate a sum of money toward
the establishment of an economic Geological exhibit and a small amount
toward the Bongo group. We take this opportunity of recording our
thanks to Mr. de Ganahl.

The income of the Society from subscriptions and admission fees
has been maintained, and, as in previous years has been mainly
devoted toward the cost of publishing the Journal. The^levy of an
entrance fee was suspended during the year in accordance with the
resolution passed at the last annual meeting.

JOUENALS :

Pour Journals were published during the year containing many
important contributions dealing with the Natural History of these
territories. We are glad to record the fact that our Journal is being
made use of by Government departments for the purpose of recording
original work and research.

Lectuees :

The Annual Two-day Scientific Meeting took place during the
month of November. An extremely interesting series of Papers was
contributed by members and friends. We take this opportunity of
thanking all those who assisted us by reading papers and in other ways
helping to make the meeting a success.

Three ordinary evening meetings were held. Mr. Murry-Hughes
lectured on Economic Geology; Dr. Gordon on Eugenics; Mr. Champion
on the Geology of Lake Rudolf and Mt. Teleki; while a special lecture
on Mount Everest was given by Mr. Wynn Harris.

Museum :

The work in the Museum embraces two distinct spheres of activity :
that connected with the preparation and display of material in the
exhibition hall, and general systematic and research work carried out
in the laboratories and study rooms. Work under the first category has
been hampered and almost negatived, owing to the lack of funds. A
few additions were made to the general collections exhibited, more par-
ticularly to the Mammal section and Botanical room. Two special
exhibits of birds were staged. Of the larger mammals exhibited, men-
tion must be made of an albino Impala presented by Capt. Dugmore,
and 8k Gerenuk mounted and presented by Mr. M. A. Black.

In the Botanical section, particular attention has been paid to the
series of economic timbers; the value of these is being enhanced by
the display on each, of flowers, leaves and bark. Later we hope to
add photographs of the growing tree.

267

Until we are in a position to instal a full range of additional cases,
little real advance can be made in the exhibition hall. The cost of
these cases is estimated at £6,000.

The general systematic and research work has been maintained.
That carried out in the Botanical section is dealt with in the Botanists'
Beport and need not be mentioned here. The Entomological section
has received increasing support, so much so, that we are extremely
hard pressed for storage room, and additional entomological cabinets
are an urgent necessity. Work in this department is ever increasing,
but we gratefully record our thanks to Mr. A. F. J. Gedye who has
rendered invaluable assistance with certain groups. Mr. Allen Turner
and Mr. MacArthur have made large donations of material to this
section.

Valuable assistance has been given to us by Prof. Poulton of
Oxford, and Sir Guy Marshall of the Imperial Institute of Entomology,
in the identification of material submitted to them. We record our
grateful thanks to these gentlemen accordingly.

The Mammal and Bird study collections have received valuable
additions, mostly contributed by Mr. Allen Turner.

A full and comprehensive Beport on this division was drawn up by
the Zoological Sub-Committee and presented to the general Committee
during the year. This Beport emphasised most clearly, the extreme
difficulties under which this department was working. It drew atten-
tion, among other things to the very deplorable lack of storage accom-
modation and ordinary materials necessary for the preservation of the
collections. The want of storage cabinets makes it almost impossible
to arrange the collections in any systematic order, and reference to
them is thereby rendered equally impossible.

During the year, your Committee sanctioned the inauguration of
an official “ Becord of Big Game.” This record will be based on the
system adopted by Messrs. Bowland Ward as regards measurements,
and these will be taken by the official measurers, the .Game Warden of
Kenya and the Curator of the Museum.

All records will be kept on the card-index system. We invite local
and visiting Sportsmen to submit any trophies of particular interest for
measurement and by so doing they will help to establish a record which
will be of interest not only to local, but overseas Sportsmen also.

Aviary :

As an item of economy, the Aviary was closed down during the
year, the majority of the birds were released.

268

Library :

The Library continues to receive support from local and overseas
institutions and persons, either by gift or exchange of publications.
Several hundred volumes have been added. The work of subject card-
indexing has proceeded steadily and should be brought up to date within
the next year. Miss Kottke, the Librarian has undertaken additional
work in the form of Book-binding and this should render the volumes
more handy for reference as well as ensuring their preservation. In this
matter also, we are hampered for want of funds.

During the year, your Committee entered into preliminary discus-
sions with Mr. Barton Eckett of the McMillan Memorial Library on the
subject of the possibility of establishing some form of “ Central
^Reference Library for Students.” It is hoped that the matter will
receive the support of all those interested, and that difficulties in
arranging details will be overcome in the near future.

General :

It will be noted from the foregoing remarks, that the Society is
labouring under a very considerable disadvantage with regard to the
maintenance and development of the Museum. It is obvious that the
direct funds of the Society, namely, that derived from subscriptions,
are totally inadequate to conduct the ordinary functions of the Society
and the Museum. We are, therefore, dependent on grants in aid from
Government and the Municipality. We are deeply sensible of the help
we have received in the past ,and we here record our appreciation of
the sums voted toward the Museum in the ensuing year. If we are to
develop the Museum, increased revenue must be available. There is
no lack of material suitable for display; display cases are non-existent.

To conduct a Museum of this size, there must of necessity be a
salaried staff. The grants made are barely sufficient to meet salaries
and general upkeep expenses. No funds are available for furnishings
and fitments necessary for storage or exhibition of material. The work
of the Museum, other than systematic and research is almost at a
standstill. The position is a serious one and should receive the atten-
tion, not only of the Committee, but of members generally.

The Staff employed during the year was as follows : — Miss Napier,
Botanist; Miss Kottke, Clerk-Librarian; Curator, Dr. van Someren. Mr.
A. F. J. Gedye and Mr. Allen Turner gave valuable help as Honorary
Assistants. During the unavoidable absence of the Curator, toward the
latter part of the year, Mr. Gedye was appointed Acting Curator. We
take this opportunity of thanking the Staff for their loyal and efficient
service.

V. G. L. van Someren,

Honorary Secretary .

269

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2

EAST AFRICA AND UGANDA NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE SOCIETY :

The following Back-numbers of the Journal are available :

Journal No. 3

Shgs. 20/- Journal No. 25

Shgs. 5/-

>> ?> 4

„ 20/-

,, 26

„ 61-

} > )) b

„ 20/-

>, „ 2?

„ 6j-

,, 6

„ 20/-

,, ,, 28

„ 5/-

)f ,, 8

„ 10/-

„ „ 29

„ 5/-

> j ,, 9

„ 20/-

„ „ 30

„ 10/-

„ » io ...

„ 20/-

>> >> 31/32 ...

„ 7/50

„ „ 13 ...

„ 20/-

„ „ 33/34 ...

„ 7/50

>> >> 14

„ 20/-

,, ,, 35

„ 7/50

„ „ 15

„ 10/-

,, ,, 36

„ 7/50

„ „ 17 ...

„ 5/-

„ „ 37 ...

„ 7/50

,, ,, 18

„ 5/-

,, ,, 38/39 ...

„ 7/50

,, ,, 19

„ 4/-

„ „ 40/41 ...

„ 7/50

„ „ 20 ...

„ 21-

„ » 42/43 ...

„ 7/50

,, ,, 21

„ 4/-

» „ 44 ...

„ 7/50

,, ,, 22

„ 5/-

,, „ 45/46 ...

„ 7/50

> > > y 23

,, ,, 24

„ 5/-

„ 5/-

„ „ 47/48 ...

7/50

MEMBERS OF

THE SOCIETY ARE ENTITLED TO 20%

DISCOUNT.

Members having any of the missing numbers in the above list and wishing to sell,
are requested to communicate with the Editors.

The following Separata are also available :

The Birds of Kenya & Uganda, Parts 1 — 9,

Parts 1 — 3,

Vol. I (van Someren)
Vol.II (van Someren)

Shgs. 5/- each.
Shgs. 5/- each.

Note : — The above are paged in sequence
(Fully illustrated.)

and suitable for binding in volumes.

The Butterflies of Kenya and Uganda, Parts 1 — 10 (van Someren)

Shgs. 5/- each.

Note : — The above are paged in sequence and suitable for binding in volumes.

The following Reprints are available at Shgs. 1/- each.

Notes on the marriage customs of the Kipsigis
Pest status of Coffee feeding insects

Fluvial Geology, etc

Mimicry, natural selection, etc

Comparative series of skulls, etc

Religious beliefs of the Kipsigis
Nesting habits of some East Africa Birds
Notes on Charaxes Pythodorus

Masai social customs ' ...

Life histories of some East African Lept.

The Age of the Rift Valley
Marriage customs among the Masai

Annual Report, 1932 ••

Luo marriage customs

Cult of Mumbo

Bride-Price, Nandi

Bantu of Kavirondo

Kikuyu Land Tenure, etc. .

Geological distribution of animals

The Organic Cell

Lumbwa Caves ...

Report on the Bajun Islands

Captive mammals ... ...

Game disease ...

Geographical distribution of butterflies

Notes on the birds of Jubaland

Masai Shields and Spears ...

Tribal Organisation of the Nandi

Notes on the Wasanye

Sedimentary Rocks

Cetoniinae

Fishing in Kavirondo Gulf

African Sign-writing . •

Origin of Kenya and Uganda Tribes

Fossorial Hymenoptera

History of the Nandi

Fluctuation of Lake Victoria

History of the Rift Valley

Lycaenidae

Ohrysomelidae

Origin of the Masai

Nutrient deficiencies in Coffee

Virus diseases on plants

Geology of Usongo area ...

(Orchardson)

(le Pelley)

(Reck)

(Carpenter)

(Leakey) *

(Orchardson)

(Mclnnes)

(Evans)

(Whitehouse)

(Jackson)

(II. L. Sikes)
(Storrs Fox)

(Shaw)

(Nyangweso) ,
(Huntmgford/
(Owen)

(Barlow)

(Carpenter)
(Wynstone Waters)
(Hobley)

(Barton)

(Loveridge)

Percival)

(Carpenter)

(van Someren)
(Storrs Fox)
(Hemsted)
(Champion)
(Glenday)

(Gedye)

(Dobbs)

(Hobley)

(Bolton)

(Carpenter)
(Huntingford)
(Brooks)

(Gregory)

(van Someren)
(Gedye)

(Luck)

(Beckley)

(le Pelley)

(Grace Stockley)

Supplement No. 1. Check list of the Birds of East Africa and Uganda (van
; Someren) ... Shgs. 5/-

3. Check list of the Reptilia from the British territories in East

Africa (Loveridge) Shgs. 3/-

4. Migration of Birds (van Someren) Shgs. 3/-

■M

<u *

"(

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES

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